The Twelve Prophets (Vol. 2): Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi (Berit Olam series) (Volume 2) 9798400800795, 0814650910, 0814650953, 9780814650912

Table of contents :
The Twelve Prophets, Volume 2
Abbreviations
Micah
For Further Reading
Nahum
For Further Reading
Habakkuk
For Further Reading
Zephaniah
For Further Reading
Haggai
For Further Reading
Zechariah
For Further Reading
Malachi
For Further Reading
INDICES
AUTHOR INDEX
SCRIPTURE INDEX 1: Introduction, Hosea, Joel
SCRIPTURE INDEX 2: Amos, Obadiah, Jonah

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BERIT OLAM Studies in Hebrew Narrative & Poetry

The Twelve Prophets volume two

Micah • Nahum • Habakkuk • Zephaniah Haggai • Zechariah • Malachi Marvin A. Sweeney David W. Cotter, o.s.b. Editor Jerome T. Walsh Chris Franke Associate Editors

A Michael Glazier Book

THE LITURGICAL PRESS Collegeville, Minnesota www.litpress.org

A Michael Glazier Book published by The Liturgical Press. Cover design by Ann Blattner. Unless otherwise indicated, the translations of Scripture that appear in this volume are the author’s own. Others are taken from the New Revised Standard Version Bible, Catholic edition, © 1989 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of Churches of Christ in the U.S.A. Used by permission. All rights reserved. © 2000 by The Order of St. Benedict, Inc., Collegeville, Minnesota. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or any retrieval system, without the written permission of The Liturgical Press, Collegeville, Minnesota 56321. Printed in the United States of America. Volume Two: ISBN 0-8146-5091-0 The Library of Congress has cataloged the printed edition as follows: Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Sweeney, Marvin A. (Marvin Alan), 1953–      The twelve prophets / Marvin A. Sweeney ; David W. Cotter, editor ;    Jerome T. Walsh, Chris Franke, associate editors.       p.   cm. — (Berit olam)      Includes bibliographical references and index.      ISBN 0-8146-5095-3 (alk. paper) (volume one)     1. Bible. O.T. Minor Prophets—Commentaries.  I. Cotter, David W.    II. Walsh, Jerome T., 1942–   III. Franke, Chris.   IV. Title.   V. Series.   BS1560.S94  2000   224'.907—dc21

00-035651

For Terry and Candy Georgia, Walter Issac, Jake, Lakie, and Mary

CONTENTS Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  ix Micah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  337    For Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 Nahum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  417    For Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 Habakkuk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  451    For Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 Zephaniah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  491    For Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 Haggai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  527    For Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 Zechariah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  559    For Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707 Malachi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  711    For Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751 Indices    Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753    Scripture Index 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761     Introduction, Hosea, Joel    Scripture Index 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772     Amos, Obadiah, Jonah vii

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   Scripture Index 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779     Micah, Naham, Habakkuk, Zephaniah    Scripture Index 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790     Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi

ABBREVIATIONS ASOR ABD ABS AnBib ANEP ANET AOAT ARAB AT ATSAT BA BASOR BBET B.C.E. BDB BEATAJ BibSem BJS BLS BN BO BTS BZAW CAH

Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research The Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed. D. N. Freedman et al. 6 volumes. New York: Doubleday, 1992. Archeology and Biblical Studies Analecta Biblica The Ancient Near East in Pictures Relating to the Old Testament, ed. J. Pritchard. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, ed. J. Pritchard. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969. Alter Orient und Altes Testament Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia, ed. D. D. Luckenbill. London: Histories and Mysteries of Man, 1989. Altes Testament Arbeiten zu Text und Sprache im Alten Testament Biblical Archaeologist Bulletin of the American School of Oriental Research Beiträge zur biblischen Exegese und Theologie Before Common Era Brown, Driver, Briggs: Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, ed. F. Brown, S. R. Driver, and C. A. Briggs. Oxford: Clarendon, 1972. Beiträge zur Erforschung des Alten Testaments und des Antike Judentums Biblical Seminar Brown Judaic Studies Bible and Literature Series Biblische Notizen Biblica et Orientalia Biblisch-Theologische Studien Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ix

x CBQ C.E. ConBibOT CR:BS CRINT DDD2

Abbreviations

The Catholic Biblical Quarterly Common Era Coniectaneia Biblica, Old Testament Series Currents in Research: Biblical Studies Compendia Rerum Iudaicarum ad Novum Testamentum Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, ed. K. van der Toorn, B. Becking, and P. van der Horst. 2nd edition; Leiden: E. J. Brill; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999. DJD Discoveries in the Judaean Desert EB Études bibliques EvT Evangelisches Theologie Fest. Festschrift FOTL Forms of the Old Testament Literature Commentary Series FRLANT Forschungen zur Religion des Alten und Neuen Testaments GCT Gender, Culture, and Theory Monograph Series HBD HarperCollins Bible Dictionary, ed. P. Achtemeier et al. 2nd edition; San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1996. HKAT Handkommentar zum Alten Testament HSM Harvard Semitic Monographs HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual ICC International Critical Commentary IDB Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, ed. G. Buttrick. 4 volumes. Nashville: Abingdon, 1962. IDB[S] Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible. Supplementary Volume, ed. K. Crim. Nashville: Abingdon, 1976. IEJ Israel Exploration Journal JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society JBL Journal of Biblical Literature JCS Journal of Cuneiform Studies JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies JR Journal of Religion JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, Supplement Series JSS Journal of Semitic Studies JTS Journal of Theological Studies KAT Kommentar zum Alten Testament KHAT Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament LXX Septuagint MT Masoretic Text NEAEHL New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, ed. E. Stern et al. 4 volumes. Jerusalem: Carta and the Israel Exploration Society. NICOT New International Commentary on the Old Testament NRSV New Revised Standard Version OBO Orbis biblicus et orientalis OT Guides Old Testament Guides OTL Old Testament Library Commentary Series

OTS RB RBL SBLDS SBLMS SBLResBS SBS SBT SJOT TA TB TDOT VT VTSup WMANT ZAW ZDPV

Abbreviations xi Oudtestamentische Studiën Revue biblique Review of Biblical Literature Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series Society of Biblical Literature Monograph Series Society of Biblical Literature Resources for Biblical Study Monograph Series Stuttgarter Bibelstudien Studies in Biblical Theology Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament Tel Aviv Theologische Bücherei Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, ed. H. Ringgren et al. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1977ff. Vetus Testamentum Vetus Testamentum Supplements Wissenscaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testaments Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina Vereins

MICAH

MICAH Overview Micah is the sixth book in the Masoretic version of the Book of the Twelve and the third book in the Septuagint version. Because of its emphasis on northern Israel’s punishment at the hands of the Assyrian empire as a model for the experience of Jerusalem and Judah (Micah 1–3) and because it anticipates the Babylonian exile and the ultimate restoration of Zion at the center of the nations (Micah 4–5), it plays a key role in the overall conceptualization of both versions. It follows Obadiah and Jonah in the mt which deal respectively with the themes of Yhwh’s judgment and mercy in relation to the nations, and it precedes Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah, which respectively take up the fall of Nineveh, the threat of the Babylonians, and the renewed call to adhere to Yhwh in the aftermath of punishment. Micah thereby aids in giving direction to the book by pointing to the punishment suffered by Israel and Judah at the hands of the nations, first Assyria and later Babylonia, as a key element in realizing the future idealized role of Zion at the center of creation. It follows Hosea and Amos in the lxx, which take up the punishment of the northern kingdom of Israel, and it precedes Joel, Obadiah, and Jonah, which respectively deal with G–d’s protection of Zion from the threats of the nation, G–d’s punishment of Edom as representative of the nations, and G–d’s mercy toward Assyria again as representative of the nations. The lxx version of Micah thereby emphasizes the paradigmatic role of the punishment of northern Israel for Jerusalem and Judah, and extends this perspective as a model for the experience of the nations as well. Again, the ideal vision of a world at peace with Zion set in the midst of the nations defines an overall goal of divine process in the lxx version of the Book of the Twelve. 339

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Relatively little is known about the prophet Micah.1 According to the superscription of the book, he was active during the reigns of the Judean kings, Jotham (742–735 b.c.e.), Ahaz (735–715 b.c.e.), and Hez­ ekiah (715 b.c.e.), which would make him a contemporary of the prophet Isaiah ben Amoz. He is a Moreshtite, which indicates that he likely lived in a town or village called Moreshet. The term simply means, “possession” or “property.” Scholars have argued that Micah’s home must be Moreshet Gath, which is identified as Tell Judeidah, a site located in the Judean Shephelah about twenty-one miles southwest of Jerusalem, nine miles east of the Philistine city of Gath, and one mile north of Beth Guvrin.2 Moreshet Gath would have been one of the forty-six cities and numerous villages that the Assyrian king Sennach­ erib claims to have conquered during his invasion of Judah in 701 b.c.e.3 Wolff identifies him as an elder of the village, based upon his identification as a Moreshtite rather than in relation to his patronymic, his references to the “heads” of the people, his use of the term “my people” to designate Israel/Judah, his concerns for social justice, and his presence in Jerusalem for the festival of Sukkoth.4 Micah may well have been an elder of Moreshet Gath, but his presence in Jerusalem is very likely the result of his having been forced to flee for safety before the advancing Assyrian army. His frequent references to social abuse and the desperation to obtain the means for survival (Mic 2:1-2; 3:1-12), the terror of the towns and villages of Philistia and the Shephelah (Mic 2:8-9), and the exile of the people and destruction of Jerusalem (Mic 2:12-13; 3:12), all point to a man who knows first-hand the terrors of war and the brutality of life in an ancient city under siege. Indeed, the prophet’s message appears to be based on this experience. As a resident of the Shephelah, he knows first-hand of the movements of the Assyrian army against both Israel and Judah from the time of the Syro-Ephraimitic War until Hezekiah’s revolt. When the Assyrians attacked Israel in 734–732 to relieve Judah from the Syro-Ephraimitic coalition, they stripped northern Israel of its territories in the TransJordan, Galilee, and along the coastal plain. When the Assyrians invaded     1  For an overview of critical study concerning both the prophet and book Micah, see R. Mason, Micah, Nahum, Obadiah, OT Guides (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1991) 9–53.     2  See Karl Elliger, “Die Heimat des Propheten Micah,” ZDPV 57 (1934) 81–152, reprinted in Kleine Schriften zum Alten Testament, Theologische Bücherei, vol. 32 (Munich: Chr. Kaiser, 1966) 9–71.     3  For Sennacherib’s account of his 701 b.c.e. invasion of Judah and siege of Jerusalem, see Pritchard, ANET 287-8.     4  Wolff, Micah 6–9; idem, Micah the Prophet, trans. R. D. Gehrke (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1981) 17–25.



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and destroyed Israel in 724–722/1 b.c.e., they made sure in 720 b.c.e. to secure control of the coastal plain by moving against Philistia to cut off Egyptian assistance.5 Sennacherib employed this strategy once again in 701 b.c.e., and then continued to ravage the bordering Judean Shephelah as a means to deprive Jerusalem of its buffer territory, agricultural produce, and man power, prior to moving against the city itself. From his location in Moreshet Gath, Micah would have witnessed each of these moves, and would easily have drawn the conclusion that Judah would suffer the same fate as Israel if it dared to challenge Assyria. His constant criticism of Israel’s and Judah’s leadership indicates the perspective of a man who lives in an outlying village that suffers as a result of the decisions made in Samaria and especially in Jerusalem. Although many consider Micah to have been entirely a prophet of doom, the materials in Micah 6–7 call upon the people to do justice, return to Yhwh, and await the time when Israel’s/Judah’s punishment will come to an end.6 Many scholars consider these chapters to be late, but there is little evidence that this is the case. Such a perspective is absolutely essential for Micah’s reputation as the prophet who convinced King Hezekiah to change his course of action and thereby saved Jerusalem from the destruction that he had previously announced. Micah’s announcement of Jerusalem’s destruction in Mic 3:12 is reportedly quoted in Jeremiah’s defense at the trial of the latter for sedition about a century later (Jer 26:18). Although Isaiah is given the credit for this ­accomplishment in Isaiah 36–37 and 2 Kings 18–19, it was Micah who was remembered in Jeremiah. Indeed, there appears to be some debate or differences of perspective between the traditions that represent the two prophets. Although both books share the vision of world peace centered on Zion in which the nations will beat their swords into plowshares (Mic 4:1-5; Isa 2:2-4), the overall punishment of the land and creation of a remnant of Israel/ Jacob (Micah 1–3; 4:6–5:9; Isa 2:6–4:6), and the emergence of a new Davidic monarch who will subdue nations and bring justice and peace (Mic 5:9-14 [nrsv: 5:10-15]; Isa 9:1-6; 11:1-16), each tradition construes these elements along somewhat different lines. Whereas the book of     5  For Sargon II’s accounts of his campaigns at this time against Hanno of Gaza and the Egyptians, see Pritchard, ANET 285.     6  For discussion on the interrelationship between doom and hope in Micah, see Lamontte M. Luker, “Beyond Form-Criticism: The Relation of Doom and Hope Oracles in Micah 2–6,” Hebrew Annual Review 11 (1987) 285-301; Jan Aart Wagenaar, Oordeel en Heil. Een Onderzoek naar Samenhang Tussen de Heils-en Onheilsprofetieën in Micha 2–5/Judgement and Salvation. A Study into the Relationship between the Oracles of Hope and the Oracles of Doom in Micah 2–5 (Ph.D. diss., University of Utrecht, 1995).

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Isaiah envisions Jacob joining the nations at Zion (Isa 2:5) as part of the process by which Yhwh will establish sovereignty and peace over all creation, the book of Micah points especially to the differences in the worship practices of Israel and the nations (Mic 4:5) and looks to a time when the remnant of Jacob will establish its dominance over the nations (Mic 4:11-13; 5:1-8 [nrsv: 5:2-9]). Insofar as Mic 4:1-5 and 5:9-14 [nrsv: 5:10-15] appear to draw upon and rework Isa 2:2-4 and 2:6-21 extensively, it appears that the present book of Micah is designed in part to provide a counterpoint to the present form of Isaiah. Overall, the book of Micah is designed to address the future of Jerusalem or Israel in the aftermath of the Babylonian exile.7 Although Micah lived and spoke during the Assyrian period of the late-eighth century b.c.e., the reference to Babylonian exile in Mic 4:10 and the debate with and use of the Isaiah tradition as mentioned above indicate that this is the case. In this respect, Micah 4–5 appear to be reworked versions of some of the prophet’s own statements. Unlike Isaiah, Micah the prophet was probably not heavily focused on the Jerusalem/Davidic tradition, but he does rely on the traditions of Yhwh’s promises to the ancestors, Abraham and Jacob (Mic 7:20), the traditions of the Exodus, the Wilderness Wandering, and the entry into the promised land (Mic 6:3-5), and the role of Bethlehem/Ephrata in the births of Israel’s kings (Mic 5:1-5 [nrsv: 5:2-6]).8 The book of Micah indicates strong support for the Jerusalem/Davidic tradition, however, as Zion and the Davidic monarch will play the key roles in Yhwh’s and Zion’s role in world dominion. In this respect, Micah 4–5 apparently result from extensive reworking of some of Micah’s earlier material. The present form of the book thereby begins in typical fashion with the superscription of Mic 1:1, but then Mic 1:2–7:20 is formulated as a prophetic announcement concerning Yhwh’s plans for the anticipated exaltation of Zion at the center of the nations. Although many scholars allow their views concerning the com­ positional history of the book to determine their understanding of its literary structure, a synchronic reading of the book points to a four part structure.9 Micah 1:2-16 announces that Yhwh’s punishment of Samaria     7  For a redaction-critical analysis of the book of Micah, see the relevant sections of my King Josiah of Judah: The Lost Messiah of Israel (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).     8  See Walter Beyerlin, Die Kulttraditionen Israels in der Verkündigung des Propheten Micah, FRLANT, vol. 72 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1959), for discussion of Micah’s use of tradition.     9  For discussion of the structure of Micah, see esp. John T. Willis, “The Structure of the Book of Micah,” Svensk Exegetisk Årsbok 34 (1969) 5–42; David Gerald Hagstrom, The Coherence of the Book of Micah: A Literary Analysis, SBL Dissertation Series, vol. 89 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988).



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and Israel will stand as a paradigm for the punishment of Jerusalem and Judah. Micah 2:1–5:14 [nrsv: 2:1–5:15] provides a detailed overview of the process of punishment and restoration in which Zion and the Davidic monarch will emerge as the central figures in Yhwh’s plans to ­establish sovereignty over the nations of the world at Zion. Micah 6:116 then appeals to the people of Israel/Judah to return to Yhwh and Yhwh’s expectations of justice as a prelude to this process. Finally Mic 7:1-20 expresses the prophet’s trust that Yhwh will carry out this process in the form of a prophetic liturgy or psalm of confidence that Yhwh will act on behalf of Israel once the punishment is complete.

The Superscription: 1:1 The superscription for the book of Micah appears in Mic 1:1. In keep­ ing with the typical characteristics of superscriptions in the Hebrew Bible, Mic 1:1 is formulated as a third person archival or reporting statement that is addressed to the audience that will read or hear the following material in the book.10 It thereby introduces, identifies and characterizes the following material in Mic 1:2–7:20 as “the word of Yhwh that was unto Micah the Moreshtite .  .  .” This statement represents a relatively common form of superscription for a prophetic book that appears elsewhere in Hos 1:1; Joel 1:1; Zeph 1:1; and lxx Jer 1:1. Variants of the form appear in Jer 1:2; Ezek 1:3; Jon 1:1; Hag 1:1; Zech 1:1; and Mal 1:1. This particular formulation appears to be derived from the formula, “and the word of Yhwh was unto X,” which frequently introduces prophetic oracles. Micah 1:1 further states that the historical context of this material is “in the days of Yotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah, kings of Judah,” and it qualifies it as a prophetic vision “which he saw concerning Samaria and Jerusalem.” Because of its typical formulation and its function to introduce and identify the following material in the book, Mic 1:1 is structurally and generically distinct from the material in Mic 1:2–7:20. It is not the work of Micah himself, but of an anonymous editor who sought to identify the contents of the book for its reading or listening audience. The prophet Micah the Moreshtite is known primarily from the contents of the book of Micah. He is also mentioned in Jer 26:18, which reSee Gene M. Tucker, “Prophetic Superscriptions and the Growth of a Canon,” Canon and Authority, ed. G. W. Coats and B. O. Long (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1977) 56–70.   10 

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lates the prophet Jeremiah’s trial for sedition against the state in the time of King Jehoiakim ben Josiah. Jeremiah had been accused of attempting to undermine the Judean state on the basis of his Temple sermon (Jeremiah 7) which announced destruction for Judah and the Jeru­salem Temple if the people did not observe Yhwh’s commands. During the course of his trial, Jeremiah’s defenders cited the precedent established by Micah who prophesied concerning the destruction of Jerusalem (cf. Mic 3:12) and thereby prompted King Hezekiah and the people of Judah to turn to Yhwh so that the city was in fact saved. The name Micah is relatively common in the Hebrew Bible where it appears as the name of the man from Ephraim who established the sanctuary at Dan (Judges 17–18), a descendant of Reuben (1 Chr 5:5), the son of Meribaal/Mephibosheth and grandson of Jonathan ben Saul (1 Chr 8:34-35; 24:24-25; cf. 2 Sam 9:12), a Levite in the time of David (1 Chr 23:20; 24:24-25), and the father of Abdon in the time of Josiah (2 Chr 34:20; cf. 2 Kgs 22:12, where he is identified as Michiah). It appears in a number of variant forms, including Michael, Michiah, Michayahu, Michayehu, and the woman’s name Michal. The name Micah appears to be derived from Michayahu, which means, “Who is like Yhwh?” (cf. Michael, “who is like G–d/El?”). The names mi-kà-yà and mi-kà-il are also attested in the Sumero-Akkadian tablets found at Tell Mardikh, the late-third/early-second millennium city of Ebla in north Syria. Micah is identified by the gentilic name, “the Moreshtite,” which ­indicates that he is probably from the city of Moreshet Gath (see Mic 1:14). Moreshet Gath is identified with Tell Judeideh (Tell Godéd), ­located in the Shephelah about 2 kilometers or 1 mile north of Beth ­Guvrin, 15 kilometers or 9 miles east of the Philistine city of Gath, and 35 kilometers or 21 miles southwest of Jerusalem. The site is in the vicinity of Mareshah and Lachish (cf. Mic 1:14).11 It may have been among the cities fortified by King Rehoboam ben Solomon (cf. 2 Chr 11:8, which lists Gath and Mareshah, but many think that Gath should read Moreshet Gath). Moreshet Gath would have been situated directly in the path of Sennacherib’s invasion of Judah in 701 b.c.e. which focused on the city of Lachish. It was undoubtedly one of the forty-six Judean cities taken by his soldiers.12 Most scholars maintain that Micah’s presence in Jerusalem was the result of his flight from Moreshet Gath to escape the Assyrian invasion. The placement of Micah’s prophetic career in the days of Yotham (742–735 b.c.e.), Ahaz (735–715 b.c.e.), and Hezekiah (715–687/6 b.c.e.) See Lamontte M. Luker, “Moresheth,” ABD IV:904-5. See Sennacherib’s account of his campaign against Judah in 701 b.c.e. in ANET 287–8.   11 

  12 



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provides quite a long period for his activities, which corresponds to the initial period of Assyrian intervention in the region of Israel and Judah from the time of the Syro-Ephraimitic War (734–732 b.c.e.) through the time of Sennacherib’s invasion of 701 b.c.e. During this period, TiglathPileser III attacked Israel and stripped it of its territories in the TransJordan and Galilee (734–732 b.c.e.); Shalmanezer V and Sargon II destroyed the northern kingdom of Israel (722/1 b.c.e.); and Sennach­ erib devastated Judah at the time of Hezekiah’s revolt (701 b.c.e.). Micah had ample opportunity to witness the dismemberment and destruction of Israel as well as the devastation of Judah. These experiences appear to provide the basis for his prophetic speeches. Overall, Mic 1:1 characterizes his message as one “concerning Samaria and Jerusalem,” the respective capitals of northern Israel and southern Judah. As a resident of Moreshet Gath, a border city situated at the southwestern edge of Judah close to Philistia, Micah would have felt the full impact of the Assyrian invasions during this period. His life and those of his family and neighbors in Moreshet Gath were destroyed as a result of decisions made by the kings of Israel and Judah in Samaria and Jerusalem. The book of Micah therefore presents him as arguing throughout his oracles that Israel and Judah have been judged by Yhwh as a result of the sins of Samaria and Jerusalem, and that following the punishment Yhwh will see to the restoration of Jerusalem and Israel under proper Davidic leadership.

Prophetic Anticipation of Yhwh Plans for Zion’s Exaltation: 1:2–7:20 Micah 1:2–7:20 constitutes the second major structural component of the book of Micah following the superscription in Mic 1:1, but this observation has not generally been recognized in the overall assessments of the book’s literary form. Most scholars allow a combination of thematic and redaction-critical considerations to guide their decisions concerning the structure of the book. Thus, there is almost universal agreement that Micah 1–3 represent the authentic oracles of the prophet Micah concerning judgment against Israel and Judah, and chapters 4–5 and 6–7 represent later expansions of the text that focus on the themes of Jerusalem’s and Israel’s restoration at the center of the nations. By and large, this view of the compositional history of the book underlies the four major structural proposals for the book that have been put forward in recent years: 1) Micah 1–3; 4–5; 6–7; 2) Micah 1–3; 4–5; 6:1-7(7);

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7:7(8)–20; 3) Micah 1–5; 6–7; and 4) Micah 1–2; 3–5; 6–7.13 But these proposals frequently overlook significant generic, linguistic, and syntactic indicators that point to a different assessment of Micah’s structure. First, of course, is the above-mentioned distinction between the superscription for the book in Mic 1:1 and the material that it introduces in Mic 1:2–7:20. Although many scholars group chapters 1–3 or 1–2 together as a major structural component, there is no syntactic connector that would link chapters 1 and 2 as Mic 2:1 begins with the exclamation, “Woe (hôy) for those who devise wickedness .  .  .” Chapter 3, however, does begin with the waw-consecutive statement, “and I said” (wå∑d)” indicates that the statement is a direct ­address to the nations and the earth in keeping with the imperative ­address formulation of verse 2a, “Hear, you nations, all of you; listen, O earth and of its fullness.” The designation of Yhwh as “witness” apparently draws upon the imagery and roles of a courtroom or legal setting in which a witness is required to testify concerning the wrongdoing of the accused or the legality of an action (cf. Num 5:13; Josh 24:22; 1 Sam 12:5), although two witnesses are normally required in cases of capital For discussion, see Renaud, Formation 38-41; Ben Zvi, ad loc. Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39 530–1.   16  Ibid., 544.   14    15 

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offenses (Deut 17:6). The designation of Yhwh as a witness thereby lends credibility to the prophet’s portrayal and understanding of Samaria’s destruction as an act of Yhwh. The reference to Yhwh’s “holy Temple” likewise adds credibility to the prophet’s case by asserting the role of the Temple, presumably in Jerusalem, as the site from which Yhwh carries out these acts of judgment. In this manner, the prophet identifies his message with the Temple and thereby attempts to draw institutional support and legitimacy for his message. Verses 3-4 then employ theophanic imagery of Yhwh’s actions in nature as a basis for his contention that Yhwh is acting against Samaria and potentially against Jerusalem. The use of such imagery is particularly important in relation to the preceding reference to the Temple in verse 2 in that the Temple serves as the holy center of both the natural world of creation and the human world.17 The introductory kª hinn∑h, “for behold!” indicates that verses 3-4 are designed to provide evidence for the prophet’s initial contention in verse 2. Verse 3 states that “Yhwh is coming out of his place,” i.e., that Yhwh proceeds from the Temple, and that Yhwh “will come down and tread upon the high places of the earth.” The reference to Yhwh’s treading upon the “high places” indicates an element of cultic apostasy on the part of Israel among the prophet’s charges. The high places refer to illegitimate worship sites that challenged the assertion of Jerusalem as the only legitimate worship site in the land. The prophet thereby suggests that Israel and Judah have abandoned Yhwh, which further substantiates his claim that Yhwh is acting to punish the people. Verse 4 then employs imagery from the natural world that metaphorically portrays the destruction of the land. The first image is that of mountains which “dissolve.” This does not mean that the mountains will literally disappear, but it refers to the natural phenomenon of flooding during the rainy season in Israel in which the rains will wash down the sides of the mountains and potentially destroy or carry away anything that stands in their path. The imagery of hillside disintegration is, of course, well known to the residents of Malibu along the Pacific coast as the winter rains claim hillsides and houses every year. The imagery of valleys that will “burst open,” literally “be split/divided,” refers to the cleavages created in the low-lying areas as the flooding waters rage through and cut channels along the floors of the valleys, again washing away everything in their path. The second half of the verse shifts to the imagery of wax melting before a fire, which suggests the flames of war. Such an image is particularly pertinent in the ancient near-eastern world as Meso­ potamian accounts of the flood also make reference to the torches and   17 

See Jon D. Levenson, “The Temple and the World,” JR 64 (1984) 275–98.



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fires that consume the land along with the raging waters. Finally, the imagery returns to water once again with a description of waters cascading down a slope. Verses 5-7 then refer specifically to Samaria/Israel and Jerusalem/ Judah to make the prophet’s points concerning the fate of both nations clear. Verse 5a constitutes the basic thesis of the prophet’s discourse, “all this is for the transgressions of Jacob and for the sins of the house of Jacob,” i.e., the prophet charges that Israel’s suffering is the result of its sins. The Hebrew term pe¡>a, “transgression,” frequently refers to politi­cal revolt of one nation against another (e.g., Amos 1:3, 6; cf. the use of the verb p¡> in 1 Kgs 12:19; 2 Kgs 1:1; 3:5, 7; 8:22) as well as to acts of revolt against G–d (e.g., Isa 58:1; 59:12; Amos 5:12). The use of the term ˙a††ôlåm; 2 Sam 23:5) that ensures that his descendants will rule “forever” (le˚>ôlåm, Pss 89:29, 37; cf. Ps 110:4; >ad >ôlåm, Ps 89:5 [nrsv: 89:4]; 2 Sam 7:13, 16; Isa 9:6 [nrsv: 9:7]). Fundamentally, the address to Bethlehem Ephrata points to the birthplace of David in order to anticipate the emergence of a new Davidic king who will bring peace to Israel from its enemies. Verse 2 [nrsv: 3] follows upon the initial address to Bethlehem Ephrata with the enigmatic statement, “therefore he shall give them up until the time when she who is in labor has brought forth.” The one who shall give them up must be identified as the David ruler who will emerge from Bethlehem Ephrata, and those who are given up must be identified as the clans of Judah. Apparently, this statement points to a period of waiting in which Israel is subjected to the oppression of enemies before the projected monarch is able to act. The oracle employs the metaphor of a woman giving birth to express the necessary interval See Frederick E. Greenspahn, When Brothers Dwell Together: The Preeminence of Younger Siblings in the Hebrew Bible (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994).   70 



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until the rest of his kindred, i.e., the people of Judah or Israel are sufficiently restored so that they might bring about the new era of peace for Israel. Indeed, the Mican oracle may draw upon the tradition in Isa 7:14 concerning the birth of Immanuel as a sign to the house of David (cf. Isa 13:8; 26:18 for other uses of the childbirth motif in Isaiah). Verse 3 [nrsv: 4] employs the metaphor of a shepherd who stands over the flock to express the rule of this monarch who acts in the strength of Yhwh. This metaphor draws upon the common portrayals of kings as shepherds in the ancient world (cf. Ezekiel 34), and it especially draws upon the portrayal of the young David as a shepherd who protects his flock against powerful attacking lions and bears (see 1 Sam 16:11; 17:3137; 2 Sam 7:8). The image of the shepherd protecting the flock from lions or bears is particularly apt in the Assyrian period, as the Assyrian monarchs frequently liked to depict themselves as hunters of lions and other dangerous game.71 The imagery is also particularly apt in the present context in which Israel is portrayed as a flock of sheep led by Yhwh and its king (Mic 2:12-13) and in which Zion is portrayed as the “tower of the flock” (Mic 4:8). Once the new monarch is in place and the people are restored, verse 3b [nrsv: 4b] indicates that Israel will dwell securely as the monarch shall be recognized (literally, “become great”) “until the ends of the earth.” In this manner, the presentation of the new monarch draws upon the traditions that Yhwh’s (and David’s) kingship in Zion will be recognized by all the nations of the earth (cf. Psalms 2; 46; 47; 48; 89; cf. 2 Sam 7:1; Ps 132:18; Isa 9:1-6; 11:1-16). Micah 5:4-5 [nrsv: 5:5-6] is the first of the sequence of pericopes introduced by we˚håyâ, “and it came to pass,” that elaborates upon the ­announcement of the new monarch in verses 1-3 [nrsv: 2-4]. The initial statement of this pericope in verse 4a, [nrsv: 5a] “and this shall be peace” (we˚håyâ zeh ¡ålôm), has prompted a great deal of comment as interpreters from ancient times until the present have struggled to understand “this” (zeh). For example, lxx renders “this” in relation to the woman who shall give birth in verse 2, reading, “and she shall have peace when Assur shall come .  .  .,” whereas Targum Jonathan renders “this” in relation to Israel, “and there shall be peace for us when the ­Assyrian comes into our land.” The statement must be taken literally, however, not as a reference to the woman giving birth, the people of ­Israel, or the new king, but simply as an introduction that identifies the following portrayal of the process by which peace will come about in verses 4b-5 [nrsv: 5b-6], i.e., “and this will be peace: when comes into our land .  .  . and we raise against him seven shepherds .  .  . and they shepherd/afflict the land of Assyria with the sword .  .  . and he delivers   71 

See ANEP 184–7.

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us from Assyria.” Verses 4b-5 [nrsv: 5b-6] clearly relate four basic steps to the process. The first appears in verse 4ba [nrsv: 5ba], which points to the entry of Assyria into the land of Israel and its treading down of Israel’s palaces (n.b., nrsv incorrectly emends “our palaces” [h, “to pasture, tend, graze,” which can also be read as a form of the root, r>>, an Aramaic loanword, that means “to break,” i.e., “and they shall break the land of Assyria with the sword.” The reference to “the land of Nimrod” in the second part of the statement recalls the ancient Mesopo­ tamian king and culture hero who established the Assyrian cities of Nineveh and Calah as well as the cities of Babylon, Erech, and Accad (Gen 10:8-12; cf. 1 Chr 1:10). The nrsv emends “in its entrances/gates/ doors” to “with the drawn sword,” but this eradicates the intent of the passage to indicate that Assyria will suffer in its own land just as Israel did as a result of Assyria’s oppression. Finally, verse 5a [nrsv: 6a] indicates that the people of Israel will be delivered from Assyria. This statement reiterates the initial premise of the sequence, i.e., “when (Assyria) comes into our land, and when (Assyria) treads upon our borders” (cf. verse [nrsv: 5ab]). It may well react against the statement in Mic 4:10b that Zion must go to Babylon in order to be redeemed. Micah 5:6 [nrsv: 5:7] and Mic 5:7-8 [nrsv: 5:8-9] are the second and third passages in the sequence of oracles that are introduced by we˚håyâ. Although they are formally distinct, they appear to form a pair. Both



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begin with reference to “the remnant of Jacob .  .  . in the midst of many peoples” and provide contrasting images of that motif by portraying Jacob first as life-giving dew or rain (verse 6 [nrsv: 7]) and then as a lion that threatens its prey (verses 7-8 [nrsv: 8-9]). In this manner, they present the options that are available to the nations in their relationship with Zion, i.e., either a peaceful and beneficial relationship or a conflicted and threatening one. Together, these pericopes build upon Mic 4:11-13 which portrays Zion surrounded by many nations that are ready to humiliate her and then calls upon her to “thresh” or take action against her enemies. The terminology of Mic 5:6 [nrsv: 5:7] relates to previous pericopes in this context. The reference to “the remnant of Jacob” (¡e˚áqøb) recalls Mic 4:6-7 in which Yhwh announces the intention to gather the lame and outcast and to constitute them as the “remnant” (¡e˚ammªm rabbªm; cf. nrsv, ‘surrounded by many peoples’) takes up the language of Mic 4:3 which states that Yhwh “will judge between many peoples (>ammªm rabbªm; cf. Mic 4:1-2).” Micah 5:6 [nrsv: 5:7] (and 5:7-8 [nrsv: 5:8-9]) thereby portray a scenario by which that judgment will be carried out in relation to the remnant of Jacob, either for the benefit of the nations or their punishment. Micah 5:6 [nrsv: 5:7] clearly portrays the potential benefits for the nations by portraying the remnant of Jacob metaphorically as “dew from Yhwh” and “showers on the grass.” Such images take up Yhwh’s role as creator of the natural world, and indicate the continuing fertility and blessing in nature that the nations will enjoy as a result of the remnant of Jacob’s presence in their midst. The statements that the dew and rain “do not depend upon people” or “wait for any mortal” merely indicate that such dew and showers are not controlled by human means, but only by Yhwh who bestows such blessings in the created world order. Micah 5:7-8 [nrsv: 5:8-9] the follows, beginning with a variant of the same formula that appears in verse 6 [nrsv: 7], “and the remnant of Jacob shall be among the nations in the midst of many peoples.” The introduction of baggôyim, “among the nations,” takes up language from Mic 4:2, “many nations (gôyim rabbîm),” and 4:3, “strong nations (gôyim >aßumªm),” and thereby relates the following images of threat to earlier image of Zion’s ascendancy among the nations. The balance of the passage in Mic 5:7ab-8 [nrsv: 5:8ab-9] focuses on the image of the remnant of Jacob as “a lion among the animals of the forest” or as “a young lion among the flocks of sheep.” This image builds upon the earlier references to Israel as sheep that are led into exile by Yhwh (Mic 2:12-13), the reference to Zion as “the tower of the flock” (Mic 4:8), and the portrayal of the new Davidic monarch as a shepherd (Mic 5:1-3 [nrsv: 5:2-4]).

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Nevertheless, Jacob now becomes the predator rather than the prey, so that this image builds upon the above-mentioned pun on the verb we˚rå>û in Mic 5:5 [nrsv: 5:6] in which the new monarch (or the seven or eight shepherds) will either “shepherd” or “afflict” Assyria in its own land. The statement at the end of verse 7 [nrsv: 8] that there will be “no one to deliver” (we˚