The Tears of Hispaniola: Haitian and Dominican Diaspora Memory 9780813030524

Table of contents :
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Foreword
Acknowledgments
Introduction: The Tears of Hispaniola
1. Meanings of Memory: A Literary Intervention to Confront Persisent Violence
2. What Happens When Memory Hurts?: The Haunting of Rape
3. Exposing Invisibility: Drown
4. Modes of Memory: The Restavék Condition and Jean-Robert Cadet’s Story
5. Mapping Home: Inaccessible Memories
6. Conclusion: Present Memories
Notes
Bibliography
Index

Citation preview

The Tears of Hispaniola Hispaniola New World Diasporas Diasporas

Florida A&M A&M University, University,Tallahassee Tallahassee Florida Atlantic University, University, Boca Raton Florida Gulf Coast University, University, Ft. Ft. Myers Myers International University, Florida International University,Miami Miami Florida State University, University, Tallahassee Tallahassee University of University of Central CentralFlorida, Florida,Orlando Orlando University of University of Florida, Florida, Gainesville Gainesville University of University of North NorthFlorida, Florida,Jacksonville Jacksonville University of University of South SouthFlorida, Florida,Tampa Tampa University of University of West West Florida, Florida, Pensacola Pensacola

New World Diasporas Diasporas Edited by by Kevin KevinA. A.Yelvington Yelvington Afro-Cubans in More Than Than Black: Black: Afro-Cubans inTampa, Tampa,by bySusan SusanD. D.Greenbaum Greenbaum(2002) (2002) Carnival and Transnation, byby Philip W.W. Scher (2003) Carnival andthe theFormation Formationofofa aCaribbean Caribbean Transnation, Philip Scher (2003) Dominican Migration: Dominican Migration:Transnational TransnationalPerspectives, Perspectives,edited editedby byErnesto ErnestoSagas Sagásand andSintia SintiaMolina Molina (2004) Salvadoran Migration Migration to Southern Salvadoran Southern California: California: Redefining Redefining El El Hermano Hermano Lejano, Lejano, by by Beth Beth Baker-Cristales (2004) Baker-Cristales (2004) The Chrysanthemum and The and the theSong: Song:Music, Music, Memory, Memory, and and Identity Identityininthe theSouth SouthAmerican American Japanese Japanese Diaspora, Diaspora,by byDale DaleA. A.Olsen Olsen(2004) (2004) American Empire, byby Andean Diaspora: Diaspora: The The Tiwanaku Tiwanaku Colonies Colonies and andthe theOrigins OriginsofofSouth South American Empire, Paul S. Goldstein Goldstein(2005) (2005) Migration and Migration andVodou, Vodou,by byKaren KarenE. E.Richman Richman(2005) (2005) True-Born Maroons, Maroons,by byKenneth KennethBilby Bilby(2006) (2006) The Tears Tears of of Hispaniola: Hispaniola: Haitian and The and Dominican Dominican Diaspora DiasporaMemory, Memory,by byLucia LucíaM. M.Suarez Suárez (2006)

of Hispaniola Hispaniola The Tears of Haitian and Dominican Dominican Diaspora Diaspora Memory Memory

Lucia M. M. Suarez Lucía Suárez

University Press University Pressof ofFlorida Florida Gainesville/Tallahassee/Tampa/Boca Raton Gainesville/Tallahassee/Tampa/Boca Raton Pensacola/Orlando/Miami/Jacksonville/Ft. Myers

Copyright 2006 Copyright 2006 by by Lucia Lucía M. M. Suarez Suárez Printed in Printed in the the United United States States of of America America All rights reserved ofof Congress. A record of cataloging-in-publication cataloging-in-publicationdata dataisisavailable availablefrom fromthe theLibrary Library Congress. ISBN 0-8130-2926-0 0-8130-2926-0 ISBN 0-8130-3052-8 (pbk.) ISBN 0-8130-3052-8 (pbk.)

State University The University University Press Press of of Florida Florida isis the thescholarly scholarlypublishing publishingagency agencyfor forthe the State University System of University, Florida System of Florida, Florida,comprising comprisingFlorida FloridaA&M A&MUniversity, University,Florida FloridaAtlantic Atlantic University, Florida Florida International University, Gulf Coast University, Florida University, Florida State University, University, University University of Central Florida, of of South Florida, University University of ofFlorida, Florida,University UniversityofofNorth NorthFlorida, Florida,University University South University of Florida, and University of West West Florida. Florida. University Press University Pressof ofFlorida Florida 15 Northwest Northwest 15th 15 15th Street Street Gainesville, FL Gainesville, FL 32611-2079 32611-2079 http://www.upf.com

For Blake Blake and and Arianna Arianna For

Contents Contents

Foreword ix Foreword ix Acknowledgments xi Acknowledgments xi Tearsof ofHispaniola Hispaniola 11 Introduction: The Tears Meanings of Memory: Memory: A Literary 1. Meanings Literary Intervention Intervention to Confront Confront Persistent to Persistent Violence Violence 25 25

What Happens Happens When When Memory Hurts? The Haunting 2. What Haunting of of Rape Rape 61 61 ExposingInvisibility: Invisibility:Drown Drown 91 3. Exposing 91 4. Modes of Memory: The Restavék Restavèk Condition Condition Jean-Robert Cadet’s Cadet’sStory Story 119 and Jean-Robert 119

Memories 151 5. Mapping Home: Inaccessible Inaccessible Memories 151

6. Conclusion: Conclusion:Present Present Memories Memories 181 6. 181

Notes 187 Notes 187 Bibliography 203 Bibliography 203

Index 215 Index 215

Foreword Foreword

Migration, diaspora, the circulation in a hypermediated hypermediated world of recurring recurring Migration, images, a sense of cultural fragmentation, fragmentation,of ofrootlessness rootlessnesslonging longingfor forand and inventing “home”—these are are all all symptoms symptoms of of the the condition condition of of postmodpostmodernity. So, too, are the all-too-real all-too-realexperiences experiencesof of exile exile and andatrocity, atrocity,hardhardloss, suffering, suffering, and shame. And yet ship, loss, yet to to the theburdens burdensofofbearing bearingwitwitness to these tragedies tragedies through throughartistic artisticrenderings renderingsand andrepresentations representationsare are added the the specter silencing. In In the context of evidentiary added specter of silencing. evidentiary and and ethical ethical relativism—further hallmarks relativism—further hallmarks of of postmodernity—these postmodernity—theseimaginings imaginingsthat that revelatory of are revelatory of pain pain and and trauma traumacan cansimply simplybe beignored ignoredor, or,at atbest, best,shouted shouted down, reduced to the the status statusof ofjust justaaset setofofself-interested, self-interested,self-obsessed self-obsessed narratives, dismissed as the stuff of quotidian identity politics. the stuff of quotidian identity politics. Lucia M. M. Suárez Suarez shows shows in in this this book, book, writers writers of of the the DominiAnd yet, as Lucía Haitian diasporas can and Haitian diasporasare areconcerned concernedtotochallenge challengethis thiskind kindofofa apolitics politics the same time as they they confront invisibility of reception, at the invisibility and and interpellate interpellate what they they construe construeas assalient salientaspects aspectsof of“their” “their”past pastasaspart partofofa acollective collective experience to which which they theyare areconcerned concernedtotogive givevoice. voice.Their Theirpositionings positionings reverberate as these writers construct aa narrated narrated diasporic diasporic life by setting, setting, or trying to to set, set,the theterms termsofofdiasporic diasporicdiscourse discourse with withrecourse recoursetotothe the past—oftentimes, a past past inhabited inhabitedby byimages imagesofofunspeakable unspeakableviolations violations that must must somehow somehow find find aa way way to to be be spoken spoken about. about. How the the past past is is dedepicted in Caribbean Caribbean fiction fiction has hasbeen beenaapoint pointofoffocus focusfor forCaribbean Caribbeanliterary literary criticism, from from C. C. R. R. Coulthard’s Coulthard’sRaza Razayycolor coloren enlala literatura literatura antillana criticism, antillana (1958) to to Nana Wilson-Tagoe’s Historical Thought and Literary (1958) Wilson-Tagoe’s Historical LiteraryRepreRepresentation in sentation inWest West Indian IndianLiterature Literature(1998). (1998).But Butititisisone oneofofSudérez’s Suárez’s main contributions here contributions here to toplace place the the literary literaryproduction productionofofdiasporic diasporicDominican Dominican and Haitian writers under under this thislens lensas asthis thiscorpus corpushas hasheretofore heretoforeescaped escaped such a reading. Haunting evocations such evocations of the the infamous infamous 1937 1937 massacre massacre of of Haitians and and Dominicans Dominicans of of Haitian Haitiandescent descentininthe theDominican DominicanRepublic— Republic– Haiti borderlands figure prominently prominentlyin inthis thiscorpus, corpus, and and it is to this theme, among others, that that Suarez Suárez closely closely attends. attends. Suarez Suárez brings bringstogether togetherhistory, history, literary, psychoanalytic, and anthropological theory in in aa concern concern for forthe the literary imagination’s coming to terms with traumas traumas bubbling bubbling just just under under the surfaces surfaces of of diasporic diasporic experiences. experiences. For her, memory memory isis both boththe thecanvas canvas

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Foreword Foreword

upon which these diasporic diasporic writers work and the the rubric rubric that thatdrives drivesher her own interpretations. Memory can can be be aa positive positive tool tool to to weave weave stories stories of of survival and triumph, as well as to expose the banalities of evil and gross triumph, as well as to expose the banalities of evil and gross and to to try to come to terms with criminality, and with human humansuffering. suffering.But But ititcan can stifling and limiting, limiting, enveloping also be stifling envelopingwriter writerand andreader readeralike alikeininaahaze hazeofof nostalgia. So, if there is the the potential potentialfor fordiasporic diasporicwriters writerstotouse usememory memory to overcome memories, there there is is the theequal equalpotential potentialfor forthem themtotobebeprisonprisoners of memory—their memory—their own, own, and and of ofthose thosewho whowould woulddeny denythem thempersonpersonhood and identity. identity. By invoking invoking aa memory memoryanalytic, analytic,Suarez Suárezplaces placesherself herselfinin a controversial place where there is little agreement as to the utility controversial place where there agreement as to the utilityofof memory or or even even its itsconceptual conceptualstatus. status.For Forinstance, instance,inina aspecial specialissue issueofof Anthropological Quarterly Anthropological Quarterly(vol. (vol.78, 78,no. no.1, 1, Winter Winter2005) 2005) edited edited by by Barbara Barbara Rylko-Bauer, entitled entitled “Bringing “Bringing the the Past Past into the Present: Family NarraRylko-Bauer, tives of Holocaust, Exile, and Diaspora,” which seeks to mediate mediate on onthese these very themes, there is is also also an an article article by byDavid David C. C. Berliner Berliner entitled entitled “The “The Abuses of Memory: Memory: Reflections Reflections on on the theMemory MemoryBoom BoomininAnthropology” Anthropology” (197-211), where the author (197–211), author questions questionsthe theimprecise imprecise (over)use (over)use of of memory memory But Suárez Sudrez intends intends for for memory to be in the discipline discipline of anthropology. anthropology. But be in aa social/cultural social/cultural (including seen as ensconced in (including diasporic) diasporic) matrix, matrix,with withthe the understanding that the the politics politics of of recall recall are are overdetermined overdetermined by bysociosociopolitical contexts. This move offers a bold theoretical-conceptual intervenoffers theoretical-conceptual intervention worthy worthyof of the thecourageous courageouswriters writerswho whoare arethe thesubject subjectofofthis thisbook. book. Yelvington Kevin A. Yelvington Series Editor Series Editor

Acknowledgments Acknowledgments

This project was begun in the spring spring of 2001 when I realized that that II needed to address the memory memory of of violence violence and its affect in the the Caribbean Caribbean and and its its diaspora in a focused, systematic, and urgent urgent manner. manner.Without Withoutthe thestrong strong encouragement, patient readings, readings, and and keen keen commentaries commentariesofofmy myfriends friends and colleagues and colleagues Ruth Behar, Behar, Santiago Santiago Colds, Colás, Jarrod Jarrod Hayes, Hayes, Alejandro Alejandro Herrero-Olaizola, Cristina Cristina Moreiras-Menor, Herrero-Olaizola, Moreiras-Menor, Richard Richard Lee Lee Turits, Turits, and and Wucker,IIwould wouldnot not have have had had the the courage to embark on this Michele Wucker, this new new later to work, and later to stick stick with with it. it. Very Very special thanks thanks go go to to them. them.Thanks Thanksalso also to Ruth Ruth Tsoffar, Tsoffar, Peggy McCracken and Roger Williams for for reading reading secsections of the the text text atataamuch muchearlier earlierstage. stage.Thanks ThankstotoJossianna JossiannaArroyo, Arroyo, Paulina Alberto, Alberto, and and Jesse JesseHoffnung-Garskof Hoffnung-Garskof for for their their observations later on. I also want to to thank thankLizabeth LizabethParavisini-Gebert Paravisini-Gebertand andthe theanonymous anonymous reader for their their assiduous assiduous evaluation evaluation of of the the manuscript. manuscript.Their Theircomments comments aided immensely in in revising revising the thebook. book. In the process process of research and writing, writing, many many people people at at conferences, conferences, at and during airplane flights have helped me think libraries, and think through throughwhat what finally made it to to the the printed printedpages pageshere. here.They Theyare aretoo toomany manytotoname, name,but but they are gratefully gratefully remembered. remembered. Merrie Archer of the National National Coalition Thank you, Merrie Coalition for Haitian Haitian Rights, Rights, Evelyne Trouillot Trouillot of Haiti Solidarité Luz Angela Melo of UNICEF, UNICEF, Évelyne Solidarité InterInternational, Brian Concannon Concannon Jr. Jr. of BAI, Jean Jonassaint, Guillermo Corsino Corsino of the the OAS, OAS, Raymundo RaymundoGonzalez Gonzálezofofthe theArchivo ArchivoNacional, Nacional,Michele Michele Karshan, the foreign press liaison liaison for for the theNational NationalPalace Palace of of Haiti Haitiunder under Aristide, and Sarah Aponte of the Dominican Institute Institute Library Library at atCUNY CUNY for informative e-mail correspondence, correspondence, important contacts, contacts, hard-to-get hard-to-get materials, and/or and/or direction directionwith withrespect respecttotothe thetopics. topics.Thanks Thanksare arealso alsodue due C. Holloway Holloway for for sending sending me me a copy of her book to Karla F. F. C. book Passed Passed On: African American American Mourning MourningStories, Stories,which whichhas hasdeeply deeplyinformed informedmy myown own thinking. thinking. I have been blessed and honored with with generous generous fellowships fellowships that thathave have made the long reading and writing made writing hours hours possible. possible. At the the University University of of Michigan I received the the Rackham Rackham Grant Grantand andFellowship FellowshipProgram ProgramAward, Award, the Faculty Career Career Development DevelopmentAward, Award, aa research research grant grantfrom fromthe theOffice Office

xii Acknowledgments xii Acknowledgments

of the Provost Provost and andExecutive Executive Vice Vice President President for forAcademic Academic Affairs, Affairs, and and an an Institute for Institute for the theResearch Researchon onWomen Womenand andGender GenderGrant. Grant.IIam amparticularly particularly grateful to the the support, support, from fromthe thebeginning beginningofofthe themanuscript manuscriptwriting writingtoto the final stages stages of of book production, production, II have have received received from from Lester Lester Monts. Monts. critical support support for this project I received received further, critical project thanks thanks to totime timeoff off arranged by the the Department Departmentof of Romance Romance Languages Languages and Literatures Literatures at at the the University of Michigan, Michigan, Ann Ann Arbor, Arbor, and the theone-year one-yearWoodrow WoodrowWilson Wilson Faculty Career Career Enhancement EnhancementFellowship. Fellowship. to the University Cynthia Steele made access access to University of of Washington Washington library library available. The Richard Hugo House center for writers in Seattle gave me a available. The Richard Hugo House center Seattle safe and quiet place to simply sit safe sit and and write. write.Thanks Thanksfor forthe theenergy, energy,Tina Tina Hetzel and Frances Frances McCue. Thanks to Cliff Cliff Meyer Meyer for forhelping helpingwith withthe the finer points of of grammar grammar and andediting. editing.I Iam amespecially especiallygrateful gratefultotoAnn Ann Marlowe, my copyeditor at University Marlowe, University Press Press of ofFlorida, Florida, for forher herexpert expert work. Tom Tom Burnett’s Burnett’s help help at at the Shapiro work. Shapiro Library Library at at the theUniversity Universityofof Michigan is is well Michigan well remembered. remembered. The collections collections and librarians librarians at at the the Schomburg Center Center for forResearch Researchin inBlack Black Culture Cultureatatthe theNew NewYork YorkPublic Public to find find the the discrepancies discrepancies of ofhistory history and and the the multimultiLibrary made it possible to tudinous stories tudinous stories of of Hispaniola. Hispaniola. II remain remain indebted indebted to to WOCAP WOCAP at at the theCenter Centerfor forthe theEducation Educationofof Women at the University of Michigan for providing emotional the University of Michigan for providing emotionaland andintelintellectual support. support. Thank Thankyou, you,Carol CarolHollenshead, Hollenshead,for foryour yourknowledge. knowledge.Being Being a part of the the Autobiography AutobiographyWorking WorkingGroup, Group,IRWG, IRWG,atatthe theUniversity Universityofof I’ve rethought rethought autobiogMichigan has made all the difference in the ways I’ve autobiography and testimony. Special thanks go to Sidonie Smith for her frankness testimony. Smith frankness and for so generously sharing her own manuscript manuscript on on testimony testimonyand andhuhuman rights rights long long before beforeits itspublication. publication. Many organizations organizations have have been been extremely extremelygenerous generouswith withtheir theirtime timeand and Special gratitude gratitude goes to Bureau Internationaux inin resources. Special Bureau des des Avocats Internationaux Haiti, Dwa Haiti, Dwa Fanm, Fanm,CARLI CARLI (Comité (Comitédes desAvocats Avocatspour pourleleRespect Respectdes desLibertés Libertés Individuelles), POHDH POHDH (Plateforme des Individuelles), des Organizations Organizations Haitiennes Haïtiennesdes des Droits Humains), NCHR (National Coaliton for Haitian Rights), UNICEF Humains), NCHR (National Coaliton for Haitian Rights), UNICEF Nations Children’s (United Nations Children’s Fund), Fund), Haiti Haïti Solidarité Solidarité Internationale, Internationale,MUDE MUDE (Mujeres en Desarollo Desarollo Dominicano), Dominicano), PROFAMILIA, PROFAMILIA, CIPAF CIPAF (Centro de de Investigacion para Investigación paralalaAcci6n Acción Femenina),and Femenina),andEPICA EPICA(Ecumenical (EcumenicalProgram Program in Central America and the Caribbean). The work work of of these these mentioned oror ganizations, as as well well as as many many others others that I have no space ganizations, space to list, is invaluable; II sincerely sincerely hope hope they they can continue to be safe havens of information able; and support support despite despite new new waves waves of of violence violence and and political political turmoil turmoilthroughthroughout the island and within the two nations. out the island and within the two nations.

Acknowledgments xiii Acknowledgments xiii

sections of of chapters 2 and 4 appeared in Journal of Earlier versions of sections of Haitian Studies, Haitian Studies,Fall Fall 2003, 2003, vol. 9, no. 2, copyright 2003, and Spring Spring 2005, 2005, vol. 11, no. 1, copyright 2005, and is used with with permission permission of of the theeditor. editor. thanks go to Claudine Special thanks Claudine Michel Michelfor forher herexpert experteditorial editorialguidance guidanceand and intellectual support. support. The much-loved “nanny “nanny time” time”provided providedby bymy mymother-in-law, mother-in-law,Karin Karin Williams, helped helped me me combine combine new new motherhood with the Williams, the final finalwriting writingofof this book, and aa special special acknowledgment acknowledgment is is due due to to her herfor forthe themailings mailingsofof regularly collected regularly collected newspaper newspaperclippings. clippings. My Myparents’ parents’intense intenselove lovehas hasbeen been strengthening. Heartfelt thanks go to Amy Baron, amazing best friend strengthening. Heartfelt thanks go to Amy Baron, amazing best friendpar par for keeping me excellence, for me sane saneand andfocused, focused,and andtotoGabriela GabrielaArcila, Arcila,spirispiritual sister, for constantly constantly reminding remindingme meofofthe theimportance importanceofofsimplicity. simplicity. My husband, husband, Blake Blake Williams, never let me me just just put putititdown, down,cooked cookednournourishing meals, and believed in me like no one else. Thanks! My lovely ishing meals, and believed in me like else. lovely daughter, Arianna Arianna Lucia daughter, Lucía Williams, Williams, inspires inspires me me to to keep keep looking looking for for the thegood good things and things and ways ways to to mend mend the thebad badones. ones.To To her her II owe the the guiding guiding light lightthat that has energized me during during the themany manyrevisions revisionsofofthis thisbook. book.

Introduction Introduction The Tears of Hispaniola It’s aa wonder wonder I haven’t abandoned It’s abandoned all all my myideals, ideals, they theyseem seemso soababsurd and and impractical. impractical. Yet I cling to them them because because II still stillbelieve, believe, in in spite of everything, that that people people are truly truly good good at at heart. heart. It’s utterly utterly impossible for me to build my life on a foundation It’s suffering, and death. of chaos, suffering, death. II see see the theworld worldbeing beingslowly slowlytranstransformed into a wilderness, II hear hear the approaching thunder thunder that, that, one one day, will will destroy destroy us too, I feel the day, the suffering sufferingof ofmillions. millions.And Andyet, yet, somehow feel feel that that everything will when I look up at the sky, II somehow change for the better, that this this cruelty cruelty too too shall shall end, end, that thatpeace peace tranquility will and tranquility will return returnonce oncemore. more. —Anne Frank, —Anne Frank,July July15, 15,1944 1944

The island of Hispaniola is extremely extremely important important in in the thehistory historyofofthe theNew New World: for example, Haiti was the the first firstfree freeblack black nation nationininthe theAmericas. Americas. Yet today’s today’s Haiti Haiti and Dominican Republic have have been been destroyed destroyed by the Yet Dominican Republic the politics of colonial politics colonial and andpostcolonial postcolonialmanipulations, manipulations,class classdemarcations, demarcations, natural disasters, The resulting strife disasters, and suffocating suffocating dictatorships. dictatorships. The strife has has prompted mass migration migration to tolands landsbelieved believedtotohold holdpromise promiseofofa arespite respite from violence and human human degradation. degradation. Twentieth-century migration, Twentieth-century migration,ininparticular, particular,followed followedperiods periodsof ofrepresrepresdictatorship, in sive dictatorship, in Haiti Haiti by bythe theDuvaliers—Francois Duvaliers—François“Papa “PapaDoc” Doc”(1957-71) (1957–71) (1971-86)—and in and Jean-Claude “Baby Doc” (1971–86)—and in the theDominican DominicanRepublic Republic by Rafael Leonidas Trujillo (1930-61). (1930–61). An An earlier earlierpeak peakof ofHaitian Haitianmigramigration to the United States occurred during the U.S. occupation of Haiti the United States occurred during the U.S. occupation (1915-34). Other (1915–34). OtherDominican Dominicanmigrations migrationswere wereincited incitedbybythe the1965 1965civil civilwar war and by keen economic hardship experienced from from the the mid-1980s mid-1980sthrough through the mid-1990s. the mid-1990s. study of diasporic citizenship, Michel Laguerre Laguerre notes that tens In his study tens of of thousands of thousands of Haitians Haitiansleft lefttheir theirisland islandbetween between1957, 1957,when whenFrancois FrançoisDuvaDuvalier began his regime, regime, and 1996, 1996, when Jean-Bertrand Jean-Bertrand Aristide Aristide completed completed his coup-interrupted first term term as as president. In the United States, they resettled in in cities cities such such as as New NewYork, York, Miami, Miami, Chicago, Chicago, Boston, Boston, Los Los Angeles,

22

Introduction Introduction

Washington, and New Orleans. The first first to to leave leave during duringthe the1950s 1950swere were persecution and escaping political persecution and state stateviolence. violence.Many Manyofofthese thesepeople peoplebebelonged to the Haitian elite and—unlike recent balseros—migrated by airthe Haitian elite and—unlike recent balseros—migrated by airAfter Castro came came to to power power in in Havana, he halted Haitian labor on plane. After plantations in Cuban sugar plantations in order order to to end end exploitation exploitation of of neighbors neighbors and and crecreate more jobs jobs for for Cubans; Cubans; this this left lefthuge hugenumbers numbersofofHaitians Haitiansdesperate. desperate. They too flocked flocked to the the United United States Statesseeking seeking work. work.Then Thenthe theU.S. U.S.Civil Civil Rights Act of 1964 encouraged migration migrationby bythose thosewho whodreamed dreamedofofenjoyenjoybroader human rights than the ing broader the ones ones they they felt felt were were available available in their country. In 1971, when Jean-Claude Duvalier had power country. Jean-Claude Duvalier had power transferred to rural and him, rural and urban urban Haitians Haitiansboarded boardedboats boatsand andarrived arrivedin inlarge largenumbers numbers on the Florida shores shores (Laguerre, (Laguerre, Diasporic Citizenship, Citizenship, 75-76). 75–76).While WhileLaLastudy is focused on migration guerre’s study migration to tothe theUnited UnitedStates, States,ititisisnotewornoteworthy that that many manymembers membersof ofthe theintellectual intellectualelite eliteand andpolitical political opposition opposition chose to to go go to to Canada Canada and and wrote wrote about Haiti in French. This This information information chose shows that Haitian Haitian diaspora diaspora communities communitiesare arecomposed composed of of aa wide array array of of and have come come to to their host people who have come from different classes, and host nations with with varying varyingneeds needsand andexpectations.! expectations.1 In recent investigations of of Dominican Dominican migration, migration, Ramona Ramona Hernandez Hernández observes that that numerous observes numerous studies studiesbetween between1970 1970and and1982 1982characterized characterized “post-1965 Dominican migrants migrants as as predominantly predominantlyrural, rural,poorly poorlyeducated, educated, mostly unskilled poor and mostly unskilled and and jobless” jobless” (23). She continues continues her her exposition exposition by examining examining the thework workof ofother otherresearchers researchers(Ugalde, (Ugalde,Bean, Bean,and andCardenas), Cárdenas), pointing out that that most most Dominican migrants were from the urban urban middleclass sector sector (23). (23). Research Researchcompleted completedby bythe the Harvard Harvard Immigration Immigration Project class Project likewise suggests that thatmigrations migrationsfrom fromthe theDominican DominicanRepublic Republicincluded includeda a classes.Notwithstanding, Notwithstanding, the the two main reasons for migrawide range of classes. Haitian migration, tion were, as with Haitian migration,escaping escaping persecution persecution during duringaa brutal brutal dictatorship and seeking economic relief. The Dominican diaspora has benew and and important important force in the come a new the overall overall picture picture of of American American demodemo2 The diaspora unity graphics.” The diaspora unity of the inhabitants inhabitants of of Hispaniola, Hispaniola, despite despite the the graphics. influx of migrants, has remained understudied by scholars in the field. migrants, has remained understudied by scholars in the field. migration and No study has compared the migration and assimilation assimilation patterns patternsof ofHaiHaitians and Dominicans, despite the similarities similarities in in their their journey journeyand andexperiexperience. While While II do not directly address ence. address this this sociological sociological gap in the the present present book, II show show that scholars book, scholars would benefit from from examining examining the the diasporic diasporic literary production production of of the thetwo twonations nationscomparatively, comparatively,exposing exposing the themulmulfunctions of tiple functions of history historyand andmemory memoryininHispaniola’s Hispaniola’slong longand andfascinating fascinating legacy. Hispaniola’s Hispaniola’s diasporic diasporic citizens citizens are are making a distinctive legacy. distinctive impact impacton on

Introduction:The TheTears TearsofofHispaniola Hispaniola 33 Introduction:

the ethnic, ethnic, racial, racial, and and religious religiouslandscape landscape of ofthe theUnited UnitedStates. States.FurtherFurthermore, they they are arechallenging challengingmainstream mainstreamU.S. U.S.prejudices prejudicesfrom froma apolitically politically informed position, position, integrated integrated into their host nation nation and and faithful faithful to to their their native lands. In this study study IIshow showhow howHaitian Haitianand andDominican Dominicanauthors authors imagine attempts to balance the need to insert insert themselves themselves into into American American reality with with the the desire desire to to remain remainconnected connected to to their theirnative nativelands landsand andaware aware that memory of the special role that memoryplays playsin inthese theseimagined imaginedattempts. attempts. of reframing reframing Haitian and Dominican lives lives in the United The process process of United States is defined by the the act act of of remembering rememberingnational nationalculture, culture,history, history,stostories, and traditions within the context of the new homeland. The new ries, and traditions context of the new homeland. The new frame of reference reference is is shaped shaped somewhat somewhatby byseparate separatenational nationalmemories, memories,but but particularly by experiences experiences shared across across different different Caribbean Caribbean communicommunidifferent national ties. In the diaspora, different national Caribbean Caribbeanrealities realitiesmerge mergetotostrucstructure new Pan-Caribbean dialogues. ture new Pan-Caribbean dialogues.

Caribbean Memories Caribbean Memories

Previous works works exploring exploring Caribbean Caribbean memory memory have focused Previous focused on the way way complex and contradictory memories complex memories looking looking back back to to the theCaribbean Caribbeanininform a broken identity identity in in the thediaspora. diaspora.The The sociologist sociologist Juan Flores, former director of the Center Center for for Puerto PuertoRican RicanStudies StudiesatatHunter HunterCollege, College,has hasadaddressed the uses and misuses of memory and identity identity construction construction in inhis his studies of the way way that thatNuyoricans Nuyoricansrestore restorethe thepast pastaccording accordingtotopresent present needs, maintaining a deeper sense of needs, of Puerto Puerto Rican Rican identity identityininthe thebarrio barrio than do than do relatives relativeson onthe theisland. island.InInan anessay, essay,“Broken “BrokenEnglish: English:Languages Languagesofof recounts how the Trans-Colony,” he recounts how Puerto PuertoRicans Ricans did did not not become become part part of of the U.S. U.S. national memory until untilliterature literaturegiving givingspace spacetotoPuerto PuertoRican Rican memory began to appear. He refers refers to La Memoria Rota, by the Puerto appear. He Puerto Rican literary literary critic to propose propose that broken Rican critic Arcadio Arcadio Diaz-Quifiones, Díaz-Quiñones, to broken memory is is at atthe theroot rootofofallallidentifications. identifications.As AsFlores Floresnotes, notes,“Historical “Historical memory is is an an active, active, creative creative force, force, not not just justaareceptacle receptaclefor forstoring storingthe the dead weight weight of of times gone by. ..... .And dead Andthe theprocess processof ofmemory memoryisisopen, open, without closure closure or conclusion: conclusion: the struggle struggle to to(re)establish (re)establishcontinuities continuities and to tell tell the the ‘whole’ ‘whole’ story story only onlyuncovers uncovers new newbreaks breaksand andnew newexcluexclusions” (338). Memory, broken because it can never be recovered entirely, because it can never be recovered entirely, entails looking backward to configure the the present presentininsome someway. way. Other uses uses of of memory, memory,like like the theCuban-American Cuban-Americanone, one,signal signalthe thedisdistresses inherent inherentinindivided dividedpolitical politicalpositioning. positioning.Tainted Taintedby byCuban Cubanexiles’ exiles’ ossification of the past and refusal to accept the present, present, Cuban-American Cuban-American

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Introduction Introduction

memory is memory is often often politically politically motivated, motivated, with with all all of its emotional emotional force force dedicated to toppling Castro and to cated to the thegoal goalof ofreturn. return.ItItisiscomplicated, complicated,oror rather balanced, rather balanced, by the the realities realities of of a struggling struggling Communist CommunistCuba Cubaand andby byaa humanitarian element passionate, humanitarian elementto tothe theCuban Cubandiaspora. diaspora.Cristina CristinaGarcia’s García’s 1992 novel Dreaming in in Cuban Cubanalso also serves serves as as aa wonderful wonderfulexample exampleof of the the divisions and tears tears experienced experienced by byCuban Cubanfamilies. families.The Theprotagonist, protagonist,a arereturns out bellious daughter who wants to learn about her family history, turns out to to be the bridge between her her revolutionary revolutionarygrandmother grandmother(an (anardent ardentCastro Castro supporter), her militantly anti-Castro supporter), anti-Castro mother, mother, and and another another relative relative who who retreats into the magical world of the Afro-Cuban Santeria religion. retreats into the magical world of the Afro-Cuban Santeria religion. Some Cuban-American literature literaturetries triesto toreconstruct reconstructmemories memoriesby bycrecreating bridges bridges between between Cuban-Americans Cuban-Americans and and Cubans. Cubans.For Forexample, example,inin Ruth Behar’s 1994 edited volume Bridges to Cuba, Cuba, memory memoryinvokes invokesnosnostalgia, hope, and creativity. It is fundamental fundamental to new conversations, connecto new conversations, connecsides tions, and explorations explorationsmemorializing memorializingthe thequiet quietlives liveslived livedononboth both sidesofof the ocean that separates the Caribbean Caribbean Cuba and the United United States States Cuba. Cuba. different vein, In a different vein, Reinaldo ReinaldoArenas’s Arenas’s work workdecries decriesthe therepression repressionheheexpeexperienced in Cuba for his homosexuality. rienced homosexuality. His work highlights the the pain pain of of imprisonment. ItIt embodies, through fiction ostracism and imprisonment. embodies, through fiction and and autobiograautobiography, aa scream scream so deep deep that itit resonates phy, resonates long long after afterreaders readersput putdown downhis his books. He screams in pain and in defiance. Until his death—and indeed books. pain and in defiance. Until his death—and indeed with his his death—he death—he repelled repelledCuba’s Cuba’s repressive repressiveregime.’ regime.3Conversely, Conversely,Zoé Zoé Valdés’snovels novels show show aa version version of life in Cuba Valdés’s Cuba that thatpotentially potentiallycould couldbebe used in an argument argumentagainst againstsuch suchextreme extremesanctions sanctionsasasthe theU.S. U.S.embargo, embargo, which hurts the people and does nothing to the government. Memories which the people does to the government. Memories thus refocus refocus our our attention attentionon onpolitical politicalblunders blundersand andindividual individualmodels modelsof of writing in survival and resistance. Creative writing in the the Cuban Cubandiaspora diasporaserves servesas as aa venue for venue for public publicdiscourse, discourse,political politicaldenunciation, denunciation,and anda acall callfor forchange. change. Memory: History History and In his 2003 study Voicing Voicing Memory: and Subjectivity Subjectivityin inFrench French Caribbean Literature LiteratureNick NickNesbitt Nesbittposits: posits: here, in the haunting haunting of It is here, ofthe thepresent presentby bythe thepast, past,ininwhich whichsubjects subjects are enchained to their memories, that freedom might be recovered. their memories, that freedom might be recovered. To write write of those who have been stripped of freedom and life To life itself itself does not yet free does free or orredeem redeemtheir theirpremature prematuredisappearance disappearancebut butatat least denies that that their theirdisappearance disappearancewas wasabsolute. absolute.The Thegift giftthey theyleft left behind in others others as as they theypassed passed from fromthis thisworld worldcan canthen thenexpress express freely as the trace of life that that animates animates our itself freely ourown ownencounters encounterswith with the past. past. (212) (212)

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Nesbitt’s exposition of memory In essence, Nesbitt’s memory isis messianic. messianic. Memory Memorygives gives memory gives people agency; memory gives history historyfreedom freedomfrom fromthe thedictates dictatesofofthe thehishistory writers. I add, one of memory’s greatest tasks is to fight the invisibiltory writers. I greatest tasks to fight the invisibility that that comes comes from from silenced silenced stories and buried buried violations. But a more sustained reflection of memory memory obliges obliges us us to to recognize recognize that thatmemory memorycan canalso also be confining. It can be stagnant, stagnant, unproductive, unproductive, and and detrimentally detrimentallyrepetirepetitive. As I show, show, the the memory memoryofofviolence, violence,ififrepeated repeatedunconsciously unconsciouslyand and accepted without without question question in the present, should not accepted not be be condoned. Memory should not not be be the theexcuse excuse for for failing failing to todeal deal with withthe thepresent presentininthe the present. Numerous studies Numerous studiesof ofimmigration immigrationshow showthat thatdisplaced displacedpopulations populationsofoften mythologize and ossify ossify the the culture culture and andhabits habitsof ofthe thecountry countryleft leftbebehind. I find it to to be be aa common common thread thread for for many many Caribbean Caribbean communities communities that the notion of home in the Caribbean (for elder generations) the notion of home in the Caribbean (for elder generations)and andthe the the Caribbean as aa defining defining identifier identifier (for (for the the younger younger generageneraadoption of the tions) generates generates an an intranational intranationalsense senseofofresponsibility responsibilitytotothe theCaribbean. Caribbean. Many children children of of the the Caribbean Caribbean“return” “return”totothe theisland islandofoftheir theirchildhood, childhood, or to the the island island of of their theirparents, parents,ininsearch searchofofan anabandoned abandonedworld, world,seeking seeking to match the the emotional emotionalfamily familymemories memoriestotothe thegeographic geographicplace. place.But Butthis this is not possible. The island that that was was left left long longago agohas, has,like like any anyplace place in inthe the world, changed dramatically. Some countries, like Haiti, have suffered exchanged dramatically. Some countries, like Haiti, have suffered extreme political treme political corruption corruptionand anddecay. decay.Others, Others,like likethe theDominican DominicanRepublic, Republic, have become tourist centers centers that thatgloss gloss over over their theirdeep deeppoverty. poverty.Yet Yet others, others, Martinique, and such as Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Puerto PuertoRico, Rico, are are in inaaconstant constantrenerenegotiation of postcolonial “colonial status” with the metropolis, here France gotiation of postcolonial “colonial status” with the metropolis, here France and the United United States Statesrespectively. respectively. These These new new images images and andstruggles strugglesoften often demand new new attention. demand attention. Caribbean Caribbean intellectuals intellectuals and and writers writers are arethus thusconconfronted with with the theshifting shiftingframework frameworkofofhistory historyand andexperience. experience. Haitian and Dominican Dominican Caribbean Caribbean diaspora diaspora memory memory has hasnot notreceived received the kind kind of of attention attentionother otherCaribbean Caribbeandiasporas, diasporas,such suchasasthe thePuerto PuertoRican Rican received. Despite Despite groundbreaking groundbreaking work by pioneers and Cuban ones, have received. such as Eugenio Matibag and Michele Wucker, Wucker, II remain remain astounded by the the relative paucity paucity of of comparative comparative studies studiesof ofHaitian Haitianand andDominican Dominicanexperiexperiences. With With this this study, I aim to remedy that. ences. that. II look to Hispaniola Hispaniola and and sugsugthat this gest that this is is a literature literaturethat thatlays laysbare barethe thetears tearsofofpain painand andexposes exposesthe the traumatic tears between families, homelands, and memories. traumatic tears between families, homelands, and memories. Addressing human Addressing humanrights rightsissues, issues,my mybook bookmakes makesthe thecase casefor forthe thecentral central rethinking of rethinking ofmemory memoryasasaameditation meditationon onwhat whatwas wasleft leftbehind, behind,what whatexists exists today, and and the the ensuing negotiations between life on the today, the island island and and life life in in

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the diaspora. I examine some of the the horrible horriblepasts paststhat thathaunt hauntmany manyofofthe the people of Hispaniola’s diaspora to to show show how howHaitians Haitiansand andDominicans Dominicansenengage in a unique gage unique kind kind of ofmemory memorydeparting departingfrom fromtraumatic traumaticexperiences experiences further point and to further point to to the the importance importanceof of investigating investigatingthe theliterary literaryproducproduction of these these neighboring neighboringcountries countriesfrom froma acomparative comparativepoint pointofofview.* view.4 the dual nature inherent My critical study exposes exposes the inherentto toHaitian Haitianand andDoDominican memory. I point to a duality duality that thathas hasguaranteed guaranteedthe thesurvival survivalofof religions, traditions, and and communities, communities,and andIIexamine examinethe theprocess processofofreinreinterpretation that that isisoften oftennecessary necessaryfor forthis thissurvival survivaland andensuing ensuingresisresistance. Joan Joan Dayan Dayan offers offers aa cogent cogent example example of ofthis this duality duality in Haitian history. history. In her her 1995 1995 book book Haiti, Haiti,History, History,and andthe theGods, Gods,she shetells tellshow howDessalines Dessalines Dessacame to have at at least least two twomeanings meaningsfor forHaitians. Haitians.The Thegreat greatleader leader Dessain an ambush, his body torn lines was killed in torn to to pieces pieces and and later later buried buriedin in a meagerly meagerly marked grave. But Dessalines is also the only Haitian leader to marked grave. But Dessalines is also the only Haitian leader to have been transformed into aa !wa, have lwa, or or god, god, by by the the Haitian Haitianpeople. people. He He is, is, then, both then, bothdead dead (killed (killed as as a historical historical human humanbeing) being)and andliving living(consecrated (consecrated as a god). Dayan also tells tells of of aa song song that thathonors honorsDessalines Dessalinesininwhich whicha line a line “Dessalines, Dessalines is repeated: “Dessalines, Dessalines démembré.” démembré.”This Thisline lineisisimportant importantbebecause démembré in Kreyol cause Kreyòl means means dismembered, dismembered,battered, battered,and andbeaten. beaten. But ethnographers ethnographers such suchas asAlfred AlfredMétraux, Métraux,Odette OdetteMennesson-Rigaud, Mennesson-Rigaud, and Lorimer Denis all claim that it refers to his power. that it refers to his power.Thus, Thus, Dessalines Dessalines is is both beaten beaten and and powerful powerful(Dayan (Dayan31). 31).Dayan Dayanconcludes: concludes:

The history history told by these traditions traditions defies our notions of identity identity and contradiction. A person or thing thing can can be be two two or or more morethings thingssimultasimultaneously. A word can be be double, double, two-sided, two-sided, and and duplicitous. duplicitous. In In this this broadening and multiplying multiplyingof ofaa word’s word’s meaning, meaning, repeated repeated in in rituals rituals we begin begin to to see see that that what becomes more of devotion and vengeance, we and more vague also also becomes becomes more distinct: distinct: it it may may mean meanthis, this,but but that too. that too.(33) (33) This duality of meaning meaning is is also also reflected reflected in in the the Haitian Haitianvodou vodouconcept concept of of the marassa. Marassa is defined as spirit twins, or child spirits. They are marassa. Marassa is defined as spirit twins, or child spirits. They are inseparable, conflicted, conflicted,and and in in solidarity. solidarity. Could Could we we not interpret inseparable, interpret the thetwo two nations of Hispaniola Hispaniola as as a marassa? marassa?Could Couldsolidarity solidaritynot notbebedeveloping developinginin experiences, the diaspora as as stories stories and andmigration migrationlink linkthe thetwo twocountries’ countries’ experiences, memories, and incessant returns? returns? It is with these these questions questions in in mind mindthat thatI Ioffer offerthe thelinking linkingmetaphor metaphorofof Tear performs a double duty, being a noun tears. Tear noun and and aaverb, verb,defining definingan an emotional condition emotional conditionand andaaheartbreaking heartbreakingact. act.As AsDayan Dayanproposes, proposes,aaword— word—

Introduction:The TheTears TearsofofHispaniola Hispaniola 77 Introduction:

she mentions mentions démembré—can démembré—canbe betwo-sided. two-sided.AAword wordcan canmake makea aconcept concept concise; itit can can mean mean this this and it can mean nebulous, and it can also make it concise; that. The tear that. tear on onthe theface facesymbolizes symbolizesgrief griefand andexasperation. exasperation.To Totear tearwith with the hands is is an an action action that thatcould couldsignal signal desperation desperationand/or and/orviolence. violence.The The of tearing tearing oneself oneself from from aahomeland homeland ridden ridden with with poverty poverty and and corruption corruption act of is very real. I have no doubt that tears are are shed shed upon upon arrival arrival in in the the new new country, from pure exhaustion exhaustion and and from from fear fear of of what what the the future futuremay mayhold. hold. I perceive tears as as aa complex complex metaphor metaphorthat thatdiscloses disclosesdepression, depression,disilludisillusion, exasperation, and and powerlessness; powerlessness; tears tearsalso alsosignal signalthe thesociocultural, sociocultural, political mechanisms that tear apart individual lives, families, political mechanisms tear apart individual lives, families, communiand nations. nations. For Forthe the fiction fictionwriters writers and and the the memoirist memoirist that that I study in ties, and this book, the duality this duality unveiled unveiledby bytears—in tears—inhistory, history,ininmemory, memory,inintext—is text—is crucial for for their their inventions crucial inventionsand andtheir theirlives. lives. I propose in in this this book book that, that, while both both Haiti and the Dominican Republic have have suffered suffered the violations of dictatorship lic dictatorship and continue to struggle struggle with poverty and and general general violence, violence, these are remembered, or forgotten, differently for differently for numerous numerousreasons. reasons.In Incontrast contrasttotoaaHaitian Haitiantradition traditionofofdisdismisery and closure of misery and violence, violence, the the politics politics of of silence—or silence—or rather ratherdenial— denial— have been dominant in in Dominican Dominican memory. memory. For For example, example, Haiti has proproduced aa truth truth commission duced commission that that reviewed reviewed the the blatant blatant atrocities atrocities committed committed during the 1991-94 1991–94 period period of of military military dictatorship. dictatorship. In In addition, addition, Haitian Haitian writers, who cannot cannot ignore ignore the thestrife strifetheir theircountry countryexperiences, experiences,have haveconconstantly produced stantly producedwork workexposing exposingthe thetragedy tragedyofofHaitian Haitianlife. life.InIncontrast, contrast,the the Dominican Republic has continuously continuouslyrejected rejectedany anyinvestigation investigationinto intococovert human rights infringements during the Balaguer years. Historical human rights infringements during the Balaguer years. Historical compilations such as Bernardo Bernardo Vega’s Vega’s extensive work on on Dominican Dominican hishistory and and politics, politics, and René Fortunato’s Fortunato’s 1991 documentary documentary film film El El poder poder del jefe, do offer insight insight into intothe thecomplexity complexityofofDominican Dominicanpolitics. politics.Still, Still, the missing missing voice voice of of women, women, Haitian HaitianDominicans, Dominicans,and andhomosexuals homosexualsglares glares blatantly at any any researcher researcher seeking seeking a more more complex complex interhistory of of DoDominican lives. minican lives. Notably, the effects of violence was was the the subject of only two Dominican Ramon Marrero Marrero Aristy texts, Over (1939) by Ramón Aristy and and El El masacre masacre se se pasa pasa aa pie pie (1973) by by Freddy Prestol Prestol Castillo. In general, it would seem that (1973) that DominiDominiliterature has can literature has traditionally traditionallyignored ignoredthe theviolence violenceand andstrife strifethe thecountry country Instead itit has has focused focusedon onromantic, romantic,myth-forming myth-forming continues to experience. Instead stories. This This isis substantiated substantiated by the position taken by stories. by authors authors like like Julia Julia For example, example, at at aa book book tour tour presentation at Alvarez. For at Duke Duke University Universityin in 1998, Alvarez Alvarez stated stated flatly flatly that she 1998, she was was not notinterested interestedininreviewing reviewingviovio-

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through her lence through her work—even work—even though thoughher herstory storyofofthe theMirabal Mirabalsisters, sisters,for for example, departs departs from from aa violent act. act. Her Her intention in example, in writing writingabout aboutthem them was not, she tells us, to to look look at at the the violence violence but but rather to to honor honor their theirbrave brave lifework. Recently Recently the works of lifework. of Nelly Nelly Rosario Rosario and andViriato ViriatoSencidn Senciónhave have pointed to pointed to violence violence in in Dominican Dominicanculture. culture.Junot JunotDiaz Díazconfronts confrontsviolence, violence,inin book, the United United States Statesand andon onthe theisland, island,head-on. head-on.As AsI Ishow showininmy my book,it itis isatat this pivotal moment of exposure that a new literary literary tradition traditionisis born. born. havechosen chosento todemonstrate demonstrate the the persistent persistent trauma trauma caused In particular, II have caused by violence in Haitian Haitian and andDominican Dominicanexperience. experience.The Theeffects effectsof ofthis thisvioviolence, I argue, are exposed in a detailed fashion by the characters in the lence, I a detailed fashion by the characters in the novels and the narrator narratorin inthe theautobiography. autobiography.Through Throughaaclose closeinvestigainvestigation of losses, memory, memory, and tion and violence, violence, I suggest suggest that thatwe weconsider considerthe theimposimpossibility of mourning mourning that thatsurfaces surfacesfrom fromthe thestories. stories.Consequently, Consequently,I Ipropropose that the process of writing, for the authors, and reading, for pose process writing, the authors, and reading, for us, us, actualizes the possibility possibility of of mourning. mourning.

Memorialization Memorialization When I started started the the research research and and writing writingof of this thisbook, book, II set set out outto tofind findthe the ways in which literature literature intervenes intervenesconstructively constructivelyagainst againstaalandscape landscapeof of violence, which which the the island of Hispaniola and its death, loss, loss, and violence, its diaspora diaspora reader, and and human rights have inherited. As a critic, reader, rights advocate, advocate, I intended intended my first readings of the texts texts and and analyses analyses of of the the characters characters to to expand expand on on what II believed believed to to be beaafoundational foundationalmessage messageoffered offeredby byHispaniola’s Hispaniola’s diaspora literature: literature: if violence and its memory cannot cannot be halted, halted, it it must must be be challenged. Importantly, I have discovered that this this literature literaturealso alsooffers offersaa significant overview of myths, myths, fantasies, fantasies, and and realities realitiesthat thatimposes imposesaaneed need memory is for memory. However, when memory is unattainable, unattainable,the thereal realneed needlies liesinin the process of “memorialization,” giving literary voice voice to the the lost lost and/or and/or reframed points of of history historyand andtotothe theever-present ever-presentscars scarsofofviolence. violence.The The literature produced by the Haitian is thus aa literature produced by Haitian and and Dominican Dominican diaspora diaspora is monument to monument toHispaniola’s Hispaniola’s tears—those tears—thosetears tearsshed shedbecause becauseof ofhuman humansufsuffering, and the the geographic geographic and/or and/orphysical physicaltears tearsimposed imposedby bynational nationalborborders and migrations. migrations. Stories of terror, terror, dictatorships, dictatorships, and andcalls callsfor fordemocracy democracypopulate populateour our television screens and our imaginations. At issue, for me, is not the general television screens and our imaginations. At issue, for me, is not the general display of of horrors horrors but the display the ways ways those those horrors horrorsmanifest manifestthemselves themselvesin inthe the present for present for different differentdiaspora diasporagroups. groups.IIhave havestrategically strategicallychosen chosentotoexplore explore

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these concerns concerns via via specific specific texts—The texts—The Farming Farming of of Bones Bones (1998) (1998) and and Breath, Eyes, Eyes, Memory (1994) (1994) by by Edwidge Edwidge Danticat, Danticat, Drown Drown (1996) (1996) by by Junot Diaz, Restavec: From Haitian Slave Child to Middle-Class AmeriDíaz, Restavec: From Haitian can (1998) by Jean-Robert Jean-Robert Cadet, Cadet, and andGeographies GeographiesofofHome Home(1999) (1999)byby Loida Maritza Pérez—that are As my my Loida are particularly particularlyfocused focusedon onviolence.” violence.5 As show, the the issues issues at at hand—erasure hand—erasure of subaltern histoanalyses in this book show, histories, rape, child slavery, family violence and and sexism, sexism, invisibility invisibilityof ofparticuparticular groups—cannot groups—cannot be be exposed exposed with with aa simple simple textual textualreading. reading. In order order to to analyze analyze the the function function of ofmemory, memory, II have havepurposefully purposefully brought together literature whose authors expose the ways violence, together literature whose authors expose the ways violence, past and present, bleeds and bleeds into people’s people’s lives. lives. II propose propose that these these particular particular memories underscore underscore both a deep need for a space memories space of mourning and and an an equally urgent need equally need to to engage engage in inconstructive constructivesociopolitical sociopolitical action. My methodological approach approach undertakes sustained readings methodological readings of ofspecific specific texts texts for an emphatically focused examination of the the affects affects and and effects effects of the the memory of memory of violence violence exposed through throughdiaspora diasporaliterature. literature. The texts texts of the the Haitian Haitianand andDominican Dominicandiaspora diasporaserve serveasaspoints pointsofofdeep deep meditation that II suggest suggest make make many manylinkages linkagesand andmust mustbeberead readinterintertextually and transhistorically. transhistorically. II propose propose that thatthe thetexts textsofofautobiography autobiography and fiction offer offer us us alternative alternativemodes modesofofmemory. memory.They Theyexpose exposethe thetears tearsofof suffering, the multiple ways violence tears at nations, communities, multiple ways violence tears at nations, communities,and and people; the texts texts also alsoadvocate advocatethe thepossibility possibilityofoflife lifefreed freedofofviolence. violence.The The literature of the the diaspora diaspora unveils unveils the the continuing continuing effect effect of of human humanrights rights infringements on survivors and their their offspring, offspring, long after they they have have emiemierated. Arguably, violence’s greatest legacy is the dark lacuna it leaves grated. violence’s greatest the dark lacuna it leavesus us with. with. Therefore my my readings, readings, focused focused on on Haiti Haitiand andthe theDominican DominicanRepublic, Republic, propose that autobiography autobiography and and fiction fiction create create aa space space through through which which the the struggles of present-pasts struggles present-pasts are are addressed. addressed. Some Some diaspora diaspora literature literaturealso also points to how Caribbean enclaves enclaves in the United States experience experience and/or and/or reproduce the reproduce the systemic systemicdysfunctional dysfunctionalconditions conditionsthey theyhave haveescaped escapedsuch suchasas racism, sexism, and violence. With With the presence of so much violence, presence of so much violence, stostories of survival survival and and narrative narrative restructuring restructuring of of horrors horrors may be the only ries route to route to reconciliation reconciliation and and reconstruction reconstruction of of personal personal and and national national memory and integrity. memory integrity. Perhaps Perhaps the novels novels and and autobiographies autobiographies of of the the diaspora are are monuments to personhood; diaspora personhood; perhaps they highlight highlight human human they fight hope and resilience; ideally they fight for forhuman humanrights rightsand andenvision envisionciticitizenship for zenship for all all of of the thepeople people of of the theworld. world.But, But,inineffect, effect,diaspora diasporaliterature literature divulges the limitations limitations of of memory memoryasaswell wellas asthe theneed needfor formemory. memory.

10 ~—_Introduction Introduction 10

Hispaniola’s Memory Memory Haiti has has a long long tradition traditionof ofwhat whatsome somecritics, critics,following followingJoan JoanDayan, Dayan,refer refer to as literature of misery, through which the ills of Haitian society and literature of misery, through which the ills of Haitian society andaa cry for justice are detailed. detailed. Literary theorist theoristJean Jean Jonassaint Jonassaint has hastraced tracedaa national tradition tradition of of Haitian literature of national of “tragedy” “tragedy” via via the the works works of of Alexis, Cinéas, Alexis, Cinéas, Hibbert, Lespés, Lespès, Marcelin, Marcelin, Roumain, Roumain, Thoby-Marcelin, Thoby-Marcelin, Chauvet, Depestre, Chauvet, Depestre, Frankétienne, Frankétienne,and andothers. others.Of Ofnote noteare arethe theworks worksofofearearlier Haitian Haitian diaspora diaspora writers, writers,exiled exiled for forpolitical politicalreasons reasonsininCanada. Canada.For For example, Gérard Gérard Étienne’s Etienne’sCri Cripour pour ne ne pas pas mourir mourir de honte (1982) interexample, polates the extreme extreme pain pain caused caused by by the theDuvalier Duvalierreign reignofofterror terrorpoetically poetically and poignantly. poignantly. critics make make aa distinction between a Haitian national Some critics national literature, literature, written in in French, French, and and Haitian-American Haitian-American literature literaturewritten writtenininEnglish. English. More recently, however, Haitian-American literature, like Danticat’s, recently, however, Haitian-American literature, like Danticat’s,isis included within the included the context context of of Haitian Haitiannational nationalliterature. literature.This Thispoints pointstoto yet another another duality. duality. Haitian Haitian authors authorswriting writingfrom fromother othercountries countriesbelong belong to both their their new new countries countries and andtheir theirnative nativeland. land.Furthermore, Furthermore,even evenifif their works works represent represent Haitian Haitian issues, issues, their theirstories storiesare areglobally globallyAfricanAfricanCaribbean stories in the Caribbean the Americas, Americas, inclusively. inclusively. Their diasporic, and thus thus global, condition condition isis demarcated demarcatedby by the the fact fact that that many Haitian authors global, authors do do not stay in one city or country. For example, Danny Laferriére, who had stay in one city or country. For example, Danny Laferrière, who had most recently living in Florida, while traveling been based in Canada, was most a lot, especially to to France. France. Edwidge Danticat, Danticat, who whowas wasraised raisedininBrooklyn, Brooklyn, lives in Florida as of of this writing. Does lives Florida as Does this mean mean that that there thereisisa anew new diaspora in Florida? Florida has had aa large and very well organized Hailarge and very well organized Haitian community communityfor foryears. years.But ButIIbelieve believethat thatthe theauthors’ authors’choices choicestotomove move more complicated, and further further unrooted, reflects a more unrooted,diaspora diasporasituation. situation.ConConsequently, diaspora sequently, diaspora literature literaturedoes doesnot notexpose exposeone onediaspora diasporabut butrather rathermulmultiple and multiplying multiplying diasporas diasporas in inconstantly constantlyshifting shiftingconversation conversationwith with different local different local and and global communities, communities,geographies, geographies,and andlanguages. languages.In Inthis this literature intersects context, Haitian diaspora literature intersects with withmany manyliterary literarycanons canons including Haitian national national literature, literature,U.S. U.S. immigrant immigrantliterature, literature,AfricanAfricanAmerican literature, and Caribbean literature. literature, and Caribbean literature. Similarly, Dominican-American Dominican-American literature literature should Similarly, should be becontextualized contextualized within several literary within literary canons, canons, most most notably notably Latino/a Latino/aliteratures, literatures,SpanishSpanishCaribbean literature, and also Latin American literature. Studies Caribbean and also Latin American literature. StudiesofofDoDominican literature literature have, have, until until recently, recently, maintained maintainedaadistinction distinctionbetween between

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Dominican literature literature and Dominican andLatino/a-Dominican Latino/a-Dominicanliterature. literature.Doris DorisSommer’s Sommer’s study of patriarchal patriarchal rhetoric, rhetoric, for forexample, example, focused focused exclusively exclusively on on novels novels written in Spanish by authors exclusively based on the island. However, in Spanish by authors exclusively based on the island. However, Daisy Cocco Cocco de de Filippis Filippisincludes includeswriters writersfrom fromboth both the the island island and and the Daisy diaspora in her her 2000 2000 study studyDocuments DocumentsofofDissidence: Dissidence:Selected SelectedWritings Writingsby by Dominican Women. This underscores the intertextual, intertextual,interhistorical, interhistorical,and and intergeographic nature of the literatures literatures |Iam amworking workingwith. with. A central central theme theme that that has What memories memories are are most most A has thus thus arisen arisen for for me me is: is: What salient in the the comparative comparative diaspora diaspora production production of of Hispaniola? Hispaniola? Haitian Haitianand and Dominican Caribbean diaspora literature, literature, written in English in the United written in English in the United fundamental role States, plays a fundamental rolein inchallenging challengingthe thelong longhistory historyofofviolence violence and human disenfranchisement that that haunts hauntsCaribbean Caribbeanmemory memoryand andrealreality.°6 Hispaniola’s Hispaniola’s diaspora diaspora writers, writers, II put put forth, forth, are are pioneers pioneers in in the themanner manner ity. in which they address traumatic events transform events in new ways that seek to transform them. Memory Memory does does not not belong belong only only to tothe thepast, past,even evenififititisisdisclosed disclosed in in the process process of looking looking backward. backward. The task task of of remembering rememberingisisaapolitical political Diaspora literature, literature, I insist, refuses to let the one. Diaspora the violence violence of the the past past be be buried. It tells the the stories stories of of those thosewho whomight mighthave havebeen beenand andperhaps perhapsinindeed did exist. Readers are reminded remindedof ofthe thepain painofofviolence violenceand, and,asasI Iinterinterpret it, it, are are asked asked to to dream dream of of possibility, possibility, to to change change the the tears tearsof ofoppression oppression and powerlessness into aa deep body—an ocean—of (re)constructive deep body—an ocean—of (re)constructive huhuman rights rights work. work. While While physical monuments monumentshave havenot notyet yetbeen beenerected erectedtoto commemorate the the abuse abuse and/or and/ordeath deathof ofthousands, thousands,enacted enactedduring duringdifferdifferent repressive regimes, regimes, different different military militaryoccupations, occupations, and/or and/orfrom fromconcontinuing violence throughout the Caribbean, Haitian and Dominican Caribtinuing throughout the Caribbean, Haitian and Dominican Caribwriting offers aa venue venue for for rethinking rethinking the ways to remember remember bean, diaspora writing and memorialize Caribbean Caribbean transatlantic transatlanticexperience experienceand andhistory.’ history.7 Human rights groups groups have have cited cited both both countries countries for forpractices practices such such as as government corruption, deep government corruption,child childslavery, slavery,and andviolence violenceagainst againstwomen. women. Haiti draws a considerable amount amountof ofbad bad press presson onthese theseissues, issues,while whilethe the Dominican Republic Republic receives receivesless lessinternational international attention attention for its human Dominican human rights infringements. Both countries suffer from from poverty poverty and andchild child slaslaThe Dominican Dominican Republic Republic has has aa growing growing problem with sex tourism, very. The tourism, in sharp sharp contrast contrast to the high-end high-end tourism which is in tourismknown knownto tomost mostU.S. U.S. and European visitors. European visitors. Still, Still, there thereare areformidable formidablepeople peopleworking workingfor forsolutions. solutions. Bringing important human Bringing human rights rightsinfringements infringementsout outofofthe theshadows shadowsofof forum for shame into into a public forum for discussion, discussion, and and possible possible redress, redress, is a first step toward finding finding resolutions resolutionsthat thatmay maychange changethe thedire direcircumstances circumstancesofofthe the

12. ~—_Introduction Introduction 12

poorest people on the the island. island.Through Throughthe thevoices voicesofofHispaniola’s Hispaniola’sdiaspora diaspora writers, the the divisive divisive rhetoric rhetoric about aboutthe theisland’s island’speople people and andcontinuing continuinghuhuman rights crimes is being challenged. rights crimes is being challenged. Despite a repeated rhetoric of of national national differences differences on on the theisland, island,both both diaspora communities are marked most by memories of surviving extreme violence brought broughton onby bybrutal brutaldictatorships, dictatorships,cold coldwar warpolicies, policies,and andincreasincreasing poverty poverty and and public public desperation desperationin intheir theirhomelands. homelands.InInaddition, addition,ininthe the diaspora, individuals individuals encounter the diaspora, the paradoxes paradoxes of of democracy. democracy. While “de“dewas blatantly blatantly crushed in their mocracy” was their countries, countries, its advantages advantages are not not automatically available in the United States, in part because classism and automatically available in the United States, in part because classism and opportunities for racism often preclude opportunities for many manydarker-skinned darker-skinnedimmigrants. immigrants. These transferred These transferred communities communities find themselves themselves caught caught between between the the struggle for for a new life in a new struggle new place place and the need need to help help family family and and friends back back home. home. They They begin begin to uncover different ways to view view their their status—how they citizenship status—how they are are documented documentedand andwhich whichcommunity communitythey they belong to, both here (the belong (the United United States) States)and andthere there(the (theisland)—and island)—andtoto antagonism that that has been set up between Haiti and the review the artificial antagonism Dominican Republic by a few ruling elite. It is my contention contention that thatdiaspora diasporaliterature literatureoffers offersaacritical criticallocation locationtoto meditate on Haitian Haitian and and Dominican Dominican pasts pasts and andto toconfront confrontHispaniola’s Hispaniola’s intersecting, diaspora intersecting, diaspora presents. A number number of ofHaitian Haitianand andDominican Dominican diaspora texts texts lay bare the experiences diaspora experiences of memory, trauma, and pain as as central themes that central that shape shape Haitian Haitian and andDominican Dominican (island (island and and diaspora) diaspora) individual and community community identities. identities.Joan Joan Dayan, Dayan,Myriam MyriamChancy, Chancy,and and Jean Jonassaint, for example, have provided us with with excellent studies, interexcellent studies, interrogating one one theme themevia via various varioustexts. texts.My Mywork workcomplements complementsthe theexisting existing body of scholarship by offering offering aa detailed, detailed, systematic systematicstudy studyofofthe thedeep deep pain and complexity of memory memory experienced experienced by by Haitian Haitianand andDominican Dominican communities as diaspora communities as private privatehistories historiesare arerevealed revealedininindividual individualtexts texts and read alongside other textual textual guardians guardians of of memory memorysuch suchasashistorical historical accounts and accounts and social social documents. documents.

Danticat and Danticat andVega: Vega: Two Two Points Points of ofView View

The epistolary epistolary correspondence correspondence between betweenHaitian-African-American Haitian-African-Americancrecreative writer Edwidge Danticat and historian Bernardo ative Edwidge Danticat Bernardo Vega Vega reveals the complexity of of memory memory and the varying deep complexity varying modes modes employed employed to to memorimemorialize the past. The correspondence, published on the the Web Web page page of of the the DoDo-

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minican newsmagazine Hoy,’ Hoy,8 refers refers to to the the two two ways ways they theyinterpreted interpretedand and wrote about the the history historyof ofthe themassacre massacreofofHaitians Haitianson onthe theDominican Dominican border in 1937. The The introduction introduction to the correspondence informs us us that correspondence informs Danticat and Vega met at a conference in 1998 at at the the University UniversityofofGeorGeorgia, during which time Danticat was finishing her her novel novel The The Farming Farming of of Vegalater later sent sent her a copy of the French version Bones. Vega version of of his his book book about about Haiti, volume the massacre, Trujillo et Haiti, volume 1. 1. In In their theircordial cordialcorrespondence, correspondence, Vega thanks thanks Danticat for having cited him in her Vega her novel. Novelists are not, not, after all, obligated obligated to to name nameany anysources. sources.He Hecontinues, continues,however, however,totoexpress express consternation about her representation representation of of the theDominican Dominican people people in in her her He notes notes that one comes comes away away from from her her story story with the impression novel. He that civil that civil society society approved approved and and participated participatedininsuch suchaahorrible horriblegenocide. genocide.He He underlines the the fact fact that that itit was was aa military militaryorder orderissued issuedby byTrujillo Trujillo and and exexecuted by his army. Vega Vegawrites writes that that many Dominicans were terrified terrified and and despite their their fear, fear, hid hid Haitians Haitians in in their their hid during the massacre. massacre. Others, despite homes, saving saving their theirlives. lives.Consequently, Consequently,Vega Vegaconcludes, concludes,Danticat Danticatisisinacinaccurate and and misleading misleading in in her hernovel novelwhen whenshe shedescribes describesaascene scene in in which which the the them to pronounce the word perejil Dominicans spit on Haitians and force them Spanish word that (a Spanish that will will reveal reveal aa Kreyol Kreyòl or or French French accent). accent). The The scene scene renrenders the Dominicans Dominicans not not only onlycomplicit complicit in inthe themassacre massacrebut butalso alsoactive activeinin it. To To this this contention, Danticat responds responds that she emphasizes in her talks talks that Trujillo’s orders that orders led led to to the theactions actionsby bythe thenation’s nation’sarmy. army.However, However,she she adds, some some of ofthe the archived archived testimonies testimonies she she read read make make itit difficult difficult for for her her to adds, believe that that no friends or relatives of the soldiers participated in the killbelieve ings. Furthermore, Furthermore, the thesoldiers soldierswore worecivilian civilianclothes clothesand andused usedmachetes machetesfor for their killings, never a gun. their gun. This made the the massacre appear to to be the the result result local uprising. uprising. Danticat points to the of a local the comparable comparable situation situationininHaiti Haitiinin which the Tonton Tonton Macoutes Macoutes existed existed and and functioned functionedby byfollowing followingDuvaDuvalier’s orders orders and with the express help of some in the lier’s the civilian civilian population.’ population.9 civilians, she she asserts, asserts, must must have been involved in the massacre. Some civilians, Danticat tells Danticat tells Vega, with all due respect, respect, that thatshe shedoes doesnot notmean meantotomismisrepresent Dominican history. However, she cannot forget that the only Dominican history. However, she cannot forget that only time in her her life that that she she witnessed witnessed her hergreat-uncle great-unclecry crywas waswhen whenthe theword word G6mez durperejil was used by Dominicans Dominicans to to slander slanderJosé José Francisco Francisco Petia Peña Gómez president. His ing his candidacy for president. His opponents opponents claimed claimed that thathe hewas was an an infilinfiltrated Haitian trated Haitian and and would would ask ask him him to to say say the the word word in in order order to to ridicule ridicule him. him. great-uncle confessed that that he had been aa cane canecutter cutter and and that that he he Danticat’s great-uncle had been subjected to that that test test of of language language and and national nationalbelonging.’? belonging.10 He He requested that that she not use his requested his name name in in her her book, book, because because the memory

14 ~—_Introduction Introduction 14

brought him shame and horror. Other than than at that that moment, moment, he he never never ever mentioned his tribulation tribulation with withperejil perejiland andostracism ostracismininthe theDominican Dominican Republic in in all his eighty-nine eighty-nine years. Republic years. From a “historical” “historical” perspective, perspective, both bothDanticat’s Danticat’snovel noveland andher heruncle’s uncle’s memory bring many many problems problems to to the the fore. fore. The reframing of the the past past via via aa novel novel is is resisted resisted and/or and/orrejected rejectedwhen when historians point historians pointto tospecifics. specifics. For For example, example, historian historianRichard RichardTurits Turitsargues argues that those at the that those killed killed at the border border were were not not cane cane cutters cutters but but rather rather small small subsubsistence farmers, farmers, as as the the northern border areas are mountainous sistence mountainous and and not not suited to cane plantations (161). Furthermore, many of those killed in the plantations (161). Furthermore, many of those killed in the 1937 massacre massacre were were ethnic ethnic Haitians, since since most most were Dominican born and had lived in the the Dominican Dominican Republic Republic for for generations generations(148-49). (148–49). played aa very very large role in dividing The corte, as the massacre is called, played peoples in in the the frontier frontier region, region, which which was otherwise otherwise quite quite tranquil. tranquil.Indeed, Indeed, both Freddy Prestol Castillo in his novel/testimony novel/testimony El El masacre masacre se se pasa pasa aa pie and Doris Sommer in her her 1983 1983 critical study study One One Master Masterfor forAnother: Another: Populism as Patriarchal Populism Patriarchal Rhetoric Rhetoric in inDominican DominicanNovels Novelsmust mustadmit, admit,dedespite their own philosophies, that prior prior to to the the massacre, massacre, the border border had not not really been pronounced. pronounced. The people people were were not notdivided. divided.With Withrespect respecttoto Prestol Castillo’s Prestol Castillo’s text, text,Sommer Sommerobserves: observes:

to the the traditional traditional subsistence farmers on the fronAnd his objections to who are are unpatriotic unpatriotic to be be sure sure and and thus thus retard the national tier, who national interinterests, are tempered by the narrator’s appreciation for the decency narrator’s appreciation the decency of of their life their life style. style. They They are areproductive productiveon oncommunal communallands, lands,asasthey theyrereeach other, other, the the land and their spect each their animals. animals. (184) (184) That is, is, despite despite Freddy Freddy Prestol Prestol Castillo’s Castillo’s proclaimed proclaimed belief belief that thatthe thetwo two nations would be better better off off clearly clearly divided, divided, his his text text admits admitsthat thatthe thepeople people on the frontier frontierwere werenot notdivided dividedatatall. all.InInfact, fact,they theygot gotalong alongvery verywell. well. Sommer’s study intends Sommer’s intends to to recontextualize recontextualizePrestol PrestolCastillo Castillointo intoanother another kind of division between between land land and andpatriarch patriarch(father-figure, (father-figure,dictator, dictator,patripatriarch). But in this particular instance she fails to make a convincing arguthis particular instance she fails to make a convincing argument, I believe, believe, because the division division between between Haitians Haitians(ethnic (ethnicorornewly newly arrived) and Dominicans on on the the border, border, like like the the division division between betweenthe theland land artificially constructed constructed for for those those in in the the frontier frontier region, and the patriarch, is artificially who before who before the the massacre massacre were were not notaffected affected by bydivisive divisivediscourse discourse or or Trujillo’s later manipulations. manipulations. that had existed in the The peace that the pre-1937 pre-1937 frontier frontierisisbest bestdescribed describedby by newer studies. Addressing the emphasis emphasis on on the thepronunciation pronunciationofofperejil, perejil,

Introduction:The TheTears Tearsofof Hispaniola 15 Introduction: Hispaniola 15

which played a distinctive role in dividing the the two two nations, nations, even even if if imagiimaginarily at narily at first, first, Turits Turits notes notes that thatititisisboth bothcalculated calculated and and performative: performative: by acting as if this [pronunciation] [pronunciation]test testwas wasclear clearand andefficacious, efficacious,the the imputed to killers imputed to their theirvictims victimsradical radical cultural culturaldifference differencethat thatserved served to rationalize rationalize the the violence violence and and ethnicize ethnicize images images of of the thenation. nation.Thus Thus violence in in the the Haitian violence Haitian massacre massacre and and the the discourse discourse within within which which it it place were were themselves themselves performances performances that that helped constitute constitute notook place notions of of inherent inherent and and transhistorical transhistorical difference between Haitians Haitians and and tions difference between Dominicans. (165) In linguistic terms, the pronunciation pronunciation of of perejil as a litmus test of national belonging is emphatically emphatically artificial. artificial. For For example, example, third-generation third-generationHaiHaiexactly like like those those around around them. Furthermore, Furthermore, Dominicans tians can speak exactly Dominicans do not pronounce pronounce r’s r’s and other other consonants consonantsclearly. clearly. This This is is exemplified by Prestol Castillo’s phonetic reproduction reproduction of Prestol of Dominican Dominicanlanguage languagein inhis histext. text. One of the characters screams “Saigentooooo” for sargento.'! sargento.11 Regardless of of how how we we would would like like to to review review history, history, the the three three explicaexplicaRegardless Sommer’s,and andTurits’s) Turits’s)highlight highlightthe the ways waysthat that tions (Prestol Castillo’s, Castillo’s, Sommer’s, memories of the frontier frontier and and its its people people have have been manipulated manipulated in in an an atattempt to render story of what happened in 1937 tempt render a coherent, if not rational, story and why it happened. is clear clear isis that that aa terrible terrible horror horror destroyed destroyed the the In my estimation, what is peace that that existed among the peace the people people of of the the frontier. frontier.No Nodoubt, doubt,different different affected by by the incident differently. Therefore people were affected Therefore II suggest suggest that, that, keep the inaccuracies of memory when we analyze Danticat’s Danticat’s novel, we keep inaccuracies of constructed histories histories in agreement and socially constructed in mind. mind. It It could be argued, in agreement that she misrepresents history. Turits Turits reminds reminds us that there with Vega, Vega, that there Were the the farms rememwere no plantations plantationsin inDajabon. Dajabón.Yet Yet we could ask: Were remembered as plantations? It It could be argued that that her heruncle uncledid did not notcut cutcane cane in in the northern northernfrontier frontierregion regionbut butsomewhere somewhereelse. else.Perhaps, Perhaps, even, even, he he did cut cane, but but his experience took place long after the cane, the massacre. massacre. Dominicans might have used the test of perejil to humiliate him, might the test of perejil to humiliate him,following followingaa tradition tradition established by the established the massacre. massacre. These are the the historical historical conundrums, conundrums,IIbebelieve, that that frustrate the further frustration lieve, the memory memory of of the the massacre. massacre. A further frustrationisis that both Haitians propelled by the fact that Haitians and and Dominicans don’t really want remember this to remember thisburied, buried,bloody bloodyepisode. episode.ItIt is is thus thusvery verydifficult difficulttotorecover recover details. details. The correspondence between Danticat Danticat and and Vega Vega demonstrates demonstrates the thedisdistinction between narrative tinction narrative and and history. history.As AsShoshana ShoshanaFelman Felmanargues, argues,

16 = Introduction 16 Introduction

“What we “What we call history historywe weusually usuallyconceive conceiveof ofas asaadiscipline disciplineof of inquiry inquiryand and mode of knowledge. knowledge. What What we call call narrative narrative we usually as a mode usually conceive conceive of as a mode of discourse discourse and and as as aa literary literarygenre” genre”(Felman (Felmanand andLaub, Laub,93). 93).FollowFollowing Barbara Hernstein Smith’s argument, Felman informs us that that the the ococcurrence of the event is is history historyand andthat thatthe thetelling tellingofofthat thatoccurrence occurrenceisis narrative. This neat distinction distinction is is immediately immediately subverted subverted when whenFelman Felman Hegel’sposition: position:“The “Theterm termhistory history ..... . unites records Hegel’s unitesthe theobjective objective and and the the side, and and denotes denotes .... . not not less what what happened than than the subjective side, the narration narration of what happened” (93). In other other words, words, the thedistinction distinctionbetween betweenhistory history and narrative is not as evident as we may want it to be. However, as evident as we may want it to be. However, if we we follow Felman’s Felman’sessay essay on on to to the point follow point of of her heranalysis, analysis,we we do docome come away away with an important importantissue. issue.When Whenreading readingCamus’s Camus’sThe ThePlague, Plague,she sheargues, argues,

we can can literally literally witness only that Since we that which which isis within withinthe thereach reachofof the conceptual frame frame of reference reference we inhabit, inhabit, the theHolocaust HolocaustisistestitestiPlague as an fied to by The Plague an event event whose whosespecificity specificityresides, resides,precisely, precisely, in the fact that that itit cannot, cannot,historically, historically,be be witnessed. witnessed. ... . . It . Itisisprecisely precisely history as holocaust proceeds from from aa failure failure to to imagine, imagine, that because history imaginative medium it takes an imaginative mediumlike likethe theplague plaguetotogain gainan aninsight insightinto into its historical reality, as well as into the attested historicity of its unreality, as well into the attested historicity of its un(104-5) imaginability. (104–5) The point is that the the literary literarytext, text,aa novel, novel, has has significant, significant, symbolic importance precisely because a traumatic event event can can no no longer longer be be witnessed. witnessed. The The novel conceptualizes conceptualizes the horrors horrors without withoutclaiming claimingfirsthand firsthandexperience. experience. the possible possible details details of of the the horrors horrors and the aftermath Similarly, the aftermathof of the the1937 1937 massacre reside precisely precisely in in Danticat’s Danticat’s novel novel The The Farming Farmingof of Bones. Bones. It It cancannot be denied denied that that that thatmassacre massacrewas wasfollowed followed by by other othermassacres, massacres, less less notorious but notorious butequally equallydebilitating. debilitating.ItItalso alsobecame becameboth boththe thereason reasonand andthe the excuse for later divisions and violence acted against newly newly arrived arrivedHaitians Haitians and ethnic Haitians Haitians in in the theDominican DominicanRepublic. Republic. The horror The horror that that Danticat Danticat writes writes about about can can neither neither be be witnessed witnessed nor nor proved. However, However, she she does does witness witness the the effect effect that that the 1937 massacre has 1937 had on the the Haitian Haitian and and Dominican Dominican people. people. Danticat’s Danticat’s story addresses the memory and memory and pain pain of of violence violence that that she she has haswitnessed witnessedatatcritical criticaltimes, times,such such as seeing the tears tears shed shed by by her hergreat-uncle great-uncleand andhearing hearinghis hisconfession. confession.I I that the contend that the creative creative writer, writer, writing writingaa memorial memorialfiction, fiction,isis perhaps perhaps obobligated to present the misinformation misinformation of of memory memoryin incontrast contrasttotothe theexact exact accounts offered by history, history, in in this thiscase case to to honor honoraadeceased deceased uncle. uncle. Danticat Danticat represents the the pain pain of of history history and andhow howthat thatinflicts inflictsmemory; memory;inincontrast, contrast,

Introduction:The TheTears TearsofofHispaniola Hispaniola 17 Introduction: 17

obligated by profession profession to Vega is obligated to script scripthistory. history.Danticat’s Danticat’sstories storiesare areperpereven contradictory, while Vega’s Vega’s writing writing still believes in an sonal, complex, even objective rendering rendering of the past that objective that isis nonetheless nonethelessriddled riddledwith withinconsisinconsistencies. tencies. At issue is how the the past past is is built builton onstories storiesof oftears tearsthat thatboth bothdivide divideand and unify Haitians Haitians and and Dominicans. Dominicans. Danticat’s Danticat’s great-uncle great-uncle suffered suffered aa severe severe trauma, and trauma, and we we will will never never know knowthe theeffects effectson onhis hisinternal, internal,psychological psychological life. Vega’s Vega’swriting writingofofhistory history details details the the past, past, but Danticat’s writing of life. Danticat’s writing fiction memorializes that past by bringing it into the present, present, complicating the possible possible meanings of of what what happened, happened, and andexposing exposingthe themultiple multipleasaspects of how the pects the happenings happenings affected affected different differentpeople. people.In Inparticular, particular,her her novels underscore underscore how howthe thepain painof ofthe thepast pastcontinues continuestotoaffect, affect,consciously consciously 12 I suggest that we have something to gain unconsciously, the the present. present.” that we something to gain or unconsciously, by deemphasizing deemphasizing the theissue issueof ofhistorical historicalaccuracy accuracyand andemphasizing emphasizinginstead instead the effects and affects affects of historical experiences experiences of violence on individual memory, community building memory, building and and destruction, destruction,and andnationalism. nationalism.What What (dolor/douleur/deuil) has pain (dolor/douleur/deuil) has been been grafted grafted onto ontothe thelives livesand andmemories memories of these nations nations and and their theirpeople? people? The writings of Danticat, Diaz, Díaz, Cadet, and Pérez that that II am am examining examining direct our gaze to the the impossibility impossibilityof ofmourning mourningfor forindividuals. individuals.The Thehorhorrors of violence leave the the victims and survivors, survivors, like Danticat’s great-uncle, great-uncle, in various states states of of suspension—a suspension—arepeated repeatedsuspended suspendedpast, past,asasinintrauma, trauma, and/or aa suspended and/or suspended and and undisclosed past, when forgetting/erasing forgetting/erasingthe theterterrible incident. Fiction and testimony, testimony,IIpropose, propose,are arefundamental fundamentalpolitical political acts of of resistance resistance that that create a narrative narrative space for for these these experiences of of horhor and thus thus bring to the narrative ror, and narrative the thememory memoryand andthe theexperience experienceof ofthat that Arguably,the the narratives narratives that that I scrutinize take charge of trauma, horror. Arguably, the ways exposing the ways trauma traumamanifests manifestsitself itself(via (viathe thecharacters) characters)and andoffering offering that haunting haunting present-past a demythification of that present-past (via (via my my critical critical intervenintervention, using the the text text as as the the key key to to escaping escaping what what II call call the prison-house prison-house of of memory). memory).

Remembering Horror Horror Let us for a moment moment consider consider the the implications implicationsof of two twocritical critical points pointsabout about trauma and and post-traumatic post-traumaticstress stresssyndrome syndromeasasproposed proposedby byEnglish Englishproprofessor and literary critic Cathy Caruth fessor Caruth and and by bypsychologist psychologist Judith Judith HerHerof trauma. trauma.’13In man, who are two leading researchers of Inthe theintroduction introductiontoto her 1995 text text Trauma: Trauma: Explorations Explorations in in Memory MemoryCaruth Caruthunderscores underscoresthe the

18 — Introduction 18 Introduction

literality and and nonsymbolic nonsymbolic nature natureofoftraumatic traumaticdreams dreamsand andflashbacks, flashbacks, posits, is is constituted constituted by literality whereby a cure is resisted. Trauma, she posits, and insistent return, return, “the “the delay delay or orincompletion incompletion of of knowing, knowing, or or even even in in seeing, an overwhelming occurrence that that then thenremains, remains,ininits itsinsistent insistentrereturn, absolutely absolutely true to to the theevent” event”(5). (5).Caruth Caruthproposes proposesthat thatsince sincethe the “truth” of “truth” of the thetraumatic traumaticexperience experienceshapes shapesthe thepathology pathologyororsymptoms, symptoms,it it pathology of it it is is is not a pathology of falsehood falsehood or ordisplacement displacementof ofmeaning, meaning,but butrather rather symptom of a symptom of history. history.She Sheexplains, explains,“The “Thetraumatized, traumatized,we wemight mightsay, say,carry carry of, aa history history that within them, or they they become become themselves themselves the symptom of, they cannot entirely possess” (5). they cannot entirely possess” (5). Herman remarks, remarks, “In “In avoiding avoiding any anysituations situationsreminiscent reminiscentofofthe thepast past trauma, or trauma, or any any initiative initiative that thatmight mightinvolve involvefuture futureplanning planningand andrisk, risk,trautraumatized people deprive matized deprive themselves themselvesof ofthose thosenew newopportunities opportunitiesfor forsuccesssuccessful coping that that might mitigate the effect of the traumatic experience”; might mitigate the effect of the traumatic experience”;conconstrictive symptoms, initially intended strictive intended to todefend defendthe thesufferer sufferer(survivor, (survivor, victim, witness) from an an overwhelming overwhelming emotional emotionalstate, state,ininfact fact“narrow “narrow and deplete the quality qualityof of life life and andultimately ultimatelyperpetuate perpetuatethe theeffects effectsofofthe the traumatic event” traumatic event”(47). (47). to these considerations of trauma trauma and temporalAccording to and its its effects, effects, temporality is a central central concern. concern. The victims/survivors of of horrible horrible events events either either reify the past horror into a continuing, conscious or unconscious, present the past horror into a continuing, conscious or unconscious, present fear, or or they they bury the state of repeated violence violence and fear, the horror horrorand andremain remain haunted in haunted in less less visible visible but butequally equallydebilitating debilitatingways. ways.Comparably, Comparably,the theefeffects of migration in fects in many manycases cases create create aasystem systemofofmemory memorybased basedonona a frozen image of a past reality, of a country country that that has hassince since the thetime timeof ofmigramigrathat frozen frozen memory is further tion changed considerably. considerably. IfIfthat further informed informed by by the trauma trauma becomes violence, the becomes very very difficult difficult to to define. define. In In particular, diaspora diaspora filled citizens often often hold hold on on to to memories memoriesof ofthe thehomeland homelandthat thatare aremyths, myths, filled information and with gaps of information and provable history. history. The present present is is the the essential essential moment for for all all considerations considerations of trauma, trauma, and and the theliterary literaryrepresentation representation traumatic experience of the traumatic experiencehighlights highlightsthis. this.The Thepast pastcannot cannotbebereproduced, reproduced, but the effects of the past can be reconstructed. With The Tears the effects of the past can be reconstructed. With The Tears of Hispaniola, I ask that paniola, that we we examine examine traumatic traumatichistory historyinindiaspora diasporacommunities communities from three three perspectives: perspectives: a reading reading of of the thecharacters, characters,an ananalysis analysisofofthe the function of the text, text, and my my critical critical intervention interventionweaving weaving histories, histories, charcharacters, and and textual studies.

Introduction:The TheTears TearsofofHispaniola Hispaniola 19 Introduction: 19

A Haitian Story Story and and aa Dominican Dominican Story Story history is manifold The experience of history manifold and and often often in in direct direct opposition oppositionto tothe the writings of history. Arguably, the impossibility of of knowledge knowledge of the the past past addressed by by Caruth and Herman addressed Herman isisatatthe theroot rootofofthe theproblem problemwith withhishistory. Furthermore, Furthermore, history is always limited in many ways by the ideal history is always limited in many ways by the idealofof truthful accounting. accounting. II suggest suggest that we we look look to to the thegenre genreofoffiction fictiontoto supplement history, and thus thus achieve achieve aa more morecomplete complete picture pictureof ofthe theininsidiousness of violence and sidiousness and the thelegacy legacy of of trauma. trauma.Because Becauseliterature literaturebrings brings the past to the present, present, itit memorializes memorializes that that past past and and demolishes demolishes the the simsimthat trauma plicity that traumatheories theoriesare arelimited limitedby. by. For example, example, the the work of literary For literary critic, critic, novelist, novelist, and and artist artistMyriam Myriam Chancy is informed by her motherland, Haiti, almost exclusively, despite informed by her motherland, Haiti, almost exclusively, despite the years spent in in the the United United States States and and her herpresent presentresidence residencein inCanada. Canada. In 1997 her study study Framing Framing Silence: Silence: Revolutionary Revolutionary Novels Novels by Haitian Haitian Women became became the the first critical book to forge a distinctive Women distinctive space space for the the hitherto silenced hitherto silencedvoices voices of of Haitian Haitianwomen, women,thus thusreframing reframingtheir theirmemories. memories. With this this autobiographical autobiographicaland andcritical criticaltext textChancy Chancytells tellsus: us: creation of identity The creation identityin inthe theface faceof of imperialist imperialistand andcolonial colonialoppresoppression begins with the the transmutation transmutationofofthe thepersonal personalinto intothe thecreative, creative, that in into modes of self-empowerment that in and and of of themselves themselves create create a theory of self-definition. ... Haitian women writers have . . . created theory of self-definition. . . . Haitian women writers have . . . created a vision of Haitian women in in fictional fictional form form that thatcorresponds corresponds to toaa feminized reading reading of of the the history history of our country... feminized country. . . .This Thisreflects reflectsaa political strategy used used not not only onlytotocreate createaasense senseofofextra-textual extra-textualinintimacy, but also to create a space within the the parameters parametersof ofthe thegenre genre that redefines national identity identity in in terms termsof of the thepersonal. personal.(6) (6)

It is of particular interest for for my my argument argumentthat thatChancy Chancybegins beginsher hertext text with a story she she has has made made up up and and refers refers to toititthroughout throughouther herstudy studytoto signal the way fiction informs, informs, and and therefore thereforerecasts, recasts,history. history.Chancy Chancytells tells the story story of of aa little little girl girlshe shenames namesSolange, Solange, who who had had the thefortune fortunetotolive live with parents who who allowed allowed her to to sit sit in inthe thePiazza Piazzaininfront frontofofthe thePalais, Palais, where electricity and light were There the the little girl where electricity and were available. available. There girl did did her her homework, reading about Haitian history, unaware that she herself would about Haitian history, unaware that she herself would become part of the soon become the lesser-told lesser-told history historywhen whenkilled. killed.Solange’s Solange’s story, story, account of of the real death of Chancy tells us, is inspired by Paul Farmer’s account of Roseline Vaval, Vaval,who whoatatage ageeleven elevenwas waskilled killedby bythe the army army in the town Roseline town of of Petit Goave: Goâve: “Her death death became became symbolic symbolicof of the therepression repressionperpetuated perpetuatedbyby

20 ‘Introduction 20 Introduction

the army army under under General General Prosper Prosper Avril, Avril, from from 1988 1988 to to 1990, 1990, through through the the same dictatorial means established so thoroughly thoroughlyby bythe theDuvalier Duvalierpatripatriarchs” (4). Chancy’s story story of of Solange Solangebecomes becomessymbolic symbolicofofthe themany manylittle little girls who have have been been killed killed or ormaimed maimedbut butnever neveracknowledged. acknowledged.Chancy Chancy rewrites the the story story of of Solange throughout throughouther herstudy studytotoremind remindherself herself“and “and the reader of of the the connection connection between between history historyand andstorytelling, storytelling,between between Haitian women’s lives and the the ways waysininwhich whichnarrative narrativeenables enablesHaitian Haitian women writers writers to preserve women preserve those those lives” lives” (5). (5). With With writing, writing, Chancy Chancy acacinserts herself knowledges, she inserts herself into intoacademic academiclanguage languageand andinternational international history. Her writing writing enables enables the the voices voices of Haiti Haiti to to be be recovered recovered from from the the could be be any any girl reading by the abyss of ignorance. Solange could the lamppost lamppost bebecause there is no electricity cause electricity in in her herhouse. house.Solange Solangecould could be beany anygirl girlwho who cannot even get get aa book book or orfind findthe thetime timetotosit, sit,doing doingchores, chores,experiencing experiencing abuse, and being obliterated from the possibility of memory. abuse, and obliterated the possibility of memory.Chancy Chancy muses: Solange is not real: real: she she exists exists in in my myunconscious. unconscious.Solange Solangeisistoo tooreal: real: she exists in your mind and in your your heart. heart. Solange Solange is is the the sun sun in in the the midst of despair: midst despair: she she exists. exists. Solange Solange is is dignity dignitypersonified: personified:she sheisisour our moral conscious. moral conscious. (166)

I would argue that that this this kind kind of ofliterary literarynexus nexusisisfundamental fundamentaltotounderunderstanding the point standing point of of origin origin ofofdiaspora diasporaliterature: literature:Solange Solange could could be be Chancy, writing writing the Chancy, the memories memories to tohonor honorthe thedead deadand andgive giveway waytotothe thelivliving. It is not not aa coincidence that, that,in inher herconclusion, conclusion,Chancy Chancyreveals revealsher herown own tears, for tears are are aa key key element elementof ofdiaspora diasporasolidarity: solidarity: to testify to both the Haitian women writers have endeavored endeavored to the tritriumphs and sufferings sufferings of of their theirclass, class, but but they theyhave havedone doneso soatatgreat great personal risk and and in inthe theface faceof ofunrelenting unrelentingpersecution. persecution.. .. .. Trinh’s . Trinh’s words [“Writing in the words the feminine. feminine. And on aa colored colored sky”, sky”],like likethe the lyrics of Sade’s song [“Sade sings of a colored sky, a blue sky turned [“Sade sings of a colored sky, a blue sky turned emotions. We know that that the red by the force of her emotions. thesky skyisis aa mirror mirrorfor for the blue blue of of the theworld’s world’s oceans; oceans; similarly, similarly, itit isisaacanvas canvason onwhich whichwe we project our feelings and emotions—shaking emotions—shaking our our fists fistswhen whenitittears tears ], fall fall on on my ears like rainfall, like tear drops. (171-72) into rain” rain”], (171–72) Chancy tells us us that, that,despite despitethe theblue blueskies, skies,the thetrue truecontours contoursofofwomen’s women’s lives in the Third World and in the the Haitian HaitianAfrican African diaspora diaspora are are red. red.From From reading all of her her works, works, I understand understand that thatChancy’s Chancy’stears tearsare arefrom frompain pain (caused by the knowledge of continuing violence and violations) and defi(caused by the

Introduction:The TheTears TearsofofHispaniola Hispaniola 21 Introduction: 21

ance (she will will tell stories and work against violence despite the risks she ance runs). too runs). I agree with Chancy Chancy that that stories stories present present the theworld worldwith witha acomplex complex groundwork for memory. memory. This This is is especially especially true truefor forcultures cultureswhose whosepriprimary access to to history history is oral. It It is is necessary necessary to to underscore underscore how stories stories are mary instrumental to instrumental to the theformation formationof ofknowledge knowledge when when “facts” “facts” have have been mamanipulated or nipulated or simply simplyobliterated. obliterated.But Butthis thiswork workcannot cannotbebeaccomplished accomplishedinina a vacuum. Furthermore, one analysis of a select group of writers and their their calls for for further further exploration of other works calls other texts texts as as these thesewriters writersenter enteraa dialogue exposing the unspoken unspoken and and traumatic, traumatic,creating creatingaavenue venuefor formulmultiple memories and and strategies strategies of of survival. survival. possibility precisely Fiction produces possibility precisely because because itit does does not notfollow followrules rulesofof representation. By extension, it may may capture capture more more of of the thenuances nuancesof ofununknowable history. For example, Julia Alvarez’s Alvarez’s 1994 1994 novel In the Time the Time of the Butterflies represents aa bold the Butterflies represents bold attempt to to recuperate recuperate the the stories stories of of women from the the oblivion oblivion of of mythification. mythification.Tellingly, Tellingly, she attempts attempts to to do do this through through storytelling: storytelling: what you here are what you will find here are the the Mirabals Mirabals of of my my creation, creation, made made up up but, but, I hope, hope, true true to the spirit of the real Mirabals. In addition, though though II had had researched the researched the facts facts of of the theregime, regime,and andevents eventspertaining pertainingtotoTrujillo’s Trujillo’s thirty-one-year despotism, thirty-one-year despotism,IIsometimes sometimestook tookliberties—by liberties—bychanging changing by reconstructing reconstructing events, and by collapsing characters or incidates, by dents. For II wanted wanted to immerse my my readers readers in in an anepoch epoch in in the thelife lifeof of the Dominican Dominican Republic Republic that thatIIbelieve believe can can only only finally finallybe beunderstood understood by fiction, only finally be redeemed by the the imagination. imagination. A A novel is historical document, document, but but aa way way to to travel travel through through the not, after all, aa historical human heart. human heart.(324) (324)

Writing about the the Mirabal Mirabal sisters sisters honors honors the the work work they theydid didagainst againstthe the Trujillo dictatorship. dictatorship. But But after after reading reading and teaching the text Trujillo text numerous numerous times over times over the years, years, I cannot cannot help help but but wonder wonder whether whether the theliberties liberties Alvarez took in changing the “facts” of Trujillo’s despotism served Alvarez in changing the “facts” of Trujillo’s despotism servedtoto extreme cruelty soften the extreme cruelty suffered suffered under under his his reign.!* reign.14 Perhaps her effort to honor the honor the sisters sisters and and reach reach the the human human heart heartnecessitated necessitated that that she she avoid avoid during this detailing the violence experienced by women during this period. period. II wonder wonder Alvarez’s literary literary liberties if Alvarez’s liberties do not not reflect reflect aa deeper deeper incision incision of of pain, pain, such as traumatic silence. traumatic silence. II believe believe that thatAlvarez Alvarezfeels feels aa certain certainlevel levelof of fear fear in invisitvisiting the horrors horrors of of the thecountry’s country’spast, past,and and that thatthe thesilenced silencedhorrors horrorsremain remain silent precisely because because of the extent extent of of the the“unknowns” “unknowns”ofofthe thecircumcircum-

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Introduction Introduction

barely remembers. stances she barely remembers.This This Dominican-American Dominican-Americanauthor authorexempliexemplifies the effects of the unknown, developed in the the theory of trauma by fies effects of developed in by Caruth. While Alvarez retells the story of the Mirabal sisters—national the story of the Mirabal sisters—national heroines of mythic (and (and therefore therefore unknowable) unknowable) proportions proportions in in the theDoDominican Republic—she underscores underscores the theimpossibility impossibilityofofrecuperating recuperatingthe the true violence enacted against these women. They died when the car they they were in drove over over aa cliff. Supposedly this was set up. up. The husbands, husbands, who who were in jail as political prisoners, had been transferred transferredto toaadistant distantprison, prison, and the sisters were then then informed informedthey theycould couldvisit. visit.No Nowitness witnessor ordocudocument exists to disclose the deaths. Some speculate that the sisters were ment exists to the deaths. Some speculate that the sisters werefirst first molested, then killed, then put put in inthe thecar carand androlled rolledover. over.Others Othersbelieve believe that the that the car car was was forced to drive over the the cliff. cliff. The trauma for for Alvarez may be that that she the truth be she cannot cannot access access the truth of of the thesisters’ sisters’lives lives and and death. death. In In concontrast to the undeniable violence experienced during the 1991 coup d'état, to the undeniable violence the 1991 d’état, Dominicans witness the the double doubleviolence violence of ofthe theinitial, initial,insidious insidiousviolation violation and the ensuing ensuing amnesia—because it it has has been so effectively reframed and thus erased—of thus erased—of that thatviolation. violation.InInthat thatspace spaceofofselective selectiveamnesia, amnesia,symbolic symbolic of the unknown, unknown, Dominicans Dominicans must must fight fight aadouble doubletrauma. trauma.There Thereisisthe the initial murder murder and and then theninaccessibility inaccessibility of of accurate accurate information informationabout aboutthe the tries to to recuperate recuperate the the Mirabal sisters from mythification, mythification, murder. Alvarez tries only to mythify mythify them them further, further,blurring blurringfurther furtherthe theviolence violenceofofTrujillo’s Trujillo’s dictatorship. Still the violated violated memory memory cries; cries; itit must mustbe beremembered. remembered.InIn battled in the present, present, its order for violence to be battled its long long historical historical trajectory trajectory must be must be exposed, exposed, reprimanded, reprimanded,and andchanged. changed.This, This,ititseems, seems,isisthe thelegacy legacy diaspora writers from the Dominican Republic have inherited. from the Dominican Republic have inherited.

Memory Autobiographical Memory argument from While most of my book draws its argument from fiction, fiction, I have found it to importance that be of critical importance thatIIalso alsoexamine examineaapersonal personaltestimony, testimony,because because this informs informs Hispaniola’s Hispaniola’s diaspora diaspora memory memoryin inaavery verypressing pressingmanner. manner.InIn examine Jean-Robert Cadet’s Cadet’s autobiography autobiography to situate chapter 4, I examine situate Cadet’s Cadet’s life-storytelling as life-storytelling as aa mode mode of of memory memorythat thatgives givestestimony testimonytotoa aparticular particular personal past that—since the the restavek restavèk practice practice is still strong strong in in Haiti—can Haiti—can be witnessed in the present. the present. autobiography, offered as a testimony testimony against Cadet’s autobiography, againstan aninhuman inhumanpracpractice, was was written, written, he he tells tells us, us, with with the goal of denunciation tice, denunciation in order to change the “crime.” In the process of telling, Cadet is caught up in several truth, motive, and personal pain, which not only struggles: truth, only cannot cannot be be eses-

Introduction:The TheTears TearsofofHispaniola Hispaniola 23 Introduction: 23

caped but but is is further further aggravated by the caped the political-theoretical political-theoretical debate around testimony itself. itself. On On aa personal personallevel, level, psychiatrist psychiatristDori DoriLaub Laubtells tellsus, us,the the process of testimony testimony isis “essentially a ceaseless struggle” (Felman and Laub “essentially a ceaseless struggle” (Felman and Laub 75). Laub explains: explains: The imperative imperative to to tell telland andtotobe beheard heardcan canbecome becomeitself itselfananall-conall-consuming life task.... words, suming task. . . .There Thereare arenever neverenough enoughwords wordsororthe theright right words, there is never enough enough time time or or the theright righttime, time,and andnever neverenough enoughlislistening or the right right listening listening to to articulate articulate the story story that thatcannot cannot be be fully captured captured in in thought, thought,memory, memory,and andspeech speech(78). (78). This constant constant retelling retellingof ofaalife lifeexperience experienceisisaaform formof oftrauma traumathat thattraps trapsitsits nightmare past, victim in a nightmare past,despite despitethe theinitial initialgoal goalofoftelling tellingtotoheal. heal.We Wewill will see in these pages that the the text textitself, itself,by byits itsvery veryrepetition repetitionofofabuse, abuse,disdiscloses this this trap of traumatic closes traumatic memory. memory. On aa theoretical theoretical level, level, Cadet’s Cadet’s case is critical to aa study studyofofCaribbean Caribbean memory in memory in the the present presentprecisely preciselybecause because itit comes comes up up against against aa devastating devastating impasse: the violence he denounces denounces is is part part of of his hispast, past,but butititisisalso alsoaavery very strong part part of of many many children’s children’s continuing continuingpresent. present.He Heisisnot notdenouncing denouncingaa crime that that comes comes in inthe theshape shapeofofaapsychological psychologicalghost; ghost;rather, rather,heheisisexposexposing an ongoing horror that thatcontinues continues to tobe berelegated relegatedto tothe thebackdrop backdrop of of Haitian problems because many others seem so much more dire. He offers problems many others seem so much more dire. He truth not us a historical truth not of of the the past past but butof of the thepresent. present. truth of The truth ofhis hisautobiographical autobiographicalaccount accounthas hasbeen beenquestioned; questioned;indeed, indeed, the truth truthof of autobiography autobiographyand andtestimony testimonyhas hasbeen beenatatthe thecenter centerofofmany many heated debates. In recent recent years yearssuch suchconcerns concernshave havebeen beenraised raisedespecially especially with respect to the the testimony testimonyoffered offeredby byNobel NobelPeace Peace Prize recipient recipient Rigoberta Menchu. Menchú. In In her herdefense defenseJohn JohnBeverley Beverleyhas haspresented presenteda aconvincing convincing argument: argument: If there is no no one one universal universal standard standard for for truth, truth,then thenclaims claims about about truth are contextual: they have to do with how people construct truth are contextual: they have to do with how people constructdifdifferent understandings understandings of of the the world world and historical memory memory from from the the same set set of facts in situations situationsof ofradical radicalsocial socialinequality, inequality,exploitation, exploitation, and repression. repression.(77) (77) point is that His point thatthere thereisisno nospecified specified“level “levelof ofsocial social facticity facticitythat thatcan canguarguarantee the truth” truth”ofofany anyrepresentation representationbecause because“the “thefacts factsofofmemory memoryare are not essences essences prior to representation, representation, but but rather ratherthemselves themselvesthe theconseconsequence of struggles to to represent representand andover overrepresentation” representation”(79). (79).Following Following this position, Cadet’s testimony testimony displays his struggles with the memory with the memoryof of

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Introduction Introduction

the violence violence done to him; him; the the facts facts he he reveals reveals are, are, ultimately, ultimately, modes modes of of memory that memory thatdisclose disclose violence violence against against children. children. His narrated narrated life, with the goal of of attaining attaining human rights rights for for children children in in Haiti and in the the diaspora, diaspora, is also frustrated frustrated by by the thenature natureofoftoday’s today’smarmarkets. In an important importantnew newstudy studyon onthe thesubject, subject,Kay KaySchaffer Schafferand andSidonie Sidonie narratives have Smith contend: “Life narratives have become become salable salable properties properties in intoday’s today’s their audiences through markets. They gain their throughthe theglobal globalforces forces of of commodicommodification that that convert narratives into property fication property of of publishing publishing and and media media and Smith Smith point point out out that that once aatestimony testimony (narrated houses” (23). Schaffer and life) becomes becomes aa commodity, commodity, itit can can have have the the effect the author author initially initiallyinintended—for Cadet, to get get people people sufficiently sufficiently incensed incensed that thatthey theybecome become politically active to stop such such abuse—or abuse—or ititcan can have have an an opposite oppositeeffect, effect,with with stories of of horror abounding to the point stories point that thatpeople people either either take take them themas as normal or ignore them altogether. In the latter case, the survivor-victim’s or ignore them altogether. In the latter case, the survivor-victim’s quest for reparation reparation and and social social action through through testimony testimonybecomes becomes ineffiinefficient. cient. Nonetheless, an an autobiography such as Nonetheless, as Cadet’s Cadet’s is invaluable invaluable for my my purposes. I am specifically interested in the purposes. specifically interested the ways ways that thatHispaniola’s Hispaniola’s diasdiaspora is afflicted afflicted by memories memories of of past pastand andpresent presentviolence violenceand andhuman human rights infringements. infringements.Autobiographical Autobiographical memory memoryintersects intersectsfiction fictionand andhishistory and complicates the process of memory as memorial. Cadet’s autobitory and complicates the process of memory as memorial. Cadet’s autobiography allows him to mourn mourn his hisown ownpast, past,but butfurther furtherasks asksusustotomove move beyond the the tears tears that thattear tearatathis hisfellow fellowsufferer’s sufferer’slives. lives.His Hisautobiography autobiography arguably, aatestimony testimony of the the present, written written to is, arguably, to change change the the future, future,from from a new geography, and in a different language. His revelations lead me to to ask: How How do do the the memories and testimonies of past-presents and presentask: presentpasts create create a unique community pasts community in in search search of of aaspace space for fortheir theirdolor/ dolor/ douleur/deuil? douleur/deuil? of Hispaniola Hispaniola |I ask In The Tears of ask that thatwe wefocus focuson onthe theeffects effectsofofdifferent different forms of violence on individual lives and on inter-/intranational inter-/intranationalmemory. memory. How are new new inter-American, inter-American,Pan-Caribbean Pan-Caribbeandiasporas diasporasimagined? imagined?And And what role do their stories play in a global culture of growing misery and their stories play in a global culture of growing misery and violence? violence?

Introduction: The Tears of Hispaniola

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Meanings of Memory A Literary Intervention InterventiontotoConfront ConfrontPersistent PersistentViolence Violence

Images of death can haunt hauntus usfor foryears. years.African-Haitian-American African-Haitian-Americanwriter writer Edwidge Danticat remembers how, as a child, she was deeply affected Edwidge remembers how, as a child, she was deeply affectedby by television news coverage of lifeless black bodies washing onto the the Florida Florida shores (Trescott). (Trescott). I remain deeply deeply moved moved by by crime crimeand andwar warimages imagesprepresented by television news. The effect is similar to how how most most of ofus usininthe the United States felt felt after afterseeing seeingthe therepeated repeatedvideo videoimages imagesofofthe theWorld World Center collapse Trade Center collapse on on September September11, 11,2001, 2001,including includingshots shotsofofdesperate desperate people jumping jumping to to their deaths. I find people find itit difficult difficult to to imagine imagine not notbeing being haunted by haunted bythe thepresence presenceofofdeath deathand andviolence violenceininthe theworld. world.However, However,psypsychological studies studies (Elsass; (Elsass; Hayner; Hayner; Herman; Leys) suggest that chological thatpeople people have different ways of responding to and healing healing from from traumatic traumaticexperiexperiences. Studies Studies prompted by ences. by news newscoverage coverage of ofthe theWorld WorldTrade TradeCenter’s Center’s demise argue that people who witness a mass tragedy, even via a television argue that people who witness a mass tragedy, even via a television screen, newspapers, or stories, stories, can can enter enteraavariety varietyofofemotional emotionalstates, states,such such as apathy, depression, depression, futility, futility, and andhelplessness. helplessness.Some Somepeople peopleexperience, experience, however temporarily, a kind of awakening to the the fundamental fundamentalvalues valuesby by they want which they want to tolive live their theirlives. lives.These These images, images, whether whetheror ornot notwe wewere were eyewitnesses, will not fade. fade. Their forceful forceful persistence persistence has hasled ledme metotowonwonder: What happens when when the themind mindcannot cannotabandon abandonimages imagesofofdeath deathand and violence? What determines determines how howdeeply deeplythese theseimages imagesdamage damagethe thepsyche? psyche? How do individuals individuals and and societies societies heal heal from fromthe thepsychological psychologicalpain painproproduced by violence? violence? What What role does does storytelling play in the duced the production production of of memory? And memory? And more more specifically, specifically, what is the the function functionof ofmemory? memory? In this chapter chapter I propose that that memory—shaped memory—shapedby bymultiple, multiple,often oftenconcontradictory narratives narratives including including history, history, historiography, historiography, rituals rituals(vodou), (vodou), traditions, and and fiction—underscores fiction—underscoresthe thedouble-sided double-sidedand andduplicitous duplicitousnanature of any form On the one hand, many national ture form of recall. On national narratives narrativeshave have

26 TheThe Tears 26 TearsofofHispaniola Hispaniola

served to erase the the experiences experiences of peasants, peasants, poor city-dwellers, and nonnonelite, reducing them them to to aanondescript, nondescript,homogenous, homogenous,and anddisenfranchised disenfranchised group regularly ignored and/or and/or violated violated by by the theempowered—France empowered—France during colonial rule, the United States States during duringoccupations, occupations, dictators. dictators. On the the in “Rituals “Rituals of History,” History,” the openother hand, hand, as Joan Dayan has described in ing section of Haiti, History, History, and and the theGods, Gods, counter-acts counter-acts such such as as vodou vodou safeguard memories memories and and histories histories that that defy Western notions of identity safeguard and empower the the otherwise otherwisedisenfranchised. disenfranchised.She Shesays: says: person or A person or thing thingcan canbe be two twoor ormore morethings thingssimultaneously. simultaneously.AAword word can be double, two-sided, two-sided, and and duplicitous. In this broadening can duplicitous. In broadening and and multiplying of multiplying of a word’s meaning, repeated in rituals rituals of of devotion devotion and and vengeance, we begin to see that what becomes more and more vague to that what becomes more and more vague becomes more more distinct: it may mean also becomes mean this, this, but butthat thattoo. too.(33) (33)

II Given the duality duality of of meaning meaningthat thatcolors colorsHaitian Haitianhistories historiesand andmemory, memory, would like like to propose would propose an an analysis analysis of of Haitian Haitian survival survival and andresistance resistance through fiction. through fiction.Following Following Dayan’s Dayan’s assertion assertionabout aboutmeaning, meaning,fiction fictionmay may be just an imaginary imaginary story, story, or or itit may maybe beaahistory historyfreed freedofofthe thelimits limitsofof When historical sources run run up historical evidence. When up against against their theirlacks lacks and and limitations, imagination imagination is critical. At stake stake is the way limitations, critical. At way in inwhich whichfiction fiction functions as memory. memory. essay “Between “Between Memory Memory and History” History” argues Pierre Nora’s essay argues for for “sites “sites memory” (“lieux of memory” (“lieuxde demémoire”). mémoire”).These Thesesites, sites,he hetells tellsus, us,are aredeveloped developedinin lieu of real memory. That is, we are left with with sites sites of of memory memoryininthe theababsence of of real sence real environments environments of of memory. memory. These These real real environments environments ofof memory are defined defined as the the traditional traditional spaces spaces where families families remained in in the same same location. location. Traditions and and stories stories were were passed passed on onin inthe thevery veryplace place where they they were were experienced. experienced. In a new global culture, defined by migration and tion and translation, translation,these theseplaces placeshave havechanged changeddramatically; dramatically;ininmany manycases cases longer exist. the places no longer exist. New New venues venuesof of memory memorymust mustbebeinvented. invented.Nora Nora thus proposes proposes three new new sites sites of ofmemory: memory:material materialmemory memory(such (suchasas monuments and literature), symbolic memory (what the production and literature), symbolic memory (what the productionofof this material memory memory symbolizes), symbolizes), and and functional functional memory memory (the (therole rolethis this constructed memory, constructed memory,symbolic symbolicofofaalost lostplace placeand andspace, space,plays). plays). that these I would add that these sites sitesof ofmemory memoryare arethemselves themselvescomplicated complicatedbyby the functions functions of of memory memoryper perse. se.While Whilememory memorycan canhonor honorand andreinvent reinvent the past, itit can can also also limit limit the thepossibilities possibilities of of present presentand andfuture futurefor forthose those that has imprinted itself traumatically in the imprisoned by a past that the psyche of the the bearer. of bearer.

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To exemplify exemplify this, I conclude To conclude this chapter, chapter, which which explores explores modes modes of of memory through memory throughhistories historiesand andfiction, fiction,with withaasystematic systematicstudy studyofofEdwidge Edwidge Danticat’s novel The Farming of Danticat’s of Bones. Bones. The The text textexposes, exposes,among amongother other things, the fundamental fundamental absence absence of of human humanrights rightsininHaiti, Haiti,the thetraumatic traumatic incision that thatviolence violenceleaves leaves on onits itsvictims victimsand andsurvivors, survivors,and andthe thedire direneed need for mourning mourningand andhealing. healing. Rooted in an already Rooted already established established tradition traditionof ofwhat whatJoan JoanDayan Dayancalls calls “writing misery” “writing misery”(79), (79),The The Farming Farmingof ofBones Bones offers offers aa new new interpretation interpretationofof misery. My reading of the the novel novel suggests suggests that thatthe theHaitian Haitianand andDominican Dominican governments should be held accountable for the exploitation be held accountable for the exploitationtotowhich which they continue continue to to subject subject the the dispossessed dispossessed of history. history. Setting aa Haitian Haitian memory in Dominican Dominican soil, Danticat signals the fact fact that that the therhetorical rhetorical national division inculcated into into the the people’s people’s imagination imagination is is an an elitist elitist govgovernmental ploy that blurs the real divisions between the landholding elites ernmental ploy that blurs the real divisions between the landholding elites and the and the masses. masses. The Farming of The of Bones, Bones, which which received received an anAmerican AmericanBook BookAward Awardinin imagines the the names of those whose deaths went undocumented, undocumented, and 1999, imagines and uncovers the masks masks of of pain pain this thisdenied deniedhistory historycreates. creates.The Thetext textpaints paintsa a complex chiaroscuro chiaroscuro (light/dark, remembered/forgotten) complex remembered/forgotten)ofoflife. life.Despite Despite its function as aa site site of of memory memoryand andaamemorial memorialagainst againstforgetting, forgetting,the the novel is informed informed by a persistent persistent tension tension between memory and the inelucbetween memory and the ineluctable elusiveness of the the past. past. The novel also focuses focuses on what what might mighthave havebeen beenand andmakes makesthe thecase case that each each and and every every life life isisprecious. precious. Through Through the thecharacter characterAmabelle, Amabelle, aa basic problem problem with memory is shown: basic shown: with with so so much much imaginative imaginative energy energy focused on evoking a past as present, no no energy energyisisleft leftto toforge forgeaafuture futureoror present. Danticat’s Danticat’s story story puts into evidence the binary dynamengage in a present. dynamics of of memory and forgetting. ics forgetting. How How can can one oneremember rememberviolence violenceand andstill still heal from it? heal from it? For example, example, with Sebastien, Danticat both For both imaginatively imaginativelyevokes evokesthe the memory of of those those who whodied diedininthe the1937 1937Dominican Dominicanborder bordermassacre massacreand and highlights the highlights theimpossibility impossibilityofofbringing bringingthe thedead deadback. back.This Thisisisshown shownininthe the novel’s introduction, introduction, wherein he is novel’s is given given aa name nameand andisisdescribed describedininthe the the flicker of a candle in a small room, shadows of the room, in in the thedarkness darknessofofnight, night, and later in absence when when his his body body has has disappeared disappeared and and his his death deathremains remains unconfirmed. The text informs us, “His name is Sebastien Onius” unconfirmed. The informs us, “His name is Sebastien Onius”(1). (1). Later we read what what II believe believe isis the theauthor’s author’smessage, message,“Men “Menwith withnames names never truly like smoke never trulydie. die.ItItisisonly onlythe thenameless namelessand andfaceless facelesswho whovanish vanish like smoke into the early early morning morningair” air”(282). (282). His His words words in in the the night nightsoothe sootheher hernightnight-

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mares and mares and fears; fears; they they show showhow howaa person personlike likehim, him,full fullof oflife lifeand andhope, hope,can can celebrated. He He is is described describednot not only only with a name but also with a body be celebrated. that harbors harbors aa complex complex history history of of Haitian Haitianagricultural agriculturallabor laborininthe theDoDoAmabelle says: says: “His “His back back and shoulders became minican Republic. Republic. Amabelle became firm firm and rigid as he he was was concocting concocting aa new new life life for for me” me”(55). (55).She Shethinks: thinks:“Before “Before Sebastien, all my my dreams dreamshad hadbeen beenof ofthe thepast: past:ofofthe theold oldcountry, country,ofofplaces places might never and people I might never see see again” again”(32). (32).His Hisexistence existencerepresents representsthe thepospossibility of the the present. present.Sebastien’s Sebastien’s calloused calloused hands hands and and scarred scarredbody bodyare are depicted in in such such aa way way that we understand the strength depicted strength of of his hisbeing. being. In In sharp contrast, his later disappearance underscores the fragility of being. later disappearance fragility of being. highlights the His absence highlights the horrors horrorsof ofnot notknowing knowingwhat whathas hashappened, happened,ofof waiting for answers without without ever ever getting getting them, them,and andof ofknowing knowingthat thatone one execution has has transpired without more unspeakable unspeakable execution without the thepossibility possibility of of mourning or vindication. Through the character of Sebastien we can reor vindication. Through the character of Sebastien we can rethe meaning Perflect on the meaningof ofthe themassacre massacreand andthe theeffects effectsofofviolent violentdeaths. deaths. Perhaps the novel asks us to mourn mourn the the deaths deaths of of those thosewe we never neverknew, knew, who may have never been been documented, documented, and whose families families may have never known the known the truth truthofoftheir theirloved lovedones’ ones’deaths. deaths.The TheFarming FarmingofofBones Bonesisismore more than a site of memory. It is a memorial to the than the dead dead and the the dispossessed dispossessed of Hispaniola. Hispaniola. The people of Hispaniola, Hispaniola, shaped shapedby byhistories historiesofofviolence—of violence—ofthe thecolocolonial period, the Haitian Haitian revolution, revolution,dictatorships, dictatorships, natural naturaldisasters, disasters,and and military occupations—encounter they migrate military occupations—encounter new new histories histories of of violence as they to Canada and and the theUnited UnitedStates, States,seeking seekingbetter betterlives. lives.Fiction, Fiction,like likeMyriam Myriam Chancy’s The Spirit of Haiti (2004), highlights this with scenes that link Chancy’s The Spirit of Haiti (2004), highlights link memories of lynching in the the South South to tomemories memoriesof ofviolence violence in in Haiti. Haiti. For For demonstrates the example, one scene demonstrates thepersistence persistenceof ofracial racialviolence violenceas asone one of the characters, of characters, an African African American American in the the late-twentieth-century late-twentieth-century States, is being brutally beaten until United States, until his hisfriend, friend,aanewly newlyarrived arrived comes to to save save him. him. Both Both men men must must run for Haitian, comes for their their lives. lives. As they they run, the run, the protagonist protagonistfeels feelsdead dead bodies bodies hanging hangingabout abouthim, him,and andBillie BillieHoliHoliday’s song song “Strange “Strange Fruit” is day’s is recalled. recalled. Chancy’s point is poignant: poignant: racial racial violence exists exists today today and will affect affect an African American as as much much as a violence African American Caribbean immigrant immigrant American. American. Memory Memory eerily exists Caribbean exists in in the thepresent present through aa continuing through continuingviolence violencethat thatbegs begsfor foraddress. address.Karla KarlaHolloway’s Holloway’s book Passed Passed On: On: African African American American Mourning Stories offers book offers aa singular singular reading of of text as memorial. It is her memorial reading memorial to to her her son son Bem Bem Kayin Kayin Holloway (1977–99), (1977-99), who who was was shot to death Holloway death as as he hetried triedtotoescape escapehis his maximum-security prison. maximum-security prison. She She pacifies pacifies her grief grief as as she thinks thinks that, that,after after

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he has has finally finally found his freedom. She is left with the years of violence, violence, he the mourning. In a project that investigates difficult task of mourning. investigates the the myths, myths,rituals, rituals, and economics economics of of burial burial and and mourning, mourning, Holloway presents the ways that that death and dying dying are are interpreted interpretedand anddealt dealtwith withininthe theAfrican-American African-American life, harsh harsh ones that come too often community. These are facts of life, often and and too too poverty and early because of poverty and racist racist violence. violence. How do people survive these these realities without without becoming becoming embittered? embittered?How Howdo dosurvivors survivorsfind findthe thewill willtoto live on? One of her her answers answers comes comes in in her herfifth fifthchapter, chapter,“The “ThePromise Promiseof of O.O. Wallace, Hope in aa Season Season of ofDespair: Despair:AAFuneral FuneralSermon SermonbybyMaurice Maurice Wallace, Ph.D.,” from from her son’s funeral. funeral. The The following following words words help help us us think think and ununderstand the passage from mourning to healing derstand passage from healing and and continuing continuing into into aa fruitful life. fruitful life. The lament lamentof of Israel, Israel,in inthe theears earsof ofIsaiah, Isaiah,isisno nostrange strangelament lamenttotous, us, centuries and centuries removed from Isaiah’s writing. Theirs was centuries removed from Isaiah’s writing. Theirs was the bitter bitter cry cry of ofnear-hopeless near-hopeless captivity captivity in in Babylon Babylon and and the theshrill shrill objection to to exile exile so so familiar familiartotous, us,ofoflate. late. Isaiah sought to The exiled Jews Jews Isaiah to console console were, were, like like so so many manydedetained and and dispossessed, dispossessed, geographically geographically displaced. displaced. But But more moredeeply deeply than that, than that, they theyexperienced experiencedaaloss loss of of the the structured, structured,reliable reliableworld worldof of sense and coherent meaning meaning that thatwas was existentially existentiallyhome. home.In Inits itsplace place the vexed vexed persistence persistenceof offailed failedhopes, hopes,anger, anger,wistful wistfulsadness, sadness,and andforforlorn resignation lorn resignationwould wouldcome cometo tohold holdforth, forth,and anddespair despairwould wouldhave haveits its dominion. dominion. For us us who who know know little little firsthand For firsthandof ofthe theviolence violenceof ofexile exileor orextradiextradition, perhaps the condition of despair is more resonant. From the condition of despair is more resonant. Fromanan ecclesiastical point point of view, view, II submit, submit, it is the ecclesiastical the defining definingpathology pathologyofof our day, the greatest our day, and and quite possibly possibly the greatest threat to to our ourspiritual spiritual strivings, to strivings, to our ourunique uniquecapacity, capacity,that thatis,is,asaspeople peopleofoffaith, faith,totobe bebuoybuoyant and keep singing singing in in the thestrange, strange,disorienting disorientingplaces placesofoflife. life. So much despair and confusion. confusion. So much much angst angstand andhopelessness. hopelessness. ... Well, the answer may may be be simpler simpler than thanwe weknow. know. II urge urge you youthat thatifif Babylon be your lot, and storm storm clouds clouds gather gathermenacingly menacinglyoverhead; overhead; if you must must sit sit down down at atriver’s river’s edge edge and and weep weep with with the thewillows, willows, well well then you then you must. must.But Butwhatever whateverelse elsethe thepressures pressuresofoflife lifehave haveyou youdo, do, never, never never hang hang up your harp. It is never, is the the sign sign and and symbol symbol of of your your dignity and dignity and endurance, endurance,your yourcapacity capacitytotolast laststill stilllonger longerand andconjure conjurea a song in the midst of your storm. (189-90) (189–90)

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uncanny for me to read this sermon sermon and remember It is uncanny remember that thatthe thelast lastscene scene in Danticat’s novel novel takes takes place place at at aa river’s river’s edge, edge, as as Amabelle, Amabelle, the the bearer bearerof of memories—memories of her parents’ death at that river, and of the escape memories—memories of her parents’ death at that river, massacre again again through through that river—visits it one last last time. time. from the massacre does not not hang hang up up her her harp. Her Her writing writing is her her harp, her her song, song, Danticat does the dispossessed and against against the violence of Haitian Haitian and for the dead and to the reality and its its memory memory in the diaspora. diaspora. While While her her writing writing enenDominican reality courages hope and resistance, it is rooted in horrible horrible human humantragedy. tragedy.And And to experiencing experiencing a sense sense of offutility futility because because of ofthis this undeniundenishe has confessed to able part of her own, and by extension Caribbean, history. During own, by extension Caribbean, history. DuringaaNew New appearance to to promote promote The Farming Farming of Bones, Bones,Danticat Danticat started started crying crying York appearance as she read the words she had had read read so so many many times timesbefore. before. She She later latertold toldaa reporter, “I was crying because I felt felt IIam reporter, am so so inadequate inadequateas as opposed opposed to to what what happened. No matter what you write, it is never going to equal the pain of what you write, it wasjust just overwhelmed overwhelmedby bythe theactuality. actuality.. ... Often I feel feel very very one person. II was . . Often sad writing about something something and and II write writethrough throughthat thatsadness, sadness,ororbecause because (Trescott). Not Not far far into her twenties, Edwidge Danticat it makes me sad” (Trescott). Edwidge Danticat consciously illuminating illuminating the critical sociopolitical issues of of Haiti Haiti by by was consciously sociopolitical issues imagining the the lives lives of Haitians, Haitians, giving giving them them names, names, describing describing their theirbodbodies, and and reinterpreting reinterpreting their ies, their place place in in Haitian Haitian histories. histories. Her Her texts textsjourney journey into a memory of misery, a misery that is exacerbated by a long of misery, that is exacerbated long list list of of continuing atrocities. continuing atrocities. experiences of of those those Danticat has taken on the role of witness—to the experiences who survived terror terror as as well well as as those those who whodid did not—and not—andconsequently consequentlyis, is, herself, a survivor survivor of tragic stories. stories. Danticat’s work as a writer writer gives meanmeaning to the the memories memories of of violence. violence. Literary Literary critic critic Renée Renée Shea Shea asked asked the theauauthat what you thor, “So is that you do do in in your yourwork—you work—youbear bearwitness?” witness?”Danticat Danticat replied, “I “I try. try. ..... .But replied, But II do do itit more more for for my myown ownsalvation salvation and and emotional emotional anything else” serve as asaamonument monument against against survival than anything else” (21). Her novels serve silenced tragedies tragedies and and also also as aa vehicle silenced vehicle to torecovery recovery for forindividuals. individuals. Danticat’s characters charactershelp helpus us learn learn about about the the brutal experiences both of of Danticat’s experiences both nameless, silenced silenced victims victims and and of of survivors survivors who retain vivid memories of memories of atrocities visited upon them them or or their theirfamilies familiesand andfriends. friends. Within the foundaWithin the context context of of American literature, literature, Danticat’s Danticat’s work is aa foundational part literary production tional part of a recent wave of literary productionfrom fromwriters writersinindiasporic diasporic communities whose communities whose members members have have never neverabandoned abandonedtheir theirland landofoforigin, origin, emotionally, psychologically, psychologically,or or politically. politically.In In the the transnational emotionally, transnational setting, setting, be considered considered one one of ofthe thenewer newer authors authors to to join join an an established established Danticat can be network of of Haitian writers, network writers, in particular particular those writing writing in in Canada Canada in in

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French, such such as Gérard Etienne, French, Étienne, and African-American African-American literary literaryscholars, scholars, At issue issue for all of these these writers writers are such as Karla Holloway. At are the thedimensions dimensions of loss, loss, the task of of mourning, mourning,and andethical ethicalnegotiations negotiationsbetween betweenpast pastand and present, place present, place of origin origin (Africa, (Africa, the the Caribbean) Caribbean) and andhost hostcountry. country.As As Danticat herself herself posits: posits: that an immigrant It used to be that immigrant was was one one who who assimilated assimilated quickly quickly and joyfully into disappeared joyfully intoAmerica’s America’s melting meltingpot. pot.These Thesedays daysimmiimmigrants are transnational global ambassadors for both the country transnational global ambassadors for both the country they live in and the they the one one they’ve they’ve moved moved from. from. Even Even as they they pay pay taxes taxes and contribute to the the economic economic structure structure in inthe theUnited UnitedStates, States,they they also build schools and clinics and support supportbusinesses businessesininthe thecountries countries of their birth, birth, helping helping to torebuild rebuildthe thefabric fabricthat thatforced forcedtheir theirown ownmimigration and and possibly possibly slowing slowing down downthe theexodus exodusofofothers. others.(Foreword (Foreword x1) xi) Her literature literaturelooks looks to to the the future futureby bycreating creatingaanarrative narrativespace spacefor for multiple multiple histories and and memories, memories,giving givingHaitians Haitiansthe thepossibility possibilityofofnuanced nuancedreprerepresentation and sentation and value value in in aa prejudiced prejudiced world world that thatoften oftendenigrates denigratesthem. them.This This narrative space, written in narrative space, written in the thediaspora, diaspora,isis drawn drawnfrom fromthe thevaried variedraw rawmamaterials of aa collective collective memory, memory, and andinformed informedby byfamily familystories, stories,political political manipulations, and and news manipulations, news media media information. information.Danticat’s Danticat’swork workallows allows alone in in the the settings of their people, alone their new new urban urbanlives, lives, to to confront confrontviolence, violence, recognize its existence, and celebrate their own recognize own strength strengthand andcapacity capacitytoto survive the the memory memoryof ofviolence violenceand andits itsunrelenting unrelentingpresence. presence.This Thisnarranarrative space allows healing (etymologically (etymologically related relatedtoto“whole”) “whole”)totooccur occurbyby reuniting disembodied disembodied memories with with forgotten forgottenbodies. bodies.Her Herliterature literature looks at the past but, but, more more important, important,creates createsaavision visionfor forthe thefuture, future,both both in the realm of literature, literature, understood understood as as aa pragmatic pragmatic act, and in the realm politics,through through work with human of politics, human rights rightsgroups groupssuch suchas asthe theNational National literature, through through stories Coalition for Haitian Rights. Danticat’s Danticat’s literature, stories of of huhuman survival, man survival, creates creates the thespace space for for mourning, mourning,aaspace spaceessential essentialtotoovercomovercoming the the weight weight of of tragedy tragedyand andloss. loss.

Depersonification and Depersonification and Personhood: Personhood:Citizenship Citizenshipand andDemocracy Democracy military power The near absolute absolute political, political, legal, and military power of of aa string stringof ofleaders leaders in Haiti Haiti and and the theDominican DominicanRepublic Republichas hasplayed playedaacritical criticalrole roleininthe theway way individual counts each individual countsas asaaperson personor ornot. not.For Forexample, example,ininLe LeProbléme Problèmedes des Noirs et la Révolution de 1789, Samuel Mack-Kit studies the Code Noir to et la Révolution de 1789, Samuel Mack-Kit studies the Code Noir to

32 TheThe Tears ofofHispaniola 32 Tears Hispaniola

suggest that we should learn from suggest from the the repeated repeated history historyof ofauthoritarian authoritarian leaders such as Louis XIV and Napoleon Bonaparte Bonaparte (36-37). (36–37).Their Theirabuse abuseofof sovereign powers is comparable to contemporary dictators’ disregard is comparable to contemporary dictators’ disregardforfor study highlights the citizenry. citizenry. Mack-Kit’s study highlightshow howleaders leadersdehumanize dehumanizepeople. people. sixteenth and In the sixteenth and seventeenth seventeenthcenturies, centuries,European Europeancolonizers colonizers arrived arrived in the the Caribbean, Caribbean, decided decided the the natives natives were wereless lessthan thanhuman, human,and andenslaved enslaved declared the the Indians to be little men, with scant huthem. The Spaniards declared human traits traits and andwithout withoutculture culture(Seed (Seed17-18). 17–18).The TheSpaniards Spaniardssubjected subjectedthe the Indians to abuses abuses that thatreached reachedthe thelevel levelofofgenocide. genocide.The Thenatives nativesdied diedinin droves from from disease, disease, overwork, overwork,and, and,ininsome somecases, cases,collective collectivesuicide suicidetotoesescape enslavement. Fray Bartolomé cape Bartolomé de de las lasCasas’s Casas’s pioneering pioneeringwork workBreBrevisima relacion vísima relación de la destruccion destrucción de las Indias, Indias, written writtenin in1542 1542and andpubpublished in 1552 in Seville, lished Seville, argued that the the Indians Indians should shouldbe betreated treatedlike like people of reason (“gente de razon”). Unfortunately, rules applying to the people of reason (“gente razón”). the rights of indigenous indigenous populations populationshave havealways always been beendeficient, deficient, and and the theslave slave trade with with Africa resulted resulted in in part partfrom fromreforms reformsspringing springingfrom fromlas lasCasas’s Casas’s work.!1 Spain changed changed its its laws laws concerning concerningIndian Indianrights rightsaccording accordingtotoitsits work. needs. For For example, example, in in the colony needs. colony of of Santo SantoDomingo, Domingo,marriage marriagebetween between Indians and Spaniards was permitted in order order to to guarantee guaranteepopulation populationof of the lands. lands. At another another point, point,authorities authoritiesdenied deniedcitizenship citizenshiptotothe themixedmixedblood children, thus disempowering disempowering rebellious or even even potentially potentially rebelrebellious Spaniards and criollos who challenged the the Spanish Spanishcrown. crown. in many ways foreshadowed the present The Middle Passage—which Passage—which in present situation of Haitians situation Haitians who who try tryto toflee flee by by boat boat to to FloridaFlorida- -was -was an an act act against against humanity. Human beings were kidnapped in Africa, then chained, packed, humanity. Human beings were kidnapped in Africa, then chained, packed, and shipped. African bodies were tossed into the the seas seas when when the the“cargo” “cargo”was was dead or very ill. After England began to enforce the abolition abolition of of slavery slavery in in 1834 and France declared its abolition 1834 abolition in in1848, 1848,slave slave ships shipswould woulddump dump 2 their human their humancargo cargorather ratherthan thanbebecaught caughtsmuggling.* smuggling.Economics Economicsdrove drovethe the African slave trade trade and and slavery slaveryin inthe thecolonies. colonies.Africans Africanswere wereconveniently conveniently denied personhood so that that their theirlabor laborcould couldbe beused usedfor forthe theprofit profitofofthe the landowners and the “mother countries.” The slaves were abused without landowners and the “mother countries.” The slaves were abused without prompting intellectuals consideration of European legal codes, prompting intellectuals of of the the time time bodies kidnapped to put put forth forthvarying varyingviews viewson onthe thehuman humanvalue valueofofthese these bodies kidnapped and sold and sold for for labor. labor. The French Revolution Revolution in in1789, 1789,the theDeclaration Declarationofofthe theRights RightsofofMan, Man, and the pioneering pioneering work work of ofthe theAmis Amisdes desNoirs, Noirs,free freecoloreds coloredsininParis, Paris, pushed the contradictions inherent inherentin inthe theslave slave system systemto to erupt, erupt,and and set set the the

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stage for the stage the war war ofofindependence independence (1802-4) (1802–4) in inHaiti. Haiti.Historian HistorianDavid David Patrick Geggus informs us: property-ownAt the same time, the autumn autumnof of 1789, 1789, free colored property-owners in Saint Domingue Domingue also also gathered gathered to to demand demand equal equal rights rightswith with whites. Some also seem to to have have called called for for the thefreeing freeingofofmixed-race mixed-race and those in Paris slaves, and Paris spoke of an an eventual, eventual,though thoughdistant, distant,aboliabolition of tion of slavery. slavery. In Ingeneral, general,however, however,free freepeople peopleofofcolor coloracted actedlike likethe the slave-owners they usually slave-owners usually were were and andwere werecareful carefulnot nottotohave havetheir their cause confused with withthat thatofofthe theblack blackmasses. masses.(10) (10) Fears were were running running high Fears high for for the the stability stabilityof ofthe theslave slaveregime regimeand andnew newhoshostilities were forming, in particular particular between between the thewhites whitesand andaanew newblack black landholding class. class. Geggus Geggus points points out that landholding that “the “theNational NationalAssembly Assemblyhad had maintained an maintained anambiguous ambiguoussilence silenceon onthe thecolor colorquestion”; question”;still, still,onon“May “May15, 15, 1791, free coloreds coloreds born born of free parents were 1791, were declared declared equal to whites whites in in rights” (11). In 1794 slavery was abolished abolished throughout throughout the their political rights” the freedom was brutally French Empire. In 1802 this freedom brutallyrescinded rescindedin inGuadeloupe Guadeloupe and Martinique. Saint-Domingue Saint-Domingue avoided avoided the the same same fate fate by by defeating defeating the the The fight for human French. The humanrights rightsand andfreedom freedomwas waslimited limitedbybycolor colorand and still shaped by colonial economic economic interests interests dependent dependent on on the the sugar sugarplantaplantations. French French intentions were were uncertain, uncertain, and andthe theentire entireAtlantic Atlanticregion region looked on in fear for the the stability stabilityof ofits itsown ownterritories. territories. thing, but Freedom as ideology was one thing, but in inpractice practice ititwas wasfraught fraughtwith with problems. Historian Historian Laurent Dubois points out the tensions: Laurent Dubois points out the tensions: The enslaved revolutionaries revolutionarieschallenged challengedthe theracialized racializedcolonial colonialsyssystem of the the day, day, deploying the the language language of of Republican Republican rights rightsand andthe the promise of individual individual liberty libertyagainst againstaasocial socialorder orderbased basedon onthe thededenial of their humanity. humanity.In Inwinning winningback back the thenatural naturalrights rightsofofthe theEnEnlightenment claimed as a birthright to all people, however, the forlightenment claimed a birthright to all people, however, the formerly enslaved laid bare a profound tension tension within within the theideology ideologyof of rights they rights theyhad hadmade madetheir theirown. own.The Theright righttotoindividual individualfreedom freedomthey they had gained had gained was, was, inevitably, inevitably, aa strike strike against against the the property property rights rights by their their former claimed by former masters. masters. The 1789 Declaration of the Rights Rights of Man and Citizen defended both the natural natural right rightto tofreedom freedomand and the right right to to private property. ..... .Colonial Colonial authorities—charged authorities—charged with with continuing plantation plantation production—negooverseeing abolition while continuing production—negotiated this this conflict conflict by by combining combiningemancipation emancipationwith withnew newforms formsofof result was “Republican raclabor coercion and racial exclusion. The result was a “Republican rac-

34 TheThe Tears ofofHispaniola 34 Tears Hispaniola

that excluded ism” that excluded the the former formerslaves slaves from fromfull fullequality equalityand andjustified justified the continued continued exploitation exploitationof oftheir theirlabor, labor,arguing arguingtheir theirincapacity incapacitytoto live as free and and independent independentcitizens. citizens.(3) (3) During a time time when whenthe therights rightsofofman manwere werebeing beingdefended defendedininFrance, France,the the slaves in the colonies were being treated slaves treated with with extreme extremecruelty. cruelty.This Thisnew new Republican racism Dubois describes Republican describes is in in effect effecttotodate. date.The Theirrefutable irrefutable between the links between the two twosides sides of of Hispaniola Hispaniolawere weregrafted graftedduring duringthe theperiod periodofof the Haitian Haitian war war of of independence. independence. The The stranglehold stranglehold of of Republican Republican racism racism precludes a real democracy—a democracy—a sociopolitical sociopolitical system system that thatwould wouldgrant grantacaccess to to citizenship citizenship and civil civil rights rights to all—in both Haiti and the cess the Dominican Dominican Republic. The issue, central to contemporary contemporarydebates debateson onhuman humanrights, rights,addressed addressed who counted as a “man”—or, “man”—or, rather, rather, aa citizen. citizen. It It was was convenient convenientfor forsome some to believe that Africans did not not have have souls souls and and therefore thereforewere werenot nothuman, human, could not be be converted converted to toCatholicism, Catholicism,and andcould couldbebetreated treatedlike likeanimals. animals. Code Noir, drawn drawn up France’s Code up in in 1685 1685 by byLouis LouisXIV XIV“le “leRoi RoiSoleil,” Soleil,”was wasone one of several several sets sets of of laws on the of laws on the treatment treatmentof ofAfrican Africanslaves slaves in inthe thecolonies. colonies. clariThe Code Noir, which was intended intendedto toset setup uprules rulesfor formanumission, manumission, clarified the rights rightsof ofthe theowners. owners.For Forexample, example,Article Article44 44equated equatedslaves slaveswith with furniture and and forbid forbid any any free free “men” “men”to tohave havechildren childrenwith withslaves. slaves. The The were not allowed to testify in slaves were in civil or criminal matters mattersunless unlessititwas was absolutely necessary, and only to the benefit of the whites (Code Noir absolutely necessary, and the benefit of the whites (Code Noir 307).°3 Any Any slave slave who who hurt hurt his/her 307). his/hermistress, mistress,master, master,ororslave-owning slave-owningfamfamily member would be punished punished by by death death (309). (309). The The “rights” “rights”herein hereinare are clearly the rights rightsof ofownership, ownership,outlawing outlawinghuman humancontact, contact,sympathy, sympathy,and and love between master master and and slave. slave. The The slaves slaves had had to to revolt revoltagainst againstthe theslaveslaveowning hierarchy to fight for their their rights. rights. The fight for for freedom—abolition freedom—abolition of of slavery, slavery, independence independence of of Haiti— Haiti— was brutal throughout. throughout.“Battle “Battlecasualties casualtieswere wereheavy, heavy,and andfrom fromthe thebeginbeginning the war war was was marked marked by by frightful frightful atrocities atrocities on on both bothsides” sides” (Geggus (Geggus 1, 1, 1804, 25). Dessalines declared Saint Saint Domingue Domingueindependent independentononJanuary January 1804, and renamed the the new country countryby byits itsaboriginal aboriginalAmerindian Amerindianname nameof ofHaiti. Haïti. Many called Many called themselves themselvesIncas Incasduring duringthe thewars warsofofindependence, independence,revenging revenging Geggus the extermination extermination of ofthe theArawaks Arawaksininthe thesixteenth sixteenthcentury. century. Geggussees sees this renaming renaming as as strategic: “While anchoring the new state state to to the theAmeriAmerican past, the country’s new name meant meant above above all all aa symbolic symbolic break break with with All whites whites were henceforth henceforth forbidden Europe. All forbidden to to own ownland landin inHaiti” Haiti”(27).4 (27).4 triumphant Haitian The triumphant Haitianrevolution revolutionhad hadpositive positiverepercussions repercussionsthroughthroughslavery was extinguished extinguished on out the the Atlantic. Atlantic. For example, slavery onthe theSpanish Spanishside side

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annexation. But in 1822, upon annexation. But Haitian Haitiansovereignty sovereigntywas wasaggressively aggressivelychalchalparticular, the the United States denied Haiti’s Haiti’s status as a free and lenged. In particular, independent black independent black country. country. The The abiding abiding fear fear of ofslave-owning slave-owningnations nationswas was that slaves on other islands and in the United States would revolt. that slaves on other islands and in the United States would revolt.In Inthe the southern United United States, States, policies policies were were reinforced reinforced to tomaintain maintainslavery. slavery. France did didnot not recognize recognizeHaitian Haitian sovereignty sovereignty until until the new country country agreed France agreed to pay for the the losses losses the theFrench French incurred incurred in inconsequence consequence of of the theisland’s island’s independence. That independence. That cost cost of of 150 150 million millionfrancs francs(later (laterreduced reducedtoto6060million) million) beginning of was the beginning of an an international internationaldebt debtfrom fromwhich, which,along alongwith withworsenworsen5 In order to maintain ing corruption, Haiti has never been able to recover.’ corruption, Haiti has never been able to recover. In order to maintain the slave-driven slave-drivenAtlantic Atlanticeconomy, economy,the theUnited UnitedStates Statesand andFrance Francerefused refusedtoto Haitian sovereignty or that that Haitian human recognize Haitian Haitian political leaders were human beings worthy of beings of being being included included in ininternational internationalpolicy policydialogues. dialogues.The The United States finally recognized Haiti as an independent nation on June finally Haiti independent nation on June5, 5, 1862, when President President Lincoln Lincoln signed signed aa bill, bill, known known as asthe theamende amendehonorhonorappointment of able, for appointment of commissioners commissioners to toHaiti Haitiand andLiberia. Liberia. though sovereignty Even though sovereigntywas wasnot notofficially officiallyrecognized recognizeduntil until1862, 1862,ititisis clear that Jean-Jacques clear that the therevolutionary revolutionaryleaders, leaders,including including Jean-JacquesDessalines, Dessalines, Toussaint L’'Ouverture, Toussaint L’Ouverture, and Henri Henri Christophe, Christophe,were werebrilliant brilliantand andpowerful powerful that had forces that had to to be be contended contendedwith withon onan anequal equalfooting footinginina aferocious ferociouswar war in which inherited brutality and atrocity—the violence of the colonists, inherited brutality and atrocity—the violence of the colonists, the aberrations aberrations of of the theslaveholders—pointed slaveholders—pointedthe thepath pathtotoaafuture futureininwhich which continued uprisings would would unleash unleash periods periods of ofrape rapeand andpillaging. pillaging.Again, Again, the story story is is double-edged. double-edged. While While France, France, England, and Spain refused Haiti recognition, they were also terrified they were also terrified of of what what the theHaitian Haitianrevolution revolutionreprereprenot be turned turned sented. They could not deny its its importance. importance. The The clock could not back. “Haiti,” “Haiti,” Dayan remarks, “was conceived as earth blooded with the back. conceived as the purifying spirit purifying spirit of of liberation” liberation”(33). (33).This This liberation, liberation,IIwould wouldadd, add,isis marked marked failure. For example, by the the double double nature natureofoftriumph triumphand and failure. For example,Dessalines, Dessalines,a a cruel leader known for the the command command “Koupe “Koupe tét, tèt,boule boulekay” kay”(cut (cutheads, heads, burn houses), was met with aa death death stunning stunningin inits itsextreme extremeviolence. violence. ItIt underscored the the dissatisfaction dissatisfaction felt felt among amongdifferent differentfactions factionsininHaiti Haitiover over his rule. rule. He He was killed in in an an ambush ambushlaid laidby bymulattoes mulattoesand andblacks, blacks,with withthe the express consent of of other otherleaders leadersincluding includingGeneral GeneralAlexandre AlexandrePétion Pétionand and General Christophe. Christophe. He Hewas wasshot, shot,dismembered, dismembered,and anddragged draggedfrom fromPontPontwhere he was murdered, murdered, to Rouge, where to Port-au-Prince. Port-au-Prince.Dayan Dayantells tellsus: us: By the time the the body body reached reached Port-au-Prince, Port-au-Prince,after afterthe thetwo-mile two-mile journey, journey, itit could could not notbe berecognized. recognized.The Thehead headwas wasshattered, shattered,the thefeet, feet, hands, and ears ears cut cutoff. off. In In some someaccounts, accounts,Dessalines Dessalineswas wasstoned stonedand and

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hacked to pieces by the crowd, and and his his remains—variously remains—variouslydescribed described as “scraps,” “scraps,” “shapeless “shapeless remains,” remains,” “remnants,” “remnants,”oror“relics”—were “relics”—were thrown to thrown to the thecrowd. crowd. (17) (17) This account is particularly important importantin inthe thecontext contextof ofmy myanalysis analysisfor for two reasons. One, it emphasizes the violence with which detested leaders One, it emphasizes the violence with which detested leaders And two, two, itit leads leads us us to a more nuanced conversation on can be removed. And Memory can memory. Memory can birth birthgods, gods, and and through throughrituals ritualssuch suchasasvodou, vodou,new new memories subvert subvert the thesuffocating suffocatinglaws lawsof ofthe thepowerful. powerful.Rituals Ritualsofofhistory history become rituals rituals of memory and thus become thus intervene interveneininthe theways wayscertain certainpeople people and events are monumentalized and/or and/or demonized. demonized. Joan Joan Dayan offers an example that that illustrates this narrative example narrative transition transitionininher herown own“Rituals “Ritualsofof History” section, which which has exerted great weight on my thoughts my thoughtshere. here. Dessalinesof of“history” “history” was was dismembered dismembered by an angry The Jean-Jacques Jean-Jacques Dessalines angry that believed crowd that believed itit was was relieving relievingitself itselfofofaadespotic despoticleader. leader.But Butanother, another, mythified Dessalines —in vodou mythified Dessalinescomes comesback backfull fullforce forcethrough through“ritual” “ritual”—in vodouhehe transformed into is transformed intoaa!wa lwa (god)—as (god)—as an an emblem emblemof ofhope hopeand andrevenge. revenge.This This situation too situation too is is double-natured, double-natured,asasDessalines Dessalinesisismythically mythicallyinvested investedwith with power by those who remained remained on on the themargins, margins,but buthe heisisalso alsoresurrected resurrected from obscurity obscurity by by the theelite elitewho whouse usehim himtotoplacate placatethe themasses massesdissatisfied dissatisfied with the the existing existing government. government.For Forexample, example,to tomark markthe thecentennial centennialofofthe the U.S. occupaHaitian nation, nation,the therepressive repressiveregime regimeofofLouis LouisBorno Bornounder under U.S. occupation in in 1915-34 1915–34relocated relocated Dessalines’ Dessalines’ remains, remains, which which were weremarked markedby byaa “brick tomb with the inscription in Creole: ‘Ce-git Dessalines, / Mort a the inscription in Creole: ‘Ce-git Mort à 48 48 ans’ (Here lies Dessalines, // Dead at 48 years old)” (Dayan 27-28). 27–28). Dayan Dayan that itit was observes that was easier easier for for the theliterate literateelite eliteand andthe therepressive repressivegoverngovernment to ment to build build aa monument monument to to Dessalines Dessalines and and create create aa state state cult cult with with aa national anthem, the “Dessalinienne,” than to address the real issues of the anthem, the “Dessalinienne,” than to address the real people’s continuing continuing poverty. poverty. But But the people people’s people had had already already restored restoredDesDessalines’ power. power.After Afterall, all,he hehad hadbeen beentransformed transformed into into aa lwa wa many salines’ manyyears years earlier. Dayan concludes: concludes: Not simply master or or tyrant, tyrant,but butalso alsoslave slaveand andsupplicant, supplicant,DesDesreligious rituals salines and the religious ritualsassociated associated with withhim himkeep keepthe theambiguambiguities of power intact. . .. .. Gods Gods held held in inthe themind mindand andembodied embodiedinin ceremony reenact reenact what historians often forget: ceremony forget: the the compulsion compulsion to to potency and serve, the potency and virtue virtueof ofatrocity. atrocity.The The very verysuppressions, suppressions,inarinarticulateness, and and ruptures ruptures in ritual might say ticulateness, say something something about about the the revolution: itit was ambivalences of the revolution: was not not so so liberating liberatingas asmytholomytholo-

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gizers or ideologues make it out gizers ideologues make out to to be, be,and andthe thedispossessed, dispossessed, who who continue to to suffer suffer and and remember, remember,know knowthis. this.(28-29) (28–29) twentieth century The twentieth centuryoffers offersno norelief reliefto tothe thedispossessed—those dispossessed—thosewithwithout legal national status and those living in such poverty that they are status and those living in such poverty that they arenot not their country—and able to take part in the the political life of their country—andthe theincongruities incongruities between state-sponsored history and Given between and popular popular memories memoriespersist.° persist.6 Given this panorama, panorama,we we can can more moreeasily easilyunderstand understandSténio SténioVincent’s Vincent’sinitial initialpaspassivity in in the theface face of of the the1937 1937massacre. massacre.ItItfollows followssuit suitininaalong longtradition traditionofof conflicting, and often contradictory, contradictory, negotiations negotiations between betweenthe themasses massesand and the interests interests of of the theeconomic economic elite. elite. In In the thepreface preface to to his his1957 1957 book book about about Vincent, Milo Rigaud laments that thatnever neverdid didaaman mandetest detestthe theHaitians Haitiansoror humiliate them humiliate themwith withsuch suchpleasure pleasureasasdid didthis thisdictator. dictator.He Hecontinues, continues,“car “carilil entendu que est entendu que la la liberté libertéetetlalavie vied’un d’uncitoyen citoyenhaitien haitiennenesont sontpas paschoses choses plupart de nos understood that sacrées pour la plupart nos chefs d’Etat” (1) [it is understood thatliberty liberty and the life of a Haitian Haitian citizen are not sacred things for most of our most our heads heads fact, throughout throughout Vincent's of state]. In fact, Vincent’s presidency he made arrangements of workers workers to the Dominican sugar plantawith Trujillo to send colonies colonies of plantaFew,ifif any, any, of of these these contract contract workers were massacred during Trutions. Few, jillo’s rule. The The exploited Haitians working in the jillo’s rule. exploited Haitians the cane cane fields fields were werenot not mentioned in Trujillo’s mentioned Trujillo’s anti-Haitian rhetoric. rhetoric. Rigaud Rigaud informs informs us usthat that Trujillo paid Vincent to have have them themsent sentover. over.Sugar Sugarcompanies companiesemployed employed cane workers workers with both Vincent’s and Trujillo’s agreement. Vincent’s with both Vincent’s and Trujillo’s agreement. Vincent’ssugsugnegotiations made arcane labor negotiations made him him aa pimp pimp of of sorts. sorts. His His people, people, as Rigaud emphatically records, so emphatically records, counted countedonly onlyififhe hecould couldmake makemoney moneyfrom fromthem. them. Their individual individual lives were meaningless. meaningless. Over the the years, years, various various Haitian Haitianand andDominican Dominicanleaders leadershave havegone gonetoto great lengths lengthsto todeny denythe thepeople peopleaasense senseof ofcitizenship, citizenship,dignity, dignity,and andresponresponSome people people do do not not even have birth birth certificates sibility. Some certificates to to prove prove their theirexexistence; some people stay stay in inthe theshadows shadowstotoavoid avoidviolence. violence.The Thepeople peopleare are Time after after time, the workers repeatedly discouraged. discouraged. Time workers and and the thepoor poorcome come out of their their makeshift makeshift homes homes to to support supportaanewly newlyemerged emergedfather fatherfigure figure who claims to be ready to lead the nation nation into intoan aneconomically economicallystable, stable,more more modern future. The people’s hopes are then crushed by quintessential future. The people’s then crushed by quintessentialpapatriarchs, such triarchs, such as Duvalier Duvalier and and Trujillo, Trujillo, who who enrich enrich themselves themselveswhile whilefailing failing to deliver on grandiose grandiose promises promises of of improved improvededucation, education,work, work,and andliving living conditions. This is exemplified by Duvalier Duvalier pére, père, who whowas wasfirst firstaacountry country doctor and later later became became a major major participant participantin inthe thehighly highlysuccessful successfulcamcampaign against malaria malaria and and yaws. yaws. In In 1938 1938 he he had had founded foundedLes Les Griots Griots(from (from

38 TheThe Tears ofofHispaniola 38 Tears Hispaniola

an African word meaning meaning“storytellers”), “storytellers”),which whichofficially officiallyrecognized recognizedthe the importance of setset aside a space importance of the thevodou vodoureligion religionininHaitian Haitianculture cultureand and aside a spaceofof acceptance for Haiti’s large large black black population. population.Despite Despiteall allofofthis thisseemingly seemingly humanitarian and and humanistic humanistic work, work,Duvalier Duvalier betrayed betrayedhis hispeople. people.CléClément Barbot, ment Barbot, who who was was later latershot shotfor forhaving havingdivulged divulgedDuvalierian Duvalieriansecrets, secrets, “Duvalier wanted said, “Duvalier wanted $200 $200 million millionfrom fromthe theU.S. U.S.He Hedid didnot notwant wantmoney money for public works or any benefit to the the Haitian Haitianpeople” people”(Gingras (Gingras120). 120). GinGingras writes, “Barbot estimated that that Duvalier Duvalier himself himselfamasses amasses $400,000 $400,000 the first first couple couple of years and [is [is later] later] worth worthwell well over over $1.5 $1.5 million million salted salted away in a Swiss bank. [Barbot stated that Duvalier] ‘is not a Communist, aa bank. [Barbot stated that Duvalier] ‘is not a Communist, democrat or anything else—he is an opportunist. Often Often he he said said to to me: me: let let the people people eat eat cassava’” cassava’” (120). (120). Anyone Anyonewho whodared daredtotocomplain complainwas waskilled. killed. When the the people people realize realize they theyhave havebeen beentricked trickedand andcannot cannotrevolt revolt against the deceit, they become either either desperate or numb. State repression desperate or numb. State repression reminds them that reminds that they theycannot cannotspeak; speak; the thepeople peoplecannot cannotexpress express their their they know needs because they know they theywill willbe bepunished punishedfor fortreason. treason.This ThisisispsychopsychoAsthe the psychologist psychologist Peter Elsass puts it, “Physical violence logical violence. As it, “Physical violence aims at destroying destroying objects objects and and people; people; mental mentalviolence violence aims aims at atdestroying destroying identities” (157). (157). He explains, explains, “There are very very strong strongforces forcesinina alarge large it it will dissolve. group, and if the the group grouparticulates articulatesan aninexpedient inexpedientmatrix, matrix, will dissolve. Intelligence gets transformed transformedinto intopower powerand andcoercion, coercion,and andleadership leadershipbebecomes hierarchy hierarchy and the worship comes worship of of authority” authority”(177). (177).By By disciplining disciplining aa country through country throughfear, fear,dictators dictatorsnegate negatecitizenship. citizenship.Leaders Leadersthat thatuse usetactics tactics of physical and psychological terror terrorbecome becomestronger strongervehicles vehiclesofofauthority, authority, insisting on worship and and breaking breaking down down the theidentity identityand anddesires desiresofofindiindividuals. In essence, the person person is is crushed crushedunder underthe thepower powerofofananomnipoomnipotent leader leader (and (and his his advisors advisors and and henchmen) henchmen)who whodenies denieshim/her him/herindiindividual rights, and consequently consequently the thestatus statusofofbeing beinga aperson, person,a acitizen citizenofof his/her own his/her own country. country. In her heressay essay“Citizenship “CitizenshipRevisited: Revisited:Solidarity, Solidarity,Responsibility, Responsibility,and and that itit is Rights,” Elizabeth Jelin suggests that is difficult difficult for for aa country countrytototransitransition into tion into democracy democracywhen whenthe thepopulace populacehas hasnever neverexperienced experiencedit,it,ororcannot cannot recall the time when recall when ititdid didexist, exist,as asin inArgentina Argentinaafter aftermilitary militaryrule. rule.She She argues:

transition to The transition to democracy democracy has has involved involved the the reconstruction reconstructionof ofstate state institutions and ofofthe institutions of of civil society. institutions andthe thetransformation transformation the institutions civil society. It implies implies dismantling dismantling antidemocratic antidemocratic forms forms ofofexercising exercisingpower, power, which may be be authoritarian, authoritarian,corporatist, corporatist,and/or and/orpurely purelycoercive coerciveinin nature. It also entails a change change in in the the rules rules governing governing the the distribution distribution nature.

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power, the the recognition recognition and legal sanction of rights, of power, rights, and the the legitilegitiactors. ..... .The mation of social actors. Thechallenge challenge of of democratization democratization lies lies in in the capacity to to combine combine formal formal institutional institutional changes with the expanstrengthening of sion of democratic practices and strengthening ofaaculture cultureof ofcitizencitizenship . . .. aiming ship aiming to toreconsider reconsider the therelationship relationshipbetween betweenindividual individual subjects and and collective collective rights. rights.(102) (102) Jelin addresses the discrepancy between the “legal definition definition of of rights rightsand and the understanding understanding and and practices practices of of the the assumed assumed subjects subjects of of rights” rights”and and subjectivity” (101). focuses on the “process of individual and collective subjectivity” (101). Her Her observations, centered observations, centered on on Chile Chileand andArgentina, Argentina,can canbe beapplied appliedaptly aptlytotoHaiHaitian circumstances. Haitians must become active participants, and theremust become active participants, therecitizens, of of their their country despite being marginalized by the fore citizens, the authoriauthorities. ties. essay “A “ACategory Category of of the the Human Mind: Marcel Mauss’s essay Mind: The Notion Notion of of the Person” offers a historical overview of the evolution of the concept of Person” offers a historical overview of the evolution of the concept of the person. Mauss talks about the the “role” “role”(personnage) (personnage)that thatan anindividual individual drama, just like the role each plays in the family plays in a sacred drama, family and and in in the the larger community. He traces the personne personne to to the theRoman RomanSenate, Senate,where where the persons were patres represented represented by by the the images images of of their theirancestors. ancestors. A A “person” had a prominent prominent ancestral ancestral name; name; itit was was equivalent equivalent to tobearing bearingaa title and and affiliation affiliation with withaaprivileged privilegedgroup, group,such suchasasthe thereligious religiouscollegia, collegia, and conferred on the individual the protection of the laws of the state. individual the protection of the laws of the state.The The slave, he he tells tells us, was completely excluded from from this category with the slave, completely excluded the perfunctory sentence single perfunctory sentence “Servus “Servus non non habet habet persona.” persona.” Mauss Mauss continues continues his study study by by noting notingthat thatthe theclassical classicalGreek Greekand andLatin Latinmoralists moralists(200 (200BCBC– AD 400) added added concepts concepts of of conscience, conscience, responsibility, responsibility, and andrights rightsused usedinin discovRoman law to structure structurethe the“moral “moralperson.” person.”When Whenthe theChristians Christians discovthe moral person as a metaphysical metaphysical entity, entity, they they ered the religious power of the introduced the introduced theconcept concept we we still still use use today. today. He He points points to to von von Carolsfeld Carolsfeldquotquot3:28: “You “Youare, are,with with respect respect to to the one, neither Jew ing Galatians Galatians 3:28: Jew nor Greek, slave nor freeman, freeman, male male nor norfemale, female,for foryou youare areallallone oneperson, person,inin Christ Jesus” (19). The question of the the “person,” “person,”and andwho/what who/whatcounts countsasas a person, has aa long philosophical and religious history. Mauss long philosophical and religious history. Maussquotes quotes saying, in his Cassiodorus as saying, his commentary commentaryon onPsalm Psalm7,7,“Persona—substan“Persona—substantia rationalis rationalis individua” individua” or or “The “Theperson personisisaarational rationalsubstance, substance,indivisible indivisible and individual” (20). The Renaissance and Descartes (“Cogito ergo sum”) sum”) immortality, by addressed the the specific role of the soul, its immortality, byway wayof ofthe thethinkthinking, rational rational mind mind(21). (21).And And Kant Kant“made “madeofofthe theindividual individualconsciousness, consciousness, the sacred character of the the human humanperson, person,the thecondition conditionfor forPractical PracticalReaRea-

40 TheThe Tears ofofHispaniola 40 Tears Hispaniola

son” (22). In his essay “The “The Person,” Person,”Charles CharlesTaylor Taylorwrites: writes:“The “Thegeneral general notion of aa person person includes includes not notonly onlyself-awareness self-awarenessbut butholding holdingvalues” values” (266). (266). These meditations on the person are Western, referring particularly particularly to to those who are are “citizens” “citizens” within withinEuropean Europeancontexts. contexts.Yet, Yet,as asMauss Maussmenmentions, slaves tions, slaves were not not included included in insuch sucha acategory. category.Enslaved EnslavedAfricans Africans brought to brought to the theAmericas Americas suffered sufferedextreme extremecruelty crueltycalculated calculatedtotostrip stripthem them humanity, and were consequently of any possibility of humanity, consequently not notseen seenas as human. human. They were brutally brutallybeaten, beaten,separated separatedfrom fromtheir theirown owngroups, groups,renamed renamedacaccording to their their masters’ fancies, and forced to lose memories of family and masters’ fancies, and forced to memories of family and through overwork origins through overwork and malnourishment.’ malnourishment.7 Even though Haiti is Even is the the first firstfree freeblack black nation nationininthe theAmericas, Americas,indeindeplight with pendence does not equate equate with withdemocracy. democracy. This This is a plight with which whichHaiti Haiti continues to struggle. Democracy requires a “culture of citizenship” (Jelin, continues to struggle. Democracy requires a “culture of citizenship” (Jelin, Citizenship, 102), 102), wherein wherein people people have have individual individual rights rights and engage Citizenship, engage in in building a community. community.Lack Lack of of basics basics such such as asfood foodand andmedical medicalresources resources produces a desperate society, always always both anxious and produces and hopeful, hopeful, ready readytoto fight and and change. change. Leaders Leaders such such as as Francois François Duvalier Duvalierbegin beginby bydoing doinggood good work among the the people, people, but but soon soon suffer sufferfrom frommegalomania megalomaniaand andfears fearsofof persecution. They They later cater persecution. cater to tocorrupt, corrupt,powerful powerfulfamilies familieswho whodo donot not want to see a more even distribution of wealth. Despite initial promises, see a more even distribution of wealth. Despite initial promises, toward democracy. the country countryisisunable unabletotomove movefrom fromauthoritarian authoritarianrule rule toward democracy.

Truth, Lies, and Contradictory Truth, ContradictoryDocuments Documents In Haiti, and in the Haitian Haitian diaspora, diaspora, literature literatureplays playsan animportant importanthistorihistorical role because the documentation cal documentation of ofhistorical historicalevents eventsisisimprecise impreciseand and 8 Novels and other sources documenting the massacre of 1937, politicized.’ politicized. documenting the massacre of 1937, providecontradictory contradictory or or varying varying information information about for example, provide about the the numnumber of people people murdered. murdered. One Onesource sourceadduced adduced by byBernardo BernardoVega, Vega,aaletter letter from a Franklyn Franklyn B. B. Atwood, states that that almost almostall allof ofthe theestimated estimated17,000 17,000 Dominican Republic escaped Haitians in in the thenortheast northeastregion regionofofthe the Dominican Republic escapedback back their own country Yet upon upon further further investigation to their country(Trujillo (Trujillo yy Haitt, Haití, 344). 344). Yet investigation that in it is discovered that in 1937 1937 Trujillo Trujillo ordered ordered his hismen mentotokill killHaitians Haitianswith with machetes to make the genocide of an unwanted group appear to be an make the genocide of an unwanted group appear to be anin-internal conflict among the ternal the peasants. peasants. Estimates Estimates of of the the number numberof ofdead deadrange range from 1,000 to to 35,000 35,000 (Sagas (Sagás 46). 46). Misinformation, Misinformation,asaswell wellasasmanipulated manipulated information, has has led led to to conflicting conflicting accounts accounts such such as as (1) (1) the theproblem problemwas was and had nothing nothing to local and to do do with with Trujillo; Trujillo; (2) most most of the the Haitians Haitianswere wereable able

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to escape over the the border, border, so so very veryfew fewwere werekilled; killed;and and(3) (3)some someDominiDomininot want the cans did not the Haitians Haitiansin inDominican Dominicanterritory. territory.Vega Vegapoints pointsout outthat that many of the accounts of the massacre were written a decade or more after many the accounts of the massacre were written a decade or more after the killings; the the problem problem is is

that the that the narratives narrativesof ofthat thattragedy tragedythat thathave havesurvived survivedare aresosorare rareand and fragmented and fragmented and they theycome comeprincipally principallyfrom fromforeign foreignjournalists journalistswho who country for had been in the country for that thatreason reason(Quentin (QuentinReynolds), Reynolds),Haitian Haitian authors (Price-Mars, authors (Price-Mars,1953), 1953),Dominican Dominicanexiles exiles(Luis (LuisF.F.Mejia, Mejía,1976), 1976),oror Dominicans who were witnesses Dominicans witnesses of of the theoccurrences occurrencesbut butwho whopubpubcommentaries only lished their commentaries only twenty-four twenty-fouryears yearsafter afterthe themassacre massacre Prestol Castillo Castillo and and Rufino Rufino Martínez Martinez mainly), or who fortyforty(Freddy Prestol six years later interviewed witnesses of the period (Juan Manuel six later interviewed witnesses of the period (Juan Manuel Garcia, 1983).’ García, 1983).9 The passage of so many many years years puts putsthe thedetails detailsofofthese theseaccounts accountsinindoubt. doubt. Vega uncovered uncovered information censored Vega censored in in the theDominican DominicanRepublic Republicand and unpublished materials found unpublished materials produced produced right right after afterthe theevent. event.The The censoring censoring and the gap between event and memory memory suggest suggest that thatmany manyof ofthe thestories stories of the the massacre of massacre are are inaccurate. inaccurate. Scholars and and historians disagree Scholars disagree not only only on onthe thedetails detailsofofthe the1937 1937 massacre but on its rationale. A central question is whether the massacre massacre whether the massacre was propelled by anti-Haitianism anti-Haitianismor, or, rather, rather,created createdaawave waveofofanti-Haianti-Haitianism that tianism thatdid didnot notexist existbefore, before,atatleast leastnot notwith withsuch suchvitriol. vitriol.Many Manyscholscholars argue that that elite elite Dominicans Dominicans had had had strong strong anti-Haitian anti-Haitiansentiments sentiments decades,but but that that anti-Haitianism anti-Haitianism became for decades, became a broad-based discourse only the decades after laborin the after the themassacre massacreand andin inresponse responsetotoHaitian Haitianmigrant migrant laborers. In recent years Ernesto Ernesto Sagas Sagás has has put put forth forththe theidea ideathat thatthe themassacre massacre formed part of of Trujillo’s Trujillo’s plot to to eliminate eliminate Haitians Haitiansfrom fromthe theDominican Dominican Republic. He argues that Republic. that carefully carefullycontemplated contemplatedanti-Haitianism anti-Haitianismwas wasthe the narrative of hatred reason. This narrative hatred against againstHaitians Haitianshas hasbecome becomevery verypopular popular over the years. But Turits contends that in the Dominican Dominican Republic Republic over that the the genocide propelled Trujillo’s official official anti-Haitian anti-Haitian ideology. Ethnic Haitians ideology. Ethnic Haitians on the frontier frontierprior priortoto1937 1937were werenot, not,for forthe themost mostpart, part,migrant migrantlaborers laborers Turits’s study examines (Turits 598). Turits’s examines the theweakness weaknessofofnational nationaland andracial racial divisions on on the the northern divisions northern frontier frontier before before the themassacre. massacre. He He claims claims that that frontier communities were mostly bilingual and they they “remained “remained indifferindifferent and even hostile to urban urban visions visions of of Dominican Dominican nationality” nationality”(4). (4).Small Small farmers of Haitian descent in the the frontier frontierregion regionhad hadlived lived there therefor forgengenerations and erations and often often intermarried intermarriedwith withDominicans. Dominicans.Dominican Dominicanintellectuals intellectuals

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and elites, however, imagined clear distinctions distinctions and andopposition oppositionbetween between Accordingto to Turits, Turits, Haitians Haitians on on the frontier Haitians and Dominicans. Dominicans. According frontier were a largely strategic concern for Trujillo. By creating a sharply divided strategic concern for Trujillo. creating a sharply divided Dominican border border region, the state Dominican state could could control controlthe thepolitical politicaland andecoeconomic activities that that occurred occurred there. there.In Inparticular, particular,illegal illegaltrade tradewould wouldbebe halted and the the movement movementofofpeople peopleand andgoods goodscould couldbe beregistered registeredand and taxed more more effectively. effectively. Turits concludes that that Trujillo Trujillo adopted adopted aa clear clear antiantiHaitian position only after after the the massacre." massacre.10 fashioned its national image The Dominican Republic Republic fashioned image to to discriminate discriminate against the Haitians. Dominican politicians depicted themselves the Haitians. Dominican politicians depicted themselvesand andtheir their country as country as Catholic CatholicHispanics Hispanicsin incontrast contrasttotoHaitians, Haitians,who whowere weredenigrated denigrated as vodou worshippers worshippers and and“Africans.” “Africans.” Rafael Rafael Trujillo—who Trujillo—who had hadaahalfhalfHaitian grandmother, grandmother,Ercina ErcinaChevalier—designed, Chevalier—designed,and andimposed, imposed,himself himself as a savior who would would save his his people people in in the theDominican DominicanRepublic Republicfrom fromthe the institutionalized anti-Haitianism, Haitians. He institutionalized anti-Haitianism,manipulating manipulatingmyths mythsofofnanationhood, and, and, according according to toSagas Sagás(68), (68),aggressively aggressivelyexcluded excludedpoor poorblack black Haitians—and a number of Haitians—and of poor poor Dominican Dominican blacks—from blacks—from the national national image and from from basic basic livelihood." livelihood.11 A question that that fuels fuels much muchcontention contentionabout aboutthis thisperiod periodis:is:Was Wasthe the violence aimed aimed at the violence the Haitians Haitians because because Trujillo Trujillo hated hated them themororbecause becauseitit represented a concise represented concise national rhetoric that thatallowed allowed him himtotoconsolidate consolidate power? As I have mentioned, at least least two two interconnected interconnected responses responses have have been been Sagas insists that that anti-Haitianism proposed: Sagás anti-Haitianismwas wasatatthe theroot rootofofthe themassamassacre, and and Turits Turits argues argues that that the vituperative vituperative national nationalanti-Haitian anti-Haitiandiscourse discourse was largely strategic was strategic for for Trujillo Trujillo himself. himself. Trujillo, Trujillo, Turits Turits reminds reminds us, us, “sought to to dominate dominatethe thenational nationaleconomy, economy,impose imposenew newtaxes taxesand andfees feeson on external trade, and promote local local industry and import-substitution import-substitution proprograms via high tariffs” tariffs” (15). (15). By By destroying destroyingthe thecamaraderie camaraderieamong amongethnic ethnic Haitians and Haitians and Dominicans Dominicansthat thatexisted existedon onthe thefrontier frontierand andacross acrossthe theborder, border, he could better divide divide the two two countries countries politically politically and and control control the theDoDominican territory territory and people. Turits points to some especially interesting and people. to some especially interesting details of Trujillo’s manipulation of both details Trujillo’s manipulation both intersubjective intersubjective discourse discourse and and power, noting noting that power, that before before “the “themassacre, massacre,Trujillo Trujillo presented presentedhimself himselfnot notasas eliminationist, anti-Haitian tyrant but an eliminationist, but rather rather as as aa ruler rulergranting grantingstate state protection and assistance assistance (namely, (namely, free free land landaccess)” access)”(20). (20).Turits Turitsquotes quotes from an an interview interviewwith withaaHaitian Haitianrefugee, refugee,“He “He[Trujillo] [Trujillo]said saidallallpeople peopleare are the same. There are no differences between one another. ..... .He Hetold toldeveryeverybody ....that . . thatDominicans Dominicansand andHaitians Haitianshave havethe thesame sameblood... blood. ... each . eachcitizen citizen

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must farm farm productively” productively” (20). (20). This statement statement suggests suggests that thatHaitians Haitiansand and Dominicans have many things things in in common, common, including including ethnic ethnic and and racial racial linlineage and work goals. So, So, what what was was the the meaning meaning of the massacre of Haitians the massacre of Haitians in 1937? in 1937? meaning of the massacre will remain remain an enigma in HaitianHaitianPerhaps the meaning Dominican history, blurred blurred by byconflicting conflictingnarratives. narratives.Still, Still,different differentacaccounts of of the horror can counts can inform us of of the the meaning meaning the the memory memoryof ofthe the massacre holds holds for fordifferent differentpeople. people.For Forexample, example,inin1973 1973Dominican Dominicanlawlawyer Freddy Prestol Prestol Castillo Castillo (1913-81) (1913–81)published publishedEl Elmasacre masacresesepasa pasaa apie, pie, which offers an interesting, problematic, and nonetheless important docinteresting, problematic, important document of ument of the themassacre.’* massacre.12 While at at first firsthe hequalified qualifiedititasasaanovel, novel,its itsblunt blunt content matter style and its content matterinsinuated insinuatedthat thatititwas wasaatestimony. testimony.The Thechange change genre classification in genre classification may may have have been been due due to to the thestrong strongcriticism criticismhis hiswork work received from literary literary critics deploring his writing style. Eventually Prescritics deploring his writing style. Eventually Pres1983 tol Castillo called it “simply “simply my mybook” book”(Sommer (Sommer161).*° 161).13 Also, in aa 1983 study of his his book, book, Doris Doris Sommer Sommer unquestioningly unquestioninglyclassifies classifies ititas asaatestitestimony in mony in the the “Latin “Latin American American tradition traditionof oftestimonios” testimonios”(161). (161).At Atthe thetime, time, the argument argumentwas wasthat thathe hewas wasaasubjective subjectivewitness witnessofofan anatrocity atrocitythat thatwas was being rewritten by the government government in in order order to to bury burythe thereal realhorror horrorof ofthe the massacre. In Sommer’s Sommer’s view, view, The book is the honest honest account account that thathe hedared darednot notgive givepublicly publiclyuntil until although itit was 1973, although was allegedly allegedly and and very veryprobably probablywritten writtenduring duringthe the events of events of 1937. 1937. Prestol’s Prestol’s long long silence silenceisis complicated complicatedby bythe thefact factthat thathehe may have given other other accounts accounts much much earlier. earlier. After all, he had been sent to to Dajabon, Dajabón, site site of of the theworst worstatrocities, atrocities,as asaafederal federalmagistrate magistrateinin government. (163) service to Trujillo’s government. (163) I give emphasis to the the last last part partof ofSommer’s Sommer’scontextualization contextualizationofofelelmamasacre: Prestol Prestol Castillo’s account was was written while he sacre: Castillo’s account he was was working working for for levels. Trujillo. It is highly highlysuspect, suspect,because becausehe heisiscompromised compromisedononmany many levels. His elite background background as as the theson sonof ofaa sugar sugaroligarch, oligarch,his hiseducation educationatatprivate private asas schools in the the capital capital that thatlooked lookeddown downon onsmall smalltowns, towns,and andhis hisposition position a rural judge judge employed employed by by Trujillo Trujillo may may have havemade madehim himmore morecomplicit complicitinin the massacre massacre than than he hewould wouldlike liketotoadmit. admit.Sommer Sommercorrectly correctlyjuxtaposes juxtaposes the value of the text as historical document with the inescapable of the text as historical document with the inescapablehuman human emotion of guilt guilt that thatseems seemstotoafflict afflictthe theauthor: author: Much of its value value as as aahistorical historicaldocument documentand andits itsappeal appealfor forthe the reader comes from from the theself-reflexivity self-reflexivityofofPrestol’s Prestol’sfinger fingerpointing; pointing;inin

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several ways the the work work is is an an expression expressionof ofaatortured torturedconscience conscienceininanan effort to purge purge some some of of the thepain. pain.Guilty Guiltyatatleast leastofofsilent silentcomplicity, complicity, like the other witnesses to the massacre, the author testifies to his like massacre, impotence against the the dictatorship. dictatorship. (162) (162) Of note is the the way way this thisbook bookwas wasreceived receivedwhen whenititwas waspublished—it published—itsold sold 20,000 copies copies shortly shortly after publication, in contrast to other 20,000 other books, books, which sell about 1,000 copies, copies, usually usually at at the author’s expense (Sommer 162)— sell 162)— and what it reveals of the the memory memory of of such such aa horror horrorfor forDominicans. Dominicans.The The success of of this this text text suggests that the success the Dominicans Dominicans do not not necessarily necessarily turn turn their backs backs on the horrors horrors of of their their history. history. The The way way the themassacre massacre is is dedealso implies implies complicity, complicity, before before and/or and/or after scribed, however, also after the themassacre, massacre, with the the nation-building nation-buildingrhetoric rhetoricinculcated inculcatedin inthe thepopular popularsector sectorby bythe the elite and the government. the government. Prestol Castillo’s story story offers Prestol offers an an important importantpoint pointofofview viewfor forour ourconsidconsiderations of how the horrors horrors were were implemented implemented and and later laterrationalized. rationalized.He He begins his text with a memory memory of of aa schoolteacher schoolteacher he had as a child in the capital. The The teacher teacher would would point point derisively derisively to to the frontier capital. frontier region. region. Prestol Prestol Castillo’s narrative narrative skips on to his present Castillo’s present position positionin inthat thatsmall smalltown townthe the teacher once pointed to on aa map. map. His His description description of of aa working-class working-class bar bar frequented by frequented byethnic ethnicHaitians Haitiansand andDominicans Dominicansisisfilled filledwith withawe aweand andadmiadmiration. The Haitians have been there for for generations generations and and have have achieved achieved high levels of livelihood. high livelihood. Daniel, Daniel, Prestol Prestol Castillo Castillo tells tellsus, us,was was exemplary exemplaryof of entire “pueblo an entire “pueblo Negro” Negro”(black (black population): population): Un clan de pastores y cultivadores némadas nómadas que finalmente finalmente habfan habían asentado en las lejanas lejanas y olvidadas tierras de de la la frontera de la Reasentado olvidadas tierras publica Dominicana, frente a la República Republica de de Haití. Haiti. Estos Estos negros negros hapública bian Ilegado bían llegado hasta los hatos de de los los patrones patronesrusticos rústicosdominicanos dominicanos asentados en Dajabon Dajabón y aldeas aledafias aledañas yy finalmente se habjan habían ininjertado en la vida de aquellos sefiores holgazanes que vivian de los la vida de aquellos señores vivían los cultivos de los negros negros de de Haiti. Haití.(30) (30)

That is, Haitians had had settled settled in in the forgotten That is, Haitians forgotten land of the frontier frontier and and turned itit into turned into aa productive productive area area from from which which they they could could ascend to a position of comfort and hire other, other, perhaps perhaps newly newly arrived, arrived, Haitians Haitians to towork workfor for them. Prestol them. Prestol Castillo Castillomentions mentionsthe thecase caseofofGarcia’s García’s horses horsesthat thatwere wereraised raised by the Haitian Haitian Toussaint. Toussaint. While the testimony testimony continues continuesto totry trytotodefine define difference between between the the ethnic ethnic Haitians and the Dominicans, difference Dominicans, in the first first pages of of analysis analysis and memory Prestol Castillo must admit pages admit that thatthere thereare are

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peace and and interrelated interrelated living and work conditions conditions that that defy his urban-inpeace urban-informed binary binary understanding understandingofoflife lifeon onthe thefrontier. frontier. His narrative, however, however, changes as the the massacre massacre begins begins to totake takeplace, place, and he seems seems to to be be aasilent silentand andinactive inactiveobserver. observer. The The absurdity absurdityof ofthe the massacre becomes becomes painfully apparent in massacre in the theconversations, conversations,screams, screams, and and that ensue. masacre se pasa horrible orders that ensue. The rest rest of of El masacre pasa aa pie pie reads like a horrible stream-of-consciousness memory of stream-of-consciousness of fragments fragmentsof ofconversations, conversations,orders, orders, fearful comments, and impotent observations fearful comments, and observations by the the author. author. In Inmany many propose,itit seems seemsthat that the the text tries to make sense of an irrational ways, II propose, irrational horror. That irrational horror horror isisdescribed described via via fragments fragments of ofinteractions interactions between people who are inebriated inebriated actors actors screaming screaming accusations accusations they theywill will Let me me single single out out one of the many later have to believe. Let many exhaustively exhaustively rerepeated examples: examples: El Capitán Capitan hablaba tambaleandose, El tambaleándose, ebrio. Dentro de la la embriaguez embriaguez hacia un esfuerzo esfuerzo y entre hacía entre la la tiniebla tiniebla de de su mente mente aparecia aparecía una una luz luz roja, roja, como de de sol sol sangriento. . ..—Acabo como . .—Acabo de de recibi recibí unaj unaj didene óidene seriaj. seriaj. El El Gobierno ordena Gobierno ordenaeleldegiiello degüellode decuanto cuanto“mafiese” “mañese”jallemo. jallemo.No Norepete repete eda ni pinta. Quémelos jata jata vivos. vivos.Ey! Ey!. ... edá . . Saigentoo! ... ... En un momento record6 que su abuelo habia nacido momento recordó que su abuelo había nacidoen enHaiti! Haití!YY entonces sorbi6 casi medio frasco de ron. Sus labios temblaban entonces sorbió casi medio frasco de ron. Sus labios temblaban totodavia, y miraba miraba la la gran gransabana sabanacomo comoun unidiota. idiota.(28) (28) Freddy Prestol Castillo Castillo writes writes the thewords wordshe heremembers remembersuttered utteredbybya asoldier soldier who is too drunk to be who be coherent, coherent, as as he he repeats repeats the the commands commands he must must follow: to to kill. kill. At At one moment he follow: he remembers remembers that thathis hisgrandfather grandfatherwas was born in born in Haiti Haiti and and he he looks looks onto onto the thesavannah savannahdumbstruck. dumbstruck.Prestol PrestolCasCastillo’s account account goes goes on on to mention tillo’s mention Anta Anta Suriel, Suriel,lalanegra negrareina, reina,the theblack black queen, who does not know whether whether her herbeloved beloved Haitian Haitianboyfriend boyfriendisisalive alive or dead. Reading these lines, we are led to glimpse the complicated nature nature of the massacre, as everyone was interconnected interconnected in in some someway wayor orother. other. Prestol Castillo’s story story quickly begins Yet Prestol begins to to change change its its tone. tone.Only Onlythree three pages later he “copies” the the words of a Haitian who speaks French (Kreyol?) words Haitian who speaks French (Kreyòl?) words such as bon bon dieu; dieu; he he begs begs for forhis hislife lifeand andoffers offerstotopay. pay.As Ashe heseeks seeks Callate, negro mercy, the slayer/soldier slayer/soldierretorts, retorts,“|“¡Cállate, negroelelDiablo!” Diablo!”(32). (32).The Thesolsoldier orders, “—Muchachos! Pa’lante! Pa’lante! ... . . Pa’acaba . Pa’acabácon conestos estosnegros” negros”(33). (33). This moment moment cuts cuts aa deep deep separation separationbetween betweenthe thetwo. two.One Oneisisa ablack blackHaiHaitian begging for mercy. The other is aa Dominican Dominican who who hates hates this thisman maninin front of him. brutally stabbed front him. The former, who is brutally stabbed to to death, death, is is one one of of “estos “estos negros” and thus thus must mustbe bekilled. killed. Soon Soon the theaccount accountbegins begins to to show show the therearea-

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sons Dominicans have to eliminate sons Dominicans have eliminate “Haitians”: “Haitians”: the the “Haitians,” “Haitians,” say saythe the Dominicans,are are stealing stealingtheir their cattle cattle and and ruining ruining their lives—’me Dominicans, lives—“me han acabao!” (36). acabao!” (36). As I read Freddy Freddy Prestol PrestolCastillo’s Castillo’s account, account,II am amin indisbelief disbeliefthat thatpeople people acted in in such simplistic terms. Did the Dominicans really could have acted really need need that their to believe that theirneighbors neighborsand andfriends, friends,and andininmany manycases casesfamily, family,ofof Haitian descent descent were were at at the theroot rootofoftheir theirown ownmiseries? miseries?Arguably, Arguably,Prestol Prestol Castillo’s account account points points to the fear Castillo’s fear that thatwas wasfelt feltunder underthe thegreat greatdictator. dictator. Even though some people did save Haitian lives at great risk risk to to their theirown, own, his account leads us to believe that the violence had more to do with his account leads us to believe that the violence had more to do with this this their own fear for their own lives lives than thanwith withany anydesire desiretotodivide dividethe thefrontier. frontier.DominiDominicans had had to to act cans act under under the theinfluence influenceof ofalcohol alcoholand andhad hadtotoslander slanderthe theHaiHaitheir words tians and believe their words in in order order to to proceed proceed with with the thegenocide. genocide. Still, a city man like Freddy Prestol Prestol Castillo Castillo came came to to the the dusty dustycountry countrywith withpreprecan’t imagine imagine that that they conceived prejudices, and I can’t theywere wereeasily easilyerased erasedeven even witnessed peaceable living conditions if he witnessed conditions among amongthe thepeople—ethnic people—ethnicHaiHaitians, newly newly arrived Haitians, and border His 1943 tians, border Dominicans. Dominicans. His 1943 story Paisajes y meditaciones meditaciones de de una unafrontera, frontera,which whichwas wasdedicated dedicatedtotoTrujillo, Trujillo, some light on his unannounced mission in the sheds some the frontier frontierregion. region.The The author describes the Dominican side with romantic images that are more more reminiscent of some paradise paradise that that the Dominican nation must must recuperate recuperate than the than thetrue trueland landthat thatlay laybefore beforehis hiseyes. eyes.I Iam aminclined inclinedtotobelieve believethat thatthis this earlier text text was was intended intended to toestablish establishthe theneed needtotoset setup upa arigid rigidborder borderand and to claim the Dominican Dominican side side as solely Dominican. Dominican. Interestingly, in the process of dividing dividing the the frontier region and setting setting up a Dominican nation stripped stripped of ethnic ethnic Haitians, Haitians, the the tapestry tapestryof ofthe theDoDominican and Haitian people—their intertwined intertwined histories histories and andtheir theirgrowgrowing free-will exchanges—was butchered into inexistence.'* inexistence.14 Individual stories of kinship and friendship friendship have have consequently consequentlyvanished vanishedfrom fromthe theofficial official histories of both nations. It is at this this point point in in history, history,and and in incontrast contrasttotoaa testimony like like Prestol Prestol Castillo’s, Castillo’s, that fiction fiction such such as as Danticat’s Danticat’s plays plays aa critical role in recuperating the human dimension of the people critical role recuperating human dimension of the people ofof Hispaniola. Freddy Freddy Prestol Prestol Castillo’s Castillo’sstory story reveals reveals aa man man haunted by Hispaniola. by the the genocide, plagued plagued by by guilt, guilt, and and somehow somehow torn torn between the genocide, the need need to to be be DoDogive minican (and therefore therefore anti-Haitian) anti-Haitian)and andtotobebehonest honest(and (andtherefore therefore give an account that that would would reveal reveal the thepeace peacethat thathad hadonce oncereigned reignedininthe thefronfrontier region). region). In In contrast, contrast,Edwidge Edwidge Danticat Danticatimagines imaginesthe theintricacies intricaciesofofhuhuman relationships. relationships.

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History and Literature With so so much much contradiction contradiction marring marringthe thehistorical historicalaccounts accountsofofthe the1937 1937 massacre, itit is is difficult difficult to to understand understand all all of of the elements that massacre, that led led to to the the slaughter and slaughter and the the changes changes experienced experienced by by Haitians Haitians and and Dominicans Dominicans in in the the aftermath of the genocide. It is in this space of confusion that fiction brings aftermath of the genocide. It is in this space confusion that fiction brings weight to its weight to bear bear on on the the consideration considerationof ofthe thepast. past.That Thatis, is,because because fiction fiction is is free to make things up, it can can offer a concreteness of vision that presents presents rounded characters to whom things things happen happen and and who who do do things, things, that that eludes eludes others engaged in the the construction constructionof ofnational nationalhistorical historicalrecords. records.On Onthe the one hand, history asks asks and and tries triestotoanswer: answer:How Howmany? many?Why? Why?Today’s Today’s and writers writers are especially especially aware aware of ofthe the unreliability unreliability of the historical critics and record. History—past events that are known, that are known,and andtotosome someextent extentagreed agreed upon, whether whether or or not not they theyare aredocumented—can documented—canbe be forgotten forgottenand/or and/orrererecord—that body told. The historical record—that body of information informationsuch suchas asgovernment government documents and media reports that one community community or or another anotherrecognizes recognizes as giving a valid picture of of history—can history—can be be manipulated, manipulated,often oftentelling tellinga a monolithic story story documented documented by by the theliterate literateand andempowered empoweredininfurtherfurtherance of of their their vested ance vested interests. interests. Fiction imagines imagines the the effects effects of of the the past, past, giving giving greater greater depth, and new Fiction form, to to the the questions questionstackled tackledby byhistory historyand andcomplicated complicatedby bycompromised compromised testimonials. Fiction can evoke the the affects affects experienced experienced by bythe theindividuals individuals in the the shadows histories and in shadows of of official official histories and the thefrenzied frenzieddrumbeats drumbeatsofofcollective collective rituals. Most important, fiction points up the still strong political and important, fiction points up the still strong political andecoeconomic ties between Haiti and the nomic the Dominican Dominican Republic, Republic, which sustain a coterie of noncitizens, in both coterie both countries, countries, within withintheir theirdivisive divisivenational national rhetoric. Danticat portrays this this through throughher hertext. text.As AsHaitian Haitiandescendants descendants living in the Dominican take their children living Dominican Republic Republic take children to the the one-room one-room schoolhouse founded founded by Father Romain schoolhouse Romain and and Father FatherVargas, Vargas, they theyvoice voice their complaints: their complaints:

“ITpushed pushedmy myson sonout outof of my my body body here, here, in this country,” “I country,” one one woman said. ....“ My mother woman . . “My mothertoo toopushed pushedme meout outofofher herbody bodyhere. here.Not Not me, not my son, son, not not one one of of us us has hasever everseen seenthe theother otherside sideofofthe the border. Still they won’t put our our birth birthpapers papersin inour ourpalms palmsso somy myson son can have knowledge knowledge placed placed into into his his head by a proper educator educator in in aa proper school.” proper school.” them we are “To them are always always foreigners, foreigners,even evenififour ourgranmémeés’ granmèmès’ grangranmémeéswere wereborn bornininthis thiscountry,” country,”aaman man responded respondedin in Kreyòl. Kreyol... mèmès . . ..

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makes itit easier easier for them to push us out “This makes out when when they theywant wantto.” to.” (69) can also also recontextualize recontextualize time. From the Fiction can the details details offered offered by by historihistorians, it it could could be beargued argued that that ethnic Haitian Haitian residents were eliminated residents were eliminatedby bythe the that new Haitian migrants that could massacre and that migrants were were cast as foreigners that rigorously after be pushed out at any time strategically and most rigorously after the the masmassacre. Thus Thus the the above scene, scene, by by which which Danticat Danticat tries to make sense sacre. sense of of the the exposes present-day present-day attitudes attitudes and imaginary massacre, exposes and experiences via an imaginary historical past. In other other words, words, the the scene scene portrays portraysaapresentism, presentism,by bywhich which contemporary behavior contemporary behavior is is explained explained with with aa possible possible past. Danticat’s text tries to make make sense sense of of the the senseless senseless violence violence of of the the past past Haitians on Dominican soil. Her Her characcharacand the continuing elimination elimination of Haitians ters represent those those who who have have lived lived all all of of their theirlives livesininthe theDominican Dominican Republic, yet yet are are denied denied citizenship. citizenship. Her Her story story attempts to re-member Republic, re-member the the past in order to understand the present; ironically it exposes how complito understand the present; ironically it exposes how complicated that task actually is. After the massacre, the family members members are are ininvited to speak to the the authorities, authorities, tell tell their theirstories, stories,and andreceive receive aasort sortofof reparation. One reparation. One of of Danticat’s characters reports reports to to the the crowd: crowd: he did did not not give giveme memoney,” money,”she shesaid. said.. ..... “He “Hewrites writesyour your name name “No, he in the book and he says he will take your story to President Sténio story to President Sténio you can can get getyour your money. money.... Vincent so you . . .Then Then he he lets lets you you talk talk and lets you cry and he asks you if you have papers to show that all these (233-34) people died.” (233–34)

With this this scene, scene, Danticat shows how the poor people were set up to feel feel would not not be be their inferiority and their their marginal marginal existence: existence: their stories would they receive receive any any compensation compensation for fortheir their heard by the president. Nor would they extreme losses. By bringing up the cruel and extreme the question questionof of papers, papers, knowing knowing that no no such such papers existed, the authorities authorities were were mocking mocking the the stories stories the the surviving family members presented, in essence claiming these these human surviving essence claiming beings didn’t exist and effectively obliterating them them from fromthe thepicture pictureofof Dominican and and Haitian Dominican Haitian national national discourse. discourse. Bearing this obliteration in mind, Bearing mind, II suggest suggest that thatDanticat’s Danticat’s work work reredisappointment and frustration frustration with sponds to aa disappointment withhistory historyand andthe thehistorical historical record felt by individuals fruitfully record individuals from from postcolonial postcolonial nations. nations. Fiction Fiction fruitfully record as as presented presented through through conventional mesupplements the historical record For example, example, through through the protagonist, Amabelle, Danticat Danticat creatively creatively dia. For calls forth forth the history history of those calls those without without names, names, providing providing the the possibility possibility of of acknowledging unspeakable unspeakable horrors horrors and mourning denied acknowledging denied deaths. deaths. The The

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has aa bounty bounty of grammatical, grammatical, historihistoricarefully crafted character Amabelle has cal, and and literary literary intertextuality. cal, intertextuality.The Thename nameAmabelle Amabellecan canmean meaname âmebelle, belle, beautiful soul, or a ma belle, to my beauty; it recalls ama (chatelaine) soul, à ma belle, my beauty; it recalls ama (chatelaine)and and reminds one one of amable, amable, likable likable in in Spanish. Spanish.ItItcan can also also be be read read as as an an amalamalgam of Spanish (from amar, amar, to tolove) love)and andFrench French(belle, (belle,beautiful, beautiful,or oraa beauty). Her name name reflects reflects the the interlinguistic interlinguistic nature natureofofborder borderculture, culture, where languages (Kreyol, (Kreyòl, French, and Spanish) merge, merge, introducing introducing new new modes of communication. The Spanish Spanish ama combined modes communication. The combined with the the French French can be be interpreted interpreted as a command: command: to love beauty. Amabelle highlights highlights belle can the interdependent histories shared by Haiti and the Dominican Republic, interdependent histories shared by Haiti and the Dominican Republic, thus rejecting rejecting imposed, imposed, binary binary national national memory memorycrafted craftedby bybrutal brutaldictadictators such such as as Duvalier Duvalierand andTrujillo. Trujillo. Her family family name, name, Désir, Désir, evokes evokes Désiré Désiré of ofJacques Jacques Stephen StephenAlexis’s Alexis’s novel General Sun, My Brother (Compeére Général Soleil, 1955). In GenGenSun, My Brother (Compère Général 1955). In eral Sun, Désiré eral Désiré is born months before before the massacre massacre to Hilarion Hilarion and Claire-Heureuse, who who in in Haiti Haiti face Claire-Heureuse, face the loss loss of of their theirhouse houseand andpolice police Theyevade evadethese theseproblems problems threats for being Communist Communist sympathizers.’ sympathizers.15They by joining joining aa friend friendon onaaDominican Dominicansugar sugarplantation. plantation.Alexis, Alexis,ininaccordance accordance with his his political political beliefs, beliefs, focuses focuses on on love love and andthe theeconomic economicconditions conditionsofof life in in Haiti. Haiti. He life He writes: writes:

not a single single neighneighIn this country, where not a single rural section, not borhood escapes the taste taste of of ashes ashes and and unbearable unbearablemisery, misery,love love falls falls quickly from from heaven and ends up on the hard soil of life. For Hilarion heaven and ends up on the hard soil of life. Hilarion love gradually became meals eaten without and Claire-Heureuse, love became meals meat while smiling and speaking in an unconcerned unconcerned manner manner about about the rough day day at at work. work. Love Love was a pair pair of of mended mended trousers trousers that that looked whole. whole. Love Lovelearned learned to to go go to bed without supper, looked supper, chatting about everything and nothing, nothing, with with aa mouthful mouthful of of the the salty saltytaste tasteof of tears, and finally, a quick little sentence just just before before going going to tosleep. sleep. (130) (130)

Hilarion and Claire-Heureuse Hilarion Claire-Heureuse are are depicted depicted asashard-working, hard-working,humble humble despite their their best efforts to people who, despite to construct construct aa simple simple honest honestlife, life, are are injustices. Désiré Désiré isis their their hope hope and and their future, trampled by political injustices. future, but but the infant infant dies dies shortly shortly after afteraaviolent violentencounter encounterwith withsearch searchdogs. dogs.As As the the novel ends, Hilarion meets his own death. His last words to Clairenovel ends, Hilarion meets death. His last words to ClaireHeureuse encompass own belief belief in in struggle struggle for the future: Heureuse encompass Alexis’s Alexis’s own future: I have to say that there there were were also also small small pleasures—the pleasures—thebeginning beginningof of adolescence,illusions illusionsofoflove loveand andpleasures pleasureswith withno no future, future, bitterbitter adolescence,

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pleasures, empty moments sweet pleasures, moments of of lust, lust,and andthe theemptiness emptinessofofthe the mornings that friendship and love changed me. me.... mornings that followed. followed. But friendship . . .You You must give birth must birth to to another anotherHilarion, Hilarion,other otherDésirés, Désirés,and andonly onlyyou youcan can You have have to to go go forward forward to to other other mornings of love... create them. You love. . . . know... You know . . .why whymen menleave leavetheir theirnative nativelands, lands,why whysickness sicknessravages ravages our people, and and how how little littlegirls girlsbecome becomewhores. whores.(289) (289)

By giving the family By giving Amabelle Amabelle the family name name Désir, Désir, Danticat Danticat isis answering answering Hilarion’s request request and and aligning aligningherself herselfwith withAlexis’ Alexis’politics politicsof ofhope hopedespite despite Danticat gives gives birth, through the odds. Danticat through fiction, fiction, to to another anotherDésiré. Désiré.With With Amabelle Désir, Danticat affirms Amabelle affirms desire—of desire—of life, life, of ofpossibility, possibility,of ofgood good things—which is a creative power, a tactic of resistance and survival, in things—which is a creative power, resistance and survival, in the the face of difficulty. She also pays homage homage to toAlexis, Alexis, who whohad hadbeen beenstoned stonedtoto death for His dreams death for his his socialist socialist views. views. His dreams of of aa better betterHaiti Haitidid didnot notdie diewith with him. him. This leads to the the second second interpretation interpretationofofDésir. Désir.InInDanticat’s Danticat’snovel, novel,itit means the the desire desire for for love love and and aa better better life. life. Amabelle, the bearer bearer of of a name name about love and and beauty, beauty, is, is, as Alexis foreshadowed, a witness witness to todeath deathand and Later in in the text loss of love. Later text Amabelle Amabelle thinks, thinks,“This “Thispast pastisismore morelike likeflesh flesh than air; our stories testimonials than testimonials like like the the ones never never heard heard by by the the justice of the peace or the Generalissimo Generalissimo himself” himself”(281). (281). Amabelle Amabelle is the the testimony testimony and, therefore, a guardian guardian of of her her history. history. The past, past, for for Amabelle, Amabelle, is palpable like a body; body; her her reflections reflectionsdefy defyeraerasure and add add imagination, imagination, memory, memory, and andpossibility possibilitytotocontested contestedHaitian Haitian history. As Elsass says, “Physical violence aims at destroying destroyingobjects objectsand and mental violence aims at destroying people; mental destroyingidentities” identities”(Elsass (Elsass157). 157).There There can be be no no doubt doubt of of the the extent can extent to to which whichHaitian Haitianlives liveshave havebeen beenannihilated. annihilated. Haitian scholar scholar Michel-Rolph Michel-Rolph Trouillot Trouillot likens likens the theerasure erasureofofhuman humanlives lives in Haiti to to the the erasure erasureof ofJewish Jewish identity identityininthe theconcentration concentrationcamps: camps:“the “the literature on literature on slavery slavery in in the theAmericas Americas and and on on the theHolocaust Holocaustsuggests suggeststhat that there may there may be be structural structuralsimilarities similaritiesininglobal globalsilences silencesor, or,atatthe thevery veryleast, least, that erasure and banalization are not unique to the the Haitian Haitian Revolution” Revolution” (96). His His argument argument is structured (96). structured around aroundthe thepower powergained gainedby bythe thevictors victors when they silence the stories of those who have been eliminated, berated, they silence the stories of those who have been eliminated, berated, or, at at the the very least, marginalized. or, marginalized. creates a story that With Amabelle and Sebastien, Danticat creates that follows follows in in an established tradition of of fictions fictions of of misery. misery. With With respect respect to to the theimpor imporheritage of tance of the heritage of Guinea Guinea preserved preservedin invodou, vodou,Joan Joan Dayan Dayansays saysof ofthis this literature: “The literature: “The novels novelsof ofJacques JacquesRoumain, Roumain,Jacques-Stephan Jacques-StephanAlexis, Alexis,and and

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Marie Chauvet examine the causes causes and effects effects of a misery unalleviated writers historicize historicize the the Haitian majority by attending and brutal. These writers attending to to the one thing that remains in a landscape of loss” (79). In this landscape of thing that remains in a landscape of loss” and beyond the loss, and the parameters parametersof ofthe thegods gods(many, (many,like likeDanny DannyLaFerrieére, LaFerrière, have humorously mentioned that the have the gods gods stay stay in in Haiti Haitiand anddo donot notmimigrate with with them themto tocolder colderplaces places in in North NorthAmerica), America),Danticat Danticatunderscores underscores the continued continued losses losses Haitians Haitiansand andDominicans Dominicansstill stillexperience. experience. These losses are experienced most most painfully painfullyinindeath. death.While Whilesearching searching Amabelle finds finds only only his his fading fading memory memory and testaments for Sebastien, Amabelle testaments of of his abandoned past at his mother’s house in Haiti. She is confronted with at his mother’s house in Haiti. She is confronted with how little the Haitian government government will will do do to help her her and and others others like like her. her. She waits waits in a long government-organized government-organized line line to tell her story, but the She the wait becomes futile when when the theauthorities authoritiesdecide decidethey theycan cando dono nomore moreand and tell everyone to to go gohome. home.The Thegenocidal genocidalevents, events,which whichwere wereonce onceflaflagrantly visible grantly visible in in the theshape shapeofofcorpses corpsesfloating floatingalong alongthe theMassacre MassacreRiver, River, wounded bodies in the makeshift makeshift camps, camps, and people crying into the the night, night, begin to fade when the the corpses corpses stop stop floating, floating, the the dead dead are are buried, buried,the thecamps camps empty and close close down, and the the bodily bodily wounds wounds and andbruises bruisesengage engagesome some never walk straight semblance of healing. Amabelle can never straightagain, again,and andher herfeafeatures are forever forever distorted distorted from from the the blows blows she she survived, survived, but but her herbody body barely exposes the the psychological psychological effects that that surviving survivingaadenied deniedmassacre massacre have on her and others. have on her and others. Psychological wounds are always the Psychological the hardest hardesttotodescribe, describe,ororeven evenpinpinpoint, in any accurate way. Memory plays tricks on survivors, either torturing them them with with the the horrors horrorsthey theyhave havelived lived or or relieving relieving them them of of those those horrors through horrors throughglimpses glimpsesof of happier happier past past moments. moments. This This stands stands out out clearly waking up up in a burial pit after the in the scene where a survivor tells of waking massacre and recalling his wedding night. night. “Waking up among among the the dead, dead, I started started screaming,” screaming,”the theman manfrom fromthe the pit went went on. on. “And “Andthen then II thought thought of my woman and our first cadaver pit night together, night together, and and in in spite spite of of all all the thecorpses, corpses, II smiled.” smiled.” The people around him smiled, too, at the beauty beauty of of such such an an innoinnocent moment, moment, when a young woman wakes up in her new man’s when young woman wakes up in her new man’s bed for the first first time time and andforgets forgetshow howshe shecame cametotobe bethere. there.(211) (211)

beauty of The beauty of waking up up in in aa bridal bridal bed bed is contrasted contrasted starkly starklyto tothe theterror terror of waking up amid amid corpses. corpses. Time is is expected expected to to heal healthe thesurvivors’ survivors’emoemotions. But just as their their bodies bodies heal heal haphazardly, haphazardly, their their emotions emotions never neverrere-

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cover from such brutality. Although Amabelle, cover Amabelle, unwillingly sensing the reality of reality of Sebastien’s death, death, enters entersaa daily daily rhythm rhythmofofwork workwith withhis hismother, mother, she cannot engage with life. She spends much of her time alone, cannot with life. She spends much of her time alone, cannot thought, continues to begin another love relationship and, despite logical logical thought, to wait for news news of of Sebastien. Sebastien. His His disappearance, disappearance, without confirmation of how or what happened, tortures tortures her. her. She cannot cannot bury buryhis hisbody bodyand andmake make peace with with his soul. She cannot peace cannot see see him himand andhelp helphim himheal; heal;instead, instead,she sheisis left with the memory of of their their conversations conversations in the the dark, dark, their their dreams dreams of of return to return toHaiti Haitias asaacouple, couple, and and the thesystematic, systematic,even evencelebrated, celebrated,elimination elimination of Haitians on on the theborder.’° border.16 Given Given the theeffect effectmemory memoryhas hasononAmabelle, Amabelle,itit becomes aa trap. Amabelle’s Amabelle’s clinging clinging to to what what few memories she has becomes has does does not allow allow her her to toheal. heal.Here, Here,again, again,the thebinary binarycontradiction contradictionbetween between memory as memory as healing healing and andmemory memoryasasdebilitating debilitatingisismade madeevident. evident. While thousands of people were murdered or uprooted While of people were murdered or uprootedfrom fromtheir their humble lives on the the Dominican Dominican border, border, letters letters exchanged exchanged between between the the two two presidents, Trujillo and and Vincent, Vincent, were werecongenial, congenial,even evenamicable amicable(Cuello). (Cuello). not seem Vincent did not seem to to be be outraged outragedby bythe theelimination eliminationofofhis hiscountrymen. countrymen. Meanwhile, Trujillo’s Trujillo’s orders orders inspired growing Meanwhile, growing nationalism, nationalism, shaped shapedby by eliminating “difference.” eliminating “difference.” He He looked looked to to European European fascists fascists such such as as Hitler Hitlertoto inspire his inspire his own own national nationaldiscourse. discourse.In In1936 1936the thenational nationalpaper paperListin ListínDiario Diario printed translated sections of Hitler’s Mein Kampf, in which overt translated sections of Hitler’s Mein Kampf, in which overtracial racial intolerance was admired and and encouraged. encouraged. Conversely, Conversely, he he also also welcomed welcomed Jews at at a price of five hundred Jews hundred dollars dollars per per person. person. They They were were relegated relegated mostly to a dairy farm in in Sosua, Sosua, on on the the north northcentral centralcoast coast of of the theCibao Cibao region near Puerto Plata. near Puerto Plata. Trujillo also also adopted adopted traditional traditional forms of Trujillo of leadership. leadership. He wore wore aa suit suit reminiscent of reminiscent ofNapoleon’s. Napoleon’s.And, And,after afterthe themassacre, massacre,he hechallenged challengedHaiti Haititoto war in in an an indirect indirect and and outmoded outmoded manner. manner. In In the the Diario Diario la la Marina Marina he war he stated stated against a people that he he had had thrown throwndown downthe thegauntlet gauntlet(“lancé (“lancélelegant”) gant”) against a people without honor.’” interesting. without honor.17 His choice of words to describe his actions is interesting. He does not say say that thathe hehad hadpeople peoplemurdered; murdered;instead, instead,he herefers referstotothe the medieval practice of of throwing throwing the glove down in order to challenge an oporder to challenge an opponent. Here the opponent opponent would would have have been been the the Haitians, Haitians, and and his his chalchalpresumably, would borlenge, presumably, would have have been beento totheir theirright rightofoflivelihood livelihoodononthe the border.According Accordingto tothe theDiario Diariola la Marina, Marina, he intended to end the der. the humiliation humiliation that Dominicans that Dominicans experienced experienced when when they theywere weresubjected subjectedtotoinferior inferiorpeople people like the the Haitians. like Haitians. Sténio Vincent’s Vincent's lack initial reaction Sténio lack of of initial reactionwas was rooted rootedin inself-interest. self-interest.PracPrac-

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tically speaking, speaking, having having thousands thousands of starving Haitians returned tically returned to tohis his only meant meant more more misery misery and the the greater greater possibility of of portion of the island only another revolution. Nonetheless, international pressures forced Trujillo to another revolution. Nonetheless, international pressures forced Trujillo to money to offer a sum of money to the the surviving survivingfamilies. families.The Themoney moneywas wasnot notpaid paidinin saw any any remuneration remuneration or full, and very few people saw or apology apology for for the the deaths deaths incurred. In In essence, essence, the the corruption corruption that that existed existed in in the higher incurred. higher political political arena erased the the dimensions dimensions of of the the massacre, massacre, stealing stealing from from the thepeople people the the history of of the the crime crime committed committed and and an anofficial official space space of of mourning. mourning. The The message that that the presidents clear: human human life life was was worth worth very message presidents gave was clear: little. little. The Farming Farming of of Bones Bones speaks speaksto tothese theseruthless ruthless historical historical abominations. abominations. The evokes aa situation situation in which memory is both urThe novel imaginatively evokes nonfunctional. If If memory memory can be stolen gently needed needed and absolutely absolutely nonfunctional. from the masses by corrupt, powerful leaders, it masses corrupt, powerful leaders, can be returned to to the the through literature. by the the imperfecpeople through literature.Danticat’s Danticat’s work work is complicated by tion of history. tion history. The The service service she she performs performsas asaasocially sociallyand andpolitically politicallyaware aware writer is located in the stark, uncompromising uncompromising way she lays out the writer the conditraumatic pasts, traumatized traumatized memory, tion of traumatic memory, and the the dysfunctional dysfunctional aspect aspect memory. Part Part of of the story she underlines of memory. underlines is is that that terrible terriblethings thingshave have happened, nobody acknowledges acknowledges them, or, worse, everybody knows but but nobody does anything anything to change the circumstances. Instead, repeated amto change the circumstances. Instead, repeated amnesties give criminals impunity. The survivors survivors cling cling to totheir theirpast pastgrievgrievand are are consequently consequently trapped by that that moment. ances and moment. The The past past is no longer a past but a present present that thatimprisons imprisonsthem themininpain painand andfear. fear.Paralyzed, Paralyzed,the the victims/survivors cannot ignite the imaginative engines that might othervictims/survivors cannot ignite the imaginative engines that might otherthem into wise propel them into possible possible new new futures. futures.For Forexample, example,while whilewaiting waitingfor for Sebastien one night, night, Amabelle remarks, remarks, “When “Whenyou youhave haveso sofew fewrememremembrances, you you cling cling to to them them tightly tightly and repeat them over and over in your brances, mind so time will not erase them” mind them”(45). (45). She She closes her eyes and remembers remembers her parents’ parents’ house, house, and and the the Citadelle Citadellefrom fromaafurther further past past that that her own past, her loomed over over that that house. Her recall is double. double. She She remembers remembers her her deceased deceased loomed house. Her recall is family in order to to ease ease her her discomfort discomfort about about the thedisappeared disappeared Sebastien’s Sebastien’s precarious situation. situation. She She also also remembers remembers the Citadelle, which links links her her precarious Citadelle, which subjective present present to to her herhistorical historicalpast. past.La LaCitadelle CitadelleLaferriére, Laferrière,which whichwas was constructed to protect the the area area from fromaaFrench Frenchinvasion, invasion,isisaamassive massiveforforla Ferrière. Ferriére. ItIt overlooks overlooks Cap CapHaïtien Haitien tress balanced on top of the 900m Pic la represents Haitian and represents Haitiangrandeur. grandeur.ItItalso also isis tied tied to to another anothercruel cruelleader, leader,the the poet Henri Christophe. Christophe. “To “To prove prove his his men’s men’s loyalty, loyalty, Henri Henri Christophe Christophe

54 TheThe Tears 54 TearsofofHispaniola Hispaniola

once ordered troops troops to to march marchoff off the theedge edgeof of the theCitadelle; Citadelle;they theyfell felltototheir their deaths below” (Wucker 14). 14). Violence is at the the root rootof ofaahistory historyAmabelle Amabelle clings to. to.

Literature: Citizenship Bodies in Literature: CitizenshipininLife Life Diaspora Haitians, geographically geographically removed removed from the Diaspora the island’s island’s misery misery but but continually aware of continually of the theeffects effectsofofrelentless relentlessviolence—historical, violence—historical, ecoecoHaitian nomic, natural—become active participants in Haitian Haitian politics and Haitian support groups. Organizations such as the National Coalition for Haitian Haitian Rights are doing groundbreaking groundbreaking work work educating educatingHaitians, Haitians,Haitian HaitianAmerAmericans, and and others about the icans, the possibilities possibilities of democracy democracy in Haiti. Authors such as Danticat, whose whose creative creative work work isisgrounded groundedininpolitical politicalactivism, activism, facilitate participation in politics facilitate politics both both in in Haiti Haitiand andininthe theUnited UnitedStates. States. Danticat’s stories illustrate illustrateindividuals individualswho whogive giveform formtotomemory memoryand andconcontext to citizenship. citizenship. Danticat Danticat creates creates human humancharacters characterswho whoare arecomplex complexinin motivation, thought, thought, emotion, emotion,and anddeed, deed,and andthus thusdescribes describesthe theeffects effects violence has on people. She nuances nuances the theway waysurvivors/victims survivors/victimsdeal dealwith with violence, and the ways ways in in which which memory memorydoes doesand anddoes doesnot notwork workfor forthem. them. numerous interviews In one of numerous interviewswith withRenée RenéeShea, Shea,Danticat Danticattells tellshow howAmaAma“modeled on a real story” belle is “modeled story” told told by byAlbert AlbertHicks, Hicks, who who covered covered the the massacre for Colliers Magazine. In his later massacre later book book Blood Blood in in the theStreets, Streets, that an Hicks reported that an officer officer had his his maid maid slaughtered slaughteredat atthe thedinner dinnertable table in order to show his compliance the night that Trujillo ordered the massato show his compliance the night that Trujillo ordered the massaDanticat was inspired by this cre. Danticat this maid, maid, but but wanted wantedto tochange changethe thestory storyand and make her survive survive (Shea (Shea 14). 14). With her With her stories, stories,Danticat Danticatpays payshomage homagetotothe themaid maidand, and,iningeneral, general,toto those that have been forgotten by history. Other characters in The that have forgotten by history. Other characters in The FarmFarming of Bones, such such as as Joél Joël and and his his father, father,Kongo, Kongo,as aswell wellas asthe thepriest, priest,Father Father Romain, are are men with names (albeit Romain, (albeit names and people people invented by the the author) who author) who will never never truly trulydie die (282), (282), at at least least not not in in the the memory memoryof ofthose those who have read the novel. novel. By exposure exposure to these these characters, characters, the reader reader isis invited to reflect reflect on on how how terrible terriblesome someaspects aspectsof ofHaitian Haitianhistory historyhave have reader, in in shock shock and disgust, can ignore the message been. The reader, message or or can can be be motivated to do something for Haiti, with a better understanding of the motivated understanding of the sociocultural and sociocultural and historical historical mechanisms mechanismsthat thatdrive driveit.'* it.18Danticat’s Danticat’scharaccharacters defy obliteration obliteration from from memory memory and andHaitian Haitianhistory. history.Even EvenJoél, Joël, the the first character character to to be be killed—in killed—in the thenight nightby byaaracing racingcar carbefore beforethe themassacre massacre begins—is immortalized. immortalized.Kongo Kongokeeps keepshis hisson’s son’smemory memoryalive alivebybycreating creating

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Joél’s likeness likeness in in a mask he gives Joël’s gives to to Amabelle Amabelle to tocarry carryback backtotoHaiti. Haiti.Joél Joël has a mask that that recalls recalls his his name. name. This This mask mask plays plays an animportant importantrole roleinin linking him him to to his his ancestral ancestralpast, past,underscoring underscoringthe theresilience resilienceofofAfrica Africadedespite the repression repressionexperienced experiencedin inthe theDominican DominicanRepublic. Republic.Like Likethe theanancient masks of the cient the Roman RomanSenate, Senate,Joél’s Joël’s mask mask situates situates him himwithin withinthe the drama of his people, symbolizing him him as as aa moral, moral,hardworking hardworkingperson personafaffiliated with a community and with the the long long history historylinking linkingthe theDominiDominiHaiti, and can Republic, Haiti, and Africa. Africa. Father Romain, who after after the the massacre massacre loses loses his his memory, memory, believes believes that that “remembering—though sometimes painful—can make you strong” (73). “remembering—though sometimes painful—can make you strong” (73). Sebastien, takes takes great heart heart from He, like Sebastien, from the thefact factthat thatthey theyhave havecommon common roots in in one one Haitian Haitianvillage. village.“This “Thiswas washow howpeople peopleleft leftimprints imprintsofofthemthemin each each other’s other’s memory memory so that if you selves in you left left first first and and went wentback back to to the the common village, you could carry, if not a letter, a piece of treasured clothcommon village, you could carry, if not a letter, a piece of treasured clothing, some message to their their loved loved ones ones that thattheir theirplace placewas wasstill stillamong amongthe the living” (73). Being among the the living living isissynonymous synonymouswith withworking, working,being being alive, belonging to some some collective. collective. But Joél Joël is killed, Kongo goes off into into the night, night, Sebastien Sebastien isis disappeared, disappeared, and and Father Father Romain Romainisis tortured torturedsosobrubrutally that tally thatthe theonly onlyway wayhe heregains regainsa agrasp graspon onlife lifeisisby byforgetting, forgetting,giving givingupup the priesthood, priesthood, marrying, marrying,and andhaving havingaafamily. family.Amabelle Amabellewill willsurvive survivetoto witness the destruction of the world she knew and any meaning she the destruction of the world she knew and any meaning shemight might have given it. When she hears hears about about Trujillo’s Trujillo’s plan—whispers that that aa mass mass murder to to eliminate eliminate the theHaitians Haitiansisisunder underway—she way—shecan’t can’tbelieve believeit.it.ItIt like Sebastien, Sebastien, contributes contributes to seems so absurd. She has a job; she, like to the thestrucstructure of the town. Stealing meaning from her life is equivalent to stealing the town. Stealing meaning from her life is equivalent to stealing her life. In the the aftermath aftermathofofthe themassacre, massacre,little littlesemblance semblanceofofcivilization civilization remains for a survivor survivor such such as as Amabelle, Amabelle, who must must struggle struggleto tocope copeand and again find meaning meaning in in the theworld. world. Of the survivors survivors of of the the concentration concentration camps camps in in Nazi Nazi Germany, Germany, Peter Peter Elsass has has written written that “the “the camps eliminated the there being Elsass the possibility of there a higher meaning meaning of of life. life. The The survivor survivorbecame, became, in in aa sense, sense, the theperson personwho who had lived through the crisis of civilization and suffered its breakdown” the crisis of civilization and suffered its breakdown” (188). Psychiatrist Psychiatrist Victor Frankl, who was a survivor (188). survivorof ofthe thecamps, camps,wrote wrote that people lives that people gave up living living when when they theyfound foundno nomore moremeaning meaninginintheir their lives (Elsass 187). 187).Bruno Bruno Bettelheim Bettelheim theorized that (Elsass thatby by“keeping “keepingindividual individualand and spiritual morality morality high, high, they theycould could combat combat personality personalitydissolution dissolutionand and[re[retain] hope” hope” (Bettelheim (Bettelheim ininElsass Elsass188). 188).Elsass Elsasspoints pointsout, out,however, however,that that cooperating with the guards or by many people survived in the camps by cooperating stealing from from weaker weakerinmates. inmates.In Ineither eithercase, case,survival survivalwas wascontingent contingentupon upon

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finding meaning to life life or or upon upon aa complete complete subversion subversion of of the thesocial social concontract of correct correct human humanconduct. conduct.Arguably, Arguably,survival survivalwas wasachieved achievedonly onlyvia via extreme responses. Amabelle’s character exposes survival in a middleresponses. Amabelle’s character exposes survival in middleplace, survival survival in in a state state of emotional paralysis. place, Amabelle, as as aa survivor survivor in in and and through through literature, Amabelle, literature, embodies embodies the the possipossibility of Haitian Haitian history bility historyand andmemory. memory.While Whilethe themassacre massacrestole stolethe theplace placeofof many in this this world, world, Danticat’s writing resituates them them within withinit. it.ItItisisnot not only Danticat’s personal pain that that is is addressed addressed through throughcharacters characterssuch suchasas Amabelle, but but also also the pain of Amabelle, of dehumanization dehumanization that that we we all allexperience experience through such unaddressed violence. Violence cannot simply vanish through such unaddressed violence. Violence simply vanishinto into thin air. For this reason, Amabelle Amabelle returns returns at the end of the end of the the novel novel to to visit visit Sefiora Valencia, Valencia, with with whom whom she had grown Señora grown up, up, serving servingher, her,even evenbringing bringing her children children into intothe theworld. world.Amabelle Amabellenotices noticesthat thateverything everythinghas haschanged. changed. Even the stream stream is is gone; gone; houses houses have have been been built builtover overit. it.Later Laterwhen whenSenora Señora Valencia takes takes her her to a waterfall, it looks different, smaller, smaller, than than she had Valencia remembered. The terrain has been cleared and built up. There is no remremnant of nant of nights nightsof ofmassacres, massacres,of of el el corte—which corte—whichmeans meansthe theactual actualcutting cuttingoror something, and was used by Dominicans to refer to that severance of something, that brubrutal harvest harvest of of 1937 1937 when when humans, humans,not notsugarcane sugarcanecrops, crops,were werefelled. felled.There There is no monument monument to to recall recall the thetragedy tragedyof ofsenseless senselessmurders, murders,only onlynew newararchitecture to underscore the Generalissimo’s project of national improveto underscore the Generalissimo’s project of national improvement. ment. The absence of revenge revenge or or mourning for such The absence of such aa tragedy tragedy effectively effectively erased the memory memoryof ofthose thosewho whohad hadbeen beenmassacred. massacred.Shame Shameand andsilence silence took the place of outrage and contestation. Michele Wucker states, place outrage and contestation. Michele Wucker states, “The “The become invisible invisible in in order order to survive” (86). (86). But But their their invisHaitians have become ibility (silence) has not helped them survive; instead, they they subsist subsist in in aa culculture of ture of violence violence and and trauma traumathat thathas hasreceived receivedlimited limitedredress. redress.Literature Literature can be a strong antidote antidote to tothis thissilence, silence,this thisviolence, violence, and andits itsconsequent consequent trauma. What trauma. Whatcan canwe wedo do when whenwe wewitness witnesspeople peoplebeing beingmassacred massacredininother other countries, in other other languages? languages?IfIf the themassacres massacresend, end,then thenwe weimmediately immediately hope to forget forget the the tragedies tragediesand andmove moveon ontotoaacalmer calmerfuture. future. But as Sylvie’s and and Senora SeñoraValencia’s Valencia’s characters characterssuggest, suggest,violence violenceleaves leaves a terrible imprint imprint that thatcannot cannotbe beerased erasedwith withnew newbuildings buildingsand andsquares. squares. Haitian who must must have been Sylvie, aa Haitian been saved from the the massacre massacre by by Sefiora Señora Valencia,stays stays to to the side, lowers Valencia, lowers her eyes, eyes, and and remains remains silent. silent. Sefiora Señora Valencia does does not not recognize Amabelle Amabelle and and has very little Valencia little to to say say when whenshe she realizes who who she she is. is. The awkwardness awkwardness of of the thescene scenereveals revealsthe thedeep deeppain painofof the past past and and underscores underscoresSefiora SeñoraValencia’s Valencia’s inability inabilityto todeal dealwith withit.it.Still, Still,

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that she saved the life of another Haitian girl, even though her husband was a Trujillista military military man manwho whowas wassupposedly supposedlyleading leadingthe themassacre, massacre, also reveals great courage on her part. The three characters embody her part. The three characters embodythe the effects of the massacre on both effects of the massacre on both Haitians Haitiansand andDominicans. Dominicans.Amabelle Amabellecannot cannot cannot address address the memory of heal from her her wounds, wounds, Sefiora Señora Valencia Valencia cannot of and Sylvie Sylvie lives lives in in perpetual fear and with such extreme violence, violence, and with many many questions. questions. When they they go go to to the thewaterfall, waterfall,Sylvie Sylvie shakes shakes with withanxiety anxietyand andasks, asks, “Why parsley?” parsley?” (303) (303) The The question question refers refers totohow howsome someofofTrujillo’s Trujillo’s henchmen asked people to say the the word word perejil, perejil, Spanish Spanish for for “parsley.” “parsley.” If they could they could correctly correctly pronounce pronounce the ther,r,they theywere werespared, spared,considered considerednative native Dominicans. Sylvie cannot forget this this image image of of people screaming “perejil, pesil, pe—” She is is unconvinced unconvincedby bythe thesefiora’s señora’sresponse. response.Her Hercharacter, character, subservient and briefly presented at the end of the novel, signals subservient and briefly presented at the end of the novel, signalsthe theproproIt cannot cannot be healed without without redress. found effects of violence. It redress.Sylvie Sylviereprerepresents the trauma sents trauma of of an an entire entiregeneration. generation.Her Hercharacter characterhighlights highlights the the presence of the past in the the Dominican DominicanRepublic Republicdespite despitethe thenew newterrain terrainand and many unaddressed many unaddressed emotional emotionaland andphysical physicalwounds. wounds. changed geography geography does doesnot not erase erase the the pain pain and and the the terror of the The changed the The Farming Farming of ofBones Bonesisisthus thusaamonument monument that that does not exist in massacre. The any border town. It is an international, literary monument monument to to life, life, resisresistance, and survival. survival.

Textual Memorials Textual Memorials conclude this this chapter, chapter, let let me mereturn return to the the inspiring To conclude inspiringwords wordsspoken spokenby byDr. Dr. Maurice O. Wallace in in his his funeral funeral sermon Maurice O. Wallace sermon for for Bem: Bem:

Don’t hang up your your harp, harp,even even in inthe thedarkest darkestday. day. Don’t hang up your your harp, harp,ititmay maybe beall allyou youhave, have,but butititmay maybe beall all you need. Don’t hang up your your harp, harp,lied lied on, on, cheated, cheated, talked talked about, about, mistreated. mistreated. Don’t hang up your your harp, harp,’buked, ’buked, scorned, scorned, talked about about sure sureas as you you born. born. Don’t hang up your your harp. harp.(Holloway (Holloway 190) 190)

These words words of of survival survival and and resistance resistance are are critical critical in in our our considerations considerations of These of the meanings meanings of of memories memories in inthe theface faceofofviolence. violence.Different Differentacts actsofofviovioand the the ensuing ensuing memories, lence, and memories,are aremeant meanttotobreak breakpeople peopleand andcommunicommunities down. Danticat shows the ways that memory can be a prison that memory can be a prisonhouse. house.

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She also offers us a story that thatwe we can can link link to toother othertexts. texts.One Onethat thatflares flares to mind is is the the Declaration Declaration on on the theRights RightsofofMan, Man,later lateredited editedand andrerenamed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It calls for respect Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It calls for respect and honor: honor: and

human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They All human are endowed endowed with with reason and should should act towards one are reason and and conscience conscience and act towards one another in another in a spirit spirit of brotherhood. brotherhood....No . . . Noone oneshall shallbebeheld heldininslavery slavery or servitude servitude . . . [or] [or] subjected subjected to torture or or to to cruel, cruel, inhuman inhuman or or treatment or degrading treatment or punishment. punishment.Everyone Everyonehas hasthe theright righttotorecrecperson before before the the law[,] lawJ,]. ... ognition everywhere as a person . . the right right to to an an [judicial]remedy[,] remedy|,] .... .. [freedom effective [judicial] [freedom from] from] arbitrary arbitraryarrest, arrest,dedetention or tention orexile[,] exile[,] ... .. .aafair fairand andpublic publichearing hearingby byan anindependent independentand and impartial tribunal[,] tribunall,] ..... .the impartial theright righttotobebepresumed presumedinnocent innocentuntil until guilty],] . . . [freedom from] proved guilty[,] from] arbitrary arbitraryinterference interferencewith withhis his family, home home or correspondence[,] correspondence],] ... privacy, family, . . .freedom freedomofofmovement movement residence],] .... .. the and residence[,] the right righttotoseek seekand andenjoy enjoyininother othercountries countries asylum|],]... nationality],]...the asylum[,] . . . the the right to a nationality[,] . . . theright righttotomarry marryand andto to found aa family[,] family],] .... .. the found the right righttotoown ownproperty|,] property[,]. .. . .freedom freedomofof thought, conscience | thought, conscience and and religion|,] religion[,]. . . .ofofopinion opinionand andexpression|, expression[,] association|,] ... ..... .of of peaceful peaceful assembly and association[,] . . .the theright righttototake takepart partinin the government governmentof ofhis hiscountry|,] country[,]. .. . .[and] [and]the theright rightofofequal equalaccess accesstoto public service in his his country. country. Drafted in 1945 1945 during during the theSan SanFrancisco Francisco conference conference on on the theUnited UnitedNaNations and finally finally put putinto intoeffect effectin in1966, 1966,this thisdeclaration declarationrepresents representsananininternational call ternational call against against violence violence such such as as the theNazi Nazigenocide genocideof ofJews Jewsduring during World War War II. II. Reminiscent Reminiscent of World of documents documentssuch suchas as the theFrench FrenchDeclaration Declarationof of the Rights Rights of of Man, Man, itit too tooisisfailing failingto toenforce enforcerespect respectfor forhuman humanlives. lives.PoPolitical theorists theorists have noted that the litical the problems problems with an an international internationaltreaty treaty are rooted in the the way way different different cultures cultures define define sovereignty, sovereignty, turning to to “traditions” as “traditions” as a way to evade laws that would, for example, grant citizencitizenship to women. women. When When nations nationsenter enterwar, war,the theold oldadage adage“All “Allisisfair fairininlove love and war” seems to permit permit greater greaterviolence violenceto tooccur. occur. The The parameters parametersof of rerehuman rights spect for human rightsare areseverely severelyobscured obscuredby bythe theneed needtotowin, win,through through brutality, and sometimes force, brutality, sometimescomplete completeobliteration obliterationofofthe theenemy. enemy.At Atthat that point, all suffering is part part of of the thebattlefield; battlefield; all allrights rightsare arebut buta anotion. notion. Haiti’s colonial colonial and and other leaders—including the Lavalas Haiti’s Lavalas government of of Aristide, blamed for recent recent atrocities—have atrocities—have disenfranchised disenfranchisedthe thepeople peopleinin order to give power to to aa select few.” few.19

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Danticat’s literature literature honors the people Danticat’s people and remembers remembers the the gods gods and and goddesses. For example, The Farming of Bones is dedicated dedicated to to Metres MetrèsDlo, Dlo, the female spirit of of the the river riverto towhom whomAmabelle Amabelle dedicates dedicates and and tells tells the the honors the story. It also honors the powerful powerfulfemale femalespirit spiritErzulie. Erzulie.Erzulie Erzulieis,is,IIbelieve, believe, invoked by the very exposition of the text. text. An important importantfigure figurein inHaitian Haitian vodou, she is “the dream dream impaled impaled eternally eternallyupon uponthe thecosmic cosmiccross-roads cross-roads through where the world of men and the world of divinity meet, and it is through her pierced heart that that ‘man ‘man ascends ascends and and the the gods gods descend’” descend’” (Deren 145). According to to Maya Deren, who received According received a Guggenheim award award to to do do reresearch in Haiti, Erzulie is the goddess of love and impossible perfection. search the goddess of love and impossible perfection. Since this this perfection does not exist, she instead Since instead witnesses witnesses the the failures failuresof of man and man and must mustweep. weep. Her Her “wound “woundisisperpetual” perpetual”(145). (145).Similarly, Similarly,the thewound wound and pain of Haitian history history and and the theHaitian Haitianpeople peopleisisperpetual. perpetual.DantiDanticat’s stories underscore this, but also add a dimension of hope to that cat’s stories underscore this, but also add dimension that dismal picture. picture. She She does doesnot not put put her her harp harp down down and and sings sings through through her dismal fiction. fiction. “Nineteen Thirty-Seven,” In “Nineteen Thirty-Seven,”aashort shortstory storyfrom fromDanticat’s Danticat’s1995 1995colleccollecKrak!, the the protagonist carries a crying Madonna every tion Krik? Krak!, every time time she she visits her mother in prison. visits prison. The mother and daughter of this story story are are survivors of of the 1937 survivors 1937 massacre, massacre, when the elder elder saw saw her herown ownmother mother chopped up by the chopped the Generalissimo’s Generalissimo’s soldiers. soldiers. Her Her loss loss and andpain painwere wereasasso slightly slightly by her own daughter’s survival. She had flown and suaged ever so escaped the the massacre. massacre. In Haiti she escaped she was was accused accused of being being aa loup-garou, loup-garou,aa could get get out out of of her her skin and fly at night. She was imprisoned witch who could for this and, on her death, burned burned so so that that she she would would not nothaunt hauntlittle littlechilchildren. Throughout the the story, story, she asks if the Madonna has cried and at one point breaks point breaks down down in in sobs sobs herself. herself. Her Her daughter daughterwatches watchessilently. silently.The Thetears tears the Madonna and of her her mother embody the of the the perpetual perpetual pain pain experienced by someone who has survived survived the the injustices injustices of of murderous murderous soldiers soldiers and and ignorant policemen. policemen. Erzulie is represented represented by bythe theMadonna, Madonna,recalled recalledby by the mother, and honored silently by the daughter.” daughter.20 Danticat’s intimate intimate stories of the Danticat’s the dead, dead, and the the potential potentialsurvivors, survivors,of of the 1937 massacre massacre creates creates aa narrative narrativespace spacefor formourning mourninglosses, losses,recognizrecognizing the the pain pain those thoselosses losseshave havecut cutinto intopeople’s people’slives, lives,and andenvisioning envisioninglife life with dignity despite with despite the experience experience of those those horrors horrors and and despite despite the the that human knowledge that humanbeings beingsare arenot notonly onlycapable capableofofcommitting committingatrociatrocities but continue continue to to commit commit them. them. On On aa constructive constructive note, note, however, however, novels such as Danticat’s may help economic refugees change their theirstatus statustotopopolitical refugees (and (and prompt promptchanges changesininU.S. U.S.immigration immigrationpolicies policiestoward toward

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Haitians). The global lesson of The Farming Farming of of Bones Bones is is to to emphasize emphasizethe the potential of human beings and the need to continue continue fighting fighting for for human human rights. Danticat’s Danticat’s literature literature speaks speaks to to aa future future where memory is not abolished and the the beauty beautyof ofpeople people like like Sebastien Sebastien and andAmabelle Amabelle isis recognized. recognized. Through fiction, Through fiction, different differentversions versionsof oflife life in inHaiti Haitiand andthe theDominican DominicanReRepublic are shaped from the darkness public darkness of of silence. silence. Fiction serves as a site of This memory memory functions as aa memorial memorial that that permits the recognimemory. This tion of trauma, tion trauma,creates createsaa space space for for mourning mourninglosses, losses,and andinspires inspiressurvival— survival— letting go letting go and and moving movingon. on.As Asaa memorial, memorial,The TheFarming FarmingofofBones Bonestraces tracesthe the horror of the massacre and scripts a memory of human possibility. horror of the massacre and scripts a memory of human possibility.

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What Happens When Memory Hurts? Hurts? Haunting of The Haunting of Rape Rape

Haiti is a country country where where most mostaggressors aggressors act act with withimpunity,’ impunity,1live liveamong among their victims, and often feel proud of their actions. Yet violations must their victims, and often feel proud of their actions. Yet violations mustbebe exposed and addressed, addressed, however however distant distantjustice justicemight mightseem. seem.Rape, Rape,one oneofofa a number of number of commonly commonlydeployed deployedacts actsof ofviolence violencein inHaiti, Haiti,has hasbeen beenreceivreceiving legal and community attention over over the the last lastfourteen fourteenyears. years.For Forexexthe document ample, the document“Rape “RapeininHaiti: Haiti:AAWeapon WeaponofofTerror,” Terror,”a a1994 1994report reportbyby Human Rights Rights Watch Watch and and the theNational NationalCoalition Coalitionfor forHaitian HaitianRefugees Refugees called the the National National Coalition (now called Coalition for for Haitian HaitianRights), Rights),sheds shedssome somelight lighton on specifically the cultural, cultural,historical, historical,and andpolitical politicalcircumstances circumstancesofofrape. rape.It It specifically studies sexual abuse under under General GeneralRaoul RaoulCédras’s Cédras’sregime, regime,but butalso alsoexexlong-term, tacit policies around rape. The report reveals at least nine poses long-term, cases of of politically politically motivated motivated violations. It It also also cites cites aa United United Nations/OrNations/Orcases ganization of American States Civilian Mission report that documented States Civilian Mission report that documented sixty-six rapes 1994 (11). It It sixty-six rapes of of aa political political nature naturebetween betweenJanuary Januaryand andMay May 1994 (11). references the victims’ victims’ hesitation to testify and and their theirexperience experience that thatany any appeal to to the judicial system is futile. “Victims of of rape by state agents or appeal or their auxiliaries fear that that lodging lodging aa complaint complaint will will only only further furtherendanger endanger their and their their family’s family’s lives” (3). (3). One victim victim told the docent docent that that she she never reported never reportedher herrape rapeto tothe thepolice. police.“She “Shefeared fearedfor for[her] [her]life lifegoing goingthere” there” (10-11). Another woman (10–11). woman reported reported witnessing witnessingthe therape rapeof ofaa woman womanin inaa car car by at least two uniformed uniformedpolicemen. policemen. Her Herreaction reactionwas wasnot notuncommon. uncommon.“I“I report what did not report whathappened happenedtotothe thepolice: police:What Whatwould wouldhave havebeen beenthe theuse? use? They were They were the theones onesresponsible. responsible.IIcan’t can’t even even imagine imaginewhat whateventually eventuallyhaphappened to that thatwoman” woman”(11). (11).Another Anotherwoman womanwho whowas wasinterviewed interviewedsays says “This happened simply, “This happened to to lots lotsof ofgirls. girls.ItItjust justseems seemstotobebeaacommon commonprobproband... lem and . . that . thatisiswhat whatthe theparamilitary paramilitarythugs thugsdo doatatnight” night”(12). (12).UnfortuUnfortu-

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nately, the report report did did not not study studyrape rapewithout withoutpolitical politicalmotivation, motivation,which which receives little little ifif no no attention attention in recent human rights/political studies. receives In Haiti, honor continues continues to to be be one one of of the the most most valuable valuable possessions possessions a 2 woman, and woman, and her her family, family, can can maintain.” maintain. Therefore, Therefore,rape rapeexplicitly explicitlythreatens threatens the reputation reputation of of the thevictim victimand andher herfamily. family.Many Manyvictims victimsavoid avoidgoing going public—or reporting reportingthe thecrime crimetotopolice policeor ormilitary militaryofficials, officials,who whooften oftenare are “authorized” rapists—in rapists—in an attempt “authorized” attempt to to preserve preserve their theirmoral moralstanding standing within the within the community. community.Victims Victims (as they they prefer prefer to tocall call themselves themselves in in Haiti) Haiti) and survivors (as many women women prefer prefer to to call call themselves themselves in in the theUnited United States) suffer suffer long-term long-termconsequences consequencesfrom fromrape, rape,whether whetherititisispart partofofstate state terror or terror oran anisolated isolatedincident incidentofofabuse. abuse.The Therepercussions repercussionsofofrape rapeare aremanimanifold. Disregard of women in in law law and and society societycharacterizes characterizesHaiti’s Haiti’shistory history continues to and continues to permeate permeateits itsculture, culture,despite despitethe therecent recentactivism activismofofgroups groups such as Enfofanm (Information for and about women), Dwa such Enfofanm (Information for about women), Dwa Fanm Fanm (women’s rights), rights), and Fanm Yo (women’s Yo La (Women, We Are Here), Here), SOFA SOFA (Soli(Solidarité Fanm Ayisyen, translated translated as asHaitian HaitianWomen’s Women’sSolidarity SolidarityGroup) Group) and Kay Fanm (Women’s House), House), and and despite despite global global attention attentiontotowomen’s women’s rights at meetings rights meetings including including the the Fourth Fourth International International Conference Conference on on Women in Beijing Women Beijing in in 1995. 1995. State Staterepression, repression,random randomrape, rape,and anddenied denied memories of of crimes crimes have have long-term long-termemotional emotionaland andpsychological psychologicaleffects. effects. Rape in Haiti Haiti is real, and victims are underserved. There are few places real, and victims are underserved. There are few placesfor for women to women to get get aid, and even those those Haitian Haitianrape rapevictims victimswho wholater latermigrate migratetoto other countries isolate themselves themselves from from their their new new surroundsurroundother countries sometimes sometimes isolate support—out of ings—and services and support—out of fear fear and and shame. shame. Rape and and its its repercussions repercussions belittle women, making them feel they they have have no rights, only haunting haunting memories. memories. What What happens happens to tosurvivors? survivors?How Howdo do they deal with the the violence violence that has has been been inflicted inflicted on their their bodies, bodies, their and their their communities? families, and communities? How How can can isolated isolated incidents incidents on on aa faraway faraway island be reviewed within the the larger larger context context of of violations violations of of women women interinternationally? Does nationally? Does historical historical and and legal legal documentation documentationoffer offeradequate adequateinforinformation about tragedies tragedies faced faced by women in in Haiti Haiti and andits itsdiaspora? diaspora?Can Can fiction’s disclosure of violence create a still-needed space for public testifiction’s disclosure violence space for public testimony and mony and for for personal personal possibility, possibility, such such as as recovery recovery from fromtrauma traumaand anddisdiscovery of meaning in life?

Attempting Address Attempting Address There are many many obstacles obstacles to understanding understandingrape’s rape’s full full impact on individuindividuOften, survivors are accused of being being either victims who als in a society. society. Often, accused of

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recall the violence for personal gain gain or or seductresses seductresses who who are are responsible responsiblein in for the the violations. Internationally, Internationally, rape has received received embarrassembarrasssome way for ingly little attention. attention. In the the United United States, less than one rape in ten is reconviction of ofthe the offender offender occurs occursininonly onlyone onecase caseout out ported to the police; conviction 3 Some reports state that a woman is raped every five minhundred.* of a hundred. Some reports state that a woman is raped every five minutes in the the United United States, States, yet yet we we live live in in aa “society “society where where violence violence against against excused and and rationalized, rationalized, the the testiwomen is supported and condoned, condoned, excused distorted, and and mony of survivors survivors of of sexual sexual abuse abuse is is silenced, silenced, ignored, ignored, distorted, drowned out by the the thundering thunderingvoices voices of of the the patriarchs” patriarchs” (Tal (Tal 197). Elsewhere it may be worse. In Brazil, Brazil, Title TitleIV [Vofofthe the Penal PenalCode Codestates statesthat that crime against custom custom and “rape is a crime and not not aa crime crime against againstpersons” persons”(Caldeira (Caldeira Legally,the the personal personal dimensions dimensions of rape 204). Legally, rape are are thus thustrivialized. trivialized.ItItcould could said that that the most commonly underreported abuses are those suffered be said by women, especially sexual sexual abuse abuse and and rape rape (Hayner (Hayner 77). Repeatedly, Repeatedly, and and internationally, the safe from from personal personal violation violation isis internationally, the right right of of women women to to a life safe contested one. aa contested one. rights as as individuals individualsininHaiti Haitiisisfraught fraught with with The history of women’s women’s rights though Haiti was one of the original members of the United neglect, even though Nations taking part part in in the theDecember December10, 10,1948, 1948, Universal Universal Declaration Declaration of of Human Rights. International human rights rights conventions conventions have have addressed women’s status status in in print print and in in theory: theory: In In 1949 1949 the the International International DeclaraDeclarawomen’s Human Rights tion of Human Rights outlawed outlawed prostitution prostitutionand andexploitation. exploitation.In In1954 1954 the the United Nations United Nations adopted adopted the theConvention Conventionon onthe thePolitical PoliticalRights RightsofofWomen. Women. The UN’s UN’s Convention Convention on The on the the Elimination Elimination of of All All Forms Forms of of Discrimination Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), agreed upon in December 1979 against Women (CEDAW), upon in December 1979 and and ratified ratifiedby by September 3, outlines concern Haiti on September 3, 1981, outlines concern with, with, and proposes proposes policy for, citizenship. Haiti Haiti engaged women’s safety and citizenship. engaged in further furtherdiscussions discussionsabout about women’s rights rights at the Inter-American women’s Inter-American Convention Convention on the the Prevention, Prevention, Punishment, and Punishment, and Eradication Eradication of of Violence Against Women, the Fourth Fourth InInternational Conference ternational Conference on on Women Women in in Beijing in 1995 (the Haitian delegaLise-Marie Dejean, Dejean, named named in in 1994 1994 as as the the first first head of tion was led by Dr. Lise-Marie the country’s Ministry of Women’s Affairs and Women’s Rights), and the the Ministry of Women’s Women’s Rights), and Belém do Par4 Convention in 1996. Haiti also ratified the International Belém do Pará Convention in 1996. Haiti also ratified the International Convention on on the of Racial Racial Discrimination Discrimination in in Convention the Elimination Elimination of of All All Forms Forms of

1972 and and the International 1972 International Covenant Covenant on on Civil Civil and and Political Political Rights Rights in in 1991—a quarter quarter century after signing the document. Human 1991—a Human rights rightsspespecialist Ann Ann Fuller cialist Fuller notes: notes: Ratification, however, is but but one step, and and in in Haiti’s Haiti’s case, case,itithas hashad had Ratification, little practical With regard little practical or even even formal formal significance. significance. With regard to the the

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CEDAW,under under both both dictatorship and democracy, CEDAW, democracy, Haiti has has ignored ignored reports to the its commitment to make make implementation-progress implementation-progress reports Committee on the the Elimination Elimination of of Discrimination DiscriminationAgainst AgainstWomen. Women. Neither the Neither the initial initial report reportdue duein in 1982, 1982, nor nor follow-up follow-up reports reports in in 1986, 1986, 1990, 1994, and 1998 have been been submitted. submitted.(2) (2) Conventions and agreements agreements organized organized and and written writtenwith withthe thespecific specific goal of implementing, or at goal at least leastinitiating, initiating,social social change change for forwomen’s women’s do nothing nothing without the support government and rights can do support of the government and a general change of attitude attitude toward towardwomen’s women’srights. rights.Violence Violencecontinues continuestotoafflict afflict Haitian women because because the the problem problem has has yet to be addressed—not be addressed—not only rhetorically and theoretically rhetorically theoretically but butalso alsosocially—by socially—by aggressive aggressive governgovernment involvement involvement and and local, local, community, and family programming. programming. FurFurthermore, the rape rape of of women, women, often often in inview viewof oftheir theirfamilies, families,has hasbeen been deployed as a political political tactic tactic of ofterror terror by by several several repressive repressive regimes, includincluding those of the Duvaliers Duvaliers (1957-86) (1957–86) and the brutal brutal “de “de facto” facto” regime regime (1991-94). Policy proposals aimed at (1991–94). at the the noble noble goal goal of of improving improvingwomen’s women’s lives and their safety are severely severely challenged by a tradition tradition of of psychologipsychologisocial, and and political political violence violence against against women. One cal, social, One Haitian Haitianman mantold toldme me that other other social social ills ills are are so so dire dire that thatrape rapeisisrelegated relegatedtotothe theback backburner, burner, considered the manifestation manifestation of of anger, anger, desperation, desperation, and/or and/oraaman’s man’sright.* right.4 Violence against against a wife, wife, for for example, example,isisconsidered consideredaaprivate privatematter, matter, not not to to the state be addressed by the state or or national nationallaw. law. Women, Women, consequently, consequently,live live under under all attempts to attack. Nonetheless, all to disclose disclose violence against women, inproposals, and and literature, literature, are fundamental fundamental steps cluding reports, policy proposals, steps totoward understanding this violence, fighting it, and ultimately introducing this violence, ultimately introducing and implementing long-term long-term changes changes to toimprove improvewomen’s women’s living living condiconditions. tions. Weapon of of Terror” Terror” report report concluded that “docuThe “Rape in Haiti: A Weapon menting rape menting rapeby bypolice police and and soldiers soldiers is is especially difficult, difficult, given the the climate climate of fear and repression under under which which most most women’s women’s rights rights activists activists operate, operate, as the the rape victims’ fear of reprisal, which has as well as has long long prevented preventedthem them from reporting rape” (7). During times of war and repressive repressive military military rereethnic cleansing rapes, rape during torture gimes, gang rapes, ethnic tortureprocedures, procedures, execution destroy destroy any sense of community community and humanity, and rape before execution humanity, stealing meaning from individuals stealing individuals and and making making women women feel feelguilty guiltyand and shamed within within their theircommunities communitiesand andfamilies. families.Yet Yettheir theirsuffering sufferingand andstostories have rarely formed formed part part of of the thelarger largerpsychological psychological mechanisms mechanisms of justice and reconciliation. At issue issue is is the question “What good reconciliation. At good will will my my

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testimony do?” testimony do?” Most Most women women believe believe that that their theirtestimonies testimonieswill willamount amounttoto nothing more more than thanghost ghoststories storiesthat thatno noone onewill willbelieve—or, believe—or, worse, worse, that that they will be accused of inviting the violence acted against their bodies. will be accused the violence acted against their bodies. They have They haveaapoint. point.For Forexample, example,members membersofofFAVILEK FAVILEK(Fanm (FanmViktim ViktimLeve Leve or Women Women Victims Get Up and and Stand Up) were victims of the wideKanpe, or widewell-documented sex spread and well-documented sexcrimes crimesagainst againstwomen womenduring duringthe theHaitian Haitian coup d’état and military coup military rule rulebetween between1991 1991and and1994. 1994.These Thesewomen womenare are reparations. In an interview, one of the members still fighting for financial reparations. asked, “What “What do we keep telling our coldly asked, our story storyfor, for, ifif we we do do not notget getany any help?”5The women of FAVILEK are frustrated because they have told The women of FAVILEK frustrated because they have told their stories their stories to to many manyhuman humanrights rightsgroups, groups,journalists, journalists,and andlocal localwomen’s women’s groups, and yet yet not notaasingle singlecase casehas hasmade madeitittotoa acourt courtofoflaw. law.This Thisisiswhat what they continue they continueto tofight fightfor. for.

Truth Commissions and Memory Memory The past century century has haswitnessed witnessedaaplethora plethoraofofrepressive repressivegovernments— governments— dictatorships, military regimes, dictatorships, regimes, de de facto factoleadership—that leadership—thathave haveplayed played truth against truth) in truth againstlies lies (or (or the the “official” truth) in publicly denying denying human humanrights rights Truth became became aa major major playing playing card card in in twentieth-century twentieth-century poliviolations. Truth poliTorture has has taken taken place place in in the the name of truth—getting truth—getting the tics. Torture the“truth” “truth”out out people.And And commissions commissionshave havebeen beenorganized organizedto toget getto to the the “truth” “truth” of of people. of what happened. what happened.But But truth, truth,like likememory, memory,isisnot notsososimple. simple.As AsWilliam WilliamJames James has asked: “How “How will will truth truth be realized? What, in short, short, is the the truth’s truth’scashcashvalue in experiential The value value of truth value experiential terms?” (169). (169). The truth in inexperiential experiential terms is terms is critical to understanding understandingour ourexpectations, expectations,and andthe themanipulation, manipulation, “truth.” For of “truth.” For example, example, in in her herseminal seminal1985 1985study studyThe TheBody BodyininPain, Pain, Elaine Scarry analyzes the pain of war and the false goals of torture. Introanalyzes the pain of war and the false goals of torture. Introducing the power and weakness of rhetoric within the the framework framework of of war war concludes that that the the attainment attainment of and survival, she concludes of information, information, aa form form of of truth, has truth, has nothing nothingtotodo dowith withtorture tortureand andviolence. violence.InInthe thetorture torturechamber, chamber, it is not truth truth that thatthe thetorturer torturerseeks, seeks,although althoughthis thisisisthe thepremise premiseof ofthe the torture being torture being enacted. enacted. Torture Torture destroys destroysthe thefiber fiberofofthe theenemy, enemy,weakening weakening “unmake the and/or eliminating eliminating opposition. opposition. Torture Torture and and war, war, she claims, “unmake world,” and literature literature serves as a means to reconstruct that unmade that unmadeworld. world. The stories stories that are told after any The any fact fact aim aim at at constructing constructing a truth truththat that makes sense sense to the makes theteller. teller.Then Thenthe thevictim/survivor’s victim/survivor’s experience experience isis reframed in aa constructive, constructive, or or destructive, destructive, narrative narrativehighlighting highlightingthe theefeffects of the experience (told truthfully) truthfully)on onthe thepresent. present.

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another formulation: James proposes another formulation:

truth of The truth of an an idea idea is is not not aa stagnant stagnantproperty propertyinherent inherentininit.it.Truth Truth happens to happens to an an idea. idea. It It becomes becomes true, true, is is made madetrue trueby byevents. events.Its Itsverity verity event, a process: is in fact an event, process: the the process processnamely namelyofofits itsverifying verifyingitself, itself, veri-fication. Its its veri-fication. Itsvalidity validityisisthe theprocess processofofits itsvalid-ation. valid-ation.(169-70) (169–70) Truth is presented presented as as an an“idea” “idea”that thatrequires requiresverification verificationand andvalidation. validation. Let us translate Let translate the the idea idea (a (aphilosophical philosophical query) query) into into the theact act(a(asociosociopolitical situation), and and inquire inquirehow howan anact actofofviolence violencecan canbe beverified verifiedand and validated. What What ifif an event, a crime such as a rape, is denied by the governan event, a crime such as a rape, denied by the governofof thethe victim’s experience ment and and by by society society atatlarge? large?IsIsthe the“truth” “truth” victim’s experience heeded? Under such circumstances, circumstances, an entire entire sector—victims, sector—victims, survivors, survivors, their families, other women who are fearful for their their well-being—cannot well-being—cannot verify or verify or validate validate its its experiences. experiences. An An objective objective truth truthisisthen thenpitted pittedagainst againsta a memory. flawed memory. over truth truth versus memory The debate over memory shadows shadows the the fight fight for for social social and legal justice. Violations legal Violations against humanity humanitycontinue. continue.People Peoplehave havebeen been taken away at night, night, imprisonments imprisonments have have not notbeen beenproperly properlyregistered, registered, and corpses have been disposed disposed of without withoutaatrace. trace.Family Familymembers membershave have been misinformed, or not notinformed, informed,ofoftheir theirloved lovedones’ ones’whereabouts. whereabouts. Children born born in in prison prison have have been been put putup upfor foradoption adoptionwithout withoutauthorizaauthorization. tion. One way the the truth truthofofpeople’s people’sdenied deniedexperiences experiences has hasbeen beenaddressed addressed officially isis through through truth officially truth commissions. commissions. For countries such as Argentina, Argentina, Salvador, truth truth commissions Chile, and El Salvador, commissionshave haveplayed playedaaprominent prominentrole roleinin wronged citizens’ wronged citizens’ quest for for justice, justice, memory, memory, and andreconciliation. reconciliation. While While governments were were denying denyingatrocities, atrocities,the thecommissions commissionsdisclosed disclosedthem. them. The commissions have sought to to document document past past human humanrights rightsabuses abusesinin repressive regimes and to bring about about aa more morepeaceful peaceful democracy democracy by by rerequiring violators to to admit admittheir theircrimes crimesand andbybyhelping helpingvictims victimsapproach approach the memory memory of of the thehorrors. horrors.InInArgentina, Argentina,for forexample, example,seven seventhousand thousand statements were taken in nine months for the National Commission statements were taken in nine months for the National Commissionon on the Disappeared, Disappeared, often often called called CONADEP CONADEP for for Comision ComisiónNacional Nacionalsobre sobrelala Desaparicion de de Personas. Personas. About About fifteen hundred Desaparición hundred survivors survivors gave gavetestitestimony about mony about detention detentioncamps campsand andtorture; torture;8,960 8,960disappeared disappearedpersons personswere were documented (Hayner 34). 34). A brief version of of the the full fullreport, report,Nunca Nuncamas, más, was later put put out out by byaaprivate privatepublisher. publisher.ItItwas wasan animmediate immediatebest bestseller; seller; remain available copies remain available in inbookstores bookstorestoday. today. Each Latin Latin American American and and Caribbean Caribbean country country has its Each its own own history historyof ofterter-

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A small small number number of cases cases of of national national human rights ror and violence. A rights violaviolations have received received address through throughtruth truthcommissions. commissions.InInessence, essence,howhow6According to Juan ever, these represent mostly failed attempts at justice.° ever, these represent mostly failed attempts at justice. According to Juan former legal Méndez, former legal counsel to to Human HumanRights RightsWatch, Watch,Argentines Argentinestoday today feel that reconciliation has has no no meaning. meaning.“Reconciliation “Reconciliationin inArgentina Argentinawas was understood by understood by victims victims to to mean, mean,‘We ‘We are being being asked to reconcile with our our torturers, and torturers, and they’re they’re being being asked asked to to do do nothing’” nothing’”(160). (160). The The truth truthcomcommission may have brought broughtmany manyof ofthe thedenied deniedatrocities atrocitiestotolight, light,but butneineither it nor nor the the trials trials that thatensued ensuedbrought broughtreal realjustice. justice.Real Real justice, justice, many argue, would would have have put the perpetrators in argue, in prison; prison; victims victims and survivors survivors would not be obliged to live with, or even even accept, accept, their violators violators in in their their lives. lives. Truth commissions in Argentina, Argentina, Chile, Chile, and Uruguay Uruguay were were not not“proac“proactive in seeking out, encouraging, or facilitating facilitating testimony from women,” Hayner (78).’ according to Priscilla Hayner (78).7 She Shepoints pointsout: out:“Truth “Truthcommissions commissionsinin the past past have have occasionally occasionally had information information about aboutsexual sexualabuse abuseagainst against women but have chosen chosen not not to report it, women it, judging judging that that rape rape did did not not fall fall within their their mandate mandate of of politically politically motivated motivated crimes”; crimes”; in in the thememorable memorable case of the three case three American Americannuns nunsraped rapedand andkilled killedininElElSalvador Salvadorinin1980, 1980, “the commissioners ..... .reported reportedonly onlythat thatthe thewomen womenwere wereabducted abductedand and killed” (79). In In order order for for women’s women’s testimonials testimonials about rape to be taken into into account by by the the truth truth commissions, the the data gatherers gatherers must prove that the account rape was motivated by by political political goals goals and/or and/orordered orderedby byofficials. officials.Women Women sisters, and and mothers mothers first; are described as wives, sisters, first;often oftenrape rapeisisreported reportedasasaa secondary or tertiary violation secondary violation after after other otherabuses abusesacted actedout outagainst againstthe the men and their families. men and their families. Limited time time and and resources resources render render truth truth commissions than exhausLimited commissions less less than exhaustheir goal tive, but their goal is to acknowledge the the atrocities atrocitiesthat thatoccurred occurredininaapreviprevious regime. (It must be noted that, that, by by this thisstandard, standard,the theArgentine Argentinetruth truth commission did commission did meet meet with withaacertain certaindegree degreeofofsuccess.) success.)This Thiskind kindofof“truth “truth telling” in telling” in some some cases cases leads leads to to healing healingfor forvictims victimswhose whoselosses lossesand andsuffersuffering are no longer denied. Hayner argues, “Official acknowledgment can longer denied. Hayner argues, “Official acknowledgment canbebe powerful precisely pervasive” (27). ConConpowerful precisely because official denial has been so pervasive” revisitation of painful painful memories memories can also also lead leadto toretraumatization. retraumatization. versely, revisitation This factor helps explain why why Cambodia Cambodia has has avoided avoided creation creation of of aa truth truth with former Khmer Rouge members living in many many commucommission: with communities, an exploration nities, exploration of the past could could be more dangerous dangerous than than helpful helpful The need need for for and success of of truth truth commissions (200). The commissionsisiscontingent contingenton onculculconditions in different countries. tural, political, and social social conditions countries. They They are are not not

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exhaustive, and other other venues venuesof ofdisclosure disclosurehave haveproved provedto tobe bemore moreuseful useful international attention in gaining international attention and and inciting inciting international internationalaid. aid. Truth commissions Truth commissionswere weresupposed supposedtotodo doatatleast leastone oneofofthree threethings: things:tell tell the truth, truth,acknowledge acknowledge wrongdoing, and/or lead lead to justice. justice. In countries countries such as Guatemala and Haiti, Haiti, truth truthcommissions commissionshave havebeen beenless lessthan thansucsucbecause so so many many people already knew what cessful because what was was going going on on and, and, bebe8 perpetrators refused sides, perpetrators refusedtotoacknowledge acknowledgetheir theiractions.® actions. ItItcan canbebeargued argued that the that the violations violationstaking takingplace placein inGuatemala Guatemalahave havebeen beenmost mostpublicly publiclyrerevealed by Rigoberta Menchú’s Mencht’s now vealed now controversial controversial testimony.’ testimony.9 Despite Despite ararguments against Menchu’s testimony, it is a critical testament for Latin against Menchú’s testimony, it is a critical testament for Latin America and the Caribbean. Problematic as it has turned turned out out to tobe, be, testitestimony does mony does not not have have to tobe beabout aboutone’s one’s personal personalexperience. experience.In Inabused abusedculcultestimony can tures, testimony can testify testify against against the the trauma traumaof ofabuse, abuse, its its memory, memory, and and its repetition. repetition. Even if Menchú Mencht did not live everything she wrote about, it did not live everything she wrote about, itisis that she had been traumatized possible that traumatized by bywitnessing witnessingsome someevents, events,and andby by hearing of of others over the hearing the years. years. Perhaps Perhaps her testimony testimony is is about about the the memory of more than than just just herself. herself. to 1994, 1994, after after the coup d’état, between five and seven thouthouFrom 1991 to sand people people in in Haiti were murdered, and many others sand others were were tortured torturedinin Theproblem, problem,asaslawyer lawyer prison or in in the thestreets streetsand andinintheir theirown ownhomes.!? homes.10The and Haiti specialist Brian Concannon points out, is that the commission out, is that the commission did not tell did tell the the people people anything anythingthey theydid didnot notalready alreadyknow."! know.11AAstrong strong history of impunity impunity meant meantthat thatnone noneofofthe theviolators violatorshad hadtotoacknowledge acknowledge wrongdoing or or feel feel remorse. remorse. Haiti’s 1994 Truth Commission Haiti’s 1994 Commission was was organized organizedupon uponJean-Bertrand Jean-Bertrand return to Aristide’s return to office, office, to investigate investigate the thecrimes crimescommitted committedduring duringthe the facto military military government government that de facto that ruled ruled for for three threeyears yearsafter afterhe hewas was ousted ousted in 1991. It received a mandate mandate “to “topay payparticular particularattention attentiontoto‘crimes ‘crimesofofa a sexual nature against against female female victims victims that thatwere werecommitted committedwith withpolitical political ends’” (Hayner 78). This focus on the the political political ignored, ignored, even even trivialized, trivialized, the serious serious wider wider history historyof ofsexual sexualabuse abuseof ofwomen. women.Nonetheless, Nonetheless,such suchan an investigation was groundbreaking in the context of truth commissions truth commissions of of the previous previous ten tenyears. years.At Atleast leastititgave gavewomen—even women—evenififonly onlya afew—a few—aface face within the within the larger largerpicture pictureof ofstate stateviolence. violence. The commission collected collected the testimony testimonyofofalmost almost“5,500 “5,500witnesses, witnesses, pertaining to pertaining to some some 8,600 8,600 victims” victims” (Hayner (Hayner 66). 66). Although Although the thecommission commission completed its work in 1996, completed 1996, its its findings findings were were not notmade madepublic publicuntil untilone one year later. Journalist Catherine Orenstein, Orenstein, who who was was in Haiti Haiti during during some some of the Truth Truth Commission Commission collection collection period, period, says says that thatofficials officialsjust justput putthe the

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report into into a drawer.” drawer.12 The The main main weakness weakness of the the report report was was in in its its distribudistributold the the author author that that although the UN/OAS International tion. Concannon told International Civilian Mission Mission in Haiti Civilian Haiti (MICIVIH) (MICIVIH) made made fifty fiftycopies copiesavailable available right right piles were were later forgotten away, piles forgottenatatgovernment governmentoffices. offices.Also Alsoavailable availablewere were Kreyol translation of parts audiotapes with Kreyòl parts of of the the original original French French report. report. were not especially But people people were especially interested in hearing hearing what what they theyalready already knew, when when reparations knew, reparations and andjustice justicedid didnot notseem seemtotobebeininsight. sight.Recently, Recently, the National National Coalition Coalitionfor forHaitian HaitianRights Rights(www.NCHR.org) (www.NCHR.org)made madean anEnEn13 online.” glish translation available available online. The massive international internationalnews newscoverage coverageof ofthe theviolence violenceininHaiti Haitiafter after the 1991 coup d’état, and through through 1994, 1994, contrasts contrasts with with coverage coverage of of the the truth commission truth commission report. report.Concannon Concannonsuggests suggeststhat thatthe themilitary militaryperiod periodwas was perhaps the most most witnessed witnessed and and documented documented in in Haiti’s Haiti’s history.'* history.14 The military men tary men made made aa point point of of showing showing off their their human humanrights rightsviolations. violations.Their Their reign was about terror and and snuffing snuffing out out democracy; democracy; the regime regime was was not going to allow elections or even opposition. opposition. All opponents opponentsof of the theregime, regime,as as supporters of well as supporters of Aristide, Aristide,were werehunted hunteddown downand andmany manywere werekilled. killed.InIn numerous cases, cases, when the men men were were not notaround, around,their theirwives, wives,mothers, mothers, daughters were sisters, and daughters wereraped rapedininfront frontofoftheir theirfamilies familiestotomake makea apoint. point. Many families went into hiding in the the mountains. mountains. Many Manypeople people died, died, but even now now there even there are are no no exact exact numbers. numbers.Women Womenwho whohad hadbeen beenhurt hurtorormumutilated and were were in in hiding hiding could could not notfind findmedical medicalor orpsychological psychological help. help. Little can be done done to to salve salve these thesekinds kindsofofwounds. wounds.Even Evenininsilence, silence,the the remember the people remember theTonton TontonMacoutes MacoutesofofDuvalier, Duvalier,the thezenglendos zenglendos(bands (bands of thugs) and attachés attachés (civilian (civilian auxiliaries auxiliaries of the the police police and army) army) of of the the Cédras regime, and the Cédras the chiméres chimères (thugs (thugsthat thatallegedly allegedlyworked workedfor forArisAristhat victims seeking justice from from the authorities authorities tide). Most Haitians know that have encountered encountereddismissal: dismissal:they theyare aretold toldtotocome comeback backlater, later,that thatthere thereare are not enough funds funds to to give give them themmuch-needed much-needed remuneration. remuneration. The The mass mass amnesty programs and impunity impunity that thatsafeguard safeguardthe theperpetrators perpetratorsofofsex sex crimes against women women demoralize demoralize and and erase erasethe thevictims. victims.Entrenched Entrenchedgovgovernment corruption prevents improvements improvements to the judicial judicial system and human rights more effective human rightsprograms. programs.When Whenrapes rapesby bygovernment governmentthugs thugs suffering, and are denied, women’s experiences, suffering, and memories memoriesof of the thetraumatic traumatic events are further furtherdenied. denied.Women Womenlive livewith withwhat whatI Icall call“injured “injuredmemomemories,” extremely painful memories of continued injustices, and cannot let their present.» go of the past, which becomes their present.15 light of the In light the persistent persistentobliteration obliterationofofwomen’s women’sstories storiesofofviolence violenceand and the problems problems involved in in testimony, testimony, storytelling storytellingplays playsaafundamental fundamentalrole role

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in structuring structuringaamemorial memorialspace spaceofofacknowledgment—these acknowledgment—thesecrimes, crimes,and and many others, many others, have happened and they they cannot cannot be be denied. denied. The stories manimanifest themselves in different different ways, ways, reconstructing reconstructing the theworld worldfrom fromdifferent different modalities of memory. modalities memory. As we will see in the following following sections, sections, one promiprominent format format is is theater theaterperformances performances created created by by the thevictims victimsthemselves, themselves, and another another is and is fiction fiction as as testimonial testimonialnarrative. narrative.

Acts against Violence of the the social social stigma stigma attached attached to rape, itit is is not not only only difficult to recall Because of but also embarrassing but embarrassingto todescribe. describe.Because Because itit changes changes everything everythingabout aboutthe the way the victim/survivor sees herself herself in in the world, way victim/survivor sees world, it can can haunt haunt her her throughout her her life, life, leaving leaving a broken broken person person sobbing sobbing in the the night nightfrom from post-traumatic stress, post-traumatic stress,from fromfear. fear.As As we we will see in the course of this chapter, venues have venues have been been made madeavailable availablefor forwomen womentotodenounce denouncerape. rape.But, But,asasone one of the interviewed women in Calling the Ghosts Ghosts said, said, “I feel as though though they just just want want to to interview interviewus usififwe’ve we’ve been raped. What if we were violated in other ways? ways? And doesn’t doesn’t it entail another another violation violation to to be be given given attention only Giving direct direct attention attention attention onlybecause because we we are aresubjects subjectsof of rape?”!° rape?”16 Giving to rape risks reducing reducing the the victim/survivor’s victim/survivor’s experience experience to to rape-centered, rape-centered, ignoring other ignoring otherdimensions dimensionsofofher herlife. life.Experience, Experience,and andhow howititisisinterpreted interpreted and used, is crucial to the the denunciation denunciationofofrape. rape.Here Herewe westumble stumbleacross acrossanan important category important category that thatdefies defiesanalysis. analysis.How How isis “experience” “experience” used used to to tell tell aa story? How can a writer mediate a story that he/she has not experienced that he/she has not experienced personally? How How does does one one divulge divulge aa terrible personal experience experience in in the personally? shape of, of, for example, autobiography, without without essentializing essentializing oneself oneself or shape example, autobiography, encountering vituperative encountering vituperativecriticisms criticismsas asto tothe theveracity veracityofofthat thatexperience? experience? In “Experience,” Joan Joan Scott Scott posits posits that experience makes visible somesomething that that would would otherwise otherwise not not be be known. known. She She refers refers to to the thescene scene from from autobiography in Samuel Delaney’s autobiography in which which he heenters entersaabathhouse bathhouseinin1963 1963 and sees “an undulating undulatingmass massofofnaked nakedmale malebodies, bodies,spread spreadwall walltotowall” wall” Delaney claims that that at that that moment (57). Delaney momenthe herecognized recognizedaapolitical political power power in in the presence presence of of these thesebodies. bodies. His Hisexperience experiencegives givesspace space to tothe theotherwise otherwise underground existence underground existence of of aa formidable, formidable, and and active, active, gay gay community. community. The The sociocultural invisibility of gays during the 1950s is contrasted by Desociocultural invisibility of gays 1950s contrasted by Depersonal experience experience and and contested contested through through the writing autolaney’s personal writing of his autobiography. Scott Scott tells tells us, “Writing isis reproduction, biography. reproduction, transmission—the transmission—the communication of of knowledge gained through communication knowledge gained through (visual, (visual, visceral) visceral) experiexperi(58). Delaney’s Delaney’s memoir memoir provides provides evidence evidence of of a hitherto ence” (58). hitherto unknown unknown

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world. That kind of world. of writing, writing,Scott Scottargues, argues,has haspropelled propelledthe thecareers careersofof many historians many historianswho whohave have made made great greatgains gainsby byexposing exposing the thelives lives of of those those ignored, or negated, by previous historical documentation. She notes negated, by previous historical documentation. She notesthat that falls prey prey to reproducing already story as this, too, falls already existing existing ideologies. ideologies. His story evidence, ifif taken at face evidence, face value, value, generalizes generalizes his his particular particularexperience experienceby by depicting itit as as transparent transparent and referential, depicting referential, thus thus ignoring ignoringthe thecultural, cultural,popolitical, and and social social constructs constructs that have led litical, led to to this thiskind kindofofexperience. experience.She She reminds us that that “making “making visible visible the experience experience of a different group exexrepressive mechanisms, poses the existence of repressive mechanisms,but butnot nottheir theirinner innerworkings workings or logic” (59). Conclusively, she insists, experience experience cannot cannot be beseen seenasasthe the origin of knowledge knowledge and and the the“bedrock “bedrockof ofevidence evidenceupon uponwhich whichexplanation explanation built” (59). Instead, experience “becomes the is built” the origin origin of of our ourexplanation, explanation, not the the authoritative authoritative(because (because seen seen or or felt) felt) evidence evidence that that grounds grounds what what isis known, but rather that which we seek to explain, that about which knowlbut rather that which we seek to explain, that about which knowlTothink think about experience in this edge is produced. To this way way is is to to historicize historicizeitit as well as to historicize the identities identities ititproduces” produces”(60). (60).Scott Scottinvites invitesus ustoto interpret experience interpret experience from fromits itsdifferent differentand andchallenging challengingmodalities. modalities.InInthis this manner the manner theinterpretation interpretationofofexperience experiencecan canbe beaacall calltotodefy defyfoundational foundational histories (or (or fictions), fictions), essentializing essentializingexplanations, explanations,and andrepeated repeatedclassificaclassifications that thatcondone condoneestablished establishedhierarchies hierarchiesofofpower. power.She Shecloses closesher heressay essay thus: thus: in this this approach, not Experience is, in not the theorigin originof ofour ourexplanation, explanation,but but that which we want to explain. This kind of approach does not underthat which we want to explain. This kind of approach does not undercut politics politics by denying the the existence existence of of subjects; subjects; it instead instead interrointerrogates the processes processes of their their creation, creation,and, and,in inso sodoing, doing,refigures refigureshishistory and the the role role of of the the historian, historian,and and opens opens new new ways ways for for thinking thinking about change. change. (69) (69)

It is within this context context of of experience experience that I examine the stories and the the histories that that reveal histories reveal human human disenfranchisement. disenfranchisement. In Haiti, women women are are coming coming out out of ofhiding, hiding,solitude, solitude,and andsilence. silence. For For example, the members of the Haitian women’s group FAVILEK, all of example, the of the Haitian women’s group FAVILEK, of 17 rape,’ have whom are victims of rape, havegathered gatheredtotoseek seekreparations reparationsfor forviolence violence committed against against them, to reach out committed out to to other otherwomen, women,and andtototell telltheir their stories to their their children. children. The women still suffer the the physical physical and and psychopsychological aftereffects of the logical the violence violence of of the thede defacto factoregime. regime.The Thewomen womenla-lament that that the the violence violence repeats itself in their nightmares and in their their eveveryday lives. Some cannot afford the the removal removal of of bullets bullets still stillinside insidetheir their Some suffer suffer unbearable pain from broken bodies. Some broken bones bones and and torn tornmuscles. muscles.

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Others are are raising raisingchildren childrenconceived conceived of ofrape. rape.Most Mosttalk talkabout aboutknowing knowing that the that therapists rapistsstill stilllive liveamong amongthem. them.Because Becausethe therapists’ rapists’faces facesoften oftenwere were hidden, they they cannot be identified by their victims, who are sure that these cannot be identified by their victims, who are sure that these men still recognize them. them. These women women need need money money for foradequate adequatemedical medical care and to feed care feed and and educate educate their theirchildren. children.Since Sincethey theywere wereviolated violatedbyby government repression, previous government repression,they theyfeel feelthe thepresent presentgovernment governmentshould should healthy citizens help them to become healthy citizens of Haiti Haiti and to raise their their children children as as healthy citizens too. But without government reparations, they they are are left left to to their own their owndevices. devices. In the 1990s the 1990s the thewomen womenof ofFAVILEK FAVILEK collaborated with the the prominent prominent Haitian writer writer and and film film director director Rachéle Rachèle Magloire Magloire to to produce produce an an original original theater piece piece that that would would help help them themand andothers othersininthe thesame samepredicament. predicament. Ochan pou Ochan pou tout toutfanm fanmyo yobliye, bliye,or orPaean PaeantotoAll AllForgotten ForgottenWomen, Women,serves servesasas a testimony testimony of violence and an outcry for effective changes. The play of violence an outcry for effective changes. play alallows the women to lows to be be themselves themselves in inpublic, public, to to cry, cry, and and to toquestion questiontheir their FAVILEKmembers membershave havefound found that that the experiences. FAVILEK the play play has hasaapowerful powerful effect in the villages effect villages of Haiti, Haiti, where where women women have have broken broken their theirsilences silences upon meeting them them and and seeing seeing their theirperformance. performance. In In tears tearsand anddread, dread,aa growing solidarity solidarity between between victims victims isis leading leading to tothe thepossibility possibilityofofhealing healing from acts that that remain remainunspoken unspokenbut butare arealways alwayspresent, present,“ghosts.” “ghosts.” A video, Les Les Enfants Enfants du coup d'état, play. d’état,presents presentsthe themaking makingofofthe the play.AtAt point the one point the camera camerasettles settleson onthe theface faceof ofthe theson sonof ofone oneof ofthe thewomen. women.He He is the child of a rapist. rapist. In In the thedocumentary, documentary,the thechild’s child’smother mothertalks talksabout about her fear that that he hemight mightbecome becomeviolent, violent,like like his hisunknown unknownfather. father.AApsypsychologist is shown shown helping the woman understand that the child will grow understand that the child will grow up with the the values values and and beliefs beliefs his hismother mothershows showshim. him.The Thechild, child,who who knows his story, sees the play play and and is is presented presentedin inthe thevideo videoasasaachild childwho who will one day be the the bridge bridge between between his hismother’s mother’sterror terrorand andhis hisown ownlife. life. Thanks to the intervention Thanks intervention of of human human rights rightsgroups, groups, the themother motherand andthe the child find community and child and creativity creativity (the (theplay, play, the thevideo) video) through throughwhich which they can they can tell tell their theirstories storiesand anduse usethose thosestories storiestotohelp helpeach eachother. other.By Bytelltelling their stories, the victims chase the ghosts away and identify the violatheir stories, the victims chase the ghosts away and identify the violators as real. The The women’s women’smemories memories are are their their truths truths and tors as real. and the the truths truthsofoftheir their communities and communities andfamilies. families.The The government governmenthas hasyet yettotogrant grantfinancial financialrepareparations to to the thevictims, victims,but butwomen’s women’sgroups, groups,psychologists, psychologists,and andhuman human rights lawyers deserve, despite a comrights lawyersare aregiving givingthem themthe thecitizenship citizenshipthey they deserve, despite a complex political climate in in which whichthe thepast pastholds holdsa adisputed disputedplace. place.Trauma Traumais is not a metaphor metaphor for for aa kind kind of of memory; memory;ititisisaa horrible horriblecondition conditionthat thatsevers severs distinguish between the victims’ ability to distinguish between the the past past and and the thepresent, present,reality reality

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These women women tell tell their their own own real real stories stories to counter the and nightmares. These nightmares. nightmares. Let us us return return to In telling telling their their stories, the the to Scott’s theory of experience. In FAVILEKgroup grouphave havetwo twogoals: goals:gaining gaininglegal legaljustice justicethrough through remuneraremuneraFAVILEK tion that that would would help their their dire dire financial and health health conditions, and finding solidarity with through the support and solidarity with each other, through the theater theaterpiece, piece, reaching By“reproducing” “reproducing” the the experience experience of of out to other victims and their families. By rape in the theater theater piece, piece, they are not not reproducing reproducing the crime crime but but rather rather transmitting—that is, is, representing—a message that that concerns transmitting—that representing—a message concerns their their present plight as victims. As Scott warns, presenting the plight of the plight as the plight of the vicvicThey could could be be underscoring underscoring the the tims falls prey to to existing existing ideologies. ideologies. They their perpetrators, impunity, power that their perpetrators, living comfortably in the safety of impunity, continue to to have over over their their lives. lives. Let us consider other other ways ways in in which which the the representation of the experience of violence might avoid reproducing an the experience of violence avoid already established hierarchy hierarchy of of victims victims who who remain remainmarginalized marginalizedby bythe the violence that that has hasbeen beenimposed imposedon onthem.'® them.18 group is a representation representation The theater theater piece piece produced produced by by the theFAVILEK FAVILEK group violence, and, and, ultimately, ultimately, an an act act of of comcomof the pain of rape, an act against violence, munity. As an act of community community itit performs performs aacritical critical service service in in helping helping these victims these victims find find modes modes of emotional emotional healing. healing. Their work work together together counters that feeling of aloneness Herman observes: “Traumatized that feeling of aloneness Herman observes: “Traumatized people people feel utterly abandoned, utterly alone, feel alone, cast out of the human human and and divine divine systems of care and protection that that sustain sustainlife” life”(52). (52). How can victims and survivors who do not not have have aa clear clear political political mamachinery to fight, or any form of contact with others (like FAVILEK), cure to fight, or any form of contact with others (like FAVILEK), of that that feeling feeling of of utter utter abandonment? themselves of Literature and Memory officialrecognition recognition of of the the existence, existence, impact, impact,and andrepercusrepercusIn the absence of official violence, literature literature provides an alternative format sions of violence, format of of disclosure, disclosure, highlighting the highlighting thecomplex complex nature natureof ofthe thefallout falloutofofviolence. violence.As As Scarry Scarry proproposed many many years ago, ago, stories stories counter counter aa world world that is constantly in the posed the “unmaking” by violence. violence. Arguably fiction, which is not encumbered encumbered by by the limitations that come with the necessary objectivity of truth, can exthat come with the necessary objectivity truth, can expose the effects effects of violence. can be be viewed viewed as as aa pivotal pivotal text, Marie Chauvet’s Amour Colére Colère Folie can discloses the the violence violence of of rape rape by by mercilessly mercilessly enunciating violence violence which discloses 19 Inher herseminal seminalpiece piece“The “TheDiscourse DiscourseofofViolence Violenceinin within writing.” writing. In

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Amour Colére Amour Colère Folie,” Folie,” Ronnie Scharfman Scharfman proposes proposes that thatChauvet’s Chauvet’strilogy, trilogy, centered on rape, rape, “functions “functions as as an anact actof ofresistance resistancetotothe theviolence violencefrom from which it springs, but that it can only resist by repeating, by violating that it can only resist by repeating, by violatingthe the voyeurs to reader as it proceeds, dragging us us in in as accomplices and voyeurs to the thevery very heart of darkness, of which it is both the heart the semblance semblance and and the the conscience. conscience. ..... . The text does not not scandalize scandalize the foreign foreign reader. reader. It does does worse: it traumatraumatizes” (229-30). tizes” (229–30).In Insuch suchaacontext, context,IIbelieve believethat thatChauvet’s Chauvet’swork workdoes doesmore more than remember than rememberthe thecontinuing continuingviolence violenceagainst againstwomen’s women’sbodies. bodies. It It repeats repeats that violence that violence onto ontoits itsreading readingbodies, bodies,in inand andout outof ofHaiti. Haiti.InInother otherwords, words,by by leaving readers deeply disturbed if not emphatically traumatized, leaving readers deeply disturbed if not emphatically traumatized, literary denunciation Chauvet’s literary denunciationofofrape raperepeats repeatsviolence. violence.While Whilethis thisindeed indeed composes resistance resistance through detailed composes detailed disclosure disclosure of ofcontinuing continuinghuman human rights violations, I am not not convinced convinced that thatChauvet’s Chauvet’s stories storiespoint pointtotoaaway way out of the horrors of rape and its emotional repercussions for individuals, the horrors of rape and its emotional repercussions for individuals, particularly survivors. Instead, the writing itself itself violates violates and traumatizes traumatizes its reading bodies and minds minds and and thus thusfurther furthergrafts graftsviolence. violence. In contrast, contrast, Edwidge Edwidge Danticat’s novel Breath, Eyes, Memory invites invites us us to think think beyond beyondthe theboundaries boundariesofofpolitically politicallymotivated motivatedrape. rape.Without Withoutat-attempting to tempting to reproduce reproducethe theviolence violenceititdenounces, denounces,ititreconstructs reconstructsthe theways ways in which violence violence affects affects aa family. family. Thus Thus ititrepresents representsthe thecomplexity complexityofof memory and the the difficult difficult relationships between memory memory and and trauma traumaand and between memory memory and and healing. healing.To To show how that that may maywork, work,II suggest suggest that that we consider the stories stories crafted crafted in inBreath, Breath,Eyes, Eyes,Memory Memoryasasa amemorial, memorial, composedof of intimate intimate scenes, scenes, that that honors the women composed women of of Haiti Haitiand anditsits diaspora. The The text text denounces very real violations, highlights highlights the webbings the webbings of memory, and imagines futures futuresfreed freedof ofthe thegrip gripofofviolent violentmemories. memories. depicted in Danticat’s Danticat’s novel novel serve as a composite of the The experiences depicted the struggles rape imposes struggles imposes on on individual individual lives. lives. Like Like the the work workproduced producedby by FAVILEK,Breath, Breath, Eyes, Eyes, Memory Memory is an FAVILEK, an act actagainst againstviolence. violence.The Thetext textdoes does not allow the the crime crime to tobe beforgotten. forgotten.Fascinatingly, Fascinatingly,the thecharacters charactersstruggle struggle with remembering and forgetting. forgetting. A tension between the function function of text text and the nuances exposed by the characters presents a contrapuntal mesnuances exposed by the characters presents a contrapuntal message that that questions the sage the role role of of memory memory with withrespect respect to tohealing healingfrom fromvioviolence. lence. Through the the novel novel we we become become intimately intimately familiar familiar with withthe theemotional emotional plight of two women: Martine, for whom recovery recovery from from violation violation and and recreconciliation with life is an incessant incessant struggle strugglein inisolation, isolation,and andher herdaughter daughter Sophie, who who “inherits” her Sophie, her mother’s mother’s trauma. trauma.The Theemotionally emotionallymaimed maimed main character, main character, Martine, Martine,who whowas was raped raped as as aa young younggirl, girl,leaves leaves Haiti Haitito tofind find

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a better and safer safer life. life. This abrupt and and violent violent move—from move—from innocence innocence to to responsibility, from childhood to adulthood, adulthood, from from life life in in her hercountry countrywith with her family to life in the diaspora far from her her family—shapes family—shapes every every aspect aspect of Martine’s life and her her daughter’s. daughter’s. The The novel novel offers offersan anintimate intimateview viewofof the lives of two two women women struggling struggling with with severance severance from from an anold oldlife lifeand and acceptance into a new new one. one.Martine Martinemakes makesa alife lifeininNew NewYork, York,dates datesa anice nice Haitian immigrant, letlet gogo Haitian immigrant,and andraises raisesher herchild childtotoadulthood. adulthood.But Butshe shecannot cannot of the violence from from her herpast: past:“a “aman manwith withno noface, face,pounding poundinga alife lifeinto intoa a helpless young girl” girl” (193). (193). In the United States, United States, Martine Martine lives lives outside outside the the real realworld worldand andininthe the memory of the suppressed memory the traumatic traumaticevent. event.She She repeats, repeats, “There “There are are ghosts ghosts there that that II can’t can’t face, face, things that that are are still still very verypainful painfulfor forme” me”(78). (78).The The ghosts are not a part of the past; past; they are are monsters monsters in in Martine’s Martine’s present that further furtherdiminish diminishthe theperson personshe sheis,is,the theperson personshe shecould couldbe. be.She Sheisisa a frail human human being being by bythe thetime timeSophie, Sophie,her hertwelve-year-old twelve-year-olddaughter, daughter,flies flies to New York from Haiti, Haiti, where where she shehas hasbeen beenraised raisedbybyMartine’s Martine’ssister. sister. was long long and and hollow. hollow.Her Her hair hair had had aa blunt blunt cut and she had Martine’s “face was long spindly legs. legs. She had had dark dark circles circles under underher hereyes eyesand, and,asasshe shesmiled, smiled, lines of wrinkles tightened tightened her herexpression. expression. Her Herfingers fingerswere werescarred scarredand and sunburned” (42). sunburned” (42). There is, however,one one memory memory that that brings a beam There is, however, beam of of happiness happiness to Martine’s drawn drawn face. face. Sophie hands hands her heraacard cardshe shehad hadmade mademany manyyears years earlier for earlier for Mother’s Mother’sDay. Day.In Inthe thecard cardSophie Sophiehad hadcopied copieda apoem: poem: My mother motherisis aa daffodil, daffodil, limber and strong strong as as one. one. My mother motherisis aa daffodil, daffodil, but in in the the wind, wind, iron ironstrong. strong.(29) (29) Daffodils had been Martine’s Martine’s favorite favorite flowers. flowers. She She loved loved yellow, yellow, dressing dressing and decorating with with yellow yellow at at every everyopportunity. opportunity.She Sheasks asksSophie Sophieififthere there are still daffodils daffodils in Haiti. Sophie lies (as she was was leaving leaving Haiti she she reremarked how barren the ground had become), replying that there are many. ground had replying there are Martine sadly Martine sadly comments comments that thatshe shehas hasnot nothad hadtime timetotoeven evennotice noticethem theminin the United States. States. While daffodils daffodils may offer offer aa link link to torecovery recoveryfrom fromthe the nightmares that dark nightmares thathaunt haunther, her,she shecannot cannotsee seethem. them.She Shehas hasa abright brightred red outfit hanging hanging in in her hercloset, closet,but butshe shedoes doesnot notdare darewear wearit.it.The Thecolors colorsofof light and passion linger linger in in Martine’s Martine’sbackground, background,but butnot notininher herpresent. present. night of The night of her her daughter’s daughter’s arrival, arrival,after aftertucking tuckingaway awayher herpoem poemabout about daffodils from the past, she surprises surprises young youngSophie, Sophie,who whonarrates: narrates:

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that night, Later that night, II heard heardthe thesame samevoice voicescreaming screamingas asthough thoughsomesometrying to one was trying to kill kill her. her. II rushed rushedover, over, but but my mymother motherwas wasalone alone thrashing against the sheets. ... When she saw me, she quickly covthrashing against the sheets. . . . When she saw me, she quickly covface with with her her hands and turned away. ..... . ered her face “Ttisisthe thenight,” night,” she said. “Sometimes, “Sometimes, I see horrible horrible visions “It visions in in my my sleep.” (48) sleep.” (48) Martine isis oppressed Martine oppressedby byher herexperience experienceof ofviolation, violation,by byillness, illness,and andby byHaiHaitian tradition, in in which which women women are are considered considered inferior inferior to to men menand andinin honor is which women’s honor is based on virginity virginitywhile whilemen’s men’sisis based based on on virility. virility. When she When she learns learns she she is is pregnant pregnantaasecond second time, time, the the hauntings hauntingsfrom fromher her past take on a new life. She cannot face pregnancy again, even though thoughthe the circumstances are dramatically dramatically different. different. Through the the victim’s victim’s story, story, Danticat Danticat reveals reveals how howviolence violenceisisrememremembered and and reproduced reproducedand, and,specifically, specifically, how how ititcan canbe be internalized internalizedand andselfselfthe end inflicted. At the end of of the the novel novelwe we are arereminded, reminded,“There “Thereisisalways alwaysaaplace place where nightmares are where are passed passed on onthrough throughgenerations generationslike likeheirlooms. heirlooms. Where women ... .. .return returntotolook lookatattheir theirown ownfaces facesininstagnant stagnantbodies bodiesofof water” (234). United States, water” (234). Because the bulk of the novel takes place in the United States, it exposes how the the repercussions repercussions of of traumatic traumaticevents eventsininHaiti Haitiare arepsychopsychologically, physically, physically, and and cognitively cognitively reexperienced reexperienced in in the the diaspora—which diaspora—which represents more than than one one million million Haitians, Haitians, compared to the eight million still in their their home homecountry. country. The narrator, Sophie, laments, “It took took me me twelve twelve years years totopiece piecetotogether my mother’s entire story. By then, it was already too late” (61). In my mother’s entire story. By then, it was already too late” (61). In they are far from the diaspora, diaspora, they from the the world world of of the theTonton Tonton Macoutes, Macoutes, the the dreaded groups of of militarized militarized thugs thugscreated createdby bythe theDuvalier Duvalierdictatorship. dictatorship. Nonetheless, Martine Martine continues continuesto tofear fearthem, them,and andSophie Sophielearns learnshow howthey they destroyed her her family. family. That That history historyofofviolence violencebleeds bleedsinto intotheir theirpresent, present, manifesting itself manifesting itself in inself-inflicted self-inflictedabuse, abuse,such suchasasstarvation starvationand andeven evensuisuicide. cide. Martine is Martine is aa traumatized traumatizedself, self,who whocannot cannotfind findwholeness wholenessbecause becauseofofher her never-ending, ever-increasing never-ending, ever-increasingflashbacks. flashbacks.She Sheisisdisconnected disconnectedfrom fromreality, reality, despite her efforts to despite to live live in inthe thepresent. present.The Thememory memoryofofpast pastviolence violence shapes her present present and andleads leads to toaaself-imposed self-imposedisolation.”? isolation.20 Trauma studies studies reiterate that itit isis impossible to represent the horrors of the traumatic impossible represent the horrors of the traumatic event in any any artistic artistic form formwithout withoutreconstructing reconstructingthat thatwhich whichcannot cannotbebe reproduced. Reconstruction Reconstruction means means putting putting the pieces reproduced. pieces together with with the the understanding the hope of understanding theviolence, violence, working working through throughit,it,reporting reportingit,it,ororatat

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least accepting accepting itit in order to to move move on. on. In Incontrast, contrast,reproduction reproductionentails entails reenacting the reenacting theexact exactviolence violenceto toproduce producethe thesame sameeffects. effects.Trauma Traumatheories theories inform us us that thatthe theviolent violentexperience experienceisisinaccessible inaccessibletotolanguage. language.Indeed, Indeed, violence cannot cannot be reconstructed or reproduced violence reproduced without without being being violence violence denouncing violence, again. That, if one is denouncing violence, must mustbe beavoided. avoided.But Butthe theeffects effects violence are are significant. significant. These These point point to to the the violence violence without without being the of violence are more insidious violent act. The effects of violence, I believe, are insidious on on many many levels. The The stories stories of of Martine Martine and Sophie lend narrative reality levels. reality to to effects effects that are that are difficult difficult to todescribe. describe. How How do do these thesewomen womendeal dealwith withthe theviolence violence and its effects? After all, Sophie is a product of that very violence. After all, Sophie is a product of that very violence.When When Sophie suggests suggests that that Martine tell Sophie tell someone, someone, she hints hints at at how how she she believes believes that telling that telling the the story storymight mightsomehow somehowalleviate alleviateher hermother’s mother’sheavy heavyburden burden of the rape. Martine Martine responds, responds, “You cannot report report aa ghost ghostto tothe thepolice” police” (199). This response suggests that Martine thinks of telling only if it (199). This response that Martine thinks of telling only if itwill will that justice bring justice, but she feels that justice is is unlikely. The possibility of vindication or of having the life cation life she she knew knew before before the the rape rape does does not notexist existfor for Martine. The memory of the the violence violence is her present, present, and and her her nightmares nightmares preclude her healing from from violence. Her suffering suffering is so deep that she commits suicide. Sophie seeks community community and and healing. healing.The Thememory memoryofofher her mother’s rape leads her to find strength strengthin inpain. pain.Arguably, Arguably, these these two two charcharacters narrate narrate aa fundamental fundamentalexperience experiencein intrauma traumaand andhealing healingasasemphaemphaHerman: “The sized by Herman: “The core core experiences experiences of of psychological psychological trauma traumaare aredisdisempowerment and and disconnection empowerment disconnection from others. others. Recovery, Recovery, therefore, is upon the empowerment empowerment of the survivor based upon survivor and and the the creation creation of new connections” (133). Martine, the victim, never finds reconnection. victim, never finds reconnection. Sophie, Sophie, aa second-generation survivor, starts her her healing healingprocess processthrough throughcommucommunity when therapy and joins an international international group nity when she seeks therapy group of of women women all healing from from past past violence. violence. Trauma is is the mode Trauma mode in in which which Martine Martine and andSophie Sophie experience experience their their present. The present. The two two characters characters embody embodytwo twocritical criticalmanifestations manifestationsofofviolence violence through traumatized through traumatizedmemory memoryand andactive activememory. memory.Martine, Martine,who whoembodies embodies traumatized memory, is silenced. Her life is displaced via her nightmares traumatized memory, is silenced. Her life is displaced via her nightmares phantasmagoric experiences; and phantasmagoric experiences;she sheconsequently consequentlyengages engagesnew newviolations violations the self-destruction self-destruction the (her testing of Sophie) and completes the the rape rape set set into into motion (her (her suicide). suicide). The suicide functions as an an acting-out acting-outof ofan aninitial initial violence that that she cannot escape. Martine’s memory memory is failed failed memory memory beviolence escape. Martine’s it does does not not work as aa strategy strategy for self-preservation. self-preservation. For survival, she cause it would need to to forget forget the therape. rape.Since Since she shecannot cannotforget forgetthe therape, rape,she shelives livesinin space of of insurmountable insurmountable trauma a space trauma and and suffers suffers from frommelancholia, melancholia, or orpospos-

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The story story of her trauma session of the body by sadness. The trauma isis reproduced reproduced via via two routes: acting out out against against herself, herself, and and transmission transmissionof ofthe theviolent violentexexperience to her daughter. Sophie’s memory memory is a mixture mixture of truth Sophie’s truthand andfiction. fiction.She She must mustdeal dealwith with her own memory of her mother’s insistent trauma (her (her mother’s mother’s truth) truth) and her interpretation interpretation of of what what might might have have happened happened (which (which will be rethrough what information will configured through information she she can gather and, inevitably, will contain elements of fiction). Hers is the memory memory of of mourning mourningby bywhich which she is left to work work through through (grieve) (grieve) her her loss loss (her (her dead dead mother). mother). Sophie Sophie must engage in active active memory memory (a (a memory memory that that puts together the pieces pieces can find) find) in in order order to tomourn mourn the the violence violence her her mother mother lived, lived, the the death death of of she can violence and and trauma trauma she has has inherited. inherited. The The experience experience her mother, and the violence violence is is manifested manifested in in different levels of trauma, which in turn of violence turnproproduce different memories. All of these experiences and memories must memories. these experiences and memories mustbe be deeper understanding understanding of of the the effects effects and and afaftaken into consideration for a deeper fects that violence fects violence produces produces in in individuals, individuals, families, families, and and interconnected interconnected communities. global communities. Eyes, Memory Memory plays plays a number of Breath, Eyes, of important important roles. roles. ItIt can can be be tool against against repression repression of memory. It underscores the dissociviewed as aa tool ation from women’s women’s violent experiences experiences and the the denial denial of ofsuch suchcircumcircumstances, informing informing readers in developed nations and in other diaspora readers in developed nations and in other diasporacomcommunities of the munities the atrocities atrocities that that occur occur under underdictatorships dictatorships and and other other regimes. The The text text shows shows how how atrocities atrocities become become present present in in the the repressive regimes. “developed nations” nations” and and how how no no nation or community “developed community escapes escapes the emotional and psychological consequences of of rape, rape,whether whether politically politically motimotipsychological consequences random. It inspires inspires social awareness of the the dimensions dimensions of a history history vated or random. violence in in Haiti Haiti and its diaspora and invites active human rights of violence rights work work that history. to change that history. Danticat joins with women in Haiti and in the the diaspora to create spaces disclosure of of violence violencethrough through creative means. She tells stories and helps of disclosure women without support groups women groups to to discover discover solidarity and strength strength in in memory. Writing from the diaspora, the author fills a very important gap, from the author fills very important gap, sharing women’s women’s stories and giving all women a space space for remembering mourning their and mourning theirviolent violentpasts pastsand andseeking seekingways waystotoheal, heal,through throughdisclodiscloand the the fight for rights. sure, solidarity, and Breath, Eyes, Memory Memory can be read read as as aatext textof ofmemory memory and and On one level Breath, Haiti’s human human rights violations. violations. healing that memorializes the victims of Haiti’s On another another level, level, the the text, text, through throughthe thecharacters’ characters’skillfully skillfully elicited elicited

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memories of experiences, encourages more complex memories experiences, encourages complex meditations about memory, and complicates the function function of of remembering. remembering. Memory has Memory has been been proposed proposed as as aa first firststep steptoward towardjustice. justice.For Forexample, example, in her her study study“The “TheMinefields MinefieldsofofMemory,” Memory,”Elizabeth ElizabethJelin Jelinargues arguesthat that memory is memory is in the the present: present: “There “There are, are, therefore, therefore,active active and and ongoing ongoing politipolitical struggles struggles about meaning—about the meaning of what went cal went on on in in the the past and also about the meaning meaning of memory memory itself” itself”(24). (24). In her her essay essay “The “The Politics of of Memory,” Jelin explores how memory, Politics memory, truth, truth,and andjustice justiceare are “Truth iminextricably linked to a struggle for human rights. She posits: “Truth plies governmental governmental recognition recognition of the responsibility plies responsibility that that governmental governmental agents had in the the crimes crimes and and abuses abuses committed” committed” (50). (50). Nonetheless, Nonetheless, she recognizes that that “there “there is the factual impossibility impossibility of of bringing bringing to to trial all recognizes those responsible for violations violations and and compensating compensatingall allthe thevictims” victims”(51). (51). Jelin suggests suggests that that memory is an important factor in the recovery of important factor in the recovery ofperpersonal dignity and and justice: justice: Memory can then then partially partially take takethe theplace placeofofjustice. justice.Because Because this this phase of justice is unfinished, unfinished, at atthe thesocietal societallevel levelthere thereare aresigns signsofof collectivefrustration, frustration, and and at the personal collective personal level level of the the victims victims and and their relatives, there is a sense of irretrievable loss that can never their relatives, there is a sense of irretrievable loss that can neverbe be articulated at at the thepolitical political level level and andfor forwhich whichno nojustice justiceisispossible. possible. 652) (52) “Those who who have suffered directly directly or Jelin concludes: “Those or through throughtheir theirimmeimmememory” (53). diate relatives define themselves as the bearers of pain and memory” (53). Danticat’s novel novel addresses addresses this this pain. It also shows how Danticat’s how memory memorydoes does not always bring bring justice. justice. In Intheory, theory,memory memorycan canforce forcerevenge. revenge.IfIfa acrimcriminal’s actions actions are forgotten, forgotten, he/she inal’s he/shecan canescape escape without withoutpunishment, punishment,but butifif then perhaps that the act of violence is remembered officially, officially, then that perpetrator perpetrator might be be caught caught and andreprimanded, reprimanded,avenging avengingthe thevictim’s victim’sviolation. violation.As As Herman has detriment Herman has shown, shown, remembering rememberingin inprivate privatecan can become become a great detriment to the sufferer without without having having any any effect effect on the the criminal. criminal. When justice is not the final outcome, why tell the story? Perhaps the final outcome, why tell the story? Perhapsaastory storyisistold toldtotohelp help community of create a community ofawareness. awareness.Not Notonly onlydoes doesthe thecrime crimeofofrape rapehappen, happen, tells an an important story without but the effects effects are annihilating. Fiction Fiction tells implicating sufferers who would never be able tell their their pasts pasts succinctly. succinctly. tells aa story story that resembles the Fiction tells the truth truthof ofan anexperience experience without withoutburburdening real victims and and testifies testifies about aboutstories storiesthat thatcannot cannotbebeproved. proved.AtAt issue is not the the accuracy accuracy of of these these stories storiesbut, but,rather, rather,their theirpervasiveness. pervasiveness.

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Rapists in Haiti and Rapists and elsewhere elsewhere are are rarely rarelybrought broughttotojustice; justice;victims victimsare are rarely vindicated. rarely vindicated. Survivors’ Survivors’status statusasascitizens citizensisisdiminished diminishedwith witheach eachvioviolation or lation or knowledge knowledge of of continued continuedviolations. violations.They Theyare areleft leftonly onlywith withinexoinexorable pain. pain. violence further further afflicts her In Martine’s case, violence her when when other otherforms formsofofillillchange etch themselves ness and physical change themselves onto her body. body. She struggles must have two mastectomies. A new pregnancy brings up with cancer and must up during her the feelings she had during her first first pregnancy, pregnancy, the the one one that thatresulted resultedfrom from As she she senses a new life growing in rape. As in her herbody, body, she she cannot cannotescape escape the the images that have been haunting her for years. While Sophie was still images haunting her for years. While Sophie was still aa child, Martine Martine had a reason for staying child, staying alive. alive. But when the the child child has has bebecome a woman, has married, come married, and and has has her herown owndaughter, daughter,Martine Martinefeels feels abandoned and abandoned and even even more morealone. alone.Even Even though thoughher herlover, lover,Marc, Marc,seems seemstotobe be kind and supportive, she she does does not not turn turn to him for the help she needs. She the help she needs. does not not reveal reveal the the depth of her her horror to him. does him. Her Her body, without breasts to feed anyone, reflects her her feelings feelings about about herself. herself.She She cannot cannotnurture nurtureanyanyone, not even even herself. herself. Through Through Martine’s Martine’scharacter, character, Danticat Danticat dramatizes dramatizes the ways in in which which aa repressive repressive regime regimeand andindiscriminate indiscriminatesexual sexualviolence violence continue to dismember dismember the thesurvivors, survivors,especially especially after after forced forced and and sudden sudden migration. As we learn migration. learn about about Martine’s Martine’spathos, pathos,we wewitness witnesshow howthe thetrautraumatic event returns again and again through nightmares and flashbacks, returns again and again through nightmares and flashbacks, larger part becoming a larger part of of her her present presentthan thanthe thereal realpresent presentshe shelives livesin.in.The The autobiographical literature literature of trauma autobiographical trauma provides provides an an important importantopportunity opportunity victims to to testify to the world about the abuses they suffered for victims suffered and to emphasize that that they will not be silenced. Yet there are many they will not be silenced. Yet there are manywomen women(and (and release through writing. In some way or other— men) who cannot find release theater, truth truth commissions, commissions, private private therapy, therapy,fiction—rape fiction—rape must mustbebeacacknowledged for what what itit is, is, aa crime crime against againstan aninnocent innocentperson. person.Fiction, Fiction,asas space of of disclosure, dramatizes the effects space disclosure, dramatizes effects of of violence violence and andalienating alienating trauma, and proposes proposes an an alternative alternative outcome. outcome. In InBreath, Breath,Eyes, Eyes, Memory, Memory, Martine is a haunted haunted woman Martine woman who who cannot cannot report reportaa ghost ghost to to the thepolice. police. Even so, the the ghosts must be reported, system she reported, if not to to a legal system she does not not trust, trust, then to to someone someone she she can can confide in. Martine is the the trapped, trapped, traumatized, traumatized, helpless person Herman Herman describes. describes. Sophie, II suggest, Sophie, suggest, presents presents an an alternative alternative life life story. story.Sophie Sophie must must terms with the person she struggle with her her mother’s memories memories to come to terms herself is is and can become. She wants wants to to know know her mother’s story, her herself become. She mother’s story, aunt’s story, story, and and her grandmother’s story. She She wants to find aunt’s grandmother’s story. find her her own own responsibly in in light of of the trauma she meaning in life and act responsibly she witnesses witnesses

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Sophie does does not not want to be and, by extension, experiences. experiences. Sophie be paralyzed paralyzed by by memory the memory the way way her her mother motheris; is; she she wants wants to to find find resilience in her past and pride in her her present. present.Consequently, Consequently,she shehas hasaajourney journeyofofdiscovery discoveryofofand and recovery from from her past recovery past ahead ahead of of her. her. Yet Yet her mother’s mother’s suicide suicide adds to Sophie’sstruggles struggles with with her her own pathos, hindering her Sophie’s her ability ability to tolead leadaa healthy life. healthy life. Sophie Sophierecalls: recalls:

and II got got married, married, all all through through the first year II had After Joseph Joseph and had thoughts. Some nights suicidal thoughts. nights II woke woke up up in in aa cold cold sweat wondering wondering if my mother’s anxiety was was somehow hereditary hereditary or or ifif ititwas was somesomething that that II had had “caught” “caught” from from living living with with her. her. Her Her nightmares nightmareshad had become my my own, so so much so that I would somehow become would wake up some mornings wondering wondering ifif we we hadn’t hadn’t both both spent spent the night dreaming mornings dreaming about the same thing: a man with about with no no face, face, pounding a life into aa helpless young younggirl. girl.(193) (193) It is through through the thecharacter character of of Sophie, Sophie, whose whose name name means means knowledge knowledge or wisdom (sophia in Greek), wisdom Greek), that thatDanticat Danticatdescribes describeswomen’s women’smigration migration from Haiti Haiti to to the theUnited UnitedStates. States.Sophie, Sophie,who whowas wasborn bornininHaiti Haitiand andraised raised by her her aunt auntTatie Tatie in inthe thepoor poorvillage villageofofCroix-des-Rosets, Croix-des-Rosets,finds findsher herchildchildshaped by the mystery hood shaped mystery of of her hermother. mother.Sophie Sophie has has aa picture picture of ofher her mother, and regularly hears her voice on cassette recordings, but does not regularly hears her voice on cassette recordings, but does not know details details of of Martine’s Martine’s life lifein in the the United United States States or or the the reason know reason for for her her When Sophie sudden “escape.” When Sophie isis twelve twelveyears yearsold, old,an anairline airlineticket ticketarrives arrives in the mail: the child is to join her mother in in the the United United States. States. With With this this journey begins physical journey begins Sophie’s Sophie’s growing growing awareness awareness of of the thedarker darkerside sideofof life. In the cab life. cab leaving leaving for for the theairport airportininPort-au-Prince, Port-au-Prince,she shewitnesses witnesses some of the political violence that can afflict Haiti:

students fell Some of the students fell and and rolled rolled down down the thehill. hill.They Theyscreamed screamed at the soldiers that that they theywere wereonce once again again betraying betrayingthe thepeople. people. One One girl rushed down the hill and grabbed one of the soldiers by the arm. the hill He raised his his pistol pistol and and pounded poundedititon ontop topofofher herhead. head.She Shefell felltotothe the ground, her her face face covered with her her own own blood. blood. (34) (34) Tante Atie reminds Sophie that that this thisisisthe thereason reasonfor forleaving: leaving:the theviolence violence makes Haiti too dangerous dangerous for for aa little littlegirl. girl.That Thatlittle littlegirl girlknows knowsonly onlythat that abandoning her she is abandoning her beloved beloved aunt. aunt.In Inher hernew newschool schoolin inthe theUnited UnitedStates, States, different kind of ostracism: racism. racism. She She quickly quickly learns learns that that she discovers aa different many of the the American American children children accuse accuse Haitians Haitians of of having having AIDS AIDS because because television coverage says it affects the the four four H’s: H’s: heroin heroin addicts, addicts, hemophilihemophili-

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acs, homosexuals, homosexuals, and and Haitians. Haitians. Concurrently, Concurrently, she learns the acs, the horrible horriblereareason for her her mother’s mother’s sudden sudden departure departure from fromHaiti. Haiti.Furthermore, Furthermore,ininthe the private confines of her own home, which is supposed to be safe, she underprivate confines of her own home, which is supposed to be safe, she undergoes the humiliation humiliationof of “testing.” “testing.” The Haitian Haitian community communityhas hasleveled leveledmuch muchcriticism criticismatatDanticat’s Danticat’sdedescription of a mother’s testing testing for for her herdaughter’s daughter’svirginity. virginity.In Infact, fact,there there tradition in have been denials of its existence as a tradition in Haitian Haitianculture culturetotoguarguarantee a daughter’s honor. In the the novel, novel, Martine Martinestarts startstototest testher herdaughter daughter every night when every when she she reaches reaches puberty: puberty: Martine Martine puts puts her herfinger fingerinto into Sophie’s vagina to ascertain that the hymen is still there. This testing is Sophie’s vagina to that the hymen is still there. This testing isa a pivotal violation in the text, because it is caused not by a stranger stranger but but by by the only only person person Sophie Sophie is allowed allowed to trust. trust. Despite Despite her her own own horrible horrible memory of testing, testing, Martine memory Martine violates violates her her daughter daughterin inthe thename nameof of tradition. tradition. This violation sets the pattern for Sophie’s own difficulty with her pattern for Sophie’s difficulty with her body, body, her sexuality, and her sense of value in the world, her community, community, and and her her family. During the testing, testing, Martine Martine tells tells her her daughter daughter the thestory storyof oftwo twoinsepainsepa“There are rable lovers, the Marassas, and adds, adds, “There are secrets secrets you youcannot cannotkeep” keep” (85). Afterward, Afterward, Martine Martine covers her daughter’s body and (85). and leaves the the room, room, her face buried in in her her hands. hands.The Thestory storyofofthe theMarassas Marassasisisabout aboutlove, love,and and the testing, she implies, is also about love. Yet Martine reveals her shame testing, she implies, is also about love. Yet Martine reveals her shame by covering covering her her face. face. Sophie Sophie experiences experiencesthe thetesting testingasasaaviolation violationand andevievidence of of her mother’s dence mother’s lack lack of of trust, trust,which, which,according according to to the thetext, text,isis transgenerational. In transgenerational. InHaiti HaitiSophie Sophie learns learnsthat thather heraunt auntwas wasalso alsotested, tested,and and concludes that it made sense that Atie screamed during the tests. Conconcludes that sense that Atie screamed during the tests. Conversely, Sophie remains silent silent during duringthe thetesting: testing:

words to to the the Virgin VirginMother’s Mother’sPrayer: Prayer:Hail HailMary Mary... I mouthed the words ... so full of grace. The Lord Lordisiswith withYou You... so grace. The . . .You You are are blessed blessed among among women... women . . Holy . HolyMary. Mary.Mother MotherofofGod. God.Pray Prayfor forususpoor poorsinners. sinners. In my mind, mind, II tried tried to to relive relive all all the thepleasant pleasantmemories memoriesIIrememremembered from my my life. life. My My special special moments moments with with Tante Tante Atie Atie and and with with Joseph and even with my my mother. mother. (84) (84) silence during during the testing Sophie’s silence testing is is comparable comparable to to Martine’s Martine’sreluctance reluctancetoto talk about the the rape rape in inher herown ownlife. life.Sophie Sophiedoes doesnot notfight fighther hermother motherdurdurmother by ing the testing; instead, she defies her mother by breaking breaking her her own own hymen hymen with a pestle from the kitchen. kitchen. Her defiance defiance is acted acted out through selfselfmutilation. With this act, she rejects her mother’s overprotection and her this act,

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culture’s repression of women and symbolically precludes violation by a culture’s she has has beat beat him/her to it. stranger: she it. The next time time her her mother mothertests testsher, her, there is no barrier left. With calm anger and resignation, Martine throws barrier left. With calm anger and resignation, Martine throws “him.” Sophie gathers her things Sophie out, telling her to go to “him.” things and and limps limps from the the pain pain of of her herself-abuse self-abuseto toan anunsuspecting unsuspectingJoseph Joseph(her (herneighbor neighbor and friend friend and, and, later, later, her herhusband). husband).Sophie’s Sophie’sdeparture, departure,like likeher hermother’s mother’s from Haiti, Haiti, does not not resolve resolve problems. problems. They They become become worse. worse. The testing testing and andself-imposed self-imposeddeflowering, deflowering,like likeMartine’s Martine’srape, rape,are arethe the violations that violations thatafflict afflictSophie’s Sophie’slife. life.Sophie Sophiehas hasexperienced experienceda aseries seriesofofabuabusive events that sive that ultimately ultimatelylead leadtotoself-abuse self-abuseand andthe thedenial denialofofpleasure. pleasure. Toward the end of the the novel, novel, Danticat Danticatreveals revealsthat thatSophie Sophiecannot cannotenjoy enjoysex sex with her husband. husband. During “lovemaking” she remembers the testing and how she coped with it. She She remembers remembersher hermother’s mother’sstory storyofofthe theMarassa Marassa doubling, pretends she is elsewhere, and feels a stronger bond doubling, pretends she elsewhere, a stronger bond totoher her mother. Without mother. Withoutsaying sayingso, so,she shejoins joinsin inher hermother’s mother’sfrigidity frigidityand anddenial denialofof life’s simple simple pleasures. pleasures. She recalls the image life’s image of the the faceless faceless man man who whoraped raped her mother; mother; she she recalls recalls the the tradition traditionof oftesting testingthat thatmade madeher herfeel feelsosobad. bad. After her her absence absence in in lovemaking, lovemaking,she shegoes goesto tothe thekitchen, kitchen,eats eatseverything everything she can find, goes to the bathroom, bathroom,and andempties emptiesherself herselfofofthe thefood foodand andany any possible feeling of of plenty. plenty. Sophie’sdislike dislikeofofher her body body leads leads her her to binge and then Sophie’s then vomit. vomit.This This constitutes another another act act of of self-mutilation self-mutilation in in the thedark; dark;bulimia bulimiaisisaaprivate private Sophie struggles struggles with disease. Sophie withguilt guiltover overhow howher herlife lifehas hasbeen beenblessed. blessed.She She has an understanding understandinghusband, husband,but butstill stillshe shecannot cannotenjoy enjoycarnal carnalpleasures pleasures with him. She has has aa lovely lovely daughter, daughter, but but still still she she rejects rejects her herown ownbody, body, which has grown grown robust robustfrom fromthe thepregnancy. pregnancy.Sophie Sophiedoes doesnot notknow knowhow howtoto embrace happiness, happiness, and and so so she she hurts hurtsherself. herself.The Thepattern patternofofthe thelife lifeshe shehas has witnessed most most intimately, intimately, her her mother’s, mother’s, isis so so replete witnessed replete with pain pain that that internalized this Sophie has internalized this pain pain as as aa way way of of living. She must must reproduce reproduce itit to feel the comforting comforting sensation sensationof ofwhat whatisisfamiliar. familiar.But Butshe shehas hasgrown grownup up the United in the United States Statesand andunderstands, understands,atatleast leaston onaarational rationallevel, level,that thatthis thisisis wrong. wrong. Martine had Martine had been been anorexic; anorexic; she she starved starved her herbody bodyfor foryears, years,long longbefore before she stabbed it. Sophie does not not annihilate annihilate herself herselfso socompletely. completely. She She isis tempted by tempted by food food and and indulges indulgesin init—but it—butshe sheimmediately immediatelyfeels feelsguilty. guilty.How How could she eat so much? Quickly she goes to the the bathroom bathroomand andpurges purgesherherself of the pleasures self pleasures of of eating eating and and satiation. satiation.Perhaps Perhaps this thisisisinina apartial partial contrast to to her hermother’s mother’sstarvation. starvation.Figuratively, Figuratively,Sophie’s Sophie’sbulimia bulimiaevokes evokes her emotional emotionalrelationship relationshiptotolife. life.She Shewants wantstotolive livefully, fully,even evenexcessively, excessively,

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but she she cannot. cannot. She but she feels feels she She has has never never had had an an intimate intimaterole rolemodel modelof of how how women can be in the the world. world. What Whatcan can she shedo? do? Is Is being beingaa wife wife and andmother mother enough? Can she go to school? What can she do with her her life? life? Martine’s memory of memory of the the rape, rape, persisting persisting trauma, trauma,and andself-mutilation self-mutilationdeeply deeplyimpact impact Sophie’s life. life.Martine Martine hoped hoped Sophie Sophie would would vindicate vindicate the the women women of of the Sophie’s family; she wanted her daughter family; daughter totostudy studyand andsucceed. succeed.Clearly, Clearly,Sophie Sophie wants this too. But living with her her mother’s mother’s history history of of erasure erasurethrough through rape, migration, and and anorexia, anorexia, she shecycles cycles between betweeneating eatingand andvomiting, vomiting, nourishing herself herself and and rejecting rejecting nutrients, nutrients,strengthening strengtheningand andweakening weakening herself. Bulimia for Sophie is about wanting and not wanting, living Sophie about wanting and not wanting, livingexcesexcessively and depriving depriving herself herselfviolently. violently.Her Hermother motherwas wasnot notable abletotospeak speakofof the horrors horrors that thatisolated isolatedher, her,and and Sophie Sophie struggles strugglesbetween betweenwanting wantingtototell tell and wanting to to “gag” “gag” herself herself into intosilence, silence,illness, illness, and and thinness. thinness.Her Herdisdiscomfort with comfort with her herphysical physicalbody bodysuggests suggeststhat thatshe shedoes doesnot notvalue valueherself herselffor for who and what what she she is. is. Her Her personhood personhoodisisunclear uncleartotoher; her;she sheisisafflicted afflictedwith with severe emotional and psychological psychological distress that that results resultsin inself-inflicted, self-inflicted, physical pain. pain. While her mother mother experiences experiences her her trauma traumaininisolation, isolation,Sophie Sophieseeks seeks education and the dreams dreams of her help. Her New York education her mother motherand andaunt aunthave have given her a certain sense of self that that she she will will eventually eventuallyexplore. explore.Her Hertrips trips to Haiti show her how people change, how circumstances can be conHaiti show her how people change, how circumstances can be conher illiterate aunt fronted. For example, her aunt learns learns to toread readand andwrite. write.Sophie Sophieisis a woman of the future futurewho whocan canand andwill willstruggle strugglefor forjustice, justice,starting startingwith with her own emotional emotional healing. healing. She She seeks help through throughtherapy. therapy.Her Hertherapist therapist is not a traditional traditional person person with with rigid rigid office office hours; hours; Sophie Sophie could not go to to someone from whom she would fear judgment. She She needs needs someone someone who who understands her her cultural culturalheritage heritageand anditsitsmanifestations manifestationsininU.S. U.S.culture. culture. Sophie’s therapist therapist is is a “gorgeous Sophie’s “gorgeous black black woman woman who who was was an aninitiated initiated Santeria priestess. She had done two years in the Peace Peace Corps in the Dominican Republic, Republic, which which showed showedin in the brightly colored minican colored prints, prints, noisy noisy Their sessions sessions take takeplace place durdurbangles, and open sandals sandals she she wore” wore”(206).7! (206).21 Their ing walks in the the woods by a river. The casual contact between therapist and therapist and client allows Sophie to feel feel safe. safe. She She can can more moreeasily easilyspeak speaktotosomeone someone her ability to underwhose work in the Dominican Republic has increased her stand Sophie’s Haitian past. past. The therapist stand Sophie’s Haitian therapist serves serves as as aarole rolemodel modelfor for Sophie. Sophie too can be and and is is aa beautiful beautifulwoman. woman.She Shemust mustbelieve believeinin herself, in what she she can can accomplish, accomplish, and how she she can can love love and and be be loved. loved. Sophie can eat and she she can can live. live. If If she she stops stopsbinging, binging,she shewill willfinally finallybebea a

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fully realized realized person, person, an an active active member memberof ofher herfamily familyand andher hercommunities communities in the in the United United States Statesand andHaiti. Haiti. But to heal, she must struggle manifestation of struggle for for years. Binging is the manifestation of contradictory experiences, experiences, such as the the enormous enormouslove loveSophie Sophiefeels feelsfrom from her mother mother as as opposed opposed to to the thelack lackof oflove loveininMartine’s Martine’slife, life,and andSophie’s Sophie’s wealth of opportunities opportunities in in the theUnited UnitedStates Statesinincontrast contrasttotogrowing growingpovpoverty in Haiti. Haiti. Sophie Sophie is pulled pulled by two two extreme extreme conditions conditions that that leave leave her her wandering emotionally emotionallyin inaamiasma miasmaof ofdesire desireand andself-punishment. self-punishment. In seeking seeking a healthier life with the the sense sense that that she shedeserves deserves it, it, Sophie Sophie begins a healing process that will prove to be gradual. She joins a “sexual that will prove to be gradual. She joins a “sexual group” (201) phobia group” (201) with with an anEthiopian Ethiopiancollege college student studentwhose whoseclitoris clitoriswas was cut and labia sewn sewn up up when whenshe shewas wasaagirl, girl,and andaaChicana Chicanawoman womanwho whowas was raped for years by her her grandfather. grandfather. Together Together they they work work toward towardfinding findingaa sense of self-acceptance, self-respect, and self-love. self-love. They They dress dress in in white whitefor for and repeat repeat affirmations affirmations that that are are meant meant to drive out the their meetings, meetings, and the horrible experiences experiences and and beliefs beliefs that thathave havebeen beeninculcated inculcatedover overthe theyears. years. “We are beautiful beautiful women womenwith withstrong strongbodies. bodies.... .. Because . Becauseofofour ourdistress, distress, understand when we are able to understand whenothers othersare areinindeep deeppain” pain”(202). (202).The Thetragedy tragedy not confined of abuse and rape is not confined to to Sophie Sophie or orto toHaiti Haitiand andits itsdiaspora. diaspora.The The three women three women share share their theirplight plightininaasafe, safe,private privatespace, space, and recognize their their responsibility to responsibility toheal healthemselves themselvesand andtotohelp helpothers. others.They Theypray, pray,“God “Godgrant grant us the the courage courage to to change change those thosethings thingswe wecan, can,the theserenity serenitytotoaccept acceptthe the things we things we can’t, can’t, and and the thewisdom wisdomtotoknow knowthe thedifference” difference”(202). (202).The Theserenserenthey begin their affirmations, affirmations, reminds ity prayer, as they reminds them them that thatthey theycannot cannot take the world by storm. Instead they must find peace and the strength by storm. Instead they must find peace and the strengthtoto work slowly but with with determination determinationtoward towardhealthy healthybodies bodiesand andminds. minds. Despite injured memories, these these women women are areon onthe thepath pathtoward towardhealing healing from pain and and becoming becoming whole whole persons. persons.

Living with Rape: Considerations Considerationstoward towardHealing Healing When rape When rape is is part partof ofthe thepolitical politicalterror terrormachine, machine,redress redressbecomes becomespart partofof social responsibility. By contrast, when civilian social when rape rapeisisaapersonal personalororranraninjustice, itit is less less distinct distinct in legal terms and even dom injustice, even less less likely likely to be be addressed. As we have seen, redress is elusive, regardless of the circumaddressed. As we have the circumstances. Through Through the characters stances. characters of of Martine Martineand andSophie, Sophie,Danticat Danticatreveals reveals the complications complications of living with the the memory memoryand andtrauma traumaofofviolations violations against the against the body. body. Danticat’s Danticat’s characters charactersalso alsoaddress addressrape rapeinindifferent differentsociosocio-

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play,which whichpresents presents the violations political eras. Unlike FAVILEK’s FAVILEK’s play, violations of ofaa highly covered period of political political terror, terror, the the character character Martine Martine exposes the highly violations and violations and memory memoryof ofaadifferent differentpolitical politicalperiod, period,that thatofofthe theDuvaliers, Duvaliers, were more more covert. In fact, when violations violations were covert. In fact, for many years years the the United United States had good relations with the the Duvalier Duvalier governments, governments, despite despite the the reregimes’ repeated repeated human rights gimes’ rights violations. violations. In Inthe thename nameofofdemocracy, democracy,the the of arguing arguing that their Duvaliers put on an excellent show of their actions actions of terror terror were taken against communism. communism. During Duringthis thistime timemany manyviolations violationswere were overlooked, and and the circumstances overlooked, circumstances of aa rape rape like like Martine’s Martine’spoint pointtotothis this neglect. She was not raped for political reasons; she was not a communist. communist. The country was was neither in the limelight The limelight of international attention nor denounced by human rights being denounced rights groups. groups. She shares with many many women women the experience of a violation that does not fit into into the theneat neatparameters parametersof of 22 She is a victim in private. She migrates in sipolitics of public outcry.*? politics of public outcry. She is a victim in private. She siand she she never never finds solidarity solidarity in lence, and in any anywomen’s women’sgroups. groups.Perhaps Perhapsthis thisisis because she is an an immigrant, immigrant,poor, poor,and andblack. black.Before Before the thelate lateeighties, eighties,ininsufficient attention attentionwas wasgiven givento torape rapevictims victimsininthe theUnited UnitedStates Statesand andeven even less to rape victims victims who who had had migrated migratedwith withpost-traumatic post-traumaticstress stresssympsympDanticat’s character Martine Martine reveals revealsaaglobal globalcultural cultural toms from from rape.”’ rape.23 Danticat’s attitude of attitude of silence silence and and isolation isolation from fromaalocalized localized Haitian Haitianlens. lens. Haitians only recently developed a culture in which therapy recently developed a culture in which therapyisisananacacceptable treatment, treatment, perhaps as ceptable as aa direct direct result resultofofpsychologists psychologistsworking working with victims victims of of the the1991 1991coup coupd’état.7* d’état.24 Therapeutic aid aid for forsurvivors survivorsofof trauma is, trauma is, of course, a recent phenomenon. phenomenon.Research Researchconducted conductedon onthe thesursurvivors of torture torture after World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War after World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War has helped create an important important set set of of emotional emotional and and mental mentalsupport supportsyssystems for these victims.” victims.25 Groundbreaking Groundbreaking research—not research—not conducted conducted in the Haitian community but but applicable applicable to it—is being done at the the Bellevue/ Bellevue/ Program for E.E. NYU Program for Survivors Survivorsof ofTorture, Torture,where wherepsychologist psychologistHawthorne Hawthorne Smith has been working working with with the thepsychology psychologyof ofdisplacement displacement and andisolaisolation experienced experienced by by French-speaking French-speakingAfrican Africanrefugees refugeeswho whosurvived survivedtortorture. His work has no direct relation to the trauma Martine’s character ture. His work has no direct relation to the trauma Martine’s character embodies, but but it does shed light embodies, light on onthe thedimensions dimensionsofofrefugee refugeetrauma, trauma, which can be applied to the the crisis crisis of of isolation isolation Martine Martineexperiences. experiences.Smith Smith argues: “The argues: “The multiple multiplelosses, losses,social socialdislocation, dislocation,feelings feelingsofoffear, fear,inadequacy, inadequacy, and disempowerment combine with with cultural cultural and linguistic and disempowerment combine linguistic barriers barriers to to form a difficult difficult psychological psychological reality realityfor forpeople peopleliving livingininexile exileasasrefugees” refugees” Smith quotes Fishman and suggesting that (294). Smith quotesY. Y. Fishman andJ.J. Ross, suggesting thatfor forsome somesurvisurvi“Exile is is the the most painful part vors, “Exile part of of torture” torture”(293). (293).

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To stress this point, he To he describes describes an exercise exercise he uses uses when when presenting presenting information about about torture and information and refugee refugee trauma trauma totostudents studentsand andmental mental health professionals. Each Each audience audience member member jots down on paper the the five five things in his or her most precious precious things her life. life. Smith then then reads reads aloud aloud some some reresponses—health, marriage, marriage, children, children, material material things—and things—andrips ripsthe thepapers papers Smith asks to shreds. Smith asks his his audience audience to to imagine imagine that thatall allof ofthese thesethings thingshave have been violently taken taken away away from from them. them.As Asaudience audience members membersponder ponderthe the meaning of such sudden and and dramatic dramatic loss, loss, they they get get aa slight slightsense senseof ofthe the torture victims experiences of torture victims who who then thenalso alsoare areforced forcedinto intoexile. exile. Most of Smith’s clients at Bellevue cannot even get in in touch touch with withtheir their families in Africa, Africa, for fear of exposing the remaining families remaining members memberstotoadded added trouble from trouble fromthe theauthorities. authorities.According Accordingtotohis hisrecords, records,these thesesurvivors survivorshave have lost not only only their theirmaterial materialpossessions possessionsbut butalso alsotheir theirself-esteem, self-esteem,dreams, dreams, aspirations, feelings of emotional emotional and andphysical physicalsecurity, security,and andsense senseofofperperpoint is that that the post-traumatic sonal control. Smith’s point post-traumaticstress stresssyndrome syndromehis his experience is is not not just about the clients experience the trauma traumaof ofthe thepast pastbut butalso alsoabout about the sometimes sometimes equally equally traumatic traumaticemotional emotionaland andcultural culturalchallenges challengesofofthe the present. His work is important important because because itit creates creates an an alternative alternativespace space for for these survivors. Smith Smith talks talks about abouthelping helpingthe theclients clientsapply applyfor forpolitical political asylum and and creating creating aa new newmodel modelof ofpsychological psychological therapy therapyininwhich whichthey they meet in groups and, unlike in most traditional therapeutic styles, can have groups and, unlike in most traditional therapeutic styles, can have together “on contact outside the sessions. By getting together “on the theoutside,” outside,”the thesursurvivors can create aa community communitythat thatprovides providessupport, support,solace, solace,and anda anew new sense of of belonging and meaning. meaning. Smith Smith notes that the sense belonging and the progress progress of of his his group has reaffirmed his faith that healing is possible, under the right conthat healing is right conCommunity isis the ditions. Community thecritical critical goal, goal, and and Smith’s Smith’s patients patients are arefortunate fortunate enough to enough tohave haveaccess access to toit. it. contrast to In contrast to active active psychological psychological counseling, counseling,how howdoes doesaatext textofoffiction fiction function in in the theprocess process of of healing healingfrom fromviolence? violence?My Myresponse responseisisthat thatthe the narration is exposure. Not Not only only does does itit relate relate aa story story that narration is a critical tool of exposure. might have happened might happened but, but, more more important, important,ititshows showsdifferent differentresponses responsestoto violence. While While itit may may seem mundane to the literary elite, it is to the literary elite, it istelling tellingthat that Breath, Eyes, Memory Memory was Breath, wasan anOprah’s Oprah’sBook BookClub Clubselection. selection.Oprah, Oprah,whom whom as aa larger-than-life larger-than-life community-building I view as community-buildingapparatus, apparatus,brings bringstexts textsofof endurance and survival survival into into the theisolated isolatedliving livingrooms roomsof ofan anextensive extensiveU.S. U.S. public. This public may, and probably probably does, does, include include the theHaitian Haitiandiaspora. diaspora. An otherwise otherwise private privateevent, event,rape, rape,becomes becomesaapublic publicissue issueofofconversation conversation address. Judith Judith Herman Herman has noted that “the and address. “the most most common common trauma traumaof of women remains remains confined confined to to the thesphere sphereof ofprivate privatelife, life,without withoutformal formalrecrec-

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restitution from restitution from ognition or restitution from the the community” community”(73). (73). While restitution from the Haitian Haitian community community might mightnot notbebeautomatically automaticallygranted grantedbecause becauseofof Danticat’s text, within the the parameters parametersof ofthe thepublic publicsphere spheretotowhich whichitithas has come, the crime crime of of rape rape and andits itsaftereffects aftereffectsdo doreceive receiverecognition. recognition.Fiction, Fiction, read in private, marketed in in public, public, addresses a deeply painful alienating alienating experience. experience.

with Memories Coping with Memoriesof ofViolence Violence Danticat is Danticat is making makingaapolitical politicaland andpersonal personalappeal. appeal.She Shespeaks speakstotosurvivors survivors of abuse, reminding them them to tobreathe breatheand andsee seeand andremember, remember,totodefy defythe the annihilation and odds of annihilation and instead instead recover. recover. Perhaps the the title title should shouldbe beinterinterpreted as a series series of of commands: commands: Breath Breath==Breathe Breathein, in,breathe breatheout. out.Inhale. Inhale. Maintain aa supply alive. Eyes See. Exhale. Maintain supplyofofoxygen oxygenininyour yourbody. body.Stay Stay alive. Eyes= = See. Observe. Witness. Testify. Observe. Testify. Memory Memory ==Remember. Remember.Recall. Recall.Historicize. Historicize. Contextualize. Honor. Honor. Understand. She speaks to the the general generalpublic, public, dedescribing potential potentialconsequences consequencesofofrape. rape. history is Remembering one’s one’s private and political history is important importanttotokeep keep identity, family, and dignity dignity alive. alive. Memory—which Memory—whichcan canbe bemanifested manifestedasas cognition, knowledge, cognition, knowledge, recall, and trauma—can trauma—canbe beused usedto tochange changethe thesocial social structures that promote structures promote violence violence and and post-traumatic post-traumatic stress stresssyndrome. syndrome. Judith Herman Herman reminds remindsus, us,“After “After every everyatrocity atrocityone onecan canexpect expecttotohear hear the same predictable apologies: it never happened; the victim lies; the the victim lies; the vicvictim exaggerates; the victim brought brought ititupon uponherself; herself;and andininany anycase caseititisis time to time to forget forget the thepast pastand andmove moveon” on”(8). (8).These Thesedenials denialsmust mustbebechallenged challenged ageressively. As I have suggested, aggressively. suggested, one onevenue venuetotochallenge challengedenial denialisisoffered offered by truth commissions, which we should study as a form of memory. truth commissions, which we should study as a form of memory.We We must ask how that memory memory will will be be perpetuated perpetuated so so that that the thedenounced denounced crimes never occur occur again. again. Truth Truth commissions commissions often oftenfall fallshort shortofoftheir theirpopotential to tential to confirm confirm the theabuses abuses of of the thepast. past.In Inthose thosecases, cases, literature literatureand andthetheater play an an equally equally critical critical role role in in exposing exposing the theevils evilsof ofviolence violence and andits its repercussions. These These function as harbingers repercussions. harbingers of of memory, memory, and andbeg begus ustoto analyze the ways ways in in which which memory—as memory—astruth, truth,testimony, testimony,and andtrauma— trauma— shapes our our understanding of the human condition. human condition. Through the Through thecharacter characterof ofMartine, Martine,Danticat Danticatleads leadsusustotoconsider considerhow howthe the words breath, eyes, memory can also also be be interpreted to mean something words awful: awful:

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There is always a place place where where nightmares nightmares are There are passed passed on on through throughgengenerations like heirlooms. Where Where women cardinal birds birds return return to erations like heirlooms. women like like cardinal to look at their their own faces in stagnant bodies of water. own faces in stagnant bodies of water. I come from aa place place where where breath, breath,eyes, eyes,and andmemory memoryare areone, one,a a place from from which which you carry your place your past past like like the the hair hairon onyour yourhead. head. (234)

While Martine still breathes breathes and and can can see what is around her, the memory memory of her past does not let her really really breathe breathe or or really really see. see. She is is so severely hindered by the the memory memoryof of rape rape that thatshe shewills wills herself herself to to arrest arrest her herbreathbreathing. Her memory, memory, in in trauma, trauma,suffocates suffocatesher. her.Trauma Traumadoes doesnot notlet letits itsvictims victims move on, and they pass on their own inability to those who witness to those who witness their their pain. The only way to address address trauma trauma isis to todevelop develop new new venues venuesof ofsocial social support. Herman Herman says: says:

To hold hold traumatic traumatic reality To realityin inconsciousness consciousnessrequires requiresaasocial socialcontext context that affirms affirms and and protects protects the thevictim victim and andthat thatjoins joinsthe thevictim victimand and witness in in aa common commonalliance. alliance.For Forthe theindividual individualvictim, victim,this thissocial social context is created by relationships relationships with withfriends, friends,lovers, lovers, and and family. family. For the larger larger society, society, the the social social context contextisiscreated createdby bypolitical politicalmovemovements that ments thatgive give voice voice to to the thedisempowered. disempowered. ..... .In Inthe theabsence absence of of strong strongpolitical political movements movementsfor forhuman humanrights, rights, the active process of bearing witness witness inevitably inevitably gives gives way way to tothe theacactive process of forgetting. forgetting. Repression, Repression,dissociation, dissociation, and anddenial denialare are phenomena of phenomena ofsocial socialas aswell wellas asindividual individualconsciousness. consciousness.(9) (9) Memory and theater Novels such as Breath, Eyes, Memory theaterpieces pieces such such as as Paean Paeanto to All Forgotten Women Women bear bear witness witnesstotothe theact actofofviolence violenceagainst againstwomen. women. These venues of revelation also These also create create the the possibility possibility of of social social support, support, which elicit political changes that will respect women. women. The women can count count on The women of of FAVILEK FAVILEK can on each each other otherand andhave havereached reachedout out to other other victims victims in in hiding. hiding. Different Differentforms formsof ofartistic artisticexpression, expression,such suchas as theater pieces pieces and videos, videos, create spaces spaces of solidarity solidarity and and public public action. action. Similarly, literary characters characters take take on onaalife life of of their theirown ownand andbecome becomesymsymbolic venues for the disclosure of violence. Martine evokes victims of bolic venues for the disclosure of violence. Martine evokes victims ofthe the past who had little recourse to human human rights rightsaction. action.Sophie, Sophie, on on the theother other hand, suggests that there there is hope for recovery from trauma through through comcommunity and munity and engagement engagement in in a present present that that allows allows the trauma trauma of of the the past past to to viewed as as the the past. An An important point in the be viewed the stories stories of of Martine Martineand and Sophie is that trauma trauma begets begets trauma traumaand andthat thatmuch muchwork workmust mustbebedone donetoto

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address violence and its repercussions. repercussions. Violence and trauma traumaimpede impedeaalife life with dignity dignity and and deny denybasic basic human humanrights. rights. The women women of ofFAVILEK, FAVILEK, working against againstreal realpolitical politicalimpediments impediments and dependent on on the the aid aid received received through throughcenters centerssuch suchas asthe theBureau Bureaudes des Avocats Internationaux, Internationaux, find Avocats find themselves themselvestrapped trappedby byHaitian Haitianbureaucracy. bureaucracy. In the the diaspora, diaspora, Danticat Danticatisisrelatively relativelyfree freetotoengage engagepolitical politicalprojects projectsac-ac26 tively.*°Through Through her her first first novel, she she asks asks us us to to analyze the ways in which tively. rape steals meaning meaningfrom frompeople’s people’slives lives and andshapes shapesaadysfunctional dysfunctionalculture culture in which people people experience experience psychological psychological pain pain that thatcan canmanifest manifestitself itselfinin physical self-mutilation. Through Through the thenovel, novel,Danticat Danticatchallenges challengesa along long history of history of violence, machista culture, and the the horrors horrorsof ofdictatorships. dictatorships.The The fictional exposition exposition of women’s fictional women’s experience experience as aa strategy strategyofofdisclosure disclosure The haunting haunting memory shows the insidious effects of rape. The memory of of the theexperiexperience of rape revealed through the text shows to what extent memory ence of rape revealed through memory can can hurt. The hurt. The first-generation first-generationvictim victimMartine Martinecannot cannotescape escapeviolence, violence,because because her trauma trauma is is her her present. present.Conversely, Conversely, her her daughter daughter isis shown shown to tostart startthe the long process of healing healing through through forgiveness and, to to a certain long process of forgiveness and, certain extent, extent, through forgetting. through forgetting. Only Only in in that thatway waycan can she she engage engage in in the the present, present, freed freed of the haunting of of her her mother’s mother’s rape, rape, free to to believe believe that that the the future futurecan can hold good things things for forher. her.Disclosing Disclosingthe theeffects effectsof ofsuch suchaapersonal personaland andsubsubjective crime as as rape, rape, Danticat Danticat transforms transforms aa very very private private memory into a jective crime public issue. issue. What What happens happens when when memory hurts? public hurts? ItIt can, can, as as in in the the case case of of Martine, destroy of Sophie, Sophie,strengthen strengthen Martine, destroy its its victim. victim. It It can can also, as in the case of its victim, inciting inciting her herto toplay playaaharp harpor orwrite writeaastory. story.Arguably, Arguably,the theviolent violent memories of Haiti’s women hurt the author. As Danticat has said, memories hurt the author. As Danticat has said,she she writes to work through through that thathurt. hurt.Her Herwriting writingisisher hermusic; music;ititisisthe theharp harp she will not put put down. down.That Thatway wayshe shecreates createscommunity communityfor forhealing.’’ healing.27 Danticat’s novel is a memorial memorial to toHaiti’s Haiti’swomen, women,denouncing denouncingrape rapeininthe the past, in the present, and in the future. future.

33

Invisibility Exposing Invisibility Drown Drown

Dominicans, like many many previous previousimmigrants, immigrants,come cometotoAmerica Americaacting actingonon their hope for a better future. But hope is challenged by the dismal hope for a better future. But hope is challenged by the dismalecoecoreality many nomic reality many minorities minoritiesininthe theUnited UnitedStates Statessuffer sufferand andbybya alegacy legacy ingrained prejudices of ingrained prejudices and and patterns patternsofofabuse abuseagainst againstcommunities communitiesofofcolor. color. When Dominicans come come to the the United United States, States, they theyare areset setaside asideininthe the category of “black and Hispanic.” category Hispanic.” Thus Thus they theyare aremade madeinvisible invisiblebybysocially socially constructed, and sometimes binding, constructed, binding, mechanisms mechanisms of of disempowerment. disempowerment. Often, when they they do do gain gainvisibility, visibility, itit isisonly onlytotounderscore underscorea anegative negative of the the population. Contemporary Dominican diaspora diaspora history history thus image of intersects with African Americans’ Americans’ long history of disempowerment disempowerment and and struggles for struggles foreconomic, economic,political, political,and andsocial socialjustice. justice.Junot JunotDiaz’s Díaz’s1996 1996colcollection of short short stories, stories, Drown, Drown,foregrounds foregroundsaasense senseofofdrowning drowning(ahogo) (ahogo) in Dominican lives, both in the diaspora and on the island. In this chapter Dominican lives, both in the diaspora and on the island. In this chapterI I Diaz’s short short stories to explore the nexuses engage Díaz’s nexuses of invisibility invisibility for for the theDoDominican diaspora and the as-yet-unrecognized as-yet-unrecognizedintersections intersectionswith withAfricanAfricanAmerican literature. American literature. of invisibility invisibility and and visibility is part A sociocultural sociocultural dialectic dialectic of part ofofthe the they enter enter into struggle experienced by Dominicans in the diaspora as they into diadialogue with other other disempowered disempowered groups. groups. II suggest suggest that thatDiaz Díazisisconfused, confused,as as tries to diashe tries to find find aa voice that that represents representshis hiscommunity, community,the theDominican Dominican diasrepresent itit in pora, and represent inaaway waythat thatsatisfies satisfiesthe theexpectations expectationsofofthe themainmainstream U.S. literary agent, stream U.S. literary agent,publisher, publisher,and andreader. reader.Diaz’s Diaz’s short shortfiction fictionserves serves up what what could could be be viewed viewed as asstereotypical stereotypicalrepresentations representationsofofDominican Dominican diaspora violence. Does his writing respond to a broad-based fascination diaspora violence. Does his writing a broad-based fascination with stories of ethnic groups groups on on the themargins?! margins?1Do Do these thesegroups groupsgain gainvisvisibility only through throughnegative negativerepresentation? representation?InInthis thischapter chapterI Isuggest suggestthat that negative representation representationisismuch muchdesired desiredby bythe themainstream mainstreampublic, public,affectaffect-

92 TheThe Tears 92 TearsofofHispaniola Hispaniola

ing the ways that ethnic communities remember remember themselves and struggle with the the impact impact of of violence violence and its its repetition repetitionon ontheir theirlives. lives.The Thework workofof Junot Diaz may elucidate the point. Díaz elucidate the point. example, let let us us look at the way the For example, the title titlehas hasbeen beenchanged changedinintranstranslations. The The Spanish Spanish editions editions do not use lations. use aaliteral literaltranslation translationofofDrown, Drown, which would would be Ahogar(se), Ahogar(se),and andtherefore thereforewould wouldemphasize emphasizetragedy. tragedy.MarMarketing considerations might might have have precluded precluded aa cover cover that thathighlighted highlightedthe the possibility of doom. So the title title of of the theSpanish Spanishtranslation translationininthe theUnited United Negocios.This Thistitle, title,taken taken from from the final story States, released in 1997, is Negocios. story in in the collection, focuses on the protagonist’s father, Papi, and his success collection, on the protagonist’s father, Papi, and his success with women. Papi has two wives, two sons named after after him, him, and and several several mistresses. The is isvalmistresses. The story storyemphasizes emphasizesthe thekind kindofofmasculine masculinesuccess successthat that valued in the traditional traditional Dominican Dominicanculture cultureof ofmanhood. manhood.In Incontrast, contrast,the thetitle title in English is taken taken from another another short shortstory, story,“Drown.” “Drown.”This This story storyexplores explores homosexual desire—a desire—a topic topic that, that, in the homosexual the Dominican Dominican national national identity, identity, isis invisible’). Another Another marketing twist is evident in the drowned out (made invisible?). the title of the the translation translationpublished publishedinin1996 1996ininSpain, Spain,Los LosBoys, Boys,calling callingtoto mind rough rough boys boys from fromthe the‘hood. ’hood.AAFrench Frenchtranslation translationisisalso alsotitled titledLos Los 2 While that Boys.” While that title was not used on on the the U.S. U.S. Spanish edition, edition, itit reveals reveals Boys. a particular particular and and widespread widespreadfascination fascinationwith withstereotypical stereotypicalconceptualizaconceptualizations of Dominican marginalization and macho toughness in marginalization and macho toughness inthe theghettoes ghettoes 3 of the United States.° of the United States. The title piece piece in the the original originalEnglish Englishtext, text,“Drown,” “Drown,”offers offersaarevealing revealing story about about the theprotagonist’s protagonist’spsychological psychologicalreality, reality,how howhe heviews viewshimself, himself, and how he occupies the world in which he lives: “One teacher, occupies world in which he lives: “One teacher,whose whose family had had two grammar schools named after after it, compared us to the family schools named compared us the you are going to make it. Those are the orbiters. shuttles. A few of you orbiters. But But the the majority of you you are are just justgoing goingto toburn burnout. out.Going Goingnowhere” nowhere”(106). (106).Years Years later the the protagonist protagonistrecalls, recalls,“I “Icould couldalready alreadysee seemyself myselflosing losingaltitude, altitude, fading, the the earth spread out beneath fading, beneath me, me, hard hard and and bright” bright”(106). (106). Rather Rather than orbiting the the earth, earth,or orshining shininglike likeaastar, star,or orstanding standingstrong strongon onthe the earth, he is “drowned out” by the atmosphere. His presence is diminished “drowned out” by the atmosphere. His presence is diminished by the the image image of of aa solid solid and and radiating radiatingearth earththat thathehedoes doesnot notbelong belongto.to. The characters in “Drown” “Drown” struggle strugglewith withself-respect self-respectand andself-worth. self-worth. Their visas have not not come come close close to to fulfilling fulfillingall allof ofthe thedreams dreamsthey theyhad hadatat home. They must fight fight numerous numerouskinds kindsof ofpoverty—not poverty—notthe theexplicit explicitone one of the Dominican of Dominican countryside, countryside, but a more more pervasive pervasive poverty poverty of of spirit. spirit. More than thanaa memory, memory,which whichititdoes doesnot notclaim claimto tobe, be,Drown Drownisisaa reminder reminderofof

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the ways ways people people are are rendered renderedinvisible invisibleby byhistorical historicalexcuses, excuses,by bymarginal marginal behavior, and behavior, and by bysocial socialclass. class.

Histories and Colliding Histories and Fictions: Fictions: Surfacing SurfacingInvisibilities Invisibilities Silvio Torres-Saillant Torres-Saillant and Ramona Hernéndez, Hernández,coauthors coauthorsof ofThe TheDominiDominican Americans (and, (and, respectively, the the former formerand andcurrent currentdirectors directorsofofthe the New York), Dominican Studies Institute Instituteof ofthe theCity CityUniversity Universityofof New York),have have lamented that that Dominicans Dominicans are not not included in many reference publications that claim claim to to account account for for “all” “all”ethnic ethnicgroups groupsininAmerican Americansociety. society.In Inthe the essay “Forging a Dominican-American Dominican-AmericanCulture: Culture:Dominican DominicanInvisibility,” Invisibility,” they contend contend that thatDominicans Dominicans“have “haveoften oftenbeen beenleft leftout outeven evenofofsources sources dealing specifically with the Hispanic portion of the U.S. population” dealing specifically with Hispanic portion of the U.S. population” (102). As As evidence evidence of of the the way that that Dominican (102). Dominican faces faces are are missing missingfrom fromthe the U.S. Hispanic/Latino Hispanic/Latinoimagination, imagination,the theauthors authors point point to the hefty U.S. hefty twotwovolume A Comprehensive Comprehensive Bibliography Bibliography for for the theStudy StudyofofAmerican AmericanMiMinorities. This 1976 work’s section titled “From the Islands” consists norities. This 1976 work’s section titled “From the Islands” consists of of Cuban-American Ex“The Puerto Rican-American Rican-American Experience” and “The Cuban-American ExTorresperience,” with with no no mention mentionofofDominican Dominicanlife lifeininthe theUnited UnitedStates. States. TorresSaillant and Hernandez Saillant Hernández also also cite cite aa1968 1968book booktitled titledSpanish-Speaking Spanish-Speaking People in in the the United States People States that thatmade madeno nomention mentionwhatsoever whatsoeverofofDominiDominicans, but focused focused on on Mexican MexicanAmericans, Americans,Hispanos HispanosofofNew NewMexico, Mexico,and and erroneously designated Puerto Ricans, and erroneously designatedFilipinos Filipinos as as Hispanics. Hispanics. Part of the invisibility invisibility they theyare aredisclosing disclosing has has to to do do with with migration migrationhishisMany Mexicans tory. Many Mexicans became became Mexican Mexican Americans Americansand andChicanos Chicanosby bydefault default in the nineteenth nineteenthcentury centurywhen whenthe theUnited UnitedStates Statesannexed annexedthe theland landwhere where they already already lived, lived, but but Dominicans Dominicans did did not notbegin beginarriving arrivingininthe theUnited United States in significant significant numbers numbersuntil untilshortly shortlyafter afterTrujillo’s Trujillo’s1961 1961assassinaassassination. The flow increased after the Dominican Repubtion. the U.S. occupation of the Dominican Republic in 1965, the same year as lic as the theHart-Celler Hart-CellerImmigration ImmigrationReform ReformAct, Act, which reopened the the United United States Statesto tomass massimmigration, immigration,particularly particularlyfrom from Latin America. In addition, addition, Balaguer’s Balaguer’s 1966 election election began began aa period periodduring during which the Dominican Dominican and and U.S. U.S. governments governmentssaw sawemigration emigrationasasa asafety safety valve that could valve could dissipate dissipate still-virulent still-virulent political political tensions. tensions. Visas Visas became became easier to get, easier get, creating creating aa growing growingDominican Dominican community communityininthe theUnited United States. In the 1980s the largest wave wave of migration migration was was prompted prompted by by ecoecoand austerity austerity programs nomic crisis and programs in in the theDominican DominicanRepublic, Republic, and and aa sizsizcontingent was able Dominican contingent was established established in in the theUnited UnitedStates. States.

94 TheThe Tears 94 TearsofofHispaniola Hispaniola

be argued argued that that the invisibility It could be invisibility pointed pointed to to by by Torres-Saillant Torres-Saillant and and Hernandez has roots Hernández roots in in two twomain mainfactors: factors:the thesmall smallpresence presenceof ofDominiDominicans in the United States cans States prior prior to to1965 1965and andthe thelower lowereconomic economicstatus statusofof Dominicans from later later migrations. migrations.Yet Yet sociologists sociologists such such as as Patricia Patricia Pessar claim that numerous numerousDominicans Dominicanswere wereskilled skilledlaborers laborersand andeducated educatedproprofessionals—middle class—thus class—thus receiving more visibility. fessionals—middle visibility. The The two twoposipositions, Pessar’s Pessar’s and Torres-Saillant and and Hernandez’s, Hernández’s, are are not notmutually mutuallyexexclusive. AA recent recent study of clusive. of immigrants, immigrants, led led by byCarola Carolaand andMarcelo Marcelo Sudrez-Orozco at at the the Harvard Immigration Project, reveals reveals that migraSuárez-Orozco tions consisted of low-skilled workers as well as of educated tions consisted of low-skilled workers as well as of educatedand andskilled skilled workers (16-35). (16–35). This debate as as to to the thesocioeconomic socioeconomicreasons reasonsofofDominican Dominicaninvisibility invisibility was surfaced in the the Dominican Dominicannewspaper newspaperTiempo Tiempode deAmérica Américainin1996. 1996. The paper summarized summarized several stories from the New York-based Spanishstories from the New York–based SpanishEl Díario/La Diario/La Prensa that language newspaper El that focused focused on what what some some DoDominican writers writers see as the “pecado original de analfabetismo,” the original sin of illiteracy. This brief newspaper newspaper story storysuggests suggeststhat thatDominicans Dominicansare are given short shrift shrift in inthe theU.S. U.S.publishing publishingworld worldbecause becausehigh highilliteracy illiteracyinin the country country and and its its diasporic diasporic communities communities has has created created aa culture culture that thatshuns shuns reading in general. general. Literary Literarycritic critic Carlos Carlos F. F. Mieses has argued argued that thatmigramigrations from the the Dominican Dominican Republic Republic have have consisted consisted largely largely of of illegal, illegal, unundereducated peasants whose dominant cultural dereducated cultural expression expression isisthe themerenmerengue, which has vulgar content content and andappeals appeals to tobase basepassions passionsand andcustoms customs such as machismo, sexism, and consumerism. Torres-Saillant emphatically emphatically disagrees disagrees with Mieses’s Torres-Saillant Mieses’s theory on on DoDominican invisibility; invisibility; as as evidence evidence he he notes noteswriters writersincluding includingJulia JuliaAlvarez, Alvarez, Gutierrez, and Filippis already already bringing DominiFranklin Gutierrez, and Daisy Daisy Cocco Cocco de Filippis Dominican stories to to the theU.S. U.S.imagination. imagination.In Inparticular, particular,Torres-Saillant Torres-Saillantsignals signals story for Junot Diaz’s Díaz’s Drown as a success story for Dominican Dominicanvisibility visibility(23). (23).Still, Still, invisibility is a theme theme encountered encounteredby byDominican Dominicancommunities communitiesregularly. regularly. Invisibility is a recurring recurring theme, theme,ifif not notaavalued valuedquality, quality,in inDiaz’s Díaz’s work. work. In an interview with Torres-Saillant and Didgenes Céspedes, he mentions interview with Torres-Saillant and Diógenes Céspedes, he mentions admiration for his deep admiration forRalph RalphEllison’s Ellison’s Invisible Invisible Man. Man.While WhileDiaz Díazdoes doesnot not treat the treat the theme themeofofinvisibility invisibilitywith withany anyofofEllison’s Ellison’spolitical politicalforce, force,ititisisininteresting that teresting thatthe theconcept concept resonates, resonates,even even invisibly, invisibly, throughout throughouthis histext. text.In In effect, Díaz’s Diaz’sDominican Dominicanstory story intersects with African-American experieffect, ences. In American literature the the theme In American literature theme has has aaformidable formidable literary literary and and sociopolitical precedent in in Invisible Invisible Man. Man.In Inthe theprologue prologuetotohis his1952 1952masmas-

ExposingInvisibility: Invisibility:Drown Drown 9595 Exposing

introduces us terpiece, Ellison introduces us to to the thecomplexity complexityand andthe thepower powerofofinvisibilinvisibility. He meditates that itit gives gives him him aa strength strengththat thathas hasnot, not,until untilthat thatmomoment, been recognized. Forcefully, the protagonist of the novel presents recognized. Forcefully, the of the novel presents himself with himself with these these words: words:

IIam am an an invisible invisible man. man. No, IIam am nota not aspook spooklike likethose thosewho whohaunted haunted Poe; nor nor am I one one of your your Hollywood-movie Edgar Allan Poe; Hollywood-movieectoplasms. ectoplasms. IIam am aman a manofofsubstance, substance,ofofflesh fleshand andbone, bone,fiber fiberand andliquids—and liquids—and II might even be be said said to to possess possess aa mind. mind.IIam aminvisible, invisible,understand, understand, simply because people refuse to see me. Like the bodiless heads you you see sometimes in circus sideshows, it is as though see sideshows, it though II have have been beensursurrounded by rounded by mirrors mirrorsof ofhard, hard,distorting distortingglass. glass.When Whenthey theyapproach approachme me they see only my surroundings, themselves, or figments of their see only my surroundings, themselves, figments of their imagination—indeed, everything imagination—indeed, everythingand andanything anythingexcept exceptme. me.(3) (3) He goes on to argue argue that thatititisissometimes sometimesadvantageous advantageoustotobebeinvisible, invisible,even even pleases. HeHe if it can be unnerving, unnerving,because becausethat thatway wayheheisisfree freetotododoasashehe pleases. tells us invisible. ToToexemtells us that thathe hedid didnot notbecome become“alive” “alive”until untilhehebecame became invisible. exemplify his position on invisibility, invisibility, the narrator narratortells tellsus usaastory. story.One Onedark dark night he he accidentally accidentally bumped into into aa tall tallblond blondman manwho whocalled calledhim himanan insulting name. Our Our narrator narratorproceeded proceeded totodemand demandan anapology apologythat thathehe knew he would not get. In reaction, he yelled and hit the man, bitterly knew get. In reaction, he yelled and hit the man, bitterly demanding an apology. In barely controlled outrage, our our narrator narratorkicked kicked the man, beat him, and prepared to slit his throat throat with with aa knife. knife. The The man man was saved saved by by our our narrator’s narrator’s thought, “He lay there, moaning on the was the asasphalt; a man almost almost killed by a phantom” phantom”(5). (5).Our Ournarrator narratorhighlights highlightsthe the fact that since fact since the the tall tall blond blond man mandid didnot notrecognize recognizehim himasasa aparticular particular individual, the crime crime would would not nothave haveaaparticular particularauthor. author.Instead Insteadititwould would attributed to be attributed toan anentire entirerace, race,aarace raceeffectively effectivelydeprived deprivedofofcitizenship citizenshipand and the expectation expectation of of civilized conduct. Our Ournarrator narratorisisinvisible invisiblebecause becauseofofhis his color—a nebulous color—a nebulousblackness. blackness.He Heisisan aninvisible invisibleman manbecause becauseheheis isa socioa sociohistorical phantom phantom in inthe thepolitics politicsof ofracist racistwhite whiteAmerica. America. The narrator concedes that he is an “irresponsible narrator concedes that he is an “irresponsiblebastard” bastard”(14). (14).He He then informs informs us us that thatthat thatisiscorrect. correct.Responsibility Responsibilityrequires requiressome somekind kindof of agreement, a form agreement, form of of recognition recognitionbetween betweentwo twoparties. parties.But Butififone oneparty partyis is invisible, by choice or by circumstance, circumstance, then thenthat thatinvisible invisibleperson personisisfree freetoto he/she pleases. do as he/she pleases. Invisibility Invisibilityliberates liberatesone onefrom fromresponsibility responsibilityand andconconsequently from racism. sequently racism. Once this this isisdiscovered, discovered, invisibility invisibility offers offers the the erased person access to resistance and and aa means meansto tosurvival. survival.From Fromthis thisperperinvisibility is a great thing. thing. However, that spective, invisibility However, as we read on we realize that

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What one one does does with with one’s one’s invisibilinvisibilinvisibility is not necessarily necessarily a choice. What we may conclude, conclude, isis another another matter. Part of the violence ity, we violence in Invisible Invisible Man results from the anger and frustration inherent acinherent in in being being denied access to to rights of citizenship, through cess througheducation, education,improved improvedwork workpossibilipossibiliand voting. Ellison Ellison also also underscores underscores the the many ways in which African ties, and Americans have human rights, Americans have been been denied denied civil civil and basic human rights,rendering renderinginvisinvishorrible state ibility a horrible state in in which which to to exist. exist. Invisibility, then, then, must be Invisibility, be treated treated dually. dually. In In one one instance instanceititcan, can,as asinin Ellison’s prologue, prologue,liberate liberatethe the invisible invisibleperson personfrom from the the constraints constraints of rereEllison’s sponsibility. In In another another case, however, however, invisibility invisibility must must be challenged. the pervasiveness of invisibility, invisibility, Ellison Ellisonwrote wrote in in his his 1981 1981ininAware of the issued from deep troduction to Invisible Man: “the voice voice of invisibility issued within our underground” (xviii). within our complex complex American underground” (xviii). Arguably, in the context of U.S. demographics, the Dominican diaspora of U.S. demographics, the Dominican diaspora joins joinsthis this“complex “complex American underground” underground”with withits itsown ownviolent violenthistory historyand andinvisibility. invisibility.

Invisibilities Invisibilities The multiple invisibilities invisibilities that that appear appear in inDiaz’s Diaz’s work, work, II propose, propose, are are the the result of a series of erasures. One explanation explanation for these erasures can be found in aa long long history historyofofviolence violenceininDominican Dominicanhistory. history.Violence, Violence, as as evinced through through the stories in evinced in Drown, Drown, serves serves no no purpose purpose other other than thantoto destroy the the dignity dignityof of the theabused. abused.Diaz’s Díaz’s stories stories demonstrate demonstrateexactly exactlyhow how verbal and physical aggression belittles all of the actors—the perpetrators perpetrators and the victims. victims. In the the first firststory storyofofthe thecollection, collection,“Ysrael,” “Ysrael,”Rafa Rafaand and have been been sent to the country, far from Yunior have from the the city, city, for for the the summer. summer. “Ysrael” is is not not a simple simple story story of two boys in the countryside, emulating “Ysrael” emulating some kind kind of of nineteenth-century nineteenth-century communion with nature and the nature and the higher higher Instead it it is is aaviolent violent exposition exposition of of bored bored boys boys in in an an unpromising unpromising land. self. Instead Rafa, who who is is twelve twelve years old, feels feels constricted constricted by by the rural Rafa, rural quiet, quiet, while while Yunior, who who isis nine, nine, looks looksto tohis hisbrother brother to to learn what he should do when Yunior, when he grows up. The elder puts down down his his younger younger brother brotherwith withracist racistcomcomHaitian, Mami Mami found found you you on on the the border and ments such as “Hey Sefior Señor Haitian, only took you you in in because because she felt felt sorry sorry for for you” you”(5). (5).Rafa Rafa is is insisting insisting that that Yunior is a bastard, uncivilized, and and African—a African—a derogatory derogatory term term that unthat underscores self-hatred in the derscores the Dominican Dominican Republic Republic because because of of the theAfrican African ancestry of many many Dominicans, Dominicans, as we have seen. Rafa repeats a litany litany of of mythology of slurs common to the mythology of superiority superiorityof of Dominican Dominican culture, culture,propromulgated by years Conmulgated years of of government government and and intellectual intellectual propaganda.* propaganda.4 Con-

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sciously or unconsciously, Rafa uses these degrading verbal tools tools and and folfollows an established pattern patternby bywhich whichpeople peoplecast castothers othersininthe theinferior inferiorrole, role, even if the aggressor and and victim victim are are equally equally poor poorand anddark. dark. like the model The model Rafa sets up for for Yunior, Yunior, like model the the caudillos caudillos and and dictators have historically historically imposed imposed on ontheir theirpeople, people,isisbased basedon ondisrespect disrespect Rafa, even at such and violence. violence. Rafa, such aa young youngage, age,isisalready alreadysexualized sexualizedand and sadistic. “He’d take the the campo campo girls girlsdown downtotothe thedams damstotoswim swimand andififhehewas was lucky they let him him put put itit in in their their mouths mouthsor orin intheir theirasses” asses”(5). (5).Rafa Rafalaughs laughs at the the ignorance ignorance of of country country girls, girls, including including one one “who “who believed believed she she wouldn’t get pregnant if she drank a Coca-Cola afterwards” (6). It is clear pregnant if she drank a Coca-Cola afterwards” (6). It is clear he would not not care, care, let let alone alone take takeresponsibility, responsibility,ififaagirl girldid didbecome becomepregpregnant. nant. Christian Krohn-Hansen’s Masculinity and the PolitiStudies such as Christian Krohn-Hansen’s ““Masculinity cal among Dominicans: ‘The Dominican Tiger’” argue that cal ‘The that this thiskind kindofof respect rather rather than than disapproval. Krohn-Hansen Krohn-Hansen suggests behavior receives respect suggests that “masculinity that “masculinityisis aa dominant dominantpolitical politicaldiscourse discourse across across the thecountry, country,and and is produced, reproduced and and modified modified by by ordinary ordinarypeople peopleinineveryday everydaylife” life” (110). Masculinity Masculinity is at the (110). the base base of of aa “shared “shared language” language”for forconstructions constructions of power of power and and legitimacy legitimacy among amongDominicans. Dominicans. To To support supportthis thisthesis, thesis, Krohn-Hansentells tells the the story story of Krohn-Hansen of aa small-town small-town politician politician who who is is aa mujeriego, a womanizer. The The man man claims claims that that his promiscuity is anything promiscuity is anything but a hindrance hindrance to tohis hiscareer: career:ititaids aidshis hispolitical politicaladvancement advancementbecause becausehe he befriends the women’s husbands and brothers. This way he has a greater community of community of support. support.This Thisnetwork networkofofmen menisiscalled calledelelcompadrazgo, compadrazgo,inin which the men bond and further themselves, ignoring the which men bond and further themselves, ignoring thewomen womenthat that that the more women they can lure and they hurt hurt along along the the way. way. It seems that abandon, the more more they theyhave haveproved provedtheir theirmanliness. manliness.This Thistype typeofofmascumascuinvolving seduction seduction of of women, women, freedom freedom from from entrapment, entrapment, and adlinity, involving vancement of career or social status, makes them them tigueres, tígueres,tigers. tigers. Krohn-Hansen summarizes summarizes his his theory, theory, saying saying that that“specific “specific ideas ideas and and structure discussions categories which structure discussions of of masculinity masculinityamong amongDominicans Dominicans correspond to a dominant dominant political political discourse—or discourse—or to to aa legitimate legitimate problemproblemwhich helps helps to to structure structure and give form form to particular power relations in atic which (120). He Hethen then argues argues that that ordinary ordinary men, repressed by Dominican society” (120). omnipotent masculinity, Trujillo’s omnipotent masculinity,forged forgedan animitative imitativemasculinity masculinitytotomake make identity” (126). Krohn-Hansen sense of their own “Dominican imagined identity” offers a persuasive persuasive theory. theory.However, However, II believe believethat thatDominican Dominicanmasculinmasculinity—tread machismo machismo and sexism—has ity—read sexism—hasaalonger longerand andmore morecomplicated complicatedhishistory. This is the complication that Diaz Díaz draws out out in in his histexts textswhere wherethe the

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tiger—the womanizing, womanizing, abusive, abusive, inconsiderate, inconsiderate, smooth-talking male— male— represented by Rafa Rafa and and Papi Papi is is contrasted contrasted with withaaconfused confusedYunior, Yunior, who who reproduces similar scenes of abuse and macho bravado while feeling both and macho bravado while feeling both depressed and and oppressed oppressedby byit. it. understands that Nonetheless, Yunior understands thatviolence violence proves proves the theachievement achievement of a desired Dominican masculinity. The most violent of of his his experiences experiences involves Ysrael, a boy who wears wears aa mask mask on on his hisdeformed deformedface. face.Yunior Yuniorand and Rafa take a bus to find Ysrael and to Rafa to abuse abuse him, him, in inaacalm, calm,premeditated premeditated approaches Ysrael Ysrael with with aa request for help, manner. Rafa approaches help, saying his his little little brother is sick and they need to be taken to a colmado, a grocery store, brother is sick they need to be taken to a colmado, a grocery store, for for a cola. cola.Ysrael, Ysrael,who whoisisaafoot foottaller taller than than Rafa and and dressed in clothes from from the the United States, obligingly leads leads them. them. On Onthe theway wayback, back,Rafa Rafabreaks breaksthe the bottle on on Ysrael’s Ysrael’s head. Once Ysrael is on the the ground, ground,Rafa Rafakicks kickshis hisside side and tears off off the the mask mask that thathides hidesthe thegruesome gruesomeevidence evidenceofofthe theaccident accident that maimed maimed him him in in infancy: infancy: aapig pighad hadeaten eatenhis hisface facewhen whenhis hisparents parents weren't paying weren’t paying attention. attention.He Hehas hasno nolips; lips;his histongue tongueisisvisible visiblethrough throughhishis Rather than absent cheek; his ear is only a knob. Rather thaninciting incitingpity pityororsympathy, sympathy, this image image disgusts disgustsRafa, Rafa,who whoproceeds proceedstotomove moveYsrael’s Ysrael’sface facefrom fromside sidetoto side with two fingers, fingers, as as ifif he he isis being beingcareful carefulnot nottotocatch catcha adisease. disease.Rafa Rafa follows in his father’s footsteps, footsteps, the the footsteps footstepsof ofaalong longlineage lineageof ofmen menwho who engage in cruelty because they can. No one stops them; some onlookers because they can. No one stops them; some onlookers even admire them them for for taking takingso somuch muchpride prideininmalice. malice. continued macho This continued macho bravado bravadotraps trapsall allof of its its actors. actors. In In a later later story, story, “No “No Face,”Ysrael Ysrael isis once once again again being beaten beaten up. Face,” up.

The others The others stand stand over over him himand andhe’s he’sscared. scared. We're going We’re going to to make make you you aa girl, girl, the the fat fat one one says says and and he he can hear hear the the words echoing through throughthe themeat meatofofthe thefat fatboy’s boy’sbody. body.(156) (156) It is not enough enough for forthe theboys boystotopick pickon onYsrael Ysraelbecause because of of his hisdeformity; deformity; they must must belittle belittle him him further furtherby bystealing stealinghis hismasculinity, masculinity,threatening threateningtoto make him a girl, castrating him him emotionally emotionally and andphysically. physically. Being a girl, like being castrated, has no place in the forced hierarchy place the forced hierarchyof ofmasculinity. masculinity. Ysrael tells tells himself, himself, “STRENGTH.” “STRENGTH.”He He reminds reminds himself himself that, that, in the But Ysrael the past, he has been able to push the bully bully and and run runaway; away; he he has has survived survivedthe the other beatings beatings and and will will survive survive this thisone. one. In another another case, case, Yunior witnesses his father’s forged masculinity, one In one story, that plagues plagues his family with sadness. sadness. In story, the father takes takes his young son to to his hisPuerto PuertoRican Ricanlover’s lover’s house, house, leaving leaving him him to towatch watchTV TV while they they go go to tothe thenext nextroom. room.Afterward AfterwardPapi Papiexpects expectsYunior Yuniortotodefend defend

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his own manhood manhood by not telling his mother mother anything. anything. Yunior Yunior must lie lie already, he he has has been inducted into masculine because, already, masculine compadrazgo. compadrazgo.IfIf he he tells, he is precluding precluding his own entry into manhood. Once home, Papi scolds entry into manhood. Once home, Papi scolds ignoring her his wife, ignoring herpretty prettydress, dress,makeup, makeup,and andperfume. perfume.“Fiesta, “Fiesta,1980” 1980”isis macho bravado a story that thatexposes exposes the themany manyways waysininwhich which macho bravadodefiles defiles women and breaks down down solidarity solidarity within withinfamilies. families. Yunior calls his father, Ramon Ramón de de las las Casas, Casas, “old-fashioned.” “old-fashioned.”By Bythis thishe he means that that Papi Papi will will whip whipthe theboys boysfor forany anymisbehavior. misbehavior.Yunior’s Yunior’sinfracinfractions are usually usually minor; minor; nonetheless, nonetheless, they theyare arecause causefor forpunishment punishmentand and anger. Virta, Virta, in her new clothes and perfume, is overlooked. The only ather new clothes and perfume, is overlooked. The only attention she tention she gets getsisisaascolding scoldingbecause because she sheallowed allowedher herson sontotoeat eatwhen whenhehe should not not have, have, before before riding ridingin inPapi’s Papi’s shiny shinynew newgreen greenvan, van,which whichmakes makes him carsick. Papi scolds scoldseveryone everyone and and loses no no time time insisting insisting upon him upon an an order order in the house that he himself violates with his violence against his family. the house that he himself violates with his violence against his family. writes an “My Father Yunior writes an essay, “My Father the theTorturer,” Torturer,”which whichhis histeacher teachermakes makes him rewrite rewrite because because she she thinks thinkshe heisisjoking. joking.The Thebrief briefmention mentionofofthis thisesesstory is made shortly shortly after say in the story after Yunior Yunior lets lets us us know know that that his his father fatherisis thrusting his “creative” with his punishment. He uses techniques such as thrusting finger into into his his son’s son’s cheek cheek to to cause cause sharp sharpand andinexplicable inexplicablepain. pain.This Thiscrecrepunishment is ative punishment is reminiscent reminiscent of of the the creative creative control control deployed deployed by by TruTrujillo’s secret secret police. police.Perhaps Perhaps the the description description of Papi bears bears some some resemblance to the the actions actions of of the the dictator dictatorand andhis histhugs. thugs. another story, In another story, “Negocios,” we meet Papi before his family joins him him strength. Despite his new in the United United States. States. Responsibility Responsibility is is not not Papi’s Papi’s strength. clothes, shiny shoes, and new clothes, new jobs, jobs, he he does does not notsend sendhis hisfamily familymoney. money. Instead he marries another woman and lives off her kindness Instead he marries another woman and lives off her kindness and and financial financial Why is it so easy for him stability. Why him to to find findanother anotherwoman womantotomarry? marry?PerPerthat she would prefer any man to haps the new wife feels that to no man. man. Perhaps feels pressure pressure from from her her family and her community. Her story is not she feels community. Her expanded upon, upon, and and we we are are left left to toguess. guess.What Whatwe wedo donote noteisisthat thatPapi Papidoes does what he wants wants and and no no one one stops stops him. him.The The result resultisisthat, that,ininessence, essence,Yunior Yunior and his family have no leaves the other woman, no father. father. Later, Later, when Papi leaves woman, she and her son son also also have a broken broken family. family. When When Yunior Yunior visits visits the the second second wife at the end, we notice that that both bothhe heand andthe thewoman womanare aresad sadand anddistrustdistrustthrough indescribable ful. They have lived through indescribable emotional emotionalpain painatatthe thehands handsofof one man’s incontestable incontestabledisplay displayofofmasculinity. masculinity. All have waited for the the affection affection of of “el “el hombre.” hombre.”Mami Mamiwaits waitsfor forPapi; Papi; Yunior and Rafa feel abandoned; and Yunior tells us us that thatall all he hewants wantsisishis his father’s love, even if it is abusive. abusive. The new new woman woman too toowants wantsPapi’s Papi’slove. love.

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She helps him get his visa by marrying marrying him, him,and andeventually eventuallygives giveshim himaa son, whom he he also also calls calls Ramon. Ramón. Papi Papi now now has has two two“wives” “wives”and andtwo twosons sons named after himself. He also continues to have affairs and, worse, to himself. He also continues to have affairs and, worse, tobe be violent against against those those who who wait wait for forhis hislove love to tono noavail. avail. to these these vignettes, vignettes, rather rather than banding together According to together to to forget forget the the macho man, women reproduce reproduce sexism sexism as as well. well. The family family calls calls the the lovers lovers dirty women, the second wife a “puta,” “puta,” “sucias,” dirty women, and and Yunior and Mami Mami call the whore. In all instances instances the thewomen, women,whose whoseself-sacrifice self-sacrifice isis absurd absurdtotothe the are further further downtrodden downtrodden by they are categorized even by by outsider, are by the the way they themselves. That That is, is, they they do not get honored for their devotion and love. their devotion and love. Instead they they are are cast cast as as dirty dirtywhores. whores.Regardless Regardlessof ofhow howmuch muchthey theydo dototo Papi’s life life better better and to raise his children and make Papi’s and maintain maintain his hishousehousethey are derogatory holds on their own, they are hit hit if they they complain complain and are called derogatory names when they are subservient. The women despise each other, they are subservient. The women despise each other, becombecoming each other’s enemies, fighting fighting for for the thelove loveof ofone oneunloving unlovingmale. male.InInaa way, this this probably probably makes makes the the man feel more “hombre,” inspiring other way, men to act accordingly to create their their own own twisted twistedlove love triangles. triangles. As they grow up, the the boys boys follow the tradition traditionof of male male dominance, dominance, disdisrespect, and violence. violence. So So we we are are not not surprised to respect, to see see Yunior Yunior hit hit his his girlgirlfriend and make make “blood “blood come come out out of of her herear earlike likeaaworm” worm”(65). (65).All Allof ofthe the characters exhibit hatred hatred toward each each other other and ultimately toward themthemPapi, with with his his new clothes and fancy selves. Papi, fancy Volkswagen, is responsible responsible for for broken homes, abuse, violence, and broken hearts. hearts. Material Material things thingsdo donot not change violent psychosocial psychosocial dynamics dynamics that thatdestroy destroypeople’s people’spotential potentialfor for personhood, the condition in which individual development is nurtured personhood, the condition which individual development is nurtured and respected. respected. These stories demonstrate These demonstrate that that violence, violence, pain, pain, trauma, trauma, and andbroken broken memories are not not shaped by political repression only only but but also also by by sociocultural traditions. tural traditions.They Theydraw drawattention attentiontotoinvisible invisiblepeople peopleand andtaboo taboosubjects, subjects, repression and its repercussions, which maintain maintain inexposing heterosexist repression visibilities. visibilities.

Dominican Diaspora Literature: Struggling Visibility Diaz’s work work has has appeared in prestigious Díaz’s prestigious U.S. U.S. publications publications such suchas as the theParis Paris In addition, addition, he received received aa six-figure six-figure advance Review and the New Yorker. Yorker. In Drown and for Drown and aa novel novel in inprogress. progress.For ForTorres-Saillant, Torres-Saillant,Diaz’s Díaz’ssudden suddensucsuccess demonstrates demonstrates the triumph cess triumph of ofDominican Dominican life life and andits itspresence presencein inthe the Yet itit creates creates a seeming contradiction. contradiction. At At the the end of the United States. Yet the

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century Dominicans Dominicans were were still stillbeing beingoverlooked overlookedininhistorical historicaland andsociosociological accounts accounts of of U.S. U.S. Latinos, Latinos, although although in 1996 logical 1996 aa young youngDominican Dominican writer was writer was triumphantly triumphantlyheralded heraldedasasthe thepride prideofofU.S. U.S.letters. letters.What, What,then, then,isis the real real picture picture of of the theDominican Dominicandiaspora diasporaininthe theUnited UnitedStates? States?IsIsitsitsmain main ? issue invisibility invisibilityor orvisibility visibility? The Dominican diaspora is a growing and and strong strongforce force that thatisisexposing exposing its own struggles with memory, memory, trauma, trauma, pain, pain, and emotional, emotional, national, national, and transnational definitions transnational definitionsof of individuality individualityand andpersonhood. personhood.The The founding founding in in February 1994 of the City City University Universityof ofNew NewYork’s York’s Dominican Dominican Studies Studies Institute, the Institute, the first first and and only only university-based university-basedresearch researchinstitution institutiondedicated dedicated the Dominican to the Dominican diaspora, diaspora,proves provesthis thispoint. point.Its Itsprimary primarygoal, goal,says saysits itsWeb Web site, is is “to further site, further the theunderstanding understandingofofthe thehistory, history,culture, culture,socioecosocioecoposition of Dominicans nomic, and political position Dominicans in in the theUnited UnitedStates.” States.”The Theoutoutstanding academics that created the Council of Dominican Educators are academics that created the Council of Dominican Educators are Alvarez, Ana Ana García-Reyes, Garcia-Reyes, Franklin Franklin Gutiérrez, Gutiérrez, Ramona Hernandez, Luis Álvarez, Hernández, Nels6n Reynoso, Fausto de la Rosa, Nelsón Reynoso, Anthony AnthonyStevens-Acevedo, Stevens-Acevedo,and andSilvio Silvio Torres-Saillant. Their work and the the resulting resultinginstitution institutionconfirm confirmDominiDominicans not only cans only in inthe theU.S. U.S.imagination imaginationbut butspecifically specificallyininthe theintellectual intellectual history of history of the theUnited UnitedStates. States. piece of ofDominican Dominicandiaspora diasporaliterature literature to to hit hit mainstream mainstream audiThe first piece ences and lay bare the struggles of assimilation and definition ences the struggles of assimilation and definitionwas wasJulia Julia Alvarez’s How How the Garcia Alvarez’s García Girls Girls Lost Lost Their Their Accents Accents (1991). (1991). Viriato Viriato SenSencidn’s Los Losque que falsificaron falsificaron la la firma de Dios (1992) captivated Dominicans ción’s translated into and was later translated into English English as as They They Forged Forged the the Signature Signatureof ofGod God (1995). It sold tens of thousands of copies in Spanish, a phenomenon that (1995). It sold tens thousands of copies Spanish, a phenomenon that many critics many critics offered offered as proof that that aa reading readingtradition traditionexisted existedininthe thecountry. country. These works disclose disclose aa hushed Dominican history history of of fear, fear, terror, terror, painful painful memories and and a need for memories for recovery recovery from from often often unrecognized unrecognized or or denied denied emotional trauma trauma and and from from aa long longhistory historyofofcultural culturaland andeconomic economicvioviolence. lence. Within diaspora Within diaspora literature, literature,Diaz Díazisisoften oftencited citedalongside alongsideAlvarez, Alvarez,even even though their personal backgrounds and writing styles are vastly different. though their personal backgrounds and writing styles are vastly different. They embody They embodytwo twokinds kindsofofmigratory migratoryexperiences. experiences.Alvarez’s Alvarez’swork workreflects reflects sociological factors factors studied by Sherri sociological SherriGrasmuck Grasmuckand andPatricia PatriciaPessar, Pessar,who who have written that that “many “manyDominicans Dominicanssought soughtrefuge refugeabroad abroadbecause because they they had witnessed the murder murderof of compatriots compatriotswith withwhom whomthey theyshared sharedpolitical political sympathies” (43). (43). They They provided provided compelling compelling evidence evidence that that“Dominican “Dominican emigration between emigration between the the1960s 1960sand andearly early1980s 1980shas hasbeen beenoverwhelmingly overwhelmingly middle-stratum phenomenon” an urban, middle-stratum phenomenon” (13). (13).

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In contrast contrast to to Alvarez’s Alvarez’s predominantly predominantlymiddle-class middle-classstories, stories,which whichare are marked by the the memory memoryof ofterror terrorduring duringthe theTrujillo Trujillodictatorship, dictatorship,Diaz’s Díaz’s stories describe describe the margins. His world is is one one where where poverty povertyadds addstotoan an already established disenfranchising culture culture of ofmachismo, machismo,homophobia, homophobia, violence. At At first first glance, glance, his his work work isis less less obviously obviously colored colored by by racism, and violence. the country’s history history of of dictatorship dictatorship and and government governmentcorruption.’ corruption.5Yet Yetititisis nevertheless rooted strongly strongly in in Dominican Dominican national national identity identityand andsharply sharply of migration. migration. Díaz Diaz contrasts contrasts dehumanizainfluenced by the expectations of and invisibility invisibility with the possibility, tion, self-deprecation, self-deprecation, and possibility, however remote, of achievement, escape, visibility, and survival. Written in aa stark escape, visibility, and survival. Written stark style, his stories stories describe describe aa complex complex version versionof ofDominican Dominicandiaspora diasporalife. life.InIn Diaz utilizes utilizes bareness bareness and effect, Díaz and simplicity simplicityto toconvey conveythe theunspeakable, unspeakable,ofofof life life for young people in the Dominican ten denied, complexities complexities of Dominican diaspora. pora. Class, aa central theme Class, theme ininDiaz’s Díaz’sfiction, fiction,isisexamined examinedsociologically sociologicallyby by Ramona Hernández Hernandez in her 2002 Ramona 2002 study study The The Mobility Mobility of of Workers Workers under under Capitalism, which cites extensive evidence that Dominican miAdvanced Capitalism, migrations have have not necessarily grations necessarily improved improved the lives lives of of emigrés. emigrés. “Poor at home,” Hernández Hernandez remarks, remarks, “they “they continue to be home,” be poor poor in in the thereceiving receiving and after after leaving, leaving, many many remain remain jobjobcountry. Many had no jobs at home, and less” (14). (14). Hernández Hernandez supports her thesis, which challenges previous litthesis, erature such Visa for for aa Dream, Dream, by drawing a historical erature such as as Patricia Pessar’s Visa migration from the overview of migration the Dominican Dominican Republic Republic to the the United United States. States. and throughout throughout his encouraged In the 1930s and his many manyyears yearsin inpower, power, Trujillo encouraged reproduction and discouraged emigration. This way, he believed, believed, the the naway, he tion would tion would become become bigger bigger and and stronger. stronger.This This way, way, the the Dominican DominicanRepublic Republic more low-paid, could supply more low-paid, unskilled unskilled laborers laborersto tomeet meetthe thedemands demandsofofthe the island’s U.S. U.S.caretakers—and caretakers—andeventually eventually to to wrest wrest control of customs from island’s once the the Dominicans Dominicans had had repaid repaid the the foreign debts that had the Americans, once prompted the 1916-24. By the prompted the U.S. U.S. occupation occupation of 1916–24. the time time Balaguer Balaguer took took office office in 1966, the the need need for forlow-cost low-costlabor laborhad haddecreased. decreased.Official Officialpolicy policynow now promoted birth birth control and migration out of the country. “Emigration control migration out “Emigration propipelinethrough through which the the country country could systematically systematically eliminate vided aa pipeline unwanted and unneeded unneeded surplus surplus laborers laborers whom whomthe thenew newsystem systemofofpropro(Hernandez 8). In other duction was unable to absorb” (Hernández other words, words, migration migration dissidents potentially potentially helped Balaguer to rid himself of people—including dissidents interested in toppling toppling his hisforced forcedpresidency—who presidency—who would would have havecreated created problems on the greater economic economic and political political problems the island. island. The The migrations migrations

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from the from the Dominican Dominican Republic Republic during during this thisperiod periodencompassed encompassedlarge large groups with groups with little little or or no no education, education,who whowere wereescaping escapingin indesperation, desperation,often often only to find more more misery miseryin inthe theUnited UnitedStates.° States.6 Hernandez’s study study proposes that post-1965 migrations Hernández’s migrations from from developdeveloping nations to the the United United States States reflected reflected aa shift shift to to surplus surplusunskilled unskilledlabor labor that the the host host country country did did not not really really need need (5). (5). She She argues argues that that migration migration from the the Dominican Dominican Republic Republic was was encouraged encouraged during duringBalaguer’s Balaguer’s first first policies that that facilitated departure. This was further further presidency by de facto policies encouraged by encouraged by the the United UnitedStates, States,which whichdid didnot notwant wanttotosee seethe theDominican Dominican Republic destabilized and thus thus vulnerable to a communist or socialist vulnerable to a communist or socialisttaketake(8-9). Hernandez over (8–9). Hernández also also argues argues that that people people do do not not necessarily necessarily benefit benefit when they they migrate migrateto toaa richer richercountry country(13). (13).“The “Theprecarious precariousconditions conditionsof of Dominicans suggest suggest either either that that the the host country did not not need need workworkmost Dominicans ers when Dominicans arrived, or that that itit did did not not specifically specifically need the the labor labor Dominicans” (5). of Dominicans” (5). Drown translates translates this thisdemographic demographicand andeconomic economicinformation informationinto intovivienettes. In the fourth (“putting up gnettes. fourth story, story, “Aguantando” (“putting up with” with” or or “endur“enduring”), the narrator narratorrecalls: recalls: “I “I can’t can’t remember remember how how many manytimes timesI Icrouched crouched over our latrine, my teeth teeth clenched, clenched, watching long gray parasites slide out young child child sitting sitting in an from between between my my legs” legs” (71). (71). This vivid image of aa young outhouse in the Dominican countryside excreting living creatures underthe some of of the the ways ways poverty poverty is monstrous. Since hygiene and medical scores some care are limited, the children have an annual care annual bout bout of of worms. worms. The The family family barely has has money money for food. In order order for for Mami, Mami, the the mother, mother, to to buy the barely food. In Verminox to Verminox to kill kill the the parasites, parasites,the thechildren childrenhave havetotoskip skipmeals. meals.The Theworms worms have power power over these frail bodies have bodies because because there is no no medicine medicine to to kill kill them. But the them. the worms worms could could kill kill the the children, children, draining drainingthe thelast lastbit bitofofnournourishment from ishment from their theirbodies bodies or or choking choking them them to to death death as as they they reversed reversed periperistalsis and squirmed into into the the children’s children’s throats. throats. Yunior tells about the depth depth of of despair despair and and embarrassment embarrassmentbrought broughton on They live south of by the the family’s family’s financial circumstances. They of the the National National Cemetery in a wood-frame house. The The father left for the the United United States States fourth birthday, birthday, promising promising to send money. The shortly before Yunior’s Yunior’s fourth family waited, waited, but but he he broke broke his his promise. promise.Instead, Instead,Virta Virta(Mami) (Mami)works worksendendless hours for less for exploitative exploitative pay pay at ataachocolate chocolate factory. factory. Yunior Yunior and and his his brother, Rafa, spend long hours by themselves themselves or or under underthe thenegligent negligenteye eye the aged grandfather. grandfather. For ForVirta, Virta,poverty poverty isissynonymous synonymous with overwork; of the for the boys, poverty is is synonymous synonymous with with too too much much time time to get into for boys, poverty into

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poverty limits opportunities. trouble. For all, poverty opportunities. The The boys’ boys’ lives are devoid of constructive and and educational Learning and and productivity constructive educational activities. activities. Learning productivity are squelched by the very lack of structure in which the boys very lack structure in which the boyslive. live. In the same story, a messenger with news from Papi shows up, telling Virta to get ready ready to to leave leave for for the the United United States. States. The The grandfather, grandfather, whose whose cane-cutter’s hands grip the cane-cutter’s the handrails handrails of of his hisrocker, rocker, isis outraged. outraged.Despite Despite the broken broken promises promises and andan anabsence absenceof ofmore morethan thanfive fiveyears, years,Papi Papiinvites invites the family family to to the the United United States. States. He He promises promises that thattheir theirlives liveswill willbe be better. better. Well, Papi Papibreaks breaksyet yet another another promise, and Mami How could it be worse? Well, almost loses her mind. The boys are sent to relatives’ houses, and Mami is weeks.The Thestory story does does not not tell tell us us where where she has gone, but but we gone for five weeks. are informed that she has has lost lost weight weight and and gotten gotten darker. darker. With the addiadditional evidence of the heavy heavy calluses calluses on on her her hands, hands,we we are areled ledtotounderunderstand that that she she went went to to cut cut cane cane in in the the fields fields under under the theheavy heavysun. sun.Without Without financial help, help, and and with two sons and an her husband’s husband’s financial an aging aging father father to to support, Virta takes on on the thejob job Dominicans Dominicansmost mostdespise. despise.And Andstill stillthings things “On Saturday aa late get worse: “On late hurricane hurricane passed passed close close to the the Capital Capital and and the next day folks were talking about how high the the waves waves were down by the Malecén. Malecón. Some children children had had been been lost, lost,swept swept out outtotosea seaand andAbuelo Abuelo shook his shook his head head when when he heheard heardthe thenews. news.You’d You’d think thinkthe thesea seawould wouldbebesick sick of us by now, he said” (85). said” (85). Eventually the the family family moves moves to to the theUnited UnitedStates. States.Virta Virta finds finds aa job job as as a house cleaner, and the boys go to bad schools where the the teachers house teachers and and councounselors have have little selors little faith faith in intheir theirassimilation assimilationand andadvancement. advancement.Diaz Díazdraws draws us into a world where dreams of success go unfulfilled. Drown serves as a where dreams of success making it across metaphor for the opposite opposite of floating, of making across an imaginary body of water between between poverty poverty (the (the Dominican Dominican Republic) Republic) and promise promise (the United States). The word drown means “die through through submersion submersioninin inhalation of water” and inhalation water” or “make inaudible by being louder”; louder”; it is used in the phrase phrase “drown “drownone’s one’s sorrows: sorrows:forget forgetone’s one’sproblems problemsby bygetting gettingdrunk” drunk” (Oxford American American Dictionary). Dictionary). Díaz’s Diaz’sstories storiesconvey conveyaasense sensethat that the (Oxford characters are submerged in circumstances that that drown drown them themout. out.The Thesisilence of Yunior’s mother, the sexual lence Yunior’s mother, sexual escapades escapades of Rafa, Rafa, and and the thedopedopeYunior himself himself all all reflect reflect their their need to “drown “drown out” their selling of Yunior their situsituopportunities, and ations of boredom, boredom, lack lack of opportunities, and poverty. poverty. Diaz’s book bookinvites invites the the reader reader to contemplate contemplate the Díaz’s the ways ways in in which which poverty poverty erase human human potential. On an at-face-value reading, some and machismo erase could argue that itit also could also reinforces reinforces beliefs beliefs that that the theDominican Dominicandiaspora diasporaisis plagued by by crime, crime, violence, violence, and and base basemoral moralbehavior. behavior.This Thisdichotomy, dichotomy,like like shapes an an important and painful that proposed proposed by invisibility/visibility, invisibility/visibility, shapes

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struggle for for the theDominican Dominicandiaspora diasporacommunity. community.Specifically, Specifically,this thisdi-dichotomy complicates complicates the role of the the writer writerwho whomediates mediatesexperience experiencefor for his community, but might fall into the trap of elaborating preconceived fall into the trap of elaborating preconceived Highlighting these images of Dominican stories of life in the the “hood. ’hood. Highlighting thesekinds kinds problematic visibility of stories creates a problematic visibilitywhereby wherebyDominicans Dominicansenter entermainmainnarratives only stream U.S. narratives onlyto toadvance advancethe theprofile profileofofviolence violenceand anddespair despair in the the community. community.In Insuch suchaalight, light,I Icould couldargue arguethat thatDiaz Díazisisexacerbating exacerbating the situation of of the theDominican Dominican diaspora diaspora community community by by confirming confirming this this despair. Yet, Yet,were werehe heto tofail failto to be betrue true to the stories profile of violence and despair. stories he believes need to to be told, told, he he would wouldalso also do do aa disservice disservice to to his hiscommunity community and to his art. and to his art. In sum, the the Drown Drown stories stories emphasize emphasize disempowered disempowered selves selves and dehudehumanizing circumstances. circumstances. Diaz Díaz does does not notdescribe describefemale femalecharacters characterswith with depth or narrative development. His exclusively male, heterosexist peror narrative development. His exclusively male, heterosexist perspective voids voids female female agency of any spective any kind. kind.This Thismale malevisibility visibilitycontrasts contrasts with multiple multiple invisibilities—gender, invisibilities—gender, sexual sexual orientation, orientation,race. race.In In“Drown,” “Drown,” it is difficult for Yunior to to develop develop self-worth. self-worth.Neither Neithercan canhe hebelieve believeininaa Tothe the contrary, contrary, he he notices notices the the false promises that sur dream of success. success. To surround him. him. For For example, an army army recruiter recruiterdrives drivesaround aroundthe thebarrio barriolooklookyoung men, to invite them ing for eligible young them into into aa career career that that will will help help them them get out of poverty. Contrasting images underscore the fallacy that underout of poverty. Contrasting images underscore the fallacy that underYunior must be in good shape, because he can run run lies the dream dream of of success. Yunior three miles with with ease. ease. The recruiter recruiter tries triesto tostop stophim himseveral severaltimes. times.OutOutwardly, at at least, Yunior wardly, Yunior must give give the theappearance appearance of ofpotential. potential.The Thererecruiter asks him if he has discipline and loyalty. Yunior immediately rehim if he has discipline and loyalty. Yunior immediately responds that he is not sponds not army armymaterial. material.The Theofficer officer tells tells him himthat thathe heused usedtoto think that that of of himself, himself, too. too. He He goes goes on on to toenumerate enumeratewhat whathehebelieves believesare are material signs signs of of success: success: aa house, house,aacar, car, aa gun, gun,aawife. wife.He Hehas hasallallofofthat. that. Yunior listens listens and Yunior and thinks: thinks:

He’s aa southerner, southerner, red-haired, red-haired, his drawl drawl so out of He’s of place place that that the the around here people around here laugh laughjust justhearing hearinghim. him.I Itake taketotothe thebushes busheswhen when I see his car on the road. road. These days my my guts gutsfeel feelloose loose and andcold cold and and I want to be away from here. He won’t have to show me his Desert Desert Eagle or or flash the photos Eagle photos of of skinny skinnyFilipino Filipinogirls girlssucking suckingdick. dick.He’ll He’ll only have to to smile smile and and name namethe theplaces placesand andI'll I’lllisten. listen.(100-101) (100–101) the officer is trying trying to Yunior does not believe in the the success the tolure lurehim himwith. with. Besides seeing seeing an an overweight man, Besides man, Yunior also sees a dishonest dishonest man. man.The The recruiter’s success is measured measured in recruiter’s in possessions possessionsthat thatYunior Yuniordoes doesnot notvalue; value;itit

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on exploitation exploitation Yunior has witnessed witnessed personally, is based on personally, from from the theperspecperspecthe exploited. tive of the exploited.The Theofficer’s officer’slure lurecould couldinclude includeaaskinny skinnyFilipino Filipinoatathishis beck and call. call. But But Yunior Yunior notes the desperation desperation of of the theimage imageand andthe thevioviolence in this recruiter’s pride. The girl is young, no doubt doubt underage. underage. She She is is malnourished. Perhaps skinny, probably malnourished. Perhaps she she even even has hasworms wormsfrom fromlack lackof of Still, the the recruiter holds her potable water. Still, her picture picture as as aa sign sign of of what what can can be be attained. Yunior knows the the price. price. The The exotic exotic places places are all poor poor and and remireminiscent of his childhood home. They have have all all been been invaded invaded or or occupied occupied by U.S. troops. troops. The troops, Yunior might U.S. might remember, remember, have havetrampled trampledon onthe the people putting up with (aguantando) the extreme heat of the islands and people putting (aguantando) the extreme heat of the islands and the inescapable inescapable despair of of poverty. poverty. Yunior Yunior does does not notabandon abandonhis hismaterial material poverty to poverty to engage engagein inmore moredeprivation deprivationofofbody bodyand andsoul. soul.He Hedoes doesnot notallow allow himself to drown drown in in false false promises. promises. In one scene he jumps jumps aa fence fence to to illegally illegally swim, swim, after hours, in the the neighborhood pool. neighborhood pool. Yunior swims swims underwater underwaterfor forasaslong longasashehecan. can.This This offers an image offers image of total submersion that contrasts contrasts with with the the concept concept of of drowning. I believe that that this drowning. thisdepiction depictionisis distinct distinctfrom fromthe theimage, image,suggested suggested Swimby the the title, title, of drowning; drowning;specifically, specifically, it holds symbolic significance. Swimming underwater, ming underwater,Yunior Yunior cannot cannothear hearor orsee seeany anyof ofthe theproblems problemsthat thatmake make above. He He has has strong strong lungs lungs that he trusts, waves above. trusts, regardless regardless of of his his low low selfesteem in other other areas. areas. Swimming Swimming underwater underwaterallows allowshim himsome somepeace peaceofof mind and gives him a sense of freedom in movement he does not experience when weighed down by gravity ence gravity out out of ofthe thewater. water.Underwater, Underwater,he heisis temporarily invisible invisible to to his hisneighborhood neighborhoodfriends; friends;thus thusheheescapes, escapes,very very briefly, his stifling barrio existence. Once above, he sees the younger sibbarrio existence. Once above, he sees the younger siblings of the friends friends he he always always played played with withatatthe thepool. pool.Despite Despitehimself, himself,he he must come come out out of of that thatsubmerged submergedstate, state,analyze analyzehis hislife, life,and andperhaps perhapsdodo something with it or drown in the the very very limitations limitations he he claims claims to to feel feel opby—dirty streets, pressed by—dirty streets,drugs, drugs, kids kids with withno noclear clearfuture. future. image of of himself himself is contrasted contrasted with Yunior’s image with that thatof ofhis hisfriend friendBeto, Beto,who who tells him, “You can’t be anywhere forever” forever” (107). (107). Beto, Beto, who initiates initiates him him into homosexual pleasures, has explored the world beyond his barrio. Beto into homosexual pleasures, has explored the world beyond his barrio. Beto has gone to nightclubs, nightclubs, visited visited other otherareas areasof ofthe thecity, city,and, and,more moreimportant, important, everything behind is leaving everything behindtotogo gototocollege. college.He He looks looks at at the thedirt dirtand andcrime crime around him with with disgust disgust and and emphasizes emphasizes his his relief relief at at abandoning abandoning all all of of that. Yunior stays behind, behind, worried worried he hewill willend endup up“abnormal” “abnormal”(104) (104)bebecause of of his intimacies with Beto, cause Beto, and sells sells dope dope to to the thechildren childrenininthe the neighborhood. Yunior drinks with neighborhood. with some some friends friendsto todrown drownout outhis hisexistenexisten-

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tial feelings, the experienced experienced pleasures pleasures of of homosexual homosexual intimacy, intimacy, and andhis his sense of sense of worthlessness. worthlessness. Yet implicit implicit in in Diaz’s Diaz’swork workisisaacriticism criticismofofthe thevery verytraits traits that that his writwritYet is as as if if he has made their operation ing embodies; embodies; itit is operation so clear that alert alert readers cannot cannot help help but judge readers judge the the characters characters harshly harshly in in the theunsparing unsparing spotlight that Diaz spotlight Díaz has trained trained on on them—and, them—and, by byimplication, implication, on onthose those who mislead mislead his his male malecharacters characterssosobadly. badly. stories at at face face value. value. Instead Instead II suggest suggest that that they I cannot read Dfaz’s Díaz’s stories serve as as a springboard meditation on a long trajectory of serve springboard for a complex complex meditation violence and its reproduction. reproduction.

Violent Histories: Histories: Empowered Empowered Leaders Leaders Violence, as aswe wehave haveseen, seen,isisan anact actagainst againstaacommunity community and/or and/or person. Violence, person. It It intended to is intended to destroy destroythe thevictim’s victim’ssense senseofofself selfand andsecurity securitywhile whilegiving giving power to the the perpetrator. perpetrator.Many Manyforms formsofofviolence—physical violence—physicaland andpsychopsychological, organized and random, economic and political—consolidate random, economic and political—consolidatetotocrecremiserable conditions. ate miserable conditions. Over Over the theyears, years,violent violentacts actshave haveaffirmed affirmedaamalemaledominated hierarchy, devaluing women and homosexuals. In totalitarian totalitarian regimes (extreme (extreme left left as as well well as as extreme extremeright), right),violence violencehas hasbeen beenused usedtoto eliminate “unwanteds” “unwanteds”such suchasashandicapped handicappedpersons, persons,political politicaldissidents, dissidents, racially, and and sexually different groups. and ethnically, racially, groups. The The violence violence proproduced and reproduced in in Hispanic Hispanic Caribbean Caribbeanculture cultureisisfashioned fashionedononmamacho bravado, based on caudillismo caudillismo (rule by tyranny, despotism), and origi(rule by tyranny, despotism), and originates in the the European European“discovery” “discovery”and andcolonization colonizationof ofthe theAmericas. Americas. Let us recall the the colonial colonial violations violationsexperienced experiencedby byLatin LatinAmerican Americanand and Caribbean islands islands such such as as the theDominican DominicanRepublic. Republic.After Afterthe theMiddle MiddleAges, Ages, Spain, France, France, and and England were beginning Spain, beginning to tocategorize categorizethemselves themselvesasas civilized empires, empires, yet yet their men, civilized men, after after“discovering “discoveringthe theAmericas,” Americas,”were were uncivilized ways ways in in the the name of God and country (euphemisms acting in uncivilized for fame and riches), riches), killing killing people people whose whose languages languages they theydid didnot notspeak speak and raping women women whose whosefaces faces they theywould wouldnever neverremember. remember.As AsEduardo Eduardo Galeano explained in in 1971 in Las venas venas abiertas abiertasde deAmérica AméricaLatina, Latina,power power was synonymous with having the the greatest greatest strength strengthand andthe theleast leastguilt. guilt.In In his 1956 examination of Mexican power dynamics, Eric R. Wolf observed examination of Mexican power dynamics, Eric R. that “we that “we confront confront aa society society riven rivenby bygroup groupconflicts conflictsfor foreconomic economicand andpopolitical control” (1067). His study study of of Indian Indian villages villages and and the theIndian Indianpeoples peoples the crown shows how the crown manipulated manipulatedthe thelocal localestate estateowners, owners,the thehacenderos, hacenderos,

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to create power conflicts between the nation nation and and its itsnumerous numerouscommunicommunities, particularly Indian Indian and and Negro Negro slaves. slaves. Wolf comments:

Alongside the Indian villages and the entrepreneurial Alongside entrepreneurialcommunicommunithere developed ties located near haciendas, mines, or mills there developed looselylooselystructured settlements of casual farmers and workers, middlemen of casual farmers and workers, middlemen place in in the the colonial colonial oror and “lumpenproletariats” who had no legal place der. Colonial Colonial records records tended tended to ignore them der. them except except when when they theycame came into overt Their symbol in Mexican literature literature isis into overt conflict conflict with with the the law. law. Their Periquillo Sarniento, Sarniento, the Conceived El Periquillo the man man who who lives lives by by his his wits. .... .“ . “Conceived in violence and without withoutjoy, joy, born borninto intothe theworld worldininsorrow.” sorrow.”(1068) (1068) (Fernando Benitez Benítez 1947: 1947: 47) In the nineteenth nineteenthcentury, century,the theDominican Dominicanwriter writerManuel Manuelde deJ.J.Galvan Galván wrote the seminal story of Enriquillo, an Indian who had been educated the seminal story of Enriquillo, an Indian who had been educated according to Spanish codes of conduct and and who who later laterrebelled rebelledagainst againstthe the Spanish to defend the indigenous populations. populations. He was honored with with the the title of caudillo caudillo soberano soberanobecause becauseof of what whatGalvan Galvándescribed describedas ashis hissuperior superior intelligence and morality. Galvan’s Galván’s novel Enriquillo is but but the thefirst firstofofa a series of self-imaginings constructed constructed by by Dominican Dominican intellectuals intellectualsto tocreate create a history of of Indian Indian and and Spanish Spanish heritage, heritage, negating negating African African influences influences on on the culture and the peoples. The character Enriquillo also serves as an exculture and the peoples. The character Enriquillo also serves as an example of masculine leadership. He is a cacique, a chief, and later honored honored The latter honor is granted of with the title title of of caudillo. caudillo. The granted precisely precisely because of his ability to show strength, strength,through throughviolence, violence,against againstSpanish Spanishrule. rule. imaginada, the In La isla imaginada, the historian historianPedro Pedro San San Miguel Miguel indicates indicates that thatthe the island of Hispaniola has been imagined and imaged by different different leaders, leaders, and dictators, dictators, erasing erasing the the histories of the subaltern. caudillos and subaltern. He He contends contends was that in the nineteenth nineteenth century centurythe thehistory historyof ofthe theDominican Dominican Republic Republic was valorized only if it represented representedthe theinterests interestsofofthe thebourgeoisie. bourgeoisie.Academic Academic circles, with with their their critiques and circles, and questions, questions, were were disqualified disqualified as as presenting presenting ideologies, fictions, fictions, or or an inaccurate ideologies, inaccurate philosophy philosophy of ofhistory. history.This Thisdebate debate over “real history” barely veiled the power and control gained by the over veiled power the dominant version dominant version of of history, history,which which negated negatedthe thevoice voiceand andexperience experienceofof The mission mission of of historiography historiography was was to to trace trace the the avatars avatars of of the exploited. The the nation. nation. In In societies societies in which authoritarian authoritarianregimes regimesand anddictatorships dictatorships historiography and emerged, the link between historiography and power power was all the more visible.’7 ible. The “historical facts,” and in particular particular the thehistorical historicaldiscrepancies, discrepancies, ininform us that form that men men have have violently violently battled battled for for centuries centuries to to control control Saint Saint

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Domingue, the island island of of Hispaniola, Hispaniola, including including during duringthe thewars warsbetween between the imposed unification unification with Spain and France and, later, the withHaiti. Haiti.Both BothHenri Henri Christophe and Dessalines were known for their brutal violence. Later, and Dessalines were known for their brutal violence. Later,inin 1822, Haitian Haitian president Jean-Pierre Boyer marched 1822, marched into into Santo SantoDomingo Domingo and a turbulent and turbulent unification unification began. began. His His despotic despotic rule rule lasted lasted until until 1844, 1844, The new new country country eventually when Santo Domingo gained independence. The under the came under the rule ruleof of the thefirst firstcaudillos, caudillos,Santana Santanaand andBaez, Báez,whose whosegoverngovernments did not not prove prove to to be be more more peaceful peaceful or or constructive. constructive. With With respect respect to to politics and and political political volatility volatility between 1865 and caudillo politics and 1879, 1879, the the histohistorian Frank Frank Moya Moya Pons Ponsexplains: explains:“Dominican “Dominican politics politics had hadalways alwaysbeen been based on personalism and and caudillismo caudillismo because because the thepopulation populationwas wasprimaprimarily rural rural and and illiterate, illiterate,and andtheir theirloyalty loyaltywas wasonly onlypossible possiblethrough througha asyssystem of personal personal connections” connections” (220). (220). The Santana Santana and and Baéz Baéz governments governments were followed in 1886-99 1886–99by bythe thedictatorship dictatorshipofofUlises UlisesHeureaux, Heureaux,“el “elGenGeneral Lilis.” eral Lilís.” Installed in Installed in 1930, 1930, the the dictator dictatorRafael RafaelTrujillo Trujillodid didnot notcome cometotopower powerand and stay there there by by worrying worryingabout aboutthe therights rightsofofDominicans. Dominicans.His Hisnarrative narrativeofof national progress national progressignored ignoredhis hispeople. people.Fifty Fiftypercent percentof ofthose thosepeople, people,women, women, to him him were were commodities commodities to tobe beconveniently convenientlydesignated, designated,glorified, glorified,ororforforsaken: he made his his wife wife and and daughter daughterrich, rich,kept kepthis hisprized prizedlovers loverswell, well,and and discarded his his one-nighters one-nighters to the amnesia of history, their honor honor lost to lost the the great “benefactor.” “benefactor.” A great part part of of the theTrujillo Trujillo mythology mythologyrevolves revolvesaround aroundhis hismacho machobrabrahushed lore, vado (in hushed lore, itit is is said that that he heeliminated eliminatedthe thehusbands husbandsofofsome someofof the women women he heseduced, seduced,precisely preciselyto toseduce seducethem), them),crimes, crimes,and andmisdemeanmisdemeanors (ordering murders murders to to rid rid the thecountry countryofofopposition, opposition,funneling funnelingfederal federal money into into his hisprivate privatebank bankaccounts). accounts).Bernardo BernardoVega Vega has hasanalyzed analyzedthe the myths, the oral myths, the biographies, biographies, and and the the court courtpapers paperssafely safelyhoused housedatatthe theNaNaWashington, D.C., to explain the ways Trujillo not only tional Archives in Washington, only challenged the the law but but also also broke broke itit to to his hisadvantage. advantage.In Inthe theintroduction introductiontoto Trujillo ante ante una corte Trujillo corte marcial marcial por por violacion violación yyextorsion extorsiónen en1920 1920Vega Vega wonders what would have happened if Trujillo had been convicted of what would have happened if Trujillo had been convicted ofthe the crimes, including including rape rape and and robbery and extortion, crimes, extortion, with with which which he hewas was charged before before he he came came to to power. power. Would Would he he have have been beensentenced sentencedtotodeath? death? Would he have Would have been been discharged discharged from from the the army armyand, and,therefore, therefore,had hada a blighted career? Trujillo’s What is is important importanttotoananunderstanding understandingofof Trujillo’sMachiavellian Machiavellian that in (in)sensibilities is that in 1920, 1920, during duringU.S. U.S. occupation, occupation, the the twenty-eighttwenty-eightyear-old Trujillo was charged charged with withrape, rape,among amongother othercrimes, crimes,but butgot gotaway away

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with these exploitations exploitations of human human lives. lives. Different versions of the the story story were constructed, constructed, and the incidents incidents were were quickly quickly relegated relegated to to whispers whispers that could not Vega informs informs us that, although although the that not be proved. Vega thestory storybecame became oral history, no one one officially officially documented the crime crime until until1972, 1972, eleven eleven years after after the thedictator’s dictator’sdeath death(9). (9).The Thevictim victimnever neverreceived receivedjustice. justice.Her Her story was mostly buried buried and and ignored. ignored. Some Some brief brief articles articles addressed addressed the the incident, Vega Vega says. For example, the the Dominican Dominican historian historianFélix FélixServio Servio Ducoudray interviewed interviewed the rape Ducoudray rape victim victim and andpublished publishedsome somearticles. articles.ItIt that the seems that the rape rapewas was regarded regardedas asaaprivate privatematter, matter,of oflesser lesserimportance importance than other misdemeanors. At issue was not Trujillo’s violations other misdemeanors. issue was not Trujillo’s violations of aa woman in the community but rather rather his his ability ability to to get get away away with with his his ininfringements of fringements of the the law. law. In 1946 Albert Hicks wrote in Blood in the Streets Streets that Trujillo had once been sentenced to a six-month six-month prison that prison term termfor forfalsifalsification of legal documents. Years later Trujillo’s biographer Robert fication legal documents. Years later Trujillo’s biographer Robert Crassweller would tell his readers that that in in1916 1916 Trujillo Trujillo belonged to to a gang gang called the the 44, 44, which had a bad called which had bad reputation reputation for for robbery robbery and and assault assault atat bodegas and storage storage compounds compounds (Vega (Vega 14). 14). All All of of these thesedetails detailspoint pointtotoa a man who manipulated the the system systemand andtotoaasystem systemthat thatdid didnot notgive giverape rape punishment. Rape due criminal punishment. Rape was was situated situated in inthe thesame samecategory categoryas aspetty petty thefts and thefts and gang gang membership. membership. Trujillo proved his prowess with women women and and his dominion over even the law imposed by the U.S. Marine Corps. dominion over even the law imposed by the U.S. Marine Corps. The first first charge charge of of rape rape was was dropped, dropped, supposedly supposedlybecause because ititimplicated implicated the Marine Marine Corps. Corps. They were were relocating relocating the the country countrypeople peopleto toother otherless less desirable regions in order desirable order to to make makespace space for fornew newenterprises. enterprises.AAcunning cunning Trujillo was was able able to have charges either dismissed Trujillo dismissed or or not notmade madeatatall allbebecause of his ability to cause to point pointaafinger. finger.Vega Vega writes writesthat, that,according accordingtotoU.S. U.S. archives, most of the the Marines Marineswanted wantedtotobe belocated locatedininEurope Europefor forthe theGreat Great Those who who were left in the War. Those the zona zonagavillera gavilleradel deleste esteininthe theDominican Dominican Republic were were mostly mostly interested interested in drinking rum Republic rum and and finding finding prostitutes. prostitutes. Who was to say who who were were prostitutes prostitutes and and who who were were innocent innocentabducted abducted girls if the the men men responsible responsiblefor forlaw lawand andorder orderpracticed practicedthe themost mostextreme extreme debauchery? Trujillo took advantage of the general disorder and violence advantage of the general disorder and violence to advance his his own own causes. causes. In In the theCaribbean, Caribbean,Trujillo Trujillomastered masteredsexism sexismand and violence, like like leaders leaders before before him, to attain violence, attain power. power. Power Power and and violence violence in in politics continues to be Dominican politics be synonymous synonymouswith withsuccess successand andmanmansystematically ignored hood. But those with the power have systematically ignored the the welfare welfare of of the country’s citizens. A particularly striking striking recent recent example example of of the thelong long history of of caudillista caudillistatrickery trickeryoccurred occurredinin1986, 1986,when whenJoaquin JoaquínBalaguer Balaguer became president with the the intention intentionof ofstaying stayingininpower powerfor forthe therest restofofhis his

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campaign to to destroy the credibility life (Moya Pons 423). In a successful successful campaign credibility popularity of and political popularity ofhis hispredecessor, predecessor,Salvador SalvadorJorge Jorge Blanco, Blanco, Balaguer Balaguer “produced” allegations allegations against him. Anyone who tried to defend who tried to defendBlanco Blanco without trial was imprisoned without trialor orwent wentinto intoexile. exile.Balaguer Balaguer did did not not keep keep any any running the of his electoral campaign promises, running thecountry country“against “againstallallfreefreemarket principles” (427). He eliminated all all foreign foreign currencies, currencies, including including from the the country country and imprisoned without without trial the dollar, from trial anyone anyonewho who kept kept dollars. The The Dominican Dominican national national currency currency plummeted plummeted in value over the dollars. next few years, years, leading leading to toan an“economic “economicdictatorship” dictatorship”(427) (427)and anddesperadesperation among the people. Amid widespread economic crisis in the mid-1980s, tion among the people. Amid widespread economic crisis in the mid-1980s, Dominicans resorted to abandoning the Dominicans the country, country, escaping escaping to to Puerto Puerto Rico Rico and the mainland mainland United UnitedStates. States.Circumstances Circumstances were wereso sodire direthat thatpeople people were risking risking their theirlives livesatatsea. sea.Interdictions Interdictionsby bythe theU.S. U.S.Coast CoastGuard Guardrose rose from 76 people in 1983 to 1,246 in 1990. If the leader could not help help the the people, they they would help themselves by people, by finding finding alternative alternativelife lifeand andwork work options regardless of the the costs. costs. present is The present is tainted tainted by bysome someof of the thehabits habitsofofthe thepast pastand andtarnished tarnished by new histories histories of of abuse, abuse, violence, violence, and disempowerment. disempowerment. But But with withhishistory and tory and nation nation“imagined,” “imagined,”asasSan SanMiguel Miguelsuggests, suggests,we weneed needtotoresort resorttoto fiction to figure out out what what may maylie lie in inthe themissing missingparts partsofofDominican Dominicanand and Dominican diaspora experiences. We can see the impact of historical and experiences. can see the impact of historical and political forces in Diaz’s Díaz’s fiction, which which isis full fullofofbrutality. brutality.InInDiaz’s Díaz’stext, text, women are are derided, derided, homosexuals homosexualsassaulted, assaulted,and andHaitians Haitiansbelittled. belittled.WithWithout recognizing the the past, past,much muchless lessscrutinizing scrutinizingit,it,people peoplecontinue continuetotobebehave according according to to bad bad habits habits that they cannot understand. The present, they cannot understand. The present, then, is is fraught fraughtwith withcontinuing continuingviolence, violence,violations, violations, silence, silence, and and fears. fears. Omnipresent in inDiaz’s Díaz’s work, work,violence violencebegets begetsviolence. violence.Each Eachhostile hostileact act makes the actors feel the briefness of the triumph, triumph,for for another anotherevent eventwill will force them them to prove themselves again or be defeated. force defeated. I propose propose that the the stories themselves themselvesembody embodyviolence violenceby bytheir theirdescription descriptionofofinvisible invisiblepeople people their relentlessly and their relentlesslyviolent violentexpositions. expositions.

“Other” Invisibilities “Other” Invisibilities Diaz illustrates different Díaz different versions versionsof ofinvisibility invisibilityininDrown. Drown.Ysrael, Ysrael,aka aka andVirta Virta cultivate cultivate invisibility invisibility in order to survive No Face, Face, and survive different differentkinds kinds them from of prejudice, which erase them fromactive active membership membershipinintheir theirsocieties. societies. Ysrael’s and and Virta’s Virta’s invisibility invisibility is a necessary Ysrael’s necessary response responsetotoRafa’s Rafa’sand andPapi's Papi’s Their invisibility invisibility adumbrates the relentless macho bravado. Their the ways ways in in which

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sociohistorical violence continues to to disempower disempowerentire entiregroups groupsofofpeople people and how these these disempowered disempowered people people berate themselves, themselves, precluding the possibility of escape from their their predicaments. predicaments. Ysrael tells tells himself himself he “has the In the penultimate penultimate story, story, “No “No Face,” Face,” Ysrael and no no one can touch him,” power of INVISIBILITY INVISIBILITY and him,” yet yethe heknows knows“So “So many wish him him to to fall. fall. So So many many wish wish him himgone” gone”(155). (155). No No one one wants wantsto to see his eaten face see face or the the mask mask that thatcovers coversthe thedeformity deformitythe theneighbors neighbors about. His speculate about. His masked masked face face signals signals the the fragility fragilityof ofour ourbodies bodiesand andour our lives. This This fragility fragility reminds those who lives. who see see him him that thatwe weare areinsignificant insignificant and powerless. For some some perverse perverse reason, reason, one one that the powerless. For the author authordoes doesnot not elaborate, this this marker of fragility invites others to show their elaborate, their own own power power through violent violent acts. acts. History is is riddled riddled with with intolerance intolerance of of abnormality abnormality and difference. Hitler proposed eliminating eliminatingall allhomosexuals, homosexuals,political politicaldisdissidents, and Jews. Jews. Fidel FidelCastro Castro during during the seventies proposed to eradicate, seventies proposed to eradicate, via prisons prisons and and labor laborcamps, camps,all allofofCuba’s Cuba’spolitical politicaldissidents dissidentsand andhomohomosexuals. sexuals. Why does abnormality so Why does Ysrael’s abnormality so incite incitehis hispeers’ peers’ cruelty? cruelty?Perhaps Perhapsititisis so they do not have to contend with their their own own fragility fragilityand andtheir theirfears fearsof of their own their own powerlessness. powerlessness. When When Ysrael Ysrael helps a cat in the the street, street,aamotorist motorist “Hey No Face! yells, “Hey Face! ..... .You You haven’t haven’t started started eating eatingcats, cats, have have you?” you?” AnAnother chimes in, “He’ll be eating kids next” (155). Some boys come to beat other chimes in, “He’ll be eating kids next” (155). Some boys come to beat threatening that him up, threatening thatthey theywill willmake makehim himaagirl. girl.When Whenaafemale female shopshopkeeper comes to his defense, we learn that that she shehas hasreceived receivedno norespect respectsince since husband left her the day her husband her for a Haitian. One marginalized person trying trying to help another marginalized person gets further further erased erased from from humanitarhumanitarian consideration and and humanity. humanity. Ysrael, like like Ellison’s Ellison’s invisible invisible man, man, learns learns to be Soon Ysrael, be invisible invisible to to his his neighbors. He can thereby escape escape their their daily daily mistreatment. mistreatment.He Heisisfree freetoto cultivate his cultivate his inner innerdream: dream:to toget getto tothe theUnited UnitedStates, States,where wherehe hewill willfind findthe the doctors who will reconstruct reconstructhis hisface. face.Ysrael Ysraelexercises exercisesevery everymorning, morning,visvisa day, its a priest priest who who teaches teaches him himreading readingand andwriting writingfor fortwo twohours hours a day,and and accomplishes his daily tasks in the shadows of his angry and scared neighdaily tasks in the shadows of his angry and scared neighbors. But, like the invisible invisible man, man,he hetoo toofeels feelsanger angerand andexhibits exhibitsananedge edgeofof violence.After Afterhe he isis beaten beaten up, up, he he tells tells himself himself to be a man. In another violence. another incident, he bends incident, bends the the bars barsof of his his neighbor’s neighbor’sgate gateto toshow showthe thehostile hostilecleancleaning lady that he ing he isis not nottotobebemessed messedwith. with.Looking Looking for forsome somekind kindofof strength, he he buys buys aaKaliman Kalimancomic comic with withaasuperhero superherowho who“takes “takesno noshit shit and wears wears aa turban. turban.IfIfhis hisface facewere werecovered coveredhe’d he’dbebeperfect” perfect”(155). (155).

ExposingInvisibility: Invisibility:Drown Drown 113 Exposing 113

gives Ysrael Ysrael the the time to cultivate Invisibility, it seems, gives cultivate himself himself so so as as to to confront his confront his neighbors neighborswith withhis hispersonal personalsuccess. success.Although Althoughinvisibility invisibilitylibliberates Ysrael from abuse, it also precludes his his membership in his commucommuWe are are then then left to wonder if the the neighbors did not succeed succeed in in getting getting nity. We rid of him. Invisibility is is synonymous synonymouswith withthe theinvisible invisibleperson’s person’sexcluexcluhis/her community sion from membership in his/her community and and from from political political action in the national the national arena. arena. Virta’s invisibility invisibility is twofold, twofold, but also traditional. Her Virta’s Her character character lacks lacks any depth depth or or development. development. Yunior Yunior observes observes that that the theSpanish-language Spanish-language television news television news isis “drama “dramafor forher, her,violence violencefor forme” me”(95). (95).She Shedoes doesnot notrecrecognize the extent extent of of the theviolence violence to towhich whichshe shehas hasbeen beenexposed. exposed.ItItseems seems part of a life within like part withinwhich whichshe shemust mustlive. live.Unconsciously, Unconsciously,her hersilence silenceisis her only only form form of of survival. survival. Just Just as she “disappeared” “disappeared” in the the Dominican Dominican ReRepublic to work in the cane fields to provide for her children, in the United her children, in the United States she becomes States becomes aa house cleaner cleaner to forge her her family’s family’s future. She She is is by the parameters silenced by parameters of of traditional traditionalsexism. sexism. Diaz writes writes that that Papi “told her In “Fiesta, 1980” Díaz her to to shut shutup, up,what whatdid didshe she about anything know about anythinganyway?” anyway?”(35). (35).Yunior Yuniortells tellsususthat that“Papi’s “Papi’svoice voicewas was argumentative; you anywhere near him to catch loud and argumentative; you didn’t have to be anywhere drift. And Mami, his drift. Mami, you you had had to toput putcups cupsto toyour yourears earstotohear hearhers” hers”(33). (33).InIn the title story, “Drown,” the narrator notes: “She’s so quiet that most title story, “Drown,” the narrator notes: “She’s so quiet that mostofofthe the time I’m startled to find her in the the apartment. apartment... .. .. She She has has discovered discovered the secret to silence: pouring pouring café café without withoutaasplash, splash,walking walkingbetween betweenrooms roomsasas cushion of felt, felt, crying crying without without a sound” if gliding on a cushion sound” (94). (94). He He calls calls her a shadow warrior. She fights for her her children’s children’s livelihood silently. Yunior credits credits her silence While Yunior silence with the strength strength of of aawarrior, warrior, that that traditional in silence is traditional in sexist sexistcultures. cultures.She Sheisissilent, silent,and andshe sheisisher herfamily’s family’s backbone, working at whatever whatever job job she she can can to to provide provide for forher herchildren. children.She She sacrificeseverything, everything, putting putting all all of her sacrifices her hope hope and andexpectations expectations ininher her future. She does not fight children’s future. fight the the husband husbandwho whohas hasmistreated mistreatedher; her; she does not go go to to court courtto todemand demandalimony alimonyororchild childsupport. support.She Shecleans, cleans, cooks, and works silently, demanding nothing. cooks, and works silently, demanding nothing. another story, In another story, she she is is seen seen whispering whisperinglong longdistance distanceto tothe thelong-gone long-gone husband who now lives in Miami with with another anotherwoman. woman.He Helies liestotoVirta, Virta, telling her telling her that thathe hewill willabandon abandonhis hisgirlfriend girlfriendininFlorida Floridaififshe shecomes comestotolive live with him. with him. Yunior angrily angrilygrabs grabsthe thephone phonefrom fromhis hismother motherand andhangs hangsit itup. up. He reminds her her that thatthe thefather fatherlies liesand anddescribes describeshim himasas“a “asad sadguy guywho who calls her her and begs for money” strength in calls money” (101). (101). Despite Virta’s strength in keeping keeping

114.‘ The 114 TheTears TearsofofHispaniola Hispaniola

the household household together togetheragainst againstall allodds, odds,her hercharacter characterisisweak. weak.She Shewastes wastes her life waiting for for the the only onlyman manshe sheever everloved, loved,and andnow nowshe shelets letsher herson son censure her behavior. In the end, her character is limited and pitiful. her behavior. the end, her character is limited and pitiful. mother figure These expositions of the self-sacrificed mother figure are areextraordinarextraordinartraditional. The stories consequently consequently demonstrate understandily traditional. demonstrateaalack lack of understanding in Diaz's Díaz’s interpretation interpretationofofwomen—an women—aninability inabilitytotoexplore explorewomen’s women’s invisibility and denied personhood within Dominican Dominican culture culture and and to torecrecognize the incredible ognize incredible achievements achievements many many Dominican Dominican women women make make against all odds—that actually reproduces sexism in the culture. In other other words, I point point out Virta’s invisibility in the text from my vantage point the text from my vantage pointasas a critic to underscore underscore how howDiaz Díazhimself himselfreproduces reproducesfemale femaleinvisibility invisibilitybyby not elaborating elaboratingon onthe thepotential potentialofofcharacters characterslike likeVirta. Virta.I Ifind findititdifficult difficulttoto collection as representative see Diaz’s Díaz’s collection representativeof ofthe theDominican Dominicandiaspora, diaspora,asashas has been suggested by numerous book reviews and advertising blurbs, because suggested by numerous book reviews and advertising blurbs, because number of the a number the characters characters are are flat flat and anddo do not notgive givevoice voice (and (and visibility) visibility) to to the complexities complexities of the theDominican Dominicanpeople peopleand andtheir theirmultiple multiplerealities, realities, which encompass Dominican traditions traditionsand anduniversalist universalistsexist sexistcodes codesofof conduct, and which intersect intersect with withother, other,ongoing ongoingproblems problemspresent presentininthe the United States. The stories stories inscribe inscribe already alreadytraditional traditionalroles rolesfor fordisenfrandisenfrangroups such chised groups suchas aswomen. women. But let me complicate my my discomfort discomfortwith withDiaz’s Díaz’sflat flatexpositions expositionsofoftratraditionally repressed repressed groups. groups. Could Could itit be be that, that,by byrepeating repeatingtraditional traditional“in“invisibilities” so glaringly, he might might be be exposing exposing their theirillilleffects effectsvia viaexagexaggeration? For For example, example, his his exposition expositionof ofhomosexual homosexualdesire, desire,brief briefasasititis,is, could be interpreted interpreted as as aa challenge to to Dominican Dominican machismo, machismo, which which denies denies 8 and rejects the scene scene of of the title story, story, and rejects any homosexual homosexual presence.® presence. InInthe “Drown,” where Yunior has aa first first sexual sexual encounter encounterwith withhis hisfriend friendBeto, Beto, himself to admit that he he cannot allow himself he actually actually enjoyed enjoyed it. it. Instead Instead he he into hiding. “Mostly “Mostly I stayed in the basement, terrified that recoils into that II would would end up abnormal, abnormal, aa fucking fucking pato” pato” (104). (104). In In the thenext nextscene, scene,Beto Betohas hasjust just When Yunior Yunior fears fears that that someone is entering entering performed fellatio on Yunior. When the room, room, he he gets gets scared, scared, pulls pulls up up his hispants, pants,and andruns runsaway. away.Rather Ratherthan than thinking about his his friendship friendship with with Beto, Beto, or the the pleasure pleasure he he derived derived in the the moment, he moment, heavoids avoidsBeto. Beto.Weeks Weekslater, later,when whenBeto Betogoes goesoff offtotocollege, college,Yunior Yunior sees him and decides to cut contact with with his his friend; friend; he he throws throwsaway, away,withwithout even even looking looking at at it, it,the thebook bookhe hereceives receivesasasaaparting partinggift. gift.This Thisscene sceneisis critical. Perhaps he is afraid that that the thebook bookmight mightaddress addressissues issuesofofsexualsexuality; he prefers to remain remain ignorant ignorantof ofits itscontent. content.More Morebroadly, broadly,he heisis ignorignoring how much much he he claims claims to to want wantto toabandon abandonthe theworld worldhehelives livesin; in;ignoring ignoring

ExposingInvisibility: Invisibility:Drown Drown 115 Exposing 115

that Beto is not trapped also that trapped by by the themacho machocodes codes of of conduct conduct or or the the stringent stringent homophobic parameters parameters of of his hisethnic ethnicneighborhood. neighborhood.Beto Betorepeats repeatsthat thatnono one can stay in one place forever. He takes charge of his life by living stay in one place forever. He takes charge of his life by livingititonon his terms, terms, without without fear. fear. But ButYunior Yunior cannot cannotdo dolikewise. likewise.Instead Insteadhe heisis trapped by the the fear fear of of being being different, different, of of being being beaten, beaten, of of having having done done to to him what he and and his his brother brotherhave havedone doneto toothers. others.His Hisunderstanding understandingofof conduct is warped by violence and shadowed social conduct shadowed by by fear fearand anddepression. depression. By abandoning Beto’s friendship, he is also also limiting limitinghis hisability abilitytotosee seeand and understand alternative ways ways of of experiencing experiencing life, life, thus thus trapping trapping himself himself further in further in violent, violent,heterosexist heterosexistbehavior. behavior.His His behavior behavior has has been been molded molded by by a legacy of maleness inscribed by the the Catholic Catholic Church Churchand andvarying varyingcouncountry leaders. try leaders. For example, in the early For example, in early 1950s 1950s Trujillo Trujillo created created two two concentration concentration camps for “middle-class intellectual and/or political male dissidents suscamps “middle-class intellectual political suspected of of being, being, or known to be, pected be, homosexual homosexual or or bisexual” bisexual” (Moya (Moya and and Garcia 125). 125). More More recently, the first García first Gay Gay Pride Pride Parade Parade in in Santo SantoDomingo, Domingo, violence, with with one man shot held on July 1, 2001, led to widely publicized violence, shot to death and many many injured. injured.“Coming “Coming out”—identifying out”—identifyingoneself oneselfas asgay— gay— also exposed people’s was synonymous synonymouswith withbeing beingattacked. attacked.Coming Comingout out also exposed people’s fears of difference (named illness by by some) some) and andsignaled signaledthe theundeniable undeniable presence of homosexuals in Dominican society. Some studies have presence homosexuals Dominican society. have adaddressed the issue of bisexuality dressed bisexuality in in Dominican Dominican culture culture and and the thepotential potential health hazards health hazards that thatthe thepractice practiceposes, poses,in inparticular particularthe thespread spreadofofAIDS. AIDS.In In general, however, general, however, people ignore ignore or oractively activelytry trytotosilence silencesuch suchspeculation. speculation. Bisexuality and and homoeroticism Bisexuality homoeroticism continue to to be be invisible invisible in inmainstream mainstream representations of representations of Dominican Dominicanculture. culture. The growing number number of of AIDS AIDS and and HIV-positive HIV-positive cases cases among Haitian Haitian Haitian-Dominican sugarcane and Haitian-Dominican sugarcaneworkers workersbetween between1983 1983and and1986 1986consticonstituted aa further furtherreason reasontotomarginalize marginalizenonheterosexual nonheterosexualbehavior behaviorand and poorer sectors their study, study, Moya Moya and andGarcia García argue arguethat thatmany many poorer sectors of society.’ society.9 In their men do practice practice bisexual behavior (overt heterosexuality heterosexualityand andcovert coverthohomosexuality), perhaps to hide their homosexual preferences in light mosexuality), perhaps hide their homosexual preferences in lightofof strong homophobia in the the society. society. They They conclude conclude that that the thepressures pressuresofof masculinity also also lead lead to profound feelings of guilt and self-loathing masculinity self-loathing for for these men. these men. The Gay Pride Pride Parade Parade in in Santo SantoDomingo DomingoininJune June2001 2001sheds shedssome somesosociocultural light on on Yunior’s Yunior’s behavior. behavior. The parade, which had had originally originally been scheduled by the the OPC OPC(Oficina (Oficinade dePatrimonio PatrimonioCultural, Cultural,ororOffice Officeofof Cultural Affairs) to take place place in in one one of of the the more more prominent prominent squares Cultural squares of the the

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the Plaza de España, Espafia, was was moved moved over to the city, the the Avenida Avenida del del Puerto, Puerto,aaless less controversial venue, controversial venue,on onshort shortnotice. notice.Many Manyparade paradeparticipants participantsviewed viewedthis this move as a calculated calculated impediment impediment to the the planned planned events. events. They They felt feltthat thatthe the city was backpedaling backpedaling on its original original support, support,according according to toaastory storyininElEl Nacional, “Ratifican llamado aa marcha marcha de degays.” gays.”The Thenewspaper newspaperarticle article commented that Dominican Dominican society was not not used used to to dissident dissident expression expression and noted that that the thechange changeof ofplace place also also represented representedaachange changein inspace. space. The The demonstration site original demonstration site was was aa large large two-way two-waystreet, street,and andthe thenew newsite site narrower area. was a narrower area.The Thearticle articleasked askedwhy whyhomosexuals homosexualswere werenot notallowed allowed to be included reflecting that that whether they are included in “la humanidad,” humanidad,” reflecting are acacthey are cepted or not, they are present, present,and and they theyhave havethe thesame samemodes modesofofliving livingasas other people, people, working, suffering suffering from fromcolds, colds, and andexperiencing experiencingthe thesame same celebrations as the crises and celebrations the rest rest of of humanity. humanity.The Thedebates debateson onsocial socialaccepacceptance of homosexuality homosexuality were werecovered coveredin innumerous numerousnewspapers, newspapers,with withmany many that they people claiming that theysuffered sufferedfrom fromdiscrimination discriminationbybythe thepolice policeand andatat their work, their work, while while aa few few noted notedthat thatthey theyfelt feltloved lovedand andaccepted acceptedby byfriends friends family and factor, and family and in in their theirwork workenvironments. environments.AAdetermining determining factor,perhaps, perhaps, is the type type of of work work and and the thefamilies’ families’and andfriends’ friends’individual individuallevels levelsof ofpolitipolitical commitment commitment to Nonecal to diversity diversityand andtolerance toleranceininDominican Dominicansociety.!° society.10NoneLeonora Ramírez Ramirez S. observed in the theless, Leonora the Hoy Hoysection sectionof ofthe theSpanish Spanish newspaper El País Pats that that a strong strong wall exists against discussion and integraagainst discussion and integration of the presence presence of homosexuals homosexuals in the culture. culture. They remain on on the the margins, made invisible by fears and and ignorance. ignorance. The parade met with scandal, scandal, as at the the end end someone someone was was shot. shot. Exact Exact details were never made public. Apparently a report was made to details were public. Apparently a was made to the the Espafiola de de Prensa Prensa (Spanish Press Agency) that Agencia Española that aa man manhad hadbeen been murdered shortly shortly after afterthe theGay GayPride PrideParade, Parade,implying implyingthat thatthe theviolence violence was directly related related to to the theevent. event.In InEl ElExpreso ExpresoLeonardo LeonardoSanchez, Sánchez,the thedidirector of of the thelesbian lesbianand andgay gaycollective collectiveAmigos AmigosSiempre SiempreAmigos, Amigos,comcomplained that those were only rumors plained rumors and and the themurder murderhad hadnothing nothingtotododo with the was with the parade. parade. A heated heated debate debate ensued, ensued,with withsome somearguing arguingthat thatthere there was no link and others insisting that there was. In the end, the dead man and others insisting that there was. In the end, the dead man and the cause his death the cause of of his death became became invisible invisible in in the the midst midst of of the thedebate debateover overthe the For some, some,the the most most important important thing was to erase the link. For the memory memory of of the the order to violence in order to salvage salvage the the country’s country’sfirst firststep steptoward towardfree freeand andliberatliberatof self. self. Others Others seemed ing expression expression of seemed to feel that underscoring underscoring the the link link would prove that such parades parades only only lead lead to to more more violence violence that that should shouldbe be avoided. avoided. The gay and lesbian communities’ invisibility invisibility to to date date bares bares aa quiet quiet viovio-

ExposingInvisibility: Invisibility:Drown Drown 117 Exposing 117

brutal nonetheless. Similarly, the continued lence, brutal continued invisibility invisibilityof ofwomen’s women’s of family family and culture in aa panoramic role as backbone backbone of panoramic Dominican Dominican (and Dominican diaspora) diaspora) image image points points to to the the violations women endure in simany, exemplified exemplified by lence, as many, by the theDiaz Díazcharacter characterVirta, Virta,are arekept keptisolated isolatedbyby lack of of recognition recognition and whore/Madonna whore/Madonna social lack social dynamics. dynamics.

Challenging the Challenging the Binaries Binaries Reading between the lines and into into the the complicated complicated history historyof ofDominican Dominican silences and violence, I propose that that Diaz’s Díaz’s expositions expositionsof ofpoverty, poverty,sexism, sexism, are the the initial steps toward a more sophisticated treatment and violence are treatmentof of the numerous numerousdegrees degreesof ofinvisibility invisibilityand andvisibility visibilityininDominican Dominicanand andDoDominican diaspora culture culture and and memory. memory. long history history of violence violencethat that isisdriven drivenby bymasculinity masculinity as asaa Considering a long of conduct conduct and and “honor”—which, “honor”—which, in code of inreality, reality,dishonors dishonorswomen womenand andthe the other subordinate subordinate groups groups that thatititkeeps keepsinina adisempowered disempoweredstate—stories state—stories like Díaz’s Diaz’sunderscore underscore how how little little attention attention is given to the pain the pain of invisibilagainst women and “others” ity. The violence violence against “others” exposed exposed in in these thesestories stories highlights the the psychological psychological damage damage inflicted inflicted on on boys boys and andgirls, girls,who whoasas adults reproduce the the same violence. Machismo in this text does not follow of gallantry gallantry by which women should be protected and for which the codes of families must be families be provided. provided. Instead, Instead, machismo machismo is is described described as as aa perverse perverse power play that punishes punishes differences differences and and destroys destroys individual individualpotential potentialfor for personhood and respectful membership in the family and the community. membership in the family and the community. Inadvertently perhaps, perhaps, Diaz Díaz is is showing showing how howthe theDominican Dominicandiaspora diaspora community suffers from a deep deep denial of pain caused by the trauma trauma of of repressive regimes repressive regimes and and caudillo caudillo culture. culture.II believe believe that thathis hisstories storiesforce forceus usto to see violence violence and and therefore therefore recognize recognize its its impact impact on on different different lives lives in in the see Dominican Republic Republic and and elsewhere. work effectively Dominican elsewhere. Diaz’s Díaz’s work effectively jogs jogs the the memory of its memory its Dominican Dominican readers, readers, exposing exposing how how limited limited and andpainful painful migratory culture memory is and how traumatic migratory culture can can be. Diaz’sapparent apparent struggles struggles with writer’s The Boston Globe covered Díaz’s writer’s block. After an impressive impressive debut and and an an immediate immediate contract contract for for an anunwritten unwritten Diaz finds himself book, Díaz himself admitting, admitting,“I“Idon’t don’tknow knowwhat’s what’shappened. happened.It’s It’sasas if my writing has fallen off the cliff. I’m not rehabilitated yet” (Jones writing has fallen off the cliff. rehabilitated yet” (Jones E1). E1). newspaper article The newspaper article mentions mentionsthat thatRalph RalphEllison Ellisonhad hadaasimilarly similarlybrilliant brilliant beginning and a painfully long long hiatus hiatus between between works. works. This This is is important, important, the silences silences Díaz Diazstruggles struggles with, with, no no doubt, doubt, embody embody the the very very probprobbecause the lems of invisibility and visibility he must must explore explore to to keep keep writing writing both both

118 TheThe Tears 118 TearsofofHispaniola Hispaniola

from the the gut gut and andfrom fromthe theinterstices intersticesofofthe thesilences silencesand andtragedies tragediesexperiexperienced by Dominicans on the island enced island and and in in the thediaspora. diaspora.In Inhis hisinterview interview with Vanessa E. Jones Jones of of the the Globe, he he talks about a possible next next project, project, which is which is a sci-fi Latin American history history novel novelthat thathe helabels labels“kooky.” “kooky.”Begun Begun before Sept. 11, 2001, the story story takes takes place place 20 20 years years after afteraamilitary military dictatorship seizes control following a catastrophe that thatdemolishes demolishes York City. City. A A young young Dominican woman returns New York returns from fromexile exiletoto kidnapping and and torture torture that that occurred uninterview survivors of the kidnapping der the the new newregime. regime.(E3) (E3) It is extremely revealing that, that, after after Drown, Drown,Diaz Díaz would would consider consider the the topics topics ofof science of dictatorship, torture, torture,and andsurvival survivalthrough throughthe thegenre genre sciencefiction. fiction. Perhaps he is getting getting closer to exploring exploring some some of his his historical historical past past and and its its effects on his psychological effects psychological present. The next next book book may, may,after afterall, all,point point explicitly to the pain pain of of memory. memory. In brief, brief, the the complexities complexities of the the human humancondition, condition, which which may maybe be drowned out by by songs songs (such (such as fast meringues) meringues) and and heavy heavysilences, silences, cannot cannot be ignored for long. long. But But itit takes takesan anenormous enormousamount amountofofcourage couragetotochalchallenge the comfortable binaries set up up by by the theacademy academyand andpolitics, politics, and and itit takes memory memory to to disclose disclose the the complexities complexities of the the identifiers identifiersof of Dominican Dominican and Dominican diaspora cultures. cultures.

Exposing Invisibility: Drown

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44

Memory Modes of Memory Restavek Condition and Jean-Robert Cadet’s Story The Restavèk

Restavek is a Kreyol Restavèk Kreyòl word! word1 derived derived from fromaaseemingly seeminglyinoffensive inoffensiveFrench French phrase, rester rester avec, to stay with. Yet restavék refers to an abusive practice avec, stay with. Yet restavèk refers to an abusive practice in Haiti in in which which children children of of impoverished impoverished families families are are sent sentaway awayto tobebecome domestic domestic workers workers in other households, come households, which which often often badly badly mistreat mistreat them. them. In this chapter chapter II revisit revisit the themany manyways waysininwhich whichthe therestavék restavèkcondition condition has been studied and and explicated explicated in Haiti Haiti and and in inthe theUnited UnitedStates. States.IIoffer offeraa sustained analysis analysis of ofJean-Robert Jean-RobertCadet’s Cadet’s1998 1998autobiography, autobiography,Restavec: Restavec: Haitian Slave From Haitian Slave Child Childto toMiddle-Class Middle-ClassAmerican, American,totopropose proposethat thatauautobiography and testimony tobiography testimonyfunction functionas as modes modes of of memory memory that thatreconfigure reconfigure the process process of self-formation self-formation and and human human rights rightswork. work.Furthermore, Furthermore,| I describe the the transhistoric, describe transhistoric, transnational, and and transliterary transliterary connections connections Cadet’s text engages in the ongoing fight for civil and human rights. Cadet’s text ongoing fight for civil and human rights.

Restavek: In In Reality Reality and and in Representation Restavèk: restavek condition is at the The restavèk the center center of of many manyheated heateddebates debatesin inthe theHaiHaitian and Haitian Haitian diaspora diaspora communities. communities.Its Itsexistence existenceisisdisputed, disputed,and anditsits role in society is both both condemned condemnedand andcondoned. condoned.Consequently, Consequently,controvercontroverliterature and sial literature and representation representationofofthe thecondition conditionhas hasbeen beenproduced. produced.One One of the first first reports reportsabout aboutHaitian Haitianchildren childrenserving servingasasdomestic domesticlabor laborwas was Elie Louis Vernet’s Vernet’s La Domesticité chez Élie chez nous, nous,published publishedinin1935. 1935.Living Living conditions in the the countryside countrysidewere werestill stillbearable bearablethen, then,and andthe thetradition traditionofof children in children in domestic domestic service service in in the the city city was was considered considered aa minor minorproblem. problem.At At the time, time, and and until untilrecently, recently,the therestavéks’ restavèks’plight plightwas wasa aneglected neglectedtopic. topic. they are Many adults adults are still convinced that they are helping helping the the children, children, no no matmatter how terrible the treatment. Until the 1960s some restavéks lived with ter how terrible the treatment. Until the 1960s some restavèks lived with

120 ‘The Tears 120 The TearsofofHispaniola Hispaniola

a sowell-off families, families, but butno nolonger. longer.The TheReverend ReverendMiguel MiguelJean-Baptiste, Jean-Baptiste, a social worker worker who directs the Maurice Sixto cial Sixto school for restavéks, restavèks, points points this this out in Karen Kramer’s 2001 documentary Children of Shadows: “You in Karen Kramer’s 2001 documentary Children of Shadows: “You won't find restaveks won’t restavèks among the bourgeois. bourgeois. They have money and and pay pay maids. It is a poor child who goes to live with another anotherpoor poorperson.” person.” The condition of restavéks restavèks in in Haiti Haiti has hasbeen beenseverely severelyaggravated aggravatedby byan an acute economic crisis. The The economist Arnold Antonin laments, “The situaArnold Antonin laments, “The situation of the the restavék restavèk is is aa manifestation manifestationof ofthe thegeneral generalmisery miserythe thecountry country experiences” (Kramer). (Kramer). In In the last experiences” last twenty twentyyears yearsthe thecontinual continualdecline declineofof Haiti’s rural economy has spurred spurred aa mass mass exodus exodus to to Port-au-Prince. Port-au-Prince.Rural Rural families dream dream of of a better life families life there, there, unaware unaware of of the themisery miserythat thatawaits awaits them. Since entire them. entire families families can can rarely rarely pick pick up up and and move, move, they theyoften oftensend sendaa that he child to the city, hoping that he or or she she will will be be the the link linkto totheir theirfuture futurerelorelocation. In many many cases, families will send their most responsible daughter cases, their most responsible daughtertoto stay with “relatives” “relatives” in in the thecity. city. They They come from from the the most mostdegrading degradingsitusituations in rural rural areas, areas, where where there thereare arenonoschools schoolsand andpoor poorfacilities facilitiesfor for health and hygiene. hygiene. These children are promised promised education education and and food food in in exchange for work. Often exchange Often the thepromises promisesare areempty. empty.By Bylaw, law,the thechildren children who work as domestic helpers must must be be at at least least twelve twelve years years old, old, but but many many are as young as as three three or orfour, four,and and very veryfew fewreceive receive education education or orfood food for for 2 their hard labor.” In 2001 their numbers were estimated by Haiti Solidarité their numbers were estimated by Haïti Solidarité their hard labor. Internationale (HSI) at at 300,000. 300,000. Three-quarters of the the restavéks restavèks were were fefemale. male. labor represents represents a major impediment Child domestic labor impediment in in the thestruggle strugglefor for 3According to the HSI study Les Fondements de la human rights in Haiti.° human rights in Haiti. According to the HSI study Les Fondements de la des enfants en Haiti, pratique de la domesticité des Haïti, the the word word restavék restavèk has has aa pejorative connotation pejorative connotationused usedtotoisolate isolateand anddevalue devaluethe thechildren. children.The Theofficial official term for them them isis enfants enfantsen endomesticité, domesticité,children childrenin inaadomestic domestic situation. situation. In many many cases, cases, the children children feel feel so so humiliated humiliatedthat thatthey theycannot cannotsee seethemthemselves as laborers, but rather ratheridentify identifywith withthe theconcept conceptofofslavery. slavery.An Aninterinternational children’s children’s rights rights advocate, advocate, Claudette Claudette Francois, François, notes notes that thatrestarestaveks’ work is not shameful, vèks’ shameful, but buttheir theirconditions conditionsare. are.The Therestaveks restavèksmight might themselves as see themselves as domestic domestic laborers laborersinstead insteadofofslaves slavesififthey theywere werewell wellfed, fed, hours appropriate clothed, and educated and had working hours appropriate to to their theircapacity capacity Furthermore, ifif the as children. Furthermore, thefamilies familiesand andthe thecommunity communitytreated treatedthem them with respect instead of of with with violence, violence, slurs, and threats threatsof ofexpulsion, expulsion,the the children would not identify with the the destitute destituteemotional emotionaland andpsychologipsychological condition condition implied by the label cal label restavek. restavèk. number of The number of restavéks restavèksisishard hardto tocalculate, calculate,since since the thepractice practiceisis considconsid-

Modes of ofMemory: Memory:The TheRestavèk RestavékCondition Conditionand andJean-Robert Jean-Robert Cadet’s Story 121 Modes Cadet’s Story 121

ered an unofficial unofficial exchange exchange between between families. families. Some Some restavéks restavèks are areblood blood but often the family in the relatives, but the country countryeuphemistically euphemisticallycall callthe thefamfamily in the city their relatives. The HSI study estimates that in 1946-60 city their relatives. study estimates that in 1946–60asas many as 60,000 to 80,000 children were many were live-in live-in domestic domestic laborers. laborers. During During the 1970s—the 1970s—the period known as Jean-Claudisme—the Jean-Claudisme—the number grew to 100,000, and and as of 2001 2001 it was thought thought to 100,000, tobe be300,000 300,000 or ormore. more.This Thissituasituation received very very brief brief political political attention attentioninin1934 1934under underSténio SténioVincent's Vincent’s presidency. Conversely, Conversely, opportunities opportunities for education presidency. education were werediminished diminishedinin 1930-35 with 1930–35 withthe theLaw Lawof of Dantes DantesBellegarde, Bellegarde,which whichabolished abolishedthe thebaccalaubaccalaureate in public schools. Children in public schools, who would have in public schools. Children in public schools, who would haveinincluded the domestic domestic workers, workers, no no longer longerhad hadaccess access to to aa complete complete education. education. law prescribes prescribes conditions conditions to to be be met met by by employing families with A 1947 law one or one or more more children childrenin in“domestic “domesticservice.” service.”Domestic Domesticservice servicewas wasviewed viewed as a legal legal part part of Haitian culture, the laws protecting the adults more culture, the laws protecting the adults morethan than the children. Until the the 1960s, 1960s, child domestic labor was informal, and the the treatment of treatment of these thesechildren childrenwas wasvastly vastlyinconsistent. inconsistent.The TheCode Codedu duTravail Travail of 1960 1960 recognizes recognizes the the category of children (Work Code) of children in in domestic domestic serservice. Domestic Domestic child child laborers laborers finally finally were were seen as workers who must vice. must rereceive certain certain treatment. treatment. They ceive They could could not notbe beless lessthan thanfifteen fifteenyears yearsold; old;if if they did they did not not receive receive aa salary, salary, they theymust mustbe beeducated, educated,clothed, clothed,and andfed. fed.Until Until the 1970s, families with live-ins saw themselves as benevolent hosts, benevolent hosts, havhaving ready servants at their their disposal disposal and helping these children leave their families. Some Some interviews interviews show show that that a number poor families. number of of the thechildren, children,now now adults, would agree with this this assessment. assessment.Well-off Well-off families families were wereable abletoto offer better better conditions. conditions.Some Somechildren childrenwere weretreated treatedasaspart partofofthe thehost hostfamfamily and became became reasonably reasonably well well employed employedadults. adults.Other Otherrestaveks, restavèks,after after becoming adults, helped siblings or other other relatives relativesrelocate relocateout outofofthe theimimpoverished countryside countryside to to the thecity. city. attention was Greater legal attention was not not given given to to the theissue issueuntil until1987, 1987,with withthe the drafting of the Haitian Haitian Constitution. Constitution.Article Article 261 261 states states that thatthe thelaw lawmust must ensure the protection protection of all children, who have the right right to to love, love, underunderstanding, and the moral and material care of their parents. The UN and material care of their parents. The UN ConConvention on vention on the theRights Rightsof ofthe theChild, Child,adopted adoptedinin1989 1989and andratified ratifiedbybyHaiti Haitiinin 1995, recognizes recognizes in in Article Article 32 32 the right 1995, right of of children children to tobe beprotected protectedfrom from economic exploitation exploitation and and from work demands that economic that impede impede their theireducaeducation or their their physical, physical, mental, mental, spiritual, spiritual,moral, moral,or orsocial social development. development. This that each signatory signatory state other measures article asks that state take legislative and other measures to to minimum employment establish a minimum employmentage, age, regulation regulationof ofworking workingconditions conditions and hours, and punishment punishmentfor forviolators. violators.However, However,implementation implementationisisbebe-

122 =‘ The TheTears Tears of of Hispaniola Hispaniola

more difficult coming more difficult in in Haiti, Haiti,because because resources resourcesmust mustbe bedevoted devotedtotohelphelping the the many manyimpoverished impoverished people people meet meetbasic basicfood, food,shelter, shelter,and andother other needs. Elite and bourgeois bourgeois families families now nowfavor favoradult adultmaids maidsand andservants, servants,soso domestic child labor is more common among people who live in a despertheir own. The The children children then then are are forced forced to to endure endure this this mismisate squalor of their ery. Until very very recently, recently, children children in indomestic domesticservice servicerarely rarelyhad hadaccess accesstoto school. Port-au-Prince Port-au-Prince has has witnessed witnessed aa proliferation proliferation of of night night schools schools that that school. may help In May May 2002, President President Jean-Bertrand Jean-Bertrand may help children children who who work work all all day. In Aristide addressed addressed the United United Nations NationsSpecial Special Session Session on onChildren. Children.AA distributed by Aristide spokesperson Michelle Michelle Karshan Karshan at at the the press release distributed Aristide has given children attention. attention. In time described ways in which Aristide In the the when he was still still a priest, priest, he he founded the the Lafanmi 1980s, when Lafanmi Selavi Center Centerfor for Street Children. These children are given exposure on radio and television Children. Timoun.*4 There There they can discuss their their circirprograms, for example on on Tele Timoun. cumstances and and hope hope for for better understanding cumstances understanding from the the community. community. fund to help children develop their artistic Aristide set up a special fund artistic talents talents and a scholarship fund fund for forgifted giftedchildren. children.Aristide Aristidealso alsopromised promisedtotogive give special attention attention to the special the 160,000 160,000 children children left left orphaned orphanedbecause because of of AIDS. AIDS. Many critics argue that that Aristide’s Aristide’s plans help only a select few and ignore the large numbers of large numbers of children children in indomestic domestic service service and/or and/or on onthe the seems that that there is a huge gap separating separating the laws, laws, ratifiratifistreets. Indeed, itit seems cations, and discussions concerning children’s rights rights from fromany anyactual actualimimprovement in their their living living conditions. conditions. In In aa 2001 2001 letter letterto toAristide, Aristide,former former National Coalition Coalition for for Haitian HaitianRights Rightsexecutive executivedirector directorJocelyn JocelynMcCalla McCalla “ Yourgovernment government can can either either join its predecessors or make a real warned, “Your break with the past by ensuring that break that every every child child born in in Haiti Haiti is is legally legally registered at birth, and registered and records records are are maintained maintained properly” properly” (NCHR (NCHR news news The release release also also stated stated that that NCHR release, 12 June 2001). The NCHR “contends “contendsthat that millions of Haitians are are stateless stateless by by virtue virtueof ofbeing beingdenied deniedcitizenship citizenshipbebewillful government government negligence and incompetence.” cause of willful One private school, the Foyer Maurice Sixto, has been doing groundgroundbreaking work breaking work to to alleviate alleviate the thedesperate desperateconditions conditionsofofchildren childreninindomestic domestic service. The The school school was was founded founded in 1990, service. 1990, with the the help helpofofTerre Terredes des Hommes Suisse and the Hommes the support supportofofUNICEF, UNICEF, by by the theReverend ReverendMiguel Miguel Jean-Baptiste, who who had had studied studied in in Fribourg, Switzerland, Switzerland, under under the tuteJean-Baptiste, tutelage of the American psychologist psychologist Abraham Maslow. Maslow. Jean-Baptiste Jean-Baptiste contends that that children childrenhave havefive fivepsychological psychologicaland andphysical physicaldevelopmental developmental

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needs that must be met in order needs order for for them them to to grow grow up up to tobe be active active adults adults participating in their their communities: communities: the theneed needfor for(1) (1)survival, survival,comprising comprising nutrition, rest, rest, freedom freedom from frompain; pain;(2) (2)protection protectionfrom fromabuse, abuse,whether whether physical, psychological, physical, psychological,or orsexual; sexual;(3) (3)belonging, belonging,being beingaccepted acceptedasaspart partofofa a (domestic children children are often belittled); and (5) selfgroup; (4) validation (domestic realization through througheducation educationand andjob jobtraining. training.The Theschool schoolencourages encouragesthe the children to be creative and to feel children feel aa sense sense of of community communityamong amongthemthemselves. ItIt also also holds holds special specialmeetings meetings with with families families to to make make them sensitive selves. to the the live-ins’ live-ins’ special special needs. According to the the school’s school’s philosophy, a new focus on education education may help change the tradition may help change the traditionofofchild childdomestic domesticservice service in Haiti. in Haiti. If until recently recently these these children children were were denied denied recognition recognition as as human humanbebeings and active members of of the the Haitian Haitiannation, nation,coverage coverageand andinterviews interviews now legitimize them them and and make make them themaapart partof ofthe theHaitian Haitiannational nationalimage. image. One of the first first stories stories in inHaiti Haititotogive givecritical criticalpublic public attention attentiontotothe the restavek is Ti Saintanise, Saintanise, directed restavèk directed in in1971 1971 by bycomedian comedianMaurice MauriceSixto. Sixto.The The story has since been performed, recorded, and distributed in cassette format in in Kreydl. Kreyòl. It It is set in the the household householdof ofaa professor professorwho whodevotes devoteshimself himself to teaching the public about human rights. rights. But when when this this important importantproprofessional returns returns to his house in the fessional the evening, evening, he he is is met met by byaalittle littlegirl girl restavek, Ti Saintanise, whom he treats with scorn and disrespect. Despite restavèk, Ti Saintanise, treats with scorn and disrespect. Despite rhetoric on human human rights, his public rhetoric rights, in in his his private private life life he he follows follows the the codes of the traditional traditional abusive, abusive, disrespectful disrespectful male. male. International International awareness awareness of of the situation situation has has come come through throughthe thework workofofUNICEF, UNICEF, which has published published accounts by J. P. P.Slavin Slavin of oflittle little children children such as Celine (not (not her herreal realname) name) Four-year-old Servants Servants in Haiti.” As the in “Restavek: “Restavèk: Four-year-old the restavek restavèk children children more media get more media and and literary literarycoverage, coverage,they theyleave leavethe theshadows shadowsofofinhumaninhumanity and enter enter the therealm realmofofcitizenship. citizenship. Historically, most most Haitian Haitian literature was Historically, was written written by bythe thebourgeoisie, bourgeoisie, and it it has and has trivialized trivialized the the existence existence of of children childrenin indomestic domesticservice. service. For For exexauthor Fernand ample, author FernandHibbert Hibbertdescribes describesaaboy boydomestic domesticservant servantininhis histale tale “Orphise” as immoral. “Orphise” immoral. Paulette PaulettePoujol Poujol Oriol, Oriol,on onthe theother otherhand, hand,creates createsa a Marye, who character, Madan Marye, who has has no no common common sense sense and and is is so ignorant ignorantthat that she is silly. René Depestre, in his his poem poem“Face “Face aà la la nuit,” nuit,”describes describesaachild child though she domestic laborer as immoral. Even though she has has been been raped, raped, she sheisis conconresponsible and sidered responsible and guilty guiltyfor forwhat whathas hasbeen beendone donetotoher. her.She Sheisisthrown thrown out of the house, and later she must resort resort to to prostitution prostitutionto tosurvive. survive.Her Her echoed in other character, echoed other texts textssuch suchasasJustin JustinLhérisson’s Lhérisson’sZoune Zounechez chezsasa

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ninnaine, falls from servitude ninnaine, servitude to to abuse and thence to the streets, where her prostitution and lot in life cannot escape prostitution and further furtherabuse abuseand andmoral moralincrimiincrimination. nation. More recently, recently, new new methods methodsof of representation representationincluding includingfilm filmhave havebeen been used to expose the the restavek restavèksituation. situation.They TheyCall CallMe MeDog: Dog:AAFilm Filmabout aboutthe the Cinderellas of Haiti Cinderellas Haiti is is aa docudrama docudrama that thatexposes exposesrestavéks’ restavèks’dire direliving livingconconditions through through the theexperiences experiences of of aa character characternamed namedAsmithe, Asmithe,and andsugsugunderstanding adults gests that the the children children can be helped by understanding adults and and two two new UNICEF-funded school school programs. programs. Asmithe Asmithe has been given away by UNICEF-funded by her her mother to a woman in town who puts her to work in rags and denies her to a in town who puts her to work in rags and denies her schooling, while while her own daughter schooling, daughter gets getsnew newclothes clothesand andgoes goestotoprivate private school.Asmithe Asmithewants wantsto to send sendher her mother mother aa letter letter but but can school. can neither neither write write nor remember remember her her address. address. The The family family she she stays stays with withdoes doesnot nothave havethis this information. When Asmithe runs away, seeking help from her brother, she information. When Asmithe runs away, learns that he learns he has has been been taken taken to tothe thepolice policestation, station,accused accused of of stealing stealing money at a cockfight. Asmithearrives arrivesatatthe the station station in in time time to see see her money cockfight. Asmithe corpse taken away. away. She She returns returns to the brother’s bloody and bruised corpse the cemcemetery where etery wherehe hehad hadbeen beenstaying stayingand andcries criesherself herselftotosleep. sleep.Many Manyrestaveks restavèks return to would return to their their grown-ups grown-upsor orsurrender surrendertotostreet streetcrime crimeor oreven evendeath death at this point. But Asmithe’s Asmithe’s story has a happy ending. She is taken to aa home where she will have to earn her keep but will be be treated treated kindly and have the opportunity opportunitytotospend spendtwo twohours hoursdaily dailyatata aspecial specialschool schoolfor forchilchilHer life has indeed changed dren like herself. Her changed from from rags rags to to riches, riches, the the riches riches human potential. of human potential.She Shebecomes becomesaaCinderella Cinderellabecause becauseofofthe thepossibility possibilityofof schooling through a program that teaches her value in society schooling through that teaches her value in society and and aa syssystem in which which her her potential potential isiscultivated. cultivated. In Ineffect, effect, the thedocudrama docudramaisisan an advertisement for the possibility advertisement possibility of addressing addressing the restavek restavèk situation in Haiti. Haiti. Children of Karen Kramer’s film Children of Shadows Shadows observes, observes, “This “This is is the thestory story of a form of slavery slavery in in the the modern modernworld.” world.” Kramer Kramer interviews interviews children children who cry and look desolate as they they answer answer questions questionsfor forthe thecamera. camera.She She films the back alleys these children walk every day, and shows the dismal children walk every day, and shows the dismal living conditions of the families they they work work for. for. She asks the children what what they want they wantto tobe be when whenthey theygrow growup. up.One Oneboy boysays saysa amechanic. mechanic.Some Someyears years later, in a follow-up interview, he he has has changed changed his hismind mindand andwants wantstotobebeprofessor. His His desire desire is is in in sharp sharp contrast contrast to his condition housecome a professor. condition as as a houseservant with hold servant with no, no, or or little, little,time timetotostudy. study.In Inanother anotherinterview, interview,Vanya, Vanya, who is seven years old old and and does does all all of of the thecooking cooking and andhousework, housework,feels feels betrayed by her her parents, parents, who who could could not not have have imagined imagined how howmuch muchworse worse

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her life is in the the city. city. Her Her body body language languagereveals revealsaachild childin indeep deepsuffering; suffering; she does not look directly at the the camera, camera, and and she she cannot cannotcontain containher hertears. tears. This child’s hopeless tears raised many questions for me. In particular, child’s hopeless many questions for me. In particular, what was the director of this documentary doing to help her? Filming Filming a child’s destitution, destitution, to sell itit in child’s in video video format formatasasan aneducational educationaltool, tool,does does nothing to to help help the thechild. child. ItItisispainful painfultotoknow knowthat thatinina afollow-up follow-upinterinterview years later, her condition view condition has not not changed changed and and her herbody bodylanguage language seems even more pained. The Reverend Miguel Jean-Baptiste notes notes in in the the “No one talks about the film, “No the sexual sexual abuse abuse the the children children experience. experience. They are guinea pigs for the the young youngmales malesofofthe thehouse.” house.”Vanya Vanyaisisnot notasked asked about this, nor does she describe the ways her life life is downtrodden in in her her grown-up’s house. What is happening to to this this little little girl? girl? And And why whydoes does the the filmmaker do donothing nothing other other than than film filmher? her?5 filmmaker I suggest that that the the restavek restavèk condition condition should shouldnot notbe berepresented representedasasyet yet another case study of the another case study the poor poor in in developing developing nations. nations. For this this reason reason JeanJeanRobert Cadet’s Cadet’s story, story, the the first to offer Robert offer the the powerful powerful evidence evidence of of aa firstfirstis very very important. important. Cadet’s person perspective, perspective, is Cadet’s autobiography completely completely shifts these images of children in in domestic domestic service. Not only does does he tell tell his own story, but he also also contradicts previous literature literature that thatjudged judgedand and dismissed people peoplewith with his his type of childhood. His story serves as an exdismissed childhood. His example of will, moral moral dignity, and and human human possibility. His fight for memory memory and for the the abolition abolitionof ofchild childslavery, slavery,both bothininHaiti Haitiand andasasititillegally illegallyexists exists the United is aa call to arms arms for for civil civil and and human humanrights rightsthat thatinterinterin the United States,° States,6 is sects a long historical and literary literary tradition traditionininthe theUnited UnitedStates. States.

Remembering Abuse Remembering Abuse the coming-of-age testimony testimony of Restavec is the of a man man who who escapes a situation destitution and of destitution and domestic servitude servitude in in the the poorest poorest country countryin inthe theAmeriAmerican hemisphere, has a successful military military career careerin inthe theUnited UnitedStates, States,and and later encounters encounters further furtherstruggles strugglesofofalienation alienationand anddepersonification depersonification through racism racism in in Florida. Florida. In In an an afterword afterwordtotohis hisautobiography, autobiography,Cadet Cadet concludes: concludes:

like the the silent victim victim of of aa rape. rape... I felt like . . .. Restavec slavery slavery is wrong. It is the worst is wrong. It is the worstcrime crimeimaginable, imaginable,because because the victims victims are incapable incapable of resisting resisting their their adult adultpredators. predators.ItItisisa a very rights to life— crime against nature nature as as well, well, because the child’s child’s very to belong, belong,to togrow, grow,to tosmile, smile,totolove, love,totofeel, feel,totolearn, learn,and andtotobebea achild— child— are denied, by those whose ancestors ancestors were were slaves slaves themselves. themselves.

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For Cadet, Cadet, nightmares nightmares ensure ensure that that his past remains a vivid For vivid part of of his his present. In foreword, his present. In the the book’s book’s foreword, his American-born American-bornwife, wife,Cynthia CynthiaNassano Nassano Cadet, writes: “I lie beside beside him him now each night night as as he he sleeps. And when that that fitful—when II hear sleep is fitful—when hearhis hislaboring laboringbreath, breath,his hismuffled muffledcry, cry,ororfeel feelhis his legs thrash thrash about—I know know that that the reality from dearms tremble and his legs cades ago ago isis upon upon us us again.” again.” He He struggles daily with self-esteem and the cades the slow, growing growing awareness that slow, that his hiscase case isis not notan anisolated isolatedone. one.His Histext, text,both both political, isis aa cry cry that that makes us feel his experiences personal and political, experiences and the traumatic incisions they traumatic they have have left left on on his his person. person. With With his his story, story, since published in Kreyol (University of Texas Press, 2000) and French Kreyòl (University of Texas Press, 2000) and French(Editions (Éditionsdu du he fights fights to gain international restaveék Seuil, 2002), he internationalattention attentionfor forthe the restavèksitusituation and hopes to see the the “crime” “crime” abolished. abolished. The pages of his story are are laden laden with with detailed detailed memories memories of of degrading degrading personal experiences. For example, the woman who agreed to raise personal experiences. the who agreed to raise him, him, his his 7 “mother/aunt” Florence,’ “mother/aunt” Florence, calls calls him a “shithead bedwetter” bedwetter” (9), (9), “extrait caca” (essence (essenceof of shit), shit), aa “son “son of of a whore” (7), and “motherless son caca” son of of aa (49). She She insists insists that that he will “never be anything bitch” (49). anything but but aa shoeshine shoeshine Florence threatens threatens to take back her family name, which she has boy” (66). Florence give him him the generic surname surname for children without legitigiven him, and give She beats him with mate parents, Joseph. Joseph. She with the thespike spikeheels heelsofofher hershoes, shoes, chairs, a rigoise (a whip made out of cowhide), and a martinet (four-strip out of cowhide), and a martinet (four-strip to sleep sleep on on the the floor floor in in aa corner corner or or under under the the leather whip). He is ordered to kitchen table (but only only after after completing completing all all of of his his chores), chores), and and is is obligated everyone else. The significance of these these experiences does to wake up before everyone not escape Cadet, who who is is called calledBobby Bobbyininhis hisyouth. youth. His His body body suffers suffers from from material discomforts and pain, his emotions are are ignored, ignored, and and his his self-esself-esteem is erased. erased. The child child is is repeatedly repeatedly erased, erased, and and aa slave, slave, presumably presumably without aa future, future, isis shaped. shaped. Pain Pain becomes becomes the central signifier signifier of of his his life, life, one that “unmakes” him. one that “unmakes” him. Further experiences of unmaking include his first memory memory of of law law and order. He tells the story story of of another anotherrestavék, restavèk,René, René,who whosteals stealstwo twodollars dollars from his “grown-up” “grown-up” (the person in whose house he lives) and buys (the person in whose house he lives) and buysfood, food, which he shares with with Bobby. Bobby. The theft is discovered, and René is severely Bobby, terrified terrified for his own whipped. Bobby, own life, life, never never confesses confesses to toeating eatingwith with not reveal his friend’s role. René is forced forced to to kneel kneel on on hot René, who does not rocks until until he faints, at which point he is taken to rocks to the the police. police. When the police bring René René back to the the house, house,his his“nose “nosewas wasbleeding, bleeding,his hiseyes eyeswere were swollen shut, shut, and and his hislips lipsresembled resembledtwo twopieces piecesofofraw rawcow’s cow’sliver” liver”(15). (15). That night René René disappears, disappears, his fate a mystery. His friend’s exit under-

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scores the the fragility of Bobby’s own life life and and the power his grown-up scores Bobby’s own grown-up has. has. Afterward, whenever someone threatens threatensto tosend sendBobby Bobbytotothe thepolice, police,he he fears for his life, understanding that he could be similarly “disappeared” that he could be similarly “disappeared” without prompting without promptingany anyjudicial, judicial,political, political,or orsocial social retaliation. retaliation. rather, nonplace—in society The place—or, rather, society of these these enslaved enslavedchildren childrenisis further dramatized further dramatizedwhen whenaalittle littlegirl, girl,Anita, Anita,comes comes to to the thehouse houseas asanother another restavek. She sleeps on the floor restavèk. floor under underthe thedining diningroom roomtable, table,eats eatswormwormridden mangoes for for dinner, dinner, and and remains remainssilent silentregardless regardlessof ofwhat whatshe shewitwitWhen she nesses. One week she falls ill. When she does does not not get getbetter, better,she shedisappears. disappears. Bobby asks a cook cook what what happened to her. He is informed informed that thatbecause becauseshe she was ill, she she was was returned returned to her mother: if she could not work, she her mother: if she could not work, she was was not not Bobby never never contemplates contemplates whether whether the needed. Bobby the story storyof of return returnisistrue, true,but but that Anita may have died died or or been been sent sent to another “aunt.” “aunt.” we know that The inhuman inhuman treatment Bobby experiences in the private treatment Bobby experiences in the privatespace space of of the the violence in in the the national arena and a history house is paralleled by political violence history of human human disenfranchisement. disenfranchisement.During Duringthe theDuvalier Duvalieryears, years,citizens citizenswere were aware that protest or insurrection aware insurrection would would result result in inimmediate immediate death, death, imimprisonment, and/or and/or torture. torture.During Duringthese thesedictatorships, dictatorships,corpses corpseswould wouldbe be left to rot rot in infull fullview viewof ofpassers-by. passers-by.These Theseswollen swollenbodies bodies bore boreaamessage message that escaped escaped no one: behave or be eliminated. The authorities authorities had had impuimpunity. Bobby recounts recounts aa conversation during Christmas and New Year's conversation during Christmas and New Year’sfesfescook asks asks if if Bobby saw “the “the dead tivities. Florence’s Florence’s cook dead Kamokins Kamokins [commu[communists or communist communist sympathizers] sympathizers] on on the theroadside roadside near nearthe theairport” airport”(37). (37). She explains She explains that they had had been been shot shotby bythe thesecret secretpolice, police,the theTonton Tonton Macoutes, and their bodies were dumped near near the the airport airporttotobe beaavery veryvisvisible warning. Those Those who dared to sympathize ible sympathize with with the thecommunists, communists,or or surely meet become one, would surely meetthe thesame samefate. fate.Their Theirbodies bodieswould wouldlie lieswolswollen on the the roadside roadside like like run-over run-overdogs. dogs.Later LaterBobby Bobby listens listensto tothe thecooks’ cooks’ They are telling another horrific conversation. They horrific story. story. The driver driver of of aa taptaptap (a colorful bus driven driven in in Haiti) Haiti)accidentally accidentallysplashes splashesmud mudon ona ablack blackcar car plates. When When he gets with official official license plates. gets out outtotoapologize apologizeand andclean cleanthe the mess, the the terrified terrified driver driver is is shot in the mess, the head head by by aaMacoute. Macoute. As As aa silent silent witness to abuse abuse and and death, death, Bobby Bobby learns learns that thatlife lifeisisprecarious. precarious.“I “I already already knew that the was to stand in the knew the most most effective effective way to commit commit suicide was the middle of the street street and andshout shout‘A ‘A bas bas [down [down with] with]Duvalier!’” Duvalier!’”(37). (37). Restaveks were were further further belittled tradition of corporal punishpunishRestavèks belittled by by Haiti’s tradition ment (dating ment (dating to to the thecolonial colonial period period and and slavery), slavery), beatings beatings with withthe therigoise, rigoise, and name-calling—“crétin,” name-calling—“crétin,”idiot, idiot,or, or,conversely, conversely,“petit “petitblanc,” blanc,”little littlewhite white superiority to one, used to indicate indicate a child’s superiority toothers othersininthe theclassroom. classroom.When When

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allows him him to to go ifif and and when when he has comBobby attends school (Florence allows pleted his household duties), he witnesses the whipping of five students in front of the the blackboard. The philosophy is that unless unless the the children children are areterterrified, they they will will not not do do their their work. work. When When they they do do not do do their work corcor rified, rectly, they they must be punished or they rectly, they will will become become lazy and and ungrateful. ungrateful. Cadet remembers: remembers: Cadet watch Maître Maitre Jean-Charles with During eighth-grade eighth-graderecess, recess, I would watch his rigoise standing behind a student student at at the theblackboard. blackboard. For every mistake the student made, Maitre Jean-Charles student made, Maître Jean-Charleswould wouldstrike strikehim himon on back as as he he shouted, shouted, “Crétin! “Crétin! Cochon marron! marron! [Idiot! his back [Idiot! Wild Wild pig!]” pig!]” student who twenty lashes A student who arrived arrived late late to to class class would receive twenty lashes in in the the 8 palms of his hands. (77)° his hands. (77) Cadet’s early early years, as we have seen, are filled with Cadet’s with experiences experiences meant meantto to erase his individuality and sense of initiative. When When Florence Florence is about to to permanently depart City, he he shudders shudders to to think think what might permanently depart for for New New York City, happen to him. him. He He has has observed observed other otherrestavék restavèkchildren childrenbeing beingabandoned abandoned when they they were were no no longer longer needed. needed. The children children would then then become become street street wanderers. In this this context, context, itit is is worth worthholding holdingon ontotolife lifeas asaaservant. servant. When he When he and and Florence Florence live with with another anotherfamily familyfor foraawhile, while,he hebefriends befriends the son, Olivier. They are the same age. Olivier defies his family’s the same age. Olivier defies his family’s hierarhierarchy of power, prestige, and money, money, meeting meetingsecretly secretlywith withBobby Bobbyand andsharshartreats as ing games and treats as any any two two boys boys would would under undernormal normalcircumstances. circumstances. results in You don’t don’t know know your your This results in terrible terribletrouble troublefor forBobby. Bobby.He Heisistold, told,““You (58), and and isisreminded reminded that that he is merely staying place” (58), staying with with the the family familyand and part of the point, is not a part of it. it. To prove the point,his hisface faceisis dunked dunkedininaatoilet toiletfilled filledwith with excrement. The excrement. The adults adults insist insistthat thatthe theexcrement excrementisisbetter betterthan thanheheisisbecause because that itit must it knows that muststay stayatatthe thebottom bottomofofthe thetoilet, toilet,ititdoes doesnot notrise. rise.Bobby Bobby must submit to staying at the bottom, should learn from this metaphor. He must far away from the the family. family. Florence chimes in that thathe hemust mustlearn learnhis hisplace place as an inferior inferior being. being. In In Bobby’s Bobby’s adult adult years, years, the thememory memoryofofthese theseexperiexperiences will will crop crop up up constantly, constantly, never never letting letting him live in a present free from the incessant incessant abuse abuse of of his his past. past. We learn from the the repetition repetitionof of scenes scenes of of psychological pain in the text text that our that our narrator narratorisis haunted hauntedby byhis hisdeprivation deprivationof of emotional emotionalnurturing. nurturing.He He is terrified of abandonment and repeats throughout his his autobiography autobiography that he that he first firstwants wantsFlorence’s Florence’slove loveand andlater laterhis hisbiological biologicalfather’s father’saccepacceplife isisloveless lovelessfor formany many years. years. In In addition, addition, tance and approval. But Bobby’s life there is the the disintegration disintegration of of life life in in Haiti Haitiin ingeneral. general.When WhenBobby Bobby goes goes

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back to to the countryside, he encounters back encounters terrifyingly terrifyinglyinhuman inhumanimages. images.He He returns to returns to the thehouse houseofofGrannie GrannieAlcée, Alcée,Florence’s Florence’s mother, mother, where wherehe hehad had developed fond memories memories of the the old old woman woman cooking cooking and and everybody everybodyrejoicrejoicing in the simple pleasures of the country. country. What What he he sees sees four four years years later laterisis reminiscent of reminiscent of aa plagued plagued Macondo Macondoin inGabriel GabrielGarcia GarcíaMarquez’s Marquez’snovel novelOne One Hundred Years Hundred Years of Solitude. Solitude. The The house house he heremembered rememberedsosodearly dearlyhas hasfallen fallen apart. The kitchen roof has a big hole in it, the water well is in ruins, the the coop empty, dusty, and smelly. chicken coop smelly. Aggressive Aggressive flies flies buzz buzz around aroundthe the in and out of the back door, in the house. house.To To Bobby’s Bobby’s horror, horror, “Grannie “GrannieAlcée Alcéewas was lying in her her mahogany mahogany bed, bed, staring staring at atthe theceiling. ceiling.Her Hereyes eyeswere weredeep deepin in their sockets their sockets and and her herface face looked looked like like aa giant giant dried driedprune prunewith withaahole holeininthe the middle of it. Her white white hair hair clung clung to toher herhead headlike likeSpanish Spanishmoss mossdangling dangling from a dead branch” branch” (62). (62). When Whenhe hecalls calls out outGrannie’s Grannie’sname, name,she sheanswers, answers, “Gertrude?” (63). The demise of the family is tied to Grannie’s son “Gertrude?” (63). The demise of the family is tied to Grannie’s sonLéon’s Léon’s involvement in involvement in aa political political killing, killing, for for which which he he was was promised promisedaagood goodgovgovernment job. ernment job. But But itit turns turnsout outthat thatLéon Léonchose chosethe thewrong wrongpolitical politicalside. side.He He was killed and his family family isolated isolatedfor forhis hisactions. actions.The Thestress stressofoflosing losingaason son and the state terror and terror brought brought upon upon her her family family may may be bethe thereasons reasonsfor for The story story underscores underscores how the the government government would Grannie’s stroke. The would oblitobliterate any any opposition opposition and, and, in in this thiscase, case,leave leave aa poor poorcountry countryfamily familydecidecimated. mated. serves as a metaphor for This scene scene serves for the therapid rapideconomic economic decline decline that that began in the Haitian countryside countryside in in the the 1960s 1960s and has culminated in abject despair in recent years. years. Bobby’s Bobby’s life in the the city city isisbetter. better.Although Althoughhe heisis abused while at Florence’s house, he has access to some food and shelter. at Florence’s has access to some food and shelter. Had he stayed in the the countryside, countryside, Bobby Bobby might might have have been been subjected subjected to to aa extreme neglect that living death, to such extreme that he he would would not nothave haveeven evenhad hadthe the right to life. Bobby Bobby cannot cannot stand stand the the sight sight of of this this kind kind energy to defend his right of human deprivation and, and, since since he has has no no means means to toalleviate alleviate it, it,he heruns runs away from Grannie’s away Grannie’s house, the flies, flies, the darkness, darkness, and the the impending impending death. death. The constant constant ostracism ostracism for for being being illegitimate, illegitimate,and andits itsresulting resultingabsence absence form the violation violation of human of love, form humanspirit spiritfrom fromwhich whichBobby Bobbysuffers suffersmost most as he he grows grows up, up, itit is is also alsothe the condition condition that gives him acutely. However, as him the the impetus to to strive strivefor forself-improvement. self-improvement.That Thatis,is,Florence’s Florence’sabuse abuseisisnothnothing compared compared to tohis hisfather’s father’sindifference. indifference.Ironically, Ironically,his hisbiological biologicalbackbackground is something something that ground that others othersnote notewith withan anelement elementofofpride: pride:his his mother mother beautiful and was beautiful and his his father fatherisis aa successful white white man man called called Blanc Philippe. He strives to emulate his father. father. He does not have have to identify identify with with FloFlo-

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rence, who is described as a wicked, dependent woman. The author rence, authortells tells prostitutes herself how Florence prostitutes herself to to pay pay her herbills billsand andhow howshe sheisismore moreconconcerned with what cerned what her hermiddlemiddle-and andupper uppermiddle-class middle-classneighbors neighborsand and friends think about about her her than thanwith withhow howshe sheisismistreating mistreatingthe thechild childleft leftinin her care. Here Cadet Cadet offers offers aa critique critique of of the thehypocrisy hypocrisyofofsocial socialstandards. standards. He is also also setting setting up upaadistinction distinctionbetween betweenFlorence’s Florence’s abuse, abuse, which which is is physical and direct, and his father’s father’s abuse, abuse, which is is indirect indirect via via emotional emotional neglect. Could Could the the distinction distinction extend extend to another parameter? neglect. parameter? Could Could itit be be that Bobby Bobby forgives his father father because because he he is is white, white, and and all all white white isisgood, good, and further and furthercriticizes criticizesFlorence Florencebecause becauseshe sheisisblack? black? goes to to the United States to be When Florence Florence goes be with with her herson, son,Blanc Blanc Philippe decides decides to to pay pay to to send Bobby Bobby to to continue living with her. When Philippe hopes, Bobby is taken to to get get his hispassport passportpicture pictureand andpapers papersarranged, arranged,hehe hopes, finally, to be recognized as the biological son of Philippe. But when a recognized as the biological son of Philippe. But when aclerk clerk questions father father and and son son for passport passport information, information,the theresult resultisisdisillusiondisillusioning: “What is your your mother’s mother’s name?” name?” he he asked. asked. Suddenly Suddenly I thought thought about the name name Henrilia Henrilia Brutus. Brutus.IIwas wasabout abouttotosay sayit,it,but butPhilippe Philippe answered “Florence answered “Florence Cadet.” Cadet.” “What is is your yourfather’s father’sname?” name?”I Ilooked lookedup upatatPhilippe, Philippe,hoping hopinghehe would at least least acknowledge acknowledge me me by by saying sayinghis hisown ownname. name.He Helooked looked at the the clerk clerk and andsaid, said,“inconnu,” “inconnu,”meaning meaning“unknown.” “unknown.”The Theclerk clerk glanced at Philippe and me for a few seconds as if he knew that I Philippe and me for a few seconds as if he knew that Iwas was standing beside standing besidemy myfather. father.AAsinking sinkingfeeling feelingcame cameover overme. me.I Iwas wasdead dead inside. (96) inside. (96) I cannot help but signal signal the the similarities similarities between between the therelationship relationshipof ofthe the white father father to to Bobby Bobby and and the therelationship relationshipofofplantation plantationowners ownerstototheir their illegal offspring. I will elaborate on this this link link later laterin inthis thischapter. chapter. Bobby’s story story takes an extremely hehe is is sent offoff toto bebe Bobby’s extremelyunusual unusualturn turnwhen when sent with Florence in the the United with Florence in United States: States: most most restavéks restavèks in in Haiti Haiti never neverleave leave the the 9 The restavek condition thus migrates from the far-off land of country.’ country. The restavèk condition from the far-off land of Haiti into Haiti into the theUnited UnitedStates. States.Since Sincelaws lawsand andsocial socialcodes codes are aredifferent differentininthe the two countries, the family does not know know what what to todo. do.They Theydo donot notwant want problems with the the authorities authoritiesand andtherefore thereforecomply complywith withU.S. U.S.laws, laws,putputting Bobby Yet ting Bobby in inhigh highschool. school.There Therehehefends fendsfor forhimself. himself. YetDenis, Denis,Florence’s Florence’s son, insists that thatBobby Bobbyfind findwork. work.Bobby Bobbymust mustlie lieabout abouthis hisage, age,find findwork, work, continue school, resume resume his his duties dutiesas asthe thecleaner cleanerininthe thehouse, house,and andpay paytoto stay with with the thefamily. family. While Whilehe heisis not notmistreated mistreatedasasbadly badlyasashe hewas wasininHaiti, Haiti,

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he is still subjected to humiliation and threats. threats. Finally Finally he he is is kicked kicked out of the house. Whereas teenagers thrust thrust into intothe thestreets streetsininHaiti Haitiface faceearly early death or a life of begging, in New York Bobby has more options. Cadet’s or a life of begging, in New York Bobby has more options. Cadet’s irrefutable will to survive survive and and escape escape danger guides guides his his life. life. In In school school he he gets help from from his his teacher, teacher, Mr. Mr. Rabinowitz. Rabinowitz. In In town town his hisfriend’s friend’sfather father Through his gives him a contact for a housemate. Through his own own sacrifice sacrifice and perseperseverance, he finishes high high school school and and enters entersthe theUnited UnitedStates StatesArmy. Army. Bobby recognizes the advantages advantages he hehas hashad: had:Florence Florenceallowed allowedhim himtoto attend school after his his chores chores were were done, done, and and Blanc Blanc Philippe Philippe sent sent him himto to the United States to be with Florence. Leaving Haiti presented many opStates to be with Florence. many opportunities to days could portunities tothe theambitious ambitiousyoung youngman. man.His Hishorrible horriblerestavék restavèk days could be archived as the past. Nonetheless, Nonetheless, they they haunt haunthim; him;asasthe therepeated, repeated,and and memory of graphic, images of his memory of abuse abuse attest, attest,Cadet Cadetisisseverely severelymarked markedby by traumatic memory. The abuse in his childhood has shaped a very scared memory. abuse in his childhood has shaped a very scared trusts very and angry man. man. He has a difficult time making friends, and trusts very few people. He He confesses confessesthat that during during shooting practice and other drills in people. in the the army, he he often imagines Florence as as the the target. Although he buys army, imagines Florence buys her her Mother’s Day cards, Mother’s cards, he never never sends sends them. them.Cadet’s Cadet’s loveless loveless upbringing upbringing causes him to feel inferior inferior to to others othersand andpainfully painfullyashamed ashamedofofhimself. himself. In stark In stark contrast contrast to to this thisloveless loveless life life full fullof ofabuse abusethat thatCadet’s Cadet’swritten written memory recalls, the author insists in both the beginning and the end memory author insists in both the beginning and the endof of the the book that his his autobiography autobiographyisisgrounded groundedininlove. love.He Hetells tellsus usthat thatwhen whenhehe became a father he realized that that he he had hadbeen beenblessed blessed with withthe theopportunity opportunity to give love. Suddenly, I suppose, suppose, he he was was faced faced with withaaresponsibility responsibilitythat that neither his own father nor his caregiver, Florence, ever fulfilled. I suggest neither his own father nor his caregiver, Florence, ever fulfilled. I suggest that when when Cadet Cadet isis confronted confronted with withthe theresponsibility responsibilitytotogive givelove loveand and nurturance to an an innocent innocent life life he he has has engendered, engendered, he is is incited incited to to seek seek venues that that will will help help him himheal healfrom fromthe theabuse abusehehesuffered. suffered.But Buthow howcan can one engage in the the long long and and arduous arduousprocess process of of healing healingafter afteraalife lifefull fullofof such bitter degradation? degradation? II believe believe that that life life and andliterature literatureintersect; intersect;Cadet Cadet discovers the the possibility possibility of of remaking himself through discovers through the thewriting writingpropro10 Cadet’s writing activates a symbolic process of giving birth. By tellcess.'° writing activates a symbolic process of giving birth. By tellcess. ing his story, story, he he bears bears witness witnessto tohis hisdesire desirefor forgoodness. goodness.His Hisstory storytestifies testifies practice that that must be abolished and thus contributes against a practice contributes to to the the proprotection of future future generations generationsofofchildren. children.This Thisnew newexperience experiencewith withlove love nurturance underscores and emotional nurturance underscoresthe theimportance importanceof ofwriting writinghis hisstory, story, giving value to his family history history and andhis hisstruggles, struggles,so sothat thatCadet’s Cadet’schild child understand his will be able to understand his roots. roots. Furthermore, Furthermore,through throughthe thetext, text,Cadet Cadet imposes paternity paternityon onBlanc BlancPhilippe. Philippe.His Hisunassumed unassumedrole roleasasCadet’s Cadet’sfather father

132 TheThe Tears 132 TearsofofHispaniola Hispaniola

writing; more is is is in writing; moreimportant, important,the theeffect effectofofhis hisneglect neglectononCadet’s Cadet’sperson person Cadet’s child child can can have access to a complete family publicly condemned. Cadet’s access to family narrative. After becoming a father, and through through the the act act of of writing, writing,Cadet Cadet becomes an an activist activist against the restavek becomes restavèk situation. situation. He He thus thusconsciously consciously engages with a significant battle against human degradaengages significant sociopolitical sociopolitical battle degradarevealing his his most most debilitating, debilitating, trautraution—even though though itit is is at the the price of revealing matic memories. Emphatically,the the act act of autobiography is matic memories. Emphatically, is his his process, process, his haunting haunting memory which validates his memory of of abuse and underscores the the imporhuman rights tance of human rightsactivism. activism.

Autobiography: Cadet’s A Tradition of Autobiography: Cadet’s Contribution Contribution The function and origin origin of of autobiography autobiographyare aremultiple. multiple.James JamesOlney Olneyreremarks that “we have a sufficient demonstration of the rich variousness marks that “we have a sufficient demonstration of the rich variousnessofof autobiography and autobiography and clear clear evidence evidence of of the the stubborn stubbornreluctance reluctanceofofautobiogautobiography to submit submit to to prescriptive prescriptivedefinitions definitionsor orrestrictive restrictivegeneric genericbounds. bounds. ... the performances of Wright, Valéry, and Yeats at least hint at how vari. . . the performances of Wright, Valéry, at least hint ous are the the different different bioi bioi that thatmay mayinform informautobiographies autobiographiesbybyway wayofofasas many different many differentexercises exercises of of memory” memory”(267). (267).Olney Olneyproposes proposesthat thatRichard Richard Wright based based his his autobiography autobiographyon oncreative creativememory, memory,Paul PaulValéry ValéryabanabanWilliam Butler Butler Yeats Yeatstransformed transformed memory memory beyond doned memory, and William beyond recrecBefore arriving arriving at these three formulations ognition. Before formulations of of memory memory in in autoautobiography, Olney Olney presents presentsus uswith withaalong, long,reflective reflectiveessay essaythat thatexplores exploresthe the meaning of ta onta, existing things, and examines the usage of bioi. Acta onta, existing things, and examines the usage of bioi. According to Plato and Heraclitus, Heraclitus, he he tells tells us, us, ta ta onta ontaspecifies specifies not notonly onlythings things that exist that exist but, but,in inparticular, particular,aapresent presentthat thatisisopposed opposedtotothe thepast pastand andfuture. future. The importance of ta ta onta ontain inhis hisstudy studyofofautobiography autobiographyisisrelated relatedtotoboth both truth, which Olney says is always in the process of being represented truth, which Olney says is always in the process of being representedby by the present present moment’s moment’s needs, needs, and memory, memory, which which is is also also shaped shaped by by the the memory with present. He elaborates elaborates on on the the significance significance of memory with respect respect to to aa life life story with with the thefollowing followingconsideration: consideration:

bios in the sense of “lifetime” is seen not simply If bios simply as as aa span span of of years—set, complete, and finished: a simple case of “was”—but “was”—but as a process ever moving towards the process the ineluctable ineluctable present presentofof“is” “is”and andifif memory can memory can be be taken taken as as a backward projection projection of of “is” “is” that thatgathers gathersup up into its into its own own creative creative image image all all that that“was “wasbecoming,” becoming,”then thenthe theautobiautobiography of memory, memory, having having become become aavital vitaland andintensely intenselycreative creative mode, attains to aa certain certain philosophical philosophical dignity. dignity. The key key is is to to view view as aa process process the the whole whole of of which which the the autobiographer autobiographer is bios as is in in aa posiposi-

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and compose; compose;and anditit isisup up to to the the autobiographer autobiographer to tion to see, recall, and cut it where he he will so that that the theprocess process will will be be complete and and unified. unified. (240) (240) Thus autobiography autobiographydepends dependson onmemory, memory,which whichisisconsciously consciouslyshaped shaped by the autobiographer autobiographer with with reference reference to to the thepresent; present;meaning meaningisisattained attained through the through theexercise exerciseof ofmemory. memory.Let Letus usapply applythis thistotoCadet’s Cadet’sautobiograautobiograThe sum sum of Cadet’s Cadet’s narrative narrative reveals a man whose phy. The whose experience experience of of abuse abuse is so present that thathis hismemory memoryexists existsinina atraumatic traumaticregister. register.Yet, Yet,asasI Ihave have shown, he tells us that that his hiswriting writingisisabout aboutlove. love.How Howdoes doeshe hecreate createaaspace space of love with memories of such such horrible horrible experiences? experiences? I suggest suggest that that the the process of memory through writing an autobiography helps Cadet attain process of memory writing an autobiography helps Cadet attain meaning. This meaning meaning through throughwriting writingisisattained attainedononatatleast leasttwo twolevels. levels. inserts his One, Cadet inserts his otherwise otherwiseobliterated obliteratedlife lifeinto intoa ameaningful meaningfulpolitical political toto hishis life byby creating a life’s fight. His literary literaryintervention interventiongives givesmeaning meaning life creating a life’s work. Two, Two,his his literary literary product, the autobiography, grafts him into an the autobiography, grafts him into anesestablished and important importanttradition traditionofofwriting writingselves. selves. Cadet’s autobiography, autobiography, exposes exposes the the restavèk restavék condition, recalling conCadet’s ventions of nineteenth-century ventions nineteenth-century autobiography autobiography in in American American literature. literature. writing in the United That is, Cadet, writing United States States about aboutaa condition conditionof of slavery slaveryin in Haiti, is engaging Haiti, engaging with an established established tradition that entails entails interlacing interlacing gyres of history, memory, memory, and and social social action. Haitian Haitian memory memoryclearly clearlyinincludes the the African African diaspora diaspora in in Haiti Haiti and and the the Haitian diaspora in the United Cadet’s memories memories dialogue with States. Specifically, Specifically, Cadet’s with an anestablished establishedAfriAfrican-American literary can-American literarytradition, tradition,becoming becominga anew newvoice voiceininAfrican-HaitianAfrican-HaitianAmerican literary representation. representation. Let us take aa brief brief look look atatAfrican-American African-Americanautobiography. autobiography.The Thelate late Yale professor professor of of history history and African and African-American Yale African-American studies, studies, John John Blassingame,has hasclaimed claimedthat that“salvational “salvational autobiography”—stories autobiography”—stories of W. Blassingame, escape from from slavery, slavery, in in which which the author escape author isis saved saved from fromabuse abuseand andinjusinjusthe most American American of literary tice—is one of the literarygenres. genres.He Hequotes quotesfrom from“Nar“Narwritten by ratives of Fugitive Slaves,” written bythe theReverend ReverendEphraim EphraimPeabody Peabodyofof the Christian ChristianExaminer, Examiner,“AMERICA “AMERICA has has the themournful mournfulhonor honorofofadding addinga a new department to the literature of civilization,—the autobiographies to the literature of civilization,—the autobiographiesof of escaped slaves” (xxxvi). Blassingame contends: contends: “Antebellum “Antebellumblack blackautobiautobiographers consistently asserted that that the the chief chief reason reason for for portraying portrayingtheir their lives was was the need to bear lives bear witness witness against against slavery, slavery, to wake wake their their fellow fellow Americans to its evil, evil, and and to to cheer cheer on onthose thosewho wholabored laboredininthe thecause causeofof human freedom freedom (xxi). (xxi). Earlier autobiographies that that caused caused a stir stir included included Narrative of Indian captivity narratives by blacks blacks such as A Narrative of the the UncomUncom-

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mon Sufferings Sufferings and and Surprizing SurprizingDeliverance Deliveranceof ofBriton BritonHammon, Hammon,AANegro Negro Man (1760) and A Narrative Narrative of Man of the theLord’s Lord’s Wonderful Wonderful Dealings Dealings with withJohn John Marrant, a Black, Taken Down from His Own Relation (1785). According Marrant, a Black, Own Relation (1785). to Blassingame, antebellum Americans frowned on on novels, novels, favoring favoring the the reading of personal accounts accounts of of survival. survival. To To this this day, day, II would would argue, argue,we we continue to to relish relish personal personalaccounts accountsof ofsurvival survivaland andresistance, resistance,which whichare are often synonymous with the often the attainment attainmentofofthe theAmerican AmericanDream. Dream.This This American fascination with stories of self-made success contrasts sharply with Cadet’s Haitian Haitian background, background, where wherethe theperson personwho whocan canescape escapepovpoverty is often too embarrassed to recall the misery of the past. With is often too embarrassed to recall the misery of the past. Withhis his autobiography, Cadet autobiography, Cadet breaks breaks with with this thisaspect aspectof of Haitian Haitianculture cultureand andreveals reveals his past in order to to make make aa statement, statement, not notonly onlyfor forhimself himselfbut butalso alsofor for fellow Haitians who might might be be inspired inspired by by his hisstory. story. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth nineteenth centuries, centuries, a tradition of autobiography in tobiography in the the United United States States was was firmly firmly established established with withtexts textssuch suchas as Benjamin Franklin’s Franklin’s Autobiography Autobiography (1791–98) (1791-98) and the Reverend Benjamin Reverend John John Foster’s “On “On a Man’s Writing Memoirs Foster’s Memoirs of of Himself” Himself”(1805). (1805).According According to to this twenty-one-page twenty-one-page essay Blassingame, this essay “played “played aa primary primaryrole rolein inestabestablishing the lishing the conventions conventionsof ofEnglish Englishand andAmerican Americanautobiography” autobiography”(xi). (xi).Key Key of truth, truth, through which to all of these writings was was the exposition exposition of which the author would would acquire acquire complete complete knowledge knowledge of himself and and his his personal personal “authentic” if it was simple simple and and to to the the growth. The writing was considered “authentic” point. In effect, the readers readers and and critics critics of of the the time insisted on truthful point. effect, the truthful 11 Although memories can be faulty and all autobiographies, esmemory.'! Although memories can faulty and all autobiographies, memory. pecially those those of former slaves, were were subject subject to to intense intense scrutiny scrutiny and and rejecrejecprimary goal of structuring structuring moral tion, these stories had the primary moral character. character. The autobiography had autobiography had aa utilitarian utilitariansocial social function: function:to toinspire inspirereaders readerstotoculticultivate intellectual intellectual development development and and moral moralconduct. conduct. For escaped escaped slaves, slaves,the theautobiography autobiography also also served served as as aa testimony testimony that For that would authenticate authenticatetheir theirlife lifeexperiences, experiences,their theirvoices voicesininlater laterspeeches speechesand and writings, and and the memory of their writings, their contribution contribution to to U.S. U.S. history. Authors such as Frederick Douglass were faced with with the thechallenge challengeof ofestablishing establishing their credibility. As Blassingame Blassingame points points out, out, this was a highly complicated their Douglass’s text text was wasintroduced introducedby bythe the highly highly respected respected antislavery antislavery matter. Douglass’s leaders William Lloyd Garrison Garrison and andWendell WendellPhillips, Phillips,who whoattested attestedtotoitsits veracity. Nonetheless, Nonetheless, the story veracity. story encountered encounteredresistance. resistance.Douglass Douglass sent sentaa copy of of his autobiography to copy to one one of of his hisformer formerowners, owners,Thomas ThomasAuld. Auld. as Douglass Douglass would wouldpoint point out, out, proved proved not not only only the the truth truth This fearless act, as of his story but but also also the the challenge challenge itit was was to torepresent. represent.As As would would be be exex-

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this action pected, this actionincited incitedAuld’s Auld’s friends friendsand andother othersupporters supportersofofslavery slaverytoto claiming that that his text bore “the “the glaring dispute Douglass, claiming glaring impress impress of of falsefalsehood on every page” (xxxiii). Douglass’s autobiography, regardless of every page” (xxxiii). regardless of the the challenges and scandals it spurred, spurred,created createdan animportant importantpractice practiceofoftestitestifreedom.”12 mony, advocating freedom. Autobiography,II suggest, suggest, also also plays plays the role Autobiography, role of of public public record. record. In In Douglass’s case, case,he herecorded recorded his his service service to to the the United States, his thoughts Douglass’s thoughts about the rights of the about the individual, individual, and his belief belief in the rights rights of of man man through his through his autobiographical autobiographical writings, writings,which which reflect reflectaaperiod periodofofpolitical political and social changes and work, work, as well as his own own life life story. story. Douglass’s Douglass’s autoautobiography—writtenasasthree three distinct distinct texts: texts: Narrative Narrative of of the biography—written the Life Life of of Frederick Douglass, published in Frederick in 1845, 1845, seven seven years yearsafter afterhis hisescape escapefrom from slavery; My Bondage and My My Freedom, Freedom, published published in in 1855 1855 and and considered considered his finest writing by the critics of the time; and Life and Times of finest writing by the critics of the time; and Life and Times ofFrederick Frederick Douglass, published published in 1892, Douglass, 1892, nine nine years yearsbefore beforehis hisdeath—expose death—exposehis his flight from, and fight fight against, against, slavery. slavery. But more important, important, they theyrecount recount important member Douglass’s lifework as an important memberofofthe theU.S. U.S.diplomatic diplomaticservice service and an ardent human human rights rights activist. activist. He He served served as consultant consultant to to President President Abraham Lincoln and was the the assistant assistant secretary secretaryof ofthe theSanto SantoDomingo Domingo appointed minister resident Commission of 1871. He was appointed resident and and consul consul gengeneral to the Republic of Haiti in 1889-91. While Americans had problems the Republic in 1889–91. While Americans had problems with this this appointment, appointment,Douglass Douglasswas waswell wellreceived received and and greatly greatlyloved lovedby by the Haitian Haitian people. people. This This affection affection was was reciprocal, reciprocal, as as we we learn learnininhis hislast last autobiography (the autobiography (the only onlyone onein inwhich whichhe hetalks talks about abouthis histime timein inHaiti). Haiti).He He also reflects that he felt the greatest honor during service as Haitian comhe felt the greatest honor during service as Haitian commissioner at at the the World’s World’s Columbian Columbian Exposition Exposition at at Chicago Chicago in in 1893. 1893. observes that that “the act Henry Louis Louis Gates Jr. observes act of of writing writing for forthe theslave slave constituted an constituted anact act of of creating creatingaa public, public, historical historicalself” self”(H. (H.Brown Brownxx). xx).ItItwas was through the the autobiography autobiography that that(former) (former)slaves slaveswould wouldbebeable abletotoplace place themselves in in history historyiningeneral generaland andininsocial socialconsciousness consciousnessininparticular. particular. Frequently, the the first text Frequently, text of of an anex-slave ex-slave would would be be his/her his/herautobiography. autobiography. Once instated as an entity in social circles, the author could entity in social circles, author could go go on on to to other other speaking and writing engagements. speaking engagements. In In fact, fact, the theentry entryinto intosociety societyofofexexslaves was was facilitated facilitated by by the the written testimony slaves testimony of of their theirlives. lives.This This isis sucsuccinctly exemplified exemplified by by The The Narrative of cinctly of the theLife Lifeof ofHenry HenryBox BoxBrown Brown which evokes period mythology, mythology, in (1850), which in this thiscase casethe themythology mythologyofofresresfrom slavery in the urrection. Brown escaped escaped from the South Southtotofreedom freedomininthe the North by North by packing packing himself himselfin inaabox boxand andhaving havinghimself himselfmailed. mailed.His Hisescape escape involved a figurative figurative coming comingback back from fromthe thedead—he dead—heput puthimself himselfinina abox, box,

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reminiscent of reminiscent of aa coffin, coffin, and and then thencame cameout outinto intofreedom. freedom.Some Somewere wereconconcerned that that he cerned he would would not notarrive arrivealive. alive. While While he hedoes does meet meetwith withwonderful wonderful people who are fighting fighting for forthe thefreedom freedomofofall allhumanity, humanity,hehealso alsoencounencounters a deeply coded racism. His rebirth rebirthinto intofreedom freedomisisfraught fraughtwith withlimitalimitations. He may may be be able able to to do do as as he he pleases, pleases, but but only onlywithin withintacitly tacitlyimposed imposed parameters. Ultimately, Ultimately, should should he he stray from parameters. from those, those, his his freedom freedom would would prove artificial. Eventually he had to to escape escape to to England England for for fear fear of of being being thethe Fugitive Slave Act ofof 1850, captured and returned returnedtotothe theSouth Southunder under Fugitive Slave Act 1850, hunters to which sent hunters to the the North Northtotoretrieve retrieverunaway runawayslaves. slaves.Nonetheless, Nonetheless, Brown wrote his cirhis story storyofofslavery slaveryand andescape, escape,had hada aprofitable profitablelecture lecture cirspoke for for the the rights of man, cuit, spoke man, his rights, rights, and and the the abolition abolitionof of slavery. slavery. In In the introduction introductionto tothe therecent recentreissue reissueofofBrown’s Brown’sNarrative, Narrative,the thelate lateRichRichard Newman, senior senior research researchofficer officeratatthe theW.E.B. W.E.B.DuBois DuBoisInstitute Institutefor for Afro-American Research at Harvard, describes Brown’s feat: Afro-American Research at Harvard, describes Brown’s feat: factory worker, Once a slave, he becomes free; once a factory worker, he he becomes becomesan an abolitionist lecturer, writer, writer, and and performer; performer;once onceaanonentity, nonentity,he hebebesomebody. .... . the comes somebody. the mythic mythicand andpassive passiveslave slavebecomes becomesthe thereal real freeman. ...Brown’s message is is and active freeman. . . . Brown’sfinal finalword wordand andcontinuing continuing message that he used confinement to achieve his liberation. (xxxii) that he used confinement to achieve his liberation. (xxxii)

At the the time, time, unfortunately, unfortunately,the thesuccess successofofhis hisexperience experiencedeflected deflectedthe thefocus focus psychological from the the trauma traumaofofslavery slaveryasaswell wellasasthe thelong-term long-term psychologicaleffects effects that enslavement, enslavement, emancipation, emancipation, and storytelling-to-survive storytelling-to-survive had hadon onitsits victims/survivors/escapees. Newman victims/survivors/escapees. Newmanproceeds proceedsto tooutline outlinethe theprotocol protocoladadhered to by slave narratives such as the Narrative Narrative ... . . of . ofBriton BritonHammon Hammon T. Washington’s Washington’s Up Up From From Slavery (1901), commenting that and Booker T. that these constitute constitute aa means means for forthe theAfrican-American African-Americancommunity communitytotoresist, resist, subvert, remember, and document their own own experiences experiences from their their own own point of point of view. view. Autobiographies that are more Autobiographies more recent recent include include Black Black Boy Boy by by Richard Richard was told, told, “You’ll “You’llnever never amount amount to anything” Wright, who, like Bobby, Bobby, was anything” (159). Critic Critic Jerry Jerry W. W.Ward Ward Jr. Jr.notes notesin in his his introduction to the (159). the recently recently restored text text that that Wright’s Wright’s autobiography autobiographytraces traceshis his“reflective “reflectivemovement movement —from the dreams from homegrown homegrown optimism optimismto totested testedknowledge” knowledge”(xiii) (xiii)—from dreams of his childhood in the the South Southtotohis hisreal realexperiences experiencesofoffurther furtherhardship hardship and continued racism in in the the North. North.Richard RichardWright Wrightisisshaped shapedby byboth bothpripriAt home, home, his his father father abandoned the family vate and public disadvantages. disadvantages. At when he was was aa small small boy, boy, making survival survival all all the themore moredifficult difficultfor forhim him mother. In and his sickly mother. In the the public public sphere, sphere,Wright Wrightrecalls recallsand andwrites writesabout about

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his early experiences: experiences: wanting to to learn learnlike likethe the“young “youngJewish Jewishboys boysand and girls receiving instruction in chemistry and medicine girls receiving instruction medicine that the the average average black boy or girl could never never receive” receive” (304). (304). He informs informshis hisreaders readersthat thathehe played with other children children and and learned learned their theirlessons, lessons, thus thuscircumventing circumventing the learning learning restrictions restrictions placed placed on on poor poor black black children children in inthe theSouth. South.LitLiteracy, migration migration (a train train ride eracy, ride from fromwhich whichhe henever neverlooked lookedback), back),and andinteintegration into literary literary society society (the (the Harlem HarlemRenaissance, Renaissance, communist groups groups Wright's keys in Paris) become Wright’s keys to to his hiscitizenship citizenshipin inthe theUnited UnitedStates Statesand and the world. world. Nonetheless, Nonetheless, his hislifework lifeworkalso alsoled ledhim himtotoa adeeply deeplydark darkunderunderstanding of human human conduct conduct and and the themanipulations manipulationsofofpower powerthat thatcontinue continue to strip the the struggle strugglefor forhuman humanrights rightsofofforward forwardprogress. progress.InIna aNovember November 1960, speech speech to to an audience at the 8, 1960, the American American Church ChurchininParis, Paris,Wright Wright accused the the American American government government of creating dissension among literary accused literary and social social intellectuals, intellectuals,undermining undermining their their work work toward toward international international huhuman rights, man rights,equality, equality,and anddemocracy. democracy. Richard Wright Wright escaped the racism of of the South only Richard escaped the only to to see see ititfurther further practiced in in the the North. North. He laments, practiced laments, “Negroes are are told told in in aa language language they they misunderstand that their cannot possibly possibly misunderstand their native nativeland landisisnot nottheir theirown” own” Later he recalls working in (302). Later in the the basement basementof ofaahospital, hospital,where wherehehewas was kept from interaction interaction with withwhite whitedoctors doctorsand andnurses; nurses;responsibilities responsibilitieswere were divided by by race. race. The sharp line line of of racial division drawn drawn by by the thehospital hospitalauthorities authorities came to me the first morning when I walked along an underground came to when I walked underground women.... ..A corridor and saw two long lines of women. . Aline lineofofwhite whitegirls girls marched past, past, clad clad in in starched starched uniforms that gleamed marched gleamed white; their were alert, their their steps faces were steps quick, quick, their theirbodies bodieslean leanand andshapely, shapely,their their shoulders erect, erect, their their faces lit with the light shoulders faces lit light of of purpose. purpose. And after them came them came aa line line of of black black girls, girls, old, old, fat, fat, dressed dressed in in ragged raggedgingham, gingham, walking loosely, walking loosely, carrying carryingtin tincans cansofofsoap soappowder, powder,rags, rags,mops, mops,brooms. brooms. (303) (303)

Ward notes that that the theunexpurgated unexpurgatedtext textofofBlack BlackBoy Boyand andAmerican American Hunger (the Hunger (the original original autobiography autobiographymanuscript’s manuscript’sunused unusedportion, portion,posthuposthumously published in in 1977) 1977) “provides “provides grounds grounds for forthe theclaim claimthat thatWright Wright originally wanted wanted less less to shape from his originally his life life aa representative representative myth mythofof Southern than growing up Southern thanan anAmerican Americanstory storywhich whichspeaks speaksto to‘the ‘the hunger hunger for life that gnaws in in us us all, all, to keep alive in our our hearts heartsaa sense sense of of the theinexinexpressibly human’” pressibly human’”(xiii). (xiii).1I am inclined to believe that that Wright's Wright’sautobiograautobiography embodies phy embodies aa graphic graphic record recordof ofdesire, desire,will, will,disappointment, disappointment,and anda acall calltoto

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continue the struggle struggle for for improved improved human humanstandards standardsofoflife lifeand andmoral moral conditions. conditions. Following aa long historical tradition Following traditionof ofautobiographical autobiographicalwriting, writing,ResRestavec: From Haitian Slave Child to Middle-Class American is tavec: From Haitian Slave Child to Middle-Class American is aa continencontinencontribution to autobiography in the tal “American” “American” contribution the United UnitedStates. States.InInstead of of originating stead originating in the the South Southofofthe theUnited UnitedStates, States,however, however,his his migration from Haiti into the the United States transgresses national borders and points to the the failure failureof ofU.S. U.S. foreign foreign policy policy as as well well as as the thelamentable lamentable effects of the U.S.-led U.S.-led cold war on on the theCaribbean. Caribbean.Like Likethose thosebefore beforehim, him, through literacy, migration, and literary success Jean-Robert Cadet transthrough literacy, migration, and literary success Jean-Robert Cadet transforms himself from from an an abused abused slave slave child into a man man of letters, letters, engaged in important fight an important fight for for human humanrights rightsand anddignity; dignity;like likethose thosebefore beforehim, him,he he that there promised land discovers that thereisis no no such suchplace place as a promised land of of democracy. Sparing with his his words, words, he observes: As a young black man, I found found civilian civilian life in the the South Southvery veryharsh. harsh. My blackness was an an obstacle obstacle to to obtaining obtainingthe themost mostbasic basicnecessities necessities life. A A part-time part-time job was was harder to obtain of life. obtain than than decent decent housing. housing. While I felt felt like like aa soldier soldier [Cadet [Cadet had hadserved servedininthe theU.S. U.S.Army] Army]who who was not properly trained to survive in enemy territory, most white trained to survive in enemy territory, most white people, it seemed, had been been trained trainedall alltheir theirlives livestotosee seeme measasdumb, dumb, dishonest, devilish, dirty, dishonest, devilish, and and aa threat threattototheir theirsecurity. security.I Icouldn’t couldn’tdedespise them, because in my my black black native native land land and andenvironment environmentI Iwas was conditioned to conditioned to think thinkof of whites whitesas asintelligent, intelligent,honest, honest,caring, caring,and andgodgodNonetheless, II avoided avoidedtheir their bigotry bigotry and concentrated on reachlike. Nonetheless, ing my my goal. goal. (147) (147) However, compared with those those before before him, him,Cadet’s Cadet’s codes codes of racial underunderstanding are are much much more morecomplicated. complicated. In InHaiti, Haiti,aarhetorical rhetoricalnational nationalpride pride exists. Furthermore, Furthermore, even even though Haiti in blackness blackness exists. Haiti has has an anentrenched entrenched mulatto elite, elite, during duringFrancois FrançoisDuvalier’s Duvalier’syears yearsasasleader, leader,blackness blacknesswas was consciously applauded applauded and and prioritized prioritized over over and and against against the mulatto elite. consciously elite. Cadet came to the United States States with withaa different differentand andmore morecomplex complexset setofof codes.He Hetells tellsus us at at one one point point that that a person who is good or smart smart or racial codes. or wealthy can be addressed as “blanc” even though though he he isis not notwhite. white.IroniIronically, although although Haiti was the first cally, first black black nation nation to towin winindependence, independence, the the colonial legacy legacy of of rhetorical white superiority colonial superioritypervades pervadesHaitian Haitianculture. culture. Evelyne Trouillot Trouillot comments that Évelyne that Haiti Haitiisisexperiencing experiencingaanew newobsession obsession with white with white skin skin (67). (67). This contradiction, contradiction,between betweenaahistory historyofofAfrican Africanpride pride and symbolic white white prioritization,’’ prioritization,13further furthercomplicates complicatesCadet’s Cadet’sidentity, identity,

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as he experiences experiences aa new new series seriesof ofcodes codes and andracism racismininthe theAmerican AmericanSouth. South. Was he not, as in in Haiti, Haiti, “blanc” “blanc” ifif he he excelled excelled at what what he hedid? did? No, No, in inthe the United States he is black even if he has internalized, or privileged, whiteStates he is black even if he has internalized, or privileged, whiteness in Caribbean Caribbean terms. terms.Caribbean Caribbeancultural culturaland andpolitical politicalidentities, identities,based based on gradations gradationsof of color, color, shade, shade, and and class, do not function functionin inthe thesame sameway wayinin Florida. Florida. Regardless of the racial-social obstacles imposed on Cadet, Cadet, he he resolves resolves “model citizen” citizen” and a “moral “moral person,” to become a “model person,”so so as as to to disprove disprove that thathe he would “never be anything anything more morethan thanaashoeshine shoeshineboy” boy”(66) (66)and andtotochalchallenge his biological biological father fathertotorecognize recognizehis hisgoodness, goodness,success, success,and andworth. worth. authority lead His need for approval and authority lead him him to to an an outstanding outstandingcareer careerinin the army. He thinks thinks he he has has finally finallyfound foundaaplace place where where he hecan can belong. belong. In In the army, army, Cadet follows instructions instructionsand andlearns learnsnew newskills skillsthat thatgive givehim hima a sense of accomplishment. Nonetheless, haunted and Nonetheless, Cadet’s is a haunted and shredded shredded character. His expectations of goodness and honor, honor, shaped shaped by by extreme extremepunpunishment during ishment duringhis hischildhood, childhood,exceed exceedreality. reality.In Inthe thearmy, army,contrary contrarytotohishis he sees sees that the initial expectations of “excellence,” “excellence,” he the men menininthe thebarracks barracks marijuana and smoke marijuana and curse. He tells on his his barrack mates, mates, getting getting them themin in trouble and necessitating necessitating his his transfer transferfor forsafety safetyreasons. reasons.At Atthe thenew newbarbarracks he encounters the same racks same kind kind of of behavior— behavior— cursing, cursing, marijuana, marijuana, exextreme disrespect to women. Cadet is confronted with constant contradicwith constant contradictions that that isolate him from from his his surroundings surroundingsand andlead lead to to depression. depression. In Haiti the the police police and and the the armed armedforces forceswere werefeared. feared.They Theyimposed imposedororthrough disorder der through disorderand andmurder. murder.They Theywould wouldleave leave the thebodies bodies of of reported reported communists on the the roadside roadside to warn warn others others and andconduct conduct nightly nightlyraids raidson on antigovernment activities. families suspected of antigovernment activities. They They had had power power and and were were corrupt. In the the United UnitedStates, States,Cadet Cadet believed believed that thatthe thearmy armyand, and,by byextenextension, all law enforcers were beyond beyond reproach, reproach, introducing introducingorder orderthroughthroughout the the world by exemplary exemplary moral moral and and social social conduct. Reality subverts subverts his his beliefs. He He seeks seeks the the purity beliefs. purity of of soul soul and andnoblesse noblesseof ofcharacter characterhe hefeels feelshe he must attain attain in in order orderto toprove provehimself himselfaamodel model citizen, citizen, but buteverywhere everywherehe he turns, he is tragically disappointed. turns, he is tragically disappointed. Cadet repeatedly draws draws the thecontrast contrastbetween betweenhis hisneed needfor forlove loveand andacacceptance and his lack of it. 1I am obliged here to to address address aa discrepancy discrepancy bebetween the message message of of the the author—a author—aloveless lovelesslife life until untilhe hemeets meetshis hiswife wife they have a child—and the message of the text, and they text, which the the author authormay may not have intended. intended. Cadet’s Cadet’s story of of survival survival and and success success departs from from an an extraordinary sense sense of of self-love. self-love. It is is this thisself-love, self-love, which which he he never nevertalks talks about, that that leads leads him himto toseek seekeducation, education,totodefend defendhimself himselfagainst againstviolence, violence,

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Perhaps he intently on and to write. Perhaps he has has focused so intently onthe thedestructive destructiveexternal external elements of that he elements of his his life life that he is is unconscious unconscious of of an an elemental elemental self-love self-love that thatisis necessary for anyone to find the strength and will to survive, move on, necessary for anyone to find the strength and will to survive, move on,and and excel with with aa life life project project such such as asthe the one one Cadet Cadet has has found, found, fighting fighting for even excel the rights rights of of Haiti’s Haiti’s children. children. at an an exceptional exceptional example of this this self-love IIam Let us look at am pointing pointingout. out. author confesses that since The author confesses that since he does not have have any any family family or or lovers lovers to to is inwrite to him, he starts starts to to write write to tohimself. himself. While While this this confession confession is tended to to underscore underscore the thelovelessness lovelessnessof ofhis hislife, life,IIbelieve believethat thatititdoes doesthe the contrary. In the army he writes to himself under the name of Josephine contrary. In writes to himself under the name of Josephine Benson. Eventually Eventually he he invents invents a mother and Benson. and two two girlfriends. girlfriends. When the the Even ifif the the letters letters others receive letters from from their their loved loved ones, ones, he does too. Even imaginary correspondence are autoproduced, the imaginary correspondence and the the ability ability to to share share itit with his barrack mates makes him feel less depressed and isolated. Writing, with his barrack mates makes him feel less depressed and isolated. Writing, solace and and his his means means of of insertion insertion into an emoat this point, becomes his solace that has, tional world that has, until until that thatmoment, moment,denied deniedhim himthe thelove loveand andaccepaccepHis epistolary epistolary relationship relationship to tance of his dreams. His to himself himself signals signals aa strong strong that creates a new reality. Ironically, this detail eludes him. sense of love that him. As he continues his memoir, memoir, he seems seems to to be beobsessed obsessed with with his hisbiological biological which is is perhaps perhaps unattainable. father’s love, which For example, example, when when he he leaves leaves the the army, army, he he returns returns to to Haiti Haiti with withgifts giftsin in Cadet assumes assumes that his father his bag for his father. Cadet father will will be impressed by his success in the army, his polished look, his muscular muscular body, body, and his new knowledge. Again, Again, he he meets meets disappointment. Blanc Philippe leaves leaves the knowledge. Blanc Philippe house and has no contact with Cadet. Cadet returns to the United house and has no contact with Cadet. Cadet returns to the United States States to to start a new plan plan of of self-improvement self-improvement and andcharacter characterbuilding. building.He Hegoes goesto to which proves to be a challenge, college, which challenge, not not because because of of the theacademic academicmatemateencounters racism at every turn. rial but rather rather because because he he is black and encounters turn. He He apartment to white roommate must must cannot find an apartment to rent. rent. When When he he does, his white keep Cadet a secret from keep from his his racist racistparents. parents.At Atthe thecollege, college,many manypeople people distrust him distrust himopenly, openly,closing closingdoors doorsto tohim. him.Once Oncehe heisisfinished finishedwith withcollege, college, he has an even harder time finding a job. harder time finding a job. It is at this this point pointthat thathe hemeets meetsMrs. Mrs.Alvina AlvinaJefferson JeffersonininTampa, Tampa,Florida. Florida. Cadet’s memory memory of of Mrs. Mrs. Jefferson Jeffersonillustrates illustrates aa personality personality type type that that conCadet’s trasts explicitly explicitly with himself. himself. Of Of notable notable importance importance isis her herresilience resilience through humor. through humor. She She does does not not internalize internalize others’ others’prejudice, prejudice, and and therefore therefore she does not have problems with with self-esteem. self-esteem. Mrs. Mrs. Jefferson, Jefferson, Cadet notes, notes, looks like like she survived slavery. This This is is a point of similarity looks similarity between between the the

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two. But the similarity two. similarity stops stops there. there. Rather Ratherthan thanseek seekthe theacceptance, acceptance,or or of those those who who denigrate and shun love, of shun her, her, she she has has no no sympathy sympathyfor forwhite white people and laughs at at their theirintolerance. intolerance.Her Herpresence presenceininCadet’s Cadet’slife lifeintrointroduces comedy comedy and and U.S. U.S. slave slavehistory history (and (and still still flagrant racism) into his duces understanding of understanding of the theworld world he heoccupies. occupies. It also offers an alternative narranarrative possibility for living. She laughs at the absurdity absurdity of of her herexperiences. experiences. She recounts a time time when when aa little little girl girl stared staredatather herininthe thebus. bus.When Whenasked asked I I why, the little little girl girl said, said, “My “Mymother mothergot gotaadress dressjust justlike likeyours, yours,and andwhen when get home I am am gonna gonna tell tellher herand andshe’s she’sgonna gonnaburn burnit.” it.”Mrs. Mrs.Jefferson Jeffersonreretorted. “I told torted. told her her to to tell tell her hermama mamathat thatIIgot gotaap——-v p——y just like hers and she can burn that that too” too”(158). (158). She laughs laughs as as she she tells tells her her story. story. Whenever WheneverMrs. Mrs. car, she she tells tells Cadet, Cadet, “They “They must Jefferson sees a police car, must be be looking lookingfor forsome some niggers to niggers to beat” beat”(158). (158). Cadet observes, “Little by little, Cadet observes, “Little little, my my black black Haitian Haitiansoul soulwas wasbeing being Americanized” (160). For Americanized” (160). He Heexperiences experiencesdegradation degradationininracism. racism. Forexample, example, stop him him for running running aa red light the police stop light and and treat treathim himwith withunnecessary unnecessary hostility. He than the hostility. He is paid less than the normal normalscale scalefor forhis hisjob, job, and and visitors visitorsto tohis his office do not believe that a black man reads and writes French. office do not believe that a black man reads and writes French. He finally belongs to aa group group of ofpeople, people, but but his hisstruggle strugglefor forhuman human dignity in rights, dignity in life, life, and respect for his accomplishments accomplishments were were still still being being negated. Social and racial violence, which affect and depress him, contindepress him, continued to deny him him the the place place in in the the world world he he sought. sought.Cadet Cadet remembers remembersthat that “my mission was the the same same as as before: before: to tobe beaccepted accepted and andrecognized recognized in in (164). Once Once again, again, he he returns returns to Haiti with name by my father, father, Philippe” (164). gifts and new reports reports for forPhilippe. Philippe.Once Onceagain, again,Philippe Philippegoes goesaway. away. PhiPhilippe’s twin twin sons sons invite invite Cadet to go out, out, but it is a further further disappointment. lippe’s disappointment. Cadet’s half half brothers brothers party Cadet’s party and and do do drugs. drugs.He Heleaves leaves them themand andreports reportsthis this to Philippe. In the back back of his mind, mind, he he wants wantsPhilippe Philippe to torecognize recognizehow how much better better he he isis than thanhis hishalf halfbrothers. brothers.He Hewants wantshis hisimpeccable impeccablemoral moral conduct and judgment to conduct to be be celebrated. celebrated. But But Philippe Philippe becomes becomes angry. angry. He He not want to be reminded of how his sons have turned turned out, does not out, and and he he will will never legitimize Cadet. Cadet. tells us us that that it is his own entry entry into fatherhood that Cadet tells that leads leads him him to to capable recognize his his undeniable undeniablestatus statusasasaaperson, person,a ahuman humanbeing being capableofofgivgivlove. He He emphasizes emphasizes that that with paternity paternity he ing and receiving love. he became became determined to termined to play play an an active active role role in inthe theworld worldas asaafighter fighterfor forhuman humanrights, rights, against the evils evils of of the therestavek restavèksystem systemand anda ahistory historyofofdiscrimination. discrimination. closes his his autobiography autobiography with Cadet closes with these thesewords: words:

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As the baby was being born, the emptiness that that I’d I’d always felt in my chest was slowly filled. My heart heartwas was no no longer longeraastone stoneininthe themiddle middle of a cold cold and empty cave. After the delivery, the nurse plopped cave. After plopped the the beautiful baby boy in my my arms. arms. II looked looked in his his eyes eyes and and saw saw somesomething that thing thatreminded remindedme meof ofBlanc Blanc Philippe. Philippe. Inside Inside me me was an explosion contentment that of contentment thatvibrated vibratedall all the the way way up up to to the the shores shores of of my my eyes. eyes. (182)

Blanc Philippe Philippe may never have Blanc have officially officially recognized recognized Jean-Robert Jean-Robert Cadet, Cadet, yet his yet his influence influencecould couldnot notbebedenied. denied.Philippe’s Philippe’sgenes geneshelped helpedshape shapeCadet Cadet and are visible in his grandchild. But fatherhood presents Cadet with the the opportunity to give what he never received: love, support, and acceptance. opportunity to give what he never received: love, support, and acceptance. Cadet a way to fight And writing an autobiography autobiography provides provides Cadet fight what what he he which deprives deprives human beings of the knows is wrong, childhood slavery, slavery, which the necessary conditions of love and nurturance. nurturance. I would like to to add add that that this transformation transformationfrom fromaaloveless lovelessperson personinto into does not happen as abruptly a person full of love does abruptly as as Cadet Cadet insists insists itit does. does. His own writing writing attests atteststo tothat. that.While WhileCadet Cadetmay maypoint pointtotohis hisfatherhood, fatherhood, and the acceptance of the responsibility and acceptance of responsibility that entails, entails, as as the the significant significant event that that brings bringslove love into intohis hislife, life,we we as as readers readershave haveaaspecial special glimpse glimpse of of of self-improvement, self-improvement, and his self-love. His fight for love, his acts of and his his accepacceptance of of romantic romantic love tance love with with the the woman womanwho wholater laterbecomes becomeshis hiswife wifeare areall all precursors of this final embodiment of love through through paternity that motipaternity that motivates him to to write write (or (orto towrite writeagain, again,ififwe weremember rememberhis hisletter-writing letter-writingtoto himself in the the guise guise of of family familyand andgirlfriends). girlfriends). The birth birth of of Cadet’s Cadet’s son, son, like like the the publication publication of ofhis hisautobiography, autobiography,isis about hope and about and human humanpossibility. possibility. Cadet’s Cadet’s message message is reminiscent reminiscent of of Wright’s last Wright’s last words wordsininBlack BlackBoy: Boy: I would hurl words into into this this darkness darknessand andwait waitfor foran anecho, echo, and and ifif an an sounded, no matter matter how other words echo sounded, how faintly, faintly, I would send other words to tell, to march, to fight, fight, to create create a sense of the the hunger hungerfor forlife lifethat thatgnaws gnaws in us all, to keep alive in our hearts a sense of the inexpressibly our hearts a sense of the inexpressiblyhuhuman. (384) man. Against all odds, Cadet has found love through through his Against hiswife wifeand andchild. child. From From the the pages of of his autobiography, autobiography, he he hurls hurls words words into the darkness pages darkness of of human human deprivation, calling for justice against both both childhood childhood slavery slavery and andracism. racism.

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Memory and Memory and Cadet’s Cadet’s Testimony Testimony Contemporary psychologists—Ulric Contemporary psychologists—Ulric Neisser, Neisser, Daniel Albright, Albright, and and Greg Greg J. J. Neimeyer, among among many—insist many—insist that that autobiography is less a factual Neimeyer, factual accreation of a past that explains count and more more a writer’s creation explains his his or her her present. present. Clinical research psychologists such as Geoffrey R. Loftus and Elizabeth psychologists such as Geoffrey R. Loftus and ElizabethF. F. Loftus suggest that there there are are different different ways ways of of storing storing and and retrieving retrievingininformation. After formation. After years years of of studying studyingtest testcases, cases,the theLoftuses Loftuseshave haveproposed proposed kinds of of memory: memory: (1) (1)sensory sensory store, store, (2) (2)short-term short-term store, (3) long-term long-term six kinds memory for recognition memory, memory, (5) (5)long-term long-term memory memory memory for new material, (4) recognition meaningful material, for meaningful material,and and(6) (6)semantic semanticmemory memory(85-135). (85–135).Cadet’s Cadet’sautoautobiography taps taps into recognition memory and long-term biography recognition memory long-term memory memory for for meaningful material. meaningful material. Recognition memory memory emphasizes Recognition emphasizes the importance importance of of “both “both rehearsal rehearsal and organization” organization”(Loftus (Loftus84). 84).This Thisconcept conceptrecalls recallsAristotle’s Aristotle’sexposition exposition memory: recognition on memory: recognition memory memorydepends dependson onobservation, observation,memorization, memorization, and exacting retrieval. This kind of memory should be be accurate, accurate, but itit is is interference. According to interference interference theory, impeded by interference. theory, “people “people forget forget an event because because something else else they they have have learned learned prevents preventsthe theevent event from being remembered” remembered” (74). (74). Retrieval Retrieval failure—forgetting—would failure—forgetting—wouldalso also detract from recognition memory’s dependency value. The act of forgetting, however, holds a very very important importantplace placeininstudies studiesofofmental mentalsanity. sanity. Individuals who who cannot cannot forget forget or or work work through through horrible events could not Individuals participate in the the present. present. Yet Yet studies of long-term long-termmemory memoryfor formeaningmeaningthat “a person often remembers only parts ful material conclude conclude that parts of of the the in newly learned material, and he tends to construct other bits and pieces pieces in order to to have have acoherent a coherentstory” story”(118). (118).InInclinical clinicalstudies studieswhere wherepeople peoplehave have been given a sentence and then then asked asked to to remember remember that thatsame samesentence sentence list, test subjects subjects were were more more likely likely to remember from a multiple-choice multiple-choice list, meaning than than exact exact syntax. syntax. ItIt could could be be argued argued that thatCadet Cadetretrieves retrieveshis hislife life story using both both memory memory styles. styles. He He taps taps into into recognition recognition memory memorywhen when he remembers the the exact exact insults insultsFlorence Florence repeated repeated against againsthim, him,over overand and also relies relies on on long-term long-term memory memory for over again. But he also for meaningful meaningful matematemeaning for rial; in seeking meaning for his hislife, life, he he necessarily necessarilyreconstructs reconstructsititininsuch sucha a way that itit makes sense both to him, many years later, and to his reader makes sense both to him, many years later, and to his reader uninformed of who may be uninformed of certain certain nuances nuances of of Haitian Haitianculture cultureor orAfricanAfricanCaribbean-American experiences. Caribbean-American experiences. “Mind, Text, and Society: Self-Memory Self-Memory ininSocial In “Mind, SocialContext,” Context,”Kenneth Kenneth J. Gergen makes a distinction J. distinction between betweenthe theabove-described above-describedapproach approachtoto

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essentialism) and and aa literary approach to memory memory (psychological (psychological essentialism) memory (textual memory) in which (textual which the the“remembered “rememberedself selfisisaaliterary literaryachieveachievement” (80). Gergen proposes that personal memories are not personal ment” that personal memories are not personalbut but rather sociopolitical rather sociopolitical acts that exist in a “state of intertextuality, intertextuality,borrowing borrowing and bending and replying replying to to the thecultural culturalconventions conventionsofofwriting writingabout aboutthe the personal past” (81). (81). According According to his argument, argument,memory memoryand andforgetting forgetting become critical critical only ifif we knowledge, become we recognize recognize the themind mindasasa alocus locusofof knowledge, interpreting knowledge interpreting knowledgeas asessential essentialfor foraction action(a(acommon commongood, good,social socialacacCadet isisaaliterary literary achievement achievement and, and, through through that tion). Arguably, Cadet that achieveachievement, also a re-membered re-membered person. ment, person. Through Throughwriting writinghe heredeems redeemshis hispotenpotential and claims claims his his successes. successes. With these memories memories in in writing, writing,he hethen then tackles a severe sociopolitical problem. problem. This This process—acts process—acts of of memory memorythat that important socioculredefine the speaking subject within a larger and more important sociocultural scenario—is very very important in memory memory studies studies and to our our interpreinterpretation of tation of the the function functionof ofCadet’s Cadet’s autobiography. autobiography. ‘Remembered Self,’” psychologist psychologist Jerome In “The ‘Remembered Jerome Bruner Brunerproposes proposesthat that “Self is is aa perpetually perpetually rewritten story. ......remembering “Self remembering reaches reaches far far back back beyond our specify beyond our own own birth, birth,back backto tothe thecultural culturaland andlanguage languageforms formsthat that specify Bruner tells several stories the defining properties properties of of a Self” (53). Bruner stories that thatununderscore the importance importance of of self-perception self-perception on on experience, experience, memory memoryof ofthat that experience, and and telling telling of of that experience. In one story, he quotes experience, quotes Henry Henry James saying saying that “adventures happen James happen to to people people who know know how to to tell tell itit that way” that way” (48), (48), suggesting suggesting that thatwe wemay mayall allexperience experienceadventures, adventures,but butnot not of us can can recount recount them as the adventures all of adventures they theymight mighthave havebeen beenatatthe the moment of the experience. In another story, he mentions that studies have moment of the another story, he mentions that studies have shown that that girls girls experience experience academic academic failure failure as as their theirown owninadequacy inadequacybut but regard success as good luck; boys experience their their failure failureas asbad badluck luckand and their success their success as the the result resultofofcompetence competence(48). (48).Does DoesCadet Cadetexperience experiencehis his “enslavement” as “enslavement” as bad bad luck? luck? Is that thatthe thepremise premisefrom fromwhich whichhehecan canescape escape the situation? the situation? three-fourths of but the themost mostpromipromiIn Haiti, three-fourths of the the restavéks restavèks are girls,* girls,14 but nent story is of a boy. Do boys see themselves with more agency inherstory is of a boy. Do boys see themselves with more agency inherently? Several human human rights rightsreports reportscomment commenton ongirls girlsbeing beingmore morepassive passive rebellious. They They tend tend to to endure the abuse and less rebellious. abuse without without reporting reporting it. it. condition when Cadet points to girls’ silenced condition when he he describes describes the therestavek restavèkgirl girl who just just disappears disappears when whenshe shegets getssick. sick.In Incontrast, contrast,asasaachild childhe heisisrebelrebellious, stealing licks of ice cream and sneaking sneaking the theremaining remainingsoda sodawhen whennono though he one is looking. Even though he is is constantly constantlybeaten beatenand andput putdown, down,he hedemdemonstrates the onstrates the skills skills of of other othersurvivors survivorsininsituations situationsofofextreme extremedeprivation deprivation

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(such as Primo Levi Levi in in the theconcentration concentrationcamps). camps).Perhaps Perhapsbecause becauseheheisisa a boy, and and thus part boy, part of of the the “dominant” “dominant”gender, gender,his hisinitial initialperception perceptionofofhis his experience is shaped by this position, superior to that of girls. position, superior to that of girls. Cadet’s text text serves as a unique example of Haitian-American Cadet’s Haitian-Americanmemory. memory. writing and and interinter It transects with a long long tradition tradition of of autobiographical autobiographical writing Cadet’s Whenconsidering considering Cadet’s plays with aa new new critical critical praxis praxis of of testimony.’ testimony.15When text as testimony, testimony, we must must review review some someof of the thesuccesses successes and and impasses impasses the the In their their study Human genre has encountered. In Human Rights Rights and and Narrated NarratedLives, Lives, War decade Kay Schaffer and Sid Smith Smithhave havepointed pointedout: out:“The “Thepost-Cold post–Cold War decade of the 1990s has been labeled the decade of human rights, the decade 1990s has been labeled the decade of human rights, the decadeinin which, Michael Ignatieff claims, claims, ‘human rights rightshas hasbecome becomethe thedominant dominant moral vocabulary vocabulary in in foreign foreignaffairs’” affairs’”(1). (1).They Theyacknowledge acknowledge both boththe theimimportance and ofof portance and the the limitations limitationsofoftestimony, testimony,and andshow showhow howininthe the“transits “transits this multivectored multivectored space space there there are are many manyflows, flows, but but also also many manydetours, detours,unundercurrents, dams, dercurrents, dams,and andblockages” blockages”(6). (6). In Inaddition, addition,they theyprobe probethe themultiple multiple ways in which which testimonies testimoniesare areused. used.Ideally, Ideally,testimonies testimoniesshould shouldincite inciteconconstructive political action against aa crime structive political action crime against against humanity. humanity.But Butwe weare are warned: warned: They can also produce pleasure They pleasure out outof of another’s another’spain, pain,turn turnsubjects subjectsofof story into into spectacle, spectacle, reduce difference to sameness, sameness, and and induce induce exexhaustion. While haustion. While affect affect offers offers aa potential potentialfor forchange, change,for forbecoming, becoming,itit is impossible to predict how sensations sensationswill will be be channeled channeledinto intoknowlknowledge practice. (9) practice. (9)

are the function and truth At issue, again, are truthof oftestimony. testimony.Like Like many many theotheorists before them, them, Schaffer Schaffer and andSmith Smithprivilege privilegefunction functionover overexactitude: exactitude: personal storytelling storytelling involves acts of remembering, remembering, of Since personal of making making meaning out meaning outof of the thepast, past,its its “truth” “truth”cannot cannotbeberead readasassolely solelyororsimply simply factual. There are different differentregisters registersof oftruth truthbeyond beyondthe thefactual: factual:psypsychological, experiential, historical, cultural, communal, and potenchological, experiential, historical, potentially transformative. transformative. The The present presentof ofpersonal personalnarrating narratingbecomes becomesa a fulcrum, that that point point where wherethe thepressure pressureofofmemories memoriesofofa atraumatic traumatic balance. past and the the hopes hopes for foran anenabling enablingfuture futureare areheld heldinin balance.AsAs to a past past that must balancing acts, directed back to mustbe be shared sharedand andtoward toward future that can a future thatmust mustbebebuilt builtcollectively, collectively,acts actsofofpersonal personalnarrating narrating can become projects of community-building, become community-building,organizational organizationaltools, tools,and and calls to action. action.(11) (11) Let us return return to toCadet’s Cadet’s “act “act of personal personal narrating.” narrating.”ItItisisno nosurprise surprisethat that

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testimony has his testimony has met met with withsupport supportfrom fromhuman humanrights rightsgroups groupsand andliterliterchallenges from people who say he is not telling ary scholars, as well as challenges telling the the truth. The former hope that a community fighting against child slavery truth. former hope that a community fighting against child slavery will form and change the the situation. situation.The Thelatter latteroffer offerconflicting conflictingarguments arguments “there isisno problem” and as varied as “there norestaveék restavèk problem” and“Cadet “Cadetisisnot notreal realbecause becauseitit is impossible to remember remember the thedetails detailsso soaccurately” accurately”and and“it “itisisimpossible impossible to escape escape the destitute destitute conditions conditions of of aa restavek.” restavèk.” Even Even those those who who oppose oppose the restavék restavèk condition want more more proof proof of of who who and andwhat whatCadet Cadetis.is.For For presentation II gave example, at a presentation gave at at Duke Duke University UniversityininOctober October2002, 2002,HaiHaitian scholar Jean Jonassaint questioned the the existence existence of of aa Jean-Robert Jean-Robert CaCaJonassaint said said that that on his recent trip det. Jonassaint trip to to Haiti Haitihe hehad hadunsuccessfully unsuccessfully sought people who might might have have known knownCadet Cadetas asaa child. child. As Jonassaint said this, I wondered if class did not play play aa role role in inCadet’s Cadet’s “nonexistence.” “nonexistence.” If If Cadet did come from from such dire circumstances, who would care to rememremember him? Perhaps all who might have known him had had died, died, were in the the streets peddling, or had migrated, migrated, erasing erasing their theirmemories memoriesof ofaamiserable miserable As if if reading reading my mind, Jonassaint suggested suggested that publishers often past. As rewrite the the text text of of developing-world developing-world authors. authors.For For example, example, without without giving giving he referred referred to the story story of an African writer who submitsubmitaway the parties, he ted a novel in in perfect perfect English. English. The The publishers, publishers, interested interestedininthe thestory, story,had had an editor change the language so that it would sound more “authentic,” the language so that it would sound more “authentic,” more African. Jonassaint also pointed to a very very interesting, interesting,ififnot notintriguintrigulexical detail: detail: in in Haiti, Haiti, to to faire faire un Cadet Jacques or kadéjak is to coming, lexical rape.’16 mit a rape. Could Jean-Robert Jean-Robert Cadet Cadet mean meanaa Jean-Robert Jean-Robertwho whoisis the theissue issueof ofaa rape? rape? In Restavec, Cadet informs us that that all all children children without withoutaafamily familyname nameare are Robert (similar to being named then there there is further called Robert named John John Doe). Doe). If so, then further invented one. Robreason to suspect that the the name, name, if not the the person, person, is an invented violated/raped. Or ert is any John Doe who has been violated/raped. Orshould shouldwe webelieve believe that that the author author does does not not want wanttotodisclose disclose his hisreal realname? name?That Thathe hedid didescape escape nonpersonhood without nonpersonhood withouteven evenaaregistered registeredbirth birthcertificate? certificate?That Thatininlife lifeasas well as in literature he has remade himself despite the social and political literature he has remade himself despite the social and political rape of his person? person? Earlier Earlier II suggested suggested that thatlife lifeand andliterature literatureintersected; intersected; possible to to wonder if autobiography and fiction interhere, perhaps, it is possible sect. Cadet tells us that that most mostnames nameshave havebeen beenchanged. changed.Does Doesthis thisnot notal-altruth? ready consist of a breach of truth? To tell tell the the complete story story of one’s life, starting starting in Cadet’s case case with with his To house at age two, requires some reconstruction arrival at Florence’s Florence’s house reconstruction that that necessarily taps into the the imaginary. imaginary. The latter latter part partof ofthe thetwentieth twentiethcencen-

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tury witnessed tury witnessed an anexplosion explosionof of studies studieschallenging challengingthe theveracity veracityofofautobiautobiography and concluding concluding that, that,indeed, indeed, elements elementsofoffiction fictionalways alwaysslip slipin. in. After all, who remembers back to the toddler years? Cadet may have reyears? Cadet may have received his his information information from ceived from Florence. Florence. In Haitian Kreyol Kreyòl there thereisisaasaying, saying,“Pote “Potemak maksonje, sonje,bay baykou koubliye,” bliye,” which means means that thathe hewho whobears bearsthe thescar scarremembers, remembers,he hewho whogives givesthe theblow blow It might be unfair to forgets. It to judge judge the the “truth” “truth”ofofCadet’s Cadet’sstory, story,since since for for some reason or other the author author feels feels aa close affinity to the downtrodden of Haiti and offers of offers a narrative that may may help help improve improve the the condition condition of of restaveks. In addition, there is no doubt that, like Douglass before him, restavèks. In addition, there that, like Douglass those who Cadet will be challenged by those who do do not not want wantto toface facethe theimplications implications of what he exposes. In the United States, States, many many may not want of exposes. In want to to have have knowledge of of what what happens in other parts knowledge parts of of the the world world because because itit is, is, to to aa certain extent, overwhelming; people might feel bereft because they reoverwhelming; people might feel bereft because they retheir own main helpless, dealing with their own economic economic and personal personal struggles. struggles. In In particular Haitian Americans, and those of us particular Americans, and us who who have have grown growntotolove love human degHaiti and respect it, may find the constant constant exposition exposition of of bleak human degfinger at the problems radation embarrassing, embarrassing, since it is too easy to point a finger less developed developed nations nations without without noticing the good things or of less or how how many many equally bad things things take takeplace placeon onU.S. U.S.soil. soil.Nonetheless, Nonetheless,Cadet Cadethas hasbeen been affected by the the degradation of the restavek system and must reveal it. Like degradation of the restavèk system and must reveal it. Like Wright, Cadet Wright, Cadetdescribes describes aa reality realitythat thatisisongoing, ongoing,and andhis hismemory memoryofofabuse abuse be further further marked can be marked by by what what he he witnesses witnesses in in the the present. present.IfIf Cadet Cadet exists, exists, critical importance importance that that he was an abused child who met with furit is of critical ther abuse in the United States. abuse in the United States.This Thisabuse abusehas hasleft leftaawound woundofofpain painand and trauma that trauma thathe hestill stillsuffers suffersfrom fromtoday. today.IfIfthe thestory storyisismade madeup, up,we wemust mustask ask what personal pain led him to engage engage with with the the afflictions afflictions of of aa domestic domestic child laborer? Perhaps the the messages in in his his text textshould shouldbe beanalyzed analyzedfrom fromaa him, but perspective critical, not of him, but of of the the social social injustices injusticeshe hedescribes. describes. The The restavek system restavèk system that thatCadet Cadetclaims claimsto tohave havebeen beenaapart partofofisisnot nota apersonal personal tragedy but, tragedy but,rather, rather,an anongoing ongoinghuman humanrights rightsviolation. violation.Cadet Cadethas, has,after afterall, all, gone on tour with his book, further challenging the restavék system. tour with his book, further challenging the restavèk system.I I suspect that that there must be some honest link between suspect between his story and his experience. experience. In order order to to allay allay my mysuspicions suspicionsaabit, bit,I Idecided decidedtotocontact contactthe theauthor. author.He He was kind and efficient efficient with withhis hisresponses, responses,which whichininsome someways waysaddressed addressed about the Jonassaint’s concerns about the interference interferenceof ofpublishers. publishers.Indeed, Indeed,the thepubpublisher had a hand hand in in the thepresentation presentationofofthe thetext. text.Originally, Originally,Cadet Cadethad had called itit Restavec. His concern was to expose his called his memories memoriesof ofhis hisexperiexperi-

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in this this situation, situation, to bring international international attention ence in attentiontotoits itsongoing ongoingstatus, status, and to find find ways ways to towork workagainst againstit.it.The Thepublisher, publisher,however, however,wanted wanteda asubsubtitle, “From Haitian Slave Child to Middle-Class American.” These words Haitian Slave Child to Middle-Class American.” These words that the ensured that the book book would enter the the canon canon of immigrant immigrant stories stories of of success. ItIt would would affirm affirm that cess. that the theAmerican AmericanDream Dreamisisstill stillachieved. achieved.As AsIIhave have noted, however, noted, however, we never never get get aa real realsense senseof ofhow howCadet Cadetbecomes becomesaamiddlemiddleclass American American or or how how the class the American American Dream Dream has has been beenachieved. achieved. When WhenII asked Cadet how how he he felt felt he hewas wasaamiddle-class middle-classAmerican, American,his hisresponse responsewas was telling. Cadet, who was born in in aa farming farmingtown towncalled calledGrand GrandHatte HatteininPePetite Riviere de l’Artibonite, now dedicates his time to touring for human Rivière dedicates his touring for human rights, in particular rights, particularagainst againstthe therestavék restavèksystem. system.He Hedoes doesnot notconsider considerhimhimself to be part of of any any economic economic class. class. He does not not want wantto tobe bepegged peggedwith with any kind kind of of class description, description, middle middle class class or or otherwise. otherwise.Instead, Instead,he heconsidconsiders one of his fights fights to to be against against racism. racism. He He fights fightsfor forjustice. justice.For For example, example, in our our electronic electronic correspondence correspondencehe heclaimed claimedthat thathehewas wasinvolved involvedinina alawlawsuit against against aa high high school school in in Cincinnati Cincinnatithat thatfired firedhim himfor forusing usinga aword wordthat that the white white teacher teacher who who has hasreplaced replaced him himuses. uses.The Theword wordininquestion questionwas was “douche,” French for shower, which he had had used used in in aa literary literarycontext. context.With With this story story Cadet Cadet affirms affirms what whathe healready alreadyhas hassaid saidininthe theautobiography’s autobiography’s story of of his his friend friendMrs. Mrs.Jefferson JeffersonininTampa: Tampa:racism racismisisalive aliveand andwell, well,still still destroying people’s potential for full participation in predominantly white destroying potential predominantly white communities. He does does not not let lethimself himselfbe bebroken; broken;he heacts actson onprinciple, principle,enengaging in true true citizenship citizenshipby bybeing beingan anactivist. activist.Through Throughdirect directcontact contactwith with another dimension the author, author, I have added another dimension to to my my reading. reading.While While publishpublishers have a say in how a text text gets presented, they cannot change an author’s gets presented, they cannot change an author’s intentions. Cadet’s message with Restavec Restavec seeks seeks action action to to end endchild childslaslavery. In the process, he has encountered encountered other otherinjustices injusticesand andisisalso alsofightfighting for the right right to to life life in in dignity dignity in ingeneral. general. The The question question still still remains, remains, how much of his version is accurate, and does that matter? version is accurate, and does that matter? story is contingent If one’s story contingenton onculture cultureand andlanguage, language,how howare arewe wetotoread read that recalls things that and understand a text that that happened in another another culture culture and another language? memories are not only language? Cadet’s Cadet’s memories only restructured restructuredbut but translated. Would also translated. Would itit have have been been more morepainful painfulfor forhim himtotowrite writeabout aboutthe the first half of of his his life life in in Kreyol Kreyòland andFrench? French?Does Doeswriting writingabout abouthis hisexperiexperiences in Haiti while he he is is away away from from Haiti Haitigive givehim himgreater greaterpoetic poeticlicense license to remember remember more moresystematically? systematically?How Howwill willananEnglish-speaking English-speakingaudiaudience respond to such a text? text? that Cadet I suggest that Cadet writes writes in inEnglish Englishfor forseveral severalreasons. reasons.First, First,his hisforfor-

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place in in English, English,in inthe the United United States, States, throughout throughout high mal education took place high the military, and school, the and college. college. Perhaps, as is the proven proven case case with withmost most Latino/a writers writers in inthe theUnited UnitedStates, States,English Englishisisthe thelanguage languageininwhich whichhehe through aa second/third writes best. In particular, through second/third language, language, Cadet Cadet can can reremove himself from the the actual actual pain of the the memory. memory. Writing Writing in in Kreyol Kreyòl and/ and/ or French might make the the experience experience too too real, real, too unbearable unbearable to to confront. confront. Furthermore, it is in in English English that thathe hefinally finallydiscovers discovers the thepossibility possibilityof of transforming himself transforming himselffrom fromaaslave slavechild, child,the theslave slavechild childhe hesaw sawhimself himselfasas in Haiti, Haiti, into into aa citizen, citizen,an anAmerican Americancitizen. citizen.In InEnglish, English,he herecalls recallsthe theenencouragement and support of a Jewish teacher, Mr. Rabinowitz. In English, couragement and support of a Jewish teacher, wife, worked worked in in therapy therapy to create a present he has confessed his past to his wife, haunting, and free of haunting, and built builtthe thepossibility possibilityofofaafuture futurefor forhis hisnew newfamily. family. by writing writing in English, he he has has conformed conformed to to contemporary contemporary conPerhaps, by ventions of international ventions internationalwriting writingand andpublication publication(whether (whetherheheadmits admitsit itoror not). English texts are are distributed distributedbetter betterand andhave havea awider wideraudience. audience.But But that is the the point. point. When When he he denounces denounces childhood slavery in the afterword, calling for for human rights he engages in a political political project project calling rights attention attentiontotoaa that historically subject that historically has hasbeen beenneglected neglectedfor forreasons reasonswe wehave haveexplored. explored. written in If he had written in Kreyol, Kreyòl, his his audience audience would wouldhave havebeen beenseverely severelylimited. limited. In addition, everyone everyone in in Haiti Haitiknows knowsabout aboutthe thedire direliving livingconditions. conditions.But But by writing writing in English, he can take his message to an international audience, in English, he can take his message to an international audience, consequently back to Haiti, where it has been translated and consequently translated and, and, in in aa limlimdistributed. ited way, distributed. Bruner argues that Bruner that the theself selfisisconstantly constantlybeing beingrewritten. rewritten.Perhaps, Perhaps, through the process of writing, it is in English that he can put forth the process is in English that he can put forthhis his Kreyol might might be his private language, reminding reminding him “best self.” Kreyòl him of of aa past past whereas English English might be his present of pain, whereas present language, language, with which which he he connects to human connects human rights rightsdocuments documentsand andwork. work.InInEnglish Englishhe heengages engagesa a public sphere that public that discloses discloses abuses that thatoccur occur in inaaprivate privatesphere; sphere;Cadet Cadet thus exposes thus exposes a silenced crime through throughhis hispublic publictestimony. testimony. as the Convention In the same same decade decade as Convention on the Rights Rights of of the the Child, Child, Cadet’s writing comes at a timely and important moment in the history Cadet’s writing comes at a timely and important moment in the historyofof human rights in general human general and and of of the the rights rights of ofthe thechild childininparticular.” particular.17 Cadet’s autobiography autobiography taps into Cadet’s into the thememory memoryofofhis hisown ownchildhood, childhood,and anditit also reveals the the continuing continuingsocial socialinjustice injusticeofofchild childslavery.'® slavery.18Traditional Traditional Haitian literature literaturewas was written writtenin inthe the“we” “we”voice. voice. Haitian literature literaturein inexile, exile, in the the diaspora diaspora (what (what Jonassaint Jonassaint calls calls littérature littérature du dudehors), dehors),takes takeson onaa first-person singular first-person singularvoice voice as as ititcontinues continuestotoexamine examineHaitian Haitianlives livesinside inside

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and outside the country. country. This style, influenced influenced by Western traditions of literary representation, representation, allows allows the theauthor authortotoengage engagewith withlarger largerhistories histories of nation, community, and memories. community, and memories. Haitian Slave With Restavec: From Haitian Slave Child Child to to Middle-Class Middle-Class American, American, written in in the thefirst-person first-personsingular singularbut butaddressing addressinga a(bi)national (bi)national“we,” “we,” Cadet is putting putting forth forthaaclear clearmessage messagedenouncing denouncingchild childslavery slaveryand andconconstructing the structing thepossibility possibilityofofpersonhood, personhood,citizenship, citizenship,and andactive activepolitical politicaland and social resistance. resistance. social

Writing to Re-member With this With this chapter chapter II have have exposed the ways the the restavék restavèk condition condition has has been been represented. Histories, legal documents, autobiographies, and testimonies, represented. Histories, autobiographies, testimonies, considered as modes of memory, considered memory, have have distinct distinct sociopolitical sociopolitical functions. functions. II have consequently argued argued that that Cadet’s Cadet’s autobiography—in autobiography—indialogue dialogue with with aa foundational tradition foundational traditionof ofAfrican-American African-Americanautobiography—is autobiography—isananinspirinspiring example of how how Pan-Caribbean Pan-Caribbean diaspora literature literature denounces denounces violence violence 19 and fights for human rights.’’ rights. memory to Cadet taps into his memory to construct constructthe theself selfhe hecan canbe be today, today, workworkthrough where ing through wherehe hehas hascome comefrom fromand andhow howhe heachieved achievedpersonhood, personhood,for for Contemporary autobiography his readers, himself, and his family. Contemporary autobiographystudies studies have dismantled the presumption presumption that thatautobiography autobiographyisisaatrue trueand andaccuaccurate testimonial testimonialof ofaalife lifelived. lived.Rather, Rather,autobiography autobiographyreveals revealshow howa alife’s life’s experiences are remembered. It could reflect how the author wants to experiences are reflect author wants tobe be remembered or or the author’s truth at remembered author’s psychological psychological truth at that thatmoment. moment.InIn Cadet’s case, case,the the autobiography autobiography reveals a person Cadet’s person who who cannot cannotescape escape the the pain of the violations violations he he experienced experiencedin inhis hisyouth. youth.By Bywriting writingananautobiogautobiography, Cadet Cadet has has entered entered the the literary raphy, literary world world of of the the remembered remembered self self through the through the written writtenself. self.His Hisconfessions confessions of of traumatic traumaticmemory memorytestify testifytoto the wounds wounds of of violence; violence; his his writing writingisisan anexample exampleofofthe theprocess processofofmaking making through literature. the world and the self through literature.

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55

Mapping Home Inaccessible Memories Memories Inaccessible

Recently, while doing research research at at the theNational NationalArchive ArchiveininSanto SantoDomingo, Domingo, I explained to the librarian that I wanted to look at Trujillo’s letters the librarian that I wanted to look at Trujillo’s lettersand and speeches from the speeches the period periodimmediately immediatelyfollowing followingthe the1937 1937massacre. massacre.The The librarian smiled knowingly and said that that many manyscholars scholars were were trying tryingtoto trace that information. information. The The problem problem was was the the missing missingdocuments, documents, contracontradictory documents, and even invented documents that that some some intellectuals intellectuals claim were added after the the fact. fact. His Hiscomment commentreminded remindedme meofofananexperiexperience I had had at the the Schomburg SchomburgCenter Centerfor forResearch ResearchininBlack BlackCulture Cultureinin York City. City.AAlibrarian librarian gave gave me me aa private private letter from New York from Trujillo Trujillo and and told told that the me that the organization organizationwould wouldbe begrateful gratefulififIIlearned learnedmore moreabout aboutits itsoriorithought at gin and destination. destination. Easy, Easy, I thought atthe thetime. time. My visits to to the theNational NationalArchive Archivewere werechallenging, challenging,reminiscent reminiscentofofa a strange journey into a labyrinth of emptiness in a Borges journey into a labyrinth of emptiness in a Borgesstory. story.Getting Getting there was was far far from fromcomplicated; complicated; buses buses and andcabs cabs are areeverywhere everywhereand andthe the nearby roads nearby roads are arequite quitegood. good.To To enter enterthe thearchive, archive,IIhad hadtotopass passaaguard guardand and a clerk, sitting at at an an old oldmetal metaldesk, desk,who whorecorded recordedmy myname. name.UnsympaUnsympathetically austere, the building reflected a Caribbean strain of of functional, functional, brutalist architecture brutalist architecturereminiscent reminiscentof ofsome some government governmentbuildings buildingsIIhad hadvisvisited in Cuba. The entrance seemed unusually unusually bare; bare; itit displayed displayed no no poetic poetic pages ofof books words of inspiration inspirationfrom fromgreat greatwriters. writers.Nor Nordid didI smell I smellthe the pages books and learning in the the air. air. The eyes of the the employees employees seemed anxiously fixated on on the the clock that would would strike strike the the time ated clock that time of of lunch lunch break break and and the the hour hourof of departure from their their boring boring desk desk jobs. jobs. As the kind librarian librarian and and II walked walked down long corridors corridors and and wide wide concrete concrete and andsteel steelstaircases, staircases,he heapologized apologized for the state of the library. library. With a tone of resignation, he noted that the the building was undergoing undergoing select select renovations. renovations. The The area area with withthe theTrujillo Trujilloininformation was formation was the the most mostaffected. affected.

152 The Tears 152 The TearsofofHispaniola Hispaniola

Although the Although theDominican DominicanRepublic’s Republic’s National National Archive Archive could could have have been been a safe haven for the history history of of the thenation, nation,ititheld heldananincomplete incompletepile pileofof books that reflected the decayed or lost memories memories of a nation. nation. None None of the the had been been safeguarded safeguarded from from the the construction construction work. Instead, Instead, they they had books had the floor been knocked to the floor to to make make room roomfor fornew newwalls wallsintended intendedtotoimprove improve ventilation and and access access to the the shelves. shelves. This This renovation renovationsupposedly supposedlywould would allow for airflow in an area that that had been known for its cavelike darkness, had been known for its cavelike dust, humidity, and mosquitoes. mosquitoes. Researchers Researchers had become become very ill from from mosquito bites and suffered from allergic and asthma attacks. Now there was some airflow, so II did did not not need the intense intense DEET DEET insect insect repellent repellentIIhad had airy, albeit albeitdusty dusty from from construction construction and many many years put on. The room was airy, years of enclosure. The librarian librarian and andIIstepped steppedover overmounds moundsofofbooks booksand andpapers papers just to to get get from fromone onestack stacktotothe theother. other.The Theholdings holdingswere wereonly onlypartially partially indexed, and nothing was in order. The The librarian librarian would grab a manuscript, manuscript, dust it off, off, and say, “This is from 1938. We must be close.” But the next twenties and very document would be from the twenties very far far from from the the topic topic of interWe spent spent hours in the stacks est. We stacks and then then went went to tohis hisprivate privatebookcases, bookcases, very helpful but crumbling books. He He said saidhe hetrusted trusted which included some very me to take them them to tobe be photocopied. photocopied. II was was nervous nervousthat thatopening openingthe thebooks books would cause them to to crack and start start falling falling apart apart instantly. instantly.The Thebooks books had had become relics long before their their time, perhaps because of cheap paper or the time, perhaps because of cheap paper or the intense humidity humidity of of the the Caribbean.' Caribbean.1 these books As I had these books photocopied, photocopied, II wondered wonderedhow howmuch muchofoftheir theirinforinformation was accurate.What What were were the the intentions intentions of of the the authors? authors? What What had mation was accurate. had 2 What remained in the memory of a country that had not been recorded? recorded?* What remained in the memory of a country that survived the brutal Trujillo survived Trujillo dictatorship dictatorship and its chaotic chaotic aftermath aftermath and and where brief moments moments of of economic economic progress progress had had not noteradicated eradicateddeep deep pockpockthe way the diaspora community community could ets of poverty? How did this affect the remember its past past and and visualize visualize its its present? present? How How did did this thiscountry’s country’ssexsexism—embodied in horrific form ism—embodied form by by its itshighest highestleaders—and leaders—andconvoluted convoluted version of racism color the the fragments fragmentsof ofhistory historythat thatdid didpersist? persist?And Anddid did women’s stories, confined to the private space of the house, find any visthe private space of the house, find any visibility in the the country’s country’s national nationalimagination? imagination? The jacket art art on on Loida Loida Maritza MaritzaPérez’s Pérez’s1999 1999debut debutnovel, novel,Geographies Geographies uncanny resemblance of Home, bears an uncanny resemblance to to the theunruly unrulyrenovation renovationproject project at the National National Archive Archive in in Santo Santo Domingo. Domingo. ItIt depicts depicts aa chaotic chaotic scene, with stripped walls, scattered chicken feathers, floors covered covered with with flames, flames, and and that lead doors that lead to to aa barren barrengray. gray.The The book’s book’s cover evokes a sense of abanand loss loss that is similar donment, decay, decay, and similar to to what whatIIsaw sawininthe thedownstairs downstairs

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Geographies of of Home, as as the name suggests, at first area of the Archive. Geographies appears to be tracing tracing the thegeography geographyofofa aplace placethe themain maincharacter, character,Iliana, Iliana, wants to define as home; however, it discloses a deeply etched cartography wants to define as home; however, it discloses a deeply etched cartography and violence violence that that to date remains remains largely invisible in Dominican of sexism and diaspora literature. literature. I propose that although and Dominican diaspora although Pérez’s Pérez’s novel could represent the gentle could gentle musings musingsof ofaawoman’s woman’s search search for for home, home, ititininstead exposes the the invisible invisible (because (because denied deniedor orsilently silentlyaccepted) accepted)degrees degreesofof violence women experience in the the family. family. Home, Home, whether whetherin inthe theDominiDominior the the United States, history of can Republic or States, is plagued by a long history of violations violations against women women that precludes against precludes the recognition recognition of their their very very important important work in nation nation building buildingand anddiasporic diasporicmemory memorymaking. making.Almost Almostinindefiance defiance of the the Dominican Dominican Republic’s Republic’s buried buried histories, histories,Pérez Pérezcreates createsa acharacter, character, story maps the experience of of an an immigrant immigrant family weakened Iliana, whose story by the myths, sexism, and violence that have myths, sexism, and violence that have dominated dominated Dominican Dominican culculture and ture and bled bled into into its its diaspora. diaspora. feminist story story that traces the Geographies of Home is aa feminist the journey journeyof of selfselfdiscovery and self-empowerment taken by discovery by aa first-generation first-generationDominican Dominican woman whose family is settled in Brooklyn. Brooklyn. Iliana, Iliana, the the protagonist, protagonist,defies defies haunted by her culture’s conventions conventions and and goes goes away to to college, college, only to be haunted by those very conventions. conventions. Caught in an an emotional emotional crisis crisis that that leads leads her hertoto leave school and go back back to to her her family’s family’s house, house, Iliana does not find a home. Instead she learns that Instead she learns that Everything she Everything shehad hadexperienced; experienced;everything everythingshe shecontinued continuedtotofeel feelfor for those whose inextricably bound those whose lives would would be inextricably boundwith withhers; hers;everything everything she had inherited from from her her parents parentsand andgleaned gleaned from fromher hersiblings siblings would aid her in her her passage passage through throughthe theworld. world.She Shewould wouldleave leaveno no memories behind. All of them were her self. All of them were home. memories behind. All of them were her self. All of them were home. (321)

During a summer summer with During with her her family, family, Iliana grapples with multiple degrees of violence and and its repercussions. violence repercussions. The novel novel serves serves as as aabildungsroman; bildungsroman; Iliana’s passage into womanhood entails not only self-discovery but also Iliana’s passage into womanhood entails not self-affirmation through self-affirmation throughher herfinal finaldenunciation denunciationofofa apersonal, personal,family, family,and and national history that thathas hasobliterated obliteratedwomen’s women’s lives. lives. As As aa contemporary contemporary bildungsroman, Geographies of Home does does not not show show Iliana Iliana growing growing up; up; rather, it shows how the the main main character character develops develops personal personal and and political political consciousness. consciousness. With this chapter chapter I argue argue that that women women have have been been dually dually invisible invisible in Dominican and Dominican Dominican diaspora diaspora memory. memory.The Theobject objectofofviolence, violence,and and

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women’s lives lives are are made made invisible invisible on on at least two the subject subject of silence, silence, women’s In literature, literature, the levels. In the presence presence of of women womenin inrelation relationtotoaalong longtradition traditionofof men’s writing is relatively slim. In the private space of the home, relatively slim. In the private space of the home,the therole role of women, as backbones of their their culture, culture,families, families,and andcommunities, communities,concontinues to tinues to be be subverted subvertedthrough throughviolence. violence.IIstudy studyPérez’s Pérez’snovel novelasasaacritical critical site that that reveals reveals aa number numberofofsociocultural socioculturaldynamics dynamicsofofviolence violenceagainst against women. women. “The future can hurt if you deny the the past”

Geographies of of Home Home isis sprinkled sprinkled with with the the central motif of finding out Geographies strength from it, understand the about the past in order to derive strength the present, present, and recover a history history that will offer a sense of origin to the family. Aurelia, that will offer a sense of origin to the family. Aurelia, “determined to the quiet matriarch, matriarch, finds herself missing something something and and is “determined to discover what what had had caused caused the the loss loss and and to to figure figure out out how she had brought discover herself to to the present moment so that she herself she might might guide guide herself herself into the future” (23). She recalls her last visit to her childhood home, recalls her childhood home, when when her her mother, Bienvenida, showed her her aa quilt quilt composed composed of of patches patches that thathad hadbebelonged to different, different,now nowdead, dead,members membersofofthe thefamily. family.Aurelia Aureliafelt feltspooked spooked by the remembrances remembrances invoked invoked and and asked asked why why she she was was being being shown shown this. this. Bienvenida, who was preparing for Bienvenida, for her herdeath, death,enigmatically enigmaticallyresponded, responded, “Because the the future future can hurt if you “Because you deny deny the the past. past. Because Because I want you to to as the the youngest youngest of never forget. forget. Because, as of my my children, children,ititisis for foryou youtotosew sew me in” Aurelia seems to have in” (132). Yet Aurelia have forged forged forgetting forgettingover overrememberremembering for the the greater greaterpart partof ofher herlife. life. This motif of remembering rememberingisisechoed echoed by byIliana, Iliana,who who notes notesthat that“hearts “hearts relentlessly pumped blood even as brains recoiled recoiled from whatever whatever horror horror was presented. ..... .Knowing little of her parents’ lives, she wanted to Knowing little of her parents’ lives, she wanted tolearn learn of the past past of of which which they theyrarely rarelyspoke. spoke.She Shealso alsowanted wantedtotoborrow borrowfrom from both the the strength strengthshe shesaw sawreflected reflectedinintheir theireyes” eyes”(44). (44). But what does the past entail? What exactly should these these women women never never forget? The The answer answer to to those those questions questions isis never never given given to to us us in the text. forget? text. Could it have been been the thehistory historyofoftheir theirancestors, ancestors,which whichincluded includedAfrican African blood that that they denied? blood denied? Could it have been the political political history of their country, which ignored the poor in the countryside in the countrysideas aswell well as as the the rape rape and and murder of women in the quiet quiet confines confines of their own own homes? homes? Could this past be about the the ways ways that thatTrujillo Trujillo silenced silenced aa nation nationthat thatstill stillignores ignoresthe the human rights human rightsof ofits itspeople, people,especially especiallyits itswomen womenand andchildren? children?Could Couldthe the past they refer refer to to actually actually be be the thecontinued continuedviolations violationscommitted committedagainst against

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women that creeps its way into the the present present precisely precisely because because it was not denounced in the the past? past? As I mulled over these these questions, questions,ititstruck struckme methat thatPérez Pérezwas wasprobably probably making me feel something that making that she, she, the the author, author,feels: feels: the the frustration frustrationofof lack of of information information and andaa history lack historyof ofdenial. denial. Denial Denial protects protects us us from from painful painful emotions. In States States of ofDenial: Denial:Knowing Knowingabout aboutAtrocities Atrocitiesand andSuffering, Suffering, accommodation, Stanley Cohen Cohen outlines outlinesthe themanifestations manifestationsofofdenial: denial: accommodation, routinization, tolerance, tolerance, putting putting up upwith withit,it,collusion, collusion,and andcover-up cover-up(51). (51). normalize or All of these normalize or numb numbthe theeffects effectsof ofviolence violenceon onpeople. people. “The “The need need for an alternative alternative story storyisisespecially especially acute acute when when the themanifest manifestinterpretainterpretation of the the acknowledged acknowledged ‘something’ is unthinkable. unthinkable.This This isis the theresponse response to the most most extreme extremeforms formsof ofmass masshuman humansuffering” suffering”(31). (31).The Thelevels levelsofof that Dominicans have experienced, whether whether they they tell violence that tell itit or or not, not, are high. For example, various texts recount Trujillo’s favorite warning recount Trujillo’s warning tactic. tactic. First his secret police police would kill a person person from fromone oneneighborhood. neighborhood.Then Then they would These corpses would bebe they would kill kill aa person personin inanother anotherneighborhood. neighborhood. These corpses would hung up hung upin inconspicuous conspicuousplaces placesfor forall alltotosee. see.Families Familieswould wouldoften oftenbebeunable unable to track the bodies bodies of their their loved loved ones ones because because either either they theywere weretoo toosese(beverely mutilated mutilated or orthey theywere werehung hungininsuch sucha afar-off far-offcommunity communitythat that (before mass media media could could resolve resolve such such questions) questions)the thebodies bodieswere werenever neveridenidentified. The secret police, who all feared, drove about in little Volkswagens. secret police, who all feared, drove about in little Volkswagens. police would would also also take take people peopleaway awayin inthe the night, night, usually noisily The secret police to make a point. point. Many parents wanted wanted to to protect protect their theirchildren childrenfrom fromthese theserealities. realities. They did not mention the horrors, hoping their children would not the horrors, hoping their children would not suffer suffer the fear. But the the parents’ parents’fear fearwas waspalpable. palpable.The Thechildren childrenwatched watchedand andrerevealed no knowledge. knowledge. Knowledge without withoutacknowledgment acknowledgmentisisone oneofofthe the most insidious most insidious forms formsof ofdenial. denial.Over Overthe theyears, years,no noone onehas hastalked talkedabout aboutthe the horrors. In horrors. In diaspora diaspora communities, communities,these thesefears fearsshape shapefamily familydynamics, dynamics,but but underlying the no one can address the real issues underlying the family family fear, fear, myths, myths, and and continued self-imposed self-imposed repression. repression. Thinking of these issues, II remembered remembered that shortly shortly after afteraa trip trip II took took to to the Dominican Dominican Republic, Republic, the the seven-time seven-timepresident presidentJoaquin JoaquínBalaguer Balaguerdied. died. Balaguer is is an important piece Balaguer piece of of the the puzzle puzzle of ofDominican Dominican history, history,yet yet little is known known about about him. him.Even Evenhis hisage agewas wasuncertain: uncertain:though thoughthe theofficial official record put him at nearly nearly ninety-six, ninety-six,his hisaides aideshad hadlong longinsisted insistedthat thathe hewas was actually aa year older older than that, because actually because of an error made when his birth birth registered several was registered several years yearslate. late.Balaguer Balaguerhad hadbeen beenTrujillo’s Trujillo’s puppet puppet presipresident for for a brief brief period, period, when whenthe theUnited UnitedStates Statesinsisted insistedonondemocratic democraticelecelec-

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assassinated, Balaguer fled into exile, then won tions. After Trujillo was assassinated, won the the 1966 election election with with the support of 1966 of the the Dominican Dominican oligarchy oligarchy and, and, imporimportantly, of the United United States. States. He He remained remained in inoffice office until until1978, 1978, when when U.S. U.S. president Jimmy Jimmy Carter Carter insisted insistedthat thatthe themilitary militaryrespect respectthe thepopular popularvote vote that went went to to the theopposition. opposition.But ButBalaguer Balaguerreturned returnedtotopower powereight eightyears years later and, and, in in all, all, served served for for some sometwo twodozen dozenyears, years,1960-63, 1960–63,1966-78, 1966–78,and and 1986-95. It was said that even in his late nineties, blind and no longer 1986–95. longer able presidency. to stand by by himself, himself, he he was was mulling mullinganother anotherrun runfor forthe the presidency.BaBa3 asas cruel asas Trujillo’s.° laguer’s rule rule was was considered consideredby bymany manytotohave havebeen been cruel Trujillo’s.In In fact, Jan Knippers Black, who who has written written about this, counts more political about this, counts more political killings during during Balaguer’s Balaguer’s first first presidency presidency(1966-78), (1966–78),los losdoce doceanos, años,than than under Trujillo. under Trujillo. In In his his 1988 1988 memoir, memoir, Memorias Memoriasde deun uncortesano cortesanodedelalaera eradede Balaguer left left one one page blank. blank. Twenty Twenty years years after his death, Trujillo, Balaguer death, he he said, that page would be filled in with the truth about the 1975 murder the truth about the 1975 murderofofthe the political journalist Orlando Orlando Martinez. Martínez. page became becamethe the center center of ofattention attention for many historians, journalThis page human rights ists, and human rightsadvocates. advocates.After Afterall, all,the theDominican DominicanRepublic Republichas hasanan outstanding history history of of cover-ups cover-ups of judicial and human human rights rights violations. violations. might have The blank page, some speculated, might have been been the the perfect perfect link link between between human atrocities denial of human atrocities and and disclosure disclosure of of the thehorrors horrorsno noone onewill willspeak speak of. Unfortunately, Balaguer’s death brought with it one more denial. of. Unfortunately, Balaguer’s death brought more denial. His His close aide aide General General Enrique Enrique Pérez y Pérez declared that the close the blank blank page page had had merely a publicity stunt been merely stuntand andthat thatBalaguer Balaguerhad hadleft leftno nodetails detailsbehind. behind. Once again the Dominican nation nation must mustcontinue continuelooking lookingforward forwardwithout without knowing the the complicated complicated details of its history. history. The novel draws out out these these issues issues of oftruth, truth,justice justiceand anddiscrimination, discrimination, Through the story, we are invited to repression, and sexism. Through to uncover uncover the the dark side of the the legacy legacyof of repression. repression.Like LikeBalaguer’s Balaguer’sblank blankpage, page,the thepeople people are given hints of the horrors, horrors, but but like like aa tourist touristbrochure, brochure,they theyare arecovered covered up with with the the images images of of pristine pristinebeaches, beaches,the thesounds soundsofofsexy sexybachattas, bachattas,and and the challenges of migrations. migrations. Aurelia, the the matriarch, matriarch,laments lamentsatatthe theend endofofthe thenovel: novel:

thought of the She also thought the many many more morethings thingsshe shehad hadnever neverrevealed revealedto to her children or her grandchildren: details of their own and of their or her grandchildren: details of their own and of their family’s past past which which might might have family’s have helped helped them better better understand understand themselves as well as the the world world through throughwhich whichthey theymoved. moved.The Thesisilence enveloping enveloping these these legacies, legacies,the thehalf-truths half-truths meant to gloss lence gloss over and protect, the falsehoods uttered for fear of causing pain, and the

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inability or unwillingness unwillingness to to speak, speak, now now seemed seemed to to her hertotohave haveininflicted greater harm. harm. (298) (298)

that certain Aurelia had wanted to protect her family from the pain that certain knowlknowledge could have caused her children and grandchildren, but she realized edge could caused and grandchildren, but she realized that burying burying history history only only made made ititalmost almostimpossible impossible to toconfront confrontthe the present and forge forge the the future. future.Aurelia Aureliahad hadnot notheeded heededthe theadvice adviceofofher her Bienvenida, that that “the “the future will hurt mother, Bienvenida, hurt you youworse worse ifif you youdeny denythe the past” (295). But, in the novel, we get the sense that the the past past is is buried buried too too unanswered question deeply to bring up. Perhaps this explains the unanswered question of of what what mean when when they they say they must Aurelia and Bienvenida Bienvenida mean must understand understand the the past. They They would like like to to unearth unearth the gaps of history. history. But But they they witness only denial, not just just of of the the past pastbut butalso alsoof ofthe theproblems problemsininthe thepresent. present. The most most developed developed characters charactersininIliana’s Iliana’sfamily—Rebecca, family—Rebecca,Marina, Marina, and Aurelia—embody different different forms formsof ofdenial. denial.Rebecca Rebecca denies the the depth depth of abuse she experiences at her husband’s hand. Marina denies herself, experiences at her husband’s hand. Marina denies herself,her her blackness, her her sensuality, sensuality, and her sexuality. blackness, sexuality. Aurelia denies the the extent extentofof the family family problems. problems.Denial Denialisisthe thechallenge challengefaced facedby bythe theDominican Dominicancomcommunity in munity in the theDominican DominicanRepublic Republic and and in inthe theUnited UnitedStates.* States.4 Unless Unless the the communities confront the the forms forms of of repression repression and and terror terrorthey theyhave havebeen been continue to and continue to be be subjected subjected to, to, they theycannot cannotaddress addressthe thepain paincaused causedby bythe the denial of history, both national national and andfamilial familial(and (andof ofthe therights rightsofofthe theindiindividual).

Sexism and Human Rights Rights Violations in in Dominican Dominican History History The Dominican Republic, unlike its neighbor, neighbor, Haiti, Haiti, has has never neverconfronted confronted truth commission its past. Proposals for a truth commission in in the the Dominican Dominican Republic Republic have have been turned turned down down repeatedly. repeatedly. Despite its shortcomings, shortcomings, a truth truthcommiscommisreport in Haiti. In contrast, the sion filed aa report the Dominican Dominican Republic has buried the horror horrorthat thatpockmarks pockmarksitsitshistory. history.The TheU.S. U.S.Department DepartmentofofState’s State’s2001 2001 Country Reports on on Human HumanRights RightsPractices Practicesin inthe theDominican DominicanRepublic Republic underscores the the numerous numeroustypes typesof ofexploitation, exploitation,despite despite increased increased tourism tourism and the country’s country’s much muchtouted touted“democracy.” “democracy.”Several Severaldetails detailsstood stoodout outfor for me: authorities rarely The authorities rarelyprosecuted prosecutedabusers, abusers,and andatattimes timesmembers membersofof the security securityforces forces committed committedabuses abuseswith withthe thetacit tacitacquiescence acquiescenceofof authorities, leading leading to to aa climate climateof ofimpunity. impunity... the civil authorities, . ..

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The authorities infringed infringed on on citizens’ citizens’ privacy privacy rights, rights, and andpolice police entered private entered private homes homes without judicial judicial orders. orders. Members Members of the the President’s security force mistreated journalists, and journalists President’s mistreated journalists, and journalistsatat times practiced self-censorship. . .... discrimination against Violence and discrimination against women; women;prostitution, prostitution,includincluding child prostitution; prostitution;abuse abuseof ofchildren; children;discrimination discriminationagainst againstperpersons with disabilities; disabilities; discrimination discrimination against against and andabuse abuseofofHaitian Haitian migrants and their theirdescendants; descendants; and and child child labor labor were were serious seriousprobproblems. (1) lems. (1) As I read the full report, report, II thought thoughtabout aboutPapito Papito and and his hisintense intenseneed needtoto instill fear AsAsI read instill fearin inIliana. Iliana.All Allalong, along,he heclaimed claimedititwas wasfor forher herown owngood. good. I read Republic, I concluded about the the human humanrights rightsconditions conditionsininthe theDominican Dominican Republic, I concluded that Loida Loida Maritza Maritza Pérez Pérez constructs constructsPapito’s Papito’s character character to tohelp helpus usunderundercome such stand the the kind kind of of terror terrorpeople peoplebring bringwith withthem themwhen whenthey they comefrom from such circumstances. Papito Papito lives lives with with this sense that repressive circumstances. that anything anythinghor horrible can happen and that that no noone onewill willdo doanything anythingtotohelp helpororfind findjustice. justice. The report reportalso alsodiscloses disclosescorrupt corruptpolice policepractices. practices.For Forexample, example,the thepolice police in the the Dominican Dominican Republic Republic rarely rarely document documentcitizen citizenkillings. killings. Often Oftenthe the only witnesses to to the thekillings killingsare areother otherpolice policeofficers. officers.Civilians Civilians will will not not step forward forward to to report reportwhat whatthey theysaw. saw.They Theyknow knowthat thatfew fewcases casesare aretried triedinin civilian court court and and that that they will put themselves and their civilian their families families in dandanger if they theycontradict contradictofficial officialpolice policestories. stories.Consequently, Consequently,most mostcases casesare are resolved in military military courts, courts, with withthe thepolice policeexonerated exoneratedand andthe thevictims victimsigignored. The report concludes that “there is a lack of meaningful training in that “there is a lack of meaningful training in human rights human rightsas asapplied appliedto topolice police work” work”(www.state.gov/?). (www.state.gov/?). The next part of of the the report reportleads leads me me to tobelieve believe that thatcertain certainpeople people get get ofof the least least respect. respect. In In some some250 250deaths deathsatatthe thehands handsofofpolice, police,the themajority majority the victims were were characterized characterized by bythe thepolice policeas asdelinquents; delinquents;the therest restwere were wives, girlfriends, other other civilians, civilians, or or fellow fellow officers. officers. The The police act to elimieliminate crimes; crimes; they kill, kill, rather than according according their targets a fair fair trial trial to to prove their innocence. In most cases, the police claim that the deaths reinnocence. most cases, the deaths resulted from an exchange of gunfire in the the course course of of arrest. arrest. The State State DeDepartment document partment documentcites cites aa 1999 report report from from the theInter-American Inter-AmericanCommisCommission on Human sion Human Rights Rights (IACHR) (IACHR) criticizing criticizing the police police for for committing committing extrajudicial killings and neglecting to investigate and punish officers neglecting to investigate and punish officersreresponsible for such abuses. Police assert that that they theykilled killedthe the“delinquents” “delinquents” but in a number of in self-defense, self-defense, but of cases cases this was was demonstrably not the the situation. (2) situation. (2)

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Human rights rights do do not not exist exist where where human human life life is is not not valued. valued. Another group Another group that thatisisconsistently consistentlydenied deniedhuman humanvalue valueand andDominican Dominican citizenship is found found in in the the Haitian Haitian and Dominican-Haitian Dominican-Haitian communities communities in in border shantytowns. These groups, groups, as as we we saw saw in chapter 1, have border shantytowns. These have been been eliminated without the the slightest slightestprotest. protest.During DuringTrujillo, Trujillo,the thelies liesand andthe the contributed to fear contributed to this thislack lack of of opposition. opposition.But Buttoday todayIIwonder wonderififDominiDominicans have have not not been induced induced to really believe believe that that their cans their Haitian Haitian neighbors neighbors considered “in “in tranare inferior. Haitians in the Dominican Dominican Republic are considered Since most most Haitian Haitian laborers do not not have documentation documentation of their birth, sit.” Since birth, they cannot prove how long they have lived on Dominican soil. They they cannot prove how long they have lived on Dominican soil. They cancannot ever gain gain citizenship citizenship for for themselves themselves or or their theirchildren. children.Similarly, Similarly,any any Dominican who exhibits strong strongAfrican Africantraits traitsisisostracized. ostracized.InInMarina’s Marina’s case, she she deprecates deprecates herself. Not only case, only can can she she not notaccept accepther herown ownAfrican African blood, she dismisses anyone who is black as inferior, evil, and unworthy. anyone who is black as inferior, evil, and unworthy. She denies herself, her history, and her links to to the the expansive expansive world world of of the the diaspora.The Themyth myth of of the the horrible horrible Haitian Haitian translates into the deAfrican diaspora. nial of Dominican history. history. Exclusion is is at at work in flagrant as Exclusion as well well as as subtle subtle ways. ways. While While women women and minorities are are not notimpeded impededfrom fromactive activepolitical politicalparticipation, participation,the the “percentage of women and minorities in government governmentand andpolitics politics does does not not correspond to their their percentage percentage of of the the population” population”(8). (8). Dominican Dominican law law proprohibits discrimination based based on race race and and sex. sex. However, However, the the law law is is usually usually ignored by the ignored the private private sector. sector. For For example, example, some employers employers reportedly reportedly give pregnancy tests tests to to women womenbefore beforehiring hiringthem. them.AApositive positivetest testmeans means they will not get the job. they will not get the job. Women and children Women children suffer suffer human human rights rightsabuses abusesmost mostregularly. regularly. “NGO's estimate “NGO’s estimate that that40 40 percent percentof of women women and and children childrenare arethe thesubject subjectof of domestic violence” violence” (8). While the the police police remain remainreluctant reluctanttotodeal dealwith withrape rape cases, many many NGOs NGOs and cases, and the the Secretariat Secretariat of of Women Women are are engaging engaging inin groundbreaking work groundbreaking workagainst againstrape. rape.InIn1997 1997the theLaw Lawagainst againstDomestic DomesticVioViolence incited the state state to to prosecute prosecutefor forrape, rape,incest, incest,and andother otherkinds kindsofofdodomestic violence. “The Government’s center in Villa Juana (Santo mestic violence. “The Government’s center in Villa Juana (Santo Domingo) for for the legal Domingo) legal support support and andforensic forensic examination examination of ofabused abused women handles over over 100 100 cases cases per perday” day”(8). (8).This Thiscenter’s center’ssuccess successhas has proved the need need for for other othercenters, centers,which whichare areexpected expectedtotoopen openeventually. eventually. shelters for battered However, shelters battered women women have have not notbeen beenset setup upyet. yet. Another danger Another dangerfor forwomen womenand andchildren childrenisishuman humantrafficking. trafficking.AccordAccording to the report, report, this this continues continues to to be be aa serious serious matter, matter, with with women women bebetween the ages of eighteen and twenty-five at greatest greatest risk. risk. Most Most women women

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lured by are lured by promises promises of of jobs jobs and and better betterlives. lives. Instead Insteadthey theyare areforced forcedinto into prostitution, far prostitution, far from fromtheir theirhomes homesand andfamilies, families,where wherethey theycannot cannotes-escape.To Tocounter counter this this serious serious problem, the the government cape. governmentfounded foundedthe theInterInterinstitutional Committee institutional Committee for for the theProtection Protectionof of Migrant MigrantWorkers Workers (CIPROM) (CIPROM) in 1996. An NGO, the Center Center for forIntegral IntegralOrientation Orientationand andInvestigation Investigation (COIN), has been been set set up up to to counsel counselwomen womenplanning planningtototake takejobs jobsininEurope Europe exceeds and the the Eastern EasternCaribbean. Caribbean.Still Stillthe thenumber numberofofexploited exploitedwomen women exceeds the available programs programsand andhelp. help.More Morecommonly, commonly,very verypoor poorwomen womenininthe the interior do interior donot notknow knowofofthese theseprograms. programs.Access Accesstotohelp helpand andguidance guidanceisisnot not available to marginalized and undocumented undocumentedfamilies. families. As in Haiti, some families send their their children children to towork workin inthe thecity. city.The The children are are called children called palomas, palomas, doves. doves. Paloma Paloma is aa poetic poetic word, word,unlike unlike restavek, but restavèk, but itit describes describes the thesame samedismal dismalcondition conditionof ofabusive abusivechild childlabor labor in which the children have no rights to personhood and self-fulfillment. children have no rights to personhood and self-fulfillment.ItIt highly symbolic is highly symbolic that thatDominicans Dominicanscall calldomestic domesticchild childlaborers laborersdoves. doves.TorTorturers also also use use beautiful beautifulwords, words,otherwise otherwiseassociated associatedwith withharmony harmonyand and nurturance, to describe horrible acts acts that destroy human nurturance, describe horrible human meaning, meaning, the the human body, human potential. human body, and human potential. “In “In the thesecret secret world world of of torture—where torture—where the infliction infliction of of pain pain is is so so personal—pre-junta personal—pre-juntameanings meaningsofofwords wordschange change and neutral words words are retranslated” retranslated” (Cohen (Cohen 82-83). 82–83). For For example, example, in Ar Argentina, during the “dirty war,” asado, which is a term for a barbecue and during the “dirty war,” asado, which is a term for a barbecue and summer evenings reminds one of summer evenings with with friends friendsand andfamily, family, means means a bonfire bonfire torturers gave to burn burn dead dead bodies. bodies. Israeli torturers gave Palestinians Palestinians the the “banana.” “banana.” BaBananas are my my favorite favorite fruit; fruit;they theyare arehigh highininpotassium potassiumand andgood goodfor forthe the muscles. Significantly, in the the language of torture, they represent being tied language of torture, they represent being tied in a painful floor position. Cohen argues that “Every torture tortureregime regimeuses uses the same linguistic linguistic technique: technique:something somethingawful awfulthat thatisisbeing beingdone, done,a averb, verb, is transposed into into some some mundane mundanething, thing,aanoun” noun”(83). (83). Country Reports The 2001 Country Reportson onHuman HumanRights RightsPractices Practicesininthe theDominiDominiRepublic underscores the ways can Republic ways in in which which people people are are deprived deprivedof ofrights rights and citizenship in the the communities communitieswhere wherethey theylive. live.Because Becauseofofpoverty, poverty, gender, and race, many gender, many people people in inthe theDominican DominicanRepublic Republicare areofficially officially marginalized and and negated. negated. This This is is the theworld worldthat thatmany manyflee; flee;Papito’s Papito’sfears fears are, to a certain extent, extent,well well founded. founded.IfIfso somany manywomen womenand andchildren childrenare are lured into into prostitution prostitutionand andchild childslavery, slavery,what whatkeeps keepshis hisfamily familysafe safefrom from allows the perils of of the the outside outsideworld? world?IfIfhe heknows knowsthat thatthe thegovernment government allows crimes to be committed with impunity some crimes impunity in inthe theDominican DominicanRepublic, Republic, why would he he believe in any any institution institutionanywhere? anywhere?InIncontrast contrasttotowomen women remains the who head families, Papito remains thestrongman strongmanofofhis. his.His Hisexperiences experiencesinin

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that continue the Dominican Dominican Republic Republic lead him him to to act in ways that continueto tonegate negatethe the rights of his that his rights his family. I would argue that his form formof of sexism, sexism, and and the the violence violence that is that is portrayed portrayed in inGeographies Geographiesof ofHome, Home,responds respondstotoaalong longhistory historyofof abuse, fear, fear, and and repression. repression. Papito Papito wants wants the the best for his family, but he abuse, that happen, does not know how to make that happen, so so he he repeats repeats familiar familiar patterns patterns —patterns of —patterns of violence. violence. This view of Papito as the benevolent benevolentcaretaker caretakercould couldlead leadtotodangerous dangerous to avoid. avoid. I| am am thinking thinking in conclusions, which I would like to in particular particularof ofhow how Trujillo excused excused the the brutality he Trujillo he inflicted inflicted on on citizens citizens by byarguing arguingthat thathehe was doing it for the benefit benefit of of his his country. country. He He was was eliminating eliminatingthe thecommucommuany other kind of unsavory nists as well as any unsavory individual. individual. The The poor poor who who were seduced by by the image of the seduced the paternal paternalstrongman strongmancried criedrelentlessly relentlesslyupon upon news of his death. In fact, they they were were like like the the children children of of abusive abusive parents parents who become dependent on the the abuse abuse and and eventually eventuallybelieve believethat thateveryeverything the parents parents are are doing doing is is for for their their good. good. This This dependency dependency on abuse repeats itself throughout throughoutthe thegenerations. generations.To Tobreak breakfrom fromthis thisisisvery verydiffidiffirequiring a severe rupture cult, requiring rupturefrom fromthe thefamiliar. familiar.Iliana’s Iliana’s character, character, I sugsugbe examined examined as as aa case casestudy study in in what what might might happen when one is gest, can be willing to embark on the the long long and and arduous arduousprocess process of of confrontation, confrontation,exexamination, and rejection. The resulting resulting rupture, rupture,as aswe wewill willsee, see,demands demands that the that the past past abuses abuses and and repression repressionbe berecognized recognizedfor forwhat whatthey theyare areand andnot not excused for any reason.

Women’s Literary Literary History History Dominican Diaspora Women’s essay,Silvio SilvioTorres-Saillant, Torres-Saillant,aaliterary literary critic critic and and former former director In a 1991 essay, of City University University of of New NewYork’s York’s Dominican Studies Institute, Institute,claimed, claimed, “Dominican writing remains generally relegated to what has been “Dominican to what has been called called periphery of ‘the periphery of the themargins’” margins’”(Torres-Saillant (Torres-Saillantand andHernandez Hernández120). 120).No No doubt, much credit must must be be given given totoTorres-Saillant’s Torres-Saillant’s pioneering pioneering work work against the against the position positionDominicans Dominicansheld heldoutside outsideeven evenother otheroutsiders. outsiders.But Butititisis claim that that more more than safe to claim than aa decade later, Dominican diaspora diaspora writing writinghas has entered the the domain domain of important importantAmerican American literatures literatures“bearing “bearingwitness witnesstoto the inexorably inexorably traumatic traumatic immigrant immigrantexperience experienceof of their theirpeople” people” (120). (120). The stories of the Dominican community are multifaceted, rich, inspiring, community are multifaceted, rich, inspiring, as as heartbreaking. These stories, written written by Dominicans or by well as heartbreaking. by allies of the Dominican Dominican community, community,trace tracethe thetrajectory trajectoryofofDominicans DominicanstotoU.S. U.S.resiresidency and citizenship. They describe describe the the process process of of transformation transformationthat that

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individuals, families, and communities communitiesexperience. experience.Especially, Especially, the thestories stories function against against the theegregious egregiousbelittling belittlingofofDominican Dominicanintegrity. integrity. Among the the first first journalists journaliststo to cover cover one one of this community’s community’s stories stories for for the mainstream mainstream media mediawas wasaaJewish JewishNew NewYorker, Yorker, Barbara Barbara Fischkin. Fischkin. Her Her boss at Newsday Newsday gave gave her her the theassignment assignmentininthe theearly earlyeighties. eighties.AAtwelvetwelvepart monthly monthlyseries, series,“A “A Chronicle Chronicleof ofHope: Hope:The TheOdyssey Odysseyofofthe theAlmonte Almonte began publication publication on April 27, 1986. 1986. Her Her work work on on the story story of Family,” began of this this immigrant family who who came came to to New New York York in in sections—first sections—first the the father, father, then his his wife wife and and various various children—won children—won the the 1986 1986 Livingston Livingston Award Award for International Reporting. It has since been published as a book, has since been published as a book,Muddy Muddy Cup: A A Dominican Dominican Family Comes of Age Age in a New Cup: New America. America. This story story the plights of migration migration and covers the and the thehardships hardshipsof oflife lifein inthe theDominican Dominican Republic and in Queens, Queens,New NewYork. York. ItIt also also points pointstotothe thesuccesses successesthat thatcan can be attained. One of the four children goes on to graduate school. Another One of the four children goes on to graduate school. Another returns to one returns tothe theDominican DominicanRepublic, Republic,but butlives livesrelatively relativelywell wellwith withhelp help from her her family family in inthe theUnited UnitedStates. States. A Dominican Dominican literary literary scholar scholar and andtranslator translatoratatYork YorkCollege, College,Daisy Daisy Cocco de de Filippis, Filippis,has has engaged engaged in in pioneering work Cocco work of of dissemination disseminationwith with her compilations compilations Poems Poems of of Exile Exile and and Other OtherConcerns Concerns(1988), (1988),Stories Storiesofof Washington Heights and Other Washington Other Concerns Concerns of of the theWorld World(1994), (1994), TertuliTertuliando/Hanging Out (1997), and Documents of Dissidence: Selected ando/Hanging Out (1997), and Documents of Dissidence: SelectedWritWritings by Dominican Dominican Women Women (2000). (2000). The growing number number of of titles titlesfrom fromDominican, Dominican,and andDominican Dominicandiasdiaspora, women’s pora, women’s literature literatureincludes includesLos Losdébiles débiles(1912) (1912)bybyJesusa JesusaAlfau; Alfau;Yania Yania Tierra (1981) (1981) by Aída Aida Cartagena Portalatin; Portalatín; Where Horizons Horizons Go: Go: Poems Poems (1998), The The Shadow Shadow II Dress Dress In In (2004), (2004), and and other other titles by Rhina (1998), Rhina Espaillat; Espaillat; the Garcia How the García Girls GirlsLost Lost Their Their Accents Accents (1991), (1991), In In the the Time Time of the the ButterButterflies (1994), The Other Side (1995), !Yo! (1997), (1997),and and In In the Name (1994), The (1995), !Yo! Name of of among the Salomé (2000), among themany manytitles titlesby byJulia JuliaAlvarez; Alvarez;Soledad Soledad(2001) (2001)by by Angie Cruz; and Song of the the Water WaterSaints Saints(2002) (2002)by byNelly NellyRosario. Rosario. violence seems seems to permeate many A dark, inexplicable violence many of of these thesenovels. novels. For example, example, in in In In the Time of the Butterflies, one of the little girls the little girlsin inthe the boarding school boarding school leaves leaves in in the the middle middleof ofthe theyear. year.Rumor Rumorhas hasititthat thatTrujillo Trujillo has bought her a big mansion and that she she has has become become one of his many young kept kept women. women. The The girls girls whisper whisper their theirspeculations speculationsininfear, fear,but butthe the nuns do not allow mention of the incident. In Soledad, the dark secrets not allow mention of the incident. In Soledad, the dark secrets revolve around around the thefamily familyviolence. violence.Why Whydoes doesManolo Manolobeat beatupupSoledad’s Soledad’s mother all mother all the the time? time? Why Whydoes does he he come come on on to to his his sister-in-law? sister-in-law? Why Whydoes does he molest Soledad in the middle of the night? night? When When he he falls falls to to his his death death

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fifth-story window, from a fifth-story window,Soledad Soledad does does not notbelieve believe that thatititwas wasan anaccident. accident. in the home, but also by warnings Her life is shaped by violence violence in warnings of of the the dangers that she could confront outside the apartment in Washington dangers could confront outside the apartment in Washington warnings of Heights, where neighbors neighbors like like Toe-knee are drug drug dealers. dealers. The warnings the dangers of the outside outside world world make make no no sense sense in in light light of of the theabuse abuseand and violence the the children witness inside their violence their own own home. home. In In many manyways, ways, this this parallels the warnings of dictators—warnings against communists, communists, against delinquents—when they they themselves themselves continue continueaareign reignofofterror terrorbased basedonon continuing human violence and egregious, continuing humanrights rightsviolations. violations. I believe believe that many of of these these texts texts also also expose expose women’s women’s struggles for self-affirmation—social, sexual, self-affirmation—social, sexual,political—against political—againstaabackdrop backdropofofilliteracy, illiteracy, machismo, and racism. Thus they machismo, they stress stresswomen’s women’spossible possiblepaths pathstotoperpersonhood: self-acceptance, self-esteem, education, education, financial financial independence. independence. Could we we talk about aa new Could new genre genreofofDominican Dominicandiaspora diasporawomen’s women’s bilbildungsromans? For dungsromans? For example, example, Yolanda Yolanda in in How How the theGarcia GarcíaGirls GirlsLost LostTheir Their transformed from Accents is transformed from aa little little immigrant immigrantgirl girlinto intoan ananglophile anglophileEnEnglish professor in the United United States. States. In Soledad, the protagonist protagonist also also expeexpetransformation of riences a transformation ofbeliefs beliefsand andconduct conductas asshe shenegotiates negotiatesbetween between Washington Heights’ Washington Heights’ Dominican Dominican culture culture and and downtown downtownmarginal marginalculture. culture. Likewise,Iliana Iliana crosses crossesthe the boundary boundary between her Likewise, her tightly tightlybound boundfamily family and the less welcoming world of college and life alone, away from less welcoming college and life alone, away from that family. Defying a long tradition of female erasure erasure and and joining joining in in aa new new traditradition of of female female empowerment, empowerment,Loida LoidaMaritza MaritzaPérez Pérezconcludes concludesher hernovel novel with the protagonist’s emancipation from her fears. the protagonist’s emancipation from her fears. they fell, streamed streamed so The tears, when they so fast that that Iliana Iliana did did not not bother bother Each of of her her reasons reasons for returning returning home to wipe them dry. Each homewas wasshadshadowed by the knowledge that that her hersister sisterwould wouldhave havepreferred preferredfor forher her to stay away and by the sudden realization that that she she had had returned returnednot not so much to help as to be embraced. She She had wanted, more than than anyanything, to to belong. belong. Having Having spent spent years yearsplotting plottinghow howtotoleave leaveonly onlytoto discover,when when she she finally did, that she discover, she felt felt as asdisplaced displaced out outininthe the return world as in her parents’ house, she had made the decision to return and to re-establish re-establish aa connection connectionwith withher herfamily familysosothat, that,regardless regardlessofof where she went went thereafter, thereafter,she shewould wouldhave havecomforting comfortingmemories memoriesofof home propping her up up and and lending lending her herthe thecourage courageto toconfront confrontthe the encountered during prejudices she had encountered during eighteen eighteenmonths monthsaway. away.(312) (312)

Dominican diaspora women’s literature literaturereflects reflectsthe theeconomic, economic,emotional, emotional,

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and psychological hardships hardships experienced experienced by byDominican Dominicandiaspora diasporawomen women and their path to to freedom freedom from from aa past past that that continues continues to to be be shrouded shrouded by by censorship. This This literature literature features the increasing successes of Dominican features the increasing successes of Dominican Ramona Hernández Hernandez of the CUNY women, including sociologists sociologists Ramona CUNY Center Center for Dominican Studies and in Santo for Dominican Studies and Ramona Ramona Peralta Peralta of of PROFAMILIA PROFAMILIA in Santo Domingo, and and psychotherapist psychotherapist Carmen Inoa Vazquez, Domingo, Vázquez, coauthor of The The Maria Paradox, Maria Paradox, to to add add to the the poets poets and and novelists novelists mentioned. mentioned.Literature, Literature,as as discussed throughout throughout this book, presents the private stories of has been discussed families’ and individual’s struggles to to lead lead aa life life of of dignity, dignity, working working with with respect and emotional nurturance. nurturance. The stories to which we are made privy allow us to better better understand understand work accomplished accomplished by by organizations organizations the importance importance of of political and social work both in both in New New York and in Santo Santo Domingo. Domingo.These These organizations organizationsand andgroups, groups, including the Dominican Women’s Development Center, the Dominican Dominican Women’s Caucus, Caucus, the the Association of Progressive Women’s Association of Progressive Women, Women, Centro de de Investigacion para para la Investigación la Accién Acción Femenina Femenina (CIPAF), (CIPAF), Mujer MujerDominicana Dominicana (MUDE), Secretaria Secretaria del del Estado Estado de de la la Mujer, Mujer, Colectiva Colectiva Mujer Mujer y Salud, and (MUDE), Asociaci6n Dominicana Pro-Bienestar Asociación Pro-Bienestar de delalaFamilia Familia(PROFAMILIA) (PROFAMILIA)adadfamily violence, and and sexism. sexism. Often Often these organizations dress issues of rape, family organizations and groups do not get enough governmental and private support support because because their work is not valued as much as it should be. A text such as Geogranot valued as much as it should be. A text such as Geographies of Home serves to highlight highlight the theconditions conditions that thatnecessitate necessitatemore more attention to to violence violence and the the fight fight against againstit. it.Together, Together, social social work and literary text text participate in the mission of attaining human human rights. rights.

Literary Cartography Cartography of of Sexism Sexism Let us us now now turn turn to Let to scenes scenes and and characters characters of of Pérez’s Pérez’s novel novel to to better betterunderunderstand some of the the trials trials of of migration migrationand andappraise appraisethe theshadows shadowsofofsexism. sexism. Papito and and Aurelia, Aurelia, have have left left the the destitute destitute DoAlthough Iliana’s parents, Papito minican countryside to find better better living living conditions in the the United United States, States, they bring bring with with them themand andpropagate propagateDominican Dominicansuperstitions, superstitions,asasIliana’s Iliana’s existential crisis existential crisis signals, signals, which, which, along along with with other othersocioeconomic socioeconomicfactors factorsininherent in herent inU.S. U.S. hierarchy hierarchyofofrace raceand andclass, class,inhibit inhibittheir theirsuccess successininAmerica. America. Their knowledge of legal matters matters and and rights rightsininthe theDominican DominicanRepublic Republic but they they have ofof U.S. was poor, but have an an even evenmore morelimited limitedunderstanding understanding U.S.social social codes and law. The family is informed by their past experiences with a codes and law. The family is informed by experiences repressive dictatorial repressive dictatorial regime regimeunder underwhich whichpeople peopledisappeared disappearedor orwere weremurmurdered in the night dered night and and where wherepolicemen policemen raped raped girls girls on on the thestreets streetswith with

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impunity. In their their new new home home in in the theUnited UnitedStates, States,they theyrespond respondtotomany many social circumstances, circumstances,including includingnew newthreats threats to to their safety such social such as as inner innercity violence, violence, with heightened fear fear and and distrust. distrust.Painfully Painfullyaware awareofofhow how abused, and and steeped steeped in in aa sexist sexist code codeof ofhonor honor where where girls girls must must girls can be abused, virgins protected protected by by the the authority authority of their fathers and brothers to the be virgins point that that they theyhave haveno novoice voiceand andcan canexhibit exhibitno nodesire, desire,Papito Papitotries triestoto ingrain fear in his daughters daughters so so they they will will remain remain within withinthe thesafe safeconfines confines many ways, of the family. In many ways, his his instinct instinctto toprotect protectisiswell wellwarranted. warranted.Rape, Rape, as well as other violence against women, is still an underpunished underpunishedcrime crime throughout the throughout the world, world, destroying destroying the the integrity integrityof ofmany manywomen womenand andtheir their families. families. In other other ways, ways,Papito’s Papito’s protectiveness protectivenessisisexcessive. excessive.Even EvenififIliana Ilianadoes does not demonstrate demonstratesigns signsof of sexual sexual activity, activity, he is inclined to err err on on the the side side of of distrust. For example, when she stays late into the night at her gay male example, when the night at her gay male friend’s house to get get some some respite respitefrom fromher herschizophrenic schizophrenicsister’s sister’sabuses, abuses, Papito will will not consider any excuse. He immediately assumes that Papito that Iliana Iliana engaged in in sex. sex. Rather Rather than talk with was engaged with her, her, he he accuses accuses her and abuses abuses her further further with withanger, anger, threats, threats, basic basic distrust, distrust, and and physical physical punishment. He may intend intend to to“protect” “protect”his hisdaughter’s daughter’s“honor,” “honor,”but buthis hisactions actionsare are enactments of In contrast contrast to enactments of domestic domestic violence. violence. In to other other men menwho whoabandon abandon their families their families or or cheat cheat on on their theirwives, wives, he he isis aa commendable commendable man. man.Through Through feminist critique his character, however, a feminist critiqueof ofmen menininthe thefamily familyisissketched sketched Perhaps the author is roles. On On the one hand, he is out. Perhaps is nuancing nuancing men’s roles. faithful and and involved involved with withhis hisfamily, family,and andthis thismakes makeshim hima agood goodperson. person. But that that is not enough. On the other hand, he lacks compassion, communinot enough. On the other hand, he lacks compassion, communiskills, and and understanding. He is cation skills, is still still violent, violent,despite despite the thesupposed supposed reason behind reason behind his his outbursts. outbursts. Aurelia, who defers defers to to her herhusband, husband,pardons pardonsall allofofPapito’s Papito’sactions actionsbebecause she sees a tired, hardworking cause hardworking man man who whosupports supportsthe thehousehold householdtoto the best of his his ability. ability. She views his blind faith faith in in and and involvement involvementwith with the Adventist church as a way way to to keep keep order order in inthe thehouse houseand andkeep keepthe the children off the streets and out of prison. In the text we are informed: streets and out of prison. In the text we are informed: He thought thought back back to to his hisconversion conversion from fromthe theCatholicism Catholicismofofhis his youth. What had appealed to him about the Adventist doctrine was youth. What had appealed him about the Adventist doctrine was specificity in indistinguishing distinguishing right right from wrong. In Inaa country its specificity countrywhere where both had shifted shifted according according to a tyrant’s tyrant’s whims whimsand andlittle littlehad hadoffered offered religion had relief or hope, religion had granted grantedhim himsalvation, salvation,unmediated unmediatedaccess access to the the divine, divine, and and steadfast steadfastrules rulesby bywhich whichtotolive. live.These Thesehehehad hadofoffered to his children children as as buffer buffer against againstpoverty povertyand andpain. pain.(149) (149)

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Papito sees sees his his adherence adherence to to the Adventist church as a way to correct the Papito effects of of corruption corruption during Trujillo’s Trujillo’srule rule and and as as aa way to mitigate effects mitigate the the suffering caused by the poverty he has lived through and continues to suffering caused poverty he has lived through and continues to experience. He He wants to offer his experience. his children children some some kind kindof ofmoral moralstructure structure that will save them from the the reality reality they theylive, live, but buthe hedoes does not notnotice notice that that his strict application of Adventist rules mirrors mirrorsthe theconditions conditionshe hewants wantstoto He, like like Aurelia, Aurelia, refuses refuses to acknowledge that such avoid. He, such extreme extremerestricrestrictions parallel tions parallel the the repression repressionthey theyonce oncelived livedwith withininthe theDominican DominicanRepubRepublic. It It is is left left to to Iliana Iliana to to make lic. make this this observation observationas as she shetransitions transitionsfrom fromDoDominican-style family loyalties to an independent life in the United States, minican-style family loyalties to an independent life in the United States, where an ideology ideology of of the theindividual—the individual—the self-made self-made person, person, against againstall all odds—prevails. odds—prevails. Pérez presents several scenes Pérez scenes that allow allow us us to tobetter betterunderstand understandthe the complicated issue of sexism in Dominican culture and memory, its intercomplicated in Dominican culture and memory, its intersections in diaspora life, and the new new emotional emotionalpain painthat thatthese theseproduce producefor for those caught between assimilation assimilation and and transculturation, transculturation,where wherenew newforms forms the fight for women’s of abuse and sexism complicate complicate the women’s rights. In the the first first scene, Iliana Iliana remembers remembersher her father father bringing bringing home a scented scene, scented soap in aa He was was very happy with strawberry wrapper. wrapper. He with his his purchase, purchase, but but quickly quickly became infuriated infuriated when Iliana insisted insisted that that even though the became the wrapper wrapper had strawberries on on it, it, the thesoap soap smelled smelled like like cinnamon. cinnamon.He Heyelled: yelled: porra! Admit “Muchacha de la porra! Admit it! it!ItItsmells smellslike likestrawberries!” strawberries!” “Cinnamon,” Iliana mumbled. “Cinnamon,” Iliana mumbled. “What does “What does itit smell smell like?” like?” Iliana defiantly braced herself herself for for another anotherblow. blow. “Cinnamon!” “Cinnamon!” hand again The back of Papito’s hand again flew flew toward towardher herface. face.Determined Determined not to to cry cry or or cringe, cringe, Iliana Iliana held held her herground. ground. “Ttsmells smellslike likecinnamon! cinnamon! Why Why ask if you don’t want to know?” “It know?” Her father father unhooked unhookedhis hisbelt beltand anddrew drewititfrom fromthe theloops loopsaround aroundhis his pants. “Sinvergüenza! “Sinvergiienza! I'll teach you to disrespect me!” I’ll teach you to disrespect me!” “Cinnamon—” Iliana had shouted, blocking blocking out the sound of the belt whizzing toward her and glaring glaring at at her herfather fatherwith withall allofofthe the contempt she she could she had contempt could muster. muster. “Cinnamon, “Cinnamon, cinnamon—” cinnamon—” she had chanted, her legs stinging and welts rising as the the leather strap landed repeatedly on on her her thighs. thighs.(8) (8) Not one of of Iliana’s Iliana’s thirteen siblings siblings stepped in to to help help her. her. Her Her mother mother refrained from disrespecting her husband husband as he whipped their daughter daughter for for what he what he called called her her insolence. insolence.

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An earlier An earlier formative formative moment momentfor forIliana Ilianaoccurred occurredwhen whenshe shewas wasthree three years old and walked a mile beyond beyond her years her yard yardto tosit sitatatthe theedge edgeof ofaariver riverand and throw rocks. Her disappearance worried her parents, but once reunited rocks. disappearance parents, but once reunited with them, she was beaten by her father. father. Many years years later later he he reminds reminds “ Youwere wereheadstrong headstrong even then. Iliana, “You then. II had had to to teach teachyou youaalesson lessonso sothat that you'd learn you’d learn to to be be afraid. afraid. Without Withoutfear, fear, anything anythingcould’ve could’ve happened happened to to you. you. It was my responsibility responsibility to to teach teach you you about aboutdanger dangerand andkeep keepyou yousafe” safe” Although parents (318). Although parentsare areexpected expectedtotokeep keepchildren children“safe,” “safe,”and andchildren children must allow must allow themselves themselvesto tobe betaken takencare careof, of,this thisscene sceneunderscores underscoresaacultural cultural nuance. If a boy had behaved as Iliana did, his parents would have parents would have merely merely considered him precocious. considered precocious. This example accentuates the the very verydifferent different lessons taught under under traditional traditionalDominican Dominicanvalues: values:girls girlsmust mustlearn learnfear, fear, while boys must must vanquish vanquishit, it,or oratatleast leasthide hideit.it. Iliana, the only daughter daughterallowed allowed to togo gototocollege, college, isis haunted hauntedby bysuch such lessons of subjugation. subjugation. ItIt isis as as ifif her herlife lifeexperiences experienceshave havemuted mutedher. her.Her Her parents and and siblings siblings believe that that too too much mucheducation educationwill willdestroy destroyher herposposmarriage (even sibilities of marriage (even though thoughititisisnot notclear clearififthey theybelieve believeshe shehas hasany any romantic possibilities, romantic possibilities,since since she sheisisconsidered consideredtoo tooskinny, skinny,too tootall, tall,too toodark, dark, too flat, and generally generally too toomasculine). masculine).The Thefamily familyback backhome homehas hasmany many feels she she should should try try to help out with, problems she feels with, and and school school has turned turned out to be a big disappointment disappointment as she encounters racism, such as the encounters racism, such as the scribscrib“nigger” on bling of “nigger” on her her dorm dormdoor. door. So, So, after after eighteen eighteenmonths monthsatataacollege college far from home, Iliana is not sure that that she she has has made made the theright rightchoice choice for for her her life, abandoning abandoning the the strict traditions followed life, followed by most of her her sisters, sisters, who who married young and and had had children. children. She Shebriefly brieflylets letsgo goofofher hereducational educational goals and thinks about about becoming becoming the thekind kindof ofwoman womanher herfamily familyexpects: expects:aa mother at wife and mother atan anearly earlyage. age. Another highly nuanced Another nuanced and and revealing revealing passage passage in in Geographies Geographies of of memory of Home encompasses Papito’s memory of his hisfirst firstlove, love,asasaayoung youngman maninin The nineteen-year-old nineteen-year-old Papito has had plenty the Dominican Republic. The plenty of of experience with women. But then then he hesees seesAnabelle, Anabelle, aa beautiful beautiful and andchaste chaste young maiden maiden who who lives lives with withher herwidower widowerfather fatherand andsisters. sisters.His Hisdesire desire grows by the the day day for for the thewoman womanhe hecannot cannottouch, touch,ororeven evenspeak speakto, to,because because she is so zealously zealously protected protected by byher herfather. father.His Hisfriends friendsand andneighbors neighborsadadvise him to forget vise forget Anabelle Anabelle and find find someone someone within within his his reach. reach. Instead Instead furnishes his Papito cleans and furnishes his little littlehouse houseand anddresses dressesmore moreneatly, neatly,waitwaiting for the the appropriate appropriatemoment momenttotoask askAnabelle’s Anabelle’sfather fatherfor forpermission permissiontoto court her. her. One One night, with a hurricane court hurricane threatening threatening to to bring bring down down his his house, Papito is forced to seek safety in the the nearby nearbytown. town.As Ashe hestruggles strugglestoto

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through the make his way through thewind windand andrain, rain,he heisisalarmed alarmedtotosee seethe thewoman woman in whom he has invested his dreams dreams wandering wandering into into the thedanger. danger. ItIt isis the the choice of a shamefully abused woman, a victim of incest that has left her choice of a shamefully victim of incest that has left her Anabelle uses uses the the storm as a God-given pregnant with with her her father’s father’s child. child. Anabelle opportunity to opportunity toend endher herlife. life.Papito Papitofeels feels that thathe hehas hasnot notbeen beenaareal realman. man.He He did not recognize this horrible situation. situation. He He was was not not able able to to save her her from from her father’s lust or from from the the storm. storm. This This memory memoryhaunts hauntsPapito. Papito.His Hismanmanwas tested by a higher power hood was power (nature? (nature? God?) God?) and, and, he he believes, believes, he failed to prove himself. himself. Papito’s macho expectation that that he was Papito’s macho expectation was responsible responsible for for this thiswoman’s woman’s honor and heavily sexism honor and safety safety is is one one example example of how heavily sexism weighs weighs on on men men and and their conduct their conduct in in Dominican Dominicansociety. society.In In contrast, contrast,Iliana’s Iliana’ssister sisterRebecca Rebecca emembodies the effects sexism has has on women and their bodies effects sexism their place place in in society. society. Rebecca’s story, while pointing to her weaknesses, also describes her path path to becca’s story, while pointing to her also describes her self-erasure, self-hatred, self-hatred, and and self-destruction. self-destruction. The The first first in in the family to self-erasure, to leave the Dominican Republic, like many many women before and after her, leave Republic, like her, Rebecca settles settles in in New York, York, works works in in a factory, and and sends money money to Rebecca to her her 5 family on the island.’ island. Eventually Eventually her her parents parents and and all all of ofher hersisters sistersand and brothers follow her to to the the United United States. States. We We would would expect expect that that after after her her sacrifices, she she would would receive receive aa special special place place in in the the family. She has proved sacrifices, that being alone in New York Yorkisisnot notaaterrible terriblething. thing.When When she shetells tellsus usthat that that virgin until she was thirty, she also is defending herself. That That is, is, she was aa virgin promiscuity. Rebecca follows follows the the codes codes of ofhonor honor being alone did not lead to promiscuity. and conduct her her family family expected expected and and exceeds exceeds those those expectations expectations by bymakmaking the family migration possible. But no one recognizes her accomplishfamily migration possible. But no one recognizes her accomplishments. No one thanks thanks her. her. Instead, Instead, upon upon arriving arriving in inthe theUnited UnitedStates, States, resumes his demoted to obedient Papito resumes his role role as the paterfamilias, paterfamilias, and and she she is demoted obedient daughter. She She must must listen listen to him and ask ask permission permission for for everything everything she she daughter. expected to to find a husband and follow follow tradition. wants to do. She is now expected Much to her embarrassment, embarrassment, her two two younger younger sisters sisters marry marrybefore before she she does, and and Rebecca Rebeccafeels feelsthe thepressure pressureto to prove prove her her femininity. femininity. She She must does, follow the the old old rules, rules, including including living living with with the the family until she marries. follow marries. Rebecca spirals spirals into into a depressive state Rebecca state no no one one recognizes recognizesor orunderstands. understands. This state manifests manifests itself itself through throughacts actsof ofself-hatred self-hatredand anddenigration. denigration. leaves the the family family home home to live out out Her story story is is aa very very sad sad one. Rebecca Rebecca leaves of wedlock wedlock with with a man who beats her. When When he leaves her, she returns he leaves returnstoto another man, her family in shame. Soon she finds another man, who who promises promises to to marry marry her. He He tells tells her her he has a house. house. Without Without seeing seeing the the house house or getting to her. know the man, marries him. him. For For her, her, marriage marriage will will erase erase the know man, Rebecca Rebecca marries

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shame of of being being left left behind behind by by her younger sisters and of living shame living out of of wedlock with with someone someone who who then then abandons wedlock abandons her. her. This This man man she she does does not not know has a dilapidated house, house, beats her her more moreviciously viciouslythan thanthe theprevious previous lover did, brings junk junk and andchickens chickensinto intothe thehome, home,and andhas hassexual sexualrelations relations with other other women womenboth bothaway awayfrom fromher herand andininfront frontofofher. her.Yet Yetshe shesuffers suffers this abuse in silence. She tells her family that that she she is is happy happy and and that thatthings things with her her husband, husband, Pasion, Pasión, are are good. good. On On her herown, own,she shetries triestotogo gototowork work while he is not in the the house. house. But But every every time time he hefinds finds out, out,he heseeks seeks her herout, out, makes a scene, and gets her her out outof ofwork. work.Pasi6n Pasiónadmonishes admonishesRebecca: Rebecca: “I may not always provide you with everything everything you youneed, need, but butGod God knows knows II do my best. And how do you you repay repay me? me? By By shaming shamingme meand andgoing goingout outtoto yourself a job. By letting letting the get yourself the world worldthink thinkI’m I’mnot notman manenough enoughtototake take you myself” care of you myself”(56). (56). Pasién does not Pasión not care care about aboutRebecca. Rebecca. His His only onlyconcern concernisiswhat whatothers others is is who adhere adhere to to sexist sexist macho macho roles roleswould wouldthink thinkofofhim, him,even eventhough thoughthere there in the the text text that anyone anyone is observing him or that no evidence in that he he responds responds to to so badly badly that that she has to anyone. Pasion Pasión beats Rebecca Rebecca so to wait wait for for the thebruises bruises goes out out in public. public. The The only only thing thing she can can think is that to heal before she goes she is grateful that that he hehas hassaved savedher herfrom fromspinsterhood. spinsterhood.“‘Pasi6n “‘Pasiónowns ownsaa house,’ she had boasted house,’ boasted to to those thosewho whohad hadcalled calledher her‘spoiled ‘spoiledgoods’ goods’for for moving in with Samuel and had then gloated with compassion after he moving Samuel and had then gloated with compassion after he threw her her out” out”(55). (55).As Asan anAmerican Americancitizen, citizen,Pasion Pasiónoffers offersthe thedream dreamofof wealth and security; as her wealth her husband, husband, he he provides provides her herwith withlegitimacy. legitimacy. Pasion, Rebecca Rebecca believes, believes,saves savesher herfrom from the the judgment judgment of Pasión, of her her community community and family. Consequently, Consequently, she must help him become a better person. him become better person.She She believes that having believes having children children will will change change Pasién. Pasión.She Shebears bearsthree. three.But But Rebecca has has lost lost touch with Rebecca with reality. reality. She She enters entersaaworld worldofofcycles cyclesofofabuse abuse and neglect. To defend her her position, position,she sherecalls recallshow howshe shesaw sawpeople peoplewho who were assumed assumed dead dead during duringTrujillo’s Trujillo’s reign reign of of terror terrorcome comeback back from fromprison. prison. then—the resurrection She considers that a miracle had taken place then—the resurrectionof ofthe the disappeared—and waits for a miracle to occur to Pasion. Pasión. Nothing Nothing changes changes Pasion. He is increasingly in in squalor. Rebecca’s Pasión. increasinglygone, gone,and andthe thefamily familylives lives squalor. Rebecca’s bitterness makes her irrational. She will not listen to the children’s bitterness makes her irrational. She will not listen to the children’steachteachers when they they ask ask her her to towatch watchtheir theirhygiene. hygiene.Instead Insteadshe shegoes goesinto intoa ati-tirade, screaming that that she she will will raise raise her herchildren childrenas asshe shesees seesfit. fit.The Thechildren, children, in turn, turn, do do not noteat eatenough. enough.They Theybegin begintotoact actlike likeprisoners, prisoners,hiding hidingwhat what little food they little they can can get get their theirhands handson, on,inincase casethere thereisisno nofood foodthe thenext nextday. day. To all this Rebecca’s mother, the children’s grandmother To Rebecca’s mother, grandmotherAurelia, Aurelia,turns turnsa a blind eye. eye.

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Aurelia waits to leave Pasi6n and and move move back in with with her Aurelia waits for for Rebecca Rebecca to leave Pasión back in her and and Papito. She does not not call call social services or demand demandthat thatthe thechildren childrenbebeput put in her custody while Rebecca gets counseling. By Dominican custom, her custody while Rebecca gets counseling. By Dominican custom, problems of the the house houseare areprivate privatematters. matters.Rebecca Rebeccacomes comesfrom froma aculture culture wife must must do do everything everything to keep her her husband, where women where a good wife baby men and forgive forgive them them because because they they are arenot notconsidered consideredcapable capable of of 6 behaving better.° mad, and and her mother mother remains behaving better. Rebecca goes mad, remainspowerless, powerless,on on the margins till till the theend, end,when whenshe shegets getschickens chickenstotopluck pluckand andperforms performs brujeria, witchcraft, to eliminate brujería, eliminate her herson-in-law. son-in-law.The The only onlypower powerto towhich which Aurelia can resort is supernatural. supernatural. In the realm of the spirits, Aurelia In the realm of the spirits, Aurelia is not restrained by restrained by the theconventions conventionsofofmacho machoculture. culture.She Shethus thusfinds findsthe thepower power down in in a flurry flurry of to beat beat Pasidén Pasión down of chicken chicken feathers. feathers. Iliana’s mind mind isis populated populatedby by memories memories of of punishment punishment at the hands of Iliana’s Papito, as well as stories of his failure to save Papito, as well as failure to save the thehonor honorofofa abeautiful beautiful maiden in in the theDominican DominicanRepublic, Republic,Rebecca’s Rebecca’s self-destruction, self-destruction, and and AuAuself-sacrifice.These These memories memories prevent prevent her relia’s self-sacrifice. her from frommoving movingon onwith withher her own life. While living living in in the thecollege collegedorm, dorm,she shehears hearsthe thevoices voicesofofher herdysdysfunctional past. past. These These voices voicestell tellher her that that she might burn functional burn in inhell, hell,she sheisis needed at home, and she has abandoned her duty duty as as aa daughter daughterby bygoing going away to college. college. This internal internalpsychological psychologicalconflict conflictisiscompounded compoundedbyby present threats threatssuch suchas asanonymous anonymousgraffiti graffition onher herdorm dormdoor doorcalling callingher hera a “nigger” and others others suggesting suggesting that thatshe shedoes doesnot notbelong. belong.She Shedecides decidestoto return, to return, to find findaa home homeand andfamily familythat thatwill willgive giveher herthe thestrength strengthand andpride pride she needs to tackle the the challenges challenges of of college and the the ostracism ostracism of of racism. racism.

Where Is Where Is the the Home? Home? Where WhereIsIsthe theLove? Love? Throughout the Throughout the story, story, home home does does not not offer offer Iliana Iliana the the support support she she dreams dreams Summer in the family of. Summer family house house in in Brooklyn Brooklyn does does not not help help her herbecome become the the daughter/woman she daughter/woman she believes believes she sheisisexpected expectedtotobecome. become.This Thissituation, situation, presented in an early moment in the text, presented text, incites incites me to ponder what the the title Geographies Geographies of of Home Home could could mean. mean. Could Could itit refer referto tothe themany manyways waysa a defined? Or Or could could itit point point to to the the numerous numerous routes home can be defined? routes that thatlead lead to to home? How do we we explain explain the theway waythe theidea ideaofofhome—which home—whichisisusually usually equated with safety—is juxtaposed to the nightmarish nightmarish happenings happeningswe we read read throughout the about throughout thetext? text?The Thefocus focus on on “home,” “home,” along with the the way way the the scenes play play out in the scenes the novel, novel, obliges obliges me me to to consider consider Freud’s Freud’s work on the the unheimlich, the the uncanny. uncanny. I propose that that we we reflect on the the home home that thatIliana Iliana

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returns to returns toas as haunted hauntedby byaahistory historyofofviolence violencethat thatrepeats repeatsand andreproduces reproduces itself in in many, many, often oftenpredictable, predictable,ways. ways. Freud tells us that “the Freud “the uncanny uncannyisisthat thatclass classof ofthe thefrightening frighteningwhich which back to to what what is known of old and long familiar” (220). He continues leads back continues his compelling compelling essay by quoting quoting aaseries seriesofofdefinitions definitionsofofunheimlich. unheimlich. Those that that stand Those stand out out the the most most for for me me are: are:

English: . . .. Uncomfortable, English: Uncomfortable, uneasy, uneasy, gloomy, gloomy, dismal, dismal, uncanny, uncanny, ghastly; (of a house) haunted; haunted; (of (of aa man) man) aa repulsive repulsivefellow. fellow. Spanish: ..... .Sospechoso, Sospechoso, de de mal mal agiiero, agüero, lugubre, lúgubre, siniestro. siniestro.(221) (221) Freud then proceeds to quote definitions Freud definitions of of heimlich. heimlich. Of Of particular particular note, note, for my purposes, is kept from sight, II. Concealed, kept sight, so so that thatothers othersdo donot notget gettotoknow knowofof or about it, it, withheld withheld from fromothers. others.(223) (223)

Finally, Freud concludes: concludes:

What interests that among What interestsus us most most in in this this long long extract extract is is to find that among its different shades of meaning the the word word heimlich heimlich exhibits exhibits one one which which is identical with its opposite, unheimlich. What is heimlich thus thus comes comes to be unheimlich. . . .. In Ingeneral general we we are arereminded reminded that thatthe theword word not unambiguous, heimlich is not unambiguous,but butbelongs belongstototwo twosets setsofofideas, ideas,which, which, without being without being contradictory, contradictory, are are yet yet very very different: different:on onthe theone onehand, hand, it means what is is familiar familiar and and agreeable, agreeable, and on the the other, other, what what isis concealed and and kept kept out out of sight. (224-25) concealed (224–25) Pérez’s text, text, the uncanny, this eery In Pérez’s eery feeling, feeling, is is exemplified in in numerous numerous instances. At college Iliana hears hears voices. voices. These voices are both both familiar— familiar— they are her mother mother and and her her father—and father—and haunting, haunting, as as they they do do not not allow allow her to to be be at at college college without withoutfeeling feelingaadeep deepsense senseofofguilt. guilt.From Fromthe theoutset outset we are made aware aware of of how how home—family, home—family, past, past, history, history, Dominican Dominican culculture—harrows lliana. ture—harrows Iliana.[liana Ilianareturns returnstotoa abedeviled bedeviledhouse houseofoffamiliar familiarscenes scenes and experiences, which are also discomforting. discomforting.Iliana’s Iliana’s home home harbors harborsfears, fears, illness, and secrets no one illness, one can can uncover. uncover. The shadows shadows are are laden laden with withthe the repetition of repetition of violations violations that thatreproduce reproducea acolonial, colonial,machista, machista,racist racistpast pastonon bodies, in in the the private sphere of the home, individual bodies, home, and in in the theextended extended community space community space of the the church. church. example, Marina’s Marina’s story story and its place in the For example, the family familysaga saga are aremultimultilayered. Her character character bears bears the theweight weightofofmany manysocial, social,racial, racial,and andgender gender

172. The Tears 172 The TearsofofHispaniola Hispaniola

problems prevalent problems prevalentin inrepressive repressiveregimes regimesasaswell wellas asin instrict strictreligious religioustraditradiMarina is madwoman in tions. Marina is a madwoman in the thebasement basementwho whocontrasts contrastssharply sharplytotothe the classic figure of the madwoman in the attic. The original madwoman was classic figure madwoman in the attic. The original madwoman was carefully crafted crafted in Jane Eyre carefully Eyre (1847) (1847) by by Charlotte CharlotteBronté. Brontë.Other Othermadmadwomen characters characters were weredeveloped developedinin“The “TheYellow YellowWallpaper” Wallpaper”(1892) (1892)byby Charlotte Perkins Gilman Gilman and and Wide WideSargasso SargassoSea Sea(1966) (1966)by byJean JeanRhys. Rhys. madwoman figure The madwoman figurehas hasplayed playedaaprominent prominentrole roleininfeminist feministdiscussions discussions of the way women women have have been been historically historicallyand andphysically physicallymarginalized. marginalized. Marina is Marina is aa dark dark woman woman from from the the Caribbean Caribbean who who cannot cannot fit fit into into the the world of white businesspeople in Wall Street, where she works as a secrein Street, where she works as a secretary and “You tary and dreams dreamsof ofmarrying marryinga arich richwhite whiteman. man.She Shetells tellsIliana, Iliana, “Youknow know black men men are. .... .. They’re how black They’re lazy as as shit shit and and undependable” undependable” (38). (38). She She continues to negate the the complete complete identity identity of of the thewoman woman she shesees sees in inthe the mirror. Marina insists, “I’m Hispanic, not black” (38). She has adopted insists, black” adopted the anti-Haitian anti-Haitianand andanti-African anti-Africanideologies ideologiescrafted craftedand andaffirmed affirmedbybyTruTrujillo. She accepts accepts her her sister Beatriz’s criticism that “No “No one one ... . . would . wouldever ever consider her attractive. Not consider Not with withher herbaboon baboonnose noseand andnigger niggerlips” lips”(42). (42). Marina comes to to hate hate herself. herself.She Shescrubs scrubsherself herselfwith withBrillo Brillopads, pads,leaving leaving her skin wounded, wounded, in an an attempt attemptto tocleanse cleanse herself herselfof of her herdirt, dirt,her hercolor. color. In In a basement far far away away from fromaaracist racistworld, world,she sheimmolates immolatesherself. herself.The Theculcultural history tural historydenying denyingthe thepride prideofofAfrican Africanheritage heritageshapes shapesher heraskew askewworld, world, which further denies her self. She is unaware of the fact that “Dominican which further denies her self. She is unaware of the fact that “Dominican blackness in in the the Americas. Americas. ..... . A demographic demographic assesssociety is the cradle of blackness assessment taking taking account account of of racial racial distinctions distinctionstoday todaywould wouldshow showthat thatblacks blacks and mulattoes make up nearly 90% of the Dominican Republic’s close mulattoes make up nearly 90% of the Dominican Republic’s closetoto eight million inhabitants” inhabitants”(Torres-Saillant (Torres-Saillantand andHernandez Hernández143). 143).Marina Marina suffers psychological pain to the the point pointofofmadness. madness.Her Herbody bodyisisa amap maponon important African which we can read how the existence of an important African heritage heritage has has been unmade unmade by bycenturies centuriesof ofracism racism(in (inthe theDominican DominicanRepublic Republicand andininthe the United States) United States)and anddecades decadesof ofdenial denial(Trujillo, (Trujillo,Balaguer, Balaguer,and andsosoon). on). Theoretically, Marina’s Marina’s madness madnesssuggests suggeststhe themadness madnessprovoked provokedbybythe the denial of one’s self. Her madness physically obliterates the body that has physically obliterates the body that has been historically shunned. Her Her robust robustwomanhood, womanhood, the thedeep deepcolor color of of her her sexskin, and her her sensual sensualneeds needswere weresquelched squelchedby byDominican Dominicanracism racismand and sexism. She She was ism. was further further disembodied disembodied when when she she confronted confronted the thesame sameracism racism and sexism sexism in in her host nation, and nation, the the land land that thatwas was supposed supposed to to offer offer her her freedom. Marina’s case is beyond recovery, recovery, because she is trapped trapped by byher her family’s protection and lack of understanding. understanding.Papito Papitoonce oncesuggested suggestedthat that she would would be be cured cured of of her her madness madness if if she she were were married. married. He He continued continued that she that

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she could find a husband in in the the Dominican DominicanRepublic, Republic, where wheremen menare arewillwilling to immediately marry marry aa woman woman who who has has lived lived in in the theUnited UnitedStates. States. Once she had children Once children (he (he never nevermentioned mentionedregular regularsex) sex)and andthe theoveroverwhelming responsibilities whelming responsibilities of taking taking care care of ofaahusband husbandand andfamily, family,she she would not have time time to to be be mad. mad. Aurelia Aurelia rejected rejected this thisidea, idea, but butfollowed followed all all other cues from her husband. In strict traditional traditional cultures, cultures, women are reresponsible for keeping the the family familyfiber fiberintact, intact,even evenatatthe theprice priceofofdenying denying an illness as serious as schizophrenia schizophrenia within withinthe thefamily. family. Therefore, despite professional recommendations that thatshe shebe beinstituinstitutionalized, Marina lives at home. Aurelia will not let her leave the her leave the house house because this would mean that she was unable to take because this would mean that she was unable to take care care of of her herown own daughter. The admission admission would would make makeher herlook looklike likeaabad badmother, mother,a afailed failed woman, who could not keep keep the the family familytogether. together.Letting LettingMarina Marinaget getthe the necessary attention would be, she and Papito believe, the beginning of the attention would be, she and Papito believe, the beginning of the disintegration of disintegration exists disintegration of the the family. family. The real disintegration exists in in the theway wayrules rules of family privacy are followed with with such such vehemence. vehemence.Aurelia’s Aurelia’s quiet quiet matrimatriarchal position is briefly exhibited in the the scene scene that thatfollows followsMarina’s Marina’s atattempted suicide and consequent hospitalization. She warns warns Papito Papito that that ifif Marina dies, Marina dies, it will be his fault fault because because he heignored ignoredher hertotosave saveface facewith withhis his congregation. Papito seems lost and and scared. scared. He Hedoes doesnot notwant wantAurelia’s Aurelia’s wrath. He prays prays for for Marina’s Marina’s recovery recovery and for for his his wife’s wife’s return. return. Both Both wishes are granted. However, his remorse remorse and repentance wishes However, his repentance prove prove to be be short-lived. The presence of dysfunctional short-lived. dysfunctionalcodes codes of of conduct conduct in in this thisfamily family is disturbing, to say say the the least. least. Papito Papito resorted resorted to toreligion religiontotogive givehis hischilchildren a set of rules rules and regulations that, he believed, would keep them from and regulations that, he believed, would keep them from prostitution and prostitution andjail. jail.But Butthe thechurch churchisisnot nota apanacea panaceaagainst againstevil. evil.The Thestory story tells us quite quite the thecontrary. contrary.The Thechurch churchisisone onemore morehaven havenforformachismo machismo and repression. In a Sabbath Sabbath sermon, sermon, Pastor Pastor Rivera Rivera asks asks the thecongregation, congregation, “But tell me. Can the sanctity of marriage marriage be upheld upheld when when men men are aremercimercilessly tricked lessly tricked by women?” women?” (105). The listener (or (or reader) reader) might mightexpect expect But these words to to herald heraldan animportant importanttopic topicininreligion religionsuch suchasasadultery. adultery. But no. The sermon, sermon, pronounced in the holy space of a church pulpit by a repronounced in the holy space of a church pulpit by a respected preacher and titled titled “The “The Virtues Virtuesof ofMarriage,” Marriage,”could couldbe beinterpreted interpreted joke ififthe the narrator narrator did not underline as a joke underline its its severity. severity. The pastor pastor extempoextemporizes: rizes: Let me give you you an an example. example. A A man man meets meetsaawoman. woman.She Shehas hasthe the smoothest skin, smoothest skin,the thereddest reddestlips. lips.And Andher herhair, hair,Lord, Lord,isis the thesoftest softesthe’s he’s touched. It ever touched. It frames framesher herface faceand andmakes makesher herlook lookprettier prettierthan thanany any

174 TheThe Tears 174 TearsofofHispaniola Hispaniola

painting he’s painting he’s laid eyes eyes on on in in his hisentire entirelife. life.Then Thenthere thereare areher herlashes, lashes, fluttering like fluttering like the thewings wingsof ofbirds birdswhenever wheneverhe hecomes comesnear nearand andmakmaking him feel like he’s soaring toward heaven. She is beautiful, more him feel like he’s soaring toward heaven. She is beautiful, more beautiful than beautiful thanhe hehad hadimagined imaginedaawoman womancould couldever everbe. be.(105) (105)

But, the pastor pastor continues, continues, things thingschange changeon onthe thecouple’s couple’swedding weddingnight. night. Something goes wrong wrong when when the theman mansees seeshis hisbride: bride: Who is this creature creature daring daring to toimpersonate impersonatehis hiswife? wife?Who Whoisisthis this being with a helmet helmet of of green greenand andblue blueplastic plasticthings thingsaround aroundwhich which strands of its its hair hairare arewrapped? wrapped?And Andits itsface! face!Mercy Mercyme! me!ItItisispockpockmarked and creviced like the moon! moon! (106) (106) The message of the sermon sermon is is clear: clear: the the pastor pastor isis giving giving men mentacit tacitpermispermission to seek beauty beauty where true beauty can be found. In other words, if where true beauty can be found. In other words, ifmen men they are within their their rights have been tricked, they rights to to trick trick their theirwives wives and and have extramarital affairs. Iliana, in the the congregation, congregation, imagines imagines that thatthe thepastor pastor has tired of his aging wife with her her artificial artificial beauty beauty aids, aids, has strayed and got caught, and is is now now justifying justifyinghimself himselfby bygiving givinghis hiscongregation congregationa a twisted message. message. Others Others laugh, laugh, but Iliana is infuriated. This moment in twisted in fiction exposes the codes of conduct to which women are subjected. In his Memorias Memorias the thelate lateDominican Dominicanpresident presidentJoaquin JoaquínBalaguer Balagueraduadulates one one of of Trujillo’s sisters, known known as as Dofia Doña Japonesa. Japonesa. He He describes describes her heras as “una mujer dulce, dulce, con con la la voz voz suave suave yycon coneleltrato tratodedeseda”—a seda”—asweet sweet woman, with andaa silken woman, with aa soft soft voice, and silken manner manner(191). (191).Women Womenare aretrapped trappedinin a long tradition of “softness,” synonymous with silence. Beauty, of “softness,” synonymous with silence. Beauty, as the the pastor points out, out, is is fleeting, fleeting, and and men menare arealways alwaysthe thevictims victimsofoflies liesand and Women in Spanish Caribbean culture tricks. Women culture are areexpected expected to todress dressup. up.The The streets of Caribbean Caribbean ethnic ethnic neighborhoods neighborhoods are are filled filled with withwomen womenwith with long, bright red nails nails (real (real or or not), not),tight tightpants pantsthat thatshow showoff offtheir theirwares, wares, high heels and high heels that thatmay maybe beaaman’s man’s fetish fetishbut butonly onlyruin ruinwomen’s women’sbacks backsand and feet. Women are expected expected to to wear wear makeup makeupand andpretty prettydresses, dresses,look lookfemifeminine, and be a subservient subservient pleasure AAwoman pleasurefor fortheir theirhombres, hombres,their theirmen. men. woman highly when is valued highly when she she cultivates cultivatesher herfemininity. femininity. Pérez exposes exposes the church as as one one more moreplace placethat thatrepresses repressesindividual individual thought and and subjugates subjugates women. women. To To that thatend, end,she shealso alsodescribes describesa atime time when Iliana’s schizophrenic sister Marina is thrown out of church. Marina, when schizophrenic sister Marina is thrown out of church. Marina, who is described as very very fat, fat, dark, dark, thick-lipped, thick-lipped,and andwide-nosed—all wide-nosed—alltraits, traits, Pérez tells us, that that are are ugly uglyby byDominican Dominicanstandards—begins standards—beginstotoact actasasifif she were possessed.’ possessed.7 She She sways swaysand andscreams screamsand andmakes makesaacommotion commotionakin akin

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to a public orgasm. No doubt, doubt, in in certain certainkinds kindsof ofchurches, churches,her herbehavior behavior would have have been welcomed as a sign of would welcomed as of communion communion with with God. God. In In an an Adventist service, however, her conduct is blamed on Satan. Papito, a conAdventist service, however, her conduct is blamed on Satan. Papito, a congregation leader, and his son watch Marina Marina with withdisdain. disdain.The Thechurch churchdoes does such behavior. behavior.Marina Marina isis shaming shaming the the family family and and has to be not accept accept such be eliminated from from that that“sacred” “sacred”space. space. Aurelia Aurelia isis once once again again silent; silent;she shecancanis is accused not defend defend her herdaughter. daughter.Others Othersstand standbybypassively passivelyasasMarina Marina accusedofof being possessed by the the Devil. Devil. After After Marina Marinaleaves, leaves,Papito Papitoisisrelieved relievedthat that Aurelia is worried, but she stands the church church space space is once again peaceful. Aurelia stands by her her man man and andstays staysin inthe thechurch churchfor forlunch lunchfestivities. festivities.No Noone onerecognizes recognizes the dimensions dimensions of of Marina’s Marina’s illness, illness, despite despite her herprevious previoussuicide suicideattempt attempt and prolonged hospitalization. hospitalization. Marina Marinaisisaavictim victimof ofsilence silence and and of of myth. myth. clouded Trujillo’s The story story of ofGeographies GeographiesofofHome Homeis is cloudedbyby Trujillo’slegacy. legacy. Scenes of tacit unholy messages from the pulpit are reminiscent of Scenes of tacit messages the pulpit are reminiscent ofTruTrujillo’s use of of the the church to make his own jillo’s use own nefarious nefarious message message known. known.“Dios “Dios y Trujillo” had to be called out at every every service. service. Trujillo was like God. Anyhonor his one, priests included, who did not honor his godliness godliness would would be be punished. punished. For example, example, the the government required For required that thataapicture pictureofofTrujillo Trujillobe behung hung prominently at the prominently the entrance entranceofofevery everyhouse. house.Trujillo Trujillomanipulated manipulatedthe the populace via via the church sermons. populace sermons. But But the thepopulace populace isiscomposed composed of of indiindividuals who may may find find aa way way out outof of internalized internalizedrepression. repression. that leads Let us look at the sequence of scenes that leads Iliana to to demythify demythifythe the mysterious past—traditions past—traditions of of machismo machismo and and racist racist culture—and culture—andallows allows confront it her to confront it without without fear fear or or shame. shame. Throughout Throughoutthe thetext textwe wesee see Iliana Iliana suffer because she does not fulfill the expectations of womanhood placed not fulfill the expectations of womanhood placed There are are things she cannot change: she she is is thinner thinner and taller than on her. There than her culture’s ideal type. And she refuses to change change what what she she could: could: she she pulls her hair hair back back in a low low bun bun and and wears wears long long skirts skirts and andflowing flowing shirts shirts that do not reveal any starts wearing that any of her body parts. She only starts wearing lipstick in when her her best friend, friend, Ed, points points out that college, when that itit is is becoming becoming and and that, that,by by Western standards, she is is an anincredibly incrediblyattractive attractivewoman womanblessed blessedwith with height, slimness, and aa natural sway in her slimness, high cheekbones, cheekbones, and her walk walk that that models would dream dream of emulating. emulating.Iliana Ilianaisisbaffled baffled by by the thecontradictions contradictionsofof the two two cultures: cultures:she she is is deemed deemed ugly uglyby byone oneand andbeautiful beautifulby bythe theother. other.She She recalls the pastor’s sexist sermon sermonat atthe theAdventist Adventistchurch churchand andhas hasnonodoubt doubt that he would rebuke her androgynous androgynous look. look. Everyone in her family tells her that that she sheisismasculine. masculine.Her Herbrother brotherGabriel Gabrielasks, asks,ininallallseriousness, seriousness,ifif anyone can can tell whether she is aa man anyone man or or aawoman, woman, since since she she wears wears no no makeup and has thick thick brows. brows.

176‘ The 176 TheTears TearsofofHispaniola Hispaniola

Marina is Marina is convinced convinced that thatIliana Ilianaisisactually actuallyaaman. man.Later, Later,in inthe themiddle middleof of the night, night, in in the the middle middle of of one one of of her her dangerous dangerous fits fits of of delirium, delirium,Marina Marina attacks her. She jumps jumps on on Iliana, Iliana, thrusts thrustsher herhand handupupbetween betweenIliana’s Iliana’slegs, legs, Her brother grips, and pulls frantically. Iliana screams in horror. Her brotherTico Tico eveneventually comes tually comes to to remove removeMarina’s Marina’sbig bigbody bodyfrom fromIliana’s Iliana’slimp limplimbs. limbs.Oddly, Oddly, She goes goes to to the the bathroom bathroom to Iliana is frozen calm. She to clean clean the the blood blood off. She tells herself that that she she understands understandsand andforgives forgivesher hersister, sister,that thatshe shecan cansursurvive this horrible violation of her body and this final confirmation of her madness in in silence. silence.“This “Thiswas wasthe thelitany litany that that buoyed her thoughts. thoughts. sister’s madness Bodies recovered. Wounds healed. Scars faded and left no mark” Bodies recovered. Wounds healed. Scars faded no mark”(287). (287). Like Rebecca, Rebecca,like likeAurelia, Aurelia,Iliana Ilianatells tellsherself herselfthat thatwomen womenmust must be be strong, strong, Like unnatural abuses. withstanding and silencing the most unnatural abuses. In deep physical pain and emotionally emotionally numbed, numbed,Iliana Ilianagoes goesback back to to her her bed. She eyes her sister and wants to believe that the worst is over. But it sister and wants to believe that the worst is over. But itisis not. Marina Marina attacks attacks Iliana Iliana with withgreater greatervehemence, vehemence,groping gropinginto intoIliana’s Iliana’s determined to vagina, determined to pull pull out out aa penis. penis. In In even even greater greaterpain, pain,Iliana Iliana lurches lurches The next next day day she she upstairs to find some respite from her sister’s sister’s attacks. attacks. The looking for for Ed Edin Manhattan. She goes looking in Manhattan. She returns returnsin inthe theearly earlymorning morningwith withaa resolution to not not become become the martyr martyr and and victim victim of of domestic domestic violence and unconditional sexism. unconditional sexism. But the the worst worst isis yet yetto tocome. come. When Iliana returns, she is attacked one last time, in a predictable predictable manmanWhen returns, she is ner that, that, nonetheless, nonetheless,she shedoes doesnot notexpect. expect.Her Herfather fatherisiswaiting waitingfor forher herlike like demon: a possessed demon:

fast that that she had no no opportunity opportunity to His arm swung up so fast to move out out of its its reach. of reach. “Shameless hussy! hussy! Whore!” “Shameless Iliana heard heard the thesharp sharpsound soundofofhis hispalm palmasasititlanded landedon onher herface. face.Yet Yet only rage. Rage potent potent enough enough to she felt no pain, only to swell swell her her veins veins and and cause one of them to throb throb rebelliously rebelliouslyon onher herforehead. forehead. “It’s not not bad enough enough one of your your sisters has gone sisters has gone and and lost lost her her mind mind another has and another has crawled crawled back back to her her husband. husband.No! No!You You have have to tostay stay out till all hours of the night like you too have no sense!” again lashed lashed out out with with the the strength strength of his accumulated anger anger Papito again and frustration. Iliana remained where the force of his hand and frustration. Iliana remained where the force of his hand had had against a wall. The The words words hussy hussy and whore knocked her against whore resounded resoundedin in her ears, overriding pain pain and and searing searing aa path path along along her herbrain. brain.(313) (313) albeit in in aa different different context, reminded reminded me Pasién’s beating This scene, albeit me of Pasión’s Rebeccaand and screaming screamingthat that she she shamed shamed him. In both cases of Rebecca cases the the men men

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reacted to some artificial law of respect and honor honor that thatthey theydetermined determined the women women had had broken. broken.The The men menacted actedwithin withinwhat whatthey theybelieved believedwas wastheir their right to punish. Both husband and father believed violence to be within to punish. Both husband and father believed violence to be within their right their rightof of action. action. The women women were were supposed to to accept this punishment punishment without question. without question.Why Whynot? not?Generalissimo GeneralissimoTrujillo Trujilloand andhis hisband bandofofthugs thugs took the same same liberties liberties with with women. women.Violence Violence was imprinted imprinted on on the theDoDominican Republic Republic during its colonial colonial history. The conquistadors conquistadors had had also also raped, pillaged, killed, and abused abused in inthe thename nameofofGod Godand andhonor. honor. The final scene of macho macho bravado, bravado, when when Papito Papito ignores ignoresIliana’s Iliana’ssuffersuffering and her victimization at her sister’s hands, serves as the impetus her victimization at her sister’s hands, serves as the impetusfor for awakening from from guilt Iliana’s awakening guilt and and from fromthe thegrip gripof ofsexism. sexism.ItItisisat atthis thispoint point in the narrative narrative that thatIliana Ilianareconsiders reconsiders her herrelationship relationshiptotoher herfamily familyand and begins to act act out out of ofself-love self-loveand andself-respect. self-respect.At Atthis thispivotal pivotalmoment, moment,I I suggest, the message suggest, message of the text text should should be be interpreted interpretedas: as:the thepast pastmay may haunt you haunt you ifif you youignore ignoreit,it,but butififititisisviolent violentand anddemeaning, demeaning,ititdestroys destroys you when when you you repeat repeatit.it.InInhis hisconsiderations considerationsofofunheimlich, unheimlich,Freud Freudadds adds that “for that “for animism, animism, magic magic and and sorcery, the omnipotence omnipotence of thoughts, thoughts,man’s man’s attitude to death, involuntary involuntaryrepetition repetitionand andthe thecastration castrationcomplex complexcomcomprise practically all the factors prise practically all factors which which turn something something frightening frightening into into something uncanny” uncanny” (243). (243). The frightening frightening circumstances circumstances [liana Iliana returns returns to when she goes “home” “home” are uncanny uncanny precisely because they are involuninvoluntarily, and unconsciously, tarily, unconsciously, repeated. repeated. Machista Machista codes codes ofofconduct conductrepeat repeat that should themselves. And spaces that shouldencourage encouragelove loveand andfamily familysolidarity, solidarity, such as the church, church, deny deny women womenrespect, respect,recalling recalling aalong longcomplicity complicity bebetween church and repressive governments in the Dominican Republic. and repressive governments in the Dominican Republic. frightened by Iliana is frightened bythe thevoices voicesshe shehears hearsatatcollege. college.She Shereturns returns“home,” “home,” which is familiar but insufferable. insufferable. Her Her experience experience at at home home isisveiled veiled by byaa message that that the past will hurt if you repeated message you ignore ignore it. it. Initially Initially she she sets sets out to unearth unearth that thatpast, past,but buther herexperiences experiencesand andobservations observationslead lead her herto to recognize a legacy of sexism, sexism, racism, racism, and andviolence. violence.The Themysterious mysteriouspast pastis,is, in effect, a dysfunctional present. The unheimlich unheimlich isis transformed. transformed.Home Home must be rendered safe or abandoned. must be rendered safe or abandoned. Iliana represents possibility Iliana possibility through through responsibility. responsibility. She She takes takesaction action from the violence that and escapes from that bleeds bleeds into intoher herpresent presentlife. life.She Shedoes doesnot not let herself let herself be be broken: broken: willnot not fall fall or flinch. I will not let you No, No. II will you or or anyone anyoneelse elseever ever me down again. I may have knock me have been been molded molded from from your yourflesh fleshbut but this body is mine mine and andmine minealone. alone.You You will will not notmake makeme mebe beashamed ashamed

178 TheThe Tears 178 TearsofofHispaniola Hispaniola

as my my sister did. You Youwill willnot notmake make me me recoil recoilfrom from itit or or renounce renounce of itit as my life as as II thought thoughtI Iwould woulddo. do.IIwill willsurvive surviveall allthis. this.I Iwill willwalk walkout out of this this house erect. I will amount amount to more than you can ever hope to more than you can ever hopetoto be and you will rue rue the theday dayyou yousaw sawme meleave. leave.(313) (313)

leaves the the broken broken home home that that is no longer haunted in her She leaves her imagination imagination but, rather, is simply dysfunctional. Early Early the the next morning she takes her good-bye to suitcases and says good-bye to her her mother, mother,who whoawaits awaitsher herdeparture departureininsad sad resignation. Even resignation. Even so, so, Aurelia communicates communicatesPapito’s Papito’s position positionone onelast lasttime. time. leaves, Aurelia Aurelia admonishes, admonishes, her prideful father If Iliana leaves, father will will not notallow allowher her to return. return. Aurelia Aurelia asks asks Iliana Iliana to toforgive forgive her herfather fatherbecause becausehe hedoes doesnot not understand his understand his outbursts outbursts and and reactions. reactions. He He did did not not know know that thatIliana Ilianareremained a virgin during the mained the eighteen eighteen months months she shelived lived away. away. He did not understand the the depth depth of ofthe theviolation violationIliana Ilianaexperienced experiencedatather hersister’s sister’s not understand understand Iliana’s need for support and nurturance. hands. He did not nurturance.He He only understood understood old old codes codes of of manhood manhoodthat thatdid didnot notallow allowwomen womentotohave have needs or or opinions. opinions. Aurelia is a prisoner in her her own own house, house, but but Iliana Iliana has has found found the the conficonfidence to leave. She decides to to go go back to to school school in in the thefall. fall.While Whileshe shecannot cannot change her family family or or her her history, history,she shecan can change change herself. herself. Her Herfreedom freedomlies lies in self-respect, self-honor, and hard-earned self-esteem. She is not a dehard-earned self-esteem. She is not a debut rather a person, a citizen in the world, with rights and feated woman, but goals. Unlike Unlike Aurelia, Aurelia, she will not remain goals. remain silent. silent.Unlike UnlikeRebecca, Rebecca, she she will will not deprecate deprecate herself. herself. Unlike Unlike Marina, Marina, she shewill willnot notfall fallprey preytotomadness. madness. Iliana will will take responsibility for her Iliana her own own life life and andface face challenges challenges with with strength. She pride and strength. Sheisis the thedaughter daughterofofthe thediaspora, diaspora,distinguishing distinguishingbebetween old-world myths mythsand andpresent presentrealities. realities. message of of the text Geographies The message Geographies of Home can be interpreted on on many different many different levels. levels. One One significant significant reading reading suggests suggeststhat thathome homeisisone’s one’s inner self. I propound that inner that the the[liana Ilianacharacter characterdelineates delineatesaapossible possible trajectrajectory in tory in which which self-love self-loveisisdiscovered discovered despite, despite, or or perhaps perhapsbecause becauseof, of,aa hishistory of self-hatred and violence. But there is a critical twist that necessarily tory of self-hatred and violence. But there is a critical twist that necessarily complicates this this contention: contention: “Heimlich “Heimlich also has has the the meaning of that which complicates inaccessible to knowledge” (Freud 226). Iliana never is obscure, inaccessible never finds findsthe the that her upup impossible, past that hergrandmother grandmothermentions; mentions;not notonly onlyis isdigging diggingit it impossible, but that that past past has hasled ledtotodysfunctional dysfunctionalbehavior behavior ininthe thepresent. present.Iliana’s Iliana’s home—homeland, casa, casa, patria, family—is plagued by uncanny uncanny memory memory that is is buried buried and and irretrievable. irretrievable. The only route route to tohome—the home—theinner innerself self that exists in the the present, present, freed freed from from the themysteries mysteriesof ofthe thepast—is past—isvia viaaa act of of letting letting go. go. The The future future must must be forged now, and the repeticonscious act repeti-

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tion of tion of violence violence cannot cannotbe be tolerated. tolerated.The TheIliana Ilianacharacter characterserves servesasasa amodel model of the way one can choose to halt the the projection projectionof of aa mysterious mysteriouspast pastthat thatisis nothing other than a trap and/or an excuse to repeat violence. other than a trap and/or an excuse to repeat violence.

Defying Erasure, Discovering Human Potential IIam amlooking lookingforward forwardtotothe thenew newdirectors’ directors’success successininorganizing organizingand andcleancleaning up the National National Archive. Archive. Still, I will never know how much has been lost over the the years yearsfrom fromthe thearchives. archives.I Idon’t don’tknow knowififwe wewill willever eversee seeBalaBalaguer’s famous blank page, page, or or ifif itit existed. existed.IIdo doknow knowthat thatwriters, writers,such suchasas Loida Maritza Pérez, Pérez, challenge challengeviolence violenceand andits itsrepetition. repetition.Social Socialchange change is impossible without without knowledge. knowledge. People People who who reject reject their theirexperiences experiencesare are erased by the very history they deny. However, when there is no way very history they deny. However, when there is no waytoto retrieve a past that that has has been been efficiently efficientlyrecast, recast,trying tryingtotounlock unlockthe thesecrets secrets of that past past can can prove prove frustrating, frustrating,atatthe thevery veryleast. least.Pérez’s Pérez’sprotagonist protagonist faces the the challenge challenge of of understanding understanding that. that. Since her story Iliana faces story is is missing missing so many pieces, itit is is only only when she stops accepting mysterious mysterious evocations evocations hidden past as acceptable acceptable excuses excuses for for violence violencethat that she she is is liberated liberated from of a hidden the presentness presentness of of the the past past and andits itsever-present ever-presentreproduction reproductionofofviolence. violence. narrator succeeds The narrator succeeds in making us feel the intense intense frustration frustrationof ofdenied denied we, as as readers, readers, are are deeply deeply frustrated frustrated by the history. That is, we, the notes notesof ofaa past past that we expect to be revealed revealed within within the text, a past that that neither that neitherthe thenarranarrafinal departure the more tor nor nor we we will will ever ever know. know. This renders Iliana’s Iliana’s final more meaningful. It is not her history she rejects; it is the repetition of the viohistory she rejects; of the the past past in in the the present that that she lence of she renounces. renounces. By not entertaining entertainingthe the repetition of repetition of different differentmodes modesof ofviolence, violence, and and by by situating situatingthe thememory memoryofof the experience of violence in a real past, she gives herself the promise promise of of a simple present and a possible future. and a future. Since Iliana’s Iliana’s family family and national history Since history do donot notoffer offerher hera aconcrete concrete knowledge of herself, she learns learns to to create create her herown ownspace spacein inthe theworld worldand and her own history. history. She She cultivates cultivates her herpersonhood personhoodwith withwhat whatshe shediscovers discovers decides to to interpret interpret it. and how she decides it. This is an act that defies the the perfidious perfidious unmaking of unmaking of women womenand andminorities minoritiesthrough throughdecades decadesofofviolence violenceand andneganegations of that tions thatviolence. violence. In In the theend, end,Iliana Ilianadecides decidesto togo goback backto tocollege. college. She She is is not abandoning her family or her roots; instead, she is finding her place in abandoning her family or her roots; instead, she is finding her place in the world as an active and educated citizen who can defy silenced horrors, horrors, sexism, and violence in both both Dominican Dominicanand andU.S. U.S.culture. culture.Pérez’s Pérez’scharaccharacters elucidate the evils evils of of sexism sexism and and violence, violence, and her her text text serves serves as asaa much-needed memorial that much-needed that honors honorsthe thestrength, strength,struggles, struggles,resistance, resistance, successes of of Dominican Dominican women everywhere. and successes

66

Conclusion Conclusion

Present Memories Present Memories Like aa scar scar Like attached to attached to the aches the aches of of nighttime, Anne Frank Anne Frank visits me visits me often. often.

we live live in in memory, memory, or or in in the the metaphor of memory, or in I know we memory that that does does not not allow allow oblivion oblivion or in in the the imagination imaginationof of memory.

Agosin Marjorie Agosín

Haiti and the the Dominican Dominican Republic Republic share share one one island island and andmany manymigrations. migrations. Unfortunately, they Unfortunately, theyalso alsoshare sharethe theexperience experienceofofconstant constanteconomic, economic,politipolitical, and and natural devastation. cal, devastation. In In2004, 2004, on onthe thebicentennial bicentennialofofHaitian Haitianindeindependence, constitutional constitutional president Jean-Bertrand Aristide was escorted president Jean-Bertrand Aristide was escortedout out office under under the protection of office protection of of the the United United States Statesmilitary. military.Opposition Opposition leaders took over aa country countryplagued plaguedby bydisillusion, disillusion,poverty, poverty,and andviolence. violence. Next door in in the theDominican DominicanRepublic, Republic,newly newlyelected electedpresident presidentLeonel Leonel Fernandez took office democratically but Fernández but immediately immediatelyfaced facedaa potential potentialfisfiscal default. default. In In both both countries, shameless financial fraud has left cal left the the people people with tears with tears of of desperation. desperation.Their Theirtorn-up torn-uplives livesfind findlittle littlerespite respitefrom fromdismal dismal living conditions. This is, of course, course, not the entire picture. A few live the entire picture. A few liveinin relative comfort on both both sides sides of the the island. island. Recent Recent pieces pieces in the the Sun Sun SenSentinel underscore, for example, how Dominicans in the the diaspora diaspora look look for forward to returning returning to totheir theirisland islandbecause becausethey theyfind findthat thatlife lifethere thereisissimsimpler, more more family-focused, and more leisurely. Perhaps nothing can symbolize the shared fate and common suffering suffering of the diverse peoples of Hispaniola than thanthe thetwin twinscourges scourgesofofnatural naturaldi-di-

182. The Tears 182 The TearsofofHispaniola Hispaniola

When hurricanes hurricanes blow saster and poverty. When blow over the the Caribbean, Caribbean, they they buffet buffet the poor on both sides sides of the island, without regard for language language or nanational identity. In 2004 some 200 milliliters of rain fell in twenty-four 2004 some 200 milliliters of rain fell in twenty-four small border border town town in the south. This arid area of the hours on Jimani, Jimaní, a small Republic usually usually registers registers 600 600 milliliters milliliters per per year. year.1 On Dominican Republic On June June 7 Tony Pichardo, communications communications officer officer for forthe theJesuit JesuitRefugee RefugeeService Serviceinin the Dominican Dominican Republic, Republic, circulated circulated an an article article about aboutthe thedevastation devastationcaused caused by unusual unusual rainfall: rainfall: “The “The torrid torriddownpours downpoursleft leftmore morethan than400 400dead, dead,with with further 374 a further 374 reported reported missing, missing, 250 250 wounded, and more than than 900 900 damaged houses, according according to to one one official officialreport” report” (1). (1). Of Of interest interest are the comcomments proffered proffered by by the the interviewees intervieweesin inthe thearticle. article.One OneAlfredo AlfredoParedes, Paredes, a small businessman who lost his entire entire investment, investment,lamented lamentedthat thatthe the although they Dominican state ignored these disasters, although they can can happen happen again in other other places places throughout throughoutthe thecountry. country.Paredes’s Paredes’scomment commentreminds remindsme me schoolteacher that of the schoolteacher thatFreddy FreddyPrestol PrestolCastillo Castilloremembered rememberedininhis hisnovelnoveltestimony. Poor border testimony. border towns towns of of the theDominican DominicanRepublic Republic hold holdlimited limitedininterest for the urban urban elite elite and and the the government. government. Pichardo’s informative informative essay essay articulates articulates issues that recall Pichardo’s recall some of of the the problems that that seem to repeat themselves throughout the problems the course course of of HaiHaitian-Dominican frontier history: history:

According to to human human rights NGO the Dominican-Haitian According Dominican-Haitian Cultural by the River Center (CCDH) (CCDH) the exact number of people affected affected by Soleil’s turbulent waters will never be known by Dominican Soleil’s turbulent waters will never be known by Dominicanauthoriauthoribecause the majority ties, simply because majority are are of of Haitian Haitiandescent. descent.Executive Executive director Antonio said: “As “As most most Haitians director Antonio Pol6é Poló said: Haitians do do not nothave haveofficial official papers that define their status, papers status, nobody nobody knows knows who, or even even how how many people, have died. Their Their names will never be known.” many known.” (1) In legal terms, it seems, Haitians are still undocumented, undocumented, and and therefore thereforedo do very important important official history history in the Dominican Repubnot form part of a very lic. The The frontier regions lic. regions are, are, nonetheless, nonetheless, critical critical areas of history history and and memory for both Haiti and the Dominican Republic. The response to the both Haiti and the Dominican Republic. highlights the recent overflow of the River Soleil highlights the peaceful peaceful coexistence coexistence between ethnic Haitians, whether resident resident or or migrant, migrant,and andDominicans. Dominicans. PiPichardo’s report report points to the selflessness with which Haitians have chardo’s have come across the the border to help across help their theirneighbors, neighbors, bringing bringing food food and and helping helpingtoto recover the recover the bodies bodies of of the thedead: dead: Jefferson, a 45-year-old Haitian, Haitian, was was one one of of those thosewho whotook tookfood foodtoto “We are all brothers” was his sole explanation for the Dominicans. “We

Conclusion:Present PresentMemories Memories 183 Conclusion: 183

why he helped the the survivors. why survivors. Other Othercompatriots, compatriots,such suchas astruck truckdrivers drivers arrived at who arrived at Jimanf Jimaní at dawn, were the first first to to offer offer aid, according to residents. The truck drivers drivers dived dived into into the thewater waterand andrescued rescuedpeople people They returned to help the town. town. They returnedwith withwater waterand andeven evenoffered offeredthe thefood food they were carrying. Many Many Haitians Haitians of of Fort Fort Parisien have continued Jimani to mitigate the to cooperate with Jimaní the tragedy. tragedy. Here Here solidarity solidarity has has Dominican and and Haitian Haitian corpses were buried toovercome prejudice. Dominican gether without withoutdistinction. distinction.(2) (2)

The report underscores underscores the the way waythat thatthe thedisaster disasterhas hasaffected affectedboth bothsides sides and the extent extent of of solidarity—“brotherhood”—that solidarity—“brotherhood”—thatitithas hasinspired. inspired.Since Since the two nations nations share shareone oneisland, island,natural naturaldisasters disastersaffect affectboth bothpeoples, peoples,as asdo do violence and and corruption, corruption, making them political violence them one one in in their theirefforts effortstotosursurvive and/or recover from the tragic vive tragic damage damage brought upon upon their their already already difficult lives.? difficult lives.2 Repeating a powerful scene in in the the history historyofofthe theDominican Dominicanborder, border,inin 2004 many victims were buried, without names 2004 names or or individual individual histories, histories, together, in an effort to mitigate contamination to the the riverbed riverbed caused by rotting corpses. bodies with with no no names names in an unmarked unmarked grave rotting corpses. The image of bodies Danticat imagines imagines the recalls the first chapter chapter of this this book. Edwidge Danticat the lives lives of people in in the frontier region, giving them people them names names and and personal personal narratives narratives that allow us to envision the the simple simple human humanlives lives our ourneighbors neighborsfar faraway away might lead. Perhaps it is at this critical intersection between the desperate might this critical intersection between the desperate sociopolitical conditions conditions of of the the past and the equally economic and sociopolitical equally desperdesperate conditions of the present present that thatthe thequestion questionofofmemory memoryarises. arises.Whose Whose memory gets memory gets written writtenabout? about?Why Whyspecific specific memories memories and and not not others? others? Why Why such a fundamental fundamental element is violence such element of of Hispaniola’s Hispaniola’s memory? memory? It is my my contention contentionthat thatdiaspora diasporawriters—who writers—whofeel feelasasconnected connectedtoto their island island of of descent descent as to to their theirnew newhomelands—are homelands—are haunted hauntedby bythe the ongoing strife experienced by the countries countries that thatshaped shaped them: them:Haiti, Haiti,the the Dominican Republic, the United United States, States, and andthe theinterrelated, interrelated,overlapping overlapping spaces in in these these three three countries. Confronted with continuing spaces continuing hardships hardships in in their homelands, their homelands, as as well as newfound newfound injustices injustices in intheir theirnew newworlds, worlds,they they are tormented tormented by byimages imagesof ofviolence, violence, like like the the bodies bodies of of those thosewho whodid didnot not survive the treacherous treacherous escape escape by by boat, boat,washing washingup upon onFlorida’s Florida’sshores. shores. And they they are are fixated fixated on on experiences experiences of of violence originating originating in in the theignoble ignoble manipulative exploitation and manipulative exploitation and and interventions interventionsof ofthe theUnited UnitedStates, States,vioviolence that is, arguably, arguably, responsible responsible for for the the creation of of Haitian and Domilence nican diasporas diasporas in the first these authors are inspired nican first place. place. Finally, Finally, these inspired by by transecting histories histories of of endurance, endurance, survival, survival, and and resistance resistancein inboth boththeir their

184. The Tears 184 The TearsofofHispaniola Hispaniola

lands and the United States. They They remember remember that the Dominican native lands Republic has has one one of of the oldest feminist movements in Republic in the theAmericas Americas and and that the civil rights movement in the United States has informed notions the civil the United States has informed notions citizenship throughout the of citizenship the Americas. Americas. The authors of these these diasporas diasporas informed by by write stories of pain in an attempt to explain their positions, informed continuing crises crises in Hispaniola and by by economic/racial economic/racial assault in their their host countries. host countries. Belonging emotionally, and perhaps perhaps legally, legally, to two two countries, countries, diaspora diaspora writers offer unique unique stories storiesof of pain pain (dolor/douleur) (dolor/douleur)that thatbeg begfor fora aspace spaceof of mourning (duelo/deuil). But this remembering and mourning mourning are not the not the extent of their political interventions. The writers of the Haitian and Dominican diaspora confront minican confront their theirown ownpolitical politicalresponsibilities, responsibilities,looking looking back to to the the great struggles that their back their ancestors ancestors led—the wars of independence—and engaging in a contemporary contemporary fight fightfor forhuman humanrights. rights.Edwidge Edwidge Danticat, whose writing life and literary literary production productionare arecommitted committedto totwo two nations and two nations two memories, memories, with withmultiplying multiplyingexperiences experiences ofofviolence violence natural disaster, still caused by natural disaster, poverty, poverty, coups d’état, pillaging, and the like, still that the hopes that the constructive constructiveside side of of the thehuman humanheart heartwill willprevail. prevail. mourning, and The tasks of disclosure, mourning, and social social activism activism are are international, international, recognizing a globalized globalized world world where where struggles for justice are recognizing are more more and and more closely interrelated. interrelated. But the literature of the Haitian and Dominican the literature of the Haitian and Dominican also local—to local—to the the islands islands and and to to the United States. Often diaspora is also Often from from within the within the United United States, States, this literature literaturedoes does not not allow allow the the particular particular probprobof these these tiny tiny nations to be forgotten within the larger framework of lems of global misery. Hispaniola’s diaspora diaspora memories memories expose expose both both the the pasts and the presents Hispaniola’s presents that haunt haunt aa new new generation generationof ofHaitian Haitianand andDominican Dominicanwriters. writers.ItItisis preprecisely by by linking linking the the pain pain of of the the past past to the injustice of the present that cisely that some—Cadet, Danticat, some—Cadet, Danticat, Diaz—become Díaz—become energetically energeticallyinvolved involvedwith withhuman human rights projects. Literature as a vehicle that incites human human rights rightsaction, action,II claim, is is defined defined by by present memories. In the claim, the present, present, the thememories memoriesare are both reminders of horror and memorials to underscore survival, resisof horror and memorials to underscore survival, resispossible recuperation recuperation from haunting tance, and possible hauntingviolations. violations. Throughout the Throughout theresearch researchand andwriting writingofofThe TheTears TearsofofHispaniola: Hispaniola:HaiHaitian and Dominican Diaspora Memory |I have have attempted attempted to to show the significance of of literature literature as as an an agent that intervenes in society nificance society beyond the have been been interested interested in showing how the the strict realm of the aesthetic act. II have analyzed texts participate in in the the world world on on behalf behalf of of causes causes of personal liberation and social transformation; and and II have emphasized the ways ways in eration social transformation; emphasized the

Conclusion:Present PresentMemories Memories 185 Conclusion: 185

which autobiography and fiction which fiction create create possible possible routes toward toward healing, healing, action through the understanding, and sociopolitical sociopolitical action the exposition exposition of ofvioviolence, trauma, trauma, and pain. Unfortunately, Unfortunately, my initial utopian vision of literamy initial utopian vision of literature as the the rescuer of humanity humanityisis restrained restrainedby byrealities realitiessuch suchas asthe themarmarket—which is often ket—which often interested interestedininstories storiesofofviolence, violence,and andwhich whichdrives driveswhat what gets published and how it gets sold—the limitations limitations of of memory memoryand andsetsetbacks to to human human rights backs rightsinitiatives. initiatives. Andreas Huyssen has Andreas has noted noted that thatsome somehistorians historiansare areuncomfortable uncomfortable with the the “surfeit “surfeit of ofmemory memoryinincontemporary contemporaryculture, culture,raising raisingserious serious questions about the depth and the effects of our obsessions with memory” about the depth and the effects of our obsessions with memory” (95). These These historians historians are skeptical, skeptical, he he suggests, suggests, worrying worrying that the (95). the present present is held “hostage to to the thepast” past”but butthat thateasy easypolitical politicalororcommercial commercialrenderrenderings of the past past are are ultimately ultimatelyunsatisfying. unsatisfying.Huyssen Huyssencounters countersthat thatthe the imperfections of memory do not undermine its political potential: imperfections of memory not undermine its political potential: “memory and “memory and amnesia amnesiaalways alwaysexist existside sideby byand andremain remainpart partofofa political a political struggle” (95). He concludes that “human “human rights struggle” rightsactivism activismininthe theworld worlddedepends very much on on the thedepth depthand andthe thebreadth breadthofofmemory memorydiscourses discoursesinin the public public media” media”(95). (95). That is, despite recent scholarly scholarly attempts to to trivialize trivialize memory memory disdiscourse into a literary literaryfashion fashionof ofthe the1990s, 1990s,despite despitecertain certainproblems problemsrelatrelating literary literary memory memoryto toactual actualhuman humanrights rightsjustice, justice,and anddespite despitethe thestratestrategic amnesia gic amnesia that always always parallels parallels aa focus focus on onmemory, memory,Huyssen Huyssenstill still believes in the the power power of of memory. memory.And And|Iagree agreewith withhim. him.Were WereI Itotojump jumponon and say say that memory writing the bandwagon bandwagon and writing is is aa passing passing trend trend of of the the 1990s—or, worse, that the consideration of memory by the academy has 1990s—or, worse, that the consideration of the academy has been overdone overdone and and picked picked fully fully clean—then clean—thenIIwould wouldpreclude precludean animportant important critical study of national critical national and and personal personalhistories. histories.IIwould wouldignore ignorewritings writings that lead to much-needed transcultural transcultural and and transhistoric transhistoriccommunication, communication, denunciation, and revelations denunciation, revelations for for the theCaribbean Caribbeanand andits itsdiasporas, diasporas, in in aa gloglobal context. bal context. have ended ended up up with stories of tears, lágrimas lagrimas y rupturas. Ultimately, II have rupturas. The metaphor of tears signals the duality of memory. For example, The of tears signals the duality of memory. For example, memory can can be be liberating liberating but butititcan canbe besuffocating. suffocating.Memory Memorycan canlead leadtoto resolutions, but it can resolutions, can be be the the excuse excuse for for repeated repeated violations. violations. Memory is is always tainted by forgetting. always forgetting. Like Like tears, tears, itit calls calls forth forth both bothobject objectand andacaction. As object, memory memory isisaa memorial; tion. memorial;as asaction, action,ititisisthe theprocessing processingofofthe the that autobiography, past. I have proposed that autobiography,fiction, fiction,and andtestimony testimonyare aresites sitesofof memory. Through in-depth textual textual readings, readings, situated situated in in the theconundrums conundrums contemporary human of history and against against a backdrop of contemporary human rights rightsconsiderconsider-

186 TheThe Tears 186 TearsofofHispaniola Hispaniola

ations, I have examined the the functions functions of of memory memoryininHaitian Haitianand andDominiDominidiaspora writing. I have suggested that can diaspora that certain certain literature literatureininthe thediasdiaspora can be interpreted as a literary memorial to difficult sociocultural as a literary memorial to difficult sociocultural losses. These These literary memorials losses. memorialsincite inciteglobal globalconversations conversationsabout aboutthe theef-efviolence on on individuals, communities, communities, and nations. Furthermore, Furthermore, II fects of violence have argued argued that the have the memory memory of of the theexperience experience of of violence violence can be both debilitating and empowering. empowering. Traumatic Traumatic memory memoryisiscrippling; crippling;in incontrast, contrast, memory can active memory can be be empowering empoweringif, if,and andwhen, when,ititleads leadstotoemotional emotionaland/ and/ or judicial redress. redress. By interpreting interpreting the the characters characters and andstories storiesofofspecific specific novels, novels, II hope hope to to have led readers toward toward aa deeper deeper understanding understandingofofthe thecomplex, complex,and andsomesometimes contradictory, nature of of memory memoryfor forHaitian Haitianand andDominican DominicandiasdiasThe past past may may be be static static or or forgotten, forgotten, but but its interpretainterpretapora communities. The tion is is forever forever dynamic. dynamic. Consequently, Consequently, as II have havebecome become engulfed engulfed inin the Caribbean stories of the Caribbean (from (fromthe theislands, islands,and andon onnewly newlyformed formedand andsomesometimes metaphoric metaphoric islands islands in in the the United UnitedStates), States),IIhave havecome come to to understand understand the forces set in in motion motion by bythe thetrans-Atlantic trans-AtlanticAfrican Africanslave slavetrade, trade,which which shaped a major, painful, and and violent violent diaspora diasporawhose whoselegacy legacystill stilltorments torments us, and by the the colonial colonial mechanisms mechanismsofofdehumanization, dehumanization,plunder, plunder,and andterterIndeed, we we live livein inaaculture culture of of memory; memory; that that memory memory is ror. Indeed, is critical to how identity is is negotiated, negotiated, how how communities communities are are structured, structured,how howfamilies families function, and how the world responds responds to different national and internafunction, Arguably, migrations migrations from the tional crises. Arguably, the Caribbean Caribbean have have shaped shaped aa new new reality for aa growing growing Pan-Caribbean Pan-Caribbean diaspora diaspora population population in in the theUnited United States. Our communities, States. communities, although often often distanced distanced from from each each other otherby by united by language, are also united by aa common commonhistory historyofofviolence violenceand andits itsmemory. memory. asasa a I propose that that this thisbook bookserve, serve,like likean anold oldiron ironportal portalininthe theCaribbean, Caribbean, threshold through threshold throughwhich whichnew newdialogue dialogueand anddeep deepmeditation meditationcan canbegin beginand and continue. continue. With The Tears of Hispaniola Hispaniola I suggest that With that we we rethink rethinkthe thefunction functionofof memory through memory throughthe thestories storiesof ofthe theHaitian Haitianand andDominican Dominicandiaspora. diaspora.And AndII conclude that that the future holds hope only if we oppose the insidiousness future holds hope only if we oppose the insidiousnessof of violence, and fight fight for forpolitical politicaljustice justiceand andsocial socialchange. change.

Notes Notes

Introduction: The Introduction: The Tears Tears of of Hispaniola Hispaniola course, this this could could be be said said of of any immigrant community. 1. Of course, community. I mention mention ititto to counter general myths mythsthat thatall allHaitians Haitiansare arepoor poorand andilliterate. illiterate.To Toaacertain certaindegree, degree, many Haitian The two two are are not not mutually mutually many Haitianmigrations migrationsare arepolitical politicalas aswell well as economic. The exclusive. For For more more information information on exclusive. on Haitians Haitians in inthe thediaspora, diaspora,see seeLaguerre’s Laguerre’sDiasDiasporic Citizenship. His detailed research includes numbers numbers of of migrants migrantsbetween between1982 1982 and 1995. He notes that that the thelargest largestnumber numberofofHaitians Haitianswent wenttotoNew NewYork YorkCity, City,and and some are are not census counts counts because the census some not included included in in official official census because the census has has no no accurate accurate inin way of counting counting illegal illegal immigration. immigration.An Anearlier earlierstudy studythat thatfocuses focusesononHaitians Haitians York City City is Laguerre’s American American Odyssey. New York Odyssey. 2.“The United 2. “The number numberof ofDominicans Dominicansadmitted admittedunder underpermanent permanentstatus statustotothe the United rose, from from 4,603 4,603 in in 1962 1962 to to 10,683 10,683[in [in1963]. 1963]... States rose, . . .. This number increased increased to more than than 16,000 16,000 during during the the1970s 1970s and and to to more more than than30,000 30,000during duringthe the1980s. 1980s.SimiSimisince 1983 1983 the the number of larly, since of permanent permanentresidencies residenciesgranted grantedtotoDominicans Dominicanshas has exceeded the 20,000 per-country per-countrylimit limitset setby bythe theUnited UnitedStates. States.InIn1991 1991and and1992, 1992,the the number of number of Dominicans Dominicans admitted admittedto tothe theUnited UnitedStates Statesgrew grewto tomore morethan than40,000 40,000each each year” (Hernandez (Hernández 22-23). 22–23). 3. Reinaldo Arenas incorporated incorporated into intothe theautobiographical autobiographicalAntes Antesque queanochezca anochezca his own his own death death and andthe theblame blamefor forititasaswell. well. 4. Most studies refer refer to to Haiti Haiti or orthe theDominican DominicanRepublic. Republic. Pioneering Pioneeringtexts textsthat that examine the the two two nations nationscomparatively comparativelyinclude includeEugenio EugenioMatibag’s Matibag’s2003 2003political political text Haitian-Dominican Haitian-Dominican Counterpoint science text Counterpointand andMichele MicheleWucker’s Wucker’s1999 1999socioculsociocultural study study Why Whythe theCocks Cocks Fight. Fight. Still, Still, to date the the literary literaryproduction productionof ofthese thesetwo two nations’ diaspora diaspora has has not notbeen beenreviewed reviewedcomparatively. comparatively. 5. While working on on this thisbook, book,I Icame cameacross acrossFlorence FlorenceBellande-Robertson’s Bellande-Robertson’s Marassa Concept, Marassa Concept,in in which whichshe sheoffers offersan animpressive impressivestudy studyofofLes LesChemins Cheminsde deLocoLocoMiroir (1990) by Lilas Lilas Desquiron. Reading the the pages pages of of her herinvestigation, investigation,I Ifelt felt solidarity: someone someone else else also also believes believes in inthe thepower powerofofthe thenovel! novel! Through her analysis, analysis, she probes the depths of Haitian vodou rituals comprecompreher the perfect reader because of the the respect with which she hensively. Danticat calls her entered the has entered thenovel, novel,thus thusoffering offeringaapoetic poetictext textthat thatexposes exposesthe theconflicts conflictsinherent inherent society. In In the following pages I engage a larger project with in Haiti’s bipolar society. with the the same kind kind of of curiosity curiosity and and respect, respect, and and II have have taken taken every every care care to to try try to be the same the “perfect” (and humble) reader of the works I herein herein explore. explore.

188 Notes totoPages 188 Notes Pages11-21 11–21 6. Critic Pierre-Raymond Pierre-Raymond Dumas Dumasunderscores underscoreshow howHaitian Haitiandiaspora diasporaliterature literature on the the image of aatortured tortured country, visceral attachments attachments to focuses on to aa native native land, land, and feelings of powerlessness; see Panorama. Panorama. These two two nations nations that that occupy 7. These occupy the the same same island island have have intersecting intersectingand anddiverse diverse histories as well as vastly vastly different different perceptions of those accounts and their their impact on histories the present. present.For For example, example, Haiti Haiti has hasaa long longhistory historyofofpolitical politicalinvolvement involvementand andconconsciousness in nation-forming nation-forming discourse. sciousness discourse. Haiti Haiti was was the the first first free freeblack black nation nationin inthe the Americas in in in Americas in 1804. 1804. But But the theDominican DominicanRepublic Republichas hasaacomplicated complicatednational nationalhistory history this respect. The Dominican Republic requested requested to to be be recolonized recolonized by by Spain Spain after afterthe the long and treacherous treacherousHaitian Haitianpresence presenceled ledby byPresident PresidentJean JeanPierre PierreBoyer. Boyer.He Heoccuoccupied Spanish Haiti Haiti in in 1822 1822 and andwon wonthe theDominican Dominicanbattle battleofofindependence independenceinin1844. 1844. Since then, the Dominican Republic’s Since Republic’s national identity identity has has been been imagined imaginedin inconcontrast to trast to Haiti. Haiti. For example, example, in in the twentieth For twentiethcentury centuryTrujillo Trujilloand andhis hissuccessor, successor,Joaquin JoaquínBalaBalaguer, cultivated cultivated an anti-Haitian guer, anti-Haitian ideology ideology that thataffirmed affirmedthe theDominican Dominicannation nationasas Spanish and indigenous in order to to further furtherdeny denyits itsevident evidentAfrican Africanancestry. ancestry.This, This, is is again, was in direct direct opposition oppositionto toHaiti’s Haiti’snational nationalimage, image,where whereAfrican Africanancestry ancestry celebrated. A strong strong similarity, these celebrated. similarity,however, however,stands standsout outininhow howthe theworld worldidentifies identifies these two nations: both continue continue to to undermine underminethe therights rightsofofthe theindividual. individual.InIneffect, effect,the the stories that that are areused usedto todefine defineHaiti Haitiand andthe theDominican DominicanRepublic Republicare areoften oftenbased basedonon that are dodo not overused clichés that are ultimately ultimatelyahistorical, ahistorical,facile, facile,grand grandstatements statementsthat that not honor the honor thedual dualand andintertwining intertwiningrealities realitiesofofHispaniola’s Hispaniola’speople. people.This Thiscreates createsa atentenmemory and sion in memory and representation, representation,which whichII explore. explore. 8. Found at at www.hoy.com.do, www.hoy.com.do,accessed accessed 99June June2004. 2004. L’Homme sur sur les quais 9. See Raoul Peck’s L’Homme quais for foran anexcellent excellentfilmic filmicrepresentation representation of this point. In In 1994 1994 Peck Peck was awarded the Nestor Nestor Almendros Almendros Prize Prize by by Human Human Rights Watch in in New New York, York, and andinin2001 2001hehereceived receiveditsitsLifetime LifetimeAchievement Achievement Award. Award. Turits’saccount accountinforms informs us us that that those 10. Turits’s those killed were mostly mostly small small farm farmworkers workers Does Danticat Danticat use use literary literary license to tell her story? (161). Does story? Or Ordoes does the theuncle unclerememremember it to be in Dajabén Dajabón when when in in fact fact he he cut cut cane cane somewhere somewhere else? 11. Prestol Prestol Castillo, Castillo,28. 28.See Seealso alsoJiménez JiménezSabater, Sabater,Mads Más datos. datos. For an excellent study of 12. For of the the present-ification present-ificationofofthe thepast pastexposed exposedthrough through literature and see Moreiras Moreiras Menor, Menor, Cultura Cultura Herida. literature and film, film, referring referringto toFranco’s Franco’s Spain, see Herida. Huyssen, Present Present Pasts, Pasts, also also makes makes this this point pointwith withrespect respecttotoarchitecture architectureand andnanational monuments. tional monuments. Felman and 13. See also Felman and Laub, Laub, Testimony. Testimony. The issue issue of of memory memory is pivotal here. In conversation conversation with 14. The withfriends friendsboth bothininthe the Dominican Republic Republic and and in Miami, some people Dominican people actually actually remember remember the theTrujillo Trujillo They claim claim that that the the streets were safer then than years with pride. They than they they are are now now and and that they they miss that.

Pages32–40 32-40 = 189 Notes to Pages 189

Chapter 1. Meanings of Memory: A Literary Intervention Intervention to Confront to Confront Persistent Persistent Violence Violence This latter latter point has been greatly disputed 1. This disputed in in recent recent scholarly scholarly debates. debates. France first first abolished slavery 2. France slavery in in its its possessions possessionsduring duringthe theFrench FrenchRevolution Revolution in 1794. Slavery was then thenrestored restoredinin1802 1802and andreabolished reabolishedinin1848. 1848. As stated stated in the Code “ne pourront aussi étre 3. As Code Noir, blacks blacks “ne être témoins, témoins, tant tanten en matiéres civiles que criminelles, matières criminelles, 4à moins moins qu’il qu’il ne nesoient soienttémoins témoinsnécessaires nécessairesetet seulement aà défault aucun cas cas ils ilsne nepourront pourront servir servir de témoins témoins seulement défault de de Blancs; mais dans aucun pour ou ou contre contre leurs leurs maitres. maîtres.... ...|’esclave l’esclave qui qui aura aura frappé frappé son son maitre, maître,sa sa maitresse, maîtresse,le le mari de la la maitresse, maîtresse, ou ou leurs leurs enfants enfantsavec avec contusion contusionou ouéffusion éffusionde desang sangou ouauau puni de visage, sera puni de mort.” mort.” 4. It is interesting that that an an indigenous indigenouspast past was was relevant relevant to to both bothHaitian Haitianand andDoDominican nation formation. formation. Haitians Haitiansidentified identifiedwith withthe thegenocided genocidedArawaks Arawaks as as they they fought the injustices injustices of of the the slave slave system. system.Dominicans Dominicans would would presently presentlycall call upon upon their indigenous indigenous history historyto torecolor recolortheir theirundeniable undeniableAfrican Africaninheritance. inheritance. 5.1I should note that 5. that Joan Joan Dayan Dayan says says the theindemnity indemnitywas wastotobe bepaid paidtotothe thedisposdispossessed French French planters. Other Other studies, sessed studies, such such as as Hurbon’s, Hurbon’s, claim claim that thatthe theindemnity indemnity Again, the the annals of history was to be paid to France directly. Again, historyhave haveconflicting conflictingfacts. facts. importance of of But this is pertinent pertinentto tomy mystudy studyinsofar insofarasasititunderscores underscoresthe thegreater greater importance the events’ events’ impact impact than thanofoftheir theirexact exactdetails. details. Globally,most most dispossession dispossession from from lands arguably arguably occurred 6. Globally, occurred during duringthe thetwentitwentieth century. century. But the will to survive 7. But survive is is far far greater greaterthan thanhuman humanevil. evil.Stripped Strippedofofpersonality, personality, the slaves sought spiritual strength strengthto tosurvive survivetheir theirconditions. conditions.Rather Ratherthan thanforget, forget, the slaves of Saint Domingue Domingue forged forged their theirown ownmemories memoriesthrough throughreligious religiouspracpractices. Vodou Vodouallowed allowedthe theslaves slavestotofind findcommunity community through through their tices. their practices, practices, finding spirit to survive survive the the burden burdenof ofthe theviolence violenceof of slavery. slavery. “The “The unseen unseenpower powerof of voodoo voodoo slave was so terrifying terrifying that thatititsucceeded succeeded in inattacking attackingthe thevery veryfoundation foundationofofthe the slave system” (Hurbon had system” (Hurbon40). 40).Boukman, Boukman,one oneofofthe thefirst firsttotoincite inciteslave slaverevolts revoltsininHaiti, Haiti, had recourse to the the power power of the the Joas—the loas—the semidivine semidivine spirits—and spirits—andpresented presentedhimself himselfasas who would lead his people to freedom. and a god who freedom.Although Althoughhe hewas waseventually eventuallycaught caught and burned to death, the mystery mystery that thatsurrounded surroundedhis hiscapture captureled led to to greater greaterbelief belief in his further empowering the powers, further the slave slave rebellion. 8. It is difficult to talk about how important important literature literatureisisininHaiti Haitibecause becauseof ofthe the high rate rate of of illiteracy. illiteracy. Furthermore, Furthermore, Danticat Danticat writes writesininEnglish, English,and andmost mostHaitians Haitians speak Kreyòl. Kreyol. The The Farming of Bones speak Bones was was published published in inaatranslation translationbybyJacques Jacques Chabert as as La La Récolte Récolte douce douce des deslarmes larmes(Paris: (Paris:Grasset, Grasset,1999). 1999).Danticat Danticathas hasalso also given readings of her her stories storiesin inHaiti. Haiti.Most Mosteducated educatedHaitians Haitiansknow knowDanticat Danticatand and many agree that that her herwork workisisextremely extremelyimportant importantonona political a politicaland andsocial sociallevel. level. Diaspora literature literature creates createsnew newspaces spacesof ofawareness awarenessand andcommunication. communication.Various Various groups, from schoolchildren to human humanrights rightsactivists activistsininHaiti Haitiand andabroad, abroad,are areininformed of the tragedies in Haiti and and then thenencouraged encouraged to tohelp. help. Haitians Haitians recognize recognize

190 = Notes 190 NotestotoPages Pages40-52 40–52

their situation situation and and appreciate appreciate the attention attentiontheir theirstories storiesare aregetting. getting.As As such such groups groups gain knowledge of Haitian circumstances through through the theintimate intimatespace spaceofofliterature, literature, they can take political and social action that may instigate instigate much muchneeded neededchange change in in the way violence violence is is enacted enacted and and ignored ignoredunder underrepressive repressivegovernments governmentsasaswell wellasas under dire under dire conditions conditionsexacerbated exacerbatedby bypoverty. poverty. Vega,Trujillo TrujilloyyHaití, Haiti, 326: “En “En lo lo relativo relativo a la matanza matanza de 9. Vega, de haitianos haitianosde de1937... 1937 . . . es que son tan tan escasas escasas yy fragmentadas fragmentadaslas lasnarraciones narracionessobre sobreesa esatragedia tragediaque quehan han sobrevivido yy provienen principalmente de periodistas extranjeros sobrevivido extranjeros que que estuvierion estuvierion pais con motivo de ella (Quentin (Price-Mars, en el país (QuentinReynolds), Reynolds),yyautores autoresHaitianos Haitianos (Price-Mars, 1953), de exiliados dominicanos dominicanos(Luis (LuisF.F.Mejia, Mejía,1976), 1976),oode dedominicanos dominicanosque quefueron fueron testigos de los hechos pero que publicaron publicaron sus comentarios comentarios tan tan solo solo veinticuatro veinticuatro afios después después de de la la matanza (Freddy Prestol Castillo y Rufino años Rufino Martinez Martínezprincipalprincipalmente), 0o que, afios después, después, entrevistaron entrevistaron aatestigos mente), que, casi 46 años testigosde delalaépoca época (Juan (Juan Manuel Manuel Garcia, 1983).” García, 1983).” 10. Interestingly, the massacre did not not eliminate eliminateHaitians Haitiansfrom fromthe theDominican Dominican During the Trujillo regime, the number Republic. During numberof of Haitian Haitiansugar sugarplantation plantationworkworkers actually actually increased. increased. exclusion ofof poor Dominicans. 11. I believe that itit is is very veryimportant importanttotonote notethe the exclusion poor Dominicans. further precludes This further precludes a neat binary representation representationof of Dominicans Dominicans versus Haitians. “the son 12. Prestol Castillo, “the son of of aa sugar sugaroligarch oligarchresiding residingininthe thecapital,” capital,”lost losthishis favorable position position when when his his father father died died and and left left the the family with outstanding debt favorable (Sommer 163). He found found himself himselfso so poor poorthat thathe hewas wasunable unabletotopay payfor forhis hisdiploma diploma at graduation. graduation. With With the theunexpected unexpecteddebt, debt,he hewas wasdeprived deprivedof ofthe theprivileged privilegedlife lifehe he expected. He garnered inin service had expected. garneredfavors favorsuntil untilhe hefound founda ajob jobasasfederal federalmagistrate magistrate service Trujillo’s government. government. In to Trujillo’s In an an interview interviewwith withDoris DorisSommer, Sommer,he hetold toldher herthat thatsince since his “economic and social marginalization made him him an anearly earlycritic criticof ofTrujillo,” Trujillo,”he he believed itit would be wise to leave believed leave the capital, capital, where anti-Trujillo anti-Trujillo sentiment sentiment was was rising and where informants informantswere wereever everpresent present(163). (163).Regardless Regardlessof of the thereason reasonfor for transfer, he became a rural rural judge his transfer, judge in in the the far-off far-off town townof of Dajabon Dajabón and andwitnessed witnessedelel corte. corte. Doris Sommer’s “El masacre masacre se 13. See Doris se pasa pasa aapie: pie:A A Rhetoric Rhetoricin inSearch SearchofofRefReferents,” in One is isclassified erents,” One Master Masterfor forAnother, Another,for foran anargument argumentofofwhy whythis thistext text classifiedasas testimony. a testimony. The exception exception was with with the growing 14. The growing presence presence of of Haitians Haitianswho whowere werebrought brought to work work in the in specifically specifically to the cane cane fields fields by by government government and andsugarcane sugarcaneindustry industry agreements. They agreements. They did did not, not,of of course, course, become become part part of of the theDominican Dominicannational nationalimage, image, as they were kept in isolation isolation on on the the plantations plantationsand andwere weresent sentback backas assoon soonas asthe the harvest was harvest was completed. completed. The intertextuality intertextuality between 15. The between history historyand andfiction fictionisishere herefurther furtherexemplified. exemplified. Heureuse is Claire Heureuse is the the name nameof ofDessalines’ Dessalines’ wife. wife. Of Of the the many manystories storiesabout abouther, her,one one that she saved the life of aa white white man man by by hiding hiding him under under her claims that her bed bed during duringthe the brutal slaying, brutal slaying,ordered orderedby byher herhusband, husband,ofofall allremaining remainingwhites whitesininSaint SaintDomingue. Domingue. This psychological psychologicalcondition conditionisislike likethe the one one that that family members 16. This members and and loved loved

Pages52–61 52-61 = 191 Notes to Pages 191

experienced—and in in many many cases continue to experience—as ones experienced—and cases continue experience—as aa result of the the Pinochet dictatorship dictatorship in in Chile Chile and and the the military militaryregime regimeininArgentina Argentinawith withitsitstactic tacticofof “disappearing” government dissidents during during the theDirty DirtyLittle LittleWar. War. 17. In an unpublished file of clippings clippings from from the the Diario Diario la Marina, in 17. in the the Kurt Kurt Research inin Black Fisher Haitian Haitian Collection, Collection,archived archivedatatthe theSchomburg SchomburgCenter Centerforfor Research Black Culture, New Culture, NewYork YorkPublic PublicLibrary. Library. her 18. Danticat came to the the University UniversityofofMichigan MichiganininApril April2004 2004totoread readfrom from her The Dew DewBreaker. Breaker.During During the the question-and-answer question-and-answer session, new book The session,aa woman womantold told that her Danticat that her reading reading group group did did not notread readthe theauthor’s author’sworks worksbecause because they theywere were too sad and full full of of violence. violence. This This kind kind of of reader readerposition positionmade mademe meaware awareofofthe thelimits limits people can can and and will will shut shut out of fiction: people out the themessages messages and andthe theimages. images.Despite Despitethis, this, continue to powerful. however, I continue tobelieve believethat thatthe thereach reachand andeffects effectsofoffiction fictionare arevery very powerful. why else would about If not, why would this thiswoman womanhave havebeen beenininthe theaudience, audience,asking askingquestions questions about listening to Haiti and listening to others othersaddress addressways ways in in which which they theycould couldhelp? help?Danticat’s Danticat’s texts texts play a fundamental role role in in consciousness-raising. consciousness-raising. The topic topic of of this this chapter is Haiti, but 19. The but II would would like like to to emphasize emphasizethat thatsuch suchaa study on on human humanrights rightshas hasuniversal universalrepercussions. repercussions.Television Televisionnews newsreports reportsabout about Eastern European European nations, nations,as as well well as war war in in the the Middle Middle East, East, lend lend an an urgency urgencyto tothis this that II cannot topic that cannotignore. ignore. Erzulie isis aahugely hugely important important figure that further 20. Erzulie furtherunderscores underscoresthe thedouble doublenanature, and the multiple ture, multiple interpretations interpretationsand andusages, usages,of ofthe thegods. gods. Joan Dayan informs informs us us that Ezili Ezili (Kreyol (Kreyòl spelling), spelling), “best “best known known as asthe theelegant elegantlady ladyofoflove,” love,”isisalso alsoEzili Ezili Freda in in mild mild Rada Rada rites rites and and Ezili-je-wouj Ezili-je-wouj or or Ezili EziliMapian Mapianin in Petwo Petwoor orZandò Zand rites. Freda rites. In the two two latter latterinstances, instances, she she isismore moresavage. savage. Yet Yet another another interpretation interpretationofofher her “For some someHaitians, Haitians,the the beautiful beautiful coquette coquette is linked linked to tothe the terrifying terrifying Marinétexists: “For Marinètbwa-chéche, who evolves as bwa-chèche, as another anotheraspect aspectofofEzili. Ezili.Ezili Ezilithe thegracious graciousmulatto, mulatto,enenraged by too much coercive praise and and worn worn out out by too much use, turns raged coercive praise turns into into the the cunning and cannibal woman of the night, night, Marinét, Marinèt,the thespirit spiritof ofthe thebush” bush”(Dayan (Dayan 106). These These different different representations representations of the same goddess should be borne in mind 106). we think think about Danticat’s story showing as we showing the the mother motherimprisoned imprisonedfor forbeing beingaalouploupHer guilt is aaquiet quiet woman woman honoring honoring the garou. Her guilt cannot cannot be be proved. proved. All we see is the tears tears of of the Madonna, tired tired and and yet yet not notvengeful. vengeful.

Chapter 2. What Happens When When Memory MemoryHurts? Hurts?The TheHaunting HauntingofofRape Rape Impunity is a huge huge problem in Haiti, so huge huge that the 1. Impunity the country’s country’s judicial system system is largely ineffective. ineffective. International human human rights rightslawyers lawyersconsider considerthe theRaboteau Raboteau case, concluded concludedon onNovember November 9, 9, 2000, 2000,aamajor majortriumph. triumph. Human Human rights case, rightslawyer lawyerBrian Brian Concannon Jr. Concannon Jr. wrote, wrote, “The “The Raboteau Raboteaucase casemarked markedaasharp sharpbreak breakwith witha along longtradition tradition impunity in of impunity in Haiti” Haiti”(641). (641). Raboteau, Raboteau,aa poor poor Gonaives Gonaïves neighborhood neighborhoodof offishermen, fishermen, salt rakers, rakers, and InIn 1985 this and small small merchants, merchants,was wasknown knownfor foritsitsdemocratic democraticactivism. activism. 1985 this community initiated departure of of Jean-Claude community initiated nationwide nationwideprotests proteststhat thatled ledtotothe the departure Jean-Claude Duvalier. After After the Duvalier. the 1991 1991 coup coup d’état, d’état,the theoccupants occupantsofofRaboteau Raboteauwere wereterrorized. terrorized. Young and old men Young men and and women, women,as aswell wellas aschildren, children,were werebeaten, beaten,forced forcedtotolielieinin

192 Notes totoPages 192 Notes Pages61-68 61–68 sewers, arrested, arrested, tortured, in in 1994; while thethe tortured,and andmurdered. murdered.The Theviolence violenceculminated culminated 1994; while international community community increased increased pressure on on the the regime, regime, the theregime regimeincreased increased pressure on pressure on the the Haitian Haitianpeople. people. In In 1996 the the Haitian Haitiangovernment—funded government–funded Bureau Bureau des Avocats Internationaux Internationaux (BAI) case. Avocats (BAI) started startedworking workingon onthe theRaboteau Raboteau case.BAI’s BAI’sConConthat “the cannon wrote that “the Raboteau Raboteau massacre massacre trial reflected broader improvements improvements in in justice system Haiti’s justice systemsince since1994" 1994"(643). (643).Some Someofofthe thejustice justiceachieved achievedincluded includedincarincarcerations and and remuneration to the cerations the victims. victims. Sixteen of the twenty-two twenty-two defendants defendants premeditated murder were found found guilty guiltyof of serious seriouscrimes. crimes.Twelve Twelve were convicted of premeditated murder and received lifetime prison prison terms. terms.Victims Victimswere wereawarded awardedthe theequivalent equivalentofof$140 $140 million in in damages damages (646). (646). Pierre-Antoine, psychologist Lovinsky Pierre-Antoine, psychologistand andfounder founderofofthe thelargest largestvictims’ victims’group group in Haiti, Fondation 30 30 Septembre Septembre or orFondasyon FondasyonTrant TrantSeptanm, Septanm,reported reportedthat thatthe the trial had fair and balanced for victims and alike” (646). He hopes it will trial had been been ““fair and accused alike” serve as as the model serve model for for future future cases cases and and an animproved improved justice justice system. system. While While the the represents a huge activists and sends Raboteau case represents huge breakthrough breakthroughfor forhuman humanrights rights activists and sends anan anomaly. a hopeful message message about aboutthe thefuture futureofofHaiti’s Haiti’sjudicial judicialsystem, system,it itremains remains anomaly. followed attentively attentively the 2. I have followed the discussion discussion addressing addressing this this issue issue in inMay-June May-June 2004 on the Corbett list 2004 list (see (see chapter chapter 6, 6, note note 1). 1). Indeed, Indeed, virginity virginityisisnot notthe theonly only marker of honor thethe world. However, marker honor among amongmany manywomen womenininHaiti Haitiand andthroughout throughout world. However, there is a long tradition tradition in in conservative conservative cultures where where at at least least the theidea idea of of purity purity continues to hold tremendous tremendous importance. importance. When When virginity virginityisislost lostwillfully, willfully, this this asasWhen itit has pect might be ignored. When has been been robbed, robbed, the the violence violence of of the the act, act, combined combined with the with thesilence silenceof of the thecrime, crime,II believe, believe, does does lend lend value value to to aa tradition traditionby bywhich whichvirginvirginity is equated with honor. honor. This is unfortunate, unfortunate, as as ititisisafter afteraacrime crimethat thata aperson person most support. not ignoring needs the most support. Again, Again, not ignoring the theCorbett Corbettdiscussion, discussion,honor honorisisdefined defined and lived up to differently under under different different circumstances. circumstances. It was was not not until until 1971 that that the 3. It the first first public public speak-out speak-outagainst againstrape rapewas wasorganized organized (Herman 29). The speak-out was not a mainstream mainstream event, event, as as itit was was coordinated coordinated by by the New New York Radical Feminists, radical being a key definer. definer. 4. First of all, the economy economy is, is, as as Aristide Aristide has hasstated, stated,ininmisery miserybeyond beyondpoverty. poverty. 5. Interview with author, author, Haiti, Haiti, summer summer2002. 2002.Names Nameswill willnot notbebedisclosed, disclosed,by by members’ request. request. believe, though, though, that that a certain degree of justice has been attained in other 6. I believe, other instances such instances such as as South SouthAfrica. Africa. The most prominent 7. The prominent truth truthcommissions commissionstook tookplace placeininArgentina, Argentina,Chile, Chile,ElEl Salvador, Guatemala, Guatemala, and and South Africa. Salvador, Africa. Other Othercommissions commissionsof oflesser lesserprominence prominence Burundi, Chad, were convened in in Bolivia, Bolivia, Burundi, Chad, Ecuador, Ecuador, Germany, Haiti, Haiti, Nepal, Nepal, Nigeria, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka, Uganda (1974 and and 1986), 1986), Uruguay, Uruguay, and andZimbabwe. Zimbabwe. The commission commission that that was organized in Oslo in June 1994 1994 (and (and finally finally started 8. The work in 1997) 1997) was was called called in Guatemala Guatemala the the Commission Commission to toClarify ClarifyPast PastHuman Human Rights Violations People to to Rights Violationsand andActs Actsof ofViolence ViolenceThat ThatHave HaveCaused Causedthe theGuatemalan Guatemalan People (Hayner 45). other projects Suffer (Hayner 45). This commission commission followed two other projects that thatgathered gathereddata data and testimonials, Catholic and testimonials, the Recovery Recovery of of Historical Historical Memory MemoryProject Projectofofthe the Catholic

Notes to to Page Page68 68 =193 Notes 193

Church’s Human Rights Rights Office Office and and the the Centro CentroInternacional Internacionalpara paraInvestigaciones Investigaciones en Derechos Derechos Humanos (the (the International International Center Centerfor forInvestigations InvestigationsofofHuman Human commission had had fewer fewer limitations limitations than than these Rights). The commission these earlier earlier investigations. investigations.The The report was released in report in February February 1999 1999 in in “an “an emotional emotionalceremony ceremonyattended attendedbybythouthousands of persons in the National National Theater Theater in in Guatemala GuatemalaCity” City”(Hayner (Hayner48). 48).The Therereport exposed “extreme cruelty killing ofofdefenseless often byby beat“extreme cruelty... . . suchas . such asthe the killing defenselesschildren, children, often beating them against walls or throwing throwing them them alive alive into into pits pits where where the thecorpses corpses of of adults were later later thrown; thrown;the theamputation amputationofoflimbs; limbs;the theimpaling impalingofofvictims; victims; them in the killings of persons by covering them in petrol petrol and and burning burningthem themalive...” alive . . .” that a “climate “climate of terror” terror” permeated and noted that permeatedthe thecountry countryasasaaresult resultofofthese these State atrocities. ..... .the the“vast “vastmajority majorityofofthe thevictims victimsofofacts actscommitted committedbybythe the State were not not combatants combatants in inguerrilla guerrillagroups, groups,but butcivilians.” civilians.”InInaddition additiontotorape, rape, killings, and disappearances, killings, disappearances, the commission commission described described the themilitary’s military’s scorched-earth operations scorched-earth operationsininwhich whichcivilians, civilians,suspected suspectedofofproviding providingsupport support to the the armed armedguerillas, guerillas, were weretargeted targetedindiscriminately, indiscriminately,and andwhole wholevillages villages were burned to the the ground. ground.(48) (48) The report, in in no no uncertain uncertainterms, terms,pointed pointedtotothe the“racism, “racism,structural structuralinjustice, injustice,and and nature of the ‘anti-democratic nature of the the institutions’” institutions’”ininpower powerininGuatemala Guatemala(48). (48). Menchti’s 1982 1982 testimony testimony Me 9. Rigoberta Menchú’s Me llamo llamo Rigoberta RigobertaMenchui Menchú yyasi asíme me nacié la conciencia, which has has been been published nació conciencia, which published in more than than twenty twentylanguages, languages, brought international brought internationalattention attentiontotothe theracism racismand andviolence violenceenacted enactedagainst againstthe theMaya Maya populations of the country Writing/telling her populations countryyears yearsearlier. earlier. Writing/telling herstory storywas wasnota not apersonal personal project but, more important, an international human project human rights rights pilgrimage. pilgrimage. Her testitestimony bears mony bears witness witness to to more morethan thanjust justthe thecrimes crimesagainst againsther herand andher herfamily familyand andher her community; it it bears bears witness witness to tothe therisks risksinvolved involvedinintelling tellinga astory—accurate, story—accurate,rereflawed,metonymized—that metonymized—that haunts called, flawed, hauntsaasurvivor survivorand/or and/ora awitness witnessofofrepressive repressive violence. violence. Mencht received Menchú receivedthe the1992 1992Nobel NobelPeace PeacePrize. Prize.This Thisgreat greathonor honorhas hasbeen beenaccomaccompanied by panied by scrutiny scrutinyof ofher herwords. words.Did Didall allof of the theevents eventsshe shedescribed describedhappen happentotoher herand and license to to represent represent the atrocities imposed on the her family? Or Or did did she use poetic license Maya communities communitiesthrough throughher herfamily familyasasa arepresentative representativefocal focalpoint? point?Some Somecritics critics suggested that the have suggested the text, text, written writtenby byElisabeth ElisabethBurgos-Debray Burgos-Debrayfrom fromrecorded recorded interviews with Mencht, Menchú,may mayhave havebeen beentranslated translatedwith withBurgos-Debray’s Burgos-Debray’sown own popoherher litical agenda. Perhaps even even Mencht’s Menchú’spolitical politicalagenda agendaand andaffiliations affiliationsinspired inspired her testimony. testimony. In Rigoberta Menchú Menchiu and and the the Story Story of All AllPoor PoorGuatemalans Guatemalans to color her anthropologist David (1999), anthropologist David Stoll Stoll confronted confrontedMenchu’s Menchú’stext, text,arguing arguingthat thatmany manyofof the details and stories stories Mencht Menchútells tellsare arenot nottrue. true.Disclosing Disclosingviolations violationsagainst againstMaya Maya groups has has come come at at aa harsh harshprice: price:the theconstructive constructivepolitical politicalchanges changesinitiated initiatedbybyher her called into into question. question. In extreme extreme cases Menchú Mencht has work have been called hasbeen been dismissed dismissed as as In 2001 2001 Arturo Arturo Arias discrepancies a liar. In Arias gathered gatheredaaseries seriesofofessays essaystotoaddress addressthese these discrepancies in The Rigoberta Menchu Menchú Controversy. Controversy.InInher herdefense defenseVictor VictorD.D.Montejo Montejoargues, argues, those who “For those who lived lived those thosemoments momentsofofdespair despairand andmassacres, massacres,this thisisisananeffort effortononthe the

194 = Notes 194 NotestotoPages Pages68-73 68–73

ensure that iseffectively effectivelyheard—that heard—that the part of the unconscious mind to ensure that one’s one’s voice is voice elicits elicits aa strong strong commitment commitment and solidarity from those voice those who who may may respond respond imimmediately to human human rights rightsabuses” abuses”(in (inArias, Arias, 372). Stoll responds that the the problem problem having framed lies in her having framedher herwork workas asaatestimony. testimony.Testimony, Testimony,he heinsists, insists,must musttell tellthe the “truth” without without consolidating consolidating experiences experiences for for dramatic dramatic or orliterary literaryeffect. effect.Had Had Mencht called important political Menchú called itit fiction, fiction, however, she and her very important political agenda agenda might might not have received received such attention or or support. support. Her Her voice voice would would have have been been muffled muffled because itit is is generally generally accepted acceptedthat that fiction fiction isis not not truth, truth, and itit therefore because therefore does does not not merit attention. The coup took place at about the 10. The the same sametime timeasasthe theRwanda Rwandagenocide. genocide. 11. Interview of Concannon Concannonby byauthor, author,Haiti, Haiti,summer summer2002. 2002. Informal phone conversation between the 12. Informal the author authorand andCatherine CatherineOrenstein, Orenstein, June 2002. 2002. See www.haiti.org/truth/table.htm. www.haiti.org/truth/table.htm. 13. See 14. Interview of Concannon Concannonby byauthor, author,Haiti, Haiti,summer summer2002. 2002. Despite all of their their flaws, truth truth commissions 15. Despite commissionshave haveincited incitedimportant importantchanges changes many countries, many government in many countries, even even as many governmentofficials officials and and the the ruling rulingelite elitehold holdon onto to patterns of have forced perpeold patterns of human humanabuse. abuse.InInsome somenations, nations,the thecommissions commissions have forced perpetrators to admit admit their theircrimes, crimes, confirming confirming the the truth truthofofthe thevictims’ victims’experiences. experiences. In In truth commission bring some perpetrators perpetrators to Haiti, the truth commissionhas hasserved served as as a tool to bring to justice. Thanks to the commission, Haiti Haiti has has convicted convicted more people of military crimes (alAsAsofof2003, jail, beit many many in in absentia) absentia)than thanany anyother othercountry. country. 2003,few fewhad hadbeen beenput putinin jail, although lawyers lawyers hope hope to tochange changethis, this,as asunlikely unlikelyasasititmay mayseem. seem.Truth Truthcommiscommislocal and diaspora social programs, programs, nongovernmental sions, local nongovernmentalorganizations, organizations,and andhuhuman rights rights groups, groups, as as well well as as literature, literature,all all function functiontotocounter counterthe thedismal dismalHaitian Haitian horror of reality and thus thus aim aim to to make make memories memories of of violence violence a horror of the the past past rather ratherthan than a present reality reality of of reinforced injured injured memories. memories. Calling the 16. Jacobson and Jelincié, Jelincic´, Calling theGhosts. Ghosts. 17. These These women women have have chosen chosen to empower themselves by calling 17. calling themselves themselves rather than “victims” rather thansurvivors. survivors.After Afterall, all,they theylive liveamong amongtheir theirviolators, violators,who whohave have not been punished punished yet. yet. Rwanda genocide, wewe 18. Since the coup coup took took place place at at about aboutthe thesame sametime timeasasthe the Rwanda genocide, might view Michel has might view violence violencein inHaiti Haitiasaspart partofofaasevere severeglobal globalproblem. problem.Claudine Claudine Michel has noted: noted: To date, date, in in all all regions regions of the world (though To (thoughthis thismay maybebeworse worseininsome somecouncountries than others) others) women women and and children children do do not notenjoy enjoythe thesame samerights rightsand and privileges as men. men. Also, Also, gender-specific gender-specific violations, such as as rape, rape, sexual sexualinintimidation, and sex sex trafficking, trafficking, as as well well as as genital genital mutilation mutilationand andfemale femaleininfanticide continue to exist .. . . .and . andrecent recentmass massrapes, rapes,which whichhave havetaken takenplace place with the intended in Bosnia-Herzegovina Bosnia-Herzegovina with intended purpose purpose of of “ethnic “ethnic cleansing.” cleansing.” Abuses faced faced by by the Somalian, Peruvian, or Haitian women may be Abuses Somalian, Peruvian, be less less documented, but are documented, are nonetheless nonethelessasasreal realand anddevastating. devastating.The Thesystematic systematic what Adrien “spirit abuse of these women and mass rape leads to what Adrien Wing Wing called “spirit

NotestotoPages Pages73–86 73-86 195 Notes 195 injury,” a combination injury,” combination of of physical physical and andpsychological psychological effects, effects, which which affect affect not not toto only the the individual individualvictim victimbut butsociety societyasasa awhole. whole.Patricia PatriciaWilliams Williamsrefers refers the same phenomenon phenomenon as as “spirit “spirit murdering.” murdering.”(19) (19) 19. Marie Chauvet, born in 19. in Port-au-Prince Port-au-Princeinin1919, 1919,was wasthe thedaughter daughterofofone one mulatto bourgeois bourgeois highly highly placed placed in in the theHaitian Haitiangovernment governmentand andwas wasmarried marriedtoto another. An accomplished writer writerwho whowon wonthe thePrix Prixdede|’Alliance l’AllianceFrangaise Françaiseand andthethe in in New York Grand Prix Prix France-Antilles, France-Antilles,she shedied diedininrelative relativeisolation isolationand andpoverty poverty New York City. Her book Amour, Colére, Colère, et et Folie Folie was, until until recently, recently, of of great greatinterest interesttotoanan underground Haitian/Haitianist underground Haitian/Haitianist community, community, giving giving itit cult cultstatus. status.Madeleine Madeleine Cottenet-Hage, Ronnie Scharfman, Scharfman, and and Joan Joan Dayan Dayan II would would argue argueare areresponsible responsible for introducing Chauvet’s literature and and life life to to aalarger largeraudience; audience;see see Scharfman Scharfman 245n4. 245n4. 20. Martine’s behavior behavior can canbe beexplained explainedclinically. clinically.According Accordingtotothe theDSM DSMIV— IV— the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual Manual used used by by mental-health mental-healthprofessionals professionalstotoclarify clarify the symptoms symptomsand andexperiences experiencesof of their theirpatients—one patients—oneofofthe themost mosttypical typicalsymptoms symptoms trauma in inin of trauma in PTSD PTSD is is “re-experiencing “re-experiencingofofthe theevent eventininrecollections recollectionsorordreams dreamsoror a dis-associative state [where [where there thereis] is] aa numbing numbingof ofgeneral generalresponsiveness, responsiveness,dimindimininterest in toto feel ished interest inpreviously previouslyenjoyed enjoyedactivities; activities;estrangement; estrangement;reduced reducedability ability feel emotions (especially (especially those associated associated with intimacy, tenderness, and sexuality)” sexuality)” (Diagnostic and Statistical Statistical Manual, Manual,463-65). 463–65). While Santeria Santeria is not not the vodou of Haiti, Haiti, itit isisan animportant important African-Caribbean African-Caribbean 21. While religion that shares religion shares many manyaspects aspectswith withvodou. vodou.This ThisSanteria Santeriaconnection connectionmay maybebe claiming aa larger larger history history of African-Caribbean African-Caribbean resistance Danticat’s way of claiming resistanceand andsursurmanifested in vival manifested inmultiple multiplediasporas. diasporas. For example, example, Emmanuel Emmanuel “Toto” “Toto” Constant, Constant, who 22. For who is alleged to have directed directed his his paramilitary group, paramilitary group, FRAPH FRAPH (Front for the the Advancement Advancement of of the the Haitian HaitianPeople), People), to to rape, torture, torture, and murder thousands rape, thousands of of people people in in the the wake wake of of the the1991 1991 coup, coup, was was found in the the summer summerofof2000 2000living livingpeacefully peacefullyselling sellingreal realestate estateininQueens, Queens,New New York. York. Women’s support support organizations organizations have 23. Women’s have gained gained strength strengthininrecent recentyears yearsboth bothinin Haiti and the the United UnitedStates. States.In InBrooklyn, Brooklyn,New NewYork, York,for forexample, example,the thegroup groupDwa Dwa (Haitians Against Fanm (Haitians Against Violence Violence at at Home HomeProject, Project,and andRestavék RestavèkProject, Project,ininBrookBrooklyn, New DwaFanm.org) has since lyn, New York, DwaFanm.org) hasbeen beenworking workingfor forwomen’s women’sand andgirls’ girls’rights rights since organizing activities and reaching out out to women 1999, organizing women who who would would otherwise otherwise remain remain isolated like isolated like Martine. Martine. 24. In an interview with the author 24. author in in Haiti Haiti in inthe thesummer summerofof2002, 2002,Haitian Haitian Pierre-Antoine noted hehe psychologist Lovinsky Pierre-Antoine notedthat thatduring duringhis hiswork workininMontreal Montreal had mostly African, not Haitian, Haitian, patients. patients. At At that thattime timethis thiskind kindofofwork workwas wasnew, new, and little little information and informationwas wasavailable available about about who who would would benefit benefitfrom fromititor oreven evenseek seekit. it. the period of the the Duvalier Duvalier dictatorships, Montreal Montreal had Since the had been been aa major major harbor harborfor for Haitian refugees, and Pierre-Antoine Pierre-Antoinehad hadinitially initiallyexpected expectedtotohave havesome someHaitian Haitian lamented, he clients. However, he lamented, he met metnone noneininaaformal formalcounseling counselingsituation. situation. work on on survivors survivors of 25. For example, see Peter Elsass’s Elsass’s work of torture. torture.

196 Notes totoPages 196 Notes Pages86-103 86–103 26.1I say say “relatively” “relatively” because I have have no no doubt doubt that, in moments moments of 26. of political unrest unrest Haiti, she in Haiti, she considers considersher herwords wordsbefore beforeacting actingout outtoo toocritically criticallyfor forfear fearofofjeopardizjeopardizing the lives of the family she has still still living in in Haiti. Haiti. 27. At her reading reading in in Ann AnnArbor, Arbor,Michigan, Michigan,in inApril April2004 2004Danticat Danticatmentioned mentioned that she she writes writes to to work work through throughthe thesad sadthings. things.

Chapter 3. Exposing Invisibility: Chapter Invisibility: Drown Drown These are contrasted Yol, Mufiiz, in in 1. These contrastedby bythe the1996 1996film filmNueba Nueba Yol,directed directedbybyAngel Ángel Muñiz, which the protagonist protagonistencounters encountersabuse abuseand andexploitative exploitativeworking workingconditions conditionsininNew New York City City and and returns returns to York to his his island island at at the theend. end. The French Los Boys, published published in 2. The in2000 2000by byLa LaFléche, Flèche, was was preceded precededin in1998 1998by by Plon edition edition of the the same Rémy Lambrechts translation, a Plon translation,titled titledComment Commentsortir sortirune une latina, une latina, une black, black, une une blonde blonde ou ou une unemétisse métisseafter afterthe thestory story“How “HowtotoDate Datea aBrownBrownWhitegirl, or girl, Blackgirl, Whitegirl, or Halfie.” Halfie.” In contrast to the 3. In the marketing marketingof oftiger-type tiger-typesuccess successsuggested suggestedby bythe thetitle titleNegoNegocios, Díaz Diaz remarks, remarks, “I “I think think that that if you’re poor cios, poor in in the the United UnitedStates, States,chances chancesare areyou you are going to be poor for a very long time. It is very much the the same same way way in in Santo Santo Domingo. People Peoplesay saythere there are are lots lots of of opportunities here. And And when a country is Domingo. very big, and Céspedes 893). InIn very big, some some weird weird permutations permutationshappen” happen”(Torres-Saillant (Torres-Saillant and Céspedes 893). migration is other words, migration is not not the thepanacea panacea ititisis often oftentouted toutedtotobe. be.His Hisstories storiesshow show that many manyof ofthe thesame sameproblems problemsare areexperienced experiencedboth bothininthe theDominican DominicanRepublic Republic and in marginal, marginal, poor poor communities communities in inthe theUnited UnitedStates. States.Diaz Díazremembers remembersthat thathis his Villa Juana, Juana, was wasvery very poor poor and and lacked lacked running running water and native village, Villa and electricity electricity until the the late late eighties. eighties. In Incontrast, contrast,most mostDominicans DominicansininNew NewJersey Jerseyand andNew NewYork York ofofdegree. can count on electricity electricityand andrunning runningwater. water.Poverty Povertyisisa amatter matter degree.Still, Still,people people have to aguantar, aguantar,put putup upwith, with,different differentlevels levelsofofpoverty povertyand andresist resistbeing beingmade made invisible by it. it. Sagas claims claims that that Trujillo’s Trujillo’sreign reign was was the the zenith zenith of anti-haitianismo, anti-haitianismo, 4. Ernesto Sagás which is the “manifestation “manifestation of of the the long-term long-termevolution evolutionofofracial racialprejudices, prejudices,the theseseinterpretation of lective interpretation ofhistorical historicalfacts, facts,and andthe thecreation creationofofaanationalist nationalistDominican Dominican consciousness” (21). false consciousness” (21). This is is not not to to say say that dictatorship 5. This dictatorship and and governmental governmentalcorruption corruptionare areunrelated unrelated to the conditions conditions Diaz Díaz writes writes about. about. However, However, Diaz Díaz creates characters symbolizing the numerous numerous people people who who are are not notexplicitly explicitlyaware aware of of the theimpact impactof ofcorruption corruptionand and dictatorships on dictatorships on their theirlives. lives. At the the same time, the 1965 Hart-Celler Hart-Celler Act 6. At Act in in the theUnited UnitedStates States“made “madefamily family reunification aa priority priority for gaining reunification gaining entry into into the the United United States,” States,” as as Carola Carola and and Sudrez-Orozco note (56). this Marcelo Suárez-Orozco notein in“Rethinking “RethinkingImmigration” Immigration” (56).They Theyadd addthat that this recruited people wave ofof act, which also recruited peoplewith withneeded neededskills, skills,caused causedan anunprecedented unprecedented wave diverse migrations. They argue that thatprior priortotothe theHart-Celler Hart-CellerAct, Act,migrations migrationswere were predominantly Canadian came from predominantly Canadianand andEuropean. European.The Themost-educated most-educatedimmigrants immigrants came from the Jewish communities communities escaping escaping Nazism. Nazism. However, However, since 1965 the the United UnitedStates States has experienced a shift in which migrations migrations come come mostly mostlyfrom fromLatin LatinAmerica, America,the the

Pages103–119 103-119 = 197 Notes to Pages 197

According to to the the authors’ long-term Caribbean, and Asia. According long-termstudy studyatatthe theHarvard HarvardImImmigration Project, category ofof people migration Project, immigrants immigrantstoday todayare are“overrepresented “overrepresentedininthe the category people with doctorates just just as as they theyare areoverrepresented overrepresentedininthe thecategory categoryofofpeople peoplewithout without (56).Their Their study study points points to the diversity of immigrant high school diplomas” (56). immigrant expeexpeand rience caused by by original originalclass classand andeducational educationalbackground backgroundasaswell wellasaspolitical political and economic opportunities opportunities proffered by the economic the United UnitedStates Statestotodifferent differentethnic ethnicand andnanational groups. groups. Pedro San Miguel’s original original words 7. Pedro wordswere: were:“La “La mision misiónde delalahistoriografia historiografíafue, fue,enen primera instancia, primera instancia,trazar trazarlos losavatares avataresde delalanacion. nación.Mas Masese eseproyecto proyectoseseredujo, redujo,enenlala mayoria de los mayoría los casos, casos, aa una unasuerte suertedede‘biografia ‘biografíadel delEstado,’ Estado,’suceddneo sucedáneo en enlas las narraciones histéricas históricas del del colectivo colectivo nacional. En las sociedades en que emergieron emergieron regimenes politicos politicos autoritarios autoritarios o abiertamente dictatoriales, regimenes dictatoriales, fue mucho mas más papaentre la historiografia tente la relacion relación entre historiografía yy el el poder” poder” (19). (19). 8. A cover 8. cover story in in the theDominican Dominicanmagazine magazine Rumbo Rumbo titled titled“El “Elprecio preciode delala armario al mundo” mundo” (30 diferencia: Del armario (30 October October 2000) 2000) notes notesthat thatan anabysm abysmseparates separates the closet and the the rest rest of of the the world world(49). (49). The The article article also spotlights spotlights an anactivist activistgroup, group, Amigos Siempre Amigos SiempreAmigos, Amigos,working workingagainst againstthe thesilence silenceand andtaboos taboosfaced facedbybythe thehomohomoThis well-documented and thoughtful thoughtful story sexual population. This storyfollows follows others othersprepresented by Rumbo, such as “Homosexuales unidos unidos en en el el nombre nombrede deDios” Dios”(26 (26 June June “Lesbianas en 1994). 1995) and “Lesbianas en RD: RD: Un Un mundo mundodesconocido desconocidopero peroreal” real”(18 (18February February 1994). Of particular Of particular interest is is another anotherstory, story,“La “Laburocracia burocracia que que recibid recibió Leonel: Leonel: La La dramatica situacién Villalona dramática situaciónde dePena” Peña”(16 (16September September1996), 1996),which whichdisclosed disclosedLuis Luis Villalona Pérez’s request request for a visa to stay Pérez’s stay in in the theUnited UnitedStates. States.He Heclaimed claimedthat thatthe thediscrimidiscrimination he he received received in in the theDominican DominicanRepublic Republic for forhis hisopen openhomosexuality homosexualityjeoparjeopardized his physical safety. This This was was discounted discounted by a number dized physical safety. number of of Dominicans, Dominicans, who who claimed that that he was exaggerating and that claimed that people people accepted him. At about the same time that that Diaz Díaz was was publishing publishing Drown, Drown, these theseissues issues were weretaking takingcenter centerstage stageininthe the sexual preference Dominican Republic, making making way wayfor forthe thevisibility visibilityofofa ashunned shunned sexual preference that does does not not comply comply with withnational nationalheterosexist heterosexistformulations formulationsofofDominican Dominicanidenidentity. Capellan, cited in Moya 9. Capellán, Moya and andGarcia García122. 122.Because Becauseof ofthe thepopulation populationstudied, studied,the the nationalist Dominican nationalist Dominicandiscourse discourse segregating segregatingHaitians Haitiansand andHaitian HaitianDominicans Dominicansfrom from the rest of of the the Dominican Dominican national national imaginary imaginary isis further furtherenforced, enforced, with withthe theadded added fear of fear of AIDS. AIDS. “Pero lo cierto cierto es que que las discusiones sobre los derechos de los homosexuales homosexuales 10. “Pero Reptiblica Dominicana Dominicana apenas apenas afloran afloran públicamente, ptblicamente, debido de la República debido quizas quizás a las mumurallas morales morales que que impone imponelalasociedad sociedad dominicana” dominicana”(“En (“EnRD RDmuralla murallamoral moralimpide impide debatir sobre sobre homosexualidad,” homosexualidad,”Hoy, Hoy,22July July2001). 2001).

Chapter 4. Chapter 4. Modes Modes of of Memory: Memory:The TheRestavek RestavèkCondition Conditionand and Jean-Robert Cadet’s Jean-Robert Cadet’s Story Story 1. Cadet’s book, written written and initially 1. Cadet’s book, initially published published in in English, English, spells spells the theword word restavec. In In the Haitian restavec. Haitian national nationallanguage, language, Kreyol, Kreyòl, and and ininthe theHaiti HaïtiSolidarité Solidarité

198 Notes to to Pages 198 Notes Pages119-130 119–130

Internationale document de la pratique Internationale document Les Les Fondements Fondements de pratique de delaladomesticité domesticitédes des enfants en enfants en Haiti Haïtithe theword wordisisspelled spelled“restavék.” “restavèk.”InInthis thischapter chapterI Iwill willuse usethe theKreyol Kreyòl word when discussing the the issue issue and and the the Cadet Cadet spelling spelling when when referring referringspecifically specifically to to his text. his text. documentary video 2. Karen Kramer’s 2001 documentary videoChildren Childrenofofthe theShadows. Shadows. 3. Consequently, human human rights rightsorganizations, organizations,social socialwork workgroups, groups,researchers, researchers, writers are filmmakers, and writers are devoting devotingresources resourcesto toraising raisingawareness awarenessofofthis thisgrowing growing phenomenon, through phenomenon, throughfilms filmssuch suchasasFrode FrodePederson’s Pederson’sThey TheyCall CallMe MeDog, Dog,funded funded and through studies and distributed by UNICEF, UNICEF, and studies including including Archer Archer and and McCalla, McCalla, Restavék No More; Restavèk More; Haiti Haïti Solidarité Solidarité Internationale, Internationale,Fondements Fondementsde delalapratique; pratique;E.E. Restituer L’Enfance; Condition des Trouillot, Restituer L’Enfance; H. Trouillot, Condition des négres nègresdomestiques; domestiques;and and UNICEF Haïti, Haiti, Enfants Enfants d’Haïti d’Haiti en situation situation particulérement UNICEF particulèrementdifficile. difficile. Tele Timoun is aa government-owned, 4. Tele government-owned,pro—Fanmi pro–Fanmi Lavalas Lavalas television station station that has programming. However, that has as its mission mission the the broadcast broadcast of of children’s programming. However, observers observers say it is primarily used to to broadcast broadcast pro-Aristide pro-Aristide propaganda. propaganda. it it 5. I tried to contact contact the the filmmaker filmmakertotoscreen screenthe thefilm. film.She Shetold toldme meI had I hadtotobuy buy and had no time time to to meet meetwith withme metotodiscuss discussthe thefilm, film,its itseffects effectson onHaitian Haitianchildren, children, the reception/action Sadly, or the reception/actionititisisreceiving receivingininthe theUnited UnitedStates. States. Sadly,I wonder I wonderif ifthis thisfilm film about exposure rights activism isn’t more about exposure for for the thefilmmaker filmmakerthan thanabout aboutreal realhuman human rights activism human healing. and human healing. 6. Tim Padgett’s Time article “Of “Of Haitian HaitianBondage” Bondage”(5(5March March2001) 2001)discloses disclosesa a growing use of restavéks growing restavèks in in the theUnited UnitedStates. States.He Hementions mentionsthat thatit is it especially is especially run to to thethe police, difficult for authorities authoritiestotofind findthese thesechildren childrenbecause becausethey theydodonot not run police, fearing that thatthe theU.S. U.S.legal legal system systemwill willbe beasasbrutal brutaltotothem themasasHaiti’s; Haiti’s;also, also,the thechilchildren do not want their their “grown-ups/aunts” “grown-ups/aunts”totoface facereprisal. reprisal.ItItisisinteresting interestingthat thatthe the InIn thethe children interviewed interviewed in in Haiti Haitiwere weremore moreforthcoming forthcomingwith withtheir theirinformation. information. United States they United they feel feel greater greatershame shameand andisolation. isolation.Since Sincethe the1990s, 1990s,HaitianHaitianAmerican activists Romer have brought brought the American activists and social workers such as Romer the matter matterto tothe the authorities and Attorney Philippe first Haitian Ameriauthorities and the the public. public. Attorney Philippe Brutus, Brutus, Florida’s Florida’s first can state legislator, told Padgett, “We are are not notgoing goingtotolet lettraditions traditionslike likerestavek restavèk flourish here us.” flourish herebecause because we we know knownow nowthat thatAmerica Americaisisthe thegreat greatequalizer equalizeramong among us.” Jean-Bertrand Aristide called the practice “one of the cancers in our our social social body in Haiti that thatkeep keepdemocracy democracyfrom fromgrowing.” growing.” 7. In Haiti, these women can can be be referred referred to toas as“mother” “mother”(rarely), (rarely),“aunt” “aunt”(most (most “grown-up” or commonly), “godmother” (sometimes), or “grown-up” or “adult” “adult”to toshow showthe thestastatus of overseer. Regardless of the title, title, they theyare arerarely rarelyrelated relatedtotothe thechild childand andareare often abusive. often abusive. sad to to make make the the connection, connection, but thethe 8. It is sad butin inaa country countrythat thatisisrenowned renownedforforbeing being slavery, these these stories stories are are shamefully shamefully reminiscent of the humiliation first to abolish slavery, humiliation slaves were subjected to. 9. News reports such as Carolyn Carolyn Salazar’s Salazar’s piece in the the Miami MiamiHerald, Herald,“One “Oneinin Children in Ten Children inHaiti HaitiIsIsEnslaved” Enslaved”(13 (13April April2002), 2002),signal signala anew, new,and andillegal, illegal,trend trendofof without changing their Haitians bringing their their restavéks restavèks to the United States without their harsh harsh

Pages130–149 130-149 = 199 Notes to Pages 199

treatment. Although treatment. Althoughthis thisphenomenon phenomenonhas hasreceived receivedattention attentionfrom fromsocial socialworkers, workers, many of many of these thesechildren childrenare arekept keptclandestinely. clandestinely. And anyone who process 10. And who writes writesunderstands understandswhat whata aslow slowand andchallenging challenging process this is. this is. Today that that would be called psychological essentialism. According to psycho11. Today psychoessentialists, memory memory is logical essentialists, is “fundamentally “fundamentallyaamental mentalprocess, process,orormore moreformally, formally, oror ofof recalling oror recogthe mental mentalcapacity capacityof ofretaining retainingand andreviving revivingimpressions, impressions, recalling recognizing previous previous experiences” experiences”(Gergen (Gergen78). 78).A self-memory, self-memory,according according to to psychologipsychologiessentialism, would places, and activical essentialism, wouldinclude includeexact exactdetails detailssuch suchasasnames, names, places,dates, dates, and activicould, and arguably do,do, change ties. It would not not engage engagesubjective subjectiveobservations observationsthat that could, and arguably change with retelling with retellingand andan anindividual’s individual’sdifferent differentlife lifestages. stages. Sadly, Douglass’s Douglass’swork work did did not not extend to women’s 12. Sadly, women’s rights. rights. Abolitionist Abolitionist disdisin in course of the the period period tended tendedtotofocus focusmostly mostlyononmen’s men’srights. rights.This Thisis isalso alsonotable notable Henry Box ofof Henry Box Brown’s Brown’s life history. history. ItIt seems seemsthat thathe hecould couldhave havebought boughthis hiswife wifeout out slavery but but never neverdid. did. When Cadet was 13. When was in in Haiti, Haiti,his hisbiological biological father, father,Blanc Blanc Philippe, Philippe, was was always always referred to as as aa good good man, man, both bothbecause because he hehad hadmoney moneyand andbecause becausehe hewas waswhite. white. Cadet’s memory memory of his father Cadet’s father isis rather ratherbinary. binary.He Hedoes doesnot notrecognize recognizethat thathis hisfather father after all, not such a good man. Reminiscent is, after Reminiscent of of slave slave owners, owners, Philippe Philippe has has numernumerous affairs with women who work in his factories, leading to illegitimate children children he he neither claims claims nor nor raises. raises. Later Later scenes scenes in inCadet’s Cadet’s autobiography autobiography show showan anangry angry regardless of Cadet’s successes and gifts, will not grant Philippe who, regardless grant legitimacy, legitimacy,or or even love, to him. him. Girls are highlighted, highlighted, for 14. Girls forexample, example,ininthe the1996 1996UNICEF UNICEFdocudrama docudramaThey TheyCall Call Me Dog (see Pederson). Testimony has become central central in the exploration exploration and 15. Testimony and denunciation denunciationof ofhuman human rights abuses throughout throughoutthe theworld. world.Consequently, Consequently,over overthe thecourse courseof ofthe thelast lastfifty fifty years, studies, especially academic ones, have sprouted sprouted attesting attestingto, to,and andcontesting, contesting, the power of testimony. testimony. The The veracity veracity of of aa life experience experience is always put put into intoquestion question memory. Questions Questions as to to who who remembers, remembers, why why that that particular by the inaccuracy of memory. ofof memory, and to whom whom the thememory memoryisisaddressed addressedseem seemtotoconsume consumeinterpreters interpreters memory and and testimony. testimony. By By extension, extension, an an autobiography autobiography that thatreveals revealsabuse abusefor forthe the and calling forfor sociopolitical action is is express purpose purposeof ofdenouncing denouncingaahuman humancrime crime and calling sociopolitical action a distinctive form form of of testimony. testimony. Jonassaint (Pouvoir, (Pouvoir, 140) 140) notes notes that Luc Grimard 16. Jonassaint Grimard says says in in his hispreface preface to tothe the second edition of Justin Lhérisson’s Lhérisson’s Zoune Zoune chez sa ninnaine ninnaine that, second that,according according to to the the dictionary, coup d’Cadet Jacques Jacques means meansviolation, violation,rape. rape.Freeman Freemanand andLaguerre’s Laguerre’s 1998 Haitian-English Haitian-English Dictionary 1998 Dictionary has has kadejak kadejakmeaning meaningrape. rape. In the foreword to 17. In to the the NCHR NCHRreport, report,Edwidge EdwidgeDanticat Danticatreminds remindsusus“that “thatthe the restavék system distressing global phenomenon. phenomenon. Rights restavèk system is is part part of a distressing Rights belong belong to to the the 250 million children worldwide who are exploited for their their labor. labor. Thus we we cannot, cannot, and and should not, harbor harbor this thispractice practice on oncultural culturalgrounds. grounds.ItItisisananinjustice injusticenonomatter matter where itit happens where happensand andititshould shouldbebestopped” stopped”(Archer (Archerand andMcCalla). McCalla).

200 Notes to to Pages 200 Notes Pages149-168 149–168 18. Cadet Cadet chooses chooses to to describe describe himself himself as “restavec” and 18. as aa “restavec” and not not as as aa child child domestic domestic laborer. It It must be noted that restavék children. They laborer. that Cadet’s Cadet’s case is not typical of restavèk rarely have contact with their parents parents and and are, are, to a certain extent, abandoned to the poverty of the city. city. Cadet can trace his family origins origins and, and, with with money money from fromhis his father, manages manages to travel back white biological biological father, back to meet meet his hismother’s mother’sfriends. friends.He He hishis learns about his his mother motherand andfinally finallyspeaks speakswith withhis hisabsent absentfather. father.Although Although mother is mother is deceased deceased and his father father refuses refusesto toacknowledge acknowledgepaternity, paternity,Bobby Bobbycan cantrace trace identify with abandons and identify withhis hisfamily familyroots. roots.InInaddition, addition,Blanc BlancPhilippe Philippenever nevertotally totally abandons Bobby. Philippe Philippe makes makes sure sure that he Bobby. he has has aa home, home, even even ifif itit is is not not his hisown. own.This Thisplaces places Bobby more more in the category of timoun kay Bobby kay moun, moun, aa child child at at someone’s someone’s house, or timoun kay timoun kaybélmé, bèlmè,aachild childatataastepmother’s stepmother’sorormother-in-law’s mother-in-law’shouse. house. In aa new, new,growing growingtradition tradition of of diaspora diaspora literature, literature, writers who are emotion19. In emotionally anchored in both Haiti and the United States unravel unravel painful painful memories memories of of viodehumanization totodiscover lence and dehumanization discovertheir theirplace placeininthe theworld worldasascitizens citizensand andactive active advocates for human advocates human rights. rights.Like LikeEdwidge EdwidgeDanticat, Danticat,Joanne JoanneHyppolite, Hyppolite,Assotto Assotto Saint, and Myriam Myriam J.J. A. A. Chancy, Chancy, Cadet fights fights for forthe thepotential potentialofofHaiti Haitiasasa agreat great nation and Haitians Haitians as as aagreat greatpeople. people. Like Like his his fellow fellow diaspora diaspora writers, writers, he he isisnot not unaware of the challenge this represents. represents.

Chapter 5. Mapping Chapter Mapping Home: Home:Inaccessible Inaccessible Memories Memories 1. In In October October 2004, the the National Archive welcomed new directors Roberto Roberto Cassa Cassá Quirtis and Bernaldo de Quirús and Raymundo RaymundoManuel ManuelGonzalez Gonzálezde dePefia. Peña.They Theyare areembarking embarking save itsits collection on a carefully carefully crafted crafted long-term long-termplan plantotofix fixthe thearchive archiveand and save collection 2.What 2. Whathappened happenedto tothe thebodies bodiesthat thatdisappeared disappearedduring duringTrujillo’s Trujillo’s reign reignof of terror? terror? Trujillo’scast-off cast-offlovers? lovers?What Whatreally really happened happened to to the the money the What became of Trujillo’s Trujillo family family had had stashed rule crueler Trujillo stashed away? away? How How was Balaguer’s Balaguer’s rule crueler than his his predecessor’s? Viriato Sención Sencién describes 3. Viriato describes this thisin inhis hisnovel novelLos Los que que falsificaron falsificaronlalafirma firmadedeDios. Dios. though all of the names names have been changed, everyone everyone knows Even though knows who who the the protagoprotagonists are. nists are. 4.“New 4. “New York York City hosts hosts the the largest largest concentration concentrationof ofDominicans Dominicansoutside outsideof oftheir their home island island of of Hispaniola. Hispaniola.In In1990, 1990,aatotal totalofof332,713 332,713were werereported reportedtotobebeliving livinginin City, comprising comprising 65 percent of the the total New York City, total Dominican Dominicanpopulation populationininthe theU.S.” U.S.” (Hernandez, quoted A Visa Visafor foraaDream: Dream:Dominicans Dominicans in in the the United United States, (Hernández, quoted in in Pessar, A Dominican leaders leaders argue argue that that the number 22). Dominican number isis actually actually twice twice that thatnumber, number,ifif not not three times, times, since since many many Dominicans Dominicans are are illegal illegal and and have haveavoided avoided census census reports reports (ibid.). 5. In theory, this is is the the way way ititshould shouldbe. be.However, However, ifif we we look look at at the thenumber numberofof households led by single mothers, mothers, both households both in in the the Dominican Dominican Republic Republic and in the the United United communities, we learn States’ Dominican communities, learn quickly quickly that thatwomen womenare aremuch muchmore moreindeindependent in in action. action. In Inaareport reportarchived archivedbybyPROFAMILIA, PROFAMILIA,Octavio OctavioEstrella Estrellawrites writes that every every thirty-five thirty-fiveminutes minutesaawoman womanbreaks breaksher herrelations relationswith, with,and anddependency dependency on, the father of of her her children children (10). (10). Another report report states states that thatup uptoto75 75percent percentofof

168-183 =. 201 Notes to Pages 168–183 201

Dominican households households are are supported supportedsolely solelyby bywomen women(Caram (Caramde deAlvarez Álvarez2). 2). Many Many women do not not go go to to the thejudicial judicialsystem systemtotoget getalimony. alimony.InInsome somecases, cases,this thismakes makes because the the fathers fathers have no money. In other other cases, the women women feel feel too too hurt hurt by sense, because cases, the their ex-partners or simply simply do do not not trust trustthe thecourt courtsystem. system.InInthe theUnited UnitedStates, States, women also gain independence women independence from from abusive abusive or or unsupportive unsupportiverelationships. relationships.Aurelia Aurelia exemplifies the traditional traditionalrole roleaawoman womancan cantake, take,and andIliana Ilianaserves servesasasaacontrasting contrasting example. 6. This is a stereotype stereotype that thatalso alsoresponds respondstotoaareality. reality.Julia JuliaAlvarez AlvarezininHow Howthe the Garcia Girls United García Girls Lost Lost Their Their Accents Accents points pointsto tothe thedifferent differentways wayswomen womendress dressininthe the United States and in the the Dominican Dominican Republic. Republic. Angie Cruz in Soledad describes the way girls in Washington Washington Heights Heights dress dress differently differentlytotodefy defytheir theircultural culturalcodes codesofofattire. attire. Carmelita Tropicana Tropicana has has played played with with gender oppression through Carmelita through clothing clothing in inher her performance pieces, performance pieces, cross-dressing and and overdressing. overdressing.These These clearly clearly are are all all responses responses to a gender gender stereotypical stereotypical expectation expectation placed placed on women women in in the theCaribbean Caribbeanand anditsits Many Caribbean women defy this stereotype. diaspora. Many stereotype. 7. There is a long history historyof ofDominican Dominicandenial denialofofAfrican Africantraits. traits.Ernesto ErnestoSagas Sagás intellectual, ideological savvy traces this, this, arguing arguingthat thatthe theTrujillo Trujilloregime, regime,with withthe the intellectual, ideological savvy of his advisors Manuel ManuelA. A. Pefia Peña Batlle Batlle and and Joaquin Joaquín Balaguer, Balaguer, turned turnedAfrican Africanrejection rejection in Dominican history into into aa state-sponsored state-sponsored ideology ideology (46). (46). Even Even before that, that, the the Dominican Republic engaged in in conscious whitening. whitening.Julia Julia Alvarez Alvarez points pointsto tothis thisinin her novel In In the the Name NameofofSalomé, Salomé,ininwhich whichshe shedescribes describesaapainting paintingofofthe thepoet poet Henriquez Urefia. Salomé Henríquez Ureña. A woman whose original features features included included aa wide wide nose nose lips was was portrayed portrayed as as aa sophisticated sophisticatednineteenth-century nineteenth-century European and full lips European woman woman with long exponenwith long limbs limbsand anddelicate delicatefeatures. features.InInparticular, particular,her hercolor colorwas waslightened lightened exponentially for for posterity. posterity.Salomé, Salomé,one oneof ofthe theDominican DominicanRepublic’s Republic’sgreatest greatestfemale femalepoets, poets, is “cleansed” of her her African African heritage. heritage.

Chapter 6. Conclusion: Chapter Conclusion: Present PresentMemories Memories 1. This piece was circulated circulated via via Michele Michele Wucker’s Wucker’s list serve serve group, group,[email protected] Otherpieces piecesreferring referring to to the same matter [email protected]. matter also alsowere wererereported via Bob Corbett’s Corbett’s list list serve serve group, group,[email protected]. [email protected]. For example, example, in the city 2. For city of of Fonds Fonds Verrettes Verrettes about aboutthree threethousand thousandhave havebeen been reported hurt. hurt.

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Index Index

Abuse, 85, 131 Behar, Ruth, 4

Abuse, 85, 131 Behar, Ruth, 4 Accuracy, 143 Being, 28 Active memory, 117-18 Active memory, 78, 186 78, 186 Binaries, Binaries, 117–18 African-American 29 Birth control policy, 102 African-American deaths,deaths, 29 Birth control policy, 102 Africanslave slave trade economics, 32 Bisexuality, African trade economics, 32 Bisexuality,115 115 AIDS,81–82; 81-82;four fourH’s H’sof,of,81–82; 81-82;spread spread (Restavéc), AIDS, of,of, Bobby Bobby (Restavéc),126; 126;father fatherof, of,130; 130; fragil115 ity of life of, 127; inhuman treatment of, Alcohol, 46 127; ostracism of, 129–30; schooling of, Alvarez, Julia, 21-22, 118. Cadet, Alvarez, Julia, 21–22, 94, 10194, 101 130; trouble 130;for, trouble for,See 118. also See also Cadet, Amabelle(The (The Farming of Bones), 28, 30; Jean-Robert Amabelle Farming of Bones), 28, 30; Jean-Robert fading memories memoriesof, of,51; 51;healing healingof,of, in literature, 54—57 fading 57;57; Bodies, Bodies, in literature, 54–57 of character characterof, of,49; 49;past pastfor, for, Eyes, Memory meaning of 49;49; Breath, Breath, Eyes, Memory(Danticat), (Danticat),9;9;rape rape recoveryof, of,52; 52; survival vodou and, and, 74; roles of, of, 78;78; asas text recovery survival of, of, 55; 55; vodou 74; roles textofofmemory, memory, and, 59 78–79 American Dream, 148 Brutality, 161 American literature, 94 Bulimia, 83–84 Anorexia, 83 Anorexia, Anti-violence 9; abuse9; of, 131; actact ofof Anti-violence acts,acts, 70–7370-73 Cadet, Jean-Robert, Cadet, Jean-Robert, abuse of, 131; Arenas, Reinaldo, 4 personal narrating 145-46; autobiogArenas, Reinaldo, 4 personalof, narrating of, 145–46; autobiogArgentinatruth truth commissions, 22-24; class and, 146;146; code Argentina commissions, 67 67 raphy of,raphy of, 22–24; class and, codeofof Aristide, Jean-Bertrand, Jean-Bertrand,68; 68;removal removalof,of, 181; racial understanding of, of, 138; comedy in in Aristide, 181; racial understanding 138; comedy restavék attention by, 122 life of, 141; service children’s restavék attention by, 122 lifedomestic of, 141; domestic service children’s Aurelia (Geographies (GeographiesofofHome): Home): deference image and,and, 125;125; early years of,of, 128; Aurelia deference image early years 128;EnEnhusbandof, of,165–66; 165-66;silence silence 173; glish writing of, 148—49; fatherhood of,of, to husband of,of, 173; glish writing of, 148–49; fatherhood witchcraft and, 170 141-42; human rights campaign of, of, 148; witchcraft and, 170 141–42; human rights campaign 148; Authors of Hispaniola, 3 life of, 138; love 131, 133; Authors of Hispaniola, 3 life of,and, 138; love and, 131, memories 133; memories Autobiographical memory, 22-24; of, 147-48, 150; message of, 148, 150; Autobiographical memory, 22–24; of, 147–48, 150; message of, 148, 150; Hispaniola’s diaspora and, 24 narrated life of, 24; of,of, Hispaniola’s diaspora and, 24 narrated life need of, 24; for needapproval for approval Autobiography:ofofAfrican-Americans, African-Americans, 133- 139;139; needneed for love of, 139-40; pain of,of, Autobiography: 133– for love of, 139–40; pain 34; of ofCadet, Cadet,133; 133;ofof diaspora, 9; factual 34; diaspora, 9; factual ac- ac- 147; 147;paternity paternityimposition impositionby, by,131-32; 131–32; curacy of, of,143; 143;memory memoryand, and,132–33; 132-33;pubpub- racial-social obstacles of, 139; racism and, curacy racial-social obstacles of, 139; racism and, lic record recordrole roleof,of,135; 135; racism and, 136-37; 140; rape and, 146; reconstruction lic racism and, 136–37; 140; rape and, 146; reconstructionby, by, of slaves, slaves,134; 134; tradition of, 132-42 146-47;146–47; self-love of, 140; solace of, of, 140; of tradition of, 132–42 self-love of, 140; solace 140; story of, story of, 119-50; 119–50; struggles strugglesof, of,22-23; 22–23; transformation of, 142; traumaticmemomemoBalaguer,Joaquín, Joaquin, 110-11; control transformation of, 142; traumatic Balaguer, 110–11; birthbirth control of, 131, 147; truth and, 147;asaswitwitpolicyof, of,102; 102;blank blank page death ries ries of, 131, 147; truth and, 147; policy page of, of, 156;156; death ness, 131. Seealso alsoBobby Bobby of,155–56; 155-56;migration migrationpolicy policy endorsed 131. See of, endorsed by,by, ness, Cambodiantruth truth commissionavoidance, avoidance, 102;policies policiesof, of,111; 111; terms service commission 102; terms ofof service of, of, Cambodian 67–68 156; Trujillo and, 155–56 Camus, Albert, 16 Barbot, Clément, 38

Accuracy, 143 Being, 28

115 ity of life of, 127; inhuman treatment of,

Alcohol, 46 127; ostracism of, 129-30; schooling of,

and, 59 /8-/9

American Dream, 148 Brutality, 161 American literature, 94 Bulimia, 83-84

156; Trujillo and, 155-56 67-68 Barbot, Clément, 38 Camus, Albert, 16

216 ~=—Index Index 216

Caribbean:European Europeancolonizers colonizers writing misinformation Caribbean: in,in, 32;32; as as Creative Creative writing misinformationtool, tool,16-17 16–17 identifier,5;5;memory memory 3-8, notion Cuba, identifier, of,of, 3–8, 11;11; notion Cuba, 4 ofhome homeand, and, 5; terror literature, of 5; terror and,and, 66–6766-67 Cuban-American Cuban-American literature,44 Caribbean memories, 3-8 Cuban-American memory: goalgoal ofofreturn Caribbean memories, 3–8 Cuban-American memory: return Caruth, Cathy, of, of, 3-4 Caruth, Cathy, 17–18 17-18 and, 4; political and, 4;motivation political motivation 3–4 Castro, Fidel, 2; removal of, 4 Cultural backbone, 154 Castro, Fidel, 2; removal of, 4 Cultural backbone, 154 Catholic Hispanics, Hispanics,42 42 CEDAW.See SeeConvention Conventionononthe theEliminaElimina- Danticat, Edwidge, 9, 9, 10,10,183, CEDAW. Danticat, Edwidge, 183,199n17; 199n17;charchartion of ofAll AllForms Forms Discrimination acters of, 54-55: commands of, of, 88;88; corretion of of Discrimination acters of, 54–55; commands correagainst Women spondence of, 15-16; and, against Women spondence death of, 15–16;images death images and, Chancy,Myriam, Myriam,19–21; 19-21; tears 20-21 25; freedom of expression of, 90; memory Chancy, tears of, of, 20–21 25; freedom of expression of, 90; memory Chauvet, Marie, 73-74, and, 16-17; personal Chauvet, Marie, 73–74, 195n19195n19 misinformation misinformation and, 16–17; personal Children:convention conventionononrights rights 149-50; painpain of, of, 56;56; point ofofview Children: of,of, 149–50; point viewof, of,12-17; 12–17; developmentalneeds needsof,of, 122-23; in do- politically motivated rape and, developmental 122–23; in dopolitically motivated rape and,74; 74;study study mestic service, service,121; 121;fear fearin,in,128; 128; images of, 27-31; Vega and, 12-17; witness mestic images of, 27–31; Vega and, 12–17; witnessand, and, of domestic domesticservice, service, 125; placement work of 125; placement of, of, 30-31; 30–31; workof, of,30-31 30–31 119-20; protection protectionof, of,155; 155;ofofrape, rape, Joan, 6,6,26-27, 119–20; 72;72; Dayan, Dayan, Joan, 26–27,50-51, 50–51,189n5; 189n5; slavery and,and, 35-36 slavery and,and, 9, 120,9, 127120, 127 Dessalines Dessalines 35–36 Children Shadows, 124-25 Dead: memorial to, 28; of,of,59-60 Children of of Shadows, 124–25 Dead: memorial to,stories 28; stories 59–60 Child spirits, 6 Death: of African Americans, 29; images of, Child spirits, 6 Death: of African Americans, 29; images of, Chilean commissions, 67 2525 Chilean truthtruth commissions, 67 Churchsubjugation, subjugation, of the Rights Man, 32-34, 5858 Church 174 174 DeclarationDeclaration of the of Rights of Man, 32–34, Citizenship,31–40; 31-40;denial denialof, of,37–38; 37-38;ininlife, life, Dehumanization, 105 Citizenship, Dehumanization, 105 54–57; slaves and, 40 Démembré, 6 City University University of of New NewYork’s York’sDominican Dominican Democracy, 31-40, 157-58; independence Democracy, 31–40, 157–58; independence Studies Institute, 101, 161-62 and, 40; transition to,to,38-39 Studies Institute, 101, 161–62 and, 40; transition 38–39 Civilrights rights of 1964, 2 Denial: forms of, forms 157; of, history of, 155; maniCivil act act of 1964, 2 Denial: 157; history of, 155; maniClass, of one’s self, 172—73; Class, 102,102, 146 146 festations of, 155; festations of, 155; of one’s self, 172–73; Classism, 12 trauma and, 117 CodeNoir, Noir, 31-32, 34, 189n3 Depersonification, 31-40 Code 31–32, 34, 189n3 Depersonification, 31–40 Colonial violations, 107 Désir, 49–50 Coloredproperty-owners, property-owners, Jean-Jacques, 6, 109; death of,of, Colored 33 33 Dessalines, Dessalines, Jean-Jacques, 6, 109; death Comedy, 141 35–36; myth of, 36 Community building autobiographies of,of, 9;9;citizens Community building historical experiences, | Diaspora: Diaspora: autobiographies citizensof, of, 17 18; Cuban, 4; Dominican, 2, 91, 100–107, Community destruction destructionhistorical historicalexperiexperi- 111, 117, Haitian, 2, 54; Hispaniola, Community 111, 186; 117, 186; Haitian, 2, 54; Hispaniola, ences, 17 8, 12, 24, 184; multiplying, 10; novels of, Communitymembership membershipexclusion, exclusion, of, 10; from, 20;20; Community 113113 9; situation 9; situation of,solidarity 10; solidarity from, Contradiction, 6 writers of, 183–84 Contradictory documents, communities, 152;152; fearfear in,in,155; Contradictory documents, 40–4640-46 Diaspora Diaspora communities, 155; Conventionon onthe theElimination Elimination of All Forms Haitian, Convention of All Forms Haitian,2,2,54 54 of Discrimination Discrimination against Women Diaspora literature, 9, 101; Caribbean, of against Women Diaspora literature, 9, 101; Caribbean,11; 11; (CEDAW), Dominican, 11; Haitian, 11; (CEDAW), 63–64 63-64 contents of, 8; contents of, 8; Dominican, 11; Haitian, 11; Convention Rights ofChild, the Child, mediation by,by,12 Convention onon thethe Rights of the mediation 12 149–50 Diasporic citizens of Hispaniola, 1–3 Corte, 14 Díaz, Junot, 9, 91–118; characters of, 114; inCountry memories, Country memories,152 152

54—57; slaves and, 40 Démembré, 6

Classism, 12 trauma and, 117 Colonial violations, 107 Désir, 49-50

Comedy, 141 35-36; myth of, 36

17 18; Cuban, 4; Dominican, 2, 91, 100-107, ences, 17 8, 12, 24, 184; multiplying, 10; novels of,

Contradiction, 6 writers of, 183-84

149-50 Diasporic citizens of Hispaniola, 1-3

Corte, 14 Diaz, Junot, 9, 91-118; characters of, 114; in-

Index 217 Index 217 visibility as topic topic for, for,117–18; 117-18;science scienceficfic- | Douglass, Douglass,Frederick, Frederick,134-35 134–35 and,118; 118;work workof,of, 100-101 DrownDrown (Diaz),(Díaz), 9, 91-118; characters in, 92— tion and, 92,92, 100–101 9, 91–118; characters in, 92– Dictator warnings, 163 93; literal translation of, 92; of, as92; metaphor, Dictator warnings, 163 93; literal translation as metaphor, Disclosure, of78violence, 78 104 Disclosure, 184; of184; violence, 104 Domestic service by children, Laurent, 33-34 Domestic service by children, 121 121 Dubois, Dubois, Laurent, 33–34 Dominican-Americanliterature, literature,10–11 10-11 Duvalier, Francois, 1, 37-38; actions of, of, 40;40; Dominican-American Duvalier, François, 1, 37–38; actions Dominicancitizenship citizenship denial, duringduring reignreign of, 138; insurrecDominican denial, 37–3837-38 blackness blackness of, 138; insurrecDominicandiaspora, diaspora, community tion and, raperape and, 8686 Dominican 104;104; community tion 127; and, 127; and, of, 186; 186;denial denialand, and,117; 117;disserdisser- Duvalier, Jean-Claude, memory of, Duvalier, Jean-Claude,1;1;departure departureof, of, viceto, to,105; 105; fiction history vice fiction and,and, 111;111; history of, of, 191n1 191n1 literature of, 91; literature of, 100-107; 100–107;in inUnited United States, 101 Economic refugees, 59–60 Dominicandiaspora diaspora women’s literary English writing, Dominican women’s literary English writing,148-49 148–49 history,161–64; 161-64;violence violence 162-63 Erzulie (The(The Farming of Bones), 59, history, in,in, 162–63 Erzulie Farming of Bones), 59,191n20 191n20 Dominicanhistory, history,13–14; 13-14;human humanrights rights European colonizers, in Caribbean, 2121 Dominican European colonizers, in Caribbean, violationsin, in,157–61; 157-61;male maledominance dominance Exile simulation exercise, violations Exile simulation exercise,8787 100;sexism sexismin, in,157–61; 157-61;viovio- Experience, 71;71;theory tradition in, 100; Experience, theoryof,of,7373 lence in, 96 Exploitation, 27 DominicanRepublic, Republic, 1; acclimation affairs, Dominican 1; acclimation to to Extramarital Extramarital affairs,174 174 United States United Statesfrom, from,164-65; 164–65;border borderof, of,14; 14; 160-61; feminist | Family dynamics: fear in,in, 155; women and, deprivation of rights in, 160–61; Family dynamics: fear 155; women and, movementin, in,184; 184;financial financial fraud in, 181; 173 movement fraud in, 181; 173 hardshipsof oflife lifein,in,162; 162; households violence, hardships households in, in, Family Family violence,99 200-201n5; human human rights rights infringements infringements Fanm Viktim Leve Kanpe (FAVILEK), 200–201n5; Fanm Viktim Leve Kanpe (FAVILEK), 65, 65, of,11; 11;interhistory interhistory 7; invisibility of, of, of, 7; invisibility in, in, 71-72, 71–72,89-90 89–90 94:labor laborin, in,28; 28;life life literature 94; of,of, 21;21; literature of, of, Fantasies, Fantasies,88 7-8; machismo machismoof, of,114; 114; masculinity Farming of of Bones (Danticat), 7–8; masculinity in, in, TheThe Farming Bones (Danticat),9,9,13; 13; 98;memory memoryof, of,6–7, 6-7,166; 166; migration from, global lesson of,of, 60;60;historical 98; migration from, global lesson historicalabominaabomina2, 103; 103;national nationalcurrency currencyof,of, 111; national tions in,in, 53-54; study of,of, 27-31 2, 111; national tions 53–54; study 27–31 of, 102; 102;national nationalimage imageof,of,42; 42; FAVILEK. SeeSee Fanm Viktim Leve Kanpe identity of, FAVILEK. Fanm Viktim Leve Kanpe devastation of, of,181; 181;past pastof,of,12,12, Fear,Fear, 158,158, 167;167; in children, 128; inin family natural devastation in children, 128; family 57,157; 157;political political to Haiti of, 47-48; dynamics, 57, tiesties to Haiti of, 47–48; dynamics,155 155 politics of, of,110; 110;sexism sexismin,in,166; 166; values politics values in,in, Felman, Felman,Shoshana, Shoshana,15-16 15–16 167;violence violence 8, 17, violence Feminism, 172, 184 167; in,in, 8, 17, 177;177; violence Feminism, 172, 184 toward Haitians of, 47;of,Dominican toward Haitians in, 48in, 48 Fiction: capability Fiction: capability 47; Dominican DominicanRepublic RepublicNational National Archive, experiences and, Dominican Archive, 152152 diaspora diaspora experiences and,111; 111;history history Dominicans:African African traits 19, 21, 48-49, 93-96; limits Dominicans: traits in, in, 159;159; eco-eco- and, and, 19, 21, 48–49, 93–96; limitsof, of, nomic status status of, of,94; 94;emigration emigrationof,of,93– 93— 191n18; memory and,and, 79;79; of misery, 50— nomic 191n18; memory of misery, 50– 94, 187n2; 187n2;forgotten, forgotten,93; 93;house houseproblem problem 51; rape and,and, 79;79; as as tool ofof exposure, 94, 51; rape tool exposure,87. 87. customsfor, for,170; 170; imagined identity also Novels customs imagined identity of, of, SeeSee also Novels 97;masculinity masculinityamong, among,97–98; 97-98; massa- Flashbacks, 97; massaFlashbacks,76-77, 76–77,80 80 cres and, and,13; 13;migration migrationexpectations expectationsof,of, Flores, Juan, cres Flores, Juan,33 101;migration migrationplights, plights,162; 162;New New York Florida Haitian community, 101; York Florida Haitian community,1010 city population populationof, of,200n4; 200n4;political political par- Foyer Maurice city parFoyer MauriceSixto, Sixto,122-23 122–23 ticipationof, of,159; 159; story 19-22; Framing Silence: Revolutionary Novels ticipation story of, of, 19–22; Framing Silence: Revolutionary Novelsbyby struggleof, of,91–92; 91-92;United United States pres- Haitian Women (Chancy), struggle States presHaitian Women (Chancy),19 19 enceof,of, women, for,fight 34;for, as34; ideology, 33-34 ence 94;94; women, 164 164 Freedom: fight Freedom: as ideology, 33–34

States, 101 Economic refugees, 59-60

lence in, 96 Exploitation, 27

218 218

Index Index

French Revolution, Revolution,32–33; 32-33;slavery slaveryand, and,3333 Haitian women: lives of, of, 20;20; violence and, French Haitian women: lives violence and,6464 Frontier,182–83; 182-83;communities communities 41-42; Healing, 57,57, 85;85; living with Frontier, of,of, 41–42; Healing, living withrape rapeand, and,85-88; 85–88; division 14-15, 46 process of, 29; time and, from division on, on, 14–15, 46 process of, 29; time51-52; and, 51–52; from Frozen memory, 18 trauma, 25 Frustration, 155 Hegel, G.W.F., 16 Functional memory, 26 Heimlich, 171,171, 178 Functional memory, 26 Heimlich, 178 Future, 154-57, Judith, 17-19 Future, 154–57, 178–79 178-79 Herman,Herman, Judith, 17–19 Hispaniola: battle battle for, for, 108-9; 108–9; comparative comparative Gaycommunity community invisibility, 116-17 diasporadiaspora production of, 11; Gay invisibility, 116–17 production of, dispossessed 11; dispossessed Gay Pride PrideParade, Parade, 115-16; murder at, 116 of, 28; human dimension of,of,46; Gay 115–16; murder at, 116 of, 28; human dimension 46;hurrihurriGenocide, 13 canes over, 182; island of, 1, 8; memory GeographiesofofHome Home (Pérez), 9, 152-53 of, 10-12; people of, of, 28;28; role of,of,108 Geographies (Pérez), 9, 152–53 of, 10–12; people role 108 Gods,36;36; powers of, 36-37 HispaniolaHispaniola diaspora: literature message Gods, powers of, 36–37 diaspora: literature messageof, of, memories and, 8; memories and,24, 24,184; 184;voice voiceof, of,12 12 abominations of,of, 53-54; accuracy Haiti, 1; aggressors in, in, 61; 61; agricultural agriculturallabor labor— History: History: abominations 53–54; accuracy in, 28; 28;AIDS AIDSand, and,81–82; 81-82; border of, 17; and,and, 16; 16; of denial, 155; Dohistory in, border of,Camus 17; Camus of denial, 155; Doof,14; 14;child childrearing rearingphilosophy philosophy 128; minican, 13-14; of Dominican diaspora, of, in,in, 128; minican, 13–14; of Dominican diaspora, citizenshipdenial denialin, in,37–38; 37-38;Constitution Constitution 91; experience of, 17, fiction and, 19,19, citizenship 91; experience of, 19; 17, 19; fiction and, draftingfor, for,121–22; 121-22; corporal punish- 21, 48-49, 93-96; frustration with, drafting corporal punish21, 48–49, 93–96; frustration with,48-49; 48–49; history of, of,127–28; 127-28;economic economic condi- Hegel’s position on, ment history condiHegel’s position on,16; 16;literature’s literature’s role role tions of, of,49–50, 49-50,129; 129; financial fraud memory and, 3, 3, 185; tions financial fraud in, in, in, 40, in,47-54; 40, 47–54; memory and, 185;narranarra181;frontier frontiercommunities communities honor tivetive and,and, 15-16; oral, 21; 181; of,of, 42;42; honor 15–16; oral, 21;private privateand and 62; human human rights rightsin, in,11, 11,27, 27,120; 120;indeinde- political, 88; problems with, 19;19; record in, 62; political, 88; problems with, record pendenceof, of,34–35; 34-35;international international debt of,of, 47;47; reframing pendence debt of,of, manipulations manipulations reframingof, of,14; 14; 35; life lifein, in,49–50; 49-50;literature literatureof,of, 123; science fiction and,and, 118;118; socially con35; 10,10, 123; science fiction socially conof, 6; 6;natural naturaldevastation devastationof, of,181; 181; structed, 15; 15; stories and,and, 21;21; violence in,in, memory of, structed, stories violence 1994Truth TruthCommission Commission 68-69; of women’s rights, 1994 of,of, 68–69; pastpast 107-11; 107–11; of women’s rights,63 63 Repub—_— Holloway, of, 12; political politicalties tiestotoDominican Dominican RepubHolloway,Karla, Karla,28-29 28–29 lic of, of,47–48; 47-48;rape rapein,in,61,61, restavék Home: innerinner self self and,and, 178;178; location of,of,170lic 80;80; restavék Home: location 170– situation in, in,124; 124;rhetorical rhetoricalnational national pride 79;79; mapping, 151-80; notion situation pride mapping, 151–80; notionof, of,55 of, 138; 138;tradition traditionof, of,7;7;truth truthcommission commission Homeland memories, 1818 of, Homeland memories, of, 7,7,68–69; 68-69;United UnitedStates Statesand, and, of, 35;35; vio-vio- Homophobia, Homophobia,115 115 lence in, in,69, 69,81; 81;war warofofindependence independence 92;92; Cuba lence in,in, Homosexuality, Homosexuality, Cubaand, and,4;4;exposition exposition 34;white whiteskin skinobsession obsession 138-39; of, 114;of, Trujillo’s policy concerning, 115; 34; in, in, 138–39; 114; Trujillo’s policy concerning, 115; women in, 76 Yunior and, 106–7 Haitian-American literature, devaluation of, 107; exclusion Haitian-American literature, 10 10 Homosexuals: Homosexuals: devaluation of, 107; exclusion Haitian-American 145 of, of, 116 Haitian-American memory,memory, 145 116 Haitiancommunity, community, in Florida, 10 Honor, Haitian in Florida, 10 Honor,62 62 Haitian diaspora diasporacommunity communitymemory, memory, 186 Hope, 142 Haitian 186 Hope, 142 Haitian-Dominicansugarcane sugarcaneworker worker ho- Horrors: conceptualization Haitian-Dominican hoHorrors: conceptualizationof,of,16; 16;impleimplemophobia, manifestation of, of, 8;8; mophobia, 115 115 mentation of, 44-45; mentation of, 44–45; manifestation Haitians:birth birthdocumentation documentation 60; rationalization of, 44—45; Haitians: of,of, 159;159; of massacre, of massacre, 60; rationalization of, 44–45; diaspora,54; 54;ethnic, ethnic, experience diaspora, 14;14; experience of, 8;of, 8; remembering, remembering,17-19 17–19 historiesof, of,26; 26;massacre massacre 13, 15; Human: felling of, 56; possibility histories of, of, 13, 15; Human: felling of, 56; possibilityof, of,142, 142, memoryof, of,26; 26;story story 19-22; sugar- 179; 179; survival of, 31; trafficking memory of,of, 19–22; sugarsurvival of, 31; traffickingof, of,159-60 159–60 caneworkers, workers,190n10; 190n10; therapy and, rights: Cadet and, 148; cane therapy and, 86 86 Human Human rights: Cadet and, 148;debates debateson, on,

Frozen memory, 18 trauma, 25

Frustration, 155 Hegel, G.W.F., 16

Genocide, 13 canes over, 182; island of, 1, 8; memory

women in, 76 Yunior and, 106—7

Index 219 Index 219 34: decade decadeof,of,145; 145; existence of, 159; 34; existence of, 159; in in Killings, Killings,158 158 Haiti, 11, 27, 120; of indigenous populapopula32; legal legaldefinition definition of, of,39; 39;literature literature | Latin tions, 32; LatinAmerican Americanterror, terror,66-67 66–67 184—85;reconstructive reconstructivework workfor, for, American tradition, 4343 and, 184–85; 11;11; Latin Latin Americantestimonios testimonios tradition, Universal Declaration Declarationof, of,58; 58;violations violations Leaders, 107-11; masculinity and, 108. See Universal Leaders, 107–11; masculinity and, 108. See of,11–12, 11-12, 27, 86, 157-61 alsoalso Rulers of, 27, 67, 86, 67, 157–61 Rulers Hurricanes, invisibility, 116-17 Hurricanes, 182 182 Lesbian community Lesbian community invisibility, 116–17 Hurt, 61–90 Liberation, 95–96 Hygiene, 103 Life: citizenship in, 54–57; in Haiti, 49–50; Hymen testing, 82 trauma and, 23; violence and, 9 Literary cartography, Literary cartography,ofofsexism, sexism,164—70 164–70 IACHR.See SeeInter-American Inter-American Commission Literature: bodies IACHR. Commission Literature: bodiesin,in,54-57; 54–57;DominicanDominicanonHuman Human Rights American, 10-11; of Haiti, Haitianon Rights American, 10–11; of10; Haiti, 10; Haitianbreakingdown downof, of,38; 38;creation creationof,of, American, 10; historical role role of, 40, Identity: breaking American, 10; historical of, 47— 40, 47– 19;notions notionsof,of,6;6; Western notions of, 26 54;54; human rights and, 19; Western notions of, 26 human rights and,184-85; 184–85;memory memory Iliana (Geographies (GeographiesofofHome): Home): anger nexus of, 20; survivors in,in, 56.56. Iliana anger of, of, and, 73-85; and, 73–85; nexus of, 20; survivors 174;beating beatingof,of, 176; defiance of, 153; See See alsoalso Diaspora literature 174; 176; defiance of, 153; Diaspora literature demythification by, demythification by,175; 175;distrust distrustof,of,165; 165;—_ Literature Literatureofofmisery, misery,1010 fear in, in, 158; 158;memories memoriesof, of,170; 170; person- Long-term memory, 143 fear personLong-term memory, 143 hood of, of,179; 179;remembrance remembrance Cadet and,and, 131,131, 133, 139-40; hood by,by, 154154 Love:Love: Cadet 133, 139–40;location location Illegitimacy, 129–30 of, 170–79 Immigration studies, 5 Lwa. See Gods Immortality, 27–28 Lynching, 28 Independence: democracy and, 40; of Haiti, 34–35 Machismo, 114, 117, 163, 168, 169; human Indigenouspopulations: populations: rights and, 104-5; of Papito, 168 Indigenous rights of, 32of, 32 potential potential and, 104–5; of Papito, 168 Individuals:lives lives meaning of, 37; Madness, Individuals: of,of, 37;37; meaning of, 37; Madness,172-73, 172–73,176 176 mourning for, 17 Madwoman figure, 172–73 Insurrection, 127 Male dominance, 100 Inter-AmericanCommission Commission Human Manhood codes, 178 Inter-American on on Human Manhood codes, 178 Rights (IACHR), 158 MappingMapping home,home, 151-80 Rights (IACHR), 158 151–80 International debt of Haiti, 35 Marassa,Marassa, 6. See 6. also spirits; International debt of Haiti, 35 SeeChild also Child spirits;Spirit Spirit Inthe theTime Time ofButterflies, the Butterflies, In of the 21–22 21-22 twins twins Invisibility,96–100; 96-100;advantages advantages (Geographies of Home), 175-76 Invisibility, to, to, 95;95; Marina Marina (Geographies of Home), 175–76 community membership membershipexclusion exclusionand, and, Martine (Breath, Eyes, community Martine (Breath, Eyes,Memory): Memory):behavior behavior 113; exposure exposure of, of,91–118; 91-118;ofofgay gayand andlesles- of, 195n20; flashbacks of, of, 76-77, 80;80; 113; of, 195n20; flashbacks 76–77, biancommunities, communities, 116-17; liberation plight of,of,74-85 bian 116–17; liberation plight 74–85 through, 95—96; literarytheme, theme,94– 94— Masculinity: display of,of,99; through, 95–96; asasliterary Masculinity: display 99;Dominican, Dominican,98; 98; 95; other, other,111–17; 111-17;asastopic topicforforDíaz, Diaz, 117- leadership, 108; violence 95; 117– leadership, 108; violenceand, and,117 117 18;ofofwomen, women, 153-54 Massacre, 45; accounts of, 41;of,disagreements 18; 153–54 Massacre, 45; accounts 41; disagreements InvisibleMan, Man,94–95; 94—95; violence 41; of41; Haitians, 13;13; horror of,of,60; Invisible violence in, 96 in, 96 about,about, of Haitians, horror 60; Island differences, 12 meaning of, 28, 43; of, memory and, and, 15,15, 43; Island differences, 12 meaning 28, 43; memory 43; Israel’s lament, 29 violence and, 15. Seeand, also Israel’s lament, 29 violence 15. 1937 See also massacre 1937 massacre Mastectomy, 80 Jelin,Elizabeth, Elizabeth, 38-39; memory memory, 2626 Jelin, 38–39; memory and,and, 79 79 Material Material memory, Justice,69,69, 156, likeliness Marcel, Justice, 156, 158;158; likeliness of, 77 of, 77 Mauss, Mauss, Marcel,39-40 39–40

Hurt, 61-90 Liberation, 95-96

Hygiene, 103 Life: citizenship in, 54-57; in Haiti, 49-50; Hymen testing, 82 trauma and, 23; violence and, 9

Illegitimacy, 129-30 of, 170-79 Immigration studies, 5 Lwa. See Gods Immortality, 27-28 Lynching, 28

34-35 Machismo, 114, 117, 163, 168, 169; human mourning for, 17 Madwoman figure, 172-73

Insurrection, 127 Male dominance, 100

220 = Index 220 Index

Memorialization, 8-9, 28 Mourning, 184; impossibility of, 17; process Memorialization, 8–9, 28 Mourning, 184; impossibility of, 17; process Memory, 25–26, 25-26,79, 79,199n11; 199n11;active, active, 186; of, 29; space for,for, 3131 Memory, 78,78, 186; of, 29; space of, 144; 144;analysis analysisofoffunction functionof, of,9;9;auacts of, au- = Myths, Myths,8;8;of ofhomeland, homeland,18 18 tobiographical, 22-24, 22–24, 132-33; 132–33;of ofCadet, Cadet, 143-50, 147–48, 147-48, 150; capacities capacitiesof, of,5;5;CarCar- = Narrative 143–50, Narrative history, history, 15-16 15–16 ibbean, 3–8, 3-8, 11; 11;central centralrethinking rethinkingof, of,5–5- National Coalition forfor Haitian Rights, 5454 ibbean, National Coalition Haitian Rights, 6; coping copingwith, with,88–90; 88-90;ofof country, 152; National image of of Dominican 6; country, 152; National image DominicanRepublic, Republic, 42 42 Cuban-American,3–4; 3-4;of ofdegrading degradingperper- Nationalism historical experiences, Cuban-American, Nationalism historical experiences,1919 sonal experience, experience,126; 126;ininDominican Dominican Re- Natural disasters, 181-82 sonal ReNatural disasters, 181–82 public,166; 166;dual dual nature 6, 185-86; Negocios. See public, nature of,of, 6, 185–86; Negocios. SeeDrown Drown frozen,18; 18;functional, functional, function Nick, frozen, 26;26; function of, of, Nesbitt, Nesbitt, Nick,44 186;gods godsand, and, groundwork 186; 36;36; groundwork for, for, 21; 21; Nexus, Nexus,20 20 Haitian,26; 26;Haitian-American, Haitian-American, Haitian, 145;145; of of Nightmare, Nightmare,80 80 Hispanioladiaspora, diaspora,184; 184;historical, historical, massacre, 14, 14, 27; 27; casualties of,of, 40;40; conHispaniola 3; 3; 19371937 massacre, casualties conhistoricalexperiences experiences and, history flicting accounts of, 40-41; meaning of,of, historical and, 17;17; history flicting accounts of, 40–41; meaning and, 185; 185;ofofhomeland, homeland, hurt and, and,and, 43;43; perspectives on, and, 18;18; hurt and, 61–61- 43; memory 43; memory perspectives on,1313– 90; of ofIliana, Iliana,170; 170;inaccessible, inaccessible, 151-80; Trujillo’s 90; 151–80; in-in- 15;15; Trujillo’sorder orderin,in,40; 40;Vincent Vincentand, and,37 37 of, 15; 15; kinds kinds of, of, 143; 143;literature literature Novels: conceptualization of, 16; of diaspora, 9 9 accuracies of, Novels: conceptualization of, 16; of diaspora, 73-85; location locationof, of,11; 11;massacre massacre and, Nurturance, and, 73–85; and, Nurturance,80; 80;deprivation deprivationof, of, 128-29 128–29 43; meanings meanings of, 25–60; 25-60; misinforma15, 43; misinformation of, of,16–17; 16-17;modes modes 119-50; 4545 tion of, of, 119–50; for for Observer, Observer, Papito,167–68; 167-68;personal, personal,144; 144;ofof present, Oral history, 2121 Papito, present, Oral history, 181-86; as in private, private, 79; 181–86; as prison, prison,57—58; 57–58; in 79; problem with, with, 27; 27;ofofrape, rape,85, 85,89;89; salient, Palomas, problem salient, Palomas,160 160 11; sites sitesof, of,26; 26;stealing stealingof,of, 53-54; sup- Papito (Geographies of Home): as benevo11; 53–54; supPapito (Geographies of Home): as benevopression of, of,75; 75;tension tensionof, of,27; 27;text textof,of, 78— lent caretaker, pression 78– lent caretaker,161; 161;correction correctionof ofcorrupcorrup79;textual, textual,57–60; 57-60;time timeand, and, trauma tion by, fearfear in, 158, 173; machismo 79; 53;53; trauma tion166; by, 166; in, 158, 173; machismo and,131, 131,186; 186; tricks of, 51-52; of, 167-68; protectiveand, tricks of, 51–52; truthtruth of, 168; of, memory 168; memory of, 167–68; protectivecommissionsand, and, 65—70; unattainable, ness commissions 65–70; unattainable, nessof, of,165 165 8; uses usesof, of,3–4; 3-4;violence violenceand, and, On:On: African American 8; 5, 5, 12,12, 16,16, Passed Passed African AmericanMourning Mourning 77, 88; 88;ofofwomen, women,72.72. also Remem- Stories (Holloway), 77, SeeSee also RememStories (Holloway),28-29 28–29 brance Past, 154–55; of Dominican Republic, 157; Menchu,Rigoberta: Rigoberta: concerns about, of, 27; of, of, 178; knowlMenchú, concerns about, 23; 23; elusiveness elusiveness of,finding 27; finding 178; knowlmemory of, of,68; 68;testimony testimonyof,of, 193n9 edge edge of the, 19; 19; painpain of, of, 17;17; retrieval memory 68,68, 193n9 of the, retrievalof,of, Mental violence, 38 179; tears and, 17 Mexican power dynamics, Mexican power dynamics, 107–8 107-8 Peace, Peace,14-15 14–15 Middle Passage, 32 Perejil, 57; pronunciation of, 14-15 Middle Passage, 32 Perejil, 57; pronunciation of, 14–15 2; effects effectsof, of,18; 18;rearea- Pérez, Loida Maritza, 9, 9, 152-53, 163, 179; Migration: Dominican, 2; Pérez, Loida Maritza, 152–53, 163, 179; sonsfor, for, 2; twentieth-century, 1 frustration of,of,155 sons 2; twentieth-century, 1 frustration 155 Minority economic 91 Personal memories, 144 Minority economic reality,reality, 91 Personal memories, 144 Mirabalsisters, sisters, 21-22; narrating, 145-46 Mirabal 21–22; deathdeath of, 22;of, 22; Personal Personal narrating, 145–46 mythification 31-40, 179; conceptual evolumythification of, 22of, 22 Personhood, Personhood, 31–40, 179; conceptual evoluMisery:fiction fictionof, of,50–51; 50-51; interpretation of, 39-40; women’s path to,to, 163 Misery: interpretation of,of, tion tion of, 39–40; women’s path 163 27 Physical developmental needs, 122–23 Moral person, 38,38,107 Moral person, 39–40 39-40 Physical violence, Physical violence, 107 Mother’s traditional ownersowners illegalillegal offspring, 130 Mother’s traditional role, role, 114 114 Plantation Plantation offspring, 130

brance Past, 154-55; of Dominican Republic, 157;

Mental violence, 38 179; tears and, 17

27 Physical developmental needs, 122—23

Index 221 Index 221 Police:killings killings by, 64-65 by Trujillo, 109-10; victim reputation Police: by,by, 158;158; raperape by, 64–65 by Trujillo, 109–10; victim reputation Political history, 88 and, 62; war and, 64–65 Political memory, 11 Realities, 8 Political refugees, of Home): beating Political refugees, 59–60 59-60 Rebecca (Geographies Rebecca (Geographies of Home): beatingof, of, Post-traumaticstress stress syndrome, 17, 86, 176; children of, 169; employment Post-traumatic syndrome, 17, 86, 176; children of, 169; employmentof, of, 195n20 169; femininity of, 168–69 limits | Recognition Poverty: human potential potential and, and, 104—5; 104–5; limits Recognitionmemory, memory,143 143 of, 103–4 Refugees, 59–60 Power, sexism power, 39-40 Power, 107;107; sexism and, 110and, 110 Religious Religious power, 39–40 Present:consideration considerationin,in,18;18; memories Present: memories of, of, Religious Religiousritual, ritual,36 36 181-86; 17 Remembrance: motif of, motif 154;of,politics of,of, 1111 181–86; pastpast and, and, 17 Remembrance: 154; politics Prestol Castillo, Castillo,Freddy, Freddy,43, 43,182; 182; book sales Responsibility, Prestol book sales Responsibility,95-96 95–96 by, 44; 44;guilt guiltof,of,43–44; 43-44; story 45-46 Restavec: From Haitian Slave Child to to by, story of,of, 45–46 Restavec: From Haitian Slave Child Prison memory, American (Cadet), 9; 9; mesPrison memory, 57–58 57-58 Middle-ClassMiddle-Class American (Cadet), mesPrivate history, 88 sage of, 148, 150; story line of,line125-32 Private history, 88 sage of, 148, 150; story of, 125–32 Private language, 119-50,119–50, 150, 199n17; Private language, 149 149 Restavék condition, Restavék condition, 150, 199n17; Private memory, 79 aggravation of, 120; definition of, of, 119; Private memory, 79 aggravation of, 120; definition 119; Promiscuity, 168 exposition of, 133; in reality and repreProperty-owners, 33 sentation, 119–25 Prostitution, 159-60 Restavéks, 144-45, 200n18; in Haiti, 124; Prostitution, 159–60 Restavéks, 144–45, 200n18; in Haiti, 124; Protection, for children, 155 nonplace of, 127;of,number of, of, 120-21; Protection, for children, 155 nonplace 127; number 120–21; Psychological needs, 122; of, under Vincent’s rule, Psychological needs, 122–23122-23 schooling of, schooling 122; under Vincent’s rule, Psychological pain, 128–29 121 Psychological violence, 107 Rethinking memory, Psychological violence, 107 Rethinking memory,5-6 5–6 Psychological wounds, failure, 143 Psychological wounds, 51–52 51-52 Retrieval Retrieval failure, 143 Public record, 135 Revenge, 56 Revolt, 35 35 Racial-social obstacles, 139 Rhetoric, 1111 Racial-social obstacles, 139 Rhetoric, Racial violence, 28, 141 Rigaud, 37 Racism,12, 12,148, 148,163; 163;autobiography autobiography and, Rights: legallegal definition of, of, 39;39; subjects of,of, Racism, and, Rights: definition subjects 136-37;Cadet Cadetand, and, 140; degradation SeeSee alsoalso Human rights 136–37; 140; degradation in, in, 39. 39. Human rights 141;invisibility invisibility and, 95-96 Rituals, Rituals, 35-36.35–36. See also Vodou 141; and, 95–96 See also Vodou Rafa(Drown), (Drown),96;96; abandonment of, 99; Rulers, 36.36. SeeSee also Leaders Rafa abandonment of, 99; Rulers, also Leaders model set set by, by, 97 97 9; attempting attempting address Rape, 9; address of, of, 62-65; 62–65;Cadet Cadet— Sadness, Sadness,30 30 146;children childrenof, of,72; 72;criminal criminal punish- Sagas, and, 146; punishSagás,Ernesto, Ernesto, 41-42 41–42 ment of, 110; 110;under underDuvalier’s Duvalier’sreign, reign,86; 86; Saint Domingue, 108-9 Saint Domingue, 108–9 effectsof, of,70; 70;flashbacks flashbacks and, 76-77, fiction, effects and, 76–77, 80;80; Science Science fiction,118 118 governmentalhelp helpfor, for, in Haiti, governmental 72;72; in Haiti, 61, 61, Self-love, Self-love,140 140 80;haunting hauntingof, of,61–90; 61-90;life life meaning and, Self-mutilation, 80; meaning and, Self-mutilation, 82-83 82–83 90; living living with, with, 85–88; 85-88; memory memory of, of, 85, 85,89; 89; | Semantic 90; Semanticmemory, memory,143 143 nightmaresand, and,80; 80;byby police store, 143 nightmares police andand sol-sol- Sensory Sensory store, 143 diers, 64–65; 64-65; policies policiesaround, around,61; 61;political political Sexism, 9, 156, 157-61, 179; literary cartogdiers, Sexism, 9, 156, 157–61, 179; literary cartognature of, of,61, 61,74;74; reporting of, 61-62; raphyraphy of, 164-70; men and, 168; nature reporting of, 61–62; of, 164–70; men and, 168;power power simulationexercise exercisefor, for, social stigma and,and, 110;110; reproduction byby women simulation 87;87; social stigma reproduction womenof, of,100; 100; of,70; 70;testimony testimonyand, and,65;65; tragedy 113;113; violence and, of, tragedy of, of, 85; 85; traditional, traditional, violence and,110 110

Political history, 88 and, 62; war and, 64—65

Political memory, 11 Realities, 8

195n20 169; femininity of, 168-69

of, 103-4 Refugees, 59-60

Promiscuity, 168 exposition of, 133; in reality and repre-

Property-owners, 33 sentation, 119-25 Psychological pain, 128-29 121

Public record, 135 Revenge, 56 Racial violence, 28, 141 Rigaud, 37

222 ~=Index 222 Index

Short-term memory, 143 Tonton Tonton Macoutes, 1313 Short-term memory, 143 Macoutes, Sitesof of memory, 26 Torture: effects of, 65; victim’s experiences Sites memory, 26 Torture: effects of, 65; victim’s experiences Slavery:abolishment abolishmentof,of,33–34, 33-34, 189n2; chil- of, of, 87;87; words Slavery: 189n2; chilwordsfor, for,160 160 120, 127; 127;citizenship citizenshipand, and,40; 40; Trauma, 17-18, 72-73, 77-78, 131; Cadet dren and, 9, 120, Trauma, 17–18, 72–73, 77–78, 131; Cadet French Revolution Revolutionand, and,33; 33;regime regimestabilstabil- and,and, 147;147; considerations of, of, 18;18; definition French considerations definition of,33; 33;revolt revoltand, and,35;35; ships effects of, 18, 89;89; form of,of, 23;23; ity of, ships for,for, 32; 32; of, 18;of, 18; effects of, 86, 18, 86, form trauma of, 136 healing from, 25; in isolation, 84–85; Slaves:act actofofwriting writingfor, for, 135-36; autobiog- memory suppression and, 75; Slaves: 135–36; autobiogmemory suppression and, 75;ofofslavery, slavery, raphiesof, of,134; 134; regime in colonies, sociocultural traditions raphies regime in colonies, 34; 34; 136;136; sociocultural traditionsand, and,100; 100; spiritual strength of, 189n7 theories of, 77; of women, 87-88 spiritual strength of, 189n7 theories of, 77; of women, 87–88 Social stigma, of 70 rape, 70 Trauma: Explorations in Memory, 17-18 Social stigma, of rape, Trauma: Explorations in Memory, 17–18 Social violence, 141 Traumatic memory, 186 Sociopolitical acts, 144 Trujillo, Rafael Leonidas, 1, 37-38; aim Sociopolitical acts, 144 Trujillo, Rafael Leonidas, 1, 37–38; aimof, of, Soldier ideologyideology of, 188n7; Soldier rape,rape, 64–65 64-65 42; anti-Haitian 42; anti-Haitian of, 188n7; Sophie(Breath, (Breath,Eyes, Eyes, Memory): plight and, 155-56; Sophie Memory): plight of, of, Balaguer Balaguer and, 155–56;birth birthcontrol control 74-85;struggle struggle of, 80-81 policy of, 102; used by, cor74–85; of, 80–81 policybrutality of, 102; brutality used 161; by, 161; corSpirit twins, 6 rection of corruption during rule of, 166; Stories:cultural culturalforce forceof,of, Dominican, criminal charges against, 110; genocide Stories: 24;24; Dominican, criminal charges against, 110; genocide 19-22; history historyand, and,21; 21;ofofhuman human sur- and, 13; leadership of, 52; legacy of,of,175; 19–22; surand, 13; leadership of, 52; legacy 175; vival, 31 letters of, 151; migration policy endorsed Stream-of-consciousness, 45 by, 102; narrative of national progress of,of, Stream-of-consciousness, 45 by, 102; narrative of national progress Strength, 176 109; plot of, 41; policy regarding homoSubaltern histories, 9 sexuals of, 115; position of, 42;of,rape by, Subaltern histories, 9 sexuals of, 115; position 42; rape by, Success measurement, 190n10; secret police Success measurement, 105–6 105-6 109-10; regime 109–10;of, regime of, 190n10; secret police Sufferer, 18; of, tears of,strategy 42-43;of,Vincent and,and, 37,37, Sufferer, 18; tears 9 of, 9 of, 99; strategy of, 99; 42–43; Vincent Support, 170 52; violence of, 21, 22; warning tactic of, Surfacing invisibilities, 93–96 155 Survival words, 57–58 Trujillo et Haiti, 13 Survivor, 18, 18,62; 62;accusations accusationstoward, toward,62–63; 62-63; Truth, 147, 156; definition of,of, 66;66; exposition Survivor, Truth, 147, 156; definition exposition of concentration concentrationcamps, camps, literature, of, 134; Haitian diaspora and, 40-46; of 55;55; in in literature, of, 134; Haitian diaspora and, 40–46; 56;mentality mentalityof,of, 55-56; of,See 29. See value of,of,6565 56; 55–56; willwill of, 29. value also Victim Truth commission, 7, 194n15; in Argentina, Swimming, ininDominican Republic, Swimming, 106 106 67; in Chile, 67;67; Chile, 67; in Dominican Republic, Symbolic memory, 26 157; failings157; of,failings 88; in Haiti, 68-69; Symbolic memory, 26 of, 88; in Haiti, 68–69; memory and, memory and,65-70; 65–70;purpose purposeof, of,68; 68;rereTaylor, Charles, 40 sources for, 67-68; role of,role 66; UruTaylor, Charles, 40 sources for, 67–68; of, in 66; in UruTears:meanings meanings of oppression, Tears: of,of, 6–7;6-7; of oppression, 11; 11; guay, guay,67 67 pastand, and,17;17; suffering 14-15; theory of,of,4242 past suffering and, 9and, 9 Turits, Richard, Turits, Richard, 14–15; theory Temporality, 18 Twentieth-century migration, 1 66-67 Terror, 66–67 Testimony,199n15; 199n15;ofofCadet, Cadet,143–50; 143-50; Latin Unheimlich, Testimony, Latin Unheimlich,171, 171,177 177 43; of of Menchú, Mencht, 68; — United American tradition of, 43; United States: autobiography autobiography tradition traditionin, in, process 23; and, rape65and, 65 134; Dominican diaspora in, 101; Doprocess of,of, 23; rape 134; Dominican diaspora in, 101; DoTextualmemories, memories, 57-60, in, 94;in,Haiti and,and, 35;35; Textual 57–60, 78–7978-79 minican presence minican presence 94; Haiti Therapy, 86 rape incidents in, 63 Time: healing healingand, and,51–52; 51-52;memory memoryand, and,5353 Universal Declaration of of Human Rights, 58, Time: Universal Declaration Human Rights, 58,

trauma of, 136 healing from, 25; in isolation, 84-85;

Social violence, 141 Traumatic memory, 186

Spirit twins, 6 rection of corruption during rule of, 166;

vival, 31 letters of, 151; migration policy endorsed

Strength, 176 109; plot of, 41; policy regarding homo-

Support, 170 52; violence of, 21, 22; warning tactic of, Surfacing invisibilities, 93-96 155 Survival words, 57-58 Trujillo et Haiti, 13

also Victim Truth commission, 7, 194n15; in Argentina,

Temporality, 18 Twentieth-century migration, 1

Therapy, 86 rape incidents in, 63

Index 223 Index 223 63. See Seealso alsoDeclaration Declarationofofthe theRights Rightsofof Vodou, 189n7; Amabelle 63. Vodou, 189n7; Amabelleand, and,59; 59;Haiti Haiti and, and, Man 42; importance of, 38. See also Rituals Uruguayan truth Uruguayan truthcommissions, commissions, 67 67 U.S.Civil Civil Rights 64-65 U.S. Rights Act of Act 1964,of 2 1964, 2 War, War, 64–65 Western identity, Western identity,26 26 Valdés, Zoé, 4 Witchcraft, 170 Vaval, Roseline, Cadet18;as, 131; rolerole of,of,30 Vaval, Roseline, 19–20 19-20 Witness, 18;Witness, Cadet as, 131; 30 Bernardo, 109; acceptance by,by, 177; as as backbone Vega, Bernardo, 109; correspondence correspondenceof, of,15— 15– = Women: Women: acceptance 177; backbone 16;Danticat Danticatand, and, 12-17; point of view, of culture, 154;154; church subjugation 16; 12–17; point of view, of culture, church subjugationof, of, 12-17; sources of, 40-41 174-75; cultural contradictions, 175; 12–17; sources of, 40–41 174–75; cultural contradictions, 175; Victim,18, 18,62; 62;destruction destruction of, 107; Dominican, 164, 167; Victim, of of selfself of, of, 107;107; devaluation devaluation of, 107; Dominican, 164, 167; terminology of, of,194n17. 194n17.See See also Survi- empowerment of, 163; family responsiterminology also Surviempowerment of, 163; family responsivor bility of, 173; family violence toward, Vincent,Sténio: Sténio:lack lack reaction 52-53; 153-54: feminist, 172-84; in Haiti, 76;76;in-inVincent, ofof reaction by,by, 52–53; 153–54; feminist, 172–84; in Haiti, passivityof, of,37; 37;restavéks restavéks under rule of, 153-54; madness in,in, 172-73; passivity under rule of,of, visibility visibility of, 153–54; madness 172–73; 121;Trujillo Trujillo 72; opinions of, 178; roles 121; and, 52and, 52 memories of,memories of, 72; opinions of, 178; roles Violence,162–63, 162-63,179; 179; acts against, 70-73, of, 84; reproduction by,by, 100; Violence, acts against, 70–73, of, sexism 84; sexism reproduction 100;sisi74;attention attentionto, to,164; 164;conditions conditions 164; lencelence of, 174; softness of,of, 174; 74; of,of, 164; of, 174; softness 174;strength strengthof, of, coping with with memories of, of, 88–90; 88—90; destruc- 176;176; struggles of, 163; success of, of, 164; coping destrucstruggles of, 163; success 164; and,107; 107;detested detestedrulers rulersand, and, of,of, 87-88; violence tion and, 36;36; dis-dis- trauma trauma 87–88; violenceagainst, against,22 22 closure of, of,78; 78;ininDominican Dominicanexperience, experience, Women’s rights: groups closure Women’s rights: groupsfor, for,62, 62,164, 164, 8, 17, 17,177; 177;Dominican Dominican masculinity history of,of, 6363 8, masculinity and,and, 195n23; 195n23; history 98; family, family,9;9;forms formsof,of,107; 107; Haiti, Victims GetGet UpUp andand Stand Up. See 98; in in Haiti, 8, 8, Women Women Victims Stand Up. See 48, 69, 69,81; 81;Haitian Haitian women Viktim Leve Kanpe 48, women and,and, 64; 64; his- his- Fanm Fanm Viktim Leve Kanpe torical experiences experiences and, and, 17; 17;history history of, of,11, 11, | Words, Words,57-58 57–58 107-11;imprint imprintof, of,56–57; 56-57;male male right 107–11; right to,to, Worms, Worms,103 103 177; masculinity masculinityand, and,117; 117;massacre massacre and, Wright, Richard, 177; and, Wright, Richard,136-37 136–37 memory and, 15; memory and,5,5,12, 12,16, 16,77, 77,88; 88;mental, mental, nations and, 9; 9; physical, physical,38, 38,107; 107;psypsy- Ysreal (Drown): anger of,of, 112; power ofof in-in38; nations Ysreal (Drown): anger 112; power chological,107; 107; racial, recogni- visibility of, 112; stolen masculinity chological, racial, 28,28, 141;141; recognivisibility of, 112; stolen masculinityof, of, tion of, of,73; 73;reconstruction reconstruction of, remem77; remem- 98 tion of, 77; 98 sexism and, 110; social, social, 141; 141; | Yunior 96; of,of, 99;99; brance of, 76; sexism Yunior(Drown), (Drown), 96;abandonment abandonment socioculturaltraditions traditionsand, and,100; 100; toward despair of, 103-4; homosexual desires sociocultural toward despair of, 103–4; homosexual desiresof,of, Haitians,48; 48;ofofTrujillo, Trujillo, 21-22; against 106-7; masculinity observed by, Haitians, 21–22; against 106–7; masculinity observed by,98-99; 98–99; women, 22 swimming and, 106

Man 42; importance of, 38. See also Rituals

Valdés, Zoé, 4 Witchcraft, 170

vor bility of, 173; family violence toward,

women, 22 swimming and, 106

Lucia M. M. Suárez, Suarez, assistant Lucía assistant professor professor in inthe theDepartment DepartmentofofRomance RomanceLanLanLiteratures at guages and Literatures at the the University Universityof ofMichigan, Michigan,Ann AnnArbor, Arbor,isis aa culcultural and literary studies scholar. Sudrez has published articles on comand literary studies scholar. Suárez has published articles on comparative Caribbean Caribbean diaspora diaspora writings, writings,with withaaparticular particularfocus focuson onwomen’s women’s She is now working on her experiences. She her second second book, book, Dance Dance and andCitizenCitizenship in in Brazil. Brazil.