The Volunteer Army and the Allied Intervention in South Russia, 1917-1921: A Study in the Politics and Diplomacy of the Russian Civil War 1597400173, 9781597400176

Table of contents :
Preface
Contents
Part I: Russia and the World War
1: The Disintegration of Russia
2: The Impact of German Occupation
Part II: Allied Intervention in South Russia
3: The Post-War Intervention
4: The French and the Volunteers in Odessa
5: Britain as a Buffer
Part III: The Rise and Fall of the Volunteer Army
6: Denikin’s Military and Political Strategies
7: Retreat and the End of Allied Aid
8: The Crimean Epilogue
Notes
Bibliography
Index

Citation preview

International Studies of the C om m ittee on International Relations University of Notre Dam e

T h e V o lu n te e r A r m y a n d A llie d In te rv e n tio n in S o u th R u s s ia , 1 9 1 7 -1 9 2 1

T H E V O L U N T E E R ARM Y and

A S tu d y in th e P o litic s a n d D ip lo m a c y o f th e R u s s ia n C iv il W a r

ALLIED IN TER VEN TION IN S O U T H

R U S S IA ,

1917-1921

By George A. Brinkley

UNIVERSITY

OF NOTRE

DAME

PRESS

• 1966

Copyright © 1966 by University of Notre D am e Press Notre Dame, Indiana

Library of Congress Catalog Card Num ber: 66-15501 Manufactured in the U nited States

TO

ANN

PREFACE

The Russian civil war and the accompanying Allied intervention from 1917 to 1921 have long been recognized as major events in the great upheaval which was unleashed by W orld War I. Yet today, almost half a century after these events, they remain less than fully analyzed or even chronicled. One of the reasons for this situation lies in the extreme complexity of the international struggle which took place on the territory of the former Russian Empire. Armies, political parties, and ideological issues proliferated rapidly in the virulent breeding ground created by the collapse of both political order and established value systems in Russia. Moreover, the international prob­ lems of the first W orld War in history served to complicate further any question thrown up by the general catastrophe. War, civil war, and foreign intervention were not new phenomena in world history in 1917, of course. Not even their simultaneous appearance at the same focal point of international politics was un­ precedented. But now this combination of international crisis patterns took place in the context of a revolutionary transition affecting the traditional structure of diplomacy and international law and putting radically opposed ideologies at the center of political action. The resulting confusion, imposed on Europe by the breakdown of the old order, put into question many of the legal and moral foundations of the existing state system. Governments had for the first time been obliged to marshal all of the resources of the nation in a massive effort IX

x

'The Volunteer Army

which, with it all, led not to quick victory but to virtual collapse for all of the belligerents. It was in this state of stress that Russia experienced a military and political paralysis, and her allies, Britain and France, were faced with the prospect of losing a partner considered essential to victory. The deterioration of Russian power before the March Revolution of 1917 was a serious blow to the Entente in the war against Germany. It became a crisis of major proportions when the Bolsheviks seized con­ trol of the state in November 1917 and immediately issued a call for peace to be brought about by popular revolution in all of the bellig­ erent countries. By November 1918, when W orld War I ended, Rus­ sia was in the throes of an all-embracing civ il war, and the Allies were committed to a variety of forces which had remained loyal to the Entente and now sought a continuation of aid to overthrow the Bolshevik regime. With the Armistice in November 1918, some Allied spokesmen argued that all reason for continuing the intervention had ended, while others pointed to an obligation to stand by those forces in Rus­ sia to whom commitments had already been made and stressed the importance of the anti-Bolshev ik war as a necessary part of the strug­ gle to restore peace and order to Europe. Choice between these two points of view was extremely difficult for the Allied governments. The intervention, undertaken initially simply as a means to continue the war against Germany, would require a much broader range of policy decisions after November 1918. but such decisions were made only haphazardly, if at all. The Allies, trying to treat the Russian problem as merely a final battle of W orld War I, tended to evade the responsi­ bility which inevitably accompanied the continuation of the inter­ vention in a revolutionary situation. They thus neither conspired to make an all-out military effort nor consistently pursued the oppor­ tunities for peacemaking. Meanwhile the Russian civil war grew into a major conflict. The first important resistance to the Bolshevik regime had come chiefly from two elements: from a variety of socialist parties which rejected Bolshevik policies and from the non-Russian borderlands which de­ manded autonomy. The most important of the latter, the Ukraine and Transcaucasia, were initially also led bv socialists, although the Cossack areas, which also resisted Bolshevik encroachment, tended toward more conservative leadership. The first real turning point for the major groups in both of these elements of opposition was the dis-

PREFACE

XI

missal of the Constituent Assembly in January 1918. Once this demo­ cratically elected body, intended as the determiner of Russia's future structure and policies, had been forcibly disbanded by the Bolshe­ viks, both the popular Socialist Revolutionaries and the non-Russian borderlands separated themselves from the Soviet power center and took up positions of active resistance and independence. This stage of the civil war was quickly superseded, however, by the emergence in the autumn of 1918 of more conservative forces, both in Siberia and in South Russia, which proved themselves considerably more capable of military action by virtue of their attraction of the largest number of professional army officers. Significant political ele­ ments, particularly the Constitutional Democrats (Kadets), who had been the major party in the establishment of the first Provisional government in March 1917, also attached themselves to these mil­ itary forces, but the most important change which occurred at this stage of the war was the assertion of leadership by the military. While many of the top military leaders were moderate in their political views, a notable effect of this shift was the imposition of a kind of moratorium on political debate and democratic organization within the major anti-Bolshevik Russian forces for the sake of military victory. In South Russia the chief force which rose to the challenge in this second stage, after a long period of organization, was the Volunteer Army. Founded by two former commanders-in-chief of the Russian army, Generals Alekseev and Kornilov, and subsequently led for two years by General Denikin and at the end by General Wrangel, this army relied heavily on Cossack support, stood for a temporary military dictatorship and the reincorporation of the borderland nationalities which had separated themselves from Russia. It also called for delay­ ing any major decisions on such matters as agrarian reform and reor­ ganization of the state structure until victory over the Bolsheviks had been won and a new constituent assembly could be elected. For these reasons, the Volunteer Army clashed both with the anti-Bolshevik socialists who had the broadest popular following and with the nonRussian borderland governments which controlled large sections of the South. The Volunteers did attract Allied attention and obtained extensive support, especially from the British, but relations with the Allies were not smooth or always cordial. Volunteer relations with the French in fact reached a point of open hostility in the spring and summer of 1919 at the very moment when Allied aid was most essential. The

xii

The Volunteer Army

policies and actions of the Volunteers were easily, if not always fairly, subjected to charges of reaction and tsarist restoration, a reputation that helped to alienate potential allies both in Russia and abroad despite efforts by General Denikin to correct this situation. For these and other reasons the Volunteers failed, just as others, to oust the Bolsheviks from power. This study of the Volunteer Army and its relations with the Allied Powers and the borderland states proceeds on the assumption that neither the domestic arena in which the Russian struggle occurred nor the international setting and meaning of these events can be properly understood in isolation from each other. Both must be treated simul­ taneously, and this of course imposes a problem with regard to the judicious selection of relevant material and events with which to deal. It would be foolish for anyone to claim infallibility in making such a selection, but it is important to stress the point here that in view of the special significance attached to the interrelationship between domestic upheaval and foreign involvement nothing less than the requisite treatment of both aspects could serve the purpose at hand. While treating two different manifestations of the general question at the same time, however, this study does not presume to cover all aspects of the civil war or of the intervention therein. On the con­ trary, it is deliberately limited to that part of the general upheaval which took place in South Russia. The focus throughout is on the political, and even more accurately on the international political, aspects of the struggle in South Russia. The tide of military battle, for example, is not treated in detail since it must be regarded as sec­ ondary to the battle of political issues and foreign entanglement. The same point must be made with regard to the policies and actions of the Allied Powers. While their domestic conditions, their diplomacy in the W orld War and at the Paris Peace Conference, and their own party struggles are all a part of the general environment of the events in question, they are discussed only in so far as they impinge directly on the intervention and more particularly on the intervention in South Russia. O f major concern here, therefore, is the intervention as it operated in the field, as it appeared in the confused and often contradictory relations between Allied agents and forces, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, the Russian elements which they sought in one manner or another to aid. Finally, this study is focused on the Volunteer Army both because it was the major anti-Bolshevik force in South Russia and because in

PREFACE

xiii

this area it was the chief recipient of Allied aid and attention during the civil war period. Indeed, after mid-1919 Allied assistance was pri­ marily directed to the Volunteer Army as the one real prospect for victory over the Bolsheviks. Even where British and French interven­ tion forces were directly involved with non-Russian borderland nation­ alities and governments in the South, relations with the Volunteers constituted a decisive consideration for all concerned. In dealing with the Allied intervention in these areas this study thus puts relations with the Volunteer Army at the center of attention. W hile these restrictions on the scope of this study are necessary, it should also be noted that the part of the civil war and intervention which took place in South Russia was indeed probably the most mean­ ingful of all. In the first place it was in the South where the most notable formations of both military and political forces arose in oppo­ sition to the Bolshevik regime. It was in South Russia that the clearest confrontations developed between socialism and Bolshevism, between liberalism and conservatism, between Great Russian chauvinism and non-Russian nationalism, and between different Allied policies. The South, in short, demonstrated in microcosm all of the problems raised by the civil war and the intervention. For these reasons South Russia may be regarded as the most signif­ icant, and the most complex, of all the areas of the war. It is, there­ fore, of notable importance that it is this area which has been given the least attention by scholars dealing with the intervention. Although studies of the activities and fate of the non-Russian nationalities in the South, of the formation and operation of the Red Army, and of the decision-making of the Allied Powers at the Peace Conference in Paris are all available, the major anti-Bolshevik force and the intervention in South Russia have received far less attention. The object of this study is, therefore, to focus research on the interrelations between the intervening Powers and the Volunteer Army. Its major purpose is to analyze the tortuous course of Allied-Volunteer relations and the causes for the conflicts within the anti-Bolshevik camp in the South in order to reach conclusions on their failure. The fulfillment of this purpose, of course, required the availability of primary sources. No researcher in the field of international affairs and Russian history is likely to be satisfied with the materials avail­ able, and this author admits to numerous frustrations in his efforts to gain access to collections which might have added more detail. How­ ever, the situation with regard to research in the history of the Rus-

XIV

The Volunteer Army

sian revolution and civil war and the Allied intervention has substan­ tially improved in recent years. Significant glimpses into German, French, and British materials have been allowed to scholars, the Soviet Union has published useful documentary collections, and, most importantly here, several archives in the United States have been opened. This work relies especially heavily on primary materials found in the Columbia University Russian Archive and the Hoover Library, many of which were not accessible a few years ago. W hile these sources allow a detailed study of a sort impossible in the past, it is also important to note that there is a wealth of memoir material in this field, both published and unpublished, much of which has not been fully exploited. Finally, in the matter of sources the author has attempted throughout to cite both published and unpublished sources and, where it seemed useful, to note English translations as well, although this has naturally resulted in rather lengthy notes. It is hoped that this will add a value to the work which a more simplified system of notation would preclude. Winston Churchill once wrote that the Volunteer Army should be made the subject of “ an historical monograph to be read with grati­ tude by all their comrades in the British Empire, in France, in Italy and in the United States”(The W orld Crisis: The Aftermath, p. 87). The author (who incidentally does not anticipate such gratitude) accepted this suggestion while engaged in work at the Russian Insti­ tute of Columbia University and owes a special acknowledgement of thanks for assistance and advice in the preparation of this study to Professors Philip E. Mosely and Henry L. Roberts, whose wise coun­ sel was largely responsible for the successful conversion of the idea into its written form. He also wishes to express his special gratitude to the Ford Foundation and the University of Notre Dame, which provided financial support; to the Inter-University Committee on Travel Grants, which made it possible to do a part of the research in the Soviet Union; to Professor S. D. Kertesz of Notre Dame's Program of Soviet and East European Studies for his encouragement and gen­ erous assistance; to the Curator of the Columbia University Russian Archive, Mr. L. F. Magerovsky, and the then Curator of Slavic mate­ rials at the Hoover Library, Mr. W itold S. Sworakowski, both of whom provided invaluable guidance through the vast storehouses of papers and documents over which they preside; to Mrs. Xenia Deni­ kin and Baroness Olga Wrangel, who graciously extended permission to use materials in their care; to the staff of the Foreign Affairs Section

PREFACE

XV

of the United States National Archives for their valuable aid; and to the readers of the manuscript who offered invaluable suggestions for improving it, Professors John Thompson of Indiana University, Rich­ ard Ullman of Princeton University, and John Bradley of Manchester University. O f course, any deficiencies which remain in this work are attributable to no one but the author himself. T o my wife, who contributed so much to its preparation, this book is dedicated. December, 1965

G eorge B rinkley

CONTENTS

Preface

ix PART

I

RUSSIA AND THE W ORLD WAR

1

T h e Disintegration of Russia

2

T h e Im pact of German O ccupation PART

3 37

II

ALLIED INTERVENTION IN SOUTH RUSSIA

3 T h e Post-War Intervention 4 T h e French and the Volunteers in Odessa

73 113

5

146

Britain as a Buffer PART

III

THE RISE AND FALL OF THE VOLUNTEER ARMY

6 7

Denikin's Military and Political Strategies Retreat and the End of Allied Aid

185 214

8

T h e Crimean Epilogue

241

9

Post M ortem

275

N otes

293

Bibliography

398 xvii

PART

I

RUSSIA AND THE W O RLD WAR

1: T H E D I S I N T E G R A T I O N O F R U S S I A

In that fateful first week of November 1917, in the midst of W orld War I, five of Russia’ s top generals were languishing in a converted monastery prison in the unimportant village of Bykhov. One month earlier they had constituted the high command of the Russian army and its best front commanders. One month later they would be engaged in a crusade to liberate their country as the leaders of a new Volunteer Army hastily formed in the southern provinces. But in November, at the time of the Bolshevik Revolution, they—Generals L. G. Kornilov, A. I. Denikin, A. S. Lukomskii, I. P. Romanovskii, and S. L. Markov, together with a number of junior officers—were under arrest, charged with treason against the Russian Republic. Their incarceration had been ordered by Alexander Kerenskii, prime minister and war minister of the Provisional government. Since the armed guard stationed at the prison was in fact a detachment of soldiers loyal to the “prisoners,”particularly to the chief among them, Kornilov, these generals could have fled their cells at any time. They had, however, chosen to submit their case to public trial and would not leave Bykhov so long as the promise of open confrontation with their accuser, Kerenskii, was assured.1 The fate of these five generals would have been of some importance for Russia in any circumstances, but it was of particular significance in the autumn of 1917. The Kornilov-Kerenskii conflict marked the culmination of an ominous trend toward disintegration which had scarred the much heralded democratic revolution in Russia from its beginning in March 1917.2 Instead of bringing unity and a reinvigoration of the war effort, as Russia’ s allies, Britain and France, had hoped and the Provisional government's first foreign minister, Paul Miliu­ kov, had promised, the revolution had brought into the open that long-festering antagonism between socialist and conservative elements 3

4

The Volunteer Army

which prevented the establishment of stable authority and frustrated efforts to restore order and discipline among the troops.3 The Consti­ tutional Democratic (Kadet) party which had assumed leadership in the new government established by the Duma on March 15 seemed, of all Russian parties, the most admirably suited to converting Russia from autocracy to a moderate constitutional regime in the image of W est European governments. As a leading spokesman for the Kadets and then for the Provisional government, Miliukov had earned great respect both in Russia and abroad for his sharp criticism of the old regime’ s inadequacies and his call for the closest union with the W est­ ern democracies. Yet when it came to the realities of power, none of Russia’ s parties was prepared to meet the crisis, perhaps least of all the moderate Kadets whose westernized platform and intellectual charac­ ter separated them from the masses and made them the easy target of both Left and Right. The Left, composed predominantly of Socialist Revolutionaries and Social Democrats representing the peasants and workers respectively in the increasingly powerful soviets, saw its duty to lie in continuous pressure on the government for domestic reforms and if not an end to the World War, then at least a revision of its aims to repudiate the policy of secret diplomacy and territorial acquisitions of the fallen tsarist regime.4 The Right, whose strength lay in centuries of Russian tradition, in the existing bureaucracy, and in the inclination of the military to see salvation only in firm authority and discipline, de­ manded a postponement of reforms and loyal adherence to the war­ time alliance and its secret agreements, which, among other things, promised control of the Turkish Straits to Russia as a reward for vic­ tory. The growing power of the soviets, particularly in the armed forces, was viewed as a threat to the very foundations of political order and military effectiveness.5 Caught between these two points of view, the Provisional government had found itself challenged both for its modest attempts to compromise with the soviets and for its efforts to keep Russia in the war. Neither the prospect of a popularly elected Constituent Assembly, for which elections had to be postponed until November, nor attempts to put a better face, a “democratic”interpre­ tation, on the wartime agreements with Britain and France could resolve the problems of political and economic collapse or inspire a people fed up with fighting and tempted by slogans of peace and social revolution.6 Under the circumstances existing in Russia, popular emotions were

TH E DISINTEGRATION O F RUSSIA

5

easily aroused; what might have been simply a debate over war aims and methods of reform had become instead a prolonged crisis in which the government steadily lost both its support and its ability to act. During May uncontrollable street demonstrations had brought the government to the brink of collapse. General Kornilov, then com­ mander of the Petrograd military district and responsible for keeping order in the capital, had found his troops joining the mobs rather than curbing them.7 Miliukov's resignation, forced because of his persistent refusal to renounce the principle of territorial acquisitions, and the bringing of more socialists into the government had temporarily saved the day, but it had also set a precedent for future crises.8 Kerenskii, initially the only member of the Petrograd soviet in the government, took over the post of war minister in the new cabinet and began a campaign both to “democratize" the army and to raise morale by a new offensive. But his success in the former had only further under­ mined the authority of the officers, while his failure with the latter had led General Kornilov to wire him angrily from the front that his poli­ cies were creating havoc while the country was perishing.9 A British observer of the ill-fated July offensive, Major General Sir Alfred Knox, had reported to London that the Russian army was “irretriev­ ably ruined as a fighting organisation."10 Nor was the trouble only at the front. The “ July Days" in the capital had created a new crisis which resulted in the resignation of most of the Kadets still in the government. Kerenskii, who then became prime minister, was no radical revolu­ tionary, nor were the leaders of the soviets at this stage, for the major­ ity control in the soviets was still composed chiefly of moderate Social Democrats (Mensheviks) and Socialist Revolutionaries dedicated to the principles of democratic government and gradual reform.11 How­ ever, the instability of the government, the fear on the Left in general of a return of the reactionaries, and the complete exhaustion of the country in its efforts to continue the war had all contributed to a situ­ ation which offered opportunities for the extremists, notably the Bol­ shevik Social Democrats, to discredit the moderates and, even when driven underground, to win increasing support in both the soviets and in the population at large. By September a Bolshevik-Left Socialist Revolutionary coalition had become predominant on the Left, and on the Right conservative elements had gravitated toward support for a military coup. It was in these circumstances that the conflict had erupted between

6

The Volunteer Army

Kerenskii and General Kornilov, now the commander-in-chief and the favorite of the advocates of repressive action against the Left. During September a misunderstanding, brought about largely by rumors and the activities of self-styled mediaries, had led Kerenskii to interpret new demands on the restoration of strong government and military discipline from Kornilov as an ultimatum to be backed by military action against the soviets and followed by the establishment of a mil­ itary dictatorship. He had responded by ordering Kornilov's arrest and calling on the Left to support him. Kornilov in turn had denounced Kerenskii and called for public backing to install a new government. Kornilov, who had been provoked into his “treason”by what he thought was a betrayal by Kerenskii, was to a large extent—just as Kerenskii—a victim of circumstances. He was only partially aware of the plots to overthrow the government being hatched by others, including some of his own advisers, who hoped to use him to establish a dictatorship. However, he was one of many now convinced that the Bolsheviks were preparing a repeat of the July demonstrations and an attempt to seize power. W hile not reactionary in his views12—in fact he still had no political program as such—Kornilov was certain in his own mind that the Bolsheviks, and indeed many other socialists, were traitors to Russia and would make her easy prey for Germany. Moreover, despite their earlier differences, he and Kerenskii had agreed on the need to send reliable troops to Petrograd, and he had been led to believe by his talks on September 5 with Boris Savinkov, Kerenskii's deputy in the war ministry, that Kerenskii was now pre­ pared to take a stand against the extreme Left and strengthen the government's position by declaring martial law in the capital. Shortly thereafter the self-appointed intermediary, V. N. L'vov, even appeared to bring from Kerenskii an oblique offer to resign in Kornilov’ s favor. Although in fact Kerenskii had made no such suggestion, Kornilov naively assumed that he was being invited to replace the prime min­ ister or at least to join him in a shared exercise of the highest authority in a reorganized government. Just as Kornilov was initiating action based on these mistaken assumptions, Kerenskii's worst fears had been aroused by a warning on September 8 from the same V. N. L'vov, who now reported that Kornilov was demanding the immediate resig­ nation of the government and the delegation of full power to himself. Believing that Kornilov was going to use the troops headed for Petrograd to carry out a military coup and might even be planning his assassination, Kerenskii panicked and dramatically shifted his posi-

TH E DISINTEGRATION OF RUSSIA

7

tion. Responding instinctively and ignoring the advice of others, among them Savinkov, he called upon the Petrograd soviet, including the Bolsheviks, to save the government from the expected counter­ revolution. Upon receiving Kerenskii’ s order for his removal on Sep­ tember 9, Kornilov in turn mistakenly concluded that he had been betrayed by Kerenskii (who now declared himself commander-inchief) and by Savinkov (who was named military governor of Petro­ grad to prepare its defense) in a scheme to oust him as commander of the army. Partly because of his impetuous character and partly because of his convictions, Kornilov then plunged headlong into the showdown with Kerenskii. Seeing himself as the savior of his country, he had vowed to carry out the very seizure of power which he had been accused of plotting.13 As a capable commander and patriot who wanted to see Russia strong and able to continue the war, Kornilov had received encourage­ ment both before and after the open break with Kerenskii from liberal as well as conservative political circles, from the officer corps, and, not least in importance, from the Allied military representatives in Petro­ grad and at headquarters who were in close contact with him and sympathetic to his cause.14 Although the Allied ambassadors main­ tained a policy of official noninvolvement and rejected requests from Kornilov’ s backers for open support, the coincidental presence of a British armored car brigade among the troops being moved toward the capital by Kornilov lent weight to Bolshevik charges that the Allies were behind a plot to overthrow the government.15 Kerenskii himself charged that a British agent delivered large sums of money to Kornilov and categorically rejected the appeal of the Allied govern­ ments that he “come to terms with General Kornilov, not only in the interests of Russia herself, but in that of the Allies.”16 W hile Kerenskii had rejected the offer of mediation by the Allied ambassadors, he had not, on the other hand, rejected the offer of the retired army commander-in-chief, General M. V. Alekseev, to inter­ cede in the dispute. Kornilov, who soon realized the futility and dan­ ger of a violent conflict when his troops were easily halted by the forces hastily mobilized by the soviet, had also agreed to Alekseev’ s mediation and on September 14 had submitted to arrest on the under­ standing that Kerenskii would act to restore normal command rela­ tions in the army and allow a fair and open trial for him and his associ­ ates.17 The commander of the southwestern front, General A. I. Denikin, and his staff had been arrested by their “ political com-

The Volunteer Army

8

missar" in Berdychev and moved to Bykhov, where this impressive gathering of Russia's military leadership then awaited further devel­ opments.18 General Alekseev had temporarily assumed the post of chief of staff (Kerenskii himself took over as commander-in-chief) until the appointment of General N. N. Dukhonin. Meanwhile, the fiasco of the “Kornilov affair" had, more than any­ thing else, given the Bolsheviks new hopes for seizing power for them­ selves. Kerenskii, who had in effect turned over the defense of the capital to the Petrograd soviet, now under the influence of Bolshevik leadership, could not despite his vigorous efforts work the miracle required to put the government back in control of events. Conse­ quently, on the night of November 6-7 the Bolsheviks succeeded in carrying out a coup, using the armed guard of the soviet, which ousted the government with startling ease. A small band of Cossacks under General P. N. Krasnov, which Kerenskii finally rallied to his defense, proved totally inadequate to the task; Krasnov was captured and held for a time by the Bolsheviks, and Kerenskii fled abroad.19 As the head of the new government, or Council of People's Commissars, V. I. Lenin (Ulianov) declared to the assembled Congress of Soviets on November 8 that the Soviet government would take Russia out of the hated war, renounce annexations and indemnities, and at last give peace, food, and the land to the people. A new era had begun. #

$

*

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In the course of more than a decade of polemical struggle within the Russian Social Democratic party prior to 1917, Lenin had emerged as the undisputed leader of its radical, revolutionary wing. He had, indeed, largely created this revolutionary Left wing of the party and had cleverly, if inaccurately, dubbed it the Bolshevik (majority) fac­ tion after instigating a split with the larger “minority" (Menshevik) element at the party’ s second congress in 1903. From that time on the Bolshevik faction had distinguished itself from the more moderate Mensheviks by two main facets of its credo, which constituted the essence of Lenin's revision of Marxism: (1) the insistence that a small, tightly disciplined, conspiratorial organization was essential to the seizure of power, the immediate goal, and (2) the conviction that this party must unconditionally dedicate itself to bringing about a world­ wide revolution, which would ultimately overthrow all existing gov­ ernments, beginning with the European capitalist regimes, and establish an international socialist system.20 In his refuge in Switzerland during the war years, Lenin had gradu-

TH E DISINTEGRATION OF RUSSIA

9

ally formulated the basic outlines of the Bolshevik tactics designed to bring the party to power and instigate revolution throughout Europe. Proceeding from the conviction that all of the belligerent Powers were “ripe”for revolution, Lenin had sought successfully to win control of the soviets, as the spontaneously developed instrument of popular opposition to the “imperialist”war, and then to use the soviets to win control of the country.21 Once in power, the task, in Lenin’ s view, was to appeal directly to the “ oppressed masses”of Europe, especially of Germany, to overthrow their governments and join with Russia in a truly “just”and “ lasting”peace on the basis of the Bolshevik pro­ gram. His famous slogan of “peace”was, therefore, closely bound up with his plan of revolution. Believing that a “democratic”peace could be achieved only through a conversion of the existing war into a civil war of the masses against all of the belligerent governments, he had formulated his “foreign policy”in the following terms as early as 1915: W e would propose peace to all the belligerents on the condition of the liberation of colonies and all dependent and oppressed nations which are denied full rights. Neither Germany nor England and France would accept this condition under their present govern­ ments. Then we would have to prepare and conduct a revolution­ ary war; that is, we would not only introduce by the most decisive measures our whole minimum program [in Russia], but also begin systematically to raise revolts by all peoples presently oppressed by the Great Russians, all colonies and dependent countries of Asia (India, China, Persia, and others) and also—and first of all—we would rouse the socialist proletariat of Europe to a revolt against its governments, in spite of its social-chauvinists.22 Lenin thus expected that a victory for the Bolsheviks in Russia would be the “prologue of the world socialist revolution.” 23 Although Russia’ s backwardness prevented her from carrying the revolution for­ ward alone, the Western proletariat would assure its spread, and the very effort of Europe’ s governments to resist it would bring the revolu­ tion “ a hundred times closer.”24 The first official act of the new gov­ ernment, on November 8, 1917, was to issue the Decree on Peace, calling upon the workers of Europe to take up the task of “the libera­ tion of mankind from the horrors of war”if their governments did not comply with Bolshevik terms.25 The new commissar of foreign affairs, Leon Trotskii, set the tone of the new diplomacy of revolution in one of his first notes to the Allies :

The Volunteer Army

10

The government of the victorious revolution [he declared] does not need the recognition of professional capitalist diplomacy. But we ask the peoples: does reactionary diplomacy reflect their ideas and aspirations? Do the peoples agree to permit diplomacy to bypass the great opportunity for peace opened by the Russian revolution? . . . Soldiers, workers, and peasants of France, England, Italy, the United States, Belgium, Serbia. . . . W e await your representatives. Act!26 None of this, of course, relieved the Bolshevik regime of the prob­ lems of power, either domestically or internationally, It could not, even if it wished, abdicate from the world of international politics. Nor could it ignore the delapidated condition of Russia's political institutions and armed forces. The peace decree, therefore, was still an appeal for peace. Neither Trotskii nor Lenin wanted to negotiate a separate peace with Germany. In fact they did not want to negotiate a peace in the traditional sense with any of the existing governments. But both recognized at least the necessity of a truce to allow their propaganda to work and permit time to prepare for whatever future action had to be taken. In the meantime, the Bolshevik slogan of peace was a major asset in the regime's efforts to remain in power and extend its control over the country. In so far as the peace slogan, together with the slogans of land and bread, would attract the support of the war-weary and landhungry peasant masses as well as the proletariat, the Bolshevik govern­ ment could count upon significant strength throughout the country. However there were, generally speaking, two serious obstacles which stood in the way of immediate success for the reintegration of Russia under Bolshevik leadership. In the first place, the Bolshevik party remained in a distinct minority, with its continuance in power largely dependent upon its ability to retain its initial identification with pop­ ular desires which were in fact closer to Socialist Revolutionary and Menshevik thinking than to the peculiarly internationalist revolution­ ary outlook of the Bolshevik leadership. Secondly, the new regime, as its opponents, would have to contend with the seriously debilitating consequences of Russia's disintegration along nationality lines which had been gaining momentum throughout 1917. #

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Russian had already begun to fall apart at its national seams during the period of the Provisional government. A polyglot conglomeration of nationalities, the Russian Empire had been held together by the

TH E DISIN TEGRATION OF RUSSIA

11

power and dominant position of the Russians over the non-Russian elements. W ith the disappearance of that power, symbolized by the person of the Tsar, the subordinate nationalities had begun to demand their rights, particularly in the form of political and cultural auton­ omy within a new democratic state. The coming to power of the Bolsheviks only heightened the determination of the geographically peripheral peoples to govern themselves, not simply because the Bol­ sheviks propagated the slogan of national self-determination (while, of course, having a long-range goal of amalgamating all nations into one), but primarily because of the concern among most of the border­ land leaders over the consequences of continued association with a Soviet Russia. W hile this suspicion was only vaguely defined at first, it would in time become the basis of the continued disintegration of the former Russian state into its many parts. This was particularly true in the case of the southern borderlands. It was thus of major sig­ nificance that non-Bolshevik, and in some cases strongly anti-Bolshevik, governments were in power in almost all of South Russia when the Soviet regime was established in Petrograd.27 In the Ukraine, the Rada (parliament) and its executive body—the Secretariat, headed by a Ukrainian Social Democrat, Volodimir Vynnychenko—had been recognized as an autonomous government by Kerenskii in September. Following the Bolshevik coup, this govern­ ment refused to recognize the Soviet government’ s authority over the Ukraine and on November 20 declared instead the establishment of a Ukrainian People’ s Republic.28 Only one day later this new Republic began the process of regrouping all Ukrainian troops on Ukrainian territory. General D. G. Shcherbachev, the former commander of Russian forces on the Rumanian front, tentatively agreed to accept command over them.29 In the Crimea, to the south, the Tatar National party (founded in July 1917 on a moderately liberal platform of federation with Russia and cultural autonomy) and the Kadet party organization (chiefly representing the Crimean Russian inhabitants ) were the most impor­ tant politically active elements.30 Although neither took an extreme political position, their rivalry for control of the Crimea and their diametrically opposed attitudes toward the Turks kept them in oppo­ sition to each other even though they shared a mutual hostility toward the Bolsheviks. On November 26, 1917, a Tatar constituent assembly, elected from the Tatar population, assumed authority in Simferopol, introduced a

12

The Volunteer Army

Crimean constitution, and appointed a five-man directorate headed by the Crimean Mufti and a leader of the Tatar National party, Chelibidzhan Chelibiev. Another National party member, Dzhafer Sejdamet, was named military commander and minister of foreign affairs. These two leaders, however, subsequently split over how to deal with the Bolsheviks, who were entrenched in Sevastopol but not fully sup­ ported by the soviets. This struggle within the Tatar government, with Chelibiev favoring some agreement with the Bolsheviks and Sejdamet strongly opposing such a move, gravely weakened its posi­ tion, and a Bolshevik victory seemed likely. However, the Kadet party organization, led by S. S. Krym and M. M. Vinaver, provided a relatively strong pro-Allied element also contending for power. T o the southeast, the Cossacks had also established their own pro­ visional autonomous governments, mainly by electing representative assemblies (Krug in the Don and Rada in the Kuban) and establish­ ing military executive heads, called “ atamans,”in their respective ter­ ritories (voiskos).31 Relations between the Cossack authorities and the Provisional government had not been very satisfactory to either, espe­ cially after Kerenskii became prime minister, although the Cossacks made an effort to prevent a full break. Typical of the Cossack reaction to events of this general period was that of the Don which in April 1917 had voted (1) to recognize the Provisional government, (2) to work for the establishment of representative government with wide autonomy for constituent areas of the republic in close union with Russia, (3) to formulate a land reform which would divide the great estates and turn over repartitional lands to the peasants, and (4) to elect a representative assembly based on universal, equal, direct, and secret suffrage. The Provisional government in turn had recognized the Don government as the local authority. A general Congress of Cossacks held in Petrograd in March had pledged itself to indivisible union with Russia and continuation of the war to victory; the new Don Krug which met for the first time on June 8 confirmed these decisions and on July 2 elected General A. M. Kaledin ataman.32 Despite the formal recognition thus established, however, relations between the central government and the Cossacks deteriorated during the summer of 1917. It was the Kornilov affair in particular which precipitated a rupture between the Provisional government and the Don. When the Kornilov-Kerenskii clash occurred, Ataman Kaledin was sharply denounced as a counterrevolutionary by Leftist elements in the Don on the charge that he was a secret ally of Kornilov and

TH E DISINTEGRATION O F RUSSIA

13

implicated in a plot against the government. Giving credence to this allegation, the Provisional government ordered his arrest along with the other generals. From September 18 to 27 the second Krug debated the issues involved and acquitted Kaledin of the charges. Refusing to turn their ataman over for arrest, the Krug demanded instead that Kerenskii send a commission of inquiry to Novocherkassk to clarify the situation. Further identifying its own position, the Krug also, having already elected representatives to the forthcoming Constituent Assembly, declared its refusal to send representatives to the planned Congress of Soviets on the grounds that the Provisional government was still the only valid central government.33 Although there was thus officially no secession of the Don from Russia at this point, this sequence of events, coupled with the grow­ ing anarchy throughout South Russia, prompted Cossack leaders to act on their own. Thus on October 3 a conference of representatives of the Don, Kuban, Terek, Astrakhan, Kalmyk, Ural, and Dagestan Cossacks was held in Vladikavkaz and agreement was reached on the formation of what was styled the “Southeastern League”(or Union). In the treaty of union then drawn up, the Cossack voiskos guaran­ teed to each other their “ absolute independence ... in regard to the management of their internal affairs”and set as their goal “the estab­ lishment as soon as possible of a Russian democratic federal repub­ lic. . . .”Pledging themselves to a mutual struggle “ with the enemy” (the Bolsheviks), they declared it their intention to establish a con­ federation with a government of their representatives at Ekaterinodar in the Kuban voisko, the new government to be headed by V. A. Kharlamov as president.34 This initiative on the part of the Cossacks, an effort to unify at least a portion of Russian lands under stable government while declin­ ing to go so far as to demand independent status permanently, was a major asset for the anti-Bolshevik movement in general. Although the confederation as such never really materialized beyond the stage of a Cossack alliance with joint consultative bodies formed at a later date, both the Ukrainian Rada and the Moslem Congress in Kokand in November 1917 considered joining the League.35 In particular the effort meant that those who sought to found a new Russian army could look to the Cossacks for aid and a protected staging area in which to organize an army of liberation for Russia. An attempt was also made in September to unite the numerous “nationalities”of the Caucasus Mountain region into a “Union of

14

The Volunteer Army

Mountain Peoples,”largely under the leadership of Moslem clerical and secular spokesmen, such as the Imam Nazhmudin Gotsinskii and Prince Nuh-Bek Tarkovskii. During October a merger of the Moun­ tain Union with the Terek Cossacks was agreed upon on the basis of affiliation with the Southeastern League. However, these efforts failed to overcome the obstacles of tribal feuds and Leftist opposition. By early 1918 the Bolsheviks were gaining a strong foothold in Vladikav­ kaz, where they declared their intention of establishing a Terek Soviet Socialist Republic, and in Petrovsk on the Caspian coast, where a Revolutionary committee was installed. Conservative Moslem author­ ity was subsequently confined largely to central Dagestan.30 Farther south, in Transcaucasia, the de facto federation of Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaidzhan at the same time proved to be highly resistant to Bolshevik advance. The Transcaucasian Commissariat under E. P. Gegechkori, which took over control in November 1917, included representatives of the Armenian Dashnak party and the Azerbaidzhani Mussavat party, but it was based primarily upon the strong Georgain Menshevik organization, which controlled the soviets of the area. Their union was not really a firm one, since the Georgians wanted socialism, the Azerbaidzhanis preferred a more conservative Moslem theocracy, and the Armenians (unlike either) looked to an alliance with the Russians. But in the autumn and winter of 19171918, Transcaucasia presented a significant anti-Bolshevik entity on the Turkish Front, where the disintegration of the Russian army posed a serious threat to British operations.37 The situation across the Caspian in Transcaspia and Turkestan was, however, considerably less stable. A Moslem anti-Bolshevik regime under Mustafa Chokaev in Tashkent was already being driven out of its capital by the Bolsheviks as early as October. Nevertheless, Chokaev was able to stem the tide temporarily and establish a new government in Kokand. Bukhara and other Moslem strongholds also remained unconquered.38 This kaleidoscopic array of nationalities and governments in South Russia posed obstacles to Bolshevik conquest,- but it also presented almost insurmountable barriers to unification. Each territory had its own peculiar characteristics and traditions, including in many cases a deep-seated hostility toward the Russians engendered by decades of unequal treatment. Where, as in the Central Asian region, the nonRussian native populations were often primitive and illiterate, forming the lower classes of society, national differences were often intensified by class differences. Both the Bolsheviks and the anti-Bolshevik Rus-

15

TH E DISINTEGRATION OF RUSSIA

sians represented a Great Russian ambition to reintegrate the southern borderlands into Russia, although the former significantly showed greater tactical skill by offering “ self-determination” under regional Bolshevik regimes. In most cases the regional governments established before the Bol­ shevik seizure of power had shown a notable restraint and willingness to look toward some form of federation with a democratic Russia once a Constituent Assembly had been convoked to resolve the prob­ lems of reunification. However, in January 1918, when the Bolsheviks summarily dismissed the Constituent Assembly, these governments found themselves compelled either to succumb to Bolshevik control or to become “ separatists,” declaring their “independence”at least until some acceptable government was established in Great Russia. *

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For opponents of Bolshevik rule the disintegration of Russia thus posed both a problem and an opportunity. A united opposition would have been more effective, but, given the situation, it was necessary to take the existence of many separate governments as a fact and try to find in them elements capable of preventing a capitulation to the Bolsheviks and, if possible, capable of continuing the war against the Germans which the Bolsheviks appeared determined to end. However, there was really only one element in the South which was specifically dedicated to this proposition, General Alekseev’ s Volunteer Army in the Don, an army founded, significantly, not on a nationality or regional basis but on a platform of reintegration of Russia.39 When, at the invitation of Ataman Kaledin, General Alekseev arrived in the Don capital, Novocherkassk, on November 15, he set to work immediately to recruit a new army to continue the alliance with the West, but he also encountered serious obstacles. In the first place, the younger Cossacks, despite Kaledin’ s urging, proved highly susceptible to Bolshevik propaganda and demonstrated the effective­ ness of the Bolshevik slogan of peace by “ voting with their feet” (in Lenin’ s words) against more fighting.40 The only men really available for Alekseev’ s army were the Russian officers and cadets who could make their way from all over Russia to the Don, no small task despite the financial assistance of officer’ s organizations and political groups supporting Alekseev. The fact that these men had by the end of 1917 begun pouring in by the hundreds, and later would come by the thou­ sands, was testimony to the existence of a potentially strong force in favor of continuation of the war in alliance with the West. But it

16

The Volunteer Army

would be no easy task to realize that potential under the circumstances existing in the Don.41 Ataman Kaledin, himself now nearly exhausted by the burdens of his office, sincerely, almost desperately, hoped to be of assistance to Alekseev, but he was painfully aware of the limitations. Because of the growing opposition to his policies, Kaledin found it necessary even to suggest what he personally knew' would be undesirable, that Alekseev might have to move farther south to organize his new army. It was in view of this problem that Alekseev accepted an invitation to address a conference of Don Cossacks and peasants shortly after begin­ ning his work. He explained to them why he had come, assured them that he would guarantee in writing that no troops of the “ Alekseev organization”would interfere in politics, and pointed out that his troops would be financed and supplied only by private donations and, he hoped, Allied aid. He, finally, appealed for the support of democratic elements in the area and promised that the army would fight only to save Russia and not for any political party or program.42 Alekseev’ s infectious sincerity plus the fact that he had loyally served the Provisional government even during the Kornilov affair gained him some sympathy in the Don and at least temporarily smoothed relations. It did not, however, bring him any real support for the idea of Cossack participation in continuing a war, either against the Germans or against the Bolsheviks. The latter continued their propaganda campaign to discredit Kaledin, arouse enmity against Alekseev, and organize disturbances. If Alekseev was having prob­ lems, however, he was not long alone in facing them, for the generals who had escaped from their confinement in Bykhov soon joined him in the Don. The “Bykhovtsy”left their jail by various routes and means so that they arrived in the Don at different times, Kornilov being one of the last of the group because of his attempt to lead the detachment of men who had remained loyal to him. However, most of the group had managed to reach Novocherkassk by the third week of December. Denikin, Markov, and Romanovskii arrived on December 5, Lukomskii on December 6, and Kornilov finally on December 19.43 This notable influx of leadership gave added strength to Alekseev’ s efforts but also posed problems. The arrival of Kornilov, in particular, confronted the Volunteer Army with the question of who was to be its supreme commander, General Alekseev, who had begun its organization in the Don, or

TH E DISIN TEGRATION OF RUSSIA

17

General Kornilov, who had simultaneously conceived similar plans in Bykhov and was considered the most capable military leader in Rus­ sia. Secondly, the arrival of the “Bykhovtsy”posed anew the issue of hostility in the Don toward the “counterrevolutionaries.”If Alekseev could be tolerated because of the mollifyingly neutral role he had played between Kornilov and Kerenskii, the same could hardly be said for Kornilov himself or for most of his associates at Bykhov. And, finally, there was a serious difference of opinion as to what kind of political affiliation to accept, particularly whether to attempt to establish a government as a civil authority in addition to the army command.44 At a conference of both military and political leaders in the area, called by Kornilov on December 31, the question of organization was finally thrashed out. Despite Kornilov’ s insistence that an army must have only one supreme commander, the weight of opinion was in favor of Alekseev’ s argument that he and Kornilov could best share the burden of leadership by dividing their functions, he assuming chief responsibility for political relations, financial questions, etc., while Kornilov took responsibility for military organization and command. W ith the aid of pressure from leading Kadets, who provided the chief political backing of the army, a solution was soon found to which Kornilov consented.45 The formula adopted also simultaneously an­ swered, at least for the moment, the other question, that is, that of the Volunteer Army’ s relations with the Don. The agreement, as drawn up by General Denikin, specified that (1) Alekseev was to have primary authority in matters of civil affairs and external relations, (2) Kornilov was to have military command over the armed forces, and (3) the highest authority in all major questions affecting the movement in general was to be vested in a triumvirate consisting of Alekseev, Kornilov, and Ataman Kaledin, the latter thus uniting the Don with the leadership of the Army. Each of the three was to have chief responsibility in his particular sphere, but all questions of “national significance”were to be considered and decided upon jointly.46 This agreement, signed by all three in Janu­ ary, was the basis of operations henceforth until the death of Alek­ seev in October 1918, and it was the first formal establishment of authority by the Volunteer Army. The question of political affiliation was then worked out by Alek­ seev, who decided against forming a government but organized an advisory Special Council,47 composed of both military and political

18

The Volunteer Army

leaders, to assist in the formulation of political, social, and financial policies and the coordination of activities. The first persons to be invited to participate in this body, besides Alekseev's own assistants, were those civilians who had been most closely associated with the establishment of the Volunteer Army, such as Peter B. Struve (a for­ mer Social Democrat turned conservative), P. N. Miliukov (the former foreign minister), and Prince G. N. Trubetskoi. However, aside from a preference in military circles for political “neutrality,”no real agree­ ment existed as to what the exact limits of the Army's involvement with politics should be. From the beginning, its chief support had come from the Kadets, but there was still the question of bringing in persons who leaned farther “Left,”moderate socialists who would support the Army’ s goals.48 The question was, in fact, made unavoidable by the presence of the renegade Socialist Revolutionary, Boris Savinkov. One of those ebul­ lient characters who most epitomized the revolutionary in action, Savinkov had once served as a private in the French army, had returned to Russia to become one of Kerenskii's chief deputies, and, upon his arrival in the Don, had with what seemed to the generals as “unbounded pertinacity,”immediately plunged into the disputes and intrigues of local politics, particularly those affecting the Volunteer Army. He was among the first to urge Alekseev to establish a political council to advise the army and was quite outspoken in declaring that a purely military leadership would be disastrous because it would certainly thwart popular support. The solution which he suggested, therefore, was the inclusion of men like himself in a civil council to demonstrate to the populace, and to foreigners, that the movement was not only patriotic but also genuinely democratic.49 The validity of Savinkov's views had been recognized by Alekseev, but the inclusion of Savinkov himself in the Special Council was another matter. Alekseev was in favor of attracting a broad following, but he had in mind chiefly moderate elements such as the Kadets, and with this middle-of-the-road approach he was indeed somewhat more tolerant and liberal than many of his fellow officers. Kornilov, in par­ ticular, identified Savinkov with the worst aspects of Kerenskii’ s poli­ cies toward the military and was quite adamant at first in opposing his inclusion.50 However, Alekseev and Kaledin finally agreed that a compromise was necessary, and Kornilov bowed to their judgment. Consequently four socialists were admitted to membership in the Special Council: Savinkov, Ageev, Vendziagol’ skii, and Mazurenko.51

TH E DISINTEGRATION OF RUSSIA

19

This particular arrangement was short-lived, but it did establish a precedent which was of lasting significance for the political outlook of the Army. W hile the principle of including a broad representation in the Special Council was not consistently followed, and never re­ flected the wishes of the majority of the officers, the Volunteer Com ­ mand made a practice of seeking the advice of both Kadets and social­ ists on political and social questions from this time on.52 When, much later, a government was finally formed, it was just such a coalition as Alekseev had established in the early days, including socialists, Kadets, and conservatives. Savinkov himself, however, soon grew restless in the Don and left in mid-January 1918 with a commission from Alekseev to make further contacts in the north. Alekseev’ s work with the political problems of the Army also led to the issuance of a statement of its goals. On January 9, 1918, Korni­ lov and Alekseev thus jointly released a statement declaring: The first goal of the Volunteer Army is to stand against an armed invasion of South and Southeastern Russia. Hand in hand with the valiant Cossacks answering the call of their Krug, their government, and the Voisko Ataman, in union with the provinces and national­ ities of Russia which are rising against the German-Bolshevik yoke and all the Russian peoples gathered in the South from all corners of Russia, it will defend to the last drop of blood the autonomy of the provinces which give it refuge and which are the last strong­ hold of Russian independence, the last hope of the restoration of a Free, Great Russia. But, along with this goal, the Volunteer Army also sets forth others. This army seeks to be that active force which will give Rus­ sian citizens the possibility of realizing the construction of a Free Russia. The new army will stand guard over civil liberties until the day when the master of the Russian land, the Russian people, can express its will through the election of a Constituent Assembly. Before the will of the people, all classes, parties, and groups of the population must bow. It alone will be served by the establishment of this army, and all who are participating in the army’ s creation will incontrovertibly subordinate themselves to the legal authority established by it through a Constituent Assembly.53 This declaration, which remained the essence of the Volunteer Army’ s program throughout its existence, was designed as much to indicate the absence of a partisan political platform as to state the Army's aims. Born of the patriotic impulses of soldiers who regarded themselves as defenders of their country rather than its future rulers,

20

The Volunteer Army

the Army’ s chief goal was to save the country from attack from within or without. Its founders had no desire to restore the tsarist autocracy which had long since been discredited in their eyes. Their hope was that, if order could be restored in Russia, another, and firmer, pro­ visional government could be established to carry through the elec­ tion of a constituent assembly. In so believing, they felt themselves actually to be expressing the will of the Russian people and presenting a platform which the Allies would readily support. This latter consideration was important because the Don was com ­ ing under heavy Bolshevik attack by December,54 and the Volunteer Army was in desperate need of money. The Don government and existing anti-Bolshevik organizations, especially the Kadet party, promised support, but they were hard pressed to keep what funds they had out of Bolshevik hands. Pledges of several million rubles were received from wealthy individuals in Rostov and Novocherkassk, but the Bolshevik invasion precluded the actual collection of all but a fraction of these amounts.55 The one real hope, in short, was the Allied governments. The latter were indeed soon to be heard from, as will shortly be noted, but in the meantime the situation grew steadily worse in the Don. Both the Don government and the Volunteer Army had about reached the limit of their resources by the beginning of 1918. Al­ though the third Krug had in December voted “ supreme powers”to the voisko government “until the formation of an all-Russian author­ ity”and had re-elected Kaledin as ataman on January 11, there was little he could do to stem the tide running against him.56 The Bolshe­ viks were hard at work organizing both Cossack and peasant elements against the government and by January were already claiming to repre­ sent a “Don Soviet Republic.”On January 28 the Bolshevik Revolu­ tionary Committee for the Don presented terms to the government, demanding (1) that the ataman cede authority to the Committee, (2) that the government disarm troops in the area, including volunteer organizations, and (3) that the Krug be dismissed.57 Kaledin refused to give in, but the frustration of being unable to act bore down upon him unmercifully. The final blow for him came on February 11 when the Volunteer Army Command informed him that it would be compelled to leave the Don if it were ever to have a chance to build up its strength. This was a hard choice but undoubt­ edly a realistic one for the Volunteer Army. For Kaledin, however, it was the end; in abject despondence, he committed suicide the same day.58

TH E DISINTEGRATION OF RUSSIA

21

The desperate efforts of the Krug and Ataman Nazarov, elected to succeed Kaledin, all failed to get results. On February 25, Bolshevik forces occupied Novocherkassk and the whole Don shortly fell to their control. Most of the Cossack forces, seeking their self-preservation, adopted a policy of neutrality and submitted. Only 1500 followed the Volunteer Army in its retreat to the south. Ataman Nazarov, Krug President Volochinov, and others in the Don government were arrested and executed.59 For the Volunteer Army the retreat in February meant the begin­ ning of a new phase, one in which its operations and further develop­ ment would for some time be conducted largely in the Kuban territory. The establishment of the Kuban government as an independent entity had taken somewhat the same path as that described for the Don, but with a significant variation. The legislative body of the Kuban, the Rada (meaning the same as Krug in the Don but using the Ukrainized language for greater distinction), had been to a much greater extent under socialist influence from the start and had conse­ quently inclined both toward a more separatist and a more demo­ cratic cause. Unlike the Don Krug, the Rada held jealously to its powers and never granted great powers to the ataman. On the con­ trary, the real power in the Kuban rested with the government, which was largely formed by political rather than military leaders, while the ataman was restricted to the role of military commander. The situa­ tion was in fact very much like that which existed in the Provisional government under Kerenskii, and with the same tensions and suspi­ cions between the government and the military. The Kuban ataman, A. P. Filimonov, remained a weak commander dominated by the Rada, and the Rada in turn was most of the time dominated by the so-called Chernomortsy (Black Sea group, so designated because its members largely came from the Black Sea province of the area) headed by the separatist socialist L. L. Bych.60 The Kuban Rada had declared its independent existence as early as mid-October 1917, explaining subsequently its conviction that “ The formation on the territory of the former Russian state of independent state formations and their assumption of supreme authority was an unavoidable act and, at the same time, an act of self-preservation/'61 The Rada retained the formula of provisional independence until the future convocation of a constituent assembly and the creation of an all-Russian federation of states, but at the same time the prominent role played by the Bych group assured that, until such time, the emphasis in Kuban policy would be upon its independence and its

22

The Volunteer Army

persistent refusal to risk any of its prerogatives in any really close association with the Volunteer Army. Imbued with the same spirit which animated Kerenskii earlier, Bych repeatedly proclaimed that if left alone the Kuban could build the most democratic state in the world and that alliance with the Volunteer Army would jeopardize that development and probably mean subjection to reactionary dictatorship. "T o aid the Volunteer Army/' he warned, "means to prepare a new absorption of the Kuban by Russia.”62 Fearful that both his government and democracy would be destroyed if the Volunteer Army Command was given any leeway, especially through control of Kuban armed forces, Bych’ s group from the beginning asserted its hostility toward the Army and continued to act independently to the extent of its powers both internally and in foreign relations, seeking ties with like-minded governments in Georgia and the Ukraine. The movement into the Kuban was thus not a very promising one for the Volunteer Army, although it was considered essential when the Don fell. It also cost the Volunteer Army dearly at the time because it was not just a withdrawal into open territory. Bolshevik forces invaded the Kuban also and in mid-March seized Ekaterinodar, forcing the government to flee. The campaign of the Volunteer Army into the Kuban to find itself a new base of operations was therefore a bloody one, ultimately costing it the lives of hundreds of men and even its commander. Early in March Kornilov called a council of war, including Alekseev, Denikin, Romanovskii, and Erdeli of the Volunteer Army and leaders of the Kuban forces, to plan future operations. At this conference, Kornilov put the issue point-blank to the Kuban representatives: to liberate the Kuban the Volunteer Army would require the full sub­ ordination of Kuban forces to his command. Pokrovskii, the chief Kuban representative, objected strenuously that while cooperation was essential, the Kuban must retain its own army if it were to be in­ spired to fight at all. He therefore proposed instead merely an opera­ tional subordination to Kornilov for the duration of the campaign to liberate the Kuban and restore its government. True to form, Kor­ nilov refused to compromise on this point. As he put it simply: "One army and one command. I will not consider any other position.”63 Even while getting under way the campaign into Kuban territory, Kornilov on March 30 called another meeting to try to resolve this question, this time with both Ataman Filimonov and representatives of the Rada in attendance (including Bych as head of the govern-

TH E DISIN TEGRATION O F RUSSIA

23

ment). Again one side argued adamantly on the grounds of military necessity and the other countered with firm assertions of “Kuban sov­ ereignty/' demanding preservation of the Kuban army with only oper­ ational subordination to Kornilov. Kornilov did not retreat from his position on the military question, but he did now give assurances that the Volunteer Army was not trying to “ swallow up”the Kuban. He finally persuaded the Kuban representatives to accept a unification of forces on his terms by guaranteeing noninterference in civil affairs and recognition of existing Kuban authority in the Rada and its gov­ ernment- Although Bych at first refused to accept this compromise arrangement, he too agreed to it after the terms were put into writing and signed by Kornilov.64 Actually no real or permanent solution to this question was found. Kuban forces were brought under the operational command of the Volunteer Army but retained much of their separate identity despite being incorporated into the Volunteer organization.65 The issue was, in fact, to come up again and again, but at this critical juncture, and with the Kuban government temporarily without power in its own territory, the military leaders in effect let the question ride for the sake of the liberation. W hen Kornilov on April 9, after a council meet­ ing on the occupation question, designated General Denikin as pro­ visional “ Governor-General for the Kuban,”the Kuban government accepted the appointment with sullen silence.66 The subsequent campaign, the hardest the young Volunteer Army ever had to fight, was a struggle for its very life. It began with the awful “icy campaign”across the marsh lands and rivers which stood between the Army and liberation of the Kuban. When the Volunteers finally reached Ekaterinodar on April 10, they had only some 500 ablebodied men left and, still carrying with them some 1500 wounded, were exhausted and almost bereft of supplies. It was because of this extreme depletion of the Army's ranks that Kornilov issued his first conscription order and thus ended the purely voluntary phase of its existence. In this struggle, under the most severe conditions, the Volunteer Army was forged into a real fighting force. Whatever its shortcomings, and there were many, this was its noblest hour in terms of sheer endurance and patriotic devotion. But on the very eve of the capture of Ekaterinodar, on April 12, Kornilov was killed by a grenade as he sat alone in a small house being used for his command post. The staff of the Army immediately asked Denikin to take command, and he did so.67 Anton Ivanovich Denikin, the inheritor of Kornilov’ s mantle, had

24

The Volunteer Army

none of the dash or vibrant intensity of the wiry little man whom he succeeded, nor did he have the charismatic hold over subordinates which had made Kornilov such an effective commander. He did, how­ ever, have many other traits in common with the dead hero. Both were men of humble origin who had risen to their high military ranks by virtue of ability rather than class. Denikin’ s father was a serf to the age of thirty when his emancipation came in the form of the military draft. In the army, where he served for twenty-two years, he had risen to become an officer and left his son with the inspiration of his success as well as a deep sense of dedication to his country’ s service. Following his father’ s example, Denikin in turn had joined the army as a private, soon qualified for officer training and, after receiving his commission, entered the Staff College. He remembered his climb through the ranks as a struggle against prejudice and privilege in the officer corps, but World War I had brought him rapid advancement to the impor­ tant post of chief of staff and then command of the western and, finally, southwestern fronts. As was the case with Kornilov, Denikin had renounced tsarist autoc­ racy and fully supported the democratic revolution in Russia only to become disillusioned with the fumbling of the Provisional govern­ ment, on which he blamed the subsequent disintegration of the army and the collapse of authority. The dramatic encounter with Kerenskii had left him embittered against the "politicians”and the "socialist babblers”who, in his opinion, were toying with the very survival of Russia. Denikin thus came to the command of the Volunteer Army convinced of the absolute necessity of disciplined, firm, and nonpolit­ ical leadership for the salvation of Russia. Although he looked forward to the day when democracy, civil liberties, peasant farms, and worker prosperity would flourish in a new Russia, he believed that none of this would be possible without first saving the Motherland from destruction by the Bolsheviks and the Germans. He took up that cru­ sade, with the same naive honesty which had characterized Kornilov, and would eventually become its chief leader in South Russia, where he more than any other would dominate events during the next two years. Under the slogan, One Great and Indivisible Russia, he set himself to the single task of military victory, determined that neither he nor any politicians would "predetermine”Russia’ s future structure, which was to be left to a freely elected national assembly. Until then authority would have to be exercised by a temporary military dictator­ ship, and even debate on reforms should be postponed so as to reduce antagonism within the anti-Bolshevik camp.68

25

TH E DISINTEGRATION OF RUSSIA

When he succeeded Kornilov, Denikin had only the battered rem­ nant of an army with which to begin the struggle, but under his command the Army, with the assistance of risings by the Kuban pop­ ulation against the Bolsheviks, gradually cleared the Kuban during the spring and summer of 1918.69 The second Kuban campaign, which returned the Kuban government to power, enabled the Volunteer Army to establish for itself a new base of operations with Ekaterinodar as its headquarters, but if it was to become more than a borderland army, if it was to fulfill its mission of liberating Russia, it would have to expand far beyond the limits permitted in the Kuban. Such expan­ sion would, in turn, require substantial assistance from the outside, at least in the form of supplies and equipment, and would necessitate dealing with the borderland governments which controlled the terri­ tory between Ekaterinodar and Moscow. The ability of the Army to cope with these problems would depend to a considerable extent upon the response of the Allied Powers. #

$

*

#

$

#

The Allied Powers had, of course, been deeply concerned with the developments in Russia. The ominous Soviet appeal to the “class con­ scious workers”of Europe over the heads of their governments, and the publication of secret Allied agreements and correspondence, which was begun on November 23, 1917, had further disturbed the already anxious Allied policy makers, but the most crucial issue remained that of whether the war against the Central Powers could be kept alive on the eastern front. When the Bolsheviks persisted in their avowed intention of ending the war even in the absence of European revolu­ tion—or rather for that very reason—their action was naturally viewed in the light of its likely contribution to a German victory over the Allies.70 The United States had entered the war in April, but if Ger­ many was able to transfer the full weight of its forces to the western front before American troops arrived in significant numbers, the Allies’ hope of victory could easily be shattered. The gnawing fear of this possibility, coupled with reports that Lenin had been allowed to return to Russia across German territory and was receiving German funds, had given rise readily to the belief that the Bolshevik revolution had been part of a German plot to get Russia out of the war.71 The apparent determination of the Bolshevik leaders to do just that had only seemed to confirm this erroneous contention. On November 20 the Soviet government had officially approved frat­ ernization with enemy troops at the front and ordered the incum­ bent commander of the army, General Dukhonin, to contact the

26

The Volunteer Army

German Command to arrange an immediate armistice preparatory to peace negotiations.72 In an effort to encourage Dukhonin to disobey this order, the Allied military missions at Russian headquarters at Mogilev had appealed to him to “repudiate all criminal negotiations with the enemy and keep the Russian Army on the Front facing our common enemy,”but the effort was in vain.73 Dukhonin's attempt to cooperate with this advice accomplished little other than earning him the Bolshevik brand of “ enemy of the people.”74 The Allied mis­ sions were forced to flee to Kiev just before the arrival of the new Soviet commander, Krylenko, at the beginning of December, and Dukhonin himself had soon met death at the hands of a mob which dragged him from Krylenko's railway coach.75 On the heels of this failure, the long-postponed inter-Allied confer­ ence on war aims had finally met in Paris on November 29. It seemed to many to offer an opportunity for a fresh approach to the problem of keeping Russia in the war. British Ambassador Buchanan had, for example, reported that leading Russian socialists who opposed the Bolshevik regime, such as N. V. Chaikovskii, believed that if the Allies showed a willingness “to discuss peace terms with a view to bringing the war to a speedy conclusion,”then Russia would be in­ spired with new courage and a will to fight.76 However, the conference had been unable to reach agreement on what approach to take toward this question and was only further frustrated in its efforts by the news that the German government had agreed to enter negotiations among all the belligerent powers for a general peace.77 W hile the Allies did then decide that an unofficial mission should be sent to investigate developments in the borderland regions of South Russia, particularly the Don on which some information had been received,78 there was still no Allied policy as such, other than the common goal of keeping Russia in the war—an ambiguous aim which bespoke more despera­ tion than plan. When on December 15 the Bolsheviks signed an arm­ istice with the Germans, Allied hopes for keeping the eastern front alive were dealt a further blow. The door seemed open for the shift of German might against the Allies.79 Formal peace negotiations had subsequently been opened at BrestLitovsk on December 22, and Trotskii's appeals to the Allied coun­ tries to join in the negotiations had given way to sharp blasts at the West's “ blind stubbornness which characterizes decadent and perish­ ing classes”and the warning that the time was rapidly approaching when “ the working classes will be confronted by the iron necessity of

TH E DISIN TEGRATION OF RUSSIA

27

taking power out of the hands of those who cannot or will not give the people peace.”80 Trotskii’ s orations were the product of an un­ yielding faith in the imminence of world revolution, but they also betrayed Bolshevik impotence in the face of German military power. It was still possible that the Soviet government might be compelled to fight rather than accept the terms which a separate peace would force on them, but, meanwhile, Bolshevik actions had also led Allied policy makers to the conclusion that they could not afford to ignore alternative possibilities. Therefore, as the Bolshevik policy of peace was gradually taking shape, the Allied governments initiated steps to prepare contacts with anti-Bolshevik elements in the South. Even before the two unofficial representatives, dispatched as a result of the November conference, had reached their destination in the Don, both the British and French governments had followed up this decision with new ones. On December 3 the British Cabinet had agreed in principle to offer aid to the Don Cossacks under Ataman Kaledin and subsequently, on December 14, approved extending financial support to this force.81 On December 7, the French government had moved in this same direction by establishing a special commission under General Janin to study the Russian question and make recommendations concerning the possibility of supporting anti-Bolshevik elements.82 The French representative, Colonel Hucher, then arrived in the Don capital on December 23 and was soon joined by the British representative, Gen­ eral de Candolle. DeW itt C. Poole, the former United States consul in Moscow,83 had already arrived in Novocherkassk on December 18. As Poole's presence suggested, the United States was also interested at this time in establishing contacts and had even indicated a willing­ ness to help support the Russian armies forming in Cossack territory. W hile direct intervention in the South by the United States was ruled out, both Secretary of State Lansing and President Wilson approved indirect American support for Allied actions. Ambassador Page in London was thus advised on December 13 that the Russian situation had been carefully considered and the conclusion had been reached that “the movement in the south and southeast under the leadership of Kaledine and Korniloff offers at the present time the greatest hope for the reestablishment of a stable government and the continuance of a military force on the German and Austrian fronts.”It was deemed unwise for the United States to grant support openly “ because of the attitude which it seems advisable to take with the Petrograd author-

28

The Volunteer Army

ities," but it was believed necessary that Kaledin “ be shown that the Allied Governments are most sympathetic with his efforts/' The “ practical course" proposed, therefore, was “for the British and French Governments to finance the Kaledine enterprise in so far as it is neces­ sary, and for [the United States] to loan them the money to do so." Page was instructed to take up this matter with British and French authorities confidentially; the initiative for intervention would, however, be left to Paris and London.84 These preliminary steps reached a culmination of sorts when on December 22, the day of the reopening of the Brest peace negotia­ tions, an Allied conference met in Paris to consider a special memo­ randum by the British Foreign Office. This memorandum, formulated largely by Lord Milner, and subsequently approved by Clemenceau and French Foreign Minister Pichon, stressed the necessity of keeping the eastern front active by every means possible and suggested the approaches by which this aim could be achieved. It recommended especially the further development of relations with General Alekseev and the Don Cossacks, but it also suggested the need for a more active Allied policy in the Ukraine and Transcaucasia.85 The Ukraine, it was noted, provided the one source of provisions and refuge for the Rumanians, who, having entered the war against the Germans earlier, had been driven back virtually to the borders of Russia.86 Moreover, if the rich resources of the Ukraine should fall into German hands, the Allied blockade against Germany would be rendered meaningless. Transcaucasia, likewise, was the one real bar­ rier to a German-Turkish penetration which might ultimately reach “from Constantinople to China." It was, therefore, considered essen­ tial to “ induce the southern Russian armies to resume the fight" in Transcaucasia, the Ukraine, and the Cossack territories, and this, it was agreed, would require both money and instruction. T o get both into South Russia, Allied agents and officers would have to be sent in to “ advise and support" those governments and armies which would continue the war. In order to coordinate this activity, an agreement on “ zones" was drawn up and signed on December 23.87 According to this agreement, French operations were to be “developed north of the Black Sea," while the British concentrated on the area “ southeast of the Black Sea." Specifically, the French zone would include Bessarabia, the Ukraine, and the Crimea, while the British would assume chief respon­ sibility for the Cossack territories, the territory of the Caucasus, Arme-

TH E DISIN TEGRATION OF RUSSIA

29

nia, Georgia, and Kurdistan. At the same time, both would supply financial assistance to Alekseev, and other expenses were to be “ pooled and regulated by a centralized in ter-Allied organ.”All such activities, however, were to be kept secret so as “to avoid the imputation”that the Allied governments were “ preparing to make war on the Bolsheviki.”Consequently Allied agents sent into South Russia from Ruma­ nia were to be dispatched under the pretext of buying food stuffs for the Rumanian population.88 It was under this cover that the British and French representatives from the Allied military missions in Rumania made their way to Novocherkassk in December and January carrying offers to 10 million pounds and 100 million francs credit respectively.89 Actually Alekseev seems to have received only a small fraction of this in a usable form before the Volunteer Army was forced to retreat into the Kuban in February, but the Allied agents had brought invaluable moral support by their mere presence.90 Likewise, special Allied representatives (the French General Tabouis and the British Major Fitzwilliams) had already, in November, been accredited to the Ukrainian government to bolster its resistance to both the Bolsheviks and the Germans.91 On December 18 the Bolshevik government in Petrograd had issued an ultimatum to the Ukrainian Rada designed to facilitate a coup against it by the Ukrainian Bolsheviks, but the Rada had replied with a demand for self-determination and a rejection of the claims of the Bolsheviks to negotiate on behalf of the Ukraine.92 Allied offers of aid to the Rada, however, had also encountered the obstacle of a Ukrain­ ian request for recognition before making any commitments. Neither Britain nor France was willing to extend formal recognition, but a diplomatic device to placate Ukrainian sensitivity was adopted. Gen­ eral Tabouis was given the title of “Commissioner of the French Republic to the Government of the Ukrainian Republic”in creden­ tials issued on December 29 by the French minister in Rumania, Saint-Aulaire, and the British appointed John Picton Bagge, a for­ mer consul-general in Odessa, as “ British Representative in the Ukraine.”93 Both Tabouis and Bagge followed the policy of the Allied agents in the Don by offering promises of extensive support in return for loyalty to the Allied war effort.94 Such efforts as these, however, were not enough to enable the Allies to achieve the results needed. Bolshevik forces were well on their way toward overrunning both the Cossack territories and the Ukraine. Moreover, British plans now just being worked out, to organize an

30

The Volunteer Army

expedition into Transcaucasia through Persia, under Major General L. C. Dunsterville, were still only in the organization stage in Bagh­ dad, while the Turkish military drive threatened to conquer the area in a short time.95 Even with Allied agents in South Russia, no sub­ stantial aid was practicable so long as the Straits remained closed, and openings were yet to be made through Persia and Rumania. It was, therefore, imperative for the Allies also to continue efforts to prevent the Bolsheviks from signing a separate peace with Germany. Since the Bolshevik regime was not to be recognized, however, the Decem­ ber 22 memorandum had recommended that contacts with it be kept open ‘ 'through unofficial agents”on the same basis as contacts with non-Bolshevik governments.96 For this purpose Lloyd George delegated a man who had previously served in the Moscow consulate, R. Bruce Lockhart. T o smooth his path to Bolshevik contacts, the British Cabinet agreed to grant free­ dom of action to the Bolshevik “ ambassador” in England, Maxim Litvinov, and Litvinov in turn wrote a letter of introduction for Lock­ hart to Trotskii, declaring him to be an “ honest man who understands our position and sympathizes with us.” 97 Lockhart then set out for Russia, arriving in Petrograd during January. His only instructions were “to do as much harm to the Germans as possible, to put a spoke in the wheels of the separate peace negotiations, and to stiffen by whatever means [he] could the Bolsheviks' resistance to German demands.” 98 The French had a similarly useful agent already on the spot in the person of Captain Jacques Sadoul, who had gone to Rus­ sia in October with the military mission under General Niessel. As a socialist and former acquaintance of Trotskii, Sadoul had already established himself as a proponent of contacts with the Bolsheviks and as one whose ideas generally conflicted with those of Ambassador Noulens, with whom Soviet relations were quite strained.99 Through Lockhart and Sadoul, it was agreed, the British and French governments would attempt to convince the Bolsheviks that they had “no desire to take part in any way in the internal politics of Russia” and were not in favor of a counterrevolution. The Allies could not con­ done “the treachery of the Russians in opening peace negotiations” with the enemy, the Milner memorandum had noted, but they were prepared “to accept the principles of self-determination”and to aid in Russia's defense, providing the Bolsheviks did not let themselves be deceived by “ empty phrases from the Germans.”As Foreign Minister Pichon explained to the Assembly on December 27, the Allies wished

31

TH E DISINTEGRATION OF RUSSIA

to establish contact “with all healthy elements in Russia" which retained the “instinct of legitimate defense" of the country against German aggression, and they had not ruled out the possibility that the Bolsheviks might be persuaded to join this category once they found out what dealing with the Germans would involve.100 #

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£

£

The Bolsheviks had, in fact, begun to discover that their lack of a real policy was bound to pose grave difficulties. The Soviet delegation had in reality gone to Brest not to sign a treaty but to drag out the talks in order to agitate for revolution, and initially all of the Bolshe­ vik leadership had agreed with Trotskii's “ excellent use" of the negoti­ ations for this purpose.101 However, during January the Ukrainian Rada had ended its talks with Allied representatives in Rumania, replaced Vynnychenko's government by one willing to negotiate with the Germans, and sent its own delegation to Brest.102 The Germans then entered separate talks with the Ukrainians and denied Bolshevik competence to negotiate for any territory outside that of Great Russia.103 These developments, which threatened to disrupt the talks and lead to a resumption of hostilities had, therefore, provoked a crisis in Soviet policy making. It was rapidly becoming clear that a choice would have to be made: either the Bolsheviks would stake everything on a renewal of the war, or they would have to sign a capitulatory separate peace with the Germans. Lenin, disturbed by the delay of revolution in the West, by the increasingly aggressive tone of the German negotiators, and by a survey of Soviet armed forces which indicated their complete lack of fighting capability, had by January 1918 reached the conclusion that it would be impossible to resume the war, even as a revolutionary war, and that therefore the signing of a separate peace was mandatory, regardless of the terms so long as they permitted the survival of the Soviet regime.104 Lenin's conclu­ sions could not be applied to policy immediately, however, because the majority of the Bolshevik Central Committee opposed his new position and could be persuaded to adopt only the compromise policy (between making peace at once and conducting a revolutionary war) proposed by Trotskii, which was to prolong the negotiations as much as possible so as to give the German proletariat time to become aroused and prepare a revolt.105 On January 9, 1918, Trotskii left for Brest to carry out this policy, but not without arming himself in advance for the possibility that

32

The Volunteer Army

the talks might be broken off by the Germans before the hoped-for revolution arrived. Before facing the Germans again, he talked with the unofficial French representative, Sadoul, and the chief of the American Red Cross mission, Raymond Robins, who was also serving as an unofficial contact. From both he obtained verbal assurances of assistance in case hostilities should be resumed.106 Nine days later at Brest, Trotskii received an outline of the harsh terms to be demanded by Germany as the price of peace and returned to Petrograd for con­ sultations.107 Then, on February 9, the Germans signed a separate peace with the Ukraine, giving them a forced invitation to occupy its territory, and presented their “ final” terms to Trotskii for his answer.108 Trotskii, whose position had again received approval from the Party Central Committee, chose to regard the German move as a bluff prompted by fear of imminent revolution and again re­ jected the terms, despite a mandate from Lenin to capitulate to an ultimatum.”109 On February 16 this whole question was given a sudden new ur­ gency by the German announcement that the truce would be consid­ ered ended and a state of war resumed at noon on February 18.110 Given this situation, nothing could have proved the powerful hold of old revolutionary ideas on the minds of the Bolsheviks (with the no­ table exceptions of Lenin and Joseph Stalin) more strikingly than the decision by a majority of the Central Committee on February 18 to try even now to renew and drag out the negotiations, while preparing for a revolutionary war, in the belief that the German attack on Rus­ sia would at last provoke the revolution in Germany.111 It was not, in fact, until the evening of February 18, when disaster was imminent, that the Central Committee finally voted to accept the German terms, and the vote shifted to Lenin’ s favor even then only because Trotskii changed sides to support him.112 Unfortunately for the Soviet government, the immediately dis­ patched offer to accept the German terms did not stop the German attack. It did not even bring a response from the Germans for several days, and during this interval the Bolsheviks were driven toward that last resort, an appeal to the Allies for help. Relations between the Allies and the Soviet government had, however, deteriorated consid­ erably during January and February, largely because of Allied activi­ ties in the Ukraine and the acquiescence of the Allied Powers in the occupation of Bessarabia by Rumanian troops in order to enable them to prevent its falling into German hands. A sharp exchange between

TH E DISINTEGRATION O F RUSSIA

33

the Allied embassies and the Bolsheviks had followed the Soviet arrest of the Rumanian ambassador, Diamandi, and the seizure of Ruman­ ian gold reserves left in Russia for safekeeping, and the Soviet govern­ ment had both broken off relations with Rumania and charged the Allies with attempting to use Rumania as a base for intervention on behalf of the counterrevolutionaries.113 Then, on February 10, the Bolsheviks had added to the tension by annulling the Russian state debt, a large part of which was owed to Britain and France, and on February 12 both Allied and neutral representatives had issued a strong protest against this action.114 Despite these developments, however, Trotskii had kept up his con­ tacts with the unofficial Allied representatives, now including Lock­ hart, and had raised the question of Allied aid almost immediately upon his return from Brest. In an interview with Lockhart three days before the German attack, he had hinted that the circumstances in which the Soviet government found itself offered a “ big opportunity for the Allied Governments/’Lockhart had in turn added to the earlier statements by Sadoul and Robins his own assurances that the Allies, specifically Britain, would aid the Bolsheviks if they took up the fight against the Germans.115 Thus armed with these assurances, and ignoring their unofficial nature, Trotskii on February 22 proposed to the Central Committee to accept Allied aid in the apparently una­ voidable war with the Central Powers. They had no choice, declared Trotskii, but to supply their army with whatever means were available, regardless of their origin. It was extreme desperation which led the Central Committee, with Lenin’ s grudging consent, to accept this proposal by a vote of 6 to 5, but this curious and revealing turn of events lost most of its significance during the next few days.116 On February 23 an answer finally came from the Germans; they were willing to make peace. Despite the fact that their terms were now even harsher than before, the Central Committee voted 7 to 4, with 4 abstentions including Trotskii, to accept them unconditionally. The next day the Soviet Central Executive Committee also voted, 116 to 85, to accept the peace terms, and a new delegation was sent off to Brest to carry out this decision.117 Trotskii thereupon resigned as commissar for foreign affairs and, taking the post of commissar for war, began the great task of organizing the Red Army. He revealed the logic of his action, and of continuing relations with the Allies even now, in a talk with Lockhart shortly after the Central Commit­ tee had voted. The Allied Powers, he charged, were “ playing roulette

34

The Volunteer Army

and scattering chips on every number”in their intrigues in Russia, but their help might still be necessary because, in his view, the peace was not likely to last and he, for one, was going to see that they were better prepared to fight when and if it became necessary in the future.118 Lockhart himself, while admittedly now having little more than indications of skepticism on the part of the British Foreign Office, believed that the door was still open to obtaining Bolshevik consent for Allied efforts to prevent further German penetration.119 The grow­ ing danger of German occupation of the northwestern area of Russia so as to obtain the Allied supplies there had indeed prompted a hasty flight of the Allied ambassadors and their staffs from Petrograd to Vologda at the end of February, and the Soviet government itself began moving the capital to Moscow in March.120 Allied-Soviet contact was maintained in this change, and an ad hoc “ miniature Allied council”was established in Moscow consisting of Lockhart, Sadoul, Robins, and a delegation of Allied military repre­ sentatives, including Major Riggs of the United States, General Lavergne of the French military mission, and General Romei repre­ senting the Italian High Command.121 Lockhart has recorded the rationale behind their activities: W e knew that the burning anxiety of the Allied High Command was to detach as many German soldiers from the W est as possible. But taking every factor into consideration, we could not believe that this object could be attained by support of Alexeieff or Korniloff. These generals . . . were not immediately interested in the war in the West. They may have been sincere in their desire to reconstitute an Eastern front against Germany, but before they could do so, they had to deal with the Bolsheviks. W ithout strong foreign aid they were not powerful enough for this task. . . . Al­ though we realized that the Bolsheviks would fight only if they were forced into war by German aggression, we were convinced that this situation might easily develop and that by a promise of sup­ port we might help to shape events in the form we desired.122 The activities of these Allied representatives, however, failed to prevent agreement between the Germans and the Bolsheviks. They not only could not prevent the signing of the treaty on March 3 but also failed, even with the help of the Bolshevik “Left,”to head off its ratification by the Fourth Congress of Soviets on March 15.123 By this treaty (or treaties, since a separate one was signed with each of

. TH E DISINTEGRATION O F RUSSIA

35

the Central Powers) the Bolsheviks showed that they would go a long way for the sake of peace. They had, in effect, given over to the Germans an enormous expanse of territory from the Baltic to the Black Sea, with all of its wealth of resources. They had also relieved the armies of the Central Powers of fighting on the eastern front, although many thousands of troops were necessary for the occupation. These circumstances did, indeed, represent a turning point in Allied relations with Russia, although they did not, as might have been expected, bring an immediate end to the unofficial contacts or the efforts of Lockhart and Sadoul to reach a modus vivendi with the Bolshevik regime. Sadoul, with Trotskii’ s constant encouragement, even worked out a plan of Allied technical assistance in the organiza­ tion of the Red Army. The personnel for such assistance was already on hand; General Berthelot had just arrived in Moscow from Rumania and brought with him a rather large French military mission. Since Trotskii sanctioned the formation of a special committee of Allied officers to advise the Commissariat for War, the military members of the Allied “ council”in Moscow proposed to use the Berthelot mission to help train the Red Army. In accordance with SadouPs plan, Gen­ eral Henri Niessel then prepared a program of military development for Trotskii which would employ the French officers as instructors.124 Things were going so well, from SadouPs point of view, that by the end of March he could report enthusiastically that “the collaboration of the Allied missions with the Bolsheviks directed toward the build­ ing of a new, disciplined army ... is underway.”He expected at any moment to get Soviet agreement to an Allied military intervention in the North to protect that area from the Germans.125 SadouPs joy was short-lived, however, for the French ambassador, Joseph Noulens, who had originally approved the Sadoul-Niessel plan, now intervened from Vologda to stop it. General Lavergne was repri­ manded for having allowed Sadoul to become so involved, and the prospective military instructors were ordered to return to France at once. The frustrated Sadoul, whose close association with the Bolshe­ viks had had its effect, ultimately threw in his lot with Communism, but the remainder of the French mission fell into line with the policy now advocated by Noulens, which was characterized by General La­ vergne as “intervention without Bolshevik consent and without asking for it.”126 The arrival of the new German ambassador, Mirbach, and his for­ mal reception on April 26, consummated Soviet efforts to put relations

36

The Volunteer Army

with Germany on a normal and more secure basis and served to con­ firm Noulens’view that it was pointless to pursue further the hope of getting Bolshevik approval for intervention against the Germans. In a public statement issued on April 28, in connection with the land­ ing of a small Japanese detachment in Vladivostok and the appear­ ance of Allied ships at Murmansk, Noulens warned that, in view of German success “ extending far beyond the limits which it was possi­ ble to foresee after the Brest treaty/’the Allied Powers “may be obliged to intervene in order to meet this threat directed both against the Russian people and against them.”127 Although Noulens declared that if the Allies resorted to military operations in Russia, they would not do so for the purpose of “intervening in the internal affairs of Russia”or for “ any ulterior motives with regard to any kind of con­ quest,” the Soviet government immediately exercised its right to demand his recall.128 This incident thus demonstrated, on the one hand, the Allies’great concern over the rapid expansion of German influence and occupation, and, on the other hand, the Bolsheviks’ willingness now to accept this situation in preference to cooperating with the Allies. Meanwhile, the very effort of the Allied Powers to keep open the possibility of such cooperation with the Bolsheviks had begun to alienate many in anti-Bolshevik circles who believed that they detected in the duality of Allied policy an element of indeci­ sion and vacillation, if not outright duplicity.

2:

T H E I M P A C T OF G E R MA N OCCUPATION

By the spring of 1918 the Bolsheviks had invaded and conquered a large part of the Ukraine and the Cossack territories. The Don govern­ ment had fallen, and the Volunteer Army had been forced to retreat into the Kuban. During the subsequent campaign in April, Kornilov himself had been killed. When his successor, General Denikin, took command of the Army, it consisted of a handful of men fighting for their very survival against the Bolsheviks, while the Germans omi­ nously approached from the west, and the Allies seemed incapable of action sufficient to stem the tide. German occupation authorities in the Ukraine were, of course, con­ cerned primarily with exploiting the economic fruits of their victory. When the Rada government proved incapable, in German opinion, of maintaining the degree of control necessary to deliver the goods desired, and seemed in fact to be more interested in socialist agrarian reforms, the Germans were quite prepared to turn to other elements more suited to their requirements. Not surprisingly those found to be more amenable were of a conservative outlook, groups hostile toward the socializing “ experiments" of the Rada government and the “ agra­ rian anarchy" in the countryside.1 Open conflict over grain harvests between the German Command, under Field Marshal von Eichhorn, and the Rada government thus led the German ambassador, Baron Adolf Mumm von Schwarzenstein, to suggest to his superiors on April 18 that the conservative opposition be used as the basis of a transfer of authority in the Ukraine.2 Al­ though the exact nature of the shift was not yet clearly formulated, the German authorities were agreed that it was necessary to install a government fully under German control. The candidate then selected by the Germans for the post of chief of state was, appropriately 37

38

The Volunteer Army

enough, the former Russian general, wealthy Ukrainian landowner, and brother-in-law of the German Commander, Paul Skoropadskii. The descendant of a Ukrainian Cossack “ hetman”who had ruled 200 years earlier, General Skoropadskii was ideally suited for the restora­ tion of a “monarchist” dictatorship under German auspices. W ith the support of Russian officers and the Ukrainian League of Landowners, Skoropadskii was solemnly installed on April 29, while the Rada, having just adopted a constitution for the Ukrainian People’ s Republic, was dispersed with little resistance.3 Just south of the Ukraine, the Crimea, with its strategic location on the Black Sea, was also of immediate concern to the Central Pow­ ers. Moscow attempted to hold off the Germans, and keep the Black Sea fleet out of their hands, by having the Bolshevik government in Sevastopol proclaim the independence of the Crimea, but this maneu­ ver was to no avail. As soon as the Germans began to approach the Crimea, the Tatars staged a revolt, reinstated their assembly, and set up a new government under Sejdamet, with the hope of obtaining German support. T o their chagrin, however, the welcomed Germans duplicated their behavior in the Ukraine and quickly replaced the Tatar government with a puppet regime under the nominal head of General Sul’ kevich, a Lithuanian Moslem who had commanded a special Moslem Corps for the German forces in Rumania. Efforts by the Tatars to obtain Turkish intercession on their behalf failed to move the Germans. The Kadets were also kept out of power by the German occupation, of course, but their organization would be of considerable significance in later months.4 After the Ukraine and the Crimea, German influence penetrated most effectively into Transcaucasia, especially into Georgia. In this case the chief reason was, ironically, the menace posed by Germany's ally, Turkey. The Transcaucasian government under Gegechkori was confronted not only by the usual Bolshevik threat but even more importantly by the imminent threat of a Turkish invasion, which had the barely concealed sympathy of Azerbaidzhan. W hen the Bol­ shevik regime in Russia had in March entered a separate peace with the Central Powers, it had presumed inter alia to cede the territories of Batum, Kars, and Ardahan, populated largely by Georgians and Armenians, to the Turks. W hen efforts by Transcaucasian leaders to counteract the Brest treaty ran head-on into a Turkish refusal to enter negotiations except with an independent state, the Transcaucasian Federation, under the pressure of attack, on April 22 declared its independence and formed a new government.5

T H E IM P A C T O F GERM A N O CCU PATIO N

39

'Hiis new government, headed by Georgian Menshevik, A. Chkhenkeli, thus preserved temporarily the union of Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaidzhan for the purpose of negotiating peace with Turkey. The result of its negotiations, however, would undoubtedly have been most unfavorable but for the remarkable fact that the Germans chose to intervene on its behalf.6'Hie German representative in the ensuing talks at Baku, General von Lossow, provided a protective shield for the Transcaucasian Federation which enabled it to negotiate a relatively favorable, if somewhat temporary, truce with the Turks.7 But von Lossow was not interested in preserving the Federation as such; on the contrary, in secret talks with Georgian leaders he recommended its dissolution. Following his suggestion, the Georgians then not only declared their independence as a separate state but put themselves under German protection, a protection which was not extended to the Armenian and Azerbaidzhani governments, which then also declared their independence. On May 25, a force of some 3,000 German troops was landed at Poti under the command of General Kress von Kressenstein, and an agreement was signed giving the Germans full use of all Georgian rails and ships as well as the port of Poti. A Georgian delegation (con­ sisting of Avalov, Chkhenkeli, Tseretelli, and Nikoladze) then left for Berlin where more detailed agreements could be negotiated and arrangements made to reconcile Georgia's independence with the Brest treaty. 'Ihe German Foreign Ministry wished to avoid straining relations with the Bolsheviks, however, and therefore urged the Geor­ gians to reach a settlement with Moscow before formal German recognition and economic support were confirmed.8 On the other hand, the Germans chose to ignore the Azerbaidzhani government and deal directly with Moscow concerning the fate of the strategic Azerbaidzhani port of Baku. The fact that local Bolshe­ viks, under the leadership of Stepan Shaumian, had been able to win sufficient support to establish a soviet government in Baku in April gave the Germans reason to believe that they could negotiate special arrangements with Moscow for the exploitation of that city's great oil industry. At the same time, the Turks had taken the dissolution of the Transcaucasian Federation as a signal to renew their attack. Quickly overrunning the isolated Armenians, the Turks signed a treaty of alliance with neighboring Azerbaidzhan in June, and a com­ bined Turkish-Azerbaidzhani army under Nuri Pasha began moving toward the Caspian.9 In the summer of 1918 German influence thus seemed firmly en-

The Volunteer Army

40

trenched in Transcaucasia; and what the Germans did not have, the Turks did. Moreover, German penetration across the Caspian ap­ peared not unlikely, since the expansion of Bolshevik control through­ out most of Turkestan during this time had been accomplished in part by the arming of thousands of German and Austrian prisonersof-war as soldiers of the Red Army.10 Even in the Caucasus Mountain region, conditions favored the Germans to the extent that both the Bolshevik and anti-Bolshevik forces there offered possibilities of inter­ vention, the former by their dependence on support from Astrakhan and Baku, and the latter by the appeal of the leaders of the defunct Mountain People's Union to Georgia for German protection of the North Caucasus state proclaimed on May ll. 11 In fact, however, it was not in Turkestan or in the Caucasus Mountains where German influence had the greatest prospects for further advancement in the summer and autumn of 1918 but rather in the Don and among conservative Russian circles in the South. $

$

#

#

$

#

The advent of a conservative regime in the Ukraine, one which, while maintaining the semblance of Ukrainian statehood, opposed the anti-Russian nationalism of the Rada, proved to be a major inspiration to the Russians not only in the Ukraine itself but throughout South Russia. Actually the inclination of Skoropadskii’ s regime toward a Russophile and reactionary character resulted as much from default as from intent. The hetman actively sought the support of moderate Ukrainian parties, but both the nationalists and the Leftists persisted in their hostility toward him. As a result, political posts were filled with former Russian bureaucrats, and the regime was used by reaction­ ary elements to regain their lost positions in control of the land and the administration.12 T o many conservative Russians the Skoropadskii regime thus seemed to provide exactly what was needed: a base of operations, a curb on nationalistic separatism, and immediate and powerful foreign aid. To these same conservatives these features-of the German occu­ pation contrasted quite favorably with the procrastination of the Allies and their inclination to prefer liberals and socialists.13 More­ over, the Germans were interested in finding out what they had to offer, and German inquiries helped to stimulate a debate within antiBolshevik circles which led to a splitting of the latter into pro-Allied and pro-German factions. Among nonsocialist anti-Bolshevik circles the efforts to organize a

TH E IM P A C T O F GERM AN O CCU PATIO N

41

center of resistance had first resulted in the secret establishment in Moscow of a group of leaders of many shades of opinion who, origi­ nally known as the “deviatki,”subsequently took on the name of “Moscow Center.”It was basically a conservative-liberal coalition ini­ tially inspired by the efforts of the former minister of agriculture, A. V. Krivoshein. The declared object of the Center was to unite all nonsocialist elements for the struggle against the Bolsheviks. In addi­ tion to attracting to its organization numerous political leaders, it also fostered the formation of a military section for officer members.14 The somewhat Rightist inclination of this coalition, however, was unsatisfactory for the more liberal elements. Therefore, early in 1918, a second, or “Left,”Center was also founded to attract liberal Kadets, Right Socialist Revolutionaries, and Populist Socialists. This Left Center, which rejected outright any possibility of dealing with the Germans or of compromising with the Right even on grounds of a constitutional monarchy, was chiefly important as the forerunner of the “Union for Regeneration of Russia,”which became the leading spokesman for the anti-Bolshevik moderate Left.15 The Moscow Cen­ ter, meanwhile, failed to hold even the conservatives together when they clashed over the issue of foreign aid. The success of the Germans, together with the rather modest pros­ pects for Allied aid, had by the spring of 1918 led some members of the Moscow Center to raise the question of turning to the Germans for assistance, especially since after Brest it seemed to many that Ger­ many would win the war. The debate over this issue was sharp and long. Those in favor of a positive response to privately extended Ger­ man hints of support believed that the Germans could be persuaded to alter their Brest policy and install a conservative pro-German gov­ ernment in Moscow.16The opponents, of course, decried the allegedly devastating effects that a Germanophile course would have on the “national spirit,”held that Allied aid would be forthcoming and the eastern front re-established, and, perhaps most importantly, branded the Germanophile policy as monarchist, while the Allies were identi­ fied with “republicanism.”17 As the latter point illustrates, the division which occurred in this debate was not solely based on military considerations. Under the cir­ cumstances, it inevitably also assumed some of the features of a LeftRight split within the Moscow Center itself. Soon, however, even the pro-Allied liberal element was beginning to lose faith in the Allies, whose vacillation before Brest had been understandable but whose

42

The Volunteer Army

inaction since then provoked serious doubts. As a Kadet spokesman secretly warned Lockhart, even his party was on the verge of bolting to the enemy.18 Lockhart himself was now convinced that it was unlikely that the Bolsheviks would ever consent to Allied interven­ tion, and his reports to London recommended seizing the initiative quickly, and massively, so as not to lose the support of the major antiBolshevik parties. However, he was in no position to make any prom­ ises to his contacts and was indeed poorly informed of Allied plans for intervention.19 The Kadet Party itself retained a majority against dealing with the Germans at its conference in May, but the minority, especially those associated with the Kadet organization in Kiev, went ahead with plans to seek German aid.20Then in June the majority of the Moscow Center voted for dealing with the Germans, and the minority walked out. Despite the efforts of several influential members of the Center to prevent a schism, it came and brought with it an even further sharpening of differences. The Moscow Center itself broke up into a “Right”Center and a “ National” Center. The latter, largely com ­ posed of liberal Kadets, sought to establish closer links with the Allies, while the former, relieved of internal opposition, became the spokes­ man for the monarchist bloc and set about seeking an agreement with the Germans.21 The Rightist policy was explained to Russian Ambassador Maklakov in Paris as the product of difficult circumstances, of expediency, rather than of Germanophile inclinations. In truth it was a combina­ tion of both, but its spokesman wished to avoid alienating the Allies unduly if at the same time they could use German assistance. Thus, Prince G. N. Trubetskoi even tried to persuade French Consul Gen­ eral Grenard in Moscow that an arrangement with the Germans would actually be in the interest of the Allies in the long run, since the object was to restore order and a legitimate national authority in Russia. Grenard, however, rejected this argument and warned that no government installed by German hands would.be recognized by the Allies.22 Trubetskoi was not deterred by this rejection. On the contrary, he proceeded to establish contact with the German authorities in the Ukraine and brought word of a division in German opinion which provided hope for success but also required quick action. The German High Command, he reported, favored support for the reunification of Russia under a monarchy, but its position was opposed by the Foreign

TH E IM P A C T O F GERM A N O CCU PATIO N

43

Ministry, which advised continuing a policy of dismemberment which involved maintaining relations with the Bolshevik Russian govern­ ment as well as with existing governments in the South. It was, there­ fore, most important to impress the Germans with conservative strength as quickly as possible and thus sway the decision in favor of the High Command’ s point of view. The most obvious way to do this, in the eyes of Trubetskoi and those associated with his efforts, was to bring over to their side the one serious anti-German force in the South, the Volunteer Army.23 The result of this situation was that considerable pressure was then brought to bear on Alekseev to agree to accept German aid and dis­ card the Army’ s “idealistic”dedication to the Allies. The most no­ table, and effective, advocate of such a shift by the Volunteers, how­ ever, was not Trubetskoi’ s group, but a leader of the National Center, Paul Miliukov, one of the Army’ s closest political collaborators and, of course, previously one of the staunchest supporters of a pro-Allied policy. Miliukov had temporarily retired from public life in the spring of 1918, but visits from such persons as Trubetskoi, and his own obser­ vation of the advantages of cooperation with the Germans in Rostov, led him to take an active part in the effort to draw the Volunteer Army into an alliance with the Germans.24 In a remarkable correspondence with Alekseev during May and June, Miliukov revealed how far the disillusionment with Allied aid had gone.25 Although he himself had reached the conclusion that it was necessary to turn away from the Allies only after a “ deep struggle” with his own conscience, he wrote, he was now convinced that in such a reorientation lay Russia’ s one real hope. Facts, he declared, could not be ignored. The failure of the Allies to come to their aid in a sub­ stantial way had forced anti-Bolshevik leaders to turn to the Germans, whose support would make it possible to oust the Bolsheviks from power and restore unity to the country.26 Besides, he noted, reaction­ aries were already seeking to turn German aid to their own purposes, and if they succeeded they could destroy all hope of preventing a restoration of the old order and perhaps remove the one chance of establishing a constitutional government, even a constitutional mon­ archy on the British model.27 The Volunteer Army could not do any good to anyone by attacking the Germans, he argued, but it could serve not only Russia but the W est as well by using the Germans to destroy the Bolshevik menace which threatened them all. In any case, he concluded, the principle of rebus sic stantibus applied to the

44

The Volunteer Army

complete change in the situation which had come about since the alliance with Britain and France was signed and thus relieved the Army of any legal obligation in this regard.28 Despite the fact that Alekseev rejected the “ possibility of entering into negotiations and much less of concluding any sort of treaty or understanding” with the Germans and warned Miliukov that the Germans might even be setting a trap for him and the Army, Miliu­ kov went ahead with his plan to negotiate in Kiev.29 There on June 21 he had an interview with General Haase of the German Command. Haase expressed doubts about Miliukov’ s ability to speak for the Volunteer Army and about Germany’ s own willingness to give up its gains in the Brest treaty, but he was quite prepared to recommend further negotiations if Miliukov could assure strong support for a German alliance.30 Miliukov, indeed, not only gave such assurances but suggested that a “ popular” (narodnyi), or constitutional, mon­ archy would attract support from both the “republicans” (including the Volunteer commander, General Denikin, and his chief of staff, General Romanovskii) and the monarchists, because it would com ­ bine constitutional government with traditional forms. Even the com ­ mon people would support it if it restored unity and order, he declared, since they were tired of war and civil strife.31 In this conversation, Miliukov made it clear that he was advocating Russo-German cooperation on the basis of mutual need and not be­ cause of any other consideration. He therefore called not for an alli­ ance but simply for “friendly neutrality” and rejected the idea of direct German participation in Russian military operations, as for example through supplying instructors, which was a suggestion made earlier by Haase. Miliukov also refused to compromise on the question of the restoration of Russian borders before the Brest treaty, indicat­ ing that only the separation of Poland had been or could be recog­ nized by Russia. His firm principles, he declared, were “unity of citizenship, unity of territory, and sovereignty of the central organs.” With the possible exception of some special status for the Ukraine, he opposed the idea of federation, he told Haase, and indeed had believed all along that strong central government in a unitary state was essential to prevent chaos in Russia. For this reason he had pre­ ferred to see Grand Duke Mikhail Aleksandrovich take the throne of a constitutional monarchy rather than have the monarchy destroyed entirely. Now, he added, he believed that the best hope of Russia and the most rewarding policy for the Germans would be to support

TH E IM P A C T O F GERM A N O CCU PATIO N

45

the establishment of a constitutional monarchy under Mikhail, not as autocrat, but as chief of a popular monarchy. In a final remark intended to impress Haase with his sincerity, Miliukov recalled that he had, indeed, opposed the war with Germany from the start and had suffered some persecution from the tsarist government in 1914 because of his opposition. Haase appeared to be favorably impressed and asked Miliukov to remain available for future negotiations. However, Miliukov’ s claim that he represented the element favored by history to rebuild Russia did not subsequently impress Ambassador Mumm, who had just returned from Berlin with new instructions. Mumm maintained a tight-lipped scepticism toward Miliukov’ s arguments at their meeting on June 27. Evading references to General Haase’ s discussion with Miliukov earlier, he confined himself to declaring simply that the idea of restoring Russia’ s old borders would be rather “difficult”to imple­ ment and glumly remarking that Miliukov had a reputation for pro-Allied policies which put in question the degree of confidence Germany could place in persons like him.32 According to Miliukov, the very next day Mumm went to Skoropadskii and demanded that he, Miliukov, be expelled from the Ukraine for opposing Ukrainian independence and spreading anti-German propaganda.33 W hen later Miliukov once more spoke with Haase, the latter apparently had been instructed to reject any consideration of a revision of the Brest treaty and on that basis to end the talks. Having thought it over, the Ger­ mans had obviously decided to continue their policy of divide and rule.34 W hile Miliukov’ s effort thus accomplished little other than to do irreparable damage to his own reputation, it did serve to clarify Ger­ man policy. The Germans would continue to work with the Bolshe­ viks where Russia proper was concerned, and in fact now sought new agreements with the Soviet government which would result in the desired Russian renunciation of claims to territories occupied by Ger­ man troops, but they would also continue to work with the proGerman regional leaders of the dismembered South Russian territories. In particular they indicated an interest in the new Don ataman, General Krasnov. Unlike Miliukov, Krasnov had an army at his com­ mand. Through a combination of a new Cossack rising, some aid from the Volunteers in the Kuban, the arrival of a small force under Colo­ nel M. G. Drozdovskii from the old Rumanian front, the appearance of the Germans along the eastern boundary of the voisko, and Kras-

46

The Volunteer Army

nov’ s dynamic leadership, the Don had been rather quickly liberated from Bolshevik control in May. Krasnov had then rapidly assumed the powers of a virtual dictator of the Don state, which declared itself independent.35 Although German troops had occupied Rostov and Taganrog, both cities claimed by the Don, a delegation sent to see Krasnov soon after his election as ataman on May 16 found him quite amenable to cooperation. In fact he had already prepared an appeal to Germany for aid and was organizing a delegation of his own to be sent to Kiev to enter into relations with the German Command and with Skoropadskii. Krasnov’ s quick action and obvious desire to cooperate in order to obtain aid thus convinced the Germans that the Don could be used as a counterforce to the Volunteer Army and possibly even as a barrier to Allied efforts to reopen the eastern front, particularly if a truce could be maintained between the Don and the Bolsheviks.36 A Napoleonic figure, Krasnov made utmost use of both his pow­ ers as Don ataman and his flair for the dramatic. Upon assuming office, he immediately demonstrated his remarkable talent for being simultaneously pro-Russian and a border state nationalist, a monarch­ ist and a defender of the “ conquests of the revolution,”an ally of the Volunteer Army and a collaborator with the Germans. The contradic­ tions which he personified caused no little confusion and resentment, but no man of his day was more successful at being all things to all men. An extreme centralist at home, he favored decentralization to the point of federation for the future Russia which he would help restore. The staunch protector of “Cossack rights,”he was also the author of land reforms which would limit Cossack holdings and dis­ tribute confiscated lands to the peasants. W ith it all, this picturesque and dynamic leader not only evaded foreign occupation of the Don but gave it the unity and strength it had so lacked before—and that while others were still weak.37 Telling his Cossacks that the Germans had come “to help in the struggle against the Red Army bands and to restore law and order,” Krasnov hastily sent off to Kiev a Don delegation led by Generals M. A. Svechin and A. V. Cheriachukin to enter formal negotiations with the Germans and with Skoropadskii. For this delegation he set six major tasks: (1) to establish friendly relations, (2) to obtain arms and supplies for the Don army, (3) to get German and Ukrainian cooperation in the movement of Russian and Cossack officers and men to the Don, (4) to secure Ukrainian acceptance of Don claims

47

TH E IM P A C T O F GERM AN O CCU PATIO N

t o t h e T a g a n r o g d is tr i c t, ( 5 ) to r e s to r e ra ils a n d o t h e r m e a n s o f c o m ­ m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e tw o s ta te s , a n d

( 6 ) to e s ta b lis h t r a d e .38

W h e n t h e d e le g a tio n s h o r tly t h e r e a f t e r h e l d its firs t m e e t in g w ith t h e G e r m a n s , it f o u n d , o f c o u rs e , t h a t t h e l a t t e r also h a d c e r ta in a im s . I n p a r t i c u l a r th e y w a n t e d a g u a r a n t e e f r o m t h e D o n t h a t i t w o u ld

n o t in

a n y w a y s u p p o r t A llie d a c tiv itie s

in

R u s s ia , e i t h e r

d ir e c tl y o r in d i r e c t ly . T h i s m e a n t a b o v e all n o t a llo w in g D o n t e r r it o r y to b e u s e d in A llie d s c h e m e s f o r r e o p e n i n g t h e e a s t e r n f r o n t , a n d in th i s re g a r d , A m b a s s a d o r M u m m p o i n t e d o u t , i t w as i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e D o n t o c la r if y its p o s i ti o n vis-à-vis t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y . T h e G e r m a n C o m m a n d , s a id t h e c h ie f o f s ta ff, G e n e r a l G r o e n e r , r e q u i r e d d e f in ite a s s u r a n c e s t h a t a n y a r m s g iv e n to t h e D o n w o u ld n o t fa ll i n t o t h e h a n d s o f t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y “ w h ic h d o e s n o t w a n t to re c o g n iz e t h a t w e h a v e c o n c l u d e d p e a c e w ith R u s s ia a n d c o n ti n u e s t o c o n s id e r u s as its e n e m y .” I f a c le a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g w e re r e a c h e d o n th e s e m a t ­ te r s , G e n e r a l v o n E i c h h o r n i n f o r m e d K ra s n o v a fe w d ay s la te r , t h e G e r m a n s h o p e d to i n t e r e s t t h e D o n in p a r t ic i p a ti n g in its lo n g - ra n g e p l a n to e s t a b li s h a s e rie s o f la r g e i n d e p e n d e n t s ta te s o n t h e te r r it o r y o f t h e f o r m e r R u s s ia n E m p i r e . T h e U k r a in e a n d C e n t r a l R u s s ia w o u ld b e tw o s u c h s t a te s , a n d a t h i r d m i g h t b e a “ S o u th e a s te r n L e a g u e ” s i m i la r t o t h a t a t t e m p t e d e a r lie r in t h e C o s s a c k a re a s . K ra s n o v h im s e l f c o u ld h e a d s u c h a s t a t e if h e a g r e e d to p r o h i b i t t h e u s e o f its te r r it o r y b y a n y o u t s i d e fo rc e s o t h e r t h a n t h e G e r m a n s .39 I n r e p o r t i n g o n h is n e g o ti a ti o n s w i t h t h e G e r m a n s , G e n e r a l S v e c h in s tr o n g ly a d v is e d a c c e p t in g th e s e G e r m a n o ffe rs a n d t h e c o n d it io n s w h ic h a c c o m p a n ie d t h e m . H e t h e r e f o r e r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t t h e D o n h e n c e f o r t h “ r e f r a in fr o m e x p re s s in g a n y h o p e o f s e e in g R u s s ia u n i t e d ,” m a i n t a i n f r ie n d ly r e la tio n s w i t h t h e G e r m a n s , a n d “ h a v e n o r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p ” w i t h t h e A llie s , w h o th u s fa r, h e n o t e d , “ h a v e g iv e n u s n o t h i n g a n d in m a n y w ay s h a v e b e tr a y e d u s .” T h e D o n , h e b e lie v e d , s h o u l d d e c la r e its re a d in e s s to d e f e n d its o w n t e r r it o r y o n t h e te r m s s u g g e s te d b y t h e G e r m a n s a n d o ff e r “ a c o m m e r c ia l a g r e e m e n t w i t h G e r m a n y o n t h e b a sis o f t h e m o s t fa v o r e d n a t i o n p r i n c i p l e .” I n r e t u r n , t h e D o n c o u ld o b t a i n “ all n e c e s s a ry a r m s , s u p p lie s , a n d m i li ta r y e q u i p m e n t ,” s e t tl e its b o u n d a r y d is a g r e e m e n ts w ith K ie v a n d M o s c o w “ in a c c o r d ­ a n c e w i t h o u r a s p i r a ti o n s ,” a n d a s s u m e le a d e r s h i p o f “ a s ta b le o r g a n i­ z a ti o n o f t h e L e a g u e o f t h e S o u t h e a s t .” 40 I n a s e c o n d l e t t e r t o t h e G e r m a n e m p e r o r t h r e e w e e k s la te r , K ra s n o v in d i c a t e d h is w illin g n e s s t o f o llo w th i s a d v ic e . S a id t h e A ta m a n t o t h e K a is e r : t h e “ g lo r io u s D o n C o s s a c k s ” h a d f o u g h t “ f o r t h e f r e e d o m o f

The Volunteer Army

48

t h e i r c o u n t r y ” w ith a " c o u r a g e e q u a ll e d o n ly b y t h a t d is p la y e d in r e c e n t y ears in t h e w a r a g a in s t t h e E n g li s h b y a p e o p le o f G e r m a n i c s to c k , t h e B o e rs. . .

T h e D o n , h e c o n t i n u e d , w as a lr e a d y in t h e p r o ­

cess o f f o r m in g , o n " f e d e r a li s t” p r in c ip le s , a n " i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e c o n ­ s is tin g o f t h e G r e a t D o n V o is k o , t h e A s tr a k h a n V o is k o . . . , t h e T e r e k V o is k o , a n d t h e p e o p le s o f t h e N o r t h e r n C a u c a s u s .” T h e s e " p o w e r s ,” h e d e c la r e d , h a d " a lr e a d y g iv e n t h e i r c o n s e n t ” a n d h a d d e c id e d " t o b e n e u tr a l in t h e p r e s e n t i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n f l ic t .” T h e r e f o r e , w r o te K ra s n o v , h e w as r e q u e s tin g t h e E m p e r o r 's r e c o g n i ti o n o f b o t h t h e D o n a n d t h e " D o n o - C a u c a s i a n L e a g u e ” a n d h o p e d to re c e iv e G e r m a n s u p p o r t fo r D o n c la im s to T s a r i ts y n , K a m y s h in , a n d V o r o n e z h , in a d d i t i o n t o T a g a n r o g , a g a in s t t h e c la im s o f o th e r s .41 F in a lly , t h e A ta m a n a s k e d t h a t G e r m a n y " e x e r t p r e s s u r e o n t h e S o v ie t a u th o r it ie s in M o s c o w ” to e v a c u a te D o n t e r r it o r y a n d r e f r a in f r o m f u r t h e r a tta c k s . T o h e l p s e c u r e t h e D o n , h e a ls o h o p e d t h a t G e r ­ m a n y w o u ld n o t o n ly g r a n t i t " c a n n o n , rifles, a m m u n i t i o n , a n d s u p ­ p l i e s ” b u t a lso , if i t sa w fit, " s e t u p in D o n te r r it o r y f a c to r ie s f o r t h e m a n u f a c t u r e ” o f th e s e th i n g s . I n r e t u r n f o r a ll th is , t h e D o n w o u ld " o b s e r v e s t r i c t n e u t r a l i t y in t h e W o r l d W a r . . . a n d g r a n t t o G e r m a n y t h e e x c lu s iv e r i g h t to e x p o r t fo o d s tu ff s a n d ra w m a t e r i a ls ” in a d d i t i o n to " s p e c ia l p riv ile g e s in in v e s tin g c a p ita l in D o n in d u s tr i e s a n d in d e v e lo p in g n e w e n te r p r i s e s .” S u c h a n a r r a n g e m e n t , K ra s n o v b e lie v e d , w o u ld b e " c e r ta i n to b r i n g m u t u a l b e n e f i ts ,” a n d t h e i r f r ie n d s h i p , " c e m e n t e d in b lo o d s h e d o n c o m m o n b a tt le f ie l d s ,” w o u ld s t r ik e a m a j o r b lo w " a g a i n s t o u r c o m m o n e n e m ie s . . . .” K ra s n o v s u b s e q u e n tly to o k s te p s to i m p l e m e n t t h e s e c la im s a n d p ro m is e s , fo r e x a m p le b y in v i ti n g r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s t o a f o u n d i n g c o n ­ g ress in N o v o c h e r k a s s k a n d p r e s e n tin g a p r o p o s e d c o n s t i t u t i o n f o r t h e le a g u e r e f e r r e d to in t h e l e t t e r .42 K ra s n o v 's e ff o rts w e re o f l i t t l e e ff e c t, h o w e v e r, s in c e t h e o t h e r " m e m b e r s ” o f t h e le a g u e fa ile d to a c c e p t t h e id e a a f t e r G e n e r a l D e n i k i n c a m e o u t a g a in s t it .43 N e v e r th e l e s s , h is n e w G e r m a n a llie s a c c e p t e d h is w o rk as c o n v in c i n g a n d s u p p l ie d c o n s i d e r ­ a b le q u a n t i t i e s o f m i li ta r y a id . T h r o u g h t h e G e r m a n e n v o y in t h e D o n , M a j o r C o c h e n h a u s e n , a g r e e m e n ts w e re e n t e r e d p r o v i d in g fo r c u r r e n c y e x c h a n g e , m i li ta r y e q u i p m e n t in r e t u r n fo r g r a in , a n d t e n t a ­ tiv e p la n s fo r j o i n t m i li ta r y a c ti o n if t h e n e e d a ro s e . T h e l a t t e r n e v e r m a t e r ia liz e d , b u t r e p o r te d l y d u r i n g t h e s u m m e r o f 1918 a lo n e t h e G e r m a n s s u p p l ie d t h e D o n w i t h 11,651 rifles, 4 6 c a n n o n s , 8 8 m a c h i n e g u n s , 1 0 9 ,1 0 4 r o u n d s o f a r tille r y s h e lls , a n d 1 1 ,5 9 4 ,7 2 1 r o u n d s o f rifle a m m u n i t i o n . 44

49

TH E IM P A C T O F GERM A N O CCU PATION

F o r t h e m o s t p a r t t h e G e r m a n s a p p e a r to h a v e t r i e d to s ta y o u t o f t h e q u e s t i o n o f r e l a ti o n s b e tw e e n K ra s n o v a n d t h e B o ls h e v ik s , b u t in so f a r as t h e y d id b e c o m e in v o lv e d th e y a t t e m p t e d to p la y o n e a g a in s t t h e o t h e r a n d h o p e d to u s e b o t h a g a in s t t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y a n d t h e A llie s. T h u s in a m e e t i n g b e tw e e n G e r m a n r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s a n d a d e le g a tio n o f R ig h t is t s in M o s c o w o n J u ly 21, t h e

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d e c la r e d t h a t G e r m a n c o o p e r a t io n w i t h K ra s n o v w as a im e d a t a c ti o n a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s ,45 b u t in a n o t e o n A u g u s t 2 7 t o S o v ie t A m b a s ­ s a d o r Io ffe , G e r m a n F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r v o n H i n t z e i n d i c a t e d t h a t b o t h G e r m a n a n d B o ls h e v ik fo rc e s s h o u l d d o a ll p o s s ib le to s u p p r e s s t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y a n d , in c o n s i d e r a t io n f o r s u c h c o o p e r a t io n , G e r m a n y w o u ld s u p p o r t S o v ie t c la im s to t h e D o n e t s b a s in a n d w o u ld r e q u ir e th e

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n a t u r a l r e s o u rc e s ( i r o n o r e a n d m a n g a n e s e in p a r t i c u l a r ) . I n re p ly t h e B o ls h e v ik s i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e y u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h e G e r m a n s w o u ld a ls o s e e t o i t t h a t K ra s n o v d id n o t u n d e r t a k e m i li ta r y a c ti o n a g a in s t B o ls h e v ik - h e ld t e r r it o r y . L a t e r S o v ie t F o r e i g n C o m m is s a r C h i c h e r i n w ir e d t h e U k r a in i a n B o ls h e v ik le a d e r , R a k o v s k ii, t h a t t h e G e r m a n E m b a s s y h a d i n f o r m e d h i m c o n f i d e n ti a ll y o f “ s te p s b y v o n H i n t z e w i t h K r a s n o v in o r d e r t o is o la te t h e V o l u n t e e r s , w i t h w h o m i t w ill t h e n b e e a s ie r t o d e a l.” 46 I n a c c e p t i n g G e r m a n a id , K ra s n o v , o f c o u rs e , e n c o u n t e r e d s t r o n g o p p o s i t i o n f r o m t h e V o l u n t e e r C o m m a n d , e s p e c ia lly fr o m G e n e r a l D e n i k i n . I t w as t r u e t h a t t h e m a j o r i ty o f t h e o fficers o f t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y w e re c o n s e r v a tiv e in o u tl o o k , a n d t h e r e w as e v e n a fa irly s t r o n g G e r m a n o p h i l e t e n d e n c y a m o n g t h e m , b u t G e n e r a l D e n i k i n u s e d h is p o s i ti o n as c o m m a n d e r t o p r e v e n t t h e id e n t if ic a t io n o f t h e A r m y w i t h e i t h e r a m o n a r c h i s t o r a p r o - G e r m a n p o lic y . T o h is m i n d , t h e A rm y c o u ld n o t b e a llo w e d t o b e c o m e t h e “ a g e n t o f a n y o n e p o li ti c a l p a r t y o r p u b l i c o r g a n i z a t i o n ” p re c is e ly b e c a u s e it w as t h e A r m y o f t h e R u s ­ s ia n s t a te . B e s id e s , as a m a n o f m o d e r a t e lib e r a l v ie w s, h e w as c o n ­ v in c e d t h a t a m o n a r c h i s t p o lic y w a s b o t h u n d e s i r a b le a n d u n p o p u l a r a m o n g t h e p e o p le g e n e r a lly . H e a ls o c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e A r m y ’s d u t y to sa v e R u s s ia w as in s e p a r a b ly b o u n d u p w ith lo y a lty to t h e A llie d c a u s e , n o t o n ly b e c a u s e o f p a s t c o m m i t m e n t s b u t a ls o b e c a u s e o f G e r ­ m a n s u p p o r t f o r t h e B o ls h e v ik s o n t h e o n e h a n d a n d f o r d is m e m b e r ­ m e n t o f R u s s ia , m a n i f e s t e d in t h e b a c k in g o f s e p a r a ti s t r e g im e s in t h e U k r a in e , G e o r g ia , a n d t h e D o n , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d . C o o p e r a t i o n w ith t h e G e r m a n s , in D e n i k i n ’s v ie w , o ff e re d l i t t l e p r o s p e c t fo r e i t h e r d e f e a t i n g t h e B o ls h e v ik s o r r e u n i t i n g R u s s ia . T h e r e f o r e , in h is o p in i o n

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t h e p o lic ie s o f K ra s n o v , ju s t as t h o s e o f S k o ro p a d s k ii, b o r d e r e d o n tr e a s o n to t h e “ O n e R u s s ia ” w h ic h h e w as p le d g e d to d e f e n d , a n d w h ic h h e b e lie v e d t h e A llie s w o u ld a lso d e f e n d . A l t h o u g h h e , t o o , w as d is a p p o in t e d w ith A llie d a c ti o n t h u s fa r, h e w o u ld n o t a c c e p t t h e a lt e r n a t iv e r e p r e s e n te d b y K ra s n o v .47 K ra s n o v r e p e a te d ly a p p e a l e d to D e n i k i n

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e ffo rts , a n d e s p e c ia lly to a id in h is a t t e m p t t o ta k e T s a r i ts y n f r o m t h e B o ls h e v ik s , b u t h e r e f u s e d to s u b o r d i n a t e h im s e l f to D e n i k i n fo r t h e sa k e o f a u n if ie d c o m m a n d o r to r e l in q u i s h h is “ s e p a r a t i s t ” p r o - G e r ­ m a n p o lic ie s . D e n ik in in t u r n r e f u s e d to a c c e p t a n y t h i n g less as a b a s is fo r j o i n t a c ti o n , a n d as a r e s u lt e a c h w e n t h is o w n w ay . T h e V o l u n ­ te e r s t u r n e d t h e i r o p e r a t io n s to t h e s o u t h , firs t to c le a r o u t t h e K u b a n a n d t h e n to m o v e to w a r d t h e C a u c a s u s M o u n t a i n re g io n , a c a m p a ig n w h ic h w as to la s t t h r o u g h t h e s u m m e r a n d i n t o t h e a u t u m n . 48 I t w o u ld b e in c o r r e c t to say, h o w e v e r, t h a t th e r e w as n o c o o p e r a t io n b e tw e e n t h e D o n a n d t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y , fo r i t w as in d e e d t h e D o n w h ic h s u p p l ie d t h e V o l u n t e e r s w ith m u c h o f t h e i r a r m s a n d e q u i p m e n t d u r i n g th i s t i m e . 49 A l t h o u g h s u c h a t r a n s f e r o f s u p p lie s w as c o n tr a r y to h is a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e G e r m a n s , K r a s n o v e x p la i n e d h is a c ti o n w ith a s a r c a s tic q u i p a im e d as m u c h a t D e n i k i n as a t t h e G e r m a n s : “ I w a s h t h e m in t h e c le a r w a te rs o f t h e S i l e n t D o n a n d p r e s e n t t h e m c le a n to t h e A rm y o f t h e D o n a n d t o t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y .” 50 #

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T h e g r e a t su c c e s s o f t h e G e r m a n s in S o u th R u s s ia , a n d t h e i r s i m u l ­ ta n e o u s o ffe n s iv e o n t h e w e s te r n f r o n t w h ic h r e a c h e d to w i t h i n f o r ty m ile s o f P a ris , m a d e i t a ll t h e m o r e im p e r a t iv e f o r t h e A llie s t o d o s o m e th i n g m o r e s u b s ta n ti a l to r e s to r e t h e e a s t e r n f r o n t. T h u s a t t h e s a m e ti m e t h a t s o m e d is illu s io n e d R u s s ia n c o n s e r v a tiv e s , a n d e v e n lib e ra ls , w e re t u r n i n g to t h e G e r m a n s fo r a id , A llie d a g e n ts w e re e s t a b ­ lis h in g c lo s e r r e la tio n s w ith t h e s o c ia lis ts a n d la y in g p la n s fo r f u r t h e r i n t e r v e n t io n . C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f m o r e e x te n s iv e A llie d a c ti o n h a d , n o ­ ta b ly , b e e n g r e a tly s t i m u l a t e d in M a y b y t h e ris in g o f a c o rp s o f C z e c h tr o o p s in R u s s ia . D u r in g t h e w a r c e r t a in m i n o r i ty n a ti o n a li ti e s , c h ie fly S lav s, r e s i d e n t in R u s s ia h a d b e e n p e r m i t t e d t o fo r m s e p a r a te , a n d g e n e r a lly s m a ll, m ilita r y u n it s w h ic h w e re u s e d p r im a r ily fo r r e c o n n a is s a n c e a n d s i m i la r d u tie s . O n e s u c h u n i t w as t h e C z e c h D r u z i n a w h ic h h a d b e e n f o r m e d a f t e r m u c h d e la y , r e s u lti n g fr o m i n t e r n a l riv a lrie s a n d h e s i t a t i o n o n t h e p a r t o f t h e R u s s ia n F o r e i g n M i n is t r y , a n d in m id -1 9 1 6 th i s u n i t h a d b e g u n r e c r u it in g C z e c h p r is o n e r s c a p t u r e d

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w i t h t h e A u s tr ia n a r m y o n t h e s o u t h w e s te r n f r o n t. I t w as n o t u n t i l a f t e r t h e M a r c h R e v o l u t i o n o f 1 9 1 7 , h o w e v e r , w h e n o b s ta c le s h a d b e e n c le a r e d a w a y b y t h e s u p p o r t o f M i li u k o v a n d K e re n s k ii f o r t h e p r o j e c t, t h a t t h e D r u z in a , l a t e r c a lle d t h e C z e c h L e g io n , h a d b e c o m e a s i g n if i c a n t m i li ta r y o r g a n i z a ti o n . F r o m

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t h e l e a d e r s h i p a n d r e o r g a n iz a t io n o f t h e L e g io n h a d b e e n ta k e n o v e r d ir e c tl y b y T o m a s M a s a r y k o n b e h a l f o f t h e C z e c h N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l in P a ris , a n d r e c r u it in g e x p e n s e s h a d b e e n a s s u m e d b y F r a n c e , w h e r e a s i m i la r C z e c h fo r c e w as a lr e a d y in b e in g u n d e r A llie d c o m m a n d .51 A fte r

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l a u n c h e d b y K e re n s k ii in J u ly 1 917, t h e L e g io n w as c o n c e n t r a t e d in t h e U k r a in e . T h e r e , a f t e r t h e B o ls h e v ik c o u p in N o v e m b e r , i t h a d in e v i ta b l y b e c o m e in v o lv e d in t h e lo c a l s i t u a t i o n d e s p i te M a s a ry k 's d e s ir e t o a v o id s u c h in v o l v e m e n t . C h ie f ly b e c a u s e o f t h e n e e d o f U k r a in i a n c o o p e r a t io n f o r p r o v is io n in g t h e tr o o p s , M a s a r y k h a d p e r ­ m i t t e d t h e L e g io n to b e c a s t in t h e ro le o f a lly o f t h e U k r a in i a n R a d a l a t e in N o v e m b e r , a n a c ti o n w h ic h c o in c i d e d w i t h m o u n t i n g A llie d i n t e r e s t in t h e U k r a in e . I n D e c e m b e r , t h e A llie d S u p r e m e C o u n c i l h a d o ffic ia lly d e s i g n a te d t h e L e g io n as a n A llie d fo rc e , a n d M a s a r y k h a d b e e n e n c o u r a g e d t o e m p l o y i t in t h e d e f e n s e o f t h e U k r a i n e .52 W i t h t h e s ig n in g o f a s e p a r a te p e a c e b e t w e e n G e r m a n y a n d t h e U k r a in e in F e b r u a r y 19 1 8 , h o w e v e r , M a s a r y k ’s a llia n c e w i t h t h e R a d a h a d la p s e d , a n d a d e c is io n h a d to b e m a d e as t o h o w t h e L e g io n w as t o r e s p o n d t o t h e B o ls h e v ik in v a s io n o f t h e U k r a in e a n d t h e a p p r o a c h i n g G e r m a n o c c u p a t io n . A t th i s p o i n t , G e n e r a l B e r t h e l o t , A llie d c o m m a n d e r in R u m a n i a , h a d p r o p o s e d t h e tr a n s f e r o f t h e L e g io n t o t h a t a re a to a id in its d e f e n s e a g a in s t t h e G e r m a n s , w h ile G e n e r a l A le k s e e v h a d re la y e d t h r o u g h G e n e r a l T a b o u i s a n a p p e a l t h a t i t b e s e n t to a id t h e D o n , t h e n b e i n g o v e r r u n b y t h e B o ls h e v ik s . A lth o u g h s y m p a th i z in g w i t h t h e l a t t e r b e c a u s e o f h is p a s t a s s o c ia tio n w ith A le k s e e v a n d K o rn ilo v , M a s a r y k r e j e c te d b o t h

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w o u ld p l u n g e t h e L e g io n i n t o h ig h l y p r e c a r io u s c ir c u m s t a n c e s w ith l i t t l e p r o s p e c t o f s u c c e s s .53 I n s t e a d h e h a d f o u n d i t e x p e d ie n t to t u r n t o t h e B o ls h e v ik s , n o w in v ir tu a l c o n tr o l o f t h e U k r a in e , fo r a n a g r e e ­ m e n t t o p e r m i t t h e e v a c u a t io n o f t h e L e g io n to t h e e a s t. A t t h e s a m e t i m e , M a s a r y k h a d o b t a i n e d A llie d a p p r o v a l f o r t h e w ith d r a w a l o f t h e L e g io n fr o m R u s s ia v ia V la d iv o s to k , a n d la t e in F e b r u a r y t h e F r e n c h m i li ta r y

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w ith S ta lin a n d T r o ts k ii h a d r e s u lte d in a g r e e m e n t in M a r c h f o r t h e p e a c e f u l e v a c u a tio n o f t h e C z e c h s w ith t h e i r a rm s a n d e q u i p m e n t , lo c a l B o ls h e v ik c o m m a n d e r s h a d in s is te d u p o n a n d g o t f r o m L e g io n o fficers a c o m m i t m e n t to s u r r e n d e r a c o n s id e r a b le p a r t o f t h e i r a rm s as c o n d it io n fo r p a ss a g e to t h e T r a n s s ib e r i a n ra ilw a y fr o m t h e U k r a in e . I n P e n z a , o n M a r c h 22 , 19 1 8 , t h e firs t i n c i d e n t o f o p e n c o n f lic t h a d o c c u r r e d w h e n t h e lo c a l s o v ie t a u th o r it ie s s t o p p e d t h e tr a in s c a rr y in g t h e C z e c h s a n d o r d e r e d t h e m to s u r r e n d e r t h e i r w e a p o n s . D u r i n g a le n g t h y d e la y a t th is p o i n t , t h e e ff o rts o f B o ls h e v ik a g it a to r s t o t u r n L e g io n s o ld ie rs a g a in s t t h e i r officers, p a r t ic u l a r ly a g a in s t t h e R u s s i a n o fficers s till a s s ig n e d to t h e sta ff, f u r t h e r i r r i t a t e d C z e c h t e m p e r s . A s e c o n d i n c i d e n t, t h e o n e u s u a lly c r e d i te d w ith s e t t i n g o ff a fu ll-s c a le r e v o lt b y t h e C z e c h s , o c c u r r e d in C h e li a b in s k o n M a y 14, w h e n a fig h t e r u p t e d b e tw e e n t h e C z e c h s a n d s o m e H u n g a r i a n p r is o n e r s o f w a r b e in g m o v e d to t h e w e s t, a n d t h e C z e c h s s e iz e d c o n t r o l o f t h e c ity . M o s c o w n o w o r d e r e d a c o m p l e te s u r r e n d e r o f a r m s b y t h e L e g io n , .a n d t h e l a t t e r re s o lv e d to d e fy th i s o r d e r a n d a n y o t h e r e f f o r t t o i n t e r ­ fe re w ith its m o v e m e n t. W i t h i n a fe w d ay s t h e y o u n g e r o ffic e rs o f t h e L e g io n h a d a s s u m e d fu ll c o n tr o l o f its a c tio n s a n d b e g a n a d e t e r ­ m i n e d c a m p a ig n to f ig h t t h e i r w a y to V la d iv o s to k a g a in s t w h a t t h e y n o w re g a r d e d as a j o i n t B o ls h e v ik - G e r m a n p l o t to d i s r u p t t h e i r p la n s to le a v e R u s s ia .55 T h e C z e c h fo rc e o f s o m e 6 0 ,0 0 0 m e n w as s o o n s t r u n g o u t t h e l e n g t h o f t h e T r a n s s ib e r i a n ra ilw a y , ta k i n g c o n tr o l o f t h e to w n s a lo n g t h e w a y in a n o p e n s tr u g g le w ith B o ls h e v ik a u th o r i t y . T h i s d e v e lo p ­ m e n t s u d d e n ly , “ as if b y m a g ic ” in C h u r c h i l l 's w o rd s , c h a n g e d t h e w h o le s i tu a t i o n a n d o p e n e d u p t h e q u e s t i o n o f a n e w a n t i - G e r m a n ( a n d a n ti- B o ls h e v ik ) f r o n t in t h e e a s t .56 T h e A llie s h a d in f a c t h a d v ir tu a lly n o t h i n g to d o w ith t h e C z e c h r e v o lt; b o t h A llie d o ffic e rs a n d R u s s ia n o fficers a t t a c h e d t o t h e L e g io n h a d a d v is e d a g a in s t i t .57 I n d e e d , t h e im m e d i a t e a im o f t h e re v o lt h a d b e e n t o e n a b le t h e L e g io n to g e t o u t o f R u s s ia as s o o n as p o s s ib le . Y e t t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e re v o lt c o u ld h a r d l y n o w b e ig n o r e d , p a r t ic u l a r ly s in c e a s p o n ­ ta n e o u s a llia n c e h a d im m e d i a te l y d e v e lo p e d o n t h e s p o t b e t w e e n t h e L e g io n a n d a n ti- B o ls h e v ik R u s s ia n e le m e n ts , c h ie fly S o c ia lis t R e v o ­ lu t io n a r ie s .

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a p p ro v a l fo r t h e L e g io n 's a c tio n s o n J u n e 2 7, t h e r e w e re n o A llie d p la n s fo r t h e L e g io n o t h e r t h a n its e v a c u a t io n .58 H o w e v e r , p r o p o s a ls fo r a n A llie d i n t e r v e n t i o n in t h e n o r t h w e re b e in g c o n s i d e r e d a t th i s ti m e , a n d th i s q u e s t io n w as n a tu r a ll y a f f e c te d b y t h e C z e c h a c ti o n

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a n d b y t h e r e s p o n s e o f t h e S o c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n a r i e s t o i t .59 A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e L e g io n ’s tr o u b le s w ith t h e B o ls h e v ik s , G e n ­ e ra l L a v e r g n e h a d s u g g e s te d r e r o u tin g t h e C z e c h fo rc e to A rk h a n g e ls k , a n d o n M a y 2 t h e o v e r b u r d e n e d A llie d le a d e r s h a d b e e n r e q u e s te d t o a p p r o v e th i s p r o p o s a l. B e c a u s e o f o b je c t io n s fr o m b o t h C le m e n c e a u a n d t h e C z e c h N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l , h o w e v e r, a c o m p r o m i s e p r o p o s a l w as a d o p t e d a c c o r d i n g to w h ic h o n ly a p a r t o f t h e L e g io n , t h a t s till in w e s te r n S ib e r ia , w as to b e r e r o u te d th r o u g h A rk h a n g e ls k . W h i l e t h e r e w as n o m e n t i o n o f u s in g t h e C z e c h f o r c e in s u p p o r t o f A llie d i n t e r v e n t i o n a t th i s p o i n t , t h e tw o id e a s n a tu r a ll y c o a le s c e d a f t e r t h e re v o lt. O n M a y 17 t h e B r itis h C a b i n e t , in a d e c is io n to r e in f o r c e t h e s m a ll n a v a l d e t a c h m e n t in M u r m a n s k , d is p a tc h e d G e n e r a l F . C . P o o le to r e c o n n o i t e r t h e a re a in t h e n o r t h f o r f u t u r e A llie d la n d in g s , a n d o n M a y 18 a B r it is h s u g g e s tio n to e m p lo y t h e C z e c h s as a n in t e r v e n ­ t i o n a r m y w as p u t t o t h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t f o r its c o n s i d e r a t io n .60 I t w as a t a b o u t th i s s a m e t i m e t h a t L o c k h a r t a n d L a v e rg n e c o n ­ f e r r e d w i t h t h e A llie d a m b a s s a d o r s in V o lo g d a a n d r e a c h e d a g r e e m e n t o n t h e n e c e s s ity o f a m a s s iv e a n d s w if t A llie d m i li ta r y i n t e r v e n t io n . A s L o c k h a r t r e p o r te d , a “ m o r e fa v o r a b le m o m e n t ” fo r s u c h a n i n t e r ­ v e n t i o n w o u ld n o t lik e ly re c u r , a n d d e la y , h e w a r n e d , w o u ld o n ly f u r t h e r d is illu s io n th o s e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik e le m e n ts w h o w e re r e a d y t o c o o p e r a t e , p a r t ic u l a r ly t h e s o c ia lis ts .61 T h e A llie d S u p r e m e C o u n c il d id , in d e e d , o n J u n e 3 g iv e a p p r o v a l to t h e n o r t h e r n in t e r v e n t i o n a f t e r t h e U n i t e d S ta te s h a d in d i c a t e d its w illin g n e s s to s u p p o r t th is o p e r a t i o n , a n d o n J u n e 23 t h e a d v a n c e p a r t y o f A llie d tr o o p s la n d e d a t M u r m a n s k , w i t h p la n s c a llin g fo r l a t e r la n d in g s in A r k h a n g e ls k .62 I t w as a n o t h e r m o n t h , h o w e v e r, b e f o r e t h e A llie d C o u n c i l fin a lly r e a c h e d a g r e e m e n t o n a la r g e r i n t e r v e n t i o n to e x t e n d i n t o S ib e r ia f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f e s t a b li s h in g a n e w e a s te r n f r o n t. M e a n w h il e t h e m a jo r d e v e l o p m e n t s h a p i n g c ir c u m s t a n c e s in R u s s ia w as t h e se rie s o f re v o lts s ta g e d b y t h e S o c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n a r i e s in Ju ly . T h e M u r m a n s k l a n d i n g a n d r u m o r s t h a t a m a j o r A llie d in v a s io n w as s c h e d u l e d f o r s o m e t i m e in J u ly h a d s t i m u l a t e d a c ti o n b y v a rio u s s o c ia lis t g r o u p s to p r e p a r e u p r is in g s a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s .63 T h e s o c ia lis ts d id n o t r e p r e s e n t a u n i t e d f r o n t a n y m o r e t h a n t h e c o n s e r v a ­ tiv e s , b u t t h e S o c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n a r y p a r t y h a d b e e n s h o w n b y e le c ­ ti o n s t o t h e C o n s t i t u e n t A s s e m b ly to h a v e a m a s s p o p u la r fo llo w in g u n m a t c h e d b y a n y o t h e r p a r t y .64 T h e d e c is io n o f t h e “ L e f t ” S o c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n a r i e s in N o v e m b e r t o e n t e r t h e B o ls h e v ik g o v e r n m e n t h a d s p l i t t h e p a r t y i n t o p ro - B o ls h e v ik a n d a n ti- B o ls h e v ik fa c tio n s , b u t b y

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t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 1 8 b o t h R i g h t a n d L e f t S o c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n a r i e s w e re p l o t t i n g a g a in s t t h e g o v e r n m e n t, t h e f o r m e r f r o m w i t h o u t a n d t h e l a t t e r f r o m w ith i n , a n d in b o t h cases o n a p l a t f o r m o f o p p o s i t i o n to t h e G e r m a n a llia n c e o f t h e B o ls h e v ik s .65 W h e n t h e A llie d S u p r e m e W a r C o u n c il d e c la r e d o n J u ly 2 t h a t “ p r a c tic a lly a ll e le m e n ts o f t h e R u s s ia n p o p u l a t i o n ” n o w a p p e a r e d w illin g t o s u p p o r t a n i n t e r v e n t i o n a g a in s t b o t h t h e B o ls h e v ik s a n d t h e G e r m a n s , its s t a t e m e n t t h e r e f o r e h a d s o m e b a sis in f a c t .66 T h e e v e n ts o f J u ly , h o w e v e r, il lu s tr a t e d a t o n c e b o t h t h e s t r e n g t h s a n d t h e w e a k n e s s e s o f t h e s o c ia lis t o p p o s i ti o n to t h e B o ls h e v ik s . O n J u ly 4 a n d 5, a t t h e o p e n in g se s s io n o f t h e F i f t h C o n g r e s s o f S o v ie ts , t h e L e f t S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r ie s , le d b y M a r ia S p ir id o n o v a , b i t t e r l y d e n o u n c e d t h e G e r m a n s a n d t h e B r e s t tr e a ty , a n d t h e fo llo w in g d a y t h e i r fo rc e s, in c l u d in g a p a r t o f t h e S o v ie t s e c u r ity p o lic e , b e g a n a re v o lt a g a in s t t h e g o v e r n m e n t b y a s s a s s in a tin g t h e G e r m a n a m b a s s a ­ d o r .67 D u r i n g th e s e s a m e d ay s, re v o lts b y R i g h t S o c ia lis t R e v o l u t i o n ­ a rie s u n d e r t h e le a d e r s h ip o f B o ris S a v in k o v w e re c a r r ie d o u t in s e v e ra l c itie s n o r t h a n d e a s t o f M o s c o w . M o r e o v e r , t h e S o c ia lis t R e v o l u t i o n ­ a ry m e m b e r s o f t h e d is b a n d e d C o n s t i t u e n t A s s e m b ly h a d n o w o r g a n ­ iz e d th e m s e lv e s in S a m a r a as a n e w “ a ll- R u s s ia n ” g o v e r n m e n t , a n d t h e a c ti n g c o m m a n d e r o f C z e c h tr o o p s in t h e a re a , G e n e r a l S. K . C e c e k , te m p o r a r ily a s s u m e d c o m m a n d o f b o t h R u s s ia n a n d C z e c h fo rc e s to f o r m t h e “ v a n g u a r d ” o f a n “ a n t i - G e r m a n f r o n t in R u s s ia in c o n j u n c t i o n w ith t h e w h o le R u s s ia n n a t i o n a n d o u r A llie s .” 68 W i t h t h e e x c e p t io n o f t h e S a m a r a g o v e r n m e n t, h o w e v e r , a ll o f t h e s e s o c ia lis t e ffo rts w e re s o o n s u p p r e s s e d b y t h e B o ls h e v ik s . A l t h o u g h a d v a n c e k n o w le d g e o f t h e p la n to la n d A llie d tr o o p s in A r k h a n g e ls k p la y e d a n i m p o r t a n t ro le , a n d A llie d a g e n ts e v e n r e p o r te d l y s u g g e s te d t h e J u ly ti m i n g , t h e s e u p r is in g s w e re n o t a c tu a lly c o o r d i n a t e d e i t h e r w ith e a c h o t h e r o r w i t h A llie d a c tio n s . T h e y w e re c e r t a in l y n o t s i m p l y t h e r e s u lt o f A llie d m a c h i n a ti o n s , fo r b o t h t h e R i g h t a n d t h e L e f t S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r ie s a c te d la rg e ly o n t h e i r o w n in i ti a ti v e . T o t h e e x t e n t t h a t th e y w e re re a lly in f lu e n c e d b y r u m o r s o f A llie d p la n s , t h e y w e re , as i t t u r n e d o u t , a c tu a lly m is le d , f o r th o s e r u m o r s d i d n o t a c c u r a te ly r e p r e s e n t A llie d p o lic y , e i t h e r o ffic ia lly o r u n o ff ic ia lly , in so f a r as t h e y s u g g e s te d a n i n t e n t i o n o f m o v in g a la r g e A llie d fo r c e i n t o t h e i n t e r i o r o f R u s s ia f r o m t h e n o r t h . 69 F in a l p la n s f o r A llie d in t e r v e n t i o n o n a s ig n if ic a n t sc a le w e r e n o t fu lly e la b o r a te d a n d a p p r o v e d b y t h e A llie d S u p r e m e W a r C o u n c i l u n t i l J u ly 2, a n d e v e n t h e n th e y w e re p a r t ia l ly c o n d i t i o n e d

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f u t u r e A m e r i c a n a c c e p t a n c e , w h ic h w as n o t c o n v e y e d to t h e A llie s u n t i l J u ly 1 7 .70 M o r e o v e r , t h e s e p la n s c a lle d fo r m a j o r a c ti o n n o t in t h e n o r t h b u t t h r o u g h V la d iv o s to k i n t o S ib e r ia . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , h o w e v e r , i t w o u ld n o t b e s u r p r is in g if t h e S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r ie s h a d b e e n m is le d o n t h e s e m a t te r s , f o r in d e e d t h e i r in f o r m e r s w e re r a t h e r p o o r ly i n f o r m e d th e m s e lv e s . E v e n L o c k h a r t , a c c o r d in g t o h is l a t e r a c c o u n t , e x p e c t e d a la r g e A llie d f o r c e t o l a n d a t A r k h a n g e ls k a n d m a r c h t o M o s c o w . I n fa c t, h o w e v e r, t h e A llie d l a n d i n g w h ic h fin a lly t o o k p la c e t h e r e o n A u g u s t 2, a f t e r a S o c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n a r y g o v e r n ­ m e n t h a d ta k e n p o w e r u n d e r N . V . C h a ik o v s k ii, w as n o t o n ly to o la t e t o b e c o o r d i n a t e d w ith t h e R u s s ia n u p r is in g s a r o u n d a n d in M o s c o w b u t a ls o w as so s m a ll ( a b o u t 150 0 m e n ) as to c o n s t i t u t e , in t h e v ie w o f t h e a s t o n is h e d L o c k h a r t , a “ b l u n d e r c o m p a r a b le w i t h t h e w o r s t m is ta k e s o f t h e C r i m e a n w a r ." 71 I t s h o u l d a ls o b e n o t e d , in c o n n e c t i o n w ith t h e la n d in g s in t h e n o r t h , t h a t t h e i m m e d i a t e ju s tif ic a tio n o f A llie d a c ti o n h a d n o t b e e n t h e p o s s ib ility o f re v o lts a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik r e g im e b u t t h e t h r e a t o f a G e r m a n a d v a n c e i n t o t h e a re a , p a r t ic u l a r ly th r o u g h F i n l a n d . T h e b r e a k d o w n o f t h e B r e s t n e g o ti a ti o n s l a t e in F e b r u a r y h a d fo llo w e d u p o n t h e o u t b r e a k o f c iv il w a r in F i n l a n d b e tw e e n R e d s a n d W h i t e s in J a n u a r y . T h e l a t t e r , u n d e r t h e le a d e r s h i p o f M a r s h a l C a r l G u s t a f M a n n e r h e i m , h a d b e e n r e in f o r c e d in F e b r u a r y b y G e r m a n - t r a i n e d F i n n i s h tr o o p s a n d s o m e G e r m a n o fficers. W h e n s o m e o f t h e W h i t e fo rc e s fo llo w e d r e t r e a t i n g R e d u n it s i n t o t h e a re a o f t h e M u r m a n s k ra ilw a y e a rly in M a r c h , b o t h A llie d a n d B o ls h e v ik a u th o r i t i e s h a d r e a c t e d w i t h a la r m . P o s s ib ly a ls o i n f o r m e d o f t h e d e c is io n o f t h e G e r ­ m a n H i g h C o m m a n d a t th i s t i m e to s e n d r e g u la r G e r m a n tr o o p s i n t o F i n l a n d , A llie d m i li ta r y a u th o r i t i e s h a d f e l t i t im p e r a t iv e t o a c t to b lo c k a n a n t i c i p a t e d e x te n s io n o f G e r m a n o p e r a t io n s i n t o n o r t h e r n R u s s ia t o se iz e t h e A llie d m i li ta r y s to re s th e r e . E v e n t h e B o ls h e v ik -le d M u r m a n s k s o v ie t h a d e x p e r ie n c e d p a n ic a t th i s p r o s p e c t a n d h a d d e c id e d t o c a ll u p o n t h e A llie s f o r h e lp . M o s t n o ta b l y , T r o t s k i i h i m ­ s e lf, fo llo w in g t h e p a t t e r n o f h is a c ti o n s a t th i s t i m e , h a d o n M a r c h 14 a d v is e d t h e M u r m a n s k s o v ie t t o “ a c c e p t a n y a n d a ll a s s is ta n c e f r o m t h e A llie d m is s i o n s ’' in o r d e r to s t o p t h e e x p e c t e d in v a s io n .72 I t h a d t h u s b e e n o n th i s b a sis t h a t A llie d la n d in g s h a d t a k e n p la c e firs t in M a r c h a n d t h e n m o r e s u b s ta n ti a ll y in J u n e in M u r m a n s k . B y t h e t i m e t h e l a t t e r l a n d i n g w as c a r r ie d o u t , h o w e v e r, t h e S o v ie t g o v ­ e r n m e n t h a d b e c o m e a la r m e d a t A llie d a c tio n s , h a d c o m e u n d e r p r e s ­ s u r e f r o m t h e G e r m a n s t o re s is t A llie d i n t e r v e n t i o n o r risk r u p t u r e o f

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r e la tio n s a n d r e p u d i a ti o n o f t h e B r e s t tr e a ty , a n d h a d c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e A llie s i n t e n d e d to u se t h e C z e c h s a n d a n ti- B o ls h e v ik R u s s i a n e le ­ m e n t s to s ta g e a m a jo r in t e r v e n t i o n a im e d a t t h e o v e r t h r o w o f t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t. A s h a s b e e n im p lie d , t h e s u b s e q u e n t , a n d s o m e ­ w h a t h a p h a z a r d , e x p a n s io n o f A llie d i n t e r v e n t i o n p la n s h a d t a k e n p la c e w i t h o u t c a re f u l c o n s i d e r a t io n o f t h e i r e ffe c ts in R u s s ia . T h e a im , in so fa r as t h e A llie d m i li ta r y p la n n e r s w e re c o n c e r n e d , w as s till to f r u s tr a te G e r m a n p la n s , a n d f o r th i s p u r p o s e to li n k u p w i t h t h e C z e c h s a n d u lt im a te l y e s ta b lis h a n e w e a s t e r n f r o n t f r o m A r k h a n g e ls k t o t h e V o lg a a n d s o u t h w a r d . B y t h e t i m e t h e A r k h a n g e ls k la n d i n g s h a d ta k e n p la c e in A u g u s t, o f c o u rs e , s u c h a c ti o n c o u ld n o l o n g e r b e b a s e d u p o n e v e n a t a c i t a g r e e m e n t w ith t h e B o ls h e v ik s ( e i t h e r lo c a lly o r a t t h e c e n t e r ) b u t o n t h e c o n tr a r y in v o lv e d o v e r t h r o w in g loca? B o ls h e v ik a u t h o r i t y a n d ig n o r in g t h e p r o t e s ts o f t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n ­ m e n t . N e v e r th e le s s , t h e p o i n t r e m a in s t h a t t h e A llie s b y t h e s e a c ti o n s h a d n o t p r e p a r e d th e m s e lv e s t o m a r c h o n M o s c o w w i t h o v e r w h e lm ­ in g fo r c e b u t r a t h e r to i n t r o d u c e a r e la tiv e ly s m a ll n u m b e r o f tr o o p s in o r d e r to e s ta b lis h a li n k th r o u g h t h e n o r t h w i t h t h e S ib e r ia n f r o n t . T h i s in t e r v e n t i o n b y t h e A llie s h a d , a t t h e s a m e ti m e , in e v i ta b l y le d to a fin a l b re a k o f f o f c o n ta c ts w i t h t h e B o ls h e v ik s . O n A u g u s t 4 b o t h t h e B r itis h a n d F r e n c h c o n s u la te s in M o s c o w w e re r a id e d , a n d t h e i r staffs w e re a r r e s te d . F o r a t i m e L o c k h a r t a n d h is a s s is t a n t, H ic k s , w e re e x c e p te d fr o m th i s w h o le s a le a c ti o n , b u t fo llo w in g a n a t t e m p t o n L e n in 's life b y a S o c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n a r y o n A u g u s t 30, b o t h w e re a d d e d to t h e B o ls h e v ik s ' c o lle c tio n o f h o s ta g e s . T h e “ L o c k h a r t P l o t " t h e n b e c a m e t h e t h e m e o f B o ls h e v ik p r o p a g a n d a w h ic h n o w b r a n d e d h im , in T r o ts k ii 's w o rd s , as a “ to o l u s e d b y t h e B r it is h g o v e r n m e n t to k e e p t h e B o ls h e v ik s q u i e t w h ile it w as p r e p a r in g a n a n ti- B o ls h e v ik c o u p ." 73 T h e A llie d P o w e rs th e m s e lv e s s till v ie w e d t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n as a p a r t o f t h e w a r a g a in s t G e r m a n y a n d h e r a llie s , b u t t h e B o ls h e v ik s w e re n o w d e f in ite ly c o n s i d e r e d o n e o f t h e la t te r . O n A u g u s t 2 7 f o r m a l s u p p l e m e n t s to t h e B r e s t t r e a t y w e re s ig n e d , g iv in g G e r m a n y c o n tr o l o v e r t h e o c c u p ie d B a lt ic t e r r it o r i e s a n d p r o ­ v id in g fo r t h e r e c o g n i ti o n o f G e o r g ia b y t h e G e r m a n g o v e r n m e n t . T h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n c l u d e d a n in f o r m a l a g r e e m e n t t h a t t h e T u r k s w o u ld b e k e p t o u t o f B a k u a n d its o il re s e rv e d f o r S o v ie t a n d G e r m a n u se a lo n e .74 A G e r m a n m i li ta r y m is s io n h a d a lr e a d y b e e n d is p a t c h e d in J u ly v ia A s tr a k h a n to w o rk o u t t h e d e ta ils w ith S h a u m i a n . D u r i n g J u ly a n d A u g u s t t h e G e o r g ia n s a ls o e n t e r e d a d d i t i o n a l a g r e e m e n ts

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w i t h G e r m a n i n d u s tr i a l firm s f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f j o i n t ( 5 0 - 5 0 ) s t o c k c o m p a n i e s w i t h m o n o p o l y r ig h ts in t h e e x p lo i ta t io n o f m a n g a ­ n e s e a n d t h e u s e o f t h e ra il h e a d s s e r v in g t h e m in e s , a n d a r r a n g e m e n t s w e re m a d e f o r lo a n s to G e o r g ia th r o u g h G e r m a n b a n k s . A s o n e o f t h e G e o r g ia n d e le g a te s in B e r lin d e s c r ib e d it, t h e G e r m a n s ‘'r u s h e d p a s s io n a te ly to a ll t h e s to c k s , u n d e r g r o u n d ric h e s , all t h e p o s s ib ili­ tie s w h ic h h a d s u d d e n l y a p p e a r e d ” w ith t h e b r e a k in g o f t h e A llie d b lo c k a d e .75 A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e G e r m a n C o m m a n d in K ie v to o k s te p s to h e a d o ff t h e r u m o r e d p o s s ib ility t h a t t h e A llie s w o u ld s o o n h a v e t h e e a s t e r n f r o n t r e o p e n e d as fa r s o u t h as T s a r i ts y n . H a v in g f o u n d t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y u n a lt e r a b l y o p p o s e d to a n y d e a lin g s m o r e c o o p e r a ­ tiv e t h a n “ a r m e d n e u t r a l i t y , ” th e y d e c id e d to p e r m i t t h e f o r m a ti o n o f n e w R u s s ia n fo rc e s in t h e U k r a in e , w ith t h e h o p e o f s p l in t e r in g e v e n f u r t h e r t h e e ff o rts to o r g a n iz e id le R u s s ia n officers in t o a s in g le fo r c e a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e w i t h a v ie w to d e v e lo p in g u n it s w h ic h m i g h t u l t i m a t e l y b e u s e d a g a in s t t h e A llie d f r o n t o n t h e V o lg a .76 F r o m m i d - J u n e th e y t h e r e f o r e s u p p r e s s e d t h e r e c r u i t m e n t o f tr o o p s fo r t h e V o l u n t e e r s in t h e U k r a in e a n d c o n t r i b u t e d f u n d s to f in a n c e t h e o r g a n i z a ti o n o f n e w “ a r m ie s ” t h e r e , n o t f o r t h e U k r a in e n o ta b l y , b u t i n d e p e n d e n t o f U k r a in i a n a u th o r i t y . E v e n tu a l ly t h r e e s u c h

ra th e r

m o t le y a r m ie s w e re f o r m e d u n d e r m o n a r c h is t b a n n e r s , w i t h G e r m a n m o n e y , G e r m a n a r m s , a n d G e r m a n p u r p o s e s b e h i n d t h e m , a n d all t h r e e u l t i m a t e l y w o u n d u p u n d e r K ra s n o v 's c o n tr o l, a f t e r h e h a d p r o m is e d t h e G e r m a n s sp e c ific a lly n o t to a llo w t h e C z e c h s to e n t e r D o n te r r it o r y if t h e y s h o u l d m o v e s o u t h .77 T h e o n ly re a l e ff e c t o f th i s w as to a d d a fe w t h o u s a n d tr o o p s t o K r a s n o v 's g r o w in g fo rc e s a n d e x te n d h is d o m a i n . H e , in e ffe c t, a d d e d t h e V o r o n e z h a n d S a ra to v d is tr ic ts t o t h e D o n in A u g u s t b y is s u in g o r d e r s n a m i n g t h e c o m m a n d e r s o f tw o o f t h e n e w a rm ie s , t h e “ S o u t h ­ e r n A r m y ” a n d t h e “ R u s s ia n N a t i o n a l A r m y ,” as m ilita r y g o v e rn o r s o f th e s e d is tr i c ts u n d e r t h e D o n C o m m a n d . L a te r h e c o n v e r t e d a ll t h r e e o f t h e a r m ie s i n t o c o rp s o f t h e D o n a rm y , jo in tly f o r m in g o f th e m a s o - c a lle d “ S o u t h R u s s ia n A r m y ” u n d e r G e n e r a l N . I. Iv a n o v .78 N o t a ll o f K r a s n o v 's p la n s c o u ld b e re a liz e d , b u t h e c o n t i n u e d t o m a i n ­ ta i n h is G e r m a n tie s a n d , i n d e e d , b r o a d e n e d h is a c tiv itie s to e s ta b lis h re la tio n s w ith t h e “ B e lo r u s s ia n P e o p le 's R e p u b l i c ,” w ith t h e P o le s , t h e B u lg a r ia n s , a n d e v e n t h e T u r k s .79 W h e n t h e firs t fu ll K ru g ( “ G r e a t ” V o is k o K r u g ) b e g a n m e e t in g o n A u g u s t 28 , t h e r e w as c o n s i d e r a b l e c ir tic is m o f K ra s n o v 's p o lic ie s

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a m o n g t h e d e le g a te s , a n d t h e p r o - V o l u n t e e r a n d p r o - A llie d e l e m e n t h a d c le a rly g ro w n in s t r e n g t h . T h e f u t u r e p r o s p e c t o f A llie d i n t e r v e n ­ ti o n th e r e f o r e p la y e d a m a j o r ro le in t h e K r u g ’s d e li b e r a t io n , e s p e c ia lly in v ie w o f t h e o b v io u s d is a d v a n ta g e s t h a t K r a s n o v ’s l e a d e r s h i p w o u ld p o s e , b u t t h e risk o f im m e d i a te G e r m a n r e t a li a ti o n a n d t h e d a n g e r o f in t e r n a l d is u n it y w h ic h K r a s n o v ’s d e f e a t w o u ld e n t a i l le d t h e K r u g to a p p r o v e K r a s n o v ’s f o r e ig n p o lic y a n d k e e p h i m in p o w e r .80 D e s p i t e a t h r e a t f r o m t h e G e r m a n r e p r e s e n ta t iv e , M a j o r v o n C o c h e n h a u s e n , h o w e v e r, t h e K ru g a ls o d e c la r e d its “ fe e lin g s o f a d m i r a t i o n ” f o r t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y .81 O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , r e la tio n s w i t h i t w e re b o u n d t o r e m a in d if fic u lt as lo n g as t h e G e r m a n s w e re p r e s e n t. K r a s n o v a n d D e n ik in c o n t i n u e d to c la s h , a n d in f a c t t h e i r d if fe re n c e s t e n d e d t o in c r e a s e r a t h e r t h a n d im in i s h .82 T h e A llie s h o p e d to c o u n t e r th e s e G e r m a n m e a s u r e s , a n d m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y t o u n if y t h e a n ti-B o ls h e v ik s , b y p r o m o t i n g t h e e s t a b l i s h ­ m e n t o f a n a ti o n a l g o v e r n m e n t w h ic h c o u ld ra lly a ll R u s s ia n fo rc e s u n d e r a lib e r a l p r o g r a m . T h e e f f o r t o f t h e S o c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n a r y c o m ­ m i t t e e in S a m a r a to fo r m s u c h a n a ll-R u s s ia n g o v e r n m e n t t h e r e f o r e a t t r a c t e d c o n s id e r a b le a t t e n t i o n a n d ra is e d h o p e s t h a t i t w o u ld s u p p l y t h e b a sis fo r a u n if ic a tio n o f p ro - A llie d a n d a n ti- B o ls h e v ik e le m e n t s a ll t h e w a y f r o m A r k h a n g e ls k to S o u th R u s s ia . G e n e r a l A le k s e e v , w h o s e n a m e h a d fig u re d in A llie d p la n s o n se v e ra l o c c a s io n s , h a d a lr e a d y b e e n c o n t a c t e d a g a in in J u n e b y G e n e r a l L a v e rg n e , w h o u r g e d h i m t o g o to S a m a r a to a s s u m e “ le a d e r s h i p o f a ll tr o o p s o p e r a t i n g a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s .” I n re p ly in g t o th is , h o w e v e r, A le k s e e v , w h ile e x p r e s s in g in t e r e s t in t h e id e a , c o n d i t i o n e d h is a c c e p t a n c e o n t h e r e b e i n g “ n o d iv is io n o f a u t h o r i t y ” in t h e f o r m o f a “ d i r e c t o r a t e ” ( t h e f o r m fa v o r e d b y t h e S o c ia lis t R e v o l u t i o n a r i e s ) , n o r e s tr i c ti o n s o n h is a u t h o r i t y as m ilita r y c o m m a n d e r , a n d n o s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o A llie d a u t h o r i t i e s .83 A le k s e e v ’s c o n d it io n s w e n t r i g h t t o t h e h e a r t o f t h e p r o b l e m s c o n ­ ta i n e d in t h e p la n t o p r o m o t e t h e S a m a r a g o v e r n m e n t as a n

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R u s s ia n g o v e r n m e n t. D e s p i t e A llie d s u p p o r t , i t c o u ld n o t a t t r a c t a s ig n if ic a n t f o llo w in g a m o n g m i li ta r y a n d n o n s o c i a li s t c irc le s . I t s s o c ia l­ is t m e m b e r s h i p h e l d firm ly t o t h e b e li e f t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t m u s t b e a c o lle c tiv e d i r e c to r a te r a t h e r t h a n a d ic t a t o r s h i p , a l t h o u g h i t w a s a c k n o w le d g e d t h a t a ll t h e a r m e d fo rc e s s h o u l d b e u n i t e d u n d e r o n e c o m m a n d e r . T h e m o r e c o n s e r v a tiv e e le m e n ts , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w e r e c o n v in c e d t h a t t h e s o c ia lis t a p p r o a c h h a d a lr e a d y p r o v e d t o b e a f a ta l w e a k n e s s a n d t h a t o n ly a s t r o n g s in g le l e a d e r c o u ld e x e r t t h e a u t h o r i t y n e c e s s a ry to t h e s tr u g g le .84 M o r e o v e r , d u r i n g J u ly a riv a l g o v e r n m e n t

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w as e s t a b li s h e d in O m s k w h ic h r e j e c te d t h e S a m a r a g o v e r n m e n t's c la im s a n d o f f e r e d i n s te a d a m o r e c o n s e r v a tiv e r e g im e w i t h s t r o n g m i l i t a r y b a c k in g .85 A le k s e e v ’s c a n d id a c y fo r t h e p o s i ti o n o f n a ti o n a l m i li ta r y c o m m a n d e r , in d e e d , re c e iv e d m o r e s u p p o r t f r o m t h e O m s k c o n s e r v a tiv e s t h a n i t d id f r o m S a m a r a .86 A n y e f f o r t to p r o m o t e a n a ll ia n c e b e t w e e n O m s k a n d A le k s e e v in o p p o s i ti o n t o t h e s o c ia lis ts , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w o u ld b e c o m p l ic a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e C z e c h s , w ho

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s u p p o r t i n g t h e S o c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n a r i e s .87 D e s p i t e t h e o b s ta c le s , a c o m p r o m i s e w as e v e n tu a lly w o r k e d o u t b e t w e e n t h e S a m a r a a n d O m s k g o v e r n m e n ts to e s ta b lis h a n e w allR u s s ia n g o v e r n m e n t in U f a . O n S e p t e m b e r 23 a fiv e -m a n d i r e c to ­ r a t e w as i n s ta l le d u n d e r t h e R i g h t S o c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n a r y , N . P . A v k s e n t'e v , a n d in c l u d e d t h e K a d e t le a d e r , N . I. A s tr o v ; t h e h e a d o f t h e O m s k g o v e r n m e n t , P . V . V o lo g o d s k ii; t h e h e a d o f t h e A r k h a n ­ g e ls k g o v e r n m e n t , N . V . C h a ik o v s k ii; a n d G e n e r a l V . G . B o ld y re v , w h o w as a c c e p t a b le to t h e C z e c h s a n d w as s u b s t i t u t e d fo r t h e a ilin g A le k s e e v .88 I n s u p p o r t i n g th is g o v e r n m e n t t h e A llie s s o u g h t t o b r i n g r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s o f a ll t h r e e m a j o r f r o n ts o f t h e w a r i n t o a n a s s o c ia tio n a t o n c e lib e r a l in p o litic a l o u t l o o k a n d b a c k e d b y s ig n if ic a n t m ilita r y fo rc e . T h e C z e c h s , w h o s e a llia n c e w ith t h e s o c ia lis ts h a d b e e n s p o n ­ t a n e o u s , n o w b e c a m e b y fo r c e o f c ir c u m s ta n c e s t h e c h ie f s u p p o r t o f t h e n e w c o a li ti o n g o v e r n m e n t. G e n e r a l M a u r ic e J a n i n , w h o h a d b e e n d e s i g n a te d c o m m a n d e r - in - c h i e f o f A llie d fo rc e s in R u s s ia in A u g u s t, e n t e r e d a n a c c o r d w ith G e n e r a l B o ld y re v o n S e p t e m b e r 2 4 re c o g n iz ­ in g t h e l a t t e r as R u s s ia n c o m m a n d e r u n d e r t h e f o r m e r ’s g e n e r a l a u ­ th o r i t y f o r t h e A llie s .89 I n v ie w o f th e s e a c h ie v e m e n ts , t h e B r itis h g o v e r n m e n t w as c o n s i d e r in g r e c o g n i ti o n o f t h e U f a D i r e c t o r a t e , b u t b e f o r e i t h a d ta k e n a n y a c ti o n o n t h e m a t t e r in f o r m a t i o n w as r e c e iv e d o f n e w B o ls h e v ik v ic to rie s w h ic h fo r c e d t h e D i r e c t o r a t e to flee t o O m s k , a n d so d e c is io n o n r e c o g n i ti o n w as d e la y e d .90 I n O m s k , a “ C o u n c i l o f M i n i s t e r s " w as f o r m e d u n d e r V o lo g o d s k ii, w ith A d m ir a l K o lc h a k as m i n i s t e r o f w a r, b u t in s te a d o f b e in g a s s u a g e d , t h e o ld c o n ­ flic t b e t w e e n t h e c o n s e r v a tiv e a n d s o c ia lis t f a c tio n s a g a in e r u p t e d .91 F a c e d w i t h r e p e a t e d fa ilu r e to a c h ie v e u n it y , m o s t o f t h e A llie d r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s in O m s k t h e n g a v e t h e i r s u p p o r t t o a c o u p w h ic h o u s t e d t h e s o c ia lis ts o n N o v e m b e r 17 a n d t h e n e x t d a y e s t a b li s h e d a d i c t a t o r s h i p u n d e r A d m ir a l K o lc h a k as “ S u p r e m e R u l e r ." 92 D e s p it e t h e s u p p o r t n o w g iv e n to K o lc h a k b y t h e B r it is h m is s io n c h ie f , G e n ­ e ra l K n o x , h o w e v e r , t h e B r itis h C a b i n e t , w h ic h h a d fin a lly d e c id e d

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to re c o g n iz e t h e g o v e r n m e n t in O m s k o n N o v e m b e r 17, w ith d r e w its d e c is io n u p o n le a r n in g o f t h e o v e r t h r o w o f t h e c o a l i t i o n .93 O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , G e n e r a l J a n i n , w h o d is a p p r o v e d t h e c o u p , n e v e r t h e le s s c o n t r i b u t e d to its s u c c e s s b y o r d e r in g t h e C z e c h s n o t t o in t e r f e r e . K o lc h a k 's t i tl e , h o w e v e r, r e m a in e d s im p ly a t i t l e w i t h l i t t l e p r a c t ic a l s ig n ific a n c e a t th i s s ta g e . T h e r e w e re s till, as A le k s e e v p u t it , ju s t t o o m a n y “ c e n te r s ” b e n t u p o n r e c o g n i ti o n a n d A llie d a id , a n d t h e m i l i ­ ta r y s i t u a t i o n w as d e te r i o r a t i n g ra p id ly , in S ib e r ia b e c a u s e o f t h e d e c is io n o f t h e d e m o r a li z e d C z e c h s t o r e s u m e t h e i r e v a c u a t io n t o V la d iv o s to k , a n d in t h e S o u t h b e c a u s e o f t h e c o n t i n u e d e x te n s io n o f G e r m a n in f lu e n c e .94 T h e s i t u a t i o n in t h e S o u t h h a d b e c o m e m o s t c r itic a l in t h e s u m m e r o f 19 1 8 . N o t o n ly w e re t h e G e r m a n s e n t r e n c h e d in t h e U k r a in e , b u t th e y s e e m e d t o b e o n t h e v e rg e o f a c h ie v in g t h e i r m o s t a m b i t i o u s s c h e m e s to p e n e t r a t e C e n t r a l A s ia .95 B r it is h fo rc e s i n t e n d e d t o c o m b a t th is t h r e a t w e re o n ly b e g in n i n g t o a p p e a r o n t h e s o u t h e r n b o r d e r s . A s n o t e d , w o rk h a d b e e n b e g u n as e a rly as J a n u a r y a n d F e b r u a r y 191 8 o n t h e o r g a n i z a ti o n o f s p e c ia l m i li ta r y m is s io n s , t h e m a j o r o n e u n d e r M a j o r G e n e r a l L . C . D u n s te r v ill e t o m o v e in t h r o u g h P e rs ia f r o m B a g h d a d , w ith t h e g o a l o f r e a c h i n g t h e C a s p ia n a n d e s t a b li s h in g c o n ­ ta c ts w ith p ro - A llie d e l e m e n t s in T r a n s c a u c a s ia . A s e c o n d m is s io n u n d e r M a j o r G e n e r a l S ir W i l f r i d M a l le s o n w as to m o v e t o M e s h e d w ith tr o o p s fr o m I n d i a a n d e s ta b lis h c o n ta c ts in T r a n s c a s p ia , a n d a t h i r d u n d e r C o lo n e l P . T . E t h e r t o n a n d L i e u t e n a n t C o l o n e l F . M . B a ile y w as t o p r o c e e d v ia C h i n e s e T u r k e s t a n ( K a s h g a r ) i n t o R u s s ia n T u r k e s t a n to T a s h k e n t . P la n s h a d c a lle d fo r th e s e fo rc e s to b e d r a w n fr o m E m p i r e tr o o p s , e s p e c ia lly t h e I n d i a n A rm y , t o b e q u i t e s m a ll in n u m b e r s , a n d to p e r f o r m t h e i r ta s k la r g e ly t h r o u g h r e c r u i t m e n t o f n a tiv e s u p p o r t in t h e a re a s t o w h ic h t h e y w e re a s s ig n e d .90 H o w e v e r , s u c h p la n s h a d p r o v e d t o b e r a t h e r d if f ic u lt to p u t i n t o p r a c t ic e . D u n s te r v ill e h a d t a k e n c o m m a n d o f t h e s p e a r h e a d f o r c e o f s o m e 12 o fficers, 41 m e n , a n d 41 F o r d s a n d h a d le f t B a g h d a d as e a rly as J a n u ­ a ry 27 , 1 9 1 8 .97 F r o m t h e r e h e h a d p r o c e e d e d i n t o P e r s ia a t t h e r a t e o f a b o u t t e n m ile s a d a y , t h e F o r d s b e in g p u s h e d a g o o d d e a l o f t h e w a y t h r o u g h t h e s n o w . A n o t h e r 7 0 o ffic e rs a n d 140 m e n , p ic k e d f r o m t h e S o u th A f r ic a n , A u s tr a lia n , a n d C a n a d i a n u n i t s in F r a n c e , w i t h a s p e c ia l p a r t y o f R u s s ia n o ffic e rs t o a c t as lia is o n m e n , h a d a ls o s e t o u t fro m

I t a ly in F e b r u a r y b y s h i p to jo in t h e “ D u n s t e r f o r c e ” in

P e rs ia .98 B r it is h a n d F r e n c h in t e ll ig e n c e a g e n ts in T r a n s c a u c a s ia p r o ­ v id e d r e p o r ts o f s t r o n g p r o - A llie d g r o u p s th e r e , b u t firs t D u n s t e r v i l l e

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h a d t o e s t a b li s h a p o s i ti o n in n o r t h e r n P e rs ia fr o m w h ic h to m a k e c o n ­ t a c t a n d p r e p a r e f o r t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n .09 A n d th i s h a d p r o v e d to b e n o s m a ll ta s k . A c tu a ll y D u n s te r v ill e 's s m a ll b a n d h a d in itia lly m a d e a s t a r tl in g d a s h to t h e C a s p ia n p o r t o f E n z e li d u r i n g t h e firs t tw o w e e k s o f F e b ­ r u a r y , t a k i n g a d v a n ta g e o f t h e e l e m e n t o f s u r p r is e a n d t h e te r r if y in g a p p e a r a n c e w h ic h a m o t o r i z e d f o r c e m a d e in a p r i m i ti v e l a n d . I t w as a d a r i n g m o v e t h r o u g h ro a d le s s t e r r a i n , c ro w d s o f R u s s ia n re fu g e e s o ld ie r s g o in g h o m e , a n d h o s t il e P e r s ia n b a n d s , b u t a t t h e e n d o f t h e r o a d in E n z e li , D u n s t e r v i l l e h a d f o u n d a B o ls h e v ik c o m m i t t e e in c o n ­ tr o l o f t h e p o r t . H is w h o le p a r t y c o u ld t h e n e a sily h a v e f a lle n p r i s o n e r o f t h e B o ls h e v ik s , b u t a t t h a t e a rly d a t e t h e l a t t e r d id n o t y e t c o n ­ s i d e r t h e B r it is h

f o r c e as t h e i r e n e m y . “ S ta lk y ” D u n s te r v ill e w as

t h e r e f o r e n o t o n ly a b le t o ta l k h is w a y o u t o f th i s s i t u a t i o n b u t h a d e v e n p e r s u a d e d t h e c h a ir m a n o f t h e B o ls h e v ik c o m m i t t e e , C h e li a p in , t o g iv e h i m s o m e g a s o lin e so t h a t h is F o r d s c o u ld r e t u r n to H a m a d a n . T h e u p s h o t o f th i s a ffa ir, h o w e v e r, w as t h a t D u n s te r v ill e h a d t h e n f o u n d h im s e l f s t u c k a t H a m a d a n , w h e r e h e h a d to a w a it a m o r e fa v o r­ a b le o p p o r t u n i t y to tr y a g a in . T h e o b s ta c le s w e re , i n d e e d , so g r e a t t h a t i t h a d t a k e n h i m o v e r five m o n t h s ju s t to g e t b a c k t o E n z e li a g a in .100 T h e re a l t u r n i n g p o i n t in D u n s t e r v i l l e ’s e ff o rts h a d c o m e o n ly w h e n h e e n t e r e d a n a llia n c e w ith a s m a ll f o r c e o f R u s s ia n C o s s a c k s s till in P e rs ia . G e n e r a l B a r a to v , t h e c o m m a n d e r o f t h e R u s s ia n a r m y o n t h e T u r k i s h f r o n t , h a d b e e n u n a b le to m a i n t a i n h is a r m y a f t e r t h e re v o lu ­ ti o n , b u t h is s u b o r d i n a t e , C o lo n e l L a z a r B ic h e ra k o v , h a d m a n a g e d , b y v ir tu e o f t h e p e r s o n a l lo y a lty o f h is m e n , to h o l d t o g e t h e r a s m a ll b a n d o f C o s s a c k s w h o h a d ta k e n re f u g e in c e n tr a l P e rs ia . R e a liz in g t h a t h is o w n s m a ll fo rc e s w o u ld n e v e r su ffic e t o a c h ie v e h is m is s io n , D u n s t e r v i l l e h a d s o u g h t a n d o b t a i n e d B ic h e r a k o v ’s a g r e e m e n t t o jo in h i m in a n e f f o r t t o g e t b o t h o f t h e m t o T r a n s c a u c a s ia .101 A l t h o u g h B ic h e r a k o v r e p o r te d l y d e m a n d e d r a t h e r e x o r b i t a n t f in a n c ia l s u p p o r t f o r h is s e rv ic e s, D u n s te r v ill e d e f e n d e d th i s s u b s id y as n e c e s s a ry fo r t h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f h is m is s io n , a n d B ic h e r a k o v w as a u t h o r i z e d to le a d a j o i n t R u s s i a n - B r it is h fo rc e , i n c l u d in g a n e w ly a r r iv e d a r m o r e d c a r b r ig a d e , a g a in s t t h e i n s u r g e n t P e r s ia n n a ti o n a li s t , K u c h ik K h a n , w h o s e fo r c e s s t o o d a s t r id e t h e r o a d t o E n z e li . B y m i d - J u n e K u c k ik 's tr o o p s w e re r o u t e d , a n d D u n s te r v ill e a n d B ic h e r a k o v c o n f e r r e d o n h o w to d e a l w i t h t h e B o ls h e v ik s a t E n z e l i a n d B a k u . T h e t a c t i c w h ic h th e y s e t t l e d u p o n w as s u b v e r s io n .102 F ro m

t h e t i m e o f t h e r e v o l u ti o n B ic h e r a k o v h a d b e e n re c e iv in g

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o ffe rs f r o m t h e B o ls h e v ik s , a n d , w ith m a n y R u s s ia n tr o o p s t u r n i n g B o ls h e v ik in o r d e r t o g e t b a c k h o m e , n o t h i n g s e e m e d m o r e n a tu r a l t h a n fo r B ic h e r a k o v t o fo llo w t h e s a m e p a t h . M o r e o v e r , w ith t h e T u r k s c lo s in g in o n B a k u a n d m o v i n g i n t o n o r t h e r n P e rs ia , t h e B o l­ s h e v ik s w e re in n o p o s i t i o n t o b e p a r t i c u l a r a b o u t t h e i r a llie s . H e n c e B ic h e r a k o v “ w e n t o v e r ” t o t h e B o ls h e v ik s a t E n z e li, a c c e p t e d a p p o i n t ­ m e n t as a R e d A r m y c o m m a n d e r w ith t h e r a n k o f g e n e r a l, a n d t h e n , t h r o u g h C h e l i a p i n ’s c o m m i t t e e , e s t a b li s h e d c o n t a c t w ith t h e s o v ie t in B a k u .103 W i t h t h e l a t t e r h e a r r a n g e d to m o v e h is tr o o p s a c ro s s t h e C a s p ia n a n d t o ta k e t h e p o s t o f c o m m a n d e r o f S o v ie t fo rc e s d e f e n d i n g t h a t b e le a g u e r e d c ity a g a in s t t h e T u r k s . B ic h e r a k o v ’s C o s s a c k s t h u s l e f t E n z e l i o n J u ly 1 a n d m o v e d i n t o a li n e ju s t s o u t h o f B a k u .104 D u r i n g th i s s a m e t i m e D u n s te r v ill e e n g in e e r e d a r a p i d in f il tr a t io n a n d e v e n tu a l o v e r t h r o w o f B o ls h e v ik c o n tr o l in E n z e li, n e g o ti a te d a t la s t a tr u c e w i t h K u c h ik K h a n , a r r a n g e d w ith t h e d e f u n c t R u s s ia n R o a d C o m p a n y t o ta k e o v e r its ro a d , te l e g r a p h , a n d o t h e r p r o p e r tie s in n o r t h e r n P e rs ia , m a d e a h u r r i e d t r i p to B a g h d a d fo r c o n s u l ta t io n w i t h B r it is h h e a d q u a r t e r s t h e r e , a n d fin a lly e s t a b li s h e d c o n t a c t w ith S o c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n a r y a n d D a s h n a k e le m e n ts in B a k u w h o w e re w ill­ in g t o c o o p e r a t e , a n d t o g e t h e r t h e y w o r k e d o u t a p la n fo r a c o u p to u n s e a t t h e B o ls h e v ik s in B a k u a n d is su e a n a p p e a l fo r B r itis h a id .105 T h e g o v e r n in g p o w e r in B a k u w as h e ld b y a c o a litio n o f B o ls h e v ik s a n d L e f t S o c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n a r i e s , s u p p o r t e d b y t h e L e f t w in g s o f t h e M e n s h e v ik a n d D a s h n a k g r o u p s .106 H o w e v e r , th is b lo c , le d b y S. S h a u m i a n , s till h e l d o n ly a m i n o r i t y in t h e s o v ie t its e lf, a f a c t w h ic h h a d d e c is iv e s ig n ific a n c e w h e n t h e s o v ie t b e g a n a d e b a te o n s e e k in g o u t ­ s id e a id in Ju ly . S h a u m i a n ’s c o a litio n h a d a g re e d to b r i n g in g B ic h e r a ­ k o v o v e r, b u t B ic h e r a k o v h a d f o u n d t h e o d d s to o g r e a t in fa c in g t h e T u r k s a n d h a d o r d e r e d h is tr o o p s to m o v e o n to t h e n o r t h . I n th is s i t u ­ a t i o n , t h e R i g h t S o c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n a r i e s , D a s h n a k s , a n d M e n s h e v ik s t h e n d e m a n d e d a n a p p e a l t o t h e B r itis h fo r s u p p o r t. S p li t o n c e m o r e i n t o its m a j o r i ty a n d m i n o r i t y f a c tio n s , t h e B a k u s o v ie t t h u s o n J u ly 25 v o te d 2 5 9 t o 2 3 6 to s e e k B r itis h h e l p .107 R e f u s i n g t o a c c e p t th i s p o s i ti o n , S h a u m i a n ’s L e f t c o a litio n w as f o r c e d o u t o f o ffice, a n d a n e w g o v e r n m e n t c o m p o s e d o f r e p r e s e n ta ­ tiv e s o f t h e m a j o r i ty f a c tio n s w as in s ta l le d u n d e r t h e t i t l e o f “ C e n tr o C a s p ia n D i c t a t o r s h i p . ” O n t h e b a sis o f p r e c e d i n g s e c r e t n e g o ti a ti o n s w i t h D u n s te r v ill e , th i s g o v e r n m e n t t h e n is s u e d a n o p e n a p p e a l fo r B r it is h tr o o p s t o d e f e n d t h e c it y .108 O n A u g u s t 4 a s m a ll B r itis h a d v a n c e p a r t y u n d e r C o l o n e l C . B . S to k e s w as t r a n s p o r t e d o n t h e

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h a s tily p r e p a r e d s h ip s a v a ila b le in E n z e l i a n d l a n d e d in B a k u . T h e G e r m a n m is s io n w h ic h h a d b e e n s e n t o u t e a r lie r to ta k e o v e r B a k u in c o o p e r a t io n w ith S h a u m i a n a rr iv e d s h o r tly th e r e a f t e r . I t s m e m b e r s w e re , to p u t i t m ild ly , r a t h e r s u r p r is e d to f in d th e m s e lv e s m e t b y t h e B r itis h a n d p u t u n d e r a r r e s t im m e d i a te l y . S o v ie t tr o o p s w h ic h h a d b e e n s e n t to B a k u f r o m A s tr a k h a n l e f t o n A u g u s t 12, a c c o m p a n ie d b y t h e B o ls h e v ik m e m b e r s o f t h e o v e r t h r o w n g o v e r n m e n t. H o w e v e r , w h e n i t w as d is c o v e re d t h a t th e y h a d ta k e n a w a y a la r g e p a r t o f t h e a rm s b e lo n g i n g to t h e c ity , t h e s h ip s w e re s t o p p e d a n d t h e a rm s a n d t h e B o ls h e v ik c o m m is s a rs w e re s e iz e d a n d

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A u g u s t 17 D u n s te r v ill e a rr iv e d w ith t h e re s t o f h is fo r c e a n d b e g a n p r e p a r in g t h e d e fe n s e s o f t h e c ity .109 T h e s e c o n d o f t h e B r itis h m i li ta r y m is s io n s , u n d e r G e n e r a l M a lle s o n , h a d m e a n w h ile , in J u n e , m o v e d a lo n g a l i n e f r o m t h e I n d i a n b o r ­ d e r n o r t h w a r d in e a s te r n P e rs ia to M e s h e d , fillin g t h e g a p l e f t t h e r e b y t h e w ith d r a w a l o f R u s s ia n tr o o p s e a r lie r a n d ta k i n g o v e r w h a t w as k n o w n as t h e “ E a s t P e r s ia n C o r d o n .” 110 B y m i d s u m m e r M a l le s o n h a d tw o s q u a d r o n s o f t h e 2 8 th I n d i a n C a v a lr y R e g i m e n t a n d tw o c o m ­ p a n ie s o f t h e 1 9 th P u n j a b i I n f a n t r y B a tt a l i o n in p o s i ti o n s o m e 160 m ile s f r o m A s h k h a b a d a c ro s s t h e R u s s ia n b o r d e r . H is m is s io n w a s t o d o w h a te v e r p o s s ib le to i n t e r f e r e w ith a n e x p e c t e d G e r m a n - T u r k i s h m o v e a c ro s s t h e C a s p ia n a n d t h r o u g h T r a n s c a s p ia , b u t h is in s t r u c t i o n s m a d e n o sp e c ific m e n t i o n o f m i li ta r y i n t e r v e n t i o n b y h is o w n fo rc e s in t o R u s s ia .111 A t th i s t i m e a lm o s t a ll o f T u r k e s t a n w as in B o ls h e v ik h a n d s , b u t h e r e to o t h e p o w e r o f t h e B o ls h e v ik s r e s te d o n w e a k f o u n d a t i o n s .112 T h e i r h o l d o n T u r k e s t a n w as b a s e d p a r t ly o n t h e r e c r u i t m e n t o f t h e G e r m a n a n d A u s tr ia n p r is o n e r s o f w a r in th i s re g io n a n d p a r t ly o n t h e R u s s ia n m i n o r i t y a m o n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n .113 R e b e ll io u s M o s l e m e le ­ m e n t s c o n d u c t e d s p o r a d ic re v o lts , a n d t h e ris in g o f t h e O r e n b u r g C o s ­ sack s u n d e r A ta m a n A . I. D u t o v , in a llia n c e w i t h o t h e r a n ti - B o ls h e v ik fo rc e s o n t h e S ib e r ia n f r o n t, h a d m a d e c o n t a c t w i t h S o v ie t R u s s ia e x tr e m e ly d if fic u lt. M o r e o v e r , w h ile t h e B o ls h e v ik g o v e r n m e n t in T a s h k e n t , u n d e r F . E . K o le s o v , w a s tr y in g t o c o n t e n d w i t h t h e s e p r o b l e m s , its M e n s h e v ik a n d S o c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n a r y “ a llie s ” in A s h ­ k h a b a d s o u g h t to w in o v e r t h e p o p u l a t i o n , p a r t ic u l a r ly t h e “ p r o l e ­ t a r i a t ” c o n s is tin g

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a n ti- B o ls h e v ik p o s i ti o n . W h e n , in J u n e , t h e B o ls h e v ik g o v e r n m e n t a t t e m p t e d t o f o r c e a ll a b le - b o d ie d m e n in t h e c ity t o r e g i s te r f o r m i l ­ ita ry s e rv ic e , t h e o p p o s i ti o n s e iz e d u p o n t h e s lo g a n “ s o v ie ts w i t h o u t

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B o ls h e v ik s ” a n d in s t i g a t e d a r e b e l li o n . A p u n i t i v e f o r c e w as s e n t o u t f r o m T a s h k e n t , b u t i t w as r e p e lle d , a n d o n J u ly 16 a n e w a n ti- B o ls h e ­ v ik g o v e r n m e n t , b a c k e d b y t h e ra ilw a y w o rk e rs a n d h e a d e d b y a S o ­ c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n a r y , F e d o r F u n t i k o v , w as e s t a b li s h e d in A s h k h a b a d . S o o n t h e r e a f t e r s u p p o r t i n g r e v o lts in M e r v a n d K ra s n o v o d s k a lso o v e r­ t h r e w B o ls h e v ik c o n t r o l a n d in s ta l le d n e w g o v e r n m e n ts u n d e r t h e g e n e r a l l e a d e r s h i p o f A s h k h a b a d .114 C o n t a c t w i t h G e n e r a l M a l le s o n h a d a lr e a d y b e e n m a d e t h r o u g h a n o t h e r S o c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n a r y a n d a n a s s o c ia te o f F u n t i k o v ’s, A le ­ k s e i D o r r e r , w h o h a d g o n e t o M e s h e d e a r lie r .115 I t is n o t u n lik e ly t h a t h o p e s f o r s u p p o r t f r o m B r it is h tr o o p s in n o r t h e r n P e rs ia p la y e d s o m e ro le in t h e d e c is io n s o f t h e re b e ls , a l t h o u g h t h e r e v o lt its e lf w as c le a rly a r e a c t io n t o B o ls h e v ik p o lic y . O n J u ly 2 9 t h e n e w A s h k h a b a d g o v e r n ­ m e n t is s u e d a n i n v i t a t i o n to t h e B r itis h a t M e s h e d to s e n d a id a n d a u t h o r i z e d its r e p r e s e n ta t iv e , V l a d i m i r D o k h o v , to e n t e r n e g o ti a ti o n s a t o n c e f o r a f o r m a l a g r e e m e n t. M a l le s o n in r e t u r n s e n t a n o ffic e r o f h is s ta ff, C a p t a i n R . T e a g u e - J o n e s , to A s h k h a b a d to e s ta b lis h lia is o n a n d b e g in ta lk s . I n v ie w o f a B o ls h e v ik a t t a c k w h ic h s o o n o v e rr a n M e r v , M a l le s o n a ls o m o v e d h is o w n tr o o p s u p t o t h e b o r d e r a n d r e ­ q u e s t e d p e r m is s io n fr o m I n d i a n a r m y h e a d q u a r t e r s a t S im la t o a id t h e A s h k h a b a d g o v e r n m e n t . O n A u g u s t 8 th i s p e r m is s io n w as g r a n t e d , a n d w i t h i n less t h a n a w e e k B r itis h a n d I n d i a n tr o o p s w e re s e n t in t o a c t i o n t o s u p p o r t t h e T r a n s c a s p ia n a r m y u n d e r O r a z S ir d a r in its d e f e n s e o f t h e ra ilw a y b e tw e e n M e r v a n d A s h k h a b a d .116 M e a n w h i l e n e g o ti a ti o n s h a d p r o c e e d e d s u c c e s s fu lly , a n d o n A u g u s t 19 a p r o t o c o l o f a g r e e m e n t w as s ig n e d b y M a l le s o n a n d D o k h o v . I n v ie w o f t h e “ c o m m o n d a n g e r fr o m B o ls h e v is m a n d T u r k o - G e r m a n a t t a c k in t h e b o r d e r s o f t h e T r a n s c a s p ia n r e g io n a n d T u r k e s t a n ,” a n d t o r e s to r e o r d e r a n d p r e p a r e a d e q u a t e d e fe n s e s o f t h e a re a , s a id t h e a g r e e m e n t , t h e B r itis h w o u ld ( a ) d e f e n d t h e c ity o f B a k u as t h e v ita l g a te w a y to T r a n s c a s p ia , ( b ) e s ta b lis h a g a r r is o n o f B r it is h in f a n tr y a n d a r t il le r y in K r a s n o v o d s k o n t h e w e s t s id e o f t h e C a s p ia n , ( c ) s u p p ly a r tille r y ,

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a g r e e d u p o n a t a l a t e r d a te , a n d ( e ) d e s tr o y ra ilw a y e q u i p m e n t , o il a n d w a te r re s e rv e s, b rid g e s , e tc . in c a s e t h e a re a s h o u l d b e o v e r r u n b y e n e m y tr o o p s .117 W i t h th i s a g r e e m e n t as t h e b a sis o f h is s u p p o r t f o r t h e T r a n s c a s ­ p ia n g o v e r n m e n t, M a l le s o n s e n t tw o c o m p a n i e s o f t h e 1 9 th P u n ja b i s t o s t o p a B o ls h e v ik a d v a n c e a t K a a k h a , w h e r e a m a j o r b a t t l e t o o k p la c e o n A u g u s t 26 . S h o r tly t h e r e a f t e r r e i n f o r c e m e n t s a n d a r t il le r y w e re a ls o s e n t f r o m E n z e li t o K ra s n o v o d s k w h e r e t h e S o c ia lis t R e v o ­ lu t io n a r y g o v e r n m e n t u n d e r K u n w as in p o w e r , a n d

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q u a n ti ti e s o f a rm s a n d a m m u n i t i o n , la rg e ly p r o v i d e d b y D u n s t e r v i l l e , w e re s u p p l ie d to t h e T r a n s c a s p ia n fo rc e s. W i t h a t o t a l s t r e n g t h o f 9 5 0 o fficers a n d m e n , a b o u t 500 o f w h o m w e re a t t h e f r o n t , M a lle s o n 's s m a ll fo r c e t h e n m a d e p la n s f o r a n a d v a n c e a lo n g t h e ra ilw a y t o t h e e a s t. A lth o u g h t h e T u r k m a n tr o o p s p r o v e d t o b e g e n e r a lly u n r e ­ lia b le in b a t t l e , r e la tio n s w i t h O r a z S ir d a r a n d w i t h t h e R u s s ia n o ffi­ cers in t h e T r a n s c a s p ia n a r m y w e re g o o d , a n d t h e i r c o o p e r a t io n p r o v e d e ffe c tiv e . B y m i d - O c t o b e r t h e o ff e n s iv e h a d b e e n m o u n t e d , a n d b e f o r e t h e e n d o f t h e m o n t h t h e B o ls h e v ik s h a d b e e n fo r c e d to w i t h d r a w b e y o n d M e r v .118 T h e t h i r d p r o n g o f th e s e o p e r a t io n s , t h e m is s io n s e n t t o a p p r o a c h T a s h k e n t f r o m t h e e a s t v ia K a s h g a r ju s t in s id e C h i n a , w a s b o t h le ss s ig n if ic a n t a n d less s u c c e s s f u l.119 I ts p u r p o s e w as la r g e ly t h a t o f a s c o u t in g p a r t y i n t e n d e d n o t f o r i n t e r v e n t i o n b u t f o r g a t h e r i n g i n f o r ­ m a t io n . C o lo n e l P . T . E t h e r t o n , L i e u t e n a n t C o l o n e l F . M . B a ile y , a n d M a j o r L . V . B la c k e r h a d l e f t I n d i a fo r K a s h g a r w i t h a h a n d f u l o f I n d i a n g u a rd s in A p ril 19 1 8 . T h e y a r r iv e d in K a s h g a r o n J u n e 7 a n d b e g a n a s u rv e y o f t h e b o r d e r a re a . E t h e r t o n t h e n r e p l a c e d S ir G e o r g e M a c a r tn e y as B r itis h C o n s u l G e n e r a l th e r e , a n d M a c a r t n e y in t u r n m a d e p la n s t o fo llo w B a ile y a n d B la c k e r , w h o l e f t fo r T a s h k e n t o n J u ly 24 , to e s ta b lis h a c o n s u l a te in T u r k e s t a n . W i t h t h e lu c k w h ic h c o m e s f r o m a c o m b i n a t i o n o f a u d a c i ty a n d a la c k o f i n f o r m a t i o n , B a ile y 's p a r t y r e a c h e d T a s h k e n t s a fe ly o n A u g u s t 14 a n d i m m e d i a t e l y p r o c e e d e d to c a ll u p o n t h e s o v ie t “ fo r e ig n c o m m is s a r ," D o m a g a it s k ii.120 U n d e r s t a n d a b l y D o m a g a its k ii f o u n d i t d if f ic u lt t o b e lie v e t h a t a B r itis h

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A s h k h a b a d . H o w e v e r , h e a g r e e d t e m p o r a r ily to a llo w B a ile y t o g o a b o u t h is b u s in e s s . W h e t h e r h is le n i e n c y a t th i s p o i n t r e s u l t e d f r o m h is c o n f u s io n o r f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t h e w as a L e f t S o c ia lis t R e v o l u ­ ti o n a r y w as n o t c le a r .121

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I t s o o n b e c a m e q u i t e c le a r, h o w e v e r , t h a t i t w as n o t s a fe f o r t h e B r it is h m is s io n to r e m a in in T a s h k e n t . C o n s e q u e n t l y M a c a r tn e y d e ­ c id e d t o r e t u r n to K a s h g a r t o g e t h e r w ith B la c k e r , w h o w as ill. B a ile y a l o n e s ta y e d b e h i n d . H is i n t e n t i o n w as to c o n d u c t in t e ll ig e n c e w o rk as l o n g as p o s s ib le , b u t , a s id e fr o m g a th e r in g s o m e in f o r m a t i o n o n B o ls h e v ik r e c r u i t m e n t o f G e r m a n a n d A u s tr ia n p r is o n e r s , h e c o u ld d o l i t t l e . 122 H is g r e a t h o p e w as t h a t t h e B r it is h fo rc e s u n d e r M a lle s o n w o u ld p u s h o n e a s tw a r d a lo n g t h e ra ilw a y , a m o v e w h ic h h e b e lie v e d w o u ld p r o v o k e a n a n ti- B o ls h e v ik r e v o lt in T a s h k e n t , w h e r e h e w o u ld b e o n h a n d t o e s t a b li s h r e la tio n s w ith t h e re b e ls . T h i s , u n f o r t u n a t e l y f o r h i m , fa ile d c o m p l e te l y t o m a te r ia liz e , a n d h e s o o n f o u n d h im s e l f in t h e ro le o f a f u g itiv e w h o s e c h ie f “ u n d e r g r o u n d ” w o rk c o n s is te d o f a v o id in g a r r e s t. H e m a n a g e d a f a n t a s ti c se rie s o f e s c a p e s f o r a n o t h e r w h o le y e a r b e f o r e fin a lly m a k i n g h is w a y o u t to P e rs ia w ith t h e h e lp o f tu r n - c o a t a c c o m p lic e s in s id e t h e T a s h k e n t p o lic e fo rc e , b u t m o s t o f h is e f f o r t w e n t f o r n a u g h t .123 M a l le s o n , f o r h is p a r t , d id n o t e v e n k n o w t h a t B a ile y w as in T a s h k e n t d u r i n g t h e firs t m o n t h s o f h is a c tiv ­ itie s a n d le a r n e d o f h is p r e s e n c e t h e r e o n ly a f t e r t h r e e S o v ie t “ e n v o y s ” h a d b e e n p ic k e d u p in M e s h e d , o n e o f w h o m a t t e m p t e d to d e f e c t a n d r e p o r t e d h a v in g m e t B a ile y . N o d ir e c t w o rd w as r e c e iv e d fr o m B a ile y h i m s e l f u n t i l h e w as o n h is w a y to P e rs ia m o n t h s l a t e r .124 M e a n w h i l e D u n s t e r v i l l e h a d a ls o r u n i n t o tr o u b l e in B a k u . H e h a d h o p e d t h a t t h e “ m o r a l ” e ff e c t o f B r itis h p r e s e n c e w o u ld a r o u s e a c tiv e s u p p o r t , e s p e c ia lly in t h e fo r m o f tr o o p s to d e f e n d t h e c ity . I n th is , h o w e v e r , h e w as s a d ly d i s a p p o in t e d . T h e T u r k i s h f o r c e h a d a g r e a t a d v a n ta g e in siz e ( i t n u m b e r e d a r o u n d 4 0 ,0 0 0 m e n ) , b u t i t m i g h t h a v e b e e n b lu f f e d o u t o f its p riz e b y a d e t e r m i n e d re s is ta n c e . B a k u , h o w e v e r , w as s h a r p ly d iv id e d b e tw e e n M o s le m s , w h o p r e f e r r e d t h e T u r k s a n y h o w a n d t e n d e d to lo o k u p o n t h e l a t t e r as t h e i r p o t e n t i a l li b e r a t o r s fr o m t h e i r n o n - M o s le m ru le rs , a n d R u s s ia n s a n d A r m e n ia n s , w h o t e n d e d t o s u p p o r t o n e a n o t h e r b u t s e e m e d in c a p a b le o f o r g a n iz ­ in g th e m s e lv e s p r o p e r ly fo r t h e ta s k s th e y fa c e d . M o r e o v e r , t h e w o r k ­ in g c lass a n d t h e c re w s o f t h e s h ip s in t h e h a r b o r w e re r e v o lu tio n a r y , e v e n if t h e y w e re u n d e c i d e d b e tw e e n t h e B o ls h e v ik s a n d t h e S o c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n a r i e s . T h i s m e a n t t h a t it w as v ir tu a lly im p o s s ib le to fo r m n a ti v e fo rc e s a lo n g t r a d i t i o n a l lin e s . C o n d i t i o n s in B a k u w e re , in s h o r t, c h a o t i c in t h e e x tr e m e , b o t h p o litic a lly a n d e c o n o m ic a lly as w e ll as m i li ta r ily .125 B y S e p t e m b e r 19 1 8 , D u n s te r v ill e h a d d e f in ite ly d e c id e d t h a t f u r ­ t h e r e ff o rts to h o l d B a k u w o u ld b e a w a s te o f t i m e a n d o f B r itis h liv es. H e t h e r e f o r e b e g a n s e c r e tly m a k i n g p r e p a r a ti o n s f o r e v a c u a tio n , h o p -

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in g to re g r o u p h is fo rc e s in E n z e li a n d t h e n m o v e t o K r a s n o v o d s k t o li n k u p w i t h M a l le s o n .126 B ic h e ra k o v s e n t s o m e 500 m e n b a c k to B a k u to h e l p D u n s te r v ill e , b u t t h e r e w as n o h o p e o f w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e T u r k i s h a t t a c k e x p e c t e d a n y d a y . T h u s o n t h e n i g h t o f S e p t e m b e r 14, w ith B a k u u n d e r a tt a c k , D u n s te r v ill e lo a d e d a ll b u t a h a n d f u l o f h is m e n o n s h ip s in t h e h a r b o r u n d e r c o v e r o f d a r k n e s s a n d , in v io l a ti o n o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t ’s o rd e r s , l e f t t h e c ity t o its f a te . T h e 9 0 0 s o ld ie rs o f t h e D u n s te r v ill e fo rc e h a d h e l d B a k u f o r o n ly six w e e k s; 180 h a d b e e n k ille d , w o u n d e d , o r le f t b e h i n d , a n d 30 F o r d s a n d a r m o r e d c a rs h a d b e e n a b a n d o n e d .127 I n v ie w o f t h e p u b li c it y l a t e r g iv e n to t h e a ffa ir o f t h e “ B a k u C o m ­ m is s a r s ,” i t s h o u l d a ls o b e n o t e d a t th i s p o i n t t h a t S h a u m i a n a n d t h e m e m b e r s o f h is f o r m e r g o v e r n m e n t in B a k u , w h o h a d b e e n ja ile d d u r ­ in g t h e B r itis h o c c u p a t io n , h a d b e e n re le a s e d ju s t b e f o r e t h e e v a c u a ­ ti o n a n d h a d le f t b y s h i p fo r A s tr a k h a n . E n r o u t e , h o w e v e r , t h e s h i p ’s c re w a n d a B r itis h o ffic e r o n b o a r d o b j e c t e d t o b e i n g t a k e n t o a B o l­ s h e v ik - h e ld p o r t a n d p e r s u a d e d t h e c a p ta in to p u t in a t K r a s n o v o d s k . T h e r e , o n S e p te m b e r 16, t h e B o ls h e v ik “ c o m m is s a r s ,” s o m e 2 6 in a ll, w e re a r r e s te d a n d a g a in ja ile d u n d e r t h e o r d e r s o f t h e to w n c o m m a n ­ d a n t , K u n . G e n e r a l M a lle s o n , i n f o r m e d o f t h e s i t u a t i o n o n S e p t e m b e r 18, a d v is e d t h a t th e y b e p u t u n d e r B r it is h g u a r d a n d tr a n s f e r r e d t o I n d i a as h o s ta g e s to b e e x c h a n g e d f o r B r it is h s u b j e c ts b e i n g h e l d b y t h e S o v ie t G o v e r n m e n t . H e i m m e d i a te l y o r d e r e d C a p t a i n T e a g u e J o n e s , h is r e p r e s e n ta t iv e in A s h k h a b a d , t o c o n v e y h is r e c o m m e n d a ­ ti o n to t h e a u th o r i t i e s in b o t h K r a s n o v o d s k a n d A s h k h a b a d . K u n , w h o a p p a r e n t ly fe a r e d d is tu r b a n c e s in K r a s n o v o d s k , h a d m e a n w h i l e re s o lv e d to b e rid o f h is p r is o n e r s as s o o n as p o s s ib le a n d h a d w ir e d A s h k h a b a d r e q u e s tin g t h e i r t r a n s f e r to t h e l a t t e r c ity i m m e d i a te l y . W h e n T e a g u e - J o n e s in q u i r e d o f t h e m a t t e r a f t e r r e c e iv in g M a l l e s o n ’s in s tr u c t io n s , h e f o u n d t h a t F u n t i k o v a n d h is a s s o c ia te s in A s h k h a b a d w e re c o n s i d e r in g K u n ’s a p p e a l b u t w e re n o t y e t p r e p a r e d t o m a k e a d e c is io n . U n d e r s t a n d i n g th i s t o b e t h e ca se , T e a g u e - J o n e s f a i le d t o p re s s t h e m a t t e r a n y f u r t h e r a t t h a t ti m e . I n fa c t, h o w e v e r, a f t e r m e e t i n g w ith h is g o v e r n m e n t a n d le a v in g t h e q u e s t i o n u n r e s o lv e d , F u n t i k o v r e p o r te d l y b e c a m e i n t o x i c a t e d a n d s u d d e n l y d e c id e d to a c t o n h is o w n . T h a t s a m e n i g h t h e w ir e d o r d e r s to K ra s n o v o d s k t h a t t h e B o ls h e v ik p r is o n e r s w e re t o b e s h o t a t o n c e . T h u s o n th e n i g h t o f S e p t e m b e r 19 t h e 26 B a k u c o m m is s a r s w e r e lo a d e d o n a tr a in , o s te n s ib ly fo r tr a n s f e r t o A s h k h a b a d , w e r e t a k e n w e ll o u t i n t o t h e d e s e r t, a n d in t h e e a rly m o r n i n g o f S e p t e m b e r 20

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w e re s h o t “ t r y in g to e s c a p e .” I t w as n o t u n t i l t h e fo llo w in g e v e n in g , w h e n T e a g u e - J o n e s c a s u a lly in q u i r e d o f t h e m a t t e r a g a in , t h a t h e l e a r n e d w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d a n d r e p o r t e d i t to M a lle s o n . M a lle s o n p r o t e s t e d v e h e m e n tly , b u t i t w as to o la t e t o c h a n g e t h e f a t e o f t h e p r is o n e r s b y t h e n . S e v e ra l m o n t h s l a t e r a S o c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n a r y jo u r ­ n a li s t , V . A . C h a i k i n , g o t t h e s to r y fr o m t h e n o w d e p o s e d a n d im p r is ­ o n e d F u n t i k o v a n d p u b li s h e d t h e l a t t e r 's e v id e n t ly v e n g e f u l c h a rg e t h a t t h e s h o o t i n g w as t h e w o rk o f t h e B r itis h . W h e n th i s v e rs io n r e a c h e d M o s c o w , t h e S o v ie t G o v e r n m e n t q u i t e n a tu r a ll y m a d e t h e c a s e a c a u s e c é lè b r e o f B o ls h e v ik p r o p a g a n d a a g a in s t t h e B r it is h i n t e r ­ v e n t i o n a n d th o s e w h o m

i t a id e d . I t w a s a p p a r e n t l y F u n t i k o v o n

w h o m t h e m a j o r r e s p o n s ib i li ty r e s ts , a n d h is i n e p t h a n d l i n g o f affairs in g e n e r a l le d t o h is r e m o v a l f r o m t h e g o v e r n m e n t, p r o b a b l y a t B r i t ­ is h s u g g e s tio n , l a t e r in t h e y e a r. B u t t o th i s d a y i t is n o t o n ly h e b u t t h e B r it is h w h o a r e b l a m e d f o r t h e m u r d e r o f t h e B a k u B o ls h e v ik s in S o v ie t a c c o u n t s .128 A f t e r t h e e v a c u a t io n o f B a k u , B ic h e r a k o v p r o v i d e d t h e o n ly r e m a in ­ in g “ A lli e d ” f o o t h o l d in T r a n s c a u c a s ia . H a v in g m o v e d n o r t h w a r d , r e t r e a t i n g b e f o r e N u r i P a s h a 's a r m y , h e h a d e s t a b li s h e d h im s e l f in t h e p o r t c ity o f P e tr o v s k . F r o m t h e r e h e h o p e d to g a t h e r e n o u g h s u p p o r t t o ta k e a ll o f D a g e s ta n w i t h t h e h e l p o f h is b r o t h e r , G e o r g ii B ic h e r a ­ k o v , a S o c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n a r y m e m b e r o f t h e s o v ie t in M o z d o k . T h e l a t t e r w a s n o m i n a ll y c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e T e r e k P e o p le 's S o v ie t g o v e r n ­ m e n t in V la d ik a v k a z , b u t G e o r g ii, ju s t as h is b r o t h e r , h a d o n ly b e e n p la y in g a t b e in g a n a lly o f t h e B o ls h e v ik s a n d h a d s e c r e tly e s t a b ­ l i s h e d c o n t a c t w ith t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y . T h e tw o B ic h e ra k o v s t h u s h o p e d to ta k e a m a j o r p a r t in c le a r in g t h e C a u c a s u s a re a a n d w o u ld p r o b a b l y h a v e o p e n e d t h e w a y f o r t h e V o l u n t e e r s if t h e i r p la n s h a d s u c c e e d e d .129 G e n e r a l B ic h e r a k o v 's p o s i ti o n , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w as s e r io u s ly c o m p l i c a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n ti- B o ls h e v ik fo rc e s in t h e a re a o f h is o p e r a t io n s , th o s e u n d e r N a z h m u d i n G o ts i n s k ii a n d U z u n H a c i, w e re M o s le m fo rc e s w h ic h h a d a p p e a l e d to N u r i P a s h a f o r a id a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s . S o lo n g as h e w as k n o w n as a “ s o v ie t” m i li ta r y c o m m a n d e r f ig h ti n g N u r i P a s h a , B ic h e r a k o v t h u s f o u n d h i m ­ s e lf a ls o f i g h ti n g t h e a n ti-B o ls h e v ik s . T h i s a w k w a rd s i t u a t i o n w as p a r ­ tia lly re s o lv e d w h e n B ic h e r a k o v re v e a le d h is t r u e c h a r a c t e r a n d s u c ­ c e e d e d in n e g o t i a t i n g a n a g r e e m e n t w ith t h e M o s le m P r i n c e N u h B e k T a r k o v s k ii. T a r k o v s k ii t h e n s h i f t e d h is a llia n c e fr o m N u r i P a s h a to B ic h e r a k o v , a n d a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g w as w o r k e d o u t a c c o r d in g to w h ic h

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B ic h e ra k o v w o u ld c o n tr o l t h e c o a s t a n d T a r k o v s k ii t h e i n t e r i o r .130 H o w e v e r, b y O c t o b e r B ic h e r a k o v 's tr o o p s in P e tr o v s k a n d D e r b e n t w e re o n t h e p o i n t o f b e in g d r iv e n i n t o t h e se a . A lt h o u g h t h e T u r k s o fficia lly s u r r e n d e r e d t o t h e A llie s b y t h e A r m i s ti c e o f M u d r o s o n O c t o b e r 30, N u r i P a s h a c o n t i n u e d t h e w a r o n h is o w n . C o n s e q u e n t l y o n ly d ir e c t a id fr o m t h e B r it is h c o u ld sa v e B ic h e ra k o v . T h e B r it is h h a d in f a c t b e e n w o rk in g d ilig e n t ly to p r e p a r e n e w tr o o p s a n d t o o u t ­ fit a “ fle e t” in E n z e li a n d K r a s n o v o d s k u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d o f C o m ­ m o d o r e D . T . N o r r is , b u t th i s w as a v e ry d if f ic u lt p ro c e s s s i n c e t h e r e w e re fe w s h ip s a v a ila b le . D e s p it e t h e o b s ta c le s , in c l u d i n g R u s s i a n o b je c tio n s , a s m a ll flo tilla h a d b e e n o r g a n iz e d b y la t e O c t o b e r a n d w e n t to B ic h e r a k o v ’s a id .131 W h e n t h e B r it is h r e a c h e d P e tr o v s k o n N o v e m b e r 6, h o w e v e r, t h e c ity w as a lr e a d y u n d e r h e a v y a r t il le r y fire , a n d th e r e f o r e B ic h e ra k o v w as a d v is e d t o e v a c u a te . A t B ic h e r a k o v ’s in s is te n c e a d e c is io n o n th i s w as p o s t p o n e d so t h a t a m ix e d A llie d d e le g a tio n c o u ld se e k a tr u c e w i t h N u r i P a s h a , b u t th i s p r o v e d t o b e a h o p e le s s g e s tu r e . T h e T u r k s c la im e d to b e “ i n s t r u c t o r s ” in

th e

a r m y o f t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i R e p u b li c a n d r e f u s e d t o c e a s e h o s t il it ie s s in c e A z e r b a id z h a n

“had

d e c la r e d w a r u p o n

B ic h e r a k o v .”

C o n se­

q u e n t l y B ic h e r a k o v ’s tr o o p s w e re o b lig e d to a b a n d o n t h e i r p o s i ti o n s a n d to r e t u r n to E n z e li w i t h t h e B r i t i s h .132 B r itis h e ffo rts in t h e n o r t h e r n C a u c a s u s w e re t h u s , as in B a k u , b r o u g h t to a n u n s u c c e s s f u l c o n c lu s io n . A re n e w a l o f t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n w as o n ly a fe w d a y s a w a y , b u t , s o m e w h a t ir o n ic a lly , t h e a s s e m b li n g o f a la r g e r fo r c e u n d e r M a j o r G e n e r a l W . M . T h o m s o n in n o r t h e r n P e rs ia fo r th is p u r p o s e h a d b e e n a c c o m p lis h e d o n ly o n t h e v e ry e v e o f t h e e n d o f W o r l d W a r I. T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f th i s f o r c e i n t o T r a n s ­ c a u c a s ia w o u ld s till b e n e c e s s a ry to e x p e l t h e T u r k s a n d t o r e s to r e o r d e r , a n d t h e F r e n c h h a d a lr e a d y in O c t o b e r b e g u n s i m i la r p r e p a r a ­ tio n s fo r o p e r a t io n s o f t h e s a m e n a t u r e in t h e U k r a in e , b u t t h e e n d o f t h e w a r w as b o u n d t o c o n f r o n t th i s n e w i n t e r v e n t i o n w i t h a d if f e r e n t s e t o f p r o b le m s . O n e y e a r a f t e r t h e B o ls h e v ik r e v o l u ti o n , t h e A llie s h a d s till n o t re a lly s u c c e e d e d in r e o p e n i n g t h e e a s t e r n f r o n t , a n d n o w t h e v e ry n e e d fo r s u c h a f r o n t w o u ld b e s u b j e c t t o q u e s t i o n . A t le a s t, h o w e v e r, i t c a n b e s a id t h a t A llie d e ff o rts u p t o th i s p o i n t h a d h e l p e d to r e s tr ic t, if n o t to s t o p , t h e e x p a n s io n o f G e r m a n a n d T u r k i s h in f lu ­ e n c e a n d h a d to a d e g r e e l i m i t e d t h e tr a n s f e r o f m e n a n d m a t e r i a ls f r o m R u s s ia to t h e w e s t.

PART

II

ALLIED INTERVENTION IN SOUTH RUSSIA

3:

THE

POST-WAR I N T E R V E N T I O N

I n v ie w o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e A llie d in t e r v e n t i o n in R u s s ia h a d b e e n u n d e r t a k e n la r g e ly in o r d e r to c o n t i n u e t h e w a r a g a in s t t h e C e n t r a l P o w e rs , lo g ic w o u ld s e e m to s u g g e s t t h a t i t s h o u l d h a v e e n d e d in N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 8 , w ith t h e fin a l d e f e a t o f G e r m a n y . I n f a c t, h o w e v e r, t h e e n d o f t h e E u r o p e a n w a r o n ly b r o u g h t a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f A llie d e ff o rts in R u s s ia , a n d , i n d e e d , a c o m m i t m e n t t o m i li ta r y a c ti o n in t h e S o u t h f a r b e y o n d w h a t h a d b e e n t h e c a se e a rlie r . T h i s w as in p a r t s i m p l y a r e s u lt o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e A llie d P o w e rs h a d b e e n u n a b l e to c o m m i t la r g e n u m b e r s o f tr o o p s to t h e m a n y o b lig a tio n s a s s u m e d p r io r t o t h e e n d o f t h e w a r, b u t i t w as a ls o a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e c o n v ic tio n t h a t t h e w a r a g a in s t t h e C e n t r a l P o w e rs w o u ld n o t b e c o m p l e t e u n t i l t h e fo rc e s u n le a s h e d b y t h e m in R u s s ia — B o ls h e v is m a n d a n a r c h y — w e re a ls o e l i m i n a t e d o r a t le a s t e ff e c tiv e ly r e s tr i c te d . T h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e in t e r v e n t i o n in N o v e m b e r 1918 d id n o t, th e r e f o r e , in v o lv e a s u d d e n s h i f t o f p u r p o s e f r o m d e f e a t in g G e r m a n y to d e f e a t i n g t h e B o ls h e v ik s . T h e c h a n g e o f t e n d e s c r ib e d as t h a t fr o m a “ l i t t l e ” i n t e r v e n t i o n t o a “ b ig ” in t e r v e n t i o n w as re a lly a v e ry g r a d u a l a n d ra th e r o b scu re ch an g e. T o

t h e A llie d P o w e rs , t h e B o ls h e v ik s

a n d t h e G e r m a n s w e re b o t h e n e m ie s w h o h a d w o r k e d h a n d in h a n d a g a in s t t h e E n t e n t e . I n t h e ey es o f A llie d le a d e rs , t h e w a r a g a in s t B o ls h e v is m w a s, o f c o u rs e , a s tr u g g le a g a in s t a s u b v e r s iv e id e o lo g y a n d m i l i t a n t r e v o l u ti o n is m , b u t th e s e s a m e le a d e rs m a i n t a i n e d t h a t i t w as n o t th i s so m u c h as t h e id e n t if ic a t io n o f B o ls h e v ik p o lic y w ith G e r m a n a im s w h ic h le d t h e A llie s t o c o n t i n u e t o d o b a t t l e . I t w a s, th u s , n o t s u r p r is in g t h a t e v e n a f t e r t h e A r m i s ti c e t h e i n t e r ­ v e n t i o n c o n t i n u e d t o b e s p o k e n o f in t h e c o n t e x t o f W o r l d W a r I, in te r m s o f lo y a lty to i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m i t m e n t s v e rs u s a n a r c h y . O v e r a m o n t h a f t e r t h e e n d o f t h e w a r F r e n c h F o r e ig n M i n i s t e r P ic h o n e x p la i n e d t o t h e C h a m b e r o f D e p u t i e s :

73

74

The Volunteer Army

R u s s ia , o u r ally , w as w ith d r a w n fr o m t h e w a r b y t h e a c t i o n o f t h e B o ls h e v ik G o v e r n m e n t w h ic h c o n q u e r e d h e r . S h e h a s to s s e d a s id e a ll t h e c o n tr a c ts w h ic h h a d b e e n m a d e w i t h u s a n d a n n u l l e d t h e o b lig a tio n s to w h ic h s h e s u b s c r ib e d . T h e n s h e s ig n e d in h e r o w n n a m e a s h a m e f u l t r e a ty w h ic h d e liv e r e d h e r i n t o t h e h a n d s o f G e r m a n y a n d A u s tr ia - H u n g a r y . . . . H o w c o u ld w e , o u r a llie s a n d o u rs e lv e s , h a v e r e m a in e d im p a s s iv e in t h e p r e s e n c e o f s u c h a n a c t w h ic h c o n s t i t u t e d . . . fo r o u r e n e m ie s a n u n d e n i a b l e v ic to r y o f in c a lc u la b le c o n s e q u e n c e s ? . . . W h y h a v e w e s e n t tr o o p s to [R u ss ia ]? W e a n d o u r a llie s h a v e d o n e so fr o m t h e b e g in n i n g to p r e v e n t t h e w ith d r a w a l o f G e r m a n tr o o p s d e s t in e d t o b e s e n t to t h e W e s t e r n f r o n t , t o c o m b a t G e r ­ m a n in f il tr a t io n a n d t h e a s s a u lt b y G e r m a n y o n R u s s ia , t o sa v e t h e C z e c h o s lo v a k s , o u r a llie s t h r e a t e n e d w i t h d e s t r u c t i o n b y t h e G e r m a n s a n d t h e B o ls h e v ik s , t o c o m e to t h e a id o f a s s o c ia tio n s a n d g ro u p s in R u s s ia d e v o te d to t h e E n t e n t e a n d t o p e r m i t e le ­ m e n t s f a i th f u l to o u r a llia n c e a n d r e s p e c tf u l o f o u r c o n t r a c t s . . . to o r g a n iz e th e m s e lv e s e ff e c tiv e ly a n d f i g h t a g a in s t r u i n a n d a n ­ a rc h y , t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f w h ic h c a n e x te n d t o o u rs e lv e s . N o t h ­ in g in a ll th is c o n s t it u te s a n y i n t e r f e r e n c e in t h e i n t e r n a l a ffa irs o f R u s s ia . . . . W e h a v e s im p ly d e f e n d e d o u rs e lv e s , lo o k i n g o u t f o r o u r v ita l in t e r e s t s in th i s c o u n t r y w h e r e w e h a v e tie s o f g r e a t im p o r t a n c e . . . .* W h a t e v e r ju s tif ic a tio n t h e r e m a y h a v e b e e n f o r s tr e s s in g c o n t i n u i t y as a “ l e g i ti m i z in g ” f a c t o r in t h e in t e r v e n t i o n , h o w e v e r , s u c h s t a t e ­ m e n t s e v a d e d t h e re a l q u e s t io n . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p o i n t w a s t h a t i n t e r v e n t i o n a f t e r t h e e n d o f t h e w a r w i t h G e r m a n y w a s a d if f e r e n t in t e r v e n t i o n p re c is e ly b e c a u s e its p u r p o s e w as n o lo n g e r s im p ly to d e f e a t G e r m a n y . A c tin g d ir e c tl y in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e R u s s i a n r e v o ­ l u t i o n a n d civ il w a r w o u ld r e q u i r e a m u c h b r o a d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f p o lic y q u e s t io n s a n d g o a ls t h a n h a d b e e n t h e c a se b e f o r e N o v e m b e r 1918. S o lo n g as t h e W o r l d W a r h a d b e e n t h e fo c u s o f a ll d e c is io n ­ m a k in g , t h e A llie d P o w e rs c o u ld a v o id s e r io u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f R u s ­ s ia n p r o b le m s as s u c h , b u t w h e n t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n h a d in d e e d b e c o m e t h a t o f o v e r t h r o w in g t h e B o ls h e v ik g o v e r n m e n t , i t w as n o lo n g e r p o s s ib le to c a rry o u t s u c h a p o lic y s u c c e s s f u lly w i t h o u t fa c in g u p to b o t h t h e f a c t o f i n t e r f e r e n c e in t h e i n t e r n a l a ffa irs o f R u s s ia a n d t h e n e e d f o r c le a r a n d firm d e c is io n s o n t h e c o u r s e w h ic h t h a t in t e r f e r e n c e s h o u l d ta k e . “ A p e a c e w h ic h w as m a d e in t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r ld a n d l e f t R u s s ia in a s t a te o f civ il w a r, w i t h a n o d io u s , a b o m i n a b l e g o v e r n m e n t ,”

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P i c h o n d e c la r e d , “ w o u ld n o t b e a d u r a b l e p e a c e , w o u ld n o t b e a p e a c e o f j u s ti c e .” B u t w h a t w e r e t h e a lt e r n a t iv e s t o t h a t “ a b o m i n a b l e ” B o l­ s h e v ik g o v e r n m e n t? T h i s w as t h e q u e s t i o n l e f t w i t h o u t a d e f in ite a n s w e r , a l t h o u g h i t w as f u n d a m e n t a l t o a n a d e q u a t e A llie d p o lic y . D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t i t w as n o lo n g e r e n o u g h s im p ly to b a s e A llie d p o lic y o n t h e p r o p o s iti o n o f a id i n g “ a llie s ” a g a in s t G e r m a n y , t h e “ n e w ” i n t e r v e n t i o n w as a p p a r e n t l y t o b e o n ly a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e o ld , a n d i t w as p re c is e ly th i s w h ic h w o u ld u lt im a te l y b e its u n d o in g . W h e n , o n O c t o b e r 7, 1 9 1 8 , C l e m e n c e a u firs t is s u e d o rd e r s i n i t i a t ­ in g F r e n c h m i li ta r y i n t e r v e n t i o n in S o u th R u s s ia , h is i n s tr u c t io n s to G e n e r a l H e n r i B e r t h e l o t , c o m m a n d i n g F r e n c h fo rc e s in R u m a n i a , w e re s im p ly t o m a k e c o n ta c ts w ith R u s s ia n g r o u p s w h ic h h a d r e ­ m a i n e d lo y a l t o t h e A llie s in t h e w a r a g a in s t G e r m a n y .2 W h e n , t h r e e w e e k s l a t e r o n O c t o b e r 2 7 , C l e m e n c e a u s e n t G e n e r a l F r a n c h e t d ’E sp e re y , c o m m a n d e r o f A llie d fo rc e s in t h e e a s t, a m o r e d e ta i le d p la n o f m i li ta r y o p e r a t io n s in S o u t h R u s s ia , h e s t a t e d t h a t t h e s e o p e r a ­ ti o n s w o u ld b e a im e d n o t o n ly a t G e r m a n y b u t a ls o a t t h e “ is o la tio n o f R u s s ia n b o ls h e v is m w ith a v ie w to b r i n g in g a b o u t its d e s t r u c t i o n ,” b u t h e s till d id n o t p r o v id e a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n th i s n e g a tiv e s h e ll o f a p o lic y to g u id e F r e n c h f o r c e s .3 T h e B r itis h , o f c o u rs e , f a c e d t h e s a m e p r o b l e m . T h e A r m is tic e in N o v e m b e r ( i n C h u r c h i l l 's w o r d s ) “ h a d a lt e r e d a ll R u s s ia n v a lu e s a n d r e la tio n s . T h e A llie s h a d o n ly e n t e r e d R u s s ia w i t h r e l u c ta n c e a n d as a n o p e r a t i o n o f w a r. B u t t h e w a r w as o v e r. . . . T h e r e f o r e e v e ry a r g u ­ m e n t w h ic h h a d le d t o in t e r v e n t i o n h a d d is a p p e a r e d .” 4 L lo y d G e o r g e la t e r e c h o e d th i s p o i n t w h e n h e n o t e d t h a t w i t h t h e e n d o f W o r l d W a r I “ e v e ry p r a c t ic a l re a s o n f o r c o n t i n u i n g o u r c o s tly m i li ta r y e ffo rts in R u s s ia d is a p p e a r e d .” 5 Y e t t h e B r it is h g o v e r n m e n t d id n o t d e c id e t o e n d t h e in t e r v e n t i o n . O n t h e c o n tr a r y , o n N o v e m b e r 14 i t d e c id e d to g r a n t e x te n s iv e a id to D e n ik in , a n d a t t h e e n d o f N o v e m b e r it d is ­ p a t c h e d to its r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s a s t a t e m e n t o n t h e g e n e r a l li n e o f p o lic y in R u s s ia c o n t a i n i n g t h e fo llo w in g li s t o f im m e d i a t e p u r p o s e s : T o r e m a in in o c c u p a t i o n a t M u r m a n s k a n d A r c h a n g e l f o r t h e t i m e b e in g ; t o c o n t i n u e t h e S ib e r ia n E x p e d it io n ; to tr y to p e r s u a d e t h e C z e c h s to r e m a in in W e s t e r n S ib e r ia ; to o c c u p y t h e B a k u B a t u m ra ilw a y ; to g iv e G e n e r a l D e n i k i n a t N o v o ro s s iis k a ll p o s s i­ b le h e l p in t h e w a y o f m i li ta r y m a te r ia l; to s u p p l y t h e B a ltic S ta te s w i t h m i li ta r y m a t e r i a ls .0 T h e s e o b je c ts , as C h u r c h i l l h a s n o t e d , “ n o t o n ly c o m p r is e d e x is tin g

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a lr e a d y a c q u ir e d w o u ld “ la s t b e y o n d t h e o c c a s io n s w h ic h g a v e t h e m b i r t h . ” T h e A llie s w e re in d e e d r e s p o n s ib le f o r t h e “ n e w a n ti- B o ls h e v ik a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s ” w h ic h h a d d e v e lo p e d “ u n d e r t h e s h e l t e r ” o f A llie d a id . Y e t, a n d th i s w as t h e c ru x o f t h e m a t t e r , h e a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e B r itis h g o v e r n m e n t ( j u s t as t h e F r e n c h ) d id n o t as y e t k n o w h o w a id to s u c h a n ti- B o ls h e v ik fo rc e s w o u ld b e h a n d l e d in t h e f u t u r e . “ H o w s u c h a p o lic y w ill u lt i m a t e l y d e v e lo p , w e c a n n o t y e t s a y ,” h e n o t e d . A ll t h a t w as c le a r w as t h a t w h e r e tr o o p s h a d b e e n c o m m i t t e d t h e r e w o u ld b e a n e f f o r t m a d e t o u s e t h e m “ to t h e b e s t a d v a n ta g e ,” a n d w h e r e n o tr o o p s w e re to b e s e n t t h e p o lic y w o u ld b e “ t o s u p p l y a r m s a n d m o n e y .” A p o lic y o f th i s s o r t, B a lf o u r o w n e d , w o u ld “ n e c e s s a rily s e e m h a l t i n g a n d i m p e r f e c t ,” b u t it w as a ll, in h is o p i n i o n a n d t h a t o f L lo y d G e o r g e , t h a t B r it a in c o u ld d o “ o r o u g h t in e x is tin g c i r c u m ­ s ta n c e s to a t t e m p t . ” 7 S u c h w as t h e s t a tu s o f A llie d p o lic y in N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 8 . O ffic ia lly l i t t l e r e c o g n i ti o n w as g iv e n t o t h e b a s ic c h a n g e w h ic h h a d o c c u r r e d w ith t h e e n d o f t h e W o r l d W a r . O n t h e c o n tr a ry ’, e v e ry e f f o r t w as m a d e to b y p a s s t h e is s u e b y l e t t i n g p o lic y a n d a c t i o n d r i f t o n w i t h n o b a sis o t h e r t h a n t h a t w h ic h h a d in f a c t e v a p o r a t e d . E v e n t h e e x t e n ­ s io n o f t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n t h r o u g h t h e s e n d i n g o f A llie d tr o o p s t o k e y p o in t s in t h e i r r e s p e c tiv e z o n e s w as t o b e t r e a t e d as m e r e ly a f o llo w - u p to t h e A r m is tic e , a n a c ti o n c h ie fly d e s ig n e d to c o v e r t h e w ith d r a w a l o f G e r m a n a n d T u r k i s h fo rc e s. I f as a r e s u lt t h e r e w as a f u r t h e r d e v e l­ o p m e n t o f a n ti- B o ls h e v ik a r m ie s a n d

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a g a in s t t h e S o v ie t c e n te r , th i s w o u ld b e t h e a ffa ir o f t h e R u s s ia n s . S u c h e ff o rts w o u ld b e s u p p o r t e d in o r d e r to h o n o r p re v io u s c o m m i t ­ m e n t s , b u t n o a t t e m p t w o u ld b e m a d e to “ i n t e r v e n e in d o m e s ti c a ff a irs ” in t h e s e n s e o f tr y in g to d i r e c t a n ti- B o ls h e v ik a c tio n s o r t o p a r t i c i p a t e d ir e c tl y in s u c h m ilita r y o p e r a t io n s . I n a c tu a lit y t h e r e w as t h u s n o c le a r p o lic y o f in t e r v e n t i o n o t h e r t h a n t h a t a s s o c ia te d w ith t h e f a c t o f A llie d p r e s e n c e in R u s s ia . T h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts h a d n o p la n s f o r a c c e p t i n g t h e b u r d e n s w h ic h a t h o r o u g h g o in g p o lic y o f i n t e r ­ v e n tio n

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C l e m e n c e a u ’s d e c is io n t o e x t e n d F r e n c h m i li ta r y o p e r a t io n s i n t o R u s s ia fo llo w e d u p o n s u c c e s s fu l A llie d o p e r a t io n s in R u m a n i a . T h e c a p i t u l a t i o n o f B u lg a r ia in S e p t e m b e r 1918 a n d t h e re - e n tr y o f R u ­ m a n i a i n t o t h e w a r o n t h e A llie d s id e in N o v e m b e r h a d b r o u g h t A llie d fo rc e s i n t o a p o s i ti o n to m a k e d i r e c t c o n t a c t w ith p ro - A llie d e le m e n ts in S o u t h R u s s ia . I n re s p o n s e to C l e m e n c e a u ’s p r o p o s a l o f s e n d i n g tr o o p s i n t o t h e U k r a in e , t h e A llie d t h e a t e r c o m m a n d e r , G e n e r a l F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e r e y , w as h im s e l f q u i t e u n e n t h u s i a s t i c . O p p o s in g a n y d iv e r ­ s io n o f tr o o p s f r o m t h e B a lk a n s , h e c o m p l a in e d to C l e m e n c e a u t h a t t h e i r n u m b e r s w e re i n a d e q u a t e a n d t h e i r m o r a le to o lo w t o u n d e r t a k e a n i n t e r v e n t i o n in t h a t “ h u g e fr o z e n c o u n t r y ,” R u s s ia .8 H o w e v e r , F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e r e y ’s p e s s im is m w as m o r e t h a n m a t c h e d b y t h e o p t i ­ m i s m o f G e n e r a l B e r t h e l o t , w h o c o u ld p o i n t o u t t h a t a c lo s e r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p a lr e a d y e x is te d b e tw e e n A llie d r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s in t h e t e m p o r a r y R u m a n i a n c a p it a l a t Jassy a n d G e n e r a l D . G . S h c h e r b a c h e v , w h o in t u r n w as in c lo s e to u c h w ith t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y .9 T h e r e f o r e , w h ile F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e r e y r e t a in e d g e n e r a l c o m m a n d o f o p e r a t io n s , t h e s p e ­ cific ta s k o f p r e p a r i n g t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n w as t u r n e d o v e r to B e r t h e l o t o n N o v e m b e r 2. O n N o v e m b e r 3 F r e n c h n a v a l fo rc e s w e re o r d e r e d t o p r e p a r e t o e s c o r t tr o o p s to O d e s s a a n d t o e s ta b lis h lia is o n w i t h t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y .30 W h i l e F r e n c h a c ti o n w as th u s b e in g p r e p a r e d , s o m e i m p o r t a n t e v e n ts w e re a ls o ta k i n g p la c e in t h e U k r a in e w ith v ita l im p li c a ti o n s f o r t h e A llie s. S k o r o p a d s k ii’s re g im e p r o v e d t o b e a s o u r c e o f s e rio u s c o m p l ic a t io n s . B y O c t o b e r a f u ll-b lo w n c risis h a d d e v e lo p e d in t h e g o v e r n m e n t , a n d S k o r o p a d s k ii h a d b e e n fo r c e d to u n d e r t a k e e ffo rts to f o r m a n e w c a b i n e t a t t h e v e ry t i m e t h a t h is G e r m a n s u p p o r t b e ­ g a n to c r u m b le . A n a t t e m p t to o r g a n iz e a c o a litio n g o v e r n m e n t w ith t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e U k r a in i a n N a t i o n a l U n i o n le d b y V y n n y -

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c h e n k o fa ile d , a n d th e n c e f o r w a r d S k o r o p a d s k ii f o u n d h i m s e l f f a c e d w ith b o t h a r e n e w e d o p p o s i ti o n fr o m t h e n a t i o n a l i s t L e f t a n d t h e li k e ­ li h o o d o f a r e s u m p ti o n o f h o s t il it ie s o n t h e p a r t o f t h e R e d A rm y . T h e o n ly s o l u ti o n , i t a p p e a r e d , la y in p e r s u a d in g t h e G e r m a n s t o r e m a in in c o n tr o l u n ti l, i t w as h o p e d , A llie d fo rc e s c o u ld r e p la c e t h e m . O n O c t o b e r 22 F o r e ig n M i n i s t e r D o r o s h e n k o w a s, t h e r e f o r e , d is ­ p a t c h e d to B e r lin to p le a d th i s p o i n t w i t h t h e G e r m a n g o v e r n m e n t . T h e r e , h o w e v e r, h e o b t a i n e d o n ly t h e s y m p a t h e t i c a d v ic e t o a p p e a l a t o n c e to t h e A llie s. T h i s h e t h e n h o p e d to d o , e i t h e r t h r o u g h t h e A llie d r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s in Jassy o r t h r o u g h t h e U k r a in i a n m is s io n in S w itz e r la n d u n d e r E . K . L u k a s e v ic h .11 R e a liz in g t h a t h is g o v e r n m e n t w as h a n d i c a p p e d b y its i d e n t if ic a ­ ti o n as a “ s e p a r a ti s t” a n d p r o - G e r m a n r e g im e , S k o r o p a d s k ii t o o k s te p s to c r e a te a n e w im a g e fa v o r a b le f o r t h e A llie s. A n e w g o v e r n m e n t , h e a d e d b y S. N . G e r b e l, w as e s t a b li s h e d a n d im m e d i a t e l y a p p e a l e d to t h e A llie s o n t h e p l a t f o r m o f r e u n i f ic a tio n o f R u s s ia a n d r e p u d i a ­ ti o n o f t h e n a ti o n a li s t c a u s e .12 F o ll o w i n g r e p o r ts f r o m a U k r a i n i a n m is s io n s e n t to Jassy t h a t t h e A llie d m i n is te r s w o u ld a p p r o v e a id t o t h e U k r a in e o n ly if a c o m p l e te b r e a k w e re m a d e w i t h t h e p a s t , t h e H e t m a n is s u e d o n N o v e m b e r 14 a p r o c l a m a t i o n c a llin g t h e A llie s t h e t r u e f r ie n d s o f R u s s ia a n d d e c la r in g t h a t t h e “ A ll- R u s s ia n S t a t e ” m u s t b e r e s to r e d “ as a f e d e r a t i o n .” 13 E v e n w h ile S k o r o p a d s k ii w as t h u s f r a n ­ tic a lly s e e k in g A llie d a id , h o w e v e r , h is G e r m a n s u p p o r t w a s e v a p o r a t ­ in g , a n d V y n n y c h e n k o 's N a t i o n a l U n i o n s e c r e tly f o r m e d a fiv e -m a n D i r e c t o r a t e w h ic h d e c la r e d w a r o n h i m in t h e n a m e o f r e v o l u ti o n a r y d e m o c r a c y . S im o n P e tl iu r a , w h o to o k c o m m a n d o f t h e D i r e c t o r a t e 's a r m e d fo rc e s, e v e n m a n a g e d to c o n c lu d e a n a r m is t ic e w i t h s o m e o f t h e G e r m a n tr o o p s o v e r t h e h e a d s o f t h e G e r m a n C o m m a n d . 14 W h i l e th e s e e v e n ts w e re in p ro g r e s s , G e n e r a l S h c h e r b a c h e v h a d s e iz e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f e s t a b li s h in g c lo s e r e l a ti o n s w i t h t h e F r e n c h c o m m a n d e r , G e n e r a l B e r t h e l o t , w h o h a d ju s t r e t u r n e d t o R u m a n i a . S h c h e r b a c h e v ’s s h o r t- liv e d a s s o c ia tio n w i t h t h e U k r a in i a n R a d a e a r l ie r h a d e n d e d w ith t h e s i g n a tu r e o f t h e p e a c e t r e a ty w i t h G e r m a n y . S in c e t h a t t i m e h e h a d r e m a in e d in Ja ssy a c ti n g as a n u n o ff ic ia l r e p r e s e n t a ­ tiv e o f R u s s ia n in t e r e s t s , a lo n g w i t h t h e R u s s i a n a m b a s s a d o r , P o k le v s k ii-K o z e l, a n d o th e r s . A s f o r m e r R u s s ia n c o m m a n d e r o n t h e R u m a ­ n ia n f r o n t, S h c h e r b a c h e v h a d a g r e e d t o

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s u b s e q u e n t d if fic u ltie s in r e g a in in g p o s s e s s io n o f t h e R u s s ia n s u p p lie s t h e r e h a d p u t S h c h e r b a c h e v in a n a w k w a rd p o s i ti o n a n d m a d e i t a ll t h e m o r e e s s e n tia l f o r h i m t o o b t a i n A llie d s u p p o r t . E v e n m o r e im p o r ­ t a n t , h o w e v e r , S h c h e r b a c h e v h a d u s e d t h e t i m e p r i o r to B e r t h e l o t 's a rr iv a l t o c o n s u l t w i t h le a d e rs o f t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y a n d to g e t h e r w i t h t h e m h a d a g r e e d o n a p la n t o i d e n t if y t h e A llie d i n t e r v e n t i o n as c lo s e ly as p o s s ib le w i t h t h e A r m y a n d to p r e s e n t its p ro p o s a ls d ir e c tl y t o A llie d a u t h o r i t i e s .15 W h e n B e r t h e l o t a r r iv e d in B u c h a r e s t o n N o v e m b e r 15, S h c h e r b a ­ c h e v w a s, t h e r e f o r e , p r e p a r e d t o p r e s e n t c a r e f u lly o u t l i n e d r e c o m m e n ­ d a ti o n s r e p r e s e n ti n g b o t h h is o w n v iew s a n d th o s e o f t h e V o l u n t e e r C o m m a n d . S h c h e r b a c h e v h a d a t firs t a s s u m e d t h a t c o n s u l ta t io n s w ith B e r t h e l o t w o u ld m e r e ly b e p r e l im in a r y t o ta k i n g h is p la n to F r a n c h e t d 'E s p e r e y a n d p o s s ib ly e v e n t o P a ris . A s i t t u r n e d o u t , h o w e v e r , th is w a s n o t to b e n e c e s s a ry , o r a t le a s t i t so a p p e a r e d , fo r in t h e i r s e c r e t ta lk s o n N o v e m b e r 15 a n d 16 B e r t h e l o t n o t o n ly a g r e e d w ith S h c h e rb a c h e v 's r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s b u t a ls o in d i c a t e d t h a t h e w as a lr e a d y fu lly a u t h o r i z e d t o c a rr y t h e m o u t w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e to o th e r s . A s S h c h e r b a ­ c h e v r e p o r t e d t o D e n i k i n i m m e d i a te l y a f t e r h is c o n f e r e n c e w i t h t h e F re n c h C o m m a n d e r: I n B u c h a r e s t I s u c c e e d e d in o b t a i n i n g re s u lts w h ic h s ig n if ic a n tly e x c e e d e d e x p e c t a tio n s . T h r o u g h d ir e c t c o n t a c t a n d e x c h a n g e o f o p i n i o n w i t h G e n e r a l B e r t h e l o t . . . w e h a v e n o w s u c c e e d e d in b r i n g i n g ta lk s in B u c h a r e s t to s u c h a t h o r o u g h ly d e c is iv e s ta g e t h a t t h e t r i p t o P a ris a n d t o F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e r e y h a v e f o r t h e p r e s e n t b e c o m e u n n e c e ssa ry . G e n e r a l B e r t h e l o t , w h o h a s t h e p e r s o n a l s y m p a th y a n d s tr o n g s u p p o r t o f M . C le m e n c e a u , P r e s i d e n t o f t h e A llie s ' V e rs a ille s C o n ­ f e r e n c e , is e m p o w e r e d w i t h t h e fu ll a u t h o r i t y o f “ C o m m a n d e r in C h i e f o f A llie d A rm ie s in R u m a n i a , T r a n s y lv a n ia , a n d S o u th R u s s i a " a n d in th i s c a p a c ity is a b le t o f o r m u la t e a n d e x e c u te a ll p o li ti c a l a n d m i li ta r y q u e s t io n s w h ic h c o n c e r n S o u th R u s s ia a n d its s a lv a tio n fr o m a n a r c h y . I h a v e s u c c e e d e d in p u s h i n g th is q u e s ­ t i o n fo r w a r d so f a r t h a t t h e r e n o w r e m a in s h a r d l y a n y t h i n g to b e d e s ir e d . . . .16 S h c h e r b a c h e v 's e n t h u s i a s m w as t h e r e s u lt o f s o m e r e m a r k a b l e p r o m ­ ises m a d e b y B e r t h e l o t . T h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d e r i n d i c a t e d t h a t a la r g e p a r t o f S o u t h R u s s ia w o u ld b e o c c u p ie d in t h e n e a r f u t u r e b y a n A llie d f o r c e ( c h ie f ly F r e n c h a n d G r e e k ) o f s o m e tw e lv e d iv is io n s . T h i s a r m y , h e p r o m is e d , w o u ld s o o n m o v e i n t o O d e s s a , w h e r e its lo c a l

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c o m m a n d e r , G e n e r a l d ’A n s e lm e , w o u ld m a k e h is h e a d q u a r t e r s . F r o m O d e s s a i t w o u ld m o v e i n t o S e v a s to p o l, K ie v , K h a rk o v , t h e D o n e t s a n d K riv o i B o g b a s in s , a n d e v e n t h e D o n , if n e c e s s a ry . I t s p u r p o s e w o u ld b e to m a i n t a i n o r d e r , t o se e to t h e e v a c u a t io n o f t h e G e r m a n s , a n d to p r o v id e a m ilita r y s h ie ld “ to p e r m i t t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y a n d t h e a r m y o f t h e D o n to r e o r g a n iz e s o lid ly a n d h a v e f r e e d o m t o p r e ­ p a r e fo r w id e a c t i o n .” M o r e o v e r , B e r t h e l o t s t a t e d t h a t R u s s ia n fo rc e s w o u ld b e g r a n t e d s ig n if ic a n t fin a n c ia l a s s is ta n c e a n d f u ll a c c e ss t o “ a ll m ilita r y s u p p lie s lo c a t e d in t h e z o n e o f t h e o ld R u m a n i a n f r o n t in B e s s a ra b ia a n d L i t t l e R u s s ia [ th e U k r a in e ] .” 17 A s S h c h e r b a c h e v r e p o r te d t o D e n ik in , B e r t h e l o t h a d t h u s i m p li c ­ itly r e je c te d a n y s e p a r a te F r e n c h d e a lin g w ith t h e U k r a in i a n s a n d h a d ta k e n a “ c le a rly n e g a tiv e a t t i t u d e to w a r d a ll w h o h a v e w o r k e d w i t h t h e G e r m a n s .” 18 A t B e r t h e l o t ’s s u g g e s tio n th e s e p r o m is e s w e re t o b e k e p t s e c r e t a t th is p o i n t , b u t S h c h e r b a c h e v w as a d v is e d to w o r k o u t f u r t h e r p la n s w i t h D e n ik in a n d to a c t as h is m i li ta r y r e p r e s e n ta t iv e t o t h e A llie d P o w e r s .19 S h o r tly a f t e r th i s , in fa c t, S h c h e r b a c h e v l e f t fo r V o l u n t e e r h e a d q u a r t e r s in E k a t e r i n o d a r w h e r e h e re c e iv e d a p p o i n t ­ m e n t as D e n i k i n ’s s p e c ia l e n v o y . D e n i k i n in t u r n t h e n b e g a n m a p ­ p in g h is o w n s tr a te g y o n t h e b a sis o f th i s lo n g - a w a ite d s u p p o r t f r o m t h e A llie s. M e a n w h il e in Jassy p la n s w e re b e in g m a d e to c a ll a s p e c ia l c o n f e r ­ e n c e o f R u s s ia n p o litic a l s p o k e s m e n to l e n d s u p p o r t t o t h e p r o p o s e d i n t e r v e n t io n . T h e id e a o f a p o litic a l c o n f e r e n c e d e s ig n e d t o p r o v i d e t h e g r o u n d s fo r a u n i t e d e f f o r t h a d b e e n d is c u s s e d a n u m b e r o f t i m e s a m o n g t h e R u s s ia n s in Jassy w h o c o n g r e g a te d a t t h e R u s s ia n “ e m ­ b a s s y ” t h e r e , b u t i t g o t its c h ie f i m p e tu s fr o m t h e F r e n c h “ c o n s u l ,” E m i le H e n n o , w h o h a d p re v io u s ly b e e n a t t a c h e d to G e n e r a l T a b o u i s ’ m is s io n in K iev , w h e r e h e h a d e s t a b li s h e d p e r s o n a l c o n ta c ts w i t h t h e le a d in g R u s s ia n o r g a n iz a tio n s a n d p e r s o n a lit ie s .20 T h e F r e n c h m i n i s t e r in Jassy , d e B e a u p o il d e S a in t-A u la ire , h a d in O c t o b e r g iv e n s o m e s u p p o r t to t h e id e a b y e n c o u r a g i n g t h e p r o m i n e n t p o li ti c a l fig u re V . V . S h u l ’g in , t h e n a t D e n i k i n ’s h e a d q u a r t e r s , to h e l p “ w o r k o u t a p r o g r a m o f p o li ti c a l a c t i o n ” t o a c c o m p a n y t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n , b u t i t w as H e n n o ’s p e r s o n a l i n i ti a ti v e w h ic h b r o u g h t t h e s e t e n t a t i v e id e a s t o a h e a d in t h e p r o p o s a l f o r a c o n f e r e n c e .21 T h e n e e d fo r c o o r d i n a ti o n o f t h e v a rio u s f r o n ts o f t h e c iv il w a r, a n d e s p e c ia lly fo r m o r e a d e q u a t e p o li ti c a l p r e p a r a ti o n s , w as in d e e d g r e a t. I n re s p o n s e to th i s n e e d , i t w as t h e i n t e n t i o n o f t h e A llie d m i n is te r s in Jassy to tr y to g iv e t h e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik m o v e m e n t , a n d p a r t ic u l a r ly

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its m i li ta r y le a d e r s h i p , a s t r o n g e r p o li ti c a l f o u n d a t i o n b y e n c o u r a g in g t h e a f f ilia tio n o f a b r o a d r a n g e o f o r g a n iz a tio n s a n d g r o u p s in t h e S o u t h . I t w as in th i s g e n e r a l c o n t e x t t h a t th e y s u p p o r t e d t h e p r o p o s a l o f a c o n f e r e n c e in Jassy o n t h e e v e o f t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n .22 T h r o u g h P o k le v s k ii-K o z e l a n d e n v o y s s e n t to K ie v , in v i ta t io n s w e re e x te n d e d to a ll m a j o r p o li ti c a l o r g a n i z a ti o n s r e p r e s e n ti n g t h e a ll-R u s s ia n a n d p ro - E n te n te

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o r g a n i z a ti o n o f f o r m e r m e m b e r s o f t h e D u m a a n d p r o v in c ia l a n d c ity a d m in is tra tio n s ), th e N a tio n a l C e n te r, a n d th e U n io n fo r R e g e n e ra ­ t i o n , r e p r e s e n ti n g c o n s e r v a tiv e , lib e r a l, a n d s o c ia lis t v iew s re s p e c tiv e ly . W h i l e t h e s e t h r e e o r g a n i z a ti o n s s e n t p re v io u s ly s e le c te d d e le g a tio n s , t h e c o n f e r e n c e w as re a lly a m e e e t i n g o f in d iv id u a ls , o f m e r c h a n ts , b a n k e r s , c h u r c h m e n , a n d p o litic ia n s . S o m e h a d b e e n a c tiv e in g o v e r n ­ m e n t b e f o r e t h e r e v o l u ti o n , s u c h as t h e f o r m e r m i n i s t e r o f a g r ic u ltu r e , A . V . K r iv o s h e in , a n d t h e f o r m e r h e a d o f t h e la n d s e c t io n o f t h e M i n ­ is tr y o f I n t e r n a l A ffa irs, V . I. G u r k o ; tw o h a d b e e n m i n is te r s in t h e P r o v is io n a l g o v e r n m e n t , M ili u k o v a n d M . M . F e d o r o v ; o th e r s h a d b e e n in t h e s o v ie ts a n d w e re p r o m i n e n t s o c ia lis t le a d e rs , s u c h as t h e f o r m e r m a y o r o f M o s c o w V . V . R u d n e v a n d I. I. B u n a k o v - F u n d a m in s k ii. I n s h o r t, t h e r e w as a fa irly b r o a d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f S o u t h R u s ­ s ia n g r o u p s w h ic h s t o o d f o r R u s s ia n u n i t y a n d A llie d in t e r v e n t i o n , r a n g i n g f r o m m o d e r a t e s o c ia lis ts to s t a u n c h r e a c tio n a r ie s .23 A l t o g e t h e r t h e r e w e re a p p a r e n t l y a r o u n d t h i r t y p e r s o n s w h o a t ­ t e n d e d o n e o r m o r e o f t h e m e e t in g s o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e . S ix te e n o f th e s e w e re r e c o g n i z e d as fu ll d e le g a te s , a n d a n a d d it i o n a l five ( o r p o s s ib ly e i g h t ) w e re a d m i t t e d as d e le g a te s w ith a n a d v is o ry v o ic e . P e rs o n s s u c h as S h c h e r b a c h e v ( w h o r e p r e s e n te d V o l u n t e e r in t e r e s t s in t h e a b s e n c e o f S h u l g i n , t h e o ffic ia l d e le g a te , w h o fe ll ill e n r o u t e ) , A m b a s s a d o r P o k le v s k ii-K o z e l, s o m e o t h e r m i li ta r y o fficers, a n d A llie d r e p r e s e n ta ­ tiv e s w e re n o t d e le g a te s t o t h e c o n f e r e n c e a l t h o u g h th e y o c c a s io n a lly a t t e n d e d . T h e c o n f e r e n c e m e t d a ily , u s u a lly tw ic e a d a y , in Jassy fr o m N o v e m b e r 16 t h r o u g h N o v e m b e r 2 3, t h e r e a f t e r m o v in g to O d e s s a , w h e r e i t c o n t i n u e d u n t i l D e c e m b e r 6 . I n Jassy s o m e A llie d r e p r e s e n ta ­ tiv e s w e re p r e s e n t a t m o s t o f t h e s e s sio n s , b u t o n ly t h r e e m e e t in g s w e re h e l d w i t h t h e A llie d m in is te r s ( S ir G e o r g e B a rc la y , S a in t-A u la ire , C h a r le s V o p ic k a , a n d G i a c i n t o A u r i t t i ) . 24 T h e m a j o r ta s k o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e w as to d r a f t a p r o t o c o l to t h e A llie s w h ic h w o u ld s e t f o r t h t h e p o li ti c a l v ie w s a n d a im s o f a n ti - B o l­ s h e v ik S o u t h R u s s ia , m a k e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r f u t u r e a c ti o n , a n d a b o v e a ll a p p e a l f o r a id . E v e n b e f o r e t h e d r a f t i n g o f t h e p r o t o c o l c o u ld

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b e g o t u n d e r w ay , h o w e v e r, n e w s o f t h e D i r e c t o r a t e 's r e b e l li o n a g a in s t S k o ro p a d s k ii w as re c e iv e d , g iv in g rise t o a n i m p r o m p t u tw o - p a r t a p ­ p e a l to t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts o n N o v e m b e r 17 a n d 18 u r g in g t h a t o rd e r s b e g iv e n to t h e G e r m a n s to k e e p p e a c e a n d t h a t im m e d i a t e o c c u p a t io n o f K ie v a n d K h a rk o v b e u n d e r t a k e n t o p r e v e n t t h e e r u p ­ t i o n o f a n a r c h y in s ti g a te d b y B o ls h e v ik s a n d “ c h a u v in i s t ic U k r a i n ­ ia n s .” 25 A t t h e s a m e t i m e C o lo n e l I. M . N o v ik o v w as s e n t t o se e G e n ­ e ra ls B e r t h e l o t a n d F r a n c h e t d 'E s p e r e y t o e x p la in t h e u r g e n c y o f t h e U k r a in i a n s i tu a t io n . W h e n d is c u s s io n w as b e g u n o n t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e p r o t o c o l, t h e c h ie f is su e w as t o w h o m a id s h o u l d g o , s in c e a ll t h e d e le g a te s a g r e e d o n t h e n e c e s s ity o f A llie d in t e r v e n t i o n . T h r e e b a s ic p o s i ti o n s c a m e o u t in t h e d e b a te , in v o lv in g b o t h t h e fo r m o f a u t h o r i t y a n d t h e p e r s o n s to b e in c l u d e d in t h e a u t h o r i t y t o b e re c o g n iz e d . T h e m o s t c o n s e r v a ­ tiv e f a c tio n , le d b y A . V . K r iv o s h e in , u r g e d t h e r e c o g n i ti o n o f G r a n d D u k e N ik o la i N ik o la e v ic h as s u p r e m e c o m m a n d e r a n d d i c t a t o r f o r S o u th R u s s ia . O n t h e o p p o s i te e n d o f t h e sc a le , t h e s o c ia lis ts u r g e d t h e c r e a tio n o f a th r e e - m a n d ir e c to r a te , i n c l u d in g t h e m i li ta r y c o m ­ m a n d e r a n d tw o p o litic a l le a d e rs , w h ic h w o u ld e x e rc is e fu ll a u t h o r i t y . I n t h e m i d d le s t o o d t h e m o d e r a t e e le m e n ts , fo r w h o m M i li u k o v w as a le a d in g s p o k e s m a n , u r g in g t h e n e c e s s ity o f a o n e - m a n m i li ta r y d i c t a ­ t o r s h ip b u t r e je c tin g t h e m o n a r c h i s t c a n d id a te . I t w as t h e m o d e r a t e s ' f e e lin g t h a t o n ly a “ d e m o c r a t ” c o u ld w in t h e A llie s ' c o n f i d e n c e p o l i t ­ ic ally , b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e i t w as f e l t n e c e s s a ry to c o n c e n t r a t e a u t h o r ­ ity in t h e h a n d s o f a m i li ta r y c o m m a n d e r .26 D e b a t e b e tw e e n th e s e f a c tio n s r a n o n f o r tw o d a y s ( f o u r s e s s io n s ) b e f o r e a g r e e m e n t w as r e a c h e d t h r o u g h a c o m p r o m i s e , o r a t l e a s t a p a r t ia l c o m p r o m is e . T h e m o d e r a te s s tr o n g ly s u p p o r t e d D e n i k i n fo r t h e p o s t o f m i li ta r y d i c t a t o r o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t h e w as a “ d e m o c r a t ” ; th o s e fa v o r in g a d i r e c to r a te w e re a g r e e a b le to D e n i k i n as t h e m i li ta r y c o m m a n d e r a m o n g t h e t h r e e m e m b e r s , a n d t h e c o n s e r v a tiv e s w h o in s is te d o n t h e G r a n d D u k e w e re o n ly f o u r in n u m b e r . W h e n t h e v o te w as ta k e n o n t h e q u e s t io n o f d i c t a t o r s h i p o r d i r e c to r a te , t h e s o c ia lis ts a b s t a in e d , g iv in g t h e d e c is io n to t h e f o r m e r . T h e n w h e n t h e c a n d i ­ d a te w as v o te d u p o n , th e y a n d t h e c e n t e r v o te d f o r D e n i k i n , t h u s g iv in g h i m a c le a r m a j o r i ty .27 I n fa c t, h o w e v e r , t h e c o n f e r e n c e h a d n o t s e t t l e d t h e q u e s t io n a t all. T h e s p l it w as in d e e d so f u n d a m e n t a l t h a t t h e B r it is h m i l i t a r y a t ­ ta c h e , G e n e r a l

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a t le a s t t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f u n i t y w as p re s e rv e d . I t w as a g r e e d s im p ly t o u rg e t h e A llie s t o a s s is t in t h e p r e s e r v a tio n o f R u s s ia n u n i t y in its 1 9 1 4 b o r d e r s ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t io n o f P o l a n d ) , a n d t o d o th i s b y ( 1 ) r e f u s in g t o r e c o g n iz e o r s u p p o r t a n y o f t h e b o r d e r s ta te s as i n d e p e n d ­ e n t s t a te s a n d ( 2 ) g r a n t i n g la rg e -sc a le a n d r a p i d a s s is ta n c e o f e v e ry k i n d to t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y . S in c e t h e c o n f e r e n c e a ls o c a lle d fo r A llie d s u p p o r t f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a s in g le R u s s ia n c o m m a n d o v e r R u s s i a n fo rc e s in t h e S o u th , h o w e v e r, t h e lo g ic a l i m p li c a ti o n w as t h a t D e n i k i n s h o u l d h a v e t h a t p o s t .29 T h e l a t t e r s u g g e s tio n w as in f a c t a lr e a d y a g r e e d u p o n b y A llie d a u t h o r i t i e s . D u r i n g t h e c o n f e r e n c e B e r t h e l o t c o n f id e d t h a t h e h a d a lr e a d y s e n t o n e o f h is s ta ff o ffic e rs to s e e A t a m a n K ra s n o v a b o u t th i s q u e s t i o n in re s p o n s e to t h e l a t t e r 's a t t e m p t to d e a l d ir e c tly f o r a id b y s e n d i n g a r e p r e s e n ta t iv e to Jassy . B e r t h e l o t in d i c a t e d t h a t K ra s n o v w o u ld h a v e t o s u b o r d i n a t e h im s e l f to D e n i k i n a n d t h a t a id w o u ld b e h a n d l e d o n ly t h r o u g h

t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y C o m m a n d .30 P r e s s u r e

w as i n d e e d s u b s e q u e n t l y a p p li e d to K ra s n o v ( m o s t e ffe c tiv e ly , h o w ­ e v e r, b y t h e B r it is h as w ill b e n o t e d ) w h ic h le d t o h is r e c o g n i ti o n o f D e n i k i n 's a u t h o r i t y . S u c h a r e l a ti o n s h ip w ith S k o ro p a d s k ii, h o w e v e r, w as q u i t e a n o t h e r m a t t e r . D e s p i t e h is p o lic ie s , K ra s n o v h a d m a i n ­ t a i n e d c lo s e tie s w i t h t h e V o l u n t e e r s t h r o u g h o u t t h e G e r m a n o c c u ­ p a t i o n , b u t r e l a ti o n s b e t w e e n S k o r o p a d s k ii a n d t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y h a d b e e n c o n s i s te n t ly h o s t il e a n d c o n t i n u e d to b e so e v e n a f t e r t h e s u d d e n t r a n f o r m a t i o n o f U k r a in i a n p o lic y in N o v e m b e r . T h i s b e c a m e a p p a r e n t e v e n as t h e A llie d r e p r e s e n ta t iv e , H e n n o , w as ta k i n g s te p s o n t h e c o n tr a r y a s s u m p ti o n . B e c a u s e o f t h e in c r e a s in g ly u r g e n t n e e d fo r a s h o w o f A llie d d e t e r ­ m i n a t i o n t o p r e v e n t a n a r c h y in t h e U k r a in e , s o m e o f t h e d e le g a te s to t h e Ja ssy c o n f e r e n c e u r g e d t h a t c o n s u l H e n n o b e g iv e n e x tr a o r d i n a r y p o w e rs as s p o k e s m a n f o r t h e A llie s a n d t h a t h e b e s e n t to O d e s s a a t o n c e . T h e e x u b e r a n t H e n n o w as a ll in fa v o r o f th i s s u g g e s tio n a n d , t o g e t h e r w ith M . S. M a r g u lie s , d r a f t e d t h e te x t o f a d o c u m e n t a u t h o r ­ iz in g h i m to g o t o O d e s s a a n d is su e a n a p p e a l t o t h e U k r a in i a n p o p u ­ l a t i o n t o m a i n t a i n o r d e r u n t i l A llie d fo rc e s a rr iv e d . T o h a v e a n y v a lid ity , o f c o u rs e , th i s d o c u m e n t h a d t o h a v e t h e A llie d m i n is te r s ' s i g n a tu r e s . T h e l a t t e r w e re i n d e e d o b t a i n e d b u t in a m a n n e r re v e a lin g t h e h a s t e w i t h w h ic h “ A lli e d " p o lic y w as b e in g m a d e . D e s ir in g to le a v e a t o n c e o n h is m is s io n , H e n n o , a c c o m p a n ie d b y M a r g u lie s , r u s h e d t o t h e F r e n c h m i n i s t e r 's r e s id e n c e to o b t a i n h is sig ­ n a t u r e . T h e r e t h e y w e re t o l d t h a t t h e F r e n c h m i n i s t e r w o u ld s ig n

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o n ly if t h e B r itis h m i n is te r , S ir G e o r g e B a rc la y , a ls o d id . R u s h i n g t h e n to t h e l a t t e r ’s r e s id e n c e , th e y f o u n d h i m in b e d b u t m a n a g e d to a ro u s e h i m a n d g e t h is s ig n a tu r e . H e s ig n e d w i t h t h e c o m m e n t t h a t h e w o u ld u n d o u b t e d l y “ c a tc h h e l l ” fo r i t f r o m

London, b u t he

p l a n n e d t o re s ig n a n y h o w .31 T h i s d o n e , t h e F r e n c h m i n i s t e r t h e n a g re e d t o sig n . T h e n e x t d a y , re v e a lin g ly , S a in t- A u la ir e r e q u e s t e d a c o p y o f w h a t h e h a d s ig n e d o n ly t o d is c o v e r t h a t H e n n o , n o w o n h is w a y t o O d e s s a , c a rr ie d t h e o n ly c o p y .32 T h e A llie d m in is te r s in Jassy, e a g e r f o r m o n t h s t o p u s h f o r w a r d w i t h t h e in t e r v e n t i o n , h a d b e e n b o m b a r d i n g P a ris w i t h j o i n t te l e g r a m s u r g ­ in g t h e la n d i n g o f A llie d tr o o p s b e f o r e t h e G e r m a n o c c u p a t i o n d i s i n ­ t e g r a te d .33 T h e la t t e r , o f c o u rs e , m o v e d r a p id ly a h e a d w i t h t h e e n d o f t h e W o r l d W a r , b u t f r o m Jassy t h e q u e s t i o n o f i n t e r v e n t i o n s e e m e d l i t t l e a f f e c te d b y t h e e n d o f t h e w a r its e lf e x c e p t in s o f a r as i t w as re g a r d e d as m a k in g s p e e d a ll t h e m o r e e s s e n tia l. I n d e e d t h e o b s e s s io n w ith w h ic h A llie d r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s in Jassy v ie w e d t h e u r g e n c y o f t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n a p p a r e n t ly le d t h e m to ta k e s te p s o f f a t e f u l s ig n if ic a n c e w i t h o u t c le a r a n d p r i o r a u t h o r i z a t i o n . T h e c o n d u c t o f e v e n ts f o llo w ­ in g t h e Jassy c o n f e r e n c e il lu s t r a t e d h o w e a sily th i s h a p p e n e d u n d e r t h e p re s s u re s t h e n b e in g fe lt. A n A llie d s q u a d r o n w as a lr e a d y o p e r a t in g in t h e B la c k S e a . O n N o v e m b e r 23 o fficia l A llie d r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s w e re p u t a s h o r e a t N o v o ­ ro s siisk e n r o u t e to D e n i k i n ’s h e a d q u a r t e r s a t E k a t e r i n o d a r , w h ic h th e y r e a c h e d o n D e c e m b e r 3. O n N o v e m b e r 2 5 , A llie d s h ip s a r r iv e d in S e v a s to p o l, w h e r e th e y w e re t o re c e iv e t h e s u r r e n d e r o f t h e G e r m a n fle e t (i.e ., t h e R u s s ia n fle e t p re v io u s ly s e iz e d b y t h e G e r m a n s ) a n d e s ta b lis h c o n t a c t w i t h t h e n e w K a d e t g o v e r n m e n t b e i n g s e t u p in t h e C r im e a u n d e r S o lo m o n S. K ry m , w i t h M . M . V i n a v e r as f o r e ig n m i n i s t e r .34 B u t o f e v e n g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e w a s t h e a rr iv a l o f H e n n o in O d e s s a . T h e c ity w as a lr e a d y c u t o ff f r o m K ie v b y P e t l i u r a ’s tr o o p s . A lt h o u g h t h e H e t m a n ’s a u t h o r i t y w as s till te c h n i c a ll y r e c o g n i z e d in O d e s s a , t h e o n ly tr o o p s t h e r e w e re a s m a ll b r i g a d e o f P o li s h s o ld ie r s o r g a n iz e d b y D e n i k i n to b e s e n t b a c k to P o l a n d a n d a s m a ll, r e c e n t ly r e c r u it e d d e t a c h m e n t o f V o l u n t e e r s , n e i t h e r o f w h ic h w a s c a p a b l e o f h o l d i n g t h e c ity a g a in s t a fu ll-s c a le a tt a c k . I n th i s a w k w a r d s i t u a ­ t i o n , H e n n o t u r n e d t o h is o w n i n g e n u i ty f o r s a lv a tio n a n d p r o c e e d e d to a c t in t h e n a m e o f t h e A llie s o n h is p e r s o n a l in i t i a t i v e .35 T h e firs t t h i n g n e c e s s a ry , h e b e lie v e d , w a s a d e c la r a ti o n o f A llie d p o lic y . T h e r e f o r e , t o t h e p re v io u s ly a u t h o r i z e d a p p e a l t o t h e p e o p l e to m a i n t a i n o r d e r u n t i l A llie d tr o o p s a r r iv e d , h e n o w a d d e d a s p e c ific d e c la r a ti o n o f s u p p o r t t o t h e H e t m a n :

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T h e p o w e r s o f t h e E n t e n t e s t a t e t h r o u g h t h e i r s p e c ia l d e le g a te , t h e F r e n c h C o n s u l a t K ie v , t h a t t h e y w ill n o t p e r m i t t h a t t h e w o rk o f t h e r e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f o r d e r a n d t h e r e o r g a n iz a t io n o f R u s s ia b e g u n b y p a t r i o t i c R u s s ia n s a n d p o w e r f u lly s u p p o r t e d b y t h e A llie s s h a ll b e d i s t u r b e d in a n y m a n n e r w h a te v e r . T h e r e g e n e r a ti o n o f R u s s ia as a p o w e r . . . s h a ll b e c a r r ie d o u t in c o n f o r m it y w i t h t h e d e s ir e o f a ll p a t r i o t s a n d o f a ll e le m e n ts w h ic h s t a n d f o r t h e m a i n ­ t e n a n c e o f o r d e r in R u s s ia . . . . T h e p o w e rs o f t h e E n t e n t e d e c la r e t h e i r firm p u r p o s e t o m a i n t a i n o r d e r th e r e . T h i s d e c is io n w ill b e c a r r ie d o u t w i t h i n t h e s h o r t e s t p o s s ib le p e r i o d b y a n a r m e d fo rc e as la r g e as c ir c u m s t a n c e s m a y r e q u ir e . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y d e c la r e t h a t f r o m t h e p r e s e n t th e y w ill r e n d e r p e r s o n a lly r e s p o n s ib le a ll p o li ti c a l le a d e r s f o r e v e ry a t t e m p t to c r e a te tr o u b l e a n d a n a r c h y . T h e F r e n c h C o n s u l a t K ie v d e c la re s t h e E n t e n t e p o w e rs i n t e n d to s u p p o r t , w i t h a ll t h e i r fo rc e , t h e e x is tin g a u t h o r i t y a t K ie v r e p r e ­ s e n t e d b y t h e h e t m a n a n d h is g o v e r n m e n t, in t h e h o p e t h a t h e w ill b e a b le t o m a i n t a i n o r d e r in t h e c itie s a n d p r o v in c e s u n t i l t h e a rr iv a l o f t h e A llie d tr o o p s in t h e c o u n tr y . . . . E v e r y a t t a c k u p o n t h e e x is tin g a u t h o r i t i e s , e v e ry r e v o lt w h ic h w ill r e n d e r [h a rd e r] t h e ta s k o f t h e A llie s , w ill b e s e v e re ly p u n is h e d . . . .36 W h e n t h e A llie d m i n is te r s in Jassy f o r w a r d e d t h e t e x t o f th i s d e c la ­ r a t io n t o P a ris , t h e y h a s t e n e d t o c o n s t r u e i t as o n ly “ a d e n u n c ia to r y d e c la r a ti o n t o t h e B o ls h e v ik s ’' a u t h o r i z e d a f t e r t h e u r g in g o f t h e “ R u s ­ s ia n d e l e g a t i o n ." 37 I t is t r u e t h e w o rd s “ t h r e a t e n e d b y B o ls h e v ik s " d id a p p e a r as a d e s c r ip ti v e p h r a s e f o r t h e U k r a in e ( o r r a t h e r S o u th R u s s ia , s in c e e v e n t h e u s e o f t h e n a m e U k r a in e w as c o n s i d e r e d n a ti o n a li s t ic a n d s e p a r a t i s t ) , b u t t h e o b j e c t o f t h e w a r n in g w as c le a rly t h e D ir e c ­ t o r a t e a n d P e t l i u r a 's tr o o p s , a n d t h e i m p a c t o f its w o r d in g c e r ta in ly d e r iv e d f r o m t h e o u t r i g h t d e c la r a ti o n o f A llie d s u p p o r t f o r t h e H e t ­ m a n . M o r e o v e r , if b y “ R u s s ia n d e le g a tio n " w as m e a n t t h e Ja ssy c o n ­ f e r e n c e , t h e s t a t e m e n t as i t w as is s u e d b y H e n n o w as h a r d l y w h a t t h e y h a d c a lle d fo r. O n t h e c o n tr a r y , t h e c o n f e r e n c e w as e n ti r e l y a n tiU k r a in i a n in t h e s e n s e o f o p p o s i n g a n y r e c o g n i ti o n o f a U k r a in i a n g o v e r n m e n t o r s u p p o r t fo r it. W h a t t h e c o n f e r e n c e u r g e d w as t h e re te n tio n o f

German c o n tr o l u n t i l t h e A llie s a rr iv e d . E v e n if i t w e re

a c k n o w le d g e d t h a t t e m p o r a r y r e t e n t i o n o f t h e H e t m a n 's re g im e w as im p l i e d in th i s as a p r a c t ic a l n e c e s s ity , th e y w o u ld v e ry p r o b a b l y h a v e p r e f e r r e d t o le a v e i t as a n i m p li e d m a t t e r a n d n o t h a v e i t so b l u n t l y d e c la r e d in t h e n a m e o f t h e A llie s .38 T h e Ja ssy m i n is te r s e x p la i n e d t h a t t h e s e c o n d p a r t o f t h e d e c la r a ­ t i o n w as a d d e d b y H e n n o o n h is o w n in i ti a ti v e , “ e x e rc is in g t h e l a t i ­ t u d e w h ic h w e h a d g iv e n h i m ," b e c a u s e h e f e l t t h a t “ t h e p r e s e n t sys-

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te r n o f g o v e r n m e n t s h o u l d b e s u p p o r t e d as i t r e p r e s e n t e d t h e o n ly o r g a n iz a tio n w h ic h c o u ld a t p r e s e n t b e u ti li z e d a g a in s t B o l s h e v i s m / ’39 T h i s o f c o u rs e b o t h s u g g e s te d t h a t t h e D i r e c t o r a t e w as n o t a n ti-B o ls h e v ik a n d t h a t t h e H e t m a n ’s r e g im e c o u ld in f a c t b e u s e d e ff e c tiv e ly a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s , a lt h o u g h n e i t h e r o f th e s e a s s u m p ti o n s w as q u i t e tr u e . T h e a c ti o n o f t h e A llie d m i n is te r s in Ja ssy w a s, h o w e v e r , t h e r e s u lt n o t m e r e ly o f c o n f u s io n b u t a ls o o f a la c k o f c le a r p o lic y d ir e c tiv e s fr o m h o m e .40 A s t h e y s t a t e d in t h e i r e x p la n a tio n o f H e n n o ’s p o s itio n , t h e y w e re d o in g w h a t s e e m e d n e c e s s a ry to p r e p a r e f o r t h e e x p e c te d in t e r v e n t i o n , “ a lt h o u g h t h e d e c is io n s o f t h e E n t e n t e in th i s re g a r d h a v e n o t y e t b e e n n o ti f i e d to u s .” 41 O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t w a s o b v io u s ly a n t i c i p a t e d in Jassy t h a t a m a j o r i n t e r v e n t i o n in fo r c e w a s i m m i n e n t , a n d f o r th is B e r t h e l o t w as p r o b a b l y t o b la m e . A s p r e v io u s ly n o t e d , h e h a d f r o m t h e s t a r t a s s u m e d a n e x tr a o r d i n a r il y s a n g u i n e o u t ­ lo o k a n d a p p a r e n t ly b e lie v e d t h a t h e w o u ld b e s u p p o r t e d in P a ris s in c e F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e r e y ’s in itia l o b je c t io n s h a d s e e m in g ly b e e n o v e r ­ ru le d . B e r t h e l o t h a d a s s u m e d to o m u c h , h o w e v e r, in t a k i n g C l e m e n c e a u ’s v a g u e n e s s f o r a p p ro v a l. W h e n t h e p la n s w h ic h h e h a d p r e s e n t e d to S h c h e r b a c h e v w e re s u b s e q u e n tly s u b m i t t e d t o C l e m e n c e a u , s u p p o s ­ e d ly as a fo r m a lity , th e y w e re in f a c t r e je c te d . B e r t h e l o t , th e r e f o r e , c o u ld n o t, as h e h a d in t e n d e d , t r i u m p h a n t l y p r e s e n t h is p la n s t o t h e Jassy c o n f e r e n c e b e c a u s e h e h a d b e e n c a u t i o n e d fr o m P a ris t h a t th e y c o u ld n o t b e f u lf ille d — f o r t h e v e ry re a s o n s g iv e n b y F r a n c h e t d ’E sp e re y e a rlie r. B u t, i n s te a d o f te l li n g S h c h e r b a c h e v t h a t t h e p la n s w o u ld h a v e to b e c h a n g e d , h e s im p ly i n f o r m e d h i m t h a t t h e i r i m p l e m e n t a ­ ti o n w o u ld b e d e la y e d . I n v ie w o f t h e t r o o p s ’ e x h a u s t io n a n d t h e i r la c k o f w ill to e n t e r n e w o p e r a t io n s a f t e r t h e W o r l d W a r h a d e n d e d , h e s a id , C l e m e n c e a u p r o p o s e d “ to f o r m n e w F r e n c h d iv is io n s ” w h ic h , a lo n g w ith G r e e k u n it s , c o u ld b e u s e d fo r t h e in t e r v e n t i o n . B o t h S h c h e r b a c h e v a n d t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y , th e r e f o r e , c o n t i n u e d to a s ­ s u m e t h a t A llie d o c c u p a t io n o f t h e U k r a in e w o u ld p r o v id e t h e c o v e r a n d b a s e fr o m w h ic h to la u n c h f u t u r e o p e r a t i o n s .42 M e a n w h il e H e n n o ’s a c ti o n in O d e s s a h a d p u t t h e A llie s o n r e c o r d in s u p p o r t o f b o t h D e n i k i n a n d S k o ro p a d s k ii, a s o m e w h a t c o n t r a d i c ­ to r y p o s i ti o n in its e lf. I t h a d p r e s u m a b ly b e e n h is a s s u m p t i o n t h a t S k o ro p a d s k ii a n d D e n i k i n w o u ld m a k e n a t u r a l a llie s a f t e r t h e H e t ­ m a n ’s c h a n g e o f p o lic y ; a t le a s t h e h a d h o p e d t o k e e p S k o r o p a d s k ii in p o w e r, w ith t h e h e l p o f b o t h D e n i k i n a n d t h e G e r m a n s , lo n g e n o u g h to m a i n t a i n o r d e r u n t i l t h e A llie d o c c u p a t i o n f o r c e a r r iv e d .43 T h i s ,

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h o w e v e r , w as a m o s t u n r e a l is t ic a p p r o a c h . N e i t h e r S k o ro p a d s k ii n o r D e n i k i n h a d a n y re a l m i li ta r y fo rc e s in t h e U k r a in e , a n d , in a n y case, D e n i k i n h a d n o t c e a s e d to re g a r d S k o r o p a d s k ii as a t r a i t o r to R u s ­ s ia .44 T h e o n ly re a l f o r c e in t h e U k r a in e c a p a b le o f m i li ta r y a c ti o n a t th i s t i m e w as t h e

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its tr o o p s u n d e r P e tl iu r a , a n d

H e n n o h a d c h o s e n t o d e n o u n c e it. H e n n o ’s a p p e a ls t o t h e G e r m a n C o m m a n d to m a i n t a i n o r d e r h a d l i t t l e e f f e c t in s t e m m i n g t h e t i d e o f t h e D i r e c t o r a t e ’s v ic to ry . O n t h e c o n tr a r y , P e t l i u r a ’s fo rc e s q u ic k ly s w e p t s o u t h w a r d to w a r d O d e s s a , w h ile S k o r o p a d s k ii’s re g im e c o lla p s e d a n d t h e H e t m a n fle d t o B e r lin in G e r m a n d is g u is e . O n D e c e m b e r 17 t h e D i r e c t o r a t e p r o c l a im e d f r o m K ie v t h e r e s to r a t io n o f U k r a in i a n i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d p le d g e d to f ig h t u n c e a s in g ly a g a in s t t h e id e a o f a f e d e r a ti o n w ith R u s s ia .45 H e n n o th u s f o u n d h im s e l f d ir e c tl y t h r e a t e n e d n o t b y t h e B o ls h e v ik s b u t b y a n e w U k r a in i a n g o v e r n m e n t w h ic h o p p o s e d a lm o s t e v e r y t h in g w h ic h h e , p e r s o n a lly , s t o o d fo r. F o r t h e F r e n c h th i s s i tu a t io n w as t o a d d a n o t h e r c o n f u s in g d im e n s i o n to t h e p r o b l e m s o f in t e r v e n t i o n ; m o r e im m e d i a te l y , i t fo r c e d H e n n o to s h i f t h is ta c k . A f te r c o n s u l t a t i o n w ith p o li ti c a l a n d m i li ta r y le a d e rs in O d e s s a , w h o h a d o r g a n iz e d a n u n o ff i­ c ia l c o u n c il o f d e f e n s e , h e d e c id e d t h a t i t w o u ld b e n e c e s s a ry t o se e k a tr u c e w ith P e t l i u r a b e f o r e U k r a in i a n tr o o p s c o m p l e te l y o v e r r a n t h e c ity .46 I n t e n d i n g o n ly t o s ta ll fo r t i m e b y th i s m a n e u v e r , H e n n o in f a c t g o t h i m s e l f in d e e p e r t h a n e v e r. P e tl iu r a i m m e d i a te l y o u tm a n e u v e r e d h i m b y i n t e r p r e t i n g h is p r o p o s a l as a n o ffe r o f r e c o g n i ti o n a n d u s e d th i s in t u r n t o i n d u c e t h e G e r m a n s to s u r r e n d e r K ie v a n d t h e s u r ­ r o u n d i n g a re a w i t h o u t r e s is ta n c e .47 I n a f u t il e a t t e m p t to e x tr ic a te h im s e l f , H e n n o a p p e a l e d to D e n ik in to s e n d tr o o p s a g a in s t P e tl iu r a , b u t D e n i k i n w a s h a r d p re s s e d b y t h e B o ls h e v ik s a n d c o u ld n o t h e lp . B e r t h e l o t w ir e d t h a t F r e n c h tr o o p s w o u ld b e th e r e s o o n , a n d m e a n ­ w h ile H e n n o c o u ld in f o r m P e tl iu r a a n d V y n n y c h e n k o t h a t t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d w o u ld “ h o l d t h e m

p e r s o n a lly r e s p o n s ib le f o r a ll h o s t il e

m o v e m e n t s a n d a c ts t e n d i n g to d i s t u r b t h e p e a c e ,” b u t i t w as o b v io u s t h e U k r a in i a n tr o o p s c o u ld ta k e O d e s s a as s o o n as P e tl iu r a g a v e t h e o r d e r .48 T h e o n ly tr o o p s H e n n o h a d a t h is d is p o s a l w e re t h e h a n d f u l o f P o lis h a n d V o l u n t e e r s o ld ie rs a ls o s t r a n d e d in O d e s s a a n d a fe w F r e n c h sa ilo rs . W h a t s a v e d H e n n o w as P e t l i u r a ’s d e c is io n n o t to d riv e h i m o u t. W h i l e h is tr o o p s o c c u p ie d a p a r t o f t h e c ity , h e is s u e d o rd e r s to a v o id a n y c la s h w ith H e n n o a n d h is l i t t l e b a n d a n d r e s e rv e d a “ F r e n c h

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z o n e ” fo r t h e m . A t H e n n o 's s u g g e s tio n , G e n e r a l G r is h in - A lm a z o v , f o r m e r ly o n e o f A d m ir a l K o lc h a k 's a s s is ta n ts a n d n o w a s t r a n d e d d e le ­ g a te to t h e Jassy c o n f e r e n c e , to o k c h a r g e o f t h e P o lis h a n d V o l u n t e e r tr o o p s a n d s t a t i o n e d t h e m o n a s h i p in t h e h a r b o r f o r t h e i r p r o t e c t i o n . T h i s d o n e th e y a ll, H e n n o , G r is h in - A lm a z o v , a n d P e tl iu r a , s e t t l e d d o w n t o a w a it t h e a rriv a l o f A llie d tr o o p s .49 I t w a s c le a r t h a t P e t l i u r a h a d in m i n d s o m e th i n g o t h e r t h a n a w a r w ith t h e A llie s . T h e j o i n t c a m p a ig n o f t h e R e d A rm y a n d t h e U k r a in i a n B o ls h e v ik s h a d ju s t b e e n r e s u m e d , a n d t h e D i r e c t o r a t e n e e d e d a s s is ta n c e . P e t l i u r a , w h o h a d fa r less d e s ire t h a n V y n n y c h e n k o t o se e k a c c o m m o d a t i o n w i t h t h e B o ls h e v ik s , b e lie v e d t h a t a id s h o u l d b e s o u g h t f r o m t h e A llie s , a n d t h g t w as w h y h e s t o p p e d s h o r t o f v ic to r y in O d e s s a a n d w a i t e d .50 O n D e c e m b e r 17 t h e F r e n c h 1 5 6 th D iv is io n , c o n s i s ti n g o f M o r o c ­ can an d

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O d e s s a h a r b o r u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d o f G e n e r a l B o riu s . B e f o r e t h e y d is e m b a r k e d , h o w e v e r, G e n e r a l G r is h in - A lm a z o v o f f e r e d t o c le a r t h e c ity f o r t h e m b y t h e u s e o f t h e V o l u n t e e r d e t a c h m e n t , so t h a t t h e F r e n c h tr o o p s w o u ld n o t h a v e t o f ig h t t h e i r w a y i n t o t h e c ity . T h u s o n D e c e m b e r 18 t h e V o l u n t e e r s o p e n e d a n a t t a c k o n t h e U k r a i n i a n fo rc e s, w h ic h w h ile s u p e r io r to t h e i r a tt a c k e r s w e re p e r s u a d e d b y t h e a c c o m p a n y in g b o m b a r d m e n t fr o m F r e n c h n a v a l g u n s t o w it h d r a w f r o m t h e c ity , a n d O d e s s a w as t h e n o c c u p ie d b y G e n e r a l B o r iu s ' tr o o p s .51 G e n e r a l B o riu s , w h o s e o r d e r s r e p o r te d l y i n s t r u c t e d h i m s i m ­ p ly “ t o m a k e c o m m o n c a u s e w i t h p a t r i o t i c R u s s i a n s ,'' n o t o n ly f o l­ lo w e d H e n n o 's a d v ic e in th i s m a t t e r b u t a ls o o n h is s u g g e s tio n t h e n d e s i g n a te d G e n e r a l G r is h in - A lm a z o v as m i li ta r y g o v e r n o r o f t h e c ity a n d a p p r o v e d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a V o l u n t e e r c iv il a d m i n i s t r a t i o n u n d e r h i m . 52 S in c e G r is h in - A lm a z o v t h e n d e c la r e d h is s u b o r d i n a t i o n to G e n e r a l D e n ik in , p le d g i n g t h a t “ n o w h e r e a n d u n d e r n o c i r c u m ­ s ta n c e s w o u ld h e fo llo w a n y p o lic y o t h e r t h a n t h a t o r d e r e d b y h is d ir e c tiv e s ,” i t a p p e a r e d t h a t a d ir e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e V o l u n ­ te e r s a n d t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d w a s t o b e e s t a b li s h e d o n a n e x c lu s iv e b a s is .53 U n d e r H e n n o 's g u id a n c e , a n d w i t h o n ly t h e v a g u e s t i n s t r u c ­ tio n s fr o m h i g h e r a u t h o r i t y , t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n h a d b e e n g o t u n d e r w a y o n t h e b a s is o f a n a llia n c e w i t h D e n i k i n a n d h o s t il it ie s w i t h t h e U k r a in i a n D i r e c t o r a t e . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , h o w e v e r , t h e d i r e c ti o n o f F r e n c h p o lic y w as b e in g s h a p e d b y d if f e r e n t f a c to r s in P a ris . A f t e r a r e a f f ir m a tio n o f t h e A llie d z o n e a g r e e m e n t in N o v e m b e r ,54 C l e m e n c e a u h a d b e g u n

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c la rify s o m e w h a t h is u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n . H e h a d , in -

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d e e d , e a r l ie r s p o k e n o f b r i n g in g a b o u t t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f B o ls h e v is m , b u t h e h a d a ls o i n d i c a t e d t o F r a n c h e t d 'E s p e r e y t h a t t h e c o u rs e o f t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n w o u ld b e d e t e r m i n e d b y “ t h e p o s s ib ilitie s w h ic h a re o p e n e d t o u s. . . .” 55 W h a t e v e r o th e r s m a y h a v e b e e n le d t o b e lie v e , C l e m e n c e a u a p p a r e n t l y d id n o t n o w re g a r d t h e “ p o s s ib ilitie s ’' as i n ­ c lu d i n g e i t h e r m i li ta r y o p e r a t io n s a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s o r a fu ll-s c a le o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e U k r a in e . O n D e c e m b e r 2 4 a s t a t e m e n t r e le a s e d to t h e p re s s i n d i c a t e d t h a t n o m a j o r m i li ta r y o c c u p a t i o n w as a n t i c i ­ p a t e d , 56 a n d o n D e c e m b e r 2 9 in a m e s s a g e t o t h e A s s e m b ly C l e m e n ­ c e a u d e s c r ib e d t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n s im p ly as t h a t o f e s t a b li s h in g a “ d e f e n s iv e f r o n t .” A n y m i li ta r y o p e r a t io n s n e c e s s a ry to d e f e a t t h e B o ls h e v ik s , h e d e c la r e d , w o u ld “ h a v e to b e c a r r ie d o u t s u b ­ s e q u e n t l y b y R u s s ia n fo rc e s . . . .” 57 I n t h e C h a m b e r d e b a te s w h ic h f o llo w e d th i s s t a t e m e n t o f p o lic y , F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r P i c h o n w as s till h a r d p re s s e d t o d e f e n d t h e i n t e r v e n ­ t i o n in t h e fa c e o f s t r o n g c r i ti c is m fr o m t h e L e f t. H e t o o d e n i e d t h a t i t h a d a n y o ff e n s iv e o b je c tiv e s a n d d e c la r e d t h a t i t w as m e r e ly a m a t ­ t e r o f t h e “ e n c i r c l e m e n t ” o f B o ls h e v is m . “ S in c e r e r e v o l u ti o n a r ie s ” h a d r e q u e s t e d t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n , h e s a id , a n d F r a n c e h a d a n o b li g a ti o n t o h e l p t h o s e w h o , u n li k e t h e B o ls h e v ik s , h a d r e m a in e d lo y a l t o t h e A llie s in t h e s tr u g g le a g a in s t G e r m a n c o n tr o l o v e r R u s s ia , b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e h e w is h e d t o m a k e it c le a r t h a t F r a n c e h a d n o i n t e n t i o n o f f i g h ti n g a n e w w a r. A fe w tr o o p s w o u ld b e s e n t as a s h o w o f fo r c e t o g iv e t h e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik s t i m e to o r g a n iz e a n d b e g in t h e i r m a r c h t o v ic to ry , b u t F r e n c h p o lic y w as n o t to p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e civ il w a r b u t r a t h e r t o c o n s t r u c t a “ c o r d o n s a n i ta i r e ” t o f e n c e o ff t h e B o ls h e v ik m e n a c e w h ile t h e “ h e a l t h y e l e m e n t s ” in R u s s ia , w i t h t h e a s s is ta n c e o f m a t e r i a l a id , c a r r ie d o u t t h e i r ta s k s th e m s e lv e s .58 T h e d iv e r g e n c e b e tw e e n B e r t h e l o t 's p r o m is e s a n d H e n n o 's a c tio n s o n t h e o n e h a n d a n d t h e g o v e r n m e n t 's d e s c r ip ti o n o f its p o lic y t o a s k e p tic a l p a r l i a m e n t o n t h e o t h e r h a n d w as o b v io u s , b u t t h e f a c t t h a t F r a n c e w o u ld n o t c o n t i n u e to fo llo w t h e B e r t h e l o t - H e n n o le a d d id n o t b e c o m e f u lly a p p a r e n t u n t i l t h e c o m m a n d e r o f F r e n c h fo rc e s b a s e d o n O d e s s a , G e n e r a l d 'A n s e lm e , a n d h is c h ie f o f sta ff, C o lo n e l F r e i d e n b e r g , a r r iv e d to ta k e u p t h e i r d u ti e s in J a n u a r y 1 919. T h e y , u n li k e H e n n o , c a m e to O d e s s a w ith s o m e , a l b e i t s till r a t h e r g e n e ra l, i n s t r u c t i o n s fr o m P a ris s t a t i n g t h a t a ll a n ti- B o ls h e v ik fo rc e s c a p a b le a n d g e n u in e l y d e s iro u s o f c o o p e r a t in g in t h e ta s k o f r e s to r in g a n o n C o m m u n i s t R u s s ia s h o u l d b e s u p p o r t e d . T h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y w as to b e g iv e n fu ll c o o p e r a t io n as a n A llie d a r m y a n d t h e m a j o r fo rc e in t h e

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S o u th , b u t it w as n o t to b e re g a r d e d as a n a ll- R u s s ia n a u t h o r i t y o r s u p p o r t e d to t h e e x c lu s io n o f o th e r s . O p e r a t i o n s w e re t o b e b a s e d u p o n d e f a c to s i tu a t io n s so as to m a k e u se o f e v e ry a lly b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e to a v o id t h e p o litic a l issu e s w h ic h w o u ld in e v i ta b l y a c c o m ­ p a n y t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s u p p o r t u p o n o n e e l e m e n t a lo n e .59 A s G e n e r a l F r a n c h e t d 'E s p e r e y p u t it, F r e n c h p o lic y w as “ n e i t h e r to d is m e m b e r R u s s ia n o r to im p o s e o n h e r th i s o r t h a t f o r m o f g o v ­ e r n m e n t . . . [b u t] s im p ly to s u p p o r t lo c a l g o v e r n m e n ts in o r d e r t o e n a b le t h e m to r e e s ta b lis h o r d e r a n d p r o c e e d fr e e ly w i t h e le c t i o n o f a C o n s t i t u e n t A s s e m b ly /' w h ic h in t u r n w o u ld e s t a b li s h a n a t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t .00 T h i s , in e ff e c t, w as w h a t w as m e a n t b y n o t “ i n t e r v e n ­ in g " in in t e r n a l affairs, b u t i t d id n o t re c e iv e c le a r a p p l i c a t i o n in O d e s s a b e f o r e t h e a rriv a l o f d 'A n s e lm e 's s ta ff b e c a u s e o f t h e r u s h o f e v e n ts in w h ic h in d iv id u a ls lik e H e n n o h a d a t t e m p t e d

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p o lic y o n t h e i r o w n u n d e r t h e p r e s s u r e o f c ir c u m s t a n c e s a n d b e c a u s e o f t h e la c k o f c le a r i n s tr u c t io n s f r o m P a ris e a rlie r . E v e n n o w t h e F r e n c h c o m m a n d e r , d 'A n s e lm e , d id n o t h i m s e l f ta k e u p t h e d u ti e s o f a p p ly in g th i s p o lic y t o lo c a l p o li ti c a l a ffa irs. P r e f e r r i n g to a v o id p o litic s , h e p u t C o l o n e l F r e i d e n b e r g in c o m p l e t e c h a r g e o f r e la tio n s w ith lo c a l a n d re g io n a l g r o u p s a n d l e f t i t la r g e ly t o h i m t o w o rk o u t t h e p r o b l e m s in v o lv e d . F r e i d e n b e r g , w h o

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w i t h a g r e a t f a s c in a t io n f o r p o li ti c a l m a n i p u l a t i o n b u t l i t t l e d i p l o ­ m a t i c t a l e n t , a s s u m e d h is d u ti e s w i t h a b u r s t o f e n e r g y w h ic h l e d h i m t o se e k o u t n e w d ir e c ti o n s a n d to ig n o r e b o t h H e n n o 's p a s t a c ti o n s a n d H e n n o 's p re s e n c e . F r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f h is w o rk in O d e s s a , F r e i d e n b e r g s u b t ly m a d e h im s e l f c le a r as t o t h e m a j o r c h a n g e t o b e m a d e . F r a n c e , h e d e c la r e d , r e m a in e d f a i t h f u l t o t h e p r i n c i p l e o f a U n i t e d R u s s ia , “ b u t i t is n o w n o t a m a t t e r o f d e c is io n o f th i s o r t h a t p o litic a l q u e s t io n , b u t e x c lu s iv e ly a m a t t e r o f m a k i n g u s e o f a ll a n ti B o ls h e v ik fo rc e s , i n c l u d in g t h e U k r a in i a n s , in t h e s tr u g g le a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s ." 61 W h a t th i s m e a n t , i t w as s o o n to b e c o m e c le a r, w as t h a t F r e i d e n b e r g p l a n n e d to e n t e r r e la tio n s w ith t h e U k r a in i a n D i r e c t o r a t e . T h i s w a s, to p u t i t m ild ly , s o m e t h i n g o f a s h o c k to b o t h H e n n o a n d D e n i k i n . H e n n o , i n d e e d , t h e n t o o k u p a p o s i ti o n o f o p e n b u t f u t i l e o p p o s i t i o n w h ic h s o o n e n d e d in h is r e s ig n a ti o n .62 H is d e m is e m a r k e d t h e b e g i n ­ n in g o f a n e w p h a s e in V o l u n t e e r - F r e n c h r e la tio n s in w h ic h m u t u a l a n ta g o n i s m r a t h e r t h a n c o o p e r a t io n b e c a m e t h e d o m i n a n t t h e m e . ❖

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. b e r 1 9 1 8 . I n f a c t t h e in i ti a l l a n d i n g in t h e n e w in t e r v e n t i o n to o k p la c e o n t h e s a m e d a y t h a t t h e Ja ssy c o n f e r e n c e o p e n e d . O n N o v e m ­ b e r 16 a n e w A llie d “ a r m a d a " o f s o m e tw e n t y s h ip s s e t sa il fr o m E n z e li a n d w as m e t e n r o u t e t o B a k u b y t h e R u s s ia n flo tilla c a rr y in g B ic h e ra k o v ’s tr o o p s . T h e

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s tr e s s e d b y t h e fly in g o f a ll f o u r “ A llie d " flag s— i.e., th o s e o f B r ita in , F r a n c e , t h e U n i t e d S ta te s , a n d R u s s ia — a n d b y t h e h a s t y a d d i t i o n o f F r e n c h a n d A m e r i c a n a d v is e rs to t h e s ta ff o f t h e B r it is h c o m m a n d in g o ffic e r. G e n e r a l T h o m s o n . 63 T h e im m e d i a t e g o a l a n d o n ly c le a rly s p e ­ c if ie d ta s k o f t h e e x p e d i t i o n w as t o e n f o r c e t h e A r m is tic e o f M u d r o s a n d t o e x p e l a n y r e m a in i n g G e r m a n s in t h e a re a . R u s s ia n s a n c t io n f o r t h e l a n d i n g o f A llie d tr o o p s in T r a n s c a u c a s ia w as p e r s o n if ie d b y G e n e r a l B ic h e ra k o v , p a r t i c i p a t i n g in t h e s e lf-m a d e ro le o f R u s s ia n c o m m a n d e r in t h e C a u c a s u s a n d le a d e r o f t h e “ P re C a s p i a n " g o v e r n m e n t w h ic h h e h a d e s t a b li s h e d a t P e tr o v s k in a llia n c e w i t h K ra s n o v o d s k a n d A s h k h a b a d a n d w h ic h c la im e d R u s s ia n s t a t e a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e C a s p ia n c o a s ta l a r e a .64 S in c e h e h a d lin k s w ith o t h e r R u s s ia n a u th o r i t i e s , i n c l u d in g D e n ik in , it t h u s a p p e a r e d t h a t t h e n e w B r it is h i n t e r v e n t i o n w as to b e p u t s q u a r e ly o n t h e s id e o f t h o s e e l e m e n t s w h ic h s t o o d f o r t h e r e u n i f ic a tio n o f R u s s ia , fo llo w in g t h e p a t t e r n e s t a b li s h e d b y H e n n o fo r t h e F r e n c h i n t e r v e n t i o n a t its i n c e p t i o n . S u c h a c le a r a n d s i m p l e p r o c e d u r e , h o w e v e r, w as n o m o r e a p p li c a b le in B a k u t h a n i t w as in O d e s s a . O n c e a g a in t h e c o m p le x ity o f t h e s i t u a t i o n w o u ld n o t fu lly b e a p p r e c i a te d u n t i l i t w as a c tu a lly e n c o u n te re d . T h e B r it is h C o m m a n d c o u ld n o t a v o id t h e q u e s t io n o f w h a t a t t i ­ t u d e t o a d o p t to w a r d t h e “ s t a te s " w h o s e t e r r it o r y i t w as o c c u p y in g . S h o u ld th e s e s t a te s b e l a b e l e d c r e a tio n s o f a G e r m a n - T u r k s c h e m e to d i s m e m b e r R u s s ia a n d t h u s d e n i e d s u p p o r t? O r , o n t h e c o n tr a r y , s h o u l d t h e i r c la im s to s e l f - d e t e r m in a ti o n a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e b e r e ­ g a r d e d as t h e le g i t i m a t e r i g h t o f n a ti o n a li ti e s f o r m e r ly c o n t a i n e d in a n o p p r e s s iv e e m p i r e a n d t h u s g iv e n s u p p o r t? T h e s e w e re , in d e e d , t h e o n ly “ s i m p l e " a lt e r n a t iv e s . B u t t h e f o r m e r w o u ld v e ry p r o b a b l y in v o lv e t h e B r it is h in h o s t il it ie s w ith e x is tin g T r a n s c a u c a s ia n a u t h o r ­ itie s , a n u n d e s i r a b le p r o s p e c t, w h ile t h e l a t t e r w o u ld b e i n c o n s i s t e n t w ith a id to D e n i k i n a n d c o n tr a r y t o t h e a v o w e d p o lic y o f s u p p o r t fo r R u s s ia n u n i t y s u p p o s e d ly b e in g p u r s u e d b y a ll t h e v ic to r io u s p o w e rs . W h e r e a s o n e w o u ld o p e n t h e in t e r v e n t i o n to t h e c h a r g e o f r e a c tio n a r y o p p r e s s io n i n c o m p a t i b l e w ith A llie d p r in c ip le s , t h e o t h e r w o u ld in v ite c h a rg e s o f d i s m e m b e r m e n t , im p e r i a li s ti c d u p li c it y , a n d b e tr a y a l o f

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R u s s ia in a m a n n e r s im ila r to t h a t p e r p e t r a t e d b y t h e G e r m a n s . T h e B r itis h w o u ld fin d , as t h e F r e n c h d id in O d e s s a , t h a t t h e o n ly w a y to a v o id a c h o ic e b e tw e e n th e s e a lt e r n a t iv e s w as to s t e e r a c o u r s e r i g h t d o w n t h e m id d le , to b e c o m e a b u f f e r a n d m e d i a t o r s e e k in g a t o n c e to k e e p h o s t il e f a c tio n s a p a r t a n d e n g e n d e r t h e i r c o o p e r a t io n in a c o m m o n e ff o rt. G e n e r a l T h o m s o n ’s h a n d l i n g o f th i s p r o b l e m in t h e ca se o f A z e r b a id z h a n e s t a b li s h e d t h e p a t t e r n o f B r it is h in v o lv e ­ m e n t in T ra n s c a u c a s ia . T h e A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v e r n m e n t o f F a t h i A li K h a n h a d u n d e n i a b l y b e e n a p a w n o f t h e T u r k s ju s t as t h e U k r a in i a n g o v e r n m e n t o f S koro p a d s k ii h a d b e e n a to o l o f G e r m a n p o lic y .65 H o w e v e r , th i s h a d n o t b e e n e n ti r e l y to t h e lik in g o f A z e r b a id z h a n i le a d e r s th e m s e lv e s , m o s t of w hom

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in c l in e d M u s s a v a t p a rty . I t h a d r a t h e r b e e n a r e s u lt o f t h e f a c t t h a t a f t e r T u r k i s h o c c u p a t io n t h e re a l c o n tr o l o f t h e a re a w a s in t h e h a n d s o f N u r i P a s h a . T h e l a t t e r h a d in d e e d in t e r v e n e d t o f o r c e t h e r e o r g a n ­ iz a tio n o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e p o s t p o n e m e n t o f a n y s o c ia lis tic p r o je c ts .66 W i t h t h e c o lla p s e o f t h e T u r k s , a n d B r it is h re f u s a l t o d e a l w ith N u r i P a s h a o n a n y te r m s e x c e p t s u r r e n d e r , h o w e v e r, t h e A z e r ­ b a id z h a n i g o v e r n m e n t w as to s o m e e x t e n t re lie v e d o f its d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e T u r k s a n d t h u s fr e e to p re s s its o w n c la im s . T h i s i t s e t o u t t o d o b y s e n d i n g a d e le g a tio n t o se e G e n e r a l T h o m s o n in E n z e l i e v e n b e fo re th e n e w in te rv e n tio n b e g a n . T h o m so n

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to w a r d it. R e je c t in g t h e r e q u e s t t h a t t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n b e d e la y e d , h e i n f o r m e d t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s t h a t B a k u w o u ld h a v e to b e c o m p l e te l y c le a re d o f a ll t r o o p s —b o t h T u r k i s h a n d A z e r b a id ­ z h a n i— b y t h e

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a p p li e d o n ly to t h e c ity o f B a k u . A ll T u r k i s h fo rc e s w o u ld h a v e t o w ith d r a w c o m p le te ly , o f c o u rs e , b u t n o o b je c t io n s w e re ra is e d t o t h e c o n t i n u e d e x is te n c e o f A z e r b a id z h a n i fo rc e s o u t s i d e B a k u . M o r e o v e r , w h ile n o o fficia l r e c o g n i ti o n w o u ld b e e x te n d e d , T h o m s o n i n d i c a t e d t h a t h e d id n o t i n t e n d t o i n t e r v e n e in i n t e r n a l a ffa irs a n d w o u l d d e a l o n a d e fa c to b a sis w i t h t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v e r n m e n t , p r o v i d in g it

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h a d r id it s e l f o f T u r k i s h in f lu e n c e a n d c o u ld m a i n t a i n p e a c e a n d o r d e r in its te r r it o r y . T h e q u e s t i o n o f s e l f - d e t e r m in a ti o n , h e n o t e d , w o u ld h a v e t o b e d e c id e d b y t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , a n d A z e r b a id z h a n w o u ld b e fr e e t o p r e s e n t its c a se t h e r e .67 T h i s f o r m u l a t i o n o f t h e B r it is h p o s i ti o n d id n o t m e e t a ll t h e d e sire s o f t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v e r n m e n t, b u t i t w as a g o o d d e a l m o r e g e n e r ­ o u s t h a n m i g h t h a v e b e e n e x p e c t e d in v ie w o f t h e a llia n c e b e tw e e n t h e B r it is h a n d B ic h e ra k o v . W h e n t h e B r itis h a r r iv e d in B a k u o n N o ­ v e m b e r 17, T h o m s o n w as w a r m ly g r e e t e d o n t h e p ie r b y t h e A z e r­ b a i d z h a n i g o v e r n m e n t. I n a n o te , t h e a c ti n g fo r e ig n m i n i s t e r w e l­ c o m e d t h e A llie s t o t h e “ c a p it a l o f A z e r b a id z h a n ,” s p o k e g lo w in g ly o f t h e id e a ls a n d v ic to rie s o f t h e A llie d P o w e rs , a n d u r g e d “ in t h e n a m e o f t h e e x a lt e d a n d s a c r e d id e a l o f h u m a n i t y ” t h a t A z e r b a id z h a n b e a d m i t t e d i n t o t h e fa m ily o f E u r o p e a n s t a te s .68 T h o m s o n r e p lie d , in a f r ie n d ly t o n e , t h a t t h e A llie s ' p u r p o s e w as m e r e ly t o e n f o r c e t h e a r m is ­ ti c e a n d a s s u r e d t h e g o v e r n m e n t t h a t t h e B r itis h C o m m a n d h a d “ n o i n t e n t i o n o f in t e r v e n i n g in [A z e r b a id z h a n 's ] in t e r n a l a ffairs e i t h e r a t t h e p r e s e n t o r in t h e f u t u r e . ” 69 T h e se m i-o ffic ia l n e w s p a p e r A z e r b a id ­ z h a n t h a t e v e n in g e v e n w e n t so fa r as to s u g g e s t t h a t T h o m s o n 's s t a t e ­ m e n t s w e re t a n t a m o u n t t o A llie d r e c o g n i ti o n o f t h e R e p u b li c o f A z e r b a id z h a n .70 T h e s a m e d a y , h o w e v e r , B ic h e r a k o v a p p e a l e d t o t h e lo c a l p o p u la ­ t i o n , in t h e n a m e o f R u s s ia , “ to f o r g e t a ll p a r t y a n d p o litic a l d iffe r­ e n c e s a n d t o u n i t e t o b r i n g a ll fo rc e s to t h e a id a n d s u p p o r t o f o u r d e a r s u f f e r in g R u s s ia , a n d th e r e b y , li g h t e n i n g t h e ta s k o f o u r a llie s , m a k e i t p o s s ib le fo r t h e m to r e t u r n t o t h e i r h o m e l a n d s o o n .” B ic h e ra k o v 's a p p e a l w as a d d r e s s e d to “ c itiz e n s o f R u s s ia ,” a n d i t c le a rly i n d i ­ c a te d t h a t h e r e g a r d e d A z e r b a id z h a n as a p a r t o f R u s s ia .71 S in c e A z e r b a id z h a n i tr o o p s w e re o b lig e d to le a v e B a k u , a n d B ic h e ra k o v 's w e re a llo w e d t o o c c u p y t h e c ity a lo n g w ith t h e B r itis h , t h e c o n t r a ­ d ic t io n s in T h o m s o n 's p o s i ti o n w e re h a r d l y r e m o v e d . I n d e e d t h e s i t u ­ a t i o n w a s, if a n y t h i n g , m a d e e v e n m o r e c o n f u s in g w h e n o n N o v e m b e r 18, a t T h o m s o n 's r e q u e s t, t h e n e w s p a p e r

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t i o n o f t h e s t a t e m e n t c o n c e r n i n g r e c o g n i ti o n , a n d o n N o v e m b e r 19 ( i n a c c o r d w i t h in s t r u c t i o n s fr o m L o n d o n ) T h o m s o n h im s e l f is s u e d a n e w s t a t e m e n t o f B r it is h p u r p o s e s . I t d e c la r e d in p a r t : B a k u is b e in g o c c u p ie d b y B r it is h tr o o p s o n b e h a l f o f t h e A llie s. I a m a c c o m p a n ie d b y r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s o f F r a n c e a n d t h e U n i t e d S ta te s , a n d w e a re h e r e w i t h t h e fu ll k n o w le d g e a n d a g r e e m e n t o f t h e N e w R u s s ia n G o v e r n m e n t . . . .72 I n t h e h o u r o f v ic to r y w e h a v e n o t f o r g o t t e n t h e g r e a t s e rv ic e s

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r e n d e r e d b y t h e R u s s ia n p e o p le t o t h e A llie d c a u s e in t h e e a r lie r p a r t o f t h e w a r. T h e A llie s c a n n o t r e t u r n h o m e w i t h o u t r e s to r i n g o r d e r in R u s s ia a n d p la c in g h e r a g a in in a p o s i ti o n t o ta k e h e r p r o p e r p la c e a m o n g t h e n a ti o n s o f t h e w o rld . U n r e s t s till e x is ts in t h e C a u c a s u s . I t is m y d u t y to re m o v e th i s f r o m t h e B a k u a re a . I t is c a u s e d e n ti r e l y b y o u r e n e m ie s . D e m o c r a t ic g o v e r n m e n t is u n k n o w n in T u r k e y a n d G e r m a n y . W h e n th e y ta l k o f s e t t i n g u p r e p u b lic s o u t s i d e t h e i r o w n t e r r i t o r y th e y d o so f o r t h e i r o w n e n d s , a n d n o t in t h e i n t e r e s t o f t h e p e o p le . T h e r e is n o q u e s t io n o f t h e A llie s r e t a i n i n g p o s s e s s io n o f a s in g le in c h o f R u s s ia n te r r it o r y . T h e y h a v e g iv e n t h e i r w o r d t o t h e R u s s ia n p e o p le o n th is . T h e in t e r n a l g o v e r n m e n t o f a n y p o r t i o n o f R u s s ia is a q u e s t i o n fo r t h e R u s s ia n p e o p le a n d o n e in w h ic h t h e A llie s w ill in n o w a y in t e r f e r e . W e c o m e s im p ly to r e s to r e o r d e r b y r e m o v in g t h e T u r k i s h a n d G e r m a n c e n te r s o f u n r e s t w h ic h r e m a in a n d p r e v e n t t h e e s t a b li s h ­ m e n t o f p e a c e a n d p r o s p e r ity . A ll ra c e s a n d re lig io n s w ill re c e iv e th e sa m e tr e a tm e n t a t o u r h a n d s . L o cal a n d m u n ic ip a l a d m in is tra ­ ti o n s w ill b e a p p o i n t e d p ro v is io n a lly b y m e a n d w ill h a v e o u r s u p ­ p o r t , a n d w e s h a ll c o n f in e o u r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e r e s to r a t io n o f la w a n d o r d e r . I n c a rr y in g o u t th i s I a p p e a l c o n f i d e n tl y to t h e la r g e m a s s o f t h e p u b li c ; I e n jo i n t h e m t o r e t u r n t o t h e i r la w f u l w o r k a n d to d o t h e i r d u t y as c itiz e n s in o b s e r v in g p u b l i c o r d e r . F o r m y p a r t t h e o rd e r s t h a t w ill b e is s u e d w ill b e as l i t t l e ir k s o m e as p o s s ib le ; t r a d e w ill b e e n c o u r a g e d a n d e v e ry p o s s ib le a s s is ta n c e w ill b e g iv e n . I lo o k f o r w a rd , w ith t h e a s s is ta n c e o f a ll m o d e r a t e a n d t h i n k i n g m e n in B a k u , t o t h e e a sy a n d e a rly a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f t h e d u t y w h ic h lie s b e f o r e m e a n d t h e tr o o p s u n d e r m y c o m m a n d , so t h a t w e m a y r e t u r n a t a n e a rly d a t e t o o u r c o u n tr y , h a v in g h e l p e d R u s ­ sia t o ta k e h e r s h a r e in t h e v ic to r y w h ic h h a s b e e n a c h ie v e d o v e r o u r c o m m o n e n e m ie s . . . ,73 T h o m s o n a d d e d t o th i s t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t m a r ti a l la w w o u ld b e e n f o r c e d in B a k u “ u n t i l t h e c iv il a u t h o r i t y is in a p o s i ti o n t o re lie v e t h e tr o o p s o f r e s p o n s ib ility f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f p u b l i c o r d e r ” a n d in d i c a te d t h a t a ll a r m s w e re to b e s u r r e n d e r e d b y p e r s o n s in t h e c ity . B r itis h o fficers w e re p u t in c h a r g e o f t h e lo c a l p o lic e , a n d B r it is h a u th o r i t i e s w e re s o o n in c o n t r o l o f v ir tu a lly t h e e n t i r e e c o n o m i c a p p a ­ r a tu s o f t h e c ity . S p e c ia l m ix e d c o m m is s io n s w e re c r e a t e d u n d e r B r i t ­ is h s u p e r v is io n t o re o r g a n iz e , r e p a ir , r e o p e n , a n d o p e r a t e t h e s h i p p i n g in d u s tr y , t h e ra ilro a d s , lo c a l in d u s tr i e s ( e s p e c ia lly o i l ) , a n d t h e B a k u b r a n c h o f t h e R u s s ia n s t a t e b a n k .74 B y t h e e n d o f D e c e m b e r th i s

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H e r c u l e a n e f f o r t h a d s u c c e e d e d in r e o p e n i n g t h e B a k u - B a tu m ra ilw a y , a n d o il p r o d u c t i o n w as o n c e m o r e a v a ila b le fo r s h i p m e n t to t h e B la c k S e a e i t h e r b y ra il o r p ip e lin e . T h o m s o n ’s N o v e m b e r 19 s t a t e m e n t , p lu s t h e f a c t o f t h e fu ll ta k e ­ o v e r in B a k u , s e e m e d to p u t t h e B r itis h o n c e m o r e o n t h e R u s s ia n s id e o f t h e q u e s t i o n o f a u t h o r i t y . T h e s t a t e m e n t w as u n m i s t a k a b ly p r o - R u s s ia n in c h a r a c t e r a n d , in so fa r as i t im p li e d t h a t “ r e p u b l ic s ” s u p p o r t e d b y G e r m a n y a n d T u r k e y w e re o n ly i n s t r u m e n t s o f t h e C e n t r a l P o w e r s ’ f o r e ig n p o lic y , p o i n t e d to a n a n ti - A z e r b a i d z h a n c o n ­ c lu s io n . B u t a g a in th i s w as d e c e p tiv e . T h o m s o n h a d p la n s d e s ig n e d to e n d t h e c o n f u s io n in a m a n n e r w h ic h h e h o p e d w o u ld b e a c c e p t a b le t o a ll c o n c e r n e d .75 W h a t h e h a d in m i n d w as firs t i n d i c a te d in h is ta lk s w ith r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s o f t h e R u s s ia n N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l ( R . N . C . ) , t h e o n ly o r g a n i z a ti o n a c ti n g as s p o k e s m a n fo r R u s s ia n o p in i o n in t h e c ity . ( I t , t o g e t h e r w ith t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i a n d A r m e n i a n N a ti o n a l C o u n c il s , r e f le c te d t h e v iew s o f t h e m a j o r e le m e n ts in B a k u .) T h e R .N . C . h a d b e e n q u i t e p le a s e d w i t h t h e N o v e m b e r 19 s t a t e m e n t b e c a u s e i t s e e m e d to a c c o r d w ith t h e C o u n c i l ’s v ie w t h a t A z e rb a id z h a n w as a n in t e g r a l p a r t o f R u s s ia a n d s h o u l d , th e r e f o r e , w ith a r e a s o n a b le d e g r e e o f a u to n o m y , b e p u t u n d e r R u s s ia n a u th o r it y . A t a m e e t i n g w i t h t h r e e r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s o f t h e R .N . C . — B . B a ik o v , M . F . P o s h i b ia k i n , a n d I. N . S m i r n o v — T h o m s o n re v e a le d t h a t h e h o p e d t o se e n e g o ti a ti o n s b e g u n b e tw e e n t h e m a j o r g r o u p s a n d t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i a u t h o r i t i e s fo r t h e r e m o v a l o f t h e e x is tin g g o v e r n m e n t a n d its r e p l a c e m e n t b y a c o a li ti o n w h ic h w o u ld r e p r e s e n t a ll o f t h e n a t i o n a l g r o u p s in A z e r b a id z h a n . S u c h a g o v e r n m e n t, h e fe lt, w o u ld e n d t h e s t ig m a o f T u r k i s h in f lu e n c e , p r e v e n t o u tb r e a k s a n d d is p u te s b y n a t i o n a l e le m e n ts n o t n o w r e p r e s e n te d in t h e g o v e r n m e n t, a n d p r o v i d e t h e tr a n s i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y n e c e s s a ry to m a i n t a i n p e a c e a n d o r d e r u n t i l t h e P a ris P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e c o u ld d e t e r m i n e t h e u l t i m a t e f a t e o f t h e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n t e r r it o r i e s .76 B o t h t h e R . N . C . a n d t h e A r m e n i a n s s u p p o r t e d t h e id e a o f a c o a ­ li t i o n . T h e R u s s i a n C o u n c i l w o u ld h a v e lik e d t o s e e a u t h o r i t y e n ti r e l y in R u s s ia n h a n d s , o f c o u rs e , b u t p r o s p e c ts f o r th i s w e re fu ll o f u n c e r ­ t a i n ti e s . N o t o n ly d id t h e B r itis h p r e f e r a c o a li ti o n , b u t t h e R u s s ia n e l e m e n t its e lf w as c ru c ia lly d iv id e d i n t o f o u r ( i f n o t m o r e ) f a c tio n s , e a c h o n e o f w h ic h h a d o n ly its e lf in m i n d w h e n f a v o r in g a “ R u s s i a n ” a u t h o r i t y . B ic h e r a k o v h a d a lr e a d y a s s e r te d h is c la im o n b e h a l f o f t h e “ P r e - C a s p ia n ” g o v e r n m e n t , t h a t is, c a llin g fo r t h e e li m i n a t i o n o f t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i R e p u b l i c a n d t h e r e c o g n i ti o n o f h im s e l f as t h e b e a r e r

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o f R u s s ia n a u t h o r i t y in th is a re a . T h e R .N .C . h e l d s e v e ra l m e e t in g s w ith B ic h e ra k o v a n d h is “ g o v e r n m e n t ," b u t d r e w fr o m t h e m

not a

n e w s e n s e o f u n it y b u t r a t h e r t h e c o n c lu s io n t h a t B ic h e r a k o v 's su c c e s s w o u ld m e a n t h e i r e x c lu s io n f r o m a p o s i ti o n o f p o w e r . T h e R .N .C ., th e r e f o r e , t e n d e d to re g a r d B ic h e ra k o v 's fo rc e s a n d h is le a d e r s h i p m o r e as a s o u r c e o f tr o u b l e t h a n a s o u r c e o f s t r e n g t h .77 T h e m a j o r i ty in t h e R .N .C . c o n s e q u e n t ly f e l t i t n e c e s s a ry to se e k a g r e e m e n t w i t h m o d e r ­ a te s a m o n g t h e M o s le m s a n d A r m e n i a n s as t h e o n ly b a s is f o r a p e a c e ­ fu l r e t u r n to R u s s ia .78 A t h i r d p o te n t ia l ly i m p o r t a n t s p o k e s m a n f o r R u s s ia n o p i n i o n e x ­ is te d in t h e p e r s o n o f G e n e r a l N . N . G o lo v in , a c ti n g as r e p r e s e n ta t iv e o f t h e “ U f a g o v e r n m e n t ." H o w e v e r , t h e r e a p p e a r e d t o b e a g o o d d e a l o f c o n f u s io n c o n c e r n i n g G o lo v in 's a u t h o r i t y a n d h is v ie w s. A s a r e p ­ r e s e n ta t iv e o f U f a h e w as e x p e c t e d to b e q u i t e lib e r a l o r e v e n s o c ia lis t, b u t t h e n i t w as r e p o r te d t h a t h e w as in v o lv e d in t h e p l o t t o o v e r t h r o w t h e s o c ia lis t d ir e c to r a te a n d s e a t K o lc h a k as d ic t a to r . T h e R .N .C ., f o r its p a r t , g o t t h e im p r e s s io n t h a t t h e r e w e re tie s b e t w e e n B ic h e r ­ a k o v a n d G o lo v in a n d t h a t t h e tw o o f t h e m w e re s e e k in g t o e s t a b li s h a R u s s ia n a u t h o r i t y n o t s u b o r d i n a t e t o D e n ik in , so i t r e f r a in e d f r o m s u p p o r tin g G o lo v in .79 O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , G e n e r a l T h o m s o n p u r p o s e ly d e la y e d fin a l e x e ­ c u ti o n o f h is p la n s f o r a c o a litio n g o v e r n m e n t u n t i l c o n f e r e n c e s c o u ld b e h e l d w ith G o lo v in so as to c o o r d i n a te t h e s e p la n s w i t h t h e d e s ire s o f “ a n a ll-R u s s ia n g o v e r n m e n t ." B u t w h e n T h o m s o n a n d G o lo v in m e t , it d e v e lo p e d t h a t t h e l a t t e r r e f u s e d t o d e a l w i t h B ic h e r a k o v o r a n y o n e else . H e a p p a r e n t ly in s is te d t h a t h e a lo n e s h o u l d b e re c o g ­ n iz e d as t h e r e p r e s e n ta t iv e o f R u s s ia n a u t h o r i t y . T h o m s o n t u r n e d th i s q u e s t io n o v e r to h is A m e r ic a n a d v is o r, D r . P o s t , b u t a ll t h e l a t t e r c o u ld e li c it w as t h e in f o r m a t i o n t h a t t h e U f a D i r e c t o r a t e h a d b e e n s u c c e e d e d b y a n e w g o v e r n m e n t in O m s k w h ic h w as “ n o w t h e allR u s s ia n g o v e r n m e n t ," t h r o u g h w h ic h a ll B r it is h a id s h o u l d b e d i s t r i b ­ u te d . G o lo v in w is h e d t o ta k e o v e r a ffa irs in t h e C a u c a s u s in t h e n a m e o f t h a t g o v e r n m e n t .80 T h e p r o s p e c ts fo r a c h ie v in g a w o r k a b le s o l u ti o n to t h e p r o b l e m o f a u t h o r i t y t h u s s e e m e d r a t h e r s lim . F o r a w h ile i t lo o k e d as t h o u g h t h e R .N .C . m i g h t b e a b le to n e g o ti a te a n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e A z e r b a id z h a n is t o e s ta b lis h a p ro v is io n a l c o a li ti o n a u t h o r i t y b a s e d o n t h e u n ­ d e r s ta n d in g t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e r e u n i f ic a tio n o f A z e r b a id z h a n w i t h R u s s ia w o u ld b e d e t e r m i n e d b y a n a ll- R u s s ia n c o n s t i t u e n t a s s e m ­ b ly in t h e f u t u r e . 81 H o w e v e r , n e g o ti a ti o n s t o th i s e n d w e re s u d d e n l y

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r e p u d i a t e d b y t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v e r n m e n t , a n d its d e le g a tio n w as r e c a lle d . F u r t h e r ta lk s w e re e v e n tu a lly h e ld , b u t t o n o a v a il. A f t e r T h o m s o n , in a n e f f o r t t o re m o v e o n e o f t h e p o in t s o f d is p u te , d e c la r e d in a s t a t e m e n t o n N o v e m b e r 2 4 t h a t t h e f u t u r e o f t h e T r a n s ­ c a u c a s ia n te r r it o r i e s w o u ld b e d e c id e d a t t h e P a ris P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v e r n m e n t u s e d th i s as t h e b a s is f o r r e j e c ti n g a n y c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e d e c is io n o f th i s q u e s t i o n b y a n a ll-R u s s ia n c o n ­ s t i t u e n t a s s e m b ly o r to r e u n i o n w i t h R u s s ia as c o n d it io n s f o r o r g a n iz ­ in g a c o a li ti o n . F o r t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v e r n m e n t h e n c e f o r t h t h e o n ly q u e s t i o n s u b j e c t to n e g o t i a t i o n w as t h a t o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n b y t h e R u s s ia n s a n d A r m e n i a n s in t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v e r n m e n t a n d p a r ­ l i a m e n t . T h e A r m e n i a n s , f e a r in g a n y f u r t h e r e x a c e r b a t io n o f te n s io n s , r e l u c t a n t l y a g r e e d t o th i s , b u t t h e R .N .C . v o te d to r e f u s e t o p a r t ic i­ p a t e in t h e g o v e r n m e n t o n th i s b a sis, b e lie v in g t h a t i t w o u ld b e t a n t a ­ m o u n t to s u p p o r t i n g t h e s e p a r a ti o n o f A z e r b a id z h a n f r o m R u s s ia .82 T h i s s t a n d b y t h e R . N . C . a p p a r e n t l y a n g e r e d T h o m s o n . H e w as v ir tu a lly a c c u s e d b y t h e C o u n c i l o f a id in g t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v e r n ­ m e n t to r e j e c t t h e o n ly a c c e p t a b le c o m p r o m is e , a n d h e in t u r n a c c u s e d t h e C o u n c i l o f r e f u s in g to a c c e p t re a lity a n d a d o p t i n g a n u n ju s ti f i­ a b ly n a r r o w v ie w . T h e R . N . C ., h e t o l d its r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s , d id n o t r e p r e s e n t a ll R u s s ia n s , a n d if i t r e f u s e d to c o o p e r a t e h e b e lie v e d t h a t o th e r s c o u ld b e f o u n d w h o w o u ld .83 F r o m th i s p o i n t o n t h e R .N .C . t o o k a c r itic a l a n d h o s t il e a t t i t u d e to w a r d b o t h t h e B r itis h a n d t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v e r n m e n t, a n d T h o m s o n b e c a m e m o r e c o n v in c e d t h a n e v e r t h a t t h e R u s s ia n s (B ic h e r a k o v , G o lo v in , a n d t h e R . N . C . ) w e re in c a p a b le o f t h e a d j u s t m e n t s n e c e s s a ry to m a i n t a i n a s ta b le a u t h o r i t y in t h e a re a . J u s t as T h o m s o n h a d p r e d i c te d , t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v e r n m e n t s u b ­ s e q u e n t l y f o u n d s o m e R u s s ia n s w h o , w h ile n o t r e p r e s e n ta t iv e o f t h e m a j o r i ty , w e re w illin g to c o o p e r a t e o n its te r m s , a n d , w ith B r itis h a p p r o v a l, a n e w p a r l i a m e n t w as t h e n c o n v o k e d o n D e c e m b e r 7. Its c o m p o s it io n w as p r e d o m i n a n t l y M o s le m , b u t s m a ll d e le g a tio n s w e re a llo w e d f o r t h e A r m e n i a n s , Je w s, a n d R u s s ia n s . T h e le a d i n g p a r ty , h o l d i n g o v e r o n e - t h i r d o f t h e s e a ts , w as t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i M u s s a v a t, w h ic h , t o g e t h e r w ith o t h e r A z e r b a id z h a n i p a r tie s , h e l d a d o m i n a n t p o s i t i o n .84 T h e n e w p a r l i a m e n t w as, h o w e v e r , a n e x p re s s io n o f c o m ­ p r o m is e t o a d e g r e e a n d a t le a s t p a r t ia l ly r e p r e s e n ta t iv e o f t h e p o p u ­ l a t i o n . 85 N o t o n ly w e re fiv e m e m b e r s o f t h e S la v ic R u s s ia n S o c ie ty , a m i n o r i t y w h ic h h a d s p l it o ff f r o m t h e R .N .C ., s e a t e d in t h e p a r lia ­ m e n t , b u t tw o o f its m e m b e r s ( V in o g r a d o v a n d L iz g a r ) w e re in c l u d e d

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in t h e n e w g o v e r n m e n t o r g a n iz e d u n d e r F a t h a l i K h a n - K h o is k ii, a le a d e r o f t h e N e u t r a l D e m o c r a t ic G r o u p .86 I n v ie w o f t h e f a c t t h a t o t h e r e ff o rts h a d fa ile d t o a c h ie v e w h a t t h e B r itis h w a n te d , T h o m s o n d e c id e d t o a c c e p t t h e n e w K h a n - K h o is k ii g o v e r n m e n t as t h e le g i ti m a t e g o v e r n m e n t o f A z e r b a id z h a n . W i t h o u t ta k i n g a p o s i ti o n o n A z e r b a id z h a n i s t a t e h o o d as s u c h , T h o m s o n is s u e d a s t a t e m e n t o n D e c e m b e r 2 9 t h a t th i s c o a li ti o n g o v e r n m e n t w o u ld re c e iv e t h e “ fu ll s u p p o r t ” o f t h e A llie d C o m m a n d as t h e “ o n ly le g a l lo c a l a u t h o r i t y in t h e b o r d e r s o f A z e r b a id z h a n .” 87 L ess t h a n tw o w e e k s la t e r t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v e r n m e n t a n n o u n c e d t h a t it h a d s e n t a d e le g a tio n to P a ris “ f o r t h e d e f e n s e o f o u r p o li ti c a l i n t e r e s t s a n d f o r t h e r e c o g n i ti o n o f o u r in d e p e n d e n c e b y t h e G r e a t P o w e r s .” 88 M e a n ­ w h ile , G e n e r a l S u l’k e v ic h , f o r m e r h e a d o f t h e C r i m e a n g o v e r n m e n t u n d e r G e r m a n a u s p ic e s , w as p u t a t t h e h e a d o f t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i g e n e r a l s ta ff w ith t h e d u ty o f o r g a n iz in g a n e w a rm y . T h e B r itis h t h e a t r e c o m m a n d e r , G e n e r a l G e o r g e M i l n e , c a m e f r o m C o n s t a n t i n o p l e in J a n u a r y a n d g a v e h is a p p r o v a l t o t h e s e d e v e lo p ­ m e n t s . I n a n o t e to t h e m i n i s t e r o f f o r e ig n a ffa irs o n J a n u a r y 2 2 , M i l n e a s s u re d t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v e r n m e n t t h a t t h e A llie d v ic to r y in t h e w a r m e a n t t h e g u a r a n t e e o f t h e “ r i g h t o f p e o p le s t o d is p o s e fr e e ly o f th e m s e lv e s ,” a n d in a m e e t i n g w i t h K h a n - K h o is k ii t h e n e x t d a y h e a ffirm e d T h o m s o n ’s s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e n e w g o v e r n m e n t w o u ld b e d e a lt w ith d e f a c to as t h e o n ly le g a l a u t h o r i t y . T h e A z e r b a id z h a n i d e le g a tio n to t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e w o u ld b e a llo w e d t o p r e s e n t its v iew s in P a ris , M i l n e a d d e d , a n d w h ile t h e B r it is h w o u ld n o t i n t e r f e r e in A z e r b a id z h a n ’s in t e r n a l affairs, th e y w o u ld

d o a ll p o s s ib le

“ to

d e v e lo p t h e in d u s tr y a n d t h e c o m m e r c e o f y o u r c o u n t r y .” T h i s c o o p e r ­ a ti o n , h e b e lie v e d , w o u ld a s s u re b o t h p e a c e a n d ju s ti c e in p r o s p e r it y fo r A z e r b a id z h a n .89 W i t h s o m e c h a n g e s in p e r s o n n e l l a t e r in t h e y e a r, th i s a r r a n g e m e n t o f a u t h o r i t y in A z e r b a id z h a n la s te d u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h e civ il w a r. S o lo n g as t h e B r itis h r e m a in e d in B a k u th e y c o n t r o l l e d t h a t c ity a n d u s e d it as t h e i r c h ie f b a s e o f o p e r a t io n s o n t h e C a s p ia n , b u t t h e r e s t o f A z e r b a id z h a n w as p u t in t o t h e h a n d s o f t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v ­ e r n m e n t . T h i s s o l u ti o n w as, h o w e v e r, o n ly a p a r tia l o n e . I t d i d n o t r e m o v e t h e b a s ic issu es in v o lv e d . T h e r e w as s till t h e a n o m a l o u s s t a tu s o f B ic h e ra k o v , w h o c o m m a n d e d b o t h h is C o s s a c k s a n d t h e R u s s i a n C a s p ia n fle e t. T h e r e w as a lso t h e e v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n o f r e la tio n s w ith D e n i k i n a n d t h e V o l u n t e e r s , w h o s e v ie w s w e r e s i m i la r to th o s e o f t h e R . N . C . a n d h a r d l y in a c c o r d w i t h B r it is h a c t i o n in

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A z e r b a id z h a n . M o r e im m e d i a te l y , h o w e v e r , t h e r e w as t h e q u e s t io n o f B r it is h o c c u p a t i o n o f G e o r g ia . T h e l a n d i n g o f B r it is h tr o o p s in B a k u h a d b e e n o n ly p a r t o f t h e B r it is h p la n t o o c c u p y s t r a te g i c p o in t s in T r a n s c a u c a s ia . T h e u t m o s t i m p o r t a n c e o f B a k u as a m i li ta r y b a s e a n d s o u r c e o f o il w as m a t c h e d o n t h e B la c k S e a s id e b y t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f B a t u m as t h e k e y p o r t fo r e n t r a n c e fr o m t h e w e s t a n d t h e c h ie f o u t l e t to t h e w e s t fo r t h a t o il, a n d t h e ra il a n d p ip e li n e c o n n e c t io n s b e tw e e n th e s e tw o c itie s ra n t h r o u g h G e o r g ia . I t s c a p it a l a t T iflis ( T b i l i s i ) w as t h e lo g ic a l p la c e fo r B r it is h h e a d q u a r t e r s in T r a n s c a u c a s ia . F u r t h e r m o r e , G e o r g ia w as b o t h in v o lv e d in t h e d i s p u t e d c la im s to B a t u m ( w h ic h h a d b e e n p r e ­ v io u s ly t a k e n b y t h e T u r k s ) t h e e a r lie r G e r m a n

a n d , as A z e r b a id z h a n , im p li c a te d

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i n t e r v e n t i o n . 90 I n v ie w o f t h e u n c e r t a i n t y o f B r it is h a t t i t u d e s o n th e s e q u e s tio n s , t h e G e o r g ia n s h a d n o t w a ite d f o r t h e a c tu a l a rriv a l o f A llie d tr o o p s to b e g in a c a m p a ig n f o r r e c o g n i ti o n . A s s o o n as t h e B r it is h a r r iv e d in B a k u , a G e o r g ia n e n v o y ( K a r t s e v a d z e ) w as s e n t to se e T h o m s o n to p r e s e n t t h e o fficia l e x p la n a tio n o f G e o r g ia 's e a r lie r b e h a v io r . T h e a p p e a l to G e r m a n y , h e d e c la r e d , h a d b e e n m a d e p u r e ly o u t o f d e s p e r ­ a t i o n ; t h e B o ls h e v ik s t h r e a t e n e d in t h e n o r t h a n d t h e T u r k s in t h e s o u t h , a n d t h e A llie s , w i t h w h o m G e o r g ia h a d a ll a lo n g w is h e d to e s t a b li s h c lo s e r e la tio n s , w e re u n a b le t o s e n d a d e q u a t e a id . O n N o v e m ­ b e r 2 6 G e o r g ia n

F o re ig n

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e x p la n a tio n b y a l e t t e r to T h o m s o n a s s u r in g t h e B r itis h C o m m a n d t h a t “ d u r i n g t h e w h o le o f its e x is te n c e [G e o rg ia ] h a d n o t a llo w e d a s in g le s t e p t o b e t a k e n w h ic h c o u ld a ff e c t t h e in t e r e s t o f t h e A llie s a n d h o p e s t h a t i t w ill h a v e t h e s y m p a th y o f t h e A llie s as re g a rd s t h e p r o s p e r it y o f a n i n d e p e n d e n t G e o r g ia in t h e f u t u r e .” 91 G e g e c h k o r i t h u s s o u g h t fr o m t h e m o m e n t o f B r it is h a p p e a r a n c e in B a k u to c o n v in c e t h e B r it is h C o m m a n d t h a t th e r e h a d in f a c t b e e n n o e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f G e r m a n in f lu e n c e in G e o r g ia a n d , m o r e o v e r , t h a t t h e G e o r g ia n g o v e r n m e n t h a d a lr e a d y e s t a b li s h e d “ c o m p l e t e t r a n q u i l ­ i t y ” in its b o r d e r s , g u a r a n t e e in g a ll t h a t w as n e c e s s a ry fo r its c o n t i n ­ u e d e x is te n c e as a “ s t r o n g a n d n o r m a l s t a t e .” M o r e s p e c ific a lly , w h e n th e q u e s tio n

o f t h e e n t r a n c e o f B r itis h

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b r o a c h e d , t h e G e o r g ia n g o v e r n m e n t o n D e c e m b e r 22 i n f o r m e d t h e B r it is h m is s io n t h a t h a d ju s t a r r iv e d t h a t it d id “ n o t c o n s i d e r as n e c e s ­ s a ry t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n i n t o G e o r g ia n te r r i t o r y o f fo r e ig n tr o o p s f o r t h e

100

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m a i n t e n a n c e o f o r d e r , s in c e t h e G o v e r n m e n t it s e l f h a s a d e q u a t e fo rc e s a t its d is p o s a l f o r th i s p u r p o s e .” A n d , th i s n o t e a d d e d , if t h e p u r p o s e o f B r itis h tr o o p s s h o u l d b e a n y t h i n g b e y o n d t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f o r d e r , “ t h e G e o r g ia n G o v e r n m e n t d e c is iv e ly d e c la re s t h a t th i s i n t r o ­ d u c t i o n c a n n o t ta k e p la c e w i t h o u t t h e a g r e e m e n t o f t h e G e o r g ia n G o v e r n m e n t . ” 92 R e p e a t i n g t h e s t a n d a r d p h r a s e s , t h e B r itis h C o m m a n d i n f o r m e d t h e G e o r g ia n g o v e r n m e n t t h a t B r itis h fo rc e s w o u ld in n o w a y i n t e r ­ fe re in i n t e r n a l a ffairs, t h a t t h e i r p u r p o s e w as m e r e ly to a s s is t in t h e r e s to r a t io n o f “ o r d e r a n d n o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s ” in t h e a re a , a n d t h a t a ll te r r it o r i a l a n d s im ila r m a j o r q u e s t io n s wro u ld b e “ d e c id e d in t h e p e a c e c o n f e r e n c e in P a r is .” 93 R e a liz in g t h e in e x p e d i e n c y o f g e n e r a t i n g a n y h o s t il it y b e tw e e n th e m s e lv e s a n d t h e A llie s, t h e G e o r g ia n g o v e r n ­ m e n t t h e n h a s t e n e d to r e p ly t o t h e B r itis h r e p r e s e n ta t iv e o n D e c e m ­ b e r 2 4 t h a t “ h a v in g in v ie w y o u r s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e e n t r y o f tr o o p s i n t o T iflis . . . w ill b e c a r r ie d o u t in a c c o r d a n c e w ith t h e g e n e r a l p la n o f t h e E n t e n t e P o w e rs , t h e G e o r g ia n G o v e r n m e n t , a n i m a t e d b y a d e s ire to w o rk in a g r e e m e n t w ith t h e A llie s f o r t h e r e a l iz a t io n o f t h e p r in c ip le s o f la w a n d ju s tic e p r o c l a im e d b y t h e m , g iv es its a g r e e m e n t t o t h e e n t r a n c e o f tr o o p s . . . .” 94 D u r in g D e c e m b e r t h e B r itis h fu lly o c c u p ie d B a t u m a n d s t a t i o n e d a s m a ll g a rr is o n in T iflis w h e r e t h e i r h e a d q u a r t e r s w e re s u b s e q u e n t l y e s t a b li s h e d .95 W h i l e r e la tio n s w ith t h e G e o r g ia n g o v e r n m e n t w e r e n o t e n ti r e l y s m o o th , t h e r e w as n o r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m o f o r g a n i z in g a n e w g o v e r n m e n t e x p e r ie n c e d in A z e r b a id z h a n . G e o r g ia r e t a i n e d its e x is tin g g o v e r n m e n t a n d c o n t i n u e d t o p u r s u e a n o ta b l y i n d e p e n d e n t p o lic y . T h e G e o r g ia n r e p r e s e n ta t iv e , A v a lo v ( A v a li s h v il i) , w h o a r r iv e d in L o n d o n in D e c e m b e r , f o u n d t h e B r itis h c o m m i t t e d in g e n e r a l t o t h e r e s to r a t io n o f R u s s ia u n d e r d e m o c r a ti c p r i n c ip l e s , b u t h e a ls o f o u n d t h e m w illin g to li s t e n to h is v ie w t h a t t h e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n s t a te s s h o u l d n o t b e in c l u d e d in t h a t r e s to r a t io n b u t r a t h e r r e t a i n e d

as

b u f f e r s t a te s .96 T h i s a p p e a l to o ld im p e r i a li s t riv a lrie s f o u n d s u p p o r t in h ig h p la c e s , e s p e c ia lly in t h e B r itis h F o r e i g n O ffic e .97 F r o m

th e

l a t t e r A v a lo v re c e iv e d o n D e c e m b e r 31 a s s u ra n c e s t h a t “ H is M a j e s ty 's G o v e r n m e n t v ie w w i t h s y m p a th y t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n o f i n d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e G e o r g ia n R e p u b l i c a n d a r e r e a d y to u rg e its r e c o g n i ti o n a t t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e .” 98 T h i s a c tu a lly m e a n t a t th i s t i m e o n ly w h a t w a s b e in g a p p li e d to A z e r b a id z h a n —h o l d i n g t h e s t a tu s q u o a n d l e t t i n g e a c h s e n d its o w n d e le g a tio n to P a ris w h e r e fin a l d e c is io n s w o u ld b e m a d e — b u t i t d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e q u a l i t y o f a B r it is h p o lic y t h a t l e f t

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101

m u c h f r e e d o m fo r G e o r g ia to a c t in its o w n i n t e r e s t . B a t u m , h o w e v e r , w as q u i t e a n o t h e r m a t t e r . I t w as c la im e d b y b o t h R u s s i a n a n d G e o r g ia n a u t h o r i t i e s , o f c o u rs e , b u t i t w as t a k e n o v e r b y t h e B r it is h as s u c c e s s o rs t o n e i t h e r o f th e s e b u t t o t h e T u r k s . B a tu m t h e r e f o r e , in its e lf, p o s e d n o t o n ly t h e s a m e p r o b l e m s as t h o s e e n c o u n ­ te r e d in B a k u b u t s till m o r e s e r io u s o n e s . S o m e s o r t o f lo c a l a u t h o r i t y h a d t o b e e s t a b li s h e d u n d e r B r it is h a u s p ic e s a n d , e v e n m o r e d if fic u lt, th i s h a d t o b e d o n e w i t h o u t p r e j u d ic i n g t h e d e c is io n as to B a t u m ’s f u t u r e s t a tu s . T h i s l a t t e r q u e s t i o n , o f c o u rs e , as t h e o f t - r e p e a t e d m a g ic w o rd s d e c la r e d , w o u ld b e d e c id e d b y t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e . M e a n ­ w h ile t h e B r it is h g e n e r a l in c o m m a n d o f tr o o p s o c c u p y in g t h e c ity h e l d t h e a u t h o r i t y o f g o v e r n o r - g e n e r a l a n d b o r e t h e r e s p o n s ib ility f o r o r g a n i z in g a lo c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . G e n e r a l F o r r e s ti e r - W a l k e r , c o m m a n d e r o f t h e B r itis h fo rc e s w h ic h m o v e d i n t o B a t u m a n d t h e n G e o r g ia , s e t in m o t i o n p la n s fo r a s o lu ­ t i o n t o th i s p r o b l e m a lo n g lin e s s im ila r t o th o s e s o u g h t b y T h o m s o n in B a k u . T h e p o p u l a t i o n o f B a t u m

w as e x tr e m e ly m ix e d , so a n y

a u t h o r i t y e s t a b li s h e d , i t w as f e lt, s h o u l d b e as r e p r e s e n ta t iv e o f a ll r e s i d e n t n a ti o n a li ti e s as p o s s ib le . A s in B a k u , th e r e e x is te d in B a t u m a R u s s ia n N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l w h ic h s p o k e fo r t h e m a j o r i ty o f t h e R u s ­ s ia n e l e m e n t a n d s t o o d f o r t h e in t e r e s t s o f t h e R u s s ia n s t a te . A lso as in B a k u , t h e R . N . C . s t r o n g ly s u p p o r t e d D e n i k i n a n d , in th i s c ase, to o k its p o s i ti o n in a c c o r d a n c e w ith V o l u n t e e r d i r e c t i v e s ." T h e B a t u m R . N . C . , h o w e v e r , w as s o m e w h a t m o r e m o d e r a t e in its v ie w s, b e in g la r g e ly u n d e r t h e in f lu e n c e o f K a d e t le a d e r s h ip . P . M . M a s lo v , c h a i r m a n o f t h e B a t u m

R .N .C ., c o n s u l t e d w ith

W a l k e r w h e n t h e B r it is h a r r iv e d a n d w as a s k e d b y t h e G e n e r a l to h e l p o r g a n iz e a “ c o u n c il o n g o v e r n m e n t ” r e p r e s e n ti n g B a t u m 's c h ie f e le m e n ts . T h i s c o u n c il, it w as m a d e c le a r, w o u ld n o t b e a n i n d e p e n d ­ e n t g o v e r n m e n t b u t r a t h e r a n a d v is o ry b o d y u n d e r t h e B r itis h g o v ­ e r n o r - g e n e r a l, w h ic h p o s t L t. G e n e r a l W . }. N . C o o k e - C o llis w o u ld a s s u m e . S u c h a c o u n c il w as in f a c t o r g a n i z e d — i n c l u d in g tw o R u s s ia n s , tw o G e o r g ia n s , o n e G r e e k , o n e M o s le m , o n e Je w , o n e P o le , a n d o n e A r m e n i a n — u n d e r M a s lo v 's c h a ir m a n s h ip a n d la rg e ly u n d e r R u s s ia n in f lu e n c e .100 T h e B r it is h C o m m a n d t h e n is s u e d a s t a t e m e n t c o n c e r n ­ in g a u t h o r i t y in t h e c ity a n d B r it is h p o lic y . N o t i n g t h e c r e a t io n o f t h e lo c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o u n c il, th i s d e c la r a ti o n w e n t o n to a s s e rt t h a t “ a ll d e c is io n s o f t h e C o u n c i l m u s t b e f o r e e x e c u t io n re c e iv e t h e a p p r o v a l o f t h e M i l i t a r y G o v e r n o r .” M o r e o v e r , w h ile t h e p o p u l a t i o n w a s a s s u r e d t h a t so lo n g as i t b e h a v e d p r o p e r ly t h e B r it is h w o u ld “ n o t

The Volunteer Army

102

in t e r f e r e in y o u r affairs n o r in f r in g e u p o n y o u r f r e e d o m / ' i t w as m a d e c le a r t h a t a n y o ffe n c e s w h ic h in t e r f e r e d w ith B r it is h p o lic y o r c o n t r o l w o u ld b e t r ie d b y c o u r t m a r tia l a n d p u n i s h e d b y p e n a lt ie s u p t o a n d in c l u d in g d e a t h . 101 T h e r e w as, h o w e v e r, a flaw in th is a r r a n g e m e n t . T h e o b j e c t o f t h e B r itis h p la n w as to s ta b iliz e c o n d it io n s lo c a lly o n a n e u t r a l p l a t f o r m w h ic h w o u ld p r e v e n t a n in t e r n e c i n e s tr u g g le f o r c o n tr o l o f t h e c ity u n t i l its fa te c o u ld b e d e c id e d in P a ris , a n d w h ic h w o u ld in t h e m e a n ­ ti m e p r o v id e t h e o r d e r ly c o n d u c t o f affairs n e c e s s a ry t o t h e fu ll e x p lo i­ t a t i o n o f B a tu m as a B r itis h b a s e . T h e R .N .C ., o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , f e lt its e lf b o u n d b y d u t y a n d lo y a lty to R u s s ia to p r o m o t e t h e e v e n ­ tu a l r e t u r n o f t h e p o r t to R u s s ia , a n d m e a n w h il e i t s o u g h t t o d o a ll in its p o w e r to f a c ilita te its u se b y a n d s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y . T h e G e o r g ia n s , o f c o u rs e , p u r s u e d p re c is e ly t h e o p p o s i te p o lic y o f tr y in g to e x c lu d e R u s s ia n in t e r e s t a n d b r i n g B a t u m u n d e r G e o r g ia n c o n tr o l. T h e r e w e re , in s h o r t, n o n e u tr a ls e x c e p t t h e B r it is h , a n d t h e y w e re , b y v ir tu e o f t h e i r s t a n d , b o u n d to c la s h w i t h b o t h s id e s . T h e a d m i n is tr a t iv e c o u n c il h e a d e d b y M a s lo v w as s u b o r d i n a t e to t h e B r itis h g o v e rn o r -g e n e ra l, b u t M a s lo v a lso c o n s i d e r e d i t a n a g e n c y o f t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y C o m m a n d . A n ti c i p a t i n g t h e c o n f lic t o f i n t e r ­ e s t w h ic h w o u ld in e v ita b ly a rise , M a s lo v th u s i n q u i r e d o f D e n i k i n e x a c tly w h a t s h o u l d b e d o n e in c a se t h e B r itis h s h o u l d o r d e r a c o u rs e in t e r p r e t e d to b e in ju r io u s to R u s s ia n in t e r e s t s . D e n i k i n 's re p ly , w h ile a d v is in g h is s u p p o r te r s n o t to q u a r r e l o v e r “ tr iv ia litie s ," in s is t e d t h a t in a n y q u e s t io n t o u c h i n g b a s ic R u s s ia n n a t i o n a l in t e r e s t s th e y m u s t “ d ir e c tly , o p e n ly , a n d s tr o n g ly d e f e n d t h e R u s s ia n v ie w , n o t l e t t i n g a n y th i n g s t a n d in t h e w a y ." 102 T h i s a d v ic e s o o n c la s h e d w i t h B r it is h e ffo rts to e n f o r c e a ru le p r o h i b i t i n g a n y a g it a ti o n in t h e c ity f o r its r e u n if ic a tio n w ith R u s s ia o r o th e r w i s e c o n c e r n i n g its f u t u r e d is p o s i­ ti o n . N o re fu g e e s w e re p e r m i t t e d to r e t u r n t o t h e K a rs o r B a t u m re g io n s w h o w e re id e n t if ie d w i t h a p o s i ti o n o n th i s q u e s t io n . V o l u n ­ te e r o fficers c o n d u c t i n g r e c r u it in g a c tiv itie s w e re t e m p o r a r ily o r d e r e d to c e a se s u c h w o rk . P o litic a l m e e t in g s in v o lv in g a g it a ti o n

on

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q u e s t io n w e re p r o h i b i t e d . 103 T h e c o u n c il w as n a tu r a ll y in v o lv e d in th e s e m a t t e r s a n d , in d e a li n g w ith t h e m , d id n o t f u n c t i o n in t h e m a n n e r h o p e d fo r b y t h e B r it is h . T h e r e s u lt w as t h a t b y A p ril te n s io n s h a d r e a c h e d t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e B r itis h C o m m a n d in t e r v e n e d d e c is iv e ly , d is m is s in g t h e c o u n c il a n d p u ttin g b o th

c iv il a n d

m i li ta r y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n

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B r itis h a u t h o r i t y . 104 H e n c e f o r w a r d B a t u m w as a d m i n i s t e r e d s o le ly b y

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B r it is h o ffic e rs o r a g e n ts , a n d n e i t h e r G e o r g ia n n o r V o l u n t e e r a u t h o r ­ ity w a s p e r m i t t e d . W h e n l a t e r a n a ti v e o f t h e a re a , G e n e r a l N a tie v , w a s c o m m is s io n e d b y D e n i k i n t o r e s u m e r e c r u it in g a c tiv itie s , p r o te s ts w e re im m e d i a te l y ra is e d b y b o t h G e o r g ia a n d t h e B r itis h . N o t lo n g t h e r e a f t e r t h e g e n e r a l w as a t t a c k e d in t h e s t r e e ts a n d k ille d , d e m o n ­ s t r a t i n g h o w fie rc e t h e h o s t il it ie s h a d b e c o m e a n d i n d i c a ti n g w h a t t h e B r it is h w e re s e e k in g t o a v o id .105 T h u s e v e n in B a tu m , w h e r e d ir e c t B r it is h c o n tr o ls w e re e s ta b lis h e d , i n t e r n a l s q u a b b l e s c o n t i n u e d t o b e a s e r io u s p r o b l e m . H o l d i n g t h e s t a t u s q u o w as n o s im p le m a t t e r , fo r, h o w e v e r i t w as i n t e r p r e t e d , it a p p e a r e d t o o n e p a r t y o r a n o t h e r to fa v o r its a d v e rs a rie s . I n T r a n s c a u ­ c a sia a lo n e , b i t t e r fig h ts e n s u e d b e tw e e n t h e A r m e n ia n s a n d G e o r ­ g ia n s o v e r s tr ip s o f t e r r it o r y c la im e d b y b o t h , a n d s im ila r q u a r r e ls , t h o u g h a lw a y s less s e r io u s , b e s e t A z e r b a id z h a n i - G e o r g ia n r e la tio n s , w h ile t h e A z e r b a id z h a n is a n d t h e A r m e n i a n s c o n t i n u e d t h e i r o ld h o s ­ ti litie s . I n th e s e a re a s t h e B r itis h w o u ld b e o b lig e d to i n t e r v e n e , in s o m e ca se s w i t h fo rc e , to s t o p t h e c o n f lic t.106 L o c a l T r a n s c a u c a s ia n p r o b l e m s , s e r io u s as th e y w e re , h o w e v e r, w o u ld s till n o t b e as d if fic u lt t o d e a l w i t h as t h e la r g e r q u e s t io n o f t h e c o n f lic t b e tw e e n t h e T r a n s ­ c a u c a s ia n s ta te s a n d t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y w h ic h h a d a lr e a d y e r u p t e d a lo n g t h e b o r d e r s t o t h e n o r t h . *

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I t w a s a l m o s t in e v i ta b l e t h a t a n i n t e r v e n t i o n u n d e r t a k e n in t h e c o n f u s e d c r o s s c u r r e n ts o f c iv il-w a r p o litic s in S o u th R u s s ia w o u ld s o o n f in d t h e A llie s e n g u lf e d in a p e r p le x in g ta n g l e o f d is p u te s a n d c la im s a m o n g t h e v a rio u s a n ti- B o ls h e v ik e le m e n ts . T h e s u b s e q u e n t h is to r y o f t h e i r s ta y in S o u th R u s s ia w o u ld , in d e e d , h a v e to b e w r i t t e n m o r e in t e r m s o f t h e s e d is p u te s t h a n in te r m s o f t h e w a r to l i b e r a t e R u s s ia f r o m B o ls h e v is m . T h e A llie d c o m m a n d s w o u ld fin d o n e o f t h e i r m a jo r f u n c t i o n s t o b e t h a t o f m e d i a t i n g b e tw e e n t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y a n d t h e b o r d e r s ta te s . T h i s th a n k l e s s ta s k w o u ld in t u r n le a d to s o m e c u r i­ o u s ly c o n t r a d i c t o r y r e l a ti o n s h ip s b e tw e e n t h e A llie s a n d th o s e w h o m t h e y h a d c o m e to a id . T h e p o litic s o f in t e r v e n t i o n in t h e civ il w a r w e re t o b e fu ll o f tr o u b le s f o r t h e w e ll- m e a n in g A llie s. M e a n w h il e , h o w e v e r , t h e A llie d p r o b l e m w as n o t m e r e ly t h e r e s u lt o f c o n f u s io n in S o u th R u s s ia b u t ju s t as im p o r t a n t l y t h e r e s u lt o f a la c k o f a c o o r d i n a t e d p o lic y a m o n g t h e A llie d P o w e rs th e m s e lv e s . T h e b u s y A llie d le a d e rs , w e a r ie d b y a lo n g w a r a n d n o w c o n f r o n t e d w ith t h e e v e n m o r e ta x in g q u e s t io n s o f p e a c e - m a k in g , w e re n o t b le s s e d w i t h e i t h e r a re a d y - m a d e p o lic y a d e q u a t e f o r t h e p o s t-w a r in te r v e n -

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t i o n in R u s s ia o r t h e t i m e n e e d e d to f o r m u l a t e o n e . T h e “ R u s s ia n q u e s t i o n ” w as n o t ta k e n u p a g a in b y t h e A llie d P o w e rs jo i n tl y u n t i l t h e m e e t in g o f t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e in P a ris in J a n u a r y 1 9 1 9 .107 A c tu a lly t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e as s u c h n e v e r re a lly d e a l t w i t h t h e R u s s ia n p r o b l e m , b u t t h e r e w e re in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e a fe w d is c u s s io n s in t h e C o u n c i l o f T e n , a n d i t w a s in th e s e m e e t in g s t h a t w h a t p o lic y t h e r e w as o f a j o i n t n a t u r e w as s h a p e d in s o m e r a t h e r d r a m a ti c w ay s. T h e C o u n c il o f T e n b e g a n its d is c u s s io n o f t h e R u s s ia n q u e s t i o n o n J a n u a r y 12, a n d o n e o f t h e firs t q u e s t io n s t o a ris e w as t h a t o f R u s s i a n r e p r e s e n ta t io n a t t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e . F o r e i g n

M in is te r P ic h o n

n o t e d t h a t n o n e o f t h e q u i t e n u m e r o u s d e le g a tio n s f r o m R u s s ia in P a ris c o u ld b e re c o g n iz e d o fficia lly , s in c e n o R u s s ia n g o v e r n m e n t h a d b e e n r e c o g n iz e d . H e s u g g e s te d , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e r e w as n o r e a s o n w h y s e le c te d p e r s o n s — s u c h as t h e

fo rm e r p rim e

m i n is te r ,

P rin c e

L ’v o v , o r t h e f o r m e r f o r e ig n m i n is te r , S. D . S a z o n o v — s h o u l d n o t b e g iv e n a n u n o ffic ia l h e a r in g . L lo y d G e o r g e a g r e e d t h a t t h e R u s s i a n q u e s t io n s h o u l d b e d is c u s s e d , s in c e t h e A llie s s till “ h a d n o d e f i n it e p o lic y in R u s s ia ,” b u t h e a ls o s u g g e s te d t h a t t h e p e r s o n s n a m e d b y P ic h o n t o te s tif y o n R u s s ia ’s b e h a l f “ r e p r e s e n te d e v e ry o p i n i o n e x c e p t t h e p r e v a l e n t o p in i o n in R u s s ia .” T h e l a t t e r , h e s a id , w as B o ls h e v is m , a n d t h a t f a c t “ m u s t b e a c c e p t e d .” P e r h a p s t h e B o ls h e v ik s h a d n o r i g h t to r e p r e s e n t R u s s ia , h e a d d e d , b u t t h e n n e i t h e r d i d L ’v o v n o r o th e r s in P a ris . T h e C o u n c i l v o te d in t h e s p i r it o f L lo y d G e o r g e ’s r e m a r k s a g a in s t re c o g n iz in g a n y r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f R u s s ia a t t h e P e a c e C o n f e r ­ e n c e , b u t i t d id te n t a ti v e ly a c c e p t P i c h o n ’s p r o p o s a l to a llo w s o m e p e r s o n a l in te r v ie w s .108 A s P ic h o n p o i n t e d o u t , t h e a c c e p t a n c e o r r e j e c ti o n o f R u s s i a n d e l e ­ g a tio n s in P a ris w as in t i m a t e l y l i n k e d w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f r e c o g n i z ­ in g s o m e o v e r-a ll R u s s ia n a u t h o r i t y o r e ls e a ll t h e v a rio u s in d i v id u a l g o v e r n m e n ts . R u s s ia n A m b a s s a d o r M a k la k o v in P a ris h a d f o r e s e e n t h i s p r o b l e m a n d h a d b e e n w o r k in g v ig o r o u s ly s in c e t h e a u t u m n o f 1 9 1 8 to e ff e c t a u n i t e d r e p r e s e n t a t i o n f o r a t le a s t t h e m a j o r R u s s i a n a n ti B o ls h e v ik fo rc e s so as t o m a k e r e c o g n i ti o n m o r e lik e ly . O n h is i n i t i a ­ tiv e a c o n f e r e n c e o f R u s s ia n a m b a s s a d o r s a n d r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s w a s h e l d in P a ris d u r i n g J a n u a r y 1 9 1 9 , a n d i t w as d e c id e d t o o r g a n iz e a s p e c ia l r e p r e s e n ta t iv e b o d y t h e r e t o b e c a lle d t h e R u s s ia n P o li ti c a l C o n f e r ­ e n c e .109 F o r m e r P r i m e M i n i s t e r L ’v o v w as d e s i g n a te d as its c h a i r m a n , a n d h e w as t o b e a s s is te d b y t h e R u s s ia n a m b a s s a d o r s o r o t h e r r e p r e ­ s e n ta tiv e s in P a ris ( M a k l a k o v ) , R o m e ( G i e r s ) , L o n d o n ( N a b o k o v ) ,

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W a s h in g to n ( B a k h m e te v ), M a d rid ( S ta k h o v ic h ), B e rn e ( E fr e m o v ), a n d S to c k h o l m

( G u l k e v i c h .)

O t h e r s in v i t e d to p a r t i c i p a t e w e re f o r m e r F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r Iz v o lsk ii, f o r m e r P r o v is io n a l g o v e r n m e n t m e m b e r s K o n a v a lo v a n d T r e ti a k o v , P . S tr u v e , B . S a v in k o v , a n d o t h e r a c k n o w le d g e d R u s s ia n le a d e rs . B o t h t h e S o u t h R u s s ia n ( D e n i k i n ) a n d S ib e r ia n ( K o lc h a k ) g o v e r n ­ m e n t s w e re t o b e r e p r e s e n te d b y f o r m e r F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r S a z o n o v , a n d t h e N o r t h e r n g o v e r n m e n t b y its le a d e r , N . V . C h a ik o v s k ii. S u c h a c o m p o s it io n , i t w as b e lie v e d , w o u ld n o t o n ly u n i t e t h e th r e e g o v e r n ­ m e n t s m o s t p o w e r f u lly r e p r e s e n ti n g a ll- R u s s ia n in t e r e s t s b u t a ls o p r e ­ s e n t a lib e r a lly o r i e n t e d

r e p r e s e n ta t iv e

c o a li ti o n , c o n t a i n i n g

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f o r m e r le a d e r s o f t h e P r o v is io n a l g o v e r n m e n t a n d o u t s t a n d i n g s o c ia lis t s p o k e s m e n s u c h as S a v in k o v . T h e e ff o rts o f t h e a m b a s s a d o r s a b r o a d c o u ld b e c o o r d i n a t e d , t h e s p e c ific a lly m i li ta r y r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s s u c h a s G e n e r a l S h c h e r b a c h e v c o u ld b e b a c k e d in t h e i r a p p e a ls f o r a id , a n d R u s s ia c o u ld a t la s t s p e a k w i t h a s t r o n g v o ic e in P a r is .110 I n p r a c t ic e th i s v o ic e w as t o b e e x p re s s e d b y a n i n n e r b o d y o f t h e C o n f e r e n c e s u b s e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d t o as t h e R u s s ia n P o li ti c a l C o u n c i l , c o n s is tin g o f L ’v o v , M a k la k o v , S a z o n o v , a n d C h a ik o v s k ii. T h i s d e v e l o p m e n t m a r k e d a n o t a b l e a c h i e v e m e n t d u e la r g e ly to M a k l a k o v ’s c r e d i t, b u t i t n e v e r s u c c e e d e d e i t h e r in fu lly u n i t i n g R u s ­ s ia n s p o k e s m e n in P a ris o r in o b t a i n i n g A llie d r e c o g n i ti o n . T h e C o u n ­ c il w as a lw a y s in c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h t h e i n n u m e r a b l e d e le g a tio n s o f t h e n o n - R u s s ia n n a t i o n a li ti e s , a n d e v e n o f t h e C o s s a c k s ta te s , w h ic h i n u n ­ d a t e d P a ris a n d t h e A llie d c h a n c e lle r ie s w ith a p p e a ls a n d d e m a n d s . D e s p i t e v a rio u s e ff o rts t o a c h ie v e s o m e u n i t y w i t h th e s e d e le g a tio n s , th e C o u n c il n e v e r o v e rc a m e th e ir d e te rm in a tio n to go th e ir o w n w ay in d i s t r u s t o f G r e a t R u s s ia n d e s ig n s .111 E s p e c ia lly th o s e r e p r e s e n ti n g t h e S o u t h R u s s ia n b o r d e r s ta te s t e n d e d t o ta k e t h e v ie w , e x p re s s e d b y a G e o r g ia n r e p r e s e n ta t iv e in L o n d o n , t h a t t h e i r c h ie f d u t y w as ‘'t o e x p la in a n d t o a c c u s t o m p e o p l e ’s m i n d s to t h e id e a t h a t t h e re ­ e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f R u s s ia in n o w a y n e c e s s ita te d t h e in c lu s io n o f [ t h e ir p a r t i c u l a r s t a t e ] . ” 112 M o r e o v e r , t h e R u s s ia n P o li ti c a l C o u n c i l e n c o u n t e r e d d if fe re n c e s w ith

b o th

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D e n i k i n , b u t p a r t ic u l a r ly w ith

th e la tte r

b e c a u s e o f w h a t D e n i k i n r e g a r d e d as its o v e rz e a lo u s e ff o rts t o a c t n o t s i m p l y as a j o i n t a m b a s s a d o r b u t a ls o as a g o v e r n m e n t in its o w n r ig h t. T h i s r e s u lte d b o t h f r o m t h e e ff o rts a t le a d e r s h i p o n t h e p a r t o f t h e C o u n c i l a n d f r o m D e n i k i n ’s f e e lin g t h a t h is o w n r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s w e re m u f f le d a n d r e s t r i c t e d b y its a t t e m p t t o a p p e a l t o lib e r a l o p in i o n in

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E u r o p e . I t w as, in th is s e n s e , u n f o r t u n a t e t h a t a f o r m e r ts a r is t m i n i s ­ te r , S a z o n o v , h a d b e e n c h o s e n to r e p r e s e n t t h e tw o m a j o r m i li ta r y fo rc e s in R u s s ia . D e n ik in h a d n a m e d S a z o n o v as h is d i r e c t o r o f f o r ­ e ig n affairs in N o v e m b e r 191 8 a n d h a d s e n t h i m t o P a ris o v e r C o s s a c k o b je c t io n s .113 I n J a n u a r y 1 9 1 9 K o lc h a k in t u r n h a d a ls o d e s i g n a te d S a z o n o v as t h e r e p r e s e n ta t iv e o f t h e O m s k g o v e r n m e n t . B o t h h a d i n s t r u c t e d h i m to se e k t h e te r r it o r i a l s t a tu s q u o a n t e b e l l u m f o r R u s ­ sia, w ith t h e e x c e p tio n o f P o la n d , a n d t o o p p o s e a n y c o m p r o m i s e o f R u s s ia 's t e r r it o r i a l in t e g r i ty o r p o litic a l u n i t y fo r t h e s a k e o f p o p u ­ la r ity in t h e A llie d c o u n tr ie s .114 T h e o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e R u s s ia n P o li ti c a l C o u n c i l — L 'v o v , M a k la k o v , a n d C h a ik o v s k ii— d id n o t d is a g re e w i t h K o lc h a k a n d D e n i k i n in p r in c ip le , b u t th e y d id b e lie v e t h a t i t w as n e c e s s a ry to b e m o r e flex ­ ib le , a n d th e y w e re p a r t ic u l a r ly d e t e r m i n e d to a v o id i d e n t if ic a t io n w ith t h e ts a r is t p a s t. T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f h a v in g r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s a c c e p t ­ a b le to t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts h a d , i n d e e d , a lr e a d y b e e n i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e fa te o f t h e d e le g a tio n s e n t b y t h e Jassy c o n f e r e n c e t o P a ris . T h i s d e le g a tio n , in c l u d in g b o t h c o n s e r v a tiv e s a n d s o c ia lis ts , h a d b e e n e x p a n d e d a t t h e la s t m i n u t e t o in c l u d e M iliu k o v . T h i s h a d p r o v e d t o b e a f a te f u l d e c is io n , f o r w h e n t h e d e le g a tio n r e a c h e d C o n s t a n t i n o p l e i t w as im m e d i a te l y c o n f r o n t e d w i t h F r e n c h h o s t i l i t y to w a r d M i li u k o v b e c a u s e o f h is “ c o ll a b o r a t io n w ith t h e e n e m y " e a rlie r . O n l y a f t e r B r i t ­ ish in te r c e s s io n h a d b e e n o b t a i n e d d id t h e d e le g a tio n re c e iv e p e r m is ­ s io n to c o n t i n u e o n to P a ris , a n d o n c e i t h a d a r r iv e d t h e r e i t w a s g iv e n a v e ry c o o l r e c e p t io n . I n f a c t C l e m e n c e a u h a d o r d e r e d s o m e o f its m e m b e r s , p a r t ic u l a r ly M iliu k o v , e x p e lle d f r o m F r a n c e . M i li u k o v t h e n r e c e iv e d a w a r m e r r e c e p t io n in L o n d o n , a n d s o m e o f t h e d e le g a tio n 's m e m b e r s w e re l a t e r w e lc o m e d b a c k t o P a ris , b u t th i s i n c i d e n t i n d i ­ c a te d h o w in e f fe c tiv e a n u n p o p u l a r r e p r e s e n ta t iv e c o u ld b e .115 S o it w as w ith S a z o n o v . L 'v o v a n d M a k la k o v r e g a r d e d h is m e m b e r ­ s h i p in t h e C o u n c i l as u n f o r t u n a t e n o t o n ly b e c a u s e t h e y w is h e d to ta k e as lib e r a l a s t a n d as p o s s ib le b u t a ls o b e c a u s e h e t o o w as d i s t a s t e ­ fu l to C l e m e n c e a u . R e f u s i n g to h a v e a n y p e r s o n a l d e a lin g s w i t h S a z o ­ n o v , C le m e n c e a u e v e n w a r n e d t h e C o u n c i l o f T e n a g a in s t h e a r i n g h im “ le s t i t b e a lle g e d t h a t t h e C o n f e r e n c e w as c o n s p i r in g w i t h t s a r ­ is m ." 116 C le m e n c e a u h im s e l f t h u s t h w a r t e d P i c h o n ’s a t t e m p t t o g e t t h e C o u n c i l o f T e n to h e a r S a z o n o v 's te s ti m o n y . T h e u l t i m a t e r e s u l t o f th is s i t u a t i o n w as t h a t S a z o n o v , a n d t o a le s s e r e x t e n t e v e n G e n e r a l S h c h e r b a c h e v , w e re o b lig e d t o re ly u p o n S a v in k o v , w h o h a d t h e m o s t e x te n s iv e c o n ta c ts in A llie d c irc le s , to a c t as t h e i r i n t e r m e d i a r y .117

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I n d e e d , f o r v a rio u s re a s o n s , t h e in f lu e n c e n o t o n ly o f S a z o n o v b u t o f t h e e n t i r e R u s s ia n P o li ti c a l C o u n c i l w as g e n e r a lly c o n f in e d to fr ie n d ly c ir c le s in t h e F r e n c h F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y a n d in t h e B r itis h W a r O ffic e , w h ic h W i n s t o n C h u r c h i l l , a s t a u n c h d e f e n d e r o f t h e R u s s ia n a n tiB o ls h e v ik c a u s e , to o k o v e r o n J a n u a r y 15. T h e la c k o f R u s s ia n p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e d id n o t, o f c o u rs e , a u t o m a ti c a ll y p r e c l u d e d e c is io n s fa v o r a b le to a n ti- B o ls h e v ik h o p e s . O n t h e c o n tr a r y , R u s s ia n r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s in P a ris h a d b e e n g iv e n re a s o n p r i o r to t h e firs t s e s s io n o f t h e C o u n c i l o f T e n to b e lie v e t h a t p la n s f o r a fu ll-s c a le i n t e r v e n t i o n w o u ld s o o n m a t e r ia liz e . A p r o ­ p o s a l f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r m y i n c l u d in g A llie d , E a s t E u r o p e a n , a n d R u s s ia n fo rc e s t o l i b e r a t e R u s s ia fr o m B o ls h e v is m h a d , i n d e e d , b e e n d r a f t e d b y M a r s h a l F o c h a n d w as k n o w n to t h e R u s s ia n r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s b e f o r e its p r e s e n t a t i o n t o t h e A llie d c o n f e r e n c e in J a n u a r y .118 H o w e v e r , w h e n th i s p r o p o s a l w as fin a lly d e b a t e d in t h e C o u n c i l o f T e n o n J a n u a r y 2 2, im m e d i a t e o b je c t io n w as ra is e d b y W i l s o n a n d L lo y d G e o r g e , b o t h o f w h o m d o u b t e d t h e f e a s a b ility a n d w is d o m o f o p p o s i n g B o ls h e v is m b y f o r c e o f a rm s f r o m o u t s i d e .110 I n s te a d , w h a t t h e C o u n c i l o f T e n p r o p o s e d as a n a n s w e r to t h e R u s ­ s ia n p r o b l e m w as n o t a n e x p a n s io n o f t h e w a r b u t p e a c e . T h e la c k o f R u s s ia n a n ti- B o ls h e v ik in f lu e n c e in t h e P e a c e C o n f e r ­ e n c e w as t h u s n e v e r b e t t e r i l lu s tr a t e d t h a n b y L lo y d G e o r g e ’s s u g ­ g e s t io n t o t h e C o u n c i l o f T e n o n J a n u a r y 16 t h a t t h e A llie s s h o u l d p r o p o s e a t r u c e in t h e R u s s ia n civ il w a r a n d in v i te a ll o f t h e v a rio u s f a c tio n s t o m e e t in P a ris fo r a c o n f e r e n c e t o s e t t l e t h e R u s s ia n p r o b ­ le m . A s o n e o f t h e m o s t o u ts p o k e n o p p o n e n t s o f t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n a m o n g t h e A llie d c h ie f s , L lo y d G e o r g e a r g u e d t h a t th i s w as t h e o n ly lo g ic a l c o u rs e , b e c a u s e ( a ) n o o n e re a lly k n e w w h a t w as g o in g o n in R u s s ia , ( b ) c o n d i t i o n s in R u s s ia w e re o b v io u s ly b a d a n d w o u ld o n ly g e t w o rs e w i t h a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n a n d c iv il w a r, a n d ( c ) t h o s e c e n te r s o f r e s is ta n c e t o t h e B o ls h e v ik s w h ic h h a d b e e n s u p ­ p o s e d t o b e so s t r o n g , s u c h as t h e U k r a in e , h a d b e e n t o p p l e d “ w i t h a fe w t h o u s a n d m e n . ” I n o t h e r w o rd s , h e s a id , t h e A llie s h a d o n ly t h r e e p o s s ib ilitie s . T h e y c o u ld d e c la r e B o ls h e v is m t o b e a m e n a c e t o a ll c iv iliz a tio n a n d g o a ll o u t to d e s tr o y it, a p o lic y w h ic h h e b e lie v e d n o o n e c o u ld s e r io u s ly a d v o c a te ; th e y c o u ld a t t e m p t t o is o la te B o ls h e ­ v is m in R u s s ia w i t h a s o -c a lle d

cordon sanitaire or b lo c k a d e , a p o lic y

w h ic h h e b e lie v e d w o u ld c o n d e m n

t h o u s a n d s o f i n n o c e n t p e o p le

a lr e a d y s ta r v in g to a s u r e d e a t h a n d th u s c o u ld n o t b e s u p p o r t e d “ o n g r o u n d s o f h u m a n i t y ” ; o r t h e y c o u ld d e m a n d a tr u c e a n d c a ll a c o n -

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fe r e n c e o f t h e b e ll ig e r e n ts t o r e a c h s o m e s e t t l e m e n t , w h ic h w as t h e o n ly p o lic y w h ic h h e p e r s o n a lly c o u ld s u p p o r t .120 D e s p it e t h e f a c t t h a t , a t P ic h o n 's s u g g e s tio n , f o r m e r A m b a s s a d o r N o u le n s te s tif ie d o n J a n u a r y 20 t h a t t h e B o ls h e v ik s h e l d p o w e r o n ly “ b y t e r r o r a lo n e . . . a t e r r o r u n e x a m p l e d in h i s t o r y / ' t h a t t h e B o ls h e ­ v ik s w e re o u t “ to c o n q u e r t h e w o r ld ," a n d t h a t t h e B o ls h e v ik re g im e w o u ld n e v e r re a lly m a k e p e a c e w ith a n y o n e , L lo y d G e o r g e c o n t i n u e d to p re s s h is p o i n t o f v ie w w i t h n o t a b l e s u c c e s s .121 A t t h e J a n u a r y 21 m e e t in g h is p o s i ti o n w as, m o r e o v e r , g r e a tly s t r e n g t h e n e d b y W i l s o n 's re a d in g o f a r e p o r t o n p e a c e o v e r tu r e s b e in g m a d e b y t h e s p e c ia l B o l­ s h e v ik r e p r e s e n ta tiv e , M a x im

L itv in o v , in S to c k h o l m . T h e B o ls h e ­

v iks, L itv in o v r e p o r te d l y d e c la r e d , w e re “ p r e p a r e d

to

c o m p ro m is e

o n a ll p o in t s ," i n c l u d in g a m n e s ty f o r t h e i r o p p o n e n t s , r e n u n c i a t i o n o f “ im p e r ia lis tic d e s ig n s " o n F i n l a n d , P o la n d , a n d t h e

U k r a in e , a n d

a c c e p t a n c e o f a re a s o n a b le s o l u ti o n to t h e q u e s t io n s o f t h e R u s s i a n s t a t e d e b t a n d fo r e ig n e c o n o m i c in t e r e s t s in R u s s ia .122 A t first C l e m e n c e a u to o k is su e w i t h b o t h L lo y d G e o r g e 's id e a s a n d w ith t h e B o ls h e v ik o v e r tu r e s . B o ls h e v is m , h e s a id , p r e s e n t e d a “ v e ry g r e a t d a n g e r " to t h e w o rld , a n d t h e B o ls h e v ik s w e re u n w o r t h y o f b e in g a c c e p t e d in s u c h a c o n f e r e n c e as t h a t p r o p o s e d . A n d as f o r L i t ­ v in o v 's o ffe rs, th e y wre re o n ly a c le v e r t r a p d e s ig n e d t o e m b a r r a s s t h e A llie s, as i t w e re , b y i n d u c i n g t h e m to ta k e a b r i b e . I f t i m e w e re a v a il­ a b le , h e w o u ld s im p ly a d v o c a te ta k i n g a w a it- a n d -s e e a t t i t u d e in t h e c o n f id e n c e t h a t “ e v e n tu a lly s o u n d m e n r e p r e s e n ti n g c o m m o n s e n s e w o u ld c o m e to t h e t o p " in R u s s ia , b u t , h e a d d e d , h e r e c o g n iz e d t h a t a s p e e d ie r s o l u ti o n w as n e c e s s a ry . T h e r e f o r e , w h ile h e w o u ld n o t h a v e t h e B o ls h e v ik s , o r fo r t h a t m a t t e r c e r t a in o t h e r R u s s ia n s , i n v i t e d t o c o n f e r o n F r e n c h so il, h e w o u ld n e v e r th e le s s g o a lo n g w ith t h e id e a o f a c o n f e r e n c e s in c e P r e s i d e n t W i l s o n s u p p o r t e d i t a n d h a d s u g g e s te d t h a t i t c o u ld h e h e l d e ls e w h e r e . I n a n y p u b l i c a n n o u n c e m e n t o f s u c h a p ro p o s a l, C le m e n c e a u a d d e d c h a r a c te r is tic a lly , i t s h o u l d b e m a d e c le a r t h a t t h e A llie s h a d n o i n t e n t i o n w h a ts o e v e r o f c o n t r i b u t i n g to a r e s to r a t io n o f ts a r is m .123 T h u s c a m e a b o u t t h e f a m o u s “ P r i n k ip o P r o p o s a l," t h e firs t p u b l i c p ro p o s a l o n t h e R u s s ia n q u e s t i o n t o e m e r g e f r o m t h e P a ris P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y to w h ic h t h e R u s s ia n s h a d r e p e a t e d ly b e e n t o l d b y A llie d r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s to lo o k f o r s o l u ti o n s . I n i t i a t e d b y L lo y d G e o r g e , d r a f t e d b y W i l s o n , a n d g r u d g i n g ly c o n ­ s e n t e d t o b y C l e m e n c e a u , i t w as a p p r o v e d o n J a n u a r y 22 a n d o r d e r e d re la y e d b y ra d io a n d t h e p re s s to a ll g o v e r n m e n ts c o n t e n d i n g f o r p o w e r

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in R u s s ia . I t i n v i te d t h e m t o c o n f e r jo i n tl y o n P r i n k ip o

( P r i n c e 's )

I s la n d n e a r C o n s t a n t i n o p l e . T h e o n ly c o n d i t i o n t o a t t e n d a n c e w as c e s s a tio n o f h o s t i l i t i e s .124 T h e A llie d le a d e rs t h u s p u t th e m s e lv e s o n r e c o r d a g a in s t t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n a n d , e v e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t , im p li e d a w illin g n e s s to a c c e p t a n e g o t i a t e d s e t t l e m e n t w h ic h v e ry p r o b a b l y w o u ld le a v e t h e B o ls h e v ik s in M o s c o w

a n d p o s s ib ly w o u ld le a v e

R u s s ia d i s m e m b e r e d .125 T h e P r i n k ip o c o n f e r e n c e w as s c h e d u l e d fo r F e b r u a r y 15, b u t in f a c t i t n e v e r m e t . T h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t im p li e d a w illin g n e s s to a c c e p t t h e i n v i t a t i o n in a n o t e o f J a n u a r y 2 8 , a n d s o m e o f t h e a n ti- B o ls h e ­ v ik g r o u p s in t h e S o u t h s e n t fa v o r a b le in q u ir ie s a t first, b u t b o t h D e n i k i n a n d K o lc h a k c a te g o ric a lly r e j e c te d t h e id e a .126 I t w as s u b s e ­ q u e n t l y c h a r g e d b y s o m e p r o p o n e n t s o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e t h a t P ic h o n d e li b e r a t e ly t o r p e d o e d t h e c o n f e r e n c e b y p u t t i n g p r e s s u r e o n a ll a n tiB o ls h e v ik e le m e n ts re c e iv in g A llie d a id t o re f u s e t o a t t e n d . F o r e x a m ­ p le , G e o r g e

D.

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r e p r e s e n ti n g

th e

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S ta te s

in

G e n e v a , w ir e d t h e A m e r ic a n d e le g a tio n in P a ris o n F e b r u a r y 13: S in c e t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t [o f t h e P r i n k ip o c o n f e r e n c e ] . . . d e le ­ g a ti o n a f t e r d e le g a tio n o f R u s s ia n s , a n d o f n a ti o n a li ti e s f o r m e rly c o n s t i t u t i n g p a r t o f t h e R u s s ia n E m p i r e , h a s b e e n h e r e to ta l k w ith m e . I t h a s b e c o m e e n ti r e l y c le a r to m e t h a t n o n e o f t h e R u s s ia n p a r tie s o r n a ti o n a li ti e s u n d e r s t a n d s t h e n a t u r e o f t h e P r i n k ip o C o n ­ f e r e n c e . . . . B u t in t h e n e x t p la c e , a n d w h a t is fa r m o r e i m p o r t a n t is th i s : t h a t t h e r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f e a c h o n e o f th e s e p a r tie s e x p la in s t h a t o fficia ls o f t h e F r e n c h G o v e r n m e n t p e r s u a d e d o r c o m m a n d e d t h e m n o t to g o . I t h a s b e c o m e c le a r to m e t h a t t h e r e f u s a l o f a ll t h e p a r tie s e x c e p t t h e B o ls h e v ik s to p a r t ic i p a te is d u e to F r e n c h i n t e r v e n t i o n . . . e s p e c ia lly b y M . P i c h o n .127 T h e t r u t h o f th i s s t a t e m e n t lie s n o t s o le ly in t h e c h a r g e t h a t P ic h o n o p p o s e d t h e c o n f e r e n c e b u t a ls o in t h e f a c t t h a t t h e in itia lly fa v o r a b le r e s p o n s e o f s o m e o f t h e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik g r o u p s w as b a s e d u p o n a m is ­ u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e p u rp o se o f th e c o n fe re n c e . T h e y h a d a p p a r­ e n t l y b e lie v e d t h a t i t w as to b e a c o n f e r e n c e t o b r i n g a n ti- B o ls h e v ik e l e m e n t s t o g e t h e r to p r e s e n t a n o v e r w h e lm in g f r o n t a g a in s t t h e B o l­ sh e v ik s if t h e l a t t e r r e f u s e d (a s e x p e c t e d ) to a c c e p t t h e te r m s w h ic h w o u ld b e p r e s e n te d , i.e ., t h a t t h e w h o le p u r p o s e w as to d is c r e d it t h e B o ls h e v ik s a n d ra lly o p p o s i t i o n a g a in s t t h e m . 128 T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w a s, in d e e d , e n c o u r a g e d b y s o m e o f C le m e n c e a u 's c o m m e n t s o n t h e c o n f e r e n c e a n d p r o b a b l y r e p r e s e n te d h is v ie w .129 O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y a p p a r e n t l y r e g a r d e d s u c h a m a n e u v e r as to o risk y .

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110

I n v ie w o f L lo y d G e o r g e 's q u i t e d if f e r e n t i n t e n t i o n s , a n d o f t h e B o l­ s h e v ik “ a c c e p t a n c e ” o f p a r t ic i p a ti o n , P i c h o n u n d e r t o o k a n im m e d i a t e c a m p a ig n a g a in s t t h e c o n f e r e n c e . S o u t h R u s s ia n g r o u p s w e re q u ic k ly d is a b u s e d o f t h e id e a t h a t t h e c o n f e r e n c e c o u ld b e u s e d as a n a n ti B o ls h e v ik ra lly , a n d F r e n c h r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s b o t h d i s c o u n t e d t h e li k e li­ h o o d t h a t t h e c o n f e r e n c e w o u ld e v e r m e e t a n d w a r n e d t h a t B o ls h e v ik o v e r tu r e s o f p e a c e w e re m e r e ly a d e c e p t i o n .130 M o r e o v e r , P i c h o n p e r ­ s o n a lly a r o u s e d t h e ir e o f s u p p o r te r s o f t h e P r i n k i p o p r o p o s a l b y p u b ­ lic ly c r itic iz in g it a n d d e c la r in g t h a t F r a n c e w o u ld

n o t have any

d e a lin g s w ith t h e B o ls h e v ik s .131 T h e F r e n c h F o r e ig n m in is tr y , o f c o u rs e , h a d a c o n s i d e r a b l e a d v a n ­ ta g e in t h e f a c t t h a t i t h a d d ir e c t c o n t a c t w i t h a l m o s t a ll a n ti- B o ls h e v ik g ro u p s , a n a d v a n ta g e w h ic h i t n a tu r a ll y d id n o t r e f r a in f r o m u s in g in th is a ffa ir. T h e B o ls h e v ik s w e re t h u s p u t a t a d is a d v a n ta g e b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e C o u n c i l o f T e n h a d d e c id e d t o s e n d t h e in v i t a t i o n s o n ly b y p re s s a n d r a d io so as to a v o id a n y im p li c a ti o n s t h a t m i g h t a c c o m ­ p a n y d ir e c t a d d r e s s .132 T h e B o ls h e v ik s , as i t t u r n e d o u t , h e a r d t h e p r o ­ p o sa l b y r a d io a n d t h o u g h t t h a t a d ir e c t in v i t a t i o n w o u ld fo llo w ; w h e n n o n e d id , a n d t h e i r d e la y in s e n d i n g a fu ll r e p ly w a s b e i n g t a k e n as a re fu s a l d e s p i te t h e i r r e q u e s t t h a t i t n o t b e , t h e y r e s p o n d e d o n F e b r u a r y 4 w ith a s lig h tly i n s u lt in g s t a t e m e n t o f a g r e e m e n t in p r i n ­ c ip le to n e g o ti a te . H o w e v e r , th e y i n d i c a t e d a p r e f e r e n c e f o r d e a li n g w ith t h e A llie s th e m s e lv e s , le a v in g t h e i r p o s i ti o n o n t h e a c tu a l q u e s ­ t i o n o f a c o n f e r e n c e a m o n g R u s s ia n p a r t ie s r a t h e r u n c le a r .133 B y c o n ­ t r a s t w ith th is in d i r e c t a n d d e la y e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h M o s c o w , t h e F r e n c h F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y m a d e its v ie w s k n o w n d ir e c tl y t o M a k la k o v a n d S a z o n o v in P a ris a n d w ir e d in s t r u c t i o n s t o its r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s in R u s s ia . T h e t e n o r o f P i c h o n 's a d v ic e w as c le a rly i n d i c a t e d b y S a z o n o v 's r e p o r t to b o t h K o lc h a k a n d D e n i k i n o n F e b r u a r y 5: “ T h e c o n ­ fe r e n c e o n P r i n k ip o I s la n d is b e in g r e g a r d e d as d o o m e d t o f a ilu r e . F r a n c e in t e n d s to c o n t i n u e s u p p o r t w i t h s u p p lie s a n d d o e s n o t i n t e n d to w ith d r a w its m i li ta r y u n it s in R u s s ia .” 134 T h e r e p ly f r o m O m s k r e a d : “ W e . . . h a v e r e c e iv e d a c o m m u n i c a t i o n fr o m P i c h o n in t h e s p i r it o f t h e firs t p a r t o f y o u r te l e g r a m , i.e ., o n t h e a p p a r e n t f a i lu r e o f t h e m e e t i n g o n t h e P r i n c e 's I s la n d . . . .” 135 The

f a c t r e m a in s , h o w e v e r , t h a t , re g a r d le s s o f w h e t h e r P i c h o n

o p p o s e d t h e P r i n k ip o p r o p o s a l o r n o t , t h e s u g g e s te d c o n f e r e n c e c o u ld n o t h a v e m e t o n t h e b a s is p r o p o s e d b y L lo y d G e o r g e . N e i t h e r t h e W h i t e s n o r t h e R e d s w e re p r e p a r e d to m a k e a tr u c e o r t o a c c e p t a re a l c o m p r o m i s e w i t h t h e i r o p p o n e n t s .136 D e n i k i n , a m o n g o t h e r s , h a d

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111

m a d e i t a b u n d a n t l y c le a r lo n g b e f o r e t h a t h e w o u ld n o t s a c rific e h is g o a ls f o r a n y t h i n g , e v e n if i t m e a n t a “ f i g h t to t h e d e a t h ” a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s .137 T h e c h a r g e a g a in s t P ic h o n w as t h e r e f o r e e x a g g e ra te d in so f a r as i t g a v e h i m c r e d i t fo r t h e fa ilu r e o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e . P r i n k ip o w as b o u n d to b e a fa ilu re . A b o u t a ll t h a t w as a c c o m p lis h e d in p r o ­ p o s i n g i t w as t o p o i n t u p t h e d if fe re n c e s in t h e v iew s o f L lo y d G e o r g e , C l e m e n c e a u , a n d P ic h o n . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e v e ry c a ll f o r s u c h a c o n f e r e n c e c o u ld h a v e p r o d u c e d a s h a r p r e a c t io n o f h o s t il it y a n d d is ­ i l l u s i o n m e n t a m o n g t h e a n ti-B o ls h e v ik s if i t h a d n o t b e e n f o r t h e q u ic k r e a s s u ra n c e s C h u r c h i l l . 138

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I n s h a r p c o n t r a s t to L lo y d G e o r g e ’s e f f o r t to e n d t h e in t e r v e n t i o n , C h u r c h i l l (a s F o c h ) h a d b o ld ly a s s u m e d t h e i n i ti a ti v e to c o n t i n u e it. A r r iv in g in P a ris o n F e b r u a r y 14, h e q u ic k ly to o k a d v a n ta g e o f L lo y d G e o r g e ’s f a ilu r e a n d p r o p o s e d t h e im m e d i a t e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a n A llie d C o u n c i l f o r R u s s ia n A ffa irs t o ta k e r e s p o n s ib ility f o r f u r t h e r A llie d a c ti o n , p a r t ic u l a r ly t o d e t e r m i n e “ w h a t re s o u rc e s w e re a v a il­ a b le a n d h o w t h e y c o u ld b e c o - o r d in a t e d ” in R u s s ia .139 L lo y d G e o r g e , w h o l e f t f o r L o n d o n a f t e r t h e P r i n k ip o f a ilu re , n o w m e r e ly u r g e d C h u r c h i l l n o t t o c o m m i t B r it a in

“ t o a n y c o s tly o p e r a t io n s w h ic h

w o u ld in v o lv e a n y la r g e c o n t r i b u t i o n e i t h e r o f m e n o r m o n e y .” T h e r e w as a m o r a l c o m m i t m e n t n o t to p u ll o u t a b r u p t l y o n t h e R u s s ia n s , h e c o n c e d e d , b u t h e w a n t e d C h u r c h i l l to k e e p in m i n d t h a t t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n c o u ld b e ju s tif ie d o n ly to t h e e x t e n t t h a t R u s s ia “ w a n t e d ” i t a n d w o u ld u s e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y a f f o r d e d to “ sav e h e r s e lf ” b y h e r o w n e f f o r ts .140 A s i t t u r n e d o u t , C h u r c h i l l ’s p r o p o s a l o f a s p e c ia l A llie d b o d y t o d ir e c t t h e in t e r v e n t i o n w as r e j e c te d b e c a u s e o f o p p o s i ti o n f r o m t h e f o r e ig n s e c r e ta ry , L o r d B a lf o u r , b u t h e w as n o t d e te r r e d . I n t h e fa c e o f w h a t h e c a lle d “ t h e la c k o f a n y p o lic y o n t h e p a r t o f t h e A llie s ,” C h u r c h i l l u n d e r t o o k t o le a d w h a t w as l e f t o f t h e in t e r v e n t i o n , b u t h e w o u ld o b v io u s ly b e r a t h e r l i m i t e d in w h a t h e c o u ld d o .141 M e a n w h i l e t h e B o ls h e v ik a c c e p t a n c e a n d t h e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik r e je c ­ t i o n o f t h e i n v i t a t i o n t o m e e t a t P r i n k ip o h a d p u t t h e A llie s in t h e a w k w a rd p o s i ti o n o f h a v in g to fin d a n e x c u s e f o r d r o p p i n g i t .142 T h i s w as d o n e , a t C h u r c h i l l ’s s u g g e s tio n , b y m e a n s o f a d e a d li n e f o r a c e s­ s a t io n o f h o s t il it ie s , w i t h w h ic h n o o n e c o m p l i e d .143 C l e m e n c e a u ’s w as n o w a g a in t h e s t r o n g e s t v o ic e a g a in s t k e e p in g t h e q u e s t io n o f t h e c o n ­ f e r e n c e o p e n . T h e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik s , h e c o n c e d e d , h a d f o o lis h ly r e f u s e d “ t h e u n i q u e o p p o r t u n i t y o ff e re d b y t h e C o n f e r e n c e o f in d i c t i n g B o l­ s h e v is m a n d its a b u s e s b e f o r e t h e w h o le w o r ld ,” a n d th e y h a d p u t t h e

112

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A llie s o n t h e s p o t b y d o in g so . H o w e v e r , h e to o h a d re a lly b e e n “ c o m ­ p le te ly o p p o s e d ” to t h e c o n f e r e n c e a ll a lo n g a n d b e lie v e d t h a t i t h a d o n ly c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e d is in t e g r a ti o n o f a n ti- B o ls h e v ik fo rc e s s in c e th e y d id n o t k n o w w h e t h e r to f ig h t o r t o w a it f o r a n

a r m is tic e .

T h e r e w as c e r ta in ly n o n e e d n o w t o d ra g o u t t h e e m b a r r a s s m e n t , h e d e c la r e d , a n d t h e C o u n c i l o f T e n a g r e e d .144 W h i l e , o n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e id e a o f a n e g o t i a t e d s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e civ il w a r w as n o t e n ti r e l y d e a d — it w as re v iv e d , f o r e x a m p le , in c o n n e c t i o n w ith t h e t r i p o f W . C . B u l l i t t to M o s c o w in M a r c h 1 9 1 9 to s o u n d o u t t h e B o ls h e v ik s o n b e h a l f o f W i l s o n , a n d in t h e d is c u s s io n o f t h e H o o v e r - N a n s e n re lie f p r o j e c t in A p r il145— t h e A llie s w e r e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , s till o n ly h a p h a z a r d l y c o m m i t t e d t o t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n . A r e p o r t b y G e n e r a l A lb y to t h e C o u n c i l o f T e n o n F e b r u a r y 15 i n d i ­ c a te d t h a t th e r e w e re tw o F r e n c h d iv is io n s , tw o G r e e k d iv is io n s , o n e I t a li a n d iv is io n , o n e E n g li s h d iv is io n , a n d s o m e 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 R u m a n i a n s o ld ie rs w h ic h c o u ld b e u s e d to e ff e c t a r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f t h e i n t e r v e n ­ t i o n , p a r t ic u l a r ly in S o u th R u s s ia , b u t th i s i n f o r m a t i o n w as re c e iv e d s c e p tic a lly .146 E v e n F o c h n o w e x p re s s e d d o u b t s o n f u r t h e r i n t e r v e n ­ ti o n in R u s s ia , a n d in M a r c h m o d if ie d h is p la n so as t o s u g g e s t n o t a n A llie d a r m y f o r in v a d in g R u s s ia b u t t h e c r e a t io n o f a n a r m e d c o r d o n a r o u n d B o ls h e v ik t e r r it o r y th r o u g h t h e m o b i l i z a t i o n o f a r m ie s in P o la n d , R u m a n i a , a n d o t h e r E a s t E u r o p e a n s t a t e s .147 I t w as r e v e a l­ in g o f t h e d iv is io n in a llie d o p in i o n t h a t L lo y d G e o r g e s u s p e c te d e v e n th is a r m e d c o r d o n id e a as a c o v e r f o r a n E a s t E u r o p e a n a s s a u lt o n R u s s ia a n d d e n o u n c e d i t as “ a g r e a t m i s c h i e f .” 148 A n y f u r t h e r e x p a n ­ s io n o f t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n , e i t h e r b y w a y o f A llie d o r o t h e r n o n - R u s s ia n fo rc e s, w as t h u s r e j e c te d w i t h o u t a n y c le a r in d i c a t i o n as t o w h a t t h e l i m i te d i n t e r v e n t i o n a lr e a d y u n d e r t a k e n w as e x p e c t e d t o a c c o m p lis h . A llie d r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s in t h e fie ld w o u ld h a v e t o c o n t e n d w i t h c ir ­ c u m s ta n c e s as th e y f o u n d t h e m , w ith o r w i t h o u t p o lic y d ir e c tiv e s f r o m t h e i r g o v e r n m e n ts .

4:

T H E F R E N C H AND T H E V O L U N T E E R S IN O DE S S A

A c u r io u s ly d i s t o r t e d r e l a ti o n s h ip h a d b e e n e s t a b li s h e d in O d e s s a b e t w e e n t h e V o l u n t e e r s a n d t h e F r e n c h , p a r t ly as a r e s u lt o f B e r th e l o t ’s p r o m is e s b u t m o r e d ir e c tl y b e c a u s e o f H e n n o ’s f r a n tic a n d f u t il e e ff o rts to b u i l d a n a llia n c e b e tw e e n t h e V o l u n t e e r s a n d t h e A llie s a g a in s t t h e U k r a in i a n D i r e c t o r a t e . T h e s u b s e q u e n t a rr iv a l o f t h e c o m ­ m a n d e r o f F r e n c h fo rc e s in O d e s s a , G e n e r a l d ’A n s e lm e , a n d t h e e ffo rts o f h is s ta ff u n d e r C o l o n e l F r e i d e n b e r g to re c tif y th is s i tu a t io n , f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v ie w o f t h e i r in s t r u c t i o n s to a v o id s in g lin g o u t o r fa v o r­ in g a n y o n e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik e l e m e n t t o t h e e x c lu s io n o f o th e r s , h a d im m e d i a t e l y r e s u lte d in m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d te n s io n b e tw e e n t h e V o lu n te e rs a n d th e F re n c h C o m m a n d . T h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d w as f a c e d w ith a n u r g e n t n e e d to re m e d y t h e f r u s t r a t i n g s i t u a t i o n th e r e r e s u lti n g fr o m t h e l a t e n t b u t p a ra ly z in g s t a t e o f w a r b e tw e e n t h e R u s s ia n s a n d t h e U k r a in ia n s . O d e s s a w as c u t o ff f r o m t h e i n t e r i o r o n w h ic h i t d e p e n d e d f o r its s u p p ly o f fo o d , w a te r , a n d o t h e r n e c e s s itie s . S in c e t h e F r e n c h f o u n d i t im p o s s ib le t o k e e p t h e c ity s u p p l ie d fr o m t h e o u ts id e , e i t h e r b y l a n d o r se a , c o n d i­ t i o n s s t e a d il y g re w w o rs e a n d , in fa c t, t h r e a t e n e d t o p r o v o k e o p e n r e b e l li o n a m o n g t h e p o o r ly f e d , u n e m p l o y e d , a n d B o ls h e v ik - a g ita te d w o r k e r s .1 T h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y C o m m a n d w as a ls o a w a re o f th e s e d if ­ f ic u ltie s a n d r e p e a t e d ly u r g e d t h e F r e n c h to e x p a n d i n t o t h e i n t e r i o r b y fo r c e t o e s t a b li s h a n e c o n o m ic a lly s e c u r e b a s e , o r a t le a s t to a llo w t h e V o l u n t e e r u n it s in t h e c ity t o u n d e r t a k e th i s m is s io n . T h i s w o u ld , h o w e v e r , in v o lv e a V o l u n t e e r o ffe n s iv e , o r F r e n c h m i li ta r y a c ti o n , a g a in s t t h e U k r a in i a n fo rc e s u n d e r P e tl iu r a w h ic h s u r r o u n d e d t h e c ity , a n d t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d r e f u s e d e i t h e r to u s e its o w n tr o o p s to fo rc e P e t l i u r a b a c k o r t o a llo w t h e V o l u n t e e r s t o m o v e o u t b e y o n d t h e c ity l i m i t s .2

113

114

The Volunteer Army

P r e f e r r in g to n e g o ti a te r a t h e r t h a n to f ig h t w i t h t h e U k r a in i a n s , t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d th e r e f o r e b r u s h e d a s id e V o l u n t e e r o b je c t io n s a n d in J a n u a r y 1 9 1 9 o p e n e d ta lk s w i t h D i r e c t o r a t e r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s in O d e s s a .3 I n th e s e n e g o ti a ti o n s , w h ic h w e re a r r a n g e d t h r o u g h G e n e r a l M i c h a e l G r e k o v ( w h o h a d d e s e r te d S k o r o p a d s k ii a n d n e g o t i a t e d t h e G e r m a n w ith d r a w a l fr o m K ie v in D e c e m b e r o n b e h a l f o f t h e D i r e c t o ­ r a t e ) , a n a g r e e m e n t w as s o o n r e a c h e d t o l i f t t h e b lo c k a d e o f O d e s s a a n d p e r m i t F r e n c h a n d G r e e k tr o o p s to m o v e i n t o t h e i n t e r i o r b e y o n d O d e s s a a lo n g a lin e f r o m T ir a s p o l o n t h e D n e s t r R iv e r, t h r o u g h B e re z o v k a a n d N ik o la e v , to K h e r s o n o n t h e D n e p r R iv e r .4 W i t h th i s m a t ­ t e r s e t tl e d , F r e i d e n b e r g t h e n a g r e e d to e n t e r f u r t h e r n e g o ti a ti o n s w i t h t h e D ir e c t o r a t e o n o t h e r a s p e c ts o f r e la tio n s b e t w e e n t h e m , a n d t h e D ir e c t o r a t e 's d e le g a tio n in O d e s s a w as e x p a n d e d t o i n c l u d e D r . O s ip N a z a r u k , d ir e c to r o f p re s s r e la tio n s f o r t h e D i r e c t o r a t e , a n d

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O s ta p e n k o , t h e n m i n i s t e r o f tr a d e a n d i n d u s tr y .5 F r e i d e n b e r g ’s p la n s c a lle d f o r a d iv is io n o f S o u th R u s s ia i n t o tw o z o n e s o f civ il a u th o r it y , o n e U k r a in i a n a n d o n e R u s s ia n , w i t h t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d p ro v id in g t h e n e c e s s a ry lin k s b e tw e e n t h e m . 6 E a c h o f th e s e z o n e s , h e e n v is a g e d , w o u ld b e g o v e r n e d b y its o w n d i r e c t o ­ ra te , b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e m i li ta r y fo rc e s o f b o t h w o u ld b e i n t e ­ g r a t e d i n t o a s in g le fo rc e u n d e r F r e n c h s u p e r v is io n . T o i m p l e m e n t th is p la n , F r e i d e n b e r g p r o p o s e d n o t h i n g less t h a n a r e o r g a n iz a t io n o f t h e e n t i r e p o litic a l a n d m ilita r y s t r u c t u r e in t h e S o u th , a n d s in c e h e h a d b e g u n ta lk s w ith t h e U k r a in i a n s , h e p u t h is d e m a n d s to t h e m first, p r e s u m a b ly in t h e b e li e f t h a t w h a te v e r a g r e e m e n t h e c o u ld m a k e w ith t h e D i r e c t o r a t e c o u ld t h e n b e c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h a s im ila r a g r e e ­ m e n t w ith D e n ik in . H is e x a c t i n t e n t i o n s to w a r d t h e l a t t e r w e re n o t c le a r, b u t , as fo r t h e D i r e c t o r a t e , i t s o o n b e c a m e e v i d e n t t h a t h e w is h e d to b r i n g i t e n ti r e l y u n d e r F r e n c h in f lu e n c e .7 H is first d e m a n d to t h e D i r e c t o r a t e , a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n f o r c o n t i n u ­ in g n e g o ti a ti o n s w ith it, w as t h e s ta g g e r in g p r o p o s a l t h a t V y n n y c h e n k o , t h e f o u n d e r a n d le a d e r o f t h e D ir e c t o r a t e , b e o u s t e d . T h e n a m e o f A n d rie v s k ii, a n o t h e r le a d e r o f t h e L e f t w in g o f t h e D i r e c t o ­ r a te , w as s o o n a d d e d t o th is d e m a n d . T h e f a c t t h a t t h e D i r e c t o r a t e a g re e d , t h a t th e s e tw o le a d e rs a n d e v e n a t h i r d , C h e k h o v s k ii , r e s ig n e d , a n d t h a t a n e w g o v e r n m e n t w as f o r m e d u n d e r t h e m o d e r a t e O s t a ­ p e n k o , te s tif ie d to t h e d e s p e r a ti o n o f t h e D i r e c t o r a t e a n d its s t r o n g d e s ire t o o b t a i n F r e n c h a id .8 I t w as a v ic to r y f o r P e t l i u r a ’s p o i n t o f v iew , b u t i t w as n o t c o m p l e t e s u r r e n d e r , f o r P e t l i u r a t h e n d e m a n d e d r e c o g n i ti o n o f t h e D i r e c t o r a t e (a s t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f a n i n d e p e n d e n t

The Volunteer Army

116

U k r a in e ) as h is c o n d i t i o n fo r f u r t h e r n e g o ti a ti o n s , d e c la r e d t h a t n o in t e r f e r e n c e in t h e in t e r n a l a ffairs o f t h e U k r a in e w o u ld b e t o l e r a t e d , a n d s t i p u l a t e d t h a t a n y c o o p e r a tiv e m i li ta r y o p e r a t io n s a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s w o u ld b e l i m i t e d to t h e “ e th n o g r a p h i c a l b o r d e r ” o f t h e U k r a in e .9 T o th i s F r e i d e n b e r g c o u n t e r e d w i t h

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T h is e x c h a n g e te m p o r a r ily r e s u lte d in a s t a l e m a t e a n d a c e s s a tio n o f t h e ta lk s , b u t d u r i n g th i s in te r v a l t h e a c tiv itie s o f t h e v a rio u s p o l i t ­ ical o r g a n iz a tio n s in O d e s s a , w h ic h w e re a lr e a d y t a k i n g sid e s o n th i s q u e s t io n , a s s u m e d a n e w s ig n ific a n c e . T h e o r g a n i z a ti o n s w h ic h h a d p a r t ic i p a te d in t h e Jassy c o n f e r e n c e h a d n o t o n ly c o n t i n u e d t o ta k e a n a c tiv e p a r t in lo c a l p o litic s in O d e s s a b u t th e y h a d e v e n f o r a t i m e c o n t i n u e d to m e e t jo i n tl y as t h e “ Jassy c o n f e r e n c e .” S in g ly a n d as a b o d y , th e s e o r g a n iz a tio n s m a i n t a i n e d c lo s e c o n t a c t w i t h t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d a n d w e re in t u r n k e p t w e ll i n f o r m e d o n p r o b l e m s w h ic h a ro s e . E a c h a lso to o k a s t a n d o n t h e b a s ic q u e s t io n s p o s e d a n d r a is e d n e w issu es o n its o w n . B e c a u s e th e s e o r g a n iz a tio n s (c h ie fly t h e C o u n c i l fo r S t a t e U n i t y , t h e N a t i o n a l C e n t e r , t h e U n i o n fo r R e g e n e r a t io n , a n d t h e Z e m s tv o C i t y U n i o n ) w e re t h e m a j o r s p o k e s m e n f o r t h e R u s s ia n in t e ll ig e n t s ia in O d e s s a , t h e y c o m m a n d e d a t t e n t i o n . 11 M o r e o v e r , F r e i d e n b e r g h o p e d to u s e t h e m to s u p p o r t h is m o v e s in O d e s s a . H o w e v e r , t h e r e r e m a i n e d a n o b s ta c le to s m o o t h c o o p e r a t io n b e tw e e n t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d a n d t h e O d e s s a o r g a n i z a ti o n : t h e l a t t e r w e re d iv id e d b y s e r io u s d i f ­ fe r e n c e s in o u tl o o k . T h e C o u n c i l f o r S ta t e U n i t y , h e a d e d b y B a r o n M e lle r- Z a k o m e ls k ii a n d li s t in g K r iv o s h e in as v ic e - c h a ir m a n , s t o o d g e n ­ e ra lly o n t h e c o n s e r v a tiv e R ig h t , w h ile t h e U n i o n f o r R e g e n e r a t io n (s u c c e s s o r to t h e L e f t C e n t e r a n d p r e d o m i n a n t l y c o m p o s e d o f m o d e r ­ a te S o c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n a r i e s ) h a d r e t a i n e d a b a s ic a lly s o c ia lis t c h a r a c ­ te r , a lt h o u g h it a lso in c l u d e d lib e r a l K a d e ts in its m e m b e r s h i p .12 T h e N a t i o n a l C e n t e r , s o m e w h e r e b e t w e e n th e s e tw o , w as l i m i t e d in its a c tiv itie s b y t h e f a c t t h a t i t w as m o r e c lo s e ly t i e d to t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y , b y its p a s t h is to r y o f i n t e r n a l d iv is io n a n d s e p a r a te o p e r a t io n s b y t h e K ie v b r a n c h u n d e r S h u l ’g in , a n d b y t h e o v e r l a p p in g

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n e c ti o n s o f s o m e o f its m e m b e r s w i t h t h e o t h e r o r g a n i z a ti o n s . T h e Z e m s tv o - C ity o r g a n i z a ti o n , a u n i o n o f c iv ic le a d e r s f r o m t h e z e m s tv o a n d c ity d u m a o r g a n iz a tio n s w h ic h s till e x is te d , t e n d e d t o l i n e u p w i t h t h e U n i o n fo r R e g e n e r a t i o n b e c a u s e m a n y o f its m e m b e r s w e r e

117

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S o c ia lists, b u t i t t o o w as d iv i d e d in t e r n a l ly . I n o t h e r w o rd s , t h e d if fe r­ e n c e s w h ic h h a d a p p e a r e d in t h e Ja ssy c o n f e r e n c e w e re j u s t as m u c h a n d p e r h a p s m o r e in e v id e n c e in O d e s s a . T h e s e d if fe re n c e s a n d t h e i r im p li c a ti o n s b e c a m e a p p a r e n t as th r e e m a j o r is su e s w e re fa c e d :

( 1 ) t h e q u e s t io n o f s o m e a g r e e m e n t w ith

t h e U k r a i n i a n D i r e c t o r a t e , ( 2 ) t h e p r o b l e m o f a u t h o r i t y in O d e s s a its e lf , a n d ( 3 ) t h e p o s s ib ility o f t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a n e w re g io n a l a u t h o r i t y f o r s o u t h w e s t R u s s ia , c o r r e s p o n d in g t o t h e U k r a in e . A ll t h r e e o f th e s e q u e s t io n s w e re c lo s e ly in t e r t w i n e d

and

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d ir e c tl y o n t h e f o u r - c o r n e r e d r e l a ti o n s h ip w h ic h e x is te d in O d e s s a in v o lv in g t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d , t h e O d e s s a p o litic a l o r g a n iz a tio n s , t h e U k r a in i a n D ir e c t o r a t e , a n d t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y . L ite r a lly m o n t h s o f d e b a t e a n d n e g o ti a ti o n o v e r th e s e issu e s to o k p la c e b e f o r e t h e c li­ m a c t i c m o m e n t w as r e a c h e d . A d e ta i le d a c c o u n t o f th e s e is im p o s s ib le h e r e , b u t c e r t a in f e a tu r e s m u s t b e n o t e d in o r d e r to i n d i c a te h o w s e r io u s m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s s u b s e q u e n tly a ro s e . T o b e g in w ith , m a n y in O d e s s a , a n d e s p e c ia lly t h e c o n s e r v a tiv e s , h a d g r o w n d is s a tis fie d w i t h t h e V o l u n t e e r a u t h o r i t y t h e r e , a n d in th is t h e y h a d F r e i d e n b e r g ’s c o m p l e t e s y m p a th y . T h e r e w e re s e v e ra l r e a ­ s o n s f o r th i s d is s a tis f a c tio n , a ll o f w h ic h h a d a b e a r i n g o n t h e g e n e r a l d e b a te . T h e m i li ta r y g o v e r n m e n t u n d e r G r is h in - A lm a z o v h a d b e e n e s t a b li s h e d o n a n a d h o c b a sis a t a t i m e w h e n n o t h i n g e ls e s e e m e d e x p e d ie n t, b u t th i s a u t h o r i t y h a d p r o v e d to b e w e a k f r o m t h e s t a r t. I t p u t O d e s s a u n d e r D e n i k i n 's c o m m a n d , b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e i t p r o v i d e d n o s o l u ti o n t o t h e p r o b l e m o f c o m p l e te l y in a d e q u a t e c o m ­ m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n E k a t e r i n o d a r a n d O d e s s a . T h e r e s u lt w as t h a t t h e V o l u n t e e r g o v e r n m e n t in O d e s s a h a d l i t t l e p o w e r to a c t o n its o w n a n d e v e n less in iti a ti v e , s in c e D e n i k i n 's in s is te n c e o n c e n tr a li z a ­ t i o n o f a u t h o r i t y p r e c l u d e d a u t o n o m o u s g o v e r n m e n t in O d e s s a , w h ile D e n i k i n h i m s e l f w as to o fa r r e m o v e d fr o m t h e s c e n e to p r o v id e t h e n e c e s s a ry le a d e r s h i p . C o n s e q u e n t l y a d m i n is tr a t iv e a u t h o r i t y in O d e s s a g re w s te a d ily w e a k e r a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h a t c ir c u m s ta n c e s in c r e a s ­ in g ly d e m a n d e d t h a t it b e s t r e n g t h e n e d . T h e

e c o n o m ic s itu a tio n

b e c a m e c h a o ti c , s p e c u l a ti o n r a n w ild , b u t t h e m i li ta r y g o v e r n m e n t d id n o t h i n g t o s t o p it. C o m p l a i n t s t h e r e f o r e g re w in v o lu m e d a ily , a n d d e m a n d s f o r a c h a n g e t o o k o n g r e a t e r in s is t e n c e .13 T h e q u e s t i o n , o f c o u rs e , w as w h a t k i n d o f a c h a n g e s h o u l d b e u n d e r ­ ta k e n . D e n i k i n w o u ld c e r t a in l y n o t c o u n t e n a n c e a s i m p l e re m o v a l o f t h e V o l u n t e e r g o v e r n m e n t , e v e n t h o u g h h e k n e w o f s o m e o f its s h o r t ­ c o m in g s , a n d i t w as q u i t e c le a r t h a t h e w o u ld b e t o t a ll y o p p o s e d to

The Volunteer Army

118

b r i n g in g in t h e U k r a in ia n s in v o lv e d in n e g o ti a ti o n s w i t h t h e F r e n c h b e c a u s e h e c o n s id e r e d t h e m n o b e t t e r t h a n tr a it o r s to R u s s ia a n d f o r e ­ r u n n e r s o f B o ls h e v is m .14 T h e C o u n c i l f o r S ta t e U n i t y , t h e c h ie f c r itic o f t h e V o l u n t e e r g o v e r n m e n t in O d e s s a , r e g a r d e d a c c e p ta b le m ilita r y c o m m a n d e r b u t b e lie v e d h i m

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as a n

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n e c e s s a ry p o litic a l le a d e r s h ip a n d , fo r its p a r t , c h a ll e n g e d D e n i k i n ’s r i g h t to c la im c o n tr o l o v e r re g io n s n o t o c c u p ie d b y t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y , p a r tic u la r ly t h e U k r a in e . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t w as t h e g e n e r a l f e e l­ in g in c o n s e r v a tiv e c irc le s t h a t D e n i k i n w as d o m i n a t e d b y t h e m i d d le o f- th e -r o a d K a d e ts a n d N a t i o n a l C e n t e r , w h o je a lo u s ly g u a r d e d t h e i r p o s itio n a g a in s t a ll o t h e r p o litic a l o r g a n i z a ti o n s .15 T h e

U n io n

fo r

R e g e n e r a t io n , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , p r e f e r r e d D e n i k i n ’s m o d e r a t e p o l i t ­ ic a l p o s i ti o n to t h a t o f t h e R ig h t , b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e i t o p p o s e d t h e V o l u n t e e r p o lic y o f m i li ta r y d i c t a t o r s h i p a n d w o u ld r a t h e r h a v e s e e n s o m e fo r m o f d ir e c to r a te e s t a b li s h e d in O d e s s a .16 N o n e o f th e s e g r o u p s s u p p o r t e d t h e U k r a in i a n D ir e c t o r a t e , b u t t h e i r p o s itio n s o n t h e q u e s t io n o f n e g o ti a ti o n s w i t h i t w e re s t r o n g ly in f lu ­ e n c e d b y t h e i r v iew s to w a r d w h a t s h o u l d b e d o n e a b o u t c h a n g in g t h e s i tu a t i o n in O d e s s a .17 T h u s t h e R i g h t a n d L e f t in O d e s s a t e n d e d e i t h e r to o p p o s e o r t o s u p p o r t F r e n c h p la n s f o r a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e U k r a in ia n s , a n d in t u r n e i t h e r to s t a n d b y D e n ik in o r to o p p o s e h i m , n o t o n t h e b a sis o f a n y s im p le p o litic a l p o s i ti o n , b u t r a t h e r o n t h e b a sis o f a v e ry c o m p le x a n a lg a m o f c o n s i d e r a t io n s . I t w a s t h e R i g h t w h ic h m o s t o p p o s e d D e n ik in a n d fa v o r e d a F r e n c h - d o m i n a t e d r e o r ­ g a n iz a tio n o f t h e U k r a in e b y w a y o f a n a g r e e m e n t w ith t h e D i r e c t o ­ r a te , o r m o r e a c c u r a te ly , b y w a y o f t h e n e g o ti a ti o n o f a s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f t h e D ir e c t o r a t e to t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d a n d its a b s o r p t i o n i n t o a n e w g o v e r n m e n t u n d e r R u s s ia n

in f lu e n c e . T h e

L e f t, b y c o n tr a s t,

o p p o s e d s u c h F r e n c h p la n s a n d s u p p o r t e d t h e V o l u n t e e r s b e c a u s e i t d is lik e d t h e p r o s p e c t o f d o m i n a t i o n e i t h e r b y t h e F r e n c h o r b y t h e c o n s e r v a tiv e s .18 T o m a k e th is p e c u lia r s i t u a t i o n e v e n m o r e c o n f u s e d , i t n e e d o n ly b e a d d e d t h a t t h e F r e n c h , w h ile a g r e e in g w ith t h e R i g h t e l e m e n t in O d e s s a , n e v e r th e le s s p u t c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e o n i t t o b r i n g t h e s o c ia lis ts i n t o a n y n e g o ti a ti o n s a n d to p la n f o r t h e i r in c l u s i o n in a n y n e w a u t h o r i t y o r g o v e r n m e n t w h ic h m i g h t u l t i m a t e l y b e e s t a b ­ lis h e d . F r e n c h in t e ll ig e n c e so u r c e s in d i c a t e d t h a t o n ly a m o d e r a t e s o c ia lis t p la t f o r m

c o u ld g a in t h e s u p p o r t n e c e s s a ry to e s t a b li s h a n

e ff e c tiv e g o v e r n m e n t, a n d i t w as e v i d e n t t h a t o n ly a c le a rly d e m o c r a ti c R u s s ia n a u t h o r i t y c o u ld p e r s u a d e t h e F r e n c h p a r l i a m e n t t o s u p p o r t a n i n t e r v e n t i o n a d e q u a t e to t h e ta s k s .19

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119

A t t h e e n d o f J a n u a r y F r e i d e n b e r g b e g a n a se rie s o f c o n f e r e n c e s w i t h r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s o f a ll o f th e s e g r o u p s in t h e h o p e o f w o r k in g o u t a n s w e rs t o t h e p r o b l e m s a t h a n d .20 I n th e s e n e g o ti a ti o n s M . S. M a rg u lie s to o k t h e in i ti a ti v e , o n b e h a l f o f t h e C o u n c i l fo r S ta t e U n ity , t o p r o p o s e t h e c r e a t io n o f a s o u t h w e s t R u s s ia n r e g io n a l g o v e r n m e n t in O d e s s a w ith a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e e n t i r e t e r r it o r y o f t h e U k r a in e . T h i s g o v e r n m e n t , a c o u n c il o f m in is te r s w h ic h m i g h t in c l u d e s o m e U k r a i n ­ ia n s , w o u ld b e c o m p o s e d p r im a r ily o f r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f t h e f o u r O d e s s a o r g a n i z a ti o n s . O n l y m in is te r s o f w a r a n d f o r e ig n a ffa irs, i t w as s u g g e s te d , s h o u l d b e n a m e d b y G e n e r a l D e n ik in as c o m m a n d e r - in c h ie f o f all a r m e d fo rc e s in S o u t h R u s s ia .21 H o w e v e r , th i s p la n im m e ­ d ia te ly e n c o u n t e r e d s t r o n g V o l u n t e e r o p p o s i ti o n , b o t h f r o m G e n e r a l L u k o m s k ii, t h e c h a ir m a n o f D e n ik in 's S p e c ia l C o u n c i l t h e n o n a t o u r o f i n s p e c ti o n in O d e s s a , a n d t h e n f r o m D e n ik in h im s e lf , w h o s e n t o r d e r s to G e n e r a l G r is h in - A lm a z o v to in s is t o n c o n t i n u e d s u b o r d in a ­ ti o n o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t in O d e s s a to h is c o m m a n d .22 A c o u n te r p r o p o s a l t h e n s u b m i t t e d b y P r i n c e E . N . T r u b e ts k o i, w h ic h w as d e s ig n e d to p r e v e n t a c la s h w i t h D e n ik in , c a lle d fo r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a c iv il a d v is o ry c o u n c il c o m p o s e d o f lo c a l p o litic a l le a d e rs , b u t i t w o u ld r e t a in t h e g o v e rn o r -g e n e ra l a p p o i n t e d b y D e n i ­ k in a n d w o u ld s im p ly s p e c ify t h a t t h e a u t h o r i t y o f s u c h a n a d m i n is ­ tra tio n

c o u ld b e e x p a n d e d

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d e s i g n a te d fo r i t . 23 T r u b e t s k o i 's a l t e r n a t iv e p r o p o s a l, h o w e v e r, a lso f a ile d to o b t a i n D e n i k i n 's s u p p o r t b e c a u s e h e b e lie v e d t h a t it w o u ld c o m p r o m i s e V o l u n t e e r a u t h o r i t y in O d e s s a a n d o p e n t h e d o o r to F r e n c h d o m i n a n c e . H e c a te g o ric a lly r e je c te d a n y c h a n g e s w h ic h im ­ p lie d t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a n a u t o n o m o u s re g im e in O d e s s a .24 T h e e ffo rts o f t h e C o u n c i l f o r S ta t e U n i t y to r e a c h a c o m p r o m i s e a g r e e m e n t w ith D e n ik in t h u s c a m e to n a u g h t . A n o t h e r a t t e m p t a t a g r e e m e n t w as i n i t i a t e d , a p p a r e n t ly a t t h e u r g ­ in g o f G e n e r a l B e r t h e l o t , w h e n t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d a n n o u n c e d in m i d - F e b r u a r y t h a t a F r e n c h d e le g a tio n w o u ld b e s e n t to E k a t e r i n o d a r to s e e k D e n i k i n 's a p p r o v a l o f t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f a n e w g o v e r n o r fo r O d e s s a as a m i n i m a l s t e p to w a r d im p r o v in g c o n d it io n s in t h e c ity . I t w as b e lie v e d t h a t A . I. P i l 't s w o u ld b e t h e m o s t a c c e p t a b le c a n d id a te s in c e h e a lr e a d y h e a d e d t h e civ il s e c t io n u n d e r G r is h in - A lm a z o v a n d h a d o n ly a fe w d a y s b e f o r e b e e n i n v i te d b y D e n ik in to ta k e a p o s i ti o n in t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f I n t e r n a l A ffairs in E k a t e r i n o d a r .25 H o w e v e r , w h e n th is d e le g a tio n m e t w ith D e n i k i n , it c o u p le d t h e r e c o m m e n d a ­ t i o n o f P i l ’ts w ith a p r o p o s a l t o e s ta b lis h a n a u to n o m o u s m ilita r y a n d

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c iv il a u t h o r i t y in O d e s s a a n d in d i c a te d t h a t t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d w is h e d to u s e s u c h a n a u t h o r i t y as t h e b a sis fo r t h e o r g a n i z a ti o n o f m ix e d F ra n c o - R u s s ia n d e t a c h m e n t s w h ic h w o u ld f o r m t h e n u c le u s o f a n e w a r m y to o p e r a t e in t h e U k r a in e . T h e d e ta ils f o r s u c h a p la n , i t w as s u g g e s te d , c o u ld b e w o rk e d o u t d ir e c tly in a m e e t i n g b e t w e e n B e r t h e l o t a n d D e n ik in in t h e n e a r f u t u r e . F o r D e n i k i n , h o w e v e r , i t w as n o t a q u e s t io n o f d e ta ils b u t o f t h e b a s ic id e a its e lf, a n d h e s till re f u s e d to a c c e p t it. I n f a c t, h e a g re e d to n o t h i n g p r o p o s e d b y t h e F r e n c h d e le g a tio n e x c e p t t h e s u g g e s tio n t h a t h e a n d B e r t h e l o t s h o u l d m e e t .26 T h e f a ilu re o f th e s e n e g o ti a ti o n s , c o u p le d w i t h t h e e x tr e m e l y p o o r c o m m u n ic a t io n s b e tw e e n E k a t e r i n o d a r a n d O d e s s a , d id m u c h t o fo s ­ t e r m i s u n d e r s ta n d i n g o n t h e p a r t o f b o t h D e n i k i n a n d t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d . S u c h w as a ll t h e m o r e t h e c a se w h e n c e r t a in p e r s o n s in O d e s s a w h o w e re c lo s e to t h e V o l u n t e e r C o m m a n d , p a r t ic u l a r ly V . V . S h u l ’g in , h a r b o r e d d e e p p e r s o n a l r e s e n t m e n t a g a in s t t h e F r e n c h C o m ­ m a n d as r e p r e s e n te d b y F r e i d e n b e r g a n d d id a ll th e y c o u ld t o d is c r e d it F r e n c h e ff o rts to fin d s o l u tio n s to t h e p r o b l e m s w h ic h b e s e t t h e a n ti B o ls h e v ik c a u s e .27 D e n ik in h im s e l f w as n o t u n a w a r e o f t h e c o r r e c tn e s s o f m a n y o f t h e F r e n c h c o m p l a in t s , b u t h is o n e re a l a n s w e r w as t o a p p o i n t L t. G e n e r a l A . S. S a n n ik o v to r e p la c e G e n e r a l G r is h in - A lm a z o v . S a n n ik o v h a d in f a c t a rr iv e d in O d e s s a o n J a n u a r y 26 b u t , o n s e e in g fo r h im s e l f ju s t h o w c o m p le x t h e s i t u a t i o n w a s, h a d r e q u e s t e d D e n ik in t o w i t h h o l d o fficia l a n n o u n c e m e n t o f h is a p p o i n t m e n t u n t i l h e c o u ld o r i e n t h im s e l f t o lo c a l c o n d it io n s a n d p r o b l e m s . S a n n ik o v ’s p o s i ti o n in O d e s s a w as t h u s a n a n o m a l o u s o n e fr o m th i s p o i n t o n . H e r e p r e s e n te d D e n i k i n ’s d e s ire to p u t a n e w m a n in c h a r g e b u t , e s p e ­ c ia lly in v ie w o f o b je c t io n s v o ic e d b y G e n e r a l d ’A n s e lm e , d e la y e d in d e f in ite ly t h e a s s u m p ti o n o f G r is h in - A lm a z o v ’s p o s i ti o n . I n s t e a d h e s o u g h t to re a c h s o m e u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i t h t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d a n d p r e v e n t a fu ll b r e a k b e tw e e n it a n d D e n i k i n .28 I n F e b r u a r y , w h ile S a n n ik o v w as w o r k in g a t th i s ta s k , G e n e r a l B e rt h e l o t m a d e h is la s t v is it t o O d e s s a . I n ta lk s w i t h b o t h S a n n ik o v a n d S h u l ’g in a t th is ti m e , B e r t h e l o t a s s u re d t h e m t h a t h is p e r s o n a l p r e f e r ­ e n c e w o u ld b e to r e je c t a n y p la n o f c o o p e r a t io n w ith t h e U k r a in i a n s a n d to g iv e fu ll s u p p o r t s o le ly to D e n i k i n a n d “ O n e R u s s i a .” H o w ­ e v e r, h e a d d e d t h a t it w as n o t a q u e s t io n o f h is p e r s o n a l id e a s b u t o f w h a t w as b e s t u n d e r t h e c ir c u m s t a n c e s . T h e r e w e re s o m e in

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F re n c h C o m m a n d , h e n o te d , w h o fe lt th a t a g re e m e n t w ith th e D ire c ­ t o r a te a n d a p o litic a l a n d m i li ta r y r e o r g a n iz a t io n w e re e s s e n tia l, a n d

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h e w a s n o t in a p o s i ti o n t o c o n t r a d i c t t h e m . H e h o p e d t h a t i t w o u ld s till b e p o s s ib le to b r i n g in A llie d r e in f o r c e m e n ts w h ic h w o u ld m a k e s u c h c h a n g e s u n n e c e s s a r y , b u t u n t i l t h e n h e h a d n o c h o ic e b u t to a llo w t h e r e o r g a n iz a t io n to p r o c e e d as p la n n e d . W h e n S a n n ik o v i n d i ­ c a t e d t h a t h e w o u ld c o n v e y B e r t h e l o t ’s d e s ire t o D e n ik in , B e r t h e l o t r e p l ie d : “ I t is n o t m y d e s ire , b u t m y o r d e r / '29 T h e A llie s ' c h ie f d u ty , t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d e r e x p la in e d to S a n ­ n ik o v , w a s to “ u n if y a ll p o litic a l g r o u p in g s f ig h tin g a g a in s t t h e B o l­ s h e v ik s " a n d t o a s s is t “ a ll fo rc e s u s e f u l fo r th i s s t r u g g le ." 30 T o G e n e r a l G e r u a , w h o h a d b e e n a s s ig n e d t o O d e s s a e a r lie r as lia is o n o ffic e r f o r G e n e r a l S h c h e r b a c h e v , B e r t h e l o t f u r t h e r i n d i c a te d t h a t h e w as d is ­ tu r b e d b y th e m is u n d e rs ta n d in g w ith

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F r e i d e n b e r g 's p la n s s o le ly b e c a u s e h e v ie w e d t h e m as a g o o d w a y to re s o lv e t h e U k r a in i a n p r o b l e m a n d to b r i n g a ll m ilita r y fo rc e s u n d e r a u n if ie d c o m m a n d . A t t h e s a m e ti m e , h e c o u ld n o t u n d e r s t a n d D e n i ­ k in 's re f u s a l t o c o o p e r a t e w i t h th e s e e ff o rts a n d s till c o u ld se e n o o t h e r w a y o u t o f t h e d ile m m a s w h ic h c o n f r o n t e d t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d in O d e s s a .31 A s S a n n ik o v o b s e r v e d , th i s m e a n t t h a t t h e F r e n c h w o u ld g o a h e a d w i t h F r e i d e n b e r g 's p la n s , f o r th e y b e lie v e d i t m o r e i m p o r t a n t a t t h i s p o i n t t o d o w h a t t h e y c o u ld t o sa v e t h e s i t u a t i o n in t h e U k r a in e t h a n t o a id t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y w h ic h w as in a b e t t e r p o s i ti o n to h e l p it s e l f .32 W h e n B e r t h e l o t t h e n l e f t O d e s s a , fu ll r e s p o n s ib ility f o r o p e r a t io n s t h e r e w as t e m p o r a r ily t u r n e d o v e r to G e n e r a l d 'A n s e lm e . A c c o m p a n y ­ in g t h e o r d e r g iv in g d 'A n s e lm e th i s a u t h o r i t y w as a ls o a d ir e c tiv e s t a t ­ in g t h a t G e n e r a l S a n n ik o v w o u ld h a v e t o s u b o r d i n a t e h im s e l f to t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d “ in a ll m a t te r s o f a p o litic a l a n d a d m i n is tr a t iv e c h a r a c t e r ." U p o n h e a r i n g a b o u t th i s d ir e c tiv e , D e n i k i n w ir e d S a n n i­ k o v : “ I n a ll r e s p e c ts , m ilita r y , p o litic a l, a n d civ il, y o u a re s u b o r d i n a t e t o m e a n d o n ly f r o m m e c a n y o u re c e iv e o r d e r s ." H o w e v e r , D e n i k i n s till h o p e d t o se e B e r t h e l o t b e f o r e h e l e f t f o r P a ris in o r d e r t o w o rk o u t t h e i r d if fe re n c e s , so h e a d d e d : “ I s u g g e s t t h a t y o u c o o r d i n a te y o u r a c ti o n s in all m a t t e r s w i t h t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d . . . . O u r d e ta i le d r e l a ti o n s w ill b e d e t e r m i n e d in m y m e e t in g w i t h G e n e r a l B e r t h e l o t . " 33 U n f o r t u n a t e l y B e r t h e l o t w as n e v e r a b le to m e e t w ith

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a n d o n F e b r u a r y 2 3 S a n n ik o v r e p o r t e d t h a t G e n e r a l d 'A n s e lm e h a d o r d e r e d a n im m e d i a t e r e o r g a n iz a t io n u n d e r F r e n c h d ir e c ti o n o f a ll m i li ta r y fo rc e s in O d e s s a . D e n i k i n r e p lie d b l u n t l y :

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I c a te g o ric a lly f o r b id y o u to c a rry o u t e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h t h e R u s ­ s ia n A rm y b y f o r e ig n o rd e r s . . . . I w ill n o t p e r m i t a n y i n t e r f e r e n c e in t h e q u e s t io n o f t h e f o r m a ti o n o f t h e R u s s ia n A r m y . A n n o u n c e t h a t a n y o n e u n d e r m y c o m m a n d w h o c a rrie s o u t s u c h a n ille g a l o r d e r w ill b e c o u r t - m a r ti a le d .34 A t t h e s a m e t i m e D e n ik in a p p e a l e d to B e r t h e l o t a g a in , c o n d e m n i n g b o t h t h e id e a o f a m i li ta r y r e o r g a n iz a tio n u n d e r F r e n c h d i r e c t i o n a n d t h e n e g o ti a ti o n s w i t h t h e D i r e c t o r a t e as s te p s lik e ly t o u n d e r m i n e t h e u n i t y o f c o m m a n d u n d e r t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y . “ D e c is i o n o f i m p o r t a n t q u e s t io n s o f R u s s ia n life b y r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f f o r e ig n p o w e rs w i t h o u t c o n s u l ta t io n w ith m e a n d w i t h o u t t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s a p p o i n t e d b y m e ,” h e w r o te , “ w ill b r i n g t o r u i n t h e id e a o f a u n i t e d c o m m a n d a n d u n i t y o f a u t h o r i t y .” 35 G e n e r a l d ’A n s e lm e d id n o t c o n c e a l h is i r r i t a t i o n a t D e n i k i n ’s s t a n d o n th e s e q u e s t io n s a n d o n o c c a s io n e x p re s s e d h is d is s a ti s f a c t io n m o s t p o in t e d ly . T h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d , h e t o l d B a r o n M e lle r - Z a k o m e ls k ii ( h e a d o f t h e C o u n c i l f o r S ta t e U n i t y ) , w as f e d u p w i t h th i s s i t u a t i o n a n d w as n o w d e t e r m i n e d to g o a h e a d a n d o r g a n iz e t h e s o u t h w e s t o n its o w n te r m s .36 F r e i d e n b e r g a lso e x p re s s e d h is o p i n i o n , a d d i n g t h e in t e r e s t in g

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s t a n d i n g a m o n g t h e s e n e w r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s w as t h e e m i n e n t U r k a in i a n ju r is t, d e p u t y fo r e ig n m i n is te r , a n d J e w is h S o c ia lis t- F e d e r a lis t, D r . A r n o l d M a r g o lin , w h o w as id e a lly s u i t e d fo r n e g o ti a ti o n s w i t h F re id e n b e r g .41 N o t o n ly w as M a r g o lin a s k ille d d i p l o m a t b u t h is o w n p o li ti c a l v ie w s w e re m o d e r a t e a n d i n c l u d e d a b e li e f in t h e fe a s ib ility o f " f e d e r a t i o n f r o m b e l o w " — t h a t is, p r e p a r in g a f u t u r e f e d e r a ti o n t h r o u g h t h e te m p o r a r y f o r m a t i o n o f i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e u n it s w h ic h w o u ld a lly th e m s e lv e s t o g e t h e r f o r t h e m i li ta r y s tr u g g le n o w a n d l a t e r u n i t e p o li ti c a ll y in a n e w R u s s ia n s t a t e .42 O n e o f M a r g o lin 's firs t ta c t ic a l s te p s in O d e s s a h a d b e e n t o c o n t a c t t h e r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s o f o t h e r S o u t h R u s s ia n s ta te s a n d n e g o ti a te w ith th e m

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c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e f o r c e .44 I t h a d b e e n th i s e f f o r t o n M a r g o lin 's p a r t m o r e t h a n a n y t h i n g e ls e w h ic h h a d o p e n e d t h e w a y f o r n e w ta lk s w i t h F r e i d e n b e r g a n d g a v e h i m r e a s o n t o b e lie v e t h a t h is p la n s c o u ld b e a c h ie v e d . F r e i d e n b e r g w a s n o t a u t h o r i z e d to e n t e r a n y f o r m a l c o m m i t m e n t s w i t h e i t h e r t h e U k r a i n i a n o r o t h e r S o u t h R u s s i a n g o v e r n m e n ts , b u t i t w as h is p r e r o g ­ a ti v e t o n e g o t i a t e te r m s f o r a g r e e m e n ts w h ic h m i g h t s u b s e q u e n tly b e a p p r o v e d in P a ris , a n d t h a t is w h a t h e d id . C ir c u m s t a n c e s w e re e n t i r e l y in h is fa v o r, fo r, in t h e fa c e o f se v e re d e f e a ts f r o m t h e in v a d ­ in g B o ls h e v ik s , t h e D i r e c t o r a t e p r o v e d t o b e w illin g to m a k e e x te n s iv e c o n c e s s io n s .45 F r e i d e n b e r g 's f irs t a im w as t o re o r g a n iz e t h e m i li ta r y fo rc e s in s u c h a w a y as to u s e a ll a n ti- B o ls h e v ik tr o o p s in t h e w a r. T h i s w as e s p e ­ c ia lly n e c e s s a ry if " n o t o n e d r o p o f F r e n c h b l o o d " c o u ld b e s p ille d t o sa v e R u s s ia .46 H e n c e t h e firs t p r o p o s e d a g r e e m e n t to c o m e o u t o f t h e n e g o ti a ti o n s w as o n e d e s ig n e d t o d o th i s in a w a y c a lc u la te d t o b e a c c e p t a b le t o b o t h s id e s a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e t o g iv e t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d s u p e r v is o r y p o w e rs . T h e m o s t s ig n if ic a n t p a r t o f th i s a g re e -

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( G e n e r a l M a n i s s o v ) .47 U n d e r th i s a g r e e m e n t a ll ( n o n - B o l s h e v ik ) m i li ta r y h o s ta g e s h e l d b y e i t h e r t h e U k r a in ia n s o r t h e R u s s ia n s w e re t o b e r e le a s e d , a n d m o b i li z a ti o n o f t h e a r m y w as t o b e g in f o r t h w i t h u n d e r t h e d ir e c t i o n o f th e

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F r e n c h p la n w as to fo r m th i s a r m y i n t o “ m ix e d b r i g a d e s " e a c h o f w h ic h w as to b e o r g a n iz e d b y F r e n c h i n s tr u c t o r s a n d t o c o n t a i n R u s ­ s ia n o fficers. T h i s fo rc e , u n d e r g e n e r a l F r e n c h s u p e r v is io n , w o u ld t h e n fig h t a lo n g s id e o f G e n e r a l D e n i k i n 's A r m e d F o r c e s o f S o u t h R u s s ia , a n d t h e i r o p e r a t io n s w o u ld b e c o o r d i n a te d t h r o u g h t h e j o i n t c o m m a n d o f w h ic h t h e V o l u n t e e r S ta ff in O d e s s a w o u ld b e c o m e a p a r t .48 H a v ­ in g o b t a i n e d a p p r o v a l o f th i s p r o j e c t fr o m t h e U k r a in i a n d e le g a tio n , F re id e n b e rg th e n b e g a n

n e g o ti a ti o n s

f o r a p o li ti c a l a g r e e m e n t t o

b a c k it u p . P o litic a l n e g o ti a ti o n s w e re n o w c o n d u c t e d w i t h O s t a p e n k o as t h e h e a d o f a n e w ly f o r m e d g o v e r n m e n t w h ic h r e p l a c e d t h e o ld D i r e c t o ­ r a te in m id - F e b r u a r y . T h e te r m s w h ic h F r e i d e n b e r g p r e s e n t e d t o th i s n e w D ir e c t o r a t e i n c l u d e d t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t i t w o u ld e v e n t u ­ a lly e n t e r a r e c o n s t i t u t e d R u s s ia n s t a t e o n a f e d e r a t e d b a s is . E q u a ll y i m p o r t a n t , t h e U k r a in e w as a s k e d t o a c c e p t c e r t a in e c o n o m i c a r r a n g e ­ m e n t s d e s ig n e d to p r o t e c t F r e n c h

in t e r e s t s a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e

p r o v id e t h e b a sis f o r f u t u r e d e v e lo p m e n t, n a m e ly , ( 1 ) F r e n c h c o n t r o l o v e r all U k r a in i a n ra ilro a d s as lo n g as t h e e c o n o m i c s i t u a t i o n r e q u i r e d ( s o m e so u r c e s i n d i c a te d a fifty -y e a r c o n c e s s i o n ) , ( 2 ) a s s u m p t i o n b y t h e U k r a in e o f its s h a r e o f t h e R u s s ia n s t a t e d e b t , t h e i n t e r e s t o n w h ic h w as to b e g u a r a n t e e d b y in c o m e f r o m t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e ra ilro a d s , a n d ( 3 ) s u p e r v is io n b y F r e n c h e x p e r ts o v e r all in d u s t r i a l , fin a n c ia l, c o m m e r c ia l, a n d m i li ta r y p o lic ie s f o r a p e r i o d o f five y e a rs .49 I n th i s m a n n e r F r a n c e h o p e d t o s e c u r e t h e r e u n i f ic a tio n o f R u s s ia a n d a t th e sa m e tim e p ro te c t h e r o w n s u b s ta n tia l e c o n o m ic in te re s ts in t h e S o u th . I n r e t u r n fo r a g r e e m e n t o n t h e s e te r m s , F r a n c e f o r h e r p a r t w as t o ( 1 ) g r a n t te m p o r a r y d e f a c to r e c o g n i ti o n t o t h e U k r a i n i a n g o v e r n m e n t in its r e o r g a n iz e d f o r m u n t i l s u c h t i m e as t h e P e a c e C o n ­ fe r e n c e o r t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts m a d e a d e c is io n o n t h e s t a t u s o f t h e U k r a in e , ( 2 ) e x t e n d t h e f u l le s t p o s s ib le a s s is ta n c e t o t h e U k r a i n e

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t h r o u g h te c h n i c a l a d v is o rs a n d t h r o u g h t h e n e w G e n e r a l S ta ff, (3) p e r ­ m i t t e m p o r a r y e c o n o m i c , s o c ia l, a n d a g r a r ia n r e f o r m s in t h e U k r a in e b y t h e n e w g o v e r n m e n t so lo n g as t h e y d id n o t c r e a te d is o r d e r a n d r e t a i n e d t h e p r i n c i p l e o f c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r c o n f is c a te d la n d o r o t h e r p r o p e r ty , a n d ( 4 ) u s e h e r g o o d o ffices a n d in f lu e n c e to b r i n g a n e n d t o h o s t il it ie s b e t w e e n t h e U k r a in e a n d P o la n d o v e r G a lic ia , t o o b t a i n a fa v o r a b le s e t t l e m e n t o f o t h e r q u e s t io n s o f d i s p u t e d te r r ito r ie s , a n d t o d o a ll p o s s ib le to im p r o v e U k r a in i a n r e la tio n s w ith R u m a n i a .50 F r a n c e t h u s o ff e re d t o c o n c e d e t h a t t h e U k r a in i a n g o v e r n m e n t w as t h e l e g i t i m a t e a u t h o r i t y in t h e U k r a in e a n d s h o u l d h a v e its v iew s ta k e n i n t o a c c o u n t in t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e R u s s ia n q u e s t io n , p r o v id in g t h a t i t g u a r a n t e e d F r e n c h in t e r e s t s , c o o p e r a t e d fu lly in a j o i n t m ilita r y s t r u g g le a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s , a n d a c c e p t e d t h e g o a l o f a r e u n if ic a ­ t i o n o f R u s s ia th r o u g h f e d e r a ti o n o f its p a r ts . T h e re a l s ig n ific a n c e o f th i s p la n la y n o t in its d e ta ils ( o n w h ic h t h e so u rc e s d is a g re e to s o m e e x t e n t ) b u t in w h a t i t r e v e a le d o f F r e n c h p o lic y . T h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d w a n t e d u n i t y w i t h i n t h e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik c a m p a n d s o u g h t t o a c h ie v e i t b y f o r c in g a r e a s o n a b le c o m p r o m i s e o n its d iv e rs e e le ­ m e n t s . I f t h e r e w as h o s t il it y b e tw e e n t h e V o l u n t e e r s a n d t h e U k r a i n ­ ia n s b e c a u s e o f e x tr e m i s ts o n b o t h sid e s , t h e n b o t h s id e s w o u ld b e m o d e r a t e d t o m a k e c o o p e r a t io n e a sie r. I f t h e r e w as m i li ta r y d is u n it y a n d e v e n c o n f lic t, t h e n a r e o r g a n iz a t io n w as in o r d e r so as to d ir e c t a ll t h e f ig h ti n g a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s . A n d t h e o n ly fo rc e a b le t o d o th e s e th i n g s , a b le t o a c t as a b u f f e r a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e to b r i n g s u f ­ f ic ie n t p r e s s u r e to b e a r fo r u n if ic a t io n , w as t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d in its c a p a c i ty as s p o k e s m a n fo r t h e A llie d P o w e rs a n d d is p e n s e r o f A llie d a id . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , h o w e v e r , w h a t lo o k e d g o o d in p r i n c ip l e c o m p l e te l y f a ile d in p r a c t ic e . F r e i d e n b e r g h a d a p p a r e n t l y h o p e d t h a t h e c o u ld , in d e f ia n c e o f D e n i k i n 's o b je c t io n , e n t e r a n a g r e e m e n t w ith a m o v e ­ m e n t b r a n d e d as a b a n d o f t r a it o r s b y t h e V o l u n t e e r s , a n d s till c re a te u n i t y b e t w e e n t h e m b y v ir tu e o f t h e t e r m s w h ic h h e w o u ld fo r c e u p o n t h e d e s p e r a te U k r a in i a n D ir e c t o r a t e . I t w a s n o t F r e i d e n b e r g 's f a u l t, o f c o u rs e , t h a t D e n i k i n 's p o lic ie s w e re w h a t t h e y w e re , b u t in t h e l i g h t o f t h o s e p o lic ie s h is a p p r o a c h c o u ld h a r d l y h a v e p r o d u c e d h a r m o n y . I n d e e d i t a l i e n a t e d D e n i k i n lo n g b e f o r e t h e n e g o ti a ti o n s w i t h t h e D i r e c t o r a t e w e re c o m p l e te d . N o m a t t e r h o w m u c h D e n ik in m i g h t h a v e s t o o d t o g a in fr o m

t h e te r m s o f t h e a g r e e m e n ts a f t e r

th e y w e re n e g o t i a t e d , h is r e l a ti o n s w ith t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d h a d d e te rio ra te d to su c h a n e x te n t b y t h a t tim e t h a t n o th in g F re id e n b e rg o f f e r e d c o u ld r e s to r e V o l u n t e e r c o n f id e n c e .

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I t a p p e a r e d f r o m t h e V o l u n t e e r p o i n t o f v ie w t h a t t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d h a d s u d d e n l y re v e r s e d H e n n o 's p o lic y w i t h o u t a n y c le a r e x p la n a tio n , h a d p r o c e e d e d to w o rk t h r o u g h

p e r s o n a l c o n ta c ts

in

O d e s s a r a t h e r t h a n th r o u g h t h e V o l u n t e e r g o v e r n m e n t , a n d h a d d e l i b ­ e r a te ly ig n o r e d r e p e a t e d w a r n in g s fr o m D e n i k i n a b o u t s u c h i n t e r f e r ­ e n c e . D e n ik in o b je c t e d to n e g o ti a ti o n s w ith t h e U k r a in i a n s c h ie f ly b e c a u s e h e fe a r e d t h e s e p a r a ti o n o f t h e U k r a in e fr o m R u s s ia , b u t h e a ls o fe a r e d t h a t t h e F r e n c h w e re s e c r e tly a t t e m p t i n g t o e x c lu d e t h e V o l u n t e e r s f r o m t h a t a re a a n d d e p r iv e t h e m o f its v a s t s o u r c e s o f s u p ­ p ly . T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e in t e r v e n t i o n , in h is v ie w , w as t o p r o v i d e a s h ie ld fo r t h e f o r m a ti o n a n d s u p p ly o f t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y , a n d h e h a d b e e n le d in itia lly to b e lie v e t h a t w as its p u r p o s e b y B e r t h e l o t h im s e lf . B u t if t h e F r e n c h re c o g n iz e d a s e p a r a te g o v e r n m e n t in t h e U k r a in e a n d e v e n w e n t so fa r as to fo r m a s e p a r a te a r m y t o f ig h t t h e r e , th e y w o u ld , h e b e lie v e d , b e tr a y t h a t p u r p o s e a n d e v e n t u r n t h e i n t e r v e n t io n a g a in s t h i m . 51 D e n ik in 's fe a rs w e re la r g e ly u n f o u n d e d , f o r in f a c t t h e n e g o ti a ti o n s w ith t h e D ir e c t o r a t e w e re i n t e n d e d as a s t e p to w a r d e l i m i n a t i n g t h e so u rce o f th e m . In d e e d , o n M a rc h

3 in a d is p a tc h t o t h e F r e n c h

a m b a s s a d o r in L o n d o n , P ic h o n e x p re s s e d c o n c e r n o v e r s e p a r a ti s m in t h e n o n - R u s s ia n b o r d e r la n d s a n d d e c la r e d t h a t , e v e n if i t s h o u l d b e n e c e s s a ry to m a k e c e r t a in a r r a n g e m e n t s w ith t h e e t h n i c m i n o r i ti e s , “ n e v e r th e le s s t h e d is m e m b e r m e n t o f o u r a lly c a n n o t b e t h e

end

s o u g h t b y o u r p o lic y .” A llie d p o lic y in S o u t h R u s s ia , h e d e c la r e d , “ m u s t b e b a s e d o n t h e o n e fo r c e w h ic h e x is ts t h e r e , t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y , m e d io c r e t h o u g h i t m a y b e .” 52 I t w as t h u s a ll t h e m o r e ir o n ic t h a t a f t e r t h e m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h ic h t h e y h a d h e l p e d t o p ro v o k e , t h e a g r e e m e n ts n e g o ti a te d w ith

t h e D i r e c t o r a t e w e re n e v e r re a lly

a d o p t e d o r m a d e o ffic ia l.53 T h e n e g o ti a ti o n s h a d fin a lly r e a c h e d t h e i r c u lm i n a t i o n a t a t i m e w h e n t h e fo rc e s o f t h e D i r e c t o r a t e w e re b e i n g d r iv e n f r o m t h e U k r a in e a n d i t n o lo n g e r h a d a n y re a l p o w e r a t a ll. S in c e t h e b a sis o f F r e n c h e ff o rts to d e a l w ith t h e D i r e c t o r a t e w as t h e a s s u m p ti o n t h a t i t r e p r e s e n te d a s ig n if ic a n t fo r c e w h ic h m u s t b e e m p lo y e d in t h e c o m m o n s tr u g g le , t h e e v a p o r a t io n o f th i s b a s is r e n d ­ e r e d t h e e f f o r t its e lf f u t il e a n d c o s tly .54 M e a n w h il e , B o ls h e v ik s u c ­ cesses in t h e U k r a in e , in t h e C r im e a , a n d in t h e D o n t h r e a t e n e d t o e n d h o p e o f a v ic to r y in a n y f o r m a n d fo r c e d t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d in t o e v e n m o r e d r a s tic a c tio n s . B y m i d - M a r c h F r e n c h tr o o p s w e re b e in g fo r c e d t o p u ll b a c k f r o m

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t h e p e r i m e t e r a r o u n d O d e s s a b y t h e a d v a n c e o f G r ig o r e v ’s p ro - B o ls h e ­ v ik p a r tis a n s . R e d fo rc e s o c c u p ie d K h e r s o n o n M a r c h 10 a n d N ik o la e v o n M a r c h 12, a n d t h e d e f e n s e s o f O d e s s a its e lf w e re in a p o o r s t a t e .55 A t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e C r im e a f o u n d its e lf u n d e r a t t a c k a n d e q u a lly ill- p r e p a r e d t o m e e t it. D e n ik in p r o p o s e d to i n s t i t u t e m a r ti a l la w in t h e C r i m e a a n d o r d e r e d t h e V o l u n t e e r u n it s in O d e s s a to p r e p a r e f o r tr a n s f e r th e r e . O n c e a g a in , h o w e v e r, h is o r d e r s c o n f lic te d w ith t h o s e o f t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d . I n th is c a se t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d in O d e s s a r e f u s e d t o a llo w t h e V o l u n t e e r s t o le a v e t h e c ity fo r f e a r o f u n d e r m i n i n g its d e fe n s e s , a n d t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d in S e v a s to p o l o p p o s e d t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f m a r ti a l la w in t h e C r im e a as a n u n w a r ­ r a n t e d i n t e r f e r e n c e o n D e n i k i n 's p a r t .50 O n M a r c h 13 i t b e c a m e k n o w n in O d e s s a t h a t t h e F r e n c h C o m ­ m a n d t h e r e w as p r e p a r in g to d e c la r e a s t a t e o f sie g e t h e n e x t d a y as a p r e l im in a r y s t e p b e f o r e t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f a n e w m i li ta r y c o m ­ m a n d e r a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a n e w g o v e r n m e n t .57 T h e l a t t e r w as to b e h e a d e d b y D . F . A n d r o d e L ä n g e r e n , a “ U k r a i n i a n ” o f F r e n c h a n c e s t r y w h o h a d f o r m e r ly s e r v e d in t h e S k o ro p a d s k ii r e g im e a n d h a d f o r s o m e t i m e in O d e s s a s o u g h t u n s u c c e s s f u lly to p e r s u a d e t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d t o s u p p o r t t h e r e s to r a t io n to p o w e r o f t h e e le m e n ts w h ic h h a d o n c e b a c k e d t h e H e t m a n . 58 O n t h e s a m e d a y , d ’A n s e lm e a n d F r e i d e n b e r g h e l d a c o n f e r e n c e w ith G r is h in - A lm a z o v a n d S a n n ik o v t o d is c u s s th i s p la n a n d to le a r n t h e V o l u n t e e r a t t i t u d e to w a r d it. T h e V o l u n t e e r g e n e r a ls ra is e d n o o b je c t io n s to a d e c la r a ti o n o f m a r tia l la w in O d e s s a b u t s tr o n g ly o p p o s e d t h e c r e a t io n o f a n y n e w a u th o r it y , e s p e c ia lly in v ie w o f D e n i k i n ’s o r d e r t h a t V o l u n t e e r officers w e re to b e s u b o rd in a te d

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F r e i d e n b e r g i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e s e o b je c t io n s w o u ld n o t b e a llo w e d to s t a n d in t h e w a y o f t h e p l a n n e d a c t i o n .59 T h e n e x t day, M a rc h

14, a g r o u p o f V o l u n t e e r r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s ,

in c l u d i n g S a n n ik o v , G r is h in - A lm a z o v , S h u l ’g in , G e n e r a l T im a n o v s k ii, M . V . B e r n a ts k ii ( h e a d o f D e n i k i n ’s F i n a n c e D e p a r t m e n t ) , a n d V . A . L e b e d e v ( h e a d o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f T r a d e a n d I n d u s t r y ) , h e ld a s e c r e t c o n c la v e a m o n g th e m s e lv e s to d e c id e w h a t to d o . T h e y all a g r e e d t h a t t h e F r e n c h a c ti o n w as h ig h ly o b je c t io n a b l e b u t a ls o t h a t a p u b l i c r i f t w ith t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d s h o u l d b e a v o id e d as lo n g as p o s s ib le s in c e th is w o u ld o n ly e n c o u r a g e b o t h t h e lo c a l o p p o s i ti o n a n d t h e B o ls h e v ik s . I t w as, th e r e f o r e , d e c id e d t h a t th e y w o u ld se e k p r iv a te ly to c la rify t h e s i t u a t i o n , “ w i t h o u t a s c a n d a l” as S h u l ’g in p u t it, a n d m e a n w h il e fo llo w a p o lic y o f w a it-a n d -s e e . O n ly w h e n c o n -

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f r o n te d p u b lic ly w ith F r e n c h r e je c tio n w o u ld t h e y m a k e a n o p e n b r e a k a n d ta k e a p u b li c s t a n d o f o p p o s i t i o n .60 M e a n w h il e t h e C o u n c il fo r S ta t e U n ity , w h ic h h a d b e e n i n v i t e d t o p r o v id e se v e ra l m e m b e r s in t h e p r o p o s e d n e w g o v e r n m e n t , a p p r o v e d t h e F r e n c h p la n , a n d M a r g u lie s w as s la te d to ta k e t h e p o s i ti o n o f m i n i s t e r o f fin a n c e . T h e q u e s t io n o f w h o s h o u l d c o m p o s e t h e g o v e r n ­ m e n t , h o w e v e r, w as less i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e v ita l is su e o f t h e s e l e c ti o n o f a n e w m ilita r y c o m m a n d e r ( w h o w o u ld a ls o b e m i n i s t e r o f w a r in th e n e w c a b in e t) . T h e c a n d id a te p ro p o s e d b y F re id e n b e rg , G e n e ra l A . V . S h v a rts , w as ( j u s t as A n d r o ) o u t o f fa v o r w i t h t h e V o l u n t e e r s , b u t in a d d i t i o n to t h a t h e w as a lr e a d y c o m m i t t e d to o t h e r p la n s o f h is o w n a n d th e r e f o r e n o t v e ry in t e r e s t e d in t h e p o s t. R e j e c t e d fo r V o l u n t e e r se rv ic e s o m e m o n t h s b e f o r e b e c a u s e o f h is e a r lie r a c c e p t ­ a n c e o f t h e R e d A rm y c o m m a n d in P e tr o g r a d , S h v a rts h a d j o i n e d a g r o u p in O d e s s a ( l e d b y t h e f o r m e r m i n i s t e r o f w a r in t h e P r o v is io n a l g o v e r n m e n t, A . I. G u c h k o v ) w h ic h w as s e c r e tly la y in g p la n s f o r t h e o r g a n iz a tio n o f a n e w a r m y a m o n g R u s s ia n p r is o n e r s in G e r m a n y to o p e n a c a m p a ig n a g a in s t P e tr o g r a d . B e c a u s e o f h is in v o l v e m e n t w ith th is s c h e m e S h v a rts in i ti a ll y r e j e c te d t h e F r e n c h o f f e r .61 S u b s e q u e n tly , h o w e v e r, n o t o n ly d ’A n s e lm e b u t F r a n c h e t d ’E sp e re y , w h o a rr iv e d o n M a r c h

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TH E FRENCH AND TH E VOLUNTEERS IN ODESSA

s ta g e b e i n g s im p ly to n a m e S h v a rts as g o v e r n o r - g e n e r a l t o re p la c e G r is h in - A lm a z o v a n d t o in s ta ll a s p e c ia l p o li ti c a l c o u n c il ( t h e n u c le u s o f A n d r o ’s c a b i n e t ) u n d e r t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d . M o r e o v e r , i t w o u ld ta k e s o m e t i m e f o r t h e n i n e b a t t a l i o n s o f A f r ic a n tr o o p s a n d a G r e e k C o r p s , w h ic h w e r e p r o m is e d as r e i n f o r c e m e n ts , t o b e a s s e m b le d a n d t r a n s p o r t e d t o O d e s s a , a l t h o u g h in t h e m e a n t i m e , S h v a rts w as t o l d , F r e n c h tr o o p s in R u m a n i a w o u ld b e r e a d ie d t o p r o t e c t t h e fla n k o n t h e w e s t. S h v a r t ’s d o u b t s w e re fin a lly o v e r c o m e , h o w e v e r, a n d h e a g r e e d to a c c e p t t h e F r e n c h

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a n d G r i s h i n ; t h e f o r m e r is a d is o r g a n iz e r a n d t h e l a t t e r is a n a d v e n ­ t u r e r . ” 64 I n a n y c a se , w i t h o u t D e n i k i n ’s a p p r o v a l, t h e F r e n c h C o m ­ m a n d p r o c e e d e d t o n a m e S h v a r ts as c o m m a n d e r o f R u s s ia n fo rc e s in t h e S o u t h w e s t a n d to e s t a b li s h t h e n e w p o li ti c a l c o u n c il u n d e r A n d r o . D ’A n s e lm e t o o k p a in s t o e x p la in t h a t t h e c r e a t io n o f t h e n e w c o u n ­ c il, o r “ C o u n c i l fo r C iv il A ffa irs ,” w as o n ly a “ te m p o r a r y m e a s u r e p r o v o k e d b y t h e s e r io u s s i t u a t i o n ,” w h ic h a ls o m a d e m a r ti a l la w a n d a n a s s u m p t i o n o f fu ll a u t h o r i t y b y t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d n e c e s s a ry . “ I f t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f M . A n d r o as m y a s s is t a n t f o r c iv il a ffairs w as m a d e b y m e w i t h o u t w a iti n g fo r t h e a p p r o v a l o f G e n e r a l D e n i k i n ,” d ’A n s e lm e n o t e d , “ th i s is e x p la i n e d s o le ly b y e x is tin g c ir c u m s ta n c e s w h ic h p r e v e n t r a p i d c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h E k a t e r i n o d a r .” 65 W h e t h e r r i g h tl y o r n o t , h o w e v e r, th i s a s s u m p ti o n o f a u t h o r i t y b y t h e F r e n c h in O d e s s a w as ta k e n b y t h e V o l u n t e e r s b o t h t h e r e a n d in E k a t e r i n o d a r as a v ir tu a l c o u p d ’é t a t . 66 D e s p it e d ’A n s e lm e ’s “ e x p la n a ­ t i o n ” a n d a n e f f o r t b y S h v a r ts h im s e l f t o in f o r m E k a t e r i n o d a r o f t h e r e a s o n s f o r th e s e s te p s , D e n i k i n o r d e r e d G e n e r a l S a n n ik o v “ n o t to e n t e r a n y r e l a ti o n s w ith A n d r o a n d n o t to c a rr y o u t a n y o f h is o r d e r s .” W h i l e i n s t r u c t i n g S a n n ik o v t o k e e p n e g o ti a ti o n s o p e n as lo n g as p o s ­ s ib le , D e n i k i n a d d e d : “ I n c a se o f a c o m p l e t e b r e a k o f c o n n e c t io n s , I r e c o m m e n d t h a t y o u ta k e e x tr a o r d i n a r y m e a s u r e s in m y n a m e fo r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e d ig n i ty o f R u s s ia a n d t h e in t e r e s t s o f t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y .” 67 A n d r o ’s a u t h o r i t y in O d e s s a w as c h a ll e n g e d , m o r e o v e r , n o t o n ly b y D e n i k i n b u t a ls o b y lo c a l g r o u p s w h ic h to o k a s t a n d a g a in s t it. I n a

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ra re d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f u n it y a m o n g t h e lib e r a l a n d s o c ia lis t g r o u p s in t h e c ity , a s t a t e m e n t w as is s u e d in d e f e n s e o f D e n i k i n 's p o s i ti o n . T h i s s t a t e m e n t , b e a r in g t h e s ig n a tu r e s o f in d i v id u a l K a d e ts , S o c ia lis t R e v o ­ lu tio n a r ie s , a n d e v e n M e n s h e v ik s , w as p r e s e n t e d to d 'A n s e l m e b y a fiv e -m a n

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d u m a .68 I t d e c la r e d : If, in t h e p la c e o f t h e V o l u n t e e r g o v e r n m e n t o f O d e s s a , t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d e s ta b lis h e s a g o v e r n m e n ta l o r g a n i z a ti o n u n d e r its o w n a e g is, i t w ill s t ir u p s h a r p d i s c o n t e n t a m o n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f O d e s s a . I n t h e p r e s e n t q u a r r e l b e tw e e n t h e S ta ff o f t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d a n d th e V o lu n te e r C o m m a n d , th e O d e ssa d u m a a n d h ig h ly in f lu e n tia l d e m o c r a ti c a n d s o c ia lis t o r g a n i z a ti o n s jo in w i t h t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y in o p p o s i n g a ll a t t e m p t s o n t h e p a r t o f t h e F r e n c h sta ff to e s ta b lis h a n y s o r t o f “ S o u t h R u s s ia n A u t h o r i t y " w h ic h h a s t h e c h a r a c t e r o f a c o lo n ia l r e g im e a n d w h ic h v io la te s t h e s o v e r e ig n ty o f R u s s ia .60 T h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d h a d c e r t a in l y m i s c a l c u la t e d A n d r o 's f o llo w ­ in g .70 I n s te a d o f o b t a i n i n g c o o p e r a t io n , i t h a d s t ir r e d u p a n o p p o s i­ t i o n w ith i n t h e c ity w h ic h w as c le a rly n o t s im p ly a r e f le c tio n o f D e n i ­ k in 's in t r a n s i g e n c e . T w o le a d i n g s p o k e s m e n o f t h e U n i o n f o r R e g e n ­ e r a t io n a n d o f s o c ia lis t o p i n i o n g e n e ra lly , B r a ik e v ic h a n d T i t o v , f o r e x a m p le , p r o t e s te d t h a t w i t h a ll its f a u lts t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y w as s till t h e b e s t h o p e a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s , a n d t h e y w e re j o i n e d in th i s o p in i o n e v e n b y m e m b e r s o f t h e C o u n c i l f o r S t a t e U n i t y w h o w e re h a v in g s e c o n d t h o u g h t s o n t h e a d v is a b ility o f m a k i n g m a j o r c h a n g e s n o w . I n o p p o s i ti o n to F r e n c h p la n s s o m e s o c ia lis t le a d e r s e v e n t h r e a t ­ e n e d t o c a ll fo r a w o rk e rs ' d e m o n s t r a t i o n t o b a c k t h e V o l u n t e e r s ! 71 S u c h w as t h e c u r io u s o u t c o m e o f t h e lo n g F r e n c h e ff o rts t o o b t a i n a u n i t e d f r o n t fo r t h e f o r m a ti o n o f a n e w g o v e r n m e n t . S p o k e s m e n fo r t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d n o w d e n i e d v ig o r o u s ly a n y in te n tio n

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d 'A n s e lm e , w o u ld “ b y n o m e a n s b e c a lle d u p o n t o r e p la c e t h e p r e s e n t a u t h o r i t y e s t a b li s h e d b y G e n e r a l D e n i k i n " b u t w o u ld a c t e x c lu s iv e ly as “ a n a u x ilia r y t e c h n i c a l a p p a r a t u s f o r t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e o f s ie g e " fo r t h e p u r p o s e o f im p r o v i n g d e f e n s e a n d s u p p l y o p e r a t i o n s .73 D e s p it e th e s e p r o t e s t a t i o n s , h o w e v e r , t h e e x p r e s s io n o f o p p o s i t i o n to its p la n s s e e m s to h a v e s p u r r e d t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d to w a r d f u r t h e r i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e m r a t h e r t h a n t h e re v e rs e .

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A f t e r t h e f o r m a l a n n o u n c e m e n t o f S h v a r ts ' a p p o i n t m e n t as c o m ­ m a n d e r o f a ll R u s s ia n tr o o p s in t h e F r e n c h z o n e

(o n M a rc h 2 0 ),

A n d r o ’s c o u n c il w as s l ig h tly r e o r g a n iz e d as a “ C o m m i t t e e o f D e f e n s e a n d S u p p ly ” a n d a s u p p l e m e n t a l “ E x tr a o r d in a r y A d v is o ry O r g a n ” w as c r e a t e d , c o n s i s ti n g o f t h e s o c ia lis t c ity d u m a le a d e r , B ra ik e v ic h , a n d t h e s o c ia lis t Z e m s tv o h e a d , B u te n k o , in a d d i t i o n t o S h v a r ts .74 T h i s w a s o b v io u s ly a m o v e d e s ig n e d t o p la c a te s o c ia lis t o p p o s i ti o n . W i t h r e g a r d to t h e V o l u n t e e r s u n d e r S h v a r ts ' g e n e r a l c o m m a n d , G e n ­ e ra l T im a n o v s k ii o f t h e lo c a l V o l u n t e e r S ta ff w as d e s i g n a te d as t h e o ffic e r s p e c ific a lly in c h a r g e o f V o l u n t e e r tr o o p s in t h e a re a , b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e d is m is s a l o f G r is h in - A lm a z o v a n d

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w as c u r t ly a n n o u n c e d b y a s im p le s t a t e m e n t r e a d in g : “ T o m o r r o w , M a r c h 2 2 , G e n e r a l S a n n ik o v w ill le a v e f o r E k a te r in o d a r , a n d G e n e r a l G r is h in - A lm a z o v w ill a c c o m p a n y h i m .” 75 G e n e r a l F r a n c h e t d 'E s p e r e y , as p re v io u s ly n o t e d , h a d b e e n d is s a tis ­ fie d w i t h t h e c o u rs e o f t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n fr o m t h e s t a r t, b u t , m u c h a g a in s t h is w ill, h e h a d b e e n o b lig e d to ta k e o v e r p e r s o n a l d ir e c ti o n o f a ffa irs in O d e s s a b y t h e illn e s s o f B e r t h e l o t a n d t h e l a t t e r 's r e q u e s t t o b e r e lie v e d t o r e t u r n to P a r is .76 P r i o r to re c e iv in g in s t r u c t i o n s o n M a r c h 15 t o p r o c e e d to O d e s s a , F r a n c h e t d 'E s p e r e y h a d b e e n in P a ris f o r c o n f e r e n c e s w i t h A llie d m i li ta r y a n d p o litic a l le a d e rs o n t h e p r o b ­ le m s o f t h e o c c u p a t io n , a n d h e h a d c o m e a w a y f r o m th e s e m e e tin g s m o r e o p p o s e d t o t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n t h a n e v e r .77 I n v ie w o f h is lo w o p i n ­ io n o f t h e V o l u n t e e r s — h e t h o u g h t t h e B o ls h e v ik s h a d s h o w n m o r e a b il it y t o fo r m a “ s e r io u s a r m y ” — a n d o f h is b e lie f t h a t t h e i n t e r v e n ­ t i o n its e lf w as a n “ a b s u r d ity ,” i t w as n o t s u r p r is in g t h a t F r a n c h e t d 'E s p e r e y a u t h o r i z e d s te p s w h ic h c o u ld r e s u lt in a c o m p l e t e b r e a k w ith D e n i k i n , a n d i t is q u i t e p r o b a b l e t h a t h e s u b s e q u e n tly r e c o m m e n d e d p u l l i n g A llie d tr o o p s o u t o f O d e s s a e n ti r e l y .78 D u r i n g t h e la s t d a y s o f M a r c h , h o w e v e r, n o p la n o f e v a c u a t io n w as m e n t i o n e d in O d e s s a . O n t h e c o n tr a r y , t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d u n d e r ­ t o o k a fe v e r is h a n d in t e n s i v e f o r tif ic a tio n o f t h e a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e c ity . G e n e r a l B e r t h e l o t , t h e n d e p a r t i n g R u m a n i a f o r P a ris , o n M a r c h 2 3 o f f e r e d o p t i m i s t i c re a s s u r a n c e t o A m b a s s a d o r P o k le v s k ii-K o z e l. T h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d , h e s a id , h a d m a d e a “ r e s o lu te d e c is io n ” to h o l d O d e s s a , a n d A llie d r e i n f o r c e m e n ts w o u ld s o o n b e o n t h e i r w a y .79 I n O d e s s a it s e l f t h e p a p e r s p r i n t e d a n “ o ffic ia l” c o m m u n i q u e s t a t i n g t h a t P a ris h a d o r d e r e d a c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f fo rc e s to d e f e n d t h e c ity a n d re p e a te d

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to o k s o m e 1 5 ,0 0 0 U k r a in i a n tr o o p s u n d e r h is c o m m a n d , a n d A n d r o a n n o u n c e d to t h e d is t u r b e d p o p u l a t i o n t h a t t h e c ity w o u ld n o t b e s u r r e n d e r e d .81 F r a n c h e t d 'E s p e r e y h im s e lf , it is t r u e , w a r n e d t h a t if t h e i r p la n s d id n o t w o rk o u t , “ t h e F r e n c h G o v e r n m e n t w o u ld b e o b li g e d t o re c a ll its tr o o p s a n d e n d t h e o c c u p a t io n o f t h e S o u t h R u s s ia n re ­ g i o n / '82 b u t o n M a r c h 2 6 tw o s h ip s c a rr y in g F r e n c h a n d G r e e k tr o o p s d id a p p e a r , a n d f o u r d ay s la t e r a n o t h e r a r r iv e d w i t h a d e t a c h m e n t o f A lg e ria n tr o o p s .83 W i t h th e s e , a n d a s iz a b le n a v a l f o r c e in t h e p o r t , i t s e e m e d lik e ly t h a t e v a c u a tio n w o u ld n o t b e n e c e s s a ry . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e re a l q u e s t io n

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w h e t h e r t h e c ity c o u ld b e h e l d b u t w h e t h e r i t w o u ld a c tu a lly b e w o r th t h e e f f o r t u n d e r e x is tin g c ir c u m s ta n c e s . M i l i t a r y p r e p a r e d n e s s w as o n ly o n e s id e o f t h e p ic t u r e ; o n t h e o t h e r w as t h e f a c t t h a t c o n ­ d it io n s in O d e s s a h a d g ro w n s te a d ily w o rs e u n t i l b y t h e e n d o f M a r c h i t w as o n t h e v e rg e o f a n a r c h y . T h o u s a n d s w h o h a d fle d t h e B o ls h e v ik s h a d c o n g r e g a t e d in t h e c ity a n d h a d f o r m e d m o b s o f h o m e le s s , fo o d le s s p e o p l e .84 L e ss t h a n o n e t h i r d o f t h e e c o n o m i c e n te r p r i s e s in O d e s s a w e re f u n c t i o n i n g

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M a r c h , a n d u n e m p l o y m e n t s e e m e d lik e ly t o s p r e a d t o a la r g e m a j o r i ty o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n . T h e c ity w as v itu a lly w i t h o u t h e a t o r e le c tr i c it y b e c a u s e o f t h e fu e l s h o r ta g e , a n d o t h e r s h o r ta g e s h a d b r o u g h t a b o u t a te n - f o ld in f la tio n o f p ric e s g e n e ra lly . S u c h c o n d i t i o n s le d o n e n e w s ­ p a p e r to d e c la r e : “ N e v e r b e f o r e h a s O d e s s a p a s s e d t h r o u g h s u c h a tr a g ic , n ig h t m a r is h p e r i o d as n o w . T h e p o p u l a t i o n is s u c c u m b i n g . . . t o s t a r v a ti o n a n d c o ld . . . ," 85 T h e B o ls h e v ik s w e re , o f c o u rs e , ta k i n g a d v a n ta g e o f t h e s i t u a t i o n fo r p r o p a g a n d a a n d a g it a ti o n . O r g a n iz e d in to

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w o m e n , s tir r e d u p t h e w o rk e rs , in s p ir e d m u t i n y a m o n g t h e s o ld ie rs a n d sa ilo rs , a n d f r o m a h i d d e n p re s s c i r c u la t e d “ i n c r e d ib l y la r g e q u a n ­ ti ti e s o f l i t e r a t u r e in R u s s ia n a n d F r e n c h . " 86 B y th i s t i m e t h e B o ls h e ­ viks w e re a ls o fin a lly m a k i n g h e a d w a y in u n d e r c u t t i n g t h e p o p u l a r a p p e a l a n d in f lu e n c e o f t h e s o c ia lis ts w h o h a d i n t h e p a s t d o m i n a t e d t h e w o r k e r a n d p e a s a n t m o v e m e n ts in O d e s s a .87 B a d c o n d it io n s a n d s k illfu l p r o p a g a n d a c o m b i n e d

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F r e n c h tr o o p s e v e n less r e lia b le t h a n t h e y h a d b e e n five m o n t h s e a r lie r w h e n F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e r e y h a d e x p re s s e d c o n c e r n o v e r t h e i r lo w m o r a le . G r e e k a n d c o lo n ia l tr o o p s s u c c e e d e d in m a i n t a i n i n g a h i g h e r e s p r i t d e c o rp s , b u t n e i t h e r t h e G r e e k n o r t h e F r e n c h s o ld ie rs h a d e x p e c t e d to h a v e to f ig h t a n d h a d b e e n d is il lu s i o n e d b y w h a t th e y f o u n d in

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R u s s ia . W h e n th e y c a m e u n d e r a tt a c k , a n d e s p e c ia lly w h e n in K h e r ­ s o n a n d N ik o la e v t h e lo c a l p o p u la t io n s h a d jo in e d t h e B o ls h e v ik s in firin g o n t h e m , m a n y o f t h e F r e n c h tr o o p s h a d r e f u s e d to fig h t, a n d t h e G r e e k s h a d in t u r n b la m e d t h e i r o w n lo sses o n t h e F r e n c h .88 T h e s e i n c i d e n ts , p lu s t h e s u b s e q u e n t m u t i n y o f a s iz a b le n u m b e r o f t h e sa ilo rs o f t h e F r e n c h s q u a d r o n , w e re a m o n g t h e m a n y fa c to rs w h ic h h a d t o b e ta k e n in t o c o n s i d e r a t io n in d e c id i n g w h e t h e r to r e m a in in O d e s s a o r n o t . 89 A lt h o u g h t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d p r o b a b ly o v e r r a te d t h e B o ls h e v ik s ' s t r e n g t h , it d id a p p r e c i a te t h e in f e r io r c o n ­ d i t i o n o f its tr o o p s a n d t h e i r u n w illin g n e s s to f ig h t a R u s s ia n w a r.90 D e s p i t e t h e m a n y o b s ta c le s to s u c c e s s fu l m i li ta r y o p e r a t io n s , h o w ­ e v e r, i t w as n o t so m u c h t h e d if fic u lty o f d e f e n d i n g O d e s s a as it w as t h e d if fic u lty in k e e p in g it s u p p l ie d w h ic h fin a lly le d t o t h e d e c is io n t o e v a c u a te it. F r a n c h e t d 'E s p e r e y 's r e p o r ts to P a ris s tre s s e d m o s t o f a ll t h e fo o d a n d fu e l p r o b l e m a n d t h e la c k o f a d e q u a t e R u s s ia n le a d e r ­ s h i p t o c o p e w ith it. I n d is c u s s io n o f th i s p r o b l e m in t h e A llie d C o u n ­ cil o f F o u r in P a ris o n M a r c h 17, 2 5, a n d 27, M a r s h a l F o c h , w h o sa w m o r e t o b e g a in e d in b u i l d i n g t h e c o r d o n in E a s te r n E u r o p e , a d v is e d t h a t i t w o u ld b e b e t t e r u n d e r t h e c ir c u m s ta n c e s to s e n d w h a t s u p p lie s w e re a v a ila b le to R u m a n i a in s te a d , a n d o n M a r c h 27 i t w as a g re e d t h a t e v a c u a t io n o f O d e s s a w as a d v is a b le .91 T h u s w h e n t h e d e c is io n to e v a c u a te w as a n n o u n c e d in O d e s s a , i t w as s t a te d : T h e E n t e n t e P o w e rs h a v e g iv e n n o ti c e t h a t i t w ill b e im p o s s ib le f o r t h e m . . . to a s s u re t h e s u p p ly o f O d e s s a . T h i s is w h y , in o r d e r t o d im i n i s h t h e n u m b e r o f m o u t h s to fe e d , it h a s b e e n d e c id e d t o e v a c u a te t h e c ity .92 T h i s d e c is io n w as c o n v e y e d to F r a n c h e t d 'E s p e r e y ’s h e a d q u a r t e r s in C o n s t a n t i n o p l e o n A p ril 1 a n d r e a c h e d d 'A n s e lm e in O d e s s a o n A p ril 2. I t o r d e r e d t h e e v a c u a t io n to b e c a r r ie d o u t w ith i n t h r e e d a y s, b u t d ’A n s e lm e d e c id e d t h a t it c o u ld b e d o n e in 4 8 h o u r s a n d o n A p ril 3 is s u e d t h e o r d e r t o b e g in .93 T h e F r e n c h e v a c u a t io n o f O d e s s a fo llo w e d F o r e ig n M i n i s t e r P ic h o n 's p u b li c s t a t e m e n t to t h e C h a m b e r o n M a r c h 2 9 t h a t t h e g o v ­ e r n m e n t ’s p o lic y w as o n e w h ic h o p p o s e d a n y f u r t h e r u s e o f F r e n c h tr o o p s a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s ,94 b u t i t w as a se v e re s h o c k in O d e s s a , w h e r e t h e p r e c e d i n g d e f e n s e p r e p a r a ti o n s h a d g iv e n a s s u ra n c e s a g a in s t it. F a c e d n o t o n ly w ith a w ith d r a w a l o f A llie d fo rc e s b u t a 4 8 - h o u r d e a d li n e to g e t o u t , t h e p o p u l a t i o n p a n ic k e d a n d m o b b e d t h e d o c k s .95 O n A p ril 3 t h e C o u n c i l o f T r a d e U n io n s d e m a n d e d t h e re le a s e o f

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a ll R u s s ia n s h ip s h e l d b y t h e F r e n c h , b u t t h e i r d e m a n d w as r e j e c te d .96 A w o rk e rs ' d e le g a tio n t h e n

p r e s e n te d a n u l t i m a t u m

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in s is tin g t h a t n o R u s s ia n p r o p e r ty o r p e r s o n s b e t a k e n f r o m t h e c ity a n d t h r e a t e n i n g a g e n e r a l s tr ik e to b lo c k t h e e v a c u a t io n if h e re f u s e d . D 'A n s e l m e , h o w e v e r, i n f o r m e d t h e m t h a t h e w o u ld o r d e r h is n a v a l g u n s to le v e l t h e w o rk e rs ' h o m e s if th e y c a r r ie d o u t t h e i r t h r e a t o r a tt a c k e d a s in g le F r e n c h s o ld ie r. A t th is t h e B o ls h e v ik -le d w o rk e rs b a c k e d d o w n a n d a g r e e d n o t to o b s t r u c t t h e e v a c u a t io n , b u t th e y k n e w n o w t h a t t h e c ity w as th e ir s . B o ls h e v ik n e w s p a p e r s w e re b e in g s o ld o n t h e s tr e e ts o n ly tw o h o u r s a f t e r t h e la s t s h i p p u ll e d a w a y , a n d a f t e r A p ril 6 c o m m u n ic a t io n s f r o m O d e s s a w e re c o n d u c t e d in t h e n a m e o f t h e U k r a in i a n S o v ie t S o c ia lis t R e p u b li c .97 U n d e r t h e c ir c u m s ta n c e s it w as r e m a r k a b le t h a t t h e F r e n c h w e re a b le to e v a c u a te 3 0 ,0 0 0 c iv ilia n s a n d

1 0 ,0 0 0 V o l u n t e e r a n d o t h e r

tr o o p s in a d d i t i o n to t h e i r o w n .98 T h e a c h ie v e m e n t, h o w e v e r , is f a r less im p re s s iv e w h e n i t is n o t e d t h a t th o u s a n d s w e re l e f t b e h i n d , p a r t ly b e c a u s e o f t h e in s is te n c e o n c a rr y in g o u t t h e e v a c u a t io n as ra p id ly as p o s s ib le . I n t h e p a n ic , m a n y c o m m i t t e d s u ic id e o r w e re k ille d , e q u i p ­ m e n t w as d e s tr o y e d n e e d le s s ly , a n d p a r t o f t h e V o l u n t e e r tr o o p s w e re l e f t b e h i n d v ir tu a lly e m p t y - h a n d e d . T h e V o l u n t e e r b r i g a d e u n d e r G e n e r a l T im a n o v s k ii w as e v e n r e f u s e d m o n e y b y t h e F r e n c h o n t h e e x c u s e t h a t t h e n e c e s s a ry tr e a s u r y o p e r a t io n s w o u ld ta k e tw o o r t h r e e d ay s. W i t h p r a c tic a lly n o s u p p lie s , t h e b r ig a d e w as o r d e r e d b y t h e F r e n c h to le a v e O d e s s a a n d m o v e in l a n d to B e s s a r a b ia . A f t e r m a k i n g t h e i r w ay to B e s s a ra b ia , th e s e V o l u n t e e r s w e re a r r e s te d a n d d is a r m e d a n d o n ly a f t e r s o m e d if fic u ltie s r e t u r n e d to D e n i k i n .99 T h e s u d d e n n e s s o f t h e e v a c u a t io n a ls o m e a n t t h a t D e n i k i n w a s ta k e n b y s u r p ris e . I n f o r m e d o f t h e d e c is io n o n ly a f t e r t h e e v a c u a t io n w as in p ro g re s s , D e n ik in i m m e d i a te l y d e m a n d e d t h a t R u s s ia n tr o o p s b e p r o v id e d w ith a s s is ta n c e a n d " i m m e d i a t e s h i p m e n t b y se a w i t h fu ll s u p p ly a n d a r tille r y . . .

to N o v o r o s iis k ." H e w r o te to F r a n c h e t

d ’E s p e re y : O n ly y e s te rd a y d id I le a r n t h a t t h e F r e n c h A r m y O d e s s a . . . . T h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d d id n o t e v e n f in d to fo r e w a rn m e o f th is . I t is d if f ic u lt a t th is p o i n t to h is to r i c c o n s e q u e n c e s o f th i s s t e p , b u t in a n y c a se I V o l u n t e e r b rig a d e s h a v e a m o r a l r i g h t to a s s is ta n c e . .

w as le a v in g i t n e c e s s a ry fo resee th e b e lie v e t h e . .10°

T h e f a c t t h a t s o m e V o l u n t e e r tr o o p s w e re l e f t b e h i n d a n d t h a t t h e e v a c u a tio n l e f t D e n ik in 's l e f t fla n k a n d t h e C r i m e a o p e n t o B o ls h e v ik

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a t t a c k a d d e d to t h e b it t e r n e s s a lr e a d y f e l t to w a r d t h e F r e n c h . T h i s fe e lin g c a m e o u t p a r t ic u l a r ly in a s u b s e q u e n t r e p o r t w h ic h c h a r g e d t h e F r e n c h w i t h h a v in g s e c r e tly p r e p a r e d t h e w h o le t h i n g in a d v a n c e . C i t i n g t h e p r e a r r a n g e m e n t o f c e r t a in o r g a n i z a ti o n a l f e a tu r e s o f t h e e v a c u a t io n , t h e V o l u n t e e r a c c o u n t in e ff e c t a c c u s e d t h e F r e n c h o f b e t r a y a l .101 T h e e v a c u a t io n o f S e v a s to p o l, w h ic h fo llo w e d th r e e w e e k s la te r , w as c a r r ie d o u t slo w ly . Y e t i t p r e s e n t e d a lm o s t a r e p e t i t i o n o f e v e n ts in O d e s s a . A s in O d e s s a , t h e F r e n c h h a d a s iz a b le fle e t in t h e h a r b o r , h a d e s t a b li s h e d a fo r tif ie d d e f e n s e lin e a r o u n d t h e c ity , a n d h a d s p o ­ k e n o f h o l d i n g t h e c ity . T h e y h a d e v e n o n c e a g a in a n n o u n c e d t h a t r e i n f o r c e m e n ts w e re o n t h e w ay . O n M a r c h 26, F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e r e y h a d in d ic a te d th a t n e w

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w e e k s , a n d in f a c t b e tw e e n A p ril 12 a n d 14 s o m e A lg e ria n a n d S e n e ­ g a le s e tr o o p s , w h ic h h a d c o m e to o la t e to h e l p in O d e s s a , w e re m o v e d to

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T r o u s s o n . 102 H o w e v e r , t h e s i t u a t i o n in t h e C r i m e a w as s till n o t g o o d . T h e C r i m e a n g o v e r n m e n t w as in n o p o s i ti o n to d e f e n d its te r r ito r y , a n d its r e l a ti o n s w i t h t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y h a d b e e n c o m p l ic a t e d b y in c i d e n t s c o n n e c t e d w ith V o l u n t e e r e ffo rts to m o b iliz e tr o o p s t h e r e a n d b y D e n i k i n 's a n n o u n c e m e n t t h a t h e m i g h t m o v e h is h e a d q u a r t e r s to t h e C r i m e a a n d t h u s ta k e o v e r c o n tr o l o f i t . 103 R a id s b y g u e r r illa b a n d s , B o ls h e v ik p r o p a g a n d a , a n d t h e F r e n c h re fu s a l to p e r m i t t h e tr a n s f e r o f V o l u n t e e r tr o o p s i n t o t h e C r im e a e a r lie r h a d l e f t t h e e n t i r e p e n i n s u l a in a p r e c a r io u s s t a t e e v e n b e f o r e t h e fa ll o f O d e s s a .104 A n d t h e F r e n c h w ith d r a w a l fr o m t h e U k r a in e h a d in t u r n re lie v e d B o ls h e ­ v ik fo rc e s f o r a c o n c e r t e d a tt a c k . W h i l e t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d h a d t a k e n s o m e s te p s t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e C r i m e a n g o v e r n m e n t, t h e e f f o r t w as h a lf - h e a r t e d a n d w as la r g e ly w ip e d o u t b y t h e e m e r g e n c y . O n A p r il 8 t h e g o v e r n m e n t w as m o v e d o u t o f S im f e r o p o l fo r its o w n s a f e ty a n d t h e r e a f t e r , in v ir tu a l e x ile in S e v a s to p o l, lo s t a ll c o n tr o l o v e r e v e n ts . I t c a lle d u p o n

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t o a s s u m e t h e r e s p o n s ib i li ty o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , b u t b y t h e e n d o f M a r c h t h e F r e n c h w e re a p p ly i n g m a r ti a l la w w h e r e v e r t h e i r a u t h o r i t y e x t e n d e d . 105 T h e fo r tre s s o f S e v a s to p o l w as te c h n i c a ll y u n d e r t h e c o n tr o l o f t h e V o l u n t e e r c o m m a n d e r , G e n e r a l S u b b o t i n , b u t , f o llo w in g t h e p a t t e r n o f e v e n ts in O d e s s a , C o l o n e l T r o u s s o n a ls o , o n A p ril 3, s e t u p a d e ­ f e n s e c o m m i t t e e a n d n a m e d h im s e l f m ilita r y g o v e r n o r , m a k in g S u b -

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b o t i n h is a s s is t a n t.106 I n p r a c t ic e th i s s im p ly m e a n t t h a t T r o u s s o n to o k o v e r c o m m a n d , s in c e t h e d e f e n s e c o m m i t t e e w as n e v e r a b le to ta k e a n y a c ti o n o r e v e n t o a g re e o n a p la n f o r t h e d e f e n s e o f t h e c ity . A b o u t a ll t h e c r e a t io n o f t h e c o m m i t t e e a c c o m p lis h e d w as t o b r i n g to a h e a d a d is p u te b e tw e e n T r o u s s o n a n d S u b b o t i n as t o w h a t m e a s ­ u re s w e re n e c e s s a ry . T r o u s s o n in s is te d t h a t n o e x te n s iv e e f f o r t n e e d b e p u t i n t o c o n s t r u c t i n g a g r o u n d d e f e n s e o n t h e n o r t h s id e o f t h e c ity , s in c e n a v a l g u n s c o u ld c o v e r t h a t a p p r o a c h . S u b b o t i n d is a g r e e d , b u t h is o b je c t io n s w e re o v e r r u le d .107 B e n e a th th is d is a g r e e m e n t o v e r s tr a te g y , h o w e v e r , t h e r e la y a m u c h m o r e s e rio u s d is p u te o v e r t h e v e ry p r e s e n c e o f V o l u n t e e r tr o o p s in S e v a s to p o l. C o lo n e l T r o u s s o n a c c u s e d t h e V o l u n t e e r s o f b e i n g p l u n ­ d e re r s a n d c o n s id e r e d t h e m m o r e o f a h i n d r a n c e t h a n a h e l p t o h is ta s k o f d e f e n d i n g t h e c ity . E v e n t h e S e v a s to p o l c ity tr e a s u r y , h e c la im e d , h a d b e e n r o b b e d a n d t h e m o n e y p u t o n V o l u n t e e r s h ip s . A c c o r d in g ly h e o r d e r e d t h a t n o s h ip s b e a llo w e d to le a v e t h e h a r b o r w i t h o u t h is p e r m is s io n , t h a t a ll m e m b e r s o f t h e C r i m e a n g o v e r n m e n t b e d e t a i n e d u n t i l t h e m o n e y w as r e t u r n e d , a n d t h a t n o V o l u n t e e r s o ld ie r b e p e r m i t t e d t o le a v e w ith a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n h is p e r s o n a l b a g g a g e .108 T h e is su e h e r e w as re a lly w h o h a d a u t h o r i t y to ta k e r e s p o n s ib i li ty fo r t h e a c ts o f t h e C r im e a n g o v e r n m e n t. A f t e r t h e d e c la r a ti o n o f a s t a t e o f sie g e in S e v a s to p o l o n A p r il 10, T r o u s s o n c la i m e d s u c h p o w ­ e rs. H o w e v e r, S u b b o t i n a s s e r te d t h a t t h e a u t h o r i t y h a d d e v o lv e d o n h i m a f t e r t h e b r e a k - u p o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d its m o v e t o S e v a s to p o l, a n d h e r e f u s e d t o s u b o r d i n a t e h i m s e l f to T r o u s s o n e x c e p t in p u r e l y m i li ta r y m a t te r s . O n t h e b a sis o f th i s c la im to a u t h o r i t y , S u b b o t i n h a d a lr e a d y m a d e a r r a n g e m e n t s w i t h t h e f in a n c e m i n i s t e r o f t h e C r i ­ m e a n g o v e r n m e n t t o a s s u m e c o n tr o l o v e r t h e s t a t e f u n d s w h ic h h a d b e e n d e p o s i te d in S e v a s to p o l. V o l u n t e e r tr o o p s w e re , i n d e e d , b e i n g p a id o u t o f th e s e fu n d s , a n d f o r s a f e k e e p in g t h e m o n e y h a d b e e n tr a n s f e r r e d fr o m t h e s t a t e b a n k t o a V o l u n t e e r s h i p in t h e h a r b o r . N e v e r th e le s s , C o lo n e l T r o u s s o n r e f u s e d t o c o u n t e n a n c e th i s a r r a n g e ­ m e n t a n d d e c id e d t o e n d i t b y c o n f is c a tin g t h e f u n d s in v o l v e d .109 T h e C r i m e a n g o v e r n m e n t w as t h e n c a u g h t in t h e m i d d l e o f th i s d is p u te , d e s p i te t h e f a c t t h a t i t h a d a b d i c a t e d its p o w e rs a n d

its

r e m a in i n g m e m b e r s h a d a lr e a d y b o a r d e d a s h i p to le a v e t h e C r i m e a . T r o u s s o n r e f u s e d t o a llo w t h e i r s h i p t o d e p a r t a n d o r d e r e d t h e m t o c o m e a s h o r e to se e h i m o n th i s m a t t e r . T h e y im m e d i a t e l y i n f o r m e d t h e F r e n c h c o m m a n d e r t h a t a ll t h e f u n d s h a d b e e n a p p r o p r i a t e d

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a c c o r d i n g t o C r i m e a n la w o r h a d b e e n a l l o t t e d to G e n e r a l S u b b o t i n f o r t h e e x p e n s e s o f d e f e n s e a n d e v a c u a t io n . O n l y 5 0 0 ,0 0 0 ru b le s h a d b e e n r e t a i n e d b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t its e lf to c o v e r t h e c o s t o f its o w n d e p a r t u r e . 110 C o l o n e l T r o u s s o n , h o w e v e r , r e t o r t e d t h a t C r i m e a n la w w a s n o lo n g e r v a lid a n d d e c la r e d t h a t h e h a d n o t o n ly o r d e r e d t h e a rre s t o f G e n e ra l S u b b o tin a n d

th e V o lu n te e r nav al c o m m a n d e r,

A d m ir a l S a b lin , b u t w o u ld d o t h e s a m e t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t if i t d id n o t t u r n o v e r t h e m o n e y b y e le v e n o ’c lo c k t h e f o llo w in g m o r n in g . T h e s t a r t l e d C r i m e a n m i n is te r s t h u s f o u n d th e m s e lv e s u n d e r a k i n d o f h o u s e a r r e s t a n d f a c e d w ith a d e m a n d t h a t s o m e 11 m i ll io n r u b le s , f o r w h ic h th e y w e re b e in g h e l d r e s p o n s ib le , b e t u r n e d o v e r to t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d a t o n c e . A n a t t e m p t to p r o t e s t th i s s i tu a t i o n to t h e r a n k i n g F r e n c h n a v a l o ffic e r, A d m ir a l A m e t, w as r e je c te d , a n d t h e g o v e r n m e n t t h e n b e g a n h a s tily g a th e r in g a ll t h e tr e a s u r y a n d b a n k re c o r d s i t c o u ld f in d to s h o w w h e r e t h e f u n d s h a d g o n e . T h e s e re c o r d s w e re p r e s e n t e d to T r o u s s o n t h e n e x t m o r n in g , b u t h e s till r e f u s e d to re le a s e t h e g o v e r n m e n t u n t i l t h e m o n e y its e lf w as f o u n d . I n v ie w o f th i s t h e g o v e r n m e n t d e c id e d t h a t t h e o n ly w a y o u t w as to sig n o v e r a ll f u n d s , w h e r e v e r a n d w h a te v e r th e y m i g h t b e , t o t h e F r e n c h C o m ­ m a n d . C o n s e q u e n t l y a d o c u m e n t w as d r a w n u p o n A p ril 12 g iv in g C o l o n e l T r o u s s o n c o n tr o l o v e r a ll a ss e ts o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t, t h e o n ly c o n d i t i o n b e in g t h a t a n y s u r p lu s l e f t a f t e r t h e e v a c u a tio n b e r e t u r n e d t o R u s s ia n a u t h o r i t i e s . 111 W ith

th i s

d o c u m e n t as a u t h o r i z a t i o n ,

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o r d e r e d F r e n c h tr o o p s t o b o a r d t h e V o l u n t e e r s h i p o n w h ic h t h e m o n e y w as b e in g h e ld , a n d t h e f u n d s w e re f o r c ib ly s e iz e d . T h e C r i ­ m e a n m i n i s t e r o f f in a n c e , fo r h is p a r t , c o ll e c te d a ll t h e m o n e y h e c o u ld f in d e ls e w h e r e ( m o s tl y s h o r t t e r m n o t e s ) a n d t u r n e d i t o v e r to t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d a ls o . F in a lly , o n A p ril 28, t h e g o v e r n m e n t w as a llo w e d to le a v e . T h e p r o t e s ts o f t h e V o l u n t e e r C o m m a n d o v e r th is a c t i o n w e re ig n o r e d . O n A p ril 12, t h e d a y t h e C r im e a n g o v e r n m e n t h a d c a p i t u l a t e d to h is d e m a n d s , T r o u s s o n h a d o r d e r e d a ll V o l u n t e e r s to le a v e S e v a s to p o l a n d m o v e to t h e K e rc h p e n in s u la , w h ic h th e y w e re t o l d to h o l d a t a ll c o s t .112 T h i s a c ti o n , to g e t h e r w ith a c u r t r e je c ­ t i o n o f a n o ff e r f r o m D e n i k i n to s e n d m o r e tr o o p s , h a d p u t a d e c is iv e e n d t o V o l u n t e e r a u t h o r i t y in S e v a s to p o l e v e n b e f o r e t h e C r im e a n g o v e r n m e n t h a d b e e n s e n t o n its w a y .113 W h i l e th e s e e v e n ts h a d b e e n ta k i n g p la c e , T r o u s s o n h a d o r d e r e d F r e n c h s h ip s t o ta k e s t a ti o n s f o r t h e d e f e n s e w h ic h h e h a d p la n n e d . H o w e v e r , h is s tr a te g y o f u s in g t h e n a v a l g u n s fe ll t h r o u g h w h e n t h e

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b a t t l e s h i p M i r a b e a u p r o m p t l y ra n a g r o u n d a n d m a d e i t im p o s s ib le t o g e t t h e s h ip s i n t o p o s i t i o n .114 I n th i s s i t u a t i o n T r o u s s o n c o n c l u d e d t h a t i t w o u ld b e f o o lis h t o f ig h t, a n d so h e d e c id e d t o n e g o t i a t e a tr u c e w ith t h e B o ls h e v ik s , sp e c ific a lly w ith t h e s o v ie t a lr e a d y e s t a b ­ lis h e d in t h e c ity , so as t o p e r m i t a m o r e o r d e r ly e v a c u a t io n as s o o n as t h e M i r a b e a u c o u ld b e re f lo a te d . U n d e r th i s t r u c e , w h ic h la s te d u n t i l t h e e n d o f A p ril, R e d tr o o p s b i d e d t h e i r t i m e o u t s i d e S e v a s to p o l w h ile t h e s o v ie t p r e p a r e d to a s s u m e c o n tr o l in s id e t h e c ity . T h e m i l i ­ ta r y r e v o lu tio n a r y c o m m i t t e e o f t h e s o v ie t a c tu a lly h e l d p o w e r a f t e r A p ril 19 w h e n t h e c ity d u m a c o n c e d e d d e f e a t , b u t t h e fu ll e v a c u a ­ t i o n o f t h e c ity w as n o t c o m p l e te d u n t i l A p r il 3 0 .115 S o e n d e d t h e F r e n c h o c c u p a t io n o f S e v a s to p o l a n d o f t h e C r im e a . O n c e a g a in a b r e a k w i t h t h e V o l u n t e e r C o m m a n d h a d b e e n b r o u g h t a b o u t o v e r t h e d e f e n s e o f a c ity w h ic h w as t h e n s u r r e n d e r e d w i t h o u t a fig h t. T h e e v a c u a tio n o f S e v a s to p o l h a d a v o id e d a la s t - m i n u t e p a n ic , b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e F r e n c h fo r c e h a d n o t o n ly f a ile d t o o ffe r r e s is ta n c e b u t h a d n e g o ti a te d w ith t h e B o ls h e v ik s in s te a d . A s a r e s u lt, r e la tio n s b e tw e e n t h e F r e n c h a n d t h e V o l u n t e e r s w e re , as D e n i k i n p u t it, “ e x tr e m e ly s t r a i n e d .” 116 I n t h e a f t e r m a t h o f th e s e e v a c u a tio n s , t h e c h a rg e s h u r l e d a t t h e F r e n c h f r o m so u r c e s a s s o c ia te d w i t h t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y w e r e so h o s ­ ti le a n d b i t t e r t h a t F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e r e y w as p r o m p t e d t o w r it e to D e n ik in : I t is e x tr e m e ly r e g r e tt a b le t h a t R u s s ia n p u b l i c o p i n i o n c a n b e lie v e t h a t t h e e v a c u a t io n o f O d e s s a b y t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d w as c a r r ie d o u t b y d e s ig n a n d t h a t a l t h o u g h i t h a d s u f f ic ie n t m i l i ­ ta r y m e a n s a t its d is p o s a l, i t in t e n t i o n a l l y f a ile d t o m a k e u s e o f t h e m . Y o u k n o w as w e ll as I d o t h a t t h e re a l c a u s e s o f t h e e v a c u a ­ ti o n o f O d e s s a a re t h e s a m e t h a t h a v e n o w c o m p e l le d u s t o le a v e S e v a s to p o l. T h e e v a c u a t io n o f b o t h o f th e s e c itie s r e s u lte d e x c lu ­ siv e ly fr o m t h e im p o s s ib ility o f s u p p l y in g p r o v is io n s f o r t h e m , in c o n s e q u e n c e o f w h ic h d is o r d e r t h r e a t e n e d t o b r e a k o u t . F r o m a m i li ta r y p o i n t o f v ie w w e d id n o t s u ffe r a n y s o r t o f d e f e a t , a n d if t h e r e h a d b e e n n o fe a r o f d o o m i n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n s o f t h e s e tw o c itie s to s ta r v a ti o n , w e w o u ld h a v e r e m a in e d in p o s i t i o n .117 D e n ik in d id n o t d e b a t e th i s p o i n t , b u t h e n o t e d t h a t if t h e F r e n c h h a d b r o u g h t s u f fic ie n t fo rc e s t o o c c u p y t h e a re a , as h e h a d u r g e d , i n s te a d o f n e g o ti a ti n g w i t h t h e D i r e c t o r a t e , d e f e n s e a n d s u p p l y w o u ld h a v e b e e n p o s s ib le . T h e F r e n c h , h e d e c la r e d , w e re t h e r e f o r e p r o p e r ly

TH E FREN CH AND TH E VOLUNTEERS IN ODESSA

139

a c c u s e d o f b a c k in g d o w n o n t h e i r p r o m is e s a n d o f ta k i n g a h o s t il e a t t i t u d e to w a r d t h e V o l u n t e e r s w h ic h s e r io u s ly h a m p e r e d h is e ffo rts t o e s t a b li s h u n i t y o f c o m m a n d a n d to i m p l e m e n t e ff e c tiv e p o litic a l a n d e c o n o m i c as w e ll as m i li ta r y p o lic ie s .118 W h i l e D e n i k i n ’s a r g u ­ m e n t in h is o w n d e f e n s e b e tr a y e d a c e r t a in b li n d n e s s t o V o l u n t e e r f a u l ts in r e l a ti o n s w ith t h e F r e n c h a n d t o t h e l i m i t a t i o n s im p o s e d o n t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d , t h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t t h e tr o u b le s e x p e r ie n c e d in O d e s s a c o n t r i b u t e d s u b s ta n ti a ll y to t h e fa ilu r e o f t h e in t e r v e n t i o n a n d , in t u r n , o f t h e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik e ff o rt. T h e s t r a i n e d r e l a ti o n s b e tw e e n t h e V o l u n t e e r s a n d t h e F r e n c h w e re , in d e e d , to p e r s is t lo n g a f t e r t h e F r e n c h e v a c u a t io n o f S o u t h R u s s ia . A n d , as F r e i d e n b e r g h a d h i n t e d , th i s s i t u a t i o n h a d in t u r n p u t a s e r i­ o u s b u r d e n o n in te r - A llie d r e la tio n s . F r e n c h tr o u b le s in O d e s s a a n d c o n s i d e r a b l e c r itic is m f r o m B r it is h c irc le s o f t h e p o lic ie s a d o p t e d to d e a l w i t h t h o s e t r o u b le s h a d s u g g e s te d t h e n e e d f o r n e w in te r - A llie d c o n s u l t a t i o n s . I n d e e d , e v e n n o w A llie d p o lic y s till la c k e d t h e fu ll b e n e f i t o f j o i n t p l a n n i n g a n d c o o r d i n a t i o n .119 O n A p r il 4 a n A n g lo - F r e n c h c o n f e r e n c e h a d , th e r e f o r e , b e e n c a lle d in P a ris to d is c u s s , a m o n g o t h e r th i n g s , t h e o p e r a t io n o f t h e z o n e a g r e e m e n t in S o u t h R u s s ia a n d t h e p r o b l e m o f F r e n c h r e la tio n s w ith D e n i k i n . T h i s c o n f e r e n c e t h e n p r o d u c e d a p r o t o c o l w h ic h , as a s u p ­ p l e m e n t t o t h e D e c e m b e r 1 917 a g r e e m e n t, w as e x p e c te d to h e l p in a v o id in g f u r t h e r c o n f lic t. I t h a d a c u r io u s a ir o f u n r e a l it y a b o u t it, s in c e i t ig n o r e d t h e e v a c u a t io n o f O d e s s a t h e n ta k i n g p la c e a n d w as c o u c h e d in te r m s o f a c o m p r o m i s e o f F r e i d e n b e r g ’s e a r lie r p la n s , b u t its m a i n p u r p o s e w as to s t a t e t h e F r e n c h d e s ire to w o rk c o o p e r a tiv e ly w i t h D e n i k i n a n d t o s u g g e s t t h e te r m s u n d e r w h ic h t h a t c o u ld b e a c h ie v e d . T h u s t h e F r e n c h a g r e e d w ith t h e B r itis h t h a t : 1. T h e F r e n c h D e n i k i n a n d h is ti n g e n t s o n t h e p la c e d u n d e r t h e

H ig h C o m m a n d w ill n o t i n t e r f e r e w ith G e n e r a l r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s in t h e f o r m a ti o n o f R u s s ia n c o n ­ c o n d i t i o n t h a t n o d is o r d e r fo llo w s in t h e z o n e a u th o rity o f th e F re n c h C o m m a n d ;

2. C o m m a n d o f R u s s ia n u n it s f o r m e d in t h e fie ld w ill b e a s­ s u m e d b y R u s s ia n o fficers b e lo n g i n g p r e f e r a b ly to t h e A r m y o f D e n i k i n o r t o o t h e r o r g a n i z a ti o n s in t h e c a se w h e r e u n it s m o t iv a t e d b y a d e s ire to f ig h t t h e B o ls h e v ik s d o n o t a g re e to s e rv e in D e n i k i n ’s A rm y ; I t is a g r e e d t h a t th e s e f o r m a ti o n s w ill b e c o m p o s e d o f R u s s ia n s o n ly , a n d w ill n o t i n c l u d e A llie d a n d F r e n c h tr o o p s , b u t th e y w ill b e p r o v i d e d w i t h A llie d in s tr u c t o r s a n d t e c h n i c a l a d v is o rs ;

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3. R u s s ia n tr o o p s in t h e F r e n c h z o n e w h ic h h a v e r e c o g n i z e d t h e a u th o rity o f D e n ik in c a n , b y jo in t a g re e m e n t b e tw e e n G e n e ra l D e n i k i n a n d t h e F r e n c h H i g h C o m m a n d , b e u s e d b y t h e f o r m e r in h is t h e a t e r o f o p e r a t io n s o r c a n b e p u t a t t h e d is p o s a l o f t h e l a t t e r ; 4. G e n e r a l D e n i k i n a n d t h e F r e n c h H i g h C o m m a n d a r e t o c o m e to a n a g r e e m e n t o n t h e q u e s t i o n o f R u s s ia n m a t e r i a l lo c a t e d in t h e z o n e o f F r e n c h o p e r a t io n s , to b e u s e d f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n o f R u s s i a n fo rc e s in t h e t e r r it o r y o f t h e z o n e in q u e s t i o n o r t o b e p u t a t t h e d is p o s a l o f G e n e r a l D e n ik in . T h e l a t t e r w ill n o t in t e r f e r e w i t h t h e tr a n s f e r o f s u r p lu s m a t e r i a l in h is z o n e to t h e F r e n c h z o n e ; 5. G e n e r a l D e n i k i n a n d t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d w ill w o r k t o ­ g e t h e r in t h e c o u rs e o f t h e i r o p e r a t io n s a n d in t h e i r m u t u a l n e e d s t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r m e d ia r y o f s p e c ia l m is s io n s c h a r g e d w i t h lia is o n se rv ic e . . . .120 T h e p ro to c o l fu r th e r p ro v id e d fo r a s e ttle m e n t o f th e d is p u te o v e r t h e p o s s e s s io n o f R u s s ia n t r a n s p o r t s h ip s s e iz e d b y t h e F r e n c h d u r i n g t h e o c c u p a t io n o f O d e s s a . T h e F r e n c h a g r e e d t h a t t h e s e s h ip s w o u ld b e r e t u r n e d a n d a ls o s t a t e d t h a t R u s s ia n m i li ta r y s h ip s u n d e r D e n i ­ k in 's c o m m a n d w o u ld b e a u t h o r i z e d “ to n a v ig a te u n d e r t h e R u s s i a n fla g " a n d t h a t t h e r e w o u ld b e n o f u r t h e r i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h c h a r t e r e d s h i p p in g o n t h e B la c k S ea. A c u ta lly , h o w e v e r , t h e f u r t h e r n e e d s o f t h e e v a c u a tio n h a d le d to a s e iz u r e o f e v e n m o r e s h ip s b y t h e F r e n c h a n d to n e w p r o t e s ts fr o m t h e V o l u n t e e r s b e f o r e a n y t h i n g w as d o n e a b o u t i m p l e m e n t i n g th i s a g r e e m e n t. C o m p l i a n c e w i t h D e n i k i n ’s r e ­ q u e s t to h a v e t h e s h ip s r e t u r n e d c a m e o n ly a f t e r l e n g t h y a n d r a t h e r t r o u b le s o m e n e g o ti a ti o n s b e t w e e n F r e n c h a n d V o l u n t e e r r e p r e s e n t a ­ tiv e s d u r i n g t h e s u m m e r a n d a u t u m n o f 1 9 1 9 .121 I n t h e A p ril p r o t o c o l t h e F r e n c h u n q u e s t i o n a b l y in d i c a t e d a w ill­ in g n e s s to c o m p r o m i s e w ith D e n ik in . T h e y h a d a c k n o w le d g e d t h a t D e n i k i n ’s a u t h o r i t y w as t h e o n ly o n e l e f t in t h e i r z o n e w i t h w h ic h t o d e a l o n m a j o r q u e s t io n s , a n d th e y h a d a g r e e d n o t t o i n t e r f e r e . B u t th e y h a d d o n e th e s e th i n g s , D e n i k i n n o t e d , “ o n c o n d i t i o n ’’ a n d in a t o n e o f g r a n t i n g p e r m is s io n a n d “ a u t h o r i z i n g ." F u r t h e r m o r e t h e y s p e ­ c ific a lly r e t a in e d t h e r i g h t to e x e rc is e in f lu e n c e o v e r tr o o p s in t h e i r z o n e “ w h o re f u s e t o s u b m i t t o G e n e r a l D e n i k i n ’s a u t h o r i t y ," a n d p r o m is e d to t u r n o v e r R u s s ia n m a te r ia ls o n ly a f t e r a n a g r e e m e n t o f u n s p e c if ie d te r m s h a d b e e n m a d e w i t h D e n i k i n . “ M u t u a l " n e e d s w e r e s tre s s e d , a n d t h e c la u s e r e f e r r in g to tr a n s f e r o f “ s u r p lu s " m a t e r i a l to t h e F r e n c h h i n t e d o p e n ly t h a t t h e y i n t e n d e d t o s e e k c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r w h a te v e r th e y m i g h t g iv e to D e n ik in . I t w as in f a c t in t h e s u b s e -

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q u e n t n e g o ti a ti o n s c o n c e r n i n g r e t u r n o f R u s s ia n s h ip s t h a t t h e F r e n c h f irs t fo r m a lly ra is e d t h e q u e s t i o n o f e c o n o m i c c o n c e s s io n s .122 F r a n c e h a d f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g h e l d R u s s ia r e s p o n s ib le f o r t h e s t a t e d e b t a n d m a d e a c c e p t a n c e o f th i s o b li g a ti o n a c o n d i t i o n f o r a id to a n y g r o u p .123 B e y o n d th i s , m o r e o v e r , t h e F r e n c h F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y h a d a ls o s h o w n as m u c h , if n o t m o r e , i n t e r e s t in n e w e c o n o m i c c o n c e s ­ s io n s . I n a n o t e w r i t t e n d u r i n g A p ril 1 919, fo r e x a m p le , o n e F r e n c h o ffic ia l s t a t e d : T h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t m u s t ta k e in t o c o n s i d e r a t io n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p a y m e n t o f i n t e r e s t o n t h e R u s s ia n s t a t e d e b t h a s n o t b e e n m a d e . I t is t h e r e f o r e o b lig e d to c o n s i d e r a ll t h e n a t u r a l w e a lth o f R u s s ia a t t h e s a m e t i m e as t h e s o u r c e o f r e v e n u e t h a t c a n b e c r e a t e d as a g u a r a n t e e o f r e p a y m e n t f o r t h e c r e d i to r s o f t h e R u s ­ s ia n s t a te , s u c h as ra ilro a d s , m in e s , f o r e s ts , e t c .124 T h e te r m s p r e s e n t e d to t h e U k r a in i a n D i r e c t o r a t e h a d , p e r h a p s , re ­ f le c te d w h a t t h e a p p li c a ti o n o f th i s re a s o n in g m i g h t m e a n in p r a c tic e . D e n i k i n 's p o s i ti o n o n th i s q u e s t i o n w as r e l a te d t o h is c o n c e p t io n o f h i m s e l f as t h e a p p o i n t e d g u a r d i a n o f t h e R u s s ia n l a n d a n d its u n it y b u t n o t o n e a u t h o r i z e d t o b i n d a f u t u r e g o v e r n m e n t. A n y e c o n o m i c c o n c e s s io n s , h e b e lie v e d , w o u ld h a v e to c o m e f r o m a n a ti o n a l a s s e m ­ b ly a f t e r t h e w a r. F u r t h e r m o r e , h e r e s e n te d a n y a t t e m p t b y a fo r e ig n p o w e r t o b y p a s s h is a u t h o r i t y a n d d e a l w ith in d i v id u a l g o v e r n m e n ts in S o u t h R u s s ia o n e c o n o m i c q u e s t io n s , as t h e F r e n c h h a d d o n e in t h e U k r a in e a n d t o a le s s e r e x t e n t in t h e D o n . S u c h a t t e m p t s , o f c o u rs e , t h w a r t e d h is e ff o rts t o fo r c e a ll r e g io n a l a u th o r it ie s , o f w h ic h t h e C o s ­ s a c k g o v e r n m e n ts w e re t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d a ls o a t ti m e s t h e m o s t s t u b b o r n , t o a c c e p t c e n tr a li z e d c o n tr o l o v e r e c o n o m i c p o lic y a n d e x ­ t e r n a l r e la tio n s . T o D e n i k i n 's m i n d t h e A llie s s h o u l d n o t h a v e to b e “ b r i b e d ” to liv e u p t o t h e i r m o r a l o b lig a tio n s , a n d b e s id e s t h a t h e in s is t e d t h a t t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y w o u ld n o t “ e v e n te m p o r a r ily b o w t h e k n e e t o t h e f o r e ig n e r o r h a m p e r in a n y w a y t h e fre e c o u rs e o f t h e R u s s i a n s h i p o f s t a t e . ” 125 O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , th i s d id n o t in a n y w a y m e a n t h a t D e n i k i n d id n o t r e c o g n iz e R u s s ia 's p a s t c o m m i t m e n t s o r t h a t h e w as u n w illin g t o n e g o t i a t e t r a d e a g r e e m e n ts . H e d id n o t d e n y t h e fa irn e s s o f a n e x c h a n g e o r o f p a y m e n t fo r t h e a id w h ic h h e re c e iv e d . H o w e v e r , h e f e l t t h a t th i s m a t t e r s h o u l d b e d e a l t w ith o n a n a d h o c b a sis, ta k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e s t a t e o f w a r w h ic h e x is te d in R u s s ia a n d t h e a b s e n c e o f a c e n tr a l a u t h o r i t y c o m p e t e n t to m a k e lo n g - te r m a r r a n g e m e n t s . I n

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A u g u s t D e n ik in t h u s c o n s e n t e d t o a F r e n c h r e q u e s t t o b e g in ta lk s o n a tr a d e a g r e e m e n t as t h e b a sis o f p o s s ib le f u t u r e F r e n c h a i d .126 A s a n o t e f r o m t h e R u s s ia n c h a r g é d 'a ffa ire s in P a ris e x p la i n e d t h e F r e n c h p o s i ti o n : ‘T h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t h a s a g r e e d in p r i n c i p l e to s e n d p r o v is io n s , b u t o n ly in e x c h a n g e fo r o u r w h e a t ." 127 H o w e v e r , t h e ta lk s d id n o t r e s u lt in a n y a c c e p t a b le a r r a n g e m e n t a t th i s s ta g e , a n d M a k la k o v s o o n w ire d f r o m P a ris t h a t t h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t w o u ld n o t s e n d a n y m o r e m ilita r y s u p p lie s b e c a u s e D e n i k i n h a d fa ile d t o p r o m is e d e liv e ry o f s u i ta b l e q u a n t i t i e s o f w h e a t in e x c h a n g e .128 V o l u n t e e r r e la tio n s w i t h t h e F r e n c h t h u s s h o w e d n o re a l im p r o v e ­ m e n t d e s p i te t h e A p ril p r o t o c o l. I n d e e d t h e r e w e re e v e n i n d i c a ti o n s t h a t th e y w e re p e r h a p s g e t t i n g w o rs e d u r i n g t h e s u m m e r o f 19 1 9 . A n A m e r ic a n o b s e r v e r in t h e K u b a n r e p o r t e d in c r e a s in g h o s t i l i t y o n b o t h sid e s a n d t h o u g h t h e d e t e c t e d a F r e n c h “ d i p l o m a t i c o ff e n s iv e " a g a in s t D e n i k i n “ to h a v e h i m

r e p la c e d b y s o m e o n e m o r e F r a n c o p h i l e ." 129

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( w h o h a d e a r l ie r c o m m a n d e d t h e A r k h a n g e ls k e x p e d it io n ) w h ic h h a d s u c c e s s f u lly a p p l i e d p r e s s u r e o n K ra s n o v a n d b r o u g h t a b o u t h is re c o g ­ n i t i o n o f D e n i k i n as c o m m a n d e r - in - c h i e f in J a n u a r y . F o u q u e t , i t is t r u e , h a d j o i n e d th i s e f f o r t, b u t h is m e t h o d s h a d s e r v e d o n ly t o i n t e n ­ sify D e n i k i n ’s f e e lin g t h a t t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d w as s e e k in g p r i m a r ­ ily t o e s t a b li s h its o w n in f lu e n c e . I n re s p o n s e to D e n i k i n ’s r e q u e s t fo r b a c k in g , F o u q u e t h a d s e n t K ra s n o v a n o t e d e m a n d i n g h is s u b o r d i n a ­ t i o n n o t o n ly t o t h e V o l u n t e e r C o m m a n d b u t a ls o to t h e A llie d C o m m a n d u n d e r F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e re y . M o r e o v e r , t h e F r e n c h c a p ta in h a d c h o s e n t o u s e th i s s a m e o c c a s io n t o d e m a n d t h a t t h e D o n a s s u m e r e s p o n s ib i li ty fo r its s h a r e o f a ll lo sse s b y F r e n c h c itiz e n s c a u s e d b y t h e r e v o l u t i o n .133 I n c o n t r a s t t o th i s , s h o r tly a f t e r a rr iv in g in E k a te r in o d a r , P o o le h a d a s k e d D e n i k i n b l u n t l y w h e t h e r i t w o u ld b e n e c e s ­ sa ry “ to o v e r t h r o w K r a s n o v ” in o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e h is o p p o s i ti o n t o a s in g le c o m m a n d . D e n i k i n h a d r e p l ie d t h a t h e o n ly w a n t e d P o o le t o u s e h is in f lu e n c e to c h a n g e K r a s n o v ’s a t t i t u d e , a n d P o o le h a d t h e n a rra n g e d

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w h ic h h a d fin a lly le d to t h e a c c o r d f o r m a liz e d o n J a n u a r y 8, 1 9 19, g iv in g D e n i k i n t h e c o m m a n d o v e r a ll fo rc e s in S o u t h R u s s ia . T h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f a u n i t y o f c o m m a n d w as t h u s a t t r i b u t e d b y D e n ik in la r g e ly t o B r it is h r a t h e r t h a n F r e n c h s u p p o r t , a l t h o u g h th i s c o n c lu ­ s io n r e f le c te d t h e u n e q u a l in f lu e n c e o f t h e tw o m is s io n s m o r e t h a n i t r e f le c te d t h e f a c t s .134 I n F e b r u a r y B r it is h in f lu e n c e h a d g r o w n e v e n m o r e as a r e s u lt o f t h e a rr iv a l o f t h e n e w B r itis h m is s io n u n d e r G e n e r a l B rig g s , w h ic h b r o u g h t w i t h i t s e v e ra l s h ip lo a d s o f e q u i p m e n t a n d s u p p lie s fo r t h e V o l u n t e e r s . A l t h o u g h , fo llo w in g t h e re c a ll o f F o u q u e t , t h e F r e n c h s e n t a m is s io n o f h i g h e r r a n k u n d e r L t. C o lo n e l C o r b e il , G e n e r a l B rig g s ’ s t a t u s w as f u r t h e r e le v a te d o v e r t h a t o f h is F r e n c h c o u n t e r p a r t b y a r r a n g e m e n t s p e r m i t t i n g h i m t o d e a l d ir e c tl y w i t h t h e B r it is h W a r O ffic e r a t h e r t h a n b e in g s u b o r d i n a t e d

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C o n s t a n t i n o p l e . M o r e o v e r , B rig g s s u b s e q u e n tly s h o w e d a s p e c ia l c o n ­ c e r n fo r t h e s e t b a c k s u f fe re d b y t h e V o l u n t e e r s in O d e s s a a n d t h e C r im e a . I t w as in p a r t b e c a u s e o f t h e s t r a i n e d r e la tio n s b e tw e e n t h e V o l u n t e e r s a n d t h e F r e n c h , a n d p a r t ic u l a r ly b e c a u s e o f t h e c r itic is m a t t h a t t i m e o f t h e V o l u n t e e r s as r e a c t io n a r y a n d G e r m a n o p h i l e , t h a t B rig g s u r g e d D e n i k i n in A p r il t o is su e a s t a t e m e n t to c la rify h is p o li­ cie s a n d c o u n t e r a c t t h e u n f a v o r a b le im a g e b e in g p r e s e n t e d a b r o a d . I t w as in d i c a ti v e o f t h e in f lu e n c e o f t h e B r it is h m is s io n t h a t D e n ik in , w h o w as i n c l in e d t o e v a d e p o li ti c a l q u e s t io n s a n d ig n o r e a d v ic e to

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g iv e m o r e a t t e n t i o n t o p u b li c r e la tio n s , a c c e p t e d t h e B r it is h s u g g e s ­ t i o n a n d is s u e d o n e o f h is i n f r e q u e n t p o lic y s t a t e m e n t s in t h e f o r m o f a n o t e t o t h e A llie d m is s io n s o n A p r il 23. I n i t h e s e t f o r t h a l i s t o f V o l u n t e e r o b je c tiv e s a lo n g t h e lin e s p r o p o s e d b y B rig g s , i n c l u d i n g e le c tio n o f a n a ti o n a l a s s e m b ly , g u a r a n t e e o f c iv il li b e r t ie s , l a n d r e ­ f o r m , p r o t e c t i o n o f la b o r , a n d d e c e n t r a li z a ti o n o f p o w e r t h r o u g h t h e e x te n s io n o f r e g io n a l a u t o n o m y a n d b r o a d lo c a l s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t .135 T h i s s t a t e m e n t c o u ld b e r e g a r d e d as a n h o n e s t r e a f f ir m a tio n o f D e n i k i n ’s p e r s o n a l g o a ls , b u t t h e s ig n ific a n c e o f its re le a s e a t th i s t i m e w as r e f le c te d in t h e f a c t t h a t i t s a tis f ie d v ir tu a lly n o o n e b u t t h e B r i t ­ is h m is s io n . N e i t h e r lib e r a l n o r c o n s e r v a tiv e e l e m e n t s in t h e V o l u n t e e r le a d e r s h i p a p p r o v e d o f it , a n d D e n i k i n h i m s e l f w o u ld h a v e p r e f e r r e d to s tic k w ith h is “ n o n p r e d e t e r m i n a t i o n ” s t a n d a t th i s p o i n t so as to r e s tr a in t h e e x p re s s io n o f p o li ti c a l d if fe re n c e s w i t h i n V o l u n t e e r ra n k s a n d m a i n t a i n t h e n o n p a r t i s a n a u t h o r i t y o f t h e m i li ta r y d i c t a t o r s h i p . M o r e o v e r , a f t e r t h e e x p e r ie n c e in O d e s s a t h e F r e n c h c o u ld h a r d l y h a v e r e g a r d e d t h e s t a t e m e n t as m u c h m o r e t h a n a p r o p a g a n d a m o v e a im e d p r i n c ip a l ly a t t h e m . T h e e p is o d e o f t h e A p r il p o lic y s t a t e m e n t t h u s o n c e a g a in i l lu s tr a t e d t h e d e lic a c y o f t h e th r e e - w a y r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e V o l u n t e e r s a n d t h e A llie s a n d t h e in c r e a s in g te n d e n c y o f t h e V o l u n t e e r C o m m a n d t o re ly o n t h e B r it is h fo r b o t h a id a n d a d v ic e . T h e t e n s io n e x is tin g a f t e r t h e F r e n c h e v a c u a t io n , a n d t h e a t t i ­ t u d e o f t h e B r itis h F o r e i g n O ffic e to w a r d V o l u n t e e r - F r e n c h r e l a ti o n s , w e re b l u n t l y e x p re s s e d in a l e t t e r f r o m L o r d C u r z o n

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f o r e ig n s e c r e ta r y ) to L o r d B a lf o u r o n J u n e 11: F r e n c h a c tio n s a t O d e s s a a n d in t h e U k r a in e h a v e so e m b i t t e r e d F r e n c h r e la tio n s w ith t h e R u s s ia n s t h a t i t is in c o n c e iv a b le w e s h a ll e v e r b e a b le t o c o -o p e r a te w ith t h e m a g a in in th o s e re g io n s . W e h a v e a lw a y s m a i n t a i n e d t h a t w e c o u ld n o t re g a r d t h e U k r a i n e i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f R u s s ia , a n d t h a t G e n e r a l D e n i k i n ’s G o v e r n m e n t w as t h e o n ly o n e in S o u t h R u s s ia w o r th y o f s u p p o r t . . . . T h e U k r a in e , w h e n i t is r e c o n q u e r e d , s h o u l d p r o p e r ly fa ll w i t h i n G e n e r a l D e n i k i n ’s s p h e r e o f in f lu e n c e , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y u n d e r o u r c o n tr o l, a n d w e s h o u l d m a k e a s t r e n u o u s e n d e a v o u r t o o b t a i n a m o d i f i c a ti o n o f t h e e x is tin g a g r e e m e n t w ith t h e F r e n c h to s e c u r e t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e i r a c tiv itie s in th o s e re g io n s f o r t h w i t h . 130 A p p a r e n tl y , h o w e v e r , C u r z o n f o u n d t h a t t h e F r e n c h w o u l d n o t g iv e u p t h e i r z o n e , re g a r d le s s o f t h e B r it is h “ r i g h t ” t o c o n t r o l D e n i k i n a n d t e r r it o r y u n d e r h is c o m m a n d . I n a n y c a se , h e s o o n d e c i d e d t h a t a f o r m a l m o d i f i c a ti o n o f t h e e x is tin g a g r e e m e n t w o u ld n o t b e n e c e s -

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sa ry . T h e F r e n c h c e r t a in l y h a d n o d e s ire t o i m p e d e t h e s tr u g g le a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s a n d w o u ld h a r d l y i n t e r f e r e to s t o p D e n ik in . T h e r e f o r e , h e r e a s o n e d , t h e B r it is h c o u ld p r o c e e d w i t h o u t t o o m u c h c o n c e r n fo r t h e a n a c h r o n i s t i c a n d re a lly d e f u n c t z o n a l d e m a r c a ti o n . A s h e t h e n w r o te B a lf o u r in J u ly : T o p r o p o s e t h a t t h e U k r a in e s h o u l d n o w b e a p p o i n t e d t o G r e a t B r it a in w o u ld c e r t a in l y in c r e a s e . . . t h e ill f e e lin g s h o w n b y t h e F r e n c h to w a r d s t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y a n d G e n e r a l D e n i k i n p e r s o n ­ a lly . . . . i t d o e s n o t s e e m lik e ly t h a t t h e F r e n c h w ill d is p u te o u r r i g h t to e x e r t a c o n t r o l l i n g in f lu e n c e o v e r D e n i k i n in re g a r d to t h e re g io n s o c c u p ie d b y h is t r o o p s . 137 W h e n D e n i k i n d id , d u r i n g t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 1 9 , b e g in h is m a r c h i n t o t h e U k r a in e , h e r e q u e s t e d t h e B r it is h to h e l p h i m o r g a n iz e a n e w a r m y in t h e C r im e a , a n d t h e y a g re e d . C u r z o n h a d t h e t a c t t o c o n s u l t t h e F r e n c h , h o w e v e r , a n d r e q u e s te d B r it is h r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s in P a ris t o in f o r m t h e Q u a i d ’O r s a y o f D e n i k i n ’s d e s ire a n d s t a t e t h a t “ w h ile w e m a i n t a i n t h e o ld a g r e e m e n t o f D e c e m b e r 2 3 , 1 917, in p r i n c ip l e . . . w e a r e a c c e d i n g t o t h e r e q u e s t in v ie w o f t h e d e s ir a b ility o f g iv ­ in g a ll t h e a s s is ta n c e w e c a n t o D e n i k i n .” 138 T h e F r e n c h c o n s e n t e d b u t , s till c li n g in g to t h e i r z o n e , r e p l ie d t o C u r z o n t h a t th e y re s e rv e d t h e r i g h t t o a c t in t h e z o n e e i t h e r to r e in f o r c e t h e i r m i li ta r y o r o t h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t h e r e o r to e s t a b li s h n e w o r g a n iz a tio n s , e s p e c ia lly in t h e C r i m e a a n d t h e D o n e t s a re a “ w h e r e v e ry c o n s id e r a b le F r e n c h in t e r e s t s r e q u i r e a p p r o p r i a t e p r o t e c t i o n .” 139 F r a n c e , in d e e d , r e t a in e d h e r c o n t a c t s in t h e U k r a in e a n d w o u ld y e t p la y a s ig n if ic a n t ro le in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d ir e c ti o n s o f A llie d p o lic y w h e n t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y ’s o ff e n s iv e in t h e s u m m e r a n d a u t u m n o f 1 9 1 9 b r o u g h t i t i n t o n e w c o n t a c t s w i t h b o t h U k r a in i a n a n d P o lis h o p e r a t io n s .

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B o t h o f t h e A llie d P o w e rs h a d b e g u n t h e i r i n t e r v e n t i o n s in S o u t h R u s s ia to a id t h e s tr u g g le a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s o n ly t o f in d t h e m ­ selv es e n g u lf e d in a c o n f u s in g ta n g l e o f d is p u te s a n d c la im s t o a u t h o r ­ ity . I n d e a lin g w i t h th e s e p r o b l e m s t h e B r it is h w e re n o t m u c h m o r e s u c c e s s fu l t h a n t h e F r e n c h . A c la s h b e t w e e n t h e V o l u n t e e r s a n d t h e G e o r g ia n s o n t h e B la c k S e a c o a s t h a d e r u p t e d ju s t p r i o r to t h e a rr iv a l o f B r itis h tr o o p s in T r a n s c a u c a s ia , a n d c o n tr a r y t o t h e e x p e c t a tio n s o f t h e B r it is h C o m m a n d t h e p r e s e n c e o f A llie d tr o o p s d id n o t s e rv e to e n d t h a t c o n flic t. T h e n o r t h e r n C a u c a s u s r e g io n m i g h t h a v e p r o v i d e d a n a t u r a l b u f f e r b e tw e e n t h e V o l u n t e e r s a n d T r a n s c a u c a s ia , b u t , h a v in g b e e n b lo c k e d to t h e n o r t h e a r lie r b y t h e G e r m a n s , D e n i k i n h a d d e c id e d t o m a k e h is firs t ta s k t h a t o f c le a r in g t h e m o u n t a i n re g io n a n d t h e c o a s ts b e ­ t w e e n t h e K u b a n a n d t h e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n s t a te s . H e h o p e d t o e x p a n d h is b a s e o f o p e r a t io n s , to p r o t e c t h is B la c k S e a o u t l e t s , a n d , if p o s s ib le , t o e s ta b lis h c o n tr o l o v e r t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t o f t h e C a s p ia n S e a so as to c u t o ff t h e h ig h l y s t r a te g i c V o lg a r o u t e u n i t i n g T r a n s c a u c a s ia a n d T u r k e s t a n . F r o m

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w e re v ita l m i li ta r y o b je c tiv e s , a ll n e c e s s a ry to t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a s e c u r e b a s e f o r a la t e r d riv e to t h e n o r t h . 1 T h e fa ilu r e o f B ic h e r a k o v to h o l d o n t o h is n o r t h e r n C a u c a s u s o u t p o s t a n d t h e in v a s io n o f t h e a re a firs t b y t h e T u r k s a n d t h e n b y t h e B o ls h e v ik s h a d m a d e th i s V o l u n t e e r ta s k a ll t h e m o r e im p e r a t iv e . A t t h e s a m e ti m e , h o w e v e r , D e n i k i n ’s o p e r a t io n s h a d a l m o s t i m m e ­ d ia te ly b r o u g h t t h e V o l u n t e e r s i n t o d ir e c t c o n t a c t w ith M e n s h e v ik G e o r g ia . I t w as, in d e e d , ju s t a m o n t h b e f o r e t h e n e w B r it is h la n d i n g s t h a t t h e tw o h a d c la s h e d a n d a p a t t e r n o f h o s t il e r e l a ti o n s h a d b e e n e s t a b li s h e d b e tw e e n

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S e a c o a s t in t h e s u m m e r o f 1918. T h e V o l u n t e e r s , t h e n p u s h i n g t h e B o ls h e v ik s o u t o f t h e s o u t h e r n p o r t i o n o f K u b a n te r r it o r y , h a d i n i ­ tia lly r e g a r d e d th i s a c ti o n fa v o r a b ly . A le k s e e v h a d in f a c t e s t a b li s h e d c o n t a c t w i t h t h e G e o r g ia n c o m m a n d e r , G e n e r a l G . I. M a z n ie v , a n d h a d e x p re s s e d t h e h o p e t h a t a c o o p e r a tiv e r e l a ti o n s h ip m i g h t b e e s t a b ­ l i s h e d b e t w e e n t h e m as ‘ a llie s f ig h tin g f o r t h e s a m e t h i n g / ’2 I n t h e h o p e t h a t m u t u a l l y a d v a n ta g e o u s a r r a n g e m e n t s c o u ld b e w o rk e d o u t, A le k s e e v a n d t h e G e o r g ia n C o m m a n d h a d t h e n a g r e e d t o ca ll a c o n ­ f e r e n c e in E k a t e r i n o d a r t o d is c u s s t h e i r d if fe re n c e s . B e f o r e s u c h a c o n f e r e n c e c o u ld m e e t , h o w e v e r, a m a r k e d c h a n g e h a d c o m e o v e r t h e a t t i t u d e s o f b o t h sid e s. G e o r g ia n tr o o p s h a d b e e n p u s h e d b a c k b y B o ls h e v ik fo rc e s in t h e d ir e c ti o n o f S o c h i, a n d as t h e b a t t l e lin e m o v e d s o u t h w a r d , t h e V o l u n t e e r s h a d a d v a n c e d b e h i n d t h e B o ls h e v ik s a n d o c c u p ie d T u a p s e . V ie w in g th is m o v e m e n t w ith c o n c e r n , t h e G e o r g ia n g o v e r n m e n t h a d re c a lle d G e n e r a l M a z n i e v a n d h a d s e n t a la r g e r fo r c e o f n a ti o n a l g u a r d u n it s u n d e r G e n e r a l K o n ie v to h o l d t h e li n e .3 A lso a t th is t i m e a n ti - G e o r g i a n e le m e n ts a m o n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e S o c h i a n d S u k h u m a re a s h a d b e g u n s e n d i n g re q u e s ts to V o l u n t e e r h e a d q u a r t e r s fo r a s s is ta n c e a n d “ li b e r a t i o n .” 4 I t w as in t h e c o n t e x t o f th e s e e v e n ts t h a t t h e c o n f e r e n c e o f V o l u n ­ t e e r a n d G e o r g ia n r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s h a d o p e n e d in E k a t e r i n o d a r o n S e p ­ t e m b e r 25 . P a r t i c i p a t i n g w e re E . P . G e g e c h k o r i a n d G e n e r a l M a z n ie v f o r G e o r g ia , G e n e r a ls A le k se e v , D e n ik in , R o m a n o v s k ii, D r a g o m ir o v , a n d L u k o m s k ii f o r t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y , a d e le g a tio n h e a d e d b y L . L . B y c h fo r t h e K u b a n , a n d V . V . S h u l ’g in a n d V . A . S te p a n o v as p o l i t ­ ical o b s e r v e r s .5 T h e c o n f e r e n c e h a d b e e n o p e n e d o n a fa irly fr ie n d ly n o t e b y A le k s e e v ’s a s s u ra n c e s t o t h e G e o r g ia n d e le g a tio n t h a t t h e V o l ­ u n t e e r A r m y m a d e “ n o c la im s w h a ts o e v e r ” a g a in s t G e o r g ia ’s i n d e ­ p e n d e n c e a n d r e c o g n iz e d i t “ in fu ll m e a s u r e .” T h i s c o r d ia lity h a d q u ic k ly d is a p p e a r e d , h o w e v e r, w h e n t h e V o l u n t e e r s h a d t h e n v o ic e d t h e i r c o m p l a i n t s a b o u t G e o r g ia n t r e a t m e n t o f R u s s ia n r e s id e n ts a n d a b o u t its d e a lin g s w ith t h e G e r m a n s .6 A c c u s a tio n s le v e le d a g a in s t G e o r g ia in th e s e m a t t e r s h a d im m e d i a te l y p r o v o k e d G e g e c h k o r i’s ire a n d r e s u lte d in a h e a t e d e x c h a n g e b e tw e e n t h e d e le g a tio n s . I t h a d s o o n b e c o m e e v i d e n t in th is d e b a te , h o w e v e r, t h a t t h e is su e o n w h ic h t h e i r r e l a ti o n s u lt i m a t e l y d e p e n d e d w as t h a t o f t h e b o r d e r b e tw e e n G e o r g ia n a n d R u s s ia n te r r ito r y . G e g e c h k o r i w as w illin g to c o n c e d e V o l u n t e e r o c c u p a t i o n o f T u a p s e , b u t h e c a te g o r ic a lly r e f u s e d to a c c e p t t h e V o l u n t e e r c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e h ig h ly m ix e d te r r it o r y s o u t h w a r d fr o m th e r e t o S o c h i, a n d e v e n to G a g r i, w as “ p u r e ly R u s-

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s i a n ” a n d t h a t , t h e r e f o r e , t h e 1905 b o r d e r w as t h e o n ly a c c e p t a b le o n e . T h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y , h e a r g u e d , w as n o t a “ s t a t e ” b u t a m i l i ­ ta r y fo r c e w h o s e ta s k w as to f ig h t t h e B o ls h e v ik s a n d n o t t o s e t b o r ­ d e rs .7 T h e V o lu n te e r s , h o w e v e r, h a d s t u b b o r n l y r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t t h i s a r g u m e n t a n d w o u ld n o t n e g o ti a te f u r t h e r so lo n g as G e o r g ia in s is t e d o n r e t a in i n g t h e S o c h i d i s t r i c t .8 E f f o r ts b y B y c h to m e d i a te b e tw e e n t h e V o l u n t e e r a n d G e o r g ia n d e le g a tio n s h a d c o m e t o n a u g h t sa v e a f u r t h e r d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f K u b a n V o l u n t e e r r e la tio n s .9 T h e c o n f e r e n c e h a d b e e n a c o m p l e t e f a ilu r e , a n d in its a f t e r m a t h in c r e a s in g ly h o s t il e a t t i t u d e s h a d d e v e lo p e d o n b o t h sid e s .10 R e la t io n s b e tw e e n G e o r g ia a n d t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y w e r e t h u s a lr e a d y o ff to a b a d s t a r t w h e n t h e B r itis h a r r iv e d in T r a n s c a u c a s ia . T h e s i tu a t io n in t h e N o r t h C a u c a s u s re g io n r e m a in e d q u i t e f lu id in t h e w i n t e r o f 1 9 1 8 -1 9 1 9 w h e n B r it is h o c c u p a t i o n h a d b e g u n . T h e so -c a lle d M o u n t a i n

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n u m e r o u s e le m e n ts in t h e a re a . R e a l c o n tr o l h a d p a s s e d in t u r n to t h e B o ls h e v ik s , to B ic h e r a k o v a n d h is a llie s , a n d t o t h e T u r k s , a ll in a s h o r t p e r i o d p r e c e d i n g t h e n e w a rr iv a l o f t h e B r itis h . E v e n a f t e r t h e B r itis h o r d e r r e q u i r in g a ll T u r k i s h tr o o p s a n d o ffic e rs t o le a v e t h e a re a , t h e M o u n t a i n g o v e r n m e n t h a d a t t e m p t e d t o r e t a in t h e s e rv ic e s o f s o m e o f t h e r e m a in i n g T u r k i s h tr o o p s b y m e a n s o f a te c h n i c a l c h a n g e o f t h e i r n a ti o n a l s t a t u s .11 H o w e v e r , t h e B r it is h C o m m a n d p r o ­ h i b i t e d s u c h a n a r r a n g e m e n t a n d in D e c e m b e r s e n t a m i li ta r y m is s io n t o S h u r a to se e t h a t t h e e v a c u a t io n o r d e r w as c a r r ie d o u t . T h i s w a s n o t t o b e t h e e n d o f T u r k i s h a c tio n s in th i s a re a , b u t f o r t h e t i m e b e i n g t h e M o u n t a i n re g io n w as l e f t w i t h o u t a n y fo rc e s c a p a b l e o f r u l i n g it. W i t h t h e e x c e p t io n o f a B r itis h d e t a c h m e n t s t a t i o n e d in P e tr o v s k , t h e N o r t h C a u c a s u s p r e s e n t e d a m i li ta r y a n d p o li ti c a l v a c u u m .12 C h e r m o e v , t h e h e a d o f t h e M o u n t a i n g o v e r n m e n t a t th i s t i m e , h a d s o u g h t to fill th i s v a c u u m b y o b t a i n i n g A llie d s u p p o r t fo r h is g o v ­ e r n m e n t . L e a v in g a s e c o n d a r y fig u re , P s h e m a k h o K o ts e v , in c h a r g e , C h e r m o e v a n d h is f o r e ig n m i n is te r , G a i d e r B a m m a to v , a n d h is m i n ­ is te r o f i n t e r n a l a ffa irs, I b r a q b e k G a id a r o v , h a d s e t o u t o n th i s m i s ­ s io n w h ic h w as e v e n tu a lly to c a rry t h e m t o P a ris . C h e r m o e v o b t a i n e d a n a u d ie n c e w i t h G e n e r a l T h o m s o n in B a k u in D e c e m b e r a n d u s e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x p la in t h e p r e v io u s re lia n c e o n t h e T u r k s a n d t h e p r e s e n t n e c e s s ity o f B r itis h a id to p r e v e n t a r e c o n q u e s t o f t h e e n t i r e a re a b y t h e B o ls h e v ik s .13 T h o m s o n 's re p ly w as t h e is s u a n c e o n D e c e m b e r 18 o f a p r o c l a m a t i o n a p p e a l in g t o t h e p e o p le s o f t h e N o r t h C a u c a s u s t o p u t a s id e t h e i r d if fe re n c e s f o r t h e m o m e n t a n d u n i t e

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a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s . A ll d is p u te s , h e d e c la r e d , w o u ld “ b e d e c id e d in t h e f o r t h c o m i n g W o r l d C o n f e r e n c e / ' a n d m e a n w h il e t h e A llie s h a d c o m e as t h e “ e n e m ie s o f B o ls h e v is m ," t o o c c u p y t h e C a u c a s u s so as t o m a i n t a i n o r d e r a n d “ to s e c u r e ju s tic e a n d p e a c e fo r a l l ." 14 T h i s a p p e a l w as c a s t in t h e u s u a l s p i r it o f d e f a c to c o o p e r a t io n w i t h e x is tin g a u t h o r i t i e s , b u t i t o ff e re d n o i m m e d i a t e a s s is ta n c e to t h e a l a r m e d M o u n t a i n g o v e r n m e n t. T h e f a t e o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t w as, i n ­ d e e d , h a n g i n g b y a t h r e a d , f o r its a u t h o r i t y w a s a lr e a d y b e in g c h a l­ l e n g e d b y tw o o u t s i d e fo rc e s s e e k in g t o e s ta b lis h c o n tr o l o v e r t h e N o r t h C a u c a s u s : t h e B o ls h e v ik s a n d t h e V o l u n t e e r s . M o v i n g firs t i n t o t h e T e r e k re g io n , D e n i k i n 's tr o o p s h a d fa irly ra p id ly o v e r w h e lm e d t h e B o ls h e v ik fo r c e t h e r e a n d c le a rly i n t e n d e d to c o n t i n u e th i s li n e o f m a r c h u n t i l t h e w h o le M o u n t a i n a re a w as s e c u r e d .15 T h e T e r e k C o s ­ sa c k s w e re u n i t e d w i t h t h e V o l u n t e e r s w i t h l i t t l e d iffic u lty , t h e o n ly p r o b l e m b e i n g t h e is s u e w h ic h h a d a ls o a f f e c te d D e n i k i n 's r e la tio n s w i t h t h e o t h e r C o s s a c k te r r it o r i e s , n a m e ly , t h e d e g re e o f a u t h o r i t y t o b e v e s t e d in t h e a t a m a n a n d K ru g . A n d t h e s o l u ti o n w as t h e s a m e : a u t o n o m y f o r t h e lo c a l g o v e r n m e n t a c c o m p a n ie d b y r e c o g n i ti o n o f t h e a u th o rity

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q u e s t io n s o f R u s s ia n n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t .16 D e n i k i n 's p o lic y e m p h a s iz e d t h e r e s to r a t io n o f la w a n d o r d e r a n d a u t o n o m y f o r lo c a l a u th o r i t i e s , b u t i t a ls o i n c l u d e d t h e g o a l o f r e u ­ n i t i n g w i t h R u s s ia n o t ju s t t h e T e r e k b u t t h e N o r t h C a u c a s u s a re a in g e n e r a l, a p o lic y c o n c r e t e ly e x p re s s e d in t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f G e n e r a l L ia k h o v as g o v e r n o r - g e n e r a l o f t h e M o u n t a i n re g io n , i n c l u d in g D a g e s ­ t a n . T h e f u ll i m p li c a ti o n o f th is p o lic y w as b r o u g h t h o m e t o t h e M o u n t a i n g o v e r n m e n t w h e n i t s e n t a d e le g a tio n t o n e g o ti a te w i t h th e a p p ro a c h in g V o lu n te e rs . T h i s d e le g a tio n w as i n s t r u c t e d t o in f o r m t h e V o l u n t e e r s t h a t t h e M o u n t a i n R e p u b l i c w o u ld jo in t h e s tr u g g le a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s b u t m u s t in s is t u p o n its in d e p e n d e n c e , a n d t h e e x c lu s io n o f V o l u n ­ t e e r fo rc e s f r o m its te r r it o r y , “ u n t i l t h e fin a l d e c is io n o f th i s q u e s t io n a lo n g w i t h a n a lo g o u s q u e s t io n s c o n c e r n i n g o t h e r n e w s t a t e f o r m a ­ t i o n s in t h e w o r ld c o n f e r e n c e in P a ris , t o w h ic h a s p e c ia l M o u n t a i n G o v e r n m e n t d e le g a tio n h a s b e e n s e n t . " 17 W h e n , a f t e r a r e b u f f in E k a t e r i n o d a r ,18 r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s o f t h e M o u n t a i n g o v e r n m e n t fin a lly s u c ­ c e e d e d in c o n t a c t i n g G e n e r a l L ia k h o v , t h e l a t t e r e x p la in e d t h a t h is a u t h o r i t y c o v e r e d t h e e n t i r e a re a b u t i n d i c a t e d t h a t e a c h o f t h e v a rio u s M o u n t a i n p e o p le s c o u ld f o r m a n a u t o n o m o u s g o v e r n m e n t f o r lo c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . U n d e r t h e G o v e r n o r - G e n e r a l a s p e c ia l lo c a l g o v e r n o r

The Volunteer Army

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o f n a tiv e b i r t h w o u ld b e a p p o i n t e d fo r e a c h re g io n , a n d a d m i n i s t r a ­ t i o n o rg a n s c o u ld b e d e v e lo p e d as e a c h sa w fit w i t h i n th i s fr a m e w o r k . I n s h o r t, t h e M o u n t a i n R e p u b li c as s u c h d id n o t e x is t f o r t h e V o l u n ­ te e r s , a n d t h e c o m p r o m is e o ff e re d b y L ia k h o v w as t h e o n ly c o n c e s s io n w h ic h w o u ld b e m a d e .19 T h e M o u n t a i n R e p u b li c p a r l i a m e n t ( M e d j l i s ) d e b a t e d th i s s i t u a ­ ti o n a t s o m e l e n g t h a f t e r t h e in te r v ie w

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re s o lv e d to s t a n d firm o n its d e m a n d f o r in d e p e n d e n c e u n t i l a d e c is io n b y t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e . I t t h e r e f o r e is s u e d a s t a t e m e n t , d e c la r in g , “ b e f o r e a ll t h e G r e a t P o w e rs a n d all s t a t e f o r m a ti o n s o n t h e te r r i t o r y o f t h e f o r m e r R u s s ia n E m p i r e a n d b e f o r e t h e d e m o c r a c y o f t h e w o r ld , a d e t e r m i n e d p r o t e s t a g a in s t s u c h p r o f o u n d c o e r c io n b y t h e V o l u n ­ te e r A rm y . . . .” 20 T h e p a r l i a m e n t b a c k e d th i s s t a n d w i t h a u t h o r i z a t i o n to t h e g o v e r n m e n t to m o b iliz e a r m e d fo rc e s to d e f e n d t h e te r r i t o r y if t h e V o l u n t e e r s s h o u l d p e r s is t in in v a d in g . S in c e t h e V o l u n t e e r s w e re a t th i s p o i n t e n c o u n t e r i n g r e s is ta n c e fr o m t h e C h e c h e n s , t h e firs t s t e p ta k e n w as t h e d is p a tc h o f a d e t a c h m e n t to a id t h e la t t e r . T h e M o u n t a i n g o v e r n m e n t, h o w e v e r, w as in n o p o s i ti o n to e n f o r c e s u c h b o ld w o rd s . T h e d e t a c h m e n t s e n t t o t h e C h e c h e n s w as n o t w ill­ in g to fig h t, a n d t h e g o v e r n m e n t its e lf w as w id e ly s p l i t o v e r t h e c o u r s e to ta k e . T h e d iv is io n o f o p in i o n w it h i n t h e g o v e r n m e n t b e c a m e e s p e ­ c ia lly a p p a r e n t w h e n , w ith a v ie w to a v o id in g a n y f u r t h e r c o n f lic t, D e n ik in p e r s o n a lly jo u r n e y e d t o G r o z n y in A p ril t o m e e t w i t h M o u n ­ ta i n r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s . A f te r h e a r i n g V o l u n t e e r p o lic y e x p la i n e d o n c e a g a in a t th is c o n f e r e n c e , t h e tw o le a d i n g M o u n t a i n g o v e r n m e n t r e p ­ re s e n ta tiv e s p a r t e d c o m p a n y . O n e , K a p la n o v , w h o w as p r e s i d e n t o f t h e p a r l ia m e n t, t r ie d to ra lly C h e c h e n w a rrio rs a g a in s t t h e V o l u n t e e r s , a n d t h e o th e r , G o ts i n s k ii , s o u g h t s u p p o r t fo r a n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e V o l u n t e e r s .21 W i t h t h e g o v e r n m e n t d iv id e d a n d h e lp le s s , a n d a B o ls h e v ik in v a ­ s io n t h r e a t e n i n g , M o u n t a i n R e p u b li c m i li ta r y le a d e r s (c h ie fly D a g e s ta n is le d b y K h a lilo v ) a c te d o n t h e i r o w n to r e s to r e o r d e r a n d p r e v e n t a B o ls h e v ik ta k e o v e r. I n a b e la t e d a c k n o w le d g m e n t o f t h e s i t u a t i o n th e p a rlia m e n t th e n

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G e n e r a l K h a lilo v t o fo r m a n e w g o v e r n m e n t. W i t h B r it is h a s s is ta n c e f r o m P e tr o v s k , K h a lilo v t h e n s u p p r e s s e d a B o ls h e v ik e f f o r t to se iz e p o w e r a n d w as a s s u re d b y t h e B r itis h c o m m a n d e r in P e tr o v s k t h a t a n a g r e e m e n t w ith D e n i k i n h a d b e e n a r r a n g e d w h ic h w o u ld e x c lu d e V o l u n t e e r o c c u p a t io n o f D a g e s ta n if i t s e p a r a te d fr o m t h e M o u n t a i n R e p u b li c a n d p r o v e d its e lf c a p a b le o f k e e p in g o r d e r a n d o u s t i n g t h e B o ls h e v ik s .22

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F o ll o w i n g th i s a d v ic e , t h e D a g e s ta n s e c tio n o f t h e M o u n t a i n R e ­ p u b l i c p a r l i a m e n t , o n M a y 2 3 , 1919, d e c id e d to s e p a r a te fr o m t h e M o u n t a i n R e p u b l i c “ fo r a n i n d e f in i te t i m e ” to e s t a b li s h a p r o v is io n a l D a g e s ta n g o v e r n m e n t u n d e r G e n e r a l K h a lilo v a n d to a u t h o r iz e t h e l a t t e r to e n t e r a n a g r e e m e n t w ith D e n i k i n a lo n g t h e lin e s s u g g e s te d b y t h e B r i t i s h .23 T h i s d e v e lo p m e n t, h o w e v e r, w as n o t as u n c o m p l ic a t e d as i t w o u ld s e e m . I n t h e firs t p la c e t h e r e m a in s o f t h e M o u n t a i n g o v ­ e r n m e n t , r e f u s in g to a c q u ie s c e in its d e m is e , to o k re f u g e in A z e rb a id z h a n a n d G e o r g ia to c o n t i n u e t h e s tr u g g le .24 A n d , in t h e s e c o n d p la c e , t h e a lle g e d a g r e e m e n t w ith D e n ik in w as n o t y e t a re a lity . T h e r e w as in f a c t a m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g in th i s c a se , o n e o f a lo n g se rie s o f m is ­ u n d e r s t a n d i n g s w h ic h h a d a lr e a d y d e v e lo p e d in D e n ik in 's re la tio n s w ith t h e B r itis h C o m m a n d in T r a n s c a u c a s ia . A s e a rly as D e c e m b e r 1 9 1 8 , D e n ik in h a d g ro w n c o n c e r n e d a b o u t r e p o r ts t h a t G e n e r a l T h o m s o n

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M o u n t a i n e le m e n ts a n d t h a t t h e B r itis h C o m m a n d w as a llo w in g t h e c o n f is c a tio n o f R u s s ia n m i li ta r y s u p p lie s fr o m t h e o ld C a u c a s ia n f r o n t b y A z e r b a id z h a n a n d G e o r g ia .25 T h i s c o n c e r n w as u n d o u b t e d l y i n ­ c r e a s e d d u r i n g J a n u a r y b y V o l u n t e e r in t e ll ig e n c e re p o r ts t h a t t h e B r it is h w e re c o n s t r u c t i n g a h e a v ily f o r tif ie d b a s e a t P e tr o v s k , fr o m w h ic h t h e y a lle g e d ly i n t e n d e d to e x p a n d t h e i r o p e r a t io n s i n t o D a g e s ­ ta n . I t w as e v e n r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e B r itis h m is s io n s e n t to S h u r a w as c o n d u c t i n g a m o b i li z a ti o n o f tr o o p s to b e p la c e d u n d e r t h e B r itis h C o m m a n d in T r a n s c a u c a s ia .26 A t t h e s a m e t i m e V o l u n t e e r r e p r e s e n ta ­ tiv e s in B a k u r e p o r t e d t o E k a t e r i n o d a r t h a t t h e B r itis h m is s io n w as r e c o m m e n d i n g t h e d r a w in g o f a d e m a r c a ti o n li n e f r o m P e tr o v s k o v e r t h e n o r t h e r n b o r d e r o f D a g e s ta n to s e p a r a te t h e a re a o f V o l u n t e e r a c tiv itie s fr o m

t h e “ z o n e o f E n g li s h in f lu e n c e ,” a n d t h a t G e n e r a l

T h o m s o n r e g a r d e d G e n e r a l L ia k h o v ’s a p p o i n t m e n t as “ i n t e r v e n t i o n ” in B r it is h a ffa irs .27 F in a lly , R u s s ia n s u s p ic io n o f B r itis h p o lic y in T r a n s c a u c a s ia w as p r o b a b l y r e i n f o r c e d in F e b r u a r y a n d M a r c h 19 1 9 b y t h e k n o w le d g e t h a t t h e F r e n c h , in i ti a ll y C o lo n e l C h a r d i g n y in T iflis a n d t h e n F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r P ic h o n , w e re c o m p l a in i n g t h a t t h e B r it is h w e re i n t e r v e n i n g , p a r t ic u l a r ly in t h e c a se o f t h e M o u n t a i n a re a , in a m a n n e r w h ic h t e n d e d to e n c o u r a g e s e p a r a ti s t te n d e n c ie s a n d p r o m o t e t h e d i s m e m b e r m e n t o f R u s s ia in c o n t r a d i c t i o n to a g re e d A llie d p o lic y .28 W h i l e th i s is su e w as t h u s b u i l d i n g s t e a m , t h e s im ila r d is p u te o n t h e B la c k S e a s id e a ls o r e a c h e d a n e w c risis. T h e “ n e i t h e r w a r n o r p e a c e ” s t a l e m a t e in w h ic h V o l u n t e e r a n d G e o r g ia n tr o o p s fa c e d e a c h o t h e r ju s t b e lo w T u a p s e h a d a ls o ta k e n a t u r n fo r t h e w o rs e in D e c e m b e r .

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P r o b a b l y b e c a u s e o f t h e o u t b r e a k o f h o s t il it ie s b e tw e e n G e o r g ia a n d A r m e n i a t o t h e s o u t h , G e o r g ia n tr o o p s h a d b e g u n w ith d r a w i n g f r o m t h e T u a p s e - S o c h i a re a . W h e n th is h a p p e n e d , D e n ik in im m e d i a te l y o r d e r e d V o l u n t e e r tr o o p s t o o c c u p y t h e o p e n e d te r r it o r i e s , t h e li n e t h u s b e i n g m o v e d s o u t h w a r d to t h e L o o R iv e r. T h e G e o r g ia n c o m ­ m a n d e r , G e n e r a l K o n ie v , i n d i c a t e d t h a t h e h a d b e e n i n f o r m e d f r o m T if lis t h a t “ in a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e E n g li s h , S o c h i d i s t r i c t is r e c o g ­ n iz e d as n e u t r a l t e r r it o r y . I n

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a r m e d fo rc e s o f a n y k in d , n e i t h e r t h o s e o f a n a r m y n o r th o s e o f a s t a t e , w ill b e p e r m i t t e d i n t o t h e t e r r it o r y o f th i s d i s t r i c t .” 29 B o t h o f th e s e s i tu a t i o n s t h u s p o i n t e d t o p o t e n t i a l l y s e r io u s d is p u te s b e t w e e n t h e V o l u n t e e r s a n d b o t h t h e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n s ta te s a n d t h e B r it is h . D e n i k i n h a d e a rly in J a n u a r y 1 9 1 9 s e n t a h ig h - r a n k in g p e r s o n a l r e p r e s e n ta t iv e t o T r a n s c a u c a s ia t o m a k e c o n t a c t d ir e c tly w i t h t h e B r it is h C o m m a n d a n d c le a r u p a n y m i s u n d e r s ta n d i n g . T h i s r e p r e s e n t­ a tiv e , G e n e r a l I. G . E r d e li , h a d a t firs t e n c o u n t e r e d u n e x p e c t e d d iffi­ c u lt ie s in s e e in g t h e B r it is h g e n e ra ls . T h e A llie d t h e a t r e c o m m a n d e r , G e n e r a l M i l n e , t h e n in T iflis , r e f u s e d t o se e E r d e li o n g r o u n d s t h a t h e w as n o t a n a c c r e d i te d r e p r e s e n ta t iv e a n d t h a t h is ( M i l n e 's ) i n s t r u c ­ t i o n s in c l u d e d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f r e la tio n s o n ly w i t h t h e T r a n s ­ c a u c a s ia n g o v e r n m e n ts b u t n o t w ith V o l u n t e e r r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s .30 A s M i l n e e x p la i n e d t h r e e m o n t h s la t e r , a f t e r a b i t t e r p r o t e s t b y D e n i k i n o v e r t h e s n u b o f h is s p e c ia l e n v o y , t h e l e t t e r o f a c c r e d i ta t io n g iv e n t o E r d e l i b y t h e B r it is h m is s io n in E k a t e r i n o d a r h a d s o m e h o w b e e n o v e r lo o k e d , a n d b e c a u s e o f t h e n u m e r o u s im p o s te r s a f o o t, M i l n e p r e ­ f e r r e d t o a v o id a n y c o n t a c t n o t fu lly c le a r e d in a d v a n c e . M o r e o v e r , h e p o in te d

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r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s in T r a n s c a u c a s ia .31 H o w e v e r , E r d e l i h a d b e e n a b le to se e b o t h t h e B r it is h c o m m a n d e r in T r a n s c a u c a s ia , G e n e r a l W a l k e r , in T iflis , a n d G e n e r a l T h o m s o n in B a k u . T h e t e n o r o f t h e r e la tio n s t h u s e s t a b li s h e d w as c le a rly in d i c a t e d b y w h a t t h e s e tw o t o l d E r d e li fo r re la y t o D e n ik in . W a l k e r h a d m a d e i t c le a r t h a t t h e B r it is h C o m m a n d c o n s i d e r e d i t n e c e s s a ry t o m a i n t a i n t h e s t a tu s q u o u n t i l t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e h a d d e c id e d o u t s t a n d i n g q u e s t io n s a n d t h a t th i s m e a n t s u p p o r t i n g t h e e x is tin g g o v e r n m e n ts a n d b o r d e r s . A s f o r t h e f u t u r e , h e s a id , t h e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n s ta te s m i g h t b e r e u n i t e d t o R u s s ia , o r t h e y m i g h t r e m a in i n d e p e n d e n t , o r t h e y m i g h t f o r m a U n i t e d S ta te s o f T r a n s c a u c a s ia , b u t in a n y c a se th i s w o u ld n o t b e d e t e r m i n e d u n t i l t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e a c te d , a n d

154

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m e a n w h il e n o a g it a ti o n o r f o r c e f u l a c ti o n d e s ig n e d to in f lu e n c e t h e f u t u r e c o u ld b e a llo w e d .32 T h o m s o n h a d b e e n e v e n m o r e b l u n t in h is s t a t e m e n t s . H e i n d i c a t e d t h a t h e n o t o n ly d is a p p r o v e d o f t h e r e c r u i t m e n t o r m o v e m e n t o f V o l ­ u n t e e r tr o o p s in t h e e n t i r e a re a s o u t h o f P e tr o v s k b u t p r o p o s e d to r e m o v e th o s e a lr e a d y th e r e , in c l u d in g s u c h d e t a c h m e n t s in b o t h B a k u (B ic h e r a k o v ’s) a n d P e tr o v s k ( d e t a c h m e n t u n d e r G e n e r a l P r z h e v a l’sk ii, w h o h a d m o v e d t h e r e f r o m B a k u ). A s f o r m i li ta r y s u p p lie s in t h e a re a , s a id T h o m s o n , t h e V o l u n t e e r a u th o r i t i e s m u s t e i t h e r n e g o t i a t e w ith t h e lo c a l g o v e r n m e n ts o r a w a it a d e c is io n b y t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e .33 I n a n e f f o r t to le s s e n t h e B r itis h c o n c e r n t h u s e x p re s s e d w i t h r e g a r d t o V o l u n t e e r i n t e n t i o n s , G e n e r a l E r d e l i h a d m a d e a p o i n t o f a s s u r in g b o t h B r itis h g e n e ra ls t h a t t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y h a d n o a g g re s s iv e i n t e n t i o n s 34 T h i s a s s u ra n c e w as a p p a r e n t l y t h e b a s is o f s u b s e q u e n t B r itis h a s s u ra n c e s t o G e o r g ia a n d t o t h e M o u n t a i n R e p u b l i c g o v e r n ­ m e n t t h a t V o l u n t e e r tr o o p s w o u ld c e a s e o p e r a t io n s o n th e s e f r o n ts a n d m o v e n o f a r t h e r s o u t h . T h e s e a s s u ra n c e s w e re a p p a r e n t l y in t u r n in te rp re te d

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w o u ld b e p r e c l u d e d fr o m o c c u p y in g e i t h e r D a g e s ta n o r S o c h i ( o r a n y te r r it o r y f a r t h e r to t h e s o u t h o n t h e B la c k S ea ) . T h i s , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , w as n o t a t a ll D e n i k i n ’s i n t e n t i o n o r w h a t h e e x p e c t e d t h e B r it is h t o assum e. O n J a n u a r y 22 G e n e r a l P o o le c o n v e y e d to D e n i k i n a n o t e f r o m G e n e r a l W a l k e r , a u t h o r i z e d f r o m C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , s t a t i n g t h a t so lo n g as G e o r g ia n b e h a v io r w as “ s a tis f a c to r y ,” t h e B r itis h C o m m a n d w o u ld s u p p o r t t h e G e o r g ia n g o v e r n m e n t a n d , f u r t h e r , t h a t in v ie w o f t h e d if fic u ltie s w h ic h w o u ld b e p r o v o k e d , V o l u n t e e r tr o o p s m u s t n o t b e m o v e d fa rth e r s o u th (in to S o c h i d is tric t) w ith o u t p rio r c o n s u lta tio n w ith t h e B r itis h C o m m a n d . 35 D e n i k i n w as t h u s c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a n i n t e r d i c t f r o m G e n e r a l W a l k e r to p r o h i b i t w h a t u n t i l th i s p o i n t h a d b e e n in n o w ise o p p o s e d b y t h e B r itis h r e p r e s e n ta t iv e in E k a te r in o d a r , G e n e r a l P o o le . I n fa c t, P o o le h a d a p p a r e n t l y ta k e n D e n i k i n ’s s id e in b o t h th i s q u e s t i o n a n d t h e D a g e s ta n is su e . P o o le m a y h a v e b e e n u n a w a r e o f s u c h a c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e f o r e th i s ti m e , s in c e t h e n o t e o f J a n u a r y 22 w as a p p a r e n t l y t h e firs t te l e g r a m

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th r o u g h d e f in in g B r itis h p o lic y to t h e c o n tr a r y , b u t i t a p p e a r s t h a t h e s till d id n o t u n e q u iv o c a b ly s u p p o r t G e n e r a l W a l k e r ’s p o s i t i o n .30 O n J a n u a r y 2 7 , D e n i k i n r e p l ie d d ir e c tl y to M i l n e t h a t t h e S o c h i d i s t r i c t w as a p a r t o f R u s s ia , h a d n e v e r b e e n p a r t o f G e o r g ia , a n d m u s t b e p la c e d u n d e r R u s s ia n a u t h o r i t y a t o n c e . T h e l a t t e r , h e a d d e d ,

155

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w as e s p e c ia lly n e c e s s a ry in v ie w o f t h e o p p re s s iv e p o lic ie s o f t h e G e o r ­ g ia n s a f t e r t h e i r u n ju s ti f ie d s e iz u r e o f t h e a re a a n d t h e n u m e r o u s a p p e a ls f r o m

t h e p e o p le s o f S o c h i d i s t r i c t f o r V o l u n t e e r s u p p o r t.

G e o r g i a n a n n e x a t i o n o f th i s d is tr i c t, s a id D e n i k i n , w as a n o u tr a g e t o t h e d i g n i ty a n d i n t e r e s t s o f R u s s ia , a n d i t h a d b e e n t h e r e s u lt o f p o lic ie s e n g e n d e r e d e a r lie r b y t h e G e r m a n s w i t h a v ie w to t h e d is ­ m e m b e r m e n t o f R u s s ia . A s c o m m a n d e r o f t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y a n d g u a r d i a n o f R u s s ia n in t e r e s t s , D e n i k i n c o n c lu d e d , h e c o u ld n e i t h e r u n d e r s t a n d n o r a c c e p t B r it is h s u p p o r t f o r s u c h p o lic ie s a n d t h e r e f o r e w o u ld a s k t h a t th i s “ u n j u s t a t t i t u d e to w a r d R u s s ia n i n t e r e s t s ’’ b e r e c o n s id e r e d a n d m o d i f i e d .37 A fe w d a y s l a t e r D e n i k i n in f o r m e d G e n e r a l T h o m s o n t h a t o n c e t h e N o r t h C a u c a s u s a re a w as c le a r e d o f B o ls h e v ik fo rc e s , e a c h o f its r e ­ g io n s w o u ld b e p la c e d u n d e r lo c a l g o v e r n m e n ts u n d e r t h e a u t h o r i t y o f G e n e r a l L ia k h o v , a n d h e th e r e f o r e r e q u e s te d t h a t c o r r e s p o n d in g i n ­ s tru c tio n s

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D a g e s t a n .38 O n t h e s a m e d a y , F e b r u a r y 6 , in r e s p o n s e t o a r e v o l t o f t h e A r m e n i a n p o p u l a t i o n in S o c h i a g a in s t G e o r g ia n ru le , D e n i k i n o r d e r e d t h e V o l u n t e e r s t o m o v e i n t o t h e d i s t r i c t a n d o c c u p y it. F o r c i n g t h e G e o r g ia n s o u t o f t h e e n t i r e d is tr i c t, t h e V o l u n t e e r s t h e n c a m e to a h a l t a t a s till m o r e s o u t h e r l y p o i n t , o n t h e B z y b R iv e r , ta k i n g G e o r ­ g ia n G e n e r a l K o n ie v p r i s o n e r in t h e p ro c e s s .30 V o l u n t e e r o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e S o c h i d i s t r i c t a lm o s t im m e d i a te l y p r o ­ v o k e d a r e b e l li o n o f a n ti - G e o r g i a n e le m e n ts in t h e n e ig h b o r in g S u ­ khum

d is tric t (A b k h a s ia )

to t h e s o u t h , a n d D e n i k i n fire d o ff s till

m o r e te le g r a m s t o t h e B r it is h C o m m a n d c a llin g a t t e n t i o n t o t h e d is ­ o r d e r a n d t h e n e c e s s ity o f p a c if y in g t h e a re a . R a t h e r n o ti c e a b ly ig n o r ­ in g p r e v io u s B r it is h s u g g e s tio n s t h a t V o l u n t e e r tr o o p s n o t c o n t i n u e m o v i n g s o u t h — T u a p s e h a d b e e n t h e o r ig in a l d e m a r c a ti o n li n e p r o ­ p o s e d — D e n i k i n n o w s u g g e s te d t h a t S u k h u m d i s t r i c t s h o u l d b e n e u ­ tr a li z e d u n d e r B r it is h s u p e r v is io n t o a v o id f u r t h e r b lo o d s h e d , t h u s t a k i n g a n e a r l ie r G e o r g ia n s u g g e s tio n f o r S o c h i a n d a p p ly in g i t f a r t h e r s o u t h . 40 T h i s , o f c o u rs e , w a s im m e d i a t e l y p r o t e s t e d b y t h e G e o r g ia n g o v ­ e r n m e n t , w h ic h c a lle d t h e o c c u p a t i o n o f S o c h i “ c r u d e c o e r c io n a n d tr e a c h e r y ” v io l a ti n g w r i t t e n a s s u r a n c e fr o m t h e B r it is h C o m m a n d t h a t t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y w o u ld r e f r a in fr o m h o s t il e a c ti o n a g a in s t G e o r ­ g ia . I n r e s p o n s e t o th i s p r o t e s t , t h e G e o r g ia n g o v e r n m e n t w as q u ic k ly in f o r m e d t h a t t h e B r it is h g o v e r n m e n t h a d “ o r d e r e d G e n e r a l D e n i k i n to w i t h d r a w h is tr o o p s f r o m S o c h i” a n d t h a t a B r it is h o c c u p a t i o n o f

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156

t h e a re a w o u ld b e u n d e r t a k e n t o e s ta b lis h a n e u t r a l z o n e .41 D e n i k i n , h o w e v e r, r e f u s e d to c o m p ly w i t h t h e r e q u e s t t o w ith d r a w , a n d in F e b ­ ru a r y 1 9 1 9 , p e r h a p s b e c a u s e o f h is f a ilu r e to s u p p o r t t h e B r it is h T r a n s ­ c a u c a s ia n C o m m a n d 's p o s i ti o n , G e n e r a l P o o le w a s r e p l a c e d as B r it is h r e p r e s e n ta t iv e t o t h e V o l u n t e e r C o m m a n d b y G e n e r a l B rig g s .42 U n ­ lik e P o o le , B rig g s w as r e p u t e d l y a c lo s e f r ie n d o f G e n e r a l M i l n e , b u t , a ls o u n li k e P o o le , B rig g s w as n o t s u b o r d i n a t e d t o M i l n e b u t r a t h e r d ir e c tly t o t h e W a r O ffic e a n d C h u r c h i l l .43 M e a n w h il e , o n F e b r u a r y 15, G e n e r a l W a l k e r a r r a n g e d a n u r g e n t c o n f e r e n c e w ith G e o r g ia n P r i m e M i n i s t e r N . N . Z h o r d a n ii a , G e o r g ia n F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r E . P . G e g e c h k o r i, a n d t h e c h ie f o f t h e F r e n c h m i l ­ ita r y m is s io n , C o lo n e l C h a r d ig n y , t o a t t e m p t t o re s o lv e t h e c o n f l ic t b e f o r e i t t u r n e d i n t o w a r.44 I n h is o p e n i n g r e m a r k s a t th i s c o n f e r e n c e W a l k e r h o n e s t ly a d m i t t e d

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m o v e m e n t o f V o l u n t e e r tr o o p s a f t e r h is a s s u ra n c e s t o t h e c o n t r a r y t o t h e G e o r g ia n g o v e r n m e n t in J a n u a r y . H e h a d s e n t a m is s io n t o in v e s ­ ti g a te , h e a d d e d , a n d w h ile h e c o u ld n o t a s s ig n a n y b l a m e u n t i l m o r e in f o r m a t i o n w as a v a ila b le , h e d e e p ly r e g r e t t e d t h e s t a t e o f a ffa irs a n d w o u ld d o a ll p o s s ib le to se e t h a t n o r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e r e c e n t e v e n ts o c c u rre d . W a l k e r ’s e f f o r t t o a p p e a s e G e o r g ia n w r a th w a s n o t s u c c e s s f u l, h o w ­ e v e r. T h e G e o r g ia n s , Z h o r d a n ii a in p a r t ic u l a r , a d o p t e d a v e ry b i t t e r a t t i t u d e n o t o n ly to w a r d t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y b u t t o w a r d t h e B r it is h as w e ll. T h r e a t e n i n g t o d riv e t h e V o l u n t e e r s b a c k a t le a s t t o G a g r i, w i t h o r w i t h o u t B r it is h s u p p o r t , Z h o r d a n ii a in s i n u a t e d t h a t W a l k e r h a d b e e n n a iv e to t h i n k t h a t D e n i k i n w o u ld b e d e t e r r e d b y t h e p r o ­ p o s a l o f a n e u t r a l z o n e u n d e r B r it is h g u a r d o r t h a t t h e V o l u n t e e r s w o u ld s t o p n o w in t h e i r d riv e to t h e s o u t h . “ T h e G e n e r a l a p p a r e n t l y d o e s n o t k n o w t h e R u s s ia n s ," Z h o r d a n ii a d e c la r e d , f o r a t t h e le a s t o p p o r t u n i t y D e n i k i n w o u ld d e c e iv e t h e B r it is h a g a in in h is d r iv e t o d e s tr o y G e o r g ia . G e o r g ia , h e a d d e d , h a d b e e n t h e re a l v ic t im b e c a u s e i t h a d t a k e n t h e w o r d o f t h e B r itis h . W a l k e r , n o ti c e a b ly i r r i t a t e d b y th i s a tt a c k , i n f o r m e d t h e P r i m e M in is te r th a t h e h a d n o t b e e n a t th e sc e n e o f th e V o lu n te e r a c tio n to ju d g e it, a n d h e c o u ld n o t in a n y c a se fo r c e o n e s id e o r t h e o t h e r t o ta k e o r d e r s f r o m t h e B r it is h C o m m a n d . H is p u r p o s e w a s t o m e d i a t e a n d h e l p k e e p t h e p e a c e , n o t t o s u p p o r t e i t h e r s id e , b u t , h e a d d e d , if G e o r g ia c h o s e t o r e f u s e th i s m e d i a t i o n , as i t c o u ld , t h e n r e s p o n s i­ b il it y f o r t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s w o u ld b e o n G e o r g ia a n d n o t o n s o m e o n e e lse . Z h o r d a n ii a 's r e t o r t w as t h a t b e f o r e t h e B r it is h a r r iv e d G e o r g ia

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157

w a s p e a c e f u l ly b u i l d i n g a n e w life o f in d e p e n d e n c e , b u t e v e r s in c e t h e i r a rr iv a l G e o r g ia h a d f o u n d it s e l f “ f i g h ti n g a ll t h e t i m e / ' w ith t h e V o l u n t e e r s , t h e A r m e n i a n s , a n d t h e “ T u r k o - T a t a r h o r d e s ." W h e n h is e x a m p le s o f a lle g e d B r it is h m i s h a n d l in g o f s i tu a t io n s w e re p r o t e s t e d b y W a l k e r as u n h e a r d o f, Z h o r d a n ii a c a lle d t h e g e n e r a l “ b a d ly in f o r m e d ." G e g e c h k o r i, f o r tu n a te ly , to o k a r a t h e r le ss p o l e m ­ ic a l a p p r o a c h a n d c a lm e d t h e a t m o s p h e r e w i t h t h e f r a n k a d m is s io n t h a t t h e G e o r g ia n g o v e r n m e n t ’s p r o t e s ts o v e r m a n y in c i d e n t s w e re i n f lu e n c e d b y t h e n e c e s s ity o f t a k i n g a s t a n d w h ic h w o u ld “ p r o v e to t h e p e o p le t h a t t h e w o rk o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f G e o r g ia w as d ir e c te d t o w a r d t h e d e f e n s e o f t h e in t e r e s t s a n d d ig n i ty o f b o t h t h e w h o le p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e r e p u b l ic a n d o f its in d i v id u a l c it iz e n s ." F in a lly , a f t e r n e a r ly t h r e e h o u r s o f th i s k i n d o f d e b a t e t h e q u e s t i o n o f r e s o lv in g t h e S o c h i- S u k h u m q u e s t i o n w as p u t s q u a r e ly to t h e G e o r g ia n s b y W a l k e r w i t h th i s c o m m e n t : G e o r g ia s t a n d s a t t h e c ro s s-ro a d s a n d its w h o le f u t u r e d e p e n d s o n t h e p o lic y o f its le a d e rs . . . . G e o r g ia is g o in g a lo n g t h e r o a d o f in d e^ p e n d e n c e w i t h s u c h p o w e r f u l s u p p o r t as t h a t o f G r e a t B r it a in , a n a I d o n o t t h i n k G e o r g ia w ill r e je c t it. I a m n o t a d ip l o m a t , I a m s i m p l y a s o ld ie r , b u t I r e q u e s t a f r a n k a n s w e r to m e o n th i s q u e s ­ t i o n : w ill G e o r g ia b e a s in c e r e a lly o f E n g la n d ? P r o f e s s in g in re p ly t o b e t h e m o s t d e v o te d s u p p o r t e r a n d a d m i r e r o f t h e E n t e n t e P o w e rs , Z h o r d a n ii a a t t r i b u t e d t h e d if fic u ltie s w i t h t h e B r it is h C o m m a n d t o “ t h e u n r e l ia b l e i n f o r m a t i o n o f its ir r e s p o n s ib le a g e n ts ." H e c a lle d f o r t h e c lo s e s t c o o p e r a t io n in t h e i r f u t u r e e c o n o m i c r e l a ti o n s a n d d e c la r e d t h a t G e o r g ia s o u g h t o n ly to p r e s e r v e its o w n r i g h t f u l b o r d e r s a n d d id n o t s e e k a n y t h i n g n o r t h o f G a g r i.45 L i t t l e m o r e w as a c h ie v e d t o m o d e r a t e t h e G e o r g i a n - V o l u n t e e r f e u d a t th i s p o i n t e x c e p t t h e s t a t i o n i n g o f a s m a ll B r it is h d e t a c h m e n t b e t w e e n t h e m a t t h e B z y b R iv e r .46 A G e o r g ia n r e p r e s e n ta t iv e , a c c r e d ­ i t e d t o t h e K u b a n g o v e r n m e n t w i t h D e n i k i n ’s p e r m is s io n a t t h e e n d o f F e b r u a r y , w a s a s s u r e d t h a t n o m o v e m e n t b e y o n d t h e B z y b w o u ld ta k e p la c e , b u t n o t h i n g m o r e w as d o n e a b o u t a r e s o lu ti o n o f t h e t e r ­ r i to r i a l q u e s t io n s 47 D u r i n g M a r c h t h e a ilin g W a l k e r w as o b lig e d to t u r n o v e r h is p o s t t o G e n e r a l T h o m s o n , b u t b e f o r e le a v in g h e h a d c o n ­ v e y e d a n o t h e r w a r n in g t o D e n i k i n t h a t a c ti o n a g a in s t G e o r g ia w o u ld “ n o t in a n y w a y f a c i li ta t e y o u r o p e r a t io n s a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s , w h ic h is t h e p u r p o s e f o r w h ic h t h e B r it is h G o v e r n m e n t is s u p p ly in g y o u w i t h a r m s a n d m i li ta r y e q u i p m e n t . " 48

158

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M e a n w h il e t h e d e m a r c a ti o n is su e w as lik e w is e b e in g p la y e d o u t o n t h e C a s p ia n s id e . W h e n G e n e r a l B rig g s h a d a r r iv e d in E k a t e r i n o d a r , h e h a d a s s u re d D e n ik in t h a t a s o l u ti o n a c c e p t a b le t o t h e V o l u n t e e r s c o u ld b e w o r k e d o u t in D a g e s ta n if r e s t r a i n t a n d p a t i e n c e w e r e a p ­ p lie d . A s P o o le b e f o r e h im , B rig g s t h u s a s s u m e d t h e V o l u n t e e r s id e o f th i s q u e s t io n , a l t h o u g h p e r h a p s m o r e s k illfu lly .49 D e n i k i n

s till i n ­

t e n d e d to ta k e o v e r D a g e s ta n , b u t h e n o w h a d d e c id e d t o r e p la c e L ia k h o v a n d a g re e d to p o s t p o n e a n y f u r t h e r m o v e m e n t u n t i l t h e s i t u a ­ ti o n c o u ld b e c la r if ie d .50 T o th i s e n d h e a ls o a c c e p t e d B rig g s ' s u g g e s ­ ti o n t h a t all V o l u n t e e r m e s s a g e s a n d r e la tio n s w i t h B r it is h a u t h o r i t i e s b e d ir e c te d th r o u g h h i m

a lo n e .51 T h i s , h o w e v e r , d id

n o t p re v e n t

f u r t h e r m i s u n d e r s ta n d i n g . W h e n D e n i k i n 's c o n f i d e n ti a l p r o m is e to B rig g s to p o s t p o n e a c ti o n in D a g e s ta n w as c o n v e y e d t o t h e B r it is h m is s io n in P e tr o v s k , t h e l a t t e r u s e d i t t o is s u e a p u b li c s t a t e m e n t t h a t , a t B r itis h r e q u e s t, G e n e r a l D e n ik in h a d a g r e e d n o t t o m o v e V o l u n t e e r tr o o p s in t o D a g e s ta n a n d w o u ld re p la c e L ia k h o v .52 A n d , a d d i n g to D e n i k i n 's c h a g r in , a se rie s o f n o te s w as re c e iv e d b y h i m f r o m L o n d o n ( t h r o u g h B rig g s ) in F e b r u a r y a n d M a r c h l e c t u r i n g h i m o n h is r e c e n t b e h a v io r . C a r r y in g o u t in s t r u c t i o n s fr o m t h e W a r O ffic e , B rig g s w a r n e d D e n i ­ k in t h a t if h e c ro s s e d t h e d e m a r c a ti o n li n e to o c c u p y n e w te r r i t o r y in t h e N o r t h C a u c a s u s , t h e B r itis h g o v e r n m e n t m i g h t b e o b li g e d to w i t h h o l d f u r t h e r a id t o t h e V o l u n t e e r s .53 F u r t h e r , B rig g s c o n v e y e d a te le g r a m , id e n t if ie d as c o m i n g fr o m t h e A llie d S u p r e m e C o u n c i l , n o t ­ in g t h e c o n c e r n o f t h e A llie d a n d A s s o c ia te d P o w e rs o v e r t h e u s e o f fo rc e in m a n y p la c e s t o s e iz e t e r r it o r y r a t h e r t h a n re s o lv in g s u c h q u e s ­ ti o n s b y p e a c e f u l m e a n s . A ll th o s e in v o lv e d in s u c h c o n flic ts , s a id t h e te le g r a m , w e re w a r n e d t h a t t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e in its d e c is io n s w o u ld h o l d i t a g a in s t a n y o n e w h o u s e d f o r c e a n d t h e r e f o r e a d v is e d t h a t a ll s u c h q u e s t io n s b e l e f t to t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e “ w i t h f u ll c o n ­ f id e n c e in its i m p a r t i a l i t y ." 54 I n M a r c h t h e B r it is h W a r O ffic e a d d e d t o th i s se rie s a m o r e s p e c ific s t a t e m e n t o f w h a t w as e x p e c t e d

of

D e n ik in . B rig g s w as i n s t r u c t e d to in f o r m h i m t h a t : I n r e s p o n s e to t h e fu ll s y m p a th y w h ic h h a s b e e n e x t e n d e d to h i m in h is e ff o rts to fre e R u s s ia fr o m t h e B o ls h e v ik s , a n d w h ic h is m a n i f e s t e d n o t o n ly in w o rd s b u t in t h e s e n d i n g o f a r m s , s u p p lie s a n d e q u i p m e n t in g r e a t q u a n t i t y t o N o v o ro s s iis k , it is e x p e c t e d fr o m h i m t h a t h e w ill lo y a lly a d h e r e t o t h e g e n e r a l p o lic ie s o f t h e A llie s w ith re g a r d t o t h e s m a ll s ta te s . G r e a t B r it a in d o e s n o t i n t e n d to le a v e its tr o o p s in t h e C a u c a s u s . T h e y w e re s e n t t h e r e t o e n f o r c e

BRITAIN AS A BUFFER

159

t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e a r m is t ic e a n d to m a i n t a i n p e a c e . . . . G e n e r a l D e n i k i n m u s t u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e o f A llie d tr o o p s in T r a n s c a u c a s ia n o w s e c u r e s h i m a g a in s t a t t a c k f r o m t h e r e a r a n d p u t s t h e C a s p ia n S e a in t h e h a n d s o f t h e A llie s. T h e s e fa c ts s h o u l d i n f lu e n c e h i m to c o n c e n t r a t e a ll p o s s ib le e f f o r t a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e ­ v ik s in R u s s ia . T h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e fin a l o r g a n i z a ti o n o f t h e C a u c a ­ su s in a n y c a se c a n n o t b e d e c id e d u n t i l o r d e r h a s b e e n r e s to r e d in R u s s ia , a n d i t w o u ld b e h o o v e D e n i k i n to a v o id a n y a c ti o n w h ic h w o u ld p r e j u d ic e th i s q u e s t io n . T h e r e f o r e h is tr o o p s s h o u l d n o t m o v e in t o D a g e s ta n e x c e p t fo r t h e p u r p o s e o f a c tiv e m i li ta r y o p e r a t io n s a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s , a n d i t is n e c e s s a ry t o r e q u e s t h i m t o r e c o n s id e r s e r io u s ly t h e q u e s t io n o f t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f G e n e r a l L ia k h o v as g o v e r n o r o f th i s re g io n . H is M a j e s ty ’s G o v e r n m e n t lo o k s u p o n th i s a p p o i n t m e n t w ith g r e a t d is p le a s u r e . . . . I t is i m p o r t a n t t h a t G e n e r a l D e n i k i n a v o id a n y a c tiv itie s , m i li ta r y o r o th e r w is e , lik e ly to in c r e a s e t h e e x is tin g fr ic ­ t i o n b e tw e e n h is fo llo w e rs a n d t h e G e o r g ia n s a n d o t h e r C a u c a s ia n s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d e v e ry e f f o r t w ill b e m a d e to h a v e th e s e n a ti o n s m a i n t a i n a n e u t r a l p o s i ti o n . . . . . . . G e n e r a l D e n ik in n o w h a s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y , if h e is s u p p l ie d w ith t h e n e c e s s a ry m i li ta r y m a t e r i a l, to in f lic t jo i n tl y w ith A d m ir a l K o lc h a k a d e c is iv e b lo w a g a in s t B o ls h e v is m , a n d i t w o u ld b e m o s t r e g r e t t a b l e if, b y a llo w in g h is i m p a ti e n c e to ta k e a d ir e c ti o n in a n y m a t t e r n o t a c c e p t a b le to G r e a t B r it a in , h e c o m p e l le d H is M a j e s ty ’s G o v e r n m e n t t o d e n y h im its s u p p o r t a n d to s t o p t h e s h i p m e n t o f s u p p lie s n o w e n r o u t e . 55 D e n i k i n q u ic k ly p o i n t e d o u t to B rig g s t h a t t h e s o -c a lle d d e m a r c a ­ t i o n li n e h a d b e e n

d if f e r e n tly d e f in e d b y d if f e r e n t s o u rc e s . B rig g s

d e s c r ib e d i t as r u n n i n g th r o u g h Z a k a ta ly , p u t t i n g m o s t, if n o t a ll, o f D a g e s ta n o n D e n i k i n ’s s id e , a lt h o u g h , as n o t e d , h e h a d a s k e d fo r a d e la y in o c c u p a t io n . T h e B r itis h T r a n s c a u c a s ia n C o m m a n d , h o w e v e r, c o n t i n u e d to d e f in e i t as r u n n i n g n o r t h o f P e tr o v s k , le a v in g m o s t, if n o t a ll, o f D a g e s ta n o u ts id e D e n i k i n ’s ju r is d i c ti o n . M o r e o v e r , D e n ik in n o t e d , t h e s t r a te g i c i m p o r t a n c e o f D a g e s ta n , as t h e k e y to c o n ta c ts w i t h A llie d e le m e n ts a c ro s s t h e C a s p ia n a n d t h e c e n t e r o f d e f e n s e a g a in s t a t t a c k f r o m A s tr a k h a n , m a d e it im p o s s ib le f o r h i m to a c c e p t t h e B r it is h p o s i ti o n , s in c e it w o u ld n o t re a lly g u a r a n t e e t h e re a r o r a s s u re o r d e r . D e n i k i n ’s s ta ff h e l d lo n g ta lk s o n th is q u e s t io n w ith B rig g s a n d t h e n , in A p r il, w i t h M i ln e , a n d o u t o f th e s e ta lk s t h e V o l ­ u n te e r s g o t t h e im p r e s s io n t h a t b o t h , o n c e th e y u n d e r s t o o d t h e s i tu a ­ t i o n , s y m p a th i z e d w i t h t h e V o l u n t e e r p o i n t o f v ie w .56

The Volunteer Army

160

W h e t h e r th is w e re e n ti r e l y t r u e o r n o t , B rig g s t h e n p u b li c ly w i t h ­ d r e w t h e s t a t e m e n t is s u e d b y t h e B r it is h m is s io n in P e tr o v s k , a n d D e n ik in g a v e o rd e r s t h a t D a g e s ta n w as t o b e o c c u p ie d u p t o t h e l i n e K iz il-B u ru n , Z a k a ta ly , C a u c a s u s ra n g e . T h i s in f a c t le d t o t h e fu ll o c c u p a t io n

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q u ic k ly r e a c h e d b e tw e e n G e n e r a l K h a lilo v a n d t h e V o l u n t e e r fo rc e s c o m m a n d e r , G e n e r a l D r a t s e n k o .57 W i t h o u t a n y r e s is ta n c e t h e V o l ­ u n te e r s m o v e d i n t o P e tr o v s k a n d D e r b e n t , t h e c h ie f c o a s ta l c itie s , o n M a y 21 a n d 2 3 re s p e c tiv e ly . O n J u n e 13, G e n e r a l E r d e li , n o w a p p o in te d

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d e s i g n a te d K h a lilo v as t h e V o l u n t e e r c h o ic e f o r g o v e r n o r .58 W i t h D a g e s ta n th u s u n d e r V o l u n t e e r a u t h o r i t y , D e n i k i n o r d e r e d h is r e p r e s e n ta t iv e in B a k u , G e n e r a l L a z a re v , to in f o r m t h e A z e rb a id z h a n i g o v e r n m e n t a t o n c e t h a t n o h o s t il it ie s a g a in s t its te r r i t o r y w o u ld b e u n d e r t a k e n . L a z a re v w as i n s t r u c t e d t o te ll t h e n e w A z e rb a id z h a n i p r i m e m i n is te r , U s s u b e k o v , t h a t “ w e c o n s i d e r A z e r b a id z h a n a p a r t o f R u s s ia b u t u n t i l t h e r e s to r a t io n o f a s u p r e m e a u t h o r i t y in R u s ­ sia w e s h a ll r e s p e c t t h e i n d e p e n d e n t e x is te n c e o f A z e r b a id z h a n .” A l­ th o u g h L a z a re v , o n h is o w n in iti a ti v e , o m i t t e d t h e firs t h a l f o f th i s s e n t e n c e in h is s t a t e m e n t to

th e

A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v e r n m e n t a n d

in s te a d s u g g e s te d t h e p o s s ib ility o f a f e d e r a ti o n n e g o t i a t e d a m o n g t h e b o r d e r s ta te s as a m e a n s o f f u t u r e r e u n i f ic a tio n , t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v e r n m e n t r e je c te d th i s o ffe r o f a t r u c e a n d i n s te a d s t e p p e d

up

p r e p a r a ti o n f o r its d e f e n s e .59 T h e A z e r b a id z h a n i p r o t e s ts to t h e B r it is h C o m m a n d m a y h a v e b e e n w h a t in s p ir e d a w ire t o D e n i k i n f r o m C h u r c h i l l o n J u n e 11 a d v is in g a g a in s t t h e o c c u p a t io n o f D e r b e n t . I n a n y c a se , five d a y s l a t e r t h e B r itis h m is s io n in P e tr o v s k r e n e w e d t h e p r o p o s a l o f a d e m a r c a t i o n li n e a n d n o w s u g g e s te d t h a t i t s h o u l d b e g in a t a p o i n t five m ile s s o u t h o f P e tr o v s k a n d fo llo w a r o u t e five m ile s s o u t h o f t h e P e tr o v s k - V la d ik a v k a z ra ilr o a d t o t h e G e o r g ia n b o r d e r a n d t h e n c e a lo n g t h a t b o r d e r t o t h e B z y b R iv e r, f o llo w in g t h e r iv e r t o its m o u t h o n t h e B la c k S e a .60 T h e s u g g e s tio n t h a t t h e V o l u n t e e r s p u ll o u t o f s o m e o f t h e te r r i t o r y ju s t o c c u p ie d w as ir r i t a t i n g e n o u g h to D e n i k i n , b u t e v e n m o r e so w as a l a t e r r e p o r t t h a t th i s li n e h a d a c tu a lly b e e n

s e t a f t e r m e e t in g s

b e tw e e n t h e G e o r g ia n g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e B r it is h C o m m a n d w i t h o u t h is h a v in g b e e n in f o r m e d . M o r e o v e r , w h e n t h e in f o r m a t i o n t o th i s e ff e c t w as re c e iv e d b y D e n i k i n , i t c a m e in t h e f o r m o f a n o t e f r o m t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v e r n m e n t , d a t e d J u n e 2 2, w h ic h d e m a n d e d fu lf ill­ m e n t o f t h e B r it is h i n s tr u c t io n s . D e n i k i n ’s im m e d i a t e r e s p o n s e w a s t o

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o r d e r E r d e l i t o ig n o r e t h e p r o p o s a l a n d t o m a k e i t c le a r t h a t h e ( D e n ­ i k i n ) w as t h e “ h i g h e s t a u t h o r i t y ” in th i s re g io n a n d t h e o n ly o n e w h o c o u ld is s u e o r d e r s to h is t r o o p s .61 A c tu a ll y a w h o le s e rie s o f m e e t in g s b e t w e e n t h e B r it is h g e n e ra ls , B e e c h a n d C o r y , a n d G e o r g ia n r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s , i n c l u d in g Z h o r d a n iia , h a d t a k e n p la c e d u r i n g M a y w h ile t h e V o l u n t e e r s w e re o c c u p y in g D a g e s t a n .62 B u t , c o n tr a r y t o D e n i k i n ’s im p r e s s io n , t h e B r itis h g e n e ra ls in v o lv e d in t h e m h a d m a d e a g r e a t e f f o r t to re s o lv e t h e is su e o n D e n i ­ k i n ’s t e r m s a n d in t h e p ro c e s s h a d t o p u t u p w ith a r a t h e r s t u b b o r n a t t i t u d e o n Z h o r d a n i i a ’s p a r t . E a r lie r , d u r i n g A p ril, w i t h

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e s t a b li s h e d a t t h e B z y b a n d D e n i k i n ’s fo rc e s v o lu n t a r i ly p u ll e d b a c k b e y o n d G a g r i t o p r o v i d e a n e u t r a l z o n e u n d e r B r it is h s u p e r v is io n , t h e G e o r g ia n s h a d b o ld l y g a t h e r e d fo rc e s a n d a t t a c k e d a c ro s s t h a t z o n e , m o v i n g u p t o t h e M a k h a d y r R iv e r. I n a n e f f o r t t o a v o id b lo o d s h e d , G e n e r a l M i l n e , w h e n in f o r m e d o f w h a t t h e G e o r g ia n s w e re a b o u t to d o , h a d w ir e d D e n i k i n o n A p r il 16, w a r n in g t h a t “ t h e G e o r g ia n s p r o ­ p o s e to a t t a c k d e s p i te t h e f a c t t h a t th e y w e re a w a re t h a t th i s w ill b e a n a c t h o s t i l e t o [ G r e a t B r i t a i n ] .” H e u r g e d D e n ik in t o p u ll h is m e n b a c k u n t i l h e c o u ld s t o p t h e G e o r g ia n a t t a c k .63 T h e G e o r g ia n s , w h o ju s tif ie d t h e a t t a c k b y r e f e r e n c e s t o B o ls h e v ik p r o p a g a n d a a n d u p r is ­ in g s in t h e S o c h i d i s t r i c t ,64 h a d t h e n c a lle d f o r a s h i f t o f t h e n e u t r a l z o n e n o r t h w a r d to a c c o r d w i t h t h e i r a d v a n c e . E n r a g e d b y th i s a t t a c k — w h ic h th i s t i m e h a d b e e n s p e c ific a lly p r o ­ t e s t e d in a d v a n c e b y t h e B r it is h C o m m a n d — D e n i k i n h a d h e a v ily r e i n f o r c e d h is tr o o p s in t h e S o c h i d i s t r i c t a n d h a d d e c la r e d a n a b s o l u te b lo c k a d e a g a in s t G e o r g ia , w h ic h c lo s e d t h e b o r d e r a n d p r o h i b i t e d a n y t r a d e o r s h i p p i n g b e t w e e n t h e m . B rig g s in f o r m e d D e n ik in t h a t G e n ­ e ra l M i l n e r e g a r d e d t h e G e o r g ia n a c ti o n as a “ d ir e c t v io la tio n o f o r d e r s g iv e n b y B r it is h a u t h o r i t i e s ” a n d a s s u r e d h i m

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fo r c e s w e re b e i n g s e n t t o p r e v e n t a n y f u r t h e r m o v e m e n t o f G e o r g ia n fo rc e s . M e a n w h i l e , B rig g s u r g e d , D e n ik in s h o u l d a v o id a n y c o u n t e r ­ a t t a c k a n d g iv e h i m t i m e t o a r r a n g e n e g o t i a t i o n s .65 B rig g s w as s u b s e q u e n t l y s u p p o r t e d b y G e n e r a l B e e c h , te m p o r a r ily a c t i n g as B r it is h c o m m a n d e r ( a f t e r T h o m s o n ’s d e p a r t u r e a n d b e f o r e h is r e p l a c e m e n t , G e n e r a l C o r y , h a d a r r iv e d ) in e ff o rts t o a r r a n g e a s p e c ia l c o n f e r e n c e t o re s o lv e t h e d e m a r c a ti o n li n e is su e . A t a m e e t i n g w i t h Z h o r d a n ii a o n M a y 2 4 , B e e c h h a d o b t a i n e d G e o r g ia n a g r e e m e n t t o p a r t i c i p a t e in s u c h ta lk s , a l t h o u g h Z h o r d a n ii a , u p o n h e a r i n g t h a t B rig g s w o u ld b e p a r t ic i p a ti n g , h a d b r a n d e d h i m

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s c o ffe d a t a s s u ra n c e s m a d e b y B rig g s t h a t t h e V o l u n t e e r s w o u ld n o t a tt a c k G e o r g ia if t h e B z y b li n e w e re r e s to r e d .0*5 D e s p i t e B e e c h 's w a r n ­ in g t h a t G e o r g ia w as in t h e w r o n g a n d in v i ti n g u n d e s i r a b le c o n s e ­ q u e n c e s , Z h o r d a n ii a h a d p u t h im s e l f fla tly o n r e c o r d as r e f u s in g a n y a g r e e m e n t e x c e p t o n e w h ic h w o u ld k e e p t h e V o l u n t e e r s a t t h e M e k h a d y r a n d p o s t B r itis h tr o o p s b e tw e e n t h e m a n d t h e G e o r g ia n s . I f D e n i k i n r e f u s e d a n d a tt a c k e d , h e a d d e d , h e w o u ld c o n s i d e r it a B r it is h a tt a c k , a n d h e w o u ld a c ti v a te a n a lr e a d y p r e p a r e d p r o p a g a n d a a p p e a l to B r itis h a n d E u r o p e a n p u b li c o p in i o n a g a in s t t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t 's p o lic ie s , w h ic h w e re a lr e a d y u n p o p u l a r .67 B rig g s d id t h e n h o l d tw o m e e t in g s w i t h r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s o f t h e G e o r ­ g ia n g o v e r n m e n t, b u t n o c o m p r o m i s e o r a g r e e m e n t w a s r e a c h e d . H e c o n v e y e d D e n ik in 's in s is te n c e o n t h e B z y b l i n e a n d h is p r o p o s a l fo r n e u tr a li z a ti o n o f S u k h u m d is tr i c t, b u t t h e G e o r g ia n s in s is t e d o n t h e M e k h a d v r li n e a n d b r u s h e d a s id e t h e w a r n in g s o f t h e B r it is h t h a t A llie d tr o o p s w o u ld e v e n tu a lly b e w ith d r a w n , w h ile t h e

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w o u ld r e m a in . G e g e c h k o r i r e m i n d e d t h e B r it is h g e n e r a l t h a t t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e w as s u p p o s e d to d e c id e b r o a d e r q u e s t io n s a n d t h a t t h e B r it is h g o v e r n m e n t h a d a s s u re d G e o r g ia o f its s u p p o r t a t t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e .68 A f te r th e s e f u t il e e ff o rts to m e d i a t e t h e d is p u t e , B rig g s w as in t u r n

r e p la c e d b y G e n e r a l H o l m a n

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m is s io n in E k a t e r i n o d a r .69 T h i s w as t h e b a c k g r o u n d to t h e s t a t e m e n t is s u e d b y t h e B r it is h C o m m a n d to t h e G e o r g ia n a n d A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v e r n m e n ts o n J u n e 11, s t a ti n g t h a t in s t r u c t i o n s fr o m L o n d o n h a d b e e n r e c e iv e d w h ic h d e c la r e d : T h e d e m a r c a ti o n li n e b e tw e e n G e n e r a l D e n i k i n a n d t h e C a u c a ­ s ia n s ta te s m u s t b e t h e f o llo w in g : f r o m t h e m o u t h o f t h e B z y b riv e r n o r t h w a r d a lo n g th is riv e r t o t h e b o r d e r o f S u k h u m d i s t r i c t , t h e n c e e a s tw a r d a lo n g t h e b o r d e r o f K u ta i a n d T iflis p r o v in c e s a n d D a g e s ta n re g io n to a p o i n t five m ile s s o u t h o f t h e P e tr o v s k - V la d ik a v k a z ra ilro a d , a n d f r o m t h e r e to w a r d t h e s o u t h - e a s t p a r a l le l in g t h e r a ilr o a d to a p o i n t o n t h e c o a s t o f t h e C a s p ia n S e a fiv e m ile s s o u t h o f P e tr o v s k .70 G e n e r a l D e n i k i n h a s r e c e iv e d in s t r u c t i o n s t h a t h is t r o o p s s h o u l d n o t c ro ss to t h e s o u t h o f t h e i n d i c a t e d li n e ; th o s e o f t h e T r a n s c a u c a ­ s ia n s t a te s m u s t n o t c ro s s t o t h e n o r t h o f it. I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e f o r e g o in g , G e o r g ia n tr o o p s m u s t w ith d r a w to t h e s o u t h o f t h e B z y b . T h e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n s ta te s m u s t r e f r a in f r o m a n y a g g re s s iv e a c t i o n a g a in s t t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y , c o o p e r a t e w i t h G e n e r a l D e n i k i n in

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t h e d e liv e ry o f o il a n d o t h e r s u p p lie s t o h im , a n d p r o h i b i t a c c e ss to t h e s e s u p p lie s b y t h e B o ls h e v ik s . N o n f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e s e c o n d it io n s b y t h e m w ill e n ta i l t h e c o m p l e te c e s s a tio n o f B r itis h s u p p o r t in t h e f u t u r e a n d w ill m a k e i t im p o s s ib le f o r H is M a j e s ty ’s G o v e r n m e n t t o p r e v e n t G e n e r a l D e n i k i n fr o m c ro s s in g t o t h e s o u t h o f th is l i n e .71 T h i s s t a t e m e n t t h u s s u p p o r t e d D e n i k i n o n t h e B la c k S ea s id e b u t e x c lu d e d p a r t o f D a g e s ta n

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V o l u n t e e r o c c u p a t io n . H o w e v e r,

in J u ly t h e B r itis h p o s i ti o n w as s ig n if ic a n tly m o d if ie d to ta k e in t o a c c o u n t t h e V o l u n t e e r o c c u p a t i o n o f D a g e s ta n . A j o i n t n o t e f r o m t h e W a r a n d F o r e i g n o ffices, d a t e d J u ly 17, w as s e n t to t h e B r itis h m is s io n in E k a t e r i n o d a r in s t r u c t i n g t h a t D e n ik in w as to b e a d v is e d th a t: h is tr o o p s m u s t n o t p e n e t r a t e s o u t h o f t h e f o llo w in g li n e : f r o m ( t h e ) m o u t h o f ( t h e ) B z y b riv e r n o r t h w a r d a lo n g t h a t riv e r to t h e f r o n t i e r o f S u k h u m p r o v in c e , t h e n c e e a s tw a r d s a lo n g ( t h e ) n o r t h ­ e r n f r o n tie r s o f ( t h e ) p r o v in c e s o f S u k h u m , K u ta is , T iflis , t h e n c e s o u th - e a s tw a r d s along the southern boundary o f ( t h e ) p r o v in c e o f D a g e s ta n . . . ,72 T h e B r it is h c o m m a n d e r in B a k u t h e n i n f o r m e d t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v e r n m e n t t h a t t h e d e m a r c a ti o n li n e h a d b e e n m o d if ie d t o in c l u d e D a g e s ta n in D e n i k i n ’s t e r r it o r y . S u b s e q u e n t ly a s t a t e m e n t w as a lso is s u e d to t h e a n t i - V o l u n t e e r e le m e n ts in t h e N o r t h C a u c a s u s b r a n d ­ in g t h e i r o p p o s i ti o n as a B o ls h e v ik -p ro v o k e d m o v e m e n t r a t h e r t h a n a re a l n a t i o n a l m o v e m e n t , a n d e q u a t i n g h o s t il it ie s a g a in s t D e n i k i n to h o s t i l i t y to w a r d t h e A llie d P o w e r s .73 T h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 1 9 t h u s m a r k e d a t le a s t a re la tiv e i m p r o v e m e n t in V o l u n t e e r - B r i t i s h r e la tio n s . O n c e t h e d e m a r c a ti o n li n e is su e w as s e t t l e d t o t h e s a t is f a c ti o n o f t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y , te n s io n w as g r e a tly r e d u c e d , a l t h o u g h n e v e r fu lly e li m i n a te d ; a n d t h e B r itis h , s o o n to e v a c u a te m o s t o f t h e i r fo rc e s , c e a s e d i n t e r v e n i n g to d e f e n d T r a n s c a u ­ c a s ia n in t e r e s t s a g a in s t R u s s ia n in t e r e s t s . T h e y w e re fo r t h e m o m e n t s a tis f ie d t h a t l i t t l e m o r e c o u ld b e d o n e a n d s a tis f ie d t h a t D e n ik in w o u ld r e s p e c t t h e G e o r g ia n - A z e r b a i d z h a n i b o r d e r s a n d c o n c e n t r a t e h is a t t a c k a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s to t h e n o r t h . R e la t io n s b e t w e e n t h e V o l u n t e e r s a n d G e o r g ia a n d A z e r b a id z h a n , h o w e v e r , c o n t i n u e d h o s t il e , a l t h o u g h p a r tia lly s t a b iliz e d b y t h e c o m ­ p l e t i o n o f V o l u n t e e r o p e r a t io n s in t h e N o r t h C a u c a s u s . D u r i n g J u n e A z e r b a id z h a n a n d G e o r g ia c o n c lu d e d a m i li ta r y a llia n c e f o r d e f e n s e

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a g a in s t “ a n y a t t a c k w h ic h t h r e a t e n s t h e in d e p e n d e n c e o r t e r r it o r i a l i n t e g r i t y ” o f e i t h e r . 74 T h e y c le a rly h a d n o t o n ly t h e B o ls h e v ik s b u t a ls o t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y in m i n d a n d i n t e n d e d t o c o n t i n u e s u p p o r t fo r a n t i - V o l u n t e e r e le m e n ts in

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A z e r b a id z h a n , g o in g o v e r t h e h e a d s o f t h e B r itis h C o m m a n d in T iflis th r o u g h t h e i r d e le g a tio n s in P a ris , is s u e d to t h e A llie d P o w e rs o n J u n e 28, 191 9 , a p r o t e s t w h ic h w as jo in e d b y t h e r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s o f E s to n i a , L a tv ia , L it h u a n ia , a n d t h e R e p u b li c o f t h e N o r t h C a u c a s u s . I t d e c la r e d : T h e A llie d a n d A s s o c ia te d P o w e rs h a v e p r o c l a im e d s e v e ra l ti m e s t h a t th e y w e re p u r s u in g in R u s s ia a p o lic y t e n d i n g to w a r d t h e r i g h t o f n a ti o n s to s e l f - d e t e r m in a ti o n . . . . N o w , t h e o c c u p a t io n o f t h e ( N o r t h C a u c a s u s ) R e p u b l i c b y t h e tr o o p s o f G e n e r a l D e n i k i n a n d t h e t h r e a t e n i n g a t t i t u d e o f t h e s e tr o o p s to w a r d s t h e R e p u b li c s o f G e o r g ia a n d A z e r b a id z h a n s e e m o n t h e c o n tr a r y to b e in s p ir e d b y t h e a v o w e d p la n o f t h e R u s s ia n re a c tio n a r ie s , w h o w is h t o b r i n g b a c k u n d e r t h e i r y o k e t h e i n d e ­ p e n d e n t n a ti o n a l s ta te s n e w ly f o r m e d w i t h i n t h e li m i t s o f t h e f o r m e r R u s s ia n E m p i r e ; th e s e r e a c tio n a r ie s a r e tr y in g t o p r e s e n t to t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e a f a i t accompli b y t h e m i li ta r y o c c u p a t i o n o f th e s e s ta te s . . . . T h e u n d e r s ig n e d d e le g a te s e m p h a s iz e t h e f a c t t h a t G e n e r a l D e n i k i n is a c c o m p lis h in g th i s fa ta l w o rk w i t h t h e m i li ta r y a n d fin a n c ia l a s s is ta n c e o f t h e A llie d P o w e rs . . . . T h e y p r o c la im t h a t in v ie w o f a s in c e r e a p p li c a ti o n o f t h e r i g h t o f s e l f - d e t e r m in a ti o n i t is n e c e s s a ry t o m a i n t a i n t h e te r r i t o r i a l i n t e g ­ r ity o f th e s e s ta te s a t p r e s e n t e x is tin g in t h e C a u c a s u s , w h ile w a it­ in g fo r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a d e f in itiv e r e g im e w h ic h w ill b e i n s t i t u t e d n o t b y a R u s s ia n C o n s t i t u e n t ( A s s e m b ly ) b u t b y t h e P e a c e C o n g r e s s , a c ti n g a c c o r d in g t o t h e w ill o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n s . . . . C o n s e q u e n tl y , t h e u n d e r s ig n e d d e le g a te s b r i n g t h e i r p r o t e s ts to t h e k n o w le d g e o f t h e A llie d a n d A s s o c ia te d P o w e rs . T h e y r e q u e s t t h e m to p u t a n e n d a t o n c e t o t h e a g g re s siv e m o v e s o f G e n e r a l D e n i k i n a g a in s t t h e R e p u b li c s o f G e o r g ia a n d A z e r b a id z h a n , a n d to m a k e h i m e v a c u a te t h e o c c u p ie d te r r i t o r y o f t h e G e o r g ia n R e p u b li c . . . .75 I n a ll o f th i s A r m e n i a 's p o s i ti o n h a d b e e n a n e s p e c ia lly a w k w a r d o n e . S h e r e f u s e d t o a s s o c ia te h e r s e lf w i t h t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i - G e o r g ia n a llia n c e o r w i t h t h e p r o t e s ts a g a in s t t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y t o t h e A llie s a n d f o u n d h e r s e lf in f r e q u e n t c o n f lic t w i t h h e r tw o n e ig h b o r s . M o r e ­ o v e r, t h e B r it is h C o m m a n d h a d n o t b e e n e n ti r e l y s y m p a t h e t i c w i t h

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A r m e n i a n c la im s , e v e n less so w i t h A r m e n i a n d e t e r m i n a t i o n to ta k e b y fo r c e if n e c e s s a ry t h e t e r r it o r y in d i s p u t e .76 T h e B r it is h e f f o r t t o m a in ta in

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T a t a r s , w h o w e re in a m o r e a d v a n ta g e o u s p o s i ti o n a t t h e t i m e w h e n B r it is h tr o o p s w e re in t r o d u c e d t o p r e v e n t f u r t h e r c la s h e s .77 T h i s s i t u a ­ t i o n h a d in t u r n a f f e c te d A r m e n i a n r e la tio n s w ith t h e V o lu n t e e r s . W h i l e t h e B r it is h to o k w h a t t h e A r m e n i a n s r e g a r d e d as a n u n f a i r a t t i t u d e to w a r d t h e m , A r m e n i a d e v e lo p e d a m o r e a n d m o r e f r ie n d ly a t t i t u d e to w a r d t h e V o l u n t e e r s . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , h o w e v e r, s h e w as a f r a id t o e s t a b li s h c lo s e r e la tio n s f o r fe a r o f f u r t h e r d a m a g in g r e la tio n s w i t h t h e A llie s. I n t h e s p r in g o f 1 9 1 9 , w h e n B r it is h r e la tio n s w ith G e o r g ia a n d A z e r b a id z h a n g re w c o o le r a n d e v a c u a tio n w as b e in g c o n t e m p l a t e d , a m o r e fa v o r a b le v ie w w as a d o p t e d to w a r d A r m e n ia . D u r i n g A p r il t h e B r it is h s u p p o r t e d A r m e n i a n o c c u p a t io n o f p re v io u s ly d e n ie d te r r ito r ie s a n d t u r n e d o v e r to A r m e n ia t h e e n t i r e p r o v in c e o f K a rs .78 I n M a y , o n t h e firs t a n n iv e r s a r y o f t h e d e c la r a ti o n o f in d e p e n d e n c e , t h e A r m e n i a n p a r l i a m e n t , w ith B r it is h a p p r o v a l, d e c la r e d t h e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n a n d T u r k i s h te r r it o r i e s o f A r m e n i a u n i t e d in a s in g le R e p u b l i c .79 B u t th is w as as fa r as t h e B r it is h w o u ld g o in a n y p o s itiv e s u p p o r t , w ith t h e r e s u lt t h a t t h e A r m e n i a n s t h e n a g a in b e g a n lo o k in g e ls e w h e r e fo r b a c k in g . C o n c e r n o v e r t h e re a l a im s o f t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i- G e o r g ia n a ll ia n c e a n d t h e p r o s p e c t o f a B r itis h w ith d r a w a l t h u s le d t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f c lo s e r tie s w ith t h e V o l u n t e e r s .80 D u r i n g J u ly t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y to o k t h e u n u s u a l s t e p o f s u p p o r t ­ in g t h e is s u a n c e o f A r m e n i a n b a n k n o te s in t h e n a m e o f t h e R u s s ia n s t a t e b a n k . T h e s a m e m o n t h t h e a p p r o v a l o f th i s s o u r c e o f f u n d s fo r r a is in g A r m e n i a n tr o o p s w as s u p p l e m e n t e d b y s u c c e s s in g e t t i n g a id t h r o u g h t o A r m e n i a f r o m t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y . D e n i k i n s ta te s t h a t “ se v e ra l m i ll io n c a r t r i d g e s ’' w e re s h i p p e d v ia B a t u m

in t o A r d a h a n ,

d e s p i te G e o r g ia n e ff o rts t o p r e v e n t i t .81 M o r e o v e r , d u r i n g A u g u s t t h e A r m e n i a n c h ie f o f sta ff, C o l o n e l Z in k e v ic h , v is ite d V o l u n t e e r h e a d q u a r t e r s in E k a t e r i n o d a r a n d r e t u r n e d h o m e as “ m i li ta r y r e p r e s e n ta ­ tiv e o f t h e A F S R ” ( A r m e d F o r c e s o f S o u th R u s s i a ) , th u s a c q u ir in g a r a t h e r u n i q u e c o m b i n a t i o n o f title s . H o w e v e r , a c c o r d in g to a s u b s e ­ q u e n t r e p o r t f r o m Z in k e v ic h , t h e A llie d h ig h c o m m is s io n e r p r o h i b i t e d f u r t h e r d ir e c t c o m m u n i c a t i o n w ith D e n i k i n a n d t h u s p r e v e n t e d a n y d e v e l o p m e n t o f th i s ti e fo r t h e m o m e n t .82 I t w as n o t u n t i l N o v e m b e r t h a t t h e firs t o fficia l a n d fo r m a l e x c h a n g e o f r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s to o k p la c e , t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y s e n d i n g a C o lo n e l L e sli to E r e v a n a n d t h e A rm e -

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n ia n s s e n d i n g a C o lo n e l V la s ’e v to E k a t e r i n o d a r .83 E v e n , t h e n , h o w ­ e v e r, t h e A r m e n i a n s w e re d iv id e d as to t h e c o u rs e t o p u r s u e a n d r e f r a in e d f r o m c a rr y in g t h e r e l a ti o n s h ip a n y f u r t h e r . N o a llia n c e e v e r d e v e lo p e d , a n d in f a c t C o lo n e l L e s li’s s t a tu s w as s u b s e q u e n t l y r e d u c e d to t h a t o f a n in f o r m a l “ s c o u t " as h a d b e e n t h e c a se in t h e p a s t. D e n i k i n n e v e r t r ie d to p re s s t h e A r m e n i a n s o n th i s m a t t e r , a n d h e w as w illin g t o

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T r a n s c a u c a s ia : H a v in g in v ie w t h e f a c t t h a t a ll o f T r a n s c a u c a s ia , in t h e b o r d e r s e x is tin g b e f o r e t h e b e g in n i n g o f t h e w a r in 1 914, m u s t b e c o n s i d ­ e r e d a n in a lie n a b le p a r t o f t h e R u s s ia n S ta te , y o u a re i n s t r u c t e d to p r e p a r e t h e g r o u n d fo r t h e p a in le s s r é u n i f ic a tio n o f th e s e re g io n s in t o o n e w h o le w ith R u s s ia u n d e r t h e s u p r e m e g o v e r n m e n t o f a n a ll-R u s s ia n s t a te a u th o r it y . A s re g a rd s f u t u r e s t a te s t r u c t u r e , w h ic h m u s t n o t b e p r e d e t e r ­ m i n e d b e f o r e a n e x p re s s io n o f t h e w ill o f all t h e p e o p le s o f t h e R u s s ia n s t a te , it is n e c e s s a ry to k e e p in m i n d t h a t t h e r e p r e s e n t a ­ tiv e s o f a ll re g io n s a n d p e o p le s o f R u s s ia w ill h a v e a s h a r e in t h e d e c is io n o f th e s e q u e s t io n s , a n d t h a t b r o a d i n t e r n a l a u to n o m y in lo c a l affairs o f re g io n a l a n d n a ti o n a l life w ill c o m p o s e o n e o f t h e b a se s o f t h e f u t u r e s t a te life o f R u s s ia . M e a n w h il e , u n t i l t h e fin a l d e c is io n o f a n a ll-R u s s ia n s t a t e a u t h o r ­ ity , i n d e p e n d e n t g o v e r n m e n t w ill b e p e r m i t t e d in th o s e a re a s w h e r e i t h a s b e e n e s t a b li s h e d a n d n o w e x is ts .84 I n a d d i t i o n to t h e jo b o f s e e k in g m i li ta r y m a t e r i a l a n d o fficers in T r a n s c a u c a s ia , V o l u n t e e r r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s w e re g iv e n in s t r u c t i o n s t h a t if G e o r g ia s h o u l d r e c o g n iz e its tie s t o R u s s ia a n d w ith d r a w its tr o o p s b e y o n d t h e B z y b R iv e r, t h e n th e y s h o u l d w o rk “ to e s t a b li s h c o m ­ p le t e ly f r ie n d ly r e la tio n s a n d a r e s to r a t io n o f fre e tr a d e ," b u t if G e o r ­ g ia r e f u s e d th e s e c o n d it io n s , t h e n t h e tr a d e r e s tr i c ti o n s w o u ld r e m a in a n d o n ly a m i li ta r y t r u c e s h o u l d b e s o u g h t . T h e s a m e in g e n e r a l w as s a id o f A z e r b a id z h a n : t h e e x is tin g g o v e r n m e n t w as a c c e p t e d as i n d e ­ p e n d e n t u n t i l a f u t u r e a ll-R u s s ia n a u t h o r i t y c o u ld d e c id e s u c h q u e s ­ tio n s , a n d n o m i li ta r y a c ti o n w o u ld b e t a k e n a g a in s t i t e x c e p t in s e lf-d e f e n s e . C lo s e r e c o n o m i c tie s w e re r e c o m m e n d e d if p o li ti c a l d i f ­ f e r e n c e s c o u ld b e s h e lv e d . A l t h o u g h th i s p r o v i d e d t h e b a s is o f t h e s u b s e q u e n t tr u c e b e tw e e n t h e V o l u n t e e r s a n d T r a n s c a u c a s ia , n o re a l

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r e c o n c i li a ti o n w as p o s s ib le so lo n g as a b a s ic d i s t r u s t a n d f e a r e x is te d b e t w e e n t h e m . 85 A s D e n i k i n p u t i t : “ A f te r a ll e ls e is s a id , t h e m a jo r , i n d e e d t h e o n ly , c a u s e o f t h e s tr u g g le in t h e C a u c a s u s w as t h e c o n ­ flic t b e t w e e n t h e id e a o f o n e R u s s ia a n d t h e id e a o f fu lly i n d e p e n d e n t C a u c a s ia n s t a t e f o r m a ti o n s .” 86 T h e re la tiv e s e t t l i n g d o w n o f a ffa irs, in t h e s u m m e r o f 19 1 9 , w as n o t a c h ie v e d , h o w e v e r , w i t h o u t first r e m o v in g o n e o f t h e o b s ta c le s p re v io u s ly m e n t i o n e d , n a m e ly , t h e R u s s ia n p r e s e n c e in B a k u . T h i s c o n c e r n e d c h ie fly t h e q u e s t i o n o f B ic h e r a k o v ’s tr o o p s b u t a ls o in v o lv e d c o n t r o l o v e r t h e R u s s ia n C a s p ia n flo tilla a n d V o l u n t e e r a c tiv itie s . O n l y t h e B r it is h c o u ld n e g o ti a te t h e r e m o v a l o f th e s e R u s s ia n fo rc e s w i t h o u t v io le n c e , a n d e v e n th e y w e re b o u n d to e n c o u n t e r d iffic u ltie s . T o a v o id t r o u b l e as m u c h as p o s s ib le , t h e B r it is h h a d a p p r o a c h e d th e s e q u e s t io n s c a r e f u lly a n d w ith c o n s id e r a b le sk ill, u s in g t h e ta c k o f a p p a r e n t s u p p o r t r a t h e r t h a n o p p o s i ti o n . S p e c ific a lly th is to o k t h e f o r m o f re c o g n iz in g D e n i k i n ’s a u t h o r i t y o v e r R u s s ia n m i li ta r y u n it s in B a k u a n d h o n o r i n g B ic h e r a k o v w ith a c i t a t i o n to b e p r e s e n te d b y t h e k in g h im s e l f — in L o n d o n . A s e a rly as J a n u a r y 19 1 9 , B r itis h n a v a l a u th o r i t i e s u n d e r t h e B la c k S e a F l e e t c o m m a n d e r , A d m ir a l S e y m o u r , h a d n o ti f i e d D e n i k i n o f t h e r e c o g n i ti o n o f h is a u t h o r i t y o v e r R u s s ia n fo rc e s in B a k u a n d h a d a t t h e s a m e t i m e e x p re s s e d g ra v e c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e c o n d u c t a n d re li­ a b il it y o f th e s e fo rc e s. P a r tic u la r ly , i t h a d b e e n n o t e d , t h e c re w s o f t h e R u s s ia n s h ip s o p e r a t e d v ir tu a lly in d e p e n d e n t l y o f a n y o u ts id e a u t h o r i t y a n d t h e r e f o r e c o n s t i t u t e d a m e n a c e , e s p e c ia lly in v ie w o f t h e i r t e n d e n c y to b e c o m e “ i n f e c te d w ith B o ls h e v is m .” 87 D e n ik in h a d t h e r e f o r e b e e n u r g e d to o r d e r t h e re m o v a l o f s u c h c re w s, a n d th is r e q u e s t h a d b e e n p a s s e d o n to G e n e r a l E r d e li , t h e n a c ti n g as t h e c h ie f V o l u n t e e r r e p r e s e n ta t iv e in B a k u . W h e n E r d e li h a d c o n f e r r e d w ith G e n e r a l T h o m s o n o n th is q u e s ­ t i o n , h e f o u n d t h a t t h e B r itis h C o m m a n d w as p r e p a r in g n o t o n ly to d e a l w ith t h e flo tilla b u t a lso to a r r a n g e t h e re m o v a l o f a ll R u s s ia n t r o o p s fr o m t h e a re a . T h e first s t e p , c u t t i n g o ff f u r t h e r fin a n c ia l s u p ­ p o r t , w as a lr e a d y u n d e r w ay , a n d B ic h e r a k o v w as b e in g p li e d w ith r e q u e s ts to g iv e u p h is c o m m a n d a n d t o g o to L o n d o n to re c e iv e re c ­ o g n i t i o n f o r h is c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h e B r itis h w a r e f f o r t.88 B ic h e ra k o v h a d in f a c t t u r n e d o v e r h is a ffa irs to h is fo llo w e rs in F e b r u a r y a n d h a d b e e n e s c o r te d b y a B r itis h h o n o r g u a r d to B a tu m to a w a it p a ss a g e t o E n g l a n d . B ic h e r a k o v ’s fo rc e s w e re t h e n , a t T h o m s o n ’s s u g g e s tio n , p la c e d u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d o f G e n e r a l P r z h e v a l’sk ii. C o n t r a r y to t h e

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h o p e s o f E r d e li , w h o c o n f ir m e d t h e a p p o i n t m e n t in D e n i k i n 's n a m e , T h o m s o n r e f u s e d to c o u n t e n a n c e a n y c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e f o r m a t i o n o f R u s s ia n tr o o p s a n d o r d e r e d P r z h e v a r s k ii t o d i r e c t h is e ff o rts e n ti r e l y to p r e p a r a ti o n s t o m o v e t h e tr o o p s to P e tr o v s k as s o o n as p o s s ib le .89 T h e re m o v a l o f t h e flo tilla h a d n o t b e e n q u i t e so s im p ly a c c o m ­ p li s h e d . O n c e B ic h e ra k o v h a d g o n e , t h e s h ip s ' c re w s, w h ic h m a d e t h e i r o w n d e c is io n s t h r o u g h c o m m it te e s , h a d d e c li n e d t o h o n o r P r z h e v a l's k ii's a u th o r i t y . E r d e li h a d c o n d u c t e d n e g o ti a ti o n s w i t h t h e m b u t s u c c e e d e d o n ly in o b t a i n i n g t h e i r a g r e e m e n t t o c o o p e r a t e in “ ta c t ic a l r e l a ti o n s " w i t h

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E r d e li 's p r o p o s a l t h a t th e y s u b m i t e n tir e ly . T o c o m p l ic a t e th i s m a t t e r , t h e c re w s f o u n d c o n s id e r a b le s u p p o r t a m o n g t h e w o r k in g cla ss in B a k u , w h ic h h a d s t r o n g r e v o l u ti o n a r y te n d e n c ie s . I n v ie w o f th is , E r d e li a n d o t h e r R u s s ia n m i li ta r y a u th o r i t i e s in B a k u h e s i t a t e d t o m a k e a n y a t t e m p t to u s e fo r c e a g a in s t t h e c re w s, d e s p i te T h o m s o n 's in s is t e n c e t h a t “ t h e R u s s ia n c re w s m u s t b e d is b a n d e d , p e a c e f u lly if p o s s ib le , b u t fo r c ib ly if n e c e s s a r y ." 90 F o rtu n a te ly

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T h o m s o n i n t o s e iz in g t h e s h ip s h im s e l f , a n a c t w h ic h e l i m i n a t e d t h e “ i n f e c t e d " c re w s w i t h o u t b l o o d s h e d a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e p u t a ll t h e o d i u m u p o n t h e B r it is h .91 E v e n t h e s p o k e s m e n o f t h e w o rk e rs p r o ­ te s te d , in t h e n a m e o f R u s s ia n p a tr io t is m , d e m a n d i n g R u s s i a n r a t h e r t h a n B r it is h c o n t r o l .92 T h o m s o n w as a t firs t in n o m o o d t o t u r n t h e s h ip s o v e r to t h e V o l u n t e e r s , b u t w ith t h e in t e r c e s s io n o f G e n e r a l B rig g s o n D e n i k i n 's b e h a l f in J u n e t h e flo tilla w as r e m a n n e d u n d e r V o l u n t e e r o fficers a n d s e n t t o P e tr o v s k .93 T h e is s u e o f t h e s h ip s w as n o t m e r e ly a m a t t e r o f u n r e l ia b l e c re w s. I t w as a ls o a q u e s t i o n o f w h o w o u ld c o m m a n d t h e C a s p ia n S e a . T h e B o ls h e v ik s w e re k n o w n to b e p r e p a r in g a n a v a l fo r c e a t A s tr a k h a n b y a r m in g m e r c h a n t s h ip s a n d b r i n g in g s e v e ra l t o r p e d o b o a t s d o w n t h e V o lg a f r o m t h e B a ltic . W h o w o u ld c o m m a n d t h e n a v a l f o r c e t o k e e p th i s m e n a c e b o t t l e d u p a t t h e n o r t h e r n e n d o f t h e S ea? T h e B r i t ­ is h c le a rly i n t e n d e d t h a t i t s h o u l d b e th e m s e lv e s , f o r t h e y h a d b e e n o r g a n iz in g s u c h a n o p e r a t i o n s in c e t h e D u n s t e r v i l l e m is s io n .94 T h i s im p li e d B r it is h c o m m a n d o f R u s s ia n s h ip s , s in c e o n ly a s m a ll n u m b e r o f B r it is h b o a ts c o u ld b e b r o u g h t in f r o m t h e B la c k S e a b y l a n d , a n d c o n s e q u e n t ly i t i m p li e d a c e r t a in riv a lry w i t h t h e V o l u n t e e r C o m ­ m a n d , w h ic h c la im e d a u t h o r i t y o n t h e C a s p ia n a n d o v e r t h e C a s p i a n fle e t. T h e B r it is h p r a c t ic e o f r e t a i n i n g R u s s ia n c a p ta in s as f i g u r e h e a d s a n d o f fly in g t h e R u s s ia n flag w as a g e s t u r e o f a p p e a s e m e n t , b u t i t

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F o ll o w i n g t h e d i s p u t e w i t h T h o m s o n in B a k u o v e r p o s s e s s io n o f t h e R u s s i a n s h ip s t h e r e , t h e B r itis h fla g s h ip K r u g e r v is ite d P e tr o v s k , a n d t h e r e C o m m o d o r e N o r r is w as a s k e d fo r a n in te r v ie w b y t h e V o l ­ u n t e e r n a v a l c o m m a n d e r . T h e V o l u n t e e r s r e q u e s te d B r itis h c o o p e r ­ a t i o n in t h e f i t t i n g o u t a n d m a n n i n g o f a la r g e r R u s s ia n flo tilla to b e b a s e d a t P e tr o v s k . N o r r is , h o w e v e r, r e j e c te d th i s id e a o n g r o u n d s t h a t t h e B r it is h flo tilla w as q u i t e a d e q u a t e f o r t h e ta s k s a t h a n d a n d t h e r e w as n o n e e d f o r a n o t h e r n a v a l fo rc e . A c c o r d in g t o t h e a c c o u n t g iv e n b y a R u s s ia n o ffic e r t h e n in B r it is h s e rv ic e , t h e V o l u n t e e r c o m m a n d e r b l u n t l y r e m i n d e d t h e B r it is h c o m m o d o r e t h a t h e w as in R u s s ia a n d t h a t R u s s ia n a u t h o r i t i e s h a d n o n e e d t o a sk B r it is h p e r m is s io n to sail t h e C a s p i a n .06 L a t e r in t h e y e a r t h e V o l u n t e e r s w e re a ls o t o s u b m i t a s t e r n w a r n in g to A z e r b a id z h a n t h a t u n d e r t h e T r e a t y o f T u r k m a n c h a i ( 1 8 2 8 ) o n ly R u s s ia a n d P e rs ia w e re p e r m i t t e d to o p e r a t e c o m ­ m e r c ia l s h ip s , a n d o n ly R u s s ia c o u ld h a v e a m i li ta r y fle e t o n t h e C a s p i a n .97 D e s p i t e th i s d if f e r e n c e o f o p in i o n , t h e B r itis h d id i n d e e d d o m i n a t e t h e C a s p ia n as lo n g as t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n c o n t i n u e d , b o t h w ith re g a r d t o n a v a l o p e r a t io n s a n d w ith re g a r d to c iv ilia n s h i p p in g , w h ic h w as p r o h i b i t e d n o r t h o f t h e l a t i t u d e o f P e tr o v s k .98 A l t h o u g h t h e s m a ll B r it is h flo tilla w as d e s c r ib e d b y o n e o f its officers as “ a s q u a d r o n o f ‘t u b s ' a r m e d b y o b s o l e te g u n s " fa c in g s u p e r io r B o ls h e v ik e q u i p m e n t , t h e B r it is h m a n a g e d u n t i l t h e a u t u m n o f 19 1 9 to k e e p m o s t o f t h e C a s p ia n fr e e o f B o ls h e v ik in c u r s io n s b y p a tr o ll in g t h e n o r t h e r n w a te rs re g u la r ly .99 T h e o n e m a j o r b a t t l e w ith t h e B o ls h e v ik s o c c u r r e d l a t e in M a y w h e n t h e B o ls h e v ik s a t t e m p t e d to e s ta b lis h a n e w b a s e a t F o r t A le k s a n d r o v s k b u t w e re d r iv e n o ff b y t h e m a s s e d B r itis h flo tilla .100 $ $ # # « # T h e C a s p ia n o p e r a t io n s w e re , o f c o u rs e , c lo s e ly t i e d to o p e r a t io n s in T r a n s c a s p ia a n d T u r k e s t a n . I n d e e d , b y v ir tu e o f t h e i r h o l d o n t h e se a t h e B r it is h w e re e v e n a b le to s e n d s o m e a id to t h e U r a l C o s s a c k s b y w a y o f G u r e v .101 O f u t m o s t i m p o r t a n c e w as t h e b a s e a t K ra sn o v o d s k , w h ic h s e r v e d n o t o n ly as a n a v a l b a s e b u t a ls o as t h e c h ie f lin k b e t w e e n t h e B r it is h fo rc e s in T r a n s c a u c a s ia a n d t h e s m a ll m is s io n s a c ro s s t h e se a to t h e e a s t. F o r t h e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik g o v e r n m e n ts o f T r a n s c a s p ia “ t h e m o r a l e f f e c t o f B r itis h s u p p o r t w as t h e m a in s p r i n g o f t h e r e s is ta n c e t o t h e B o ls h e v ik a d v a n c e ." 102 A s p re v io u s ly n o t e d , B r it is h in t e r v e n t i o n w as n e v e r p u s h e d f a r th e r

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i n t o T u r k e s t a n . C o lo n e l B a ile y ’s v ir tu a lly o n e - m a n o p e r a t io n s h a d c o n s is te d la rg e ly o f e s c a p in g c a p t u r e a n d p ic k in g u p in f o r m a t i o n o n t h e r u n . A t t h e s t a r t o f t h e B r itis h o c c u p a t io n o f T r a n s c a u c a s ia , t h e B o ls h e v ik g o v e r n m e n t in T a s h k e n t h a d b e g u n e ff o rts , o n o r d e r s f r o m M o s c o w , to lo c a t e a n d a r r e s t all A llie d p e r s o n n e l in t h e a r e a .103 W i t h ­ o u t B r itis h a id t h e a n ti-B o ls h e v ik u n d e r g r o u n d , w i t h w h ic h B a ile y w as in c o n ta c t, h a d b e e n u n a b le to e ff e c t a n y re a l re s is ta n c e a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s , m u c h less o v e r t h r o w t h e g o v e r n m e n t .104 T h e tr o u b l e f o r t h e B o ls h e v ik s c a m e in s te a d f r o m a p e r s i s t e n t f e u d w i t h t h e L e f t S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r ie s , w h o w e re a p a r t o f t h e r u l in g c o a li ti o n , a n d f r o m p e r s o n a l rifts w i t h i n t h e B o ls h e v ik g r o u p its e lf, D u r i n g J a n u a r y 1919 a s o c ia lis t r e b e llio n a g a in s t t h e g o v e r n m e n t h a d b e e n s t a r t e d b y its o w n 2 3 -y e a r-o ld “ c o m m is s a r o f w a r ,” O s ip o v . T h i s h a d in t u r n s e t o ff “ w a r ” in t h e v illag es b e tw e e n t h e B o ls h e v ik s a n d t h e S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r ie s w h ic h c o u ld h a v e p r o v i d e d a n o p e n in g fo r c o u n t e r ­ r e v o lu tio n , b u t t h e o p p o r t u n i t y w as n o t re a d ily g ra s p e d . T h e m ilita r y w e a k n e s s o f t h e B o ls h e v ik r e g im e h a d b e e n t h e r e s u lt n o t o n ly o f O s ip o v ’s r e v o lt b u t a lso o f t h e B r it is h p r e s e n c e in M e r v . R e lia b le R e d fo rc e s h a d b e e n s e n t t o fo r m a li n e a g a in s t a p o s s ib le B r itis h in v a s io n fr o m t h a t q u a r t e r , t h u s d e p l e t i n g fo rc e s in T a s h k e n t . T h e f a ilu r e o f t h e B r it is h to m o v e in a t th i s d e c is iv e m o m e n t t h u s c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e B o ls h e v ik s ’ a b ility t o s u p p r e s s b o t h t h e c o u n t e r ­ r e v o lu tio n a r y g r o u p a n d O s ip o v .105 T h e h o s t i l i t y w h ic h e x is te d b e ­ t w e e n t h e L e f t a n d t h e R i g h t a n ti- B o ls h e v ik g r o u p s , h o w e v e r , w as m o r e im m e d i a te l y t h e c a u s e o f t h e i r f a ilu re . O s ip o v ’s m o v e m e n t w as re a lly a ca ll fo r s o c ia lis m w i t h o u t B o ls h e v ik o p p r e s s io n , a n d t h e le a d e r s o f t h e c o u n te r r e v o lu tio n a r y ' m o v e m e n t a p p a r e n t l y r e f u s e d to h a v e a n y d e a lin g s w ith i t . 106 T u r k e s t a n t h u s r e m a in e d B o ls h e v ik , a n d i t w as re a lly o n ly a m a t t e r o f t i m e u n t i l n e ig h b o r in g te r r it o r i e s , s u c h as B u k h a r a , w o u ld c o m e u n d e r a tt a c k . B a ile y , w h o e v e n tu a lly s u c c e e d e d in g e t t i n g h im s e l f h ir e d as a “ B o ls h e v ik a g e n t ” b y a d e f e c t in g B o ls h e v ik a g e n t, w e n t w ith h is a c c o m p lic e o n a m is s io n in O c t o b e r 1 9 1 9 t o

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r e p o r ts o f B r itis h a id to B u k h a r a .107 E n r o u t e h e h a d a ra r e in t e r v i e w w ith t h e fa m o u s I n d i a n r e v o lu tio n a r y , M a h e n d r a P r a t a p , t h e n h i d i n g in K a g a n u n d e r B o ls h e v ik p r o t e c t i o n , b u t in B u k h a r a h e f o u n d n o B r itis h

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in d e e d a d v is e d t h e f o r m e r n o t to ta k e m i li ta r y a c ti o n a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik r e g im e in T a s h k e n t . B a ile y t h e n l e f t T u r k e s t a n in D e c e m ­ b e r , a c c o m p a n i e d b y a fe w fle e in g R u s s ia n s , a n d m a d e h is w a y to M e s h e d . 109 T h e s m a ll B r it is h f o r c e u n d e r M a l le s o n , w h ic h h a d p la y e d so im ­ p o r t a n t a ro le in k e e p in g a n a n ti- B o ls h e v ik g o v e r n m e n t in p o w e r in T r a n s c a s p ia , h a d lo n g s in c e c e a s e d its a d v a n c e . H a v in g a c h ie v e d a s i g n if i c a n t v ic to r y in p u s h i n g B o ls h e v ik fo rc e s b a c k b e y o n d M e r v la t e in O c t o b e r 1 9 1 8 , t h e B r it is h - I n d i a n f o r c e h a d b e e n o r d e r e d to h a l t its m a r c h a t t h a t p o i n t . T h e o r d e r c a m e fr o m I n d i a n a r m y h e a d q u a r ­ te r s , w h ic h h a d f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g d e m o n s t r a t e d a n “ e x tr a o r d in a r y la c k o f i n t e r e s t in t h e w o rk o f t h e M i s s i o n ” a n d w as n o w fa r m o r e c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h r e a t e n i n g d e v e lo p m e n ts in I n d i a a n d A f g h a n is ta n . W h e n t h e T u r k i s h a r m is t ic e fo llo w e d o n O c t o b e r 30, I n d i a n h e a d ­ q u a r t e r s sa w n o p u r p o s e in c o n t i n u i n g o p e r a t io n s in R u s s ia .110 H o w ­ e v e r, M a l le s o n h a d n o t y e t r e c e iv e d i n d i c a ti o n o f a n y i n t e n t i o n to w i th d r a w

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s e n t o v e r a d e t a c h m e n t o f D a g e s ta n i c a v a lry . T h e la t t e r , h o w e v e r, b y its u n t a m e d b e h a v io r , h a d t e n d e d m o r e to a li e n a te t h e p o p u l a t i o n t h a n to a id t h e g o v e r n m e n t ’s d e f e n s e e ffo rts . D e n ik in a ls o s e n t a n a d v a n c e p a r t y o v e r fr o m P e tr o v s k in F e b r u a r y 1919, b u t it w as n o t u n t i l l a t e r in t h e s p r in g t h a t m o r e s u b s ta n ti a l r e la tio n s c o u ld b e e s t a b li s h e d w ith t h e V o l u n t e e r s .111 M e a n w h il e , O r a z S ir d a r r e p e a t e d ly u r g e d t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d M a l ­ le s o n t o s e e k a n a llia n c e w i t h t h e E m i r o f B u k h a r a , b u t n e i t h e r t h e g o v e r n m e n t n o r M a l le s o n fa v o r e d s u c h a s te p , t h e f o r m e r f o r t h e s a m e

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re a s o n s t h a t i t o p p o s e d a n y e x te n s iv e e n l a r g e m e n t o f M o s l e m fo r c e s a n d t h e l a t t e r b e c a u s e h e b e lie v e d t h a t i t w o u ld o n ly r e s u l t in B o l­ s h e v ik a tta c k s o n B u k h a r a .112 S in c e t h e A s h k h a b a d s tr o n g ly r e s is te d

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A ta m a n D u t o v a t O r e n b u r g . H o w e v e r , f o r t h e t i m e b e i n g B r it is h fo rc e s w e re s t a t i o n e d in A s h k h a b a d t o p r e v e n t a n u n t i m e l y o v e r t h r o w o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e t o p r o d i t i n t o t a k i n g s te p s t o so lv e its m a n y p r o b l e m s .113 B r itis h p r e s e n c e w as in d e e d p r o b a b l y a ll t h a t p r e v e n t e d t h e g o v ­ e r n m e n t ’s c o lla p s e a t t h e e n d o f D e c e m b e r 19 1 8 , w h e n t h e ra ilw a y w o rk e rs h a d t h r e a t e n e d t o rise a g a in s t it. W i t h C a p t a i n T e a g u e - J o n e s ’ p a r t ic i p a ti o n , a n e w g o v e r n m e n t, n o w c a lle d a C o m m i t t e e o f P u b l i c S a fe ty , w as f o r m e d o n J a n u a r y 3, 1 919, a t t h e p e a k o f t h e c ris is .114 W i t h t h e e x c e p t io n o f F u n t i k o v a n d h is c lo s e s t a s s o c ia te s , w h o h a d a lr e a d y b e e n r e m o v e d , t h e n e w c o m m i t t e e w as c o m p o s e d la r g e ly o f t h e s a m e m e n , b u t a n a d d it i o n a l T u r k m a n c o m m a n d e r , O b e z B a e v , w as n a m e d to t h e fie ld c o m m a n d o f t h e a r m e d fo rc e s . N e w B r it is h p ro m is s o ry n o te s is s u e d a t th is t i m e te m p o r a r ily s ta v e d o ff a n e w f in a n c ia l c ris is .115 W h i l e th e s e e v e n ts w e re in p ro g r e s s , t h e M a l le s o n m is s io n w a s tr a n s f e r r e d f r o m t h e I n d i a n a r m y c o m m a n d t o t h e B r it is h W a r O ffic e a n d p u t u n d e r G e n e r a l M i l n e ’s a u t h o r i t y . I n m id - J a n u a r y 1 9 1 9 t h e B o ls h e v ik s h a d a g a in l a u n c h e d a n a t t a c k b u t fa ile d t o m o v e t h e B r i t ­ is h d e fe n s e s . I t w as g e n e r a lly a g r e e d t h a t a s t r o n g p u s h a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s a t th i s p o i n t w o u ld h a v e b r o u g h t s ig n if ic a n t v ic to r ie s , a n d t h e O s ip o v r e v o lt in T a s h k e n t m a d e s u c c e s s a ll t h e m o r e lik e ly , b u t th i s w as t h e t i m e o f t h e P r i n k ip o p r o p o s a l a n d t h e p o lic y e m a n a t i n g fr o m L o n d o n w as d is e n g a g e m e n t , e s p e c ia lly in p e r i p h e r a l a re a s lik e T r a n s c a s p ia .116 A fe w d a y s a f t e r a v is it b y M i l n e o n J a n u a r y 2 1 , M a l ­ le s o n re c e iv e d n o ti c e t h a t h is tr o o p s w e re t o b e w i t h d r a w n

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R u s s ia n te r r i t o r y as s o o n as p o s s ib le .117 B y th i s t i m e t h e R e d A r m y h a d b r o k e n t h r o u g h t h e b a r r ie r p o s e d b y D u t o v ’s fo rc e s a t O r e n b u r g a n d w as o n its w a y t o a id T a s h k e n t . I n v ie w o f t h e d a n g e r w h ic h th i s w o u ld e v e n tu a lly c r e a t e fo r A s h k h a b a d , M a l le s o n r e q u e s t e d a d e la y in t h e e v a c u a t io n o f h is tr o o p s a n d w as g r a n t e d t i m e , u n t i l t h e e n d o f M a r c h , to p r e p a r e m o r e a d e q u a t e l y f o r t h e w i t h d r a w a l .118 M a l le s o n d id n o t i n f o r m t h e A s h k h a b a d c o m m i t t e e o f h is o r d e r s

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u n t i l F e b r u a r y 4 , a f t e r h a v in g w o r k e d o u t f u r t h e r p la n s w i t h G e n e r a l K r u t e n f o r o b t a i n i n g a id f r o m D e n ik in . H e i n t e n d e d t o t u r n o v e r m o s t o f h is o w n a r m s a n d s u p p lie s to t h e T r a n s c a s p ia n a r m y b e f o r e le a v in g , b u t h e k n e w t h a t i t h a d n o t b e e n a rm s a lo n e b u t B r itis h p r e s e n c e w h ic h h a d p r o t e c t e d t h e T r a n s c a s p ia n g o v e r n m e n t .119 B o t h M a l le s o n a n d D e n i k i n , a lo n g w ith G e n e r a l K r u te n , h o p e d t h a t t h e V o l u n t e e r s w o u ld b e a b le to fill t h e g a p l e f t b y t h e B r it is h w i t h ­ d r a w a l, a n d p r e p a r a ti o n s h a d t o s o m e e x t e n t a lr e a d y b e e n u n d e r t a k e n a f t e r t h e v is it to V o l u n t e e r h e a d q u a r t e r s b y G e n e r a l S a v its k ii, w h o h a d r e t u r n e d t o T r a n s c a s p ia w i t h D e n i k i n ’s a u t h o r i z a t i o n to a c t as h is r e p r e s e n ta t iv e in th i s m a t t e r . D u r i n g M a r c h 1 9 1 9 t h e A s h k h a b a d c o m m i t t e e w e n t b e y o n d th e s e t e n t a t i v e a r r a n g e m e n t s a n d , t h r o u g h G e n e r a l E r d e li , p r o p o s e d t h a t a ll T r a n s c a s p ia n m i li ta r y o p e r a t io n s b e p u t u n d e r t h e V o l u n t e e r C o m m a n d . 120 A l t h o u g h s e v e ra l s m a ll V o l u n t e e r d e t a c h m e n t s h a d a r r iv e d in T r a n s ­ c a s p ia b y t h e e n d o f M a r c h a n d g e n e r a l r e s p o n s ib ility fo r t h e d e f e n s e o f th i s a r e a w as p u t u n d e r G e n e r a l L a z a re v in A p r il, D e n i k i n r e f r a in e d f r o m m a k i n g a n y f o r m a l a n n o u n c e m e n t o f in c o r p o r a t i o n o f t h e a re a i n t o V o l u n t e e r te r r i t o r y b e c a u s e o f t h e p o s s ib ility o f u n d e s i r a b le re a c ­ t i o n s b o t h in T r a n s c a s p ia a n d in A z e r b a id z h a n .121 V e r y c lo s e r e la tio n s w e re e s t a b li s h e d , h o w e v e r , a n d f u r t h e r m i li ta r y s u p p o r t w as p r o v id e d b y t h e a s s ig n m e n t o f a d d i t i o n a l u n i t s o f B ic h e r a k o v ’s o ld fo r c e to T r a n s c a s p ia . M o r e o v e r , f in a n c ia l a s s is ta n c e o f s o m e six m i ll io n r u b le s w as e x t e n d e d b y t h e V o l u n t e e r C o m m a n d to t h e T r a n s c a s p ia n g o v ­ e r n m e n t . 122 H o w e v e r , th e s e s te p s w e re n o t e n o u g h t o s t e m t h e t i d e o f t h e B o ls h e v ik a d v a n c e . A f t e r t h e o v e r t h r o w o f E m i r H a b i b u l l a h o f A f g h a n is ta n in M a r c h a n d h is r e p l a c e m e n t b y A m a n u ll a h a n d a m i l i t a n t f a c t io n w h ic h f a v o r e d a n a n ti - B r i ti s h p o lic y , t h e w ith d r a w a l o f M a l l e s o n ’s fo rc e s w as s t e p p e d u p . T h e B r it is h a n d I n d i a n e le m e n ts w e re s e p a r a te d , t h e f o r m e r b e in g s e n t t o K ra s n o v o d s k a n d t h e l a t t e r b e in g p u ll e d b a c k i n t o P e rs ia , w h e r e t h e y s u b s e q u e n tly c o n d u c t e d “ p o litic a l w a r f a r e ” a g a in s t a p o s s ib le S o v ie t- A f g h a n a llia n c e a n d sa w a c ti o n a g a in s t a B o ls h e v ik s u p p o r t e d r e v o lt in n o r t h e r n P e r s ia .123 B y A p r il 1 a ll o f “ M a lm is s ” h a d

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e x c e p t io n o f t h e fe w o ffic e rs w h o r e m a in e d in K ra s n o v o d s k . O r a z S ir d a r k e p t u p t h e f i g h t t o sa v e A s h k h a b a d fo r s o m e ti m e , b u t h e c o u ld n o t m a t c h t h e m a s s iv e R e d o ff e n s iv e w h ic h b e g a n in M a y . O n J u ly 15 A s h k h a b a d w as it s e l f fin a lly e v a c u a te d , a n d t h e g o v ­ e r n m e n t m o v e d t o K r a s n o v o d s k , w h ic h w as s till a B r it is h o u t p o s t .124

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O n A u g u s t 5, w ith n o t h i n g le f t b u t t h e K r a s n o v o d s k a re a , t h e T r a n s ­ c a s p ia n g o v e r n m e n t d is s o lv e d its e lf a n d t u r n e d o v e r a ll a u t h o r i t y t o t h e m ilita r y c o m m a n d , n o w u n d e r G e n e r a l L a z a re v . I t w as n o t u n t i l a u t u m n t h a t t h e p ic k e t a r o u n d K r a s n o v o d s k c o u ld b e p e n e t r a t e d b y t h e B o ls h e v ik s , a f t e r a d d i t i o n a l R e d tr o o p s h a d b e e n s e n t d o w n f r o m t h e n o r t h , b u t in D e c e m b e r t h e r e m a in i n g T r a n s c a s p ia n t r o o p s , u n d e r G e n e r a l K a z a n o v ic h , b e g a n a g r a d u a l e v a c u a t io n t o P e tr o v s k b y se a , th u s e n d in g t h e T r a n s c a s p ia n c a m p a ig n .125 T h e N o r t h C a u c a s u s te r r it o r i e s , w h ic h h a d b e e n i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e V o l u n t e e r a d m i n is tr a t iv e s y s te m , h a d

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D e n i k i n ’s w o rd s , a “ b o ilin g c a u l d r o n ,” w h ic h w o u ld in a n y c a s e h a v e p r e v e n t e d g r e a t e r a id to T r a n s c a s p ia b y t h e V o l u n t e e r s .126 I n J u n e a n i n s u r r e c t io n o f t h e I n g u s h h a d re v iv e d t h e i r o ld f e u d w i t h t h e C o s ­ sack s. I n J u ly A li K h a d z h i h a d ra is e d a s h o r t- liv e d r e b e l li o n in t h e m o u n t a i n s o f D a g e s ta n . L a te in A u g u s t n e w e r u p t i o n s b r o k e o u t in C h e c h e n te r r it o r y le d b y S h e ik h U z u n - K h a d z h i w i t h a f o r c e o f a r o u n d 1500 m e n , w h ic h s o o n g re w to 4 0 0 0 . T h i s m o v e m e n t in f a c t s p r e a d ra p id ly u n t i l b y m id - S e p t e m b e r 19 1 9 i t c o v e r e d m o s t o f D a g e s ta n as w e ll. A s D e n ik in h a s p o i n t e d o u t , t h e r e w e re m a n y re a s o n s f o r th i s “ se n s e le s s a n d r u i n o u s ” s tr u g g le — p o v e r ty , ig n o r a n c e , a g e -o ld f e u d s , in e p t n e s s a n d in ju s tic e o n t h e p a r t o f lo c a l o fficia ls, i n s ti g a ti o n b y p re v io u s ly d is p la c e d g o v e r n m e n ts , a n d o u t s i d e a id f r o m T r a n s c a u c a s ia a n d T u r k e y .127 I t u n q u e s t i o n a b l y

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e f f o r t b y p i n n i n g d o w n t h o u s a n d s o f tr o o p s n e e d e d e ls e w h e r e , a n d i t a ls o a f f e c te d p r o s p e c ts fo r b e t t e r r e la tio n s w i t h T r a n s c a u c a s ia . F r o m t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 1 9 , h o w e v e r, t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y c o n c e n t r a t e d its e ff o rts o n a n o ffe n s iv e to t h e n o r t h , a n d in th i s it w as t o h a v e g r e a t e r su c c e s s. I n d e e d , t h e s p r in g a n d s u m m e r o f 1 9 1 9 m a r k e d a t u r n i n g p o i n t in b o t h t h e civ il w a r a n d t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n in t h e S o u t h . W h i l e t h e A llie s w e re b e g in n i n g a w ith d r a w a l f r o m t h e i r m i li ta r y e n t a n g l e ­ m e n t s in S o u th R u s s ia , t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y w as ju s t e m e r g in g t o m a k e its b i d f o r victory- in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f M o s c o w . $

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flo w o f t h e la v a .” 128 C h u r c h i l l in t u r n a g r e e d t h a t B r it is h tr o o p s w e re n o t t h e a n s w e r a n d s h o u l d b e w ith d r a w n as s o o n as i t b e c a m e fe a s ib le t o d o so , b u t h e w as a ls o d e t e r m i n e d to se e t h a t t h e B r itis h d is c h a r g e d t h e i r p le d g e s “ f a i th f u l ly a n d fu lly b y a r m in g a n d e q u ip p i n g t h e a n tiB o ls h e v ik f o r c e s ” f r o m t h e “ im m e n s e s u r p lu s o f m u n i t i o n s ” s till a v a il­ a b le a n d b y h e l p i n g t h e m “ t o t r a i n e ff ic ie n t a r m ie s o f t h e i r o w n .” 129 H e t h e r e f o r e p la y e d a m a j o r ro le in p r e p a r in g f o r t h e s h i f t o f B r itis h p o lic y fr o m o c c u p a t i o n to w a r d a c o n c e n t r a t i o n o n a id t o D e n ik in . W h i l e n o t ig n o r in g t h e d iffic u ltie s in t h e q u e s t io n o f r e la tio n s b e t w e e n D e n i k i n a n d t h e b o r d e r s ta te s , t h e B r it is h a d o p t e d a n a t t i ­ t u d e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e o p t i m i s m , b e lie v in g t h a t , w i t h D e n i k i n 's a t t e n ­ tio n tu r n e d

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J u ly 1, 1 9 1 9 , C u r z o n e x p re s s e d th i s v ie w in a n o t e to B a lf o u r o n B r it is h p o lic y in R u s s ia . H e n o t e d t h e p r o b l e m s , e s p e c ia lly in te r m s o f p u b l i c o p i n i o n , s t e m m i n g f r o m t h e r e a c t io n a r y r e p u t a t i o n o f t h e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik R u s s i a n fo rc e s , b u t h e w as c o n f i d e n t t h a t t h e i r re a l v ie w s a n d t h o s e o f t h e b o r d e r s t a te s c o u ld b e r e c o n c ile d . W h a t w as n e e d e d n o w , b e s id e s m i li ta r y a id , w as t h e e ff e c tiv e u s e o f A llie d “ g o o d o ffic e s” t o b r i n g a b o u t t h e p o litic a l r a p p r o c h e m e n t n e c e s s a ry to a c o m m o n f r o n t a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s .131 F o r e i g n O ffic e m e m o r a n d a c ir c u la t e d a t th i s t i m e a ls o n o t e d t h a t th i s c o u r s e w o u ld r e q u i r e t h e se rv ic e s o f c o m p e t e n t p o li ti c a l r e p r e ­ s e n t a ti v e s a s s ig n e d to D e n i k i n 's h e a d q u a r t e r s a n d t o T r a n s c a u c a s ia , s in c e e x p e r i e n c e h a d s h o w n t h e in a d e q u a c y o f m i li ta r y r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s t o h a n d l e s u c h a ffa irs .132 A s B a lf o u r p u t it, B r it is h p o lic y w as to a id a ll c o o p e r a t in g in t h e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik m o v e m e n t b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e t o d o th i s in s u c h a w a y as t o p r o m o t e u n i t y a n d a v o id a n y e n c o u r a g e ­ m e n t to s e p a r a ti s t te n d e n c i e s .133 A n d to th i s C u r z o n a d d e d t h a t e v e ry e f f o r t s h o u l d b e m a d e t o r e s to r e n o r m a l e c o n o m i c r e la tio n s a n d s t a ­ b il it y in S o u t h R u s s ia a n d p r o m o t e t r a d e w ith t h e o u t s i d e .134 A m a j o r s t e p in p r e p a r in g th i s li n e o f p o lic y , t h e s h i f t fr o m m i li ta r y i n t e r v e n ­ t i o n t o p o li ti c a l g u id a n c e a n d e c o n o m i c r e la tio n s , w as t h e a p p o i n t ­ m e n t in J u ly o f M r . O liv e r W a r d r o p as B r itis h c o m m is s io n e r to T r a n s c a u c a s ia , a c iv ilia n ro le a n d o n e s u p e r s e d in g t h e m i li ta r y c o m ­ m a n d . W a r d r o p 's in s t r u c t i o n s d r a w n u p b y C u r z o n s p e c ific a lly n o t e d t h a t r e c o g n i ti o n h a d n o t b e e n g r a n t e d t o t h e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n s ta te s a n d im p r e s s e d o n h i m t h a t h e w as t o u s e h is o ffice “ to d o y o u r u t m o s t

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to p r e v e n t f r ic ti o n b e t w e e n t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y a n d t h e T r a n s c a u c a ­ s ia n R e p u b lic s . . . .” 135 E n f o r c e m e n t o f t h e e s t a b li s h e d d e m a r c a t i o n li n e u p o n t h e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n s ta te s w as t o b e c e n t r a l t o th i s d u ty . T h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f a p o li ti c a l r e p r e s e n ta t iv e t o D e n i k i n w a s d e ­ la y e d u n t i l c o n s id e r a b ly la t e r , b u t L o n d o n

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m e n t e v e n in te r r it o r i e s o c c u p ie d b y t h e m . “ I n f a c t ,” t h e s t a t e m e n t d e c la r e d : G e n e r a l D e n i k i n a n d t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y a re a lr e a d y p u t t i n g i n t o p r a c t ic e t h e id e a o f a f e d e r a ti o n o f p e o p le s u n d e r t h e s u p r e m e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e R u s s ia n S ta te . G e n e r a l D e n i k i n h a s n e g o t i a t e d v /ith a n d a c te d to w a r d s G e o r g ia , A z e r b a ija n a n d o t h e r n a t i o n a l g r o u p s in t h e C a u c a s u s in t h e s a m e s p ir it. T h e y w e r e r e p e a t e d ly g iv e n d e f i n it e a s s u ra n c e s t h a t t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y h a d n o i n t e n t i o n w h a ts o e v e r o f in f r in g i n g u p o n t h e i r r ig h ts . . . . I n t h e o p i n i o n o f t h e p o litic a l le a d e rs w h o s u r r o u n d G e n e r a l D e n i k i n t h e s a m e p r i n ­ c ip le a p p lie s t o a ll t h e n a t i o n a li ti e s i n h a b i t i n g t h e b o r d e r s o f R u s s ia , viz. t h a t u n d e r t h e n e w R u s s ia n r é g im e t h e y w ill re c e iv e t h e f u l le s t m e a s u r e o f s e lf - g o v e r n m e n t, b u t as in t e g r a l p a r t s o f t h e R u s s ia n S ta te . G e n e r a l D e n i k i n b e lie v e s t h a t in so d o in g h e is in fu ll a c c o rd w ith t h e s p i r it o f t h e L e a g u e o f N a t i o n s . . . .136 T h i s s t a t e m e n t w as a c le a r e x a g g e r a tio n , b u t it, a lo n g w i t h o t h e r d e v e lo p m e n ts , u n d o u b t e d l y c o n t r i b u t e d

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t h e c o n c lu s io n t h a t , re g a r d le s s o f w h o s e tr o o p s w e re s e n t , t h e B r itis h w o u ld s till b e r u n n i n g t h e s h o w .138 A c tu a ll y t h e B r it is h w e re a c tiv e in e ffo rts t o p e r s u a d e o t h e r p o w e rs t o ta k e o v e r th i s r e s p o n s ib ility , a l t h o u g h u n d o u b t e d l y t h e y e x p e c t e d t o r e t a i n a c o n s id e r a b le , if n o t p r e d o m i n a n t , p o litic a l a n d e c o n o m i c in f lu e n c e in T r a n s c a u c a s ia . I t w as in th i s c o n t e x t t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n o f a m a n d a t e o v e r T r a n s c a u c a s ia o r p a r t s o f i t w as d is c u s s e d in A llie d c o u n c ils , a n d i t w as a ls o a t th i s t i m e t h a t t h e U n i t e d S ta te s w as b e in g d r a w n i n t o p a r t i c i p a t i n g in t h e s e q u e s t io n s . I n d e e d i t w as t h e F o r e i g n O f f ic e ’s s t r o n g h o p e t h a t B r it is h e v a c u a t io n w o u ld b e b a s e d u p o n s o m e s u c h s u b s t i t u t i o n a n d w o u ld n o t b e c a r r ie d o u t w i t h o u t a r r a n g e ­ m e n t s n e c e s s a ry t o r e t a i n W e s t e r n le a d e r s h i p in th is a re a u n t i l t h e R u s s ia n p r o b l e m w as re s o lv e d . S im p ly to e v a c u a te a n d le a v e a v a c ­ u u m h e r e w o u ld e n d a n g e r a ll t h a t h a d b e e n a c c o m p lis h e d a n d w h a t w as h o p e d f o r in t h e f u t u r e . I t w as a m a t t e r o f s h a r in g t h e b u r d e n , n o t o f d u m p i n g it. A t le a s t th is w as t h e p la n w h ic h t h e F o r e i g n O ffic e p u t t o L lo y d G e o r g e , w h o w as a p p a r e n t l y in r a t h e r a h u r r y to b r i n g t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n t o a n e n d . 139 A m o n g B r i t a i n ’s a llie s th e r e w e re re a lly o n ly tw o p r o s p e c ts fo r a m i li ta r y r e p l a c e m e n t in T r a n s c a u c a s ia : I t a ly a n d t h e U n i t e d S ta te s . N e i t h e r h a d tr o o p s in t h e a re a , o f c o u rs e , b u t b o t h h a d o b s e r v e rs , a n d b o t h h a d s h o w n s o m e i n t e r e s t in p a r t s o f T r a n s c a u c a s ia . I n J a n u a r y 1 9 1 9 , fo r e x a m p le , a t t h e s u g g e s tio n o f B r ig a d ie r G e n e r a l M a r l b o r ­ o u g h C h u r c h i l l , a n d u p o n t h e p r o p o s a l o f S e c re ta ry o f S ta t e L a n s in g to t h e P r e s i d e n t , i t h a d b e e n d e c id e d to s e n d a s p e c ia l U n i t e d S ta te s m is s io n to S o u t h R u s s ia “ to s t u d y a n d r e p o r t o n p o litic a l, e c o n o m i c a n d m i li ta r y c o n d i t i o n s in s u c h p a r ts o f s o u t h e r n R u s s ia a n d t h e C a u ­ c a su s as its m e m b e r s m a y b e a b le to v is it.” L i e u t e n a n t C o lo n e l E . F . R ig g s , f o r m e r m i li ta r y a t t a c h é in P e tr o g r a d , h a d b e e n n a m e d c h ie f o f t h e m i s s i o n .140 U p o n re a c h in g C o n s ta n tin o p le o n M a rc h

1, R ig g s ’ m is s io n h a d

b e e n d iv i d e d i n t o t h r e e s e c tio n s a s s ig n e d to O d e s s a , E k a te r in o d a r , a n d T iflis , u n d e r t h e d i r e c ti o n o f M a j o r J a m e s S te in b e r g , C a p t a i n W i l l i a m R . B e rry , a n d M r . B e n ja m in B . M o o r e , r e s p e c tiv e ly . E a c h h a d e s t a b li s h e d a n a c tiv e A m e r ic a n p o s t a t th e s e k e y p o in t s a n d h a d b e g u n s u p p l y in g t h e U n i t e d S ta te s w i t h r e g u la r d is p a tc h e s o f in f o r ­ m a tio n

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A m e r i c a n c o n s u l a r p e r s o n n e l a ls o l o c a t e d a t th e s e c itie s .141 Y e t b e f o r e t h e e n d o f M a y t h e A m e r ic a n C o m m is s io n to N e g o t i a t e P e a c e , u n d e r w h o s e a u t h o r i t y th e s e m is s io n s w e re a c tin g , h a d e x p re s s e d d o u b t s as t o c o n t i n u i n g t h e m . 142

The Volunteer Army

178

A l t h o u g h la c k o f f u n d s w as m e n t i o n e d as a r e a s o n f o r re c a llin g t h e m , it is n o t a t a ll u n lik e ly t h a t t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e m is s io n s t u r n e d o u t to b e r a t h e r m o r e e n th u s ia s t ic t h a n w as d e s ir a b le : tw o o f t h e O d e s s a p a r t y i n t e r v e n e d as m e d i a to r s in P o li s h - U k r a i n ia n n e g o ti a ti o n s o v e r G a lic ia ; C a p t a i n B e rry in E k a t e r i n o d a r w as u n u s u a l ly e m p h a t i c in u r g in g t h e im m e d i a te r e c o g n i ti o n o f G e n e r a l D e n i k i n

as c o m ­

m a n d e r - in - c h ie f o f a ll a n ti- B o ls h e v ik fo rc e s in S o u t h R u s s ia ; M o o r e a n d o t h e r m e m b e r s o f h is p a r t y in T iflis w e re a tt a c k e d a n d r o b b e d in t h e s tr e e ts a n d p r e s e n te d a d e m a n d fo r r e p a r a ti o n s t o t h e G e o r g ia n g o v e r n m e n t, w ith w h ic h t h e i r r e la tio n s w e re n o n e t o o g o o d .143 M o r e ­ o v e r, d if fe re n c e s o f o p in i o n c o n c e r n i n g A m e r i c a n in v o l v e m e n t a p p a r ­ e n t l y d e v e lo p e d b e tw e e n C o lo n e l R ig g s a n d t h e A m e r i c a n o p e r a t io n s c o m m a n d e r in th i s t h e a t r e , A d m ir a l M a r k L . B r is to l .144 I n v ie w o f s u c h f a c to rs , U n i t e d S ta te s a u t h o r i t i e s in P a ris d e c id e d d e f in ite ly o n J u ly

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m i li ta r y m is s io n s a n d

o r d e r e d t h e i r re c a ll.145 O n l y t h e M o o r e m is s io n in T iflis w as a u t h o r ­ iz e d to r e m a in te m p o r a r ily o n d u t y p e n d i n g t h e a rr iv a l o f M a j o r G e n e r a l J. G . H a r b o r d , w h o s e m is s io n w as to b e c o n f i n e d t o t h e A rm e n ia n

q u e s t i o n .146 A s th i s m o v e s u g g e s te d , A m e r i c a n

in te re s t

w o u ld h e n c e f o r t h b e l i m i t e d in its g e o g r a p h ic a l s c o p e , b u t i t w a s n o t n e c e s s a rily a n y less s ig n if ic a n t f o r th is . I n d e e d , as o n e B r it is h h i s t o r i a n p u ts it, t h e U n i t e d S ta te s h a d th e r e b y “ n i b b l e d a t t h e b a i t ” b e in g d a n g le d b y t h e B r it is h .147 O n J u ly 5 U n i t e d S ta te s C o l o n e l W . N . H a s k e ll w as a p p o i n t e d

Allied h ig h c o m m is s io n e r t o A r m e n i a , a p o s t

h e w as t o h o l d fo r o v e r a y e a r. A n d in A u g u s t A d m ir a l B r is to l w a s n a m e d A m e r ic a n h ig h c o m m is s io n e r in C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , p u t t i n g t h e U n i t e d S ta te s o n a n e q u a l f o o t in g w i t h t h e A llie s .148 F o r t h e B r itis h t h e p o s i ti o n ta k e n b y t h e I t a li a n s a n d t h e d e s ire to c o m m i t t h e U n i t e d S ta te s to t h e A r m e n i a n q u e s t i o n w e re c lo s e ly r e la te d . W h e n t h e B r itis h h a d p u b li c ly a n n o u n c e d t h e i r d e c is io n to w ith d r a w t h e i r tr o o p s in M a y , th e y h a d s im u l ta n e o u s l y d e c la r e d t h a t t h e I t a li a n g o v e r n m e n t h a d a g r e e d to s e n d tr o o p s t o r e p la c e t h e m . T h i s s o l u ti o n m i g h t a ls o h a v e h e l p e d to a p p e a s e I t a ly 's i r r i t a t i o n o v e r h e r c la s h w ith Y u g o s la v a s p ir a tio n s , w h ic h t h r e a t e n e d t o d e p r i v e h e r o f h e r a n t i c i p a t e d c o m p e n s a ti o n s in D a lm a t ia . I n a n y c a se t h e p r o s ­ p e c t o f a m a n d a t e in T r a n s c a u c a s ia , o r a t le a s t t e m p o r a r y o c c u p a t i o n a n d a ll i t o ff e re d , a p p a r e n t ly h e l d s o m e a t t r a c t i o n f o r I ta ly . T h e I t a l ­ ia n d e le g a tio n in P a ris h a d h i n t e d to t h e B r it is h as e a rly as M a r c h o f I t a ly 's w illin g n e s s t o o c c u p y T r a n s c a u c a s ia , a n d o n A p r il 2 L lo y d G e o r g e h a d t o l d C le m e n c e a u t h a t a n a g r e e m e n t t o th i s e f f e c t h a d b e e n r e a c h e d w i t h O r l a n d o . 149 T h i s p le a s e d t h e B r it is h s in c e i t w o u ld

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n o t o n ly re lie v e t h e m o f a b u r d e n b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e h e l p a p p e a s e a n a lly . On

t h e o t h e r h a n d , W i l s o n ’s o p p o s i ti o n

to t h e s e c r e t w a r ti m e

a g r e e m e n ts , a n d e s p e c ia lly h is o p p o s i ti o n t o I t a l i a n c la im s a g a in s t Y u g o s la v ia , a ls o h e l p e d t o e x p la in t h e d e lic a c y o f t h e A m e r ic a n p o s i­ t i o n in T r a n s c a u c a s ia . S in c e W i l s o n h a d b e e n p a r t ic u l a r ly k n o w n as a d e f e n d e r o f t h e A r m e n i a n s , th i s s i t u a t i o n m i g h t , h o w e v e r, h a v e b e e n re s o lv e d b y a d iv is io n o f r e s p o n s ib i li ty in T r a n s c a u c a s ia b e tw e e n t h e tw o , w i t h I t a ly r e p la c in g t h e B r it is h in G e o r g ia a n d A z e r b a id z h a n a n d t h e U n i t e d S ta te s d o in g so in A r m e n ia . A t le a s t th i s a p p e a r s to h a v e b e e n w h a t t h e B r it is h h a d in m i n d . T h e d if fic u ltie s in w o r k in g o u t s u c h a n a g r e e m e n t , h o w e v e r , w e re v e ry g r e a t. E v e n if t h e U n i t e d S ta t e s a n d I t a ly b o t h a g r e e d , t h e g e n e r a l h o s t i l i t y b e tw e e n A r m e n i a a n d t h e o t h e r tw o r e p u b lic s , a n d e s p e c ia lly t h e r e c e n t h is to r y o f a r m e d c la s h e s a m o n g t h e m , a n d t h e T u r k s , o v e r t h e d i s p u t e d te r r it o r i e s in K a rs a n d A r d a h a n p ro v in c e s , w o u ld ra is e s e r io u s o b s ta c le s . A n d , n o t to

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d is m e m b e rm e n t. I n M a y t h e a d v a n c e p a r t y o f a n I t a li a n m is s io n h a d a r r iv e d in T r a n s c a u c a s ia w i t h t h e p u r p o s e o f s u r v e y in g t h e s i t u a t i o n a n d p r e ­ s u m a b ly t o m a k e t h e n e c e s s a ry p r e p a r a ti o n s f o r t h e l a t e r a rriv a l o f I t a l i a n t r o o p s .150 B o t h t h e G e o r g ia n a n d A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v e r n m e n ts t o o k a d i m v ie w o f th i s m is s io n a n d p r iv a te ly u r g e d t h e B r it is h n o t to le a v e , b u t t o n o a v a il, a t le a s t w ith re g a r d to B r it is h e v a c u a t io n in g e n e r a l .151 B r it is h tr o o p s w o u ld r e m a in o n ly in B a tu m , W a r d r o p t o l d t h e G e o r g ia n g o v e r n m e n t , a n d th e r e , a f t e r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a n e w c ity g o v e r n m e n t , o n ly t h e p o r t w o u ld b e r e t a i n e d f o r m i li ta r y p u r p o s e s , w h ile t h e c ity it s e l f w o u ld p r o b a b l y b e t u r n e d

o v e r to

G e o r g ia ( a p r o m is e w h ic h as y e t d id n o t h a v e o fficia l s a n c t i o n ) . 152 T h e i n t e r n a l c risis f a c e d b y t h e I t a l i a n g o v e r n m e n t in J u n e 1919, h o w e v e r , h a d s o o n c h a n g e d th i s s i t u a t i o n . I n t h e m i d s t o f n e g o ti a ­ ti o n s in P a ris , o n J u n e 19, t h e O r l a n d o g o v e r n m e n t w as t o p p l e d a n d r e p l a c e d b y N i t t i ’s c a b in e t. T h i s t u r n o f e v e n ts u p s e t w h a te v e r p la n s h a d b e e n m a d e , f o r N i t t i now

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p r e p a r a ti o n s f o r s e n d i n g t r o o p s .153 A s la t e as A u g u s t 7, t h e I t a li a n a m b a s s a d o r in P a ris , C o u n t S a d in o , s t a t e d t h a t h e s till e x p e c t e d I ta ly t o b e g iv e n t h e m a n d a t e b y t h e L e a g u e o f N a t i o n s a n d t h a t I ta ly w o u ld p r o m o t e t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a T r a n s c a u c a s ia n c o n f e d e r a ti o n to

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b e jo i n e d to a R u s s ia n f e d e r a ti o n in t h e f u t u r e , b u t n o t h i n g e v e r c a m e o f f u r t h e r I t a li a n in v o l v e m e n t o t h e r t h a n t e n t a t i v e p r o m is e s o f a i d .154 D u r in g A u g u s t B r itis h tr o o p s le f t A z e r b a id z h a n f o r P e rs ia , a n d th o s e in G e o r g ia w e re m o v e d to B a t u m fo r e v a c u a tio n . O n A u g u s t 18 B a l­ f o u r w r o te t o L lo y d G e o r g e u r g in g t h a t e v e ry e f f o r t b e m a d e t o b r i n g t h e U n i t e d S ta te s in t o A r m e n i a in v ie w o f t h e I t a li a n re v e r s a l a n d t h e p r o s p e c t o f r e n e w e d c la s h e s b e tw e e n t h e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n r e p u b l ic s in t h e a b s e n c e o f A llie d c o n tr o ls .155 C o lo n e l H a s k e ll's a p p o i n t m e n t in J u ly h a d g o n e f a r to a c h ie v e w h a t B a lf o u r s o u g h t , b u t H a s k e ll's m is s io n h a d b e e n c o n c e iv e d n o t as a p o litic a l b u t as a r e lie f m is s io n . I t h a d b e e n H e r b e r t H o o v e r 's s u g g e s ­ t i o n w h ic h p r o m p t e d t h e a p p o i n t m e n t , a n d i t w a s u n d e r t h e g e n e r a l s u p e r v is io n o f t h e R e lie f A d m i n i s t r a t i o n t h a t H a s k e ll 's m is s io n o p e r ­ a te d . T h e A m e r ic a n c o n t r i b u t i o n in th is re g a r d w as a s i g n if ic a n t a n d g e n e r o u s o n e , fo r i t b r o u g h t o v e r $21 m i ll io n in a id , b u t i t d id n o t so lv e t h e p o litic a l d i l e m m a .150 T h e l a t t e r a s p e c t o f t h e p r o b l e m w as a p p r o a c h e d s e r io u s ly o n ly w i t h t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f a s p e c ia l m is s io n u n d e r G e n e r a l J. G . H a r b o r d to in v e s tig a te t h e c ir c u m s t a n c e s w h ic h w o u ld a ff e c t “ p o s s ib le A m e r ic a n in t e r e s t s a n d r e s p o n s ib ilitie s in t h a t r e g i o n ." 157 G e n e r a l H a r b o r d a n d h is m is s io n

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n o r t h to s o u t h a n d e a s t to w e s t" fo r t h i r t y d a y s in t h e la t e s u m m e r o f 1 919, in te r v ie w in g r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s o f e v e ry e s t a b li s h e d g o v e r n m e n t a n d in d iv id u a ls o f e v e ry m a j o r n a ti o n a li ty , e n d u r i n g g u n fire, m is e r a b le c o n d it io n s , a n d

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n u m e r o u s s q u a b b le s b e s e t t i n g t h e a re a . W h e n t h e s u rv e y w a s c o m ­ p le t e d , H a r b o r d h a d r e a c h e d s o m e c o n c lu s io n s o n t h e “ A r m e n i a n " q u e s t io n . T h e G e n e r a l c o u ld o n ly fin d t h a t th i s q u e s t i o n w as c o m ­ p le t e ly in s e p a r a b le fr o m t h e b r o a d e r q u e s t i o n o f t h e f a te o f t h e e n t i r e re g io n . C o n s e q u e n t l y h e r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t n o t o n ly ( 1 ) w as a m a n ­ d a t e n e c e s s a ry b u t ( 2 ) i t s h o u l d a ls o i n c l u d e all th r e e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n r e p u b lic s a n d c o n ti g u o u s t e r r it o r y in A n a to li a , a n d t h a t ( 3 )

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t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f p e a c e , o r d e r , e ffic ie n c y , a n d e c o n o m y " t h e s a m e p o w e r s h o u l d a s s u m e t h e m a n d a t e fo r a ll o f th i s a re a a n d s h o u l d b e g iv e n s p e c ia l s t a tu s in C o n s t a n t i n o p l e . G e n e r a l H a r b o r d b e lie v e d t h a t o n ly t h e U n i t e d S ta te s c o u ld d o th i s jo b ( r e q u ir i n g a s t e a d f a s t d e v o ti o n to t h e ta s k “ fo r a t le a s t a g e n e r a t i o n " a n d a n in i ti a l a s s ig n m e n t o f 5 9 ,0 0 0 tr o o p s w i t h a n e x p e n ­ d i t u r e o f $ 8 8 m i ll io n a y e a r fo r t h e firs t tw o o r t h r e e y e a r s ) , so h e r e c o m m e n d e d t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f a m a n d a t e as h e h a d d e s c r ib e d . B u t a l t h o u g h t h e W a r D e p a r t m e n t e s t i m a t e d t h a t o n ly 2 7 ,0 0 0 m e n w o u ld

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b e n e c e s s a ry f o r o c c u p a t i o n , t h e b u r d e n w as c le a rly m o r e t h a n t h e U n i t e d S ta t e s w is h e d t o a s s u m e .158 T h e m o s t t h a t c a m e o f t h e A m e r i­ c a n m a n d a t e id e a w as W i l s o n ’s a g r e e m e n t to a c t as m e d i a t o r f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f A r m e n i a ’s b o u n d a r i e s .159 T h i s , f o r a ll p r a c t ic a l p u r ­ p o s e s , c o u ld b e s a id to h a v e e n d e d t h e A llie d m i li ta r y in t e r v e n t i o n in

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s t a te s , h e n o t e d , t h e A llie s h a d f o llo w e d a n i n c o n s i s t e n t a n d o f t e n u n c l e a r c o u rs e , a n d c o n s e q u e n t ly t h e r e s u lts p r o d u c e d b y t h e i n t e r ­ v e n t i o n h a d t h u s fa r b e e n “ in c o m m e n s u r a t e e i t h e r w i t h t h e o b je c ts f o r w h ic h t h e y w e re u n d e r t a k e n o r w i t h t h e e n o r m o u s e x p e n d it u r e in v o l v e d .” H o w e v e r , h e w as s till o p t i m i s t i c a b o u t t h e p o s s ib ility o f c o r r e c ti n g th i s s i t u a t i o n a n d c o o r d i n a ti n g A llie d p o lic y m o r e e ffe c ­ tiv e ly in t h e f u t u r e . 162 I n p a r t i c u l a r C u r z o n c o n t i n u e d to o p p o s e t h e r e c o g n i ti o n o f t h e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n o r o t h e r b o r d e r s ta te s so lo n g as h e b e lie v e d t h a t t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y h a d a c h a n c e o f s u c c e s s, d e s p i te r e p e a t e d re c ­ o m m e n d a t i o n o f s u c h r e c o g n i ti o n b y n u m e r o u s p e r s o n s , i n c l u d in g W a r d r o p . 163 E v e n a g a in s t t h e sp e c ific a r g u m e n t , m a d e b y W a r d r o p , t h a t r e c o g n i ti o n w o u ld s e rv e t h e c a u s e o f p r o t e c t i n g B r itis h in t e r e s t s i n P e rs ia a n d I n d i a , C u r z o n in s is t e d as l a t e as O c t o b e r 1 9 1 9 t h a t it w as “ m o s t i m p o r t a n t t h a t a t th i s m o m e n t w h e n D e n i k i n ’s p ro g re s s a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s p r o m is e s g r e a t s u c c e s s h e s h o u l d n o t b e h a m ­ p e r e d b y f e a r o f a t t a c k in t h e r e a r .” T h e d e f e a t o f B o ls h e v is m , h e c o n t i n u e d in h is re p ly to W a r d r o p , w as t h e in t e r e s t o f G r e a t B r ita in , a n d th e r e f o r e i t s h o u l d d o a ll in its p o w e r t o a id D e n i k i n a n d to p r e ­ v e n t a n y u n f r i e n d l y a c ti o n a g a in s t h i m . 164 T h i s , w r o te C u r z o n , h a d to ta k e p r e c e d e n c e o v e r a n y c o n s i d e r a t io n o f t h e c la im s o f t h e T r a n s ­ c a u c a s ia n s t a te s o r p a r t i c u l a r in t e r e s t s t h e r e .165 I n k e e p in g w i t h t h e s e v ie w s, C u r z o n t h e n a c t e d o n h is e a r lie r s t a t e d

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182

i n t e n t i o n o f a t t e m p t i n g to r e c o n c ile t h e c la im s o f t h e s e s t a te s w i t h t h e a im s o f t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y . I n N o v e m b e r h e a p p o i n t e d S ir H a l ­ f o r d M a c k i n d e r as s p e c ia l B r it is h h ig h c o m m is s io n e r t o D e n i k i n , w i t h t h e sp e c ific a s s ig n m e n t o f n e g o ti a ti n g fo r u n i t y b e t w e e n t h e v a rio u s a n ti- B o ls h e v ik e l e m e n t s .166 A p r i v a te

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r e s e n te d as in t e r f e r e n c e b y b o t h B r it is h a n d F r e n c h o ffic ia l r e p r e ­ s e n ta tiv e s in t h e a re a . T h e p r o b l e m o f r e l a ti o n s w i t h t h e T r a n s c a u ­ c a s ia n s ta te s , in a n y c a se , d id n o t a s s u m e m a j o r i m p o r t a n c e a g a in fo r s o m e tim e . B r itis h w ith d r a w a l f r o m b o t h T r a n s c a u c a s ia a n d T r a n s c a s p ia h a d , o f c o u rs e , n o t b e e n u n r e l a t e d to t h e g e n e r a l c risis o f a ffa irs in t h e E a s t, e s p e c ia lly in I n d i a w h e r e a n a t i o n a l i s t r e b e l li o n h a d b r o k e n o u t . T h e v a s tly i m p o r t a n t B r itis h p o s i ti o n in I n d i a , m o r e o v e r , h a d b e e n t h r e a t e n e d b y t h e s u d d e n i n t e r v e n t i o n b y E m i r A m a n u ll a h o f A f g h a n ­ is ta n . T a k in g a d v a n ta g e o f t h e w e a k n e s s o f b o t h R u s s ia a n d B r it a in , a n d h o p i n g to s ile n c e in t e r n a l o p p o s i ti o n , t h e n e w E m i r h a d p r o ­ c la im e d h o ly w a r o n t h e B r itis h in M a y 1 9 1 9 a n d o r d e r e d a n in v a ­ s io n o f I n d i a . T h i s , t h e “ T h i r d A f g h a n W a r , ” w as s h o r tly e n d e d b y a s u c c e s s fu l B r itis h c o u n t e r a t t a c k a n d a p e a c e s e t t l e m e n t w h ic h l e f t A f g h a n is ta n i n d e p e n d e n t , b u t i t h a d g r e a tly c o m p l ic a t e d t h e s i t u a ­ t i o n f o r B r it a in a n d l i m i t e d its a b il it y t o g iv e m o r e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e R u s s ia n q u e s t i o n .168 I t s h o u l d a lso b e n o t e d t h a t i t w as lik e w is e in t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 1 9 t h a t G e n e r a l M u s ta f a K e m a l h a d b e g u n h is n a ti o n a li s t ic ra lly o f T u r k ­ ish tr o o p s , w h ic h w as u lt i m a t e l y t o o v e r t h r o w t h e O t t o m a n re g im e , w h ic h h a d c a p i t u l a t e d to t h e A llie s, a n d t h u s t o u n d e r m i n e t h e p la n s o f t h e A llie s in T u r k e y . A t t h e s a m e ti m e , h o w e v e r , B r it is h p o lic y h a d b e e n m u c h m o r e s u c c e s s fu l in P e rs ia . T h e tr e a t y c o n c l u d e d b y B r it a in w i t h t h e T e h e r a n g o v e r n m e n t in A u g u s t p u t t h a t c o u n t r y in a t h o r o u g h l y d e p e n d e n t p o s i t i o n .169 H o w e v e r , w h ile t h e s e e v e n ts u n ­ d o u b t e d l y a f f e c te d B r itis h p o lic y , th e y h a d l i t t l e d i r e c t b e a r i n g o n e v e n ts in R u s s ia . T h e r e t h e m a i n c o n c e r n a n d t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t d e v e l o p m e n t in

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PART

III

TH E RISE AND FALL OF THE VOLUNTEER ARMY

6:

DENIKIN' S MI L I T A R Y AND POLITICAL STRATEGIES

T h e rise o f t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y t o t h e p o s i ti o n o f b e in g t h e m a jo r c h a ll e n g e r t o B o ls h e v ik p o w e r a n d its s u b s e q u e n t fa ll in a lm o s t to t a l d e f e a t to o k p la c e in t h e s h o r t s p a n o f t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f 1919. T o s o m e e x t e n t i t w as in f a c t t h e v e ry e f f o r t to d o o r d ie in 1 9 1 9 w h ic h le d to t h e d is a s te r , b u t t h e fa ilu r e w as a ls o in p a r t a r e s u lt o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e A r m y t r i e d t o a t t a i n v ic to r y w i t h o u t a c o o r d i n a ti o n o f a c ti o n w ith o t h e r s a n d w i t h o u t a d e q u a t e p o li ti c a l a n d d ip l o m a t i c f o u n d a t i o n . T h e A r m y w a s, in d e e d , t h e v ic t im o f c ir c u m s t a n c e s in m a n y w ay s a n d w as n o t to b la m e f o r a ll t h a t h a p p e n e d , b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e V o l u n t e e r m i li ta r y a n d p o li ti c a l s tr a te g y d id n o t a lw a y s p r o v id e t h e b e s t b a sis f o r s u c c e s s. F o ll o w i n g t h e c o n q u e s t o f t h e N o r t h C a u c a s u s , D e n i k i n i n t e n d e d firs t, in t h e s p r in g o f 1 9 1 9 , to p re s s to w a r d A s tr a k h a n a n d T s a r i ts y n t o se a l o ff t h e lo w e r V o lg a b e f o r e la u n c h i n g a m a j o r o ff e n s iv e a g a in s t t h e R u s s ia n h e a r t l a n d . H o w e v e r , h e s o o n d e c id e d t h a t th i s o p e r a t io n w o u ld b e d if f ic u lt b e c a u s e o f t h e w e a k n e s s o f t h e D o n fo rc e s f a c in g a la r g e B o ls h e v ik c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t T s a r i ts y n a n d t h e n e c e s s ity o f m a i n ­ t a i n i n g a d e q u a t e s t r e n g t h o n t h e l e f t fla n k p r o t e c t i n g t h e v ita l D o n e ts b a s in . B e lie v in g i t im p o s s ib le t o m o v e in b o t h d ir e c ti o n s a t t h i s ti m e , h e f o u n d i t n e c e s s a ry t o c h o o s e b e t w e e n t h e m . H is d e c is io n to s h i f t h is s t r e n g t h t o t h e w e s te r n f la n k w as t h u s m o t iv a t e d , o n t h e o n e h a n d , b y t h e c r u c ia l s t r a te g i c v a lu e o f t h e D o n e t s a n d , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , b y t h e s t r e n g t h o f B o ls h e v ik fo rc e s a r o u n d T s a r i t s y n .1 V o l u n t e e r s u c c e s s e s e a rly in t h e s p r in g o n t h e l e f t fla n k w e re t h u s a c c o m p a n ie d b y a p u ll b a c k o n t h e r i g h t. D e n i k i n h o p e d to s ta b iliz e a n d h o l d t h e r i g h t fla n k b y u n i t i n g t h e tr o o p s in t h a t a re a u n d e r o n e c o m m a n d e r, a n d h e ask ed G e n e ra l B aro n P . N . W ra n g e l, w h o h a d a c h ie v e d m u c h su c c e s s in t h e N o r t h

185

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The Volunteer Army

186

W r a n g e l , h o w e v e r, a t firs t r e f u s e d t o a c c e p t i t u n le s s p r i o r it y w e re g iv e n to t h e r i g h t fla n k , a m o v e w h ic h D e n i k i n h a d a lr e a d y r e j e c te d . D e n ik in h im s e l f th e r e f o r e to o k te m p o r a r y c o m m a n d o f t h e tr o o p s in v o lv e d a n d m a n a g e d t o re v e rse t h e t i d e o n t h e r i g h t d u r i n g A p r il, o n ly t o b e c o n f r o n t e d w ith a t u r n fo r t h e w o rs e o n t h e le f t, w h e r e G e n e r a l M a i- M a e v s k ii’s V o l u n t e e r C o r p s w as o p e r a t in g . I t w a s th u s n o t u n t i l M a y t h a t th e s e in i ti a l d if fic u ltie s w e re o v e r c o m e b y a r e ­ g r o u p i n g w h ic h c r e a te d tw o la rg e fo rc e s o n t h e le f t a n d r i g h t u n d e r M a i-M a e v s k ii a n d W r a n g e l re s p e c tiv e ly , t h e l a t t e r n o w h a v in g a g r e e d to ta k e t h e p o s t, w h ile c o n t i n u i n g h is d e m a n d s

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s tra te g y . T h i s r e o r g a n iz a t io n , p lu s t h e b r i n g in g o f B r it is h ta n k s i n t o p la y a n d a n ti- B o ls h e v ik u p ris in g s in t h e N o r t h D o n a n d t h e U k r a in e , m a d e M a y a t u r n i n g p o i n t fo r D e n ik in . H e n o w s o u g h t t o e x p a n d a n d s e c u r e h is b a s e b y s p r e a d in g h is fo rc e s in a g r e a t a r c f r o m t h e V o lg a o n t h e r i g h t to t h e B la c k S ea w e s t o f t h e C r i m e a o n t h e l e f t. O p e r a ti o n s in M a y b e g a n w i t h a fa irly b a la n c e d fa n - lik e m o v e m e n t p u s h i n g o u tw a r d o n ra d ii le a d i n g e a s t, n o r t h , a n d w e s t s i m u l t a n e ­ o u s ly . T r o o p s fr o m t h e N o r t h C a u c a s u s m o v e d to w a r d A s tr a k h a n ; W r a n g e l l fo r c e h e a d e d to w a r d T s a r i ts y n ; t h e D o n a r m y d i r e c t e d its a tta c k

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f o c u s e d a ll o p e r a t io n s o n t h e h e a r t o f S o v ie t R u s s ia . T h i s p a t t e r n w o u ld , o f c o u rs e , d r a w t h e tw o fla n k s to w a r d t h e c e n t e r b y its v e ry n a t u r e , a n d D e n i k i n p r o p o s e d to c o n c e n t r a t e h is a t t e n t i o n a n d t h e la r g e s t b o d y o f m e n a n d s u p p lie s p o s s ib le a lo n g t h e s h o r t e s t p a t h t o M o s c o w , t h a t is, t h r o u g h IG ia rk o v , K u rs k , O r e l, a n d T u l a . T h e M o s c o w D ir e c t iv e t h u s p u t t h e fo c u s o f e f f o r t a n d a t t e n t i o n u p o n M a i- M a e v s k ii’s V o l u n t e e r s , le a v in g t h e i m p a t i e n t W r a n g e l o n t h e p e r i p h e r y in a s u p p o r t i n g ro le . D e n i k i n p u t t h e m a i n b u r d e n o f re s p o n s ib i li ty u p o n M a i- M a e v s k ii, a r a t h e r u n in s p ir i n g c o m m a n d e r , s im p ly b e c a u s e h e c o m m a n d e d t h e h a r d c o re o f t h e o r ig in a l V o l u n ­ t e e r A rm y , a fo r c e w h ic h D e n i k i n b e lie v e d to b e t h e m o s t r e lia b le a n d t h e m o s t d e s e r v in g , in a d d i t i o n to its b e in g a lr e a d y in t h e c e n tr a l p o s i­ ti o n . W r a n g e l ’s tr o o p s w e re c o m p o s e d la rg e ly o f C o s s a c k s , w ith w h o m h e w o r k e d e x tr e m e l y w e ll, b u t w h o w e re n o t e x p e c t e d t o b e re lia b le o u t s i d e t h e i r o w n te r r it o r y . K u b a n C o s s a c k s w e re a lr e a d y n o tic e a b ly p o o r in t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n , a n d t h e v a li a n t D o n C o s s a c k s w e re e x ­ p e c t e d t o b e m u c h less e n t h u s i a s t i c w h e n m o v e d n o r t h w a r d b e y o n d D o n b o r d e r s . A s g o o d as D e n i k i n ’s re a s o n s a p p e a r e d , h o w e v e r, th e y c o u ld b e t e s t e d o n ly as t h e p la n w as e x e c u te d . D u r i n g J u ly a n d A u g u s t t h e R e d A r m y w as p u t o n t h e r u n a ll a lo n g t h e f r o n t e x c e p t o n t h e r i g h t fla n k . S o p r e c i p it o u s w as t h e i r r e t r e a t t h a t fu ll v ic to r y s e e m e d a lm o s t in e v i ta b l e fo r t h e V o lu n te e r s . T h e s u p e r io r i ty in n u m b e r o f m e n p o s s e s s e d b y t h e B o ls h e v ik fo rc e s d i m i n ­ is h e d r a p id ly as t h e V o l u n t e e r s a d v a n c e d n o r t h w a r d . E a c h o f t h e c o rp s o p e r a t i n g a t t h e f r o n t r e c r u it e d n e w m e n in la rg e n u m b e r s as i t m o v e d , a n d a s iz e a b le n u m b e r c a m e o v e r f r o m t h e B o ls h e v ik fo rc e s, w h ic h w e re b e s e t w ith f r e q u e n t d e s e r tio n s . A t t h e b e g in n i n g o f t h e M a y o p e r a t io n s D e n i k i n h a d o n ly 6 4 ,0 0 0 m e n in t h e lin e , b u t b y m i d s u m m e r h e w as c o m m a n d i n g s o m e 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 m e n , n o t i n c l u d in g re a r p e r s o n n e l .2 A t t h e s a m e ti m e , h o w e v e r, t h e l e n g t h o f t h e f r o n t w as n o w h u n d r e d s o f m ile s lo n g , so t h e r e w e re n o fo rc e s to s p a re . I n th e s e c ir c u m s t a n c e s , D e n i k i n ’s b a s ic t a c t ic w as to k e e p t h e B o ls h e v ik s o n t h e r u n so as to p r e v e n t t h e m

fr o m r e g r o u p in g o r b u i l d i n g u p

t h e i r s t r e n g t h a n d a ls o to o b t a i n t h e a rm s a n d s u p p lie s w h ic h t h e r e t r e a t i n g R e d A r m y l e f t b e h i n d . T h e p s y c h o lo g ic a l s ig n ific a n c e o f th i s a p p r o a c h in a civ il w a r w as a ls o v e ry i m p o r t a n t , D e n ik in o b s e r v e d : S tr a te g y [ t r a d itio n a lly ] d o e s n o t p e r m i t d is p e rs a l o f s t r e n g t h a n d d e m a n d s a f r o n t siz e p r o p o r t i o n a l t o it. B u t w e s p r e a d o v e r h u n ­ d r e d s o f v e rs ts , s o m e ti m e s i n t e n t i o n a l l y s o m e ti m e s o f n e c e s s ity . . . .

188

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I n e n th u s ia s m c a lle d f o r t h b y v ic to rie s , in m a n e u v e r , a n d in t h e in e r ti a o f p ro g re s s iv e m o v e m e n t la y o u r s t r e n g t h . . . . W h e n w e w id e n e d t h e f r o n t to h u n d r e d s o f v e rs ts , w e t h e r e f o r e b e c a m e n o t w e a k e r b u t s t r o n g e r as a r e s u lt. . . . O n l y u n d e r s u c h c o n d i t i o n s d id w e h a v e t h e p o s s ib ility o f c o n t i n u i n g t h e s tr u g g le . O t h e r w i s e w e w o u ld h a v e b e e n s m o t h e r e d b y t h e v a s t s u p e r io r i ty o f s t r e n g t h o f o u r o p p o n e n t , w h o p o s s e s s e d in e x h a u s ti b le re s o u rc e s o f m a n p o w e r . . . . T h e o r y s p e a k s o f s e c u r in g b o r d e r s b u t t h e p r a c t ic e o f c iv il w a r, w ith its v a s t d is ta n c e s a n d f r o n t, a n d w i t h its e x c e p t io n a l p r e d o m i ­ n a n c e o f p sy c h o lo g y , n o t o n ly in t h e a r m y b u t a ls o in t h e p o p u l a ­ t i o n o f a re a s a f f e c te d b y t h e w a r, te s tifie s to t h e i n s u r m o u n t a b l e d if fic u lty a n d f r e q u e n tl y t h e c o m p l e t e w o r th le s s n e s s o f t h e m e t h o d s o f p o s itio n a l w a rfa re .3 A lth o u g h th is th e s is w as s u b j e c t to q u e s t i o n , D e n i k i n

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r e m a r k a b le s u c c e s s so lo n g as h is f o r w a r d w a v e r e m a i n e d in m o t i o n . T h r o u g h t h e s u m m e r t h e R e d A r m y c o n t i n u e d to m a k e its m a j o r e f f o r t in t h e V o lg a - N o r t h D o n a re a o n D e n i k i n 's r i g h t. A tw o - p r o n g e d o ffe n s iv e b y t h e 1 0 th A r m y a lo n g w i t h B u d e n n y 's c a v a lry

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to t a l o f s o m e 9 0 ,0 0 0 m e n ) s t r u c k a h a r d b lo w a g a in s t W r a n g e l 's p o s i­ ti o n n o r t h o f T s a r i ts y n a n d t h e r i g h t s e c t io n o f t h e D o n lin e . T h i s s u c c e e d e d in p u s h i n g W r a n g e l b a c k to T s a r i ts y n it s e l f a n d f o r c e d t h e D o n a r m y to p u ll b a c k s o u t h o f t h e D o n R iv e r, b u t t h e r e t h e a d v a n c e w as s t o p p e d . O n th i s fla n k D e n i k i n 's fo rc e s t h e n h e l d t h e i r g r o u n d w ith m i n o r f l u c tu a t io n s in S e p t e m b e r a n d O c t o b e r . D u r i n g A u g u s t th e r e w as a ls o a te m p o r a r y b r e a k in t h e li n e b e t w e e n t h e V o l u n t e e r c o rp s a n d t h e D o n a r m y a r o u n d V o r o n e z h , b u t D e n i k i n o r d e r e d t h e D o n a r m y to a s s u m e a d e f e n s iv e p o s i ti o n o n t h e r i g h t a n d c o n c e n t r a t e its e ff o rts s u b s e q u e n tly u p o n s u p p o r t o f t h e c e n t e r t h r u s t b y t h e V o l ­ u n te e r s . T h i s p u ll e d t h e D o n fo rc e s t o t h e le f t, le a d i n g t h e m o u t s i d e D o n te r r it o r y , b u t i t s e r v e d t h e p u r p o s e o f p lu g g i n g t h e h o l e a n d a llo w in g t h e V o l u n t e e r s t o c o n t i n u e p r e s s in g f o r w a r d in t h e c e n te r . D u r i n g S e p t e m b e r a n d O c t o b e r D e n i k i n 's s t r a te g y s t a k e d e v e r y t h in g t h a t c o u ld b e m u s t e r e d o n th i s c e n tr a l t h r u s t , a n d i t p a id o ff in t h e a d v a n c e o f t h e V o l u n t e e r s to w i t h i n s tr ik i n g d is ta n c e o f M o s c o w its e lf, w i t h t h e s p e a r h e a d a r o u n d T u l a . A s D e n i k i n k n e w , t h e d iv i d e d c o u n s e ls o f t h e R e d A r m y h a d b e e n o n e o f h is c h ie f a ss e ts in th i s o ffe n s iv e . A d i s p u t e b e t w e e n T r o t s k i i a n d S ta lin o v e r s t r a te g y in t h e S o u t h h a d p la g u e d B o ls h e v ik o p e r a ­ ti o n s s in c e t h e fa ll o f 1 9 1 8 . W i t h S ta l in a n d V o r o s h i lo v , c o m m a n d ­ in g t h e 1 0 th A r m y o n t h e T s a r i t s y n - N o r t h D o n f r o n t , i n s is t in g o n

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p r i o r it y f o r t h e i r fla n k a n d a p p a r e n t l y f a ilin g t o e x e c u te o r d e r s c o n ­ t r a r y t o t h a t p o i n t o f v ie w , T r o t s k i i h a d b e e n f r u s t r a t e d in h is e ffo rts t o c o o r d i n a t e o p e r a t io n s in t h e S o u t h a n d s h i f t fo rc e s t o m e e t D e n i ­ k i n 's m a i n a tt a c k . A s h e h a d p u t i t in a te l e g r a m t o L e n in , “ O p e r a ­ ti o n s in s t r e n g t h a re im p o s s ib le w i t h o u t c o o r d i n a ti o n o f o p e r a t io n s w i t h T s a r i ts y n . T h e r e is n o t i m e f o r d ip l o m a t ic n e g o ti a ti o n s . T s a r i t ­ s y n m u s t e i t h e r o b e y o r d e r s o r g e t o u t o f t h e w ay . W e h a v e a c o lo s sa l s u p e r io r i ty in fo rc e s b u t t o t a l a n a r c h y a t t h e t o p ." T o a v e r t “ r u i n f o r t h e e n t i r e c a u s e ," T r o t s k i i h a d d e m a n d e d t h e r e m o v a l o f S ta lin a n d V o r o s h i lo v a n d t h e r e o r g a n iz a t io n o f t h e s o u t h e r n f r o n t, b u t h e h a d f a ile d t o d is lo d g e t h e m

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d e la y in m o u n t i n g a n e ff e c tiv e c o u n te r o f f e n s iv e .4 T h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f B o ls h e v ik e ff o rts o n t h e D o n s id e o f t h e li n e h a d b r o u g h t t h e m u p a g a in s t C o s s a c k s f ig h tin g fo r t h e i r o w n h o m e ­ la n d , p u t t h e i r c h ie f o p e r a t io n s e a s t o f t h e s t r a te g i c D o n e t s a re a , a n d k e p t t h e m o c c u p ie d in a s e c t o r w h e r e D e n i k i n w as c o n t e n t to h o l d t h e d e f e n s iv e . T h e V o l u n t e e r s w e re t h u s a b le t o a d v a n c e i n t o t h e U k r a in e a n d o n to w a r d M o s c o w w i t h f a r less r e s is ta n c e t h a n m i g h t h a v e b e e n p r o v i d e d . T h i s s i t u a t i o n d id n o t la s t lo n g e n o u g h , h o w e v e r, f o r T r o t s k i i d id e v e n tu a lly s u c c e e d in s t e p p in g u p t h e tr a n s f e r o f m e n f r o m t h e S ib e r ia n f r o n t a n d s h i f t e d h is m a i n e f f o r t a w a y fr o m T s a r i t ­ s y n to w a r d t h e c e n te r . T r o t s k i i h a d h is w ay , b u t o n ly a f t e r t h e f a ilu re o f K o lc h a k ’s o ff e n s iv e in S ib e r ia a n d t h e r e t r e a t o f t h e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik fo rc e s o n t h a t f r o n t d u r i n g t h e s u m m e r , a r e t r e a t w h ic h r e m o v e d t h e t h r e a t o f a lin k - u p b e t w e e n D e n i k i n a n d K o lc h a k a t t h e V o lg a , a t h r e a t w h ic h h a d b e e n t h e ju s tif ic a tio n o f S ta l in ’s p o s i ti o n . T h e B o l­ s h e v ik v ic to r y o n t h e S ib e r ia n f r o n t, a c le a r v ic to ry b y e a rly a u t u m n , t h u s b o t h ju s tif ie d a n d m a d e m o r e fe a s ib le a c o n c e n t r a t i o n a g a in s t D e n i k i n ’s f o r w a r d a d v a n c e . R e d A r m y fo rc e s , n o ta b l y B u d e n n y ’s c a v a lry , w e re th u s m o v e d w e s tw a r d t o V o r o n e z h d u r i n g N o v e m b e r ; a n d D e n i k i n , i n s te a d o f c o n ­ s o l id a t in g h is l i n e t h e r e to s t o p th i s t h r e a t , c o n t i n u e d t o c o n c e n t r a t e o n k e e p in g t h e c e n t e r m o v in g fo r w a rd . B e c a u s e o f t h e in c r e a s in g ly d if f ic u lt s u p p l y s i t u a t i o n , t h e la c k o f re s e rv e s, a n d t h e g e n e r a l i n s ta ­ b il it y in t h e r e a r o f M a i- M a e v s k ii’s a rm y , D e n i k i n e v e n f e l t c o m p e l le d to p u ll tr o o p s a w a y fr o m t h e l e f t fla n k o f t h e D o n a r m y w h e r e i t j o i n e d t h e V o l u n t e e r c o rp s , t h u s w e a k e n in g t h e li n e a t p re c is e ly t h e p o i n t w h e r e B u d e n n y w as p r e p a r in g t o s tr ik e . T h e d e c is iv e B o ls h e v ik b r e a k - th r o u g h , a s s is te d b y t h e r e s u lti n g g a p b e tw e e n V o l u n t e e r a n d D o n fo r c e s , t h u s o c c u r r e d in t h e fo r m o f a p e n e t r a t i o n m o v in g in a

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s o u t h w e s te r l y d ir e c ti o n fr o m V o r o n e z h to w a r d K h a rk o v . T h i s s u c c e s s ­ fu l m o v e m e n t in e ff e c t c u t D e n i k i n ’s fo rc e s in tw o a n d p u t h is m o s t a d v a n c e d u n it s in t h e e x tr e m e ly d a n g e r o u s p o s i ti o n o f b e in g c u t o ff in t h e re a r. D u r i n g N o v e m b e r a n d D e c e m b e r t h e V o l u n t e e r b u b b l e c o l­ la p s e d a n d a g e n e r a l w ith d r a w a l w as m a d e u n a v o id a b l e . T h i s r e t r e a t , w h ic h D e n i k i n h o p e d to m a k e m e r e ly a r e g r o u p in g o p e r a t i o n a f t e r w h ic h t h e o ffe n s iv e c o u ld b e r e n e w e d , in f a c t t u r n e d i n t o a r o u t . T h e g a m b l e o f t h e M o s c o w D ir e c t iv e h a d c o m e c lo s e t o s u c c e s s , b u t in fa ilin g t o a c h ie v e its g o a l i t h a d a ls o d e p r iv e d D e n i k i n o f a s e c o n d chance. O n e o f t h e m o s t o b v io u s c a u se s o f t h e fa ilu r e o f t h e a n ti - B o ls h e ­ v ik fo rc e s to w in t h e i r w a r a g a in s t t h e S o v ie t re g im e w a s t h e f a ilu r e o f D e n i k i n a n d K o lc h a k t o c o o r d i n a te t h e i r o p e r a t io n s . D e n i k i n h a s w ritte n

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K o lc h a k , b u t th i s w as t r u e o n ly in p r i n c ip l e . O n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t a n a m a l g a m a t io n o f t h e i r r e s p e c tiv e te r r it o r i e s w as t o ta k e p la c e a f t e r t h e tw o f r o n ts h a d b e e n b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r , f o r e x a m p le , t h e y h a d “ te m p o r a r ily d iv id e d t h e te r r it o r i e s w i t h i n t h e s p h e r e s o f in f lu e n c e o f O m s k a n d E k a te r in o d a r , t h e te r r i t o r y w e s t o f t h e V o lg a a n d a ls o t h e T r a n s c a s p ia n re g io n f a llin g t o [ D e n i k i n ] .” T h e y w e re a ls o in g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t o n p o litic a l q u e s t io n s . W h e n t h e A llie d P o w e r s o f f e r e d t o re c o g n iz e K o lc h a k ’s g o v e r n m e n t in M a y 1 9 1 9 , a t t h e p e a k o f t h e A d m ir a l’s m i li ta r y s u c c e s s, b o t h K o lc h a k a n d D e n i k i n a g r e e d t o t h e c o n d it io n s s t i p u l a t e d , i n c l u d in g t h e c a llin g o f a c o n s t i t u e n t a s s e m b ly , h o l d i n g fr e e e le c tio n s , p r o t e c t i n g civ il a n d r e lig io u s li b e r t ie s , re c o g ­ n itio n o f P o la n d a n d F in la n d , a n d L e a g u e o f N a tio n s m e d ia tio n o f r e la tio n s w ith t h e B a ltic a n d T r a n s c a u c a s ia n n a t i o n a l i t i e s .5 I n t h e m a t t e r o f m i li ta r y s tr a te g y t h e r e w as in d e e d a ls o a g e n e r a l a g r e e m e n t fr o m t h e b e g in n i n g o f 1 9 1 9 t h a t t h e i r fo rc e s s h o u l d c o n ­ v e rg e a t t h e V o lg a a n d t h e n m a r c h jo i n tl y to M o s c o w . I t w a s w i t h t h i s in m i n d t h a t D e n i k i n in iti a ll y p l a n n e d h is c a m p a ig n so as t o se a l o ff t h e lo w e r V o lg a a t A s tr a k h a n a n d t h e n e x e c u te a d r iv e t h r o u g h T s a r i ts y n w h ic h w o u ld m e e t K o lc h a k ’s fo rc e s c o m i n g f r o m t h e E a s t. S u c h a p la n h a d t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e A llie s , a n d t h e a g r e e m e n t o n z o n e s b e tw e e n K o lc h a k a n d D e n i k i n h a d b e e n i n t e n d e d t o i m p l e ­ m e n t t h e i r c o o p e r a t io n a n d s e rv e t h e c o m m o n g o a l o f r e s to r i n g R u s ­ s ia n u n i t y th r o u g h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a m o d e r a t e a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l g o v e r n m e n t in M o s c o w . M o r e o v e r in J u n e , a t A llie d s u g g e s tio n a n d d e s p i te p e r s o n a l d i s a p p o i n t m e n t a n d c o n s i d e r a b l e o p p o s i t i o n in h is o w n c a m p , D e n ik in f o r m a lly c o n f i r m e d h is r e c o g n i ti o n o f K o lc h a k as

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s u p r e m e c o m m a n d e r so as t o a v o id e v e n t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f riv a lry b e t w e e n t h e m a n d t o f a c i li ta t e c o o r d i n a ti o n o f t h e i r o p e r a t io n s .6 Y e t w h e n i t c a m e t o t h e a c tu a l f a c t o f m i li ta r y o p e r a t io n s , t h e r e w as n o t o n ly n o c o o r d i n a t i o n b u t e v e n a lm o s t a c o m p l e t e la c k o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e tw e e n t h e m . A t t h e f a r t h e s t p o i n t o f K o lc h a k ’s a d v a n c e in M a y D e n i k i n w as n o t c o n c e n t r a t i n g h is fo rc e s in t h e d ir e c ­ t i o n o f T s a r i ts y n a t a ll b u t r a t h e r h a d t h e m m o v in g in a ll d ir e c tio n s a t o n c e . H is m a i n d riv e w as, in d e e d , n o t to w a r d t h e V o lg a b u t n o r t h w e s t i n t o t h e U k r a in e . I n J u ly , w h e n t h e tr o o p s u n d e r G e n e r a l P . N . W r a n g e l , o n e o f t h e s h a r p e s t c ritic s o f D e n i k i n ’s s tr a te g y , fin a lly to o k T s a r i ts y n o n t h e V o lg a , K o lc h a k w as a lr e a d y in r e t r e a t a n d t h e d is ­ ta n c e w as t o o g r e a t t o b r i d g e .7 K o lc h a k ’s s u b s e q u e n t w ith d r a w a l, o f c o u rs e , a ls o e n a b le d t h e R e d A r m y to s h i f t its m a i n w e ig h t f r o m S ib e r ia t o D e n i k i n ’s f r o n t a n d t h u s to d e s tr o y in t u r n h is s e p a r a te m a r c h to w a r d M o s c o w t h r o u g h R o s to v , K h a rk o v , O r e l, a n d T u l a . D e n i k i n ’s o ff e n s iv e c a m e m u c h c lo s e r to M o s c o w t h a n K o lc h a k ’s, b u t th i s w as in p a r t b e c a u s e o f t h e s lo w n e s s o f t h e B o ls h e v ik s in s h i f t ­ in g t h e i r o w n tr o o p s to m e e t t h e m a i n d riv e o f V o l u n t e e r fo rc e s. W h e n in J u ly D e n i k i n is s u e d h is c o n tr o v e r s ia l M o s c o w D ir e c tiv e , h e c a u g h t t h e B o ls h e v ik s o ff g u a r d b e c a u s e th e y a s s u m e d t h a t h e w o u ld c o n c e n t r a t e o n jo i n in g K o lc h a k t h r o u g h T s a r i ts y n , b u t in t h e lo n g r u n e v e n tw o s k illf u lly e x e c u t e d o ffe n s iv e s ( i n f a c t t h e r e w e re t h r e e , s in c e G e n e r a l N . N . I u d e n i c h le d a c a m p a ig n a g a in s t P e tr o g r a d f r o m t h e B a lt ic in S e p t e m b e r ) c o u ld n o t a c h ie v e s e p a r a te ly t h e su c c e s s w h ic h t h e i r c o o r d i n a t i o n m i g h t h a v e a s s u re d . I t w as w ith th i s in m i n d t h a t G e n e r a l W r a n g e l c h a r g e d t h a t D e n i k i n ’s M o s c o w D ir e c t iv e a n d t h e w h o le s t r a te g y o f a s e p a r a te d riv e o n t h e B o ls h e v ik c a p ita l a m o u n t e d t o “ n o t h i n g m o r e o r less t h a n a d e a t h s e n t e n c e f o r t h e A rm ie s o f S o u t h R u s s i a .” 8 D e n i k i n ’s f a ilu r e t o fo llo w u p o n t h e p la n to m o v e t h r o u g h T s a r i ts y n to lin k u p w i t h

K o lc h a k , m o r e o v e r , h e b la m e d

u p o n a se lfis h riv a lry b e tw e e n t h e tw o c o m m a n d e r s a n d c la im e d t h a t D e n i k i n ’s s t r a te g y w as d e li b e r a t e ly d e s ig n e d to b e a t K o lc h a k to M o s ­ c o w so as to k e e p p o w e r f o r h im s e l f .9 S im ila r c h a rg e s w e re , in d e e d , m a d e b y s o m e o f K o lc h a k ’s s u b o r d in a te s as w e ll, a c c u s in g h i m o f fa il­ in g t o m a k e a re a l e f f o r t to m a k e c o n t a c t w ith t h e V o l u n t e e r fo rc e s in t h e S o u th a n d b la m i n g th i s u p o n a d e s ire to a v o id h a v in g to s h a r e p o w e r w ith D e n i k i n o n c e t h e v ic to r y h a d b e e n w o n .10 F r o m t h e a c tu a l m o v e m e n t s o f t h e i r re s p e c tiv e fo rc e s a n d t h e la c k o f c o o r d i n a ti o n b e t w e e n t h e m , i t d id in f a c t a p p e a r t h a t s u c h c h a rg e s w e re w e ll f o u n d e d . I t w as c e r t a in l y t r u e t h a t fe e lin g s o f riv a lry e x is te d in b o t h

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K o lc h a k 's a n d D e n i k i n 's sta ffs w h ic h c o u ld e a sily h a v e in f lu e n c e d t h e tw o c h ie fs . H o w e v e r , th is e x p la n a tio n c o n s id e r a b ly o v e r s im p lif ie d t h e p r o b l e m s in v o lv e d . I n t h e firs t p la c e n e i t h e r K o lc h a k n o r D e n i k i n e v e r i n d i ­ c a te d a n y d e s ire to r e m a in in p o w e r o n c e t h e m i li ta r y v ic to r y h a d b e e n a c h ie v e d . B o t h w e re p le d g e d to t u r n o v e r a u t h o r i t y t o a p r o v is io n a l g o v e r n m e n t a n d a c o n s t i t u e n t a s s e m b ly . M o r e o v e r , i t is u n li k e ly t h a t D e n ik in w o u ld h a v e s u b o r d i n a t e d h im s e l f to K o lc h a k , e v e n u n d e r A llie d p re s s u re , if a s t r o n g riv a lry h a d re a lly e x is te d b e t w e e n t h e m . T h e re a l e x p la n a tio n o f t h e i r fa ilu r e to c o o r d i n a t e t h e i r o p e r a t io n s s e e m e d t o lie r a t h e r in t h e f a c t t h a t w h ile t o s o m e e x t e n t b o t h m is ­ h a n d l e d t h e i r m ilita r y o ffe n siv e s , n e i t h e r h a d fu ll c o n t r o l o v e r t h e d ir e c tio n s th e y to o k . W h e n in M a y D e n i k i n w as ju s t b e g i n n i n g h is fa n -lik e e x p a n s io n i n t o t h e U k r a in e , K o lc h a k w as a lr e a d y a t t h e p e a k o f h is o ffe n siv e , a n d i t lo o k e d as t h o u g h h e w o u ld s o o n r e a c h M o s c o w b y w a y o f a r o u t e fa r to t h e n o r t h lo n g b e f o r e t h e i r tw o fo rc e s c o u ld b e u n ite d . T h e r e w as in f a c t a r u n n i n g d is p u t e o v e r w h e t h e r K o lc h a k s h o u l d c o n c e n t r a t e o n lin k in g u p w ith D e n i k i n a n d th e r e f o r e g iv e h is m a i n a t t e n t i o n to h is l e f t fla n k , t h e s t r a te g y a p p a r e n t l y f a v o r e d b y t h e F r e n c h r e p r e s e n ta t iv e a n d A llie d c o m m a n d e r , G e n e r a l M a u r i c e J a n i n , o r s h o u l d g iv e s p e c ia l c o n s i d e r a t io n to a d riv e to w a r d A r k h a n g e ls k in o r d e r to jo in fo rc e s w ith t h e A llie d u n i t s t h e r e a n d g iv e t h e C z e c h s a c h a n c e , a t la s t, to m o v e o u t in t h a t d i r e c ti o n , w h ic h w as w h a t t h e B r it is h s e e m e d to p r e f e r a n d G e n e r a l K n o x r e c o m m e n d e d .11 T h e B r i t ­ is h , g e n e ra lly , a r g u e d t h a t t h e n o r t h e r n r o u t e w o u ld b e m o r e lik e ly to b r i n g re s u lts a n d p r o p o s e d to a s s u re its su c c e s s b y c o o r d i n a t i n g a s i m u l ta n e o u s m o v e m e n t o f S ib e r ia n a r m y fo rc e s u n d e r G e n e r a l G a j d a a n d A llie d fo rc e s in A r k h a n g e ls k to w a r d t h e c ity o f K o tla s , t a k i n g a d v a n ta g e o f t h e f a c t t h a t B o ls h e v ik fo rc e s w e re w e a k in th i s a re a . O n J u n e 23 C h u r c h i l l s u g g e s te d t h a t t h e C z e c h s s h o u l d b e r o u t e d e i t h e r to t h e n o r t h o r to t h e s o u t h r a t h e r t h a n c o n t i n u i n g t h e i r e v a c u ­ a ti o n to w a r d V la d iv o s to k , a n d b o t h h e a n d C l e m e n c e a u s e e m t o h a v e b e e n c o n v in c e d t h a t if t h e C z e c h e v a c u a t io n w as r e v e r s e d , t h e L e g io n c o u ld t h e n b e c o u n t e d u p o n t o c o n t i n u e f i g h ti n g .12 H o w e v e r , d e s p i te o r d e r s to G e n e r a l J a n i n to th i s e f f e c t, t h e n o w d e m o r a li z e d a n d m u t i ­ n o u s C z e c h fo rc e s r e f u s e d to c h a n g e t h e i r p la n s , r e j e c te d a n y f u r t h e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e w a r, a n d c o n t i n u e d t h e i r e v a c u a t io n t o w a r d V l a ­ d iv o s to k .13 A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e C z e c h G e n e r a l G a jd a , n o w in R u s ­ s ia n s e rv ic e as c o m m a n d e r o f t h e S ib e r ia n a r m y , b e c a m e in v o lv e d in

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a v i o l e n t c la s h w ith K o lc h a k o v e r t h e a d v a n c e o f h is fo rc e s to t h e n o r t h w e s t in a c c o r d a n c e w ith t h e B r it is h p la n . G a jd a , it s e e m s , o p e r ­ a t e d w i t h o u t c o o r d i n a t i n g h is a c tio n s w i t h K o lc h a k ’s h e a d q u a r t e r s , a n d , a c c o r d i n g to D e n ik in , t h e u n a u t h o r i z e d e x te n s io n o f t h e r i g h t fla n k b y G a jd a fo r c e d K o lc h a k to d r o p w h a te v e r p la n s h e m a y h a v e h a d f o r d i r e c ti n g h is fo rc e s to w a r d T s a r i t s y n .14 I t w as t h u s n o t K o lc h a k , b u t a c o m b i n a t i o n o f c ir c u m s ta n c e s w h ic h re a lly b r o u g h t a b o u t t h e f a ilu r e o f h is a r m y t o r e a c h o u t to t h e s o u t h w e s t t o m e e t D e n i k i n . W h i l e D e n i k i n h im s e l f h a d d e c id e d in M a y t h a t a d v a n c i n g i n t o t h e U k r a in e w a s e s s e n tia l t o h is f u r t h e r s u c c e s s, i t is a ls o t r u e t h a t e v e n if h e h a d d e c id e d , a t

that t i m e , t o m a k e h is firs t

g o a l a c lo s in g o f t h e g a p b e tw e e n h is o w n fo rc e s a n d th o s e o f K o lc h a k , i t w o u ld h a v e b e e n to o l a t e t o a c h ie v e th i s r e s u lt. K o lc h a k ’s fo rc e s b e g a n fa llin g b a c k v e ry e a rly in t h e s u m m e r a n d w e re in f u ll r e t r e a t o n t h e l e f t fla n k b y t h e t i m e D e n i k i n ’s tr o o p s r e a c h e d T s a r its y n . D e n i k i n ’s M o s c o w D ir e c t iv e w as t h e n a im e d a t r u s h in g in to ta k e M o s c o w w h ile K o lc h a k c o u ld s till o b lig e t h e B o ls h e v ik s t o k e e p t h e i r m a j o r fo r c e o n t h e S ib e r ia n f r o n t. T h e la c k o f e ff e c tiv e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e tw e e n K o lc h a k a n d D e n ik in p la y e d a n i m p o r t a n t ro le in th e s e m is c a lc u la tio n s , b u t t h e r e w as l i t t l e e i t h e r c o u ld d o to s p e e d t h e flo w o f m e s sa g e s, w h ic h w e re f r e q u e n tl y a m o n t h o r m o r e in t r a n s i t . 15 I t is a ls o tr u e , h o w e v e r , t h a t if K o lc h a k ’s o ff e n s iv e w as s t a r t e d to o s o o n , D e n i k i n ’s w as b y t h e s a m e to k e n s t a r t e d t o o la te . A n d t h e re a s o n f o r t h e l a t t e r w as u n d o u b t e d l y D e n i ­ k i n ’s in s is t e n c e o n b r i n g in g t h e e n t i r e N o r t h C a u c a s u s a re a u n d e r h is c o n t r o l b e f o r e m o v in g n o r t h w a r d .16 D e n ik in h a d v a lid re a s o n s f o r b e in g c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e M o u n t a i n a re a in h is re a r, a n d h e c o u ld p o i n t t o t h e f a ilu r e o f t h e A llie s to s e c u r e i t t o h is s a tis f a c tio n , b u t h is d e v o ti o n o f so m u c h t i m e a n d e n e r g y t o t h e C a u c a s u s re g io n n o t o n ly c o s t h i m h e a v ily in tr o o p s a n d d e la y e d a c ti o n b u t w as a ls o d ir e c tly r e s p o n s ib l e f o r h is m o s t s e r io u s c o n flic ts w ith G e o r g ia , A z e r b a id z h a n , a n d t h e B r it is h C o m m a n d in T r a n s c a u c a s ia . D e n i k i n ’s a c ti o n s in th i s r e g a r d , m o r e o v e r , p r e s a g e d s o m e o f h is m o s t d if f ic u lt p r o b l e m s in t h e U k r a in e o n c e h is o ff e n s iv e d id g e t u n d e r w a y . E v e n if n o f a u l t c o u ld b e f o u n d w i t h t h e m i li ta r y s tr a te g y o f m o v i n g i n t o t h e U k r a in e , w h ic h d id , a f t e r a ll, o ff e r t h e s h o r t e s t ra il l i n e t o M o s c o w in a w a r w h e r e ra ils w e re o f t e n d e c is iv e , th i s d e c i­ s io n im m e d i a t e l y r a is e d o n c e m o r e t h e q u e s t io n o f r e la tio n s w i t h t h e U k r a i n e a n d i n d e e d m a d e i t as i m p o r t a n t as r e la tio n s w ith K o lc h a k . H e r e in p a r t i c u l a r D e n i k i n c o u ld b la m e t h e A llie s f o r h a v in g fa ile d t o

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p r e v e n t t h e in f lu x o f B o ls h e v ik fo rc e s a f t e r t h e G e r m a n w ith d r a w a l , b u t in re s o lv in g to r e c o n q u e r t h e U k r a in e h e to o w as n o t p r e p a r e d t o d e a l w ith t h e e x tr e m e ly c o m p le x s i t u a t i o n w h ic h e x is te d th e r e . H is c o n v ic t io n t h a t h e c o u ld w in t h e w a r u n d e r t h e b a n n e r o f “ O n e R u s s ia ” d id n o t p ro v e to b e o n e o f h is g r e a t e s t a s s e ts in s e p a r a ti s t te r r ito r y . T h e U k r a in e h a d p r o v id e d a d e c id e d ly u n s u c c e s s f u l a r e n a f o r R u s ­ s ia n s in g e n e r a l a n d c o n s e r v a tiv e R u s s ia n s in p a r t i c u l a r s in c e t h e fa ll o f t h e H e t m a n r e g im e . W i t h t h e e x c e p t io n o f G e o r g ia , n o te r r i t o r y in t h e S o u th h a d g iv e n g r e a t e r s u p p o r t to t h e n o n - B o ls h e v ik L e f t, a n d n o w h e r e e ls e w as t h e a n a r c h i s t m o v e m e n t so s tr o n g . M o r e o v e r , b y t h e t i m e t h e V o l u n t e e r o ffe n s iv e r e a c h e d its p e a k , t h e U k r a in e h a d b e ­ c o m e a c o m p le x b a t t l e g r o u n d in v o lv in g s e v e ra l d if f e r e n t lo c a l fo rc e s a n d f o r e ig n p o w e rs . N o n e o f t h e s m a ll fo rc e s in t h e U k r a in e c o n s t i t u t e d a m i li ta r y p o w e r c o m p a r a b le to t h e V o l u n t e e r s o r t h e R e d A rm y , b u t a ll o f t h e m p o s e d a m e n a c e to b o t h o f t h e la t t e r . N e i t h e r D e n i k i n n o r T r o t sk ii e v e r h a d a n y o f t h e m s e c u r e ly o n h is s id e , a l t h o u g h t h e i n c l i n a ­ t i o n s o f m o s t o f t h e m , i t m u s t b e n o t e d , w e re t o t h e L e f t r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e R ig h t . W h e n D e n ik in 's tr o o p s firs t e n t e r e d t h e U k r a in e , t h e f o rc e s o f d is in t e g r a ti o n in th is a re a w e re a c tu a lly d e f a c to a llie s o f t h e V o l u n t e e r s in s o f a r as t h e y d i s r u p t e d t h e B o ls h e v ik re a r a n d m a d e i t m o r e d if fic u lt to s t o p t h e V o l u n t e e r o ffe n s iv e . B y t h e s a m e t o k e n , h o w e v e r, o n c e t h e V o l u n t e e r s h a d s e iz e d a la r g e p a r t o f t h e U k r a in e , s u c h e le m e n ts a s s u m e d t h e s a m e t r o u b le s o m e s ig n ific a n c e f o r t h e m . T h e s u b s e q u e n t d e fe a t o f th e V o lu n te e r A rm y c a n , in d e e d , b e a ttr ib ­ u t e d in a s ig n if ic a n t m e a s u r e to t h e p r o b l e m s r a is e d b y V o l u n t e e r r e la tio n s w i t h fo rc e s in t h e U k r a in e w h ic h w e re n o t B o ls h e v ik , s u c h as th e a rm y o f N e s to r M a k h n o . M a k h n o w as a n u n e d u c a t e d p e a s a n t — a n d o n e o f t h e g r e a t e s t r e v o ­ l u t io n a r y le a d e rs p r o d u c e d b y t h e R u s s ia n civ il w a r. N o o n e c a m e e v e n c lo s e to h is a c h ie v e m e n t in ra lly in g t h e p e a s a n ts t o a p o li ti c a l a n d m ilita r y c a u s e . H e r e f le c te d a d e e p s t r e a m o f p e a s a n t a s p i r a ti o n s in h is o w n p e r s o n , b u t h e w as a ls o a r e m a r k a b ly b r a v e a n d s h r e w d m ilita r y le a d e r w h o k n e w a n d p r a c t ic e d t h e m o s t c le v e r, a n d b r u t a l , g u e rilla ta c tic s . M o r e o f t e n t h a n n o t h e s e r v e d t h e B o ls h e v ik c a u s e , b e c a u s e it w as a r e v o l u ti o n a r y c a u s e , b u t h e w as f u n d a m e n t a l l y o p ­ p o s e d to d i c t a to r s h ip , w h e t h e r i t b e B o ls h e v ik o r a n ti- B o ls h e v ik in c h a r a c te r . T h i s c o lo r f u l v a g a b o n d , w h o d id so m u c h w i t h so l i t t l e , w a s

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a n a n a r c h i s t . H e a d v o c a t e d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f a ll g o v e r n m e n t a n d a ll a u t h o r i t y e x c e p t d i r e c t c o m m u n a l d e m o c r a c y , b u t h e a ls o le a r n e d f r o m p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e t h e n e c e s s ity o f p o w e r to a c h ie v e h is g o a ls. H e t h u s o ff e re d t o h is fe llo w p e a s a n ts t h e c o m b i n a t i o n w h ic h n o o n e e ls e c o u ld : f r e e d o m fr o m b o t h la n d l o r d s a n d g o v e r n m e n ts a n d a n o r g a n i z e d m i li ta r y f o r c e w ith w h ic h t o re a liz e t h e s e e n d s .17 T h e in c o n s is te n c ie s in M a k h n o ’s p o s i ti o n t h u s d id n o t p r e v e n t h is o r g a n i z in g a re a l f ig h tin g fo rc e . H is a p p e a r a n c e as a r e v o lu tio n a r y le a d e r in S o u t h R u s s ia , in t h e a re a n o r t h o f t h e S ea o f A z o v , d a te s f r o m h is re le a s e f r o m p r is o n d u r i n g t h e P r o v is io n a l g o v e r n m e n t ’s ru le . H e h a d b e e n fo r c e d i n t o in a c t iv i ty a n d e x ile b y t h e G e r m a n o c c u p a ­ ti o n , b u t d u r i n g t h e F r e n c h o c c u p a t io n h e h a d r e t u r n e d t o h is n a tiv e te r r i t o r y a n d h a d b e g u n to b u i l d u p a p e a s a n t a r m y t o r e n e w t h e s tr u g g le . T h e B o ls h e v ik s p l a n n e d to d e s tr o y h i m t h e i n s t a n t h is u s e ­ fu ln e s s e n d e d , b u t th i s d id n o t p r e v e n t t h e i r c o ll a b o r a t io n a g a in s t t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y , w h ic h w as re g a r d e d as a c o m m o n e n e m y .18 T h u s , w h e n D e n i k i n ’s V o l u n t e e r s p u s h e d t h e R e d A rm y o u t o f t h e U k r a in e , t h e r e s till r e m a in e d in t h e r e a r t h e e lu s iv e M a k h n o a n d h is r o a m in g a rm y . I n fa c t, a t t h e p e a k o f D e n i k i n ’s s u c c e s s M a k h n o w as a b le t o ra lly p o s s ib ly u p to 4 0 ,0 0 0 m e n , p lu s a s iz e a b le c a v a lry , to w re a k h a v o c b e h i n d t h e V o l u n t e e r lin e s . D u r i n g O c t o b e r h e r e c o n ­ q u e r e d a g r e a t s w a th o f t e r r it o r y n o r t h o f t h e S ea o f A z o v a n d fo r c e d D e n i k i n to p u ll h is b e s t tr o o p s o u t o f t h e fo r w a r d li n e to fa c e t h e a n a r c h i s t s in t h e re a r, a d e c is iv e e v e n t a t th is c ru c ia l p o i n t .19 D e n i k i n w as u r g e d b y W r a n g e l t o tr y t o i n d u c e M a k h n o t o c o m e o v e r to t h e V o l u n t e e r s , b u t t h e V o l u n t e e r C o m m a n d e r r e f u s e d to o ff e r a n y c o n c e s s io n s f o r th i s p u r p o s e . H e sp e c ific a lly r e j e c te d t h e s u g ­ g e s t io n

t h a t M a k h n o ’s tr o o p s b e a llo w e d

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u n i t s a n d o r g a n i z a ti o n s if th e y a g re e d to c o o p e r a te , t h e a r r a n g e m e n t b y w h ic h t h e B o ls h e v ik s h a d e f f e c te d a n a llia n c e w ith t h e p e a s a n t le a d e r .20 D e n i k i n w as p r o b a b l y c o r r e c t in b e lie v in g t h a t M a k h n o c o u ld n o t h a v e b e e n w o n o v e r b y a n y t h i n g t h e V o l u n t e e r s c o u ld o ffe r, b u t h is f a ilu r e to c o m e t o te r m s w i t h t h e p e a s a n ts w as u n d o u b t e d l y o n e o f t h e c h ie f c a u s e s o f h is d e f e a t. A n o t h e r w as h is fa ilu r e to c o m e t o t e r m s w i t h P e t l i u r a a n d t h e P o le s . T h e s i t u a t i o n w as, in d e e d , q u i t e d if f e r e n t w h e n D e n i k i n ’s fo rc e s o n c e m o r e e n c o u n t e r e d t h e q u e s t i o n o f r e la tio n s w i t h P e tl iu r a , f o r in t h e s u m m e r a n d fa ll o f 1 9 1 9 i t w as n o t s im p ly t h e D i r e c t o r a t e w h ic h w as in v o lv e d in t h e o ld U k r a in i a n q u e s t i o n b u t a ls o t h e P o le s a n d t h e i n d e p e n d e n t G a lic i a n a u t h o r i t y . I t w as in f a c t t h e G a lic i a n q u e s t io n

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m o r e t h a n a n y o t h e r w h ic h b r o u g h t t h e A llie s d ir e c tl y i n t o th i s q u e s ­ t i o n a g a in a n d w h ic h m o s t c o m p l ic a t e d r e l a ti o n s w i t h b o t h P e t l i u r a a n d t h e P o le s , s in c e t h e f o r m e r h a d ta k e n re f u g e in G a lic ia , a n d t h e l a t t e r w e re b e n t o n in c o r p o r a t in g t h e a re a i n t o P o la n d . T h e U k r a in i a n D ir e c t o r a t e h a d n e v e r b e e n its f o r m e r s e lf a f t e r t h e s p r in g o f 191 9 . A f te r t h e F r e n c h e v a c u a t io n i t h a d s p l i t u p , a n d P e t ­ liu r a w as t h e o n ly re a l s p o k e s m a n f o r its p o lic ie s l e f t in t h e U k r a in e its e lf, a l t h o u g h a s t r o n g d e le g a tio n s till e x is te d in P a ris , w h e r e A . S h u l ’g in a n d A . M a r g o lin , a m o n g o th e r s , c o n t i n u e d t o r e p r e s e n t t h e U k r a in i a n c a u s e . T h e o v e r r id in g p r o b l e m fo r b o t h P e t l i u r a a n d t h e U k r a in i a n r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s in P a ris in m id -1 9 1 9 , h o w e v e r , w as t h e r e ­ c o n q u e s t o f a la r g e p a r t o f t h e U k r a in e b y t h e R e d A r m y . I t w a s th i s , o f c o u rs e , w h ic h h a d fo r c e d P e tl iu r a to r e t r e a t w i t h w h a t w as l e f t o f h is tr o o p s i n t o t h e w e s te r n b o r d e r la n d s o f G a lic i a .21 T h e a u t o n o m o u s W e s t U k r a in i a n ( o r E a s t G a l i c i a n ) g o v e r n m e n t , h e a d e d b y E . P e tr u s h e v ic h , h a d c o o p e r a t e d w i t h t h e D i r e c t o r a t e e a r ­ lie r in t h e h o p e o f u n i t i n g f o r m e r A u s tr ia n te r r it o r i e s t o t h e U k r a in e , b u t n o w its o n e c o n c e r n w as su rv iv a l. T h e G a lic ia n s h a d s t r o n g l e a d ­ ers a n d a n a r m y o f t h e i r o w n , a n d t h e i r p o lic ie s w e re n e i t h e r as r e v o l u ­ ti o n a r y n o r as a n ti- R u s s ia n as th o s e o f t h e D i r e c t o r a t e , b u t t h e y n o w h o p e d t h a t a n a llia n c e w i t h P e tl iu r a w o u ld s t r e n g t h e n t h e i r p o s i ti o n . F r o m t h e G a lic i a n p o i n t o f v ie w t h e m o s t d a n g e r o u s e n e m y w as n o t R u s s ia , a lt h o u g h t h e B o ls h e v ik s w e re o f c o u rs e a r e c o g n iz e d m e n a c e , b u t P o l a n d .22 U n d e r t h e le a d e r s h i p o f J o z e f P ils u d s k i, P o l a n d h a d e m b a r k e d u p o n a r a t h e r im p e r ia lis tic p o lic y o f u n i t i n g n e ig h b o r in g a re a s

(p a rts o f

L it h u a n ia , B e lo ru s s ia , a n d t h e U k r a i n e ) t o t h e P o lis h s t a t e o r a t l e a s t b r i n g in g t h e m

u n d e r d o m i n a n t P o lis h in f lu e n c e .23 T h i s p o lic y , d e ­

s ig n e d to m a k e P o l a n d a s t r o n g c o u n t e r w e i g h t to R u s s ia n p o w e r , h a d le d to a d ir e c t c o n f lic t b e t w e e n P o l a n d a n d t h e G a lic i a n g o v e r n m e n t , w h ic h w as c o n v e r t e d to a d i c t a t o r s h i p b y P e tr u s h e v ic h in a n e f f o r t t o m o b iliz e a g a in s t P o lis h in c u r s io n s . B y J u n e , h o w e v e r , t h e P o le s h a d in v a d e d w ith s u c h p o w e r as t o fo r c e t h e G a lic i a n a r m y , s till jo i n e d b y P e t l i u r a ’s tr o o p s , to r e t r e a t a c ro s s t h e Z b r u c h

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U k r a in e . T h e c o m b i n e d U k r a in i a n - G a li c ia n fo rc e s u s e d th i s s i t u a t i o n , h o w e v e r, to m a k e a s u c c e s s fu l d riv e t o K ie v in J u ly a n d A u g u s t w i t h t h e o b je c t o f r e s to r in g P e tl iu r a to p o w e r t h e r e . B y n o w t h e G a lic i a n q u e s t i o n h a d b e c o m e a m a j o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l is su e in P a ris , in v o lv in g t h e A llie s d ir e c tl y in t h e p r o b l e m o f P o lis h U k r a in i a n - R u s s i a n r e la tio n s . A s e a rly as F e b r u a r y t h e P e a c e C o n f e r -

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e n c e h a d t a k e n u p t h e G a lic i a n p r o b l e m a n d h a d s e n t a m is s io n t o in v e s tig a te . A p r o p o s e d t r u c e lin e , o n e o f s e v e ra l in th i s p e r i o d , h a d f a ile d t o e n d t h e P o lis h a d v a n c e , h o w e v e r , a n d t h e is s u e h a d b e c o m e a s o u r c e o f t e n s io n b e tw e e n t h e B r it is h a n d F r e n c h p o in t s o f v iew . I n M a r c h 1 9 1 9 in t h e c o u rs e o f d is c u s s io n o f t h e G a lic i a n issu e , M a r s h a l F o c h h a d q u ic k ly ta k e n u p t h e d e f e n s e o f P o l a n d ’s p o s i ti o n , g o in g e v e n so f a r as to p r o p o s e b r i n g in g R u m a n i a i n t o t h e m i li ta r y o p e r a ­ ti o n s . H o w e v e r , L lo y d G e o r g e h a d d e n o u n c e d th i s id e a as a p l o t to f o r m a n e w i n t e r n a t i o n a l a r m y to in v a d e R u s s ia a n d s q u e l c h e d its a c c e p t a n c e b y t h e A llie d C o u n c i l .24 A s p e c ia l I n t e r - A ll ie d C o m m i s ­ s io n h a d b e e n e s t a b li s h e d to s t u d y t h e p r o b l e m f u r t h e r a n d se e k a s o l u ti o n . I ts e ff o rts t o m a i n t a i n a c e a se-fire u n t i l d e c is io n s c o u ld b e m a d e , h o w e v e r, h a d b e e n in v a in . H a v in g r e c e iv e d F r e n c h a id w h ic h e n a b le d th e m

t o p u t n e w tr o o p s i n t o t h e fie ld in A p r il, t h e P o le s

w e re n o t i n c l in e d to li s t e n to a p p e a ls to r e f r a in fr o m f u r t h e r a c tio n . A f t e r n e w h e a r in g s o n t h e C o m m i s s i o n ’s w o rk in M a y , t h e P o lis h p r i m e m i n is te r , P a d e re w s k i, h a d b e e n c a lle d u p o n in J u n e to e x p la in P o l a n d ’s b e h a v io r .25 H e h a d d o n e so q u i t e b lu n t l y , c la im in g t h a t a ll o f E a s t G a lic ia r i g h tf u l ly b e lo n g e d to P o l a n d a n d w o u ld b e ta k e n .26 I n t h e C o u n c i l o f F o r e i g n M i n is t e r s t h e B r itis h a n d F r e n c h h a d t h e n c o n t i n u e d f o r a t i m e in J u n e t o d e b a t e t h e v a lid ity o f P o l a n d ’s c la im , w h ile P o lis h tr o o p s o v e r r a n G a lic i a n t e r r it o r y ,27 b u t t h e o n ly r e s u lt o f th i s w as t h a t o n J u n e 25 t h e A llie d S u p r e m e C o u n c i l h a d p u b ­ lic ly a c k n o w le d g e d t h e f a it a c c o m p li o f t h e P o lis h c o n q u e s t .28 T h i s a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t w as s a id to c o n t a i n n o p r e j u d ic e to f u t u r e d e c is io n s o n t h e s t a tu s o f G a lic ia , b u t as t h e S u p r e m e C o u n c i l its e lf h a d o n c e n o t e d a f a i t a c c o m p li h a d a w a y o f p r e d e t e r m i n i n g p o litic a l d e c is io n s w h e t h e r o n e lik e d i t o r n o t. T h i s q u e s t i o n w as, o f c o u rs e , a ls o c lo s e ly r e l a te d to t h e la r g e r q u e s ­ ti o n o f t h e f u t u r e o f t h e U k r a in e , a n d t h e U k r a in i a n d e le g a tio n in P a ris h a d u s e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o s e e k n e w s u p p o r t . D u r i n g M a y t h e U k r a in i a n d e le g a tio n h a d a p p e a l e d t o t h e F r e n c h F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y t o h e l p r e s to r e F r e n c h - U k r a i n i a n c o n ta c ts b y s e n d i n g a m is s io n to P e tliu r a . I n v ie w o f l a t e r m i s u n d e r s ta n d i n g s as t o t h e F r e n c h p o s i ti o n o n th i s , i t is w o r t h n o t i n g h e r e a t s o m e l e n g t h t h e r e p ly o f t h e F o r e ig n M i n is t r y . A c c o r d in g to M a r g o lin t h e f o llo w in g s t a t e m e n t w as re c e iv e d b y t h e U k r a in i a n d e le g a tio n o n M a y 19: T h e F r e n c h G o v e r n m e n t is h a p p y to e x p re s s fu ll a c c o r d o f its o w n v ie w s w ith t h e p o s i ti o n o f t h e U k r a in ia n s w ith r e s p e c t to t h e

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B o ls h e v ik s , w h o a re a b o v e all e n e m ie s o f m a n k i n d . T h e F r e n c h G o v ­ e r n m e n t c a n n o t r e m a in in d i f f e r e n t to w a r d a p p e a ls s u b m i t t e d t o i t o n th i s q u e s t io n . I t is d is p o s e d t h e r e f o r e to s e n d a m i li ta r y m is s io n t o G a lic ia a t t h e p r e s e n t ti m e , t h e s c o p e o f w h ic h w ill d e p e n d u p o n t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f se v e ra l d i s p u t e d q u e s t io n s in a c c o r d w ith t h e v iew s o f t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e . I n a n y case, in v ie w o f p r e s e n t p o litic a l c o n d it io n s , t h e s u p p o r t o f F r a n c e m u s t b e b a s e d o n t h e f o llo w in g c o n s i d e r a t io n s : A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e t h e F r e n c h G o v e r n m e n t is d e n ie d t h e p o s s i­ b il it y o f a n y s o r t o f i n t e r v e n t i o n b e tw e e n t h e U k r a in i a n s a n d t h e P o le s w ith re g a r d to t h e p o s s e s s io n o f L e m b e r g , s in c e th i s q u e s t i o n is s u b j e c t to t h e c o n s i d e r a t io n o f t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e . I t is n e c e s ­ sary , h o w e v e r, fo r t h e U k r a in ia n s a n d P o le s t o b e u n i t e d in t h e i r s tr u g g le a g a in s t t h e c o m m o n e n e m y , b o ls h e v is m , a n d t h a t th e y fo r g e t t h e i r m u t u a l in d iv id u a l c la im s a n d c e a s e h o s t il e a c tiv itie s a g a in s t o n e a n o t h e r w i t h o u t f u r t h e r d e la y . I n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h th i s i t m u s t b e m a d e c le a r t h a t F r e n c h officers w ill in n o c a se b e s e n t to se rv e o n t h e f r o n t o f G a lic i a n o p e r a t io n s , n o r w ill th e y p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e o r g a n i z a ti o n o f t h e s tr u g g le o n th i s f r o n t. F in a lly , t h e a id o f F r a n c e m u s t n o t b e u s e d b y a n y o n e f o r t h e o r g a n iz a tio n o f tr o o p s a im e d a t a s tr u g g le a g a in s t t h e s t a b le e le ­ m e n t s o f R u s s ia o r th o s e g r o u p s w h ic h t h e F r e n c h G o v e r n m e n t re c o g n iz e s as s u c h , n a m e ly a g a in s t t h e a r m ie s o f K o lc h a k a n d D e n i ­ k in , in c a se t h e i r a t t a c k a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s s h o u l d le a d i n t o U k r a in i a n te r r ito r y . T h i s re s e r v a tio n a p p lie s p a r t ic u l a r ly t o t h e p a r t ic i p a ti o n o f a n y F r e n c h o fficers, w h o w ill b e g iv e n t h e m o s t p re c is e i n s tr u c t io n s o n th i s m a t t e r u p o n t h e i r d e p a r t u r e . T h e y w ill b e g iv e n o rd e r s to w ith d r a w im m e d i a te l y f r o m R u th e n o - U k r a i n ia n te r r it o r y if th e y s h o u l d b e c o n f r o n t e d w i t h t h e risk o f e n t e r i n g i n t o c o n f lic t w ith t h e a b o v e n a m e d R u s s ia n m i li ta r y e l e m e n t s .29 A . S h u l ’g in s u b s e q u e n tly a s s u r e d t h e F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y t h a t t h e s e c o n d it io n s w e re a c c e p t a b le a n d t h a n k e d t h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t fo r t h e ‘'m a t e r i a l a i d ” w h ic h w as n o w a n t i c i p a t e d . A c tu a lly , h o w e v e r , l i t t l e s e e m s to h a v e c o m e o f th is . L a te r , w h e n D e n i k i n g o t w o r d t h r o u g h R u s s ia n r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s in B u c h a r e s t t h a t t h e F r e n c h h o p e d t o m e d i a te b e tw e e n h im s e l f a n d t h e U k r a in i a n s , h e a s k e d t h e B r it is h to in q u i r e in P a ris a b o u t F r e n c h i n t e n t i o n s a n d to fin d o u t w h e t h e r a m i li ta r y m is s io n w as a c tu a lly to b e a c c r e d i te d to P e t l i u r a .30 T h e a n s w e r t h e n r e t u r n e d w as t h a t t h e F r e n c h h a d n o i n t e n t i o n o t h e r t h a n t o s e n d in “ c o u n t e r i n t e l l i g e n c e ” o fficers f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f “ g a t h ­ e r in g

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t h e U k r a in i a n s in P a ris to c o n c lu d e t h a t P ic h o n w as s till u n d e r t h e in f lu e n c e o f t h e R u s s ia n s .32 I n a n y c a se , i t is c le a r t h a t b o t h B r it is h a n d F r e n c h r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s in R u m a n i a u n d e r t o o k e ff o rts d u r i n g t h e s u m m e r o f 19 1 9 to p r o m o t e a r e c o n c i li a ti o n b e tw e e n t h e U k r a in i a n s a n d t h e V o l u n t e e r s t o h e a d o ff a c la s h as t h e l a t t e r a ls o m o v e d i n t o U k r a in i a n te r r ito r y . I n m id J u ly t h e U k r a in i a n r e p r e s e n ta t iv e in B u c h a r e s t , C o lo n e l S tr iz h e v s k ii, c o n t a c t e d t h e V o l u n t e e r r e p r e s e n ta t iv e , G e n e r a l G e r u a , r e p o r te d l y a t t h e b e h e s t o f t h e A llie d m is s io n s , a n d p r o p o s e d a c o m p r o m i s e a r r a n g e ­ m e n t w h ic h w o u ld e n a b le t h e U k r a in i a n s a n d t h e V o l u n t e e r s to c o o p ­ e r a t e in t h e m i li ta r y s tr u g g le a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s . A c c o r d in g to G e n e r a l G e r u a t h e p r o p o s a l c a lle d f o r a s u s p e n s io n o f a ll p o litic a l q u e s t io n s , e s p e c ia lly t h e q u e s t io n o f U k r a in i a n i n d e p e n d e n c e , fo r t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e w a r so as to m a k e p o s s ib le a n a llia n c e w i t h i n w h ic h e a c h w o u ld r e t a in a u t o n o m y fo r in t e r n a l p u r p o s e s , w h ile D e n ik in w o u ld b e r e c o g n iz e d as c o m m a n d e r - in - c h ie f . S u c h a n a r r a n g e m e n t , as G e r u a r e p o r t e d to D e n ik in , w o u ld n o t r e q u ir e e i t h e r s id e to r e l in q u i s h its p o li ti c a l o b je c tiv e s b u t w o u ld r e c o g n iz e t h a t n e i t h e r c o u ld s u c c e e d w i t h o u t firs t d e f e a t in g t h e R e d A rm y . “ A f te r t h e v ic to ry o v e r t h e B o ls h e v ik s ,” G e r u a w r o te , “ t h e s tr u g g le b e tw e e n t h e tw o ‘a llie s ’ c a n b e r e s u m e d .” 33 W h i l e th i s o v e r t u r e w as b e in g c o n s id e r e d , h o w e v e r, D e n i k i n r e ­ c e iv e d f u r t h e r r e p o r ts fr o m B u c h a r e s t w h ic h i n d i c a te d , o n t h e o n e h a n d , t h a t S tr iz h e v s k ii d id n o t s p e a k fo r P e tl iu r a a n d , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h a t h e h im s e l f w as ta k i n g a h ig h l y a n ti - R u s s i a n p o s i ti o n in h is ta lk s w i t h R u m a n i a n o fficia ls, w a r n in g t h e l a t t e r t h a t if D e n ik in w o n t h e w a r a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s , t h e V o l u n t e e r s w o u ld t h e n tr y to ta k e B e s s a r a b ia b a c k b y fo r c e .34 A t t h e s a m e t i m e , o n A u g u s t 23, C h u r c h i l l s e n t a p e r s o n a l m e s s a g e to D e n ik in u r g in g h i m “ to m e e t U k r a in i a n s e p a r a ti s t t e n d e n c ie s h a l f w a y ” fo r t h e sa k e o f a c c o r d “ a t t h e p r e s e n t c r itic a l j u n c t u r e , ” 35 a n d U k r a in i a n r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s in L o n d o n w e re a d v is e d to se e k a n a llia n c e w ith t h e V o l u n t e e r s to m a k e p o s s ib le a s u c c e s s fu l s tr u g g le a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s .36 T h i s w a s, i n d e e d , t h e t i m e f o r d e c is io n s o n th is q u e s t io n , fo r a t t h e e n d o f A u g u s t U k r a in i a n a n d V o l u n t e e r tr o o p s c a m e fa c e to fa c e a t K ie v , a n d t h e V o l u n t e e r c o m m a n d e r in c h a rg e , G e n e r a l B re d o v , d e c la r e d t h a t h e i n t e n d e d t o o c c u p y t h e c ity a n d t h a t , th e r e f o r e , t h e U k r a in i a n s a n d G a lic ia n s w o u ld h a v e to w ith d r a w . I n th is s i tu a t io n t h e o u t c o m e h in g e d , n o t so m u c h o n t h e p o s i ti o n o f t h e A llie s, b u t

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o n t h e r e l a ti o n s h ip b e tw e e n P e tl iu r a a n d t h e G a lic i a n c o m m a n d e r , G e n e r a l T a r n o v s k ii. D e s p it e t h e c o n ta c ts in B u c h a r e s t a n d in t h e A llie d c a p ita ls , P e tl i u r a ’s a t t i t u d e h a d r e m a in e d u n c le a r u p t o th i s p o i n t . H o w e v e r , i t s o o n d e v e lo p e d t h a t h e h a d a lr e a d y e n t e r e d s e c r e t n e g o ti a ti o n s w i t h t h e P o le s b e h i n d t h e b a c k o f h is G a lic i a n a llie s .37 T a r n o v s k i i, w h o p r o b a b l y s u s p e c te d P e t l i u r a ’s i n t e n t i o n s a n y h o w , w as a t t h e s a m e t i m e in c l in e d to a c c e p t t h e V o l u n t e e r s n o t o n ly as t h e o n ly h o p e a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s b u t a ls o as p o t e n t i a l a llie s a g a in s t t h e P o le s . T h i s d iv e r ­ g e n c e c a m e o u t in t o t h e o p e n , a n d t h e tw o p a r t e d c o m p a n y w h e n T a r n o v s k ii in f o r m e d t h e V o l u n t e e r s t h a t h e w as w illin g t o c o o p e r a t e w h e t h e r P e tl iu r a w e n t a lo n g o r n o t. T h u s o n A u g u s t 31 B r e d o v a n d T a r n o v s k ii a g re e d o n V o l u n t e e r o c c u p a t io n o f K ie v a n d d e c id e d t h a t G a lic ia n tr o o p s s h o u l d b e m o v e d to t h e s o u t h t o a w a it t h e n e g o t i a ­ ti o n o f a m o r e d e ta i le d a c c o r d w ith D e n i k i n .38 T h e n e x t d a y P e t l i u r a c o n c lu d e d a s e p a r a te tr u c e w ith t h e P o le s a n d b e g a n a f a t e f u l r e l a t i o n ­ s h ip w i t h P ils u d s k i w h ic h w as to b e o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e in f u t u r e m o n th s. T h is , i t s h o u l d b e n o t e d , d id n o t im m e d i a t e d l y r u l e o u t s o m e a g r e e m e n t b e tw e e n t h e V o l u n t e e r a n d U k r a in i a n fo rc e s , f o r P e t l i u r a h im s e l f h a d s till n o t sp e c ific a lly r e j e c te d t h e p o s s ib ility , a n d b e s id e s h e h a d l i t t l e c o n tr o l o v e r in d i v id u a l u n i t s o f h is “ a r m y ” w h ic h w e re s c a t te r e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e w e s te r n p o r t i o n o f t h e U k r a in e . T h u s o n S e p te m b e r 11 a d e t a c h m e n t o f U k r a in i a n

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o f O d e s s a m a d e i t k n o w n t h a t i t w o u ld fa v o r a t r u c e a r r a n g e m e n t w ith t h e V o l u n t e e r s b a s e d u p o n a d e m a r c a t i o n l i n e s e p a r a ti n g t h e i r z o n e s o f a c tiv ity . L ik e w is e , o n S e p t e m b e r 13 t h e V o l u n t e e r s w e re a p p r o a c h e d b y a U k r a in i a n fie ld c o m m a n d e r , G e n e r a l O m e li a n o v ic h P a v le n k o , w h o s t a t e d t h a t , a t t h e s u g g e s tio n o f A llie d r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s w h o h a d c o n t a c t e d h im , h e w as p r o p o s in g t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a d e m a r c a ti o n li n e b e tw e e n t h e i r fo rc e s so as to m a k e i t p o s s ib le f o r b o t h to c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e w a r a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s .39 G e n e r a l E d g a r J a d w in , a n A m e r i c a n m i li ta r y o b s e r v e r t h e n in t h e U k r a in e , g a v e h is s u p p o r t to s u c h p r o p o s a ls a n d u r g e d D e n i k i n t o s e e k a t le a s t a tr u c e w ith P e t l i u r a .40 T h e r e w as t h u s a p p a r e n t l y t h e p o s s ib ility o f a n a r r a n g e m e n t o f s o m e s o r t b e tw e e n t h e U k r a in i a n s a n d t h e V o l u n t e e r s , a n d A llie d p r e s s u r e w as d e f in ite ly b e in g a p p li e d t o th i s e n d . H o w e v e r , e v e n in a s s u m in g t h a t p o litic a l d if fe re n c e s c o u ld h a v e b e e n p u t a s id e f o r t h e t i m e b e in g , i t w o u ld p r o b a b l y h a v e b e e n n e c e s s a ry fo r D e n i k i n t o a g r e e t o le a v e

201

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a t le a s t t h e w e s te r n h a l f o f t h e U k r a in e u n d e r P e t l i u r a — t h a t is, u n d e r a s e p a r a te U k r a in i a n g o v e r n m e n t — s in c e t h e d e m a r c a ti o n li n e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y s u g g e s te d w as t h e D n e p r R iv e r. I t w as n e v e r e n ti r e l y c le a r w h e t h e r P e t l i u r a h im s e l f w o u ld h a v e a g r e e d t o t h e te r m s p r o p o s e d in h is n a m e , b u t in t h e e n d i t m a t t e r e d l i t t l e , s in c e D e n i k i n r e f u s e d t o c o u n t e n a n c e t h e p o s s ib ility o f s u c h a n a g r e e m e n t.41 D e n i k i n 's re a s o n s s t e m m e d b o t h f r o m p r a c tic a l c o n s id e r a tio n s a n d f r o m h is d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o s t a n d b y t h e p o lic y o f “ O n e R u s s ia ." N o n e o f t h e m e n t i o n e d p r o p o s a ls c o n v in c e d h i m t h a t t h e U k r a in i a n s w e re in t h e le a s t w illin g t o r e n o u n c e t h e i r s e p a r a ti s t a im s , a n d h e b e lie v e d t h a t to c o m p r o m i s e o n th i s is s u e w o u ld b o t h u n d e r m i n e t h e m o r a le o f t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y a n d e n c o u r a g e o t h e r s e p a r a tis ts to d e m a n d s i m i la r c o n c e s s io n s . M o r e o v e r , h e w as c e r t a in t h a t P e tl iu r a 's fo rc e s w e re o n t h e v e rg e o f d is in t e g r a ti o n a n d t h u s b e lie v e d t h a t t h e s u g ­ g e s t e d d e m a r c a ti o n - li n e a r r a n g e m e n t w o u ld s im p ly g iv e t h e m a p r o ­ t e c t e d a re a in w h ic h to r e g r o u p a n d p r e p a r e to a t t a c k f r o m t h e re a r .42 I n t h e s e c ir c u m s t a n c e s t h e o n ly a g r e e m e n t w h ic h

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a c c e p t w o u ld b e o n e r e q u i r in g t h e U k r a in i a n fo rc e s e i t h e r to la y d o w n t h e i r a r m s a n d d is p e r s e o r e ls e t o a llo w th e m s e lv e s t o b e in c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y . O t h e r w is e th e y w o u ld b e c o n s id e r e d as “ o p p o n e n t s ju s t as t h e B o ls h e v ik s ." 43 T h e l a t t e r p r o v e d t o b e t h e case. P e t l i u r a 's fo rc e s in t h e S o u th w e re m o s tly b e a t e n in s u b s e q u e n t b a t t l e s , w h ile h e a n d a s m a ll c o n t i n g e n t o f th o s e r e m a in i n g to o k r e f ­ u g e in P o la n d . A llie d n a v a l u n it s p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h e d e f e n s e o f O d e s s a b y t h e V o l u n t e e r s a g a in s t a U k r a in i a n a t t a c k d u r i n g S e p te m b e r , b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e a n e w ra s h o f r u m o r s w as s t a r t e d to t h e e ff e c t t h a t t h e F r e n c h w e re g o in g to in t e r v e n e o n P e t l i u r a ’s b e h a lf . T o s o m e e x t e n t s u c h r u m o r s w e re a p r o d u c t o f t h e f a c t t h a t R u s s ia n A m b a s ­ s a d o r M a k la k o v c o n t i n u e d to se e k F r e n c h m e d i a t i o n in t h e U k r a in i a n q u e s t i o n n o t o n ly to p r e v e n t f u r t h e r c la s h e s w ith t h e V o l u n t e e r s b u t a ls o t o a v o id h a v in g th i s q u e s t i o n s t a n d in t h e w a y o f p o s s ib le c o o p e r a ­ t i o n b e t w e e n D e n i k i n a n d t h e P o le s .44 A P o lis h d e le g a tio n h a d a rr iv e d a t D e n ik in 's h e a d q u a r t e r s in S e p ­ t e m b e r , a n d M a k la k o v s o u g h t to p e r s u a d e t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts o f t h e n e c e s s ity o f fu ll s u p p o r t fo r t h e n e g o ti a ti o n s to fo llo w . O n e i m m e ­ d i a t e r e s u lt w as t h a t t h e B r it is h e n v o y , M a c k i n d e r , a p p o i n t e d as h ig h c o m m is s io n e r to D e n i k i n in N o v e m b e r , w as i n s t r u c t e d to g o first to P o l a n d a n d tr y to p e r s u a d e P ils u d s k i to ta k e a c o n c ilia to r y a t t i t u d e to w a r d t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y .45 I t w as a t th i s p o i n t , in N o v e m b e r , t h a t D e n i k i n a n n o u n c e d t h e a c c o r d w h ic h h a d fin a lly b e e n w o r k e d o u t

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a c c o r d a n d e i t h e r P e t l i u r a ’s a c ti o n s o r t h e a rr iv a l o f t h e P o li s h d e le ­ g a ti o n , b u t t h e ti m i n g in e v ita b ly l e n t it s e l f to s u c h a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h e G a lic i a n fo rc e s r e c o g n iz e d D e n i k i n as c o m m a n d e r - in - c h i e f a n d e n t e r e d a m ilita r y a llia n c e w i t h t h e V o l u n t e e r s . I t w as a g r e e d t h a t t h e y w o u ld b e a llo w e d to r e t a in t h e i r o w n a u t o n o m o u s o r g a n i z a ti o n a n d w o u ld n o t b e r e q u i r e d to f ig h t a g a in s t t h e U k r a in i a n s u n d e r P e tliu ra . I t w as a ls o a g r e e d b e tw e e n D e n i k i n a n d t h e G a lic i a n a u t h o r i t i e s t h a t p o litic a l d e c is io n s r e g a r d in g G a lic i a ’s f u t u r e s t a tu s s h o u l d b e p o s t ­ p o n e d t o a m o r e c o n v e n ie n t ti m e . U n t i l t h e n P e t r u s h e v i c h ’s g o v e r n ­ m e n t w as re c o g n iz e d as t h e o n ly le g i ti m a t e g o v e r n m e n t o f E a s t G a l i ­ c ia .46 I n o t h e r w o rd s , D e n i k i n h a d a c c e p t e d t h e G a lic i a n g o v e r n m e n t as a n a lly o n a p p r o x i m a t e ly t h e s a m e te r m s as t h o s e g o v e r n i n g h is r e la tio n s w ith t h e C o s s a c k s a n d , fo r a t i m e , w i t h t h e C r i m e a n g o v e r n ­ m e n t . I n r e t u r n fo r a c c e p t in g h is s u p r e m e m i li ta r y c o m m a n d , t h e y w e re re c o g n iz e d as a n a u t o n o m o u s g o v e r n m e n t w ith a u t h o r i t y o v e r t h e in t e r n a l a ffairs o f t h e i r o w n te r r it o r y . T h is k in d o f a c c o rd m ig h t h a v e p ro v id e d a s o lu tio n to th e p ro b le m o f V o l u n t e e r r e la tio n s w i t h o t h e r m i li ta r y a n d p o li ti c a l fo rc e s in S o u t h R u s s ia , as D e n ik in a p p a r e n t ly t h o u g h t i t s h o u l d , b u t o n ly if t h e o t h e r p a r t y w as p r e p a r e d t o a c c e p t a c le a rly u n e q u a l r e l a ti o n s h ip . T h e w e a k ­ n e ss o f t h e G a lic ia n s , t h e i r o p p o s i ti o n t o t h e P o le s , t h e i r d i s t r u s t o f P e tl iu r a , a n d t h e i r i n c l in a t io n t o lo o k t o t h e R u s s ia n s f o r h e l p ( i n a p o s i ti o n n o t u n li k e t h a t o f t h e A r m e n i a n s ) w e re u n d o u b t e d l y t h e in g r e d ie n t s w h ic h m a d e s u c h a n a g r e e m e n t p o s s ib le in t h e i r c a se . M o r e o v e r , th e y h a d s u c c e e d e d in c o n v in c i n g D e n i k i n t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t re a lly “ s e p a r a ti s ts ,” s o m e t h i n g w h ic h P e t l i u r a d id n o t d o . H o w ­ e v e r, th i s a g r e e m e n t w ith t h e G a lic ia n s h a d l i t t l e if a n y m i li ta r y v a lu e , a n d a l t h o u g h D e n i k i n h im s e l f d id n o t s e e a n y g r o u n d s f o r c o n s i d e r in g i t as s u c h , i t w as b o u n d t o b e a b a d o m e n f o r V o l u n t e e r - P o l i s h r e la ­ tio n s , w h ic h w e re o f m u c h g r e a t e r im p o r t a n c e in t h e d e c is iv e d a y s o f N o v e m b e r a n d D e c e m b e r 1 9 19. $

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e n a b l e d t o r e t u r n as a b o d y t o P o la n d . R e la t io n s b e tw e e n t h e V o l u n ­ te e r s a n d th e s e P o le s h a d b e e n e x c e l le n t a n d t h e i r c a u s e a c o m m o n o n e .47 D e s ir in g t o a c h ie v e a s im ila r r e l a ti o n s h ip w i t h t h e P o lis h g o v ­ e r n m e n t , D e n i k i n h a d in f a c t d u r i n g th i s t i m e a lr e a d y b e g u n e ffo rts t o e s t a b li s h c o n ta c ts w i t h W a r s a w . E s ta b lis h in g

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p r o v e d p o s s ib le , b u t G e n e r a l C h e r i a c h u k i n , w h o h a d b e e n K r a s n o v 's r e p r e s e n ta t iv e t o t h e U k r a in e e a rlie r , h a d ta k e n u p a n a s s ig n m e n t as a D o n - V o l u n t e e r r e p r e s e n ta t iv e in W a r s a w d u r i n g J u n e 1 9 1 9 , a n d h a d b e g u n s e n d i n g r e g u la r r e p o r ts t o t h e D o n a n d to D e n i k i n c o n c e r n i n g e v e n ts a n d a t t i t u d e s in P o la n d . H o w e v e r , w h e n h e fin a lly d e c id e d t o le a v e in O c t o b e r to r e t u r n to S o u th R u s s ia , h e n o t e d in o n e o f h is la s t d is p a tc h e s t h a t h e h a d r e c e iv e d n o i n s tr u c t io n s f o r se v e n m o n t h s .48 I t a ls o a p p e a r s u n lik e ly t h a t a ll o f h is r e p o r ts g o t t h r o u g h t o t h e S o u th , f o r D e n i k i n in d i c a te s t h a t n o w o r d w as r e c e iv e d fo r m o n t h s fr o m h is o w n m i li ta r y r e p r e s e n ta t iv e , C o lo n e l D o lin s k ii, w h o h a d a ls o b e e n s e n t to W a r s a w .49 T h e w o r k o f th e s e m i li ta r y r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s in P o la n d , w h ile i t t h u s p r o v i d e d n o re a l c o n t a c t b e tw e e n t h e V o l u n t e e r s a n d t h e P o le s , w as n e v e r t h e le s s o f s o m e s ig n ific a n c e . F o r o n e t h i n g t h e y w o r k e d d u r i n g m o s t o f t h e i r s ta y o n t h e p r o j e c t o f r e o r g a n iz in g a n d tr a n s f e r r in g to t h e S o u t h t h o s e R u s s ia n tr o o p s w h ic h h a d b e e n s t r a n d e d o r h a d ta k e n re f u g e o n P o lis h so il. T h i s r e q u i r e d P o lis h c o o p e r a t io n , A llie d in t e r c e s ­ s io n a n d f in a n c ia l a s s is ta n c e , a n d p e r m is s io n fr o m R u m a n i a to cro ss its te r r it o r y . S e c u r in g s u c h c o o p e r a t io n a n d s u p p o r t w as n o s m a ll f e a t u n d e r p r e v a ilin g c ir c u m s ta n c e s . T h e a c tu a l t r a n s f e r o f s u c h tr o o p s w as n o t a c h ie v e d u n t i l m u c h l a t e r , b u t in t h e p ro c e s s o f n e g o ti a ti n g o n th is m a t t e r C h e r i a c h u k i n r e p o r t e d s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g fa c ts . H e d e t e c t e d a d iv is io n in P o lis h o p i n ­ io n to w a r d R u s s ia fr o m t h e s t a r t, f o r e x a m p le , a n d n o t e d t h a t P ils u d s k i d id n o t re p re s e n t th e

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c o n v in c e d t h a t P ils u d s k i w o u ld a t t a c k t h e B o ls h e v ik s a n d c o u ld t h u s b e o f g r e a t a s s is ta n c e if s o m e c o o p e r a tiv e a r r a n g e m e n t s w e re m a d e .50 A

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t h e R u s s ia n tr o o p s to p a ss th r o u g h R u m a n i a t o G a la ts b y t r a i n , b u t t h e P o le s c o n t i n u e d to fo r c e d e la y s . E v e n t h o u g h , a t F r e n c h r e q u e s t, t h e y h a d a g r e e d to t h e tr a n s f e r in p r i n c ip l e , t h e y c o n t i n u e d t o p r o p o s e t h a t th e s e tr o o p s b e s e n t n o r t h i n s te a d o f s o u t h , a n d t h e i r a t t i t u d e s tif f e n e d w ith t i m e . J u s t b e f o r e h e le f t, C h e r i a c h u k i n r e p o r t e d t h a t in f o r m a t i o n h a d b e e n r e c e iv e d in W a r s a w t h a t D e n i k i n w as d e a li n g w ith t h e G a lic ia n s , b u t h a d r e f u s e d t o n e g o t i a t e w i t h P e tl iu r a , a p o s i­ ti o n

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d r a w n w as t h a t D e n ik in c le a rly w o u ld r e f u s e t h e b o r d e r s d e m a n d e d b y P o l a n d .52 C h e r i a c h u k i n 's r e p o r ts h a d t h u s r e v e a le d t h e d e lic a c y o f r e l a ti o n s w ith t h e P o le s . T h e r e w as a d e f i n it e p o s s ib ility o f a n ti- B o ls h e v ik m ilita r y o p e r a t io n s b y t h e P o le s , b u t th e r e w as n o a s s u r a n c e a t a ll t h a t s u c h o p e r a t io n s w o u ld b e p r o - V o l u n te e r . T h e P o le s w e re q u i t e h e s i­ t a n t a b o u t s u p p o r t i n g a n y R u s s ia n e le m e n ts a n d w o u ld n o t d o so e x c e p t o n t h e i r o w n te r m s . T h e s e c o n c lu s io n s a ls o a p p e a r e d r e p o r t fr o m

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B o t h m ilita r y a n d n o n m i li ta r y e n v o y s in P o la n d , s a id th i s r e p o r t, f o u n d t h e P o lis h g o v e r n m e n t q u i t e a n ti - R u s s i a n a n d u n c o o p e r a t iv e . M o r e o v e r , i t c o n c lu d e d , “ a n a llia n c e w i t h P o l a n d is p o s s ib le o n ly if R u s s ia g e ts o u t o f B e lo ru s s ia [ a n d W e s t U k r a in e ] as f a r as t h e D n e p r. . .

E v e n t h e n , t h e r e p o r t a d d e d , s u c h a n a llia n c e “ w ill n o t

b e s i n c e r e ” a n d “ w ill n o t b e lo n g l a s ti n g ” b e c a u s e P o l a n d o p p o s e d t h e r e s to r a t io n o f R u s s ia a n d p r o p o s e d i n s te a d to a id in t h e e s t a b l i s h ­ m e n t o f “ a ll t h e l i t t l e i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e s ” w h ic h h a d g r o w n u p in n e ig h b o r in g t e r r it o r i e s .53 A t firs t t h e p e s s im is m o f s u c h r e p o r ts w as n o t a c c e p t e d b y D e n i k i n . H e saw n o re a s o n w h y t h e tw o b r o t h e r S la v ic n a ti o n s c o u ld n o t c o o p ­ e r a t e in

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r e g a r d in g o t h e r n a ti o n a li ti e s o f t h e o ld E m p i r e , h e a n d K o lc h a k a n d t h e R u s s ia n C o u n c i l in P a ris a ll a g r e e d fu lly w i t h t h e P r o v is io n a l g o v e r n m e n t's r e c o g n i ti o n o f P o la n d 's r i g h t to i n d e p e n d e n c e in M a r c h 1917 , a n d a c c e p t e d t h e p r i n c ip l e o f p la c in g t h e b o r d e r a c c o r d i n g to e t h n o g r a p h i c lin e s . M o r e o v e r , as h e in f o r m e d S a z o n o v in S e p t e m b e r , h e i n t e n d e d to fo llo w a v e ry c o n c il ia t o r y p o lic y in h is o w n r e l a ti o n s w ith P o l a n d .54 W h a t t h e n c o u ld s t a n d in t h e w a y o f c o o p e r a t io n , h e a s k e d , f o r it w as c le a rly a f a c t t h a t b o t h w e re m e n a c e d b y B o ls h e v ik p o w e r a n d b o t h h a d s iz e a b le m i li ta r y fo rc e s w h o s e lin e s w e r e d e s t i n e d t o b e in c lo s e p r o x i m i ty in t h e fa ll o f 191 9 w i t h t h e g r e a t p r o s p e c t o f c r u s h in g t h e R e d A r m y b e t w e e n t h e m ? 55

DENIKIN'S M IL ITA R Y AND PO LITICA L STRATEGIES

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th a t D e n ik in g re e te d th e

P o li s h m i li ta r y a n d t r a d e m is s io n s e n t to V o l u n t e e r h e a d q u a r t e r s in S e p t e m b e r to o p e n d ir e c t n e g o ti a ti o n s o n t h e i r m u t u a l r e la tio n s . T h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e m is s io n s e e m e d in its e lf to s u g g e s t s tr o n g e v id e n c e o f c o o p e r a t io n , s in c e i t w as h e a d e d b y a f o r m e r R u s s ia n g e n e r a l, K arn ic k i, a n d i n c l u d e d t h e f o r m e r P o lis h m i n i s t e r o f t r a d e , Iw a n ic k i. A t a b a n q u e t w e lc o m i n g t h e m is s io n , D e n i k i n d e c la r e d : A f t e r lo n g y e a rs o f m u t u a l m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d in t e r n e c i n e c o n f lic t, a f t e r t h e g rie v o u s b lo w s o f t h e W o r l d W a r a n d g e n e r a l d is o r d e r , o u r tw o f r a te r n a l S la v ic n a ti o n s a re e m e r g in g i n t o t h e w o r ld a r e n a in n e w m u t u a l r e l a ti o n s b a s e d u p o n a n i d e n t i t y o f s t a te i n t e r e s t s a n d u p o n a c o m m o n d e f e n s e a g a in s t o p p o s i n g fo rc e s. F r o m m y h e a r t , I h o p e t h a t o u r p a t h s w ill n e v e r d iv e rg e . I ra ise m y g lass to t h e r e b i r t h o f P o l a n d a n d to o u r f u t u r e v ita l a llia n c e .56 G e n e r a l K a r n ic k i a s s u r e d D e n i k i n w i t h g r e a t f e e lin g t h a t h e v ie w e d t h e su c c e s s o f h is m is s io n in a c h ie v in g a n a llia n c e as a m a t t e r “ o f life a n d d e a t h , ” a n d h e w a n t e d n o t h i n g to s t a n d in t h e w ay . H is c h ie f o f s ta ff, M a j o r P r z e z d z ie c k i, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , c a u s e d a s t i r e v e n b e f o r e t h e b a n q u e t w as o v e r b y p r o t e s t i n g t h e r e f e r e n c e to P o la n d as a n a lly .

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a s s e r te d t h a t P o l a n d h a d a “ v a s t a r m y ” c a p a b le o f h a n d l i n g t h e B o l­ s h e v ik s “ e n ti r e l y i n d e p e n d e n t l y ” a n d w o u ld h e l p t h e V o l u n t e e r s o n ly if w h a t i t w as t o g e t in r e t u r n w as c le a rly s p e lle d o u t in a d v a n c e . S p e c ific a lly , h e s a id , P o l a n d m u s t h a v e a b o r d e r a g r e e m e n t b e f o r e a n y t a l k o f a n a ll ia n c e w o u ld b e a c c e p t e d . W h e n V o l u n t e e r s p o k e s m e n o b j e c t e d t h a t a s p e c ific b o r d e r a g r e e m e n t c o u ld b e e n t e r e d o n ly b y a f u t u r e R u s s ia n a u t h o r i t y , t h e M a j o r s a n s w e r w a s: “ . . . t h e n th e r e is n o p o i n t in o u r b e in g h e r e .” 57 T h i s t u r n o f e v e n ts a p p a r e n t l y d i s t u r b e d b o t h D e n i k i n a n d K a r n i­ c k i. D e n i k i n 's p o s i ti o n w as t h a t h e h a d n o a u t h o r i t y to c o m m i t t h e R u s s i a n s t a t e t o a b o r d e r a g r e e m e n t, b u t t h a t th is q u e s t io n w as n o r e a s o n f o r h o s t il it y , s in c e P o l a n d 's i n d e p e n d e n c e in its e t h n o g r a p h i c b o r d e r s h a d b e e n fu lly a c c e p t e d b y all. I f t h e i m p li c a ti o n o f P rz e z d z ie c k i's r e m a r k s w as t h a t P o l a n d d e m a n d e d m o r e t h a n th is , t h e n , h e fe lt, t h e r e w as n e i t h e r ju s ti f ic a t io n n o r s i n c e r it y in its p ro p o s a ls . T h i s v ie w , m o r e o v e r , w a s s u p p o r t e d b y t h e A llie d m is s io n s , n o ta b l y b y t h e h e a d o f t h e F r e n c h m is s io n , w h o h a d i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t t h e P o lis h g o v e r n ­ m e n t h a d i n s t r u c t e d t h e d e le g a tio n to d e m a n d b o r d e r s c r e a t in g a “ G r e a t P o l a n d ” a n d w h o to o k t h e i n i ti a ti v e in w a r n in g K a rn ic k i

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a g a in s t p r e s e n tin g e x c e ss iv e d e m a n d s t o t h e V o l u n t e e r s .58 T h e u p s h o t o f th is p h a s e o f t h e n e g o ti a ti o n s w as t h a t K a r n ic k i a p o lo g i z e d a n d s e n t M a j o r P r z e z d z ie c k i h o m e . T h i s e f f o r t b y t h e h e a d o f t h e P o lis h d e le g a tio n f a ile d t o c h a n g e t h e s i t u a t i o n in a n y re a l s e n s e , h o w e v e r, fo r s u c c e e d i n g e v e n ts w e re to s h o w t h a t n o t h e , b u t P r z e z d z ie c k i, m o r e a c c u r a t e ly e x p re s s e d P ils u d s k i’s v iew s. T h e c ru x o f t h e p r o b l e m w h ic h c o n f r o n t e d V o l u n t e e r P o lis h r e la tio n s w as t h e d i s t r u s t o n t h e p a r t o f t h e P o le s o f a ll R u s s ia n s w h o w is h e d t o re s to r e R u s s ia as a g r e a t s t a te , a n d t h e i r c o n s e q u e n t d e t e r m i n a t i o n to o b t a i n s e c u r ity b y e s t a b li s h in g c o n t r o l o v e r t e r r i ­ to r ie s b e y o n d t h e p u r e ly e t h n o g r a p h i c li n e .59 T h e i r c la im s t o s u c h te r r it o r y w e re b a s e d u p o n b o r d e r s e x is tin g b e f o r e t h e f irs t p a r t i t i o n o f 1772 a n d u p o n t h e c u l t u r a l p r e d o m i n a n c e o f t h e P o lis h in t e l l e c t u a l a n d u p p e r c lasses in th e s e a re a s e v e n t h o u g h th e y w e re a m i n o r i ty . P a s t R u s s ia n o p p r e s s io n , c u lt u r a l a n d re lig io u s d if fe re n c e s , t h e h ig h l y c h a r g e d a tm o s p h e r e o f t h e p e r i o d , a n d m a n y o t h e r r e a s o n s c a n b e g iv e n to e x p la in t h e P o lis h p o s i ti o n . I t w as u n d e r s t a n d a b l e , b u t i t d e c id e d ly p u t g r e a t b a rr ie rs b e f o r e a g e n u i n e a llia n c e w i t h t h e V o l ­ u n t e e r s — a n d b y t h e s a m e t o k e n w i t h t h e B o ls h e v ik s , a l t h o u g h t h e l a t t e r w e re p r e p a r e d t o m a k e s ig n if ic a n t t e r r it o r i a l c o n c e s s io n s in o r d e r to g a in ti m e . T h e lo g ic o f P ils u d s k i’s p o s i ti o n , b a s e d o n o p p o s i t i o n t o a n y r e ­ s t o r e d R u s s ia , p r o d u c e d a p o lic y o f s t r e n g t h a n d u n s w e r v in g i n d e p e n ­ d e n c e fo r t h e n e w P o l a n d s t a n d i n g b e t w e e n R u s s ia a n d G e r m a n y . I t a ls o n a tu r a ll y fa v o r e d s u p p o r t fo r t h e b o r d e r l a n d s e p a r a tis ts , p a r t i c ­ u la r ly t h e U k r a in i a n s , r a t h e r t h a n s u p p o r t fo r D e n i k i n . P il s u d s k i’s v ie w w as t h u s in d i c a t e d b y h is r e j e c ti o n o f t h e p r o v is io n a l b o r d e r s u g g e s te d in N o v e m b e r b y t h e s t u d ie s i n i t i a t e d u n d e r t h e a u s p ic e s o f t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e . T h i s b o r d e r , l a t e r d e s i g n a te d as t h e C u r z o n lin e , w as b a s e d p a r t ly u p o n e t h n o g r a p h i c fa c to r s a n d p a r t ly u p o n c o n s i d e r a t io n o f t h e c o m p e n s a t i o n o f P o l a n d b y t h e a d d i t i o n o f la n d s ta k e n fr o m G e r m a n y in t h e w e s t. I n v ie w o f t h e d if fic u ltie s o f t h e case, i t w as ju d g e d b y t h e A llie d S u p r e m e C o u n c i l t o b e t h e b e s t b a s is f o r a fin a l d e m a r c a ti o n w h ic h c o u ld b e w o r k e d o u t l a t e r t h r o u g h n e g o ti a ti o n s b e tw e e n

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v ie w i t n o t o n ly d e n ie d to P o l a n d te r r it o r i e s w h ic h h e w is h e d to in c o r p o r a t e d ir e c tly i n t o t h e P o lis h s t a te , b u t a ls o i m p li e d t h e r e s to ­ r a t io n o f a R u s s ia n s t a t e w h ic h w o u ld in c l u d e t h e B e lo r u s s ia n a n d U k r a in i a n b o r d e r la n d s , w h o s e in d e p e n d e n c e h e w is h e d t o m a i n t a i n u n d e r P o lis h in f lu e n c e a n d p r o t e c t i o n .60

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S a z o n o v te l e g r a p h e d D e n i k i n fr o m P a ris t h a t t h e p r o v is io n a l b o r d e r p r o p o s e d b y t h e A llie s c o r r e s p o n d e d t o t h e d e c la r a tio n s o f t h e P r o ­ v is io n a l g o v e r n m e n t in 1 9 1 7 , a n d h e th e r e f o r e , o n b e h a l f o f t h e R u s ­ s ia n C o u n c i l , r e c o m m e n d e d its a c c e p t a n c e . D e n ik in w as in f a c t q u i t e s a tis f ie d w i t h t h e A llie s ' p r o p o s a l a n d m a d e i t t h e b a sis o f h is o w n p r o p o s a ls t o t h e P o le s , a d d in g o n ly t h a t t h e fin a l s e t t l e m e n t w o u ld o f n e c e s s ity n o t b e h is b u t t h a t a g r e e d t o jo i n tl y b y P o l a n d a n d t h e g o v e r n m e n t e s t a b li s h e d b y a R u s s ia n c o n s t i t u e n t a s s e m b ly a f t e r t h e w a r. I n ta lk s w i t h K a rn ic k i, D e n i k i n e x p re s s e d th i s v ie w a n d a d d e d t h a t if m i li ta r y c o o p e r a t io n c o u ld b e a c h ie v e d , h e w o u ld a g re e to t h e s u b o r d i n a t i o n o f R u s s ia n civ il a u t h o r i t i e s in a re a s o f P o lis h m ilita r y a c t i o n t o t h e P o lis h C o m m a n d f o r t h e d u r a t i o n o f m i li ta r y o p e r a t io n s . S u c h p r o p o s a ls w e re , fin a lly , w r i t t e n d o w n in a m e m o r a n d u m w h ic h t h e f o r m e r B r it is h m is s io n c h ie f , G e n e r a l B rig g s , c a r r ie d p e r s o n a lly to P ils u d s k i t o s e e k h is a g r e e m e n t .61 T h e p o s i ti o n o f t h e V o l u n t e e r s a r o u n d K ie v d a ily g re w m o r e c r itic a l as th i s e x c h a n g e w as ta k i n g p la c e , b u t n o r e p ly c a m e fr o m W a r s a w a n d n o a c t i o n c a m e fr o m t h e P o lis h tr o o p s s tra te g ic a lly p o is e d to t h e w e s t a n d n o r t h w e s t . D e n i k i n 's u r g in g t h a t t h e P o le s h e l p b y m o v in g to w a r d t h e u p p e r D n e p r w as ig n o r e d . P ils u d s k i t o l d t h o s e w h o i n ­ q u i r e d a b o u t th i s i n a c t i o n t h a t h e h a d o ff e re d to h e l p D e n i k i n b u t t h a t D e n i k i n h a d r e f u s e d t o r e c o g n iz e P o la n d 's i n d e p e n d e n c e , m a k in g a n a g r e e m e n t b e tw e e n

th e m

im p o s s ib le .62 I w a n ic k i e x p la in e d

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a r m y ’s in a c t i o n b y P o l a n d ’s c o n c e r n o v e r c o m p l ic a t io n s w ith G e r ­ m a n y in t h e S ile s ia n q u e s t io n a n d t h e t h r e a t p o s e d b y G e r m a n tr o o p s u n d e r V o n d e r G o l t z o p e r a t in g in E a s t P ru s s ia a n d t h e B a ltic s ta te s . K a r n ic k i o p i n e d t h a t t h e P o lis h g o v e r n m e n t p r o b a b l y f e l t i t h a d n o “ r i g h t ” t o m o v e tr o o p s a n y f a r t h e r i n t o R u s s ia n te r r it o r y . L a t e r h e a d d e d t h a t P o l a n d w as w a iti n g f o r a p p r o v a l fr o m

K o lc h a k b e f o r e

e n t e r i n g a n y a g r e e m e n t w ith D e n i k i n .63 T h e t r u t h , h o w e v e r , w as t h a t P ils u d s k i n e i t h e r e x p e c t e d n o r w a n te d D e n i k i n to w in t h e w a r .64 H e w as n o t im p r e s s e d b y t h e u rg in g s o f G e n e r a l B rig g s , p a r t ic u l a r ly s in c e , as G e n e r a l K a rn ic k i l a t e r re v e a le d , t h e P o lis h d e le g a tio n a t D e n i k i n ’s h e a d q u a r t e r s h a d r e p o r t e d p e s s im is ­ tic a lly o n t h e p r o s p e c ts fo r e i t h e r m i li ta r y c o o p e r a t io n o r p o litic a l a g r e e m e n t .65 P ils u d s k i h a d in f a c t b e c o m e c o n v in c e d t h a t , o n t h e o n e h a n d , D e n i k i n ’s tr o o p s “ w e re n o t w o r t h m u c h ” a n d w o u ld s o o n fa ll b a c k , a n d , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , n o s a tis f a c to r y a g r e e m e n t o n a t e r r it o r i a l s e t t l e m e n t c o u ld b e n e g o t i a t e d w i t h D e n i k i n b e c a u s e o f t h e l a t t e r ’s p o lic y o f “ R u s s ia O n e a n d I n d i v is i b le ” a n d t h e p r e d o m i n a n c e o f reac-

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ti o n a r y e le m e n ts a t V o l u n t e e r h e a d q u a r t e r s . D e s p i t e th i s n e g a tiv e v ie w o f t h e V o lu n t e e r s , P ils u d s k i d id m a k e i t c le a r to A llie d r e p r e ­ s e n ta tiv e s , p a r tic u la r ly t h e B r itis h , t h a t P o la n d w o u ld c o n s i d e r i n d e ­ p e n d e n t a c ti o n a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s p r o v i d e d t h a t s u c h o p e r a t io n s w e re r e q u e s te d a n d f in a n c e d b y t h e A llie d P o w e rs . H o w e v e r , th i s s u g ­ g e s tio n , p u t to t h e A llie d S u p r e m e C o u n c i l in S e p t e m b e r a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h a t t h e K a rn ic k i m is s io n h a d b e e n s e n t to s o u n d o u t D e n i k i n , w as r e je c te d ; a n d P ils u d s k i s u b s e q u e n tly to o k t h e p o s i ti o n t h a t P o l a n d w o u ld h a v e n o t h i n g to g a in b y i n t e r v e n i n g in t h e R u s s ia n c iv il w a r u n d e r e x is tin g c ir c u m s t a n c e s .66 T h i s d id n o t p r e c l u d e P o lis h a c t i o n in t h e f u t u r e , u n d e r c h a n g e d c o n d it io n s , b u t i t d id r u le o u t t h e k i n d o f a s s is ta n c e s o u g h t b y D e n ik in a t t h e t i m e i t w a s r e q u e s te d . I n v ie w o f t h e a s s u m e d m i li ta r y w e a k n e s s a n d p o li ti c a l o b s t in a c y o f t h e V o l u n t e e r s , a n d in v ie w o f t h e A llie s ’ n e g a tiv e re s p o n s e t o p o s ­ s ib le i n d e p e n d e n t P o lis h a c ti o n , t h e o n ly f e a s ib le p o lic y in P il s u d s k i’s ju d g m e n t w as t h a t o f b i d i n g t i m e in o r d e r to a w a it f u r t h e r d e v e lo p ­ m e n t s a n d m e a n w h il e to s t r e n g t h e n P o lis h fo rc e s. T o f a c i li ta t e th i s p o lic y , P ils u d s k i i n d e e d p r o c e e d e d to e s ta b lis h a n e u t r a l s t a n c e b y m e a n s o f a tr u c e w ith t h e B o ls h e v ik s . A f te r ta lk s b e t w e e n P o li s h a n d S o v ie t R e d C ro s s m is s io n s a t t h e f r o n t , a d e f a c to tr u c e w as e s t a b ­ lis h e d u n o ffic ia lly o n O c t o b e r 30. O n N o v e m b e r 2 th i s w as s u p p l e ­ m e n t e d b y a n a g r e e m e n t o n h o s ta g e s a n d a d e m a r c a t i o n li n e , a n d fin a lly o n N o v e m b e r 9 a fo r m a l a g r e e m e n t o n a n e x c h a n g e o f p r i s o n ­ ers w as s ig n e d b e tw e e n t h e tw o g o v e r n m e n ts .67 I t is c le a r t h a t P i l s u d ­ sk i d e c id e d to m a k e th i s a p p r o a c h to t h e B o ls h e v ik s e v e n w h ile t h e n e g o ti a ti o n s w ith D e n ik in w e re in p ro g r e s s . H is d e c is io n to d o so d id n o t m e a n t h a t h e tr u s t e d t h e B o ls h e v ik s a n y m o r e t h a n h e t r u s t e d D e n ik in ; it s im p ly m e a n t t h a t h e c h o s e n o t to a id D e n i k i n .68 I t w o u ld b e a n e x a g g e r a tio n t o s u g g e s t t h a t P il s u d s k i’s b e h a v io r w as re s p o n s ib le f o r t h e d e f e a t o f t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y w h ic h f o llo w e d s h o r tly o r e v e n to a s s e rt t h a t P ils u d s k i “ s h a m e f u ll y b e tr a y e d D e n i k i n a n d t h e E n t e n t e ” as B o ls h e v ik le a d e r K a rl R a d e k h a s w r i t t e n . 69 P i l ­ s u d s k i w as, a f t e r a ll, a c ti n g o n t h e b a sis o f P o lis h i n t e r e s t as h e sa w it. H o w e v e r , t h e f a c t r e m a in s t h a t h is fa ilu r e t o c o m e t o t h e re s c u e o f t h e V o l u n t e e r s in N o v e m b e r a n d D e c e m b e r w h e n t h e y w e re in r e t r e a t c e r t a in l y f a c i li ta t e d t h e a d v a n c e o f t h e R e d A r m y a n d c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e fa ilu r e o f D e n i k i n ’s fo rc e s to p r e v e n t t h e r e t r e a t f r o m t u r n i n g i n t o a r o u t . S o v ie t fo rc e s fa c in g t h e P o le s , a l t h o u g h t h e y w e re p e r h a p s n o t as n u m e r o u s as D e n i k i n t h o u g h t , w e re p u l l e d o u t a n d s e n t a g a in s t t h e V o l u n t e e r s d u r i n g th o s e f a t e f u l la s t w e e k s o f 1 9 1 9 . A s D e n i k i n

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w r o te w i t h s o m e b i t t e r n e s s to P ils u d s k i in D e c e m b e r : ‘T h e B o ls h e ­ v ik s a r e so s u r e o f t h e p a s s iv ity o f t h e P o lis h f r o n t t h a t . . . th e y a re c a lm ly a d v a n c i n g w i t h t h e i r b a c k s t o i t . ” 70 B y t h e b e g in n i n g o f 1920 t h e V o l u n t e e r s h a d b e e n d r iv e n b a c k to t h e i r K u b a n b a s e a n d t h e C r im e a . P ils u d s k i h a d a t le a s t h e l p e d to fu lfill h is o w n p r e d i c ti o n ; i t r e m a i n e d t o b e s e e n w h e t h e r th i s w o u ld t u r n o u t t o b e in t h e i n t e r e s t o f P o la n d . A t a m e e t i n g o f t h e A llie d p r i m e m i n is te r s a n d f o r e ig n m in is te r s o n D e c e m b e r 12, C l e m e n c e a u s t a t e d t h a t in h is o p in i o n t h e p o lic y o f a id i n g t h e R u s s ia n a n ti- B o ls h e v ik a r m ie s h a d fa ile d . T h e o n ly s e n s ib le t h i n g t o d o n o w , h e f e lt, w as t o a d o p t s e r io u s ly t h e p o lic y o f e r e c t in g a “ b a r b e d w ire e n t a n g l e m e n t a r o u n d R u s s ia in o r d e r t o p r e v e n t h e r f r o m c r e a t in g t r o u b l e o u ts id e , a n d in o r d e r to s t o p G e r m a n y f r o m e n t e r i n g i n t o r e l a ti o n s w i t h R u s s ia . . . .” I n s h o r t, h e s a id , t h e A llie d P o w e r s s h o u l d g iv e u p t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n in R u s s ia as a lo s t c a u s e a n d c o n c e n t r a t e o n a id i n g P o l a n d a n d o t h e r c o u n tr ie s o n R u s s ia 's w e s te r n b o r d e r “ in o r d e r to d a m u p t h e R u s s ia n flo o d a n d to p r o v i d e a c h e c k to G e r m a n y . ” A s t a t e m e n t re le a s e d to t h e p re s s b y A llie d s p o k e s m e n o n D e c e m b e r 13 e c h o e d th e s e s e n t i m e n t s w h e n i t in d i c a t e d t h a t w h ile n o s p e c ific c o m m i t m e n t s w e re a n t i c i p a t e d , “ a s t r o n g P o la n d w a s in t h e in t e r e s t s o f t h e E n t e n t e P o w e r s .” 71 T h e p o s i ti o n t h u s ta k e n b y t h e A llie s u n d e r F r e n c h in f lu e n c e u n ­ d o u b t e d l y h e l p e d P e t l i u r a to r e a c h t h e d e c is io n a t th i s t i m e to p u t h i m s e l f e n ti r e l y a t t h e d is p o s a l o f P il s u d s k i’s P o la n d . I n r e t u r n fo r P o lis h m i li ta r y s u p p o r t to r e s to r e h i m

to p o w e r in K ie v , P e tl iu r a

a g r e e d to a c c e p t t h e Z b r u c h R iv e r as t h e b o r d e r w ith P o la n d , th u s g iv in g E a s t G a lic ia t o P il s u d s k i .72 T h e s ig n ific a n c e o f t h e f a c t t h a t P ils u d s k i h a d n o t m a d e p e a c e , so lo n g r e q u e s te d b y t h e B o ls h e v ik s , b u t o n ly a tr u c e , w as th u s t o b e r e v e a le d in t h e s p r in g o f 1 9 2 0 w h e n t h e P o lis h a r m y p u t a s id e its s e c r e t a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e B o ls h e v ik s a n d r e s u m e d its m a r c h i n t o t h e U k r a in e to c a rry o u t t h e p r o m is e to P e tl iu r a . I t w as in d e e d P ils u d s k i's p la n to d o th is w h ic h e n a b le d t h e B r itis h e n v o y , M a c k i n d e r , to c a rry fr o m W a r s a w to D e n i k i n in J a n u a r y 1920 t h e n e w s t h a t P ils u d s k i h a d fin a lly a g r e e d to e n t e r t h e w a r a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s in t h e s p r in g . T h e P o lis h le a d e r , s a id M a c k i n d e r , h a d i n d i c a t e d t h a t h e w o u ld a c c e p t t h e b o r d e r s p r o p o s e d b y t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e as a p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e fo r n e g o ti a ti o n s a n d w o u ld n o t o p p o s e t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f d i s p u t e d c la im s to a re a s a r o u n d t h e b o r d e r t h r o u g h p le b i s c i te s .73 T h e p r o m is e o f P o lis h a c ti o n w h ic h M a c k i n d e r

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th u s b r o u g h t m i g h t h a v e b e e n a g r e a t b o o s t to h o p e s fo r a V o l u n t e e r re c o v e ry f r o m t h e r o u t r e c e n t ly s u f fe re d , b u t i t c a m e n o w , as D e n i ­ k in p u t it, w ith t h e r in g o f m a lic io u s ir o n y .74 O f a ll t h e p o t e n t i a l a llia n c e s w h ic h m i g h t h a v e b e e n p o s s ib le f o r t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y , t h a t w ith P o la n d w as u n d o u b t e d l y t h e m o s t s ig n ific a n t. T h e f a ilu r e to o b t a i n i t w as a m a j o r f a c t o r in D e n i k i n 's d e f e a t. A s C h u r c h i l l p u t it : “ T h e lin e s o f D e n i k i n e m b r a c e d t h e w h o le o f S o u th

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n o rth w a rd . A n

a r r a n g e m e n t b e tw e e n h i m a n d t h e U k r a in e , c o m b i n e d w i t h a s te a d y p r e s s u r e b y P o la n d , m i g h t w e ll h a v e b e e n d e c is iv e . B u t e v e r y t h in g fe ll to p ie c e s ." 75 T h e r e w e re , h o w e v e r, th r e e B a lk a n s t a t e s — R u m a n i a , B u lg a ria , a n d S e rb ia — w h ic h a ls o m i g h t h a v e h e l p e d , e s p e c ia lly w i t h s t r o n g e r e n c o u r a g e m e n t f r o m t h e A llie s. B y v ir tu e o f t h e e a rly c o n ta c ts e s t a b li s h e d in Jassy a n d t h e p r o m is e o f t u r n i n g o v e r m a te r ia ls f r o m t h e e a r lie r R u s s ia n f r o n t t h e r e , R u m a ­ n ia h a d b e e n v e ry c lo s e t o t h e R u s s ia n civ il w a r f r o m t h e b e g in n i n g . S h e h a d s y m p a th i z e d w ith t h e P o lis h p o s i ti o n , b u t s h e w a s a ls o a g r e a t e n e m y o f B o ls h e v is m , h a v in g lo s t h e r g o ld re s e rv e in t h e e a r lie r b re a k o f f o f d ip l o m a t ic r e la tio n s w i t h M o s c o w . B u lg a ria , lik e w is e a n o p p o n e n t o f t h e R e d s , w as a S la v ic s t a t e w ith less re a s o n t o d is lik e t h e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik R u s s ia n s a n d

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t h e m . B o th R u m a n i a a n d B u lg a r ia h a d a c c r e d i te d r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s to t h e V o l u n t e e r C o m m a n d . S e rb ia , u n li k e t h e o th e r s , w as n o t a n e i g h ­ b o r i n g s t a t e b u t h a d lo n g r e g a r d e d R u s s ia as its p a t r o n , a n d its le a d e r s h a d e x p re s s e d a d e s ire to h e l p t h e V o l u n t e e r s . N o n e o f th e s e p r o s p e c ts w as e v e r t r a n s l a t e d i n t o re a l a id , h o w e v e r , f o r v a rio u s re a s o n s . I n t h e ca se o f R u m a n i a t h e re a s o n w a s p r i m a r i ly t h e p r o b l e m o f B e s s a ra b ia . W h e n d u r i n g A u g u s t 1 9 1 9 a n i n q u i r y w as p u t t o P r i m e M i n i s t e r B r a t i a n u b y t h e B r it is h m i li ta r y m is s io n c o n ­ c e r n i n g c o o p e r a t io n w ith A llie d e ff o rts to a id D e n i k i n , t h e R u m a n i a n p o s i ti o n o n th i s is su e w as s t a t e d fla tly : “ W e a re p r e p a r e d t o e x t e n d e v e ry c o o p e r a t io n to G e n e r a l D e n i k i n ’s a r m y ," B r a t i a n u s a id , “ b u t o n ly u n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t h e s ig n a n a c t o f r e n u n c i a t i o n o f B e s ­ s a r a b ia ." 70 W h e n , s h o r tly a f t e r th i s , V o l u n t e e r fo rc e s o c c u p ie d O d e s s a a n d b e g a n m o v in g i n t o t e r r it o r y b o r d e r in g o n B e s s a r a b ia , t h e R u m a ­ n ia n g o v e r n m e n t o r d e r e d t h e b o r d e r s c lo s e d a n d s e n t tr o o p s i n t o T ir a s p o l. M e a n w h il e t h e R u m a n i a n p re s s c i t e d t h e a c tiv itie s o f a s o -c a lle d “ C o m m i t t e e f o r L i b e r a tio n o f B e s s a r a b ia " f o r m e d in O d e s s a as e v id e n c e o f V o l u n t e e r p la n s to se iz e th i s a r e a .77

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D e n i k i n o r d e r e d h is tr o o p s t o e x e rc is e e x tr e m e c a u t i o n so as t o a v o id a n y c la s h w i t h t h e R u m a n i a n s , a n d h e h a s t e n e d t o a s s u re t h e R u m a ­ n ia n g o v e r n m e n t t h a t t h e V o l u n t e e r s w o u ld n o t c ro ss t h e D n e s t r . T h e B e s s a r a b ia n q u e s t i o n , h e s a id , m u s t b e s e t t l e d b y n e g o ti a ti o n s a n d n o t b y w a r, b u t h e , as a m i li ta r y le a d e r , h a d n o a u t h o r i t y t o d e c id e s u c h q u e s t io n s , w h ic h m u s t b e l e f t t o a c o n s t i t u e n t a s s e m b ly .78 A t t h e s a m e t i m e h e t h a n k e d t h e R u m a n i a n a r m y f o r “ t h e i r d e s ire to g iv e u s a s s is ta n c e ” b u t a s k e d t h a t th e y to o o b s e r v e t h e D n e s t r d iv id ­ in g l i n e .79 T h e R u m a n i a n g o v e r n m e n t a g r e e d to th i s , b u t it s till m a d e t h e r e c o g n i ti o n o f R u m a n i a ’s c la im t o B e s s a r a b ia a s in e q u a n o n o f f u r t h e r c o o p e r a t io n . T h i s p o s i ti o n , m o r e o v e r , a f f e c te d t h e p re v io u s ly g u a r a n t e e d a c c e ss t o

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R u m a n ia . T h e m i li ta r y s u p p lie s l e f t b y G e n e r a l S h c h e r b a c h e v u n d e r R u m a ­ n i a n p r o t e c t i o n a n d A llie d s u p e r v is io n o r ig in a lly a m o u n t e d to e n o u g h t o e q u i p s o m e 4 3 d iv is io n s w i t h a r m s a n d a m m u n i t i o n .80 I t s s t a tu s as R u s s i a n p r o p e r t y h a d b e e n c le a rly s e t f o r t h in a n o t e f r o m t h e A llie d r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s to t h e R u m a n i a n g o v e r n m e n t in M a r c h 19 1 8 , a n d t h e R u m a n i a n g o v e r n m e n t h a d a g r e e d .81 Y e t n o t h i n g p r o v e d m o r e d if ­ f i c u lt t h a n g e t t i n g th i s m a t e r i a l o u t o f R u m a n i a , e v e n w i t h A llie d s u p p o r t , la r g e ly b e c a u s e R u m a n i a im p o s e d o b s ta c le s o f v a rio u s s o r ts to its re le a s e . F e a r s o f R u s s ia n r e s to r a t io n , t h e lo ss o f t h e i r g o ld re s e rv e in M o s c o w , t h e a r m in g o f a t le a s t six d iv is io n s o f t h e i r o w n o u t o f t h e R u s s i a n s to c k s , a n d t h e s h i p m e n t o f R u m a n i a n a rm s to P e t l i u r a 82— a ll w e r e re a s o n s f o r t h e R u m a n i a n a t t i t u d e , b u t t h e c o n s e q u e n c e w a s s till t h a t t h e la r g e s t p a r t o f t h e e n o r m o u s q u a n t i t i e s o f m i li ta r y e q u i p m e n t so c lo s e b y n e v e r g o t t o D e n ik in . D e s p i t e t h e e a r l ie r R u m a n i a n a g r e e m e n t t o r e le a s e c e r t a in q u a n ­ ti ti e s o f t h e s to c k s , in A p r il 1 9 1 9 a ll s h i p m e n t w as s t o p p e d . N e w a p p e a ls w e r e m a d e a n d n e g o ti a ti o n s r e o p e n e d in M a y , w i t h p ro m is e s a g a in m a d e t o re le a s e t h e m a t e r i a l, b u t a g a in o n ly t o k e n s h i p m e n t s fo llo w e d . D u r i n g A u g u s t M a k la k o v s u c c e e d e d in g e t t i n g t h e F r e n c h F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y a n d t h e A llie d m in is te r s in B u c h a r e s t to m a k e a s tro n g a p p e a l to th e R u m a n ia n g o v e rn m e n t o n th e u rg e n t n e e d o f e q u i p m e n t b y D e n i k i n , 83 a n d a g a in t h e R u m a n i a n s s e e m e d w illin g to c o o p e r a t e a n d e v e n to d e liv e r la r g e q u a n t i t i e s d u r i n g t h e fa ll. B u t o n c e m o r e d e la y s a p p e a r e d , a n d b y J a n u a r y t h e c h a n g e in V o l u n t e e r f o r tu n e s h a d p r o v i d e d n e w r e a s o n s f o r h a l t i n g a n y tr a n s f e r s . A s l a t e as A u g u s t 1 9 2 0 t h e F r e n c h le g a t io n c o u ld t h u s r e p o r t to P a ris t h a t , e v e n w i t h a ll t h e to k e n d e liv e rie s m a d e to b o t h D e n ik in a n d t h e U k r a in -

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ia n s , o n ly a f r a c ti o n o f t h e m a t e r i a l le f t b y t h e R u s s ia n s h a d b e e n r e le a s e d .84 N e i t h e r S h c h e r b a c h e v 's a p p e a ls 85 n o r A llie d n o te s e f f e c te d a re a l c h a n g e in th i s s i tu a t io n u n t i l a f t e r t h e d e f e a t o f t h e V o l u n t e e r s a n d t h e i r e v a c u a tio n to t h e C r im e a , a n d e v e n t h e n t h e c h a n g e w as m i n i ­ m a l. M e a n w h il e , t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e s u b c o m m i t t e e a s s ig n e d to s t u d y t h e B e s s a r a b ia n q u e s t io n r e p o r t e d in fa v o r o f R u m a n i a 's c la im s , th e r e b y s t r e n g t h e n i n g its re s is ta n c e t o D e n i k i n 's r e q u e s ts . T h e A llie d S u p r e m e C o u n c il s u g g e s te d a p le b is c ite in B e s s a r a b ia t o le g i ti m i z e t h e R u m a n i a n i n c o r p o r a t io n o f it, b u t B r a t i a n u r e j e c te d t h a t , a n d fin a lly , in M a r c h 192 0 , t h e S u p r e m e C o u n c i l a p p r o v e d t h e R u m a ­ n ia n a c q u is it io n .86 I n d is c u s s io n o f th e s e q u e s t io n s in t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e a t t e n t i o n h a d a ls o b e e n t u r n e d to B u lg a ria , w h ic h r e p o r te d l y p o s s e s s e d s o m e 1 8 1 ,3 0 0 rifles, 6 0 0 m a c h i n e g u n s , 9 0 0 c a n n o n s , a n d o v e r 2 0 0 m i ll io n c a r tr id g e s in e x cess o f t h e li m i ts a llo w e d b y t r e a t y .87 T h e s e to o m i g h t h a v e b e e n m a d e a v a ila b le to D e n ik in , n o t o n ly b e c a u s e t h e B u lg a r ia n g o v e r n m e n t ra is e d n o o b je c t io n s b u t a ls o b e c a u s e t h e y w e re n e a r a t h a n d a n d c o u ld b e s h i p p e d in b y sea. T h e B u lg a r ia n g o v e r n m e n t in f a c t e v e n o ff e re d to s e n d a c o n t i n g e n t o f B u lg a r ia n v o lu n t e e r s a lo n g w ith th e s e a rm s to D e n i k i n .88 B u t th i s a g a in w as n o t t o b e , f o r C l e m ­ e n c e a u e n v is a g e d t h a t w ith D e n i k i n 's fo rc e s in r e t r e a t t h e c h a n c e s w e re t h a t a n y s u p p lie s s e n t to R u s s ia w o u ld s im p ly fa ll i n t o t h e h a n d s o f t h e B o ls h e v ik s . B e s id e s , h e s a id , a n y a id a v a ila b le s h o u l d g o t o P o la n d , a n d h e o b je c t e d t o t h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f B u lg a ria . I n a n y c a se t h e B u lg a r ia n o ff e r to D e n i k i n w as v ie w e d as a s c h e m e to g e t a r o u n d t h e t r e a ty o b lig a tio n s l i m i t i n g t h e B u lg a r ia n a r m e d fo rc e s. I n a c o m ­ p r o m is e m o t i o n t h e d e c is io n w as m a d e to le a v e t h e u s e o f t h e s e s u p p lie s t o t h e d is c r e ti o n o f G e n e r a l F r a n c h e t d 'E s p e r e y .89 H i s v ie w s h a v e a lr e a d y b e e n n o t e d , a n d i t is s u f fic ie n t t o s t a t e t h a t h e a g r e e d w ith C le m e n c e a u in th i s c a se . D e n i k i n n e v e r g o t t h e m a t e r i a l in v o lv e d . N o n e o f t h e o b je c t io n s r a is e d in th e s e c ases w as p r e s e n t in t h e c a se o f t h e a id o ff e re d b y S e rb ia , h o w e v e r , f o r t h e r e w e re n o t e r r it o r i a l d is p u te s in v o lv e d , a n d S e rb ia w as in a v e ry re a l s e n s e o n e o f t h e A llie d c o u n tr ie s . M o r e o v e r , t h e S e r b ia n a id o ff e r c a m e w h e n t h e V o l u n t e e r s w e re o n t h e rise r a t h e r t h a n in r e t r e a t . W h e n G e n e r a l S h c h e r b a c h e v l e f t S o u th R u s s ia to g o to P a ris as D e n i k i n ’s s p e c ia l m i li ta r y r e p r e s e n t ­ a tiv e , h e h a d p a s s e d t h r o u g h B e lg ra d e , w h e r e h e w a s w a r m ly g r e e t e d b y P r i n c e A le x a n d e r o f S e rb ia . D u r i n g F e b r u a r y t h e P r i n c e h i m s e l f h a d g o n e t o P a ris , w h e r e h e p a r t i c i p a t e d in d is c u s s io n s o f t h e R u s s ia n

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q u e s t i o n a n d m a d e a s p e c ia l e f f o r t to e n a b le S h c h e r b a c h e v t o o b t a i n t h e a id h e s o u g h t . O n c e t h e P r i n k ip o p r o p o s a l h a d b e e n re m o v e d f r o m t h e s c e n e , P r i n c e A le x a n d e r e v e n w o r k e d o u t a p la n a lo n g w ith S h c h e r b a c h e v to f o r m a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l e x p e d it io n a r y f o r c e t o b e s e n t t o S o u t h R u s s ia to a id t h e V o l u n t e e r s .90 T h i s p la n , w h ic h w as d is c u s s e d w ith P o in c a r é a n d W i l s o n a m o n g o th e r s , p r o p o s e d t h e f o r m a ti o n o f a c o rp s o f 3 0 ,0 0 0 S e r b ia n v o lu n te e r s a n d lo o k e d t o a s i m i la r c o n t r i b u t i o n b y t h e C z e c h s . A s id e fr o m t h e g e o g r a p h ic a l p r o b l e m , h o w e v e r , t h e r e w as a n i m p o r t a n t c o n d it io n . A s S a z o n o v s t a t e d in h is M a r c h 2 7 r e p o r t to K o lc h a k o n t h e S e r b ia n p r o ­ p o s a l, P r i n c e A le x a n d e r m a d e t h e o ffe r “ o n c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e A llie s s e n d c lo t h in g , s u p p lie s , a r m s , a n d t e c h n i c a l m e a n s w i t h o u t p a y m e n t o f m o n e y n o w b u t t h r o u g h t h e o p e n i n g o f c r e d its fo r s u c h m a i n t e n a n c e fo r t e n m o n t h s / '91 S a z o n o v w as a p p a r e n t l y e n th u s i a s t i c a b o u t t h e p o s s ib ilitie s o f t h u s o b t a i n i n g u p t o 8 0 ,0 0 0 S e r b ia n a n d C z e c h tr o o p s f o r D e n i k i n , b u t K o lc h a k ’s c o u n c il to o k a s k e p tic a l v ie w in its re p ly . I t w as e s p e c ia lly d o u b t f u l o f C z e c h c o o p e r a t io n a f t e r its o w n e x p e r i­ e n c e , b u t it a ls o n o t e d t h e u n li k e li h o o d o f b e in g a b le to f in a n c e a n d s u p p l y s u c h tr o o p s in a n y c a se .92 T h e j u d g m e n t “ i m p r a c t ic a l " w as a ls o m a d e b y t h e A llie d g o v e r n ­ m e n t s o n w h o m t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e p la n d e p e n d e d . A s la t e as t h e f o llo w in g J a n u a r y , w h e n D e n i k i n w as in ta lk s w ith M a c k i n d e r , h e w as s till u r g in g B r itis h s u p p o r t f o r t h e S e r b ia n a n d B u lg a r ia n o ffers, b u t n o t h i n g e v e r c a m e o f t h e m .93 S in c e t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts h a d r e j e c te d F o c h 's e a r lie r p r o p o s a l fo r a g e n e r a l E a s t E u r o p e a n m o b iliz a ­ t i o n a g a in s t B o ls h e v is m , t h e y w e re n o t in t e r e s t e d in h a v in g p a r ts o f t h e s a m e p la n a d o p t e d p ie c e m e a l. N o r w as a n y w a y e v e r f o u n d to g e t R u s s ia n p r is o n e r s o f w a r in G e r m a n y to t h e S o u th , a p r o j e c t a ls o d ili­ g e n tl y s o u g h t b y S h c h e r b a c h e v .94 I t f o u n d e r e d o n t h e s a m e p r o b le m s as th o s e r a is e d in t h e S e r b ia n case.

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S o w e n t t h e p r o s p e c ts fo r n e w a llie s f o r S o u th R u s s ia . T h o s e c a ­ p a b le o f o ff e rin g a id r e f u s e d i t b e c a u s e D e n i k i n w o u ld n o t a c c e p t t h e p ric e . T h o s e w h o d e m a n d e d n o s u c h p r ic e w e re u n a b l e t o s e n d a n y a id . D e n ik in , fo r h is p a r t , r e m a in e d d e v o te d t o “ O n e R u s s i a ” a n d in so d o in g s a c rific e d s o m e p o t e n t i a l s u p p o r t f r o m s o u r c e s o u t s i d e t h e G r e a t P o w e rs . A t t h e s a m e t i m e h e u n d o u b t e d l y a ls o a d v e rs e ly a f f e c te d t h e c h a n c e s o f c o n t i n u e d a id f r o m t h e l a t t e r . T h e f a u l t w as n o t a ll D e n i k i n ’s, h o w e v e r, f o r t h e A llie s m i g h t h a v e e x e r t e d a f a r m o r e d e c i­ siv e in f lu e n c e in th e s e m a t t e r s . I n t h e fa ll o f 1 9 1 9 C h u r c h i l l p r o v i d e d o n e o f h is ty p ic a lly d ir e c t a n d c o n c is e , if s o m e w h a t e x a g g e r a te d , s u m ­ m a r ie s o f t h e s i tu a t i o n . T a k i n g t h e b r o a d e r c o n t e x t o f t h e w h o le civ il w a r, h e n o t e d t h e fa ilu re s o f b o t h A llie d p o lic y a n d c o o r d i n a t i o n o f e f f o r t in R u s s ia : L a rg e s u m s o f m o n e y a n d c o n s i d e r a b l e fo rc e s h a v e b e e n e m p l o y e d b y t h e A llie s a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s d u r i n g t h e y e a r [1 9 1 9 ]. . . . A d m ir a l K o ltc h a k ’s a r m ie s , e q u i p p e d m a i n ly w i t h

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tio n s , r e a c h e d in M a y a t o t a l o f n e a r ly 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 m e n . G e n e r a l D e n i ­ k i n ’s a rm ie s a g g re g a te a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e a b o u t a q u a r t e r o f a m i l ­ lio n c o m b a t a n t s . B e s id e s th e s e t h e r e w e re t h e F i n n s , w h o c o u ld p la c e 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 m e n in t h e fie ld . T h e r e w e re a ls o t h e E s t o n i a n s , t h e L e tt s a n d t h e L i t h u a n i a n s . . . . L a s tly th e r e a re t h e p o w e r f u l P o li s h fo rc e s , a n d h e l p c o u ld a ls o h a v e b e e n o b t a i n e d f r o m R o u m a n i a a n d , to a le s s e r e x t e n t , fr o m S e rb ia a n d C z e c h o s lo v a k ia . I t is o b v io u s f r o m t h e a b o v e t h a t t h e e l e m e n t s e x is te d w h ic h , u s e d in c o m b i n a t i o n , w o u ld e a s ily h a v e b e e n s u c c e s s fu l. T h e y h a v e , h o w e v e r , b e e n d is s ip a t e d b y a t o t a l la c k o f c o m b i n a t i o n , a n d th i s h a s b e e n d u e t o a c o m p l e t e a b s e n c e o f a n y d e f i n it e o r d e c id e d p o lic y a m o n g t h e v ic to r io u s A llie s. S o m e w e re in f a v o u r o f p e a c e

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a n d s o m e w e re in f a v o u r o f w a r. I n t h e r e s u lt t h e y m a d e n e i t h e r p e a c e n o r w a r. . . . M e a n w h i l e t h e B o ls h e v ik s s u c c e e d e d in g r a d u a lly d e v e lo p in g t h e i r a r m ie s . T h e s e a r m ie s w e re fa r w e a k e r t h a n t h e fo rc e s p o t e n ­ ti a ll y o p p o s e d t o t h e m ; b u t , as t h e y la y in t h e c e n t r e o f t h e c irc le , a n d c o u ld , s u b j e c t to t h e l i m i ts o f t h e i r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , th r o w t h e i r w e ig h t fr o m o n e p a r t o f its c ir c u m f e r e n c e t o t h e o t h e r , t h e y h a v e b e e n a b le to a t t a c k in d e ta i l a n d in m a n y c ases t o o v e r w h e lm t h e fo rc e s o p p o s e d t o t h e m . T h u s , w h ile D e n i k i n w as g e t t i n g o n h is f e e t K o ltc h a k w as b r o k e n a n d d e f e a t e d . . . . D u r i n g t h e la s t t h r e e m o n t h s t h e v e ry la r g e n u m b e r s o f m e n w h ic h t h e B o ls h e v ik s w e re a b le to tr a n s f e r fr o m in f r o n t o f K o ltc h a k , fr o m in f r o n t o f t h e P o le s , a n d fr o m in f r o n t o f t h e B a ltic S ta te s , . . . h a v e g iv e n t h e m a la r g e s u p e r io r i ty o f n u m b e r s o v e r D e n ik in . H is a r m y . . . s p r e a d o u t in p r a c tic a lly a s in g le li n e o n a f r o n t o f m o r e t h a n 1 ,2 0 0 m ile s , h a s n o w b e e n t h r o w n b a c k e v e r y w h e r e b y th e s e s u p e r io r fo rc e s. . . . T h e in a c t iv i ty o f t h e P o le s h a s e n a b le d t h e B o ls h e v ik s to c o n c e n ­ t r a t e a g a in s t D e n i k i n ; t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f D e n i k i n w ill e n a b le t h e m , if th e y c h o o s e , to c o n c e n t r a t e a g a in s t t h e P o le s . . . . W h e r e a s b y t a k i n g t h e p r o p e r c o n c e r t e d m e a s u r e s w e c o u ld , w i t h ­ o u t a n y la r g e a d d i t i o n a l e m p l o y m e n t o f m e n o r m o n e y , h a v e e s t a b ­ li s h e d a n a n ti- B o ls h e v ik a n d m o d e r n i z e d R u s s ia f r ie n d ly to t h e E n t e n t e , w e a r e n o w w i t h i n m e a s u r a b le d is ta n c e o f a B o ls h e v ik R u s s ia th o r o u g h l y m i li ta r iz e d , w ith n o t h i n g b u t its m i li ta r is m t o liv e o n , b i t t e r l y h o s t il e to t h e E n t e n t e , r e a d y to w o rk w ith G e r ­ m a n y , a n d a lr e a d y la r g e ly o r g a n iz e d b y G e r m a n y . T h e id e a t h a t P o l a n d w ill s e rv e as a b a r r ie r t o s u c h d a n g e r s is illu s o ry . T h e id e a t h a t b y s t a n d i n g o n t h e d e f e n s iv e o n t h e e a s t u n t i l e v e ry o t h e r a n tiB o ls h e v ik f o r c e h a s b e e n d e s tr o y e d , s h e w ill b e a b le t o m a i n t a i n a s t r o n g a t t i t u d e to w a r d G e r m a n y in t h e w e s t, is e q u a lly il l- f o u n d e d . W h a t is t h e w is d o m o f a p o lic y w h ic h se e k s to s t r e n g t h e n P o la n d b y a llie d m o n e y a n d m u n i t i o n s a n d y e t c a lm ly a c q u ie s c e s in t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f D e n i k i n a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t li b e r a t i o n o f t h e m a i n B o ls h e v ik a r m ie s t o t r e b l e a n d q u a d r u p l e t h e e n e m ie s w i t h w h o m P o l a n d h a s to c o n t e n d ? W h a t is t h e ju s tic e o r lo g ic o f re c o g n iz in g e v e ry S ta t e , a n d e v e n to a la rg e e x t e n t g u a r a n t e e i n g t h e i n d e p e n d ­ e n c e a n d s e c u r ity o f e v e ry S ta t e w h ic h h a s to r n it s e l f a w a y fr o m t h e R u s s ia n E m p i r e , w h ile r e f u s in g to r e c o g n iz e a n d a id in p r e s e r v ­ in g t h e g r e a t te r r it o r i e s a n d p o p u la t io n s in t h e s o u t h o f R u s s ia fr o m w h ic h G e n e r a l D e n i k i n 's a rm ie s a re d r a w n a n d w h ic h a re u n q u e s ­ t i o n a b l y a n ti-B o ls h e v ik ? I t is a d e lu s io n t o s u p p o s e t h a t all th i s y e a r w e h a v e b e e n fig h t-

216

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in g t h e b a tt le s o f t h e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik R u s s ia n s . O n th e y h a v e b e e n f ig h tin g o u rs . . . .*

t h e c o n tr a r y ,

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f u r t h e r in t e r v e n t i o n . A s t h e fa ll o f 1 9 1 9

m a r k e d t h e d e c is iv e t u r n i n g p o i n t in D e n i k i n 's m i li ta r y o ff e n s iv e , so i t a ls o b r o u g h t e q u a lly i m p o r t a n t a n d c o r r e s p o n d in g d e v e lo p m e n ts in A llie d a id p o lic ie s . B e tw e e n F e b r u a r y 19 1 9 , w h e n a id h a d b e g u n t o a rr iv e in s u b s ta n ti a l q u a n t i t i e s , c h ie fly f r o m B r it is h s to r e s , a n d t h e w i n t e r o f 1 9 1 9 , s u p p lie s h a d b e e n g iv e n g e n e r o u s ly a n d fre e ly . T h e y h a d c o m e la rg e ly fr o m m a te r ia ls l e f t fr o m t h e w a r w i t h t h e C e n t r a l P o w e rs a n d w e re t h u s m o s tl y s u r p lu s to t h o s e g iv in g t h e m , b u t th e y n e v e r th e le s s r e p r e s e n te d a n in v a lu a b le a s s is t f o r t h e V o l u n t e e r s . B r i t ­ a in a lo n e in th is p e r io d s u p p l ie d D e n i k i n w i t h o v e r 500 c a n n o n s , 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 rifles, 30 ta n k s , a m i ll io n a n d a h a l f s h e lls , a n d 160 m i ll io n r o u n d s o f rifle a m m u n i t i o n , p lu s s u b s ta n ti a l a n d c o s tly s u p p o r t in n a v a l p o w e r a n d a e ria l r e c o n n a is s a n c e .2 S im ila r s u p p lie s in s m a lle r q u a n t i t i e s h a d b e e n o b t a i n e d in F r a n c e , a n d t h e U n i t e d S ta t e s h a d g iv e n g e n e r o u s ly o f its s to r e s o f m e d ic a l s u p p l ie s .3 B u t t h e p o lic y o f m a k i n g s u c h g r a n t s m e r e ly as a d d i t i o n s t o t h e R u s s ia n n a ti o n a l d e b t h a d b e e n q u e s t i o n e d f r o m t h e b e g in n i n g . M o r e ­ o v e r, A llie d a id h a d a lw a y s h a d v o c a l o p p o n e n t s in b o t h B r i t a i n a n d F r a n c e , a n d e v e n f o r its a d v o c a te s i t h a d its l i m i t a t i o n s b o t h as to t i m e a n d as to q u a n t i t y . D o u b t s c o n c e r n i n g c o n t i n u a t i o n o f a id o n c r e d i t b e c a m e d e c is io n s a g a in s t i t la t e in t h e fa ll, f o r t h a t a id h a d in e v ita b ly b e e n li n k e d t o t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h o s e a id e d a n d t h u s in v o lv e d a c o n t i n u i n g j u d g m e n t o f t h e c h a r a c t e r a n d e ff e c tiv e n e s s o f R u s s ia n p o lic ie s a n d a c tio n s . I n s h o r t , i t w a s t i e d t o s u c c e s s . A lo s t c a u s e , n o m a t t e r h o w a t t r a c t i v e i t h a d o n c e b e e n , c o u ld n o t c o n t i n u e to d ra w s u p p o r t f r o m t h o s e w h o h a d t o liv e o n a f t e r its f a ilu r e a n d w h o w o u ld o n ly b e h a n d i c a p p e d b y c o n t i n u e d i d e n t if ic a t io n w i t h it. A s a lr e a d y s t a te d , t h e F r e n c h h a d b e e n t h e firs t t o s h o w s ig n s o f a s h i f t in A llie d p o lic y . H i n t s t h a t t h e F r e n c h

m i n i s t e r o f f in a n c e

o p p o s e d a n y f u r t h e r c r e d i t o p e r a t io n s in s u p p l y in g R u s s ia n fo rc e s h a d b e e n h e a r d e a rlie r , a n d in A u g u s t t h e m i n i s t e r o f w a r h a d c ir c u la t e d a

w a r n in g t h a t f u r t h e r s h i p m e n t s o f s u p p lie s w o u ld d e p e n d u p o n

s o m e b e t t e r a r r a n g e m e n t f o r c o m p e n s a t i o n .4 T h u s , w h e n in S e p t e m ­ b e r i t b e c a m e k n o w n t h a t t h e S a lo n ik a a r m y w as b e in g d e m o b i li z e d , m a k i n g a s ig n if ic a n t s to c k o f m i li ta r y s u p p lie s a v a ila b le f o r t h e V o l-

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u n te e r s , i t w a s m a d e c le a r t h a t e c o n o m i c d if fic u ltie s m a d e i t im p o s s i­ b le f o r t h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t t o s e n d a n y m o r e s u p p lie s o n c r e d i t.5 W a r s u r p lu s w o u ld h e n c e f o r t h h a v e to b e r e le a s e d o n ly f o r c a s h o r g o o d s in e x c h a n g e .6 T h i s , M a k la k o v w r o te , w as d e e m e d e s s e n tia l n o t o n ly f o r e c o n o m i c re a s o n s b u t a ls o b e c a u s e o f t h e p o litic a l o p p o s i ti o n . D i r e c t a id b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t w as b e lie v e d so u n p o p u l a r in s o c ia lis t w o r k e r c irc le s t h a t s h i p m e n t s w e re b e in g k e p t s e c r e t fr o m

t h e m .7

A ll w as n o t n e c e s s a rily lo s t fo r t h e a n ti-B o ls h e v ik s , h o w e v e r, a n d M a k la k o v q u ic k ly c a lle d a t t e n t i o n

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m a k e i t p o s s ib le t o c o n t i n u e t o re c e iv e g o o d s a n d s u p p lie s fr o m E u ­ ro p e . I f t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts w e re g o in g to e n d t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n as s u c h a n d r e o p e n tr a d e r e la tio n s th r o u g h p r i v a te o r g a n iz a tio n s , t h e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik s w o u ld h a v e t o d o a ll th e y c o u ld t o s t e e r t h e e x c h a n g e in t h e i r o w n d i r e c t i o n .8 T r a d e w o u ld h a v e to r e p la c e a id . P r iv a te o r g a n i z a ti o n s w o u ld h a v e t o ta k e o v e r w h e r e s t r ic t ly g o v e r n m e n ta l o p e r a t io n s l e f t o ff.9 D u r i n g O c t o b e r a n d N o v e m b e r th i s id e a r e c e iv e d a c tiv e a t t e n t i o n o n a ll sid e s. O ffic ia l n o te s f r o m b o t h t h e B r it is h a n d F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n ts in d i c a t e d a d e f i n it e i n t e r e s t in r e a c h in g a g re e ­ m e n t o n t h e e x c h a n g e o f s u p p lie s f o r R u s s ia n ra w m a te r ia ls a n d w h e a t, a n d D e n i k i n a u t h o r i z e d h is S u p p ly D e p a r t m e n t t o e n t e r n e g o ti a ti o n s o n th i s q u e s t i o n . 10 T h i s , h o w e v e r , w as n o s i m p l e m a t t e r o r a n e a sy s t e p to ta k e . A s p re v io u s ly n o t e d , D e n i k i n h a d a lw a y s b e e n o p p o s e d t o b a r g a in in g R u s s ia n r e s o u rc e s f o r a id a n d e s p e c ia lly t o t h e g r a n t i n g o f sp e c ific c o n ­ c e s s io n s to f o r e ig n p o w e rs . A s fa r as h e w as c o n c e r n e d , t h e “ V a r a n ­ g ia n s ” s h o u l d h a v e re a s o n e n o u g h to h e l p w i t h o u t b e in g p a id f o r it. M o r e o v e r , S o u t h R u s s ia w as n o t e x a c tly b u lg i n g w ith a n e x cess o f w h e a t o r a n y t h i n g e ls e w h ic h c o u ld b e t r a d e d fo r t h e n e e d e d s u p p lie s . I t w as in f a c t a lr e a d y e x p o r t in g a ll t h a t i t c o u ld t o f in a n c e g o v e r n m e n t o p e r a t io n s q u i t e a p a r t f r o m m i li ta r y s u p p l y .11 N o r w as t h e m o t i o n o f s e t t i n g u p tr a d e c o m p a n i e s as in t e r m e d ia r i e s lik e ly to a p p e a l t o D e n i ­ k i n 's s t r o n g c o n v ic t io n s o n t h e s e lfis h a n d d is o r g a n iz e d b e h a v io r o f p r i v a te o p e r a t o r s in t h e p a s t, t o say n o t h i n g o f t h e d u b io u s p o litic a l p o s i ti o n o f t h e c o o p e r a t iv e s o c ie tie s so o f t e n m e n t i o n e d in A llie d c irc le s . F in a l ly , as M a k la k o v w a r n e d , tr a d e r e la tio n s w o u ld ra ise t h e d e li c a te q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r t o d e a l e q u a lly w ith b o t h t h e A llie d P o w e r s .12 I t w as t h e r e f o r e n o t w i t h g r e a t e n t h u s i a s m t h a t D e n i k i n a g r e e d to n e g o ti a ti o n s o n t r a d e w ith t h e A llie s. T h a t h e d id so a t a ll w as in d i c ­ a ti v e o f h is p l i g h t r a t h e r t h a n o f h is d e s ire . I n N o v e m b e r D e n ik in 's

The Volunteer Army

218

S p e c ia l C o u n c i l w ir e d M a k la k o v t h a t t h e o ffe r o f s u p p lie s in e x h a n g e f o r R u s s ia n g r a in w o u ld b e a c c e p t a b le in p r i n c ip l e , b u t c e r t a in p r o b ­ le m s w o u ld h a v e to b e m e t b e f o r e s p e c ific a g r e e m e n ts

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w o r k e d o u t . P a r tic u la r ly , M a k la k o v w as i n f o r m e d , tw o p o i n t s h a d t o b e k e p t in m i n d : first, t h e w h e a t its e lf c o u ld b e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e p e a s a n ts o n ly if g o o d s w e re a v ia la b le w h ic h c o u ld b e g iv e n to t h e m in e x c h a n g e a n d a ls o as a n i n d u c e m e n t f o r g r o w in g a n d h a r v e s tin g f u t u r e c ro p s ; s e c o n d ly , m i li ta r y s u p p lie s w e re e s s e n tia l a t o n c e a n d m u s t n o t b e d e la y e d u n t i l t h e w h e a t w as a c tu a lly s h i p p e d . T h e s e o b s ta c le s , t h e S p e c ia l C o u n c i l f e lt, c o u ld b e r e m o v e d o n ly if t h e B r itis h a n d F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n ts c o u ld a s s u re t h e c o n t i n u e d d e liv e ry o f g o o d s a n d s u p p lie s b y e s t a b li s h in g s i z e a b le c r e d its i m m e d i ­ a te ly ( 1 0 0 m i ll io n fr a n c s w as s u g g e s te d ) a n d a g r e e in g to a c c e p t in p a y m e n t tw o s e p a r a te d e liv e rie s o f w h e a t, t h e firs t t o b e a v a ila b le n o t l a t e r t h a n M a y 1 9 2 0 a n d t h e s e c o n d t o fo llo w in t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f 1920. P a y m e n t , in o t h e r w o rd s , w o u ld h a v e to b e c o r r e la t e d w i t h t h e h a r v e s t, b u t t h e s u p p lie s t h u s b o u g h t w e re n e e d e d a t o n c e .13 W h e n t h e w h e a t d id b e c o m e a v a ila b le , t h a t p a r t o f i t t o b e e x p o r t e d w o u ld b e d iv i d e d i n t o e q u a l s h a r e s f o r B r it a in a n d F r a n c e if t h e te r m s p r o p o s e d w e re a c c e p t a b le t o b o t h . 14 T h e s e te r m s w e re , h o w e v e r , n o t a c c e p t a b le . E a r ly in t h e ta lk s M a ­ jo r P in d a r , t h e B r itis h e c o n o m i c a ffa irs r e p r e s e n ta t iv e a t V o l u n t e e r h e a d q u a r t e r s , e x p re s s e d s o m e d i s a p p o i n t m e n t t h a t B r i t a i n w a s b e in g r e g a r d e d o n e q u a l te r m s w i t h F r a n c e . B r it a in , h e s u g g e s te d , c o u ld h a n d l e t h e p r o b l e m m o r e e ff e c tiv e ly if i t w e re t h e o n ly p a r t y in a n a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h S o u t h R u s s ia , e s p e c ia lly in v ie w o f t h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s o f t h e h a r v e s t. M o r e o v e r , h e p o i n t e d o u t , t h e B r it is h w e re p r e p a r e d t o p a y fo r t h e g r a in w i t h e i t h e r c u r r e n c y o r g o o d s , t h u s m a k i n g t h e e x c h a n g e m o r e fle x ib le f o r t h e V o l u n t e e r s . T o a sk f o r n e w c r e d i ts o r a n a d d it i o n a l lo a n u n d e r e x is tin g c o n d it io n s , h o w e v e r , w as t o im p o s e “ g r ie v o u s ”

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c e n t ) o f a ll w h e a t ( a n d o t h e r g o o d s ) e x p o r t e d , w o u ld n o t a g r e e t o e s t a b li s h a c r e d i t as t h e c o n d i t i o n t o a n y a g r e e m e n t , a n d i n s is t e d t h a t s o m e p e r c e n t a g e ( p r e f e r a b l y 10 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e v a lu e o f t h e e x c h a n g e b e s e t a s id e as a m o r t i z a t i o n o f t h e d e b t t h a t w o u ld r e s u l t f r o m s u p ­ p lie s s e n t a f t e r O c t o b e r . T h e y a ls o a s k e d t h a t ta r if f a n d li c e n s e fe e s b e e i t h e r s e t a s id e o r c o n s i d e r e d a p a r t o f t h e a m o r t i z a t i o n f u n d . W h a t

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F r a n c e p r o p o s e d to d o t o m e e t t h e s e c o n d it io n s w as t o s e t u p , o r e n t e r c o n t r a c t s w ith , tr a d i n g c o m p a n i e s t h a t w o u ld b e a u t h o r i z e d t o s h ip u p t o 1 0 0 m i ll io n f r a n c s ' w o r t h o f s u p p lie s t o S o u t h R u s s ia , b u t th e s e s u p p l ie s w o u ld h a v e to b e e x c h a n g e d in S o u th R u s s ia f o r a g r e e d q u a n t i t i e s o f ra w m a te r ia ls , t h e t o t a l a m o u n t o f w h ic h t h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t w o u ld r e t a in t h e r i g h t t o b u y in t u r n fr o m t h e t r a d in g c o m p a n i e s .16 S e v e ra l v e rs io n s o f a p o s s ib le tr a d e a g r e e m e n t w i t h F r a n c e w e re d r a w n u p d u r i n g t h e fa ll, a n d n e g o ti a ti o n s w e re c o n d u c t e d s i m u l t a n e ­ o u s ly in P a ris a n d E k a t e r i n o d a r , in t h e f o r m e r c a se b e tw e e n a s p e c ia l d e le g a tio n o r g a n i z e d b y S a z o n o v a n d t h e F r e n c h

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M a n g i n p la y in g a m a j o r ro le . H o w e v e r , t h e r e w as l i t t l e p ro g re s s t o b e r e p o r t e d . I n D e c e m b e r M a k la k o v f o r w a r d e d to S o u t h R u s s ia a fin a l p r o p o s a l in t h e f o r m o f a c o n t r a c t w h ic h c o n t a i n e d t h e in d i c a t e d p r o ­ v is io n s a n d g a v e F r a n c e a p r i o r it y c la im o n 50 p e r c e n t o f a ll e x p o r ts o f w h e a t, c o a l, w o o l, le a t h e r , a n d c o t t o n s e e d o il f r o m S o u t h R u s s ia .17 D e n i k i n , h o w e v e r , d id n o t a c c e p t t h e a g r e e m e n t o n th e s e te r m s f o r m a n y r e a s o n s , b u t p a r t ic u l a r ly b e c a u s e o f t h e F r e n c h d e m a n d fo r s u c h a la r g e s h a r e o f t h e e x p o r ts , a d e m a n d w h ic h w o u ld n o t o n ly p r e ­ c lu d e f a v o r a b le a r r a n g e m e n t s w i t h o t h e r c o u n tr ie s b u t w as a ls o c o n ­ s i d e r e d i n c o n s i s t e n t w ith R u s s ia n s o v e r e ig n ty in v ie w o f t h e im p li e d fo r e ig n c o n t r o l o v e r t r a d e . 18 T h e F r e n c h , f o r t h e i r p a r t , c o n t i n u e d to re f u s e a n y f u r t h e r c o m m i t ­ m e n t t o s h i p m i li ta r y s u p p lie s u n t i l a n a g r e e m e n t w as s ig n e d . E a r lie r , in O c t o b e r , C le m e n c e a u h a d a g re e d , in re s p o n s e to a s p e c ia l a p p e a l, t o m a k e a n e x c e p t io n a n d p e r m i t t h e s e n d i n g o f 30 m i ll io n f r a n c s ’ w o r t h o f e q u i p m e n t , i n c l u d in g 80 c a n n o n s , 2 4 0 ,0 0 0 s h e lls , 75 m a c h i n e g u n s , a n d o t h e r i t e m s s u c h as s w o rd s a n d c lo t h in g , t o S o u th R u s s ia w i t h o u t w a iti n g f o r a n e x c h a n g e a g r e e m e n t, b u t n o w t h a t t o o w as c a n c e l le d .19 T h e s m a ll d e liv e ry m a d e in J a n u a r y 1 9 2 0 b r o u g h t o n ly t h e s w o rd s a n d c lo t h i n g , s in c e , i t w as e x p la in e d , G e n e r a ls F r a n c h e t d ’E sp e r e y a n d M a n g i n h a d a d v is e d a g a in s t s e n d i n g t h e o t h e r s u p p lie s b e ­ c a u s e o f t h e c h a n g e d m i li ta r y s i t u a t i o n .20 N o f u r t h e r a id f r o m t h e F r e n c h w as f o r t h c o m i n g u n t i l l a t e r w h e n a s o m e w h a t d if f e r e n t r e la ­ t i o n s h i p w as e s t a b li s h e d w i t h G e n e r a l W r a n g e l in t h e C r im e a , as w ill b e r e l a te d b e lo w . M e a n w h il e , in N o v e m b e r B r it is h p o lic y h a d b e e n s u b j e c te d t o sim i-

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la r r e c o n s id e r a t io n s w h e n t h e H o u s e o f C o m m o n s t o o k u p d e b a t e o n t h e R u s s ia n q u e s t io n . T h e w e ig h t o f o p i n i o n w as l e a n i n g h e a v ily to w a r d L lo y d G e o r g e 's p o s i ti o n b y th i s t i m e a n d w as f u r t h e r in f lu ­ e n c e d to d o so b y t h e c o n c ilia to r y o v e r tu r e s c o m i n g f r o m t h e B o ls h e ­ v ik s, v ia L it v in o v in S to c k h o l m ,21 a n d b y t h e o u t s p o k e n o p p o s i t i o n to a id to D e n i k i n o n t h e p a r t o f t h e f o r m e r p r i m e m i n is te r , A le x a n d e r K e re n s k ii. K e re n s k ii d id a m o s t e ff ic ie n t jo b o f k e e p in g t h e n e w s p a p e r s s u p p l ie d w ith d e n u n c i a t i o n s o f K o lc h a k a n d D e n i k i n as r e a c t io n a r ie s , i n d i c a ti n g t h a t a id to t h e m w o u ld b e r u i n o u s f o r R u s s ia .22 C h u r c h i l l h a d n o t c e a s e d h is e l o q u e n t a p p e a ls f o r c o n t i n u a t i o n o f a id to D e n ik in a n d in S e p t e m b e r h a d s u c c e e d e d in g e t t i n g P a r l i a m e n t to g r a n t a c r e d i t o f 15 m i ll io n p o u n d s f o r t h e V o l u n t e e r s . T h i s h a d e x te n d e d B r itis h a id i n t o t h e s p r in g o f 1 9 20, b u t o n ly t o D e n i k i n , f o r a t t h e s a m e t i m e C h u r c h i l l h a d t o in f o r m K o lc h a k t h a t t h e r e w o u ld b e n o m o r e a id f o r h i m . 23 I n N o v e m b e r i t w as c le a r t h a t n o f u r t h e r a id w o u ld b e f o r t h c o m i n g f o r D e n i k i n e it h e r .

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to in s u r e th i s b y ta k i n g a s t r o n g s t a n d a g a in s t a n y a c t i o n w h ic h w o u l d c o n t r i b u t e to a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e R u s s ia n c iv il w a r a n d b y r a is in g a n e w t h e s p e c t r e o f t h e o ld im p e r i a li s t riv a lry w i t h R u s s ia , r e c a llin g w a r n in g s o n c e v o ic e d b y D is r a e li a b o u t t h e G r e a t R u s s ia w h i c h h a d a b s o r b e d t h e b o r d e r l a n d a re a s a n d t h r e a t e n e d B r it is h i n t e r e s t s .24 H e im p li e d t h a t D e n i k i n 's R u s s ia w o u ld b e s u c h a R u s s ia . P r i v a te l y h e e v e n s t a t e d t h a t h e w o u ld n o w o p p o s e t h e r e s to r a t io n o f R u s s ia a n d i n s te a d fa v o r e d its d i s m e m b e r m e n t a n d t h e r e c o g n i ti o n o f a ll o f t h e b o r d e r s t a te s .25 T h e o n ly a lt e r n a t i v e w h ic h h e w o u ld e v e n c o n s i d e r w as t h e F r e n c h c o n c e p t o f f o s te r i n g a n a ll ia n c e o f t h e s t a te s r i n g in g R u s s ia fr o m t h e B a ltic t o T r a n s c a u c a s ia . C h u r c h i l l h a s t e n e d t o re a s s u re D e n i k i n t h a t a id w o u ld c o n t i n u e , b u t M a k la k o v , w h o c o n v e y e d C h u r c h i l l 's m e s s a g e , w a r n e d t h a t l i t t l e m o r e c o u ld b e e x p e c t e d .26 D u r i n g N o v e m b e r a n d D e c e m b e r L lo y d G e o r g e g a v e e v i d e n t s u b s ta n c e t o th i s w a r n in g in h is s p e e c h e s t o u c h ­ in g o n t h e R u s s ia n q u e s t io n . H e in e ff e c t s a id t o D e n i k i n t h a t t h e A llie s h a d d o n e a ll th e y c o u ld b u t t h a t t h e i r re s o u rc e s h a d n o w b e e n e x h a u s t e d a n d a n y c o n t i n u a t i o n o f p o lic ie s w h ic h p r o l o n g e d t h e w a r w o u ld b e b o t h i n e x p e d i e n t a n d w ro n g . T h i s , h e s t a t e d , w a s t h e v ie w o f b o t h t h e B r it is h a n d t h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t s .27 M o r e o v e r , t h e ta l k o f e n d i n g t h e b lo c k a d e a g a in s t B o ls h e v ik R u s s ia a n d o p e n i n g t r a d e r e l a ti o n s t h r o u g h t h e c o o p e r a t iv e s o c ie tie s , w h ic h b y n o w w e r e fu lly B o ls h e v ik d o m i n a t e d , w a s in d i c a ti v e o f t h e p r e v a l e n t a t t i t u d e in b o t h c iv ilia n a n d g o v e r n m e n t a l c irc le s . B r it is h a id , o f c o u r s e , w o u ld

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221

c o n t i n u e f o r a w h ile b e c a u s e o f t h e S e p t e m b e r c r e d i t, b u t n o f u r t h e r a r r a n g e m e n t c o u ld b e w o r k e d o u t w i t h t h e m e it h e r . I n b o t h F r a n c e a n d B r it a in t h e p o lic y m a k e r s h a d s im p ly d e c id e d a g a in s t a n y f u r t h e r c o m m i t m e n t in a id , a n d f o r tr a d e .

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F o r a t i m e t h e r e w as s o m e h o p e o f o b t a i n i n g s ig n if ic a n t q u a n t i t i e s o f e q u i p m e n t fr o m t h e U n i t e d S ta te s to fill t h e g a p w h ic h w o u ld b e l e f t b y t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f A llie d a id .28 K o lc h a k h a d in f a c t b e e n g r a n t e d c r e d i ts in t h e U n i t e d S ta te s w h ic h h a d p re v io u s ly b e e n i n ­ t e n d e d f o r t h e P r o v is io n a l g o v e r n m e n t b u t w h ic h w e re n e v e r u s e d o r w i t h d r a w n , y e t D e n i k i n h a d g o t t e n l i t t l e b e n e f i t f r o m th i s b e f o r e K o lc h a k 's d e f e a t , o n ly tw o s h ip s h a v in g m a d e t h e r u n fr o m N e w Y o rk to

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n o w h o p e d t o o b t a i n a t le a s t a p a r t o f t h e m illio n s o f d o lla r s ’ w o r th o f s u p p lie s c o n t r a c t e d f o r b y K o lc h a k ’s e c o n o m i c r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s , S. A . U g h e t a n d P . A . M o r o z o v , b u t s till n o t s h i p p e d t o R u s s ia . U n d e r t e r m s r e q u i r e d b y t h e U n i t e d S ta te s S h ip p i n g B o a r d , s h ip s c a rr y in g s u p p lie s to R u s s ia w e re to r e t u r n w i t h a t le a s t a tw o - th ir d s c a p a c ity lo a d o f ra w c a rg o in e x c h a n g e .30 O n t h e b a sis o f th i s p la n , w h ic h w as a c c e p t e d b y U g h e t a n d M o r o ­ z o v o n D e n i k i n ’s b e h a lf , f o u r a d d i t i o n a l f r e ig h te r s d e liv e r e d c a rg o e s v a lu e d a t o v e r $ 1 0 m i ll io n t o S o u t h R u s s ia f r o m t h e U n i t e d S ta te s b e t w e e n O c t o b e r a n d D e c e m b e r .31 O n e o f th e s e , c a rr y in g o v e r h a lf o f th i s t o t a l v a lu e , h o w e v e r , w as n o t a b le t o u n lo a d in t h e C r im e a u n t i l A p r il 1 9 2 0 .32 M o r e o v e r , D e n i k i n w as n o t a b le to liv e u p to t h e a g r e e m e n t t o p a y fo r t h e s u p p lie s b y r e t u r n c a rg o e s , a n d U g h e t a n d M o r o s o v w e re s o o n c o m p e l le d to s c r a p m u c h o f t h e o r d e r e d m i li ta r y m a t e r i a l in o r d e r to p a y t h e i r s to r a g e a n d f r e ig h t d e b t s .33 H u n d r e d s o f t h o u s a n d s o f r o u n d s o f a m m u n i t i o n a n d a r tille r y s h e lls , rifles, a n d a ll s o r ts o f o t h e r s u p p lie s th u s w e n t t o j u n k in s te a d o f t o S o u th R u s s ia , a n d t h e W a r D e p a r t m e n t s u b s e q u e n tly i n t e r d i c t e d f u r t h e r a id s h i p ­ m e n t s d e s p i te S e c r e ta r y o f S t a t e L a n s in g ’s a p p r o v a l o f t h e m . 34 A n e q u a ll y f r u s t r a t i n g o u t c o m e r e s u lte d fr o m G e n e r a l S h c h e r b a c h e v ’s d i l i g e n t e ff o rts t h r o u g h o u t 1 9 1 9 t o o b t a i n R u s s ia n m a t e r i a l h e l d in G e r m a n y .35 A r tic le s 116 a n d

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fin a lly c o n c e d e d t h e o b li g a ti o n o f G e r m a n y to r e t u r n a ll s u c h R u s s ia n m a t e r i a l, b u t n o f o r m a l a r r a n g e m e n t w as e v e r m a d e to e x p e d it e th is o b li g a ti o n . I n a n y c a se , p r i o r to t h e s ig n in g o f t h e V e rs a ille s T r e a t y in J u n e 1 9 1 9 C l e m e n c e a u h a d o b je c t e d o n p r i n c ip l e to a llo w in g G e r ­ m a n y t o d is p o s e o f a n y w a r m a t e r i a l a n d , a f t e r t h e s ig n in g o f t h e

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tr e a ty , c o n t i n u e d t o b lo c k e ffo rts to h a v e m a t e r i a l r e le a s e d t o t h e R u s s ia n s .36 I n a c o m p r o m i s e r e s o lu ti o n e v e n tu a lly a d o p t e d b y t h e A llie d S u p r e m e C o u n c il in D e c e m b e r a t F o c h ’s s u g g e s tio n , D e n i k i n w as g r a n t e d p e r m is s io n to b u y m u n i t i o n s a v a ila b le in G e r m a n y . H o w ­ e v e r, th i s s lig h tly i n s u lt in g g e s tu r e w as a t b e s t a b i t to o l a t e a n d d i d n o t re s o lv e t h e p r o b l e m , s in c e t h e m o n e y w as n o t a v a ila b le fo r s u c h p u r c h a s e .37 $

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s e e k in g g u a r a n te e s o f t h e i r a u t o n o m y a n d s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t h a d b e e n fo o lis h a n d s e lf-d e f e a tin g . F in a lly , s a id M a k la k o v , th e y p o i n t e d t o t h e f a ilu re to a p p e a l t o a n d a t t r a c t a b r o a d p o p u l a r s u p p o r t , e s p e c ia lly a m o n g lib e r a l a n d s o c ia lis t e le m e n ts . T h e r e w as e v e n a g r o w in g f e e l­ in g , M a k la k o v c o n c lu d e d , t h a t t h e s u p p o r t g iv e n t o t h o s e w h o h a d m a d e th e s e m is ta k e s h a d o n ly h e l p e d t o d riv e t h e p e o p le i n t o t h e a rm s o f t h e B o ls h e v ik s .38 A s M a k la k o v p o i n t e d o u t , t h e p u r e ly m i li ta r y s id e o f t h e s tr u g g le w as n o t t h e o n ly a re a o f s h o r tc o m i n g s . T h e j u d g m e n t m a d e b y t h e A llie s h a d e q u a lly o f t e n c e n t e r e d u p o n s o c ia l a n d p o li ti c a l p o lic ie s . T h e re s u lts a n d u l t i m a t e fa te o f D e n i k i n 's le a d e r s h i p w e re t h u s b o u n d u p w ith t h e b u r d e n s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o m e s ti c p r o b l e m s as m u c h as th e y w e re w ith h is m i li ta r y s t r a te g y a n d a llia n c e s . D u r i n g h is v is it to V o l u n t e e r h e a d q u a r t e r s e a rly in 1 9 20, S ir H a l f o r d M a c k i n d e r u r g e d D e n ik in t o fo r m a “ r e a l” g o v e r n m e n t as s o o n as p o s s ib le , t h u s p o i n t i n g to t h e f a c t t h a t e v e n a t th i s la t e d a t e t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y s till h a d n o t d e v e lo p e d a re a l p o li ti c a l o r g a n i z a ti o n .39 I n p a r t th i s la c k o f p o li ti c a l d e v e l o p m e n t h a d r e s u lte d f r o m D e n i ­ k i n ’s d e s ire to a v o id p o litic s a n d le a v e so c ia l is su e s in a b e y a n c e u n t i l t h e w a r h a d b e e n c o n c lu d e d , a p o lic y w h ic h h e c a lle d “ n o n p r e d e t e r -

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m i n a t i o n . ” 40 D e n i k i n d id n o t fu lly re a liz e t h e fo lly o f th is p o s i ti o n u n t i l t h e s p r in g o f 1 9 1 9 w h e n t h e A r m y ’s o ff e n s iv e a n d A llie d p re s s u re t o g e t h e r f o r c e d h i m a t la s t to ta k e a s t a n d . T o h is c r e d i t, h e d id t h e n o u t l i n e a p o s itiv e lib e r a l p r o g r a m , li s t in g t h e f o llo w in g as t h e g o a ls o f th e V o lu n te e r A rm y : 1. d e f e a t o f B o ls h e v ik a n a r c h y a n d r e s to r a t io n o f la w a n d o rd e r ; 2. r e - e s ta b l is h m e n t o f a s t r o n g u n i t e d a n d u n d iv i d e d R u s s ia ; 3. c o n v o c a t io n o f a N a t i o n a l A s s e m b ly o n t h e b a sis o f u n iv e r s a l su ffra g e ; 4. d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f p o w e r t h r o u g h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f re g io n a l a u t o n o m y a n d b r o a d lo c a l s e lf - g o v e r n m e n t; 5. g u a r a n t e e o f fu ll civ il lib e r tie s a n d f r e e d o m o f re lig io n ; 6. im m e d i a t e p r e p a r a t i o n o f la n d re f o r m s to m e e t t h e la n d n e e d s o f t h e la b o r in g p o p u l a t i o n ; 7. im m e d i a t e d e v e l o p m e n t o f la b o r le g is la tio n s a f e g u a r d in g t h e w o r k in g class a g a in s t e x p lo i ta t io n b y c a p ita l o r b y t h e s t a te .41 I n o t h e r s t a t e m e n t s D e n i k i n h a d a ls o c o m m i t t e d h im s e l f to t h e p r i n c ip l e o f p o p u l a r s o v e r e ig n ty , in t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e f u t u r e fo r m o f g o v e r n m e n t m u s t b e d e c id e d b y a c o n s t i t u e n t o r n a ti o n a l a s s e m b ly e le c te d b y t h e p e o p le , a n d h e s t o o d a lw a y s fo r lo y a lty to R u s s ia ’s i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m i t m e n t s . 42 I t w o u ld i n d e e d b e q u i t e a c c u r a t e to s t a t e t h a t in m o s t t h i n g s h e s t o o d f o r t h e s a m e p o lic ie s a n d g o a ls t h a t t h e P r o v is io n a l g o v e r n m e n t h a d s t o o d fo r. S ta n d i n g fo r s o m e th i n g a n d p u t t i n g i t i n t o p r a c tic e , h o w e v e r, w e re tw o d if f e r e n t th in g s . H e , f o r e x a m p le , a p p o i n t e d a c o m m is s io n t o s t u d y t h e la n d p r o b l e m a n d d r a w u p r e f o r m s “ to f a c i li ta t e t h e tr a n s f e r o f la n d to s m a ll h o ld e r s ,” a n d w h ile i t w as w o rk in g , h e is s u e d i n t e r i m o r d e r s to p r o t e c t p e a s a n t h o ld i n g s a g a in s t r e s e iz u r e b y f o r m e r o w n e r s .43 H o w e v e r , t h e c o n s e r v a ­ tiv e o p p o s i t i o n s u c c e s s fu lly b lo c k e d e v e n t h e f o r m u la t io n o f a r e f o r m la w u n t i l N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 9 , a f t e r w h ic h

t i m e it w as b o u n d

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“ c o m p l e te l y in e f f e c tiv e ” b y D e n i k i n ’s o w n a d m i s s i o n .44 M e a n w h i l e t h e a r m y in t h e fie ld , b e c a u s e o f se v e re s h o r ta g e s o f s u p p lie s , w as c o m p e l le d to liv e o ff t h e la n d b y fo r c e d r e q u is itio n s , a p r a c t ic e w h ic h a li e n a t e d t h e p e a s a n ts . M o r e o v e r , t h e f o r m e r o w n e rs fo llo w e d t h e a r m y w h e r e v e r it w e n t a n d u s e d its p r e s e n c e to c o e rc e t h e p e a s a n ts , re g a r d le s s o f D e n i k i n ’s o r d e r s .45 S u c h p r a c tic e s c o u ld h a v e b e e n c o n t r o l l e d o n ly b y a n e ff e c tiv e a n d e ff ic ie n t a d m i n is tr a t iv e a p p a r a t u s in t h e r e a r o f t h e a rm y , a n d u n d e r D e n i k i n ’s s y s te m o f m i li­ ta r y g o v e r n m e n t s u c h a n a p p a r a t u s w as c o m p l e te l y la c k in g . O n t h e c o n tr a r y , t h e o n ly p e o p le w h o m D e n ik in c o u ld a t t r a c t i n t o t h e b u -

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r e a u c r a c y w e re o ld b u r e a u c r a ts w h o w e re in m a n y c ases b o t h r e a c t i o n ­ a ry a n d c o r r u p t. S u c h p e r s o n s , as D e n i k i n h im s e l f d e s c r ib e d t h e m , w e re “ so a lie n to t h e u p h e a v a l t h a t h a d ta k e n p la c e t h a t t h e y c o u ld n e i t h e r u n d e r s t a n d i t n o r d e a l w ith i t / ' 46 A ll th e y c o u ld d o w as t o tr y to r e s u r r e c t t h e p a s t. D e n ik in m a d e a v a lia n t, a n d ty p ic a l, a t t e m p t to c o r r e c t a ll th i s in t h e w i n t e r o f 1 9 1 9 -1 9 2 0 b y re o r g a n iz in g t h e e n t i r e g o v e r n m e n t a l s t r u c ­ t u r e a t t h e t o p . P la n s fo r “ r e a l" g o v e r n m e n t h a d , in d e e d , b e e n u n d e r p r e p a r a ti o n fo r m o n t h s b y t h e le g a l a d v is e r o f t h e S p e c ia l C o u n c i l , K . N . S o k o lo v , b u t s t r o n g C o s s a c k o b je c t io n s a n d t h e e n t r e n c h e d a u ­ t o n o m y o f t h e C o s s a c k g o v e r n m e n ts h a d p r e v e n t e d t h e i r i m p l e m e n t a ­ t i o n .47 A t th is c ru c ia l s ta g e , h o w e v e r , D e n i k i n f o r c e d a s h o w d o w n w i t h t h e C o s s a c k s a n d p u t th r o u g h in F e b r u a r y 1 9 2 0 a r e o r g a n iz a t io n w h ic h c a lle d f o r a le g is la tiv e a s s e m b ly , a c o u n c il o f m i n is te r s r e s p o n s i­ b le to it, a n d a p r e s i d e n t w ith l i m i t e d v e to p o w e rs a n d t h e r e s p o n ­ s ib ility f o r n a m i n g t h e c h a ir m a n o f t h e c o u n c il a n d t h e m i n is te r s o f w a r a n d c o m m u n ic a t io n s .48 I t w as p a r t ic u l a r ly n o t a b l e t h a t D e n ik in , w h o w o u ld a s s u m e t h e p o s t o f p r e s id e n t, i n t r o d u c e d th i s d e m o c r a ti c a lt e r n a t iv e t o t h e d i c t a ­ t o r s h i p a t t h e v e ry t i m e t h a t K o lc h a k , ju s t b e f o r e h is o w n d e a t h , d e s ­ ig n a t e d h i m

as s u c c e s s o r to “ s u p r e m e a ll-R u s s ia n a u t h o r i t y ." 49 I n

re a lity , o f c o u rs e , n e i t h e r t h e r e f o r m s n o r t h e n e w ti tl e s m e a n t v e ry m u c h . W h e n D e n ik in n a m e d N . M . M e l 'n ik o v , a D o n C o s s a c k le a d e r , to f o r m

t h e n e w g o v e r n m e n t a n d r e c o m m e n d e d t h e in c l u s i o n o f

S o c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n a r i e s in t h e c a b in e t, h is p la n w as d e n o u n c e d b y t h e c o n s e r v a tiv e s as a c a p i t u l a t i o n t o t h e “ L e f ti s t s ," b y t h e lib e r a ls as a s u r r e n d e r to C o s s a c k p r e d o m in a n c e , a n d b y t h e C o s s a c k s as a v io ­ l a t io n o f t h e i r r i g h ts .50 M o r e o v e r , D e n i k i n 's e ff o rts t o r e f o r m t h e g o v ­ e r n m e n t c a m e a t t h e v e ry m o m e n t w h e n t h e A r m y w a s d is in t e g r a t i n g u n d e r t h e b lo w s o f t h e R e d A rm y . *

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B y t h e s p r in g o f 1 9 2 0 t h e V o l u n t e e r s ' la s t f o o t h o l d in t h e K u b a n a t N o v o ro s s iis k h a d b e c o m e a h e l l h o l e o f d is e a s e , in s u r r e c t i o n , c h a o s , a n d c o n f u s io n .51 A ll t h e h o s t i l i t y o f m is e r a b le re f u g e e s , d is il lu s i o n e d o fficers, re b e llio u s tr o o p s , a n d f a n a tic s h a d w e lle d u p i n t o a c o m m o n c h o r u s o f d e n u n c i a t i o n o f th o s e h e l d r e s p o n s ib le , e s p e c ia lly D e n i k i n a n d h is c h ie f o f sta ff, R o m o n o v s k ii; a n d a n e w t h r e a t f r o m t h e s o u t h , t h e “ G r e e n " m o v e m e n t , w as m a k in g e v e n a n o r d e r ly e v a c u a t io n o f N o v o ro s s iis k e x tr e m e ly d if fic u lt. T h i s m o v e m e n t , c o n c e n t r a t e d in t h e c o a s ta l z o n e b e t w e e n G e o r g ia

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a n d N o v o r o s s iis k , w as s y m b o lic o f t h e c o lla p s e o f re s is ta n c e t o t h e R e d A r m y . T e c h n i c a l l y n e u t r a l in t h e w a r b e t w e e n R e d s a n d W h i t e s , t h e G r e e n s r e p r e s e n t e d in p r a c t ic e a p e a s a n t s o c ia lis t r e v o l t a g a in s t t h e l a t t e r w i t h illu s o ry h o p e s o f r e a c h i n g a t r u c e w i t h t h e f o r m e r . I t h a d t a k e n a n o r g a n i z e d fo r m in N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 9 w ith t h e e le c tio n o f a “ C o m m i t t e e o f L i b e r a t i o n ” h e a d e d b y t h e S o c ia lis t R e v o l u t i o n ­ a r y V . N . F il ip p o v s k ii- S a m a r in a n d a m i li ta r y s ta ff h e a d e d b y N . V o r o n o v i c h . 52 H a v in g o r g a n i z e d a s m a ll s tr ik i n g f o r c e in i ti a ll y u n d e r t h e w in g o f G e o r g ia n n e u tr a l i t y , V o r o n o v i c h h a d a t t a c k e d t h e V o l u n t e e r s e a rly in t h e y e a r a n d h a d t h e n p r e s s e d o n n o r t h w a r d to T u s p s e a n d b e y o n d , in c o r p o r a t i n g i n t o h is fo rc e s d e s e r tin g K u b a n tr o o p s s e n t t o s t o p h im . I n t h e i r p o s i ti o n o n t h e c o a s t t h e G r e e n s p o s e d n o t o n ly a m ilita r y t h r e a t , w i t h t h e p o s s ib ility t h a t t h e y w o u ld b e a b le to c u t o ff V o l u n ­ t e e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n s w ith t h e M o u n t a i n re g io n a n d o b s t r u c t a r e t r e a t t o t h e s o u t h , b u t a ls o a p o li ti c a l t h r e a t . I n e ff e c t t h e G r e e n m o v e m e n t r e p r e s e n t e d b o t h a p e a s a n t r e v o l t a g a in s t V o l u n t e e r a u t h o r i t y a n d a n o u t g r o w t h o f t h e “ n e u t r a l i t y ” m o v e m e n ts in t h e K u b a n a n d T r a n s ­ c a u c a s ia . T h e G r e e n a t t a c k h a d in f a c t firs t b e e n r e p o r t e d as a G e o r ­ g ia n a t t a c k s u p p o r t e d b y K u b a n tr a it o r s , a n d D e n i k i n h a d b e e n le d t o b r e a k o ff r e l a ti o n s a b r u p t l y w ith G e o r g ia a g a in a t t h e e n d o f J a n u ­ a ry , ju s t as V o l u n t e e r fo rc e s w e re b e in g is o la te d in t h e m o u n t a i n s a n d b e i n g d r iv e n to w a r d t h e G e o r g ia n b o r d e r o n o n e s id e a n d to w a r d P e tr o v s k o n t h e o t h e r . 53 D e n i k i n r e f u s e d t o b e s w a y e d b y t h e a d v ic e o f s o m e m e m b e r s o f t h e D o n C o m m a n d , w h o b e lie v e d n e g o ti a ti o n s w ith t h e G r e e n s to b e t h e o n ly w a y o u t , o r b y t h e f a c t t h a t v a rio u s K u b a n le a d e rs w e re k n o w n t o b e c lo s e ly a s s o c ia te d w ith t h e m o v e m e n t . A D o n - K u b a n d e le g a tio n , s e e k in g a t r u c e a n d s o m e a g r e e m e n t t o p r e v e n t f u r t h e r c la s h e s , d id c o n t a c t G r e e n le a d e r s la t e in M a r c h , b u t n o t h i n g c a m e o f t h e e f f o r t, s in c e t h e G r e e n s c la i m e d t h a t t h e y c o u ld o b t a i n r e c o g n i­ t i o n o f t h e i r i n d e p e n d e n c e f r o m t h e B o ls h e v ik s b u t c o u ld b e a s s u re d o f n o t h i n g fr o m D e n i k i n . 54 T h e p r e s s u r e f o r n e g o ti a ti o n s , h o w e v e r, a ls o s u r p r is in g ly c a m e f r o m a n o t h e r d i r e c t i o n — t h e B r itis h . T h e B r it is h d i p l o m a t i c r e p r e s e n ta t iv e , G e n e r a l K e y e s, a p p a r e n t ly f e l t t h a t th i s w as o n e o f t h e cases in w h ic h B r it is h m e d i a t i o n w o u ld b e m o s t h e l p f u l , f o r o n F e b r u a r y 6 h e h a d s e n t a m e m b e r o f h is s ta ff t o S o c h i t o m e e t w i t h V o r o n o v i c h a n d F ilip p o v s k ii- S a m a r in . T h r o u g h th i s c o n t a c t t h e B r it is h e n v o y s a tis f ie d h im s e l f t h a t t h e G e o r g ia n a r m y h a d n o p a r t in t h e a t t a c k a n d t h a t t h e a rm s a c q u ir e d h a d la r g e ly

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b e e n c a p t u r e d f r o m t h e V o l u n t e e r s . H e h a d t h e n in q u i r e d w h e t h e r t h e l i b e r a t io n c o m m i t t e e w o u ld a c c e p t t h e s t a tu s q u o as t h e b a s is o f a tr u c e if i t w as r e c o g n iz e d a n d s u p p o r t e d b y t h e B r itis h , a n d h e w a s t o l d t h a t t h e B r itis h g u a r a n t e e w o u ld h a v e n o m e a n i n g if D e n i k i n i n t e n d e d to tr y to r e ta k e S o c h i. H o w e v e r , t h e c o m m i t t e e d id n o t a t th is p o i n t c o m p l e te l y r e je c t t h e o ffe r o f m e d i a t i o n .55 G e n e r a l K ey es h im s e l f h a d t h e n g o n e to S o c h i a n d t h e r e ta l k e d w ith V . C h a ik i n , a r e p r e s e n ta t iv e o f t h e c o m m i t t e e a n d a S o c ia lis t R e v o lu t io n a r y jo u r n a li s t w h o s e a c c o u n t o f t h e m u r d e r o f t h e B a k u c o m m is s a rs h a d p r o v id e d t h e b a sis o f t h e c h a rg e s o f B r it is h c o m p l i c ­ ity in t h e i r d e a th s . U p o n b e in g t o l d b y C h a i k i n t h a t t h e G r e e n r is in g h a d b e e n p r o v o k e d b y V o l u n t e e r a tr o c it ie s , K e y e s r e p l ie d t h a t t h e c o m m i t t e e s h o u l d h a v e r e p o r t e d th i s to h i m a t t h e ti m e . H e k n e w t h a t t h e V o l u n t e e r s h a d a c te d b a d ly , s a id K e y e s, b u t h e h o p e d t h a t t h e c o m m i t t e e w o u ld n o w a c c e p t h is m e d i a t i o n o f d if f e r e n c e s w i t h t h e V o lu n t e e r s . T a k i n g p e r s o n a l c r e d i t fo r s o m e o f D e n i k i n 's r e c e n t p o litic a l c o n c e s s io n s , K e y e s in d i c a t e d t h a t B r it a in w o u ld a id a ll le g i t i ­ m a t e g o v e r n m e n ts o p p o s i n g t h e B o ls h e v ik s , in c l u d i n g t h e c o m m i t t e e if i t w as w illin g to c o o p e r a t e .56 G o i n g t h e n t o G a g r i, K e y e s m e t w ith V o r o n o v i c h a n d o f f e r e d t h e u s e o f h is b o a t t o c a rry t h e G r e e n C o m m a n d e r t o N o v o r o s s iis k t o m e e t w ith K u b a n a n d V o l u n t e e r le a d e rs . U n a b l e t o c o n t a c t t h e c o m ­ m i t t e e fo r a u t h o r i z a t i o n , V o r o n o v ic h n e v e r th e le s s a g r e e d t o g o in a p e r s o n a l c a p a c ity . I n

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(s p e c ific a lly G e n e r a l L u k o m s k ii, w h o w as t h e n g o v e r n o r - g e n e r a l o f t h e B la c k S ea p r o v i n c e ) r e f u s e d t o a d m i t K e y e s ' g u e s t, a n d so h e w as r e t u r n e d to S o c h i, w h e r e t h e c o m m i t t e e h a d m e a n w h il e r e p u d i a t e d a n y n e g o ti a ti o n s w i t h t h e V o l u n t e e r s .57 D e s p it e t h e a p p a r e n t o p p o s i­ t i o n t o n e g o ti a ti o n s o n t h e p a r t o f b o t h

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V o l u n t e e r s , h o w e v e r, K e y e s c o n t i n u e d h is e ffo rts . W h e n a p e a s a n t s ’, w o r k e r s ', a n d s o ld ie r s ’ c o n g re s s w as c o n v o k e d in S o c h i l a t e r in F e b r u a r y , a n o t h e r B r it is h r e p r e s e n ta t iv e , G e n e r a l C o t ­ t o n , a t t e n d e d a n d a d d r e s s e d t h e m e e t i n g t o u r g e a tr u c e t h r o u g h B r it is h m e d i a ti o n . H e a s s u r e d G r e e n le a d e r s t h a t o n c e p r e v io u s c o m ­ m i t m e n t s h a d b e e n f u lfille d , B r it is h a id to D e n i k i n w o u ld c e a s e , a n d h e o ff e re d to g u a r a n t e e t h a t a n y p r is o n e r s h e l d b y t h e G r e e n s w o u ld n o t b e a llo w e d t o ta k e a n y f u r t h e r p a r t in t h e w a r if t h e y w e r e r e le a s e d . H is p r o m is e s w e re a ls o t o n o a v a il, h o w e v e r , s in c e t h e G r e e n s r e f u s e d to a g re e to n e g o t i a t e o r e v e n t o r e f r a in f r o m a n a t t a c k o n N o v o r o s ­ siisk . T h e l a t t e r , th e y s a id , w as a p a r t o f t h e B la c k S e a p r o v i n c e , a n d

227

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if, as C o t t o n w a r n e d , t h e B r it is h tr i e d t o d e f e n d it, t h e r e s u lti n g c la s h w o u ld b e u n a v o id a b l e . E v e n a f t e r th i s r e b u f f, K e y e s a c c o m p a n ie d C o s s a c k S u p r e m e K ru g V ic e - P r e s id e n t A g e e v to S o c h i o n M a r c h 7 to s e e k s o m e a r r a n g e m e n t w i t h t h e G r e e n s , b u t h e w as to l d t h a t o n ly a c o m p l e t e b r e a k w ith D e n i k i n w o u ld m a k e n e g o ti a ti o n s p o s s ib le w i t h a n y o n e .58 T h e s e e ff o rts t o r e a c h a c o m p r o m i s e w ith t h e G r e e n s w e re f u tile , and

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h e l p e d t o p r o d u c e a r i f t w i t h i n t h e G r e e n m o v e m e n t. B y t h e e n d o f F e b r u a r y a f a c t io n a l s p l it h a d d e v e lo p e d b e tw e e n t h e p e a s a n t - o r i e n te d li b e r a t i o n c o m m i t t e e a n d t h e a s s o c ia te d m i li ta r y r e v o l u ti o n a r y c o m ­ m i t t e e , w h ic h w a s b a c k e d b y t h e B o ls h e v ik s a n d b a s e d u p o n w o r k e r s u p p o r t . A s R e d A r m y u n i t s m o v e d i n t o t h e K u b a n fr o m t h e e a s t, t h e B o ls h e v ik f a c t io n in t h e m o v e m e n t p r o p o s e d to in v a d e t h e K u b a n in o r d e r t o jo in fo rc e s w i t h t h e m . V o r o n o v ic h a n d t h e li b e r a t i o n c o m ­ m i t t e e o p p o s e d th i s s u g g e s tio n , b u t , h a v in g lo s t c o n tr o l o v e r a p a r t o f t h e G r e e n fo rc e s t o t h e m i li ta r y r e v o l u ti o n a r y c o m m i t t e e , th e y w e re u n a b l e to s t o p t h e a t t a c k .60 K u b a n fo rc e s , n o w r e t r e a t i n g s o u t h w a r d u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d o f G e n e r a l S h k u r o , c la s h e d w i t h t h e “ R e d ” G r e e n s s h o r tly t h e r e a f t e r , s u c c e s s fu lly r o u t e d t h e m , a n d t h e n p r o c e e d e d o n to w a r d S o c h i. T h e c h a i r m a n o f t h e K u b a n g o v e r n m e n t a t th is t i m e , V . Iv a n is , m a d e a h a s t y t r i p to G a g r i a n d g o t t h e l i b e r a t io n c o m m i t t e e ’s b e l a t e d a g re e ­ m e n t t o a t r u c e a t le a s t to c o v e r K u b a n tr o o p s , b u t th i s h a d l i t t l e e f f e c t, s in c e t h e c o m m i t t e e n o lo n g e r h a d a n y in f lu e n c e w ith t h e G r e e n u n i t s in t h e f ie ld .61 T h e la t t e r , u n d e r B o ls h e v ik le a d e r s h ip , c o n ­ t i n u e d t o a t t a c k , a n d S h k u r o r e n e w e d h is d riv e a g a in s t t h e m . T h e K u b a n c o m m a n d e r t h e n s u c c e e d e d in f o r c in g t h e G r e e n a r m y to r e t r e a t i n t o t h e h ills , b u t a ll t h a t h e h im s e l f c o u ld d o a f t e r t h a t w as t o c o n t i n u e w i t h h is o w n tr o o p s to w a r d t h e s o u t h , f o llo w e d b y s w a rm s o f re f u g e e s c a r r y in g a p la g u e o f ty p h u s a n d c h o le r a .62 T h i s m o v e ­ m e n t , o f c o u rs e , o n c e a g a in ra is e d t h e q u e s t io n o f r e la tio n s w ith T r a n s c a u c a s ia . *

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C r im e a , m a d e b e t t e r r e la tio n s w i t h G e o r g ia e s s e n tia l. T h e c o m m o n t h r e a t p o s e d b y t h e R e d A r m y a ls o s e e m e d t o o ffe r to G e o r g ia a n im p e r a t iv e ju s tif ic a tio n f o r e n d in g p a s t d if fe re n c e s . M o r e o v e r , G e o r g ia w as b a d ly in n e e d o f s u p p lie s h e r s e lf a n d n o w h a d fa r less t o f e a r f r o m D e n i k i n t h a n in t h e p a s t. I n s h o r t, t h e o p p o r t u n i t y fo r c o o p e r a t io n s e e m e d o p e n , a n d D e n ik in , fo r h is p a r t , to o k s te p s to w a r d t h a t e n d . T h e f a t e o f b o t h T r a n s c a u c a s ia a n d t h e V o l u n t e e r s , h o w e v e r , d e ­ p e n d e d a ls o o n t h e re s p o n s e o f t h e A llie s t o t h e i r m u t u a l n e e d s a t th i s ti m e . A t t h e c o n f e r e n c e o f A llie d p r i m e m i n is te r s a n d f o r e ig n m i n is te r s in D e c e m b e r b o t h t h e V o l u n t e e r r e t r e a t a n d t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h a t to d o a b o u t t h e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n s ta te s h a d a lr e a d y r e c e iv e d s p e c ia l a t t e n ­ t i o n .64 O n D e c e m b e r 13 t h e A llie d le a d e rs h a d a d o p t e d a r e s o lu ti o n s e t t i n g f o r t h t h e d e c is io n “ n o t t o e n t e r i n t o a n y f u r t h e r c o m m i t m e n t b e y o n d w h a t h a s a lr e a d y b e e n p r o m is e d ." T h e r e s o lu ti o n c o n t i n u e d : T h e C o n f e r e n c e a g re e d t h a t n o u s e f u l p u r p o s e w o u ld b e s e r v e d b y a t t e m p t i n g to s u m m o n a n y g e n e r a l c o n f e r e n c e o f t h e r e p r e s e n t a ­ tiv e s o f t h e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik S ta te s a t t h e p r e s e n t. A s re g a r d s t h e b o r d e r c o m m u n i t i e s w ith n o n - R u s s ia n p o p u l a t i o n s w h ic h h a v e b e e n s tr u g g lin g f o r f r e e d o m a n d s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t , t h e A llie s w ill g iv e t h e m s u c h a s s is ta n c e in d e f e n d i n g t h e i r li b e r t ie s as m a y b e f o u n d d e s ir a b le in t h e c ir c u m s t a n c e s o f e a c h c a s e as i t a ris e s .65 I t w as n o t u n t i l J a n u a r y 10 t h a t C u r z o n , o n L lo y d G e o r g e ’s i n s t r u c ­ tio n s , h a d fin a lly ra is e d s p e c ific a lly t h e q u e s t i o n o f g r a n t i n g f o r m a l d e f a c to r e c o g n i ti o n t o G e o r g ia a n d A z e r b a id z h a n . A s h e p o i n t e d o u t to t h e f o r e ig n m i n is te r s p r e s e n t, th e s e s ta te s w e re in g ra v e d a n g e r , a n d t h e B r itis h g o v e r n m e n t n o w b e lie v e d t h a t r e c o g n i ti o n w o u ld b e a m a j o r a id t o t h e i r p r e s e r v a tio n a g a in s t B o ls h e v ik a t t a c k .66 I t h a d t h e n b e e n d e c id e d t h a t t h e A llie d P o w e rs w o u ld jo i n tl y e x t e n d d e f a c to r e c o g n i ti o n t o t h e g o v e r n m e n ts o f G e o r g ia a n d A z e r b a id z h a n . O n J a n u a r y 16 t h e p r i m e m i n is te r s h a d f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r e d t h e q u e s ­ t i o n o f t h e d e f e n s e o f t h e tw o r e p u b lic s a n d t h e i r r e q u e s ts f o r a id , b u t L lo y d G e o r g e h a d c a s t d o u b t o n t h e fe a s ib ility o f a s e r io u s a id p r o ­ g r a m a n d h a d t u r n e d t h e d is c u s s io n i n s te a d t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f r e o p e n ­ in g tr a d e w ith a ll o f R u s s ia as t h e “ b e s t w a y . . . t o r u i n B o ls h e v i s m ." 67 T h e e x t e n t to w h ic h A llie d p o lic y h a d t u r n e d to w a r d L lo y d G e o r g e ’s p o i n t o f v ie w w as i n d i c a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t o n t h e s a m e d a y t h e A llie d S u p r e m e C o u n c i l h a d a p p r o v e d e n d i n g t h e b lo c k a d e o f B o l-

229

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s h e v ik R u s s ia a n d o p e n i n g tr a d e r e la tio n s t h r o u g h t h e c o o p e r a tiv e s o c ie tie s , a n i n d i r e c t a p p r o a c h d e s ig n e d to g e t t h e b e n e f its o f t r a d e w i t h o u t g r a n t i n g r e c o g n i ti o n o f t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t .68 F in a lly , o n J a n u a r y 19 t h e q u e s t io n o f A llie d p o lic y to w a r d S o u th R u s s ia a n d T r a n s c a u c a s ia h a d b e e n b r o u g h t to a h e a d w h e n F o c h a n d S ir H e n r y W i l s o n w e re c a lle d u p o n to a n a ly z e t h e m i li ta r y s i tu a ­ ti o n , a n d r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s o f G e o r g ia a n d A z e r b a id z h a n w e re in v i te d to te s ti f y o n t h e p l i g h t o f t h e i r c o u n tr ie s . F o c h s u r v e y e d t h e s t a t e o f a ffa irs in t h e civ il w a r a n d c o n c lu d e d t h a t D e n i k i n 's fo rc e s w e re a t t h e p o i n t o f c o m p l e t e c o lla p s e . H e th e r e f o r e r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t t h e A llie s c o n c e r n th e m s e lv e s c h ie fly w ith b u i l d i n g a s t r o n g a llia n c e a m o n g P o la n d , R u m a n i a , t h e B a ltic S ta te s , a n d F i n l a n d . S ir H e n r y W i l s o n a g r e e d w i t h F o c h t h a t t h e A llie s c o u ld n o t s e r io u s ly c o n s id e r a r e i n ­ t e r v e n t i o n in S o u th R u s s ia a n d T r a n s c a u c a s ia u n le s s th e y w e re p r e ­ p a r e d to d e v o te a t le a s t t h r e e fu ll d iv is io n s o f tr o o p s to th is p u r p o s e . A n d as f o r f u r t h e r a id in s u p p lie s , h e b e lie v e d t h a t u n le s s t h e y w e re w illin g t o m a k e t h e n e c e s s a ry e f f o r t to h o l d t h e C a s p ia n , a n y m a te r ia l s e n t in w o u ld p r o b a b l y s o o n fa ll i n t o B o ls h e v ik h a n d s .69 O n t h e o t h e r s id e o f t h e d e b a te , t h e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n r e p r e s e n ta ­ tiv e s ( T s e r e t e l l i , A v a lo v , C h k h e i d z e , T o p c h ib a s h e v , a n d M a g e r a m o v ) d e c la r e d t h a t G e o r g ia a n d A z e r b a id z h a n w e re p r e p a r e d to

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th e m s e lv e s b u t c o u ld d o so s u c c e s s fu lly o n ly if th e y r e c e iv e d fu ll A llie d r e c o g n i ti o n a n d s u p p lie s so as t o a s s u re t h e i r p o s i ti o n a g a in s t b o t h t h e B o ls h e v ik s a n d D e n ik in . T h e in c lu s io n o f t h e V o l u n t e e r s in t h e c a te g o r y o f e n e m ie s o f G e o r g ia a n d A z e r b a id z h a n w as p a r tic u la r ly s tr e s s e d b y T s e r e t e ll i, w h o e v e n s u g g e s te d t h a t i t w o u ld b e e a s ie r fo r t h e m t o d e a l w i t h t h e B o ls h e v ik s t h a n w ith D e n ik in . I n d e e d , o f all t h o s e p r e s e n t a t th i s d is c u s s io n ( L lo y d G e o r g e , C l e m e n c e a u , C u r z o n , a n d C h u r c h i l l in a d d i t i o n to t h e n a m e s a lr e a d y m e n t i o n e d )

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s e c r e tly s u p p l ie d s o m e a rm s t o D a g e s ta n a lr e a d y , jo i n e d in t h e s e d e c i­ s io n s a n d o ff e re d t o c o n t r i b u t e a rm s if t h e B r it is h a n d F r e n c h w o u ld ta k e r e s p o n s ib ility f o r d e liv e r in g t h e m . 71 T h e U n i t e d S ta te s a n d J a p a n w e re a ls o t o b e in v i te d to a d h e r e to th e s e p o lic ie s .72 W h i l e th e s e d e c is io n s w e re b e in g m a d e , M a c k i n d e r h a d t a k e n u p h is p o s t a t V o l u n t e e r h e a d q u a r t e r s a n d h a d b e g u n w o rk o n t h e ta s k o f e n c o u r a g in g b e t t e r r e la tio n s b e tw e e n t h e V o l u n t e e r s a n d T r a n s ­ c a u c a s ia .73 H is ta s k h a d , o f c o u rs e , t a k e n o n n e w s ig n ific a n c e a f t e r t h e J a n u a r y 10 d e c is io n b y t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts t o g r a n t f o r m a l r e c o g n i ti o n t o t h e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n s ta te s . M a c k i n d e r a p p a r e n t l y w as fa v o r a b ly im p r e s s e d t o fin d t h a t D e n ik in w as n o t o p p o s e d t o a c k n o w l­ e d g in g t h e d e f a c to e x is te n c e o f h is n e ig h b o r s to t h e s o u t h , a lt h o u g h t h e V o l u n t e e r C o m m a n d e r s till m a i n t a i n e d t h a t h e h a d n o a u t h o r i t y to a c c e p t f o r m a lly a n y te r r it o r i a l c h a n g e in t h e R u s s ia n s t a te . D e n ik in h a d t h u s a s s u re d M a c k i n d e r t h a t h e r e c o g n iz e d t h e G e o r ­ g ia n a n d A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v e r m e n ts a n d w a n te d to n e g o t i a t e w i t h t h e m if th e y w e re w illin g to c o o p e r a t e in t h e f ig h t a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e ­ v ik s a n d to r e f r a in fr o m m a k in g c la im s w h ic h c o u ld b e ju d g e d o n ly b y a f u t u r e a ll-R u s s ia n a u t h o r i t y .74 T h e r e w as n o t h i n g n e w in th i s , o f c o u rs e , b u t D e n i k i n h a d a t th i s t i m e a g r e e d t o g o b e y o n d h is p r e v io u s p o s itio n a n d t o c o m m i t h im s e l f in w r it in g t o t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t r e u n if ic a tio n m i g h t b e a c h ie v e d t h r o u g h n e g o t i a t i o n w i t h t h e b o r d e r ­ la n d g o v e r n m e n ts r a t h e r t h a n

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a ll-in c lu s iv e c o n s t i t u e n t a s s e m b ly . T h e r e f o r e o n J a n u a r y 14 D e n i k i n h a d is s u e d a s t a t e m e n t , d e c la r in g in p a r t : 1. I r e c o g n iz e t h e d e f a c to i n d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e b o r d e r g o v e r n ­ m e n t s w h ic h a re c a rr y in g o n t h e s tr u g g le a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s ; 2. t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e f u t u r e r e l a ti o n s o f t h e b o r d e r s ta te s w ith R u s s ia s h o u l d b e a c c o m p lis h e d b y m e a n s o f a n a g r e e m e n t b e tw e e n t h e a ll-R u s s ia n g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e b o r d e r g o v e r n m e n ts ; 3. t h e m e d i a t i o n o f t h e A llie s c a n b e a c c e p t e d in th i s m a t t e r . . . ,75 M o r e o v e r , w h e n D e n i k i n h a d c r e a t e d h is n e w g o v e r n m e n t , h e h a d a p p o i n t e d G e n e r a l B a ra to v , w h o h a d f o r m e r ly b e e n in c h a r g e o f t h e V o l u n t e e r m is s io n in T iflis , t o t h e p o s t o f fo r e ig n m i n is te r . C o n v i n c e d t h a t b e t t e r r e la tio n s c o u ld b e e s t a b li s h e d w i t h G e o r g ia a n d A z e rb a id z h a n , B a r a to v h a d i m m e d i a te l y b e g u n e ff o rts in t h a t d i r e c t i o n w i t h D e n i k i n 's a p p r o v a l. B y F e b r u a r y b o t h s id e s h a d a g r e e d t o b e g in n e w n e g o ti a ti o n s , a n d s p e c ia l r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s w e re e x h a n g e d f o r th i s p u r -

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p o s e . T h e V o l u n t e e r r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s till in G e o r g ia , C o l o n e l D e n , w as c o m m is s io n e d o n M a r c h 7 as p l e n i p o t e n t i a r y e n v o y a n d i n s t r u c t e d t o s e e k a g r e e m e n t w i t h G e o r g ia as s o o n as p o s s ib le .76 T h e in s t r u c t i o n s g iv e n to D e n c o n t a i n e d t h e f o llo w in g p o in t s : ( 1 ) t h e S o u t h R u s s ia n g o v e r n m e n t , h a v in g e x te n d e d r e c o g n i ti o n to t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f G e o r g ia , a g r e e d t h a t f u t u r e r e la tio n s b e tw e e n G e o r g ia a n d R u s s ia c o u ld b e e s t a b li s h e d b y tr e a t y b e tw e e n t h e G e o r g ia n g o v ­ e r n m e n t a n d a f u t u r e a ll-R u s s ia n g o v e r n m e n t, w ith t h e m e d i a ti o n o f t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts if d e s ir e d , a n d i t w as n o w p r e p a r e d t o s u p p ly G e o r g ia w i t h g r a in to t h e g r e a t e s t e x t e n t p o s s ib le a n d jo in w ith G e o r ­ g ia in a j o i n t d e f e n s e o f its te r r it o r y a g a in s t a tt a c k ; ( 2 ) G e o r g ia , fo r its p a r t , w as a s k e d t o a llo w m i li ta r y s u p p lie s to b e s e n t t h r o u g h its te r r i ­ to r y to V o l u n t e e r tr o o p s in t h e N o r t h C a u c a s u s r e g io n in ca se th e y w e re c u t o ff fr o m o t h e r s o u r c e s , t o p e r m i t R u s s ia n tr o o p s t o r e t r e a t i n t o G e o r g ia n te r r i t o r y if n e c e s s a ry a n d to b e tr a n s f e r r e d w ith t h e i r a rm s t o B a t u m as a p o r t o f e x it, to u n d e r t a k e c o o p e r a tiv e m ilita r y o p e r a t io n s a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s if t h e y s h o u l d a t t a c k G e o r g ia , a n d t o p e r m i t t h e u s e o f G e o r g ia n p o r t s a n d s u p p lie s o f c o a l f o r s h i p p in g b e t w e e n S o u t h R u s s ia a n d G e o r g ia .77 B a r a to v 's in s t r u c t i o n s to C o l o n e l D e n in e ff e c t p r o p o s e d a n a llia n c e w i t h G e o r g ia , a n d D e n h im s e l f w as q u i t e o p t i m i s t i c a b o u t t h e p r o s ­ p e c ts . L e ss t h a n a w e e k a f t e r r e c e i p t o f t h e a b o v e p r o p o s a l h e r e p o r te d t h a t t h e G e o r g ia n g o v e r n m e n t h a d r e a c t e d q u i t e fa v o r a b ly to t h e s u g ­ g e s t io n o f a t r a d e o f c o a l f o r g r a in a n d w as g iv in g s e r io u s c o n s i d e r a t io n t o t h e o t h e r p o i n t s . 78 T h e o n ly o b s t a c le t o fu ll a g r e e m e n t, D e n i n d i ­ c a te d , w a s t h e e l e m e n t o f u n c e r t a i n t y in G e o r g ia 's p r e s e n t s i tu a t io n , e s p e c ia lly w i t h re g a r d to t h e p o s i ti o n o f t h e A llie d P o w e r s .79 “ M y im p r e s s io n f r o m ta lk s w i t h G e g e c h k o r i," h e r e p o r te d , “ is t h a t t h e G e o r g ia n G o v e r n m e n t is a n ti- B o ls h e v ik in p r i n c ip l e , a n d if o n ly it c o u ld g e t a fu ll g u a r a n t e e fr o m t h e A llie s t h a t t h e y w o u ld g iv e a c tiv e a id in c a se o f a B o ls h e v ik a tt a c k , it w o u ld re a d ily e n t e r a n a n ti - B o ls h e ­ v ik a g r e e m e n t a n d a c c e p t t h e c o n d it io n s p r o p o s e d b y u s ." 80 I n h is c o n v e r s a ti o n w i t h q u e s te d

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tr o o p s o n G e o r g ia n s o il, b u t , as h e r e p o r t e d it, all w o u ld n o w d e p e n d u p o n t h e c o o p e r a t io n o f t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts , w h o s e d e c is io n s w o u ld b e t h e c r u c ia l f a c to r s in f u t u r e r e la tio n s w i t h T r a n s c a u c a s ia . W i t h o u t firm A llie d s u p p o r t , h e w a r n e d , G e o r g ia w o u ld p r o b a b l y fe e l i t im p o s s i b le t o “ d r o p its n e u t r a l i t y a n d r u n t h e risk o f B o ls h e v ik r e t a l i a t i o n . . . ." V o l u n t e e r r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s p u r s u in g t h e s a m e ta s k as

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D e n 's w ith re g a r d t o A z e r b a id z h a n r e p o r t e d e s s e n tia lly t h e s a m e s i t u ­ a t i o n : A z e r b a id z h a n f a v o r e d f r ie n d ly r e la tio n s a n d t r a d e b u t h e s i t a t e d to g o b e y o n d th i s o r v io la te its n e u t r a l i t y u n le s s a s s u r e d o f A llie d p r o t e c ti o n . T h e s i t u a t i o n g re w m o r e d e s p e r a te f o r V o l u n t e e r tr o o p s in t h e N o r t h C a u c a s u s a n d n o r t h o f t h e G e o r g ia n b o r d e r d a ily , s in c e n e w u p r is in g s in D a g e s ta n a n d t h e G r e e n s ’ a t t a c k o n t h e B la c k S e a c o a s t c o in c id e d w ith R e d A r m y a d v a n c e s w h ic h t h r e a t e n e d a n y d a y to f o rc e a r e t r e a t i n t o T r a n s c a u c a s ia . F o r G e o r g ia a n d A z e r b a id z h a n , h o w e v e r, t h e s i t u a t i o n w as c r itic a l in a d if f e r e n t w a y . B e in g w o o e d n o w b y b o t h t h e B o ls h e v ik s a n d t h e V o l u n t e e r s , t h e y w e r e a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h r e a t e n e d w i t h t h e e n t r y o f t h e tr o o p s o f b o t h

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u n a b le to s t a n d a lo n e , c o u ld h o p e to m e e t t h e s i t u a t i o n o n ly w i t h re n e w e d A llie d m i li ta r y a s s is ta n c e . S o v ie t F o r e i g n C o m m is s a r C h ic h e r i n h a d a lr e a d y , in J a n u a r y , c a lle d i t t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f G e o r g ia a n d A z e r b a id z h a n t h a t t h e R e d A r m y w as “ d e a lin g a s h a t t e r i n g b lo w t o t h e W h i t e G u a r d b a n d s o f t h e T s a r i s t G e n e r a l D e n i k i n ,” a n d h e c a lle d u p o n t h e m “ to e n t e r im m e d i a te l y i n t o n e g o ti a ti o n s w i t h t h e S o v ie t G o v e r n m e n t fo r t h e c o n c lu s io n o f a m i li ta r y a g r e e m e n t . . . fo r th e

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a rm ie s in S o u th R u s s ia .” 81 T h e in i ti a l r e a c t io n o f b o t h G e o r g ia a n d A z e r b a id z h a n h a d b e e n t o re n e w t h e i r e ff o rts to o b t a i n A llie d s u p p o r t , b u t t h e i r h o p e s in th i s re g a r d w e re in v a in . B r it a in a n d F r a n c e w o u ld d o w h a t t h e y c o u ld t o e r e c t a le g a l b a r r ie r a g a in s t B o ls h e v ik a tt a c k , p r o m o t e c o o p e r a t io n w ith t h e V o l u n t e e r s , a n d c o n t i n u e t h e s h i p m e n t o f s u p p lie s to t h e e x t e n t p o s s ib le , b u t a n e w in t e r v e n t i o n w as n o t in t h e w o rk s . A t t h e L o n d o n c o n f e r e n c e w h ic h b e g a n o n F e b r u a r y 12 t h e A llie d le a d e r s to o k s te p s to w a r d d e f in in g A r m e n i a ’s b o r d e r s a n d t h e s t a tu s o f B a t u m in p r e p a r a ti o n o f t h e p e a c e tr e a t y w ith T u r k e y , b u t o n ly in t h e s e cases w as t h e r e f u r t h e r d is c u s s io n o f t h e d e f e n s e o f T r a n s c a u c a s ia .82 D e s p i t e n e w e x p re s s io n s o f s c e p tic is m b y F r e n c h r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s , t h e c o n f e r ­ e n c e f o llo w e d L lo y d G e o r g e ’s le a d in c a llin g for. p e a c e . T h e a p p e a l o f C o lo n e l S to k e s in B a k u fo r A llie d s u p p o r t o f t h e d e f e n s e o f t h e M o u n ­ ta i n a re a w as s p e c ific a lly o v e r r u le d , a n d W a r d r o p w as o b li g e d t o c o u n ­ t e r m a n d A z e r b a id z h a n i p la n s t o e x t e n d its m i li ta r y d e f e n s e li n e i n t o D a g e s ta n .83 A te m p o r a r y e x c e p t io n w as m a d e in t h e c a s e o f B a t u m . T h e i m m e ­ d ia t e t h r e a t o f d is o r d e r , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e a p p r o a c h o f t h e B o ls h e v ik s , le d C u r z o n to a p p e a l fo r F r e n c h a n d I t a li a n b a t t a l i o n s t o b e s e n t so

233

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as t o p e r m i t c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e o c c u p a t io n u n t i l t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e f a t e o f t h a t c ity h a d b e e n re s o lv e d . I t w as t h e n a g r e e d t h a t e a c h o f t h e t h r e e P o w e rs w o u ld s u p p l y o n e b a t t a l i o n f o r th i s p u r p o s e a n d t h a t B a t u m s h o u l d b e a fre e p o r t in G e o r g ia , w ith t h e l a t t e r g u a r a n ­ te e i n g a c c e ss t o A z e r b a id z h a n a n d A r m e n i a u n d e r L e a g u e s u p e r v i­ s i o n .84 W i t h re g a r d to q u e s t io n s o t h e r t h a n t h e b o r d e r w i t h T u r k e y a n d B a t u m , h o w e v e r , t h e A llie s w o u ld b e u n a b l e t o a c c e p t a n y f u r t h e r d i r e c t r e s p o n s ib ility . I n a s t a t e m e n t c o n v e y e d t o t h e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n d e le g a tio n s o n F e b r u a r y 2 4 , 1 920, t h e A llie d S u p r e m e C o u n c i l i n ­ f o r m e d t h e m t h a t w h ile t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts w e re n o t e n t e r i n g p o li ti c a l r e l a ti o n s w i t h t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t, i t h a d b e e n d e c id e d t h a t “ t o e s t a b li s h c o m m e r c i a l r e la tio n s w as t h e p r o p e r w a y to b e a t B o ls h e v i s m ’’ a n d t h a t t h e b o r d e r s ta te s w e re a d v is e d t o fo llo w th i s e x a m p le a n d e n t e r p e a c e f u l r e la tio n s w ith sh o u ld

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e n e m y , w h ile t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t s t o o d fo r t h e r i g h t o f s e lf - d e te r ­ m i n a t i o n . 86 I n a r e p ly in F e b r u a r y , A z e r b a id z h a n i P r i m e M i n i s t e r K h a n - K h o is k ii s t a t e d t h e p o s i ti o n t o w h ic h b o t h G e o r g ia a n d A z e r b a i­ d z h a n a d h e r e d . N o t i n g A z e r b a id z h a n ’s p a s t re c o r d o f n o n c o o p e r a t io n w i t h t h e V o l u n t e e r s a n d its d e t e r m i n a t i o n to r e m a in “ n e u t r a l in t h e s t r u g g le w h ic h is t a k i n g p la c e in R u s s ia ,” K h a n - K h o is k ii d e c la r e d : T h e G o v e r n m e n t o f A z e r b a id z h a n , w e lc o m in g in e v e ry w a y t h e firm d e c is io n o f t h e S o v ie t G o v e r n m e n t to b e u n d e v ia t in g l y g u id e d b y t h e p r i n c ip l e o f r e c o g n i ti o n o f t h e r i g h t o f p e o p le s to n a ti o n a l s e l f - d e t e r m in a ti o n , m u s t, h o w e v e r, s t a t e w ith t h e f e e lin g o f p r o ­ f o u n d re g r e t, t h a t in n e i t h e r o f t h e tw o r a d io te le g r a m s o f t h e P e o p l e ’s C o m m is s a r , C h i c h e r i n , w as t h e r e c le a rly a n d c a te g o ric a lly e x p re s s e d t h e u n c o n d i t i o n a l r e c o g n i ti o n o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i R e p u b li c . . . . T h e r e f o r e t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f A z e r b a id z h a n , w h ic h c o n s id e rs t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f g o o d n e ig h b o r ly r e la tio n s b e tw e e n t h e R u s s ia n a n d t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i p e o p le s b o t h n e c e s s a ry a n d d e s ir a b le , fin d s t h a t a n y n e g o ti a ti o n s o n th i s m a t t e r c a n ta k e p la c e o n ly u p o n t h e b a sis o f u n c o n d i t i o n a l r e c o g n i ti o n b y t h e S o v ie t G o v e r n m e n t o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d s o v e r e ig n ty o f t h e A z e r b a id z h a n i R e p u b li c .87 T h i s in e f f e c t s a id t h a t A z e r b a id z h a n w o u ld c o n t i n u e to h o l d to t h e p o lic y o f n e u tr a l i t y . G e o r g ia h a d a lr e a d y d o n e lik e w is e .88 W h e n

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234

in M a r c h a n d A p r il V o l u n t e e r tr o o p s w e re o b li g e d t o ta k e r e f u g e in G e o r g ia a n d A z e r b a id z h a n , th e y w e re i n t e r n e d as p r is o n e r s a n d d is ­ a r m e d . C o lo n e l D e n h a d b e e n in f o r m e d t h a t th i s w o u ld b e n e c e s s a ry b e c a u s e o f t h e n e u tr a li ty , b u t h e w as a ls o a s s u r e d t h a t t h e T r a n s ­ c a u c a s ia n c o u n tr ie s w o u ld d e f e n d th e m s e lv e s a g a in s t a R e d a t t a c k a n d w o u ld c o o p e r a t e in t h e e v a c u a t io n o f t h e p r i s o n e r s .89 H o w e v e r , D e n w as a ls o w a r n e d t h a t t h e G e o r g ia n a n d A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v e r n ­ m e n t s c o u ld n o t risk d o in g a n y t h i n g w h ic h w o u ld d e s tr o y t h e p o s s i­ b il it y o f r e a c h in g a n

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s i tu a t i o n c a m e t o t h a t . 90 V o l u n t e e r tr o o p s u n d e r G e n e r a l D r a ts e n k o in P e tr o v s k , w h ic h le f t t h e r e b y se a o n M a r c h 2 9, h a d m a d e a r r a n g e ­ m e n t s t o p r o c e e d to E n z e li in P e rs ia , b u t e n r o u t e a s h i p h a d b e e n d is a b le d a n d t h e flo tilla h a d p r o c e e d e d to B a k u . T h e r e t h e m e n w e re d is a r m e d a n d i n t e r n e d , b u t a n a g r e e m e n t w as r e a c h e d w i t h t h e A z e r ­ b a id z h a n i g o v e r n m e n t b y w h ic h t h e tr o o p s , u p o n s u r r e n d e r i n g a ll c la im t o t h e i r s u p p lie s a n d a r m s , w e re p e r m i t t e d to g o t o P o t i t o jo i n th o s e h e ld b y G e o r g ia .91 G e o r g ia , w h ic h t h u s f o u n d its e lf h o s t t o m o s t o f t h e V o l u n t e e r s r e t r e a t in g t o t h e s o u t h , a g r e e d t o p e r m i t th o s e w h o w is h e d t o d o so to e n t e r t h e G e o r g ia n a rm y , b u t b a lk e d a t D e n 's e ff o rts t o o b t a i n t h e re le a s e o f t h e tr o o p s , a n d t h e i r a r m s , t o b e s e n t t o t h e C r im e a . A s it t u r n e d o u t , G e o r g ia e v e n r e f u s e d to b e s a d d l e d w i t h t h e b u r d e n o f m a i n t a i n i n g t h e re f u g e e s , b e c a u s e t h e i r n u m b e r s , g r e a tly in c r e a s e d b y c iv ilia n s , s o o n g re w in t o t h o u s a n d s . S in c e V o l u n t e e r m o n e y w a s n o lo n g e r a n y g o o d , D e n a ls o f o u n d i t im p o s s ib le to so lv e th i s p r o b l e m .92 U l t i m a t e l y t h e m is e ry o f th o s e c a u g h t in th i s s i t u a t i o n w a s r e lie v e d la rg e ly b y t h e A llie s a n d t h r o u g h a g o o d d e a l o f d e c e p t i o n t o a c c o m ­ m o d a t e G e o r g ia n a n d A z e r b a id z h a n i n e u tr a l i t y . A f te r m o s t o f t h e V o l u n t e e r tr o o p s h a d b e e n c o n c e n t r a t e d a t P o ti , t h e y w e re e v e n t u ­ a lly p e r m i t t e d , w i t h o u t t h e i r a r m s , to b o a r d A llie d s h ip s p u r p o r t e d l y b o u n d f o r C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , t h a t is, r e m o v in g t h e m f r o m f u r t h e r p a r t i c ­ i p a t io n in t h e civ il w a r. I n f a c t, h o w e v e r , t h e y w e re t h e n t r a n s p o r t e d t o t h e C r im e a .93 T h e s e p r e c a u t io n s w e re n e c e s s a ry , f o r o n A p r il 2 7 t h e B o ls h e v ik s le d a r e b e l li o n in B a k u a n d a p p e a l e d to a p p r o a c h i n g R e d A r m y tr o o p s fo r a id . T h e n e x t d a y B o ls h e v ik fo rc e s o c c u p ie d A z e r b a id z h a n a n d e s t a b li s h e d a n e w S o v ie t r e p u b l ic .94 T h i s v ic to r y h a d u n d o u b t e d l y b e e n f a c i li ta t e d to s o m e e x t e n t b y t h e i n a b i li ty o f t h e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n d e le g a tio n s to a g re e a m o n g th e m s e lv e s a n d t h e r e s u lti n g f a ilu r e o f C u r z o n 's e ff o rts a t t h e S a n R e m o c o n f e r e n c e in A p r il t o b r i n g a b o u t

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RETREAT AND TH E END O F ALLIED AID

a n a llia n c e a m o n g t h e t h r e e b o r d e r s t a te s .95 O n e w e e k a f t e r t h e B o l­ s h e v ik c o n q u e s t o f A z e r b a id z h a n t h e G e o r g ia n s e n t e r e d n e g o ti a ti o n s w h ic h o n M a y 7 r e s u lte d in t h e s ig n in g o f a t r e a ty w i t h S o v ie t R u s ­ sia . T h e

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fo r c e s ,96 n o w u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y r e c o g n iz e d t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f G e o r g ia a n d p r o m is e d “ to d e s is t f r o m a ll i n t e r f e r e n c e in t h e in t e r n a l affairs o f G e o r g i a / ' I n r e t u r n G e o r g ia a g r e e d to le g a liz e t h e C o m m u n i s t p a r t y , t o p r o h i b i t t h e p r e s e n c e o f a n y f o r e ig n tr o o p s o n G e o r g ia n so il d i r e c t e d a g a in s t S o v ie t R u s s ia , a n d t o d is a r m

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B o ls h e v ik m i li ta r y fo rc e s w h ic h e n t e r e d t h e c o u n tr y .97 A f t e r a v a in e f f o r t in M a y to re v iv e t h e u n f u l f il le d p la n t o h a v e F r e n c h a n d I t a l i a n tr o o p s jo in t h e B r it is h in B a tu m , th i s p r o j e c t w as fin a lly d r o p p e d , a n d o n J u n e 11 t h e B r it is h i n f o r m e d G e o r g ia t h a t t h e y w e re r e m o v in g t h e i r tr o o p s . T h e la s t B r itis h tr o o p s l e f t T r a n s ­ c a u c a s ia o n J u ly 10. I n A u g u s t t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts tr i e d t o w r ite s o m e s e c u r ity f o r G e o r g ia a n d A r m e n i a i n t o t h e S ev res T r e a t y w ith T u r k e y b y p r o v i d in g f o r t h e i r r e c o g n i ti o n , b u t t h e

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T u r k s u n d e r K e m a l s o o n u n d i d th i s e ff o rt. S u b s e q u e n t ly , G e o r g ia a ls o a p p l i e d f o r a d m i s s i o n to t h e L e a g u e o f N a t i o n s b u t w as t u r n e d d o w n , a s e t b a c k v ie w e d b y m a n y t o m e a n t h a t n o o n e w o u ld a c c e p t t h e o b li g a ti o n to a id G e o r g ia if i t w e re a tt a c k e d . B o t h B r it a in a n d F r a n c e v o te d a g a in s t t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f G e o r g ia , a l t h o u g h t h e y d id la t e r , in J a n u a r y 1 9 2 1 , e x t e n d d e ju r e r e c o g n i ti o n . T h e c o n q u e s t o f A r m e n ia a n d G e o r g ia b y t h e

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v e n t e d b y s u c h m o v e s , to o k p la c e in D e c e m b e r 19 2 0 a n d M a r c h 1921 r e s p e c tiv e ly .98 Jjc

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A t t h e e n d o f M a r c h 1 9 2 0 t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e tr o o p s u n d e r D e n i ­ k i n 's c o m m a n d h a d b e e n e v a c u a t e d t o t h e C r im e a w i t h e x te n s iv e A llie d a s s is ta n c e . E v e n w h ile th i s w as h a p p e n i n g , i t h a d b e e n m a d e k n o w n t o D e n i k i n u n o ff ic ia lly t h a t t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts v ie w e d t h e s i t u a t i o n as h o p e le s s .99 B r it is h a id h a d b e e n s c h e d u l e d to e n d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f A p r il 1 9 2 0 ,100 a n d in t h e C r im e a D e n i k i n n o w h a d o n ly s o m e 3 5 ,0 0 0 m e n c a p a b le o f a c tiv e s e rv ic e , 100 fie ld g u n s , a n d 500 m a c h i n e g u n s . M o s t o f t h e o t h e r e q u i p m e n t a n d s u p p lie s , i n c l u d in g h o r s e s , w h ic h t h e A r m y h a d in its p o s s e s s io n in N o v o ro s s iis k h a d b e e n l e f t b e h i n d f o r la c k o f s p a c e a n d ti m e . D e n i k i n r e f u s e d to c o n s i d e r t h e s tr u g g le o v e r, b u t h e w as c o m ­ p e ll e d to ta k e i m m e d i a t e s te p s to d e a l w ith t h e c r itic a l c o n d it io n s w h ic h e x is te d if t h e r e w as to b e a n y h o p e o f a f u t u r e fo r t h e A rm y .

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H e th e r e f o r e s e t in m o t i o n a t o n c e a r e o r g a n iz a t io n o f t h e fo rc e s l e f t a n d i n i t i a t e d a c ti o n to re c tif y t h e p o li ti c a l c h a o s in t h e C r i m e a .101 G e n e r a l R o m a n o v s k ii, o n w h o m so m u c h o f t h e c r i ti c is m f r o m t h e R i g h t h a d fa lle n , w as re lie v e d fr o m d u t y as c h ie f o f s ta ff a t h is o w n r e q u e s t, a n d t h e o n ly r e c e n t ly o r g a n i z e d S o u th R u s s ia n g o v e r n m e n t w as d is s o lv e d .102 T h e g o v e r n m e n t u n d e r M e l 'n i k o v h a d o ffic ia lly b e e n in o ffice less t h a n a m o n t h , b u t t h e r e w as n o p la c e f o r i t in t h e C r i ­ m e a n o w in D e n i k i n 's o p in i o n , s in c e u n d e r t h e c ir c u m s t a n c e s i t c o u ld n o lo n g e r s e rv e t h e p u r p o s e s fo r w h ic h i t h a d b e e n e s t a b li s h e d a n d w o u ld s im p ly c o m p l ic a t e m a t te r s . M o s t o f t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e g o v ­ e r n m e n t o p p o s e d th i s s te p , b u t t h e y b o w e d t o D e n i k i n 's j u d g m e n t and

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B e r n a ts k ii w as r e t a i n e d .103 T h e s e m a t te r s ta k e n c a re o f, D e n i k i n t h e n t o o k t h e fin a l s t e p to e li m i n a t e in t e r n a l c o n f lic t a n d g iv e t h e A r m y a c h a n c e t o c o n t i n u e its s tr u g g le : h e a n n o u n c e d h is i n t e n t i o n to re s ig n a n d is s u e d o r d e r s c a ll­ in g a ll s e n io r o fficers to a c o n f e r e n c e to b e h e l d in S e v a s to p o l o n A p r il 3 fo r t h e p u r p o s e o f s e le c tin g h is s u c c e s s o r as c o m m a n d e r - in - c h i e f .104 C o n s id e r a b le o b je c t io n w as ra is e d t o th i s m e t h o d — t h a t is, t h e ' ‘e le c ­ t i o n " o f a c o m m a n d e r - in - c h i e f —b u t D e n i k i n in s is t e d u p o n it. I n v ie w o f t h e s t r o n g o p p o s i ti o n w h ic h h a d f o r m e d a g a in s t h i m in R i g h t i s t c irc le s s u p p o r t i n g G e n e r a l W r a n g e l , D e n i k i n r e f u s e d to r e m a in in t h e p o s t h im s e lf , b u t h e w as d e t e r m i n e d to h a v e a s u c c e s s o r w h o w o u ld b e a c c e p t a b le to t h e o ffic e r c o rp s . T h e o fficia l a p p o i n t m e n t o f t h e n e w c o m m a n d e r w o u ld b e m a d e b y h im , b u t t h e s e n i o r o fficers w e re a s k e d to r e c o m m e n d t h e b e s t m a n fo r t h e jo b . G e n e r a l D r a g o m ir o v , w h o w as d e s i g n a te d as p r e s id in g o ffic e r o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e b y D e n ik in ( w h o r e f u s e d to a t t e n d p e r s o n a l l y ) , c a lle d t h e m e e t i n g to o r d e r o n t h e e v e n in g o f A p ril 3.105 W h e n t h e fu ll g a t h e r ­ in g w as u n a b le to a g re e o n p r o c e d u r e , h o w e v e r , D r a g o m i r o v i n v i te d t h e h ig h e s t r a n k i n g o fficers ( c o r p s c o m m a n d e r s a n d u p ) i n t o a p r i ­ v a te se s s io n . T h i s s m a lle r g r o u p w as a ls o d iv id e d o n t h e q u e s t i o n , b u t a t le a s t t h e e m o t i o n a l e l e m e n t w as e l i m i n a t e d . V o l u n t e e r o ffic e rs w h o h a d s p o k e n o u t e a r lie r a g a in s t a p p r o v i n g a n y o n e o t h e r t h a n D e n i k i n w e re n o t in v i te d ; s o m e h a d in f a c t a lr e a d y l e f t in p r o t e s t .100 T h e s e n i o r m e n in t h e s m a lle r m e e t i n g a ll a g r e e d t h a t a c h o ic e h a d t o b e m a d e , s in c e to re f u s e w o u ld d e s tr o y t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e m a n e v e n tu a lly n a m e d to b e c o m m a n d e r . T h e y a ls o a g r e e d t h a t t h e o n ly re a l ta s k f o r t h e n e w c o m m a n d e r w o u ld b e t h a t o f p u t t i n g th i n g s in o r d e r a n d p r e p a r in g f o r t h e fin a l e v a c u a t io n o f t h e A r m y a b r o a d . H i s w o u ld th e r e f o r e b e a b r i e f t e n u r e in a n y c a se .

237

RETREAT AND TH E END OF ALLIED AID

W i t h t h e s e p o i n t s in v ie w , t h e s m a ll m e e t i n g t h e n a g r e e d u p o n G e n e r a l W r a n g e l as t h e m a n to r e c o m m e n d to D e n i k i n .107 T h i s s e le c ­ t i o n o f W r a n g e l w as b a s e d u p o n h is le a d e r s h i p a b ility , b u t t h e r e w as a c e r t a in ir o n y in t h e c h o ic e , f o r d u r i n g t h e p r e c e d i n g w e e k s t h e in c r e a s ­ in g ly h o s t i l e r e l a ti o n s b e tw e e n D e n i k i n a n d W r a n g e l h a d r e s u lte d in a n o p e n b r e a k . I t h a d , in d e e d , b e e n th i s r u p t u r e , as m u c h as t h e m i li­ ta r y d e f e a t , w h ic h c o n v in c e d D e n i k i n o f h is in a b i li ty t o c o n t i n u e to le a d t h e A rm y . B a r o n G e n e r a l W r a n g e l , a p o p u l a r c o m m a n d e r o f n o b le b i r t h w h o r e g a r d e d D e n i k i n as b o t h to o w e a k a n d to o lib e ra l, had

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cie s, b o t h m i li ta r y a n d p o li ti c a l. H e h a d o n a n u m b e r o f o c c a s io n s c o n d e m n e d w h a t h e t e r m e d D e n i k i n ’s “ c o lo s s a l m is ta k e s ” t h a t h e b e lie v e d w e re le a d i n g t h e A r m y t o r u i n .108 M o r e o v e r , le a d i n g c o n ­ s e r v a tiv e p o li ti c ia n s a n d o fficers ( i n c l u d i n g K r iv o s h e in ; S tr u v e ; A d ­ m ir a l N e n iu k o v , t h e fle e t c o m m a n d e r ; a n d h is c h ie f o f sta ff, A d m ir a l B ubnov)

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o f h is u n r e l e n t i n g o p p o s i ti o n . I n i t h e p o r t r a y e d h im s e l f as m u c h as D e n ik in : I f o u g h t f o r e i g h t e e n m o n t h s in t h e ra n k s o f t h e A r m e d F o rc e s o f S o u t h R u s s ia [w ro te W r a n g e l ] , in v a r ia b ly le a d in g m y tr o o p s to v ic to ry , a n d m o r e t h a n o n c e s a v e d t h e g e n e r a l s i t u a t i o n in a m o m e n t o f g ra v e d a n g e r . . . . [B u t] t h e A rm y , b r o u g h t u p o n a r b i tr a r y ru le , p lu n d e r , a n d d r u n k e n n e s s , u n d e r t h e le a d e r s h i p o f m e n w h o d e p r a v e d t h e i r tr o o p s b y t h e i r o w n b a d e x a m p le , s u c h a n a r m y c o u ld n o t sav e R u s s ia . . . . T h e e n e m y ’s su c c e s s g re w a n d t h e in e f fe c tiv e n e s s o f y o u r s t r a te g y a n d y o u r p o lic ie s b e c a m e m o r e m a n i f e s t w ith e v e ry d a y . T h e ey es o f t h e p u b li c w e re g r a d u a lly o p e n e d . L o u d e r a n d l o u d e r g re w t h e v o ic e s o f t h o s e w h o d e m a n d e d t h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f s o m e w h o s e b la m a b le c o n d u c t w as a p p a r e n t to a ll b y o th e r s w h o s e n a m e s r e m a in e d u n b l e m i s h e d a m i d s t t h e g e n e r a l m o r a l d e c lin e . B u t t h e p o is o n o f a m b i t i o n h a d e n t e r e d y o u r s o u l, a n d , d r u n k w ith p o w e r , s u r r o u n d e d b y d is h o n e s t f la tte r e r s , y o u t h o u g h t m o r e o f s a f e g u a r d in g y o u r o w n p o w e r a n d a u t h o r i t y t h a n o f s a v in g y o u r c o u n tr y . . . . M i li ta r y c h ie f s , s t a te s m e n , a n d so c ia l le a d e rs r e p e a t e d ly p o i n t e d

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o u t t o y o u t h e n e c e s s ity o f a v a ilin g y o u r s e lf o f m y s e rv ic e s, o f u s in g t h e p o w e rs a n d a b ilitie s I p o s s e s s e d . . . . B u t in s te a d I w as s p ie d u p o n . . . a n d r u m o r s a b o u t m y a lle g e d i n t e n t i o n s o f m a k i n g a c o u p d ’é t a t w e re s p r e a d a b r o a d b y y o u r S ta ff. . . . B o th t h e A r m y a n d t h e p e o p le , w o r n o u t b y a n a r c h y , h a v in g lo s t a ll f a i th in t h e p r in c ip le s p r o c l a im e d b y t h e i r le a d e rs , d e e p ly r e v o l te d b y t h e c r im in a l a c tio n s o f t h e i r r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s . . . sa w in m e t h e m a n w h o c o u ld g iv e t h e m w h a t th e y w e re lo n g i n g fo r. . . . B u t i t w as in v a in , fo r y o u , je a lo u s o f y o u r p o w e r, c lin g in g to t h e a u t h o r i t y s lip p in g fr o m y o u r g ra s p , a n d c o m p r o m i s in g w ith t h e s e p a r a tis ts , y o u d e c id e d to d e c la r e w a r a g a in s t y o u r c lo s e s t a s s is ta n ts . . . . S in c e I h a v e r e s ig n e d I c o n s i d e r m y s e lf fr e e fr o m a n y o b li g a ti o n to w a r d y o u a n d c o n s id e r y o u r o rd e r s in n o w a y b i n d i n g u p o n m e . Y o u h a v e n o w a y w h a ts o e v e r o f fo r c in g m e t o o b e y . N e v e r th e l e s s I h a v e d e c id e d to le a v e R u s s ia , s m o t h e r i n g t h e fla m e in m y h e a r t . 110 D e n i k i n ’s r e p ly to th is ti r a d e , o f w h ic h t h e a b o v e w as o n ly a s m a ll s a m p le , w as q u i t e b r ie f . H e a c c u s e d W r a n g e l o f f a b r ic a t in g lie s in a d e li b e r a t e e f f o r t to u n d e r m i n e h is p o s i ti o n a n d se iz e p o w e r. H is l e t ­ te r , s a id D e n ik in , d is p e lle d a ll d o u b t a b o u t h is “ ro le in t h e s tr u g g le f o r p o w e r .” N o w a ll t h a t c o u ld b e a d d e d , D e n i k i n ’s n o t e c o n c lu d e d , w as a p r a y e r t h a t G o d w o u ld fo rg iv e W r a n g e l f o r t h e h a r m w h ic h h e h a d d o n e to t h e “ R u s s ia n c a u s e .” 111 J u s t b e f o r e th is e x c h a n g e , G e n e r a l H o l m a n , as B r it is h

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r e p r e s e n ta tiv e , h a d s o u g h t t o i n t e r v e n e in t h e f e u d in t h e h o p e o f r e c o n c ilin g t h e tw o V o l u n t e e r le a d e r s .112 T h r o u g h B r it is h A d m ir a l S e y m o u r h e h a d a s k e d W r a n g e l to a c c e p t h is o ff e r t o a r r a n g e a m e e t ­ in g w ith D e n ik in . I f W r a n g e l w e re “ p r e p a r e d to a b id e b y D e n i k i n ’s fin a l d e c is io n r e g a r d in g h is f u t u r e m o v e m e n ts . . . a n d t o s t a t e p u b ­ lic ly h is a d h e r e n c e to D e n i k i n ’s n e w d o m e s ti c p o lic y a n d s t e r n ly d is ­ c o u n t e n a n c e r e a c tio n a r ie s n o w u s in g h is n a m e ,” H o l m a n w r o te , t h e n h e f e l t s u r e t h a t t h e m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g b e t w e e n t h e m c o u ld b e c le a r e d u p .113 D e n ik in h a d n o t r e j e c te d th i s o ff e r o f m e d i a t i o n , b u t W r a n g e l , w h ile a g re e in g t o s e n d h is t r u s t e d a s s is t a n t, G e n e r a l S h a tilo v , r e f u s e d to g o p e r s o n a lly t o se e D e n i k i n .114 H o l m a n t h e n c o n f e r r e d w i t h D e n i ­ k in a n d , o n le a r n in g t h e s e r io u s n e s s o f t h e d is p u te , h i m s e l f s u g g e s te d t h a t W r a n g e l s h o u l d le a v e t h e c o u n t r y a n d w r o te to W r a n g e l t o th i s e f f e c t a fe w d a y s l a t e r . 115 W h e n W r a n g e l s u b s e q u e n tly r e t u r n e d to t h e C r i m e a in A p r il t o a t t e n d t h e c o n f e r e n c e w h ic h s e l e c te d h i m as D e n i k i n ’s s u c c e s s o r, h e b r o u g h t w ith h i m o fficia l n o ti f i c a ti o n o f a n e n d t o B r it is h a id . T h e

RETREAT AND TH E END OF ALLIED AID

239

m e s s a g e c o n v e y in g t h e B r it is h v ie w o f t h e s i t u a t i o n h a d b e e n a d ­ d r e s s e d t o D e n i k i n , u n d e r t h e d a t e o f A p ril 2, b u t in v ie w o f D e n i k i n 's d e c is io n t o re s ig n i t w as d e liv e r e d to W r a n g e l in s t e a d .116 I t p u t its m a i n p o i n t b l u n t l y , c a llin g t h e p r o l o n g a ti o n o f t h e civ il w a r “ t h e m o s t d is t u r b i n g e l e m e n t in t h e p r e s e n t E u r o p e a n s i t u a t i o n ." T h e B r it is h g o v e r n m e n t , i t c o n t i n u e d : d e s ire s to s u b m i t fo r G e n e r a l D e n i k i n 's c o n s i d e r a t io n t h e s u g g e s ­ t i o n t h a t in t h e p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n , a n a r r a n g e m e n t w ith t h e S o v ie t G o v e r n m e n t w i t h a v ie w t o r e q u e s tin g a m n e s ty f o r t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e C r i m e a in g e n e r a l a n d fo r t h e p e r s o n n e l o f t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y in p a r t i c u l a r w o u ld b e in t h e b e s t i n t e r e s t o f a ll c o n c e r n e d . F i l l e d w i t h t h e c o n v ic t io n t h a t a b a n d o n m e n t o f th i s u n e q u a l s t r u g ­ g l e w o u ld b e t h e m o s t a d v a n ta g e o u s s t e p f o r R u s s ia , t h e B r itis h G o v e r n m e n t w o u ld u n d e r t a k e th i s d e m a r c h e its e lf, o n c e G e n e r a l D e n i k i n ’s c o n s e n t is o b t a i n e d , a n d w o u ld p u t a t t h e l a t t e r ’s d is p o s a l a n d t h a t o f h is p r i n c ip a l fo llo w e rs t h e fu ll h o s p i ta l it y o f G r e a t B r it a in . T h e B r it is h G o v e r n m e n t , w h ic h M s f u r n is h e d in t h e p a s t a la r g e m e a s u r e o f t h e a s s is ta n c e w h ic h a lo n e n ta d e p o s s ib le t h e c o n t i n u a ­ t i o n o f t h e s tr u g g le to t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , b e lie v e s it s e l f ju s tif ie d in its h o p e t h a t th i s p r o p o s a l w ill b e a c c e p te d - If, h o w e v e r, G e n e r a l D e n i k i n s h o u l d fe e l i t h is d u t y t o r e f u s e in o r d e r to p r o l o n g a m a n i ­ fe s tly h o p e le s s s tr u g g le , t h e B r it is h G o v e r n m e n t w ill f in d its e lf o b lig e d t o r e n o u n c e a ll r e s p o n s ib i li ty fo r h is a c ti o n a n d t o c e a se im m e d i a t e l y .to f u r n is h h i m a n y a s s is ta n c e o r s u b v e n t i o n o f a n y k i n d . 117 W h e n W r a n g e l r e v e a le d th i s m e s s a g e to t h e o fficers w h o h a d a g re e d t o r e c o m m e n d h i m as c o m m a n d e r - in - c h ie f , h e g a v e i t as o n e re a s o n f o r h is in s is t e n c e u p o n h a v in g a s t a t e m e n t s ig n e d b y a ll th o s e p r e s e n t s e t t i n g f o r t h t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h ic h h e w o u ld ta k e c o m m a n d . T h i s s t a t e m e n t d e c la r e d t h a t t h e m e e t i n g h a d b e e n in f o r m e d o f t h e B r it is h a d v ic e to e n d t h e w a r as a n “ u n e q u a l a n d h o p e le s s s t r u g g le " a n d o f t h e o ff e r b y t h e B r it is h g o v e r n m e n t to a p p e a l to M o s c o w f o r a m n e s ty . “ U n d e r th e s e c o n d i t i o n s ," t h e s t a t e m e n t c o n t i n u e d : t h e C o u n c i l e x p re s s e d t h e d e s ire t o r e q u e s t t h e C o m m a n d e r - i n C h i e f t o a p p o i n t G e n e r a l W r a n g e l as h is s u c c e s s o r, in o r d e r t h a t h e , h a v in g t a k e n u p o n h i m s e l f t h e h ig h c o m m a n d , c o u ld s e e k t h e in v i o la b i li ty o f a ll p e r s o n s w h o h a v e f o u g h t a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s a n d c o u ld e s t a b li s h t h e m o s t fa v o r a b le c o n d it io n s f o r t h e p e r s o n n e l o f t h e A r m e d F o r c e s o f S o u t h R u s s ia , n a m e ly , fo r th o s e .w h o w ill

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n o t fin d i t p o s s ib le f o r th e m s e lv e s to a c c e p t a g u a r a n t e e o f s e c u r ity f r o m t h e s o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t .118 A f t e r th i s a g r e e m e n t w a s m a d e w i t h W r a n g e l b y t h e t o p o fficers in s e c r e t s e s s io n , D e n i k i n w as in f o r m e d o f t h e i r d e c is io n . I n a l e t t e r t o D r a g o m ir o v , D e n i k i n h a d a lr e a d y c o n f id e d h is fe e lin g s a t th i s t i m e : F o r t h r e e y e a rs o f t h e R u s s ia n tu r m o i l , I h a v e le d g iv in g i t a ll m y s t r e n g t h a n d b e a r i n g t h e h e a v y c ro ss h a n d e d d o w n b y f a te . . . . F a i t h in t h e A r m y 's v ita lity a n d its h is to r i c m is s io n b u t t h e i n t i m a t e tie s b in d i n g t h e C h i e f t o h is m e n a re I n o lo n g e r h a v e t h e s t r e n g t h t o c o m m a n d t h e m .

t h e s tr u g g le , o f a u th o rity is s till a liv e , b ro k e n , a n d

N o w h e w ir e d D r a g o m ir o v t h e o r d e r a p p o i n t i n g W r a n g e l as h is s u c ­ c e ss o r: L i e u t e n a n t G e n e r a l B a r o n W r a n g e l is a p p o i n t e d C o m m a n d e r in - C h i e f o f t h e A r m e d F o r c e s o f S o u t h R u s s ia . . . . M a y G o d g iv e v ic to ry to t h e A r m y a n d sa v e R u s s i a .119 T h e g r e a t c r u s a d e s e e m e d t o b e o v e r, s in c e W r a n g e l h a d p o i n t e d l y t a k e n r e s p o n s ib i li ty f o r c o n c lu d i n g it, a n d D e n i k i n , w h o c o u l d n o t e n d i t h im s e lf , n o w l e f t f o r e x ile a b r o a d . F o r D e n i k i n t h e d e p t h o f t h e tr a g e d y c o u ld n o t h a v e b e e n g r e a te r , fo r, h a v in g l o s t t h e s tr u g g le , h e n o w lo s t h is c lo s e s t f r ie n d . D u r i n g t h e i r s t o p o v e r in C o n s t a n t i n o p l e e n r o u t e t o E n g l a n d , G e n e r a l R o m a n o v s k i i w a s a s s a s s in a te d b y a m a n w e a r in g a R u s s ia n o ffic e r s c o a t.120 D e n i k i n h i m s e l f c o n t i n u e d h is lo n e ly v o y a g e u n d e r B r it is h g u a r d .

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A t t h e t i m e o f D e n i k i n ’s r e s ig n a ti o n W r a n g e l c la im e d t o b e re a lly c o n f i d e n t o f o n ly o n e t h i n g : h e h a d “ n o d o u b t ” t h a t h e w o u ld b e c h o s e n as t h e n e w c o m m a n d e r - in - c h i e f . O t h e r w is e h e g a v e t h e im p r e s ­ s io n ( l a t e r p r o v e d t o b e f a ls e ) o f b e i n g c o m p l e te l y p e s s im is tic . “ I se e n o p o s s ib ility o f c o n t i n u i n g t h e s t r u g g l e / ’ h e t o l d G e n e r a l D ra g o m ir o v . T h e c o n d i t i o n s in w h ic h D e n i k i n h a d l e f t t h e A r m y a n d t h e B r it is h “ u l t i m a t u m / ’ h e s a id , m a d e a b s o l u te l y c le a r t h e n e c e s s ity o f i m m e d i a t e p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r e v a c u a t io n .1 C o n s e q u e n t l y h e o r d e r e d h is c h i e f o f s ta ff, G e n e r a l M a k h r o v , to s e t to w o rk a t o n c e o n t h e ta s k o f r e a d y in g a ll a v a ila b le f a c ilitie s to ta k e t h e A r m y a b r o a d . T h e re p ly s e n t to

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s u g g e s te d t h e s a m e c o n c lu s io n : T h e c a te g o r ic a l d e m a n d o f t h e B r itis h G o v e r n m e n t t h a t w e c e a se f i g h ti n g [w ro te W r a n g e l ] m a k e s i t im p o s s ib le fo r m y a r m y to c o n t i n u e . P u t t i n g u p o n t h e B r itis h G o v e r n m e n t a ll t h e m o r a l r e s p o n s ib i li ty f o r t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e d e c is io n i t h a s m a d e a n d a b s o l u te l y d e n y in g t h e p o s s ib ility o f d ir e c t n e g o ti a ti o n s w ith t h e e n e m y , I le a v e t h e f a t e o f t h e a rm y , t h e n a v y , t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e t e r r it o r i e s o c c u p ie d b y u s, a n d a ll th o s e w h o h a v e ta k e n p a r t in t h e p r e s e n t s tr u g g le o n o u r s id e to t h e g o o d o ffices o f t h e B r it is h G o v e r n m e n t . 2 H o l d i n g t h e B r it is h r e s p o n s ib le f o r s e c u r in g t h e in v io la b ility o f a ll t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e a r m e d fo rc e s a n d c iv ilia n re f u g e e s e i t h e r a b r o a d o r in R u s s ia , W r a n g e l c a lle d f o r a s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e “ a r m is t ic e q u e s ­ t i o n s ” as s o o n as p o s s ib le a n d a d d e d t h a t h e w o u ld n e e d a t le a s t tw o m o n t h s f r o m t h e c o n c lu s io n o f p e a c e te r m s in o r d e r t o h a n d l e p r o p ­ e r ly t h e “ l i q u i d a t i o n o f a d m i n is tr a t iv e , m ilita r y , a n d c iv il o r g a n s ” in t h e C r im e a . D u r i n g th i s in te r v a l, W r a n g e l s t a te d , h e w o u ld e x p e c t t h e A llie s t o c o n t i n u e t o s u p p l y t h e C r im e a w ith e v e r y t h in g n e c e s s a ry

241

242

The Volunteer Army

f o r its m a i n t e n a n c e a n d t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f its e v a c u a t io n . T h e C r im e a w as in d e e d , a c c o r d in g t o W r a n g e l , d e s o la te . I t w as “ c o m p l e te l y la c k in g in n a t u r a l re s o u r c e s ,” w h ile t h e A r m y h a d v i r t u ­ a lly n o s u p p lie s o n h a n d a n d d ir e c t r e s p o n s ib i li ty fo r f e e d i n g o v e r 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le . A d m in i s t r a ti v e m a c h i n e r y w as in a “ s t a t e o f c o m p l e t e d e c a y ,” a n d e v e n e v a c u a tio n w as im p o s s ib le u n t i l c o a l a n d o il c o u ld b e o b t a i n e d fr o m o u ts id e to p o w e r t h e s h ip s h e lp le s s ly s t a n d i n g in t h e h a r b o r s . T h e s i t u a t i o n w as “ a lm o s t h o p e le s s .” 3 B o t h t h e B r itis h a n d t h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n ts a p p a r e n t l y t o o k th i s s i tu a t io n a n d W r a n g e l 's p o s i ti o n a t fa c e v a lu e a t th i s ti m e . O n A p r il 19 A d m ir a l S e y m o u r i n f o r m e d W r a n g e l t h a t C u r z o n h a d p r o p o s e d to t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t t h e c e s s a tio n o f h o s t il it ie s a n d e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f p e a c e o n te r m s c o m p a r a b le to t h o s e s t a t e d in W r a n g e l 's n o t e .4 M e a n w h il e t h e B r itis h n a v y w o u ld s t a n d b y t o a s s is t in m a i n t a i n i n g t h e s t a tu s q u o . F o u r d ay s l a t e r G e n e r a l M a n g i n f o r w a r d e d a m e s s a g e f r o m P a ris s t a t i n g t h a t t h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t w o u ld “ c o o r d i n a t e its a c tio n s w ith th o s e o f t h e B r itis h G o v e r n m e n t in o r d e r t o s u p p o r t G e n e r a l W r a n g e l . . . u n t i l h e h a s o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e S o v ie ts a r m is t ic e c o n d it io n s w h ic h w ill a s s u re h is a r m y o f p r o p e r t r e a t m e n t . ” 5 T h e s e s t a t e m e n t s , b o t h W r a n g e l ’s a n d t h o s e o f t h e A llie d r e p r e ­ s e n ta tiv e s , h o w e v e r, g a v e a s o m e w h a t m i s le a d in g im p r e s s io n . C u r z o n w as u n q u e s t io n a b l y s in c e r e in t h e p o s i ti o n h e to o k , b u t h e e q u a lly s u r e ly o v e r e s tim a te d t h e p r o s p e c ts fo r a r a p i d a c h i e v e m e n t o f h is p r o ­ p o s a ls . B r it is h a u th o r i t i e s in C o n s t a n t i n o p l e c o n f i d e n ti a ll y e x p r e s s e d d o u b t s as t o c h a n c e s f o r s u c c e s s fu l n e g o ti a ti o n s w i t h t h e B o ls h e v ik s a lo n g t h e lin e s p r o p o s e d b y C u r z o n ,6 a n d

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s tr o n g ly c r itic iz e d C u r z o n ’s p o lic y a n d r e f u s e d t o a s s o c ia te h i m s e l f w ith i t .7 L a te in A p r il C u r z o n h im s e l f w as o b li g e d t o w ire A d m ir a l d e R o b e c k t h a t t h e S o v ie t re s p o n s e h a d n o t b e e n e n c o u r a g i n g .8 M o r e o v e r , W r a n g e l h im s e l f w as c o n t e m p l a t i n g s o m e t h i n g

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t h a n ju s t p r e p a r a ti o n s f o r e v a c u a tio n . H e h a d , in fa c t, m a d e u p h is m i n d fr o m t h e s t a r t n o t to g o a lo n g w i t h t h e B r it is h p r o p o s a ls . H is r e p ly s u g g e s tin g t h a t h e w o u ld d o so h a d b e e n a d e li b e r a t e m a n e u v e r to k e e p t h e B r it is h in v o lv e d lo n g e n o u g h t o e n a b le h i m to r e o r g a n iz e h is fo rc e s. O n t h e s a m e d a y t h a t h e to o k c o m m a n d W r a n g e l t o l d h is c lo s e s t a s s o c ia te s t h a t h e i n t e n d e d to c o n t i n u e t h e w a r, b u t f o r t h e m o m e n t t h e i m p o r t a n t t h i n g w as “ to a v o id g iv in g E n g l a n d a n o p p o r ­ t u n i t y to le a v e u s in t h e l u r c h .” 9 T h e d e m a n d f o r tw o m o n t h s ' t i m e w o u ld m e a n w h il e p r o v id e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r s o u n d i n g o u t o t h e r p o s s ib le s o u r c e s o f a id , b o t h a b r o a d a n d a m o n g fo rc e s in a n d a r o u n d

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R u s s ia . T h i s , in e s s e n c e , w as t h e e x p la n a tio n o f p o lic y w h ic h W r a n g e l s e n t t o M a k l a k o v in P a ris , s e t t i n g f o r t h t h e a im o f r e s to r i n g t h e A rm y , i n t r o d u c i n g im p r e s s iv e so c ia l a n d p o li ti c a l r e f o r m s , a n d in g e n e r a l p r e p a r i n g t h e C r i m e a n b a s e f o r f u t u r e o p e r a t i o n s .10 I n h is o w n a c ­ c o u n t o f t h e s e firs t d a y s o f h is c o m m a n d , W r a n g e l ’s s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n w as “ a l m o s t h o p e le s s '' w as t h u s f o llo w e d a lm o s t i m ­ m e d i a te l y b y t h e r e m a r k t h a t h e w a s in f a c t “ p r e p a r in g to c o n t i n u e t h e s t r u g g l e ." 11 N o t h i n g d e m o n s t r a t e d W r a n g e l ’s i n t e n t i o n b e t t e r t h a n t h e im p r e s ­ siv e li s t o f a c ti o n s ta k e n e v e n b e f o r e t h e e n d o f h is firs t m o n t h as c o m ­ m a n d e r . H e i m m e d i a te l y i n i t i a t e d e ff o rts to re g is te r a n d r e s to r e a ll a v a ila b le m i li ta r y m a t e r i a l t o re - e q u ip t h e A rm y , s e t in m o t i o n a c o m ­ p l e t e r e o r g a n iz a t io n o f t h e A r m y i n t o t h r e e c o rp s , a n d b e g a n t h e e la b ­ o r a t i o n o f p la n s f o r a c a m p a ig n t o s e c u r e t h e p a ss e s le a d i n g i n t o t h e U k r a in e . F u r t h e r , in t h e m a t t e r o f m i li ta r y o r g a n i z a ti o n h e is s u e d n e w r e g u l a ti o n s c o n c e r n i n g d is c ip lin e a n d t h e o p e r a t io n s o f c o u r ts m a r ti a l, r e m o v e d a ll r e s tr i c ti o n s u p o n s e rv ic e o f d e s e r te r s fr o m R e d fo r c e s a n d is s u e d a n a p p e a l t o a t t r a c t m o r e o f t h e m , to o k a c ti o n t o r e m o v e f r o m c o m m a n d t h o s e w h o d is a g r e e d w ith h is p o lic ie s ( e s p e ­ c ia lly t h e

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e v a c u a t io n o f K u b a n tr o o p s to t h e C r im e a , a n d ( i n M a y ) o r d e r e d a n e w m o b i l i z a t i o n o f r e c r u its t o e n la r g e t h e A rm y . I n t h e a re a o f civ il a u t h o r i t y a n d p o lic y , fin a lly , h e b e g a n t h e o r g a n ­ i z a t io n o f a n e w g o v e r n m e n t , is s u e d a n e w s t a t u t e o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f o c c u p ie d te r r it o r y , a p p o i n t e d a c o m m is s io n t o f o r m u la t e n e w a g ra r­ ia n r e f o r m s , t o o k s te p s to in c r e a s e r e v e n u e fr o m c u s t o m s a n d ta x e s , a n d , a lo n g w i t h a r e o r g a n iz a t io n o f t h e p r o p a g a n d a e f f o r t in t h e W e s t , d e c la r e d in a n in t e r v i e w w i t h t h e p re s s t h a t h e s o u g h t a n e w p a t h f o r t h e “ r e s u r r e c t i o n ” o f R u s s ia w h ic h m u s t b e g in w i t h t h e i m m e d i a t e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a “ s t r o n g a n d u n if ie d p o w e r ” in t h e C r i m e a .12 T h e r e w a s n o c a ll f o r a n e w m a r c h to M o s c o w , b u t t h e r e w as a c le a r c a ll to h o l d t h e C r im e a . O n M a y 2, w h ile s t il l p r o f e s s in g t o b e s e e k in g a n e n d t o t h e w a r a n d t h e f a c i li ta t io n o f B r it is h n e g o ti a ti o n s w i t h t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n ­ m e n t , W r a n g e l i n f o r m e d t h e B r it is h m i li ta r y r e p r e s e n ta t iv e o f h is i n t e n t i o n o f a s s is tin g t h e K u b a n C o s s a c k s a n d e x p re s s e d t h e v ie w t h a t p e a c e e ff o rts w e re f u t il e so lo n g as “ t h e p e o p le th e m s e lv e s a r e n o t w ill­ in g t o t o l e r a t e B o ls h e v ik r u l e .” R e p o r t s o f u p r is in g s in t h e D o n a n d e ls e w h e r e d u r i n g A p r il, h e d e c la r e d , p r o v e d th i s p o i n t . T h e

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The Volunteer Army

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p re s e rv e a h e a l t h y n u c le u s a r o u n d w h ic h a ll t h e m o v e m e n t s w h ic h h a v e b r o k e n a w a y fr o m t h e ty r a n n y o f B o ls h e v is m b y s h e e r f o r c e c a n g r o u p t h e m s e l v e s / '13 P e a c e , r a n W r a n g e l 's lo g ic , d e p e n d e d u p o n t h e e li m i n a t i o n o f t h e c a u s e o f a n a r c h y a n d w a r; t h a t c a u s e w a s n o t h is a r m y b u t B o ls h e v ik c o n q u e s t . B e fo re d is c u s s in g t h e c ir c u m s t a n c e s u n d e r w h ic h W r a n g e l d id s u b ­ s e q u e n t ly m o u n t t h e o ffe n s iv e , h o w e v e r , i t is w o r t h

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s o m e o f t h e c h a n g e s in p o lic y a d o p t e d u n d e r h is c o m m a n d . W r a n g e l h a d b e e n h ig h ly c r itic a l o f D e n i k i n 's p o lic ie s a n d w as n o w e q u a lly v o c a l in d e c la r in g h is i n t e n t i o n t o c o r r e c t p a s t m is ta k e s . I n c l u d e d a m o n g t h e l a t t e r in W r a n g e l 's v ie w h a d b e e n , o n t h e o n e h a n d , t h e c o m p r o m is e s m a d e b y D e n i k i n in t h e a re a o f a u t h o r i t y a n d , o n t h e o th e r , h is f a ilu r e t o

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p a r l ia m e n ta r y g o v e r n m e n t. A s W r a n g e l h im s e l f p h r a s e d it, D e n ik in h a d a llo w e d t h e a d m i n i s ­ t r a t i o n to fa ll i n t o “ c o m p l e t e d e c a y " b y c o u n t e n a n c i n g its e v o lu t io n “ fr o m a p e r s o n a l d i c t a t o r s h i p to a d e m o c r a ti c g o v e r n m e n t . . . , " 14 O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , W r a n g e l a ls o c o n d e m n e d w h a t h e c a lle d D e n i k i n 's “ n a r r o w a n d u n c o m p r o m i s in g p o lic y " o f p e r s e c u ti n g t h o s e w h o d is a ­ g r e e d w ith h i m

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ta k i n g a d if f e r e n t s t a n d , s u c h as t h e U k r a in i a n s , t h e G e o r g ia n s , s u b o r ­ d in a t e s w h o a d v is e d d if f e r e n t ta c tic s , e t c .15 I n c l u d e d in th i s l a t t e r c a te g o ry as m is ta k e s w e re lik e w is e D e n i k i n 's f a ilu r e t o u s e li b e r a l p o l ­ icies, e s p e c ia lly in t h e fie ld o f a g r a r ia n r e f o r m , f o r t h e i r p r o p a g a n d a v a lu e a n d a ls o h is “ o b s t i n a t e re f u s a l t o u s e t h e e n o r m o u s n a t u r a l w e a lth o f S o u th R u s s ia to a t t r a c t f o r e ig n c a p it a l," t h a t is, b y g r a n t i n g c o n c e s s io n s .10 T h e s e c r itic is m s re v e a le d a g r e a t d e a l a b o u t t h e d if f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e tw o m e n . W r a n g e l 's p o s i ti o n a p p e a r e d t o b e fu ll o f c o n t r a d i c ­ tio n s , b u t in f a c t t h e r e w as a n o t a b l e c o n s is te n c y in h is a p p r o a c h . H e w as in e s s e n c e c a llin g f o r w h a t h a d s o m e ti m e s b e e n la b e l e d a “ L e f t " p o lic y in “ R i g h t " h a n d s . W h e r e D e n i k i n h a d s o u g h t t o m a i n t a i n a n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s ta ffe d b y m o d e r a te s a n d to f o llo w m o d e r a t e p o l i ­ cie s, W r a n g e l w o u ld re s e rv e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n t r o l in t h e h a n d s o f

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s t a u n c h c o n s e r v a tiv e s u n d e r a t i g h t d i c t a t o r s h i p a n d a t t h e s a m e ti m e advance

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a p p e a s e m e n t o f t h e A llie s , a n d a p p e a l to t h e p e a s a n ts . T h e id e a l c o m ­ b i n a t i o n o f c o n t r o l a n d a p p e a l— s o m e t h i n g t h e B o ls h e v ik s s e e m e d to a c c o m p lis h so s k illf u lly — w as w h a t W r a n g e l s o u g h t , as c o n tr a s te d to t h e in s ta b i l i t y a n d f l u c tu a t in g la x ity o f D e n i k i n ’s a p p r o a c h . A t le a s t th i s w as t h e w a y W r a n g e l sa w it. W h a t W r a n g e l ’s id e a s m e a n t in p r a c t ic e w as s e e n firs t in h is o r g a n ­ iz a t io n o f a u t h o r i t y . I n t h e firs t p la c e h e q u ic k ly p r o m u lg a t e d , o n A p r il 11, a n e w s t a t u t e o n g o v e r n m e n t w h ic h a s s ig n e d u n l i m i t e d p o w ­ ers t o h im s e l f . H e w o u ld p e r s o n a lly e x e rc is e “ t h e f u l le s t civ il a n d m i li­ ta r y p o w e rs , w i t h o u t a n y l i m i t a t i o n s w h a ts o e v e r ,” a n d t o s y m b o liz e th i s a u t h o r i t y h e to o k t h e t i t l e o f “ r e g e n t ” as w e ll as c o m m a n d e r - in ­ c h i e f .17 T h e r e w o u ld b e n o g o v e r n m e n t o r p a r l i a m e n t in t h e u s u a l s e n s e , o n ly t h e r e g e n t a n d h is a s s is ta n ts . B y t h e s a m e t o k e n , a n d in v ie w o f h is s c o r n f o r D e n i k i n ’s s e l e c ti o n o f p e r s o n s “ fr o m L ib e r a l c ir ­ c le s ,” 18 h e c h o s e as h is c h ie f a s s is t a n t f o r civ il a ffa irs a m a n f r o m “ t h e o ld s c h o o l o f s t a t e s m e n ” w h o w o u ld n o t b e “ o n e o f t h o s e w h o w e re r e a d y t o t h r o w in t h e i r l o t w ith t h e R e v o l u t i o n ,” A . V . K r iv o s h e in .19 A s a c o n s e r v a tiv e a n d f o r m e r ts a r is t m i n is te r , K r iv o s h e in w o u ld k n o w how

to

c h o o s e “ g o o d c o lle a g u e s ,” W r a n g e l b e lie v e d , b u t e q u a lly

i m p o r t a n t l y h e w as a n a d v o c a t e o f t h e k i n d o f a g r a r ia n r e f o r m s u i ta b l e t o t h e s i t u a t i o n . A s o n e o f t h e a u th o r s o f t h e S to ly p in l a n d r e f o r m a f t e r t h e R e v o l u t i o n o f 190 5 a n d a ls o t h e m i n i s t e r o f a g r i c u lt u r e f r o m 1 9 0 8 t o 1 9 1 5 , K r iv o s h e in k n e w t h e p r o b l e m w e ll. W ra n g e l a p p ro a c h e d

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a b r o a d in t h e s a m e s p ir it. I t w as q u i t e c le a r t h a t t h e R u s s ia n P o litic a l C o u n c i l in P a ris w o u ld h a v e t o b e e l i m i n a t e d b e c a u s e o f its i n d e p e n d ­ e n c e a n d its c r itic is m , a n d S a z o n o v h a d p r o v e d to b e in c a p a b le o f t h e k i n d o f i n i ti a ti v e a n d in f lu e n c e n o w n e e d e d .20 T h e r e w a s, h o w ­ e v e r, a m a n m o s t a d m i r a b l y s u i t e d t o t h e jo b . H e h a d a w id e s p r e a d r e p u t a t i o n as o n e o f t h e f o u n d e r s o f t h e s o c ia lis t m o v e m e n t in R u s s ia . B u t h e h a d a ls o lo n g s in c e b e e n c o n v e r t e d t o c o n s e r v a tis m . H e b e t t e r t h a n a n y o t h e r w o u ld c o m m a n d t h e a t t e n t i o n o f W e s t e r n c irc le s a n d c r e a t e t h e im a g e o f li b e r a l it y b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e e n th u s ia s t ic a l ly d e v o te th i s s e r v ic e t o W r a n g e l ’s c a u s e . H e w as P . B . S tr u v e . S tr u v e e n t e r e d a t o n c e i n t o t h e d u ti e s o f W r a n g e l ’s c h ie f a s s is t a n t f o r f o r e ig n a ffa irs a n d b e g a n t h e a r d u o u s ta s k o f o b t a i n i n g s u p p o r t a b r o a d .21 T h e c h a r a c t e r o f th i s n e w re g im e w as re f le c te d in t h e b a s ic fe a tu r e s o f its i n t e r n a l p o lic y a n d its e x te r n a l im a g e . A s id e fr o m f u t u r e m i li ta r y

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c a m p a ig n s , t h e tw o c h ie f c o n c e r n s o f i n t e r n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w e re r e la tio n s w ith t h e C o s s a c k s a n d t h e a g r a r ia n r e f o r m . W i t h r e g a r d t o t h e f o r m e r W r a n g e l w as d e t e r m i n e d t o u n d o D e n i k i n 's c o m p r o m i s e s w ith C o s s a c k ' ‘s e p a r a ti s m ." T e c h n ic a l ly h e r e t u r n e d t o t h e a d m i n i s t r a ­ tiv e p o lic y o f c o m b i n in g a s in g le m i li ta r y c o m m a n d w i t h i n t e r n a l a u t o n o m y fo r t h e C o s s a c k te r r ito r ie s , b u t s in c e b o t h

th e C o ssack

a u th o r i t i e s a n d W r a n g e l 's c o m m a n d w e re l i m i t e d n o w t o t h e C r im e a , th is h a d l i t t l e m e a n i n g .22 I t h a d e v e n less m e a n i n g in v ie w o f W r a n g e l’s d e t e r m i n a t i o n to se e t h a t t h e C o s s a c k fo rc e s w e r e “ p u r g e d o f tr a it o r s a n d c o w a r d s ." 23 W h e n t h e c o m m a n d e r o f t h e D o n c o rp s , G e n e r a l S id o r in , a n d h is c h ie f o f sta ff, G e n e r a l K e l'c h e v s k ii, a llo w e d t h e c o rp s n e w s p a p e r t o c r itic iz e W r a n g e l ’s p o lic ie s a n d ta k e a p e s s im is tic t o n e t o w a r d c o n ­ t i n u i n g t h e w a r, W r a n g e l o r d e r e d t h e m r e m o v e d f r o m t h e i r p o s ts a n d tr i e d fo r tr e a s o n , a lo n g w i t h t h e p a p e r s e d it o r , C o u n t d u C h a il a . A l t h o u g h t h e d e f e n s e a r g u e d t h a t t h e a c c u s e d h a d s a id n o m o r e t h a n W r a n g e l h im s e l f c o n c e r n i n g e n d i n g t h e w a r, S id o r in a n d K e l’c h e v s k ii w e re f o u n d g u ilty a n d s e n t e n c e d t o f o u r y e a rs a t h a r d la b o r . W r a n g e l h im s e l f r e d u c e d t h e s e n t e n c e t o d is m is s a l fr o m t h e s e rv ic e a n d p r o h i ­ b i t i o n f r o m w e a r in g t h e u n if o r m o f t h e R u s s ia n a rm y . T h e p a p e r s e d it o r , w h o s e tr ia l w as d e la y e d b e c a u s e o f h is h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n a f t e r a s u ic id e a t t e m p t , w as a c q u i t t e d . T h i s affa ir, W r a n g e l n o t e d , “ p u t a n e n d t o t h e m a c h i n a ti o n s o f t h e D o n C o m m a n d , a n d t h e i n t r i g u i n g a n d ly in g o f t h e d is s a tis fie d g e n e ra ls c e a s e d . . . .” 24 T h e a g ra r ia n r e f o r m q u e s t i o n p r e s e n te d , w i t h a c e r t a in a m o u n t o f c o n tr a s t, t h e o t h e r s id e o f in t e r n a l p o lic y . W r a n g e l w as d e t e r m i n e d “ to t e a r t h e e n e m y 's p r i n c ip a l w e a p o n o f p r o p a g a n d a f r o m h i m , k i n ­ d le t h e im a g in a t io n o f t h e A r m y a n d t h e p o p u la c e , a n d m a k e a f a v o r­ a b le im p r e s s io n o n f o r e ig n o p i n i o n ," a n d l a n d r e f o r m w a s c o n s i d e r e d t h e k e y to t h i s .25 T h e firs t d r a f ts o f t h e l a n d a n d lo c a l - g o v e r n m e n t la w s w e re re a d y la t e in M a y , a n d t h e r e f o r m w as i n a u g u r a t e d in J u n e . I n e a c h d is tr i c t a n a g r a r ia n a s s e m b ly c o n s i s ti n g o f t h o s e h o l d i n g l a n d w as t o e le c t a t le a s t f o u r p e r s o n s to m e m b e r s h i p in a d i s t r i c t a g r a r ia n s o v ie t ( a n a m e c h o s e n b y K r iv o s h e in f o r its p r o p a g a n d a v a l u e ) . 20 T h e r e m a in i n g m e m b e r s o f t h e s o v ie t w e re t o b e s p e c ia lis ts a p p o i n t e d b y t h e c e n tr a l g o v e r n m e n t, i n c l u d in g a d i s t r i c t “ a g r a r ia n m e d i a t o r " w h o w o u ld s e rv e as c h a ir m a n , t h e p r e s i d e n t o f t h e d i s t r i c t z e m s tv o , a ju s ti c e o f t h e p e a c e , a n d a r e p r e s e n ta t iv e o f t h e m i n is tr y o f fin a n c e . T h i s s o v ie t w a s, a c c o r d i n g to W r a n g e l , to b e g iv e n t h e “ w id e s t p o w ­ e r s " to a p p ly t h e r e f o r m , t h a t is, to d e t e r m i n e t h e siz e o f p lo t s t o

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b e a l l o t t e d in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h lo c a l c ir c u m s ta n c e s a n d t o s e le c t t h e o w n e r s . T h e l a t t e r in t u r n w e re to b e r e q u i r e d t o p a y f o r t h e i r a ll o t­ m e n t ( i f t h e y w e re n e w o w n e r s ) b y d e liv e ry o f a t le a s t o n e - f if th o f t h e c r o p s t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t fo r 25 y e a rs. T h e d e c is io n s o f t h e d is ­ t r i c t s o v ie t w o u ld , h o w e v e r , b e s u b j e c t to a n n u l m e n t b y t h e p ro v in c ia l g o v e r n o r s .27 W h i l e th i s s y s te m w as d e c la r e d “ m o r e a d v a n c e d t h a n a n y o t h e r in W e s t e r n E u r o p e ” b y K r iv o s h e in , i t d id n o t d o fu lly w h a t w as c la im e d . I n p a r t ic u l a r , i t d id n o t s im p ly le g a liz e p e a s a n t s e iz u re s , a n d i t d id n o t p u t c o n t r o l o v e r r e d i s tr ic t in g o r lo c a l g o v e r n m e n t in p e a s a n t h a n d s . A s W r a n g e l h i m s e l f n o t e d , t h o s e e le c te d t o t h e s o v ie ts in c l u d e d a r a t h e r la r g e n u m b e r o f i n t e ll e c tu a l s , civ il officers, a n d e v e n ‘ g r e a t l a n d e d p r o p r i e t o r s .” T h e y in t u r n , w h e n s e t t i n g t h e siz e o f h o ld in g s , a llo w e d a l l o t m e n t s t o b e as la rg e as 160 0 a c re s .28 M o r e o v e r , w h e n lo c a l g o v e r n m e n t b a s e d u p o n t h e re o r g a n iz e d d i s t r i c t a d m i n is tr a t io n s w as s u b s e q u e n t l y i n t r o d u c e d , t h e p o p u l a t i o n s h o w e d “ g r e a t m o d e r a ­ t i o n a n d c o m m o n s e n s e ” b y e le c tin g la rg e ly t h e “ w e a lth i e r p e a s a n t s ” a n d b ig la n d o w n e r s .29 W r a n g e l 's la n d r e f o r m t h u s fe ll s o m e w h a t s h o r t o f b e in g r e v o lu tio n a r y , b u t t h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t i t s e r v e d a m a jo r p r o p a g a n d a p u r p o s e . W r a n g e l a t le a s t p u t a r e f o r m i n t o e ff e c t a n d n o t ju s t o n p a p e r , a n d t h a t h e l p e d c r e a te a g o o d im p r e s s io n in W e s t ­ e r n E u r o p e . K r iv o s h e in e v e n c a lle d i t t h e m a j o r f a c t o r in a t t r a c t i n g s u p p o r t f o r W r a n g e l . 30 T h i s fa ile d to g iv e p r o p e r c r e d i t t o o t h e r e l e m e n t s i n f lu e n c i n g e v e n ts , b u t o n e o f t h e c h ie f se rv ic e s o f t h e la n d r e f o r m w a s d u ly n o t e d . $

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S tr u v e m e a n w h il e u s e d a ll s u c h a id s to t h e f u l le s t in h is e ffo rts a b r o a d . T w o fa c e ts o f p o lic y w e re p a r t ic u l a r ly n o ta b l e : t h e r e p u d i a ­ ti o n o f t h e “ O n e - R u s s i a ” c o n c e p t w ith r e s p e c t to t h e b o r d e r a re a s a n d t h e a t t e m p t to r e n e w E u r o p e a n s u p p o r t b y w a y o f e c o n o m i c c o n c e s s io n s . “ T h e f u t u r e o r g a n i z a ti o n o f R u s s ia ,” h e d e c la r e d , “ m u s t b e b a s e d o n a n a g r e e m e n t b e tw e e n t h e e x is tin g n e w s e p a r a te e n t i ­ tie s . . . . T h e y m u s t u n i t e i n t o o n e g r e a t f e d e r a ti o n b a s e d o n a n a r r a n g e m e n t to w h ic h th e y h a v e all fre e ly c o n s e n t e d .” 31 W h i l e D e n i ­ k in h a d a t t h e e n d a c c e p t e d th i s v ie w in p r i n c ip l e a n d h a d a p p li e d i t in t h e r e c o g n i ti o n o f t h e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n s ta te s , th is s t a t e m e n t i n d i ­ c a te d t h a t W r a n g e l w o u ld a p p ly it t o all t h e n e w b o r d e r l a n d g o v ­ e r n m e n t s , a n d h e w o u ld n o t s h u n b u t o p e n ly e s p o u s e t h e id e a o f f e d e r a ti o n f r o m b e lo w . A g a in a b e t t e r r e p u t a t i o n a b r o a d c o u ld b e e x p e c t e d as a r e s u lt o f

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th i s c h a n g e in p o lic y , b u t l i t t l e d if f e r e n c e w as n o ti c e a b l e in

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t e r m , b u t h e r e as b e f o r e t h e r e l a ti o n s h ip w as i n t i m a t e l y t i e d u p w i t h r e la tio n s w ith P o l a n d a n d w ill b e n o t e d in t h a t c o n t e x t b e lo w . T h e q u e s t i o n o f a id w as m o r e i m p o r t a n t a n d m o r e d if fic u lt. A s p r e ­ v io u s ly n o t e d , W r a n g e l b e lie v e d t h a t R u s s ia n n a t u r a l r e s o u rc e s s h o u l d b e u s e d t o a t t r a c t f o r e ig n in v e s t m e n t ; S tr u v e 's t e l e g r a m t o M a k la k o v in A p ril r e i te r a te d th i s p o i n t o f “ a t t a c h i n g v a s t s ig n ific a n c e t o t h e c o r r e la t io n b e tw e e n R u s s ia n in t e r e s t s a n d t h e e c o n o m i c i n t e r e s t s o f t h e A llie d P o w e rs , e s p e c ia lly F r a n c e , in t h e e c o n o m i c re s o u rc e s o f R u s s ia . . . .” 32 T h i s p o lic y w as a re v e rsa l o f D e n i k i n ’s p o s i ti o n , b u t i t w as a ls o a n a c k n o w le d g m e n t t h a t th i s w as t h e o n ly m e t h o d lik e ly t o o b t a i n a id . A t c o n f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n S tr u v e a n d o t h e r R u s s i a n r e p ­ re s e n ta tiv e s in L o n d o n a n d P a ris , i t w as m a d e c le a r t h a t A llie d f u n d s w e re e x h a u s t e d a n d s i m p l e c r e d its w e r e q u i t e

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t a i n e d .33 T h e p r o b l e m w as t o u se lo n g - r a n g e i n t e r e s t s in s u c h a w a y as t o a t t r a c t im m e d i a t e a s s is ta n c e . S tr u v e ’s ta s k w o u ld o b v io u s ly b e a d if fic u lt o n e , b u t h e p r e p a r e d t h e g r o u n d v e ry e ff e c tiv e ly . T o b e g in w ith , h e i n a u g u r a te d a n e x p e n s iv e b u t in v a l u a b le p r o p a ­ g a n d a c a m p a ig n in t h e B r it is h a n d F r e n c h p re s s , u s in g h is s o c ia lis t p a s t a n d t h e im a g e o f lib e r a l r e f o r m s a n d d e m o c r a ti c lo c a l g o v e r n m e n t t o t h e l i m i t o f t h e i r c r e d i b il it y .34 R u s s ia n f u n d s w e re p o u r e d i n t o W e s t e r n n e w s p a p e r s , a n d f r e q u e n t in te r v ie w s a n d s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e d e s ir e d c h a r a c t e r w e re s o o n f o r t h c o m i n g .35 E v e n m o r e im p o r t a n t l y , e ffo rts w e r e m a d e t o a t t r a c t t h e h ig h l y u s e f u l s e rv ic e s o f c e r t a in s t r a ­ te g ic a lly p la c e d p e r s o n s o f k n o w n R u s s o p h i le in c l in a t io n s . I n

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c a p a c ity t h e a s s is ta n c e o f t h e f o r m e r F r e n c h a m b a s s a d o r t o R u s s ia a n d c u r r e n tl y s e c r e ta r y g e n e r a l o f t h e F o r e i g n M i n is t r y , M a u r i c e P a lé o lo g u e , w as t o b e o u t s t a n d i n g . A t t h e s a m e t i m e e v e ry p r o s p e c t f o r a re n e w a l o f n e g o ti a ti o n s w i t h t h e A llie d a n d U n i t e d S ta t e s g o v e r n ­ m e n t s a n d t h e e n c o u r a g e m e n t o f t h e i r c o n t i n u e d in v o l v e m e n t w a s t o b e s o u n d e d o u t . 36 A f t e r a ll h a s b e e n s a id , h o w e v e r , t h e e v e n ts o f t h e s p r in g a n d s u m m e r m o n t h s d e p e n d e d a t le a s t as m u c h u p o n d e v e lo p ­ m e n t s e n ti r e l y b e y o n d W r a n g e l 's c o n tr o l as t h e y d id u p o n h is o w n e ffo rts . T h e s i t u a t i o n w as o n e in w h ic h c ir c u m s t a n c e s c h a n g e d w i t h s ta g g e r in g r a p id ity .

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O ffic ia lly b o t h B r it a in a n d F r a n c e ( w h e r e C le m e n c e a u h a d b e e n r e p l a c e d b y M i l l e r a n d ) a n t i c i p a t e d a n e n d to t h e w a r s h o r tly , e v e n if a c e r t a in a m o u n t o f p e s s im is m w as a p p a r e n t as to t h e p r o s p e c ts f o r o b t a i n i n g d e s ir a b le te r m s . Y e t i t w as n o t lo n g b e f o r e th i s p i c t u r e c h a n g e d . A s p r e v io u s ly n o t e d , t h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t h a d i n d i c a te d its d is s a ti s f a c t io n w ith t h e id e a o f n e g o ti a ti o n s w ith t h e S o v ie t g o v ­ e r n m e n t in t h e L o n d o n c o n f e r e n c e o f F e b r u a r y a n d M a r c h

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a n d M i l l e r a n d h a d n o t o n ly u r g e d r e n u n c i a t i o n o f s u c h n e g o ti a ti o n s , e v e n th o s e r e l a ti n g t o tr a d e , b u t a ls o c a lle d fo r a n A llie d p o lic y o f a id i n g t h e b o r d e r s t a te s , p a r t ic u l a r ly P o la n d . T h e r e w e re t h u s “ v e ry s e r io u s d if fe re n c e s o f o p i n i o n ” a m o n g t h e A llie s, as L lo y d G e o r g e o b s e r v e d , s in c e B r it a in fa v o r e d ta lk s a im e d a t r e s to r in g tr a d e w ith R u s s ia a n d u r g e d A llie d p r e s s u r e o n t h e b o r d e r s ta te s t o m a k e p e a c e w i t h S o v ie t R u s s ia a t o n c e , w h ile I ta ly e v e n p r o p o s e d e n t e r i n g fu ll d i p l o m a t i c a n d e c o n o m i c r e l a ti o n s w i t h M o s c o w . L lo y d G e o r g e h a d b e e n p a r t ic u l a r ly d i s t u r b e d t o h e a r f r o m M i l l e r a n d t h a t F r a n c e h a d a d v is e d P o l a n d a g a in s t m a k i n g p e a c e w ith t h e B o ls h e v ik s , a n d , fo r h is p a r t , h e h a d c a te g o r ic a lly r e j e c te d t h e id e a t h a t B r it a in s h o u l d e n c o u r a g e P o l a n d t o ‘‘c o n t i n u e w a r a g a in s t R u s s ia ,” p a r t o f w h o s e te r r i t o r y i t a lr e a d y o c c u p ie d . A t L lo y d G e o r g e ’s s u g g e s tio n a r e s o lu ­ t i o n h a d b e e n a d o p t e d s t a t i n g A llie d o p p o s i ti o n t o c o n t i n u e d h o s ­ ti li ti e s w i t h S o v ie t R u s s ia a n d d ir e c tl y w a r n in g a g a in s t “ a p o lic y o f a g g re s s io n to w a r d s R u s s i a .” Y e t, as L lo y d G e o r g e l a t e r o b s e r v e d , F r a n c e h a d c o n t i n u e d t o e n c o u r a g e p re c is e ly s u c h a p o lic y b y its o p p o s i t i o n t o e ff o rts to b r i n g p e a c e .37 W h e t h e r o r n o t t h e F r e n c h a t t i t u d e w as t o b la m e , L lo y d G e o r g e ’s p r e d i c t i o n o f n e w c o n f lic t w as s o o n fu lfille d . A j o i n t P o li s h - U k r a i n ia n o ff e n s iv e i n t o t h e U k r a in e w as l a u n c h e d a t t h e t i m e o f t h e s ig n in g o f a m i li ta r y a ll ia n c e b e tw e e n P ils u d s k i a n d P e tl iu r a o n A p r il 2 4. T h r e e d a y s b e f o r e th e y h a d f o r m a liz e d t h e i r e a r lie r u n d e r s t a n d i n g in a t r e a t y w h ic h r e c o g n iz e d t h e r i g h t o f t h e U k r a in e t o in d e p e n d e n c e u n d e r P e t l i u r a ’s g o v e r n m e n t a n d e s t a b li s h e d t h e b o r d e r a t t h e Z b r u c h R iv e r , g iv in g E a s t G a lic i a a n d V o ly n ia to P o l a n d .38 S im u lt a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e s e e v e n ts , M a k la k o v r e c e iv e d a s s u ra n c e s in P a ris t h a t t h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t w as ta k i n g a n e g a tiv e v ie w to w a r d t h e B r itis h p r o p o s a ls , w o u ld o p p o s e a n y p r e s s u r e o n W r a n g e l to s u r r e n d e r , a n d w o u ld in f a c t n o t p a r t i c i p a t e in m e d i a t i o n e ff o rts e v e n if t h e B r itis h p e r s is t e d .39 O n M a y 7, as h e w as p r e p a r in g t o le a v e P a ris t o ta k e u p h is d u ti e s in t h e C r im e a , K r iv o s h e in w r o te t o P a lé o lo g u e t h a t h e w o u ld lik e v e ry m u c h t o c a rr y w ith h i m t h e “ a s s u ra n c e s o f t h e sy m -

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p a t h y o f t h e F r e n c h G o v e r n m e n t f o r t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e s tr u g g le a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s . . . .” 40 P a lé o lo g u e r e s p o n d e d t h e n e x t d a y , o n t h e officia l s t a ti o n e r y o f t h e F o r e i g n M i n is t r y , t h a t h e h a d t a k e n u p th i s r e q u e s t w ith M i ll e r a n d a n d c o u ld s t a t e t h a t t h e F r e n c h g o v e r n ­ m e n t r e c o g n iz e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f W r a n g e F s p o s i ti o n a n d w o u ld c e r t a in l y s u p p o r t t h e d e f e n s e o f t h e C r i m e a a g a in s t B o ls h e v ik a t t a c k .41 I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t th i s e n c o u r a g i n g r e s p o n s e , w h ic h P a lé o ­ lo g u e s ig n if ic a n tly

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c a u ti o u s re p ly a n d c o n t i n u e d to p re s s f o r a n e v e n m o r e e x te n s iv e p la n . W r a n g e l , f o r h is p a r t , h o p e d to le a v e t h e n e g o ti a ti o n s u p to t h e F r e n c h a t th i s s ta g e b e c a u s e o f t h e d if fic u ltie s o f a d ir e c t a p p r o a c h t o P ils u d s k i in v ie w o f t h e l a t t e r s a n ti - R u s s i a n s t a t e m e n t s a n d h is p o s i ti o n o n U k r a in i a n i n d e p e n d e n c e .46 W r a n g e l w a s, in d e e d , p r e p a r in g t o m o v e h is fo rc e s n o r t h w a r d i n t o N o r t h T a u r i d a in t h e d ir e c ti o n o f M e l i t o p o l , a n d h e h a d i n t i m a t e d as m u c h t o t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts , b u t h e to o w is h e d t o m o v e c a u ­ tio u s ly . F r e n c h in q u ir ie s as t o h is p la n s h a d b e e n k e p t s tr ic t ly s e c r e t, b u t t h e i m p li c a ti o n o f a m o v e m e n t o f tr o o p s c o u ld n o t b e so c o n ­ c e a le d f r o m t h e B r itis h . T r u b e t s k o i t h u s i n f o r m e d S tr u v e o n M a y 27 t h a t t h e a n t i c i p a t e d o p e r a t io n s c o u ld e a sily in v o lv e a c la s h w i t h offi­ c ia l A llie d p o lic y a n d t h e r e f o r e m u s t b e c a r e f u lly p r e p a r e d d i p l o m a t ­ ic a lly . I t w as n e c e s s a ry f o r S tr u v e to in s is t in t h e W e s t e r n c a p ita ls t h a t “ t h e o p e r a t i o n w as u n d e r t a k e n fo r o n e g o a l, to s e c u r e a b a s e fo r p r o ­ v is io n in g w i t h o u t w h ic h t h e A .F .S .R . a n d C r i m e a n p o p u l a t i o n w o u ld b e d o o m e d to s t a r v a ti o n a n d r u i n .” 47 I t w as, o f c o u rs e , q u i t e t r u e t h a t t h e t e r r i t o r y n o r t h o f t h e C r im e a w as n e c e s s a ry to t h e p r o v is io n in g o f a p e r m a n e n t b a s e in t h e C r im e a , b a r r in g m a s s iv e o u ts id e a id , b u t t h e im p li c a ti o n s w e re c le a r. T h e q u e s t i o n w as h o w w o u ld t h e B r itis h r e a c t to a n y s u c h s te p ? T h e a n s w e r w as n o t so c le a rly a fo r e g o n e c o n c lu s io n as m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d , a t le a s t n o t a t first. B r itis h m ilita r y a u th o r i t i e s in C o n s t a n ­ ti n o p l e , as p re v io u s ly n o t e d , h a d c o n f id e n tia lly t a k e n a d im v ie w o f t h e p e a c e p r o p o s a ls fr o m t h e s t a r t. T h e y h a d in f a c t p r iv a te ly s u g ­ g e s t e d t h a t W r a n g e l w o u ld d o w e ll to u n d e r t a k e v ig o ro u s a c ti o n as s o o n as p o s s ib le — to p u t h im s e l f in a m o r e fa v o r a b le p o s i ti o n t o n e g o ­ t i a t e .48 A l t h o u g h t h e l a t t e r c o n t e x t k e p t th is s u g g e s tio n te c h n ic a lly w it h i n t h e o fficia l b o u n d s o f B r it is h p o lic y , t h e a t t i t u d e w as h a r d l y t h e s a m e . T h e r e w as t h u s a n in t e r e s t i n g d iv e r g e n c e b e tw e e n B r itis h m i li ta r y r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s n e a r t h e a re a o f c o n c e r n a n d B r itis h p o litic a l l e a d e r s h i p in L o n d o n . G e n e r a l P e rc y , c h ie f o f t h e B r itis h m is s io n in S e v a s to p o l, m a d e i t q u i t e c le a r t h a t h e f a v o r e d c o n t i n u e d s u p p o r t fo r W r a n g e l a n d a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e s tr u g g le . W h i l e a d m i t t i n g t h a t i t w as n o t h is p la c e to m a k e p o lic y , h e s i m u l ta n e o u s l y in d i c a te d t h a t h e w as d o in g all h e c o u ld to p e r s u a d e h is g o v e r n m e n t t h a t its p o lic y w as w r o n g .49 E v e n m o r e n o t a b l e w as t h e a t t i t u d e ta k e n b y G e n e r a l M i l n e w h e n h e a r r iv e d in S e v a s to p o l f o r a v is it o n M a y 15. M i l n e p r o f e s s e d t o b e m o s t in t e r e s t e d in W r a n g e l ’s w o rk a n d c o m p l i m e n t e d h i m h ig h l y o n

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t h e r e o r g a n iz a t io n o f t h e a rm y . I n r e s p o n s e to M i l n e 's q u e s t io n s a s t o f u t u r e o p e r a t io n s , W r a n g e l c o n f id e d h is p la n s t o m o v e n o r t h t o s e c u r e a m o r e a d e q u a t e b a s e . T h e R u s s ia n C o m m a n d e r d e c li n e d t o d is c lo s e a n y t h i n g m o r e a t th i s p o i n t , b u t t h e B r it is h C o m m a n d e r n o t o n ly a p p e a r e d t o u n d e r s t a n d th i s r e t ic e n c e b u t e v e n e x p re s s e d h is f u ll s u p ­ p o r t . N o t i n g t h a t W r a n g e l w o u ld

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f u t u r e o p e r a t io n s , M i l n e o ff e re d to d o all h e c o u ld to o b t a i n w h a t w as n e e d e d . H e is s u e d o r d e r s i m m e d i a te l y t o f a c i li ta t e t h e s h i p p i n g o f fu e l fr o m B a t u m . 50 M e a n w h il e t h e B r it is h h i g h c o m m is s io n e r i n C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , A d m ir a l J o h n d e R o b e c k , t o o k a s im ila r ly e n c o u r a g ­ in g s t a n d . W r a n g e l 's c h ie f r e p r e s e n ta t iv e t h e r e , G e n e r a l L u k o m s k ii, w as t o l d t h a t B r it is h n a v a l fo rc e s w o u ld f a c i li ta t e a n d p r o t e c t o il s h i p ­ m e n t s , a n d K r iv o s h e in r e p o r t e d a f t e r a p e r s o n a l t a l k w i t h d e R o b e c k t h a t , d e s p i te t h e g o v e r n m e n t 's p o s i ti o n , t h e

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v ie w s " a n d w o u ld d o w h a t h e c o u ld t o h e lp . T h i s , S tr u v e w a s t h e n a d v is e d , m a d e i t a ll t h e m o r e n e c e s s a ry “ to p la y f o r t i m e " w i t h t h e B r itis h g o v e r n m e n t, u s in g t h e s y m p a th i e s o f B r it is h m i li ta r y a u t h o r ­ itie s a n d “ t h e m o o d o f t h e F r e n c h " t o t h e b e s t a d v a n ta g e .51 A c tu a lly , h o w e v e r . A d m ir a l d e R o b e c k h a d b e e n r a t h e r p e s s im i s t ic a b o u t t h e p o s s ib ility o f a c h a n g e in B r it is h p o lic y , a n d h is p e s s im is m w as a m o r e a c c u r a t e r e f le c tio n o f t h e re a l s i t u a t i o n . O n M a y 2 9 G e n ­ e ra l P e rc y f o r w a r d e d to W r a n g e l a n e w s t a t e m e n t o f o ffic ia l B r it is h p o lic y . I t i n s t r u c t e d t h e B r it is h m is s io n to h a v e n o f u r t h e r c o n v e r s a ­ tio n w ith th e V o lu n te e r C o m m a n d o n th e s u b je c t a n d s ta te d c a te ­ g o ric a lly t h a t W r a n g e l m u s t n o t e x p e c t a n y c h a n g e w h a ts o e v e r in t h e B r itis h p o s i ti o n . T h a t p o s i ti o n , t h e s t a t e m e n t c o n t i n u e d , w a s s till b a s e d u p o n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o b r i n g h o s t il it ie s in S o u t h R u s s ia t o a n e n d . T h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t , i t c o n c l u d e d , h a d a c c e p t e d in p r i n ­ c ip le t h e p r o p o s a ls o f p e a c e n e g o ti a ti o n s a n d a g e n e r a l a m n e s ty , a n d o n th i s b a s is L o r d C u r z o n u r g e d t h a t ta lk s b e i n i t i a t e d as s o o n as p o s s ib le s o m e p la c e in S o u t h R u s s ia . F o r th i s p u r p o s e h e w a s s e n d ­ in g a d ip l o m a t i c r e p r e s e n ta t iv e w h o w o u ld a rr iv e s h o r tly .52 O n J u n e 3 a s e c o n d m e s s a g e w a s re la y e d t o W r a n g e l s t a t i n g t h a t t h e B r it is h g o v e r n m e n t w a s v e ry m u c h “ d i s q u i e t e d b y r u m o r s o f y o u r i n t e n t i o n t o ta k e t h e o ff e n s iv e a g a in s t B o ls h e v ik fo r c e s ." I t w a s t h e r e f o r e f e l t n e c e s s a ry t o w a r n W r a n g e l t h a t s u c h a n a t t a c k w o u ld u n d o u b t e d l y d e s t r o y p la n s f o r p e a c e n e g o ti a ti o n s , a n d in t h a t c a s e “ H i s M a j e s ty 's G o v e r n m e n t w ill b e u n a b l e t o c o n c e r n th e m s e l v e s a n y f u r t h e r w i t h t h e f a t e o f y o u r a r m y ." 53 I t w a s u n d e r th e s e c ir c u m s t a n c e s t h a t o n J u n e 5 A d m ir a l d e R o b e c k

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s e n t w o r d t h a t i t w o u ld b e im p o s s ib le f o r B r it is h n a v a l fo rc e s to ta k e p a r t in t h e p l a n n e d o ffe n s iv e , b u t i t w as a ls o c h a r a c t e r i s ti c o f d e R o b e c k t h a t h e a d d e d t h a t h e s till h a d a u t h o r i z a t i o n to a s s is t in t h e d e f e n s e o f t h e C r i m e a a g a in s t a B o ls h e v ik a tt a c k ! 54 I t w a s lik e w is e in k e e p in g w i t h G e n e r a l P e r c y 's v ie w s t h a t h e in f o r m e d h is g o v e r n ­ m e n t t h a t h e w o u ld n o t p a r t i c i p a t e in a n y ta lk s w i t h t h e B o ls h e v ik s . H e a ls o a r g u e d t h a t W r a n g e l 's p la n t o e n la r g e h is b a s e w as im p o s s ib le t o c h a n g e , b u t t h e r e p ly o f t h e B r it is h g o v e r n m e n t w as to o r d e r h is re c a ll.55 A ll b u t a s m a ll s k e l e to n s ta ff o f t h e B r it is h m is s io n w a s, in fa c t, w i t h d r a w n in J u n e , a n d o r d e r s w e re d i s p a tc h e d t o A d m ir a l d e R o b e c k to s u s p e n d a ll m i li ta r y s h i p m e n t s d e s t i n e d f o r t h e C r im e a , w h e t h e r u n d e r B r it is h flag o r in R u s s ia n s h ip s .56 I n re s p o n s e to s u c h a c ti o n s b y t h e B r itis h , W r a n g e l o n J u n e 5 s e n t o ff a lo n g n o t e to L o n d o n . I n i t h e s t a t e d c a te g o r ic a lly t h a t h e w o u ld c o n t i n u e to re f u s e t o n e g o t i a t e d ir e c tly w i t h

t h e B o ls h e v ik s . T h e

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t o c a rr y i t o u t . H o w e v e r , h e a d d e d , h is p la n t o m o v e in t o

T a u r i d a d id n o t n e c e s s a rily c o n t r a d i c t B r it is h e ff o rts as th e y s e e m e d t o c la im . S u c h a m o v e w as n o t o n ly n e c e s s a ry to h o l d t h e C r im e a n b a s e u n t i l n e g o ti a ti o n s c o u ld b e c o m p l e te d , h e a r g u e d , b u t w o u ld a ls o f a v o r th o s e n e g o ti a ti o n s b y p r o d d i n g t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t i n t o a p o s itiv e re s p o n s e . A s u c c e s s fu l o u t c o m e to t h e c a m p a ig n w o u ld in f a c t “ g r e a tly f a c i li ta t e t h e ta s k o f t h e B r itis h g o v e r n m e n t in its ta lk s w i t h t h e S o v ie ts ." M o r e o v e r , h e d e c la r e d , t h e B o ls h e v ik r e c o r d m a d e i t e s s e n tia l t o o b t a i n re a l g u a r a n t e e s t h a t a n y n e g o t i a t e d a g r e e m e n t w o u ld a c tu a lly b e c a r r ie d o u t in p r a c tic e . U n t i l s u c h g u a r a n t e e s w e re e x p lic itly a s s u r e d , h e h o p e d t h a t t h e B r it is h g o v e r n m e n t w o u ld n o t r e f u s e t h a t a s s is ta n c e w h ic h i t h a d p r o m is e d a n d w h ic h w as “ so p r e ­ c io u s " t o h i m . 57 I n a n y c a se , W r a n g e l n o t e d , t h e o r d e r to a d v a n c e h a d b e e n is s u e d t h e d a y b e f o r e t h e r e c e i p t o f t h e m e s s a g e o f J u n e 3, a n d i t w as t o o la t e to s t o p i t n o w . A c tu a ll y W r a n g e l 's o ff e n s iv e d id n o t b e g in u n t i l J u n e 7, b u t h e w as c le a rly h e d g i n g t o a v o id a n o p e n b r e a k w ith t h e B r it is h .58 O n J u n e 8 S tr u v e w ir e d t h a t h e h a d m e t a t l e n g t h w i t h M i ll e r a n d , a n d t h e F r e n c h P r e m ie r , w h ile r e a f fir m in g F r e n c h s u p p o r t, u r g e d t h a t W r a n g e l n o t a li e n a te t h e B r it is h if a t a ll p o s s ib le . T h e ta c k r e c o m ­ m ended

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W r a n g e l c o u ld le g i ti m a t e ly m a k e c o u n te r p r o p o s a l s . H e c o u ld

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ta i n ly re f u s e o u t r i g h t c a p i t u l a t i o n , e v e n o n t h e b a s is o f a m n e s ty , fo r e x a m p le , a n d c o u ld e v e n p u t as a c o n d i t i o n to f u t u r e n e g o ti a ti o n s t h e c le a r in g o f t h e C o s s a c k a n d T r a n s c a u c a s ia n te r r it o r i e s a n d g u a r a n ­ te e s o f t h e in v io la b ility o f t h e C r im e a . I f W r a n g e l r e m a i n e d ta c t f u l l y firm a n d i n d i c a t e d fu ll re a d in e s s to c o o p e r a t e w i t h t h e P o le s , M ille r a n d t o l d S tr u v e , F r a n c e w o u ld d o its p a r t .59 S tr u v e w as a s s u r e d o f W r a n g e k s c o o p e r a t io n a lo n g th i s li n e a n d u r g e d to d o a ll p o s s ib le to e n c o u r a g e F r e n c h in i t i a t i v e w i t h t h e B r i t ­ is h .60 M e a n w h il e , W r a n g e l w r o te a g a in to t h e B r it is h t o i n d i c a t e t h a t h e s o u g h t t h e i r v iew s so as to p la n h is a c ti o n s a c c o r d in g ly in t h e f u t u r e , a n d a ls o to r e m a r k t h a t n o w t h e B o ls h e v ik s h a d o p e n e d a n o ff e n s iv e a g a in s t h i m , th u s re v e a lin g t h e i r d u p li c it y . H is o w n o f f e n ­ siv e h a d b a r e ly m a n a g e d to a n t i c i p a t e t h e B o ls h e v ik s ' m o v e t o se iz e t h e i n i ti a ti v e b y o n ly tw o d a y s !61 M o r e o v e r , in k e e p in g w i t h h is p r e ­ v io u s ju s tif ic a tio n s , W r a n g e l h a l t e d h is m ilita r y a d v a n c e o n J u n e 17 a f t e r h a v in g s e c u r e d n o r t h e r n T a u r i d a a n d t h e b a s e h e c la i m e d n e c ­ e ssa ry . W h a t w as n o t y e t a n n o u n c e d w as h is i n t e n t i o n o f p r e p a r in g n o w a n e w a d v a n c e i n t o t h e K u b a n v /ith t h e h o p e o f l i b e r a t i n g t h e C o s s a c k te r r it o r i e s f r o m w h ic h o n ly s h o r tly b e f o r e t h e B r it is h h a d h e lp e d h im

e v a c u a te r e m a in i n g a n ti- B o ls h e v ik tr o o p s . M e a n w h il e ,

h o w e v e r, t h e q u e s t io n s o f in te r - A llie d r e l a ti o n s a n d o f r e l a ti o n s w ith P o l a n d w e re to b e c o m e r a t h e r s u d d e n l y m o r e c r itic a l. D u r i n g J u n e 1 9 2 0 t h e m i li ta r y s i t u a t i o n t o o k a d e c id e d t u r n fo r t h e w o rs e . D e s p i t e W r a n g e l ’s o p e r a t io n s , t h e B o ls h e v ik s w e re a b le t o h o l d t h e f r o n t a g a in s t h i m a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e b e g in a n e w o ff e n s iv e a g a in s t t h e P o li s h - U k r a i n ia n f r o n t . B y J u n e 11 K ie v h a d b e e n lo s t, a n d P e t l i u r a ’s g o v e r n m e n t w as o n c e m o r e d is p la c e d . B u t , w o rs e s till f o r t h e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik c a m p , t h e R e d A r m y m a n a g e d t o ra lly p a t r i o t i c s u p p o r t a g a in s t

t h e f o r e ig n in v a d e r s to s u c h a n e x t e n t t h a t P o l a n d

i ts e lf w as s o o n t h r e a t e n e d . 62 B y m id - J u ly i t d id i n d e e d lo o k as t h o u g h t h e p r e v io u s h o p e s fo r n e w o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o d e f e a t t h e B o ls h e v ik s w o u ld b e r e v e r s e d b y a p o s s ib le B o ls h e v ik c o n q u e s t o f b o t h R u s s ia a n d its b ig g e s t n e i g h b o r to t h e w e s t. I t w a s th i s o m i n o u s s i t u a t i o n w h ic h i n s ti g a te d a flu rry o f a c tiv ity o n

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P o la n d . T h e d if f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e tw o p o w e rs , h o w e v e r, m o r e t h a n e v e r t h r e a t e n e d to e r u p t i n t o t h e o p e n . A s S tr u v e r e p o r te d , L lo y d G e o r g e h a d c a te g o r ic a lly d e n o u n c e d W r a n g e l ’s T a u r i d a c a m p a ig n a n d h a d a s s u r e d M o s c o w t h a t B r it a in in n o w a y s u p p o r t e d i t .63 M o r e ­ o v e r, L lo y d G e o r g e w as m o r e in s i s t e n t t h a n e v e r o n p e a c e , in c l u d in g P o l a n d , a n d w as c o n t i n u i n g t r a d e ta lk s , p u t t i n g t h e F r e n c h in a n a w k w a r d p o s i ti o n . A f t e r a b r i e f c o n f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e tw o p r e m ie r s in B o u lo g n e , a c o m m u n i q u e h a d b e e n is s u e d fa v o r in g e c o n o m i c ta lk s a n d p e a c e b u t n o t r e c o g n i ti o n , a n d o n J u n e 2 4 M i l l e r a n d h a d e x p lic ­ itly d e c la r e d t h a t h e d id n o t i n t e n d t o r e c o g n iz e a n y R u s s ia n g o v e r n ­ m e n t w h ic h d id n o t re c o g n iz e its i n t e r n a t i o n a l o b li g a ti o n s .64 O n J u ly 5 a tw e lv e - d a y c o n f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e tw o A llie d g o v e r n ­ m e n t s w as o p e n e d in S p a to d is c u s s t h e p r o b l e m s in v o lv e d a n d p a r ­ ti c u la r ly t o c o o r d i n a t e p o lic y in t h e P o lis h q u e s t io n . H e r e t h e P o lis h p r i m e m i n is te r , G r a b s k i, c o n f e s s e d t h a t P o l a n d h a d b e e n m is le d “ b y s t r o n g m e n w h o h a d g r e a t v is io n s ” w h ic h , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , n e i t h e r c o r­ r e s p o n d e d t o c o m m o n s e n s e n o r t h e d e s ire s o f t h e p e o p le . “ M . P ils u d s k i,” h e s t a t e d , “ n o w a c k n o w le d g e d h is m i s t a k e ,” b u t P o l a n d w as in d e s p e r a te n e e d o f h e l p to s u rv iv e . L lo y d G e o r g e “ t h o u g h t t h a t i t m i g h t b e p o s s ib le t o d o s o m e t h i n g if t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f P o la n d w e re a s s a ile d , b u t n o t h i n g c o u ld b e d o n e u n le s s P o l a n d a b a n d o n e d in d e e d , as w e ll as in w o rd s , its im p e r i a li s t a n d a n n e x a t i o n i s t p o lic y .” T h e P o lis h p r i m e m i n i s t e r w as t o l d b l u n t l y t h a t P o l a n d w o u ld h a v e t o a c c e p t t h e C u r z o n l i n e a n d s e e k a re n e w a l o f p e a c e ta lk s w i t h M o s ­ c o w ; o n ly u n d e r th e s e c o n d it io n s , s a id L lo y d G e o r g e , c o u ld a n y s u p ­ p o r t b e g iv e n , b u t if P o l a n d d id c o m p ly a n d S o v ie t tr o o p s c ro s s e d t h e C u rz o n

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i n d e p e n d e n c e . 65 U n d e r th i s p r e s s u r e G r a b s k i s ig n e d a n a g r e e m e n t “ to i n i t i a t e a n d s ig n a n im m e d i a t e a r m is t ic e o n t h e b a sis t h a t t h e P o lis h a r m y re tire s t o a n d s t a n d s o n t h e li n e fix e d b y t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e o n t h e 8 th D e c e m b e r , 1 9 1 9 , as t h e p ro v is io n a l b o u n d a r y o f P o lis h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a n d t h a t t h e S o v ie t a r m ie s h a l t 50 k il o m f e te r s ] . to t h e e a s t o f th is l i n e ,” to s e n d r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s t o a p e a c e c o n f e r e n c e to b e h e l d in L o n d o n , a n d to a c c e p t t h e d e c is io n o f t h e A llie d S u p r e m e C o u n c il o n “ t h e f u t u r e o f E a s t e r n G a lic i a ” a n d o t h e r t e r r it o r i a l q u e s tio n s . D e s p ite

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d e m a r c h e , t h e S p a c o n f e r e n c e t h e n c o n c lu d e d its c o n s i d e r a t io n o f th i s q u e s t i o n w ith a c a ll to t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t o n J u ly 11 to c e a s e m i li ta r y o p e r a t io n s a n d a c c e p t a n in v i t a t i o n t o t h e p r o p o s e d

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p e a c e c o n f e r e n c e .66 I f th i s w e re d o n e , L lo y d G e o r g e in d i c a te d , o b s t a ­ cles to t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f n o r m a l r e la tio n s b e t w e e n B r it a in a n d t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t c o u ld b e r e m o v e d . S h o r t ly a f t e r t h e c o n c lu s io n o f th e c o n fe re n c e , C u rz o n re ite ra te d th e p o in t th a t th e d e m a n d fo r a n a r m is t ic e a p p li e d to b o t h s id e s .67 T h i s c o n f e r e n c e h a d b r o u g h t t h e A llie s n o c lo s e r t o a g r e e m e n t. M i l l e r a n d s t o o d b y h is r e f u s a l t o e n t e r o ffic ia l r e l a ti o n s w i t h t h e B o l­ s h e v ik g o v e r n m e n t u n le s s i t a c c e p t e d a ll p re v io u s o b li g a ti o n s o f R u s ­ s ia n g o v e r n m e n ts , a n d L lo y d G e o r g e w e n t a h e a d w i t h h is p la n s f o r a p e a c e c o n f e r e n c e . A s S tr u v e n o t e d in h is r e p o r t f r o m S p a o n J u ly 17, L lo y d G e o r g e 's p ro p o s a ls to t h e B o ls h e v ik s a ls o in c l u d e d a t r u c e o n th e s o u th e rn

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C r im e a p r o p e r a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a n e u t r a l z o n e o n t h e P e re k o p p e n in s u la . T h i s w o u ld b e fo llo w e d b y a n i n v i t a t i o n t o W r a n g e l to a tte n d o r s e n d a n o b se rv e r to th e p e a c e c o n fe re n c e b u t a p p a re n tly n o t to p a r t i c i p a t e in i t as a fu ll p a r t n e r . W h e n M i l l e r a n d w a s c o n ­ s u l te d o n th i s p o i n t , h e a d v is e d t h a t W r a n g e l s h o u l d re f u s e t o a c c e p t t h e s e te r m s a n d d e m a n d fu ll r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d t h e p r e s e r v a ti o n o f t e r r it o r y n o w h e l d . 68 S tr u v e w as t h e n i n s t r u c t e d t o p r e s e n t th i s p o s i­ ti o n

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w ith d r a w a l b e h i n d t h e P e r e k o p i s th m u s w o u ld b e t a n t a m o u n t t o c o n ­ d e m n i n g t h e A r m y a n d t h e p o p u l a t i o n t o d e a t h b y s t a r v a ti o n a n d n o t i n g t h a t ju s tic e d e m a n d e d n o t o n ly fa ir t r e a t m e n t f o r W r a n g e l ’s g o v e r n m e n t b u t a ls o a t le a s t t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t h e p e o p le s o f t h e t e r r it o r y i t w as c a lle d u p o n t o e v a c u a te t o d e c id e t h e i r o w n f a t e b y p le b e s c it e .69 M e a n w h il e , t h e B o ls h e v ik s th e m s e lv e s p r o v i d e d o n e o f t h e g r e a t e s t a id s t o b lo c k in g B r it is h e ff o rts . C h i c h e r i n 's re p ly to L lo y d G e o r g e 's m o s t r e c e n t e f f o r t d id n o t r e j e c t p e a c e b u t d id q u e s t i o n B r i t a i n 's r i g h t t o p o s e as a n o b je c t iv e m e d i a to r . B r a n d in g W r a n g e l as a B r it is h p u p p e t , t h e S o v ie t n o t e o f J u ly 17 o ff e re d o n ly a m n e s t y in r e t u r n f o r c a p i t u l a t i o n in h is c a se a n d d e c la r e d t h a t M o s c o w c o u ld h a n d l e its o w n r e l a ti o n s w ith P o l a n d .70 O n J u ly 2 0 C u r z o n w a r n e d t h e B o ls h e ­ viks t h a t if R e d tr o o p s c ro s s e d t h e C u r z o n lin e , B r i t a i n w o u ld b e c o m p e l le d t o a id P o la n d , a n d o n J u ly 22 P o l a n d p r o p o s e d a n i m m e ­ d ia t e c e s s a tio n o f h o s t il it ie s , b u t S o v ie t tr o o p s c o n t i n u e d t h e i r d r iv e to w a r d W a r s a w .71 A n A llie d c o m m is s io n in c l u d i n g b o t h B r it is h a n d F r e n c h r e p r e s e n t ­ a tiv e s s o o n t h e r e a f t e r a r r iv e d in W a r s a w to in v e s ti g a te t h e s i t u a t i o n . T h e y f o u n d t h e n e w ly f o r m e d P o lis h c a b i n e t h e a d e d b y W i t o s n o w

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p r e p a r e d t o e n d t h e w a r, b u t t h e B o ls h e v ik s w e re less lik e ly t h a n a t a n y o t h e r t i m e t o a c c e p t a n y te r m s w h ic h w o u ld b e o ff e re d . T h e B o l­ s h e v ik s w e re in f a c t so e l a t e d b y t h e i r v ic to rie s t h a t th e y w e re e a g e rly a w a iti n g t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a C o m m u n i s t g o v e r n m e n t in W a r s a w a n d t h e r e f o r e w o u ld n o t b e d e t e r r e d b y p e a c e o ffe rs .72 M i ll e r a n d r e s p o n d e d to th i s s i t u a t i o n b y a u t h o r i z i n g G e n e r a l W e y g a n d , a m e m ­ b e r o f t h e A llie d c o m m is s io n , t o p u t h is se rv ic e s a t t h e d is p o s a l o f t h e P o li s h g o v e r n m e n t t o h e l p o r g a n iz e its r e s is ta n c e .73 M o r e o v e r , o n J u l y 2 0 M i l l e r a n d h a d s p o k e n t o P a r l i a m e n t in h ig h l y fa v o r a b le te r m s w i t h r e g a r d t o W r a n g e l ’s g o v e r n m e n t , c a llin g i t a “ re a l d e fa c to G o v e r n m e n t ’' w i t h t h e s y m p a th y o f t h e p e o p le a n d a p r o g r a m o f a g r a r ia n r e f o r m a n d p la n s f o r a “ p o p u l a r r e p r e s e n ta t iv e A s s e m b ly ” to e s t a b li s h a d e m o c r a ti c g o v e r n m e n t in t h e C r i m e a .74 T h i s s a m e d a y M i l l e r a n d h a d s e n t f o r S tr u v e a n d i n f o r m e d h i m c o n f i d e n ti a ll y t h a t h e h a d d e c id e d to r e c o g n iz e W r a n g e l ’s g o v e r n ­ m e n t . B e f o r e th i s c o u ld b e a n n o u n c e d , h o w e v e r , i t w as n e c e s s a ry f o r W r a n g e l t o is s u e a s t a t e m e n t c o n f i r m i n g c e r t a in p o in t s . T h e s e w e re (1 )

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R u s s i a n g o v e r n m e n ts c o r r e s p o n d in g t o t h e t e r r it o r y h e ld , (2) a p p r o v a l o f t h e d iv is io n o f t h e la n d a m o n g t h e p e a s a n ts w ith o w n e r s h i p r ig h ts , and

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a s s e m b ly as t h e b a sis o f a d e m o c r a ti c g o v e r n m e n t. I n a d d i t i o n to th e s e , o f c o u rs e , t h e s t a t e m e n t s h o u l d , M i l l e r a n d i n d i c a te d , in c l u d e a n a p p e a l f o r d e f a c to r e c o g n i ti o n . S tr u v e i m m e d i a te l y r e c o m m e n d e d n o t o n ly f u ll a c c e p t a n c e o f th e s e te r m s b u t t h e r e c o g n i ti o n o f t h e e n t i r e R u s s i a n d e b t s in c e “ w e c o n s i d e r o u rs e lv e s t h e b e a r e r s o f t h e n a t i o n a l id e a a n d r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s o f t h e R u s s ia n S t a t e .” 75 A fe w d ay s l a t e r W r a n g e l r e p l ie d as r e c o m m e n d e d . P o i n t i n g o u t t h e a g ra r ia n r e f o r m s a n d t h e g o v e r n m e n t a l r e o r g a n iz a t io n in h is a n s w e r, a p p r o ­ p r i a te l y e x a g g e r a tin g t h e i r c o n t e n t , h e a d d e d t h a t i t w as h is a im “ to m a k e i t p o s s ib le f o r t h e p e o p le t o v o ic e t h e i r o p in i o n fr e e ly o n e s s e n ­ tia l p r o b l e m s o f t h e f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t to b e e s t a b li s h e d as s o o n as c ir c u m s t a n c e s p e r m i t . ” 76 M i l l e r a n d w i t h h e l d o fficia l r e c o g n i ti o n fo r t h e t i m e b e in g , b u t a t t h e A n g lo - F r e n c h c o n f e r e n c e in B o u lo g n e o n J u ly 2 7 t o 2 8 h e f r a n k ly e x p r e s s e d h is d is a p p r o v a l o f B r it is h p o lic y a n d in d i c a t e d t h a t h e d id n o t w is h t o s e e a p e a c e c o n f e r e n c e w i t h t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t a t th is t i m e .77 A l t h o u g h o n c e a g a in t h e B r it is h in i t i a t i v e f o r p e a c e w as re ­ n e w e d , F r e n c h p o lic y t o o k a d e c id e d t u r n in f a v o r o f a id t o W r a n g e l . F r e n c h s h ip s in t h e B la c k S e a h a d a lr e a d y b e e n a l e r t e d t o s t a n d b y

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to d e f e n d t h e C r im e a , a n d , in r e s p o n s e to W r a n g e l ’s p r o p o s a l t o m i n e c o a s ta l w a te rs to p r e v e n t s u p p lie s r e a c h i n g t h e B o ls h e v ik s t h r o u g h t h e B la c k S ea, F r e n c h A d m ir a l d e B o n n o w i n d i c a t e d t h a t th i s w o u ld n o t b e n e c e s s a ry s in c e h e h a d o rd e r s to p r o h i b i t a n y m a r i t i m e c o m m e r c e w h a ts o e v e r w ith S o v ie t p o r t s .78 S o m e w h a t m o r e in d i r e c t ly , t h e F r e n c h u n d e r t o o k to e n a b le W r a n g e l ’s m is s io n in C o n s t a n t i n o p l e t o b y p a s s s e c r e tly a r u l in g a g a in s t i t b y t h e A llie d c o m m is s io n s o n t h e m a t t e r o f a ra d io s t a ti o n . N e g o tia t io n s h a d b e e n u n d e r w a y f o r se v e ra l m o n t h s t o o b t a i n A llie d p e r m is s io n to e s ta b lis h a ra d io c o m m u n i c a t i o n s c e n t e r a t t h e s i te o f t h e R u s s ia n E m b a s s y a t B u iu k D e r e , b u t t h e y h a d b e e n s t a ll e d b y B r itis h o p p o s i ti o n . H o w e v e r , W r a n g e l ’s r e p r e s e n ta t iv e , C a p t a i n S h c h e r b a c h e v , w as e n a b le d t o b y p a s s t h e B r it is h v e to b y a c o n f i d e n ­ tia l a r r a n g e m e n t w ith A d m ir a l d e B o n . T h e l a t t e r a g r e e d t h a t if a f t e r o n e m o r e a p p e a l t h e B r itis h s till s a id N o , t h e s t a t i o n c o u ld b e b u i l t a n d o p e r a t e d u n d e r t h e g u is e o f a F r e n c h s t a t i o n . T h u s , a l t h o u g h o n A u g u s t 7 a fin a l B r itis h r e j e c ti o n o f t h e p r o j e c t w as is s u e d t h r o u g h A d m ir a l d e R o b e c k , W r a n g e l ’s r e p r e s e n ta t iv e w as a b le t o in f o r m h i m a fe w d a y s l a t e r t h a t t h e s t a t i o n w o u ld s o o n b e in o p e r a t i o n .79 E v e n m o r e im p o r t a n t l y , t h e F r e n c h in t e r v e n e d d u r i n g J u ly a n d A u g u s t in t h e h i t h e r t o f r u s t r a t e d e ff o rts t o o b t a i n m o r e o f t h e R u s s ia n m i li ta r y s u p p lie s in R u m a n i a . W r a n g e l h a d t r i e d u n s u c c e s s f u lly t o g e t t h e R u m a n i a n g o v e r n m e n t to c o o p e r a t e , b u t i t d e c li n e d s u c h r e la ­ tio n s o n g r o u n d s o f its n e u t r a l i t y .80 H e h a d t h e n u r g e d t h e F r e n c h to in t e r c e d e o n h is b e h a l f in B u c h a r e s t , a n d th i s t o o h a d f a ile d t o b r i n g m u c h o f a r e s p o n s e in t h e p a s t. T h e n o n J u ly 12 t h e F o r e i g n M i n is t r y g a v e its o fficia l s a n c t io n t o t h e M i n is t r y o f W a r t o u n d e r t a k e s te p s to o b t a i n t h e s u p p lie s s o u g h t b y W r a n g e l .81 F r o m t h a t m o m e n t F r e n c h r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s in B u c h a r e s t to o k t h e i n i ti a ti v e a n d q u ic k ly o b t a i n e d a c h a n g e . I t w as n o t e d t h a t t h e R u m a n i a n g o v e r n m e n t w as e s p e c ia lly c o n c e r n e d n o t to a r o u s e M o s c o w a n d t h a t c o n s e q u e n t ly p r e c a u t io n s w o u ld h a v e to b e t a k e n .82 T h e r e f o r e , d u r i n g A u g u s t, M a r s h a l J o ffre p a id a c a ll o n R u m a n i a n P r i m e M i n i s t e r A v e re s c u , a n d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e F r e n c h M i n i s t e r in B u c h a r e s t , th e y w o r k e d o u t a p la n b y w h ic h R u m a n i a w o u ld t u r n o v e r t h e m a te r ia ls in q u e s t i o n to F r a n c e , s u p ­ p o s e d ly in p a y m e n t f o r p a s t F r e n c h a id . T h e F r e n c h in t u r n w o u ld m a k e t h e n e c e s s a ry a r r a n g e m e n t s to h a v e t h e m d e liv e r e d t o W r a n g e l w i t h o u t c o m p r o m i s in g t h e n e u t r a l i t y o f t h e R u m a n i a n g o v e r n m e n t .83 T h e a c tu a l e x e c u t io n o f t h e s e p la n s t o o k a g o o d d e a l o f t i m e , a n d t h e R u m a n i a n g o v e r n m e n t n e v e r c o o p e r a t e d fu lly , b u t t h e s m a ll s h ip -

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m e n t s fin a lly o b t a i n e d w e re s ig n if ic a n t d e v e lo p m e n ts in W r a n g e l ’s d e s p e r a te d r iv e fo r o u t s i d e a id .84 N o n e o f th e s e s te p s , h o w e v e r , q u i t e g o t to t h e h e a r t o f t h e m a t t e r , a n d m o r e d ir e c t F r e n c h a c ti o n w as d e la y e d u n t i l t h e A llie d c o n f e r ­ e n c e a t H y t h e o n A u g u s t 8 to 9. T h i s c o n f e r e n c e c a m e a t t h e m o s t c r u c ia l t i m e o f t h e P o lis h w a r, a n d th i s w as t h e q u e s t io n u p p e r m o s t o n t h e a g e n d a . J u s t p r i o r t o t h e c o n f e r e n c e , in ta lk s w ith t h e S o v ie t tra d e

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A u g u s t 4 a n d 6 , L lo y d G e o r g e h a d re v e a le d h is ir r i t a t i o n w ith t h e c o n t i n u i n g S o v ie t a d v a n c e i n t o P o l a n d a n d t h r e a t e n e d t o is s u e o rd e r s t o t h e B r it is h fle e t to sail to t h e B a lt ic in t h r e e d a y s t o r e s u m e t h e b lo c k a d e u n le s s M o s c o w h a l t e d its fo rc e s a n d p r e s e n t e d r e a s o n a b le te r m s f o r p e a c e w h ic h c o u ld b e a c c e p t e d b y P o la n d . A r m e d w ith w h a t h e b e lie v e d t o b e K a m e n e v ’s a g r e e m e n t t o c o m p ly , L lo y d G e o r g e t h e n e n t e r e d t h e H y t h e c o n f e r e n c e w i t h t h e a im o f p e r s u a d in g M ille r a n d to jo in in b r i n g in g t h e w a r t o a c lo s e .85 D e c la r i n g t h a t P ils u d s k i h a d b e tr a y e d h is o w n p e o p le a n d w as a n e n e m y o f t h e A llie s a n d t h a t , b e c a u s e o f t h e i r a g g re s siv e p o lic ie s , t h e P o le s w e r e n o w h a t e d b y e v e r y o n e e x c e p t t h e F r e n c h , L lo y d G e o r g e a r g u e d t h a t t h e r e w as n o a c c e p t a b le p o lic y o t h e r t h a n p r e s s u r e o n P o l a n d to a c c e p t t h e r e a s o n a b le te r m s w h ic h h e e x p e c t e d to re c e iv e m o m e n ta rily fro m

t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t. I n d ir e c t o p p o s i ti o n

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th i s v ie w , M i l l e r a n d a g a in d e n o u n c e d n e g o ti a ti o n s w ith t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t as b o t h u n a c c e p t a b l e a n d “ q u i t e f u t il e ,” s in c e t h e B o l­ s h e v ik s c o u ld n o t b e t r u s t e d t o k e e p a n y p r o m is e s w h ic h th e y m i g h t m a k e . I n h is o p in i o n , “ a ll t h a t r e m a in e d f o r t h e m t o c o n s i d e r w as t h e w a y in w h ic h t h a t G o v e r n m e n t c o u ld b e f o u g h t .” W h i l e h e m i g h t b e w illin g “ t o s a c rific e P ils u d s k i” t o a p p e a s e L lo y d G e o r g e , h e b e lie v e d t h a t t h e m a i n ta s k n o w w as t o ra lly re s is ta n c e a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s b y p r o m is i n g a id to t h e b o r d e r s ta te s a n d e n c o u r a g in g a ll o f t h e m to a lly a g a in s t S o v ie t R u s s ia .86 N o fin a l r e s o lu ti o n o f th i s d e b a t e w as p o s s ib le u n t i l a d e f i n it e re p ly o n S o v ie t te r m s w as re c e iv e d , a n d t h e c o n f e r e n c e e n d e d w ith o n ly a t e n t a t i v e a g r e e m e n t o n p o lic y . L lo y d G e o r g e c o n c e d e d t h a t if a t r u c e h a d n o t b e e n o b t a i n e d b y A u g u s t 15 b e c a u s e o f S o v ie t o b s tin a c y , h e w o u ld e x p e l t h e t r a d e d e le g a tio n a n d g iv e s u p p o r t t o P o la n d , to t h e o t h e r b o r d e r s t a te s ( i n c l u d i n g t h e U k r a in e a n d T r a n s c a u c a s ia if t h e y s h o u l d r e b e l ) , a n d e v e n t o W r a n g e l ; b u t t h e firs t a im w as s till p e a c e a n d h e w o u ld n o t ta k e a n y s u c h a c ti o n u n t i l h e h a d e x h a u s t e d e v e ry p o s s ib ility o f a t t a i n i n g it. C o n s e q u e n t l y i t w as d e c id e d t o r e p e a t t h e

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p e a c e o ffe rs a n d o b t a i n a c la r if ic a tio n o f S o v ie t te r m s . I f t h e l a t t e r w e re a c c e p t a b le , P o l a n d w o u ld b e a d v is e d t o a c c e p t; b u t if t h e y in f r in g e d o n P o l a n d ’s in d e p e n d e n c e , i t w as a g r e e d t h a t t h e A llie s w o u ld c o n t i n u e to a id P o l a n d .87 T h e p o s i ti o n t o b e a c c o r d e d t o W r a n g e l w as s till l e f t r a t h e r o b s c u r e , a l t h o u g h i t w as d e c id e d a t H y t h e t o re - e s ta b lis h a n A llie d n a v a l m i s ­ s io n a t h is h e a d q u a r t e r s a n d to p r e p a r e p la n s t o u s e h is fo rc e s if B o l­ s h e v ik a c ti o n a g a in s t P o la n d c o u ld n o t b e s t o p p e d . P a lé o lo g u e h a d a s s u r e d W r a n g e l ’s r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s t h a t M i l l e r a n d w o u ld d o e v e r y t h in g p o s s ib le t o p e r s u a d e L lo y d G e o r g e n o t t o d is p la y “ e x c e ss iv e s u b m is s iv e n e s s ” to w a r d t h e B o ls h e v ik s . I n a n y ca se , h e s a id , F r a n c e w o u ld in s is t u p o n

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p e a c e c o n f e r e n c e a n d w o u ld r e t a in f r e e d o m o f a c ti o n f o r its e lf. L lo y d G e o r g e h a d a g r e e d t o r e s ta te t h e p r o p o s a l to M o s c o w in te r m s w h ic h w o u ld r e q u i r e n o t o n ly a p r e l im in a r y tr u c e b u t a ls o p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a p e a c e c o n f e r e n c e b y a ll i n t e r e s t e d p a r tie s b e f o r e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f n o r m a l r e la tio n s w ith M o s c o w w o u ld b e c o n s i d e r e d , b u t , i t w as n o t e d , t h e B r it is h s till s e e m e d p r e p a r e d t o a c c e p t t h e s t a t e d S o v ie t te r m s f o r W r a n g e l ’s a rm y , t h a t is, a m n e s t y f o r s u r r e n d e r .88 T h e s l ig h t v a r ia tio n in B r itis h p o lic y w h ic h o c c u r r e d a t th i s t i m e re a lly m o d if ie d L lo y d G e o r g e ’s s t a n d o n ly w i t h r e g a r d to P o l a n d , a n d t h a t o n ly te m p o r a r ily . H e b a c k e d e ff o rts t o s e n d a id t o P o l a n d th r o u g h D a n z ig a n d o r d e r e d B r it is h s h ip s a n d tr o o p s in t h e a r e a t o a s s is t,89 b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e h e b e lie v e d , o n t h e b a s is o f t e n t a t i v e S o v ie t r e s p o n s e s m a d e t h r o u g h t h e tr a d e d e le g a tio n , t h a t M o s c o w n o w re a lly w a n t e d p e a c e a n d w o u ld a c c e p t r e a s o n a b le t e r m s .90 M i l ­ le r a n d , b y c o n tr a s t, d e n i e d t h a t S o v ie t p e a c e o ffe rs w e re a d e q u a t e o r t h a t t h e S o v ie t re g im e c o u ld b e d e a l t w i t h as t h e l e g i t i m a t e g o v e r n ­ m e n t . T h i s d if f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e s i t u a t i o n m a d e t h e a g r e e ­ m e n t o f A u g u s t m e a n in g le s s , b u t i t a ls o p u t t h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t b a c k in t h e s i t u a t i o n i t h a d h o p e d t o a v o id , t h a t is, c o n f r o n t i n g a n o p e n d iv e r g e n c e o f p o lic y w i t h t h e B r itis h . A s S tr u v e h a d r e p o r t e d e a rlie r , th i s s i t u a t i o n w o u ld v e ry lik e ly h a v e a g ra v e i n f lu e n c e o n o p e n F r e n c h s u p p o r t , a l t h o u g h c o n c e a l e d o r i n d i r e c t a id m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d in a n y c a s e .91 A n d , as T r u b e t s k o i h a d p o i n t e d o u t , W r a n g e l ’s o ff e r t o u n d e r t a k e d iv e r s io n a r y a c ti o n t o d r a w t h e R e d fo rc e s a w a y f r o m P o l a n d w o u ld d e p e n d u p o n r e c e i p t o f a id .92 F o r t u n a t e l y f o r t h o s e w h o fa c e d th i s d il e m m a , a n u n e x p e c t e d b o o s t w as re c e iv e d a t t h e d e c is iv e m o m e n t . O n A u g u s t 10 U n i t e d S ta t e s S e c r e ta r y o f S t a t e C o l b y r e le a s e d a n o t e t o t h e I t a l i a n a m b a s s a d o r s e t-

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t i n g f o r t h t h e A m e r i c a n p o s i ti o n o n t h e R u s s ia n - P o lis h q u e s t io n . I n t h i s n o t e C o l b y r e a s s e r te d A m e r i c a n s u p p o r t f o r a s t r o n g a n d fre e P o l a n d a n d fo r t h e p r e s e r v a tio n o f R u s s ia n u n it y , w i t h t h e e x c e p t io n o f A r m e n i a , F i n l a n d , a n d P o la n d . M o r e im p o r t a n t l y , t h e S e c r e ta r y o f S t a t e t o o k is s u e w i t h t h e v ie w h e l d " i n s o m e q u a r t e r s ’' t h a t t h e R u s ­ s ia n a n d P o lis h q u e s t io n s c o u ld b e p r o p e r ly r e s o lv e d b y a g e n e r a l p e a c e c o n f e r e n c e o r b y d e a lin g w ith t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t. S u c h p ro p o s a ls , h e d e c la r e d , in e v i ta b l y l e a n e d to w a r d d i s m e m b e r m e n t o f R u s s ia a n d t h e r e c o g n i ti o n o f t h e B o ls h e v ik r e g im e , " f r o m b o t h o f w h ic h th is c o u n t r y s t r o n g ly r e c o ils .” T h e U n i t e d S ta te s t h u s o p p o s e d e ff o rts to o b t a i n p e a c e a t t h e e x p e n s e o f " t r u e ” R u s s ia n in t e r e s t s , w h ic h c o u ld n o t b e p r o p e r ly p r o t e c t e d " w h il e i t [R u ss ia ] is h e lp le s s in t h e g rip o f a n o n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e g o v e r n m e n t, w h o s e o n ly s a n c t io n

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fo r c e . . . .” T h e B o ls h e v ik g o v e r n m e n t , s a id C o lb y , " is b a s e d u p o n t h e n e g a t i o n o f e v e ry p r i n c ip l e o f h o n o r a n d g o o d f a i th , a n d e v e ry u sa g e a n d c o n v e n t i o n u n d e r l y in g t h e w h o le s t r u c t u r e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l la w , t h e n e g a ti o n , in s h o r t, o f e v e ry p r i n c ip l e u p o n w h ic h i t is p o s s ib le to b a s e h a r m o n i o u s a n d t r u s t f u l r e la tio n s . . . .” N o f a i th c o u ld b e p la c e d in B o ls h e v ik p le d g e s o r a g r e e m e n ts , h e c o n c lu d e d , a n d t h e r e ­ f o r e t h e U n i t e d S ta te s w o u ld n o t s u p p o r t p re s s u re s to b r i n g a b o u t t h e i r a c c e p t a n c e .93 The

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e x p r e s s e d its d e e p g r a t i t u d e t o t h e S e c re ta ry o f S t a t e f o r s t a ti n g t h e F r e n c h p o s i ti o n so w e ll.94 A s t h e R u s s ia n e n v o y , G ir s , w ire d to S tr u v e , t h e A m e r i c a n d e c la r a ti o n le d F r a n c e " o u t o f a d if f ic u lt p o s i ti o n o f is o l a t i o n ” a n d p r o v i d e d " m o r a l s u p p o r t fo r its a n ti- B o ls h e v ik p o lic y , t h u s b lo c k i n g t h e o b s t i n a t e i n c l in a t io n s o f L lo y d G e o r g e to re a c h a g re e m e n t w ith

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W r a n g e l t h a t h e w as a n n o u n c i n g d e f a c to r e c o g n i ti o n p u b li c ly a n d in f o r m e d t h e U n i t e d S ta te s t h a t th i s s t e p w as b e in g ta k e n in t h e " s p i r i t ” o f t h e i r c o m m o n p o lic y to w a r d t h e R u s s ia n q u e s t i o n .96 M i l ­ l e r a n d h a d ju s t t h e d a y b e f o r e , o n A u g u s t 9, c o n f id e n tia lly in f o r m e d M a r s h a l F o c h t h a t h e c o u ld b e g in a t o n c e ta k i n g s te p s to s u p p ly W r a n g e l w ith e v e r y t h in g " n e c e s s a r y fo r h i m to ta k e t h e o ff e n s iv e .” A l t h o u g h B r it is h p o lic y c a lle d f o r a n e n d to t h e flo w o f m a t e r i a l to S o u t h R u s s ia , h e a d d e d , W r a n g e l ’s c a se a c q u ir e d " p a r t i c u l a r u r g e n c y ” a t th i s t i m e . 97 F o c h in t u r n i n f o r m e d W r a n g e l ’s m i li ta r y r e p r e s e n ta ­ tiv e in P a ris , G e n e r a l M i ll e r , t h a t h e s h o u l d h e n c e f o r t h k e e p h im i n f o r m e d " d a y b y d a y ” o f t h e e x a c t n e e d s o f W r a n g e l 's a r m y .98

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A n e q u a lly i m p o r t a n t b o o s t to F r e n c h p o lic y c a m e , c o i n c i d e n ta l ly a ls o o n A u g u s t 10, in t h e fo r m o f t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t ’s s t a t e m e n t o f te r m s to b e p r e s e n te d to P o la n d . T h e s e t e r m s — in c l u d i n g a l i m i t o f 5 0 ,0 0 0 m e n o n P o lis h a r m e d fo rc e s, t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a s t r ic t ly p r o l e ta r ia n m i li ti a , t h e d is m a n t li n g o f t h e a rm s in d u s tr y , a n d

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e n d t o a ll o u ts id e a id — w e re d e e m e d t o t a ll y u n a c c e p t a b l e b y L lo y d G e o r g e , w h o as p r o m is e d s u b s e q u e n tly e x p e lle d K a m e n e v ( w h o m h e a c c u s e d o f d u p li c it y in th i s m a t t e r ) a n d s u s p e n d e d t h e t r a d e ta lk s . S o v ie t-B ritis h r e la tio n s w e re , i n d e e d , b r o u g h t t o a n e w lo w b y t h e d is c o v e ry t h a t a n a n ti g o v e r n m e n t n e w s p a p e r in L o n d o n w as r e c e iv in g a S o v ie t s u b s i d y . " N o n e o f th i s , h o w e v e r, m e a n t t h a t B r it a in h a d “ n o w a c c e p t e d t h e v iew s o f t h e F r e n c h G o v e r n m e n t ,” as t h e F r e n c h c o m m is s io n e r in B u lg a ria r e p o r te d l y d e c la r e d ,100 n o r d id i t m e a n t h a t m a s s iv e F r e n c h a id w as o n its w a y t o W r a n g e l . W h a t d id h a p p e n w as t h a t S o v ie t fo rc e s o p e n e d a n e w

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r e n e w e d b o t h in P o la n d a n d in S o u th R u s s ia . T h i s t i m e , h o w e v e r , t h e t i d e o f b a t t l e q u ic k ly t u r n e d a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s , w h o b a d ly m i s ­ h a n d l e d t h e i r o p e r a t io n s . I T ie P o le s w e re s o o n r e c o v e r in g t h e lo s t te r r ito r ie s w e s t o f t h e C u r z o n li n e a n d e v e n t h r e a t e n i n g B o ls h e v ik c o n tr o l e a s tw a r d f r o m th e r e . W r a n g e l , f o r h is p a r t , h a d a lr e a d y la id p la n s f o r a m o v e i n t o t h e K u b a n a n d , d e s p i te t h e f a c t t h a t th i s w o u ld p r o b a b l y h a v e b e e n t h e b e s t t i m e to m o v e n o r t h in t o t h e U k r a in e i n s te a d o f e a s t, h e la u n c h e d h is K u b a n c a m p a ig n o n A u g u s t 11. H is a c ti o n u n d o u b t e d l y a id e d in t h e g e n e r a l s tr u g g le , b u t t h e c a m p a ig n in its e lf w a s a r a t h e r p a t h e t i c fa ilu re . B e f o r e A u g u s t w as o v e r h e h a d b e e n f o r c e d t o w i th d r a w t h e e x p e d it io n to t h e C r im e a , a l t h o u g h m o r e tr o o p s r e t u r n e d t h a n h a d g o n e o v e r. W r a n g e l c o v e re d h is fa ilu re , h o w e v e r , b y d e c la r in g t h a t h e h o p e d to a c h ie v e m o r e d ir e c t c o o r d i n a t i o n w ith t h e P o le s a n d t h e r e ­ fo re d e c id e d to s h i f t h is fo rc e s to t h e w e s t fo r s t r a te g i c re a s o n s . M o r e ­ o v e r, t h e r e w e re r e p o r ts t h a t P o l a n d c o u ld b e e x p e c t e d to s ig n a t r u c e w ith t h e B o ls h e v ik s s o o n . A n y e f f o r t to h e a d o ff t h a t p o s s ib ility w o u ld b e w o r th tr y in g , s in c e i t w o u ld s p e ll t h e d o o m o f t h e C r i m e a .101 F r e n c h a s s is ta n c e w o u ld b e e s s e n tia l in t h e s e q u e s t io n s , b o t h in t h e m a t t e r o f s u p p lie s to k e e p W r a n g e l ’s a r m y g o in g a n d in t h e m a t t e r o f P o lis h p o lic y w ith re g a r d t o e n t e r i n g a tr u c e o r c o n t i n u i n g t h e w a r. W r a n g e l k n e w th i s , a n d h e w as w illin g t o ta k e ra d ic a l a c t i o n t o a c h ie v e t h a t s u p p o r t . O n S e p t e m b e r 1 h e s e n t t h e fo llo w in g u r g e n t s t a t e m e n t to t h e F r e n c h m is s io n a n d t o P a ris :

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G e n e r a l W r a n g e l w is h e s to s u b m i t to t h e F r e n c h G o v e r n m e n t a n d H ig h C o m m a n d t h e f o llo w in g o b s e r v a tio n o n t h e g e n e ra l m i li ta r y s i t u a t i o n : P o l a n d 's g r e a t s u c c e s s in h e r f ig h t a g a in s t t h e R e d A r m y m a k e s i t p o s s ib le , f o r t h e firs t t i m e s in c e t h e b e g in n i n g o f th i s w a r, to s tr ik e a d e c is iv e b lo w a t S o v ie t p o w e r a n d to a s s u re g e n e r a l t r a n ­ q u i l i t y a n d s o c ia l p e a c e b y m e a n s o f c o n c e r t e d a c ti o n b y t h e P o lis h a n d R u s s ia n A rm ie s u n d e r t h e s u p r e m e d ir e c ti o n o f t h e F r e n c h H i g h C o m m a n d . C o n c lu s i o n o f a s e p a r a te p e a c e b e t w e e n t h e P o le s a n d t h e B o ls h e v ik s w o u ld le a v e t h e q u e s t io n u n r e s o lv e d a n d t h e B o ls h e v ik d a n g e r u n c h e c k e d . F o r th e s e re a s o n s t h e C o m m a n d e r - i n - C h i e f p la c e s b e f o r e t h e F r e n c h G o v e r n m e n t a n d H ig h C o m m a n d t h e q u e s t io n o f t h e c re a ­ t i o n o f a c o m m o n a n d c o n n e c t e d f r o n t in c o o p e r a t io n w ith t h e P o le s a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s a n d u n d e r t h e le a d e r s h i p o f t h e F r e n c h H ig h C o m m a n d . . . . I f t h e P o le s b e g in a c tiv e o p e r a t io n s o n t h e i r r i g h t fla n k in t h e U k r a in e , w h ile o u r e ff o rts a re c o n c e n t r a t e d o n o u r l e f t fla n k , a c o m ­ m o n u n i t e d f r o n t c a n b e d e v e lo p e d w ith t h e a im o f fin a lly d e s tr o y ­ in g S o v ie t p o w e r a n d r e s to r in g t r a n q u i l i t y to E u r o p e o n t h e b a sis o f a g e n e ra l p eace. T h e C o m m a n d e r - i n - C h i e f u r g e n t ly re q u e s ts a s p e e d y r e p ly .102 S tr u v e f o llo w e d u p th i s a p p e a l b y a r e m i n d e r o f t h e n e c e s s ity o f s u p p lie s a n d a n o ffe r o f W r a n g e l t o g o t o P a ris p e r s o n a lly if th i s s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d n e c e s s a ry fo r t h e c o o r d i n a ti o n o f a c t i o n .103 T h e la t t e r , F o c h r e p lie d , w o u ld b e u n n e c e s s a r y , b u t h e w as d o in g a ll h e c o u ld t o f a c i li ta t e W r a n g e l 's r e q u e s ts . T h e r e w e re , h e n o t e d , s e v e ra l d if fic u ltie s w h ic h s lo w e d d o w n a c ti o n , e s p e c ia lly t h e s t r o n g p re s s u re s in P o la n d t o e n d t h e w a r n o w a n d t h e o b s ta c le s t o a n e ff e c tiv e s u p p ly p r o g r a m . H e t h e r e f o r e a d v o c a t e d n o t r u s h in g i n t o a n o ffe n s iv e b e f o r e i t c o u ld b e a d e q u a t e ly o r g a n i z e d .104 F o c h ’s c o m m e n t s w e re re v e a lin g , fo r in f a c t t h e g e n e r a l p ic t u r e , w h ic h s h o u l d h a v e b e e n b r i g h t e s t n o w , w as c l o u d e d b y m a n y u n c e r t a in t ie s . T h e lo n g a p p e a ls a n d n e g o ti a ti o n s f o r a id , f o r e x a m p le , h a d r e s u lte d o n ly in t h e p r o p o s a l b y t h e F r e n c h o f a n e x c h a n g e tr e a ty , t h e te r m s o f w h ic h i l lu s tr a t e d t h e w e a k n e s s e s r a t h e r t h a n t h e s t r e n g t h s o f W r a n g e l 's p o s i ti o n . F r e n c h a id w as to b e h a d o n ly f o r p a y m e n t ; t h e o ffe r, in s h o r t, w as t h e s a m e ty p e m a d e t o D e n i k i n e a rlie r . T h e d if f e r e n c e w as t h a t W r a n g e l w as w illin g to n e g o t i a t e s e r io u s ly o n t h e c o n c e s s io n s n e c e s s a ry . A c c o r d in g t o t h e t e x t o f a p r o p o s e d tr e a ty , w h ic h w as p u b li s h e d in t h e B r it is h p re s s o n A u g u s t 3 0 ,105 in r e t u r n

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F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t in f a c i li ta t in g e x c h a n g e o f g o o d s , W r a n g e l w o u ld h a v e to a g re e ( 1 ) to re c o g n iz e all f in a n c ia l o b li g a ti o n s o f R u s s ia t o F r a n c e a n d e s ta b lis h a p r i o r it y o f p a y m e n t fo r t h e l a t t e r ,

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te e t h e p a y m e n t o f t h e lo a n a n d i n t e r e s t b y c o n c e d i n g t o F r a n c e ( a ) t h e r i g h t to e x p lo i t all ra ilro a d s in E u r o p e a n R u s s ia , ( b ) c o n t r o l o v e r c u s to m s a n d d u ti e s in p o r t s o n t h e B la c k a n d A z o v se a s, ( c ) d is ­ p o s a l o f a ll e x p o r t a b le g r a in o b t a i n e d in t h e U k r a in e a n d t h e K u b a n , a n d ( d ) r ig h ts to th r e e - f o u r th s o f o il a n d b e n z i n e p r o d u c t i o n , a n d t o o n e - f o u r th o f t h e c o a l o u t p u t , o f t h e D o n e t z b a s in . I n a d d i t i o n , i t w as s t i p u l a t e d in th is t e x t t h a t F r e n c h a g e n ts w o u ld b e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e m in is tr ie s o f F in a n c e , T r a d e , a n d I n d u s tr y , w ith t h e i r f u n c ­ ti o n s a n d p o w e rs t o b e e s t a b li s h e d in a s e p a r a te a g r e e m e n t. T h e s p a n o f y e a rs t o b e s e t f o r e a c h o f t h e c o n c e s s io n s n o t e d w as a ls o t o b e d e t e r m i n e d b y s p e c ia l a g r e e m e n ts . H o w e v e r , i t w a s s t a t e d t h a t t h e a llia n c e u p o n w h ic h t h e a g r e e m e n t w as b a s e d w o u ld b e a 2 0 -y e a r p a c t. T h e e v id e n c e as to n e g o ti a ti o n s o n s u c h a t e x t is q u i t e o b s c u r e , h o w e v e r, a n d th e r e is n o c le a r in d i c a t i o n t h a t th i s t e x t w a s s ig n e d in A u g u s t as a lle g e d b y t h o s e w h o m a d e i t p u b li c . T h e r e is e v id e n c e , h o w e v e r, t h a t its te r m s w e re a t le a s t a p p r o x i m a t e ly th o s e a s k e d b y F r a n c e , in r e t u r n fo r w h ic h a n e x te n s io n o f 100 m i ll io n f r a n c s o n t h e d e b t w o u ld b e g r a n t e d . 106 A s im ila r a g r e e m e n t w a s m e n t i o n e d in O c t o b e r b y M a k la k o v as b e in g t h e p r o p o s a l o f t h e F r e n c h g o v e r n ­ m e n t . I n th i s t e x t t h e d e m a n d w as f o r o n e - h a l f o f a ll w h e a t, c o a l, w o o l, to b a c c o , h id e s , a n d c o t t o n s e e d o il e x p o r t e d f r o m

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g u a r a n t e e o n t h e d e b t . H e r e i t w a s s p e c ifie d , m o r e o v e r , t h a t t h e n e w c r e d i t w o u ld h a v e t o b e r e p a id b y t h e e n d o f 1 9 2 1 . A s M a k l a k o v v ie w e d th i s p r o p o s a l, i t a s k e d a n e x o r b i t a n t p r i c e f o r “ less t h a n o n e t e n t h o f t h e m a te r ia ls r e q u e s te d b y u s .” T h e r e s t w o u ld h a v e t o b e p a id f o r in c a s h . M a k la k o v r e c o m m e n d e d a t le a s t h o l d i n g o u t f o r a tw o -y e a r t e r m o n t h e lo a n a n d a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e e x p o r t c o n c e s s io n t o o n e - t h i r d i n s te a d o f o n e - h a l f .107 If, in d e e d , th i s w as t h e s t a tu s o f a id n e g o ti a ti o n s as l a t e as m id O c t o b e r , t h e s i t u a t i o n w as v ir tu a lly h o p e le s s , re g a r d le s s o f w h e t h e r o r n o t s u c h a n a g r e e m e n t w e re e v e n tu a lly s ig n e d . S o m e a id h a d b e e n s e n t a p p a r e n t ly , s in c e M a k la k o v i n d i c a t e d t h a t 4 0 m i l l i o n o f t h e p r o ­ p o s e d n e w lo a n w o u ld b e a b s o r b e d b y s u p p lie s a lr e a d y s h i p p e d , b u t s u c h a fig u re r e p r e s e n te d a m e r e d r o p in t h e p r o v e r b ia l b u c k e t .108 W ra n g e l h a d a tte m p te d to p re p a re th e g ro u n d fo r a tr a d e a g re e m e n t

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b y e s t a b li s h in g a g o v e r n m e n t a l m o n o p o l y o n g r a in , a n d K r iv o s h e in c o n v o k e d a fin a n c ia l a n d e c o n o m i c c o n f e r e n c e o n th is p r o b l e m

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O c t o b e r . T o g e t h e r t h e y w o r k e d o u t p r i v a te c o n tr a c ts w i t h in d iv id u a l firm s t o e x p o r t s o m e 10 m i ll io n p o o d s o f g r a in , b u t e v e n th i s w as p r o ­ c e e d i n g r a t h e r s lo w ly .109 A s la t e as t h e e n d o f O c t o b e r S tr u v e w ir e d f r o m P a ris t h a t h e s till h a d h o p e s o f g e t t i n g a l o a n ,110 b u t w h e n th e s e n e g o tia tio n s

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c o m p le te ly c h a n g e d . A ll o f th i s in e ff e c t m e a n t t h a t W r a n g e l 's o n e re a l h o p e la y in a n a ll ia n c e w i t h t h e P o le s ( a n d U k r a i n i a n s ) , a n d fo r th i s h e w o u ld h a v e a t le a s t t h e m o r a l s u p p o r t o f t h e F r e n c h . T h e p r o s p e c ts f o r s u c h a n a llia n c e , h o w e v e r , d i m m e d ra p id ly w ith t h e p a s s a g e o f t i m e . W r a n g e l h a d d e s i g n a te d h is c h ie f o f sta ff, G e n e r a l M a k h r o v , as s p e c ia l e n v o y t o P o l a n d as e a rly as J u n e , b u t h is d e p a r t u r e w as d e la y e d a n d t h e t r i p to W a r s a w h a d ta k e n a d e v io u s a n d ti m e - c o n s u m i n g r o u t e th r o u g h B e lg r a d e a n d V i e n n a . M a k h r o v t h u s d id n o t a rr iv e in W a r s a w u n t i l m i d - S e p t e m b e r . E v e n t h e n h e h a d a u t h o r i z a t i o n to n e g o ti a te o n ly w i t h t h e P o le s a n d s o le ly o n m i li ta r y c o o p e r a t io n .111 M o r e o v e r , h e f o u n d t h e s i t u a t i o n t h e r e q u i t e c o m p l ic a t e d , n o t o n ly b e c a u s e o f t h e P o lis h s i t u a t i o n its e lf b u t a ls o b e c a u s e o f t h e d iv is io n o f R u s s ia n l e a d e r s h i p in s id e P o la n d , w h e r e t h e r e w e re se v e ra l th o u s a n d R u s s ia n tr o o p s , n u m e r o u s o r g a n i z a ti o n s , a n d a n u m b e r o f p o li ti c a l a n d m i li ta r y fa c t io n s c o n t e n d i n g w ith e a c h o t h e r .112 O n e u n i t o f R u s s ia n tr o o p s , th e

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c h u k in , b u t o th e r s s till r e m a in e d o n P o lis h s o il.113 T h e le a d i n g p o li ti c a l fig u re a m o n g R u s s ia n s in P o la n d w as n o n e o t h e r t h a n B o ris S a v in k o v . H a v in g s e r v e d w ith b o t h A le k s e e v a n d K o lc h a k in t h e e a rly d a y s o f t h e w a r, a n d , o f c o u rs e , h a v in g ra is e d r e b e l li o n s o f h is o w n , S a v in k o v h a d s u b s e q u e n tly g o n e a b r o a d , as p re v io u s ly n o t e d , to w o rk w i t h t h e R u s s ia n P o litic a l C o u n c i l in P a ris . T h e r e h e h a d s t r u c k u p m a n y e m i n e n t a c q u a i n ta n c e s , b u t h e h a d s o o n g r o w n re s tle s s in th i s d ip l o m a t i c ro le . N o w h e w as in P o la n d to h e a d a R u s s ia n c o m m i t t e e w h ic h s o u g h t to g iv e p o litic a l le a d e r s h i p to t h e d iv e r s e m i li ta r y g r o u p s th e r e . I t w as a p p a r e n t to M a k h r o v f r o m t h e s t a r t o f h is m is s io n in W a r s a w t h a t h e w o u ld h a v e t o w o rk w ith S a v in k o v , s in c e h e a l o n e — a n d t o a r e m a r k a b le d e g r e e —h a d t h e fu ll c o n f i d e n c e o f P ils u d s k i a n d h a d o b t a i n e d e x te n s iv e fin a n c ia l b a c k ­ in g f r o m P o lis h s o u r c e s .114 I n f a c t h e h a d a s e c r e t a g r e e m e n t w ith t h e P o lis h H ig h C o m m a n d t h a t all R u s s ia n fo rc e s in P o la n d w e re to b e

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s u b o r d i n a t e d t o h is p o litic a l le a d e r s h i p a n d w o u ld re c e iv e f u n d s o n t h e b a sis o f a d d it io n s to t h e R u s s ia n s t a t e d e b t . 115 T h i s p o s e d c o m p l ic a t io n s , b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e S a v in k o v i n d i c a t e d a w illin g n e s s to c o o p e r a te , a n d b o t h P ils u d s k i a n d F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r S a p ie h a a s s u re d M a k h r o v t h a t th e y w e re d o in g e v e r y t h in g p o s s ib le to p r o l o n g t h e r e c e n t ly r e s u m e d n e g o ti a ti o n s w i t h t h e B o ls h e v ik s , d e s p i te B r it is h p r e s s u r e s .116 M o r e sp e c ific a lly , t h e P o lis h c h ie f o f sta ff, G e n e r a l R a z w id o w s k i, i n f o r m e d W r a n g e l ’s e n v o y fu lly o n t h e m i li ta r y s i t u a t i o n a n d d e c la r e d t h a t e v e n if P o l a n d w e re f o r c e d t o c o n c l u d e a t r u c e , th e r e w as s till t i m e to o r g a n iz e R u s s ia n tr o o p s in P o l a n d as a n i n d e p e n d e n t f o r c e w h ic h w o u ld n o t b e b o u n d b y t h e t r u c e .117 T h e s e in i ti a l a s s u ra n c e s o f P o lis h s u p p o r t w e re e n c o u r a g i n g , b u t th e y d id n o t y e t so lv e t h e p r o b l e m . T h e r e w e re m a n y d e ta ils t o re s o lv e , b o t h

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re g a r d t o c e r t a in q u e s t io n s c o n c e r n i n g r e la tio n s w ith P o la n d . P i l s u d ­ sk i f r a n k ly t o l d M a k h r o v t h a t h e d e t e s t e d b o t h ts a r is t R u s s ia a n d t h e R u s s ia o f K o lc h a k a n d D e n i k i n , b u t h e w o u ld , h e s a id , h a p p i l y w o r k w ith “ a t h i r d R u s s ia , a d e m o c r a ti c R u s s ia .” I f W r a n g e l r e p r e s e n t e d th i s R u s s ia , t h e y c o u ld f ig h t s id e b y s id e , “ in f u ll c o n f i d e n c e in o n e a n o t h e r . ” S a v in k o v , h e a d d e d , d id r e p r e s e n t t h e R u s s ia o f w h ic h h e s p o k e .118 M a k h r o v m u s t h a v e h a d s o m e d o u b t s a b o u t t h e c o m p a t i ­ b il it y o f P ils u d s k i a n d W r a n g e l , o r e v e n o f S a v in k o v a n d W r a n g e l , b u t h e d id n o t e x p re s s t h e m . I n s u b s e q u e n t in te r v ie w s w i t h S a v in k o v a n d c o m m a n d e r s o f t h e v a rio u s R u s s ia n u n i t s , h o w e v e r , h e f o u n d t h e i r o u tw a r d w illin g n e s s t o a c c e p t W r a n g e l ’s le a d e r s h i p q u a lif ie d b y c e r t a in r e s e r v a tio n s .119 O n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f t h e s e w a s a n o ti c e a b le d is in c l in a t io n t o a c c e p t t r a n s f e r t o t h e C r im e a . T h e r e w a s a d e f i n it e d e s ire a m o n g t h e R u s s ia n o fficers in v o lv e d t o r e m a in in P o la n d o r a t le a s t to o p e r a t e fr o m i t i n t o B e lo ru s s ia r a t h e r t h a n g o in g s o u t h . 120 M o r e o v e r , i t w o u ld c le a rly b e d if f ic u lt t o f in d m i li ta r y le a d e r ­ s h i p in P o l a n d a c c e p t a b le to a ll t h e g r o u p s in q u e s t i o n .121 T h e is s u e o f t r a n s f e r r in g t h e tr o o p s in P o l a n d w a s a ls o c o m p l i c a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y w e re a l m o s t e n ti r e l y e q u i p p e d a n d s u p p l i e d w i t h P o lis h m o n e y , a n d t h e r e w e re n o f u n d s a t a ll t o s u p p l y t h e i r n e e d s o n c e t h e y l e f t P o la n d . A d d e d to th i s , o f c o u rs e , w e re t h e o t h e r p r o b l e m s o f o r g a n iz in g t h e m

a n d o b t a i n i n g t h e i r c o o p e r a t i o n in a

d o u b t f u l v e n t u r e w h ic h w o u ld re m o v e t h e m f r o m t h e s a n c t u a r y h i t h ­ e r t o e n jo y e d .122 M a k h r o v r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t W r a n g e l h e l p re s o lv e th e s e p r o b l e m s , a n d s till o b t a i n t h e a v a ila b le a s s is ta n c e , b y a p p o i n t ­ in g a s p e c ia l c o m m a n d e r f o r tr o o p s in P o l a n d a c c e p t a b le t o t h e P o lis h

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C o m m a n d , a p p r o v i n g t h e c o m m i t t e e o f S a v in k o v as t h e i r p o litic a l r e p r e s e n ta t iv e , a n d d r o p p i n g h is in s is te n c e u p o n t h e tr a n s f e r o f tr o o p s t o C r i m e a , le a v in g t h e m t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o o p e r a t e in w h a te v e r a re a w as m o s t f a v o r a b le .123 W r a n g e l a g r e e d to th e s e r e c o m m e n d a t io n s g e n e r a lly a n d , w ith t h e b le s s in g o f t h e P o lis h r e p r e s e n ta t iv e in S e v a s ta p o l, o n O c t o b e r 16 a u t h o r i z e d t h e f o r m a ti o n o f a ‘T h i r d R u s s ia n A r m y ” in P o la n d . T h e c o n d i t i o n s t a t e d w as t h a t i t w o u ld b e p la c e d o n t h e r i g h t fla n k o f t h e P o li s h - U k r a i n ia n f r o n t so t h a t w h e n t h e tw o f r o n ts w e re jo in e d , th i s a r m y c o u ld b e t r a n s f e r r e d to h is c o m m a n d . M e a n w h il e i t w as to b e p la c e d u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d o f s o m e o n e a p p o i n t e d b y h im s e lf , p r o v i d in g a n a c c e p t a b le c a n d i d a t e w as f o u n d .124 F i n d i n g s u c h a m a n , h o w e v e r , p r o v e d d if fic u lt. G e n e r a l K ire i, r e c o m m e n d e d b y M a k h r o v , w as r e j e c te d b y W r a n g e l , p r e s u m a b ly b e c a u s e o f h is U k r a in i a n o rig in a n d p a s t h o s t i l i t y to w a r d b o t h W r a n g e l a n d h is a s s is ta n t, G e n e r a l S h a tilo v . G e n e r a l M i ll e r , t h e m i li ta r y r e p r e s e n ta t iv e in

P a ris , w as

r e j e c te d b y t h e P o lis h C o m m a n d ; a n d G e n e r a l B o b o s h k o , t h e le a d i n g c o m m a n d e r o f fo rc e s in P o la n d , w as r e j e c te d b y S a v in k o v . F in a lly , a f o u r t h m e n t i o n , G e n e r a l P a le n , w as c o n s id e r e d u n s u i t e d b y M a k h r o v . A f t e r m u c h t r o u b l e a n d a w a s te o f v a lu a b le t i m e M a k h r o v fin a lly s e t t l e d u p o n a y o u n g o ffic e r, G e n e r a l P e r m y k in , a n d d e s i g n a te d h i m as c o m m a n d e r , p e n d i n g W r a n g e l ’s c o n f i r m a tio n .125 S u b s e q u e n t t o th i s a c ti o n M a k h r o v w as v ir tu a lly l e f t o n h is o w n as a r e s u lt o f t h e e x tr e m e d iffic u ltie s o f c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h t h e C r im e a . M e s s a g e s h a d f r e q u e n t l y t o g o b y w a y o f P a ris a n d o f t e n to o k se v e ra l w e e k s t o r e a c h t h e i r d e s t i n a t i o n , if i n d e e d th e y a rr iv e d a t a ll.126 T h i s s i t u a t i o n r e s u lte d in a g o o d d e a l o f c o n f u s io n a n d a g r e a t la c k o f c o o r d i n a t i o n in d a y s w h e n e v e ry h o u r w as p r e c io u s . T h e P o lis h -S o v ie t n e g o ti a ti o n s , r e s u m e d in S e p t e m b e r in R ig a , w e re less t h a n a m o n t h f r o m c o n c lu s io n e v e n w h e n M a k h r o v b e g a n h is w o rk . T h e d a y s a v a il­ a b le to h i m w e re t h e r e f o r e o f n e c e s s ity fille d w ith d e s p e r a te e ffo rts t o fu lfill h is m is s io n . A n d o n e o f t h e m o s t d if fic u lt q u e s t io n s h a d s till n o t b e e n a n s w e r e d , t h a t is, t h a t o f r e la tio n s w i t h t h e U k r a in ia n s . M a k h r o v b e lie v e d t h a t c ir c u m s t a n c e s w o u ld m a k e p o s s ib le a u n io n b e t w e e n t h e 2 0 ,0 0 0 R u s s ia n tr o o p s in P o l a n d a n d t h e a p p r o x i m a t e ly 1 5 ,0 0 0 m e n w h o m P e t l i u r a c o m m a n d e d . S a v in k o v a p p a r e n t ly f a v o r e d t h i s , a n d P il s u d s k i’s w illin g n e s s to n e g o ti a te w i t h W r a n g e l i n d i c a te d t h a t h e w o u ld n o t lik e ly o p p o s e it, e s p e c ia lly in v ie w o f h is e a r lie r d i s a p p o i n t m e n t w i t h U k r a in i a n s t r e n g t h . T o a v o id is o la tio n , P e tl iu r a m i g h t h im s e l f a c c e p t a c o m p r o m i s e a r r a n g e m e n t .127 M a k h r o v th e r e -

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fo re r e c o m m e n d e d e s t a b li s h in g c o n ta c ts , w h ic h h e c o u ld e a s ily d o , a n d n e g o ti a ti n g a n a llia n c e . A c c o r d in g t o h is a c c o u n t , W r a n g e l d id in f a c t a u t h o r i z e s u c h c o n ta c ts , a c i r c u m s t a n c e c o n f i r m i n g M a k h r o v ’s im p r e s s io n t h a t th i s w as t h e p o lic y f a v o r e d .128 H o w e v e r , W r a n g e l h a d m e a n w h il e e n t e r t a i n e d s e v e ra l o t h e r U k r a i n i a n

d e le g a tio n s in

t h e C r im e a . D u r i n g A u g u s t a g r o u p o f i n d e p e n d e n t U k r a in i a n m i li ta r y le a d e r s c o n f e r r e d w ith W r a n g e l ’s g o v e r n m e n t in S e v a s to p o l a n d w a s g r a n t e d a rm s a n d m o n e y f o r o p e r a t io n s in t h e U k r a i n e .129 L a t e r a d e le g a tio n u n d e r M a r k o t u n o f t h e U k r a in i a n N a t i o n a l C o m m i t t e e , w h ic h w as e s t a b li s h e d in P a ris in J a n u a r y 192 0 a f t e r s p l i t t i n g w i t h P e t l i u r a o v e r t h e l a t t e r ’s s u b m is s io n t o P o lis h le a d e r s h i p , v is ite d S e v a s to p o l a n d w as a c c o r d e d a g r a n d r e c e p t io n b y W r a n g e l . H e “ m a d e a p o i n t o f s h o w in g t h e g r e a t e s t a t t e n t i o n to t h e d e l e g a t i o n ” a n d e x p re s s e d h is “ c o m p l e te a g r e e m e n t w i t h its p r i n c ip l e s .” 130 T h e s e d e le g a tio n s in e ff e c t b r o u g h t v ir tu a lly e v e ry U k r a in i a n g r o u p i n t o c o n t a c t w ith W r a n g e l , w h o h a d e a r lie r e v e n t r i e d u n s u c c e s s f u lly to a t t r a c t M a k h n o . 131 E v e n P e t l i u r a ’s c lo s e a s s o c ia te a n d c o m m a n d e r o f t h e m a i n U k r a in i a n fo rc e , G e n e r a l P a v le n k o , v is ite d t h e C r i m e a a t t h e s a m e t i m e as t h e M a r k o t u n d e le g a tio n , w h ic h in k e e p in g w i t h its e a r lie r d is a g r e e m e n t w i t h P e tl iu r a d e n o u n c e d p ro p o s e d to c o o p e ra te w ith

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R u s s ia .132 W r a n g e l ’s e a r lie r d e c la r a tio n s o f h is w illin g n e s s t o u n i t e w i t h t h e b o r d e r s ta te s in a fre e f e d e r a ti o n w e re t h u s t e s t e d b y h is p o s i t i o n n o w to w a r d t h e U k r a in e . W h a t h e o ff e re d , a n d w h a t t h e U k r a in i a n s w e re w illin g to a c c e p t a c c o r d in g to h i m , w as s u p p o r t f o r “ a u t o n o m o u s n a ti o n a l u n it s o n t h e s a m e lin e s as th o s e a d o p t e d in m y a g r e e m e n t w ith t h e C o s s a c k s .” 133 I t w as t h u s o n th i s b a s is t h a t n e g o t i a t i o n s w e re c o n t i n u e d i n t o O c t o b e r w ith t h e c o m b i n e d P a v le n k o a n d M a r k o t u n g ro u p s . A p p a r e n tl y o n ly a la c k o f t i m e p r e c l u d e d t h e e la b o r a te d e v e l­ o p m e n t p r o p o s e d a t t h e ti m e , s u c h as t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a U k r a i n ­ ia n p o litic a l c e n t e r in t h e C r i m e a .134 H o w e v e r , i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e s e n e g o ti a ti o n s w e re n o t c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h M a k h r o v ’s e ff o rts in W a r s a w . E v e n w h ile M a k h r o v w as s t r u g g li n g w i t h s u c h p r o b l e m s v ir tu a l ly o n t h e e v e o f t h e tr u c e , h e re c e iv e d w o r d f r o m G e n e r a l M i l l e r in P a ris t h a t a n u r g e n t c o n f e r e n c e w as b e in g c a lle d t h e r e o f r e p r e s e n t a ­ tiv e s o f P o la n d , W r a n g e l , a n d F r a n c e t o e s t a b li s h a c o u n c il u n d e r F o c h ’s s ta ff to c o o r d i n a t e o p e r a t io n s a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s .135 S in c e h e h a d a lr e a d y m a d e c o n ta c ts w i t h P e t l i u r a ’s c h ie f o f s ta f f a n d h a d

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o b t a i n e d a g r e e m e n t fo r c o o p e r a t io n , a n d s in c e t h e F r e n c h m is s io n c h ie f in W a r s a w , G e n e r a l N ie s s e l, u r g e d fo r m a l c o n c lu s io n o f a n a g r e e m e n t as r a p id ly as p o s s ib le , M a k h r o v t h o u g h t h e m i g h t re s o lv e th i s a n d t h e q u e s t i o n o f a p o li ti c a l a g r e e m e n t w i t h P o la n d b y a t t e n d ­ in g t h e m e e t i n g in P a r i s .136 J u s t b e f o r e h e le f t, h o w e v e r , a n o t h e r c r u ­ c ia l f a c t o r w as ra is e d . P ils u d s k i c a lle d h i m

in o n O c t o b e r 13 a n d

c o n f i d e d t h a t t h e t r u c e w i t h S o v ie t R u s s ia h a d b e e n s ig n e d t h e d a y b e f o r e , g iv in g h i m less t h a n a w e e k , a c c o r d in g t o P ils u d s k i, t o d o w h a te v e r h e c o u ld b e f o r e i t w o u ld c o m e i n t o e ff e c t o n O c t o b e r 18. I f R u s s i a n tr o o p s w e re n o t o u t o f t h e c o u n t r y b y t h e n , t h e te r m s o f t h e t r u c e w o u ld r e q u i r e t h a t t h e y b e d is a r m e d a n d i n t e r n e d .137 E v e r y ­ t h i n g h a d to b e d o n e in six days! T h a t s a m e d a y M a k h r o v m e t w i t h S a v in k o v , w h o a d v is e d h i m t h a t n o t i m e w a s l e f t t o a w a it W r a n g e l ’s o rd e r s . M a k h r o v a g r e e d t h a t t h e tr o o p s h a d t o b e s t a r t e d to w a r d t h e U k r a in i a n b o r d e r a t o n c e , a n d S a v in k o v i n d i c a t e d t h a t h e w o u ld c o n t i n u e w o rk to w a r d s o m e k i n d o f a g r e e m e n t w i t h P e tl iu r a . G e n e r a l B u la k - B a la k h o v ic h r e f u s e d to a c c e p t th i s p la n b u t w as g iv e n t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t h e P o le s w o u ld a llo w h is p a r t is a n fo rc e s t o r e m a in o n t h e b o r d e r o f B e lo ru s s ia as a s a f e g u a r d a g a in s t a p o s s ib le r e s u m p t i o n o f t h e w a r .138 T h e P o lis h c h ie f o f s ta ff, R a z w id o w s k i, o f f e r e d t o p r o t e c t t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e R u s ­ s ia n a n d U k r a in i a n tr o o p s u n t i l O c t o b e r 18, a n d e v e n s u g g e s te d t h a t M a k h r o v s till s e e k a p o li ti c a l a g r e e m e n t b e f o r e t h e t r u c e w e n t in t o e f f e c t.139 H a v in g d o n e a ll h e c o u ld t o m e e t th i s d e a d li n e , a n d s till h a v in g n o f u r t h e r w o r d fr o m W r a n g e l , M a k h r o v t h e n l e f t f o r P a ris o n O c t o ­ b e r 2 2 . T h e r e h e f o u n d , to h is c h a g r in , t h a t t h e p l a n m e n t i o n e d b y M i l l e r h a d f a lle n a p a r t a n d t h a t n o o n e h a d a n a lt e r n a t iv e . W r a n g e l 's r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s in P a ris , in c l u d i n g S tr u v e , a p p e a r e d n o w to re g a r d b r o a d e r p o li ti c a l a n d e c o n o m i c q u e s t io n s as m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e i m m e d i a t e m i li ta r y q u e s t i o n a n d th e r e f o r e d e c li n e d to a c t w i t h t h e h a s t e u r g e d b y M a k h r o v .140 A t M a k h r o v ’s in s is te n c e , h o w e v e r, h e r e c e iv e d S tr u v e 's a u t h o r i z a t i o n

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r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s o f P e t l i u r a in P o la n d . M e a n w h il e s e p a r a te n e g o ti a ­ ti o n s w i t h t h e U k r a in i a n d e le g a tio n in t h e C r im e a w e re a p p a r e n t l y c o n tin u e d . U p o n h is h u r r i e d r e t u r n to W a r s a w , M a k h r o v i m m e d i a te l y c o n ­ ta c te d

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a g r e e m e n t . T h e “ T h i r d R u s s i a n A r m y ” h a d a lr e a d y m o v e d i n t o t h e b o r d e r a re a w i t h s o m e 6 0 0 0 m e n , p u t t i n g th e m s e lv e s in a “ re s e rv e ”

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p o s i ti o n b e h i n d U k r a in i a n tr o o p s n u m b e r i n g a b o u t 1070 0 0 m e n w h o w e re fa c in g t h e R e d A rm y . I n th i s p o s i ti o n t h e U k r a in i a n s u n d e r G e n e r a l P a v le n k o

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a lm o s t im m e d i a te l y r o u t e d , w h ile t h e R u s s ia n fo rc e s w e re s i m u l t a n e ­ o u s ly d r a w n i n t o t h e s tr u g g le o u t o f n e c e s s ity .141 T h e tw o a r m ie s h a d in f a c t a lr e a d y c o n c lu d e d t h e i r o w n te m p o r a r y w o r k in g a g r e e m e n t in t h e fie ld , a n d M a k h r o v h im s e l f a p p a r e n t l y f o u n d i t im p o s s ib le to a c h ie v e a n y m o r e t h a n th is . L a te r in t h e m o n t h M a k h r o v r e c e iv e d w o r d f r o m S tr u v e t h a t a n a g r e e m e n t h a d b e e n r e a c h e d w i t h t h e U k r a in i a n s w h ic h w o u ld g r a n t r e c o g n i ti o n to t h e m in r e t u r n f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a s in g le h i g h c o m m a n d u n d e r W r a n g e l a n d f u t u r e c o o p e r a t io n to w a r d u n it y , a n a r r a n g e m e n t w h ic h P e tl iu r a w as e x p e c t e d t o a c c e p t , b u t th i s d e v e l­ o p m e n t m a d e l i t t l e d if f e r e n c e n o w .142 E v e n w h ile th e s e s o m e w h a t u n r e a l n e g o ti a ti o n s w e re ta k i n g p la c e , W r a n g e l w as m a k i n g h is la s t e f f o r t to r e n e w t h e s tru g g le . J u s t b e f o r e t h e P o le s h a d s i g n e d t h e tr u c e w ith t h e B o ls h e v ik s , h e h a d l a u n c h e d a n e w

o ff e n s iv e a c ro s s t h e

D n e p r to t h e w e s t. F o r se v e ra l d a y s i t lo o k e d as t h o u g h t h i s e f f o r t m i g h t s u c c e e d , b u t S o v ie t fo rc e s , t h e n r e lie v e d o f t h e d a n g e r o f a P o lis h a t t a c k b y t h e t r u c e , w e re m a s s e d f o r a c o u n t e r a t t a c k , a n d b y m i d - O c t o b e r W r a n g e l ’s a r m y w as in fu ll r e t r e a t . *

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a c c e p t e d im m e d i a te l y , a l t h o u g h u l t i m a t e l y i t w o u ld h a v e t o b e . E v e n a f t e r n e w s o f t h e P o lis h t r u c e h a d a r r iv e d in S e v a s to p o l, t h e P o lis h d ip l o m a t ic r e p r e s e n ta t iv e in t h e C r im e a w as s till s t a t i n g fla tly t h a t P o la n d d id n o t w a n t a t r u c e a n d in d e e d w as s till s e e k in g a n a llia n c e w ith G e n e r a l W r a n g e l . 143 M o r e o v e r , W r a n g e l w a s i n f o r m e d t h a t a s p e c ia l F r e n c h m is s io n w as e v e n n o w e n r o u t e to t h e C r i m e a f o r f u r t h e r n e g o ti a ti o n s , le a d i n g h i m t o b e lie v e t h a t F r a n c e m i g h t s till i n d u c e t h e P o le s to d e la y p e a c e a n d th e m s e lv e s p r o v i d e a id t o e n a b l e t h e a r m y to c o n t i n u e . 144 O n O c t o b e r 9 A d m ir a l d e B o n c o n v e y e d h is a s s u ra n c e s t h a t h e w as c o n t i n u i n g to d o a ll p o s s ib le t o a s s is t in t h e s tr u g g le a n d s till b e lie v e d n e w a d v a n c e s c o u ld b e m a d e .145 O n O c t o ­ b e r 22 S tr u v e r e p o r t e d f r o m P a ris t h a t h e h a d b e e n r e c e iv e d b y M ill e r a n d a n d h a d p r e s e n t e d n e w p r o p o s a ls o n a id ; h e f e l t t h a t t h e r e w as m u c h h o p e fo r s u c c e s s, e s p e c ia lly o n t h e m a t t e r o f a l o a n .146 T h e F r e n c h m is s io n h e a d e d b y C o u n t d e M a r t e l h a d a rr iv e d , i n t h e C r i m e a o n O c t o b e r 19 a n d h a d b e e n g r e e t e d w i t h p o m p a n d c e r e ­ m o n y . T h e fo llo w in g d a y c o n f e r e n c e s w e re h e l d b e t w e e n W r a n g e l a n d

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h is a s s is ta n ts a n d t h e F r e n c h r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s , i n c l u d in g M a r t e l , A d ­ m i r a l d e B o n , a n d G e n e r a l B ro u s s e a u . M a r t e l a n n o u n c e d t h a t h e w as a c c r e d i t e d t o W r a n g e l ’s g o v e r n m e n t as F r e n c h “ H i g h C o m m i s ­ s i o n e r ” a n d h a d c o m e to s o lid ify t h e i r “ a ll ia n c e .” H e c o n g r a t u la t e d W r a n g e l o n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a “ d e m o c r a ti c G o v e r n m e n t ” a n d p r o m is e d “ fu ll m o r a l s u p p o r t a n d as m u c h

m a t e r i a l h e l p as p o s ­

s i b le .” 147 H o w e v e r , w h ile th e s e re m a r k s w e re b e in g m a d e , R e d fo rc e s w e r e p u s h i n g t h e i r w a y to w a r d

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W r a n g e l s h o r tly b e g a n d is g u is e d n e g o ti a ti o n s t o h a v e e v e r y t h in g r e a d y f o r e v a c u a t io n in c a s e t h e d e f e n s e s f a ile d . H i s o w n r e a l iz a t io n o f w h a t c o u ld b e e x p e c t e d w as c o n c e a le d e v e n f r o m h is g o v e r n m e n t, w h ic h w as t o l d as la t e as N o v e m b e r 4 t h a t a n e w c a m p a ig n c o u ld b e s t a r t e d a f t e r r e s t a n d t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a d d i t i o n a l e q u i p m e n t .148 O n N o v e m b e r 8 G e n e r a l K u te p o v r e p o r t e d t h a t R e d tr o o p s h a d b ro k e n

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e v a c u a t io n p r o c e d u r e s , i n c l u d in g a p p e a ls to F r a n c e , B r it a in , a n d t h e U n i t e d S ta te s to a s s is t w ith s h ip s a n d in f in d in g re f u g e w h e n e v a c u ­ a tio n ca m e . O n

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A d m ir a l D u m e s n i l t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n w as h o p e le s s a n d a s k e d f o r a ll t h e a s s is ta n c e a v a ila b le t o e v a c u a te b o t h t h e tr o o p s a n d as m u c h o f t h e c iv ilia n p o p u l a t i o n as p o s s ib le . S u c h a s s is ta n c e w o u ld in v o lv e a f in a n c ia l b u r d e n , h e n o t e d , b u t h e w as w illin g to p u t u p t h e fle e t as s e c u r ity .149 T h e n e x t d a y t h e fin a l e v a c u a t io n o r d e r w as is s u e d , a n d an

e x c h a n g e o f n o te s w as p r e p a r e d o n

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R u s s ia n p r o p e r tie s t o F r a n c e . W r a n g e l p u t h is a rm y , t h e n a v y , “ a n d a ll t h o s e w h o h a v e f o llo w e d ” u n d e r t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f F r a n c e a n d d e c la r e d h is d e c is io n t o o ffe r t h e m i li ta r y a n d m e r c h a n t fle e ts as “ s e c u r itie s fo r t h e p a y m e n t o f t h e e x p e n s e s w h ic h F r a n c e h a s a lr e a d y i n c u r r e d o r w ill in f u t u r e in c u r in g iv in g t h e h e l p w h ic h o u r p r e s e n t c ir c u m s ta n c e s m a k e n e c e s s a ry .” 150 C o u n t M a r t e l r e p l ie d o n

t h e s a m e d a y , N o v e m b e r 13, t h a t th i s

a r r a n g e m e n t w a s a c c e p t a b le , a n d f o r t h e n e x t t h r e e d a y s a m a s s iv e e m b a r c a t i o n to o k p la c e .151 I t in v o lv e d 126 s h ip s a n d t h e s a v in g o f 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 p e r s o n s w h o d id n o t w is h t o r e m a in b e h i n d , a n d m o s t r e m a r k ­ a b ly th i s g r e a t o p e r a t i o n w as c a r r ie d o u t s m o o th l y a n d in c o m p l e te o r d e r .152 I t w as t h e la s t e v a c u a t io n a n d s ig n a le d fin a l d e f e a t , b u t i t w as a t r i u m p h in it s e l f .153 T h e w a r w a s o v e r. A t le a s t a l m o s t e v e r y o n e b u t W r a n g e l t h o u g h t so . T h e B r it is h g o v e r n m e n t , w h ic h h a d h a d a d r a f t t r a d e a g r e e m e n t w ith

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N o v e m b e r 18 to r e o p e n t h e s u s p e n d e d ta lk s w i t h t h e S o v ie t t r a d e d e le g a tio n u n d e r L . B . K r a s in .154 A fe w d ay s l a t e r F r e n c h P r e m i e r L e y g u e s a u t h o r i z e d s im ila r n e g o ti a ti o n s o n b e h a l f o f t h e F r e n c h g o v ­ e r n m e n t , n o t i n g t h a t W r a n g e l ’s g o v e r n m e n t h a d c e a s e d t o e x is t a n d w ith it a ll f o r m a l o b lig a tio n s as f a r as F r a n c e w as c o n c e r n e d .155 T h i s d id n o t m e a n t h a t F r a n c e w o u ld n o t c o n t i n u e t o b e o f s e r v ic e t o th o s e w h o e v a c u a te d t h e C r im e a , b u t s u c h s e rv ic e w o u ld h e n c e f o r t h b e in t h e n a t u r e o f “ h u m a n i t a r i a n ” a s s is ta n c e t o in d iv id u a ls in a r e f u ­ g e e s ta tu s . I t w o u ld p r im a r ily ta k e t h e fo r m o f e ff o rts t o p la c e s u c h p e rs o n s in n e w h o m e s w h e r e v e r th e y c o u ld b e f o u n d .156 W r a n g e l , h o w e v e r, h a d a r a t h e r d if f e r e n t v ie w o f t h e s i t u a t i o n . E v e n w h ile p u t t i n g h is tr o o p s u n d e r F r e n c h p r o t e c t i o n , W r a n g e l h a d s t a t e d t h a t h e r e s e rv e d t h e r i g h t to m a i n t a i n h is c o m m a n d a n d e v e n t o u s e h is tr o o p s a g a in in t h e f u t u r e if a n d w h e n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y a r o s e .157 H e th e r e f o r e h o p e d to k e e p t h e A r m y i n t a c t a n d in c lo s e p r o x im ity to R u s s ia n te r r it o r y , a n d to th i s e n d h e p r o p o s e d t o h is F r e n c h p r o t e c to r s t h a t h is tr o o p s b e u s e d as o c c u p a t io n fo rc e s in a n d a r o u n d C o n s t a n t i n o p l e . 158 T h i s r e q u e s t w as, o f c o u rs e , c a te g o r ic a lly r e je c te d . I t w as c o n s id e r e d im p o s s ib le t o

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A rm y a n y lo n g e r , n o t o n ly fo r f in a n c ia l re a s o n s b u t a ls o b e c a u s e i t w o u ld b e a p o litic a l e m b a r r a s s m e n t so lo n g as i t e x is te d . T h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t th e r e f o r e i n s t r u c t e d its r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s to se e to t h e d is ­ p e rs a l o f t h e tr o o p s t o w h a te v e r p o in t s w e re e x p e d ie n t, in c l u d i n g t h e r e t u r n o f t h o s e w h o w o u ld g o to S o v ie t R u s s ia .159 D u r i n g t h e firs t m o n t h s o f 1921 th e s e in s t r u c t i o n s w e re c a r r ie d o u t o v e r W r a n g e l ’s r e p e a t e d p r o t e s ts , t h e re f u g e e s b e i n g s e n t t o R u s s ia , S e rb ia , a n d B ra z il p r i m a r i ly .160 W r a n g e l r e m o n s t r a t e d in v a in a g a in s t t h e F r e n c h p r a c tic e o f ig n o r in g h is o r d e r s as c o m m a n d e r , d e c la r in g t h a t h e w o u ld p r e f e r to r e t u r n to R u s s ia w i t h h is tr o o p s a n d f i g h t t o t h e d e a t h r a t h e r t h a n s u b m i t to t h e h u m i l i a t i o n s o f b e in g t r e a t e d as a r e f u g e e , b u t h is s t r o n g e s t p r o t e s ts c o n c e r n e d t h e re f u s a l o f t h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t t o c o n t i n u e t o p r o v id e m a i n t e n a n c e f o r h is tr o o p s e v e n in e x ile as r e f u g e e s .161 T h e F r e n c h h a d t a k e n o v e r t h e R u s s ia n fle e t as F r e n c h p r o p e r t y o n g r o u n d s o f t h e d e b t a lr e a d y o w e d , b u t W r a n g e l v ig o r o u s ly d e n i e d t h e i r r i g h t to d o so if t h e y r e f u s e d t o e x t e n d f u r t h e r a s s is ta n c e .162 T h e R u s s ia n p r o p e r t y t u r n e d

o v e r to

t h e m w as o n ly s e c u r ity f o r t h e d e b t , n o t p a y m e n t o f it, W r a n g e l c o n ­ te n d e d , a n d th e r e f o r e t h e “ l i q u i d a t i o n c o m m is s io n ” e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t t o d is p o s e o f s u c h p r o p e r t y w a s a c ti n g in v io la tio n o f t h e i r a g r e e m e n t .163

273

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W r a n g e l e x p e c t e d a n y d a y t o b e a r r e s te d b y h is F r e n c h a llie s . H e e v e n s e c r e tly p r e p a r e d o r d e r s f o r a tr a n s f e r o f c o m m a n d t o G e n e r a l K u t e p o v in c a s e h e s h o u l d b e ja ile d “ f o r r e f u s in g t o in f lu e n c e t h e A r m y t o r e t u r n t o S o v ie t R u s s i a / '164 F o r t u n a t e l y f o r b o t h W r a n g e l a n d h is m e n h is fe a rs w e r e e x a g g e r a te d , a n d t h e is s u e n e v e r c a m e t o t h a t . T h e F r e n c h r e la x e d t h e i r d e m a n d s a n d a g r e e d t o p r o v id e m a i n ­ t e n a n c e f o r t h e tr o o p s s till o n t h e S tr a its I s la n d s u n t i l a r e s id e n c e c o u ld b e s e c u r e d f o r t h e m e ls e w h e r e .165 W h i l e n e g o ti a ti o n s fo r t h e l a t t e r w e re in p ro g r e s s , t h e f a t e o f t h e R u s s ia n tr o o p s w h ic h h a d b e e n in P o l a n d w as a ls o b e in g d e c id e d . T h e e v a c u a t io n o f t h e C r i m e a h a d , o f c o u rs e , l e f t t h e tr o o p s w h ic h w e re le a v in g P o l a n d f o r t h e S o u t h w i t h o u t a p la c e t o g o . T h e “ T h i r d A r m y ” a n d w h a t w as l e f t o f t h e U k r a in i a n fo rc e s h a d t h e r e f o r e b e e n f o r c e d t o re v e rs e t h e i r c o u r s e a n d r e t r e a t o n c e m o r e i n t o P o la n d . S a v in k o v a n d B u la k - B a la k h o v ic h c o n t i n u e d f o r a t i m e to o p e r a t e in B e lo r u s s ia , w i t h P il s u d s k i’s b le s s in g , b u t t h e y t o o w e re s o o n , in D e ­ c e m b e r , o b li g e d to p u l l b a c k i n t o P o la n d . A ll o f th e s e tr o o p s w e re t h e n d is a r m e d a n d e v e n tu a lly re le a s e d as c iv ilia n s .166 P o lis h n e g o ti a ­ ti o n s w i t h b o t h t h e R u s s ia n a n d U k r a in i a n S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n ts h a d b e e n c o n t i n u e d d u r i n g th i s t i m e a n d w e re fin a lly b r o u g h t t o a s u c ­ c e s s fu l c o n c lu s io n in 1 9 2 1 . T h e T r e a t y o f R ig a , fo r m a lly s ig n e d in M a r c h , g a v e P o l a n d e x te n s iv e te r r it o r i e s b e y o n d t h e C u r z o n lin e , i n c l u d i n g E a s t e r n G a lic ia a n d W e s t e r n V o ly n ia , a n d r e c o g n iz e d t h e “ i n d e p e n d e n c e " o f t h e S o v ie t U k r a in e a n d S o v ie t B e lo ru s s ia . I t c a te ­ g o r ic a lly p r o h i b i t e d t h e s ig n a to r y g o v e r n m e n ts f r o m e n c o u ra g in g

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fo r c ib ly t h e t e r r it o r y , g o v e r n m e n t , o r i n s t i t u t i o n s o f a n o t h e r p a r t y t o t h e t r e a t y . 167 D u r i n g t h e s p r in g t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e R u s s ia n r e f u g e e s in u n if o r m , t h e r e m a i n d e r o f W r a n g e l ’s tr o o p s , w as a ls o t a k e n c a re o f b y t h e a g re e ­ m e n t o f B u lg a r ia , C z e c h o s lo v a k ia , a n d Y u g o s la v ia t o a d m i t th o s e fo r w h o m h o m e s h a d s till n o t b e e n f o u n d . W r a n g e l c o n t i n u e d t o le a d h is s c a t t e r e d m e n f o r s e v e ra l y e a rs y e t, b u t n o w in t h e c a p a c ity o f a c o m m a n d e r o f w e lf a r e f u n d s a n d re f u g e e s e t t l e m e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .168 T h e e ra o f t h e e m i g r a t io n h a d ta k e n o v e r, w i t h a ll o f its a t t e n d a n t f a c t io n a l c la s h e s , b u t u n t i l h is d e a t h in 1 9 2 8 W r a n g e l c o n t i n u e d to liv e in t h e s p i r i t o f t h e A r m y ’s lo n g s tr u g g le . H is t o r y , h e s a id in 1 9 2 7 , w o u ld u l t i m a t e l y v i n d i c a te a n d p r a is e w h a t h a d b e e n d o n e :

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H is to r y , w h ic h k n o w s n o f a v o u r iti s m [h e d e c la r e d ] , w ill t e l l t h e im p o r t a n c e o f o u r s tr u g g le . . . . I t w ill k n o w t h a t t h e f i g h t w e c a r ­ rie d o n f o r lo v e o f o u r c o u n tr y , f o r t h e r e s u r r e c t io n o f R u s s ia as a n a t i o n , w as in d e e d a t t h e s a m e t i m e t o s a f e g u a r d t h e c u l t u r e o f E u r o p e , t h e s tr u g g le fo r a n a g e -lo n g c iv iliz a tio n , f o r t h e d e f e n s e o f E u r o p e a g a in s t t h e R e d te r r o r . O n t h a t d a y t h e n a t i o n s o f E u r o p e w ill s a l u te t h e R u s s ia n A rm y , p a y in g h o m a g e t o its v a lo u r , its s u ffe rin g s , a n d its d e a t h a g o n ie s .169

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W h e n i t w as a ll o v e r, t h e B o ls h e v ik s h a d w o n . I t w as a b e a t e n , s ta r v in g , d i s in t e g r a te d , a n d d e v a s t a te d c o u n t r y w h ic h th e y t o o k o v e r, but

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r e m a r k t o t h e le a d e rs o f t h e S o v ie t r e g im e t h a t t h e y s h o u l d h a v e a w a r d e d h i m t h e O r d e r o f L e n in fo r h is se rv ic e s to t h e R e d A rm y . T o h is s t a r t l e d h o s t s ’ q u e s t i o n o f w h y , h e w o u ld re p ly : “ I t a u g h t t h e R e d A r m y h o w t o f ig h t. . .

C h u r c h i l l ’s r e m a r k w as f a c e tio u s , b u t it

b r in g s o u t t h e t h r e a d o f ir o n y w h ic h r a n t h r o u g h t h e e n t i r e e f f o r t o f t h e A llie d i n t e r v e n t i o n . T h e r e is p e r h a p s n o b e t t e r a u t h o r i t y t h a n L e n in t o a t t e s t , as h e h a s , t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e B o ls h e v ik s w o n t h e c iv il w a r n o t so m u c h b e c a u s e o f t h e i r s t r e n g t h as b e c a u s e o f t h e w e a k n e s s o f t h e i r o p p o n e n t s .2 T h e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik fo rc e s , h e o b s e r v e d , n e v e r s u c c e e d e d in ra lly in g p o p u l a r s u p p o r t o r e v e n in c o o r d i n a t i n g t h e i r o w n e ffo rts . A n d t h e A llie s, w h o c o u ld h a v e d e f e a t e d S o v ie t fo rc e s “ in a fe w m o n t h s if n o t a fe w w e e k s ” b y e v e n a m o d e s t e f f o r t if t h e y h a d a p p li e d t h e i r s t r e n g t h , f a ile d t o ta k e fu ll a d v a n ta g e o f t h e o p p o r t u n i t y . I n s t e a d “ a t e v e ry s t e p t h e y s q u a b b l e d a m o n g th e m s e l v e s .” T h e u n q u e s t io n a b l y s u p e r io r fo r c e o f t h e A llie s a n d W h i t e s fa ile d , L e n in c o n c lu d e d , b e c a u s e “ th e y c o u ld n o t u n i t e , ” b e c a u s e “ t h e i r o w n in t e r e s t s d iv id e d t h e m . . . .” 3 T h i s c o n c lu s io n a p p lie s to t h e civ il w a r a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n in g e n e ra l, a n d i t is p e r h a p s p a r t ic u l a r ly v a lid w h e n a p p li e d to t h a t p a r t w h ic h o c c u r r e d in S o u t h R u s s ia . T h e e v e n ts w h ic h to o k p la c e in t h e S o u th h a v e , i n d e e d , a h is to r y o f t h e i r o w n , b u t th e y m u s t a ls o b e v ie w e d in t h e g e n e r a l c o n t e x t o f t h e y e a rs 1 9 1 7 to 19 2 0 , as t h e p r e c e d in g a c c o u n t h a s s o u g h t t o d o . T h e “ R u s s ia n p r o b l e m ” w as m a n y p r o b ­ le m s , a l t h o u g h a t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e y c o n s t i t u t e d a w h o le . A n d t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n w as d is jo i n te d a n d m u l t i p l e in c h a r a c t e r , a l t h o u g h its p a r t s m e r g e i n t o a s in g le p a t t e r n in p e r s p e c tiv e . I t is th e r e f o r e im p o r -

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t a n t to u n d e r s t a n d b o t h t h e b r o a d o u t l i n e o f e v e n ts o f t h e p e r i o d a n d t h e p a r tic u la r s o f t h e w a r in S o u th R u s s ia .4 T h e u p h e a v a l o f R u s s ia in 1 9 1 7 p r o v e d t o b e o n e o f t h e g r e a t t u r n ­ in g p o in t s o f h is to r y , n o t o n ly fo r R u s s ia , b u t f o r t h e w o r ld . T o s o m e e x t e n t t h e s ig n ific a n c e o f t h e r e v o l u ti o n w as a p p r e c i a te d a t t h e ti m e , b u t n o t h i n g w o u ld b e m o r e m is le a d in g t h a n to ju d g e t h e r e a c t io n s o f its c o n te m p o r a r ie s s o le ly in t h e l i g h t o f h is to r i c a l h i n d s i g h t . I n t h e firs t p la c e t h e r e w e re n o in e v i ta b l e la w s a t w o rk w h ic h p r e d e t e r ­ m i n e d t h e o u t c o m e o f t h e f o llo w in g y e a rs . I n t h e s e c o n d p la c e t h e m o s t t h a t c a n b e e x p e c t e d o f r a t io n a l h u m a n b e in g s is t h a t t h e y a c t in a c c o r d a n c e w ith t h e b e s t i n f o r m a t i o n a v a ila b le a t t h e t i m e , a n d in 191 7 c ir c u m s ta n c e s lo o k e d m u c h d if f e r e n t f r o m w h a t t h e y w o u ld s o m e 50 y e a rs la te r . L a t e r g e n e r a t io n s h a v e c o n d e m n e d W o r l d W a r I se v e re ly , b u t t h e c o n d it io n s w h ic h i t p r o d u c e d a n d t h e c o m m i t m e n t s w h ic h i t e n g e n d e r e d a t t h e t i m e o f t h e fa ll o f t h e ts a r is t a u to c r a c y in R u s s ia a n d a f t e r w e re v ita l in g r e d ie n t s o f t h e p r o b l e m p r e s e n t e d to a n u n p re p a re d a n d s o m e w h a t s ta rtle d E u ro p e . T h e o rig in s o f t h e A llie d i n t e r v e n t i o n a n d t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e c iv il w a r in R u s s ia t h u s m u s t b e v ie w e d in t h e c o n t e x t o f ( 1 ) a s t a le ­ m a t e d w a r w h ic h h a d e x h a u s t e d b o t h its W e s t e r n a n d its E a s t e r n p a r t ic i p a n ts , ( 2 ) t h e d i s il lu s i o n m e n t w h ic h s e t in w h e n t h e P r o v i­ s io n a l g o v e r n m e n t p r o v e d u n a b l e e i t h e r to ta k e R u s s ia o u t o f t h e w a r o r to re v iv e h e r w a n in g m i li ta r y e n e r g y so as t o c o n t i n u e t h e w a r, ( 3 ) t h e tr a g ic d is u n it y in t h e r a n k s o f d e m o c r a ti c R u s s ia n s a n d t h e g e n e r a l ig n o r a n c e o f w h a t “ B o ls h e v is m ” c o u ld m e a n in p o w e r , (4) t h e i n a b i li ty o f W e s t e r n s t a t e s m a n s h i p t o rise a b o v e t h e p r e s s u r e s a n d c o n f u s io n o f t h e c lo s in g y e a r o f t h e w a r a n d t h e f o llo w in g y e a r o f p e a c e m a k in g , a n d

( 5 ) t h e b i t t e r h e r i ta g e o f o v e r w h e lm in g i n t e r n a l

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o f p o li ti c a l e x p e r ie n c e , l e a d e r ­

s h ip , a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s w h ic h c o n f r o n t e d t h o s e in R u s s ia o n w h o m a n y a l t e r n a t iv e to B o ls h e v is m d e p e n d e d .5 T h e P r o v is io n a l g o v e r n m e n t, w h ic h p r o v i d e d a re a l h o p e o f d e m o c ­ ra c y in R u s s ia , f o u n d t h e c o lla p s e o f t h e c o u n t r y s i m p l y to o g r e a t t o c o p e w ith . T h e A llie s in t u r n f o u n d i t im p o s s ib le n o t t o b e c o m e in v o lv e d in th i s s i t u a t i o n b e c a u s e in t h e i r j u d g m e n t w i n n i n g t h e w a r a g a in s t G e r m a n y d e m a n d e d a c o n t i n u i n g R u s s i a n e ff o rt. T h e fa ll o f K e re n s k ii d id n o t le s s e n th i s im p e r a t iv e , b u t r a t h e r h e i g h t e n e d it, e s p e c ia lly s in c e t h e le a d e r s o f t h e n e w S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t w e re s u s ­ p e c t e d o f s e c r e t d e a lin g w i t h t h e G e r m a n s . “ I n s u c h c ir c u m s t a n c e s ,” C h u r c h i l l h a s w r i t t e n , “ i t w o u ld h a v e b e e n c r i m i n a l n e g li g e n c e t o

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m a k e n o e f f o r t to r e c o n s t r u c t a n a n t i - G e r m a n f r o n t in t h e E a s t. . . .” 6 I n t h e s u b s e q u e n t i n i ti a l e f f o r t t o b u i l d th i s n e w f r o n t in R u s s ia , t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts p r o c e e d e d t o a c q u ir e t h e c o m m i t m e n t s w h ic h w e r e t o k e e p t h e m in v o lv e d i n t o 1 9 2 0 . B u t t h e m a n n e r in w h ic h t h e y w e n t a b o u t i t p ro v e s t h e s t u p e n d o u s fa ls ity o f l a t e r S o v ie t e ff o rts to p o r t r a y t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n as a m a s s iv e a n d c o o r d i n a t e d c o n s p ir a c y o n t h e p a r t o f W e s t e r n “ im p e r i a li s m .” T h e in t e r v e n t i o n w as in t h e firs t p la c e d ir e c t e d a g a in s t t h e G e r m a n s , a n d t h e r e m a r k a b le , a l b e i t f u r ­ tiv e , e f f o r t to p r o d t h e B o ls h e v ik s th e m s e lv e s i n t o re v iv in g t h e w a r a g a in s t G e r m a n y is e v id e n c e n o t o n ly o f th i s f a c t b u t a ls o o f t h e d e s p e r a ti o n o f t h e A llie s. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t h a s b e e n s a id t h a t i t w as n o t th i s p h a s e o f t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n b u t t h e p o s t w a r in t e r v e n t i o n w h ic h w as a fa ta l m is ­ ta k e a n d e n g e n d e r e d t h e e v e r la s tin g h a t r e d a n d s u s p ic io n o f t h e W e s t o n t h e p a r t o f t h e B o ls h e v ik re g im e a n d t h e R u s s ia n p e o p le .7 B u t h o w t r u e is th i s e v a lu a tio n ? O n e s u s p e c ts t h a t th is c o n c lu s io n

is

a l m o s t as m u c h a p r o d u c t o f h ig h l y e ff e c tiv e S o v ie t p r o p a g a n d a as t h e im a g e o f a n im p e r i a li s t p lo t . T h e v ie w t h a t th e r e m u s t b e a c le a r d i s t i n c t i o n m a d e b e t w e e n t h e in t e r v e n t i o n b e f o r e N o v e m b e r 1918 a n d A llie d a c ti o n s a f t e r t h a t d a t e is a v a lid o n e , b u t n o t f o r t h e re a s o n g iv e n h e r e . T h e A llie s in t e r v e n e d in R u s s ia d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I b e c a u s e , in t h e j u d g m e n t o f th o s e r e s p o n s ib le f o r t h e i r c o u n t r i e s ’ le a d e r s h ip , it w as in t h e i r n a t i o n a l in t e r e s t , in fa c t, im p e r a t iv e in o r d e r to p r o t e c t t h a t n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t . I n i ti a ll y t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n to o k t h e fo r m o f a id to a n a ll ie d g o v e r n m e n t a n d w as t h u s “ l e g i t i m a t e .” I t is e q u a lly t r u e t h a t t h e A llie s i n t e r v e n e d d u r i n g t h e n e x t tw o y e a rs b e c a u s e th o s e r e s p o n s ib l e f o r s u c h d e c is io n s b e lie v e d t h e i r in t e r e s t s to b e a t s ta k e . H o w e v e r , in th i s c a se , i t is n o t e d , t h e in t e r v e n t i o n e v o lv e d i n t o s u p ­ p o r t o f t h o s e o p p o s i n g t h e g o v e r n m e n t in p o w e r a n d c o u ld , t h e r e f o r e , b e la b e l e d “ ille g a l” a n d e v e n “ im m o r a l .” T h i s c o n c lu s io n , h o w e v e r, ig n o r e s b o t h t h e m o r a l c o m m i t m e n t a n d t h e le g a l s i t u a t i o n w h ic h a c tu a lly o b t a i n e d . I n N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 8 R u s s ia w as in a s t a t e o f civ il w a r. T h e r e w e re s e v e ra l g o v e r n m e n ts c la i m i n g a u t h o r i t y in R u s s ia , a n d n o n e w as re a lly “ in p o w e r .” I n t h e s e c ir c u m s t a n c e s t h e A llie s w e re m e r e ly c o n t i n u i n g t o h o n o r t h e m o r a l c o m m i t m e n t m a d e to t h o s e w h o h a d c o o p e r a t e d w h e n t h e s u r v iv a l o f t h e W e s t e r n n a ti o n s h a d s e e m e d a t s ta k e . I t m a y , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d a n d m o r e t o t h e p o i n t , b e a s s e r te d t h a t t h e A llie s m i s j u d g e d t h e i r re a l i n t e r e s t s a n d t h a t th e y h a n d l e d t h e i r c o m m it -

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m e n t so p o o rly t h a t t h e i r c o n d u c t w as b la m e w o r t h y e v e n in te r m s o f m o r a lity . A s fo r t h e le g a lity o f in t e r v e n t i o n in a civ il w a r as s u c h , i n t e r n a ­ t i o n a l la w t r a d it io n a l ly r e q u i r e d o n ly t h a t t h e in t e r v e n i n g p a r t y c o u ld n o t c la im t h e r ig h ts o f a n e u t r a l . A s E . V . G u l i c k h a s n o t e d in h is s t u d y o f t h e t h e o r y a n d p r a c t ic e o f t h e E u r o p e a n s t a t e s y s te m in t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y , i t w as in d e e d c h a r a c t e r i s ti c o f le g a l t h o u g h t in t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n t h a t e v e n t h o s e c o m m e n t a t o r s w h o s tr e s s e d m o s t e m p h a t ic a l ly t h e p r in c ip le s o f s o v e r e ig n i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d n o n ­ i n t e r v e n t i o n u s u a lly a d m i t t e d t h e p o s s ib ility o f ju s tif ia b le i n t e r f e r ­ e n c e w h e n i n t e r n a l c h a n g e c o n s t i t u t e d a t h r e a t to o t h e r s t a te s a n d t o t h e e s t a b li s h e d s y s te m o f s t a te s .8 A m o d e r n a u t h o r i t y o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l la w p o in t s o u t t h a t i n t e r v e n t i o n m u s t b e r e g a r d e d as a n e x c e p t io n a l a c t in t h e n o r m a l c o u rs e o f r e la tio n s b e t w e e n s t a te s , b u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e a s t r ic t ly le g a l d e f i n it io n o f t h e cases in w h ic h i t m a y b e ju s tif ie d h a s in t h e p a s t b e e n p r e c l u d e d b y t h e v e ry n a t u r e o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s y s te m . M o r e o v e r , h e n o te s , e v e n a n i n t e r v e n t i o n t e c h n i c a ll y s t ig m a ­ t i z e d as “ ille g a l” m a y d e s e r v e m o r a l a p p r o v a l if t h e p r o v o c a t io n h a s b e e n g r e a t. T h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e r u l e o f la w o n i n t e r v e n t i o n t h u s r e m a in s u n c e r t a i n , s in c e N e i t h e r t h e p r a c t ic e o f s t a te s in t h e i r r e l a ti o n s w i t h o n e a n o t h e r , n o r t h e o p in i o n s o f w r ite r s o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l la w , a ff o rd a n y c le a r a n s w e r t o t h e q u e s t i o n w h e n a n i n t e r v e n t i o n . . . is l e g i ti m a t e . P r a c t ic e o n t h e m a t t e r h a s b e e n d e t e r m i n e d m o r e o f t e n b y p o l i t i ­ cal m o tiv e s t h a n b y le g a l p r in c ip le s . M o r e o v e r , t h e e x t r e m e s t f o r m o f in t e r v e n t i o n is w a r, a n d u n t i l r e c e n t ly m o d e r n i n t e r n a t i o n a l la w . . . h a s n o t a t t e m p t e d to d is ti n g u is h b e t w e e n le g a l a n d ille g a l o c c a s io n s o f m a k i n g w a r.9 T h e c la im t h a t t h e p o s t w a r i n t e r v e n t i o n a s s u r e d t h e s u b s e q u e n t h o s t i l i t y o f t h e B o ls h e v ik re g im e is a ls o q u e s t io n a b l e . B o ls h e v is m w a s b y its o w n a d m is s io n a t w a r w i t h e v e r y t h in g w h ic h t h e W e s t e r n g o v ­ e r n m e n t s s t o o d fo r, a p o s i ti o n w h ic h h a d b e e n d e c la r e d lo n g b e f o r e W o r l d W a r I a n d h a d b e c o m e a s a c r e d d o c t r i n e o f L e n i n i s m f r o m its b e g in n i n g s . A s a le a d i n g h i s t o r i a n o f S o v ie t - W e s t e r n r e l a ti o n s h a s p h ra s e d it: . . . h o s t il it y f r o m t h e C o m m u n i s t s id e w as p r e c o n c e i v e d , id e o l o g ­ ic a l, d e d u c ti v e . I n t h e m i n d s o f t h e S o v ie t le a d e r s , i t l o n g p r e d a t e d t h e C o m m u n i s t s e iz u r e o f p o w e r in R u s s ia . A n ti- S o v ie t is m in t h e W e s t , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w a s la r g e ly a c o n f u s e d , a s t o n i s h e d , a n d

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i n d i g n a n t r e a c t io n to t h e firs t a c ts o f t h e S o v ie t r e g im e . M a n y p e o p le in t h e W e s t e r n g o v e r n m e n ts c a m e t o h a t e t h e S o v ie t le a d e rs f o r w h a t th e y d id . T h e C o m m u n i s t s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h a t e d t h e W e s t e r n g o v e r n m e n ts f o r w h a t th e y w e re , re g a rd le s s o f w h a t th e y d id . . . . M o s c o w ’s a t t i t u d e to w a r d t h e W e s t e r n p o w e rs d o e s n o t re a lly flo w , as S o v ie t a p o lo g is ts h a v e so o f t e n a lle g e d . . . , f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t S o v ie t f e e lin g s w e re in j u r e d b y t h e A llie d i n t e r v e n t i o n in 1918. T h e i n t e r v e n t i o n in c r e a s e d S o v ie t c o n t e m p t f o r t h e W e s t e r n a d v e rs a ry ; i t d id n o t in c r e a s e t h e h a t r e d a n d r e j e c ti o n t h a t s t a m p e d h i m as a n a d v e rs a ry f r o m t h e v e ry d a y o f t h e R e v o l u t i o n .10 W h i l e i t is t r u e t h a t B o ls h e v ik le a d e r s h i p w as n o ta b l y fle x ib le a n d o p p o r t u n i s t i c in its t a c t ic a l a d j u s t m e n t s t o c ir c u m s t a n c e s , th e s e s h if ts w e r e m a d e in t h e c o n t e x t o f C o m m u n i s t d o c t r i n e a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T o a t t r i b u t e B o ls h e v ik id e o lo g y t o t h e p o s t w a r a c tio n s o f t h e A llie s is t h u s b o t h t o m i s u n d e r s t a n d t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h a t id e o lo g y a n d t o d o s c a n t ju s tic e t o its f o u n d e r s , e s p e c ia lly L e n in . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t w as i n d e e d la r g e ly b e c a u s e B o ls h e v ik id e o lo g y w as m i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h e S o v ie t r e g im e g a in e d a ll o f t h e a d v a n ta g e s o f b e in g c a lle d “ s o c i a li s t” in t h e W e s t . A s f o r t h e a t t i t u d e s o f t h e R u s s ia n p e o p le a t la rg e , a s u b j e c t b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f th i s s t u d y , p e r h a p s t h e o n ly c le a r e v id e n c e o f t h e p o l i t i ­ c a l p r e f e r e n c e o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n w as t h e e le c tio n o f t h e C o n s t i t u e n t A s s e m b ly in N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 7 , a n d i t i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e B o ls h e v ik s d id n o t a t t r a c t a m a j o r i ty fo llo w in g . T h e la r g e s t v o te w e n t to t h e S o c ia l­ is t R e v o lu t io n a r i e s , all b u t t h e m i n o r i t y o f w h o m w e re in fr ie n d ly c o n t a c t w i t h t h e A llie s t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r io d . I n d e e d , s o m e o f t h e firs t firm c o n t a c t s li n k in g re s is ta n c e a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s w i t h t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n w e re w i t h s o c ia lis ts . T h i s b e g in n i n g , h o w e v e r, d id n o t s o lv e t h e p r o b l e m in v o lv e d h e r e . W h e n L lo y d G e o r g e d e c la r e d in a F e b r u a r y 16, 1 919, n o t e t h a t t h e o n ly ju s ti f ic a t io n f o r in t e r v e n i n g in R u s s ia w as t h a t R u s s ia w a n te d it, h e d id in f a c t s e e m t o b e s u g g e s tin g t h a t A llie d p o lic y s h o u l d b e g u id e d b y t h e m a j o r i ty o p i n i o n in R u s s ia .11 B u t h o w w as o n e to k n o w w h a t t h a t o p i n i o n w as u n d e r c h a n g in g c ir c u m s ta n c e s ? A s t h e p r e c e d i n g a c c o u n t h a s a t t e m p t e d to in d i c a te , o n e o f t h e b u il t- in p r o b ­ le m s o f t h e R u s s i a n t u r m o i l w a s a f a ta l d iv is io n b e t w e e n th o s e p a r tie s w h ic h h a d g e n e r a lly a t t r a c t e d t h e la r g e s t f o llo w in g a n d t h e m i li ta r y fo rc e s a n d le a d e r s h i p w h ic h w e re c a p a b le o f a re a l w a r a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik re g im e .

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b u t t h e m i li ta r y fo rc e s le d b y K o lc h a k , D e n i k i n , a n d I u d e n i c h , w i t h w h o m t h e m a j o r i ty o f t h e s o c ia lis ts u l t i m a t e l y s p lit. I n th i s s i t u a t i o n t h e q u e s t io n w as, th e r e f o r e , n o t s im p ly a m o r a l o n e ; i t w as t h e p r a c t i ­ cal o n e o f c o m b i n in g p o p u l a r s u p p o r t w ith t h e f o r m a t i o n o f m i li ta r y fo rc e s. T h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f A llie d p o lic y d id , m o r e o v e r , i n c l u d e a n e f f o r t t o p u t s o m e p r e s s u r e o n t h e m i li ta r y le a d e r s t o a d o p t “ d e m o ­ c r a t ic ” p o lic ie s a n d in c l u d e s o c ia lis ts a m o n g t h e i r p o li ti c a l a d v is e rs . T h e s h o r tc o m i n g h e r e w as n o t so m u c h in t h e “ l e g i ti m a c y ” o f t h e p o lic y , w h ic h d id im p ly a r e s p e c t f o r t h e i n t e r e s t s a n d d e s ire s o f t h e p e o p le , b u t in t h e h a l f h e a r t e d c h a r a c t e r o f t h e e f f o r t m a d e t o c a rr y i t o u t. I n f a c t t h e “ p e o p le ” w e re la r g e ly p e a s a n ts , a n d w h ile t h e y w e r e tr a d i t i o n a l l y h o s t il e to w a r d a ll o u ts id e in f lu e n c e s , t h e i r h o s t il it y , in so fa r as i t w a s a f a c to r , w a s d ir e c te d a t le a s t as m u c h t o w a r d R u s s i a n a u t h o r i t y as i t w a s to w a r d t h e A llie s , a n d

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m o s tl y u p o n i m m e d i a t e c o n ta c ts . D o z e n s o f m e m o ir s o f t h e c iv il w a r i n d i c a te t h a t t h e p e a s a n ts w e lc o m e d b o t h R e d s a n d W h i t e s as t h e i r “ li b e r a t o r s ” o n s u i ta b l e o c c a s io n s b u t a ls o n o t e t h a t t h e s a m e p e a s a n t s a ls o t u r n e d o n t h e i r li b e r a t o r s w h e n a c la s h o f in t e r e s t s o c c u r r e d . A d v a n c in g m i li ta r y fo rc e s o n e i t h e r s id e o f t h e s tr u g g le f o u n d

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n e c e s s a ry to a c t t o e s ta b lis h t h e i r a u t h o r i t y a n d t o r e q u i s i t i o n s u p ­ p lie s w h e r e v e r t h e y w e n t. S u ff ic ie n t o u t s i d e a id to m a k e t h e l a t t e r u n n e c e s s a r y fo r t h e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik s m i g h t h a v e m a d e a s ig n if ic a n t d if f e r e n c e in t h e i r fa v o r, b u t a id o n s u c h a s c a le w a s n o t a v a ila b le . E q u a ll y i m p o r t a n t , a n e w a u t h o r i t y w as n o t lik e ly t o s e c u r e e v e n t h e n e u t r a l i t y o f t h e p e a s a n ts w i t h o u t a l a n d p r o g r a m a c c e p t a b le t o t h e m . I f n e i t h e r W h i t e s n o r R e d s h a d s u c h a p r o g r a m , t h e l a t t e r a t le a s t h a d t h e s lo g a n s . C h u r c h i l l h a s p r o v i d e d a d e s c r ip ti o n o f th i s s i t u a t i o n g iv e n t o h i m b y S a v in k o v as t h e y ta l k e d o n e d a y o v e r l u n c h : T h e p e a s a n t m i llio n s . . . h a d t h e l a n d . T h e y h a d m u r d e r e d o r c h a s e d a w a y its f o r m e r o w n e r s . . . . N o m o r e la n d l o r d s : n o m o r e r e n t . T h e e a r t h a n d its f u lln e s s — n o m o r e — n o le ss. T h e y d i d n o t v e t u n d e r s t a n d t h a t u n d e r C o m m u n i s m t h e y w o u ld h a v e a n e w la n d l o r d , t h e S o v ie t S t a t e — a l a n d l o r d w h o w o u ld d e m a n d h i g h e r r e n t to f e e d h is h u n g r y c itie s . . . . M e a n w h il e th e y w e re s e lf - s u p p o r tin g . T h e i r r u d e e x is te n c e c o u ld b e m a i n t a i n e d a p a r t a l t o g e t h e r f r o m t h e o u t e r w o r ld o r m o d e r n

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a p p a r a t u s . . . . T h e r e w as b r e a d ; t h e r e w as m e a t ; t h e r e w e re ro o ts . T h e y a t e a n d d r a n k a n d s q u a t t e d o n t h e la n d . N o t f o r t h e m t h e c a u s e s o f m e n . C o m m u n i s m , C z a r is m ; t h e W o r l d R e v o lu t io n , H o ly R u s s ia ; E m p i r e o r P r o l e ta r i a t, c iv iliz a tio n o r b a r b a r is m , ty r a n n y o r f r e e d o m — th e s e w e re a ll t h e s a m e t o t h e m in th e o r y ; b u t a ls o w h o ­ e v e r w o n — m u c h t h e s a m e in fa c t. . . . O n e m o r n in g a rriv e s a C o s ­ s a c k p a tr o l. “ C h r i s t is ris e n ; t h e A llie s a re a d v a n c in g ; R u s s ia is sa v e d ; y o u a re f r e e .” “ T h e S o v ie t is n o m o r e .” A n d t h e p e a s a n ts g r u n t e d , a n d d u ly e le c te d t h e i r C o u n c i l o f E ld e r s , a n d t h e C o s s a c k p a tr o l r o d e o ff, ta k i n g w i t h i t w h a t i t m i g h t r e q u i r e u p to t h e l i m i t o f w h a t i t c o u ld c a rry . O n a n a f t e r n o o n a fe w w e e k s la t e r , o r i t m a y b e a fe w d a y s la t e r , a r r iv e d a B o ls h e v ik in a b a t t e r e d m o t o r ­ c a r w ith h a lf a d o z e n g u n m e n , a ls o sa y in g , “ Y o u a re fre e ; y o u r c h a in s a re b r o k e n ; C h r i s t is a fr a u d ; r e lig io n is t h e o p ia t e o f d e m o c ­ racy ; B r o th e r s , C o m r a d e s , r e jo ic e f o r t h e g r e a t d a y s t h a t h a v e d a w n e d .” A n d t h e p e a s a n ts g r u n t e d . . . [a n d ] s w e p t a w a y t h e C o u n c i l o f E ld e r s a n d r e - e le c te d w ith r u d e c e r e m o n y t h e v illa g e S o v ie t. B u t th e y c h o s e e x a c tly t h e s a m e p e o p le w h o h a d h i t h e r t o f o r m e d t h e C o u n c i l o f E ld e r s a n d t h e la n d a ls o r e m a in e d in t h e i r p o s s e s s io n . A n d p r e s e n tly t h e B o ls h e v ik a n d h is g u n m e n g o t t h e i r m o t o r - c a r t o s t a r t a n d t h r o b b e d o ff i n t o t h e d is ta n c e , o r p e r h a p s i n t o t h e C o s s a c k p a t r o l . 12 W h a t o n e c a n , p e r h a p s , s a fe ly say is t h a t t h e b e li e f o f t h e p e a s a n ts as to w h o w e re t h e i r f r ie n d s a n d w h o t h e i r e n e m ie s w as a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r in t h e s tr u g g le , a n d in th i s r e s p e c t p r o p a g a n d a im a g e s w e re a n i m p o r t a n t w e a p o n . T o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e B o ls h e v ik s w e re m o r e a d e p t t h a n t h e i r o p p o n e n t s a t p u r v e y in g s u c h p r o p a g a n d a , t h e p e o p le c o u ld b e s w a y e d t o t h e i r fa v o r a n d a g a in s t t h e i r e n e m ie s . H o w e v e r , i t is a ls o t r u e t h a t n o a m o u n t o f p r o p a g a n d a w as lik e ly to b e s u f fic ie n t to o v e r c o m e im m e d i a t e e x p e r ie n c e , a n d t h e e x p e r ie n c e w h ic h p r o d u c e d t h e m o s t h o s t i l i t y a m o n g t h e p e a s a n ts w as t h a t o f b e in g d e p r iv e d o f la n d a n d m a t e r i a l g o o d s . T h i s w as p a r t ic u l a r ly t r u e w h e n i t w as t h e o ld l a n d o w n e r s w h o d id t h e ta k in g , a n d t h e f o r m e r o w n e rs f o llo w e d t h e W h i t e fo rc e s , n o t t h e R e d . O n e m a y s u r e ly v e n tu r e a g u e ss t h a t th i s f a c t d i d c o n s id e r a b ly m o r e t h a n t h e A llie d in t e r v e n t i o n as s u c h to

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t h e r e b y id e n t if ie d w ith t h e h a t e d la n d o w n e r s a n d s u f fe re d a c c o rd in g ly . Y e t p e r h a p s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t io n in ju d g in g t h e i n t e r ­ v e n t i o n in t h e civ il w a r is t h e f a c t t h a t a n o u t s t a n d i n g c h a r a c t e r i s ti c o f b o t h t h e A llie d a n d t h e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik e ffo rts w as d is u n ity . I n s te a d o f a c o o r d i n a t e d p l o t o n e i t h e r s id e , th e r e w as r a t h e r a d e s p e r a te a n d

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m u d d l e d a t t e m p t to b r i n g s o m e o r d e r o u t o f s h e e r c h a o s . I f e i t h e r is to b e c o n d e m n e d , th e r e f o r e , i t s h o u l d i n d e e d b e f o r t h e f a i lu r e to p r o d u c e a s e n s ib ly o r g a n iz e d a n d a d e q u a t e a c ti o n r a t h e r t h a n f o r a c t ­ in g a t a ll. T h e r e w as in f a c t a re a l p o s s ib ility t h a t t h e A llie s c o u ld h a v e s u p p l ie d t h e d e c is iv e a c ti o n a n d b a c k in g n e c e s s a ry to e s t a b li s h a re g im e in R u s s ia w h ic h w o u ld h a v e b e e n in a c c o r d w i t h W e s t e r n id e a s o f r e p r e s e n ta t iv e g o v e r n m e n t a n d , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , w o u ld h a v e r e s p e c te d A llie d in te r e s ts . T h e o p p o r t u n i t y w a s g e n u in e , a n d i t w as c o m p e llin g , f o r s u c c e s s fu lly p u r s u e d , i t c o u ld h a v e m e a n t t h e r e i n t e ­ g r a t io n o f R u s s ia i n t o t h e c o m m u n i t y o f s t a te s w i t h u n d o u b t e d l y b e n e f ic ia l r e s u lts b o t h f o r R u s s ia h e r s e lf a n d f o r h e r n e ig h b o r s . S im u l­ ta n e o u s ly i t w o u ld p r o b a b l y h a v e s p e lle d t h e f a ilu r e a n d p e r h a p s e v e n t h e d is a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e u n d e m o c r a t i c L e n i n i s t o f f s h o o t o f M a r x is m w h ic h w as d e d ic a te d to r e m a k in g t h e w o r ld in its o w n im a g e t h r o u g h v io le n c e a n d d ic t a to r s h ip . W h a t c o n d e m n e d t h e in t e r v e n t i o n , a n d m a d e i t c o n d e m n a b l e , w as its in a d e q u a c y . T h e c r i m e w as t h a t o f f a ilin g t o m e a s u r e u p t o t h e o p p o r t u n i t y . T h e A llie s m u d d l e d t h r o u g h w h e n t h e ti m e s c a lle d f o r v ig o r, c o h e s io n , a n d q u ic k a c ti o n . O n e m a y , i n d e e d , sa y t h a t a m a j o r c o n c lu s io n t o b e d r a w n is t h a t i t w o u ld h a v e b e e n b e t t e r n o t t o h a v e in t e r v e n e d a t a ll t h a n to h a v e d o n e so in s u c h a n ir r e s o l u te m a n n e r . A d m i t t e d l y th i s c o n d e m n a t i o n is s till b a s e d u p o n h i n d s i g h t t o a la r g e e x t e n t , u p o n t h e k n o w n f a c t t h a t t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n f a ile d t o a c h ie v e its p u r p o s e . I t w as t r u e t h a t t h e p r o s p e c t f o r su c c e s s s e e m e d g o o d a t t h e t i m e w h e n t h e d e c is io n s w e re b e in g m a d e t o g r a n t m a j o r a s s is ta n c e t o K o lc h a k a n d D e n i k i n , b u t w h e n in t h e s p r in g a n d s u m m e r o f 1 9 1 9 w e a k n e s s e s b e g a n t o a p p e a r , t h e A llie s a c t e d t o o s lo w ly b o t h in t h e m a t t e r o f c o o r d i n a ti n g t h e i r e ff o rts a n d in s u p p l y in g m o r a l a n d m a t e ­ ria l a id . H o p i n g to w in t h e i r v ic to r y w i t h t h e le a s t s a c rific e , t h e y a b d i ­ c a te d t h e r e s p o n s ib ility w h ic h t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n in e v i ta b l y im p o s e d . G iv e n t h e la c k o f c o o r d i n a t i o n a n d t h e h e s i t a t i o n s o f t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts , t h e ro sy v ie w s h e l d b y m a n y d u r i n g t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f 1 9 1 9 w e re fa ls e v ie w s in m o r e w ay s t h a n o n e . T h e m i li ta r y s i t u a ­ ti o n in R u s s ia w a s to o d is jo i n te d t o b e as g o o d as t h e m o s t s a n g u i n e s u p p o r te r s o f t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n s u p p o s e d . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , a id in s u p p lie s a n d e q u i p m e n t w as l i m i t e d b y b o t h f in a n c ia l a n d s t r a te g i c c o n s id e r a tio n s , a n d la rg e -s c a le a id in t h e f o r m o f tr o o p s w a s se v e re ly h a m p e r e d b y p o p u l a r o p p o s i t i o n in t h e A llie d c o u n tr ie s a n d b y t h e p o o r m i li ta r y m o r a le w h ic h p r e v a ile d a m o n g A llie d tr o o p s . T h e d is u n it y o f t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n t s — n o t o n ly d is a g r e e m e n ts

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b e t w e e n B r i t a i n a n d F r a n c e b u t a ls o b e t w e e n f a c tio n s o f b o t h g o v e r n ­ m e n t s — c o u p l e d w i t h t h e p o p u l a r d e m a n d f o r a n e n d t o a ll w a r o n c e t h e G r e a t W a r w a s o v e r, m a d e i t u n lik e ly t h a t a m a j o r A llie d e f f o r t c o u l d b e m o u n t e d w i t h o u t s e r io u s d e d ic a tio n t o t h e ta s k . I n s t e a d o f s u c h a d e d i c a t i o n t h e r e w as a r u s h t o d e m o b i li z e . I n s t e a d o f c o n c e n ­ t r a t i o n o n t h e p r o b l e m o f R u s s ia , t h e G r e a t P o w e rs to o k o n t h e o v e r­ w h e l m i n g b u r d e n o f p e a c e m a k in g o n a g lo b a l sc a le . O n e o f t h e m o s t o f t e n r e p e a t e d a n d m o s t re v e a lin g p h r a s e s o f t h e d a y w a s t h u s ‘ w a it u n til th e P e a c e C o n fe re n c e d e c id e s /' T h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e c o u ld n o t e v e n re s o lv e t h e it e m s firs t o n t h e a g e n d a , m u c h less t h e s e c o n d a r y o n e o f R u s s ia . N e v e r w as so m u c h d e m a n d e d o f a h a n d f u l o f m e n in a “ s u m m i t " c o n f e r e n c e , a n d n e v e r w e re t h e c ir c u m s t a n c e s so b o u n d t o p r o d u c e d is il lu s i o n m e n t . T h e r e s u l t w a s p r o c r a s t i n a t i o n a n d i n d e c i s i o n — o r, w h e n e v e r d e c is io n s w e re m a d e , c o n t r a d i c t i o n a n d c o n f u s io n . W h a t p o s s ib ilitie s o f re a l a id to t h e R u s s i a n fo rc e s t h e r e w e re w e re “ f r i t t e r e d a w a y b y d o u b t f u l o r c o n t r a d i c t o r y c o n v ic t io n s a n d d i s j o i n t e d i n c o n s e q u e n t a c t i o n s ." 13 C h u r c h i l l w as o n e o f t h e v e ry fe w le a d i n g A llie d s t a t e s m e n w h o d is p la y e d t h e s i n g le - m in d e d w ill a n d e n e r g y t o m a k e t h e p o s t w a r i n ­ t e r v e n t i o n d e c is iv e , a n d h is e ff o rts w e re c o n t i n u a l l y s t y m i e d b y a la c k o f s u p p o r t f r o m h i g h e r a u t h o r i t y . T h e m o s t s e r io u s f a u l t w a s n o t t h a t e i t h e r t h e p o lic y o f w a r ( C h u r c h i l l ) o r t h e p o lic y o f p e a c e ( L lo y d G e o r g e ) w a s “ w r o n g ," b u t t h a t b o t h w e r e h a p h a z a r d l y p u r s u e d a t t h e s a m e ti m e . T o r e p e a t C h u r c h i l l 's o b s e r v a tio n t o L lo y d G e o r g e in F e b r u a r y 1 9 1 9 , t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts c o u ld n o t d e c id e “ w h e t h e r t h e y w is h t o m a k e w a r u p o n t h e B o ls h e v ik s o r t o m a k e p e a c e w i t h t h e m . . . , p a u s i n g m id w a y b e t w e e n t h e s e tw o c o u rs e s w i t h a n e q u a l d is lik e o f e i t h e r . . . , " 14 B o t h p o s s ib le p o lic ie s w e re t h e r e b y in e v i­ ta b l y d e p r i v e d o f w h a te v e r e ff e c tiv e n e s s t h e y m a y h a v e h a d . T h e “ e it h e r - o r " i m p e r a t iv e w as b l i n d l y ig n o r e d . C o n tin u a tio n o f th e in te rv e n tio n a fte r th e e n d o f th e W o r ld W a r r e q u i r e d p r e c is e ly a c h o ic e e i t h e r t o in t e r v e n e w h o le h e a r t e d ly a n d to a c c e p t p o li ti c a l as w e ll as m i li ta r y r e s p o n s ib i li ty o r t o w i th d r a w o n g r o u n d s t h a t t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e w a r t i m e i n t e r v e n t i o n h a d d is a p p e a r e d . I n s t e a d t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts , p e r h a p s fa llin g v ic t im t o t h e i r o w n p r o p a g a n d a c la im s t h a t t h e p o s t w a r i n t e r v e n t i o n w as s im p ly a c o n ­ t i n u a t i o n o f t h e a n t i - G e r m a n w a r, d e l u d e d th e m s e lv e s i n t o t h i n k i n g t h a t t h e y h a d o n ly to s t a t i o n a fe w tr o o p s o n R u s s i a n so il to o v e r c o m e t h e fo r c e s o f a n a r c h y a n d c h a o s . T h e e n e m y , as if h e w e r e s i m p l y a n o p p o s i n g a r m y , w a s t o b e o v e r w h e lm e d b y a m e r e s h o w o f fo r c e w h ic h

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c o u ld e a s ily b e m a n a g e d b y t h e s a m e o fficers a n d m e n w h o h a d j u s t w o n t h e g r e a t W o r l d W a r . S u c h t h i n k i n g n o t o n ly f a ile d t o g r a s p t h e m e a n i n g o f r e v o l u ti o n a r y u p h e a v a l b u t i t e v e n fe ll s h o r t o f b e i n g a n a d e q u a t e m i li ta r y p o lic y . A s i t w as ( a c c o r d in g t o C h u r c h i l l ) “ e n o u g h f o r e ig n tr o o p s e n t e r e d R u s s ia t o in c u r a ll t h e o b je c t io n s w h ic h w e re p a t e n t a g a in s t i n t e r v e n t i o n , b u t n o t e n o u g h t o b r e a k t h e t h e n g im c ra c k s t r u c t u r e o f t h e S o v ie t p o w e r .” 15 T h i s m i li ta r y in a d e q u a c y it s e l f w a s, m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , a r e s u lt o f t h e in a d e q u a c y o f p o li ti c a l le a d e r s h ip . N o t h i n g so re v e a le d t h e la c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g in t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts o f t h e n a t u r e a n d d e m a n d s o f a r e v o l u ti o n a r y s i t u a t i o n , a n d a ll t h e m o r e so o f i n v o l v e m e n t b y o u ts id e p o w e rs in s u c h a s i t u a t i o n , as t h e p e r s i s t e n t f a i lu r e t o g iv e t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n p o litic a l le a d e r s h i p a n d c o m p e t e n t p o li ti c a l r e p r e s e n t a ­ ti o n a t t h e s c e n e o f a c ti o n . W h e n t h e W o r l d W a r e n d e d a n d t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts p r o v i d e d n o t h i n g b y w a y o f s u c h l e a d e r s h i p o t h e r t h a n a b a s e le s s c o n t i n u a t i o n o f o ld a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y o b s o l e te c o m ­ m i t m e n t s , t h e in t e r v e n t i o n w as d o o m e d t o f a ilu r e . I n th i s s e n s e i t is p o s s ib le to say , as C h u r c h i l l h a s , t h a t t h e A r m i s ti c e o f N o v e m b e r 1918 “ p r o v e d to b e t h e d e a th - w a r r a n t o f t h e R u s s i a n n a t i o n a l c a u s e ” to t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t m a r k e d t h e e n d r a t h e r t h a n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f e ff e c tiv e A llie d p o lic y in R u s s ia .16 A n d in t h e a b s e n c e o f e ff e c tiv e le a d e r s h i p f r o m t h e s t a t e s m e n in P a ris a n d L o n d o n , t h e r e s p o n s ib i li ty f o r c o n d u c t i n g so m o m e n t o u s a n a c ti o n as i n t e r v e n t i o n in a fo r e ig n civ il w a r fe ll w illy -n illy t o s u b ­ o r d i n a te s w h o h a d n e i t h e r t h e e x p e r ie n c e n o r t h e p o li ti c a l p e r s p e c ti v e n e c e s s a ry t o t h e ta s k . G e n e r a l F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e r e y sa w t h e h a z a r d s o f in a d e q u a t e m i li ta r y a c ti o n , a n d G e n e r a l T h o m s o n r e c o g n i z e d t h e p itf a lls o f d iv id e d a u t h o r i t y , b u t

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n a ti o n a li ti e s , a n d c la sse s, as w e ll as a rm ie s . T h e fa ilu r e w a s, o f c o u r s e , n o t m e r e ly t h a t o f t h e A llie s . I n t r u t h it w as a lw a y s m o r e t h e f a ilu r e o f t h e m o d e r a t e fo rc e s , b o t h m i li ta r y a n d p o li ti c a l, in R u s s ia . T h o u g h i t w a s i n a d e q u a t e , t h e A lli e d e f f o r t m i g h t h a v e b e e n b o t h s ig n if ic a n t a n d p r a is e d in h i s t o r y h a d t h o s e a id e d liv e d u p m o r e e ff e c tiv e ly t o t h e f u l f il lm e n t o f t h e i r p a r t . U n f o r ­ t u n a t e l y fo r o n e s e e k in g t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e f a i lu r e o n t h e R u s s i a n s id e , a n e v e n m o r e c o m p le x s i t u a t i o n m u s t b e ta k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . I r a n i -

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c a lly , is su e s w h ic h t h e A llie s f a ile d t o c o m p r e h e n d w e re o f t e n c le a r to R u s s i a n le a d e r s h i p , b u t t h e l a t t e r in t u r n f a ile d to se e t h e s ig n ific a n c e o f m a n y fa c to r s w h ic h t h e A llie s a p p r e c i a te d . I n J a n u a r y 1 9 1 8 t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y is s u e d its p r o c l a m a t io n o f a im s , s t a t i n g t h a t “ t h e V o l u n t e e r m o v e m e n t is a n a ll- n a tio n a l m o v e ­ m e n t ” w h ic h “ se e k s to b e t h a t a c tiv e fo r c e w h ic h w ill g iv e R u s s ia n c itiz e n s t h e p o s s ib ility o f r e a liz in g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a F r e e R u s ­ sia . . . [ a n d to e n a b le ] t h e m a s te r o f t h e R u s s ia n l a n d — t h e R u s s ia n p e o p l e — t o e x p re s s t h e i r s o v e r e ig n w ill t h r o u g h t h e e le c tio n o f a C o n ­ s titu e n t

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m e m o ir s , G e n e r a l D e n i k i n a d m i ts t h a t t h e V o l u n t e e r m o v e m e n t “ d id n o t b e c o m e a n a ll- n a tio n a l m o v e m e n t. . . . F r o m its in c e p t i o n . . . t h e a r m y a c q u ir e d a d i s t i n c t class c h a r a c t e r .” 18 T h i s w as u n d o u b t e d l y o n e o f t h e m a j o r r e a s o n s w h y t h e V o l u n t e e r m o v e m e n t f a ile d to m e e t t h e B o ls h e v ik c h a lle n g e . D e n i k i n , w h o m u s t b e a r t h e c h ie f r e s p o n s ib ility f o r th i s fa ilu r e in S o u t h R u s s ia ( s in c e W r a n g e l ’s p e r i o d c o n s i s te d la rg e ly o f a s id e s h o w s t a g e d u n d e r F r e n c h s p o n s o r s h i p f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f P o l a n d ) , w as n o t e n ti r e l y p r e p a r e d f o r h is ta s k . A s W r a n g e l h a s w r i t t e n o f h i m : D e s ti n y h a d la id o n h is s h o u ld e r s t h e b u r d e n o f a g ig a n tic ta s k in a s p h e r e q u i t e f o r e ig n to h im , a n d h a d p l u n g e d h i m in t o a w h ir l­ p o o l o f p a s s io n s a n d p o li ti c a l in t r i g u e . H e f e l t lo s t, h e s a id , a t th is u n s u i t a b l e w o rk , w as a f r a id o f m a k in g m is ta k e s , t r u s t e d n o b o d y , a n d y e t f a ile d t o fin d s u f fic ie n t s t r e n g t h in h im s e l f t o e n a b le h i m t o n a v ig a te t h e s h i p o f s t a t e w ith a firm h a n d . . . .19 O n e o f t h e re a s o n s w h y th i s w as t r u e w as t h a t o th e r s , b o t h m ilita r y a n d p o li ti c a l le a d e rs , w e re n o t a b o v e c r e a t in g s u c h a “ w h ir lp o o l o f p a s s io n s a n d i n t r i g u e ” in t h e V o l u n t e e r c a m p . W h i l e o n t h e o n e h a n d t h e y c o n d e m n e d D e n i k i n f o r fa ilu r e t o n a v ig a te w i t h a “ firm h a n d , ” o n t h e o t h e r th e y d e n o u n c e d h im , as p re v io u s ly n o t e d , fo r c lin g in g to a u t h o r i t y b li n d ly , “ p o is o n e d b y t h e v e n o m o f a m b i t i o n , d r u n k w ith p o w e r .” D e s t i n y h a d in d e e d g iv e n D e n i k i n a g ig a n tic ta s k : to d e a l w ith a r r o g a n t c o m m a n d e r s a r o u n d w h o m t h e r e a c tio n a r y o p p o s i ti o n c o ll e c te d , w i t h d r u n k e n c o m m a n d e r s w h o fa ile d h i m a t t h e c ritic a l m o m e n t o f a tt a c k , w ith C o s s a c k a ta m a n s w h o w e re p r o u d a n d i n d e ­ p e n d e n t , a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e t o d e a l w ith a m y r ia d o f p o litic a l g r o u p s r a n g i n g f r o m s o c ia lis t t o u ltr a c o n s e r v a tiv e , w ith a b u r e a u c r a c y w e d t o t h e ts a r is t p a s t b y c o r r u p t i o n , a n d w i t h a c iv il w a r in m ic ro -

286

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c o s m b e tw e e n la n d o w n e r s a n d p e a s a n t s — a ll w h ile f i g h tin g a w a r f o r t h e h ig h e s t sta k e s . I t is l i t t l e w o n d e r t h a t D e n ik in “ b e g a n t o im a g in e s e d i ti o n a n d r e b e l li o n ” a r o u n d h i m a n d to tr y t o d ra w a ll t h e r e in s o f p o w e r i n t o h is o w n h a n d s . H e w as n o t im a g in in g ; h e w as a c ti n g in s e lf-d e f e n s e . Y e t t h e f a c t t h a t s u c h a s i t u a t i o n e x is te d h a d g ra v e im p li c a ti o n s fo r t h e w h o le V o l u n t e e r m o v e m e n t. I t m e a n t t h a t t h e in i t i a t i v e t o ta k e t h e le a d e r s h i p o f a re a lly b o l d p r o g r a m c o r r e s p o n d in g t o t h e c h a ll e n g e w as s tifle d . P e r h a p s a b o l d e r le a d e r t h a n D e n i k i n c o u ld h a v e a p p e a l e d d ir e c tly t o t h e p e o p le a n d c o u ld h a v e g a in e d a m a s s fo llo w in g . A n a p p e a l m a d e d ir e c tly , sp e c ific a lly , a n d s tr o n g ly in t h e n a m e o f d e m o c ­ ra c y a n d s o c ia l ju s tic e m a y , in d e e d , h a v e b e e n t h e w a y t o w in b o t h p o p u l a r s u p p o r t in R u s s ia a n d e n th u s i a s t i c a s s is ta n c e b y t h e A llie s , w h o w o u ld c e r t a in l y h a v e w e lc o m e d t h e

p ro sp e c t o f so m e o th e r

a lt e r n a t iv e t o t h e b le a k c h o ic e b e tw e e n “ R e d ” a n d “ W h i t e . ” T o h a v e m a d e s u c h a n a p p e a l, h o w e v e r , w o u ld n o t h a v e b e e n w i t h ­ o u t g ra v e d iffic u ltie s , e v e n if D e n i k i n p e r s o n a lly h a d b e e n c o n v in c e d o f its n e c e s s ity . I n d e e d , h a d D e n i k i n d o n e so, it is d o u b t f u l t h a t i t c o u ld h a v e b e e n c o n v in c in g to t h e p e o p le w i t h o u t a t t h e s a m e t i m e d e s tr o y in g t h e A rm y . D e n i k i n a r g u e d , p e r h a p s c o r r e c tly , t h a t t h e m o o d s o f b o t h t h e R u s s ia n p o p u l a t i o n a n d t h e p o p u l a t i o n s o f t h e A llie d c o u n tr ie s w e re t r a n s i e n t a n d u n s t a b l e t h i n g s w h ic h c o u ld n o t w in a w a r f o r e i t h e r s id e , t h a t t h e m i li ta r y ta s k w a s t h e re a l o n e . B u t e v e n if h e w as c o r r e c t in th i s b e lie f , i t w as s u r e ly a s e r io u s m i s t a k e o n h is p a r t n o t to s u p p l e m e n t t h e m i li ta r y e f f o r t w i t h a n a d e q u a t e p o l i t i ­ c a l p r o g r a m . T h e l a t t e r w as c le a rly e s s e n tia l f o r c o n s o l id a t io n b e h i n d t h e f r o n t li n e d u r i n g t h e w a r a n d f o r a s s u r in g t h e p o s s ib ility o f ta k i n g a d v a n ta g e o f a m i li ta r y v ic to r y in t h e f u t u r e t o a c h ie v e t h e p o li ti c a l, s o c ia l, a n d e c o n o m i c re f o r m s w h ic h c o u ld n o t b e c a r r ie d o u t d u r i n g t h e w a r its e lf. U n f o r t u n a t e l y D e n i k i n e q u a t e d t h e n e c e s s ity o f p o s t ­ p o n i n g e x e c u t io n o f re f o r m s w ith t h e n e c e s s ity o f a v o id in g d e c la r a ­ t i o n a n d e v e n d is c u s s io n o f r e f o r m s as t h e b a sis o f a p o litic o - s o c ia l p l a t f o r m w h ic h w o u ld a t t r a c t s u p p o r t — a t le a s t h e d id so u n t i l i t w as re a lly t o o la te . D e n ik in in h e rite d th e V o lu n te e r A rm y b y th e

a c c id e n t o f th e

d e a th s o f K o r n ilo v a n d A le k s e e v e a rly in its d e v e l o p m e n t . H is p u r p o s e w as t o le a d t h a t A r m y in s u c h a w a y as to g iv e i t s t r e n g t h a n d t o a p p e a l t o t h e A llie s. F o r th i s ta s k h e w as p r o b a b l y t h e b e s t s u i t e d a n d m o s t c a p a b le o f a ll t h e le a d e rs a v a ila b le in S o u t h R u s s ia . T o u n d e r ­ s t a n d h is p r e d i c a m e n t a n d a c c e p t h is re la tiv e a b il it y , h o w e v e r , is n o t

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287

t o d is m is s h is fa ilin g s . T h e f a c t r e m a in s t h a t , in a d d i t i o n to h is q u e s ­ t i o n a b l e m i li ta r y s tr a te g y , t h e fa ilu r e t o c h a n g e t h e p r e d o m i n a n t l y class c h a r a c t e r o f t h e m o v e m e n t, to b a la n c e m i li ta r y n e c e s s ity w ith p o p u l a r a p p e a l, a n d t o a d o p t a fle x ib le p o lic y to w a r d t h e n o n - R u s s ia n n a ti o n a li ti e s , w e re m a j o r s h o r tc o m i n g s . G iv e n t h e n a t u r e a n d s i t u a t i o n o f t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts , th e s e fa ilu re s w e re o f d e c is iv e s ig n ific a n c e in t h e m a t t e r o f g e t t i n g a id . T h e y w e re a ls o c ru c ia l to t h e p r o b l e m o f i n t e r n a l d is u n ity . D e n i k i n w a s, as h e r e p e a t e d ly s t a te d , firs t o f a ll a s o ld ie r; h e w as n o t a p o li ti c ia n . A s a s o l d ie r h e w as re a lly n e i t h e r lib e r a l n o r re a c ­ ti o n a r y . W h e n p o li ti c a l d e c is io n s w e re fo r c e d o n h i m , h e tr i e d t o h e d g e a n d ta k e a m i d d l e c o u rs e . H e d i s t r u s t e d t h e e x tr e m e s o n b o t h sid e s , a n d h e r e f u s e d t o c o m m i t t h e A rm y t o a n y p o litic a l p r o g r a m . W h e n h is m i d d l e c o u r s e fa ile d , h e to o k a s o m e w h a t m o r e lib e r a l s t a n d , b u t h e c o u ld n o t c a rr y i t i n t o p r a c tic e . A t b e s t h is re v is e d s t a n d w as a n e x p re s s io n o f h is p e r s o n a l v ie w s as th e y d e v e lo p e d u n d e r c o n ­ t i n u o u s te s ti n g , b u t n e i t h e r h e n o r t h e A r m y b e lie v e d t h a t h e h a d a n y r i g h t to a llo w h is p e r s o n a l c o n c lu s io n s t o p r e j u d ic e t h e f u t u r e c o u r s e o f R u s s ia . R u s s ia w o u ld b e d if f e r e n t a f t e r t h e w a r, h e sa id ; t h e p e o p le w o u ld b e fre e ; t h e p e a s a n ts w o u ld h a v e s m a ll fa r m s ; t h e w o rk e rs w o u ld h a v e s a f e g u a rd s a g a in s t e x p lo i ta t io n ; t h e n a ti o n a li ti e s w o u ld h a v e t h e i r civ il li b e r t ie s a n d a u to n o m y . B u t t h e w a r h a d t o b e w o n first; th i n g s s h o u l d s ta y as th e y w e re u n t i l a c o n s t i t u e n t a s s e m b ly , t h e c o u n t e r p a r t o f t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e as a d e u s ex

machina in

A llie d th i n k i n g , c o u ld a c t. T h i s w as, p e r h a p s , p r o p e r f o r a s o ld ie r. B u t w i n n in g t h e civ il w a r r e q u i r e d m o r e t h a n s o ld ie rs . D e n ik in h im s e l f m a y , in d e e d , h a v e s in ­ c e re ly d e s ir e d a m o r e lib e r a l c o u rs e t h a n th o s e w h o m h e r e p r e s e n te d , b u t t h e s t a r k f a c t is t h a t t h e la n d o w n e r s u s e d t h e a r m y t o s e iz e la n d b a c k fr o m t h e p e a s a n ts . H is m i li ta r y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , w h ic h w as q u i t e u n s u i t e d t o c o r r e c ti n g s u c h f a u lts , n e v e r re a lly b e c a m e a g o v e r n m e n t, d e s p i te t h e s h i f t in t h e la s t m o n t h s , a n d in f a c t i t c o u ld n o t so lo n g as i t w as d o m i n a t e d b y t h e A rm y . H is v e ry a c t o f p r o c l a im in g t h e i n t e n t i o n o f i n s t i t u t i n g la n d r e f o r m s a li e n a te d A r m y s e n t i m e n t s , a n d if in t u r n t h e lib e r a l e le m e n ts c o m p l a in e d , th e y w e re t o l d to w a it fo r t h e c o n s t i t u e n t a s s e m b ly as a lw a y s. P o lic y a n d p e r s o n n e l, p r o c l a m a ­ t i o n a n d a c t, s im p ly d id n o t c o r r e s p o n d . D e n i k i n b e la t e d ly p r o v e d h i m s e l f c a p a b le o f e v o lv in g a p o lic y , b u t h is r e a c t io n a r y s u b o r d in a te s c a r r ie d i t o u t in re v e r s e .20 T h e c o n s e q u e n c e o f th i s s i t u a t i o n w as t h a t D e n ik in h im s e l f w as

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ta k e n f o r a r e a c tio n a r y d ic t a to r . E x c e p t f o r a fe w w h o k n e w h is m o d ­ e r a t e p e r s o n a l a im s , th o s e o n t h e o u t s i d e n a tu r a ll y sa w t h e m o v e m e n t as i t w as r a t h e r t h a n t h e i n n e r s o u l o f t h e m a n . E v e n w h e n th e y d id lo o k u p o n t h e m a n , h e s e e m e d to b e d e f e n d i n g h is o w n a u t h o r i t y a g a in s t a ll o th e r s , d e m a n d i n g b u t r e f u s in g t o c o m p r o m i s e o r t o g iv e a n y c o n c e s s io n s to a c h ie v e c o o p e r a t io n o r g e t a id . D u r i n g t h e i n t e r ­ v e n ti o n h e d id n o t s e e m e v e n t o h a v e t h e fu ll s u p p o r t o f t h e C o s s a c k a rm ie s o n w h o m h e d e p e n d e d h e a v ily . T h i s w as n o t ju s t a p p e a r a n c e , a n d t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts , t o g e t h e r w i t h m a n y o f t h e R u s s ia n a n d n o n - R u s s ia n p e o p le s , c o u ld e a sily b e le d t o a s k : D o e s s u c h a w e a k a n d r e a c tio n a r y class a r m y s t a n d a c h a n c e a g a in s t t h e B o ls h e v ik s o r re a lly d e s e r v e s u p p o r t? T h e a n s w e r w as f r e q u e n tl y in t h e n e g a tiv e . M i li u k o v to o k t h e A llie s to ta s k f o r d r a w in g s u c h a n e g a tiv e c o n ­ c lu s io n a f t e r o b s e r v in g c o n d it io n s in t h e V o l u n t e e r c a m p , f o r as h e p u t it, E u r o p e a n s w e re “ u n h a p p i l y to o m u c h i n c l in e d t o b r a n d e v e ry a t t e m p t t o u s e m i li ta r y f o r c e f o r r e s to r i n g o r d e r in R u s s ia as b e i n g ‘c o u n te r - r e v o l u ti o n a r y ’. . . .” 21 T h e r e s to r a t io n o f o r d e r b y a s t r o n g m i li ta r y h a n d in R u s s ia , h e s a id , d id n o t e x c lu d e li b e r a l p o lic y as s o o n as o r d e r w as r e s to r e d b u t w as in f a c t t h e firs t c o n d i t i o n f o r s u c h a p o lic y . T h i s re a s o n in g h a d s o m e m e r i t , b u t e v e n a s s u m in g t h a t t h e A llie s s h o u l d h a v e ju d g e d t h e V o l u n t e e r s o n th is b a s is , w o u ld t h e i r c o n c lu s io n h a v e b e e n d if f e r e n t? I n d e e d , c o u ld it n o t m o r e a c c u r a t e ly b e s a id t h a t t h e A llie s w e re in f a c t n o t to o h e s i t a n t b u t t o o p r o n e t o a c c e p t t h e a r g u m e n ts o f m i li ta r y n e c e s s ity as a s u b s t i t u t e f o r p o l i t ­ ic a l m a t u r i ty , b o t h in D e n i k i n ’s c a se a n d in t h e c a se o f t h e i r o w n re p r e s e n ta tiv e s ? T h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y w as in r e a lity r e n t w ith i n t e r n a l c le a v a g e s . I t h e l p e d to u n d e r m i n e f a i th in its e lf b o t h a t h o m e a n d a b r o a d b y its a c tio n s . T h e c a se o f w a r b o o t y w as a c le a r e x a m p le . D e n i k i n ’s S u p r e m e C o u n c i l tr i e d to c h a n n e l a ll b o o t y t h r o u g h t h e c e n tr a l c o m m a n d in o r d e r to p r e v e n t p l u n d e r a n d s p e c u l a ti o n , b u t i t fa ile d . C o m m a n d e r s in t h e fie ld c la im e d t h e r i g h t to h o l d a ll c a p t u r e d m a t e r i a ls , a n d t h e p r a c t ic e o f “ s e l f - e q u i p m e n t ,” in D e n i k i n ’s o w n w o rd s , s o o n “ t r a n s ­ g re s s e d a ll le g a l li m i ts a n d b e c a m e b a l d p l u n d e r a n d v io l e n c e .” 22 T h e r e r e m a in s , fin a lly , t h e f a ilu r e o f t h e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik R u s s i a n fo rc e s t o a t t r a c t t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e n o n - R u s s ia n n a ti o n a li ti e s . T h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts , f o r t h e i r p a r t , d id m a k e a n e f f o r t, a l t h o u g h a n in e f fe c tiv e o n e , to p r o d u c e t h e w in n i n g c o m b i n a t i o n o f a u n i t e d m i l i ­ ta r y o ffe n s iv e a n d a d e m o c r a ti c p o li ti c a l b a c k in g w h ic h w o u ld p r o ­ v id e a n a n s w e r to t h e so -c a lle d “ n a t i o n a l i t i e s ” p r o b l e m . E v e n if o n e

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d i s c o u n ts o t h e r s h o r tc o m i n g s o f R u s s ia n le a d e r s h ip , t h e i r fa ilu r e t o c o o p e r a t e w i t h A llie d e ff o rts in th i s m a t t e r m i g h t s till h a v e b e e n d e c is iv e f o r t h e o u t c o m e o f t h e s tr u g g le . D e n i k i n c o u ld n o t e x e c u te a l a n d r e f o r m in c h a o s , a n d h e c o u ld n o t f o r c e t h e A llie s to s e c u r e h is s u p p l y lin e s , b u t h e m i g h t h a v e fille d t h e g a p t o s o m e e x t e n t b y a d o p t i n g a p o lic y o f j o i n t c o o p e r a t io n w ith a ll t h e b o r d e r l a n d g o v e r n ­ m e n t s o n t h e b a sis o f f e d e r a ti o n . H e re f u s e d . T h e s lo g a n o f “ O n e R u s s i a ” w as i n t e r p r e t e d t o m e a n n o t o n ly a u n i t e d R u s s ia b u t a u n i t a r y s t a te , a n d

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m o d i f i c a ti o n c e a s e d t o h a v e a n y p r a c tic a l m e a n i n g . T h e A r m y h a d a c tu a lly w o r k e d w i t h t h e C o s s a c k s o n a f e d e r a l b a sis a ll a lo n g , a n d in F e b r u a r y 1 9 2 0 D e n i k i n e s t a b li s h e d t h e S o u th R u s ­ s ia n A u t h o r i t y , w h ic h w as e s s e n tia lly a f e d e r a ti o n w ith a le g is la tiv e c o u n c il a n d a c o u n c il o f m i n is te r s r e s p o n s ib le to it. B u t th i s p a t t e r n , a c h ie v e d w ith t h e V o l u n t e e r s ' c lo s e s t a llie s o n ly a t t h e e n d , w as n e v e r t r i e d w i t h t h e n o n - R u s s ia n n a ti o n a li ti e s , w h e r e i t w o u ld h a v e h a d m u c h g r e a t e r s ig n ific a n c e . V o l u n t e e r p o lic y p e r s is te d in its t e n d e n c y t o v ie w t h e d e m a n d s o f t h e l a t t e r as tr e a s o n o u s s e p a r a tis m . D u r i n g t h e d e c is iv e p h a s e s o f t h e w a r D e n i k i n in s is t e d t h a t a n y c h a n g e in t h e R u s s ia n c o n s t i t u t i o n h a d t o c o m e fr o m a b o v e , fr o m a c o n s t i t u e n t a s s e m b ly a f t e r t h e w a r w as w o n . W h e n , a f t e r h is o w n d e f e a t, h e a c c e p te d

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b o r d e r l a n d s t a te s , i t w as to o la t e t o a ff e c t t h e o u tc o m e . T h e u n i t y o f R u s s ia a n d f e d e r a lis m , o f c o u rs e , n e e d n o t h a v e c o m e i n t o s u c h c o n f lic t; th e y w e re n o t n e c e s s a rily c o n t r a d i c t o r y c o n c e p ts . “ Y o u c a n n o t d e p r iv e a g r e a t e m p i r e o f t h e v ita l s o u r c e s o f its e c o n o m ic w e lf a r e w i t h o u t t h e g r e a t e s t u p h e a v a ls , w i t h o u t e n d le s s w a rs. . . ,” D e n i k i n in s is t e d q u i t e rig h tly , a n d in d e e d t h e c o m p l e t e d is m e m b e r ­ m e n t o f t h e c o u n t r y c o u ld n o t h a v e b e e n a c c e p t e d b y a n y o f t h e m a j o r R u s s i a n p a r t ie s o r f o r c e s .23 B u t t h a t w as o n ly t h e n e g a tiv e s id e o f t h e is su e . T h e u p h e a v a l w as a lr e a d y a f a c t. T h e s p l it b e tw e e n t h e e m p i r e a n d its e c o n o m i c a ll y v ita l b o r d e r la n d s h a d a lr e a d y ta k e n p la c e . B y r e f u s in g t o re c o g n iz e , u n t i l t o o la t e , t h a t t h e r e w as n o lo n g e r a R u s s ia in t h e o ld in c lu s iv e s e n s e , D e n i k i n s im p ly e n c o u r a g e d t h e d is ­ in t e g r a t i o n w h ic h h e w as f ig h ti n g t o p r e v e n t . T h e q u e s t i o n , w h ic h w a s n o t f a c e d u p to , w as h o w R u s s ia c o u ld b e r e u n if ie d . I n s t e a d o f p r o v i d in g a r a lly in g p o i n t fo r t h e n e w g o v e r n ­ m e n t s , D e n i k i n f o u g h t t h e m . H e in s is t e d o n a u n it a r y R u s s ia w h e n t h e d e m a n d w a s f o r f e d e r a ti o n , a n d h e a p p e a r e d w illin g t o m a k e s o m e c o n c e s s io n s in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f a u t o n o m y o n ly a f t e r t h e d e m a n d h a d

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tiv e ly ) a n d s u b s e q u e n t a d v o c a c y o f f e d e r a ti o n g r e a tly f a c i li ta t e d t h e i r v ic to ry . A p o lic y o f f e d e r a te d r e u n i f ic a tio n w o u ld h a v e a id e d t h e V o l u n ­ te e r s a t le a s t as m u c h as i t a id e d t h e B o ls h e v ik s a n d p r o b a b l y m o r e , s in c e i t w o u ld h a v e g o n e f a r t o d is p e l t h e f e a r o f G r e a t R u s s ia n c h a u v in i s m in t h e b o r d e r la n d s a n d w o u ld h a v e m a d e D e n i k i n 's c la im t h a t h e w a n t e d to e s ta b lis h a b a s ic a lly d e m o c r a ti c u n i o n m o r e c o n ­ v in c in g n o t o n ly in R u s s ia b u t a ls o in t h e W e s t . T o h a v e b e e n re a lly e ffe c tiv e , o f c o u rs e , i t s h o u l d h a v e b e e n a d o p t e d f r o m

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n in g , f r o m t h e e a rly d a y s o f t h e w a r, r a t h e r t h a n a f t e r d e f e a t w as p r e d i c ta b l e . D e n i k i n h e s i t a t e d to a c c e p t s u c h a p o lic y n o t o n ly b e c a u s e h e f e l t t h a t h e w as n o t c o m p e t e n t t o c h a n g e t h e p o li ti c a l s t a tu s q u o b u t a ls o b e c a u s e h e d i s t r u s t e d p o li ti c ia n s a n d e s p e c ia lly t h o s e w i t h L e f t ­ is t in c l in a t io n s w h o p r e d o m i n a t e d in t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t b o r d e r a re a s . B e s id e s p r e f e r r i n g t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n o n i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e a r m y w i t h p o litic a l p a r tie s , h e b e lie v e d t h a t w i n n i n g t h e w a r w as t h e p r e r e q u i ­ s i te to a n y p o litic a l d e c is io n s , a n d h e b e li e v e d t h a t h e c o u ld w in t h e w a r a lo n e . A q u ic k v ic to r y w as t h e e a sy a n s w e r to h is o p p o n e n t s , h e f e lt, e s p e c ia lly s in c e t h e q u e s t io n s a t s ta k e w e re t o o c o m p l e x t o b e re s o lv e d fu lly d u r i n g t h e w a r. O n c e t h e v ic to r y h a d b e e n a c h ie v e d , a ll w o u ld se e , o r c o u ld b e m a d e t o s e e , t h e n e c e s s ity o f c o o p e r a t io n in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e f u t u r e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e c o u n t r y t h r o u g h a c o n s t i t ­ u e n t a s s e m b ly . I n h o l d i n g t h e s e v ie w s, D e n i k i n h a d a g o o d c a s e as f a r as i t w e n t, b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y h e w a s b o t h to o o p t i m i s t i c in h is h o p e s fo r m i li ta r y su c c e s s a n d u n r e a s o n a b ly o b s t i n a t e in h is d e m a n d t h a t e v e r y o n e t r u s t h is m o tiv e s . I t w as a t le a s t in p a r t b e c a u s e o f D e n i k i n 's o b s t in a c y t h a t t h e b o r ­ d e r l a n d g o v e r n m e n ts r e f u s e d t o p u t f a i t h in h is l e a d e r s h i p . I n s t e a d th e y in t u r n a d o p t e d a n e q u a ll y f u t i l e o b s t in a c y o n le ss i m p o r t a n t m a t t e r s as w e ll, w h ile t u r n i n g a d e a f e a r t o t h e a r g u m e n t o f m i li ta r y n e c e s s ity . T h e f a ilu r e o f b o t h D e n i k i n a n d t h e b o r d e r s t a te s t o s e e k r e u n i f ic a tio n o n t h e b a s is o f a m u t u a l l y a c c e p t a b le c o m p r o m i s e w a s t h u s in la r g e m e a s u r e t h e c a u s e o f t h e i r d is u n i t y a n d o f t h e i r u l t i m a t e d e f e a t. O u t s i d e p r e s s u r e f r o m t h e A llie s t o b r i n g a b o u t s u c h a c o m p r o m i s e w as a ls o n e v e r p r o p e r ly c o o r d i n a t e d o r c o n s i s te n t ; i t w a s s h o r t- liv e d w h e n i t d id a p p e a r a n d to o w e a k t o p r o v i d e t h e n e c e s s a r y m e d i a t i o n .

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I n d e e d , t h e a c ti o n s a n d s t a t e m e n t s o f B r it is h m i li ta r y r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s in T r a n s c a u c a s ia a n d o f F r e n c h m i li ta r y r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s in O d e s s a f r e q u e n t l y p r o v o k e d m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d a n ta g o n i s m

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s e r v e d t h e c a u s e o f r e c o n c i li a ti o n . B y c o n d u c t i n g th e m s e lv e s a lo n g a n e r r a ti c c o u r s e w h ic h a p p e a r e d t o le a n firs t o n e w a y a n d t h e n t h e o t h e r , A llie d r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s i n S o u t h R u s s ia a t o n e t i m e g a v e t h e im p r e s s io n t h a t d i s m e m b e r m e n t w as t h e i r p o lic y a n d a t a n o t h e r t i m e a p p e a r e d t o f a v o r r e i n t e g r a t i o n .24 T h e la c k o f q u a lif ie d d ip l o m a t ic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a t t h e k e y p o i n t s in S o u t h R u s s ia u n d o u b t e d l y c o n ­ t r i b u t e d t o th i s s i t u a t i o n . I n ju s tic e t o t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts i t m u s t a t t h e s a m e t i m e b e k e p t i n m i n d t h a t s u c h p re s s u re s d id c o n s t i t u t e a d e g r e e o f i n t e r f e r ­ e n c e in i n t e r n a l a ffa irs w h ic h w as u n a c c e p t a b le e v e n t o m a n y a d v o ­ c a te s o f m i li ta r y i n t e r v e n t i o n , a n d i t w as e x tr e m e ly d if f ic u lt t o a rr iv e a t a c o n c e n s u s o n s u c h is su e s. E v e n w h a t l i t t l e p r e s s u r e t h e A llie s d id a p p ly , m o r e o v e r , w as r e s e n t e d a n d r e s is te d b y t h e r e c ip ie n ts o f A llie d a id . I n d e f e n d i n g h is p o s i ti o n o n th i s m a t t e r , f o r e x a m p le , D e n i k i n h as w ritte n : F r o m P a ris th e y w r o te t o u s o f t e n t h a t a id f r o m t h e A llie s w as s l ig h t b e c a u s e t h e s tr u g g le o f t h e S o u t h . . . w as n o t p o p u l a r a m o n g t h e E u r o p e a n d e m o c r a c ie s a n d t h a t to w in t h e i r s y m p a th y w e h a d o n ly to say tw o w o rd s : R e p u b l i c a n d F e d e r a t i o n . T h e s e w o rd s w e d id n o t say. B u t , if a n o t h e r a u t h o r i t y h a d t o l e r ­ a t e d s u c h i n t e r v e n t i o n f r o m o u ts id e in R u s s ia n a ffa irs a n d h a d g o n e b e y o n d t h e li m i ts o f n o t p r e d e t e r m i n i n g b a s ic q u e s t io n s o f s t a t e s t r u c t u r e o f R u s s ia b e f o r e a fr e e e x p re s s io n o f t h e w ill o f t h e p e o p le in o n e m a n n e r o r a n o t h e r , w h a t w o u ld h a v e b e e n c h a n g e d in t h e h is to r y o f t h e p a s t? W o u l d t h e n e w s t a t e a r m ie s , p o is o n e d b y t h e s w e e t v e n o m o f d r e a m s o f f u ll in d e p e n d e n c e , h a v e c lo s e d t h e i r ra n k s w ith u s s in c e r e ly a n d u n s e lfis h ly ? W o u l d t h e r e g im e n ts o f G e n e r a l W a l k e r h a v e g o n e t o T s a r i ts y n , a n d w o u ld t h e r if le m e n o f G e n e r a l d ’A n s e lm e h a v e g o n e to K iev ? F in a lly , w o u ld t h e m o r ­ a le o f t h e R u s s i a n A r m y h a v e b e e n b u o y e d u p g o in g i n t o b a t t l e fo r a “ F e d e ra l R e p u b lic ? ” O f c o u r s e n o t. T h e w h e e l o f h is to r y w as n o t t u r n e d b y d e c la r a tio n s a n d f o r m u la s .25 P e r h a p s D e n i k i n w as r i g h t. B o t h s id e s w e re c le a rly a t f a u l t. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t w a s h e a n d n o t t h e A llie s w h o s t o o d t o lo s e t h e m o s t. W h e n i t b e c a m e c le a r t h a t t h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts w o u ld n o t p r o v id e t h e k i n d o f i n t e r v e n t i o n w h ic h h e s o u g h t — t h a t is, m o r e m ilita r y

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a s s is ta n c e a n d s till less p o litic a l le c t u r i n g — w o u ld i t n o t h a v e b e e n w ise t o c o m p r o m i s e h is id e a ls o n g r o u n d s o f e x p e d ie n c y ? W o u l d n o t t h e l i t t l e a id t h a t w as g iv e n h a v e b e e n f a r m o r e e ff e c tiv e if t h e m a j o r fo rc e s in t h e S o u th h a d a c c e p t e d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o u n i t e w h ic h t h e A llie s te n t a t i v e l y o ff e re d i n s te a d o f f ig h ti n g a m o n g th e m s e lv e s ? A t le a s t i t c a n b e s a id f o r D e n i k i n t h a t h e d id n o t s t o o p t o a p o lic y o f d e c e p t io n o n th i s m a t t e r . H e w o u ld n o t d e c la r e s u p p o r t f o r t h e s e p a r a ti o n o f p a r ts o f R u s s ia ju s t as a r u s e d e g u e r r e , w i t h t h e i n t e n ­ t i o n o f t u r n i n g o n t h e a llie s th u s w o n o v e r o n c e h e h a d b e e n v ic t o r i­ o u s .26 D e n i k i n

w as, in d e e d , a m a n

w ho

(in

C h u r c h i l l 's

w o rd s)

“ p o s s e s s e d b o t h t h e q u a litie s a n d l i m i t a t i o n s o f a t o u g h , s e n s ib le , s te a d y a n d h o n o u r a b l e m i li ta r y m a n .” 27 H is t o r y a n d n o t h e p r e p a r e d t h e a n ta g o n i s m w h ic h c r e a t e d th i s g r e a t p r o b l e m , a n d t h e a b s e n c e o f a “ n a ti o n a l c o n s c io u s n e s s ” e m b r a c in g a ll o f t h e p e o p le s o f R u s s ia d e p r iv e d e v e n lib e r a l R u s s ia n s o f t h e a p p e a ls f o r u n i t y w h ic h w o u ld h a v e b e e n e ff e c tiv e in a n o t h e r l a n d .28 I t w a s th i s la c k o f t h e v e ry f o u n ­ d a ti o n s o f d e m o c r a c y a n d u n i t y in R u s s ia w h ic h h a d

f o r so lo n g

f r u s t r a t e d h e r lib e r a l id e a lis ts .29 D e n ik in w as in a v e ry re a l s e n s e a b e a r e r o f t h e t r a d i t i o n s o f t h e R u s s ia n id e a lis ts . H is id e a lis m w o u ld a llo w h i m t o a n s w e r t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t q u e s t io n s o n ly in t h e “ c o r r e c t ” w ay ; e x p e d ie n c y , c o m p r o ­ m is e , m a n e u v e r — t h e h a llm a r k s o f L e n i n i s t ta c t i c s — w e r e a lie n t o h is n a t u r e . A n d in t h e lo n g r u n h is c o n v ic tio n s , w h ic h le d h i m t o d e v o te so m u c h e f f o r t t o o p p o s i n g t h e v e ry c o m p r o m is e s w h ic h w o u ld h a v e s e r v e d h is c a u s e m o s t, p r e v e n t e d h i m

f r o m d o in g w h a t w as n e c e s ­

sa ry to w in . A s M i li u k o v h a s c o m m e n t e d , t h e m o d e r a te s o f R u s s ia r e m a in e d to o c o n s c i e n ti o u s a ll t h r o u g h t h e r e v o l u ti o n a r y p e r i o d t o c o p e w ith t h e re a lity c o n f r o n t i n g t h e m , a n d e v e n ts q u ic k ly p a s s e d t h e m b y .30 H e r e i n la y t h e g a p b e t w e e n h e r o i s m a n d s t a t e s m a n s h i p . U l t i m a t e l y o n e m u s t c o n c lu d e t h a t d e s p i te t h e c o u r a g e o u s e ff o rts o f s o m e —a n d b o th D e n ik in a n d C h u rc h ill m a y b e in c lu d e d h e re — th e la c k o f p o lic y , t h e k i n d o f p o lic y a n d p r o g r a m r e q u i r e d f o r a s t r u g g le in t h e c o n t e x t o f r e v o l u ti o n a n d civ il w a r, w a s f a ta l fo r b o t h t h e A llie s a n d t h e V o l u n t e e r s in R u s s ia . T h e w h o le b lo o d y a n d c o s tly a ff a ir o f t h e A llie d in v o l v e m e n t a n d t h e a n ti- B o ls h e v ik w a r, a l t h o u g h i t m i g h t h a v e r e s u lte d in a m o m e n t o u s v ic to r y w ith f a r - r e a c h in g i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n s e q u e n c e s , w as in t h e e n d r e d u c e d b y d iv i d e d c o u n s e ls , p r o c r a s t i ­ n a t i o n , a n d i n c o m p e t e n c e to t h e p o i n t w h e r e “ i t d i d t h e u t m o s t h a r m a n d g a in e d t h e le a s t a d v a n ta g e .” 31 H i s t o r y h a s w r i t t e n t h e e p i t a p h to th i s fa ilu r e in w h a t fo llo w e d .

NOTES

CHAPTER

I: T H E

D IS IN T E G R A T IO N

O F R U S S IA

1 O n t h e c ir c u m s ta n c e s o f t h e a rre s t o f t h e g e n e ra ls, see R . P . B ro w d e r a n d A . F . K e re n sk y , e d s., T h e R u s s i a n P r o v i s i o n a l G o v e r n m e n t , 1 9 1 7 : D o c u m e n t s , 3 vols. ( S ta n f o r d :

S ta n f o r d

U n iv e rs ity P ress,

1 9 6 1 ) , V o l. I l l , p . 1 5 2 3 ff., a n d A . S.

L u k o m s k ii, V o s p o m in a n ii a ( B e r lin : O t t o K irc h n e r, 1 9 2 2 ) , V o l. I, p . 2 4 5 ff. 2 F o r t h e W e s t e r n re s p o n s e to th e M a r c h R e v o lu tio n , see, fo r e x a m p le , t h e L o n ­ d o n T i m e s , M a r c h 19, 1 9 1 7 ; P e t i t e r e p u b l i q u e ( P a r i s ) , M a r c h 18, 1 9 1 7 .

B ritis h

L a b o u r le a d e r s a n d F r e n c h s o c ia lis t m in is te rs b o t h s e n t c o n g ra tu la to ry n o te s to K e re n s k ii as t h e re p re s e n ta tiv e o f th e L e f t in th e n e w g o v e rn m e n t. S ee L o n d o n T im e s , M arch

17, 1 9 1 7 , a n d D a v id L lo y d G e o rg e , T h e W a r M e m o i r s o f D a v i d

L lo y d G e o rg e

( L o n d o n : Iv o r N ic h o ls o n a n d W a t s o n , 1 9 3 6 ) , V o l. I l l , p p . 5 0 5 -

5 0 8 . F o r m o r e d e ta ile d a c c o u n ts o f th e e v e n ts re la te d in th is c h a p te r , see D a v id F o o tm a n , C i v i l W a r in R u s s ia ( L o n d o n : F a b e r a n d F a b e r, 1 9 6 1 ) ; R ic h a r d P ip e s , T h e F o r m a tio n o f th e S o v ie t U n io n , C o m m u n is m a n d N a tio n a lis m , 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 3 ( C a m b r id g e : H a rv a rd U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 5 4 ) ; R . D . W a r t h , T h e A l l i e s a n d t h e R u ss ia n

R e v o lu tio n

(D u rh a m :

D u k e U n iv e rs ity P ress,

1 9 5 4 ); G . F . K ennan,

S o v i e t - A m e r i c a n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 0 , V o l. I, R u s s ia L e a v e s t h e W a r ( P r in c e t o n :

P r in c e to n

U n iv e rs ity P ress,

1 9 5 6 ) ; a n d R . H . U llm a n , A n g l o - S o v i e t R e l a t i o n s ,

1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 1 , V o l. I, I n t e r v e n t i o n a n d t h e W a r

( P r in c e t o n : P r in c e to n U n iv e rs ity

P re s s, 1 9 6 1 ) . 3 S e e C . K . C u m m in g a n d W . W . P e t t i t , e d s., R u s s ia n -A m e ric a n R e l a t i o n s , M a rch

1 9 1 7 -M a rc h

1 9 2 0 : D o c u m e n ts a n d P a p ers

( N e w Y o rk : H a r c o u r t, B ra ce

a n d H o w e , 1 9 2 0 ) , p p . 4 - 6 . C f. M a u r ic e P a lé o lo g u e , A n A m b a s s a d o r ’s M e m o i r s ( L o n d o n : H u tc h in s o n , 1 9 2 3 ) , V o l. I l l , p p . 2 4 8 , 2 5 4 ; S ir G e o rg e B u c h a n a n , M y M is s io n

t o R u s s ia a n d O t h e r D i p l o m a t i c M e m o r i e s

( L o n d o n : C a s s e ll a n d C o .,

L t d ., 1 9 2 3 ) , V o l. II , p p . 9 0 - 9 1 ; a n d M a jo r G e n e r a l S ir A lfre d K n o x , W i t h t h e R u ss ia n A r m y , 1 9 1 4 -1 9 1 7

( L o n d o n : H u tc h in s o n , 1 9 2 1 ) , V o l. II , p . 5 8 4 . 4 F . A . G o ld e r, e d ., D o c u m e n t s o f R u s s ia n H i s t o r y , 1 9 1 4 - 1 9 1 7 ( N e w Y o rk :

C e n t u r y , 1 9 2 7 ) , p p . 3 2 5 - 3 2 9 . S ee a lso I z v e s t i i a ( P e t r o g r a d ) , M a r c h 3 1 , 1 9 1 7 . 5 S ee B ro w d e r a n d K e re n sk y , o p . c i t . , I I , 9 8 9 ff. 6 S ee, f o r e x a m p le , t h e s ta t e m e n t issu ed o n A p ril 9 , a p p e a lin g fo r s u p p o r t to t h e w a r e ffo rt, q u o te d in G o ld e r, o p . c it., p p . 3 2 9 - 3 3 1 . 7 H u m ilia te d b y th is s itu a tio n , K o rn ilo v re s ig n e d h is p o s t o n M a y 13 to r e tu r n to t h e f r o n t. T h e m in is te r o f w a r, G u c h k o v , also re s ig n e d .

293

S ee G o ld e r, o p . c it.,

294

The Volunteer Army

p p . 3 3 5 - 3 3 6 ; a n d W . H . C h a m b e r lin , T h e R u s s ia n R e v o l u t i o n , 1 9 1 7 —1 9 2 1 ( N e w Y o rk : M a c m illa n , 1 9 3 5 ) , V o l. I, p . 1 43. 8 S ee M iliu k o v ’s s ta te m e n ts in a n in te rv ie w in th e M a n c h e s t e r G u a r d ia n , A p ril 26, 1917.

H is re s ig n a tio n w as o n e c o n d itio n s tip u la te d b y t h e s o v ie t b e f o r e it

a g re e d to a p p ro v e t h e p a r tic ip a tio n o f o th e r s o cia lists in th e g o v e r n m e n t. A t t h e s a m e tim e th e g o v e r n m e n t w ith d re w th e a p p o i n t m e n t o f f o r m e r F o r e ig n M in is t e r S a z o n o v as a m b a s s a d o r in L o n d o n . T h a t p o s t re m a in e d v a c a n t w ith C o n s t a n t i n N a b o k o v ( N a b o k o ff) serv in g as c h a rg é d ’affaires.

S ee U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 7; a n d

C . N a b o k o ff, T h e O r d e a l o f a D i p l o m a t ( L o n d o n : D u c k w o r th a n d C o ., 1 9 2 1 ) , pp. 8 2 -8 4 .

D e s p ite th e c h a n g e , th e n e w fo re ig n m in is te r, M . I. T e r e s h c h e n k o ,

q u ic k ly re a ffirm e d R u s s ia ’s a llia n c e w ith th e W e s te r n P o w e rs . S ee U n i t e d S ta te s D e p a r tm e n t o f S ta te , P a p e rs R e l a t i n g t o t h e F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s o f t h e U n i t e d S ta te s ,

1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , 3 vols.

1 9 3 2 ) , V o l. I, p p . 7 5 - 7 7

( W a s h i n g t o n : G o v e r n m e n t P r in tin g O ffice , 1 9 3 1 -

(h e r e a f te r c ite d as F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia ) .

9 V ic to r C h e r n o v , T h e G r e a t R u s s ia n R e v o l u t i o n , tr a n s . P . E . M o se ly

(N e w

H a v e n : Y a le U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 3 6 ) , p . 3 0 3 . C f. A . I. D e n ik in , T h e R u s s i a n T u r ­ m o i l ( L o n d o n : H u tc h in s o n , 1 9 2 2 ) , p . 2 9 4 .

10 K n o x , o p . c i t . , II , 6 4 8 . 11 O n K e re n s k ii’s p o s itio n , see B ro w d e r a n d K e re n sk y , o p . c i t . , I I , 1 0 0 3 ff. F o r a rev iew o f th e M e n s h e v ik a n d S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r y view s d u r in g th is p e r io d , see I. G . T s e r e te lli, V o s p o m i n a n i i a o f e v r a V s k o i r e v o l iu ts ii, 2 vols. (P a r is : M o u t o n a n d C o ., 1 9 6 3 ) , p a rtic u la rly V o l. II , C h a p . 6 a n d a p p e n d ix , p p . 4 0 1 - 4 1 7 . 12 K o rn ilo v h a d a lre a d y in Ju ly s p u rn e d m o n a r c h is t o v e rtu re s to jo in in a p lo t to re s to re th e o ld re g im e a n d h a d a ss u re d fe llo w c o m m a n d e r s t h a t h e w o u ld p o s i­ tiv e ly “ ta k e n o p a r t in a n y R o m a n o v a d v e n t u r e s .” D e n ik in , o p . c i t . , p . 3 0 7 . 13 T h a t th is d is p u te re s u lte d fro m a m is u n d e r s ta n d in g w as la te r te stifie d to b y S a v in k o v , a S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r y a n d K e re n s k ii’s “ p o litic a l c o m m is s a r” in th e W a r M in is try , w h o trie d u n s u c c e ss fu lly to m e d ia te t h e d is p u te . S e e J s p o v e d ’ S a v in k o v a : p r o ts e s s B o r is a S a v in k o v a (B e rlin : “ R u ss k o e E k h o ,” 1 9 2 4 ) , p . 5, a n d B . V .

S a v in k o v , B o r 'b a s b o V s h e v ik a m i ( W a r s a w : Iz d a n ie R u ss k a g o P o litic h e s k a g o K o m ite ta , 1 9 2 0 ) , p p . 3 - 6 .

F o r a s ta t e m e n t o f K o rn ilo v ’s p o s itio n a n d d o c u m e n ts o n

th e a c tiv itie s o f h is s u p p o rte rs , see B ro w d e r a n d K e re n sk y , o p . c it., I I , 9 9 8 ; I I I 1 5 2 7 ff. K o rn ilo v h a d b e e n n a m e d c o m m a n d e r -in -c h ie f in Ju ly . S ee a lso a c c o u n ts in L u k o m s k i, o p . c i t . , I, 2 4 5 ff.; C h a m b e r lin , o p . c i t . , V o l. I, C h a p . 9 ; a n d m a te ria ls in G o ld e r , o p . c i t . , p p . 5 2 1 - 5 2 2 . 14 T h a t th e A llie d m ilita ry re p re s e n ta tiv e s w o u ld h a v e fa v o re d a c o u p to e s ta b ­ lish a s tr o n g e r g o v e r n m e n t is a p p a r e n t fro m th e p o s itio n s o f G e n e r a l K n o x a n d G e n e r a l H e n r i N ie ss e l.

S ee K n o x , o p . c i t . , II , 6 7 7 - 6 7 8 ; a n d H e n r i N ie s s e l, L e

t r i o m p h e d e s b o lc h e v ik s e t la p a ix d e B r e s t - L i t o v s k ; s o u v e n ir s , 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 1 8

( P a r is :

L ib ra irie P lo n , 1 9 4 0 ) , p a s s im . 10 S ee B u c h a n a n , o p . c i t . , I I , 7 5 - 7 6 . F o r a s ta t e m e n t o f th e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts ' c o n c e r n , see th e jo in t n o te c o m p o s e d in S e p te m b e r a n d fin a lly s e n t to K e re n s k ii o n O c to b e r 9 , in F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u ss ia , I, 1 9 6 - 1 9 7 , 2 0 7 - 2 0 8 .

C f . A . I.

D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u tv , 5 vols. (B e rlin : R u s s k o e N a ts io n a l’n o e K n ig o iz d a te l's tv o 1 9 2 1 - 1 9 2 6 ) , V o l. Il', p . 6 3 . 16

A . F . K e re n sk y , T h e C r u c if ix i o n o f L i b e r t y

( N e w Y o rk : J o h n D a y , 1 9 3 4 ) ,

p . 3 5 1 ; L lo y d G e o rg e , o p . c i t . , V , 1 03; B u c h a n a n , o p . c i t . , I I , 1 8 3 - 1 8 4 ; J. N o u -

NOTES

295

le n s, M o n a m b a s s a d e e n R u s s i e S o v i é t i q u e , 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 1 9 (P a r is : P lo n , 1 9 3 3 ) , V o l. I, p . 7 1 . S e e a lso U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 12. 17 L u k o m s k ii, o p . c it., I, 2 5 0 ff. 18 D e n ik in , T h e R u s s i a n T u r m o i l , p. 32 2 ff. B ro w d e r a n d K e re n sk y , o p . c i t . , I I , 9 9 1 ff. 19 S e e S a v in k o v , B o r ’b a s b o l ’s h e v ik a m i,

p.

On

D e n ik in 's view s, see also

6 ff.; R . H . B ru c e L o c k h a rt, M e m o i r s

o f a B r iti s h A g e n t ( L o n d o n : P u tn a m ,

1 9 3 2 ) , p . 1 6 6 ; U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 3 - 4 ; F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u ss ia , I, 2 2 4 ff. 20 F o r a tr e a t m e n t o f L e n i n ’s t h o u g h t a n d h is in flu e n c e o n B o lsh e v ik id e o lo g y , see A lfr e d G . M e y e r, L e n i n i s m ( C a m b r id g e : H a rv a rd U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 5 7 ) .

In

L e n i n ’s o w n w o rk s see e sp e c ia lly V . I. L e n in , P o l n o e s o b r a n ie s o c h in e n ii, 5 th e d i­ tio n , 55 v ols. ( M o s c o w : G o s p o litiz d a t, 1 9 6 0 - 1 9 6 5 ) , V o l. V I , p p . 1 - 1 8 3 ; V o l. X I , p p . 1 - 1 3 1 ; a n d V o l. X X V I , p p . 4 5 - 9 3 , 2 0 9 - 2 6 5 . A ll fu tu r e re fe re n c e s to L e n in ’s w o rk s a re fro m th e 5 th e d itio n (u n le s s o th e rw is e s p e c ifie d ) , w h ic h is c ite d s im p ly as S o c h in e n iia . 21 L e n in , S o c h in e n iia , X I, 4 5 ; X X V I , 1 6 2 , 311 ff.; X X X , 3 9 - 4 0 ; X X X I , 9 1 - 9 2 . 22 I b i d . , X X V I I , 5 0 - 5 1 .

S ee a lso X X V I I , 3 2 5 , 3 2 7 - 3 2 8 , 3 4 1 , a n d X X X I , 9 0 -

9 1 , w h e re h e re p e a ts th is s ta t e m e n t a lm o s t w o rd fo r w o rd in M a r c h 1 9 1 7 . 23 I b i d . , X X X I , 9 0 - 9 2 ; see a lso X X V I I , 51. 24I b id ., X X X I V , 406.

1 4 8 - 1 4 9 , 2 3 3 - 2 3 4 , 4 1 1 ; see a lso X X V I , 3 5 4 - 3 5 5 , X X X I ,

25 U S S R , M in is tr y o f F o r e ig n A ffairs, D o k u m e n ty v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i S S S R , V o l. I (M o s c o w : G o s p o litiz d a t, 1 9 5 7 ) , p . 11. 26 I b i d . , I, 4 1 , 4 3 - 4 4 . 27 F o r a n a c c o u n t o f th e f o r m a tio n o f th e m a n y g o v e rn m e n ts in S o u th R u ssia , see P ip e s , o p . c i t . , e sp e c ia lly C h a p s . 2 - 5 . 28 S ee V . V y n n y c h e n k o , V id r o d z h e n n i a n a ts ii (K ie v a n d V ie n n a , 1 9 2 0 ) , V o l. I I , p . 7 4 ff.; P . K h ry s tiu k , e d ., Z a m i t k y i m a t e r ia ly d o i s to r ii u k ra in s ’k o i rev o liu ts ii

( V ie n n a :

1 9 2 1 ) , V o l. I I ,

U k ra in s ’kii S o ts io l’o h ic h n ii I n s ty tu t, D ru k e rn ia

p.

J. N . V e rn a y ,

51 ff.; a n d A . S h u l’g in , L ' U k r a i n e c o n t r e M o s c o u

(P a r is : F .

A lc a n , 1 9 3 5 ) , p . 125 ff. A h is to ry o f t h e U k ra in e d u r in g th e civ il w a r p e rio d m a y b e f o u n d in J. S. R e s h e ta r, J r., T h e U k r a in ia n R e v o l u t i o n , 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 0

( P r in c e ­

to n : P r in c e to n U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 5 2 ) . 29 S ee D . D o ro s h e n k o , M o i s p o m y n y p r o n e d a v n e - m y n u l e , 1 9 1 4 - 1 9 1 8 , 4 vols. (L v o v : C h e r v o n a K a ly n a, 1 9 2 3 - 1 9 2 4 ) , V o l. II , p . 2 6 ff. G e n e r a l S h c h e rb a c h e v d e c lin e d th e U k ra in ia n re q u e s t t h a t h e m o v e h is h e a d q u a rte r s to Z h ito m ir , p r e ­ fe rr in g to re ta in h is c o n ta c ts in R u m a n ia . g o v e r n m e n t la s te d o n ly u n til J a n u a ry

H is a s s o c ia tio n w ith t h e U k ra in ia n

1918.

O n h is a c tiv itie s , see E . G . v o n

V a l' ( W a h l ) , K is t o r i i b e la g o d v i z h e n ii a ; d e i a t e V n o s t ' G e n e r a l- a d ” iu ta n ta S h c h e rb a c h e v a ( T a l lin : Iz d a n ie a v to ra , 1 9 3 5 ) , p p . 5 - 2 3 .

30 A h ig h ly m ix e d a re a, th e C r im e a h a d a p o p u la tio n ro u g h ly o n e -h a lf R u ss ia n o r U k r a in ia n , o n e -fo u r th T a ta r , a n d th e re m a in d e r le w s, G e rm a n s , G re e k s, P o le s , a n d A rm e n ia n s . F o r a g e n e ra l a c c o u n t o f e v e n ts in th e C rim e a , see P ip e s , o p . c i t . , p p . 7 9 - 8 1 , 1 8 4 - 1 9 0 ; fo r a d e ta ile d d o c u m e n ta r y h is to ry , see A . I. G u k o v sk ii, e d ., “ K ry m s k o e k ra e v o e p r a v ite l’stv o v 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9

g .,” K r a s n y i A r k h i v , V o l. X X I I

( M o s c o w : G o s iz d a t, 1 9 2 7 ) , p p . 9 2 - 1 5 2 ; a n d “ K ry m v 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9 g g .,” K r a s n y i A r k h i v , V o l. X X V I I I

( M o s c o w : G o s iz d a t, 1 9 2 8 ) , p p . 1 4 2 - 1 8 1 ; a n d V o l. X X I X

The Volunteer Army

296 (M o s c o w : G o s iz d a t, 1 9 2 8 ) , p p . 5 5 - 8 5 .

F o r m e m o ir a c c o u n ts fr o m t h e T a t a r

a n d K a d e t p o in ts o f view re s p e c tiv e ly , see D . S e jd a m e t, L a C rim é e : p a ssé , p r e s e n t ( L a u s a n n e : G . V a n e y -B u rn ie r, 1 9 2 1 ) ; a n d M . M . V in a v e r , N a s h e p r a v it e V s tv o ; K r y m s k ii a v o s p o m i n a n ii a , 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9 g g . (P a r is : Iz d a n ie p o s m e r tn o e , 1 9 2 8 ) .

C f. E . K irim a l, D e r n a tio n a le K a m p f d e r K r im tu e r k e n , m i t b e s o n d e r e r B e r u e c k s ic h t i-

g u n g d e r fa h re 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 1 8

( E m s t e t t e n : V e rla g L e c h te , 1 9 5 2 ) .

31 F o r a f ir s t-h a n d a c c o u n t o f e v e n ts in th e D o n , see V . D o b r y n in , L a l u t t e c o n tr e le b o l c h e v i s m e d a n s la R u s s i e m e r i o d io n a le ; p a r t i c i p a t i o n d e s C o s a q u e s d u D on

à lu tte , M ars 1 9 1 7 -M a r s

1920

(P ra g u e : I m p r im e r ie “ M e l a n t r i c h ,”

(a lso in R u s s ia n , B o r ’b a s b o l ’s h e v i z m o m

n a iu g e R o s s i i ) , a n d

1920)

S. V . D e n is o v ,

Z a p is k i: g r a z h d a n s k a ia v o i n a n a iu g e R o s s i i, 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 2 0 g g . ( C o n s t a n t i n o p l e : I z d a ­ n ie a v to ra , T ip o g ra fiia ‘T r e s s a ," 1 9 2 1 ) , B k . I.

F o r d e v e lo p m e n ts in t h e K u b a n ,

see A . P . F ilim o n o v , “ K u b a n ts y , 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 1 8 ,” in A . A . v o n L a m p e , e d ., B e l o e d e lo :

le to p is ’

b e lo i

b o r ’b y

( B e rlin :

R u sskoe

n a ts i o n a l’n o e

K n ig o iz d a te l’s tv o

“ M e d n y i V s a d n ik ,” 1 9 2 6 - 1 9 2 8 ) , V o l. II ; I g n a t B ily i, e d ., T r a g e d i ia k a z a c h e s tv a ; o c h e r k n a te rn u : K a z a c h e s t v o i R o s s i ia , 4 vols. ( P ra g u e a n d P a ris : V o l ’n o e k aza-

c h e s tv o , 1 9 3 3 - 1 9 3 8 ) , V o l. I.

S ee a lso N . N . G o lo v in , R o s s i is k a ia k o n t r - r e v o l i u t -

siia v 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 1 8 g g . (P a r is : B ib lio te k a “ I lliu s tr iro v a n n o i R o s s ii,” 1 9 3 7 ) , V o l. V , B k. 2, C h a p s. 2 3 -2 4 . 32 S ee D o b r y n in , o p . c it., p p . 2 9 - 3 2 . 33 I b i d . , p p . 3 4 - 3 5 . A lth o u g h th e c h a rg e s a g a in s t K a le d in w e re e x a g g e ra te d , h e

h a d e a r lie r b e e n clo se ly a ss o c ia te d w ith th e a rre s te d g e n e ra ls as c o m m a n d e r o f t h e E i g h th A rm y o n th e s o u th w e s te rn f r o n t a n d h a d n o t c o n c e a le d h is s y m p a th y w ith K o rn ilo v ’s p o s itio n . 34 T h e te x ts o f th is tre a ty a n d d e c la r a tio n m a y b e fo u n d in th e V . A . M a k la k o v A rc h iv e s (A rk h iv R u ss k o g o p o s o l’s tv a v P a riz h e , 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 2 3 ) , ( H o o v e r L ib r a r y ) S eries B , P a c k e t I, D o s s ie r 7. S ee a lso D e n ik e n , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , I I , 1 8 2 . A D o n C o ss a c k le a d e r a n d a K a d e t, K h a rla m o v h a d e a rlie r se rv e d as c o m m is s io n e r fo r T r a n s c a u c a s ia . 35 See P ip e s , o p . c i t . , p . 9 3 . 36 O n th e s e e v e n ts in th e C a u c a s u s M o u n ta i n a re a in

1 9 1 7 - 1 9 1 8 , e sp e c ia lly

in D a g e s ta n , see H a id e r B a m m a te , T h e C a u c a s u s P r o b l e m : Q u e s t i o n s C o n c e r n i n g C ir c a s s ia a n d D a g h e s t a n

(B e rn e : S ta e m p fle e t C ie ., 1 9 1 9 ) , p . 22 ff.; a n d A . A .

T a k h o - G o d i, R e v o l i u t s i i a i k o n tr - r e v o li u t s i ia D a g e s t a n e ( M a k h a c h -K a la : D a g e s ta n skii N a u c h .-Is s l. I n s t i t u t , 1 9 2 7 ) , p p . 6 1 - 6 5 , 7 0 ff. C f . N . S a m u rs k ii, ( E f e n d i e v ) , D a g e s ta n ( M o s c o w : G o s iz d a t, 1 9 2 5 ) , p . 131 ff.; N . L . Ia n c h e v s k ii, G r a z h d a n s k a i a

b o r ’b a n a s e v e rn o m K a v k a z e ( R o s to v -o n -D o n : G o s iz d a t, 1 9 2 7 ) , p p . 1 3 4 - 1 3 6 , 1 8 9 ff.; I. B o ris e n k o , S o v e t s k i e r e s p u b l i k i n a S e v e r n o m K a v k a z e v 1 9 1 8 g o d u (R o s to v o n - D o n : G o s iz d a t, 1 9 3 0 ) , V o l. II , p p . 2 3 1 - 2 3 6 .

C f . W . E . D . A lle n a n d P a u l

M u ra to ff, C a u c a s ia n B a tt le f i e ld s : A H i s t o r y o f t h e W a r s o n t h e T u r c o - C a u c a s ia n B order, 1 8 2 8 -1 9 2 1

( C a m b r id g e : C a m b r id g e U n iv e rs ity P re s s, 1 9 5 3 ) , “ T h e D a g e ­

s ta n R e v o l t,” p . 501 ff. 37 F o r a n a c c o u n t o f th is p e rio d in T ra n s c a u c a s ia , see F . K a z e m z a d e h , T h e S tr u g g le f o r T r a n s c a u c a s ia , 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 1

( N e w Y o rk : P h ilo s o p h ic a l L ib ra ry , 1 9 5 1 ) .

C f . P ip e s , o p . c it., p p . 9 8 - 1 0 7 , 1 9 3 - 1 9 5 , 2 0 4 - 2 1 4 . A d o c u m e n ta r y re c o r d m a y b e f o u n d in D o k u m e n t y i m a t e r ia ly p o v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k e Z a k a v k a z ’ia i G r u z ii (T iflis : T i p . P r a v ite l’stv a G r u z in s k o i R e s p u b lik i, 1 9 1 9 ) .

G o o d , a lth o u g h s o m e-

297

NOTES

tim e s p a r tis a n , a c c o u n ts m a y b e f o u n d in Z . D . A v a lo v (A v a lis h v ili), T h e I n d e ­ pendence

o f G e o rg ia in I n t e r n a t i o n a l P o l i t i c s

( L o n d o n : H e a d le y B ro s., 1 9 4 0 ) ;

a n d J. L o r is - M e lik o f, L a r é v o l u t i o n r u s s e e t le s n o u v e l l e s r é p u b l i q u e s tr a n s c a u c a ­ s ie n n e s ( P a r is : F . A lc a n , 1 9 2 0 ) .

S ee a lso J. B u c h a n , e d ., T h e B a lt ic a n d C a u c a ­

s ia n S t a t e s ( B o s to n : H o u g h to n , M ifflin C o ., 1 9 2 3 ) , s e c tio n b y W . E . D . A lle n , p .

2 1 2 ff.; a n d la . M . S h a fir, S e c re ts o f M e n s h e v i k G e o r g ia ; t h e P l o t A g a in s t S o v i e t R u s s ia U n m a s k e d : D o c u m e n t s 1 9 2 2 ).

(L o n d o n :

C o m m u n is t P a rty

o f G r e a t B rita in ,

38 A m o r e c o m p le te re v ie w o f th e s e a n d s u b s e q u e n t d e v e lo p m e n ts in T u r k e s ta n

p.

m a y b e f o u n d in P ip e s , o p . c it.,

88 ff., a n d A . G . P a rk , B o l s h e v i s m in T u r k e ­

( N e w Y o rk : C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 5 7 ) . O n t h e S o v ie t s id e , see S. M . D im a n s h t e in , e d ., R e v o l i u t s i i a i n a ts io n a V n y i v o p r o s , V o l. I l l

s ta n , 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 7

(M o s c o w :

G o s iz d a t,

1 9 3 0 ).

S ee also P . A le k se e n k o v , “ N a ts io n a l’n a ia p o litik a

V r e m e n n o g o P r a v ite l’s tv a v T u r k e s ta n e v N o . 8 / 7 9 , (M o s c o w , 1 9 2 8 ) , p p . 1 2 8 - 1 3 2 .

1 9 1 7 g .,” P r o le ta r s k a ia

R e v o liu ts iia ,

39 T h e n a m e “ V o l u n t e e r " w as u s e d th r o u g h o u t th e c iv il-w ar p e rio d to d e s ig n a te th e a rm y u n its o rg a n iz e d b y A le k se e v a n d s u b s e q u e n tly e x p a n d e d b y G e n e r a ls K o rn ilo v a n d D e n ik in , a lth o u g h th e a rm y s o o n c e a sed to b e e n tire ly v o lu n ta ry a n d , a f te r D o n a n d K u b a n C o ss a c k tro o p s w e re a d d e d to it, its official n a m e b e ­ c a m e th e A r m e d F o rc e s o f S o u th R u ss ia ( A F S R ) .

B e c a u se o f th e c o n tin u ity o f

V o lu n te e r le a d e r s h ip fo r a ll o f th e fo rce s in v o lv e d h e re a f te r th e ir u n ific a tio n , th e n a m e , V o lu n te e r s , w ill b e u s e d to re fe r to th e A F S R as w ell as to t h e o rig in a l o r g a n iz a tio n . 40 S ee D o b r y n in , o p . c it., p p . 33, 37, 4 0 . t h e s itu a tio n a n d s e tt in g f o r th

F o r a s p e e c h b y K a le d in d e s c rib in g

h is p la n s , see “ K a z a c h ’ia k o n tr- re v o liu ts iia ,” in

P io n tk o v s k ii, e d ., G r a z h d a n s k a i a

v o in a

v

R o s s i i,

1 9 1 8 -1 9 2 1

gg.: k h r e s t o m a ti ia

(M o s c o w : I z d a t. K o m . U n iv e rs ite ta im . la . M . S v e rd lo v a , 1 9 2 5 ), p p . 3 9 5 - 3 9 8 . T h e B o lsh e v ik s p la y e d u p o n th e o ld h o s tility b e tw e e n th e C o ss a c k s a n d th e p e a s a n ts, w h ic h w as b a se d la rg e ly u p o n t h e l a t t e r ’s re s e n tm e n t o f th e tr a d itio n a l p riv ileg e s, e sp e c ia lly in la n d o w n e rs h ip , h e ld b y t h e fo rm e r, a n d a lso a t te m p te d to o rg a n iz e w h a t s m a ll “ p r o le ta r ia t” th e r e w as in th e a re a. S ee D o b ry n in , o p . c it., p p . 4 1 - 4 2 . 41 F o r a f ir s t-h a n d d e s c rip tio n o f th e life a n d p s y c h o lo g y o f R u ss ia n officers in th is p e rio d , see I. A . P o lia k o v , “ G e n e r a l K o rn ilo v ”

(M S , C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity

R u s s ia n A r c h iv e ) . T h e A rm y 's d e p e n d e n c e a lm o s t e n tire ly o n officers in its first m o n th s , a n d to a lesser e x te n t th r o u g h o u t t h e w ar, te n d e d to give it a c o n se rv a tiv e le a n in g w h ic h it c o u ld n e v e r q u ite s h a k e off. A s G e n e r a l D e n ik in h a s n o te d : “ U n ­ d e r th e e x is tin g c o n d itio n s o f re c r u itm e n t, t h e a rm y fro m th e very b e g in n in g b o re a d e e p o rg a n ic d e fic ie n c y a n d a c q u ire d a class c h a r a c te r .” D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , II, 199.

O n th e f o r m a tio n o f th e A rm y a n d e v e n ts in th e D o n , see also

D a v id F o o tm a n , C i v i l W a r in R u s s ia , p . 33 ff. 42 D o b r y n in , o p . c i t . , p p . 3 8 - 3 9 . 43 S ee D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t} ', II , 1 6 0 ; L u k o m s k ii, o p . c i t . , I, 2 7 3 . 44 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , I I , 187* L u k o m s k ii, o p . c i t . , I, 2 7 6 . G e n e r a l R o m a n o v s k ii w as n o ta b ly e x c e p te d fro m th e c h a rg e t h a t th e g e n e ra ls w e re c o u n te r ­ re v o lu tio n a ry . H is re p u ta tio n fo r lib e ra l view s w as la te r, h o w e v e r, to c a u se h im th e o p p o s ite e m b a r r a s s m e n t o f b e in g d e n o u n c e d b y fe llo w officers as a “ s o c ia lis t.” T h e m a jo r ity o f th e officers w e re c o n se rv a tiv e , b u t , c o n tra ry to w id e s p re a d b e lie f, b o th

The Volunteer Army

298

K o rn ilo v a n d D e n ik in w e re m e n o f h u m b le o rig in w h o h a d ta k e n a s ta n d n o t o n ly a g a in s t a r e s to r a tio n o f ts a rism b u t a lso a g a in s t class o r s p e c ia l p riv ile g e s . O n K o r ­ n ilo v 's b e lie fs a n d p la n s fo r m u la te d b y h im a t B y k h o v , as w e ll as R o m a n o v s k ii’s p o s itio n , see D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , I I , 9 8 ; I I I , 1 3 7 ; T h e R u s s ia n T u r ­ m o il, p p . 2 9 4 , 3 07. 45 In th is a n d s u b s e q u e n t m e e tin g s th e c h ie f p o litic a l le a d e rs p a r tic ip a tin g w e re P . N . M iliu k o v , N . N . L 'v o v , P . B . S tru v e , M . M . F e d o ro v , a n d G . N . T r u b e t ­ sk o i. See D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , I I , 1 8 8 ff.; L u k o m s k i, o p . c i t . , I, 2 7 9 ff. B o th A le k se e v a n d K o rn ilo v o ffe re d to leav e t h e a re a if n o a g re e m e n t c o u ld b e r e a c h e d , e x p re ss in g a p e rfe re n c e fo r m o v in g f u r th e r e a s t, A le k se e v to t h e c e n tr a l V o lg a re g io n in S ib e ria a n d K o rn ilo v e ith e r to h is b ir th p la c e , U s t-K a m e n o g o r s k , o r to th e p la c e o f h is early m ilita ry serv ice, T u r k e s ta n .

K o rn ilo v d id n o t g iv e u p

h is in te r e s t in th e e a s te rn te rrito rie s , a lth o u g h h e sta y e d o n in t h e S o u th ; h e s e n t sev eral re p re s e n ta tiv e s to e s ta b lis h c o n ta c ts w ith fo rce s in o th e r are as.

S ee, fo r

e x a m p le , th e a n o n y m o u s a c c o u n t o f t h e m is sio n o f G e n e r a l F lu g to S ib e ria w h ic h w as o rg a n iz e d

in J a n u a ry

1 9 1 8 , “ O t c h e t o k o m a n d iro v k e iz D o b r o v o l’c h e s k o i

A rm ii v S ib ir v 1 9 1 8 g o d u ," A r k h i v R u s s k o i R e v o l i u t s i i , V o l. I X

(B e rlin : Iz d a -

te l's tv o “ S lo v o ," 1 9 2 3 ) , p p . 2 4 3 - 3 0 4 . 46 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , II , 18 9 . 47 T h e R u ss ia n w o rd fo r c o u n c il h e re w as o rig in a lly s o v iet. T h i s te rm , w h ic h c a m e to b e a ss o c ia te d p rim a rily w ith th e B o lsh e v ik s , w as s till f o u n d in f r e q u e n t u se b y a n ti-B o ls h e v ik g ro u p s a t th is tim e .

T o a v o id c o n fu s io n , it w ill b e tr a n s la te d

as c o u n c il w h e n it is u s ed b y th e V o lu n te e r A rm y a n d s im ila r o rg a n iz a tio n s a n d le f t as s o v ie t w h e n it is u sed b y o rg a n iz a tio n s o n th e L e ft, c h ie fly b y th e B o lsh e v ik s a n d M e n s h e v ik s . 48 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , II, 1 90. 49 L u k o m s k ii, o p . c i t . , I, 2 8 3 . 30 F o r S a v in k o v 's o w n a c c o u n t o f h is ro le in th e e a rlie r K o m ilo v -K e re n s k ii d is ­ p u te , see I s p o v e d ’ S a v in k o v a , p. 5. 51 V e n d z ia g o l's k ii w as fo rm e rly c o m m is s a r o f th e 8 th A rm y , a n d A g e ev w as a r e p re s e n ta tiv e o f th e D o n P e a s a n t C o n fe re n c e . II, 191.

D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty ,

52 A c c o r d in g to D e n ik in , b y m id - 1 9 1 9 t h e S p e c ia l C o u n c i l c o n ta in e d 13 ‘‘R i g h t ­ is ts " o u t o f a to ta l m e m b e rs h ip o f 2 4 .

D e n ik in a n d R o m a n o v s k ii c o n tin u e d to

c o n s u lt w ith lib e ra l K a d e ts a n d so cia lists w h o w e re n o t o n t h e C o u n c il, h o w e v e r . S ee ib id ., I V , 2 0 6 - 2 0 7 . 33 I b i d ., II , 1 9 8 - 1 9 9 . )4 T r o ts k ii d e c la re d th e D o n a re a to b e in a s ta te o f w a r w ith S o v ie t R u ss ia o n D e c e m b e r 7 a n d o rd e re d K ry le n k o “ to w ip e off th e fa c é o f th e e a r th t h e c o u n t e r ­ re v o lu tio n a ry re b e llio n o f th e C o ss a c k G e n e r a ls a n d K a d e t b o u rg e o is ie ." J. B u n y a n a n d H . F is h e r, ed s., T h e B o l s h e v i k R e v o l u t i o n , 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 1 8 U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 3 4 ) , p . 4 0 7 . 55 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , II , 1 9 2 .

(S ta n f o r d : S ta n f o r d

In a d d itio n to th e s u b sid y p r o v id e d

b y th e D o n g o v e rn m e n t, th e c h ie f s o u rc e o f in c o m e a t th is s ta g e see m s to h a v e b e e n a n a llo tm e n t o f s ev eral m illio n ru b le s o b ta in e d , w ith th e h e lp o f th e D o n g o v e r n m e n t, fr o m th e R o s to v b ra n c h o f th e R u ss ia n s ta te b a n k . 56 In its e ffo rt to in c re a se its p u b lic s u p p o r t, t h e D o n g o v e r n m e n t h a d b e g u n

299

NOTES

to b r in g n o n -C o s s a c k re p re s e n ta tiv e s in to th e g o v e r n m e n t a n d , a p p e a lin g to th e ir L e f t is t te n d e n c ie s , h a d d e c la r e d t h a t t h e V o lu n te e r A rm y m u s t “ b e u n d e r th e s tr ic t c o n tr o l o f th e U n ifie d G o v e r n m e n t a n d , in c ase o f th e d isco v e ry o f t h e p re s ­ e n c e in t h e A rm y o f c o u n te rre v o lu tio n a ry e le m e n ts , s u c h e le m e n ts w ill b e re m o v e d im m e d ia te ly b e y o n d th e b o rd e rs o f t h e D o n o b la s t ." T h e g o v e r n m e n t a lso c o n ­ s e n te d to th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f a d e le g a tio n to b e s e n t to t h e B o lsh e v ik s to seek “ a c e s s a tio n o f t h e c iv il w a r" w ith in D o n te rrito ry . S ee P io n tk o v s k ii, o p . c it., p p . 3 9 8 -4 0 0 . 57 D o b r y n in , o p . c it., p . 4 7 . 58 I b i d . ,

p.

4 8 . A lth o u g h K a le d in h im s e lf h a d fo re s e e n th e p o s sib ility o f a V o l­

u n te e r w ith d r a w a l, a n d h a d b e e n sp ec ifica lly w a rn e d o f th e lik e lih o o d b y A lek seev o n J a n u a ry 2 9 , h e a p p a r e n tly c o u ld n o t face t h e re a lity o f th is s itu a tio n . See la . M . L iso v o i, e d ., B e l y i a r k h iv : s b o r n i k i m a te ria Jo v , 3 vols. (P a ris : 1 9 2 6 - 1 9 2 8 ) , V o l. I, p p . 9 9 - 1 0 0 . 59 D o b r y n in , o p . c i t . , p . 52. 60 F o r a c c o u n ts o f th e e n try o f t h e V o lu n te e rs in to th e K u b a n , see A . P . F ili­ m o n o v , “ K u b a n ts y , 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 1 8 ,” lo c . c i t . , a n d K . N . N ik o la e v , “ P e rv y i K u b a n sk ii p o k h o d , ” M . A . G o lu b o v , “ S il'n y e d u k h o m ,” a n d A . F ilim o v o v , “ K a z a c h ’i nastr o e n iia ,” in th e N ik o la e v P a p e rs (C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity R u ss ia n A r c h iv e ) . B y ch h a d e a rlie r b e e n a m e m b e r o f t h e B a k u m u n ic ip a l g o v e rn m e n t a n d w as a ffiliate d w ith th e S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r y p a rty .

F o r a s ta t e m e n t b y th e K u b a n R a d a a n d

s p e e c h e s b y p e rs o n s a ss o c ia te d w ith B y ch s e ttin g fo r th th e ir p o s itio n , see P i o n t ­ k o v sk ii, o p . c i t . , p p . 4 6 1 - 4 6 7 . 61 G . K . P o k ro v sk ii, D e n ik in s h c h in a : g o d p o l i t i k i i e k o n o m i k i n a K u b a n i , 1 9 1 8 1 9 1 9 g g . ( B e r lin : I z d a te l’stv o Z . I. G r z h e b in a , 1 9 2 3 ) , p p . 6 2 - 6 3 .

S ee a lso P i o n t ­

k o v sk ii, o p . c i t . , p . 46 1 ff. 62 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t v , II, 2 5 4 . 63 I b i d . , p . 2 7 7 . 64 F o r a s lig h tly d iff e r e n t v e rsio n o f th e s e e v e n ts, see A . P . F ilim o n o v , “ N a s h d o lg ,” in “ P e r v o p o k h o d n ik ,” p p . 9 - 1 0 , N ik o la e v P a p e rs .

F o r th e te x t o f th e

a g r e e m e n t, see D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , II, 2 7 9 . I t w as sig n e d b y G e n e r a ls K o rn ilo v , A le k se e v , D e n ik in , E r d e li, R o m a n o v s k ii, A ta m a n F ilim o n o v , B y ch , R iab o v o l, a n d S u lta n S h a k h im - G ire i. 65 K u b a n in f a n tr y w as p la c e d in G e n e r a l M a rk o v 's b rig a d e , a n d K u b a n cav alry in G e n e r a l E r d e li's . 66 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , II , 2 8 3 . 67 S ee a c c o u n ts in V . N . B irk in , “ P o v e s ti m in u v s h ik h l e t,” V o l. V I I , “ K o rn ilo v sk ii p o k h o d , ” M S , a n d “ P e rv o p o k h o d n ik ,” N ik o la e v P a p e rs . 68 F o r a re v ie w o f D e n ik in ’s c a re e r, see h is T h e R u s s ia n T u r m o i l , p a s s i m . A n e x p o s itio n o f h is view s a n d p o lic ie s m a y b e f o u n d in h is O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , IV , 201 ff. 69 S ee D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , II, 303 ff. 70 S ee W a r t h , o p . c i t . , p . 1 6 8 ff. 71 A m b a s s a d o r F ra n c is , fo r e x a m p le , te le g ra p h e d a r e p o r t to W a s h in g to n

in

w h ic h h e d e e m e d it “ n o t im p r o b a b le ” t h a t L e n in w as “ w o rk in g fo r G e rm a n y ],) w h o s e p la n is to e n c o u r a g e civil s trife in R u ssia so t h a t G e rm a n tro o p s w ill b e c a lle d to r e s to re o rd e r a n d th e n [a] s e p a ra te p e a c e [can be] n e g o tia te d o n te rm s

The Volunteer Army

300

fa v o ra b le to G e rm a n y a n d d is a s tro u s to R u s s ia .” F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s i a , 1, 2 4 5 .

I t is c le a r t h a t G e rm a n y s u p p lie d “ la rg e a m o u n ts o f m o n e y ” ( in G e n e r a l

L u d e n d o r f f ’s w o rd s ) to th e B o lsh e v ik s b o t h b e fo re a n d a f te r th e N o v e m b e r c o u p , b u t it is u n lik e ly t h a t th e B o lsh e v ik s fe lt a n y o b lig a tio n to w a rd G e r m a n y o n th is a c c o u n t. I n d e e d , L e n in a n d h is p a rty c a m e to p o w e r w ith a p ro g r a m w h ic h c a lle d fo r th e im m e d ia te s p re a d o f re v o lu tio n to G e rm a n y , b u t it is tr u e t h a t t h e a b ility o f th e p a rty to seize p o w e r a n d k e e p it w as im p ro v e d b y G e r m a n fin a n c ia l s u p p o r t. G e r m a n y h a d m a d e it p o s sib le fo r L e n in a n d o th e rs to r e tu r n to R u ss ia b e c a u s e it w as d e e m e d in th e in te re s t o f th e C e n t r a l P o w e rs t h a t “ th e in flu e n c e o f t h e ra d ic a l w in g o f th e R u ss ia n re v o lu tio n a rie s s h o u ld p re v a il.”

H o w e v e r, t h e m o tiv e s o f t h e

B o lsh e v ik s w e re n o t tr u s te d b y th e G e rm a n s , a n d t h e l a tte r w o u ld s o o n b e g in c o n s id e rin g t h e o v e rth ro w o f th e S o v ie t re g im e a t t h e s a m e tim e as c o n tin u in g to s u p p o r t it w ith m o n e y fo r s o m e m o n th s .

F o r d o c u m e n ta r y e v id e n c e o n th is q u e s ­

tio n , see Z. A . B . Z e m a n , e d ., G e rm a n y a n d t h e R e v o l u t i o n in R u s s ia , 1 9 1 5 - 1 9 1 8 : D o c u m e n t s fr o m t h e A r c h iv e s o f t h e G e r m a n F o r e ig n M i n i s t r y ( L o n d o n : O x f o r d

U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 5 8 ) , e sp e c ia lly d o c u m e n ts N o s . 15, 51, 57, 7 1 , 9 2 , 1 2 4 , 1 3 1 , 133, a n d 135. 72 B u n y a n a n d F is h e r, o p . c it., p p . 2 3 3 , 2 4 3 . 73 I b i d . , p p . 2 4 5 , 4 0 3 . T h e A llie d a m b a s s a d o rs o rd e re d a s t a t e m e n t o f p r o te s t

a g a in s t th e a rm is tic e p ro p o s a l o n N o v e m b e r 2 2 a fte r re c e iv in g in s tr u c tio n s fr o m th e ir g o v e r n m e n ts .

S ee F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , I, 2 4 8 ; U llm a n , o p . c it.,

I, 2 2 ; K e n n a n , o p . c it., I, 9 0 - 9 1 , 9 3 . T h e q u o ta tio n c ite d h e r e is fr o m t h e F r e n c h a p p e a l to D u k h o n in , s e n t to M o g ile v th r o u g h G e n e r a l B e r th e lo t’s h e a d q u a r t e r s in Jassy, R u m a n ia , w h ic h also s e n t a s im ila r n o te to G e n e r a l D . G . S h c h e r b a c h e v , R u ss ia n c o m m a n d e r o n th e R u m a n ia n fr o n t. S ee a lso E . M o u lis a n d E . B e r g o n ie r, e d s., E n m a r g e d u c o n ß i c t m o n d i a l ; la g u e r r e e n t r e le s a llié s e t la R u s s i e , 1 9 1 8 1920

(P a r is : L ib ra irie g e n e ra le d e d o it e t d e ju ris p ru d e n c e . Im p r im e r ie I L J e h a n ,

1 9 3 7 ) , p p . 2 1 - 2 2 ; F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u ss ia , I, 2 7 2 ; a n d L o u is F is c h e r , T h e S o v i e t in W o r l d A ffa ir s ( P r in c e t o n : P r in c e to n U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 5 1 ) , V o l.

I, p . 2 0 . 74 F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , I, 2 5 1 . 75 B u n y a n a n d F is h e r, o p . c i t . , p p . 2 6 7 - 2 6 8 . W h e n th e B o ls h e v ik d e t a c h m e n t u n d e r K ry le n k o w as a p p ro a c h in g M o g ile v o n D e c e m b e r 1, D u k h o n i n in f o r m e d K o rn ilo v a n d th e o th e r g e n e ra ls a t B y k h o v o f t h e d a n g e r a n d o ffe re d to a id in t h e ir e sc a p e, a lth o u g h h e m a d e n o a t t e m p t to e sc a p e h im s e lf.

M o s t o f t h e g e n e r a ls a t

B y k h o v le f t in d iv id u a lly in d is g u ise , b u t K o rn ilo v le f t a t th e h e a d o f t h e s m a ll b a n d o f tro o p s , h is “ g u a rd s ” a t th e p ris o n , w h o h a d re m a in e d lo y a l to h i m . A ll o f th e B y k h o v tsy h e a d e d s o u th fo r t h e D o n . 76 B u c h a n a n , o p . c i t . , I I , 2 2 5 - 2 2 6 .

B u c h a n a n h im s e lf e x p re ss e d d o u b ts as to

th e v a lid ity o f th is view a n d s ta te d t h a t “ ev ery d a y t h a t w e k e e p R u ss ia in t h e w a r a g a in s t h e r w ill d o e s b u t e m b i t t e r h e r p e o p le a g a in s t u s .” I b i d . , F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , I, 2 3 8 .

p.

221.

S e e a lso

77 S ee U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 2 5 - 2 8 . 78 S ee F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , I, 2 4 4 ff.; a n d J. F . N . B ra d le y , “ T h e A llies a n d R u ssia in th e L i g h t o f F r e n c h A rc h iv e s ,” S o v i e t S t u d i e s , V o l. X V I , N o . 2 ( O c to b e r 1 9 6 4 ) , p . 1 7 7 . 79 T l ie te x t o f th e a rm is tic e is in D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , I, 4 7 - 5 1 .

It

301

NOTES

w as to e x te n d o n ly u n til J a n u a ry 14, a n d u n d e r its te rm s th e r e w as to b e n o f u r t h e r tr a n s f e r o f G e r m a n tro o p s to th e w e st.

H o w e v e r, th e p r o h ib i tio n a g a in s t

th e tr a n s f e r o f tro o p s a p p lie d o n ly to th o s e n o t a lre a d y o rd e re d to m o v e , a n d a p p a r e n tly th e G e rm a n s h a d a lre a d y is su e d o rd e rs fo r th e m a jo r tra n s fe rs . S ee J. W . W h e e le r - B e n n e t, T h e F o r g o t t e n P e a c e : B r e s t - L i t o v s k , M a r c h 1 9 1 8 (L o n d o n : M a c m illa n , 1 9 3 8 ) , p . 8 9 ; U llm a n , o p . c it., I, 32. so D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , I, 7 0 . O n T r o ts k i i’s a ttitu d e s a n d a c tio n s d u r ­ in g th is tim e , a n d in t h e p e a c e ta lk s , see I. D e u ts c h e r, T h e P r o p h e t A r m e d (N e w Y o rk : O x f o r d U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 5 4 ) , p . 3 4 6 ff. 81 S ee U llm a n , o p . c it., I, 4 2 - 4 3 , 4 6 , 52. 82 B ra d le y , “ T h e A llies a n d R u s s ia ," Joe. c it., p . 1 77. 83 I b i d .

S ee a lso F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , I 9 J 8 , R u s s ia , I I , 6 0 9 , a n d D e n ik in , O c h -

e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , II, 19 2 .

84U n ite d S ta te s D e p a r tm e n t o f S ta te , P a p e r s R e l a t i n g t o t h e F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s o f th e

U n ite d

S ta te s : T h e

L a n s in g

P a p e rs,

1 9 1 4 - 1 9 2 0 , V o l.

G o v e r n m e n t P r in tin g O ffice, 1 9 4 0 ) , p p . 3 4 5 - 3 4 6 . 168, 177. 85 F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , I, 3 3 0 - 3 3 1 .

II

(W a sh in g to n :

See a lso K e n n a n , o p . c i t . , I,

S ee a lso U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 4 6 ,

51, 5 3 - 5 4 . 86 A m o n g th e sev e ra l p la n s p ro p o s e d d u r in g th is p e rio d fo r re s c u in g th e R u m a n ­ ia n g o v e r n m e n t a n d a rm y w as o n e e n v isa g in g th e e v a c u a tio n o f th e fo rm e r , via S o u th R u ss ia , to T ra n s c a u c a s ia , a n d th e jo in in g o f th e la tte r to K a le d in 's a rm y in th e D o n . N o s u c h e v a c u a tio n p ro v e d n e cessary , b u t t h e k in g o f R u m a n ia d id c o n f id e n tia lly o ffer to jo in a m ilitary ’ a llia n c e w ith th e C o ssa ck s if th e A llies w o u ld s u p p o r t it.

S ee K e n n a n , o p . c i t . , I, 197; U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 4 2 ; P a u l C a m b o n ,

C o rresp o n d a n ce,

1 8 7 0 -1 9 2 4

(P a r is : E d itio n s B e rn a rd G ra s s e t, 1 9 4 6 ) , V o l. I l l ,

p . 2 0 3 . T h e B ritis h C a b i n e t h a d o n N o v e m b e r 22 a p p ro v e d e n c o u ra g in g R u m a n ia to c o o p e r a te w ith th e C o ssa ck s, b u t it h a d d e c id e d a g a in s t s u g g e s tin g a n y p a r tic u ­ la r C o s s a c k g o v e r n m e n t so as to a v o id th e a p p e a ra n c e o f re c o g n itio n .

N o th in g

fu r t h e r c a m e o f th e id e a o f a R u m a n ia n - C o s s a c k a llia n c e , b u t o n c e th e B ritis h h a d d e c id e d o n D e c e m b e r 3 to g ive K a le d in fu ll fin a n c ia l s u p p o rt, it w as a s s u m e d t h a t R u m a n ia w o u ld b e a m a jo r b a se o f f u tu r e o p e ra tio n s b y A llie d a g e n ts . S ee U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 4 2 - 4 3 , 4 6 .

87 S ee G r e a t B rita in ,

F o re ig n

O ffice, D o c u m e n t s

on

B r iti s h

F o r e ig n

P o l ic y ,

1 9 1 9 - 1 9 3 9 , F ir s t S eries (h e r e a f te r : D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y ) , V o l. I l l ( L o n ­

d o n : H is M a je s ty ’s S ta tio n e ry O ffice , 1 9 4 9 ) , p p . 3 6 9 - 3 7 0 . skii, A n t a n t a i O k t i a b r ’s k a ia r e v o l iu ts iia

(M o s c o w :

S ee also A . I. G u k o v -

G o s u d a rs tv e n n o e S o ts ia l’n o-

e k o n o m ic h e s k o e I z d a te l’s tv o , 1 9 3 1 ) , p . 100 ff., a n d F is c h e r, o p . c i t . , II, 8 3 6 . As m a n y h a v e n o te d , th e A n g lo -F re n c h a c c o rd c o rre s p o n d e d to s o m e e x te n t w ith th e p a tte r n o f B ritis h a n d F r e n c h in v e s tm e n ts in R u ssia p rio r to th e w ar. T h e T r a n s ­ c a u c a sia n are a, b o rd e rin g o n th e M id d le E a s te rn c o u n trie s , a n d its o il h a d b e e n o f c o n c e r n to t h e B ritis h , w h ile F r e n c h in te re s t h a d c e n te r e d e sp e c ia lly o n th e U k r a in e a n d t h e D o n e ts b a s in . S ee A . I. G u k o v s k ii, F r a n ts u z s k a ia i n te r v e n ts iia na iu g e

R o s s i i,

1 9 1 8 -1 9 1 9

(M o sco w :

G o s iz d a t,

1 9 2 8 ), p.

31. A c c o rd in g to o n e

s o u rc e , F r e n c h in v e s t m e n t a m o u n te d to a r o u n d 7 0 p e r c e n t o f all in v e s tm e n t in th e S o u th , w ith u p to 9 7 p e r c e n t in s o m e a reas.

See A . G . S h lik h te r , e d ., C h e r ­

n a ia k n ig a : s b o r n ik s t a t e i i m a t e r i a l o v o b i n t e r v e n t s i i a n ta n ty na U k r a i n e v 1 9 1 8 -

The Volunteer Army

302 1919

gg.

(E k a te rin o s la v -K h a rk o v :

G o s iz d a t U k ra in y ,

1 9 2 5 ), p.

20.

On

th e s e

e c o n o m ic in flu e n c e s, see a lso R . L a b ry , “ N o tr e p o litiq u e e n R u ss ie , les m é th o d e s , les h o m m e s ,” M e r c u r e d e F r a n c e , V o l. C X X X V I I I ( 1 9 2 0 ) , p p . 7 - 1 0 .

H o w e v e r,

b o t h S o v ie t s o u rc es a n d c e r ta in w o rk s p u b lis h e d in t h e W e s t h a v e te n d e d to e x ag ­ g e ra te th e sig n ific a n c e o f th is fa c to r b y re a d in g in to t h e c o n fu s io n o f 1 9 1 7 m o tiv e s a n d p o lic ie s w h ic h a p p e a re d o n ly la te r a n d w e re s e c o n d a ry e v e n th e n .

See, fo r

e x a m p le , L . I. S tra k h o v s k y , “ T h e F ra n c o -B ritis h P lo t to D is m e m b e r R u s s ia ,” C u r ­ r e n t H i s t o r y , V o l. X X X I I I , ( M a r c h 1 9 3 1 ) , p . 8 3 9 , a n d L o u is F is c h e r, O i l I m p e ­ r ia li s m , t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l S tr u g g le l o r P e t r o l e u m

lish e rs, 1 9 2 6 ) .

( N e w Y o rk : I n te r n a tio n a l P u b ­

I n v iew o f th e p re o c c u p a tio n o f t h e A llie d g o v e rn m e n ts w ith t h e

w a r e ffo rt a t th is tim e , a p rim a rily e c o n o m ic i n te r p r e ta tio n see m s u n w a r r a n te d . C f . D . L lo y d G e o rg e , T h e T r u t h A b o u t t h e P e a c e T r e a t i e s ( L o n d o n : V . G o lla n c z , L td ., 1 9 3 8 ) , V o l. I, p p . 3 1 6 - 3 1 7 . 88 T h a t th e B o lsh e v ik s s u s p e c te d A llie d u se o f R u m a n ia as a b a se o f o p e r a ­ tio n s w as in d ic a te d b y t h e so -c alled K a lp a s h n ik o v affa ir in w h ic h a R u s s ia n o fficer serv in g in th e R e d C ro s s w as a rre s te d fo r a lle g e d ly a tte m p t i n g to a id K a le d in . A s h ip m e n t o f a m b u la n c e s in K a lp a s h n ik o v ’s c a re w as to b e s e n t fr o m P e tr o g r a d to Jassy, R u m a n ia , b u t , fe a rin g G e r m a n c a p t u r e o f th e m in R u m a n ia , th e A m e r ­ ic a n R e d C ro s s m is sio n in R u m a n ia h a d o n D e c e m b e r 5 o rd e re d t h e ir d e s ti n a tio n c h a n g e d to R o s to v -o n -D o n w h e re it w as p re s u m e d th e y w o u ld b e safe. W h e n t h e d a n g e r o f G e rm a n c a p tu r e d im in is h e d , th is o r d e r w as c h a n g e d , b u t in th e m e a n tim e t h e B o lsh e v ik s s u s p e c te d a tric k a n d n o t o n ly a rre s te d K a lp a s h n ik o v b u t b e lie v e d o th e rs , in c lu d in g R a y m o n d R o b in s o f t h e A m e ric a n R e d C ro s s , to b e im p lic a te d in a p l o t to a id th e c o u n te rre v o lu tio n a rie s . S ee K e n n a n , o p . c it., I, 191 ff.

I t m ig h t also b e n o te d t h a t in J a n u a ry B o lsh e v ik c o m m is s a rs o n t h e o ld

s o u th w e s te r n f r o n t w e re a d v ise d to ta k e “ th e m o s t r e s o lu te a c tio n a g a in s t th e c o u n te r r e v o lu tio n a ry R o u m a n ia n c o m m a n d , a n d a g a in s t K a le d in 's fo rce s a n d th e a c c o m p lic e s o f th e K ie v R a d a .”

S ee Ja n M . M e ije r, e d ., T h e T ro ts k y P a p e r s ,

1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 2 , V o l. I ( T h e H a g u e : M o u to n a n d C o ., 1 9 6 4 ) , p . 9 .

89 S ee F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u ss ia , II , 5 9 1 , 5 9 5 , 6 0 9 ; D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , I I , 1 9 2 ; U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 52, 56. T h e B ritis h o ffe r w as th e r e s u lt

o f t h e C a b i n e t d e c is io n o f D e c e m b e r 14 to a llo t 10 m illio n p o u n d s fo r K a le d in a n d A le k se e v a n d a n o t h e r 10 m illio n p o u n d s to b e d is tr ib u te d in S o u th R u ss ia as d e e m e d a d v isa b le b y B ritis h re p re s e n ta tiv e s in R u m a n ia . T h e F r e n c h s u p p o r t h a d a lso b e e n a p p ro v e d p r io r to t h e z o n e a g r e e m e n t a n d w as s p ec ifica lly c ite d in th e te x t a t t h e fig u re g iv e n . 90 P r a c tic a l re a liz a tio n o f fu n d s o n t h e b a sis o f th e A llie d c re d its see m s to h a v e b e e n u n e x p e c te d ly d iffic u lt. T h e A m e ric a n c o n s u l, D e W i t t P o o le , Jr., th e n in t h e D o n , r e p o r te d a t th e e n d o f J a n u a ry t h a t C o lo n e l H u c h e r , th e F r e n c h m ilita r y a g e n t w h o c o n ta c te d A le k se e v in D e c e m b e r, th u s fa r h a d o n ly s o m e 5 m illio n ru b le s “ in s ie h t ,” w h ic h h e h a d ra is ed th r o u g h s e llin g F r e n c h d ra fts to b a n k e r s in R o s to v a n d o t h e r S o u th R u s s ia n c itie s. H e e s tim a te d t h a t A le k se e v 's e x p e n s e s w e re a lre a d y r u n n in g to 2 0 m illio n ru b le s p e r m o n t h a n d w e re e x p e c te d to to ta l o v e r 2 0 0 m illio n d u r in g t h e n e x t f o u r m o n th s . S e e F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , I I , 6 1 3 . A le k se e v ’s o w n fin a n c ia l re c o rd s s h o w a r e c e ip t o f o n ly 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 ru b le s f r o m t h e “ F r e n c h M is s io n ” d u r in g J a n u a ry . S ee M . V . A le k se e v , A c c o u n t B o o k ( M S , H o o v e r L ib ra ry ); a n d “ D e n e z h n y e d o k u m e n ty G e n e r a la A le k se e v a ,” A rk h iv R u s s k o i

303

NOTES R e v o l i u t s i i , V o l. V

( B e r lin : I z d a te l’s tv o “ S lo v o ,” 1 9 2 2 ) , p . 3 5 2 .

91 F o r a n a c c o u n t o f th e s e early c o n ta c ts , see A . S h u l'g in , L ' U k r a i n e , Ja R u s s i e e t le s p u is s a n c e s d e J’E n t e n t e (B e rn e : I m p r im e r ie R e u n ie s S. A . L a u s a n n e , 1 9 1 8 ) ,

p . 32 ff.; a n d R e s h e ta r, o p . c it., p . 9 8 . A U k ra in ia n n o te to th e A llie d a m b a s s a ­ d o rs , d a te d N o v e m b e r 2 3 /D e c e m b e r 6 a n d s ig n e d b y S h u l'g in , a ss u re d th e A llies t h a t “ a s e p a ra te p e a c e w i t h o u t th e c o n s e n t o f [our] allies p ro d u c e s in us fe e lin g s o f in d ig n a tio n a n d d is g u s t. . . ." F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , I I , 6 4 9 . V y n n y c h e n k o , o p . c it., I I , 2 4 2 . 92 S e e L e n in , S o c h in e n iia , X X X V , C h a m b e r lin , o p . c i t ., I, 4 8 6 ff.

1 4 3 - 1 4 5 ; R e s h e ta r, o p . c i t . , p p .

C f.

9 5 -9 6 ;

93 F o r d o c u m e n ts o n T a b o u is ’ a p p o in tm e n t, see K h ry s tiu k , o p . c i t . , I I , 1 9 8 ; E . E v a in , L e p r o b l è m e d e l' in d é p e n d a n c e d e l ' U k r a in e e t la F r a n c e (P a ris : L ib r a i­ rie F e lix A lc a n , 1 9 3 1 ) , p p . 1 0 0 - 1 0 8 ; A . M a r g o lin , U k ia in a i p o l i t i k a A n t a n t y ( B e r lin : I z d a te l’s tv o S. E f r o n , 1 9 2 1 ) , A p p e n d ix N o . 2, p p . 3 6 5 - 3 6 8 . O n B ag g e 's a c tiv itie s , see G r e a t B rita in , P a r li a m e n ta r y P a p e r s , 1 9 1 9 , V o l. L I I I , C m d . N o . 8, “ A C o lle c ti o n o f R e p o r ts o n B o lsh e v is m in R u s s ia ," p . 50. W h e n th e F r e n c h a m b a s ­ s a d o r in f o r m e d th e U n ite d S ta te s o n J a n u a ry 9 t h a t d e fa c to re la tio n s w e re b e in g e s ta b lis h e d w ith t h e U k ra in ia n g o v e rn m e n t, L a n s in g w ire d A m b a s s a d o r F r a n c is t h a t th e U n ite d S ta te s w as n o t p re p a re d “ to re c o g n iz e a n y i n d e p e n d e n t g o v e rn ­ m e n ts u n til t h e w ill o f [th e ] R u ss ia n p e o p le h a s b e e n m o re d e fin ite ly ex p re sse d o n th is g e n e r a l s u b je c t."

F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u ss ia , I I , 6 5 5 , 6 5 7 .

A lth o u g h

T a b o u is r e p o r te d ly d e c la r e d t h a t “ official r e c o g n itio n ” h a d b e e n g iv e n to th e U k r a in e ( E v a in , o p . c it., p . 1 0 0 f f .) , it w as g e n e ra lly u n d e rs to o d a t t h e tim e t h a t th e a p p o i n t m e n t o f T a b o u is a n d B ag g e d id n o t c o n s ti tu te d ip lo m a tic re c o g n itio n . S e e F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , I I , 6 5 9 . W h e n th e q u e s tio n o f w h e th e r re c ­ o g n itio n h a d b e e n g iv e n c a m e u p a g a in sev eral m o n t h la te r, F r e n c h F o re ig n M i n ­ is te r P ic h o n d e c la re d fla tly t h a t “ th e a lle g a tio n . . . t h a t F r a n c e a n d E n g la n d h a v e re c o g n iz e d th e U k ra in e is in c o rre c t.

E v e n if th e id e a h a d b e e n e n v isa g e d la st

D e c e m b e r , t h e a t t i t u d e o f th e U k ra in e vis-à-vis th e G e rm a n s w o u ld h a v e d is su a d e d u s ." S ee th e te le g ra m fro m P ic h o n to B e rn e , N o v e m b e r 7, 1 9 1 8 , in th e M a k la k o v A rc h iv e s, S eries B , P a c k e t I, D o ss ie r 6 ( t h e U k r a i n e ) .

F ren c h A m b assad o r N o u -

le n s to o k a s tro n g s ta n d n o t o n ly a g a in s t re c o g n itio n o f th e U k ra in e b u t also a g a in s t t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f T a b o u is .

S ee N o u le n s , o p . c it., I, 2 4 1 .

S p e e c h e s in

t h e F r e n c h A ss e m b ly lo n g a f te r th is tim e a d v o c a te d re c o g n itio n o f t h e U k r a in e a n d im p lie d t h a t it h a d n o t b e e n g iv e n b e c a u s e o f th e h o s tility o f th e F o re ig n M i n ­ is try to w a rd n a tio n a l m o v e m e n ts in R u ss ia . S ee, fo r e x a m p le , th e s p e e c h b y M . d e M o n z ie , in F r a n c e , A ss e m b lé e N a tio n a le , D é b a ts P a rle m e n ta ire s , J o u rn a l O ffi­ c ie l, ( M a r c h 2 7 ) 1 9 2 0 , V o l. I (P a r is : I m p r im e rie des J o u rn a u x O fficiels, 1 9 2 0 ) , p p . 3 9 2 -3 9 4 . 94 T a b o u is p r o m is e d s ig n ific a n t “ fin a n c ia l a n d te c h n ic a l a id . . .

to th e U k ra in e

to assist i t in its g ig a n tic ta s k ," a n d B ag g e s ta t e d t h a t th e B ritis h g o v e r n m e n t w o u ld “ s u p p o r t to th e u tm o s t o f its a b ility th e U k ra in ia n G o v e r n m e n t in t h e ta sk w h ic h it h a s u n d e r ta k e n o f in tr o d u c in g g o o d g o v e rn m e n t, m a in ta in in g o rd e r, a n d c o m b a tin g t h e C e n t r a l P o w e rs w h o a re e n e m ie s o f d e m o c ra c y a n d h u m a n ity . " S ee E v a in , o p . c i t . , p . 10 0 ff.; a n d V y n n y c h e n k o , o p . c it., I I , 2 4 2 .

C f. R e s h e ta r,

o p . c it., p . 9 9.

95 S ee B ritis h F o r e ig n O ffice in te llig e n c e re p o r t o f F e b ru a ry 9 , 1 9 1 8 , in U n ite d

The Volunteer Army

304

S ta te s N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o r e ig n A ffairs S e c tio n , D o c . N o . 8 6 1 .0 0 / 1 2 7 7 . T h e B ritis h C a b i n e t h a d a lso a u th o r iz e d fin a n c ia l s u p p o r t fo r R u s s ia n tro o p s in P e rs ia o n D e c e m b e r 3, a n d in J a n u a ry a R u s s ia n c o m m itte e w as e s ta b lis h e d to d e a l w ith r e la tio n s w ith n o n -B o ls h e v ik e le m e n ts a n d a reas. See U llm a n , o p . c it., I, 5 1 , 8 3 . 96 T h e B ritis h F o re ig n O ffice h a d a lre a d y o n N o v e m b e r 2 0 a u th o r iz e d in p r in ­ c ip le th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f in fo r m a l c o n ta c ts w ith th e B o lsh e v ik g o v e r n m e n t. U llm a n , o p . c it., I, 30. 97 L o c k h a r t, o p . c it., p p . 2 0 1 - 2 0 2 .

S ee

L o c k h a r t h a d a c te d as c o n s u l g e n e r a l in

M o sc o w u n til N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 7 , w h e n h e w as re c a lle d to L o n d o n , w h e re h e s e rv e d te m p o ra rily as a R u s s ia n e x p e r t u n d e r S ir A r th u r S te e l-M a itla n d in t h e D e p a r t ­ m e n t o f O v e rse a s T r a d e . A fte r sev e ra l m e e tin g s w ith m e m b e rs o f th e C a b i n e t, h e f o u n d L lo y d G e o rg e “ g re a tly im p r e s s e d " b y th o s e w h o c ritic iz e d “ t h e fo lly o f t h e A llies in n o t o p e n in g u p n e g o tia tio n s w ith th e B o ls h e v ik s ," b u t h e also f o u n d L o r d R o b e r t C e c il, t h e u n d e r s e c re ta ry fo r fo re ig n affairs, “ s u p re m e ly s c e p tic a l o f t h e u s e fu ln e s s o f e s ta b lis h in g a n y k in d o f re la tio n s w ith t h e B o ls h e v ik s ," s in c e h e b e lie v e d t h a t “ L e n in a n d T r o ts k y w e re p a id a g e n ts o f G e rm a n y . . . ." I b i d . , p . 1 9 7 ff. A m b a s s a d o r B u c h a n a n n o w fe lt t h a t s o m e re la tio n s w ith t h e B o lsh e v ik s w e re n ece ssa ry , s in c e “ a c o m p le te r u p tu r e w o u ld leav e t h e G e rm a n s a c le a r field in R u ss ia . . . ." S ee B u c h a n a n , o p . c it., II , 2 4 6 . 98 L o c k h a r t, o p . c it., p . 2 0 5 .

F o r a n e x p la n a tio n o f L o c k h a r t’s m is sio n to S e c ­

re ta ry o f S ta te L a n s in g , see F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , I, 3 3 7 . o p . c i t . , I, 58 ff.

C f . U llm a n ,

99 F o r S a d o u l’s o w n a c c o u n t o f h is a c tiv itie s in R u ss ia , see J a c q u e s S a d o u l, (P a r is : E d i tio n s

N o t e s s û r la re v o lu tio n B o l c h e v i q u e , O c t o b r e 1 9 1 7 - J a n v i e r 1 9 1 9

d e la S ire n e , 1 9 1 9 ) . 100 F r a n c e , A ss e m b lé e N a tio n a le , A n n a le s d e la c h a m b r e d e s d é p u t é s , D é b a t s p a r le m e n ta ir e s ,

1 9 1 7 , T o m e I I I , p p . 3 7 9 4 - 3 7 9 5 , sessio n o f D e c e m b e r 2 7 . T h e

A llie d m ilita r y re p re s e n ta tiv e s in th e S u p r e m e W a r C o u n c i l h a d a lre a d y in D e c e m ­ b e r d e c la r e d th e ir o p in io n t h a t th e B o lsh e v ik s w e re “ a ss is te d a n d c o n tr o lle d b y th e G e r m a n s ." S ee U llm a n , o p . c it., I, 56. 101 S ee L e n in ’s s ta t e m e n t to th e 7 t h P a rty C o n g re s s o n M a r c h s"ezd R K P (b ), M art (M o s c o w : G o s p o litiz d a t, 1 9 6 2 ) , p. 1 1 1 .

S e d ’m o i

e k s tr e n n y i

1918

goda,

8, 1 9 1 8 , in

S te n o g r a ß c h e s k i i

o tc h e t

102 F o r r e p o rts b y t h e A llie d m in is te rs in R u m a n ia o n n e g o tia tio n s w ith

th e

U k ra in ia n s , see F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , I I , 6 6 0 - 6 6 5 . T h e U k ra in ia n d e le ­ g a tio n s e n t to Jassy fo r th e s e n e g o tia tio n s w as h e a d e d b y V ic e M in is t e r o f F o r e ig n A ffairs H a lip a n d M in is t e r o f F in a n c e H a lis in s k ii. T h e A llie d m in is te rs in v o lv e d w e re

C h a r le s

V o p ic k a

(U n ite d

S ta te s ),

A u la ire ( F r a n c e ) , a n d A u r itt e ( I t a l y ) .

S ir G e o rg e

B a rclay

(B rita in ),

S a in t-

F o r s ta t e m e n ts o n U k ra in ia n p o lic y a t th is

p o in t, see K h ry s tiu k , o p . c i t . , I I , 9 5 ff., a n d V y n n y c h e n k o , o p . c i t . , II , 2 4 4 ff. 103 S ee M i r n y e p e r e g o v o r y v B r e s t - L i t o v s k e ; p o ln y i t e k s t S te n o g r a m m , V o l. I (M o s c o w : I z d a te l's tv o N K I D , 1 9 2 0 ) , e sp e c ia lly p p . 9 4 - 9 6 , 1 2 6 , 1 5 6 . 104 S ee L e n in , S o c h in e n iia , X X X V , 1 7 9 - 1 8 0 , 2 4 6 - 2 4 7 , 4 7 2 . 105 S ee S e d ' m o i e k s t r e n n y i s ’e z d R K P ( b ) , p rilo z h e n iia , p p . 2 9 9 , 3 2 1 ; a n d P r o t o k o l y t s e n t r a l ’n o g o

k o m ite ta

R S D R P ( b ) , A v g u s t 1 9 1 7 - F e v r a l’ 1 9 1 8

(M o s c o w :

G o s p o litiz d a t, 1 9 5 8 ) , p p . 1 6 9 - 1 7 1 , 1 9 8 . 10(5 A m b a s s a d o rs F ra n c is a n d N o u lc n s b o t h in fo rm a lly a u th o r iz e d th is a s s u ra n c e

305

NOTES b u t w i t h o u t a n y c o m m i t m e n t o f t h e ir re s p e c tiv e g o v e rn m e n ts . c i t . , I, 1 5 3 - 1 5 4 ; F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , I, 4 1 8 .

S ee N o u le n s , o p .

C f. K e n n a n , o p . c i t . , I,

2 3 4 - 2 3 9 , a n d a p p e n d ix p p . 5 2 1 - 5 2 2 . 107 M ir n y e p e re g o v o ry v B r e s t - L i t o v s k e , I, 1 2 6 . 108 F o r a n E n g lis h tra n s la tio n o f th e p e a c e tre a ty b e tw e e n th e U k ra in e a n d th e C e n t r a l P o w e rs , see F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , I I , 6 6 5 - 6 7 1 . T h e U k ra in ia n s a t first a sk e d G e r m a n y o n ly fo r a ss is ta n c e in jo in in g G a lic ia n tro o p s to o th e r U k r a in ia n fo rce s fo r d e fe n s e a g a in s t th e B o lsh e v ik s a n d fo r th e re le a se o f U k r a in ­ ia n p ris o n e rs o f w a r b e in g h e ld b y th e C e n t r a l P o w e rs . W h e n it b e c a m e o b v io u s t h a t d ir e c t G e r m a n m ilita r y a id w o u ld b e n e ce ssa ry , t h e U k ra in e t h e n s o u g h t G e rm a n

a g r e e m e n t to

a

lim ite d

m ilita r y

in te r v e n tio n

a lo n g

th e

b o r d e r w ith

R u ss ia w it h o u t o c c u p a tio n o f th e in te rio r . T h e G e rm a n s re je c te d a ll s u c h h a lf ­ w ay m e a s u re s , h o w e v e r, a n d u ltim a te ly t h e R a d a w as o b lig e d to a c c e p t u n r e s tr ic te d G e r m a n “ a id ." H o w e v e r, it p u b lic ly a n n o u n c e d t h a t U k ra in ia n s o v e re ig n ty a n d in d e p e n d e n c e w o u ld b e re s p e c te d b y th e “ lib e ra to rs ."

S ee K h ry s tiu k , o p . c it., I I ,

1 3 9 - 1 4 3 . F o r t h e s ta t e m e n t o f t h e G e r m a n p o s itio n to T r o ts k ii o n F e b r u a r y 9 , see M ir n y e p e re g o v o ry v B r e s t - L i t o v s k e , I, 1 8 5 . 109 P i o t o k o l y

ts e n tia ïn o g o

k o m ite ta

R S D R P (b ),

pp.

173,

1 9 0 - 1 9 1 ; S e d ’m o i

e k s t r e n n y i s ” e z d R K P ( b ) , p p . I l l , 2 8 3 . E v e n L e n in ’s fa ith in G e r m a n re v o lu tio n

h a d b e e n re v iv e d a t th is p o i n t b y re p o rts o f th e fo r m a tio n o f “ s o v ie ts ” in B e rlin a n d V ie n n a , a n d h e o p tim is tic a lly p re d ic te d t h a t t h e G e r m a n C o m m u n is t le a d e r, K a rl L ie b k n e c h t, w o u ld “ s o o n s ta n d a t th e h e a d o f t h e G e r m a n G o v e r n m e n t.” A few d ay s la te r, h o w e v e r, h is p e ss im is m

had

r e tu r n e d . S ee L e n in , S o c h in e n iia ,

X X X V , 2 5 1 -2 5 2 , 321. 110 D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , I, 1 0 5 .

F o r a d is c u s s io n o f th e G e r m a n d e c i­

sio n to a tta c k a n d to ju s tify th is a c tio n b y T r o ts k i i’s re fu sa l to sig n t h e p e a c e , see E . L u d e n d o r f f , L u d e n d o r f f ’s O w n S t o r y ( N e w Y o rk : H a r p e r a n d B ro th e rs , 1 9 1 9 ) , V o l. I I . p . 181 ff.; M . H o ffm a n n , W a r D ia r ie s a n d O t h e r P a p e rs ( L o n d o n : M a r tin S e e k er, 1 9 2 9 ) , V o l. II , p . 2 1 8 ff. C f . W a r t h , o p . c i t . , p . 2 2 5 ff. 111 P r o t o k o l y ts e n tr a V n o g o k o m i t e t a R S D R P ( b ) , p p . 1 9 4 - 1 9 5 , 1 9 8 - 1 9 9 .

112 I b i d . , p p . 2 0 0 - 2 0 4 .

S ee a lso D e u ts c h e r, o p . c i t . , p p . 3 8 3 , 3 9 1 .

113 D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , I, 7 9 , 8 2 - 8 4 , 8 9 - 9 0 .

See a lso N o u le n s , o p .

c i t . , I, 1 7 1 - 1 7 4 ; N i e s s e l , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 5 7 , 1 6 1 - 1 6 3 . C f. K e n n a n , o p . c i t . , I, p . 3 3 0

ff. I n c o n n e c tio n w ith th e r u p tu r e o f re la tio n s w ith R u m a n ia , t h e S o v ie t g o v e rn ­ m e n t d e c la r e d G e n e r a l S h c h e rb a c h e v a n “ e n e m y o f t h e p e o p le .” 114 D o c k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , I, 9 7 - 9 8 ; F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u ss ia , I I I , 3 2 - 3 3 . T h e In te r- A llie d C o u n c i l o n W a r P u rc h a s e s a n d F in a n c e a lso a d o p te d a r e s o lu tio n in p r o te s t o n F e b ru a ry 13.

S ee i b i d . , p . 34.

By th e e n d o f O c to b e r

1 9 1 7 B ritis h w a r lo a n s to R u ssia to ta lle d 5 9 7 ,3 0 0 ,0 0 0 p o u n d s , F r a n c e h a d lo a n e d 4 b illio n fra n c s (m a k in g th e c o m b in e d B ritis h a n d F r e n c h w a r lo a n s o m e $ 3 ,5 2 8 ,0 0 0 , 0 0 0 ) , J a p a n 2 9 6 m illio n y e n , Ita ly 221 m illio n lire, a n d th e U n ite d S ta te s h a d e s ta b lis h e d a c r e d it o f $ 4 5 0 m illio n , o f w h ic h th e P ro v isio n a l g o v e rn m e n t h a d u s e d a b o u t $ 1 8 8 m illio n . A n a d d itio n a l $ 1 2 5 m illio n in c re d it w as o ffe re d b y th e U n ite d S ta te s in S e p te m b e r, b u t th is a lso re m a in e d u n u s e d .

C o m b in in g th e p r e ­

w a r d e b t w ith t h a t o f th e w a r lo a n s, th e to ta l o f R u s s ia n s ta te d e b ts in 1 9 1 7 w as a p p r o x im a te ly six b illio n d o lla rs .

S ee H . E . F is k , T h e I n t e r - A l l y D e b t s

(N e w

Y o rk : B a n k e rs T r u s t C o ., 1 9 2 4 ) , p . I l l ; A . M . M ic h e ls o n , P . N . A p o lto l, a n d

The Volunteer Army

306

M . W . B e m a tz k y , R u s s ia n P u b l i c F in a n c e D u r i n g t h e W a r ( N e w H a v e n : Y a le U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 2 8 ) , p p . 3 0 2 - 3 2 0 ; a n d R . P . B ro w d e r a n d A . F . K e re n sk y , o p . c i t . , I I , 5 0 2 - 5 0 8 . F ig u re s o n t h e w a rtim e lo a n s m a y a lso b e f o u n d in t h e P a p e rs o f M . V . B e rn a ts k ii (P ro v is io n a l g o v e r n m e n t m in is te r o f f in a n c e ) , “ K re d itn y ia o p e ra ts ii vo v re m ia v o in y ,” (M S , H o o v e r L i b r a r y ) . 115 L o c k h a r t, o p . c it., p p . 2 2 5 , 2 2 7 - 2 2 8 . O n t h e d a y o f t h e G e r m a n a tta c k N o u le n s a lso r e p e a te d t h e o ffer to th is e ffe c t m a d e e a rlie r b y S a d o u l, th is tim e a d d re s s in g it to C h ic h e r in . S ee F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s i a , I, 3 8 3 . 116 P r o t o k o l y t s e n t r a l’n o g o k o m i t e t a R S D R P ( b ) , p . 2 0 8 .

S ee a lso D e u ts c h e r ,

o p . c it., p p . 3 8 5 -3 8 6 . 117 P r o t o k o l y ts e n tr a V n o g o k o m i t e t a R S D R P ( b ) , p . 2 1 5 , a n d n o te s N o s . 2 2 3 a n d 2 2 4 . p . 2 8 7 ; S e d ’m o i e k s t r e n n y i s ” e z d R K P ( b ) , p . 2 6 8 .

E a rlie r S o v ie t s o u rc e s

(e .g . th e 3 rd e d itio n o f L e n in ’s S o c h in e n iia , X X I I , 6 0 8 )

g a v e t h e v o te in t h e

C .E .C . as 1 1 6 to 8 4 , w ith 2 6 a b s te n tio n s .

F o r t h e G e r m a n te rm s , d a te d F e b r u a r y

21 , see D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , I, 1 1 2 - 1 1 3 .

S ee a lso L e n i n ’s c o m m e n ts to

th e S e v e n th C o n g re s s o f t h e p a rty , w h ic h a p p ro v e d t h e B re s t p e a c e o n b e h a l f o f th e p a rty , in S e d ’m o i e k s t r e n n y i s ’e z d R K P ( b ) , p p . 1 9 - 2 4 , 1 1 2 - 1 1 4 . 118 L o c k h a r t, o p . c i t . , p p . 2 2 8 - 2 2 9 . ä t an A u to b io g r a p h y

S ee a lso L . T r o ts k y , M y L ife ; A n A t t e m p t

( N e w Y o rk : S c r ib n e r ’s, 1 9 3 0 ) , p . 3 8 9 .

119 L o c k h a r t c o m p la in s in h is a c c o u n t o f th is p e rio d t h a t th e F o r e ig n O ffice fa ile d to re p ly to m o s t o f h is te le g ra m s .

In s te a d o f g iv in g h im

t h e a n sw e rs h e

n e e d e d , it “ in s is te d o n k e e p in g m y o w n p o s itio n as v a g u e as p o s s ib le .” o p . c it., p p . 2 3 5 , 2 3 8 , 2 6 0 .

L o c k h a rt

F o r a s ta t e m e n t b y B a lfo u r o n t h e ra tio n a le b e h in d

th e B ritis h p o lic y w h ic h L o c k h a r t f o u n d so f r u s tr a tin g , see U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 1 6 6 . 120 T h e B ritis h a m b a s s a d o r, B u c h a n a n , h a d a lre a d y le ft t h e c o u n tr y , a n d t h e B ritis h c h a r g é d ’affaires. S ir F ra n c is L in d le y , n o w a c c o m p a n ie d F r a n c is a n d N o u ­ le n s to V o lo g d a .

L in d le y w as th e o n ly o n e w h o m a n a g e d to a rra n g e im m e d ia te ly

fo r th e f u r th e r tra n s fe r o f s taff p e rs o n n e l o u t o f th e c o u n tr y th r o u g h H e ls in k i. O th e r s , c a u g h t in th e F in n is h civ il w a r, w e re o b lig e d to r e tu r n to V o lo g d a , w h e re th e y stay e d u n til th e s u m m e r o f 1 9 1 8 , w h e n it w as p o s s ib le fo r th e m th r o u g h A rk h a n g e ls k . S ee U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 7 7 .

to leav e

121 S ee L o c k h a rt, o p . c i t . , p p . 2 4 0 - 2 4 3 , 2 5 3 . 122 I b i d ., p . 2 4 5 . L o c k h a r t a lso re c o rd s t h a t F o r e ig n S e c re ta ry B a lfo u r c o m ­ m e n te d in o n e o f h is n o te s : “ If y o u c a n , in d e e d , p e rs u a d e T r o ts k y to re s is t G e r ­

m a n p e n e t r a tio n , y o u w ill h a v e e a r n e d th e g r a titu d e o f y o u r o w n c o u n tr y a n d o f a ll h u m a n i t y . ” I b i d . , p p . 2 7 1 - 2 7 2 . 123 S ee D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , I, 1 1 7 - 1 1 9 , 1 1 9 -2 0 4 , 2 1 2 - 2 1 3 . 124 L o c k h a r t, o p . c i t . , p . 2 4 7 . L a te r, a c c o rd in g to L o c k h a r t, T r o ts k i i a lso s u g ­ g e s te d th e p o s s ib ility o f h a v in g a B ritis h n a v a l m is s io n to re o rg a n iz e t h e R u s ­ sian fle e t a n d o f th e u se o f B ritis h railw ay e x p e rts to h e lp p u t t h e tr a n s p o r ta tio n s y ste m in to w o rk in g o rd e r.

L o c k h a r t’s a c c o u n t in d ic a te s t h a t th e tr a n s m is s io n o f

th e s e s u g g e s tio n s to L o n d o n b r o u g h t n o re s p o n se .

I b id ., p p . 2 7 1 -2 7 2 .

H o w e v e r,

a t a b o u t th is tim e a B ritis h e c o n o m ic m is sio n w as b e in g fo r m e d in L o n d o n b y th e D e p a r tm e n t o f O v e rse a s T r a d e to in v e s tig a te p ro s p e c ts fo r e c o n o m ic r e la tio n s . T h i s m is sio n tra v e le d to R u ss ia w ith th e re tu r n i n g L in d le y in J u n e a n d a rriv e d in M o s c o w o n J u ly 2 2 , a f te r re c e iv in g a s s u ra n c e s o f p r o te c tio n fr o m R a d e k . N o t h ­ in g b u t c o n f u s io n w as a c c o m p lis h e d b y th is s tra n g e d e v e l o p m e n t, h o w e v e r , s in c e

307

NOTES

b y t h e n a lm o s t a ll re la tio n s w ith th e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t h a d b e e n d is r u p te d b y e v e n ts e a r lie r in J u ly . T h e m is s io n d id w e ll ju s t to g e t o u t a g a in w ith th e A llie d d ip lo m a ts th e n h a s tily d e p a r tin g fro m V o lo g d a . S ee U llm a n , o p . c it., I, 2 3 2 - 2 3 4 . 125 S a d o u l h a d b e e n le d b y T r o ts k ii to b e lie v e t h a t th e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t m ig h t a g re e to th e in te r v e n tio n if ( 1 ) th e J a p a n e se w e re n o t in c lu d e d , ( 2 ) it w o u ld b e p u re ly m ilita r y , d ire c te d a g a in s t t h e G e rm a n s , a n d n o t in v o lv e a n y in te rf e r e n c e in d o m e s tic affairs, a n d ( 3 ) th e A llies p ro v id e d th e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t w ith a c le a r a n d p re c ise s ta t e m e n t a g re e in g to th e s e c o n d itio n s . 2 8 4 -2 8 5 , 295.

See S a d o u l, o p . c it., p p . 2 7 7 ,

126 L o c k h a r t, o p . c it., p . 2 6 8 . S ee a lso N o u le n s , o p . c it., I, 1 5 1 - 1 5 2 ; S a d o u l, o p . c it., p. 2 8 9 ; a n d B ra d le y , “ T h e A llies a n d R u s s ia ," Joe. c it., p. 1 84. 127 W i t h re g a rd to G e r m a n re la tio n s w ith t h e B o lsh e v ik s, i t is n o ta b le t h a t th e G e r m a n F o r e ig n O ffice in fo r m e d M irb a c h o n M a y 18 t h a t h e s h o u ld u se w h a t ­ e v e r fu n d s w e re n e ce ssa ry to k e e p th e B o lsh e v ik s in p o w e r. O n J u n e 3 h e in tu r n in d ic a te d t h a t th r e e m illio n m a rk s p e r m o n t h w o u ld b e re q u ire d “ d u e to s tro n g E n t e n t e c o m p e t i t i o n .” S ee Z e m a n , o p . c it., p p . 1 2 8 - 1 2 9 , 13 0 . I t m a y a lso b e n o te d t h a t b o t h th e U n i t e d S ta te s a n d th e a n ti-B o ls h e v ik re p re s e n ta tiv e s in P a ris , p a r tic u la r ly R u ss ia n A m b a s s a d o r M a k la k o v , a t th is tim e o b je c te d to in te r v e n tio n as a p a r t o f jo in t A llie d a c tio n to re s to re th e e a s te rn fr o n t. e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , II, 37, 4 1 - 4 2 .

J a p a n e se See F o r ­

F o r a n a c c o u n t o f th e n e g o tia tio n s

le a d in g to th e J a p a n e s e in te r v e n tio n , see U llm a n , o p . c it., I, 8 5 - 1 0 9 . N o u le n s ’ s ta t e m e n t o n A llie d in te r v e n tio n first a p p e a re d in I z v e s t i i a , A p ril 2 8 , 1 9 1 8 , a n d is q u o te d in F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , I, 509. 128 T h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t d id n o t a c c e p t th e S o v ie t d e m a n d fo r N o u le n s ’ re m o v a l, b u t a c c o rd in g to C h ic h e r in (w h o w as n o w a c tin g c o m m is s a r fo r fo re ig n affairs a n d re c e iv e d fo r m a l a p p o in tm e n t to t h a t p o s t o n M a y 3 0 ) , th e S o v ie t g o v ­ e r n m e n t as o f th is tim e “ b e g a n to re g a rd h im as a p riv a te p e rs o n , a b s o lu te ly ig n o r ­ in g h is p o litic a l s ta t u s .” G . V . C h ic h e r in , T w o Y ears o f F o re ig n P o l i c y ( N e w Y o rk : R u ss ia n S o v ie t G o v e r n m e n t B u re a u , 1 9 2 0 ) , p . 12.

CHAPTER

II: T H E

IM P A C T O F G E R M A N O C C U P A T IO N

1 S ee t h e te le g ra m fro m C o lo n e l v o n S to lz e n b e rg in K iev to th e G e rm a n c o m ­ m a n d e r o f th e e a s te rn fr o n t, M a r c h 9 , 1 9 1 8 , in I. I. M in ts a n d E . N . G o r o d e ts k ii, e d s., D o k u m e n t y o r a z g r o m e g e r m a n s k ik h o k k u p a n t o v n a U k r a i n e v 1 9 1 8 g o d u ( M o s c o w : G o s iz d a t, 1 9 4 2 ) , p . 16. C f. I. I. M in ts a n d R . E id e m a n , e d s., K r a k h g e r m a n s k o i o k k u p a t s i i n a U k r a i n e ( p o d o k u m e n t a m o k k u p a n t o v ) (M o s c o w : G o s iz ­

d a t, 1 9 3 6 ) , p . 30. F o r a m o re d e ta ile d a c c o u n t o f e v e n ts in th e U k ra in e , see J. S. R e s h e ta r , T h e U k r a in ia n R e v o l u t i o n , 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 0 ( P r in c e t o n : P r in c e to n U n iv e r ­ sity P ress, 1 9 5 2 ) ,

p.

145

ff.

O n G e r m a n p o lic y , see th e s tu d y o f D . S.

F edyshyn,

“ G e r m a n P la n s a n d P o lic ie s in t h e U k ra in e a n d th e C r im e a ,” P h .D . d is s e rta tio n , C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity , 1 9 6 2 . 2 M in ts a n d G o ro d e ts k ii, o p . c i t . , p . 7 1 . M u m m fa v o re d c a u tio n b u t s ta te d t h a t h e b e lie v e d f u r t h e r c o o p e r a tio n w ith th e R a d a w o u ld b e im p o s s ib le “ b e c a u s e o f th e ir s o c ia lis t th e o r ie s ” w h ic h k e p t th e m fro m c o m p r e h e n d in g “ th e re a l s ta te o f a ffa irs.” I b i d . , p . 4 4 . 3 D . D o r o s h e n k o , I s t o r i ia U k r a n y , 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 3 gg. (U z h g o r o d : N a k la d o m d o k -

The Volunteer Army

308 to ra O s ip a T s iu p k i, 1 9 3 0 - 1 9 3 2 ) , V o l. I I , p p . 3 7 - 3 9 .

C f . R e s h e ta r, o p . c it., p p .

1 3 0 - 1 3 2 ; M . A . S v e c h in , “ D o p o ln e n ie k v o s p o m in a n iia m ” ( M S , C o lu m b ia U n i ­ v ersity R u ss ia n A r c h iv e ) , P a r t II , “ V K ie v e ,” p . 12. 4 A . I. G u k o v sk ii, “ K ry m v 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9 g g .,” K r a s n y i A r k h i v , V o l. X X V I I I (M o s c o w : G o s iz d a t, 1 9 2 8 ) , p p . 1 4 2 - 1 4 4 .

S ee a lso R ic h a r d P ip e s , T h e F o r m a ­ ( C a m b r id g e :

ti o n o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n : C o m m u n is m a n d N a t i o n a l i s m , 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 3

H a rv a rd U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 5 4 ) , p p . 1 8 6 - 1 8 7 . M . M . V in a v e r , a le a d e r o f t h e C r im e a n K a d e t p a rty , w as s u b s e q u e n tly s e n t to K iev to in v e s tig a te t h e a c tiv itie s o f K a d e t p a rty m e m b e rs w h o a d v o c a te d c o o p e r a tio n w ith S k o ro p a d s k ii a n d t h e G e r ­ m a n s . S ee th e p o lic y s ta t e m e n t w h ic h h e d r a f te d fo r t h e P a rty o f N a tio n a l F r e e ­ d o m ( N a r o d n o i S v o d o b y ) , a K a d e t o rg a n iz a tio n , in M a y 1 9 1 8 , in th e M iliu k o v P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s; a n d P . N . M iliu k o v , “ D n e v n ik ” ( M S , C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity R u s s ia n A r c h iv e ) , d ia ry e n trie s fo r J u n e 22 a n d 2 3 , 1 9 1 8 , p p . 2 8 - 3 1 . A la te r r e ­ p o r t b y V in a v e r m a v a lso b e f o u n d in th e W r a n g e l M ilita ry A rc h iv e s ( W M A ) , F ile 1 29. 5 G e g e c h k o ri's g o v e r n m e n t re s ig n e d to p r o te s t c o n tin u a tio n o f n e g o tia tio n s w ith th e T u r k s o n th e la t t e r ’s te rm s . C h k h e n k e li’s g o v e r n m e n t w h ic h th e n to o k p o w e r w as th e o n ly g o v e rn m e n t w h ic h th e s h o rt-liv e d T r a n s c a u c a s ia n F e d e r a tio n h a d as an in d e p e n d e n t re p u b lic . T h e n e x t g o v e r n m e n t fo r m e d , u n d e r Z h o r d a n iia , w as fo r i n d e p e n d e n t G e o rg ia a lo n e . S ee Z . D . A v a lo v , T h e I n d e p e n d e n c e o f G e o r g ia in I n t e r n a t io n a l P o l iti c s , 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 2 1

( L o n d o n : H e a d le y B ro s., 1 9 4 0 ) , p p . 2 9 , 9 7 .

6 T r a n s c a u c a s ia n officials d id c o n fe r w ith A llie d re p re s e n ta tiv e s s till in T iflis b u t w e re to ld b y th e m t h a t A llie d a id c o u ld n o t y e t b e o b ta in e d a n d t h a t t h e r e ­ fo re it w o u ld b e a d v isa b le to seek as fa v o ra b le a p e a c e w ith T u r k e y as p o s sib le . See J. L o ris-M e lik o f, L a r é v o l u t i o n ru sse e t le s n o u v e lle s r é p u b l i q u e s tr a n s c a u c a ­ s ie n n e s (P a r is : F . A lc a n , 1 9 2 0 ) , p p . 1 1 2 , 12 4 .

7 R e c o rd s o f th e n e g o tia tio n s w ith th e T u r k s m a y b e f o u n d in G e o rg ia , M in is te rstv o V n e s h n ik h D e l, D o k u m e n t y i m a t e r ia ly p o v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k e Z a k a v k a z ’ia i G r u z i i (T iflis : T i p . P r a v ite l's tv a G r u z in s k o i R e s p u b lik i, 1 9 1 9 ) . V o n L o s s o w w as G e r m a n H ig h C o m m a n d r e p re s e n ta tiv e in T u r k e y a t th is tim e . H e w as a c c o m ­ p a n ie d a t th e n e g o tia tio n s b y th e G e rm a n c o n s u l-g e n e ra l in T iflis , C o u n t S c h u le n ­ b u rg . A lso p r e s e n t a t th e s e ta lk s w as th e le a d e r o f th e N o r t h C a u c a s u s M o u n ta i n R e p u b lic , C h e r m o e v , w h o la te r a c c o m p a n ie d a G e o rg ia n d e le g a tio n to L o n d o n . See A v alo v , o p . c it., p . 34. G e r m a n - T u r k riv alry w as o b v io u s ly a n im p o r t a n t f a c to r in G e r m a n s u p p o r t fo r th e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n g o v e rn m e n t a t th is tim e a n d in s u b s e ­ q u e n t G e r m a n e ffo rts to b e a t th e T u r k s to B a k u . G e n e r a l L u d e n d o rf f th u s u rg e d s tr o n g s u p p o r t fo r G e o rg ia to g ive it “ s e c u rity a g a in s t th e g re e d y T u r k s ” a n d s u g ­ g e ste d t h a t a n a t t e m p t b y th e T u r k s to o c c u p y B a k u o r to ta k e o v e r t h e ra il lin e fro m T iflis to B ak u s h o u ld b e re g a rd e d “ as a n a c t o f h o s tility ” to w a rd G e r m a n y . S ee Z . A . B . Z e m a n , e d ., G e r m a n y a n d t h e R e v o l u t i o n in R u ss ia , 1 9 1 3 - 1 9 1 8 : D o c u m e n t s f r o m t h e A r c h iv e s o f t h e G e r m a n F o r e ig n M in is tr y ( L o n d o n : O x f o r d

U n iv e rs ity

P ress,

1 9 5 8 ),

pp.

L . F is c h e r , O H I m p e r ia l is m

1 3 4 -1 3 5 .

C f.

F ir u z

K azem zadeh,

The

S tr u g g le

( N e w Y o rk : P h ilo s o p h ic a l L ib ra ry , 1 9 5 1 ) , p . 1 4 7 ;

f o r T r a n s c a u c a s ia , 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 1

( N e w Y o rk : I n te r n a tio n a l P u b lis h e rs , 1 9 2 6 ) , p . 2 5 ;

a n d G . L e n c z o w s k i, T h e M i d d l e E a s t in W o r l d A ffa ir s , 2 n d e d . ( I t h a c a : C o r n e ll U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 5 6 ) , p . 6 5 . 8 A v alo v , o p . c it., p p . 5 4 - 6 8 . S ee a lso J o h n B u c h a n , e d ., T h e B a l t i c a n d C a u c a ­ s ia n S t a t e s ( B o s to n : H o u g h to n , M ifflin C o ., 1 9 2 3 ) , p p . 2 1 5 - 2 1 6 .

309

N OTES

9 S in c e t h e T u r k s ’ m a in o b je c tiv e a t th is tim e w as B a k u , th e y a g re e d to p e a c e tr e a tie s w ith G e o rg ia a n d a r u m p A rm e n ia a lso in J u n e a n d c o n c e n tr a te d o n a j o in t m ilita r y e ffo r t w ith th e ir A z e r b a id z h a n i allie s.

S ee A v alo v , o p . c i t . , p p . 3 8 -

4 3 , 8 1 - 8 4 ; a n d K a z e m z a d e h , o p . c it., p p . 1 2 4 - 1 2 7 .

O n th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a n

i n d e p e n d e n t A z e r b a id z h a n , see its g o v e r n m e n t’s c o lle c tio n o f d o c u m e n ts in L e 2 8 M a i, 1 9 1 9 ; L e j o u i d u p r e m i e r a n n iv e r s a ir e d e F i n d é p e n d a n c e d e la R é p u b l i q u e

d ’A z e r b e id /a n (B a k u , b ra ry ), p p. 8 -9 .

1 9 1 9 ) , A z e r b a id z h a n d e le g a tio n p ro p a g a n d a

( H o o v e r L i­

10 A c c o r d in g to t h e b e s t e s tim a te s th e r e w e re p r o b a b ly s o m e 1 ,6 0 0 ,0 0 0 G e r m a n a n d A u s tr ia n p ris o n e rs -o f-w a r in R u ss ia , o f w h o m

t h e B o lsh e v ik s re c ru ite d a n d

a r m e d a b o u t 1 5 ,0 0 0 . A t le a s t 5 ,0 0 0 o f th e l a tte r w e re in T u r k e s ta n , o u t o f a to ta l o f a b o u t 3 5 ,0 0 0 th e re . S ee G . F . K e n n a n , S o v i e t - A m e r i c a n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 0 , V o l. I I , T h e D e c i s i o n t o I n t e r v e n e ( P r in c e t o n : P r in c e to n U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 5 8 ) , pp. 7 1 -7 3 .

S e e a lso R . H . U llm a n , A n g l o - S o v i e t R e la tio n s , 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 1 , V o l. I,

I n t e r v e n t i o n a n d t h e W a r ( P r in c e t o n : P r in c e to n U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 6 1 ) , p p . 1 5 6 ,

311.

C f . J. B u n y a n , e d ., I n t e r v e n t i o n , C i v i l W a r a n d C o m m u n i s m

A p r il-D e c e m b e r

P re s s, 1 9 3 6 ) ,

p.

in

R u s s ia ,

J o h n s H o p k in s 9 2 ; a n d P . T . E t h e r t o n , I n t h e H e a r t o f A s ia ( L o n d o n : C o n ­ 1918:

D o c u m e h ts

and

M a te r ia l s

(B a ltim o re :

s ta b le s a n d C o ., 1 9 2 5 ), p p . 1 - 2 . 11 S e e H a id e r B a m m a te , T h e C a u c a s u s P r o b l e m : Q u e s t i o n s C o n c e r n i n g C ir c a s s ia a n d D a g h e sta n

(B e r n e : S ta e m p fli e t C ie ., 1 9 1 9 ) , p p . 3 0 - 3 2 . A m a p s h o w in g th e

b o r d e r s c la im e d is in c lu d e d . 12 S e e P a u l K h ry s tiu k , Z a m i t k y i m a t e r ia ly d o is t o r i i U k i a i n s ’k o i r e v o l iu ts ii, 1 9 1 7 -1 9 2 0

gg.

( V ie n n a :

U k r a in s ’kii S o ts io l’o h ic h n ii I n s ty tu t, D r u k e m ia J. N .

V e r n a y , 1 9 2 1 ) , V o l. I l l , p p . 15 ff., 39; D o ro s h e n k o , I s to r iia U k r a i n y , I I , 8 6 , 2 6 0 , 2 6 5 ; a n d V . V y n n y c h e n k o , V id r o d z h e n n i a n a ts ii ( V ie n n a : D z v in , 1 9 2 0 ) , V o l. I l l , p . 6 7 . H o w e v e r, tw o S o c ia lis t F e d e ra lis ts jo in e d t h e H e t m a n ’s a d m in is tr a tio n . D . D o r o s h e n k o , w h o re s ig n e d fr o m h is p a rty fo r t h e p u rp o s e , b e c a m e fo re ig n M i n ­ is te r, a n d A . S h u l’g in a c c e p te d th e p o s t o f a m b a s s a d o r to B u lg a ria .

S ee R e s h e ta r ,

o p . c it., p p . 1 5 1 , 1 8 4 . V y n n y c h e n k o re s u m e d a c tiv e le a d e r s h ip o f t h e o p p o s itio n , as p r e s id e n t o f t h e U k ra in ia n N a tio n a l U n io n , in S e p te m b e r. 13 S ee A . I. D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V o l. I l l (B e rlin : “ S lo v o ,” 1 9 2 4 ) , p. 87. 14 F o r a n a c c o u n t o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f th e C e n t e r a n d o th e r a n ti-B o ls h e v ik o r g a n iz a tio n s , see D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , I I I , 7 3 ff. 15 I n its b i m o n th ly o rg a n la te r p u b lis h e d in P a ris , th e U n io n d e fin e d its e lf as a c o a litio n o f “ d e m o c r a tic e le m e n ts , s o c ia lis t a n d n o n -s o c ia lis t, w h ic h a re u n ite d o n t h e fo llo w in g p la tf o r m :

(1 )

o rg a n iz a tio n o f t h e a rm e d s tru g g le a g a in s t th e

G e r m a n s a n d t h e B o lsh e v ik s in a llia n c e w ith t h e A llie s, ( 2 ) c o n v o c a tio n o f a c o n ­ s t i t u e n t a s s e m b ly o n t h e b a sis o f u n iv e rs a l, e q u a l, d ire c t, a n d s e c re t su ffrag e, a n d ( 3 ) in s t i t u t i o n b y t h e C o n s t i t u e n t o f a p o litic a l re g im e w h ic h w ill b e b a se d o n p o p u la r s o v e r e ig n ty , w h ic h w ill a ss u re la n d to th e p e a s a n ts a n d fre e d e v e lo p m e n t t o a ll n a tio n a litie s a n d a ll c la ss es .”

F o r t h e d u r a tio n o f th e civil w a r th e U n io n

fa v o re d a th r e e -m a n d ir e c to r a te to le a d th e s tru g g le . F o r th e U n i o n ’s p o s itio n see L a R u ss ie D é m o c r a tiq u e

(P a ris o rg a n o f t h e U n i o n ) , A n n é e I, N o . 3, J u n e 12,

1 9 1 9 . S ee a lso D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , I I I , 7 4 - 7 5 . 16 T h e G e r m a n s w e re a t th is tim e , as a F o r e ig n M in is tr y s p o k e s m a n p u t it, “ r e c k o n in g w ith t h e p o s s ib ility o f t h e o v e rth ro w o f t h e B o lsh e v ik s ,” a p o s s ib ility

The Volunteer Army

310

w h ic h m a d e i t n e ce ssa ry to p re p a re G e r m a n in flu e n c e w ith a n ti-B o ls h e v ik e le ­ m e n ts . T h e G e r m a n c o u n s e llo r o f le g a tio n in M o s c o w a d v ise d h is s u p e r io rs to in d ic a te a w illin g n e s s to rev ise s o m e p a rts o f t h e B re s t tre a ty . S e e Z e m a n , o p . c it., p p . 131, 133. 17 S ee M iliu k o v , “ D n e v n ik , 1 9 1 8 s e c tio n , p . 4 6 ff. C f. D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , I I I , 7 5 . I t is in te r e s tin g to n o te t h a t b o t h t h e p ro - G e r m a n a n d t h e p ro A llie d fa c tio n s o p p o s e d a J a p a n e s e in te r v e n tio n , a lth o u g h t h e f o r m e r w e re th e

m o s t o u ts p o k e n c ritic s o f J a p a n e s e a id . 18 S ee d is p a tc h fro m

L o c k h a r t to t h e F o r e ig n O ffice , M a y

17 , 1 9 1 8 , in th e

U . S. N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o r e ig n A ffairs S e c tio n , D o c . N o . 8 6 1 . 0 0 / 1 8 9 7 V i.

C f.

M iliu k o v , “ D n e v n ik ," 1 9 1 8 s e c tio n , p p . 4 - 5 , 4 4 - 4 5 , 4 9 - 5 0 . 19 S ee L o c k h a rt's re p o rts to th e F o r e ig n O ffice o f M a y 2 7 a n d M a y 30 , 1 9 1 8 , in U . S. N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o re ig n A ffairs S e c tio n , D o c . N o . 8 6 1 . 0 0 / 2 0 8 0 Vi a n d D o c . N o . 8 6 1 .0 0 / 2 0 7 2 . 20 T h e K a d e t ( o r N a tio n a l F r e e d o m ) p a rty w as th r o w n in to c o n s id e ra b le c o n ­ fu s io n b y th e te n d e n c y o f b r a n c h u n its in t h e S o u th to f o r m u la te th e i r o w n p o li­ cies, o f te n in c o n tr a d ic tio n to t h e c e n tr a l o rg a n s .

I n a th e s is b y N . I. A s tro v

a d o p te d a t th e M a y c o n fe re n c e in M o s c o w , th e p a rty fo r b a d e a n y m e m b e r to e n te r a n y a g r e e m e n t w ith th e G e rm a n s c o n c e rn in g t h e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f s ta t e a u th o r ity , b u t it a d m itte d th e p o s s ib ility o f m e m b e rs p a r tic ip a tin g in lo c a l g o v ­ e r n m e n ts u n d e r G e r m a n aegis if t h e p u rp o s e w as so lely to serv e t h e p e o p le 's i n t e r ­ e s t in a c c o rd a n c e w ith lo c a l c o n d itio n s .

S ee p ro to c o ls , re s o lu tio n s , e tc . o f t h e

C e n t r a l C o m m itte e o f t h e P a rty o f N a tio n a l F r e e d o m

in t h e P . N . M iliu k o v

P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s. C o r r e s p o n d e n c e to a n d fr o m p a rty m e m b e rs in K ie v e x p re ss in g o p p o s in g p o s itio n s o n t h e q u e s tio n o f s e e k in g G e r m a n a id m a y a lso b e f o u n d h e r e . S ee a lso M iliu k o v , “ D n e v n ik ," 1 9 1 8 s e c tio n , p . 2 8 . 21 T h e s p lit-u p o f t h e M o s c o w C e n t e r m a d e p o s s ib le a g re a te r d e g re e o f c o o p ­ e r a tio n b e tw e e n th e N a tio n a l C e n t e r a n d t h e U n io n fo r R e g e n e r a tio n , a c o a litio n w h ic h F r e n c h A m b a s s a d o r N o u le n s h a d b e e n w o rk in g to p ro d u c e s in c e M a y . T h e N a tio n a l C e n t e r a n d t h e U n io n te n ta tiv e ly re a c h e d a w o rk in g c o m p ro m is e o n th e b asis o f th e ir m u tu a l h o s tility to w a rd G e r m a n a id . T h e C e n t e r th u s in d ic a te d t h a t i t w o u ld n o t o b je c t in a ll cases to t h e p rin c ip le o f a d ir e c to r a te as p r o p o s e d b y t h e U n io n , a n d th e l a tte r a g re e d t h a t if a d ir e c to r a te w e re e s ta b lis h e d it s h o u ld in c lu d e th e

co m m an d er of th e

m ilita r y

m a n d e r o f th e V o lu n te e r A rm y )

fo rce s

( p a r ti c u la r re fe re n c e w as

to

th e

com ­

a lo n g w ith o n e s o c ia lis t a n d o n e n o n s o c ia lis t

( p r o b a b ly a K a d e t ) . B o th a lso a g re e d in p rin c ip le t h a t th e f u tu r e o f R u s s ia s h o u ld b e d e te r m in e d b y a n e w c o n s ti tu e n t a s s e m b ly .

C o o p e r a t io n b e tw e e n th e s e tw o

g ro u p s fa c ilita te d th e ta sk o f o b ta in in g A llie d a id , b u t it h a d l ittl e o t h e r p r a c tic a l e ffe c t. S ee P . N . M iliu k o v , R u ss ia T o d a y a n d T o m o r r o w ( N e w Y o rk : M a c m illa n , 1 9 2 2 ), p p . 1 3 0 -1 3 2 .

S ee a lso D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , I I I , 7 8 .

22 S ee D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u tv , I I I , 7 7 , a n d P io n tk o v s k ii, o p . c it., p . 1 5 7 ff. 23 S ee T r u b e t s k o i's le tte rs fr o m K ie v r e la tin g h is e x p e rie n c e s ( p a r tic u la r ly th o s e d a te d A u g u s t 11 a n d A u g u s t 12, 1 9 1 8 ) in th e M iliu k o v P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s. 24 D u r in g th is tim e M iliu k o v w as liv in g in c o g n ito (a s “ P ro fe s s o r I v a n o v " )

on

th e e s ta te o f t h e K o ro s to v e tz fa m ily in C h e r n ig o v g u v e rn iia as th e g u e s t o f h is fo r m e r p e rs o n a l s e c re ta ry in t h e F o r e ig n M in is try , V . K o ro s to v e tz .

See V . K o ro ­

s to v e tz , S e e d a n d H a rv e s t ( L o n d o n : F a b e r a n d F a b e r , L t d ., 1 9 3 1 ) .

K o ro s to v e tz 's

NOTES

311

u n c le , a f o r m e r R u s s ia n m in is te r to P e rs ia a n d C h in a a n d a n a d v o c a te o f c o o p e r ­ a tio n w ith th e S k o ro p a d s k ii re g im e , a c c e p te d a p p o i n t m e n t fr o m t h e l a t t e r as a U k r a in ia n e n v o y . A n a c c o u n t o f h is m is s io n m a y b e fo u n d in h is “ M o ia k o m a n d ir o v k a iz K iev a v Jassy v 1 9 1 8 g o d u ,” in t h e M iliu k o v P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s. 25 S e v e n le tte r s o f th is c o rre s p o n d e n c e , d a te d fr o m M a y 16 to J u ly 1, 1 9 1 8 , a re in t h e M iliu k o v P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s. 19, a n d 2 1 , a n d J u n e 2 0 ) S e c tio n , F ile I, s e c tio n b .

C o p ie s o f fo u r o f th e m

(d a te d M a y 16,

a re in th e W r a n g e l P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s, K o tlia re v s k ii S o m e w e re also la te r p u b lis h e d in issues o f N o v o e

V r e m ia ( B e lg r a d e ) fo r A p ril 2 6 , M a y 7 , M a y 2 8 , J u n e 7 , a n d J u n e 2 3 , 1 9 2 1 . 26 S e e M iliu k o v 's le tte rs to A le k se e v fro m R o s to v -o n -D o n , M a y 16 a n d M a y 19, 1 9 1 8 , M iliu k o v P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s. 27 M iliu k o v 's l e tte r to A le k se e v fro m N o v o c h e rk a s s k , M a y 2 1 , 1 9 1 8 , M iliu k o v P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s.

M iliu k o v 's w a rn in g a b o u t th e p o s sib ility o f o th e rs see k in g

G e r m a n a id w as b o r n e o u t b y n e g o tia tio n s w h ic h s u b s e q u e n tly to o k p la c e b e tw e e n re p re s e n ta tiv e s o f th e e x tre m e R ig h t a n d th e G e rm a n s .

O n J u ly 2 1 , fo r e x a m p le ,

tw o re p re s e n ta tiv e s o f t h e R ig h t C e n t e r m e t w ith a n official o f th e G e r m a n E m ­ b assy in M o s c o w to d iscu ss th e p o s s ib ility o f c o o p e r a tio n . T h e G e r m a n re p r e s e n ta ­ tiv e d e c lin e d a c tiv e p a r tic ip a tio n in a n e ffo rt to o v e rth ro w th e B o lsh e v ik s, h o w e v e r, a n d h e e x p re ss e d g re a t s c e p tic is m c o n c e rn in g th e re lia b ility o f th e so -called G e r ­ m a n o p h ile s in R u ss ia . I t w as a lso c le a r fro m th e c o n v e rs a tio n t h a t t h e B re st tre a ty p o s e d a m o s t s e rio u s o b s ta c le to c o o p e r a tio n .

H o w e v e r, it is n o ta b le t h a t th e s e

R ig h tis t r e p re s e n ta tiv e s s o u g h t in p a r tic u la r to a c t in d e p e n d e n tly o f th e V o lu n te e r A rm y a n d to seiz e p o w e r in th e c e n te r , w ith G e rm a n h e lp , b e fo re th e V o lu n te e r s h a d a c h a n c e to m o v e in . A s te n o g r a p h ic re c o rd o f th is c o n fe re n c e m a y b e fo u n d in t h e M iliu k o v P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s.

F o r a n o th e r first-h a n d a c c o u n t o f n e g o tia tio n s

w ith t h e G e r m a n s , see V . I. G u r k o , “ Iz P e tro g r a d a c h e re z M o s k v u , P a riz h , i L o n ­ d o n v O d e s s u ,” A rk h iv R u s s k o i R e v o liu ts ii, V o l. X V (B e rlin : Iz d a te l's tv o “ S lo v o ," 1 9 2 4 ), pp. 8 -2 0 . 28 M iliu k o v l e t t e r to A lek seev , M a y 19, 1 9 1 8 , M iliu k o v P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s. 29 L e tte r fr o m A le k se e v to M iliu k o v fro m M e c h e tin s k , M a y 5 / 1 8 , 1 9 1 8 , M il­ iu k o v P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s. S ee a lso M iliu k o v 's l e tte r o f M a y 21 a n d A le k se e v 's re p ly o f M a y 1 2 / 2 5 in M iliu k o v P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s a n d N o v o e V re m ia , J u n e 2, 1 9 2 1 . In a la te r a c c o u n t o f h is a c tiv itie s a t th is tim e , g iv e n to a F r e n c h jo u rn a lis t, M i l ­ iu k o v s ta t e d t h a t “ I t w as t h e G e rm a n s w h o , o n th e ir o w n in itia tiv e , c a m e to see h im in K iev . . . .”

S tr ic tly s p e a k in g th is w as tru e , b u t it is c le a r fro m h is le tte r s

a n d fr o m e n tr ie s in h is d ia ry t h a t h e w e n t to K ie v sp ec ifica lly fo r s u c h ta lk s a n d h im s e lf a r r a n g e d th e “ i n v ita tio n ." S ee th e in te rv ie w in L e T e m p s ( P a r is ) , D e c e m ­ b e r 2 6 , 1 9 1 8 , a n d c o m p a re w ith M iliu k o v 's l e t t e r to A le k se e v fro m K iev , J u n e 20,

1 9 1 8 , M iliu k o v P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s, a n d w ith e n trie s fo r th is p e rio d in h is

“ D n e v n ik ," 1 9 1 8 s e c tio n , p p . 1 0 - 1 4 . 30 I t is n o ta b le t h a t t h e c o u n s e llo r o f th e G e r m a n E m b a s s y in M o s c o w h a d ju s t p r io r to th is r e c o m m e n d e d d ra w in g K a d e t le a d e rs in to a n y n e g o tia tio n s w ith a n tiB o ls h e v ik e le m e n ts , first b e c a u s e th e y re p re s e n te d a m a jo r p a rty a n d s e c o n d ly b e c a u s e it w o u ld b e u s e fu l to “ c o m p ro m is e t h e m " w ith th e A llies in case n o a g r e e m e n t c o u ld b e re a c h e d . H o w e v e r, th e G e r m a n F o r e ig n M in is try h a d a lre a d y o n M a y 18 in f o r m e d A m b a s s a d o r M ir b a c h t h a t it re g a rd e d th e K a d e ts in g e n e ra l as “ a n ti- G e r m a n " a n d e v e n d o u b t e d th e a d v is ib ility o f d e a lin g w ith th e m o n a r ­ c h is ts , s in c e th e s e e le m e n ts w o u ld u n d o u b te d ly seek a re v is io n o f t h e B re s t tr e a ty

The Volunteer Army

312

a n d re u n ific a tio n o f R u ssia . T h e F o re ig n M in is try , th is n o te s ta te d , fa v o re d a p o l­ icy d e sig n e d “ to p re v e n t R u s s ia n c o n s o lid a tio n as fa r as p o s s ib le " a n d th e r e f o r e b e ­ liev ed s u p p o r t s h o u ld go to “ th e p a rtie s f u r th e s t to th e le f t." T h e in itia tiv e fo r talk s w ith M iliu k o v a p p a r e n tly c a m e fro m th e m ilita r y c o m m a n d . F o r th e G e r m a n n o te s o n th e s e m a tte rs , see Z e m a n , o p . c it., p p . 1 2 8 - 1 2 9 , 1 3 1 . C f. L u d e n d o r f f ’s a p p ra isa l o f th e s itu a tio n a n d h is a d v o c a c y o f d e a lin g w ith a n ti-B o ls h e v ik e le m e n ts , esp e c ia lly th e m o n a rc h is ts , in ib id ., p p . 1 3 4 - 1 3 6 . 31 S ee M iliu k o v ’s a c c o u n t in h is “ D n e v n ik ," 1 9 1 8 s e c tio n , p p . 1 6 - 2 4 . T h e L e T e m p s in te rv ie w in d ic a te s t h a t M iliu k o v ta lk e d w ith a n o fficer o f t h e p o litic a l in te llig e n c e d e p a r tm e n t o f th e G e r m a n C o m m a n d o n J u n e 2 4 a n d Ju ly 10, a n d th e d ia ry in d ic a te s t h a t h is ta lk w ith G e n e r a l H a a s e w as o n J u n e 21 a n d a s e c o n d c o n fe re n c e w as h e ld w ith th e G e rm a n a m b a s s a d o r, M u m m , o n J u n e 2 7 . 32 M iliu k o v , “ D n e v n ik ,"

1 9 1 8 s e c tio n , p p . 3 7 - 4 0 .

M iliu k o v im p lie s t h a t h is

c o n ta c ts w ith th e m o d e ra te L e ft w e re th e c au se o f M u m m ’s d is tru s t. 33 L e T e m p s , D e c e m b e r 2 6 , 1 9 1 8 . 34 S ee th e in te rv ie w w ith M iliu k o v in th e P a ll M a l l G a z e t t e , J a n u a ry 15 , 1 9 1 9 . C o p ie s o f th is in te rv ie w as w ell as t h a t in L e T e m p s m a y b e fo u n d in t h e M iliu k o v P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s. 35 A lth o u g h K ra sn o v 's s ta tu s w as to b e p ro v is io n a l u n til t h e s c h e d u le d m e e tin g o f th e G r a n d K ru g in A u g u s t, h e im m e d ia te ly a s s u m e d d ic ta to ria l p o w e rs .

U nder

th e b a sic law in tr o d u c e d b y h im , h e a p p o in te d th e g o v e r n m e n t, h a d a v e to o n a ll le g is la tio n , a n d w as c o m m a n d e r -in -c h ie f o f th e a rm e d fo rce s .

S ee D o n s k a ia L e t o -

p is ’, V o l. I l l (B e lg ra d e : Iz d a n ie D o n s k o i Is to ric h e s k o i K o m issii, 1 9 2 4 ) , p p . 3 2 0 3 2 6 . S ee a lso N . N . G o lo v in , R o s s iis k a ia k o n tr r e v o l i u t s i i a v 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 1 8 gg . ( P a r is : “ Illiu s tr iro v a n n o i R o s s ii," 1 9 3 7 ) , V o l. V , B k. 10, C h a p . 22 a n d A p p e n d ic e s N o s . 6 9 a n d 7 0 , p p . 4 9 - 5 9 ; B u n y a n , o p . c i t . , p p . 3 2 - 3 5 ; a n d V . D o b r y n in , L a l u t t e c o n t r e le b o l c h e v i s m e d a n s la R u s s i e m e r i o d i o n a l e

(P ra g u e : l m p . “ M e la n tr ic h , "

1 9 2 0 ) , p p . 5 8 - 6 0 . C f. D a v id F o o tm a n , C i v i l W a r in R u s s ia ( L o n d o n : F a b e r a n d F a b e r, 1961 ) , p . 7 4 ff. 36 G o lo v in , o p . c i t .. V o l. V , B k. 10, p . 2 0; K . P . K a k liu g in , “ D o n s k o i A ta m a n P . N . K ra sn o v i eg o v re m ia ,” D o n s k a ia L e t o p i s ’, I I I , 8 1 .

K ra s n o v also a tt e m p t e d

to in itia te n e g o tia tio n s w ith th e B o lsh e v ik s im m e d ia te ly a f te r b e c o m in g A ta m a n . H is e n v o y , A . P a d a lk in , le ft fo r M oscow - o n M a y 17 a n d a rriv e d th e r e a w e e k la te r . H e w as a t first g iv e n c o rd ia l t r e a tm e n t, b u t w h e n h e a t t e m p t e d to le a v e M o s c o w h e w as a r re s te d . A lth o u g h h e w as so o n a g a in re le a se d , th e r e w as n o m o re ta lk o f n e g o tia tio n s . See A . P a d a lk in , “ P o e z d k a v M o s k v u k L e n in u s p is ’m o m d o n s k o g o a ta m a n a P . N . K ra s n o v a ," D o n s k a ia L e t o p i s ’, I I I , 2 6 1 - 2 6 7 . T h e a t t i t u d e th e n c e ­ fo r th a d o p te d b y th e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t w as e x p re ss e d in a d e c la r a tio n to th e C o ss a c k s o n M a y 30 w h ic h s ta t e d : “ T h e S o v ie t o f P e o p le ’s C o m m is s a rs h e r e b y d e c la re s t h a t th e D o n re g io n is a n in te g ra l p a r t o f t h e R u s s ia n S o c ia lis t F e d e r a te d S o v ie t R e p u b lic . . . K ra sn o v a n d h is h e lp e rs a n d a llies [are d e c la re d ! to b e e n e ­ m ie s o f th e p e o p le . . . o u ts id e th e law'.

D e a th to th e tra ito r s ! "

S ee B u n y a n .

op. c it., p p . 3 6 -3 7 . 37 O n K ra sn o v 's p o lic ie s, see G o lo v in , o p . c i t . . V o l. V , B k . 10, p p . 1 4 - 1 9 ; K a k ­ liu g in , o p . c i t . , p . 6 8 ff. C f . K ra s n o v ’s o w n d e fe n s e o f h is p o lic ie s a g a in s t c h a rg e s o f s e p a ra tis m

in P . N . K ra sn o v , K a z a c h ’ia “ s a m o s tiin o s t"

(B e r lin :

“ D v u g la v y i

O r e l,” 1 9 2 1 ) , a n d P . N . K ra sn o v , “ V s e v e lik o e v o isk o D o n s k o e ,” A r k h i v R u s s k o i

313

NOTES R e v o î i u t s i i , V o l. V

( B e r lin : Iz d a te l's tv o " S lo v o ,” 1 9 2 2 ) , p p . 1 9 0 - 3 2 1 .

38 S v e c h in , o p . c it., P a r t I, p p . 3 8 - 3 9 ; B u n y a n , o p . c it., p p . 3 5 - 3 6 ; I. I. M in ts a n d E . G o r o d e ts k ii, e d s., D o k u m e n t y p o i s t o r i i g ra z h d a n s k o i v o i n y v S S S R , V o l. I ( M o s c o w : G o s p o litiz d a t, 1 9 4 0 ) , p. 2 3 0 . C h e r ia c h u k in ’s in s tru c tio n s a re n o te d in A . V . C h e r ia c h u k in , “ D o n s k a ia d e le g a ts iia n a U k ra in e i v B e rlin e v 1 9 1 8 1 9 1 9 ,” D o n s k a ia L e t o p i s ’, I I I , 1 6 5 - 1 7 3 ; a n d in th e C h e r ia c h u k in P a p e rs , F ile II , N N . 1 -3 39 S v e c h in , o p . c it., P a r t I I , p p . 5 2 - 5 5 .

S e e a lso G o lo v in , o p . c it.. V o l. V , B k .

1 0 , p p . 2 1 - 2 2 ; a n d K a k liu g in , o p . c it., p . 8 1 . C f. M iliu k o v , " D n e v n ik ,” s e c tio n , p p . 6 , 15, 2 5 .

1918

40 S ee G e n e r a l S v e c h in ’s re p o r t o f J u n e 2 1 , 1 9 1 8 , in " G e rm a n s k a ia in te rv e n ts iia i D o n s k o e p r a v ite l's tv o v 1 9 1 8 g .,” K r a s n y i A i k h i v , V o l. L X V I I (M o s c o w : G o siz d a t, 1 9 3 4 ) , p p . 1 2 0 - 1 2 2 . C f. B u n y a n , o p . c i t . , p p . 4 0 - 4 2 . 41 T h e te x t o f th is le tte r , d a te d J u ly 11, 1 9 1 8 , m a y b e f o u n d in K ra sn o v , "V s e v e lik o e v o isk o D o n s k o e ,” Joe. c it.,

p.

2 1 0 ; C h e r ia c h u k in , ' ‘D o n s k a ia d e le g a ts iia . . . , ”

Joe. c it., p p . 1 9 6 - 1 9 8 ; K a k liu g in , o p . c it., p p . 9 2 - 9 4 ; " G e rm a n s k a ia in te rv e n ts iia i D o n s k o e p r a v ite l's tv o ,” Joe. c it., p p . 9 7 , 1 2 0 ; M in ts a n d G o ro d s k ii, D o k u m e n t y p o is t o r i i g r a z h d a n s k o i v o i n y v S S S R , I, 2 3 2 - 2 3 3 ; a n d B u n y a n , o p . c i t . , p . 4 3 . T h e

le t t e r w as a p p a r e n tly n o t d e liv e re d d ire c tly to

th e K a ise r b u t in itia lly s e n t to

G e r m a n a u th o r itie s in K iev . C h e r ia c h u k in , w h o la te r c a rrie d it to B e rlin , w as n o t re c e iv e d b y t h e K aiser.

I n view o f c o n s id e ra b le o p p o s itio n to h is p o lic y w ith in

h is o w n g o v e r n m e n t, K ra sn o v to o k p e rs o n a l re s p o n s ib ility fo r th e l e tte r a n d th e s te p s w h ic h a c c o m p a n ie d . S ee G o lo v in , o p . c i t . , V o l. V . B k. 10, p p . 2 3 - 2 4 ; K a k ­ liu g in , o p . c i t . , 42 F o r th e s m u ty , III,

p.

7 5 ; a n d t h e C h e r ia c h u k in P a p e rs , F ile I I I .

te x t o f th e

p ro p o s e d c o n s ti tu tio n , see D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i

2 4 6 - 2 4 7 ; a n d B u n y a n , o p . c i t . , p p . 4 4 -4 6 .

K ra s n o v ’s p ro p o s a ls in ­

c lu d e d s ta t e m e n ts o n n e u tr a lity in th e W o r l d W a r , o p p o s itio n to " in v a s io n o f its t e r r ito r ie s b y a n y fo re ig n tr o o p s ,” a n d " p e a c e fu l re la tio n s w ith a ll s ta te s .” I n la te r y ears K ra sn o v , h o w e v e r, d e n ie d h a v in g really ta k e n th e id e a o f th e L e a g u e s erio u sly . S ee K ra sn o v , K a z a c h ’ia “ s a m o s t i i n o s t ’,” p . 23 . 43 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , I I I , 2 4 8 . O n ly th e A s tra k h a n a ta m a n , T u n d u to v , w h o w as a lso s e e k in g G e r m a n a id , a c tu a lly sig n e d th e p ro p o s e d tre a ty .

See

K a k liu g in , o p . c it., p . 9 7 . O n t h e K u b a n re s p o n s e to G e r m a n a d v ic e to u n ite w ith th e U k r a in e o r jo in th e L e a g u e , see M iliu k o v , " D n e v n ik ,” 1 9 1 8 s e c tio n , p . 12. 44 S ee K ra sn o v , " V s e v e lik o e v o isk o D o n s k o e ,” Joe. c i t . , p p . 2 0 7 - 2 1 0 ; a n d K a k ­ liu g in , o p . c i t . , p . 8 1 . C f. F o o tm a n , o p . c i t . , p . 7 6 ff. 45 S ee n o te 2 7 a b o v e . 46 S ee v o n H in tz e 's n o te a n d th e S o v ie t re p ly in th e D e n ik in A rc h iv e s. C h ic h e r i n ’s n o te is in W M A , F ile 1 4 1 , G H Q , A z b u k a re p o rts . 47 S e e D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , I I I , 7 5 - 7 8 , 8 7 , 2 4 6 - 2 4 9 , 2 6 2 . O n o p in ­ io n s w ith in t h e V o lu n te e r A rm y , see B . M . B r o fe l'd t, " V o s p o m in a n i ia ”

(M S ,

C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity R u s s ia n A r c h iv e ) , P a r t I I , p . 9 6 ; P a r t I I I , p . 3 ff. a n d la . M . L iso v o i, e d ., B e l y i a r k h i v (P a ris , 1 9 2 6 ) , V o l. I, p p . 1 3 8 - 1 4 9 . C f. t h e V o l u n ­ te e r A rm y p a m p h le t, K r a tk a ia z a p is k a is t o r i i v z a i m o o t n o s h e n i i D o b r o v o l ’c h e s k o i a r m ii s U k r a i n o i ( R o s to v -o n -D o n : T i p . " D o n s k o g o a k ts. o-va. p e c h . i iz d . d e là ,”

1 9 1 9 ) , p p . 3—4 ; G o lo v in , o p . c i t . , V o l. V , B k . 10, p p . 2 7 —3 0; a n d " V s e v e lik o e v o isk o D o n s k o e ,” A r k h i v R u s s k o i R e v o î i u t s i i , V o l. V

K ra sn o v ,

(B e rlin : Iz d a -

The Volunteer Army

3M

te l's tv o “ S lo v o ,” 1 9 2 2 ) , p p . 2 0 0 - 2 0 2 . A le k se e v in d ic a te d in a l e t t e r to D e n ik in in J u ly 1 9 1 8 t h a t D e n ik in h im s e lf a n d h is c h ie f o f staff, R o m a n o v s k ii, w e re “ c o n s id ­ e r e d d e f in ite ly re p u b lic a n s if n o t s o c ia lis ts ” b y m a n y o f t h e ir s u b o rd in a te s . S ee D e n ik in , O c h e r k i , i u s s k o i s m u ty , I I I , 1 3 0 - 1 3 3 , 1 3 7 . O n D e n ik in 's re la tio n s w ith K ra sn o v see also A . A . S m a g in , “ V o s p o m in a n iia ” ( M S , C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity R u s ­ sian A rc h iv e ), p . 22 ff. G e n e ra lly , th e m o s t re a c tio n a ry o f th e officers w e re th o s e o f th e o ld e lite , th e G u a rd s , w h o c o n tin u e d to e x ist as th e n o b ility w ith in t h e o fficer c o rp s , a lth o u g h th e officer c o rp s h a d b e e n o p e n e d to th o s e n o t o f t h e n o b ility sin c e th e re fo rm s o f t h e 18 7 0 's . D e n ik in , w h o w as n o t in c lu d e d in t h e ir n u m b e r , n e v e r re c o g n iz e d a n y s p ec ia l s ta tu s fo r th e G u a rd s , a n d e v e n m a d e a p o i n t o f s tre ss ­ in g th e e q u a lity o f a ll in a g iv e n ra n k re g a rd le ss o f th e ir so cia l o rig in . T h e y in tu r n w ere th e m o s t d is tru s tfu l o f h is m o tiv e s a n d u ltim a te ly b e c a m e t h e le a d e rs o f th e A rm y f a c tio n o p p o s e d to h is c o m m a n d .

F o r a b ia s e d b u t in te r e s tin g d e s c r ip tio n

o f th is in te r n a l d iv is io n , see “ Z a p isk a o r e a k ts io n n o m i o m e ra k h b o r 'b y s n i m ,” in th e M iliu k o v A rc h iv e s. “ V o s p o m in a n iia ,”

p.

d v iz h e n ii v v o e n n o i s re d S ee a lso G . S h a v e l’sk ii,

3 3 7 a n d p a ssim ( M S , C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity R u s s ia n A r c h iv e ) .

48 A lth o u g h K ra sn o v c o u ld n o t m a tc h t h e s tr e n g th o f t h e B o lsh e v ik s in T s a r i t ­ sy n , D o n effo rts d id p r e v e n t s o m e B o lsh e v ik fo rce s fro m b e in g s e n t f a r th e r s o u th to o p p o s e V o lu n te e r o p e ra tio n s to w a rd th e C a u c a s u s . D e n ik in f e lt it n e c e s sa ry , if p o ssib le , to e s ta b lis h a b a se o n t h e B la ck S ea th r o u g h w h ic h A llie d a id c o u ld e v e n tu a lly c o m e , a n d h e fe a re d t h a t th e G e rm a n s w o u ld try to o c c u p y th e K u b a n if th e V o lu n te e r s d id n o t d o so first. S ee G o lo v in , o p . c it., V o l. V . B k . 10, p p . 3 0 - 3 7 ; a n d B k . 11,

p.

7 ff.

49 I t s h o u ld a lso b e n o te d , h o w e v e r, t h a t a f te r c o n s id e ra b le u rg in g fr o m A le k se e v th e A llie d re p re s e n ta tiv e s in M o s c o w , c h ie fly L o c k h a r t a n d L a v e rg n e , a p p a r e n tly d id a g re e to s u p p ly fin a n c ia l s u p p o r t to

t h e V o lu n te e r s a n d

sen t

10 m illio n

ru b le s in J u ly . T h e e x te n t o f G e r m a n in flu e n c e in th e S o u th c le a rly d is tu r b e d L o c k h a r t a n d p ro b a b ly le d h im to a b a n d o n h is p re v io u s h e s it a tio n s in th is re g a rd . Sec U llm a n , o p . c it., I, 2 3 2 . 50 K ra sn o v , “ V se v e lik o e v o isk o D o n s k o e ,” lo c . c it., p . 2 0 7 . C f . F o o tm a n , o p . c it., p . 8 3 . 51 T h e b e s t s tu d y o f t h e f o r m a tio n o f th e L e g io n a n d its s u b s e q u e n t ro le in R u ssia is t h a t b y J. F . N . B ra d le y , L a L e g io n T s c h e c o s l o v a q u e e n R u s s i e , 1 9 1 4 1 9 2 0 (P a r is : C e n t r e N a tio n a l d e la R e c h e r c h e S c ie n tifiq u e , 1 9 6 5 ) ( O n t h e b a c k ­ g r o u n d see C h a p . 2 ) . S ee a lso K e n n a n , o p . c it., I I , 1 3 6 ff.; a n d U llm a n , o p . c it.,

I, 151 ff. 52 B ra d le y , o p . c it., p p . 6 1 - 6 6 . 53 I b i d . , p p . 6 3 - 6 5 . 54 I b i d . , p p . 6 7 - 6 9 .

S ee a lso P a g e to s e c re ta ry o f s ta te , s u m m a ry o f B ritis h

F o r e ig n O ffice in te llig e n c e re p o r t o f A p ril 11 , 1 9 1 8 , U . S. N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o r e ig n A ffairs S e c tio n , D o c . N o . 7 6 3 .7 2 / 9 6 9 3 . I t w as s u g g e s te d a t th is tim e t h a t R u s s ia n tr o o p s in F r a n c e c o u ld b e o ffe re d to th e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t in tr a d e fo r t h e C z e c h s if i t s h o u ld b e n e c e s sa ry in o rd e r to o b ta in B o ls h e v ik p e r m is s io n fo r th e tr a n s f e r o f t h e L e g io n o u t o f R u ss ia . H o w e v e r, th is id e a w as s e t a sid e , a n d th e q u e s tio n o f th e d is p o s itio n o f R u s s ia n tro o p s in F r a n c e w as n o t re v iv e d u n t i l a la te r d a te .

S ee a lso W . S. C h u r c h ill, T h e W o r l d C r is is : T h e A f t e r m a t h

(L o n ­

d o n : T h o r n t o n B u tte r w o r th , L t d ., 1 9 2 9 ) , p . 9 2 . C f. m a te ria ls in B u n y a n , o p . c it., p . 7 5 ff.

315

NOTES 55

B ra d le y , o p . c i t . , p p . 7 3 - 8 0 .

50 C h u r c h ill, o p . c i t . , p . 9 4 . 57 B ra d le y , o p . c it., p . 8 0 ff. T h e re v o lt w as im m e d ia te ly b ra n d e d b y t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t as a d e lib e ra te a c t in s tig a te d b y A llie d a g e n ts a g a in s t M o s c o w . T h e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts d e n ie d th is a lle g a tio n a n d p r o te s te d S o v ie t a c tio n s a g a in s t th e C z e c h s , w a r n in g t h a t f u r t h e r s u c h in te r f e r e n c e w ith t h e ir m o v e m e n ts w o u ld b e r e ­ g a r d e d as “ a n a c t in s p ire d b y G e r m a n y a n d h o s tile to t h e A l l i e s / ' R . H . B ru c e L o c k h a r t, M e m o i r s o f a B r iti s h A g e n t ( L o n d o n : P u tn a m , 1 9 3 2 ) , p p . 2 8 2 - 2 8 4 . S ee also U llm a n , o p . c it., I, 1 9 5 , 2 1 1 - 2 1 2 ; a n d C h u r c h ill, o p . c it., p p . 9 4 - 9 5 . F o r t h e S o v ie t p r o te s ts , see R .S .F .S .R . C o m m is s a ria t fo r F o r e ig n A ffairs, C o r r e s p o n d a n c e d i p l o m a t i q u e s e r a p p o r t a n t a u x r é la t io n s e n t r e la R é p u b l i q u e r u s s e e t le s p u is s a n c e s d e l ’E n t e n t e , 1 9 1 8 (M o s c o w : C o m m is s a ria t d u p e u p le p o u r les affaires é tra n g e rè s ,

1 9 1 9 ), p p .

1 3 - 1 5 ; U .S .S .R . M in is tr y o f F o r e ig n A ffairs, D o k u m e n ty v n e s h n e i

p o l i t i k i S S S R , V o l. I

(M o s c o w : G o s p o litiz d a t, 1 9 5 7 ) , p p . 3 2 6 - 3 2 7 , 3 2 9 , 3 4 7 3 4 8 , 3 5 6 - 3 5 8 , 3 6 7 , 3 7 6 - 3 7 8 , 3 8 9 ; a n d G . V . C h ic h e r in , T w o Y e a r s o f F o r e ig n P o l i c y ( N e w Y o rk : R u s s ia n S o v ie t G o v e r n m e n t B u re a u , 1 9 2 0 ) , p. 12. 58 B ra d le y , o p . c it., p . 8 6 . r’9 F o r a c c o u n ts o f t h e d e b a t e o v e r A llie d p o lic y a n d t h e in v o lv e m e n t o f th e C z e c h issu e in in te r v e n tio n p la n s , see U llm a n , o p . c it., I, 15 3 ff.; a n d K e n n a n , o p . c it., I I , 1 4 0 ff. S ee a lso G . F . K e n n a n , R u ss ia a n d t h e W e s t U n d e r L e n in a n d S ta li n ( B o s to n : L i ttle , B ro w n a n d C o ., 1 9 6 1 ) , p p . 7 0 - 7 1 , 9 7 ff. M e m o r a n d a a n d n o te s o f J a n u a ry a n d F e b ru a ry 1 9 1 8 , in d ic a tin g v a rio u s p ro p o s a ls fo r in te r v e n ­ tio n in R u ss ia , a p a r t fro m th e q u e s tio n o f th e u se o f th e C z e c h fo rces, m a y b e f o u n d in F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s ,

1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia ,

II , 2 0 - 2 1 ,

3 5 -3 6 ,

3 8 -4 1 .

S ee also

R e in s c h to L a n s in g , F e b ru a ry 15, 1 9 1 8 , U . S. N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o r e ig n A ffairs S e c tio n , D o c . N o . 8 6 1 .0 0 / 1 0 9 3 . 60

T h e first s p ec ific p ro p o s a ls fo r t h e u se o f th e C z e c h L e g io n as a n in te r v e n tio n

fo r c e w e re m a d e b y t h e B ritis h W a r O ffice to C z e c h le a d e rs th e m s e lv e s o n A p ril 1, t h e n to th e A llie d m ilita r y re p re s e n ta tiv e s in th e S u p r e m e W a r C o u n c il o n A p ril 8 , a lth o u g h t h e id e a h a d b e e n b ro a c h e d e v e n e a rlie r. M e m o irs

S ee E . B en e s , M y W a r

( B o s to n : H o u g h t o n , 1 9 2 8 ) , p . 3 5 7 ; a n d re c o rd s o f t h e m ilita r y r e p r e ­

s e n ta tiv e s ’ m e e tin g o f A p ril 8 in t h e S u p r e m e W a r C o u n c i l R e c o rd s , U . S. N a ­ tio n a l A rc h iv e s, M o d e r n A rm y S e c tio n . S e e a lso B ritis h F o r e ig n O ffice in te llig e n c e re p o r ts in F ile N o . 7 6 3 .7 2 ; U . S. N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o r e ig n A ffairs S e c tio n ; a n d m e m o r a n d a fr o m a n d to t h e F r e n c h F o r e ig n M in is try in t h e M a k la k o v A rc h iv e s, S eries B , P a c k e t I,

D o s s ie r

11, P a ris

E m b assy

(H o o v e r L i b r a r y ) .

C f.

L lo y d

G e o r g e , W a r M e m o irs , V I , 3 1 7 5 - 3 1 7 7 . S h o r tly a fte r t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f G e n e r a l P o o le i t w as d e c id e d b y th e B ritis h to s e n d a n e x p e d itio n a r y fo rc e to M u r m a n s k , a n d la te r to A rk h a n g e ls k , o n e o f w h o s e fu n c tio n s w o u ld b e “ to e q u ip a n d tr a in s u c h C z e c h o -S lo v a k s as s h o u ld fin d th e ir w ay to t h a t p o r t, a n d a lso to ta k e in h a n d t h e o rg a n iz a tio n , e q u ip m e n t, a n d tr a in in g o f a lo c a l R u s s ia n c o n tin g e n t . . .’’ as la te r r e p o r te d b y its c o m m a n d e r , M a jo r G e n e r a l C . C . M . M a y n a rd . T h i s e x p e ­ d itio n a r y fo r c e w as th e n , o n M a y 2 3 , o rd e re d to p ro c e e d to M u rm a n s k .

I t s h o u ld

b e k e p t in m in d , h o w e v e r, t h a t th is a c tio n w as to b e d ire c te d so lely a g a in s t th e G e r m a n s ( a n d t h e F in n i s h “ W h i t e s ” ) a n d , if a t a ll p o s sib le , w as to b e u n d e r ­ ta k e n in c o o p e r a tio n w ith t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t a n d th e lo c a l s o v ie t in M u r ­ m a n s k . S e e C . M a y n a rd , T h e M u r m a n s k V e n tu r e , 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9 ( L o n d o n : H o d d e r a n d S t o u g h t o n L t d ., 1 9 2 8 ) , p p . 1 2 - 1 4 ; U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 1 5 4 - 1 5 5 , 1 6 9 - 1 7 3 ;

316

The Volunteer Army

a n d K e n n a n , S o v i e t - A m e r i c a n R e l a t i o n s , II , 2 6 3 - 2 6 4 . C f. F o o tm a n , o p . c it., p . 1 6 7 ff. 61 L o c k h a r t, o p . c i t . , p p . 2 8 0 - 2 8 1 ; L o c k h a r t to F o r e ig n O ffice , M a y 1 7 , 2 7 , a n d 30, 1 9 1 8 , U . S. N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o r e ig n A ffairs S e c tio n , F ile 8 6 1 .0 0 , N N . 1 8 9 7 V i, 2 0 8 0 V i, a n d 2 0 7 2 .

L o c k h a r t re m a in e d n o n c o m m ita l to w a rd t h e a n ti-

B o lsh e v ik e le m e n ts lo n g e r th a n m o s t o f h is c o lle a g u e s a n d d id n o t ta k e a s ta n d in fa v o r o f in te r v e n tio n to h e lp th e m u n til la te in M a y . 62 S ee F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u ss ia , I I , 2 1 3 - 2 1 4 , 4 7 1 , 4 7 4 , 4 7 6 a n d D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , I, 3 7 9 , 3 9 0 - 3 9 2 .

F o r a n a c c o u n t o f re la tio n s w ith th e

M u r m a n s k s o v ie t a n d c o m p lic a tio n s w ith M o s c o w , see U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 1 7 8 ff. 63 S ee M iliu k o v , R u ss ia T o d a y a n d T o m o r r o w , p p . 1 3 4 - 1 3 $ ; L o c k h a r t, o p . c i t . ,

pp. 288-289. 64 I n t h e v o tin g fo r t h e C o n s t i t u e n t A ss e m b ly o n N o v e m b e r 2 5 , 1 9 1 7 , o f th e 7 0 7 m e m b e r s e le c te d 4 1 0 w e re S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r ie s ( 3 7 0 R i g h t S o c ia lis t R e v o ­ lu tio n a r ie s a n d 4 0 L e f t S o c ia lis t R e v o l u tio n a r ie s ) , 175 w e re B o lsh e v ik s , 17 K a d e ts , 16 M e n s h e v ik s , a n d m o s t o f th e re m a in d e r w e re m e m b e rs o f v a rio u s “ n a tio n a l g r o u p s ." S ee I. S. M a lc h e v s k ii, e d ., V s e r o s s i i s k o e u c h r e d i t e Y n o e s o b r a n ie ( M o s ­ c o w : G o s iz d a t, 1 9 3 0 ) , p . 1 1 5 ; O . H . R a d k e y , T h e E l e c t i o n t o t h e R u s s ia n C o n ­ s titu e n t A s s e m b ly o f 1 9 1 7

( C a m b r id g e : H a rv a rd U n iv e rs ity P re s s, 1 9 5 0 ) , p . 8 0 .

F o r a h is to ry o f th e S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r ie s in th is p e rio d , u p to t h e C o n s t i t u e n t A sse m b ly , see O . H . R a d k e y , T h e S ic k l e U n d e r t h e H a m m e r ( N e w Y o rk : C o l u m ­ b ia U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 6 3 ) . 65 T h e L e f t S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r ie s h a d w ith d r a w n fr o m t h e g o v e r n m e n t in M a r c h in p r o te s t a g a in s t t h e ra tif ic a tio n o f th e B re s t tre a ty , b u t th e y s till f o r m e d a m a jo r f a c tio n in t h e s o v iets a n d h e ld im p o r t a n t p o s ts in t h e a d m in is tr a tiv e a p p a r a ­ tu s a n d th e p o lic e .

F o r th e i r p a rt, th e R ig h t S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r ie s , a t a c o n ­

f e re n c e in M a y , h a d c a lle d fo r th e o v e rth ro w o f th e B o ls h e v ik g o v e r n m e n t a n d th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a “ g o v e r n m e n t b a se d o n u n iv e rs a l s u ffra g e a n d w illin g to a c c e p t A llie d a ss is ta n c e in t h e w a r a g a in s t G e r m a n y ." S e e S. A . P io n tk o v s k ii, e d ., G r a z h d a n s k a ia v o in a v R o s s i i (M o s c o w : Iz d . K o m . u n iv ., 1 9 2 5 ) , p p . 1 5 4 - 1 5 6 ; E . H .

C a r r, T h e B o l s h e v i k R e v o l u t i o n ,

1 9 1 7 -1 9 2 3 ,

V o l. I

(N e w

Y o rk :

M a c m illa n ,

1 9 5 1 ), p p . 1 6 1 -1 6 2 . 66 F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , I I , 2 4 3 . 67 T h e

C heka

v ic e -c h a irm a n , A le k s a n d ro v ic h , p ro v id e d

m itte d t h e assassins o f M ir b a c h to t h e G e r m a n E m b a s s y .

th e

passes w h ic h

ad­

Iro n ic a lly , ju s t p r io r to

th is M ir b a c h h im s e lf h a d b e e n s p e c u la tin g o n t h e p o s s ib le o v e rth ro w o f t h e B o l­ sh e v ik re g im e b y G e r m a n tro o p s in a llia n c e w ith s o m e a n ti-B o ls h e v ik e le m e n ts , a lth o u g h h e e x c lu d e d th e p o s s ib ility o f w o rk in g w ith t h e S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r ie s b e c a u s e h e b e lie v e d th e m

to b e “ fin a n c e d b y t h e E n t e n t e a n d e q u ip p e d w ith

C z e c h o s lo v a k a rm s , q u ite o p e n ly le a d in g a n e w R u s s ia b a c k in to t h e ra n k s o f o u r e n e m ie s ."

S e e Z e m a n , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 3 7 - 1 3 9 , n o te fr o m M ir b a c h to B e rlin , J u n e

2 5 . 1 9 1 8 . O n J u ly 14 t h e G e rm a n s , e x p re ss in g s h a r p ir r ita tio n a t t h e a s s a s s in a tio n o f th e a m b a s s a d o r, d e m a n d e d t h e r ig h t to s e n d a b a tta lio n o f tro o p s to M o s c o w to p r o te c t t h e E m b a s s y .

H o w e v e r, th is d e m a n d w as n o t p re s s e d a f te r t h e S o v ie t

g o v e r n m e n t a ss u re d t h e G e r m a n s t h a t a s tro n g e r S o v ie t g u a rd w o u ld b e p r o v id e d a n d t h a t th e a u x ilia ry s ta ff o f t h e ir E m b a s s y c o u ld b e in c re a s e d to 3 0 0 . T o t h e B o lsh e v ik s th is re la tiv e ly easy r e c o n c ilia tio n w ith th e G e r m a n s , p lu s t h e s u b s e q u e n t

NOTES

317

a p p o i n t m e n t o f H e lffe ric h , a n e x p e r t o n e c o n o m ic re la tio n s , to s u c c e e d M ir b a c h , in d ic a te d a d e c isiv e s h if t in t h e G e r m a n F o r e ig n M in is try to w a rd a m o re “ c o n c il­ ia to ry p o lic y ." S ee D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , I, 3 9 7 - 4 0 0 ; C h ic h e r in , o p . c it., p p . 1 5 -1 6 . 68 F o o tm a n , o p . c it., p p . 9 8 - 9 9 .

O n th e e ffo rts o f th e S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r y

m e m b e r s o f t h e C o n s t i t u e n t A ss e m b ly ( t h e g ro u p w as s o m e tim e s c a lle d K o m u c h f o r s h o r t ) to fo r m a n e w g o v e r n m e n t a n d p re p a re fo r a n a llia n c e w ith th e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts , see G o lo v in , o p . c it., V o l. I l l , B k . 7, p p . 8 1 - 8 5 . 69 S e e I s p o v e d ’ S a v in k o v a : p r o t s e s s . . ., p p . 4 9 - 5 1 ; S a v in k o v , JBor'ba s b o l ’s h e v i k a m i, p p . 2 4 - 2 8 ; a n d

M iliu k o v , R u s s ia T o d a y a n d T o m o r r o w , p p . 1 3 0 - 1 3 3 .

M iliu k o v n o te s t h a t a d v a n c e in f o r m a tio n o n th e A llie d la n d in g s h e lp e d to e n ­ c o u ra g e th e u p ris in g s — A m b a s s a d o r N o u le n s , fo r e x a m p le , h a d in fo r m e d b o t h th e N a tio n a l C e n t e r a n d

th e

U n io n

fo r R e g e n e ra tio n

t h a t t h e A llies w o u ld s e n d

tr o o p s — b u t h e a lso n o te s t h a t w h a t re s u lte d w as la rg e ly d e b a te r a th e r t h a n c o o r ­ d in a te d a c tio n .

U llm a n n o te s t h a t L o c k h a r t h a d in s tru c tio n s n o t to b e c o m e in ­

v o lv e d in S a v in k o v 's p la n s , b u t L o c k h a r t h im s e lf in d ic a te s t h a t F r e n c h r e p r e ­ s e n ta tiv e s w e re a lre a d y s tro n g ly s u p p o r tin g S a v in k o v a n d t h a t b o t h F r e n c h a n d B ritis h a g e n ts w e re in c o n ta c t w ith th e L e f t S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a rie s w h o w ere p lo ttin g in M o s c o w . S ee U llm a n , o p . c it., I, 1 9 0 , 2 3 1 ; L o c k h a rt, o p . c it., p p . 2 7 4 , 2 8 8 -2 8 9 , 2 9 2 -3 0 1 .

C f . J o s e p h N o u le n s , M o n a m b a s s a d e e n R u s s i e S o v i é t i q u e

( P a r is : P lo n , 1 9 3 3 ) , V o l. II , p p . 1 0 9 - 1 1 0 . I t see m s q u ite lik e ly , as F o o tm a n h a s n o te d , t h a t “ lo c a l A llie d lia is o n officers m a y w e ll h a v e g o n e f u r th e r in th e ir a d v ic e a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t th a n w as w a rra n te d b y th e ir in s tr u c tio n s ." T h e re s u lt w as first u n f o u n d e d e x p e c ta tio n s a n d th e n , a f te r fa ilu re , re s e n tm e n t o v e r A llie d a c tio n s . S ee F o o tm a n , o p . c it., p p . 1 0 0 - 1 0 1 ; B ra d le y , o p . c it., p p . 8 7 - 9 2 ; M iliu k o v , R u s s ia

p. 1 3 5 - 1 3 6 . 70 A t t h e ir m e e tin g o n Ju ly 2 th e A llie d le a d e rs a g re e d t h a t in te r v e n tio n o n a

T o d a y and T o m o rro w ,

s u b s ta n tia l sca le w as n o t o n ly “ u rg e n tly n e ce ssa ry in o rd e r to save R u s s ia " fro m G e r m a n c o n tr o l b u t a lso “ e s s e n tia l in o rd e r to w in th e w a r," a n d it w as s ta te d t h a t th e “ p rim a ry o b je c t o f A llie d a c t io n ” s h o u ld b e “ to c o o p e r a te w ith th e R u s ­ sian n a tio n in r e -c re a tin g th e e a s te rn f r o n t as a first s te p to w a rd s fre e in g R u s s ia ." T h e A id e - M e m o ire o f th e U n ite d S ta te s o f Ju ly 17 c o n s ti tu te d o n ly a lim ite d a c c e p ta n c e o f t h e W a r C o u n c i l's r e c o m m e n d a tio n s a n d in s is te d t h a t “ th e o n ly le g itim a te o b je c t fo r w h ic h A m e ric a n o r A llie d tro o p s c a n b e e m p lo y e d " w as to a id th e C z e c h s a n d “ to g u a rd m ilita r y s to re s w h ic h m a y s u b s e q u e n tly b e n e e d e d b y R u s s ia n fo rce s a n d to r e n d e r s u c h a id as m a y b e a c c e p ta b le to t h e R u ss ia n s in th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f th e ir o w n s e lf-d e fe n s e ."

I t s h o u ld f u r th e r b e n o te d t h a t th e

a c tu a l e x e c u tio n o f a la rg e -sca le in te r v e n tio n w as c o n s id e re d d e p e n d e n t u p o n a g re e ­ m e n t w ith t h e J a p a n e s e o n t h e ir p a r tic ip a tio n . T h e l a tte r w as te n ta tiv e ly c o n c lu d e d o n Ju ly 2 4 b u t n o t p u b lic ly d e c la re d u n til A u g u s t 2. F o r th e s e s ta te m e n ts in th e o r d e r m e n tio n e d , see F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u ss ia , I I , 2 4 1 —2 4 6 , 2 8 7 —2 9 0 , 3 0 1 -3 0 2 , 3 2 4 -3 2 5 .

F o r a c c o u n ts o f th e s e n e g o tia tio n s see U llm a n , o p . c i t ., I,

2 1 1 - 2 2 9 ; a n d K e n n a n , S o v i e t - A m e r i c a n R e l a t i o n s , II , 381 ff. 71 L o c k h a r t, o p . c i t . , p . 3 0 8 . T h e a d d itio n o f A m e ric a n , F r e n c h a n d S e rb ia n tro o p s , h o w e v e r , b r o u g h t th e to ta l fo rc e in A rk h a n g e ls k to a b o u t 8 ,5 0 0 m e n in S e p te m b e r . A lso in S e p te m b e r th e fo rc e u n d e r G e n e r a l M a y n a rd in M u r m a n s k w as r e in f o r c e d a n d b r o u g h t u p to a b o u t 1 5 ,0 0 0 m e n . 2 3 0 ff.: F o o tm a n , o p . c it.. p p . 1 7 2 - 1 7 6 .

See U llm a n , o p . c it., I.

The Volunteer Army

318

72 See M . A . K e d ro v , B e z b o V s h e v is ts k o g o r u k o v o d s t v a ( i z i s t o r i i i n t e i v e n t s i i na M u rm a n e )

(L e n in g r a d : I z d a t. “ K ra sn a ia g a z e ta ,” 1 9 3 0 ) , p . 2 8 .

F o r a fu ll

a c c o u n t o f d e v e lo p m e n ts in t h e n o r th , see K e n n a n , S o v i e t - A m e r i c a n R e l a t i o n s , II , 1 5 - 5 7 , 2 4 5 - 2 7 6 , 3 6 3 - 3 8 0 ; L . I. S tra k h o v s k y , T h e O r i g in s o f A m e ric a n I n t e r ­ v e n t i o n in N o r t h R u s s ia

( P r in c e t o n : P r in c e to n U n iv . P ress, 1 9 3 7 ) ; a n d U llm a n ,

o p . c it., I, 1 7 8 ff. 73 L o c k h a r t, o p . c i t ., p . 2 8 3 .

M o s t o f th e A llie d d ip lo m a tic p e rs o n n e l, w h o

h a d g o n e to V o lo g d a e a rlie r, h a d a lre a d y le f t t h e c o u n tr y . T h o s e r e m a in in g (a s id e fr o m t h e v ery s m a ll staffs in M o s c o w )

h a d ta k e n re fu g e in A rk h a n g e ls k a lo n g

w ith A m b a ss a d o rs N o u le n s a n d F ra n c is .

S ee U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 2 3 4 - 2 3 8 ; N o u -

le n s, o p . c i t . , I I , 1 8 0 - 1 8 1 ; L o c k h a rt, o p . c i t . , p p . 3 1 2 - 3 3 1 , 3 3 4 .

Sadoul an d one

o f h is asso c iates, M a r c h a n d , re m a in e d in S o v ie t R u ss ia fo r a tim e a n d t h e n r e ­ tu r n e d to F r a n c e as C o m m u n is ts .

S id n e y R e illy , a B ritis h in te llig e n c e a g e n t w h o

h a d w o rk e d w ith L o c k h a rt, w e n t to S o u th R u ss ia a n d w o rk e d fo r a w h ile w ith th e V o lu n te e r A rm y , a fte r w h ic h h e re p o rte d ly jo in e d S a v in k o v ’s m o v e m e n t. See M . S. M a rg u lie s, G o d i n t e r v e n t s i i (B e rlin : I z d a te l’s tv o Z . I. G r z h e b in a — Z . J. G rs c h e b in V e rla g — 1 9 2 3 ) , I, 2 3 6 - 2 3 7 . S ee a lso R e n é M a r c h a n d , W h y I S u p ­ p o r t B o ls h e v i s m

( L o n d o n : B ritis h S o c ia lis t P a rty , n . d . ) .

74 F o r th e te x ts o f th e fo rm a l a g re e m e n ts , see D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , I, 4 3 7 - 4 5 3 , 6 9 2 - 7 0 3 , e sp e c ia lly 4 4 3 - 4 4 4 .

O n th e u n d e r s ta n d i n g w ith re g a rd to

B a k u a n d its oil see L e n in ’s te le g ra m to S ta lin in i b i d . , p . 3 8 1 . G e rm a n y w as a lso to seek S o v ie t r e c o g n itio n o f G e o rg ia , b u t n o official s ta t e m e n t o f s u c h r e c o g n i­ tio n w as a c tu a lly o b ta in e d b e fo re th e G e r m a n w ith d ra w a l.

S ee P ip e s , o p . c it.,

p. 211. 75 A v alo v , o p . c i t . , p p . 9 3 - 9 5 , 9 8 - 9 9 .

W h i l e th e G e o rg ia n d e le g a tio n w as in

B e rlin , A v alo v m a d e a s id e tr i p to O s lo w h e re h e c o n ta c te d th e B ritis h a n d F r e n c h a m b a ss a d o rs a n d in fo r m e d th e m o f th e n e g o tia tio n s w ith th e G e rm a n s . 78

F o r a n a c c o u n t o f s ev eral G e r m a n a tte m p ts to e s ta b lis h c o n ta c ts w ith t h e

V o lu n te e r A rm y a n d its c a te g o ric a l re je c tio n o f re la tio n s , see D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , I I I , 1 1 4 .

77 S ee G o lo v in , o p . c i t . , V o l. V , B k. 10, p . 37 ff. a n d C h a p . 14; D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , I I I , 1 1 8 . C f. F o o tm a n , o p . c i t . , p p . 7 6 - 7 7 .

78 K ra sn o v h a d

tr ie d

to

p e rs u a d e

G en eral

D ra g o m iro v ,

D e n ik in ’s s e c o n d

in

c o m m a n d u n d e r R o m a n o v s k ii, to h e a d th is a rm y , b u t D ra g o m iro v b lu n tly d e ­ c lin e d a n d la b e lle d th e o ffer a n in s u lt a n d th e a rm y a p a w n o f th e G e r m a n s . D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , I I I ,

124.

G o lo v in , o p . c i t . , V o l. V , B k .

10,

p . 38. 79 S ee th e r e p o r t o f th e D e p a r tm e n t o f F o re ig n A ffairs o f th e D o n m e n t to th e

G r e a t V o is k o

K ru g c o v e rin g K ra sn o v 's fo re ig n

g o v e rn ­

p o lic y fr o m

M ay

th r o u g h A u g u s t, W M A , F ile 1 3 3 , p p . 1 1 2 - 1 2 0 . 80 G o lo v in , o p . c i t . , V o l. V , B k . 10, p p . 4 3 - 4 6 . T h e p o lic y o f c o o p e r a tio n w ith th e G e r m a n s w as a p p ro v e d in so fa r as it w as “ b a se d o n t h e p rin c ip le o f m u tu a l a n d e q u a l s a tis fa c tio n o f b o t h sid es in p ra c tic a l q u e s tio n s ra ised b y c irc u m s ta n c e s , w ith o u t th e D o r. b e in g d ra w n in to a s tru g g le e ith e r fo r o r a g a in s t G e r m a n y .”

S ee

a lso P io n tk o v s k ii, o p . c i t . , p . 4 1 3 ff. 81 A l e tte r fr o m v o n C o c h e n h a u s e n w as re a d to th e K ru g o n S e p te m b e r 2 4 b y th e D o n a rm y c o m m a n d e r , G e n e r a l D e n is o v .

I n th is le t t e r th e G e r m a n re p re -

319

NOTES

s e n ta tiv e w a rn e d t h a t th e G e r m a n H ig h C o m m a n d w o u ld w ith d ra w s u p p o r t fro m th e D o n “ so lo n g as a n A ta m a n h a s n o t b e e n e le c te d in w h o m th e G e r m a n H ig h C o m m a n d c a n p la c e its c o n fid e n c e , w h o w ill c o n d u c t th e p o lic y o f th e D o n s ta te in a d ir e c tio n frie n d ly to G e rm a n y , a n d w h o w ill b e e n tr u s te d b y t h e K ru g w ith th e

fu ll a u th o r ity

n e c e ssa ry fo r t h e p r e s e n t c ritic a l p e r io d ."

D e n is o v w as r e ­

q u e s te d to c o n v e y th is m e ssa g e to K ra sn o v , “ in w h o m th e G e r m a n H ig h C o m ­ m a n d h a s t h e fu lle s t c o n fid e n c e ," as w e ll as to t h e g o v e rn m e n t.

S ee te le g ra m

fr o m M a jo r v o n C o c h e n h a u s e n to L t . G e n e r a l D e n is o v , W M A , F ile 1 3 3 , p . 1 0 8 . S ee a lso D e n ik in , O c h e i k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , I I I , 1 2 6 , 2 5 0 ; a n d G o lo v in , o p . c i t . , V o l. V , B k . 10, A p p e n d ix N o . 7 2 , p p . 6 1 - 6 3 . 82 K ra sn o v h im s e lf lis te d as h is “ fo u r e n e m ie s " 1 ) th e in te lle c tu a ls , 2 ) G e n e r a l D e n ik in , 3 ) fo re ig n e rs , a n d 4 ) th e B o lsh e v ik s. D e n ik in h e c a lle d h is “ m o s t d r e a d ­ fu l e n e m y ” a n d t h e B o lsh e v ik s h e lis te d la s t a n d d e c la re d t h a t h e fe a re d th e m “ le a s t o f a ll b e c a u s e I c o n d u c t a n o p e n s tru g g le w ith th e m a n d th e y d o n o t p r e te n d t h a t th e y a re m y f r ie n d s ."

K ra sn o v , “ V se v e lik o e v o isko D o n s k o e ," lo c . c i t . ,

p.

1 9 8 . S ee also G o lo v in , o p . c i t . , V o l. V , B k . 10, p . 4 1 . F o r D e n ik in 's p o s itio n see D e n ik in , O c h e i k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , I I I , 2 5 1 . 83 D e n ik in , O c h e i k i ru s sk o i s m u ty , I I I , 8 8 .

See a lso S m a g in , o p . c it., p . 2 4 .

C f . B ra d le y , o p . c i t . , p . 9 0 . 84 S e e M iliu k o v , R u ss ia T o d a y a n d T o m o rro w , p . 1 31; F o o tm a n , o p . c i t . , p . 1 0 4 ff. 85 F o r a n a c c o u n t o f th e s e d e v e lo p m e n ts a n d th e c o n flic t b e tw e e n O m s k a n d S a m a ra , see G o lo v in , o p . c it., V o l. IV , B k . 8, p . 6 0 ff. S ee a lso B u n y a n , o p . c it., p p . 2 8 3 - 2 8 5 , 3 3 9 - 3 5 6 ; a n d F o o tm a n , o p . c it., p p . 1 0 9 - 1 1 0 . 86 D e n ik in , O c h e i k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , I I I , 8 8 .

S ee a lso th e in tr o d u c tio n b y S.

P io n tk o v s k ii in V . V . S h u l'g in , D n i (B e lg ra d e : K n ig o iz d a te l’s tv o M . A . S u v o r in i k o ., “ N o v o e V r e m ia ," 1 9 2 5 ) . 87 B ra d le y , o p . c i t . , p p . 9 9 - 1 0 0 . 88 G o lo v in , o p . c i t . , V o l. IV , B k. 8 p p . R u s s ia , I I , 4 0 6 - 4 0 9 .

1 0 1 - 1 0 2 ; F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s ,

1918,

O n t h e U fa c o n fe re n c e w h ic h e s ta b lis h e d th is g o v e r n m e n t,

see a lso th e p ro c e e d in g s in R u s s k i i is to r ic h e s k i i a i k h i v (P ra g u e : Iz d a n ie ru ssk o g o z a g r a n ic h n o g o is to ric h e s k o g o a rk h iv a v P rä g e ; s b o m ik p e rv y , 1 9 2 9 ) ; a n d V . L . U tg o v , “ U fim s k o e g o s u d a r s tv e n n o e s o v e s h c h a n ie 1 9 1 8 g o d a ," in B y l o e , N o . 16, 1 9 2 1 , p . 15, c ite d in L e o n a rd S c h a p iro , T h e O r i g in o f t h e C o m m u n i s t A u t o c ­ r a c y ( L o n d o n ; G . B ell a n d S o n s, L t d ., 1 9 5 5 ) , p . 160.

89 B ra d le y , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 0 5 - 1 0 8 . 90 S ee U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 2 7 9 ; C h u r c h ill, o p . c it., p . 1 6 4 .

C f. C . N a b o k o ff,

T h e O r d e a l o f a D i p l o m a t ( L o n d o n : D u c k w o r th , 1 9 2 1 ) , p p . 2 5 1 , 2 7 6 .

91 S ee P e te r F le m in g , T h e F a te o f A d m i r a l K o l c h a k

( L o n d o n : R u p e r t H a rt-

D a v is, 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 9 9 ff. 92 O n th e c o u p a n d s u b s e q u e n t fo r m a tio n o f th e S ib e ria n fr o n t, see F le m in g , o p . c it., p . 1 0 9 ff.; G o lo v in , o p . c it., V o l. IV , B k. 9 , p p . 3 0 - 4 0 , 7 4 - 8 3 ; M iliu k o v , R u s s ia T o d a y a n d T o m o r r o w , p p . 1 5 2 -1 55; F o o tm a n , o p . c it., p p . 1 1 8 - 1 3 3 , 211

ff.

M a n y S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r ie s n o w b e c a m e m o re a la rm e d b y th e g ro w th o f

a n ti-B o ls h e v ik m ilita r y d ic ta to r s h ip th a n b y B o lsh e v ik te rro r; a t a c o n fe re n c e in P e tr o g r a d in F e b ru a ry 1 9 1 9 o n e f a c tio n o f th e p a rty d e n o u n c e d a n y f u r th e r a t ­ te m p ts to o v e r th ro w th e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t b y fo rc e .

S ee C a r r, o p . c it., I, 1 7 2 .

The Volunteer Army

320

C f. M iliu k o v , R u s s ia T o d a y a n d T o m o r r o w , p p . 1 3 1 - 1 3 6 . A v a lu a b le a c c o u n t o f th e rise o f K o lc h a k m a y a lso b e f o u n d in V . G . B o ld y re v , D i r e k t o r i i a , K o l c h a k , i n t e r v e n t y ( N o v o n ik o la e v s k : G o s iz d a t, 1 9 2 5 ) .

93

U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 2 7 9 ; B ra d le y , o p . c it., 1 0 9 .

14 as th e d a te o f th e C a b i n e t's d e c isio n .

C h u r c h ill gives N o v e m b e r

C h u r c h ill, o p . c it., p . 1 6 4 .

04 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , I I I , 8 7 ; B ra d le y , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 1 4 - 1 1 5 . 95 S ee E t h e r t o n , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 - 2 ; L e n c z o w s k i, o p . c i t . , p . 4 4 ; a n d U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 3 0 5 .

L u d e n d o rf f, fo r o n e , fa v o re d a th r u s t in to P e rs ia a n d I n d ia .

S ee O .

S. F e d y s h y n , o p . c i t . , p . 2 8 8 . C f. C h u r c h ill, o p . c i t . , p . 8 9 . 96 S ee B ritis h F o r e ig n O ffice in te llig e n c e re p o rt, F e b ru a ry 2 0 , 1 9 1 8 , N o . 8 3 4 3 , in U . S. N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o r e ig n A ffairs S e c tio n , D o c . N o . 8 6 1 .0 0 / 1 2 7 7 .

S ee

a lso U llm a n , o p . c it., I, 305 ff.; a n d H i s t o r y o f t h e G r e a t W a r B a s e d o n O fficia l D o c u m e n ts : T h e C a m p a i g n in M e s o p o t a m i a , 1 9 1 4 - 1 9 1 8 , V o l. I V ( L o n d o n : H is M a je s ty 's S ta tio n e ry O ffice , 1 9 2 7 ) , p p . 1 0 4 - 1 0 5 . 97 T h e b e s t firs t-h a n d a c c o u n ts o f th e o p e ra tio n s o f t h e “ D u n s t e r f o r c e ” a re th o s e b y its c o m m a n d e r a n d o n e o f h is a ss is ta n ts. S ee L . C . D u n s te r v ille , T h e A d v e n tu re s o f D u n s t e r f o r c e ( L o n d o n : E d w a rd A rn o ld , 1 9 2 0 ) ; a n d M . H . D o n o h o e , W i t h t h e P e r s ia n E x p e d i t i o n

( L o n d o n : E d w a rd A rn o ld , 1 9 1 9 ) . A d d itio n a l

m a te ria l m a y b e fo u n d in U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 305 ff. 98 D o n o h o e , o p . c i t . ,

p.

3. A c c o rd in g to M a jo r D o n o h o e 's a c c o u n t th e D u n s t e r ­

ville m is sio n w as a t first g iv e n i n d e p e n d e n t c o m m a n d s ta tu s , p u t t i n g it d ire c tly u n d e r th e W a r O ffice r a th e r th a n u n d e r G e n e r a l S ir S ta n le y M a u d e 's M e s o p o ta ­ m ia n C o m m a n d .

H o w e v e r, th is a p p a r e n tly a ro u s e d o p p o s itio n fr o m

t h e la tte r

a n d o b s tr u c te d c o o rd in a tio n , a n d so t h e D u n s te r f o r c e w as e v e n tu a lly p u t u n d e r M a u d e 's c o m m a n d .

I b id ., p p . 62, 1 3 2 -1 3 3 .

I t s h o u ld b e n o te d , h o w e v e r , t h a t

th e M a lle s o n a n d B ailey m is sio n s w e re u n d e r th e I n d ia n a rm y c o m m a n d . 99 A n u m b e r o f B ritis h in te llig e n c e re p o rts , d a tin g fr o m J a n u a ry 1 9 1 8 o n , m a y b e f o u n d in th e U . S. N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o r e ig n A ffairs S e c tio n , F ile 7 6 3 .7 2 , D o c . N o . 8 7 5 7 ff. In c o n n e c tio n w ith re p o rts o f p ro -A llie d e le m e n ts in T r a n s ­ c au c a sia see p a rtic u la rly th e r e p o r t o f A p ril 18, 1 9 1 8 , N o . 8 8 0 9 , w h ic h is D o c . N o . 7 6 3 .7 2 / 9 7 8 0 . T h e B ritis h a n d F r e n c h m ilita r y a tta c h é s in T iflis , C o lo n e ls P ik e a n d C h a r d ig n y , w o rk e d to g e th e r in t h e G e o rg ia n c a p ita l u n til e arly in 1 9 1 8 , w h e n th e y le f t fo r th e N o r t h C a u c a s u s a n d B a k u re s p e c tiv e ly in o rd e r to e s ta b ­ lish b e t t e r c o n ta c ts in th o s e areas. 100 D u n s te r v ille , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 3 - 5 8 ; D o n o h o e , o p . c it., p p . 6 2 - 6 4 . I t s h o u ld also b e n o te d t h a t P e rs ia w as officially n e u tr a l in th e W o r l d W a r , a n d th e B ritis h a m b a s s a d o r in T e h e r a n , S ir C h a r le s M a r lin g , o b je c te d to th e D u n s t e r f o r c e o p e r a ­ tio n o n g r o u n d s t h a t B ritis h m ilita ry o p e ra tio n s a g a in s t th e C e n t r a l P o w e rs , u s in g P ersia as a b a se , w o u ld p ro b a b ly p ro v o k e T u r k is h a n d G e r m a n m ilita r y in te r v e n ­ tio n . R u ss ia n a n d B ritis h tro o p s w e re a lre a d y in P e rs ia u n d e r th e 1 9 0 7 a g r e e m e n t, w h ic h in e ffe c t e s ta b lis h e d a R u s s ia n p r o te c to r a te in th e s o u th .

p r o te c to r a te in th e n o r t h

a n d a B ritis h

H o w e v e r, th e m o v e m e n t o f B ritis h tro o p s o u t o f th e

z o n e o f th e B ritis h s p h e re o f in flu e n c e in to th e n o r t h w o u ld v io la te b o t h t h e 1 9 0 7 a g r e e m e n t a n d P e rs ia n n e u tra lity .

I t see m s u n lik e ly , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h a t th e

o p e r a tio n s o f th e D u n s t e r f o r c e a ffe c te d th e G e r m a n a n d T u r k is h a ttitu d e s to w a rd th e la tte r . 101 D u n s te r v ille , o p . c i t . , p p . 7 7 - 7 8 .

321

N O TES u 2 I b i d . , p . 159 ff.

F in a n c ia l s u p p o r t fo r R u s s ia n tro o p s in P e rs ia t h a t w o u ld

c o n tin u e t h e s tru g g le h a d b e e n a u th o r iz e d b y t h e B ritis h C a b i n e t in D e c e m b e r 1 9 1 7 , w h e n t h e D u n s te r v ille m is s io n w as first b e in g d is c u s s e d , b u t n o sp ec ific a m o u n ts h a d b e e n s tip u la te d . S ee U llm a n , o p . c it., I, 5 1 - 5 2 . D u n s te r v ille a g re e d to a n in itia l p a y m e n t o f 5 m illio n P e rs ia n k ro n s , a n d s im ila r p a y m e n ts w e re to b e m a d e la te r. N o fin a l a c c o u n tin g is a v a ila b le , b u t i t a p p e a rs lik e ly t h a t B ic h e r a k o v ’s re q u e s ts w e re m e t. S ee B ritis h F o r e ig n O ffic e in te llig e n c e r e p o rts o f A p r il 8 a n d M a y 6 , 1 9 1 8 , U . S. N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o r e ig n A ffairs S e c tio n , D o c . N o s . 7 6 3 . 7 2 / 9 6 4 5 a n d 7 6 3 .7 2 / 1 0 1 2 5 . T h e B ritis h a rm o re d c a r b rig a d e w h ic h jo in e d in th is a c tio n w as t h a t p re v io u s ly k n o w n as th e L o c k e r-L a m p s o n A rm o u r e d C a r U n it, w h ic h h a d b e e n a tta c h e d to t h e tro o p s a p p ro a c h in g P e tro g r a d a t th e tim e o f th e K e re n s k ii- K o rn ilo v d is p u te .

L a te in 1 9 1 7 it h a d b e e n re o rg a n iz e d in E n g l a n d a n d

t h e n e x t s p rin g w as s e n t to D u n s te r v ille , a rriv in g d u r in g M a y . C o m p o s e d o f 21 o fficers a n d 4 5 0 m e n , w ith 8 a r m o r e d cars, 2 4 tru c k s , 30 cars, 4 4 F o r d v a n s, a n d 32 m o to r c y c le s , it w as a n im p o s in g fo rc e in t h e P e rs ia n s itu a tio n a n d c o n tr ib u te d s u b s ta n tia lly to B ic h e r a k o v ’s s u ccess. A p a r t o f th e b rig a d e w as la te r o u tf i tte d w ith R u ss ia n u n if o r m s a n d a tta c h e d to B ic h e r a k o v ’s fo rc e , a c c o m p a n y in g it as fa r n o r th as P e tro v s k . S ee D o n o h o e , o p . c it., p p . 2 5 2 - 2 7 0 . K u c h ik K h a n 's a n ti-B ritis h s ta n c e w as u n d o u b te d ly n a tio n a lis tic , b u t h e a lso h a d G e rm a n m ilita ry a d v isers. S ee D u n s te r v ille , o p . c it., p . 2 9 . 103 D u n s te r v ille , o p . c it., p p . 1 6 6 - 1 6 7 . S e e also H i s t o r y o f t h e G r e a t W a r B a s e d o n O f f ic i a l D o c u m e n t s , I V , 1 8 7 . R u s s ia n d ip lo m a tic re p re s e n ta tiv e s in P e rs ia w e re

a p p a r e n tly in f o r m e d o f B ic h e ra k o v ’s i n te n tio n , s in c e e v en b e fo re h e l e f t E n z e li th e y h a d te le g ra p h e d r e p o rts o f th e “ fa n ta s tic p la n ” to R u s s ia n A m b a s s a d o r M ak la k o v in P a ris, a n d M a k la k o v h a d re p lie d w ith fu ll a p p ro v a l. S ee te le g ra m s fr o m M in o rs k ii to

M a k la k o v , E t t e r to

M a k la k o v , a n d

M a k la k o v to

T e h e ra n , Ju n e

1 9 1 8 , in M a k la k o v A rc h iv e s ( H o o v e r L i b r a r y ) , S eries B , P a c k e t I, D o s s ie r 7. 104 T h e B o lsh e v ik fa c tio n in t h e B a k u s o v ie t h o p e d t h a t th e a r r a n g e m e n t w ith B ic h e r a k o v w o u ld h e lp to h e a d off t h e p ro -B ritis h in c lin a tio n s in th e s o v iet. A lth o u g h th e B o lsh e v ik s k n e w t h a t B ic h e ra k o v h a d w o rk e d w ith t h e B ritis h in P e rs ia , th e y b e lie v e d t h a t t h e C o s s a c k c o m m a n d e r w as s in c e re in h is o ffer o f a id . O r d e r s fr o m S ta lin , w h ic h w e re s u p p o r te d b y L e n in , p re c lu d e d t h e p o s sib ility o f a n y B o ls h e v ik a c c e p ta n c e o f B ritis h a id . S ee D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , I, 3 7 1 , 4 0 1 - 4 0 2 ; a n d S. G . S h a u m ia n , S t a t ' i i r e c h i, 1 9 0 8 - 1 9 1 8 (B a k u : I z d a te l's tv o “ B akin sk ii R a b o c h ii,” 1 9 2 4 ) , p . 2 0 5 . C f. V . A . G u rk o -K r ia z h in , “ A n g liis k a ia in te r v e n tsiia v 1 9 1 8 i 1 9 1 9 g g . v Z a k a sp ii i Z a k a v k a z ’i,” I s t o r i k M a r k s is t, N o . 2 (M o s c o w , 1 9 2 6 ) , p . 1 2 3 ; a n d U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 3 0 7 . 105 D u n s te r v ille , o p . c i t . , p . 16 9 ff. S e e a lso B ritis h F o r e ig n O ffice in te llig e n c e r e p o r t, M a y 2 8 , 1 9 1 8 , in U . S. N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o r e ig n A ffairs S e c tio n , N o . 7 6 3 .7 2 /1 0 3 2 2 . 106 F o r S o v ie t d o c u m e n ta r y m a te ria l see B o V s h e v ik i v b o r’b e za p o b e d u s o ts ia lis tic h e s k o i

r e v o liu ts ii

v A z e r b a id z h a n e ,

1 9 1 7 -1 9 1 8

(B a k u :

G o s iz d a t A .S .S .R .,

1 9 5 7 ) . S e e a lso P ip e s , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 9 9 - 2 0 4 . 107 D u n s te r v ille , o p . c i t . , p . 2 0 8 ; U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 3 0 9 ; a n d K a z e m z a d e h , o p . c it., p p . 1 3 6 -1 3 7 .

108 S ee la . A . R a tg a u z e r, R e v o l i u t s i i a

i g r a z h d a n s k a ia

v o in a

v

B a k u , V o l.

I

( B a k u : G o s t ip . “ K ra sn y i V o s t o k ,” 1 9 2 7 ) , p p . 2 1 3 - 2 1 5 ; G u rk o -K r ia z h in , o p . c i t . , p . 1 2 4 ff.

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109D o n o h o e , o p . c i t . , p p . 2 1 1 - 2 1 2 ; C . H . E llis, T h e B r iti s h

“I n te r v e n tio n ”

(B e rk e le y : U n iv . o f C a lifo rn ia P ress, 1 9 6 3 ) , p p . 3 6 37; K a z e m z a d e h , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 3 7 - 1 3 8 ; U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 3 0 9 . S e e a lso H i s t o r y

in T r a n s c a s p ia , 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9

o f t h e G r e a t W a r B a s e d o n O f f ic ia l D o c u m e n t s , I V , 2 1 3 .

110 T h e b e s t a c c o u n t o f th e M a lle s o n m is s io n is t h a t b y o n e o f its officers, C . H . E llis, T h e B r iti s h

“ I n t e r v e n t i o n ” in T r a n s c a s p ia , 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9 .

C o lo n e l E llis

in d ic a te s t h a t M a jo r G e n e r a l M a lle s o n h a d s erv ed o n t h e in te llig e n c e sta ff o f I n d ia n a rm y h e a d q u a rte r s a n d o n L o r d K itc h e n e r ’s s taff b e tw e e n 1 9 0 4 a n d 1 9 1 4 a n d w as c h o s e n to c o m m a n d “ M a lm is s ” b e c a u s e o f h is k n o w le d g e o f t h e a re a a n d h is in te llig e n c e b a c k g r o u n d . I b i d . , p . 2 5 . O n M a lm is s see also t h e m e m o ir a c c o u n t o f L i e u te n a n t C o lo n e l D . E . K n o lly s, “ M ilita ry O p e r a tio n s in T r a n s c a s p ia , 1 9 1 8 1 9 1 9 ,” J o u r n a l o f t h e C e n t r a l A s ia n S o c i e t y , V o l. X I I I , P a r t I I ( L o n d o n , 1 9 2 6 ) , pp. 8 9 -1 1 0 ; an d

M a lle s o n ’s o w n b rie f a c c o u n t in M a jo r G e n e r a l S ir W i l f r i d

M a lle s o n , “ T h e B ritis h M ilita ry M is s io n to T u r k e s ta n , 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 2 0 ,” J o u r n a l o f t h e C e n t r a l A s ia n S o c i e t y , V o l. IX , P a r t II ( L o n d o n , 1 9 2 2 ) , p p . 9 6 - 1 1 0 .

111 M a lle s o n , o p . c i t . , p . 9 6 ; E llis, o p . c i t . ,

p.

29.

112 F o r c o lle c tio n s o f S o v ie t d o c u m e n ts o n e v e n ts in T r a n s c a s p ia a n d T u r k e s ta n w h ic h c o n ta in s o m e u s e fu l m a te ria l, see P o b e d a V e l i k o i O k t i a b r ’s k o i s o ts ia li s t ic h e sk o i r e v o liu ts ii v

T u r k e s ta n e

T a s h le v a , e d ., T u r k m e n i s t a n da n sk o i

v o in y ,

T .S .S .R ., 1 9 5 7 ) .

1 9 1 8 -1 9 2 0

( T a s h k e n t: G o s iz d a t U z . S .S .R ., v

p e r io d

gg.:

1 9 4 7 ), an d

Sh.

in o s tr a n n o i v o e n n o i in te r v e n ts ii i g ra z h -

s b o rn ik

(A s h k h a b a d :

d o k u m e n to v

G o s iz d a t

S ee a lso I z i s to r ii g r a z h d a n s k o i v o i n y v S S S R , V o l. I (M o s c o w :

I z d a te l's tv o “ S o v e tsk aia R o s s iia ,” I n s t i t u t M a r k s iz m a -L e n in iz m a p ri T s K K P S S , 1 9 6 0 ), pp. 4 2 5 -4 3 8 .

S h a rp c ritic is m o f t h e in a d e q u a c y o f B o ls h e v ik le a d e r s h ip

in T u r k e s ta n , e sp e c ia lly w ith re g a rd to th e tr e a t m e n t o f t h e n o n -R u s s ia n n a t i o n a l ­ itie s, m a y b e fo u n d

in s o m e e a rlie r S o v ie t a c c o u n ts .

M ir k in , “ In te r v e n ts iia v Z a k a s p ii,” in K (M o s c o w :

G o s iz d a t,

O b s h c h e s tv o

d e s ia tile tiu

s o d e is tv iia

S ee, fo r e x a m p le , Z . I. in t e r v e n t s i i :

z h e r tv a m

s b o r n ik

in te rv e n ts ii,

s ta te i

1 9 2 9 ),

p.

165 ff. 113 A B ritis h a g e n t, s e n t to T a s h k e n t e a rlie r to in v e s tig a te B o ls h e v ik a r m in g o f G e r m a n a n d A u s tria n p ris o n e rs -o f-w a r, re p o r te d in M a y t h a t , o u t o f s o m e 35 ,0 0 0 in th e are a, a b o u t 3 ,0 0 0 h a d b e e n r e c ru ite d in to th e B o lsh e v ik fo rce s in T a s h ­ k e n t its e lf a n d a b o u t h a lf t h a t n u m b e r in to a fo rc e o n t h e A fg h a n f r o n tie r a t K u sh k .

T h i s a g e n t le a rn e d

th a t th e

B o ls h e v ik g o v e r n m e n t w as c o n c e n tr a tin g

m a n y o f its tro o p s in th e d ire c tio n o f A fg h a n is ta n b e c a u s e o f a fe a r t h a t t h e B r it­ ish w o u ld e n c o u ra g e th e A fg h a n s to in v a d e . C o n s id e r a tio n o f s u c h a m o v e w as in d e e d ta k e n u p in t h e B ritis h G e n e r a l S ta ff in J u n e , b u t t h e W a r C a b i n e t r e ­ je c te d th e id e a . I t w as, o f c o u rs e , t h e B o lsh e v ik s w h o s u b s e q u e n tly to o k u p th e p o lic y o f u rg in g A fg h a n is ta n to a tta c k th e B ritis h . S ee U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 3 1 1 315. 114 M ir k in , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 6 6 - 1 6 8 ; E llis , o p . c i t . , p p . 2 6 - 2 7 .

O th e r m e m b e rs of

th e A s h k h a b a d g o v e rn m e n t, o r e x e c u tiv e c o m m itte e , w e re L . A . Z im in , a n i n t e l ­ le c tu a l s p e c ia lis t o n t h e la n g u a g e s a n d c u ltu r e o f T u r k e s ta n a n d a R i g h t S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r y , m in is te r o f fo re ig n affairs; D . K u ry le v , a ra ilw a y m a n , m in is te r o f la b o r a n d tr a n s p o r ta tio n ; D m itr ie v s k ii, a b a n k e r , m in is te r o f fin a n c e ; a n d S. L . D r u s h k in , a Jew ish la w y er, d ir e c to r o f p u b lic s e c u rity .

G e n e r a l K r u te n , a f o r m e r

R u ss ia n o fficer in T ra n s c a u c a s ia a n d P e rs ia w h o h e ld lib e ra l view s, b e c a m e th e

323

NOTES g o v e r n m e n t's c h ie f m ilita r y a d v ise r.

H a d ji M u r a t a n d O b e z B aev , T u r k m a n le a d ­

ers, a c t e d as its c h ie f a d v ise rs o n re la tio n s w ith t h e n a tiv e T u r k m a n p o p u la tio n . C o lo n e l O r a z S ird a r, th e s o n o f a T u r k m a n h e ro w h o h a d in e a rlie r tim e s f o u g h t to k e e p t h e R u ss ia n s o u t o f T u r k e s ta n b u t w h o h a d h im s e lf b e e n tra in e d in th e C o r p s d e P a g e s in S t. P e te rs b u rg a n d h a d t h e n serv ed in G e n e r a l K o rn ilo v 's “ S a v ­ a g e D iv is io n " as a c a v a lry m a n , c o m m a n d e d t h e o n ly e x istin g m ilita ry fo rc e in th e a re a . S ir d a r p u t h is sm a ll fo rc e , c o n s is tin g o f T u r k m a n h o rs e m e n a n d A r m e n ia n in f a n tr y , b e h in d th e A s h k h a b a d g o v e r n m e n t a n d b e c a m e its m a jo r field c o m ­ m a n d e r . V la d im ir D o k h o v a n d A le x ei D o rre r, th e f o r m e r a ra ilw a y m a n a n d th e la t t e r a f o r m e r a ris to c ra t a n d m e m b e r o f t h e T a s h k e n t a d m in is tr a tio n d u r in g th e P r o v is io n a l g o v e r n m e n t p e rio d , w e re to serv e as th e g o v e r n m e n t’s c h ie f e n v o y s in c o n ta c ts w ith th e B ritis h . S ee E llis, o p . c it., p p . 2 7 , 4 9 , 9 5 , 9 7 , 9 9 , 1 3 7 . T h e g o v e r n m e n t o f K u n ( K u h n ) e s ta b lis h e d in K ra sn o v o d s k s h o rtly a f te r th e c o u p in A s h k h a b a d w as c o n s id e re d s u b o r d in a te to th e e x e c u tiv e c o m m itte e in A s h k h a b a d . K u n w as a lso in s ta lle d b y a “ s trik e c o m m itte e " o f a n ti-B o ls h e v ik so cia lists. S ee E llis, o p . c it., p p . 2 7 , 59; U llm a n , o p . c it., I, 3 2 1 . 115 M ir k in , o p . c it., p . 1 7 0 ; G u rk o -K r ia z h in , o p . c it., p p . 1 2 5 - 1 2 6 . 116 E llis, o p . c it., p p . 4 1 - 4 2 ; U llm a n , o p . c it., I, 3 1 5 - 3 1 6 ; H i s t o r y o f t h e G r e a t W a r B a s e d o n O f f ic ia l D o c u m e n t s , I V , 2 0 9 - 2 1 0 ; M irk in , o p . c i t . , 1 6 9 . C f . A . M e l ’k u m o v , M a t e r i a l y r e v o l i u t s i o n n o g o d v i z h e n i i a v T u r k m e n i i ( T a s h k e n t: Is p a r t

T s K K P T , 1 9 2 4 ) , p . 13 9 . 117 E llis , o p . c it., p p . 4 3 - 4 4 . F o r t h e te x t o f th e a g re e m e n t see M in ts a n d G o r o d e ts k ii, D o k u m e n ty p o is t o r i i g r a z h d a n s k o i v o i n y v S S S R , I, 3 0 1 - 3 0 2 ; T a s h lev a, o p . c i t . , p p . 9 3 - 9 6 ; F . K o stia e v , “ I n te rv e n ts iia , n a iu g e R o ssii, K a v k a z ’e i v T u r k e s ta n e , 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 2 0 g g .," in A . G . S h lia p n ik o v , e d ., K to d o l z h n i k ? S b o r n i k d o k u m e n t i r o v a n n y k h s t a t e i p o v o p r o s y o b o t n o s h e n n i a k h m e z h d u R o s s i e i , F r a n ts ie i i d r u g i m i d e r z h a v a m i A n t a n t y

A p p e n d ix N o . 2 0 , p p . 3 9 6 - 3 9 9 .

(M o s c o w : A v io iz d a t, 1 9 2 6 ) , p . 33 3 ff. a n d

E llis giv es a n E n g lis h tra n s la tio n o f t h e a g re e ­

m e n t in h is a rtic le , “ T h e R e v o lt in T ra n s c a s p ia , A sia n R e v i e w , V o l. V I I , N o . 2

(L o n d o n ,

1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9 ," in th e C e n t r a l

1 9 5 9 ), p p .

1 2 2 -1 2 5 .

S ee a lso h is

c o m m e n ts o n t h e a g r e e m e n t in “ O p e r a tio n s in T ra n s c a s p ia , 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9 , a n d th e 2 6 C o m m is s a rs C a s e ," in D . F o o tm a n , e d ., S o v i e t A ffa ir s , N o . 2 (S t. A n th o n y ’s P a p e rs , N o . 6 ) ( N e w Y o rk : P ra e g e r, 1 9 5 9 ) , p p . 1 3 9 - 1 4 0 . C f. A . H . B a b a k h o d z h a e v , P r o v a l a n g lii s k o i a g r e s s i v n o i p o l i t i k i v S r e d n e i A s ii, 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 0 G o s iz d a t U z .S .S .R ., 1 9 5 5 ) .

( T a s h k e n t:

S ee a lso U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 3 1 7 - 3 1 9 .

118 E llis, B r iti s h “ I n t e r v e n t i o n , ” p p . 5 1 - 5 8 , 6 8 - 8 0 . 119 T h e b e s t a c c o u n t o f th is m is sio n is b y o n e o f its le a d e rs, F . M . B ailey , M i s ­ s io n

to T a s h k e n t ( L o n d o n : J. C a p e , 1 9 4 6 ) .

S ee also E llis, B r iti s h

“I n te r v e n ­

tio n ,” p p. 7 1 -7 5 .

120 B ailey , o p . c it., p . 2 6 ; E llis, o p . c i t . , p . 7 2 . In la te r years (a n o te o f O c t o ­ b e r 15, 1 9 2 3 , fo r e x a m p le ) , C h ic h e r in c h a r g e d t h a t E t h e r t o n u s e d h is c o n s u la r p o s t in K a sh g a r to f o m e n t th e B a s m a c h i re v o lts t h a t p la g u e d th e S o v ie t g o v e rn ­ m e n t f o r s ev eral years.

S ee D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i S S S R , V o l. V I

(M o s­

c o w : G o s p o litiz d a t, 1 9 6 2 ) , p . 4 7 7 . F o r E t h e r t o n ’s o w n a c c o u n t o f h is w o rk , see P . T . E t h e r t o n , I n t h e H e a r t o f A s ia ( L o n d o n : C o n s ta b le a n d C o ., L t d ., 1 9 2 5 ) . 121 B ailey , o p . c i t . , p p . 3 8 - 3 9 . 122 I b i d . , p . 4 3 ff. I t is w o r th n o tin g in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e q u e s tio n o f th e

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p ris o n e rs t h a t e ffo rts w e re a lso b e in g m a d e o n a n in te r n a tio n a l le v e l to see to t h e p r o p e r h a n d lin g o f th e m e n in v o lv e d . A rra n g e m e n ts h a d a lre a d y b e e n m a d e fo r n e u tr a l D a n is h

and

S w e d is h

d ip lo m a tic

p e rs o n n e l to

r e p re s e n t

G e rm a n y

and

A u stria re s p e c tiv e ly in th e n e g o tia tio n o f a p ris o n e r e x c h a n g e , a n d m is sio n s h a d b e e n s e n t in to T u r k e s ta n fo r th is p u rp o s e . T h e s e m is sio n s e n c o u n t e r e d g re a t d iffi­ c u lty a n d e x p e r ie n c e d c o n s ta n t f r u s tr a tio n in th e ir e ffo rts, h o w e v e r, a n d w e re u n ­ a b le to p r e v e n t B o lsh e v ik m o b iliz a tio n o f s o m e o f t h e p ris o n e rs . O n e S w e d is h R e d C ro s s official w as s h o t, a n d o th e rs w e re fr e q u e n tly a rre s te d in th is w o rk .

For

a d e ta ile d a c c o u n t o f th e e x p e rie n c e s o f th e D a n is h m is s io n , see A . H . B r u n , T r o u b l o u s T i m e s : E x p e r ie n c e s in B o l s h e v i k R u s s ia a n d T u r k e s ta n ( L o n d o n : C o n ­ s ta b le a n d C o ., L t d ., 1931 ) . 123 B ailey , o p . c i t . , p . 51 ff. 124 E llis, B r iti s h “ I n t e r v e n t i o n , ”

p.

73.

125 R a t h e r b itte r c o m p la in ts o n th e p a r t o f th e B ritis h officers a ss ig n e d to o r ­ g a n iz e th e n a tiv e s w e re f r e q u e n t. S ee D o n o h o e , o p . c it., p p . 2 1 2 - 2 1 4 ; a n d D u n s te rv ille , o p . c it., p p . 2 1 3 , 2 2 4 , 2 6 7 - 2 6 9 . E v e n o n h is fla g sh ip , iro n ic a lly n a m e d th e P r e s i d e n t K ru g e r, D u n s te r v ille w as o b lig e d to fly t h e R u s s ia n flag u p s id e d o w n as a c o m p ro m is e w ith th e c re w , w h ic h o b je c te d to its a lle g e d ly re a c tio n a r y sig ­ n ific a n c e w h e n flo w n p ro p e rly . S in c e th e R u s s ia n flag in v e rte d w as lik e t h e S e r­ b ia n flag, D u n s te r v ille c o u ld d e s c rib e h im s e lf as “ a B ritis h G e n e r a l o n t h e C a s p ia n . . . o n b o a rd a s h ip n a m e d a f te r a S o u th A fric a n D u t c h p r e s id e n t a n d w h ilo m e n e m y , s ailin g fro m a P e rs ia n p o r t, u n d e r a S e rb ia n flag, to re lie v e fr o m t h e T u r k s a b o d y o f A rm e n ia n s in a re v o lu tio n a ry R u s s ia n t o w n ." D u n s te r v ille , o p . c it., p . 219.

T h e o n ly B ritis h officer w h o b e c a m e d ire c tly in v o lv e d in t h e B a k u g o v e r n ­

m e n t its e lf w as C o lo n e l S to k e s , w h o w as g iv e n th e p o s t o f c h ie f o f staff b y m u tu a l a g r e e m e n t. 126 D u n s te r v ille , o p . c it., p p . 2 6 0 , 2 8 3 - 2 8 6 . K ra s n o v o d s k w as a b e t t e r p o r t fo r n a v al o p e ra tio n s , a n d lo c a tio n th e re w o u ld a lso , D u n s te r v ille h o p e d , e n a b le h im to re -e s ta b lish c o n ta c t w ith B ic h e ra k o v , w ith w h o m

M a jo r R o w la n d s o n o f th e

D u n s te r f o r c e w as w o rk in g n o r th o f B a k u a n d m o v in g to w a rd t h e C a u c a s u s are a, w h e re C o lo n e l P ik e w as s till o p e ra tin g . 127 D u n s te r v ille , o p . c it., p p . 3 1 2 - 3 1 3 . 128 P r o b a b ly th e b e s t a c c o u n t in E n g lis h o f th e case o f t h e B a k u c o m m is s a rs is t h a t in E llis, B r iti s h “ I n t e r v e n t i o n ,” p p . 5 7 - 6 5 ; a s im ila r tr e a t m e n t is g iv e n in h is “ O p e r a tio n s in T ra n s c a s p ia , 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9 , a n d t h e 2 6 C o m m is s a rs C a s e ,” lo c . c it. C h a i k in 's v e rsio n w as la te r e x te n d e d in to b o o k l e n g th : V . A . C h a i k in , K is to r ii r o s s iis k o i

r e v o l iu ts ii:

kazn

26

B a k in s k ik h

1 9 2 2 ) . S ee a lso G u rk o -K r ia z h in , o p . c i t . ,

p.

k o m iss a r o v

(M o s c o w :

Z.

G r z h e b in ,

1 3 4 ff.: “ A n g liis k a ia p o litik a v T u r k e -

s ta n e v e p o k h u g ra z h d a n s k o i v o in y v R o s s ii,” V o e n n a ia M y s Y , N o . 3, 1 9 2 1 ; a n d L . S. S h a u m ia n , R a s s t r e l 2 6 B a k in s k ik h k o m i s s a r o v a n g liis k ir n i i n t e r v e n t a m i ( M o s ­ c o w : “ Z n a n ie ,” 1 9 4 9 ) . C f. U llm a n , o p . c i t . , I, 3 2 0 - 3 2 4 ; D o n o h o e , o p . c it., 2 1 8 ; M ir k in , o p . c it.,

p.

180: K a z e m z a d e h , o p . c i t . , p p .

p.

1 4 4 - 1 4 5 . C h i c h e r i n 's

p r o te s t to th e B ritis h g o v e rn m e n t, d a te d A p ril 2 1 . 1 9 1 9 , is in D o k u m e n ty v n e sh n e i p o l i t i k i . V o l. TI ( M o s c o w : G o s p o litiz d a t,

1 9 5 9 ), pp.

1 4 1 -1 4 2 .

p u t th e b la m e d ire c tly o n T e a g u e -J o n e s . T h e l a t t e r ’s v e rs io n

C h ic h e r in

( c ite d b y U llm a n ,

o p . c it., I, 3 2 1 , n o te 5 9 ) , a r a th e r u n s a tis fa c to ry e x p la n a tio n o f h is ro le , w as g iv e n in a l e tte r o f N o v e m b e r 12, 1 9 2 2 , to th e U n d e r-S e c re ta ry o f S ta te fo r F o r e ig n

325

NOTES

A ffairs, p r in t e d in C m d . 1 8 4 6 (R u s s ia N o . 1, 1 9 2 3 ) , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e tw e e n H . M . G o v t , a n d t h e S o v i e t G o v t , r e s p e c t i n g t h e m u r d e r o f M r . C . F . D a v i s o n in J a n . 1 9 2 0 , p p . 6 - 1 1 . T h e S o v ie t p r o p a g a n d a u se o f th e in c id e n t h a s b e e n k e p t

a liv e th r o u g h th e years, as w itn e ss th e fo llo w in g c o m m e n t b y L . S h a u m ia n in P r a v d a o n S e p te m b e r 2 0 , 1 9 6 3 , o n t h e fo rty -fifth a n n iv e rsa ry o f th e e v e n t: “ O n

S e p te m b e r 2 0 , 1 9 1 8 , 2 6 c o m m is sa rs o f th e B ak u c o m m u n e , tr u e so n s o f th e C o m ­ m u n is t p a rty , p a s s io n a te fig h te rs fo r th e h a p p in e s s o f t h e p e o p le , w e re s h o t b y th e E n g lis h in te r v e n tio n is ts a n d th e ir S. R . s e rv a n ts . . . . M a lle s o n a c te d in fu ll c o n ­ ta c t w ith th e c o u n te rre v o lu tio n a ry a u th o r itie s o f A s h k h a b a d a n d K ra s n o v o d s k .” 129 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , IV , 1 0 2 - 1 0 4 ; K a z e m z a d e h , o p . c i t . , p . 1 3 4 . B y th e fall o f 1 9 1 8 c o n ta c ts w e re e s ta b lis h e d b o t h b e tw e e n B ic h e ra k o v a n d th e T r a n s c a s p ia n g o v e rn m e n ts a n d b e tw e e n th e s e tw o a n d t h e V o lu n te e r A rm y .

For

a tim e N . N . G o lo v in e v en p ro v id e d a c o n ta c t b e tw e e n th e s e e le m e n ts a n d th e U fa D ir e c to r a te , g o in g o n b e h a lf o f th e la tte r first to K ra sn o v o d s k a n d th e n to B a k u , w h e re h e c o n ta c te d

th e B ritis h .

See B . R . M a r in e te le g ra m

d a te d O c to b e r 5,

1 9 1 8 , in M a k la k o v A rc h iv e s, S eries B , P a c k e t I, D o ss ie r 8. A re p re s e n ta tiv e o f th e a n ti-B o ls h e v ik “ T u r k e s ta n M ilita ry O r g a n iz a t io n ," E . P . D z h u n k o v s k ii, first c o n ­ ta c te d th e B ritis h in M e s h e d in J u ly 1 9 1 8 in h o p e s o f g e ttin g s u p p o r t fo r p la n s to c o o r d in a te a n ti-B o ls h e v ik a c tiv itie s in T u r k e s ta n , T ra n s c a s p ia , T ra n s c a u c a s ia , a n d S o u th

R u ssia , b u t h e h a d re c eiv ed n o e n c o u r a g e m e n t fro m

th e M a lle s o n

m is s io n . A t th e l a t t e r ’s s u g g e s tio n , h o w e v e r, h e o ffered h is services to th e A s h k h a ­ b a d g o v e r n m e n t a n d w as s u b s e q u e n tly s e n t b y th e la tte r to e s ta b lis h c o n ta c t w ith D e n ik in a t V o lu n te e r h e a d q u a rte r s . D z h u n k o v s k ii’s m is sio n w as th u s t h e b e g in ­ n in g o f a s e rio u s e ffo rt to u n ite th e v a rio u s fo rce s fig h tin g th e B o lsh e v ik s o n a re g io n a l b a sis, in c lu d in g b o th T r a n s c a s p ia a n d B ic h e ra k o v . S u c h e ffo rts, as w ill b e n o te d la te r, w e re o n ly m o d e ra te ly s u cc e ssfu l, h o w e v e r. S ee l e t t e r fro m E . P . D z h u n k o v s k ii to D e n ik in , O c to b e r 17, 1 9 1 8 , M iliu k o v P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s; a n d R e p o r t o f th e R e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f th e P ro v is io n a l G o v e r n m e n t o f T ra n s c a s p ia , E . P . D z h u n k o v s k ii, W r a n g e l M ilita ry A rc h iv e s, F ile 1 5 3 , p p . 1 2 8 - 1 3 0 . O n c o n ta c t w ith th e B ic h e ra k o v s , see a lso M a rg u lie s, o p . c i t . , I, 4 9 . 130 A . A . T a k h o - G o d i, R e v o l i u t s i i a i k o n tr - r e v o li u t s i ia v D a g e s ta n e (M a k h a c h K a la :

D a g e s ta n s k o e G o s iz d a t,

1 9 2 7 ) , p . 7 0 ff.; A lle n

and

M u ra to ff, o p . c i t .,

p. 507. 131 T h e a s s ig n m e n t o f b u ild in g u p a “ n a v a l" fo rc e o n th e C a s p ia n h a d b e e n g iv e n to th e n a v a l c o m m a n d o f th e E a s t In d ie s , w ith

th e c o m m o d o re o f th e

P e rs ia n G u lf in c h a rg e . T h e jo b o f f ittin g o u t a n d re p a irin g a n y sh ip s a v a ila b le w as ta k e n o n b y th e I n la n d W a t e r T r a n s p o r t s e c tio n o f th e M e s o p o ta m ia E x p e ­ d itio n a r y F o r c e , w ith a d e t a c h m e n t o f N a v a l e n g in e e rs u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d o f a C om m ander

O ’D o g h e rty .

C o m m o d o re

N o rris

began

th e

w o rk

of

c o n v e r tin g

o ld s te a m e rs in to g u n b o a ts w ith fo u r-in c h g u n s in E n z e li w h ile th e D u n s te r f o r c e w as in B a k u . W h e n B a k u wras e v a c u a te d , th e th r e e sh ip s b r o u g h t fro m th e r e w ere a d d e d to th e fo rc e , b r in g in g th e to ta l to fo u r, a n d n a v al o p e ra tio n s h e a d q u a r te r s w e re m o v e d to K ra sn o v o d s k . T h e r e t h e w o rk o f p re p a rin g m o re s h ip s a n d m a in ­ ta in in g th o s e o n h a n d w>as ta k e n o v e r b y a C a p t a in W a s h in g to n .

See th e a c c o u n t

o f a p a r tic ip a n t in th e s e o p e ra tio n s , F . J. F . F r e n c h ( L t . C o l .) , F r o m W h i t e h a l l to

t h e C a s p ia n

( L o n d o n : O d h a m s P ress, L t d ., 1 9 2 0 ) , p .

107 ff.

S ee also S ir

P e rc v S ykes, A H i s t o r y o f P e r s ia , 3rd e d . ( L o n d o n : M a c m illa n a n d C o ., L t d .,

The Volunteer Army

326

1 9 5 1 ) , V o l. II , p . 4 9 7 . A B ritis h s q u a d r o n w as a lso la te r s ta t io n e d in t h e B a ltic in o r d e r to p o s e a t h r e a t w h ic h w o u ld k e e p s o m e B o ls h e v ik g u n b o a ts fr o m b e in g s e n t to th e C a s p ia n via th e V o lg a . F o r a n a c c o u n t b y a R u s s ia n n a v a l o ffice r se rv ­ in g w ith th e B ritis h flo tilla see N . N . L is h in , N a K a s p i i s k o m m o r e (P r a g u e : I z d . M o r. z h u r ., 1 9 3 8 ) . 132 S ee F r e n c h , o p . c it., p p . 1 1 9 , 1 2 3 - 1 2 5 ; L is h in , o p . c it., p . 39 ff.

CHAPTER

III: T H E

P O S T -W A R

IN T E R V E N T IO N

1 F r a n c e , A s s e m b lé e N a tio n a le , A n n a le s d e la c h a m b r e d e s d é p u t é s , D é b a t s p a r le m e n ta ir e s , T o m e I I I

( 1 9 1 8 ) , p p . 3 3 3 4 - 3 3 3 5 , sessio n o f D e c e m b e r 2 9 . S ee a lso E . M o u lis a n d E . B e rg o n ie r, ed s., E n M a r g e d u c o n ß i c t m o n d i a l ( P a r is : Jeh an , 1 9 3 7 ), p p . 1 6 5 -1 6 7 .

C f. th e A id e M e m o ire o n th e in te r v e n tio n in t h e

M a k la k o v A rc h iv e s ( M A ) , S eries B , P a c k e t IV , D o ss ie r 11

(H o o v e r L ib ra ry ).

2 T h e s e in s tr u c tio n s a re q u o te d in F r a n c e , M in is tè r e d e la G u e r r e , E t a t- M a jo r d e l ’A rm e e , L e s A rm é e s fr a n ç a is e s d a n s la G r a n d e G u e r r e (P a r is : l m p . N a tio n a le , 1 9 3 4 ) , T o m e V I I I , V o l. I I I , A n n e x e s , vol. 3, p p . 1 2 0 - 1 2 5 . 3 L e M a ti n ( P a r is ) , J u n e 17, 1 9 2 0 ; A . G . S h lia p n ik o v , e d ., L e s a llié s c o n t r e la R u ss ie

( P a r is : D e lp e u c h , 1 9 2 6 ) , p . 2 8 5 .

r U n io n s o v ié tiq u e

te r v e n tio n in D o ss ie r 11.

S ee also C . H . S loves, L a F r a n c e e t

(P a r is : R ie d e r , 1 9 3 5 ) , p . 8 1 . C f . n o te o n th e q u e s tio n o f in ­

S o u th

R u ss ia b y G e n e r a l C a n t e r in

4 W . S. C h u r c h ill, T h e B u tte r w o r th , 1 9 2 9 ) , p . 16 6 .

W o rld

C r is is :

The

M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I V ,

A fte r m a th

(L o n d o n :

5 D . L lo y d G e o rg e , T h e T r u t h A b o u t t h e P e a c e T r e a t i e s , V o l. I

T h o rto n (L o n d o n :

G o lla n c z , 1 9 3 8 ) , p . 3 1 7 . ° C h u r c h ill, o p . c i t . , p p . 1 6 5 - 1 6 6 . 7 I b id ., p . 165.

8 F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e re y ’s l e tte r is q u o te d in J e a n X y d ia s, L 'I n t e r v e n t i o n f r a n ç a is e e n R u ss ie , 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9 ; s o u v e n ir s d 'u n té m o in

(P a r is : E d i tio n s d e F r a n c e , 1 9 2 7 ) ,

p . 1 1 5 . S ee a lso P a u l J. L . A z a n , F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e r e y (P a r is : F la m m a r io n , 1 9 4 9 ) , p p . 2 4 0 - 2 4 1 ; F . J. D e y g as, L ' A r m é e d ' O r i e n t d a n s la g u e rre m o n d i a l e , 1 9 1 5 - 1 9 1 9 (P a r is : P a y o t, 1 9 3 2 ) ,

p.

2 9 7 ; a n d A . I. G u k o v s k ii, F r a n ts u z s k a ia in te rv e n ts iia n a

iu g e R o s s i i, 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9 ( M o s c o w : G o s iz d a t, 1 9 2 8 ) , p . 8 3 .

F r a n c h e t d 'E s p e r e y 's

fu ll n a m e is L o u is F e lix M a r ie F r a n c o is F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e re y . 9 F o r e ig n

R e la tio n s ,

1918,

R u s s ia ,

II,

6 6 3 -6 6 4 ,

707.

R u s s ia n

A m b assad o r

P o k le v sk ii-K o z e l in Jassy w as a lso a c c re d ite d as a d ip lo m a tic re p re s e n ta tiv e o f t h e V o lu n te e r A rm y .

I t s h o u ld also b e n o te d t h a t th e A llie d m in is te rs in Jassy h a d

re p o r te d ly a lre a d y in d ic a te d t h a t p la n s w e re b e in g m a d e to a id th e V o lu n te e r s in c o n v e r s a tio n s h e ld o n N o v e m b e r 2, a n d G e n e r a l E r d e li, r e p re s e n tin g D e n ik in , m e t w ith F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e re y o n N o v e m b e r 15 a t S o p h ia a n d o b ta in e d a p r o m is e o f im m e d ia te a rm s s h ip m e n ts

to

N o v o ro s siisk .

S ee M A ,

S eries B , P a c k e t

I,

D o ss ie r 8. 10 C le m e n c e a u ’s o rd e r

is p rin t e d

in

L e s A rm é e s fra n ç a ise s

dans

G u e r r e , T o m e V I I I , V o l. I I I , A n n e x e s , v o l. 3, p . 4 5 9 . O rd e rs fro m

la

G ra n d e

F ran ch et

d 'E s p e r e y to F r e n c h fo rce s a t C o r f u a n d M o n a s tir a re in ib id ., p p . 4 7 8 - 4 7 9 , 5 1 4 . 11 G u k o v s k ii, F r a n ts u z s k a ia in t e r v e n t s i i a , p . 1 5 4 . I n a n o te a d d re s s e d to th e

327

NOTES

A llie d P o w e rs , d a te d O c to b e r 2 0 a n d fo rw a rd e d fr o m S o p h ia to P a ris o n N o v e m ­ b e r 6 , f o r m e r F o r e ig n M in is t e r A le k s a n d r S h u l g i n e x p la in e d t h a t t h e G e r m a n o c c u p a tio n h a d b e e n a c c e p te d o n ly o u t o f n e c e s sity . T h e H e tm a n , w h o m a in ­ ta in e d fr ie n d ly re la tio n s w ith th e G e rm a n s o n ly to p re s e rv e o rd e r, n o w , s aid S h u l'g in , w is h e d to re s to re th e tie s w ith B rita in a n d

F r a n c e t h a t h a d e a rlie r b e e n

e x e m p lifie d b y t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f T a b o u is in D e c e m b e r 1 9 1 7 . n o te in M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I, D o s s ie r 6. to

S ee S h u l'g in ’s

12 S ee t h e s t a t e m e n t b y t h e G e r b e l g o v e r n m e n t (s ig n e d b y te n o f its m e m b e r s ) t h e A llies, d e c la rin g t h a t th e U k ra in e w as a n in te g ra l p a r t o f R u ss ia a n d

c a llin g f o r a u n ite d e ffo rt in t h e f ig h t a g a in s t t h e B o lsh e v ik s , in M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I, D o s s ie r 6. 13 S ee D . D o ro s h e n k o , I s t o r i ia U k r a i n y ( U z h g o r o d : T s iu p k a , 1 9 3 2 ) , V o l. II , p . 4 0 9 ff.; a n d P . K h ry s tiu k , e d ., Z a m i t k y i m a t e r ia ly d o is t o r i i u k r a in s ’k o i r e v o l i u t s i i ( V ie n n a : V e m a y , 1 9 2 1 ) , V o l. I l l , p . 1 2 0 ff. W h e n in fo r m e d b y M a k la k o v

in P a ris o f t h e e ffo rts to re o rg a n iz e t h e U k ra in ia n g o v e rn m e n t. F o r e ig n M in is te r P ic h o n w ire d th e F r e n c h r e p re s e n ta tiv e in B e rn e o n N o v e m b e r 7, c itin g th e s e e ffo rts fa v o ra b ly a n d n o tin g th e m as o n e re a so n fo r re fu s in g to d e a l w ith L u k a se v ic h , w h o w as s e e k in g A llie d in te r v e n tio n b u t o n b e h a lf o f a n i n d e p e n d e n t U k r a in e .

S ee t h e P ic h o n n o te a n d s ta t e m e n t b y L u k a s e v ic h ( u n d e r t h e h e a d in g

B u re a u d e P re s se F ra n ç a is e , B e rn e , N o v e m b e r 18, 1 9 1 8 ) , M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I, D o s s ie r 6. 14 T h e te x t o f t h e D ir e c to r a te ’s s ta t e m e n t is in K h ry s tiu k , o p . c it., I l l ,

131.

O n e v e n ts in t h e U k ra in e d u r in g th is p e rio d , see a lso t h e p a m p h le t b y a m e m b e r of

th e

U k r a in ia n

D ir e c to r a te

d e le g a tio n

in

P a ris,

M.

K u s h n ir

( K o u c h n ir e ) ,

L ' U k r a i n e , l ' E u r o p e o r i e n t a l e e t la c o n f é r e n c e d e la p a ix (P a r is : B u re a u d e p resse

U k r a in ie n , 1 9 1 9 ) , H o o v e r L ib ra ry c o lle c tio n o f d e le g a tio n p ro p a g a n d a . 15 S ee E . G . v o n V a l ’, K is t o r i i b e l a g o d v i z h e n i i a ( T a l lin : Iz d . a v to ra , 1 9 3 5 ) , p p . 2 4 - 2 8 . V ir tu a lly a ll o f S h c h e rb a c h e v ’s tro o p s w e re fo rc e d to le a v e B e ssarab ia o r to h id e w h e n , a f te r th e R u m a n ia n p e a c e w ith th e G e rm a n s , th e la tte r h a d d e m a n d e d t h e d is b a n d in g o f a ll R u s s ia n fo rce s in R u m a n ia n te rrito ry , in c lu d in g B essarab ia . I t is n o ta b le t h a t fr o m th e s e fo rce s, as th e y d is in te g ra te d , c a m e n o t o n ly U k r a in ­ ia n u n its b u t a lso th e P o lis h C o rp s u n d e r H a lle r, t h e M o s le m C o rp s w h ic h m o v e d to th e C r im e a u n d e r S u l’k e v ic h , a n d t h e D ro z d o v s k ii d e ta c h m e n t w h ic h w e n t to t h e D o n . A ll o f th e s e u n its h a d b e e n fo r m e d e a rlie r in a re o rg a n iz a tio n a lo n g n a tio n a lity lin e s . W h e n S h c h e rb a c h e v d is so lv e d h is c o m m a n d officially o n A p ril 18, t h e A llie d m in is te rs in Jassy jo in tly e x p re sse d th e ir h ig h e s t re s p e c t fo r h im a n d h is e ffo rts. B es s arab ia h a d d e c la re d its “ in d e p e n d e n c e ” in F e b ru a ry a n d th e n in A p ril e n te r e d a u n io n w ith R u m a n ia . S ee F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , I I , 7 1 5 ,7 1 9 . 16 V a l ’, K is t o r i i b e l a g o d v i z h e n i i a , p p . 3 4 - 3 7 . 17 I b i d .

S ee also A rm e d

F o rc e s o f S o u th

R u ss ia , O c h e r k ' v z a i m o o t n o s h e n i i

v o o r u z h e n n y k h s il' iu g a R o s s i i i p r e d s t a v i t e l e i f r a n t s u z s k a g o k o m a n d o v a n ii a

(E k a -

te r in o d a r : I z d a n o u n p ra v le n ie m G e n e r a la K v a rtir-m e is te ra S h ta b a G la v n o k o m a n d u iu s h c h a g o

V o o ru z h e n n y m i

S ila m i n a

lu g e

R o ss ii,

M ay

1 9 1 9 ),

in

D e n ik in

A rc h iv e s, a n d p r in t e d in A r k h i v R u s s k o i R e v o l i u t s i i , V o l. X V I (B e rlin : I z d a te l’s tv o “ S lo v o ,” 1 9 2 5 ) , p p . 2 3 3 - 2 6 2 . 157.

C f . M o u lis a n d B e rg o n ie r, o p . c i t . , p p . 1 5 2 -

O n F r e n c h p la n s see a lso t h e G e n e r a l S ta ff re c o m m e n d a tio n o f D e c e m b e r

The Volunteer Army

328 9 in i z i s to r ii g r a z h d a n s k o i v o i n y , I, 7 2 - 7 3 .

T h i s r e c o m m e n d a ti o n calls f o r p u t ­

tin g th r e e F r e n c h a n d th r e e G re e k d iv is io n s u n d e r B e r th e lo t fo r th e in te r v e n tio n , o n ly h a lf t h e size o f th e fo rc e m e n tio n e d b y S h c h e rb a c h e v .

H o w e v e r, i t s ta te s

t h a t t h e six A llie d d iv is io n s s h o u ld b e c o m b in e d w ith a n u n s p e c ifie d n u m b e r o f R u m a n ia n tro o p s a t B e r th e lo t’s d is p o sa l. 18 V a l’, K i s to r ii b e la g o d v i z h e n i i a , p . 38. 19 R u s s ia n

A m b assad o r

P o k le v s k ii-K o z e l w as in f o r m e d

of

th e

ta lk s

as

w e re

S h c h e r b a c h e v 's im m e d ia te a ss is ta n ts a n d D e n ik in , b u t a p p a r e n tly n o o n e e lse w as to b e to ld o f th e m . See ib id . 20 T h e b e s t s in g le s o u rc e o n th e Jassy c o n fe re n c e is t h e jo u rn a l o f its m e e tin g s a n d a s s o rte d r e p o rts in th e W r a n g e l M ilita ry A rc h iv e s ( W M A ) , F ile 1 4 3 .

The

b e s t a n aly sis is in R o b e r t H . M c N e a l, “ T h e C o n f e r e n c e o f Jassy : A n E a rly F ia s c o o f th e A n ti-B o ls h e v ik M o v e m e n t," in J. S. C u rtis s , e d ., E s s a y s in R u s s ia n a n d S o v ie t

H isto ry

(N e w

Y o rk :

C o lu m b ia

U n iv e rs ity P re s s,

1 9 6 3 ), pp.

2 2 1 -2 3 6 .

D e n ik in 's e v a lu a tio n o f th e c o n fe re n c e is in h is O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty . V o l. V ( B e r lin : “ S lo v o ," 1 9 2 6 ) ,

p.

5 ff.

H e n n o h a d b e e n d ir e c to r o f t h e in te llig e n c e

s e c tio n w ith th e T a b o u is m is sio n in K ie v la te in 1 9 1 7 , b u t a f te r t h e s ig n a tu r e o f th e p e a c e tr e a ty w ith G e rm a n y h e h a d m o v e d to K is h in e v , w h e re h is a c tiv itie s w e re u n d e r th e s u p e rv isio n o f th e F r e n c h m in is te r in R u m a n ia , S a in t-A u la ir e . I n Jassy in th e la tte r p a r t o f 1 9 1 8 h e is re fe rre d to as th e F r e n c h c o n s u l a t K iev , a lth o u g h th e r e a p p e a rs to b e n o e v id e n c e o f h is a c tu a l a p p o i n t m e n t a n d h e n e v e r r e tu r n e d to K iev. A s M c N e a l h a s p o in te d o u t, H e n n o d id la te r, in M a r c h 1 9 1 9 , p r o d u c e a le tte r fro m S a in t-A u la ire in d ic a tin g t h a t h e h a d b e e n n a m e d v ic e -c o n su l in K iev, a n d th is l e tte r w as re a d in th e C h a m b e r o f D e p u tie s in h is d e fe n s e , b u t F o r e ig n M in is te r P ic h o n tw ic e d is a v o w e d H e n n o ’s a p p o in tm e n t. W h a t e v e r a u t h o r ­ ity H e n n o in f a c t h a d in N o v e m b e r a n d D e c e m b e r 1 9 1 8 c a m e fr o m h is s u p p o r t b y th e A llie d m in is te rs in Jassy.

S ee M c N e a l, o p . c it., p . 2 2 2 ; A n n a le s d e la

c h a m b r e d e s d é p u t é s , D é b a t s p a r le m e n ta ir e s , T o m e I ( 1 9 1 9 ) , p p .

1250, 1 3 0 5 -

1 3 0 6 , sessio n s o f M a r c h 2 4 a n d 2 6 ; a n d N . N . G o lo v in , R o s s iis k a ia k o n t r-rev o liu ts iia

(P a r is : “ I lliu s tr iro v a n n o i R o s s ii," 1 9 3 7 ) , V o l. V , B k . 12 , p p . 2 3 - 2 4 .

21 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , V , 6. 22 S ee te le g ra m s fro m th e A llie d m in is te rs in F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , II , 6 9 9 - 7 0 3 . 23 R e p o r t o n th e Jassy C o n f e r e n c e , W M A , F ile 1 4 3 , p p . 2 7 9 - 2 8 5 .

T h is, of

c o u rs e , d id n o t m e a n t h a t th e c o n fe re n c e w as fu lly re p re s e n ta tiv e o f a ll S o u th R u ssia . A s o n e o f its p a rtic ip a n ts h a s p o in te d o u t, w h a t it d id re p r e s e n t w as t h e g ro u p o f R u ss ia n o rg a n iz a tio n s lo o k in g to A llie d in te r v e n tio n to a id R u s s ia n fo rc e s to re s to re R u ss ia n u n ity . S ee V . I. G u rk o , “ Iz P e tro g r a d a c h e re z M o s k v u , P a r iz h , i London

v O d e s s u ," A r k h i v R u s s k o i R e v o l i u t s i i , V p l. X V

(B e rlin :

“ S lo v o ,"

1 9 2 4 ) , p . 5 0 . O n th e c o m p o s itio n o f th e c o n fe re n c e , see also M . S. M a r g u lie s , G o d i n t e r v e n t s i i (B e rlin : G rs c h e b in , 1 9 2 3 ) , V o l. I, p p . 2 7 - 2 8 .

M o s t o f t h e d e le ­

g a te s w e re lis te d as “ n o n p a r ty ," b u t th e r e w e re th o s e lis te d as b e lo n g in g to th e fo llo w in g : N a tio n a l F r e e d o m

p a rty

(P a r tiia n a r o d n o i s v o b o d y ) , S o c ia lis t R e v o ­

lu tio n a r y p a rty , M o n a r c h is t- C o n s titu tio n a lis t p a rty , O c to b r is t p a rty , a n d P o p u la r (N a ro d n o )

S o c ia lis t p a rty . S ee W M A , F ile 1 4 3 , p p . 2 8 7 - 2 9 0 . A s iz a b le n u m ­

b e r o f th e d e le g a te s c a m e fro m K iev , a n d a lth o u g h n o U k ra in ia n g o v e r n m e n ta l d e le g a tio n

w as in v ite d , S k o ro p a d s k ii c o o p e r a te d

in

is su in g p a s s p o rts

f o r th o s e

a tte n d in g . V . I. G u rk o , w h o a rriv e d la te b u t w as a c c e p te d as a v o tin g d e le g a te ,

329

NOTES c o n s u lte d w ith S k o ro p a d s k ii ju s t b e fo re th e c o n fe re n c e . in d ir e c tly re p r e s e n te d t h e H e t m a n ’s in te re s ts .

N . N . Shebeko and he

S ee G u rk o , o p . c it., p p . 36, 4 6 - 4 7 .

24 T h e s o u rc e s a re n o t in c o m p le te a g r e e m e n t as to w h o w as p r e s e n t o r h a d a v o te . T h e lis t a c c o m p a n y in g th e jo u rn a l o f m e e tin g s in t h e W M A , F ile 1 4 3 , in ­ c lu d e s t h e fo llo w in g : M . V . B ra ik e v ic h , I. I. B u n a k o v - F u n d a m in s k ii, A . V . K riv o s h e in , K . R . K ro v o p u s k o v , M . S. M a rg u lie s , V . V . M e lle r-Z a k o m e l’skii, P . N . M iliu k o v , C o lo n e l I. M . N o v ik o v , A . I. P il'ts , A . A . T i to v , S. N . T r e t ’iak o v , M . M . F e d o ro v , N . A . K h o m ia k o v , A . la . C h e m b e r s , N . V . S a v ic h , a n d V . I. G u r k o as v o tin g d e le g a te s , p lu s B . E . M a li u tin , N . N . S h e b e k o , V . P . R ia b u s h in sk ii, V . Ia . D e m c h e n k o , a n d N . F . v o n D itm a r w ith a d v iso ry v o ice. V . V . R u d n e v w as n o t a n o fficial d e le g a te b u t p a r tic ip a te d as a re p re s e n ta tiv e o f t h e U n io n fo r R e g e n e r a tio n . C o u n t i n g h im th e n u m b e r w o u ld th u s b e 17. V . V . S h u l'g in w as a n a c c r e d ite d d e le g a te b u t w as p re v e n te d fro m a tte n d in g b y illn e ss. P r e s e n t a t s o m e o f th e m e e tin g s w e re a lso th e B ritis h a n d F r e n c h m ilita ry a tta c h é s , B allard a n d B e lo ir, th e H enno.

R u ss ia n

R e d C ro s s C o lo n e l I l ’in , G e n e r a l S h c h e rb a c h e v , a n d

25 D o c u m e n t s o f th e Jassy c o n fe re n c e , W M A , F ile 1 43, p p . 3 6 8 , 3 7 6 . T h is a p p e a l a n d a n a c c o m p a n y in g n o te fr o m th e A llie d m in is te rs w as a p p a r e n tly n o t d is p a tc h e d u n til D e c e m b e r 6 .

S ee U . S. N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o r e ig n A ffairs S e c ­

tio n , D o c . N o . 8 6 1 .0 0 / 3 4 3 5 ; a n d M c N e a l, o p . c it., p p . 2 2 7 - 2 2 8 . 26 T h e th r e e m a n d ir e c to r a te id e a h a d first b e e n a d o p te d jo in tly b y th e N a tio n a l C e n t e r a n d th e U n io n fo r R e g e n e ra tio n w h e n a n a ll-R u s sia n g o v e rn m e n t w as e x ­ p e c te d to b e e s ta b lis h e d a t U fa to g e t A llie d re c o g n itio n .

I t w as th e n s u p p o se d

to in c lu d e o n e g e n e ra l, o n e K a d e t, a n d o n e s o c ia lis t. A s p re v io u s ly n o te d , o n S e p ­ te m b e r 23 th e p ro je c te d d ir e c to r a te h a d b e e n e sta b lis h e d a t U fa a f te r n e g o tia tio n s b e tw e e n th e S a m a ra a n d O m s k g o v e rn m e n ts , w ith five m e n fo r m in g th e jo in t a u th o r ity . I t is i m p o r ta n t to re c all a t th is p o in t, h o w e v e r, t h a t o n N o v e m b e r 1 7 18, ju s t a f te r th e o p e n in g o f th e Jassy c o n fe re n c e , th e U fa D ir e c to r a te w as o v e r­ th r o w n a n d A d m ira l K o lc h a k w as in s ta lle d as d ic ta to r , th u s b re a k in g th e lib e ra lL e f t c o a litio n a n d r e o p e n in g b o t h th e q u e s tio n o f th e fo rm o f a u th o r ity to b e s u p p o r te d a n d th e g a p b e tw e e n s o c ia lis t a n d n o n -s o c ia lis t fa c tio n s in th e a n tiB o lsh e v ik c a m p . See M iliu k o v ’s a c c o u n t o f th is b a c k g r o u n d to th e Jassy d is c u ssio n in th e jo u rn a l o f m e e tin g s , 2 n d sessio n , N o v e m b e r 2 0 , W M A , F ile 1 4 3 , p . 3 2 7 . S ee a lso a s t a t e m e n t b y th e U n io n fo r R e g e n e ra tio n re la tin g to th is q u e s tio n in t h e M iliu k o v P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s, a n d M a rg u lie s , o p . c it., I, 3 0 - 3 1 , 35. J o u rn a l o f m e e tin g s , N o v e m b e r 7 / 2 0 a n d 8 / 2 1 , W M A , F ile 1 4 3 , p p . 3 2 3 - 3 4 0 . 27 T h e r e w e re 14 v o tin g d e le g a te s p r e s e n t a t th e s e v o te s. T h e v o te fo r m ilita r y d ic ta to r s h ip w as 10 to 0; th e v o te fo r D e n ik in w as 9 to 4 ( t h e fo u r b e in g fo r N ik o la i N ik o la e v ic h ) . B o th v o te s th u s c o n s ti tu te d a m a jo rity o f th e to ta l o f 16 o r 17 p o s sib le if all v o te d . S ee jo u rn a l o f m e e tin g s , W M A , F ile 1 4 3 , p p . 3 3 6 - 3 4 0 . 28 M a r g u lie s , o p . c it., I, 35. 29 T e x t in d o c u m e n ts o f th e Jassy c o n fe re n c e , W M A , F ile 14 3 , p p . 3 7 7 - 3 8 1 . 30 I b i d . ,

pp.

3 7 1 - 3 7 3 . B e r th e lo t in d ic a te d t h a t in th e case o f th e U k ra in ia n

fo rce s o f P e tliu r a h e w o u ld d e m a n d fu ll s u rre n d e r. 31 A c c o r d in g to M a rg u lie s , B arclay w as la te r r e p rim a n d e d b y L o n d o n fo r a sso ­ c ia tin g h im s e lf w ith H e n n o ’s d e c la r a tio n s in c e d e c isio n s o n s u c h m a tte r s h a d n o t b e e n m a d e y e t b y th e F o r e ig n O ffice o r th e C a b i n e t.

S ee M a rg u lie s , o p . c it., I,

The Volunteer Army

330

1 3 6 - 1 3 7 . V o p ic k a w as a lso a p p a r e n tly o v e rs te p p in g h is a u th o r ity w h e n h e b a c k e d th e s e m o v e s, s in c e A c tin g S e c re ta ry o f S ta te P o lk w ire d t h e U n i t e d S ta te s c o n s u l a t I r k u ts k t h a t t h e P o w e rs “ o th e r t h a n th e U n i t e d S ta te s ” w e re p ro p o s in g to k e e p o r d e r in th e U k ra in e b y s u p p o r tin g t h e e s ta b lis h e d a u th o r itie s . S ee P o lk to H a rris , D e c e m b e r 12, 1 9 1 8 , F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , I I , 7 0 3 . 32 T h i s in c id e n t is re la te d in M a rg u lie s , o p . c i t . , I, 3 8 - 3 9 . 33 S ee n o te s o f t h e A llie d m in is te rs in F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , I I , 6 4 4 , 678, 6 9 9 -7 0 3 , 709. 34 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , IV , 3 6 - 4 0 .

O n th e f o r m a t io n o f t h e n e w

C r im e a n g o v e r n m e n t, see i b i d . , V , 54 ff. a n d F o r e ig n M in is t e r V in a v e r 's d e s c r ip ­ tio n o f th e g o v e r n m e n t a n d its p o lic ie s in a le t t e r to M a k la k o v , M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I , D o ss ie r 10. S ee a lso th e n e w g o v e r n m e n t's m e m o r a n d u m to t h e A llie s in D o c u m e n ts o f th e C r im e a n G o v e r n m e n t a n d M . V in a v e r , F ile N o . 6, H o o v e r L ib ra ry . C f . G u k o v s k ii, “ K ry m v 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9 g g .,” lo c . c i t . , p . 1 4 4 ; a n d V in a v e r , N a s h e p r a v it e ls tv o , p a s sim .

35 A p p a r e n tly a ll H e n n o h a d b y w ay o f in s tru c tio n s fr o m P a ris w as s im p ly a s ta t e m e n t fr o m th e F o re ig n M in is try d e c la rin g t h a t t h e A llie d P o w e rs d id n o t i n ­ te n d to c h a n g e th e fo rm o f g o v e r n m e n t in th e U k ra in e . S ee d o c u m e n ts o n “ T h e U k ra in e a n d th e A llie d P o w e rs ,” M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I , D o s s ie r 3. 36 S ee th e te x t fo rw a rd e d b y t h e M in is te r s in Jassy t o P a ris, D e c e m b e r 7 , 1 9 1 8 , in F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , I I , 7 0 1 . D o ss ie r 3.

See a lso M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I ,

37 F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 R u s s ia , I I , 7 0 2 . 38 S ee M a r g u lie s , o p . c i t . , I, 4 2 .

I t is in te r e s tin g to n o te , o n th e o t h e r h a n d ,

t h a t H e n n o 's s ta te m e n ts a p p a r e n tly m a d e a b ig im p re s s io n in K ie v a t first. A c c o r d ­ in g to o n e w itn e ss , a w e lc o m in g c o m m itte e a n d s p e e c h e s w e re e v e n p re p a r e d to g r e e t th e e x p e c te d a rriv a l o f th e A llies. S ee M a r g o lin , o p . c i t . , p . 9 6 ff. 39 F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u ss ia , I I , 7 0 2 . 40 T h e A m e ric a n m in is te r, V o p ic k a , p ro v id e d a g o o d e x a m p le o f t h e c o n f u s io n in h is r e p o rts . O n D e c e m b e r 19, fo r e x a m p le , h e te le g ra p h e d W a s h i n g t o n t h a t P e tliu r a w as “ n o w h e a d o f th e B o lsh e v ik s o f U k r a in e ,” a n d o n D e c e m b e r 21 h e w ire d t h a t “ P e tly u ra d o e s n o t h e a d th e B o lsh e v ik a rm y . . . b u t th e re p u b lic a n a rm y , w h ic h is fig h tin g fo r in d e p e n d e n c e o f U k ra in ia . . . .” S ee F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , I I , 7 0 4 - 7 0 5 . O n th e c h a r a c te r o f t h e U k ra in ia n D ir e c to r a te , see A . D . M a r g o lin , U k r a in a i p o l i t i k a a n t a n t y (B e rlin : E f ro n , 1 9 2 1 ) , p p . 9 9 - 1 0 0 ;

a n d J. S. R e s h e ta r, T h e U k r a in ia n R e v o l u t i o n

( P r in c e t o n : P r in c e to n U n iv e rs ity

P ress, 1 9 5 2 ) , p . 2 1 7 ff. 41 F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , I I , 7 0 2 . 4 2 V a l ’, K is to r ii b e la g o d v i z h e n i i a , p p . 4 2 - 4 3 .

O n th e p la n s o f th e V o l u n t e e r

A rm y b a se d o n B e r th e lo t's p ro m is e s , see “ O c h e r k ' v z a im o o tn o s h e n ii v o o r u z h e n n y k h siT iu g a R o ssii i p re d s ta v ite le i fra n ts u z s k a g o k o m a n d o v a n iia ,” A r k h i v R u s s k o i R e v o l i u t s i i , V o l. X V I

(B e rlin : “ S lo v o ,” 1 9 2 5 ) , p p . 2 3 5 - 2 3 6 .

C f. A . S. L u k o m -

skii, M e m o i r s o f t h e R u s s ia n R e v o l u t i o n ( L o n d o n : T . F . U n w in , 1 9 2 2 ) , 43

p.

218.

T h e G e rm a n s w e re o b lig e d b y s e c tio n B o f a rtic le 12 o f t h e a r m is tic e to

re m a in in p la c e in th e te rrito rie s o c c u p ie d b y th e m in R u ss ia u n t i l th e y c o u ld b e re p la c e d b y A llie d tro o p s , b u t o n ly in N ik o la e v a n d K h e rs o n d id th e y a c tu a lly s tay in p la c e u n til A llie d tro o p s a rriv e d . F o r a n e x a m p le o f H e n n o 's a p p e a ls to t h e G e r m a n s , see I z is to r ii g r a z h d a n s k o i v o i n y , I, 7 8 .

331

NOTES

44 S o m e e ffo rts h a d b e e n m a d e to fo r m tro o p s a n d c o o rd in a te t h e ir a c tio n s , b u t th e s e v ery e ffo rts h a d o n ly le d to n e w fr ic tio n . A g e n ts o f t h e V o lu n te e r A rm y h a d b e g u n r e c r u itin g in K ie v s o m e tim e e a rlie r, b u t D e n ik in m a d e i t c le a r t h a t h e h a d n o t in te n d e d fo r V o lu n te e r officers to b e s u b o r d in a te to th e U k ra in ia n c o m ­ m a n d o r to s u p p o r t S k o ro p a d s k ii d ire c tly .

K ie v w as s o o n ( D e c e m b e r 1 4 ) to fa ll

to t h e D ir e c to r a te , a n d th e V o lu n te e r s th e r e to o k re fu g e w ith th e G e rm a n s , a n iro n ic e n d to t h e ir c a m p a ig n a g a in s t t h e “ p r o - G e r m a n " p o lic ie s o f t h e H e tm a n . M a n y o f th e s e V o lu n te e r officers w e re la te r p ic k e d u p in G e rm a n y b y t h e B ritis h , ta k e n to E n g l a n d , a n d th e r e s e n t to a sp e c ia l c a m p to b e g iv e n n e w tra in in g a n d s e n t b a c k to R u ss ia .

O n th e s e e v e n ts , see t h e V o lu n te e r A rm y 's K ra tk a ia z a p is k a

i s t o r i i v z a i m o o t n o s h e n i i D o b r o v o V c h e s k o i a rm ii s U k i a i n o i (R o s to v -o n -D o n : T i p .

“ D o n s k o g o a k ts . o-va. p e c h . i iz d . d e là ," 1 9 1 9 ) , p . 5 ff. A n a c c o u n t o f th e c o n ­ fu s e d V o lu n te e r “ p a r tic ip a tio n " in K ie v 's d e fe n s e m a y also b e f o u n d in t h e m e m ­ o irs o f a m e m b e r o f o n e o f th e V o lu n te e r u n its th e r e , B . M . B r o f e l'd t, V o s p o m i n a n ii a , P a r t I I I ,

P a rt IV .

p.

10 ff. B ro fe l’d t d e sc rib e s th e la te r re -tr a in in g in E n g la n d in

F r e n c h s o u rc e s h a d , n o ta b ly , p re m a tu re ly r e p o rte d a n a c c o rd b e tw e e n

th e V o lu n te e r s a n d t h e U k ra in ia n g o v e r n m e n t ( G e r b e l) in N o v e m b e r . S ee th e b u lle tin o f th e B u re a u d e P re s se F ra n ç a is e fo r N o v e m b e r 2 2 , 1 9 1 8 , in M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I , D o ss ie r 6. 45 S ee K h ry s tiu k , o p . c it., IV , 6 ( n o t e 1 ) , 15 ff.; a n d L u k o m s k ii, M e m o ir s , p .

212. 40 F o r m o re d e ta ile d a c c o u n ts o f e v e n ts p re c e d in g th e F r e n c h in te r v e n tio n in O d e s s a , see X y d ia s, o p . c it., p p . 1 2 3 - 1 7 0 ; a n d D e n ik in , O c h c i k i iu s s k o i s m u ty , V , 7 ff. 47 S ee G u k o v s k ii, F ia n ts u z s k a i a i n t e r v e n t s i i a , p . 1 3 9 ; a n d G . F r a n ts , “ E v a k u a tsiia g e r m a n s k im i v o is k a m i U k r a in y ," in I. P . P e tru s h e v s k ii, e d ., I s t o r i k i sovrem e n n ik : is t o r i k o - l i t e r a t u r n y i s b o r n i k

(B e rlin : O lg a D ia k o w V e rla g , 1 9 2 2 - 1 9 2 4 ) ,

V o l. II , p . 2 6 8 . 48 D e n ik in , O c h e i k i iu s s k o i s m u t y , V , 10; A . G . S h lik h te r , e d ., C h e r n a ia k n ig a : s b o r n ik s ta te i i m a te r ia lo v o b in te r v e n ts ii a n ta n ty na

U k ra in e v

1 9 1 8 -1 9 1 9

gg.

(K h a rk o v : G o s iz d a t U k ra in y , 1 9 2 5 ) , p . 9 3 . 49 X y d ia s, o p . c i t . , p p . 1 4 9 - 1 6 0 . B o th C o lo n e l N o v ik o v , w h o h a d b e e n s e n t to C o n s ta n tin o p le b y t h e Jassy c o n fe re n c e to u rg e th e s e n d in g o f A llie d tro o p s as so o n as p o s sib le , a n d G e n e r a l E r d e li, w h o h a d b e e n s e n t b y D e n ik in fo r t h e sa m e p u r p o s e , r e p o r te d t h a t F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e re y re c e iv e d th e m c o ld ly a n d le c tu r e d th e m o n R u s s ia ’s b e tra y a l o f F r a n c e a n d o n t h e p o o r q u a lity o f R u s s ia n officers.

H ow ­

e v er, th e B ritis h re p re s e n ta tiv e , G e n e r a l B rid g e s, h a d w e lc o m e d th e m w a rm ly a n d p r o m is e d to h e lp in e v ery w ay h e c o u ld . S ee M a rg u lie s , o p . c it., I, 8 2 - 8 3 . 50 S ee J. B u n y a n a n d H . H . F is h e r, e d s., T h e B o l s h e v i k R e v o l u t i o n , 1918

1917-

( S ta n f o r d : S ta n fo r d U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 3 4 ) , p p . 4 3 9 - 4 4 8 ; M a rg u lie s , o p .

c it., I, 7 5 ff.; a n d G u k o v s k ii, F r a n ts u z s k a ia in t e r v e n t s i i a , p . 1 3 7 ff. C f. R e s h e ta r , o p . c i t . , p . 2 1 7 ff. 51 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , V , 1 1 - 1 2 .

S ig n ific a n tly , P e tliu r a h a d o ffered

a tr u c e to B o riu s o n c o n d itio n t h a t G ris h in -A lm a z o v b e re m o v e d . B o riu s in t u r n d e m a n d e d t h a t t h e U k ra in ia n s d is a rm , a n d w h e n th e y re fu s e d , h e s im p ly re p e a te d B e r th e lo t's e a r lie r w a rn in g .

S ee F . A n u lo v , “ S o iu z n y i d e s a n t n a U k r a in e ," in A .

G . S h lik h te r , e d ., C h e r n a ia k in g a : s b o r n i k s t a t e i i m a t e r i a l o v (K h a rk o v : G o s iz d a t U k ra in y , 1 9 2 5 ) , p . I l l ff.; a n d X y d ia s, o p . c i t . , p p . 1 6 0 , 1 7 0 - 1 7 2 .

The Volunteer Army

332

p.

52 B o n u s ' in s tru c tio n s a re q u o te d in X y d ia s, o p . c it., O gn en n ye gody:

m a t e r ia ly i d o k u m e n t y

po

163 a n d V . M a r g u lie s , v o i n y n a iu g e

is t o r i i g r a z h d a n s k o i

R o s s i i ( B e r lin : “ M a n f r e d ," 1 9 2 3 ) , p p . 6 - 7 .

53 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i i u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 11. 54 F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , I I I , 1 4 3 . S ee a lso C h u r c h ill, o p . c i t . , p . 1 6 6 . 55 C le m e n c e a u ’s l e tte r o f O c to b e r 2 7 to d 'E s p e re y , p r in t e d in L e M a t i n ( P a r i s ) , J u n e 17, 1 9 2 0 ; a lso in S h lia p n ik o v , o p . c i t . , p . 2 8 5 .

C f. M o u lis a n d B e r g o n ie r,

o p . c it., p p . 1 6 0 -1 6 1 .

56 S ee N e w Y o r k T i m e s , D e c e m b e r 2 5 , 1 9 1 8 . 57 A n n a le s d e la c h a m b r e d e s d é p u t é s , D é b a t s p a r le m e n ta ir e s , T o m e I I I ( 1 9 1 8 ) , p p . 3 3 3 4 - 3 3 3 5 , sessio n o f D e c e m b e r 2 9 . 58 I b i d . S ee a lso L e P e t i t P a r is ie n

( P a r is ) ,

D ecem ber

30,

1918,

q u o tin g

P ic h o n ’s re m a rk s a n d re to rts fro m th e C h a m b e r . 59 S ee M . S. M a rg u lie s, o p . c i t . , I, 2 8 5 , 2 8 9 , w h e re h e re la te s th e b e la te d re v e ­ la tio n o f th e s e in s tru c tio n s to le a d in g in d iv id u a ls in O d e ss a . 60 Q u o te d in X y d ia s, o p . c i t . , p . 2 0 2 . 0,1 Q u o te d in D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , V , 34. 02 O n H e n n o 's fe u d w ith F r e id e n b e rg a n d th e o u tc o m e , see M . S. M a r g u lie s , o p . c i t . , I, 125 ff.; a n d D . K in , e d ., “ K is to rii fra n ts u z s k o i in te rv e n ts ii n a iu g e R o s s ii," K r a s n y i A r k h i v , V o l. X I X (M o s c o w : G o s iz d a t, T s e n tr a l'n y i A rk h iv R S F S R , 1 9 2 7 ), pp . 5 -8 . c3 T h e p e r ip a te tic F r e n c h

m ilita ry

r e p re s e n ta tiv e

in

th e

C au casu s,

C o lo n e l

C h a r d ig n y , a c te d as F r e n c h lia is o n officer, a n d a n A m e ric a n p h y s ic ia n a t ta c h e d to th e A m e ric a n P e rs ia n R e lie f C o m m is s io n , D r. W i l b u r E . P o s t, w as a sk e d to serv e as th e

re p re s e n ta tiv e

of th e

U n ite d

S ta te s . T h i s

in fo r m a l a n d

ad

hoc

a r r a n g e m e n t was m a d e la rg e ly so t h a t t h e B ritis h c o m m a n d e r c o u ld la n d h is fo rc e in th e n a m e o f th e A llies. See W . E . P o s t e t a l., “ A R é s u m é o f E v e n ts in th e C a u c a s u s S in c e th e R u ss ia n R e v o l u tio n ," a m a n u s c r ip t c o n ta in in g p e rs o n a l a c ­ c o u n ts b y P o s t, C h a r d ig n y , a n d M r. H a rry P r a t t J u d s o n , in th e H o o v e r L ib ra ry ; th e title u s e d is t h a t o f C h a p t e r 1 b y C o lo n e l C h a r d ig n y . F rom

W h i t e h a l l t o t h e C a s p ia n

C f . F . J. F . F r e n c h ,

(L o n d o n : O d h a m s, 1 9 2 0 ), p . 127; a n d N . N .

L is h in , N a K a s p iis k o m m o r e (P ra g u e : Iz d . M o rs k o g o z h u m a la , 1 9 3 8 ) , p . 54 ff. 64 T h e

P r e - C a s p ia n g o v e r n m e n t w as d e s c rib e d

in

o n e a c c o u n t as c o m p o s e d

a lm o s t e n tire ly o f s o cia lists, c h ie fly S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r ie s . T h e s a m e s o u rc e a lso s ta te s t h a t B ic h e ra k o v re c e iv e d h is a p p o i n t m e n t as “ C o m m a n d e r in C h i e f o f tro o p s in th e C a u c a s u s a n d o n t h e C a s p ia n " fro m K o lc h a k . S ee B . B aik o v , “ V o sp o m in a n iia o re v o liu ts ii v Z a k a v k a z 'i, 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 0 g g .," A r k h i v R u s s k o i R e v o l i u t s i i , V o l. I X

(B e r lin : I z d a te l's tv o “ S lo v o ," 1 9 2 3 ) , p p . 1 6 0 - 1 6 1 .

ized B ic h e r a k o v 's g o v e r n m e n t as a g ro u p o f s o cia lists fr o m s o m e A r m e n ia n s ) D ir e c to r a te .

D e n ik in c h a r a c te r ­ P e tro v s k

(in c lu d in g

w h o w e re “ s p iritu a lly " a s s o c ia te d w ith K o m u c h a n d t h e U fa

See D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , I V ,

1 6 5 . T h e “ g o v e r n m e n t"

w as a p p a r e n tly s im p ly B ic h e ra k o v a n d s o m e o f h is fo llo w e rs a n d w as i n te n d e d as a m e a n s to le n d w e ig h t to B ic h e ra k o v 's c la im s to a u th o r ity . C f . E llis, B r iti s h “ I n t e r v e n t i o n ," p p . 1 1 3 - 1 1 4 . r>5 T h i s v iew w as s tro n g ly p re s e n te d b y C o lo n e l C h a r d ig n y in h is r e p o r t, d a te d N o v e m b e r 2 1 , 1 9 1 9 , w h ic h c o n s ti tu te s C h a p t e r 1 in P o s t, o p . c i t .

F o r S o v ie t

m a te ria ls o n e v e n ts a n d c o n d itio n s in A z e r b a id z h a n d u r in g th is p e rio d , see B o V s h e v ik i v

b o r ’b e z a p o b e d u

s o ts i a l i s t i c h e s k o i r e v o l i u t s i i v

A z e r b a id z h a n c ,

1917-

333

NOTES 1 9 1 8 ( B a k u : G o s i z d a t A .S .S .R ., 1 9 5 7 ) .

66 S ee A . A . T a k h o - G o d i, R e v o l i u t s i i a i k o n tr - r e v o li u t s i ia v D a g e s ta n e

(M a k ­

h a c h k a l a : D a g e s ta n s k o e G o s iz d a t, 1 9 2 7 ) , p p . 7 7 - 8 2 , 1 0 4 - 1 0 5 ; J. L o ris-M e lik o f, L a r é v o l u t i o n r u s s e e t le s n o u v e ll e s r é p u b l i q u e s tra n s c a u c a s ie n n e s (P a r is : A lc a n , 1 9 2 0 ) , p p . 1 4 4 , 1 6 0 , 1 7 0 - 1 7 1 ; J. B u c h a n , e d ., T h e B a l t i c a n d C a u c a s ia n S t a t e s ( B o s to n : H o u g h to n , M ifflin , 1 9 2 3 ) , p . 2 3 7 ; a n d la . A . R a tg a u z e r, B o r ’b a z a ( B a k u : T i p . “ 3-i I n te r n a ts io n a l,” 1 9 2 8 ) , p p . 1 4 - 1 5 . C f. R ic h a r d P ip e s , T h e F o r m a t i o n o f t h e S o v i e t U n i o n ( C a m b r id g e : H a rv a r d U n i ­

s o v e ts k ii A z e r b a id z h a n

v e rs ity P ress, 1 9 5 4 ) , p . 2 0 4 ff. 67 T h o m s o n ’s p o s itio n is re c o rd e d in th e re p o r t o f th e A z e r b a id z h a n d e le g a tio n to th e g o v e r n m e n t o n N o v e m b e r 16, q u o te d in A . R a e v sk ii, A n g liis k a ia i n t e r v e n t s iia i M u s a v a t s k o e p r a v i t e l ’s tv o ; i z is t o r i i i n t e r v e n t s i i i k o n tr - r e v o li u t s i i v Z a k a v k a z ’i ( B a k u : G o s tip . “ K ra sn y i V o s t o k ,” 1 9 2 7 ) , p p . 3 2 - 3 3 .

68 T h i s n o te is in c lu d e d in d o c u m e n ts p re s e n te d in t h e A z e r b a id z h a n P a ris d e le ­ g a tio n ’s b r o c h u r e , L e 2 8 M a i , 1 9 1 9 ; le jo u r d u p re m ie r a n n iv e r s a ir e d e Vi n d é p e n d ­ a n c e d e la R é p u b l i q u e d ’A z e r b e i d j a n , p. 13. 69 I b i d . , p p . 1 3 - 1 4 . S ee also R a e v s k ii, o p . c it., p . 4 0 .

70 R a e v s k ii, o p . c i t . , p . 36. C f. A . P o p o v , “ Iz e p o k h i a n g liis k o i in te rv e n ts ii v Z a k a v k a z ’i; p o m a te ria la m a rk h iv a b . M in . I n . D e l. A z e rb a id z h a n s k o i R e s p u b lik i,” P r o le ta r s k a ia R e v o l i u t s i i a

(M o sc o w ), N o . 6 - 7

(1 8 - 1 9 ), 1923, p. 226.

71 R ae v s k ii, o p . c i t . , p . 34. 72 T h o m s o n ’s re fe re n c e to th e “ N e w R u s s ia n G o v e r n m e n t” h e re rec alls a sim ila r re fe re n c e m a d e b y F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e re y in O d e ss a , a lth o u g h t h e la tte r s p o k e o f s u c h a g o v e r n m e n t “ in P a ris .” T h e r e is e v id e n c e t h a t T h o m s o n , h o w e v e r, w as re fe rr in g to th e U fa g o v e rn m e n t, w h ic h th e A llie d P o w e rs h a d c o n s id e re d re c o g n iz in g .

It

is q u ite p o s sib le t h a t T h o m s o n h a d b e e n in fo r m e d o f th e B ritis h C a b i n e t ’s d e c i­ sio n o f N o v e m b e r 14 to e x te n d re c o g n itio n b u t h a d n o t y e t le a rn e d o f th e c o u p w h ic h p u t K o lc h a k in p o w e r o n N o v e m b e r 18. S u c h a n in te r p r e ta tio n see m s all t h e m o r e v alid in view o f th e p re s e n c e in B a k u o f a “ re p re s e n ta tiv e ” o f th e U fa g o v e r n m e n t, N . N . G o lo v in . S ee n o te 9 4 , C h a p . 2, a b o v e ; a n d D . E . E n u k id z e , K rakh

im p e r ia lis tic h e s k o i

in te r v e n ts ii

v

Z a k a v k a z ’i

(T b ilis i:

G o s iz d a t

G ru z .

S .S .R ., 1 9 5 4 ) , p. 1 4 7 . 73 T h e te x t o f th is s ta t e m e n t as h e r e p re s e n te d is ta k e n la rg e ly fro m P o s t, o p . c i t . . C h a p . 2, p p . 1 - 2 , b u t it h a s b e e n m o d ifie d in m in o r d e ta ils o n th e b a sis o f a

p a r tia l R u s s ia n te x t c o n ta in e d in R ae v sk ii, o p . c i t . , p . 34 , s in c e th e P o s t v e rsio n d o e s n o t a p p e a r to b e th e o rig in a l E n g lis h te x t. 74 T h e r e o r g a n iz a tio n o f t h e b a n k a n d th e o il in d u s try is d e s c rib e d in th e r e p o r t o f its d ir e c to r , W e r t h e i m , to G e n e r a l T h o m s o n in P o s t, o p . c i t . b y P o s t in i b i d . , C h a p . 2,

p.

C f . th e a c c o u n t

3 ff., a n d R a e v sk ii, o p . c it., p . 4 9 ff.

75 P o s t, o p . c i t . , C h a p . 2, p p . 3 - 4 . 70 B aik o v , o p . c i t . , p . 1 4 8 . 77 T h o m s o n w as a lso a p p a r e n tly d ra w in g to w a rd th is c o n c lu s io n . c i t . . C h a p . 2, p . 6.

S ee P o s t, o p .

I t w as e v en b e in g ru m o r e d a t th is tim e t h a t B ic h e ra k o v w as

p r e p a r in g a c o u p to seiz e p o w e r. S ee R a e v sk ii, o p . c i t . , p . 4 4 . 78 T h e R u s s ia n N a tio n a l C o u n c i l’s p o s itio n a n d a c tiv itie s a re d e s c rib e d in d e ta il in B aik o v , o p . c i t . ,

p.

147

ff.

B aik o v in d ic a te s t h a t b o t h th e s o c ia lis t c o m p o s itio n

o f B ic h e r a k o v ’s “ g o v e r n m e n t” a n d t h e r e p o r t t h a t h e h a d re c e iv e d a p p o in tm e n t

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as c o m m a n d e r in th e C a u c a s u s a re a fr o m K o lc h a k w e re re g a rd e d as e v id e n c e o f o p p o s itio n to D e n ik in a n d to th e C o u n c il. I b i d . , p p . 1 6 0 - 1 6 1 . 79 I b i d . ,

pp. 147, 148.

80 P o s t, o p . c i t . , C h a p . 2, p p . 6 - 8 . 81 I b i d . , a n n e x to C h a p . 2, w h ic h is a n a rtic le fr o m t h e R .N .C . p a p e r , E d in a ia R o s s iia , e n title d

“ T h e A llie d P o lic y a n d

t h e S e c o n d P r o c la m a tio n o f G e n e r a l

T h o m s o n . " See also B aik o v , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 4 9 - 1 5 0 . 82 R ae v sk ii, o p . c i t .,

p.

4 4 ; B aik o v , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 5 0 - 1 5 1 . T h e A rm e n ia n s , w h o

h a d p re v io u s ly b e e n in v o lv e d in a n e x c h a n g e o f m a ss a cres w ith t h e M o s le m s a n d w e re in a m in o r ity w h ic h la c k e d p o w e r, o b v io u s ly lo o k e d to s o m e m o d e r a te c o a ­ litio n as t h e o n ly h o p e fo r p e a c e . 83 B aik o v , o p . c i t . , p . 1 5 1 . 84 P o s t, o p . c i t . , C h a p . 2, p . 9. 85 T h e fig u res u s e d b y th e B ritis h fo r “ B a k u d i s tr ic t" g ave t h e fo llo w in g p o p u ­ la tio n c o u n t: 3 9 0 ,0 0 0 T a rta r s , 5 5 ,0 0 0 A rm e n ia n s , a n d 4 0 ,0 0 0 R u s s ia n s , w ith c o n s id e ra b ly s m a lle r P o lis h , G e r m a n , a n d G e o rg ia n e le m e n ts . S ee P o s t, o p . c i t . , a n n e x o n p o p u la tio n . 86 B aik o v , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 5 2 - 1 5 7 . 87 R ae v sk ii, o p . c i t . , p . 4 7 ; L e 2 8 M a i , 1 9 1 9 . . ., p . 15. 88 L e 2 8 M a i , 1 9 1 9 . . ., p . 16. 89 M iln e ’s s ta te m e n ts a re q u o te d in L e 2 8 M a i , 1 9 1 9 . . ., p p . 1 7 - 1 8 . T h e d e le g a tio n a c tu a lly d id n o t re a c h P a ris u n til M a y b e c a u s e o f a d e la y in C o n s t a n t i ­ n o p le , w h e re th e F r e n c h h a d b e e n b lo c k in g f u r th e r tra v e l b y s u c h d e le g a tio n s (b y re fu s in g v isas) s in c e th e tro u b le o v e r th e Jassy c o n fe re n c e d e le g a tio n . S ee R a e v s k ii, o p . c i t . , p . 51. 90 F o r S o v ie t d o c u m e n ta ti o n o n e v e n ts in G e o rg ia see B o r ’b a z a p o b e d u so v ets k o i v l a s t i v G r u z ii, 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 1 gg. ( T b ilis i: G o s iz d a t G r u z , S .S .R ., 1 9 5 8 ) .

91 P o s t, o p . c i t . , C h a p . 8, q u o tin g a l e t t e r fro m G e g e c h k o ri. 92 N o te fr o m G e g e c h k o ri q u o te d in D o k u m e n t y i m a t e r i a l y p o v n e s n e i p o l i t i k e Z a k a v k a z ’ia i G ru z ii, p p . 4 2 5 - 4 2 6 . 93 I b i d . ,

p.

426.

94 I b i d . ,

p.

427.

95 A c c o r d in g to V o lu n te e r in te llig e n c e re p o rts th e 2 7 th In f a n tr y D iv is io n u n d e r G e n e r a l W a l k e r , w h ic h o c c u p ie d B a k u , c o n s is te d in J a n u a ry o f 12 b a ta llio n s , o f w h ic h 4 w e re s ta tio n e d in B ak u , 2 d is b u rs e d a lo n g t h e B a k u -T iflis -B a tu m ra ilw a y , a n d 3 lo c a te d in T iflis . O th e r s w e re b e in g d e p lo y e d a t v a rio u s tr o u b l e s p o ts a lo n g th e b o rd e rs o f G e o rg ia a n d A rm e n ia . S ee W M A , F ile 1 8 1 , in te llig e n c e r e p o r t N o . 15 a n d p a s s i m . C h u r c h ill h a s s ta te d t h a t th e to ta l B ritis h fo rc e in T r a n s c a u c a s ia re a c h e d a p p ro x im a te ly 2 0 ,0 0 0 m e n . S ee C h u r c h ill, op., c i t . , p . 1 6 6 . 96 Z . D . A v alo v , T h e I n d e p e n d e n c e o f G e o rg ia ( L o n d o n : H e a d le y , 1 9 4 0 ) , p p . 1 5 2 -1 5 3 . 97 L o r d B e r tie , u n til M a y 1 9 1 8 B ritis h a m b a s s a d o r in P a ris , r e c o rd e d in h is d ia ry h is v iew a t th is tim e t h a t R u ss ia “ w o u ld n o t b e fit to p r o te c t o r a d m in is te r M o ­ h a m m e d a n k h a n a te s in C e n t r a l A sia o r C a u c a s ia n p r in c ip a litie s " a n d a d v o c a te d lin in g u p all th e b o r d e r s ta te s as b u ffe rs, le ttin g w h a t w as le f t o f R u s s ia “ s te w in th e ir o w n ju ic e .”

S ee F . L . B e rtie , T h e D i a r y o f L o r d B e r t i e o f T h a m e , 1 9 1 4 -

1 9 1 8 , e d ite d b y L a d y A lg e rn o n G o r d o n L e n n o x ( L o n d o n : H o d d e r a n d S t o u g h t o n ,

1 9 2 4 ) , V o l. I I , p p . 3 1 0 - 3 1 1 .

335

NOTES 08 A v a lo v , o p . c i t . , p . 1 46.

99 D e n ik in , O c h e i k i i u s s k o i sm u t} ', IV , 1 4 3 . T h e i m p o r ta n t ro le p la y e d b y th e R u s s ia n N a tio n a l C o u n c ils in T ra n s c a u c a s ia w as e v e n tu a lly g iv e n fo r m a l re c o g n i­ tio n in J u n e 1 9 1 9 , w h e n P r in c e L ’vov, as c h a irm a n o f th e R u s s ia n P o litic a l C o u n ­ c il in

P a ris, e x te n d e d

to

th e

c o m b in e d T r a n s c a u c a s ia n

R u s s ia n

C o u n c ils

th e

o fficial d e s ig n a tio n o f r e p re s e n ta tiv e o f R u s s ia n s ta te in te re s ts u n til th e re u n ific a ­ tio n o f th e a re a w ith R u ss ia . S ee M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I , D o ss ie r 11 (M a k la k o v to D e n ik in , J u n e 14, 1 9 1 9 ) . 100 “ P r o c la m a tio n to t h e in h a b ita n ts o f th e c ity o f B a t u m ," M A S eries B , P a c k e t I I , D o s s ie r 1 1 . 101 I b i d .

S ee a lso E . E . Ia k u s h k in a n d S. P o lu n in , A n g liis k a ia i n t e i v e n t s i i a v

1 9 1 8 - 1 9 2 0 g g . ( M o s c o w : G o s iz d a t, 1 9 2 8 ) , p . 4 0 .

102 D e n ik in , O c h e i k i i u s s k o i s m u t y , I V , 1 4 3 - 1 4 4 . 1C3 L u k o m s k ii, V o s p o m i n a n i i a , II , 3 0 1 - 3 0 2 , c itin g re p o rts fro m th e R .N . C . to V o lu n te e r h e a d q u a rte r s . 104 A s o n e o b s e rv e r p u t it: “ T o s e ttle t h e m a tte r , a n u m b e r o f B ritis h officers . . . w e re m a r c h e d o n e fin e m o r n i n g to t h e v ario u s offices o f t h e a d m in is tr a tio n , a n d re lie v e d t h e m e m b e rs o f t h e C o u n c i l o f th e ir easy b u t p ro f ita b le d u tie s ." C . E . B e c h h o f e r - R o b e rts , I n D e n i k i n ' s R u s s ia a n d t h e C a u c a s u s , 1 9 1 9 - 1 9 2 0 W . C o llin s S o n s a n d C o ., L t d ., 1 9 2 1 ) , p . 17.

(L o n d o n :

105 D e n ik in , O c h e i k i i u s s k o i s m u t y , IV , 1 4 5 . T h e R .N .C . c o n tin u e d to s e n d D e n ik in a c c o u n ts o f e v e n ts h ig h ly c ritic a l o f B ritis h p o lic y a n d c a llin g fo r th e d is p a tc h o f R u s s ia n tro o p s to seize B a tu m . 106 S ee A v a lo v , o p . c it., p p . 1 4 8 - 1 5 0 . C o lo n e l C h a r d ig n y jo in e d in s u c h m e d ia ­ tio n e ffo rts as t h e re p re s e n ta tiv e o f F r a n c e , s u p p o r tin g th e A llie d p o lic y o f p r e ­ v e n tin g fo r c e fu l c h a n g e s in b o rd e rs a n d k e e p in g o rd e r u n til d e c isio n s c o u ld b e m a d e b y th e P o w e rs . 107 O n ly a b rie f re v ie w o f th is q u e s tio n c a n b e p re s e n te d h e re . F o r a d e ta ile d a n aly sis o f th e p ro b le m s o f A llie d p o lic y -m a k in g a t t h e P a ris C o n fe re n c e , see J o h n M . T h o m p so n , “T h e

R u ss ia n P r o b le m

a t th e P a ris P e a c e C o n fe re n c e ,

1 9 1 9 ,"

P h . D . d is s e r ta tio n , C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity , 1 9 6 0 . 108 U n ite d S ta te s , D e p a r t m e n t o f S ta te , P a p e rs R e l a t i n g t o t h e F o ie ig n R e l a t i o n s o f t h e U n i t e d S ta te s : T h e P a i is P e a c e C o n f e i e n c e , 1 9 1 9 , 13 vols. ( W a s h i n g t o n :

G o v e r n m e n t P r in tin g O ffice , 1 9 4 2 - 1 9 4 7 ) , V o l. I l l , p p . 4 7 2 ff., 4 9 0 - 4 9 1 . H e r e ­ a f te r c ite d as P a i is P e a c e C o n f e i e n c e . 1C9 S ee te le g ra m s fro m M a k la k o v o n th is q u e s tio n in M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I, D o ss ie r 5. O n

th e f o r m a tio n o f th e C o n fe re n c e , see M a k la k o v ’s le tte r to M r .

F is h e r, M a r c h 31, 1 9 3 4 , c o n c e rn in g th e A rc h iv e s p la c e d in th e H o o v e r L ib ra ry , a tta c h e d

to

th e

A rc h iv e s.

S ee a lso d o c u m e n ts

in

MA,

S eries B , P a c k e t I I I ,

D o s s ie r 11. 110 G e n e r a ls S h c h e rb a c h e v a n d G o lo v in w e re a c c e p te d b y K o lc h a k as m ilita r y re p re s e n ta tiv e s o f h is g o v e r n m e n t as w e ll as o f D e n ik in . S ee S a z o n o v to M a k la k o v , F e b r u a r y 16, 1 9 1 9 , M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I I , D o ss ie r 11. S h c h e rb a c h e v ’s f u r th e r a c tiv itie s a re d e ta ile d in V a l ’, K i s t o i i i b e la g o d v i z h e n i i a , p . 61 ff. 111 S ee D e n ik in , O c h e i k i i u s s k o i s m u ty , IV , 2 3 7 - 2 3 8 , a n d th e c o lle c tio n o f d e le g a tio n p r o p a g a n d a in t h e H o o v e r L ib ra ry . S ee a lso M . S. M a rg u lie s , o p . c i t . , I, 3 3 0 ff., f o r a d e s c rip tio n o f h is e ffo rts to p r o m o t e a “ fe d e ra lis t b lo c " to u n ite th e n o n -R u s s ia n n a tio n a litie s ’ d e le g a tio n s . F e d e r a tio n w as also th e p ro g ra m s u p p o r te d

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336

b y th e m o d e r a te s o c ia lis t g ro u p w h ic h g a th e r e d a r o u n d K e re n s k ii in P a ris . S ee “ U n e d e c la r a tio n d e s D é m o c r a te s R u s s e s / ’ s ig n e d b y K e re n s k ii a n d o th e r s , in th e M iliu k o v P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s. F o r t h e in v ita tio n o f t h e R u s s ia n P o litic a l C o u n ­ c il to a ll g o v e r n m e n ts in R u ss ia t h a t o p p o s e d t h e B o lsh e v ik s to jo in in a sin g le d ip lo m a tic r e p r e s e n ta tiv e b o d y , see M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I I , D o s s ie r 11 (S a z o n o v to N e r a to v , A p ril 2 3 , 1 9 1 9 ) . S ee a lso M a r g o lin ’s a c c o u n t o f h is e x p e rie n c e s in P a ris w ith th e U k ra in ia n d e le g a tio n in M a r g o lin , o p . c it., p . 1 3 9 ff. M a r g o lin n o te s t h a t K e re n sk ii a n d o th e r R u s s ia n so cia lis ts te n d e d to ta k e e s s e n tia lly th e sa m e s ta n d o n r e p re s e n ta tio n as t h e “ W h i t e s , ” t h a t is t h e v ie w t h a t t h e r e m u s t b e o n e R u ss ia f o r a ll. I b i d . , p p . 1 4 0 - 1 4 3 . 112 A v a lo v , o p . c it., p . 1 55. 113 S ee D e n ik in , O c h e i k i i u s s k o i s m u ty , I V , 2 3 7 - 2 3 8 , 2 4 1 - 2 4 2 ; V , 8 6 ff. 114 S ee th e in s tru c tio n s to S a z o n o v in t h e D e n ik in A rc h iv e s, a n d see D e n ik in , O c h e i k i i u s s k o i s m u ty , I V , 2 3 6 - 2 3 7 . T h e D o n a n d K u b a n C o ss a c k s r e je c te d t h e

s u g g e s tio n t h a t th e y a lso b e r e p re s e n te d b y S a z o n o v a n d s e n t th e i r o w n d e le g a ­ tio n s . S ee N e r a to v to D o s s ie r 1 1 .

S a z o n o v , J a n u a ry

16,

1 9 1 9 , M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I I ,

115 F o r f u r th e r in f o r m a tio n c o n c e rn in g th e a c tiv itie s o f t h e Jassy c o n f e r e n c e d e le g a tio n , see M . S. M a rg u lie s , o p . c it., I, 8 5 , 3 0 4 ff.; a n d G u r k o , o p . c it., p . 53 ff. F o r M iliu k o v ’s p u b lic d e fe n s e o f h is re c o rd w h ile in E n g l a n d s ee t h e in te rv ie w s a n d o th e r ite m s in h is c lip p in g b o o k in t h e M iliu k o v A rc h iv e s. 116 P a ris P e a c e C o n fe re n c e , I V , 5 3 - 5 4 . 117 V a l ’, K i s t o i i i beJago d v i z h e n i i a , p . 6 4 . S h c h e rb a c h e v w as also h a n d ic a p p e d b y t h e o p p o s itio n o f t h e fo r m e r ts a r is t m ilita r y r e p re s e n ta tiv e in P a ris , C o u n t I g n a t’ev, b u t h is p e rs o n a l a c q u a in ta n c e w ith F o c h w as o f g r e a t a ss is ta n c e . 118 S ee P . N . M iliu k o v , L a p o l i t i q u e e x t e i i e u i e d e s S o v i e t s (P a r is : G ia r d , 1 9 3 4 ) , p . 4 8 . O n t h e F o c h p la n , see P a ris P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , I I I , 4 7 1 ff. A b r ie f a c c o u n t m a y a lso b e f o u n d in T . K o m a rn ic k i, R e b i r t h o f th e P o l is h R e p u b l i c ( L o n d o n : W . H e in e m a n n , L t d ., 1 9 5 7 ) , p p . 2 3 5 , 3 9 9 - 4 0 0 . 119 P a i is P e a c e C o n fe re n c e , I I I , 5 8 4 . 120 I b i d . , 121 I b i d . , 122 I b i d . ,

pp. 581-583. pp. 626-628. pp. 643-646.

123 I b i d . , p . 6 4 9 . C f. L lo y d G e o rg e , T h e T r u t h A b o u t t h e P e a c e T r e a tie s , I, 3 4 6 . 124 P a ris P e a c e C o n fe re n c e , I I I , 6 9 1 - 6 9 2 . F o r t h e te x t o f th e ra d io m e ss a g e as re c e iv e d a n d re c o rd e d b y S o v ie t ra d io o n J a n u a ry 23 see D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o litik i, II, 4 5 -4 6 . 125 T h e im p lic a tio n s n o te d h e r e w e re th o s e im m e d ia te ly re c o g n iz e d b y m a n y in S o u th R u ss ia . See, fo r e x a m p le , G u r k o , o p . c it.,

p.

m e e tin g s le a d in g

o n ly

up

to

th e

P r in k ip o

p ro p o s a l,

70 . In th e C o u n c il of T e n I ta lia n

F o r e ig n

M in is t e r

S o n n in o s to o d c o n s is te n tly o p p o s e d to t h e id e a a n d in fa v o r o f f u r t h e r i n te r v e n ­ tio n a id in g t h e a n ti-B o ls h e v ik e le m e n ts . P ic h o n in d ic a te d h is s y m p a th y f o r t h e in te r v e n tio n a n d e sp e c ia lly fo r th e a n ti-B o ls h e v ik le a d e rs in P a ris , b u t h e n e v e r s p o k e o u t firm ly as S o m n in o d id , p re s u m a b ly b e c a u s e o f C l e m e n c e a u ’s s tr o n g fe e lin g s . 120

C h i c h e r i n ’s first re p ly n o te d t h e ra d io m e ss a g e b u t fa ile d to re g a rd i t as a n

“ i n v ita tio n ” as s u c h . H o w e v e r, t h e S o v ie t F o r e ig n C o m m is s a r s ta t e d t h a t , w h ile a w a itin g a d ir e c t in v ita tio n to w h ic h to g iv e a fo r m a l re p ly , th e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t

337

N OTES

d id n o t w a n t its d e la y to b e in te r p r e te d as a re je c tio n . S ee D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , I I , 5 2 . C h i c h e r i n ’s n o te is h e re d a te d J a n u a ry 2 8 , b u t fr o m its c o n t e n t

a p p e a rs to h a v e b e e n w r itt e n o n th e s a m e d a y t h a t t h e ra d io m e ssa g e w as re c e iv e d , i.e., J a n u a r y 2 3 . F o r t h e re p lie s t o th e p ro p o s a l fr o m D e n ik in a n d K o lc h a k as w ell as f r o m th e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t, see C u m m in g a n d P e t t i t , o p . c it., p p . 2 9 8 - 3 0 2 , 3 0 5 -3 0 6 . 12‘ S e e t h e H e r r o n P a p e rs , V o l. X , R u s s ia : P r in k ip o , D o c . I l l (H o o v e r L i b r a r y ) . S ee a lso W . C . B u llitt, T h e B u l l i t t M i s s i o n t o R u ss ia ( N e w Y o rk : B . W . H u e b s c h , 1 9 1 9 ) , p . 32. I n a s im ila r v e in t h e S o c ia lis t d e p u ty , C a c h in , in a sp e e c h in t h e C h a m b e r o f D e p u tie s , a c c u s e d P ic h o n o f h a v in g b lo c k e d th e c o n f e r e n c e a n d c a lle d th e F o r e ig n M in is t e r t h e h e a d o f “ a re a c tio n a r y in te r n a tio n a le .” S ee A n n a le s d e Ja c h a m b r e d e s d é p u t é s , D é b a t s p a r le m e n ta ir e s , T o m e I

(1 9 1 9 ), p.

1 2 4 4 , sessio n o f M a r c h 2 4 . 128 S e e M . S. M a rg u lie s , o p . c i t . , I, 1 9 4 , 2 1 7 . 129 T h i s v iew w as a p p a r e n tly a lso p r e s e n te d to R u s s ia n C h a r g é d ’A ffaires N a b o ­ k o v in L o n d o n . B e lie v in g t h a t t h e B o lsh e v ik s w o u ld re fu s e , s o m e B ritis h s p o k e s m e n fa v o ra b le to th e in te r v e n tio n u rg e d N a b o k o v to seek a n ti-B o ls h e v ik a c c e p ta n c e o f th e c o n f e r e n c e . N a b o k o v , h o w e v e r, re je c te d th is a p p ro a c h o n g ro u n d s t h a t h e w o u ld s im p ly b e r e p u d ia te d b y t h e R u s s ia n re p re s e n ta tiv e s in P a ris. C . N a b o k o ff, T h e O r d e a l o f a D i p l o m a t ( L o n d o n : D u c k w o r th , 1 9 2 1 ) , p. 2 8 9 . 130 S e e M . S. M a rg u lie s , o p . c i t . , I, 18 3 . S ee a lso V in a v e r to M a k la k o v , F e b r u a r y 3, 1 9 1 9 , D o c u m e n t s o f t h e C r im e a n G o v e r n m e n t, F ile 11; a n d a n in te rv ie w w ith B e r th e lo t b y r e p re s e n ta tiv e s o f t h e Z e m s tv o C o u n c i l a n d th e U n io n fo r R e g e n e r a ­ tio n , F e b r u a r y 2 1 , 1 9 1 9 , D o c u m e n t s o f th e C r im e a n G o v e r n m e n t, F ile 3. 131 S ee C a c h in 's a tta c k o n P ic h o n , c itin g a n u m b e r o f s ta te m e n ts b y th e F o r e ig n M in is t e r in J a n u a ry , in A n n a le s d e la c h a m b r e d e s d é p u t é s , D é b a t s p a r le m e n ta ir e s , T o m e I (1 9 1 9 ), p.

1 2 4 4 , sessio n o f M a r c h

2 4 . C f. W . H . C h a m b e r lin , T h e

( N e w Y o rk : M a c m illa n , 1 9 3 5 ) , V o l. I I , p . 15 7 . 132 I t h a s b e e n c h a r g e d t h a t th e in v ita tio n w as s a b o ta g e d b y its n o t b e in g s e n t

R u ssia n R e v o lu tio n

d ir e c tly to M o s c o w , th e l a tte r h e a r in g o f it o n ly b y ra d io . S ee F is c h e r, T h e S o v i e t s in W o r l d A ffa ir s , I, 1 6 7 . T h a t , h o w e v e r, w as th e w ay th e in v ita tio n w as s u p p o s e d

to b e s e n t a n d w as n o t th e re s u lt o f a n y “ s a b o ta g e .” B o th W ils o n a n d L lo y d G e o rg e e x p la in e d th is fa c t in th e C o u n c i l o f T e n o n F e b ru a ry 1 u p o n re c e ip t o f a n o te fr o m C h ic h e r in c o n c e rn in g th is q u e s tio n . S ee P a r is P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , I I I , 8 3 5 -8 3 6 . 133 F o r th e tw o S o v ie t re p lie s , see D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , I I , 52, 5 7 - 6 0 . 134 Q u o te d in I. S u b b o to v s k ii, e d ., S o i u z n i k i , R u s s k i e r e a k ts io n e r i i in t e r v e n t s i i a ; i s k l i u c h i t e r n o p o o f it s i a F n y m a r k h i v n y m d o k u m e n t a m K o l c h a k o v s k o g o p r a v it e Y s tv a

( L e n i n g r a d : V e s tn ik L e n in g ra d s k o g o S o v e ta , 1 9 2 6 ) , p . 2 3 0 . 135 Q u o t e d in I. M in ts , e d ., “ V n e s h n ia ia p o litik a k o n tr- re v o liu ts io n n y k h ‘p r a v ite l’s tv ’ v n a c h a le

1 9 1 9 g. iz d o k u m e n to v P a riz h s k o g o P o so V stv a ,” K r a s n y i

A r k h i v , V o l. X X X V I I

(M o s c o w : G o s iz d a t, 1 9 2 9 ) , p p . 7 1 -7 2 . S ee a lso th e series

o f te le g ra m s o n th e P r in k ip o q u e s tio n in M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I I , D o s s ie r 1. 136 T h e s a m e c o u ld b e said o f th e in d e p e n d e n t b o r d e r s ta te s . T h e G e o rg ia n re p ly to th e P r in k ip o p ro p o s a l, fo r e x a m p le , s im p ly d e c la re d in e ss e n ce t h a t “ w h e re a s th e a im o f t h e p ro p o s e d c o n fe re n c e o f R u s s ia n p a rtie s a n d g ro u p s o n P r in k ip o w as to re s to r e th e lo s t n a tio n a l u n ity o f t h e R u s s ia n p e o p le , G e o rg ia , b e in g n o p a r t o f th e la t t e r a n d e n d e a v o rin g to o b ta in in te r n a tio n a l re c o g n itio n o f h e r in d e -

338

The Volunteer Army

pendence, had

no

re a so n

to

ta k e p a r t in

th e

p r o je c te d

c o n f e r e n c e ."

A v a lo v ,

o p . c it., p . 162. 137 S ee D e n ik in , O c h e i k i iu s s k o i s m u t y , I I , 3 4 2 . 138 T h e f o r m e r B ritis h a m b a s s a d o r t o R u ss ia , S ir G e o rg e B u c h a n a n , e v e n w e n t so fa r as to a ss e rt t h a t th e P rin k ip o p ro p o s a l " w a s d ire c tly re s p o n s ib le f o r t h e d e f e c tio n o f a la rg e b o d y o f D o n C o ss a c k s a n d fo r th e s e rio u s s e t-b a c k in t h e s o u th t h a t re s u lte d fr o m it . . .” S ir G e o r g e B u c h a n a n , M y M is s io n to R u s s ia ( L o n d o n : C assell, 1 9 2 3 ) , p . 2 5 8 . C f. D e n ik in , O c h e i k i iu s s k o i s m u t y , I V , 2 4 3 . C h u r c h ill a d v ise d th e C o u n c il o f T e n t h a t a n ti-B o ls h e v ik tro o p s " w e re d e te r io r a tin g ra p id ly b e c a u s e o f th e u n c e r ta in ty o f th e s u p p o r t th e y m ig h t e x p e c t fr o m t h e v ic to rio u s A llie s ."

S ee P a i is

P eace

C o n fe re n c e ,

III,

1 0 4 1 -1 0 4 2 .

C f.

D e n ik in ,

O c h e ik i

i u s s k o i s m u ty , I V , 2 4 3 .

139 C h u r c h ill, o p . c i t . , p . 1 72; P a iis P e a c e C o n fe re n c e , IV , 1 4 - 1 5 . C f . D . H . M ille r, M y D ia ry a t t h e C o n f e r e n c e o f P a ris , 21 vols. ( N e w Y o rk : p riv . p u b ., 1 9 2 4 - 1 9 2 6 ) , V o l. X I V , p . 4 4 8 . 140 C h u r c h ill, o p . c i t . , p p . 1 7 4 - 1 7 5 . I n h is a c c o u n t L lo y d G e o rg e n o te s t h a t h e w a rn e d C h u r c h ill n o t to c o m m it B rita in to a n y " m a d e n te r p r is e " w h ic h w o u ld d riv e o rg a n iz e d la b o r in to t h e a rm s o f th e e x tre m is ts a n d p u t B rita in in t h e p o s i­ tio n o f h a v in g " t o p u ll th e c h e s tn u ts o u t o f t h e fire " fo r t h e F r e n c h . S e e L lo y d G e o rg e , T h e T i u t h A b o u t t h e P e a c e T i e a t i e s , p p . 3 7 1 - 3 7 2 . 141 C h u r c h ill, o p . c i t . ,

p.

17 7 .

142 O n F e b ru a ry 16 s o m e R u ss ia n re p re s e n ta tiv e s in P a ris s u g g e s te d to t h e A llies t h a t th e y s h o u ld c all a c o n fe re n c e o f o n ly th e a n ti-B o ls h e v ik g o v e rn m e n ts in R u ssia, b u t th is p ro p o s a l w as re je c te d . S ee M in ts , " V n e s h n ia ia p o litik a k o n tr re v o liu ts io n n y k h ‘p ra v ite l’s tv ’ . . .,” lo c . c i t . , p p . 7 4 - 7 6 . 143 P a i is P e a c e C o n fe re n c e , I V , 1 3 - 1 4 . 144 I b i d . , p p . 1 6 - 1 8 . S ee a lso B u llitt, o p . c i t . , p p . 3 2 - 3 4 . 145 See B u llitt, o p . c i t . , p a s s im ; a n d F r id tjo f N a n s e n , R u s s ia a n d P e a c e ( L o n d o n : G . A lle n , 1 9 2 3 ) , p p . 2 2 - 3 3 . 146 P a i is P e a c e C o n fe re n c e , IV , 1 1 - 1 2 . 147 I b i d . , p p . 12 2 , 3 7 9 - 3 8 3 . 148 I b i d . , p . 3 80.

CHAPTER

IV : T H E

FREN CH

AND THE

VOLUNTEERS

1 O n c o n d itio n s in O d e ss a , see Je a n X y d ia s, U i n t e i v e n t i o n fra n ç a ise e n R u s s i e , 1 9 1 8 -1 9 1 9

( P a r is : E d itio n s d e F r a n c e , 1 9 2 7 ) , p p . 1 3 8 - 2 6 5 p a ss im ; a n d M . S.

M a r g u lie s , G o d in te rv e n ts ii (B e rlin : G r s c h e b in , 1 9 2 3 ) , V o l. I, p . 163 ff.

S ee

also E . N . T r u b e ts k o i, " I z p u te v y k h z a m e to k b e z h e n ts a ," A r k h i v R u s s k o i R e v o li u t s i i, V o l. X V I I I ( B e rlin : " S lo v o ," 1 9 2 6 ) , p p . 1 9 4 - 1 9 5 .

2 " O c h e r k ’ v z a im o o tn o s h e n ii fr a n ts u z s k a g o k o m a n d o v a n iia ," “ S lo v o ," 1 9 2 5 ) , p p . 2 3 7 - 2 3 8 .

v o o ru zh en n y k h A rk h iv

R u ssk o i

s il’ Iu g a

R o ssii

R e v o liu ts ii,

V o l.

i p re d s ta v ite le i XVI

( B e r lin :

C f. A . S. S a n n ik o v , " V o s p o m in a n iia , 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9 "

( M S , C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity R u s s ia n A r c h iv e ) , p p . 1 5 - 1 6 . 3 S ee A . D . M a rg o lin , U Jcraina i p o l i t i k a a n t a n t y (B e rlin : E f r o n , 1 9 2 1 ) ,

p.

109;

a n d A . I. G u k o v s k ii, F ia n ts u z s k a i a in te rv e n ts iia (M o s c o w : G o s . s o ts .-c k o n , iz d a t., 1 9 2 8 ), p p . 1 3 9 -1 4 0 .

I n th is case t h e D ir e c to r a te w as r e p r e s e n te d b y a m ilita r y

339

NOTES

d e le g a tio n u n d e r G e n e r a l M a tv e e v , a c tin g u n d e r t h e g e n e r a l in s tr u c tio n s o f G e n ­ e ra l G r e k o v , w h o w as th e n s e rv in g as c o o r d in a to r o f th e s e a c tiv itie s fo r P e tliu r a . I n c o n n e c tio n w ith t h e F r e n c h d e c is io n to a u th o r iz e n e g o tia tio n s w ith P e tliu r a , it m i g h t b e n o te d

t h a t d u r in g t h e te s tim o n y o f t h e fo r m e r D a n is h

m in is te r in

R u ss ia , M . d e S c a v e n iu s, to t h e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e ( C o u n c il o f T e n ) o n J a n u a ry 21,

1 9 1 9 , C le m e n c e a u q u e s tio n e d S c a v e n iu s o n P e tliu r a a n d S k o ro p a d s k ii, a n d

w as to ld t h a t t h e fo r m e r h a d d riv e n t h e l a tte r o u t a n d h a d c a p tu r e d m o s t o f th e U k r a in e .

S c a v e n iu s a d d e d , s p e a k in g o f P e tliu r a , t h a t , “ w h ile th e r e s u lt o f h is r u le

h a d b e e n id e n tic a l w ith t h a t o f B o lsh e v ik ru le in G r e a t R u s s ia ," i t s e e m e d lik ely t h a t h e w o u ld m o d e r a te U k ra in ia n s e p a ra tis m a n d a c c e p t fe d e ra tio n w ith R u ss ia . S ee U n i t e d S ta te s D e p a r t m e n t o f S ta te , P a p e rs R e l a t i n g t o t h e F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s of

th e

U n ite d

P r in tin g O ffice , C o n fe re n c e ).

S ta te s :

T h e P a r is P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e

1 9 4 2 - 1 9 4 7 ) , V o l. I l l , p . 6 4 0

(W a s h in g to n :

G o v e rn m e n t

( h e r e a f te r c ite d as P a r is P e a c e

4 T h e “ F r e n c h ” tro o p s in v o lv e d h e r e in c lu d e d o n e a n d o n e -h a lf d iv is io n s o f F r e n c h a n d c o lo n ia l tro o p s , tw o d iv is io n s o f G re e k tro o p s , a n d o n e b rig a d e o f P o lis h tro o p s . O n e o b s e rv e r e s tim a te d t h a t to ta l F re n c h -G re e k -P o lis h s tr e n g th in O d e s s a in F e b r u a ry w as a b o u t 1 2 ,0 0 0 m e n , a b o u t h a lf o f th e s e b e in g F r e n c h . See M . S. M a r g u lie s , o p . c it., I, 2 2 5 . C f. S a n n ik o v , o p . c it.,

p.

4 5 . T h e n e w lin e w as

o n ly sp a rse ly fo rtifie d , a n d lo c a l a u th o r itie s — D ir e c to r a te , S o v ie t, a n d e v e n G e r ­ m a n in N ik o la e v — c o n tin u e d to e x ist a n d c o m p e te fo r p o w e r in th e z o n e . See A . I. D e n ik in , T h e W h i t e A r m y ( L o n d o n : J. C a p e , 1 9 3 0 ) , p . 2 4 4 . 5 S ee J. S. R e s h e ta r, T h e U k r a in ia n R e v o lu tio n ( P r in c e t o n : P r in c e to n U n iv e r ­ s ity P ress, 1 9 5 2 ) , p. 2 4 0 . 6 S e e A . I. D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , V o l. V

(B e rlin : “ S lo v o ,” 1 9 2 6 ) ,

p . 35. 7 C f.

in te rv e n ts iia ”

S.

O s ta p e n k o ,

“ D ire k to riia

i

fra n ts u z s k a ia

S h lik h te r , e d ., C h e r n a i a k n i g a : s b o r n i k s t a t e i i m a t e r i a l o v

in

(K h a rk o v :

A.

G.

G o s iz d a t

U k ra in y , 1 9 2 5 ) , p p . 2 6 7 - 2 6 8 . 8 S e e M a r g o lin , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 2 3 - 1 2 4 ; a n d D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 35. C f . V . V y n n y c h e n k o , V i d r o d z h e n n i a n a t s i i ( V ie n n a : D z v in , 1 9 2 0 ) , V o l. I l l , p . 2 5 5 ff. V y n n y c h e n k o s ta te s t h a t h e a n d C h e k o v s k ii w e re a lre a d y p la n n in g to resig n a n d w e re fo rc e d o u t o n ly b e c a u s e th e y re fu s e d to re s ig n a f te r F r e id e n b e r g ’s u l tim a tu m .

I n a re v ie w o f t h e s itu a tio n in t h e U k ra in e in J a n u a ry 1 9 1 9 , T r o ts k ii

n o te d s o m e s e n t i m e n t in t h e D ir e c to r a te “ to see k s u p p o r t a n d b a c k in g fr o m S o v ie t R u s s ia ” a g a in s t th e “ A n g lo -F re n c h W h i t e G u a r d a s s a u lt,” b u t h e s till r u le d o u t a g r e e m e n t w ith th e D ir e c to r a te o n g ro u n d s t h a t it w o u ld f r u s tr a te i n d e p e n d e n t B o lsh e v ik e ffo r t in th e U k ra in e a n d “ w o u ld y ie ld u s n o b e n e f it” m ilita r ily b e c a u s e P e tliu r a 's a rm y w as a lre a d y “ p o w e rle ss a n d in s ig n ific a n t.” T r o ts k ii c o n c lu d e d t h a t “ I n th e e v e n t o f a n y serio u s A n g lo -F re n c h th r u s t P e tliu r a is c a p a b le o f b e tr a y in g e v e r y o n e a n d e v e r y th in g a n d ru s h in g in to t h e ir a rm s .”

S ee J. M . M e ije r, e d ., T h e

T r o t s k y P a p e r s , 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 2 , V o l. 1 ( T h e H a g u e : M o u to n , 1 9 6 4 ) , p . 2 4 3 .

0 G u k o v s k ii, F r a n ts u z s k a ia in t e r v e n t s i i a , p . 14 7 . 10 S e e A z b u k a r e p o rt, M a r c h 8, 1 9 1 9 , M a k la k o v A rc h iv e s

(M A ),

S eries B ,

P a c k e t I I , D o s s ie r 3 ( H o o v e r L i b r a r y ) . 11 I t s h o u ld b e n o te d t h a t th e s e o rg a n iz a tio n s w e re n o t tig h tly s tr u c tu r e d b u t r a t h e r lo o s e a s s o c ia tio n s w h ic h o v e rla p p e d o n e a n o th e r in m e m b e rs h ip . T h e N a ­ tio n a l C e n t e r g ro u p re fe rre d to h e re , m o re o v e r, w as o n ly o n e b r a n c h o f th e or-

The Volunteer Army

340

g a n iz a tio n b y th is n a m e a n d in th is c ase w as c o m p o s e d c h ie fly o f th e g r o u p h e a d e d b y V . V . S h u l’g in t h a t h a d m o v e d fr o m K ie v to O d e s s a . S e e G u k o v s k ii, F r a n ts u z s k a ia in t e r v e n t s i i a , p. 53 ff. T h e R u s s ia n n a m e s o f t h e f o u r o rg a n iz a tio n s m e n tio n e d a re : S o v e t G o s u d a rs tv e n n o g o O b ’e d in e n iia , N a ts io n a l’n y i T s e n t r , S o iu z V o z r o z h d e n iia R o ssii, a n d Z e m s k o -G o ro d s k ii S o iu z , in t h a t o rd e r. 12 T h e B u re a u o f th e U n io n fo r R e g e n e ra tio n o f R u s s ia c o n s is te d o f t h r e e S o ­ c ia list R e v o lu tio n a rie s , tw o S o cial D e m o c r a ts ( M e n s h e v ik s ) , tw o P o p u li s t S o c ia l­ ists, a n d tw o K a d e ts . I b i d . , p . 55. 13 S ee M . S. M a rg u lie s, o p . c it., I, 57 ff.

C f . G u k o v s k ii, F r a n ts u z s k a ia i n t e r ­

p.

1 1 8 ff. S ee a lso re p o rts o n t h e s itu a tio n in O d e s s a fr o m t h e A m e r ic a n m is sio n to S o u th R u ssia (R ig g s m is s io n ) in U . S. N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o r e ig n v e n t s i ia ,

A ffairs S e c tio n , F ile N o . 1 8 4 .0 1 6 0 2 , e sp e c ia lly D o c . N o . 3. 14 D e n ik in , T h e W h i t e A rm y , p. 2 3 4 ; a n d O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , V . 3 4 . 13 T h e p o s itio n o f t h e N a tio n a l C e n t e r , w h ic h w as a n ti-U k ra in ia n , p ro - A llie d , a n d a s tr o n g d e fe n d e r o f D e n ik in 's a u th o r ity b o t h as p o litic a l a n d as m ilita r y le a d e r, is s e t f o r th in a s ta t e m e n t issu ed F e b ru a ry 11, 1 9 1 9 . S ee M A , S erie s B , P a c k e t II , D o ss ie r 3. 16 M . S. M a rg u lie s, o p . c i t . , I, 1 1 2 . T h e Z e m s tv o -C ity U n io n , w h o s e m e m b e r ­ s h ip c lo sely p a ra lle le d t h a t o f t h e U n io n fo r R e g e n e ra tio n , to o k a s im ila r p o s itio n , s ta n d in g fo r p o p u la r so v e re ig n ty , d e m o c ra c y , a m ild ly s o c ia lis t p ro g r a m o f r e f o r m , a n d , m o s t im p o r ta n tly , th e s u p e rio rity o f c iv il a u th o r ity o v e r t h e m ilita ry .

P o lic y

s ta te m e n ts a n d re s o lu tio n s s e ttin g f o r th th e Z e m s tv o -C ity U n io n 's p o s itio n m a y b e f o u n d in t h e c o lle c tio n o f “ Z e m s k ii-G o r o d " m a te ria ls in th e M iliu k o v P e r s o n a l A rc h iv e s. A n a c c o u n t o f e v e n ts d u r in g th is p e rio d fr o m th e s o c ia lis t p o i n t o f v iew , w r itte n as a c r itiq u e o f M . S. M a r g u lie s ' a c c o u n t, m a y b e f o u n d in M . V . B raik e v ic h , “ Iz re v o liu ts ii n a m c h to - n ib u d ’,” in P . E . S h c h e g o le v , e d ., F r a n ts u z y v O d e ss e ; iz b e l y k h m e m a u ro v G e n . A . I . D e n i k i n a , M . S . M a r g u l i e s , M . V . B raik e v ic h a

( L e n in g r a d : “ K ra sn a ia g a z e ta ," 1 9 2 8 ) , p p . 2 2 5 - 2 5 9 .

17 See, fo r e x a m p le , th e C o u n c il fo r S ta te U n ity 's s t a t e m e n t o n n e g o tia tio n s w ith th e D ir e c to r a te as s ta te d in a re s o lu tio n a d o p te d in F e b ru a ry , M A , S erie s B , P a c k e t I I , D o ss ie r 3. 18 E x a m p le s o f th e u n e x p e c te d so c ia lis t ( R i g h t S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r y , M e n ­ sh ev ik , a n d P o p u lis t S o c ia lis t) s u p p o r t fo r t h e V o lu n te e r A rm y a re g iv e n in th e s e le c tio n fr o m B ra ik e v ic h in S h c h e g o le v , o p . c it., p . 2 4 4 ff. A c o n fe re n c e c o m ­ p o s e d o f t h ir ty S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r ie s , th ir ty M e n s h e v ik s , n in e K a d e ts , a n d five P o p u lis t S o c ia lists w h ic h m e t u n d e r Z e m s tv o U n io n a u sp ic e s in S im fe ro p o l e arly in D e c e m b e r , fo r e x a m p le , p re s e n te d a th o r o u g h ly d e m o c r a tic p ro g r a m in c lu d in g a p ro p o s a l f o r a d ir e c to r a te as th e S o u th R u s s ia n a u th o r ity .

B u t it a lso is su e d a

h ig h ly fa v o ra b le r e s o lu tio n p ra is in g th e V o lu n te e r s , w h ic h c o n tr a s t e d s h a rp ly w ith th e p o s itio n ta k e n b y th e S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r y o rg a n iz a tio n

in M o s c o w . I n

O d e ss a th e so cia lists alw ays in s is te d t h a t t h e V o l u n t e e r c o m m a n d e r b e t h e s u ­ p re m e

m ilita r y

a u th o r ity

in

th e

th re e -m a n

d ir e c to r a te

a d v o c a te d

d u r in g

th e

F r e n c h in te r v e n tio n p e rio d . I t s h o u ld a lso b e n o te d t h a t th e O d e s s a c ity d u m a , w h ic h c o n tin u e d to f u n c tio n d u r in g th is tim e in a c c o rd a n c e w ith D e n i k i n ’s o r d e r t h a t s u c h b o d ie s w e re to c o n tin u e u n til t h e e x p ira tio n o f th e i r te rm s , w as la rg e ly d o m in a te d b y so cia lists. T h e S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r ie s h e ld t h e m a jo rity , b u t its m e m b e r s h ip a lso in c lu d e d J ew ish s o cia lists, M e n s h e v ik s , P o p u li s t S o c ia lis ts, a n d e v en th r e e B o lsh e v ik s, a c c o rd in g to B ra ik e v ic h , w h o w as a m e m b e r . D u r in g th is

341

NOTES

p e r io d t h e d u m a h e ld w e ek ly m e e tin g s w ith G e n e r a l G ris h in -A lm a z o v to d iscu ss lo c a l m a tte r s . S ee B ra ik e v ic h in S h c h e g o le v , o p . c it., p p . 2 3 2 , 2 4 0 ; a n d G u k o v sk ii, F r a n t s u z s k a ia i n t e r v e n t s i i a , p. 9 7 ff. 19 A n in te llig e n c e r e p o r t w h ic h d ra w s s u c h c o n c lu s io n s is c ite d in G u k o v sk ii, F ia n ts u z s k a i a i n t e r v e n t s i i a , p p . 9 3 - 9 4 .

I t w as th is s a m e re a s o n in g w h ic h lay b e ­

h in d t h e s y m p a th y o f t h e A llie d g o v e rn m e n ts fo r t h e U fa D ire c to ra te , w h ic h w as s u p p o s e d to u n ite th e S a m a ra a n d O m s k g o v e rn m e n ts , as p re v io u s ly n o te d . F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u s s ia , I I , 4 1 2 - 4 1 3 , 4 2 6 .

S ee

C f. M . S. M a rg u lie s , o p . c i t . ,

I, 1 3 3 , 1 4 0 - 1 4 1 . 20 M . S. M a r g u lie s , o p . c i t . , I, 1 3 3 . T h e fo llo w in g a c c o u n t is a lso b a s e d u p o n A z b u k a r e p o r ts in F e b ru a ry a n d M a r c h in M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I , D o s s ie r 3. 21 M . S . M a r g u lie s , o p . c i t . , I, 1 5 4 . 22 S ee D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 8 8 - 8 9 ; M . S . M a rg u lie s , o p . c it., I, 156. 23 E . N . T r u b e t s k o i, “ Iz p u te v y k h z a m e to k b e z h e n ts a ,” lo c . c i t . , p . 1 9 8 ff. 24 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 1 4 0 ; a n d M . S. M a rg u lie s , o p . c i t . , 2 0 2 ff. 25 M . S. M a r g u lie s , o p . c i t . , I, 2 2 6 , 2 3 5 , 2 3 8 . 2ti I b i d . , pp. 247-248. 27 V . V . S h u l'g in h a d b e e n in O d e ss a s in c e h is in te r r u p te d tr ip to t h e Jassy c o n fe re n c e . T h e p a p e r R o s s i ia (s o m e tim e s c a lle d V e l ik a ia R o s s i i a ) w h ic h h e p u b ­ lis h e d in E k a te r in o d a r w as n o w a lso p u b lis h e d in O d e ss a , e x c e p t w h e n t h e F r e n c h te m p o r a r ily c lo se d i t d o w n b e c a u s e o f its c ritic is m o f th e C o m m a n d 's p o lic ie s. T h e p a p e r a p p a r e n tly o n o c c a s io n trie d to c o n n e c t F r e id e n b e rg w ith J e w is h s p e c ­ u la to rs , U k r a in ia n Jew s, a n d o t h e r a lle g e d ly a n ti-R u s s ia n e le m e n ts . S ee X y d ia s, o p . c i t . , p . 2 5 1 ; a n d V . M a ib o r o d o v , “ S fr a n ts u z a m i,” A r k h i v R u s s k o i R e v o l i u t s i i , V o l. X V I (B e r lin : I z d a te l's tv o “ S lo v o ,” 1 9 2 5 ) , p . 1 2 5 .

S h u l'g in w as a m e m b e r

o f th e V o lu n te e r S p e c ia l C o u n c i l a n d as s u c h h a d c o n s id e ra b le in flu e n c e .

H is

in flu e n c e , m o re o v e r, w as m a d e g re a te r b y t h e fa c t t h a t th e s e c re t p ro p a g a n d a a n d in te llig e n c e o r g a n iz a tio n e s ta b lis h e d b y h im , “ A z b u k a ,” s erv ed u n o fficially as a n in te llig e n c e a r m

o f th e V o lu n te e r A rm y .

Its r e p o rts w e re th o r o u g h , b u t th e y

a lso te n d e d t o b e s la n te d to w a rd S h u l'g in 's o w n view s, w h ic h w e re r a th e r c o n ­ s e rv a tiv e a n d n o t very fa v o ra b le to w a rd t h e A llies. A z b u k a re p o rts o n e v e n ts in O d e s s a d u r in g th is tim e a re c o n ta in e d in th e W r a n g e l M ilita ry A rc h iv e s ( W M A ) , F ile s 131 a n d 1 3 2 ; a n d in th e M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I , D o s s ie r 3. 28 S a n n ik o v ’s e x p e rie n c e s a re s e t fo r th in h is m e m o irs : L t. G e n e r a l A . S. S an n ik o v ,

“ V o s p o m in a n iia ,

1 9 1 8 -1 9 1 9 ”

(M S ,

C o lu m b ia

c h iv e ) . 29 Q u o t e d in D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 39 .

U n iv e rs ity

R u s s ia n

A r­

C f. l e tte r fro m S h u l'g in

to D e n ik in , F e b ru a ry 14, M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I , D o s s ie r 3. O n th e q u e s tio n o f t h e F r e n c h a t t i t u d e to w a rd t h e U k ra in e , a re p re s e n ta tiv e o f th e D ir e c to r a te w h o a lso ta lk e d w ith B e r th e lo t a t th is tim e g o t th e im p re s s io n t h a t B e r th e lo t “ w as a p r o p o n e n t o f a fe d e ra tiv e s t r u c t u r e ” fo r R u ss ia , in w h ic h t h e U k ra in e w o u ld h a v e a u to n o m y , a r a th e r d iff e r e n t im p re s s io n fro m t h a t g a in e d b y S a n n ik o v .

S ee

M a r g o lin , o p . c it., p . 1 2 1 . 30 S a n n ik o v , o p . c it., p p . 1 8 - 1 9 . 31 V a l', K is t o r i i b e la g o d v i z h e n i i a , p p . 4 5 - 4 6 , 56. 32 S a n n ik o v , o p . c i t . , p . 19. 33 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 3 9 - 4 0 .

C f. S a n n ik o v , o p . c i t . , p . 2 8 ;

342

The Volunteer Army

a n d N e r a to v to S a z o n o v , F e b ru a ry 2 1 , 1 9 1 9 , te le g ra m in M A , S erie s B , P a c k e t I I , D o ss ie r 9 . 34 D e n ik in , O c h e i k i iu s s k o i s m u ty , V , 4 0 ; “ O c h e r k ' v z a im o o tn o s h e n ii v o o ru z h e n n y k h sil’ Iu g a R o ss ii i p re d s ta v ite le i fra n ts u z s k a g o k o m a n d o v a n iia ,” lo c . c it., p. 242. 35 I b i d . 36 M . S. M a r g u lie s , o p . c i t . , I, 2 6 3 - 2 6 4 .

C f. A z b u k a r e p o r t o f F e b ru a r y 2 8 ,

1 9 1 9 , M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I , D o ss ie r 3.

F r e n c h c o u n te r in te llig e n c e d ir e c to r

P o r ta l c o m p la in e d to M a rg u lie s a t th is tim e t h a t t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d in O d e s s a w as b e in g “ ig n o re d b y B e r th e lo t, a b a n d o n e d b y F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e re y , a n d d e s e r te d b y P a r is .”

H o w e v e r, h e a d d e d t h a t th e C o m m a n d w as n o w d e te r m in e d to a c t

d e cisiv e ly to h o ld O d e ss a . S ee M . S. M a rg u lie s , o p . c it., I, 2 9 9 - 3 0 0 , 3 0 5 . 37 M . S. M a r g u lie s , o p . c it., I, 2 5 1 , 2 7 9 . 38 F o r a f u r th e r s ta t e m e n t o f F r e id e n b e r g ’s p o s itio n , see th e r e p o r t o f a c o n ­ v e rs a tio n b e tw e e n h im a n d S h u l'g in in A z b u k a re p o r t N o . 2, M a r c h 1, 1 9 1 9 , M A , S eries B , P a c k e t II , D o s s ie r 3. 39 A c h ro n o lo g y o f th e F r e n c h -U k ra in ia n n e g o tia tio n s fr o m D e c e m b e r th r o u g h F e b ru a ry m a y b e f o u n d in th e U k ra in ia n w e ek ly p u b lis h e d in F r a n c e , F r a n c e e t U k r a in e , F e b r u a ry 2 0 , 1 9 2 0 .

40 S ee V y n n y c h e n k o , o p . c i t . , I l l , 2 6 4 - 2 6 7 ; a n d O s ta p e n k o , “ D ire k to riia i fr a n tsu zsk a ia in te r v e n ts iia ,” in S h lik h te r , o p . c i t . , p p . 2 6 0 - 2 7 1 . 41 T h e fa c t t h a t b o t h M a r g o lin a n d F r e id e n b e rg w e re J e w is h , o f c o u rs e , h a d n o th in g to d o w ith t h e e v e n ts b e in g re la te d , b u t th is fa c t w as t h e b a sis o f f r e q u e n t c h a rg e s fr o m a n ti-S e m itic q u a rte rs .

S ee V . I. G u rk o , “ Iz P e tro g r a d a c h e r e z M o s-

k v u , P a riz h , i L o n d o n v O d e s s u ,” A r k h i v R u s s k o i R e v o l i u t s i i , V o l. X V

( B e r lin :

“ S lo v o ,” 1 9 2 4 ) , p . 52; M . S. M a rg u lie s , o p . c i t . , I, 7 1 ; a n d V . M a ib o r o d o v , “ S fr a n ts u z a m i,” lo c . c i t . , p . 1 2 5 . 42 M a r g o lin 's p o litic a l b e lie fs a n d re a so n s fo r s u p p o r tin g th e U k ra in ia n D ir e c to ­ ra te a re g iv e n in h is m e m o irs . S ee M a r g o lin , o p . c it., p p . 3 5 - 3 8 , 1 0 3 - 1 0 5 . 43 I b i d . , p . 112 ff.

T h o s e jo in in g w ith M a r g o lin in th is d e m a r c h e w e re L . L .

B y ch o f t h e K u b a n , B a k h a n o v ic h o f B elo ru ss ia , a n d G e n e r a l C h e r ia c h u k in o f th e D o n . A lth o u g h a c c re d ite d to t h e H e t m a n ’s g o v e r n m e n t C h e r ia c h u k in h a d im m e ­ d ia te ly e n te r e d frie n d ly re la tio n s w ith th e D ir e c to r a te as s o o n as its fo rce s c a p ­ tu r e d K ie v in D e c e m b e r. T h e re m a rk a b ly fle x ib le C h e r ia c h u k in s u b s e q u e n tly w e n t to O d e ss a , w h e re o n b e h a lf o f G re k o v a n d M a r g o lin h e “ a p p lie d ev ery e ffo r t to p ro v e to [th e F r e n c h ] t h a t s u p p o r t m u s t b e g iv e n to t h e U k r a in e .” S ee h is r e p o r t to th e D o n K ru g , F e b ru a ry 2 2 , 1 9 1 9 , C h e r ia c h u k in P a p e rs , F ile I V , N o . 1. 44 S ee M a r g o lin , o p . c it., p p . 1 1 4 - 1 1 8 . 45 S ee M . S. M a rg u lie s , o p . c it., I, 2 1 9 , 2 2 1 .

S ee also th e s ta t e m e n t b y th e

D ir e c to r a te q u o te d in S. A . P io n tk o v s k ii, e d ., G ia z h d a n s k a i a v o in a v R o s s i i ( M o s ­ c o w : I z d . K o m . u n iv ., 1 9 2 5 ) , p . 3 8 2 . 46 F r e id e n b e r g w as a lso q u o te d as say in g t h a t t h e in te r v e n tio n m u s t n o t r e q u ir e “ a s in g le F r e n c h s o ld ie r . . . to sacrifice h is life o n th e fields o f R u s s ia .” G u k o v s k ii, F r a n ts u z s k a ia in t e r v e n t s i i a ,

p.

122.

47 T h e “ te x ts ” o f b o t h th is m ilita r y a g r e e m e n t a n d a s u b s e q u e n t p o litic a l a g re e ­ m e n t a re p r in t e d

in

G u k o v s k ii, F r a n ts u z s k a ia in t e r v e n t s i i a , p p .

1 4 2 -1 4 3 ,

146;

S h lia p n ik o v , L e s a llié s c o n t r e la R u s s i e , p p . 2 8 6 - 2 8 8 ; S h lik h te r , o p . c it., p p . 1 3 4 135.

I t s h o u ld b e n o te d t h a t th e s e “ te x ts ” a re b a s e d p rim a r ily o n t h e r e p o r ts o f

343

NOTES

B o ls h e v ik a g e n ts in O d e s s a a t t h e tim e , b u t s in c e t h e a g re e m e n ts a re c o n firm e d in s o m e w h a t d iff e r e n t te rm s also in P . K h ry s tiu k , Z a m i t k y i m a t e r ia ly d o i s to r ii U k r a i n s ’k o i re v o J iu tsii ( V ie n n a : V e rn a y , 1 9 2 1 ) , V o l. I V ,

p.

104, a n d by g en eral

s ta t e m e n ts b y D r. M a r g o lin in M a r g o lin , o p . c it., 1 0 9 - 1 2 4 p a s s i m , th e y m a y b e c o n s id e r e d b a sic a lly re lia b le . V y n n y c h e n k o , w h o re je c te d a n y id e a o f e n te r in g s u c h a g r e e m e n ts w ith t h e F r e n c h , s ta te s t h a t G re k o v a n d M a tv e e v , w h o m h e d e sc rib e s as a R u s s o p h ile a n d a D e n ik in is t re s p e c tiv e ly , w o u ld h a v e d o n e so.

I n a n y case

h e ag re es t h a t th e te x ts r e p re s e n t F r e n c h p o lic y a n d re fle c t th e d e m a n d s p u t to t h e D ir e c to r a te b y F r e id e n b e rg . S ee V y n n y c h e n k o , o p . c it., I l l , 251 ff. 48 S e e “ O c h e r k ’ v z a im o o tn o s h e n ii v o o r u z h e n n y k h s il’ Iu g a R o ssii i p re d s ta v ite le i fr a n ts u z s k a g o k o m a n d o v a n iia ,” Joe. c it., p . 2 4 6 ; X y d ia s, o p . c it., p . 1 9 8 ; a n d D e n ­ ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 3 4 - 4 0 . 49 S ee n o te 4 7 a b o v e .

I n a d d itio n to th e s o u rc es c ite d a b o v e , th e e c o n o m ic

a g r e e m e n t a p p e a rs in P io n tk o v s k ii, o p . c it., p p . 3 8 2 - 3 8 3 ; a n d in Ia k u s h k in , F i a n t s u z s k a ia in t e r v e n t s i i a , p p . 3 1 - 3 2 . C f. a lso th e n o te fro m th e U k ra in ia n B o lsh e v ik le a d e r , R a k o v s k ii, to P ic h o n , F e b ru a ry 2 8 ,

1 9 1 9 , in P io n tk o v s k ii, o p . c it., p p .

3 8 3 - 3 8 5 . V ir tu a lly th e s e s a m e te r m s w e re s a id to h a v e b e e n p re s e n te d to S id o ­ re n k o , r e p r e s e n tin g th e D ir e c to r a te in P a ris, b y F o r e ig n M in is t e r P ic h o n w h e n a n in q u ir y w as m a d e in to th e p o s s ib ility o f o b ta in in g F r e n c h a id . See G u k o v sk ii, F i a n ts u z s k a i a in t e r v e n t s i i a , p . 1 4 6 .

I n a n in te rv ie w w ith th is w rite r, t h e la te D r .

M a r g o lin , w h o c ite s n o tim e lim it in h is a c c o u n t ( M a rg o lin , o p . c it., p . 1 2 3 ) , s ta te d t h a t th e F r e n c h r e q u e s te d c o n tr o l o f th e ra ilro a d s , fin a n c e s, e tc . f o r “ as lo n g as p o s s ib le ." C f. M . S. M a rg u lie s , o p . c it., I, 2 2 9 , 2 5 0 . 50 M a r g o lin , o p . c it., p .

1 2 3 ; K h ry s tiu k , o p . c it., I V , 1 0 4 .

S ee a lso V y n n y ­

c h e n k o , o p . c it., I l l , 1 5 8 . 51 S ee “ O c h e r k ’ v z a im o o tn o s h e n ii v o o ru z h e n n y k h s il’ Iu g a R o ssii i p re d s ta v ite le i fr a n ts u z s k a g o k o m a n d o v a n iia ,’’ Joe. c it., p p . 2 4 1 - 2 4 2 , 2 4 5 . 52 P ic h o n to P a u l C a m b o n , M a r c h 3, 1 9 1 9 , M A , S eries B , P a c k e t II , D o ss ie r 11. A c o p y o f th is d is p a tc h w as s e n t to M a k la k o v b y t h e F r e n c h F o r e ig n M in is try . 53 T h e n e g o tia to rs a p p a r e n tly in itia lle d t h e a g re e m e n ts a t th e tim e o f th e ir a c c e p ta n c e b y th e U k ra in ia n d e le g a tio n , b u t n e g o tia tio n s w e re c o n tin u e d b e y o n d t h a t p o i n t ( F e b r u a r y 2 1 ) . T h i s p ro b a b ly m e a n t t h a t th e s e te rm s w e re a c c e p te d as th e b asis f o r f u r t h e r n e g o tia tio n s to d e te r m in e t h e ir fin al fo r m .

H o w e v e r, n o

fo r m a l tr e a ty w as e v e r e n te r e d b y F r a n c e a n d th e D ire c to ra te , a p p a r e n tly b e c a u s e th e F r e n c h g av e u p th e id e a u n d e r t h e im p a c t o f n e w d e v e lo p m e n ts . M a r g o lin s ta te s t h a t th e p r o je c t n e v e r b e c a m e a tre a ty b e c a u s e th e F r e n c h s u d d e n ly b ro k e off th e n e g o tia tio n s u p o n r e c e ip t o f in s tru c tio n s fro m P a ris . S ee M a r g o lin , o p . c it., p p . 1 2 3 - 1 2 4 . O s ta p e n k o , o n th e o th e r h a n d , s im p ly in d ic a te s t h a t th e n e g o tia tio n s n e v e r re a c h e d t h e fin al s ig n in g . S ee S h lik h te r , o p . c it., p. 2 6 7 . C f. V y n n y c h e n k o , o p . c it.. I l l ,

2 5 4 ff.; a n d G u k o v s k ii, F r a n ts u z s k a ia in t e r v e n t s i i a , p . 143 ff. T h e

b e lie f t h a t F r e id e n b e r g ’s p la n to e n te r a fo r m a l a g re e m e n t w ith th e U k ra in e w as c a n c e lle d fr o m P a ris is s u p p o r te d b y th e r e p o r t o f a te le g ra m fro m P ic h o n m a d e by A zbuka.

S ee M A , S eries B , P a c k e t II , D o s s ie r 3, A z b u k a r e p o r t o f M a r c h

1 5 ,1 9 1 9 . 54 T h e c r ite r io n fo r re la tio n s w ith a n y a n ti-B o ls h e v ik fo rc e w as e x p re sse d in P i c h o n ’s re p ly to a n a p p e a l fro m t h e S a m a ra g o v e r n m e n t e arlie r; said h e :

‘As

s o o n as y o u p ro v e to us t h a t y o u h a v e re a l p o w e r in y o u r h a n d s , t h a t y o u are lis te n e d to in R u ss ia , a n d t h a t real fo rce s w ill g ro u p th e m s e lv e s a r o u n d — th is w ill

The Volunteer Army

344 p r o d u c e a g r e a t im p re s s io n .

T h u s th e k ey to y o u r s ig n ific a n c e a b ro a d lies m o r e

in y o u r re a l s tr e n g th th a n in y o u r leg al c la im s .” Q u o te d in G u k o v s k ii, F i a n t s u z sk a ia in te rv e n ts iia , p . 1 5 2 ; a n d in I. M . M a is k ii, D e m o k i a t i c h e s k a i a k o n t i - i e v o liu ts iia (M o s c o w : G o s iz d a t, 1 9 2 3 ) , p . 7 8 .

55 S ee “ O c h e r k ’ v z a im o o tn o s h e n ii v o o ru z h e n n y k h s il' Iu g a R o ss ii i p r e d s ta v ite le i fra n ts u z s k a g o k o m a n d o v a n iia ,” Joe. c it., p p . 2 4 1 , 2 4 6 - 2 4 7 ; a n d S a n n ik o v , o p . c it., p p . 2 2 - 2 6 . See a lso Ia k u s h k in , F ia n ts u z s k a i a in te rv e n ts iia , p. 5 6; a n d te le g ra m fr o m D e m id o v to M a k la k o v , M a r c h 16, 1 9 1 9 , M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I , D o s s ie r 9 . 56 “ O c h e r k ’ v z a im o o tn o s h e n ii v o o r u z h e n n y k h

s il’ Iu g a R o ss ii i p re d s ta v ite le i

fr a n ts u z s k a g o k o m a n d o v a n iia ,” Joe. c it., p . 2 4 3 . D e n ik in ’s p ro p o s a l to s e n d m o r e V o lu n te e r s to th e C rim e a w as a c c o m p a n ie d b y a s ta t e m e n t t h a t h e a lso w is h e d to m o v e h is h e a d q u a rte r s th e re . T h e C r im e a n g o v e r n m e n t c o o p e r a te d c lo se ly w ith th e V o lu n te e r s , b u t it w as fe a re d b y s o m e in t h e g o v e r n m e n t t h a t if D e n ik in m o v e d in to t h e C rim e a , i t w o u ld m e a n th e e n d o f a n y re a l a u to n o m y f o r th e g o v e r n m e n t, e v e n if its e x iste n c e w e re te c h n ic a lly m a in ta in e d .

S ee N a b o k o v to

S a z o n o v , F e b ru a ry 2 7 , 1 9 1 9 , M A , S eries B , P a c k e t II , D o s s ie r 10. 57 M . S. M a rg u lie s, o p . c it., I, 3 1 0 . A c o lle c tio n o f th e o rd e rs fr o m t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d b e g in n in g M a r c h 13 w ith th e d e c la r a tio n o f m a rtia l la w a n d t h e a p ­ p o in t m e n t o f a n e w civil a u th o r ity m a y b e f o u n d in M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I , D o ss ie r 1. 58 A n d r o d e L a n g e ro n w as s u p p o s e d to b e a n e x c e lle n t s e le c tio n fo r th is p o s t b e c a u s e o f h is u n u s u a l b a c k g r o u n d a n d e x p e rie n c e . S ee K in , “ K is to rii fr a n ts u z s k o i in te r v e n ts ii n a iu g e R o s s ii,” K r a s n y i A i k h i v , V o l. X I X (M o s c o w : G o s iz d a t, 1 9 2 7 ), p . 6. H o w e v e r, to m a n y th e in c lu s io n o f A n d ro a n d o th e rs w h o h a d s e rv e d u n d e r th e H e tm a n m e a n t a n e ffo rt to re s to re a p u p p e t re g im e in th e U k ra in e . S ee S a n ­ n ik o v , o p . c it., p p . 3 1 - 3 2 . 59 S a n n ik o v , o p . c it., p p . 3 5 - 3 8 . 60 I b i d . , p . 3 9 .

S ee also th e tr a n s c r ip t o f th e c o n fe re n c e o f V o lu n t e e r r e p r e ­

s e n ta tiv e s in O d e ss a , M a r c h 14, 1 9 1 9 , in t h e B e rn a ts k ii P a p e rs . 61 F o r b a c k g r o u n d o n G e n e r a l S h v a rts a n d t h e a c tiv itie s w ith w h ic h h e w as i n ­ v o lv ed , see la . I. K e fe li, “ S G e n e r a lo m v esn a

1 9 1 9 g g .: v o s p o m in a n iia ”

A . V . S h v a rts e m v O d e s s e , o s e n ’ 1 9 1 8 -

( M S , C o lu m b ia

U n iv e rs ity R u s s ia n A r c h iv e ) .

E a rlie r in th e s p rin g o f 1 9 1 8 i t h a d b e e n ru m o r e d t h a t S h v a rts w as lik e ly to b e in c lu d e d in a n in c o m in g S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r y g o v e r n m e n t if t h e S o c ia lis t R e v o ­ lu tio n a r ie s s u c c e e d e d in o v e rth ro w in g t h e B o lsh e v ik s w ith A llie d a id . S e e t h e re p o r t o f a G e r m a n officer in P e tro g r a d in Z e m a n , o p . c it., p . 1 2 2 . A l th o u g h t h e p la n s o f th e G u c h k o v g ro u p h a d b e e n k e p t s e c re t, D e n ik in k n e w o f t h e m

and

h a d g iv e n G u c h k o v h is a p p ro v a l, d e s p ite t h e fa c t t h a t o n e o f G u c h o v ’s re a so n s fo r u r g in g h is p la n w as t h a t h e b e lie v e d t h a t t h e V o lu n te e r s c o u ld a t b e s t h o ld th e S o u th w h ile o th e rs m o v e d in fro m th e e a s t a n d n o r th a n d e sp e c ia lly f r o m th e w e st to a d m in is te r th e k n o c k -o u t b lo w to th e B o lsh e v ik s .

S ee G u c h o v ’s m e m o ­

ra n d u m to D e n ik in e n title d “ B o r’b a v R o ssii s b o l ’s h e v iz m o m i eia p e rs p e k tiv y ,” in th e M iliu k o v P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s; a n d K e fe li, o p . c it., 62 K e fe li, o p . c it., p . 2 1 .

p.

8.

I n c o n n e c tio n w ith p o in t N o . 1, it s h o u ld b e n o te d

t h a t th e V o lu n te e r g o v e r n m e n t a t E k a te r in o d a r w as p ro p o s e d as t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f th e “ S o u th e a s t .”

I n c o n n e c tio n w ith p o i n t N o . 2, t h e F r e n c h h a d u p to th is

tim e o p p o s e d a n y m o b iliz a tio n in t h e O d e s s a a re a b y t h e V o lu n te e r s , p a r tly b e ­ c au se o f t h e f a c t t h a t th e m o s t p ro m is in g s o u rc e o f re c ru its w as t h e G e r m a n ele-

345

NOTES m e n t r e s id e n t in th e a re a . S ee S a n n ik o v , o p . c i t . f p p . 1 3 - 1 4 . 63 K e fe li, o p . c i t . ,

p.

21.

O d e s s a d u m a le a d e r M . V . B ra ik e v ic h , w h o w as a

K a d e t b u t w as re g a rd e d as a s p o k e s m a n fo r s o c ia lis t o p in io n , h a d u rg e d S h v a rts n o t to a c c e p t th e F r e n c h o ffer o r o p p o s e D e n ik in , s in c e i t w o u ld “ c o m p ro m is e h is g o o d n a m e ” a n d m e re ly in v o lv e h im

in a “ c o lo n ia l g o v e r n m e n t w h ic h w as

c o n tr iv e d b y C o l. F r e id e n b e rg to g e th e r w ith M a rg u lie s a n d t h e C .S .U .R . [ C o u n ­ c il f o r S ta te U n ity o f R u s s ia ].”

S ee B ra ik e v ic h in S h c h e g o le v , o p . c it., p . 2 5 5 .

U p to th is p o i n t S h v a rts , o n S a n n ik o v 's a d v ic e , h a d in d e e d p la n n e d to a c c e p t th e a p p o i n t m e n t o n ly a f te r jo in in g th e V o lu n te e r A rm y a n d o b ta in in g D e n ik in 's a u th o r iz a tio n to ta k e t h e p o s t. S ee S a n n ik o v , o p . c it., p . 36. 64 S ee d 'A n s e lm e to C o l. C o rb e il, re c e iv e d M a r c h 2 1 , 1 9 1 9 , C o rre s p o n d e n c e w ith t h e F r e n c h M is s io n , D e n ik in A rc h iv e s. 65 T h i s s ta t e m e n t a n d o th e r s re la tin g to th e re o rg a n iz a tio n m a y b e f o u n d in M A , S eries B , P a c k e t II , D o ss ie r 1. S e e a lso D e n ik in , O c h e r k i iu s s k o i s m u t y , V , 4 5 - 4 6 ; a n d a d e ta ile d a n d fairly o b je c tiv e a c c o u n t o f e v e n ts le a d in g u p to th e c h a n g e in a u th o r ity a n d t h e b re a k w ith D e n ik in in t h e a n o n y m o u s a rtic le , “ B o r ’b a s b o l's h e v ik a m i v N o v o ro s s iis k o m k ra e ,” M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I , D o s s ie r 1. 60 T h e o fficial A rm y re p o r t o n th e s e e v e n ts d e c la re d t h a t “ th is c o u p d 'é t a t . . . e m a n a te d fr o m th e a p p a r e n t a s p ira tio n o f t h e F r e n c h to o b ta in u n ity o f c o m m a n d fo r th e m s e lv e s a n d . . . s u b o r d in a tio n o f th e c iv il p o w e r to t h a t m ilita r y c o m ­ m a n d . ” “ O c h e r k ’ v z a im o o tn o s h e n ii v o o ru z h e n n y k h s il' Iu g a R o ssii i p re d s ta v ite le i fr a n ts u z s k a g o k o m a n d o v a n iia ,” l o c . c it., p . 2 4 7 .

F o r D e n ik in 's p e rs o n a l c o n d e m ­

n a tio n o f S h v a rts fo r h is ro le , see D e n ik in to I u d e n ic h , M a y 8, 1 9 1 9 , M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I , D o s s ie r 8. 67 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 4 6 . D e n ik in ’s p o lic y w as a lso u n d e r fire a t th is tim e fr o m w ith in h is o w n S p e c ia l C o u n c il. W h i l e s o m e u rg e d h im to a c c e p t a F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t in O d e s s a to a v o id a b re a k , o th e rs w e re e n tire ly o p p o s e d to c o m p ro m is e . D e n ik in as u s u a l trie d to s te e r a m id d le c o u rs e . I b i d . , p. 4 1 ; a n d K in , o p . c i t . , p p . 8 - 9 . 68 T h e C o u n c i l fo r S ta te U n ity , w h ic h w as b a c k in g th e F r e n c h a n d s u p p o r tin g S h v a rts , b o y c o tte d th is a p p e a l. S ee G u rk o , o p . c i t . , p p . 7 7 , 8 1 - 8 2 . 69 Q u o te d in D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , V , 4 7 . S ee a lso B ra ik e v ic h in S h c h e g o le v , o p . c i t . , p . 2 5 7 . T h e g e n e ra l d e s c rip tio n o f t h e n e w a u th o r ity w as “ S o u t h - W e s t e r n ” r a th e r t h a n “ S o u th R u s s ia n ” as u s e d h e re . H o w e v e r, in v iew o f th e p re v io u s h is to r y o f m ilita r y o rg a n iz a tio n in th e U k ra in e , it is in te re s tin g t h a t th e n e w a rm y to b e u n d e r S h v a rts w as to b e c a lle d th e “ S o u th R u s s ia n A r m y ,” a n d S h v a r ts ’ im m e d ia te a s s is ta n t in c o m m a n d w as to b e G e n e r a l P r o k h o p o v ic h , w h o h a d se rv e d as d e p u ty m in is te r o f w a r in t h e H e t m a n ’s c a b in e t.

S ee “ B o r ’b a

s b o l's h e v ik a m i v N o v o ro s s iis k o m k ra e ,” M A , S eries B , P a c k e t II , D o s s ie r 1. 70 X y d ia s, h o w e v e r, p re s e n ts th e v iew t h a t t h e b re a k w ith D e n ik in w as n o t a m is c a lc u la tio n , b u t a d e lib e ra te m o v e b y d 'A n s e lm e to m a k e a la s t d itc h e ffo rt to fo r m a n e w R u s s ia n a rm y . S ee X y d ia s, o p . c i t . , p . 2 8 5 . C f. A z b u k a r e p o rt, M a r c h 1 5 , 1 9 1 9 , M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I , D o s s ie r 3. 7 1 M . S. M a rg u lie s , o p . c i t . , I, 3 1 4 - 3 1 5 . W h a t t h e so cia lists s till p re fe rr e d w as a th r e e - m a n d ire c to ra te , b u t n o w th e y w is h e d i t to b e c o m p o s e d o f tw o so c ia l­ ists a n d G e n e r a l S a n n ik o v as th e R u s s ia n g o v e r n m e n t in O d e ss a u n d e r D e n ik in ’s g e n e r a l a u th o r ity . 72 Q u o te d in D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 4 9 .

F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e r e y ’s

The Volunteer Army

346

re m a rk re g a rd in g a c o lo n ia l re g im e m a y b e c o m p a re d w ith t h e s o c ia lis t c h a r g e , m a d e b y B ra ik e v ic h , t h a t F r e n c h b e h a v io r w as in fa c t c le arly r e p re s e n ta tiv e o f a “ c o lo n ia l p o lic y ." S ee B ra ik e v ic h in S h c h e g o le v , o p . c it., p . 2 5 4 . 73 Q u o te d in “ B o r’b a s b o l's h e v ik a m i v N o v o ro s s iis k o m k ra e ,” M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I , D o s s ie r 1. A c c o rd in g to a n u n c o n firm e d 15, P ic h o n h a d w ire d in s tru c tio n s ju s t p rio r to

A z b u k a re p o r t, d a te d M a r c h th is r e p u d ia tin g F r e id e n b e r g ’s

p o lic ie s a n d c a llin g fo r s u p p o r t o f th e V o lu n te e r s . S ee A z b u k a re p o r t, M a r c h 15, 1 9 1 9 , M A , S eries B, P a c k e t II , D o ss ie r 3. 74 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i i u s s k o i s m u ty , V , 51.

S ee a lso “ O c h e r k ’ v z a im o o tn o s h e n ii

v o o r u z h e n n y k h s il' Iu g a R o ssii i p re d s ta v ite le i fra n ts u z s k a g o k o m a n d o v a n iia ," lo c . c it., p . 2 4 8 ; a n d “ B o r’b a s b o l ’s h e v ik a m i v N o v o ro s s iis k o m k ra e ," M A , S erie s B , P a c k e t I I , D o ss ie r 1.

I n te re s tin g ly , B ra ik e v ic h h a s le ft o n e o f t h e fe w w r itt e n

d e fe n se s o f G ris h in -A lm a z o v ’s w o rk as g o v e rn o r-g e n e ra l. S ee B ra ik e v ic h in S h c h e g ­ o lev , o p . c it., p p . 2 4 1 - 2 4 3 . A fte r J u n e 1 9 1 9 th e S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r y o r g a n iz a ­ tio n in t h e S o u th officially re je c te d f u r th e r c o o p e r a tio n w ith t h e in te r v e n tio n a n d a ss o c ia te d its e lf w ith th e M o s c o w S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r y p o s itio n . I n d iv id u a l m e m ­ b e rs, h o w e v e r, s till w e n t th e ir s e p a ra te w ays, s o m e c o n tin u in g to s u p p o r t t h e in te r v e n tio n a n d t h e V o lu n te e r s . S ee G u k o v s k ii, F r a n ts u z s k a ia in te r v e n ts iia , p. 106. 75 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , V ,

50.

G ris h in -A lm a z o v ’s h ig h ly c r itic a l

view s o f F r e n c h p o lic y a re e x p re ss e d in a n o te to t h e N a tio n a l C o u n c i l, M a r c h 2 3 / A p r i l 5, 1 9 1 9 , W M A , F ile 1 3 4 , p . 7 6 .

S a n n ik o v s till h o p e d , in v a in , to sav e

th e s itu a tio n b y b rin g in g D e n ik in a n d F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e re y t o g e th e r fo r a c o n ­ fe re n c e . S ee S a n n ik o v , o p . c it., p p . 4 3 - 4 4 . 76 S ee A z a n , F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e re y , p p . 2 4 7 - 2 4 8 . 77 I b i d . , p p . 2 4 1 - 2 4 2 .

C le m e n c e a u , fo r w h o m F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e re y a p p a r e n tly

h a d littl e r e s p e c t, s ee m s to h a v e fe lt t h e s a m e w a y a b o u t t h e g e n e r a l.

H e w r o te

la te r t h a t F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e re y h a d trie d to d ic ta te p o lic y “ fr o m t h e E a s t ’’ a n d h a d “ m is tr e a te d m e g re a tly ."

S ee G e o rg e s C le m e n c e a u , G r a n d e u r s e t m is è r e s d ' u n e

v i c t o i r e ( P a r is : P lo n , 1 9 3 0 ) , p . 1 0 5 . A s im ila r im p re s s io n o f F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e re y

is g iv e n in J. J. H . M o rd a c q , L e m i n i s t è r e C le m e n c e a u , jo u r n a l d 'u n

té m o in

( P a r is : L ib ra irie P lo n , 1 9 3 1 ) , V o l. I I I , p p . 8 0 - 8 1 . 78 A z a n , o p . c i t . ,

p.

2 4 6 . S ee a lso G u k o v s k ii, F r a n ts u z s k a ia i n t e r v e n t s i i a ,

79 In r e p o r tin g th is to D e n ik in , h o w e v e r, th e a m b a s s a d o r a d d e d

p.

227.

r a th e r p r o ­

p h e tic a lly o f B e r th e lo t: “ I d id n o t o b s e rv e in h im a n y c o n fid e n c e t h a t O d e ss a w o u ld b e h e ld . . . .” D e n ik in , O c h e r k i ru s s k o i s m u t y , V , 6 7 . 80 Q u o te d in “ B o r’b a s b o l ’s h e v ik a m i v N o v o ro s s iis k o m k ra e ," M A , S eries B , P a c k e t II , D o ss ie r 1. S ee a lso X y d ia s, o p . c i t . , p. 2 8 7 . 81 X y d ia s, o p . c i t . , p p . 2 8 1 - 2 8 2 .

L t. C o l. E . F ra n c is R ig g s, o f t h e A m e r ic a n

m is sio n s e n t to S o u th R u ssia , a lso re p o r te d fro m O d e ss a o n M a r c h 2 3 t h a t w h ile th e m o ra le o f F r e n c h tro o p s w as very p o o r, t h e q u a lity o f t h e F r e n c h s ta ff w as even p o o re r, a n d

t h e s u p p ly p ro b le m

w as m o s t p re s sin g .

F re n c h h e a d q u a rte rs

h a d a ss u re d h im , h o w e v e r, t h a t it h a d b e e n d e c id e d to re in fo r c e O d e s s a a n d h o ld it. S ee A m m is s io n ( O d e s s a ) to A m e ric a n C o m m is s io n to N e g o tia te P e a c e ( P a r i s ) , M a r c h 2 3 , 1 9 1 9 , in U . S. N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o r e ig n A ffairs S e c tio n , D o c . N o . 1 8 4 . 0 1 6 0 2 /7 . T h e U k ra in ia n tro o p s m o b iliz e d b y S h v a rts n e v e r a c tu a lly p a r tic i­ p a te d in t h e d e fe n s e o f t h e c ity , s in c e th e y o b ta in e d p e rm is s io n fr o m R u m a n ia

NOTES

347

th r o u g h F r e n c h in te rc e s s io n to pass th r o u g h B es s arab ia a n d g o to G a lic ia . X y d ia s, o p . c it., p . 2 8 4 . 82 X y d ia s, o p . c i t . , p . 2 8 9 .

S ee

F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e re y ’s r e c o m m e n d a tio n s t h a t O d e ss a

b e e v a c u a te d u n le ss t h e s itu a tio n w as g re a tly im p r o v e d d a te fr o m early J a n u a ry . S ee U . S. E m b a s s y , P a ris , E .S .H . B u lle tin s , 1 9 1 9 - 1 9 2 0 , N o . 7 3 , H o o v e r L ib ra ry . 83 G u k o v s k ii, F ia n ts u z s k a i a i n t e i v e n t s i i a , p. 2 1 9 . S ee also in te llig e n c e re p o r t N o . 7 6 , W M A , F ile 1 8 1 ; a n d D e n ik in , O c h e r k i iu s s k o i s m u t y , V , 6 9 . Si X y d ia s, o p . c i t . , p p . 2 9 4 - 2 9 9 . 8a O d e s s a N o v o s t i , M a r c h 2, 1 9 1 9 , q u o te d a lo n g w ith s ta tis tic s o n t h e e c o n o m ic s itu a tio n in G u k o v s k ii, F ia n ts u z s k a i a i n t e i v e n t s i i a , p p . 7 5 - 7 7 . 86 G u k o v s k ii, “ K ry m v 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9 g g .," Joe. c i t . ,

p.

172.

87 A d e ta ile d a c c o u n t o f B o ls h e v ik u n d e r g r o u n d a c tiv itie s d u r in g t h e in te r v e n ­ tio n m a y b e f o u n d in G u k o v s k ii, F ia n ts u z s k a i a i n t e i v e n t s i i a , p . 15 8 ff. C o p ie s o f s o m e o f th e h a n d b ills d is tr ib u te d b y th e B o lsh e v ik s in O d e s s a a re in W M A , F ile 1 3 2 , p p . 1 1 5 -1 1 7 .

A m o n g t h e ru m o r s a p p a r e n tly c irc u la te d a t th is tim e w as o n e

v ery e ffe c tiv e sto ry t h a t t h e C le m e n c e a u g o v e r n m e n t h a d fa lle n b e c a u s e o f o p p o ­ s itio n in th e C h a m b e r to t h e in te r v e n tio n a n d h a d b e e n re p la c e d b y a S o c ia lis t g o v e r n m e n t t h a t h a d o rd e re d e v a c u a tio n o f O d e ss a . S ee X y d ia s, o p . c i t . , p p . 2 9 9 3 0 2 ; a n d M . S. M a rg u lie s , o p . c i t . , I I , 7 0 . 88 A c c o r d in g to X y d ia s, t h e G r e e k a n d A fric a n tro o p s w e re less a ffe c te d b y B o lsh e v ik p ro p a g a n d a , p a rtly b e c a u s e o f th e ir b e t t e r m o ra le a n d p a rtly b e c a u s e o f t h e la n g u a g e b a rrie r. X y d ia s, o p . c it., p p . 2 7 1 - 2 7 3 . A n a c c o u n t o f th e m ilita r y o p e r a tio n s a n d t h e p ro b le m s o f t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d m a y also b e fo u n d in F . J. D e y g as, L ’A i m é e d ’O i i e n t d a n s la g u e rre m o n d i a l e , 1 9 1 5 - 1 9 1 9

(P a r is : P a y o t,

1 9 3 2 ) , p p . 3 0 0 - 3 1 7 . V e n iz e lo s la te r to ld M a rg u lie s t h a t t h e G re e k s h a d p a r tic i­ p a te d in th e in te r v e n tio n o n ly u p o n F r e n c h in s is te n c e . T h e y g o t l i ttl e c r e d it f o r t h e ir a s s is ta n c e , h e sa id , b u t a n u n f a ir s h a re o f t h e b la m e . o p . c i t . , I I , 10.

S ee M . S. M a rg u lie s,

89 B o lsh e v ik a c c o u n ts te n d to e x a g g e ra te t h e ro le o f t h e ir p ro p a g a n d a in fo r c in g th e e v a c u a tio n . S h te in ,

R u ss k ii

1 9 4 9 ), pp .

F o r a ty p ic a l C o m m u n is t in te r p r e ta tio n o f r e c e n t years see B . E . v o p io s

na

P a iiz h s k o i

m iin o i

k o n fe ie n s ii

(M o s c o w :

G o s iz d a t,

3 1 6 -3 2 6 .

G u k o v s k ii’s e a rlie r a c c o u n t, th e b e s t S o v ie t a c c o u n t, is

m u c h m o r e o b je c tiv e .

W h i l e h e gives c o n s id e ra b le a t t e n t i o n to t h e a d v a n c e o f

R e d fo rce s, to t h e w o rk o f th e u n d e r g r o u n d , a n d to t h e c o lla p se o f m o ra le in th e F r e n c h fo rce s , h e fin a lly c o n c lu d e s t h a t t h e e v a c u a tio n w as a “ s e lf-w ille d " a c t e x p e d ie n tly o r d e re d b e fo re it b e c a m e im p e ra tiv e . in te iv e n ts iia ,

pp.

S ee G u k o v sk ii, F ia n ts u z s k a i a

1 8 8 , 2 2 6 . B y c o n tra s t, A n d re M a r ty , t h e F r e n c h

s ailo r w h o

p la y e d a n im p o r t a n t b u t n o t e x clu siv e ro le in th e b rie f m u tin y o n F r e n c h s h ip s a t O d e ss a , c o m e s c lo se to g iv in g h im s e lf so le c r e d it fo r th e fa ilu re o f t h e in te r v e n ­ tio n . S e e A n d r é M a r ty , T h e E p i c o f t h e B la c k S e a R e v o lt ( N e w Y o rk : W o r k e r s ’ L ib ra ry P u b lis h e rs , 1 9 4 1 ) , a b rid g e d tra n s la tio n o f L a ré v o lte d e la M e r N o ir e (P a r is : B u re a u d ’E d i tio n s , 1 9 3 2 ) .

I n w e ig h in g t h e cau se s o n e m u s t o f c o u rs e

c o n s id e r t h e d iv is io n in F r e n c h p o lic y , t h e a t t i t u d e o f F r a n c h e t d 'E s p e r e y , a n d c e r ta in ly t h e p o p u la r m o o d in F r a n c e , w h e re o n e S o c ia lis t d e p u ty in th e A ss e m ­ b ly c a lle d t h e B la c k S ea m u tin y “ a tr u e re v o lu tio n a ry m o v e m e n t in t h e h ig h e s t a n d p u r e s t s e n s e o f th e w o r d " b y th e “ so n s o f t h e g re a t F r e n c h R e v o l u tio n ." S ee A n n a le s d e la c h a m b r e d e s d é p u t é s , D é b a t s p a r l e m e n t a i r e s , T o m e I I ( 1 9 1 9 ) , p p .

2 3 4 1 - 2 3 4 2 , sessio n o f J u n e 12. C f. D e y g as, o p . c i t . , p p . 3 1 0 - 3 1 1 .

The Volunteer Army

348

90 C f . S a n n ik o v , o p . c i t . , p p . 2 3 - 2 7 . 91 S ee P a u l M a n to u x , L e s d e lib e ra tio n s d u C o n s e il d e s Q u a t r e (P a r is : E d i tio n s d u C e n t r e N a tio n a l d e la R é c h e r c h e S c ie n tifiq u e , 1 9 5 5 ) , V o l. I, p p . 2 2 - 2 3 , 5 2 , 5 6 - 5 7 ; a n d P a r is P e a c e C o n fe re n c e , I V , 3 7 9 - 3 8 3 . I n a s u b s e q u e n t l e t t e r t h e B ritis h

co m m an d er,

M iln e , w ro te

to

D e n ik in

th a t a t

F ren ch

in s is te n c e

“ th e

q u e s tio n o f th e e v a c u a tio n o f O d e ss a w as d e c id e d in P a ris in th e C o u n c i l o f T e n o n th e b asis o f th e re p o rts o f G e n e r a l d 'A n s e lm e a n d C o lo n e l F r e id e n b e r g o n th e c a ta s tro p h ic c o n d itio n s o f s u p p ly in O d e s s a ." D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , V , 6 9 . T h e H o o v e r R e lie f C o m m is s io n h a d b e e n c o n s u lt e d o n t h e fo o d p r o b le m a n d h a d m a d e e ffo rts to g e t s u p p lie s in , b u t re lie f o n th e sca le re q u ir e d w as im p o s sib le . S ee U . S. N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, A m e ric a n F o o d

M is s io n to S o u th e r n

E u r o p e , N e a r E a s t, C o n s ta n tin o p le O ffice o f t h e D ir e c to r o f t h e M is s io n , F A 2 7 6 A -A 1 , g e n e r a l c o rre s p o n d e n c e , d ra w e rs N o s . 9 0 9 a n d 9 1 2 . S ee also D e y g a s , o p . c it., p. 3 0 9 . J u s t b e fo re th e e v a c u a tio n , a n I n te r- A llie d S u p p ly C o m m is s io n w as b e in g e s ta b lis h e d , a p p a r e n tly to a s s u m e re s p o n s ib ility fo r s u p p ly o f t h e w h o le are a, b u t n o im m e d ia te a ss is ta n c e fo r O d e s s a w as f o r th c o m in g . S ee D o c u m e n t s o f th e C r im e a n G o v e r n m e n t, a n n o u n c e m e n t o f t h e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f t h e C o m ­ m is sio n b y d 'A n s e lm e , M a r c h 17, 1 9 1 9 , F ile N o . 5 ( H o o v e r L i b r a r y ) . 92 X y d ia s, o p . c it., p . 3 0 2 . 93 S ee L u k o m s k ii, M e m o irs , p . 2 2 2 ; a n d D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , V , 6 9 . T h r e e d ay s la te r F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e re y w as re p o rte d ly in B u c h a r e s t o rg a n iz in g a n in te r n a tio n a l e x p e d itio n to m a rc h in to H u n g a ry to s u p p re s s B e la K u n 's s o v ie t re b e llio n .

W h e n C le m e n c e a u w ire d o rd e rs p r o h ib i tin g h im fr o m f u r t h e r p a r tic i­

p a tio n

th is

in

sch em e,

F ran c h e t

d 'E s p e re y

c o n c lu d e d

th a t

“ C le m e n c e a u

has

alw ay s b e e n c o n v in c e d t h a t m ilita ry m e n a re im b e c ile s a n d k n o w s n o t h i n g o f e m ­ p lo y in g th e ir s e rv ic e s ." S ee A z a n , o p . c it., p . 2 5 1 . 94 A n n a le s d e la c h a m b r e d e s d é p u t é s . D é b a t s p a r le m e n ta ir e s , T o m e I ( 1 9 1 9 ) ,

p.

1 4 4 8 , sessio n o f M a r c h 2 9 , 1 9 1 9 . F u r t h e r d is c u s s io n b y P ic h o n o f t h e s itu a tio n

w h ic h w as s o o n to le a d to t h e e v a c u a tio n m a y b e f o u n d in i b i d . , T o m e I, p p . 1 2 7 6 -1 2 7 8 ,

1 2 8 4 -1 2 8 5 , 1 3 0 2 -1 3 0 7 ; T o m e II, p . 308.

S e e a lso C . H . S lo v es,

L a F r a n c e e t V U n i o n s o v ié tiq u e (P a r is : R ie d e r , 1 9 3 5 ) , p p . 9 5 - 1 0 6 . T h e B r itis h C a b i n e t h a d a lso d e c id e d

to e v a c u a te A rk h a n g e ls k a n d

M u rm a n sk

in

M arch ,

a lth o u g h e v a c u a tio n w as in fa c t n o t c a rrie d o u t u n t i l la te r. S e e W . S. C h u r c h ill, T h e W o rld

C r is is : T h e A f te r m a th

( L o n d o n : T h o r n t o n B u tte r w o r th , 1 9 2 9 ) , p .

240. 95 See “ O c h e r k ' v z a im o o tn o s h e n ii v o o ru z h e n n y k h s il' Iu g a R o ss ii i p re d s ta v ite lei fra n ts u z s k a g o k o m a n d o v a n iia ," lo c . c i t . , p p . 2 5 1 - 2 5 2 . C f. X y d ia s, o p . c i t . , p p . 3 0 2 -3 0 5 . 90 X y d ia s, o p . c it., p . 3 0 6 . 97 I b i d . , p p . 3 0 7 - 3 1 1 , 3 2 4 .

S ee also G u k o v s k ii, F r a n t s u z s k a ia i n t e r v e n t s i i a , p p .

2 2 1 - 2 2 2 ; a n d D e y g as, o p . c it., p . 3 0 9 . C f . M . S. M a rg u lie s , o p . c i t . , I I , 3 2 . T h e D ir e c to r a te 's b r ie f ru le o v e r t h e U k ra in e w as e n d e d a t th is ti m e a lso , o f c o u rs e , a l­ th o u g h

i t c o n tin u e d

its s tru g g le to

re g a in p o w e r. T h e

U k r a in ia n

tro o p s

th a t

re tr e a te d to w a rd O d e ss a re c e iv e d F r e n c h c o o p e r a tio n in o b ta in in g p e rm is s io n f r o m R u m a n ia to p ass th r o u g h B es s a ra b ia to G a lic ia . M e a n w h ile t h e D ir e c to r a te its e lf v irtu a lly

d is in te g r a te d . V y n n y c h e n k o

c o n tin u e d

h is

f o r m e r e ffo r t t o

fo r g e

an

a llia n c e w ith t h e B o lsh e v ik s , n o w s u g g e s tin g a th re e -w a y a llia n c e w ith B e la K u n 's s o v ie t H u n g a r y , w h ile P e tliu r a

jo in e d h is tro o p s in

G a lic ia , w h e re h e

sought

349

NOTES

S u p p o r t f o r a n e w o ffen siv e in t h e s u m m e r. P e tliu r a ’s s u b s e q u e n t a c tiv itie s a n d h is r e la tio n s w ith P o la n d w ill b e n o te d la te r. F o r f u r t h e r d e ta il see R e s h e ta r, o p . c i t . , p . 2 6 3 ff. I t s h o u ld b e n o te d

t h a t th e A llie d s q u a d r o n u n d e r A d m ira l A m e t

r e m a in e d o n t h e B la c k S ea a n d c o n tin u e d to c o n tr o l it d e s p ite t h e e v a c u a tio n o f la n d fo rc e s . 98 X y d ia s, o p . c it., p . 3 1 8 . " D e n i k i n , O c h e r k i iu s s k o i s m u ty , V , 5 2 -5 4 .

T h e fu n d s in t h e p o s se ss io n o f

th e O d e s s a a u th o r itie s w e re c a rrie d to C o n s ta n tin o p le , w h e re a b i t t e r fe u d th e n b e g a n b e tw e e n S h v a rts ’ c o u n c il a n d V o lu n te e r re p re s e n ta tiv e s o v e r th e i r d is p o sa l. S e e G u r k o , o p . c it., p p . 7 8 - 7 9 . 100 Q u o te d

in

“ O c h e r k ’ v z a im o o tn o s h e n ii v o o r u z h e n n y k h

s il’ Iu g a

R o ssii

i

p r e d s ta v ite le i fra n ts u z s k a g o k o m a n d o v a n iia ," Joe. c it., p. 2 4 9 . A c c o rd in g to th e a c t in g h e a d o f t h e V o lu n te e r F o r e ig n A ffairs D e p a r tm e n t, N e ra to v , th e F r e n c h m is sio n a t V o lu n te e r h e a d q u a r te r s h a d still n o t re c e iv e d a n y in fo r m a tio n c o n ­ c e r n in g th e e v a c u a tio n e v e n tw o w eek s a f te r i t h a d b e e n c a rrie d o u t. to S a z o n o v , A p ril 14, 1 9 1 9 , M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I , D o ss ie r 8.

S ee N e r a to v

101 “ O c h e r k ' v z a im o o tn o s h e n ii v o o ru z h e n n y k h s il' Iu g a R o ssii i p re d s ta v ite le i fr a n ts u z s k a g o k o m a n d o v a n iia ," lo c . c i t . , p p . 2 5 0 - 2 5 1 . C f . X y d ia s, o p . c it., p p . 2 8 8 -2 8 9 . 102 “ O c h e r k ’ v z a im o o tn o s h e n ii v o o r u z h e n n y k h s il’ Iu g a R o ssii i p re d s ta v ite le i fr a n ts u z s k a g o

k o m a n d o v a n iia ,”

k ra e v o e p r a v ite l's tv o tro o p s b o t h

v

lo c .

1 9 1 8 -1 9 1 9

c it.,

g .,"

pp. lo c .

256, c it.,

2 6 0 ; G u k o v sk ii,

p.

96. T h e

“ K ry m s k o e

to ta l n u m b e r o f

in O d e s s a e a rlie r a n d n o w in th e C rim e a is d iffic u lt to e s ta b lis h ,

s in c e t h e s o u rc e s vary w id e ly .

I n a ll p ro b a b ility a to ta l o f a ro u n d 6 0 ,0 0 0 m e n

w e re a ll t h a t w e re e v e r a v a ila b le to th e F r e n c h C o m m a n d in all a reas o f S o u th R u ssia c o m b in e d , a n d n o t a ll o f th e s e w e re f ig h tin g m e n o r a v a ila b le a t o n e tim e . S ee G u k o v s k ii, F r a n ts u z s k a ia in t e r v e n t s i i a , p p . 4 5 - 4 8 . 103 S ee t h e a g r e e m e n t b e tw e e n th e V o lu n te e r A rm y a n d t h e C r im e a n g o v e r n ­ m e n t p u t t i n g a ll m ilita r y fo rce s u n d e r D e n ik in ’s c o m m a n d in re tu r n f o r th e l a t t e r ’s g u a r a n te e n o t to in te rv e n e in th e in te r n a l a d m in is tr a tio n o f th e C r im e a , D o c u m e n t s o f t h e C r im e a n G o v e r n m e n t, F ile 9 , H o o v e r L ib ra ry . m a tio n

o n V o lu n te e r - C r im e a n

re la tio n s is a lso c o n ta in e d

F u r t h e r in f o r ­

in D e n ik in , O c h e r k i

r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 54 ff.; a n d in th e jo u rn a l o f t h e m e e tin g o f t h e C r im e a n g o v e r n ­

m e n t o n A p ril 16, 1 9 1 9 , in D o c u m e n t s o f th e C r im e a n G o v e r n m e n t, F ile 12, w h ic h is a lso p r in t e d in A r k h i v R u s s k o i R e v o liu ts ii, V o l. I I (B e rlin : I z d a te l’s tv o “ S lo v o ," 1 9 2 1 ) , p p . 1 3 5 - 1 4 2 . th is

p e r io d

see G u k o v s k ii,

F o r a d e ta ile d re c o rd o f e v e n ts in th e C r im e a in

“ K ry m s k o e

k ra e v o e p ra v ite l’s tv o v

1 9 1 8 -1 9 1 9

g .,’’

lo c . c i t.; a n d “ K ry m v 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9 g g .," lo c . c i t . 104 S ee G u k o v s k ii, “ K ry m v 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9 g g .,’’ lo c . c i t . , X X V I I I , 1 5 1 - 1 7 2 .

105 S ee r e g u la tio n s fo rw a rd e d to V in a v e r , fro m

th e F r e n c h C o m m a n d , d a te d

M a r c h 2 9 , 1 9 1 9 , D o c u m e n t s o f th e C r im e a n G o v e r n m e n t, F ile 5. 106 A d e ta ile d h is to ry o f e v e n ts in v o lv in g S e v a s to p o l fo rtre ss , w r itt e n b y its c h ie f o f staff, m a y b e f o u n d in F . P . R e r b e r g , “ Is to ric h e s k iia z a g a d k i v re v o liu ts ii v R o s s ii," V o l. I I , “ K re p o s t' S e v a s to p o l p o d v la stiu G e rm a n ts e v , A n g lic h a n , F r a n t ­ s u z o v i D o b r o v o l'ts e v G e n . D e n ik in a " ( M S , H o o v e r L i b r a r y ) . 107 “ O c h e r k ’ v z a im o o tn o s h e n ii v o o r u z h e n n y k h s il’ Iu g a R o ss ii i p re d s ta v ite le i fr a n ts u z s k a g o k o m a n d o v a n iia ," lo c . c i t . , 108 I b i d . ,

pp. 257-258.

p.

257.

The Volunteer Army

350

109 T h i s a c c o u n t is b a se d u p o n th e m in u te s o f th e C r im e a n c a b i n e t m e e tin g o f A p ril 16, w h ic h c o n ta in a n a c c o u n t o f e v e n ts o f th e p re c e d in g tw o w e ek s. S ee

D o c u m e n ts

of

th e

C r im e a n

G o v e r n m e n t,

F ile

12.

See

a lso

G u k o v s k ii,

F r a n ts u z s k a ia i n te r v e n ts iia , p p . 2 1 4 - 2 1 5 .

110 F o r f u r th e r d e ta ils o n th e s e fin a n c ia l q u e s tio n s see a lso D o c u m e n t s o f t h e C r im e a n G o v e r n m e n t, F ile 17. C f. L . P o lia m y i, “ In te r v e n ty v K ry m u ,” in K d e s i a t i l e t i i u in t e r v e n t s i i : s b o r n i k s ta t e i , p p . 1 4 6 - 1 5 0 .

111 T h i s d o c u m e n t m a y b e f o u n d in D o c u m e n t s o f t h e C r im e a n G o v e r n m e n t, F ile 5, “ A c t" d a te d A p ril 12, 1 9 1 9 , a n d s ig n e d b y K ry m , B a rt, V in a v e r , a n d N a b o k o v . C f . S h lia p n ik o v , L e s a llié s c o n tr e la R u s s i e , p p . 2 9 5 - 2 9 6 . 112 “ O c h e r k ’ v z a im o o tn o s h e n ii v o o ru z h e n n y k h siT Iu g a R o ss ii i p re d s ta v ite le i fr a n ts u z s k a g o k o m a n d o v a n iia ," lo c. c it., p p . 2 6 0 - 2 6 1 . A c c o r d in g to o n e a c c o u n t T r o u s s o n th r e a te n e d to t u r n n a v al g u n s o n th e V o lu n te e r s if th e y trie d to r e tr e a t o r to leav e th e C rim e a . S ee G u k o v sk ii, “ K ry m v 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9 g g . , ” lo c . c i t . , X X I X , 8 1 . D e n ik in , h o w e v e r, s ta te s t h a t th e th r e a t to u se fo rc e w as m a d e b y t h e F r e n c h n a v al c a p ta in in c h a rg e o f th e s q u a d r o n g u a rd in g th e K e rc h p e n in s u la , C a p t a in B e n e t. D e n ik in , O c h e r k i iu s s k o i s m u t y , V , 6 6 . 113 “ O c h e r k ’ v z a im o o tn o s h e n ii v o o r u z h e n n y k h siY Iu g a R o ssii i p re d s ta v ite le i fra n ts u z s k a g o k o m a n d o v a n iia ," lo c . c i t . , p p . 2 6 0 - 2 6 1 . 114 S h lia p n ik o v , L e s a llié s c o n t r e la R u s s i e , p . 2 5 4 . 115 See D ey g as, o p . c i t . , p . 3 1 3 ; a n d G u k o v sk ii, F r a n ts u z s k a ia in t e r v e n t s i i a , p p . 2 1 7 - 2 1 8 . R e la te d d o c u m e n ts , in c lu d in g a re p o r t b y A d m ira l A m e t, m a y a lso b e fo u n d in E . M o u lis a n d E . B e rg o n ie r, e d s., E n m a rg e d u c o n flic t m o n d i a l ( P a r is : Jeh an , 1 9 3 7 ), p p . 1 7 5 -1 8 0 . 116 D e n ik in , T h e W h i t e A rm y ,

p.

249.

117 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 6 9 . 118 I b i d . , I V , 2 3 9 - 2 4 1 ; V , 6 9 . S ee also P a ris P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , V , 5 4 5 - 5 4 8 . 119 S ee C h u r c h ill, o p . c i t . , p . 1 7 7 ; P a r is P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , I V , 1 4 - 1 5 ; D o c u ­ m e n ts o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , I I I , 3 6 7 , 4 1 2 . 120 Q u o te d in D e n ik in , O c h e r k i ru s sk o i s m u ty , V , 6 7 - 6 8 ; a n d in L u k o m s k ii, V o s p o m i n a n i i a , I I , 2 9 3 - 2 9 5 . T h e p ro to c o l is a lso p r in t e d in F r e n c h in S h li a p n i­

k o v , L e s a llié s c o n t r e la R u s s i e , A n n e x N o . 6, p p . 2 9 0 - 2 9 1 . 121 S ee D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , V , 1 6 9 ; a n d “ O c h e r k ’ v z a im o o tn o s h e n ii v o o r u z h e n n y k h siT Iu g a R o ssii i p re d s ta v ite le i fra n ts u z s k a g o k o m a n d o v a n iia ," lo c . c it., p. 2 4 9 .

S ee also S e ra fim o v ( C o n s t a n t i n o p l e )

to M a k la k o v , M a y 2 1 , 1 9 1 9 ;

a n d Ik s k iu l to M a k la k o v , M a y 2 2 , 1 9 1 9 , M A , S eries B , P a c k e t II , D o s s ie r 8; a n d te le g ra m fr o m D e n ik in to F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e re y , A p ril ( ? ) , 1 9 1 9 , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e w ith t h e F r e n c h C o m m a n d , D e n ik in A rc h iv e s. 122 T h i s q u e s tio n h a d c o m e u p in fo rm a lly b e fo re , a n d w as ra is e d o n a n u m b e r o f o th e r o c c a s io n s. A s L u k o m s k ii h a s s ta t e d : “ In c o n n e c tio n w ith t h e q u e s tio n o f e x te rn a l tra d e , t h e q u e s tio n o f g iv in g o u r allies v a rio u s c o n c e s s io n s w as r e p e a te d ly ra ised . . . ."

L u k o m s k ii, “ Iz v o s p o m in a n ii," A r k h i v R u s s k o i R e v o î i u t s i i , V o l. V I

(B e r lin : I z d a te l’s tv o “ S lo v o ," 1 9 2 2 ) , p . 1 5 1 . 123 T h e F r e n c h h a d a s ta t e m e n t to th is e ffe c t in s e r te d in a r e p o r t o f th e F i n a n ­ c ial S e c tio n o f th e In te r-A llie d C o u n c i l o n W a r P u rc h a s e s a n d F in a n c e in F e b ­ ru a ry 1 9 1 8 . S ee F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 8 , R u ss ia , I I I , 3 4 . 124 Q u o te d in S h lia p n ik o v , L e s a llié s c o n tr e la R u s s i e ,

p.

3 7 7 . T h i s s ta t e m e n t

is fr o m a l e tte r fro m th e F r e n c h re p re s e n ta tiv e in A rk h a n g e ls k , G u illa r d , to th e

351

NOTES

N o r t h e r n G o v e r n m e n t o n A p ril 9 , 1 9 1 9 . I n t h e le t t e r it is f u r th e r s ta t e d b y G u illa r d : “ F o llo w in g th e in s tru c tio n s w h ic h I h a v e re c e iv e d , I h a v e th e h o n o r o f in ­ f o r m in g t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f th e n o r t h e r n re g io n o f th e p o in t o f v iew o f th e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t o n th is q u e s tio n ; th e g o v e rn m e n ts o f O m s k [K o lc h a k ] a n d E k a te rinodar

[D e n ik in ]

a re b e in g

in fo r m e d

s im u lta n e o u s ly ."

For

f u r th e r

d e ta ils

on

F r e n c h in v e s t m e n t in R u ss ia a n d tra d e see G u k o v s k ii, F ra n ts u z s k a ia in te rv e n ts iia , p p. 2 8 -3 6 . 125 S ee D e n ik in , O c h e i k i iu s s k o i s m u t y , IV , 4 5 - 4 8 ; a n d s ta t e m e n t q u o te d in P . N . W ra n g e l, A lw a y s W i t h

(N e w

H onor

Y o rk :

R o b e r t S p e lle r a n d

S o n s,

1 9 5 7 ) , p . 1 2 0 . G e n e r a l W r a n g e l , w h o s h a rp ly d is a g re e d w ith D e n ik in o n h is p o lic ie s, la te r b la m e d th e ir fin a n c ia l d iffic u ltie s o n “ G e n e r a l D e n ik in 's o b s tin a te re fu s a l to u se th e e n o rm o u s n a tu r a l w e a lth o f S o u th R u ss ia to a t t r a c t fo re ig n c a p i ta l."

I b id ., p. 150.

D e n ik in , n o ta b ly , o b s e rv e d a s ig n ific a n t c o n tr a s t b e tw e e n

F r e n c h p e rs is te n c e in ra is in g th e q u e s tio n o f re p a y m e n t o r c o m p e n s a tio n a n d th e m o r e d ip lo m a tic B ritis h a p p ro a c h , a c o n tr a s t m a d e a ll th e m o re n o ta b le , h e fe lt, b y t h e fa c t t h a t th e B ritis h w e re g iv in g c o n s id e ra b ly m o re m a te ria l a id . D e n ik in , O c h e i k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 17 0 . 126 D e n ik in , O c h e i k i iu s s k o i s m u t y , V , 1 7 0 .

S ee

S ee a lso S h lia p n ik o v , L e s a llié s

c o n t r e la R u s s i e , p p . 2 9 9 - 3 0 0 .

127 S h lia p n ik o v , L e s a llié s c o n t r e la R u s s i e , p . 3 00. 128 D e n ik in , O c h e i k i iu s s k o i s m u ty , V , 1 7 0 . T h i s q u e s tio n is ta k e n u p f u r th e r b e lo w in C h a p t e r V I . 129 F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 9 , R u s s ia ,

p.

760.

See also G e n e r a l R ig g s' c o m m e n ts

in i b i d . , p p . 7 5 1 - 7 5 2 . 130 G e n e r a l G ris h in -A lm a z o v , w h o h a d b e e n c a rry in g th e l e tte r to K o lc h a k w h e n h is s h ip w as c a p tu r e d a t A le k sa n d ro v s k , c o m m itte d s u ic id e r a th e r th a n s u rre n d e r to t h e B o lsh e v ik s.

S ee D e n ik in , O c h e i k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 8 8 - 8 9 . T h e te x t o f

t h e l e tte r m a y a lso b e f o u n d in S h lia p n ik o v , K t o d o l z h n i k , p p . 4 0 9 - 4 1 0 .

For a

d e ta ile d a c c o u n t o f t h e c a p tu r e o f th e le tte r , see N . N . L is h in , N a K a s p iis k o m (P ra g u e :

m ore

Iz d . M o r. z h u r., 1 9 3 8 ) , p p . 1 5 7 - 1 6 4 . G e n e r a l D ra g o m iro v , o n

a m is sio n to e sta b lis h b e t t e r c o m m u n ic a tio n s in P a ris, w ro te to D e n ik in t h a t in r e ­ f e rr in g to th e le tte r C le m e n c e a u h a d

“ a b r u p tly trie d

to a tta c k

us as 't h e e n ­

e m ie s o f F r a n c e .' " D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 8 9 , 1 6 8 . T h e

F ren ch

C o m m a n d c la im e d t h a t F r a n c e w as b e a r in g h a lf o f th e c o s t o f th e a id b e in g d e liv e re d b y th e B ritis h . S u c h a n a g re e m e n t h a d in fa c t b e e n e n te re d in S e p ­ te m b e r 1 9 1 8 , b u t th is a p p lie d o n ly to E u r o p e a n R u ssia , a n d a c c o rd in g to C u rzon

it w as n e v e r p u t

in to

n e v e r e s ta b lis h e d .

S ee

m e n ts

P o l ic y ,

on

B r iti s h

p ra c tic e

F o r e ig n

III,

because

R e la tio n s ,

367.

th e

1918,

B ritis h

p la n n e d R u s s ia ,

fin a n c ia l b o d y

III,

re p re s e n ta tiv e s

1 43; a n d

to ld

w as

D ocu ­

D e n ik in

th a t

F r a n c e w as n o t s h a r in g in t h e a id , a n d fa c e d w ith th e q u e s tio n in th e C o u n c il o f F o u r o n M a y 2 3 , 1 9 1 9 , C le m e n c e a u a d m itte d t h a t th e F r e n c h h a d g iv e n littl e a id to D e n ik in “ m a in ly b e c a u s e G r e a t B rita in h a d to s u p p ly th e s h ip p in g ," a n d h e la te r q u ip p e d t h a t e v en t h a t g iv e n “ h a d g o n e to th e S o v ie t th r o u g h D e n ik in 's a r m y ." S ee P a r is P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , V , 9 0 1 ; a n d V I I , 8 5 7 . S ee also th e a c c o u n t o f M a r g u lie s ' ta lk w ith a r e p re s e n ta tiv e o f th e F r e n c h

F o re ig n

M in is try o n

th is

q u e s tio n in M . S. M a rg u lie s , o p . c i t . , I, 3 3 0 - 3 3 1 . 131 T h e p r o to c o l w as d a te d A p ril 11 b u t w as n o t tr a n s m itte d to D e n ik in , a lo n g w ith t h e 1 9 1 7 a g re e m e n t, u n til J u n e 9 . T h i s w as th e first n o tic e to D e n ik in t h a t

The Volunteer Army

352

a n y s u c h a g r e e m e n t e x iste d . S ee D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 6 8 , 8 8 , 1 7 0 1 7 1 ; a n d D e n ik in , T h e W h i t e A rm y , p . 2 3 0 . T h e B ritis h g o v e r n m e n t h a d a lre a d y d e c id e d to b e g in a w ith d ra w a l o f its fo rce s in t h e n o r t h a n d in T ra n s c a s p ia a n d to c o n c e n tr a te a id o n th e V o lu n te e r s . A w e ek b e fo re t h e e v a c u a tio n o f O d e s s a , C h u r c h ill w r o te to F o c h to d e fe n d th e V o lu n te e r s a g a in s t t h e " u n f a v o r a b le o p i n ­ io n " h e ld b y th e F r e n c h C o m m a n d a n d in d ic a te t h a t it h a d b e e n d e c id e d to e x te n d " a ll p o s sib le a s s is ta n c e " to D e n ik in . S ee C h u r c h i l l ’s l e t t e r o f M a r c h 2 8 in I z i s to r ii g r a z h d a n s k o i v o in y , II , 3 5 - 3 6 . S h o r tly a f te r th e e v a c u a tio n D e n ik in w as in f o r m e d b y t h e B ritis h c o m m a n d e r , G e n e r a l M iln e , t h a t th e B ritis h h a d " e n e r g e tic a lly p ro te s te d a g a in s t th e p ro p o s a l to e v a c u a te O d e s s a q u ic k ly , b u t th e F r e n c h in s is te d o n im m e d ia te e v a c u a tio n . . . ." S ee D e n ik in , O c h e i k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , V ,

69.

F ro m

J u n e o n , D e n ik in , w h o s e re la tio n s w ith

th e B ritis h h a d

alw ay s b e e n b e t t e r th a n w ith th e F r e n c h , g o t s p ec ia l a tte n t i o n fr o m t h e f o r m e r . S ee C h u r c h ill, o p . c it., p . 2 5 0 ; F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 9 , R u ss ia , p p . 4 3 5 - 4 3 6 ; D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , I I I , 3 6 6 , 3 9 0 - 3 9 1 .

132 A p p a r e n tly a s im ila r riv alry h a d

a lso

d e v e lo p e d

in

A llie d

re la tio n s

w 'ith

K o lc h a k in th e s p rin g o f 1 9 1 9 , a t le a s t to th e e x te n t t h a t th e B ritis h a n d F r e n c h re p re s e n ta tiv e s a t K o lc h a k ’s h e a d q u a rte r s , G e n e r a ls K n o x a n d J a n in , d is a g re e d o v e r w h a t a d v ic e to giv e th e R u ss ia n le a d e r, a n d J a n in c o m p la in e d t h a t K n o x w as ig n o rin g th e fa c t t h a t h e , J a n in , w as s u p p o s e d to b e A llie d s u p re m e c o m m a n d e r o n th e S ib e ria n f r o n t. See th e l e tte r fro m C le m e n c e a u o f M a y 15, in s tr u c tin g t h e F o r e ig n M in is tr y to b r in g th is m a t t e r to th e a tt e n t i o n o f th e B ritis h g o v e r n m e n t, in I z is to r ii g r a z h d a n s k o i v o i n y , II , 4 5 - 4 6 . 133 S ee K ra sn o v , " V s e v e lik o e v o isk o D o n s k o e ," lo c . c i t . , p p . 3 0 8 - 3 0 9 ; D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , I V , 7 5 - 7 6 ; a n d th e le t t e r fr o m K ra s n o v to D e n ik in , J a n ­

u a ry 2 1 , 1 9 1 9 , M iliu k o v P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s.

C f . P io n tk o v s k ii, o p . c it., p . 4 3 3 ;

a n d E . E . Ia k u s h k in , F r a n ts u z s k a ia i n t e r v e n t s i i a n a iu g e , 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9

(M o s c o w :

G o s iz d a t, 1 9 2 9 ) , p . 2 4 . D e n ik in a n d K ra sn o v b o t h p r o te s te d a g a in s t F o u q u e t ’s a c tio n , a n d F o u q u e t w as s u b s e q u e n tly re c a lle d , b u t K ra s n o v c o u ld n o t as easily d ism iss th e in c id e n t as D e n ik in , w h o se r e s e n tm e n t a g a in s t F r e n c h b e h a v io r in g e n e r a l w as a t le a s t p a rtly a ss u a g ed in th is case b y t h e f a c t t h a t F o u q u e t w as s u p ­ p o r ti n g h is c la im to a u th o r ity o v e r K ra sn o v .

K ra s n o v ’s p o s itio n w as in d e e d u n ­

te n a b le a f te r t h e a rriv a l o f A llie d fo rce s, a n d p re s s u re o n h im

to re s ig n b e c a m e

in c re a sin g ly g re a t. In F e b ru a ry , w h e n h is c h ie f a rm y c o m m a n d e r , G e n e r a l D e n is o v , w as a tta c k e d

in th e K ru g , w h ic h p a sse d a v o te o f n o c o n fid e n c e a g a in s t h im ,

K ra sn o v to o k th e w e ig h t o f o p in io n in t h e D o n p a r lia m e n t as t a n t a m o u n t to a v o te o f n o c o n fid e n c e a g a in s t h im s e lf a n d re s ig n e d . I n h is p la c e w as e le c te d G e n ­ era l A . P . B o g ae v sk ii, w h o h a d b o t h A llie d a n d V o lu n te e r b a c k in g . K a z a c h ’ia " s a m o s tin o s t’," p . 2 8 ; a n d

S e e K ra sn o v ,

D o b r y n in , o p . c it., p p . 7 2 - 7 4 .

S ee a lso

th e M e m o r a n d u m o f th e D o n R e p u b lic D e le g a tio n to th e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , M a y 15, 1 9 1 9 , in th e c o lle c tio n o f d e le g a tio n p ro p a g a n d a o f th e H o o v e r L ib ra ry . w as p r in t e d a t th e tim e as M e m o r a n d u m f e r e n ts ii M ir a

It

d e l e g a t s i i D o n s k o i re s p u b lik i n a K o n -

(P a r is : I m p . B e re z n ia k e t fils, 1 9 1 9 ) .

134 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , I V , 7 1 ; L u k o m s k ii, M e m o i r s , p p . 2 0 3 - 2 0 4 , 2 1 5 . S ee also th e a c c o u n t b y th e D o n re p re s e n ta tiv e a t V o lu n t e e r h e a d q u a r t e r s in A . A . S m a g in , " V o s p o m in a n i ia " (M S , C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity R u s s ia n A r c h iv e ) , p p . 2 7 - 3 2 ; a n d K ra sn o v , " V s e v e lik o e v o isk o D o n s k o e ," lo c . c it., p p . 2 7 7 - 2 7 8 ; " D i s ­ c o u rs d u G e n e r a l K ra sn o v a v ec le G e n e r a l P o o l"

(M S , H o o v er L ib ra ry ); a n d

353

N OTES

D e n ik in to P o o le , D e c e m b e r 2 7 / J a n u a ry 9 , 1 9 1 9 , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e w ith E n g lis h r e p r e s e n ta tiv e s in S o u th R u ss ia , D e n ik in A rc h iv e s. 135 O n th e s e q u e s tio n s , see D e n ik in , O c h e r k i i u s s k o i s m u ty , IV , 4 2 , 2 1 5 - 2 1 6 , 2 4 0 - 2 4 5 ; a n d V , 1 6 7 - 1 7 0 ; M . S. M a rg u lie s , o p . c it., II , 1 3 - 1 6 ; l e tte r fr o m M a k la k o v to S. V . P a n in e t a l., M a y 16, 1 9 1 9 , W M A , F ile 1 5 1 , p p . 2 5 6 - 2 7 9 ; a n d P a ris P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , V , 7 2 5 , 7 3 6 . 136 D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , I I I , 3 6 4 - 3 7 5 .

137 I b i d . , p p . 4 0 9 - 4 1 0 . 138 I b i d . , p . 4 6 9 .

139 I b i d . , p . 5 2 7 .

C H A P T E R V : B R IT A IN

AS A B U F F E R

1 F o r D e n ik in ’s re v ie w o f d e v e lo p m e n ts in th e N o r t h C a u c a s u s a n d th e ir sig­ n ific a n c e , see A . I. D e n ik in , O c h e r k i russJcoi s m u ty , V o l. I V ( B e rlin : “ S lo v o ,” 1 9 2 4 ) , p . 9 7 ff. 2 I b id ., I l l , 2 4 0 . 3 T h e N a tio n a l G u a r d w as te c h n ic a lly n o t p a r t o f t h e G e o rg ia n a rm y b u t a n a r m o f t h e s o v iets o f G e o rg ia .

Its a p p e a ra n c e m a rk e d a n o m in o u s tu r n in r e la tio n s

w ith t h e V o lu n te e r s , s in c e i t wras g e n e ra lly re g a rd e d as a c o n s id e ra b ly m o r e ra d ic a l o r g a n iz a tio n a n d s o m e w h a t a u to n o m o u s as a m ilita r y fo rc e . 4 S ee D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , I I I , 2 4 0 - 2 4 2 . T h i s w as a very m ix e d a re a in te r m s o f its p o p u la tio n , a f a c t w h ic h m a d e th e q u e s tio n o f ju ris d ic tio n e x c e e d in g ly d iffic u lt.

G e o rg ia ’s a n c i e n t h is to ry e n a b le d it to c la im m u c h th r o u g h

in h e r ita n c e , b u t th e n o r th e r n b o r d e r o f th e G e o rg ia n n a tio n b o t h

b e f o r e th e

re v o lu tio n a n d to d a y to u c h e s t h e B la ck Sea a t a p o i n t ju s t s o u th o f A d le r, t h a t is, w e ll o v e r 1 0 0 k ilo m e te rs s o u th o f S o c h i. S u k h u m , h o w e v e r, w as a n d is s o m e 9 0 k ilo m e te r s s o u th o f t h a t b o r d e r in G e o rg ia n te rrito ry . T h e b o r d e r in q u e s tio n w as a lso th e s o u th e r n b o r d e r o f t h e K u b a n , w h ic h h o p e d to s te p in to t h e d is p u te d te r r ito r y as a b u ff e r b e tw e e n th e V o lu n te e r s a n d th e G e o rg ia n s . T h e a p p e a l fo r lib e r a tio n w as in p a r t, h o w e v e r, a re s u lt o f th e d e p lo y m e n t o f G e r m a n tro o p s a lo n g t h e c o a s t. 5 T h e s te n o g r a p h ic jo u rn a l o f t h e c o n fe re n c e m a y b e f o u n d in t h e G e o rg ia n p u b lic a tio n , D o k u m e n t y i m a t e r i a l y p o v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k e Z a k a v k a z ’ia i G r u z ii ( T iflis : T i p . P r a v it e l’s tv a G r u z in s k o i R e s p u b lik i, 1 9 1 9 ) , p p . 3 9 1 - 4 1 4 . 6 I b i d . , p p . 3 9 1 - 3 9 2 . S ee a lso D e n ik in ’s a c c o u n t o f th e c o n fe re n c e a n d th e issues in v o lv e d

in

O c h e r k i ru ssk o i s m u ty ,

III,

2 4 0 - 2 4 3 . A le k se e v h a d

a lre a d y

a u th o r iz e d a c r e d it o f 2 5 0 ,0 0 0 ru b le s fo r th e p u rc h a s e o f g ra in to b e s e n t to G e o rg ia , b u t h e in d ic a te d t h e n e c e s sity fo r s e ttlin g t h e b o r d e r q u e s tio n , th e issu e o f t h e t r e a t m e n t o f R u ss ia n s in G e o rg ia , a n d th e p ro b le m o f re la tio n s w ith th e G e r m a n s b e f o r e f u r t h e r c o o p e r a tio n c o u ld b e a ss u re d . A c c o u n ts b y R u ss ia n officers in T r a n s c a u c a s ia , re la tin g in s o m e cases r a th e r h a rs h t r e a t m e n t b y th e G e o rg ia n s , m a y b e f o u n d in G e n e r a l N . K . K h a g o n d o k o v , “ V o s p o m in a n iia ,” ( M S , C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s ity R u s s ia n A r c h iv e ) , p . 9 3 4 ff.; a n d in G e n e r a l P . S h a tilo v , “ Z a p is k i” ( M S , C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity R u s s ia n A r c h iv e ) , P a r t I, S e c tio n B , p p . 5 5 8 - 5 8 4 ; a n d S e c tio n D , p p . 6 1 6 - 6 3 7 . 7 S e e G e g e c h k o r i’s c o m m e n ts in D o k u m e n t y i m a t e r ia ly p o v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k e

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Z a k a v k a z ’ia i G r u z i i , p p . 3 9 4 - 3 9 6 , 4 0 0 - 4 0 3 , 4 0 9 - 4 1 0 , 4 1 3 . 8 I b i d . , p p . 4 1 3 - 4 1 4 . G e n e r a l A le k se e v s ta te d a t t h e c lo se o f t h e c o n f e r e n c e : “ W e h a v e re a c h e d a p o i n t b e y o n d w h ic h o u r ta lk s c a n a d v a n c e o n ly w h e n i t is

m a d e c le a r w h e th e r th e re p re s e n ta tiv e s o f G e o rg ia w a n t to re m o v e th e s e are as fr o m R u ssia o r n o t.

O n ly th e n c a n w e p ro c e e d , b u t I a m s u re t h a t t h e n a ll r e ­

m a in in g q u e s tio n s c a n b e d e c id e d easily a n d q u ic k ly . . . .” 9 S ee B y c h ’s re m a rk s in ib id ., p p . 3 9 4 , 4 0 3 - 4 0 4 . A t th e c o n fe re n c e B y c h s ta te d t h a t h e f e lt su re t h a t G e o rg ia w o u ld h a v e n o o b je c tio n to t h e in c o r p o r a tio n o f th e d is p u te d te r rito ry in to th e K u b a n . B y c h ’s g o v e r n m e n t h a d in d e e d h a d fr ie n d ly d e a lin g s w ith G e o rg ia a n d w ith o th e r so c ia lis t g o v e rn m e n ts in t h e S o u th . D e n ik in , h o w e v e r, b e c a m e c o n v in c e d t h a t th e r e w as m o re in v o lv e d t h a n a p p e a re d o n th e su rfa c e; h e b e lie v e d t h a t B y ch w as n e g o tia tin g w ith th e G e o rg ia n s a n d o th e r s b e h in d th e V o lu n te e r s ’ b a c k . See D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , I I I , 2 4 2 . I n S e p te m b e r a c o u n c il o f th e so c ia lis t p a rtie s in S o c h i p a sse d a re s o lu tio n d e c la r ­ in g t h a t w h ile clo se e c o n o m ic ties b o u n d th e a re a to th e K u b a n , c o n tin u a tio n o f th e u n io n w ith G e o rg ia w as p re fe ra b le in th e im m e d ia te f u tu r e . S ee D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k e Z a k a v k a z ’ia i G ru z ii, p p . 3 8 8 - 3 8 9 . A p e a s a n t

i m a t e r ia ly p o

c o n fe re n c e in S o c h i in D e c e m b e r a d o p te d a s im ila r re s o lu tio n c a llin g fo r u n io n w ith G e o rg ia u n til R u ss ia c o u ld b e re s to re d as a d e m o c ra tic f e d e ra te d re p u b lic . G e o rg ia la te r p u t a c la im b e fo re th e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e in

I b id ., p p . 4 1 4 -4 1 5 .

P a ris a n d th e n b e fo re th e L e a g u e o f N a tio n s fo r b o rd e rs in c lu d in g S o c h i d is tr ic t. See th e m a p in th e G e o rg ia n p u b lic a tio n , D o c u m e n t s p r é s e n t é s p a r le g o u v e r n e ­ m e n t d e la r é p u b l i q u e d e G é o r g i e à la p r e m i è r e A s s e m b l é e d e la S o c i é t é d e s n a tio n s

( L o n d o n : W illia m s , L e a a n d C o ., 1 9 2 0 ) . 10 F o r a n o p p o s ite in te r p r e ta tio n

o f G e o r g ia n - V o lu n te e r re la tio n s , see I. M .

S h afir, e d ., S e c r e t s o f M e n s h e v i k G e o r g ia B rita in , 1 9 2 2 ) ,

p.

( L o n d o n : C o m m u n i s t P a rty o f G r e a t

6 ff. H e re it is d e c la re d t h a t th e G e o rg ia n M e n s h e v ik g o v e r n ­

m e n t “ w e n t o v e r o p e n ly to n a tio n a l c h a u v in is m a n d tre a c h e r y to t h e r e v o lu tio n ” a n d a d o p te d a p o lic y o f “ s ta u n c h s u p p o r t o f all t h e W h i t e G u a rd s u n d e r th e le a d e r s h ip o f A lex eiev , D e n ik in , W r a n g e l , a n d m a n y o th e rs w h o w e re d e te r m in e d to c ru s h th e W o r k e r s ’ a n d P e a s a n ts ’ R e p u b l ic .” 11 S ee A . A . T a k h o - G o d i, R e v o l i u t s i i a i k o n tr - r e v o li u t s i ia v D a g e s t a n e (M a k h a c h K a la : D a g e s ta n s k o e G o s iz d a t., 1 9 2 7 ) , p . 9 4 . 12 A B ritis h m is sio n u n d e r a M a jo r G o ld s m ith t h a t h a d b e e n s e n t to V l a d i ­ k av k az w as a rre s te d b y th e B o lsh e v ik s a n d q u ic k ly ta k e n to A s tra k h a n b e c a u s e o f d e m a n d s f o r its re le a se m a d e b y lo c a l e le m e n ts a n d e v e n th e lo c a l s o v ie t. T h e r e p o r t o f th e a rre s t first a p p e a re d in I z v e s t i i a , N o v e m b e r 15, 1 9 1 8 .

S e e J. M .

M e ije r , e d ., T h e T r o t s k y P a p e r s , V o l. I ( T h e H a g u e : M o u to n , 1 9 6 4 ) , p p . I S O 181. 13 T a k h o - G o d i, o p . c i t . , p . 9 6 ; W . E . P o s t e t a l., “ A R é s u m é o f E v e n ts in t h e C a u c a s u s ” ( M S , H o o v e r L i b r a r y ) , C h a p . 6. 14 Q u o te d in A . R ae v sk ii, A n g liis k a ia in t e r v e n t s i i a i M u s a v a ts k o e p ra v ite l's tv o (B a k u : G o s tip . “ K ra sn y i V o s t o k ,” 1 9 2 7 ) , p p . 1 6 1 - 1 6 2 .

C f . D e n ik in , O c h e r k i

ru ssk o i s m u ty , IV , 1 2 3 -1 2 4 .

15 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , IV , 1 0 6 ff. A n a c c o u n t o f V o l u n t e e r o p e r a ­ tio n s a n d t h e p o litic a l s itu a tio n is a lso in P . S h a tilo v , Z a p i s k i ( M S , C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity R u s s ia n A r c h iv e ) , p . 6 6 7 ff.

355

NOTES 16 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i i u s s k o i s m u t y , I V , 115 ff. 17 R e p o r t o n M o u n ta i n R e p u b l ic d e le g a tio n , T a k h o - G o d i, o p . c i t . ,

p.

190.

13 A lth o u g h re b u ffe d b y th e V o lu n te e r C o m m a n d , t h e d e le g a tio n re c e iv e d a w a rm

r e c e p tio n b y K u b a n p o litic a l le a d e rs, w h o e n c o u ra g e d

V o lu n te e r d e m a n d s o n t h e M o u n ta i n g o v e r n m e n t. 19 I b i d . , pp. 196-197. 20 I b i d . , p. 2 0 0 .

re s is ta n c e a g a in s t

S ee i b i d . , p p . 1 9 4 - 1 9 5 .

21 W h i l e n o t h i n g c a m e o f D e n ik in 's n e g o tia tio n s w ith th e M o u n ta i n g o v e r n ­ m e n t's r e p re s e n ta tiv e s , h e d id a t th is tim e b e g in ta lk s w ith th e C h e c h e n s , w h ic h le d to a s e p a ra te tru c e , th u s a t le a s t te m p o ra rily p a c ify in g o n e m o re e le m e n t o f th e M o u n ta i n R e p u b lic 's c o n s titu e n c y . S ee D e n ik in , O c h e r k i i u s s k o i s m u t y , I V , 1 2 7 . 22 T h e R e d s q u a d r o n w as p re v e n te d fr o m re s c u in g th e B o lsh e v ik s in D a g e s ta n b y th e R u s s ia n flo tilla o n t h e C a s p ia n , a b o u t w h ic h m o re w ill b e n o te d b e lo w . T h e s e e v e n ts a re r e la te d in T a k h o - G o d i, o p . c it., p. 9 8 ff. 23 I b i d . ,

pp. 105-106.

24 A lm o s t a y e a r b e fo re , in J u ly 1 9 1 8 , t h e p r o - T u r k e le m e n t in th e g o v e r n m e n t h a d g o n e so fa r as to d ra w u p a tre a ty to u n ite w ith A z e r b a id z h a n a n d p u t b o th u n d e r t h e re lig io u s le a d e r s h ip o f th e S u lta n .

S u c h a tre a ty w as n e v e r e n te r e d ,

b u t th e lin k w ith A z e r b a id z h a n w as to b e t h e b asis o f s o m e o f th e s u b s e q u e n t a c tiv itie s o f th e re fu g e e M o u n ta i n g o v e rn m e n t. S ee i b i d . , p p . 1 0 4 - 1 0 5 ; a n d th e te x t o f t h e p r o p o s e d tre a ty , p p . 1 8 7 - 1 8 8 . 25 S e e te le g ra m s to t h e B ritis h C o m m a n d , D e c e m b e r 1 9 1 8 , in C o rre s p o n d e n c e w ith E n g lis h R e p r e s e n ta tiv e s in S o u th R u ss ia , D e n ik in A rc h iv e s (C o lu m b ia U n i ­ v e rs ity R u s s ia n A r c h iv e ) . S ee a lso D e n ik in , O c h e r k i iu s s k o i s m u t y , I V , 1 3 1 - 1 3 2 . 26 I n te llig e n c e re p o rts N o s .

32 a n d

36, J a n u a ry

10 a n d

12,

1919, W ra n g el

M ilita r y A rc h iv e s (H o o v e r L i b r a r y ) , F ile 1 8 1 . 27 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i i u s s k o i s m u t y , IV , 1 3 1 . 28 P ic h o n to P a u l C a m b o n , M a r c h 3, 1 9 1 9 , M A , S eries B , P a c k e t II , D o ss ie r 11. T h i s d is p a tc h q u o te s re p o rts fr o m C o l. C h a r d ig n y fo r F e b ru a ry 15 a n d 2 6 . 29 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i iu s s k o i s m u t y , I V , 1 5 4 - 1 5 6 . T h i s a p p a r e n tly c o in c id e n ta l c o r r e la tio n

b e tw e e n

A r m e n ia n -G e o rg ia n

h o s tilitie s

and

th e

V o lu n te e r a d v a n c e

c o n v in c e d t h e G e o rg ia n s t h a t th e tw o w e re s e c re tly a c tin g to g e th e r, a n d G e n e r a l W a l k e r r e p o r te d ly w a rn e d t h e A rm e n ia n g o v e r n m e n t a g a in s t a n y s u c h c o llu s io n w ith D e n ik in . H o w e v e r, A rm e n ia n s in th e S o c h i a re a a n d e lse w h e re a lo n g th e c o a s t c o n tin u e d to ta k e a h o s tile a t t i t u d e to w a rd G e o rg ia a n d a p p e a le d to th e V o lu n te e r s f o r in te r v e n tio n o n th e ir b e h a lf. S ee i b i d . , p . 1 5 4 . 30 S ee t h e r e p o r t b y E r d e li in th e W r a n g e l M ilita ry A rc h iv e s, F ile 1 5 3 , p . 1 4 8 ; a n d a l e t t e r fr o m E r d e li to D e n ik in o f J a n u a ry 18, 1 9 1 9 , D e n ik in A rc h iv e s. 31 L e t t e r fr o m t h e B ritis h m ilita r y m is sio n to V o lu n te e r h e a d q u a rte r s , A p ril 7, 1 9 1 9 , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e w ith

E n g lis h

R e p r e s e n ta tiv e s in S o u th

R u ss ia , D e n ik in

A rc h iv e s. 32 L u k o m s k ii, V o s p o m i n a n i i a , I I , 3 0 0 - 3 0 1 . 33 E r d e li r e p o r t, W r a n g e l M ilita r y A rc h iv e s, F ile 1 5 3 , p . 1 4 8 . 34 F o r G e o r g ia n a n d A z e r b a id z h a n p ro te s ts to th e B ritis h o v e r V o lu n te e r m o v e ­ m e n ts , see D e n ik in , O c h e i k i iu s s k o i s m u t y , I V , 1 2 5 - 1 2 6 . 35 I b i d . , p. 1 5 6 . 30 L a te r in ta lk s w ith G e o rg ia n P r im e M in is te r Z h o r d a n iia , w h o c la im e d t h a t D e n ik in h a d a d v a n c e d h is tro o p s in d ir e c t v io la tio n o f B ritis h in s tru c tio n s n o t to

The Volunteer Army

356

d o so, t h e B ritis h re p re s e n ta tiv e , G e n e r a l B e e c h , p o in te d o u t t h a t w h ile c o m ­ m u n ic a tio n s h a d b e e n s e n t e a rlie r to D e n ik in , n o n e h a d b e e n re c e iv e d b e f o r e th e V o lu n te e r a d v a n c e .

I n f a c t B ritis h p o lic y w as n o t a c tu a lly c la rifie d , a c c o r d in g to

B e a c h , u n til th e a rriv a l o f G e n e r a l B riggs a t V o lu n te e r h e a d q u a r te r s in F e b r u a r y . S ee th e tr a n s c r ip t o f a M a y 2 4 , 1 9 1 9 , m e e tin g in “ ‘D e m o k r a tic h e s k o e ’ p r a v ite l’* s tv o G r u z ii i a n g liis k o e k o m a n d o v a n ie ,” K r a s n y i A i k h i v , V o l. X X I

(M o s c o w :

G o s iz d a t, 1 9 2 7 ) , p . 1 45. 37 D e n ik in to M iln e , J a n u a ry 1 4 / 2 7 , 1 9 1 9 , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e w ith E n g lis h R e p ­ re s e n ta tiv e s , D e n ik in A rc h iv e s. S ee also D e n ik in , O c h e r k i iu s s k o i s m u ty , I V , 1 5 6 . 38 D e n ik in to T h o m s o n , J a n u a ry 2 4 / F e b r u a r y 6, 1 9 1 9 , C o r r e s p o n d e n c e w ith E n g lis h R e p r e s e n ta tiv e s , D e n ik in A rc h iv e s. 39 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , I V , 1 5 6 . 40 I b i d . ,

p.

157.

S ee a lso D e n ik in to W a l k e r , F e b r u a r y

1 /1 4 , 19 1 9 , C o rre s­

p o n d e n c e w ith E n g lis h R e p r e s e n ta tiv e s , D e n ik in A rc h iv e s. 41 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , I V , 1 5 7 . 42 T h e B ritis h m is sio n to E k a te r in o d a r w as h e a d e d in t u r n b y P o o le ( N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 8 - F e b r u a r y 1 9 1 9 ) , B riggs ( F e b r u a r y - J u n e 1 9 1 9 ) , a n d fin a lly G e n e r a l H o lm a n ( J u n e 1 9 1 9 - M a r c h 1 9 2 0 ) . A c c o rd in g to D e n ik in , G e n e r a l W a l k e r d e c la r e d to a V o lu n te e r r e p re s e n ta tiv e t h a t h e c o n s id e re d P o o le o b v io u s ly u n in f o r m e d as to B ritis h p o lic y .

P o o le ’s d e p a r tu r e fo r C o n s ta n tin o p le w as in itia lly d e s c rib e d as a

tr ip f o r c o n s u lta tio n , b u t h e d id n o t r e tu r n .

D e n ik in a d d s to th is h is te s t im o n y

t h a t P o o le u rg e d th e s u p p o r t o f V o lu n te e r a u th o r ity in D a g e s ta n a n d p e rs o n a lly p r o te s te d t h e p o lic y d ire c tiv e s c o m in g th r o u g h

t h e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n C o m m a n d .

I b id ., p p . 131, 158. 43 I b i d . , p .

1 3 1 . S ee also C . E . B e c h h o fe r- R o b e rts , I n D e n i k i n ' s R u s s ia a n d

th e C a u ca su s 1 9 1 9 - 1 9 2 0

( L o n d o n : C o llin ’s S o n s, 1 9 2 1 ) , p p . 1 8 - 2 0 , 2 7 - 2 8 .

44 T h e tr a n s c r ip t o f th is m e e tin g is in “ ‘D e m o k ra tic h e s k o e ’ p r a v ite l’s tv o G r u z ii i a n g liis k o e k o m a n d o v a n ie ,” l o c . c i t . , p p . 1 2 7 - 1 4 0 . 45 F o r a B ritis h o b s e rv e r’s a c c o u n t w h ic h p o rtra y s G e o rg ia n d u p lic ity to w a r d th e B ritis h o n s ev eral o c c a s io n s a n d c h a rg e s G e o rg ia w ith b e in g “ a c lassic e x a m p le o f a n im p e ria lis t ‘sm a ll n a t i o n ’ . . . [w h o se] c h a u v in is m w as b e y o n d a ll b o u n d s , ” see B e c h h o f e r - R o b e rts , o p . c i t . ,

p.

14

ff.

46 S in c e B rig gs g ave D e n ik in w r itt e n a s s u ra n c e t h a t th e s e B ritis h tro o p s w o u ld p r e v e n t a n y G e o rg ia n a c tio n a g a in s t t h e V o lu n te e r s , t h e l a tte r th u s re c e iv e d a d e fa c to r e c o g n itio n o f t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e d e m a r c a tio n lin e s o u th w a r d f r o m T u a p s e to th e B zy b .

S ee D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , I V , 1 6 0 .

47 I b i d . , p p . 1 5 9 - 1 6 0 .

S im ila rly , a n A z e r b a id z h a n i r e p re s e n ta tiv e w as a c c r e d ite d

to t h e K u b a n g o v e r n m e n t b u t n o t to t h e V o lu n te e r A rm y . I b i d . , 1 7 0 . 48 T h i s w a rn in g , fr o m M iln e , w as in re s p o n s e to D e n ik in ’s n o t e o f J a n u a r y 2 7 n o te d a b o v e .

S ee M iln e to D e n ik in , F e b ru a ry 11, 1 9 1 9 , C o rr e s p o n d e n c e w ith

E n g lis h R e p r e s e n ta tiv e s , D e n ik in A rc h iv e s. 49 C f . D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , I V , 1 3 1 . 50 D is s a tis fa c tio n w ith L ia k h o v h a d a p p a r e n tly b e e n b u ild in g u p fo r s o m e tim e , e sp e c ia lly b e c a u s e o f fric tio n b e tw e e n h im 1 1 7 ; a n d S h a tilo v , o p . c i t . , p . 6 8 0 ff.

a n d h is s u b o rd in a te s .

51 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , I V , 1 3 1 , 1 3 3 . F e b ru a ry A rc h iv e s.

22,

1919,

C o rr e s p o n d e n c e

w ith

E n g lis h

See ib id .,

p.

S ee a lso B rig g s to D e n ik in , R e p r e s e n ta tiv e s ,

D e n ik in

357

N OTES 52 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i i u s s k o i s m u t y , I V , 1 3 3 .

53 D e n ik in to B rig g s, F e b ru a ry 2 2 , 1 9 1 9 , C o rre s p o n d e n c e w ith E n g lis h R e p r e ­ s e n ta tiv e s , D e n ik in A rc h iv e s. I t is in te r e s tin g to n o te t h a t t h e R u s s ia n c h a rg é d ’a ffaires in L o n d o n , N a b o k o v , w as a t a b o u t th is tim e w irin g t h a t th e “ W a r M i n ­ is try h a s a ss u re d m e t h a t s u p p lie s fo r th e V o lu n te e r A rm y w ill d e fin ite ly c o n tin u e a n d n o o rd e rs h a v e b e e n g iv e n to s to p t h e m .” N a b o k o v to S a z o n o v , F e b r u a r y 2 0 , 1 9 1 9 , W r a n g e l M ilita ry A rc h iv e s, F ile 6.

B u t in a te le g ra m d a te d F e b ru a r y 2 7 ,

N a b o k o v in f o r m e d S a z o n o v t h a t t h e B ritis h F o r e ig n O ffice w is h e d i t k n o w n t h a t : “ A s c o n c e rn s t h e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n re p u b lic s , t h e E n g lis h G o v e r n m e n t b e lie v es t h a t t h e ir fin a l s ta tu s w ill b e s u b je c t t o t h e d e c is io n o f t h e P e a c e C o n fe re n c e . U n til s u c h a d e c is io n is ta k e n i t is d e s ira b le t h a t n o in te r v e n tio n b e u n d e r ta k e n fr o m th e R u s s ia n s id e. I t h a s a lre a d y b e e n in d ic a te d to G e n e r a l D e n ik in t h a t in th e o p in io n o f th e E n g lis h G o v e r n m e n t h is m ilita r y a c tio n s h o u ld b e re s tric te d to t h e a re a n o r t h o f th e lin e s u g g e s te d to h im a n d t h a t th e s u p p o r t a n d s y m p a th y o f th e E n g lis h G o v e r n m e n t w ill d e p e n d u p o n s tr ic t o b s e rv a n c e o f th is c o n d itio n .” N a b o k o v to S a z o n o v , F e b ru a ry 2 7 , 1 9 1 9 , M a k la k o v A rc h iv e s, S eries B , P a c k e t I V , D o s s ie r 11. 54 B rig g s to D e n ik in , F e b ru a ry 2 1 , 1 9 1 9 , C o rre s p o n d e n c e w ith E n g lis h R e p r e ­ s e n ta tiv e s , D e n ik in A rc h iv e s. 55 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , I V , 1 3 2 - 1 3 3 . 56 I b i d . , p . 1 3 3 . 57 T a k h o - G o d i, o p . c it., p . 1 0 7 . r>8 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , IV , 1 34. 59 I b i d . , p . 1 7 1 .

60 I b i d . , p . 1 3 4 . 61 I b i d . , p . 1 3 5 . 62 T r a n s c r ip ts o f th e s e m e e tin g s o n M a y 16, 2 4 , 2 7 , 31, a n d J u n e 6 a re in “ ‘D e m o k r a tic h e s k o e ’ p r a v ite l’s tv o G ru z ii i a n g liis k o e k o m a n d o v a n ie ,” lo c . c i t . , p . 141 ff. 63 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , IV , 1 61. 64 T h e d is o r d e r re fe rre d to h e r e w as o n e o f th e first a p p e a ra n c e s o f th e L e f tis t m o v e m e n t o f “ G r e e n s ,” w h o s e a c tiv itie s w e re c h ie fly to in v o lv e re b e llio n a g a in s t t h e V o lu n te e r s b u t w h o s e p o s itio n in th e civil w a r g e n e ra lly w as t h a t o f “ n e u ­ tr a lity .” S ee i b i d . 65 I b i d . , p . 1 6 2 . 66 “ ‘D e m o k r a tic h e s k o e ’ p ra v ite l's tv o

G ru z ii i a n g liis k o e k o m a n d o v a n ie ,”

lo c .

c it., p. 144.

67 I b i d . , p . 1 4 8 . 68 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , I V , 1 6 2 - 1 6 3 . 60 D e n ik in c re d its B riggs w ith b e g in n in g a t th is tim e a lo n g p e rs o n a l c a m p a ig n to w in s u p p o r t fo r t h e V o lu n te e r A rm y in B u c h a re s t, in W a r s a w , in th e W a r O ffice, a n d in P a rlia m e n t. cu rre d

B rig g s ’ a c tiv itie s in th is re g a rd , D e n ik in c la im s, in ­

“ c o n s id e ra b le o p p o s itio n o n t h e p a r t o f th e M in is te r o f F o re ig n affairs,

C u r z o n . ” I b i d . , p . 1 6 3 , f o o tn o t e 1.

F o r s im ila r c o m m e n t u p o n H o lm a n ’s s u b s e ­

q u e n t c o m p la in ts a b o u t la c k o f s u p p o r t fro m L o n d o n , see B e c h h o fe r- R o b e r ts , o p . c it., p p . 1 8 6 - 1 8 7 . 70 T h e te x t uses th e te rm m ile s a t o n e p o i n t a n d v e r s ts a t a n o th e r , m a k in g th e e x a c t d is ta n c e u n c le a r.

The Volunteer Army

358 71 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , I V , 1 3 5 . 72 D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , I I I , 4 5 1 .

(I ta lic s a d d e d .)

73 D e n ik in , O c h e i k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , I V , 1 3 5 .

T h e o p p o s itio n c e r ta in ly r e s u lte d

fr o m s o m e th in g m o re t h a n B o lsh e v ik a g ita tio n , b u t it w as tr u e t h a t t h e B o ls h e v ik u n d e r g r o u n d s k illfu lly u s e d M o s le m le a d e rs to g e n e r a te h o s tility a g a in s t th e V o l ­ u n te e r s , e sp e c ia lly a g a in s t th e C o ss a c k s .

O n e s u c h le a d e r, A li K h a d z h i, w r o te to

K h a lilo v : " W h o e v e r s y m p a th iz e s w ith t h e C o ssa ck s w ill b e e te rn a lly d a m n e d " a n d w ill fall u n d e r t h e “ rag e o f G o d ." S ee T k a h o - G o d i, o p . c it., p p . 1 1 0 - 1 1 1 . A c c o r d in g to T a k h o - G o d i, th e G e o rg ia n a n d A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v e rn m e n ts d id n o t d e a l d ire c tly w ith th e B o lsh e v ik s in th is w o rk , b u t t h e G e o rg ia n N a tio n a l G u a r d s e c re tly o ffered a rm s fo r a n y re b e ls re c ru ite d . I b i d . , p . 1 1 4 .

C f . J. L o ris -M e lik o f ,

L a r é v o l u t i o n r u s s e e t le s n o u v e ll e s r é p u b l i q u e s tra n s c a u c a s ie n n e s

(P a r is : A lc a n ,

1 9 2 0 ), p p . 1 4 9 -1 5 0 . 7 4 Z . D . A v alo v , T h e I n d e p e n d e n c e o f G e o r g ia ( L o n d o n : H e a d le y , 1 9 4 0 ) , p p . 1 8 9 -1 9 0 .

B y th is tim e A z e r b a id z h a n h a d a fairly g o o d a rm y in b e in g , th a n k s

p a rtly to t h e a ss is ta n c e o f d is g u ise d T u r k is h officers. S ee F . J. F . F r e n c h , F r o m W h i t e h a l l t o t h e C a s p ia n

(L o n d o n : O d h a m s, 1 9 2 0 ), p. 163.

75 F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 9 , R u s s ia , p p . 7 6 6 - 7 6 7 . 76 S ee L t. C o lo n e l S ir A lfre d R a w lin s o n , A d v e n tu re s in t h e N e a r E a s t , 1 9 1 8 1922

( L o n d o n : A . M e lro s e , 1 9 2 3 ) , p p . 1 5 7 , 1 6 0 . C f . A v a lo v , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 4 8 -

149; a n d

D e n ik in , O c h e r k i ru s sk o i s m u t y ,

IV ,

173.

O ne

o b s e rv e r a ttr ib u te s

B ritis h c o o ln e ss to w a rd A rm e n ia to p o lic y m a k e rs in L o n d o n w h o fr u s tr a te d th e e ffo rts o f m o re fa v o ra b le B ritis h R o b e r ts , o p . c it.,

p.

re p re s e n ta tiv e s o n

th e

s c e n e . S ee B e c h h o fe r-

2 6 5 ff.

77 E a rlie r , w h e n G e r m a n a id h a d b e e n o b ta in e d , G e o rg ia h a d ta k e n o v e r c e r ­ ta in te r r ito r y c la im e d b y A rm e n ia o n g ro u n d s t h a t it w as n e ce s sa ry to k e e p it o u t o f th e h a n d s o f th e T u r k s . W h e n t h e G e r m a n s le ft, t h e A rm e n ia n s m o v e d b a c k in to K ars, A r d a h a n , a n d p a r t o f A le k s a n d ro p o l d is tric t, c o m in g in to c o n flic t w ith th e G e o rg ia n s . T h e B ritis h im p o s e d a tru c e a t th is p o i n t b e fo re t h e A rm e n ia n s c o u ld a c h ie v e th e ir g o als. F o r a d e ta ile d a c c o u n t o f G e o rg ia n -A rm e n ia n c o n flic ts , fr o m th e A r m e n ia n p o i n t o f view , see M . V a r a n d ia n , L e c o n f l i c t a rm e n o -g é o rg ie n e t la g u e r r e d u C a u c a s e (P a r is : I m p . M . F lin ik o w s k i, 1 9 1 9 ) .

C f . A v a lo v , o p . c i t.;

a n d K a rl K a u tsk y , G e o r g ia , A S o c i a l - D e m o c r a t i c P e a s a n t R e p u b l i c te r n a tio n a l B o o k sh o p s , L t d ., 1 9 2 1 ) .

(L o n d o n : In ­

78 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , I V , 1 7 3 - 1 7 4 . 79 A v alo v , o p . c i t . , p . 1 9 0 . 80 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , I V , 1 7 2 . A rm e n ia h a d re je c te d a n in v ita tio n to

jo in

th e A z e rb a id z h a n -G e o rg ia n a llia n c e .

In

S e p te m b e r G e n e r a l S u P k e v ic h ,

A z e r b a id z h a n ’s c h ie f o f staff, re fe rre d to A rm e n ia as th e “ n a tu r a l a n d c o n s ta n t a lly " o f th e V o lu n te e r s a n d w a rn e d o f th e n e c e s sity o f b e in g p re p a re d o n b o t h fr o n ts .

See S u P k e v ic h ’s te le g ra m o f S e p te m b e r 7 , 1 9 1 9 , in th e D r a ts e n k o D o c u ­

m e n ts , F ile N o . 1. 81 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , I V , 1 7 5 , 1 7 7 . 82 I b i d . , p . 1 7 7 . 83 I b i d . , 84 I b id .,

p. 1 7 6 . pp. 1 3 7 - 1 3 8 .

8R O n e B ritis h o fficer d e s c rib e d t h e h o s tility o f th e G e o rg ia n s r a th e r s ta rk ly : “ In G e o rg ia h a tr e d a g a in s t th e R u ss ia n s h a d re a c h e d s u c h a p itc h t h a t assassin a-

NOTES

359

tio n h a d b e c o m e le g a liz e d , p ra c tic a lly a t le a st, if n o t f o r m a lly ." p. 210. 86 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i iu s s k o i s m u t y , IV , 1 3 9 .

F r e n c h , o p . c it

G e n e r a l L u k o m s k ii c ite s as th e

c h ie f c a u s e o f tr o u b l e b e tw e e n t h e B ritis h a n d th e V o lu n te e rs th e im p re s sio n a m o n g th e la tte r t h a t t h e fo r m e r w e re s u p p o r tin g s e p a ra tis t te n d e n c ie s in G e o rg ia a n d A z e r b a id z h a n in o rd e r to c r e a te n e w b u ffe r s ta te s b e tw e e n B r itis h - d o m in a te d P e rs ia . S ee L u k o m s k ii, V o s p o m in a n iia , I I , 3 0 4 . 87 D e n ik e n , O c h e r k i i u s s k o i s m u t y , I V , 1 2 8 . 88 I b i d . 89 I b i d . ,

pp.

1 2 8 -1 2 9 .

A c c o r d in g

to

D e n ik in ,

T ho m so n

R u ss ia a n d a

i n te n d e d

fo r

th e

R u s s ia n tro o p s to m o v e f a r th e r n o r t h t h a n P e tro v s k , b u t h e ( D e n ik in ) o rd e re d t h e m to r e m a in th e re . S ee a lso R ae v s k ii, o p . c i t . ,

p.

9 5 ; a n d B . B aik o v , “ V o s p o ­

m in a n iia o r e v o liu ts ii v Z a k a v k a z ’i," A i k h i v R u s s k o i R e v o l i u t s i i , V o l. I X “ S lo v o ," 1 9 2 3 ) , p p . 1 6 2 - 1 6 3 . 90 F r e n c h , o p . c i t . , p . 1 7 1 .

( B e r lin :

91 T h e s e iz u re d id , h o w e v e r, in v o lv e a c h a s e a t sea d u rin g w h ic h B ritis h b o a ts fired to rp e d o e s a t t h e R u s s ia n s h ip s. T h e to rp e d o e s m is se d , th e B ritis h b o a ts h a d e n g in e tr o u b le , a n d th e R u s s ia n cre w s r e tu r n e d to h a r b o r u n s c a th e d . F o r a c c o u n ts see N . N . L is h in , N a K a s p i i s k o m m o r e (P ra g u e : Iz d . M o r. z h u r ., 1 9 3 8 ) , p . 1 1 4 ff.; a n d F r e n c h , o p . c i t , p . 143 ff. a n d p . 17 0 ff. 92 D iff ic u lty w ith th e w o rk e rs w as n o t n e w fo r th e B ritis h . A fo u r-d a y g e n e r a l s trik e h a d fo r c e d p o lic e s u p e rv is o r C o l. C o c k e ril to re le a se s ev eral a g ita to rs a rre s te d in D e c e m b e r . S ee F r e n c h , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 5 6 - 1 5 7 ; L is h in , o p . c i t . , p p . 8 3 - 8 9 . A b r ie f s trik e o f p r o te s t fo llo w e d th e s e iz u re o f th e flo tilla in M a r c h , a n d a n o th e r s trik e w as r e p o r te d in M a y .

S ee L is h in , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 3 4 - 1 3 5 ; a n d R ae v sk ii, o p .

c i t . , p . 1 6 3 . T h e B a k u p ro le ta ria t, in so fa r as it w as in flu e n c e d b y s o c ia lis t a n d

B o lsh e v ik e le m e n ts , w as d e c id e d ly p ro -R u s s ia n a n d a g a in s t s e p a ra tis m , b u t b e ­ tw e e n A z e r b a id z h a n a n d th e V o lu n te e r s it te n d e d to p re fe r th e f o r m e r b e c a u s e o f its w e ak n e ss a n d its a n ti- V o lu n te e r s ta n d . 93 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , IV , 1 2 9 - 1 3 0 .

S ee a lso th e r e p o r t b y th e

V o lu n te e r re p r e s e n ta tiv e in B a k u , L t. B u la s h e v ic h , d a te d J u n e 17, 1 9 1 9 , in S h liap n ik o v , K t o

d o lz h n ik ,

pp.

4 0 6 -4 0 7 .

B u la s h e v ic h

d e sc rib e s

th e

flo tilla as c o n ­

s is tin g o f th r e e im p e ria l n a v y s h ip s a n d f o u r s h ip s a rm e d s in c e t h e re v o lu tio n .

See

a lso L is h in , o p . c it., p . 1 1 4 ff. 94 L t. B u la s h e v ic h in h is re p o r t n o te d a b o v e s ta te s t h a t B ritis h C o m m o d o r e N o rris h a d in f o r m e d th e R u ss ia n s t h a t th e B ritis h n a v al c o m m a n d w o u ld a ss u m e a ll r e s p o n s ib ility fo r n a v al o p e ra tio n s a g a in s t t h e B o lsh e v ik s a n d fo r o v e rsea s u p p ly o n th e C a s p ia n . S ee S h lia p n ik o v , K t o d o l z h n i k , p. 4 0 6 . S ir P e rc y Sykes s ta te s in h is a c c o u n t t h a t “ N o rris . . . s e t to w o rk to d o m in a te t h e C a s p ia n ," a n d u n d e r h is le a d e r s h ip “ B ritis h s u p re m a c y o n th e C a s p ia n w as u n c h a lle n g e d a n d a b r illia n t p a g e o f B ritis h n a v a l a c h ie v e m e n t w as w r i t t e n ."

S ee S ir P e rc y Sykes, A H i s t o r y

o f P e r s ia , V o l . I I ( L o n d o n : M a c m illa n , 1 9 5 1 ) , p p . 4 9 7 - 4 9 8 .

95 S ee F r e n c h , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 1 0 , 1 8 1 . 90 L is h in , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 4 4 - 1 4 5 . 97 N e r a to v to M a k la k o v , N o v e m b e r 2 3 ,

1 9 1 9 , M a k la k o v A rc h iv e s, S eries B ,

P a c k e t I I , D o s s ie r 11. 98 F r e n c h , o p . c it., p . 1 3 7 . L t. C o l. B ro w n e o f t h e B ritis h I n la n d W a t e r T r a n s ­ p o r t S e c tio n w as m a d e s h ip p in g c o n tr o lle r in B a k u .

I b i d . , p . 13 3 .

The Volunteer Army

360 99 I b i d . ,

p.

1 4 2 . T h e m a jo r s h ip s in t h e B ritis h flo tilla w e re t h e K r u g e r , t h e

V e n t u r e , th e A sia, th e E m a n u e l N o b e l , t h e S la v a , t h e Z o r o a s t e r , t h e B i b i E i b a t ,

th e W i n d s o r C a s t l e , a n d th e V o l g a . A m o n g th e R u s s ia n flo tilla s h ip s a s s o c ia te d w ith th e B ritis h d u r in g th e first m o n th s w e re t h e K a rs, t h e A r d a h a n , t h e A ll a V e r d i , a n d th e A s tr a b a d .

D u r in g t h e s p rin g o f 1 9 1 9 six fa s t ( 4 0 k n o ts ) “ c o a s ta l

m o to r - b o a ts ” w e re a d d e d to th e B ritis h fo rc e a f te r m o v e m e n t b y ra il fr o m B a t u m . I b i d . , p . 1 7 2 . A lso in t h e s p rin g a R o y a l A ir F o r c e u n i t u n d e r L t . C o l. B o w e n w as a tta c h e d to t h e n a v al s q u a d r o n a n d s ta t io n e d a t C h e c h e n

Is la n d n o r th e a s t o f

P e tro v s k . I b i d . , p p . 1 8 7 - 1 8 8 . 100 F r e n c h , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 9 6 - 1 9 7 ; L is h in , o p . c it., p . 1 6 6 . 101 F r e n c h , o p . c it., p . 2 0 7 . 102 I b i d . , p. 242. 103 F . M . B ailey , M i s s i o n t o T a s h k e n t ( L o n d o n : C a p e , 1 9 4 6 ) , p p . 8 2 - 8 3 . A F r e n c h C a p t a in C a p d e v ille w as a lso in h id in g in T a s h k e n t . 104 I b i d . ,

S e e ib id ., p . 1 7 0 .

pp. 96-97.

105 A . H . B ru n , T r o u b l o u s T i m e s ( L o n d o n : C o n s ta b le , 1 9 3 1 ) , p p . 1 8 0 - 1 8 4 . 106 B ailey , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 3 0 - 1 3 1 .

B ailey 's a c c o u n t o f t h e J a n u a ry re b e llio n is in

i b i d . , p . 115 ff. C f. S. A . P io n tk o v s k ii, e d ., G r a z h d a n s k a i a v o i n a v R o s s i i ( M o s ­

c o w : Iz d . K o m . u n iv ., 1 9 2 5 ) , p . 6 4 3 ff. A c c o r d in g to B ailey , b r o th e r s o f b o t h K e re n sk ii a n d K o rn ilo v h a d b e e n in v o lv e d in a n ti-B o ls h e v ik a c tiv itie s in T u r k e s ta n a n d b o t h h a d b e e n k ille d .

S ee B ailey , o p . c it., p p . 1 0 1 , 1 2 1 .

107 B ailey , o p . c i t . , p . 2 1 2 ff. 108 C f . V . A . G u rk o -K r ia z h in , “ A n g liis k a ia in te rv e n ts iia ,” I s t o r i k M a r k s is t, N o . 2 (M o s c o w , 1 9 2 6 ) , p p . 1 3 3 - 1 3 4 . 109 B ailey , o p . c it., p . 2 3 8 ff. 110 C . H . E llis, T h e B r iti s h “ I n t e r v e n t i o n ” in T r a n s c a s p ia , 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9

(B e rk e ­

le y : U n iv e rs ity o f C a lifo rn ia P ress, 1 9 6 3 ) , p . 1 4 5 . 111 I b i d . , 112 I b i d . , 113 I b i d . ,

pp. 113, 128-129, 153. pp. 113, 141-143. p. 116.

114 Z . I. M ir k in , “ In te rv e n ts iia v Z a k a s p ii,” in K d e s i a t i l e t i i u in te rv e n ts ii: s b o r n i k s t a t e i ( M o s c o w : G o s iz d a t, 1 9 2 9 ) , p p . 1 8 9 - 1 9 1 .

C f. G u r k o -K r a iz h in , o p . c i t . , p p .

1 2 8 -1 2 9 . 115 E llis, B r iti s h “ I n t e r v e n t i o n , ” p p . 1 2 9 - 1 3 0 . 116 S ee B ailey , o p . c it., p . 51; a n d E llis, B r iti s h “ I n t e r v e n t i o n , ” p p . 1 3 2 - 1 3 3 . 117 T h e B ritis h g o v e r n m e n t h a d d e c id e d a g a in s t f u r th e r m ilita r y a c tio n as e arly as N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 8 , b u t n o d e c is io n w as m a d e o n e v a c u a tin g M a lle s o n ’s fo r c e u n t i l F e b ru a ry .

S ee E llis, “ O p e ra tio n s in T r a n s c a s p ia ,” in D . F o o tm a n , e d ., S o v ie t

A ffairs, N o . 2

( N e w Y o rk : P ra e g e r, 1 9 5 9 ) , p p . 1 4 8 - 1 4 9 ; a n d R . H . U llm a n ,

A n g l o - S o v i e t R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 1 , V o l. I, I n t e r v e n t i o n a n d t h e W a r ( P r i n c e t o n :

P r in c e to n U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 6 1 ) , p p . 3 2 6 - 3 2 8 . 118 E llis, B r iti s h “ I n te r v e n t i o n , ” p p . 1 4 5 - 1 4 6 . 119 I b i d . ,

pp. 149-151.

120 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 2 4 0 . 121 I b i d . ,

p.

241.

122 S ee t h e r e p o r t o f th e D e p a r t m e n t o f F in a n c e , A u g u s t 1 9 1 8 , in t h e B e r n a t­ skii P a p e rs ( M S , C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity R u s s ia n A r c h iv e ) ; a n d D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , V , 2 4 0 .

361

NOTES 12Z E llis, B r iti s h “ I n t e r v e n t i o n , ” p p . 1 5 4 , 1 5 9 .

124 M ir k in , o p . c it., p p . 1 9 6 - 1 9 7 . 125 K ra s n o v o d s k fin a lly fe ll in F e b ru a ry 1 9 2 0 . S ee ib id ., 120 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 2 4 2 . 127 I b i d . , p p . 2 4 3 - 2 4 4 .

p.

199.

F o r f u r th e r d e ta ils o n th e s e e v e n ts , in c lu d in g th e q u e s ­

tio n o f G e o rg ia n , A z e r b a id z h a n , a n d T u r k is h a id , a n d th e effo rts o f t h e B o ls h e ­ viks to u se t h e s itu a tio n to t h e ir o w n a d v a n ta g e , see T a k h o -G o d i, o p . c it., p . 1 15 ff. 128 D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , I I I , 3 0 8 - 3 1 2 .

I t w as in th is s p e e c h t h a t L lo y d

G e o r g e c o m m itte d t h a t s lip w h ic h re v e a le d t h e s ta te o f W e s te r n k n o w le d g e o f R u s s ia n a ffairs: h e re fe rre d to “ G e n e r a l D e n ik in , A d m ira l K o lc h a k , a n d G e n e r a l K h a rk o ff." T h e la tte r , o f c o u rs e , is a c ity . 120 W . S. C h u r c h ill, T h e W o r l d C r is is : T h e A f t e r m a t h B u tte r w o r th , 1 9 2 9 ) , p . 1 6 9 .

(L o n d o n : T h o rn to n

130 C f . C u r z o n ’s re m a rk s in P a r is P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , IV , 6 8 8 , a n d a c o lle c tiv e n o te to t h e A llie d g o v e rn m e n ts fr o m th e re p re s e n ta tiv e s o f E s to n ia , L a tv ia , B elo ru ssia, th e U k ra in e , N o r t h e r n C a u c a s u s , G e o rg ia , a n d A z e rb a id z h a n p r o te s tin g a g a in s t s u p p o r t fo r a n y o n e c la im in g a u th o r ity o v e r fo r m e r R u ss ia n te rrito rie s n o w i n d e p e n d e n t, in R ae v sk ii, o p . c i t . p p . 5 3 - 5 4 . 131 D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , I I I , 4 0 9 - 4 1 0 .

C h u r c h ill a lso s u p p o r te d th is

v iew . A s h e a d d e d in a la te r m e m o r a n d u m : “ E v e ry e ffo rt s h o u ld th e re f o r e b e m a d e to g u id e affairs in to t h e c h a n n e l w h ic h le a d s in to a fe d e ra liz e d

R u ssia ,

w i t h o u t p r e ju d ic e e ith e r to lo c a l a u to n o m y o r th e p r in c ip le o f g e n e ra l u n ity ." C h u r c h ill, o p . c i t . , p . 2 5 2 . 132 D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , I I I , 4 1 2 - 4 1 5 . 133 B a lfo u r to C u r z o n , Ju ly 10, 1 9 1 9 , i b i d . , p p . 4 2 4 - 4 2 5 . 134 I b i d . , p p . 4 2 3 - 4 2 4 . 135 C u r z o n to W a r d r o p , J u ly 2 2 , 1 9 1 9 , i b i d . , p p . 4 5 1 - 4 5 2 . W a r d r o p h a d b e e n

B ritis h c o n s u l- g e n e ra l in M o s c o w in 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 1 8 . 130 I b i d . , p p . 4 7 4 - 4 7 6 . F o r a s ta t e m e n t b y th e R u s s ia n C o u n c il in P a ris o n th is q u e s tio n , see A . D . M a rg o lin , U k r a in a i p o l i t i k a a n t a n t y

(B e rlin :

E fro n ,

1 9 2 1 ), p p . 3 7 7 -3 8 0 . 137 S e e th e tr a n s c r ip t o f t h e c o n fe re n c e b e tw e e n G e n e r a l B e a c h a n d Z h o r d a n iia o n M a y 2 4 , 1 9 1 9 , in “ ‘D e m o k ra tic h e s k o e ' p r a v ite l's tv o G ru z ii i a n g liis k o e k o m a n d o v a n ie ," lo c . c i t . , p . 1 4 3 ; a n d R ae v sk ii, o p . c i t . , p . 55. 138 T h i s view w as e n c o u r a g e d b y th e d e s c rip tio n o f th e c h a n g e -o v e r as “ p u re ly m ilita r y " b y G e n e r a l T h o m s o n in h is n o tif ic a tio n to th e A z e r b a id z h a n i g o v e rn ­ m e n t o n M a y 10.

H e u n d o u b te d ly w a n te d to s o fte n t h e re a c tio n b y m a k in g it

see m a lm o s t r o u ti n e . S ee R a e v sk ii, o p . c i t . , p . 55. 139 C u r z o n t o B a lfo u r, A u g u s t 12, 1 9 1 9 , D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h 4 8 2 -4 8 4 . 140 F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 9 , R u s s ia ,

p.

750.

P o l ic y ,

III,

F o r t h e o rig in a l p ro p o s a ls, a p p r o ­

p r ia tio n o f fu n d s , e tc . see U . S. N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o re ig n A ffairs S e c tio n , F ile 1 8 4 .0 1 6

(M is s io n to S o u th e r n R u ss ia , C o lo n e l R ig g s ) , D o c u m e n t s N o s . 3 - 2 5 .

G e n e r a l d e s c r ip tio n s a re p re s e n te d in m e m o ra n d a b y J. C . G re w a n d P . T y le r in D o c u m e n t s N o s . 2 4 a n d 2 5 . 141 S e e F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 9 , R u s s ia ,

p.

7 5 1 ff. F o r th e m is s io n 's re p o r ts see

U . S. N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o re ig n A ffairs S e c tio n , F ile s 1 8 4 .0 1 6 a n d 1 8 4 .0 1 6 0 2 .

The Volunteer Army

362 142

U . S. N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o r e ig n A ffairs S e c tio n , D o c . N o . 1 8 4 .0 1 6 / 7 6 .

143 I b i d . , F ile 1 8 4 .0 1 6 , D o c . N o s . 5 3 , 55 , 5 6 ( M e m o r a n d u m b y C . A . H e r te r o n P o lis h -U k r a in ia n n e g o tia tio n s ) , 6 6 , 7 9 , 8 0 , 8 7 .

S ee a lso F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s ,

1 9 1 9 , R u s s ia , p p . 7 6 3 , 7 6 9 - 7 7 0 .

144 U . S. N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o r e ig n A ffairs S e c tio n , D o c . N o . 1 8 4 . 0 1 6 / 5 0 - 5 1 . 145 I b i d . , D o c . N o s . 1 8 4 .0 1 6 /9 3 a n d 1 8 4 .0 1 6 /1 0 5 .

146 I b i d . , D o c . N o s . 1 8 4 .0 1 6 /1 0 7 a n d 1 8 4 .0 1 6 /1 1 2 . 147 A . J. T o y n b e e , e d ., S u rv e y o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a ir s , 1 9 2 0 - 1 9 2 3

(L o n d o n :

O x fo rd U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 2 7 ) , p . 3 6 4 . 148 U . S. N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o r e ig n A ffairs S e c tio n , D o c . N o . 1 8 4 . 0 1 6 / 5 0 - 5 1 . 149 D . E . E n u k id z e , K r a k h i m p e r i a l i s t i c h e s k o i i n t e r v e n t s i i v Z a k a v k a z ' i ( T iflis : G o s iz d a t G .S .S .R ., 1 9 5 4 ) , p p . 1 8 0 - 1 8 1 . 150 T h e p a r t o f th e m is sio n u n d e r P r in c e d e S avoy a rriv e d in B a k u o n M a y 16 a n d w as jo in e d th e r e o n M a y 22 b y C o lo n e l G a b b a , c h ie f o f t h e m ilita r y m is sio n . S ee L e 2 8 M a i , 1 9 1 9 , p . 2 0; a n d F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 9 , R u s s ia , p. 7 6 3 . 151 S ee F r e n c h , o p . c i t . , p p . 2 0 0 - 2 0 2 ; “ ‘D e m o k ra tic h e s k o e ’ p r a v ite l’s tv o G r u z ii i a n g liis k o e k o m a n d o v a n ie ,” Joe. c it., p p . 1 6 5 - 1 6 9 (c o n fe re n c e b e tw e e n W a r d r o p a n d G e g e c h k o ri, S e p te m b e r 4 ) : a n d R ae v sk ii, o p . c it., p p . 5 5 - 5 6 .

D e n ik in a lso

s tro n g ly o p p o s e d Ita lia n o c c u p a tio n a n d , d e s p ite p a s t d iffic u ltie s, m u c h p r e f e r r e d t h a t th e B ritis h stay .

S ee D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , I V , 1 7 8 .

152 “ ‘D e m o k ra tic h e s k o e ’ p ra v ite l’s tv o G ru z ii i a n g liis k o e k o m a n d o v a n ie ,” Joe. c i t ., p . 1 6 8 .

I t s h o u ld b e n o te d , h o w e v e r, t h a t B a tu m w as n o t y e t c o n s id e r e d a

p a r t o f G e o rg ia . Its sig n ific a n c e fo r a ll o f T ra n s c a u c a s ia w as t h e b a sis fo r t h e id e a (in itia lly in s e r te d in th e T r e a ty o f S e v re s ) o f m a in ta in in g it as a fre e o r in t e r n a ­ tio n a l p o r t. T u r n in g it o v e r to G e o rg ia m ig h t h a v e d e n ie d its u s e to A rm e n ia in p a r tic u la r . B ritis h tro o p s w e re , th e re fo re , o rd e re d to re m a in in B a t u m u n t i l th is q u e s tio n c o u ld b e s e ttle d . 153 S ee A v alo v , o p . c it., p . 2 0 2 ( c itin g F . N i t t i , L ’E u r o p e san s P a ix , p p . 1 8 6 1 8 8 ). 154 R ae v sk ii, o p . c i t . , p . 57; E n u k id z e , o p . c it., p . 1 7 9 . I t is n o ta b le t h a t G e o r g ia n le a d ers w e re a t th is p o in t s p e a k in g fa v o ra b ly o f a fu tu r e f e d e r a tio n w ith R u ss ia , p r o b a b ly b e c a u s e th is w as th e v iew w h ic h A llie d s p o k e s m e n p re s u m a b ly w a n te d to h e a r .

C f . L o ris-M e lic o f, o p . c it., p p . 1 8 0 - 1 8 2 .

G e o rg ia n le a d e rs w e re , h o w ­

ev er, d iv id e d o n th e q u e s tio n o f w h e th e r a m a n d a te w o u ld b e c o m p a tib le w ith th e c la im to fu ll in d e p e n d e n c e a lre a d y s e t fo r th . 1 9 4 -1 9 8 .

S ee A v alo v , o p . c it., p p . 1 8 8 ,

155 D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , I I I , 4 7 8 - 4 7 9 . 156 S ee H o o v e r ’s r e p o r t in F o r e ig n R e la tio n s , 1 9 1 9 , R u s s ia , p p . 7 8 5 - 7 8 7 . 157 T h i s s ta t e m e n t a n d th e fo llo w in g c o m m e n ts a re b a s e d u p o n G e n e r a l H a rb o r d ’s r e p o r t to th e s e c re ta ry o f s ta te , O c to b e r 16, 1 9 1 9 , to b e f o u n d in P a p e rs R e la tin g

in g to n :

to

t h e F o r e ig n

R e la tio n s o f th e

G o v e r n m e n t P r in tin g

C o n c i l i a t i o n , N o . 151

O ffice ,

U n ite d S ta te s ,

1 9 3 4 ),

p.

(Ju n e 1 9 2 0 ), p p . 2 7 5 -3 1 2 .

841

1 9 1 9 , V o l. I I

ff.; a n d

in

(W a sh ­

I n te r n a tio n a l

O t h e r re p o rts o f t h e H a r b o r d

m is sio n m a y b e f o u n d in th e U . S. N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o r e ig n A ffairs S e c tio n , F ile

1 8 4 .0 2 1 0 2 , D o c . N o .

18 o f th is series b e in g a s u m m a ry r e p o r t a f te r th e

m is s io n ’s r e tu r n to P a ris . T h e m is sio n c o n s is te d o f e le v e n o fficers a n d o n e r e p r e ­ s e n ta tiv e e a c h o f th e R e lie f A d m in is tr a tio n , t h e C o m m is s io n to N e g o tia te P e a c e , a n d th e D e p a r t m e n t o f C o m m e r c e , p lu s m in o r a s s is ta n ts .

363

NOTES

158 P a p e r s R e l a t i n g t o t h e F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , 1 9 2 0 , V o l. Ill

( W a s h i n g t o n : G o v e r n m e n t P r in tin g O ffice, 1 9 3 6 ) ,

p.

784.

S e e a lso D o c u ­

m e n ts o n B r itis h P o lic y , I I I , 4 8 1 .

159 T h e official A llie d r e q u e s t t h a t h e d o so w as f o r m u la te d a t S a n R e m o in A p ril

1920.

S ee F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s ,

1920,

III, 779, 783.

F o r th e P r e s id e n t’s

g e n e r o u s p ro p o s a ls o n t h e A rm e n ia n b o u n d a ry , see i b i d . , p p . 7 9 5 - 8 0 4 , a n d a m a p a p p e n d e d a t t h e e n d o f t h e v o lu m e . 160 F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 2 0 , I I I , 5 7 1 - 5 7 3 . A d m ira l M c C u lly ’s re p o rts a re in p. 5 7 4 ff.

ib id .,

161 E l io t to C u r z o n , A u g u s t 13, 1 9 1 9 , D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , I I I , 4 8 5 486. 162 C u r z o n to B a lfo u r, A u g u s t 2 1 , 1 9 1 9 , i b i d . , p p . 5 1 9 - 5 2 6 . 163 F o r a c o m m e n t o n W a r d r o p ’s p ro - G e o rg ia n a t t i t u d e see B e c h h o fe r- R o b e rts , o p . c it., p . 4 8 . 164 C u r z o n to W a r d r o p , O c to b e r 2, 1 9 1 9 , D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , I I I , 5 7 4 -5 7 5 . 165 C u r z o n to W a r d r o p , O c to b e r 4 , 1 9 1 9 , i b i d . , p p . 5 7 7 -5 7 8 . d r o p ’s d is p a tc h e s in i b i d . , p p . 6 0 1 - 6 0 2 , 6 0 3 - 6 0 4 .

S ee also W a r -

166 C u r z o n to C o x , N o v e m b e r 14, 1 9 1 9 , i b i d . , p . 6 4 7 . 167 T h e

e ffo rts a n d e x p e rie n c e s o f th is F r e n c h

e n v o y a re re c o rd e d

in L o ris-

M e lic o f , o p . c it .; s e e e sp e c ia lly p p . 1 7 0 ff. a n d h is r e p o r t to th e F o r e ig n M in is try , p p . 1 8 3 -1 8 9 . 168 S ee E llis, B r iti s h I n t e r v e n t i o n , ” p p . 1 5 4 - 1 5 5 ; a n d a lso T o y n b e e , o p . c i t . , p p . 3 7 7 - 3 8 2 ; a n d G . L e n c z o w s k i, T h e M i d d l e E a s t in W o r l d A ffa ir s , 2 n d e d . ( I t h a c a : C o r n e ll U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 5 6 ) , p p . 2 0 9 - 2 1 0 .

I t is in te re s tin g to n o te

a t th is p o i n t t h a t in A u g u s t 1 9 1 9 T r o ts k ii, in a g e n e ra l su rv ey o f w o rld re v o lu ­ tio n a r y p ro s p e c ts , p u t p a r tic u la r e m p h a s is u p o n th e o p p o r tu n i tie s o p e n in g u p in I n d ia a n d a d v o c a te d “ p re p a ra tio n o f a m ilita ry th r u s t a g a in s t In d ia to a id th e I n d ia n r e v o lu tio n .” O n e “ a u th o r ita tiv e m ilita ry o fficial,” h e n o te d , h a d a lre a d y p re p a re d

“ a p la n fo r c re a tin g a c av alry c o rp s

( 3 0 ,0 0 0 -4 0 ,0 0 0 rid e rs )

w ith

th e

id ea o f la u n c h in g it a g a in s t I n d ia ,” a n d th e r e w as n o re a so n w h y th is p la n s h o u ld n o t b e g iv e n fa v o ra b le c o n s id e ra tio n , s in c e t h e B o lsh e v ik s “ h a d n e v e r a b a n d o n e d th e id e a o f o ffen siv e re v o lu tio n a ry w a rs.” M e ije r, T h e T r o t s k y P a p e r s , I, 6 2 2 - 6 2 5 . 169 S ee C u r z o n ’s c o m m e n ts o n

th is tre a ty

q u o te d

in

H . N ic o ls o n , C u r z o n :

T h e L a s t P h a s e , 1 9 1 9 - 1 9 2 5 (N e w Y o rk : H a r c o u r t, B ra c e a n d C o ., 1 9 3 9 ) , p . 1 3 8 .

CHAPTER

6 : D E N I K I N 'S M I L I T A R Y A N D P O L I T I C A L S T R A T E G I E S

1 F o r a n a c c o u n t o f t h e m ilita r y o p e ra tio n s o f th e A rm e d

F o rc e s o f S o u th

R u ssia d u r in g 1 9 1 9 , see A . I. D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V o l. V

( B e r lin :

“ S lo v o ,” 1 9 2 6 ) , p p . 7 2 - 8 4 , 1 0 4 - 1 3 7 . 2 T h e 1 5 0 ,0 0 0 m e n in t h e lin e w e re d is tr ib u te d ro u g h ly as fo llo w s : M ai-M a e v s k ii’s V o l u n t e e r c o rp s , 4 0 ,0 0 0 ; th e D o n a rm y , 4 5 ,0 0 0 ; th e C r im e a n V o lu n te e r c o rp s , 1 5 ,0 0 0 ; t h e C a u c a s u s a rm y , 2 0 ,0 0 0 ; a n d W r a n g e l ’s a rm y 3 0 ,0 0 0 . H o w e v e r, t h e R e d A rm y , w ith a m a x im u m o f a ro u n d D e n ik in ’s fo rce s .

1 8 0 ,0 0 0 , c o n tin u e d to o u tn u m b e r

The Volunteer Army

364 3 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i iu s s k o i s m u t y , V , 1 1 7 . 4 O n th e d is p u te b e tw e e n T r o ts k ii a n d

S ta lin , see J. M . M e ije r , e d ., T h e

T r o t s k y P a p e r s , V o l. I ( T h e H a g u e : M o u to n , 1 9 6 4 ) , p p . 1 3 5 - 1 3 6 , 1 5 9 - 1 6 0 , 1 6 5 ,

1 9 7 , 2 4 1 - 2 4 5 , 2 4 7 - 2 4 9 ; a n d I. D e u ts c h e r , T h e P r o p h e t A r m e d

(N e w

Y o rk :

O x fo rd U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 5 4 ) , p . 4 3 6 ff. 5 S ee D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 85 ff.; a n d m a te ria ls in F o r e ig n R e l a ­ t i o n s , 1 9 1 9 , R u s s ia , p p . 3 4 1 , 3 7 5 - 3 7 9 ; D o c u m e n t s o n B r i t i s h P o l i c y , I I I , 4 7 4 -

4 7 6 ; a n d N e r a to v to S a z a n o v , M a y 2, 1 9 1 9 , M a k la k o v A rc h iv e s ( M A ) , S eries B , P a c k e t I I I , D o s s ie r 11 (H o o v e r L i b r a r y ) . 6 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 9 5 - 9 8 . 7 O n th e T s a rits y n c a m p a ig n a n d t h e d is p u te o v e r s tra te g y b e tw e e n D e n ik in a n d W r a n g e l , see a lso (b e s id e s D e n ik in 's a c c o u n t) P . N . W r a n g e l , A l w a y s w i t h H onor

( N e w Y o rk : S p e lle r, 1 9 5 7 ) , p p . 7 0 , 7 6 - 9 9 ; a n d P . S h a tilo v , “ Z a p is k i"

( M S , C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity R u s s ia n A r c h iv e ) , p p . 7 1 6 - 7 9 3 . 8 W r a n g e l , o p . c it., p . 8 9 ; see also p p . 1 1 1 - 1 1 5 . 9 S ee W r a n g e l 's a c c o u n t in ib id .,

p.

7 9 ff.; a n d h is l e t t e r to D e n ik in m a k in g

th e s e c h a rg e s in D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 1 1 4 . 10 T h is c h a r g e is m a d e in a l e tte r fr o m o n e o f K o lc h a k 's “ field a ta m a n s " to D e n ik in , J u ly 2 3 , 1 9 1 9 , W r a n g e l M ilita ry A rc h iv e s ( W M A ) , F ile 181

(H o o v e r

L ib r a r y ) . 11 See t h e te le g ra m fro m C le m e n c e a u to J a n in , A p ril 17, 1 9 1 9 , a n d t h e m e m o ­ ra n d u m o f th e A llie d M ilita ry C o m m a n d , M a y 17, 1 9 1 9 , in I z is t o r i i g ra z h d a n s k o i v o in y v S S S R : s b o r n ik d o k u m e n t o v i m a t e r i a l o v , V o l. I I (M o s c o w : I n s t i t u t M a rk siz m a -L e n in iz m a , R e la tio n s ,

1 9 6 1 ), p p. 4 0 -4 1 , 4 7 -4 9 .

1 9 1 7 -1 9 2 1 ,

V o l.

I

( P r in c e t o n :

C f.

R.

P r in c e to n

H.

U llm a n , A n g l o - S o v i e t

U n iv e rs ity

P ress,

1 9 6 1 ),

p p . 2 3 8 , 2 6 3 ; a n d P e te r F le m in g , T h e F a te o f A d m i r a l K o l c h a k ( L o n d o n : R u p e r t H a rt-D a v is , 1 9 6 3 ) , p p . 1 5 5 - 1 5 6 . 12 S ee C h u r c h i l l ’s m e m o r a n d u m o f J u n e 2 4 , 1 9 1 9 , in P a r is P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , V I, 6 8 4 -6 8 6 .

C f. J. F . N . B ra d le y , L a le g io n tc h é c o s lo v a q u e e n R u s s ie ( P a r is :

C e n t r e N a tio n a l d e la R e c h e rc h e S c ie n tifiq u e , 1 9 6 5 ) , p . 1 1 3 . 13 S ee B ra d le y , o p . c it., p p . 1 1 3 - 1 1 4 . 14 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 9 2 - 9 3 . D e n ik in s ta te s t h a t h e w as i n ­ fo r m e d t h a t th e B ritis h m is sio n o n th e S ib e ria n f r o n t s u p p o r te d G a jd a ’s a c tio n , th u s m a k in g it d iffic u lt fo r K o lc h a k to o v e rru le h im . T h e re a s o n fo r th is , o f c o u rs e , w as t h a t th e B ritis h w e re h o p in g to u n ite t h e S ib e ria n a n d N o r t h e r n fr o n ts a n d saw g r e a te r p ro s p e c ts a t th e tim e in th is e ffo rt t h a n in a s im ila r e ffo rt to u n ite w ith th e S o u th . O n K o lc h a k ’s re la tio n s w ith G a jd a , see a lso F le m in g , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 0 2 - 1 0 3 , 1 5 0 , 1 5 8 - 1 9 5 ; a n d B ra d le y , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 0 1 - 1 0 2 . ir> D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 8 9 - 9 0 . 16 C f . N . N . G o lo v in , R o s s iis k a ia k o n tr - r e v o li u t s i ia

v

1 9 1 7 -1 9 1 8

gg.

(P a r is :

“ Illiu s tr ir o v a n n o i R o s s ii," 1 9 3 7 ) , V o l. V , B k . 2, p p . 7 - 1 2 , 1 7 - 2 0 . 17 M a k h n o ’s o w n m e m o irs p ro v id e th e m o s t in tim a te a n d

d r a m a tic a c c o u n t

o f h is s tru g g le in th r e e v o lu m e s : R u s s k a ia r e v o l iu ts iia n a U k r a i n e , P o d u d a r a m i k o n t r - r e v o l i u t s i i , a n d U k r a in s k a ia r e v o l iu ts iia (P a r is : 1 9 2 9 , 1 9 3 6 , a n d 1 9 3 7 re s p e c ­

tiv e ly ) .

S ee a lso P . A rs h in o v , I s to r iia m a k h n o v s k o g o d v i z h e n i i a , 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 2 1

( B e r lin :

G ru p p a

ru s sk ik h

a n a r k h is to v v G e r m a n ii,

1 9 2 3 ).

A

very

gg.

u sefu l a n d

b r ie f e r a c c o u n t m a y b e fo u n d in D a v id F o o t m a n ’s essay o n M a k h n o w h ic h

is

365

N O TES

b o t h in F o o t m a n , S o v i e t A ffa ir s , p p . 7 7 - 1 2 7 , a n d in F o o tm a n , C i v i l W a r in R u s s ia , p p . 2 4 5 - 3 0 2 . 18 S e e F o o tm a n , S o v i e t A f f a ir s , p . 101 ff.

G rig o rie v , o n e o f s ev e ra l lo c a l m ili­

ta ry le a d e rs w h o s e rv e d b o t h t h e B o lsh e v ik s a n d t h e ir o w n a m b itio n s , h a d p la y e d a m a jo r ro le in B o ls h e v ik e ffo rts to d riv e t h e F r e n c h o u t o f O d e ss a , b u t h e d e ­ fe c te d in t h e la s t s tag e s o f t h a t c a m p a ig n . W h e n h e t h e n v is ite d M a k h n o ’s h e a d ­ q u a r te r s to see k a n a llia n c e , M a k h n o h a d h im k ille d o n t h e s p o t, a d e e d w h ic h u n d o u b te d ly fa c ilita te d f u r t h e r c o o p e r a tio n w ith th e B o lsh e v ik s a n d fo r a tim e a lle v ia te d th e l a t t e r ’s c o n c e rn t h a t h e w o u ld fo llo w G rig o r ie v ’s e x a m p le . 19 S e e D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 1 3 0 - 1 3 4 . 20 I b i d . ,

pp.

1 3 4 -1 3 5 .

L a te r, w h e n

W r a n g e l h im s e lf

to o k c o m m a n d

fr o m

D e n ik in , h e tr ie d to a t t r a c t M a k h n o ’s s u p p o r t a n d s e n t re p re s e n ta tiv e s to n e g o ­ tia te . A ll t h a t r e s u lte d w as t h e d e a th s o f t h e e m issa rie s o n M a k h n o ’s o rd e rs . T h i s e v e n t n o ta b ly o c c u r re d a f te r a c o m p le te b re a k b e tw e e n M a k h n o a n d th e B o ls h e ­ viks in J a n u a ry 1 9 2 0 .

M a k h n o ’s s u b s e q u e n t b a ttle s w ith t h e B o lsh e v ik s b e tw e e n

J a n u a r y a n d O c to b e r 1 9 2 0 u n d o u b te d ly a id e d W r a n g e l , a lth o u g h n o t in te n tio n a lly . 21 W h i l e P e tliu r a w as m a k in g p la n s to c o n tin u e t h e fig h t a g a in s t t h e B o lsh e v ik s, h is f o r m e r p a r tn e r in t h e D ir e c to r a te , V y n n y c h e n k o , w as n e g o tia tin g fo r a n a g re e ­ m e n t w ith th e m . A f te r th e H u n g a r ia n re v o lu tio n , V y n n y c h e n k o a n d B ela K u n re a c h e d a g r e e m e n t o n a p la n to fo r m a c o a litio n g o v e r n m e n t in a S o v ie t U k ra in e w h ic h w o u ld in c lu d e E a s te r n G a lic ia a n d p ro v id e a b rid g e to H u n g a ry , b u t b o t h M o s c o w a n d th e U k ra in ia n B o lsh e v ik s re je c te d th is p la n to t h e c h a g r in o f K u n , w h o s e re g im e , w it h o u t R u ss ia n a id , s o o n c o lla p se d . S ee V . V y n n y c h e n k o , V i d r o d z h e n n i a n a ts ii ( V ie n n a : D z v in , 1 9 2 0 ) , V o l. I l l , p . 321 ff.

22 O n e o f P e tr u s h e v ic h 's first a c ts u n d e r a n e w la w o f J u n e 9 , g iv in g h im d ic ­ ta to r ia l p o w e rs to d e a l w ith t h e s itu a tio n , w as to a p p o in t G e n e r a l M ic h a e l G re k o v , w h o h a d n e g o tia te d w ith th e F r e n c h in O d e s s a o n b e h a lf o f t h e D ire c to r a te , to c o m m a n d th e G a lic ia n a rm y . S ee J. S. R e s h e ta r, T h e U k r a in ia n R e v o lu tio n ( P r in c e t o n : P r in c e to n U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 5 2 ) , p p . 2 8 0 - 2 8 1 . 23 S ee A . S k rz y n s k i, P o l a n d a n d P e a c e ( L o n d o n : G . A lle n a n d U n w in , 1 9 2 3 ) , p . 4 3 , f o r a d e s c r ip tio n o f th is p o lic y a n d its ra tio n a le .

S ee a lso t h e tr a n s la to r ’s

n o te in J. P ils u d s k i, T h e M e m o i r s o f a P o l is h R e v o l u t i o n a r y a n d S o ld ie r , tr a n s ­ la te d a n d e d ite d b y D . R . G illie ( L o n d o n : F a b e r a n d F a b e r, 1 9 3 1 ) , p . 3 6 4 . C f . T i t u s K o m a rn ic k i, R e b i r t h o f t h e P o l is h R e p u b l i c ( L o n d o n : W . H e in e m a n , L t d ., 1 9 5 7 ), pp. 4 1 9 , 4 3 6 -4 3 7 , 4 5 0 -4 5 6 . 24 S ee P a r is P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , I V , 3 7 9 ff. 25 I b i d . , V , 7 7 5 ff. 26 I b i d . , V I , 1 9 4 . 27 I b i d . , I V , 8 2 8 ff. 28 I b i d . , V I , 6 7 7 , f o o tn o t e 4 . 29 A . D . M a r g o lin , U k r a in a i p o l i t i k a a n t a n t y (B e rlin : E f ro n , 1 9 2 1 ) , p p . 1 4 5 1 4 6 : see a lso A p p e n d ix N o . 2, p p . 3 7 2 - 3 7 4 . 30 T h e

R u s s ia n a m b a s s a d o r in R u m a n ia , P o k le v sk ii-K o z e l, w ire d N e r a to v o n

O c t o b e r 2 0 t h a t F r e n c h re p re s e n ta tiv e s in B u c h a re s t h a d

re c e iv e d in s tr u c tio n s

fr o m C le m e n c e a u ‘‘to d o all p o s s ib le to p re v e n t a n a rm e d c la sh b e tw e e n G e n e r a l D e n ik in a n d th e fo rc e s o f P e tliu r a .”

M A , S eries B , P a c k e t II , D o s s ie r 4 .

31 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , V , 2 5 5 .

The Volunteer Army

366 32 M a r g o lin , o p . c it., p p . 1 4 8 - 1 5 2 .

I n S e p te m b e r t h e F r e n c h F o r e ig n M in is tr y

e v en o ffered its a s s is ta n c e if M a r g o lin h im s e lf w o u ld g o to s e e D e n ik in a n d try to re c o n c ile th e U k ra in ia n a n d V o lu n te e r view s.

H o w e v e r, M a r g o lin h a d a t th is

tim e b ro k e n w ith t h e U k ra in ia n d e le g a tio n , la rg e ly b e c a u s e o f its o p p o s itio n to h is fa v o ra b le view s o n f e d e ra tio n a n d h is w illin g n e s s to a c c e p t m e d ia tio n w ith

th e

V o lu n te e r s , a n d h e w as th u s n o t in a p o s itio n to u n d e r ta k e t h e m is s io n s u g ­ g e s te d . I b i d . ,

p.

172.

33 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 2 5 5 . 34 I b i d . , 35 I b i d . ,

pp. 255-256. p. 2 5 5 . S ee a lso

S e p te m b e r 2 2 ,

C h u r c h i l l ’s re v ie w o f t h e s itu a tio n to t h e C a b i n e t o n 1 9 1 9 , in W . S. C h u r c h ill, T h e W o r l d C r is is : T h e A f t e r m a t h

( L o n d o n : T h o r t o n B u tte r w o r th , 1 9 2 9 ) , p p . 2 5 1 - 2 5 3 . 36 A c c o r d in g to M a rg o lin , h is a p p e a ls to th e U n ite d S ta te s d e le g a tio n in P a ris fo r a id to P e tliu r a w e re a lso tu r n e d a sid e o n g ro u n d s t h a t P e tliu r a c o u ld o b ta in s u p p o r t o n ly in a llia n c e w ith D e n ik in , s in c e t h e U n ite d S ta te s re fu s e d to r e c o g ­ n iz e th e d is m e m b e r m e n t o f R u ss ia .

S ee M a r g o lin , o p . c it., p . 1 6 1 .

O n U n ite d

S ta te s p o lic y see a lso P a ris P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , X I , 2 5 3 ; a n d F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 9 , R u s s ia ,

p.

783.

37 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 2 5 3 . 33 I b i d . , p . 2 5 4 . 39 I b i d . 40 I b i d . ,

p.

2 5 5 . U n ite d S ta te s so u rc e s re p o r te d fr o m S w e d e n o n O c to b e r 10

t h a t a n “ I n te r n a tio n a l C o m m is s io n ” h a d l e f t fo r O d e ss a to se e k a c o n c ilia tio n b e tw e e n P e tliu r a a n d D e n ik in , b u t n o o th e r e v id e n c e h a s b e e n f o u n d to c o n firm t h e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f s u c h a m is sio n to c la rify th is m e n tio n

o f it.

S ee U . S.

N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o r e ig n A ffairs S e c tio n , D o c . N o . 8 6 1 .0 0 / 5 3 6 3 . 41 M a r g o lin , w h o saw P e tliu r a in th e fall o f 1 9 1 9 , in d ic a te s t h a t P e tliu r a b e ­ lie v e d t h a t n o a g re e m e n t w ith D e n ik in w as p o s s ib le a n d t h a t t h e o n ly w ay o u t fo r th e U k ra in ia n s w o u ld b e to t u r n to t h e P o le s . S ee M a r g o lin , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 8 9 - 1 9 1 . I n a l e tte r to M . J e a n P e lis sie r o n O c to b e r 2 8 , 1 9 1 9 , P e tliu r a a p p e a le d to “ F r e n c h d e m o c ra c y ” to s u p p o r t h is m o v e m e n t, n o tin g t h a t “ a t p r e s e n t o u r m o s t d a n g e r o u s a d v ersa ry is G e n e r a l D e n ik in , w h o , in s te a d o f fig h tin g th e B o lsh e v ik s , h a s tu r n e d a g a in s t us th e a rtille ry a n d rifles w h ic h h e g o t fro m

t h e A llies, a n d

th u s h e

w e ak e n s t h e a n ti-B o ls h e v ik f r o n t .” S. V . P e tliu r a , “ U n a p p e l d u p r e s id e n t P e tliu r a à la d é m o c r a tie fra n ç a is e ,” in U k ra in ia n D e le g a tio n P r o p a g a n d a , H o o v e r L ib ra ry . 42 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , V , 2 5 6 - 2 5 7 .

K o lc h a k a g re e d b a sic a lly w ith

D e n ik in ’s p o s itio n a n d s u p p o r te d it, a lth o u g h h e d id s u g g e s t t h e e x p e d ie n c y o f s o m e te m p o r a r y a r r a n g e m e n t w ith P e tliu r a if it w o u ld k e e p th e A llie d P o w e rs o u t o f th e q u e s tio n a n d if i t c o u ld b e m a d e w it h o u t p re ju d ic in g t h e p r in c ip le o f “ O n e R u s s ia .”

S ee S u k in (K o lc h a k ) to N e r a to v ( D e n i k i n ) , S e p te m b e r 1, 1 9 1 9 , M A ,

S eries B , P a c k e t I I , D o s s ie r 4 . 43 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , V , 2 5 7 . 44 S ee M a k la k o v to O m s k , M a r c h 2 9 , 1 9 1 9 ; M a k la k o v to P ic h o n , S e p te m b e r 4 , 1 9 1 9 ; M a k la k o v to N e ra to v , S e p te m b e r 9 , 1 9 1 9 ; a n d P ic h o n to M a k la k o v , N o v e m b e r 19, 1 9 1 9 , in M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I , D o s s ie r 4 . 45 S ee C u r z o n

to

P o l ic y , I I I , 6 7 2 - 6 7 8 .

M a c k in d e r, D e c e m b e r 2, 1 9 1 9 , in D o c u m e n t s

on

B r itis h

S ee a lso D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , V , 1 7 9 .

4fl D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , V , 2 5 8 .

S ee a lso M . L o z y n s k y , H a l ic h in a v

367

NOTES ro k a k h 1 9 1 8 -1 9 2 0

(V ie n n a , 1 9 2 2 ) ,

p.

198.

T h e P o lis h a tta c k in th e s p rin g , to

b e n o te d b e lo w , m a d e th e p ro m is e to re c o g n iz e P e tru s h e v ic h p ra c tic a lly m e a n in g ­ less. I n a n y case, P e tru s h e v ic h h a d n o t a p p ro v e d T a m o v s k ii’s a g r e e m e n t w ith th e V o lu n te e r s a n d h a d ta k e n re fu g e in R u m a n ia , a lth o u g h h is re p re s e n ta tiv e s in P a ris h a d in f o r m e d M a k la k o v t h a t h e fa v o re d f e d e ra tio n w ith R u ss ia a n d w is h e d to n e g o tia te w ith

D e n ik in .

S ee M a k la k o v to N e ra to v , N e v e m b e r 1 9 , 1 9 1 9 , M A ,

S eries B , P a c k e t I I , D o s s ie r 4 . A c c o r d in g to M a r g o lin , P e tru s h e v ic h h a d p ro p o s e d t h a t t h e D ir e c to r a te , o n b e h a lf o f b o t h P e tliu r a 's fo rce s a n d t h e G a lic ia n s , seek a g r e e m e n t w ith D e n ik in , b u t h e h a d o p p o s e d s p littin g t h e ir a llia n c e b y a llo w in g o n ly th e G a lic ia n e le m e n t to e n t e r s u c h a u n io n w ith t h e V o lu n te e r s . g o lin , o p . c it., p. 1 8 8 .

S ee M a r ­

47 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i i u s s k o i s m u t} ', V , 1 7 5 . 48 S e e R e p o r t N o . 2 a n d d is p a tc h d a te d S e p te m b e r 2 1 , 1 9 1 9 , C h e r ia c h u k in P a p e rs , F ile I V . 49 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i i u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 1 7 5 . 50 R e p o r t N o . 2 a n d d is p a tc h o f J u ly 3, 1 9 1 9 , C h e r ia c h u k in P a p e rs , F ile I V . 51 I b i d . , d is p a tc h e s o f J u ly 2 8 a n d A u g u s t 11, 1 9 1 9 . 52 I b i d . , d is p a tc h o f S e p te m b e r 2 1 , 1 9 1 9 . 53 S ee “ D o k la d o p o e z d k e v P o l ’s h u i B e lo ru ss iiu c 1-go p o 16 N o ia b r ia 1 9 1 9 g o d a ,” V o n L a m p e A rc h iv e s , F ile N o . 4 1 .

C f. V o lu n te e r b u lle tin N o . 2 6 6 -2 ,

d a te d N o v e m b e r 19, 1 9 1 9 , in W M A , F ile 1 5 8 , p p . 6 0 - 6 1 . 5 4 N e r a to v ( D e n i k i n ) to M a k la k o v (S a z o n o v ) , S e p te m b e r 18, 1 9 1 9 , M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I , D o s s ie r 4 . 55 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , V , 1 7 5 . 56 I b i d . , pp. 175-176. 57 C o n v e r s a tio n s w ith P rz e z d z ie c k i a re r e p o rte d in a c o n fid e n tia l m e m o r a n d u m d ra w n u p a t th e tim e . S ee D e n ik in A rc h iv e s. 58 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 1 7 7 . S e e also W M A , F ile 1 5 8 , p . 35. A m e ric a n so u rc e s re p o r te d t h a t P o la n d w o u ld sp ec ifica lly d e m a n d E a s te rn G a lic ia in r e tu r n f o r a id .

S ee A d m ira l B ris to l ( C o n s ta n t in o p le )

to S e c re ta ry o f S ta te ,

D e c e m b e r 11, 1 9 1 9 , F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 9 , R u s s ia , p . 7 7 7 . 59 N e r a to v w ire d S a z o n o v o n D e c e m b e r 18 t h a t t h e n e g o tia tio n s w ith P o la n d h a d n o t th u s fa r a c h ie v e d a n a g r e e m e n t b e c a u s e o f t h e “ te n d e n c y o f t h e P o le s to u se th e ir p o s itio n to s e c u re fo r th e m s e lv e s a d d itio n a l te rrito ry a t o u r e x p e n s e .” T h e ta lk s , h e a d d e d , w o u ld “ m a k e n o p ro g re s s so lo n g as th e P o le s h o ld to th is p o s itio n .”

D e n ik in , h o w e v e r, w as “ p re p a re d to fo llo w a m o s t c o n c ilia to ry p o lic y

to w a r d P o la n d ,” a n d h e h o p e d t h a t t h e A llies w o u ld h e lp b y try in g to m o d e r a te P o la n d ’s a m b itio n s . S ee M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I I , D o s s ie r 1. 60 P ils u d s k i's g r a n d d e sig n fo r t h e d is m e m b e r m e n t o f R u ss ia a n d c re a tio n o f s ta te s m o r e o r less d e p e n d e n t u p o n P o la n d in th e U k ra in e a n d B elo ru ss ia w as u n d o u b te d ly o n e o f t h e im p o r t a n t re a so n s fo r h is n e g a tiv e a t t i t u d e to w a rd th e V o lu n te e r s .

D e f e a t o f th o s e w h o s to o d fo r re s to ra tio n o f R u ss ia , e v en a lib e ra l

R u ss ia , w o u ld b e re q u ire d fo r t h e re a liz a tio n o f th is id e a .

P ilsu d s k i in fa c t b e g a n

h is a p p r o a c h to P e tliu r a in th is c o n te x t w ith t h e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a rra n g e m e n ts to p r e v e n t c la sh e s b e tw e e n t h e ir tro o p s o n S e p te m b e r 1. S ee P io t r W a n d y c z , “ S e c re t S o v ie t-P o lis h P e a c e T a lk s in 1 9 6 5 ), p p. 434, 443, 447.

1 9 1 9 ,” S la v i c R e v i e w , X X I V , N o . 3

( S e p te m b e r

S e e a lso M . K . D z ie w a n o w s k i, “ P ils u d s k i’s F e d e r a l

P o lic y , 1 9 1 9 - 1 9 2 0 ,” J o u r n a l o f C e n t r a l E u r o p e a n A ffa ir s , X , N o . 2 (J u ly 1 9 5 0 ) ,

The Volunteer Army

368

p p . 1 1 3 - 1 2 8 ; N o . 3 ( O c to b e r 1 9 5 0 ) , p p . 2 7 1 - 2 8 7 ; a n d R . M a c h ra y , T h e P o l a n d o f P i ls u d s k i ( L o n d o n : G . A lle n a n d U n w in , 1 9 3 6 ) . O n t h e b o r d e r q u e s tio n , see M . M . L a s e rso n , T h e C u i z o n L i n e

( N e w Y o rk : C a r n e g ie E n d o w m e n t f o r

I n te r n a tio n a l P e a c e , 1 9 4 4 ) . 61 T h e te x t o f th is m e m o r a n d u m , d a te d O c to b e r 1 2 , 1 9 1 9 , is in t h e D e n ik in A rc h iv e s.

S ee a lso D e n ik in , O c h e i k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 1 7 3 .

I n a s p e e c h g iv e n

in A u g u s t 1 9 2 3 P ils u d s k i re c a lle d t h a t A llie d re p re s e n ta tiv e s in W a r s a w h a d u rg e d h im to c o o p e r a te w ith D e n ik in b u t t h a t h e re fu s e d t o a c c e p t D e n ik in 's p r o p o s a l to in tr o d u c e R u s s ia n a d m in is tr a tio n in d is p u te d te rrito rie s “ b e y o n d t h e B u g ."

S ee

fo z e f P ils u d s k i, P is m a z b i o r o w e , V o l. V I ( W a r s a w , 1 9 3 7 ) , p p . 1 2 3 - 1 2 4 . 62 See, e .g ., C . M a n n e r h e im , T h e M e m o i r s o f M a r s h a l M a n n e r h e i m

(L o n d o n :

C a s s e ll a n d C o ., 1 9 5 3 ) , p p . 2 3 6 - 2 3 7 , w h e re P ils u d s k i is q u o te d to th is e ffe c t. 63 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 1 7 7 . 64 S ee K o m a m ic k i, o p . c it., p p . 4 6 6 - 4 6 9 .

C f. t h e e v id e n c e o n th is p o in t, c o n ­

s istin g ch ie fly o f th e m e m o irs o f G e n e r a l H a lle r a n d a s p e e c h b y G e n e r a l K u tr z e b a o n M a y 7, 1 9 3 7 , p re s e n te d in V a l', K a k P i ls u d s k i p o g u b il D e n i k i n a

( T a l lin :

Iz d a n ie a v to ra , 1 9 3 8 ) ; a n d D e n ik in , K t o s p a s ’ s o v e t s k u i u v l a s t ’ o t g i b e l i ( P a r is : I z d a n ie S o iu z ’ D o b r o v o l’tsev , 1 9 3 7 ) . 65 S ee K a rn ic k i’s c o m m e n ts in th e P o lis h p a p e r, T o r p e d a , O c to b e r 4 ,

1936,

c ite d in K o m a m ic k i, o p . c i t . , p p . 4 6 8 - 4 6 9 . 66 S ee D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , I, D o c . N o s . 57 a n d 5 8; a n d K o m a m ic k i, o p . c i t . , p p . 4 6 9 - 4 7 0 . C f. W a n d y c z , “ S e c re t S o v ie t-P o lis h P e a c e T a lk s in 1 9 1 9 ," Joe. c i t ., p . 4 3 3 . 67 A n a c c o u n t o f P o lis h ta lk s w ith S o v ie t re p re s e n ta tiv e s in O c to b e r a n d N o v e m ­ b e r, b a s e d u p o n P o lis h a rc h iv e s, m a y b e fo u n d in W a n d y c z , “ S e c re t S o v ie t- P o lis h P e a c e T a lk s in

1 9 1 9 ," Joe. c it., p p . 4 2 5 - 4 4 9 .

S ee a lso D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i

p o l i t i k i , I I , 2 3 5 , 2 7 8 - 2 8 3 ; a n d n o te s N o s . 52 a n d 53 o n p . 7 4 4 .

C f . D e u ts c h e r ,

o p . c i t . , p p . 4 5 8 - 4 5 9 ; a n d th e w o rk s o f t h e c h ie f S o v ie t n e g o tia to r , Iu lia n M a r k h -

JevsJcii, O c h e r k i i s to r ii P o l 's h i (M o s c o w : G o s . S o ts .-E k o . Iz d a t, 1 9 3 1 ) a n d V o in a i m ir m e z h d u 1 9 2 1 ).

b u r z h u a z n o i P o i ’s h e i i p r o le t a r s k o i R o s s i e i

(M o s c o w :

G o s iz d a t,

68 T h e B ritis h re p re s e n ta tiv e , R u m b o ld , r e p o r te d to C u r z o n o n N o v e m b e r 17 t h a t P ilsu d s k i e q u a lly d is lik e d t h e B o lsh e v ik s a n d D e n ik in , s in c e h e b e lie v e d t h a t th e f o r m e r w o u ld c re a te a g re a t R u ss ia a llie d to G e r m a n y a n d t h e l a t t e r w o u ld c re a te a g re a t R u ss ia w h ic h w o u ld re v e rt to th e o ld im p e ria lis m . S ee D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , I I I , 6 3 3 - 6 3 6 . S o v ie t-P o lis h ta lk s h a d b e g u n s e c re tly o n O c t o ­

b e r 11 a f te r le n g th y a rra n g e m e n ts in p ro g re s s fro m e arly A u g u s t. O ffic ia l n e g o tia ­ tio n s w e re o p e n e d o n O c to b e r 2 7 a n d c o n tin u e d fo rm a lly u n t i l D e c e m b e r 1 5 . P ils u d s k i’s p r iv a te ta lk s w ith t h e B o lsh e v ik s c o n d u c t e d th r o u g h h is re p re s e n ta tiv e , C a p t . Ig n a c y B o e rn e r, a n d th e S o v ie t “ R e d C ro s s " re p re s e n ta tiv e , Iu lia n M a r k h lev sk ii (M a rc h le w s k i), c o n tin u e d

fro m

O c to b e r

16 th r o u g h

N ovem ber

23.

In

th e s e ta lk s P ils u d s k i sp ec ifica lly a s s u re d t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t t h a t h e w o u ld n o t a id D e n ik in b u t w o u ld a id P e tliu r a .

H e in tu r n re c e iv e d a ss u ra n c e s t h a t h is t e r r i ­

to ria l a m b itio n s w o u ld b e s atisfied ; t h e B o lsh e v ik s , o f c o u rs e , e x p e c te d to t u r n o n P o la n d a f te r d e fe a tin g D e n ik in . S ee W a n d y c z , “ S e c re t S o v ie t-P o lis h P e a c e T a lk s in 1 9 1 9 ," Joe. c it., p p . 4 3 8 - 4 4 4 . 69 K a rl R a d e k , V n e s h n i a i a p o l i t i k a s o v e t s k o i R o s s i i (M o s c o w : G o s iz d a t, 1 9 2 3 ) , p . 56.

C f . G . V . C h ic h e r in , T w o Y ears o f F o r e ig n P o lic y ( N e w Y o rk : R u s s ia n

369

NOTES

S o v ie t G o v e r n m e n t B u re a u , 1 9 2 0 ) , p . 32; a n d D e n ik in O c h e i k i iu s s k o i s m u ty , V , 180. 70 T h i s l e t t e r is q u o te d in D e n ik in , O c h e i k i i u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 1 7 8 - 1 7 9 . 71 D o c u m e n t s o n B i i t i s h P o l i c y , I I , 7 4 4 - 7 4 5 ; P a n s P e a c e C o n fe re n c e , I X , 8 4 8 . 72 T h e te x t o f th is a g r e e m e n t is in R e s h e ta r, o p . c it., p p . 3 0 1 - 3 0 2 . 73 P o litic a l le a d e rs a s s o c ia te d w ith t h e V o lu n te e r A rm y c o n fe rre d w ith M a c ­ k in d e r a n d a p p ro v e d a c c e p tin g t h e te rm s w h ic h h e s aid P ils u d s k i w o u ld a c c e p t, v iz., to ta k e th e C u r z o n lin e as t h e p ro v is io n a l b o r d e r a n d h o l d p le b is c ite s in t e r ­ rito rie s to t h e e a s t o f t h a t lin e . T h e c o n d itio n to b e p u t to P ils u d s k i w as t h a t t h e P o le s b e g in m ilita r y c o o p e r a tio n im m e d ia te ly in t h e fo r m o f a n o ffen siv e a g a in s t th e B o lsh e v ik s . M a c k in d e r a lso s ta t e d a t th is tim e t h a t h e b e lie v e d a s im ila r p le b is c ite a g r e e m e n t c o u ld b e r e a c h e d w ith R u m a n ia w ith re g a rd to B essarab ia . D e n ik in

a c c e p te d

M a c k in d e r ’s s u g g e s tio n s

in

g e n e r a l w ith

th e

u n d e r s ta n d in g

t h a t a n y b o r d e r a g r e e m e n t w o u ld u ltim a te ly h a v e to b e d e te r m in e d b y tr e a ty b e ­ tw e e n a n a ll-R u s sia n g o v e r n m e n t a n d th e o th e r g o v e rn m e n ts c o n c e rn e d . M a c ­ k in d e r le f t S o u th R u ss ia w ith a ss u ra n c e s t h a t h e w o u ld a rra n g e a m e e tin g b e tw e e n D e n ik in a n d P ils u d s k i s o o n . 74 I b i d . ,

S ee D e n ik in , O c h e i k i iu s s k o i s m u t y , V , 3 0 5 - 3 0 6 .

pp. 179-180.

75 C h u r c h ill, o p . c i t . , p . 2 5 5 . 76 Q u o te d b y D e n ik in fro m a r e p o r t to h im

b y C o lo n e l K eyes, th e c h ie f o f

sta ff o f t h e B ritis h m is s io n , in O c h e i k i iu s s k o i s m u t y , V , 1 8 3 .

S ee a lso R a ttig a n

to C u r z o n , O c to b e r 8, 1 9 1 9 , D o c u m e n t s o n B i i t i s h P o l i c y , I I I , 5 8 5 - 5 8 6 . 77 D e n ik in , O c h e i k i iu s s k o i s m u t y , V , 1 8 3 . T h i s C o m m itte e w as n o t a V o l u n ­ te e r o rg a n iz a tio n , b u t its se lf-s ty le d lib e ra tio n a c tiv itie s w e re d e s ig n e d to u se th e V o lu n te e r s to s u p p o r t th e m as m u c h as p o s sib le .

S ee t h e re p o r t o n B essarab ia in

W M A , F ile 1 8 0 . 78 N o t i n g t h a t th e G a lic ia n a n d B e s s a ra b ia n q u e s tio n s s to o d b e tw e e n D e n ik in a n d c o o p e r a tio n w ith P o la n d a n d R u m a n ia , C u r z o n s u g g e s te d le a v in g th e s e issues to th e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e as th e b e s t w ay to o v e rc o m e th e b a rrie r th e y p r e s e n te d . D e n ik in , h o w e v e r, w o u ld a lso n o t c o n s e n t to th e id e a o f d e te r m in a tio n o f s u c h q u e s tio n s so lely b y th e P e a c e C o n fe re n c e , e sp e c ia lly w i t h o u t R u ss ia n p a rtic ip a tio n , s in c e a n y p ro p o s e d s e tt le m e n t w o u ld still h a v e to b e a p p ro v e d b y a r e c o n s tr u c te d R u s s ia n a u th o r ity la te r. S e e C u r z o n to C ro w e , O c to b e r 2 7 , 1 9 1 9 , D o c u m e n t s o n B iitis h P o lic y , II I, 6 1 5 - 6 1 7 .

79 D e n ik in ,

O c h e ik i

iu s s k o i

s m u ty ,

V,

1 8 3 -1 8 4 .

C f.

R a ttig a n

to

C u rz o n ,

N o v e m b e r 5, 1 9 1 9 , D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , I I I , 6 3 1 . 80 S ee S h c h e r b a c h e v ’s re p o r t o n th e q u a n titie s a n d lo c a tio n s o f t h e m a te ria ls in

S h c h e rb a c h e v

F o r e ig n

S u p p lie s

to

S a z o n o v , J u ly

B o a rd ,

m a te ria ls

10,

1 9 1 9 , A rc h iv e s o f th e

on

R u s s ia n

a n d H e r m o n iu s to B eliae v , A u g u s t 8, 1 9 1 9 ,

m ilita r y

D ir e c to r o f th e

p ro p e rty

in

R u m a n ia ;

a n d l e tte r to M a r s h a l F o c h , S e p te m ­

b e r 2 0 , 1 9 1 9 , W M A , F ile 8. C f . P a r is P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , V I I , 3 4 2 - 3 4 3 . 81 S ee G e r u a to D ir e c to r o f th e F o re ig n S u p p lie s B o a rd , J u n e 1 9 1 9 , a n d S h c h e r ­ b a c h e v r e p o r t, W M A , F ile 8. 82 T h e a rm s g iv e n to P e tliu r a a p p a r e n tly d id n o t c o m e fro m

R u ss ia n sto ck s,

b u t s in c e th e R u m a n ia n s a rm e d th e ir o w n tro o p s w ith R u ss ia n e q u ip m e n t to c o m ­ p e n s a te f o r t h e a rm s g iv e n a w ay , th e d iffe re n c e w as s m a ll.

See D e n ik in , O c h e r k i

r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 1 83; a n d R a t tig a n to C u r z o n , O c to b e r 8, 1 9 1 9 , D o c u m e n t s o n

370

The Volunteer Army

B r iti s h P o l i c y , I I I , 5 8 5 - 5 8 6 .

S ee also r e p o rts o n a n in v e s tig a tio n o f th is m a t t e r

in W M A , F ile 8. 83 F r e n c h F o r e ig n M in is try to M a k la k o v a n d S h c h e rb a c h e v , A u g u s t 4 , 1 9 1 9 , a n d jo in t n o te o t t h e re p re s e n ta tiv e s o f F r a n c e , B rita in , Ita ly , a n d t h e U n ite d S ta te s to R u s s ia n A m b a s s a d o r P o k le v s k ii-K o z e l, A u g u s t 7 , 1 9 1 9 , W M A , F ile 8. 84 F r e n c h L e g a tio n to M in is try o f F o r e ig n A ffairs, A u g u s t 2 4 , 1 9 2 0 , i b i d . 85 S ee P a ris P e a c e C o n fe re n c e , V I I , 3 4 2 - 3 4 3 . 86 S a z o n o v a n d M a k la k o v w e re in v ite d to a t t e n d th e m e e tin g s o f t h e c o n f e r ­ e n c e o f A m b a ss a d o rs d is c u s s in g t h e B e s s a ra b ia n q u e s tio n , t h e o n ly c ase w h e r e th e y p a r tic ip a te d d ire c tly in th e w o rk o f th e P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e . T h e y p u t th e R u s s ia n c ase b e fo re th e s e m e e tin g s , b u t th e y o b ta in e d n o th i n g s in c e e v e n t h e p le b is c ite id e a fa ile d to b e a c c e p te d . 1916

S ee S. D . S a z o n o v , F a t e f u l Y e a r s , 1 9 0 9 -

( L o n d o n : J. C a p e , 1 9 2 8 ) , p p . 2 6 9 - 2 7 0 .

F o r m a te ria ls o n t h e A llie s ’ h a n ­

d lin g o f th e B e s s a ra b ia n q u e s tio n , in c lu d in g t h e S u p r e m e C o u n c i l ’s s ta t e m e n t, see A . J. T o y n b e e , e d ., S u rv e y o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l A ffa ir s , 1 9 2 0 - 1 9 2 3

( L o n d o n : O x fo rd

U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 2 7 ) , p p . 2 7 6 - 2 7 7 , 5 0 1 - 5 0 3 ; a n d D o c u m e n t s o n B r i t i s h P o l i c y , V II, 3 7 9 -3 8 0 ; V I I I , 1 8 9 -1 9 0 . 87 P a r is P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , V I I , 7 8 4 - 7 8 5 .

S ee also D o c u m e n t s o n B r i t i s h P o l ­

ic y , X I I , 7 6 0 , 7 7 3 , 7 8 8 .

88 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , V , 1 8 2 . 89 P a r is P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , V I I , 7 8 4 - 7 8 5 . 90 T h e s e e v e n ts a re r e c o rd e d in V a l ’, K is t o r i i b e la g o d v i z h e n i i a , p p . 6 1 , 6 6 , 71 ff. 91 I b i d . , p. 73. 92 I b i d . ,

pp. 73-76.

93 S ee te le g ra m fr o m L u k o m s k ii to M a c k in d e r, J a n u a ry 14, 1 9 2 0 , D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , I I I , 7 9 2 - 7 9 3 . 94 S ee P a r is P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , V I I , 4 2 5 , 4 2 6 . S e e a lso t h e p ro p o s a l t o o rg a n iz e a “ W e s te r n V o lu n te e r A rm y ” o f 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 m e n fr o m R u s s ia n p ris o n e rs -o f-w a r in G e r m a n y a n d A u s tria c o n ta in e d in a l e t t e r fr o m G e n e r a l H e r m o n iu s to M r . E . D re se l o f t h e U n ite d S ta te s C o m m is s io n to N e g o tia te P e a c e , F e b ru a ry 2 4 , 1 9 1 9 , W M A , F ile 6 6 .

CHAPTER

7: R E T R E A T A N D T H E

1 W . S. C h u r c h ill, T h e W o r l d

C r is is :

END

The

O F A L L IE D A ID

A f te r m a th

(L o n d o n :

T h o r n to n

B u tte r w o r th , 1 9 2 9 ) , p p . 2 5 6 - 2 5 9 . 2 S ee D e n ik in , O c h e r k i ru s sk o i s m u ty , I V , 8 6 ; a n d C h u r c h ill, o p . c it.,

p.

250.

I n N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 9 t h e W a r O ffice e s tim a te d in a r e p o r t to P a r li a m e n t t h a t to ta l a id to a ll p a rtie s d u r in g t h e p re v io u s y e a r c o u ld b e v a lu e d a t 4 6 ,5 9 0 ,0 0 0 p o u n d s in c u r r e n t p ric e s.

S ee G r e a t B rita in , 5 P a r li a m e n ta r y D e b a t e s , H o u s e o f C o m ­

m o n s , V o l. C X X

( N o v e m b e r 5, 1 9 1 9 ) , p . 1 6 3 6 . A c c o r d in g to a la te r su rv e y ,

B ritis h n a v a l a n d m ilita r y o p e ra tio n s u p to th e s p rin g o f 1 9 2 0 re s u lte d in t h e e x te n s io n o f 2 ,4 5 7 ,0 0 0 p o u n d s w o r th o f m a rk e ta b le s to re s to D e n ik in a lo n e .

In

a d d itio n , t h e m a in te n a n c e o f tro o p s in T r a n s c a u c a s ia h a d c o s t 5 0 3 ,0 0 0 p o u n d s , a n d o v e r 3 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 p o u n d s h a d b e e n s p e n t o n n a v a l o p e ra tio n s in t h e B a ltic a n d B lack S eas c o m b in e d . T h e to ta l c o s t o f a ll th e s e o p e ra tio n s c o n n e c te d w ith th e in te r v e n tio n fr o m N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 8 to M a r c h

1 9 2 0 w as e s tim a te d a t 5 5 ,9 7 3 ,0 0 0

N OTES

371

pounds.

S ee G r e a t B rita in , P a r li a m e n ta r y P a p e r s , 1 9 2 0 , V o l. X X V I I I , C o m m a n d

P a p e r N o . 7 7 2 , “ S t a t e m e n t o f E x p e n d itu r e s o n N a v a l a n d M ilita ry O p e ra tio n s in R u s s ia f r o m N o v e m b e r 11, 1 9 1 8 , to M a r c h 31, 1 9 2 0 .” T h e s e fig u res d o n o t g iv e a c le a r p ic tu r e o f a id to D e n ik in , h o w e v e r, s in c e in p a r t th e y in c lu d e e x p e n d itu re s o u ts id e o f S o u th R u ss ia , a n d in p a r t th e y d o n o t in c lu d e a ll c re d its a p p r o v e d fo r D e n ik in . N o e x a c t s ta t e m e n t o f to ta l a id r e c ip ie n ts is a v a ila b le .

in s e p a ra te c a te g o rie s o f u ses a n d

3 E a rly in N o v e m b e r 1 9 1 9 G e n e r a l H e rm o n iu s o f th e R u ss ia n S u p p lie s B o a rd in P a ris s ta te d in a n o te t h a t F r a n c e h a d c o n tr ib u te d a id in th e v a lu e o f 5 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 fra n c s to D e n ik in , a n d

t h e U n ite d

a m o u n t c h ie fly in m e d ic a l s u p p lie s .

S ta te s h a d p ro v id e d a ro u n d t h e s a m e

H o w e v e r, th is e s tim a te p ro b a b ly d id n o t

r e p r e s e n t t h e fu ll c o n tr ib u tio n o f e ith e r . S ee H e r m o n iu s ( G e r m o n iu s ) to V o tk in , N o v e m b e r 7, 1 9 1 9 , W r a n g e l M ilita ry A rc h iv e s ( W M A ) , F ile 7 1 . 4 M a k la k o v to A . A ., n o d a te , W M A , F ile 7 1 . T h e g e n e ra l ru le in s is te d u p o n b y th e M in is tr y o f F in a n c e a t th is tim e w as t h a t n o m a te ria ls c o u ld b e s u p p lie d to a n y fo r e ig n g o v e r n m e n t e x c e p t fo r im m e d ia te p a y m e n t o r in a c c o rd a n c e w ith a p r io r fin a n c ia l a r r a n g e m e n t a p p ro v e d b y th e M in is try . S ee c irc u la r d a te d A u g u s t 4 , 1 9 1 9 , ib id . 5 S in d e rs k ii to S h c h e rb a c h e v , S e p te m b e r 9 , 1 9 1 9 , ib id . 6 M em o ran d u m

to

M a k la k o v , d a te d

( M A ) , S erie s B , P a c k e t II , D o ss ie r 7.

O c to b e r

22,

1919,

M a k la k o v

A rc h iv e s

See a lso M a k la k o v to D e n ik in , n o d a te ,

M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I I , D o ss ie r 10; a n d M a k la k o v to D e n ik in , S e p te m b e r 2 9 , 1 9 1 9 , W M A , F ile 7 1 . 7 M a k la k o v to A . A ., n o d a te , W M A, F ile 7 1 . 8 S ee M a k la k o v to N e ra to v , N o v e m b e r 2 8 , 1 9 1 9 , a n d N e ra to v to M a k la k o v , N o v e m b e r 2 0 / D e c e m b e r 3, 1 9 1 9 , M A , S eries B, P a c k e t II , D o ss ie r 7. 9 T h e F r e n c h in p a r tic u la r u rg e d th e u se o f tra d in g c o m p a n ie s as f r o n ts fo r tr a d e re la tio n s , w h ile L lo y d G e o rg e w as p e rs u a d e d o f th e v a lu e o f d e a lin g th r o u g h th e c o o p e r a tiv e s w ith b o t h th e B o lsh e v ik s a n d th e a n ti-B o ls h e v ik s in R u ss ia . l e tte r to M a k la k o v fro m R a ffa lo v ic h , N o v e m b e r 2 5 , 1 9 1 9 , ib id .

See

10 S ee l e tte r to P in d a r fro m B ritis h F o r e ig n O ffice , l e tte r to M a k la k o v fr o m A . R a ffa lo v ic h , N o v e m b e r 2 5 , 1 9 1 9 , a n d M a k la k o v to M in is try o f F o re ig n A ffairs, I r k u ts k , N o v e m b e r 30, 1 9 1 9 , ib id .

S ee also n o te o f F r e n c h

F o re ig n M in is try ,

N o v e m b e r 9 , 1 9 1 9 , a n d C le m e n c e a u ’s in s tru c tio n s to G e n e r a l M a n g in o n N o ­ v e m b e r 2 8 , a lo n g w ith

o t h e r c o rre s p o n d e n c e o n

tra d e d u r in g S e p te m b e r a n d

O c to b e r 1 9 1 9 , W M A , F ile 39 a n d F ile 7 1 . 11 A s M a k la k o v n o te d , th is m e a n t t h a t if e x p o rts n o w h a d to b e e x c h a n g e d fo r m ilita r y s u p p lie s , th is in c o m e w o u ld b e c u t off, w ith s h a tt e r in g e ffects fo r in te r n a l o p e r a tio n s .

B esid e s, S o u th R u ssia h a d n e ith e r t h e a p p a r a tu s n e ce ssa ry f o r large-

scale tr a d e n o r e n o u g h e x p o rta b le g o o d s to c o m p e n s a te b o t h B rita in a n d F r a n c e . S ee M a k la k o v to A . A ., n o d a te , W M A , F ile 7 1 . 12 M a k la k o v to N e ra to v , S e p te m b e r 2 7 , 1 9 1 9 , in ib id . 13 S ee M e m o r a n d u m to M a k la k o v fr o m D e p a r tm e n t o f S u p p ly , A F S R , O c t o ­ b e r 2 2 / N o v e m b e r 4 , 1 9 1 9 ; a n d “ A id e -M e m o ire ” o n n e g o tia tio n s d a te d N o v e m b e r 4 , 1 9 1 9 , M A , S eries B , P a c k e t II , D o s s ie r 7; a n d W M A , F ile 7 1 . 14 S ee l e tte r to M a jo r P in d a r fro m D e p a r t m e n t o f S u p p ly , A F S R , O c to b e r 5 / 1 8 . 1 9 1 9 , ib id . 15 S ee M e m o r a n d u m to M a k la k o v fro m D e p a r tm e n t o f S u p p ly , A F S R , O c to b e r

372

The Volunteer Army

2 2 / N o v e m b e r 4 , 1 9 1 9 ; a n d n o te fro m M a jo r P in d a r to M a s lo v , D e p a r t m e n t o f S u p p ly , O c to b e r 31 /N o v e m b e r 13, 1 9 1 9 , ib id . 16 S ee M a k la k o v to N e ra to v , D e c e m b e r 2 5 , 1 9 1 9 ; R a ffa lo v ic h to M a k la k o v , N o v e m b e r 2 5 , 1 9 1 9 ; a n d M a k la k o v to M in is try o f F o r e ig n A ffairs, Ir k u ts k , N o ­ v e m b e r 30, 1 9 1 9 , M A , S eries B , P a c k e t I I , D o ss ie r 7; a n d C le m e n c e a u 's in s tr u c ­ tio n s to G e n e r a l M a n g in re g a rd in g te rm s , N o v e m b e r 2 8 , 1 9 1 9 , W M A , F ile 7 1 . 17 T h e te x t o f th e “ P r o je t d e C o n t r a t " a n d c o m m e n t b y M a k la k o v w e re tr a n s ­ m itte d b y th e la t t e r to S o u th R u ss ia o n D e c e m b e r 2 5 , 1 9 1 9 . S ee M a k la k o v to N e r a to v , D e c e m b e r 2 5 , 1 9 1 9 , M A , S eries B , P a c k e t II , D o s s ie r 7 . I n c lu d e d in t h e n e g o tia tio n s w e re G e n e ra ls S h c h e rb a c h e v , H e r m o n iu s , a n d S v id e rs k ii; a n d B az ili a n d M a k la k o v fro m t h e R u ss ia n E m b a s sy ; a n d t h e F r e n c h m in is te rs o f fin a n c e , fo r e ig n affairs, a n d w ar; a n d G . E y b e rt, s e c re ta ry o f t h e I n te r - M in i s te r ia l C o m ­ m is sio n o n R u ss ia n F in a n c ia l A ffairs. 18 F o r a n im p o s in g lis t o f R u s s ia n o b je c tio n s to t h e F r e n c h te rm s a lre a d y s e t f o r th e a rlie r, see H e rm o n iu s to S e n a to r P a u l D o u m e r , N o v e m b e r 4 , 1 9 1 9 ; a n d A id e M e m o ir e d a te d D e c e m b e r 4 , 1 9 1 9 , W M A , F ile 7 1 . 19 S ee P r im e M in is te r to S h c h e rb a c h e v , O c to b e r 2 4 , 1 9 1 9 , a n d lis t o f R u s s ia n m a te ria ls in F r a n c e , W M A , F ile 6 3 ; see a lso P r im e M in is t e r to G e n e r a l S v id e rs k ii, W M A , F ile 7 1 . 20 S ee F r e n c h M in is try o f W a r to S h c h e rb a c h e v , F e b ru a ry 2 9 , 1 9 2 0 , W M A , F ile 39. 21 I n f o r m a l n e g o tia tio n s w ith S o v ie t re p re s e n ta tiv e M . L i tv in o v w e re c o n d u c t e d in S to c k h o lm d u r in g D e c e m b e r.

S o v ie t p e a c e p ro p o s a ls a n d h i n t s a t tr a d e p r o s ­

p e c ts h a d b e e n m a d e o n sev eral o c c a s io n s b e fo re th is . S ee F o r e ig n 1 9 1 9 , R u ss ia , p p . 1 2 7 - 1 2 8 , 1 3 1 - 1 3 2 .

R e la tio n s ,

F o r a g e n e r a l s ta t e m e n t o f S o v ie t p o lic y b y

C h ic h e r in see ib id ., p p . 1 1 1 - 1 1 5 . 22 F o r a n e x a m p le o f K e re n s k ii’s v itu p e ra tiv e p u b lic c a m p a ig n a g a in s t a id , see in te rv ie w s in th e D a i l y N e w s , N o v e m b e r 14, 1 9 1 9 , a n d th e S u n d a y C h r o n i c l e , N o v e m b er 23, 1919.

C f. N a b o k o v to M a k la k o v , Ju ly

1, 1 9 1 9 , M A , S erie s B ,

P a c k e t I I I , D o ss ie r 10. 23 S ee F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 9 , R u s s ia , p p . 4 3 5 - 4 3 6 , 4 4 2 ; a n d G r e a t B r ita in , 5 P a r li a m e n ta r y D e b a t e s , H o u s e o f C o m m o n s , V o l. C X X

(1 9 1 9 ), p p . 1 6 3 5 -1 6 4 5 .

24 S ee G r e a t B rita in , 5 P a r li a m e n ta r y D e b a t e s , H o u s e o f C o m m o n s , V o l. C X X I ( 1 9 1 9 ) , p p . 4 7 4 , 7 2 1 - 7 2 4 . T h e G u ild h a ll s p e e c h o f N o v e m b e r 8 m a y b e f o u n d in th e L o n d o n T i m e s , N o v e m b e r 10, 1 9 1 9 .

S ee also B e c h h o fe r- R o b e rts , I n D e n ­

ik in 's R u s s ia a n d t h e C a u c a s u s ( L o n d o n : C o llin 's , 1 9 2 1 ) , p . 1 2 1 .

25 S ee F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 9 , R u s s ia ,

p.

1 2 6 , fro m C o m m is s io n to N e g o tia te

P e a c e to L a n s in g , N o v e m b e r 2 9 , 1 9 1 9 . 26 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 1 8 6 . 27 T h e r e w as, h o w e v e r, s o m e in d ic a tio n t h a t L lo y d G e o r g e ’s b l u n t re m a rk s a t th is tim e s h o c k e d C le m e n c e a u , a t le a s t in so fa r as th e y w e re re g a rd e d as p r e ­ m a tu r e .

C le m e n c e a u d id n o t a d v o c a te a n y f u r t h e r a id to D e n ik in o r to o t h e r

R u s s ia n fo rce s , b u t h e fe a re d t h a t L lo y d G e o rg e in te n d e d

to w a sh h is h a n d s

e n tir e ly o f t h e e ffo r t to m a in ta in a b a rrie r a g a in s t th e B o lsh e v ik s . W h a t w as a t s ta k e w as t h e “ c o rd o n s a n ita ir e " a n d p a rtic u la rly a id to P o la n d ; it w as n o t a q u e s tio n o f d iffe re n c e s o v e r a id in g th e V o lu n te e r s . see J ea n M o r d a c q , L e m in is tè re C l e m e n c e a u 144, 1 7 2 -1 7 4 .

F o r C l e m e n c e a u ’s p o s itio n ,

(P a r is : P lo n , 1 9 3 1 ) , V o l. I V , p p .

373

NOTES

28 T h e U n i t e d S ta te s h a d n o ta b ly fo llo w e d a c o n s is te n t p o lic y o f re fu s in g to re c o g n iz e o r d e a l w ith p a rts o f R u ss ia as in d e p e n d e n t s ta te s a n d c o n tin u e d to m a in ta in th is p o lic y e v e n a f te r t h e A llie d g o v e rn m e n ts h a d c h a n g e d to w a rd r e c ­ o g n itio n o f th e b o rd e r la n d g o v e rn m e n ts . A n u n in te n d e d e x c e p tio n to th is A m e r ­ ic a n p o lic y o c c u r re d , h o w e v e r, w h e n A m e ric a n p e rs o n n e l in F r a n c e w h o w e re re s p o n s ib le f o r th e d is p o sa l o f s u rp lu s s u p p lie s e n te r e d a n u n a u th o r iz e d a g r e e m e n t to sell o v e r $ 1 1 m illio n w o rth o f s u c h m a te ria ls to t h e U k ra in e ( P e t l i u r a ) . W h e n k n o w le d g e o f th is re a c h e d L a n s in g , r a th e r la te as it tu r n e d o u t, h e im m e d ia te ly o r d e r e d t h e a r r a n g e m e n t v o id e d . A b o u t $ 8 m illio n w o rth o u t o f t h e to ta l h a d a lre a d y b e e n d e liv e re d , b u t a t le a s t t h e q u e s tio n o f p o lic y w as c la rifie d . e i g n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 9 R u s s ia , p p . 7 8 0 - 7 9 0 .

S ee F o r ­

L a n s in g a lso b lo c k e d t h e a t t e m p t b y

L . M a r te n s to o b ta in r e c o g n itio n as t h e re p re s e n ta tiv e o f R u ss ia ( o n b e h a lf o f t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t) a n d th u s g a in access to R u s s ia n f u n d s in t h e U n ite d S ta te s . T h e P r o v is io n a l g o v e r n m e n t’s re p re s e n ta tiv e , B a k h m e te v , c o n tin u e d to b e re c o g n iz e d as a m b a s s a d o r o f R u ss ia . S ee I b i d . , p p . 1 3 3 - 1 4 9 . 29 L a te in 1 9 1 8 R u s s ia n A m b a s s a d o r B a k h m e te v h a d b e e n in s tr u m e n ta l in m a k ­ in g a r r a n g e m e n ts fo r e s ta b lis h in g a $ 7 m illio n c r e d it in th e U n ite d S ta te s fo r t h e p u r c h a s e o f s u p p lie s fo r R u ss ia . L a te r s p e c ia l fin a n c ia l a g e n ts , S. A . U g h e t a n d P . A . M o ro z o v , in t h e U n i t e d S ta te s e n te r e d n u m e ro u s c o n tra c ts w ith b o t h g o v ­ e r n m e n t a g e n c ie s a n d p riv a te c o m p a n ie s o n b e h a lf o f K o lc h a k , a lth o u g h th e o th e r a n ti-B o ls h e v ik

g o v e rn m e n ts

w e re a lso e x p e c te d

to

b e n e f it. R e c o rd s s h o w , fo r

e x a m p le , a g r e e m e n ts fo r th e p u rc h a s e o f 2 6 8 ,0 0 0 rifles a n d 17 m illio n ro u n d s o f a m m u n itio n fr o m th e U n ite d S ta te s A rm y , 9 6 3 a u to m a tic m a c h in e g u n s a n d s p a re p a rts fr o m

t h e M a r lin -R o c k w e ll C o r p o r a tio n , a n d

1 0 0 m illio n ro u n d s o f

rifle a m m u n itio n fro m th e W e s t o n C a r tr id g e C o m p a n y .

O t h e r ite m s c o n tr a c te d

fo r in c lu d e d b o o ts , lo c o m o tiv e s , a n d ro llin g s to c k .

F o r te x ts o f s u c h c o n tr a c ts

a n d d e ta ils as to th e ite m s in v o lv e d , see re c o rd s in W M A , F ile s 121 a n d 1 2 2 . O n th e in itia l e s ta b lis h m e n t o f c re d it, see U . S. N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o r e ig n A ffairs S e c tio n , D o c . N o . 8 6 1 .2 4 / 1 2 1 ; a n d D e n ik in , O c h e r k i i u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 185. O n

th e s h ip m e n ts to

D e n ik in , see W M A , F ile

121, pp .

1 0 7 -1 0 8 ; an d

F ile 1 2 6 , p p . 4 7 1 - 4 7 2 , 4 9 9 . T h e tw o s h ip m e n ts to D e n ik in in m id -1 9 1 9 w e re re c o rd e d as fo llo w s : s h ip

d e p a r te d fro m N e w Y o rk

I rty s h

M ay 28, 1919

V la d im ir

J u ly 31, 1 9 1 9

v a lu e o f c a rg o $

8 5 3 ,8 1 5 .4 2 5 ,3 0 1 ,0 7 8 .0 5

T h e V l a d i m i r re p o rte d ly b r o u g h t a siz a b le c arg o o f ra w m a te ria ls fro m

S o u th

R u ss ia to N e w Y o rk , th u s p ro v id in g s o m e f u n d s fo r f r e ig h t p a y m e n ts . 30 O n t h e c o n d itio n s fo r a n e x c h a n g e w h ic h a p p lie d to D e n ik in , see th e c o r ­ re s p o n d e n c e b e tw e e n M o ro z o v a n d U g h e t a n d t h e S h ip p in g B o a rd fo r A u g u s t 2 0 -2 1 ,

1 9 1 9 , W M A , F ile 1 2 1 , p p . 1 0 9 - 1 1 3 .

O u tg o in g fr e ig h t c h a rg e s o n th e

first s h ip m e n t w e re to b e p re p a id , b u t th o s e o n a ll s u b s e q u e n t s h ip m e n ts a n d a ll in c o m in g s h ip m e n ts c o u ld b e p o s tp o n e d u n til sale o f R u s s ia n ra w m a te ria ls in t h e U n ite d S ta te s h a d b e e n m a d e . M u c h o f th e m a te ria l p u rc h a s e d b y U g h e t a n d M o r o z o v h a d in fa c t b e e n p ro d u c e d fo r R u ss ia u n d e r W o r l d W a r I a id a g re e ­ m e n ts b u t h a d

th e n b e e n

h e ld

U ltim a te ly , h o w e v e r, D e n ik in

fo r K o lc h a k , w h o h a d

p rio r ity o v e r D e n ik in .

g o t a g o o d d e a l o f t h a t o rig in a lly in te n d e d fo r

The Volunteer Army

374

K o lc h a k . S ee W M A , F ile 1 2 8 , p . 31; a n d a re p o r t o n s u p p lie s s e n t to S o u th R u ss ia fr o m t h e U n ite d S ta te s in F ile 1 2 2 , p p . 1 1 7 - 1 3 8 . 31 T h e fo u r s h ip m e n ts a f te r th e A u g u s t a g re e m e n t w e re r e c o rd e d as fo llo w s : s h ip

d a te o f d e p a r tu r e fro m U . S.

v a lu e o f c arg o

B la c k A rro w

S e p te m b e r 2 5 , 1 9 1 9

$ 2 ,1 2 7 ,9 1 4 .6 6

7, 1 9 1 9

1 ,9 6 8 ,5 9 6 .4 5

N o v e m b e r 19, 1 9 1 9 N o v em b er 27, 1919

O c to b e r

6 ,4 3 4 ,7 2 3 .1 1 2 3 6 ,8 1 0 .7 2

D och et Sangam an

C in c in a w a

T h e to ta l v a lu e o f th e six s h ip m e n ts b e tw e e n M a y a n d D e c e m b e r 1 9 1 9 w as o v e r $ 1 6 m illio n , a b o u t 6 0 p e r c e n t o f w h ic h D e n ik in re c e iv e d b e fo re th e e v a c u a tio n o f N o v o ro s siisk . T h is w as in a d d itio n to fo o d a n d m e d ic a l s u p p lie s d is tr ib u te d in v ario u s p a rts o f S o u th R u ss ia u n d e r t h e re lie f p ro g ra m . F r e ig h t c h a rg e s w e re p r e ­ p a id o n ly fo r th e B la c k A r r o w .

S ee W M A , F ile

121, p p . 66, 113.

S e e a lso

B e r n a ts k ii P a p e rs , w h e re th e v a lu e o f th e S a n g a m a n ’s c a rg o is lis te d as 5 ,9 6 9 ,3 3 8 .5 4 ru b le s . 32 L a te r p r o c u re m e n ts fo r W r a n g e l w ill b e n o te d b e lo w . 33 See M o ro z o v a n d U g h e t c o rre s p o n d e n c e w ith U . S. S h ip p in g B o a rd , M a r c h 31 a n d A p ril 8, 1 9 2 0 , W M A , F ile 1 2 1 , p p . 1 1 6 - 1 1 8 . 34 See a g re e m e n ts fo r s c ra p p in g in W M A , F ile 1 2 1 , p p . 7 8 - 9 0 .

In N o v e m b er

L a n s in g p u t in a g o o d w o rd fo r s e n d in g c lo th in g a n d th e lik e to S o u th R u ss ia , b u t th e W a r D e p a r tm e n t re p lie d t h a t " in s e c u re c re d its , u n c o n tr o lle d p ro f its , d is ­ tr i b u tio n , e tc ." m a d e it in a d v is a b le to d o so. S ee F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 9 , R u ss ia , pp. 7 7 5 -7 7 6 .

D e n ik in m a d e a b e la te d a p p e a l to K o lc h a k ’s h e a d q u a r te r s in D e ­

c e m b e r fo r g o ld , b u t in v a in .

See D e n ik in to K o lc h a k , N o v e m b e r 2 8 / D e c e m b e r

11, 1 9 1 9 , M A , S eries B, P a c k e t II , D o ss ie r 6.

S ee a lso F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 9 ,

R u s s ia , p p . 2 1 4 - 2 1 5 , 2 2 1 , 2 3 3 , 4 1 1 , 4 4 5 .

35 F o r a d d itio n a l c o rre s p o n d e n c e o n S h c h e rb a c h e v ’s e ffo rts, see W M A , F ile 3 3 . 36 See P a r is P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , V I I , 8 5 , 3 9 1 - 3 9 2 , 5 2 4 - 5 2 5 , 5 3 0 - 5 3 1 .

U n ite d

S ta te s C o m m is s io n e r F r a n k P o lk a lso p o in te d o u t t h a t u n d e r A rtic le 1 6 9 G e r ­ m a n y c o u ld n o t b e re q u ire d to give u p w a r m a te ria ls u n til tw o m o n th s a f te r th e s ig n a tu re o f th e tre a ty . P o lk to S c h illin g , A u g u s t 2 9 , 1 9 1 9 , W M A , F ile 7 1 . 37 P a r is P e a c e C o n fe re n c e , V I I , 5 2 4 - 5 2 5 . 38 M a k la k o v le tte rs to N e ra to v o n J a n u a ry 12 a n d 21 , 1 9 2 0 , D e n ik in A rc h iv e s, C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity R u ss ia n A rc h iv e . 30 D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , I I I , 7 9 0 - 7 9 2 . 40 S ee D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u fv , I V , 2 0 1 , 2 1 0 ; see a lso ib id .. I l l , 2 6 2 263. 41 I b i d . , I V , 2 1 5 - 2 1 6 , f o o tn o t e N o . 2. T h i s s ta t e m e n t w as s e n t to t h e A llie d

g o v e rn m e n ts o n A p ril 2 3 , 1 9 1 9 . 42 R a t h e r th a n c o n s ti tu e n t a ss e m b ly , D e n ik in p re fe rr e d to u se th e te rm n a tio n a l a sse m b ly . T h e o n ly re a l d iffe re n c e in v o lv e d h e r e c o n c e rn e d w h e th e r t h e o ld a s s e m ­ b ly o r a n e w o n e s h o u ld b e c o n v o k e d . D e n ik in b e lie v e d t h a t a n e w o n e w o u ld b e n e ce ssa ry , w h ile m o s t o f th e so cia lists b e lie v e d t h a t t h e o ld o n e s h o u ld b e re s to r e d . T h e A llie d r e p re s e n ta tiv e s a lso u s e d th e te r m n a tio n a l a s s e m b ly , w h ic h th e y tr a n s ­ la te d in to R u ss ia n as “ n a ts io n a ln o e s o b ra n ie ,” w h ile D e n i k i n ’s te r m w as “ n a r o d n o e s o b r a n ie ’’ ( w h ic h c o u ld e q u a lly w ell b e tr a n s la te d in to E n g lis h as p o p u la r a s s e m ­ b ly ) . S ee ib i d . , p. 2 1 1 .

375

N OTES

43 T h e la n d -p o lic y s t a t e m e n t is g iv e n in fu ll in i b i d . , p . 2 1 2 , a n d a la b o r-p o lic y s t a t e m e n t is su e d a t t h e s a m e tim e is q u o te d o n p . 2 1 4 . F o r t h e in te r im o rd e rs see p . 2 2 3 . T h e la b o r-p o lic y s ta t e m e n t c a lle d fo r p re s e rv a tio n o f p riv a te p ro p e r ty b u t also f o r th e p r o te c tio n o f th e in te re s ts o f t h e w o rk in g class b y th e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a n e ig h t- h o u r d a y , w o rk e rs ’ in s u ra n c e , la b o r u n io n s , h e a l th a n d sa fe ty in s p e c ­ tio n , p r o g r a m s to im p r o v e liv in g c o n d itio n s , m e a su re s to e n d u n e m p lo y m e n t, a n d in s titu tio n s to a r b itr a te la b o r-m a n a g e m e n t d is p u te s .

L e g is la tio n o n th e s e m a tte r s

w as in tr o d u c e d in Ju ly 1 9 1 9 b u t w as n o t a d o p te d u n til N o v e m b e r , a n d th e n o n ly a p a r tia l b ill w as a d o p te d o w in g to th e d iffic u lty o f re c o n c ilin g w o rk e rs ’ in te re s ts w ith th e view s o f t h e in d u s tria lis ts . S ee a lso S. A . P io n tk o v s k ii, e d ., G ra z h d a n s k a ia v o in a v R o s s i i (M o s c o w : Iz d . K o m . u n iv ., 1 9 2 5 ) , p p . 5 0 7 - 5 0 9 . 44 S ee D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , IV , 2 1 3 - 2 1 4 , 2 2 2 - 2 2 4 .

D e n ik in n o te s

t h a t K o lc h a k s u p p o r te d h is e ffo rts to g e t a g o o d a g ra ria n re fo rm law . 45 S ee ib id ., V , 2 7 3 - 2 7 4 ; a n d P . N . W r a n g e l , A lw ay s w ith H o n o r ( N e w Y o rk : S p e lle r, 1 9 5 7 ) , p p . 8 7 , 11 2 . C f. A . A . S m a g in , “ V o s p o m in a n iia ” (M S , C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity R u ss ia n A r c h iv e ) , p p . 3 7 - 3 8 ; V . D o b ry n in , L a l u t t e c o n t r e le b o l c h e ­ v is m e

( P r a g u e : “ M e la n tr ic h ,” 1 9 2 0 ) , p p . 9 0 - 9 1 ; a n d G . N . R a k o v sk ii, V s ta n e

b e l y k h ( C o n s ta n t in o p le : “ P re s s a ,” 1 9 2 0 ) , p p . 1 - 1 3 .

46 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , I V , 2 1 8 - 2 1 9 ; see also V , 1 5 4 .

T h e B ritis h

m is sio n c h ie f, G e n e r a l H o lm a n , w as n o ta b ly a m o n g th o s e u rg in g D e n ik in to fin d m o r e c o m p e te n t p e rs o n s to staff th e a d m in is tr a tio n . A lth o u g h H o lm a n k e p t su c h a d v ic e s tric tly s e c re t, D e n ik in e x p re sse d c o n c e rn t h a t it w o u ld b e c o m e k n o w n and

u n d e r c u t h is o w n a u th o r ity .

S ee D e n ik in ’s n o te to H o lm a n , J a n u a ry

25,

1 9 2 0 , in th e D e n ik in A rc h iv e s, C o rre s p o n d e n c e w ith E n g lis h R e p re s e n ta tiv e s . 47 O n th e p r o b le m o f g o v e rn m e n ta l re o rg a n iz a tio n a n d re la tio n s w ith th e C o s ­ sacks, e sp e c ia lly th e K u b a n C o ss a c k s , w ith w h o m a v io le n t s h o w d o w n o c c u r re d , see D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , IV , 4 3 , 4 9 , 54; a n d V , 2 7 7 - 2 7 8 ; W r a n g e l , o p . c it.r pp.

1 0 0 - 1 0 7 ; P . S h a tilo v , Z a p i s k i (M S , C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity R u ss ia n A r­

c h iv e ) , p p . 7 9 4 - 8 3 1 ; “ S p rav k a o b o tn o s h e n iia k h g la v n o -k o m a n d o v a n iia D o b ro v o l’c h e s k o i A rm ii k K a z a k a m ,” in th e G e s s e n A rc h iv e s ( H o o v e r L ib r a r y ) , F o ld e r I, R e d b o x N o .

1; V .

Iv a n is, S t e z h k a m i z h i t t a : s p o h a d i , V o l.

Ill

( N e u - U lm :

“ U k ra in s k i V i s t i ,” 1 9 5 9 ) , p . 138 ff.; G . K . P o k ro v sk ii, D e n ik in s h c h in a : g o d p o lit i k i i e k o n o m i k i n a K u b a n i (B e rlin : Iz d . G r z h e b in a , 1 9 2 3 ) , p p . 2 4 0 - 2 4 7 ; a n d A .

P . F ilim o n o v , “ R a z g ro m

K u b a n s k o i ra d y ,” A r k h i v R u s s k o i R e v o l i u t s i i , V o l. V

(B e r lin : “ S lo v o ,” 1 9 2 2 ) , p p . 3 2 2 - 3 2 9 , 3 5 8 - 3 6 0 . 4* D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 2 9 2 - 2 9 3 , 3 0 7 .

S ee a lso D o b ry n in , o p .

c it., p p . 9 6 - 1 0 0 .

49 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 103, 2 8 5 - 2 8 6 , 31 0 . 50 T h e m e m b e rs o f th e g o v e r n m e n t w e re N . M . M e l’n ik o v , c h a irm a n ; L t. G e n ­ era l K e l'c h e v s k ii, m in is te r o f w a r a n d n av y ; G e n e r a l N . N . B a ra to v , m in is te r o f fo r e ig n affairs; V . F . Z e e le r, m in is te r o f in te r n a l affairs; V . M . K ra sn o v , m in is te r o f ju stic e; P . M . A g eev , m in is te r o f a g ric u ltu re ; M . V . B e rn a tsk ii, m in is te r of fin a n c e ; L . V . Z v e re v , m in is te r o f c o m m u n ic a tio n s ; F . S. L e o n to v ic h , m in is te r o f tr a d e a n d in d u s try ; F . S. S u s h k o v , m in is te r o f e d u c a tio n ; N . S. D o lg o p o lo v , m i n ­ is te r o f h e a l th ; N . V . C h a ik o v s k ii (f o rm e r h e a d o f th e N o r t h R u ss ia n g o v e r n m e n t a t A r k h a n g e ls k ) , m in is te r o f p ro p a g a n d a .

G e n e r a l K e l'c h e v sk ii d e c lin e d to jo in

th e g o v e r n m e n t so as to c o n tin u e as c h ie f o f staff of th e D o n a rm y .

F o r a d d i-

The Volunteer Army

376

tio n a l in f o r m a tio n o n th e fo r m a tio n o f t h e n e w g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e p r o b le m s c o n n e c te d

w ith

th is

re fo rm

see

“ O rg a n iz a ts iia

v la sti n a

iu g e

R o s s ii,” A i k h i v

R u s s k o i R e v o l i u t s i i V o l. I V (B e rlin : I z d a te l’s tv o “ S lo v o ,” 1 9 2 2 ) , p p . 2 4 1 - 2 5 1 ; K .

N . S o k o lo v , P r a v l e n ie G e n e r a la D e n i k i n a (S ofia: R o ss iis k o -B o lg a rsk o e k n ig o iz d a te l’stv o , 1 9 2 1 ) , p a s s i m ; a n d V . M . K ra sn o v , “ Iz v o s p o m in a n ii o 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 0 g g . / ’ A i k h i v R u s s k o i R e v o l i u t s i i , V o l. X I (B e rlin : I z d a te l’s tv o “ S lo v o ,” 1 9 2 3 ) , p . 1 5 4

ff.

F o r a B ritis h

o b s e rv e r’s in te r p r e ta tio n

o f th e

v ic to ry , see B e c h h o fe r- R o b e rts , o p . c it., p . 1 8 9 .

re o rg a n iz a tio n

as a C o s s a c k

F o r t h e lib e ra l p r o p o s a l o n t h e

fo r m a tio n o f a n e w g o v e rn m e n t, m a d e b y K a d e t m e m b e rs o f t h e V o lu n te e r S p e c ia l C o u n c il, a n d u s e d b y D e n ik in as th e m o d e l fo r h is s u b s e q u e n t o rd e rs , see D e n ik in , O c h e ik i ru ssk o i s m u ty , V , 2 8 2 -2 8 4 . 51 E s tim a te s p u t th e n u m b e r o f d e a d fro m ty p h u s a n d e x p o s u re d u r in g th e p e rio d o f t h e r e tr e a t as h ig h as 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 . See G . S te w a rt, T h e W h i t e A rm ie s o f R u s s ia

(N ew

Y o rk :

M a c m illa n ,

1 9 3 3 ),

pp.

3 4 1 -3 4 2 .

B e c h h o fe r- R o b e r ts

ob­

s e rv e d : “ N o o n e w h o h a s s e e n th e p a n ic in a S o u th R u s s ia n to w n b e f o r e t h e B o lsh e v ik s ’ c o m in g is lik ely e v er to fo r g e t th e s e n s a tio n .

I t te a c h e s o n e m o r e

a b o u t w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d in R u ssia d u r in g th e la s t th r e e years t h a n a th o u s a n d b o o k s .” B e c h h o fe r- R o b e rts , o p . c it., p . 1 02. 52 F o r th e b a c k g r o u n d a n d c h a r a c te r o f th e G r e e n m o v e m e n t, see N . V o r o n o ­ v ic h , e d ., Z e le n a ia k n ig a ; s b o r n ik m a t e r i a l o v i d o k u m e n t o v ; is t o i i i a k i e s t ’ia n s k a g o d v iz h e n iia

v C h e r n o m o i s k o i g u b e rn ii

(P ra g u e :

Iz d a n ie

C h ern o m o rsk o i

K r e s t’-

ia n sk o i D e le g a ts ii, 1 9 2 1 ) . S ee a lso D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 2 4 8 ff. T h e te x t o f th e G re e n p ro g ra m is in V o ro n o v ic h , o p . c i t . , p p . 4 6 - 4 8 . S ee a lso th e a d d re ss to th e A llie d m issio n s in T iflis in D e c e m b e r, i b i d . , p p . 4 8 - 5 3 ; th e a p p e a l to G e o rg ia fo r a id a g a in s t “ G r e a t R u s s ia n im p e ria lis m ,” i b i d . , p p . 5 4 - 5 5 ; a n d th e a d d re ss to th e B o lsh e v ik s a n d th e C o u n c i l o f P e o p le ’s C o m m is s a rs , i b i d . , p p . 5 5 - 5 6 . C f . P io n tk o v s k ii, o p . c i t . , p p . 5 4 7 - 5 4 9 . 53 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 2 5 1 . 54 D o b r y n in , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 0 3 - 1 0 4 . 55 V o r o n o v ic h , o p . c i t . , D o c . N o . 33, p p . 7 1 - 7 3 . 56 I b i d . , D o c . N o . 38, p p . 7 6 - 7 8 . A n a c o u n t o f K e y es’ e ffo rts m a y a lso b e f o u n d in B e c h h o fe r- R o b e rts , o p . c it.,

p.

1 8 0 ff.

57 V o r o n o v ic h , o p . c i t . , D o c . N o . 39, p p . 7 8 - 7 9 . 58 I b i d . , D o c . N o s . 4 7 , 4 8 , 55, 56, p p . 9 5 - 9 6 , 1 1 0 - 1 1 3 , 1 1 6 - 1 1 7 . 59 S ee D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 2 5 2 . D e n ik in la te r a c c u s e d K ey es ( n o w B ritis h d ip lo m a tic re p re s e n ta tiv e )

o f s o u n d in g o u t le a d in g p e rs o n s a b o u t

a r r a n g e m e n ts fo r th e o v e rth ro w o f D e n ik in h im s e lf a n d t h e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a n e w a u th o r ity a t th e s a m e tim e t h a t th e m ilita r y r e p re s e n ta tiv e , H o lm a n , w as d o in g e v e r y th in g p o s sib le to s u p p o r t a n d p r o te c t D e n ik in a n d h is a u th o r ity . S ee ib i d . , p . 3 4 0 .

H o lm a n ’s re m a rk a b le lo y a lty to D e n ik in a n d h is p e rs o n a l h e r o is m

d u r in g th e s e la s t day s is r e c o u n te d in B e c h h o fe r- R o b e rts , o p . c it., p p . 1 3 0 , 1 8 6 187, 2 0 7 -2 0 8 . 60 S ee V o r o n o v ic h , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 2 3 - 1 2 5 , 1 4 9 ff. 61 T h i s e ffo rt w as n o ta b le , h o w e v e r, as a n o th e r o f t h e m a n y e ffo rts to h e a d off h o s tilitie s b e tw e e n th e V o lu n te e r s a n d o p p o s in g K u b a n le a d e rs , w h o w e re n o w b a c k in g th e

G re e n s .

D e n ik in

w as p a rtic u la rly b i t t e r a b o u t re p o rts

th a t som e

K u b a n le a d e rs w e re n o w a d v o c a tin g a n a g r e e m e n t w ith th e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t to o b ta in re c o g n itio n in r e tu r n fo r n e u tr a lity . S ee D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty ,

377

N OTES

V , 3 1 3 - 3 1 4 . A c c o r d in g to a S o v ie t s o u rc e , o n e K u b a n le a d e r, T i m o s h e n k o , w e n t to T iflis in A p ril to n e g o tia te w ith th e G e o rg ia n s a n d th e r e d e c la r e d t h a t th e K u b a n w o u ld a d o p t n e u tr a lity in th e w a r if t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t w o u ld e x te n d r e c o g n itio n a n d a c c e p t K u b a n in c o r p o r a tio n o f t h e B la c k S ea p ro v in c e . S ee S h afir, S e c r e t s o f M e n s h e v i k G e o r g ia , p . 6 7 .

O n th e G r e e n s ’ re la tio n s w ith th e K u b a n

see V o r o n o v ic h , o p . c it., p p . 8 6 - 8 7 , 1 1 6 - 1 1 7 , 1 2 7 - 1 2 8 . 62 V o r o n o v ic h , o p . c it., p p . 1 2 3 - 1 2 5 . 63 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 2 4 6 . 64 S ee t h e m a te ria ls o n th e m e e tin g s o f t h e p rim e m in is te rs a n d m in is te rs o f fo r e ig n A ffairs in L o n d o n a n d P a ris , D e c e m b e r 11 to J a n u a ry 2 1 , e sp e c ia lly th e m e e tin g s o f D e c e m b e r 11 a n d 12, in D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , I I , 7 3 6 ff. 65 S e e te x t in i b i d . , p . 7 8 2 . 66 S ee re c o rd o f C o u n c il o f F o r e ig n M in is te r s , J a n u a ry 10, 1 9 2 0 , In te r- A llie d C o n f e r e n c e D o c u m e n t s (H o o v e r L i b r a r y ) .

L lo y d G e o rg e h a d a lre a d y o n N o v e m ­

b e r 2 4 to ld t h e A m e ric a n re p re s e n ta tiv e , P o lk , t h a t h e o p p o s e d R u s s ia n re u n ific a ­ tio n a n d w a n te d to see t h e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n s ta te s a n d o th e rs e s ta b lis h e d as in d e ­ p e n d e n t s ta te s .

S ee F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 1 9 , R u s s ia ,

p.

1 2 6 . T h e B ritis h C a b i n e t

h a d b e g u n d is c u s s io n s o n th e p o s sib le r e c o g n itio n o f th e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n s ta te s la te in D e c e m b e r . I n th e s e d is c u s s io n s it w as s u g g e s te d t h a t s u c h r e c o g n itio n s h o u ld b e c o n d itio n e d u p o n th e ir a g r e e m e n t to c o o p e r a te w ith t h e V o lu n te e r A rm y fo r th e d u r a tio n o f t h e w a r a n d to jo in in s te p s to fo r m a R u s s ia n fe d e ra tio n in t h e f u tu r e . S ee D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , I I I , 7 0 0 - 7 0 2 , 7 3 5 . S ee a lso W a r d r o p to G e g e c h k o r i, J a n u a ry 12, 1 9 2 0 , in D o c u m e n t s p r é s e n té s p a r le g o u v e r n e m e n t d e la r é p u b l i q u e d e G é o r g i e à la p r e m i è r e A s s e m b l é e d e la S o c i é t é d e s n a tio n s , p . 37.

C f . Z . D . A v a lo v , T h e I n d e p e n d e n c e o f G e o r g ia

( L o n d o n : H e a d le y , 1 9 4 0 ) , p .

252. 67 C o u n c i l o f P re m ie rs , J a n u a ry 16, 1 9 2 0 , In te r-A llie d C o n f e r e n c e D o c u m e n ts ; D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , I I , 9 1 2 . T h e B ritis h r e p re s e n ta tiv e o n t h e A llie d M il­

ita ry C o u n c i l h a d r e c o m m e n d e d o n J a n u a ry 12 t h a t a m ilita ry fo rc e , in c lu d in g tw o A llie d d iv is io n s , b e p la c e d a lo n g t h e C a u c a s u s ra n g e as a b a rrie r a g a in s t B o lsh e v ik a tta c k a n d t h a t m e a n w h ile a id b e c o n tin u e d to D e n ik in . I n d is c u s s io n o f th e la tte r p o in t, h o w e v e r , it w as n o te d t h a t D e n ik in w as v irtu a lly d e f e a te d a lre a d y , a n d so th e r e c o m m e n d a ti o n w as c h a n g e d to e x c lu d e f u r th e r a id to D e n ik in a n d c o n c e n tr a te it all u p o n T r a n s c a u c a s ia , e sp e c ia lly G e o rg ia . T o th is th e F r e n c h re p re s e n ta tiv e a d d e d o n F e b r u a ry 19 a p ro p o s a l t h a t th e s u g g e s te d fo rc e b e c o m p o s e d m a in ly o f n a tiv e tro o p s u n d e r a jo in t A llie d c o m m a n d a n d t h a t it b e p o s te d a t k ey p o in ts a lo n g t h e V la d ik a v k a z -P e tro v s k railw ay , e sp e c ia lly in D a g e s ta n . L lo y d G e o rg e m a y h a v e c o n s id e re d s u c h p ro p o s a ls b u t a p p a r e n tly re je c te d th e m .

S ee A m e ric a n E m ­

b assy , P a ris , E .S .H . B u lle tin s , N o s . 118 a n d 1 7 3 , H o o v e r L ib ra ry . 68 S ee C o u n c i l o f P re m ie rs , J a n u a ry 16, 1 9 2 0 , In te r-A llie d C o n f e r e n c e D o c u ­ m e n ts ; a n d D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , II , 9 1 2 . O n F e b ru a ry 12 B rita in also c u lm in a te d sev e ra l m o n th s o f n e g o tia tio n s w ith S o v ie t re p re s e n ta tiv e s b y s ig n in g a p ris o n e r-e x c h a n g e a g re e m e n t. S ee D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , II , 3 6 4 - 3 6 7 . O n F e b r u a r y 21 C u r z o n a lso c o n c e d e d th e loss o f A rk h a n g e ls k in a n o te to C h ic h e r in , in i b i d . , p . 3 8 5 . fi9 C o u n c i l o f P re m ie rs , J a n u a ry 19, 1 9 2 0 , In te r-A llie d C o n f e r e n c e D o c u m e n ts . 70

I b id .

C f . A v alo v , o p . c i t . , p . 2 2 0 ff.

I t w o u ld a p p e a r t h a t C h u r c h ill w as

The Volunteer Army

378

p a rtia lly su c c e ss fu l h e re , a t le a s t to t h e e x te n t o f h a v in g s e t a sid e t h e r e c o m m e n d a ­ tio n o f th e B ritis h r e p re s e n ta tiv e o n th e M ilita ry C o u n c i l o n J a n u a ry 12 re g a rd in g th e s u s p e n s io n o f a ll a id to D e n ik in . 71 C o u n c i l o f P re m ie rs , J a n u a ry 19, 1 9 2 0 , In te r- A llie d C o n f e r e n c e D o c u m e n t s . 72 I b i d . , m e e tin g o f J a n u a ry 2 0 a n d A p p e n d ix A .

S ee also D o c u m e n t s o n B r i t ­

is h P o l i c y , II , 7 9 7 . T h e U n ite d S ta te s , in k e e p in g w ith its p o lic y o f n o t r e c o g ­

n iz in g a n y n e w g o v e rn m e n ts in R u ssia a t th is tim e , d e c lin e d to a ss o c ia te its e lf w ith th e s e d e c isio n s . T h o s e w h o saw a n o il m a g n a te s ’ c o n s p ira c y in A llie d a n d A m e ric a n p o lic y c a lle d th is d iv e rg e n c e a r e s u lt o f S ta n d a r d O il's fe a r t h a t re c o g ­ n itio n w o u ld e n a b le th e B ritis h to m o n o p o liz e T r a n s c a u c a s ia n o il. S ee L . F is c h e r , J a p a n , o n th e o th e r h a n d , d id jo in in th e re c o g n itio n o f

O i l I m p e r ia l is m , p . 33.

G e o rg ia a n d A z e r b a id z h a n , re p o r te d o n F e b ru a ry 6, a n d th e n o f A rm e n ia , r e p o r te d o n M a r c h 6 . S ee C o n f e r e n c e o f A m b a ss a d o rs, m e e tin g s o f F e b ru a ry 6 a n d M a r c h 6, In te r- A llie d C o n fe re n c e D o c u m e n ts .

See f u r th e r D o c u m e n t s o n B r i t i s h P o l i c y ,

X I I , 55 7 ff. 73 B e fo re le a v in g L o n d o n , M a c k in d e r ta lk e d w ith R u s s ia n re p re s e n ta tiv e s th e r e a n d a p p a r e n tly c o n v in c e d th e m

t h a t th e B ritis h g o v e r n m e n t h a d

never h ad

a

p o lic y o f o p p o s in g R u ss ia n in te re s ts in T ra n s c a u c a s ia . A s o n e R u s s ia n re p re s e n ta tiv e r e p o r te d to S a z o n o v a f te r s e e in g M a c k in d e r, th e p o o r re la tio n s b e tw e e n t h e V o l u n ­ te e rs a n d th e B ritis h in T ra n s c a u c a s ia in th e p a s t h a d b e e n “ la rg e ly t h e f a u lt o f th e p o lic y o f lo c a l m ilita r y a g e n ts w h o se a c tiv itie s M a c k in d e r w as n o t c o n s tr a in e d to c h a r a c te riz e as c h a o t ic .”

See S a b lin to S a z o n o v , N o v e m b e r 2 2 ,

1919, M A ,

S eries B , P a c k e t I I I , D o s s ie r 1. 74 S ee M a c k in d e r ’s r e p o r t in D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , I I I , 7 6 8 - 7 8 6 . 75 D e n ik in to M a c k in d e r, J a n u a ry 14, 1 9 2 0 , i b i d . , p p . 7 9 2 - 7 9 3 . 70 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 2 4 5 ff. 77 S ee th e tr a n s c r ip t o f th e te le p h o n e c o n v e rs a tio n , M a r c h 7, 1 9 2 0 , b e tw e e n D e n a n d E r d e li, w h o w as re la y in g B a r a to v ’s in s tru c tio n s , in t h e D r a ts e n k o D o c u ­ m e n ts . 78 T h e r e w as a p p a r e n tly s o m e e x c h a n g e o f g ra in fo r b o t h c o a l a n d o il b e g u n a t th is tim e . S ee S h afir, o p . c it., p p . 5 3 - 5 7 . 79 D e n d id , h o w e v e r, c o m p la in o f th e p re s e n c e o f a d e le g a tio n fro m th e C o s s a c k S u p r e m e K ru g w h ic h w as a tt e m p t i n g to n e g o tia te in d e p e n d e n tly w ith

G e o rg ia

d e s p ite a ss u ra n c e s g iv e n to h im fro m h e a d q u a r te r s t h a t th e y h a d n o a u th o r ity to d o so. S ee c o n v e rs a tio n s w ith E r d e li, F e b ru a ry 2 7 , 1 9 2 0 , D r a ts e n k o D o c u m e n t s . 89 D e n to B a ra to v , M a r c h 12, 1 9 2 0 , D ra ts e n k o D o c u m e n t s . 81 See F . K a z e m z a d e h , T h e S tr u g g le f o r T r a n s c a u c a s ia ( N e w Y o rk : P h il o s o p h i­ cal L ib ra ry , 1 9 5 1 ) , p p . 2 7 8 - 2 7 9 ; A . R a e v sk ii, A n g liis k a ia i n t e r v e n t s i i a i M u s a v a ts k o e p r a v ite Y s tv o K rakh

(B a k u : “ K ra sn y i V o s t o k ,” 1 9 2 7 ) , p . 1 7 9 ; a n d D . E . E n u k id z e ,

im p e r i a l i s t i c h e s k o i

in te r v e n ts ii

v

Z a k a v k a z ’i

(T iflis :

G o s iz d a t.

G .S .S .R .,

1 9 5 4 ), p . 194. 8 2 D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , V I I , 81 ff.; X I I , 5 5 7 , 5 6 1 - 5 6 2 , 5 6 7 - 5 6 8 , 5 7 2 5 7 4 . 5 8 0 - 5 8 3 , 5 9 0 - 5 9 1 , 59 5 , 5 9 9 , 6 1 0 , 6 1 8 , 6 4 3 . 88 D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , V I I , 1 4 1 - 1 4 3 , 2 1 6 ; X I I , 5 5 8 , 5 7 0 - 5 7 1 , 6 4 2 ; R ae v sk ii, o p . c i t . , p p . 1 6 5 - 1 6 6 , 181 ff. 84 A c tu a lly , o rd e rs to e v a c u a te B a tu m h a d b e e n issu e d b y G e n e r a l M iln e early in F e b r u a r y p u r s u a n t to a C a b i n e t d e c is io n

(m a d e in C u r z o n ’s a b s e n c e )

th e B a tu m g a rris o n to re in fo rc e B ritis h tro o p s in C o n s ta n tin o p le .

to u se

H o w e v e r, u p o n

379

NOTES h is r e tu r n

to

L o n d o n , C u rz o n

( s u p p o r te d

by b o th

W a r d r o p a n d A d m ira l d e

R o b e c k ) h a d u rg e d a rev e rsal o f th is d e c is io n , s in c e w ith d ra w a l a t th is tim e w o u ld h a v e d is a s tro u s e ffe c ts, a n d th e C a b i n e t h a d d e c id e d to p o s tp o n e th e e v a c u a tio n p e n d in g f u r th e r d is c u s s io n w ith th e A llies. T h e a d d itio n o f F r e n c h a n d Ita lia n tr o o p s w as t h u s c o n s id e re d n e ce ssa ry to c o n tin u e th e o c c u p a tio n .

S ee D o c u m e n t s

o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , V I I , 2 5 4 - 2 5 5 , 6 3 9 ff.; V I I I , 9 8 - 1 0 1 ; X I I , 5 5 8 - 5 7 2 , 6 0 0 , 6 0 3 -

608, 611, 615, 6 1 9 -6 2 7 , 6 3 1 -6 3 2 .

S ee a lso A v alo v , o p . c it.,

p.

2 3 3 ff.

85 S ee D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , I I , 8 7 5 , 8 9 8 - 8 9 9 ; a n d A v a lo v , o p . c i t . , p . 227.

In A p ril C u r z o n m a d e it c le a r t h a t a id d id n o t m e a n m ilita ry in te r v e n tio n ;

in a n o te to W a r d r o p o n A p ril 2 7 h e w a rn e d a g a in s t a llo w in g a m is u n d e r s ta n d in g o n th is p o i n t a n d s ta te d flatly t h a t th e r e w as “ n o q u e s tio n o f o u r g iv in g G e o rg ia a n d A z e r b a ija n a c tiv e m ilita r y s u p p o r t in case o f a n a tta c k o n th e m

b y S o v ie t

fo r c e s .’' D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , X I I , 5 99. 8ft R a e v sk ii, o p . c i t . , p . 18 5 . 87 K a z e m z a d e h , o p . c i t . , p p . 2 8 0 - 2 8 1 ; R ae v sk ii, o p . c i t . , p .

1 85; A . P o p o v ,

“ Iz e p o k h i a n g liis k o i in te rv e n ts ii v Z a k a v k a z 'i,” lo c . c i t . , p p . 2 1 1 - 2 1 2 .

S ee also

D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , X I I , 5 6 9 - 5 7 1 . 88 S ee S h a fir, o p . c i t . , p . 4 4 ff. 80

S ee D e n

to

E r d e li, M a r c h

15,

1 9 2 0 ; te le p h o n e c o n v e rs a tio n w ith

E r d e li,

M a r c h 18, 1 9 2 0 ; a n d D e n to B a ra to v , n o d a te , D ra ts e n k o D o c u m e n ts . 90 D e n to B a ra to v , M a r c h 2 2 , 1 9 2 0 , D ra ts e n k o D o c u m e n ts . 91 T h e C a s p ia n flo tilla w as s u p p o s e d to b e a llo w e d to c o n tin u e to d e f e n d th e c o a s t u n d e r its o w n officers, b u t A z e r b a id z h a n so o n re p u d ia te d th is p a r t o f th e a g r e e m e n t a n d trie d to seize th e s h ip s. T h e flo tilla ’s officers, h o w e v e r, c h o s e to sail to E n z e li. 'T h e re , c o n tra ry to p re v io u s a s s u m p tio n s , th e y w e re n o t g r e e te d as allie s b u t in te r n e d , in th is case w ith B ritis h a p o lo g ie s, to p r o te c t P e rs ia ’s n e u tr a lity . S u b s e q u e n tly B o lsh e v ik tro o p s la n d e d a t E n z e li, a n d b o th

th e B ritis h a n d th e

R u s s ia n crew s fled to th e s o u th . S ee D e n to th e A llie d M iss io n s , M a r c h 18, 1 9 2 0 , D r a ts e n k o D o c u m e n t s ; a n d D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V ,

3 5 1 -3 5 2 .

For

a n a c c o u n t o f th e E n z e li in c id e n t, see a lso G . L e n c z o w s k i, R u ss ia a n d t h e W e s t in I r a n , 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 4 8 ; a S t u d y in B ig - P o w e r R i v a l r y ( I th a c a : C o r n e ll U n iv e rs ity P ress,

1 9 4 9 ) , p . 52 ff. S ee a lso D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , X I I , 5 8 1 , 5 8 4 , 5 8 6 . 92 D e n to B a ra to v , A p ril 2, 1 9 2 0 , a n d D e n to A llie d M iss io n s , A p ril 7 , 1 9 2 0 , D r a ts e n k o D o c u m e n t s . 93 S ee D e n 's re p o r t o f A p ril 2 1 , 1 9 2 0 , D ra ts e n k o D o c u m e n ts . T h e e v id e n c e is n o t c le a r, b u t th e G e o rg ia n g o v e r n m e n t its e lf m a y n o t h a v e b e e n a p a rty to th is ru se .

O n e a c c o u n t, w h ile e a g e r to in d ic t G e o rg ia , fo r e x a m p le , a d m its t h a t th e

G e o rg ia n

m in is te r o f w a r p e r m itte d

th e e v a c u a tio n o f th e p ris o n e rs o n ly a f te r

o b ta in in g w r itt e n s ta t e m e n ts o n e a c h tr ip fro m th e c a p ta in o f th e s h ip in v o lv e d t h a t th e d e s ti n a tio n w as C o n s ta n tin o p le .

S ee S h a fir, o p . c it., p p . 9 6 - 9 8 . T r o ts k ii

n o te s th is s a m e r e q u ir e m e n t o f s ta te m e n ts fro m th e c a p ta in s , b u t su g g ests t h a t th e G e o rg ia n g o v e r n m e n t w as th u s m e re ly c o v e rin g u p d e lib e ra te a id w h ic h n o t o n ly e n a b le d p o s sib ly s o m e 3 0 ,0 0 0 m e n to go to th e C rim e a b u t a lso s u p p lie d th e m w ith

fu e l th r o u g h

“ p r iv a te ’’ tra n s a c tio n s .

S ee

L . T r o ts k y ,

B e tw e e n

W h i t e : a S t u d y o f S o m e F u n d a m e n t a l Q u e s t i o n s o f R e v o lu tio n , w i t h R e f e r e n c e t o G e o r g ia

R ed

and

P a r tic u la r

( L o n d o n : C o m m u n is t P a rty o f G r e a t B rita in , 1 9 2 2 ) , p p .

5 5 - 5 7 . F o r a s u b s e q u e n t S o v ie t p r o te s t c h a r g in g t h e B ritis h w ith a id in g in th e

The Volunteer Army

380

s h ip m e n t o f m e n a n d s u p p lie s fro m B a tu m to th e C rim e a , see L i tv in o v to C u r z o n , Ju ly 19, 1 9 2 0 , D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , X I I , 7 5 1 - 7 5 2 .

C u r z o n d e n ie d t h e

c h a rg e s . I b i d . , p . 7 5 9 . 94 R ae v sk ii, o p . c i t . , p . 1 90; E n u k id z e , o p . c it., p p . 1 9 9 - 2 0 0 . 95 S ee D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , X I I , 6 0 0 , 6 5 7 , 6 7 0 ; A v a lo v , o p . c i t . , p p . 2 4 7 -2 6 3 .

C f . A . J. T o y n b e e , e d ., S u rv ey o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a ir s ,

1 9 2 0 -1 9 2 3

( L o n d o n : O x f o rd U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 2 7 ) , p . 3 6 5 . 96 T h e P o lish a tta c k w h ic h c o in c id e d w ith t h e R e d A rm y 's m a rc h

in to

th e

T r a n s c a u c a s ia n re p u b lic s w as p ro b a b ly th e c h ie f re a so n fo r n o t p re s s in g t h e c o n ­ q u e s t in to

G e o rg ia a n d A rm e n ia

im m e d ia te ly a n d

in s te a d m a k in g p e a c e w ith

G e o rg ia . 97 A v alo v , o p . c i t . , p p . 2 6 1 - 2 6 2 ; E n u k id z e , o p . c i t . , p p . 2 0 2 —2 0 5 .

F o r t h e te x t

o f t h e tre a ty , see T r a i t é c o n c l u le 1 m a i, 1 9 2 0 , e n t r e la R é p u b l i q u e d é m o c r a t i q u e d e G é o r g i e e t la R é p u b l i q u e S o c ia l is te

p rim e r ie P . D u p o n t,

1 9 2 2 ).

F e d e r a tiv e S o v ie tis te

R u sse

(P a r is :

Im ­

C f. C h ic h e r in 's re m a rk s o n S o v ie t re la tio n s w ith

G e o rg ia , D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , I I , 6 5 7 , 6 9 3 - 6 9 4 . 98 O n th e w ith d ra w a l a n d s u b s e q u e n t A llie d p o lic y to w a rd T r a n s c a u c a s ia , see D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , V I I I , 9 8 - 1 0 1 , 1 3 8 ; X I I , 6 0 3 ff. o p . c it., p p . 2 7 1 -2 7 5 , 28 4 .

S ee a lso A v a lo v ,

C f. A . D . M a r g o lin , U k r a in a i p o l i t i k a a n t a n t y ( B e r ­

lin : E f r o n , 1921 ) , p . 2 5 6 . 99 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 3 4 7 - 3 4 8 . 100 S ee C u r z o n to M a c k in d e r, D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , I I I , 6 7 2 - 6 7 8 . 101 S ee th e a c c o u n t b y th e th e n q u a r te r m a s te r g e n e ra l, G e n e r a l P . S. M a k h r o v , “ V b e lo i a rm ii g e n erala D e n ik in a " ( M S , C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity R u s s ia n A r c h iv e ) ,

p.

6 5 9 ff. 102 Q u a r te r m a s te r G e n e r a l M a k h r o v w as n a m e d th e n e w c h ie f o f staff.

I n h is

fa re w e ll to R o m a n o v s k ii, D e n ik in d e c la r e d : “ H is to ry w ill b r a n d w ith c o n t e m p t th o s e w h o f o r selfish m o tiv e s h a v e w o v e n a w e b o f b a se s la n d e r a r o u n d h is h o n o r ­ a b le a n d sp o tle ss n a m e ."

D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , V ,

354.

M ak h ro v

p o in ts o u t t h a t n e ith e r D e n ik in n o r R o m a n o v s k ii w o u ld ta k e t h e s te p s n e ce s sa ry fo r th e ir p e rs o n a l p r o te c tio n , d e s p ite c o n s ta n t ru m o r s o f a s s a s s in a tio n p lo ts .

It

w as M a k h r o v w h o , o n th e u rg in g o f th e B ritis h re p re s e n ta tiv e , G e n e r a l H o lm a n , h a d s ta tio n e d a g u a rd a r o u n d th e tra in se rv in g as h e a d q u a r te r s . b e lo i a rm ii g e n e ra la D e n ik in a ,"

p.

S ee M a k h r o v , “ V

6 3 3 . T h e p a rtic u la rly g re a t h o s tility to w a r d

G e n e r a l R o m a n o v s k ii is s y m p a th e tic a lly b u t v iv id ly d e s c rib e d in t h e m e m o ir s o f P r o to p r e s v ite r G e o rg ii S h a v e l's k ii, “ V o s p o m in a n i ia " R u ss ia n A r c h iv e ) , p p . 4 2 2 - 4 3 4 .

( M S , C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s ity

H e n o te s t h a t o n e o ffice rs’ g r o u p h a d th r e a te n e d

a ss a ss in a tio n if R o m a n o v s k ii w e re n o t re m o v e d , h im s e lf d e s c rib in g b o t h D e n ik in a n d R o m a n o v s k ii as “ d e m o c ra ts in th e tr u e sen s e o f th e w o r d ." 103 M a k h r o v , “ V b e lo i a rm ii g e n e ra la D e n ik in a ,” p p . 6 7 7 - 6 7 8 .

S e e a lso “ O r-

g a n iz a ts iia v la sti n a iu g e R o s s ii," lo c . c i t . , p p . 2 4 9 - 2 5 1 . 104 T h e d a te c h o s e n fo r th e c o n f e re n c e m a d e i t a p p e a r r a th e r s u d d e n , a lth o u g h D e n ik in h a d

c o n s id e re d

re s ig n in g fo r s o m e tim e . T h e

re a so n

fo r s e le c tin g

it,

h o w e v e r , w as a p p a r e n tly in p a r t th e in f o r m a tio n t h a t t h e fie ld c o m m a n d e r in t h e C r im e a . G e n e r a l S la s h c h e v , w h o w as n o w c a m p a ig n in g fo r h is o w n a d v a n c e m e n t, p la n n e d to call a p u b lic c o n fe re n c e o n A p ril 5 w ith t h e in t e n t i o n o f d e m o n s t r a t ­ in g o p p o s itio n to D e n ik in a n d c a llin g u p o n h im to re s ig n .

D e n ik in d id n o t n e e d

381

NOTES

a p u b lic d e m o n s t r a tio n to k n o w t h a t s tro n g o p p o s itio n e x iste d , a n d h e also w is h e d to re s ig n in h is o w n w ay. S ee D e n ik in , O c h e i k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 3 5 5 3 5 6 ; a n d M a k h r o v , " V b e lo i a rm ii g e n e ra la D e n i k i n a / ’ p p . 6 8 5 - 6 8 6 . 105 T h e fo llo w in g a c c o u n t o f th e c o n fe re n c e is b a se d la rg e ly u p o n M a k h r o v , “V

b e lo i a r m ii g e n e ra la D e n ik in a ,” p . 6 8 8

ff.; a n d

D e n ik in , O c h e i k i i u s s k o i

s m u ty , V , 3 5 8 ff. I n t h e la tte r , p p . 3 6 2 - 3 6 3 , D e n ik in a lso p ro v id e s a n a c c o u n t o f a p a r t o f th e c o n fe re n c e b y G e n e r a l B o g ae v sk ii. 106 T h e V o l u n t e e r c o rp s c o m m a n d e r , G e n e r a l K u te p o v , w as p re s e n t, b u t h e h a d n o t s u p p o r te d t h e s tro n g p o s itio n ta k e n b y t h e o th e r V o lu n te e r C o rp s officers e ith e r in th e ir o w n c a u c u s o n th is q u e s tio n o r in th e p le n a ry sessio n . G e n e r a l S la s h c h e v also le f t th e c o n fe re n c e a n d re tu r n e d o n ly a f te r th e s e le c tio n o f W r a n g e l h a d b e e n m a d e . T h e n h e o rd e re d a p a ra d e as a g re e tin g to th e n e w c h ie f to d e m ­ o n s tr a te h is “ c o m p le te a g r e e m e n t w ith w h a t h a d o c c u r re d .”

H e a lso d e n o u n c e d

th o s e w h o h a d s p o k e n o u t fo r D e n ik in a t t h e c o n fe re n c e a n d s u g g e s te d t h a t th e y b e re m o v e d fr o m im p o r t a n t p o s ts .

S ee la . A . S la s h c h e v -K ry m sk ii, T i e b u i u su d a

o b s h c h e s t v a i g la s n o s ti: o b o i o n a i s d a c h a K r y m a ; m e m u a ry i d o k u m e n t y ( C o n s t a n ­

tin o p le : K n ig o iz d a te l’stv o M . S h u l’m a n a , 1 9 2 1 ) , p p . 1 0 - 1 2 . 107 G e n e r a l B o g ae v sk ii, w h o h a d b e e n o n e o f D e n ik in ’s c lo se s t s u p p o rte r s , to o k th e in itia tiv e in ra is in g W r a n g e l ’s n a m e a t th is m e e tin g , s in c e W r a n g e l s e e m e d to b e th e o n ly o n e w h o b o t h w a n te d th e c o m m a n d a n d c o u ld a ssu re re s p e c t f o r it. I n a le tte r sev e ra l years la te r, h o w e v e r, B o g aev sk ii to o k t h e “ b la m e ” fo r r e c o m ­ m e n d in g W r a n g e l a n d a d d e d : “ U n f o r t u n a te ly I k n e w W r a n g e l to o l i t t l e . ”

See

l e tte r fr o m B o g aev sk ii to S h a p ro n , N o v e m b e r 8, 1 9 2 4 , D e n ik in A rc h iv e s. 108 S ee D e n ik in , O c h e i k i iu s s k o i s m u t y , V , 1 10, 2 6 3 , 2 8 9 - 2 9 2 ; W r a n g e l , o p . c it., p p . 1 1 8 , 1 2 1 - 1 2 3 ; S h a tilo v , o p . c it., p . 8 2 6 ff.; a n d R ak o v s k ii, V s t a n e b e l y k h , pp. 3 8 -4 4 . 109 S ee e sp e c ia lly

th e a c c o u n t b y th e n e w

c h ie f o f staff, G e n e r a l M a k h r o v ,

“ V b e lo i a rm ii g e n e ra la D e n ik in a ,” p . 4 8 1 ff. D e n ik in p o in ts o u t t h a t th e r e h a d n e v e r b e e n c lo se re la tio n s b e tw e e n h e a d q u a rte r s a n d

th e n a v a l c o m m a n d . A d ­

m ira ls N e n iu k o v a n d B u b n o v , w h o h a d ju s t b e e n g iv e n th e ir p o s ts in th e fall o f 1 9 1 9 , w e re s e c o n d c h o ic e s m a d e n e ce ssa ry b y K o lc h a k ’s o b je c tio n

to A d m ira l

S a b lin , w h o h a d b e e n d e s ig n a te d b y t h e N a v y D e p a r tm e n t c h ie f, A d m ira l G e r a ­ s im o v , to c o m m a n d th e fle e t b u t w as th e n re m o v e d . S ee D e n ik in , O c h e i k i iu s s k o i s m u ty , V , 3 3 1 -3 3 5 .

O n th e d is p u te w ith W r a n g e l w h ic h a s s u m e d m a jo r p r o p o r ­

tio n s a f te r W r a n g e l h a d g o n e to t h e C rim e a , see S h a tilo v , o p . c it., p p . 8 6 8 - 8 7 5 . O n th e “ O r lo v a ffa ir,” a re v o lt b y a ju n io r o fficer a g a in s t V o lu n te e r a u th o r itie s in t h e C r im e a w h ic h s e rio u sly c o m p lic a te d re la tio n s w ith W r a n g e l , see la . S h afir, “ O r lo v s h c h in a ,” in A n t a n t a i V i a n g e l : s b o i n i k s t a t e i (M o s c o w : G o s iz d a t, 1 9 2 3 ) , pp . 1 2 5 -1 3 7 .

S la s h c h e v , w h o c o m m a n d e d t h e m a jo r fo rce s in th e C rim e a , also

gives a n a c c o u n t o f h is o w n as w ell as o th e r s ’ c o n s p ir a to ria l a c tiv itie s a t th is tim e in S la s h c h e v -K ry m sk ii, o p . c it., p . 5 ff. 110 T h e te x t o f W r a n g e l ’s l e tte r m a y b e fo u n d in th e W r a n g e l P e rs o n a l A r­ c h iv e s, K o tlia re v s k ii S e c tio n , P W F ile s , P a c k e t I, N o . 2. I t a n d D e n ik in ’s rep ly m a y a lso b e f o u n d in t h e M iliu k o v P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s, a n d in M a k h r o v , “ V b e lo i a rm ii g e n e r a la D e n ik in a ,” p p . 5 2 3 - 5 4 3 . S ee a lso D e n ik in , O c h e i k i iu s s k o i s m u t y , V,

3 3 8 -3 3 9 .

F o r a tra n s la tio n in to E n g lis h o f s o m e e x c e rp ts o f th e W r a n g e l

le t t e r see G . S te w a rt, o p . c it., p . 3 4 5 . A c c o r d in g to S h a tilo v a t h is in s is te n c e th e

The Volunteer Army

382

la n g u a g e o f th e le tte r w as s o m e w h a t to n e d d o w n fr o m W r a n g e l 's o rig in a l. 111 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 3 3 9 . 112 I n a d d itio n to th e m o re o b v io u s re a so n s fo r B ritis h c o n c e rn o v e r t h e b re a k b e tw e e n D e n ik in a n d W r a n g e l, th e r e w as a lso th e r e p u ta tio n s o f t h e ir re s p e c tiv e fo llo w in g s as p ro -A llie d a n d

p ro - G e rm a n

to

b e c o n s id e re d . A c c o r d in g

to

one

B ritis h o b s e rv e r th e fe a r t h a t th is s p lit th r e a te n e d a re v iv a l o f G e r m a n o p h ile t e n ­ d e n c ie s w as o n e re a so n w h y M a c k in d e r m a d e a p o i n t o f q u e s tio n in g W r a n g e l o n h is d iffe re n c e s w ith D e n ik in a t s o m e le n g th . T h i s o b s e rv e r also n o te s th e h o s tile a t t i t u d e o f L u k o m s k ii to w a rd t h e B ritis h a t th is tim e .

S ee B e c h h o fe r- R o b e r ts , o p .

c it., p p . 1 1 0 , 1 2 0 , 1 6 5 . A s w ill b e n o te d , W r a n g e l d id n o t s u b s e q u e n tly in d ic a te a n y G e r m a n o p h ile in c lin a tio n s , a n d , in d e e d , t u r n e d c h ie fly to F r a n c e fo r s u p p o r t. 113 W r a n g e l, o p . c it., p . 1 29. 114 S h a tilo v , o p . c it., p p . 8 7 9 - 8 8 1 . 115 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i iu s s k o i s m u t y , V , 3 3 8 .

G e n e r a l H o lm a n 's l e t t e r m a y a lso

b e f o u n d in th e W r a n g e l P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s, B a ro n e s s O lg a W r a n g e l S e c tio n , F ile I, S e c tio n 2 ( f ) . 116 W r a n g e l, o p . c it., p p . 1 3 0 - 1 3 1 . 117 S ee W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5.

F o r a n E n g lis h tra n s la tio n , see W r a n g e l , o p .

c it., p p . 1 3 1 - 1 3 2 ; a n d S te w a rt, o p . c it., p p . 3 5 6 - 3 5 7 .

S ee also C u r z o n 's in s tr u c ­

tio n s to d e R o b e c k o n th e n o te to b e s e n t, M a r c h 31, 1 9 2 0 , in D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , X I I , 6 9 1 - 6 9 2 . 118 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 3 6 3 , c itin g B o g a e v s k ii's a c c o u n t.

D en­

ik in h im s e lf d id n o t see th e s e d o c u m e n ts — th e B ritis h n o te a n d W r a n g e l 's s t a t e ­ m e n t— u n til h is d e p a r tu r e fro m R u ss ia , b u t h e h a d b e e n in fo r m e d e a rlie r b y G e n ­ e ra l B rid g e s t h a t th e B ritis h g o v e r n m e n t f e lt t h e s itu a tio n h o p e le s s a n d w o u ld p ro p o s e its m e d ia tio n to o b ta in a tr u c e w ith th e B o lsh e v ik s . A t t h a t tim e D e n ik in c a te g o ric a lly r e je c te d

th e id e a .

S ee ib id .,

p.

347.

S ee a lso W r a n g e l P e rs o n a l

A rc h iv e s, B a ro n ess O lg a W r a n g e l S e c tio n , F ile I, S e c tio n 2 ( a ) . 119 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 3 5 7 - 3 5 8 . 120 F o r r e p o rts o n th e s u b e q u e n t in v e s tig a tio n o f th is in c id e n t, see t h e re c o rd o f th e in q u e s t in W M A , F ile 109.

CHAPTER

V III: T H E

C R IM E A N

E P IL O G U E

1 P . N . W r a n g e l , A lw a y s w i t h H o n o r ( N e w Y o rk : S p e lle r, 1 9 5 7 ) , p . 1 5 5 . G e n ­ eral W r a n g e l 's m e m o irs , w h ic h

p ro v id e th e b e s t g e n e r a l a c c o u n t o f th is la s t

p e rio d o f V o lu n te e r h is to ry , m a y b e f o u n d in R u s s ia n ( “ Z a p is k i" ) in A . A . v o n L a m p e , e d ., B e l o d e lo ; l e t o p i s ’ b e l o i b o r ’by, V o l. V , pp.‘ 9 - 3 0 6 ; a n d V o l. V I , p p . 5 - 2 6 1 . T h e o rig in a l c o n ta in s s o m e m a te ria l n o t in c lu d e d in th e E n g lis h tr a n s la ­ tio n t h a t th e re a d e r m a y w ish to c o n s u lt.

H o w e v e r, in t h e fo llo w in g n o te s th e

W r a n g e l A rc h iv e s a re u s e d as th e p rim a r y s o u rc e fo r d o c u m e n ta ti o n fr o m W r a n g e l's m a te ria ls , w ith re fe re n c e s to t h e E n g lis h tra n s la tio n o f t h e m e m o ir s b e in g u s e d fo r n o n d o c u m e n ta r y m a te ria l o r to in d ic a te a tra n s la tio n o f t h e d o c u m e n ta r y e v id e n c e c ite d fro m th e A rc h iv e s o r a n o th e r s o u rc e . 2 T e le g r a m to A d m ira l d e R o b e c k a t C o n s ta n tin o p le , A p ril 4 , 1 9 2 0 , W r a n g e l A rc h iv e s,

D ip lo m a tic

C o rr e s p o n d e n c e

S e c tio n

( h e r e a f te r

W A -D C ),

C ase

I,

383

NOTES

F ile 5; W r a n g e l , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 4 7 - 1 4 8 . S ee also D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , X I I , 6 9 6 -6 9 7 , 7 0 1 -7 0 2 . 3 W r a n g e l , o p . c i t . , p p . 14 3 , 1 5 0 - 1 5 3 . 4 A d m ir a l S e y m o u r to

W r a n g e l , A p ril

19,

1920, W A -D C , C ase

I, F ile

5.

C u r z o n ’s n o te to C h ic h e r in p ro p o s in g a n e n d to th e s tru g g le a lso to o k c r e d it fo r th e re s ig n a tio n o f D e n ik in .

D e n ik in h im s e lf v e h e m e n tly d e n ie d th is , h o w e v e r,

a n d r e p lie d s u b s e q u e n tly in th e L o n d o n T i m e s t h a t C u r z o n h a d n o d ir e c t r e la ­ tio n s w ith h im a n d e x e rte d n o in flu e n c e o n h is d e c isio n s .

S ee D e n ik in , O c h e i k i

r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 3 4 7 - 3 4 8 . T h e re le v a n t p a r t o f C u r z o n 's n o te to C h ic h e r in o n

A p ril 1 1 , 1 9 2 0 , re a d s as fo llo w s :

. . I h a v e e x e rte d m y u tm o s t in flu e n c e w ith

G e n e r a l D e n ik in to in d u c e h im to a b a n d o n th e c o n te s t, a n d h a v e p ro m is e d h im t h a t if h e d id so, I w o u ld u se m y b e s t effo rts to m a k e p e a c e b e tw e e n h is fo rces a n d y o u rs, a n d to s e c u re th e s a fe ty o f th e ra n k a n d file o f h is fo llo w e rs, a n d th e p o p u la tio n o f th e C rim e a in g e n e ra l. G e n e r a l D e n ik in fin ally d e c id e d to a c t u p o n th is a d v ic e , a n d h a s le ft R u ss ia , re s ig n in g h is c o m m a n d to G e n e r a l W r a n g e l , w h o h a s s ta te d

h is

w illin g n e s s

to

a c c e p t th e

m e d ia tio n

w h ic h

I o ffered .

I

th e r e ­

fo re c o m m u n ic a te w ith y o u a t o n c e to r e q u e s t y o u , in th e in te re s ts b o th o f R u ssia a n d o f h u m a n ity , to issu e o rd e rs fo r th e te r m in a tio n o f h o s tilitie s , a n d to g r a n t a g e n e r a l a m n e s ty u p o n th e d is b a n d m e n t o f th e V o lu n te e r A rm y ." B r iti s h P o l ic y , X I I , 6 9 8 - 6 9 9 .

D o c u m e n ts o n

T h e S o v ie t re p ly o f A p ril 14 e v a d e d th e issu e h e r e

b y ra is in g n u m e ro u s o th e r q u e s tio n s , s u c h as th e fa te o f m e m b e rs o f B ela K u n ’s g o v e r n m e n t b e in g h e ld in A u s tria .

I t o ffe re d o n ly to b e g in n e g o tia tio n s o n all

s u c h q u e s tio n s d ire c tly w ith th e B ritis h g o v e r n m e n t th r o u g h L itv in o v . D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , II , 4 5 3 - 4 5 4 .

I n a n o te to L itv in o v ( in C o p e n h a g e n ) o n A p ril

18, C h ic h e r in re v e a le d t h a t th is re p ly to C u r z o n h a d b e e n d e la y e d in tra n s m is s io n b e c a u s e o f r a d io d iffic u ltie s, a n d as a re s u lt th e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t h a d ju s t r e ­ c eiv ed a n o th e r n o te fr o m C u r z o n e x p re ss in g d is a p p o i n tm e n t o v e r t h e la c k o f a n a n s w e r a n d w a rn in g t h a t m ilita r y o p e ra tio n s o n th e B la ck S ea a n d in th e C r im e a w o u ld c o n tin u e . I b i d . , p . 4 5 9 . 5 M a n g in to S tru v e , A p ril 2 3 , 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5.

C f. W r a n g e l,

o p . c it., p. 178.

6 S h c h e r b a ts k o i to S a z o n o v , A p ril 13, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile

5. T h is

o p in io n w as b a se d u p o n th e b e lie f t h a t t h e w e ak n e ss o f W r a n g e l ’s p o s itio n a t th is tim e w o u ld m a k e it d iffic u lt to o b ta in a n y c o n c e s sio n s fro m M o sc o w . 7 S ee th e l e t t e r to C u r z o n q u o te d in H . N ic o ls o n , C u r z o n : T h e L a s t P h a s e (N e w

Y o rk :

H a r c o u r t,

L a b o u r d e le g a tio n

B ra ce ,

w h ic h

s tro n g ly c o n d e m n e d

1 9 3 9 ),

v is ite d

f o o tn o t e

R u ss ia d u r in g

a n y c o n tin u a tio n

o f a id

1, p p . th e

1 4 3 -1 4 4 . T h e

s p rin g o f

B ritis h

1 9 2 0 , h o w e v e r,

o r in te r v e n tio n a n d e m p h a tic a lly

c a lle d fo r p e a c e . S ee B r iti s h L a b o u r D e l e g a t i o n t o R u s s ia , 1 9 2 0 : R e p o r t ( L o n d o n : L a b o u r P a rty , 1 9 2 0 ) . 8 D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , X I I , 7 1 0 - 7 1 1 ; G e n e r a l P e rc y to W r a n g e l , A p ril

2 9 , 1 9 2 0 , fo r w a rd in g C u r z o n ’s n o te , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. I n a n o te to C h i ­ c h e r in o n A p ril 2 4 , 1 9 2 0 , C u r z o n in d ic a te d t h a t h e h a d re c e iv e d th e S o v ie t re p ly to h is a p p e a l f o r a n e n d to h o s tilitie s a n d f o u n d i t u n s a tis fa c to ry .

H e c o u ld n o t,

h e p o in te d o u t, see th e c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n th e C r im e a n q u e s tio n a n d th e o th e r q u e s tio n s ra ised b y th e S o v ie t n o te , or c o u ld h e a g re e to a c c e p t L itv in o v as r e p ­ re s e n ta tiv e o f t h e R u s s ia n g o v e r n m e n t in L o n d o n fo r n e g o tia tio n o f th e s e q u es-

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384

tio n s . H e h a d h o p e d to see p e a c e a n d e c o n o m ic re la tio n s r e s to re d , C u r z o n a d d e d , b u t saw n o p o s sib ility as lo n g as t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t c o n tin u e d h o s tilitie s . D o c u ­ m e n t s o n B r iti s h

P o lic y , X I I , 7 1 1 ; D o k u m e n ty

v n e s h n e i p o litik i,

II, 4 9 1 -4 9 2 .

S ee a lso th e e x c h a n g e b e tw e e n C h ic h e r in a n d C u r z o n , A p ril 2 9 , M a y 3 a n d 4 , 1 9 2 0 , D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , X I I , 7 1 3 - 7 1 5 . 9

W r a n g e l , o p . c it., p . 1 4 4 . M a k h r o v q u o te s W r a n g e l as s ay in g s p ec ifica lly t h a t

h e w o u ld c o n tin u e th e w ar a t th e s a m e tim e t h a t th e n o te to B rita in w as b e in g d r a f te d . S ee P . S. M a k h ro v , “ G e n e r a l V ra n g e l i B . S a v in k o v ”

( M S , C o lu m b ia

U n iv e rs ity R u ss ia n A r c h iv e ) , p . 8. 30 S tr u v e to M a k la k o v , A p ril 13, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. 11 W r a n g e l , o p . c it., p p . 1 5 3 , 1 5 5 . 12 S ee ib id ., p p . 1 5 5 , 1 59, 1 6 2 - 1 6 3 , 1 6 7 - 1 6 8 , 1 7 4 - 1 7 7 ,

182, 1 8 6 -1 8 7 . A d ­

m ira l d e R o b e c k p ro v id e d s o m e B ritis h s h ip s to assist in t h e e v a c u a tio n o f K u b a n tro o p s to th e C rim e a a f te r th e K u b a n g o v e r n m e n t h a d fled to G e o rg ia . 13 W r a n g e l to G e n e r a l P e rc y , M a y 2, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5: D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , X I I , 7 1 6 - 7 1 7 . C f . W r a n g e l , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 8 0 - 1 8 1 .

14 W r a n g e l, o p . c i t . , p . 1 5 2 . 15 I b i d . , p . 1 8 5.

16 I b i d . , 17 I b i d . ,

p. 150. pp. 162-163.

18 W r a n g e l h im s e lf gives a g o o d e x a m p le o f h is d e a lin g w ith lib e ra ls , w h o as it h a p p e n e d h a d a p r e d o m in a n t p o s itio n in t h e c ity g o v e rn m e n ts o f t h e C r im e a . O n th e o rd e rs o f th e re g e n t ( W r a n g e l ) s tr in g e n t civ il c o n tro ls w e re im p o s e d u p o n th e s e c itie s u n d e r m ilita ry c o m m a n d e r s . T h e e x ercise o f th e s e c o n tro ls th r o u g h a c o u r t m a r tia l “ ru th le s s in its s e n te n c e s ” in S im fe ro p o l le d to v ig o ro u s p r o te s ts o n th e p a r t o f th e lo c a l g o v e r n m e n t a n d its m a y o r. W h e n t h e m a y o r to o k h is a p p e a l d ire c tly to W r a n g e l , th e l a t t e r s te r n ly r e m in d e d h im t h a t t h e r e g e n t a lo n e w o u ld d e c id e w h a t w as b e s t a n d w o u ld “ s to p a t n o t h i n g ” to s ee t h a t h is o rd e rs w e re c a rrie d o u t. T h i s in c lu d e d h a n g in g “ a n y o n e w h o trie s to s to p m e ,” W r a n g e l d e c la r e d , a d d in g : “ I w o u ld n o t h e s it a te to in c re a se th e n u m b e r b y o n e , a n d t h a t o n e w o u ld b e y o u rs e lf.” A fe w day s la te r th e m a y o r re s ig n e d b e c a u s e o f “ illn e s s .”

pp. 168-169. p. 1 7 2 . 20 I b i d . , p. 1 6 2 .

I b id .,

19 I b i d . ,

21 S tr u v e in itia lly to o k u p th e d u tie s o f a fo re ig n m in is te r b u t s u b s e q u e n tly b e c a m e W r a n g e l 's c h ie f re p re s e n ta tiv e a b ro a d , w h ile T r u b e t s k o i a c te d as fo r e ig n m in is te r a t h o m e . F o r a s elf-a p p ra isa l o f S tr u v e 's b a c k g r o u n d as a “ le g a l M a r x is t” a n d th e e v o lu tio n o f h is view s see P . B . S tru v e , “ M y C o n ta c ts a n d C o n flic ts w ith L e n in ,” S la v o n ic a n d E a s t E u r o p e a n R e v ie w , V o l. X I I

(A p ril 1 9 3 4 ) , p p . 5 7 3 -

5 9 5 ; a n d V o l. X I I I (J u ly 1 9 3 4 ) , p p . 6 6 - 8 4 . 22 W r a n g e l , o p . c i t . , p . 1 6 3 . A c o n v e n tio n d e fin in g t h e a u th o r ity o f t h e r e g e n t a n d t h e a u to n o m y o f th e C o ss a c k g o v e rn m e n ts w as s ig n e d o n A u g u s t 4 .

I t g av e

a u th o r ity o v e r th e a rm e d fo rce s , fo re ig n re la tio n s , railw ay s a n d te le g ra p h lin e s , a n d c o m m o n fin a n c ia l q u e s tio n s to W r a n g e l . 23 I b i d . ,

p.

I b id ., p p . 2 4 3 -2 4 4 .

1 8 3 . T h i s p o s itio n a p p lie d e v e n m o re so to

th e

G re e n s, w h o m

W r a n g e l re g a rd e d as “ t h e riff-raff o f t h e p o p u la tio n , d e s e rte rs , c o m m o n -la w c r im ­ in a ls, a n d B o ls h e v ik s .”

I t a lso a p p lie d to w o rk e rs w h o d is o b e y e d o rd e rs b y strik -

385

N OTES

in g . W r a n g e l p ro m is e d b e t t e r w ag es b u t a lso d r a f te d s trik e rs in to th e a rm y a n d s h ip p e d th e m

to t h e f r o n t.

S u c h a p o lic y , h o w e v e r, d id n o t a p p ly to p o te n tia l

allie s o r u s e f u l e le m e n ts o u ts id e t h e C rim e a , s u c h as M a k h n o 's fo rce s fo r e x a m p le . 24 W r a n g e l 's a c c o u n t o f th is in c id e n t is in ib id ., p p . 1 6 6 - 1 6 8 . sk ii, V s ta n e b e i y k h , p . 4 5 .

S ee a lso R ak o v -

25 W r a n g e l , o p . c it., p p . 1 7 5 - 1 7 6 .

p. 1 9 2 . p. 1 9 4

26 I b i d . , 27 I b i d . ,

ff. C f. M . S. M a rg u lie s , G o d in te rv e n ts ii ( B e rlin : G rs c h e b in ,

1 9 2 3 ) , V o l. I l l , p . 2 3 3 . 28 W r a n g e l , o p . c it., p . 2 0 0 . 29 I b i d . , p. 2 8 6 . P r o p e r ty o w n e rs h ip w as th e b asis o f e le c to ra l rig h ts .

p.

39 I b i d . ,

197.

31 I b i d . , p p . 2 2 4 - 2 2 5 ; S tru v e to M ille ra n d , J u n e 2 0 ,

1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I,

F ile 5. 32 S tr u v e to M a k la k o v , A p ril 13, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. 33 R e p o r t o f c o n fe re n c e s o n a id , W M A , F ile 1 22, p p . 2 0 9 - 2 1 0 . 34 S ee l e tte r fro m S tr u v e , J u n e 17, 1 9 2 0 , B e rn a ts k ii P a p e rs . 35 S ee M . S. M a rg u lie s , o p . c i t . , I l l , 1 9 7 , 2 0 7 , 2 1 0 . 3 6 B az ili to P a lé o lo g u e , A p ril 2 4 , 1 9 2 0 , M A , S eries B , P a c k e t V , D o ss ie r 2; le t t e r to H e r m o n iu s , Ju ly 19, 1 9 2 0 , N e r a to v to S tru v e , J u n e 12, 1 9 2 0 , a n d H e rm o n iu s to F r e n c h M in is try o f W a r , J u n e 2 4 , 1 9 2 0 , W M A , F ile s 29 a n d 3 4 . 37 S ee D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , V I I , 1 4 1 - 1 4 3 , 1 4 9 - 1 5 1 , 1 9 5 - 2 0 9 , 2 1 6 ; V III, 756. 38 F o r th e te x t o f th is tre a ty a n d c o m m e n t, see J. S. R e s h e ta r, T h e U k r a in ia n R e v o lu tio n

( P r in c e t o n : P r in c e to n U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 5 2 ) , p . 3 0 0 ff.

39 M a k la k o v to S tru v e , M a y 1, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. o p . c it.,

p.

C f. W r a n g e l,

1 7 9 . T h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t a lso s u b s e q u e n tly (M a y 3 0 ) re fu s e d to

p a r tic ip a te in th e n e g o tia tio n s w ith th e S o v ie t e c o n o m ic d e le g a tio n in v ite d to London.

S ee D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , X I I , 7 2 3 , 7 2 6 - 7 2 7 , 7 3 0 .

40 K riv o s h e in to P a lé o lo g u e , M a y 7, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. 41 P a lé o lo g u e to K riv o s h e in , M a y 8, 1 9 2 0 , i b i d . 42 M a k la k o v to R u ss ia n re p re s e n ta tiv e , C o n s ta n tin o p le , M a y 2 6 ,

1 9 2 0 , ib i d .

S ee a lso A d m ira l d e R o b e c k ’s r e p o r t o f s u s p e c te d s e c re t a rra n g e m e n ts b e tw e e n th e F r e n c h a n d W r a n g e l , D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , X I I , 7 2 2 . 43 K riv o s h e in to P a lé o lo g u e , M a y 7, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. T h e p o s ­ s ib ility o f c o lla b o ra tio n w ith th e P o le s h a d in fa c t b e e n b ro a c h e d as e arly as A p ril 2 4 in B a z ili's n o te to P a lé o lo g u e . S ee M A , S eries B , P a c k e t V , D o ss ie r 2. 44 T r u b e t s k o i o u tlin e s M a n g in ’s in q u irie s in a l e tte r to S tru v e , M a y 2 8 , 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5, H o o v e r L ib ra ry . I n P a ris M a r s h a l F o c h w as s im u lta n e ­ o u sly u r g in g G e n e r a l S h c h e rb a c h e v to c o n v e y to W r a n g e l a call fo r e n e r g e tic m ilita r y a c tio n as so o n as p o s sib le .

S h c h e rb a c h e v , w h o b e lie v e d t h a t s u c h a c tio n

w o u ld h e lp n o o n e b u t P o la n d , a d v ise d a g a in s t it a n d , w h e n W r a n g e l p ro c e e d e d a n y h o w , re s ig n e d fro m h is p o s t. S ee V a l', K is t o r i i b e la g o d v i z h e n i i a , p p . 1 5 0 156. 45 T r u b e t s k o i to G e n e r a l M a n g in , M a y 17, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. 46 In h is l e tte r to S tru v e o n M a y 2 8 , in i b i d . , T r u b e t s k o i in d ic a te d t h a t W r a n g e l w o u ld o ffe r to s tay to th e e a s t o f th e D n e p r so as to a v o id a cla sh w ith e ith e r

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386

th e P o le s o r U k ra in ia n s , s in c e th e re s to ra tio n o f th e la tte r to p o w e r w o u ld a p ­ p a r e n tly b e c o n fin e d la rg e ly to th e w e s te rn b a n k .

H e a lso w as w illin g to n e g o tia te

w ith th e U k ra in ia n s in te rm s o f a u to n o m y in a u n io n w ith R u ss ia b u t n o t to a c c e p t th e

te rm s o f th e

P o lis h -U k r a in ia n

tre a ty .

I t w as, th e re fo re , b e t t e r to

a v o id ra isin g th e q u e s tio n d ire c tly , a t le a st u n til th e F r e n c h c o u ld s o u n d o u t th e p ro s p e c ts . C f . P . S. W a n d y c z , F r a n c e a n d H e r E a s te r n A l l i e s ( M in n e a p o l is : U n i ­ v e rsity o f M in n e s o ta P ress, 1 9 6 2 ) , p . 142. 47 T r u b e ts k o i to S tru v e , M a y 1 4 / 2 7 , 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. 48 S h c h e rb a ts k o i to S a z o n o v , A p ril 13, 1 9 2 0 , i b i d . 49 W r a n g e l, o p . c it., p . 2 2 7 . S ee a lso T r u b e t s k o i’s l e t t e r to S tru v e , M a y 2 8 , 1 9 2 0 , w h e re it is s ta te d t h a t M a n g in w as p re p a rin g a r e p o r t t o h is g o v e r n m e n t also a d v o c a tin g m o ra l, m a te ria l, a n d fin a n c ia l s u p p o r t fo r W r a n g e l , in W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. 50 N e r a to v re la te s M iln e ’s visit in a n o te to M a k la k o v , M a y 2 3 , 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5; see also D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , X I I , 7 2 0 . 51 S ee d e R o b e c k to L u k o m s k ii, M a y 31, 1 9 2 0 , a n d N e r a to v to S tru v e , J u n e 1, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5, a n d d e R o b e c k to C u r z o n , J u n e 7 , 1 9 2 0 , in D o c u m e n ts o n B r itis h P o l i c y , X I I , 7 3 2 . 52 B ritis h M iss io n to W r a n g e l , M a y 2 9 , 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5; D o c u ­ m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , X I I , 7 1 9 - 7 2 0 .

C f. W r a n g e l , o p . c i t . , p p . 2 0 7 - 2 0 8 .

•r>3 R e a r A d m ira l G . H o p e to W r a n g e l , J u n e 3, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5; D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , X I I , 7 2 8 .

54 A d m ira l H o p e ( f o r d e R o b e c k ) to W r a n g e l , J u n e 5, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5.

S ee a lso d e R o b e c k ’s r e p o r t to C u r z o n , J u n e 3, D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h

P o l ic y , X I I , 7 2 9 - 7 3 0 .

55 T r u b e ts k o i to S tru v e , J u n e 6, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. o p . c it., p p . 2 2 7 -2 2 8 .

C f. W r a n g e l ,

In h is fa re w e ll re m a rk s G e n e r a l P e rc y to ld W r a n g e l t h a t

h e w as still h o p in g t h a t h is g o v e rn m e n t's p o lic y w o u ld c h a n g e , b u t t h a t if it d id n o t h e w o u ld re fu se f u r th e r serv ice a n d re tire . 56 N e r a to v to T r u b e ts k o i, J u n e 6, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. N e r a to v n o te d t h a t th e F r e n c h h ig h c o m m is s io n e r h a d n o t re c e iv e d s u c h o rd e rs a n d w as n o t s u b je c t to th e B ritis h d ire c tiv e .

D e s p ite h is g o v e r n m e n t’s o rd e r, m o re o v e r, A d ­

m ir a l d e R o b e c k , a c c o rd in g to a s u b s e q u e n t r e p o r t b y R u s s ia n A d m ira l S a b lin , in d ic a te d t h a t h e w o u ld h e lp th e R u ss ia n n a v a l c o m m a n d to o b ta in o il th r o u g h u n o fficial c h a n n e ls .

S ee V ic e A d m ira l M . S a b lin to B la ck Sea F le e t h e a d q u a r te r s ,

s e c re t, J u n e 2 3 , 1 9 2 0 , i b i d .

C u r z o n ’s in s tru c tio n s to d e R o b e c k a n d m a te r ia l o n

th e w ith d ra w a l o f th e B ritis h m is sio n a re in D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , X I I , 728. 733, 7 4 6 -7 4 7 . 57 W r a n g e l to A d m ira l d e R o b e c k (f o r L o n d o n ) , J u n e 5, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5; D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , X I I , 7 3 0 - 7 3 1 .

C f. W ra n g e l, o p . c it., p .

209. ™ W r a n g e l, o p . c i t . , p p . 2 1 5 , 2 1 6 .

" M a k l a k o v ( f o r S tr u v e ) to N e ra to v (f o r T r u b e t s k o i ) , J u n e 8, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. W h e n C u r z o n in s tru c te d th e B ritis h E m b a s s y in P a ris to in q u ir e in to re p o rts o f n e g o tia tio n s b e tw e e n th e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t a n d W r a n g e l ’s r e p ­ r e s e n ta tiv e s , S ir G . G r a h a m e re p lie d o n J u n e 15 t h a t P a lc o lo g u e to ld h im th e r e h a d b e e n n o n e g o tia tio n s “ p ro p e rly s p e a k in g ,” a lth o u g h

th a t

t h é F r e n c h gov-

387

NOTES

e m i n e n t w as m o re in c lin e d t h a n th e B ritis h to c o n s id e r W r a n g e l ’s re q u e s ts fo r a id . T h e F r e n c h

F o r e ig n M in is try , it w as a d d e d , k n e w n o th in g re g a rd in g a n y

n e g o tia tio n s b e tw e e n W r a n g e l a n d t h e P o le s a n d o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , X I I , 7 3 8 .

U k ra in ia n s .

S ee D o c u m e n t s

00 T r u b e t s k o i to S tru v e , J u n e 8 / 2 1 , 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. 01 T r u b e t s k o i to C o n s ta n tin o p le , J u n e 13, 1 9 2 0 , ib id . 02 In a la te r n o te to P o lis h F o r e ig n M in is t e r W ito s , U n ite d S ta te s S e c re ta ry o f S ta te C o lb y m a d e a p o in te d re fe re n c e to th is fa c t. T h e P o lis h a d v a n c e in to R u ss ia , h e w ro te , c re a te d “ a N a tio n a l s e n ti m e n t in t h a t c o u n try , w h ic h ig n o re d t h e ty r a n n y a n d

o p p re s s io n

fr o m

w h ic h

th e

p e o p le su ffe re d a n d

a ffo r d e d a n

u n d e s e rv e d s u p p o r t to th e B o lsh e v ik re g im e . . . .” F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 2 0 , I I I , 392. G3 S tr u v e to T r u b e t s k o i ( M a k la k o v to N e r a t o v ) , J u n e 11, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. F o r th e te x t o f s u c h a s s u ra n c e s to C h ic h e r in , s e n t o n J u ly 2, see D o c u ­ m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , X I I , 7 4 6 - 7 4 7 .

04 S tr u v e to T r u b e t s k o i, J u n e 2 7 , 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. 05 D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , V I I I , 5 0 2 - 5 0 6 .

S ee a lso W a n d y c z , o p . c it., p .

153 ff.; a n d N ic o ls o n , o p . c i t . , p . 2 0 4 . C6 D o c u m e n t s

on

B r iti s h

P o lic y , V I I I ,

517, 530.

F o r C u r z o n ’s n o te to th e

S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t, see D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , I I I , 5 4 - 5 5 ; a n d G r e a t B rita in , 5 P a r li a m e n ta r y

D e b a te s ,

H o u se

of C o m m o n s,

CXXXI

(1 9 2 0 ),

2 3 7 2 -2 3 7 4 .

C f. W a n d y c z , o p . c it., p p . 1 5 6 -1 5 7 . 07 S ee n o te s fro m C u r z o n to t h e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t, J u ly 2 0 , 2 6 , a n d 2 9 , 1 9 2 0 , D o k u m e n ty v n e s h n e i p o litik i, III, 6 2 -6 4 .

08 S tr u v e to W r a n g e l , J u ly 17, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. T h e B ritis h p r o ­ p o sals w e re re a d in th e H o u s e o f C o m m o n s o n J u ly 14. P a r li a m e n ta r y D e b a t e s , H o u s e o f C o m m o n s , C X X X I

S ee G r e a t B rita in , 5

(1 9 2 0 ), 2 3 7 2 -2 3 7 4 .

See

a lso D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , V I I I , 5 1 7 . 69 L e tte r fr o m T r u b e t s k o i to S tru v e , J u ly 2 0 , 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. 70 S tr u v e to T r u b e t s k o i, J u ly 2 1 , 1 9 2 0 , i b i d .

S ee a lso S tru v e to W r a n g e l, Ju ly

2 6 , 1 9 2 0 , ib i d .; L o n d o n T i m e s , Ju ly 2 6 , 1 9 2 0 ; I. V . K liu c h n ik o v a n d A . S a b a n in , e d s., M e z h d u n a r o d n a i a p o l i t i k a n o v e i s h e g o v re m e n i v d o g o v o r a k h , n o ta k h i d e k la r a ts ia k h , 3 v ols.

( M o s c o w : L i tiz d a t N K I D , 1 9 2 5 - 1 9 2 8 ) , V o l. I l l , P a r t I, p p .

3 4 - 3 8 ; D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , I I I , 4 7 - 5 3 ; G r e a t B rita in , 5 P a r li a m e n ta r y D e b a t e s , H o u s e o f C o m m o n s , C X X X I I ( 1 9 2 0 ) , 9 7 4 - 9 7 5 ; a n d W a n d y c z , o p . c i t .,

p. 157. 71 D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , V I I I , 6 4 9 - 6 5 0 ; a n d D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l ­ itik i, II I, 6 2 - 6 4 .

S ee a lso t h e c o m m e n ts b y M ille ra n d in A n n a le s d e la c h a m b r e

d e s d é p u t é s , D é b a t s p a r le m e n ta ir e s , T o m e I I

( 1 9 2 0 ) , p p . 2 6 2 2 - 2 6 2 3 , sessio n o f

Ju ly 2 0 ; a n d C u r z o n ’s n o te , in G r e a t B rita in , 5 P a r li a m e n ta r y D e b a t e s , H o u s e o f C o m m o n s, C X X X II (1 9 2 0 ), 1 6 3 5 -1 6 3 6 . 72 F o r a re v e a lin g s tu d y o f S o v ie t a c tio n s w ith re g a rd to P o la n d a t th is tim e , see W a r r e n L e rn e r, “ T h e R u s s ia n P la n to S o v ie tiz e P o la n d in 1 9 2 0 ”

(u n p u b ­

lis h e d M .A . th e s is a n d R u s s ia n I n s t i t u t e E ssay, C o lu m b ia U n iv e rs ity , 1 9 5 4 ) . also I. D e u ts c h e r , T h e P r o p h e t A r m e d

(N ew

Y o rk :

O x fo rd

S ee

U n iv e rs ity P ress,

1 9 5 4 ) , pp. 4 6 3 - 4 6 6 . 73 N ic o ls o n , o p . c i t . , p . 2 0 6 ; A . J. T o y n b e e , e d ., S u rv e y o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l A ffa ir s ,

The Volunteer Army

388

1 9 2 0 - 1 9 2 3 ( L o n d o n : O x fo rd U n iv e rs ity P ress, 1 9 2 7 ) , p . 15.

74 S tr u v e to W r a n g e l , q u o tin g M ille r a n d ’s s p e e c h , J u ly 2 2 , C a s e I, F ile 5.

1920, W A -D C ,

S ee A n n a le s d e la c h a m b r e d e s d é p u t é s , D é b a t s p a r le m e n ta ir e s ,

T o m e I I , ( 1 9 2 0 ) , p p . 2 6 2 2 - 2 6 2 3 , sessio n o f Ju ly 2 0 . 75 S tr u v e to W r a n g e l, July 2 0 , 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. C f . W r a n g e l , o p . c i t ., p p . 2 4 1 - 2 4 2 .

76 T r u b e ts k o i to S tru v e , Ju ly 31, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. o p . c i t . , p p . 2 4 2 - 2 4 3 . S ee a lso B az ili to M ille ra n d , J u ly 2 3 ,

C f. W r a n g e l ,

1 9 2 0 , M A , S eries

B, P a c k e t V , D o ss ie r 2. 77 D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , V I I I , 6 5 3 - 6 5 6 . 78 T r u b e ts k o i to M a k la k o v , Ju ly 2 0 , 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. T r u b e ts k o i to re g a rd to

N e ra to v , A u g u s t 2,

th e F r e n c h o b je c tio n

192 0 , ib id .

I t is in te r e s tin g

to

S e e a lso

n o te ,

w ith

to m in in g t h e p o rts , t h a t a p ris o n e r-e x c h a n g e

a g r e e m e n t h a d b e e n sig n e d w ith t h e S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t o n A p ril 2 0 w h ic h o b li­ g a te d F r a n c e to r e tu r n a ll R u ss ia n s o ld ie rs a n d c iv ilia n s w h o w is h e d to d o so to S o v ie t te rrito ry fro m F r a n c e th r o u g h B la ck Sea p o rts .

I t w as a n tic ip a t e d in th e

a g r e e m e n t t h a t s o m e 2 2 ,0 0 0 R u ss ia n s w o u ld b e so r e tu r n e d . T h i s , h o w e v e r , w as A p ril a n d n o t A u g u s t. S ee R .S .F .S .R ., V e s t n i k n a ro d n o g o k o m is s a ria ta in n o s tr a n n y k h d e l, N o . 4 - 5 , J u n e 20 , 1 9 2 0 , p p . 1 2 9 - 1 3 4 ; a n d D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , II , 4 6 3 - 4 6 7 . A t th e sa m e tim e F r a n c e h a d p le d g e d th r o u g h its re p re s e n ta tiv e s in n e g o tia tio n s w ith L itv in o v t h a t it w o u ld “ n o t in te rv e n e in t h e in te r n a l p o litic s o f R u ssia a n d w o u ld n o t s u p p o r t a n y ag g ressiv e m e a su re s a g a in s t th e S o v ie t R e ­ p u b lic s o f R u ssia a n d th e U k r a in e ."

S ee D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , I I , 4 6 2 .

T h e B ritis h , as n o te d , h a d also s ig n e d a n e x c h a n g e a g r e e m e n t w ith L itv in o v in F e b ru a ry , b u t it h a d n o t sp ec ified t h e re tu r n o f R u ss ia n s to S o v i e t R u s s ia a n d h a d n o t in d ic a te d p a rtic u la r p o rts o f e n try .

S ee V e s tn ik n a ro d n o g o k o m is s a ria ta

in n o s tr a n n y k h d e l, N o . 3, F e b ru a ry 2 7 , 1 9 2 0 , p p . 8 3 - 8 4 ; a n d D o k u m e n t y v n e s h ­ n e i p o litik i,

II. 3 6 4 -3 6 7 .

T h e B ritis h fle e t w as a lso p a r tic ip a tin g in t h e B la ck

Sea b lo c k a d e , b u t th is w as e x p la in e d as in te n d e d to p re v e n t c o n ta c ts b e tw e e n th e B o lsh e v ik s a n d K e m a l in T u r k e y . S ee G r e a t B rita in , 5 P a r li a m e n ta r y D e b a t e s , H o u se of C o m m o n s, C X X X IV X II, 744.

( 1 9 2 0 ) , 8 4 5 ; a n d D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y ,

79 F o r c o r r e s p o n d e n c e re la tin g to th is a ffair, see R e p o r t o f th e M ilita ry A g e n t in T u r k e y , M a y 11; C a p t a in S h c h e rb a c h e v to F le e t C o m m a n d e r , J u n e 2 6 a n d J u n e 31, 1 9 2 0 ; A d m ira l d e R o b e c k to C a p t a in N ik a n o v , A u g u s t 7, 1 9 2 0 ; a n d C a p t a in

L e G r o s d id ie r to

C a p t a in

S h c h e rb a c h e v , A u g u s t 2 6 ,

1920, W A -D C .

C a s e I, F ile 5. W r a n g e l m e n tio n s t h e official re je c tio n o f p e rm is s io n to o p e r a te t h e s ta tio n b u t m a k e s n o re fe re n c e to th e in f o r m a tio n c ite d a b o v e in W r a n g e l , p. 2 9 3 .

o p . c it.,

80 S ee P o k le v sk ii-K o z e l to P a c k e t V , D o ss ie r 2.

P a ris E m b a s sy , A u g u s t

30,

1920, M A ,

S eries B ,

81 N o te o f th e P o litic a l a n d C o m m e rc ia l A ffairs S e c tio n o f th e F o r e ig n M in is tr y . Ju ly 19, 1 9 2 0 , W M A , F ile 2 9 . 82 F r e n c h L e g a tio n , B u c h a re s t, to F o re ig n M in is try , P a ris , A u g u s t 2 4 , 1 9 2 0 , W M A , F ile 8. 83 G e n e r a l F e tin , M ilita rv A tta c h é in R u m a n ia , to M in is tr y o f W a r , A u g u s t 31, 1920, ib id .

389

NOTES

s? F o r a b r ie f h is to ry o f th is q u e s tio n , w ith lists o f m a te ria ls s e n t a n d in d ic a ­ tio n s o f th e d iffic u ltie s, see C a p t a in B e rg e r to M in is try o f W a r ( P a r i s ) , S e p te m b e r 9 , 1 9 2 0 , W M A , F ile 6. S ee a lso M a r s h a l F o c h to G e n e r a l M ille r, A u g u s t 2 6 , 1 9 2 0 ; M a k la k o v to P a lé o lo g u e , S e p te m b e r 14, 1 9 2 0 ; M a r s h a l F o c h to M in is try o f W a r ( P a r i s ) , S e p te m b e r

16,

1 9 2 0 ; G e ru a

to

S e v a sto p o l, S e p te m b e r

30,

1920; and

L u k o m s k ii to G e n e r a l F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e re y , O c to b e r 9 , 1 9 2 0 , ib id . 85 T h e A m e r ic a n C h a r g é d ’A ffaires re p o r te d o n A u g u s t 8 t h a t R e d fo rce s w e re o n ly t h ir ty m ile s fr o m W a r s a w a n d th e d e fe n s e lin e h a d b e e n o v e rru n . S ee W h i t e to S e c re ta ry o f S ta te , A u g u s t 8, 1 9 2 0 , F o r e ig n

R e la tio n s ,

1920,

III,

387. O n

L lo y d G e o r g e ’s ta lk s w ith K a m e n e v a n d K ra sin , see D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , V III, 6 6 9 -7 0 8 . 86 D o c u m e n t s

on

B r iti s h

P o lic y ,

V III,

7 0 9 -7 1 6 ,

7 2 5 -7 4 1 .

S ee a lso

L lo y d

G e o r g e ’s s ta t e m e n t to th e H o u s e o f C o m m o n s o n A u g u s t 10, G r e a t B rita in , 5 P a r li a m e n ta r y D e b a t e s , H o u s e o f C o m m o n s , C X X X I I

(1 9 2 0 ), 2 6 1 -2 6 2 . W ith

re g a rd to P ils u d s k i it w as a g re e d t h a t h e s h o u ld b e re p la c e d as c o m m a n d e r -in c h ie f b u t c o u ld re m a in as h e a d o f s ta te . 87 D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , V I I I , 7 4 5 - 7 4 7 . 88 S ee B az ili to S tru v e , A u g u s t 3, 1 9 2 0 , a n d to C o n s ta n tin o p le , A u g u s t 3 / 1 6 , 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5.

In a la te r n o te to th e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t L lo y d

G e o r g e in d ic a te d t h a t h e h a d a c c e p te d t h e s u g g e s tio n t h a t W r a n g e l b e in v ite d to L o n d o n to d iscu ss t h e fa te o f h is fo rce s “ b u t n o t in th e c a p a c ity o f a m e m b e r o f th e c o n f e r e n c e .” S ee D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , I I I , 1 3 6 . S ee a lso L lo y d G e o r g e ’s p ro p o s a ls o n a tru c e in i b i d . , 9 7 - 9 8 . 89 S ee F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 2 0 , I I I , 3 9 3 - 3 9 4 , 3 9 5 . s e n ta tiv e s ’ r e p o r t o n

L lo y d G e o r g e ’s w a rn in g to

S ee a lso t h e S o v ie t r e p r e ­

th e m

o n A u g u s t 4 t h a t th is

w o u ld b e d o n e in D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , I I I , 8 1 . 90 S ee G r e a t B rita in , 5 P a r li a m e n ta r y D e b a t e s , H o u s e o f C o m m o n s , C X X X I I ( 1 9 2 0 ) , 3 5 1 - 3 5 3 , sessio n o f A u g u s t 20 . 91 S tr u v e to W r a n g e l , J u ly 2 6 , 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. 92 T r u b e t s k o i to S tru v e , J u ly 2 6 / A u g u s t 8 , 1 9 2 0 , ib id . 93 S e c re ta ry o f S ta te to Ita lia n A m b a s s a d o r, A u g u s t 10, 1 9 2 0 , F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 2 0 , III, 4 6 3 -4 6 8 .

94 F r e n c h C h a r g é d ’A ffaires to S e c re ta ry o f S ta te , A u g u s t 14, 1 9 2 0 , i b i d . , 4 6 9 470. 95 G irs to S tr u v e , A u g u s t 14, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. 96 M ille r a n d

to

B az ili, A u g u s t

10,

1920, ib id .

For

W r a n g e l ’s re s p o n se , see

W r a n g e l to M ille ra n d , A u g u s t 15, 1 9 2 0 , i b i d . T h e U n ite d S ta te s , o f c o u rs e , d id n o t e x te n d s u c h re c o g n itio n . T h e R u s s ia n a m b a s s a d o r in W a s h in g to n , B a k h m e te v , c a u tio n e d a g a in a g a in s t e x p e c tin g A m e ric a n a id b e c a u s e , as h e p u t it, fin a n c ia l c o n d itio n s w e re p o o r a n d b e sid e s th e U n ite d S ta te s w as “ very c o n se rv a tiv e a n d s lo w .” S ee B a k h m e te v to G irs , A u g u s t 2 6 , 1 9 2 0 , ib id . F o r a c o m m e n t o n th e n e g a tiv e B ritis h a t t i t u d e to w a rd F r e n c h

re c o g n itio n o f W r a n g e l , see th e n o te

d a te d A u g u s t 12, 1 9 2 0 , in U . S. N a tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o re ig n A ffairs S e c tio n , D o c . N o . 8 6 1 .0 1 /2 2 8 . A u g u st

11

in

C f. L lo y d G e o r g e ’s c o m m e n ts to th e H o u s e o f C o m m o n s o n

G r e a t B rita in ,

C X X X III (1 9 2 0 ), 4 9 6 -4 9 8 .

5 P a r li a m e n ta r y

D e b a te s ,

H o u se

of

C om m ons,

390

The Volunteer Army

97 M ille r a n d to M a rs h a l F o c h , A u g u s t 16, 1 9 2 0 , c itin g p re v io u s n o te o f A u g u s t 9, 1 9 2 0 , W M A , F ile 4 8 . 98 F o c h to G e n e r a l M ille r, A u g u s t 19, 1 9 2 0 , ib id . S ee a lso B az ili to S tr u v e , A u g u s t 5 / 1 8 , 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. " S e e D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , V I I I , 7 8 6 - 7 9 1 ; a n d D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , I I I , 1 0 0 - 1 0 1 . S ee also K liu c h n ik o v a n d S a b a n in , o p . c i t . , I l l , P a r t I, 4 7 -

4 9 ; a n d th e L o n d o n T i m e s , A u g u s t 2 4 , 1 9 2 0 . W h e n o n A u g u s t 15 t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t p r o te s te d to L lo y d G e o rg e a g a in s t F r e n c h re c o g n itio n o f W r a n g e l a n d c h a r g e d th e B ritis h g o v e r n m e n t w ith g o in g b a c k o n its w o rd , L lo y d G e o r g e r e ­ p lie d t h a t th e B ritis h g o v e r n m e n t h a d n o t a t a ll c h a n g e d its p o lic y to w a rd W r a n ­ g e l, h a d n o i n te n tio n o f re c o g n iz in g h is g o v e r n m e n t, a n d s o u g h t o n ly to b r in g a b o u t a n e n d to th e h o s tilitie s in t h e S o u th o n te rm s w h ic h w o u ld a ss u re th e p e rs o n a l s e c u rity o f W r a n g e l ’s s u p p o rte rs . H o w e v e r, h e a d d e d , th is p o lic y m ig h t h a v e to b e re c o n s id e re d if t h e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t p e rs is te d in o ffe rin g to P o la n d o n ly s u c h te rm s as w o u ld v io la te its s o v e re ig n ty a n d in d e p e n d e n c e .

See D o k u ­

m e n ty v n e s h n e i p o litik i, I I I , 1 3 1 -1 3 6 .

100 S ee

R u ss ia n

Envoy,

B u lg a ria ,

to

S e v a sto p o l, A u g u s t 7 ,

1920,

W A -D C ,

C a s e I, F ile 5. 101 F o r a n a c c o u n t o f th e K u b a n c a m p a ig n a n d th e in itia tio n o f n e w e ffo rts to k e e p th e P o le s in th e s tru g g le , see W r a n g e l , o p . c it., p . 2 4 9 ff. 102 S tr u v e to M a k la k o v , S e p te m b e r 1, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e

I, F ile

5.

C f.

W ra n g e l, op. c it., p p . 2 6 1 -2 6 2 . 103 S tr u v e to M a k la k o v , S e p te m b e r 8, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. 104 M a k la k o v to S tru v e , S e p te m b e r 12, 1 9 2 0 , ib id . 105 S ee th e D a i l y H e r a l d , A u g u s t 30 , 1 9 2 0 . T h e te x t m a y a lso b e f o u n d in Ia k u s h k in , F r a n ts u z s k a ia i n t e r v e n t s i i a , p . 7 7 ; G u k o v s k ii, F r a n ts u z s k a ia i n t e r v e n t siia , p p . 2 2 - 2 3 ; I. A l’f, A n ta n ta i V r a n g e l , p p . 2 5 - 2 6 ; a n d in T . T o l o k o n n ik o v , F r a n ts u z s k a ia

b u r z h u a z i ia i I u d a

V r a n g e l; d o g o v o r F r a n t s ii s V ra n g e le m

(M o s ­

c o w : G o s iz d a t, 1 9 2 0 ) . 106 A d r a f t a g r e e m e n t lo o k in g to w a rd th e o p e n in g o f c re d its fo r W r a n g e l is m e n tio n e d in le tte rs fr o m G e n e r a l H e r m o n iu s to t h e F r e n c h M in is tr y o f C o m ­ m e rc e , A u g u s t 14, 1 9 2 0 , a n d to B az ili, A u g u s t 20 , 1 9 2 0 , b u t n o s p ec ific te rm s a re n o te d . T e r m s a re m e n tio n e d , h o w e v e r, in N e r a to v to P a ris E m b a s s y , O c to b e r 2 4 , 1 9 2 0 , a n d M a k la k o v to N e ra to v , O c to b e r 15, 1 9 2 0 , M A , S eries B , P a c k e t V , D o ss ie r 2. S ee a lso R u ss ia n

C h a r g é d ’A ffaires, L o n d o n ,

to

S tru v e , S e p te m b e r

2 6 , 1 9 2 0 , B e r n a ts k ii P a p e rs . A B ritis h F o r e ig n O ffice m e m o r a n d u m o f S e p te m b e r 2 0 e x p re sse d c o n c e rn t h a t th e F r e n c h w e re “ e n d e a v o u rin g to e s ta b lis h a c o m ­ p le te m o n o p o ly ” in e c o n o m ic re la tio n s w ith W r a n g e l a n d n o te d t h a t s o m e “ R u s ­ sian f in a n c ie rs ” w e re p re p a re d “ to sell th e w h o le e c o n o m ic fu tu r e o f S o u th R u ss ia to F r a n c e .” D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , X I I , 7 8 4 - 7 8 5 . 107 M a k la k o v to N e ra to v , O c to b e r 15, 1 9 2 0 , M A , S eries B , P a c k e t V , D o s s ie r 2. 108 A r e p o r t b y G e n e r a l H e r m o n iu s o n N o v e m b e r 5, 1 9 2 0 , s ta t e d t h a t t h e to ta l “ v a lu e ” o f m ilita r y s u p p lie s s e n t b y F r a n c e b e tw e e n J u ly a n d O c t o b e r a m o u n t e d to 1 1 ,2 0 9 ,5 1 6 fra n c s . I t w o u ld a p p e a r fro m a n o te d a te d D e c e m b e r 1, 1 9 2 0 , fr o m th e M in is tr y o f W a r to G e n e r a l M ille r t h a t a lm o s t a ll o f t h a t h a d b e e n p a id fo r, le a v in g a d e b t o n th e s e g o o d s o f o n ly a b o u t 3 5 0 ,0 0 0 fra n c s . S ee L is te d e s c e s s io n s, in a le tte r fr o m G e n e r a l H e r m o n iu s to t h e F r e n c h M in is tr y o f W a r , N o v e m b e r

391

NOTES

5, a n d th e M in is try o f W a r to G e n e r a l M ille r, D e c e m b e r 1, 1 9 2 0 , W M A , F ile 4 7 . S o m e p u rc h a s e s w e re m a d e in th e U n ite d S ta te s , e sp e c ia lly co al, u n d e r U g h e t ’s a r r a n g e m e n ts , b u t a g a in th e a m o u n ts w e re a p p a r e n tly in a d e q u a te .

S ee U . S. N a ­

tio n a l A rc h iv e s, F o r e ig n A ffairs S e c tio n , D o c . N o . 8 6 1 . 2 4 /2 6 8 a a n d 2 7 0 . L ik e ­ w ise s m a ll f u n d s w e re a v a ila b le in E n g la n d

u n d e r p re v io u s a rra n g e m e n ts w ith

K o lc h a k . S ee L u k o m s k ii, V o s p o m in a n iia , I I , 2 2 6 ; a n d I s p o v e d ’ S a v in k o v a : p r o tsess, p . 7 7 . ic9 W r a n g e l , o p . c it., p p . 2 8 3 , 2 9 5 - 2 9 6 . C f. M . S. M a rg u lie s , o p . c i t . , I l l , 2 4 1 , 254. 110 W r a n g e l , o p . c i t . , p . 3 0 0 ; S tru v e to T a tis h c h e v , O c to b e r 2 2 , 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. 111 M a k h r o v , “ G e n e r a l V ra n g e l i B . S a v in k o v ,” p p . 1 8 6 - 2 0 8 . W r a n g e l ’s d ip lo ­ m a tic r e p r e s e n ta tiv e a t th is tim e w as V . M . G o rlo v .

F o r a S o v ie t a c c o u n t o f

W r a n g e l ’s re la tio n s

“ V ra n g e l

w ith

P o la n d ,

see S.

B u d k e v ic h ,

i P o l’s h a ,”

in

R a z g r o m V ia n g e l i a : s b o r n i k s t a t e i ( M o s c o w : G o s v o e n iz d a t, K o m m u n is tic h e s k a ia A k a d e m iia , 1 9 3 0 ) , p p . 4 1 - 5 4 . 112 T h e r e w e re s o m e C o s s a c k tro o p s , b u t m o s t o f th e o th e rs w e re a p p a r e n tly re fu g e e s fr o m e a rlie r c a m p a ig n s in th e n o r th w e s te r n th e a te r .

F o rc e s u n d e r G e n ­

e ra l B u la k -B a la k h o v ic h , fo r e x a m p le , w e re c h ie fly p a rtis a n u n its b u t h a d p re v io u s ly s e rv e d u n d e r I u d e n ic h . A m o n g t h e p o litic a l d e le g a tio n s th e r e w as e v e n a K u b a n m is s io n , w h ic h d e n o u n c e d W r a n g e l ’s p o lic ie s to w a rd th e C o ssa ck s a n d d e c la r e d t h a t W r a n g e l w as ju s t c o n tin u in g D e n ik in ’s d ic ta to r s h ip a n d th e re s to r a tio n is t e ffo r t.

S ee n o te o f th e K u b a n m is s io n , O c to b e r 7, 1 9 2 0 , in S. A . P io n tk o v s k ii,

e d ., G r a z h d a n s k a i a v o in a v R o s s i i , 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 2 1

gg.

(M o s c o w : Iz d . K o m . u n iv e r-

s ite ta , 1 9 2 5 ) , p p . 4 8 6 - 4 9 5 . 113 O n th e B re d o v c o rp s ’ re tu r n , see W r a n g e l , o p . c i t . , p p . 2 5 1 , 2 7 5 . A llie d

S u p r e m e C o u n c i l c o n s id e ra tio n s o f th e

S ee also

tra n s fe r o f th e c o rp s in

U . S.

E m b a s sy , P a ris, E .S .H . B u lle tin s , N o s . 4 2 8 , 5 0 9 , 5 3 6 , 6 2 8 , 6 3 5 , a n d 7 8 4 , H o o v e r L ib ra ry .

M a k h r o v 's p o s itio n w as a lso s o m e w h a t a w k w a rd as a r e s u lt o f th e f a c t

t h a t P o la n d h a d n o t re c o g n iz e d W r a n g e l ’s g o v e rn m e n t. T h e P o lis h g o v e r n m e n t c o n tin u e d in th is p o lic y , a c c o rd in g to M a k h r o v , o n th e a d v ic e o f t h e F r e n c h , w h o fe a re d

u p s e tt in g

th e

n e g o tia tio n s w ith

“ G e n e r a l V r a n g e l i B . S a v in k o v ,”

p.

th e

S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t.

S ee M a k h r o v ,

2 6 1 . S ee a lso D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y ,

X II, 7 1 5 -7 1 6 , 718, 7 4 4 -7 4 5 . 114 M a k h r o v , “ G e n e r a l V ra n g e l i B . S a v in k o v ,” p p . 2 1 3 , 2 5 6 .

S a v in k o v w as

a p p a r e n tly a lso th e o n ly o n e w ith access to in te llig e n c e so u rc e s a n d w ith d ir e c t c o m m u n ic a t io n

to

P a ris ,

in c lu d in g ,

a c c o rd in g

to

M ak h ro v ,

even

d ire c tly

to

F o c h 's staff. I b i d . , p . 3 5 8 . S ee also I s p o v e d ’ S a v in k o v a : p r o ts e s s , p p . 36, 9 6 . 115 A n

a g r e e m e n t s ig n e d

by

S a v in k o v w ith

o n e of th e

R u ss ia n

g e n e ra ls

in

P o la n d in A u g u s t s ta t e d t h a t S a v in k o v h a d a s e c re t u n d e r s ta n d in g w ith t h e P o lish H ig h C o m m a n d t h a t a ll R u s s ia n fo rce s w e re to b e u n d e r h is p o litic a l d ir e c tio n and

as a s ta te d e b t o f R u ss ia . A n y

te rrito ry

ta k e n w as, b y th is a g re e m e n t, to b e g iv e n la n d re fo rm a n d d e m o c ra c y .

m a in ta in e d

b y f u n d s re c o g n iz e d

S ee th e

a g r e e m e n t, d a te d A u g u s t 2 7 , 1 9 2 0 , in th e M iliu k o v P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s. A d d itio n a l d o c u m e n ts o n S a v in k o v ’s p o s itio n a n d h is u n d e rs ta n d in g s w ith th e P o lis h H ig h C o m m a n d a n d R u s s ia n tro o p s in P o la n d (a n d E s to n ia a n d L a tv ia ) m a y b e fo u n d in th e a rc h iv e s o f th e J o z e f P ils u d s k i I n s t i t u t e o f A m e ric a (N e w Y o r k ) . I t w as

The Volunteer Army

392

u n d e r s to o d t h a t a ll fo rce s u n d e r S a v in k o v ’s “ P o litic a l C e n t e r " w o u ld s u b s c rib e to th e slo g an s o f th e C e n t e r : ( 1 ) c o n s t i t u e n t a ss e m b ly , ( 2 ) la n d fo r th e p e o p le , ( 3 ) d e m o c ra c y , a n d ( 4 ) f e d e ra tio n . 110 M a k h r o v , “ G e n e r a l V ra n g e l i B . S a v in k o v ,” p p . 2 1 8 - 2 1 9 , 2 5 5 .

M ak h ro v

a d d s la te r, h o w e v e r, t h a t p o litic a l circ le s in P o la n d w e re s h a rp ly d iv id e d o n p o l­ icy, w ith r e s u ltin g u n c e r ta in ty as to th e f u tu r e . I b id ., p p . 2 6 2 - 2 7 0 . 117 I b id ., p p . 2 2 0 - 2 2 3 . 118 I b i d . 7 p . 2 3 1 .

B y th e s a m e to k e n P ilsu d s k i e x p re ss e d d o u b ts as to s u c h

p e rs o n s as K riv o s h e in a n d o th e rs in W r a n g e l ’s g o v e r n m e n t a n d m e n tio n e d d is ­ tu r b i n g ru m o r s o f a p ro - G e rm a n o r ie n ta tio n a m o n g W r a n g e l 's a ss o c ia te s , if n o t in h im s e lf. T h e p o le s, M a k h r o v r e p o r te d , w e re a fra id t h a t W r a n g e l 's “ d e m o c r a tic p rin c ip le s " d e c la re d a b ro a d m ig h t t u r n o u t to b e “ o n ly ta c tic a l m a n e u v e r s ." I b i d . , p p . 3 4 3 -3 4 4 . 119 A s ta t e m e n t issued o n O c to b e r 2 b y S a v in k o v ’s P o litic a l C o m m i t t e e d e c la r e d its re c o g n itio n o f W r a n g e l ’s a u th o r ity b u t a d d e d t h e u n d e r s ta n d i n g t h a t th e C o m ­ m i t t e e ’s p o lic y w o u ld c o n tin u e to in c lu d e c lo se c o o p e r a tio n w ith P o la n d , re c o g ­ n itio n o f th e r ig h t o f s e lf -d e te rm in a tio n fo r th e b o r d e r s ta te s , a n d t h e f u tu r e re s to r a tio n o f R u ssia th r o u g h th e c o n v o c a tio n o f a c o n s t i t u e n t a s s e m b ly o n t h e b asis o f u n iv e rs a l, d ire c t, e q u a l, a n d s e c re t su ffrag e. S ee D e c la ra tio n o f t h e R u s s ia n P o litic a l C o m m itte e

in

W arsaw ,

O c to b e r

2,

1 9 2 0 , in

th e

M iliu k o v

P e rs o n a l

A rc h iv e s. 120 M a k h r o v , “ G e n e r a l V ra n g e l i B . S a v in k o v ," p p . 2 4 2 , 2 4 7 . 121 I b i d . , p . 2 5 7 .

122 I b i d ., p p . 2 5 8 - 2 6 9 . 123 I b i d . , p . 2 6 0 . 124 I b i d . , p p . 3 2 9 - 3 3 0 ; W r a n g e l, o p . c i t . , p p . 2 7 5 - 2 7 6 .

I t is in te r e s tin g to n o te

t h a t a t h is tria l in 1 9 2 4 S a v in k o v s ta te d t h a t th e id e a o f f o r m in g a R u s s ia n a rm y in P o la n d h a d b e e n P ils u d s k i's id e a fro m th e s ta r t.

I t w as P ils u d s k i’s p ro p o s a l

to th is e ffe c t w h ic h b r o u g h t h im to W a r s a w in J a n u a ry , 1 9 2 0 , fr o m P a ris , S a v ­ in k o v te stifie d , a n d it w as th is a s s ig n m e n t u p o n w h ic h h e s e t to w o rk in th e s p rin g o f 1 9 2 0 a t P ils u d s k i’s re q u e s t.

See Is p o v e d ’ S a v in k o v a : p r o ts e s s , p . 8 2 .

Of

c o u rs e , th e tro o p s in v o lv e d w e re a lre a d y th e re ; w h a t P ils u d s k i s o u g h t w as a p o l i t ­ ical le a d e r s h ip fo r th e m w h ic h w o u ld m a k e th e ir a im s c o m p a tib le w ith h is o w n . I t w as w ith th is in m in d t h a t h e c o n ta c te d S a v in k o v .

S ee c o rre s p o n d e n c e b e ­

tw e e n S a v in k o v a n d P ilsu d s k i in t h e a rc h iv e s o f t h e J o z e f P ils u d s k i I n s t i t u t e o f A m e ric a

(N ew Y o rk ). O n

th e

f o r m a tio n o f t h e T h i r d

A rm y , see a lso c o r r e ­

s p o n d e n c e in th e G e n e r a l M ille r A rc h iv e s, F ile 6 ( m ) , H o o v e r L ib ra ry . 125 M a k h r o v , “ G e n e r a l V ra n g e l i B . S a v in k o v ," p p . 3 2 8 - 3 2 9 .

G e n eral C o u n t

P a le n h a d a c c e p te d S a v in k o v ’s p ro g r a m a n d s u b o r d in a te d h is fo rce s to t h e R u s ­ sian P o litic a l C e n t e r in p o litic a l q u e s tio n s .

S ee d o c u m e n ts in th e J o z e f P ils u d s k i

I n s t i t u t e o f A m e ric a ( N e w Y o r k ) . 126 M a k h r o v , “ G e n e r a l V ra n g e l i B . S a v in k o v ," p . 3 3 8 . 127 I b i d . , p p . 2 7 2 - 2 7 3 . 128 I b i d . , p . 2 9 2 . 129 W r a n g e l , o p . c it., p . 2 7 4 . 133

I b id ., p p . 2 8 4 -2 8 5 .

131

S ee P io n tk o v s k ii, o p . c i t . , p . 6 3 7 .

393

N O TES

132 S ee t h e l e t t e r o f th e U k ra in ia n N a tio n a l C o m m itte e to M a k la k o v , J u ly 18, 1 9 2 1 , M A , S eries B , P a c k e t II , D o ss ie r 3. 133 W r a n g e l , o p . c i t . , p . 2 8 5 . C f. M . S. M a rg u lie s , o p . c it., I l l , 2 4 7 ; a n d M ak h ro v , “ G e n e r a l V ra n g e l i B . S a v in k o v ,” p . 3 4 6 . 134 G e n e r a l S la s h c h e v , w h o w as a n o u ts p o k e n a d v o c a te o f s u c h ste p s , d e sc rib e s sev e ra l s u c h p r o je c ts in la . A . S lash c h e v -K ry m s k ii, T i e b u i u s u d a o b s h c h e s t v a i g la sn o sti

( C o n s ta n t in o p le :

K n ig o iz d a t. M . S h u l’m a n a ,

135 M a k h r o v , “ G e n e r a l V ra n g e l i B . S a v in k o v ,”

1 9 2 1 ), pp .

p.

5 7 -5 9 ,

6 2 -6 6 .

345; W ra n g e l, o p . c it., p .

2 7 6 . W r a n g e l h a d in f o r m e d G e n e r a l M ille r o n S e p te m b e r 1 8 / O c t o b e r 1 o f p la n s f o r th e o r g a n iz a tio n o f tro o p s in P o la n d a n d o rd e re d h im to d o e v e ry th in g p o s sib le to g e t t h e P o le s to d ra w o u t t h e tr u c e n e g o tia tio n s so as to g iv e m o re tim e . W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5.

S ee

136 M a k h r o v , “ G e n e r a l V ra n g e l i B . S a v in k o v ,” p p . 3 4 6 - 3 4 7 . M a r s h a l F o c h n o te d in a l e tte r to G e n e r a l M ille r o n O c to b e r 1 t h a t t h e p la n s fo r t h e f o r m a ­ tio n o f R u s s ia n tro o p s in P o la n d w o u ld b e d iffic u lt to re a liz e w it h o u t a n a c c o rd w ith t h e U k r a in ia n fo rce s.

F o c h to M ille r, O c to b e r 1, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I,

F ile 5. 137 M a k h r o v , “ G e n e r a l V ra n g e l i B . S a v in k o v ,” p . 3 4 8 . T h e te x t o f t h e P o lish S o v ie t- U k r a in ia n a g r e e m e n t is in D o k u m e n t y v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , I I I , 2 4 5 - 2 5 8 . T h e e x c h a n g e o f ra tific a tio n s p u t t i n g t h e tre a ty in to e ffe c t d id n o t a c tu a lly ta k e p la c e u n til N o v e m b e r 2. 138 M a k h r o v , “ G e n e r a l V ra n g e l i B . S a v in k o v ,”

p.

349.

S ee a lso th e s ta t e m e n t

o n B u la k -B a la k h o v ic h ’s p o s itio n in th e p a p e r e n title d “ P r o M e m o r ia ,” M iliu k o v P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s. 139 M a k h r o v , “ G e n e r a l V ra n g e l i B . S a v in k o v ,” p p . 3 5 1 - 3 5 2 . 140 I b i d . ,

p.

373.

M a k h r o v a t th is tim e e x p re sse d d o u b ts as to S a v in k o v 's re li­

a b ility a n d w is h e d to h a n d le t h e re la tio n s w ith t h e U k ra in ia n s h im s e lf.

S a v in k o v

h im s e lf la te r te stifie d t h a t a r e p re s e n ta tiv e o f W r a n g e l in P o la n d h a d “ sec re tly o b s tr u c te d ” h is e ffo rts a n d t h a t h e (S a v in k o v ) h a d re s iste d W r a n g e l 's a t t e m p t to g a in c o n tr o l o f t h e tro o p s in P o la n d b e c a u s e th is w o u ld h a v e d e s tro y e d h is o w n p o s itio n . T h e F r e n c h , h e a d d e d , trie d to fo rc e h im to s u b m it to W r a n g e l ’s le a d e r ­ s h ip . S ee I s p o v e d * S a v in k o v a : p i o t s e s s , p p . 8 3 - 8 4 . 141 M a k h r o v , “ G e n e r a l V ra n g e l i B . S a v in k o v ,” p . 3 8 2 ff. 142 I b i d . ,

p.

385.

In h is c o n fe s s io n to th e S o v ie t c o u r t in 1 9 2 4 S a v in k o v d e ­

c la re d t h a t h e h a d h e lp e d a rra n g e a g re e m e n ts w ith b o th P e tliu r a a n d W r a n g e l to c o o r d in a te t h e ir o p e ra tio n s . I s p o v e d ' S a v in k o v a : p i o t s e s s , p p . s ta te d th is in a l e tte r to W r a n g e l d a te d O c to b e r 15, 1 9 2 0 .

14, 8 6 . H e also

S ee “ L e tte r fr o m th e

r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f t h e R u s s ia n P o litic a l C o m m itte e in P o la n d to G e n e r a l V r a n g e l,” M S , H o o v e r L ib ra ry . 14 3 V e l ik a ia

R o s s i ia , O c to b e r

1 /1 4 ,

1 9 2 0 , in te rv ie w

w ith P r in c e L iu b o m irs k i

( th i s is V . V . S h u l'g in 's p a p e r, fo rm e rly R o s s i ia , b e in g p u b lis h e d a t th is tim e in th e C r im e a ; issues o f M a y 31 to O c to b e r 2 3 , 1 9 2 0 , a re in t h e W r a n g e l A rc h iv e s, H o o v e r L i b r a r y ) . S ee a lso W r a n g e l , o p . c i t . , p p . 2 9 2 - 2 9 3 . 144

W ra n g e l, o p . c it., p p . 29 2 , 29 4 .

M ille ra n d h a d b e c o m e p re s id e n t o f F r a n c e

in S e p te m b e r , a n d P a lé o lo g u e h a d d e c id e d to r e tir e fro m h is p o s t in t h e F o r e ig n M in is try , b u t B azili w ire d fr o m P a ris t h a t M ille ra n d w o u ld re ta in c o n tr o l o v e r fo re ig n p o lic y . T h e n e w g o v e rn m e n t, it w as r e p o rte d , c o n tin u e d

to a d h e r e to

The Volunteer Army

394

th e p o lic y o f s u p p o r t fo r W r a n g e l . S ee B az ili to S tru v e , S e p te m b e r 2 5 , 1 9 2 0 , a n d B az ili to S tr u v e , S e p te m b e r 2 7 , 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I , F ile 5. 145 C a p t a in

S h c h e rb a c h e v , C o n s ta n tin o p le , to F le e t C o m m a n d e r , O c to b e r 9 ,

1 9 2 0 , re la y in g A d m ira l d e B o n ’s m e ssa g e, W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile

5.

D e Bon

in d ic a te d in s u b s e q u e n t m essag es t h a t th is in c lu d e d c o n tin u e d e ffo rts to o b ta in m ilita r y s u p p lie s.

S ee V ic e A d m ira l d e B o n to C a p t a in d e V a iss e a , A t ta c h é w ith

th e R u ss ia n fle e t, O c to b e r 14, 1 9 2 0 , ib id . 146 M a k la k o v (S tr u v e ) to T a tis h c h e v , O c to b e r 2 2 , 1 9 2 0 , ib id .

S ee a lso W r a n ­

gel, o p . c it., p . 2 9 2 . 147 W r a n g e l , o p . c it., p p . 2 9 7 - 2 9 8 ; V e l ik a ia R o ss iia , O c to b e r 8 / 2 1 , 1 9 2 0 .

S ee

a lso th e in te rv ie w w ith M a r te l in V e l i k a i a R o s s i ia , O c to b e r 1 0 / 2 3 , 1 9 2 0 , W r a n g e l A rc h iv e s. 148 W r a n g e l , o p . c i t . , p . 3 1 1 . 149 I b i d . , p . 3 1 7 ; A d m ira l D u m e s n il to W r a n g e l , N o v e m b e r 11, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. W r a n g e l , o p . c it., p . 3 2 1 ; P . S h a tilo v , “ Z a p is k i” ( M S , C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s ity

150

R u ss ia n A r c h iv e ) , p . 9 1 6 ; W r a n g e l to M a r te l, N o v e m b e r 13, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. 151 S o m e B ritis h a n d A m e ric a n s h ip s p a r tic ip a te d in t h e o p e r a tio n in a p r o t e c ­ tiv e c a p a c ity , b u t C u r z o n h a d c a te g o ric a lly re je c te d d ir e c t B ritis h p a r tic ip a tio n a n d re fu s e d a p p e a ls to a ssist in th e e v a c u a tio n . S ee D o c u m e n t s o n B r i t i s h P o l i c y , X II, 802. ib id .,

pp.

O n B ritis h re lie f a c tiv itie s in C o n s ta n tin o p le a f te r t h e e v a c u a tio n , see 8 1 7 -8 2 0 .

152 W r a n g e l , o p . c i t . , p p . 3 2 4 - 3 2 7 , 3 3 7 . T h o s e e v a c u a te d in c lu d e d 5 0 ,0 0 0 c o m ­ b a t tro o p s , 4 0 ,0 0 0 re a r m ilita r y p e rs o n n e l, 3 ,0 0 0 m ilita r y s c h o o l c a d e ts , 6 ,0 0 0 w o u n d e d , a n d 5 0 ,0 0 0 civ ilia n s. 153 In p a y in g h is re s p e c ts to W r a n g e l a f te r th e s h ip s w e re a t sea, A d m ira l D u m e s ­ n il w r o te : ' ‘I re a liz e d t h e a n g u is h th is s te p h a s c o s t y o u . B u t y o u m u s t fin d s o m e s a tis fa c tio n in th e k n o w le d g e t h a t t h e e v a c u a tio n h a s b e e n c o n d u c t e d in a n e x e m ­ p la ry m a n n e r . T h e F r e n c h F le e t re jo ic e s to see t h e e v a c u a tio n so b r illia n tly t e r ­ m in a te d . ” I b i d . , p p . 3 2 6 - 3 2 7 . 154 S ee F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 2 0 , I I I , 7 2 1 - 7 2 3 .

F o r a s u m m a ry o f B ritis h r e la ­

tio n s w ith th e S o v ie t g o v e r n m e n t fro m A p ril to S e p te m b e r 12, 1 9 2 0 , see D o c u ­ m e n ts o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , X I I , 7 7 8 - 7 8 2 ; fr o m S e p te m b e r 12 to D e c e m b e r 1 2 , 1 9 2 0 , V III, 8 6 6 -8 6 9 . 155 M . S. M a r g u lie s , o p . c i t . , I l l , 2 6 0 . 156 W r a n g e l , o p . c i t . , p . 3 3 9 ; F r e n c h H ig h C o m m is s io n e r, C o n s ta n tin o p le , to N e r a to v , D e c e m b e r 7, 1 9 2 0 , W r a n g e l P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s, K o tlia re v s k ii S e c tio n , C a s e I. F ile 8. 157 S ta te m e n t to M a r te l, N o v e m b e r 13, 1 9 2 0 , W r a n g e l P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s , K o t ­ lia re v sk ii S e c tio n , C a s e I, F ile 8. S ee a lso W r a n g e l , o p . c it., p . 3 2 1 . 158 S h a tilo v , o p . c it., p . 9 2 6 ; W r a n g e l to M a r te l , N o v e m b e r 1 4 , 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5. U n s u c c e s s fu l p riv a te n e g o tia tio n s w e re a p p a r e n t ly a lso u n d e r ta k e n o n th e p o s s ib ility o f jo in in g t h e U k ra in ia n s in P o la n d o r g o in g to G e o rg ia .

S ee

M . S. M a r g u lie s , o p . c it., I l l , 2 5 7 , 2 5 9 - 2 6 0 . O n th e s e q u e s tio n s see a lso t h e B ritis h r e p o r ts in D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , X I I , 8 2 5 - 8 3 2 . 159 W r a n g e l , o p . c i t . , p . 3 3 9 .

395

NOTES

160 G r e e c e d e c lin e d to re c eiv e a n y b e c a u s e o f its o w n re fu g e e p ro b le m s a n d th e A llie d g o v e r n m e n ts o v e rru le d th e ir m o v e m e n t in to H u n g a ry . S ee n o te fro m fo re ig n m in is te r o f G re e c e , N o v e m b e r 15, 1 9 2 0 , W A - D C , C a s e I, F ile 5; a n d W r a n g e l, o p . c it., p. 3 4 2 . 161 W r a n g e l , o p . c it., p p . 3 4 0 - 3 4 1 . 162 S ee F r e n c h M in is try o f W a r to G e n e r a l H e rm o n iu s , N o v e m b e r 2 5 , 1 9 2 0 , W M A , F ile 6 3 . S ee also S h a tilo v , o p . c it., p . 9 1 7 . 163 S ee s ta t e m e n t o f th e L iq u id a tio n C o m m is s io n , N e ra to v to F r e n c h

H ig h

C o m m is s io n e r , D e c e m b e r 12, 1 9 2 0 , a n d S tru v e to P r im e M in is te r L ey g u e s, D e ­ c e m b e r 6 a n d D e c e m b e r 18, 1 9 2 0 , W r a n g e l P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s, K o tlia re v s k ii S e c ­ tio n , C a s e I, F ile 8. 164 S ee D o c u m e n t A , W r a n g e l P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s, K o tlia re v s k ii S e c tio n , F ile 2. 165 T h e B ritis h a lso c o n tr ib u te d siz a b le s u m s fo r th is p u rp o s e . S ee G r e a t B r it­ a in , 5 P a r li a m e n ta r y D e b a t e s , H o u s e o f C o m m o n s , C X X X V I ( 1 9 2 0 ) , 1 3 9 4 . 166 M a k h r o v , “ G e n e r a l V ra n g e l i B . S a v in k o v ,” p p . 3 8 8 - 3 9 1 . S a v in k o v h i m ­ self su rv iv e d th is o rd e a l a n d c o n tin u e d to p l o t t h e d o w n fa ll o f t h e S o v ie t g o v ­ e rn m e n t

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te n y ears in p ris o n o n t h e re c o m m e n d a tio n o f S o v ie t s e c re t p o lic e c h ie f F e lix D z e r z h in s k ii, w h o tu r n e d

o u t to b e a n o ld fr ie n d o f h is . S a v in k o v , th e re v o ­

lu tio n a r y a n d a d v e n tu r e r , h o w e v e r, c o u ld n o t b e a r to b e c o n fin e d , a n d i t see m s h e e n d e d h is o w n life b y a le a p fro m D z e r z h in s k ii’s h e a d q u a r te r s .

t h e w in d o w o f h is sp e c ia l a p a r tm e n t in

F o r d e ta ils o n th e s e e v e n ts see th e p re fa c e to B o ris

S a v in k o v , M e m o i r s o f a T e r r o r i s t ( N e w Y o rk : A lb e r t a n d C h a r le s B o n i, 1 9 3 1 ) ; a n d th e re c o rd o f h is tria l a n d c o n fe ss io n in I s p o v e d ' S a v in k o v a : p r o ts e s s . 167 L e a g u e

of

N a tio n s

T r e a ty

S e r ie s ,

V o l. V I

(1 9 2 1 ), p.

131; D o k u m e n ty

v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k i , I I I , 6 1 8 - 6 5 8 , w ith m a p .

168 W r a n g e l , o p . c i t . , p p . 3 4 4 - 3 4 8 ; D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l ic y , X I I , 8 3 1 -8 3 2 . 169 W r a n g e l , o p . c i t . , p p . 3 4 6 - 3 4 8 .

CHAPTER

IX : P O S T - M O R T E M

1 T h i s in c id e n t w as re la te d b y A . M ik o y a n in re c a llin g C h u r c h ill's first v is it to M o s c o w d u r in g W o r l d W a r I I , in T h e N e w Y o r k T i m e s , J a n u a ry 2 9 , 1 9 5 9 , p . 1. 2 S ee V . I. L e n in , L e n i n o v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k e s o v e t s k o g o g o s u d a r s tv o (M o s c o w : G o s p o litiz d a t, 1 9 6 0 ) , p p . 2 2 6 - 2 2 8 , 3 7 1 . S ee a lso V o s 'm a ia k o n f e r e n ts iia R K P ( b ) , d e k a b r ’ 1 9 1 9 g o d a : p r o t o k o l y ( M o s c o w : G o s p o litiz d a t, 1 9 6 1 ) , p . 11 ff.

3 S ee L e n in , L e n i n o v n e s h n e i p o l i t i k e , p p . 2 2 6 , 3 3 8 , 3 7 1 . 4 A g o o d g e n e ra l re v ie w a n d c r itiq u e o f th e a n ti-B o ls h e v ik m o v e m e n ts , esp e c ia lly th e “ W h i t e s , ” is P . N . M iliu k o v , R u s s ia T o d a y a n d T o m o r r o w ( N e w Y o rk : M a c ­ m illa n , 1 9 2 2 ) , p p . 1 - 1 8 7 . S ee also P . B . S tru v e , R a z m y s h le n ii a o r u s s k o i r e v o l iu ts ii (S o fia : R o ss iis k o -B o lg a rsk o e k n ig o iz d a te l’s tv o , 1921 ) , p p . 3 - 1 8 .

5 C f . S tr u v e , R a z m y s h l e n i i a o r u s s k o i r e v o l iu ts ii, p . 6 ff. 6 W . S. C h u r c h ill, T h e W o r l d B u tte r w o r th , 1 9 2 9 ) , p . 2 7 2 .

C r is is :

The

A fte r m a th

(L o n d o n : T h o r n to n

The Volunteer Army

396

7 F o r a n o ta b le e x p re ss io n o f th is p o i n t o f view , see F . L . S c h u m a n , S o v ie t P o l i t i c s A t H o m e a n d A b ro a d ( N e w Y o rk : K n o p f, 1 9 4 6 ) .

8 E . V . G u lic k , E u r o p e 's C la s s ic a l B a la n c e o f P o w e r , ( I t h a c a : C o r n e ll U n iv e r ­ sity P ress, 1 9 5 5 ) , p p . 6 2 - 6 3 . 9 J. L . B rie rly , T h e L a w o f N a t i o n s , 5 th e d ., (L o n d o n : O x fo rd U n iv e rs ity P re s s, 1 9 5 5 ), p p . 3 0 8 -3 0 9 . 10 G . F . K e n n a n , R u s s ia a n d t h e W e s t U n d e r L e n i n a n d S ta li n (B o s to n : A tla n ­ tic - L ittle , B ro w n a n d C o ., 1 9 6 0 ) , p p . 1 9 0 - 1 9 1 . 11 C h u r c h ill, o p . c it., p . 1 7 5 . 12 I b i d . , p p . 2 3 3 - 2 3 4 . 13 I b i d . , p. 2 7 4 . “ I b id ., p. 177.

15 I b i d . , p . 2 7 3 . 16 I b i d . , p. 2 7 3 . 17 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , II , 1 9 8 - 1 9 9 . 18 I b i d . , p. 1 9 9 . 19 P . N . W r a n g e l, A lw a y s w i t h H o n o r ( N e w Y o rk : S p e lle r, 1 9 5 7 ) , p . 7 1 . 20 O n e e x a m p le o f th is u n f o r tu n a t e s itu a tio n w as t h e tr e a t m e n t o f Jew s in t h e a re a c o n tr o lle d b y t h e V o lu n te e r A rm y . D e n ik in d e c la r e d t h a t t h e Jew s w e re to b e g iv e n t h e s a m e c u ltu r a l a n d re lig io u s fr e e d o m as e v e ry o n e e lse, a n d h e is su e d o rd e rs p r o h ib i tin g d is c r im in a tio n a g a in s t J ew ish officers a n d c e n s u rin g a n y u s e o f v io le n c e a g a in s t Jew s. H o w e v e r, th e r e w as a g o o d d e a l o f a n tis e m itis m in S o u th R u ss ia , b o t h a m o n g t h e p o p u la tio n g e n e ra lly a n d w ith in t h e V o l u n t e e r A rm y , a n d D e n ik in ’s o rd e rs h a d l ittl e e ffe c t to w a rd c u r b in g it. S ee D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u t y , V , 1 4 5 - 1 5 0 . F o r a firs t-h a n d c r itiq u e o f V o l u n t e e r p o lic y a n d b e ­

h a v io r to w a rd th e Jew s as w e ll as th e U k ra in ia n s , see A . A . G o l ’d e n v e iz e r, “ Iz K ie v sk ik h v o s p o m in a n ii,” A r k h i v R u s s k o i R e v o l i u t s i i , V o l. V I s tv o “ S lo v o ,” 1 9 2 2 ) ,

p.

( B e r lin : I z d a t e l ’-

2 5 8 ff.

21 S ee M iliu k o v ’s n o te to t h e A llie d g o v e rn m e n ts , in t h e M iliu k o v P e rs o n a l A rc h iv e s, a n d in p a r t in M iliu k o v , R u s s ia a n d E n g l a n d ( L o n d o n : R u s s ia n L ib e r a ­ tio n C o m m itte e , 1 9 2 0 ) , p . 4 9 . 22 D e n ik in , T h e W h i t e A rm y ( L o n d o n : C a p e , 1 9 3 0 ) , p . 3 0 0 . 23 D e n ik in , W o r l d E v e n t s a n d t h e R u s s i a n P r o b l e m

(P a r is : I m p r im e r ie R a p id e ,

1 9 3 9 ), p. 38. 24 C o m m e n tin g u p o n th is s itu a tio n , A m b a s s a d o r B u c h a n a n s ta te s in h is m e m o ir s h is b e lie f t h a t if A llie d a c tio n s a lie n a te d a n y R u ss ia n s, it w as n o t b e c a u s e o f i n t e r ­ v e n tio n p e r se b u t b e c a u s e o f t h e ir fe a r t h a t i t w as d ir e c te d to w a rd d is m e m b e r ­ m e n t o f R u ss ia . S ee S ir G e o rg e B u c h a n a n , M y M is s io n to R u s s ia ( L o n d o n : C a s ­ sell, 1 9 2 3 ) , V o l. I I , p . 2 5 9 .

C f. D e n ik in , O c h e r k i ru s s k o i s m u ty , I V , 1 4 0 - 1 4 1 .

L o u is F is c h e r q u o te s B ritis h s p o k e s m e n w h o fa v o re d d is m e m b e r m e n t o f R u s s ia fo r A llie d a d v a n ta g e s in h is O i l I m p e r i a l i s m

( N e w Y o rk : I n te r n a t i o n a l P u b li s h ­

ers, 1 9 2 6 ) , p p . 3 0 - 3 1 , a ttr i b u t i n g th is p o i n t o f v ie w p a rtic u la rly to t h e c h a ir m a n o f t h e B ib i E b a t O il C o m p a n y , H e r b e r t A lle n , w h o s e re m a rk s w e re p r e s e n te d in t h e F in a n c ia l N e w s , D e c e m b e r 2 4 , 1 9 1 8 .

F is c h e r c o n c lu d e s t h a t B ritis h p o lic y

h a d “ a lw ay s b e e n th e d is m e m b e r m e n t o f R u s s ia ,” a r a th e r e x a g g e ra te d v ie w .

For

f u r th e r e x a m p le s , see F . L . B e rtie , T h e D i a r y o f L o r d B e r t i e o f T h a m e ( L o n d o n : H o d d e r a n d S to u g h t o n , 1 9 2 4 ) , V o l. I I , p p . 3 1 0 - 3 1 1 ; a n d L . I. S tra k h o v s k y , “ T h e

397

NOTES

F r a n c o - B r itis h P lo t to D is m e m b e r R u s s ia ,” C u r r e n t H i s t o r y , V o l. X X X I I I ( M a r c h 1 9 3 1 ), p p . 8 3 9 -8 4 2 .

F o r B ritis h a n d F r e n c h s ta t e m e n ts to t h e c o n tr a r y , see

C u r z o n to W a r d r o p , O c to b e r 2 a n d 4 , 1 9 1 9 , D o c u m e n t s o n B r iti s h P o l i c y , I I I , 5 7 4 - 5 7 5 , 5 7 7 - 5 7 8 ; a n d F r e n c h M in is try o f F o r e ig n A ffairs to M . P a u l C a m b o n , M a r c h 3, 1 9 1 9 , a n d te le g ra m s o f C o lo n e l C h a r d ig n y , in th e M a k la k o v A rc h iv e s, S eries B , P a c k e t I I , D o s s ie r 11 ( H o o v e r L i b r a r y ) . 25 D e n ik in , O c h e r k i r u s s k o i s m u ty , IV , 2 4 5 . 26 S ee C . E . B e c h h o fe r- R o b e rts , I n D e n i k i n ’s R u ss ia a n d t h e C a u c a s u s ( L o n ­ d o n : C o llin 's , 1 9 2 1 ) , p . 16. 27 C h u r c h ill, o p . c it., p . 8 7 . 28 O n t h e h is to ric a l b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e n a tio n a litie s p ro b le m , see V . A . M a k ­ la k o v , V la s t' i o b s h c h e s tv e n n o s t’ n a z a k a te s ta ro i R o s s i i; v o s p o m i n a n ii a P r ilo z h e n ie k “ I ll iu s tr iro v a n n o i R o s s ii,”

1 9 3 0 ), p p . 2 2 3 -2 3 3 .

(P a r is :

C f. E . G . V a l ’,

K a k P i ls u d s k i p o g u b iJ D e n i k i n a ( T a l lin : Iz d a n ie a v to ra , 1 9 3 8 ) , p p . i-xxiii.

29C f . S tr u v e , R a z m y s h l e n i i a o r u s s k o i r e v o l iu ts ii, p . 17; a n d M iliu k o v , R u ss ia T o d a y a n d T o m o rro w , pp. 8 -1 7 .

30 M iliu k o v , R u s s ia T o d a y a n d T o m o rro w , p . 32. 31 C h u r c h ill, o p . c i t . , p . 2 7 3 .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

U N P U B L IS H E D

M A T E R IA L S A N D A R C H IV E S

A le k se e v , M . V . “ A c c o u n t B o o k o f t h e V o l u n t e e r A r m y .” M S , H o o v e r L ib ra r y . A m e r ic a n C o m m is s io n to N e g o t i a t e P e a c e . S -H B u ll e ti n s . P a ris , 1919. M S S ( t y p e d ) , H o o v e r L ib ra r y . A m e r ic a n E m b a s s y , P a ris . E . S. H . B u ll e ti n s , P a ris , 1 9 1 9 -1 9 2 0 . M S S ( t y p e d ) , H o o v e r L ib ra r y . A p re le v , lu . P . “ Z a m e tk i o s o b y tiia k h v R o s s ii, 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9 g g .” M S ( t y p e d ) , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity R u s s ia n A rc h iv e . B e r n a ts k ii, M . V . P a p e rs . M S S , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity R u s s ia n A r ­ c h iv e . ----------- . P a p e rs o n R u s s ia n F in a n c e . M S S , H o o v e r L ib ra r y . B irk in , V . N . “ P o v e s ti m i n u v s h i k h l e t . ” V o l. V I I : “ K o r n ilo v s k ii p o k h o d . ” M S ( t y p e d ) , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity R u s s ia n A rc h iv e . B o g a e v sk ii, M . P . P a p e rs . M S S , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity R u s s i a n A r ­ c h iv e . B r o f e l’d t, B . M . “ V o s p o m i n a n i i a ,” M S ( t y p e d ) , C o l u m b i a U n i v e r ­ s ity R u s s ia n A rc h iv e . C h e r ia c h u k in , A . V . P a p e r s o f t h e D o n E n v o y . M S S , H o o v e r L i­ b ra ry . D e n ik in , A . I. P a p e rs . M S S , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity R u s s i a n A rc h iv e . D o c u m e n t s o f t h e C r i m e a n G o v e r n m e n t . M S S , H o o v e r L ib ra r y . D o c u m e n t s o f t h e T e r e k C o s s a c k G o v e r n m e n t . M S S , H o o v e r L ib r a r y . D r a ts e n k o , D . P . D o c u m e n t s . M S S , H o o v e r L ib ra r y . G e s s e n , G . V . A rc h iv e s .

M S S , H o o v e r L ib ra r y .

G o lit s y n , A . D . ( P r i n c e ) . “ V o s p o m i n a n ii a , 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 0 .” M S ( h a n d ­ w r i t t e n a n d t y p e d ) , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity R u s s ia n A rc h iv e . H e r r o n , G . D . P a p e rs . V o l. X : R u s s ia . M S S , H o o v e r L ib ra r y . I n t e r a l lie d C o n f e r e n c e D o c u m e n t s . C o u n c i l o f M i n is t e r s , P r e m ie r s , a n d A m b a s s a d o rs , J a n u a r y 10, 1 9 2 0 - A u g u s t 17, 1 9 2 1 . M S S ( m i m ­ e o g r a p h ) , H o o v e r L ib ra r y .

398

BIBLIOGRAPHY

399

“ I s to r iia M a r k o v s k o i a rtille r iis k o i b r ig a d y .” M S ( m i m e o g r a p h ) in 2 v o ls, c o m p i le d b y t h e h is to r y c o m m is s io n o f t h e M a r k o v A r ti l­ le ry D iv is io n . P a ris : I z d a n i e I K M A D , 1931. C o l u m b i a U n iv e r ­ s ity R u s s ia n A rc h iv e . K e fe li, la . I. “ S. G e n e r a lo m A . V . S h v a r ts e m v O d e s s e , o s e n ’ 1 9 1 8 v e s n a 1 9 1 9 g g .: v o s p o m in a n i ia .” M S ( t y p e d ) , C o l u m b i a U n i ­ v e rs ity R u s s ia n A rc h iv e . K h a g o n d o k o v , N . K . “ V o s p o m i n a n i i a .” M S ( t y p e d ) , C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s ity R u s s ia n A rc h iv e . K o v a le v sk ii, P . E ., “ D n e v n ik i, 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 2 1 / ' M S (ty p e d ) , C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s ity R u s s ia n A rc h iv e . K ra s n o v , P . N . “ D is c o u r s d u G é n é r a l K ra s n o v , A ta m a n d u D o n , le 13 D e c . 1 9 1 8 lo rs d e se r e n c o n t r e a v e c le G e n e r a l P o o l / ' M S , H o o v e r L ib ra r y . v o n L a m p e , A . A . A rc h iv e s . F ile s 1 -5 7 . M S S , H o o v e r L ib ra r y . M a k h r o v , P . S. “ G e n e r a l V r a n g e l i B . S a v in k o v .” M S ( h a n d w r i t ­ t e n ) , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity R u s s ia n A rc h iv e . ----------- . “ V b e lo i a r m ii g e n e r a la D e n i k i n a .” M S ( h a n d w r i t t e n ) , C o ­ lu m b i a U n iv e r s ity R u s s ia n A rc h iv e . M a k la k o v , V . A . A rk h iv R u s s k o g o p o s o l’s tv a v P a r iz h e , 1 9 1 8 -1 9 2 3 . M S , H o o v e r L ib ra r y . ----------- . A rc h iv e s , S e rie s B . M S , H o o v e r L ib ra r y . ( C i t e d as M A in n o te s .) M a n d r a jy ( M a n d r a c h i ) , C o n s t a n t i n . “ B e g in a t t h e B e g in n i n g .” M e m o ir s tr a n s l a t e d b y V e r a M a n d r a jy . M S ( t y p e d ) , C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s ity R u s s ia n A rc h iv e . M a x im o v a - M u la e v , A . A . “ A c c o u n t o f t h e O c c u p a t i o n o f K o slo v b y G e n e r a l M a m o n t o v ’s C o s s a c k D e t a c h m e n t , a P a r t o f G e n e r a l D e n i k i n ’s T r o o p s , in A u g u s t 1 9 1 9 .” I n te r v ie w g iv e n to N a d ia L a v ro v a b y t h e a u t h o r in S a n F r a n c is c o , O c t o b e r 1932. M S , H o o v e r L ib ra r y . M iliu k o v , P . N . “ D n e v n i k .” M S ( t y p e d ) , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity R u s ­ s ia n A rc h iv e . ----------- . P e r s o n a l A rc h iv e s . M S S , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity R u s s ia n A r ­ c h iv e . M ille r , E . K . A rc h iv e s o f t h e M i li ta r y R e p r e s e n t a ti v e in P a ris . M S S , H o o v e r L ib ra r y . N ik o la e v , K . N . “ V o s p o m i n a n ii a , 1 9 1 7 -1 9 1 8 g g .” a n d P a p e rs . M S S ( t y p e d ) , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity R u s s ia n A rc h iv e . P o lia k o v , I. A . “ G e n e r a l K o r n ilo v .” M S ( h a n d w r i t t e n ) , C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s ity R u s s ia n A rc h iv e . P o s t, W . E . e t al. “ A R é s u m é o f E v e n ts in t h e C a u c a s u s S in c e t h e R u s s ia n R e v o l u t i o n .” M S ( t y p e d ) , H o o v e r L ib ra r y .

400

The Volunteer Army

“ P rik a z y i r a s p o r ia z h e n iia p o D o b r o v o l’c h e s k o i i D o n s k o i a r m ii a m , o tn o s ia s h c h ie s ia k p e r i o d u g r a z h d a n s k o i v o in y n a l u g e R o s s ii, 1 9 1 8 -1 9 1 9 g g .” M S S , H o o v e r L ib ra r y . “ P rik a z y , m a n d a t y , ts irk u lia r y , i t.d ., o tn o s ia s h c h i e s i a k p e r i o d u g r a z h d a n s k o i v o in y n a lu g e R o s s ii, 1 9 1 8 -1 9 2 0 g g .” ( B o ls h e v ik m a t e r i a ls .) M S S , H o o v e r L ib ra r y . R e r b e r g , F . P . “ I s to r ic h e s k iia z a g a d k i o re v o liu ts ii v R o s s ii.” V o l. I I : “ K r e p o s t’ S e v a s to p o l’ p o d v la s t’iu G e r m a n t s e v , A n g lic h a n , F r a n t ­ su z o v i D o b r o v o l’ts e v G e n . D e n ik in a : z a p is k i N a c h a l ’n ik a S h ta b a S e v a s to p o l’sk o i K r e p o s t i.” M S ( t y p e d ) , H o o v e r L ib ra r y . S a n n ik o v , A . S. “ V o s p o m i n a n ii a , 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 1 9 .” M S ( t y p e d ) , C o l u m ­ b ia U n iv e r s ity R u s s ia n A rc h iv e . S a v in k o v , B . V . “ L e t t e r fr o m t h e R e p r e s e n t a ti v e o f t h e R u s s ia n P o ­ litic a l C o m m i t t e e in P o la n d to G e n e r a l V r a n g e l, C o m m a n d e r - i n C h i e f o f R u s s ia n A r m e d F o r c e s in t h e S o u th o f R u s s i a .” W a r ­ saw , O c t o b e r 15, 1920. M S , H o o v e r L ib ra r y . S h a tilo v , P . “ Z a p is k i.” M S ( t y p e d ) , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity R u s s ia n A rc h iv e . S h a v e l’sk ii, P r o t o p r e s v i te r G e o r g ii. “ V o s p o m i n a n i i a .” M S ( t y p e d ) , C o lu m b ia U n iv e r s ity R u s s ia n A rc h iv e . S h c h e r b a c h e v , D . G . P a p e rs . M S S , H o o v e r L ib ra r y . S m a g in , A . A . “ V o s p o m i n a n ii a .” M S ( t y p e d ) , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity R u s s ia n A rc h iv e . S v e c h in , M . A . “ D o p o l n e n i e k v o s p o m in a n i ia m .” M S , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity R u s s ia n A rc h iv e . T ik h o b r a z o v , D . “ V o s p o m i n a n i i a .” M S ( h a n d w r i t t e n ) , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity R u s s ia n A rc h iv e . U n i t e d S ta te s N a ti o n a l A rc h iv e s , F o r e i g n A ffa irs S e c tio n . M a t e r ia ls c h ie fly fr o m F ile s 7 6 3 .7 2 a n d 8 6 1 .0 0 , w i t h a d d i t i o n a l it e m s in F ile s 1 8 3 .9 , 1 8 4 .0 1 6 , 1 8 4 .0 2 1 0 2 , 8 6 0 E , 8 6 1 .0 1 , 8 6 1 .2 4 , 8 6 1 .4 8 , 8 6 1 .5 0 , 8 6 1 .5 1 , 8 6 1 .7 7 , a n d in t h e m a t e r i a ls o f t h e A m e r ­ ic a n F o o d M is s io n fo r S o u t h e r n E u r o p e , F A 2 7 6 A - A l . V a ta ts i, M . P . “ T h e W h i t e M o v e m e n t , 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 0 : M e m o i r s .” M S , H o o v e r L ib ra r y . V in a v e r , R o s e G . “ V o s p o m i n a n i i a .” M S ( t y p e d ) , H o o v e r L ib ra r y . W r a n g e l , P . N . A rc h iv e s . D i p l o m a t i c C o r r e s p o n d e n c e M S S , H o o v e r L ib ra r y . ( C i t e d as W A - D C in n o t e s .) ----------- . M i li ta r y A rc h iv e s . in n o te s .) ----------- . P e r s o n a l L ib ra r y .

A rc h iv e s .

----------- . P e r s o n a l A rc h iv e s . H o o v e r L ib ra r y .

S e c tio n .

M S S , H o o v e r L ib ra r y . ( C i t e d as W M A K o tlia re v s k ii

S e c tio n .

M SS,

B a ro n e s s O lg a W r a n g e l S e c ti o n .

H oover M SS,

401

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Z e n ’k o v s k ii, A . V . “ V o s p o m i n a n ii a , 1 9 1 9 - 1 9 2 0 .” t e n ) , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity R u s s ia n A rc h iv e .

D issertations

and

MS

(h a n d w rit­

T heses :

B e n ja m in , A lfr e d . “ T h e G r e a t D i l e m m a : T h e F o r e i g n P o lic y o f t h e R u s s ia n P r o v is io n a l G o v e r n m e n t , M a r c h - M a y , 1 9 1 7 .” P h .D . d i s s e r t a ti o n , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity , 1950. E n g e l, D . H . “ S o v ie t-P o lis h R e la t io n s , N o v e m b e r 1918 to A p ril 1 9 2 0 .” R u s s ia n I n s t i t u t e E s sa y , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity , 1949. F e d y s h y n , O . S. “ G e r m a n P la n s fo r t h e U k r a in e in 1 9 1 8 .” R u s s ia n I n s t i t u t e E ssa y , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity , 1955. ----------- . “ G e r m a n P la n s a n d P o lic ie s in t h e U k r a in e a n d t h e C r im e a , 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 1 8 .” P h .D . d is s e r t a ti o n , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity , 1962. G o d w i n , R o b e r t K . “ R u s s ia n - G e o r g ia n R e la t io n s , 1 9 1 7 - 1 9 2 1 .” R u s ­ s ia n I n s t i t u t e E ssa y , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity , 1951. K le in , D a v id . “ T h e B a s m a c h i: A C a s e S tu d y in S o v ie t P o lic y to w a r d N a t i o n a l M i n o r i t i e s .” M . A . T h e s is , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity , 1952. L e m e r , W a r r e n . “ T h e R u s s ia n P la n to S o v ie tiz e P o l a n d in 1 9 2 0 .” R u s s ia n I n s t i t u t e E s sa y , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity , 1954. M a r i n , D a v id P . “ F a il u r e in t h e S o u t h : A n A c c o u n t o f A n d r é M a r ty , t h e F r e n c h M u t i n y a n d W i t h d r a w a l fr o m S o u t h e r n R u s s ia ( N o v e m b e r , 1 9 1 8 - A p r il, 1 9 1 9 ) .” R u s s ia n I n s t i t u t e E s sa y , C o ­ l u m b ia U n iv e r s ity , 19 5 0 . P a rk , A le x a n d e r G . “ S o v ie t N a t i o n a l i t y P o lic y , 1 9 1 7 -1 9 2 7 : A S tu d y o f B o ls h e v ik D o c t r i n e a n d P r a c t ic e w ith S p e c ia l R e f e r e n c e to C e n t r a l A s ia .” P h . D . d is s e r t a ti o n , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity , 1953. P r ie s t, L . W . “ T h e C o r d o n S a n ita ir e , 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 2 2 .” P h .D . d is s e r ta ­ ti o n , S t a n f o r d U n iv e r s ity , 1954. ----------- . “ T h e F r e n c h I n t e r v e n t i o n in S o u th R u s s ia , 1 9 1 8 -1 9 1 9 .” M .A . th e s is , S ta n f o r d U n iv e r s ity , 1947. R a p h a e l, J o a n R . “ R u s s ia , A m e r ic a a n d t h e A r m e n i a n P r o b l e m , 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 2 1 .” R u s s ia n I n s t i t u t e E ssa y , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity , 1948. R o s e n b e r g , W i l l i a m G . “ A . I. D e n ik in a n d t h e A n ti- B o ls h e v ik M o v e ­ m e n t in S o u t h R u s s ia .” A m h e r s t C o lle g e H o n o r s T h e s is N o . 7, 19 6 1 . S a h lin , M a r g a r e t. “ T h e F o r e i g n P o lic y o f t h e P r o v is io n a l G o v e r n ­ m e n t , M a y - N o v e m b e r , 1 9 1 7 .” R u s s ia n I n s t i t u t e E ssa y , C o l u m ­ b ia U n iv e r s ity , 195 8 . S p e c to r , S h e r m a n D . “ R u m a n i a a t t h e P a ris P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e : A S tu d y o f t h e D ip lo m a c y o f l o a n I. C . B r a t i a n u .” P h .D . d is s e r­ t a t i o n , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity , 1960. S te a r n s , M u r ie l. “ B r it is h R e la t io n s w i t h R u s s ia f r o m t h e A r m is tic e

402

The Volunteer Army t o t h e S ig n in g o f t h e T r a d e A g r e e m e n t / '

M .A . th e s is , S ta n f o r d

U n iv e r s ity , 1931. T h o m p s o n , J o h n M . " T h e R u s s ia n P r o b l e m a t t h e P a ris P e a c e C o n ­ fe r e n c e , 1 9 1 9 ." P h .D . d is s e r t a ti o n , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity , 1 9 60. ----------- . " T h e P ro p o s a l fo r a C o n f e r e n c e o n t h e P r i n k ip o I s la n d s , 1 9 1 9 ." R u s s ia n I n s t i t u t e E ssa y , C o l u m b i a U n iv e r s ity , 1 949. Y e n is h , J o s e p h . " T h e P r o b l e m o f S o v ie t R u s s ia a t t h e P a ris P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e o f 1 9 1 9 ." P h .D . d is s e r t a ti o n , P e n n s y l v a n ia U n i v e r ­ sity , 1952. SELECTED

B IB L IO G R A P H Y O F P U B L IS H E D

M A T E R IA L S

D ocuments :

Armenian Question Before the Peace Conference. ( M e m o r a n ­ d u m o f t h e A r m e n i a n D e le g a t io n in P a r is .) P a ris : I m p . P . D u ­ p o n t , 19 1 9 . A z e r b a id z h a n , M i n is t r y o f F o r e i g n A ffairs. L e 28 M ai , 1919: Le jour The

du premier anniversaire de Yindépendance de la République dAzerbaidjan. B a k u , 1 9 1 9 . ( H o o v e r L ib r a r y .) BoYsheviki v borbe za pobedu sotsialisticheskoi revoliutsii v Azerbaidzhane, 1917-1918. B a k u : G o s iz d a t , A .S .S .R ., 1 9 57. Borba za pobedu sovetskoi vlasti v G r u z ii : dokumentv i materialy, 1917-1921 gg. T b il is i : G o s iz d a t G .S .S .R ., 1958. British Labour Delegation to Russia, 1920: Report. L o n d o n : L a b o u r P a r ty , 19 2 0 . B ro w d e r, R . P ., a n d K e re n s k y , A . F . (e d s .). The Russian Provisional Government 1917; Documents. 3 v o ls. S t a n f o r d : S t a n f o r d U n i ­ v e rs ity P re s s, 1961. B u n y a n , J., a n d F is h e r , H . H . (e d s .). The Bolshevik Revolution , 1917-1918. S ta n f o r d : S ta n f o r d U n iv e r s ity P re s s , 1934. B u n y a n , J. (e d .). I n t e r v e n t i o n , C ivil W ar and Communism in Rus­ sia, April-December, 1918: Documents and Materials. B a l t i ­ m o r e : J o h n s H o p k in s P re s s , 1936. C u m m i n g , C . K ., a n d P e t t i t , W . W . (e d s .). Russian-American Rela­ tions, March 1917-March 1920: Documents and Papers. N e w Y o rk : H a r c o u r t , B ra c e a n d H o w e , 1920. D e g ra s , J a n e (e d .). Soviet Documents on Foreign Policy. V o l. I. L o n d o n : O x f o r d U n iv e r s ity P re s s , 1951. " ‘D e m o k r a t ic h e s k o e ' p r a v i te l 's tv o G r u z i i i a n g liis k o e k o m a n d o v a n ie ," Krasnyi Arkhiv, V o l. X X I , p p . 1 2 2 -1 7 3 ; V o l . X X V , p p . 9 6 - 1 1 0 . M o s c o w : G o s iz d a t , 1927. " D e n e z h n y e d o k u m e n t y G e n e r a la A le k s e e v a ," Arkhiv Russkoi Revo­ liutsii , V o l. V . p p . 3 4 5 -3 5 7 . B e r li n : I z d a t e l ’s tv o " S lo v o ," 1 9 2 2 .

403

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Dokumenty o geroicheskoi oborone Tsaritsyna v 1918 godu. M o s c o w : I n s t i t u t M a r k s a - E n g e l’s a - L e n in a , G o s p o li ti z d a t, 1942. “ D o k u m e n t y p o is to rii c h e r n o m o r s k a g o flo ta v m a r te - iiu n e 1918 g .,” A tkhiv Russkoi Revoliutsii, V o l. X I V , p p . 1 5 1 -2 2 4 . B e r lin : I z d a t e l ’s tv o “ S lo v o ,” 1 924. D o n C o s s a c k A rm y , U p r a v le n i e G e n e r a l- k v a r ti r m e is t e r a D o n s k o i A r m ii. Ocherk politicheskoi istorii Vsevelikago Voiska D o n s kogo. N o v o c h e r k a s s k : O b i . V . V o is k a D o n s k o g o T i p ., 1919. (H o o v e r L ib ra ry ). F r a n c e , A s s e m b lé e N a tio n a l e . Annales de la chambre des députés, Débats p a r l e m e n t a ir e s , 1917-1921. F r a n c e , M i n i s t è r e d e la G u e r r e , E t a t - M a j o r d e T A r m é e . L e s Armées françaises dans la Grande Guerre. T o m e V I I I , V o l. I I I . P a ris : I m p r im e r i e N a tio n a l e , 1934. G e o r g ia ( R é p u b l i q u e d e G é o r g i e ) . Documents présentés par le gouv­

ernement de la République de Géorgie à la première Assemblée de la Société des nations. L o n d o n : W i l l i a m s , L e a a n d C o ., L td ., 19 2 0 . G e o r g ia , M i n is t e r s t v o V n e s h n i k h

D e l. Dokumenty i materialy po vneshnei politike Zakavkazia i Gruzii. T iflis : T i p . P r a v i te l’stv a

G r u z in s k o i R e s p u b li k i, 1919. G o ld e r , F . A . ( e d . ) . D o c u m e n t s o f R u s s ia n Y o rk : C e n t u r y , 1927.

History, 1914-1917. N e w

Les gouvernements alliés contre les Soviets: quatre documents. M o s ­ c o w : G o s iz d a t , 1 918. G r e a t B r it a in , F o r e i g n O ffic e . Documents on British Foreign Policy, 1919-1939. F i r s t S e rie s. E d i t e d b y E . L . W o o d w a r d , R . B u tle r , a n d J. P . T . B u ry . C h ie f ly V o ls . I I , I I I , V I I , V I I I , X I I . L o n d o n : H . M . S t a t io n e r y O ffic e , 1 949, 1 958, 1962. ( C i t e d as Documents

on British Policy). G r e a t B r it a in . Parliamentary Debates, 5 th S e rie s. m o n s , V o ls . C X - C X X X I X .

H ouse of C o m ­

G r e a t B r it a in . Parliamentary P a p e r s , 1 9 1 9 . V o l. L I I I ( A c c o u n ts and Papers, V o l. X X I I ) . C m d . P a p e r N o . 8, “ A C o l l e c t i o n o f R e ­ p o r t s o n B o ls h e v is m in R u s s ia .” L o n d o n : H . M . S ta t io n e r y O ffic e , 1 9 1 9 . G r e a t B r it a in . Parliamentary Papers, 1920. V o l. X X V I I I ( A c c o u n ts and Papers, V o l. I I ) . C m d . P a p e r N o . 7 7 2 , “ S t a t e m e n t o f E x ­ p e n d i t u r e s o n N a v a l a n d M i l i t a r y O p e r a t i o n s in R u s s ia fr o m t h e D a t e o f t h e A r m is tic e t o t h e 3 1 st M a r c h 1 9 2 0 .” L o n d o n : H . M . S ta t io n e r y O ffic e , 192 0 .

Parliamentary Papers, 1 923. V o l. X X V ( Accounts and Papers, V o l. X I I I ) . C m d . P a p e r N o . 1 8 4 6 ( R u s s ia N o . 1 ) ,

G r e a t B r it a in .

The Volunteer Army

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S ä m u r s k ii, N . “ G r a z h d a n s k a i a v o in a v D a g e s ta n e ," Novyi Vostok, V o l. I I I ( 1 9 2 3 ) , p p . 2 3 0 - 2 4 0 . S e f, S. “ P a r t ii n y e o r g a n iz a ts ii K ry m a v b o r 'b e s D e n ik in y m i V r a n g e le m ," Proletarskaia Revoliutsiia, N o . 10 ( 5 7 ) , ( 1 9 2 6 ) , p p . 1 1 4 -1 5 5 . S h u r g i n , A le x a n d e r . “ U k r a in e a n d its P o litic a l A s p i r a t i o n s / ' The Slavonie Review, V o l. X I I I ( J a n u a r y 1 9 3 5 ) , p p . 3 5 0 -3 6 2 . S k o r o p a d s k ii, P a u l. “ U riv o k z ‘S p o m y n i v '," Khliborobska Ukraina, V o ls . I V a n d V ( 1 9 2 3 - 1 9 2 5 ) . S tr a k h o v s k y , L . I. “ T h e F r a n c o - B r iti s h P l o t t o D i s m e m b e r R u s s ia ," C u r r e n t History , V o l. X X X I I I ( M a r c h 1 9 3 1 ) , p p . 8 3 9 - 8 4 2 . S tr u v e , P . B . “ M y C o n t a c t s a n d C o n f li c ts w i t h L e n i n ," Slavonic and East European Review, V o l. X I I ( A p r il 1 9 3 4 ) , p p . 5 7 3 -5 9 5 ; V o l. X I I I ( J u ly 1 9 3 4 ) , p p . 6 6 - 8 4 . T h o m p s o n , J o h n M . “ A llie d a n d A m e r i c a n I n t e r v e n t i o n in R u s s ia , 1 9 1 8 - 1 9 2 1 ," in Rewriting Russian History: Soviet Interpretations of Russia’s Past. E d i t e d b y C . E . B la c k . ( N e w Y o rk : F . A . P r a e g e r fo r t h e R e s e a r c h P r o g r a m o n t h e U S S R , 1 9 5 6 .) ----------- . “ L e n i n 's A n a ly s is o f I n t e r v e n t i o n ," American Slavic and East European Review, V o l. X V I I , N o . 2 ( A p r il 1 9 5 8 ) , p p . 1 5 1 -1 6 0 . T o d , J. K . “ T h e M a l le s o n M is s io n t o T r a n s c a s p ia in 1 9 1 8 ," Journal of the Central Asian Society, V o l. X X V I I , P a r t I ( 1 9 4 0 ) , p p . 4 5 -6 7 . T o n a p e t i a n , A . “ A n g liis k a ia in t e r v e n t s ii a v Z a k a v k a z 'i," Istoricheskii Zhurnal, N o . 2 ( M o s c o w , 1 9 4 0 ) , p p . 4 7 - 5 3 . T r u b e t s k o i , E . N . “ I z p u te v y k h z a m e to k b e z h e n t s a ," A r k h iv Russkoi Revoliutsii, V o l. X V I I I ( 1 9 2 6 ) , p p . 1 3 7 -2 0 7 . V o r o n o v ic h , N . “ M e z h d v u k h o g n e i," Arkhiv Russkoi Revoliutsii, V o l. V I I ( 1 9 2 2 ) , p p . 5 3 -1 8 3 . “ V r a n g e le v s h c h in a (iz m a t e r i a lo v P a r iz h s k o g o 'p o s o l 's tv a ' V r e m . p r a v i t e l 's t v a ) , " Krasnyi Arkhiv , V o l. X X X I X ( 1 9 3 0 ) , p p . 3 -4 6 ; V o l. X L ( 1 9 3 0 ) , p p . 3 -4 0 . W a n d y c z , P i o t r S. “ S e c r e t S o v ie t-P o lis h P e a c e T a lk s in 1 9 1 9 ," Slavic Review, V o l. X X I V , N o . 3 ( S e p t e m b e r 1 9 6 5 ) , p p . 4 2 5 - 4 4 9 . Z a le s s k ii, P . “ I u z h n a i a a r m ii a ," Donskaia Letopis', V o l. I l l , p p . 2 3 2 260.

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Istoricheskii Zhurnal ( M o s c o w ) Istorik Marksist ( M o s c o w ) Izvestiia ( P e t r o g r a d a n d M o s ­

A m e r ic a n

Y o rk )

Petit Parisien ( P a r is ) Revue de Geneve ( G e n e v a ) Slavonic and East E u r o p e a n R e ­

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cow )

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ANTI-BOLSHEVIK: A r khiv Russkoi Revoliutsii ( B e r l in ) Beloe Delo ( B e r l in ) Borba ( T if lis ) Donskaia Letopis’ ( B e lg r a d e ) France et Ukraine ( P a r is ) Golos Minuvshego ( P a r is ) Istorik i Sovremennik ( B e r l i n ) Khliborohska Ukraine ( V i e n n a )

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I N D E X

A A fg h a n is ta n , 1 7 3 , 18 2 A fric a n tro o p s in R u ss ia , 1 3 2 , 1 3 5 , 34 7 (n . 8 8 ) A g e ev , P . M ., 2 2 7 , 2 9 8 ( n . 5 1 ) , 375

(“ • 5 0 ) A lb y ( G e n e r a l ) , 112 A le k s a n d ro v s k , 169 A le k se e v , M . V . ( G e n e ra l), 7 , 8, 1 5 - 1 7 , 2 2 , 2 8 , 2 9 , 34 , 4 3 , 4 4 , 5 1 , 58, 59, 147, 2 9 8 (n . 4 5 ) A le x a n d e r ( P r i n c e ) , 2 1 2 , 2 1 3 A li K h a d z h i, 1 7 4 , 3 5 8 ( n . 7 3 ) A llie d P o w e rs (s e e a ls o F r a n c e , G r e a t B r ita in , Ita ly , J a p a n ) a id , 2 9 , 3 3 , 7 5 , 2 1 6 - 2 2 1 , 3 0 2 ( n n . 89 an d 9 0 ), 3 0 5 (n . 1 1 4 ), 3 5 1 (n n . 1 25 a n d 1 3 0 ) , 3 7 0 ( n . 2 ) , 371 (n.3)

A llie d C o u n c ils , 53, 54, 1 0 4 - 1 1 2 , 133, 158, 197, 20 6 , 222, 228, 233, 255, 3 3 6 ( n .125) A llie d C o u n c i l fo r R u s s ia n A ffairs ( p r o p o s e d ) , 111 c o n fe re n c e s , 2 6 , 2 8 , 1 0 6 - 1 1 2 , 1 3 9 , 228, 229, 234, 255, 257, 259, 260 a n d C z e c h L e g io n , 5 1 - 5 3 d iffe re n c e s, 1 0 3 , 1 0 7 - 1 1 2 , 1 4 2 - 1 4 5 , 24 9 , 2 5 4 -2 6 2 , 3 5 2 (n . 1 3 2 ), 386 (n . 5 9 ), 3 8 9 (n . 9 6 ) a n d G a lic ia n q u e s tio n , 1 9 6 - 1 9 8 p o lic ie s, 2 5 - 2 8 , 34 , 5 3 - 5 6 , 7 3 - 7 7 , 83, 1 3 9 -1 4 5 , 2 1 6 -2 2 1 , 2 7 7 -2 7 9 , 2 8 1 -2 8 5 r e la tio n s w ith B o lsh e v ik s , 30 , 3 2 - 3 5 , 2 2 8 , 2 2 9 , 2 3 3 , 3 7 7 ( n . 6 8 ) , 388 (n . 7 8 ) r e p re s e n ta tiv e s in R u ss ia , 7 , 2 7 , 2 9 ,

30, 3 2 - 3 5 , 59, 6 6 , 6 7 , 8 4 , 2 8 4 , 2 9 1 , 2 9 4 ( n . 1 4 ), 3 5 2 ( n . 1 3 2 ), 3 5 6 ( n .4 2 ) tra d e n e g o tia tio n s w ith V o lu n te e r s , 2 1 6 - 2 1 9 , 2 4 8 , 2 6 3 - 2 6 5 , 2 7 0 , 371 (n.9) a n d T ra n s c a u c a s ia , 2 2 8 - 2 3 5 , 3 7 7 ( n . 67) tro o p s , 5 3 , 55 , 6 0 , 6 1 , 7 5 , 7 7 , 8 6 , 8 8 , 9 1 , 132, 135, 175, 2 3 5 , 317 (n . 7 1 ) , 3 3 4 ( n . 9 5 ) , 3 3 9 ( n . 4 ) , 3 49 (n . 1 0 2 ), 3 7 7 (n . 6 7 ) a n d U k ra in e , 2 8 , 2 9 , 31, 7 8 , 8 5 - 9 0 , 1 1 3 -1 3 1 z o n e a g re e m e n t, 2 8 , 2 9 , 7 6 , 1 3 9 , 1 4 2 -1 4 5 , 3 0 1 (n . 8 7 ), 3 9 6 (n . 24) A m a n u lla h ( E m i r ) , 1 7 3 , 182 A m e t (R e a r A d m ira l), 137, 3 4 9 (n . 9 7 ) A n d rie v s k ii, O p a n a s , 1 1 4 A n d ro d e L a n g e ro n , D . F ., 1 2 7 - 1 2 9 A rd a h a n , 38 , 179 A rk h a n g e ls k , 5 3 , 55 , 56 , 7 5 A rm e d F o rc e s o f S o u th R u s s ia (s e e V o l­ u n te e r A rm y ) A rm e n ia , 14, 2 8 , 39 , 1 5 3 , 1 6 4 - 1 6 6 , 1 7 8 -1 8 1 , 22 9 , 23 5 , 3 5 5 (n . 2 9 ), 3 5 8 (n n . 76 an d 7 7 ) A s h k h a b a d , 6 4 - 6 6 , 9 1 , 1 7 1 - 1 7 4 , 322 (n - 1 1 4 ) A s tra k h a n , 4 0 , 5 6 , 1 6 8 , 1 8 6 A stro v , N . I., 59 A u r itt i, G ia c in to , 81 A v a lo v ( A v a lis h v ili), Z . D ., 3 9 , 1 0 0 , 229 A v e re sc u , A le x a n d r u ( P r e m i e r ) , 2 5 8 A v k s e n t'e v , N . P ., 59 A z e r b a id z h a n , 14, 38, 39, 7 0 , 9 2 - 9 8 , 1 5 4 , 16 0 , 1 6 3 - 1 6 7 , 1 7 6 , 1 9 3 , 2 2 8 234, 3 5 5 (n . 2 4 ), 3 6 1 (n . 130)

435

436

The Volunteer Army

B

B o n u s ( G e n e r a l ) , 8 8 , 331 ( n . 5 1 ) B o u lo g n e c o n fe re n c e s (J u n e , J u ly 1 9 2 0 ), 255, 257 B ra ik e v ic h , M . V ., 1 3 0 , 1 3 1 , 3 2 9 ( n . 2 4 ) B ra tia n u , Io n ( P r e m i e r ) , 2 1 0 , 2 1 2 B re d o v (G e n e ra l) (B re d o v C o r p s ) , 1 9 9 , 200, 265 B re s t-L ito v s k p e a c e , 2 6 , 2 8 , 3 1 , 3 3 , 3 4 , 56 B rid g e s ( G e n e r a l ) , 331 ( n . 4 9 ) , 3 8 2 ( n . 118) B rig g s ( L t . G e n e r a l ) , 1 4 3 , 1 4 4 , 1 5 6 , 158, 159, 161, 162, 168, 207, 3 5 6 (n . 4 2 ), 3 5 7 (n . 6 9 ) B ris to l, M a r k L . ( A d m i r a l ) , 1 7 8 B ritis h L a b o u r d e le g a tio n , 3 8 3 ( n . 7 ) B ro u s se a u ( G e n e r a l ) , 271 B u b n o v , A . D . ( V ic e A d m i r a l ) , 2 3 7 , 3 8 1 (n . 109) B u c h a n a n , S ir G e o rg e W . (A m b a s s a ­ d o r ) , 2 6 , 3 0 0 (n . 7 6 ), 3 0 6 ( n . 1 2 0 ), 3 9 6 (n . 24) B u d e n n y , S. M . ( G e n e r a l ) , 1 8 8 , 1 8 9 B u iu k D e re , 2 5 8 B u k h a r a , 14, 1 7 0 - 1 7 2 B u la k -B a la k h o v ic h , S. N . ( G e n e r a l ) , 269, 273, 3 9 1 ( n . 112) B u lg a ria , 7 7 , 1 3 4 , 2 1 0 , 2 1 2 , 2 7 3 B u llitt, W illia m C ., 112 B u n a k o v - F u n d a m in s k ii, I. I., 8 1 , 3 2 9 ( n . 24) B u te n k o , 131 B y c h , L . L ., 2 1 , 2 2 , 1 4 7 , 1 4 8 , 2 9 9 ( n . 6 0 ), 3 4 2 (n . 4 3 ), 3 5 4 (n . 9 ) “ B y k h o v ts y ,” 3, 16, 17, 3 0 0 ( n . 7 5 ) B z y b R iv e r, 1 5 5 , 1 5 7 , 1 6 0 - 1 6 3 , 1 6 6

B ag g e, S ir J o h n P ic to n , 2 9 , 3 0 3 ( n . 9 4 ) B ag h d a d , 30, 60 B aik o v , B ., 9 5 B ailey , F . M . ( L t. C o l o n e l ) , 6 0 , 6 6 , 6 7 , 170 B a k h m e te v , B . A ., 1 0 5 , 3 7 3 ( n . 2 9 ) , 3 8 9 (n - 96) B a k u , 3 9 , 4 0 , 5 6, 6 1 - 6 4 , 6 7 - 6 9 , 9 2 - 9 8 , 153, 1 6 7 -1 6 9 , 2 3 4 , 3 2 1 (n . 1 0 4 ), 3 3 4 (n . 8 5 ), 3 5 9 ( n .9 2 ) B a k u C o m m is s a rs case, 6 8 - 6 9 , 3 2 5 ( n . 128) B a lfo u r, A r th u r J. (F o re ig n S e c r e ta r y ) , 7 6 , 1 4 4 , 1 75, 1 8 0 , 181 B a lla rd , C . R . (B rig . G e n e r a l ) , 8 2 , 3 2 9 (n . 2 4 ) B a m m a to v , G a id e r , 148 B a ra to v , N . N . ( G e n e r a l ) , 6 1 , 1 6 6 , 2 3 0 B arclay , S ir G e o rg e H ., 8 1 , 8 4 B a tu m , 3 8 , 1 0 0 - 1 0 3 , 1 8 0 , 2 3 2 , 2 3 3 , 3 6 2 (n . 1 5 2 ), 3 7 8 (n . 84 ) B azili, N . A , 3 72 ( n . 1 7 ) B eech (G e n e ra l), 161, 162, 3 5 6 (n . 36 ) B elo ru ssia , 5 7 , 1 2 3 , 2 6 9 , 2 7 3 , 361 ( n . 130) B e r n a ts k ii, M ik h a il V ., 12 7 , 1 2 8 , 2 3 6 , 375 (n . 5 0 ) B erry , W illia m R . ( C a p t a i n ) , 1 7 7 , 178 B e r th e lo t, H e n r i M . ( G e n e r a l ) , 35 , 51, 75, 7 7 -7 9 , 82, 83, 86, 87, 89, 1 1 9 - 1 2 2 , 1 26, 1 3 1 , 3 4 1 ( n . 2 9 ) B essarab ia , 2 8 , 7 8 , 2 1 0 , 2 1 1 , 2 1 2 , 3 6 9 (n n . 73 a n d 7 8 ) , 3 7 0 (n . 8 6 ) B ic h e ra k o v ( B ic h e r a k h o v ) , G e o rg ii F ., 69 B ic h e ra k o v ( B ic h e r a k h o v ) , L a z a r F . (G e n e ra l), 61, 63, 69, 70, 9 1 , 93, 9 5 - 9 8 , 1 4 6, 1 4 8 , 15 4 , 1 6 7 , 1 6 8 , 171, 3 3 2 (n . 6 4 ) B la ck Sea fle e t, 38 B la ck e r, L . V . S. ( M a j o r ) , 6 6 - 6 7 B o b o sh k o ( G e n e ra l), 267 B o e r n e r , Ig n a c y ( C a p t a i n ) , 3 6 8 ( n . 6 8 ) B o g aev sk ii, A . P . ( G e n e r a l, D o n A ta ­ m a n ) , 3 5 2 (n . 1 3 3 ), 3 8 1 (n . 10 7 ) B o ld y re v , V . G . ( G e n e r a l ) , 59 B o lsh e v ik s (s e e a lso L e n in , T r o ts k ii, C h ic h e r in , A llie d re la tio n s w i t h ) , 5, 8 , 10, 2 9 , 3 1 - 3 5 , 4 9 , 6 3 , 7 4 , 7 5 , 88, 1 0 8 -1 1 0 , 261, 278, 279, 3 2 1 (n . 104)

C C a s p ia n flo tilla , 9 8 , 1 6 7 - 1 6 9 , 1 8 6 , 2 3 4 , 3 2 5 (n . 1 3 1 ), 3 5 5 (n . 2 2 ), 3 5 9 (n . 9 3 ), 3 6 0 (n . 9 9 ), 3 7 9 ( n .9 1 ) C a u c a s u s M o u n ta i n re g io n , 13, 1 4 , 2 8 . 4 0 , 4 8 , 50, 6 9 , 7 0 , 1 4 8 - 1 5 1 , 1 5 5 , 1 5 8 - 1 6 4 , 1 7 4 , 193 C e c e k , S. K . ( G e n e r a l ) , 54 “ C e n tr o - C a s p ia n D ic ta t o r s h i p ," 6 3 C h a ik in , V . A ., 6 9 , 2 2 6 C h a ik o v s k ii, N ik o la i V ., 2 6 , 5 5 , 5 9 , 105, 106, 3 7 5 (n . 5 0 ) C h a r d ig n y ( C o l o n e l ) , 1 5 1 , 1 5 6 , 3 2 0 ( n . 9 9 ), 3 3 2 (n . 6 3 ) C h ec h e n s, 150, 174, 3 5 5 (n . 2 1 )

INDEX C h e k h o v s k ii, 1 1 4 C h e lia b in s k , 52 C h e l ia p in , 6 1 , 63 C h e lib ie v , C h e l ib id z h a n , 12 C h e m b e r s , A . Ia ., 3 2 9 ( n . 2 4 ) C h e r ia c h u k in , A . V . ( G e n e r a l ) , 4 6 , 203, 204, 3 4 2 (n . 4 3 ) C h erm o e v , T ., 148 “ C h e m o m o r t s y ,” 21 C h ic h e r in , G . V . (F o re ig n C o m m is s a r) , 49, 232, 233, 256 C h k h e i d z e , N ik o la i S ., 2 2 9 C h k h e n k e li, A k ak i I., 39 C h o k a e v , M u s ta fa , 14 C h u r c h ill, M a r lb o ro u g h ( G e n e r a l ) , 177 C h u r c h ill, W i n s t o n S ., 1 11, 15 6 , 1 6 0 , 175, 199, 21 0 , 2 1 4 , 2 1 6 , 2 2 0 , 2 29, 242, 275, 283, 292, 3 5 2 (n . 1 3 1 ), 3 6 1 ( n . 131) C le m e n c e a u , G e o rg e s E . B . ( P r e m i e r ) , 7 5 , 7 7 , 7 9 , 8 6 , 8 8 , 8 9 , 1 0 6 , 108, 1 0 9 , 1 1 1 , 17 8 , 1 8 2 , 2 0 9 , 2 1 2 , 2 1 9 , 221, 229, 3 4 6 (n . 7 7 ), 3 4 7 (n . 8 7 ), 3 4 8 (n . 9 3 ) , 3 7 2 (n . 2 7 ) C o c h e n h a u s e n , v o n ( M a j o r ) , 4 8 , 58, 3 1 8 (n . 81 ) C o lb y , B a in b rid g e (S e c re ta ry o f S t a t e ) , 2 6 0 -2 6 1 , 3 8 7 (n . 6 2 ) C o n s t i t u e n t A ss e m b ly , 4 , 13, 15, 19, 53, 90, 96 , 9 7 , 279, 2 87, 3 1 6 (n . 6 4 ), 3 7 4 (n . 4 2 ) C o o k e - C o llis , W . J. N . ( L t. G e n e r a l ) ,

101 C o r b e il ( L t . C o l o n e l ) , 1 2 9 , 143 C o r d o n s a n ita ir e , 1 07, 3 7 2 ( n . 2 7 ) C o ry , J. ( M a jo r G e n e r a l ) , 161 C o ss a c k s (se e a lso D o n , K u b a n , O r e n ­ b u r g , T e r e k ) , 12, 6 1 , 10 6 , 18 7 , 2 4 6 , 2 8 9 , 2 9 7 ( n . 4 0 ), 3 3 6 (n . 114) C o tto n (G e n e ra l), 2 2 6 -2 2 7 C o u n c i l f o r S ta te U n ity , 8 1 , 1 1 6 , 118, 1 1 9 , 1 2 2 , 1 2 8 , 130 C r im e a , 11, 12, 38 , 8 4 , 1 2 7 , 1 3 4 - 1 3 8 , 145, 234, 23 5 , 237, 2 4 1 -2 5 4 , 262, 266, 270, 271, 2 9 5 (n . 3 0 ), 3 4 4 (n . 56) C u r z o n , L o r d G e o rg e N a th a n i e l ( F o r ­ e ig n S e c r e ta r y ) , 1 4 4 , 1 4 5 , 1 75, 181, 228, 2 2 9 , 252, 242, 252, 256, 3 6 9 (n . 7 8 ) , 3 7 9 (n . 8 4 ), 3 8 3 (n n . 4 and 8 ), 3 9 4 (n . 151) C u r z o n lin e , 2 0 6 , 2 5 5 , 2 6 2 , 2 7 3 , 3 6 9 ( n . 73)

437 C z e c h L e g io n , 5 0 - 5 4 , 56, 59, 6 0 , 7 5 , 1 9 2 , 3 1 4 ( n . 5 4 ) , 3 1 5 ( n n . 57 a n d 60)

D a g e s ta n , 14, 6 9 , 7 0 , 150, 15 1 , 1 5 4 . 1 5 8 -1 6 3 D 'A n s e lm e , P h illip p e ( G e n e r a l ) , 8 0 , 8 9 , 9 0 , 11 3 , 1 2 0 - 1 2 4 , 1 2 7 - 1 3 0 , 1 33, 134 D a s h n a k P a rty ( D a s h n a k t s u t i u n ) , 14, 63 D e B o n ( V ic e A d m ira l), 2 5 8 , 2 7 0 , 2 7 1 , 3 9 4 (n . 145) D e C a n d o lle ( G e n e r a l ) , 27 D e c re e o n P e a c e , 9 D e m c h e n k o , V . Ia ., 3 2 9 ( n . 2 4 ) D e n (C o lo n e l), 231, 234 D e n ik in , A . I. ( G e n e r a l ) , 3, 7, 16, 2 2 24 , 37, 7 5 , 8 2 , 83 , 8 6 - 8 8 , 9 1 , 9 8 , 1 0 1 - 1 0 6 , 109 e v a lu a tio n o f le a d e rs h ip , 2 8 5 - 2 9 2 m ilita r y s tra te g y , 1 8 5 - 1 9 4 p o lic ie s a n d view s, 2 4 , 1 41, 1 4 2 , 1 46, 149, 1 66, 1 74, 17 6 , 190, 2 0 1 , 2 0 4 , 2 0 5 , 2 1 1 ,2 1 7 , 2 2 2 , 2 2 3 , 3 1 4 (n . 4 7 ) re la tio n s w ith B ritis h , 1 4 3 - 1 4 5 , 1 5 1 1 6 9 , 1 7 4 - 1 7 6 , 2 1 8 - 2 2 1 , 3 8 3 (n . 4) re la tio n s w ith C a u c a s u s M o u n ta i n p e o p le s, 1 4 6 , 1 4 8 - 1 5 1 , 1 5 7 - 1 6 0 , 1 6 2 -1 6 4 re la tio n s w ith F r e n c h , 113, 1 1 7 - 1 4 5 , 2 1 8 -2 1 9 re la tio n s w ith K o lc h a k , 1 9 0 - 1 9 3 , 2 2 4 , 3 6 4 (n . 14) re la tio n s w ith P o la n d , 2 0 1 - 2 1 0 re la tio n s w ith R u m a n ia , 2 1 1 , 2 1 2 re la tio n s w ith T ra n s c a s p ia , 1 7 1 - 1 7 4 re la tio n s w ith T r a n s c a u c a s ia , 1 4 6 148, 1 5 1 -1 5 7 , 1 6 0 -1 6 9 , 225, 2 2 7 234 re la tio n s w ith U k ra in e , 4 9 , 50, 8 0 , 8 6 - 8 8 , 1 1 8 , 12 5 , 1 26, 1 9 4 - 1 9 6 , 1 9 9 -2 0 1 , 204, 3 3 1 (n . 4 4 ) re la tio n s w ith U n ite d S ta te s , 221 re s ig n a tio n , 2 3 6 - 2 4 0 D e n is o v ( G e n e r a l ) , 3 5 2 ( n . 1 3 3 ) D e r b e n t, 7 0 , 160 D e R o b e c k , S ir J o h n (V ic e A d m ir a l) , 242, 252, 253, 3 7 9 (n . 8 4 ), 3 8 4 (n . 12, 3 8 6 ( n . 5 6 ) D ia m a n d i, C . J., 33

The Volunteer Army

438 D is ra e li, 2 2 0 D itm a r , N . F . v o n , 3 2 9 ( n . 2 4 ) D n e p r R iv e r, 1 1 4, 201 D n e s tr R iv e r, 1 14, 211 D o k h o v , V la d im ir, 6 5 , 3 2 3 ( n . 1 1 4 ) D o lg o p o lo v , N . S ., 3 7 5 ( n . 5 0 ) D o lin s k ii ( C o l o n e l ) , 2 0 3 D o m a g a its k ii ( C o m m is s a r ) , 6 6 D o n C o ssa ck s, 12, 13, 16, 2 0 , 2 1 , 28, 3 7 , 4 5 - 5 0 , 57, 58, 1 8 7 , 1 8 9 , 2 4 6 , 2 9 8 (n . 5 6 ), 3 1 2 (n . 3 6 ), 3 1 8 (n . 81) D o n e ts b a s in , 4 9 , 1 4 5 , 1 8 5 , 1 8 9 , 2 6 4 D o r o s h e n k o , D m itr o ( F o re ig n M i n ­ is t e r ) , 7 8 , 3 0 9 ( n . 1 2 ) D o r r e r , A lek sei, 6 5 , 3 2 3 ( n . 1 1 4 ) D ra g o m iro v , A . M . (G e n e ra l), 2 3 6 , 2 4 0 D r a ts e n k o , D . P . (G e n e ra l), 160, 2 3 4 D ro z d o v s k ii, M . G . ( C o l o n e l ) , 45 D r u s h k in , S. L ., 3 2 2 ( n . 1 1 4 ) D u C h a ila ( C o u n t ) , 2 4 6 D u k h o n in , N . N . ( G e n e r a l ) , 8, 2 5 , 2 6 , 3 0 0 (n . 7 5 ) D u m e s n il ( R e a r A d m ira i), 2 7 1 , 3 9 4 (n . 153) “ D u n s te r f o r c e ,” 6 0 , 6 1 , 6 7 , 6 8 , 3 2 0 ( n . 98) D u n s te r v ille , L . C . (M a jo r G e n e r a l ) , 30, 6 0 - 6 4 , 6 7 , 6 8 D u to v , A . I. ( A t a m a n ) , 6 4 , 172 D z h u n k o v s k ii, E . P ., 3 2 5 ( n . 1 2 9 )

E “ E a s t P e rs ia n C o r d o n ," 6 4 E f r e m o v ( A m b a s s a d o r ) , 105 E i c h h o r n , H e r m a n n v o n ( F ie l d M a r ­ s h a l ) , 37, 4 7 E k a te r in o d a r , 2 2 , 2 3 , 8 0 , 8 4 , 1 1 7 , 1 19, 120, 190 E n z e li, 6 1 - 6 4 , 6 6 , 6 8 , 7 0 , 9 1 , 2 3 4 , 3 7 9 (n . 9 1 ) E r d e li, I. G . ( G e n e r a l ) , 2 2 , 1 5 3 , 1 54, 167, 1 6 8 ,2 3 4 , 3 2 6 (n . 9 ) E th e rto n , P . T . (L t. C o lo n e l), 60, 66, 32 3 ( n . 1 2 0 )

F F a th a li K h a n -K h o is k ii ( P r im e M in is ­ te r ) , 98 , 233 F e d e ra lis m , 1 2 3, 1 2 5 , 1 7 6 , 2 4 7 , 2 6 8 , 2 8 9 -2 9 1 , 3 4 1 (n . 2 9 ), 3 6 1 (n .

1 3 1 ), 3 6 2 (n . 1 5 4 ), 3 6 6 (n . 3 2 ), 3 6 7 (n . 4 6 ) F e d o ro v , M . M ., 8 1 , 3 2 9 ( n . 2 4 ) F ilim o n o v , A . P . ( K u b a n A t a m a n ) , 2 1 ,

22 F ilip p o v s k ii-S a m a rin , V . N ., 2 2 5 F in l a n d , 55, 190 F itz w illia m s ( M a j o r ) , 29 F o c h , F e r d in a n d ( M a r s h a l ) , 1 0 7 , 1 1 1 , 112, 133, 197, 2 1 3 , 222, 2 2 9 , 261, 2 6 3 , 2 6 8 , 3 8 5 (n . 4 4 ), 3 9 3 (n . 1 3 6 ) F o r r e s tie r - W a lk e r ( G e n e r a l ) , 1 0 1 , 1 5 3 , 154, 156, 157 F o u q u e t ( C a p ta in ) , 142, 143, 3 5 2 (n . 133) F r a n c e (s e e a ls o A llie d P o w e rs , C l e m ­ e n c e a u , F o c h , P ic h o n ) a id to V o lu n te e r A rm y , 2 7 , 1 4 2 , 2 1 6 219, 250, 258, 261, 2 6 3 -2 6 5 , 271, 3 0 2 (n . 9 0 ), 3 5 1 (n n . 125 a n d 1 3 0 ), 371 ( n . 3 ) , 3 9 0 ( n . 1 0 8 ) F o re ig n M in is try , 1 0 7 , 1 0 9 , 1 1 0 , 1 4 5 , 3 6 6 (n . 32) in te r v e n tio n in U k ra in e a n d C r im e a , 7 7 -8 0 , 8 4 -9 0 , 1 1 3 -1 4 5 , 3 3 9 (n n . 3 an d 4 ) , 3 4 1 (n . 2 9 ) , 3 4 3 (n . 5 3 ), 3 4 7 (n . 8 9 ), 3 4 9 (n . 102) p o lic ie s, 2 7 , 7 3 - 7 5 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 4 , 1 2 1 , 1 2 3 -1 2 6 , 128, 1 3 9 -1 4 5 , 197, 198, 201, 3 5 2 (n . 1 3 3 ), 3 6 5 (n . 3 0 ), 3 6 6 (n . 32) re la tio n s w ith B o lsh e v ik s (S o v ie t g o v ­ e r n m e n t ) , 30, 3 2 - 3 6 , 7 4 , 7 5 , 3 8 8 (n . 7 8 ) s u p p o r t o f P o la n d , 2 0 9 , 2 4 9 , 2 5 0 , 2 5 4 -2 6 2 su p p o rt c f W ra n g e l, 250, 2 5 3 -2 5 8 , 260, 261, 270, 271, 3 8 6 (n . 59) F r a n c h e t d ’E s p e re y , L . F . M . F . ( G e n ­ e ra l), 75, 77, 79, 82, 86, 89, 90 , 128, 1 3 0 -1 3 5 , 138, 143, 212, 219, 284, 3 3 1 (n . 4 9 ), 3 4 6 (n . 7 7 ), 3 4 8 (n . 9 3 ) F ra n c is , D a v id R . (A m b a s s a d o r), 2 9 9 ( n . 7 1 ), 3 0 3 (n . 9 3 ) , 3 0 4 (n . 1 0 6 ), 306 (n . 1 2 0 ) F r e id e n b e r g ( C o l o n e l ) , 8 9 , 9 0 , 1 1 3 127, 3 4 2 (n . 4 6 ) , 3 4 3 (n . 53) F u n tik o v , F e d o r, 6 5 , 6 8 , 6 9 , 172 G G a b b a , M e lc h io r e 150)

(C o lo n e l),

3 6 2 (n .

439

INDEX G a g ri, 1 5 6 , 161 G a id a r o v , I b r a q b e k , 148 G a jd a , R u d o lp h ( G e n e r a l ) , 1 9 2 , 1 93, 3 6 4 (n . 14) G a lic ia , 1 2 5 , 1 9 5 - 2 0 0 , 2 0 2 , 2 4 9 , 2 5 5 , 2 7 3 , 3 4 8 ( n . 9 7 ) , 3 6 5 ( n n . 21 a n d 2 2 ), 3 6 7 (n . 58) G e g e c h k o r i, E v g e n ii P . ( F o r e ig n M i n ­ i s t e r ) , 1 4 , 38, 9 9 , 1 4 7 , 1 5 6 , 1 57, 162, 231 G e o rg ia ( G r u z i i a ) , 14, 2 9 , 3 8 - 4 0 , 4 9 , 5 6 , 57, 1 6 3, 1 6 6 , 2 2 8 , 2 3 5 , 3 5 3 ( n . 4 ) , 3 5 6 (n . 4 5 ) r e la tio n s w ith A llie d P o w e rs , 2 9 , 9 9 , 100, 1 5 3 -1 6 4 , 1 7 5 -1 8 2 , 2 2 8 -2 3 5 , 3 3 7 (n . 1 3 6 ), 3 6 1 (n . 1 3 0 ), 3 6 2 (n . 154) r e la tio n s w ith G e rm a n s , 3 8 - 4 0 , 4 9 , 5 6 , 57 re la tio n s w ith V o lu n te e r A rm y , 105, 1 4 6 -1 4 8 , 1 5 3 -1 5 7 , 1 6 0 -1 6 4 , 166, 176, 193, 22 5 , 22 7 , 2 2 8 , 230, 231, 234, 248, 3 5 3 (n n . 4 and 6 ), 3 5 4 (n . 9 ) , 3 7 9 (n . 9 3 ) G e ra s im o v ( R e a r A d m ira l) , 3 8 1 (n . 109) G e r b e l, S. N ., 7 8 G e rm a n y a n d A llie d in te r v e n tio n , 7, 2 5 - 3 1 , 3 4 - 3 6 , 5 1 , 53 , 55, 56, 6 0 , 6 4 , 6 5 , 67, 7 3 -7 5 , 82, 85, 9 1 -9 5 , 3 1 5 (n . 5 7 ), 3 1 6 (n . 6 7 ), 3 2 0 (n . 1 0 0 ), 3 3 0 (n . 4 3 ) a n d V o lu n te e r A rm y , 15, 19, 2 4 , 4 3 50, 5 7 , 5 8, 8 7 , 1 4 3 , 1 4 6 , 331 ( n . 44) in F in l a n d , 55 in T r a n s c a u c a s ia , 3 8 - 4 0 , 3 0 8 ( n . 7 ) o c c u p a tio n o f U k ra in e a n d C rim e a , 3 1 , 3 2 , 3 7 , 38 , 8 4 , 8 5 , 8 7 , 3 0 5 ( n . 1 0 8 ), 3 3 0 (n . 4 3 ) re la tio n s w ith B o lsh e v ik s, 2 5 , 2 6 , 32, 34, 35, 2 9 9 (n . 7 1 ) , 3 0 1 (n . 7 9 ) , 3 0 4 (n . 1 0 0 ), 3 0 7 (n . 1 2 7 ), 3 0 9 (n . 1 6 ), 3 1 6 (n . 6 7 ) r e la tio n s w ith D o n C o ss a c k s (K ra s ­ n o v ) , 4 5 - 5 0 , 57, 58 r e la tio n s w ith R ig h tis ts , 4 2 , 4 3 , 4 9 , 3 1 1 (n . 2 7 ) R u s s ia n m a te ria l a n d s o ld ie rs in , 1 2 8 , 221, 222, 3 4 4 (n . 6 1 ) G e r m a n o p h ile te n d e n c ie s , 4 0 - 4 9 , 1 4 3 , 3 8 2 ( n .112) G e r u a , A . ( G e n e r a l ) , 1 2 1 , 199

G irs , N . N . (A m b a s s a d o r ) , 1 0 4 , 261 G o ld s m ith ( M a j o r ) , 3 5 4 ( n . 1 2 ) G o lo v in , N . N . ( G e n e r a l ) , 9 6 , 9 7 , 3 2 5 (n . 1 2 9 ), 3 3 5 (n . 110) G o ltz (s e e V o n d e r G o ltz ) G o rlo v , V . M ., 391 ( n . I l l ) G o ts in s k ii, N a z h m u d i n ( I m a m ) , 14, 6 9 ,1 5 0 G ra b s k i, W . T . ( P r e m i e r ) , 2 5 5 G r e a t B rita in (se e a ls o A llie d P o w e rs, C u r z o n , L lo y d G e o rg e ) a id to V o lu n te e r A rm y , 7 5 , 1 7 5 , 1 8 1 , 2 1 8 -2 2 1 , 235, 239, 3 0 2 (n . 8 9 ), 3 0 4 (n . 9 5 ) , 3 2 1 (n . 1 0 2 ), 3 7 0 (n . 2 ), 3 8 8 (n . 78 ) F o re ig n O ffice, 1 00, 1 4 4 , 1 6 3 , 1 7 5 , 3 5 7 (n . 53) in te r v e n tio n in T ra n s c a s p ia , 6 0 , 6 4 66, 1 6 9 -1 7 3 ) in te r v e n tio n in T ra n s c a u c a s ia , 6 0 , 6 3 , 64, 6 7 -7 0 , 9 0 -1 0 3 , 1 5 1 -1 6 9 , 1 7 6 182, 3 3 4 (n . 9 5 ) , 3 5 7 (n . 5 3 ), 3 7 7 (n . 6 6 ) p o lic ie s, 2 7 , 53, 7 5 - 7 7 , 9 1 - 9 4 , 1 0 0 , 1 5 3 , 162, 1 63, 1 7 4 - 1 7 7 , 1 8 1 , 2 4 2 , 249, 252, 253, 2 5 5 -2 5 7 , 3 5 7 (n n . 53 a n d 6 9 ) , 3 5 9 ( n . 8 6 ) , 3 6 4 ( n . 1 4 ), 3 7 8 (n . 7 3 ), 3 8 3 (n . 4 ) , 3 9 0 (n .99) re la tio n s w ith A rm e n ia , 1 6 4 - 1 6 6 , 3 5 5 (n . 2 9 ), 3 5 8 (n n . 76 an d 7 7 ) re la tio n s w ith A z e rb a id z h a n , 9 2 - 9 8 re la tio n s w ith B o lsh e v ik s, 30, 34, 35, 55 , 7 4 , 7 5 , 2 4 2 , 2 4 9 , 2 5 2 , 2 5 6 , 259, 260, 272, 3 0 4 (n . 9 6 ) , 3 0 6 (n . 1 2 4 ), 3 7 7 (n . 6 8 ), 3 8 3 (n n . 4 and 8 ), 3 9 0 (n .99) re la tio n s w ith G e o rg ia , 9 9 -1 0 3 , 3 5 6 (n . 4 5 ), 3 5 7 (n . 53) W a r O ffice, 10 7 , 143, 1 5 6 , 1 5 8 , 1 6 3 , 172, 3 5 7 (n . 53) w ith d ra w a l, 1 7 6 - 1 8 2 , 3 6 0 ( n . 1 1 7 ) , 3 6 1 (n . 1 3 8 ) G re e k tro o p s in R u ss ia , 8 6 , 13 2 , 3 4 7 ( n .

88 ) “ G r e e n ” m o v e m e n t, 2 2 4 -2 2 7 , 3 5 7 ( n . 6 4 ), 3 8 4 (n . 23 ) G re k o v , M ik h a il ( M ic h a e l) ( G e n e r a l ) , 114, 3 6 5 (n . 2 2 ) G re n a rd (C o n su l G e n e ra l), 42 G rig o re v ( G r i g o r ie v ) , G . ( A t a m a n ) , 127, 3 6 5 (n . 18) G ris h in -A lm a z o v , A lek sei N . ( M a jo r

The Volunteer Army

440 G e n e r a l ) , 8 8 , 1 1 7 , 1 1 9 , 1 20, 124, 129, 131, 3 5 1 ( n . 1 3 0 ) G r o e n e r , W i lh e lm ( G e n e r a l ) , 4 7 G u c h k o v , A . I., 1 2 8 , 2 9 3 ( n . 7 ) , 3 4 4 ( n . 61) G u lk e v ic h ( A m b a s s a d o r ) , 105 G u r k o , V . I., 8 1 , 3 2 8 ( n . 2 3 ) , 3 2 9 ( n . 24) H H aase ( G e n e ra l), 4 4 , 45 H a b ib u lla h ( E m i r ) , 173 H a d ji M u r a t, 3 2 3 ( n . 1 1 4 ) H a m a d a n , 61 H a r b o r d , J. G . ( G e n e r a l ) , 1 7 8 , 1 8 0 H a sk e ll, W . N . ( C o l o n e l ) , 1 7 8 , 1 8 0 H e n n o , E m ile , 8 0 , 8 3 - 9 1 , 1 1 3 , 1 2 6 , 3 2 8 (n . 20 ) H e r r o n , G e o rg e D ., 109 H ic k s, W i l l L . ( C a p t a i n ) , 56 H in tz e , P a u l v o n (F o re ig n M i n i s t e r ) , 49 H o lm a n , H . C . (M a jo r G e n e r a l ) , 1 62, 238, 3 5 6 (n . 4 2 ), 3 7 5 (n . 4 6 ), 3 7 6 (n . 59) H o o v e r, H e r b e r t C ., 11 2 , 18 0 , 3 4 8 ( n . 91) H o p e , G . ( R e a r A d m ir a l) , 2 5 2 H u c h e r ( C o l o n e l ) , 27 H y th e c o n fe re n c e , 2 5 9 , 2 6 0

I I n d ia n A rm y , 6 0 , 6 4 , 171 Io ffe, A . A ., 4 9 Ita ly , 1 7 7 - 1 8 0 , 2 2 9 , 2 3 0 , 2 4 9 , 3 6 2 ( n . 150) I u d e n ic h , N . N . ( G e n e r a l ) , 191 Iv a n is, V ., 2 2 7 Iv a n o v , N . I. ( G e n e r a l ) , 57 Iw a n ic k i, 2 0 5 Iz v o lsk ii, A le k s a n d r P . (F o re ig n M i n ­ i s t e r ) , 105

j J a d w in , E d g a r, 2 0 0 J a n in , M a u r ic e ( G e n e r a l ) , 59, 6 0 , 1 9 2 , 3 5 2 ( n .132) Jap a n , 36, 3 0 7 (n . 1 2 7 ), 3 1 0 (n . 1 7 ), 3 7 8 (n . 7 2 ) Jassy, 7 7 , 7 8 Jassy C o n f e r e n c e , 8 0 - 8 3 , 8 6 , 1 0 6 , 1 1 6 ,

117, 3 2 8 (n . 2 3 ) , 3 2 9 (n . 2 4 ) Jew s, 9 7 , 3 4 2 ( n . 4 1 ) , 3 9 6 ( n . 2 0 ) Jo ffre, J o s e p h J. C . ( M a r s h a l ) , 2 5 8

K K a d e t ( C o n s t i t u t i o n a l D e m o c r a t ic ) P a rty , 3, 2 0 , 38, 4 1 , 4 2 , 1 1 6 , 1 1 8 , 130, 3 1 0 (n . 2 0 ) , 3 1 1 (n . 30 ) K a ise r ( W i l h e l m ) , 4 7 K a le d in , A . M . (G e n e ra l, D o n A ta m a n ) , 12, 15, 16, 17, 2 0 , 2 1 , 2 7 , 2 9 6 ( n .

33) “ K a lp a s h n ik o v a ffa ir,” 3 0 2 ( n . 8 8 ) K am enev, L eo, 259, 262 K a p la n o v , 150 K a rn ic k i ( G e n e r a l ) , 2 0 5 - 2 0 8 K a rs, 38 , 1 0 2 , 1 6 5 , 179 K a rts e v a d z e , 9 9 K a sh g a r, 6 6 , 6 7 K e l’c h e v s k ii ( L t . G e n e r a l ) , 2 4 6 , 3 7 5 ( n . 50) K e m a l, M u s ta fa , 1 8 2 , 2 5 5 , 5 8 8 ( n . 7 8 ) K e rc h , 157 K e re n sk ii, A le k s a n d r F . ( P r im e M in is ­ t e r ) , 5, 5 - 7 , 11, 12, 5 1 , 2 2 0 , 5 5 6 (n .Ill) K ey es (B rig . G e n e r a l) , 2 2 5 - 2 2 7 , 5 7 6 ( n . 59) K h a lilo v ( G e n e r a l ) , 1 5 0 , 1 5 1 , 1 6 0 K h a n -K h o is k ii, F a th a li ( P r im e M in is ­ te r), 98 , 233 K h a rk o v , 8 2 , 1 8 6 , 1 8 7 , 1 9 0 K h a rla m o v , V . A ., 13 K h e rs o n , 1 1 4 , 1 2 7 , 133 K h o m ia k o v , N . A ., 3 2 9 ( n . 2 4 ) K iev , 4 2 , 4 4 , 4 6 , 57 , 8 0 , 8 1 , 8 2 , 8 5 , 8 7 , 114, 116, 186, 196, 199, 200, 254 K ire i ( G e n e r a l ) , 2 6 7 K n o x , S ir A lfre d W . F . ( M a jo r G e n ­ e r a l ) , 5, 59, 1 9 2 , 2 9 ( n . 1 4 ) , 3 5 2 ( n .132) K o lc h a k , A . V . ( V ic e A d m i r a l ) , 5 9 , 60, 88, 105, 106, 109, 159, 172, 1 8 9 -1 9 3 , 198, 213, 220, 221, 224, 3 6 4 (n . 1 4 ), 3 6 6 (n . 4 2 ) K o le so v , F . E ., 6 4 K o n a v a lo v , A ., 105 K o n ie v ( G e n e r a l ) , 1 5 3 , 155 K o rn ilo v , L a v r G . ( G e n e r a l ) , 3, 5, 6 , 7, 16 , 17, 2 2 , 2 3 , 2 7 , 3 4 , 2 9 3 ( n . 7 ) , 2 9 4 (n . 1 2 ), 2 9 8 ( n .4 5 ) K o ts e v , P s h e m a k h o , 1 4 8 , 1 5 0 K ra sin , L . B ., 2 5 8 , 2 7 2

441

INDEX K ra sn o v , P . N . (G e n e ra l, D o n A ta m a n ), 8 , 4 5 - 5 0 , 57 , 58 , 8 3 , 1 4 3 , 3 1 2 ( n n . 35 a n d 3 6 ) , 3 1 3 ( n . 4 2 ) , 3 1 9 ( n n . 81 a n d 8 2 ) , 3 5 2 ( n . 1 3 3 ) K ra s n o v , V . M ., 3 7 5 ( n . 5 0 ) K rasn o v o d sk , 6 5, 6 6 , 6 8, 70, 9 1 , 169, 1 7 3 , 1 7 4 , 3 2 3 (n . 1 1 4 ), 3 2 4 (n . 1 2 6 ) K ress v o n K re s s e n s te in ( G e n e r a l ) , 39 K riv o s h e in , A . V ., 4 1 , 8 1 , 8 2 , 1 1 6 , 2 3 7 , 2 4 5 -2 5 0 , 252, 265, 3 2 9 (n . 2 4 ), 3 9 2 (n . 118) K ro v o p u s k o v , K . R ., 3 2 9 ( n . 2 4 ) K r u te n ( G e n e r a l ) , 17 3 , 3 2 2 ( n . 1 1 4 ) K ry le n k o , N . V ., 2 6 K ry m , S o lo m o n S., 12, 8 4 K u b a n C o ss a c k s , 2 1 - 2 3 , 37, 1 4 8 , 187, 225, 227, 243, 254, 262, 3 5 4 (n . 9 ) , 3 5 5 (n . 1 8 ), 3 5 6 (n . 4 7 ), 376 ( n . 6 1 ) , 391 ( n . 1 1 2 ) K u c h ik K h a n , 6 1 , 63 K u n , B êla, 3 4 8 ( n n . 9 3 a n d 9 7 ) , 3 6 5 ( n .

21 )

K un (K u h n ) (C o m m a n d a n t), 66, 68, 3 2 3 (n . 114) K u rs k , 1 8 7 K u ry le v , D ., 3 2 2 ( n . 1 1 4 ) K u te p o v , A . P . ( G e n e r a l ) , 2 7 1 , 2 7 3 , 3 8 1 (n . 10 6 )

L L a n s in g , R o b e r t (S e c re ta ry o f S t a t e ) , 27, 177, 22 1 , 3 7 3 (n . 2 8 ) L a v e rg n e ( G e n e r a l ) , 3 4 , 35, 52, 53, 58, 3 1 4 (n . 4 9 ) L a z a re v , G . P . ( G e n e r a l ) , 1 6 0 , 17 4 L e a g u e o f N a tio n s , 2 3 5 , 3 5 4 ( n . 9 ) L e b e d e v , V . A ., 1 2 7 L e ft C e n te r, 41 , 116 L e n in ( U l i a n o v ) , V . L , 8, 9 , 10, 3 1 - 3 3 , 275, 2 9 9 (n . 7 1 ), 3 0 5 (n . 109) L e o n to v ic h , F . S ., 3 7 5 ( n . 5 0 ) L esli ( C o l o n e l ) , 1 6 5 , 1 6 6 L eygues (P re m ie r), 272 L ia k h o v ( G e n e r a l ) , 1 4 9 , 1 5 0 , 1 5 1 , 155, 1 5 8 , 1 5 9 , 160 L in d le y , S ir F r a n c is O ., 3 0 6 ( n . 1 2 0 ) L itv in o v , M a x im M ., 30, 1 08, 2 2 0 , 3 7 2 (n . 2 1 ), 3 8 8 (n . 7 8 ) L izg a r, 9 7 L lo y d G e o rg e , D a v id ( P r im e M i n i s t e r ) , 30, 7 5 , 7 6 , 10 4 , 1 0 7 - 1 1 1 , 1 74, 1 7 7 , 1 7 8 , 1 80, 1 9 7 , 2 2 0 , 2 2 8 , 2 2 9 ,

232, 249, 255, 256, 259, 260, 262, 279, 3 8 9 (n . 8 8 ), 3 9 0 (n . 9 9 ) L o c k e r-L a m p s o n A rm o u r e d C a r u n it, 7, 61, 3 2 1 ( n . 102) L o c k h a rt, R . H . B ru c e , 30, 34, 35, 4 2 , 55 , 56, 3 0 4 ( n . 9 7 ) , 3 0 6 ( n . 1 1 9 ) , 3 1 4 (n . 4 9 ) L o o R iv e r, 153 L o ris -M e lic o f, J., 182 L o sso w , v o n ( G e n e r a l ) , 39 L u d e n d o rf f, E r ic h v o n ( F ie l d M a r s h a l), 3 0 8 (n . 7 ) L u k a s e v ic h , E . K ., 7 8 L u k o m s k ii, A . S. ( G e n e r a l ) , 3, 16, 119, 252 L V o v , G . E ., 104, 1 0 6 L V o v , V . N ., 6

M M a c a rtn e y , S ir G e o rg e , 6 6 , 67 M a c k in d e r, S ir H a lfo rd J., 1 8 2 , 2 0 1 . 209, 213, 222, 230, 3 7 8 (n . 7 3 ) M a g e ra m o v , 2 2 9 M a h e n d r a P r a ta p , 170 M a i-M a e v sk ii ( G e n e r a l ) , 18 6 , 1 8 7 , 189 M a k h a d y r R iv e r, 1 6 1 , 162 M akhno, N e s to r , 1 94, 195, 268, 3 6 5 ( n n . 18 a n d 2 0 ) M a k h ro v , P . S. ( G e n e r a l ) , 2 4 1 , 2 6 5 270, 3 8 0 (n . 1 0 2 ), 3 9 3 (n . 140) M a k la k o v , V . A . (A m b a s s a d o r ) , 4 2 , 1 0 4 - 1 0 6 , 110, 2 0 1 , 2 1 1 , 2 1 7 - 2 2 2 , 243, 248, 249, 264, 3 0 7 (n . 1 2 7 ), 3 7 0 (n . 8 6 ) M a liu tin , B . E ., 3 2 9 ( n . 2 4 ) M a lle s o n , S ir W ilf r id (M a jo r G e n e r a l ) , 60 , 6 4 -6 6 , 68, 69, 1 7 0 -1 7 3 , 3 2 2 ( n . 110) M a n g in , C h a r le s E . ( G e n e r a l ) , 2 1 9 , 242, 250, 3 8 6 (n . 4 9 ) M a n n e r h e im , C a r l G u s ta f E m il (B a ro n G e n e r a l ) , 55 M a rg o lin , A rn o ld D ., 1 23, 19 6 , 1 9 7 , 3 4 2 (n . 4 3 ), 3 4 3 (n . 4 9 ), 3 6 6 (n . 32) M a rg u lie s, M . S ., 8 3 , 119, 128, 3 2 9 ( n . 24) M a rk h le v s k ii ( M a r c h le w s k i) , lu . Iu ., 3 6 8 (n . 6 8 ) M a r k o tu n , 2 6 8 M a r te l, D a m ie n J. A . C . d e ( C o u n t ) , 2 7 0 , 271 M a r te n s , L . A ., 3 7 3 ( n . 2 8 )

The Volunteer Army

442 M a r ty , A n d r é , 3 4 7 ( n . 8 9 ) M as a ry k , T o m a s G ., 51 M a s lo v , P . M ., 1 01, 102 M a s lo v , S. N ., 2 1 9 M a u d e , S ir S ta n le y ( G e n e r a l ) , 3 2 0 ( n . 98 M a z n ie v , G . I. ( G e n e r a l ) , 147 M c C u lly , N e w t o n H . ( A d m ir a l ) , 181 M e lle r -Z a k o m e l’skii, V . V ., 1 16, 1 2 2 , 3 2 9 (n . 2 4 ) M e l'n ik o v , N ik o la i M ., 224, 236, 3 7 5 (n . 50) M e n s h e v ik s , 5, 11, 14, 39, 6 3 , 6 4 , 130, 3 5 4 (n . 10) M e rv , 6 5 , 6 6 , 1 7 0 M e s h e d , 6 4 , 6 5 , 67 M iliu k o v , P a u l N ., 3 - 5 , 18, 4 3 - 4 5 , 51. 81, 82, 106, 288, 292, 2 9 4 (n . 8 ) , 3 1 0 (n . 2 4 ), 3 2 9 (n . 24) M ille r, E v g e n ie K . ( G e n e r a l ) , 2 6 1 , 2 6 7 -2 6 9 M ille ra n d , A le x a n d re ( P r e s i d e n t ) , 2 4 9 , 2 5 3 -2 6 1 , 270, 3 9 3 (n . 144) M iln e , S ir G e o rg e F . (G e n e ra l), 9 8 , 15 3 , 1 5 4 , 1 5 6 , 1 59, 1 6 1 , 17 2 , 2 5 1 , 2 5 2 M iln e r , A lfre d ( L o r d ) , 28 M ira b e a u ( b a t t l e s h i p ) , 138 M ir b a c h , W ilh e lm v o n (A m b a s s a d o r ) , 35, 3 1 6 ( n . 6 7 ) M o n a r c h is ts , 4 1 , 311 (n . 2 7 ) M o o re , B e n ja m in B ., 1 7 7 , 178 M o ro z o v , P . A ., 2 2 1 , 3 7 3 ( n n . 29 a n d 30) M o sc o w C e n t e r 4 1 , 4 2 , 3 3 9 ( n . 1 1 ) M o zd o k , 69 M u d r o s ( A rm is tic e o f ) , 9 1 , 171 M um m von S c h w a rz e n s te in , A d o lf ( B a r o n ) , 37, 3 0 7 ( n . 2 ) M u r m a n s k , 36, 53, 55, 75 M u s s a v a t P a rty , 14, 9 7

N e ra to v , A . A ., 1 7 6 , 2 1 9 , 2 2 2 “ N ew R u s s ia n G o v e r n m e n t ," 93, 3 3 3 (n .72) N ie ss e l, H e n r i ( G e n e r a l ) , 30, 3 5 , 2 6 9 , 2 9 4 (n . 14) N ik o la d z e , 39 N ik o la e v , 1 1 4 , 1 2 7 , 133 N ik o la i N ik o la e v ic h ( G r a n d D u k e ) , 8 2 N it t i , F ra n c e s c o S. ( P r e m i e r ) , 1 79 N o rris , D . T , ( C o m m o d o r e ) , 7 0 , 1 6 9 , 3 2 5 (n . 1 3 1 ), 3 5 9 (n . 9 4 ) N o u le n s , J o s e p h ( A m b a s s a d o r ) , 3 0 , 35, 36, 1 0 8 , 3 0 4 (n . 1 0 6 ), 3 0 6 (n n . 115 a n d 1 2 0 ), 3 0 7 (n . 1 2 8 ), 3 1 0 (n . 2 1 ) N o v ik o v , I. M . ( C o l o n e l ) , 8 2 , 3 2 9 ( n . 24) N o v o c h e rk a s s k , 2 0 , 2 1 , 2 7 , 2 9 , 4 8 N o v o ro s siisk , 2 2 4 N u r i P a s h a , 39, 6 9 , 7 0

O O b e z B aev, 1 7 2 , 3 2 3 ( n . 1 1 4 ) O dessa, 77 , 79, 80, 83, 8 7 -9 0 , 1 1 3 -1 3 4 , 1 8 6 , 2 0 3 , 3 4 7 (n . 8 9 ), 3 4 9 (n . 1 0 0 ) O m e lia n o v ic h - P a v le n k o ( G e n e r a l ) , 2 0 0 O m sk , 59, 9 6 , 106, 110, 190 “ O n e G r e a t a n d In d iv is ib le R u s s ia ” slo g a n , 2 4 , 50, 1 2 0 , 1 6 7 , 2 0 1 , 2 0 7 , 214, 247, 289 O ra z S ird a r, 6 5 , 6 6 , 1 7 1 , 1 7 3 , 3 2 3 ( n . 114) O re l, 18 7 O r e n b u r g C o ss a c k s , 6 4 , 172 O r la n d o , V it t o r i o E . ( P r e m i e r ) , 1 7 8 “ O rlo v a ffa ir," 381 ( n . 1 0 9 ) O s ip o v re v o lt ( T a s h k e n t ) , 17 0 O s ta p e n k o , S e rh i, 1 1 4 , 12 4

P N N a b o k o v , K . D . (N a b o k o ff, C . ) , 1 04, 2 9 4 (n . 8 ) , 3 3 7 (n . 129) N a n s e n , F r id tjo f , 112 N a tie v ( G e n e r a l ) , 103 N a tio n a l C e n t e r , 4 2 , 4 3 , 8 1 , 1 1 6 , 1 1 8 , 3 1 0 (n . 2 1 ), 3 1 7 (n . 6 9 ), 3 2 9 (n . 2 6 ) N a tio n a litie s p r o b le m , 10, 11, 2 8 8 - 2 9 1 N a z a ro v , A . M . (D o n A ta m a n ), 21 N a z a ru k , O s ip , 114 N e n iu k o v ( V ic e A d m ir a l) , 2 3 7 , 381 (n . 109)

P a d e re w sk i, Ig n a c y J. ( P r e m i e r ) , 1 9 7 P a g e , W a l t e r H in e s ( A m b a s s a d o r ) , 2 7 , 28 P a le n , C o u n t ( G e n e r a l ) , 2 6 7 , 3 9 2 ( n .

,

1 2 5 >

P a lé o lo g u e , M a u r ic e , 2 4 8 , 2 4 9 , 2 5 0 , 260, 3 9 3 (n . 144) P a ris P e a c e C o n f e r e n c e , 9 3 , 9 5 , 9 7 , 101, 104, 1 0 6 -1 1 2 , 198, 2 06, 209, 283, 3 6 9 (n . 7 8 ) P a v le n k o ( G e n e r a l ) , 2 6 8 , 2 7 0 P e a s a n ts , 2 8 0 , 2 8 1 , 2 9 7 ( n . 4 0 )

443

INDEX P e n z a , 52 P e rc y ( G e n e r a l ) , 2 5 1 - 2 5 3 , 3 8 6 ( n . 5 5 ) P e r m y k in ( G e n e r a l ) , 2 6 7 P e rs ia , 3 0 , 6 0 - 6 4 , 3 2 0 ( n . 1 0 0 ) , 379 (n .9 1 ) P e tliu r a , S im o n , 7 8 , 8 4 , 8 5 , 8 7 , 1 13, 114, 196, 198, 2 0 0 -2 0 3 , 209, 211, 2 4 9 , 2 5 0 , 2 5 4 , 2 6 7 , 2 6 8 , 3 3 9 (n . 3), 3 4 8 ( n . 9 7 ) , 3 6 5 (n . 2 1 ), 3 6 6 (n . 4 1 ), 3 9 3 (n . 142) P e tr o g r a d S o v ie t, 4 , 7 , 8 P e tro v s k , 1 4 , 6 9 , 7 0 , 9 1 , 1 4 8 , 1 5 1 , 1 54, 1 5 8 - 1 6 0 , 1 6 2 , 1 6 8 . 169 P e tr u s h e v ic h , E ., 1 9 6 , 2 0 2 , 365 ( n . 2 2 ) , 3 6 7 (n . 4 6 ) P ic h o n , S té p h a n e ( F o r e ig n M i n i s t e r ) , 2 8 , 30, 7 3 , 7 5 , 8 9 , 1 0 4 , 1 0 6 , 1 0 8 111, 126, 133, 151, 199, 3 0 3 (n . 9 3 ), 3 4 3 (n n . 49 an d 54) P ik e ( C o lo n e l) , 3 2 0 (n . 9 9 ), 3 2 4 (n . 1 2 6 ) P ilsu d s k i, Jo z e f ( M a r s h a l ) , 1 96, 2 0 0 , 201, 203, 2 0 6 -2 0 9 , 250, 251, 255, 259, 265, 266, 269, 273, 3 6 7 (n . 6 0 ) , 3 6 8 ( n n . 61 a n d 6 8 ) , 3 6 9 ( n . 7 3 ) , 3 9 2 (n n . 118 an d 1 24) P i l ’ts, A . I., 1 1 9 , 3 2 9 ( n . 2 4 ) P in d a r ( M a j o r ) , 2 1 8 P o in c a r é , R a y m o n d ( P r e s i d e n t ) , 2 1 3 P o k le v s k ii-K o z e l, S. A . (A m b a s s a d o r ) , 7 8 , 8 1 , 131 P o k ro v sk ii, G ., 22 P o la n d , 8 3 , 1 0 6 , 1 9 6 , 1 9 7 , 2 0 1 - 2 1 0 a llia n c e w ith P e tliu r a , 2 4 9 , 2 5 4 n e g o tia tio n s w ith S o v ie t g o v e rn m e n t. 208, 3 6 8 (n . 6 8 ) n e g o tia tio n s w ith V o lu n te e r A rm y , 2 0 1 -2 1 0 , 2 6 5 -2 7 0 , 3 6 7 (n . 5 9 ), 3 6 8 (n . 6 1 ) w a r w ith S o v ie t R u ss ia , 2 4 9 , 2 5 0 , 2 5 4 -2 5 7 , 259, 260, 262, 2 6 5 -2 7 0 P o lis h B rig a d e in R u ss ia , 8 4 . 8 7 , 8 8 , 202, 203 P o o le , D e W i t t C ., 2 7 P o o le , F r e d e r ic k C . ( M a jo r G e n e r a l ) , 53, 1 4 2 , 1 4 3 , 1 5 3 , 15 4 . 1 5 6 , 1 58, 3 5 6 (n . 4 2 ) P o s h ib ia k in , M . F ., 9 5 P o s t, D r . W i l b u r E ., 9 6 , 3 3 2 ( n . 6 3 ) P o ti, 3 9 , 2 3 4 P r e - C a s p ia n G o v e r n m e n t, 91, 95, 3 3 2 (n . 6 4 )

P ris o n e rs o f w a r ( G e r m a n a n d A u stro H u n g a ria n ), 4 0 , 6 4 , 6 7 , 3 0 9 (n . 10), 3 2 3 (n . 122) P r o v is io n a l G o v e r n m e n t, 4 , 8, 1 0 - 1 3 , 10 5 , 2 7 6 P rz e z d z ie c k i (M a jo r), 2 0 5 , 2 0 6 P r z h e v a l's k ii, M . A . ( G e n e r a l ) , 1 54, 1 6 7 , 168

P r in k ip o P r o p o s a l, 1 0 8 - 1 1 1 , 3 3 6 ( n . 1 2 5 ) , 3 3 7 ( n n . 132 a n d 1 3 6 )

S a b lin , M . (V ic e A d m ira l), 381 (n . 1 0 9 ) S a d in o ( C o u n t ) , 179

R R a d e k , K a rl, 2 0 8 R a k o v s k ii, K . G ., 4 9 R a z w id o w s k i ( G e n e r a l ) , 2 6 6 , 2 6 9 R e d A rm y , 33, 8 8 , 1 8 8 , 1 89, 1 9 9 , 2 5 4 , 256 R eilly , S id n e y , 3 1 8 ( n . 7 3 ) R ia b u s h in s k ii, V . P ., 3 2 9 ( n . 2 4 ) R ig a , T r e a ty o f, 2 7 3 R ig g s, E . F ra n c is (C a p ta in , M a jo r , L t. C o lo n e l), 34 , 1 7 7 , 17 8 , 3 4 6 (n . 8 1 ) R ig h t C e n t e r , 4 2 R o b e c k (s e e D e R o b e c k ) R o b in s , R a y m o n d ( L t. C o l o n e l ) , 32, 33, 34 R o m a n o v s k ii, I. P . ( G e n e r a l ) , 3, 16, 22, 224, 236, 240, 2 9 7 (n . 4 4 ), 3 1 4 (n . 4 7 ), 3 8 0 (n . 102) R o m e i ( G e n e r a l ) , 34 R o s to v , 4 3 , 4 6 R o w la n d s o n ( M a j o r ) , 3 2 4 ( n . 1 2 6 ) R u d n e v , V . V ., 8 1 , 3 2 9 ( n . 2 4 ) R u m a n ia , 2 8 , 2 9 , 7 5 , 7 7 , 1 25, 1 2 9 , 1 9 7 , 2 1 0 -2 1 2 , 258, 3 0 1 (n . 8 6 ) , 3 0 2 (n . 8 8 ) , 3 4 8 (n . 9 7 ) , 3 6 9 (n n . 73, 78 and 82) R u m b o ld , S ir H o ra c e , 3 6 8 ( n . 6 8 ) “ R u ss ia n N a tio n a l A rm y ,” 57 R u ss ia n N a tio n a l C o u n c ils , 9 5 - 9 8 , 101, 1 02, 3 3 5 ( n . 9 9 ) R u ss ia n P o litic a l C o m m itte e (in P o ­ l a n d ) , 2 6 5 - 2 6 7 , 3 9 2 ( n n . 115 a n d 119) R u ss ia n P o litic a l C o n fe re n c e a n d C o u n ­ cil (in P a r is ) , 1 0 4 - 1 0 7 , 24 5 R u ss ia n R o a d C o m p a n y (in P e r s ia ) , 63 R u ss ia n S ta te d e b t, 33, 141, 2 1 6 , 2 5 7 , 264. 266, 272

S

The Volunteer Army

444 S a d o u l, J a c q u e s, 30, 3 2 - 3 5 , 3 1 8 ( n . 7 3 ) S a in t-A u la ire , d e B e a u p o il d e , 2 9 , 8 0 , 81, 84 S a m a ra g o v e r n m e n t, 54, 58, 59 S a n R e m o c o n fe re n c e (A p ril 1 9 2 0 ) , 234 S a n n ik o v , A . S. ( L t . G e n e r a l ) , 120, 1 2 1 , 1 2 9 , 131 S a p ie h a , P r in c e E . (F o re ig n M i n i s t e r ) , 266 S a v ic h , N . V ., 3 2 9 ( n . 2 4 ) S a v in k o v , B o ris V ., 6, 7, 18, 19, 54, 105, 2 6 5 -2 6 7 , 269, 273, 2 9 4 (n . 1 3 ), 3 1 7 (n . 6 9 ) , 3 9 1 (n . 1 1 5 ), 3 9 2 ( n n . 1 19, 1 2 4 a n d 1 2 5 ), 393 (n n . 1 4 0 a n d 1 4 2 ) , 3 9 5 ( n . 1 6 6 ) S a z o n o v , S. D . ( F o re ig n M i n i s t e r ) , 1 04, 1 0 6 , 1 0 7 , 110, 2 0 4 , 2 0 7 , 2 4 5 , 3 3 6 (n . 1 1 4 ), 3 7 0 (n . 8 6 ) S e jd a m e t, D z h a f e r , 12, 38 S e p a ra tis m , 15, 1 2 6 , 1 6 4 , 1 9 9 , 2 0 2 , 246, 268, 2 8 9 -2 9 1 , 3 5 9 (n . 86 ) S e rb ia , 2 1 2 , 2 1 3 S e v a sto p o l, 3 8 , 8 4 , 127, 1 3 5 - 1 3 8 , 2 3 6 S evres ( T r e a ty o f ) , 235 S e y m o u r, S ir M . C u lm e ( R e a r A d ­ m i r a l ) , 1 6 7, 2 3 8 S h a tilo v , P . ( G e n e r a l ) , 2 3 8 , 2 6 7 S h a u m ia n , S te p a n G ., 39, 56, 6 3 , 64 ,

68 S h c h e rb a c h e v , D . G . ( G e n e r a l ) , 11, 7 7 - 8 1 , 8 6 , 1 0 5 , 10 6 , 1 2 1 , 2 1 1 213, 221, 2 9 5 (n . 2 9 ), 3 2 7 ( n . 1 5 ), 3 3 5 (n . 1 1 0 ), 3 8 5 (n . 4 4 ) S h e b e k o , N . N ., 3 2 9 ( n n . 23 a n d 2 4 ) S h k u ro (G e n e ra l), 2 2 7 S h u l'g in , A le k s a n d r ( O le k s a n d r ) , 19 6 , 198, 3 0 9 (n . 12) S h u l’g in , V . V ., 80 , 8 1 , 11 6 , 1 2 0 , 127, 147, 3 2 9 (n . 2 4 ) , 3 4 0 (n . 1 1 ), 3 4 1 (n . 27) S h u ra, 148 S h v a rts , A . V . ( G e n e r a l ) , 1 2 8 , 1 29, 131, 3 4 4 (n . 6 1 ) , 3 4 5 ( n . 6 3 ) S id o r in ( L t. G e n e r a l ) , 2 4 6 S im fe ro p o l, 135 S ir d a r (s e e O r a z S ird a r) S k o ro p a d s k ii, P a u l (P a v e l) ( H e t m a n ) , 3 8 , 4 0 , 4 5 , 4 6 , 7 7 , 7 8 , 8 2 - 8 7 , 1 14, 127 S la s h c h e v , la . A . (G e n e ra l), 381 (n . 10 6 ) S lav ic R u s s ia n S o c ie ty , 9 7 S m irn o v , I. N ., 95

S o c h i, 1 47, 1 4 8 , 1 5 3 - 1 5 5 , 1 5 7 , 1 6 1 , 3 5 4 (n . 9 ) S o cial D e m o c r a tic P a rty , 4 , 8 S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r ie s , 4 , 5 2 - 5 5 , 5 8 , 59 , 6 3 - 6 5 , 130, 3 1 9 (n . 9 2 ), 3 4 4 (n . 6 1 ), 3 4 6 (n . 7 4 ) L e f t S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r ie s , 5, 53, 54, 6 3 , 6 6 , 1 7 0 , 3 1 6 ( n . 6 5 ) R ig h t S o c ia lis t R e v o lu tio n a r ie s , 5, 4 1 , 54, 6 3 , 1 1 6 , 2 2 4 , 3 1 6 ( n . 6 5 ) S o c ia lists, 4 1 , 59, 1 3 0 , 3 4 0 ( n . 1 8 ) S o k o lo v , K . N ., 2 2 4 S o n n in o , S id n e y (B a ro n ) ( F o r e ig n M in is te r), 3 3 6 (n . 1 2 5 ) “ S o u th R u s s ia n A r m y ," 57, 345 ( n . 6 9 ) S o u th e a s te r n L e a g u e (o f C o s s a c k s ) , 13, 14, 4 7 , 4 8 , 3 1 3 ( n n . 4 2 a n d 4 3 ) “ S o u th e r n A rm y ,” 57 S o v ie t R u ss ia (se e B o lsh e v ik s , L e n in , T r o ts k ii, re la tio n s w ith A llie d P o w e rs, G r e a t B rita in , F r a n c e , G e rm a n y ) S p a c o n fe re n c e (J u ly 1 9 2 0 ) , 2 5 5 , 2 5 6 S p e c ia l C o u n c il (o f th e V o lu n te e r A rm y ), 1 7 -1 9 , 218, 224, 288, 2 9 8 (n . 5 2 ), 3 4 5 (n . 6 7 ) S p irid o n o v a , M a ria , 54 S ta k h o v ic h ( A m b a s s a d o r ) , 105 S ta lin , J o s e p h V ., 32, 5 2 , 1 8 8 , 1 89 S te in b e rg , Jam e s ( M a j o r ) , 177 S te p a n o v , V . A ., 1 4 7 S to k e s , C . B . ( C o l o n e l ) , 6 3 , 2 3 2 S triz h e v s k ii ( C o l o n e l ) , 199 S tru v e , P e t r B „ 18, 1 0 5 , 2 3 7 , 2 4 5 , 2 4 7 , 248, 2 5 1 -2 5 7 , 260, 261, 263, 265, 269, 270, 3 8 4 ( n .21) S u b b o ti n ( G e n e r a l ) , 1 3 5 - 1 3 7 S u k h u m (A b k h a s ia ), 1 5 5 , 1 5 7 , 1 6 2 , 163 S u l’k e v ic h , S u le im a n ( G e n e r a l ) , 3 8 , 9 8 , 3 5 8 (n . 8 0 ) S u s h k o v , F . S ., 3 7 5 ( n . 5 0 ) S v e c h in , M . A . ( G e n e r a l ) , 4 6 , 4 7 T T a b o u is ( G e n e r a l ) , 2 9 , 51, 8 0 , 3 0 3 ( n n . 93 and 9 4 ) T a g a n ro g , 4 6 - 4 8 T a rk o v s k ii, P r in c e N u h -B e k , 6 9 , 7 0 T a m o v s k ii ( G e n e r a l ) , 2 0 0 , 3 6 7 ( n . 4 6 ) T a s h k e n t , 14, 6 4 - 6 7 , 1 7 0 - 1 7 2 T a ta rs , 11, 1 2 , 38 T e a g u e -J o n e s , R e g in a ld ( C a p t a i n ) , 6 5 , 68, 69, 172, 3 2 4 ( n . 129)

445

INDEX T e r e k C o ss a c k s , 14, 149 T e r e k S o v ie t S o c ia lis t R e p u b lic , 14, 69 T e r e s h c h e n k o , M . I. (F o re ig n M in is ­ te r), 2 9 4 (n . 8) “ T h i r d R u s s ia n A rm y ,” 2 6 7 , 2 6 9 , 2 7 3 , 3 9 2 (n . 124) T h o m s o n , W . M . ( M a jo r G e n e r a l ) , 7 0 , 9 1 - 1 0 1 , 1 4 8 , 1 5 1 , 1 5 3 - 1 5 5 , 1 57, 161, 1 6 7 -1 6 9 , 2 8 4 T iflis ( T b i l i s i ) , 9 9 , 100 T i m a n o v s k ii ( G e n e r a l ) , 1 3 1 , 134 T i to v , A . A ., 1 3 0 , 3 2 9 ( n . 2 4 ) T o p c h ib a s h e v , A li M e r d a n B ey, 2 2 9 T r a n s c a s p ia (se e also A s h k h a b a d , K rasn o v o d s k ) , 14, 6 0 , 6 4 - 6 6 , 169, 1 7 1 -1 7 4 , 3 2 2 (n . 114) T r a n s c a u c a s ia (s e e a lso A rm e n ia , A zerb a id z h a n , G e o r g ia ) , 14, 2 8 , 3 8 - 4 0 , 6 0 -6 4 , 6 7 -7 0 , 9 0 -1 0 3 , 1 4 6 -1 4 8 , 1 5 1 - 1 6 8 , 1 7 5 - 1 8 2 , 2 2 7 - 2 3 5 , 308 (n . 5 ) , 3 7 7 (n n . 66 an d 6 7 ) T r a n s s ib e r ia n R a ilw a y , 52 T r e t 'ia k o v , S. N ., 1 0 5 , 3 2 9 ( n . 2 4 ) T r o ts k ii, L e o n (L e v ) D ., 9 , 10, 2 6 , 2 7 , 3 0 - 3 3 , 3 5 , 52, 5 5 , 1 8 8 , 1 8 9 , 3 0 6 (n . 1 2 4 ), 3 0 7 (n . 1 2 5 ), 3 3 9 ( n . 8 ) , 3 6 3 (n . 168) T ro u sso n (C o lo n e l), 1 3 5 -1 3 8 , 3 5 0 (n .

112) T r u b e t s k o i, P r in c e E v g e n ie N ., 119 T r u b e t s k o i, P r in c e G . N ., 18, 4 2 , 4 3 , 250, 251, 260, 3 8 4 (n . 21 ) T s a r its y n , 4 8 , 50, 5 7 , 1 8 5 , 1 8 6 , 1 88, 1 9 1 , 1 93 T s e r e te lli, Ir a k ly G ., 39, 2 2 9 T u a p s e , 1 4 6 , 1 4 7 , 1 5 1 , 1 5 3 , 155 T u la , 187 T u r k e s ta n ( s e e a ls o T a s h k e n t ) , 14, 4 0 , 60, 6 4 -6 7 , 1 6 9 -1 7 1 “ T u r k e s ta n M ilita ry O r g a n iz a t io n ,” 3 2 5 ( n .129) T u r k e y , 3 0 , 3 8 - 4 0 , 56, 6 7 , 6 8 , 7 0 , 1 4 8 , 174, 232, 235, 3 0 8 (n . 7 ) , 3 0 9 (n . 9 ) , 3 8 8 (n . 7 8 ) T u r k is h S tr a its , 4 , 30 T u r k m a n c h a i ( T r e a t y o f, 1 8 2 8 ) , 169

U U fa D ir e c to r a te , 59, 9 6 , 3 2 9 ( n . 2 6 ) U g h e t, S. A ., 2 2 1 , 3 7 3 ( n n . 2 9 a n d 3 0 ) U k r a in e , 1 1 , 2 8 , 2 9 , 31, 37 , 3 8 , 4 0 , 4 7 , 49 , 77, 78 , 8 2 -9 0 , 107, 1 9 3 -2 0 1 ,

248, 249, 254, 268, 269, 3 0 3 (n . 9 3 ), 3 0 4 (n . 1 0 2 ), 3 0 5 (n . 1 0 8 ), 361 ( n . 1 3 0 ) , 3 7 3 ( n . 2 8 ) U k ra in ia n D ire c to ra te , 7 8 , 8 2 , 8 5 - 8 8 , 9 0 , 1 1 3 -1 1 8 , 1 2 2 -1 2 6 , 138, 141, 195, 196, 3 3 8 (n . 3 ) , 3 3 9 (n . 8 ) , 3 4 3 (n n . 49 an d 53) U k ra in ia n N a tio n a l C o m m itte e ( P a r is ) , 268 U k ra in ia n N a tio n a l U n io n , 7 7 , 7 8 U k ra in ia n R a d a , 11, 2 9 , 31, 37 , 3 8 , 4 0 , 5 1 ,7 8 U n io n fo r R e g e n e ra tio n o f R u ss ia , 4 1 , 8 1 , 11 6 , 1 18, 13 0 , 3 1 0 ( n . 2 1 ) , 3 2 9 (n . 26) U n io n o f M o u n ta i n P e o p le s ( M o u n ta in R e p u b l i c ) , 13, 14, 1 4 8 - 1 5 1 , 1 6 4 , 3 5 5 (n . 2 1 ) , 3 6 1 (n . 130) U n ite d S ta te s o f A m e ric a , 2 5 , 2 7 , 2 8 , 9 1 , 9 3 , 216, 3 6 6 (n . 3 6 ), 3 7 3 (n . 2 8 ), 3 7 8 (n . 7 2 ), 3 8 7 (n . 6 2 ) a id to V o lu n te e r A rm y , 2 1 6 , 2 2 1 , 3 7 3 (n n . 29 a n d 30) p o lic y s ta te m e n ts , 2 6 0 - 2 6 1 , 3 0 3 ( n . 9 3 ), 3 1 7 (n . 7 0 ) q u e s tio n o f m a n d a te in T r a n s c a u ­ casia, 1 7 7 -1 8 1 U ss u b e k o v , N a s ib b e y (P rim e M in is te r ) , 160 U z u n H a c i, 69 U z u n -K h a d z h i ( S h e i k h ) , 17 4 V V e n d z ia g o l's k ii, 18, 2 9 8 ( n . 5 1 ) V in a v e r , M . M ., 12, 8 4 , 3 0 8 ( n . 4 ) V in o g ra d o v , 9 7 V la d ik a v k a z , 6 9 , 3 5 4 ( n . 1 2 ) V la d iv o s to k , 36, 51, 55, 6 0 V la s ’ev ( C o l o n e l ) , 1 6 6 V o lo g o d s k ii, P . V ., 59 V o lu n te e r A rm y (se e a lso A lek seev , D e n ik in , W r a n g e l ) a d m in is tra tiv e o rg a n iz a tio n , 1 7 - 1 9 , 2 2 2 -2 2 4 , 236, 285, 2 8 7 -2 8 9 , 3 7 5 (n . 50) a im s a n d p o lic ie s, 19, 2 0 , 22 , 2 3 , 1 4 1 , 144, 166, 2 2 2 -2 2 4 , 285, 290, 3 7 5 (n .43) e c o n o m ic re la tio n s , 1 41, 1 4 2 , 2 4 8 , 2 6 3 -2 6 5 , 3 7 2 (n . 1 7 ), 3 7 3 (n n . 29 an d 30) f o r m a tio n o f, 1 5 - 1 7 , 2 0 , 2 3 , 2 9 7 ( n n . 39 a n d 4 1 )

446 in C a u c a s u s M o u n ta i n a re a, 1 4 8 - 1 5 1 , 1 5 8 -1 6 1 , 3 5 5 (n . 2 1 ) in C r im e a , 1 3 5 - 1 3 8 , 2 3 5 , 3 4 9 ( n . 1 0 3 ), 3 8 4 (n . 18) in O d e ss a , 8 7 , 8 8 , 1 2 4 - 1 3 4 m e n tio n e d a t Jassy c o n fe re n c e , 83 m ilita r y o p e ra tio n s , 2 3 , 2 5 , 1 4 7 , 155, 160, 174, 1 8 5 -1 9 0 , 3 6 3 (n . 2 ) n e g o tia tio n s w ith U k ra in ia n s , 2 4 8 , 2 5 0 , 2 6 5 , 2 6 7 - 2 7 0 , 331 ( n . 4 4 ) re la tio n s w ith A rm e n ia , 1 6 4 - 1 6 6 , 35 5 ( n . 29) re la tio n s w ith A z e r b a id z h a n , 1 6 7 169, 230 r e la tio n s w ith B ritis h , 1 5 1 - 1 6 9 , 2 1 6 220, 222, 230, 249, 2 5 1 -2 5 3 , 255, 3 5 6 (n . 4 2 ), 3 5 7 (n . 6 9 ), 3 5 9 (n . 8 6 ), 3 7 0 (n . 2) re la tio n s w ith B u lg a ria , 2 1 2 r e la tio n s w ith F r e n c h , 7 9 , 80 , 8 6 , 8 8 , 89, 113, 1 1 7 -1 2 2 , 1 2 4 -1 4 5 , 2 1 6 219, 222, 249, 250, 2 5 3 -2 5 8 , 260, 261, 2 6 3 -2 6 5 , 270, 272, 273, 371 ( n . 3 ) , 3 7 2 ( n . 1 7 ) re la tio n s w ith G e o rg ia , 1 4 6 -1 4 8 , 1 5 1 - 1 5 7 , 1 6 0 - 1 6 4 , 1 66, 2 2 5 , 2 2 7 , 2 2 9 -2 3 1 , 234, 3 5 3 (n n . 4 a n d 6 ) , 3 5 4 (n . 10) re la tio n s w ith G e rm a n s , 4 3 , 4 4 , 4 9 , 50, 57 r e la tio n s w ith P o la n d , 2 0 1 - 2 1 0 , 2 5 0 , 251, 263, 2 6 5 -2 7 0 , 3 6 7 (n . 5 9 ), 3 6 8 ( n n . 61 a n d 6 8 ) , 3 6 9 ( n n . 73 an d 7 8 ), 3 8 5 (n . 4 6 ), 3 9 1 (n . 113) re la tio n s w ith R u m a n ia , 2 1 0 - 2 1 2 , 3 6 9 (n n . 73 an d 7 8 ) re la tio n s w ith S e rb ia , 2 1 2 , 2 1 3 r e la tio n s w ith T ra n s c a s p ia , 1 7 1 - 1 7 4 so u rc es o f a id , 2 7 - 2 9 , 50, 1 4 0 - 1 4 3 , 2 1 1 -2 1 3 , 2 1 6 -2 2 1 , 3 1 4 (n . 4 9 ) , 3 7 0 ( n . 2 ) , 371 ( n . 3 ) , 3 7 3 ( n n . 29 and 30) V o n d e r G o ltz , R ., 2 0 7 V o p ic k a , C h a r le s J., 8 1 , 3 3 0 ( n . 4 0 ) V o ro n e z h , 4 8 , 186, 1 8 8 -1 9 0 V o r o n o v ic h , N ., 2 2 5 - 2 2 7

The Volunteer Army V o ro s h ilo v , K . E . ( G e n e r a l ) , 1 8 8 , 1 8 9 V y n n y c h e n k o , V . V ., 11, 31, 7 7 , 7 8 , 87, 88 , 114, 3 4 8 (n . 9 7 ) , 3 6 5 (n .

21 ) W W a lk e r ( G e n e r a l) (s e e W a lk e r) W a r d r o p , J. O liv e r, 1 7 5 , 232, 3 7 9 (n . 8 4 ) W arsaw , 2 5 6 , 3 8 9 (n . 8 5 )

F o r re s tie r179,

181,

W e y g a n d , M a x im e ( G e n e r a l ) , 2 5 7 W ils o n , S ir H e n ry ( F ie l d M a r s h a l ) , 229 W ils o n , W o o d r o w (P re s id e n t), 27, 107, 108, 179, 181, 213 W ito s , W i n c e n t y ( P r e m i e r ) , 2 5 6 W r a n g e l ( V r a n g e l ) , B a ro n P . N . ( G e n ­ e ra l), 185, 186, 188, 191, 195, 219, 2 3 6 -2 4 0 , 3 9 0 (n . 9 9 ) a g ra ria n re fo rm i n tr o d u c e d , 243, 246, 247 a s s u m p tio n o f c o m m a n d , 2 3 9 , 2 4 0 d e n u n c i a tio n o f D e n ik in , 2 3 7 , 2 3 8 g o v e r n m e n t in C rim e a , 2 4 3 , 2 4 5 m ilita r y o p e ra tio n s fr o m C r im e a , 2 5 1 , 253, 254, 262, 263, 2 7 0 -2 7 3 p o lic ie s a n d view s, 2 3 7 , 2 3 8 , 2 4 3 2 4 8 , 2 6 3 , 2 6 4 , 3 8 4 (n n . 18 a n d 2 3 ), 3 8 5 (n .46)

Z Z a k a ta ly , 159 Z b r u c h R iv e r, 2 4 9 Z e e le r, V . F ., 3 7 5 ( n . 5 0 ) Z e m s tv o -C ity (Z e m s k ii-g o ro d ) U n io n , 116, 3 4 0 (n . 16 ) Z h o r d a n iia , N o i N ., 1 5 6 , 1 5 7 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 2 Z im in , L . ( F o r e ig n M i n i s t e r ) , 1 7 1 , 3 2 2 (n . H 4 ) Z in k e v ic h ( C o l o n e l ) , 165 Z v e re v , L . V ., 3 7 5 ( n . 5 0 )