The Towers of Ras al-Khaimah 9780860547785, 9781407349053

Table of contents :
Cover
Copyright
Contents
Index of Tower Numbers
Transliteration
Introduction
Chapter 1: Geography
Chapter 2: Historical development
Chapter 3: Typology and Function
Chapter 4: Building Techniques and Architectural Features
Chapter 5: A Catalogue of the Towers of Ras al-Khaimah
Bibliography
Plates

Citation preview

_.l

Government of Ras al-Khaimah Department of Antiquities and Museums in association with

Emirates Bank International and

The Society for Arabian Studies

The Towers of Ras al-Khaimah Derek Kennet illustrated by David Connolly

BAR International Series 601 1995

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 601 The Towers of Ras al-Khaimah © Derek Kennet and the Publisher 1995 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860547785 paperback ISBN 9781407349053 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860547785 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Tempvs Reparatvm in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1995. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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F o rm yp a r en t s . D .K .

F o rt h o s et h a tc a r e . D . I .C .

C on ten t s .

T ran s l i t era t ion

v i i i

I n troduc t ion

1

1 .G eography

3

2 .H i s tory

5

3 .T ypo logy a nd D i s tr ibu t ion

1 5

4 .C on s truc t ion t e chn ique sa nd f e a tur e s

2 5

5 .C a ta logue

3 1

B ib l iography

1 91

P la te s

1 95

F igure s . 1 2 3 4 5 6

R a sa l -Kha imah a nd t h eA rab ian G u lf P lan o fa l Jaz i ra ta l -Ham ra ( 1 822 ) Wa te rco lou ro fa l Jaz i ra ta l -Ham ra ( 1 822 ) H ou se towe rr e con s t ruc t ion D i s t r ibu t ion o fh ou se towe r s R ound t owe rr e con s t ruc t ion

2 1 0 1 1 6 1 7 1 9

7 8

D i s t r ibu t ion o fr ound t owe r s T owe rl o ca t ion ,n o r the rn R a sa l -Kha imah

2 0 3 2

9 1 0

T owe rl o ca t ion ,s ou ther nR a sa l -Kha imah P l an o fR a sa l -Kha imah ( 1 822 )

3 3 1 88

V

I ndex o fT ower n umber s .

D ahan , Abu S haqq D ayya

6 1 5

a l - Ma 'i r d a l -Ma taf ( J u lf a r )

4 1 7

D ayya D ayya D ayya

1 6 1 7 2 0

a l -Man-a ' a l -Qu sayda t a l -Qu sayda t

4 8 4 1 0

D ayya D ayya

4 2 4 3

a l -Qu sayda t a l -Ram s

3 6 3 4

D ayya ( f or t )

1 8

a l -Ram s

3 5

D ayya ( l owe rf o r t )

1 9

R a sa l -Kha imah ( f or t )

3 3

D iqdaqqa /a l -Fah layn

5 2

R a sa l -Kha imah

4 9

a l -Fah layn

3 7

S ha m

5 3

a l -Fa layya a l -Fa layya

1 2

S h ima l S h ima l( Sheba 's p a lace )

1 4 2 1

a l -Ghub

1 3

S h ima l

2 2

a l -Hay !

2 3

S h ima l ( a l -Na jd i )

3 0

a l -Hay ! a l -HayVa l -Fah layn

2 4 5 4

a l 'U rayb i a l 'U rayb i

1 1 2

a l -Hudayba

5

Wad iD af t a

5 0

a l -Hudayba

4 4

Wad ia l -Mun i ' i , S ukhayb i r

6 6

a l -Hu sun

3 8

Wad ia l -Mun i ' i

6 7

I d hn ( f or t ) I d hn

3 1 3 2

Wad ia l -Mun i ' i , S ukhayb i r Wad ia l -Qaw r

6 8 6 2

I d hn

5 5

Wad ia l -Qaw r

6 3

I d hn

5 6

Wad ia l -Qaw r

6 9

I d hn a l Jaz i ra ta l -Ham ra

7 2

Wad i a l -Qaw r Wad ia l -Qaw r

7 0 7 1

a l -Jaz i ra ta l -Ham ra a l -Jaz i ra ta l -Ham ra

9 4 5

Wad ia l -Qaw r ,a l -Huway la t Wad ia l -Qaw r , Na s la

6 4 5 7

a l -Ja z i ra ta l -Ham ra a l -Jaz i ra ta l -Ham ra

4 6 4 7

Wad ia l -Qaw r ,N a s la Wad ia l -Qaw r , R af aq

5 8 5 9

J a z i ra ta l -Hu lay la

3 9

Wad ia l -Qaw r , R af aq

6 0

K han , Umm a l -Dhu ra

2 5

Wad i a l -Qaw r , R af aq

6 1

K han K han

2 6 2 7

Wad i a l -Qaw r , R af aq Wad i S hawka

6 5 7 3

K han K han K huzam

2 8 2 9 3

Wad i S hawka Wad i S hawka Wad i S i f un i

7 4 7 5 5 1

a l -Ma ' i r id

4 0

8

v ii

T ran s l i tera t ion . I nt h e t e x t t h e t r an s l i t e ra t ion o fA rab ic w o rd s i sb a sed u pon g ene ra l ly -a cc ep ted o r of i c ia l s p e l l ing s a nd n o a t t emp t h a s b een made t ou s e a s t anda rd i sed s y s t em . T he f o l low ing l i s t g i ve s t h e o r ig ina l s p e l l ing s o fa l s u ch w o rd s e xc ep t t h o se f o und i nt h e O xf o rd E ng l i sh D ic t iona ry w h ich h ave b een s p e l ta c co rd ing t ot h es p e l l ing g i ven t h e r e .

Bur j 'Abd Allah b . Khamis

4. e , u . e . .

z i e 4 .0 I. s . e c r je

Abu 'Abula Abu Dhabi

‘ 21 " 4

Abu Shaqq j .Le ia . 1 1 . ) . e .L a

Naj d i Ahmad b .Maj i d a l-

' 941

>

3 L1 J e l

' A j man l -Khatr i Murabba 'a 'Ali b . 'Ubayd a S a ' i d a l -Shams i Murabba 'a 'Ali b . Bur j b .

t . 5. ) -61 ; bn . 4 .6. 1 c m i d . • LW , J . .11 . . g d s Z i e

4 e .

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i C . ; 1 t e j. o

, ) . ? ,r . . › ? r _ J 2 -0 .r . J 4

'Anbar

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Burj al -'A rj

4 ' 1 . 1 . 13 4

Batina

G et

Bukha Bur j al -Buma al Buqayshi

L ejej i -4 ,

bur j Bur j al -Bur t ughali Wadi Daf t a

-f a Iä j . 3 1. 9

Dahan Murabba 'a b . Dal am

m . . . . .i J

Bur j a l -Dawr a

ai i . . si l z je

Dayya a lDhayd

. . s . )I I I

Diqdaqqa 3 L r ?.

Dubai al -Fahlayn

. 3 , . , . l .

a l -Falayya

. tI

I 4 . 1 . .k i1

al -Fuj ayr a al -Ghub Mur abba 1a a lHadba

4. . t .eJ

al Jazirat a lHamra

* 1 j. . 2 .J 13je .j .e . 1 1

al -Hay 1 al -Hudayba Jazirat a lHulayla

a . 1 . . 6 . 1 .2 .J 1aje .je J1

, . 1 . . . r i

Bur j a l -Hulw al -Husun a l -Huwaylat Idhn al -Jawis

o de 9 1‘1

a l -J ir

J e . 4 .34 1

Jiri

L 5re

Jul f ar

v iii

Khasab Khatt Khuz am Bur ja lMadina

aJ U NA

Mahar a a lMa ' i r id

ai 3 4 . 24 .0

a l -Mamur a

Bur j a lMa shar aa .

a

a lMataf

aL6 .4 I

a lMazy a

LJG41

Milayha Bur jMir ayb ikh Wadi a lMuni murabba 'a Muscat Mushrikh muwad

eJ -1 1 3

al Naj d i al-Nakhil Bur j a lNaqbi

v— . 62: 4 1

I La h : k

Nasla Nizwa

s i

Qasimi ( Qawasim )

c r

a . “ . •L a iI

Wadi a l -Qawr

jä 1. 9

Qish rn al Qusaydat

P -13

Rafaq a l-Rams Ras a l -Khaimah

4 . P LAJA L J ILs •I

Ru 'us a l -J ibal Murabba 'a Sa' id

Abd Allah b . Bilal

Murabba 'a Sa 'id b Sha' m

' Ali

LI N . ?

i4 . 1 . 1 1

2 . t e

ult - C . » JI . 6 2 1 +0

a l-Sharjah

I

Wadi Shawka

24 . 61

Shimal Wadi S if uni

L

j i 4w1

Suhar

JL l o sm*

Sukhaybir sur ( aswar) Umm a l -Dhur a

8

H is n Umm La 'amam

e l -2 .4 . 1

Umm a l -Qaiwa in a l-U ra ybi Za ' ab

ix

e l

c j A da . . i . .

I n troduc t ion . T he t owe r so fR a sa l -Kha imah a r eo ne o ft h eb e s t -known a nd mo s tv i s ib le t e s t imon ie st o aw ay o fl i f e wh ich h a s n ow a lmo s td i sappea r ed f r om t h e U n i ted A rab Em i ra te s . T hose t owe r s w h ich r ema in , a nd 7 5 a r e d escr ibed i nt h e se p ages ,h ave n ow b een a bandoned f o r2 0 o r mo re y ea r s a nd a r e s l ow ly f a l l ing i n to d i s repa i r . T he l o ca l c l ima te t r ea t s emp ty b u i ld ing sh a r sh ly ; s a l te r os ion e a t s a way t h e b a se s o ft h ew a l l sw h i l s tt h e r a r e b u tv i o len tr a in t e s t st h e p a lm f r ond r o of ing a nd a t tack s t h e w a l l s f r om a bove . A l though t h e D epa r tmen t o fA n t iqu i t ie s a nd Mu seums o fR a s a l Kha imah h a s r e s to red s ome o f t h e mo re i mpo r tan t o f t h e se monumen t s i ti si mpo s s ib le t h a t t h ey w i l l a l l b e p re served a nd t h i s s u rvey , u nder taken i n c o l labo ra t ion w i th t h e D epa r tmen t , r e p resen t s a n e f o r t t o r e co rd a nd u nde r s tand t h em b ef o r et h ey d i sappea rf o reve r . T he t owe r s a r e l o ca ted t h roughou t R a s a l -Kha imah ' s t e r r i to ry f r om S hah i nt h e n o r th t ot h e Wad i a l -Qaw r i n t h e s ou th . S ome a r e l o ca ted a mong s t moder n o ccupa t ion a l ong t h e f e r t i le p l a in i nt h e n o r th o ft h e Em i ra te wh i l s t o the r s o ccupy p r ec ip i tou s h i l l top s o ve r look ing t h e w ad i b eds o ft h e s o u th . Wha t u n i t es t h em a l i st h a t t h ey a r e d ef en s ive b u i ld ing sa nd i n deed i tw a st h i s wh ich d ec ided w he the ro rn o tt h ey w e re t ob ei n c luded i nt h i ss u rvey . T he s u rvey w a s c a r r ied o u tb e tween D ecembe r 1 991 a nd J a nua ry 1 992 . T he t e am c on s i s ted o ft h et wo a u tho r s p lu s F i ona B ake r w ho w a s r e spon s ib le f o r d raw ing g round p l an s o ft h e t owe r s . T he t e am w a s f o r tuna te t o b e a s s i s ted i nt h ef i e ld b yt h ee ne rgy a nd u n r iva led l o ca lk now ledge o fM is sB ea t r ice d eC a rd i . O the r sw e re r e spon s ib le f o ro r gan iz ing t h es u rvey a nd h e re J ayan th L ax rnan n eed st ob em en t ioned a bove a l o t he r s . A h rnad F ada l lah A za rn , D r . G .R .D . K ing o ft h e S choo l o fO r ien ta l a nd A f r ican S t ud ie s , U n ive r s i ty o fL ondon , a nd t h em embe r s o ft h e ' I bn Ma j id F o lk lo re a nd R ow ing C lub o f a l - Ma ' i r id ' a l so p l ayed i mpo r tan t r o le s . A l so t o b e t h anked f o r i mpo r tan t s uppor t g i ven d u r ing t h e s u rvey a r e Em i ra te s A i r l ine s , D r . P e te r C la rk , f o rme r -D i rec to r o ft h e B r i t i sh C ounc i l i n Abu D hab i , a nd t h e H onou rab le D av id G o re -Boo th , f o rme r A s s is tan t U nde r S ec re ta ry o fS t a te a tt h e F o re ign a nd C ommonwea l th Of f i ce . I no rgan iz ing t h ep ub l ica t ion S a rah S ea r igh ta nd J ohn G rundon n eed t ob et hanked f o rt h e ir g ene rou s a nd much a pp r ec ia t ed h e lp . S a rah S ea r igh t a l so v a l ian t ly r e ad ad r af t o ft h e m anu scr ip t a nd made many u sef u lp o in t s . D r . E . Manzano Mo reno k i nd ly h e lped w i th t r an s la t ing t h ep a s sage f r om E lL i v ro d oE s tado . T he s u rvey w a s u nder taken a s aj o in t p ro jec t b y t h e S oc ie ty f o r A rab ian S tud ies a nd t h e D epa r tmen t o f A n t iqu i t ie s a nd Mu seum s o f R a s a l -Kha imah w ho se d i rec to r , H .H . S he ikh S u l tan b . S aq r a l -Qa s im i , w as r e spon s ib le f o rc omm i s s ion ing t h e s u rvey . H .H . S he ikh S u l tan s hou ld b e a cknow ledged f o rh i s f a r s igh tedne s s a nd f o ru nde r s tand ing t h ev a lue s u ch monumen t sw i l lh ave f o rf u tu re g ene ra t ion s . T ha t t h i s p ub l ica t ion h a s c ome i n to b e ing i sd ue t ot h e g ene ro s i ty o f Em i ra te s B ank I n t er na t iona l L im i ted , t h e D epa r tmen t o fA n t iqu i t ie s a nd Mu seums o fR a s a l -Kha imah a nd t h e S oc ie ty f o r A rab ian S tud ie s who , t oge the r , h ave m ade t h en ece s sa ry f und sa va i lab le .

• :

S ha 'm ( Towe r5 3 )

* : D ayya a l -Ram s

A rab ian G u l f

. • .•.•

. •

: • : •

R a s a l -Kha imah ec ‚

a l Jaz i ra t a l -Ham ra

G u l fo f Oman

: . •

K ha t t 0

• • : . :

F ig . 8

I d Im

•: * F i g . 9 Wad i S i fun i

Ma sa f i

• : • " . •

Wad i a l - Mun i 'i

Wad i a l -Oa

• .

N or th

•

1 0

2 0 km s

F i gu r e 1 .R a sa l -Kha imah a nd t h eA rab ian G u lf ( w i th l o ca t ion o ff i gu r e s 8a nd 9i n d ica t ed ) .

2

C hap te r 1 . G eography . T he Em ira te o fR a s a l -Kha imah o ccup ie s t h e w es tern s i de o ft h e Mu sandam p en in su la a tt h e e n t rance t ot h e A r ab ian Gu lf ( F ig . 1 ) . I ts t re tche s f r om S ha m i nt h e n o r th , at own l o ca ted o n ly 5 0 k i lome t re s f r om t h e S t ra i t s o f H o rmuz ,t ot h e Wad ia l -Qaw ri nt h es ou th i nt h eh ea r to ft h er ugged h i l ls o ft h eR u 'u sa l -J iba l . I t s l o ca t ion e ncompa s se s f ou r d i s t inc t t o pog raph ic l a nd scape s : t h e c oa s t , t h e moun ta in s , t h e p l a in a nd t he s and d unes . T he c oa s ti sf l a t , s a ndy a nd s t ra igh t ,b e ing p unc tua ted b y o cca s iona ls a nd b a r s a nd t h e i rc on sequen tl a goon sm any o f wh ich s e rve a sh a rbou r s . T o t h e n o r th a nd e a s t l i e t h e moun ta in s k nown a st h e R u 'u s a l -J iba l . P rec ip i tou s a nd s p a r se ly v ege ta ted t h ey a r e f o rmed p r edom inan t ly o fJ u ra s s ic a nd C r e taceou s l i me s tone , a nd r i se t o a r ound 1 400 m e t re s , b e ing i n te r sec ted b y f r equen t , d eep w ad is . T he moun ta in s f o rm a n s ha rp c on t ra s t t o t h e f l a t te r t o pog raphy o ft h ec oa s ta nd p l a in so ne i the rs i de . B e tween t h e moun ta in sa nd t h e s e al i e s aw ide , f l a t , o u twa sh p l a in f o rmed a s ap ed imen tg l a9 i s a ga in s tt h e b a se o ft h e moun ta ins . I ti st h i s p l a in , o ne o ft h e mo s t f e r t i le r eg ion s i nt h e U n i ted A rab Em i ra te s , w h ich i st h e a g r icu l tu ra l h ea r t o fR a s a l -Kha imah a nd u pon i tmuch o ft h e s e t t lemen t a nd a g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i ty a r e c oncen t ra ted . T ot h es ou th t h e p l a in i so ve r la in b yt h e n or the rnmo s tt i p o ft h e ma s s ive s and d une f i e ld w h ich s t r e tche s ,a lmo s tw i thou tb r eak , d own t owa rd sA bu D hab ia nd b eyond . T he p hy s ica ln a tu res o ft h e f ou rt o pog raph ic l a nd scape s a nd t h et y pe so fe conom ie sw h ich t h ey c an s uppor th a s h ad ai mpo r tan te f ec tu pon t h e c u l tu r e s o ft h ed i f f e ren tg roup s i n hab i t ing t h em . I ti sp o s s ib le t od emon s tra te t h i sb y r e la t ing c u l tu ra lt r a i t s ,s uch a sd ome s t ic a r ch i tec tu re , t ot h et o pog raph ic z one s( Do s ta l 1 983 : 1 0 ) . C l ima te . T he c l ima te o ft h e r eg ion i sc ha rac te r i sed b y i n ten se s umme r h ea t a nd h i gh h um id i ty ( t empe ra tu re s r a nge f r om 4 9 °C i nJ u ly t o4 °C i nJ a nua ry ) w i th l ow a nd u n re l iab le r a inf a l l a ve rag ing 1 00 m i l l ime t r e s a nnua l ly , a s much a s 2 5% o f wh ich c ommon ly f a l l si no ne d ay ( Sa tche l l 1 978 : 2 10 -2 11) . S o i l s . T he s o i l so ft h eo u twa sh p l a in s a r e s i e rozem s o fl i gh tt e x tu r e w i th av a r iab le c a rbona te c on ten t a nd l ow n u tr ien t l e ve ls . T hey h ave ag ood d ea lo fa r ab le p o ten t ia l a nd t h e re i sal o ng -e s tab l i shed a g r icu l tu ra lt r ad i t ion i nt h e Em i ra te . G ene ra l ly s peak ing t h e b e s t s o i l s w i th t h e b e s t w a te r re ten t ion a r e f ound a way f r om t h e f oo t o ft h e moun ta in s t owa rd st h ew e s to ft h e o u twa sh p l a in a nd i ti sa l ong t h i s n a r row b and t h a tm o s t moder nc u l t iva t ion i sc oncen tra ted ( Bowen -Jone s e ta l . 1 967 ) . T he s o i l s t owa rd s t h e b ack o ft h e p l a in , c l o se t ot h e f oo t o ft h e h i l ls , t e nd t o b e t oo g r ave l ly t oa l low e f ec t ive c u l t iva t ion . A gr icu l ture . T rad i t iona l ly a g r icu l tu re h a sb een g a rden a nd s ub s is tence b a sed a nd c en te red o nt h en o r the rn p a r to ft h e Em i ra te b e tween a l -Fa layya a nd S h ima l . T he p r inc ipa l r e a son f o rt h is l o ca t ion h a s b een t h e f a c tt h a tt h e o u twash p l a in i sa h i gh ly p roduc t ive g ra nu la ra qu if e r i nt h i s a r ea . T he w a te r s upp ly , a l ong w i th t h e f e r t i le s o i l s , make s t h e p l a in t h e mo s t v i ab le a g r icu l tu ra l a r ea i nt h e U n i ted A rab Em i ra te s a nd i ti se xp lo i ted p r inc ipa l ly f o r d a te p a lm c u l t iva t ion . T he o n ly o t he ra r ea s i nR a sa l -Kha imah w h ich s uppor td a te -pa lms a r et h eb ed so ft h e l a rge rw ad is s uch a st h e Wad i a l -Qaw r a nd t h e Wad i a l -Mun i ' i , a nd s ome o f t h e i n te r -duna l t r ough s i nt h e d une f i e ld whe re t h e u nde r ly ing o u twa sh p l a in i se xposed . A long t h e e dge o ft h e h i l l s i nt h e r e g ion o fK ha t t i ti si mpor tan t t on o te t h e p resence o f p e renn ia lh o t -wa t e rs p r ing sw h ich h ave a t t rac ted s e t t lemen tf o r al o ng p e r iod o ft i me .

3

C hap te r2 . H i s tor ica l d eve lopment . I fw e a t temp t t ot r a ce t h e d eve lopmen t o fm i l i ta ry a r ch i tec tu re i nR a s a l -Kha imah w e a r e r e a l ly h ampe red b y t wo p o in t s . T he f i r s t i st h e p auc i ty o f h i s to r ica l i n f orma t ion r e la t ing t o t h e a r ea a nd t h e s e cond i st h e l a ck o f p r e served m i l i ta ry a r ch i tec tu re w h ich p r e -da te s 1 8 19 , w hen t h e d ef ence s o f m os t o f t h e c oa s ta l t own s o f t h e Em i ra tes w e re d es t royed b y aB r i t i sh e xped i t ion . S ome a u tho r s h ave a t temp ted t o d i s t ingu ish d i f f e ren t t h read s o f i nf luence i nt h e l o ca l m i l i ta ry a r ch i tec tu re ( d 'E r r ico 1 983) , a n a pp roach wh ich i se a s ie r when d ea l ing w i th l a rge a nd p re s t ig ious f o r t re s se s , b u tw h ich b ecome s i n c rea s ing ly d if i cu l t w hen d ea l ing w i th b u i ld ing s o f as ma l le r s c a le . I n s tead a n a t temp t h a s b een made h e re t o c o l lec t wha ti n f o rma t ion i sa va i lab le i no rde rt op u tt h et owe r s i n to a nh i s to r ica l s e t t ing . P re -16 th c entury . P re sen t k now ledge a bou t t h e n a tu re o f m i l i ta ry a r ch i tec tu re b ef o re t h e 1 6 th c en tu ry c ome s mo s t ly f r om a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ion s . T he e a r l ie s t d ef en s ive s t ruc tu re s k nown f r om t h e a r ea a r e t h e e no rmou s t h i rd m i l lenn ium B .C . r ound t owe r s s uch a sH i l i 1 ,H i l i 8a nd B a t o fw h ich , s o f a r , mo r e t h an 1 0 e xamp les h ave b een l o ca ted . T hey a r e c i rcu la r s t ruc tu r e s b u i l t u sua l ly f r om s t one o r mud b r ick a nd h ave a n a ve rage d i ame te r o f2 0 m e t re s . T hey mus t o r ig ina l ly h ave s t ood t o ac on s ide rab le h e igh t a nd a r e t h e l a rge s t s t ruc tu res k nown f r om t h i s p e r iod ( f o r as umma ry a nd r e f e r ence s s e e P o t t s 1 990 , i ,1 0 1-2 ) . T he se b u i ld ing s a r e l i ke ly t oh ave b een d ef en s ive a nd i tc ou ld b e s a id t h a tt h ey b ea rs ome s im i la r i ty t os t r uc tu re s l i ke t h eN izwa t owe r i n Oman o rT owe r s2 8 a nd 4 8 i nR a s a l -Kha imah . H oweve r , t h e re i sn o e v idence t h a t t h ese s t ruc tu re s a r e i na ny w ay r e la ted a nd a st h e t r ad i t ion a ppea r st oh ave b een b roken f o ra r ound f ou rt hou sand y ea r s i ti smo s tl i ke ly t h a ta ny s im i la r i ty i sc o inc iden ta l . A mud -b r ick f o r t w i th w i th s qua r e t owe r s i sk nown f r om M i layha d a t ing t o t h e 1s t2nd c en t ur ie s AD ( Boucha r la t & Mou ton 1 994 : F ig . 4 ) . F r om t h e l a te S a san ian o re a r ly I s lam ic p e r iod w eh ave t wo e xamp le s o fs uch f o r t s f r om t h e Gu lf ; o ne f r om S i raf i nI r an a nd o ne f r om B ah ra in (Wh i tehou se 1 974 : F ig . 3 ;K erv ran e ta l . 1 982 . ) T hey b o th h ave v e ry s im i la rp l an s c on s i s t ing o f as qua re w a l l s u r round ing a n o pen c ou r tya rd , f o r t if i ed w i th r ound c o rne rt owe r s , i n te rmed ia te t owe r s a nd g a te t owe r s . T h i s i s ap l an w h ich i sw e l l k nown f r om l a te R oman a nd e a r ly I s lam ic f o r t if i ca t ion si nt h eN ea rE a s t . F rom t h e p er iod b e tween t h e c on s t ruc t ion o ft h e t wo f o r t s m en t ioned a bove a nd t h e a r r iva l o ft h e P or tuguese t h e re a r e v ery f ew d e ta i l s o fd ef en s ive a r ch i tec tu re a va i lab le . T he re i s af o r t i n Oman c a l led ' Haw ra tB a rgha ' wh ich h a sb een d a ted t ot h e 1 3 th c en tu ry b u tt h ed a t ing e v idence i sn o tc e r ta in ( Kerv ran 1 987 : 1 2 13 ) . S ome o ft h e e a r l ie r P o r tugue se s ou rce s g i ve i n d ica t ions o ft h e c ond i t ion s w h ich p r eva i led a tt h e t ime o ft h e i r a r r iva lw hen t h e a r ea o fR a s a l -Kha imah w a s u nde rt h e r u le o fH o rmuz . T h i s i sa ne xce rp tf r om t h eb ook o f Dua r te B a rbo sa ,w r i t ten a round 1 5 18 : " Beyond t h e se P rof am v i l lage sa re o t he r sa long t h ec oa s t , o ne o fw h ich i sal a rge p lace c a l led R e oyma ; b eyond t h a ty e ta no the rw i th af or t re s s , c a l led C a lvam , w h ich t h eK ing o fO rmu sm a in ta in st h e re f or t h ed ef ence o f h i s l and s , i n a smuch a s b eh ind a l l t h e se Moor s d we l l many Moor s o ft h e n a ture o fw i ld A rab s w ho a re u nd er t h er u l e o fX eque s . T he se f rom t i me t ot i me c ome d own u pon t h e se v i l lage sa nd make w a r o n t h em , a nd t h i sf o lk o f ten r ebe l sa ga in s ti t sk i ng ." ( Dua r te B a rbo sa 7 4 ) . H oweve r , n o d e ta i l so ft h ep l an o rc on s t ruc t ion o ft h e f o r t re s se s a r e i n c luded . Af ew y ea r sa f te rV a sco d aG ama f i r s tc i rcumnav iga ted t h e C ape o fG ood H ope , A lf on so d eA lbuque rque s a i led a l ong t h e c oa s t b e tween Mu sca t a nd H o rmuz s ub juga t ing a n umbe r o f t h e t own s a l ong t h e w ay . T he b r ief d e scr ip t ion s wh ich h e h a s l ef t t e l l u s a lmo s t a l w e k now a bou t t h e p r e -Po r tugue se m i l i ta ry a r ch i tec tu re o ft h e Mu sandam a r ea . A t ' Cu r ia te ' a nd Mu sca t , d e A lbuque rque d e sc r ibed s t ockade s o fw ood a nd e a r th d ef end ing t h e t own s , s ome o f w h ich w e re a ppa ren t ly b e low t h eh i gh t i de ma rk ( d eA lbuque rque , i :6 0 -100 ) . A tS uha rh ed e sc r ibed as t rong s qua re

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f o r t re s sw i th s i xt owe r s , l a rge e nough t or e qu i r e 1 000 m en f o ri t sd ef ence , a l though h e d id n o tm en t ion t h eb u i ld ing ma t e r ia l . Howeve r , d e A nd rada d e sc r ibed t h e s ame s i x towe r f o r t m o re t h an ac en tu ry l a t e r a sb e ing b u i l t f r om ' b r ick s a nd mud ' ( de A lbuque rque , i :6 0 100 ; d e A nd rada : 1 84 ) . I ti st r ue t h a t t h e e a r th a nd w ood s t ockade s d e sc r ibed b yd eA lbuque rque m ay h ave o n ly b een e me rgency d ef ence s e r ec ted t or e pe lt h e P o r tugue se t h r ea tb u ti t i sa l so p o s s ib le t h a t mo r ta r w a s n o t v e ry c ommon ly u sed a s ab u i ld ing ma te r ia l i nt h e Mu sandam a r ea i nt h e c en tu r ie s b ef o r e t h e a r r iva l o ft h e P o r tugue se . I nr e la t ion t ot h e r e bu i ld ing o ft h e f o r t a tK ha sab e a r ly i nt h e 1 7 th c en tu ry ,R uy F r ey r ed eA nd rada s pec if i ca l ly p o in t so u t : " . .becau se i tw a sm ad eo fm ud -br ick ss i nce t h e re i sn ol i me a l ong t ha tc oa s t , n o rk now ledg eo ft h eu se o fi t . "( d e And rada : 1 90 ) . I ti si n te r e s t ing t on o te t h a tt h eB r i t i sh e xcava t ion s a tJ u lf a rh ave r e vea led t h a ts t one a nd m o r ta rw e r e o n ly u sed i nt h el a te rp ha se so ft h e ma in mo sque a tt h a ts i t e , t h e e a r l ie rp ha se sb e ing made o fs and b r ick ( ad e r iva t ive o f mud b r ick ) . H oweve r ,t h el o ca lp eop le c l ea r ly h ad a c ce s st ot h em o s t mode rn w eapon ry ,a st h ey a r er e po r t ed t oh ave a l r eady h ad s wo rd sw i th L a t in i n sc r ip t ion sa nd a r t i l le ry w hen t h eP o r tugue se f i r s ta r r ived ( d eA lbuque rque ,i :5 2&7 3 ) . P or tugue se i nnova t ions . D 'E r r ico h a sw r i t ten o fE u ropean i n f luence s o n t h e m i l i ta ry a r ch i tec tu r e o f Oman d u r ing t h e P o r tugue s e p e r iod ( d 'E r r ico 1 983 ) . T he 1 6 th c en tu ry w a s ap e r iod o f g r ea t t e chno log ica l d eve lopmen t i n E u rope ; t h e P o r tugue se b rough t many i n nova t ion si nb a l l i s t ic t e chno logy a nd m i l i ta ry d e s ign w i th t h em a nd t h e se a r ev i s ib le i ns ome o ft h e b u i ld ing sd 'E r r ico d e scr ibe s . D 'E r r ico p ropo se st h a tt h ed e s ign o ft h es u r( s ee c hap t e r3 )w i th i t sd i agona l ly o ppo sed c o rne rt owe r s ,w a st h er e su l to fa n o l de rI s lam ic mode l b e ing a dap ted t ot h e n eed so fg unpowde rw a rf a r e ( d 'E r r ico 1 983 : 2 98 ) . Wha teve rt h em e r i t s o ft h i sa r gumen t , a nd i tw i l l b e f u r the rd i scu s sed b e low , i ti su nc lea rw ha tp a r tt h e P o r tugue se w ou ld h ave p l ayed i nt h i s d eve lopmen t ; a sw e h ave n o t ed a bove t h e l o ca l p opu la t ion w e re a l r eady a rmed w i th a r t i l le ry b ef o r et h eP o r t ugue se a r r ived . D 'E r r ico a r gue st h a tt h e mo s ta dvanced m i l i ta ry t e chno logy w a s o n ly b rough tt ot h e l a rge rc en t r e s s u ch a s Mu sca ta nd , a sh e h im se lf p o in t s o u t , t h e P o r tugue se mo r eo f t en a dop ted t h es imp le rf o rm so fm i l i ta ry a r ch i t ec tu r ed ue t ot h el i m i t ed m anpowe ra tt h e i rd i spo sa l( d 'E r r ico 1 983 :3 00 ) . I twou ld s e em ,h oweve r ,t h a tt h eg r ea tr ound a r t i l le ry towe rf o r t r e s s o fN izwa a nd t h e s im i la rT owe r s2 8 a nd 4 8 i n R a s a l -Kha imah , a mong s t o t he r s , c ou ld b e d e r ived f r om t h e P o r tugue se a r t i l le ry t owe r ( c ava l ro ) w h ich i s m en t ioned i ns ome o ft h ef o r t s( f o re xamp le D iba , s e eb e low ) . H oweve r , d ' E r r ico s e e st h ed e s ign o fN izwa a so w ing n o th ing t oP o r tugue se i n f luence s( d 'E r r ico 1 983 : 3 03 ) . T he mo s t d e ta i led p i c tu r e o f aP o r tugue se f o r t i nt h e Mu sandam a r ea i sf r om E l L iv ro d o E s tad o d a I nd ia O r ien ta l , w r i t ten i n 1 646 a nd d e ta i l ing p o s se s s ion s i n t h e I nd ian o cean . T he r e i s al a rge i lu s t ra t ion o f t h e P o r tugue se f o r ta tD iba s how ing t h el a you to ft h et own a nd t h et h r ee f o r t sw h ich h ave n ow e n t i r e ly d i sappea r ed .I ti s k nown t ha t af o r t o fp robab ly s im i la r c on s t ruc t ion a l so e x i s ted a tJ u lf a r , b u t t h e f o r t w a s l o s t b y t h e P o r tugue se s ho r t ly b ef o r et h eL i v ro d oE s tado w a sc omp i led a nd i st h e r ef o r en o ti n c luded i nt h ew o rk . H e r ei st h ed esc r ip t ion o f D iba w r i t ten a tt h a tt ime : " De sc r ip t ion o ft he F or t re s so fD oh& T he f o r t re s s o f Dobä i st wo l e ague sf rom L ib id ia , n o r thwa rd s a l ong t h e c oa s t . I ti sb u i l t i nt h e s hape o fa s qua r e w i th f ou rr ound b a s t ion s i nt h ec orne r sa nd a na r t i l le ry t ow e r[ ca va l ro ] i nt h em idd le w i th aw e l l . E ach w a l li ss even b rwa sl o ng a ndf ou ri nh e igh ta nd e l even p a lmo s i nw id th . I ti sm ad eo fs t one a nd h a s p a rape t s . I n s id et h ef o r t re s st h e r ei sah ou se f o rt h eC ap ta in , aC hur ch a nd a nu nd e rg round w a rehou se f o r a mmun i t ion ; t h e re a re h o l low s pa ce sa mong t h eb a s t ion sf o rs t o r ing p rov i s ion s . A sw e l la st h i st h ef o r t re s s h a sa n o u te rf ence w h i ch i sv e ry l o ng a nd i sb u i l t i nt h es hape o f as qua re w i th f i ve b a s t ion s , o ne o ft h em o ve r t h eg a te a nd t h e o t he rf ou r i nt h e c orne r s . T he g a te i su sed a s ag ua rd ' s q ua r te r s . E ach w a l l i s2 5 b rava s l ong a nd t wo a nd a h a lf b rava s h igh ; i ti sm ad e o fa d obe w i th l o opho l e s b e cau se t h e r e a re n o p a rape t s . T he re a re h ou se sf o rt h es o ld ie r s i n s id et h i se nc lo su re .

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T here i s at own w h ich i sn o tf a rf rom t h i sf or t re s s w h ich i sa l so s ur round ed b y aw a l lo ft h es ame h e igh ta s t h e e nc lo su re w i th f ou r r ound b a s t ion s . T he t own m ay h a ve m ore t h an o ne t h ousand i n hab i tan t s a l l o f t h em a rab m oo r s , b u tv e t ) )f ew s o ld ie r s . T h i sf or t re s s h a sn i ne p iece s o fa r t i l le iy , i n c lud ing f a l coe s , m idd le f a lcoe sa nd b ercos . N ea r t h i sf o r t re s s o fD obä t h e re i s af or ti n ap lace w h i ch i sc a l led Dubo o n t h e e dge o ft h ep a lm g rove o n t h e b each . I ti smad e o fa dobe a nd i ti sn o m ore t han ab ig , r ound b a s t ion o fm ad e o fg a r re t , ab ig r ound c ava l ro , as ma l lc a va l ro n ea rby a nd aw e l li n s id ew he re t h ere a re t h i r ty l a sca r in sw i th amocadao . N ea rby t h ere i s av i l lage o ft wo h und red i n hab i tan t s w i th o n ly t wo b a s t ion st od ef end i tb ecau se i ts t i l ln eed st ob e w a l led , a l though t h ew a l lh a sa l read yb een s t a r ted . T here i sa no the rf or t i n t h i s p lace a t t h e o t he r e nd o ft h e p a lm g rove o n t h e b each w h i ch i sc a l led Mocomb i ra , t h ree q ua r t e r s o f al e ague f rom D obä , w here t h e re a re 3 00 i n hab i tan t s , mo s to ft h em s a i lor s . I ti se nc lo sed b y ar ound w a l lo ft h es ame a dobe w i th f ou rb a s t ion s . T he i n hab i tan t s make t h e i rl i v ing f rom t h ep a lms a ndf i sh ing f o rf i sh a nd p ea r l s ." ( d eR esende , f o l io 1 5 1-152 ) . T h i s p assage d e scr ibe s af a i r ly t y p ica l P or tugue se f o r t o n t h e s ho re s o f t h e I nd ian O cean s u r rounded b y a n umbe r o fr e la ted d ef ended s e t t lemen t s o fl o ca l p eop le a nd s o ld ie r s . T he c en t ra l p a r t o ft h e f o r t w a s b u i l t o fs t one w h i l s tt h eo u te rw a l l sa nd t h ed ef ence so ft h e o u t ly ing s e t t lemen t sa r eb u i ld o fa dobe . T he 1 7 th t oe ar ly 1 9 th c en tur ie s . T he re i sa ga in v e ry l i t t le w h ich c an b e s pec if ica l ly d a ted t ot h i s p e r iod . Al o ca l s ou rce , t h e Ka shf a l -Ghumma , c omp i led i n1 728 ,r e f e r st oa na tack o nJ u lf a rw h ich o ccu r red s ome t ime a f t e r 1 625 : " There w a s af l ank ing t owe rc onnec t ed b y aw a l l w i th t h ef or t , a nd i nt h i s t owe r w e re s t a t ioned ab a c4, o ft h e g ar r i son w ho k ep tu p af i re b yn igh ta nd d ay . O n t h es ea s i d e t h e re w e re a l so t wo s h ips o ft h eC h r i s t ian s , w h ich b yt h ef i re o ft h e i rg un sp ro tec ted t h ef or tf rom a s sau l tb y t h e Mu sa lmän s . T he l a t ter d e term ined t o a t tack t h et ower , w h ich t h ey s e i zed b y an igh ta s sau l t , a nd f rom t h ence t h ey g a ined p o s se s s ion o ft h ef or t , o ne o ft h el e ad er so ft h ea rmy w a sp laced t h ere a s Wa l l ." ( Ro s s 1 874 : 1 60 ) . F rom t h i s t ime u n t i lt h e f i r s tB r i t i sh s u r vey st h e re i sp rac t ica l ly n o h i s to r ica l i n f o rma t ion r e la ted t ot h e d ef ence s o fR a s a l -Kha imah . I ti sc l ea rf r om an umbe ro fp o in t s i nt h e e a r ly B r i t ish r e co rd s t h a tt owe r s a l ready e x i s ted , b o th o nt h ec oa s ta nd i n land ,b u tn o a d equa te d e sc r ip t ion i sg i ven . 1 819 a nd a f ter . I nD ecembe r 1 8 19 aB r i t i sh e xped i t ion wa s l a unched a ga in s t R a s a l -Kha imah a nd o t he r p o r t s i nt h e G u lf . T he e xped i t ion , wh ich w a s c ommanded b y S i r W .G . K e i r , s a i led f r om B ombay a nd a r r ived o f f R a s a l -Kha imah o n D ecembe r2 nd , 1 8 19 . T he a t tack o nt h et own l a s ted f o rs even d ay s , t h et own f a l l ing o nt h e 9 th . T he e xped i t ion t h en moved o n t o a l -Ram s a nd D ayya b ef o re r e ce iv ing t h e c ap i tu la t ion o ft h e s ha i l ch s o ft h e e n t i re c oa s t w ho s i gned a t r ea ty o f ma r i t ime p ea ce a tR a sa l -Kha imah i ne a r ly 1 820 . I ts e ems t h a tt h e s u cces s o ft h i s e xped i t ion , w h ich o n ly i n vo lved t h e c ap tu re b y f o r ce o fR a s a l -Kha imah t own a nd D ayya f o r t , w a s d ue i ng r ea t p a r t t o t h e s imp le a dvan tage o f t wo 2 4 -pounde r c annons w h ich t h e B r i t ish e mp loyed t od eva s ta t ing e f ec ta ga in s tt h e d ef ence s o fb o th o ft h e f o r t s . O therw ise i ts e em st h a tt h e d ef ence so fR a s a l -Kha imah , a nd p robab ly a l so t h o se o fD ayya , w e re a b le t ow i th s tand t h e s ma l le r 1 2a nd 1 8 -pounde rc annon sq u i te s u cce s sfu l ly . A n o f ice r o f t h e B ombay Ma r ine w ho w a s p r e sen t a tt h e a s sau l t o n R a s a l -Kha imah g ave t h e f o l low ing d e scr ip t ion o ft h ed ef ence s : " T he t own w a s w a l led i na l ong t h e s ea f ace , a cro s s t h e e nd n ea re s t t h ep o in t , a nd a l so a cro s s t h e s ou th -we s t f ace , t h e w a l l s , w h ich w e re w e l l b u i l t , b e ing a bou t n i ne f ee t h igh a nd t wo f ee t t h ick . A t i n terva l s w ere r ound t owe r s a bou t t wen ty f ee t h igh , t h e l owe r h a lf o fs o l id ma sonry , a nd a s ma l l s t ore o r g ua rd -room b e tween t h i sp or t ion a nd t h e r oof w h ich w a s s u rround ed b y ap a rape t w i th l o opho le sf o rg un s i n s tead o f

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e mbra su re s . T he s i d e n ex t t h e c r eek w a s o pen , b u t h ad a n umbe r o fg un s p lan t ed a long i t . T o t h e s ou thwa rd o ft h et own w a s as qua r ef or t , o rg huny , i nw h ich w e re m oun ted s ome s ma l lg un s . O nt h ei s land o f Maha ra , o ppo s i te t h e t own , w a sa l so as t rong t owe r , a nd t h e re w e re s e ve ra lm o r e i nt h e d a t eg rove s . " ( Low 1 877 : 3 54 ) . A na rmy of i ce rw ho w a sa l so p re sen tg ave t h ef o l low ing a c coun to ft h ea t tack : " I tb e ingf ound t ha to u r1 2a nd 1 8 -pound e r sp roduced b u t as l igh ti mp re s s ion o nt h ew a l l sa nd t owe r s , w h i l et h e e nemy a va i led t h em se lve s o fo u r o wn s ho t t oa nnoy u sg rea t ly , a s t h ey f i t t ed e xac t l y t h e c a l ibre o ft h e i r g un s , i twa sr e so l ved t ha ts eve ra l2 4 -pound e r ss hou ld b ee r ec ted a s ab rea ch ing b a t t e ry . T wo 2 4 -pound e r s w e re a ccord ing ly l a nd ed , w i th c on s id e rab l e e xe r t ion ,f rom t h e ' L ive rpoo l ' , a nd h ad t ob e d ragged al o ng w ay t h rough d eep s and . t he 2 4 -pound e r s o pened o n t h e 8 t h [ o fD ecembe r ] w i th m a rk ed e f ec t , a nd t h e w a l l sa nd t owe r sa ppea red t os hak ea nd t o t t e ru nd e rt h ef or ce o ft h es ho t ." ( Low 1 877 :3 56 ) . Af t e r t h e B r i t i sh h ad c ap tu red R a s a l -Kha imah t h r ee s h ip s moved o n t oa t ta ck a l -Ram s . H owev e r , t h e l o ca l s ha i l ch h ad d ec ided t od e se r tt h et own a nd ,t o ge the rw i th 4 00 m en ,h e moved t oD ayya f o r tw he r eh eh oped t or e s i s t t h eB r i t i sh a t tack . AB r i t i sh s quad ron p roceed ed o ve r land f r om t h es h ip st oa t tack D ayya . T he s quad ron c on s i s t ed o f 3 0 a r t i l le rymen , t wo 1 2 -pounde r s , t wo 8 inch mo r ta r s a nd t wo f i e ld p i ece s p l u s t h e 6 5 th R eg imen t a nd f l ank c ompan ie s . Once t h e of i ce r i nc ha rge r e a l i sed t h e s t r eng th o f D ayya f o r t h e o rde r ed u p r e inf o r cemen t s w h ich i n c luded , o nce mo r e , t wo 2 4 -pounde r c annon s . B e ing m uch h eav ie r t h an t h e 1 2 -pound e r s t h e se c annon s w e r e e x t reme ly d if i cu l tt o manoeuve ra c ro s st h e c r eek a nd t h e m a r shy g round a nd t h i s c au sed t h e B r i t i sh much t r oub le a nd d e lay ( Low 1 877 :3 6 1) . K e i r ' sd e spa t ch t ot h e Ad ju tan tG ene ra lo ft h eA rmy g i ve st h e f o l low ing d e ta i l s : " A s t rong f or to n an e ighbour ing h i l l , c a l led Z a i r e [ Dayya ] , s t i l l h e ld o u t . T he d u ty u nd e r tak en b y t h es eamen w a s mo s ta rduou s i nt h i sc a se ; t wo 2 4 -pound e r sw e re d ragg ed b yt h ep oo rf e l low sf o r as pa ce o ft wo m i l e s o ve rr ough a nd s wampy g round A f t e rb a t te r i e s h ad b een e r ec t ed , ab r i sk c annonad ew a s k ep tu pa ga in s t t h ef or t , a nd s he l l sw e re t h rown w i thou ti n t e rm i s s ion . T he f i r ing w a s u n rem i t t ing a nd t r emendou s . T h ef o r t w a s d eemed q u i t e i mpregnab le b y t h e n a t i ve s , b u t t h ey h ad s oon s peed y r ea son f o r e n te r ta in ing a m or te ing b e l ief t ot h ec on t ra ry ;t h e ya cco rd ing ly m an if e s ted aw i sh t oc ap i tu la te ." ( Low 1 877 : 3 62 ) . T he f o r tf ma l ly c ap i tu la ted o nt h e2 2nd o fD ecembe r , 1 8 19 a nd t h et r ea ty w a ss i gned i nJ anua ry 1 820 . T he r epo r t s o fs eve ra l o t he r of i ce r s w ho t o ok p a r t i nt h e a t tack s h ave b een c o l lec ted ; o ne o ft h em r e coun t st h e f o l low ing : " t he w a l l so ft h es e ve ra lg ooha r r ie sa nd t owe r sw e re f i ve a nd ah a lff ee tt h ick , a nd s os t rong a nd w e l lb u i l ta st o r end e rt h em i mpregnab le t oa l l , e xcep tE uropean a r t i l l e ry ." ( Low 1 877 : 3 57 ) . T he 1 820 t r ea ty i n c luded t h ed e s t ruc t ion o fa l f o r t sa nd d ef ence s o ft h ec oa s ta lt own si n c lud ing a l -Ram s , R a sa l K ha imah , a l Jaz i ra ta l -Ham ra , Umm a l -Qa iwa in , A jman a nd a l -Sha r jah , a nd t h i s w a s d u ly c a r r i ed o u tw i thou t a ny r e s i s tance b e ing m e t( Low 1 877 : 3 63 ) . I ts e em s ,t h e r ef o r e , q u i t e l i ke ly t h a tt h i s e xped i t ion m a rk s at u rn ing p o in ti n t h e d e s ign o ft h e c oa s ta l d ef ence s b o th i nR a s a l -Kha imah a nd o t he r Em i ra t e s : f i r s t ly , a l l s t and ing d ef ence s w e r e d e s t royed a nd n eeded e ven tua l ly t ob er e bu i l t , a nd s e cond ly , t h e s hock o fs e e ing t h e e f ec to f a2 4 -pounde rc annon o nt h ef i ve -f oo t th ick w a l l s mu s th ave c au sed ar e con s ide ra t ion o ft h e d e s ign a nd p o s i t ion ing o fd ef ence sb u i l ta f t e r t h i s a t tack . A s K e i rm en t ion s i nh i s d e spa t che s , b ef o r e 1 8 19 D ayya f o r tw a s d eemed b yt h e l o ca l st ob e i n v in c ib le , y e t i tw a s f o rced t os u r rende r a f t e r o n ly am o rn ing ' s a ten t ion f r om o ne o ft h e 2 4 -pound e r s . I ti sr e co rded t h a t i n 1 8 16 as ho r tp un i t ive s a lvo w h ich h ad b een f i r ed a ga in s tR a s a l -Kha imah f r om t h es e ah ad t h ee f ec to fs pu r r ing t h e o ccupan t so ft h et own i n to s t r eng then ing t h e i rd ef ence s( K e l ly 1 968 : 1 52 ) . I n 1 823 , s ho r t ly a f t e r t h e d e s t ruc t ion o ft h e d ef ence s , C o lone l K enne t t a nd C ap ta in F a i thf u l l v i s i t ed t h e c oa s t . T he i r r e po r t make s c l ea r t h a t t h e f o r t s a ta l -Ram s , D ayya a nd R a s a l -Kha imah w e r e s t i l l i nr u in s ( I nd ia Of ice R eco rd sP / 385 /33 : 2 406 ) . A tt h i st ime aC ap ta in MacLeod m e tS ha ikh S u l tan b .S aq r ,t h er u le ro fa l -Sha r jah :

8

" Soo l tan b i n S ugge r e xpre s sed g r ea t a nx ie ty t ob e a l lowed t oe rec ts ome d ef ence s t oward s t h e l a nd s id e o ft h e t own t or epe lt h eB edou in s , w ho h es a id t o ok a d van tage o ft h ed ef ence le s ss t a te o ft h ep lace , t oc ome d own a nd a t tack i td ur ing t h ep ea r lf i sh ing s ea son w hen a l l t h e m en a re a ts ea , a nd n o o ne l e f t b eh ind b u t w omen a nd c h i ld ren . H es a id h eh ad n ow i sh t oe r ec ta ny w ork s t oward st h es ea , o re ven w i th in g un sho to f t h es hore , a nd t ha t , a l though h e h ad s ur rend e red h i sg un s a nd t owe r s t ob e d e s t royed b yS i r W . G . K e i r , y e th eh ad n o tb ound h im se lf n o tt oe r ec to t he rd ef ence s ." ( I nd ia O ff i ce R eco rd sP / 385 /33 :2 508 ) . I ti st r ue t ha tt h et r ea ty d i dn o tp r ec lude t h e s h a ikh s f r om r e bu i ld ing t h e i r d ef ence s , s ol o ng a st h ey d i dn o tt h rea ten t h e ma r i t ime p eace ( I nd ia O ff i ce R eco rd sP / 385 /33 : 2 429 ) . A l lc oa s ta lt owe r s s t i l l s t and ing m u s tt h e ref o re d a te t ol a te rt han 1 8 19 , e ven i fmany o ft h em w e re b u i l tu pon t h e r u in s o fe a r l ie rt owe r s . H oweve r , i ti su n l ike ly t h a tt owe r s i nt h e i n te r io rw ou ld h ave b een d e s t royed b y t h e B r i t i sh e xped i t ion . T he t owe r s i n t h e d a te g r ove s n ea r t o R a s a l -Kha imah t own w e re m en t ioned i nt h e 1 820 t r ea t ie s ( A i tch i son 1 929 , x i : 2 41) . O the r , s l igh t ly l a te r ,r e f e r ence st ot h e ' s t rong h ou se s o ft h es ha ikh s ' ( I nd ia Of f i ce R eco rd s P / 385 /33 : 2 530 ) s ugge s t t h a t t h e h ou se towe r s w e re n o t d e s t royed , a l though d a t ing t h em mo r e p r ec i se ly f r om h i s to r ica l r e co rd s i sn o t p o s s ib le . I to ugh t , h oweve r , t ob e p os s ib le t od a te t h e c on st ruc t ion o ft h e c oa s ta l t owe r s f r om h i s to r ica l r e co rd s . T he p l an s a nd w a te rco lou rv i ew s o ft h e c oa s t l ine , w h ich w e re m ade d u r ing t h e f i r s t s urvey o fc a r r ied o u t i n 1 822 ( Hough ton 1 822b ) , s how l a rge r ound t owe r s s t and ing i n s id e t h e t own a l Jaz i ra t a l -Ham ra ( F ig s . 2& 3 ) . H oweve r , T owe r s 3 , 8a nd 9w h ich a r e l o ca ted a ts t ra teg ic p o in t s d on o ta ppea ri na ny o ft h er e co rd s o ft h e 1 822 s u rvey ( e g . C ogan & G uy 1 822 ; H ough ton 1 822b , U l Umrah f rom t h ea nchorage . ( F ig . 3 ) ) . T he se t h ree t owe r s a r e s ome o ft h e b e s t l a ndma rk s a l ong t h e c oa s t o fR a s a l -Kha imah a nd wou ld , h ad t h ey e x i s ted , h ave b een e qua l ly c on sp icuou s i n1 822 . U nf or tuna te ly ,t h e s e r ie so fc ha r t s made b yt h e B r i t i sh A dm i ra l ty p rove t ob e o fl i t t le a s s i s tance . T he ma in c ha r t o ft h i s a r ea i se n t i t led ' En t rance o ft h e P e r s ian G u lf ( Adm i ra l ty , L ondon . B r i t ish L ib ra ry R ef : S EC .12 . (753) ) a nd w a s p roduced i n as e r ie s o fe d i t ion s f r om 1 872 u n t i l 1 9 32 . L andma rk s s u ch a st owe r s w e re n o t r e co rded o n t h i s c ha r tu n t i l 1 9 11 ; w h i l s tt h ee d i t ion o ft h e2 5 th o fJ a nua ry 1 9 11 s how sn ot owe r sa ta l ,t h ee d i t ion o f1 3 th S ep tembe r 1 9 11 s hows t owe r si na l l o ft h et own so ft h e Em i ra te s c oa s t i n c lud ing T owe r s 8a nd 9 .T he re i s ,h oweve r , a ne a r l ie r r e co rd o fT owe r s 8a nd 9i n as k e t ch m ap o fR a sa l -Kha imah made i n1 9 10 (Wa l te r 1 9 10 ) . T he d escr ip t ion s i nt h e P e r s ian G u lf P i lo t a r e a l so s l igh t ly p rob lema t ic ; i nt h e f i r s te d i t ion o f1 864 a l -Jaz i ra t a l H am ra i sd escr ibed t hu s : " Jaz i ra ta l Hamra i s af o r ta nd t own S .W . b y W . 1 0m i le sf rom R a sa l -Khe imeh , b u i l to na ni s landf ormed b yt h e K hor . T he f or th a s 5o r 6t ower s , a nd 3o r 4r ound t r ee s i ni t ,o ne o fw h i ch i sl a rge a nd c on sp icuou s , a nd c l o se t ot h i s i sah igh s qua re t owe rw i th t wo r ow s o fw indow s : t h ere i sa l so at a l ls l end e rt owe ra tt h ew e s t o ft h et own ." ( Pe r s ian G u lf P i lo t , i s te d i t ion , 1 864 : 7 8 ) . F rom t h i sd e scr ip t ion i ti sn o tc l ea rw he the rt h e' 5o r 6t owe r s ' o ft h ef o r tm igh ti n c lude t h et wo t owe r s s i tua ted a k i lome t re o u t s ide t h e t own o ve r look ing i tf r om t h e s a nd d une s ; t h i s l o ca t ion i ss o c on sp icuou s t h a t i tm igh t b e e xpec ted t o b e s pec if i ca l ly m en t ioned i nt h e P i lo t . S ub sequen t e d i t ion s o ft h e P i lo t c on ta in v e ry much t h e s ame d e sc r ip t ion . H oweve r , i nt h e 1 954 s upp lemen t t ot h e 1 942 e d i t ion t h e re i s av i ew o f a l -Jaz i ra t a l -Ham ra w h ich s hows T owe r s 8a nd 9v e ry c l ea r ly ( Supp lemen tN o . 7 .1 954 . R e la t ing t ot h e P e r s ian G u lf P i lo t , 9 t h e d i t ion , 1 942 : 2 6 ) . T he d esc r ip t ion o ft h e t own , t h ough , i sa lmo s t i d en t ica l t o t h a t i nt h e 1 864 e d i t ion a pa r t f r om a f ew m ino r d e ta i ls : " T here i s af or t w h ich h a s s e ve ra lt ower s a nd i nw h ich t h ere a re af ew r ound t r ee s ; c l o se t ot h ef or t i s ah igh s qua re t ower w i th t wo r ow s o fw indow s , a nd ah igh s l end e r t ower s t and sa tt h e w e s te rn e nd o ft h e t own ." ( Pe r s ian G u lf P i lo t ,9 t he d i t ion , 1 942 : 1 60 ) . T h i s wou ld c on f i rm t h a tt h e' 5o r 6t owe r s ' a r em ean tt oi n c lude T owe r s 8a nd 9a nd t h e ref o r e s ugges t s t h a tt h ey w e r eb u i l tb ef o re 1 864 w hen t h ey w e re d e sc r ibed i nt h i sw ay i nt h e f i r s te d i t ion o ft h e P i lo t . T hu sw e c an d a te t h e i r c on s truc t ion t o b e tween 1 822 a nd 1 864 . T he o n ly p o in t o f d oub t i st h a t t h e re m ay h ave b een t owe r s i nt h e se l o ca t ions w h ich w e re s y s tema t ica l ly d e s t royed b y t h e B r i t ish d u r ing t h e 1 8 19 e xped i t ion ( Low 1 877 : 3 63 ) . A l though t h e re i sn o e v idence o fr e bu i ld ing i nt h e s t ruc tu res t h emse lve s t h e re i s ad e sc r ip t ion w r i t ten i n 1 8 18 b y C ap ta in T ay lo r :

9

F igu r e 2 .T r igonome tr ica lP lan o ft h e B ackwa t e ra t U I Umrah o n t h eA rab ian s i d e o ft h e P er s ian G u lf L i eu t t . C ogan , u nd e rt h e d i r ec t ion o fL t . J .M . G uy , H .C . Ma r in e . 1 822 . B yp e rm i s s ion o fT he B r i t i sh L ib ra ry , I nd ia Of f ic e R eco rd sX / 3686 .

1 0

F igu r e 3 .U i Umrah f r om t h ea nchorag ei nC oa s t f r ew st a k en w h i l e e mp loy ed o n t h e S u rvey o ft h eA ra b ian S id e o f t h e G u lf o fP e r s ia . L i eu t . M . H ough ton , D raugh t sman , H .C . Ma r ine , 1 822 . B y p e rm i s s ion o fT h e B r i t i sh L ib rar y ' , I nd ia O ff ic eR eco rd sX / 10310 / 11 .

1

" E l even m i l e s SW . b y W . 1 / 2W . o fR a s -oo l -Khyma i ss i tua t ed as ma l l , l ow , s and yi s land , c on ta in ing f ou rh und r ed h ou se s , d ef end ed b yb a s t ion s , e r ec t ed i nt h em o s tc ommand ing p o s i t ion s . . .and i sc a l l ed b yt h eA rab sJ a z i ra t o o l -Hamra ." ( Tay lo r 1 818 : 1 5 ) . A l though n o t ad i r ec t r e f e r ence t o T owe r s 8a nd 9t h i s d e sc r ip t ion c ou ld r e f e r t o t owe r s b u i l t o n t h e s and h i l l s b eh ind t h et own . T owe r 3i sm en t ioned q u i te s pec if ica l ly f o rt h ef i r s tt i me i nt h e6 t he d i t ion o ft h eP e r s ian G u lf P i lo ti s sued i n1 9 15 : " The re i sa l so ac i rcu la r w h i t e t owe r o n t h es umm i t o ft h e 8 0 -f oo th i l l s , a bou t 2m i le ss ou thwa rd o ft h ef o r t ." ( Pe r s ian G u lf P i lo t ,6 t he d i t ion , 1 9 15 : 7 3 ) . I tw a sn o t , h oweve r , m en t ioned i nt h e 5 t h e d i t ion o f 1 908 o r i np r ev iou s e d i t ion s . N e i the r i si ts hown o n t h e s k e tch m ap o fR a s a l -Kha imah d a ted 1 9 10 ( men t ioned a bove ) , a l though i th a s b een a dded t o al a te re d i t ion o ft h i s s ame m ap i s sued i n1 936 . Mo re p rec i se ly , T owe r 3i sn o t s hown o n t h e 1 3 /9 / 1911 e d i t ion o ft h e ' En t r ance o ft h e P e r s ian G u lf c ha r tw he r e a l l o t he rc oa s ta lt owe r s a r e s hown , b u t i ti sm a rked o nt h e 2 9 /9 / 19 16 e d i t ion o ft h e s ame c ha r t ,t h e r eby a low ing u st od a te i t sc on s t ruc t ion t ow i th in t h e se f i ve y ea r s . T h i si smuch l a te rt h an w as p ropo sed i n ap r ev iou sr epo r to nt h et owe r s( Kenne te ta l . 1 993 : 1 6 ) ;t h en o te c i t ed t h e r e d oe sn o tr e f e rt oT owe r 3b u tt oT owe r 6 . T he T ower si nu se . A s i so u t l ined i nc hap t e r 3 ,t h e s t one -bu i l t r ound t owe r s may f o rm p a r t o f ac en t ra l ly -o rgan ized d ef en s ive s y s t em , t h e ma in tenance o fw h ich w a s p robab ly p a id f o r f r om t a x r e venu e ( Hea rd -Bey 1 982 : 8 6 ) . S uch as y s t em w ou ld h ave r e qu i r ed ar e t inue o fs o ld ie r st o man t h et owe r s a nd t or e spond t oa t ta ck s . T he f o l low ing n o t e , r e f e r r ing t ot h eG ove rno ro fR a sa l -Kha imah ,i si n te r e s t ing : " . .H e . . .ha su nd e rh i so rd e r s af orce o f7 0 ' A sk e r so ra rmed r e ta ine r st om an t h et owe r sa nd o t herw i se d ef end t h e p lace i fr equ i red T here a re s a id t ob e s e ve ra l h und red s o fr i f l e s i nt h e t own a l so , t h e o wne r s o fw h i ch w ou ld p a r t ic ipa te i nr epe l l ing a na t tackf rom o u t s id e ." ( Lo r ime r 1 908 : 1 009 ) . B e tween 1 853 a nd 1 892 t h e r e w a s as u cce s s ion o fp e t ty w a r s b e tween d if e ren t t own s a nd s ha i l ch s ( Lo r ime r 1 9 15 : 7 31) . S uch u n re s t w ou ld h ave i n c r ea sed t h e i mpo r tance o fe f f ec t ive d ef ence s . T he f o l low ing n o te , w h ich r e f e r st ot h ey ea r 1 840 ,g ive sa n i lu s t ra t ion o ft h e i mpo r tance o ft h et owe r st ot h e d ef ence o ft h et own s u nde rs u ch c ond i t ion s : " . .Sha ikh S u l tan -b in -Saq r , w ho w a s b y n o m ean ss a t i sf i ed w i th t h e b l ow w h ich h i s s on a nd a l ly h ad d ea l tt h e S ha ikh o f Umm -a l -Qa iwa in , m ad e aw e l l -o rgan i sed e f or t t or ed uce t h a tp or t . W h i l e h eh im se lf w i th 7 00 B edou in s i n ve s t ed t h ep lace b y l a nd , af l ee t o f 3B agh lah s a nd 6 0 B aqa rah s , c ommand ed b y S aq r -b in S u l tan a nd t h e S ha ikh o fD iba i a nd c a r r y ing 1 , 500 m en , p roceed ed t ob lockad e i tb y s ea ; b u t at ow e r , s i tua ted a tt h ee n t rance , p reven t ed t h e b oa t sf rom e n te r ing t h e b ackwa te r o rc reek , w i thou tp o s se s s ion o f w h i ch t h e b l ockad e c ou ld n o t b e m ad e e f ec t i ve . A n e n t ren chmen t c ove r ing t h i s t owe r w a s t a ken b y a l a nd ing p a r ty o ft h eQ awa s im , b u tt h ey w e r eb ea ten b ack f rom t h et owe ri t se lf w i th t h el o s s o f 8m en k i l l ed a nd 4 0w ound ed . ." ( Lo r ime r 1 915 : 7 16 ) . H oweve r , i ti su n l ike ly t h a t s uch a t tack s w e r e e ve r v e ry h eavy o rp ro longed . A s h a s b een i lu s t ra t ed i nt h e r e po r t so ft h eB r i t i sh a t tack o nD ayya , mov ing c annon a r ound o ve rt h er ugged t e r ra in o fR a sa l -Kha imah w a sn eve r e a sy a nd t h e a ppa ren ts u scep t ib i l i ty o fs ome o ft h et owe r st oa r t i l le ry a ta ck n eed s t ob e s e en i nt h i s l i gh t . I ti sa l so p robab le t h a tt h et y pe s o ft r iba l s o ld ie r s w ho t o ok p a r t i nt h e se a t ta ck s w e r e f a i r ly l o o se ly o rgan iz ed a nd n eed ed t o r e tu rn t oo t he ro ccupa t ion sa f te r ap er iod o fr a id ing ,m ean ing t h a te x tended s i ege sw ou ld h ave b een u ncommon . A n of i ce ro ft h eB ombay Ma r ine made t h ef o l low ing r ema rk sa f t e rt h e 1 8 19 e xped i t ion : f o rt h eA rab sh a ve n o i d ea o fp r o t rac ted o pe ra t ion s , a nd c onc lud ed t h a t i fw ed id n o ts ucceed i n af ew d ay s t h en w es hou ld r e t i re ." ( Low 1 877 : 3 58 ) .

1 2

I nt h e l a te 1 9 th c en tu ry t h e re w a s c on s ide rab le u n re s t b e tween t h e p eop le o fR a s a l -Kha imah a nd s ome o ft h e moun ta in t r ibe sr ound a bou t . I no ne i n c iden t , r e po r ted ly i n1 888 , s eve ra lt ownsmen w e re mu rde red i no u t ly ing d a te p l an ta t ion s a nd 2 00 d a te -pa lm s w e r e d e s t royed a tK han ( Lo r ime r 1 9 15 : 7 35 ) . T he h ou se towe r s a nd t h e mud -br ick r ound t owe r sw ou ld h ave b een d e s igned t oc oun te rt h i ss o r to ft h rea t . C onc lus ion . F rom t h ed e scr ip t ion s a nd c l a s s if i ca t ion o ft h et owe r st h e re a ppea rt ob et wo c a tego r ie s o fd ef en s ive a r ch i tec tu re r e p resen ted i nt h e t owe r s o fR a s a l -Kha imah : o ne p r iva te a nd t h e o t he r p ub l ic , d i s t ingu i sh ing t ho se t owe r s o wned a nd ma in ta ined b y i nd iv idua l s a nd t h o se o wned a nd m a in ta ined b y av i l lage , at r ibe o r a n e m i ra te . T he p hy s ica l d if e rence s b e tween t h e h ou se towe r s a nd t h e s t one -bu i l t r ound t owe r s t y p if y s uch ad i s t inc t ion . T he ma in t h rea t s wh ich t h et owe r s w e re i n tended t od ef end a ga in s t w e re s po rad ic r a id ing b yt h e s em i -nomad ic t r ibe s o ft h e i n te r io r o n t h e o ne h and a nd t h e mo r e o rgan ized i n te r -em i ra te f i gh t ing w h ich w en t o n f o r much o ft h e 1 9 th c en tu ry o n t h e o t he r . I ti sd if i cu l t t o c l a r ify t h e c h rono log ica l d eve lopmen t o ft h e t owe r s a nd t h e d if e ren t i n f luence s w h ich h ave mou lded t h e i r d eve lopmen t . I tc ou ld b e s a id t h a t t h e s ur , o rt h e s imp le s qua re f o r t d ef ended b y c o rne r t owe r s , i s r e la ted i ns ome w ay t o many o ft h et y pe s o ft owe r sr e co rded i nR a s a l -Kha imah . T he h ou se towe rw i th i t sa t ta ched d ome s t ic c ou r tya rd -hou se i sr e a l ly n o th ing mo r e t han ap r iva te s ur . I ti sa l so l i ke ly t h a tt h e o lde r s t one -bu i l tr ound t owe r s i nt h et own s o fa l -Ram s a nd a l Jaz i ra t a l -Ham ra ( Towe r s 3 4 &4 5 ) o r ig ina ted a sc or n e rt owe r s a t tached t oa s u r wh ich w a s d e s t royed i n 1 8 19 , a nd i ti su pon t h e se i n d iv idua l t owe r st h a tt h e l a te ri s o la ted v e r s ion s a ppea rt ob e mode l led ( Towe r s3 , 8 ,9 & 2 9 ) . Wha tt h en i st h eo r ig in o ft h es u r? T he re a r et wo p o s s ib le a nswe r st ot h i sq ue s t ion . T he f i r s ti st h a ti tr e p re sen t sa l o ng , u nb roken b u t a lmo s t u n reco rded d eve lopmen t f r om t h e e a r ly I s lam ic f o r t s s u ch a s t ho se f r om S i raf a nd B ah ra in m en t ioned a bove . T h i s i sd ' E r r ico ' s v i ew ( d 'E r r ico 1 983 : 2 98 ) . T he o t he rp o s s ib le a n swe r i st ha t t h es u r i s b a sed u pon aP or tugue se i n nova t ion r e p re sen ted b y f o r t s s uch a st h a t d e sc r ibed a tD iba . I np rac t ice t h e re i sv e ry l i t t le d if e rence b e tween t h e se t wo t y pe s . I th a s b een n o ted a bove t h a t d e A lbuque rque d e sc r ibed as qua re f o r t a t S uha r wh ich w a s a ppa ren t ly v e ry s im i la r t o as ur , s ugge s t ing t h a t s uch b u i ld ing s d i d e x i s t b ef o re t h e P o r tugue se c ou ld h ave a f ec ted l o ca la r ch i tec tu re .

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C hap te r3 . T ypo logy a nd F unc t ion . W i th f ew e xcep t ion st h et owe r sf a l li n to an umbe ro ft y pe sw h ich a r e d e t erm ined o nt h eb a s i so fd e s ign , l o ca t ion a nd f e a tu re s . T hese t y pe s a r e b r ie f ly d e sc r ibed h e re a l ong w i th s ome d i scu s s ion o f t h e i r p o s s ib le o r ig in a nd f unc t ion . T he Hou se tower . T owe r s : 1 ,4 ,5 ,1 0 , 1 , 1 2 , 1 3 ,2 0 ,2 2 ,2 3 ,2 4 , 3 2 , 3 6 , 3 7 ,4 2 ,4 4 ,4 7 , 5 2 , 5 7 . T he r e c tangu la r t owe r s k nown l o ca l ly a s m urabba 'a , o fw h ich 1 9 e xamp le s a r e k nown f r om R a s a l -Kha imah , a r eb yf a rt h ec ommone s tt owe r si nt h e Em i ra te .A l though t h e re i s ac e r ta in a moun to fd ive r s i ty a mong s tt h em ,t h e re a r e a l so f e a tu res wh ich t h ey h ave i nc ommon a nd w h ich d i s t ingu ish t h em v e ry c l ea r ly f r om o t he rt y pe s o ft owe r s : t h e f l oo r p l an i sr e c tangu la r a nd i si n d i s t ingu i shab le f r om t h e p l an o ft h e l o ca l mud -b r ick h ou se s ; t h e re a r e t h ree s t o rey s -t h e u ppe rmo s t b e ing u n roof ed a nd s u r rounded b y ap a rape t w a l l ; t h e re a r e u sua l ly t wo d oo r s , o ne a bove t h e o t he r , o ne o n t h e g round f l oo ra nd o ne o nt h e f i r s t ; t h e f i r s t -f loo r d oo r o pen s o n to as ma l lt e r race s uppo r ted o n p i l la r s ;t h e re i su sua l ly as e r ie so fl a rge f l oo r leve lw indow s o nt h e f i r s tf l oo rw h ich , w h i l s ta low ing a i rt oc i rcu la te , c on s ide rab ly w eaken t h e t owe r 's d ef en s ive p o t en t ia l ; mo s t c ommon ly a n i n te rna l s t a i rca se o f mud b r ick o r wood l e ad sb e tween t h e g round a nd f i r s t f l oo r s a nd ac or n e r l a dde rb e tween t h e f i r s t a nd s e cond f l oo r s ; t h e g r ound f l oo r h a sn ow indow sa nd t h e re i so f t en p r ov i s ion f o rs o l id ly b a r r ing t h e d oo ri nc a se o fa t tack ;t h ef i r s tf l oo ru sua l ly h a sa r ow , o rr ow s , o fl o op h o le s a nd v e r t ica l f i r ing s l o t s , a sd oe s t h e p a rape tw a l l o n t h e s e cond f l oo r ; c annon p o r t s a nd h ooded f i r ing p o in t s a r e n o t u sua l ly f ound o n s u ch t owe r s , a l though t h ey a r e k nown i n t owe r s w h ich h ave u nde rgone l a te ra dap ta t ion . T he b u i ld ing ma te r ia l v a r ie s w i th t h e a r ea ; mo s tc ommon i ss t one a nd mo r ta rb u t many t owe r sa r eb u i l tf r om mud b r ick a nd af ew f r om c obb le sa nd mor ta r . I n mo s t c a se s h ou se towe r s a r e a tached t o ac ou r tya rd h ou se c on s i s t ing o f al a rge , r e c tangu la r , c ou r tya rd e nc lo su re ( F ig . 4 .P la te 5 9 ) . T he b ack w a l l o ft h e t owe r i su sua l ly i n corpo ra ted i n to t h e o u te rw a l l o ft h e c our tya rd a nd t h e d oo r f a ce s i n to t h e c en t r e . A round t h e c ou r tya rd i ti sn orma l t o f i nd a n umbe r o f d ome s t ic b u i ld ing s i n c lud ing ar e cep t ion r oom ( ma j l i s ) , as l eep ing r oom , ac ook ing a r ea a nd o f t en aw e l l . S uch t owe r s a r e u sua l ly s i tua ted a mong s tt h ed a te -pa lm g r ove so nt h e o u t sk i r t s o fv i l lage s . T he i rd i s t r ibu t ion a l ong t h ep l a in s how st h a tt h ey t e nd t ob ep o s i t ioned t owa rd st h ee a s ter ns i de o ft h e c u l t ivab le a r ea ; t h is m ay b er e la ted t ot h e l o ca t ion o fw e l l s a nd t h eb e s ts o i ls ( F ig . 5 ) . H ou se towe r sa r ed i s t r ibu ted o ve rt h ew ho le o ft h en or ther nh a lf o fR a sa l -Kha imah ,t h e re b e ing o n ly o ne o rt wo e xamp le s i nt h e s ou th . T hey a r e mo s t d ense o n t h e n o r thern p a r t o ft h e p l a in d i rec t ly i n land f r om R a s a l -Kha imah t own w he re t h ea ve rage d i s tance b e tween t owe r s i sa bou t 1 . 3 k i lome t re s , b u ti sa sl i t t le a s3 50 m e t re si ns ome c a se s . I ti sc l ea rt h a tt h e h ou se towe r s h ad ad ua l d ome s t ic a nd d ef en s ive f unc t ion , b o th o fw h ich h ave a f ec ted t h e i r d e s ign a nd c on s t ruc t ion . T he s ma l l n umbe r o f h ou se towe r s i n c ompa r i son w i th t h e mo r e n ume rou s mud -br ick h ou se s o n t h e p l a in s ugge s t s t h a tt h ey r e p resen t t h e u ppe r e che lons o ft h e s e t t lemen t h i e ra r chy . T he t owe r s ' c l o se r e la t ion sh ip t o a g r icu l tu ra l l a nd a nd d ome s t ic c omp lexe s m igh t s ugges t t h a t t h ey w e re t h e r e s idence s o fv i l lage h eadmen o rw ea l th ie rf a rme r sw ho f e l tt h en eed t ob u i ld s ome d ef ens ive c apab i l i ty i n to t h e i rh ou se s . L ack ing c annon p o r t s a nd w eakened b y l a rge w indow s t h e h ou se towe r s w e re n o t s t rong ly f o r t if i ed a nd w e re o bv iou s ly d es igned o n ly f o r d ef ence a ga ins t t h e s po rad ic r a id ing o f l i gh t ly -a rmed t r ibe smen . A s w e l l a s t h e d ome s t ic a nd d ef en s ive f unc t ion s a l r eady m en t ioned a bove t h e re i sq u i te l i ke ly t oh ave b een a n e l emen to fp r e s t ige i nr e s id ing i n ah ou se towe rw h ich w ou ld h ave b een ap o ten ts ymbo l o ft h e o wne r 's w ea l th a nd p owe r . T he c oncep t o ft h e d ef ended h ou se i sw e l l -known f r om o t he r p a r t s o ft h e A rab ian p en in su la , a sf o r e xamp le t h e f o r t if i ed h ou se t owe r s i nt h e Wad i J i rdan i nS ou ther n Y emen ( Doe & S e r jean t 1 975 ) w h ich h ave n ume rou s p a ra l le l s w i th o u r e xamp le s . I n 1 823 , af ew y ea r s a f t e r t h e B r i t i sh d e s t royed t h e f o r t if ica t ions a l ong , t h e T ruc ia l C oa s t i n 1 8 19 , t h e re w a s s ome o ff i c ia l d e l ibe ra t ion a bou t w he the r t h e t h en S ha ikh S u l tan s hou ld b e a lowed t or e bu i ld h i s d ef ence s . I nt h e c ou r se o ft h i so ne o ft h ec o r re sponden t sw ro te t h e f o l low ing , :

1 5

1 6

F igu r e4 . As k e tch r e con s t ruc t ion o f ah ou se t owe ra nd i t sa s soc ia t ed b u i ld ing s .

Ru 'us a l -J iba l

Wad i a l - Mun i ' i

•Wad i a l -Qaw r

1 0 km s

F igu re 5 .T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fh ou se towe r si n R a sa l -Kha imah .

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" . .a w a l lo nt h el a nd s id eo n ly o pen t ot h et own a nd s oc on s t ruc t ed a sn o tt od ef end b yi t sf l ank st h ea pproach o f t h ec reek ; o ra long s ho re , w ou ld b e m uch l e s sm i sche i vou s t h an t h es t rong h ou se s o ft h eS ha ikh s ." ( I nd ia Of f i ce R eco rd sP / 385 /33 :2 530 ) . T he ' s t rong h ou se s o ft h e S ha ikh s ' mu s t r e f e rt ot h e h ou se towe r s o ft h e i n t e r io rw i th w h ich w e a r e c once rned h e r e . T h i s s t a temen tw ou ld s e em t oc on f i rm an umbe r o ft h e c onc lu s ion s a bou tt h e f unc t ion o ft h e t owe r s a nd t h e r a nk o ft h e i ro wne r ss ugge s t ed b yt h e i rl o ca t ion a nd d e s ign . I ti sa l so o ne o ft h e e a r l ie s tr e f e rence st oh ou se towe r s . T he r ei sa no the rm en t ion o fs eve ra lt owe r sa mong s tt h ed a te -pa lm g rov e sb eh ind R a sa l -Kha imah i n ad e sc r ip t ion o f t h eG u lf d a t ed 1 830 ( Bruck s 1 830 i nC ook 1 990 : 1 34 ) . T he s t one -bu i l tr ound t ower . T ow e r s :3 ,8 ,9 ,2 9 ,3 4 ,4 5 ,4 9 . O n ly s i x o ft h e se t owe r s , w h ich a r e k nown a s b u r j o r ' b u r ee ' i nl o ca l p ronunc ia t ion , s t i l l s t and i nR a s a l K ha imah . B ecau se o ft h e i r s i ze a nd p o s i t ion , t h ey a r e t h e mo s t v i s ib le a nd b e s t -known o fa l t owe r t y pe s . T hey o ccu r i n s id e s ome o ft h e c oa s ta l t own s a s w e l l a s i ns t ra teg ic p o s i t ion s o ve r look ing r oad s a nd o t he r i mpo r tan t l o ca t ion s . T he t owe r s a r e s t anda rd i sed ; t h e b a se i su sua l ly a bou t 6m e t r e s i nd i ame t e r a nd t h e h e igh t b e tween 1 a nd 1 2 m e t r e s .T hey a l n a r row ma rked ly t owa rd st h et o pd ue t ot h e i n c l ined w a l l sg i v ing t h em t h e i rd i s t inc t ive ' p eppe rp o t ' a ppea r ance . O r ig ina l ly t h ey a l s e em t oh ave b een e qu ipp ed w i th as i ng le d oo rw h ich w a s s i tua ted o nt h ef i r s tf l oo r a bou t 5m et e s a bove t h e g round , a cces s b e ing e i the r b y l a dde r o r ar ope s u spended f r om i n s ide t h e d oo r . A l l e xamp le s a r e h eav i ly d ef ended w i th a bundan t l o op h o le s , v er t ica l f i r ing s l o t s , c annon p o r t s a nd o f t en a sm any a s f o u rh ooded f i r ing p o in t s . T hey a r e mo s t ly t h r ee s t o r ey sh i gh ,t h eu ppe rmo s ts t o rey b e ing o pen a nd s u r rounded b ya p a rape tw a l l ; t h e p a rape tw a l l i st h en u sua l ly r a i sed o n o ne s i d e a nd ap l a tf o rm i sb u i l t a bove t h e t o p f l oo r g i v ing a c ce s s t ot h e c r ene l la t ion s a nd f o rm ing as o r t o ff o u r th s t o rey ( F ig . 6 .P l a te 1 3 ) . T he t o p f l oo r w ou ld h ave b een c ove r ed w i th al i gh tp a lm -f rond s hade s uppor ted o nt h ef o u rp i l la r sw h ich p ro t rude f r om t h et op o ft h ep a rape tw a l l . T he g r ound f l oo r i sr e ached b y l a dde r f r om t h e f i r s t f l oo r a nd , w i th i t sh i gh c e i l ing a nd t h ick w a l l s , w ou ld h av e f o rmed a ne xce l len ts t o re room a nd r e t rea tf r om t h eh ea t . T he t owe r s a r e a l b u i l t f r om b ea ch r o ck a nd c o ra l s e t i n to mo r ta r u s ing t h e l a ye r ed c on s t ruc t ion t e chn iqu e d e sc r ibed i nc hap t e r4 .C ommon ly t h e w a l l s s t ep o u t o n t h e o u t s ide 2o r 3c en t ime t re s a te ach f l oo r l e ve l ( F ig . 6 . P l a t e s 1 0&1 2 ) . O ft h es i xe xamp le sf ou ra r e l o ca ted i np o s i t ion sc ho s en f o rt h e i rh e igh ta nd s t ra t eg ic v a lue ,t h e o t he rt wo b e ing s i tua ted i nt wo o ft h e ma jo rt own s o n t h e c oa s t : a l -Ram s a nd a l Jaz i ra t a l -Ha rn ra . T he s t ra teg ica l ly -p laced t owe r s ( Towe r s3 , 8 ,9 ,29 )a ppea rt oh ave b een p o s i t ioned s oa st ob e i n t e r -v i s ib le a nd t of o rm an e two rk a c ro s st h en o r ther n p a r to ft h e Em i ra te . F o re xamp le T owe r 3a tK huzam i sl o ca ted al o ng w ay f r om t h en ea re s ts e t t lemen tb u tf r om i t s p o s i t ion o nt op o ft h e s and d une s i ti sp o s s ib le t os e e K ha t t ( Towe r2 9 ) , a l Jaz i ra t a l -Ham ra ( Towe r s 8a nd 9 ) , a l R am s ( Towe r 3 4 ) a nd R a s a l -Kha imah ( Towe r 3) a sw e l l a sT owe r 6a tD ahan . I tw ou ld t h e r ef o re h ave b een p o s s ib le t os end s i gna l s b e tween a l o ft h e ma jo rt own s i nn o r ther n R a s a l -Kha imah ( F ig . 7 )a nd i ts e em s t h a tt h i s w a sa ni mpo r tan tc on s ide ra t ion i ns e lec t ing t h ep o s i t ion so ft h et owe r s . T he f a c t t h a t t h e s t one -bu i l t r ound t owe r s a r e h eav i ly d ef ended -t h ey h ave n o g round f loo r d oo r a nd n o w indow sb u t aw ea l th o fd ef en s ive f e a tu re s s uch a sc annon p o r t s a nd h ooded f i r ing p o in t s -a nd t h e f a c tt h a tt h ey h ave n oa s soc ia t ed b u i ld ing s o rs e t t lemen ts how s t h a tt h ey w e r e n o t i n t end ed f o rd ome s t ic u se .N e i the r i st h e re t h e s ame r e la t ion sh ip t oc u l t iva t ed l a nd w h ich i ss u ch a n i mpo r tan tf e a tu r e o ft h e h ou se towe r s . T hey w e r e o bv iou s ly , t h e r ef o re ,p u r e ly m i l i ta ry i nf unc t ion . I nf a c tt h es t anda rd i sa t ion i nt h e i rd e s ign a nd t h e e mpha s i sp l a ced u pon i n te r v i s ib i l i ty s ugge s t s ac en t ra l ly -o rgan iz ed d ef en s ive s y s tem r a the rt h an as e r ie so fi s o la ted c on s t ruc t ion s . T he h i s to r ica le v idence p r e sen ted i nc hap te r 2s ugge s t st h a tt h e d ef en s ive n e two rk ,r a the rt h an b e ing b u i l ta to ne t ime , w a s b u i l t i ns t age s b y t h e a dd i t ion o ft owe r s a ts t ra teg ic p o in t s a st h ey w e re n eeded . I tw a s d e s igned t o i n co rpo ra t et h et wo o l de s t s t one -bu i l tr ound t owe r s i na l -Ram s a nd a l Jaz i ra t a l -Ham ra ( Towe r s 3 4 a nd 4 5 ) w h ich a r ek nown ,f r om w a te rco lou rv i ew s ,t oh ave b een s t and ing b y 1 822 a nd p o s s ib ly much e a r l ie r . I ts e em st h a tt h el a t e r t owe r s ,w h ich d a te t oa f t e r 1 822 ( Towe r s3 , 8& 9 ) ,h ave t a ken t h eo l de re xamp le sa st h e i ra r ch i t ec tu ra l mode l .

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F igu r e6 .C u t -awa y r e con s t ruc t ion o f as t on e -bu i l t r ound t owe r s how ing t h e i n t e rna l o rg an iza t ion a nd c on s t ru c t ion . T h ei n se ts how s as e c t ion t h rough f l oo rc ons t ruc t ion : A -mud p l a s te r . B -e a r th a nd g r ave l . C -p a lm l e a fm a t t ing . Dw ood en s upp o r t s .

1 9

F igu r e7 .D i s t r ibu t ion o fs t one -bu i l tr ound t owe r si nn o r ther nR a sa l -Kha imah w i th l i ne so fv i sua lc ommun ica t ion s hown .

2 0

B o th t h e t owe r a ta l -Rams a nd t h a t i n a l Jaz i ra t a l -Ham ra s how e v idence o f h av ing b een e x tended b y t h e a dd i t ion o f ah ighe rp a rape tw a l l a nd ap l a tf o rm a nd i ti sp o s s ib le t h a tt h e se mod if i ca t ion s r e f lec tt h e i n co rpo ra t ion o ft h e se t wo t owe r s i n to t h e w ide r d ef en s ive n e two rk . T he re a r e a l so t wo e xamp le s o fh ou se towe r s w h ich h ave b een e x tended a nd s t r eng thened b yt h e i n corpo ra t ion o ff e a tu re s s u ch a sh i ghe rp l a tfo rm s , h ooded f i r ing -po in t s a nd c annon p o r t s( Towe r s 5& 1 ) . I nb o th c a se s ,w h ich a r e i d en t ica l ,t h et owe rh a sb een h e igh tened b yt h ee x tens ion o f t h ep a rape tw a l l a nd a n e x t ra s e c t ion h a s b een a dded a ga in s to ne e nd o ft h e t owe r . T he f a c tt h a tt h e se t wo c a se s a r e i d en t ica l s ugges t s t h a tt h ey w e re n o t c a r r ied o u t b y i n d iv idua l o wne r s b u t t h a t t h ey w e re a dap ted a nd e x tended i n o rde r t ob e i n corpo ra ted i n to t h e d ef ens ive n e two rk . I ti sa l so p robab le t h a t t owe r s s uch a s 6a nd 7 ,w h i l s t b e ing s t ruc tu ra l ly d if e ren t ,w ou ld h ave p l ayed ap a r ti nt h en e two rk . T he mud -br ick r ound t ower . T owe r s : 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 6 , 1 7 ,2 5 ,2 6 ,2 7 , 5 4 . T h roughou t n or the rn R a s a l -Kha imah , b u t p r inc ipa l ly c oncen t ra ted i na nd a r ound t h e v i l lage s o fD ayya a nd K ha t t , s t and s as e r ie so f mud -br ick r o und t owe r s . T he re i s ac er ta in a moun to fv a r ia t ion i nt h ep l an , f o rm a nd s i ze o ft h e se t owe r s wh ich , b e ing b u i l to f mud b r ick , a r e p a r t icu la r ly s u scep t ib le t oe r o s ion . S ome e xamp le s a r e c l ea r ly u n ique i nd e s ign , b u t t h e b a s ic c oncep t i sb e s t r e p re sen ted b yt h e t owe r s i nt h e D ayya a nd S h ima l a r ea ( Towe r s 1 4 , 15 ,16 ,17 ) . H e re t h e t owe r s h ave ad i ame te ro f b e tween 5a nd 6m e t re s a nd h e igh to fb e tween 6a nd 7m e t r e s w h ich i sc on s ide rab ly l owe rt h an t h e a ve rage h e igh t o ft h e s t one -bu i l tr ound t owe r s d e sc r ibed a bove . T he se t owe r s a r e c l ea r ly n o t i n tended f o ra ny s or t o fd omes t ic u se i nt h ew ay t h a tt h eh ou se towe r sa r e , d e sp i te t h e f a c tt h a tt h ey a r e c l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th a g r icu l tu ra l l a nd a nd r u ra l s e t t lemen t s . T h i s i sd emon s tra ted b y t h e l a ck o fg round -f loo r d oo r s , t h e p r e sence o fc annon p or t s a nd t h e f a c tt h a t t h ey a r e n o t a t tached t od ome s t ic b u i ld ing s a nd t e nd t ob e s i tua ted o n t h e o u t sk i r t s o fv i l lage s . B o th a tD ayya a nd K ha t tt h e t owe r s e nc i rc le t h e v i l lage a nd t h e a g r icu l tu ra l l a nd a r ound i ti n ad ef en s ive r i ng . A l though i ti so bv iou s t h a tt h e se t owe r s w e re i n tended p u re ly f o rd ef ence , t h ey d o n o t a ppea rt ob e p a r t o f al a rge sca le d ef en s ive s y s tem s u ch a st h a tf o rmed b yt h es t one -bu i l tr ound t owe r s . I ts e em s , t h e ref o re , m o re l i ke ly t ha tt h ey r e su l t f r om t h e e f o r t s o f as ma l lc ommun i ty , s uch a s at r ibe o r av i l lage ,t od ef end i t s e lf a nd i t sl a nd a ga ins ta t tack . T he h i l l top e nc lo sure . T owe r s : 2 1 ,5 5 , 6 4 . I nt h e s ou ther np a r to ft h e Em i ra te an umbe ro fw a l led e nc lo su re sc ame t ol i gh t , s i tua ted o nt h et op so fh i l l so ri n o t he rp rom inen t l o ca t ion s . A l though t h e re i s ag ood d ea l o fv a r ia t ion a mong s tt h e f ew e xamp le s ,t h ey d oh ave s ome f e a tu re s i n c ommon , t h e se b e ing , a pa r t f r om t h e i r e l eva ted p o s i t ion s , ag ene ra l p rox im i ty t o l a rge v i l lages w i th a g r icu l tu ra lh o ld ing s , a nd t h e f a c tt h a tt h ey a r e s u r rounded b y as t one a nd mud -mo r ta rw a l le qu ipped w i th an umbe r o fl o op h o le s . T he s hape o fe ach e nc losu re i sd e term ined b y t h e t o pog raphy o ft h e r i dge o r s pu r w h ich i to ccup ie s , p os i t ion s w h ich h ave o bv iou s ly b een c ho sen f o r t h e i r d ef en s ive p o ten t ia l . I ns ome c a se s af ew b u i ld ing s h ave b een e r ec ted i n s ide t h ew a l lo ft h ee nc lo su re a nd i no ne c a se ac i s ter nh a sb een c on s t ruc ted . I ti sl i ke ly t h a t , r a the rt h an b e ing p l ace s o fc on t inuou s o c cupa t ion , t h e se e nc losu res w e re i n tended a sr e f uge s f o r av i l lage p opu la t ion i nt ime so fa t tack . T he w a tch t ower . T owe r s : 4 3 ,6 9 , 7 0 , 7 2 , 7 3 , 7 5 . S i x e xamp le s o fw a tch t owe r s o r l o ok -ou t p o s t s a r e k nown . T hey a r e o f al ow , i regu la r , r ough ly r e c tangu la r c on s t ruc t ion , w i th w a l l s a r ound am e t re h i gh a nd n o e v idence o f ar o of o r a n u ppe r s t o rey . T he c on s t ruc t ion a nd d e s ign a r e n o t a ta l s oph i s t ica ted , c ons is t ing o f as imp le w a l l b u i l t o f s t one a nd mud mor ta r . T he c or ne r s a r e r ounded i ns ome c a se s a nd T owe r7 0 i sc omp le t e ly o va l . S ome h ave l o op h o le s l e s s t h an ame t re f r om t h e g ro u nd .

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T he se w a t ch t owe r s a r e g ene ra l ly s i tua ted o n ah i gh r i dge o ve r look ing av i l lag e o r aw ad i b ed , t h e o ne e xcep t ion b e ing T owe r4 3 a tD ayya . S uch l o ca t ion s make i tq u i te c l ea rt h a tt h et ow e r sw e r ei n t ended a sl i gh t ly -d ef ended l o ok o u tp o s i t ion s f r om w h ich s ma l l a rm s c ou ld b e u s ed t oh a ra s s a n a t ta ck e r . I ti so bv iou s t h a t t h ey w ou ld n o t h ave a f o rded s h e l t e rf o ra ne x tended s i ege . T he c oa s ta ls quare o ro c tagona lt ower . T owe r s : 3b ,3 5 ,4 0 ,4 1 ,4 6 . I ne a ch o ft h ec oa s ta lt own so ft h e Em i ra te ( a l -Ram s , R a s a l -Kha imah , a l Jaz i ra ta l -Ham ra a nd a l -Ma l i-i d )t h e r e i sa tl e a s to ne e xamp le o ft h i st y pe o ft owe r . T he s hape a nd s t y le v a r ie sc on s id e r ab ly b u tt h ey a r en eve rr ound ,t h ey a l l h ave v e r t ica l r a the rt h an i n c l ined w a l l s a nd a r e d e s igned p u r e ly f o r d ef ence . T he a ve rage h e igh t i sa r ound 7 . 5 m e t r e sw h ich i smuch l owe rt h an t h es t one -bu i l tr ound t owe r s . T he h exagona la nd o c tagona le xamp le s( Towe r s3 3b a nd 4 1) a r ep robab ly t h e mo s t s oph i s t ica ted m i l i ta ry s t ruc tu r e s i nt h e Em i ra t e , a ppea r ing t or e ly u pon t h e i rd e s ign r a the r t h an b ru t e s t reng th i no rde r t o r e s i s t a t tack . T hey i n co rpo ra t e an umb e r o ft h e mo re a dvanced d ef en s ive f e a tu r e ss u ch a sh ood ed f i r ing p o in t sa nd t h eo n ly e xamp le so fh o r izon ta lf i r ing s l o t s . I ti sb e l ieved t h a tt h e se t owe r sr e p re sen tt h e mo s tr e cen td eve lopmen to ft owe ra r ch i t ec tu re i nR a s a l -Kha imah . T he r e i se v idence t os ugge s t t h a t T owe r 3 5 i na l -Ram s w a s b u i l t i no ra r ound 1 922 ( s ee t h e d e sc r ip t ion o ft h a t t owe r )a nd ,a si sa r gued i nc hap t e r4 ,v e r t ica lw a l l s ,w h ich a r e ac ommon f e a tu r ea mong s tt h e se t owe r s ,a ppea rt ob e af a i r ly r e cen td eve lopmen t . T he t owe r s w ou ld s e em t oh ave b een d e s igned a nd b u i l t f o rt h e d ef ence o ft h e c oa s ta l t own s . T he Wad ia l - Mun i ' ih ou se tower . T owe r s :6 6 ,6 7 ,6 8 . I n t h e Wad i a l -Mun i ' i t h r ee r e c tangu la r t owe r s s t and o n t h e t o p s o f i s o la ted , c on ica l h i l l s o ve r look ing t h e c u l t iva t ed w ad ib ed , s e pa ra ted b y o n ly af ew k i lome t re s . T hey a r e a l q u i t e d i f f e r en ti nc on s tr uc t ion a nd d e s ign a nd f i tb ad ly i n to as i ng le g r oup .T h ey a r eu n i ted mo r eb yt h e i rg eog raph ica lp rox im i ty t h an b yt h es t ruc tu ra ls im i la r i t ie s b e tween t h em . A l though d ef ence w a s c l ea r ly ac on s ide ra t ion i nt h e d e s ign o ft h e t owe r s , a si sd emon s t r a ted b yt h e p re sence o fl o op h o le s , T owe r6 7h a s av e ry u nu sua l s t ruc tu re b a sed o n w ha ta ppea r st oh ave b een a n o pen g round f l oo rs u r rounded b yp i l la r s . T owe r6 8w i th i t sg round f loo rd oo ri si nt h et r ad i t ion o ft h eh ou se towe re xcep tf o rt h e f a c tt h a t i ti ss i tua ted o n t o p o f ah i l l . I nc on t ra s t T owe r 6 6 h a s n o g r ound f l oo r d oo r a nd a ppea r s t oh ave b een a p u r e ly d ef en s ive s t ruc tu re . I tw ou ld c l ea r ly b e p o in t le s st os pecu la t e u pon t h e r a t iona le b eh ind t h e se t owe r s o ru pon t h e i r f unc t ion . I t may b et h a ts im i la re xamp l e sw i l lc ome t ol i gh tf r om s u r round ing w ad i sw h i ch a r en o ti nt h et e r r i to ry o fR a sa l -Kha imah a nd w i th mo r ei n f o rma t ion t h es i tua t ion m igh tb ecome c l ea r e r . T he Wad ia l -Qawr r ound t ower s . T owe r s : 5 1 ,5 8 ,5 9 ,6 2 ,7 1 ,7 4 . I nt h e Wad ia l -Qaw r , t h e Wad i S if im i a nd t h e Wad i S hawka an umbe ro fs t one -bu i l tt owe r sw e re l o ca t ed . T hey d if e ri ns t y le a nd d e s ign f r om t h es t one -bu i l tr ound t owe r s i nt h e n o r the rn p a r t o ft h e Em i ra te wh ich a r e d e sc r ibed a bove . Mo s to ft h em a r e r ound a nd b u i l t w i th mud mo r ta r p l u s b l ock s o ft h e l o ca l s t one , a l though t h e d e s ig n s a r e n o th igh ly s t anda rd i sed . T hey a r e a l l o ca ted i nw ad i s e i the r i ns t ra t eg ic l o ca t ion s o ro ve r look ing c u l t iva t ed a r ea s . None o ft h em i si nv e ry g ood c ond i t ion . T he se t owe r s s e em t oc omb ine t h e f unc t ion o fp ro t ec t ing as ma l l v i l lage a nd i t sa g r icu l tu ra l l a nd , t oge the rw i th c on t ro l l ing p a s sage t h rough t h ew ad i .

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H i l lf or t s . T owe r s : 1 8 ,2 1 , 3 1 , 5 0 , 6 3 ,6 5 . T he re a r es i xh i l lf o r t s i nt h et e r r i to ry o fR a sa l -Kha imah . T hey v a ry q u i te c ons ide rab ly i ns hape , s i z e a nd l a you t b u ta l a r ec omp lex , s t rong ly d ef ended a nd s i tua ted i nr a ised l o ca t ion s . T hey a r e s ubd iv ided i n te rna l ly i n to an umbe r o fr oom s g i v ing t h e i mp re s s ion t h a t t h ey w e re i n tended f o r mo re r e gu la r o ccupa t ion t h an t ho se t owe r s wh ich a r e d e s igned p u re ly t ow i th s tand a t tack . A n i d ea o ft h e f u nc t ion o ft h e f o r t s c an b e g a ined f r om ad e scr ip t ion o ft h e B r i t i sh a t tack o na l -Ram sa nd D ayya i n1 8 19 ( c hap te r2 ) . D e sp i te t h ew ide v a r ia t ion i nl a you t i nt h i s g roup t h e re a r e s ome c l o se s im i la r i t ies ; f o r e xamp le T owe r 5 0 i nt h e Wad i D af ta i sv e ry s im i la r t oT owe r 1 8 a tD ayya , a l though t h e l a t te r i sr a the r l a rge r . I n t h e se t wo e xamp le s t h e p r inc ip le o f as ma l le nc lo su re w i th as t ruc tu re a te ach e nd i st h e c ommon f e a tu re . T owe r3 1 a tI dhn i su n ique a nd i s p e rhap sb e s tc ompa red w i th t h e f o r ta tS heba 's P a lace ( Towe r2 1) . T he t wo f o r t s i nt h e Wad i a l -Qaw ra r e s im i la rt o e a ch o t he r b u t o n ly c ompa rab le t o t h e o t he r s i n t h e b r oade s t t e rm s . T he se t wo f o r t s a r e s i tua ted o n p o in t s o ve r look ing t h ew ad ib ed r a the rt han o nh i l lt op s . I tw i l l b e n o ted t h a t S heba ' s p a lace ( Towe r 2 1) i si n c luded h e r e a nd a l so u nde r h i l l top e nc lo su res . T he r e a son f o rt h i s i st h a tt h e c omp lex i sf o rmed o ft wo p a r t s ; t h e l a rge rp a r t i st h e h i l l top e nc lo su re t ot h e e a s tb u ta t tached t o t h i st h e re i s ,a si s men t ioned i nt h e d esc r ip t ion , as ma l le rr e c tangu la rb u i ld ing w h ich i ss ubd iv ided i n to r ooms . I ti s t h i sp a r to ft h e c omp lex w h ich i sc l a s s if i ed a s ah i l l f o r t . I ti sn o t k nown w he the rt h e f o r t i se a r l ie r o rl a te rt han t h e a ta ched e nc lo su re . S ur ( Aswar ) . T owe r s : 1 9 ,3 0 , 3 , 3 8 ,4 5 ,4 6 . As ur ( p lu ra la swa r ) i s af o r t if i ed e nc lo su re u sua l ly f ound o nt h e c oa s ta l p l a in . Abou t 1 00 a swa rf r om t h e B a t ina c oa s t l ine h ave b een c o l lec ted a nd s t ud ied ( Cos ta 1 985 ) a low ing u s t oe s tab l i sh t h e b a s ic e l emen t s o fs ur d e s ign . N o rma l ly t h es u rc on s i s t s o f as qua re o rr e c tangu la re nc lo su re ; t h e m os tc ommon a r rangemen ti st oh ave t wo r ound t owe r s o n d i agona l ly o ppo s ing c o rne r s o ft h e e nc lo su re t h e reby a low ing t h e d ef ende r s t op ro tec t a l f ou r w a l l s o f t h e b u i ld ing . S ome a swa r h ave n o t owe r s a ta l w h i l s t o t he r s h ave t h ree o r f o u r a nd i ns ome c a se s t h e t owe r s a r e r e c tangu la ro rs qua re r a the rt h an r ound . I na dd i t ion t ot h ea swa ro ft h e B a t ina c oa s t o t he r s a r e k nown f r om t h e Mu sandam a r ea , s e e f o re xamp le t h ef o r t a tK ha sab ( Co s ta 1 991 : 6 0 -63 & 8 8 ) w h ich a ppea r s t oh ave b een b u i l t a r ound a n a r t i l lery t owe r . B ukha a l so h a s a s im i la rf o r tw h ich i n co rpo ra te s as i ng le r ound t owe r ( Co s ta 1 991 : 6 8 -71 & 9 0 ) a sd oe s a l -Dhayd ( d e C a rd i &D oe 1 97 1 : F ig . 1 0 )w h ich h a st wo r ound t owe r s . T he re i s as im i la rb u i ld ing i nD uba i ( Kay & Z and i 1 991 : 8 3) ,t h eo l de s t p a r to fw h ich i so ne o ft h e r ound t owe r s a nd w h ich i sv e ry s im i la r i np l an t ot h e ' S u r a l -Khamaz i rah ' ( Co s ta 1 991 : 5 9 ) . Many o t he re xamp le sa r ek nown ( Ra sh id 1 992 ) . T he a swa r a r e f ound i na s soc ia t ion w i th u ndef ended , o f ten q u i te d i spe r sed s e t t lemen t s a l ong t h e c oa s ta l p l a in a nd a ppea rt ob ep l ace so fr e f uge i nt ime so fa t tack ( Co s ta 1 985 : 1 2 1-125 ) . T he re a r e f i ve b u i ld ing s a mong s tt h e t owe r s o fR a s a l -Kha imah w h ich a l so f i tt h i s p a t ter na nd t h e re i sn o d oub t t h a tt h e se b u i ld ing s a r e c l o se ly r e la ted t ot h e a swa r . O ne i st h e c our tya rd b u i ld ing t o wh ich T owe r s 4 5 a nd 4 6 a r e a tached i na l -Jaz i ra ta l -Ham ra ( s ee t h ep l an u nde rT owe r4 6 ) . A l though s l igh t ly mo re c omp l ica ted t h an t h e a ve rage s u rt h e re s e em s t ob e n o d oub t a bou t t h e s im i la r i ty o ft h e b a s ic p l an . T owe r s 1 9 , 3 0 a nd 3 8 o n t h e o t he r h and a r e f a i r ly t y p ica l a swa r . T owe r 3 8 i ss u r rounded b y t h e r ema in s o f an ow c omp le te ly d e s t royed v i l lage o ff a i r ly r e cen t d a te t r aceab le o n ly a s ap o t tery s c a t te r . T he mo s t d oub tf u l o ft h e a bove a t t r ibu t ions i st h e f o r t i nR a s a l -Kha imah t own , o nce t h e s e a to ft h er u le ro fR a s a l -Kha imah , n ow t h eN a t iona l Mu seum ( Towe r3 3) . T he p l an o ft h eb u i ld ing i sas imp le c ou r tya rd s u r rounded b y ar a nge o fr ooms w i th t wo t owe r s a to ppo s ing c or n e r s . T he r e cen ta dd i t ion sa nd a l t e ra t ion s t ot h e b u i ld ing make i ti mpo s s ib le t ob e s u re w he the r t h is b u i ld ing c an r e a l ly b e c ompa red w i th as u r . H oweve r ,t h ep l an o ft h eb u i ld ing w h ich i sp re sen ted i nt h e B r i t i sh m ap o f 1 8 19 ( Hansman 1 985 : F ig . 4 )s hows t h e f o r tw i th t h ree c i rcu la rc or n e rt owe r s l o ok ing much mo re l i ke at y p ica ls u r .

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D e s troyed . T owe r s :7 ,3 9 ,5 6 , 6 0 ,6 1 . T he t owe r s l i s ted i nt h i sg roup a r et oo d amaged t oc l a s s if y . O the rt owe r sk nown o n ly f r om h i s to r ica lr e co rd s o r m ap sa r ea l so o bv iou s ly i mpo s s ib le t oc l a s s if yb u ta r eb r ie f ly d e s c r ibed a tt h ee nd o fc hap te r5 .

O ther . T owe r s :2 ,6 ,2 8 ,4 8 ,5 3 . T he c l a s s if i ca t ion o u t l ined a bove i n c lude st h e m a jo r i ty o ft owe r s l o ca t ed b y t h e s u rvey . T he f i ve t owe r s l i s ted a bove d o n o t f i t i n to a ny g roup a nd a ppea r t o b e u n ique e xamp le s w h ich a r e d i scu s sed u nde r t h e i r i n d iv idua l d e sc r ip t ion s . P ara l le l s . T he t owe r s o fR a s a l -Kha imah h ave c l ea r p a ra l le l s w i th s t ruc tu r e s i no t he r p a r t s o ft h e U n i t ed A rab Em ira te s . T h i s i se spec ia l ly t r ue o ft h e s t one -bu i l tr ound t owe r s w h ich o ccu r i na l o ft h e o t he r Em i r a t e s , a l though w i th s ome s t y l i s t ic v a r ia t ion ( Kay & Z and i 1 991 :70 -74 ; a l -Mu twa l l i 1 992 :2 1-25 ; R a sh id 1 992 ) . T owe r s w h ich c ou ld b e c l a s s if i ed a sh ou se towe r sa l so e x i s ti nt h e Em i ra t e so fA bu D hab i , a l -Sha r jah a nd a l -Fu jay ra ,a l though i ti sn o tc l ea r w he the rt h ey h ave a n e n t i re ly s im i la rf unc t ion a nd c on tex t( a l -Mu twa l l i 1 9 92 :25 -26 , F ig s 4 9 -56 ; R a sh id 1 992 : 3 0 3 4 , 5 7 -58 , 1 1112 ) . I ti sl i ke ly t h a tt h e r e a r e m any o t he r u npub l i shed p a r a l le l s f r om t h e A rab ian p en in su la wh ich a r eu nknown t ot h ep r e sen ta u tho r .

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C hap te r4 . B u i ld ing T echn ique sa nd A r ch i te c tura lF ea ture s . I ng ene ra l t e rm s t h e a r ch i tec tu re o ft h e t owe r s i ss imp le a nd f u nc t iona l . T hey a r e b u i l t f r om l o ca l ly a va i lab le m a t e r ia l si n ap rac t ica la nd s t anda rd i sed w ay w i th l i t t le o rn o th ing b e ing a dd ed w h ich i sn o te n t i re ly n ece s sa ry . Mo s t r ema rkab le i st h e a lmo s t t o ta l l a ck o fa ny d eco ra t ive e l emen t s . T he o n ly i mpo r t ed m a te r ia l c ommon ly u sed i s m ang rove w h ich w a sg ene ra l ly b rough tf r om E a s tA f r ica . B u i ld ing t e chn ique s . Wa l l s . T h ree d if e r en t t e chn ique s o fw a l l c on s truc t ion a r e u sed t h roughou t R a s a l -Kha imah : mud b r ick , s t one a nd mo r ta r ,a nd s t one w i th mud mo r ta r . T os ome e x t en tt h ec on s t ruc t ion m e thod sa r ep ecu l ia rt oc e r ta in t ype so ft owe r s a nd t o s ome e x t en t t h ey a r e r e g iona l , d epend ing u pon t h e m a t e r ia l s a va i lab le l o ca l ly . O ne f e a tu r e w h ich i s n o t iceab le i n mo s t o ft h e t owe r s i st h a t t h e e x t e r io r f a ce o ft h e w a l l s i n c l ine t owa rd s t h e t op g iv ing t h e t owe r a t r apezo ida la ppea rance ( P la te s 1& 1 0 ) . T h i s i sa n i l u s ion c au sed b yt h e f a c tt h a tt h e w a l l s t h in q u i te c on s ide rab ly t owa rd st h et op ,t h ei n ne rf a ce b e ing c l o se rt ov e r t ica lt h an t h ee x t e r io r . Mud b r ick . Mud b r ick c on s t ruc t ion o ccu r so n ly i nt h en o r ther nh a lf o ft h e Em i r a te a nd o n ly a l ong t h ep l a in . T he mud b r ick s u sed s how ac on s ide rab le d eg ree o fu n if o rm i ty i ns h ape a nd s i z e m ea sur ing b e tween 3 3 -35 c en t ime t r e s b y 1 8 -20 c en t ime t r e s b y 9 11 c en t ime t re s . T he b r ick s a r e c ompo sed o fs i l t w i th l a rge q uan t i t ie s o fg rave l , s ome s he l l a nd o cca s iona lp o t t e ry b e ing i n c luded i nt h ef a b r ic .T he m ix tu re c an v a ry w ide ly ,e ven i nt h es ame t owe r . T he b r ick sa r e u sua l ly s e ti nt h ick l a ye r s o f mud mo r ta r u p t o 2c en t ime t r e st h ick a nd t h e b u i ld ing p a t t e rn t e nd s t ob e a l te rna t ing h ead e r ,s t r e tche r ,h eade ri n mo s tc a se s .T he l owe re x te r na lc ou r se sa r eo f t en f a ced w i th s t one ( P la te 2 4 ) ,p re sumab ly t op ro tec ta ga in s ts a l ta nd w a t e re r o s ion . A bove f i r s t -f loo r l e ve lt h ew a l l s a r e u sua l ly a bou t 1 0 c en t ime tre st h inne r . T h i s i sa ch ieved b y s t epp ing i nt h e i n t e r io r f a ce o ft h e w a l l t h u s c r ea t ing at h in l e dge u pon wh ich t h e w ood en s uppo r t s f o rt h e f l oo ro f t en r e s t . T h i s , t o ge the rw i th t h e f a c tt h a tt h e o u te r f a ce s l ope s s l igh t ly i nwa rd , r educes t h e w e igh to ft h eu ppe rs t o r ey w h i l s tk eep ing t h eg round f loo rw a l ls t h ick . T he e x te r io r sa r eo f t en p l a s te red w i th mud . S tone a nd mor tar . S t one a nd mo r ta r i st h e mo s t c ommon c on s t ruc t ion m a t e r ia l . T he t y pe o f s t one u sed d epend s u pon w ha t i s l o ca l ly a va i lab le ; o nt h ec oa s tt h i si su sua l ly b each rock a nd c o ra lw h i l s to nt h e p l a in i ti smo re l i ke ly t ob er ounded l i me s tone c obb le s . I n t h e l a t t e r c a se a s o r t o f ' h e r r ing -bone ' p a t t er n ing i so f ten v i s ib le , a ch ieved b y l a y ing t h e c obb le sw i th t h e i rl o ng a x i sa t4 5 d eg r ee st ot h eh o r izon ta l . I nt h e I d hn a r ea s ha le s l ab sa r eu sed a nd i nt h e Wad ia l Q aw rr eg ion l o ca lr o ck i su sed . Ac ommon f e a tu r e , e spec ia l ly o n r ound t owe r s , i sf o r t h e o u t s ide s u rf ace o f t h e w a l l s t o s t ep o u t 2t o 3 c en t ime t r e s a tf i r s t , s e cond a nd s ome t ime s a l so t h i rd f loo r l e ve l , a sc an b e s e en , f o r e xamp le , o n T owe r s 8a nd 9 ( P la t e s 1 0& 1 2 ) . T he r e a son f o rt h i si sn o tu nde r s tood ,b u tm ay b er e la t ed t op ro t ec t ing t h et owe rf r om r a inwa te ro r m ay b ep u r e ly d eco ra t ive . L ayered c on s truc t ion . Ac ommon t e chn ique o fb u i ld ing f r om s t one a nd mo r ta r o n t h e c oa s t a nd t h e n o r the rn p l a in i st h e l a ye r ed c on s t ruc t ion t e chn ique . T h i s t e chn ique i n vo lve s s e pa ra te l a ye r s o f s t one a nd m o r ta r , e ach b e tween 2 5 a nd 4 5 c en t ime t r e st h ick , b e ing l a id d own a nd r e nde red b ef o r e t h e n ex t l a ye r i sp u t d own . T he t e chn ique i so bv iou s f r om t h e s u r f ace s o ft h e w a l l w he r e o ne o rt wo c ou r se s o fs t one a r e s e pa r a t ed b y ac l ea r h o r izon ta l l i ne wh ich i s mo r e e ven ly h o r izon ta la nd mo r ee v iden tt h an t h e l i ne sb e tween t h er ow so fs t one t h em se lve s( P la te s 1 0 ,11 ,12 & 5 6 . F ig . 6 ) . I ns ome c a se sw he r et h e s t one s a r en o tv i s ib le t h e s u r f ace o ft h ew a l l i sc l ea r ly d i v ided i n to h o r izon ta lb and s ; a g ood e xamp le o ft h i s i sT owe r 1 0 ( P la t e s 1 4 & 1 5 ) . T he i mp r e s s ion g i ven i st h a tt h e w a l l w a s b u i l tu s ing w ooden s ho r ing i n as im i la rf a sh ion t o ap i se w a l l .T he r ei sn oi n d ica t ion ,h oweve r ,t h a tt h i sw a st h ec a se .

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T h i s b u i ld ing t e chn ique i ss im i la r t ot h a t d e sc r ibed b y Wa l l s a tA rad F o r t i nB ah ra in w h e r e h e c l a im s t h a t i t s o r ig in sl i ei n mud -b r ick a r ch i t ec tu re ( Wa l l s 1 987 : 6 3 -64 ) . Wa l l sb e l ieve st h a tt h i st e chn ique m ay h ave t h e a dvan tage o fh e lp ing t op r even td ecay c au sed b yd ef ec t ive p l a s te r ing , b yc onf in ing d amage t ot h e l a ye r sw he re t h er ende r ing i s d amaged ( Wa l l s 1 987 : 6 3 ) . I n ap r ev iou s s umma ry r e po r t o ft h e t owe r s o fR a s a l -Kha imah t h i s t e chn ique w a s d e sc r ibed a st h e' c ou r s ing 't e chn ique ( K enne te ta l . 1 993 : 1 ) . Mor tar . T he mo r ta r s a r e a l s a ndy a nd c oa r se , r a ng ing i nc o lou r f r om p ink t ob uf f . T he re a r e an umbe r o fi n c lu s ion s i n t h ef a b r ic o ft h e mo r ta r ;m o s tc ommon a r er ounded y e l low p a r t ic le su pt o ac en t ime t r e i nd i ame t e r wh ich s e em t ob e f r agmen t s o fb u rn t s t one o rc e ram ic , a l so c ommon a r e w h i te r ounded l i me i n c lu s ion s a nd f r agmen t s o fc ha r coa l . T he mo r ta r s e em s t ob e r ema rkab ly r e s i s tan t t oc ap i l la ry movemen t , t h u s h e lp ing t op reven t t h e b u i ld -up o fs a l t c r y s ta l su nd e rt h es u r f a ce .T h i si si mpo r tan ta l ong t h ec oa s tw he r es a l te r o s ion i sam a jo rp rob lem . T he h i s to ry o fs t one a nd m o r ta rc on s t ruc t ion i nt h er eg ion i sb r ief ly d i scu s sed i nc hap te r2 . S tone a nd mud mor tar . S tone a nd mud mo r ta ri smuch l e s sc ommon t h an t h et wo c on s t ruc t ion t e chn ique sd e sc r ibed a bove a nd s eem st o b e mo s t ly c onfmed t ot h e a r ea b e tween I dhn a nd t h e Wad i a l -Qaw r i nt h e s ou ther np a r t o ft h e Em i ra te . T he w a l l s c on s i s to ft wo f a ce s , e a ch b u i l to fr ough s t one s s e t i n to mud mo r ta rw i th t h e f l a t te s t e dge f a c ing o u twa rd . T he t wo f a ce sa r ea bou t4 0c en t ime t r e sa pa r ta nd t h es pace b e tween t h em i sf i l led w i th m ud ,g rave la nd r u bb le . L a ter c on s truc t ion . An umbe ro ft owe r sh ave v e r t ica lw a l l s , af e a tu r ew h ich d i s t ingu i she st h em v e ry c l ea r ly f r om o t he re xamp le s . Mo s t n o tab le a r e T owe r s 1 0 , 3 5 , 4 0 , 4 1 a nd 4 4 a l o f w h ich a r e a l so b u i l t w i th t h e l a ye red c on s truc t ion t e chn ique d e sc r ibed a bove . A s T owe r s 1 0 a nd 3 5 a r e d a ted t oe a r ly t h i s c en tu ry , o ne b y a n i n sc r ip t ion a nd t h e o t he r b y a n h i s to r ica lr e f e rence ,i tw ou ld a ppea rt h a tv e r t ica lw a l l sa r e ar e cen td eve lopmen ti nt owe ra r ch i t ec tu re . F loor sa nd r oof s . F loo rc on s t ruc t ion i sr ema rkab ly s t anda rd i sed . T he t wo p r inc ipa l t e chn ique s s e em t ob ea rn or e la t ion sh ip t ot h e d if e ren tt y pe so fw a l lc on s truc t ion . T he f i r s tt e chn iqu eu s e sw ooden s uppo r t s , e i the rm ang rove o rs p l iced d a t ep a lm t r unk s , u sua l ly s paced a bou t5 0 c en t ime t r e s a pa r t , w h ich e i the r r e s t u pon al e dge o r h ave t h e i r e nd s i n se r t ed i n to t h e w a l l s . A bove t h e wooden s uppo r t sl a ye r so fp a lm -f rond m a t t ing a r ec ove r ed b y 1 0t o2 0 c en t ime t re so fp acked mud a nd g r ave l . T he who le o f t h i si st h en c oa ted w i th t h es ame mud p l a s t e rt h a tc ove r st h ew a l l s( F ig . 6 ) . I nt h e s e cond t e chn ique m ang rove p o le s a r e s paced much mo r e c l o se ly , u sua l ly l e s s t h an 1 5 c en t ime t re s a pa r t . S tone s a r e t h en w edged t i gh t ly i n b e tween t h e p o le s f o rm ing a p l a tf o rm w h ich i sc ove r ed w i th mo r ta r . T h i s t e chn ique i se mp loy ed o n ly o n l a te rt owe r s o ri nr e nova t ion s a nd i tc e r ta in ly r e qu i r e s much m o r e wood . T he s t one u sed d epend su pon a va i lab i l i ty ;i nT owe r3 2a tI dhn s ha le s l ab sh ave b een p l a ced b e tween t h ep o le s . B o th t e chn ique s a r e b a sed o n w ooden s uppo r t s , g ene r a l ly e i the r m ang rove p o le s o rh a lf d a te p a lm t r unk s , t h e m ax imum l e ng th o fw h ich s e em st ob e am a jo rf a c to r i nt h e d e s ign o ft h et owe r s . I n mo s tc a se so fs pan sw ide rt h an a bou t 2 . 7 m e t re s e i the rp i l la r s , c o rbe l l ed l e dge s o r a r che s a r e u sed t or e duc e t h e s pan . Ag ood e xamp le o ft h i s i s T owe r 5 7 w he r et wo l a rg e a r che s h av e b een b u i l t i no rde rt or e duce t h e s p an f r om 2 . 9 t o2 . 1 m e t re s o rT owe r7 4 w he re ac en t ra lp i l la rk eep st h e max imum s pan t ol e s st h an 2 . 5 m e t r e s . O nt h eo t he rh and T owe r4 1 i sb u i l ta round a 3 . 5m e t re s pan ; t h i s ,h ow eve r ,a ppea r st ob e as p ec ia lc a se . I ts e em s t ob e ac ommon p a t t e rn t ou s e s p l iced d a te p a lm t r unk s , r e s t ing u pon t h e i r s i d e s , t o s uppo r t t h e f i r s t f l oo rw h i l s tt h es e cond i ss uppo r ted o nm ang rove p o le s . T he r e a son f o rt h i sw ou ld a ppea rt ob et h a t mang rove p o le s a r el o nge ra nd l i gh te r . T hey n eed t ob e l o nge rd ue t ot h e f a c tt h a tt h e s pan i ss l igh t ly w ide ro nt h eu ppe rs t o r ey s ( a s

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h a s b een d i scu s sed a bove ) a nd t h e i r l i gh tne s s w ou ld make t h e c on s t ruc t ion m o re s t ab le . T he a dvan tage s o f m ang rove a r e s u ch t h a t i tm ay b e a sked why s p l iced p a lm t r unk s a r e u sed a ta l . T he a n swe r i sp robab ly t h a t m ang rove , b e ing a n i mpo r ted w ood , w a s mo re e xpens ive a nd i no rde rt os ave money p a lm t r unk w a s u sed w he re p o s s ib le . L in te l s . L in te l s a r e u sua l ly made o f mang rove p o le s o r s p l iced p a lm t r unk s . I n s ome c a se s s ha le s l ab s h ave b een e mp loyed w he r et h ey a r ea va i lab le . At e chn ique s ome t ime su sed i nm ud -b r ick t owe r s , e s pec ia l ly f o rt h e l i n te l s o ve r n a r row n i che s , i st oa r range t wo mud b r ick s i n to as imp le i n ve r ted ' V a r ch . Wood . D a te p a lm t r unk s s p l iced d own t h e c en t re l e ng thway s a r e k nown l o ca l ly a sm uwad ( a l - Mu twa l l i 1 992 : 8 ) . T hey a r ea n i mpo r tan te l emen t i nt h ec on s t ruc t ion o fm any o ft h et owe r s o fR a s a l -Kha imah a sa r e mang rove p o le s wh ich a r e l o nge r , l i gh te ra nd mo re r e s i s tan tt or o t t ing b u t a l so mo re e xpen s ive . O the r l o ca l ly a va i lab le w ood s a r e u sed i n s ma l lq uan t i t ie si ns ome o ft h et owe r s o ft h e Wad i a l -Qaw rr e g ion .

A rch i tec tura la nd d ef ens ive f e a ture s . T he t owe r sh ave an umber o ff e a tu re s i nc ommon , s ome o fw h ich a r ed ef en s ive a nd o t he r ss t ruc tu ra lo ru t i l i ta r ian . L oopho le s . T he mo s t c ommon d ef en s ive f e a tu re i st h e l o opho le w h ich i st h e s i ne q ua n on o f at owe r . L oopho le s a r e g ene ra l ly 5 10 c en t ime t re s i nd i ame te r a nd a r e c u t i n to t h e w a l ls o fa l s t o rey s , a l though t h ey a r e l e s s c ommon o n t h e g round f l oo r . T hey a r e s o s ma l l a s t o g i ve l i t t le s c ope f o r a im a nd a l i m i ted f i e ld o ff i re . T hey a r e u sua l ly a r ranged a t a n a ng le t o t h e f a ce o f t h e t owe r , r a the r t h an p o in t ing s t ra igh t o u t , a nd a r e s i tua ted b e tween 8 0 c en t ime t r es t o1 30 c en t ime t re s a bove t h e f l oo r , s ome t imes i nt wo r ow s . R uy F r ey re d eA nd rada r e por t st h a t , d u r ing t h e s i ege o ft h e f o r t o f Que ixome ( Q i shm ) i n 1 621 , t h e b e s ieg ing P e r s ian s w e re s o d ex te rou s a ts hoo t ing t h a tt h ey k i l led an umbe ro fP o r tuguese s o ld ie r sb yf i r ing i n to t h ef o r tt h rough t h e l o opho le s( d eA nd rada : 6 7 ) . V er t ica lf i r ing s l o t s . V er t ica l f i r ing s l o t s a r e a l so ac ommon d ef en s ive f e a tu re . T hey a r e u sua l ly s pa ced a l ong t h e w a l l s i nb e tween l o opho le s a nd a r en o rma l ly a bou t 1 0 c en t ime t r e s w ide a nd 6 0 c en t ime t re s h i gh ( P la te 1 0 ) . T hey a r e c ons t ruc ted t o g i ve ad ownwa rd f i e ld o ff i re b e tween o ne a nd f i f t een m e t re sf r om t h eb a se o ft h ew a l l . Hooded f i r ing p o int s . A no the rd ev ice f o rp ro tec t ing t h eb a se o ft h ew a l ls , a nd e spec ia l ly t h e d oo r , i st h eh ooded f i r ing p o in t( P la te s 1 0 &4 5 ) . T he se a r e k nown f r om o t he r s i t e s i nt h e A rab ian p en in su la s u ch a s B ah ra in , S aud i A rab ia a nd a ppa ren t ly a l so o ccu r i nR a ja s tan (Wa l l s 1 987 : 4 7 -49 & n o t e 1 2 ) . T he se d ev ice s a r e e i the r p o s i t ioned a bove t h e d oo r o r a r e a r ranged a r ound t h e t owe r . T he i r f unc t ion i sa s ap r im i t ive ma ch ico la t ion f o r r i f l e s o r s ho tgun s . C on s truc t ion i s s imp le , c on s i s t ing o f at h in s k in o fw a l l s uppo r ted o n t wo c r o s sed m ang rove p o le s w h ich p ro t rude f r om t h e ma in w a l l .T he r a nge o ff i r e i sl i m i ted t ot h eb a se o ft h ew a l ls a nd t h e a r ea af ew me t re s i nf r on to fi t . C annon p or t s . O n s ome t owe r s c annon p o r t s h ave b een b u i l t i n to t h e w a l ls . T he se a r e r e c tangu la rh o le s , a bou t 3 0 c en t ime tre s a bove f l oo rl e ve l ,w i th b eve l led s i de s a low ing l i m i t ed movemen tf o r as ma l l c annon .

2 7

Hor izon ta lf i r ing s l o t s . Two t owe r sh ave as e r ie so fh o r izon ta lf i r ing s l o t s a r ranged a r ound t h ew a l l s( Towe r s3 5 a nd 4 6 ) . T h i si s ar a r ea nd a ppa r en t ly r e cen tf e a tu r e( P la te 4 6 ) .

E xaggera ted d oor j amb s . O ne f e a tu re w ho se f u nc t ion i sd i ff i cu l tt ou nde r s tand i st h e e xagge ra t ed d oo rj amb w h ich o ccu r so nT owe r s2 4 , 3 3a a nd 3 6 . I nt h e se c a se s an a r row s l op ing b u t t re s s h a s b een b u i l to n e i the rs i de o ft h e d oo r , a bou t3 0 c en t ime t re s l o ng a tt h eb a se a nd t a pe r ing i n to t h ew a l la tt h et o p( P la te 3 2 ) . I ti sn o tc l ea rw he the rt h i sf e a tu r eh ad as t ruc tu ra l o rd ef en s ive p u rpo se ; i tm ay b et h a t i tw a s d e s igned t of o rce a t tacke r sa way f r om t h es h e l t e ro ft h eb a se o ft h ew a l l i ft h ey a t temp ted t oa t ta ck t h ed oo r . P arape tp la tform s . Ac ommon f e a tu re o ns t one -bu i l tr ound t owe r s i st h e p a rape tp l a tf o rm ( F ig . 6 .P l a t e s 1 3& 1 8 ) . T h i s i s as imp le n a r row p l a tf o rm b u i l ta ga in s tt h e p a r ap e tw a l l a low ing t h e d ef ende r st os hoo to u t o ve rt h e c r ene l la t ion s . T he r e a r e o f t en t wo p l a tf o rm so no ppo s i te s i de so ft h es ame t owe r . S hade p i l lar s . O n mo s t s t one -bu i l t r ound t owe r s o bv iou s f e a tu re s a r e t h e t a l l p i l la r s r i s ing am e t r e o rs of r om t h e t op o ft h e t owe r ( F ig . 6 . P l a t e s 4 , 5 & 1 3 ) . T he se s e rved t o s uppo r t as imp le m ang rove -po le a nd p a lm -f rond r oof w h ich p rov ided s hade f o rt h el o ok -ou t so nt h et o po ft h et owe r . C rene l la t ion s . T he t o p s o f mo s t p a rape t w a l l s a r e c r ene l la ted . Mo s t o ft h e c r ene l la t ion s a r e s imp le w h i l s t o t he r s a r e mo r e e l abo ra te a ss hown i np l a t e 1 3 . Wa l ln i che s . Ac ommon f e a tu re i n s ide t h e t owe r s a nd h ou se s o fR a s a l -Kha imah i st h e s imp l e r e ce s sed w a l l n i che . T he se r e c tangu la rn i che sm ea su r eo na ve rage 4 0c en t ime t r e sh i gh b y3 0 c en t ime t r e sw ide b y2 0 c en t ime tr e sd eep , a nd a r e s e ti n to t h ew a l l a tj u s t o ve r am e t r e f r om t h e g round . T hey s e rve a ss imp le s t o rage s p ace s w he re l amp s a nd o t he r i t em sc ou ld b ep l a ced ( P la t e 1 5 ) . Window s . R ound t owe r s a nd t h e g round f l oo r s o f m o s t h ou se towe r s a r e a lway s w i thou t w indow s . H oweve r , l a rge w indow s a r e af e a tu re o ft h e f i r s t f l oo r s o fm any h ou se towe r s . T he w indow s f o l low t h e l o ca l t r ad i t ion o fh av ing t h e i rs i l l sa tf l oo r l e ve l -af e a tu re w h ich m ay b er e la ted t ot h e c i r cu la t ion o fa i r i n s ide t h e b u i ld ing . O r ig ina l ly t h ey m ay h ave b een c ove r ed w i th aw ood en g r i l l b u tt h i s h a s d i sappea red i nm o s t c a se s . T he w indow s a r e s u rp r i s ing ly l a rge f o rd ef en s ive b u i ld ing sa nd t h i si sd i scu s sed u nde r' h ou se towe r s ' i nc hap te r3 . A rche s . A pa r tf r om as imp le a r ch o ft wo m ud b r ick sw edged t o ge the ro ve rt h et o p o f an i che o rn a r row w indow , a r che s a r e v e ry r a re i nt h e t r ad i t iona l a r ch i t ec tu r e o fR a s a l -Kha imah b e ing f o und o n ly o n s ome o ft h e mo r e e l abo ra te mo sque s . T owe r 5 7 i nt h e Wad i a l -Qaw ri st h e o n ly t owe rw he re a r che s h ave b een u s ed i nt h e c on s tr uc t ion ( P la te 6 8 ) . A s i sn o ted u nde rt h e d e sc r ip t ion o ft h a t t owe rt h e se a ppea rt ob e al a t e ra dd i t ion ; t h e o r ig ina l s t ruc tu r e r e l ied u pon t r ad i t iona l ma ng rove o rs p l iced d a te p a lm t r unk .

2 8

B reeze c a tcher s . B r eeze c a tche r s a r e aw e l l -known f e a tu re o fd ome s t ic a r ch i tec tu re i nt h e G u lf a nd as imp le f o rm o ft h ese o ccu r s o n s ome t owe r s . T he se u sua l ly c on s i s t o ft wo b l ind w indow s r e ce s sed 1 0c en t ime t re s o rs o i n to t h e w a l l . T he u ppe r r e ce s s i sp o s i t ioned o n t h e i n te r io r a nd t h e l owe r o n t h e e x te r io r , o ne a bove t h e o t he r . T hey a r e c onnec ted b y a n a r row s l o t t h rough t h e w a l l b e tween t h e t o p o ft h e l owe rr e ce s s a nd t h e b o t tom o ft h e u ppe r . I nt h i s w ay a i r c an p a s si n to t h ei n ter io rb u tl i gh ta nd h ea td on o t . C orner l a dder s . T he c or n e r l a dde ri so f t en u sed a s am eans o f mov ing b e tween f l oo r s w h ich d oe s n o t o ccupy much s pace i n s ide t h ea l r eady c r amped t owe r s . T he d e s ign i ss imp le a nd c ons i s t so f an umbe ro fs hor t mang rove p o le si n ser ted i n to t h e w a l l sd i agona l ly a c ro s st h ec or ne ro f ar oom ( P la te 1 5 ) .

2 9

C hap te r5 . AC a ta logue o ft he T ower so fR a sa l -Kha imah . T he f o l low ing c a ta logue p r e sen t s a l 7 5 k nown , s t and ing t owe r s a nd d ef ens ive s t ruc tu re s i nt h e Em i ra te o fR a s a l -Kha imah . T he t owe r s w e re r e co rded i nD ecembe r o f 1 991 a nd J anua ry o f 1 992 . Mos t o ft h e t owe r s w e re f ound w i th t h e a s s i s tance o fl o ca l g u ide s w h i l s t o t he r s w e re l o ca ted b y a cc iden t , e spec ia l ly t h e s ma l le r a nd t h e b ad ly d amaged e xamp le s . I ti sq u i te l i ke ly t h a tt h e re a r e af ew t owe r s wh ich h ave b een m i s sed b y t h e s u rvey a nd i ti sc e r ta in t h a t t h e re a r e many wh ich w e re d e s troyed o rh ave c o l lap sed o ve rt h e l a s tf ew d ecade s . T he o r ig ina l d ocumen ta t ion f r om t h e s u rvey i sl o dged w i th t h eN a t iona l Mu seum o fR a s a l -Kha imah . S ince t h e s u rvey w a s f i n i shed t h eD epa r tmen to f An t iqu i t ie s a nd Mu seums o fR a s a l -Kha imah h a s b egun t or e s to re t h e mo re s i gn if i can t e xamp le s o ft h e t owe r s a nd t od a te T owe r 6a nd T owe r 1 8 h ave b een f i n i shed . O the r t owe r s h ave b een r e pa i red i nr e cen ty ea r sb y l o ca lp eop le ; t h e c hange s h ave n o ta lway s f o l lowed t h e o r ig ina l d e s ign o ft h et owe r a nd h ave s ome t ime s o b scu red d e ta i l s . O the rt owe r s a r e i na n a dvanced s t a te o fc o l lap se w h ich h a s made i tv e ry d if i cu l t t ou nde r s tand t h e i ro r ig ina lf o rm . E ach t owe r i sg i ven at owe r n umbe r , r ega rd le s s o fw he the r i ti s at owe r , af o r t o r af o r t if ied e nc losu re . T he n umber ing s equence i se n t i re ly a r b i t ra ry a nd r e f lec t s o n ly t h e o rde r i nw h ich t h e t owe r s w e re c a ta logued b y t h e s u rvey . E ach t owe r h a s ab r ief d e sc r ip t ion w i th d e ta i l s o fs i tua t ion , d e s ig n a nd c on st ruc t ion . I fk nown t h e l o ca l n ame o rn ame s o ft h et owe ra r e r e co rded a f te rt h e p l ace n ame . T he re i sad r aw ing o fn ea r ly a l l t h e t owe r s t oge the r w i th t h e d escr ip t ion a nd p ho tog raph s o f mo s t o ft h e t owe r s a r e i n c luded . T he A rab ic s pe l l ing o f n ame s i n t h e c a ta logue c an b ef ound i nt h es e c t ion o nt r an s l i t e ra t ion . T he l o ca t ion so fe a ch t owe ra r es hown i nf i gu re s 8a nd 9 .

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1 .a l -Fa la y-y a .P la te s 1 ,2 . D im en s ion s :H e igh t 8m .L eng th 7 . 8m . W id th 4 . 4m . S i tua t ion : T he t owe rs t and s o n t h ep l a in c l o se t ot h e m od em v i l lag e o fa l -Fa lay ya s u r round ed b y d a t ep a lm g r ov e s a nd f i e ld s . T h es t ub so fw a l l so nt h en o r th a nd s ou th f a ce so ft h et ow e ri n d ic a t et h a ti tu sed t ob ej o in ed t oo t h e rb u i ld ing s , mo s t p robab ly ar e s id en t ia lc omp lex i n c lud ing T ow e r2 ,w h ich i sl e s st h an 1 00 m e t r e st ot h ee a s t . G enera ld e scr ip t ion : T ow e r 1i s ar e c tangu la r t ow e r w i th i n c l ined

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s u r rounded b y ap a rap e tw a l ln ow p a r t ly c o l lap s ed T he t ow e rh a st wo d oo r s , o n eo nt h eg r ound f l oo ra nd o n eo nt h e f i r s tf l oo r . T he w indow le s s g r ound f l oo rc on s i s t s o f as i ng le r o om e qu ipp ed o n ly w i th w a l l n i ch e s a nd a s t a i r ca s e . S lo t s i nt h e d oo rj amb s a low ed aw ood en p o le t ob e s l id a c ro s s b eh ind t h e d oo r b a r r ing i ti nc a se o fa t ta ck T h e s t a i r ca s el e ad st ot h ef i r s tf l oo rw h ich , b yc on t ra s t , h a s s e ven l a rg ew indow sa sw el a s ar ow o fl o opho le s . T he f i r s t f l oo rd oo ro nc eg ave a cc e s so n to a ne a s t f ac ing t e r rac et h er ema in so fw h ich c an b es e en o nt h ee a s tf a c eo ft h et ow e r . T h e r ea r ea l so n i che si nt h ew a l l so ft h ef i r s tf l oo r . F rom t h ef i r s tf l oo r ac o rn e rl a dd e rw ou ld h ave l e dt ot h et o pf l oo r . C on s t ruc t ion : T h e t ow e r i sb u i l t f r om l im e s ton e c obb l e s l a y e r ed i n to mo r ta r , t h e c obb le s ' l o ng a x i s h av ing b e en a r rang ed a t4 5 d eg r ee s t ot h e h o r izon ta l , e a ch c ou r se i na l t e rna t ing d i r e c t ion s . T h e w a l l s w e r e t h en p l a s te red T he f i r s t f l oo r i s s uppo r ted b y s p l iced d a te -pa lm t r unk s o ve r la in b y p a lm -f r ond m a t t ing a nd e a r th . T he s e cond f l oo r i s mad e i nt h e s ame w ay u s ing m ang rov ep o le s B ib l iography : R a sh id 1 992 : 9 1 .K ha rkhu r1 992 : 8 0 -81 .

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2 .a l -Fa layya .P l a te 3 . D imen s ion s :H e igh t6 . 95m .L eng th 4 . 05m . W id th 3 . 76m , S i tua t ion : T ow e r 2i sl o ca ted c l o se t oT ow e r 1o nt h ep l a in a ta l -Fa layya . Genera ld e scr ip t ion : T h i si s ar e c tangu la rt ow e rw i th s l igh t ly i n c l ined w a l l s . T h e t ow e ra pp ea r s t oh ave h ad t h r e e s t o r ey s , t h e h i gh e s t o f wh ich w a su n roo f ed a nd s u r round ed o n ly b y ap a rap e tw a l lw h ich h a sn ow a lmo s te n t i re ly c olap sed T h e r ea r et wo d oo r s ,b o th o nt h eg r ound f l oo r ,o ne f a c ing t ot h ee a s ta nd o n et ot h ew e s ta low ing p a s sag et h rough t h e t ow e ra nd s ugg e s t ing t h a ti tma yo r ig ina l ly h av eb e en ag a te t ow e r . T h et ow e ri sa bu t ted t ot h en o r th a nd t h es ou th b y t wo l o ng b u i ld ing sf o rm ing o n es i d eo f ac ou r tya rd c omp lex w h ich m ay h av e i n c lud ed T ow e r 1a sw el a sa n a r ea t o t h ee a s t . C ons t ruc t ion : T h el owe r 1 . 10 m e t r e si sb u i l to fl i me s tone c obb le s e ti n to mo r ta rw h i ls tt h e s upe rs t ruc tu r ei sb u i l to f mud b r ick T he t ow e rh a su nde rgon es ome r e c en t ,a nd f a i r ly d r a s t ic , r e s to r a t ion wh ich i n c lud ed t h er ebu i ld ing o ft h en o r th w a l lw i th s t on ea nd m o r ta ra nd w h ich r e nd e r s am o r ed e ta i led i n t e rp r e ta t ion i mpo s s ib le . N o te s : T h e re s e em st ob el i t t le d oub tt h a tt h i st ow e r ,t o g e the rw i th T ow e r 1 ,o nc ef o rmed p a r to f as i ng le c omp lex t h ee xac t p l an o f wh ich i sn o tf u l ly c l a r if i ed b yt h es t and ing r ema in sa nd s c a t te r ed mud -b r ick w a l l si nt h eN i c in i ty .

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3 . Khuzam ( Bu r ja l -Daw ra ) .P l a te s4 ,5 . D imen s ion s : H e igh t 1m .D iame t e r5 . 78m . S i tua t ion : T h i s t owe r s t and s o n t h e h igh s a nd d une s a tt h e s ou the r n e nd o fR a s a l -Kha imah c r eek o ve r look ing much o ft h e s u r round ing c oun t ry a sw e l l a sR a sa l -Kha imah t own a nd , m o s t i mpo r tan t ly ,t h er oad w h ich c u rve sa r ound f r om t h e c oa s tt oh ead i n land t owa rd sa l -Fa layya a nd t h eJ i r i p l a in . T he l o ca t ion c ommand s as p ec ta cu la rv i ew o ft h ec oun t ry a sf a rs ou th a sK ha t ta nd n o r th t oS h ima l .T he t owe ra ppea r st oh ave s t ood i ni s o la t ion i ni t ss t ra t eg i cp o s i t ion ,t h e r e b e ing n oa r cha eo log ica l e v idence f o rs e t t lemen ti nt h e v i c in i ty . I ti sn ow p a r to ft h e p a lace g round so fH .H . S ha ikh S aq rb . Muhammad a l -Qa s im i . G enera ld e scr ip t ion : T he K huzam t owe ri sc i rcu la rw i th i n c l ined w a l l s . I th a st h r ee s t o rey sp l u s as ma l lp l a tf o rm a ga in s tt h ep a rape tw a l l o n t h e s ou th s i de . T he p l a tf o rm a nd s e cond f l oo r a r e n o t r oof ed a nd t h e p a rape t w a l l i sr a i sed o n o ne s i de o ft h e t owe ra bove t h ep l a t f o rm . T he r e i s as i ng le d oo r o n t h e f i r s t f l oo rf a c ing t owa rd s t h e n o r th . T he s e cond f l oo r i se qu ipped w i th t h r ee h ooded f i r ing p o in t s a nd b o th t h ef i r s ta nd s e cond f l oo r sh ave r ow s o fl o opho le s a nd v e r t ica l f i r ing s l o t s . T he g round f l oo r l a ck s ad oo ra nd i sr e se rved f o rs t o rage ,w i th a c ce s sd own al a dde rf r om t h ef i r s tf l oo r . C on s truc t ion : T he t owe ri sc on s t ruc ted f r om b each rock a nd l i me s tone l a ye r ed i n to mo r ta r , t h ew a l l sb e ing 5 5 c en t ime t r es t h ick a t g round l e ve l . T he f l oo r s a r e s uppo r t ed o n n a r row ly s pa ced m ang rove p o le s w i th s t one s i n se r t ed b e tween t h em w h ich a r ec ove r ed w i th at h ick l a ye ro f mo r ta r . N o te s : T he c on s t ruc t ion o ft h i st owe ri sd a ted b yt h e f a c tt h a ti ti sm en t ioned i nt h e6 t h e d i t ion o ft h eP e r s ian G u lf P i lo to f 1 9 15 b u tn o ti nt h e5 t he d i t ion o f1 908 o ri ne a r l ie re d i t ion s . T h i sp o in ti sf u r the rd i scu s sed i nc hap t e r2 . B ib l iography : K ha r ldn i r 1 992 : 1 8 19 .

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4 .a l -Qu sayda t .P la te 6 . D imen s ion s :H e igh t7 . 4m . L eng th 6 . 5m . W id th 4 . 8m . S i tua t ion : T h et owe ri sl o ca ted o nt h ep l a in b eh ind a l -Qu sayda tt ot h es ou th o fa l -Nakh i l among s tu nu s ed d a te p a lm g r ove sa nd f i e ld s y s t em s . G enera ld e scr ip t ion : I ti s at h re e s t o r ey r e c tangu la r t owe r w i th i n c l in ed w a l l s , t h e t o p s t o rey b e ing u n roof ed a nd s u r round ed o n ly b y a p a rap e tw al . O r ig ina l ly t h et owe rh ad t wo d oo r s ,b o th o fw h ich f a c ed s ou th , o n eo nt h eg round f l oo ra nd o ne d i r ec t ly a bove i to nt h ef i r s tf l oo r .T h ef i r s tf l oo rd oo rh a ss i nc eb e en b l o cked u pw i th mud b r ick s . T h e g round f l oo r h a s amud b r ick s t a i rc a s e l e ad ing t ot h e f i r s t f l oo r w he r e t h e r e a r e t wo w indow s , l o opho le s a nd v e r t i ca lf i r ing s l o t s . T he r ei sa l so ar ow o fl o opho l e sa nd v e r t ica lf i r ing s l o t si nt h ep a rape tw al o nt h es e cond f l oo r . C on s t ruc t ion : T he l owe s t7 0 c en t ime t re s o ft h et owe ra r eb u i l to fl ime s tone c obb le s s e t i n to mo r ta r f o rm ing as ol id , e r o s ion -p roo f b a se t ot h ew a l l s . A bove t h i st h et owe ri sb u i l te n t i r e ly o f mud b r ick e x cep tf o rt h e t op 4 0 c en t ime t r e s o ft h e p a rap e t w a l lw h ich , r a the ru nu sua l ly i n amud b r ick t ow e r , i sb u i l to fc obb le s . T h ew a l l sa r e 9 5 c en t im e t re st h ick u pt of i r s t f l oo rl e v e la t wh ich p o in tt h e yt h in t o5 c en t im e t re s . T h e s u r f ace s o ft h e w a l l s a r e c ove r ed i n mud p l a s te r a nd t h e f l oo r sa r ec on s t ruc t ed f r om m ang rove p o le s . B ib l iog raphy : K ha r ld iu r1 992 : 3 2 -33 .

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5 .a l -Huda y-b a .P la te 7 . D imen s ion s :H e igh t 1 .04m .L eng th 7 . 1m . W id th 4 . 05m . S i tua t ion : T ow e r 5i sl o ca ted b eh ind t h ea l -Nakh i l la l -Ma inu ra a r ea i nt h em idd le o ft h eg rav e lp l a in t owa rd st h ee a s te rn e x t en t o fc u l t iva t ion . G enera ld e scr ip t ion : T h i si sac omp lex r e c tangu la rt ow e rw i th i n c l ined w a l l s . T he c o r eo ft h eb u i ld ing i sas imp le , r e c tangu la r ,t h r e es t o r ey t ow e rv e ry s im i la r t oT owe r 1a ta l -Fa layya . A ga in s t t h i s , t ot h e e a s t , at wo s to r ey t owe r h a s b een b u i l t u s ing t h e e a s t e rn w a l l o ft h e c o r e t ow e r a s i t s w es t er n w a l l . A s w el a st h i s e a s ter n e n la rg em en t t h e c o re t ow e r h a s b e en h e igh t ened b yt h e a dd i t ion o f a' c row ' s n e s t ' a nd t h e r e bu i ld ing o ft h e p a rap e tw a l l . T h e r e su l t ing t ow e ri st h e r ef o r e f o u rs t o r ey sh igh ;t h et h i rd f l oo rc on s is t ing o ft h ec r ow ' sn e s tw h ich i sf o rmed o ft h r e ew a l l ss u r round ing ap l a t f o rm a t t h ee a s t er ne nd o ft h es e cond f l oo r . T h er ema ind e ro ft h es e cond f l oo ri su n roo f ed a nd i ss u r round ed b y ap a rap e tw a l l . T h e r ea r et wo g round -f loo r d oo r s , o ne i ne a ch o ft h e s ep a ra t e s e c t ion s o ft h e t owe rw h ich a r e n o t c onnec ted b ya n i n t e rna ld oo rw ay a tg round l e ve l . A cc e s st ot h ef i r s tf l oo r so fb o th s e c t ion s i sb y as i ng le i n t e rna l s t a i r ca s ei nt h ec o r e s e c t ion o ft h et ow e r . Ad oo ro nt h e f i r s tf l oo r , d i re c t ly a bove t h e g r ound f l oo r d oo ro ft h e c o r e s e c t ion , g i v e s a cc e s s o n to at e r rac e . T h e f i r s ta nd s e cond f l oo r s h ave w indow s , l o opho le s a nd v e r t ica l f i r ing s l o t s . On t h e s e cond f l oo r a s i ng le h ooded f i r ing p o in t i sp o s i t ioned d i r ec t ly a bov e t h e ma in d oo rway . A c ce s s t ot h e s e cond f l oo r i sb y ac o rne r l a dd e r . T h ef i r s tf l oo ro ft h ee a s t e rn p a r to ft h et ow e rh a s al a t r in e s i t ua ted a bov e as e c t ion o ft h eg round f l oo rw h ich a ppea r st oh av eb e en ac e s sp i t . C on s truc t ion : T h et ow e ri sb u i l to fl ime s tone c obb le s .b ea ch ro ck a nd o c ca s iona l c o ra lf r agm en t sl a ye r ed i n to mo r ta r . T he w a l l sa r e 6 2c en t ime tr e st h ick a tg round l e v e l .T he f l oo r sa r es uppo r ted o nm ang rove p o le s . N o te s : T h es t ub o f aw a l la tt h ew e s t er ne nd o ft h et ow e rs ugge s t st h a tt h e r em ay o n c e h av eb een ac ou r tya rd a tached t ot h e n o r th s i d eo ft h et owe ra ga ins tw h ich s t and s at e r rac e s uppo r t ed o nf o u rp i l la r s . T h i sa r rang emen t i st y p ica l o fh ou s e t ow e r s i nR a s a l -Kha imah a si sd e sc r ibed i nc hap t e r 3 .I ti si n t e r e s t ing t on o te t h a t T ow e r 1 a ta l -U rayb i h a s a n e xa c t ly s im i la rs t ruc tu r ea nd h a sc l ea r ly u nd e rgon ea ne xac t ly s im i la rd eve lopmen t , ap o in tw h ich i sa l so d i scu s sed i n c hap t e r3 . B ib l iography : K ha rkhu r 1 992 :2 2 -23 .

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6 .D ahan ( Abu S haqq ) . P la t e s8 ,9 . D imen s ion s :H e igh t 1 .2m .L eng th 6m . W id th 6m . S i tua t ion : T h i st ow e rs t and sj u s tb eh ind t h eb each a bou t 1 . 5 k i lome t r e s s ou th o fR a s a l -Kha im ah t own . T h i s i s o la ted l o ca t ion a pp ea r s t oh av e a lowed t h e t ow e r t op l ay ap a r t i nt h e c oa s ta l d ef en s iv e a nd c ommun ica t ion s y s tem , p rov id ing a v i s ua l l i nk b e tween t h et ow e r so fa l Jaz i ra ta l -Ham ra ( Tow e r s 8 ,9 ,3 5 ) , t h ef o r t i nR a s a l -Kha imah ( Towe r 3 ) a nd t h et ow e ra tK huzam ( Towe r3 )a nd t h e reby t ot h ei n t e r io r , ap o in tw h ich i sd i scu s sed i nc hap t e r3 . G enera ld e scr ip t ion : T h i s i s as q ua r e t owe r w i th i n c l ined w a l l s . T he t owe r c on s i s t s o ff o u r s t o r ey s , t h e t h i rd o fw h ich i s ap l a tf o rm o ccupy ing o n ly t h e n o r the rn h a lf o ft h e t ow e r ( P la t e 9 ) . T h e s t ruc tu r e o ft h e t owe r i sb a s ed a r ound al a rg e c en t ra l p i l la r wh ich h e lp st os uppo r te ach o ft h ef l oo r s , s t and ing a sh i gh a st h ep a rap e tw a l l so ft h et o pf l oo r . T h ef un c t ion o f t h ep i l la ri st or e duc et h ei n t e rna ls pan o ft h et owe rf r om a sm u ch a s4 . 4m e t re st oa r ound 2 . 2m e t r e s . T h e t ow e r h a s t wo d oo r s , o ne o n t h e f i r s t f l oo r a nd a no th e r , i mm ed ia t e ly b e low i t , o n t h e g round An i n te rna l s t a i r ca s eb u i l ta g a in s tt h en o r th w a l lg i ve sa c ce s st ot h ef i r s tf l oo r . A c ce s st ot h e s e cond a nd t h i rd f l oo r si sb yc o rn e r l a dde r s . T h e r ea r el o opho le sa nd v e r t ica lf i r ing s l o t so nt h es e cond a nd t h i rd f l oo r sp l u sf ou rh ood ed f i r ing p o in t so n t h es e cond f l oo r . T he t h i rd f l oo r , wh ich i so n ly h a lf t h es i ze o ft h el owe rf l oo r s ,i sd i v ided i n to t wo ;t h ew e s ter ns e c t ion i ss ma l le ra nd a pp ea r sn o tt oh ave b een e n c lo s ed b y ap a rap e tw a l l . I tm ay h av ef unc t ioned a s al o okou to rs i g na l l ing p o s i t ion . C on s truc t ion : T h e t ow e ri sc on s t ruc ted f r om b each rock a nd c o ra l l a y e r ed i n to m o r ta r i n2 5 -c en t im e t r e th ick c ou r s e s wh ich w e r e t h en p l a s t e r ed T h e f l oo r s a r e s uppo r ted o n n a r row ly sp ac ed m ang rov e p o le s w i th s t one s w edg ed i nb e twe en t h em c ov e red w i th at h i ck l a ye ro f mo r ta r . N o te s : U nu sua l ly t h et ow e rw a sb u i l tu pon t h e r ema in so fa ne a r l i e rs t ruc tu r e , a l so at owe r , t h ew a l l so f wh ich p ro je c tf r om t h eb a se a nd h av eb e en u sed a sf ounda t ion s f o rt h e p re sen tb u i ld ing . T he o l d e rt ow e rw a s c l ea r ly b u i l t i n ad i f f e r en t s t y le a nd a pp ea r st oh a ve b e en s omewha tl a rg e r . T owe r 6i sd e sc r ibed i nt h ef i r s te d i t ion o ft h eP e r s ian G u l fP i lo to f1 864 a s' ad e tached t owe rt h r e e -qua r t e r so f am i le s ou th -w e s to ft h et own n ea rt h ec ommenc em en to ft h e r e ds a nd -h i l l s ' ( P e r s ian G u lf P i lo t , i s te d i t ion , 1 864 : 7 6 ) . I ti s n o ts hown i nt h ew a t e r co lou rv i ew so ft h e c o as t o f1 822 ( s e e c hap t e r2 )a nd mu s t t h e ref o r e h ave b e en b u i l tb e twe en t h e se t wo d a te s . H owev e r , a s h a s b e en n o ted , t h e r e i sc l ea r e v id en ce t h a t t h i s t owe r h a s b e en r ebu i l t u pon t h e f o unda t ion so fa ne a r l ie rs t ruc tu r ea nd i ts e em sq u i t el i k e ly t h a tT owe r 6w a sd e s t royed a l ong w i th t h ed e f en ce so fR as a l -Kha imah a f t e r t h e B r i t i sh e xped i t ion o f 1 822 ( Low 1 877 : 3 62 ) ; ap o in t w h ich i sp re s e rved i n l o ca l m emo ry ( Kha rkhu r : 2-23 ) . We m ay t h e r ef o r es uppo s et h a tt h es t r uc tu r ea si tn ow s t and sd a te st ob e twe en 1 822 a nd 1 864 b u t t h a tt h e r ew a sa ne a r l ie rs t ruc tu r eo nt h i ss po tw h ich w a sb u i l tb e f o r e 1 8 19 . B ib l iography : R a sh id 1 992 : 9 4 .K ha rkhu r 1 992 : 2 6 -27 .

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7 .a l -Ma ta f( J u l far ) . D im en s ion s :H e igh tn o tk nown .L eng th c .3 . 3m .W id th c .3 . 3m . S i tua t ion : T h et ow e rs t ood o n am ound a bov et h eb ea ch a ta l -Ma t af t h es i t eo fa n c i en tJ i lf a r ,w h ich i st h eh i gh e s tp o in ta l ong t h e c o a s tf o r s om e d i s tan c e . F rom t h i s p o s i t ion t h et ow e rw ou ld h av eb e en a b le t oc ommun ica t e v i sua l ly w i th t h e t ow e r si na l -Ram sa nd a l -Ma i r id a sw e l la ss om eo ft h et ow e r so nt h e S h ima lp l a in a nd p r ob ab ly t h ef o r ti nR a sa l K ha imah . G en era ld e s cr ip t ion : T h er ema in so ft h i st ow e rw e r er e c en t ly e xcav a t ed b yt h eF r en ch A r cha eo log ic a lM i s s ion t oJ u lf a rd i r e c t ed b yC la i r e H a rd y -Gu i lb e r t . T h ed e sc r ip t ion w h i ch f o l low si st a k en f r om n o t e sk i nd ly p r ov id ed b yt h eF r en ch M i s s ion , a si st h e p l an o ft h et ow e r : T h et ow e rw a sd e s t roy ed a sr e c en t ly a st h e 1 960 ' sa nd e x i s t sn ow o n ly i np l an . I tw a se xc ava t ed i n1 992 a nd r e v e a l sa s q u a r ep l an m ea su r ing 3 . 3 m e t r e sb y3 . 3 m e t r e s .T h ei n t e r io rp l as te rf l oo rs h ow ed t r ac e so f ah e a r th i nt h en o r th -e a s t c o rn e r .T h ee n t r anc et ot h et ow e rm a yh av eb e en i nt h em idd le o ft h es o u th -e a s tw a l lw h ich f a ce sa way f r om t h ec o a s t a nd t ow a rd st h er e c tangu la re n c lo su r et ow h ich t h et ow e ri sj o in ed a nd w h i ch i sa l so c omp l e t e ly d e s t roy ed T h el i gh t c on s t ru c t ion i mpl i e st h a tt h i sb u i ld ing w a si n t end ed a s al o ok -ou tp o s tr a th e rt h an ad e f en s iv es t a t ion . C on s truc t ion : T h ec on s t ru c t ion c on s i s t so ff o u rc o rn e rp i l la r sj o in ed b y ama son ry w a l l 2 0 c en t im e t r e st h i ck Wa l l sa nd p i l la r sa r e c o a t ed w i th m o r ta ro na l lf a c e s .T h eb u i ld ing s t on ef o rt h ep i l la r sa sw e l la st h ew a l l si sl i m e s ton er u bb l ea nd l ump so f c o r a l .T h em o r ta rc on ta in sg yp sum ,l im e ,e a r th a nd s a nd a nd i sap i nk i sh c o lou r . T r en ch e se x cava ted a g a in s tt h eb a s eo ft h ew a l l sd i dn o tr e v ea la ny t r a c e so ff o unda t ion se x c ep tf o rt h ec o rn e rp i l la r s w h i ch c onf i rm ed t o ad ep th o f5 0c e n t im e t re sb e low g r ound l e v e l . N o t e s : T h i st ow e ri sm a rk ed o nt h eR a sa l -Kha imah s h e e to ft h eB r i t i sh 1 : 100 ,000 m ap s( S e r i e sK 668 p r in t ed i n1 968 ) a t CD982568 .C la i r eH a rd y -Gu i lb e r tp o in t so u tt h ep a ra l l e l sw i th T ow e r 6a tD ahe r ;b o th t ow e r sa r es q ua r ea nd c o a s ta l , a l though T ow e r 6i smu ch l a rg e rt h an T ow e r7 .? mo th e ri n t e r e s t ing p a ral e li sw i th T ow e r6 7i nt h e Wad ia l -Mun il , t h ec on s t ru c t ion o fw h ich i sv e ry s im i la r . B ib l iog raphy : K ha rkhu r1 992 : 2 8 29 .

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8 .a l -Jaz ira ta l -Hamra ( Bu i j a l -Buma ) .P la t e s 1 0 , 1 . D imen s ion s : H e igh t 1m .D iame t e r5 . 8m _ S i tua t ion : T og e th e rw i th T ow e r 9t h i st ow e ri so n eo f ap a i ro ft w in r ound t ow e r s , s p ac ed a bou t 1k i lome t r ea pa r t , w h ich s t and o n t h e r i dg e o v e r look ing t h e c oa s ta l r o ad a nd s ho r e o ppo s i te t h e t own o fa l J az i ra t a l -Hant i a . A d r y s tone w a l l s u r round st h et ow e rt ot h ee a s t , s ou th a nd w e s ta nd t h e r e i s as ma l l s qua r eb u i ld ing t ot h e n o r th . I na dd i t ion t ot h e s e s t ruc tu r e st h e r ei sad en s ep o t t e ry s c a t t e ro ve rt h es u r round ing a r ea w h ich s e em st od a t et o t h e 1 7 th c en tu ry a nd l a te r . T h et ow e rc an s e ea nd b e s e en f r om t h et owe r si n s id ea l Jaz i ra ta l -Ham ra ( Towe r s4 5 ,46 ,47 ) a nd a l so f r om T owe r6 t ot h en o r th . G enera ld e scr ip t ion : B o th T owe r s 8a nd 9a r ev e ry s im i la ri nc on s t ruc t ion a nd d e s ign . T h ew a l l sa r e s t e ep ly i n c l ined t owa rd st h et op o fa f o u r s to re-s t ruc tu r e ,t h eu pp e rmo s tf l oo ro fw h ich w a s ad oub le p l a t f o rm p ro t e c ted b y ar a i sed p a rape tw a l l . T h e r ei so ne d oo ro nt h ef i r s tf l oo ra t ah e igh to f5 . 9m e t r e sa bove t h eg round w h ich i st h e o n ly a cc e s st ot h e i n t e r io r o ft h et owe r . A cc e s st ot h eo t he rf l oo r s i sb y l a dd e rf r om t h ef i r s tf l oo r . T he f i r s t a nd s e cond f l oo r s h av e as e r ie s o f l o opho le sa nd v e r t ica lf i r ing s l o t sf a c ing i na l l d i r ec t ion sa nd t h e r ea r ef o u rh ooded f i r ing p o in t so nt h e s e cond f l oo r . T h ep a rap e tw a l li sr a i sed o nt wo s i d e ss ugge s t ing t h a tt h e r ei sad oub le p l a t f o rm a bov et h et op f l oo rs e rv ing a s al o ok o u tp o s i t ion . C ons truc t ion : T h e t ow e r i sc on s t ruc te d f r om b ea ch rock a nd c o ra l l a ye r ed i n to m o r ta r , t h e c ou r se s b e ing b e tween 2 5 a nd 4 5 c en t imet re st h ick I n t e r e s t ing ly t h el owe rf i ve o rs i xc ou r se sa r ea lmo s te n t i r e ly m ad eo fb ea ch rock w h e r e a sa bov et h i s c o ra lp r edom ina t e s( P la te 1 ) .T h i sa pp ea r st ob e as t ruc tu ra lt e chn iqu ei n t end ed t os t r eng th en t h el ow e rs e c t ion o ft h e w a l l sw h i l s tk eep ing t h eu ppe rs e c t ion a sl i gh ta sp o s s ib le . N o te s : O nt h ed a t ing o ft h i st ow e rs e et h ed i scu s s ion si nc hap t e r2 . B ib l iography : K ha rkhu r 1 992 :6 8 -69 .

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