The Teaching of Instrumental Music 1138667196, 9781138667198

Citation preview

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page i

The Teaching of Instrumental Music The Teaching of Instrumental Music, Fifth Edition, introduces music education majors to basic instrumental pedagogy for the instruments and ensembles commonly found in the elementary and secondary curricula. It focuses on the core competencies required for teacher certification in instrumental music, with the pervasive philosophy to assist teachers as they develop an instrumental music program based on understanding and respecting all types of music. Parts I and II focus on essential issues for a successful instrumental program, presenting first the history and foundations, followed by effective strategies in administrative tasks and classroom teaching. Parts III, IV, and V are devoted to the skills and techniques of woodwind, brass and percussion, and string instruments. In all, The Teaching of Instrumental Music is the complete reference for the beginning instrumental teacher, commonly retained in a student’s professional library for its unique and comprehensive coverage. New to this edition: • • • • • • • •

Revision and updating of curriculum developments, such as coordinating State Department of Education student learning objectives with the recent Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) New discussion of the NAfME National Standards as they relate to the teaching of instrumental music Revamping of rehearsing instrumental ensembles chapters, including new or expanded sections on programming, choosing quality music, and applying successful rehearsal techniques Updates on references, plus new discussion questions, and websites and Internet links A chapter devoted to classroom guitar Updates on the use of technology for teaching and learning music More on healthy performance practice, marching band, and jazz band Online materials located in the eResources section on the Routledge website.

Richard J. Colwell is in the Music Educators Hall of Fame and received special citations from the International Society for Music Education, Illinois Music Educators Association, and National Federation of Music Clubs. He founded the Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education and the Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning. Michael P. Hewitt is Professor of Music Education at the University of Maryland, and founder and director of the University of Maryland Summer Youth Music Camp, a day camp that reaches over 400 middle and high school musicians each year. Mark Fonder is Professor Emeritus of Music Education at Ithaca College where he conducted the Concert Band and chaired their Music Education Department. He was also chair of the Editorial Board of the Music Educators Journal and has taught elementary through university level instrumental music education for over 35 years.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page iii

The Teaching of Instrumental Music Fifth Edition

Richard J. Colwell, Michael P. Hewitt, and Mark Fonder

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page iv

Fifth edition published 2018 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2018 Taylor & Francis The right of Richard J. Colwell, Michael P. Hewitt, and Mark Fonder to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Fourth edition published in 2011 by Prentice Hall Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Names: Colwell, Richard, author. | Hewitt, Michael P., author. | Fonder, Mark, author. Title: The teaching of instrumental music / Richard J. Colwell, Michael P. Hewitt and Mark Fonder. Description: Fifth edition. | New York ; London : Routledge, 2017. Identifiers: LCCN 2017009901| ISBN 9781138667198 (hardback) | ISBN 9781138667204 (pbk.) Subjects: LCSH: Instrumental music—Instruction and study. Classification: LCC MT170 .C64 2017 | DDC 784.071—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017009901 ISBN: 978-1-138-66719-8 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-66720-4 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-61903-3 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo and Kabel by Florence Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, Devon, UK eResources: www.routledge.com/9781138667204

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page v

Contents

Preface PART I

vii

THE FOUNDATIONS

1. History of Instrumental Music

1 3

2. Teaching and the Role of Motivation

11

3. Objectives, Standards, and Curriculum Development

26

4. Assessment

41

5. Administering and Organizing the Program

54

6. Recruiting

65

7. Scheduling

71

8. Special Populations and Instrumental Music

78

9. The Physiology of Instrumental Music Performance

85

PART II

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

10. Planning for and Rehearsing Instrumental Ensembles

97 99

11. Planning for and Teaching Beginning Instrumental Students

126

12. The Marching Band

141

13. The Jazz Ensemble

161

14. The Guitar and Classroom Teaching

182

PART III

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

195

15. Winds Principles

197

16. The Flute

207

17. The Oboe

221

18. The Clarinet

237

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page vi

vi

CONTENTS

19. The Saxophone

257

20. The Bassoon

272

PART IV

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

289

21. Brass Principles

291

22. The Trumpet and Cornet

309

23. The Horn

320

24. The Trombone and Baritone/Euphonium

332

25. The Tuba

348

26. Percussion Instruments

356

PART V

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

383

27. Strings Principles

385

28. The Violin

406

29. The Viola

415

30. The Cello

421

31. The Double Bass

431

Index

439

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page vii

Preface

The teaching environment for the instrumental music teacher is constantly evolving. In the almost 50 years since its first edition in 1969, The Teaching of Instrumental Music has reflected these changes and none more so than in this, its fifth edition. While the basic purpose of the book remains the same: to provide both a text and a reference for pre-service and practicing instrumental music teachers, this edition expands its unique and comprehensive coverage to include all the foundation and materials needed for readers to be both current and successful in their instrumental music teaching profession. The words unique and comprehensive are not overstating the merits. There is no other single resource that includes more breadth and depth with our topic. For the college instructor, this text could be seen as appropriate for several courses, depending upon how the curriculum of the teaching institution is arranged. Courses including individual and family instrumental methods, small group and large ensemble rehearsal techniques (traditional and otherwise), the administration and organization of music programs, techniques of motivation, and approaching special populations are all discussed extensively with both researchand experience-based insights. Appropriate for both undergraduate and graduate level studies, previous adopters of this text report to us that earlier editions of this book are commonly retained in students’ professional libraries. For the pre-service or practicing teachers, this text is a desktop, go-to resource that explains best practices in the profession with clarity including detailed trouble----shooting suggestions and current resources both in print and on the web. Readers have recommended portions of this text to justify curriculum and assessment decisions to their administrators. This comprehensive text written by authors with clearly established credibility is superior to finding random material online and is perfect for those who foresee the need for detailed material as they embark further on that journey toward success. While a quick perusal of the table of contents lists the major sub-topics, it is worth noting several additions, improvements, and features that readers told us would be helpful to them.

WHAT’S NEW IN THIS EDITION • •

• • • • • • • • • •

Return and update of the History chapter, including a new history of school instrumental ensembles; Revision and updating of curriculum development including the aligning of objectives and assessment. The assessment chapter suggests a unique and immediately usable method of coordinating State Department of Education student learning objectives as per the new Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA); Update of the role of motivation in teaching instrumental music; New discussion of both 1994 and 2014 versions of the NAfME National Standards as they relate to the teaching of instrumental music; Complete revamping of the planning for and rehearsing instrumental ensembles chapters, including new or greatly expanded sections on programming, choosing quality music, and using successful rehearsal techniques; Updates to references, including favored websites and YouTube links; A chapter on techniques for beginning new instrumentalists; A chapter devoted to classroom guitar; Updates on the use of technology for teaching and learning music; Expanded chapters on encouraging healthy performance practice, marching band, and jazz band; New discussion questions approached through essential questions for use by individuals, small groups, and classes to assist in stimulating dialogue among readers; eResources, which include expanded materials directly usable for instruction. These are linked to the catalog page on www.routledge.com in a tab labeled “eResources,” which will connect to the authors’ own website.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page viii

viii PREFACE

Finally, we welcome Mark Fonder to the authoring team. Fonder is highly respected in both music education and wind ensemble performance milieux. In addition to the material listed above, much of which is not available elsewhere, we have also included eResources that provide expanded materials for those wishing further information on particular topics. Readers may go to the publisher’s website at www.routledge.com/9781138667204. Through discussion of contemporary developments as they relate to the cherished traditions in music education, readers will notice the pervasive philosophy of this book is to assist teachers as they develop an instrumental music program based on understanding and respecting all types of music. By participation in the band and orchestra, students are guided to participate in the experience by creating, knowing about, and re-creating this great art. The authors wish to acknowledge the many individuals, peers, and colleagues who have read and commented on the material in this book. We want to identify Constance Ditzel, editor at Taylor & Francis, for her guidance. Richard Colwell Michael Hewitt Mark Fonder February, 2017

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 1

PART

I

The Foundations

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 3

CHAPTER 1

History of Instrumental Music

1

Knowledge of the history of instrumental ensembles is not essential for success as a band or orchestra conductor; still, it seems appropriate to begin a book on instruments and instrumental teaching with a brief historical survey. In addition to the intrinsic interest which history holds for us, there is a practical value in the perspective gained from knowledge of history. One can become aware of trends, observe the ways in which things were done at previous times, make contact with objectives, procedures, and methods, and gain a greater understanding of the reasons behind present practices and present situations. The extramusical outcomes become evident; e.g., community and industry bands and orchestras contributed to the cohesion felt by immigrants as they contributed to the kind of country they believed America could become. One hopes that such knowledge will help the teacher plan upon sound bases, avoid mistakes of the past, and shape the future intelligently.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSTRUMENTS The earliest common use of instruments, recognizable ancestors of our modern woodwinds, strings, drums, and brasses dates to several thousand years BCE. The flute, drums, and perhaps reed instruments were apparently a part of human history for some thirty thousand years. Ensembles of flutes, lyres, reed, and brass instruments were part of early Greek and Asian celebrations and in support of military exercises. Little development of group instrumental music as we know it occurred until the modern orchestra had its beginnings with the creation of opera at the close of the sixteenth century. The orchestras grew in size and importance as opera became a favorite form of entertainment. As early as Monteverdi, instruments, as crude as they were, were used to portray mood and character, perhaps the first such use of instruments for their unique, individual qualities. Thus, a need was established to improve and create more flexible instruments.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ORCHESTRA Because the violin is the heart of the orchestra, the modern orchestra was not possible until the seventeenth century, when the great Italian violin makers perfected their craft and created the master instruments. The first good orchestra is considered to be the “Twenty-four violins of the King,” in the service of Louis XIII of France, which reached its peak of excellence some 40 years later under Lully, during the reign of Louis XIV. Lully was an outstanding conductor who demanded perfection. He conducted with a cane to ensure rhythmic unity and created a balanced ensemble of violins, flutes, oboes, bassoons, and double basses. In France, the orchestra was a vehicle for the private entertainment of the nobility; during the same period, however, the first recorded public concert by an orchestra took place in London, in 1673. By the time of Corelli, a generation later, the modern violin had taken precedence over its competitors as the heart of the orchestra; viola, vielles, and lutes were rarely used except as solo instruments or for special effects. Striving for excellence marks the history of both instrumentalists and conductors. Band and orchestra conductors featured technically accomplished instrumentalists and vocalists. Corelli, a noted performer as well as composer, is often given credit for originating the practice of matched bowing for orchestra. Alessandro Scarlatti increased the importance of the operatic orchestra, often dividing the strings into four parts and balancing them with the winds. The brasswinds became a legitimate part of the orchestra about 1720, the addition of instruments for emotional expression often marking a composer’s style. Any list of individuals important to the development of the orchestra must include Gluck. He not only made innovations in the use of instruments but also, more significantly, made radical changes in the type of music played by the orchestra. He introduced the use of the clarinet, omitted the harpsichord, and gave the orchestra music to play that was genuinely expressive and dramatic, mirroring the scenes and action of the opera. With Gluck the orchestra discarded its role as simple accompaniment and became an independent dramatic force.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 4

4

THE FOUNDATIONS FIGURE 1.1 1873—Leipzig, Germany: The Women’s Orchestra of Frau Amann-Weinlich

The classical era of Haydn and Mozart created the balanced instrumentation and the musical forms that have for the past few hundred years made the symphony orchestra the chief of musical structures, first in popularity with the public and greatest in challenge to the composer. During the nineteenth century, the number of orchestras multiplied rapidly in Europe (Figure 1.1) and were, along with bands, established in America as well. At least since the 1760s, amateurs and professionals constituted the membership of both ensembles. The first symphony orchestra to be organized was the London Philharmonic in 1813. The New York Philharmonic, formed in 1842, has been in existence since that date. Several events gave impetus to the orchestra movement. One of these was the visit of the Jullien orchestra to America in 1853–1854. Louis-Antoine Jullien was a spectacular showman whose antics not only fascinated the audience but also whose music made a real and positive impact upon the American public. Another was the Germania Music Society (1848–1854) and the touring of the entertaining Steyermarkische orchestra where members kept time with cymbals on their boots. Of more lasting value and genuine artistic merit was the work of Theodore Thomas. His orchestra performed frequently, earning enough for his members to be employed full-time with daily rehearsals. He toured the country in 1863, thus enabling members’ full-time employment. Most musicians made a living by performing in various venues, pit orchestras, theaters, opera, vaudeville, pleasure gardens, circuses, accompanying touring soloists like Jenny Lind and Ole Bull, and more. Musicians were expected to be proficient on both a string and a wind instrument to facilitate employment in both bands and orchestras, a competence expected until the 1920s. In the 1880s every town and even mining camps had an orchestra. Women and Blacks formed their own orchestras. Of importance is the orchestra of the Harvard Musical Society, managed by the music critic John Sullivan Dwight who had exacting musical standards. Theodore Thomas’s interest in education led him to start a school, financed by the Nichols family in Cincinnati in 1878 for the training of professional musicians. Thomas served as the inspiration for the founding of the Boston Symphony in 1881, noted for its excellence. This excellence was made possible by the support of Boston businessman Henry Higginson, who imported European conductors and who guaranteed full-time employment for 60 musicians. Thomas also founded the Chicago Symphony, where he established a precedent of corporation support through an orchestra association. Support for other orchestras came from subscription concerts with an annual fee and profits from the audience’s eating, dancing, and drinking. Orchestras, like bands, performed music the audience wanted to hear. Thus, when the waltz was replaced by new dance styles in the 1920s, orchestras lost out to bands. The popularity of pleasure garden concerts led to the founding of summer “pops” orchestras, first by Arthur Fiedler in Boston and later to most orchestras. These provided important support for the professional performers; the expected “season” was about 20 weeks. Philanthropic support became important as audiences were reluctant to pay for music the musicians wanted to play; the orchestra was perceived as entertainment. The orchestra’s high point in the U.S., along with that of bands, may have been between 1900 and 1920. Walter Damrosch attempted to teach music appreciation using the radio and the New York Philharmonic in the mid-1920s. Federal support for some 127 symphony orchestras was provided during the 1930s depression. In the mid-twentieth century, the Ford Foundation allocated some 80 million dollars to stabilize the financial situation of major and regional symphony orchestras. This grant was critical and most orchestras were able to find support to replace this one-time largesse, thus enriching communities with professional and semiprofessional orchestras. Charismatic conductors continue to be important to the history of bands and orchestra.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 5

HISTORY OF INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC

5

FIGURE 1.2 c. 1520—Nuremberg, Germany: A mural attributed to various artists, including Hans Holbein and Albrecht Dürer, depicting members of the town wind band playing from a balcony

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BAND The growth of the band movement is less clearly defined. In the late sixteenth century, Venice was the center of a group of composers who wrote for brass ensembles, primarily trombones and cornetti. These ensembles performed principally in the church (Figure 1.2). They were followed by other brass groups, usually civic or military bands, throughout Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Oboes, clarinets, horns, and bassoons were soon added. Considering the state of these instruments at the time, one would agree that their sound was primarily useful for battle commands. Bands as we know them today seem to have stemmed from the formation of the 45-piece band of the National Guard in Paris in 1789. Bernard Sarrette conducted this band for one year. In 1790 its number was increased to 70, and Francois Gossec became the conductor. Two years later the band was dissolved, but its members eventually became the nucleus of the French National Conservatory, founded in 1795. Other than the UK’s brass bands, America has been the leading country in the formation of concert bands, with groups that antedate the Paris Band of the National Guard by more than a decade. Josiah Flagg, often known as the first American bandsman, was active as early as the 1700s. The Massachusetts Band, formed in 1783, later became the Green Dragon Band, then the Boston Brigade Band (Figure 1.3). In 1859 the Boston Brigade Band acquired a 26-year-old conductor, Patrick Gilmore, who changed its name to Gilmore’s Band, took it to war, and made it famous. He took a cue from orchestras, touring the U.S. to provide fulltime employment for the musicians. Most bands had little permanency; much depended upon the conductor and/or

FIGURE 1.3 1851—Boston, MA: A woodcut from Gleason’s Pictorial Magazine (August 9, 1851) depicting the Boston Brass Band, which utilized exclusively over-the-shoulder brass instruments

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 6

6

THE FOUNDATIONS

public support. The Allentown Civic Band, formed in 1828, one year after college bands at Harvard and Yale, still performs today; and many New England towns are able to trace an early origin; e.g., the Temple, New Hampshire town band was formed in 1799. These town bands were presumably small, comparable to the U.S. Marine Band, founded in 1798, which at the turn of the century was composed of two oboes, two clarinets, two horns, a bassoon, and a drum. The size of these bands is estimated to have been between 8 and 15 players, growing rapidly until the Civil War. Beethoven wrote his military march in D (1816) for a minimum of 32 players. To honor the visit of the Russian Emperor Nicholas to Prussia in 1838, Wilhelm Wieprecht combined the bands of several regiments and conducted more than 1,000 winds plus 200 extra side drummers. Royal visits were traditionally accompanied by impressive bands and orchestras. The improvement of brass instruments with valves and pistons allowed for excellence in performance and increasingly a wide selection of literature. It also increased public interest in instrumental music. Competition and comparison of performance seems inherent with music ensembles. Touring European ensembles and soloists by the mid-nineeteenth century aided in establishing musical standards in the U.S. The band contest held in Paris in 1867 involved bands from nine nations. According to Goldman, the numbers played included the “Finale” of the Lorelei by Mendelssohn, “Fantasy” on the Prophet by Meyerbeer, Rossini’s William Tell Overture, the “Bridal Chorus” from Lohengrin by Wagner, plus a “Fantasy on Carnival of Venice.” Soloist virtuosity accompanied most performances; variations on Carnival of Venice continue to challenge today’s performers. Higginson’s superior Boston Symphony’s concerts in New York City established a new standard for the New York Philharmonic and a continuing comparison. Brass bands were often conducted by virtuoso cornet soloists. The model may have been the Dodworth Brass Band, arguably the best band in New York City prior to Gilmore’s reign. In 1853, two New York bandmasters, Kroll and Reitsel, began to use woodwinds with the brasses, thereby greatly expanding the band’s musical potential as well as its repertoire. Some 500 bands enlisted in the Civil War, most as an extant ensemble. Most were discharged in a year as the men were needed to fight, although some were retained to entertain and to support morale. The real impetus to the band movement came as a celebration of peace. After Gilmore’s band was mustered out of the army, an opportunity came in 1864 to form a “grand national band” of 500 army bandsmen and a chorus of 5,000 school children for the inauguration of the governor of Louisiana. Ever the entrepreneur, Gilmore’s business acumen sensed financial possibilities as the event appealed to patriotism and education. Three years later, he aided in organizing a World Peace Jubilee on an even grander scale but with less financial success. The finest musical organizations of Europe participated, however, attracting the public and popularizing better music. The visiting European groups dazzled the audiences with their skill; it was obvious that American bands and orchestras were no match for them. American bands improved rapidly in the second half of the nineteenth century. Instruction books were published by mid-century, and as early as 1816 West Point had added an instrumental teacher to the faculty who was also the band director. Gilmore took over the leadership of the 22nd Regimental Band in 1873 and directed it until his death in 1892. He was succeeded by the unlikely personage of Victor Herbert, whose well-loved melodies seem to have been little influenced by the military march. Herbert also conducted the Pittsburgh Symphony. From 1880 until 1892, John Philip Sousa conducted the Marine Band and gave it a national reputation for excellence and original popular marches. Sousa and Gilmore toured extensively, bringing fine performances of both great music and popular music to audiences who had little other opportunity to hear professional concerts. Many fine local bands sprang up. Their repertoire included transcriptions of orchestral favorites, music written especially for band, and vocal and virtuoso solos with band accompaniment. For millions, the local bands represented the only avenue to good music of any sort. The popularity of bands in America pre-WWII can barely be exaggerated. In addition to the civic-sponsored organizations there were department store bands, prison bands, factory bands, lodge bands, and others. Even today the New York City Police Band marches in the Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade. The size and scope of the band movement would not have been possible without the British band libraries. Published arrangements had become possible due to the standardized instrumentation encouraged by Kneller Hall, the Royal Military School of Music. British firms such as Boosey and Company were able to publish “standard” band arrangements of general high quality that stimulated and influenced the course of band music in both Great Britain and the United States. Standardized instrumentation in the United States came about through the influence of leaders such as Herbert L. Clarke, Albert A. Harding, Frederick Stock, John Philip Sousa, E.F. Goldman, Taylor Branson, and C.M. Tremaine. When national school band contests began in the mid-1920s, the Committee on Instrumental Affairs of the Music Supervisor’s National Conference, which formulated the rules for band contests, instituted severe penalties for those organizations that did not have the recommended instrumentation (about 72 members including alto and bass clarinets), thus assuring standardization. Although professional bands in America did not find fertile soil of financial support comparable to that of the symphony orchestras, the armed forces have supported a band program of excellence for more than half a century, the Army authorized some instruction positions in the mid-1800s, and the Navy establishing a permanent school of music in 1935. World War II provided the service bands the opportunity to select excellent performers from the 16 million Americans, men and women, serving in the Armed Forces during that period of time. The tradition of excellence continued after

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 7

HISTORY OF INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC

7

the war as the military musicians found that a career in band performance was both possible and rewarding, and the public had come to expect performance excellence and showmanship from the four military ensembles based in the nation’s capital. Professional bands in the U.S. not associated with the military enjoyed their golden era from approximately 1900 to 1925. Arthur Pryor, originally a solo trombonist with the Sousa Band, formed his own band in 1902. He, Patrick Conway, Bohumir Kryl, Giuseppe Creatore, and Alessandro Liberati and others found tremendous success touring the country and making recordings. The professional bands, especially Sousa’s, inspired the founding of thousands of community bands.

THE GROWTH OF PUBLIC SCHOOL INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC The year 1925 marks the end of the professional band era and with it a decline in their numbers, although the Goldman Band and a few radio bands did maintain their popularity. As bands and orchestras had been supported for their entertainment value, the twentieth century brought the radio, the phonograph, the moving picture, and even the automobile as entertainment alternatives. The rise of the symphony orchestra met the needs for good music that the band era had inspired. The band was unable to compete with the symphony in performances of the traditional classics as these suffered when transcribed for band, although A.A. Harding at the University of Illinois made fine transcriptions, often requiring new instruments, for the concert band. Live music was available from the increasing excellence and popularity of college and public school performing groups. College conservatories and music departments were initiated after the Civil War, perhaps given an impetus by the Peace Jubilees of Gilmore. These conservatories provided instrumental music lessons, often enrolling three or four thousand students. Small orchestras found a place in the public schools, serving as the official group for plays, operettas, commencement exercises, etc. An extracurricular student-run orchestra was formed in Aurora, Illinois, in 1878. Around the turn of the century the outstanding instrumental work of Jessie Clark in Wichita, Kansas (1890), and Will Earhart in Richmond, Indiana, (1898) was evident. Despite the impact of the professional band movement in the last third of the nineteenth century, school bands were generally started after the orchestras. By 1919, 278 orchestras and 88 school bands had been documented. There are references to school bands earlier than this time, but primary emphasis seems to have been on community bands that flourished in nearly every town at the turn of the century, providing town pride. In the first 15 years of the twentieth century, several notable instances of real pioneering may be found. A few schools with vision and foresight were far ahead of the general public in adopting instrumental programs. In Los Angeles in 1904, grade school orchestras were formed to provide good players for the high school organizations. In 1905, A.A. Harding came to the University of Illinois and began a college band program and clinics for high school teachers that set the standard for the next half century. A few years later, around 1912, A.R. McAllister and Charles Peters instituted in Joliet, Illinois, a band program whose reputation for excellence continued for decades. School boards as far apart as Oakland, California, and Rochester, New York, allotted $10,000 and $15,000, respectively, to purchase band and orchestra instruments for their school systems (this in the years 1913 and 1918 when that amount of money was a princely sum). Such instances were the exception, but they provided the leadership and inspiration for others. The great growth of public school bands after World War I has often been attributed to the war and the attraction of the military during this period. It was believed that musicians who returned home after playing in military bands created an abundant supply of teachers for the schools. This is only partially true. School orchestras and bands abounded before the supposed influx of teachers. A 1919 survey1 of 375 schools showed that most had instrumental ensembles. Bands were present in the schools on Indian Reservations by the turn of the twentieth century, New Orleans had a rich band culture, and the Freedman’s Bureau was supportive of music among African Americans during the Reconstruction. Numerous sociocultural factors contributed to the sudden growth of instrumental music in colleges and public schools. The schools, public and college, broadened their outlook to take in a number of activities not previously within their scope: vocational, athletic, artistic, and recreational. Music became important to competitive athletics, for public relations purpose, and for civic advertisement. Ensembles were often student-led, making documentation difficult—recall that Harvard students organized music for the first graduation in the seventeenth century. Service clubs experienced a sudden growth; the American Bandmasters Association was formed; the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education were proclaimed by the National Education Association; all of these directly and advantageously affected the school band and orchestra. Youth was changing; students were staying in school longer; most homes had a piano; and school ensembles appealed to them with their color, group spirit, and the chance for recognition. Instrumental music and Dewey’s progressive education were a natural fit. Bands have always marched and they continue to do so. The primary purpose of the military band was to march into battle or to perform for those who were marching. The first college bands (shortly after the Civil War) were small military organizations supported by the military departments in the land-grant institutions. When these bands became associated with Schools of Music, their size increased. With Harding’s 1925 initiation of homecoming at the University of Illinois and the integration of a half-time show into this event, the growth of the marching band was assured. Music

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 8

8

THE FOUNDATIONS

and showmanship combined to fill the continuing need in American culture for entertainment. For most Americans, the high school and college marching band continues as an essential component because of its role in local parades and sporting events and its prominence in televised holiday events. The drum corps and its competitions draw enormous community support and they have a U.S. fan base deeper today than U.S. professional soccer. With the introduction of music into the curriculum came the problem of credits, a problem that continues today. The members of the very early groups, from the Farm and Trade Band of Boston Harbor in 1858 to those existing at the end of the century, usually met after school hours and received no academic recognition or credit. As far as we know, the first instance of students receiving credit for school music was in Richmond, Indiana, in 1905, whereby students gained one-half credit for playing in the orchestra that met after school. The following year Osborne McConathy in Chelsea, Massachusetts, secured school credit for students who took music lessons after school from private teachers. In 1920, Charles McCray in Parsons, Kansas, gained both school time for the orchestra and credit for participation. The next major innovation in school music occurred in 1923 when the instrument manufacturers sponsored a national band contest in Chicago as a promotional device. As with Gilmore’s Jubilees, the commercial venture proved to be a powerful influence, and the success of the contest was unquestionable. The manufacturers wisely turned the management of future contests over to the school. State contests were held in Kansas in 1912 and by 1925 were coordinated by a Committee on Instrumental Affairs of the Music Supervisors National Conference. The first school-sponsored national contest was held in 1926 in Fostoria, Ohio. The competitive spirit of the American people insured the immediate success of the contests; as with athletic competition and debate tournaments, the American community had a chance to test its superiority against its neighbors in a music contest. The history of the contest became the history of the school band. At almost the same time, school orchestras received impetus from a different source—the formation of a national high school orchestra. Joseph Maddy—who made an outstanding reputation as a high school orchestra conductor in Kansas, New York, Indiana, and Michigan, and who started orchestral tryouts and high school vocational music programs— took his orchestras to conventions where they could be heard. The response to the Parsons, Kansas orchestra at the Music Supervisors National Conference in 1921 inspired him to form a National Conference Orchestra for Detroit in 1926. Accordingly, he advertised in music journals and from 400 applications selected 238 students for the orchestra. The performance for the conference was of such quality that Maddy was invited to form a second national student orchestra to play for the 1927 Dallas meeting of the Department of Superintendence, the official national organization of school superintendents. The audience of school superintendents was highly impressed by the orchestra’s performance and passed this resolution: We would record our full appreciation of the fine musical programs and art exhibits in connection with this convention. They are good evidence that we are rightly coming to regard music, art, and other similar subjects as fundamental in the education of American children. We recommend that everywhere they be given equal consideration and support with other basic subjects.2

The resolution resulted in the initiation of hundreds of instrumental programs in schools across the country. Music was the “new thing” established as a worthwhile area deserving both school time and credit. Maddy organized a third national orchestra for the 1928 Music Supervisors National Conference in Chicago. Administrators at these conventions were impressed by the healthy experiences of students working together; the excellent discipline (much of which Maddy had learned from T.P. Giddings); and those by-products of citizenship, health, and useful recreation that were considered important school outcomes at this time. The reform or technical schools for delinquent adolescents (ages 12–17) emphasized instrumental music; the Lansing, Michigan reform (technical) school band won the Class B National Band Contest in 1939. Thus the success of Maddy’s orchestra coincided with the requisite cultural and social conditions of the time to bring about music’s firm establishment in the schools. Superintendents and music supervisors returned home from the conventions to find that administrative problems were involved in setting up instrumental programs. In the smaller schools there were too few students to support both a band and an orchestra; financial support for two instrumental groups added a sizable amount to the budget. Because the same musical and extramusical values were claimed by both, the band took precedence over the orchestra partly because of its greater flexibility, greater usefulness to the community and to athletics, and its greater appeal to youth. The relationship between public performance and support was established; often the community and school parents assumed ownership of the prizewinning band. The influence of the band instrument manufacturers, music publishers, and the uniform companies should not be overlooked nor discounted. They provided temporary funding for school band directors’ salaries and offered attractive instrumental rental and purchase programs. They actively supported contests and supplied financial aid to Joseph Maddy in the founding of the National Music Camp at Interlochen, Michigan. It was not only the students who were inspired by the national orchestra; Maddy saw Interlochen as a continuation of this program for the gifted.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 9

HISTORY OF INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC

9

Since 1946, the industry has sponsored an annual instrumental clinic in Chicago to introduce new literature and products to teachers and provide a venue for school ensembles to perform before large numbers of music educators. The clinic provides an opportunity for sharing of experiences, musical and administrative. Many outstanding bands and orchestras are not fully school-supported; funds for travel, uniforms, and instruments often have to be raised by the community. Ideas are also exchanged about state and district policies that impact upon rehearsal time and academic credit. With the formation of the Eastman Wind Ensemble by Frederick Fennell in 1952, a new literature for bands was promulgated. Fennell promoted ensembles which performed music organized for the exact instrumentation specified by the composer, only one student on a part, playing original music written for winds. The idea of one-on-a-part wind instrument experiences enhanced the education arguments for school bands; extensive lists of excellent, usable literature were collected and distributed at clinics and workshops. Newly commissioned music became plentiful. The wind ensemble’s commitment to increasing repertoire original to the wind band, and, to a certain extent, renewed interest in the British brass band, balanced the influence of the concert band into the twenty-first century. School orchestras prospered with the formation of community youth orchestras and continued to have the advantage of a large repertoire of good music, including much contemporary music being commissioned by the 30 or so truly professional orchestras. Shinichi Suzuki was primarily responsible for demonstrating the viability of string instrument instruction at an early age and the advantages of continued participation. The “Suzuki movement” created and has sustained the present interest of American parents in string instruction for their children. Beginning about 1958, this movement grew steadily, influencing private string instruction more than any methodology being taught in the public schools. Interested parents request a Suzuki teacher, rather than a violin instructor, “Suzuki” becoming synonymous with string instruction. The methodology has spread to other instruments, primarily piano and flute, but is best known for its major contribution to string education. There is also an international El Sistema movement to introduce music, primarily strings, into disadvantaged and multicultural schools. Again, program visibility is important with tours of the Venezuela El Sistema Orchestra and the advocacy of Gustavo Dudamel, conductor of the Los Angeles Philharmonic and a graduate of the Venezuelan program. The small instrumental ensemble has existed throughout the history of instrumental music. Chamber music, however, can be traced primarily to the Renaissance period, although examples are to be found in the Middle Ages. Cultural changes, including public and university societies, aristocratic connoisseurs, and the improvement of instruments, provided a favorable climate for chamber music. All composers wrote for small ensembles, much of the music dependent upon the musicians and instruments available. Brass choirs (tower music) were important ensembles to the Gabrielis and others; string ensembles were popular in the more intimate palace settings. As with large ensembles, improvement of instruments affected the quality and quantity of small ensemble music to a greater extent than the influence of any composer or exemplary small ensemble. On occasion, a composer has been more daring in his or her music for the small ensemble, but for the most part, small ensemble literature parallels the literature of the large ensembles. (Vocal ensembles were likely an important influence on the acceptance and popularity of instrumental chamber music.) The public school music program has long championed small ensembles as a means of continued participation after graduation, and it may have even stronger educational advantages than the wind ensemble, and as a source of motivation. The ensemble program has been, however, largely an out-of-school experience, with students receiving no academic credit for participation. In the latter twentieth century, the most visible small ensemble was the school stage band and later the jazz band. More recently, these have been joined by guitar, ukulele, mariachi, garage band, iPad ensembles, and other small groups. The general policy for all ensembles has been for membership to be limited to students formally enrolled in a large ensemble, but the exceptions are now numerous. The public school music contests have consistently allowed private piano students to participate, thus increasing the futility of the struggle to limit access to a “select” experience to those students enrolled in school music courses. One may have jazz as a college music major, a drum kit as the major instrument, and limited, if any, participation in any large ensemble. Schools with eight or more periods in the school day may be able to schedule these small ensembles (sometimes instructional time is available with block scheduling), but scheduling remains an issue for a variety of ensembles. According to the American Groves Dictionary, jazz cannot be categorized as folk, popular, or art, as it shares commonalities with all three types of music. It represents a culmination of influences from the African and American cultures. The recreating and improvising of counter-rhythms is an African contribution, whereas Paul Whiteman’s contribution was to meld these creative improvisations with traditional music forms. The history of jazz is a continuing search for a balance between the influence of Western classical music and that of native African music, as the music of Whiteman and Jelly Roll Morton illustrate. The balance issue also pertains to ethnic ensembles, dance, mummers, rock, steel, techno, baroque consorts, as music educators struggle with the continuing problem of all ensembles of defining good music in every style and genre. Instrumental music students are as competent and knowledgeable now as at any time in the history of music. School budget cuts have had minimal impact on teaching and learning music; more than 500 “magnet” arts schools have been established for those students who need music in their lives. The applied music major in universities and conservatories has expanded exponentially in the last decade with auditions for major symphony orchestra positions, an Olympic-level

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 10

10 THE FOUNDATIONS

international competition. The American public desires quality in its music entertainment and shows evidence of continuing support for creative and innovative programs of quality. Symphony orchestras depend upon local support. The National Endowment for the Arts contributes about four percent of its budget toward their support. Youth symphonies are dependent upon local support, with some affiliated with the local symphony. Programming is locally determined. There is only military support for the national service ensembles. The Kennedy Center has been designated by Congress as the support agency for education. There are, however numerous advocacy and support organizations. The National Association of Music Merchants has long been a major voice, including having a non-voting member on the voluntary national music standards committee. The Guitar Center is the largest instrumental music retailer. There are musician’s unions, professional organizations, and major foundations involved with audience development and education. The Arts Education Partnership is an association of more than 100 arts organizations including the lobbying organization, Americans for the Arts. With no national policy, the history of instrumental music continues to be multifaceted. Yet, the popularity of instrumental ensembles in the United States continues to demonstrate deep cultural and social roots in both school and society.

RESOURCES Website A History of the Wind Band lipscomb.edu/windbandhistory

Texts Bainbridge, C. (1980). Brass Triumphant. London: Muller. Bierley, P. (1986). John Philip Sousa, American Phenomenon, rev. ed. New York: Integrity Press. Birge, E.B. (1928). History of Public School Music in the United States. Boston, MA: Oliver Ditson; reprinted 1966 Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference. Brand, V. and G. Brand (1979). Brass Bands of the 20th Century. Letchworth, UK: Egon. Browning, N. (1963). Joe Maddy of Interlochen: Profile of a Legend. Chicago: Henry Regnery; reprinted 1992 Chicago: Contemporary Books. Fennell, F. (1954). Time and the Winds: A Short History of the Use of Wind Instruments in the Orchestra, Band, and the Wind Ensemble. Kenosha, WI: G. LeBlanc. Ferguson, T. and S. Feldstein (1976). The Jazz Rock Ensemble: A Conductor’s and Teacher’s Guide. Port Washington, NY: Alfred. Fonder, M. (2012). Patrick Conway and his Famous Band. Galesville, MD: Meredith Music. Foster, R.E. (2013). Bands of the World: Chronicle of a Cherished Tradition. Galesville, MD: Meredith Music. Garrett, C. (ed.) (2013). Band. In The Grove Dictionary of American Music, 2nd ed., NY: Oxford University Press, vol. 1, 314–327.

––– (2013). Music Education. In The Grove Dictionary of American Music, 2nd ed., New York: Oxford University Press, vol. 5, 641–659. ––– (2013). Orchestra, in The Grove Dictionary of American Music, 2nd ed., New York: Oxford University Press, vol. 6, 243–272. Goldman, R.F. (1938). The Band’s Music. New York: Pitman. ––– (1945). The Concert Band. New York: Rinehart. ––– (1962). The Wind Band: Its Literature and Technique. Boston: Allyn and Bacon; reprint (1974) Westport, CT: Greenwood. Hansen, R.K. (2005). The American Wind Band: A Cultural History. Chicago: GIA. Keene, J.A. (1982). A History of Music Education in the United States. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England. Mark, M.L. and C. Gary (1999). A History of American Music Education, 2nd ed. Reston, VA: National Association of Music Educators (MENC). Norcross, B.H. (1994). One Band That Took a Chance: The Ithaca High School Band from 1955 to 1967 Directed by Frank Battisti. Ft. Lauderdale, FL: Meredith Music. Schwartz, H.W. (1957). Bands of America. Garden City, NJ: Doubleday. White, W.C. (1974). A History of Military Music in America. Westport, CT: Greenwood; reprint of (1944) NY: Exposition. Whitwell, D. (2010). A Concise History of the Wind Band. (Craig Dabelstein, ed.) Austin, TX: Whitwell. ––– (2010). The History and Literature of the Wind Band and Wind Ensemble, vols. 1–5. (Craig Dabelstein, ed.) Austin, TX: Whitwell.

NOTES 1. McConathy, O., K. Gehrkens and E.B. Birge (1921). Present status of music instruction in colleges and high schools, 1919–20. Bulletin of the Department of the Interior Bureau of Education, 9.

2. Birge, E.B. (1928/1966). History of Public School Music in the United States, new ed. Washington, DC: Music Educators National Conference.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 11

CHAPTER 2

Teaching and the Role of Motivation

2

Hard Work Beats Talent When Talent Doesn’t Work Hard We begin this chapter with words that describe the thrust of a chapter on motivation. Human motivation is complex and influenced by factors known and unknown. Individuals differ, the environment differs, and it appears that metacognition is an essential component. Part one of this chapter portrays research that may be applicable to some students in some teaching situations, while part two provides ideas shown to be successful for motivating students in music learning. Motivation is internal and most educators believe that you can’t motivate another individual. This doesn’t mean that you don’t remind students to “get with the program”; reminders are always important. There appears to be a parallel with the research of Gary McPherson, Susan Hallam, and others in music education with the research of Carol Dweck on growth or mastery mindset and Angela Duckworth’s concept of grit. There is no indication that using their findings will materially improve learning and that all students will become self-motivated, though one can better understand individual differences in the learning process. The research in music education has been focused on motivation to improve but also to remain in instrumental music through high school and beyond. McPherson, Davidson, and Faulkner (2012) devote their text, Music in Our Lives, to describing motivation through student identity in instrumental music. There are no data on motivation for listening, composing, improvising, critiquing, and other musical activities. Motivation is also generation-specific. “Millennials” are challenging hierarchical structures. They are open to change, crave constant feedback (recognition), and want to make an impact on others while living a balanced life. Human behavior is motivated from both within and without. The most successful teachers of instrumental music are those whose musicianship and knowledge enable them to produce good performances of good music, and whose understanding of student motivation encourages enthusiastic participation on the part of their students, leading to greater development of their musical skills. Marin Alsop, conductor of the Baltimore Symphony, and Tom O’Halloran, a successful instrumental music teacher in Carlisle, Massachusetts, agree that personal relationships are the basis for understanding teacher–student psychology and student motivation. The teacher needs to know the passion of each student. It is important to discuss motivation in this text because the relationships and rapport established between student(s) and teacher will do much to distinguish successful from unsuccessful teaching outcomes. We outline the most recent thinking about motivation theory and provide a host of motivation suggestions used in the best rehearsal rooms and classrooms. Because all students are not alike, observing over time what motivates each student will be an interesting journey enhancing your teaching success. A successful teacher initially establishes respect by being knowledgeable and helpful, the two essential components in a positive personal relation with each student. Related to respect is trust, a deeper personal relationship between student and teacher. Trust is so important that it exists at various levels in all organizations, and strengthens over time through meaningful experiences. It is never quickly gained. Instrumental music is both a team and individual accomplishment: the greater the trust between teacher, peers, and students, the greater the potential for musical excellence. The students must have confidence in the teacher’s knowledge and musicianship. However, trust extends beyond the ability to conduct, and the list of factors that contribute to trust is lengthy. William Tierney has written extensively about trust, suggesting that trust is not innate, that it depends on the competence of the trusted (the teacher), and that it can be neither coerced nor commanded. The trustworthy teacher selects appropriate and challenging music, provides help, makes fair decisions, follows the rules and regulations set forth in the handbook, acts on the student’s behalf, has integrity and a sense of humor, knows what is important and what is trivial, and more! Instrumental music teachers often become confidants of students when students recognize that the hard work required to become competent performers pays off due to the teachers’ ability to meld the efforts of the many into a satisfying whole.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 12

12

THE FOUNDATIONS

More is needed than a solid understanding of the instruments and how to validly assess students. Good teachers can inspire students, and effective teachers continue to hone this skill by improving their understanding of student psychology and the culture of the classroom and school. Some motivational strategies work well with the entire group while others work uniquely well with individual students. Teachers are successful when they understand that the individuals in any group may vary because of home life, talents, past experiences, kinds of parental support, and specific socioeconomic situations. Students with equal ability and experience, but differing in their motivation (more on this in a moment), will respond differently to failure and success in the classroom. A master instrumental teacher must be inspirational, a good musician, have skill at modeling, have a sense of humor, use good judgment, be a self-starter, and vary the teaching routine. Are these qualities sufficient? No, the teacher must be broadly educated, be disposed to hard work, be patient and persistent, understand the purpose of schooling, work cooperatively, care about each and every student, be politically savvy, and more! Instrumental music is about personal excellence, relationships between teachers and peers, and the enjoyment that music brings. Students want to be with others and to be accepted. We all wish to possess high self-esteem and competence and to feel that others have confidence in us. Self-esteem is related to motivation but not to achievement. Imparting knowledge about Stravinsky is a matter of teacher clarity and competence, but leading students to perform Stravinsky well is the domain of motivation. The psychologist Csikszentmihalyi suggests that tasks in themselves can be motivating. Students can become so interested in pursuing a task (for example, learning their lesson or part) that they lose all track of time, and, if interrupted, can’t wait to return to the task. Csikszentmihalyi calls this behavior “flow”. Teachers seek tasks that encourage flow and that relate to course objectives.

PART I: RESEARCH Pintrich and Schunk (2002) state that professionals disagree over what motivation is, what affects it, how the process operates, its effects on learning and performance, and how it can be improved.1 Motivational theory strives to clarify the cognitive and affective processes that initiate and sustain action by studying how these processes operate as goals, expectations, attributions, values, and emotions.2 One of the most important processes is self-efficacy and the belief that one can be successful.3 Self-efficacy motivates behavior primarily through perseverance4 and supports one of the components of grit. Self-concept comprises perceptions of personal competence in general, or in a domain like academic, social, or motor skills while self-efficacy refers to personal belief that one is able to learn or perform.5 Motivation is presently an important issue, as the National Research Council estimates that as many as 50 percent of high school students are disengaged and bored. Motivation and the desire to learn decreases as one progresses through school. We trust this is not true in instrumental music. Achieving competence is more than establishing teacher–student rapport; parents, the community, private teachers, and the school administration all are involved. Differences in the community and school cultures shape the conduct of instruction, affecting the rehearsal situation, as well as the priority of objectives, standards, and teaching strategies. Group motivation may be more important in instrumental music than in math and language arts classes and it may well be the most important ability a teacher can possess. Because group motivation is greatly influenced by each individual’s motivation, it is impossible to separate the two. The normal research strategy to test the effect of interventions to improve motivation seems to be declining in favor of identifying which cognitive components affect competence. These components include maintenance of the working memory, incentives, task-switching, selective attention, episodic memory, decision-making, social awareness, selfefficacy, power, and more. Educators have added soft skills to desired outcomes that include the ability to accept feedback, to work collaboratively, manage time, communicate, be flexible, and relate to others. Music which includes soft and hard skills is a candidate to be included as one of the nonacademic measures to be used in judging school performance. Soft skills also include emotional intelligence, social and emotional learning, the personal qualities of character, virtue, trust, and truth as well as non-cognitive skills.

Goal Orientation The study of individual motivation is currently centered on “goal orientation theory,” a way of understanding motivation that provides a framework for the students’ motivational orientations as well as for the learning environment, to attain cognitive, affective, and behavioral goals. Having clear and well-understood goals by every member of a class has been established as a critical component in education. Goals are critical because they organize, encourage control, and direct action. A student’s goal to have a “perfect” lesson requires him or her to organize a practice schedule, to control it by staying focused on the most difficult material, and to direct action into daily practicing. When the goal is attained, the student experiences a sense of competence and avoids all of the negatives that accompany a feeling of incompetence. Motivation is a psychological construct which attempts to answer why people do what they do. In the twenty-first century there is more emphasis on cognition as opposed to innate drives. Motivation scholars desire to understand the

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 13

TEACHING AND THE ROLE OF MOTIVATION

13

mind as beliefs, values, attitudes, and intentions explain much of human behavior. Conscious intentional behavior is based on goals with the cognitive and metacognitive processes of planning, evaluating, strategizing, making decisions, and monitoring one’s progress. Thus, intrinsically motivated individuals see themselves as the cause of their own behavior, in charge of their life. The goals and aims that individuals strive to attain are related to their identity, self-concept, selfefficacy, and what they believe is possible for them. Goal orientation theory is designed to explain competence– incompetence and achievement in terms of self-theories and self-efficacy. Both of these insightful theories help capture much of what occurs or should occur in the music teaching-learning situation. Carol Dweck’s motivation research found that the American population is about equally divided about what they believe motivates their desire to earn. About 40 percent of the population desires mastery of subject matter and seeks challenging tasks despite the possibility of failure. These individuals sign up for extra instruction in their weak areas and receive more satisfaction in individually mastering a task than in attaining recognition for it. A second group of individuals (another 40 percent) focuses on performance goals. These individuals are motivated to perform better than others and to win at competitions; they avoid any necessary extra instruction and work. They cram for examinations, select easy tasks over challenging ones, and avoid situations where they won’t look good. Individuals in this second group are excellent at rationalizing failure. A third group, about 20 percent of the population, is related to the second group. Individuals in this group either have no desire to achieve or perform or they shift back and forth from one orientation to the other; their focus is on performance-avoidance goals, that is, avoiding any tasks that demonstrate low or inferior ability. Dweck’s research is fascinating; why can’t we inspire all students to have a mastery orientation? Dweck suggests that change is possible, but slow and difficult. Everyone uses both mastery and performance when the occasion calls; what is desired is for the emphasis to be on mastery. When success in change has been possible, subjects reflected on strategies used, and learned how, what kind, and when to seek help. Some of this may be genetic as with the Big Five. (Researchers presently believe that about 40 percent of the competency in the Big Five is heritable. These five relate to personality and are: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.) The hope is that better teaching will facilitate change, providing better feedback, teaching for understanding, capitalizing on the benefits from failure, and providing for second chances.

Self-theories A clear example of self-theories affecting motivation can be found in beliefs about intelligence. Mastery or growth students believe that IQ is changeable—i.e., that they can improve—whereas performance students believe that IQ or a skill is fixed and that they must do the best they can with the intelligence they inherited. A similar and perhaps more extreme example in regard to musical aptitude is the belief that one either has or does not have a “talent” for music, and not having “talent” is often an excuse used by those who fail to achieve competence or drop out of instrumental music instruction. The implication of this theory for instrumental music teachers is that members of performing groups are or should be primarily mastery students who believe that competence in band and orchestra is due to effort more than ability. When mastery students “mess up,” they willingly accept and seek help; they practice, participate in sectionals, and solicit music that is even more challenging, within reason, than they are expected to know—all to ensure success. Selecting the “just-right” challenging music is what educators call the zone of proximal development, after a theory of Lev Vygotsky. Hattie and Yates state that “we are motivated by knowledge gaps, but put off by knowledge chasms.”6 Practicing “just-right” music is what motivation is all about. Lori Custodero found that four- and five-year-olds can become deeply involved with music accompanied with a high self-concept, a perceived challenge, and active engagement.7 They reflect on their performance, and self-criticize. Growth mindset seems to be related to social awareness, self-efficacy, and self-management. These students come to school prepared (self-management). They see themselves being all they can be. If performance students “mess up,” they attribute such failure to a lack of talent, to bad luck, to teacher prejudice or incompetence, or to a host of other rationalizations. They will also attempt to find ways to avoid being put in the same situation a second time. An understanding of self-theories in motivation helps teachers to recognize and make use of the students’ reactions as fitting one of these three self-theories in motivation. Successful teaching encourages students to think like mastery students, minimizing “cramming” before a concert. If the teacher criticizes mastery students on a difficult task, the students think that the teacher believes they have the skill and competence to succeed. If the teacher praises mastery students on an easy task, these students will think the teacher believes they have minimal ability and competence, and intrinsic motivation is weakened. Praise on simple tasks is counterproductive. The insightful teacher needs to observe all students to see whether they attend carefully to instructions, identify tasks, mentally organize, rehearse, mark their music, check for understanding, and ask for guidance. Teacher comments on these observations reinforce mastery learning. (A little performance or fixed mindset can be helpful in performance situations, growth becomes less important.) There is mixed evidence on successful teaching of growth mindset. The student and teacher must both be able to identify during feedback learning strategies used and desired. Educators call this self-assessment or metacognition. Other

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 14

14

THE FOUNDATIONS

conditions must be aligned as well. For instance, it is important for students to believe that they are in charge of their own learning and that each has practicing choices. The research of Angela Duckworth on “grit” relates to mastery learning, in that grit is enhanced by the same strategies. Grit is having passion for a goal, and the persistence necessary for its successful attainment. Students must believe that if they exert sufficient effort they can become competent in goals they value. Grit and mastery learning are basic to learning musical skills as practice is necessary; whether 10,000 hours are necessary for most of us is another matter, but skills require a lot. Successful instrumental students obviously have grit, whether “it” is sufficient and of the right kind to maximize motivation and should be encouraged is a teaching decision. With mastery learning and grit, both desirable, educators and others want to improve them and measure them. Self-assessment is a possibility but not a strong tool. All parties must agree on the meaning of each word.8 Teaching involves praise, which is often inappropriate in elementary music. Alfie Kohn asserts that praise diminishes intrinsic motivation. Praising student abilities, especially group praise such as “I like the way you are singing,” is a double negative. It puts students in a fixed mindset and students come to believe that their effort is to please the teacher, not their own learning. Hattie and Yates (2014) found that praise has no positive impact on learning. Praising talent, “you’re so musical,” drives students to adopting a performance mindset.

PART II: MOTIVATION STRATEGIES IN MUSIC Paul Evans and Gary McPherson9 conducted a ten-year study of children’s musical identity, their instrumental practice, and subsequent achievement and motivation for playing music. The independent variable was the student’s self-response prior to the treatment, aged 7–9, as to how long they thought they would continue to play their instrument which is a measure of musical identity. The sample size was 157 students throughout Australia. Parents reported on the practice habits of their child for the first three years. Performance was measured by the Watkins–Farnum Performance Test. The researchers were also interested in sight-reading, aural skills, and improvisation. Those with a long-term view practiced more (at least for the first three years), had higher achievement, and remained longer in an instrumental music program. The authors argue that having a sense of where their future learning might take them was more important than practice and self-regulation. Growth mindset is based on convincing students that mastery is possible, but it takes effort. The research results reported here are based on valid research on instrumental music students in Australia and Great Britain, and should apply to some U.S. programs. They found that students aged 5–7 had developed an ability to understand and articulate their present identities, values, and abilities which were important as practice may not be inherently enjoyable or intrinsically motivating per se.10 The culture was important, as students attending schools with an enriched band program scored 2.6 times higher on the Australian Music Examinations Board. There is similarity to the work of Duckworth, who studied cadets who might have dropped out of West Point. The questions that predicted dropout at West Point had the responses “I finish whatever I begin” and “setbacks don’t discourage me.” The cadet responded with either “not at all like me,” or “very much like me.” To determine a student’s self-regulation in music education, McPherson asked these questions: “When I’m practicing, I prefer to be reminded,” “When I’m practicing, I think about other things,” “When I practice, I run through pieces,” and “I don’t always make myself practice when I should.” McPherson’s interest in self-regulation was in long-term musical identity which he found to have 11 dimensions: persistence, planning, practice management, anxiety, failure avoidance, uncertain control, disengagement, self-efficacy, mastery orientation, valuing of music, and self-handicapping. Age does make a difference. Teachers of the very young need to be warm and sympathetic. Gradually this particular support is withdrawn as students assume responsibility for their own learning. Developing and sustaining motivation may be one of the most difficult aspects of learning to play a musical instrument, as skills and abilities develop slowly and only with considerable effort, compared to expectations of themselves and their parents. Making music is intrinsically enjoyable and linked to one’s social identity and sense of self. One hopes for practicing passion and persistence as reported by adolescents with computer games. McPherson and O’Neill (2010) found that students in Western countries rated their abilities in music much lower than their abilities in other subjects, and that perception of competence declines faster in music than for other subjects throughout adolescence. In a ranking of music with other subjects with other countries, the U.S. ranks at the bottom on values and is tied with two other countries in task difficulty. Students perceive the cost in terms of effort, anxiety, and stress. Values from early life are relatively resilient. Motivation in middle school accounts for as much variance in one’s high school grades as do middle school grades. Sixty-nine percent of these students say that schools fail to motivate them. Thus, this percentage represents performance belief, and not a belief in self-motivation on subjects of importance. The kind of music a child plays and listens to contributes to the way s/he sees himself/herself and the role of music in their social world. Musical tastes are important. Self-esteem is related to motivation but not to achievement. In the UK, 48 percent of 5- and 6-year-olds express an interest in playing an instrument; by the age of 7 it has dropped to 25 percent; and at age 11, only 4 percent.11 Ability and effort seem about the same until the age of 11 or 12. At this age students understand that those with less ability

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 15

TEACHING AND THE ROLE OF MOTIVATION

15

have to try harder, with the accompanying understanding that performance on examinations is due to amount of effort.12 In adolescence, the teen brain is uniquely wired for sensation behaviors.

Self-efficacy, including Self-concept, Self-esteem, and Self-regulation in Music Self-concept Playing an instrument is an individual competency, and the student’s perception of how well he or she can learn is important in self-motivation. Motivational psychologists discuss the desire to learn in terms of self-concept, the belief one has in one’s own general competence. Often self-concept is limited to whether individuals believe themselves to have talent, and, in this respect, self-concept is directly related to performance goals.

Self-esteem While perceptions of competence are based on cognitive judgments of skill, knowledge, and abilities, self-esteem is the student’s emotional reaction to his or her own competence. Self-esteem (or self-worth) affects learning, as a student’s positive perception (attribution) of competence helps that student surmount difficulties and sustain motivation, thus contributing to mastery learning. The student’s perception of what constitutes competence will largely determine his or her level of aspiration for both individual and group goals.

Self-regulation, Self-control, or Self-efficacy Albert Bandura (1997) promoted the concept of self-efficacy, which deemphasizes the importance of natural ability. Much of the work of Gary McPherson is based on Bandura’s self-efficacy. Bandura believes that students’ mental effort should focus on the fundamentals of learning, and he argues that learning is not primarily influenced by environment (socioeconomic situation and more) or inner impulses (talent), but rather by a student’s ability to reflect, be proactive, be organized, and be self-regulating. Thus, Bandura’s concept of self-efficacy is similar to a mastery orientation in selftheories. It determines how individuals feel, think, behave, and motivate themselves to master challenging tasks. Selfefficacy is negatively affected by stress. One’s experience, role models, peer group, and emotional state influence the approach one takes to any task in life. One is not born with a sense of self but learns that actions produce effects. This learning continues throughout life, with different priorities becoming important at different stages in life. As one ages, life requires different types of competencies that, in turn, require further development of self-efficacy. Students often consciously decide on the extent to which they can be successful and whether the goal is worth the effort that will be required. Self-efficacy depends not only on motivation but also on whether one already has a reservoir of knowledge and skills that will make achieving the goal possible. When the goal seems attractive and attainable, the task itself becomes motivating and one experiences “flow.” Student violinists might hear Joshua Bull perform a Beethoven concerto and be inspired (self-efficacy) to apply their present knowledge and skills to learning that same concerto. The students’ organizing, reflecting, and regulating are aided when the teacher provides appropriate feedback and helps establish intermediate performance goals that are challenging yet feasible. The basic premise of self-regulation is that the students take control of their own learning; the terms self-efficacy, self-concept, self-regulation, and selfcontrol, as used in the literature on motivation, all refer to the various ways in which students: (1) analyze the task, the environment, and the resources required (including the needed time for learning); (2) adopt appropriate strategies; (3) understand their own tolerance and persistence levels; and (4) judge the tasks to be important. These various mental appraisals should become habitual and should occur almost automatically. Total self-learning in music is rare and, despite self-learning theories, teachers and critics retain a vital role in providing feedback, identifying errors and misconceptions, and originating new learning and new techniques. Music majors understand the importance of continued private instruction and the role of coaches, along with self-motivation (hard work). And, to repeat, musical competence is also shaped by the influence of students’ backgrounds, the environment, teachers, peers, parents, the community, and more.

The Instrumental Music Classroom Developing pride in a musical organization is an important component in motivation. There need be nothing “second class” about school ensembles. Good music can and should be performed well at any age—having challenging musical standards (an aspect of motivation) is a critical component of being an effective teacher. It is simply not true, however, that good music in itself furnishes sufficient motivation for students. The teacher must understand the students and also his or her own role in helping students take responsibility for their own learning. This idea is not terribly surprising to a student in instrumental music. In other school subjects, ideas about motivation and self-efficacy have altered teachers’

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 16

16

THE FOUNDATIONS

perceptions of their responsibility and relationship to students. These motivational theories have been successfully applied to individuals; presently the school reform movement is advocating the use of these same principles throughout entire classes and schools. They are asking all faculty members to understand self-theories and to use them to establish challenging goals, to focus on the needs and backgrounds of individual students, and to apply mastery learning and self-efficacy to entire classrooms. The one-on-one relationships established in the rehearsal situation depend on the principles of motivation that are, in turn, dependent on students having certain musical knowledge and skills. Any music teaching, whether of an individual or a group, has as its aim the development of musical independence, which consists of knowledge, good practice habits, technical proficiency, and musical understanding. To accomplish this goal in a group situation, both individual and group goals are necessary, as are the means to attain these goals. The following pages contain suggestions that can aid students in achieving self-motivation and group motivation that will work in various situations. These suggestions are divided into the categories of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic Motivation The study of motivation consists of identifying why individuals invest personal resources in attaining a goal. The reasons are multiple and change over time, but are usually categorized as being either intrinsic or extrinsic. Extrinsic motivation is easier to understand; it consists of desire for a tangible reward—a prize, a compliment, first chair, or the avoidance of an unpleasant situation, and so forth. As individuals vary in motivational strengths and in the value they place on various rewards, individual observation is required to determine the motivational strength of external rewards for each student. Intrinsic motivation, on the other hand, derives from the experience—emotional, mental, or physical—that occurs within the individual. There is no apparent external reward to be gained from the effort expended.

High Quality Music The music itself should be the central motivating force for any musical learning, though it is rarely the only factor. To furnish genuine motivation, music must be of high quality for poor music soon becomes tiresome and boring. Also, poor music is so easily available to students on CDs, iPods, or television that they do not need to participate in school music groups in order to find it. Teachers are tempted to make one of two mistakes regarding the quality of the music to be used. The first is to use popular commercial music on the assumption that it will interest students. The fallacy in this approach is that the basic goal of developing a discriminating love of good music can never be reached, even though students may acquire considerable performing skill. The second mistake is to set unrealistically high standards for the music used. To use high-quality music does not necessarily mean to use only classic literature music. The skillful teacher begins where the students are, selecting music that will appeal to them at their present level of understanding and gradually introducing them to more sophisticated music as they become ready for it. Understanding the meaning of the music is as important as cognitive and psychomotor readiness. Using a variety of types of music is more satisfying than a steady diet of one kind, and students can learn to judge between varying qualities. As long as the music is well written, challenges the students with something new, has genuine musical worth, and is not trite or shallow—in short, as long as it broadens the students’ appreciation—it is good music and should be used.

A Wide Musical Repertoire New music is the most obvious way to maintain interest. Even if the individual or the group is not able to perform frequently rehearsed music perfectly, there comes a time when a change is necessary. Nothing brings on boredom faster than working continually on the same few pieces or trudging wearily over the same exercise until all is perfected. If a long period of time is needed to learn a piece well, the selection is probably too difficult. The exercises should also be of varied levels of difficulty. This wide variety not only helps maintain interest but also can contribute to the sightreading and interpretive abilities of the learners. This principle holds for both individual and group instruction. The inclusion of jazz and mariachi music, along with instruction in improvisation are examples of methods for changing the pace of rehearsals. Limiting students’ musical experiences to a single method or style contributes to a loss of interest.

A Clear and Attainable Goal All students should know why they are practicing and what their objective is. Similarly, teachers should make clear in rehearsals where they are leading the group. Like the proverbial carrot in front of the donkey, the goal should be visible; unlike the carrot, it should be attainable. Teachers must have long-range goals that shape their planning and programming, but short-range goals are also necessary. For the greatest effectiveness, a goal must be specific and cooperatively established with the students. If the group is working toward a concert performance, members will put forth more effort if the date has been set and the music selected. When time is given to drills, sight-reading, listening, or factual or technical learning, students will respond more readily if they know the purpose of the activity and its priority in the time available. The goal should be modeled

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 17

TEACHING AND THE ROLE OF MOTIVATION

17

for students to help them understand both how it should be accomplished and what the desired performance level is. It is especially important that skills be correctly modeled, as students are inclined to decide based on their own level of mastery. With the clarification of these goals and skills, individual and group errors can be used as an opportunity for learning.

Technical Drills Using Real Music Scales, studies, and exercises should anticipate the difficult spots in the music being learned. Until students encounter a particular technical problem in a piece of music, they will see little reason for practicing exercises designed to give them that facility. Treat technical studies like vitamins that are to be taken as needed but never as the main ingredient of the diet. As with all rules, the exceptions are many—for example, producing long tones and extending students’ range should be daily habits, as are warming up and warming down. This is not to suggest that technical studies be omitted—far from it. Because technical drills focus on particular kinds of learning, they can help students become technically proficient much more rapidly than they would if only musical pieces were practiced. Artists continue to practice exercises in the classic texts for their instrument. Drill needs to be meaningful and relevant, but if omitted altogether, the individual and the group will suffer.

Musicianship Skills and Factual Knowledge Factual knowledge about music and the ability to perform skills of musicianship, such as transposing, reading several clefs, and improvising, are both goals of the music program and real motivators. Like good music, skill and knowledge have intrinsic value and furnish valid goals for motivation. Students like to know, for instance, the problems that doublereed players have with reeds—how difficult they are to make, how scarce good cane is, and how much adjusting is necessary. They can be interested and inspired by details about composers and about the music—how a fugue is put together, the background for a Wagner composition, or the type of social system in which Haydn lived and worked. The more students know and the more they can do in any area, the more they are likely to retain a lively, active interest in it. Encourage students to enroll in Advanced Placement (AP) music theory. Teaching appropriate concepts from AP theory to the entire ensemble is valuable, as all students understand the relevance of AP courses.

A Tradition of Excellence Music programs with a reputation for quality provide a momentum that motivates students to practice and minimizes discipline problems. When there is an established standard to attain, students usually accept the challenge. High school students are idealistic and take pride in doing things well. They can derive satisfaction from meeting high standards in both personal and group achievement; they develop loyalties toward individuals and organizations that expect much of them and enjoy living up to those expectations. Students taking private lessons seek out demanding teachers, knowing that their effort will be rewarded with higher skills and a more successful performance. A tradition of excellence is not established overnight. If a teacher moves into a school without such a tradition, he or she must build it by starting with the younger students. Older players unaccustomed to high standards will resist drastic reforms and may retain their habits of sloppy practice or halfhearted participation. Sometimes such students respond to the challenge from younger players who begin to surpass them and occupy first-chair positions. Sometimes the best way of dealing with these students is to be patient and wait for them to graduate.

Independent Musical Activities Try to arrange schedules and assignments to make it possible for students to work together toward a common goal. Practicing alone can be boring and take considerable self-discipline, whereas working on parts with other students is much more enjoyable, especially for students who play such non-melody instruments as tubas and horns. Two or three students practicing together, all on the same part or each on a different part, can increase the pleasure of the participants as well as help develop musicianship. Supply duets, trios, and other kinds of ensemble music to interested students. Whether the group remains together for a long period or simply reads through the music a few times, such activity should be encouraged. A good library of ensemble music representing a variety of instrumental combinations and levels of difficulty is essential in a good instrumental program. Students should be encouraged to study piano, guitar, or a second instrument because variety makes music more fun and because of the valuable insights obtained by viewing the same musical problems through a different lens.

Small Ensembles The small chamber group presents the greatest musical challenge, the best training, the most individual responsibility, and the highest musical pleasure of any activity. Special problems involved in establishing small ensembles include scheduling, grouping students of similar levels of ability, and helping the groups become independent of teacher supervision. To create an ensemble of students whose levels of ability are comparable is perhaps possible only in a large school. In

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 18

18

THE FOUNDATIONS

smaller schools the group will usually be uneven, and the more advanced students will have to wait for or even help those less advanced. This situation can have learning advantages, if it is properly handled to avoid resentment or antagonism. The learning derived from small ensemble work is likely to be more valuable if the teacher does not have to regularly supervise rehearsal. It is important to promote an atmosphere in which independent rehearsal is desirable and expected. It is also an opportunity for students to develop leadership. With musical independence, students may seek ensemble experiences in the community, with students in neighboring schools, or with friends who are not enrolled in school music. It is the decision of the individual teacher whether small ensembles perform in public, go to festivals and contests, or play only for their own pleasure. Performances for appropriate community groups, however, increase motivation and also strengthen public relations.

Music for Supporting Players The second-chair viola player and the third snare drum are likely to lead humdrum existences musically. When possible, the teacher should use music that gives solo passages to the seldom-heard supporting players. Even a short solo passage may offer incentive for additional practice. Such music may be short on artistic value but it is long on psychological value. Every player deserves the opportunity to be heard.

Listening Experiences Players should not play all of the time. They should occasionally listen. Listening should include both live and recorded performances, amateur as well as professional. Older, more advanced players may perform or demonstrate for younger players. Students are always interested in performances by groups at their own age level, whether these are semi-professional or simply outstanding public school organizations. Some students will be more encouraged by virtuoso displays and master performances. Hearing an occasional poor performance may serve as an opportunity for learning to make intelligent criticism. Attendance at a professional concert, the appearance of a teaching-artist in the school, informal presentations by skillful adult members of the community, and exchange concerts with other schools are all great learning experiences. Miles Davis is reported to have recorded My Funny Valentine fourteen times with no two performances alike. Analyzing some of these performances sharpens the ear and the brain and is more like play than work. Teachers can instruct students to download recordings onto their iPods or ask them to purchase a single tune from iTunes, for example, so they can hear a recording of a song they may be preparing for a concert. In listening experiences, the ability to understand and hear musical differences in several recordings commands respect from most students.

Good Equipment and Facilities Much has already been said on this point. Good-quality tools help to produce good results. Poor-quality instruments affect both the group and the individual: inferior instruments handicap the students and may embarrass them as well. The teacher should see that both school- and student-owned instruments are of the best quality possible. Lack of practice areas or a good rehearsal room can also be a handicap. Players of large instruments such as the tuba, string bass, or drums in particular need an in-school practice room, which may also be a great convenience to other students whose schedules permit practice time during the school day. Regardless of the physical facilities in which teacher and students work and learn, a room that is efficiently arranged, neat, and ready for work provides a certain motivation. A room in disarray indicates a laxness and lack of concern.

Favorable Attitudes Students will accomplish little without the proper attitude. Attitudes are contagious—especially among teenagers—and so the attitude of a few may set the pattern for the group. The teacher needs to communicate to the students a sense of responsibility for their own individual parts in the organization, together with a pride in the organization and a desire to work for it. Students need to feel that their practicing is important, not only for their own improvement but also for the improvement of the group as a whole. The teacher can instill a sense of responsibility by taking notice of those students who are responsible, commending sections that have improved, pointing out areas that are weak, and helping students who need extra practice find the time and place to do so. The use of section leaders is motivating both for the leader and the others in the group. Pride in the organization can be encouraged by stressing honestly the achievements of the group, planning attractive activities, and reporting any commendations that come from the community, the student body, or school officials.

Esprit de Corps In the beginning it may be necessary for the teacher to be the main source of inspiration. A group spirit of unity and a desire to belong and be accepted will lead a student to adopt the ideals of the group. If the group is included in appropriate decision-making, a spirit of pride and responsibility will be fostered that will spread to new members coming into the group. Because high school students are not mature adults, group spirit can be strongly influenced by such extrinsic values as uniforms, contests, social affairs, and good publicity, as well as by successful performances.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 19

TEACHING AND THE ROLE OF MOTIVATION

19

Student Leaders Esprit de corps can be enhanced through student leaders. In addition, some of the less talented students can find recognition and satisfaction in performing organizational tasks or becoming student officers. Student government not only aids in developing group morale but also in lessening the load for the director and providing a chain of command through which the teacher may implement needed regulations. Some leadership positions are best filled by popular election, whereas other leaders should be appointed by the director.

Respect for Students and Student Ideas Students need to see that their ideas contribute to the selection of music, procedures, organizational rules, and even the amount of practice expected of every member. Even though it must be clear that the director makes the final decision in all matters, he or she must be a good listener. If the atmosphere encourages students to believe that they and the group can improve, students will establish high standards and expectations for themselves, often exceeding those of the director. Standards and rules must be enforced in such a way that they are perceived as being fair to all involved.

A Sensible Schedule The schedule should make it possible for students to practice and to attend all rehearsals. Performance goals should be reasonable so that the students are not discouraged. Take care not to exploit talented students. Often they are capable in many areas, and many teachers wish them to participate in those areas of interest. Because of this, such students can become accustomed to doing rapid, superficial work and forget the importance of sustained effort. Persistence is one of the important transferable outcomes of a valid instrumental music program. The teacher must be willing to think of the students’ welfare first by helping them acknowledge their limits and budget their time wisely.

The Motivational Force of the Teacher The teacher is the decisive element in providing inspiration, motivation, and learning. Teachers should model the best ethical behavior in their dealings with students, the administration, and the community. Their level of musicianship, technical facility as performers, pedagogical competence, command of musical knowledge, leadership, and depth and breadth as human beings can inspire students to imitate and emulate. Maintaining a sense of humor throughout the day is always important to morale. Teachers of instrumental music ideally provide the inspiration that comes from being a fine musician and a fine teacher. In addition to being timely, motivational goals and activities must not be too specific. Teachers should apply the “Goldilocks” principle and pursue programs that are “just right” with goals that are understandable, relevant, meaningful, and attainable. The foregoing suggestions have a long-range perspective; they are based primarily on a belief in the motivating force of good music and in the importance of psychology in working with students. These suggestions should be the basis of the teacher’s planning and decision-making. The next section explores the motivational power of temporary or short-term goals. Although short-term goals alone would never be adequate to provide a healthy atmosphere or a firm basis for musical learning, they can serve to create temporary inspiration and day-to-day interest. These goals provide extrinsic rather than intrinsic motivation.

Extrinsic Motivation Effective Praise Most students will respond to a deserved compliment from a teacher whom they respect, and will work to earn one. Praise can be directed at the entire group as long as it is specific, or can be focused on one instrumental section or one individual. The praise must be honest and must not be so frequent as to become meaningless. Praise remarks must be varied, straightforward, presented in a declarative manner, and should recognize both the effort and talent of all students. Praise for individuals and small groups also can be effectively shown by nonverbal gestures. Praise and approval can come from sources other than the teacher. The commendation of the administration and the student body is important and is a legitimate goal for which to work. One excellent way for a music group to receive deserved recognition is through publicizing its activities. Newspaper, television, and radio publicity concerning group activities fosters both school and public awareness and, encourages pride in the organization.

Criticism and Disapproval Being inspirational should not imply that the teacher always hands out compliments. The teacher should use praise liberally when it is merited but be firm when the situation demands it. It is fairly well-established that punishment as well as reward is effective in learning. Many successful teachers create a lasting enthusiasm for music while at the same time arousing a certain amount of apprehension at the weekly lesson or daily rehearsal. When students can relax without

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 20

20

THE FOUNDATIONS

fear of criticism regardless of what they do, the atmosphere no longer offers that creative tension in which learning takes place. However, as a general rule, sarcasm, ridicule, and other unfair practices have no place in good teaching, and criticism and disapproval should not be couched in these terms. Students do, however, respect firmness and want to be challenged to meet high standards. Respect for the teacher may often be based on the number of mistakes the teacher identifies and the helpfulness of the suggested corrections. When offering criticism, teachers need to know whether performance failure is due to lack of ability or lack of effort. Mild punishment works wonders when the problem is a lack of effort; however, when the untalented student is doing everything he or she can, negative criticism leads to discouragement.

Parents’ Support Enlist parents’ support but never allow home practice to be used as a form of punishment for students. Many directors send a periodic progress report to the parents in order to maintain a close relationship between the music program and the home. Electronic newsletters to parents and online expectations should be followed up, on occasion, by printed material. Emphasis on a regular time for practice may serve as a motivator for students. If the teacher feels that practice is important enough to be done at a particular time each day, with few exceptions, an aura of significance develops around the practice hour and its value is enhanced.

Grading Systems Many systems of grading are used in music programs, including the following. 1. 2.

3.

Practice charts. Students are required to practice a specified amount each day. Those who exceed the minimum get higher grades. The drawback to this approach is that it rewards effort rather than results. Progress charts. Students are graded for completing specified objectives. Such a chart has the advantage of establishing definite goals and of rewarding actual attainment. It gives the teacher an impartial and objective vehicle by which to determine grades and places music on the same plane with the more academic subjects. Point systems. Like progress charts, the point system rewards achievement. Point systems may be helpful in determining annual awards to members of the organization. Some teachers object to the clerical effort involved in keeping an accurate record of earned points for each student, but student help and computer programs can be successfully used in keeping records.

There should be no surprises in the use of any grading systems. One of the important values of a systematic grading procedure is that students can examine their progress and see the results. By seeing the graphic illustration of their progress for the year and the relationship between work and achievement, students can make personal evaluations of their progress.

Competitive Seating Plans With a competitive seating plan, the better players are encouraged to work for the honor of retaining first-chair positions, while others strive to catch up. For this plan to be effective, the teacher needs to schedule tryouts at regular intervals. The importance of the first-chair position for every part should be stressed (e.g., first chair, third clarinet), not simply the solo chairs. Students in these “chairs” are responsible musically, academically, and socially for the members of their section. Whether tryouts are announced ahead of time or scheduled without notice is the teacher’s decision. Some teachers feel that announced tryouts stimulate more energetic practicing, whereas others have discovered that their students practice more consistently when they have to be ready for unannounced tryouts.

Challenge Systems Students in the lower ranks may aspire to the higher chairs through testing the occupant in a fair match. The director should make the challenge system as democratic and fair as possible, probably by including students on the judging committee and by having a clear procedure that will also serve to produce added practice. In order not to spend too much class time on challenging, it is better to have a set time or schedule in which challenges may take place.

Tryouts for Chair Positions or Ensemble Membership As in other subjects, the music teacher should make specific assignments and then test all students on their preparation of the assignments. Such testing may take place at rehearsals, sectional practices, or at lessons, but regardless of the method, students should be expected to do the work assigned and to be graded accordingly. Whether such tryouts affect seating is up to the teacher. All classes and ensembles, except the beginning classes, must have enforced standards for membership that always include performance competence. Some teachers succeed in holding tryouts during regular rehearsals by calling on individuals to play the assignments in front of the group. The director should not force unwilling students to submit to such a practice if it seems too harsh.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 21

TEACHING AND THE ROLE OF MOTIVATION

21

Negative criticisms are usually best given in private. Once the routine is established, however, it may encourage students to be well prepared in order to avoid making a poor showing before their peers or a teacher they respect.

Competition on Technical Proficiency Students can derive a great deal of fun and inspiration from an occasional contest for sheer technical proficiency—players compete to see who can play the greatest number of scales correctly, play the fastest, hold notes the longest, and so forth. Competitions for producing the highest note are seldom advisable, but students seem to enjoy this task more than seeing who can hold a note the longest. Such contests are not a serious part of any assessment but can be used to stimulate interest and challenge students to greater technical mastery.

The Value of Written Tests Used infrequently, tests of musical learning may result in extra effort from students. Such tests may focus on knowledge of music fundamentals: terms, keys, scales, and tuning. Although these tests give no indication of the student’s playing ability, they help to emphasize the importance of basic musical knowledge. Written tests take up valuable time, but even in performance groups an occasional written test can provide motivation for learning and give the teacher some valuable insights into areas needing improvement.

Public Performance Evaluations Public performance evaluation, properly handled, can contribute both to the level of motivation and to musical understanding. For example, an outside critic may be employed during the regular rehearsal period to listen to individuals and sections, to comment to the group on its performance, and to offer suggestions for improvement. Or students may perform their parts for the entire ensemble, analyze their own strengths and weaknesses, and suggest how they will improve their parts by tomorrow or by next week. Such an activity can be great fun, constitute public testimony of intent, and act intrinsically and extrinsically as a motivator for musical excellence. In addition, members may comment on their section’s progress toward the overall goal and what they need to do to improve. The more specific the suggestions, the more helpful this activity will be. (This activity is similar to the teaching and motivating devices developed by Project Zero in the Pittsburgh public schools.) Comments like “take your parts home and practice” are not specific enough to be meaningful. Comments about how the intelligent use of warm-ups and home drills can improve the intonation, balance, or musical line can bring results, if followed.

Membership Standards for All Groups Although there must be flexibility in selecting members for each group in order to achieve instrumental balance, students should have an accurate idea of what is required for membership in the group. A clear set of standards is one way to encourage practice and achievement. In addition, standards can help dispel any feeling that the teacher is partial or unfair. Published rules must be followed; the fewer exceptions made, the more important these rules will become in the eyes of all members. Moreover, there is a natural desire to be a member of a group that has an aspect of selectivity. The Marine Corps and Phi Beta Kappa would lose their appeal if open to all comers. Musical organizations should not be exclusive, but membership should imply that certain standards have been met and maintained and that each member has attained a certain level of achievement. If a student must be dropped from the group for failure, any failure(s) must be well documented and changes made with the input of all stakeholders, including parents, administrators, and the student.

Awards Awards may take the form of letters, medals, sweaters, jackets, service stripes, or certificates. An award has no intrinsic value of its own and is important only as a means for promoting greater musical growth. Even so, students often prize an award highly, taking pride in earning it and pleasure in others’ recognition of it. As with membership standards, a definite system for giving awards should be established and well known. Students are concerned about the “fairness” of any recognition or motivational device. If the point system or competitive chairs are an accepted practice, the awards system should be related to these and to other administrative practices. To be most effective, awards should be presented in a public ceremony.

Scholarships The scholarship should relate to the music program and its objectives—for instance, a scholarship to an outstanding summer music camp or for private lessons. This kind of award may be used to sustain the interest of the best students in the organization. Funds for scholarships may be secured through money-raising projects by the group itself or by parents’ groups. They may also come from one or more civic groups or from private individuals. The scholarship(s) should be publicized throughout the year and be awarded at the close of the school year to enhance the importance of instrumental music.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 22

22

THE FOUNDATIONS

Section Rehearsals Section rehearsals help the students with specific difficulties and provide additional incentive for outside practice. When the whole group always rehearses together, students may not hear their mistakes or realize how important it is that they each perform their parts correctly. If scheduling makes extra section rehearsals impractical, the director should consider using some of the regularly scheduled large-group rehearsal time for concentrated work with various sections. It is easier for students and teacher to identify errors in smaller groups. When feasible, several sections might be scheduled at the same time with responsible students in charge.

Summer Music Camps The inspiration of a music camp comes from excellent teachers, the outstanding ability of other students, and a high level of performance. The director should encourage any student who can attend a summer music camp to do so. A local summer camp can often be organized with successful results. The staff might differ from the regular school staff and may consist of college music students, teachers with free time, or guest conductors from college campuses or neighboring school systems. If an actual camp site is available, the experience is enhanced, but even without an outdoor atmosphere the local music camp can be worthwhile.

New Instruments The teacher should encourage students to own the best instruments they can afford. When a student obtains a new instrument, the teacher should make the acquisition known to the group and draw attention to the student’s new possession.

CDs, MP3s, Smart Music, DVDs, and Videos The use of recordings allows students to hear and see their efforts, and points up their shortcomings as well as achievements. Problems of intonation, wrong notes, and poor attacks and releases often show up more vividly when recorded than in actual rehearsal. Having recordings allows for sectional critiques and external evaluators who perform similar tasks as judges at a music festival. An impending recording session furnishes another incentive for additional work and is in this sense much like a live performance.

Social Activities Special dances, banquets, and trips foster a spirit of unity and help maintain interest. They also provide a change from the routine of daily rehearsals, concerts, and sports events. In addition, social activities help the director become acquainted with students in a different setting.

Additional Ideas for Motivating Students In addition to the motivational devices just described, other possibilities that require extra resources in the way of funds or time allotment are also highly successful. High schools should consider commissioning works and inviting the composer to attend and conduct the premier performance of the work. Frank Battisti, following the lead of the Eastman Wind Ensemble, initiated this idea more than fifty years ago with the Ithaca, New York high school band, and it has been adopted by many fine ensembles that have the resources. The thrill of playing a number at its first public performance with the composer in attendance and/or conducting is a most memorable event. State and local arts councils will support an artist-in-residence program in your school. Select the instrument you wish to promote, write a proposal, and submit it to the arts council. Many superb performers graduating in applied music from American universities will willingly teach and perform in public schools. They are inspirational for both strong and weak performers. Form a jazz band, a brass band, a drum and bugle corps, a mariachi ensemble, a recorder quartet, or other attractive ensemble. Encourage students who play in garage bands on piano, guitar, and other instruments to find their place in the orchestra or wind band as well. These students are enthusiastic, often have special musical skills, and can prove to be motivational for other students. Scheduled Saturday morning sessions at which older students can assist younger students and the entire music faculty is in attendance have advantages far beyond the extra rehearsal. Older students gain a feeling of accomplishment; younger students are inspired by the performance abilities of the high school students. All participants gain an appreciation for the size and diversity of the school system’s instrumental music program. Performances by the high school ensemble for the grade schools and middle schools can inspire younger students to begin instrumental music study. Making a CD or DVD, performing on the local television channel, and furnishing pictures and stories to the yearbook and school newspaper are all opportunities for public recognition in which students can take pride. Interesting computer programs that can judge the accuracy of pitch and rhythm or serve as an accompaniment for soloists or for practicing continue to be a motivational tool. Take the opportunity to incorporate music theory and music history into your programs and relate instrumental music participation to experiences students might have outside school.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 23

TEACHING AND THE ROLE OF MOTIVATION

23

Performance Theoretically, the music program does not exist for the sake of performance. In practice, however, most of the efforts of both teachers and students focus on performance as the conscious or unconscious goal; the opportunity to perform naturally represents the greatest single motivating factor. Music is an aural art and the greatest satisfaction often comes when performers feel their music has reached a listening ear. Therefore, the instrumental music teacher should provide occasions for a variety of performances, knowing that the opportunity to perform will stimulate more conscientious and concentrated practice, promote interest in concomitant musical learning, provide an outlet and a reward for students, and serve as a demonstration of the accomplishments of the music program. The danger is that this last consideration will take on undue importance and that performance will become the goal of the program rather than a vehicle for greater learning and musical understanding. In considering performance and motivation, one should remember that performance is encouraged primarily because of its motivational power, not the reverse. Students need to be challenged to do their best and to attain what is possible, for themselves and for the group; with most groups that means a reasonably active performing schedule with music that can be performed well. Performance can take several forms. Contests and festivals are a common and valuable form of public performance. In some instances, these occasions are the only times groups play good music. It is unfortunate that instrumental music organizations have had to publish lists of “acceptable” music, and even these lists have been corrupted. The challenge to compete successfully is so strong that the music for contests and festivals is learned more thoroughly and played more enthusiastically than music for any other occasion. If the pressure to succeed in the competition is too great, however, the psychological negatives can outweigh the pluses. It is the teacher’s responsibility to see that the efforts of the group are focused on excellence for its own sake and for the sake of the music, not for that of winning the highest rating. Concerts are just as important and nearly as intense as contests and festivals. Here again, the music should be carefully chosen for its value and played as well as possible. The music chosen should be well within the ability of the group, so that a satisfactory performance can be achieved without an unreasonable amount of preparation. Exchange concerts have all the advantages of regular concerts with the additional value of competition—the students’ desire to excel in comparison with another group, school, or town. The teacher should not make a competition a major consideration and should be careful to emphasize good and bad features of both groups so that the students profit from their own playing and also from hearing the exchange group. Any assignment to listen to another ensemble must be carefully prepared; critical listening has to be learned and is especially difficult in the excitement of exchange concerts. Special performing events are another form of motivation. Bringing in a guest conductor or guest artist to work with the group, hearing an artist perform, attending a clinic, or playing in select groups such as all-state or all-city organizations, youth orchestras, and wind bands, can result in great inspiration for young players. Membership in allstate ensembles or the biannual National Youth Orchestra is a major accomplishment and should be publicized. Tours, though often viewed with dismay by teacher and administrator alike, have high appeal for students. Although performing tours may not be worth the agony involved, great value can be gained from them. The kind of “professionalism” gained from performing well day after day is a fine experience for students. However, the teacher must decide whether the expenditure of time and effort for value received is justified. The value of solo, small-group, and large-group performances before civic organizations has been noted. However, here is a word of warning: When one or two highly touted groups such as the jazz band or string quartet are sent out exclusively, these groups tend to become exploited, the learning value diminishes for them, and other deserving students do not get the opportunity to perform.

CONCLUSION This chapter has explored sound educational principles translated into terms and situations applicable to the instrumental music program. Sound motivation, however, is not used simply to improve the music program. Motivation is essential: motivation is the sine qua non for learning, musical or any other kind. The teacher cannot take or leave it as desired, for if there is no motivation there will be no learning, and where there is thoughtless or misguided motivation there may be negative learning. Motivation comes from within, but the teacher can provide day-to-day situations that are as desirable as possible so that the student’s interest grows and he or she becomes motivated to develop in those areas that are the teacher’s goals and the student’s goals. Basically, individuals are motivated by their own needs. The psychological and physical conditions that hold promise of answering these needs can stimulate students to respond. Hetland, Winner, Veeneman, and Sheridan (2007) completed a study of the outcomes of exemplary visual arts instruction, and they identified eight habits of mind: developing the craft, engaging and persisting, envisioning, expressing, observing, reflecting, stretching, and exploring and understanding, each of which has surfaced in our discussion of motivation and self-learning and each applies to music studio teaching. Motivation, however sound, is not in itself educational. Even the best motivation may not lead to learning. In music, we often forget that not all experience is educative, just as not all experience is motivating. To be educative,

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 24

24

THE FOUNDATIONS

experience must be purposeful. Psychological studies have indicated that people attending lectures or reading material gain widely differing information from what they read or hear, depending on what they expect to gain. When purposes differ, the resultant learning also differs. To apply this to music is not difficult; merely practicing or reading through music or drilling perfunctorily on exercises is not educative. Thus, with respect to performance, good music must be used and performed with the best musical insights of the teacher. Instrumental teachers have been accused of continuing to teach primarily in the “drill” fashion, with often poor results. Although drill can be insightful when there is a musical purpose, excellent and meaningful teaching is the responsibility of the teacher. The secret lies, as Alsop and O’Halloran suggest, in the interpersonal relations that are at the heart of motivation.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1.

2.

3. 4. 5.

In November 2007, The Christian Science Monitor reported on the Stephen-Argyle (Minnesota) High School football team having won sixty-seven consecutive games. The team’s playbook, however, had no diagrams of offensive formations and defensive counters. Instead it had sixteen pages of goals, rules, expectations, guidelines, nutritional tips, and inspirational quotations from a wide variety of philosophers, such as “First say to yourself what you would be. Then do what you have to do.” How is this coach using motivation? What applications, if any, are there for the instrumental music teacher? (John Millea: “Stephen-Argyle High School.” The Christian Science Monitor, Nov. 26, 2007. Vol. 100[1].) Your first-chair violinist is clearly the best musician in the ensemble but does not share equally in the responsibilities you expect of all members. This situation is affecting group morale. What strategies, if any, would you employ to change the attitude of either the first-chair violinist or the members of the ensemble? What behaviors have you noticed among your peers that indicate they are performance-or mastery-oriented? Have these behaviors led to the outcomes that you might have expected? How? How important is musical talent in musical competency? Assuming musical talent is normally distributed, how should a teacher use his or her perception of student talent in positive and negative comments (rewards and negative criticisms)? What are the advantages and disadvantages of on-the-spot tryouts for chair positions and group membership? Take a position and debate this issue with a classmate and then switch sides.

RESOURCES Websites Center for Educator Development in the Fine Arts finearts.esc20.net/music_strategies/mus_strat_moti.html edPsychInteractive edpsycinteractive.org/topics/motivation/motivate.html Goal Setting www.teachingmoments.com University of Rochester Self-determination theory psych.rochester.edu/SDT

Texts Alderman, M.K. (1999). Motivation for Achievement: Possibilities for Teaching and Learning. Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Ames, C. and R. Ames (eds.) (1985). Research on Motivation in Education, volume 2. New York, NY: Academic Press. Ames, R. and C. Ames (eds.) (1984). Research on Motivation in Education, volume 1. New York, NY: Academic Press. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York, NY: Freeman. Brophy, J. (1998). Motivating Students to Learn. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2008). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Performance. New York, NY: Basic Books. Csikszentmihalyi, M., K. Rathunde, and S. Whalen (1996). Talented Teenagers: The Roots of Success and Failure. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

Duckworth, A. (2016). Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance. New York, NY: Scribner. Dweck, C.S. (1999). Self-theories: Their Role in Motivation, Personality and Development. Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis. ––– (2006). Mind Set: The New Psychology of Success. New York, NY: Random House. Elliot, A. and C. Dweck (eds.) (2005). Handbook of Competence and Motivation. New York, NY: The Guilford Press. Evans, P. (2016). Motivation. In G. McPherson (ed.). The Child as Musician: A Handbook of Musical Development. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, Chapter 17. Evans, P. and G. McPherson (2014). Identity and Practice: The Motivational Benefits of a Long-term Musical Identity. Psychology of Music, 43(3), 407–422. Feldman, E. and A. Contzius (2016). Instrumental Music Education: Teaching with the Musical and Practical in Harmony, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Routledge, Chapter 16, 282–287. Green, B. and W.T. Gallwey (1986). Inner Game of Music. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press/Doubleday. Hallam, S. (1998). Instrumental Teaching: A Practical Guide to Better Teaching and Learning. Oxford, UK: Heinemann Educational. ––– (2009). Motivation to Learn. In S. Hallam, I. Cross, and M. Thaut. (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Music Psychology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, Chapter 27. Hetland, L., E. Winner, S. Veeneman, and K.M. Sheridan (2007). Studio Thinking: The Real Benefits of Visual Arts Education. New York: Teachers College.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 25

TEACHING AND THE ROLE OF MOTIVATION Huitt, W. (2011). Motivation to Learn: An Overview. Valdosta State University: Educational Psychology Interactive. Jagow, S. (2007). Teaching Instrumental Music: Developing the Complete Band Program. Galesville: MD: Meredith Music, Part IV. Kaplan, A., S. Karabenick, and W. DeGroot (eds.) (2009). Culture, Self and Motivation: Essays in Honor of Martin Maehr. Charlotte: Information Age. Kohn, A. (1998). What to Look for in a Classroom: And Other Essays. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Maehr, M. and L. Braskamp (1986). The Motivation Factor: A Theory of Personal Investment. Lexington: Lexington Books. Maehr, M. and P. Pintrich. (eds.) (1991). Advances in Motivation and Achievement: Goals and Self-regulation: A Series. Greenwich, CT: JAI. Maehr, M., P. Pintrich, and E.A. Linnenbrink (2002). Motivation and Achievement. In R. Colwell and C. Richardson (Eds.) The New Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. McPherson, G. E., J.W. Davidson and R. Faulkner (2012). Music in our Lives: Rethinking Musical Ability, Development and Identity. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. McPherson, G. and S. O’Neill (2010). Students’ Motivation to Study Music as Compared to Other School Subjects: A Comparison of Eight Countries. Research Studies in Music Education, 32(1): 1–37. McPherson, G. and J. Renwick (2011). Self-regulation and Mastery of Musical Skills. In B.J. Zimmerman and D. Shunk (eds.) Handbook of Self-regulation of Learning and Performance. New York, NY: Routledge, 234–238. O’Neill, S. and G. McPherson (2002). Motivation. In R. Parncutt and G. McPherson (eds.) The Science and Psychology of Musical Performance: Creative Strategies for Teaching and Learning, Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 31–46. Parncutt, R. and G. McPherson (eds.) (2002). The Science and Psychology of Music Performance: Creative Strategies for Teaching and Learning. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Pink, D. (2009). The Surprising Truth about What Motivates Us. New York, NY: Riverhead. Pintrich, P. and D. Schunk (2002). Motivation in Education: Theory, Research, and Applications, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.

25

Radocy, R. and J.D. Boyle (2003). Psychological Foundations of Musical Behavior, 4th ed. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. Renninger, K.A. and S. Hidi (2015).The Power of Interest for Motivation and Engagement. New York, NY: Routledge. Renwick, J. and J. Reeve. (2012). Supporting Motivation in Music Education. In G. McPherson and G. Welch. Oxford Handbook of Music Education, Volume 1, New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 143–162. Ryan, R. (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Human Motivation. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Schunk, D. and B. Zimmerman (eds.) (1998) Self-regulated Learning from Teaching to Self-reflective Practice, New York, NY: Guilford. Schunk, D., J. Meece, and P. Pintrich (2014). Motivation in Education: Theory, Research, and Applications, 4th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Smith, B. (2011). Motivation to Learn Music: A Discussion of Some Key Elements. In R. Colwell and P. Webster (eds.), MENC Handbook of Research on Music Learning, Volume 1: Strategies. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Thomas, N. (1992). Motivation. In R. Colwell (ed.), Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Wigfield, A., J. Cambria, and J. Eccles (2012). Motivation in education. In R.M. Ryan (ed.), Oxford Handbook of Motivation. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 463–478. Willingham, D.T. (2009). Why Don’t Students Like School: A Cognitive Scientist Answers Questions about How the Mind Works and What it Means for the Classroom. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Woody, R. and G. McPherson (2010). Emotion and Motivation in the Lives of Performers. In P. Juslin and J. Sloboda (eds.), Handbook of Music and Emotion: Theory, Research, Applications. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Zimmerman, B. J. (1998) Developing Self-fulfilling Cycles of Academic Regulation: An Analysis of Exemplary Instructional Models. In D. Schunk and B. Zimmerman (eds.), Self-regulated Learning: From Teaching to Self-reflective Practice. New York, NY: Guilford Press, 1–19.

NOTES 1. Pintrich, P. and D. Schunk (2002). Motivation in Education: Theory, Research, and Applications, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall, 4. 2. Pajares, F., and D. Schunk (2002). Self and self-belief in psychology and education: A historical perspective. In J. Aronson (Ed.) Improving Academic Achievement: Impact of Psychological Factors on Education. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 3–21. 3. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York, NY: Freeman, 79. 4. Jinks, J. and A. Lorsbach (2003). Introduction: motivation and self-efficacy belief. Reading and Writing Quarterly 19(2): 113. 5. Schunk, F. and F. Pajares (2001). The development of academic self-efficacy. In A. Wigfield and J. Eccles (Eds.)

6. 7.

8.

9. 10. 11. 12.

Development of Achievement Motivation. San Diego: Academic Press, 15. Hattie, J. and G. Yates (2014). Visible Learning and the Science of How We Learn. New York: Routledge, 6. Custodero, L.A. (1997). An observational study of flow experience in young children’s music learning. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Southern California. Berger, J. and S. Karabenick (2016). Construct Validity of Self-reported Metacognitive Learning Strategies. Educational Measurement 21[1], 19–33. Evans and McPherson, 2014. Evans and McPherson, 2014. Cooke, M. and R. Morris (1996). Making music in Great Britain. Journal of the Market Research Society 28(2): 123–134. p. 37.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 26

CHAPTER 3

Objectives, Standards, and Curriculum Development

3

The Purpose of Objectives

Objectives are at the heart of teaching, and instrumental music teachers must provide clear goals for their students and also the means to attain them. For example, the band’s extra morning rehearsal is not an objective but rather a tool for achieving objectives. These objectives could be as specific as attaining appropriate instrumental balance to a more general objective such as following a conductor’s gestures while demonstrating varying tempos and dynamics. Broad aims such as competence in critical thinking and problem solving may first require accomplishing many smaller objectives. Setting objectives is an essential but frequently neglected step in teaching. The process of defining goals, aims, and objectives is often bypassed because it seems complicated, takes too much time, and imposes too much structure on the teaching situation. Experienced teachers, however know that objectives are indispensable for effective teaching. Objectives that provide a structure for the music program should not be confused with the aims of music advocates who are concerned about justifying whether music belongs in the school curriculum. By formulating specific objectives, a teacher decides what, when, and how to teach. The careful construction of objectives is the only way in which music instruction can become meaningful. Experienced and successful music ensemble directors often have as much trouble articulating their objectives as do beginning teachers. They can, however, tell you about their plans, which might be quite detailed. Successful conductors and teachers often have plans for every rehearsal as well as a plan for each day, week, and semester. But an objective differs from a plan in that it is more specific and focused and, most importantly, requires assessment. One of the goals of this chapter is to promote clarity in setting the objectives for an instrumental music program. To that end, objectives stated in terms of “to be aware, to know, to understand, to appreciate, to enjoy, to believe,” for example, are not specific enough because they cannot be measured. (Important experiential objectives that are not measurable are discussed later in this chapter.) Objectives help teachers focus their efforts on how student behavior is to be changed as a result of instrumental music instruction.

TYPES OF OBJECTIVES There are several types and levels of objectives. An example of a global objective is “all students will start school ready to learn.” This is a potent objective but not helpful for teachers who need to plan instruction. Educational objectives are also too broad to guide teaching, but they have a richness that is not conveyed by instructional objectives and are, therefore, also important. The ability to read music fits the definition of an educational objective but is too open-ended to guide instruction. Being able to play “Happy Birthday” by ear in two different keys is a possible instructional objective and it is such instructional objectives that are the focus of this chapter. Determining priorities, articulating objectives, and assessing students’ learning are the keys to successful teaching. Thus, another goal of this chapter is to stress the importance of giving immediate feedback concerning their success or failure in meeting objectives, with recommendations to guide their improvement. More specific information regarding assessment can be found in the next chapter. Long-term, intermediate, and short-term objectives are all important. Expert teachers understand long-term sequencing and instructional pacing. For example, learning to play the bassoon is no simple task; it is an ongoing experience, a procedure. The performance objective, a long-term goal, states how well the bassoon is to be played. Capable music teachers are able to clearly articulate, for each student, both long-term goals and immediate objectives that are realistic given the particular student’s talent, level of interest, and number of competing interests. They are also able to show students what is required to accomplish their long-range goals, and the rewards that will result from the accomplishment. Good long-term objectives are articulated by the teacher and shared with the students so that they become public for the school and community to assess. It often helps to write them down. If the teacher cannot visualize how these

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 27

OBJECTIVES, STANDARDS, CURRICULUM

27

objectives can be assessed and how feedback can be provided to each individual, the objectives are too vague and likely will be ineffective. These instructional objectives should instruct on a specific change in the learner’s behavior (including listening) and may be geared either toward an individual or the group. Performance objectives suggesting, for example, that the tone quality (or other performance construct) should be performed to the satisfaction of the instructor are not valid instructional objectives because they provide no new information to students who already know they must satisfy the instructor. A more concrete performance objective would be the player’s tone quality produces a clear, straight line of sound for five seconds without discernible wavering. Distinguishing between group and individual objectives is critical to success and each must be assigned a priority. A rehearsal of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra or the Mnozil Brass has as its primary purpose the attainment of group objectives. Each member of these two ensembles can already accurately and musically play his or her part; thus, the focus instead is on group unity, interpretation, blend, balance, and more. A group objective may be expressed as follows: In performing the Holst First Suite in E-flat for Military Band, no individual clarinet player should be identifiable—the section should sound as if only one member is playing the part. The assessment tool is to listen for any student’s tone quality, intonation, or playing style “sticking out.” With most school ensembles, instructional time is devoted primarily to group objectives like balance, blend, and expression. But the teacher must also be keenly aware of each individual’s progress. This is not an easy task when teaching a hundred students each with unique competencies and needs. The educational objective of the school music program, however, is to teach musical independence. That is the destination but with the right repertoire and logical short-term and intermediate individual goals, the journey can be engaging and fun. Music educators have the responsibility of assisting students to accomplish the widest possible range of both individual and group objectives. Contributing to the challenge of objectives in the music program is the fact that individual students have uneven skills and differing personal objectives for each rehearsal. The genius in teaching instrumental music is providing specific feedback to each individual student on his or her present performance competence and also helping that individual or section to progress on objectives important to the entire ensemble. Being helpful does not imply providing positive or negative comments; it implies providing fair and objective comments. Several sources offer help in identifying and assessing individual objectives in music, among which are the efforts of the National Association for Music Education (NAfME), specific statements in state curricula frameworks, method books, and in professional development offered by school districts. The emphasis on using the voluntary national standards to set objectives has been varying. Unfortunately, some districts have revised their curricula and translated the standards into a statement of objectives. A satisfactory objective must meet the following qualifications: Is instruction in the ensemble the best means for reaching this objective? Is this issue important and worthy of the time spent and if so, at what level? Students do come with prior knowledge. The clarinetist already has a mental picture, which might be incorrect, of what a clarinet should sound like. With positive answers to these questions, instructional objectives can then be written. Participation in school musical ensembles is best justified for students when they are working toward individual, group, and program objectives that have been cooperatively set and have real meaning. If these objectives are attained at high levels, the music experience can be exciting and long-lasting. It is not absolutely clear what the minimum skill level must be in the nation’s schools in order to bring about positive results; however, broadly put, each student must be able to perform independently as well as contribute to an ensemble by displaying competence in appropriate blend, sound, musical style, and character for the music. John Kinyon suggests a typical group objective: at the time of a scheduled concert, students should be able to proficiently sight-read music of comparable difficulty to that which they are performing.1 This is an ambitious objective, as transfer of learning is complex. There are, of course, musical experiences other than performance; however, performance objectives remain the strongest and most memorable part of any music program. It is probably impossible to teach music in the most efficient manner at all times, because emphasizing one type of objective will result in the temporary neglect of other areas. Insightful teachers take advantage of the daily mood changes and preferences of the students. The second orchestra and technique classes need objectives as much as the top organizations—perhaps more so—if they are to produce results and retain students’ interest. Objectives unquestionably contribute to student achievement and satisfaction at every level, and challenging objectives stretch the teacher’s abilities as well as those of the students. The effective teacher is always concerned with individual differences, because the progress of each individual within ensembles will depend on the individual’s socioeconomic background, motivation, aptitude, interest, private study, peer group, and home cooperation. In spite of the teacher’s desire to retain students, he or she must be honest in evaluating students’ progress and reporting it to them and their parents. Objectives must be challenging. Low aims and low standards quickly breed contempt for the ensemble among most students. Because of the breadth of objectives in instrumental music, individual students can still have a meaningful experience while being challenged to meet the musical objectives of the group. Consider suggesting goals if necessary, but many teachers motivate students by having students set goals with the teacher or in conjunction like teacher–student–parents. Students should be able to develop and document an organized practice routine as well as discuss and demonstrate appropriate practice methods and techniques.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 28

28

THE FOUNDATIONS

ORGANIZING OBJECTIVES The effective teacher organizes objective domains not only into individual and group objectives but also according to what he or she wants students: (1) to know (cognitive domain); (2) to be able to do (psychomotor domain); and (3) to value and/or feel (affective domain). In each of these domains there is a range of possible difficulty. A cognitive objective might be as simple as defining accelerando or knowing that Bach composed fugues, or as complex as listening to a composition and determining whether the structure is: (1) theme and variations; (2) theme, development, and restatement; (3) theme 1, development, theme 2, development; or (4) introduction, theme, and development. Cognitive objectives at a higher level involve comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. A revision of Bloom’s 1956 taxonomy of educational objectives2 has all of the following cognitive categories: recognizing, recalling, interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, explaining, executing, implementing, differentiating, organizing, attributing, checking, critiquing, generating, planning, and producing. Food for thought. A psychomotor objective would be to play without error a two-octave ascending and descending chromatic scale at MM=120 using quarter notes. A more complex objective would be for skills to become so habitual that a performance can be accomplished with a minimum of thought about the skill process itself. An affective objective, expressed in behavioral terms, might be that the student save sufficient money to purchase some recordings by Leonard Bernstein. A high level of accomplishment in the affective domain is reached when a student’s life is organized by practice of the viola and participation in orchestra. Educators like Krathwohl and Bloom3 have developed splendid taxonomies to assist teachers in ensuring that their instruction does not miss levels of difficulty and sink down to the lowest level in each domain. We like the idea of a fourth taxonomy of learning, that of perception. The educational taxonomies usually include perception as a cognitive activity. In music it is helpful to distinguish between knowing and perceiving. Perceiving is the skill of hearing—hearing melodies, rhythms, harmonies, and timbres when performed and hearing them in one’s head (audiation). At a higher level, one might “perceive” that a given melody is more appropriate for development in, for example, symphonic form than elaborated using theme and variations. Or, during an improvised solo, the accompanying musicians might anticipate how the soloist’s motive might develop. The teacher’s responsibility is to assist students in reaching standards in all domains—knowledge, skill, valuing, and perception. The following is an example of goals (here called Student Learner Outcomes or SLOs) of one successful junior high band program:

Student Learner Outcomes Tone Production Upon completion of Beginning Band, students will be able to: •

model specialist demonstration of posture, hand position, breath support, and embouchure control.

Musical Notation Upon completion of Beginning Band, students will be able to: • • • • • •

recognize basic fingering patterns and note names; speak note names aloud while reading music; speak note names aloud and finger along; demonstrate knowledge of the fingering chart by playing it in quarter notes, both ascending and descending; identify key signatures and the sharps and flats contained within the concert keys of C, F, G, B-flat, D, E-flat; know and perform all major scales in quarter notes at the tempo ♩ = 80.

Practice Habits Upon completion of Beginning Band, students will be able to: • •

develop and document an organized, weekly practice routine; discuss appropriate practice methods/techniques.

Elements of Music Upon completion of Beginning Band, students will be able to: Timbre: recognize the difference in timbre of all band instruments.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 29

OBJECTIVES, STANDARDS, CURRICULUM

29

Dynamics: • • •

identify the dynamic marking of pp, p, mp, mf, f, and ff; demonstrate loud and soft dynamics; demonstrate gradual increase and decrease in volume.

Articulations: demonstrate connected and detached tonguing, and slurring, as introduced in the method book. Rhythm: demonstrate an understanding of pulse and beat division by: • • • • •

tapping foot down and up during all lessons and performances; counting and playing whole, half, quarter, eighth, sixteenth notes and rests, dotted quarter notes, dotted half notes and dotted eight notes; recognizing syncopation and being able to demonstrate syncopated rhythms using quarter notes and eighth notes; recognizing and playing downbeats and upbeats; recognizing and playing songs in alla breve time.

Melody, Pitch, Harmony Upon completion of Beginning Band, students will be able to: • •

identify melody and harmony in the music they perform; compare pitches and identify pitch inconsistencies.

Texture Upon completion of Beginning Band, students will be able to: • • •

perform music in monophonic, homophonic, and polyphonic textures; identify the difference between melody and accompaniment; identify, describe, and evaluate the “pyramid of sound.”

Form Upon completion of Beginning Band, students will be able to: • • •

perform songs in binary and ternary form; perform a fugue and recognize canonic form and theme and variation; perform music that modulates and uses rhythmic transformation.

Expressive Elements Upon completion of Beginning Band, students will be able to: •

discuss the musical effect of the combined musical elements.

Style Upon completion of Beginning Band, students will be able to: • •

explore tempo, interpretive, and articulation styles standard to specific genres; describe the historical background of a composition and biographical information of selected composers.

Units of Instruction •

The band program is set up in a series of four concert cycles that meet the developmental needs of the student band population.

It is important to realize that having goals that are clear, understandable, and acceptable by the local school district based on the opportunity to learn provided within a school district philosophy, its particular student body, and teacher make it critical that instrumental music teachers develop objectives unique to their own local context. There is no silver bullet curriculum, one proven helpful for every program.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 30

30 THE FOUNDATIONS

CREATING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES Behavioral or Measurable Objectives Prior to adopting an objective, the teacher should determine student needs and organize a reasonable schedule for attainment. A teacher who does not use a framework for organizing objectives risks leaving gaps in the learning sequence and thus using the learning time inefficiently or ineffectively. Educational theorists speak of organizing instruction along several themes: problem solving, caring, critical thinking, or the great body of literature to be mastered and understood. Unfortunately, musical competence cannot be achieved this way. One cannot wait until a high C appears in the music to learn to play high C. There is no instant Stravinsky mix that takes only 20 minutes in the microwave when the need occurs. Knowing what Stravinsky often demands of those who perform his music, however, makes practicing exercises more meaningful. Materials used by professionals not only suggest commonly used audition numbers but also exercises that prepare the applicant to transfer skills to an unfamiliar piece of music. Instruction books and materials are important and plentiful—so plentiful that clear objectives are needed if those books and materials are to be used well. Clear objectives will also provide additional structure, to weigh priorities, and to focus activities and experiences on meaningful learning. Authors of instruction books, however, organize instruction in distinct ways; the teacher must adjust instruction to the learning situation, being careful to model each objective and its performance standard.

Experiential Objectives The preparation of objectives in music requires more than a clear statement of behavioral (instructional) objectives. Experiential objectives, focused and unfocused, are also a valuable part of musical goals. For example, a required experiential objective might be to attend two live concerts each year. (Attendance at concerts can result in considerable learning.) Students may find they enjoy listening carefully to the new music. Although the amount of learning will differ among jazz concerts, or between a wind band and an orchestra concert, students who pay attention to something will learn. Attending a concert is only one important experience; others include participating in a music contest and downloading favorite musical works. Experiences can also be focused toward specific ends; these experiences require more preparation and follow-up, and result in higher and more controlled learning. Selected students might be asked to speak before the school board about the place of music in their lives or give demonstration performances for the benefit of potential new student instrumentalists (and all ensemble members could participate by being a helpful audience for a “run-through” of the demonstration). Other focused experiential activities might include reflecting on a most memorable musical experience, thinking about the “Aha!” moment when a rehearsed piece of music first became meaningful and satisfying to play, or reporting what they told their parents they were learning in orchestra. Focused responses to experiences might compare and contrast the music heard, evaluate the performance, or describe the perceived receptivity of the audience. Such follow-up makes the experience an occasion for learning. Further, experiential objectives in the sequence of instruction make learning music a deeper part of everyone’s lives. If there is no follow-up to alert students to realize the meaning, privilege, or benefit of such an experience, it becomes simply an activity.

Procedures Objectives in the various domains are often listed as instructional objectives, when they are actually developmental processes that focus on “getting better” or “learning” the music. For example, the intermediate trombonist demonstrates a two-octave range from F to F with a clear tone quality in the context of a musical excerpt. Good instruction requires attainable benchmarks or way stations in any learning process or procedure that provide an opportunity to assess progress and achievement according to performance standards. Delayed gratification is not highly successful with the young. To get started with the process, Wiggins and McTighe4 suggest designing the curriculum “backwards.” In a sample exercise, try to determine an established group or individual goal you feel would be valuable in helping a student achieve musical independence or a group to perform a level IV selection with artistry. Then consider what kinds of performances or products would give the student, the teacher, and the public evidence that the student gained possession of that goal. Finally, select the materials and design the lesson plan(s) that give the student opportunities to learn and refine the stated goal. This is the heart of the Understanding by Design framework and can demonstrate focused purpose. Caution is suggested as starting with the end product and working backwards can sometimes stifle creativity. This design works best with cognitive and psychomotor objectives.

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS Instructional objectives should relate to established performance standards and eventually, once the decision is made as to what all students should know and be able to do, to a coherent curriculum. Curricula today are expected to be

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 31

OBJECTIVES, STANDARDS, CURRICULUM

31

standards-based. In districts where most of the students take private lessons outside of school, priority will likely be given to a curriculum focused on group objectives. One has to walk a fine line to not contradict the sequence or ideas of private teachers. For schools where students do not take outside lessons, a balance between group and individual objectives should be maintained. For any music ensemble, the teacher’s task is to establish priorities in cooperation with the students and communicate these to all stakeholders, including students, parents, and administrators. The designation of section leaders, concertmasters, drum majors, and officers has the potential to develop student leadership helpful in creating a culture aimed toward achieving agreed-upon goals. The two-level sequence for connecting objectives to content standards in the school curriculum is as follows: 1.

Identify the (long- or short-term) objective so that its content and the performance standard are well defined and clear. Expectations must be reasonable. On a daily, weekly, or monthly basis, inform all students what they are expected to hear, know, understand, and be able to perform—and in what context and with what music. This cannot become a lengthy process that is burdensome. Brief and concise indications can expedite the daily rehearsal and make the week’s rehearsals more successful. Robert Duke suggests that specific observable behaviors, known by all students, can be recognized (assessed) perhaps even from the podium: – – – –

2.

posture: held instrument at proper angle; gave conductor eye contact when beginning to play; followed changes and adjustments shown by conductor; played with appropriate style with proper phrasing and articulation.

Specify the evidence students must provide to indicate that they have attained adequate, proficient, or advanced levels in knowing, understanding, hearing, and doing. We recommend formulating checklists such as the one shown in the Assessment chapter. The teacher may wish to model some objectives when words are inadequate. Welleducated teachers can, with some thought, describe the expected conditions and the achievement level desired. In some instances, more detail about the specific level of skill desired must be provided (or modeled in a written, vocalized, or recorded manner) before all students are clear as to what is expected: –

Demonstrated pitch awareness: o adequate—recognizes performed pitch does not match given pitch and adjusts to correct by guessing; o proficient—recognizes performed pitch as sharp, flat, or in tune to given pitch and adjusts accordingly to match the pitch; o advanced—recognizes performed pitch in context of the harmonic function and adjusts depending on the function and the group’s prevailing pitch center.

In summary, state the goal and specify what evidence the students need to provide to show they met the goal. There is more specific information on constructing checklists in Chapter 3.

TOOLS AND STRATEGIES Identifying methods, techniques, and materials falls into place once the objectives are clear. First, make a list of the desired concepts, principles, facts, skills, and experiences that are potential objectives and then consider the ways of achieving and assessing them. After this list is formulated, the objectives can be prioritized and sequenced and the instructional time and other needed resources estimated. With the objectives of the instrumental program and the potential of each experience in mind, the teacher can, alone or with students and other stakeholders, formulate goals for the year. The district curriculum guide will be only partially helpful, as individual schools differ; any model curricula from college will be of even less value. Working backward from the year’s objectives, weekly, monthly, and sometimes daily goals can be derived. When written, these become a blueprint for teaching. When directors skip lesson plans, this omission usually indicates a focus on only the performance of music rather than on music as a vehicle for learning. The music performed must be at least partially determined by objectives; not every class is based entirely on specified instructional objectives, but every successful class is based on a well-formulated plan. The intensity with which any particular composition is rehearsed will depend on what it offers in terms of objectives; whether a festival is attended or ignored will depend on how it fits into the objectives for the group. The amount of drill, section rehearsal, listening to recordings, and/or marching practice will also be determined by the objectives. To formulate a set of objectives for the total program is a large task. But a careful formulation of objectives is the best method for assessing the quality of the teaching. The following educational objectives may provide a usable model. The objectives of our elementary ensemble are for students to: • •

produce a characteristic tone on individual instruments; identify and demonstrate a knowledge of musical notation;

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 32

32

THE FOUNDATIONS

• • •

demonstrate fingerings and positions for the practical range of individual instruments; develop good individual practice habits; demonstrate a basic understanding of the elements of music. These include: timbre, dynamics, articulation, rhythm, melody/pitch, harmony, texture, form, expression, and style; demonstrate a basic understanding of and ability to perform ensemble playing skills and techniques in an artistic manner; develop problem-solving and evaluation skills applicable to music; develop an aesthetic sensitivity to music; demonstrate knowledge of music as a creative art form of mankind.

• • • •

Music instruction, however, is often an exception to the teaching models in education because there is no “ideal time” at which the concert music is selected. Great music has seldom been written with student performers in mind, and very little good music fits a neat pattern of sequenced instruction: sequencing is difficult because, for example, the brass and string players probably differ in achievement level. This explains why difficult concert passages may have to be taught by rote or require intense, time-consuming drill. Although many teachers begin with the music as the teaching objective, a better approach is to select the music at the same time as corresponding instructional goals are identified. The music, however, remains more important than any single knowledge or skill in that piece—which explains the need for occasional rote instruction. It is important to remember that rehearsing the music is not enough. Rather, the music must be used to achieve a wide variety of learnings.

OBJECTIVES TARGETING AESTHETIC GROWTH There have been numerous efforts to identify what students should know and be able to do at various stages in their musical development through ensemble instruction. An Internet search using the terms instrumental music curriculum benchmarks yields many examples. Every music program is different, however, and how much emphasis to place on developing skills and on the basic understanding of music remains situational. Many critical and important objectives are possible in instrumental music, but they cannot all be accomplished at the same time and to the same level of competence. Priorities should be established and understood. In the arts, the teacher must extend beyond knowledge and skill development and guide the students’ growth in aesthetic sensitivity and understanding—with helping them learn the principles of that particular art, what the artist is trying to do, and how to find meaning in the great works of art. Teaching for aesthetic growth is not simple but can provide the greatest joys when results are evident. These objectives are realized by helping students recognize what they hear in a composition—in terms of balance, contrast, arsis/thesis, form, texture, color, mood—and how these are related. A conductor can employ an inventive idea or process and these can lead to a better grasp of the expressive power of music. The teacher’s purpose is to develop in students the ability to hear music, understand its structure, and evaluate whether they have heard great music, good music, or trivial music, and why. Such teaching requires teachers who can really hear music and understand it well enough to explain and model it. Aesthetic growth has as its objective “appreciation” in the genuine sense—not appreciation as the term is often used, to denote a course in which many compositions are heard, their composers discussed, and their dates fixed, but instead denoting careful attention to a few compositions. Music being performed or studied should be examined to hear how it is put together, how many voices there are, how melodies interact, how harmonies create tension and resolve, how instruments blend and stand out, how phrases return and lead to other phrases. Aesthetic growth also means that students should learn what, for instance, makes the quality of Franz Schubert’s music higher than that of Johann Nepomuk Hummel. Students should learn to hear the difference for themselves, not simply be told of it—and should be at least respectful, if not loving, in the presence of Bach. To teach music as an art requires the teacher’s skill and preparation but also passion for the art. Directors of performing groups tend to slide over this objective, presuming that as students play more music and play it well they will acquire understanding and appreciation. This is simply not so. Players who are struggling with their parts do not pay much attention to the principal musical themes and perhaps not even to the harmonic structure of which they are a part. Players should be aware of the harmonic structure of the music they play—where key changes occur, where unusual chords appear, and how unexpected harmonies heighten tension or create suspense in the music. Can students recognize the central thematic material when it appears in an inner voice or in altered form? Do they understand how the composer uses motives and themes both to hold the work together and to give it contrast and variety? Because these things differ in every musical work, the teacher must spend time during rehearsal exploring the characteristics of the music itself, not just the logistics of being able to simply play the piece. At times students should listen rather than play. Listening to artistically recorded versions of the music they are rehearsing, or compositions with similar form or style, can broaden understanding. But one does not become aware of all the things happening within a complex piece of music simply by sitting passively and listening—the process is active

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 33

OBJECTIVES, STANDARDS, CURRICULUM

33

and takes expert guidance. This is where one’s passion can become contagious. Being proactive is the teacher’s job, whether as an instrumental director or a grade school music teacher.

EXTRAMUSICAL VALUES AS INSTRUMENTAL OBJECTIVES The school’s broad objectives for the total life of the student—citizenship, literacy, moral responsibility, critical thinking, and skill in problem solving—may indicate very little about appropriate objectives or standards for the music program. Nevertheless, the teacher must balance the music program’s musical goals with the school’s broad objectives, recognizing how effective musical participation can be in reaching valuable nonmusical goals for the individual student. Two basic objectives seem prominent in today’s schools. One is to fit the student into the complex twenty-firstcentury American definition of democracy, globalization, and life as a contributing citizen and productive individual. The other is to prepare the student for some form of endeavor after graduation: a satisfying, further education, and/or a rewarding vocation. The school has the continuing problem of balancing these two broad aims of personal development and mastery of subject matter. Instrumental objectives in our context refer to the use of music ensemble participation as a tool to accomplish a number of nonmusical objectives that are by-products of a school music program. Many are woven into the success of the music program. Students learn to be good citizens, to cooperate, to defer, to respect the situation and the opinions and abilities of others, to take pride in their ensemble and themselves; traits rarely reinforced in STEM classes. They gain the confidence to improvise or compose—musically or in other subjects. Further, students may improve academically because they have learned to concentrate and to be responsible—the list could go on and fill a small encyclopedia. The conscientious teacher cannot ignore instrumental objectives. The first required general music instruction in public schools (Boston, 1838) was justified on the basis of health and moral outcomes, and later (1900–1940) when delinquent children (boys mainly) were sent to state reformatories, participation in the reformatory band was considered one of the most important “reform” experiences. A well-run, challenging music program has many beneficial nonmusical outcomes: students are less likely to drop out of school before graduating, and they learn the importance of community service (through parades on holidays or performing for multiple community events). Good musical work habits transfer to both in-school and out-of-school efforts. Hetland and others found that students in visual arts learn more than a craft: They learn to engage and persist, envision, express, observe, reflect and stretch, and explore; these habits of mind may transfer to other school subjects.5 These skills transfer to studio instruction in instrumental music as well. School attendance, behavior, and punctuality frequently improve in members of well-run bands and orchestras. Good musicians take responsibility for their own health and conduct as well as responsibility for their instrument and music. They must also be responsible for practicing and meeting the many unique requirements of active ensembles. The instrumental objectives are very visible—the community even notices the good physical condition of drum and bugle corps members, and it is no surprise that instrumental objectives have received more press than the students’ ability to manipulate their way through two modulations and three modes. Importantly, a school principal’s priority objective for high school ensembles is that they enhance the visibility of the school and are a positive public relations vehicle. Since 1900, the appeal of instrumental objectives has fluctuated to reflect changing social conditions. At present the pendulum has swung rather sharply in the direction of subject matter (as least for the STEM subjects) after an era in which personal development and self-esteem were emphasized. Music contributes to each in varying degrees, and what it cannot do it should not attempt. Music is well-fitted for developing a number of nonmusical values promoted by the culture, as our discussion of instrumental objectives indicated. Because music integrates so well with a variety of other subjects and values, teachers have been known to lose sight of their own goals while pursuing secondary objectives suggested by advocates. With today’s emphasis on subject matter, however, music educators have the opportunity to speak up for the quality of their course content and of the music being studied and performed. At the same time, the effectiveness of the extramusical values in program support must not be underestimated. Consider again the history of instrumental music in the public schools. Though the orchestra came into the schools first, the marching band has been the vehicle through which the instrumental music program has flourished, obtaining equipment, literature, building space, professionally educated teachers, extra resources, and public attention, in a manner that was impossible for the wind ensemble or the orchestra. Music found a fairly secure place, not because it caused a noticeable upgrade of musicianship in society or in the school, but because the marching band publicized the school, created excitement and spirit for competitive athletics, and made holidays and celebrations more colorful. The music contest or festival, with its often nonmusical, but clearly defined, goals, including lists of acceptable music, has helped create attention-getting facets of the music program but keeps them in proper relationship to the actual teaching content of music. It is fortunate that some of these goals are compatible with musical goals—for example, discipline, cooperation, leadership, fellowship, and individual responsibility. And when students are exposed to well-performed quality music, in addition to these instrumental objectives, the experience is educational and worthwhile musically even for those who drop out of the program or fail to continue to perform after graduation.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 34

34

THE FOUNDATIONS

The Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, listed on the website, formulated in 1918 by a commission of the National Education Association, are outmoded in today’s educational thought but not quite out of style. Books and curriculum goals written in the past have offered as the raison d’être for school music its ability to contribute to health, command of fundamental processes, vocation, responsible home membership, worthy use of leisure time, civic education, and ethical character. Many of these (though not all), including character education, are also twenty-first-century objectives. Some of the attractions of school music are that it promotes collegiality, makes use of physically healthful activities, and involves interrelationships with the student’s home life. Music can provide the benefits of teamwork, yet it has an advantage over competitive athletics in its utilization of larger numbers of students and wider ranges of student ability. Compared to the first five players in basketball, the “first-string” band contains a greater number of students, many of whom have not developed skills comparable to the first-string basketball players. Still, they derive the same feeling of accomplishment from concert and festival, even while sitting the last chairs. The fact that music can accommodate groups of widely varying size with a wide variety of ability and interest levels is strongly in its favor.

THE VOLUNTARY NATIONAL ARTS STANDARDS While music programs of some kind currently are present in over 90 percent of our schools, it is inconsistent across grade levels and school districts. In two iterations (1994 and 2014), separate national coalitions of arts teachers developed standards to define the key skills, knowledge, and procedures designed to help build arts literacy and shore up inequities. The 1994-published Arts Standards are general in nature and focus on content. The nine music standards derived from the Arts Standards focus on skills and knowledge: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Singing, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. Performing on instruments, alone and with others, a varied repertoire of music. Improvising melodies, variations, and accompaniments. Composing and arranging music within specified guidelines. Reading and notating music. Listening to, analyzing, and describing music. Evaluating music and music performances. Understanding relationships between music, the other arts, and disciplines outside the arts. Understanding music in relation to history and culture.

These standards encompass almost all of the content in a music curriculum. They are divided into three levels (grades K-4, 5–8 and high school that includes proficient and advanced levels) and anywhere from 25 to 34 achievement standards per level. Motivated by federal funding, comparable versions reflecting the values of the voluntary national standards were published in almost every state. Although there are positive developments and exciting ideas evident, the impact of the initial standards movement has to be judged as minimal. The 2014 National Coalition for Core Arts Standards (NCCAS) reorganized the structure from nine content standards to three artistic frameworks (creating, performing, and responding) with an additional process called “connecting” embedded in the previously mentioned three. Within these artistic processes lie 11 anchor standards, parallel across arts disciplines, which further define what is meant by artistic literacy. The term anchor standard is borrowed from general education Common Core parlance, perhaps as a gesture to convince power brokers of the arts’ place in the core curriculum. Anchor standard describes the general knowledge and skill that teachers expect students to demonstrate.

Creating: Conceiving and developing new artistic ideas and work • • •

Anchor Standard 1: Generate and conceptualize artistic ideas and work. Anchor Standard 2: Organize and develop artistic ideas and work. Anchor Standard 3: Refine and complete artistic work.

Performing: Realizing artistic ideas and work through interpretation and presentation • • •

Anchor Standard 4: Analyze, interpret, and select artistic work for presentation. Anchor Standard 5: Develop and refine artistic work for presentation. Anchor Standard 6: Convey meaning through the presentation of artistic work.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 35

OBJECTIVES, STANDARDS, CURRICULUM

35

Responding: Understanding and evaluating how the arts convey meaning • • •

Anchor Standard 7: Perceive and analyze artistic work. Anchor Standard 8: Interpret intent and meaning in artistic work. Anchor Standard 9: Apply criteria to evaluate artistic work.

Connecting: Relating artistic ideas and work with personal meaning and external context • •

Anchor Standard 10: Synthesize and relate knowledge and personal experiences to make art. Anchor Standard 11: Relate artistic ideas and works with societal, cultural, and historical context to deepen understanding.

From each anchor standard emerges discipline-specific performance standards. For example, under the “Performing” artistic process, action verbs articulating student experiences are select, analyze, interpret, rehearse, evaluate and refine, and present. To help organize these experiences the Arts Standards have been written using enduring understandings and essential questions. The values of music instruction lie in these enduring understandings and essential questions and could provide a useful guide for those seeking direction without completely overhauling the well-established rehearsalto-performance prototype. Still it is difficult to visualize the ensemble director spending one quarter of his or her time assisting in students’ creating, at least under the terms of the NCCAS standards. The 2014 standards recognize the ensemble as a means for delivery but also include for the first time the nontraditional strands of guitar/keyboard, composition/theory, and music technology. Also rather than dividing the levels among grades for ensembles, it is recognized that there are different grade level starting points. The levels are termed: Novice, Intermediate, Proficient, Accomplished, and Advanced.6 Both renditions of the voluntary national standards seem overwhelming in their inclusiveness, sometimes taking class time away from music making. But they serve to remind an ensemble teacher that, while performances always will be the chief means for accountability, there is more to being an accomplished learner in music than simply playing the horn II part to a folder full of music. Understanding informs performance and these standards can provide a template of potential experiences to help instrumental teachers move beyond a linear curriculum of performances to something more comprehensive; something that will focus in on the goal of students achieving musical independence. School districts often request that teachers integrate their state or the national standards into their curriculum writing. It is important to understand that the voluntary national music content standards are not objectives. An objective is more specific and will state clearly not only the assessment situation but also how well the student is to perform. Think about a standard in science—”understands basic features of the earth”—or a standard in the arts—”communicates proficiently in one art form.” These standards are global in nature, not educational or instructional. Keep in mind Elliott and Silverman’s primary mission for music education:7 Through the development of musical understanding (musicianship plus listenership) in selected musical praxes (selected by teachers, students, and teacher and students together), music educators furnish their students with the keys to advancing personhood, creativity, responsiveness to musical emotions, and full human flourishing, both now and in the future.

Objectives are similar to performance standards, the standards of interest. It is also wise to keep in mind that there has been no priority established among these standards by NAfME or other agencies. One has to be suspicious when performance is deemed equal to some of the other listed standards. The items on festival evaluation sheets have not been influenced by the standards. A basic performance standard might be assessed in the following manner: two weeks prior to any public performance, without advance notice, each student performs any of the music programmed with no more than two errors in pitch and one error in rhythm, and with tone quality, articulations, and releases matching closely the recorded example provided for the instrument. Every facet of instruction can be supported by clear objectives such as the one just stated. These should be wellunderstood (printed) performance objectives that are agreed to by students, teachers, parents, and administrators, and which every student must meet to remain in the ensemble and/or to participate in small ensembles. Meeting standards and objectives have consequences, both good and bad, for students. Teachers should convey the idea that some students will have to make a greater effort than others to meet the standards that the group has agreed upon. Effort is a part of achievement and should be acknowledged. Instruments differ in their complexity, as does the music. The required effort is not standardized in any ensemble. Regardless of how specific the objectives are, they are only a list of good intentions. Any number of bad music programs may possess good objectives. Each objective must have a minimum standard or benchmark representing a specific accomplishment toward which the students’ energies and efforts are directed.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 36

36

THE FOUNDATIONS

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT A curriculum is a course of study and a guide for teaching. Despite the efforts of many states to unify the matter, no single music curriculum is suitable to meet the needs of diverse school districts and their students much less accommodate varying teaching styles. The district and its teachers should devise their own guide, relevant to their values and means, based on assistance from previously written, easily searched resources. When the high school director thinks about the music program at the lower levels, he or she is inclined to complain about what the students failed to learn instead of taking responsibility for the long-term objectives of the program and making the process a continuous one. The high school band and orchestra share the same broad goals as the kindergarten and fourth-grade music classes and the high school music appreciation class. High school instrumental teachers will do well to visit grade school music classes occasionally, talk with elementary teachers, students, and music supervisors, help with rhythmic activities or recorders and other such activities, and discuss common goals and how to reach them. A performance curriculum contains, at its core, expressive music played artistically by knowledgeable musicians. Craig Kirchhoff believes ensemble directors should be guided by three essential beliefs when designing the curriculum:8 1. 2. 3.

The process of teaching and exploring music is more important than producing concerts or participating in contests and festivals. The educational outcomes for our students must be emphasized over the residual entertainment value that is often a high priority of administrators and parents. The long-term value of music education in the lives of our students is more important than the short-term rewards.

School bands and orchestras often include a mixed range of student ages and abilities, and for this reason curricula should be organized by developmental levels or experiences rather than by grade level. This framework might also better provide the flexibility to teach for artistry. Developing a meaningful performance curriculum begins with general objectives that move toward more specific goals. In constructing the viable curriculum, enlightened teachers begin with their philosophy of music education and use frameworks from multiple approaches. For example, Frank Battisti believes that a music program should revolve around the experiences of producing, reproducing, and consuming music. Within those three areas, creativity, artistic skills, and the acquisition of knowledge and listening skills useful for both group and individual objectives are possible and will lead to lifelong involvement in music whether as actively performing musicians or simply informed listeners or concert-goers. The aforementioned voluntary national standards provide a similar comprehensive approach to teaching accountability. The American School Band Directors Association has a published curriculum of over 200 pages apparently partially influenced by the voluntary national standards.9 The curriculum is based on six performance objectives that are presented as tasks: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Demonstrate the language art of reading and interpreting music notation. Perform music independently and with others. Describe, analyze, and create music. Evaluate music by using critical thinking and listening skills. Demonstrate a knowledge of music history and cultural heritage. Participate in cultural/musical life of the community through involvement in local and regional music/arts opportunities.

The use of verbs to portray a program provides the teacher with almost complete flexibility in determining teaching strategies and priority objectives. Verbs from other curricula based on standards are recognize, perceive, explore, use, analyze, evaluate, and reflect. Keep in mind that standards are not objectives, there is almost no attention to priorities or sequence but they are terrific for advocacy. The American String Teachers Association also published a complete 266-page suggested curriculum which includes standards, goals, and learning sequences for essential skills and knowledge in K-12 string programs.10 That curriculum is immediately usable, but like all curricula it is dependent upon the community’s support of opportunity to learn. Research by Smith, Mick, and Alexander11 indicates that about half of ASTA members use a written curriculum. Eleven successful band directors12 have suggested that the instrumental music curriculum is based on preparing for and performing the year’s concerts. The knowledge, skills, attitudes, and appreciations to be mastered are determined by the tasks necessary to musically perform the selected literature. Performance also has a role in motivation, i.e., the suggestion is made that when the normal three concerts are insufficient, additional informal performances should be scheduled. The belief that performing constitutes the curriculum is not limited to the directors interviewed by Meyer. Randy Navarre13 recommends “having your band perform as often as possible” and also in public. We recognize this is the most common element in organizing an instrumental music curriculum.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 37

OBJECTIVES, STANDARDS, CURRICULUM

37

The “enduring understandings” found in the Performing strand of the 2014 NCCAS standards provide an interesting set of values that could find its way into a performance curriculum: • • • • •

Select: Performers’ interest in and knowledge of musical works, understanding of their own technical skill, and the context for a performance influence the selection of repertoire. Analyze: Analyzing creators’ context and how they manipulate elements of music provides insight into their intent and informs performance. Interpret: Performers make interpretive decisions based on their understanding of context and expressive intent. Rehearse, Evaluate, and Refine: To express their musical ideas, musicians analyze, evaluate, and refine their performance over time through openness to new ideas, persistence, and the application of appropriate criteria. Present: Musicians judge performance based on criteria that vary across time, place, and cultures. The context and how a work is presented influence the audience response.

Yet another model for planning instruction is the Comprehensive Musicianship through Performance (CMP) approach.14 It is based on a five-component plan that provides the means to consider the ensemble rehearsal period as a learning workshop. These components are music selection, objectives, analysis, strategies, and assessment. The terms Scope and Sequence are often used when curriculum planning. The scope refers to the depth and extent of musical elements; the what. The sequence refers to the planned presentation or progression of these elements; the when. For the younger students, the method book is the most commonly used scope and sequence with supplementary material being the chosen repertoire. Grade 2 music is designated as such because it adheres to prescribed recommendations for range, key, and rhythms. As these areas increase in skill level, the performance grade is raised. Then as the musicians mature, the scope and sequence are often shaped by the performance repertoire and the audition materials used to be eligible for membership in the advanced high school wind ensemble or select orchestra. For example, a director may state that the eligibility for the chamber orchestra is upon completion of Book III of the Suzuki method. When designing the curriculum, there are some concepts that are constantly revisited. For example, fundamental concepts in tone such as posture, breathing, embouchure/playing position, articulation, and releases can be taught and then re-examined at elementary through college levels. Jerome Bruner coined the term “spiral curriculum” to describe structuring the learning process whereby students gain new skills based on knowledge of previously learned skills. So, in organizing the articulation experiences for example, teachers help trumpeters start with a quick “TOO” followed by air and then when successful, progress to slur, legato, staccato, accents, tenuto, multiple tonguing, and flutter tonguing, always guiding the trumpeter through the process with skills acquired from the previous lessons. The teacher always has the learner proceed from the known and travel to the more complex, ensuring a sequence that builds on the mastery of basic and previously learned concepts. The sequencing issue within a curriculum is best described as a fluid endeavor because within a single concert ensemble, especially in high school, one often finds students at Value c different levels developmentally. Curricula might have to be organized by practices, ati em t s experiences, or a strategy that makes sense for the local situation. Keith Swanwick takes y S ym S b o l ic Bloom’s spiral curriculum and applies it to a musical context (Figure 3.1). Form One must explore curriculum frameworks that exist to determine whether they c ati provide sufficient flexibility to teach for artistry. Some students may need more success S pe d io m I c u l at i v e experiences with a dotted quarter/eighth duple rhythm than originally allotted before moving on, so the good teacher will adjust based on individual needs. Yet due to the Expression la r cu finite amount of time teachers have with their students, this may mean taking time in r na P e rs e V o na l sectionals or lessons or from experiences in another area during large ensembles with the intent to return at a more opportune time. Materials e ti v Another consideration toward building an ensemble curriculum is determining the ul a p i S e ns n Ma ory proportion of the role of the large ensemble in the total music program. While an array of other instrumental ensembles might teach some skills that large ensembles cannot, the reality of endless inadequate support for music in our schools means large ensembles remain the most viable way to continue providing transformative aesthetic experiences to the most students. Lynn Cooper suggests the image of a spoked wagon wheel as a FIGURE 3.1 Swanwick and Tillman’s (1986) model: “. . . the spokes represent the marching band, the jazz ensemble, chamber “Spiral” Model of Musical ensembles, solo program, private lessons, pep band, etc., and the hub of the wheel is Development15 the concert band.”16 [meaning large ensembles]. Movement from the long-range, more general objectives to more specific goals aligned to the performance calendar, weekly lesson plans, and individual benchmarks means the “what” is moving to the “how.” It is unimportant and impractical to implement more than one or two standards or long-term objectives with every rehearsal cycle. Rather, think of the overall period of time that a student studies in a particular ensemble

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 38

38

THE FOUNDATIONS

and envision the long-term objectives finding their way into the repertoire in the most meaningful way over that period of time. For example, the qualities of tension and resolution or dissonance and consonance are universal elements in all music. But, there are some repertoire selections that lend themselves to a more memorable, more in-depth pursuit of these characteristics than other pieces. Some other repertoire provides a significant opportunity to make connections to historical events or people. The music drives the attainment of the objectives via the performance strategies that fit the students and the music best. If there is agreement on the scope of the ensemble experience, the sequence can take many varied and interesting paths. One path toward a comprehensive experience can involve an in-depth instructional unit with a single piece that allows for experiences with compositional creativity with imitation, historical context and ensemble concepts of independence and balance while preparing other pieces for the next concert with somewhat less depth. A model band curriculum based on instructional units that are repertoire-driven can be found in Blueprint for Band by Robert Garofalo.17 Minimally with all of the pieces, the understanding is the students are expected to play their parts musically alone and with others, define composition-related terms relevant to form rhythms, scales and chords, etc., and be able to give some background information about the piece. After all, large ensembles are performance-based music classes.

CONCLUSION Valid music programs need a curriculum that focuses on the attainment of mental skills, aural skills, physical dexterity on an instrument, and with musical understanding. Knowledge of key signatures, time signatures, clefs, and tempo indications is not enough. Players should also learn to hear the notes they see on the page; they should listen intelligently to hear and understand tonal centers and modulations, meter changes, return of previous thematic material, and changes of mode and texture in the music. Students must be able to look at their part in the score and play it musically, with thought for line and phrase, while at the same time managing the technical requirements of the part. They should be able to concentrate sufficiently on a three-minute piece of music to keep their minds actively on it from beginning to end. Instrumentalists ought to have sufficient tonal memory to retain obvious themes after hearing them a few times. The experience of skillfully performing a piece of music with others should not be underestimated. Skillful group performances are important both for the thrill they offer and for the high standard they set. Playing music badly is a waste of time. A polished performance of concert music encompasses a majority of the important goals of music: good tone, correct notes, technical skill, knowledge of musical symbols and terms, awareness of the style and form of the music, control of tone quality and intonation, and ability to follow the conductor. Each student must excel on his or her part, even if it is simple; the necessity for excellence from everyone in the group is the primary reason why performance is of such value for learning. The teacher will have to decide how much emphasis to place on developing skills and on the basic understanding of music, and how much of the year’s music should be performed with the goal of perfection in mind. If flawless performance alone is the goal, students tend to become mechanical wonders who can play with precision but often without musical independence or understanding. On the other hand, the goal of excellent performance is both the inspiration and the chief learning vehicle of the program. It is also satisfying. In formulating objectives, therefore, the music teacher must realistically consider all types of objectives as important, with the highest priority placed on the individual progress of each student. Students may try to make music an activity rather than a course. But—and the teacher must not overlook this—students like to learn, enjoy challenges, and relish progress in knowledge as well as skill. Finally, the director must be willing to work cooperatively with individuals and community groups that request the services of a school performing group. To accommodate administrators, athletic directors, and civic leaders who wish to have bands and orchestras perform for various school or community functions, the high school instrumental teacher, more than any other faculty member, sometimes has to sacrifice some orderly, logical scheduling of learning experiences, despite the importance of a sequential curriculum. These extra services can be seen as opening opportunities for curricular flexibility. The immediacy of the next performance motivates each student to work to his or her fullest potential throughout high school. This performance mindset can provide the heartbeat for a rich, pedagogically based program designed to enhance musical understanding.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS/ACTIVITIES 1.

2.

Students join high school ensembles because they are interesting and fun, and because the students want to play their instruments with their friends. Would requiring work and competence in music theory, including ear-training, be exceeding the bounds of what ensemble experience is all about? How is this different for middle school students than for high school students? Your principal seems determined to insert accountability into each program and asks what global, educational, and instructional outcomes should be considered in the instrumental music accountability plan. What are these outcomes?

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 39

OBJECTIVES, STANDARDS, CURRICULUM 3.

4. 5. 6. 7.

39

A long-term objective is to perform, intelligently, the music of Libby Larson. What short-term objectives might you employ to reach the long-term goal? As not all good objectives are noticeable in performance, which ones are “most likely” to improve the performance of Libby Larson’s music? Select a piece of music in your present ensemble folder and suggest appropriate technical exercises that could facilitate performance. Your principal agrees that the competencies being attained by the high school ensembles are important but that you must justify allocating resources for such a small percentage of the student body. Articulate your response. How does one establish curriculum priorities and know when to move on? Does one prioritize for depth (balance) or breadth? What nonmusical outcomes would you consider defining as valuable objectives to include in your instrumental music program?

RESOURCES Websites American Federation of Teachers aft.org Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development ascd.org Band Directors Group: File Repository banddirectors.posthaven.com/tag/curriculum (password can be obtained through joining the Band Directors Group Facebook page) Coalition of Essential Schools essentialschools.org National Education Association nea.org National Standards for Music Education nafme.org/my-classroom/standards

Texts Abeles, H., C. Hoffer, and R. Klotman (1994). Foundations of Music Education, 2nd ed. New York: Schirmer Books. Anderson, L.W., D.R. Krathwohl, et al. (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Longman. Benham, S., M. Wagner, J. Aten, J. Evans, D. Odegaard, and J. Liberman (2011). American String Teachers Association Curriculum. Fairfax, VA: ASTA. Colwell, R. and C. Richardson (2002). The New Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning. New York: Oxford University Press. Conway, C. (ed.) (2015). Musicianship Focused Curriculum and Assessment. Chicago, IL: GIA. Cooper, L.G. (2015). Teaching Band and Orchestra: Methods and Materials, 2nd ed. Chicago: GIA. Duke, R.A. (2009). Intelligent Music Teaching: Essays on the Core Principles of Effective Instruction. LaVergne, TN: Ingram. Elliott, D. and M. Silverman (2015). Music Matters: A Philosophy of Music Education, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. Flinders, D. and S. Thornton (2013). The Curriculum Studies Reader, 4th ed. New York: Routledge. Garofalo, R. (1976). Blueprint for Band. Ft. Lauderdale, FL: Meredith Music. Hetland, L., E. Winner, S. Veeneman, and K.M. Sheridan (2007). Studio Thinking: The Real Benefits of Visual Arts Education. New York: Teachers College Press.

Kinyon, J. (1982). The Instrumental Music Director’s Source Book: A Compendium of Practical Ideas and Helpful Information for Today’s School Band and Orchestra Director. Sherman Oaks, CA: Alfred. Krathwohl, D.R., B.S. Bloom, and B.B. Masia (1964). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook II: Affective Domain. New York: David McKay. Meyer, S. (2016). Rehearsing the High School Band. Delray Beach, FL: Meredith Music. Music Educators National Conference (1994). National Standards for Arts Education: What Every Young American Should Know and be Able to do in the Arts. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference. ––– (1996). Performance Standards for Music: Strategies and Benchmarks for Assessing Progress toward the National Standards, Grades K-12. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference. Navarre, R. (2007) Instrumental Music Teacher’s Survival kit, 2nd ed. Glenmoore, PA: Northeastern Publications. Peterson, M.R. and The American School Band Directors Association (1997). The New ASBDA Curriculum Guide. Miami, FL: Warner Bros. Straub, D., L. Bergonzi, and A. Witt (eds.) (1996). Strategies for Teaching Strings and Orchestra. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference. Swanwick, K. and J. Tillman (1986). The Sequence of Musical Development: A Study of Children’s Composition. British Journal of Music Education, 3(3): 305–309, found in MENC Handbook of Research on Music Learning, Vol. 1: Strategies. R. Colwell and P. Webster (eds.) (2011). New York: Oxford University Press. Walker, D. (1998). Teaching Music: Managing the Successful Music Program, 2nd ed. New York: Schirmer Books. Wiggins, G. and J. McTighe (2005). Understanding by Design, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Sample Curricula www.doe.virginia.gov/instruction/fine_arts/music/ k-12_sample_music_curriculum.pdf http://ppr.det.qld.gov.au/education/management/Procedure %20Attachments/Instrumental%20Music%20Program/ Curriculum%20Guide.PDF http://bvsd.org/curriculum/curriculum/K5%20Curriculum %20Documents/Middle%20Level%20Curriculum%20 Adopted%202009/Instrumental-ML.pdf

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 40

40

THE FOUNDATIONS

NOTES 1. Kinyon, J. (1982). The Instrumental Music Director’s Source Book: A Compendium of Practical Ideas and Helpful Information for Today’s School Band and Orchestra Director. Sherman Oaks, CA: Alfred. 2. Anderson, L.W., D.R. Krathwohl, et al. (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Longman. 3. Krathwohl, D.R., B.S. Bloom, and B.B. Masia (1964). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook II: Affective Domain. New York: David McKay. 4. Wiggins, G. and J. McTighe. Understanding by Design Framework. www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/siteASCD/publications/ UbD_WhitePaper0312.pdf (retrieved Sept. 9, 2016). 5. Hetland, L., E. Winner, S. Veeneman, and K.M. Sheridan (2007). Studio Thinking: The Real Benefits of Visual Arts Education. New York: Teachers College Press. 6. For a more complete presentation on the 2014 standards see the following links: http://nccas.wikispaces.com/file/ view/Framework+05+22–14.pdf/513758852/Framework%20 05%2022–14.pdf; www.nafme.org/wp-content/files/2014/ 11/StandardsComparison_REVISED2.pdf; www.nafme. org/wp-content/files/2014/11/Opportunity-to-LearnStandards_May2015.pdf; www.nafme.org/wp-content/ files/2014/11/2014-Music-Standards-Ensemble-Strand.pdf (retrieved October 13, 2016). 7. Elliott, D. and M. Silverman (2015). Music Matters: A Philosophy of Music Education, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 465.

8. Kirchhoff, C. (October, 2010). Selecting Repertoire: A Matter of Conscience; A Personal Viewpoint. Southwestern Musician, 21. 9. Peterson, M.R. and The American School Band Directors Association (1997). The New ASBDA Curriculum Guide. Miami, FL: Warner Bros., 14. 10. Benham, S.M. Wagner, J. Aten, J. Evans, D. Odegaard, and J. Liberman (2011). American String Teachers Association Curriculum. Fairfax, VA: ASTA. 11. Personal correspondence, 2016. 12. Meyer, S. (2016). Rehearsing the High School Band. Delray Beach, FL: Meredith Music. 13. Navarre, R. (2007). Instrumental Music Teacher’s Survival Kit, 2nd ed. Glenmoore, PA: Northeastern Publications, 294. 14. www.wmea.com/CMP/ (retrieved September 9, 2016). 15. Swanwick, K., and J. Tillman (1986). The Sequence of Musical Development: A study of children’s composition. British Journal of Music Education, 3(3): 305–309, found in MENC Handbook of Research on Music Learning, Vol. 1 Strategies. R. Colwell and P. Webster (eds.) (2011). New York: Oxford University Press, 155. 16. Cooper, L. (2015). Teaching Band and Orchestra: Methods and Materials, 2nd ed. Chicago: GIA, 70. 17. Garofalo, R. (1976). Blueprint for Band. Ft. Lauderdale, FL: Meredith Music.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 41

CHAPTER 4

Assessment

4

The primary purpose of assessment is to improve learning. A secondary purpose is to provide data for accountability— are the program and student outcomes what should be expected? Teachers believe they are accountable to their students and to teach the local school’s curriculum. Another purpose for assessment is to provide data for advocacy. The assessment procedures suggested in this chapter are to help teachers help students to learn. This includes assessments of learning processes, products, and procedures. Assessment is of two types, formative and summative, and use of both formative and summative improves teaching and learning. These types are explained later in the chapter. We focus on flexible checklists that are used for both formative and summative assessment and are continually adjusted to what is being taught. It is their use that determines whether the assessment can be used in situations where assessment data have consequences. These checklists are maintained by students and teachers as a means of recording assessment data that satisfies the amended 2015 Elementary and Secondary Education Act (S1177), referred to as the “Every Student Succeeds Act” (ESSA).1 Finally, we discuss other measures used in instrumental music such as self-assessment, grading, observation, rubrics, and portfolios. We find that none of the published measures mentioned in the previous sentence are satisfactory for high-stakes assessment and meet the standards established by AERA, APA, and NCME, in their 2014 joint publication Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing.2 High-stakes usually refers to an assessment that can have consequences for the teacher such as renewal of one’s contract. A student audition might be high-stakes if the consequences of failure are perceived to be of critical importance. High-stakes assessments have been relatively rare in music but are becoming more common. Because of the link between assessing teachers and student growth, we include on the accompanying website a short section on what was learned about evaluating teachers and teaching from the comprehensive Measures of Effective Teaching (MET) funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.3 This foundation invested more than 45 million dollars to randomized research to establish how good teaching can be assessed. The use of today’s common observation protocols such as Danielson, CLASS, and PLATO that guide observation assessments of teaching were not sufficiently adequate for making important, consequential decisions. Assessment, like teaching, depends on the local philosophy of music education and local priority of objectives that are melded with expectations of the state. Under ESSA, the federal government requires statewide standards for college and career readiness, annual testing in mathematics, reading or language arts, and science, along with performance targets and ratings for schools and provisions for struggling schools and preschools. Assessment is expected to provide data on both individual and group objectives that are cooperatively established. ESSA does not specifically state that music receives statewide assessment, rather “Each state plan shall demonstrate that the state educational agency, in consultation with local educational agencies, has implemented a set of high-quality assessments in the three cited subjects. The state retains the right to implement such assessments in any other subject chosen by the state.”4 ASCD supports the whole child mantra of objectives: healthy, safe, engaged, supported, and challenged, with no mention of individual subjects.5 Reference to “whole child” objectives in the local instrumental music curriculum would indicate support for broad educational school goals by the instrumental music program. In instrumental music, learning outcomes consist of processes, procedures, and products (with process most basic) that are assessed primarily by formative assessment strategies. The instrumental music program has been influenced by various reform movements; we provide a brief description of these movements of the past half-century, pointing out any resultant learnings for the instrumental program. The critical element is to assess what is taught plus coincidentally, a bit of what is learned outside the school environment. This puts the focus of the chapter on curriculum, a curriculum that is not nationally or state established but locally established by the teacher. The checklist we propose allows for a changing set of objectives appropriate for the age and competence level of the students. We might wish for a list of agreed-upon important concepts such as one might find in mathematics—every high school senior can compute the square root—but only broad concepts exist in music such as playing in tune and with expression.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 42

42

THE FOUNDATIONS

Assessments of music competence often rely on expert subjective judgment which gives rise to the argument that music learning cannot be assessed. Because of this subjectivity, validity of all assessment tools is of concern, validity being defined as the appropriate and contextual interpretation of assessment data on products, processes, and procedures. When the checklist is used for both formative and summative assessment, interpretation (validity) differs. Assessment will require multiple observations when observation is the assessment tool. Proper assessment in instrumental music is indeed a complex issue and one that is often put aside. But, as Elliot Eisner states, “To abandon assessment and evaluation is to relinquish professional responsibility for one’s work.”6 Formal assessment is often not considered as required in instrumental music. The experience is productive and rewarding; one “does” orchestra. For example: the editor-in-chief of the School Board Journal, Kathleen Vail, devoted an entire editorial to “Confessions of a band mom,”7 which accurately portrays one educated view of a successful instrumental music program. The following sentences are extracted: No one was more surprised than I was when my fifth-grade son came home one day and asked if he could learn to play the trumpet. The band teacher at his elementary school had done a presentation for his class, and he was sold. At the end of sixth grade, he was ready to quit. I encouraged him to stick with it through middle school. By ninth grade not only was he continuing in band, but he also joined the high school marching band. When I was a newspaper reporter, I never understood why parents so passionately defended strings and band programs. They seemed like a luxury to me, not a necessity. I couldn’t have been more wrong. My son became a part of a tight-knit group of friends who worked together, traveled together, and played tougher, and he thrived. None of this would have happened without his elementary school band program. My son graduated from high school in June. He’s headed to college this fall, with his trumpet, to become a member of the college marching band. He is only one of thousands of examples of how essential so-called noncore, elective and extracurricular activities are to the lives of our students.

There is no evidence of what he learned but clearly the experience was important. The boy was “doing” band, which is compatible with the music philosophy of David Elliott and Marissa Silverman, and of Robert Labaree.8 They state that “doing” school and “doing” music has been and is more important to Americans than attaining any specific curricular objectives.

FEDERAL AND STATE POLICY INFLUENCE ON CURRICULUM Reform movements may or may not have curricular consequences for instrumental music. Richard Elmore9 states, “the reform picture at the local level is murky and characterized by volatility as teachers and administrators jump nervously from one reform idea to the next, use them briefly, and implement them in shallow ways.” The Every Student Succeeds Act is the current reform movement and places on each state the responsibility for educating all children. This means there may be major educational outcome differences among the states, including the arts. With the curricular freedom of ESSA, states are withdrawing from the philosophy of core subjects and the accompanying tests. There will, no doubt, be residue from the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 on the relative importance of the disciplines taught in some states, but comparison of outcomes by states is not likely. The requirements in the new bill that are of interest to instrumental music seem to be limited to treatment of students with disabilities. Each state has the flexibility to offer a more holistic view of school performance based on multiple measures. Music is listed as a component of a well-rounded education, with the decision of the amount or quality of music instruction to be made by local school districts and/or a state education agency. Music is not further defined, and simply includes aspects of all experiences. With present state differences, responsibility and accountability are messy. Under the influence of NCLB regulations, some states mandated student growth as a portion of any teacher evaluation, a mandate that will be difficult to change even if desired. The mandate is based on individual student outcomes, not group objectives. Few districts or states have the resources to develop assessments of individuals in music or any group assessment. The festival or contest rating appears to meet local and/or state competence requirements. Contest ratings, however, provide a narrow picture of the music curriculum and these judgments do not meet the 2014 requirements of Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing.10 The primary guidelines from the federal and state governments are that school districts report what is to be taught in each subject along with evidence that students are learning. With ESSA, music curricula and their assessments are locally established, presumably. These curricula are subject to the normal political and policy influence of individuals, tradition, advocacy groups, and professional organizations. Paul Lehman states that in most schools there is not one curriculum, but four. There is the official curriculum and curriculum guides based on a selected framework. With the recent emphasis by professional associations, that framework may be on a list of content standards that have been adopted by the state or the school district. The second curriculum is the one that teachers actually teach. Third, what students learn is very different from what the teacher intended for them to learn; and, fourth, the curriculum that is tested is at best only a snapshot of

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 43

ASSESSMENT

43

initial intentions. The fourth curriculum is where the assessment selected becomes crucial.11 There is also a hidden curriculum or null curriculum.12 The null curriculum consists of the unintended learnings that are a result of doing “schooling.” These unintended learnings are similar to the learning procedures and processes of “doing music” from the praxial philosophy of Elliott and Silverman. With ESSA, states are required to articulate what they expect students to learn (presumably the official and/or ideal curriculum); help all students meet or exceed locally set standards; conduct occasional comparisons with other education units; and have any assessment data by subgroups available to students, parents, and the community. Some record-keeping strategies of data from the checklists will be required.

THE CHECKLIST For reasons of fairness, accuracy, and immediacy, we recommend that checklists be constructed and embedded in instruction. A checklist could have only one or two items if the “plan” for the first week of instruction is to buzz on the mouthpiece or play by ear using pizzicato on the violin. Progress and/or proficiency on a checklist are required— the decision is made whether the progress and proficiency are “good enough” to tackle the next lessons. “Good enough” or “practice some more” is recorded on the checklist, providing an opportunity for self-assessment. Both student and teacher checklists are retained for the school year. With both new material and “polishing” objectives in the curriculum, “good enough” standards are context-dependent. As students and/or the ensemble progress, the checklist will have multiple items. However, the best teaching appears to be focused on only a few objectives at a time. A checklist may be individualized and related to daily teaching. Alden Snell13 emphasizes the importance of matching the curriculum with any assessment, an idea that we applaud, but we are not aware of agreement on grade levels when Snell suggests that at 9th grade performing major scales would be an objective, with minor scales in 10th grade (p. 165). The checklist suggested here is based on skills and knowledge in most instrumental music classes (Table 4.1). Assessment requires astute observation and hearing well.

TABLE 4.1 Sample checklist items categorized and subcategorized

Technique

Performance

Practical

General

䊐 䊐 䊐

Demonstrates dark and bright tone color

䊐

Demonstrates correct airstream

Repertoire

Demonstrates mouthpiece in correct position

䊐

Accurately performs introduction section of [Piece] at tempo, observing dynamic, phrase, and articulation markings

䊐

Demonstrates arched fingers on valves

䊐

Explains how the composer’s nationality and major world events impacted the composition of [Piece]

Performs all 12 major and harmonic minor scales at MM 120

Theoretical

Sight Reading

䊐

Explains correct embouchure

䊐

䊐

Explains purpose of his or her regular warm-up

Instrument Mechanics

Sight reads simple music comparable to that in rehearsal folders

Music Theory/Aural Skills

䊐

Can tune own instrument from mechanical tuner

䊐

Performs (singing or playing) a two-bar simple melodic dictation

䊐

Explains care and maintenance of instrument

䊐 䊐 䊐

Explains own counting system Demonstrates and explains harmonics Explains circle of fourths in warm-ups

Constructing Local Music Checklists The items to be assessed are those being taught that are based on intents set forth in either a formal curriculum or a curriculum based on custom or on literature. The items on a checklist appropriate for assessing rehearsal and performance outcomes for intermediate or advanced ensembles surely differ from a checklist appropriate for beginning ensembles. Standards and standardized assessments would do little to improve the learning of these students. The checklist is useful during the learning experience; it is not a reflective tool for assessing what has been accomplished. With the use of good

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 44

44

THE FOUNDATIONS

and appropriate music materials, the checklist should challenge students to judge, argue, validate, assess, compare, contrast, check, and critique the desired evaluation skills. With a philosophy leading to understanding while performing and listening, students should be expected to interpret, classify, summarize, and explain musical competence, either verbally or through musical demonstrations. A flexible checklist that changes with instruction helps ensure that no important item is overlooked in large, mixed classes. As the checklist must be built for each situation and situations differ widely, we can only make suggestions. Simple proficient/not proficient checklists are fine when compatible with one’s teaching and assessing philosophy. Our suggestion of a multiple-point scale may require too fine a distinction for select classes. Some items will be judged as pass/fail. There are, however, ensembles that vary considerably in individual student competencies. Our sample checklist provides only a few items from unlimited possibilities (Figures 4.1 and 4.2). Suzie Q Fall Assessments

Danny B Fall Assessments

10

10 9

9

8 7 7

7

7

5

5

7 6

2

7

7

8

9 8 7

7

6

6

5 4 4

4 3

8

8

7

7

5

3

4

3

2

1

1

0

0 August

8 8

8

6

5

9

9

9 8

4

4

2

9

8

7 6

6 6

6

3

9

9

8

8

September

October

November

December

1 August

September

October

November

December

Tone

Intonation

Proficiency

Scales

Bow position

Proficiency

Phrasing

Blend

Goal

Wrist position

Thumb position

Goal

Style

Instrument hold

FIGURES 4.1 and 4.2 Two assessment checklists showing students’ progress toward proficiency on five objectives over the course of a semester, with the “goal” date for each objective denoted by a dotted line

BEGINNING TECHNIQUE INSTRUCTION Although previous authors have considered a curriculum framework for all ages, we believe that the method book selected for homogeneous or heterogeneous class instruction constitutes the curriculum for developing instrumental technical skills and knowledge. Many method books have suggested assessment checklists that need only to be revised to meet the priorities established by the local curriculum philosophy. These method books introduce one skill at a time and often are promoted as being sequential with an appropriate scope and sequence. The organization of class method books allows for direct and reliable assessment for individual skills along with a common checklist. As the “perfect” instructional sequence differs among instruments, supplementary instructional material and unique assessment checklists are recommended.

The Secondary Level Instrumental Curriculum At the secondary level, the literature selected may prescribe the curriculum with the checklist focused on performance practices. The checklist should contain knowledge, skill, and listening competencies. Listening and hearing are what great music is all about. Hearing (which differs from listening) ensemble balance, blend, musical line, expressiveness, and musicality are all learning objectives for students who have been educated to hear. Students are also expected to hear the inner workings of the music being performed, including form, style, modulations, and tonal center and to relate what they hear to their knowledge of history and cultures. Connoisseurship is the basis for judgments of all types of music. The teacher decides what one should hear, what listening and hearing involve, what happens, what develops, and how to use self-assessment to increase knowledge. Students and teacher obtain data from the checklist on both visual and aural observation assessments, recognizing that observation is a crude instrument. Some elements such as attitude, sight-reading skills, and performance of scales can have a wide range of competence. With these types of objectives, assessment accuracy increases with wider scales. Music competence is more than technical skill and is also based on quality, requiring more assessment categories than one might find in other academic courses.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 45

ASSESSMENT

45

Student needs and the curriculum flexibility allowed by state and federal regulations for elective music experiences limit standardized assessment practices, and partially explain the absence of common assessment in instrumental music education. The alignment of assessment tasks with the curriculum taught must be judged by local practices, as the curriculum may be informal and literature-based. With the plethora of suggested knowledge and skills suggested by the many valid objectives, a series of check lists, that over time will record instruction and practice on the multiple objectives, is recommended. From 1960–1970 James Popham and others attempted to collect behavioral objectives for each subject and for teachers, an exchange that resulted in hundreds of such objectives on each topic. Elliot Eisner responded by advocating expressive objectives that had unmeasurable or at least difficult-to-measure outcomes. Teacher and student time must be judged according to the worth of record-keeping in meeting expectations of the music program. Regardless, ESSA expects a record of what was taught and learned.

TWO (OR THREE) ASSESSMENT STRATEGIES Instrumental music teachers teach individuals and groups and they teach musical processes and how to perform in ways that are aesthetically satisfying. Formative and summative assessments are the two traditional assessment strategies. The Council of Chief State School Officers define formative assessment as “a process used by teachers and students during instruction that provides feedback to adjust ongoing teaching and learning to improve students’ achievement of intended instructional outcomes.”14 The Great Schools Partnership defines summative assessments as tools used to evaluate student learning, skill acquisition, and academic achievement at the conclusion of a defined instructional period.15 The argument that the same assessment tool cannot be used for both formative and summative assessment is convincing, with a few exceptions. Formative assessment is the more common strategy as it assesses both process and procedures. Many teachers, however, think of assessment only in terms of performance assessment (summative) and often an outside intervention. With teacher-centered instruction, teaching and formative assessment are one and the same. The teacher senses a problem and suggests pedagogical content knowledge to produce the desired outcome. Because formative assessment is embedded in instruction, little research has been conducted in separating the two. Formative assessment is always authentic and results in a change in both the students and the teacher. Without this “change,” formative assessment would only be partial. Black and Wiliam state that assessment becomes formative only when teachers make use of it to change what they are doing, and is contingent upon teachers’ interpretations of student responses to questions or solutions to problemsolving tasks.16 The second type of assessment, summative, is often perceived as more important than formative assessment as data from summative assessment answers accountability issues. Abrahams and John suggest that integrative assessment is a necessary third type involving reflection that connects formative and summative assessment, useful in selfappraising one’s teaching.17

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT Imagine teaching instrumental students who are making music. The task is to improve individual and group performances and one does this by providing immediate feedback that identifies a problem that you believe students cannot correct on their own, along with an efficient learning strategy. Observing rehearsals of great conductors demonstrates high-level formative assessment. No grades or record of errors are given on the basis of formative assessments. The feedback should provide suggestions for correction—our pedagogical content knowledge. The experienced teacher will have multiple strategies to correct a problem from the pedagogical content knowledge quiver. These strategies could include clarifying the objectives, using metaphor and stories that perhaps adds a bit of humor, some old-fashioned drill, modeling the desired performance, use of playback recordings, or referencing previously learned technique exercises like scales and choral progressions. This continuing corrective assessment characterizes most rehearsals, most technique classes, and private lessons. Although not necessary, students and teacher might keep a record of data from the recommended checklists, with these data providing a basis for student and teacher reflection. Usually, however, reflection is more common following a summative assessment. Despite slick marketing of formative assessments, no such packaged assessment exists. Formative assessment is a process, not a product. It is a give-and-take process between students and teacher that includes improvement of knowledge, skills, playing procedures, and artistic interpretation. In sum, formative assessment is consistently conducted in terms of the music, the assignment/objectives for the day, and the student’s potential and present competence. It is most effective when the student knows how to practice and what is entailed in being prepared for the class or rehearsal. The process for students and teacher is to “catch and correct,” a process built upon having a good ear, observational skills, knowledge about music practices, and a thorough knowledge of reasonable expectations that challenge those being instructed/rehearsed. (Observational skills are more frequently employed in string education where the kinesthetic is crucial.) There are times when a conductor must chase notes, errors that most students learn to correct on their own, reserving brief formative assessment for priority objectives. Immediate feedback is more effective than delaying suggestions until the end of the musical passage. John Hattie analyzed more than 800 meta-analyses, finding that gains based on immediate feedback were equivalent to an additional semester of instruction.18

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 46

46

THE FOUNDATIONS

Beginning and advanced technique classes are modeled after the private music lesson with the focus on learning music processes and practices. It is not necessary to have a specific performance as a goal for technique classes or lessons. The students want to learn and seek feedback on clear objectives by taking lessons, actually paying for formative assessment! Motivation is present with process as well as product. A performance may be a long-range goal of technique/coaching sessions, but challenging, attainable, sub-goals are sequenced in process-based music education. One does not outgrow the need for lessons or coaching whether in music or athletics—coaching continues to facilitate the process of learning and of performing. The student leaves a well-planned and well-executed class with a solid understanding of what to practice and the expectations of the teacher. Self-assessment is important but expert feedback is also required to attain performing excellence. Documentation by the student is a reminder of what has transpired and what is needed. Coaches and teachers record lesson events for reflection, and preparation for the next session. In the school situation, brief documentation of comments and impressions by students and teacher is expected to record status and competencies. When the same problem repeatedly recurs, teacher changes would be in order. The documentation can be in the form of student logs and/or portfolios. Logs and portfolios are not assessment devices; they do allow for recording successes and failures and they document the rate of and pacing of progress on clearly defined and routine tasks. A checklist is sufficient to record progress and may even remind the student of what works. The teacher’s log is crucial in its objectivity of the moment, in the “what” and “how” problems that were solved and in identifying new and possibly unexpected teaching issues. Small ensembles follow the same practice procedures in process learning although often without an instructor. Participants share comments and observations and have a basis for any needed help. Peer comments in sectionals and small ensemble rehearsals are formative assessments, as obtaining feedback is the point of practicing and rehearsing. Growth may be observed when rehearsing the same music; documenting growth on different musics is more complex. Growth is best perceived in relation to important local objectives. Students may profit from feedback on how to selfassess, how to listen in rehearsal, how to persevere in practicing, how to pace oneself, how to organize practicing in terms of technique, solos, and even in practice breaks. There is little in teaching and learning in instrumental music that can’t be recorded on a checklist. Soft skills (instrumental objectives) may be included, even those that are not exclusively learned in the classroom or ensemble; but they should be marked to avoid confusion with musical objectives. A school district’s philosophy may stress citizenship, social and moral responsibility, persevering, or writing across the curriculum and these should appear from time to time on the formative checklist as instrumental music should contribute to the school’s overall mission. Parents and school administrators are interested in subject matter competence but also want graduates to show initiative, be sensitive to classmates’ feelings and needs, and understand the importance of excellence. Composing, improvising, listening, and similar possible goals rely on students’ knowing the process in each as these are very much process objectives. We expect the checklist to provide data on multiple objectives derived from the curriculum which can be used by students to reflect on how they learned. Knowledge of how is the essence of metacognition. How refers to how one learns and processes information, which includes self-regulation, executive control, and how one controls his or her cognitive thinking—thus thinking about thinking.

SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT While formative assessment is process-based, summative assessment is product-based. Summative assessment provides data to determine the effectiveness of teaching. In some districts, general music is all about process, with less concern for the product (performance). Summative assessment prioritizes what someone else feels is important and that someone else is often a contest judge. Summative assessment may be required to convince the public of the value of education using the contest’s understandable rating number, e.g., the Eisenhower high school orchestra received a “first” in state competition. The results can be high-stakes depending upon local philosophy. Music contest ratings can be formative assessments if there is agreement that participation in contests and festivals is primarily to obtain feedback without any consequences. The American public, however, appears to provide greater support for winning athletic teams and winning bands and orchestras than to those organizations that are not rated. Concerts, contests, recitals, parades, auditions, marching band shows, and the 4th grade recorder performance for the school’s PTA are all perceived by the public to be summative assessments. Recognitions like “best in class” or “outstanding musician” are also summative. The product may only be a six-week assessment but the teacher has judged the organization to be ready for summative assessment and some type of “evaluation.” When the judgment (assessment) is made by individuals within the district, the comments and/or rubrics should describe the performance in line with the district’s objectives, standards, or even a comparison with last year at this time. External judges can offer constructive comments on quality of the performance but little in the way of valid diagnostic comments. There is a strong movement in music teacher evaluation to use 9 or 10 “performance concepts” with 5-point rubrics as evidence of student learning. In some states, this assessment format includes choral ensembles, which adds heft to the proposal to use festival ratings for assessing teacher and student proficiency and competence. These accepted criteria used for assessment are often: tone quality; balance and blend; intonation; expression, style, and

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 47

ASSESSMENT

47

phrasing; dynamics; rhythm, precision, and tempo; articulation; bowing or diction; technical facility and repertoire. Comments are made on stage presence, although this is not evaluated. Instrumentation/balanced ensemble and choice of literature are often considered in the overall evaluation. Comments or rubrics on “finished” products may be high-stakes, with varying positive and/or negative responses. The judgment might be made by the lay public or by professional adjudicators; both provide a summative assessment with levels of consequences. The public believes it can accurately judge whether the school orchestra is performing well and its director is teaching well. This public judgment translates into support for the resources required to mount an excellent program. Final test scores are summative; auditions and chair placements are also summative. Students may audition for several universities, using the experience and comments to better prepare for the next summative audition. A summative assessment is useful in determining whether students have learned what was taught. Determining the extent of what was learned is a primary purpose of summative assessment, and offers evidence for accountability. (Assessment accountability involves data other than program quality; among these are costs, community relations, the percentage of student participation, and student and parent opinion of the value of the program.) Instrumental music is more like athletics than like other curricular subjects, as summative assessment like formative assessment assesses both individuals and the group. Like athletics, group competency is a priority. (Individuals learn on their own, take lessons, or are coached.) The emphasis on group competency and on state or national standards usually narrows the focus of teaching and learning. Learning how to accept criticism and failure, as in athletics, can be a positive instructional outcome. Otherwise, teacher and students perceive it a failure to not win the trophy. Students with a growth motivation may seek extra instruction or simply try harder as a result of a summative rating. Often winning is the purpose of summative assessment, with few comments from judges directly related to the school’s curriculum, the district’s philosophy, or the state’s published expectations of approved subjects. Kristen Laine in her book American Band describes a high-stakes high school marching band contest where, like Dillon High School in Friday Night Lights, winning was the goal. Students, community, and the school administration perceived that winning the contest was a clear indicator of program validity.19 In many high schools group summative outcomes are perceived to be more important than individual learnings. Students who participate in state solo and ensemble contests may obtain valuable feedback from the judges’ summative assessment. Such assessments are valuable and reliable, but, of course, would have insufficient validity to impact student school music grades. This we discuss later. Ratings and rubrics, whether assessing groups or individuals, are vague verbal descriptors of an aural experience. The expectation in this summative assessment is that the judgment is criterion-referenced, which means that the judges “know” what a superior performance sounds like and can distinguish it from an excellent performance. With criterion-referenced assessment, every student and group can be judged superior, analogous to all high school graduates being college or career-ready, ready being a summative assessment. It takes little imagination to recognize the assessment issues with this one-shot summative assessment. Summative assessments could also be normative-based, meaning there is a reason that assessments should match a normal distribution. There appears to be a born need to rank performances. When the first performer is Itzhak Perlman, could other performers also receive a rating of one? Criterion-referenced measures, in contrast to normative assessment, assume that it is possible for all students to be excellent in all of the dimensions of a great performance. The first band contests ranked the bands but also provided a criterion-based assessment. The criterion was apparently that a great band would score 100, the number 100 long having conveyed meaning to professionals and the lay public. The winning ensemble in 1927 was Joliet High School, with a score of 93.39, and second place Council Bluffs High School’s score of 93.31! Receiving a music scholarship can be either normative- or criterion-based. Where only one scholarship is on offer, the assessment is normative, that is competitive as if the finalists were ranked. If all qualified cellists are offered a scholarship, “qualified” is the criterion and the assessment is criterion-based. Scholarships are a type of high-stakes assessment as there are “consequences” for the evaluative decisions. Consequential validity is an important consideration in interpreting assessment data. Music conservatories promote normative assessment, trumpeting the success of graduates who earn membership in major ensembles or win prestigious contests. Summative assessment can be used for academic grades when the criteria are clear and feasible, and students have had equal opportunity to learn. Summative judgments are subjective, with established proficiency standards criterion-based. Criteria should be established by collective agreement on the learning targets with weighted targets established and published. Much summative assessment should not be perceived as high-stakes when judgment of competency is by one or two individuals, when the number of curriculum outcomes is limited, or outcomes are habits and other nonmusical objectives. Competency-based education allows for judgment of individual knowledge and skills. One might be competent in performing scales in only the sharp keys with a merit badge awarded for each scale. A boy scout can be recognized as an Eagle Scout and an electrician licensed on the basis of competency-based badges. In the ideal world, badges for important nonmusical expectations like attendance, cooperation, attitude, and effort should be on a separate scale. Like punctuality, it is not unknown for “care of uniform” to be included in scales used for the awarding of grades. In states experimenting with competency assessment, the details in the use of competency badges require additional

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 48

48

THE FOUNDATIONS

research; there needs to be agreement on a number of learning targets. A summative assessment could also be used for lack of progress. If a student is not trying, is uncooperative, and doesn’t share responsibility in group experiences, penalties may be appropriate, as group performance/assessment is a cooperative endeavor. This example of attitude is based on nonmusical objectives, but assessment on attendance and attitude is not unknown. There are summative implications in performing challenging literature. Value and quality should be a consideration at each level of technical difficulty. Experienced musicians report that the difficulty of performing great music expressively is often not related to technical difficulty. Connoisseurship leaps into the assessment fray when musical interpretation is the criterion. Alex Ross’s Pulitzer-winning book, The Rest is Noise,20 is an important commentary on judging contemporary music containing ideas that can be used in helping students understand the music they are performing. An interim assessment can be summative when it provides guidance for the next more demanding summative assessment based on some recognized performance standard, and is based on accepted performance criteria. The results tend to be used to identify students who are not doing well or to predict scores on forthcoming high-stakes tests, and teachers tend to reteach or review rather than finding alternative strategies. These interim assessments are sometimes called benchmark or quarterly assessments. At the moment, there is no evidence that such assessments enhance student learning.21 Interim and benchmark assessments are NOT formative; formative assessment is a process. Rubrics that are used primarily in summative assessment are of limited value in improving teaching and learning in instrumental music. They are important in judging a product at one point in time and by one or more judges, but rubrics in music are difficult to interpret. Rubrics are verbal descriptions of products and justify ratings such as “developmental,” “proficient,” or “outstanding.” These descriptors might be “minor errors” in pitch for proficient; “inconsistent” pitch for developmental. A major problem with using rubrics is that students quickly learn to focus their efforts on attaining the rubric. This almost always narrows the instruction. Also, the rubric that describes “proficient” in the fall should not be applicable to a spring performance. In addition, language describing music misses the primary purpose of music teaching and learning, because few words are similarly interpreted by all participants. What constitutes a minor error, and what is the meaning of inconsistent? Aural examples of levels of competence are necessary to understand and interpret summative assessment. Accurate self-assessments by students would not be possible without recorded aural rubrics. Aural examples are required for any use of rubrics in music assessment. One cannot validly assess based on verbal descriptions despite the additional cost. The importance of recorded music examples in music tests was recognized nearly one hundred years ago although used primarily in a multiple-choice format: The student was shown the notation of four music examples and asked “Which of the four music notations matches the aural stimulus?” Interpretation of learning was based on the number of questions answered correctly. A musical rubric was used in the first National Assessment of Educational Progress administered in 1971–1972, with an aural example of scoring of individuals performing and improvising at each of three levels, “good,” “acceptable,” and “poor,” and by age level including young adult, ages 26–35. No assessments since then have provided such rich data for interpretation. Rubrics used in music contests describe performance verbally. Verbal descriptions are not likely to improve instruction. In one assessment text, Brookhart22 uses the scoring matrix created by the South Carolina Band Directors Association. The form is typical in combining solo and ensemble wind assessments, using six factors: technique, rhythmic accuracy, tone, interpretation, intonation, and a catch-all factor that combines stage presence, appearance, and music choice, with five rubrics of poor, fair, average, excellent, and superior. Tone is defined as an equal(?) combination of breathing, embouchure, and posture, with scoring rubrics describing focus and resonance, with ranges from “appropriate” to “minor” and “major” inconsistencies. The rubric for level 4 on technique is “minor errors in pitch, articulation, and technical skills.” Such summative assessment does not suggest helpful pedagogical content knowledge and is weak as a one-shot assessment. The rubrics may be appropriate only on the day of the contest with the definition of “inconsistent technical skills” changing with each rehearsal. Summative assessment has value when approached carefully. Concerts are summative and are important, as are performances of soloists, ensembles, and nontraditional groups for the public, at contests and festivals. Judges, newspaper articles, and comments from the audience may provide feedback. Students may put forth extra effort and/or pay closer attention to rehearsal comments in the face of a public performance, thus learning attention-to-detail that would take longer to instill without the performance deadline. Membership auditions, chair placements, and scholarships are summative and valuable. Practicing for them is an important process. They may reinforce the teachers’ and school’s philosophy, dictate what is important, and in some schools can be considered the sum total of assessment. With assessment in mind, the purpose and objectives of all experiences should be clear to each student and reinforced throughout the school year. Summative assessments that depend on a single act of measurement, one test or one tryout are a complete misrepresentation of the role of assessment and are unfair to both teacher and student. Judgment bias can be assumed. With one-shot assessment that is implemented in terms of what the teacher “does” to the student—the kind of test created, the tryout or challenge system used, or the point system enforced—lacks one of its benefits; how it works for and with the student. Fisher and Frey state23: “We need to focus our instruction and ensure that students are learning, thinking, understanding, comprehending, and processing at high levels. We can only do this when we regularly check for understanding.”

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 49

ASSESSMENT

49

Use of high-stakes summative assessments as employed under NCLB did not improve learning and did not improve test scores in core subjects. Music has one advanced placement test, AP Music Theory, which is high-stakes in that high final examination test scores may result in receiving college credit for the first semester of music theory. There is also one published performance test for winds, percussion, and strings, the Watkins–Farnum Performance Scale. It is an unsophisticated but practical measure and not usable for high-stakes assessment. John Watkins developed a performance scale for the trumpet in the 1940s, consisting of 14 etudes and Stephen Farnum adapted this scale in 1954 for all instruments. The 14 etudes are arranged in increasing difficulty and the student is graded not only on note accuracy but on a few musical symbols, allowing teachers to use the scale for grades, ensemble membership, and auditions. A numerical score is calculated on the test, allowing for the establishment of a cut-score, or what constitutes a passing score, that could be used in an assessment.

GRADES IN INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC In discussing summative assessment, we acknowledged that grades are required for all subjects in some school districts, and, when required, their lack of assessment validity should be made known to all parties including students and parents. The connection between assessment and grades can probably be traced to Horace Mann and accountability issues in Boston in the 1840s. Formative assessment, our primary assessment, is the coin of the realm and should not be used in establishing student grades as it is a process. The educational philosophy surrounding grades should be discussed with the school administration especially if the instrumental teacher believes in assessing external standards. Most teaching in instrumental music is about the process of learning, a process that may be forgotten with administrative requirements for grades, tryouts, recruiting, and preparation for performances. Beginning instrumental technique instruction is almost always voluntary, which might entail a different philosophy on the importance of grading. Beginning instruction is usually exploratory with students dropping out and/or changing instruments before completing a semester or a year making grades unhelpful and invalid. At the secondary level, students freely choose to continue band and orchestra as electives. At some level, grades may aid student motivation or reflect classroom behavior, factors that are not directly related to learning. Attendance and attitude can also be graded; it is important for students to come to class ready to learn with their instrument and music, but a grade based on these qualities does not indicate musical competency or musical promise. Grades do predict more accurately student accomplishment and their potential for future instruction more than a score on a music achievement test, because music teachers do include predictive nonmusical behaviors of interest, persistence, responsibility, and more. The recommended checklist in this chapter documents competence and/or proficiency on what is being taught, and the checklist changes when there are changes in instruction. The data are unweighted but is based on the sequence in teaching and instructor priorities. Parents do want information on “promise,” a difficult concept to assess but more than a score on an aptitude test. Music study has many potential benefits and based on differing philosophies. We’ve all heard the story of Einstein’s promise for physics based upon his less than stellar grades in mathematics. Because students and their personal situations are so different, using standards-based objectives for grades is inappropriate and certainly would be for teachers basing their philosophy on that of Elliott–Silverman and the importance of musical “practices.” If one wishes to improve validity in the interpretation of student process involvement or one-shot product assessment at the beginning or at the high school level, a good deal of knowledge about the student, including all data from school records and conversations with guidance counselors is required. The teacher needs to have information on the students’ musical talent, prior music experience, interest, goals, preferences, passions, home-life and support, academic successes, academic and nonacademic daily schedules, and more. The general music teacher may have knowledge to help with grading. Possible items for grades might include matching pitch, discrimination tasks, and sight-singing, plus concepts like known interest and responsibility. Some teachers believe that grades should reflect student competencies in what was taught—knowledge of music theory, playing competence of music in the folder, any of the possible objectives referred to in this and other chapters. A few students in every ensemble will have learned these competencies outside the school rehearsal room making both gain scores and achievement scores reflective more of the student’s background than the teacher’s teaching competence. There are good reasons why many colleges do not consider music ensemble grades in considering admission priority and scholarships; reliability and validity are two important reasons. Music grades are often not used by the student’s own high school in computing grade averages. Grades in music tend to be high, as membership in elective music is already an indicator of competence. Grades are not based exclusively on mastering the curriculum. Students should have a voice in the local curriculum because the program is one for which they volunteered. We believe that it is not possible to arrive at fair and valid grades based on program goals, as the factors leading to performance competence and the display of musical meaning and understanding are beyond the control of school personnel. Students, teachers, goals, resources, and the teaching situation vary in all respects, even within a single school district. Some students take private lessons, participate in out-of-school music experiences, have home support, play an instrument that is “easier” or more competitive, start at a different age, have more or less talent, receive peer support, participate in state and solo contest and festivals, and the list goes on. The quality of the ensemble, the section, and the music performed all impact individual

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 50

50

THE FOUNDATIONS

performance/competence. Students also differ by interest, motivation, and the entire array of soft skills including grit, social-emotional behaviors, and personality. Support from a student’s home and parenting style are major factors. The results of the 1961 Coleman report24 continues to be relevant; out-of-school factors are often more important in what a student learns than any school experience. The home-support background factor has been cited by teacher unions and by the education historian Diane Ravitch.25 Scheduling and instructional time can differ by school within the same district, and teachers matter. Instrumental teachers are often paid a stipend indicating that there are more teaching and learning responsibilities than those dictated by the curriculum, and these responsibilities don’t evenly impact all instrumental students. Some schools use SmartMusic for grades. It is reliable but can assess only a small number of the curricular objectives, and thus there may be students who are more musically competent than indicated by their SmartMusic scores. Fairness in grading is complex.

SELF-ASSESSMENT Self-assessment can be either formative- (process) or summative- (product) based. Self-assessment works best when the student or group contributes to establishing the performance goals, can describe the importance of those goals toward improved artistry and musicianship, and knows how the “cut-score” for proficiency was established. Students do decide when their performance is “good enough” which essentially means that their practicing goal has been met. If students have an aural target model, a Wynton Marsalis, a Joshua Bell, or an Amy Dickson, they can record their practicing and self-test and judge their own competence. A fellow student or teacher can also provide a judgment of recordings. To determine growth, pre- and post-recordings are necessary. Much self-assessment may focus on basics such as playing position and correct rhythm. Below is a possible self-assessment model:

5TH/6TH GRADE BAND/ORCHESTRA PRACTICE LOG Due: At Next Lesson Student Name: ______________________

Instrument: __________________

Practicing is expected each cycle. Practicing must be on your band instrument (piano or guitar lessons don’t count) and could include band music, method books, other sheet music, or improvising (practice logs are 10% of your band grade). To receive credit, the practice record MUST be signed by you AND a parent/guardian. Record the details of each practice session, sign and return to teacher at your next band lesson. Assignment: ___________________________________________________________________ Practice Goal: _________________________________________________________________ Session Date: ________

Music Played: ____________________________

Time spent practicing: _______

Were your practice goals accomplished?: Yes / No Explain: _________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ What strategies did you use to reach your goal?: ____________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Which strategies worked best for you in this session?: _______________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Gary McPherson26 uses a questionnaire for self-assessment. The questionnaire is designed to obtain the student’s opinion in how long s/he expects to be involved with music. McPherson finds that beginners who expect to continue through high school and beyond are less likely to drop out and also have higher achievement scores. With student input, assessing executive function is important. Self-control refers to the student’s own regulation of attention, emotion, and behavior. With executive function competence, the student can manage oneself and resources needed to achieve present goals. It is a type of mental control where the students know they belong in instrumental music, can positively contribute, and that the experience has value. Self-assessment is difficult, needs to be practiced, and supervised on occasion by the teacher.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 51

ASSESSMENT

51

PHILOSOPHY OF MUSIC AND INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC Devoting space to philosophy in a chapter on assessment may seem out of place, but support for teaching and assessment strategies depends heavily upon one’s philosophy. Students may enroll and remain in music programs primarily for social reasons and would have difficulty upon graduation reflecting on the importance of the curriculum in their lives. One’s philosophy needs to recognize and accommodate the numerous reasons that membership is a high priority among students. Assessment is a major tool in improving student learning; thus, assessment practices must be transparent not only to the students but also to parents, the school administration, and perhaps the state education officials. A sound philosophy of teaching enables students to understand the importance of process learning and its relationship to the efforts entailed in performance, one outcome of a sound philosophy. Process is not only how to play the instrument but also how to create, criticize, improvise, analyze, follow ensemble procedures, and other habits of mind. The development and maintenance of good posture, instrument position, and eyes on the teacher and the music are processes that become habits. Process is about improving, learning to relax, and hearing the notation in one’s mind (audiation). Improving one’s musical memory is a process without any fixed end product. David Elliott and Marissa Silverman27 suggest that the task of the teacher is to convert musical knowledge into musical understanding. They emphasize two music practices: the process of performing and the process of listening. To paraphrase, one purpose of their text is to provide suggestions for a curriculum based on multiple ways of pursuing student needs and desires for positive musical, creative, and personal satisfaction, resulting in personal, artistic, social, empathic, and ethical growth and fulfillment. Assessing group growth, á la Elliott and Silverman, in these multiple ways is nearly impossible; students do find assessing their own musical growth pleasing and an incentive to remain in the program. Careful thought is required to determine to what extent experiences in instrumental music enable such understanding; few texts combine present practices with any philosophy. Context is critical for Elliott and Silverman, a concept that allows them to discuss musical practices in all cultures and for all times. School philosophy in instrumental music may not be so ambitious. In their philosophy, the competence to perform and interpret music involves the student’s feeling, hearing, inventing, sensing, imagining, connecting, remembering, reading, and writing music. These skills should be on the teacher’s agenda and on checklists even when all cannot be systematically taught. Elliott and Silverman state that achieving the aims of music education depends importantly on assessment. The primary function of assessment in music education is not to determine grades, but to provide “accurate, constructive and supportive feedback to students about the quality of their growing musicianship and listenership.” Duke28 arrives at the same conclusion, stating that it is important to separate the process of gathering information from feedback and grading. The nonthreatening checklist provides this feedback with a competence scale to indicate to individual students the approximate distance to proficiency and beyond. Elliott and Silverman’s emphasis, as is ours, is on process, rejecting any common core approach to curriculummaking. With the accountability movement, a major error was in attempting to “cover” too many important objectives without adequate resources. Grocery lists of standards may be more confusing and frustrating than enlightening and useful. Focusing on two or three important objectives at a time has facilitated student growth in mathematics. With almost complete flexibility in ESSA to adopt a music curriculum and assessment practices, instrumental music teachers should be in a position to develop and assess student musical understanding and achieve music’s powerful values.

SUMMARY Assessment in this chapter uses the standards and the guidelines set forth in the 2014 Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing published by the American Educational Research Association, the American Psychological Association, and the National Council on Measurement in Education. The results and procedures of the Gates Foundation Measures of Effective Teaching are important in providing cautions about observation strategies, pedagogical content knowledge, and measures such as value-added growth indicators. Music is an art and often clashes with mechanistic assessments used in other school disciplines. Instrumental music has important expressive objectives that are absent in many disciplines, as well as having processes and products that are based on values. Assessment should not determine what is important about music or what should be taught in the schools. Our recommendation to “rate” learning progress on a nine-point scale merges a rating scale with the checklist. The merit of a checklist is its flexibility, and the items to be checked may have elements that focus on curricular objectives for the week, month, or unit of instruction. Instrumental music enhances the best of progressive education and constructivism. Students can solve some performance problems but not all. The nuances of fine performance still require the rich background and artistry of the teacher. Assessment in instrumental music excels in formative (process) assessment for both individuals and the group. It is weak in summative (product) assessment that requires estimate of measurement error to interpret the results from judgments—the interpretation which is the definition of validity is influenced by the local context. Professional literature has provided teachers with considerable assessment concerns but little in terms of priority objectives and or a philosophy of artistic performance. Pedagogical content knowledge is one answer, and is the purpose of the other chapters in this text.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 52

52

THE FOUNDATIONS

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS/ACTIVITIES 1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

With regard to a festival or contest, is it better to play “harder” music roughly or “easier” music with polish? Could this argue for two performance literature strands—that for study and improvement, and that for polished performance (applying the skills to the utmost)? How are federal and state policies impacting the approach instrumental music teachers take toward assessment? What are the primary differences between summative and formative assessment in instrumental music? What criteria would you use to construct a checklist after one month of violin instruction; prior to the first fall concert of beginning strings? What criteria would you use in determining a student’s grade in advanced high school wind ensemble; in beginning percussion class?

ACRONYMS USED IN THIS CHAPTER AERA ASCD APA CLASS ESSA MET NAEP NCLB NCME PLATO

American Educational Research Association Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development American Psychological Association Classroom Assessment Scoring System Every Student Succeeds Act Measures of Effective Teaching National Assessment of Educational Progress No Child Left Behind National Council on Measurement in Education People Learning and Teaching Online

RESOURCES Websites American Evaluation Association eval.org American Federation of Teachers aft.org Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development ascd.org Edutopia Assessment Site edutopia.org/assessment Ericae.Net Clearinghouse on Assessment and Evaluation ericase.net The Evaluation Center wmich.edu/evalctr NAEP Arts Assessment nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/arts National Association for Music Education nafme.org/wp-contentfiles/2014/11/Music_MCA_ Ensemble_Responding_2015.pdf National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, & Student Testing cse.ucla.edu/index.asp National Council on Measurement in Education ncme.org National Education Association nea.org

Texts Abeles, H. (2010). Assessing Music Learning. In H. Abeles & L. Custodero (eds.), Critical Issues in Music Education: From Theory to Practice. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Amabile, T.M. (1996). Creativity in Context. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Amerein-Beardsly, A. (2014). Rethinking Value-added Models in Education: Critical Perspectives on Tests and Assessment-based Accountability. New York, NY: Routledge. Arter, J. and J. McTighe (2001). Scoring Rubrics in the Classroom: Using Performance Criteria for Assessing and Improving Student Performance. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Colwell, R. (2002). Assessment’s Potential in Music Education. In R. Colwell and C. Richardson (eds.), The New Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) (2015). Standards, Assessment, & Accountability. Retrieved from http://ccsso.org/What_We_Do/standards_Assessment_and _Accountability.html Danielson, C. (2007). Enhancing Professional Practice: A Framework for Teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development. Dyer, C. (ed.) (2005). Measurement and Research in the Accountability Era. Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Fautley, M. (2010). Assessment in Music Education. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Gitomer, D.C. and J. Bell (2016). Handbook of Research on Teaching, 5th ed. Washington, DC: AERA. Herman, J. and E. Haertel (eds.) (2005) Uses and Misuses of Data for Educational Accountability and Improvement. The 104th Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part 2. Chicago: NSSE, distributed by Blackwell, Malden, MA.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 53

ASSESSMENT Kane, T.J., K.A. Kerr, and R.C. Pianta (eds.) (2014). Designing Teacher Evaluation Systems: New Guidance from the Measures of Effective Teaching Project. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Lane, S., M. Raymond, and T. Haladyna (eds.) (2016). Handbook of Test Development, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Routledge. Mathison, S. (Ed.) (2005). Encyclopedia of Evaluation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. McPherson, G. (2004). Measuring Performance Enhancement in Music. In A. Williamon (ed.), Musical Excellence: Strategies and Techniques to Enhance Performance. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ––– (2016). The Child as Musician: A Handbook of Musical Development, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. McTighe, J. (2012). Designing Cornerstone Tasks to Anchor the Curriculum [PDF document]. Retrieved from http://ela.dpi. wi.gov/sites/default/files/imce/McTigheHandout%202.pdf

53

McTighe, J. and G. Wiggins (2013). Essential Questions: Opening Doors to Student Understanding. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Popham, W.J. (2013). Evaluating America’s Teachers: Mission Possible? Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Stake, R. (2004). Standards-based & Responsive Evaluation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. The Gordon Commission on the Future of Assessment in America (2013). To Assess, to Teach, to Learn: A Vision for the Future of Assessment. Princeton, NJ: Gordon Commission. Princeton, ETS. Tomlinson, C. and T. Moon (2013). Assessment and Student Success in a Differentiated Classroom. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Wind, S.A., G. Englehard Jr, and W. Wesolowski (2016). Exploring the Effects of Rater Linking Designs and Rater Fit on Achievement Estimates Within the Context of Music PerFormance Assessments. Educational Assessment, 21(4): 278–299.

NOTES 1. The topic of assessment is rife with acronyms. In order to maintain a reader-friendly flow, acronyms from here on out are defined at chapter’s end. 2. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association, 2014. 3. http://k12education.gatesfoundation.org/ (retrieved October 27, 2016). 4. (ESSA, U.S. Department of Education, ESSA. Retrieved September 10, 2016 from www.ed.gov/ESSA, p.24). 5. Shuldiner, B. (2016). Education Update, 58(8) August: 7. 6. Eisner, E. (2002). The Arts and the Creation of Mind. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 172. 7. Vail, K. (2016). American School Board Journal, 203(4), August: 2. 8. Elliott, D. and M. Silverman (2015). Music Matters: A Philosophy of Music Education, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Labaree, R. (2010). Someone has to Fail: The Zero-sum Game of Public Schooling. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 211. 9 Elmore, R. (2004). School Reform from the Inside Out: Policy, Practice, and Performance. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press. 10 American Educational Research Association (2014). Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing. Washington, DC: AERA. 11. Lehman, P. ‘Getting Down to Basics’. In T. Brophy (ed.) Assessment in Music Education: Integrating Curriculum, Theory, and Practice. Proceedings of the 2007 Symposium, 2008, Chicago: GIA. 12. Labaree (2010) op. cit., 206 and Eisner, E. (1994). Cognition and Curriculum Reconsidered, 2nd ed. New York: Teachers College Press, 60. 13. Snell, A. (2015) ‘Teaching Everybody Everything’. In S. Burton and A. Snell II (eds.) Engaging Music Practices: A Sourcebook for Instrumental Music. Lanham, MD: NAfME and Roman & Littlefield, 163–180. 14. Distinguishing formative assessment from other educational assessment labels, 2012, Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Officers, 5.

15. The Glossary of Education Reform. http://edglossary.org/ summative-assessment/ (retrieved September 10, 2016). 16. Black, P. and D. Wiliam (2009). Developing the Theory of Formative Assessment. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 21(1): 5–31. 17. Abrahams, F. and R. John (2015). Planning Instruction in Music: Writing Objectives, Assessments, and Lesson Plans to Engage Artistic Processes. Chicago: GIA, 67–68. 18. Hattie, J. (2012). Visible Learning for Teachers: Maximizing Impact on Learning. London: Routledge, 11. 19 Laine, K. (2007). American Band: Music, Dreams, and Coming of Age in the Heartland. New York: Gotham. 20. Ross, A. (2007). The Rest is Noise: Listening to the Twentieth Century. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. 21. Arter, J. “Interim Benchmark Assessments: Are we Getting our Eggs in the Right Basket?” Paper presented at NCME conference, May, 2010, Denver.Penuel, W. and L. Shepard. (2016). Assessment and Teaching. In Gitomer and Bell, Handbook of Research on Teaching. Washington, DC: AERA, 787–850. 22. Brookhart, S. (2015). Performance Assessment: Showing what Students Know and Can Do. West Palm Beach: Learning Sciences International, 87. 23. Fisher, D. and N. Frey (2007). Checking for Understanding: Formative Assessment Techniques for Your Classroom. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. 24. Coleman, J. (1961). Equality of Educational Opportunity, ED 012275, Report OE 38001. Washington, DC: National Center for Educational Statistics. 25. Ravitch, D. (2013). Reign of Error: The Hoax of Privatization Movement and the Danger to America’s Public Schools. New York, NY: Alfred Knopf. 26. Evans, P. and G. McPherson (2015). Identity and Practice: The Motivational Benefits of a Long-term Musical Identity. Psychology of Music, 43(3): 407–422. 27. Elliott, D. and M. Silverman. (2015). Music Matters, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 418. 28. Duke, R. (2005). Intelligent Music Teaching. Austin, TX: Learning and Behavior Resources, 51.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 54

CHAPTER 5

Administering and Organizing the Program

5

The orchestra director could not find an appropriate baton to begin the rehearsal—again. The small (but appreciative) orchestra in the rehearsal hall waited patiently for the missing baton to be found. An excellent musician, indeed, but the teacher just couldn’t get organized. Across the hall in the band room the director stepped up on the podium and the band snapped to attention with military precision. Today they were going to play a new band overture. And so it goes. We might imagine a musical see-saw with the perfect musician on one end and the perfect administrator on the other. To stay on an even keel, a balance must be struck between music and administration. At times the teacher is clearly more administrator than musician, and, fortunately, there are many other times when the teacher can be foremost a musician—the resulting combination equals a “music teacher.” One director may think of administration as consisting of mostly forms, record-keeping, inventories, and bids, while another may think that objectives, assessment, and curriculum development are the essence of administration, but the truth is that none of these various aspects should be neglected. Though it is often said that good musicians are poor administrators, this is not so. Music educators have spent many years developing high-level skills in making music, but attention to administrative tasks is often learned on the job. Record-keeping does not have to be a full-time job, although without organization it can turn into one. The teacher who can smoothly and efficiently run a music program has more time for actually making music, selecting and learning scores, and organizing teaching. The prospective music teacher should begin to collect a private store of good administrative strategies and the technologies to create sample seating plans, records, forms, and the like. Numerous computer programs, apps, and online systems are available to help keep records and perform other tasks such as organizing the music library, the instrument inventory, and uniform inventory/assignments. Such technologies can save both time and space and should be included in the budget if necessary. The present chapter offers ideas that will assist the teacher with organizing the people, places, tasks, and things associated with the instrumental music program. The chapter begins with a discussion of the formulation of a calendar to help guide the year’s events and financial information and goes on to discuss acquisition and maintenance of property and facilities. The chapter concludes with ideas for establishing and maintaining solid professional relationships with students, administrators, and others through strong public relations.

THE CALENDAR The first important task for the teacher is to organize the year’s calendar. It is useful for the director to use an online calendar app that can be accessed from any laptop or device that shows the program’s master calendar. Major events should be posted on a large wall calendar in the rehearsal room. One of the first tasks for new directors is to contact the state and/or district music educators’ association/organization in order to join the group organization and to receive a calendar of the year’s events. These events should be placed on the calendars of instrumental teachers at all levels. From this schedule, the teacher can plan concerts, recruiting activities, fund-raising, and trips and other events for the year. Each of these dates should be cleared with the school’s principal and coordinated with other music teachers in the building and system. All tentative performance dates should be communicated to students and their parents during the summer or very early fall with an update of the handbook, plus a note to contact the director immediately if these dates conflict with previously scheduled family activities. Early notification can help prevent scheduling conflicts. Coordination between music teachers is important. In school systems that have a music supervisor, coordination problems can be minimized. When a school system has no designated leader of the music program, the high school band or orchestra director should simply assume the role of coordinator by asking the other music teachers for their schedule of activities. If other teachers have not planned ahead, the director can simply provide them with a list of dates (whoever is most organized gets to be in charge). High school orchestra and band directors should also work with the middle school and elementary teacher(s), because these individuals can make or break the secondary school music program.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 55

ADMINISTERING AND ORGANIZING THE PROGRAM

55

It is virtually impossible for an instrumental music teacher to accomplish all the administrative chores needed for a band or orchestra alone. Students and parents should be called on to handle many of these responsibilities so the teacher may focus on teaching. Students or parents may be appointed or elected to perform duties associated with uniform distribution, collection, and storage; to keep track of and maintain equipment—stereo system, video cameras, schoolowned instruments, etc.; and to act as treasurer. The director should also provide opportunities for students to serve as student conductors, librarians, publicity coordinators, section leaders, and drum major. Parent organizations can handle a variety of tasks such as helping with concerts, trips, fund-raising when necessary, and chaperoning. All of the effort put into administration will be enhanced by the practice of consistently keeping the principal informed.

FINANCES Dealing with financial issues is perhaps the most serious nonteaching task that a music teacher faces. If possible, music teachers should look for ways to remove themselves from the process of directly handling checks and cash by putting procedures into place that allow interested parties (i.e., students, parents, merchants, and administrators) to deal with each other directly. When not possible, a trusted parent volunteer or school system employee should be found to manage these matters.

Budgeting Good financial policy begins with good budgeting. Budgets are generally provided to the instrumental music program on a yearly basis. If additional funds are not requested, additional funds will usually not be appropriated; if parents are willing to make up the difference between the required funding and that allocated by the principal or board of education, the administration may be less inclined to provide additional funding. If the band and orchestra has a good history of retaining their students, and if the ensembles and individuals perform as frequently as possible for as many people as appropriate, the community and school administrators will feel they are getting their money’s worth and will lend greater support to the program. Although ideally every dime used for the instrumental music program should come from the board of education, this situation is often not the case; consequently, raising funds and support has become a vital component of the music teacher’s job. When budgets are inadequate, it is tempting to exploit parents’ organizations or charge students fees in order to maintain quality instruction. The better approach is to continue to seek funds from the principal, letting the parents raise money only for those items the director knows the school cannot afford. Although students should be entitled to a public education financed by taxpayers, most instrumental programs are not without some individual cost. Budgets are usually presented to the principal each spring for the following school year and take effect on the first of July. New teachers should ask to see the budgets for at least the three previous years to determine any growth or reduction and to know on what items the funds were spent. Most school systems use a coding system to denote how funds were used. The beginning teacher should learn the system in order to present the instrumental budget in as orderly and accurate a fashion as possible. All teachers must discover the process by which money is spent, that is, to whom they submit their requests for purchases. The principal’s chief administrative assistant will know. And, most importantly, teachers must determine how the funds are allocated. Site-based budgeting has changed the rules of the game. In some systems the upper administration will directly provide the instrumental music program with a budget; in others, the principal is provided with a budget, which is then allocated based on individual school priorities. The budget request should be as specific as possible, using round figures only on items whose prices are impossible to determine precisely (such as instrument maintenance or copying). A short explanation justifying each request can help facilitate a principal’s decision, and attached bids indicating that the director has done the necessary homework also help. For example, in the budget request under the line item educational equipment, the requested amount might represent the total sum for a cello, an oboe, a euphonium, and two marching mellophones (plus shipping). Attached to the budget request should be a paragraph listing how that sum breaks down and a sentence or two about why each instrument is needed, including how long the instrument can be expected to last. A long-range purchase program helps the school board determine the reasonableness of the music department’s requests. Instrumental budgets are usually divided into the following areas: • • • • •

supplies (expendable items that normally do not last more than a year or so); equipment (i.e., “permanent supplies”); music (which may fall into either of the previous two categories), including commissions; instructional staff (clinicians, honoraria, color guard instructors, arrangers, or director’s pay for summer instruction); instrument maintenance (for yearly overhauls of selected school-owned instruments, piano tuning, and minor repairs for other school-owned instruments).

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 56

56

THE FOUNDATIONS

1. Capital Outlay (Equipment) a. New Instruments b. Uniforms c. Sound system 2. Instrument Repairs and Maintenance a. Piano Tuning b. Summer Cleaning 3. Instructional Supplies a. Music i. Orchestra ii. Concert iii. Marching Band iv. Jazz Ensemble v. Chamber Music vi. Solo Literature/Methods b. Awards c. Percussion Supplies (e.g., drum.heads, mallets) d. Software/Subscriptions e. Copy Machine Supplies f. Marching Supplies (e.g., flags, poles, tape, etc.) 4. Transportation a. Marching Band Festivals and Away Football Games b. Band and Orchestra Festival c. Jazz Band Trip d. Amusement Park 5. Uniform Cleaning a. Marching b. Concert 6. Salaries/Stipends a. Marching Band Staff i. Drill Writer ii. Percussion iii. Auxiliary b. Applied Lesson Instructors/Sectional Coaches c. Guest Artists 7. Video/Audio Recordings 8. EntryFees a. Solo/Ensemble Festival b. Orchestra Assessment

The director must attempt to prevent the cost of items such as file cabinets, stereo and recording equipment, and office furniture from being part of the yearly budget. These items should be taken from funds other than program funds, such as those for building-level equipment. A sample list of budget items is shown in Figure 5.1. Early on, all new teachers need to create a wish list, numbering each item in order of priority. This list should be submitted annually and updated as items are acquired and new needs identified. Such a list is helpful in long-term planning. New teachers should check last year’s inventory and immediately delete missing items, such as school-owned instruments that are not worth repairing, and request replacement. A time-consuming task for the instrumental teacher, or perhaps a student leader, is to list the missing scores and parts. There is the danger that the first year’s appropriation for music may be spent on missing first violin parts and needed flute music, resulting in no new music being purchased.

Purchasing

The most economical method for school instrument purchase is to advertise for bids, despite the disadvantage that it may not be possible to obtain the exact instrument desired unless the bid is drawn up to indicate that only one specific brand and model will meet the requirements. A bid should specify make, model, key, finish, special features, accessories, case, acceptable standards (i.e., provision for rejection of shipment), acceptable alternates, desired method of shipment (if important), latest date for delivery, and possible trade-ins. The teacher must draw up the bid carefully and obtain several bids for the best results. Occasionally, FIGURE 5.1 Sample instrumental music budget items a company may try to substitute a less expensive item for the one specified, omitting certain features or making what it considers to be relatively unimportant changes in the specifications. Usually, however, instrument companies are eager to have their best instruments in the schools and cooperate in providing competitive prices. If a trade-in is involved, it is even more important to see that multiple bids are obtained because trade-ins are more valuable to some firms than others. The greatest disadvantage in bidding for instrumental purchases is that tax dollars may not flow to the local merchants. These businesses feel, with some justice, that they support the schools and that the schools should in turn support them. The director may thus be forced to choose between saving money and gaining goodwill. Since most instrument companies have an online presence, the decision becomes even more difficult; there may be fewer opportunities to develop relationships with local merchants. A decided advantage of dealing with local businesses is that they can help out in an emergency. For example, if the school gives a local dealer its business, then the director is much more likely to be able to “borrow” a drumhead to replace the one broken only a few hours before Friday evening’s performance. A major purchase from year to year is music. Band directors must be careful to purchase a balance of marching and jazz band music with both light and serious works for each ensemble. Orchestra directors must also purchase a balance of arrangements and compositions for string and full orchestra, both light and serious works. Undoubtedly the most neglected music is that for solos, method books, and small ensembles. Although this music is fairly inexpensive and absolutely essential to the program, band and orchestra directors are usually more familiar with many good large ensemble works, as they hear new ones at conventions, online, and at other band and orchestra concerts. Selecting brass quintet, string trio, and woodwind quintet music at appropriate levels for different students will require additional learning on the part of most instrumental music teachers. Music for pep and jazz bands as well as rental charges for music for the musical cannot be overlooked. Valve oil, cork grease, violin strings, reeds, tape for repairing music and scores, and a host of other supplies that the school may not stock but should be on hand should be purchased as soon as the new fiscal year begins. Otherwise, the director will have a quadruplicate form to fill out the day of a performance or each time a roll of adhesive tape is needed.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 57

ADMINISTERING AND ORGANIZING THE PROGRAM

57

PROPERTY AND ACCOUNTABILITY Once acquired, an inventory of equipment must be maintained. As with all public property, the teacher is responsible for the equipment in the instrumental area and at all times must know who has what. An accounting should be made for all music stands, regular classroom furniture, instruments, uniforms, music, computers, and stereo and recording equipment—those items that are standard paraphernalia and are movable. Database and spreadsheet programs such as Microsoft Excel and Access along with Google Sheets, and Forms and Airtable can help to simplify the process.

School-Owned Instruments Keeping instrument records can become very extensive, but making duplicate copies is not difficult, especially with computers, printers, and copy machines. Thus, the teacher can use the database program to sign-out and track where instruments are and then immediately sort by student id# or name, instrument, or other areas of interest. Copies of electronically signed records can be saved online or hard copies scanned, stored and emailed to parents, students, and administrators so that all understand the responsibilities. Some practical suggestions pertaining to record-keeping follow. 1.

2. 3. 4.

5.

6.

7.

The record should have the student’s name, address, email, phone number, and ID number. A complete description of the instrument, including all of its parts and its replacement value, is a must. A statement that sets the limits of responsibility and the uses prescribed for the instrument is also desirable. It is a good legal precaution as well as good psychology to have both the parent and the student sign for the instrument. Both will then feel responsible for its care. The form should tell whether the school or the user is obligated to pay for normal repairs during the year, and it should set a monetary limit. The same database or form may be used to record the repair work done on the instrument: the date, cost, type of repair, and a yearly depreciation record showing percentage of depreciation each year and the present value of the instrument. If rental fees are charged, the form should include a statement of the fee and should show payments. Rental of instruments is not always the best idea, however. A rent-free system, one making the users responsible for repairs during the time the instrument is in their possession and obliging an immediate return of the instrument at the end of the period in as good condition as when received, entails fewer problems for the director and may be just as feasible economically. If rental fees are charged, the director can save many problems by having them paid directly to the school’s business office/administrator. If the business office assumes responsibility for collecting fees and issuing the necessary bills, hours of the teacher’s time will be saved. It is possible in most situations to have the rental funds deposited into a specific account for yearly repairs. The school office may handle the signing out of all school property, including that of the music department. When this route is taken, the instrumental teacher’s sole responsibility is to fill out an authorization slip indicating who is to have which instrument. The school office may then decide on the necessary forms or contracts and make decisions about rentals, deposits, and repairs as well as rules for use of the instrument. The principal should be part of the decision on whether school instruments can be used for non-school functions.

Other records on instruments to keep may include the following: 1.

2.

3.

4.

A record of repairs for each instrument allows a systematic approach to overhauls and helps avoid serious last-minute repairs. Keeping track of what has been done helps the director decide what should be done to maintain the instrument in good working order. A long-range schedule can be based on a revolving system in which two or three instruments receive an extensive overhaul every few years. A repair list on each instrument furnishes valuable information about which brands and models have given the best service. In addition, it may be used as a guide for the purchase of new instruments, because it can show at what date it would have been cheaper to invest in a new instrument rather than to repair the old one. A checklist for student maintenance of the instrument is helpful. Some directors set aside a class period twice a year in which the energy of all students is devoted to a thorough cleaning job on every instrument—whether it needs it or not. A standard method should be followed for getting school instruments to the repair shop and for picking them up when repairs are completed. The director should delegate this task to a responsible parent or a school facilities staff member. Instruments and cases should be clearly marked. The manufacturer’s serial number is the best and easiest way to keep track of the equipment; it is already on the instrument, is not easily removed, and will probably not duplicate any other number. A school number can be put neatly on the case by using a stencil and aerosol paint.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 58

58

THE FOUNDATIONS

School-Owned Uniforms Uniforms are probably the most difficult item for the director to handle efficiently. Each separate part of the uniform should be numbered and tracked by the student who has it so records and equipment alike can be easily sorted, tracked, and identified. This makes it easier to locate if a shortage is discovered (e.g., belt 45 is missing) or if a rogue piece of a uniform is found (Khalil has coat number 32). The spreadsheet should include the size and number of every item. A tailor can judge which basic sizes can be successfully altered to fit any particular individual. It is important to get the largest number of students fitted well, so having a tailor do the fitting and the major alterations will be a wise expenditure of time and money. A tailor shop may often assist in the purchase of uniforms for a school in return for the alteration and cleaning business. Having students maintain their own uniforms is often unsatisfactory. Many schools keep the uniforms at the school; students change immediately before and after performances and never take the uniforms home. Cleaning is paid for by the school or charged to the students. In some schools parents sign contracts for the uniform, similar to those for the instrument, and often damage deposits are charged. There are other situations in which use of the uniform is entirely free; in some places the students are required to purchase a uniform for the period of time they are in the band—from one to four years—and sell it back to the school at the end of that time at its depreciated value. In four years’ time a new uniform depreciates perhaps 40 percent; the student absorbs this loss.

MUSIC LIBRARY As any professional librarian can tell you, there is practically no limit to what can be done in the library routine. Use a database to list music by composer, title filing number, type of composition, instrumentation, publication date, date of last performance, and so on. In organizing the instrumental music library, two areas must be considered: music in the library and music in the hands of students.

Music in the Library In the library, it is absolutely necessary to have a system that allows the teacher or ensemble librarian to go to the files, find the desired composition quickly, and know that all parts are there. The teacher may not always know which specific composition is needed but may have only a set of stipulations in mind (especially when pulling a selection for sightreading). Therefore, two things are essential: (1) a means for storing music so that browsing is facilitated; and (2) a list of holdings by composer, style, and difficulty level. The sturdy boxes made by Wenger and other companies make for a protective way to store music. Labels can be printed with identifiable title, composer, and file number or these can be written on the box. The folder is put in its numerical order in the filing cabinet or on a shelf. The filing drawer must support the boxes or folder upright in a way that the information is easily seen. Storing music in paper envelopes and manila folders has disadvantages: it is less accessible for browsing; the top corners of the music get ragged, bent, and illegible; the temptation is always present to try to squeeze in that last single piece of music without taking the envelope out of the file; and paper cuts occur. Instrumentation can be identified on the outside of the folder or box. Narrow shelves are also often used for storing music, but they waste space. The shelves are either too narrow to accommodate the thick symphonic parts of larger works or are too wide to be well utilized for the thinner numbers. Systems and products are being designed that may alleviate some of these issues, but a filing cabinet still provides the best option. Filing cabinets built for march-size and for octavo-size music can also be obtained. Music should be filed by a number assigned according to the order it is acquired rather than alphabetically by title or composer. The latter is too time-consuming, because it means rearranging almost every drawer and changing the labels on the outside of the drawers when a quantity of new music is purchased. New music can be given the next higher number above the last acquisition and placed behind it in the newest file. Separate files should be maintained for chamber, jazz band, marching band, and music for other ensembles. These files should be cross-indexed according to ensemble type: woodwind quintet, string trio, string quartet, brass sextet, jazz band, and so on. It is best to file percussion ensemble music by the number of players required, for example, trios or quartets. A library should be equipped with proper materials to care for the music. These materials and equipment should assist in mending, filing, and distributing music. A paper cutter, computer and printer, tables, sorting racks, scissors, and tape are minimal. Every piece of music must be stamped with the name of the school to establish ownership. Stamping should be done in an obvious spot and should be neat—straight with the page and not smeared. Of course, the computer is useful for any number of administrative tasks. Music-specific administrative programs such as RCI Music Library Software (http://riden.com) or Charms Office Assistant (charmsoffice.com) may be helpful

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 59

ADMINISTERING AND ORGANIZING THE PROGRAM

59

though directors can customize with software, apps, and extensions that may already be available to them. Learning these programs may take some time, but is imperative for music teachers to properly organize the classroom.

Music in the Hands of Students Procedures should be in place for the distribution of music during rehearsals to eliminate wasting any unnecessary time during class. Ideally, all folders should be available from a movable folder cabinet that can be placed inside or outside the rehearsal room. The trusted student librarian can then place and remove music from each folder before the rehearsal begins. If no librarian is available, then the director will need to sort new music into piles by instrument so that the designated section leaders can pick up new music at the beginning of each rehearsal and distribute the parts to all players in the section. The director should communicate with the section leader the number of players needed on each part and should assign percussionists to specific parts. It is easier to identify folders and to pass out music when the small shelves on the folder cabinet are labeled with an individual’s name, part assignment (if predetermined), and a number (shelves should be arranged in score order). Folders (supplied as advertisement by music dealers) protect the music and are useful any time music must be taken outside the classroom. Some directors prefer a more permanent “concert” folder. Often teachers forbid students to take single pieces of music from the folder, stipulating that the student who wants to practice at home must take the entire folder. The object of this rule is to prevent lost and mutilated parts of music. Less important, but contributing to efficiency, are the following practices. 1. 2. 3.

4.

Music should be kept in a certain order in the folder, separated as to size, and arranged numerically or alphabetically. This will save rehearsal time when the folder contains a number of selections. In putting music in the folders, the librarian should leave a note in the folder when a part is missing so that the player does not take rehearsal time to settle the problem. If the performing group has instrumentation requiring extra parts beyond the publisher’s normal set, give the local music dealer a list of these additions. The dealer can see that these parts are included in the order, saving time that would be wasted by treating each order as a unique request. Every music educator should have the integrity to follow copyright laws. When one arranges copyrighted music for athletic and other public performances, permission to use must be obtained. The following acts are expressly forbidden according to The United States Copyright Law: A Guide for Music Educators, revised by MENC in 2003:1 (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F)

copying to avoid purchase copying music for any kind of performance (though copying for emergency purposes is an exception copying without including a copyright notice copying to create anthologies or compilations reproducing materials designed to be consumable (such as workbooks, standardized tests, and answer sheets) charging students beyond the actual cost involved in making copies as permitted above.

FACILITIES A director doesn’t often get to choose the physical characteristics of the instrumental room, though knowledge of the ideal specifications for rehearsal and practice rooms is important, if only to determine how far from the ideal conditions are. NAfME has published an excellent pamphlet on the subject, covering the number of cubic feet per person, types of acoustical treatment, the height of ceilings, and the use of windows.2 Additionally, National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities (NCEF) has made recommendations about the structure and needs of music rooms.3 When a new rehearsal room is being built or an old one remodeled, the director can get the most accurate information about acoustical materials and their sound-absorbing qualities from a basic acoustics book. Architects are not always well informed on the subject of acoustics, so the director should know what is wanted by doing some research. If the rehearsal room is not carpeted, it may be possible to solicit used carpet from someone in the music parents’ organization. A carpeted floor or wall deadeners and curtains on windows are among the most essential acoustical treatments of a rehearsal room. Air conditioning is frequently a necessity so that doors and windows can be kept shut to prevent rehearsals from disrupting other classes and makes summer programs feasible. Be sure the air conditioner itself is not located in the room, where its sound interferes with the rehearsal. Permanent risers have both advantages and disadvantages. The disadvantages are chiefly that they severely limit flexibility of seating and make coping with changes in the size of a section difficult. They also discourage experimentation with seating effects. In addition, they make small ensemble arrangement troublesome because they are usually not wide enough to permit the V- or U-shaped seating of quartets and sextets. In rooms without satisfactory ventilation,

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 60

60

THE FOUNDATIONS

players on the top risers may be playing in a tropical climate, adding to intonation problems and encouraging sleepiness. On the other hand, permanent risers are an asset for two reasons. First, they make it possible for both students and the director to see and be heard. If risers are used in concert, it makes good sense to use them in rehearsal. Second, they discourage use of the room for meetings and academic classes scheduled during the room’s free hours. Because such meetings can leave the room in a state of chaos, this advantage should be given serious consideration. Risers should be in approximate six-inch increments and be deep enough to accommodate all the necessary equipment (e.g., instruments, music stands) and players, while allowing for breathing space. Instrumental practice rooms and small ensemble rooms are costly to build and must be used if the expense is to be justified. The ease of recording and increased use of assessment and learning technology such as SmartMusic has increased the opportunity for individual study and the need for practice rooms during the school day and even during rehearsals. Some schools have converted practice rooms into small recording studios. Other rooms included in the ideal setup would be a director’s office with a soundproof glass wall that peers into the rehearsal room; a library with sorting racks, worktables, and files; a small room for instrument repair that includes a sink, a storage place for tools, a table for repairs; and a uniform storage room. Others could be added, but these offer the most in efficiency and usefulness. Equipment for the rehearsal room can be extensive and expensive. It can also be excessive if not properly used. Among the articles that have been useful to most instrumental groups are the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

numbered chairs with a straight back and with metal or rubber tips on the legs; a sufficient amount of numbered metal or plastic (not wire) music stands, numbered; an electronic tuner and metronome with proper outlets and cords for amplification; a quality audio recorders with high-grade microphone; a high-end stereo system with an amplifier, and speakers; music cabinets, reed supplies, basic repair items, and other daily needs such as valve oil and pencil sharpeners; a movable chalkboard and/or whiteboard and a bulletin board; stands to support large instruments such as sousaphones and baritone saxophones; lockers or cabinets for all instruments, including percussion; an acoustic and an electric piano; indirect lighting or lighting from the rear; microphones, mixing board, and speakers for jazz groups; interactive whiteboard system or projector/screen to display digital content.

PUBLIC RELATIONS Publicity through social media and local newspapers, radio, and television is an important way of strengthening community relations and for keeping everyone informed of happenings, past, current, and future in the music program. Social media can be used to post text, pictures, and videos of events to share the hard work and good news of students. Events can be created and students can invite “friends” and “followers” (including grandparents) to the next show. Nothing can promote positive information about the program quicker and to a potentially widespread audience. School newspapers are using social media to highlight student activities so get a member of the orchestra on staff. Local newspaper stories about the ensemble can be re-tweeted and shared from an “instrumental music account.” Unique features of the group may furnish material for a story: examples might be rare instruments, an unusual library collection, or a musical family with members in the band or orchestra. The director should take the time to submit post, with parent and student permission, individual band or orchestra students’ accomplishments even if these achievements are not related to the music program. Posts such as “Congratulations, Drum Major Bethany Kane on being selected as a National Merit Scholar” can do wonders for public relations. Information to help the director with publicity is available and students will be a help with managing social media. Press releases should be fairly short and to the point. (Most newspapers like to create their own “catchy” headlines.) Include several short paragraphs indicating who, what, when, where, how, and why, with students’ names and grade levels. Some directors shy away from writing press releases because of the time involved or because of a perceived lack of experience or skill in writing. This task, however, cannot be ignored. Publicity is required to make the community aware of these activities, especially those residents who do not have students in school. One of the most important benefits of good public relations is to prevent administrators or boards of education from neglecting or overlooking the instrumental music program in their attempts to conduct the school’s business. If the public is unaware of the numerous and varied activities of the instrumental music program, boards of education are more likely to take funds from this “expensive” activity to fund other areas. Be sure to “tag” important administrators, school board members, and local officials when appropriate.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 61

ADMINISTERING AND ORGANIZING THE PROGRAM

61

RELATIONSHIPS WITH PARENTS Good relationships with parents can make the difference between a smooth and a thorny path for any teacher. A director cannot handle all the details of trips and performances; help from either a parents’ organization or the cooperation of individual parents is needed. Contests, trips, housing, food, festivals, games, fund-raisers, the problems of uniforms, instruments, stands, and music, to say nothing of props for half-time shows, are part of a director’s everyday work. The best ways to gain parental cooperation are to: (1) to earn the admiration of the students; (2) keep parents well informed; and (3) let it be known that help is needed. Parents will appreciate being informed about policies and procedures governing uniforms, practice, attendance, regulations on instruments, grades, point systems, merits and demerits, and rental fees via a handbook; they will also benefit from receiving a brief statement of objectives. For each performance, the parents should be informed what time the student is to arrive and at what place, what uniform is required, how long the performance will last, and whether the public is welcome. Parents should not simply be invited to attend a rehearsal—their attendance should be requested and presented as an opportunity for them to see what the director does in a class period.

Working with Booster Groups Music parent organizations (booster clubs) are essential to help the director accomplish a myriad of necessary tasks. These organizations are almost always helpful, though there has been the occasional group that believes it is in charge of the program or wastes a lot of time. The organization must always have a project and should be able to participate in recruiting, organizing trips, publicity, and fund-raising but should never play a role in formulating objectives or other curricular decisions about the program. If no parent group exists, the director can enlist an energetic and organized individual to initiate one. Sample booster club charters and by-laws can be easily found online or ask a mentor. Though there are obviously views to the contrary, fund-raising and fee collecting for special events should not be necessary. Students should not be expected to pay extra fees for contests or for all-state festivals. If these events are educational experiences, the school should be willing to underwrite them whether they happen during or outside the school day. In the real world of the twenty-first century, however, fund-raising has become the norm, especially for instrumental groups. Striking a balance between educational priorities and the local political climate is necessary to establish procedures for the use of non-appropriated funds. Program costs to meet the educational needs of the students are the responsibility of the school board and administration and must be met before embarking on any fund-raising campaign. With multiple sources of support resulting from fund-raising and grants, there is the issue of ownership and use. In theory, all equipment should appear on the school inventory, but the local culture may dictate more imaginative arrangements. An external organization that has purchased major equipment or even a vehicle may need to retain ownership and establish a long-term lease arrangement with the school system. Covering all the educational and legal issues that can arise when multiple funding sources are required to support a musical program of excellence would entail a lengthy treatise. For example, parent clubs often raise funds to pay for auxiliary instructors such as drum line experts, instructors of flags or majorettes, clinicians, and sectional help. When these individuals are not employees of the school district, interesting legal issues of responsibility and accountability can arise as laws differ by state and there are often different legal interpretations of the same law. We recommend that all possible legal situations be submitted to the school administrator with a request for a ruling from the school attorney. Travel, including that by commercial companies; the role and responsibilities of parents and chaperones; performances in non-school public and private buildings; use of school instruments when students receive remuneration; acceptance of prize money, concert receipts; and surplus and deficit fund-raisers are all examples of potential legal situations. Teachers should not exaggerate the possible negative consequences of an active program but they must act to keep the best interest of the students and the program in the forefront of all decisions. Only explanations of important administrative issues and responsibilities, written jointly by students, administrators, and teachers, should be published in the instrumental music handbook; once published, the handbook should be widely distributed, both electronically and in a printed version. School administrators, board members, and even local business people might read a copy of the handbook if it is lying around home or the office. Even the word responsible must be carefully considered and selectively used. For example, holding parents and students responsible for damage to school-owned equipment is a tricky matter in a court of law. It is best to convey the impression of responsibility and omit explanation of any exception.

RELATIONSHIPS WITH STUDENTS First and last, the success of the director’s program depends on student response. Although ability as a musician and teacher is decisive for the achievement of musical objectives, the ability to involve students and keep them interested must also be present before these objectives can be taught. One of the most important considerations is realizing that the band or orchestra is not likely to be the most important happening in the students’ lives, though it may be in the director’s life.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 62

62

THE FOUNDATIONS

The basic relationship between the director and the band or orchestra should be the typical student–teacher relationship. Because the high school band or orchestra director has the same students for four years, and extra time is often spent in working/rehearsing, most directors develop special relationships with students. Directors should take an interest in students’ activities outside of band or orchestra, but listening to students talk negatively about other teachers or other students is never appropriate. The director should never speak negatively about other students, parents, administrators, or other music programs and be careful to say only those things that they wish to be heard throughout the community. Every director must strive to give the same attention to every student. Acceptance is important to adolescents and lack of acceptance is the most common and serious threat to a student’s self-esteem. Directors can use social media, group texting, and apps such as Remind (remind.com) to communicate with students. Any electronic communication directed toward a single student should also include a parent or guardian to protect both student and teacher from misunderstandings. Online learning management systems including Canvas (canvas.net) and the suite of applications referred to as Google Apps for Education (GAFE) are helpful (and often required) for teachers to use to communicate information to a class and parents, upload and collect assignments, assign grades, and otherwise organize learning.

Student Responsibility When student responsibility and efficiency are emphasized, a few individual students may develop a system that is exclusionary to all but those in leadership positions. At times, even a complex military-like structure can evolve, with superiors and subordinates, fines and prizes, demerits and awards, and rules and regulations for everything. The director must know his or her students and the kind of atmosphere that is desired and then patiently but firmly work for the appropriate balance of control and freedom. The delineation of the authority of the officers and section leaders is another important area that should be clearly spelled out so that they and the rest of the students know the limits of their authority. If the delineation of authority is not clear, the director can become a full-time adjudicator. It is often a good idea to discuss with students the instructions and behavior rules for each class. These instructions should be given to every student so that no pleas of ignorance are possible. Rather than a list of rules, the booklet should contain procedures. For example, behavior at a football game should be a procedure (“this is what we do”) rather than a list of “don’ts.” Behavior at games is a good illustration of what can be included (e.g., what are the procedures for getting up to buy food and soft drinks?). Written procedures may help to curb students’ enthusiasm and outline the expected behaviors. Many schools and districts have established “student management” guidelines that must be followed by all. The director should fit ensemble guidelines into these and work to keep all but the most serious behavioral issues away from administrators.

RELATIONSHIPS WITH ADMINISTRATORS AND COLLEAGUES One element in developing and maintaining a good relationship with the school principal is that each action discussed in the preceding sections should be cleared through the principal’s office. In matters of curriculum, discipline, budget, scheduling, and giving permission, most authority for the important decisions lies with the principal. Simply stated, it is virtually impossible for the instrumental music teacher to provide too much information to the principal. The principal should be kept well informed of every aspect of the program. One of the first points to clarify with administrators is the amount of school time allowed for extra appearances such as at pep rallies, team send-offs, and similar spontaneous outbursts of goodwill toward defenders of the school’s honor. Administrators must be informed that when a pep rally is scheduled for the last 15 minutes of the school day, the band must be called out of class 15 or 20 minutes earlier so that equipment can be readied and some coordination with the cheerleaders can take place. In addition, the band and orchestra director should send memoranda to other teachers giving as much advance notice as possible of any activity for which students must miss class, and reminders should be sent out closer to the event.

TRAVEL Travel is the student’s great delight and the bane of the teacher’s existence. Even for a short trip to a neighboring town there are so many things to load and unload that using a checklist of some sort is standard procedure. For a long trip, there are additional considerations, such as meals, lodging, chaperones, loading crews, and schedules, to mention a few. A phone tree and an email distribution process for communicating with parents and guardians are essential. And buses sometimes do break down or arrive late. Adequate insurance coverage must be in place in case of an accident along with full administrative approval of every detail so that the teacher will not be held liable. If a student rides across town with the teacher to pick up an instrument

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 63

ADMINISTERING AND ORGANIZING THE PROGRAM

63

from a repair shop, the director and the school are assuming responsibility. All types of releases have been required of parents by school districts in the case of travel; however, no release will stand up legally if some negligence can be proved. Recent court decisions have found schools liable to the extent that the legislators in many states are passing laws to cap the amount of liability. The teacher cannot be too careful or provide too much detail to the administration. Students should never be allowed to come to an event by school transportation and return home by other means. The only exceptions to this should be if they are going home with parents, and this only when the proper release has been executed before the trip begins. Even if the student’s parents have given permission to ride home with someone else, it should not be allowed unless it is in writing prior to the event. The best policy is to allow no exceptions to the rule, even to parents. Always use a school bus (even if it may be only partially filled) or commercial transportation, so that all students come and go by the same means. Much more can be said about the nature of traveling with a performance group. Concerts, festivals, and competitions have been set up over the entire globe to cater to American instrumental ensembles that wish to travel. Most of these events are sponsored by companies working exclusively with traveling school music groups. These trips may be of benefit as a recruiting tool or even as a cultural excursion, but the value of the educational experience may vary significantly between events and companies. Be sure to do your homework by investigating the companies’ track records with other directors and asking a lot of questions pertaining to the performance. In the end, the director should weigh the educational value of the trip against the time and resources needed to prepare for the trip.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS/ACTIVITIES 1. 2.

3.

4. 5.

6. 7.

Identify and discuss several administrative tasks that you could justify as being “outsourced”; that is, given to parents, students, or even commercial enterprises. A high school orchestra at a magnet school in California undertook a fund-raising campaign to purchase adequate chairs for the music room. Discuss whether these chairs should be considered school property. What, if any items, procured from student fund-raising should remain the property of a music booster club or even an independently chartered student organization? An active supporter of music in your community has initiated a campaign to ensure that all students receive a free public school education. It has been noted that reed players must buy their own reeds, string players must buy strings and rosin, and brasses must buy valve oil plus other incidental expenses. Is there a justification for the school to provide such items at no expense to the student? Is there a moral obligation to provide reeds to students who are on a free- or reducedmeals (FARMS) program? What would you say about this issue in the instrumental music handbook? Should any student be allowed to use a school instrument, rent-free? Is there an issue of fairness if the tuba is provided by the school but a clarinet is not? Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of rental fees for use of school-owned instruments. Would you include percussion instruments? Why or why not? What are the advantages and disadvantages of rental fees for band uniforms? Is it educationally defensible for there to be members of the school’s marching band, jazz band, or jazz strings who are not also members of the concert groups? Should students who do not rehearse with a group (due to scheduling issues) be allowed to perform with the group? Should the band and orchestra be scheduled at the same time to allow some players to perform in both? What are the advantages and disadvantages? In preparing your departmental budget, what technology (hardware and software) would be a high priority in that budget?

RESOURCES Websites

Texts

Americans for the Arts americansforthearts.org Education World educationworld.com Edutopia edutopia.com National Clearing House for Educational Facilities ncef.org

Burns, R. (2016). Digital Organization Tips for Music Teachers. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Covey, S. (2004). Seven Habits of Highly Effective People, revised ed. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. Cowden, R.L. and R. Klotman (1991). Administration and Supervision of Music. New York, NY: Schirmer Books. Feldman, E., A. Contzius, and M. Lutch (2011). Instrumental Music Education: Teaching with the Musical and Practical in Harmony. New York, NY: Routledge. Geerdes, H. (1987). Music Facilities: Building, Equipping, and Renovating. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 64

64

THE FOUNDATIONS

Hazard, W.R. (1979). Tort Liability and the Music Educator. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference. Hoffer, C.R. (2001). Teaching Music in the Secondary Schools, 5th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Kinney, G.S. (1987). High School Music Teacher’s Handbook: A Complete Guide to Managing and Teaching the Total Music Program West Nyack, NY: Parker Publishing. Labuta, J.A. (1997). Teaching Musicianship in the High School Band, revised ed. Ft. Lauderdale, FL: Meredith Music. Music Educators National Conference (1994). Opportunity-toLearn Standards for Music Instruction: Grades PreK–12. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference.

Rush, S. (2006). Habits of a Successful Band Director: Pitfalls and Solutions, revised ed. Chicago: GIA. Stim, R. (2015). Music Law: How to Run Your Band’s Business, 8th ed. Berkeley, CA: Nolo Press. Walker, D. (1998). Teaching Music: Managing the Successful Music Program, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Schirmer Books. Young, P. (2010). Enhancing the Professional Practice of Music Teachers: 101 Tips that Principals Want Music Teachers to Know and Do. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.

NOTES 1.

2.

The National Association for Music Education (2003). The United States Copyright Law: A Guide for Music Educators. Reston, VA: Author. www.nafme.org/my-classroom/ united-states-copyright-law-a-guide-for-music-educators. Geerdes, H. (1987). Music Facilities: Building, Equipping, and Renovating. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference.

3.

Kemp, W. (2000). Music Education Suites. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for Educational Facilities. http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED442265

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 65

CHAPTER 6

Recruiting

6

Recruiting has become embedded in American culture. Professional recruiters may work for business and higher education as “headhunters,” be assigned to the recruiting command of the military, or visit high schools to recruit college students. Some college athletic coaches verbally offer players as young as eighth grade scholarships on their teams. Starting with competition among preschools and continuing throughout the school years, options are increasingly part of every aspect of education including decisions about schools, teachers, clubs, and various after-school activities. Similarly, instrumental music teachers must focus on recruiting students for participation in their programs constantly and at all levels of schooling. Recruiting is selling—selling oneself and one’s program. Sales managers often hire people with recruiting backgrounds. The school instrumental music program has much to offer young instrumentalists, but its benefits have to be promoted constantly to students, parents, guidance counselors, and administrators. A culture built on tradition can often be a major factor in recruiting students—if the school has an orchestra that is known for “bringing home the gold” at state contests, is popular in the community with overflow crowds at performances, and boasts past graduates who received music scholarships to top music schools, then recruiting might become more selecting than selling. A story still worth telling concerns the heyday of the Joliet, Illinois grade school band, when parents of newborns would meet with director Charlie Peters to select an instrument based on projected needs, and their child entered school knowing that he or she would play the oboe, violin, or other instrument. It is not the same in most communities today; recruitment has become an essential component of the job description of the instrumental music teacher. Although one may dislike competition and believe there is no place for it in music, having a successful instrumental music program means competing successfully for the student’s time and winning over other worthwhile activities including athletics, work, interesting elective classes, honor programs, and a host of other attractive and worthwhile options, and the natural impulse of most kids to kick back and let the world pass by. Instrumental music recruiting is complex with many players involved. The student, parent, school principal, guidance counselor, and other teachers are interested in finding the right area in which to focus the student’s energy and talent. The instrumental music teacher has available a rich array of resources provided by music advocacy organizations, state arts councils, and community partners interested in furthering the arts, and one can say that selling the instrumental music program also involves selling music and its importance to society. News reports often look to the school for feature story topics, including individual accomplishments and general music program activities. On the national level, a number of organizations work to promote music recruiting efforts for schools. The Music Achievement Council, The National Association for Music Merchants (NAMM) (namm.com), and the NAMM Foundation offer continuing sources of support including recruiting strategies. The VH1 Save the Music Foundation (vh1savethemusic.org) uses celebrities to promote school music and has provided more than $52 million worth of new instruments and instructional materials to nearly 2,000 public schools around the country since 1997. NAfME has long provided advocacy resources to assist with bringing more students to music. Despite these resources, the quality of the program and director at the local level are the key elements that impact participation, and directors must plan regularly for recruiting and exposure to maintain and encourage students to be a part of their program.

LAYING THE GROUNDWORK FOR SUCCESSFUL RECRUITING First, recruiting is not just a one-shot (e.g., one-week or one-month) event that takes place at a single grade level. Recruiting is an ongoing endeavor that can be effective with students at any age. Because students’ interests, preferences, abilities, and sometimes even their potential may change rapidly, flexibility in instrumental programs should be maintained and instruction should be offered when the student is interested. Second, recruiting requires energy and an enthusiastic approach. Enthusiasm is contagious; excitement about what is being accomplished in the instrumental music class influences

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 66

66

THE FOUNDATIONS

students’ attitudes and provides intrinsic motivation. Third, “nothing succeeds like success” is a maxim that certainly is true in instrumental music. Peer acceptance of the program is important; having a large number of students participating encourages other students to enroll. The recruiting plan should promise something for everyone. It must be attractive to boys and girls of all backgrounds, abilities, and interests.

GENERATING INTEREST Successful recruiting begins well before the time when students need to decide to participate in instrumental music. Developing interest and motivation among potential instrumentalists must be a strategic goal for the director of even the youngest of students. Though implementing all of the ideas that follow is not necessary for successful recruiting, directors should understand the benefits that each might have for their school, community, and traditions and implement those that might be most successful. Exposing students, especially young students, to first-rate music performances is an initial key to attracting students to the program. This can be accomplished in multiple ways, such as by organizing field trips to hear music performed by exceptional middle and high school ensembles. Elementary school students should attend concerts given by their own high school orchestras and bands before going to local symphony orchestra concerts. Trips to see city and community groups, as well as professional touring ensembles are important, as is inviting these groups to perform at school. Urge artists visiting the community to appear at the school and perform. Funding can be sought through a local business or arts council, your booster organization, or PTA, although some artists may promote instrumental music at no cost through their own sponsors. Establish a partnership with the local symphony or band where soloists and small ensembles will promote your program at little or no cost. College music departments may have faculty and student chamber ensembles or individual performers who willingly volunteer to talk and perform. Last year’s beginning, middle, or high school students make great performers and may be more effective role models for this potential class of recruits than older musicians. One cannot overlook the importance of the general music teacher in a coordinated and sequential music program. Instrumental music is an important component of a balanced general music program and a solid relationship with the general music teacher is vital. A good general music program is beneficial for everyone and should provide young students the foundation they will need for success as instrumentalists. In many schools, the instrumental music teacher instructs the general music class on song flutes or recorders for a unit of instruction; the results of this instruction, when done well, generate an interest in wind instruments. The general music teacher’s impressions are also helpful in recruiting. Some school districts offer an exploratory instrumental music class to all students the year before they may elect instrumental music. In these classes, students learn the fundamentals of violin, trumpet, clarinet, and flute. Song flutes and recorders teach basic music-reading skills, develop finger dexterity and coordination, and generate interest. A final recorder concert, which should include the high school’s recorder quartet, may be part of a demonstration night for parents or used as a separate recruiting event. The idea is to involve all parties with an interest in education in promoting the program. Guidance counselors, administrators, teacher’s union and/or NEA officers, parents, local businesses and service clubs, local radio and television personalities, community musicians, and music store personnel can all provide multiple perspectives. There are many possibilities as to what might trigger a student’s interest in performing on an instrument. It could be the parent who used to (or still does) play or an older sibling. Parents might have read of social, academic, cultural, or health benefits. Students may see an instrument in a music store or on television and be intrigued. Keep an open mind, as it is not always the instrumental music teacher who is most influential in attracting students to the band or orchestra. Social media can be used to promote the instrumental music program as information can be shared quickly with ensemble members, parents, administrators, and the media. By posting a photo or brief video of students in rehearsal or performance with a brief summary, evidence of the program’s excellence can be spread through sharing or re-tweeting to others by students. Student-generated postings can be a way to draw excitement to the program and events and will be seen by younger siblings and friends. Accounts can be set up across multiple social media sites, but the popular sites used by students can change quickly so be sure you have the time and energy to maintain or assign the responsibility to a dependable student, parent, or assistant and be sure to follow any school system policies that are in place. Recruiting intensifies as students enter third grade. Students can successfully begin instruction on strings at age five and most other instruments when eight or nine years of age; most are ready by fourth grade, while a few may not catch the fever or be sufficiently mature until fifth grade or later. Most individuals who currently enjoy listening to and participating in music began at an early age; there appear to be no disadvantages to an early start. Recent research indicates that involvement with music at the earliest ages is especially beneficial to cognitive processes. With proper parental support it is almost never too early to seriously study music. Piano teachers and Suzuki specialists have demonstrated that preschoolers can successfully participate in beginning instrumental music classes, and experiences with instruments are an essential component of most early childhood programs. When the physiological and psychological attributes of a child indicate readiness, let instruction begin.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 67

RECRUITING

67

THE RECRUITING PLAN A truthful recruiting program is the only way to long-term success. Any misconception of instrumental music as all fun—trips, uniforms, concerts, and immediate success will bring negative reactions as soon as the child is in the program. It is essential that the instrumental teacher have some knowledge of a student’s academic achievement, ability, and work habits. Instrumental teachers must provide guidance in the selection of the instrument that will both: (1) meet the needs of the student; and (2) ensure the most balanced ensemble. The success of both goals is important. Students do not benefit if, by high school age, there are twice as many saxophones as clarinets or triple the number of violins as cellos. Persuasion can be offered in any number of ways, such as modeling, discussing opportunities and challenges, and stressing the importance of low brass, double reeds, cellos, and string basses.

TESTING Testing a student for his or her musical aptitude is an important part of recruiting even if you accept all applicants. If the student and the parents are given evidence that the student has sufficient musical aptitude to make the investment and effort worthwhile, most students will enroll. If the parents believe the student has exceptional music talent, almost no price is too great to pay to provide the child an opportunity for instruction. The instrument manufacturers have learned the importance of aptitude testing in recruiting and most companies have published simple pitch and pattern recognition exercises. Music teachers Nancy Golden and Kevin Mixon both recommend giving the established Selmer Music Guidance Survey. While tests like these might be limited in their ability to determine musical aptitude, most are based on good common sense and are preferable to no assessment. Edwin Gordon’s Musical Aptitude Profile is a dependable vehicle but requires a testing time of three 50-minute periods, which is too much for most teachers’ schedules. Gordon’s other tools, the Primary Measures of Music Audiation (PMMA) and the Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation (IMMA), are based on the same rationale as the longer test and should be considered. The results of any testing and teacher recommendations should be incorporated into any communication with parents demonstration. We suggest that a notesting approach is a no-recruiting approach.

COMMUNITY WITH PARENTS AND GUARDIANS Any contact with parents and/or guardians should be sent prior to the beginning of official recruiting activities, and multiple methods should be used for contact including email, letters, and notices in school newsletters, or on the school website or social media outlets. Information about the instrumental music program, its objectives, benefits, history, and the role of instrumental music in achieving accepted schoolwide goals of a balanced education for all should be included. A personalized letter for each student should be written, containing information about their child’s potential for success based on test scores, progress in school and music class, teacher recommendations, and demonstrated interest in music. Information should be well organized concerning costs, obligations, grading practices, rules and regulations, and expectations. Enclose a copy of the instrumental music program’s handbook and the web address; if possible, testimony from one or more parents in the booster club; a report on the success of present and former students; and even a word or two from a student on how the program has benefited him or her. If the letter is a joint letter from the school principal and the president of the music booster club, so much the better.

DEMONSTRATION An instrument demonstration should be held where students, parents, school administrators, counselors, curriculum specialists, and general music teachers are invited to try out the instruments and receive further information from the teacher and local music store representatives. Publicity, contact with the parent–teacher organization, and classroom discussions should precede the demonstration. Although many students will have participated in the local symphony orchestra’s “petting zoo” or in an exploratory instrumental experience, or an earlier demonstration of instruments, the evening demonstration for parents and students requires consideration of multiple factors, as a commitment is envisioned. School systems differ widely in their philosophy of instrumental music; some start all students on school-owned violins in third grade with the option to change instruments at the end of one year of instruction. Others, as a rule, begin string instruction a year prior to band. Thus, all instruments, band and orchestra, should be available at the demonstration. Each instrument should be performed with excellent tone quality using music that is familiar to parents and students (e.g., music from TV shows, movie themes, and commercials often works well) and characteristic of that instrument in orchestras and wind bands. As some instruments are more popular in today’s media and culture, careful planning by the instrumental music staff and coordination with local music store representatives are essential. Classes and ensembles with no lower strings or double reeds and too many saxophones deprive all students of rewarding musical experiences.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 68

68

THE FOUNDATIONS

Traditionally, needed instruments can be attractively modeled. The number of beginners on an instrument may be limited (this must be done cautiously and with administrator approval), or all students may begin on the basic instruments of violin, flute, clarinet, trumpet, trombone, and bells with options to change at the end of a year based on progress and potential. The popularity within a school of selected instruments may be due more to tradition than to the popular media. Traditionally, males played brass instruments while females played woodwinds and the higher strings. However, these stereotypes have largely disappeared and there are really no longer gender-specific instruments. The staff can come to the demonstration prepared to discuss recent professional success by female tubists and male flutists. Retail music dealers will eagerly participate in the demonstration event by providing information on lending instruments, setting up an instrument display, and even providing refreshments. These representatives are often superb sales personnel but they can also exert high pressure on prospective buyers. Determine ahead of time how you will handle this. Each school system will have its own policy about dealing with outside vendors so be sure to request administrative approval before inviting retail dealers to reduce the possibility of a lawsuit. You may wish to control this by providing a vendor with a place on the program to discuss the lending process but not allow sales that night. The program should be well organized and run efficiently as parents and students are busy. After a brief introduction, ask a supportive administrator and a parent representative to speak briefly. Students from the middle and/or high school orchestra and band should be at the meeting, dressed in their concert attire and prepared to demonstrate their instrument, say a few words, and answer questions. Spend most of the time demonstrating the instruments, discussing the goals and organization of the program, and answering any questions. Close the meeting by explaining the next steps and further garnering student interest, as parents are influenced by observing their child’s and other students’ excitement and enthusiasm about the instruments and the instrumental music program. Program registration forms should be available at the end of the meeting for parents and guardians to take home to discuss. The commitment of resources required to be a contributing member of the school’s instrumental music program must be made clear with the jointly signed registration (parent and student) returned by a specified date.

SELECTING AN INSTRUMENT Following the demonstration, students may not have firmly decided on any one instrument, so that having the student rank his or her preferred instrument(s) provides important information for the one-on-one meeting with students in making any final selections. Once a student’s preferences are known, each student should be assessed on a number of points: musical aptitude, instrument fit, and extramusical needs and attributes. Matching a student and his or her physical attributes is another step in a valid recruiting plan. The ideal physical attributes are discussed in each individual instrument chapter, but there are a few universal issues everyone should understand. Student size and physical strength may make a difference. Certain facial features such as lip configurations may lower a student’s potential for success. Some physical characteristics may affect breathing or fingering requirements. The point of exercising care at this stage is to help students select the instrument most suitable for them and the program. The student’s passion and motivation to play a certain instrument is an important consideration and often overcomes any physical disadvantages.

LOCATING AN INSTRUMENT When beginning instrumental music, instruction is limited to the basic instruments and the long-term choice of instrument is made after one year of instruction, and it is common to supply school-owned instruments for that first year. The majority of students acquire their first instrument through a local music store or online service. Rental fees are usually reasonable for most instruments, making instrumental music affordable for most families. For low-income students, there is usually a source of support from the school, principal, a local business, and VH1-type programs. A little initiative on the part of the parent or teacher can usually identify available and unused instruments in the community. It is not advisable to assign all low-income students to the snare drum. Many stores allow some or all of the rental costs to go toward the purchase of the instrument (rent to own). This may not be a wise economic move; it should be carefully considered, as that instrument may no longer be appropriate for the student at the end of the rental period. Because the cost of some instruments is more than many families can afford, school districts often purchase the more costly instruments and students either pay a rental fee to the school or are afforded their use without cost. Proper records must be maintained on all school-owned instruments. A contract should be signed by parent and student that holds the individual accountable for any lost, stolen, or damaged school instruments. New instruments are available from both local and online music dealers but purchasing locally may allow for better or more efficient service. Teachers should not recommend a single brand of instrument but should be available to consult with parents on adequate instruments and best buys.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 69

RECRUITING

69

Parents should be informed that used school-level instruments do not retain their value when offered on the used market. Used instruments, however, can be an appropriate purchase but one that should not involve the music teacher. The prospective buyer should be sent to the repairperson at the local music store for an opinion, with the expectation that the repairperson already knows the minimum quality of instrument acceptable in your school.

FOLLOW-UP The final step in the recruiting process is to ensure that students arrive at the first class with the proper instrument, accessories, and method book. Clearly communicating these requirements has, hopefully, been a part of the ongoing communication process. A follow-up procedure after this initial class is required, as no one wants an interested and talented student to fall through the cracks due to delays and administrative issues. As troublesome as it is for the conduct of sequential instruction, students should be allowed to enter the program at any time of the year. Students may have valid reasons for missing the initial class. Instrumental music teachers are welcoming individuals. Recruiting success depends, as does successful instruction, on the charisma and personality of the teacher, who should conduct all of the relationships with parents, students, and administrators in a caring, honest, and professional manner.

RETENTION Retention is, of course, even more important than recruiting. A high attrition rate reflects negatively on the instrumental music program, but some attrition should be expected and may be good for the program. Although students should be provided every opportunity to join the program, it is important that students and their parents understand that instrumental music is a long-term commitment. Music classes can and should be fun, but instrumental music should not be treated as a home video game to be shelved as soon as the student becomes the least bit bored. In every music program there are times when at least some of the students will be bored or too busy to practice, and virtually every student will at one time or another encounter frustration. Parents and students must keep in mind that occasional frustration is natural, and the instrumental music program can help students in an extramusical way, teaching them to deal with the less glamorous as well as the glamorous periods of any experience. The period of transition between elementary and middle schools, and again from middle to high schools, is when students are most likely to consider withdrawing from instrumental music. There are a number of factors for this. Often the teacher is different between schools, academic expectations increase in music and other courses, and the number of curricular and extracurricular opportunities expands. Instrumental music teachers at all levels can help alleviate the dropout rate by working together for the benefit of all through regular communication and cooperation with directors at each program level. The high school director can be invited to teach a brass or violin sectional in the middle school while the elementary teacher can be invited to guest conduct a piece at the spring concert. Students can be involved at multiple levels as well. Cluster concerts, where all string students in the district perform together at a single event, can help showcase the longevity nature of the program and inviting middle school students to perform in the stands with the marching band at a football game. Directors at the older levels can send their students to the younger grade levels to enthusiastically describe their personal benefits. Maintaining a high-quality program with high performance standards, excellent and diverse literature will, as always, be the foundation of any strong recruiting program.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS/ACTIVITIES 1.

2.

3. 4. 5. 6.

List three recruiting strategies that you believe are effective at the fourth-grade level. Would your recruiting be controlled in any way?—Only so many instruments, only students who have been recommended, only those with good academic records, and so forth. In recruiting students for instrumental music, should special effort be made to recruit any special populations? If so, which ones and why? On what basis, if any, might you exclude students from beginning instrumental music instruction? The local music store calls and asks for time in the school day to recruit fourth-grade students for instrumental music. How would you respond to this request? A parent has located a used violin in the attic and wishes her child to learn to play it. What might you say to the parent? Data indicate that the highest dropout rate from the instrumental music program occurs when students change schools. What actions can be taken to better facilitate this transfer? Based on your experience, what are the important reasons students drop out of instrumental music? Are there actions the teacher or students might take to reduce the number of dropouts? What might be an “appropriate” percentage of dropouts from a program at the end of the first year?

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 70

70

THE FOUNDATIONS

RESOURCES Websites Be Part of the Music bepartofthemusic.org Music Achievement Council musicachievementcouncil.org Music for All Advocacy Resource Center musicforall.org/Resources/Advocacy NAMM Foundation nammfoundation.org Practical Guide to Recruitment and Retention nammfoundation.org/educator-resources/practical-guiderecruitment-and-retention Selmer Music Guidance Survey atssb.org/execsec/SMG VH1 Save the Music Foundation vh1savethemusic.org

Texts Cooper, L. (2016). Teaching Band and Orchestra: Methods and Materials, 2nd ed. Chicago: GIA. Dillon-Krass, J. and D.A. Straub (1991). TIPS: Establishing a String and Orchestra Program. Reston, VA: Rowman & Littlefield/ National Association for Music Education.

Dvorak, T. and R. Miles (eds.) (2001). Teaching Music through Performance in Beginning Band, Volume 1. Chicago: GIA. Fraedrich, E. (2000). Art of Elementary Band Directing. Galesville, MD: Meredith Music. Gordon, E. (1982). Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation. Chicago: GIA. ––– (1986). Primary Measures of Music Audiation, revised ed. Chicago: GIA. ––– (1995). Musical Aptitude Profile Manual, revised ed. Chicago: GIA. Jagow, S. (2007). Teaching Instrumental Music: Developing the Complete Band Program. Galesville, MD: Meredith Music. Millican, J.S. (2012). Starting Out Right: Beginning-Band Pedagogy. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow. Mixon, K. (2011). Reaching and Teaching All Instrumental Music Students, 2nd ed. Lanham, MD: Roman & Littlefield. NAMM Foundation (2015). Bridging the Gap between Middle School and High School. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard Music. ––– (2015). A Practical Guide for Recruitment and Retention. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard Music. ––– (2015). Tips for Success: Guide for Instrumental Music Teachers. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard Music. Selmer Music Guidance Survey (n.d.). Elkhart, IN: Conn-Selmer.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 71

CHAPTER 7

Scheduling

7

The scheduling of instrumental music classes is an important topic for band and orchestra teachers due to the combination of alternative scheduling strategies and the increase in more challenging academic classes such as Advanced Placement (AP). A 2009 survey of high school graduates who participated in music found that schools used 27 different types of schedules, with 43 percent reporting the use of some type of block schedule.The number of schools and students taking AP classes has grown each year since 1996 to where nearly 2.5 million students in 21,000 schools took AP exams. Additional demands imposed by available facilities and equipment, the size of the instrumental staff, funding, and other demands on student and faculty time further complicate scheduling. The instrumental music teacher must be aware of the factors that contribute to scheduling, as implications are far-reaching and can make the difference between a successful and an unsuccessful program and students. Music teachers must be diligent in advocating for a schedule that allows for the greatest participation in instrumental music. There is no clear indication as to what the ideal situation is for scheduling instrumental classes, as each school tends to have its own traditions, cultures, and personnel with their own ideas about scheduling. Thus, each director must be closely involved in the scheduling of classes and regularly monitor class schedules and decisions that may impact students in the program, and communicate regularly with constituents, administrators, and others involved. Perhaps each director’s most important purpose concerning scheduling is to share with parents, teachers, administrators, students, and others that participation in instrumental music does not place students at risk in any school subject or experience. The general rule is that to make instrumental music available to all, students must be scheduled by the administration into the instrumental music classes first. There are usually multiple sections of other courses and more scheduling flexibility even with single-section courses than with band and orchestra. Instrumental teachers often have limited flexibility in their own schedules given that they may teach in multiple schools, so a careful consideration of the possibilities of adjusting the schedules of other courses is important. Each level of schooling (elementary, middle, high) has its own scheduling issues which we present here, followed by additional topics that have an impact on the schedule.

ELEMENTARY SCHOOL An instrumental music instruction is most often offered as an elective class, and not all students choose to enroll. This requires instruction to be scheduled out of the normal routine. Most teachers are used to this as other classes and activities (e.g., ESL, speech, student government) often require special scheduling as well, and each school seems to handle it differently. Furthermore, many instrumental music teachers teach in multiple schools, limiting the time for instruction. Some districts may schedule these events before or after school, during an activity period or lunch, or more commonly, as part of a “pull-out” system where students are removed from their regular classes for instruction. Missing class sessions can, of course, be a sensitive issue with teachers, administrators, and parents alike. The instrumental teacher needs to be aware of the demands on the classroom teacher’s expectations and how student absences may impact instruction. Music teachers must be able to address administrator and parent concerns about students missing classes in which students must take high-stakes tests—like reading, science, and math—where teachers are often held directly accountable for student performance. The music teacher should work with administrators and teachers in an attempt to construct and manage a schedule that works to provide for optimal music instruction with minimal impact on instruction in other classes. There will always be teachers who prefer that students never miss instruction for music or other classes. Teachers should address these issues directly with the teachers and involve administrators as necessary to ensure that students receive the required curricular instruction in instrumental music. A solution can be found. For those who need research support on the impact of pull-out lessons on student work, NAfME (nafme.org) has several resources available. The rotating schedule is one method used to schedule pull-out lesson classes in the elementary school. Instrumental classes may be grouped according to instrument, ability, grade, or often a combination of each of these, as can be seen

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 72

72

THE FOUNDATIONS

in Figure 7.1. Homogeneous instrument groupings are perhaps the most common form of organization, as this helps music teachers more directly focus their instruction at the beginning stages. The benefit of this strategy is that it impacts the fewest students in a class at any one time, but it means more interruptions throughout the day for the classroom teacher. Once fundamental instrumental skills have been 11:50–12:45 Lunch/Prep learned, teachers may be able to schedule 12:50–1:20 students in more diverse groupings such as brass 1:20–1:50 or strings or by homeroom. It should be noted that as long as students are pulled from classrooms to attend instrumental music classes there will be those (e.g., students, teachers, parents) who will not like missing class and effort will and be taken to stop this process. Most often, the reason given for not allowing students to miss class is that their academic success will be hindered. However, researcher Philip Hash of Grand Rapids, Michigan, examined the studies on this topic and found that no studies found differences in the academic achievement between students who left class for lessons and those who did not.1 FIGURE 7.1 Sample elementary school instrumental music schedule The better your program is and the more students are involved, the more easily administrators find ways to overcome obstacles and work for the continued success of the instrumental music program. A supportive group of parents is of value at any level of instruction to help teachers to better understand the importance of the lessons.

MIDDLE SCHOOL The education of students in middle grades has seen much transformation in the past 50 years. Traditional junior high schools, which used teaching strategies (primarily teacher-led) and structured curriculum similar to what was offered at senior high schools have mainly been replaced by middle schools. According to the Association for Middle Level Education (AMLE), students and teachers use multiple learning and teaching approaches with an emphasis on purposeful learning. The curriculum is exploratory, relevant to the student’s and integrative and accomplished in a safe, inclusive, and supportive environment.2 Study and organization skills are emphasized, as is consideration of a student’s long-term goals in terms of “college and career readiness.” Instruction is to be coordinated by team leaders who supervise the teachers of the core subjects for a group of 100 or so students. The teams are assigned a large block of time to be divided as the team sees fit. These teams plan their days and weeks and are understandably possessive of their time. The team does not object if its pod of 100 students is scheduled into electives or exploratory classes at the same time, because this frees them of teaching duties and facilitates cooperative planning for integrative lessons. This schedule, however, means that a pod of students must fit their electives into a period or two, bringing about competition among the teachers of electives. Students might be compelled to choose between orchestra, chess club, or Tae Kwon Do. If students took orchestra as an elective every quarter with such a schedule, they could miss out on interesting exploratory classes. In some schools competition has been lessened but instrumental music instruction destroyed by shortening the exploratory classes to six weeks, with the student abandoning strings after six weeks to take computers, visual arts, physical education, or something else. In good schools, group endeavors such as band and orchestra have been given priority and scheduled before elective classes are selected. In others, the centrality of teams has resulted in the orchestra and band not being scheduled so all members could attend at one time. In still another scheduling variation, ensembles are scheduled by grade level—bringing together one-third or fewer of the members of the band or orchestra with no concern for ability or instrumentation. For schools that offer pull-out lessons in middle schools there may be a greater opportunity for flexibility in the types of groupings one can create. Our suggestion for the instrumental teacher is to learn as much as possible about middle schools and the philosophy that presently dictates scheduling.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 73

SCHEDULING

73

HIGH SCHOOL The “back to basics” and “arts are basic” movements of the last 30 years often make little distinction between the fine arts subjects. Indeed the new National Core Arts Standards include dance, media arts, music, theater, and visual arts and most states require only a single “fine arts” credit for graduation. Additional curricular requirements leave little room for students to participate in band or orchestra every semester in high school. The highest dropout rate in band and orchestra occurs when students transfer schools or transition from middle school to high school. There is a natural concern for the unknown: Will the next grade or school be more difficult? Will I still have time to practice? High school graduation requirements affect college choices. Pressure on teachers to improve learning has resulted in more homework and higher course demands. Again, it is an advantage for high school directors to distribute schedules to parents that indicate how their children can complete the high school requirements and remain in the instrumental program all four years. Perhaps the optimum secondary school scheduling for instrumental music would be to schedule a select group that requires setup time for the first period of the day (accommodating all students in grades 9 to 12 or 10 to 12) and to schedule concurrently only those courses with multiple sections. With the increasing importance of AP and IB subjects, students should not have to choose between an AP or IB core subject and instrumental music, because instrumental music students are also likely to be involved in these advanced classes. The option of taking these courses at the local community college for credit or during the summer also exists in some districts and should be explored.

Nontraditional Schedules Traditionally, schools throughout the United States offered six, seven, or eight classes per day of about 45 or 50 minutes each. However, nontraditional schedules have emerged in the past several decades and one is as likely to find a middle or high school that uses an alternative schedule as a traditional schedule. Nontraditional schedules are often referred to as “block” schedules as several periods are often “blocked” together or paired to create at least one longer period (usually about 90 minutes) during the school day. School systems that adopt block schedules have done so to provide greater flexibility in the school day to meet the growing curricular requirements while still providing room for interesting elective classes. The merits of block scheduling are highly debated by teachers, students, and educational experts. Proponents argue that the longer class period provides opportunities for greater creativity in teaching activities, allows students to engage in active learning, and gives more time to think. Greater time can be focused on teaching as less is spent with students moving between classes and in engaging of opening, getting ready, and closing activities. Most versions of block scheduling allow for a greater number of classes to be taken in any given year while maintaining, overall, similar instructional time. Teachers will typically see fewer students each day on a block schedule and have extended time for planning. In instrumental music, teachers can use the longer instructional period for comprehensive musicianship activities such as listening, assessment and learning information about a composer’s musical style, or work under study; and allowing time for chamber ensembles. Opponents argue that there is little research indicating any achievement benefits of the new system and that the longer period requires a greater attention span for adolescents in a time when they seemingly are less able to maintain this span. Further, with some schedule versions, teachers do not see students each day and in others they may not see them for an entire semester. If a student misses a day of class they miss more instructional time than in a traditional schedule. In the most traditional block a student who wishes to take band or orchestra throughout high school will devote 25 percent of his or her class time to an ensemble. That’s a hefty commitment.

Block Schedule Variations With the Semester Plan, students can take more subjects—eight each year—with 4×4 block scheduling (see Figure 7.2). The illustrated version has students finishing a year’s course work in one semester by meeting daily in extended periods. An extended schedule means that students have only four subjects a day, thus reducing the time devoted to changing classrooms and to class start-up and wind-down compared to that needed with six or more subjects in a day. The disadvantage is that this schedule cannot accommodate year-long subjects such as foreign language or music. A philosophical issue arises when students elect to take instrumental music all eight semesters in high school, as this would result in 25 percent of their high school education consisting of ensembles. At issue also are whether ensemble grades should be included in computing a student’s high school grade point average, whether colleges should consider these grades in admission decisions, and whether there is grade inflation in music courses.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 74

74

THE FOUNDATIONS

The Semester Plan is not recommended in most instances as it can reduce the opportunities Course 1 Course 5 to schedule students in ensembles. AP courses Course 2 Course 6 require the year-long experience (the tests are 90-Minute Blocks Course 3 Course 7 always given in the spring and students do better Course 4 Course 8 on the exams in year-long classes); foreign language becomes a competitor, forcing a FIGURE 7.2 4×4 block schedule—the Semester Plan, the purist form of block choice to be made whether the band, orchestra, schedules or chorus is scheduled for that individual slot, and requiring the other ensembles to meet for a double period for only one semester. Physical AB Rotating Block Schedule facilities in most high schools would seldom Alternating Daily A Day B Day allow three or more music organizations to be Full School Year Schedule Course 1 Course 5 scheduled at the same time, and some schools Course 2 Course 6 90-Minute Blocks schedule string and band students in the same Course 3 Course 7 class. Course 4 Course 8 A more popular option is the AlternatingDay Plan, where students meet in classes every FIGURE 7.3 AB rotating block schedule, the most popular type. A compromise other day for an entire year. Under this plan designed to facilitate courses that may be sacrificed under the 4×4 schedule— (two days one week, three the next) music can these courses benefit from holding meetings throughout the year. It does defeat the be scheduled along with other core courses purpose, however, of limiting students to only four courses each semester (see Figure 7.3). While visual arts teachers are often satisfied with longer periods with a singleModified Block Schedule semester experience, music teachers expect and First Semester Second Semester need the same students in the large ensembles for all eight semesters of high school. It’s imBlock 1 (90-Minute Block) Block 5 (90-Minute Block) portant for all to remember that unlike successful Split Block 2A (40–45 minutes) for entire school year athletic teams, which meet after school when Split Block 2B (40–45 minutes) for entire school year all team members are available, to form a winning team (ensemble) in music, bands and Split Block 3A (40–45 minutes) for entire school year orchestras must also meet when all students are Split Block 3B (40–45 minutes) for entire school year available and, because they offer academic Block 4 (90-Minute Block) Block 6 (90-Minute Block) credit, they must meet during the school day. Another variation is to employ extended FIGURE 7.4 Modified block schedule. The most flexible, allowing for 45-minute periods for some courses while using a tradiperiods (eight) throughout the school year or collapsing split blocks into 90-minute tional schedule for others in a Modified Block blocks Plan. The combinations are seemingly endless and are often developed out of experiences and needs at the local level to accommodate certain classes, programs, or building issues such as lunch. A sample is found in Figure 7.4. This form of block scheduling is the most flexible. Additional block schedule plans extend the school day for students but not for teachers, or have semesters of 75 days of core subjects and a 15-day term for makeup work and enrichment activities, or use a trimester plan. Block scheduling must account not only for the needs of instrumental ensembles but also the need for two or three lunch periods to accommodate students attending large middle and high schools. Block scheduling is complex and worthy of study by all music educators. The block schedule in which a year’s course is completed in one semester has significant consequences for a student who fails—not only is it a “big” failure (two semesters of traditional work) but the student may need to wait until the next year to retake the course. The student who falls behind academically may not be able to schedule music, or music may conflict with an AP or other desired course, requiring that the student drop out of music for a year. Although most scheduling plans make it difficult for a student to participate in more than one music organization, the right type of block scheduling (eight periods rather than six or seven, see Figures 7.2 and 7.3) allows for this, and may make for a richer high school music experience. Advocates of block scheduling state that the traditional schedule devotes about 40 percent of the instructional time to core subjects. Such data have prompted school supporters to accept these scheduling changes! The longer blocks allow students time to think, to research, and to solve problems, thereby achieving greater understanding and mastery. Today’s challenge is to secure a schedule that will allow the teacher to build strong instrumental programs even in schools with no tradition of excellence in ensembles or in schools whose administrators are unfamiliar with the educational benefits of excellent bands and orchestras. That challenge can be met only if the instrumental teacher possesses both knowledge of the total educational program and considerable leadership skills. 4x4 Block Schedule

First Semester

Second Semester

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 75

SCHEDULING

75

OTHER SCHEDULING-RELATED ISSUES Private Lessons Elementary, middle, and high school students can benefit from year-round or summer private lessons. Because parents of students still struggling to play “The Old Gray Goose” may be reluctant to spend dearly on private lessons, advanced high school or college players provide a pool of teacher/coaches at reasonable fees. These lessons motivate both the teacher and learner to greater achievement, as teaching is among the best ways to learn to perform. Middle school string, wind, and percussion players teaching elementary students for a nominal fee may also be a win–win situation, but the real prize is that both levels gain in performance skills. Allowing high school students to teach middle school students for slightly higher fees has the same effect on performance—students who teach begin to give much more thought to the performance process and greater credence to what their teachers have told them. One possibility is to allow high school students to earn academic credit by participating in an official internship.

Team Teaching Having multiple band and/or orchestra directors at a school can be a tremendous opportunity for students and teachers alike. In the elementary setting, teachers can work with several groups simultaneously, diminishing the overall impact on classroom instructional time. Music teachers can work with the groups separately or combine them as concert time approaches. At the secondary level, a second teacher can coach sectionals, serve as a second set of ears, and provide remedial instruction to students who need it. Other benefits include the teachers being able to observe each other and receive feedback and students receive varying forms of instruction. Team teaching will work best if the teacher roles are clearly defined at the beginning and if one teacher is recognized as the primary instructor for the class.

Honors Courses One trend emanating from the educational reforms that began in the 1980s has been honors classes, including those parts of the AP and IB programs. These courses often have a greater weighting on a student’s GPA when compared to “regular” classes. In school systems that use some form of course weighting, the ambitious and bright students may believe they have no choice but to drop out of music and take honors courses in order to attain the highest possible GPA and be admitted to the best colleges. Some school districts with multiple ensembles have solved the issue by establishing the top group as an honors course, thus receiving greater weight in the calculation of the GPA. Fortunately, the best colleges value ensemble participation. Countering negative feelings from other teachers, administrators, and critics toward schedules and grading practices requires both initiative and patience. Each school system appears to be unique in its priorities and traditions, but solutions can usually be found.

Elective Courses Each scheduling option depends on a number of factors. Where the instrumental program is fairly small, all players should be scheduled into a single performing ensemble, with separate technique classes for beginning strings, winds, and percussion if feasible. Where a program has a strong performing tradition, the quickest way to improve the top-performing ensemble is to start a second one. The improvement results not only from grouping the more proficient players together but also from a sense of pride, esprit de corps, and a general positive attitude. Again, to group by ability is possible only if ensembles are scheduled before all other courses. The purpose of a second group is also to prevent the weaker players from becoming buried in the second violin section or relegated to a four-year tenure on third trumpet. In the second ensemble, less advanced musicians play first parts and establish a second leadership corps. The second group is expected to play as clearly, with the same tone quality and intonation, as the first group, though some allowance may be needed for late starters. One final point about scheduling first and second ensembles: Students, parents, and administrators should be informed whether students will be selected according to an audition process in which students who score below a set standard will be assigned to the second group or if standards will vary according to instrumentation. Selection for two different orchestras or bands may be influenced by the concert literature and thus display a double standard; that is, a weaker bassoonist may qualify before a strong violinist. In such a case, directors must avoid placing unreasonable demands on weaker players simply because the instrument is needed in the top ensemble. Private lessons can assist the weaker players to “catch up” with the other members of the top group—plus obviously allow them to contribute more to the ensemble.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 76

76

THE FOUNDATIONS

Chamber Ensembles Another effective way to improve the high school instrumental music program is to offer (or require) membership in small chamber ensembles that rehearse on a regular basis before or after school. If attendance is a concern, discussion with administrators and/or parents may result in a solution. Another option is to have students meet in chamber groups at a centrally located home after school, to which the parents carpool or the students are able to walk. If such an arrangement is established, the teacher needs to hear the group on a regular basis and provide guidance for what the students are accomplishing on their own. If facilities allow, students can be excused from the ensemble to rehearse in an office, storage area, or practice room. Chamber groups place unique technical and musical demands on individual students who generally rise to meet these new demands. Performance errors and intonation problems are more readily apparent, and aural skills are developed at a quicker pace. It is easier for students to perceive and comprehend style when only four to eight players are trying to achieve a uniform style; players can quickly become sensitive to the necessity for a uniform interpretation (e.g., articulation, nuances, and tempo). Care should be taken if students are allowed to form their own in-school ensembles as they may become cliquish and not be organized educationally. Students should be grouped according to interest and ability level. Players of average ability and those sitting toward the bottom of sections can benefit greatly from small ensembles in which each player is responsible for a part and cannot depend on other players. Mixed-instrument small ensembles have a distinct advantage over ensembles of like instruments because through them players can learn more about balance and blend. There are, of course, benefits from participating in ensembles comprising like instruments. Regular meetings and rehearsals of a clarinet choir, flute choir, cello choir, or percussion ensemble can be held in lieu of sectional time. In those homogeneous groupings, clearer instruction in tone production, embouchure, technique, bowing, intonation, and articulation can be provided. Jazz ensembles require special mention due to their popularity as a curricular offering in many schools. Chapter 13 explores specific issues related to scheduling these groups.

Honors and Community Ensembles Honors groups provide additional motivation and musical challenges. The best examples are the stunning youth orchestra programs in many metropolitan areas. An all-county or all-city ensemble comprising the better players from each of several groups in a geographic area provides additional learning opportunities. These ensembles meet weekly throughout the school year or on a shorter, more intense schedule. Such select groups can perform more challenging music than any one school can attempt, and constitute an additional source of visibility for instrumental music. The high school and/or middle school conductors who provide students for the group can take turns conducting or a college or professional conductor can be employed. This ensemble can offer inspiration to teachers as well as students.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS/ACTIVITIES 1. 2.

3. 4.

5.

Your school administration has not the foggiest idea at what age instrumental instruction should begin. What would be your recommendation and what justification would you provide? The middle school principal is a strong supporter of your instrumental music program but teachers in the school want fewer interruptions in the school day and believe the program can be offered before or after school or in the evenings and still treat it like a credited class. What is your response? At the high school level, what after-school and summer rehearsals (or ensembles) can be academically justified? You are a member of a fine arts team and the team has agreed to make joint proposals for their needs. Visual arts, theater, and dance teachers make a strong case for block scheduling—longer but fewer periods due to their need to get out equipment, dress, and so forth. You are pretty sure that your students cannot play for 90 minutes without becoming fatigued. What solutions are there to this dilemma? The school board believes that the minimum enrollment in an elective course should be 10 students. Such a rule impacts upon your plans for a small ensemble program and could impact upon offering AP theory and chamber music. Are there solutions and/or recommendations?

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 77

SCHEDULING

77

RESOURCES Texts Blocher, L. and R. Miles (1999). Scheduling and Teaching Music. Chicago, IL: GIA Music. Garofalo, R. (2000). Blueprint for Band. Galesville, MD: Meredith Music. Hash, P.M. (2004). Literature Review: Pullout Lessons in Instrumental Music Education. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 159: 1–10.

Miles, R.B. and L. Blocher (1996). Block Scheduling: Implications for Music Education. Springfield, IL: GIA Music. Mixon, K. (2011). Reaching and Teaching All Instrumental Music Students, 2nd ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. Wenger Corporation (2008). Planning Guide for Music Facilities. Owatonna, MN: Author.

NOTE 1.

Hash, P.M. (2004). Literature Review: Pullout Lessons in Instrumental Music Education. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education 159: 1–10.

2.

National Middle School Association (2010). This We Believe: Keys to Educating Young Adolescents. Westerville, OH: NMSA/AMLE, 17.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 78

CHAPTER 8

Special Populations and Instrumental Music

8

This short chapter has two parts: The first part outlines legislative acts that affect teaching instrumental music and the second part offers a few suggestions on complying with these acts. In general, instrumental music has not been “controlled” by any external mandates. The public has not been critical of instrumental music instruction and any rules, regulations, and/or standards are, in general, the responsibility of individual teachers with the exception of the education of students with disabilities.

LEGISLATION As in other areas of education, public opinion and the resulting legislation may affect your school’s instrumental music program. Our focus in this chapter is on legislation dealing with special populations and a brief definition of those populations. The fundamental legislation is the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, which at this writing is referred to as the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) of 2015. Previously it was referred to as the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001. The legislation evolves with each renewal but it is likely to continue to influence educational policy. ESSA proposes a reincarnation of the Arts in Education program and includes funding to eligible entities for the somewhat vague purpose of “enriching the academic experience of students by promoting ARTS education for disadvantaged students and students with disabilities.”1 While the impact of ESSA remains unknown, unlike NCLB it specifically cites music and the arts as a core subject. Federal involvement in educating students with disabilities dates to the 1970s with the passage of the Education of the Handicapped Act, followed in 1975 with Public Law 94–142, Education for All Handicapped Children. This latter act is associated with the term mainstreaming, which is more currently defined as inclusion meaning including all students without restrictions or barriers in regular education classes. Inclusion was not required by the act as the means of educating the “handicapped” in the least restrictive environment but was a local and/or state decision. Education in the United States is now governed in part by Public Law 108–446, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 2004. This law is of importance to instrumental music teachers because of the stipulation that no public or private school, psychiatric hospital, or residential facility for individuals with disabilities can reject a student from any curricular (academic or nonacademic) or extracurricular experience. Any offering open to all students (e.g., beginning strings) must accept any student with a disability. This part of the legislation is usually referred to as the “zero reject component.” Exceptions to the law’s stipulations can only be made by the student’s team, which is a group of individuals responsible for the student’s program of study. The team must consist of a counselor, a school representative who is not the classroom teacher, a parent, the classroom teacher, and possibly the student. It is important that the music teacher be a member of this team. The team also has the authority to make referrals for any specialized services, those provided by the school and by outside agencies. Along with the school administration, the team has considerable leeway in placing students in the least restrictive environment, an environment that is most promising of student success and school safety. If an audition is required for membership in an ensemble or a music class, every student must be allowed to audition for the class/ensemble but can be rejected by the teacher for not meeting established standards. You can readily see, in this instance, the importance of having clear and well-established objectives and standards for each of your teaching responsibilities in the event your decision is challenged. Without them, expect to spend your free time with lawyers and other interested parties. Whether the teacher will have to accommodate a large number of students as a result of IDEA 2004 is impossible to answer precisely, as determination of who is eligible for special services is decided at the local level. The national average at present is that about 14 percent of school-aged students have a disability of one kind or another. In the last decade the number of students identified as having disabilities has increased more rapidly than the school population.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 79

SPECIAL POPULATIONS AND INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC

79

The reasons for this increase are not at all clear and may be both substantial and political. Students might also be placed in special education through Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, which mandated that no institution could discriminate solely on the basis of a disabling condition. Students with HIV or other disabilities can, thus, qualify for special education services under this civil rights provision when they would not qualify under IDEA. IDEA has established 13 categories of disabilities that might affect developmental delays: autism, deaf-blindness, deafness, emotional disturbance, mental retardation, multiple disabilities (usually mental retardation plus at least one additional disability), orthopedic impairment, other health problems such as asthma, attention-deficit disorder, specific learning disability (problems with listening, thinking, speaking, reading, writing, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia), speech or language impairment, traumatic brain injury, and visual impairment including blindness. It might be easier to group the disabilities into five categories—sensory, emotional-behavioral, communication, cognitive-intellectual, and medical—because these areas suggest adaptations, accommodations, and social support strategies that help organize teaching options. School districts or states often combine one or more of the original IDEA categories this way (e.g., placing disabilities of hearing, vision, and deaf-blindness in a single category of sensory impairment). The categories will be of importance to the music teacher as a member of the team recommending an educational program and/or specialized help. ADHD (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder) and ADD (attention-deficit disorder) were added to the list of categories in 1999, as students with these disabilities have problems similar to those of established disabilities—trouble maintaining attention, limited ability to concentrate, impulsive behaviors, and a tendency to act in aggressive ways. This disorder may be classified in the emotional-behavioral category. There is little guidance for the team in determining the appropriateness of instrumental music for students with disabilities other than a statement in NAfME’s The School Music Program: Description and Standards, which suggests that placement of a student with disabilities in a music class should be determined primarily on the basis of musical achievement, a reasonable but idealistic suggestion.2 The music teacher, as a member of the student’s educational program team, should have considerable sway in determining what is educationally sound. The team for each student with disabilities establishes an individualized education program (IEP). The purpose of the IEP is to have agreed-upon written goals and pedagogically sound methods to accomplish these goals. IEPs must be determined for each situation, as each student is so unique that few concrete guidelines exist as to how a student with disabilities can best be included in the school offerings in the least restrictive environment. Disabilities are affected by gender, race, and economic situations and range from mild to profound. When thinking about IEPs, the analogy with private music instruction is helpful. Private music teachers start with assessing a student’s individual strengths and weaknesses, and then create an individualized plan to address the weaknesses through repertoire selected for this purpose, followed by ongoing assessments of individual progress. Instrumental music teachers who teach private lessons have been doing IEPs their entire careers. The label is different, but individualized instrumental lessons and IEPs embody the same concept. Unfortunately, there are very few specialists who can provide guidance on how instrumental music might benefit the students with disabilities. Special education teachers do not study music as part of their degree program and often have little understanding of how music instruction is conducted. What about music therapists? Few of the more than 4,000 certified music therapists are employed in education and those few usually are consultants at a very high level in a large school system. Music therapists are more often found in hospitals, assisted living centers, mental health centers, and in a variety of rehabilitation programs. They often use music to obtain nonmusical goals rather than how to modify music instruction for special learner populations. The team, however, has the power and the responsibility to recommend special services if music therapy or other therapies seem appropriate. What about the school’s counselor? Again, most counselors are poorly informed about music education and the complexity of a valid instrumental music education class/ensemble. They may have heard about the benefits of music instruction from arts advocates, and these benefits are often real, but it will be up to the teacher, as a member of the team, to clearly outline the conditions, costs, and other resources needed for the student to profit from instruction. Wonderful outcomes, musical and developmental, have been accomplished with one-on-one music instruction and/or with very small group instruction, but these same outcomes may be impossible in regular classrooms.

INSTRUCTIONAL IDEAS FOR TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC TO STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS Why is instrumental music such an attractive educational option for all students, including those with disabilities? Business gurus and educators often cite bands and orchestras as ideal learning situations to help students develop individual competence while functioning collectively within a symphonic whole. Instrumentalists become completely immersed in how they are performing, yet also have to be aware that their actions have consequences for others and for the ensemble. Instrumental teachers have traditionally taught and treated each student as a unique member of the class. The needs of the oboist differ from the needs of the cellist, and even within a violin section the assistance required by

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 80

80

THE FOUNDATIONS

the concertmaster and the last chair violinist is more dissimilar than similar. Unless the instrumental teacher knows each student well, appropriately challenging tasks, both musical and nonmusical, will not be possible. Many individuals with physical disabilities have achieved competence in music. Itzhak Perlman has long been a spokesperson for those with physical disabilities and has demonstrated that if physical accommodations are made, these individuals can succeed. After suffering a stroke, University of Nebraska-Kearney Professor David Nabb developed a “toggle-key” saxophone that can be played with only one hand. There is a lengthy list of accomplished blind musicians including Ray Charles, George Shearing, Stevie Wonder, Andrea Bocelli, and others. Because of her uncanny musicality and achievements, Evelyn Glennie has demonstrated that a deaf percussionist can rise to the top of the profession and be invited to perform with the best symphony orchestras. To ensure that such talent is not lost to the nation, VSA, the International Organization on Arts and Disability (formerly Very Special Arts) is funded through the Kennedy Center in Washington and receives more than 20 percent of the money appropriated for Arts in Education at the federal level. Success stories in music are reported for all five categories of disability, especially those with only mild impairments. Knowing whether there is a sensory, emotional-behavioral, communication, cognitive, or medical disability allows for separate strategies for modifications. Usually medical and sensory disabilities can be overcome with minor modifications while the others may need more significant instructional modification. One needs to understand the student’s mental rather than chronological age, proceed slowly, and use direct instruction on small tasks in small groups. With this understanding and the suggested support, developmentally delayed students can usually become contributing members of most school ensembles. According to Judith Jellison, much that we already know about music learning is applicable to children with and without disabilities.3 Nevertheless, the issues of educating special populations are complex and it is important to proceed cautiously. There are multiple stories of students being misdiagnosed and placed in special education, which places additional burdens on the special education teacher. Unruly students or students with language issues may be classified as needing special education services when their need is elsewhere. Behavioral issues are often associated with special education students, making it more difficult for teachers to identify the student’s problem, to offer assistance, and to conduct a sequential instructional program developmentally appropriate for all students. Disruptive behaviors of all students can be caused by instruction moving too rapidly or too slowly. When the class is too heterogeneous, an aide or special education teacher should accompany special needs students to music and their role specified in the students’ IEP for music. Disruptive behavior may also be occasioned by placing students in instrumental music who have little or no interest in the subject or are simply incapable of making reasonable progress toward the music standards of the class. The social benefits of being a member of an instrumental ensemble should not outweigh the music objectives. Students are continually maturing and changing and some may outgrow some disabilities such as ADD or ADHD. The guidelines for IDEA require only an annual assessment that the student’s IEP is appropriate. Recently, a promising strategy that can be helpful to accurate student placement, entitled Response to Intervention (RTI), has been introduced into most special education programs. This strategy requires that special needs students (and in some situations those students who verge on qualifying for special education) be continually assessed according to a three-tiered model. Level 1 includes students with mild disabilities where the students can be fully integrated into the regular classroom with the assumption that all teachers have sufficient knowledge of developmentally appropriate instruction for these students. At level 2, the student needs some small group instruction provided by the special education staff but other instruction, often music classes, can be provided in the traditional setting. Level 3 students require that almost all of their instruction be provided by special education staff in a one-on-one or small group configuration. RTI is a data-driven program whose genius is the constant assessment of a student’s progress, often on a daily or weekly basis. Thus, RTI enables students to be quickly moved to a more appropriate level of instruction at the first signs of success or difficulty. With RTI, parents and teachers can act to close any emerging learning gap and students can receive the needed support. Even at level 1, students can be placed in different reading or music groups, provided with a tutor, or given supplemental instruction. What RTI requires is clear benchmarks for each student in each subject and, of course, considerable communication and cooperation among the teaching staff. Instrumental music teachers will be involved primarily with students at level 1. Should the school district have sufficient resources to employ a large music staff and offer private instruction to selected special needs students, student attainment in music can be considerable. Strategies for individual lessons in instrumental music are available.4 The success of instrumental music teachers with special needs students is partially due to the fact that the instrumental music classroom has always been a place with a trusting atmosphere between teacher and student. Instrumental teachers listen to their students and are accustomed to making individual suggestions for improvement. Instrumental music is nonthreatening and conducted in a classroom where mistakes are expected but also in a challenging atmosphere where the expectation is that the same errors do not recur. Maintaining a challenging atmosphere is important, and one of the reasons that the terms handicapped, educable, and trainable were dropped is that their use suggested a lower expectation of special needs students. The music room is accommodating but the standards, as with ESSA, are what could be expected of any diverse musical ensemble.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 81

SPECIAL POPULATIONS AND INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC

81

THE CLASSROOM Many instrumental music teachers will have limited contact with special education students and, as we have suggested, teaching each student requires specific and individualized instruction. The first task is to learn as much as possible about the disability and how it affects the student. The second task is to explain the characteristics of the disability to all of the members of the ensemble/class, as success depends on not only an understanding teacher but also an understanding class that willingly offers the necessary support structure to enable the special needs student to succeed. There may be privacy issues involved and you can expect assistance from your school administration, counselors, and special education teachers in how each special needs student’s etiology is to be professionally explained to class members. We mention a few characteristics of the more common etiologies as an example of the needed knowledge. Each disorder ranges from mild to severe and our examples speak in generalities. Autism (Autism Spectrum Disorder) is a neurobiological disorder characterized by repetitive activities, resistance to change, inappropriate response to sensory stimuli, communication issues, including an inability to understand others’ thoughts and feelings, and an inability to conform to social customs that might include daily hygiene. These students often may not understand the consequences of their actions. Some autistic students have cognitive delays whereas others are cognitively gifted. Autistic students may excel at rote learning but are not necessarily above average musically. Music classes can also overstimulate the student, but many autistic students are successful in music. Asperger’s syndrome is a type of autism that also ranges from mild to severe. The IQ of individuals with Asperger’s syndrome is within the range of normalcy. The characteristics that accompany this disorder are extreme sensitivity, obsessive routines, and most particularly a different perception of how the world operates. Down syndrome students are traditionally musically (and academically) normal but music is often reported to be more important to them than it is to the average student. Down syndrome students often have other disabilities, however, such as hearing loss. Whether these students are better at rhythmic tasks than at pitch perception is unknown but is part of the folklore; thus, Down syndrome students are often assigned to the rhythm section of a class or ensemble. They are easily excitable and controlling their enthusiasm may become an issue. Relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis, an illness that affects the nerves in the brain, spinal cord, and other parts of the central nervous system, is not uncommon, nor is cerebral palsy or muscular dystrophy, with inclusion depending on the severity of the affliction. Epilepsy is a concern because an epileptic student might have a seizure in class but otherwise these students are normal in every respect. In the event of a seizure, the student must be placed flat on his or her back, action taken so the tongue is not swallowed, and given ample breathing room. Mild attacks may require only a quiet respite. Once the seizure has passed, the student and the teacher can decide on whether to resume normal class activities. Emotional disturbances affect learning in multiple and unknown ways. Schizophrenia is one type of emotional disturbance. These students have difficulty maintaining positive relationships with classmates and teachers, expressing themselves in appropriate ways, and are often depressed and/or fearful of new situations. Emotionally disturbed students may be the most difficult to include in a well-disciplined ensemble. For example, students qualifying for special education due to emotional disturbances may exhibit similar symptoms to those of a regular student who is socially maladjusted who requires only firm insistence that he or she follow the rules of a well-disciplined classroom. Students with mild cognitive impairments can attain many, if not most, of the goals of the instrumental music program while benefiting in numerous social competencies. (We are omitting any discussion of the nonmusical benefits to all special education students as these tend to be overemphasized by counselors and school administrators in making placement decisions.) Our position, which coincides with that of NAfME, is that there must be the potential of gaining some musical competency if the placement is appropriate. A better quality of life is always an outcome of valid music instruction. With the very young, music can aid in rewiring the brain, and this seems to be a possibility with students who have cognitive delays. We know of no magic IQ cutoff point below which students cannot attain minimal music competencies. There is ample evidence that students with IQs below 70 can succeed in music. Instruction has to move at a slower pace, objectives need to be clearer, individual instruction should be available when needed, parents should be supportive, instruction should be direct and often focused on rote learning, and icons and other devices used rather than extensive verbal and/or written directions. As with other special needs students, changes in routine may trigger confusion and even result in disruptive behavior. Distracters of any kind should be avoided. Being accepted into an instrumental ensemble can be very rewarding to students with cognitive delays and, once the procedures of the ensemble are learned and mastered, these individuals can be expected to be responsible members of the group. The teacher and peers should establish expectations of these students based on their mental rather than chronological age, which pose some difficulty as there are few established mental progress benchmarks in our profession. Instrumental music pedagogy is based on challenging goals for each individual as much as it is for the group, which means that cognitively challenged students can and have attained membership in the school’s top-performing groups. Although we are more inclined to cite experience than research to justify our statements, we make an exception to cite a well-designed

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 82

82

THE FOUNDATIONS

study by Feuerstein that employed the early intervention theory of structural cognitive modifiability, a form of mediated learning, used to teach 6- to 9-year-old music students in Israel.5 The procedure focuses on a student’s ability to relate simultaneously to multiple stimuli and integrate them, and to use pattern conservation, holistic perception, multiple representation, and self-regulation. All of these are important to music instruction where pitch, rhythm, dynamics, expression, and pattern conservation in various melodic, rhythmic, and harmonic patterns are integrated. Positive results were found on the Raven standard matrices and Raven colored matrices, conservation of patterns, complex figure tests, the Glantz’s and Fitt’s self-esteem questionnaires, and teacher reports. ADHD and ADD students have symptoms similar to other behavior disorders. They are likely to be as musically competent as other class members but could be disruptive to the learning situation. At least half of the concerns with including any special education student are associated with a behavioral disorder. There are numerous rating scales for assessing behavioral disorders and the school counselors should be able to provide guidance in explaining the student’s particular behavior and possible treatments. Behavioral disorders may be symptomatic of underlying problems such as depression. Because instrumental music teachers have a long-established tradition of helping students develop appropriate behaviors of cooperation, independence, persistence, respect, and self-discipline, counselors may well expect you to be able to solve any student behavioral problems. Ritalin and similar medicines help to control behavior disorders. Strong parental collaboration will reinforce efforts at school. The teacher should communicate to the parents a lesson practice plan that includes specific page numbers, compositions, and skills to be practiced along with a recommendation and opportunity for parents to report back. One might even include a recording or link for a model reference and suggest making a recording at home for the teacher’s assessment. James Froseth’s Home Helper series might be helpful for beginning instrumentalists.6 Students with ADHD and ADD often become accomplished musicians. Physical disabilities may have little or no impact on a student’s potential for musical learning. We find no evidence that students with physical impairments (such as blindness) are more musical than other students, only that they have focused their energies in specific ways. Physical disabilities may require the use of wheelchairs, crutches, and other prosthetic devices and a limited choice of instruments. The school facilities should already be configured to accommodate these students, although a “buddy” or aide may be needed to assist in specialized tasks such as reaching for items on the top shelf or transporting the instrument. Adaptations and modifications can usually be made that will allow students to hold and play an instrument. Again, strong parental support is important. Blind and visually impaired students are aided by a stable arrangement of the facilities in the rehearsal area. Changes in the physical arrangement of the room are often disconcerting to students with other disabilities as well. Blind students, by themselves or with canes and/or dogs, quickly learn to find their place in the classroom. Sensitive teachers verbally convey any instructions that are normally written, although a “buddy” system is helpful to communicate the many gestures that occur in the instrumental music classroom and to stave off any embarrassment caused by continuing to play after a cutoff or failure to start with the rest of the ensemble. The visually impaired are aided by Braille music and technologies such as the Optacon, VersaBraille, reading machines, and, of course, recordings. The teacher or fellow students may have to make a recording of the music to be learned, which is easily accomplished, although it is more difficult to learn exercises through recordings. Reading stands with extended arms are available for visually impaired students. Although the student will likely already know about possible support, the National Library Service provides music, textbooks, librettos, and courses for guitar, accordion, piano, voice, and other instruments. The Library of Congress will provide any music in Braille, and Recordings for the Blind is a support agency. Planning ahead is necessary to receive these services. Hearing-impaired students may require only a hearing aid or may be sufficiently deaf to require use of American Sign Language for effective communication. Some students will have had cochlear implants and rely on a telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD), closed captioning, and alert devices that replace any sounding devices necessary to manipulate through the school day. Although much has been written about music and theater for the deaf, it has little direct application to the K–12 schools. The task is one of communicating with the student who may be adept at lip reading but misinterpret many gestures of the teacher and/or fellow students. Misunderstandings occur through partial information, humor, sarcasm, and improvised movements and gestures. Special education students may have multiple disabilities or a disability so severe that accomplishing musical objectives in the ensemble/classroom becomes infeasible. It is important for the music teacher to explain clearly to the school administration and to parents what can and cannot be accomplished without sacrificing critical musical goals for the student and for the class. Should the team determine that some instruction in music might be beneficial, the school administration is morally obligated to provide the one-on-one or small group instruction that could be beneficial. Important aspects of the music teacher’s role follow: •

A welcoming, nonthreatening environment that employs multiple means of nonverbal instruction, such as aural, visual, and kinesthetic strategies, is needed. Nonmusical outcomes are expected to be a major benefit to special education students, including social skills, self-esteem, help with speech, problem solving, and orientation to the real world.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 83

SPECIAL POPULATIONS AND INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC

• • • • •

• •

• • •

83

Students need to feel comfortable and the teacher needs to be more caring about these individuals and their needs. When the overall expectations are that the students can be successful, failures are minimized. The music teacher must involve the parents, for few outcomes can be accomplished with special education students (or regular students) solely by the school. Consistency, clarity, and support from the teacher and peers are important. Careful pacing is required in that it is nearly impossible to arrive at instructional pacing that is appropriate for both special education and other students. The music teacher may have leverage on modifying behavior especially when the opportunities to perform, join a group, wear a uniform, receive an instrument, help around the music room, and care for equipment are contingent on appropriate behavior. Special education students are often overprotected so, although celebration of accomplishments is the norm with these students, any celebration must reinforce appropriate behavior and extinguish the undesirable. A trusting atmosphere, characteristic of good instrumental instruction, is of special importance. The instrumental teacher must continually pay attention to the needs of each student, listen carefully, and suggest strategies for improvement. In instrumental music, mistakes are expected to be a normal occurrence but they are not expected to recur because help is available from the teacher, peers, and the profession. When extra resources are needed, the instrumental teacher can expect they will be provided. We list only a few of the state and national resources that are available where teachers and the school administration can obtain assistance. The teacher needs to continually reassess his or her level of tolerance, patience, and needs. The definition of an orderly classroom differs from teacher to teacher and from situation to situation. The importance of everyone (students, teachers, administrators, parents) caring cannot be overstressed.

Gifted Students Special populations include the gifted as well as those with disabilities. Unfortunately, there has not been an equal emphasis on providing “special” education for this element of the school population and presently only 32 states require districts to offer special services to gifted students.7 Although there was a federal definition of giftedness in the NCLB Act, states had the authority to determine their own definition to guide identification and programming options. As most music educators were themselves musically gifted, an understanding of this population usually presents no pedagogical problems. The gifted need a superb educational environment that is both stimulating and challenging. This may include contentbased acceleration, differentiated instruction, and increased contact time. As painful as it might be to recommend that your best violinist transfer to an arts magnet school, that option should be presented to the student and his or her parents. Virtual coursework via media is sometimes available. It might be equally satisfactory for you to offer AP theory to your gifted students, create a system of small ensembles comprising students with comparable talents and competencies, or find ways these individuals can teach and assist. Private music lessons are always an option and some schools fund private instruction or allow the use of facilities for private instruction and/or partnership arrangements with community music groups. Teachers should be as creative as possible in providing appropriate educational environments that benefit the eager, talented students.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS/ACTIVITIES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

In what ways do public laws 94–142 and 108–446 (IDEA) differ in their implications for teaching instrumental music in the public schools? How does the Elementary and Secondary Education Act affect instrumental music instruction? In what situations could a student claim admission to instrumental music under the auspices of civil rights? Write a hypothetical one-month music IEP for a beginning instrumentalist who has a disability about which you have some knowledge. In what ways can instrumental music aid in overcoming a student’s poor home background? What considerations, if any, are important in selecting an instrument for a student with ADHD? Autism? A cognitive impairment? What might you do to encourage a student who is musically gifted to profit from school experiences?

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 84

84

THE FOUNDATIONS

RESOURCES Websites American Music Therapy Association musictherapy.org Center for Music Learning Disabilities Information cml.music.utexas.edu/online-resources/disabilitiesinformation/introduction Council for Exceptional Children cec.sped.org National Association for Gifted Children nagc.org National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities nichcy.org U.S. Department of Education, IDEA Resources ed.gov/policy/speced/guid/idea/idea2004.html

Texts Adamek, M.S. and A. Darrow (2010). Music in Special Education, 2nd ed. Silver Spring, MD: American Music Therapy Association. Feuerstein, R. and R. Ya’Acov (1997). Don’t Accept Me As I Am. Arlington Heights, IL: Skylight Professional Development.

Froseth, J.O. (2005). Home Helper: First Lessons at School and at Home. Chicago, IL: GIA. Hammel, A.M. and R.M. Hourigan (2011). Teaching Music to Students with Special Needs: A Label Free Approach. New York: Oxford University Press. ––– (2013). Teaching Music to Students with Autism. New York: Oxford University Press. Hammel, A.M., R.Y. Hickox, and R.M. Hourigan (eds.) (2016). Winding it Back: Teaching to Individual Differences in Music Classroom and Ensemble Settings. New York: Oxford University Press. McPherson, G.E. (ed.) (2006). The Child as Musician: A Handbook in Music Development. New York: Oxford University Press. Melago, K. (2014). Strategies for Teaching Students with ADD or ADHD in Instrumental Lessons, Music Educators Journal, 101: 37–43. Mixon, K. (2011). Reaching and Teaching All Instrumental Music Students, 2nd ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Education. The National Association for Music Education (1986). The School Music Program: Description and Standards. Lanham, MD: Author and Rowman and Littlefield.

NOTES 1.

2.

3.

4.

www.nafme.org/wp-content/files/2015/11/NAfME-ESSAComprehensive-Analysis-20151.pdf (retrieved January 13, 2016). The National Association for Music Education (1986). The School Music Program: Description and Standards. Lanham, MD: Author and Rowman and Littlefield. Jellison, J. (2006). Including Everyone. In G.E. McPherson, (ed.), The Child as Musician: A Handbook in Music Development. New York: Oxford University Press, 258. Melago, K. (2014). Strategies for Teaching Students with ADD or ADHD in Instrumental Lessons, Music Educators Journal, 101: 37–43.

5.

6. 7.

Feuerstein, R. and R. Ya’Acov (1997). Don’t Accept Me As I Am. Arlington Heights, IL: Skylight Professional Development. Froseth, J.O. (2005). Home Helper: First Lessons at School and at Home. Chicago, IL: GIA. National Association for Gifted Children (2015). 2014–15 State of the States in Gifted Education Summary, www.nagc. org/sites/default/files/key%20reports/2014–2015%20State% 20of%20the%20States%20summary.pdf (retrieved January 31, 2016).

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 85

CHAPTER 9

The Physiology of Instrumental Music Performance

9

Much has been written about the importance of the body—muscles, tendons, nerves, and bone structure—in avoiding fatigue and injury while performing. It is a major issue with all musicians, making this chapter one of the more important. The topic is huge with a quarterly journal, Medical Problems of Performing Artists, devoted to research on prevention and cure. In addition, excellent texts are available that also contain photographs, drawings, and suggested exercises. We draw on material from Sataloff, Brandfonbrener, and Lederman’s Performing Arts Medicine and their Textbook of Performing Arts Medicine as well as the texts by Horvath, Enos, Storm, Bird, and Taylor. The material is unique and worth a trip to the library. Preventive exercises are drawn from physical therapy, acupressure, Yoga, Alexander technique, Feldenkreis, Pilates, Tai Chi, in addition to massage strategies that involve the mind such as Rolfing, Hellerwork, Reixi, and Seitai. The methods have excellent websites to view the exercises in motion. The books also have excellent drawings of the various stretches. The drawings clarify; we verbally describe the exercises to encourage practice when access to the Internet is not available and to aid the teacher in describing stretching and warm-up exercises to students. All strategies have an outer physical aspect with an inner component that provides personal meaning to one’s life. The discipline is relatively new. The leading journal on medical problems of performing artists began in 1986; a survey of some 4,000 symphony and opera musicians took place in 1988; and clinics for such professional musicians were held in 1997. Although some 76 percent of the musicians surveyed in 1986 had medical problems that affected their performance, few responded to the clinics by participating in the recommended exercises; suggesting to the researchers that prevention must begin with school-age students. Organizations devoted to medical problems of artists exist in most countries. For example, the September 2016 issue of Medical Problems of Performing Artists has articles on related health problems among instrumental music students at a university in Malaysia; a postural stability assessment of university marching musicians using force platform measures; and effects of physical symptoms on muscle activity levels in skilled violinists. Movement and stretching exercises are of special importance to string players as indicated by the DVDs of Rolland, Fischbach, and Zweig. Musculoskeletal problems begin in elementary school, pain literature indicating that spinal pain in adolescence is associated with increased risk of spinal pain in adulthood. We found, however, only one research study of problems of youth; a 2011 survey of 731 children between the ages of 7 and 17.1 Sixty-seven percent of the students reported symptoms of performance problems at some point, 56 percent within the last month. Age and amount of practice were not factors. Females reported more problems than males. Playing more than one instrument reduced physical problems— probably due to the need for flexibility in adjusting to a second instrument. Nancy Taylor, a trumpet player and therapist, focuses on ergonomics: feet on the floor, knees over feet, hips over knees, shoulders over hips, and ears over shoulders. As a therapist she identifies the problems related to teaching and managing an instrumental program (lugging instruments around) and posture problems issues that arise from sitting at the desk and driving a car. She includes material on preventing marching band injuries and even physical issues with band camps. Her general interest is with specific pains and suggested corrective exercises with chapters on special exercises for arm, wrist, and hand, shoulder and back, and strings. David Enos adds nutrition, diet and juicing, as well as attitude to the mix of prevention. Around 1998, athletic teachers discovered the importance of cross-training—both physical and mental exercise were seen as necessary for performance enhancement. Cross-training is a feature of a five-year study (Sound Practice) of the eight professional orchestras in Australia.2 Three-hundred and seventy-seven musicians participated with 84 percent reporting past performance-related musculoskeletal disorders, and 50 percent reporting present suffering. A team of trained physical therapists gave physical exams. In addition, seven standardized psychological measures were taken, requiring two hours of testing. (The psychological measures introduced cross-training and the role of the mind in performance, similar to the recommendations in Barry Green’s 1986 Inner Game of Music.) Social-phobia was an issue with 32 percent of the participants. The five-year study in Australia found the most common injuries to be in the spine and shoulders; the data reported by instrument. The study also investigated hearing, with the most serious problems occasioned by

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 86

86

THE FOUNDATIONS

one’s own playing. In the psychological tests, females scored higher (more problems) than males; younger musicians were more vulnerable. Low self-efficacy was associated with higher psychological morbidity. Elementary and secondary students are reluctant to report pain that might result from playing an instrument, so it is good to occasionally ask whether any students are experiencing pain. In such instances, your first action should be to send the student to the school health professional who, if needed, will recommend a professional physician specializing in the type of pain noted. The information in this chapter is not about treating pain; i.e., the emphasis is on preventive activities that help avoid physical (and sometimes mental) discomfort. Care and maintenance of the body is the focus of this chapter. The discussion is divided into four sections: matching the student and the instrument; teacher observations to be made on a daily basis; a review of some widely used preventive medicine strategies; and suggested exercises for all students.

MATCHING STUDENT AND INSTRUMENT K–12 teachers need to consider the student’s physiology in specifying instruments suitable for study. These considerations include body size and strength and any abnormalities—finger length, facial characteristics, lung capacity, or doublejointedness. First, if a student is passionate about learning to be a cellist and has limited interest in learning any other instrument, most if not all physical disadvantages can be overcome by the student’s dedication to the instrument. Adjustments will likely have to be made. Making adjustments to the instrument is possible, as are adjustments in the playing position. Students who are either deaf or blind have had success, as have students with less incapacitating afflictions. Thus, the statements in this chapter are not absolutes. Student size is important in instrument selection, as the student must be able to reach keys and strings without causing tension or muscle strain. The bassoon may be the least flexible instrument as the holes and keys are quite far apart, although we have known of a few instances in which bassoon keys and holes have been adjusted to accommodate small individuals. There also are half-size bassoons. There are neck straps, chest harnesses, and seat straps designed to help hold this heavy instrument. For the school to accommodate young beginners, purchasing less than full-size instruments makes sense. Parents, however, may become reluctant when repeatedly asked to purchase a new, larger, or better instrument. Insightful teachers have started students as young as fourth grade on bassoon, being mindful of appropriate music and with careful observation of any compensation the student has to make due to the weight of the instrument or the need to stretch the fingers. Bassoonists should not flex the right wrist in stretching to cover the holes or reach the keys. Strength is a consideration in selecting flutists as the instrument must be held nearly horizontal without any body support. Especially important with the flute is to not to drop the wrist. The result is often more neck tension in flutists than even in violinists and violists, and it can also make correct embouchure formation difficult. Flutes can be purchased with two head joints, curved for the beginner and standard as the student matures. The solution for strength issues, of course, is to practice in more frequent but shorter blocks of time until sufficient arm strength is attained, while remaining alert for developing muscular issues. Elastic neck straps and harnesses are available for woodwind and guitar players as are thumb supports for the clarinetist. Clear vinyl plastic lip shields are an embouchure aid for clarinetists and saxophonists. String instruments come in various sizes; this allowed Yo Yo Ma, who was determined to play the cello at the age of four, to begin on a 1⁄16-size instrument. The viola is an awkwardly shaped instrument, differing in size from around 153⁄4 inches to 17 inches or more, although reduced-size violas are made. Finger pressure is necessary with string instruments, requiring some strength, and making double-jointedness a serious disadvantage.

Maturity Factors Adolescence and preadolescence are the time when braces appear. This is a time when the mouth structure is changing and permanent tooth eruption is stabilizing; thus, parents may question what effect practicing might have on overbites and/or lip size. The research on dental occlusions indicates that only small differences are caused by playing a wind instrument, although forces introduced by the tongue and facial muscles can alter the equilibrium between dental and skeletal structures. A few dentists have been known to recommend a brass instrument to assist in correcting an occlusion, such as an overbite, during middle school years. A great deal of precision is required in aligning the lower incisors with the upper incisors to provide equal support of the mouthpiece, and some brass players have difficulty placing the lower jaw far enough forward to reduce air leakage around the mouthpiece. Brass players often adjust by playing with the mouthpiece slightly off center, which also can avoid irritation of the lips. If a student is wearing a retainer on the teeth, the brace should remain on as long as possible to prevent tooth crowding and backward inclination of the lower incisors. The instrumental teacher should be cautious about making any statements or recommendations affecting the young that might conflict with opinions offered by the student’s dentist or pediatrician. Adolescence is also a time for growth spurts, the bones growing first and the muscles having to catch up. Teachers can, however, be quite comfortable in exercising preventive medicine (exercises) associated with performing on an instrument.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 87

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC PERFORMANCE

87

Posture is key to protecting students from muscle, nerve, and tendon issues, including muscle strengthening and avoidance of pain. Pain while practicing or performing can range from a minor headache to nagging and persistent discomfort. Only rare musical passages require any deviation from somatic positions that are tension-free, although there are times when students must briefly play with backs, necks, wrists, arms, and so on in some unnatural position, such as flute posture in marching band. The most common physical problems (cervical or neck lordosis and lumbar or low-back lordosis) result from incorrect spinal posture. Correct spinal posture has the head balanced so the spine supports the heavy weight of the head. Good posture has one’s head up, chin in, back flattened, and the pelvis straight. A “braced” posture with the head back and chest thrust forward might look impressive with military-type units but it is not good posture. Good posture is comfortable posture. A parent’s admonition to sit up straight with shoulders back is, again, poor posture for instrumental music, as muscles lose flexibility and tighten when forced into uncomfortable or unnatural positions. Students should stand tall with shoulders relaxed and breathe normally.

Basic Physiology The musculoskeletal system is comprised of muscles, bones, tendons, and ligaments. The skeleton is somewhat like the girders in tall buildings but, unlike the girders, the structure must allow one to bend, twist, and move. Bones meet at the joints and that is where movement takes place. A typical joint is surrounded by a capsule of fibrous tissues filled with synovial fluid, which cushions the joints and provides nutrition for the cartilage. The cartilage does not have any blood supply of its own and cannot obtain oxygen and nutrients in any other way. The muscle is made of strands of tissue called fascicles. Tendons are the connective tissue that bridges muscle to bone, and need to be flexible. Ligaments are the connective tissue that connects bone to bone. Ligaments are sturdy bands of fibrous tissue that bind our joints together and keep internal organs in place; they are flexible but not elastic. If severely stretched, ligaments do not return to their normal length. Tendons are also composed of fibrous bands, and connect muscles to bones. Strength and stability are provided by the muscles and their tendons. Central to the musculoskeletal system is the spine, and it is the spinal cord that sends messages to the nerves that will let you know when you are uncomfortable. Alice Brandfonbrener, one of the leading physicians specializing in performing arts medicine, believes that the greatest risk factor for injury among musicians is psychological stress. A part of this stress will be due to the relationships between students and teachers. Another part will be the normal and desirable tension in learning and performing, and then there is the stress of being a youngster in today’s society with numerous responsibilities and concerns.

TEACHER RESPONSIBILITY What should the teacher look for? Athletes have coaches and trainers who look for problems; the instrumental teacher has a similar responsibility to be attentive to poor habits that can cause long-term injury to the individual. Injuries occurring in everyday living may be exacerbated by performance issues. The string section is a good place to start. Beginning violinists tightly grip their instrument by the neck (probably to avoid dropping it) and sometimes do the same with the bow. The violin has four sources of support: the collarbone, left arm and hand, the stabilizing trajectory of the bow, and the weight of the head. Violinists with short necks don’t require a shoulder rest, while long-necked students probably will. Almost all violists use a chin rest. Where the chin rest is placed affects neck posture, and when neck muscles tighten, tension is produced in both upward and downward directions. Downward pressure of the head on the chin rest presses the shoulder upward, causing the arm to freeze in place. The result is often that the back, neck, and arm ache. The weight of the head should be removed from the instrument when not needed. Violinists often move their instrument and head in relation to the music and the result is a tightened neck. Cellists should have one foot in front of the other. Violinists and violists sit on the edge of the chair, dropping the right knee to free up playing the upper strings, a position that won’t twist the spine. Next, glance at the percussionists who are inclined to grasp the sticks as if they were playing keep-away. Then look for the brass players using too much lip pressure and the clarinetists supporting the instrument awkwardly. An eagle-eyed teacher can likely spot other students who appear glued to their instrument. George Bornoff taught string players to form a “frame” on string instruments, the rationale being that this left-hand frame would remain in place as students shifted to any position on the fingerboard. Any “frozen” position on any instrument, including the guitar, even if correct, signals trouble; students of all instruments should not lock necks, knees, elbows, or fingers. String players who suffer from a nerve entrapment like carpal tunnel syndrome can be assisted by braces or splints. Draw attention to any curvature of the spine, which should always be avoided. Guitar players in particular are noted for their poor spine positions. Bassoon players are subject to a downward pull of the instrument and some support system is required. The clarinetist has a similar problem, which includes weight on the thumb, but it is not clear that all clarinetists need additional support other than a cushion for the thumb. Woodwind players must use pressure not only to hold the instrument but also to depress keys and cover finger holes; however, excessive pressure must be avoided.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 88

88

THE FOUNDATIONS

The head should almost never jut forward as forward head position contributes to headaches, myofascial pain, TMJ (pain in the muscles and joints of the lower jaw), as well as shoulder and arm pain. Wind players commonly play with the head extended; bassoonists often tilt or rotate their head. The movements of the neck affect the discs in the spine, which are the body’s shock absorbers. The angle at which the flute is held, the elbow elevated or acutely bent with the head tilted to one side, creates tension in the wrists and hands; this can cause pain not only in the wrist or hand but in the upper back as well. The weight of the flute, with so little support to help hold it in proper playing position, means that flutists must be most careful about their posture, especially the left side. The flute must be brought into playing position with minimal body movement, keeping the spine at its full length and avoiding tension in the neck. The position of the violin and viola also create tension, although the student’s shoulder provides support that the flutist does not have. If the neck is bent and a bit of neck force is exerted to hold the instrument, the result is a bit of neck, hand, and arm discomfort or pain. Downward pressure of the head on the chin rest or downward pressure of the fingers on the fingerboard and on the bow creates tension. The strings need not be hammered into the fingerboard to obtain the correct pitch. If the head presses into the chin rest, the shoulder then presses upward causing stiffness in the arm not to mention stiffness and aches in the neck, back, and arm. String players, including guitarists, need a flexible, mobile thumb in order to avoid tension in gripping. Neck muscles may be the most important set of muscles, as tightness here radiates down the back and stops only when this tightness reaches China. The importance of neck muscles is at the heart of the Alexander technique that many musicians find helpful in remedying bad posture habits. Excessive motions such as shifting for one note on strings (and also on trombones) are to be minimized. Each student differs in somatic ways and requires, at some point, personal attention. The point of a chin rest and shoulder pads for violinists and violists is to reduce tension; the size of these devices depends on the student’s body, especially the length of the neck as well as the size of the instrument. Different physiques require different accommodations. Short horn players rest the instrument on the knee while tall players need not. Stands at improper height or placement discourage proper posture. The head should remain level and the student should not have to twist or turn to see either the music or the conductor. Improper placement of stands can also cause eye problems. Because of height differences and sharing of music stands, one can expect undesirable contortions by students as they alter position to adequately see the conductor. Chairs should allow the knees to be lower than the hips and the feet flat on the floor. If chairs are too high, allow students to occasionally cross and re-cross their legs.

Tension One issue for the teacher is to focus on proper posture to avoid tension. Pedagogues suggest that the word tension should not be used in instruction as the fact of mentioning it causes even more tension. There are other words—relaxed, casual, flexible, pliant, malleable, limber, and so on—that can get the point across. Many students don’t take posture seriously, as their natural flexibility at this age allows them to survive comfortably any number of multiple contortions. Tension can be caused by many movements or postures of the body and may be unrecognized. Tension brings excitement to performances and is important for creative experiences; the issue is having the right amount at the right time. The fact that composers create tension and release in their music means that there is some tension involved even in listening to music. Physical therapists report that stressed muscles may feel natural to the student because of habits formed at an early age. Overuse, force, and cramming by practicing more than usual just before a lesson also create tension. Beginners bring on tension by using more force than necessary to depress strings, keys, and valves. Pain in the lower portion of the arms may be the result of tension and stress in other parts of the physical body and, of course, tension is also a cause of lower back pain. Anxiety, high standards, a demanding teacher, and friend and family issues are tension-producing. Some students grind their teeth, others clench their jaws; as has been said, stress causes muscle tension that, in turn, can result in pain or discomfort. Tension also invariably prohibits correct breathing. Tension in the upper back, common with clarinet and oboe players, leads to pain in the upper chest and back. Oboe players commonly tense up as they bring the oboe to their lips. By watching to see that the head leads, the spine can be fully extended when the performer is in the “traditional” backward curl. Instruments in poor condition can result in tension. And, of course, fatigue is a prime suspect in the tension of adolescents. Highly sensitive musicians appear to be the most vulnerable to tension. Performing musicians should be as physically flexible as a professional gymnast or circus clown.

The Body Overuse is likely to be most common when students attend summer camp or all-state and play or practice for five or six hours a day—probably a major change from their normal routine. The critical muscles are not those that control the hand and fingers but the larger muscles that control posture—those of the back, neck, and shoulders. To be “in shape”

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 89

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC PERFORMANCE

89

as a musician means to have enhanced endurance, all body muscles in balance, and flexibility that comes with swimming, running, cycling, and most cardio-based exercises. One need not lift weights; indeed, rigorous weightlifting leads to muscle imbalance, a disadvantage for performing musicians. Torn fibers in a muscle heal in about four weeks although severe tears may take two months. Sprains, which are torn ligaments, heal in about six weeks with rest and appropriate exercise to loosen tight muscles that restrict blood flow, entrap nerves, and affect circulation. The better the circulation, the more oxygen and other nutrients will reach the muscles and stimulate the lymphatic system. Flexibility and stretching are required to avoid injuries, to aid muscles in recovering, and to increase mobility. Flexibility pertains to a single joint, and the performer can be flexible in one part of the body and stiff in another. Fitness and limberness have a genetic underpinning that makes it easier for some students to maintain flexibility than others. To become more flexible, one must stretch slowly to extend the muscle to the end of its range of motion. Stretching increases the blood flow to the muscles, and lubricates joints. In stretching, you continue doing an exercise to the point of slight discomfort and then hold the desired position for at least ten seconds. When a muscle contracts it shortens and pulls the tendon. The tendon, in turn, moves the bone in its joint. When muscles become stronger, they tend to become shorter. Tendons also get stiffer as they get shorter so that some immediate stiffness often results from exercise but later one is in better shape. Stretching should be done daily and with a focus on the muscles that need work. Stretching of a muscle begins with the basic unit of contraction in the muscle fiber. When this basic unit contracts, the muscle fiber lengthens. One holds the stretch (but not one’s breathing) for several seconds as the connective tissue aligns itself with the force of the tension and the muscle spindle becomes accustomed to the new length and stabilizes in that position. When muscles contract, they produce tension where the muscle is connected to the tendon and a signal is sent to the spine. This signal tells the muscle where the maximum tension will occur, and a reaction occurs that allows the muscle to relax. Watching good athletes can be helpful as they are well versed in a good follow-through to any motion. The torque created by a proper golf swing produces an enormous amount of pressure on the lower spine, as does rowing at the catch of the stroke. The follow-through actions that professional athletes use help them reduce lower back problems related to the spine. Athletes and musicians must have good posture, and so one is admonished over and over again to sit up straight and, if one must lean forward, to bend from the hips instead of slouching.

SYSTEMS OF BODY MOVEMENT Warm-ups must precede stretching. Warm-ups bring blood to the muscles and make injuries from stretching and performing less likely. Cold muscles are more likely to tear. Warm-ups might include jogging in place, riding a stationary bicycle, and doing aerobics or activities associated with Tai Chi. At least six major systems of helpful body movements are widely used in the United States. Classes in one or more of the systems can be found in many gyms and health clubs. Tai Chi has more than a hundred movements and postures that appear effortless. Slow dance motions, pushing one’s way through imaginary water, breathing deeply, maintaining one’s balance and centeredness, and gently moving one’s arms and body are all possible Tai Chi movements. Chi is the vital force or energy that animates the body, so both the mind and the body are involved. One might slowly and gently give a friend a high five or think of clouds, flowers, gentle winds, and sweeping wings. Tai Chi also has a martial component in which a fighter anticipates the movement of an opponent, gets out of the way gracefully, and follows that movement in a receptive mode rather than an aggressive approach. The important factors are a straight spine, abdominal breathing, and natural moves. Tai Chi is related to Wushu, which was accepted at the end of the twentieth century as a competitive sport in the Asian Games; this form of movable yoga informs us of correct and incorrect warm-up motions. Motions, often utilizing the hands, always maintain a sense of centeredness of the body. The warm-up does not involve bouncing or vigorous exercises; its purpose is to prepare one for stretching. These low-impact movements can supposedly burn more calories than many vigorous activities such as downhill skiing. Professional musicians may spend 10 to 15 minutes in warming up prior to stretching for another 20 minutes before beginning hours of rigorous practice or performance. School musicians do not have this amount of time, but a physical warm-up should be a part of the beginning of each rehearsal. Yoga is similar to Tai Chi but without the movement. It relies on the weight of one’s body to gently and gradually stretch muscle tissues prior to active stretching. Yoga stresses proper breathing and a connection of mind and body. The Pilates system has at its core a pelvic and thoracic stabilization similar to yoga and an association between body and mind, flow and precision of movement. The mind is important as the student must recognize poor postural habits and motions and use thinking, sensing, and imagining to improve any and all movements. The Feldenkrais technique for warming up combines mind and motion in exercises that usually begin with lying on the floor. Feldenkrais uses gentle movement and directed attention to improve function, and to enhance one’s ability to think and move in the domains in which one wants optimal performance. Private lessons are given as Functional Integration; group lessons are entitled Awareness through Movement. The teacher often provides a mental picture and asks students to portray that image through movement, and students can practice some Feldenkrais by thinking through the

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 90

90

THE FOUNDATIONS

movements. The students might sit or lie on the floor or even stand with each movement, and the movements are designed to exercise a specific part of the body. Teacher touching is related to better knowing one’s body, a technique known as body mapping.3 The central point in the Feldenkrais method, as in the Alexander technique (see below), is for the individual to become better acquainted with his or her own body. The Taubman approach for pianists is similar in that the emphasis is on unified finger, hand, and arm movements. Taubman has exercises that facilitate changes of direction, leaps, fingerings, legato, and tone exercises, as well as for avoiding incorrect finger, hand, and arm movements in response to notation. The back, shoulders, and neck are not key; rather it is the hand, wrist, and forearm movements that are most critical. The Alexander technique may be the most popular among musicians advocating intensity without tension. Alexander’s focus states that the primary control of the body is the interaction of head, neck, and back. In this sense it is comparable to the Palmer Method in chiropractic massage, where the goal is to work on the neck muscles to provide ease and freedom of movement, balance, support, flexibility, and coordination. Both rely on the importance of pulling or pushing on the head, neck, or spinal area with the idea that if the neck muscles are properly aligned and the head is balanced directly above the spine, performing can be free and relaxed. Proper posture is stressed, and a well-trained teacher is as likely to watch students walk, bend, reach, or sit as to watch them play an instrument. If a player pulls the head down and back into the neck, this initiates a downward pressure that has a collapsing influence on the rest of the spine and the whole body structure. Improper use of neck muscles can cause headaches, backaches, asthmatic conditions, and a general lack of suppleness and lightness. The task is to free the neck and release the head away from the neck—if possible, the neck should be slightly forward and up to encourage a lengthening of the spine and its effect on the torso. Physicians agree that tightness in the neck area can affect all of the muscles in the body. Instruction in the Alexander technique is individual, not group; it takes a trained teacher to correct and guide. The guidance might begin with learning how to get out of a chair or pick up a pencil. One learns all of the facts of good posture such as that a heavy object should be held close to the body. The Alexander technique is based on psychology and biomechanics. An extension of Alexander principles is body or muscle mapping. Joan and Alexander Murray, flute instructors, have a well-developed system of muscle mapping for flutists, perhaps based on the body mapping introduced into string instruction by William Conable at Ohio State University. Students are often required to diagram the muscles used in the multiple aspects of performance—similar to a course in physiology. At lessons, students are asked which muscles are being used in a continuing effort to focus on knowing how their body works. Critics argue that our habits are so strong and sensation so unreliable as to negate aspects of body mapping.

PREVENTIVE AND CORRECTIVE EXERCISES A physician who in midlife elected to obtain a doctorate in music begins his dissertation stating that playing the guitar involves the whole musculoskeletal system, from lower limbs and trunk to fingers. Although the focus is usually on the upper limbs, the other parts of the musculoskeletal system provide basic stability and support (with some mobility in the pelvis, spine, and neck), which create a dynamic equilibrium that is modulated at various levels in the brain.4 Flexibility is a key element of fitness. Stretching, done after the warm-up, should feel good. Static stretches can be held for 10 to 30 seconds and then repeated a couple of times for their full benefit. When the muscles are in a stretched position, they become used to the new length and tend to stay in this position. When muscles contract, they produce tension at the point where muscles connect to a tendon. Some exercises can be done individually in the rehearsal whereas others should be done at home and incorporated into the practice routine. Many are so well accepted that individuals in all walks of life do these stretches on a regular basis to ensure that their bodies remain relaxed, flexible, and able to perform any task that requires coordinated muscular movements. Ample space for individual movement is necessary if these exercises are to be used in the rehearsal. The teacher should use good judgment as to whether adequate space between individuals is available. Static flexibility exercises are often done prior to beginning an activity like performing; dynamic flexibility exercises are mastered to be used while performing. Isometric contraction exercises take little time and are fine exercises for strengthening muscles. One pushes or pulls against an immovable object such as a wall or pits one muscle against another. This can be done alone or with the person next to you pushing on the designated muscle. You relax and your partner pushes the muscles into a static stretch and holds it there for a few seconds. One hard 6–8-second isometric contraction can make a major difference in strength in as little as 6 months’ time. All exercises should start slowly and with less than full force. Other individual exercises can be derived for each muscle group. For the neck, sit or stand with interlaced fingers on the forehead. Keep shoulders down. Forcibly exert a forward push or pull of the head while resisting equally hard with your hands. Then place your right hand on the left side of your head. Gently pull the head toward the right shoulder and hold for 10 to 30 seconds. Switch sides and repeat. Pull your head straight back, either supporting your neck with your hands or pulling back without use of the hand, keeping the eyes and jaw level while retaining your best posture. Repeat 10 times (see Figure 9.1).

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 91

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC PERFORMANCE

91

For the shoulder blade pinch, pull the shoulder blades together to create tension in the upper back area with arms at your sides. As you do this, your chest should move upward. Hold. Then relax and gently pull your head forward. Straighten the curve in your neck by standing tall with chin slightly tucked in. To straighten the curve in the lower back, tuck in your stomach and tilt your pelvis forward while tightening the muscles in your buttocks and bending your knees slightly.

Wrist and Arm Exercises Wrist: The wrist is aided by keeping the elbow straight, grasping one hand and slowly bending that wrist (up and then down) until a stretch is felt. Wing Stretcher: Stand erect, elbows at shoulder height, fists clenched in front of chest. Thrust elbows backward vigorously without arching back. Keep head erect, elbows at shoulder height. Other Arm Exercises: Stand with feet slightly apart. Flex right elbow close to the body, palm up. Place left hand over right and forcibly attempt to curl right arm upwards while giving equally strong resistance with the left hand. Repeat with left arm. Hold your left arm just above the elbow with your right hand. Gently pull your left elbow toward your opposite shoulder as you look over your left shoulder. Hold the stretch. Do both sides. The lateral raise is done while standing straight with arms at your sides with a heavy book in the left hand. Slowly lift your left arm out to the side until it is parallel to the floor. Hold for a few seconds and then slowly lower it back to your side. Repeat several times and then switch sides. To do a shoulder shrug, raise the top of your shoulders toward your ears until you feel a slight tension in your neck and shoulders. Hold this position for about five seconds. Then relax your shoulders downward into their normal position. Repeat several times. Stand tall and erect, keep the chin tucked in, keep the head and shoulders in alignment, and slowly circle the shoulders backward. Relax and repeat several times.

FIGURE 9.1 Neck stretch example

FIGURE 9.2 Arm/shoulder stretch

Body Exercises The general idea in getting ready for an intense performance session is to move, wiggle, shrug, move arms forward and backward, stretch the neck, and bend to facilitate the blood flowing through the muscles and, thus, to warm them. The musician needs to strengthen all of the muscles that circle the spine. The abdominal muscles should be contracted during most exercises. Contracting is a small tightening, not the same as sucking in your gut. Cold muscles simply will not stretch. Easy-to-do exercises include swinging your arms, giving yourself a hug, touching your chin to your chest, leaning back, leaning back while putting your hands on the lower back and rocking back and forth, or standing on one leg and pulling the other back to touch the buttocks. Breathe deeply while doing all exercises. Massaging the muscles is recommended, your own muscles or those of the person next to you. Standing while playing is better for the posture than sitting—except for the cellist. When standing for lengthy periods of time keep the hips level. This may require resting a foot on a stool. This posture straightens the lower back and keeps it from sagging. A break, after sitting for a long time, should include standing up, with the knees slightly bent, and placing your palms on the lower back just above the hips, fingers pointing downward. Gently push your palms forward to create an extension in the lower back. After sitting, just standing and “shaking out” the arms, neck, and legs reduces tension. Cramps occur from muscle overuse. Slowly and gently stretch the affected part to lengthen the muscle that has shortened by rubbing and massaging to stimulate blood flow.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 92

92

THE FOUNDATIONS

Body Bender: Stand, feet shoulder width apart, hands behind neck, fingers interlocked. Bend trunk sideways to the left as far as possible, keeping hands behind neck. Repeat to the right. For a backbend stretch, lean back, bending your lower back with little or no bend at the knees. For the abdomen, stand, knees slightly flexed, hands resting on knees while you contract your abdominal muscles. To reduce tension in the lower back, tighten your buttock muscles and at the same time tighten your abdominal muscles to flatten the lower back. Hold this position for several seconds. Concentrate on maintaining constant muscle contraction. You can do this sitting or standing and the bonus is that it helps good posture.

Other Exercises Standing 1. 2.

3. 4.

Facing the wall, with hands on the wall, arms slightly wider apart than shoulder width and feet six inches from the wall, gently lean the torso toward the wall. Practice by moving the feet farther from the wall. Grab the top of a file cabinet or similar object and let your upper body drop down, keeping knees slightly bent. Hips should be directly above your feet. Bend knees at different heights and place the hands at different heights (filing cabinet, table, buffet, etc.). Stand with your back to the wall with head, shoulders, buttocks, and heels all touching the wall. Hold this position for half a minute. Then take two steps away from the wall, step back to the wall, and realign. Stand and grab the left foot with the right hand. Holding the top of the left foot from the inside of the foot, gently pull the heel toward the buttocks until a stretch is felt in the front of the thigh. The knee bends at a natural angle and creates a good stretch of several muscles.

Sitting 1.

2.

A variation of stretching the neck is to sit in a straight-backed chair with feet flat on the floor and elbows resting on a table. Place the right hand on the side of the face. Push the head against the resistance of the hand and hold for five seconds. Relax and then repeat with the other side of the neck. Sit in a chair with your back straight, feet firmly on the floor, toes pointing up slightly. Lock hands behind head, elbows out, and chin down. Contract abdominal muscles. To loosen up, twist the upper body to one side as far as you can, then repeat four times in the same direction. For the last time, rotate, hold, and then flex the torso forward, leaning toward the floor with the elbows. Hold for a few seconds. Return to an upright position. Repeat about 10 times and repeat the routine for the other side.

Lying 1.

2.

The basic crunch works the upper abdominals. The sit-up is not a recommended exercise but the curl and crunch are good exercises. The curl: Lie on your back, knees bent, feet flat on the floor, the fingers interlaced behind the head and the arms resting on the floor. Keeping the lower back pressed to the floor, slowly curl your head and shoulders up, hold for a few seconds and then lower yourself. The pelvis is tilted to flatten the back, as the spine should not be flat against the floor. The pelvic tilt is done by lying on your back with knees bent and feet flat on the floor with arms straight down on either side of the body. Pull the abdominal muscles in, tighten the buttock muscles, and press the small of the back into the floor. Add a twist to work the oblique muscles. As you lift, twist your upper body to the right knee, bringing your left shoulder toward your right knee. Finish with a reverse crunch. Lie on your back. With your legs straight, bring one knee up to your chest, pulling it in with your hands as you curl your head toward your knee. Relax, repeat, and then switch to the other side. Then bring both knees up together to stretch the lower back (Figure 9.3).

FIGURE 9.3 Basic curl and crunch exercise

FIGURE 9.4 Knee to chest raise

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 93

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC PERFORMANCE

3.

4.

5.

93

Lie on your back, resting your arms at your sides and bend your knees at a 90° angle. Your hands and feet should be flat on the floor. Then lift your left foot and rest the ankle comfortably on your right knee. Raise the hips and lower back, squeezing the buttock muscles as you go until your head is about eight inches off the floor. Don’t raise your heel as that’s cheating. (Figure 9.4). Lie on your back with your knees bent and heels twelve inches from the body. Place a small piece of foam at least three inches thick (or a light medicine ball) between your knees. Draw your navel in toward your spine and squeeze the foam tightly between the knees as you raise your hips off the floor. Make sure your buttock muscles are contracted. Lie on your stomach with arms on the floor above the head, hands and knees on the floor, and your back flat. Tighten your abdominal and buttock muscles. Lift your right arm straight in front of you while simultaneously lifting your left leg straight in back of you. Do not lift your foot higher than your hips or your hands higher than your leg. Do not let your back sag. Do not arch your back.

Spine Exercises 1.

2.

3.

4.

A more difficult exercise is the superman. Start with the knees and elbows on the floor and locked. One lifts the opposite arm and leg off the floor while keeping the hips and shoulders down (see Figure 9.5). We would be remiss in not suggesting an exercise you can do while getting into bed. Sit on the edge of the bed, feet on the floor, and place one hand on your chest and the other on your abdomen. Breathe naturally. As you inhale, gently arch your spine, lifting your chest and collarbone as high as you can. Look up, stopping as soon as you see the ceiling. As you exhale, FIGURE 9.5 Bird Dog: Works lower and middle back draw your tailbone under you, and let your back curl forward. Look down. On your next inhale, go back to the beginning and slowly repeat the exercise several times. A modification of the cat stretch starts with hands and knees on the floor, shoulders above the hands, and hips above the knees. Tighten the abdominal muscles and buttocks. Let your head hang down naturally. Pull the chin toward your chest and arch the back toward the ceiling. Slowly return to the original position. This modified push-up is helpful: lie on your stomach and raise the head and upper torso while keeping the FIGURE 9.6 Pose of the child that stretches hips, thigh, and ankle, elbows on the floor. Hold the position for at least a and also relaxes minute. The side-bridge is an exercise that helps support the spine. Assume a position that puts the muscles at a disadvantage that forces them to work harder by lying on your left side with your knees straight and your upper body propped up on your left elbow and forearm. Place your right hand on your left shoulder and slowly raise your hips until your body forms a straight line from your shoulders to your knees. Hold this position for several seconds. Switch sides. A variation is to lie on your side with your legs bent at the knee and your upper hand across your chest. Slowly raise your shoulders, keeping the spine straight and hold for eight to ten seconds. Do both sides.

And probably the most important preventive advice for instrumentalists: Don’t trip on the risers!

OTHER HEALTH ISSUES The statement is often made that hearing loss is the most pervasive occupational health problem in America, with more than one-tenth of the population exposed to continuous or intermittent loud noise. The data are mixed as to the degree of hearing loss in musicians. Electronic gadgets allow us to have our music loud and it is likely that extended periods of sound above 80 dB are harmful. Lead trumpet players, trombonists, and saxophonists in jazz bands are often exposed to 90–95 dB. Electric guitar players are probably exposed to even greater sound levels. Ear plugs made of a fibrous substance reduce the sound level while not interfering (too much) with the ability to hear the necessary musical components. A draft position statement of the National Association for Music Education (MENC, 2007) states that

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 94

94

THE FOUNDATIONS

“exposure to loud music for long durations can lead to noise-induced hearing loss, a problem that is increasingly prevalent among children due, in part, to changing listening habits associated with personal listening devices.”5 This statement is not only true but also applicable to teachers as well as students. Teachers can be exposed for extended periods to sound exceeding the 85 dBA that is considered the maximum safe level. Educators working with percussion ensembles and jazz bands appear to be especially subjected to excessive sound. Another area to consider is that of diseases from germs. Many diseases may be transmitted by the sharing of mouthpieces. Include adequate means for sterilizing mouthpieces in the annual budget request. The Massachusetts legislature went overboard in requiring all wind and brass instruments to be sterilized with a toxic gas at high temperatures. The law, however, only goes into effect when a local school committee formally votes on it. Cramps are identified as focal dystonia and can be permanent, as illustrated by the loss of use of the right hand by pianists Leon Fleisher and Gary Graffman. Hand cramps seem to occur most often with flutists and clarinetists. Clarinetists with tightness in the thumb and wrist may have De Quervain syndrome, and poor posture along with repeated motions are causes of carpal tunnel syndrome. Researchers have tried to rectify weaknesses that are found in playing specific instruments. Smaller-size instruments may be the answer. For example, flutes are sometimes made with two head joints, the curved and the standard. Lighter bows are made, usually of carbon fiber. Different length mouthpieces can help protect brass players from lip damage. There are cases where lowering the bridge on string instruments or on the guitar alleviates stress. Flutists use a device called Bo-pep to better fit the hand to the instrument. On some clarinets the thumb support is placed in a different position to accommodate individual differences, and there is a wide variety of thumb supports. Some teachers recommend a neck strap for clarinetists or even a harness to prevent the choking feeling that comes from neck straps. Finger supports are available for trumpets and guitars. We have presented a number of stretching exercises in which flexibility is a key element of fitness. Stretching should be done after the warm-up—the warm-up will have brought blood to the muscles and fluid to the joints. Stretching should feel good, not carried beyond the point of mild discomfort. Static stretches can be held for 10 to 30 seconds and then repeated a couple of times for their full benefit. When the muscle is in a stretched position, it becomes used to the new length and tends to stay in this position. When muscles contract they produce tension at the point where the muscles connect to a tendon.

PERFORMANCE ANXIETY Although this chapter focuses on the physiology of performance, performance anxiety, a mental process, affects the physiology of performance in numerous ways. Must one seek a psychological counselor if nervous while performing? Probably not, as more than half of professional musicians report moderate to marked distress, with at least 10 percent indicating that they are always anxious about performing. A few students may feel relaxed even when faced with an audition, which is reported to be a greater cause of anxiety than public performance. A bit of anxiety can help students perform musically: They get “psyched up,” experience an adrenaline rush, and become motivated to do well. Symptoms can be cognitive, behavioral, or physiological, and differ somewhat by gender and instrument as well as by individual. Psychologists define anxiety in one of two categories: state or trait anxiety. Trait anxiety relates to personal characteristics, part of the body’s crisis system learned at an early age. These individuals are likely “scared to death” when called on in the classroom. They have learned to fear a cracked note, a squeak, incorrect bowing, and parental disapproval. Anxiety can cause a shortness of breath, dizziness, inadequate oxygen getting to the muscles, and constriction of air passages. State anxiety relates more to the situation at hand—to peer pressure, previous failures, inadequate practice, a bad reed, previous successes (individual and group), demand on self, fatigue, home issues, excessive caffeine and/or sugar, and fear of humiliation. The way the situation is presented to students can cause any number of reactions, positive and/or negative. There are solutions in addition to prayer, and carrying a rabbit’s foot or four-leaf clover in your instrument case. The exercises suggested earlier in this chapter—Alexander technique, yoga, stretching, Tai Chi, massage therapy—are all effective. In addition, biofeedback (which actually increases blood flow or air), talking about the situation (mind over matter), “self-hypnosis,” and trust in the teacher and one’s peers, all work. Directors need to remind students of the importance of communicating the art form to an audience and that the purpose of the concert is to give the audience pleasure. An excellent book for everyone to read is one based on Gallwey’s inner game of tennis ideas and adapted for music by Barry Green with a focus on mental obstacles, self-doubt, loss of concentration, worry, tension, and distractions.6

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 95

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC PERFORMANCE

95

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS/ACTIVITIES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6.

What physical devices are available for each instrument to assist in improving the physiology of performing? How would you handle the situation if your oboist were advised to have braces on his or her teeth? Is this different than for a trumpet player? What differences exist between tendons and ligaments? If you wished to strengthen either of these, what might be appropriate exercises? What techniques described in the chapter (e.g., Alexander technique) can best be adapted for instrumental music? Why? Are there others not mentioned that may be helpful to instrumentalists? Demonstrate to the class, as you would to a middle school student, Yoga, Pilates, Feldenkrais, or another such technique. Describe how you could implement these techniques in a small band or orchestra rehearsal room that has limited space for movement. For violinists and violists, of what value are the chin rest and the shoulder pad? Describe both the advantages and disadvantages of using them.

RESOURCES Websites Alexander Technique alexandertechnique.com Drummers’ Health drummershealth.com Feldenkrais Method feldenkrais.com International Center for the Enhancement of Learning Potential (Feuerstein) icelp.org Musicians’ Health musicianshealth.com Performing Arts Medicine Association (PAMA) artsmed.org Pilates pilates-studio.com Stephen Caplan’s Oboe Pages oboemotions.com Taubman Approach (U. of Michigan) taubman-institute.com

Texts Bird, H. (2016). Performing Arts Medicine in Clinical Practice. Cham: Springer: print and eBook. Bornoff, G. (1948). Finger Patterns: A Basic Method for Violin. Toronto, CA: G.V. Thompson. Brandfonbrener, A. and R. Lederman (2002). Performing arts medicine. In Richard Colwell and Carol Richardson (eds.), The New Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Caplan, S. and B. Conable (2009). What Every Oboe Player Needs to Know About the Body. Chicago, IL: GIA. Chesky, K., G. Kondraske, M. Henroch, J. Hipple, and B. Rubin (2002). Musician’s health. In Richard Colwell and Carol Richardson (eds.), The New Handbook of Research on Music Teaching and Learning. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Conable, B. and B. Conable (2000). What Every Musician Needs to Know About the Body, revised ed. Portland, OR: Andover.

Dawson, W. (2008). Fit as a Fiddle: The Musician’s Guide to Playing Healthy. Lanham, NJ: Rowman & Littlefield Education. de Alcantara, P. (2013). Indirect Procedures: A Musician’s Guide to the Alexander Technique, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Enos, D. (2000). Overuse Injuries: Their Prevention and Treatment. Middletown, DE: Sonic Concepts Music. Feldenkrais, M. (2014). Body and Mature Behavior. New York, NY: Routledge. Goldberg, L. (2016). Classroom Yoga Breaks. New York, NY: Norton. Green, B. with W.T. Gallwe (1986). The Inner Game of Music. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press/Doubleday. Holland, N. (2004). Mapping Sound Intensities by Seating Position in a University Concert Band: A Risk of Hearing Loss, Temporary Threshold Shifts, and Comparisons with Standards of OSHA and NIOSH. Dissertation Abstracts International, 65(03): 871. UMI 3126784. Horvath, J. (2006). Playing (less) Hurt: An Injury Prevention Guide for Musicians, revised ed. Kearney, NE: Morris. Klickstein, G. (2009). The Musician’s Way: A Guide to Practice, Performance, and Wellness. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. print and eBook. Liobet, J.R., G. Odam, and A. Gili (2015). The Musician’s Body: A Maintenance Manual for Peak Performance. Burlington, VT: Ashgate. McAllister, L.S. (2013). The Balanced Musician: Integrating Mind and Body for Peak Performance. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow. Mitchell, T. (2003) Alternative Methods of Resolving Hand and Wrist Pain in Woodwind Players. DMA dissertation. University of Miami: Miami, FL. Nelson, S. (1989). Respiratory Physiology of the Wind Instrumentalist. DMA dissertation. University of Cincinnati: Cincinnati, OH. Norris, R. (1993). The Musicians’ Survival Manual: A Guide to Preventing and Treating Injuries in Instrumentalists. www.richard norrismd.com Owens, D. (2003). An Analysis of the High School and Director’s Exposure to Sound Pressure Levels. Dissertation Abstracts International, 64(03): 839. UMI 3085859. Ozgen, M. (2006). Designing Technical Training Programs for Classical Guitarists Based on Exercise Physiology Principles. DMA dissertation. Tempe: Arizona State University.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 96

96

THE FOUNDATIONS

Paull, B. and C. Harrison (1997). The Athletic Musician: A Guide to Playing Without Pain. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow. Pearson, L. (2006). Body Mapping for Flutists: What Every Flute Player Needs To Know About the Body. Chicago, IL: GIA. Simon, P. and T. Szabo (2013). Music: Social Impacts, Health Benefits and Perspectives. Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science (also as an eBook). Sataloff, R.A. Brandfonbrener, and R. Lederman (eds.) (1991). Textbook of Performing Arts Medicine. New York, NY: Raven. Storm, S. (2006). Performing Arts Medicine. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders. Taylor, N. (2016). Teaching Healthy Musicianship: The Music Educator’s Guide to Injury Prevention and Wellness. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Workman, D. (2006). The Percussionists’ Guide to Injury Treatment and Prevention: The Answer Guide for Drummers in Pain. New York, NY: Routledge.

Video Resources Conable, B. (2013). Breathing Hour Video Clips: A Teaching Aid for Andover Educators (SmartPoise Productions). Fischbach, G. (2002). The Art of Vibrato with Gerald Fischbach (Shar). Havas, K. (1992). The Kato Havas Teaching Video (Shar). Lieberman, J. (1991). The Instrumentalist’s Guide to Fitness Health and Musicianship: Tools for Practice & Performance (Homespun). Norris, R. (1992). Therapeutic Exercise for Musicians. richard norrismd.com Norris, R. (1996). Medical Problems of Cellists. richardnorris md.com Norris, R. (2011). By the Power and Grace: The Interface of Exercise and Art. richardnorrismd.com Rolland, P. (2012). The Teaching of Action in String Playing. paulrolland.net Rolland, P. (2012). The Paul Rolland Legacy DVD: A Sampler of His Teaching Ideas. paulrollandlegacydvd.com Zweig, M. (2008). String Pedagogy (Jacobs School of Music, Indiana University). DVD or online.

NOTES 1.

2.

3.

Ranelli, S., L. Straker, and A. Smith (2011). Playing-related Musculoskeletal Problems in Children Learning Instrumental Music. Medical Problems of Performing Artists, 26(3): 123–139. Ackermann, K.D., I. O’Brien, and T. Driscoll (2014). Sound Practice-improving Occupational Health and Safety for Professional Orchestral Musicians in Australia. Frontiers in Psychology, 5: 973–988; doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00973. Brandfonbrener, A. (2002). The Arts in the Post-9/11 New World. Medical Problems of Performing Artists, 17(1): 1–2.

4.

5.

6.

Ozgen, M. (2006). Designing Technical Training Programs for Classical Guitarists Based on Exercise Physiology Principles. DMA dissertation. Tempe, AZ: Arizona State University, 5. MENC: The National Association for Music Education (2007). Draft Position Statement on Hearing Loss. Reston, VA: Author. Green, B. with W.T. Gallwey (1986). The Inner Game of Music. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press/Doubleday.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 97

PART

II

The Ensembles and Classroom Teaching

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 99

CHAPTER 10

Planning for and Rehearsing Instrumental Ensembles

10

Designing Your Rehearsal Routine The word rehearsal is familiar to musicians. It comes from the Old French word rehercer, meaning “to harrow again.” Interestingly, one of the definitions of harrow is “to torment.” A more positive definition of harrowing is to prepare a field for seed—part of the process of producing a good crop. However, there are rehearsals that do not harrow in either sense, which are satisfying enough to the student but are not effective for learning. For example, there are those that drill endlessly on a few contest selections, those that simply entertain the students, and those that rehearse music chosen only to entertain the public. The rehearsal depends on the conductor who, ideally, has these qualifications: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7.

Expresses a passion for music, for teaching, and for people. Possesses the ability to read a full score with an understanding of the music and its compositional and performance history; to isolate, teach, and rehearse the subtleties of the music and identify major technical problems. Has a thorough knowledge of the unique problems of each instrument in the ensemble. Exhibits the skill to use the baton to help the group understand what is desired from them and teach the individual members to respond to specific gestures. Demonstrates a model of professionalism, is receptive to the mood of the group, and is able to use that mood to advance individual learning. Engages students to work together as a team. Not unlike a sports coach, the orchestra/band conductor must help the group develop pride, esprit de corps, group dynamics, cooperative learning, responsibility, a work ethic, and respect for the contribution each person makes to the performance. Shows a sense of humor and enough self-confidence to admit mistakes.

Some conductors view themselves as actors. However, expressing enthusiasm should not all be an act. Anyone who is not genuinely enthused by observing students grow musically should pursue another profession. Each one of us was, in varying degrees, attracted to music education by dreams of conducting great masterworks performed by professionals— your students must become professionals. In reality, the goals of music education require a better teacher than a conductor . . . and, ideally, someone outstanding as a teacher and performer. Directing effective rehearsals is a cornerstone to your instrumental music education program. A quality rehearsal contains several components that occur with regularity which attend to both the process of learning music and the outcomes of your teaching (i.e., the performance). This routine is needed to keep everyone (including the teacher) on task. Student comfort level rises when it is known what to expect and do. Students desire structure. Students must know what their responsibilities are and what to expect, enabling the teacher and ensemble to progress through the class period with maximum time devoted to instruction. An informal poll of high school band directors nationwide revealed that large ensemble rehearsal lengths vary from 36 to 90 minutes at the extremes, with an average length of 48 minutes. Frequency of rehearsals varies from daily to every other day to twice a week. Rather than suggest a prescribed amount of minutes per component, it serves better to divide the proportions by percentage of total rehearsal time. These procedures to the rehearsal experience should usually include the following routine and in these suggested proportions: 1. 2.

5%—individual warm-up and preparation time; 10%—group warm-up/Intonation guidance;

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 100

100 THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

3. 4. 5.

20–30%—music learning lab;* 50–60%—rehearsal of concert music;* 5%—warm-down, reflection, announcements.

These proportions are meant as guidelines and are intended to be flexible depending on proximity to performance and other factors such as frequency of rehearsal. Age and musical development of players must also be considered. What follows is an in-depth look at each of these components of the daily rehearsal design.

INDIVIDUAL WARM-UP AND PREPARATION TIME This is that flurry of activity that occurs as students enter the rehearsal room. Typical student responsibilities revolve around putting aside nonessential materials such as backpacks and electronics, getting out their instruments, mutes, accessories and music, seating themselves in their assigned seat, and proceeding to prepare their instruments and musculature carefully. There should be an established location for opened cases keeping in mind teacher and student traffic patterns. Smaller cases might fit under chairs. Trombone cases and other large cases can remain in storage lockers or against walls allowing for foot traffic. Either director or student helper can record student attendance at this time, noting empty chairs. Students should be instructed that this time is used for the preparation of the rehearsal. Oiling valves, finding the appropriate reed, putting the day’s music from the folder in rehearsal order (as noted on the whiteboard) and careful individual warm-up should be expected rather than instrument trading, high note contests, and socializing. The director should stand by the podium (not on the podium) ready to assist students and answer questions. After the defined few minutes pass, the director signals quiet by stepping onto the podium. Only the most essential and pressing issues should be addressed verbally as the day’s announcements and rehearsal order are already on the smart board. Established procedures should enable a director to step on the podium, raise the baton, and give a downbeat for the next part of the music class.

GROUP WARM-UP/INTONATION GUIDANCE The warm-up mentioned above is unstructured and gets the player and instrument ready to address this next step, which helps ready the full ensemble to learn about and make music. It is recommended that breathing/relaxation exercises begin the group warm-up at least two or three rehearsals per week. This helps focus the mind and develops the breathing apparatus; therefore, strings, if they are part of the class, and percussion should be encouraged to participate as well. Daily group practice on breathing not only improves virtually every aspect of performance, but also emphasizes the importance of proper breathing to each member. The types and styles of breathing exercises are limited only by the teacher’s imagination. What each should have in common, however, is good posture and a relaxed, slow inhale that fills the lungs from the bottom up without raising the shoulders. The inhale should be silent as any noise indicates tension in the throat or mouth. Relaxation during inhaling is important to allow the appropriate parts of the body to expand. Exhaling must also be taught and practiced. The exhale should be like a sigh which should expel all the air in a second or less. One exhaling exercise is to have the students hold a sheet of music about six inches in front of their faces. After inhaling a slow, full, relaxed breath, exhale by attempting to blow the paper straight away from the face. If the paper flaps and flutters, there is inconsistent airflow. Another breathing exercise allows for a measured exhale to the tempo of the conductor’s baton. Try this: • • • •

Inhale Inhale Inhale Inhale

for for for for

4 3 2 1

counts; exhale for 12 counts to the sound tss, tss, tss, tss for every beat. counts; exhale for 16 counts to the sound tss, tss, tss, tss for every beat. counts; exhale for 20 counts to the sound tss, tss, tss, tss for every beat. count; exhale for 24 counts while hissing slowly.

Yawning and silent sighing promote the best relaxation and are used to demonstrate proper breathing. Some advocate inhaling with breathing tubes, a 3-inch-long, 1/2-inch-diameter PVC pipe to open the throat. Pilafian and Sheridan have an entire series of breathing exercises called The Breathing Gym.1 All of these breathing exercises should segue into playing unison long tones or slow scales while reinforcing the breathing that has just occurred. The long tone exercises can serve numerous goals. In addition to connecting the physical airflow with the instrument, the players can be made aware of blending and balancing with one another. Even without an established reference pitch at this point, players can use the following words of advice from Edward Lisk:2

* Note that steps 3 and 4 often overlap and experiences within both often defy definite boundaries.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 101

PLANNING FOR AND REHEARSING INSTRUMENTAL ENSEMBLES

101

If you hear yourself above others, one of three things is happening. • • •

You are overpowering or overblowing. Make the necessary adjustment. You are playing with poor tone quality. Make the necessary adjustment (embouchure, reed, breath support, posture, etc.) You are playing out of tune. Make the necessary adjustment by extending or shortening the length of your instrument. The long tone portion of the routine can take the form of a Remington exercise (Figure 10.1), a circle of 4ths exercise, a unison or an expanded scale with the ensemble alone, or a pre-recorded drone or “spider” scale stretching outward (Figure 10.2).

etc.

FIGURE 10.1 The Remington long tones

FIGURE 10.2 Spider warm-up

Try to vary the routine to keep student focus on a task that has little technical demand yet is so crucial to the individual and group development. Having brass buzzing the mouthpiece while the woodwinds play is an example of varying the routine. It is also helpful for the students to commit the long tone etudes to memory. There should be no visual distraction, only listening, during this time. In other words, your ears should be busier than your eyes.

Intonation Guidance Tuning for winds should follow breathing and long tone exercises and also be incorporated into chorales and technical etudes. On occasion, directors may also choose to tune again in the middle of the rehearsal as pitches tend to drift (sharp in most cases). For best results, students should hum or sing the reference pitch before attempting to tune their instruments. Tuning for orchestra should occur before any warm-up. There are several options for tuning an ensemble and each provides advantages and shortcomings. More specific information regarding instruction on intonation follows later in this chapter. Directors should adopt one or more of the following that suits the maturity level of the group based on the following suggestions:

Choosing a Tuning Pitch: The reference pitch you choose should serve the greatest number of students. The most common pitches are B-flat, A, or F. Obviously, A is best for strings; however, the flutes, oboes, clarinets, horns, and E-flat instruments find this note reliable on their instruments too. The B-flat works for brass players that have that note as their fundamental but range could be an issue for younger trumpeters. It also works well for woodwinds that play in a B-flat transposition. The F pitch might be more comfortable for all brass and woodwinds with the exception of E-flat saxophones where that written D runs sharp.

Choosing a Tuning Source: Whether A=440 or A=442 has become a source of debate recently. Newly manufactured marimbas, bells, and chimes are being tuned at A=442, and some professional orchestras have abandoned A=440 for the brighter sounding A=442 as their standard pitch. Whichever pitch is chosen, an instrument (traditionally the oboe) that sustains a clear, unwavering tone should provide the reference pitch. Alternatives to the oboe could be a marimba roll, an electronic drone, or truly, any instrument that has a consistent, sustained, clear sound.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 102

102 THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

Favored Tuning Approaches: Principal tuba followed by other tubas match the pitch F with a tuning source. Once that pitch is established the tuning proceeds from low to high instruments. Principals from each section begin and others in that section join in succession. Then, woodwinds can tune to an A provided by that tuning source with bass reeds providing the foundation. Principals from each section begin with others in that section joining in. Strings are provided an A and tuning proceeds section by section from low to high. These tuning strategies can be mini-lessons for teaching pitch sensitivity and practice for pitch discrimination. It is recommended that the tuning procedure used for concerts be practiced consistently at rehearsals. Also recommended is tuning by ear rather than by electronic device. If the strings have not been tuned beforehand, the orchestra rehearsal room can have an A sounded by an electronic device as students enter the room. This allows each student to try to tune open strings after one takes his or her instrument from the case. The only way to learn to tune is to practice tuning. If students have trouble tuning open strings to a constant electronic pitch, they will contribute poorly to the ensemble’s intonation when it is time to apply the left-hand fingers. After tuning the open strings, then tune to the concertmaster or oboe by sections, even separating the first and second violins, followed by some scales in the keys of the music being rehearsed to confirm. For orchestra or band rehearsals, spot-checking a small number of students after they tune or during the rehearsal allows for the development of independence through practice yet there is some degree of verification. Several individuals can be spot-checked randomly within a minute and the entire ensemble can be on task to discern the pitch level. It is important to mention that the tuning procedure is a process. If it is handled with care as a matter of routine, there is no need for panic as the group approaches a performance. Conductor Anthony Maiello speaks of intonation as something akin to body odor. “We all have it,” he states, “but it is what we do with it that makes all the difference.” The equipment setup requirements of the percussion section for rehearsals vary, so some time during tuning can be used to complete this task. The written rehearsal plan on the whiteboard along with personally assigned duties should provide sufficient time for the percussionists to provide a ready environment for the next component.

MUSIC LEARNING LAB Although the entire rehearsal must be considered a music learning lab, this portion extends beyond the physical warming up and tuning phase to improving the fundamentals of musicianship. This is the part of the rehearsal plan that deserves the most careful planning because you are investing time for the acquisition of both immediate and future musical knowledge, skills, and appreciation. The experiences during this lab should include the following: • • • • •

chorales technical studies sight-reading listening creative musicianship including composing, improvising and other similar experiences.

The music learning lab should be designed for skill and concept acquisition consistent with that day’s rehearsal, but also the long-term goal of musical independence. Players will build stamina, control, range, flexibility, and facility individually while learning how to unify ensemble executive skills such as articulation, balance, rhythm, style, and interpretation. There should also be opportunities for a comprehensive musical experience which include interdisciplinary connections with music and the other arts or areas outside of the arts and creative musical involvement including composition and improvisation.

Chorales Chorales provide excellent warm-up material because they are technically simple, allowing students to concentrate on following the conductor while listening and adjusting intonation, balance, blend, and tone quality—the components of good performance. Chorales are also used to unify articulations and releases, for ear training, and for shaping phrases. Seek an even tone, from frog to tip, or through the duration of the breath. The director can ask students to memorize a phrase quickly and then focus on conducting cues for tempo, dynamics, intonation, balance, and blend; the director should then shape that phrase in a variety of musical ways. Chorales are good material for vocalizing (regardless of the octave displacement), which is a prerequisite for superior intonation. Chorales are interesting and fun when approached with imagination. During the time devoted to chorales, the group may work on only a single phrase or single modality because it is more important that the ensemble perform that phrase well than play through several chorales. The Bach and Before chorale book3 offers the soprano, alto, tenor, and

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 103

PLANNING FOR AND REHEARSING INSTRUMENTAL ENSEMBLES

103

bass parts for each voice, allowing all students the opportunity to play the bass line to better understand cadence and chord functions such as suspensions. Musicality (or expression, emotion, or art) is what chorales are all about. The objective of musicality fails where the band or orchestra plays through a chorale once and is satisfied if the notes are correct. Seek out the harmonic tension and note how the composer resolves it. Simple notes played with understanding and expression can result in extraordinary musical experiences and pave the way for deeper musical understanding, not only for this rehearsal but for all future encounters.

Technical Studies Technical studies are a progressive sequence from basic to advanced of the building blocks of music. These include scales, arpeggios, rhythm patterns, articulation variations, and other etudes. The objectives of the ensemble technical study are numerous. Foremost, the director provides sequential instruction designed for instrument mastery. Considering the vast amount of choices competing for the contemporary student’s discretionary time, guided practice devoted to fundamental skills becomes a crucial investment for building a successful ensemble. This study also provides a “how to practice” model for the students. Another objective of technical study during the ensemble rehearsal is to develop uniform ensemble style (for example, articulations, marcato style, and uniform bowings). To be meaningful, the material covered should build on previous work and be recognizable as sequential improvement. Scale technique transfers to concert literature competence, both musically and kinesthetically, more than any other technical exercise. Technical studies for orchestra often consist of rote performance of scales and arpeggios that require use of all positions and harmonics. Different bowings are also addressed or reviewed with these scale/rhythmic exercises. Remember to focus on fourth and seventh scale degrees. Most pitch problems in school orchestras occur on those scale degrees because keys and finger patterns change then. Rehearsing technique with the full ensemble should focus primarily on ensemble precision but it can also supplement individual drill. The most useful technical drills can be those from exercise books chosen by the director that connect with the literature currently being rehearsed. However, the advantage of following one of these books sequentially is that students are experiencing the full gamut of performance challenges and thus are able to approach never-before-seen music with the scaffold of rich and comprehensive coaching. Consider a rotation of exercise books annually so study of the basics stays fresh from year to year. This is an opportunity for the director to apply call-and-response exercises as nonverbal cues to introduce particularly challenging rhythms or to unify a note length or an approach to articulation. Call-and-response or pattern echo exercises on isolated rhythms and articulations can benefit listening skills and playing by ear. As the students master the approach, individual students can create the call rather than the director. Remember that all students should eventually witness how the rhythm is notated via flashcards or other aids. Practice is necessary if a musical ensemble is to be successful, and practice in groups can be less tedious than individual practice. Ways can be found to make drills attractive including woodwind versus brass and percussion, low instruments against high, and so forth. No new piece should be attempted without consideration of the students’ readiness to understand its key, meter, form, rhythm, melody, style, accidentals, dynamic markings, and interpretive terms. All of this can be done during the music learning lab time.

Sight-reading Sight-reading is an essential skill for musical independence and future ensemble participation, yet it is often one of the most neglected aspects of instrumental music education. For the sight-reading curriculum of an ensemble to be successful, it is recommended that its music be selected before the school year starts. A director might consider using separate sightreading folders that are assembled in sequential order, perhaps by quarter or semester. The director should fill the folders according to the desired objective to be learned—key, style, musical difficulty. One recommended source is The New Bennett Band Books Volume I and II.4 These each contain a dozen marches and would give grade 3–4 band students an excellent experience with rhythm and style within a reasonable range. Saxophone pedagogue Steven Mauk offers three sacred rules to successful sight-reading: (1) Total concentration; (2) Looking ahead; and (3) No stopping. Students must be reminded about these items constantly. When the sight-reading portion of the music learning lab begins, students should be coached what to seek out before the playing begins. It should only take about 20–30 seconds to scan for the following checkpoints: 1. 2.

Tempo and style: What is the tempo indication, metronome marking, and style indication? How do these change as the piece progresses? Meter: What meter does the selection begin in? What type of notes gets the beat and how does this beat relate to the tempo indication and metronome marking? Are there any other meters used later in the work? How do these different meters relate to the original one?

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 104

104 THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

3. 4.

5.

6. 7.

Key: What is the key signature and what note is tonic? Is the key major, relative minor, some modal form, or atonal? Does the key remain the same or does it change? (Mentally finger the scale and hear it in your head.) Rhythm: What are the basic rhythms used? How do these rhythms relate to the tempo and meter? Can you perform all of these rhythms or should you count some out first? (Any awkward subdivision changes, as from four sixteenths to three triplets, should be mentally tried and fingered through before you begin.) Technique: Where are the busiest technical sections, the blackest parts of the page? Are they made up of scales, chords, wide leaps, or unfamiliar patterns? (Quickly analyze them to make the performance easier and mentally or physically finger through any difficult passages.) Accidentals: Are there any sharp or flat signs present? Do these indicate a change of key or tonality? Special items: What other items are present that need your attention? (For instance, check for repeats and find out where they go.) Are there any instructive terms? Does anything else in the music draw your eyes or are there any subtle, hidden items that might trip you up?

Listening It might be possible that a student will not be a lifelong instrument player. However, it is likely that a student will be a lifelong music consumer. So the director might facilitate this aspect of music education as an active experience. Any musician knows the world of music is endlessly varied and interesting. Directors can use this portion of the music learning lab with these suggestions. Perhaps once a week, feature a master composer writing for orchestra or winds and percussion. It is fortunate the orchestral repertoire is readily available through a variety of media. Band students might learn about the wind music of Mozart, Berlioz, Dvorak, Wagner, Strauss, Stravinsky, Barber, and others. They could get to know the great professional bands of Sousa, Conway, Goldman, great college bands, and the Dallas Wind Symphony. They could learn what a great march sounds like as performed by a professional military band. They should hear what their individual instruments sound like in the hands of a skilled artist in a variety of musical genres. It is also helpful that they get to know what an excellent high school ensemble sounds like playing a piece currently in their folders; and perhaps a mediocre ensemble as well. Finally, they need to hear excerpts of their own playing from their most recent rehearsals. Reviewing the results from a previous rehearsal streamlines progress toward an excellent performance. In his book, What to Listen for in Music, Aaron Copland5 describes the different planes of listening and students can be coached to be critical listeners just as they are coached to be critical thinkers. Most listeners remain in what Copland describes as the sensual plane (It’s not what you might think). This is a simple awareness of music’s presence—without judgment or analysis. Think background music. In the expressive plane, you will notice how the music makes you feel. Perhaps you could visualize the music’s program or allow for the speed of the music to relax or stimulate you. Finally, in the sheerly musical plane, Copland describes the level in which most musicians, conductors, and judges listen to music. In this purely musical plane you can separate music into elements like tone, meter, chord analysis, etc. Comparing musical styles, performances, genres, and interpretations helps develop the very core of independent musicianship. It contributes to their knowledge base because it enlarges the context of music making beyond the school rehearsal room. Like music, categories for listening have evolved since Copland’s day. Ben Ratliff tells us of twenty ways to listen and these ways apply to musics of an astounding variety.6 Too often the media are the arbiter of the music that people choose. Directors can influence a lifetime of informed listening habits with experiences in this area.

Creative Experiences in Ensemble Today’s band or orchestra class is not your grandparents’ band or orchestra rehearsal. Although the large instrumental ensembles entered the school day strictly as a performance medium, the inclusion of creative experiences has gained traction since the introduction of the National Standards in 1992. Since then, some school districts have taken to require English writing experiences in every class held during the school day, including music and physical education. Currently participation in the Core Arts Standards, including composition and improvisation in the large ensemble rehearsal, cannot be regarded as commonplace, but it does provide an avenue to understanding and appreciating music that is unlike other rehearsal experiences. It is challenging to reach every student simply through performance in band, and time spent practicing music only for the next performance loses its appeal for some. The standards offer a template for a more comprehensive approach that may be helpful in retaining a larger population of the school population. It helps accommodate those students who may never reach the highest levels of performance yet find value in participating to the extent they can. Undoubtedly, the public performances of the school ensemble remain the measure of a director’s effectiveness. For that reason alone the novice teacher might focus a greater proportion of time on the attainment of ensemble skills. However, if planning is done carefully, the time invested with creativity and interdisciplinary (context) connections has never been a waste of time in our experience. Some ideas would include:

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 105

PLANNING FOR AND REHEARSING INSTRUMENTAL ENSEMBLES

• • • • •

105

improvisation on tunes like Pachelbel’s Canon or Shenandoah (see website); composition of a variation based on a theme currently being rehearsed in band7(scamper) (see website); research on program notes, composer, or era represented in the composition to be included in the performance program; integration of theoretical and historical components with music currently being rehearsed; connections between vernacular music and music currently being rehearsed.

REHEARSAL OF CONCERT MUSIC Teaching students to play their instruments is one kind of teaching; melding the talents and abilities of a group of competent students to make beautiful music together is a different task. The experience of being part of a large group of equally competent musicians working together with near-perfect precision can be unforgettable. The conductor has the special role in creating this experience. The conductor should possess musical insights far exceeding those of individual players, insights that enable one to call forth the best in every player. The school music educator is primarily a teacher on most days, but in the rehearsing and conducting of good literature the teacher also becomes a performance partner, collaborating musically to the process with the other members of the ensemble. Both conductor and the players must understand the music, as there is almost always an interpretive role for each player within the framework and vision established by the conductor/teacher. The conductor must also be the standard bearer teaching the students to discern acceptable and unacceptable standards of tone, pitch, balance, and precision. Rehearsals require variety in order to maintain student interest as well as to accomplish numerous objectives at varied levels of sophistication. The well-planned rehearsal should include elements that engage the “head, heart and foot.” That is, for the rehearsal to maintain focus, plans should include experiences that challenge the cognitive or knowledge aspect of the music, the affective or feelingful aspect of the music, and the kinesthetic or psychomotor aspect of the music. Emphasis solely on the kinesthetic or the physical coordination or technique of correct rhythms and notes (i.e., fixing what’s wrong) can become tedious if not balanced with knowledge about the music’s interesting theoretical or historical components and a reflection on why this music is worthy of appreciation. Of course there needs to be “digging in” to improve individuals and the group, but an interesting rehearsal includes the communication of a common vision and many creative strategies to attain this vision. The student responsibility for preparation also needs to be defined. If you expect some work outside of rehearsal (just like homework from math or English class), it needs to be communicated and monitored. Variety implies rehearsing music of different styles, requiring different levels of concentration and in different stages of preparation. There needs to be an atmosphere of a productive and positive attitude with periods of both intensity and enjoyment. This is where students apply the process skills presented in the music learning lab toward the performance product. A level of musical sophistication and satisfaction has been achieved when students recognize just how their recently acquired skills and insights contribute toward to their advancing performance artistry. Rehearsal variety means structuring the rehearsal around a constantly rotating mix of large group, sectional, and individual work, being conscious of how long any particular section has been waiting to play. For those not actively rehearsing, suggestions that they steadily “chunk” or “tss” the meter beat could provide welcomed metronomic assistance (known as the “human metronome”). Clapping with two fingers against the palm (also known as “silent clapping”) on the subdivision can assist in rhythmic precision. The director might ask the nonplaying members to listen if a section is blending or if two sections are balancing. Then seek the nonplayers’ input when the players demonstrate an excerpt. Peer evaluation can be stronger than teacher directive in that case. Sometimes a director’s instruction can be a form of assessment. For example, if you ask “everyone who has the melody at letter B please play,” it allows the students to evaluate their role in the music and you can evaluate the extent to which the students understand the function of their specific part. The entire ensemble will learn what the melody is at letter B as well. In other words, teach to the entire ensemble as there is likely something in your teaching at that moment for everyone. Rehearsal pacing is related to variety, and the tuned-in teacher will keep the rehearsal moving and engaging. Plan every aspect of the rehearsal to within minutes. In terms of the difficulty of the task, at least half of the ensemble should be technically able to play the music when the rehearsal starts or perhaps the music’s difficulty needs to be reassessed. While there is little doubt attention spans vary, changing or redeveloping activities before the attention spans wane serves the process positively. In the course of a single rehearsal, your focus on achieving a goal may need to be modified by understanding your students’ maturity and experience. We have all experienced diminishing returns by pursuing an objective too hypercritically. Know when and how to abandon the plan if you need to react to something or if a teachable moment presents itself. Here are some examples of what you might consider to change pace or make a rehearsal segment more interesting: 1.

Conductor-less rehearsing: (director circulates among the performers or moves back to get a more distant perspective). The students must learn to internalize the pulse.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 106

106

2. 3. 4.

5. 6.

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

Silent rehearsing: No conductor verbalization whatsoever. Pantomimed gestures and occasional rehearsal numbers on the whiteboard make this an intense experience. Random seating rehearsing: This actually works best when every other person moves to another musician’s chair. Learning other’s parts and musical independence are fruits of this procedure. Solo-Soli rehearsing: taking a unison phrase, having an entire section (say, 2nd clarinets) play together, then one only play, then together again, then another one only play until each individual has demonstrated in solo and the section has practiced as a soli several times. This works particularly well with the “Scale of the day” warm-up. Parallel rehearsing: Rehearse a passage with a particular goal in mind (precision, intonation, et al.) and ask whether there is anywhere else in this music where this occurs. Rehearse that to reinforce the concept. Exaggeration rehearsing: Choose phrases that day that need enhancement of the musical line contour and perform them with exaggeration. Record and play back.

Finally, the use of efficient (meaning probably premeditated) analogies, metaphors, similes, or questions can encourage musical expressiveness beyond the routine and commonplace instruction. “Woodwinds! Perform that trill so it sounds like the flurry inside a beehive!” “Please raise your hand if you can share a reason why this music was considered controversial when it was first written.” The director should prepare at least one analogy, metaphor, or question every rehearsal to stimulate student imagination. The basic approach toward designing a rehearsal of concert music usually follows the synthesis–analysis–synthesis model. Others refer to this as the macro–micro–macro model or the project–reflect–project model. The general premise of this blueprint is gestalt theory, whereas the mind understands and solves problems more efficiently when there is an awareness of the big picture. “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts,” so goes the saying. To engage in this approach, conductors first determine an allocation of the music, perhaps the entire piece, a segment, or even “from letter B to C” to run through with the students. This synthesis provides the performers a “sense of the whole.” Then the segment can be broken down into isolated elements where they are rehearsed (analyzed) in greater detail. The final stage is when these elements are reassembled (synthesized) thus completing the cycle. This rehearsal cycle can assume various proportions assuming a small part of one rehearsal, over several sessions and even from the initial read-through to the concert. Naturally each programmed selection has its unique cycle depending on the level of student readiness and music difficulty. The analysis part of the lesson plan has as many variations as there are teaching situations. The conductor prepares by understanding the music, the composer, and their relation to the teaching of music. This teacher looks in the score for anticipated “trouble” areas and then prepares ways to isolate the problem and suggest means for improvement. Sometimes the conductor simply wants the ensemble to be aware of important lines and requests its performance to give players a sense of their part in the context of the music. Other times repetition will simply help retention or unify an approach toward note length or intonation. These are moments when the conductor should have specific pedagogical techniques at his or her disposal to assist with such issues as bow placement or alternate fingerings. A closer look at the techniques used in the analysis stage of this rehearsal approach called synthesis–analysis–synthesis comes in the Rehearsal Techniques section later in this chapter. Verbal communication should be limited to the essential during the rehearsal class/period. One area in which directors can maximize efficiency is to analyze what behaviors occur exactly after a release or stoppage of the music. Does the playing stop immediately or is there a trailing off for a measure or more? Does student chatter seem to begin the moment when mouthpieces leave their mouths? Students need to know to observe rehearsal courtesy or protocol upon music stoppage. Directors need to recognize how tiny that window can be and speak with purpose and clarity. Feldman and Contzius8 suggest using the “Who—Where—What” technique of rehearsal instructions to streamline and clarify director verbiage: 1. 2. 3.

WHO are you addressing. WHERE in the music are you directing them. WHAT are you suggesting they do.

For example, “Brass—measure 25—play your staccato notes more crisply.” A fourth step might be added: WHY they should perform it this way to speak to the justification of this interpretation. “To better align with the snare drum” might be the motivating WHY you are making the suggestion. The final synthesis stage of the rehearsal cycle provides both the conductor and the ensemble the opportunity to assess their progress. The parts should be reassembled and placed once again in the musical context as intended by the composer. Williamson’s interview with Frank Battisti9 reveals his view that players need to leave every rehearsal with the memory of at least one musical moment, a “Eureka” experience that was just fabulous. To be sure, if the rehearsal exists simply to constantly “woodshed” parts with the only positive artistic outcome arriving months later at a concert or

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 107

PLANNING FOR AND REHEARSING INSTRUMENTAL ENSEMBLES

107

festival, there has to be an adjustment in the rehearsal approach. Think about that single great golf shot that keeps players wanting to come back for more. There needs to be time in rehearsal for this feeling. This sense of accomplishment should be tangible for both player and director. This way students look forward to the rehearsals as a time for fun and challenging music making.

WARM–DOWN, REFLECTION, ANNOUNCEMENTS The final minutes of the rehearsal can accomplish several goals. Playing a descending long tone scale softly can help relax tired muscles. A quick review of the rehearsal’s accomplishments can be encouraging and even inspirational to the point that it can set the stage for the next steps. Finally, logistical announcements to inform students of upcoming events and opportunities can be made so that the reminders stay fresh until relevant. The instrumental music teacher will have to show flexibility within virtually every rehearsal. Because we are working with human beings on artistic endeavors, there will always be teachable moments appearing that were not anticipated and issues occurring that simply could not have been foreseen. A successful rehearsal cannot always be defined as one that consistently achieves preplanned goals. However, with a structured environment in place, the rehearsal can be an ideal place for musical growth in skill and knowledge and for musical enjoyment for large numbers of students.

Literature Choice As important as it is to have the skills to prepare a score, it is perhaps more so to be able to determine whether the music you are preparing, rehearsing, and performing is of sufficient quality to justify its place in your curriculum. Remember that rehearsal time is limited and for every piece you select for your program, there are others that you leave behind. Therefore the choice of literature becomes an important responsibility, if not the most important responsibility of an ensemble conductor. Becoming familiar with literature that is appropriate for teaching and performance is at once exciting and formidable. Many directors have their “antennae” poised year-round to learn about new or unfamiliar repertoire. They will listen to recordings of unfamiliar music, attend conferences like the Midwest Clinic to seek out new works, and seek advice from trusted or more experienced peers. It is unfortunate that sometimes the selection process ends at the listening stage, where the initial impression passes as the arbiter of quality. Thinking “I know what I like” or “I know what the students will like” should be only a small consideration in the choosing process. While passion for the music is important, excellent teachers will secure scores and begin to scrutinize whether various criteria, both artistic and pedagogical, can be met. If the piece is worth performing it should stand alone as a repertoire exemplar but also fit into a concert program and an overall unit of study in a balanced way. Finding the right fit takes considerable knowledge of available literature coupled with a grasp of student musical skills within the context of available instructional time. With experience the selection process moves more quickly but it should be considered a serious obligation to your students. It goes a long way toward defining your music program.

Choosing Music of High Quality As music teachers, we choose experiences with and about music that facilitate the development of enlightened performers, creators, and consumers of this art. If we want our ensemble to be accepted as a core element of the school curriculum, it must offer music of substance, variety, and expressiveness. Just as an English curriculum could never rely on comic books and picture books as appropriate materials, a music program must provide an experience that plumbs the depth of the art. This is not saying one should program only serious works. That would be akin to eating meals solely of roast beef! Variety is important. Keep in mind Kurt Weill’s quote, “I have never acknowledged the difference between ‘serious’ music and ‘light’ music; there is only good music and bad music.” So in addition to standard concert repertoire, there are good Broadway medleys, good film soundtracks, good marches, good pops tunes, etc. But there are also bad examples of these as well. We want to choose only the best examples from these genres. How do we determine quality in music? Like anything, knowledge and experience determine one’s criteria for quality. Contact and interaction with all of the arts will provide a deep and satisfying journey toward understanding quality. Experiencing nature and other cultures through travel provides a broader perspective of beauty, symmetry, nuance, and other values. If one lives life narrowly without experiencing great books, great art galleries, or great vistas, one’s standpoint is limited. The study and performance of high-quality music also affects an individual’s development of musical values and “tastes” in a positive way. Good taste can be learned. Worthwhile experiences properly presented by the teacher can influence decisions that the students will choose to encounter well beyond their school years. A look at various authors’ criteria used to determine quality can be revealing. Joseph Labuta stated that high-quality music had complexity and challenge, lasting interest and value, technical achievement, originality, and expressiveness. Bennett Reimer10 condensed his criteria in determining

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 108

108 THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

quality in music to four: imagination, sensitivity, craftsmanship, and authenticity. Adding to these criteria, Leonhard and House11 ask, “Does its tonal patterns exhibit the qualities of tension/release and struggle/fulfillment which is analogous to the form of human feeling and in which the performer/listener can find emotional import?” They also state that mediocre and great music differ in two essential characteristics: the subtlety of expression and the abstractness of expression. This is how we know the music of Mozart is greater than the music of Salieri. It is possible to create rich musical experiences for ensembles of every level. The most expressive music allows for an exploration of numerous facets that reveal why it is we value that particular work as well as music in general. Barrett et al.12 provide questions that might assist in determining whether a piece of music is worthy to be included for study or performance in your program: • • • • • • • •

Who created it? When and where was it created? Why and for whom was it created? What does it sound like? What kind of structure or form does it have? What is its subject? What is being expressed? What techniques did its creator use to help us understand what is being expressed?

If these questions can be answered substantially, the choice of repertoire made stands to have merit. For example, American Riversongs composed by Pierre LaPlante (Daehn Publications, 1991) supports these guide questions well and should be considered a piece of high-quality repertoire for the grade 3 band. Who created it? Pierre LaPlante (b. 1943) taught music in Wisconsin schools for 35 years. He has written extensively for younger bands. When and where was it created? American Riversongs was written in 1988 near Madison, Wisconsin. Why and for whom was it created? It was written on commission of the Oberlin High School Band in Oberlin, Ohio, Stephen Johnson III, director. What does it sound like? American Riversongs is a setting of three early American folksongs: “Down the River,” “Shenandoah,” and “The Glendy Burke.” Triadic harmonies and singable melodies are unmistakable. What kind of structure or form does it have? Overall ABA form or fast–slow–fast. The final section also incorporates a Creole tune (a bamboula) by Louis Moreau Gottschalk as a secondary theme. What is its subject? The composer describes the music as “based on traditional and composed music of an earlier time, when the rivers and waterways were the lifelines of a growing nation.” The music has a Stephen Foster spirit. What is being expressed? The use of folk songs as source material for band compositions is part of the heritage of the wind band. Percy Grainger, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Aaron Copland, Robert Russell Bennett, Charles Ives, and many others have borrowed themes and utilized folk song material regularly. What techniques did its creator use to help us understand what is being expressed? The use of ragtime rhythms and sweeping lyricism portrays the styles and times when this music was popular in early America. Numerous glossary terms such as strophic, medley, folk song, simple/compound meter, and diatonic would be appropriate discussion items. One final thought regarding music selection: Imagine that every concert should be an investment in the future performance and appreciation of music. This is what will make for a more enlightened student musician. The overall purpose of each rehearsal is to develop musicianship, the second purpose is to prepare for a concert; focusing on the first will make the second easier. Another purpose is to encourage the enjoyment of making music.

Programming While determining the quality of a particular composition, there also has to be consideration as to its overall appropriateness as a concert selection and ultimately whether it deserves a place in that finite period of time when students study and perform in your ensemble. A long-term balance must include coverage of various historical periods, musical styles, and forms. As each concert is an opportunity to benchmark musicianship gained and developed, the director needs to also keep in mind such logistical items as concert length, the audience and community, the reason for the concert (such as contest, holiday, or pops concert), the level of difficulty and abstraction of the music as it relates to the maturity of the students, the rehearsal time, and instrumentation. Programming is a developed skill combining knowledge of the repertoire and experience as a director and music educator. It determines the path of most musical experiences for the group. Frequency of performances and concert length are curricular decisions, yet directors must keep mindful of the unique program goal of musical ensemble participation: that of individual musical independence.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 109

PLANNING FOR AND REHEARSING INSTRUMENTAL ENSEMBLES

109

A well-constructed program is a balance of variety, unity, and contrast. Earlier in the chapter there was discussion of the well-planned rehearsal that included elements that engage the “head, heart, and foot.” That is, the cognitive or knowledge aspect of the music, the affective or feelingful aspect of the music, and the kinesthetic or psychomotor aspect of the music. The well-programmed concert should include these elements as well. In putting together a concert that has variety, perhaps consider the order of the movements in the prototypical classical symphony (opener—usually fast, slow, minuet, finale—usually fast). In many ways, the first piece of a program is also the most important. It should be splashy enough to grab the listeners’ attention yet be of moderate difficulty to reinforce performer confidence. The second selection should be the major, challenging work as it is presented while there is still full performer concentration and endurance and the listener ear is still fresh. If there is an intermission, end the first half with something lighter or provocative. The second half of the program should open with something spirited or perhaps consider a guest soloist or conductor in this spot. Close with something that is truly a success experience for the performers and leaves the audience with the feeling that the ensemble is a powerful tool for learning about music and more. Concerts can achieve a sense of unity when there is a theme or title for the concert presentation. Sometimes a theme can be determined by the main selection, with other selections suggesting a link or reinforcement to the main piece. The more general the theme, the more latitude the teacher has for programming. Avoid themes that are so specific that it dictates title over musical development. More universal themes from which programs could be formed include the following: Songs and Dances The Royal Treatment American Tapestry Earth Tones

The Literate Band (or orchestra) The Sacred Orchestra (or band) Legends and Heroes Noteworthy Places

Good programming also means being attentive to the elements constituting contrast in a concert. Are there different tonal centers or modes explored? Are there contrasting meters and moods? Does the music provide a contrast in texture, form, and ethnicity or genre? Does every instrumental family have the opportunity for some expressive playing? Do they benefit developmentally from having performed the concert? There exists a core repertoire now for ensembles level 3 and higher.13 Consider developing a three- to four-year rotation of the literature you feel every student in your ensemble should experience. Every year your emphasis could rotate on the exploration of a particular element (form, style, timbre, or harmony, etc.) or era/genre (Baroque, Classical, Romantic, Contemporary, jazz, Broadway). Whatever repertoire is chosen, seek the pieces that represent the finest examples of its type. In some music, particularly that of highest artistic merit or of a unique historical or cultural genre, a composer’s specific instrumentation requests need to be followed. Contemporary composers often specify one-on-a-part instrumentation to achieve a certain color or texture. Harry Begian believed a wind ensemble should not attempt music written for concert band. Score study can reveal whether that E-flat clarinet part is essential or optional. Some excellent works can be performed creditably with adjustments in instrumentation. Undoubtedly this can affect school ensemble programming and rehearsal planning. Some final thoughts on programming include remembering that most of the literature we program should be close to sight-readable. One of the most common errors is programming music that is too difficult. While there should always be the “project” pieces that stretch the group to new achievements, there should always be music performed that is well within the technical skills of every student. Have time to explore the beauty and depth of the selections you have so carefully chosen.

Score Preparation The music teacher must be equipped to analyze and prepare scores before the analysis of the rehearsal sequence can occur. The extent to which the director knows the score determines how much can be accomplished. While there exists no “best” route toward discovering the facets of a musical score, there are foundational elements to look for in the journey. If you have developed an understanding of your chosen repertoire through the following elements, you can use them in your teaching: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Musical form Style and genre Conventional musical interpretation Metrical organization and rhythmic precision Melodic and harmonic lines Feeling for tonal centers and modulations

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 110

110 THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

Articulations (beginnings, middles and ends) and bowings Phrasing Musical movement Tone quality and intonation Contrasting elements Expressive devices Balance and blend Notes.

The music is in the sound, not in the printed notation. Early stages of studying a score are both a cognitive and an affective process whereby the conductor draws on knowledge of music theory and history as well as imagination, emotions, intuition, and passion. Battisti and Garofalo write: “The conductor should approach score study as an imaginative musician, a creator, and not simply as a decoder of notation.”14 During the initial score study, all key tempo or meter changes are noted. In some scores tempos are notated with metronome markings, while in others, terms such as moderato are used. In the latter case, one must examine the melodic line to get a “feel” for what moderato indicates. Even if the metronome marking is published, the density of the notes should be observed; any exposed parts which sections are responsible for the foreground line, middle ground, and background; and where passages of rapid rhythm occur. The next stage is to study the score with a metronome. Although the metronome may be set at a tempo slower than that desired for performance, the steady beat will help the director to determine the overall flow, rhythm, and direction of the work. It will also help the conductor determine which rhythms, technical passages, or articulations may cause the ensemble to stumble—and hence need extra warm-up and technical attention. During this phase of the study the conductor should not stop, but continue through the entire work or until the metronome must be changed. Initially, a detailed analysis of isolated rhythms or articulations is not necessary. The conductor should follow through the score with eyes moving from line to line attempting to audiate the ensemble sound. (Practice with an occasional check with the piano develops the conductor’s ability to hear chords and lines over time.) Although few new teachers will be able to hear in their “mind’s ear” exactly what the score sounds like, it is important to read through the score and glean as much as possible. As the conductor becomes more experienced, these initial perceptions will become more accurate. With the metronome guiding one through the score, the director may attend to any underlying rhythmic accompaniment in the middle or background or to the melodic figure in the foreground. Subsequent study will disclose many more musical features. The eye and “inner ear” will soon discover more elements in the notation, and the form of the work will gradually be outlined in the mind. The next stage is to analyze the score aurally, humming, singing, or playing on your major instrument various lines of the score. For many new conductors, this stage is needed (especially in the polyphonic sections) before the formal sections of the music can be understood and outlined (that is, before larger sections and smaller sections, periods, and phrases within the periods can be determined). The conductor should first sight-sing the lines to get an idea of the flow and the most appropriate tempos to maximize the phrasing. The piano can be used later to check accuracy. As the score becomes more familiar, one then focuses on specific rhythmic, melodic, and harmonic elements, texture, and orchestration. Marking the score is a highly individualistic endeavor. Some conductors use different colored pencils on their study scores to delineate where different melodic passages, countermelodies, dynamics, and articulations occur. The conductor should highlight any desired changes in tempo or meter, including the relationship between tempos of large sections and whether these tempos are used to help establish a specific mood (such as an underlying driving rhythmic figure used to accompany a slower melodic line). Temporary changes in the tempo such as ritardandos and accelerando and “where they are going”—the quickness of the change, and their effect on any established mood or style are noted. Melodic aspects of score study include: locating the primary melodies, or whichever parts belong in the foreground, and countermelodies and identifying the instruments playing them. The conductor should mark when a middle-ground part moves to the foreground or a foreground part moves to the background. In addition to the overall form, each melodic section will have form, climax, and points of rest within it. The ways that a composer develops the melodic material should also be noted. Garofalo recommends a harmonic analysis to determine the tonal centers at the beginning and end of the work’s large sections.15 The second step is to identify the harmonic basis of the various sections—the harmonic language—and how a section moves harmonically to the next section. Each section is then analyzed in terms of the harmonic motion that gives the music its momentum and direction, including the cadences. Note, however, that a large number of works for band and orchestra written in the late twentieth century to more recently make use of cadential devices that expand beyond the limits of common-practice theory/composition. The melodic and harmonic components of the work together determine the dynamic levels. The dynamic levels notated should be observed, and any special effects (such as sfz) should be marked for special treatment and possible technical drill. The conductor and performers will add nuances beyond those indicated in the score, as suggested by the

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 111

PLANNING FOR AND REHEARSING INSTRUMENTAL ENSEMBLES

111

melodic contour and underlying harmony. Except for special effects, seldom do any two measures remain at the same dynamic level in an artistic performance. Instrumentation is a primary concern for many conductors when they prepare a score. How to compensate for a less-than-perfect instrumentation? Often score study will reveal that major lines intended for missing instruments are doubled or cued in other parts; many times a solo is cued for another, more common instrument. However, study of the score may indicate that sections need to be altered or rewritten. For example, analysis of a band work may indicate that the basses, bassoons, baritone saxophones, and contrabass clarinet all play an important rhythmic ostinato in unison, but the band does not have a bassoon, baritone saxophone, or contrabass clarinet, and only one tuba. Further study of the score (and a bit of common sense) may indicate that the work is not appropriate for this band beyond a sight-reading experience, if that. If the work is appropriate for performance, the section in question may need rewriting. Instead of the tuba simply playing more loudly, borrow some string players from the orchestra, or the part may be performed by the trombones (with due diligence), baritones, or tastefully amplified electric bass. Orchestras might double viola parts with violins or cellos. Sometimes a teacher’s options in preparing a score are achieved without listening to a recording—all that may be necessary is to let one’s audiation, imagination, analysis, and creativity roam. Promotional or YouTube recordings are helpful at times but are sometimes sterile or unmusical. A musical teacher is imaginative and a risk taker. There is much to learn in all music—one never knows until one tries.

REHEARSAL TECHNIQUES Earlier in this chapter, the basic approach of the synthesis–analysis–synthesis rehearsal process was introduced. The purpose of this next section is to identify concepts and procedures essential to both improving instrumentalists’ performance in the ensemble and their overall knowledge of music during the rehearsal process. This usually occurs during the analysis part of the lesson plan. Keep in mind that the primary purpose of each rehearsal is to develop musicianship, while the secondary purposes are to prepare for a concert while enjoying the experience and focusing on and developing character and the qualities of good citizenship. Focusing on the primary purpose facilitates the secondary objectives. Rehearsing concert literature requires planning by the conductor with back-up plans based on the most probable contingencies. Observing a variety of rehearsals helps to make intelligent planning possible, even in the first rehearsals. Because the music chosen for performance will be diverse, and because objectives vary from one situation to another, there are exceptions to any suggestions about the “best” way to rehearse. Nevertheless, certain priorities guide planning for and conducting rehearsals of musical literature. While there will always be a weaving up and down to some extent because those teachable moments will appear, your basic rehearsal plan should progress with these issues in this priority order. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Tone (including position, posture, balance, blend, color, and texture) Time (including tempo, meter, division of pulse, and playing correct rhythms) Pitch (including intonation and tuning) Ensemble (including articulation, bowing, and releases) Expression (including musical style, phrasing, interpretation, and artistry).

As you are developing your rehearsal plan, devise your goal or target and be able to inform your students with clarity, enthusiasm, and, if necessary, with effective demonstrations. Create goal-driven tasks that isolate the target areas. For example, if you need to isolate by rhythm create an experience using combinations of chunking, tapping, clapping, and counting. Isolate instrument families if you wish to work on balance or blend. If the interpretation of a melody is the goal, isolate the melody and demonstrate phrase length and contour. As you are creating these goal-driven tasks, vary your instruction to stimulate all areas of knowledge, physical skills, and emotional import. The following discussion addresses each of the areas in more depth.

Tone Many musicians believe that achieving a beautiful ensemble tone is the foremost goal for the school ensemble director. The details that contribute to this area are numerous. Ranging from subtle to drastic, there are constant changes in group size due to scheduling, attrition, recruitment, and graduation. The effects of student leadership and variations of ability on key areas of instrumentation can affect the ensemble’s tone as well. These conditions occur with every group, from grade school ensembles through collegiate ensembles and even the professional orchestras and bands. Why is it that the most successful conductors can accept these changes and adjust accordingly while others succumb to the vagaries of the ensemble and accept the sound it gives them? What does it take to achieve consistency?

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 112

112 THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

The answers often lie with the conductor’s concept of the ensemble’s tone production. A band or orchestra cannot meet performance expectations if its conductor cannot articulate, define, demonstrate, or otherwise establish his concept of ensemble tone. What are your sonority preferences? What quality of sound is desirable? What blend sounds best to your ears? Could you begin to describe your ideal tone in terms like homogenized, brilliant, or warm? Preference toward a particular ensemble sound is a combination of personal taste and convention. Personal tastes are established by past influences and experiences in ensemble participation, workshop or master-class experiences, listening and reading. There are many acceptable ensemble tones in the spectrum and the act of developing your preferences is the first important step toward the long-term goal: achieving consistency in timbre and texture in your ensemble’s sound. There is admittedly a degree of subjectivity in the process. What might be one’s ideal tone could need refinement from another’s viewpoint. There are several components that contribute toward an ensemble’s overall tone: balance, blend, acoustics, sonority, and chord voicing. These key components can be supported by several basic “principles” that can be applied to achieve the ideal tone.

Balance Human ears hear higher-frequency notes more efficiently and clearer than lower-frequency notes. This implies for each instrument family (Brass/Woodwind/Percussion/Strings) that the bass instruments will provide the foundation followed by the tenor, alto, and soprano families. For the section, the inner parts or the third or fourth parts may oftentimes need to project more than the upper parts. Finally, for the individual, a forte passage in the lowest range on the instrument often needs more presence of sound than a forte passage in the highest range. The analogy of the pyramid of sound is appropriate. However, at least one band authority, Lowell Graham, former conductor of the United States Air Force Band, believes that the pyramid of sound contributes to an overall muddiness of tone because of the overpopulation of the midrange. His preferred sound shape, like Sousa’s, is more like an hourglass shape than a pyramid.

Blend Edward Lisk explains that if you hear yourself above all others, one of three things is happening: you are overpowering or overblowing, you are playing with poor tone quality, or you are playing out of tune. Individuals can learn to darken or brighten their tones by using various techniques such as air speed, vibrato, tongue placement, and bell angles. Encourage your ensemble to play with a warm sound without forced or strident tones. Be sure to give them aural targets or examples of what to strive for or avoid. Professional recordings, YouTube, and first-rate student musicians provide excellent resources. Student assessment of rehearsal recordings is also recommended.

Acoustic Principles When all the players have a good tone and all sections blend internally, the overall tonal blend and balance of the organization must still be worked out. The conductor listens constantly to judge the balance and blend of the group. There are other variables to address, including scoring and acoustics of the rehearsal and performance spaces. The conductor should turn the baton over to a student director and move back into the hall to listen. The overall sound may be very different from what is heard in the rehearsal room, especially if rehearsals are held in a “bright” room in which the sounds run together. The best rehearsal rooms are similar to the performing hall. Plus, there are these considerations. The larger the instrument and/or the further away you are from the front of the stage, the more you will have to anticipate the beat to avoid sounding “behind.” This affects clarity of tone. Directional instruments (trumpet, trombone) will sound louder than non-directional instruments (bassoon, clarinet). Tutti crescendi will maintain balance best if softer instruments lead louder instruments in the swell (generally woodwinds first, brass next, percussion last). In diminuendi, vice versa: louder instruments should lead the softer instruments.

Color and Texture These terms refer to the level of transparency and clarity in the ensemble tone. In order to maintain clarity of tone, it is advisable to remind your players that the faster the tempo, the less loud they should play. They should let the speed carry the intensity. Generally, a forte at presto is softer than a forte at andante. Regarding unison rhythms, the more people sharing a rhythm, the less loudly they should play. Also, unless there is a particular effect the composer is intending, the more players sharing the note, the less loudly they should play. In diatonic/homophonic music, the tones that make up the quality of the chord are generally balanced under (are softer) than the foundational chords. For example, in a C-major chord, the loudest tones are the C and G (the root and fifth) because they comprise the foundation. Since the 3rd defines the chord’s quality, it is often balanced inside the sound of the root and fifth.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 113

PLANNING FOR AND REHEARSING INSTRUMENTAL ENSEMBLES

113

Although the members’ ages in a school ensemble remain consistent from year to year, personnel often change. It will take several rehearsals to shape the group’s sound to match the ensemble a conductor hears in his or her head. Taking the time to define a group’s tone to the students improves the chances of satisfaction with the product. Moreover, at this point it is important to guide students toward formulating their own ideal ensemble tone because it will help them become more discriminating listeners. The following seven suggestions may be helpful in this regard. 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Demonstrate, explain, and establish goals for the group’s tone. This point is one of the most crucial. Goals should be decided upon as soon as possible. A strong, agreed-upon aural image of what the ensemble should sound like should be established in the conductor’s mind and communicated with the students. Then, when a deviation is appropriate, such as an unusually bright passage, adjustments can be made within the context of the established goal. Teach the students the principles of tone. All of the principles work interdependently. For example, many student orchestras tend to use less right arm bow weight than desired and tend to use only the middle of the bows. Bands usually need to learn to control the volume in general, but especially when they play in their upper ranges. Chorale exercises in octaves promote a free-flowing sound that allows students to evaluate their tone quality and intonation in the upper tessitura. They adjust to keep their individual sounds full, yet without undue brightness. Finally, be a stickler for proper posture and playing position. Listen to good examples. The concept of “dark” or “bright” sonority may have to be taught, but verbal explanations often fall short compared to aural images. Record the group and locate examples of passages where it is approaching or has achieved your idea of bright and dark, even if for only a chord. Have your students compare and contrast the qualities. Seek out recordings of professional or collegiate ensembles that are worthy of emulation and have the students in your ensemble listen and imitate the quality of last chords or excerpted passages. Be sure the students hear the music on the finest equipment affordable. Considering the abundance of recordings available on YouTube, an aural model may provide your students with a truly valuable nonverbal learning experience. Take note that a wind ensemble should not attempt to sound like a concert band, nor vice versa. The color and homogeneity of sound, independent solo voicing as opposed to “hiding” your individual tone within a section all must be considered. Practice for tone. Numerous warm-up books are available for teaching consistent timbre and beautiful tone production. Any chorale book, such as Treasury of Scales16 is useful to encourage a full, flowing chordal sound without edginess or lack of control. Typically, these exercises can be done at the beginning of the rehearsal (during the music learning lab) and then reinforced as the literature is introduced. Students will practice opening up their sounds within a technically easy format and then, with coaching, can be expected to transfer it to the music you intend to perform. Record your ensemble when you play a chorale and have your students critique the music based on the models they have heard. Control instrumentation. Defining your ideal ensemble tone and then working with your students to realize the concept are two important steps requiring a partnership with ensemble members. But, there are also several steps the conductor must take to ensure that the desired tone is even feasible. The “ideal sound” may be impossible to achieve without several instrumentation requirements. While the conductor may need to be flexible with the size of the group from year to year, two bass clarinets, a bassoon, two tubas, and two euphoniums are the minimum numbers needed in these sections in order to facilitate the desired tonal balance. If a band averages 70–75 members there can be no more than 10 flutes and 10 trumpets and the clarinet section is stacked with 3 on the first part, 4 on the second part, and 5 are on the third part. Variations in the middle to lower brass are inevitable and easier to deal with than overpopulations in the treble winds. Far too many orchestra directors do not start enough violas or cellos. To some it may appear severe to control instrumentation, but if the goal is a first-class musical experience for the students, the students as well as parents can be coached to accept the established instrumentational conventions. While enforcing these conventions may necessitate careful diplomacy, the effort can pay off in a more worthwhile experience for everyone. The seating of the ensemble has to be analyzed to maximize success in realizing its ideal tone. Grouping the bass voices, irrespective of whether they are brass, string, or woodwind, can boost confidence with younger ensembles. Put bassoons and string basses on the edge of rows rather than place them in the middle if you need more projection from them. For trumpet/cornet sections, have third cornet, second cornet, first cornet, first trumpet, second trumpet. Your first horn’s bell should play into horn two. Sometimes horn parts one and three are similar and horn parts two and four are similar. Stacking the horns in two rows with the top part playing into the next will create a nice blend. Experimentation with acoustic shells and clouds, risers, and upstage and backstage placement have a huge effect on the ensemble tone. If there happens to be a large flute section, experiment with seating them in twos on the conductor’s right going back to the final row. Start a second tier (á la the orchestra violin seating) to accommodate the second flutes as illustrated in Figure 10.3. Brass bells straight on or from the side of the group is another variant that affects the ensemble’s sound. Some examples of wind ensemble seating are shown in Figures 10.4, 10.5, and 10.6.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 114

114 THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

Drums

Euphonium HN 4

Tuba

Timpani

HN 3 HN 2

Trombone 3

HN 1

Bari Sax

Melodic Percussion

Tenor Sax

BCL 1 Trumpet 3

Trombone 2

Tenor Sax

BCL 2

Alto Sax 2

CL3

Alto Sax 2

BSN 1 BSN 2

CL3

Trumpet 1

Trombone 1

Alto Sax 1

OB 1

Alto Sax 1

CL2

CL3

FLT 2

Trumpet 2

FLT 2

CL2 CL3

PICC

FLT 2

CL1

CL2

FLT 2

CL2

FLT 1 FLT 1

FLT 1

CL1

FLT 1

FLT 1

FLT 1

CL1

CL3

FLT 2

FLT 2

Podium

FIGURE 10.3 Suggested seating for ensemble with large flute section

Tpt

.1

Timpani

P

cu er

s

Tpt

.2

Tbn

n sio

.1

Tpt

.3

Tbn

.2

Tbn

.3

Hn.4

Hn.3

Hn.2

Hn.1

Ob .2

Pic c.

FIGURE 10.4 University of New Mexico Wind Symphony; Eric Rombach-Kendall, conductor

x1 A.Sa

Cl. 1

Cl E

Eng. Hn

Fl.1

2 ax A.S

Cl. 3 .2 Cl

2 Fl.

T

Bsn.2 B.Cl

1 b. O

Eu

ax .S

.1 Bsn

B.S ax

ph

. Tu b

a

Str. Bass

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 115

PLANNING FOR AND REHEARSING INSTRUMENTAL ENSEMBLES

115

Tromb o

nes

Timpani

Eup

1, 2, 3

hon

ium

1, 2

Tu b

Horns

a

Percussion

Trumpets

4, 3, 2, 1

1,

2

1, 2, 3, etc. Bassoon

Lo

1, 2, 3, (contra)

s xe Sa

w

cla rin ets 1 gh , 2 es , 3 t low es t)

(hi

, 1 est) ,2 , 3 high . c et t s we (lo

Clarinets 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.

Flutes

Oboes

(piccolo) etc., 3, 2, 1

1, 2, 3, etc., (Eng. horns)

Piano

Conductor

FIGURE 10.5 New England Conservatory of Music Wind Ensemble; Frank Battisti, conductor

t

D D

2 EUPH

1 BA TU

TROM 1

EUPH 1

TROM 2

TR OM

2 BA TU

R1 CO

R CO

l

TRO M3

2 COR

COR 2

COR 3

COR 3

TRP T1

TR PT

OB 1 N1 BS

BCL 1 N BS

CL 3

OB 2

EHN

B. SX

T. S X

2

4

(8)

TR PT 1

1

BCL 2

P

m

2

HN 4 AS X

HN 4

2 X AS

CL 2

HN 3

1

CL 3

E CL

CL 2

PICC

CL 1 CL 3 CL 3

CL 2 CL 2

CL 1

FLT 1

FLT 2 (8)

Podium

FIGURE 10.6 University of North Carolina-Greensboro Symphonic Band; John Locke, conductor

HN 1

FLT 2

FLT 1

CL 1

HN 2

FLT 2

FLT 1

HN 1 (16)

(21)

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 116

116

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

Three common seating arrangements used by professional and school orchestras are illustrated in Figures 10.7, 10.8, and 10.9.

on

ssi

rcu

pe

h

pa ni

bas

soo

tu

ns

ba

flutes and picco lo

ond

violas

firs

os

cell

olin

harp

sec

t vi

s one

vio

es

s

mb tro

lins

ss

pet

oboes

s et rin cla

tim

ba

trum

s orn

s

FIGURE 10.7 Symphony orchestra 1

ts pe m tru

ha

rp

hor lish

Eng

oboe

cellos

o col pic es flut

n

tub

a

contrabassoon

bassoons

s bas net ri cla ets clarin

s se

tim pa ni n sio us s rc ne pe bo m tro

ba s

horns

violas

organ first violins

second violins

FIGURE 10.8 Symphony orchestra 2

string basses

second violins

first violins

violas

cellos

FIGURE 10.9 Traditional string orchestra seating

Both have the winds centered with woodwinds in front of the brass, and both have the principal violinist, violist, and cellist near the conductor. Ensemble directors should experiment through the year, not only to determine the best ensemble sound but also to provide students with opportunities to hear different parts. Individual seating within the section can also affect total sound. Musicianship, technical ability, and also personality, temperament, leadership, and experience should be considered. One might alternate players who have a strong and weak sense of rhythm, good and poor bowing, good and poor intonation, so that the better players may help the weaker ones. Timid but promising students may be placed in leadership spots. Placing the first chair players in wind ensembles and orchestras as close to the center of the ensemble as possible will facilitate listening for intonation, style, balance, and phrasing.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 117

PLANNING FOR AND REHEARSING INSTRUMENTAL ENSEMBLES

7.

117

Finally, program music that enables the ensemble to perform under the stencil of the agreed-upon tone quality. Not every selection qualifies, although every style of music is eventually possible. Choose some music at every concert that students can breeze through technically so they can concentrate on tone production, especially at the beginning of the concert season. Shelve the popular “macho-bravura” genre of band pieces until the time when all of the variables to band tone have been scrutinized and demonstrated.

John Paynter of Northwestern University stated, “the sound you have in your mind is the sound you will make.”17 Striving to achieve the ideal blend, control, clarity, and quality that define the “perfect sound” begins with developing a way to communicate the concept to the ensemble and practicing to attain the goal. When all of these elements are addressed—establishing and explaining the goals, teaching students the principles of tone, listening to good examples, practicing for tone, controlling instrumentation, evaluating seating arrangements, and choosing music to optimize tone— the potential is there for excelling in that area.

Tempo, Meter, Division of Pulse, and Rhythm These elements of ensemble performance most often determine the extent to which the music is communicated with precision and clarity. Each has roots in muscular impulse or kinesthetic feel, with cognitive elements best introduced after experience by movement or by ear. There is no single “correct” tempo for a composition. Compare, for example, recorded versions of the Beethoven symphonies as performed by Bernstein and Boulez. Bernstein was often criticized for his fast tempos, but there is a range of acceptable tempos for music of all styles. Ultimately for the conductor, the final decision as to the preferred tempo is a confluence of many factors. Colson18 identifies seven considerations in selecting the preferred tempo: • • • • • • •

metronome markings recordings music periods and composers the critical bar theory ensemble performance level acoustical considerations of the performance facility the music itself (Richard Wagner called this the “Melos”).

One would expect a composer’s metronome markings to end all debate as to the proper tempo of a piece, but this is not always the case. There are occasional miscalculations by the composer or publisher misprints. Further, at least one composer/conductor—Frank Ticheli—states that he often prefers to conduct his own music “a click or two” above the published tempo. The debate over whether or not to listen to recordings as a guide to choosing a correct tempo is controversial only when the conductor ignores the other six considerations. One can gain new perspective by listening to others’ performances, but conductors should be mindful that professional ensemble recordings may not be right for the novice ensemble. “Composer-authenticated” recordings can advise, but common sense must be added to judgment as well. Conductor awareness of performance practices of the various musical periods (Baroque, Classical, Romantic) is essential toward choosing the correct tempo. Many of the tempo indications from prior to Beethoven used Italian tempo terms such as andante, lento, or allegro. Knowledge of tempos based on those words demonstrated by the great conductors should prove helpful. Band conductors should know that European marches are performed generally more slowly than American marches and that of the American marches, Sousa marches tend to be performed at a slightly more stately tempo than the marches of Fillmore and King. There is some music where the most musical, most playable tempo is revealed in a passage or section other than at the beginning of a piece. This is the critical bar theory as explained initially in The Art of Musicianship by Philip Farkas. For example, the Rossini Overture to the Italian in Algiers has a very simple opening that has the potential of starting too quickly. Then when the melody arrives, it becomes apparent that the tempo is too fast for the melody’s lyrical character. The conductor must study the score to locate the critical bar(s) to help determine where the essence of the best tempo lies. Most conductors initially practice music at slower tempos until technical problems are under control. It is true that musical values are lost when some music is rehearsed at slower tempos, but a slower tempo helps with error detection, especially for young teachers as well as for the students. However, line, metrical, and rhythmic aspects can become mechanical if the slower tempo is maintained for too many rehearsals. Phrase shaping and using preferred bowings may also change when the tempo moves from a slower, practice tempo to the conductor’s interpreted tempo. If the tempo parameters are compromised to satisfy the ensemble’s technical limitations, but the essence of the piece is lost, it becomes obvious that the chosen selection must be reconsidered.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 118

118 THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

Every concert should be preceded by at least one rehearsal (and preferably several) in the performance hall. This rehearsal is important for adjusting balance, checking blend, and listening to any unexpected problems. An acoustically “live” or resonant room may need a slower tempo, adjusted dynamics, and at the very least some space between notes or phrases to allow for the ringing to clear. Percussion may have the most adjustments to make due to the range of their dynamics. An acoustically dry hall might require longer notes and more attention given to musical line. Have a student leader conduct the group while you circulate in the audience area to determine a strategy to work with the performance hall. The composer Richard Wagner believed that if the conductor truly understood the music (Melos), a correct tempo would become apparent. Informed intuition is what H. Robert Reynolds calls it. It is simply how the music flows best and how its meaning is best communicated. Taking all of the factors above into consideration can lead to a performance and music learning environment that allows students to reach their full artistic potential. Rhythmic precision starts with good eye contact from both conductor and players. The conductor must establish a clear preparatory beat, enabling players to establish movement from pulse to pulse. The moment of the start of sound, the initial entry, is a crucial cog in group cohesion. In rehearsal, the competent ensembles are coached to know exactly where the pulse (tempo beat) will occur and unless all ensemble members feel the pulse (and eventually subdivide), rhythmic precision issues will arise. Watching the conductor is merely the beginning of attempting to establish precise tempo, meter, and rhythm with an ensemble. Experienced directors are aware of the difficulty students have in keeping a steady beat, often initially realized by players during their first confrontation with a metronome. Successful conductors teach members of the ensemble to internalize the pulse by subdividing beats—to feel the pulse and subdivide into quarters, eighths, sixteenths, until that subdivision is internalized from much repetition (see Figure 10.10). =

=

=

=

FIGURE 10.10 Basic progression of subdivision

This practice should start at the beginning level at which the ensemble players are playing quarter notes in band and orchestra. To feel the eighth-note level and subsequent levels of subdivision requires opportunity and practice. The more the students can delve into subdivision, the more precise the music. Rehearsal strategies to build subdivision skills should involve various kinds of bodily movements or vocalizations. These can range from tapping feet, clapping, speaking, chanting, conducting, and marching. The metronome click can be amplified over loudspeakers to be audible during an ensemble’s actual playing during rehearsals. This can demonstrate where passages lose time or rush. Cease conducting while the ensemble continues to play to assess the extent to which they can internalize the pulse. In warm-ups, passing a scale through a section or the full ensemble can help maintain tempo integrity as well as build individual performance skills. Each piece practiced at a given rehearsal will have unique needs and this underscores the importance of thorough lesson plan preparation. When preparing a score for rehearsal, identify rhythms that may pose difficulty for students and create two to three different teaching methods that you might use to teach the rhythms to the ensemble. Refer to Chapter 10 for specifics with a younger ensemble. Quite often the tempo can be inconsistent because there are rhythm reading problems in the ensemble. Conductors should remind players to have knowledge of the length from one pulse to the next. They need knowledge of whether that tempo beat divides into two’s or three’s. And finally, they need to recognize specific rhythm groupings or patterns. Rhythmic accuracy is the most important factor toward creating tempo stability. Listen to rehearsal recordings and analyze phrase endings (where immature ensembles tend to rush). Be sure you have baton technique clarity in preparatory beats, downbeats, releases, and fermatas. These four areas are the most important conducting gestures you can practice to contribute to your ensemble’s precision.

Intonation and Tuning Teaching intonation within the rehearsal should be primarily a matter of enhancing listening skills for the players. Ensemble musicians should assume responsibility for their own intonation but a conductor should oversee the process. The podium is the “catbird’s seat” and there are times when players either cannot hear other players across the ensemble or they become too engrossed in their own world to consider that dimension. It is the conductor’s job to provide an encouraging environment in the rehearsal so students are unafraid to take their best guess about adjusting pitches so they can improve and learn. It is also important that the conductor have a thorough understanding of intonation tendencies for all of the instruments in order to both anticipate problem areas and assist the players in their adjustments. It is not a stretch to teach that out-of-tune notes are wrong notes.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 119

PLANNING FOR AND REHEARSING INSTRUMENTAL ENSEMBLES

119

Before intonation can be responsibly addressed, the conductor must insist on the most centered and best possible sounds from every player. A good tone makes the overtones more audible, and it is often the overtones that our ear uses to match intonation. A bad tone cannot be tuned. Also, away from rehearsal, students should have the opportunity to discover their personal intonation on their instrument using a partner with an electronic tuner or a tuner app to record tendencies on a chart. Chromatic tuners, clip-on tuners, and tuner apps are Finding Just Intonation relatively cheap tools and this technology is a useful asset, but there are limits to what assistance tuners can provide. 1. Play a C with a machine generated drone. Most electronic tuners are built and adjusted for equal 2. Have a trombone student (with great tone) play an E; a major third above. temperament—that is, similar to the piano where every half 3. Have the class listen for the beats while the trombonist step is equal. The pure overtones created by instruments are continues to move the slide (not the tuning slide) slowly not guided by equal temperament but rather what is called until the major third Is in total agreement (beatless tuning) just intonation. We can still use the tuners for determining with the root. instrument tendencies and even tuning the root of a chord. 4. Now, have a tuner app running. Turn off the drone while But another step in the process of teaching intonation is the trombonist continues to play. You will find that the necessary if intonation excellence is to be achieved. It can trombonist's note is 13 to 15 cents, FLAT on the tunes. be demonstrated doing this (Figure 10.11): How can this note be flat on the tuner and yet “in tune” FIGURE 10.11 Finding just intonation to our ear? Because equal temperament is not what our ear wants to hear. Equal temperament was built so that the octave was divided equally, not based on acoustical overtone principles. The difference between that E as a major third (C major) vs. minor third (C# minor) is about thirty cents. Thirty cents’ difference for the same note! So the placement of a note changes as its harmonic function changes. This is yet another reason to study scores carefully. Professional musicians adjust each note depending on the function and the group’s prevailing pitch center. Perhaps the best tool in teaching intonation in the rehearsal is singing. The better the students can sing a section, the more in tune they play it. Singing on neutral syllables helps them focus their energies on pitch alone. It also allows them to bend the pitches to fit within the just intonation mentioned above without even thinking about it. Then, when they return to their instruments, the pitch almost always improves. There are several techniques to get the students to sing and the best method is to start singing with instrument in hand from the very start. As adolescent voices change or pressure to “be cool” discourages vocalizing, have the students hum the pitch and then open their mouths while humming. Some imaginative teachers even resort to a kazoo! This might lessen the hesitation. If singing is to become part of the culture of rehearsing and playing, teacher modeling is the best tool.

Articulation and Bowing The elements of articulation and bowing are almost impossible to separate from musical style, phrasing, and interpretation, except that articulation and bowing represent the more technical aspects of musical communication while the latter represent the more artistic. These concepts often interweave yet the technique often facilitates the artistry, hence the separation in this chapter.

Articulation Strategies All of the most successful teaching strategies for articulations are nonverbal. The conducting must clearly communicate the desired weight, length, and style. Vocal, instrumental, or recording demonstrations all upstage verbal descriptions. Also, visual models or graphic symbols can model the sound shape of notes very effectively (Figure 10.12). There are essentially five basic articulation styles that every ensemble must develop. These are staccato, legato (including slurred passages), tenuto, accented, and the most common articulation being unmarked. Within these five articulations there are infinite shadings of course. The warm-up time can be used to unify the approach to each and then apply it directly to the repertoire. It is important to look at how to approach each of these in rehearsal. The staccato articulation seeks daylight between notes and is perhaps the lightest in interpretation. Rather than think short or

FIGURE 10.12 Articulation Graphics

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 120

120 THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

clipped, players should think light and separated. Typically the piccolo needs to demonstrate the band’s most separated staccatos and the larger instruments the least separated—but still separated! Techniques specific to slurring are the awareness that there is a tendency to rush especially the last notes of a long legato or grouping of slurred notes. Slur markings and phrase markings can often be mistaken for one another so the conductor must be aware of composer intent. Brass players should rarely rely on a pure lip slur to slur a passage. The legato should be tempered with a legato “du” tongue. Fingers can learn to be more rhythmically accurate during slurred passages by varying the rhythm and training the fingers to press and release in time. The tenuto articulation can be interpreted in many ways. It can mean the note is sustained full value or it can indicate for the player to give a slight emphasis more than an unmarked note. It can sometimes indicate an increased duration and also indicate starting the tone with a smooth entrance. This articulation is easily communicated in conducting gesture by showing weight and resistance in the pattern. The regular or common accent has a wide range of meanings for the performer’s technique. It requires that there be a dynamic change (louder) on the initial approach followed by a recovery from that first impression. Many times a space of silence before this dynamic change “sets up” the accent to make it more in contrast to the non-accented surrounding notes. The marcato or “carrot-top” accent usually requires more weight and more space than the common accent. Accents using sfz, rfz, fp, and sf all must be unified and balanced in the context of the selection. A careful study of types of accents in a march will provide an ensemble with many variations on this articulation. The vast majority of notes on a page show unmarked articulations, and it is wise to avoid using the overly aggressive word “attack” for these. Opt instead to say approach or articulate. When the nonverbal signals are not enough, some good descriptors for the kinds of articulations needed are those that evoke the players’ imagination such as “more pointed,” “fall back,” “weightier,” or “more elf-like.” For percussion, articulations are dependent on mallets/sticks (yarn, wood, plastic, rubber, metal, felt) as well as the weight of the shaft in addition to the player’s stroke. Conductors may have to specify when a certain mallet would bring the desired effect; however, it should be made clear that the percussionists help define the clarity of many passages for the winds and strings. Percussionists should be advised to “breathe” with the ensemble to avoid early attacks. Their notes sound immediately while there is often a slight delay in the articulations for winds and strings. Novice ensembles tend to articulate too forcefully in loud passages, and this results in issues with tone, intonation, and rhythmic precision. Through maturity and rehearsal, nuance will grow but until then it may be up to the teacher to suggest that there be more air behind the tongue and if tempos are too fast for clean tonguing, perhaps consider articulation changes (slur 2, tongue 2 instead of tongue all 4, for example) to accommodate.

Bowing Strategies The orchestra director and the concertmaster are responsible for creating uniform bowings for the string section. If there is any truth to the general impression that the orchestra is a more elite ensemble than the high school band, it is because of the musical responsibility associated with bowing. The novice may think of music as consisting of a series of notes, bowed consecutively, down-up, down-up, and so on. This unimaginative bowing pattern would produce only the notes—the music would be absent and the listener robbed of the enormous potential of the string instruments. A string orchestra, well-disciplined in bowing practices, can provide a complete musical experience. Bowings are often marked when the composer/arranger has specific sounds in mind; when the bowings are indicated, the player merely needs to practice them to perfect the marked articulations. There is a great deal to learn about musical styles and the primary composers of music for strings. Though there is also much to learn about bowing; no one thought it necessary to compile a list of guidelines for orchestral bowing until Elizabeth Green’s book, Orchestral Bowings and Routines.19 This slim volume is the one “basic” book of orchestral bowings with musical examples, and although some of the music is quite advanced, her suggested bowings clearly make sense when applied to the musical excerpt selected from the best orchestral literature. It is simple to explain that a pick-up note or notes are played up-bow in order that the first beat of the measure can receive the normal emphasis or accent with a down-bow. Other bowings, however, are more difficult to explain without musical examples. Elizabeth Green’s list of 14 principles emphasizes the importance of a good down-bow, suggesting that the player always count the number of pick-up notes prior to an important, accented first beat; an even number of separated pickup notes start down-bow, an uneven number, up-bow. Preparation is required for long slurs as the unwritten rule is never to run out of bow before the musical idea is completed. The ear, a sense of style, and good command of the instrument are essential to any discussion of the number of appropriate bowings.

Musical Style, Phrasing, and Interpretation The realization of the notes of a score requires a combination of music research, musical understanding, and musical taste. The teacher needs to build a thorough knowledge of traditions and conventions as well as the ability to contribute

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 121

PLANNING FOR AND REHEARSING INSTRUMENTAL ENSEMBLES

121

imagination and sensitivity. A synthesis of music theory, aural skills, music history, private study, conducting technique plus life experiences with great art, literature, architecture, nature, events, and people contribute to the conceptions of the music that music teachers communicate. There are techniques that allow the conductor to capture the spirit and essence of any work, and it is up to the musical leader to kindle within the players that musical spark that can make for deeply meaningful experiences. It is important to start the development of players’ imaginations and creativity as soon as possible. Students need to know that they need an idea before they play a musical passage. What is it that they are trying to express to the audience? What is it that they are communicating? Can we play “Hot Cross Buns?” Great! Now can we play it joyfully, angrily, jealously, dreamily? The art of musical expression can start at the very first music lesson. In the ensemble rehearsal, musical style and interpretation can start at the macro or micro levels depending on the piece, and it is good to approach different pieces in the way that best allows for the Melos to be communicated. With the macro approach, the right tempo is the primary consideration for a proper musical interpretation. Beyond the tempo, the stylistic approaches fall into categories of staccato, marcato, legato, or tenuto with infinite shadings within those broad categories. In school ensembles we should strive to have our students exposed to all of these areas, perhaps in a single concert, in order to help them develop their ability to express and interpret beyond the mezzo-forte, semilegato world. Effective conductors use metaphors, stories, and experiences to help paint a vivid picture of the music’s true meaning and message. If the music has nothing to say or the message is shallow or trite, is it worthy of study? With the micro approach, the ensemble delves into phrasing, dynamics, and the development of musical nuance. When you develop the musical line with your students in rehearsal, there are several key elements of which they should become aware. Every phrase is either progressing to a high point or climax or it is coming from a high point. It is the climax point of the line that helps us give shape, contour, and definition to that line. The great oboist and teacher, Marcel Tabuteau would have his students assign numbers to notes in a phrase with the highest numbers corresponding to the peak notes. The lower the number, the softer the note; the higher the number, the more intense the note. Students should be allowed to contribute their views as to what notes they would designate as the climax. Then, as the teacher you could suggest musical ways to highlight their choice. They could vary the speed, vary the dynamic, enunciate the articulation more clearly, or perhaps play with a brighter tone quality or with a more rapid vibrato. As a conductor, you will need to communicate the beginning of the phrase and the end of the phrase with appropriate gestures indicating the dynamic, tempo, and style. While the phrases are being performed, conducting gestures indicating the rise and release of musical tension should be evident. Remember that a repeated passage or a repeated series of notes should usually move either toward or away from a designated high point. The acclaimed teacher, Edward Lisk stated, “Music is a journey to a point of repose.” Consequently he suggested rules for teaching the direction of the phrase: Low searches for High; High searches for Low; Short searches for Long. We should always feel the forward motion of the musical line. Emphasis on interpretation must not wait until the notes and rhythms are mastered. Artistic manipulation of lines and harmony can furnish students an incentive for greater control of tonguing, tone, and all other musical factors, because interpretation is what makes the music alive and worthy of the effort. The movement of melodic lines, motifs, harmonic progressions, countermelodies, and counter-rhythms is the essence of music. Effectively emphasizing these so that they are heard in proper balance, from the smallest passing tone to the total formal design, is interpretation. This can be done only when the players recognize movement and can hear how their parts fit with the whole. The notation is the blueprint for the music; players learn this through explanation and demonstration from the conductor and also through guided listening.

Rehearsal Communication There are really only two options available for rehearsal communication: nonverbal and verbal. There is nothing quite like the thrill (for conductor and performer alike) of having the ensemble respond to suggestions and interpretations offered nonverbally through artistic conducting gestures. Clear conducting patterns and gestures with abundant eye contact give students a professional experience. The use of facial expressions, vocalizing the line, and body language to model a concept such as movement of a musical line make for efficient pacing. Consider nonverbal communication as the first option. Verbal communication, especially questions to encourage problem-solving skill development, along with inevitable helpful instruction and comments to further understanding, should be used to clarify nonverbal gestures. Musical independence can be promoted through the way a director corrects mistakes. The correcting process should involve the students in making musical decisions as well as in identifying and correcting technical problems. To the director, it may seem more efficient to stop the group and quickly give directions to improve the performance. However, if time can be taken to listen and then gesture or lead a discussion on how to address the issue—whether it is how to shape a phrase or where a crescendo might be added to make a section of the music more effective—more learning will occur. In short, musical independence will be fostered. Students seldom make mistakes on purpose (well, maybe the trombones), but it can become habit-forming for students to plod along satisfied with their own mediocrity if the director doesn’t

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 122

122 THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

prod them to greater alertness. Encouraging students to analyze a problem and devise a solution leads to musical independence, if they have a mental model of what the ensemble should sound like.

Student Leadership Research in cooperative learning and constructivism suggests that learning may best proceed when decisions toward a goal are shared. Choosing student leaders either by election or audition can provide increased motivation. Eugene Migliaro Corporon states it best:20 Let the kids teach each other. . . It’s not enough to tell players what the problems are, you must help them to experience the solution. . . Players need to understand their relationship to music-making and their responsibility.

Reserve places in the rehearsal for student input and leadership. Consider using an expressive piece for an Orpheus Chamber Orchestra-style rehearsal, which means the musicians lead themselves without the aid of a conductor. This includes allowing students to decide which ensemble issues to tackle, how and where to start rehearsal areas, and whose part determines the flow of the line. The learning environment can become activated with student commitment and a true sense of a community that cares is fostered.

Practicing It is essential that young people realize that mistakes are a part of learning. Directors can clearly model this by admitting their own mistakes. Ensembles strive for perfection, but it is a goal never truly reached. Students can learn to anticipate errors and avoid them (often by simply paying attention), and with time the director can be seen as a source of information and guidance to help them reach their goals—not as a tyrant who rules the group with an iron fist where every mistake results in humiliation. The teacher’s positive attitude helps tremendously. No one enjoys falling below a teacher’s expectations. Success should be met with reward; limited success should be met with limited rewards. It is important to teach students how to practice. The ability to practice is no more natural than the ability to finger an oboe—both require instruction. Students will discover the more investment they put in personally, the greater the reward. Sometimes technique can be developed by playing through the passage with altered rhythms rather than mere repetition. For example, a passage in rapid sixteenth notes may be practiced with the rhythms shown in Figure 10.13.

1

2

3

4 3

5

6

7

3

3

3

8

FIGURE 10.13 Various rhythm approaches to learning rapid sixteenth passages rhythm

Wynton Marsalis provides 12 suggestions regarding “tackling the monster”:21 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Seek private instruction. Make a schedule. Set goals. Concentrate. Relax—practice slowly. Practice hard parts longer. Always play with maximum expression. Learn from your mistakes. Don’t show off. Think for yourself. Be optimistic. Look for connections.

In today’s busy adolescent life, students have difficulty making time for practicing their instruments. Being talented helps a student achieve, but efficient and consistent practice helps more. Encourage students and parents to ensure that

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 123

PLANNING FOR AND REHEARSING INSTRUMENTAL ENSEMBLES

123

the seating, the music stand, and other parts of the home practice environment be free from distractions. Self-diagnosis (“what went wrong?”) and self-evaluation (“What can I do better?”) should be taught as a part of the monitoring process. The director must provide opportunities for every student to attain some degree of success or sense of accomplishment. There is nothing quite like taking part in an artistic performance of fine music. The process of getting to that point can be equally rewarding. As a music teacher, you can offer experiences in this art that can transform students’ lives forever. Your love of music combined with sound rehearsal skills will inspire and guide students to a lifetime of musical appreciation.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. What are some important facets of your middle school ensemble warm-up routine? How might this change in your high school ensemble warm-up? 2. Discuss ways you could vary experiences in a warm-up routine but still maintain its general structure. 3. What are some rehearsal methods you could use to vary the pace of your rehearsal? 4. When, in the development of the student musician, is the ideal time to introduce concepts of intonation to your ensemble? Why? 5. As an instrumental music teacher, what are the most important skills you want your students to achieve while reading a piece of music for the first time? 6. What should a comprehensive music education in a large ensemble rehearsal include? 7. What are some important facets of your middle school ensemble warm-up routine? How might this change in your high school ensemble warm-up? 8. Discuss ways you could vary experiences in a warm-up routine but still maintain its general structure. 9. You wish to create a positive rehearsal situation. Read the following and rephrase them to be more helpful or instructive (in the fewest words possible): (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) (H) (I) (J) (K) (M)

“Percussion! You are too loud!” “Clarinets! Those third-line B-flats are sharp.” “Trombones! Is it A or A-flat? I hear something in-between.” “Flutes! Can’t you go more than a measure without taking a breath?” “Trumpets! Someone isn’t spacing the accented notes.” “Tubas! (Or Basses) You’re dragging!” “Horns! (Or Violas!) I can’t hear you!” “Alto Saxes! You are tonguing way too heavily.” “Oboes! Diminuendo means what?” “Bass reeds! You’re late.” “Violins! Don’t use an open string for that E.” “Cellos! You need to use more bow.”

10. Where can you find resources for music selection? What steps can be taken to determine if the music you select for your ensemble is developmentally appropriate and is of high quality? 11. Discuss the role of process (participating in music-related experiences) vs. product (preparing solely with the next performance in mind) in school ensembles. 12. Discuss the pros and cons of programming to your ensemble’s strengths. 13. When, in the development of the student musician, is the ideal time to introduce concepts of intonation to your ensemble? Why? 14. What strategies do you have to assist your ensemble in keeping a steady beat? 15. What are some worthy, yet attainable program goals for ensemble members? For example, discuss how important it is that every student in your ensemble be able to read music as a result of the experiences in your rehearsals. Once you have these goals established, discuss strategies that will allow for their attainment. 16. What steps will you take to ensure the group is responsive to conducting gestures? 17. What are some ways that a novice musician can learn to make musical expression decisions? What steps can you take to provide ongoing opportunities for musical decision-making in your rehearsal? 18. Design an analogy or a metaphor to help students toward achieving the following results. For example, instead of “trumpets, louder please” you would say, “trumpets, the King of England has entered, play that like a regal fanfare!”: (A) (B) (C) (D) (E)

Smoother Lighter Shorter Get softer Marcato.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 124

124

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

RESOURCES Websites Army Field Band Materials armyfieldband.com/pages/education/overview.html Frederick Fennell Conducts The United States Navy Band youtube.com/watch?v=9mNMCX93jGA Midwest Clinic Handouts (Accessible 2000–2007) midwestclinic.org/2000-Clinic-Handouts.html Musicianship and Instruction cml.music.utexas.edu/online-resources/habits-ofmusicianship/video-performances/ Rehearsal Warm-Up Materials drive.google.com/folderview?id=0B6AF79PVm5e5S2p 0SEFybEc2SkE&usp=drive_web Simon Rattle Conducts Combined Student Orchestras youtube.com/watch?v=dP4kXJ92Qh4

Texts Barrett, J., C.W. McCoy, and K.K. Veblen (1997). Sound Ways of Knowing: Music in the Interdisciplinary Curriculum. New York, NY: Schirmer. Battisti, F. (2016) The Conductor’s Challenge: Finding Expressive Meaning in the Score. Ft Lauderdale, FL: Meredith Music. Battisti, F. and R. Garofalo (1990). Guide to Score Study for the Wind Band Conductor. Ft Lauderdale, FL: Meredith Music. Battisti, F., W. Berz, and R. Girsberger (2014). Sourcebook for Wind Band and Instrumental Music. Ft Lauderdale, FL: Meredith Music. Begian, H. (1982). Introductory remarks at the University of Illinois Symposium in Music Education. In R. Colwell (Ed.), Symposium in Music Education. IL: University of Illinois. Clark, L., (ed.). The New Bennett Band Book, Vols. I and II. New York: Carl Fischer Music. Colson, J.F. (2012). Conducting and Rehearsing the Instrumental Music Ensemble: Scenarios, Priorities, Strategies, Essentials, and Repertoire. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow. Copland, A. (2002). What to Listen for in Music. New York: Signet Classics. Eberle, R. (1984). Scamper: Games for Imagination Development. New York: Fromm International. Farkas, P. (1976). The Art of Musicianship. Atlanta, GA: Wind Music. Feldman, E. and A. Contzius (2016). Instrumental Music Education: Teaching with the Musical and Practical in Harmony, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Routledge. Galamian, I. (1999). Principles of Violin Playing and Teaching, 3rd ed. Ann Arbor, MI: Shar Music. Garofalo, R. (1976). Blueprint for Band. Portland, ME: J. Weston Walch. ––– (1992). Guides to Band Masterworks, Vols. 1 & 2. Ft. Lauderdale, FL: Meredith Music. ––– (1995). Instructional Designs for Middle/Junior High School Band—Teacher’s Manual (2 vols.). Ft. Lauderdale, FL: Meredith Music. ––– (1999) Teaching Stringed Instruments in Classes, rev. ed. Bloomington, IN: American String Teachers Association. Graham, L.E. (n.d.). American Folk Pedagogy (The Pyramid Fallacy) and Band Sounds. Unpublished paper in possession of author.

Green, E.A.H. (1990). Orchestral Bowings and Routines, 2nd ed., rev. and enl. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association. Hamann, D.L. and R. Gillespie (2012). Strategies for Teaching Strings: Building a Successful String and Orchestra Program, 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press. Hinton, S. (2012) Weill’s Musical Theater: Stages of Reform. Oakland, CA: University of California Press. Jagow, S. (2007). Teaching Instrumental Music: Developing the Complete Band Program. Galesville, MD: Meredith Music. ––– (2012). Tuning for Wind Instruments: A Roadmap to Successful Intonation. Galesville, MD: Meredith Music. Kjelland, J. (2003). Orchestral Bowing: Style and Function (workbook). Van Nuys, CA: Alfred. Kohut, D.L. (1996). Instrumental Music Pedagogy: Teaching Techniques for School Band and Orchestra Directors. Champaign, IL: Stipes; reprint of 1973 ed., Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Kreines, J. and R. Hansbrough (2014). Music for Concert Band: A Selective Annotated Guide to Band Literature, 2nd ed. Ft. Lauderdale, FL: Meredith Music. Kvet, E. and J. Tweed (1998). Strategies for Teaching High School Band. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference. Labuta, J.A. (1997). Teaching Musicianship in the High School Band, rev. ed. Ft. Lauderdale, FL: Meredith Music. Lamb, N. and S. Lamb Cook (2002). Guide to Teaching Strings. New York: McGraw-Hill. Leonhard, C. and R. House (1972). Foundations and Principles of Music Education, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill. Lisk, E.S. (1989). Alternative Rehearsal Techniques, 3rd ed. Ft. Lauderdale, FL: Meredith Music. ––– (2015). Artistic Nuance: Uncovering the Mystery of Musical Expression. Ft Lauderdale, FL: Meredith Music. ––– (2013). Lyrical Conducting: A New Dimension in Expressive Musicianship. Ft. Lauderdale, FL: Meredith Music. Littrel, D. (ed.) (multiple years). Teaching Music through Performance in Orchestra (3 vols.). Chicago, IL: GIA. Marsalis, W. (1995). Marsalis on Music. New York, NY: W.W. Norton. Mauk, S. (n.d.). Teaching students to sight-read. Retrieved from http://faculty.ithaca.edu/mauk/docs/ sightreading.pdf Miles, R. (ed.)(multiple years). Teaching Music through Performance in Band. Vols. 1–10. Chicago: GIA. Miller, D.K. (2015). Rehearsing the Band, Vol 2. Ft. Lauderdale, FL: Meredith Music. Pilafian, S. and P. Sheridan (2007). The Breathing Gym: Exercises to Improve Breath Control and Airflow. Mesa, AZ: Focus on Music. Ratliff, B. (2016). Every Song Ever: Twenty Ways to Listen in an Age of Musical Plenty. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Reimer, B. (2003). A Philosophy of Music Education: Advancing the Vision, 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Rush, S. (2006). Habits of a Successful Band Director: Pitfalls and Solutions. Chicago, IL: GIA. Rush, S., J. Scott, and E. Wilkinson (2014). Habits of a Successful Middle School Band Director. Chicago, IL: GIA. Selby, C.R. (2017). Habits of a Successful Orchestra Director. Chicago, IL: GIA. Stith, G. (2011). Score Rehearsal Preparation: A Realistic Approach for Instrumental Conductors. Galesville, MD: Meredith Music.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 125

PLANNING FOR AND REHEARSING INSTRUMENTAL ENSEMBLES Straub, D., L. Bergonzi, and A. Witt (eds.) (1996). Strategies for Teaching Strings and Orchestra. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference. Thurmond, J.M. (2000). Note Grouping: A Method for Achieving Expression and Style in Musical Performance. Ft. Lauderdale, FL: Meredith Music. Wagner, S. (2016). The Pursuit of Excellence: A Band Director’s Guide to Success. Ft. Lauderdale, FL: Meredith Music. Williamson, J.E. (2008). Rehearsing the Band. Galesville, MD: Meredith Music; reprint of 1998 ed.

Selected Ensemble Materials (Band) Balmages. Five Progressive Chorales for Developing Bands (FJH). Bullock. Warm-ups for Symphonic Band (Alfred). Clark. Five Minutes a Day. (Barnhouse). Clark and O’Loughlin. Connections: Chorales and Exercises to Emphasize the Art of Legato Playing for the Middle-Level Band (Carl Fischer). Curnow. Chorale Masters (Hal Leonard). Fussell. Exercises for Ensemble Drill (Warner Bros.). Gordon. 42 Chorales for Band (Bourne). Haines and McEntyre. Division of the Beat (3 books) (Southern Music). Hilliard. Chorales and Rhythm Etudes for Superior Bands (FJH). ––– Superior Bands in Sixteen Weeks (FJH). Newell. Bach and Before for Band, Volumes I and II (Kjos). Ployhar. I Recommend (Warner Bros.). Rhodes and Bierschenk. Symphonic Band Technique (Southern Music). Smith. Treasury of Scales for Band and Orchestra (Alfred).

125

Thurston. Bach Chorales for Band (Southern Music). Williams and King. Foundations for a Superior Performance (Kjos). Yaus. 101 Rhythmic Rest Patterns (Alfred).

Selected Ensemble Materials (Orchestra) Allen, Gillespie, and Hayes. Essential Technical Development: Advanced Techniques for Strings (Hal Leonard). Anderson. Essentials for Strings: A Systematic Approach to Technical Development (Kjos). Anderson, Forque, and Thorton. Harmonized Rhythms for Strings (Kjos). Fischbach and Frost. Viva Vibrato (Kjos). Isaac. The First Ten Minutes: Warm-up Exercises for String (Wynn Music). Newell. Bach and Before for Strings (Kjos). O’Reilly. String Rhythms (Kjos). Smith. Treasury of Scales for Band and Orchestra (Alfred).

Video Resources Basic Training for Concert Band Program for More Effective and Efficient Rehearsals Utilizing the Full Ensemble. (Masato Sato, 2004). Hiroshima, Japan: Brain Co. Harmony Training for the Ensemble, Theory, Technique and Practice to Build Ideal Concert Band. (Hiroshi Hoshina, 2005). Hiroshima, Japan: Brain Co. Modeling for Band: Efficient Teaching and Authentic Learning. (Haston, 2010). Chicago, IL: GIA. Sonority for Winds: Tuning, Balancing, and Blending Ensemble Harmony (2010) Hiroshima, Japan: Brain Co.

NOTES 1. Pilafian, S. and P. Sheridan (2007). The Breathing Gym: Exercises to Improve Breath Control and Airflow. Mesa, AZ: Focus on Music. 2. Lisk, E.S. (1987). Alternative Rehearsal Techniques, 3rd ed. Ft. Lauderdale, FL: Meredith Music, 71–73. 3. Newell, D. Bach and Before for Band, Vols I and II; Bach and Before for Strings. San Diego, CA: Neil A. Kjos Music. 4. Clark, L. (ed.). The New Bennett Band Book, Vols. I and II. New York: Carl Fischer Music. 5. Copland, A. (2002). What to Listen for in Music. New York: Signet Classics. 6. Ratliff, B. (2016). Every Song Ever: Twenty Ways to Listen in an Age of Musical Plenty. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 7. Eberle, R. (1984). Scamper: Games for Imagination Development. New York, NY: Fromm International. 8. Feldman, E. and A. Contzius (2016). Instrumental Music Education: Teaching with the Musical and Practical in Harmony. New York, NY: Routledge, 194. 9. Williamson, J.E. (1998). Rehearsing the Band. Cloudcroft, NM: Neidig Services, 10. 10. Reimer, B. (2003). A Philosophy of Music Education: Advancing the Vision, 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 266–267. 11. Leonhard, C. and R. House (1972). Foundations and Principles of Music Education, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 102.

12. Barrett, J., C.W. McCoy, and K.K. Veblen (1997). Sound Ways of Knowing: Music in the Interdisciplinary Curriculum. New York, NY: Schirmer, 77. 13. Consider the Teaching Music through Performance . . . series for assistance. More complete information can be found in end of chapter resources. 14. Battisti, F. and R. Garofalo (1990). Guide to Score Study for the Wind Band Conductor. Ft Lauderdale, FL: Meredith Music, 1. 15. Garofalo, R. (1976) Blueprint for Band. Portland, ME: J. Weston Walch, 30–36. 16. Smith, L.B. Treasury of Scales for Band and Orchestra. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Music. 17. Colson, J.F. (2012). Conducting and Rehearsing the Instrumental Music Ensemble: Scenarios, Priorities, Strategies, Essentials, and Repertoire. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 246. 18. Green, E.A.H. (1990). Orchestral Bowings and Routines, 2nd ed., rev. and enl. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association. 19. Williamson, J.E. (1998). Rehearsing the Band. Cloudcroft, NM: Neidig Services, 13. 20. Williamson, J.E. (2008). Rehearsing the Band. Galesville, MD: Meredith Music, 17–18. 21. Marsalis, W. (1995). Marsalis on Music. New York, NY: W.W. Norton.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 126

CHAPTER 11

Planning for and Teaching Beginning Instrumental Students

11

Teachers of beginning instrumentalists fulfill a similar function to youth sports coaches. They can provide invaluable guidance and inspiration in students’ lives by helping them to develop fundamental skills and concepts and by encouraging them to establish a passion and curiosity for music. Additionally, music teachers have the opportunity and responsibility to provide students with an aesthetic education in which beauty, meaning, and expression are at the core of learning. These concepts can be highlighted from the beginning of instrumental music instruction. The purpose of initial instrumental music instruction is to establish a productive, enjoyable atmosphere for learning an instrument so that students are positioned for success during the class, for later performance in bands and orchestras, and for a robust musical life. The requisite knowledge, skills, and attitudes for achieving these goals are discussed in this chapter and throughout this book. Before any instruction can happen, of course, students must be recruited into the program and acquire a suitable instrument. These topics are discussed in Chapter 6. In schools, instruction can be organized and delivered in groups of varying sizes and on similar or dissimilar instruments, and with or without an individual instructional component, though it typically does occur in groups. There is no one correct scheme. A good teacher will work with whatever situation prevails and make it as effective as possible. Many strategies used to introduce students to making music with instruments can succeed regardless of the situation or the structural premises. This chapter seeks to provide both context and content for the beginning elementary or middle school instrumental teacher, as well as to offer guidelines and approaches to working with important fundamental elements of instrumental music making at the beginning stages. The beginning instrumental teacher is vital to the musical success of the entire school district. This is never more apparent than when a single staff member teaches at all levels (elementary, middle, and high school), thereby serving as his or her own feeder program. Many beginning teachers aspire to a position that will allow them to conduct the quality literature they performed in high school and college. That is a noble objective, but the role of initially introducing children to instruments and to the love of music making is equally crucial. Regardless of one’s aspiration, even some high school positions involve teaching beginners, so the importance of this function should not be overlooked. In addition to the qualifications of the conductor as described in Chapter 9, the teacher of beginning students should possess the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

excitement and passion about teaching and inspiring young students; a strong understanding of the fundamental playing technique and common performance problems for each band and/or orchestra instrument; an ability to model on each instrument that they teach, with the characteristic tone quality of, at a minimum, a competent second-year performer; the ability to incorporate effective teaching strategies to foster independent development in instrumental music; a knowledge of strategies that motivate students to learn independently.

LEARNING THEORIES Naturally, music educators have long been interested in how people, especially children, learn best. No one theory offers the final answer on how to provide optimum learning, but a number of theories can be helpful in guiding instrumental music instruction. Each teacher should incorporate his or her knowledge of relevant learning theory and the subject matter into cohesive, effective lessons. The three most common and useful models for instrumental learning (behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism) are presented here to provide a basis for instrumental music instruction among beginners.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 127

PLANNING FOR AND TEACHING BEGINNERS

127

Behaviorism is built upon the late nineteenth-century work of Ivan Pavlov and John Watson and the subsequent work of Edward Thorndike and B.F. Skinner, all of whom emphasized that learning occurs when behaviors are changed by external environmental stimuli. The most important element of the theory is Pavlov’s principle of rewards and punishments. Essentially, students want to repeat those behaviors for which they are rewarded and avoid those for which they are punished—the classic carrot-and-stick theory. Thorndike conceived of this basic learning sequence as a stimulus–response system and built on Pavlov’s idea of classical conditioning. In this conception of learning, student behavior is influenced chiefly from outside the individual. Today’s classrooms have been heavily influenced by behaviorist thinking. The teacher is generally in control of the classroom and uses techniques to shape student learning and behaviors through grades, praise, stickers, and the like. Instructional objectives are typically written with behaviors as goals, and teachers use direct instruction (tell—show— practice—reinforce) to promote learning. Direct instruction can be particularly helpful in teaching fundamental performance and executive skills such as proper instrument carriage, rhythm reading, and tone production, and it is probably the most common approach in instrumental music. Cognitivism developed in the 1950 and 1960s through the work of Jean Piaget, Robert Gagné, and Jerome Bruner as a reaction to the behaviorist approach. It focuses on the inner mental activities of learners and is concerned with such processes as thinking, problem solving, memory, and concept formation. To cognitivists, learning involves mental activity and incorporates coding and structuring by the learner, who is an active participant in the process. Cognitivism is similar to behaviorism in that it uses environmental factors such as teacher explanations and modeling, but it also envelops mental processes such as planning and goal setting that can lead students to exhibit specific behaviors. It also gives greater consideration to learners’ attitudes, beliefs, and thoughts. Although music classrooms that support behaviorist and cognitivist strategies may appear quite similar, in cognitivism the teacher is interested in assisting the student to become more independent. Teaching students to plan and organize their own learning is a central component. So are self-evaluation and enabling students to understand how their current learning fits into their broader life scheme. In this approach, music students are not only active in making music in the classroom but are also involved in making decisions about their music making and learning. Constructivism is the belief that knowledge is formed based on a learner’s previous understanding and experiences. The learner is active and involved in a highly contextualized process of building knowledge for oneself rather than acquiring it. Vygotsky’s notion of the zone of proximal development and Dewey’s model of experiential learning are prominent constructivist approaches. In constructivism, the process of learning is viewed as more important than the outcome. In a constructivist classroom, the teacher is more a guide or facilitator (guide on the side) than a distributor of content (sage on the stage). Teachers must be flexible in their approach and are concerned with tapping into students’ current knowledge to help them to understand how their current learning is related to what they already know. This is done through asking “big questions” such as “What do you hear at this point in the music?” or “How did you perform compared to how you believe it should be played?” The responsibility for learning shifts to the learner and involves actively deriving meaning from one’s experiences. Joseph Shively believes that meaning in music learning can be enhanced in the following ways: • • • • • •

exposing learners to experiences reflecting the practitioner’s culture; involving learners in experiences that involve individual and group knowledge construction; engaging learners in experiences that reflect multiple perspectives; offering students multiple means of representing knowledge; involvement of other individuals and artifacts in the process of knowledge construction; experiences encouraging the reflective use of a learner’s knowledge base.1

Both Stanley Schleuter2 and Si Millican3 examined the contributions of multiple theorists concerning the process of learning instrumental music. They each suggested that a useful analogy is to view learning music as similar to learning a language. Although music contains some elements not present in language, such as tonality and repetition, there are important commonalities between the two processes. As Figure 11.1 demonstrates, native speakers learn language initially through listening and attempts at imitating, long before they develop the ability to read, write, and create language. Music should follow a similar method. Some teachers may gravitate toward a single learning theory and stick to it, whereas others may rely on a combination of them depending on the task at hand. For instance, learning a new tune might require a behaviorist approach involving direct instruction, whereas learning to play a song by ear or improvisation could be approached from a more constructivist mindset. The key, regardless of the theoretical underpinnings used, is to have an effective instruction plan that can achieve the goals established for the class.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 128

128 THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

Language

Music

•

Hear and experience language

•

Hear and experience music

•

Imitate language (babbling, simple words)

•

Imitate music through humming/singing

•

Chaining words together (“Me drink”)

•

Learn rhythm & tonal patterns

•

Identify words while looking at and listening to books

•

Hear songs performed and recognize patterns while reading music

•

Read

•

Read

•

Write/create

•

Compose/create

•

Learn theory of language (grammar, parts of speech)

•

Learn theory of music

FIGURE 11.1 Learning language vs. learning music

COMMON APPROACHES IN MUSIC INSTRUCTION Instrumental music teachers can learn much from their general music teacher colleagues concerning the best ways to approach instructing students. Good general music teachers have a strong working knowledge of music teaching methods or approaches that they incorporate into their classrooms. One popular approach is the Kodály method, named for Hungarian composer and educator Zoltán Kodály and grounded in singing. Students are introduced to music through authentic experiences of listening, singing, and moving along with age-appropriate games. Students begin to read and notate music after being introduced to a particular musical concept. The rhythm learning sequence is based on patterns found in Hungarian folk music, and a clear rhythm–syllable system (ta–ti) is used. Syllables are spoken before they are played or sung. Introduction to notation starts with the use of note stems only, unless the rhythm dictates otherwise (such as by differentiating between quarter and half notes). Curwen hand signs are used as a tool for identifying pitches. The Orff–Schulwerk approach has impacted American music education in significant ways. This approach highlights the use of unique wood and metal xylophones with removable bars in musical exploration and experimentation through creative play. Composer Carl Orff understood that music, movement, and speech were closely connected and originated throughout one’s childhood experiences. Although the eventual goal is the development of creative musicianship through improvisation, students begin with movement, rhythmic chants, and singing. This leads to the creative performance of songs in which improvisation is a key element. Music learning theory is a method of teaching audiation, which Edwin Gordon, the method’s originator, views as the foundation of musicianship. Audiation is the ability to hear and understand music when its sound is not physically present; it is particularly concerned with the tonal and rhythmic components of music. Gordon developed a sequence for learning music based on rhythm and tonal patterns, building on the learning principles of Robert Gagné and Johann Pestalozzi. Gordon’s sequence incorporates five discrimination levels (aural/oral, verbal association, partial synthesis, symbolic association, composite synthesis) and three inference levels (generalization, creativity/improvisation, theoretical understanding). The discrimination levels focus on the perception of information and the development of vocabulary, primarily through rote teaching. The inference levels allow students to use the information acquired during the discrimination levels to understand content. Dalcroze eurhythmics has helped to bring movement, improvisation, and aural training into music education. Emile Jaques-Dalcroze believed that musicianship could be learned through an approach that did not require theoretical analysis from the start. For him, experience came first and then understanding. Through observing his students, Dalcroze learned that they exhibited natural movements of the arms and feet while singing. He made the most of these movements by incorporating walking, swinging the arms, and other movements into exercises and games to help students learn. Dalcroze viewed movement as a means of helping students to learn music and, coupled with improvisation, as a vital tool for developing a strong rhythmic foundation. Shinichi Suzuki’s approach to teaching strings, the Suzuki method, is presented in Chapter 27, but should be mentioned in this context since it also has its own curriculum. One criticism of its application to school instrumental music settings is that parents cannot be present during instruction, as is normally expected in the Suzuki method. Nevertheless, many teachers do use Suzuki teaching strategies and materials in K-12 settings. These approaches can be helpful to the instrumental music teacher as he or she assists beginning students in developing the foundational musical skills necessary for learning to play an instrument. Each approach has its own societies that regularly offer training opportunities through workshops, classes, and even degree programs that can lead to certification.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 129

PLANNING FOR AND TEACHING BEGINNERS

129

CURRICULUM, STRATEGIES, AND TOOLS The beginning instrumental class, not unlike a rehearsal with more advanced students, has its essential content. Many excellent methods, tools, and materials have been developed to help both the teacher and student to succeed. The beginning instrumental curriculum has, at its core, the following three areas of content: 1. 2. 3.

basic instrumental skills; musical knowledge and skills; attitudes concerning instrumental music.

Basic Instrumental Skills The knowledge and abilities necessary to play (and properly teach) each of the instruments typically taught in instrumental music classes are covered elsewhere in this book. Here, we address the important knowledge and skills that should be introduced from the first lesson and reinforced regularly in every class for the first several years. The theme that should permeate the class is the development of students’ basic instrumental and performance skills, which should be addressed through instruction and reinforcement during each lesson. Proper carriage is covered in the chapters of this book on individual instruments, but some strategies can be used with heterogeneous groups: e.g., hand position is similar for many wind instruments. Assess students regularly to ensure that violinists’ left elbows are up and that trumpet players are playing with the right-hand fingers curved and the pinky out of the ring.

The First Lessons The first few lessons make or break the beginning instrumental music program and its participants. The teacher must be solidly prepared to achieve much in a short period of time, with the minimal goal of creating an initial sound on the instrument as soon as possible, followed by playing a basic three-pitch song such as the classic Hot Cross Buns or Merrily We Roll Along. Because technique differs from instrument to instrument, classes should ideally meet in homogeneous groupings, especially at the very beginning. At a minimum, the strings, winds, and percussion should be organized into separate groups. Instruction begins even before the students enter the room as the teacher greets the students, individually or collectively, and provides direction as to where in the classroom they should go, where the instrument cases should go, and what materials the students should bring to their seats. Teachers who do not have a dedicated ensemble rehearsal room typical of middle and high schools may find themselves using creative locations for beginning instrumental classes. Lessons have been known to take place in portable trailers, hallways, closets, foyers, cafeterias during lunch, gyms during PE class, or smaller, dedicated instrumental spaces; all with success. Some room characteristics that contribute to optimal instruction include adequate space for instruction and for storage of instruments, music, and materials; proper equipment such as music stands, chairs, percussion equipment, and large instruments such as string basses; an acoustic or high-quality electric piano; and a proper sound and recording system with speakers. Chairs should be placed so that students have plenty of room to play their instrument using proper posture and position and, ideally, to keep their instrument case in front of them. The teacher should have easy access to each student so as to monitor and assess student performance. Straight rows are particularly helpful for string players, who need room to move the bow without hitting someone else in the eye. Percussionists must be separated to reduce the temptation of using drumsticks as weapons against fellow players. Music stands can be set aside as they are not needed during initial lessons. Other materials brought to class should be placed under the seat. Since each class should involve quality music making and because teachers need to assess students’ musical understanding, consider having students begin by singing one of the songs that they will be performing at their first concert. Get their bodies ready by having them perform brief stretching activities (see Chapter 9). They can also work on keeping a steady beat in their feet and/or hands, which leads directly to a focus on proper posture. Consider using the Posture Chant (see Figure 11.2) to help introduce correct body position while performing. Wind players should also perform breathing exercises to become accustomed to taking in a deep breath and exhaling. All this should take no more than five minutes. Be sure to model each step and use the proper terminology (e.g., lower joint, fingerboard) when referring to parts of the instrument. The next step is to correctly open the case and take out, hold, and play the instrument. This is not the time for constructivist learning. Students need to follow step-by-step instructions to ensure instrument safety and learn proper steps that they will follow when practicing at home. The case should be positioned on the floor or a table and not on the student’s lap. Students will need assistance in getting the top of the case to face the ceiling. The instrument maker’s logo or another marking may be on the top of the case; if not, encourage the student to create an identifying mark. The latches on hard cases will almost always lift upward. Soft cases with zippers will need special instructions.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 130

130 THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

Back

straight

Shoul - ders

front

re-laxed

of

mouth

the chair

is

closed

eyes

are

both

feet

fo-cused on

flat

on

the front

the floor

(Stomp)

FIGURE 11.2 Posture chant

Once the case is open, reed players will locate the reed and begin to soak it in either a small container of water or their mouth and will begin to assemble the mouthpiece and ligature. Flute players will locate the head joint and brass players the mouthpiece. String players will remove the instrument (with no bow at this point). Percussionists should locate their mallets and attach the bells to the instrument stand. Making the first sounds comes next. If the strings do not already have fingerboard tape placed on the instrument, now is the time to do that so students can properly place the left hand in position. If time is limited, the teacher may want to first have students pluck each string while learning the name for each. Percussionists will learn to grip and play alternate single strokes on various pitches; you may wish to start with middle C as some may be familiar with that concept from piano lessons or general music class. All the wind players must work to create the proper embouchure (see the individual instrument chapters in this book) and produce a sustained sound on the mouthpiece, head joint, or double reed. Then add staccato pitches that begin with the tongue. Woodwind and brass players must now assemble the instrument with great care. Brass players should simply place the mouthpiece into the leadpipe and twist it about a quarter turn (trombones require further assembly). They should immediately learn never to hit the mouthpiece as it will get stuck inside the instrument. Proper assembly includes ensuring that the tuning slides are in the correct position. Reed players should use plenty of grease on the corks where the various parts come together, and all woodwinds must be gentle with the keys while twisting the parts into place as they can easily bend or break with too much pressure. Students can then learn how to hold the instrument with proper position, although the violin and viola players will start in “guitar” position (see Chapter 27). With the flute, one may want to wait to add the middle and foot joints until a solid sound is accomplished with the head joint alone. Each instrument has its own strategies and tactics that can be used to help students to remember the process. It is also helpful if a large wall mirror is available so students can observe themselves. The teacher must constantly monitor students’ progress and repeat and reinforce all the steps presented here before introducing the first song. After playing, the instrument must be returned to its proper position in the case in good condition. Water must be blown out of the brass instruments and woodwinds swabbed. All instruments can be wiped with a soft cloth. The latches must be secured and the zippers zipped. All this takes time, especially for the percussion and double reeds, and must be accounted for in planning. Finally, students must leave each of these important early lessons knowing what is expected of them before the next. Explicit instructions for each of these steps, accompanied by pictures or (even better) a video link, are needed. Students must know how much time they should practice each day and should write specific assignments and instructions in their planner. To reinforce the importance of practicing at home, teachers should plan to assess student progress at the beginning of each lesson (see Chapter 4 for ideas). Depending on how often a class meets and the length of each meeting, the time required before the group can play its first song can vary considerably. At each lesson, you will need to spend some time reviewing the previously learned steps and then move forward. It is key to find ways to keep each class musical and exciting along the way.

Brass and Woodwind Considerations The amount of time needed in each lesson for the initial steps described here will decrease as the students improve in ability, but the importance of assessing and reinforcing student progress will remain constant throughout. As brass and woodwind players develop, they should begin each class lesson with a few breathing drills that help them to focus on correct inhalation and exhalation of air, followed by playing long, steady tones with the best possible tone. Brass players should continue to buzz these with the mouthpiece alone before moving to the instrument and adding lip slurs. For all wind players, skills that develop proper breath support, embouchure formation, tonguing, and finger (or slide) positioning and mechanics are an essential part of each lesson. Perhaps the most difficult of these skills to learn is proper tonguing and articulation, but teachers need to be adamant about starting each sound with the tip of the tongue behind the top

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 131

PLANNING FOR AND TEACHING BEGINNERS

131

teeth (say TOH) or on the tip of the reed and pulling the tongue away quickly. Students must be taught early on to stop the sound with the air and not the tongue. Instrument carriage should be a focal point for beginning wind players as, unlike strings, they often begin instruction on full-sized instruments. Give careful attention to using proper posture and moving the instrument into proper playing position, rather than moving one’s body toward the instrument. Some smaller students will need to use an alternative method to hold the instrument initially. For instance, clarinet players may want to pinch the thumb rest with the thumb and index finger. Use of neck straps and instrument stands whenever possible is strongly encouraged and for some will be a necessity. The first pitches played will vary, depending on the instruments being used and the teacher’s philosophy. Brass players should aim to play any open note and will have success in various ranges. Work to move everyone into a middle range from low concert Bb to the F above. It is better for woodwinds to use pitches that require the use of fingers at first. Flutes and saxes should play B-A-G while clarinets play E-D-C. If all band students are in class together, then work to find a common pitch. Concert F and Bb are often used but are more difficult for some instruments, such as flutes (Bb) and horns. It is imperative to find a common home pitch so that you can begin to work on developing a sense of tonality as it relates to the instrument. In larger, heterogeneous classes, good teachers have been able to implement strategies to work with instrumental subgroups while others in the room find alternative work, watch attentively, or finger along. A general outline of a first trumpet class, where these procedures are incorporated, is shown in Figure 11.3.

Strings String players often develop left-hand (e.g., finger placement) and right-hand (e.g., grip, contact point, weight) skills separately at first, and much time is spent with violins and violas in guitar position playing pizzicato, as it is easier for students to shape the left hand correctly if they can see it. As they transition to shoulder position, students should continue to set the left hand in guitar position to ensure its correctness prior to lifting the instrument. Violinists and violists should stand or, if playing when seated, maintain a “standing” position. This involves having slightly more weight placed on the left foot with the toes pointing slightly to the left, sitting on the front of the chair with a straight back and relaxed shoulders. A shoulder rest (or sponge) is a must. Cellists need chairs on which they can sit toward the front with rock stops for use on tiled floors; bassists may have greater success with a stool. Much early attention is paid to intonation, which starts with having the instrument in tune at the start of the lesson. It’s best to have instruments tuned before the students enter the room in order to maximize instructional time. This requires students to bring their instruments to class earlier in the school day to give the teacher time to tune them. As students progress, they can learn to use the pegs and fine tuners properly. String players typically start in the keys of D and G. Teachers label fingers from one (index) to four (pinky) and refer to them in that way (e.g., “for F#, place the third finger on the D string”). It is helpful for students to place the sounding finger and all fingers with lower numbers on the strings when first learning placement. Developing independent finger use with easy songs, scales, and arpeggios so that students can learn the patterns associated with these musical concepts is helpful. Among young players, playing with flat, not curved, fingers is a common fault, as are incorrect spacing and a collapsed left wrist. Students can play pizzicato while developing their bow hand so as not to inhibit development of the left hand. Some teachers delay teaching students to use the bow until well after the first concert. The bow’s weight and shape make it awkward to hold at first. One can start learning to shape the bow hand by substituting the left index finger for the bow along with small, light objects such as a pencil or straw. Students can then progress to the bow where they start with forming the shape at the balance point, which is about one-third of the way from the frog. String teachers have invented many games and exercises (e.g., windshield wipers, spider crawl) to help students develop the strength and skill to play properly with the bow, and these should be a regular part of lessons. Assessing whether students are playing with the proper weight, speed, and point of contact and providing feedback and reinforcement are a regular part of the music teacher’s responsibilities. In addition to proper left-hand and right-hand position, the beginning string class must also focus on developing: (1) détaché bowing followed by staccato and hooked bowings; (2) basic string crossings (with proper arm position); and (3) the ability to perform at soft, moderate, and loud volumes.

Percussion Students should begin playing both a mallet keyboard instrument and a snare drum (or practice pad) and spend time on both during the class. Most of the time should be spent playing the keyboard initially so that students develop a sense of pitch and tonality as it relates to the instrument. It’s best to assemble all necessary percussion equipment at the beginning of each lesson. Most starter percussion kits come with a small set of bells (keyboard), practice pad, and instrument stand, with an optional snare drum. We recommend that the snare drum remain at home. The practice pad can be set on the assembled keyboard for an easier transition between the two. Adjust the instrument stand to the proper position before

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 132

132 THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

The First Trumpet Lesson 1. Posture a. From the bottom up (in standing position) i. Feet flat on the floor ii. Knees straight iii. Stomach in iv. Back straight v. Shoulders back, not totally though vi. Head straight vii. Chin Up viii. Eyes Forward ix. One step stand-up (straighten knees) 2. Instrument Care (general) a. Direction of instrument in case b. Be careful, the instrument dents easily 3. Embouchure (normal face) a. Keep a normal face and say MMMMMMMM 4. Like sucking a lemon. The corners must be firm. 5. Breathing a. Big breath through the mouth 6. Opening case a. Words up b. Latches up 7. Mouthpiece only a. Center of lips, left to right; ½ on upper lip, ½ on bottom lip b. Sound like a duck c. Play 4, wait 4 8. Instrument assembly a. Place trumpet on lap with the "bump" up b. Place mouthpiece in the end and twist until it's firm 9. Holding Position a. Left hand i. 3rd finger in ring key (or 2nd if long) ii. Adjust the ring key as needed iii. Thumb wraps around valve casings and fits into first valve slide ring b. Right hand i. Backward C (Big Mac Hand) ii. Pinky is not in the ring iii. Rest fingers on valves 10. Playing position a. Instrument and arms slightly lower than parallel to the floor b. Bring instrument to mouth. 11. First sounds on instrument a. Steady air b. Steady embouchure c. Steady instrument

FIGURE 11.3 The first trumpet lesson

the keyboard is attached, and make a mark on the stand to show where it should be set for future reference. The playing surface should be about three inches below the wrist and hand, which is extended at 90 degrees at the elbow. Percussionists should stand with their body centered behind the midpoint of the drum or the middle note of the range of pitches they will play on the keyboard. Their body weight should be evenly distributed across both feet. Learning to grip the stick and mallet properly using matched grip (see Chapter 26) is a primary focus of beginning lessons. A key difference between mallets and sticks is that mallets are held close to the end of the shaft whereas sticks are pinched about one-third of the distance from the butt end. The mallet is held using what is commonly referred to as a “knock on the door” grip, whereas the ring and pinky fingers are more wrapped around the drumstick. The stick and mallets are both held with a straight extension of the forearms. After you have introduced the grip, how to properly strike the instrument is the next area of focus. Whereas the snare drum will have a natural bounce off the head, students must be taught to draw the sound out of the keyboard by lifting the stick quickly back into the beginning position with a reaction as if one has just touched a hot stove.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 133

PLANNING FOR AND TEACHING BEGINNERS

133

The movement is almost entirely in the wrist and fingers when using mallets, so the elbows and shoulders should remain still. A greater variety of stick heights is used for the snare drum, depending on the type and volume of sound desired and the speed of playing. The stick heights are often referenced by the distance in inches away from the head at which the stick begins. The most common positions are 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 inches. Percussionists will learn to play a variety of sonorities and dynamics by performing at different places on the drumhead. At the center of a well-tuned drum, the fundamental pitch is stronger than the overtones, but as one strikes farther from the center, more overtones are heard as a part of the sound. Beginning players can play about halfway between the center of the head and the rim. Aim to place the mallet head in the middle of the tone bar and never over the node, where the bar meets the screw, cord, or other supporting device. Proper grip, stick or mallet height, stroke mechanics, and placement on the instrument continue to be fundamental focus areas throughout all lessons. The set of 40 rudiments developed by the Percussive Arts Society can help to guide development of good performance technique, as they provide opportunities to perform a variety of strokes and combinations of strokes on the snare drum. Single-stroke rolls, scales, arpeggios, and method book exercises will help to guide mallet technique development.

Musical Knowledge and Skills Rhythm Accurate reading of rhythms is a principal goal of beginning instruction. Before they are expected to sight-read rhythm patterns, students should become proficient in aurally imitating rhythm patterns vocally, physically with their feet and hands, and through performance on their instrument. Simple rhythms incorporating sound and silence performed in duple and triple meters prepare students for more complex patterns, which can be great fun to perform. It is important to introduce patterns, not solitary notes and rests. Progressively, notation for these patterns should be introduced and examples of their use in many styles of music should be performed. The goal of attaining a rhythmic and musical vocabulary is not only to perform but also to understand the role of rhythm. String players use rhythm patterns in the development of bowing mechanics, percussionists as an introduction to the rudiments, and wind players in simple tunes. As skill increases, the student is led to understand how these patterns relate to tempo, meter, and subdivisions of various beats. The understanding and performance of rhythm patterns can be accelerated through the use of movement. With young students, large muscle movements are often easier as the muscles can be better controlled. Swaying, tapping, marching, and other movements will help to instill an inner sense of pulse and rhythm. Tapping the foot with the heel, not the toe, is often more manageable. Patting the lap (slapping one’s thighs) can mark the tempo or echo rhythms. Clapping helps, but even more advanced students are typically not very good at clapping together, so consider using a softer “golf clap,” which involves only the index and middle fingers of each hand, to lessen the volume so that students can focus on their own sound and the movement. Rhythms are initially best perceived in patterns of two, three, or four beats within a specific meter, not in isolation and certainly not first by sight. Students are ready to read patterns when they can echo them easily using their instrument or voice. They can read using electronic or regular flashcards in echo patterns and then perform a rapid sequence of learned patterns. Duple and triple rhythm patterns should be introduced around the same time and should receive equal attention. Asymmetric and mixed meters should not be ignored. Various counting- and syllable-based systems that teach rhythms are available in addition to the mathematically based 1-e-&-a counting system. The Kodály (ta, ti), Gordon (du, de), Eastman (1-te), and Takadimi systems all have their followers. When selecting a system, consider the students’ previous experiences, the prevailing use of syllables in other music classrooms within the school district, and how duple and triple meters are used. In these systems, vocalizing patterns is as important as patting knees, clapping, and performance on an instrument. If there is any subject on which method books differ significantly with regard to presentation, it is the introduction of meters and rhythm patterns. There is no absolute best approach, but the method book should not be the arbiter of when a particular rhythm is introduced, as students can play much more difficult patterns than they can read. The objective is competence in performing rhythm patterns correctly by rote and with notation.

Tonality/Pitch Most beginning instrumentalists will likely have had a few years of general music experience prior to joining the band or orchestra, and they almost certainly have heard many hours of music while in the car, at home, at worship, and in social settings. These forms of exposure should have helped them to develop foundational skills that will transfer to the instrumental class through singing and listening. The instrumental teacher should tap into students’ knowledge and the methods used by their prior music teachers to facilitate efficient and effective learning. Whether or not an instructional

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 134

134 THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

system has previously been introduced, the teacher should move sequentially to help students to develop a sense of tonality as it relates to learning the student’s selected instrument. Tonality refers to the tonal center around which a given piece is constructed. The home or resting note is determined by an individual’s perception of its musical function in relation to other pitches around it. A sense of tonality is key to understanding pitch relationships and functions in most music, and this sense can be learned. Schleuter suggests that it starts with identifying when a played or sung pitch sounds right or wrong (i.e., whether or not the pitch “fits” with the pitches around it) and can be demonstrated by the following: • • • • • •

aurally recognizing the difference among songs in major or minor mode; anticipating the resting tone of a tune; aurally recognizing the cadential sections of a piece; experiencing tonal audiation, i.e., “hearing in your head” what the next pitches should be before they are sounded; knowing the difference between playing through a piece to “see what it sounds like” and knowing how it should sound before playing it; functioning tonally with musically trained ears, eyes, and fingers.4

The most promising method of developing a sense of tonality is through listening to and singing familiar songs. Before learning to play any song, students should hear and sing it using lyrics or a neutral syllable. The use of solfège, based on the movable do system, encourages development of tonality and is recommended by Kodály and Gordon. Curwen hand signs (see Figure 11.4) can give students a visual representation of the pitch, and their effectiveness can be enhanced if the teacher moves the hands in ascending or descending fashion as the pitch changes. Singing in harmony will help to foster independence in addition to a sense of tonality. Great enjoyment and learning can be gained through playing songs by ear, starting on various pitches. Encourage instrumentalists to play along with their favorite songs from the radio, movies, worship services, or online streaming services and to perform duets with classmates, siblings, and friends. One person can play the root chord tones or an accompaniment pattern while the second person performs the melody and another executes a drumbeat.

Expression Young instrumentalists can learn musicianship skills early in the instruction process. Expressive performing through shaping of phrases, use of dynamics, and performing notes of different shapes (e.g., staccato, legato) can be encouraged (though, of course, not perfected) among beginners. For example, once students learn the pitches and rhythms of the song Au Clair de FIGURE 11.4 la Lune, a soft and legato lullaby, the teacher can ask what it might sound like if it were Curwen hand signs played at recess rather than at bedtime. The teacher can guide the class to conclude that it might be played at a faster tempo, lighter, and with a bit more volume and then perform it in that way. Students can also attempt to use crescendo and diminuendo as the melody ascends and descends. Furthermore, wind players can learn to breathe at the appropriate places, generally at the ends of phrases. As students work to develop these expressive skills, singing can be a helpful instructional tool along with instrument performance.

Attitudes Students’ attitudes about band, orchestra, and music will be learned in their first classroom experiences. The adults who enjoyed performing in band as a child—and those who did not play for very long—still tend to recall their first teacher. Many will affirm that the teacher was the primary reason why they continued or stopped playing after the first year. Thus, the role of the teacher of beginning instrumental music is to prepare students for a lifetime of instrumental music making! The following attitudes can be taught and encouraged from the start: • • • • •

Making music is enjoyable. It’s gratifying to perform as part of a group. Persistence and hard work pay off in the end. Teamwork is important. Doing my best requires paying attention.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 135

PLANNING FOR AND TEACHING BEGINNERS

• • •

135

Being prepared and on time will help both me and my colleagues in the band or orchestra. No style of music is best; there is good and bad music in every genre. Working for the betterment of all trumps working for one’s own goals.

INSTRUCTIONAL ORGANIZATION We noted in Chapter 10 that students desire and need structure in rehearsal settings; the same is true of the beginning instrumental class. Although we recommend that older students spend 50–60 percent of their class time rehearsing concert music, the beginning class must often devote more time to learning new concepts, reviewing previously assigned material, and working through a method book. Additionally, part of each class must be reserved for developing foundational instrument skills. Thus, the time spent in a typical lesson of 30–40 minutes might be structured as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

getting ready—physical and musical warm-up (10%); learning new concepts: sound to sight (20%); review of previously assigned songs and exercises (30%); introduction of new songs and exercises (30%); creativity/ensemble performance (10%).

Each of these five parts is explored below. The goals for each lesson will dictate the exact percentage of time spent in each activity, but in general, the less experience the student has, the more time will be spent in the areas listed first in order.

Getting Ready: Physical and Musical Warm-up The instrumental lesson is a brief part of one’s school day, but for many students it will be the highlight, and it should be one of the most enjoyable. In schools where students receive instruction on a rotating schedule (see Chapter 7 on scheduling), they will first need to remember to bring their instrument, method book, and other materials to class on the appropriate instructional days and to come to class at the correct time, especially if being pulled from other classes for learning. When they arrive at the music classroom, students need to know where the instrument case is to be placed for unpacking, where they should sit, and the general routine for opening the case, assembling the instrument, and preparing to learn. These regular behaviors must be reinforced consistently throughout the first year. If students are coming from another class in the building, the teachers of those classes may need reminders of the starting time for instrumental music. Often a student who has arrived early can help to locate missing students, or a quick phone call can be made to another teacher. Developing positive relationships with fellow teachers is frequently a key component of getting students to your class on time. The first part of each class is used to help students in transitioning from previous activities so that they are fully focused on making music. To do that, students entering the classroom should hear music playing, perhaps a tune that they will be working on that day. As they assemble their instruments and prepare for instruction, inform them of the goals for the day and the materials needed. This information can be projected on your display board. Be enthusiastic and eager. Once students have their instruments assembled and their strings tuned, instruction can begin. Everything should be in its proper place so that each moment of the class can be used for learning.

Learning New Concepts: Sound to Sight Only one or two new concepts should be introduced in a lesson and then developed in depth, using multiple activities. A student’s first experience of a new musical concept should not come when one reaches that page in the method book. Rather, new ideas should be introduced aurally through live and recorded vocal and instrumental models well before the students see or play them. Concepts should be introduced in a musical context. New rhythm patterns must be played in a specified meter with a steady beat, using a recording of an interesting tune (played at a moderate tempo) as background; new pitches should be introduced in the context of a major and/or minor tonality. Reinforcing the use of light tonguing or bow placement when working on rhythm, or finger placement when introducing new pitches or patterns, is key.

Review of Previously Assigned Songs and Exercises This is a large part of the lesson and should lead smoothly to the learning of new material. Review of previously assigned method book exercises and songs can help the teacher to assess student learning and to determine whether the student has been practicing at home. Listening to students as they perform exercises and songs alone or in small groups will provide opportunities to assess individual progress.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 136

136

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

Introduction of New Songs and Exercises Once the teacher is satisfied that most class members have learned the previously assigned material to an appropriate degree, he or she can move on to new songs from a method book or other source, of which there are many choices. When starting a song for the first time, many inexperienced teachers simply provide a few pointers concerning any new information in the song and then let students play. However, we suggest that the new line (or song) in the method book should be approached sequentially, using a process that will assist the students when working on a new piece by themselves and in enhancing their sight-reading ability. One such sequential process is as follows: 1. 2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Listen. Students listen to a performance of the song (or line) while tracking the music with a finger. The performance can be a recording, or, preferably, the teacher can model the music on the instrument, at the piano, or vocally. Isolate the rhythm. Perform just the rhythms using the preferred counting or syllable system, clapping, tapping, stomping, etc. Perform them all the way through. If there are difficult elements, isolate the measure where they occur after you have performed the music in its entirety. Isolate the pitches. Sing or say pitches in rhythm using pitch names, solfège, song lyrics, or a neutral syllable. Sing and finger. Perform the song in rhythm while fingering the correct pitches. Buzz/pizz. Brass players buzz and strings perform pizzicato. Strings can continue to say pitch names if possible. Percussionists can “air drum” and woodwinds can repeat step 4 if they are also in the room. Audiate and finger. Think through the music silently while fingering. Play the song.

The process is not exhaustive and may need to be broken down further at times, but it can serve as a general outline for learning new songs. It also provides students with a step-by-step practice routine for when they are alone. The process works best when the song is performed in its entirety, from beginning to end, at each step while the teacher assesses students and gives feedback. Difficult areas can then be isolated further before the students play the song through again. Some teachers try to introduce all the difficult measures or rhythm patterns in a song first, from a sight-based perspective, rather than helping students to learn these during the time reserved for studying new concepts. Any new elements that one comes across in a method book should have already been experienced. Once students can play the line, they will enjoy playing along with a creative piano or electronic accompaniment and/or a stimulating beatboxing rhythm performed by the teacher. Improvisation and the use of creative harmonies are encouraged at this point as well.

Creativity/Ensemble Performance Students can be introduced to ensemble performance through duets, arrangements, and compositions often found in the method book, but students can also play differentiated parts well before the point at which they appear in the book. As students become comfortable with two parts, more complex arrangements can be introduced that involve harmonic, rhythmic, and melodic material until they are playing typical band or orchestra pieces. The skills needed as one transitions from playing a line in a method book to performing in an ensemble are many, but good listening is at the core. Students must be able to watch both their music and the conductor while hearing themselves play their own part, all with an apparent cacophony of sounds emanating around them. This transition can be approached effectively by not attempting to play five-part lines the first time the entire group is together. Rather, play familiar tutti exercises and songs from the method book. Encourage students to watch the conductor as he or she changes tempi, dynamics, and/or styles of conducting. To help students listen to other sections, each section can play a portion of music alone. Then, use different combinations of instruments (e.g., flutes and trombones, basses and violins, clarinets with horns, and percussion) and ask those not playing how the sonority changed. Continue to add sections until all are playing. Questions about other sections’ parts can be asked to focus students’ attention, e.g., “Which part has the faster rhythm?” or “Do the violins or cellos have the melody at letter C?” Giving students the chance to listen (either online or during class) to recordings of the pieces being performed will also help them to transition better into full ensemble playing. Percussionists will find it enjoyable to play the various battery and auxiliary instruments, such as the bass drum, cymbals, triangle, and vibraslap (see Chapter 26).

Improvisation Improvisation is easy to introduce in beginning classes and helps students to incorporate the tonal, rhythmic, and musical concepts they are learning in a new way. Students should learn tunes with simple chord structures that limit the need for any pitch-choice decisions. Fiddling is a great style of music to use when introducing string students to improvisation, as many tunes such as Turkey in the Straw and Cotton-Eyed Joe use simple chord structures. Teach improvisation within the context of a specific tune that has easy chord changes. Like many other musical skills, it should be taught first through students’ aural imitation of the teacher. Students can sing, scat, chant, and then play on a single pitch while chord changes of the tune are played on the piano or a GarageBand loop. Simple rhythms

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 137

PLANNING FOR AND TEACHING BEGINNERS

137

FIGURE 11.5 Fifty songs to learn by ear

can be followed by more complex ones, single pitches by sets of two and then three. Students must learn that silence during improvisation is as important as sound.

Playing Tunes by Ear Playing by ear can begin with having students perform random pitches that you or a student plays and then adding pitches that make tonal sense (i.e., tones that maintain a major or minor key). Scales and arpeggios are a great tool in this regard. Students can be asked to mimic as the teacher plays a five-note major or minor scale (1–2-3–4-5) or arpeggio (1–3-5–3-1). Next, have students take turns playing while the class mimics them; then do it again starting on a different pitch before adding simple, familiar songs with five or fewer pitches. A list of songs that students can play by ear is provided in Figure 11.5, but encourage them to play any song they hear on the radio, on television, at the movies, at worship, or elsewhere. Social learning theorists believe that much learning takes place through observing models. This is especially true for complex behaviors such as playing a musical instrument. Therefore, the importance of the teacher providing correct performances with voice and instruments, especially the instrument that the students are learning, cannot be overstated. Everything from proper breathing technique to a steady tone to improvisation is more efficiently learned through models. Other types of effective models include video and audio recordings and high-performing students.

PERFORMANCES, MUSIC LITERATURE, AND METHOD BOOKS Parents want to hear their children play. Thus, it’s essential to schedule the first concert as early as possible after instruction has started, and no later than when your students’ instrument rental trial is scheduled to end, because a successful concert could provide a powerful incentive encouraging a skeptical student (and his or her parents) to continue the instruction. The first concerts can include familiar, memorized songs that students know well to demonstrate what students have been learning. Ideally, the entire concert should be played from memory, as most instruction during the first three months should be based on an aural process of modeling, echoing, and learning simple rhythm and tonal patterns and songs while playing the instrument. The first performance is a great opportunity to showcase the uniqueness of individual instrument groups. Music selection for concerts is one of the most important decisions that an instrumental music teacher makes. For initial presentations, directors often select easy tunes that use 3, 4, or 5 pitches (introduced aurally) and may have each section of the band or orchestra demonstrate a suitable or favorite song. As players develop, performances can include concert pieces, songs played by ear, and more difficult method book tunes in multiple styles. Some styles (e.g., swing, Baroque) may require a more select or advanced group. Quality arrangements and original works for beginners exist and should be performed as an extension of ensemble skill development. Select music that uses simple meters (2/4, 3/4, 4/4) and easy patterns of half, quarter, and eighth

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 138

138 THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

notes at first. The pitch range should span no more than about an octave, or less for brass players. Stepwise melodic motion is best, with few skips or leaps. Using the basic keys of concert F, Bb, and Eb major for bands and G and D for strings, with limited use of accidentals, will help to make the transition to music ensemble reading more straightforward. Long, slurred patterns are not appropriate, especially for brass, nor are passages that call for complex fingerings. Two or three independent lines of major and minor harmonies, consisting primarily of unisons, thirds, fifths, sixths, and octaves, with phrase lengths generally of four measures to allow for frequent breathing, are adequate. More advanced groups may work with 2/2 and 6/8 meters, as well as rhythms incorporating sixteenth-note patterns and syncopation. Ranges can be up to two octaves for woodwinds and one and one-half octaves for brass. Strings may move into upper positions. The logistics of the first concerts cannot be overlooked. Information on where and when to report must be communicated to students, teachers, and parents and the facilities must be secured well in advance of the performance. The events should be on the school and instrumental calendars distributed at the start of the year (see Chapter 5). Specify what students should wear (e.g., uniform, black and white, no sneakers, etc.). Involve helpful parents in supervising students and their trips to the bathroom, have other music teachers help in tuning the strings and making last-minute repairs, and invite the principal to say a few words. Students should meet in a place where cases can be stored properly and where they can warm up appropriately (this may be the stage in a cafetorium). The performance should begin on time and last no longer than an hour, with minimal talking from the teacher. Keep the focus on the students and have the musicians listen to the other groups when they are not performing. The seating arrangements for performing groups should follow one of the options presented for more experienced (and perhaps larger) ensembles in Chapter 10, but they may need to be adapted for the venue. Along with selecting quality concert pieces for performance, a suitable method book from which to draw musical material is a necessity. Don Hamann and Bob Gillespie (2012) suggest using the following criteria when selecting a book for strings: appearance, content, structure, approach, assessment, and supplements.5 These points are quite applicable to band settings too. The nature of your classes—homogenous or heterogeneous, large or small—will influence your decision as well. For instance, if the horns are grouped with the trumpets or a large brass group, then selecting a method book with exercises that allow the horn to start in unison with the other instruments is important. Before selecting a method book, you must clearly establish your curricular goals and pedagogical approaches, as the musical material in any method book should match the goals and approach. You can become familiar with student books, the teacher’s manual, and available supplemental material at conferences, by visiting music stores, and by ordering samples from publishers. An online search for guidance on comparing string or band method books will reveal a number of interesting results. Joining online social media groups such as the Band Directors Group on Facebook will enable you to get recommendation from others about your situation. However, there is no substitute for getting the books and making your own comparison to determine the best fit for your situation. No matter what book is selected, it should support your goals, not the other way around. Supplemental materials included with the book are as important as the material contained in the book. Some of the more helpful materials that may be included are: (1) an accompaniment and performance CD or online recordings; (2) flashcards; (3) an affiliation with SmartMusic, iPas, or another accompaniment and assessment system; (4) theory/history workbooks; and (5) warm-up, duet, or small ensemble books.

CONCLUSION The responsibility for starting instrumental students out correctly on his or her chosen instrument is an important one. For students to earn success in later musical experiences, having solid foundational instrumental and musical skills is imperative. The teacher who comprehends the skills needed to play each instrument along with the most effective and efficient methods for students to learn to perform will be an asset to the community in which he or she teaches. Furthermore, he or she will earn the respect and praise of the high school band and orchestra teachers, students, and their parents.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS/ACTIVITIES 1. 2. 3. 4.

5.

What must be done in the initial flute (or other instrument) class to ensure that students leave feeling successful? Develop lesson plans for the first five lessons on any instrument. Examine three or four string and band method books. What makes them attractive to you as a teacher? As a student? Use the criteria from Hamann and Gillespie mentioned in this chapter to inform your decision. Examine a line of music from a favorite method book. List those elements of the line that will be the focus of attention. Why would a teacher select this particular example for students to learn? Which of the seven steps for introducing a new song/exercise found in this book might need to be expanded for the student to be successful? A student wants to start playing only the snare drum though you insist that they learn to play keyboard percussion as well. The family finds it difficult to justify paying for two instruments. What would you tell the family? The student? The principal?

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 139

PLANNING FOR AND TEACHING BEGINNERS

139

RESOURCES Websites Alliance for Active Music Making allianceamm.org American Orff-Schulwerk Association aosa.org American String Teachers Association astaweb.com Army Field Band Instrument Demonstration for Beginning Band www.youtube.com/watch?v=CCTeSjpDsls Army Field Band Materials armyfieldband.com/pages/education/overview.html Beginning Band Bootcamp beginningbandbootcamp.com Dalcroze Society of America dalcrozeusa.org Gordon Institute for Music Learning giml.org Instrument Studies for Eyes and Ears music.indiana.edu/department/composition/isfee Musical Futures musicalfutures.org No More Hot Cross Buns nomorehotcrossbuns.com Organization of American Kodály Educators oake.org Teaching Music Through Performance teachingmusic.org

Texts Burton, S.L. and A.H. Snell (eds.) (2015). Engaging Musical Practices: A Sourcebook for Instrumental Music. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Enloe, L.D. (2013). Teaching Beginning Woodwinds: The First Five Days. Chicago, IL: Sol Ut. Feldman, E., A. Contzius, and M. Lutch (2016). Instrumental Music Education: Teaching with the Musical and Practical in Harmony, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Routledge. Fraedrich, E. (2003). The Art of Elementary Band Directing, 2nd ed. Galesville, MD: Meredith Music. Gordon, E.E. (2010). Essential Preparation for Beginning Instrumental Music Instruction. Chicago, IL: GIA. Hamann, D.L. and R. Gillespie (2004). Strategies for Teaching Strings: Building a Successful String and Orchestra Program. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Kvet, E. (1996). Teaching Beginning and Intermediate Band. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference. Lehr, M.R. (1998). Getting Started with Elementary-Level Band. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference. Lombard, P.C. (1994). Fingering Practice for Beginning Bands. Portland, ME: J. Weston Walch. Miles, R. (ed.) (2015). Teaching Music through Performance in Middle School Band. Chicago, IL: GIA. Miles, R.B. and T.L. Dvorak (eds.) (Multiple years). Teaching Music through Performance in Beginning Band, Vols. 1–2. Chicago, IL: GIA.

Millican, J.S. (2012). Starting Out Right: Beginning Band Pedagogy. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow. Schleuter, S.L. (1997). A Sound Approach to Teaching Instrumentalists: An Application of Content and Learning Sequences, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Schirmer. Selby, C., S. Rush, and R. Moon (2014). Habits of a Successful String Musician: A Comprehensive Curriculum for Use during Fundamentals Time. Chicago, IL: GIA. Swanwick, K. (2012). Teaching Music Musically (Classic ed.). (Routledge Education Classic edition series). New York, NY: Routledge.

String Method Books Allen, Gillespie, and Hayes. Essential Elements for Strings. Gillespie (Hal Leonard). Anderson and Frost. All for Strings (Kjos). Applebaum. Belwin String Builder (Alfred). Barnes et al. Measures for Success for String Orchestra (FJH). Dabczynski, Meyer, and Phillips. String Explorer (Alfred). Dillon, Kjelland, and O’Reilly. Strictly Strings (Alfred). Erwin, Horvath, McCashin, and Mitchell. New Directions for Strings (FJH). Froseth and Smith. Do It! Play Strings (GIA). Frost, Fischbach, and Barden. Artistry in Strings (Kjos). Gazda and Stoutamire. Spotlight on Strings (Kjos). Grunow, Gordon, Azzara, and Martin. Jump Right In: The Instrumental Series (GIA). O’Connor. O’Connor Method for Orchestra (Shar). Phillips, Boonshaft, and Sheldon. Sound Innovations (Alfred).

Band Method Books Duke and Byo. Habits of Musicianship (cml.music.utexas.edu/ online-resources/habits-of-musicianship). Froseth. Do It! Play in Band (GIA). Green, Benzer, and Bertman. Essential Musicianship (Hal Leonard). Grunow, Gordon, and Azzara. Jump Right In: The Instrumental Series (GIA). Lautzenheiser, Higgins et al. Essential Elements (Hal Leonard). O’Reilly and Williams. Accent on Achievement (Alfred). Pearson. Standard of Excellence (Kjos). Pearson and Nowlin. Tradition of Excellence (Kjos). Sheldon and Balmages. Measures of Success (FJH). Sheldon and Boonshaft. Sound Innovations (Alfred).

Fiddling Methods and Videos Anger. Chops and Grooves (Homespun). Bratt. The Fiddling Cellist (Mel Bay). Norgaard. Jazz Fiddle Wizard (Hal Leonard). Perry. Fiddle Jam: A Way-Cool Easy Way to Learn to Improvise (Hal Leonard).

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 140

140 THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

NOTES 1.

2.

Shively, J.L. (2002). Thinking and Learning in Beginning Instrumental Music. In E. Boardman (ed.), Dimensions of Musical Learning and Teaching: A Different Kind of Classroom. Reston, VA: MENC. Schleuter, S.L. (1997). A Sound Approach to Teaching Instrumentalists: An Application of Content and Learning Sequences. New York, NY: Schirmer.

3. 4. 5.

Millican, J.S. (2012). Starting Out Right: Beginning Band Pedagogy. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow. Schleuter, S.L., 44. Hamann, D.L. and R.L. Gillespie (2012). Strategies for Teaching Strings. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 141

CHAPTER 12

The Marching Band

12

The pro and con arguments concerning the inclusion of the marching band in the instrumental curriculum are widespread and well known. In many communities the presence of an impressive and lavish marching band is a major reason the school music program is adequately supported. Others argue that the time and energy needed for a successful marching band take away from the focus of the concert band, which is to learn great music and perform it appropriately. Tradition and community attitude are crucial and are not easily changed. The marching band experience is valued by many of those participating as is evident by the huge college marching bands that are populated primarily by nonmusic majors—students who have little interest in participating in the concert organizations. Marching bands are less common in Canada than in the Sun Belt of the United States, where some units practice and perform much of the school year. In some communities, a parade band is sufficient with “pep” ensembles supporting athletic events; it all depends on the tradition of the school. Curricular and musical issues abound—can one participate in concert band but not marching band, or the reverse? Since the marching band is an entertainment and public relations vehicle, and is often not supported for its musical value, should excellence in marching affect one’s grade in band? And the list goes on. In the many communities where the marching band is presently an essential program component, the task of the director is often one of “controlling” the enthusiasm of marching band members. For directors who find themselves in this position, Frank Battisti may have said it best: “The chief goal of the marching band experience is to teach attitudes. These attitudes include striving for perfection; the necessity of discipline in seeking continual improvement; responsibility; development of leadership potential, and ability to take constructive criticism. Since these are transferable values, it is hoped that students will strive for them in all endeavors—academically and musically.”1 Of course, musical objectives can, and should, be taught. Marching bands can require a disproportionate amount of resources to spend on stipends for additional instructors of percussion, flags, twirlers, or other auxiliary groups. Specialized instruments need to be purchased that are used only in the marching band, and the time required for rehearsal is considerable—often a week or more is spent during the summer and daily rehearsals are necessary throughout football season. Some directors share fall rehearsal time between the marching and concert bands, which enables them to schedule a lighter concert in the late fall for the concert groups. Playing technique may be negatively affected if care is not taken, and students may forget what nuance is all about. With all of the arguments for and against it, if the marching band exists, the standards must be high with no hint from the director that excellence in the marching band is less important than excellence in the concert band, or that we all have to “suffer through” the fall until we get to the important part of the year. Albert Austin Harding at the University of Illinois is credited for initiating the first football homecoming half-time show. He was never faulted for lowering musical standards; actually the opposite occurred, so we enthusiastically relate the following information.

MARCHING FUNDAMENTALS Marching bands engage in two major activities: parades and field-based shows. We begin with issues common to both, the basic commands and maneuvers, and then will discuss principles of the parade band followed by information on the field or show band. Vocal commands replace rehearsal room customs when one is rehearsing and/or performing outside. A system of commands is needed to effectively and efficiently communicate instructions to the band. The most fundamental are: attention, at ease (or stand by), and parade rest. Commands should be succinct, clear, and distinct so that students can understand them quickly and anticipate the action. Each action or movement command should be preceded by a verbal directive that can be executed with a single motion. Directive/move routines that take only three to five beats for the preparatory and move commands are most efficient, though certain commands may require more reaction time. Commands must be given in an authoritative manner and at a tempo of quarter note = 96–120. Figure 12.1 shows some common commands; there is a directive and band-member response for each.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 142

142

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

FIGURE 12.1 Common commands used in marching band

Basic Marching Positions and Maneuvers What follows are descriptions, methods for executing, and photos of the most fundamental marching positions and maneuvers. Detailed descriptions are necessary as they must be carried out uniformly by each member of the unit for the best possible performance.

Attention This position is the primary position from which other commands are given. Its name reflects the mindset that members should be alert and ready for the next directive or move (see Figure 12.2a,b). There is no playing, moving, or talking in this position. From the feet to the head, the body should be aligned as follows: 1.

(a)

(b)

Feet positions are uniform and are usually in one of the following three positions: (A) Feet together: toes of both feet touching, heels of both feet touching (Figure 12.3a). (B) 45-degree angle: heels of feet touching, toes open to 45 degrees (Figure 12.3b). (C) Third position: taken from ballet, one foot at a 45-degree angle. The heel of the other foot is in the middle of the first foot pointed out at a 45-degree angle (Figure 12.3c).

2. 3. 4.

Ankles aligned. Knees straight, but not locked. Rear-end and stomach tucked in.

(a)

FIGURE 12.2 Attention position: (a) front view; (b) side view

(b)

FIGURE 12.3 Attention position: (a) Feet together; (b) feet at 45-degree angle; (c) feet in third position

(c)

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 143

THE MARCHING BAND

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

143

Back straight but not rigid. Shoulders back. Elbows at a 90-degree angle with instrument in carriage position. Head and chin up, not tilted down toward neck, remaining positioned above the spine. Eyes forward, focused forward, toward a point on the horizon.

Parade Rest This is a form of relaxed attention that is used when students need to be attentive, since a move command is expected to follow. From the attention position, the right foot remains stationary while the left foot moves out to shoulder width. The instrument is held in a relaxed but identical position with all section members. No talking or playing is permitted (see Figure 12.4).

At Ease This command is used when there is an extended wait time, but members must remain in formation. Members often have to assemble hours prior to the step-off of a parade. Members remain in the general ensemble formation, can talk, but do not have to be at attention or parade rest.

FIGURE 12.4 Parade rest position

Mark Time Mark time may be required when a parade is temporarily halted by breakdowns, clowns, or uncooperative units or for brief stationary periods during a show. The marching style is continued, except in place. A variety of styles is used but two types of mark time (low and high) are basic. Mark time begins with feet parallel and touching one another (Figure 12.5a). Toes and heels should be touching each other. For low mark time, toes remain on the ground. The heel of one foot rises no higher than the ankle of the opposite foot (Figure 12.5b) and returns to the ground. For high mark time the heel of the foot rises to the opposite knee. That is, the left foot hits the ground on counts 1 and 3, and on counts 2 and 4 rises to a designated position on the calf or to the knee, pointing directly to the ground or at a 45-degree angle toward the ground. The right foot hits the ground on 2 and 4 and rises on 1 and 3. Again, the action should be uniform. The point is to continue to play and step without moving forward—the expectation is that the pause will be short and the band can step off again without any cessation of movement or music. Showmanship can be added to any of these simple maneuvers with low and high mark time.

(a)

(b)

(c)

FIGURE 12.5 (a) Beginning mark-time position; (b) mark time with foot raised; (c) forward march initial step

Forward March This command is used to move all or part of the ensemble uniformly in a forward motion and is generally given from a mark-time position. On beat 4 of the command, instead of raising the foot or heel to mark time, the heel stays planted on the ground and the left foot moves forward and lands on count 1 of the next measure (Figure 12.5c).

Halt Used when the ensemble needs to come to a stop, from either a mark-time or moving position. The right foot remains planted on count 4, no matter what current step type is being used (forward, mark time) and the left foot is brought to the left and all motion stops. Marchers should be in the attention position.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 144

144

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

Instrument Carriage While instruments are in the “carry” position (not being played) they can be held any number of ways, but should be uniform within each section. One suggestion is to keep the tip of the mouthpiece at eye level or even with the chin and the instrument vertical. Establish and enforce a common position; players have been known to become lazy. The shapes of some instruments, including baritones (not the marching baritones), sousaphones, and tenor/baritone saxophones require a different carriage position. Baritone players can hold the instrument either against the body or to the right side depending on the position of the bell; fingers should be placed over the valves. Sousaphone players should be in playing position with perhaps a slightly different left-hand placement. Students holding larger saxophones will have difficulty keeping the instrument vertical and in front of the body, but the instrument should not be played to the side as this violates vertical alignment. Left-arm placement for all saxophone players should be parallel to the ground. Percussionists using sticks or mallets should place them straight down at their sides. Another option is to place them together with the butt end of one stick next to the tip of the other and grip tightly with one hand at either end. Hands should then be placed about 10 inches in front of the body, over the drum, with the back of the hands facing up. If mallets are not held at their sides, bass drummers can place their mallets at the rim of the drum near the chest. All instrumentalists should be able to move the instrument from the carry position to playing position in a single, snappy move. While playing, uniformity within the section, proper playing technique, and placement of the sound are important considerations for carrying the instrument. Since the sound is generally angled toward a reviewing stand or press box, three angles are used: (1) horizontal; (2) slightly elevated; and (3) directed toward the reviewers. Brass instruments should be held horizontal with the bells facing front during parades. For woodwinds, flute and piccolo angles should be parallel to the ground (different than concert position) while clarinets are at a 45-degree angle to the body. Saxophones are vertical with the right thumb between the instrument and the stomach, directly in front of the player. Marching units typically step off leading with the left foot, thus the left foot strikes the pavement on beats 1 and 3. This should be natural for most members, but it never hurts to practice since some players may find this difficult to accomplish while playing their instrument. The percussion section and the drum major establish the tempo, and a percussion cadence and/or whistles from the drum major inform the group that at the end of the cadence they step off with the left foot.

The Parade Most marching bands are called upon to participate in parades, which requires knowledge of fundamental marching techniques. The basics require the group to start, stop, and turn while maintaining straight rows and files. (The public judges marching units as much on appearance [no stragglers] as on the music performed.) Proceeding down the street can entail a variety of complex maneuvers, especially for competitive parade bands; these are beyond the scope of this introductory overview. The band, and perhaps the entire music department, may be judged by how well the group marches and how well the music is played. The American public likes parades and more people will observe students’ work during parades than in any number of concerts. The public wants the parade experience to be uplifting and satisfying; therefore, the selection of music is important. It must be appropriate for a correct marching tempo (MM = 110–132), must be arranged to sound good outdoors and by a moving ensemble, and must match the occasion. Marches meet the criteria but are seldom, if ever, used. Familiar popular and patriotic music, arranged for marching, is the norm. One wants a reasonably full sound at all times (with the music memorized), which requires a thoughtful selection of parade music. Parade formation is influenced by the number and quality of performers. A frequently used formation is to have the brass in front (led by the trombones), followed by the percussion, and then the woodwinds. This arrangement requires a strong woodwind section. The way to leave a positive impression of the unit is to avoid having clarinets, playing the third part, in the last row. Woodwinds can lead or can be placed in the center; there is no correct solution except your ear. You will likely rearrange from year to year depending upon the group. The percussion section can be positioned near the center of the band though others like to put them at the rear so that everyone is “listening behind them”. Consider positioning the low brass at the back so students listen back to fit into the pyramid of sound. The color guard and other auxiliary groups can be placed in the front, back, or on the side of the band. Some bands sound better with a broad front (perhaps 8 across), while for musical or show purposes others may value length and have as few as 4 or 5 columns. The ensemble, in part or tutti, performs throughout the parade. When the full ensemble is not performing, the percussion section plays one or more short, but interesting (16–32 bars) cadences, which are used to help the marchers maintain a steady tempo. Cadences and songs should be performed at the same tempo. To ease transitions between the cadence and song, a performance order should be established. Some parades require that the musical selection be performed at pre-designated places along the route and always at the grandstand. The number of percussion cadences between performances of the song is optional. A signal (such as a whistle or visual sign) can be given by the band director or

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 145

THE MARCHING BAND

145

drum major to move from the cadence to the piece. Variations to the routine may be necessary since the horn players may need to rest, or the band needs to play sooner or later than one established by a routine. Between the cadence and song is typically an 8-count percussion lick, or roll-off, which signals the beginning of the tune. Rows and files will remain aligned if every member takes the same size step—which is not an easy task with students who differ greatly in size. A 221⁄2-inch step is common, which translates to 8 steps for every 5 yards on the football field, but because a parade route does not have yard markers it is important for students to practice steps of this size. To maintain alignment the command given is usually “dress center,” which means to stay aligned with the band member at the center of the row. Turning corners is a movement that requires a step adjustment. The most common type of turn is the arc or pinwheel turn. The individual on the inside column (file) (right column for a right turn, left column for a left turn) takes a smaller step while the person on the outside needs FIGURE 12.6 Pinwheel (arc) turn to exceed the 221⁄2-inch step. It takes from 8 to 12 steps to manipulate a 90-degree turn. When the turn is completed, marchers continue to dress center as before. Because corners may take more than 8 steps, rows that have completed the turn will have to take smaller steps until the entire band has completed the turn. See Figure 12.6 for an illustration of the turn.

Basic Steps Glide (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

FIGURE 12.7 (a–d) Glide step progression

The vast majority of marching bands use the glide step as their fundamental marching step. It is also referred to as heel to toe or a roll step. The step allows students to maintain a steady upper body “attention position” for playing. The feet move parallel and close to one another so that the inside of both feet nearly touch when they pass. The toes point directly forward. Forward movement begins with a downward push from the right quadriceps muscle, and then the left foot is lifted. When the left heel strikes the ground, the right heel should be off the ground. The marcher smoothly rolls each foot forward to the toes as the weight shifts evenly. Figure 12.7 shows this progression; tempos for this step can be relatively fast.

High Step When movement at fast speeds is not necessary, a high step provides added flare and excitement to the visual elements. A variety of high steps is used. In the ankle–knee step, as its name suggests, the ankle of one leg is brought to the knee of the other halfway through the count (on the “and” of the beat). The toe is the last part of the foot to leave the ground and is the first part to return to it and should be pointed toward the ground when at its pinnacle. For the chair step, the foot still rises to the knee but the leg is in motion—the upper leg, from the knee to the hip, becomes parallel to the ground. The foot, with the toe pointed down at a 135-degree angle, is now in front of the body. Again, the toe is the last to leave and the first to return to the basic position. Some bands prefer to keep the foot and leg lower during the chair step, as shown in Figure 12.8. Tempos used for these steps should be no more than moderate. Percussionists, with the exception of cymbal players, do not use a high step but rather continue marching using the glide step.

FIGURE 12.8 Chair step (low)

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 146

146

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

Advanced Steps Some parade bands and all field-based shows additionally draw from the following advanced marching maneuvers.

Jazz Run At times a marcher is asked to cover a wide distance in a short period of time, and thus a larger step than the typical glide step is needed. In that case, a jazz run (or walk at slower tempos) is a good option. With this step, the knees are bent and the center of the body lowered to facilitate larger steps. Marchers should remain on the balls of the feet. Auxiliary members regularly use this step as they most often need to cover a long distance. Wind players also use this step when not playing, though percussionists should not, as a rule, utilize it. The step works best at moderate and slow tempos, but could also work at faster tempos (Figure 12.9).

Lateral (Slide) Marchers are often called upon to march in one direction while facing their instruments in another. Brass and woodwind players can rotate their upper torso while marching using either a glide or high step. Rotation is done from the hips and upper body (Figure 12.10).

FIGURE 12.9 Jazz run

FIGURE 12.10 Lateral step

Side (Crab) Step This step is used primarily by percussionists who need to move laterally yet keep their instrument in front, aimed toward the audience. One foot crosses in front, with the toes remaining forward so as not to drift. Marchers are on the balls of the feet throughout and the same foot remains in front at all times. Players do not have to be moving in a horizontal direction to use the step, but can use it whenever they are not using the glide step (Figure 12.11).

Backward Step

FIGURE 12.11 Crab step

FIGURE 12.12 Backward step

When the direction of sound needs to remain forward and the marcher must move to the rear, the backward step is used. In this step, the heel does not touch the ground, but rather the weight remains on the balls of the feet. When taking small steps, the legs are straight with the knees nearly locked. For larger steps the knee should be bent to permit the legs to travel the extra distance. Immediately preceding the first step, the marcher rises onto the balls of the feet and then lands on count 1 with the left foot (Figure 12.12).

Adjusted Step Often marchers need to use an adjusted step to move to the next formation. With this type of step, the size is determined by the distance to be covered, the number of counts required to execute the maneuver or to get to the new formation, and the form in which the marchers are performing. The step is adjusted to the proper distance so that marchers “hit their mark” after a specified number of counts.

Flank Sometimes referred to as a face, a flank is a sudden move in a new direction, to the left, right, or to the rear. It can be accomplished from a stationary or moving position. For stationary right flank, a pivot of 90 degrees is done to the right,

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 147

THE MARCHING BAND

147

turning on the right heel and the ball of the left foot on the count 1 and then bringing the left foot into position next to it on count 2. Do the opposite for a stationary left flank. A flank to the rear is a 3-count move (after the command). Count 1: Move the right foot forward one step on the ball of the foot. Count 2: Pivot on the balls of both feet to the left and face backward. Count 3: Bring the right foot back into attention position next to the left. From a forward-moving position the left flank begins on count 4 of the command. It is accomplished by placing the right toe on the ground first and pivoting 90 degrees on the ball of the right foot. The left foot should be placed in position facing the new direction on count 1. A right flank requires the right foot to pivot to the right, as the left swings around clockwise and lands one step forward in the new direction. To the rear (about face) is done by landing the right foot on count 4 and immediately pivoting 180 degrees to the left (counterclockwise) on the toes of both feet. The left foot is now in position for count 1.

Turn An alternative to flanking is a gradual, not abrupt, turn that takes 2 or more counts, and usually 4. When using a 4count turn to the left, the heels of both feet are kept together or very close together. The toes of the left foot rise and move 45 degrees to the left on count 1, followed by the right foot doing the same on count 2. On count 3, the left foot rises and comes in place in the new position and the right foot comes into place after that on count 4, and if moving forward at that point pushes off so that the left foot can hit on count 1. For 180-degree (and right) turns, use the same technique, though for 180-degree turns increase the number of counts or take larger steps. For a right turn, the feet must begin in the 45-degree attention position.

FIELD-BASED SHOWS The marching band show is performed on a regulation football field for school games and at festivals and competitions. In many communities, the weekly Friday night or Saturday afternoon football game is the highlight of the week and can take on a carnival-like atmosphere. The event often has little to do with the game itself and may involve cheerleaders, pep clubs, and dance teams, as well as pre-game volunteers selling concessions and raffle tickets. Homecoming activities, award presentations, and the like vie for attention. The game may take center stage, but some attend primarily to see the band. For many in attendance it may be the only time they see the band.

The Field The football field is the concert stage for field-band performances, and requires a clear understanding of its dimensions. Imagine being at the top of the bleachers or in the press box on the home team’s side of the field. As you look out at

FIGURE 12.13 Football field diagram

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 148

148

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

the field you will notice that it is wider than it is deep. From left to right the field is 120 yards (including the end zones). Between the end zones, every five yards is marked by a yard line that crosses the field. The near to the far sideline is 160 feet (53 yards, 1 foot) and is divided evenly into thirds by hash marks (Figure 12.13). These sections are referred to as the front, center, and back of the field. The 50-yard line separates the field into two halves, which are commonly referred to as Side 1 (left of 50) and Side 2 (right of 50) or Side A and Side B. These terms are used when discussing field show design and teaching the drill.

Football Game Performances Prior to each game the band assembles in uniform and typically performs a short (3–8-minute) pre-game program. At this performance the band may play the school fight song or alma mater, The Star Spangled Banner, and possibly another number. A more elaborate field show is performed during half-time. This show, which includes music and marching, is usually 6 to 10 minutes in length and can include a variety of different styles and types of music, often based around a theme. While some bands perform different music and drill for each game, those that enter competitions often perform a single show throughout the season. The former allows students and the audience to experience different selections each week; the latter provides more time for learning, cleaning, and perfecting the show.

Competitive Bands Competitive bands travel to marching competitions sponsored by band organizations, school districts, or state associations, and are often high-stakes. The sponsoring associations may be statewide (e.g., Michigan Competing Band Association, New York State Field Band Conference), while others are regional (e.g., New England Scholastic Band Association, MidStates Band Association). Bands of America (part of Music for All) and the USBands associations are the only organizations that present events nationwide. They hold regional events with top performers invited each year to compete in respective national competitions. Scores and awards are based on each band’s performance in their class; class is based on school size, the number of marching members, and/or past performance achievement. Each band usually receives a rating (on a 100-point scale) and ranking within its class. Awards are based on each band’s musical and marching performance along with performances of the color guard, drumline, drum major, or other criteria. Performances are rated by judges, some of whom are located in the press box above the stands while others move around on the field. Scoring criteria encompass individual and ensemble music performance, individual and ensemble marching and maneuvering, and general effect, with this last category based on the emotional, creative, and imaginative elements of the show. The quality of both content and performance is adjudicated simultaneously. Bands with high scores may advance to regional or state events.

Selecting Music The first step in designing a marching band show is to select the music. The purpose of the event and the curricular goals set for the students should drive the selection of repertoire. If the show is planned for a football game, the goal is to entertain. If it is for competition then the evaluation criteria will focus the show’s content. Football games call for popular numbers that will elicit a strong positive reaction from the audience. At competitions, audience response is also important (in addition to that of the judges). Most competitive shows have both minimum and maximum time limits. The time allotted during football shows is usually established with the athletic director or football coach. Other events may be scheduled for half-time. At competitive shows most bands aim for the minimum allotted time. Thus, most marching band performances last between 6 and 8 minutes, generally allowing for three to five pieces to be played, but there are many options. Most shows are structured around a theme that provides coherence for both the audience and design team. Themes can be based around an idea as concrete as the music of a single artist (e.g., John Williams, Stevie Wonder, Aaron Copland), a musical decade (e.g., 1980s), era (e.g., big band), or style (e.g., classical, hip-hop), movies (e.g., Chronicles of Narnia), or contemporary TV shows (e.g., Rugrats). The theme should be an integral part of every component of the show. Each piece of music, marching maneuver, prop, and color guard routine should communicate the theme. There is no single format that a marching band show should follow, but a typical show consists of an opening tune, a production number, a concert selection, drum solo (optional), and a closing tune. The opener should clearly present the theme (if one is selected) and set the tone for what is to come. Tunes with a “fanfaresque” quality work well. Drill can be intricate and fast moving. The production number should contrast in some way with the opener, be more subdued, and may provide an opportunity to feature a soloist, section, or small ensemble. The concert selection can provide an occasion to highlight the color guard or other auxiliary members. At half-time shows, the concert number can involve little or no movement, but for competitions the bands will want more action. A drum feature is often an option for the competitive shows and some half-time shows. It features both the battery and front ensemble using difficult and showy percussion

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 149

THE MARCHING BAND

149

parts while the color guard and wind players move quickly and intricately, often covering much of the field. The closer is often slower, perhaps a ballad, and connects the previous material. It also needs to clearly bring the show and theme to a memorable finish. Although there are many variations on this typical format, the formula usually works well. Other important elements to consider when planning the show include the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7.

There should be variety and contrast within and between numbers. Consider tempos, tonal centers, timbre, meter, dynamics, accompaniment style, melodic instruments, and so forth. The show should flow smoothly from one tune to the next. Minimize downtime by developing musical transitions between numbers. The music should be performed, not just played, to elicit an emotional reaction from the audience. The music should be of good quality. Select tunes written or arranged by knowledgeable, informed composers. The energy level of the show should reach its apex near the end, in the final or penultimate number, never near the beginning. If in the penultimate, then the final number should close with a soft moment, sweet or sad, perhaps with the band headed to the backfield, leaving the audience wanting more. Something memorable should happen about every fifty seconds in the show. Players need to have strength and endurance to perform the entire show well. Provide plenty of opportunities for rest throughout the show, especially prior to high, loud, fast sections.

Locating Music Marching band music is available from major music publishers; in addition, many directors have music arranged specifically for the group and some write it themselves. Arranging has distinct advantages, because the music arranger can write specifically for the band’s strengths. Who knows better how the band performs? There are also many commercial arrangers willing to write for the band—just try a quick Internet search. Or, ask a successful colleague or a college band director for recommendations. If using published stock arrangements, and most groups do, listen to the recordings and look at the scores and parts prior to selection. Elements to consider when examining a marching band chart include the following: 1.

Is it a good piece of music? (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G)

Is there interesting scoring? Is there a climax, and does the piece build to it and return from it logically? Is there a dominant melodic line? The audience needs to be hooked. Is there rhythmic excitement? Do the harmonic progressions make sense? Are transitions musical? Is the percussion writing interesting? Does it complement the rest of the writing?

2. Is it appropriate for the ensemble? (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) (G) 3.

What is the range for each instrument, in particular for the first trumpet and trombone players? Are there difficult runs for the woodwinds? Is there an opportunity to feature a particular section? Let the woodwinds be heard if they are in the band. Will it be too challenging for a particular section or sections of the band? For smaller/younger bands, is there limited scoring with no more than six parts? Are the players strong enough to handle the show physically? Is the percussion writing interesting and appropriate?

Is it appropriate for the venue? (A) Will the melody be heard? (B) Does the arrangement feature a particular section? (C) Is the style familiar or will it be an opportunity for the band to learn a new one?

Copyright Issues There are certain issues related to copyright that are prevalent when dealing with the marching band. Purchasing arrangements and compositions through a publisher automatically provide permission to perform and record the music. However, if a director wishes to adapt music by rearranging it or by creating an entirely new arrangement of a published work (a derivative work), they must first purchase the published work and pay the publisher a fee. If the publisher of

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 150

150

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

a piece is not known, a good place to find it is on the website for The American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) (ascap.com). If unsuccessful there, try Broadcast Music Inc. (bmi.com). Once the publisher is known, a request to adapt a piece needs to be made. There are companies who are happy to provide this service if the director wishes. A mechanical license must be obtained if a performance is to be recorded and distributed. Harry Fox Agency (www.harryfox.com) is one agency that obtains all needed permissions and is recommended if more than 2,500 copies are made. If fewer than 2,500 copies are planned, direct contact with the publisher is suggested. Normally a fee is required by the publisher and/or the Fox Agency and we recommend that this be included in the school’s administrative budget as the benefit accrues to the student body and the community.

Obtaining the Drill Unless you have extensive background and experience, and/or access to knowledgeable drill designers, do not attempt to design the drill for your first show. Instead, we recommend you do everything you can to find someone who does have the necessary experience. Then, learn by examining how they work and write. If you must write your own drill, you will need to find other resources (see the end of the book) to help. Writing a drill does take time to do well . . . a lot of time. Although the actual process of drill design is outside the scope of this chapter, it is necessary to understand the process of design and the fundamental concepts of drill design in order to effectively analyze and use it. Many design teams use a highlight or flow chart or even a storyboard to help organize the show. These tools note significant sections of the piece, which are indicated by rehearsal letters or numbers including the introduction, transitions, and major impact points. These charts allow all involved to organize and contribute to the show in a single place. In addition to the items shown on the chart in Figure 12.14 drill formations, colors, and auxiliary tools can be listed.

FIGURE 12.14 Sample highlight chart

There are a number of resources available for directors who need drill designed for their bands. A number of companies and experts specialize in drill writing and will work to write a drill that fits the specifications you provide them about your group. “Off-the-shelf” packaged music and drill is available, but often the design will not completely fit your specific instrumentation and will require rewriting, which the company may do for a price. Just ask. A rewrite may not benefit any issues related to staging. Customized drill that matches the band’s instrumentation can be purchased and this reduces matters related to staging and intervals. Some designers will propose to visit a rehearsal or two to teach the drill. Designers may also include drill coordinate sheets, choreography, routines for the auxiliary, and drill animation. Some may provide you with an electronic copy of the drill so that, with the proper software, you can adapt it to your situation. Purchasing drill design can save a lot of time and provide a “guaranteed” product for your ensemble.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 151

THE MARCHING BAND

151

Fundamental Drill Concepts In analyzing drill, from a writing, teaching, or evaluation perspective, there are a host of concepts of which students and teachers must be aware. Two fundamental ideas are: (1) interval—the space between marchers or between two different forms; and (2) distance—the amount of space a marcher must cover from one formation to another.

Design Formations The formations, the drill used to move between formations, and the placement (or staging) of the players must reflect the music being performed. Despite the fact that most of a show is spent moving, it is the formations that are the foundation as they set the markers for drill and provide definitions to key points of the show. These formations become the nucleus for teaching the drill since they are the visual information used by instructors and students to learn their places on the field. Formations come in many types. There are linear (horizontal, vertical, and diagonal) and curvilinear (arcs) formations. There are open and closed formations. There are symmetrical and asymmetrical formations, segmented, blocks, wedges, geometrical shapes, static and moving, hard or soft forms, and combinations of each of these forms. Examples of some of these are shown in Figure 12.15.

Movement The movement of the band on the field is what draws the attention of the audience. Again, the forms solidify the design, but movement between the forms consumes much of a show. By far the most common maneuver is to reshape the form, where marchers simply move to a new formation using an adjusted step. Students need to be aware of the distance required to move to the new form and divide their step size accordingly. In the follow the leader (FTL) maneuver, marchers follow a designated individual, with a specific step size and at a designated interval. A sequential maneuver is when marchers, one by one, repeat the movement of the lead marchers. Other movements involve manipulating the current form by rotating it or moving it from one part of the field to another (floating), or resizing it through contraction or expansion. Marchers can also move randomly between forms and use choreography to get there. Moves can be combined to add interest. Moves that bring the members forward to the front of the field are considered strong while backfield movements are considered weak. Movement can be executed laterally across the field; and, of course, static (no motion) is also utilized. Linear forms are considered to be strong while curvilinear are less so.

Staging The placement of students on the field is as vital a decision as the creation of forms and selection of maneuvers. Woodwinds placed backfield have little chance of being heard. Breaking the field into zones to help facilitate staging decisions is useful. Larger bands often use the entire field (end zone to end zone) while smaller groups might use less area—the boundaries of which can be outlined using colorful props, a stage, or other materials that complement the show. The field can be separated into 6 zones. If the entire field is used, the back half of the field holds zones 1–3 from end zone to end zone, each covering approximately one-third of the field. Zones 4, 5, and 6 cover the same distance only on the front half of the field. For small groups the zones can be condensed. The advantage of using zones is that they provide specific areas in which to use various dynamic levels, with louder volumes toward the front and/or center and softer volumes toward the sides and back. Though they are not absolute, they can be used as guidelines when placing ensembles on the field. Problems occur when students playing the melody are placed far backfield and percussionists are near the front and not centered. The battery percussion section is staged on the field while front ensemble instruments are placed in an area adjacent to near the sideline between the 35-yard lines. When on the field the battery should be located in the center of the formation, generally behind the rest of the musicians. Other instrumentalists will listen to the percussion for the tempo at certain times in the show. In addition to placement in zones, there are other guidelines to use when positioning students on the field. Adherence to the following guidelines will facilitate the ensemble remaining balanced: 1. 2. 3.

Instruments that have important musical material should be prominently positioned on the field. Keep sections with similar parts together. In smaller groups, this may require crossover between sections (mellophones with saxes, baritone sax with tuba). Larger bands can segment into more specialized sections than smaller bands. Whereas small bands might segment high brass, upper woodwinds, middle voices, lower voices, and percussion, larger bands can break into trumpets, mellophones, low brass, tubas, clarinets, and so forth.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 152

152

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

FIGURE 12.15 (a–e) Marching band formation types

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 153

THE MARCHING BAND

4. 5. 6.

153

Keep the lower-voiced instruments centered and near the percussion, especially with smaller bands. Featured woodwinds, soloists, and small ensembles should be placed near the front so as to be heard. Auxiliary should not be an afterthought but should be integrated into the drill. Careful consideration should be given to whether they are placed: (1) as part of the form; (2) outside the form; (3) separate from the form; or (4) or a combination of these.

Teaching the Show Once the music and drill become available the show must be learned by students. This requires specific equipment for efficiently and properly teaching the ensemble. A rehearsal space is usually a full-sized football field (but usually not the football field—the one under lights, of which the athletic director is usually very protective). The field should be lined with yard lines and hash marks prior to the first rehearsal and regularly replaced throughout the season. Vinyl or plastic markers could be on the front and back sidelines for added visibility. The drill instructor must be elevated in order to easily see formations and movements, and direct students appropriately. A tower, ladder, or the stadium bleachers should be used. Equipment for amplifying the teacher’s voice is necessary. A wireless, portable PA system such as the Long Ranger is ideal, though an electronic megaphone will also work. Either an amplified electronic metronome or gock block should be on hand to sound a consistent audible tempo. There will most likely be changes in drill and music (one hopes these are minor) as the show is learned, for not all movements can be represented with the two-dimensional representations used by computer programs. Students with iPads, iPhones, and similar devices can use them to learn music and drill. Recordings of the musical numbers can be downloaded for play-along with during practice. Drill charts written with software programs such as Pyware and Field Artist can be printed electronically as pdf files and sent to students, who can then download and read using apps such as GoodReader or Adobe Reader. Movies showing animated movement between formations can be created using the same programs set to music and used by students as well. This brings the drill directly to students so they can more efficiently find their correct placement on the field.

Rehearsal Procedures Each rehearsal needs specific goals and a detailed plan for accomplishing them. Practice should include time for a warmup (musical and physical), marching fundamentals, music and auxiliary practice, marching/drill rehearsal, music and drill rehearsal, and at least one run-through of the show. The time devoted to each should reflect the overall amount of time allotted to learn the show, the objectives for the week/day, and the amount of time until the next performance. When the performance is several weeks away, more attention to fundamentals is appropriate, but when there is a show this weekend, time needs to be dedicated to rehearsing the music and drill, run-through performances, and other presentation details. The music should be memorized prior to learning the drill. Many directors give the music to students before school ends in the spring. Others hold weekly rehearsals throughout the summer or have designated student leaders who conduct sectionals where students learn the music. A recording of the music is a good tool to aid in learning the music correctly. The better musically prepared the students are the more easily the drill will be mastered. The music is also used as a tool to help students learn formations and movements on the field. If marchers have the music memorized they can more easily focus on the visual components of the show while marching. The music can be learned using the same processes involved in concert settings. One noticeable difference, however, is that in marching band the percussion section often works separately from the winds, primarily because multiple students who are performing the same part need to work on precision, especially the bass drummers who need to sound like a single player. Rehearsals, particularly those early in the season, should include time for each section to work separately. The rehearsal environment should resemble the outdoor performance setting as closely as possible to help students correctly perform and adjust articulation and dynamics. Arc and circle formations with the conductor at the center are effective for outdoor work as students can see the conductor and hear their own playing. Music rehearsals should provide an opportunity for students to warm up both physically and musically. Stretching and breathing exercises should be done by all: for woodwinds long tones, scales, and other fingering exercises; for brass players long tones, lip slurs, and mouthpiece buzzing; and for percussionists exercises that focus on listening and playing together. Marching percussion exercises are available from a number of sources, usually based on repeating sixteenthnote patterns with different sticking. Drumlines should play an exercise repeatedly concentrating on achieving the precision of a single player. Drumlines also work on similar sticking and stick heights.

Learning Drill Marching fundamentals should be a focus of every rehearsal and can be learned in a block formation of orderly columns and rows similar to the layout used during a parade. On the football field, position students at 2-step intervals across

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 154

154

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

rows and 4-step intervals down the columns facing the end zone, placing every second row on a yard line. From this formation focus can be given to body position, commands, steps, stepping (pushing) off, step size, upper-body movements, direction changes, and other moves necessary for the show. Students should also work to dress (align with players on their left and right in the formation using peripheral vision) and cover (align with those directly in front of you). In this block, students should carry their instruments and equipment. A single person (usually the person doing the teaching) should keep time using an amplified metronome, or gock block and work at the multiple tempos that will be used in the show. Depending on the objectives, the teacher can be positioned on the field next to the group or in a position on the sideline, bleachers, or tower. Instructions should be given while students are stationary. Be sure everyone understands the purpose for the move before executing it. While students are moving, try not to give feedback, wait until they’ve stopped. Give specific feedback and try the movement again, always working toward consistency of movement and execution. Additional staff, section leaders, and drum majors can step out of formation to help assess individual students. Use good marchers as models to show proper technique and execution. All should be conscious that the purpose is to transfer skills from block for use in the show. Some bands learn all of the drill at the beginning of the season, perhaps during camp, then clean and perfect the entire drill throughout the season. Others learn the sets for one tune at a time, clean it, and then move onto the next number. There is not one correct approach—it depends on certain factors, such as the difficulty of the show, how easily students learn the drill, and the timeline for various performances. Bands that change shows for each game usually have less movement during the show, thus reducing the number of formations that must be learned. Teaching the drill can be made simpler by breaking it into segments; the process, once an effective routine is established, is relatively easy. The drill must be memorized through repetition at each stage. From the outset of learning drill, each student should have: (1) his/her music in a flip folder; (2) drill charts, or individual coordinates, or a dot book (or on their mobile phone or tablet) to locate their positions on the field; and (3) a set of markers or other materials to help denote locations on the field. Students can note in their music the time a specific move occurs. Field coordinates, given in terms of their location as it relates to the closest yard line and hash mark or sideline, can be written in along with the type of step (e.g., backward, glide) and body position to assist the student with relating the music to the drill. These materials can be conveniently carried in a bag or pouch around the neck connected to a lanyard if not on the phone in their pocket. Drill charts serve as particularly useful aids to students as they identify not only their location on the field, but also their place in the form. The chart is a replication of the original used by the instructor and identifies each marcher on the field, the direction and type of movement to be used to get to the formation, and the number of counts needed to get there. At the outset, students learn to locate their place on the field, which is identified by an icon or letter and a pre-assigned number. For instance, the 19th clarinet player is identified as C19, while the fourth snare drummer is SN4. It is helpful if students circle or highlight their position for easy reference. As the chart provides a multitude of information and includes all the pages of drill, it can prove both extremely helpful and extremely cumbersome. Carrying the charts while playing is difficult and pages often become disarrayed. Thus, it may be wise for only section leaders, drum majors, and staff to have charts while others carry a coordinate sheet or dot book. An alternative to the set of charts is a coordinate sheet that lists one student’s locations on the field for the entire show, both horizontally and vertically. Coordinate sheets can be printed from drill-writing software or created by the student from drill sheets and placed on a tablet or phone. Horizontal indications are given with reference to yard lines and the number of steps the marcher’s position lies either inside (closer to the yard line) or outside (farther from the yard line) the specific yard line on either the left (L) or right (R) side of the field, also referred to as side 1 and 2 (or A and B). Vertical coordinates are identified using hash marks (front and back) along with the front and back sidelines. The number of counts needed to get to the new coordinates is provided. Distance from each landmark is given in terms of 221⁄2-inch steps. Thus a typical coordinate might read “4 outside 30R and 6 in front BH (16)” and means that the student should be located, when looking from the press box, on the right (R) side of the field, 4 steps to the right (outside) of the 30 yard line, and six (6) steps in front of the back (B) hash mark. The maneuver takes 16 counts to execute. The coordinate sheet is convenient, since all of a student’s set points are indicated on a single sheet; however, it does not provide information on where to guide, the interval between marchers, step size, and so forth. Students can indicate this information on the form themselves, making each coordinate sheet specific to the individual.

Teaching Sets Learning drill for the first time is a lot of fun. If organized in a sequential manner with a specific routine, the process can be much less daunting than it may at first seem. Students should always march their best when learning drill, marching with proper posture and instrument carriage. They should also have with them their music, drill charts/coordinate sheet/ dot book, a pencil and eraser, and markers to indicate their place on the field. If on grass, the markers can consist of a durable substance (that won’t get ruined in the rain or by dewy grass) at least 11⁄2 inches in diameter and in multiple

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 155

THE MARCHING BAND

155

colors so students can distinguish each placement on the field. They must be labeled with an identifying number or name of the student. Poker chips work well as does laminated poster board. If working on pavement, colored chalk or paint sticks will work. The person teaching the drill should be located well above the field, either in the stands, near the press box, or on a ladder, podium, or scaffolding. Directions to marchers should be given clearly and succinctly. The following sequential process provides an efficient and effective way of initially learning the drill. 1. Students locate their first coordinate and set the formation, standing at attention. 2. Students place the first marker at that precise location. Consider using colored markers that are sequential such as red/white/blue (flag) or red/yellow/green (stoplight). 3. Students read the next set of coordinates and locate that spot on the field by counting from yard lines and sidelines. Once in position, the individual places the second marker, stands at attention, and dresses the form. The teacher adjusts the form to the design on the page. Students return to the previous marker. 4. While at the first marker, students locate the second marker and identify from their chart the number of counts necessary to get there. 5. The teacher gives instructions for: (1) direction and type of step; (2) body placement; and (3) horn placement required for the maneuver. 6. Students dress the first form and march to the second, counting steps aloud while marching and halting in position on the final count. The second form is then dressed and students return to the first and repeat (and memorize). This time, students sing their parts with appropriate style and dynamics while marching. 7. Students return to the first form and while marching. 8. The process continues: From the second form students locate and learn the third chart and repeat steps 3–7 until the show is learned. 9. Return to the first marker. Sing and march to second and third markers without pause. 10. Return to the first marker. Play and march to second and third markers without pause. As additional sets are added, begin to group them together in ways that make musical sense. This will help students form a concept of the big picture and assist with memorization.

Cleaning the Show Learning the drill is analogous to sight-reading music for the first time. It is an activity that once done cannot be done again with the same chart. It is also important, as in learning a new piece of music, that the drill be learned correctly the first time to avoid learning incorrect maneuvers. Once the drill is learned, it is time to begin cleaning (or rehearsing), as at this stage the forms still need to be tightened; the maneuvers need to be performed with correct intervals, and horn moves, choreography, and so forth need to be executed precisely so that all members of the ensemble are uniform. Common problems that require work are: (1) students getting to the new form too early/late; (2) transitions between forms are not clear; (3) positions evolve over time from the initial charted position and need to be reset; and (4) a lack of uniformity in execution of maneuvers. Musical issues, including phasing, tempo, and style need work as does the coordination of visual and musical elements. Also, sometimes what appears to work on paper does not always work on the field, so the drill may need adjusting. When cleaning, the show is rehearsed in sections, with full run-throughs saved for the end of practice. First, perform the section of the drill to be cleaned to help remind students of the issues. State the goals of the rehearsal and what needs improvement, then set about the task in sequential order. Establish a well-structured process for cleaning so that students fall into a routine: the form is set, instructions are given, the move(s) are executed. Students should freeze motion on the last count of the sequence and then dress the set, even checking their coordinate sheet for where they should be, and adjust the form accordingly. Then the entire process should be repeated. Continue to use the routine of counting, singing, and then playing. Transitions can be cleaned by marching 4 counts before the transition and the first step after the form. Freeze and check feet and body/horn position. Finish the section of the drill with a complete run-through of that section.

Perfecting the Show As the development of the show progresses and the drill/music coordination becomes strong, new moves may be added that improve the show, make it more entertaining, and for competitive bands, add to the General Effect score. New moves can include horn lifts, choreography, props, hand motions, and so forth. Each of these moves must be uniformly executed and augment, not diminish, the quality of the music performance.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 156

156

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

SPECIALTY MARCHING INSTRUMENTS Marching band is an outdoor activity that does not provide an ideal acoustical environment. Woodwind instruments and some brass instruments are limited in their ability to direct their sound while marching. The percussion section includes instruments not normally used in concert ensembles. The emergence of corps-style marching bands brought about a need for instruments whose direction of sound could be manipulated, similar to the trumpet and trombone. These bell-front instruments include the sousaphone, mellophone, and marching baritone to replace the tuba, horn, and euphonium. These and other instruments have emerged to fill an acoustic dissonance between concert and marching styles. The mellophone is a midrange voice in the marching band. The instrument is designed to use a trumpet mouthpiece but many use an adapter for a horn mouthpiece, a use that seriously affects the already poor intonation tendencies of the instrument. There are also marching horns; they are slightly more conical, use a horn mouthpiece, and have a tone more closely resembling a real horn, but are seldom used. Mellophones are normally pitched in F but an octave higher than a regular horn, allowing for the use of trumpet fingerings. The marching horn is pitched in B≤. The upper register of the mellophone can be played with confidence because the notes are spaced farther apart than on the horn. The most universal criticism of the marching horn is that due to the proportion of conical to cylindrical tubing it is easily overblown, especially by trumpet players. The marching baritone and euphonium are replacements for the concert instruments, since they offer the option of using a bell that is directed to the front like the trumpet and trombone. Some concert instruments also use a front-facing bell, but many are angled upward or to the side and are held with at least one arm wrapped around the instrument. This limits the amount of movement one can make. These instruments look much like a marching mellophone, have a straight bell and piston valves on top, and with tubing wrapped tighter than the concert instruments. Marching euphoniums are newer than the baritone. They are more elongated, have a more conical shape, a larger bore, and bigger bell than the baritone. The use of the sousaphone (see Figure 12.16) is common in the public schools because of its versatility. The sousaphone is a form of helicon bass tuba that was developed by L.G. Conn in 1898. The earliest sousaphones had a bell that opened upward; the bell-front version appeared about 1908 and was officially adopted by U.S. military bands. It rapidly replaced the helicon and has remained popular to the present. Some schools have replaced sousaphones with convertible tubas that are held upright for concert playing; for marching the leadpipes are changed and the instrument is carried on the shoulder with the bell facing front. Though neither the convertible tuba nor sousaphone has a tone quality as good as the concert tuba, they are convenient for marching. The “over-the-shoulder” with sousaphone is easy to carry, less expensive, and available in the same finishes used for tubas and also in fiberglass, which is considerably lighter but has a poorer tone quality. Convertible tubas have a better sound than sousaphones, particularly those sousaphones made of fiberglass. To hold the sousaphone, the player rests the upper part of the circular tubing on the left shoulder, adjusts the mouthpiece for comfort, and holds the mouthpiece with the left hand. Sponge pads for the left shoulder are desirable. If the sousaphone must be used for the concert setting, a stand to support the instrument is essential. Many bands replace flutes with piccolos since they are easier to hear and have a brighter tone. However, the decision of which instrument to use should FIGURE 12.16 Sousaphone be based on musical goals and not whether a piccolo is available.

Marching Percussion (Battery) The emphasis on percussion as an integral (and expensive) component of corps-style marching bands has grown steadily since the mid-1970s. Using drum and bugle corps as models, high school marching band directors have added many percussion instruments, concepts, and techniques. To cover fully the complex and ever-changing area of marching band percussion is beyond the scope of this chapter, so we provide appropriate references at the end of this chapter, at the end of the text, and on the book’s companion website. Marching band percussion presents a number of concerns for every director, namely, the size and instrumentation of each section. It is not easy to determine that a band of X size should have a percussion section of Y size with Z instrumentation.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 157

THE MARCHING BAND

157

The primary activity of the marching band should determine the size and instrumentation of the percussion section. Corps-style competitive marching bands can have anywhere from three to twelve snares, two to six tenors, two to six cymbal players, three to six bass drums, and a virtually unlimited array of percussion in the front ensemble: timpani, tam-tam, suspended cymbals, concert vibes, marimbas, xylophone, bells, tom-tom, chimes, and more. Thus, an arranger may be required to alter any standard percussion scoring. Although almost any band has the wind instrumentation to play published stock arrangements, percussion parts often must be augmented or simplified to conform to the instrumentation and the expertise of the performers.

Snare Drums Snare drums are the foundation of the marching band percussion section. Most teachers place their best percussionists on snare, since this part contains the most intricate rudiments and the use of multiple snare players (for volume) increases the need for precision. Marching snares are usually 14 inches across with a 12-inch shell (only two manufacturers make a 13-inch marching snare). The popular floating head design allows a multiple-ply shell to float inside a cage that contains all of the instrument’s hardware. This design eliminates tightened heads from collapsing the shells, and allows for more precise tuning as the number of lugs is increased. Additional vent holes are also drilled in the shell. Most major percussion companies make marching snare drums of varying quality and price. Every attempt should be made to purchase the best-quality marching snare drums—and to keep them in good playing condition and regularly tuned. If students can learn to adjust reeds and play with good intonation, then snare drummers can learn to adjust snares and heads. Determining the number of snare drummers needed in a marching band is not easy. One can easily overestimate the number required to balance the winds. One rule of thumb is to have one snare drummer for every eight to ten brass players. The most difficult task for the marching band snare drummer is precision. In any given arrangement, drummers average many more notes than those played by the first trumpet. With 10 to 12 students playing in unison, rhythmic precision is a formidable task. Because the visual elements of stick heights, stick angles, drum angles, and stick visuals are expected to be identical, proficiency is time-consuming. Adding marching formations and maneuvers to the playing challenges the percussion student. Lightweight adjustable carriers are preferred for all drums: snares, tenors, and bass. These carriers disperse the weight of the drum evenly across the upper torso, allowing the drums to remain steady. They keep the drum level, which facilitates use of the matched grip (though some bands use traditional grip). Portable stands relieve the weight of the instrument from the torso when not marching. Players within each section should use the same type and size of stick. Uniformity is not an issue in orchestra or band as multiple snare players are required in concert literature only when special effects are desired.

Tenors: Multiple Drums The band director must decide whether to purchase tenor drums that come in quads, quints, or sextets, and must select among various sizes. Figure 12.17 shows sextets. The development of lightweight drum shells and carriers has allowed these 6-, 8-, 10-, 12-, 13-, and 14-inch tenor drums to be mounted in any combination. The most popular size for a high school is a 6–8–10–12–13 quintuplet mounted on a lightweight vest. The decision as to what size drums to purchase is FIGURE 12.17 Dynasty hex multi-tenor set guided by pitch and the physical size of the performers. Tenor drums provide a musical function similar to the middle horn voice. Many percussion arrangers choose to highlight the multiple drums while the middle horns have the lead melodic statement. It is important that the tuning scheme for the multiples does not bleed over into the bass drum voice. These drums should be tuned so that the lowest tenor is close to a major third above the highest bass drum. The rest of the tenors can be tuned in ascending major thirds. There may be a need to use one or two center-mounted 6-inch drums as “effect” drums; these should be tuned as high as possible without breaking the heads. Realistically, what to purchase is determined by cost. Multiple drums are expensive, and the lightweight carrier is essential. One multiple-drum player for every two or three snares is common. A smaller drumline may have only one tenor and one snare player; this arrangement provides greater musical contrast, interest, and ensemble support than two snare drums.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 158

158

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

Bass Drums The smallest number of tonal bass drums that can be used effectively is three, arranged in a 22-, 24-, and 28-inch combination. When a fourth drum is used, it would be a 26-inch drum and a fifth, a 20-inch bass drum. The common drum lines consist of five drums with six the maximum (see Figure 12.18). Consider the importance of precision when deciding on the number of bass drums. Matched bass drums are made in sizes ranging from 14 to 32 inches and increasing in 2-inch increments. Bass drum tuning and muffling is one of the most FIGURE 12.18 Pearl marching bass drums of varying size important aspects of playing the instrument. The tuning of the drums is a personal preference, but should be carefully considered. One effective method for tuning a five-bass drumline between the highest (1) and lowest (5) drums is the following: Between drums 4&5 3&4 2&3 1&2

Interval Perfect 5th Perfect 4th Major 3rd Minor 3rd

Bass drum 5 should be tuned to a pitch that makes sense as part of the show (e.g., tonic in the final number). This tuning arrangement allows for effective melodic movement between the drums with solid resolve on the bottom. Muffling is similarly important to tuning in the bass drumline. If the drums are too loud or if the articulation is unclear, it may be due to the muffling scheme. All bass drums require muffling; less muffling brings out the louder sound while more muffling quiets the sound and allows for clarity. Many drum manufacturers sell bass drum muffling, but weather stripping materials purchased at a local hardware store may be just as effective. Muffling should be placed on both heads of the drum at its outer circumference. On larger drums, muffling should be closer to the shell (about an inch). With smaller drums it is about one-third of the distance from the shell to the center of the drum.

Cymbals Generally, cymbals created for marching cymbals are heavier than concert cymbals to enhance projection and to provide more mid- and high-range overtones. They come in many sizes but most common are 14-, 16-, 18-, and 20-inch in brilliant, medium, or medium-heavy weights. Weight becomes especially important when the cymbal players are required to hold the instruments extended in order for the snare players to play as ride or hi-hat cymbals. Whereas the lamb’s wool pad is usually removed for concert use, a pad helps protect the marching cymbalists’ knuckles. Lightweight leather gloves are also recommended. Sticks and mallets made specifically for marching should be used for snare, tenor, and bass. They are larger and heavier than concert or orchestral implements to produce a louder, fuller sound specifically designed for the mass of marching drums. Contrary to intuitive belief, these make it easier to play the faster, rudimental style required of marching than smaller, more brittle concert sticks. The sticks and mallets labeled marching should be used.

The Front Ensemble Presently, drum and bugle corps and most corps-style bands utilize a variety of stationary instruments on the sideline near the drum major’s podium. Some smaller ensembles have grounded all of their percussion and others have moved their front ensemble to the field to help deal with staging issues and to provide a different effect. Each instrument provides a new sound to enhance the band’s overall musical performance, but many of these color instruments are expensive. The primary timbres in the front ensemble (referred to also as the “pit”) are produced by mallet instruments. The use of pit percussion enables a concert marimba to be placed on the sideline along with bells, xylophone, and vibraphone. Because the pit is thought of as a “color” instrument in the marching band, the music arranger should use the instruments that best fit the desired sound. The resonance of the marimba and vibes is preferred at various times to the edgy sound of the bells or xylophone. Great care must be taken to keep these instruments in good repair; moving these instruments from the rehearsal room to the practice field on a daily basis shortens their useful lives regardless of how carefully they are treated and maintained.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 159

THE MARCHING BAND

159

Also commonly found in the pit are Latin instruments, color instruments, special-effect instruments, a variety of ethnic percussion, and stringed and electronic instruments. Although these instruments are less costly than keyboard instruments, their usefulness is more limited. Tenor tom-toms (mounted on a concert stand), timpani, concert bass drum, tam-tam, and suspended cymbals all can provide beautiful colors to any musical ensemble and especially to the marching band. Often the musical benefits outweigh the practical issue of purchasing, moving, and maintaining the equipment. Instruments can be mounted to high-quality outdoor frames to ease in transporting. Purchasing the equipment initially is another issue.

THE AUXILIARY (COLOR GUARD) Perhaps the area of the marching band directors are least familiar with is the auxiliary, or color guard. The color guard is comprised of those members of the band who have no direct musical responsibilities and can be recruited from throughout the school, not just from the band. The color guard augments the music being performed using synchronized routines and dance movements with props that can include flags (silk), rifles, sabres, and a host of other items and equipment. Members should have excellent coordination and marching skills. Flags are easiest to learn and come in all kinds of colors, designs, and fabrics. Colors and designs should reflect the overall mood of the show (dark colors for dark moments, brighter for light) and multiple flags can be used during a performance. Flags are secured with Velcro to fiberglass or aluminum poles that are six feet long with “stoppers” at either end. Flag members perform moves that include drop spins, Peggy spins, butterflies, figure eights, and tosses. Wooden rifles (they do not fire) are spun with one hand and when tossed high by a group of marchers. They are also used as props while dancing. A sabre is a replica of a sword made of metal, fiberglass, or wood and usually has a hilt at one end. It is used for spinning and often accompanies music that is softer, lighter, or flowing. The drill writer has a number of options when staging auxiliary members on the field. At various parts of the show they can be used to: (1) become part of a form; (2) extend a form; (3) frame a form; or (4) highlight a particular component of the show such as a soloist. They can also be separated from the form for a feature. The color guard should not be an afterthought of the designer but rather an integral part of the process. Color guard members are often instructed separately from the musical sections of the band. A separate area, either outside or in a gym, is necessary for safe rehearsal so as not to ruin expensive band room equipment. Stretching and general warm-ups are important, since members of these groups are often the most physically active in the band. Then, rehearsing fundamental spins and tosses should be followed by practice of the show routines; practices consist of learning, cleaning, and perfecting routines. Learning is often done best with a single teacher as a model. This can be either a separate staff member, an experienced member of the guard, or even a person on a videorecording as these have become more widely available and used. Recordings of each musical selection should be available to help students develop proper timing. Members should look to improve the show by controlling their body and the equipment and exhibiting excellent timing. Uniformity between each member of the group is what takes the most time. Knowing specifically where the body and equipment need to be on each count and then executing this is vital for moves to be effective on the field.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS/ACTIVITIES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6.

In your opinion, what are the stronger arguments both for and against every high school having a marching band? Based on your own experience and observations, what appear to be the strengths and weaknesses of various instrument placements in a parade band? What are the advantages of corps-style marching when compared to traditional marching? What are the advantages and disadvantages of performing in one style compared to the other? In what ways, if any, might instrumentation differ between parade organizations and those designed for field shows? Visit a high school marching band rehearsal. Describe the event in detail including: (1) the students, director, and interaction between the two; (2) the nature of the show (the components that held it together, the quality of musical numbers, the difficulty as it related to performers); (3) the performance (the types of movements, the relationship of movement to the music); and (4) the colorguard and other auxiliary (its purpose; the moves used). Design the concept for a marching band show. Describe the thematic elements that bring it together and the musical selections selected. For one of the selections complete a “highlight chart,” describe the types of forms you will use at each rehearsal number, and note the props, colors, and moves performed. Justify your decisions.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 160

160

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

RESOURCES Smith, G.E. (2016). The System: Marching Band Methods, 2016 ed. Chicago, IL: GIA. Spencer-Pierce, W. (2008). Marching Band Arranging. Lexington, KY: Creative Media Consulting.

Websites Bands of America musicforall.org Color Guard Educators colorguardeducator.com Drum Corps International dci.org Halftime Magazine halftimemag.com How to Write Drill Tutorials howtowritedrill.com Marching.com marching.com Marching Roundtable (podcasts) marchingroundtable.com

Software and Apps Envision Visual Performance Design box5software.com Field Artist fieldartistcentral.com Micromarching micromarching.com Pyware 3D Marching Drill Design Software pyware.com VDrill vdrillpro.com

Texts Bailey, W. and T. Caneva (2015). The Complete Marching Band Resource Manual: Techniques and Materials for Teaching, Drill Design, and Music Arranging, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. Brennan, J. (2014). Show Design and Wind Arranging for Marching Ensembles. Master’s Thesis, The Ohio State University. Dunnigan, P. (2007). Marching Band Techniques, revised ed. Northfield, IL: The Instrumentalist. Laine, K. (2007). American Band: Music, Dreams, and Coming of Age in the Heartland. New York: Gotham. Markworth, W. (2008). The Dynamic Marching Band. Three Rivers, MI: Accent. Martin, M.G. and R.L. Smolinsky (2016). Marching Band Techniques: A Guide to the Successful Operation of a High School Band Program. Atglen, PA: Schiffer. Previc, C. (2006). The Student’s Guide to Marching. Victoria, BC: Trafford. Ryder, D. (2005). Workbook for Techniques of Marching Band Show Design. Wylie, TX: Dan Ryder Field Drills. ––– (2015). Techniques of Marching Band Show Design, 6th ed. Wylie, TX: Dan Ryder Field Drills. Shellahammer, B., J. Swearingen, and J. Woods (1986). The Marching Band Program: Principles and Practices. Oskaloosa, IA: C.L. Barnhouse.

Instructional Videos Beginning Mallet Percussion and Cymbal Technique (J. Hudson, E. Martin, A. Montalvo, 2003). Ames, IA: Championship Productions. Beginning Rudimental Bass Drum (J. Hudson, M. Howard, 2003). Ames, IA: Championship Productions. Dynamic Marching and Movement (2 vols.) (J. Young, C. Mader, 2006, 2008). Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard. Flag Fundamentals. (M.B. Raiford, S. Chandler, 2006). Van Nuys, CA: Alfred. Fundamental Techniques for Marching Percussion (T. Hannum, 1988). Miami, FL: CPP. The Marching Band Director’s Video Toolbox, Vols. 1 & 2. (D. Woodley, B. McDavid, 2011). Chicago, IL: GIA. WGI Flag Fundamentals (R. Miller, 2002). Dayton, OH: Winter Guard International. WGI Rifle Fundamentals (A. Toth, 2002). Dayton, OH: Winter Guard International. WGI The Language of Visual Design (2005). Dayton, OH: Winter Guard International.

NOTES 1.

Norcross, B.H. (1994) One Band that Took a Chance: The Ithaca High School Band from 1955–1967. Directed by Frank Battisti. Fort Lauderdale, FL: Meredith Music.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 161

CHAPTER 13

The Jazz Ensemble

13

Nothing exemplifies American music like jazz. It has held a unique place since its introduction and rapid growth in the early twentieth-century culture, not only because of its musical aspects (syncopated rhythms, atypical use of pitch, and the use of instruments to imitate the voice) but also with its social implications. Jazz was about more than just the music. With roots in the African American community, the music was often about race, protest, politics, and freedom. The late Karl Haas stated that, “(t)he feeling for jazz had to be inborn, an expression of centuries of suffering and resignation.”1 Historical jazz periods are defined not only by the musical styles but by the musicians themselves. Today, jazz remains of interest in American culture and has spurred recent documentaries by Ken Burns and Bruce Broder along with numerous public, commercial, and satellite radio stations devoted solely to this art form. At times, jazz has been a type of popular music, one of interest to many Americans. The swing era of the 1930s and 1940s was particularly notable for great interest. More recently it was Chuck Mangione and Grover Washington, Jr. in the 1970s, Najee and Washington, Jr. in the 1990s, and Trombone Shorty in the last several years who brought jazz into the mainstream. Jazz also served as music for dancing, in particular, from the 1920s through the 1940s. Today, some see jazz as a classical music, though a primary difference is that in jazz, one treasures performers in a manner similar to the way one might value classical composers. Whereas some view classical music as being out of date, jazz artists such as Louis Armstrong, Thelonious Monk, and John Coltrane are never out of date. Today, unlike the swing or bebop eras, there is no predominant style of jazz. All styles are performed by contemporary jazz artists and heard by their audiences.

WHAT IS JAZZ? The story goes that when one early jazz musician was asked that question he replied, “Man, if you don’t know what it is, don’t mess with it.” That may sum it up for jazz musicians, but for those who are approaching jazz for the first time, it leaves too much to the imagination. Authors have suggested that jazz music must: (1) have a swing feel; and (2) include improvisation. This omits a lot of music considered to be jazz from the 1920s, the big band era, and even today. On the other extreme, some have adopted the notion that if a single element commonly associated with jazz (swing, improvisation, certain timbres like saxophone, blue notes) is present, then the music is jazz. Although the definition may never be agreed upon, the looser definition may be best as most school jazz ensembles perform music encompassing many eras including the 1920s and big band eras. The school jazz ensemble’s extensive repertoire tends to be centered on charts that are played in a swing, rock, and Latin style and include improvisation. Swing style has to be heard to be understood, and there are differences in the way musicians swing. Thus, one has to listen to a variety of swing artists (e.g., Gillespie, Ellington, Basie, etc.) to comprehend how any given style or composition should sound. Each performer and band has its unique way of swinging. The way that Basie swings is not the same way that Ellington swings, though they both incorporate elements of swing style such as: (1) a steady beat; and (2) a syncopated feel. Mark Gridley, in his book Jazz Styles: History and Analysis, describes swing as music that exhibits: a constant tempo, a cohesive group sound, a rhythmic lilt or good rhythmic groove, and is also highly spirited in nature.2 Since jazz was often synonymous with dance music, a danceability element is also necessary.

HISTORY OF JAZZ Jazz Precursors What came to be known as jazz (originally jass) has origins in African call-and-response, brass military bands, Christian church hymns, Latin rhythms, folk songs, plantation work songs, minstrel shows, sea shanties, folk songs, and a multitude of other sources. In particular, the black folk music that indigenous Africans brought to America influenced jazz. This music used multiple rhythms that often varied in character, meter, and tempo. Timbres were primarily vocal with drums.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 162

162

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

The use of hemiola, call-and-response, and falsetto were used by early African Americans for such purposes as getting through work, worship, communication, and entertainment. The music of early Americans contributed to the development of ragtime, blues, and jazz, which all emerged around the beginning of the 1900s, with ragtime and blues both appearing before jazz. Ragtime was primarily played by solo instruments; most notably the piano (but also the banjo), and featured a steady stride rhythm in the bass (left hand) countered by heavily syncopated melodies in the right hand. In addition to solo instruments, “syncopated orchestras” consisting of groups of up to 50 musicians played concerts that included ragtime and lighter classical repertoire. The Blues also emerged around the same time and featured female soloists, such as Ma Rainey and Bessie Smith who sang passionate melodies using lowered third, fifth, and seventh (blues) notes of the scale. African American brass bands, primarily in the South, were composed of similar instrumentation to that of early jazz bands and performed rags and popular music influenced by ragtime along with traditional marches, overtures, and classical pieces. New Orleans was the most notable place where brass bands played at the turn of the twentieth century. With its blend of African American, Creole, and white citizens, a collection of musical styles was encountered in one city that were mixed, matched, and pooled by creative players who came together to invent what would become known as jazz. These bands generally consisted of 2 or 3 cornetists, 1 or 2 trombone players along with a baritone horn and tuba, 1 or 2 clarinets, bass and snare drums, and a guitar or banjo player. Bands were hired (or sponsored) by newspapers, fraternal organizations, and government offices to play in social halls, at picnics, in saloons, for political gatherings, and more. Most musicians did not work full-time. Those who did became itinerant, traveling to find work in places like St. Louis, Kansas City, and Chicago. Here they ran into other musicians and the mixing, matching, and pooling of ideas continued. Like band members, solo pianists such as Jelly Roll Morton toured these cities trying to earn a living by imitating the sounds of the larger bands (while being paid less). The music played by both was generally improvised and consisted of one run-through of a familiar melody (by the lead cornetist in the band) with accompaniment followed by additional repetitions of the tune with variations of the melody by the cornetist and other soloists. Other instruments would improvise simultaneously behind the solos (called collective improvisation), creating a collage of improvisation while the drummer and banjo/guitar player kept time by playing steady quarter notes. Louis Armstrong was the most influential soloist of this era and musicians tried to emulate his sound and improvisations. As a cornet player in Joe “King” Oliver’s band, he moved out of his native New Orleans to Chicago and later to New York to work with Fletcher Henderson’s band, where he took up the trumpet. His influences were many among which was an improvisation style that many emulated. He is most revered for the fact that his solos: (1) rhythmically moved away from the strict ragtime feel toward more graceful, syncopated, swing-like patterns; (2) melodically not only embellished melodies but moved away from the tune altogether to create new renditions; and (3) showed a brilliant command of the technical aspects of performing, including astounding control in the upper register of the trumpet. Stride and boogie-woogie were two similar styles of piano music that developed separately, the former in New York City and the latter in the delta area of Mississippi. Musicians such as James P. Johnson, Eubie Blake, and Fats Waller played both as soloists and as sidemen in bands. This was important since the pianists would transfer the left-hand “walking bass” pattern used in both styles into band music that became characteristic of jazz, and later developed into swing.

Swing The Swing era is often referred to synonymously with the Big Band era, though there were plenty of big bands in the 1930s and 1940s that did not play swing music. For instance, Paul Whiteman’s band (recall that the definition of jazz needs a swing feel and improvisation), which was at one time the most popular big band in America, did not play jazz. The size of the bands was a merger of smaller jazz groups and syncopated orchestras and became standardized at 10 or 15 players. With expanded sections (3 or 4 trumpets, 3 or 4 trombones, 4 or 5 saxes, and a full rhythm section), arrangements of tunes needed to be written so that performances were better organized. Individuals could no longer simply improvise, but played written-out backgrounds and could improvise only where called for in the arrangement. Only one soloist played at a time with the rhythm section. Swing bands were popular during this period because of their strong leaders, talented soloists, and the ability of the bands to play music used for dancing. Duke Ellington, Count Basie, Benny Goodman, and Glenn Miller led bands that played a variety of swing styles. While some of the bands focused more on arrangements, use of singers, and limited use of solos (Miller, for instance), others (like Ellington and Basie) continued to focus their groups around improvisation by instrumental soloists. Ellington developed this further, and his band was perhaps the best example of a group that combined both written material and improvisation. Singers who left a lasting impression from the swing era included Billie Holiday, Ella Fitzgerald, Sarah Vaughan, Jimmy Rushing, and Louis Armstrong. It should also be noted that the importance of the rhythm section as the “foundation” for swing style grew. This is most notable in Count Basie’s group, which featured Basie on piano, Freddie Green on guitar, Jo Jones on drums, and Walter Page on bass. These four performers became

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 163

THE JAZZ ENSEMBLE

163

known as the All-American Rhythm Section, and provided a superb sense of time that included a rock-solid steady tempo and a relaxed, quiet, unforced feel with a balanced sonority. The sound became the standard that today’s jazz ensembles try to model. The nature of the music evolved during the swing era from music that was primarily improvised to that which was more balanced between written and improvised elements. The music often featured a woodwind, brass, or rhythm section playing melodies and/or riffs while another section would “answer” them or play soft backgrounds—in a calland-response format. Sections seemed to be pitted against each other sometimes and at other times they were used to provide backgrounds and accompaniments for soloists. Arrangements stuck to previous ABA, AABA, and blues forms, but were more deliberate. Basie and his arrangers, Neal Hefti and Sammy Nestico, contributed much to swing development as they expanded harmonies and incorporated the skill of comping, where the pianist (or other rhythmsection member) played fills behind soloists. Arguably, the most prolific swing composer was Duke Ellington, who along with his arrangers, Billy Strayhorn and Juan Tizol (and some would add Mercer Ellington), countered Basie’s sectional writing style by voicing parts across the ensemble. Further contributions made by arrangers and soloists were the use of mutes and other nontraditional sounds such as growls and uncharacteristic vibrato, which are traced back to the vocal influences of early jazz and provide a wider tonal palette for the composer. Soloists continued to have a strong influence over the sound of an ensemble. Duke Ellington generated pieces that featured the unique sonorities of the musicians in his band including clarinetist Barney Bigard, saxophonists Johnny Hodges and Harry Carney, and trumpeters James “Bubber” Miley and Cootie Williams. Basie wrote for saxophonists Lester Young, Herschel “Tex” Evans, and others, trumpeters Roy Eldridge and Harry “Sweets” Edison, and trombonists Dickie Wells and J.J. Johnson. Jazz scholars often divide jazz eras into classical and modern, with the modern era beginning with bebop (or bop). It is mistakenly thought that bebop was a reaction to swing but that is really not the case as many of the bop players like Dizzy Gillespie and Charlie Parker began their careers as members of big bands. Like the transition from the Classical Era to the Romantic Era in Western European art music, the transition from swing to bebop was not clear-cut. The changeover, which began in the 1940s, was actually quite smooth and not in any real way a response to swing. Additionally, the musician’s strike of 1942–1944, often referred to as the “recording ban” or “Petrillo’s War,” also helped to complicate the development of bebop as recordings were not made.

Bebop The style of music known as bebop (swing-band tunes) grew out of the swing era. In fact, many of the chord changes from standard swing band tunes formed the foundation of tunes in the new style, though they certainly sounded much different. The major alterations included the use of more complex rhythms in the melody and accompaniment and faster tempos; improvised solos were longer and the melodies were jagged; phrases were often irregular and elaborate; harmonic progressions were complex and extended harmonies that included eleventh and thirteenth chords and the extensive use of the flatted fifth were used. The role of the rhythm section also changed. The guitar was rarely present and the pianist now played accented chordal tones from swing rather than the typical stride-like patterns. The drummer played much of the part on suspended cymbals rather than drums with a strong hi-hat click on beats 2 and 4. More “kicks” and “hits” were used to set up and support soloists. Bassists continued to play in the “walking” style of swing, though their responsibilities grew as harmonic instruments started to play a lesser role. The size of the groups was reduced to a typical combo of 4 to 7 players composed of one or two lead instruments (saxophone, trumpet, trombone) and a rhythm section. Notable performers in this era included Dizzy Gillespie (trumpet), Charlie Parker (saxophone), Charles Mingus (bass), Thelonious Monk (piano), Bud Powell (piano), Dexter Gordon (saxophone), and Miles Davis (trumpet). Though cool jazz was a minor reaction to bebop, it is sometimes classified as a style within bebop. Melodies were less abrupt and more lyrical in cool jazz, though not necessarily singable, and they were longer-phrased. Dynamics were softer and tempos slower. Attacks were cleaner and less accented. Drummers often used brushes. The music has been described as “softer” and “easier,” though its harmonic nature was often more daring than bebop. The instrumentation was similar to bebop. Pianist Lennie Tristano was a major influence on the cool-jazz movement, and he taught or worked with many of the fine performers of this art including saxophonist Lee Konitz. Konitz played with an airy tone that was imitated by many others like trumpeters Miles Davis and Chet Baker, and saxophonists Paul Desmond and Gerry Mulligan. Mulligan took the style in a slightly different direction (literally to California) and morphed into West Coast Jazz. This style featured two horn players, bass and drums, but without piano. Dave Brubeck, cool-jazz pianist, was noted for using classical styles and forms with innovative rhythms with his quartet. Cool jazz also made its way into the big band scene with Stan Kenton and his band, which featured many cool players. Kenton is also noted for expanding the size of the typical jazz band to five trumpets, six saxophones, and five trombones, and often used French horns and mellophones.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 164

164

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

Hard bop, like that played by saxophonist Sonny Rollins, was somewhat darker and rougher and used slower tempos than typical bebop tunes. Miles Davis, Clifford Brown, Freddie Hubbard, Herbie Hancock, and John Coltrane were influential performers. Soul or funk jazz (often related to hard bop and performed by influential musicians such as Horace Silver (piano) and Cannonball Adderley (saxophone) was influenced by the improvisatory nature of southern African American preachers and often used chord progressions and the triple-meter feel from gospel music. Despite the differences between bebop, cool jazz, West Coast jazz, hard bop, and other forms of bop, the era is often considered collectively as bebop.

Free Jazz Free jazz refers to the notion that no preset chord progressions are used during improvisation. Whereas bebop grew out of swing, free jazz truly was a reaction to bop. In free jazz, musicians take liberties with one or more of the predictable practices associated with bop, such as tempo or key. Instrumentation was similar to bop with the exception that, generally, there was no piano, and drummers did not keep time but rather added to the texture by creating interesting complementary layers of sound. Players sought to extend manipulations of pitch and tone quality, by squeaking, wailing, and gurgling into their instruments as shown by Ornette Coleman and Miles Davis, and later by John Coltrane, Don Cherry, Albert Ayler, and Sun Ra. The music had high energy and thick textures, which both became more important than any notion of melodic material.

Fusion Miles Davis, Chick Corea, John McLaughlin, Weather Report, and Herbie Hancock were some of the individuals who managed to merge the elements of rock, funk, soul, and disco with jazz to form a unique style referred to as fusion. The most pronounced difference between the previous forms of jazz and fusion is timbre, due to the addition of electronic instruments such as the electric guitar and piano, synthesizer, and bass guitar (to replace the upright acoustic bass). In fusion, musicians took on more of the role of composer and new forms were explored that broke the tradition of swing and bop. More preset elements of rock with some improvisation were often the norm. Ensembles used much Latin percussion, and drummers often played the hi-hat on all four beats not just beats 2 and 4. Jazz has certainly changed over the years and evolved into a variety of forms and styles. Each has unique features that are important for American musicians to know and understand. A comprehensive school jazz program should incorporate music from each of the styles, with an emphasis on the core elements of jazz, swing style, and improvisation.

JAZZ IN THE SCHOOLS It makes sense that jazz (or what would become known as jazz) was first introduced into America’s schools in New Orleans around the turn of the twentieth century. The introduction was unofficial as music itself was new to the school curriculum. However, a number of local jazz and classical musicians served as teachers and administrators and often held after-school music clubs in which students learned to play musical instruments and studied the theory and appreciation of music. No doubt, jazz was among the music studied as some of the musician-teachers hired their students to join their bands. Perhaps the most famous jazz musician to come from the public schools of New Orleans was Louis Armstrong, who attended the Fisk School and the Colored Waifs’ Home for Boys School (after an arrest), where he was inspired by musician-teacher Peter Davis. Jazz musicians traveled to other cities to perform and some chose to stay and teach in public schools. As jazz became more popular, around the 1940s, stage bands were formed in schools to play dances and entertain students. By the 1960s, it became a more permanent component of the music curriculum and the National Association of Jazz Educators (later the International Association for Jazz Education, IAJE, which no longer exists) was formed in 1968, to help ensure the inclusion of jazz in the school curriculum. Jazz continues today as a curricular offering in many high school, middle school, and some elementary school instrumental music programs. The music performed in today’s school and professional jazz ensembles spans the range of jazz from its origins to the present.

Purpose of Jazz Instruction The jazz ensemble is an important component of a school band program, though because of its limited instrumentation and styles typically performed it should not be the primary focus of most instrumental programs. That role belongs to the concert band. A strong argument can be made for the inclusion of jazz instruction. First, it provides an opportunity for one-per-part independent performance in a chamber-like setting. Second, it provides an authentic music context for teaching improvisation. Although improvisation can be taught in most ensemble performance classes, it is at the heart

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 165

THE JAZZ ENSEMBLE

165

of jazz and is integral to its performance. Third, jazz is primarily American in that, like the country, it is a blend of elements from many cultures. Jazz can provide a link to past and present popular styles of music for today’s students such as those found in Latin, rock, and other styles. Finally, the jazz band, which is generally more mobile than the larger concert band, can serve the school through performances at local, regional, and national events, which will allow for them to have experiences similar to that of a professional performer.

Setting up the Ensemble As with other ensembles and classes, the more initial thought given to the structure and purpose of the group up front, the more organized the activity will be. Students in the jazz program should be members of a larger ensemble at the school such as orchestra, concert band, or choir in addition to the jazz group. Exceptions may be made for guitar players or pianists who do not play traditional band or orchestra instruments, but this requirement could also serve as a great way to encourage their participation in those non-jazz groups. Jazz groups are often curricular requiring unique scheduling structures. While some meet outside of school many rehearse as part of a normal school day. Scheduling issues related to the jazz ensemble are included in Chapter 7.

Instrumentation One of the first decisions the jazz ensemble director needs to make is whether the ensemble will be inclusive of all students. Typical jazz ensemble literature includes only saxophones, trumpets, trombones, and a rhythm section composed of drums, piano, guitar, and bass, and thus it does not provide easy opportunities for students who play other instruments (e.g., violin, horn, clarinet) to participate. Some teachers resolve this issue by creating two ensembles, the first with traditional instrumentation and a second for students who play nontraditional instruments and for those students who may not yet be ready for the traditional (or top) group. As mentioned, jazz charts usually come with only parts for the traditional group, so if an ensemble includes nontraditional instruments the director (or a student) will need to rewrite parts to be played by the nontraditional instrumentalists. Some publishers occasionally provide parts for these non-traditional instruments and some even write for such groups. Offering an inclusive class only may be appropriate if there are few students interested in participating in a jazz group or if a group is being formed for the first time. It is helpful to think of the standard jazz ensemble as being divided into two sections, rhythm and winds. The rhythm section consists of the following musicians playing one on a part: piano, guitar, bass, drum set, and perhaps vibes and/or auxiliary percussion, while the wind section is composed of 5 saxes (2 altos, 2 tenors, 1 baritone), 4 or 5 trombones (including a bass), and 4 or 5 trumpets. The wind players may also be delineated by the role they play in the ensemble, which consist of lead, solo, or section player. The lead (first) trumpet player is responsible for setting the style and phrasing for the ensemble in full band settings and needs to have the ability to play in the upper register with relative ease. The lead trombone and lead alto sax players head up their sections in a similar manner to the lead trumpet player. In tutti passages, such as a “shout” chorus, these lead players should still listen to and react to the lead trumpet player. Often, these players are aligned vertically from the front of the ensemble to facilitate listening (see Figure 13.1). Solo players should be among the more experienced and proficient at improvising. These players are generally in the 2nd and 5th (if available) trumpet chairs, the lead or 2nd trombone, lead alto, and lead tenor players. The remaining wind players are section players and are responsible for listening and playing with the lead players, although they all could and should be soloists.

FIGURE 13.1 Jazz ensemble block performance setup

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 166

166

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

Each rhythm section player has an important role to perform. The bass player and drummer serve as the heart of the ensemble and are responsible for maintaining a steady pulse, or keeping time. Both should have an excellent sense of time, meaning they should be able to play in all styles (e.g., swing, shuffle, Latin-influenced, and rock) at consistently steady tempos. Piano and guitar players must accompany (called comping) improvised solos by reading chord symbols and transforming them into appropriate, stylistically correct patterns to enhance the solo. They should know how to voice chords and should use good voice-leading techniques. The guitarist should ideally have access to a hollow-bodied, amplified instrument. It may be wise to include a second percussionist in the ensemble who can “comp” on vibes and play auxiliary percussion when needed.

Selecting Students Directors should audition students for the jazz ensemble, whether they choose to have an inclusive group or not, so they can best match students’ abilities to the part they play. Auditions for wind players should consist of scales (to assess range and tone), a prepared swing chart excerpt, sight-reading, and optional improvisation (often a 12-bar blues). Rhythm section auditions should take place in both individual and group settings. Individual auditions can determine soloing ability, technique, and timekeeping (for bass and drums), while group auditions can reveal strengths and weaknesses associated with ensemble and communication skills. Most issues associated with auditions are generated by the rhythm section, as possible players often emerge from places other than the school band or orchestra. These students may not be able to read music but have a well-developed ear and sound technique that can make them good members of the band. Including these individuals in the program may be wise, but the director must consider how the individuals could influence (in both good and bad ways) other members of the ensemble. All rhythm section players should be evaluated similarly for their strengths and weaknesses for being able to perform what is required of them in the ensemble.

Rehearsing the Jazz Ensemble The seating of the jazz band for rehearsals and performances is important. The major consideration is that the bassist be placed next to the drummer, near the hi-hat. This puts both musicians in a position to listen to and observe one another so that consistent time may be maintained. Figure 13.1 depicts a typical arrangement of jazz ensembles for performances. Note that the lead wind players (lead trumpet, lead trombone, lead alto) are aligned and in the center of the winds so that they can hear each other, while trumpet 2 and the lead tenor are positioned to the left, since they perform a large portion of improvised solos and need to be able to acutely listen to the rhythm section. The lower winds, bari sax and bass trombone, are also aligned. Generally, the saxophones sit while the trombones either stand or sit on risers or highback stools, and the trumpets stand on risers if available. The rhythm section may also be elevated.

FIGURE 13.2 Jazz ensemble rehearsal box setup

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 167

THE JAZZ ENSEMBLE

167

For rehearsals, seating positions should be used to promote strong listening skills. One such setup is the box design shown in Figure 13.2. Whereas sections should usually be kept together (especially the rhythm section), varying setups (so that students performing similar parts are close to each other) can help facilitate improvement. It is important to return to the traditional performance seating prior to concerts so students become re-acclimated to that setup.

Learning Jazz Styles Students in jazz ensemble should have the opportunity to perform in multiple styles including swing, shuffle, Latin, rock, and others. The styles, with their unique attributes are examined in the next few paragraphs. Perhaps the ideal way to approach learning any new genre or piece of music, and particularly jazz, is through careful listening to and imitation of expert performers playing the chart. (Note: We often suggest listening as an important instructional method for learning jazz. Table 13.1 at the end of this chapter, titled “What to Listen for among Jazz Musicians” will help in guiding this process.) When jazz was first introduced into the public schools, this practice was commonplace: the music was the current popular music and students went from their homes and cars into the rehearsal room and imitated what they heard on the radio. Today, jazz is less accessible and students need to be directed toward high-quality recordings by artists, both on the students’ primary instruments and others, so that clear aural images can be formed and replicated. Spending a portion of each rehearsal in directed listening to artists and ensembles such as Count Basie, Stan Kenton, Bob Mintzer, Woody Herman, Buddy Rich, and The Big Phat Band can provide meaningful information to young musicians. If one were to select a single style that exemplifies jazz it would inevitably be swing. For that reason and because it is one of the most difficult styles to learn, students should spend much rehearsal time practicing this style. Players must become skilled at several essential concepts to perform in swing style including: (1) establishing a steady beat (keeping time); (2) interpreting swing eighth notes correctly; (3) performing articulations properly; and (4) phrasing. Swing music cannot be performed without a steady pulse. Keeping time begins with a good count off by either the director or drummer after the tempo is established by the director by vocalizing: 1—2—| 1 2 3 4 while snapping fingers or clapping on beats 2 and 4. (In the first measure, “2” is vocalized on count 3 with snaps only on counts 2 and 4.) Of course, if the music is not in 4 or begins with a pick-up you will need to adapt this strategy accordingly. (Traditionally, jazz ensemble directors do not conduct except during the most complicated passages that include fermatas and transitions.) Though maintaining a steady beat is the responsibility of each and every player in the group, the bassist and drummer (and sometimes guitarist) play the most important roles. In swing music, the bassist performs a walking bass line, providing steady quarter notes that are often scalar in nature and outline the harmonic progression. The drummer closes the hi-hat cymbals on beats 2 and 4 (there should be an emphasis on beats two and four throughout), and plays a quarter, eighth-eighth, quarter, eighth-eighth swing pattern on the ride cymbal. In early jazz styles, the drummer also plays a very light (feathered) bass drum on each beat to support the bass. The guitarist may play light, steady chords along with the bassist and drummer. Swing eighth-note style is perhaps a difficult musical concept for young musicians to understand and perform. Although this pattern is often written depicting two eighth-notes of equal value, the first note of each couplet is played longer than the second. Exactly how long is difficult to quantify. Publishers may place a quarter-note, eighth-note triplet above the couplet at the beginning of the piece to indicate that the beat should be divided in thirds and that the first note should be twice as long as the second. This practice is problematic as it indicates a triple feel, which is not what Basie and others usually had in mind (though on certain pieces such as Lil’ Darlin’, Basie did indeed want an underlying triplet feel). Other publishers use a dotted-eighth/sixteenth pattern to represent the figure suggesting a 3 to 1 ratio division of the beat, but this also not correct. The best answer is somewhere between the two lengths, but can only be determined by, again, carefully listening to recorded examples of the original composers/ensembles performing the piece. Unless marked otherwise, quarter notes are played short. Complicating the learning of swing style is the fact that different publishers use different markings for various articulations. To help regulate the vast variety of markings, the IAJE developed a chart of standardized articulations to help establish a core language for composers, publishers, and performers. These are listed in Figure 13.3. Although not everyone has adopted these nomenclatures, it is a good starting point for making musical decisions, though the best method for interpretation of written jazz figures is by listening to model recordings. A variation of swing (and actually a predecessor) is the shuffle, which was derived from an earlier form of jazz dance music and is based on a dance where the feet were literally shuffled across the floor. In the shuffle, the drummer plays swing eighth notes on each beat using the snare drum or hi-hat while the other rhythm section instruments continue to play in a “regular” swing style. Though the drummer often plays the pattern using brushes, sticks are also used. In newer charts, shuffle style is often indicated in the drum set part with the dotted-eighth/sixteenth pattern written on each beat.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 168

168

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

HEAVY ACCENT

WAH

Hold full value.

Full tone—not muffled (Plunger open).

HEAVY ACCENT Hold less than full value.

HEAVY ACCENT Short as possible.

SHORT GLISS UP Slide into note from below (usually one to three steps). No individual notes are heard in a gliss.

LONG GLISS UP Same as above except longer entrance.

STACCATO

SHORT GLISS DOWN

Short—not heavy.

The reverse of the short gliss up.

LEGATO TONGUE

LONG GLISS DOWN

Hold full value.

THE SHAKE A variation of the tone upwards—much like a trill.

LIP TRILL Similar to shake but slower and with more lip control.

The reverse of the long gliss up.

SHORT LIFT Enter note via chromatic or diatonic scale begining about a third below.

LONG LIFT Same as above except longer entrance.

G/E WIDE LIP TRILL Same as above except slower with wider interval.

THE FLIP Sound note, raise pitch, drop into following note (done with lip on brass).

THE SMEAR Slide into note from below and reach correct pitch just before next note. Do not rob preceding note.

THE DOIT Sound note then gliss upwards from one to five steps.

SHORT SPILL Rapid diatonic or chromatic drop. The reverse of the short lift.

LONG SPILL Same as above except longer exit.

THE PLOP A rapid slide down harmonic or diatonic scale before sounding note.

INDEFINITE SOUND (Ghost or Swallowed notes) Deadened tone—indefinite pitch.

DU False or muffled tone (Plunger closed).

FIGURE 13.3 IAJE standardized jazz articulations

There are a few general rules about jazz phrasing that should be followed: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Jazz tends to use a variety of patterns over and over, sometimes referred to as the language of jazz. Repeated patterns should be phrased similarly. Swing eighth notes should be played legato and quarter notes played short or detached unless otherwise marked. Often lines or phrases begin in a subdued manner and end with “kick.” The last note of a lick, or phrase, is usually accented, and if an eighth note, is short. Rhythm section members should also learn to phrase melodic elements. Much of the interest in jazz phrasing comes from syncopated rhythms against the steady pattern of weak (1 and 3) and strong (2 and 4) beats. Higher notes of a phrase or lick are usually accented. Tongue offbeats in slurred eighth-note passages.

During the decade of the 1930s, Latin Americans began to immigrate to America bringing with them their music that strongly influenced the U.S. jazz community. In the 1940s and 1950s, Cuban and Brazilian influences were common; jazz musicians such as Dizzy Gillespie regularly included Cuban and Brazilian performers, especially rhythm section

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 169

THE JAZZ ENSEMBLE

169

players, in their bands, and musicians from these nations invited American jazz musicians to play with them as they toured America. The result was an amalgamation of musical styles that created a new musical genre still popular today by performers including trumpeter Arturo Sandoval. The Latin dance rhythms used today in jazz include those found in the Cuban mambo, cha-cha, and rumba; also the Brazilian bossa nova and samba. The underlying rhythm pattern heard in Cuban-influenced music is the 3–2 clave, called such as it consists of two, 4/4 measures with three FIGURE 13.4 Son clave and rumba clave notes in the first and two in the second, with two dottedquarter notes followed by a quarter note in the first and then a quarter rest, two quarter notes, and another quarter rest in the second (see Figure 13.4a). It is also heard with the measures reversed as a 2–3 clave (Figure 13.4b). In some styles, including the rumba, the final note in the three-note measure sounds as if it is delayed a half beat, giving it a more syncopated feel. This may also be reversed. This syncopated pattern is called the rumba clave while the more traditional pattern is referred to son clave. Figures 13.5a and b display each of these patterns. Music influenced by Brazilian styles uses syncopated patterns similar to the clave, but with subtle FIGURE 13.5 Reverse son clave and reverse rumba clave differences that make them unique. J. Richard Dunscomb and Willie Hill provide a detailed description of the process of playing in each of these styles in their book Jazz Pedagogy3. As might be expected from the dance origins of Latin jazz, percussion takes a heightened role and dominates the sonority, particularly in Brazilian music. Instruments that are included (in addition to the typical jazz rhythm section) include drums such as timbales, conga, and bongos; and shaker-type instruments such as the guiro, cabasa, shaker, and maracas, and the cowbell. Often each instrument has its own ostinato pattern that combines with others to create a unique “groove” for each style. Though the instrumentation of the rhythm section for Latin jazz remains virtually the same as swing music, the role that each musician plays is slightly altered. The piano takes on more of the responsibility for keeping time, while the bass player accentuates the syncopated rhythm patterns and does not play a walking bass. The drummer needs to place the patterns heard in the accessory percussion parts onto the set, though additional players may be used to perform some of the most intricate parts. A case can be made for having a second (or even third) percussionist if the ensemble is playing several Latin jazz pieces; however, some parts are easily played by nonpercussionists.

Rehearsal Strategies As with all musical styles, the importance of listening regularly to live and recorded performances cannot be overstated, and this is particularly important in jazz. Thus, time should be spent listening in each jazz rehearsal. Table 13.1 at the end of this chapter lists suggested artists and recordings for listening, in various styles. The singing of musical lines is another important approach to learning to play jazz. If you can’t sing it, you can’t play it. Focus should not necessarily be on good tone quality or even singing with the correct pitch, rather it should be on rhythmic interpretation. Use syllables that begin with the softer “D” and “B” sounds such as Doo Baht, Di Dee Dot, as opposed to Ta and Ti often used in concert band settings. Singing lines as an ensemble eliminates the physical component of playing instruments, allowing students to devote their attention to reading, performing, and listening to others. Although many students may be hesitant to sing at first, regular rehearsing in this fashion will allow students to grow more comfortable and will soon become second nature. Asking students to hum, rather than sing, may be effective when initially introducing this strategy. Rehearsing a jazz ensemble is similar to rehearsing other groups. Basic rehearsal strategies used with bands and orchestras will most likely work for the jazz ensemble. Strategies such as isolating (difficult technical passages or chords to tune) and whole–part–whole (play through/break down/play through again) and others mentioned in the rehearsal chapters of this book should be employed. Encourage section players to play up to the volume of the lead players in their section at all times. Brass chords are often voiced from bass trombone right up through the lead trumpet. You should begin a new chart by sight-reading through it. Be sure that students look over the chart for: (1) meter and time signatures; (2) tempo markings and changes in tempo; (3) dynamics; (4) issues related to form such as repeats and DCs; (5) tonality; and (6) improvisation sections to examine the chords to determine the key/scale patterns for solos.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 170

170 THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

Encourage students to try to play with appropriate phrasing in addition to performing correct notes and rhythms the first time, though just getting through the tune is often a chore. Next, you may wish to sing and finger (or slide for trombones) through some of the more difficult technical sections of the chart as a group to: (1) rehearse the finger patterns; and (2) check for understanding of the style in which they are to play. Below are a few ideas for improving ensemble performance efficiently after sight-reading: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Listen to the piece as an ensemble while having students follow their part and fingering along. Begin by establishing a groove with the rhythm section including the tempo. Be sure everyone agrees on the style. If rehearsing a swing chart, be sure the bass player and drummer are locked in with the tempo. Model it, sing it, play it, assess it. Consider using an amplified metronome to help establish the pulse with the entire ensemble or have the drummer listen to it alone using headphones. Be sure that all players are tuned to the piano. Have lead players tune first followed by section players. When rehearsing wind players and sections, have the drummer play the hi-hat on 2 and 4 to help players maintain a steady pulse. When winds are playing tutti passages, first work with the lead trumpet player to be sure the phrasing is correct, then add the other lead players, and finally all section players.

Roles, Practicing, and Rehearsal Issues for Specific Instruments Rhythm Section Drums The drum set player (drummer) is the driving force, the motor that enhances entrances and soloists, solidifies tutti horn lines and punctuations, and establishes styles (i.e., swing, rock, Latin rhythms, ballads, shuffle, etc.). Just as important, the drummer serves as a timekeeper with the bass and can have an impact on the dynamics of the band. The drummer should play simple time until the arrangement is known by ear, and feet and hands can perform independently. The drummer will then be able to add accents (hits) to help punctuate the winds, and fill spots between melodic riffs and melody lines (along with the comping pianist). One of the most common problems with drummers is that they try to play too much—the general rule is “the simpler the better.” There will be plenty of time for skill demonstration during the drum solo. In most duple-meter jazz tunes, the right-handed player plays ride cymbal with the right hand and the hi-hat on beats two and four. The left hand is free to play accents on the snare and toms, or a ride pattern on the cymbal, and the bass drum is absent or occasionally (in early jazz pieces) feathered on all four beats. The bass drum is used in a similar manner to the toms and snare for accents and punctuation of the wind parts. Drum parts are generally only a sketch that indicates where the ensemble has accents and where the drummer could play a fill. It is often wise to leave the drummer’s part in the folder so he or she can listen to the ensemble and learn the arrangement rather than attempting to watch the sketch and thereby failing to concentrate on tempo, decorating ensemble parts, bringing in the group, adding color, and changing styles. Another option is to provide a copy of the lead trumpet or saxophone chart so that the drummer can incorporate appropriate hits into his or her playing. An excerpt of a typical drumset part is shown in Figure 13.6.

FIGURE 13.6 Typical drum set part

Eight examples of drum set patterns for jazz are illustrated in Figure 13.7. The first shows a basic jazz pattern. The second example is slightly accented on 2 and 4; straight eighths on the ride cymbal would provide a Latin or rock feel. The third pattern is used frequently as it fits most jazz tunes; the snare might alternate with rim shots (light or hard) depending on the horn parts. The fourth example is for extremely fast tempos with the left hand playing snare and toms on various beats for accents and punctuation. The fifth pattern is a shuffle, often played with brushes on the snare.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 171

THE JAZZ ENSEMBLE 3

3

1.

5.

2.

6.

3

3

171

3

3

3.

7.

4.

8.

3

3

3

3

3

FIGURE 13.7 (a) Eight jazz patterns for drum set; (b) key to symbols in (a)

Thad Jones arrangements use this pattern. It can be an exciting pattern in certain tunes. The sixth is a variation of the first and used for up-tempo tunes; the snare “pops” accents and punctuations on various drums and cymbals. The seventh pattern is the only one that uses the snare and toms rather than the ride cymbal to create a driving rhythm. This pattern would not be appropriate throughout an entire jazz arrangement, but works well for rhythmic emphasis. The final example is a simple pattern used in any of the previous figures to break the established pattern, often used after a drum solo to reestablish time.

Piano Piano parts are sometimes written out, which makes comping easier for an inexperienced jazz pianist. Otherwise, the part is notated using only chord symbols, leaving the voicings and rhythms to the individual pianist. Voicings refer to the vertical structure of the chord and designates which notes will be used (not all are). Occasionally, if the piano is to play a specific melodic or chord pattern, a hybrid is used. Currently, the common notation used by publishers of jazz arrangements is shown in the third example of Figure 13.8, in which the chord symbol and rhythm are provided leaving only the voicing to the pianist. The first example of Figure 13.8 can be used by most young pianists, but when they grow more independent they =100 Notated should be encouraged to experiment with different rhythms Written out: and voicings. A general principle is that the more notes the pianist plays, the easier it is for the wind soloists to improvise without seeming to play wrong notes, though there have been professional groups that used no piano or guitar to provide voicings, thus providing soloists with even more “room” to improvise. =100 The second example of Figure 13.8 is often interpreted D 9 Chords only E 9 (incorrectly) to be performed with straight quarter notes with Chords only: the chords in root position. The pianist, while concentrating on listening to the full ensemble to ensure his or her part is in the style of the music (rhythmically), also experiments with voicings to determine the sonorities that best fit. The Chords C9 B 9 director can provide creative ideas and positive feedback and rhythm: when appropriate to help guide the pianist who may not yet have had the opportunity to experiment and take risks using the instrument. The experienced pianist generally prefers this type of notation—rhythmic and harmonic FIGURE 13.8 Three types of piano notation in jazz arrangements freedom is the luxury of the jazz pianist. The pianist is also expected to fill gaps in the music between the wind player’s solo sections. Sometimes the drummer plays a fill, but the pianist should always be prepared—especially on a Count Basie tune or a Sammy Nestico arrangement. These fills are seldom written, so like the rest of the rhythm section, the pianist should learn the arrangement’s structure

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 172

172 THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

by ear (remembering there are relatively few forms in traditional jazz styles), and fill the gaps, no matter how long or short they are. These short fills are usually in the upper register of the keyboard and are often scalar. Though piano solos may be notated in easier jazz literature, the player must learn not to play the solo exactly as written but rather in the style of the music. Articulations are seldom notated, since the player is expected to listen and learn the style of the entire arrangement and play the solo in the appropriate style. This is a further reason for rehearsing the rhythm section separately at times. With experience, the jazz pianist can expand his or her playing to include authentic improvisation. Listening to jazz recordings and focusing on the rhythm section is a terrific help. (See the section on improvisation in this chapter.) The following list borrows ideas from Ferguson and Feldstein3 regarding the piano’s role in the rhythm section. 1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

The pianist should not play all the time, but punctuate chords, play fills, and “shine” on ballads. Overuse muddies the rhythm and punctuation. Use the hands for sustained chords as needed, avoiding the pedal. Practice with a metronome. Experiment with the printed part, leaving some chords out, substituting some, and altering others. Play written solos with correct style and rhythm attempting to make them sound improvised. Listen for gaps in the music and try to fill them. Experiment with printed notes or chords in the upper register with appropriate rhythmic patterns. Learn good voicing rules by studying published materials (especially transcribed solos) and transpose them to all keys. Use silence as a rhythmic device (harmonic direction), and try not to be too busy comping. Change the voicing on repeated chords. Listen to big band recordings (e.g., Bill Evans, Count Basie, Gordon Goodman, Dave Grusin, and Chick Corea) with a knowledgeable jazz pianist or director who can point out notable elements or answer questions. Don’t play a bass line if there is a bass player in the band. On rock and Latin charts an electric piano may be adequate, but an acoustic piano should be used for straight jazz.

Guitar The guitarist has a part similar to the pianist’s and keeps time while occasionally adding rhythmic color. An amplified hollow-bodied instrument should be used for jazz, though a solid-bodied instrument is preferred for other styles. If only an electric guitar is available it should be adjusted to sound as much as possible like a hollow-bodied guitar. The guitar, except for solos, always plays at an unobtrusive dynamic level. The two primary jazz styles used by guitarists are: (1) to play straight quarter-note chords in the background as Freddie Green did with the Basie band; or (2) to play chords with a rhythmic feel similar to the tutti rhythms in the full ensemble. Like the drummer and pianist, the guitarist has to stay out of the way and play a limited number of notes. When playing in a rock style, the electric guitar may use pedals that create such effects as distortion devices as long as they are an appropriate style for the piece. The parts are played out and enhance the entire ensemble as a rock group. In rock tunes, it is often the guitar player who is charged with playing fills between horn licks.

Bass The role of the bass is to define the chords being played and to guide the movement of the music from one chord to another. The bass also provides a rhythmic drive to the music, a role often shared with the drums. When the bass takes control of the rhythm, the percussionist can concentrate on “decorating” the music, playing fills, and kicking in the winds at new sections of the music. Jazz bass players need to keep the steady beat driving and avoid overwhelming the band or combo. The bass line is a virtual metronome. Since the bass often plays chord tones, other instrumentalists can listen and align to the pitch. The bass player also sets the dynamic level for the group. Either an amplified acoustic or an electric bass is adequate for most big bands. Ideally, use both, since the electric bass sounds better on rock selections, whereas the acoustic bass is preferred for swing. In most rock-oriented literature, the bass part is notated and comprises larger intervals and more repeated notes than in jazz. Jazz arrangements also contain notated bass parts, but chord symbols or a hybrid of the two are more standard. Because the bass links the rhythm and harmony, the music is often organized around it. The bass player must have an excellent sense of time. This can be learned by practicing with a metronome or playing along with a recorded version of the piece. The length of the notes in a walking bass line, unless marked otherwise, is always legato. Often this is predicated on its relationship to the length of the drummer’s ride cymbal. The notes are connected by keeping the string pressed for each note until the beginning of the next pitch. This is easier said than done and must be practiced regularly to create a smooth, continuous feel. The bassist can also lean on counts 2 and 4 to support the hi-hat. The most basic pitches the bass player uses are those built around the I, ii, IV, and V7 chord tones in the keys commonly used in jazz music. These keys are not always those used by traditional orchestras. The bass player must also learn the major and minor scales and the blues scales (1, 2, ≤3, 4, ≤5, ≤7, 8) in all keys. Thus, practicing scales and

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 173

THE JAZZ ENSEMBLE

173

arpeggios in most keys is an excellent way to develop appropriate skills. The root and the fifth are the most important notes of any chord. These notes are always safe to incorporate, too; but the walking bass line traditional to jazz makes use of chord tones and scalar motion. Beginning bass players should utilize consonant scalar motion and arpeggios to develop good bass lines. As the ear and technique develop, appropriate chromatic tones may be added. Listening to excellent examples of jazz bassists like Walter Page and Charles Mingus, transcribing the lines, and emulating the pitch selection will increase the skill of developing bass players. The most common special effect for bass is the slap bass. The slap bass originated during the swing era on the acoustic bass. The bass player rotates the forearm and wrist to slap the bass with the thumb to make the bass lines stand out. Slapping the bass may help a young student to keep better time. The string is pulled with the index or middle finger and allowed to slap back against the fingerboard. Here is a list of ideas from Tom Ferguson and Saul Feldstein4 for the jazz ensemble bass player: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

A steady beat is the primary function of the jazz bassist. Keep the bass line simple, not busy in jazz; in rock, it is more lively with ostinato syncopated parts. Sustain notes as much as possible in all styles. Avoid staccato except for special effects or improvising. The bass line should be as linear and diatonic as possible in jazz tunes, with larger intervals and repeated notes in rock. The conductor must listen to bass at all times for the steadiness of the beat and for helping the player with volume. Use the lower register most, with the upper register reserved for improvised solos. Listen to professionals who lead groups (e.g., Stanley Clarke, Charles Mingus) as well as professional big band bass players. Do not compete with the drummer, but cooperate as a single rhythmic unit.

Winds In the saxophone section each instrument has its own role to play but each must perform with good tone and intonation at all volume levels, as they must keep up with the brass. Further, solid blend and balance in the section are required, as well as appropriate vibrato when called for. Most full ensemble pieces are written for two altos (lead, 2nd), two tenors (lead, 2nd), and baritone. The section must play up to and follow the stylistic playing of the lead alto, who is generally the strongest player in the section. The lead tenor player is generally the best sax soloist while the 2nd alto and tenor should be able to listen well and support the lead players. As Chris Vadala says, the bari sax player “should be fearless yet flexible.” To get the most appropriate stylistic sound from the saxophone section, the director and players need to listen regularly to excellent recordings and may wish to experiment with different equipment (e.g., mouthpieces) to find the combination of elements that most closely matches the sound. Members of the saxophone section of a jazz band also have the opportunity to learn to double, or play other woodwind instruments that are called for in some jazz charts. The most common doubling instruments are soprano saxophone, clarinet, and flute, though occasionally the bass clarinet, oboe, piccolo, or even an alto flute may be called for. The trumpet section, consisting of 4 or 5 trumpets, must work together to play with a pleasant sound that is in tune and well balanced. A pleasant sound is full and controlled in all ranges and volumes; it is obtained and maintained through regular practice of long tones and lip slurs. Trumpet players are called on to play with both bright (up-tempo swing and rock charts) and dark (ballads) sonorities. The lead trumpet player is the leader of the section and thus must have an excellent concept of phrasing and jazz articulation as this player sets the style for every other member of the ensemble. Other wind players must listen and emulate the lead trumpet player. The lead trumpet must also be able to play consistently in the upper register (with a pleasing sound). Although younger students should play with standard mouthpieces (such as a Bach 7C), some lead players may wish to explore equipment with a shallower cup and smaller backbore to help facilitate playing in the upper register. The majority of improvised solos are included in the 2nd trumpet (or occasionally 4th or 5th trumpet) part, and this player must be, or become, a solid improviser. The 2nd trumpet also plays some written solos in ballads. Both 3rd and 4th trumpet players need to listen well in order to support the lead player. Occasionally, “section” players will perform as an upper voice in the trombone section or double a solo with a member of the saxophone section. Balance in the trombone section is of utmost importance; players must strive for a balanced pyramid sound with lower parts playing at a greater dynamic level than those in the upper range. The lead trombonist must be adept at playing in the upper register and may help to facilitate this by using a horn with a smaller bore. Skill in improvising is also important for the lead player. The lower-voiced players generally perform rhythmic values at a slightly shorter length than those playing in the higher register. A bass trombone or tuba is often used to play the lowest trombone part, which requires a full, rich sound in the low register; and tubists in particular must be able to play in a more versatile manner than typically called for in concert band or orchestral music.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 174

174

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

Selecting Appropriate Charts Selecting high-quality music that is accessible to both ensemble and solo members is one of the most difficult, yet important, parts of the director’s role. Factors to be taken into consideration include the group’s ability as an ensemble and as individuals, exposure of students to multiple styles, the nature of the performance, and balance among styles. For instance, a typical one-hour concert should include several swing pieces (at different tempi), a shuffle, perhaps a Dixieland number or a tune in bebop style, one or two Latin numbers, one or two ballads (at least one with a solo feature), and a rock-oriented chart. Noting which sections or soloists to feature is also important (e.g., a highly talented musician, one who has worked hard, or a senior performing a final concert). Good music can be found by consulting successful jazz directors, attending jazz concerts or festivals, and examining online and print catalogs. The director needs to understand the chart well to teach it. The leader who has little or no experience with Latin music may wish to first try “Oye Come Va” before the original version of “Tiger of San Pedro.” Many music publishers and distributors (such as jwpepper.com) place scores and recordings online for directors to peruse, though these are often only partial renderings. Spending time examining scores and listening to charts prior to selecting them for rehearsal and performance, in the end, saves much time and money. Many directors first look at the rhythm section (bass and drums in particular) and the lead trumpet parts to determine whether a chart is of good quality and the appropriate difficulty level for the group. If a bass player can’t play the walking bass line at the appropriate tempo then the group will be unable to swing. Criteria to consider when selecting jazz ensemble repertoire are the following: 1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Know the technical limitations of the players. Is the bass part within the player’s grasp? Does the lead trumpet part stay within a comfortable range for the student? What are the strengths of the group? If the group has an awesome trombone selection, choose a piece that features them. Select music from a variety of styles including swing, Latin, jazz, and funk/rock. Examine the detail of the swing articulations and accents used in wind parts to be sure they are correct. Look for melodies that are interesting and have rhythmic motives. Original and arranged jazz standards (by composers such as Count Basie, Dizzy Gillespie, and Thad Jones) make great selections and are a great tie-in to the history of jazz. Look for non-standards by well-known capable composers and arrangers such as Frank Mantooth, Sammy Nestico, Mark Taylor, Mike Kamus, and Thad Jones. Choose music that incorporates improvisational sections to provide students the opportunity to be creative. Music should be tasteful, enjoyable, and “cool” so that students and the director are motivated to rehearse the chart. Think about endurance (especially for lead trumpet and trombone) across the entire length of the concert.

Jazz scores come in at least three varieties: full, condensed, or hybrid. A full score will have individual parts for a complete rhythm section, 4 or 5 trumpets, 4 trombones, and 5 saxes, while condensed scores usually have a full rhythm section (though piano and guitar may be doubled), 1 to 3 trumpets, 1 or 2 trombones, and 2 or 3 saxes. Composers also write charts for a mixed ensemble that includes parts for a full group with some parts doubled, allowing for charts to be played by a myriad of different instruments.

Improvisation Improvisation has been a part of nearly all musical cultures and has been defined as music that is created while being performed. This definition is broad but useful. Improvisation has been referred to as the essence of jazz and is a defining element of most, but not all, jazz works. Although improvisation can be introduced as part of most classes, it lends itself most successfully to the jazz program where it is an integral part of the music. There are a number of ways to approach improvisation; Aebersold, Hill, Berg, Coker, and others have all presented methods of teaching that can work in an instrumental setting. All of these methods include the components of listening, developing aural skills, reading and interpreting jazz nomenclature, transcribing solos, and analysis as part of learning to improvise. Listening and analyzing first-rate soloists, no matter what the instrument, is effective for learning the elements of an improvised solo. Students should start their listening with solos that are rhythmically simple and melodic in nature. Artists such as Chet Baker, Miles Davis, and Ben Webster are models whom students can use. Transcribing solos will assist students in focusing on listening, though teachers will need to aid students by pointing out important compositional features such as sequencing, repetition, and the use of silence. (Beginning improvisers often play with few rests.) After transcribing, students can attempt to play along with the solos by following the written music or from memory. Listening and transcription will help develop aural skills, but emulating performances will develop students’ ear-to-hand skills.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 175

THE JAZZ ENSEMBLE

175

Reading the nomenclature associated with jazz can be tricky but it provides valuable information about the harmonic structure and pitch set available for students to use in their solos. A plethora of books and other aids are available to help learn the skill, but reading changes should not be a prerequisite for improvisation. For newer improvisers it is more helpful to identify the pitch set available to them and allow them to develop musical solos. As they grow in skill they will become motivated to learn scales, patterns, and chords that will extend their current abilities. When initially teaching students to improvise, it is important to keep the process simple by focusing on either melodic or rhythmic development. While learning a simple tune based on a blues chord progression, students can: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Play through the melody (head or tune) and try to commit it to memory. Most blues progressions are 12 bars long and most heads are no longer than 32 bars in length. Isolate the rhythm by playing on a single pitch (the tonic) while the rhythm section performs the changes. Then move to two pitches (1,2), then three (1,2,3 or 1,3,5), and so on to gradually build their pitch vocabulary. Isolate the melody. Students should play long tones on each of the notes in the pitch set while the rhythm section accompanies. They will grow more comfortable using the notes over time. Students can improvise using the rhythm of the melody while playing any pitches in the set. Players should be encouraged to use plenty of silence and compositional techniques heard in professional solos, such as repetition, call and response, sequencing, and so forth. Consider devoting a single day each week (if rehearsing daily) to practice and study improvisation.

Jazz Combos Incorporating jazz combos of 3–6 players into the jazz band program can help develop a musician’s improvisation skills more effectively and efficiently than in a big band jazz ensemble, as this is their primary purpose. Although a combo is often comprised of a band’s most proficient players, it can also be a means for beginning jazz players to learn improvisation skills and a place where “extra” rhythm section players can find a home. Instrumentation generally includes a rhythm section plus one to three wind players. The teacher’s responsibility during rehearsal should be primarily that of coach with the students running the rehearsal. This atmosphere allows players to develop as musicians, leaders, and critical listeners of jazz as they attempt to determine group faults and strengths. Selecting one person as the leader can help provide structure. After proper warming up, most instructional time should be allocated to improvisation. Playing through the “head” of a tune (the melody), followed by multiple choruses with all players getting a chance to improvise, is a productive way to practice. Recording and listening to the group should be encouraged and opportunities to give feedback should be provided to all. Performing the same tune in a variety of styles is important in this genre as well, and students may feel like they can take on more of an individual role as a player.

Jazz Strings Jazz performance can and should be in everyone’s repertoire, including strings. Of course, the double bass and guitar are present in the traditional ensemble, but the traditional orchestra and strings classes provide excellent venues for teaching important skills through jazz, careful listening, and improvisation. The American String Teachers Association (ASTA) encourages the performance of alternative (nonclassical) styles of music for strings including bluegrass, jazz, rock, and traditional folk music. Instructional techniques put forth earlier in this chapter can be used to teach jazz styles and phrasings, improvisation techniques, and other primary components of jazz. Recall that the instrumentation of the early New Orleans “bands” included violins.

CONCLUSION As an American art form, jazz certainly has a place in American K–12 schools and should be fostered as part of a wellrounded instrumental music program. Challenges to doing so include time, finances, and scheduling, but these can be overcome with effective planning and working with administrators and others to build a program. The jazz environment allows students to play a variety of styles of music and to play in a chamber (one on a part) setting; it also offers an opportunity for learning and developing improvisation skills.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:19 Page 176

176

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS/ACTIVITIES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

What musicians would you consider the primary contributors to jazz during each era? How are their influences heard in today’s jazz and other types of music? Would you consider including flutes, horns, and cellos in your jazz ensemble? Why or why not? What are the benefits for including a jazz combo as part of the instrumental program? Discuss the benefits and disadvantages of incorporating nontraditional musicians (those not in band or orchestra, i.e., guitar players) in your jazz band program. Create a sequential process for teaching a middle school saxophonist to improvise to a blues tune. Should all students be required to improvise in public (at a concert?) Why or why not?

TABLE 13.1 What to listen for among jazz musicians

Era

Artist

Key concepts and ideas

Early jazz

Louis Armstrong

Virtuosity, growls, bent notes, great tone quality, melodic invention; established the soloistic nature of jazz; built on the harmonies in improvisation more than the melody, harmonically rich, light rhythmic spring, notes on either side of the beat, vibrato on last note, secondary pulse

Bix Beiderbecke

Warm, dry, softer sound; original creative melodies; good command of middle register which he used often; contemplative restrained improvisation style

Eubie Blake

Ragtime pianist, early Broadway style

James P. Johnson

Orchestral approach to stride; sophisticated harmonies with attention to chord voicings; fluid rhythmic style away from marching bass/broken chord structure of ragtime

Jelly Roll Morton

Accents and duration in ragtime music; early use of uneven eighth notes

Joe “King” Oliver

Coherence, coordination, partnership which is New Orleans jazz at its best

Ma Rainey, Bessie Smith

Blues, simple melodies, melismas

Fats Waller

Stride style, excellent technique, bouncing swing feel, joyful music

Count Basie

Stride pianist turned bandleader and arranger; lively, exact, comping style; strong solo work; arrangements emphasized riffs, not collective improvisation

Barney Bigard

Clarinet/tenor sax with Ellington; long legato lines; soulful approach to improvisation

Harry Carney

Bari sax player with Ellington; “Father of jazz baritone saxophone”; large rich, strong sound

Charlie Christian

Electric guitar with swinging, single-line melodies; fluid phrasing

Tommy Dorsey

Band leader trombonist; developed a clear, smooth trombone tone; excellent high-register work

Harry “Sweets” Edison

Basie trumpeter and studio musician; excellent sense of time; repeated notes across multiple measures and phrases

Roy Eldridge

Advanced improvisation in swing era; imaginative choice of notes; bridged gap between Louis Armstrong and Dizzy Gillespie; variation in tone; strong high register; used long, strong lines

Duke Ellington

Band leader and pianist; division between old and new, black and white, authentic and adapted; composed music that combined jazz and symphonic forms; incorporated important features of individual players into his compositions

Ella Fitzgerald

Wide vocal range; great sense of swing style; scat-singing solos rivaled that of instrumentalists

Benny Goodman

Big band sound with a hard-driving effect; technical clarinet player; small groups with profusion of improvisation

Coleman Hawkins

Deep, rough, tenor saxophone sound; focused more on harmonic progressions than melodic development

Fletcher Henderson

Swing music and music to dance to; created big band’s counterbalancing of reeds with brass, lots of solos, and section solos, but form was still similar to call and response; when Armstrong joined him the idea of true jazz evolved

Swing

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 177

THE JAZZ ENSEMBLE

177

TABLE 13.1 continued

Era

Bebop

Cool jazz

Artist

Key concepts and ideas

Johnny Hodges

Lead alto sax in Ellington’s band; deep, lush tone; can move between notes quite smoothly, similar to a trombone smear at times; excellent sense of timing, especially within syncopated melodies

Billie Holiday

Recorded and played with many including Goodman, Basie, and Shaw; a model of blues singing; instrumental-like vocal production, particularly in terms of phrasing

Bubber Miley

Growl style of trumpet playing (like Cootie Williams), playful melodies

Glenn Miller

Leader of swing band that focused on melodious arrangements and vocalists, not improvisation; also a trombonist

Art Tatum

Interrupted movement in both hands, sudden leaps into different keys; sophisticated harmonies using substitute chords

Juan Tizol

Trombonist with Ellington; sweet sound and style, valve trombone allowed him more versatility

Sarah Vaughan

Extreme range, powerful voice; noted for ability to scat sing; used ornamentation, phrasing, and variation to manipulate improvisations

Dickie Wells

Trombonist with Basie; used few notes in a limited range to create tuneful, bluesy improvisations

Paul Whiteman

Symphonic jazz, commercial dance music, jazz influence, entertainment, hybrid

Cootie Williams

Influenced by New Orleans style; manipulated pitch and tone quality in a variety of ways; vocal-like presentation

Lester Young

Played tenor sax with Basie; light tone with slow vibrato, floating and joyful phrases; alternative to Hawkins’ heavy sound

Dizzy Gillespie

Bop; move away from dance band style; brought harmonic devices unique to bop; distant keys for his solos; altered chords for chromatic effect and often used discordant, substitute chords; a virtuoso trumpeter; agility in high register

Dexter Gordon

Deep, dark, full tone; used entire range of instrument, most notable for low register; rather melodic improvisation; used varied phrases that were well thought out and complete

J.J. Johnson

Trombonist; bop with tuneful melodies; very little vibrato, smooth tone; limited use of typical trombone sonorities such as smears

Charles Mingus

Percussive use of the bass that was forceful and accentuated each note

Thelonious Monk

Spare, angular, eccentric piano style; well-structured melodies; concise; oddly accented phrases

Charlie Parker

Highly syncopated method of articulation; well-developed process of improvisation, implied additional harmonies to original chords; frantic pace, great energy and enthusiasm

Oscar Peterson

Pianist; full, orchestral ballad style; strong swing style but also incorporated funk and gospelinspired figures

Bud Powell

Harmonies lightened to two or three notes; the Charlie Parker of the piano world

Max Roach

Increase in impulsiveness of kicks and prods grew; more feathering of bass drum rather than pounding it; use of cymbals for timekeeping becomes more important

Chet Baker

Trumpeter; easy swing-style solos with a soft, non-brassy sound; fragile tone at times; long, musical phrases and many melodic ideas

Dave Brubeck

Attempted to bring European music to jazz; improvised in meters other than 44; strongly rhythmic, effect on color and counterpoint, West Coast style

Miles Davis

Cool, scoring and instrumentation were shaped for smaller groups (modern jazz quartet); used fugues and canons, modal scales; used a forceful drummer and strong saxes in his bands; accepted rock influence

Stan Kenton

Expanded size of the big band,;linked closely with the cool style; was more like a massive brass choir than the enlarged Basie-style jazz combo; composition emphasized over improvisation

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 178

178 THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

TABLE 13.1 continued

Era

Hard bop

Fusion

Artist

Key concepts and ideas

Lee Konitz

Tenor saxophonist; studied with Tristano; smooth sound, no vibrato

Lennie Tristano

Pianist; used lock-hand technique; long, smooth melodic lines; phrases did not always swing

Cannonball Adderley

Alto saxophonist; flowing, unpredictable, energized style; deep, full, warm timbre—like a tenor; legato style with bent notes and wailing sounds

Art Blakey

Drummer who was adept at accompanying players and helped them to pace their solos and create excitement; hard-driving, intense style

Clifford Brown

Trumpeter who was a strong, consistent performer; slow, even vibrato that was wider than that of Miles or Dizzy; used smooth, melodic ideas unlike Dizzy who often jumped into the high register

Don Cherry

Trumpeter whose solos went beyond typical jazz forms and ideas, particularly with harmonies; moved to atypical chord progressions; did not always use chordal instruments in his groups

Ornette Coleman

Ignored chords and bar lines then employed unconventional sounds like equal-tempered chromatic scale; used shouts, cries, or simple noise; complete freedom to soloist; avoidance of order

John Coltrane

Strong command of the tenor sax; tone was large and dark, yet enunciated; multiphonics; fast solos that were filled with much technical and musical information; like Miles, he infused rock into works through using electronic instruments; heavy accents on 2 and 4

Herbie Hancock

Pianist; imaginative and technically proficient player; well-structured solos; use of electronic instruments, advanced shifts in rhythms and harmonies

Freddie Hubbard

Trumpeter; often interrupted his own musical thoughts with new lines; liked to double-time; playful rhythmic ideas; clear tone with articulate, precise tonguing; incorporated many lip trills

Sonny Rollins

Tenor saxophonist; one of the favorites among jazz saxophonists; extended simply stated melodic ideas into well-developed solos; hard, brittle sound; used staccato where others played more legato lines

Horace Silver

Pianist who moved bop from long, elaborate lines to simple, short phrases

Chick Corea

Pianist with Miles Davis; advanced voicings; infused Latin American style in jazz; percussionlike playing; bright, upbeat style of comping

John McLaughlin

Technically skillful guitarist; brought rock ideas to jazz; elongated sixteenth-note patterns with longer held tones; distortion of tone with wa-wa pedals and phase shifters

Sun Ra

Pianist, but known more as a composer; works used many different instrument combinations and extended timbres (oboe, timpani, electronic instruments); based some pieces on African chant and not chord progressions

Weather Report

Band composed originally of Wayne Shorter, Joe Zawinful, and Miroslav Vitous; performed many different styles and used uncharacteristic instruments in unique ways; collective improvisation throughout a composition

RESOURCES Websites AccuJazz http://www.accujazz.com/ All About Jazz allaboutjazz.com Jazziz jazziz.com Jazz Academy at Lincoln Center academy.jazz.orgacaaa;f;ka;akf

Jazz Corner www.jazzcorner.com Jazz Education Network jazzednet.org Jazz on the Tube http://searchandrestore.com/jazzonthetubejazzonthe tube.com Jazz Roots jass.com

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 179

THE JAZZ ENSEMBLE Ken Burns Jazz www.pbs.org/jazz NPR Jazz npr.org/music/genres/jazz Thelonious Monk Jazz Institute monkinstitute.org Traditional Jazz Educators Network prjc.org

Texts Aebersold, J. (2000). Jazz Handbook. New Albany, IN: Jamey Aebersold. Briggs, F.J. (1994). The Complete Modern Drumset (w/CD and/or videotape). Pacific, MO: Mel Bay. Coker, J. (1964). Improvising Jazz. Prentice Hall. ––– (1990). How to Listen to Jazz, revised ed. New Albany, IN: Jamey Aebersold. ––– (1990). How to Practice Jazz. New Albany, IN: Jamey Aebersold. Dunscomb, J., and R. and W.L. Hill (2002). Jazz Pedagogy: The Jazz Educator’s Handbook and Resource Guide. Miami, FL: Warner Brothers. Fleming, L.A. (1994). Getting Started with Jazz Band. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education. Gridley, M.C. (2012). Jazz Styles: History and Analysis, 11th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson. ––– (2013). Concise Guide to Jazz, 7th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson. Heble, A. and M. Laver (2016). Improvisation and Music Education: Beyond the Classroom. New York, NY: Routledge. Jarvis, J. and D. Beach (2002). The Jazz Educator’s Handbook. Delevan, NY: Kendor Music. Kernfield, B. (1995). What to Listen for in Jazz. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Lawn, R. (2006). Experiencing Jazz. Columbus, OH: McGrawHill. MENC: The National Association for Music Education (1996). Teaching Jazz: A Course of Study. Lanham, MD: MENC and International Association for Jazz Education. Miles, R. (ed.). (2016). Teaching Music through Performance in Jazz for Beginning Ensembles. Vols. 1 & 2. Chicago: GIA. Papich, M.J. (2013). The Jazzer’s Cookbook: Creative Recipes for Players and Teachers. Delray Beach, FL: Meredith Music. Rutherford, P. (2013). Basics in Jazz Arranging. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard. Schuller, G. (1986). Early Jazz: It’s Roots and Musical Development. New York: Oxford; reprint of 1968 ed. ––– (1991). The History of Jazz (Vol. 2), The Swing Era: The Development of Jazz, 1930–1945. New York, NY: Oxford. Tomaro, M. and J. Wilson (2009). Instrumental Jazz Arranging: A Comprehensive and Practical Guide. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard. Whyton, T. (2011). Jazz. Farnham, UK: Ashgate.

179

Berry. Jazz Ensemble Warm-ups (Hal Leonard). Clark. Five Minutes a Day (C. L. Barnhouse) Coker. How to Practice Jazz (Jamey Aebersold). Coker. The Jazz Repertoire (Jamey Aebersold). Edmondson. Jazz Warm-up (Hal Leonard). Haerle. The Jazz Language (Warner Brothers). Hill, Jr.Approaching the Standards (Warner Brothers). Hunt. Call and Response Jazz (B≤ Music Production). Jennings. Blues Warm-ups and Workouts (Hal Leonard). Lewis. Daily Warm-up Exercises for Jazz Ensemble (Alfred). Metcalf. Big Band Warm-ups (Barry). Mulholland and Hojnacki. The Berklee Book of Jazz Harmony. (Berklee). Owen. Jazz Builders Step 1 (Heritage). Riposo. Developing a Jazz Vocabulary: The Grammar of Jazz (Jamey Aebersold). Sorenson and Pearson. Standard of Excellence Jazz Ensemble Method (Kjos). Steinel. Essential Elements for Jazz Ensemble (Hal Leonard). Sweeney. Instant Warm-up (Hal Leonard).

Instruments Drums Bellson, Bellson, and Black. Contemporary Brush Technique (Hal Leonard). Clark. Funk Drumming: Innovative Grooves & Advanced Concepts (Hal Leonard). Davis. Standard Time for the Working Drummer (Jamey Aebersold). Erskine. Drum Concepts and Techniques (Hal Leonard). Houghton. Studio and Big Band Drumming (C.L. Barnhouse). Karas. Jazz Drumming in Big Band & Combo (Hal Leonard). Krupa. Gene Krupa Drum Method (Warner Brothers). Latta. Progressive Rock, Jazz, and Funk Drumming (Koala Music). Malabe and Weiner. Afro-Cuban Rhythms for Drumset (Alfred). Morgenstein. Drum Set Warm Ups: Essential Exercises for Improving Technique (Berklee). Payne. Funk Drumming (Mel Bay). Pickering. Drummer’s Cookbook (Mel Bay). Zubraski. Rock Solid Drum Patterns (Music Sales Ltd.).

Bass Appleman, Browne, and Gertz. Berklee Jazz Bass (Berklee). Downes. Jazz Bass Line Book (Advance Music). Fuqua. Walking Bassics: The Fundamentals of Jazz Bass Playing (Sher Music). Goldsby. The Jazz Bass Book (Hal Leonard). Mooney. Building a 12 Key Facility for the Jazz Bassist (Waterfall). Overthrow and Ferguson. Total Jazz Bassist (Alfred). Rainey. Complete Electric Bass Player (Amsco). Smith. Jazz Bass Improvisation (Hal Leonard).

Instructional Materials

Piano

Jazz Ensemble

Campos. Salsa and Afro Cuban Montunos for Piano (ADG Productions). Davis. Hal Leonard Jazz Piano Method: The Player’s Guide to Authentic Stylings (Hal Leonard).

Aebersold. Jamey Aebersold Play-a-long (Jamey Aebersold). Berg. Chop Monster (J. Fraser Collection).

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 180

180 THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING Dobbins. A Creative Approach to Jazz Piano Harmony (Advance Music). Harrison. Contemporary Jazz Piano (Hal Leonard). Humphries. The Piano Improvisation Handbook (Backbeat). Lee. Complete Jazz Piano Method (Warner Brothers). Levine. How to Voice Standards at the Piano (Sher). Mantooth. Voicings for Jazz Keyboard (Hal Leonard). Patton. An Approach to Comping (Sher). Santisi and Mallikarjuna. Berklee Jazz Piano (Berklee).

Guitar Fogg. Jazz Guitar Handbook (1st ed.) (Backbeat Books). Galbraith and Aebersold. Guitar Comping (Jamey Aebersold). Miller. Introduction to Jazz Guitar (Berklee). Munro. Jazz Guitar: Bebop and Beyond (Warner Brothers). Papaila. Chord Shapes for Jazz Guitar (Booksurge). Rector. Guitar Chord Progressions (Mel Bay). Vincent. Jazz Guitar Voicings: The Drop 2 Book (Sher). Willmott. Complete Book of Harmony, Theory, and Voicings (Mel Bay).

Improvisation Materials Aebersold. Jazz Handbook (Jamey Aebersold). Aebersold. Play-A-Long Series (Jamey Aebersold). Baker, D. A Creative Approach to Practicing Jazz (Jamey Aebersold). Baker, D. David Baker’s Modern Concepts in Jazz Improvisation (Alfred). Baker, D. David Baker’s Techniques of Improvisation (4 vols.) (Alfred). Baker, D. Jazz Expressions and Explorations (Jamey Aebersold). Baker, D. Jazz Improvisation: A Comprehensive Method for All Musicians (Alfred). Baker, L. The Shape Method for Jazz Improvisation (Malcor Music Publishing). Berg. Jazz Improvisation: The Goal Note Method (Kendor). Berg. Chop Monster (2 vols.) (Alfred). Bergonzi. The Jazz Line (Advance). Berliner. Thinking in Jazz (University of Chicago). Bouchard. Intermediate Jazz Improvisation (Jamey Aebersold). Coker. Jerry Coker’s Complete Method for Jazz Improvisation (Alfred). Coker. The Jazz Ballad (Jamey Aebersold). Coker, Casale, Campbell, and Greene. Patterns for Jazz (Warner Brothers). Crook. Ready, Aim, Improvise (Advance). DeCosmo. The Woodshedding Source Book (Hal Leonard). DiBlasio. DiBlasio’s Bop Shop: Getting Started in Improvisation (Kendor Music). DiBlasio. DiBlasio’s Bop Shop: The Sequel: Conception and Ear Training for Beginning. Green. Shortcut to Jazz-Essential Jazz Licks Short (Jamey Aebersold). Haerle. Scales for Jazz Improvisation (Alfred). Haerle. The Jazz Language (Alfred). Haerle. The Jazz. Sound (Hal Leonard). Hill, Jr. Approaching the Standards (3 vols.) (Alfred). LaPorta. A Guide to Jazz Improvisation (Berklee). Ligon. Comprehensive Technique for Jazz Musicians, 2nd ed. (Houston Publishing).

Mintzer. 14 Blues & Funk Etudes (Alfred). Mintzer. 75 Easy Jazz, Blues, & Funk Etudes (Alfred). Mintzer. 75 Jazz & Funk Etudes (Alfred). Niehaus. Lennie Niehaus Plays the Blues in All 12 Keys (Jamey Aebersold). Racina. Blues Etudes, Patterns and More (John Racina Music). Racina. Jazz Etudes to “Rhythm” Changes (John Racina Music). Reeves. Creative Beginnings: Intro to the Jazz Idiom (Prentice Hall). Reeves. Creative Jazz Improvisation, 4th ed. (Pearson). Sher. Real Easy Book, Stanford Jazz Workshop (Sher). Shneidman. 1001 Jazz Licks (Cherry Lane). Spera. Blues and the Basics (Hal Leonard). Steinel. Building a Jazz Vocabulary (Hal Leonard). van Lenten. Creative Jazz Exercises (Jamey Aebersold).

Strings (Including Fiddling) Bratt. The Fiddling Cellist (Mel Bay). Greene. Bluegrass Fiddle (Homespun). Haigh. The Fiddle Handbook (Backbeat Books). Harber. Gypsy Violin (Mel Bay). Perry. Fiddle Jam: A Way-cool Easy Way to Learn to Improvise (Hal Leonard).

Combo Materials Aebersold. Combo Rehearsal Guidelines (Jamey Aebersold). Baker. Arranging and Composing for the Small Ensemble: Jazz, R&B, Jazz Rock (Alfred). Bash and Kuzmich, Jr. Complete Guide to Improvisation Instruction (Warner Brothers). Bash and Kuzmich, Jr. Complete Guide to Combo Jazz Instruction (Warner Brothers). Houghton. A Guide for the Modern Jazz Rhythm Section (C.L. Barnhouse). Rinaldo. Jazz Beginnings (J & J Publishers). Silver. The Art of Small Jazz Combo Playing (Hal Leonard).

Instructional Videos Afro-Cuban Coordination for Drumset (Martinez) (Hal Leonard). Beginning Jazz Guitar (Fisher) (Alfred). Bluegrass Fiddle (Greene) (Homespun Tapes). Buddy Rich Jazz Legend (Buddy Rich) (Warner Brothers). Chops and Grooves (Anger, Eggleston, and Driessen) (Homespun Tapes). Companion Guide to “Inside the Big Band” (Army Field Band, n.d.). www.armyfieldband.com/pages/education/bigband.html Creative Jazz Guitar (Alfred). Jaco Pastorius Modern Electric Bass (Jaco Pastorius) (Alfred). Jazz: A Film by Ken Burns (PBS Home Video). Jazz: Anyone Can Improvise (Jamey Aebersold). Jazz Combo Drumming: A Drummer’s Workshop DVD Guide to Playing with a Modern Rhythm Section (Gottlieb) (Mel Bay). Jazz Fiddle Wizard (Martin Norgaard). Jazz Pedagogy (Dunscomb and Hill). DVD component of the text (Warner Brothers). Playing in the Pocket Comping, Voicings and Grooves for the Serious Jazz Guitarist (Christianson) (Mel Bay).

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 181

THE JAZZ ENSEMBLE

181

NOTES 1. 2.

Haas, K. (1984). Inside Music: How to Understand, Listen to, and Enjoy Good Music. New York: Doubleday. Gridley, M. (2006). Jazz Styles: History and Analysis. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

3.

4.

Dunscomb, J. and R. and W.L. Hill, Jr. (2002). Jazz Pedagogy: The Jazz Educator’s Handbook and Resource Guide. Miami, FL: Warner Bros. Ferguson, T. and S. Feldstein (1976). The Jazz Rock Ensemble. Port Washington, NY: Alfred.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 182

CHAPTER 14

The Guitar and Classroom Teaching

14

This chapter is intended to assist the instrumental music teacher who has limited experience with the guitar. It provides guidance for delivering beginning instruction to secondary-level students in group settings.

WHY CLASSROOM GUITAR IN SCHOOLS? Guitar programs exist in middle and high schools across the United States. In 2002, approximately 65,000 U.S. students indicated that they had taken guitar at some point during high school,1 and the number is most likely higher today. Some music teachers have expressed concern that these programs may detract from the strength of traditional band, orchestra, and choir programs, but it does not appear that guitar classes have influenced other enrollments in any significant way. Guitar instruction can increase access to school music for students who may not want to commit to the requirements (extracurricular concerts, instrument purchase, practice commitment, etc.) demanded of traditional ensemble classes or who are interested in performing music more commonly played on guitar. Classroom guitar offers another opportunity for students to access music instruction in schools and should be encouraged by the instrumental music teacher. The goal is to teach about music through the guitar. Guitar is a popular instrument and some students may have had exposure to it or ukulele in a previous setting, in school or out with a program such as Musical Futures or Little Kids Rock. The class might attract students not enrolled in traditional band, orchestra, or choir classes who may need a required arts class to meet high school graduate requirements. For those that take to the instrument, the goal is to prepare them for success in any style of guitar playing that they may wish to pursue in the future—classical, jazz, rock, and so forth. This purpose requires students to learn the techniques necessary to perform in any style. It thus offers the teacher many options on such issues as whether to use a pick, how to hold the instrument, the type of notation to introduce, and the repertoire to select. In some states, such as Virginia and New Mexico, guitar has followed the route of band, orchestra, and choir by offering all-state experiences for guitar ensembles. These groups typically perform conducted arrangements and original pieces, thereby providing heightened experiences for advanced performers on this typically solo instrument. Whereas these ensembles showcase advanced individual players in group settings, most school guitar classrooms offer a curriculum focusing on beginning knowledge and skills. The most developed schools offer multiple levels of class guitar, allowing them to enhance their skill level throughout high school. Although acquiring the initial funding to begin guitar instruction may seem insurmountable at first, there are ways to find the necessary materials. You may wish to look for grant money from foundations, corporations, non-profit organizations such as Little Kids Rock, and other sources to help with the purchase of instruments. In many cases, teachers have found organizations willing to provide instruments directly to school systems that may not otherwise have been able to afford them. Additionally, look for funds from the school district for new curricular initiatives as you create the class. You may be able to transfer some money from the ensemble budget for a few years to gradually build up the number of instruments. Reliable beginning-level guitars can be secured for around $150–200 per instrument, making the class an inexpensive way to involve students in school music; you may be able to reduce the cost per item even further if purchasing a large quantity. Finally, do what you can to find enough guitars to begin. Teachers who used to play guitar may have one available to lend or donate. Former students, social media sites, and community members can all serve as resources. Some music stores will rent guitars on a month-to-month basis as they do with band and orchestra instruments. Once instruments have been secured, a maintenance plan is required to fund their repair, maintenance, and replacement on a regular schedule.

HISTORY The guitar has been around for a long time and has been used in many forms of music: sixteenth-century fantasias; Romanticera chamber music; flamenco in Andalusia, southern Spain; blues on the Mississippi; jazz all around the world; and any

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 183

THE GUITAR AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

183

combination of styles on street corners or at subway stops. It all started, perhaps, with the ancient Greek kithara, which used four to eight strings, and the Spanish vihuela, which had a double set of strings. Around 1788, a German, Jacob Otto added a sixth string to the five-string guitar, which was a popular plucked instrument. The instruments of that time had in common a wooden body and strings, typically made of catgut or spun silk wound with fine wire, although strings are now made of synthetic material such as nylon or a steel core wrapped with various metals like bronze (for acoustic guitars) and nickel (for electric guitars). The new strings can remain relatively in tune over a long period of time. By the early 1800s, the six-string guitar was popular in Paris, Vienna, and other major European cultural centers. Schubert played the instrument each morning and wrote many of his lieder while at the guitar; he also wrote a quartet for guitar, flute, viola, and cello in 1814. Weber played guitar and included the instrument in his 1826 opera Oberon, and Berlioz supported himself by teaching guitar. Other classical composers to use the instrument were the virtuoso violinist Paganini, Beethoven, and Mahler. The modern classical guitar was born in Spain through the efforts of Francisco Tárrega and the luthier (guitar maker and repairer) Antonio de Torres Jurado in the mid-1800s. These men adopted the technique of holding the right hand perpendicular to the strings and using the apoyando or “rest” stroke, initiated by placing a single finger on a string and pulling it upward. Much high-quality music was composed for guitar during this time, and transcriptions of Bach and Chopin formed the beginnings of the core guitar repertoire. The use of Bach showed that the instrument could play polyphonic music. Andres Segovia and Emilio Pujol helped to bring the classical guitar movement into the twentieth century. Segovia in particular wanted to separate the guitar from its role in folk entertainment, acquire good repertoire for the instrument, capture works written for the vihuela and lute, and make the guitar’s beauty known to symphony audiences. He also influenced music schools to include guitar in their programs. Composers such as Hindemith, Sibelius, Julian Carrillo, Virgil Thomson, Stravinsky, and Elliott Carter wrote for the guitar. Following World War II, atonal and microtonal composers, including Boulez, used it in their compositions. During the nineteenth century in America, the guitar was regarded as a genteel, middle-class parlor instrument but was then extended to folk, blues, and jazz. It is now used in contemporary forms of popular music, most notably rock and country, and increasingly in art music as well. An American immigrant, C.F. Martin (who operated a business in New York and then in Nazareth, PA), invented heavier bracing systems, which made the instrument more suitable for steel and nylon strings. Since the 1930s, the electric version has also grown in popularity.

SELECTING A GUITAR Most school systems purchase acoustic guitars for student use, whereas others require students to supply their own instrument. Either way, selecting an appropriate instrument is an important consideration, as the instrument will get much use and (hopefully) be around for a long time. Although a general music store may assist with locating guitars, a good luthier can be helpful in collecting and maintaining the school’s collection of instruments. It may be useful to start by finding someone who is a member of the Guild of American Luthiers. Acoustic guitars are preferred to electronic instruments in the classroom for several reasons. First, they are generally less expensive than electric models. Acoustic instruments require no amplifier to be heard and will not be as loud as an electric guitar as students try to listen to their own playing. Using acoustic guitars will also protect the eardrums from extreme volume and prevent the bleeding of noise into other classrooms. The use of earphones with electric instruments does allow students to work more independently but may still provide limited ear protection. Acoustic guitars are more versatile for playing in multiple styles and also enable the use of nylon strings, which are easier on the fingers. Some experts suggest that students should start with an electronic instrument as it is easier to play, but arguments for acoustic instruments seem to have been accepted by most school guitar experts, including NAfME, which uses acoustic guitars in its summer guitar workshops. Two types of strings, nylon and steel, are used on acoustic guitars. Nylon strings are most often recommended for classroom use, as they are a bit easier to press than steel strings. They also break less often, generally put less stress on the instrument, are used on guitars with wider necks, and are softer in volume, which is an important factor for large classes. If steel strings are used, then a relatively lightweight gauge is best to start. As students advance in ability and their interests grow, the style of music played will dictate the type of guitar and strings used, as nylon strings are used for classical guitar playing and fingerpicking styles while steel strings are used for strumming or for accompanying and leading songs. Callouses will develop over time no matter what type of string is used, though they may develop faster with steel strings. It is important never to place steel strings on a guitar that is intended to be played with nylon strings, as doing so may exert too much tension on the bridge and neck. A name-brand (Yamaha, Fender, Gibson, or Martin), full-size acoustic guitar with nylon strings is recommended by many respected class guitar teachers. For middle school and junior high groups you may wish to purchase 3/4 models, which are produced by a number of businesses. As a guitar program begins to grow, additional guitars including steelstring, electric, bass, and the like will help students to deal with various challenges and explore a variety of styles while using the authentic type of guitar for that style.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 184

184

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

MAINTAINING INSTRUMENTS A good luthier will be invaluable to a guitar program, as instruments used by many students will undoubtedly need to be repaired from time to time. Given the heavy use that these guitars will receive, it is imperative to protect and maintain them properly. Teachers need to help students take ownership of and care for the instrument. Regular dusting and cleaning of the fingerboard and other parts of the guitar surface are important, as is the removal of dirt and grime, which gets into the nooks in the fretwires, though these can be easily cleaned using a sharp-edged object such as a pen. Lubricating the neck, bridge, and other wooden areas with appropriate oil and a soft cloth or something similar will also remove dirt. The staff at Teaching Guitar Workshops suggest naming the guitars after famous guitarists (e.g., B.B. King) to make them seem more personal and encourage students to take better care of them. The action, or the distance between the strings and the fingerboard, may need adjustment on brand-new guitars and periodically as they are used over time. Although there is no standard guitar string height, a good indicator is to measure at the 12th fret by placing a quarter under the strings and verifying that it barely touches the strings. Adjustments can be made by changing the height of the bridge or straightening the neck. Lower heights will help beginners to be more successful early on. It’s often best to leave action adjustments to a luthier unless the teacher has received specialized training. Along with human error and carelessness, the weather, especially humidity and temperature, poses the greatest threat to a wooden instrument. In dry conditions the instrument tends to lose moisture, which can cause it to rack and make it unplayable. The action changes and the frets can feel sharp. If overly humidified, the instrument can swell and lose volume and tone. Guitars should be kept in environments with a consistent humidity between 40 and 50 percent. Extreme temperatures can also have detrimental effects; joints can fail due to melting glue in hot environments, whereas colder environments impact the finish on the guitar and thus the sound.

PARTS OF THE GUITAR The typical guitar in use today is a six-string instrument, with the strings (from low to high) tuned to E, A, D, G, B, E. The lowest-pitched, thickest strings are at the top of the fingerboard and the highest-pitched and thinnest are at the bottom. Figure 14.1 shows part of the guitar neck with each string’s pitch and location labeled on the staff; the various parts of the guitar are pictured in Figure 14.2.

FIGURE 14.1 Guitar string pitch and location on the staff

FIGURE 14.2 Parts of the guitar

POSITIONING THE GUITAR The key to properly holding the guitar is to stay relaxed and in a natural position. Place the waist of the guitar on the right thigh with the neck on the left and parallel to the floor, the strings facing away and the back of the guitar body against the chest. The right arm comes across the instrument with the inside of the elbow against the upper part of the lower bout; the forearm is horizontal to the floor. The wrist is flat or slightly arched just above the bridge, which places the fingers above the sound hole. The tip of the thumb is relaxed and either resting on a string for hand support or

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 185

THE GUITAR AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

FIGURE 14.3 Right hand guitar position

185

FIGURE 14.4 Right hand guitar position close-up

suspended downward in a normal position, not touching the strings, whichever seems more comfortable. The thumb should begin about parallel to the sixth (low E) string and can even sit on it (or the 5th or 4th string) if necessary, whatever is comfortable. See Figures 14.3 and 14.4. The shoulders should be relaxed and on a horizontal plane. Keep the right shoulder from dropping, which will cause the arm to cross the edge of the guitar too far in back of the bridge. Use a mirror to check regularly. The nails of the right hand should be kept short enough so that they do not strike the strings unless some length is desired for traditional fingerpicking. Traditional Spanish words are used to label the thumb and fingers of the right hand: pulgar (p), FIGURE 14.5 Finger labels for left and right hands indicio (i), medular (m), anular (a), and chiquito (c), although the final designation is rarely used. Finger labels commonly used for both the left and right hands are shown in Figure 14.5. The left-hand fingers and thumb must work in tandem as they move across the neck. The thumb is behind and perpendicular to the fretboard and between the first two fingers (Figure 14.6). The tips of the fingers, not the pads, are used to press the strings, so the fingernails must be kept short. The palm should be kept about parallel to the neck but shifts to a more diagonal position when multiple fingers are used in the same fret. The palm itself should not touch the neck. Again, the key is to be relaxed and as natural as possible. A single finger contacts the string at a point behind the fretwire. Closer is better, as less pressure is needed in this way. The hand is shaped with curved knuckles and palm, similar to how one would hold a baseball or play the piano FIGURE 14.6 Left hand playing G major chord if inverted. If a stretch with certain fingers is too far, the elbow is brought closer to the body to place them in an angle to be properly performed. Some hold the guitar in the “classical” position, which places the lower bout between the legs with the upper bout on the left leg. This sets the neck at an upward angle of about 45 degrees and can alleviate some discomfort with the right arm; it also places the fingers in a position where the performer can see them better. A footstool five to eight inches high can be used to raise the right or left leg and thus position the guitar in a more natural and relaxed location. Positioning the stool under the right foot raises the guitar and forces the player to sit more upright. Placing it under the left foot creates a nook where the body of the guitar can fit to be played. Stools of varying

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 186

186

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

sizes along with adjustable models are available, or you could consider asking students in the technology education class to build one. A block of wood can also be used to raise the foot. The use of a guitar strap will support the instrument and allow for better posture; it is required when the performer is standing. Guitars can have up to 26 frets, numbered upward from the head to the body. Most have fewer. The pitch increases by a half-step with each move to the right on the fretboard. Circular markers (dots) are placed at strategic points on the fingerboard or side of many guitars to help the musician locate a specific fret on the guitar. These dots are most commonly found on frets 3, 5, 7, 9, 12, 15, 17, and 19, with frets 3 and 5 being most important for beginners. A sticker or small spot of whiteout can be placed on the side of the neck if the guitar does not come with marked frets.

HOW THE INSTRUMENT WORKS The strings and soundboard interact to make the instrument’s sounds, and the player controls the amount and quality of the force applied to the soundboard by the manner in which the string is plucked. The soundboard is the top of an acoustic guitar body, and the sound box is the hollow area inside the guitar body. Timbre is determined in part by the relationship of the right hand to the string. By plucking strings at different points along its length, the player can suppress some frequencies and enhance others, changing the harmonic content or the overall string vibration. (See Chapter 27, “Strings Principles” for more information on how a string operates.) The vibration is set in motion when a string is plucked and moves from the point where it was plucked to the saddle and bridge of the guitar and to the fretwire just in front of where the finger is placed (on an open string, it moves all the way to the nut). The pitch is determined by the characteristics of the string: mass, tension, and length. The vibration of the bridge is then transmitted into the soundboard and into the air around it. The soundboard is supported on the inside of the guitar by a series of firm braces. The sides and back of the body contribute minimally to producing and projecting the sound. Inside the guitar body, the air acts as a Helmholtz resonator and is stimulated by a vibrating string’s tone, with the shape of the guitar influencing the quality of the sound. How the string is plucked can change the quality of sound, and the differences can be quite remarkable. How hard a string is plucked impacts the intensity, or loudness, of the sound. Where the string is plucked, whether nearer to the bridge or neck, also impacts the sound. Generally, a brighter sound is created by plucking closer to the bridge. Plucking with a pick or nail will accentuate the upper harmonics when compared to the flesh of the finger. The angle at which the string is plucked impacts the volume and the length of the pitch’s decay. Time of decay can be shortened by damping the vibrations of the string or soundboard, typically with the fingers of either hand.

TUNING Although the teacher should initially take responsibility for ensuring that the instruments are in tune, it is important for students to learn this skill at an early stage. An electronic tuner, preferably one that clips to the guitar’s head, or a tuning app on one’s phone or tablet can be used to ensure that each guitar is appropriately in tune at the beginning of class, just as one would do with an orchestral string instrument. Generally, the standard A-440 tuning reference is used. Guitars are tuned from the lowest to highest string, using the tuning knobs on the head. Knobs for the lowest three (bass) strings are typically on the top of the guitar and the three highest-pitched (treble) strings are on the bottom, though some guitars place all six knobs on the top or bottom. Strings are tightened to raise the pitch and loosened to lower it until it matches the sound of the tuner or reference pitch. If the strings have been properly placed on the guitar, the knobs on the top should be turned clockwise (from the performer’s perspective) to lower the pitch and counterclockwise to raise it. The opposite is true for the three strings at the bottom. Figure 14.7 shows the tuning direction of the knobs. Eventually, students should learn to tune without relying on an electronic device, using relative tuning. The finger is placed on the fifth fret of the lowest string and sounded, followed immediately by the open A (5th) string. Turn the A string’s knob until the pitch FIGURE 14.7 Directions for tuning guitar strings matches that of the E string. Continue by matching the 5th fret of the A string to the open D string, the 5th fret of the D string to the G string, the 4th fret of the G string to the B string, and the 5th fret of the B string to the high E string. It’s important to follow these steps in order.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 187

THE GUITAR AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

187

WHAT TO TEACH IN CLASSROOM GUITAR The content taught in a secondary guitar class should mirror the way in which guitars are used in society: to accompany songs and to play melodies. Playing chords and melodies is analogous to playing rhythm and lead (or solo) guitar, respectively. The role of the rhythm guitar is to provide the rhythmic pulse, tempo, and drive of a song and to supply harmony for the melody, whether that melody comes from a singer or another instrument. The lead guitar frequently plays one-note lines including melodies and solos, fills, and riffs. Both roles are important, and members of an ensemble may switch between roles. For the student interested in learning to accompany one’s own or another’s singing, a good number of songs require only 2 (the I and V) or 3 (I, IV, V) chords. The only information needed is where to place the left-hand fingers on the fingerboard while strumming. You can begin with power chords, which are 2-note chords that require a single lefthand finger to play and the strumming of 2 strings, low E and A. Alternatively, you can begin with chords that use only a single left-hand finger and the 3 highest-pitched strings: Em, G, C, and G7. A list of songs for strumming by the beginning guitarist is in Table 14.1.

TABLE 14.1 A few easy songs for the beginning guitarist to strum

Title

Artist

Key

Brown-eyed Girl

Van Morrison

G

Clocks

Cold Play

D

Eleanor Rigby

Beatles

Em

Have You Even Seen the Rain

Creedence Clearwater Revival

F

Horse with No Name

America

Em

Knockin’ on Heaven’s Door

Bob Dylan

C

Leaving on a Jet Plane

John Denver

G

Sweet Caroline

Neil Diamond

A

Wonderful Tonight

Eric Clapton

G

You Are My Sunshine

Traditional

G

Start with easy, familiar and unfamiliar melodies that can be played in open (also called first) position and in a comfortable singing range, as students should sing while playing. Many popular songs use a moderate range that can be performed in a single left-hand position. Once students are comfortable with open-position melodies, start with the first finger over the second fret, or in the second position. Move melodies into different keys so that students can learn the concepts of intervals and transposition. Scales can help with learning to play melodies in different keys. They are best learned over the entire length of the neck, but students should learn them first in one of the lower positions closer to the head. There are many scale patterns, and players can learn formulas for building major, minor, pentatonic, blues, and other types of scales that are easily transposable over the neck. Simple melodies often use simple chords, and students can learn both, with half the class playing the melody and half the accompaniment during the first day or week of class. Learn the pitches of melodies using different strategies such as pitch names (C, D, E), scale degree numbers (1, 2, 3), solfège (do, re, mi), and finger numbers. Melodies contain intervals and can be learned in relationship to the intervals between strings and between frets, after which you can make the transition to arpeggios. Rhythms can be taught while keeping a steady pulse and chanting syllables (ta-ti), counting (1 and 2 and), or clapping. Rhythm patterns are taught effectively using flash cards, rhythm pattern books, and worksheets. Teach music from multiple styles representing different parts of the world. Begin with popular American styles including country, jazz, bluegrass, hip-hop, pop, rock, blues, and rhythm and blues (R&B). American folk songs from the 1700s to the present provide a nice place to start as well, as some of them may be familiar to students. Folk songs from different cultures are based on different scales and modes with melodies of limited range. Classical-era melodies can also be played easily on guitar. Students should begin developing musicianship skills from the first day by using varying dynamic levels and modes of expression. By playing with different types of plectra and parts of the fingers, students can create more subtle timbres and articulations. Progressing is not easy at first, but learning to physically control the left and right arms, hands, and fingers is key.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 188

188 THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

TABLE 14.2 Structure of the guitar class

Instructional event

Activities

Minutes

Getting ready

Enter room get settled; take out guitars; tuning

5

Warm-up

Review scales, intervals, chords; finger/arm stretching

5

Technique instruction/practice

Review previous day’s exercises; add new concepts

Listening

Listen to recordings and live performances that use guitar

Ensemble

Rehearse ensemble music

10

Independent practice

Students practice independently while teacher assesses, gives feedback, etc.

10

Closure

Review lesson; clean and put guitars away

10 5

5

Improvisation and composition should be encouraged for all students, as these skills are entailed in many styles and genres that use the guitar. As soon as students have learned a melody, they can “noodle” around by slightly changing the rhythm and pitch while others accompany. Perform melodies that use a single pitch over a blues progression and slowly add more notes of the blues or pentatonic scale. Work to develop style and musical nuance rather than trying to play too many notes. For more information on learning to improvise, see the Jazz Ensemble and Rehearsal chapters. These teaching concepts and strategies are all an important component of Musical Futures, a program of informal learning based on the research of Lucy Green.2 In addition to elements of improvisation and composition, the program encourages students to learn the way popular musicians do. Some characteristics of informal learning include: (1) student choice in the music they learn, usually popular songs; (2) modeling and copying of recordings and live performances; and (3) learning with friends and peers. Further, the teacher becomes more of a guide than an instructor. His or her role is to diagnose and assess student activities through observation from a distance and then make suggestions for performance. Additionally, the teacher models for students and helps them to select content (songs) to be performed. Guitar ensembles are becoming more popular across the country, with newer compositions, arrangements, method books, and the like available from publishers for all skill levels. Ensemble performance requires successful players to acquire listening skills that will help them to perform with better balance, blend, and rhythmic precision while furnishing opportunities to learn new literature and to create their own arrangements and compositions. Pop, country, and rock ensembles provide opportunities to play in more authentic contemporary contexts where instruments such as bass guitar, drums, and keyboard can be added and where guitarists can take on the roles of rhythm and/or lead guitar. Unlike band and orchestra classes, where the teacher leads much of the instruction and makes many of the musical decisions for the group, the classroom guitar teacher is more of a facilitator, helping students at varying levels to grow individually. The teacher needs to be familiar with each student’s current skills, the goals he or she has set, the progress made toward those goals, and the best strategies to achieve them. Teachers should be constantly assessing and providing feedback to students, showing new skills, and motivating them to achieve. To that end, the key is class organization, which begins with the structure of the class. A typical 50-minute class may follow the outline in Table 14.2 above.

READING MUSIC Guitarists must read many styles of musical notation. One of the first notational devices that guitarists will come across is the chord diagram, a visual display of the neck of the guitar that indicates: (1) the fret and string on which each finger should be placed; (2) the finger to be used to play each pitch; and (3) the strings to be strummed for a given chord. In Figure 14.8, the chord diagram demonstrating one way to finger the D major chord is shown. The horizontal lines represent the fretwires, used to separate the frets, while the vertical lines represent the strings, with the low E (thickest) string on the left and the high E (thinnest) on the right. The black circles indicate the frets where the strings should be pressed, and the numbers indicate the finger to be used. The x shown near the top indicates that the string should not be struck; the o means that the string should be played open. Rather than including the finger to be used inside the circle, some diagrams might place it below the corresponding string. Tablature, or “tab,” is a method of writing music for plucked string instruments that has existed for centuries and can be easier to decode than other forms of music notation. Figure 14.9 shows the open strings of the guitar on the treble clef and how they would be viewed in tab.

FIGURE 14.8 D major chord diagram

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 189

THE GUITAR AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

189

FIGURE 14.9 Open guitar strings written in tablature

The tab shows where the notes are to be placed on the fingerboard. The 6 horizontal lines represent the guitar strings, with low E located at the bottom and the high E string at the top. The numbers represent the fret where the finger should be pressed. Figure 14.10 depicts the B≤ chord. It shows that the A and high E strings should be pressed in the 1st fret while the G and B strings are pressed in the 3rd fret. The D string is played open, and the low E is not strummed at all. Drawbacks to using tab are that the rhythm is typically not dictated, nor is the finger used to press each string, so the performer must figure out these 2 major issues. Guitarists may use a lead sheet when accompanying songs and playing with other musicians. It is quite versatile. As shown in Figure 14.11, which depicts the first two phrases of the folk tune “The Erie Canal,” the lead (or fake) sheet shows the melody, lyrics, and chords to be played with the melody and chord symbols written above. The chord is written to align with the lyrics and shows when the chord should be initiated, although the voicing of the chord is left to the performer.

FIGURE 14.10 B≤ chord written in tablature

FIGURE 14.11 Songsheet to “The Erie Canal” with accompanying chords

To read chord symbols, one must know that a capital letter depicts a major chord while a capital letter followed by a lower case “m” or “min” denotes a minor chord. A number following a letter identifies additional tones to be played; for example, E7 means that the 7th of the chord should also be played. Suspended (sus), diminished (dim), and augmented (aug) chords can add special colors to the harmony. Music can also be written using traditional notation, as is the tradition in much classical guitar music. Pitches are written an octave higher than they sound. This type of score provides the greatest amount of detail, including rhythms, pitches, fingerings, and the like. A number of special techniques used only on plucked string instruments can be depicted as well. A few of them are listed in Table 14.3.

TABLE 14.3 Selected guitar techniques

Term or abbreviation

Meaning

Fl.

striking with flesh of the thumb

Flautando

plucking over the fingerboard halfway between nodes

Nl.

strike with nail of the thumb

Ponticello

plucking as near the bridge as possible

Punteado

plucking

Rasqueado

a flamenco technique where the fingers quickly flick the strings

Sul Boca (Bo.)

plucking over the soundhole

Sul Tasto (To.)

plucking between 12th and 19th frets

Right-arm and Hand Technique and Strategies for Teaching As with the orchestral string instruments, guitar technique can be understood by considering the functions of the left and right hands separately, although coordination between them is of course essential. If a broad approach to guitar playing is used, then multiple techniques involving the right hand will be applied, depending on the style or desired sound. These include strumming (with or without a pick) and fingerpicking. One of the first decisions to make concerning right-hand technique is whether students will initially use a pick to create sound. Eventually, the style of music and the desired sound will dictate whether this device is used. The use of a plectrum, or pick, is more common than not among guitarists, and there are many to choose from. They vary in material, thickness, size, and weight and can be found in a myriad of colors and designs. Holding the pick

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 190

190

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

is akin to holding a hand puppet between the thumb and index finger. The ear is used to determine which pick will produce the desired sound. Strumming is used in many styles of music to accompany singing and solo playing. It involves a relaxed motion in the elbow and wrist as the fingers and/or thumb brush across the strings parallel to the body of the guitar. Although the elbow and wrist move in tandem, a good strum depends primarily on the wrist. Strumming from the elbow limits the speed and motion with which you can move effectively and creates a rigid feeling. If you are not using a pick, and depending on the desired sound, the downward strumming motion can use the pad of the thumb or any combination of the fingers and fingernails. To start, use a sweep or brush stroke. The sweep uses the pad of the thumb, whereas the brush uses the nails of the fingers. An upstroke uses the pads of fingers or the thumbnail. Since an up-and-down motion running parallel to the soundboard is needed for strumming, the arm and wrist must move so as to allow such movement to happen. This requires the wrist to make an outward flicking motion (pronation) using the muscles in the forearm, similar to turning a doorknob counterclockwise. At the same time, the elbow extends downward. The wrist moves up for upward strumming and requires supination of the forearm muscles and flexing of the elbow. The strumming motion (usually a regular down–up pattern) typically does not stop when one is accompanying, whatever pattern is used. This helps students to develop a stronger rhythmic precision and a steadier tempo, which will benefit the individual student and also will keep a large class of guitarists together. The need for a continuous strumming motion does not mean that the strings are always strummed on each movement, as a continual down–up pattern would become monotonous very quickly. Other strumming techniques besides the brush stroke are used to create the desired musical impact or effect. With a rake strum, some left-hand fingers are used to mute strings, resulting in a more percussive sound. For a mute strum, the palm of the left hand is used to touch lightly after the typical brush stroke to deaden the strings. The deadening of the sound allows for a more percussive feel and leaves space between chords. In some popular driving rock styles, the right-hand palm is left on the strings for the entire time, creating a more articulate though less lively sound. Creative strumming patterns are used to accompany singing and solo work in various styles. When these are coupled with the use of combinations of sounds made by fingernails and pads, the music comes alive. Usually, a down strum is used on each beat with an upstroke on the “and” of the beat. Some basic accompanying FIGURE 14.12 Basic guitar strumming patterns patterns are shown in Figure 14.12.

Fingerpicking Fingerpicking uses the right-hand thumb and fingertips together to play individual pitches. Essentially, the thumb plays on the three low strings while the fingers play the three highest. The hand can be anchored to the soundboard by placing the pinky finger just below the strings. The hand hovers just above the soundhole on the acoustic guitar, whereas the heel of the palm is placed on the bridge on the electric guitar. The location on the finger where the tip of the fingernail meets the skin is used to strike the string. The idea here is to brush, not pluck, the string, keeping the hand close to the strings. Greater flexibility in the joints of the fingers and thumb is required, while the forearm and shoulder do less than when strumming. Strokes are down with the thumb or up with the fingers, and two strings are pinched when a simultaneous sound is required. Rest strokes and free strokes are used. With a rest stroke, the finger pushes into the string slightly to create a sound and stops to rest on the adjacent string; in a free stroke, the string is plucked and then rings freely.

Left-arm and Hand Movements and Strategies for Teaching The guitarist is often required to play chords when accompanying singing or another instrument. The fingering for each chord should be learned individually, either by rote or by reading chord diagrams. Place the fingers simultaneously in the appropriate frets, keeping the hand in a curved position and knuckles bent while the thumb remains on the back of the neck. It is useful to try to visualize the shape of the hand before playing. Then, put the fingers over the appropriate place on the fretboard and press all fingers down concurrently. Repeat this action multiple times, wiggling the fingers in between for rest. Once the chord is found and muscle memory begins, a good practice strategy to refine the skill is to play the chord in a slow, rhythmic pattern, alternating fingers on and off the string (chord, off, chord, off). Perform multiple repetitions, starting slow and gradually increasing in tempo. Moving between chords requires a smooth, quick transition at the proper moment. To place the fingers on the second chord in time, the movement needs to start soon after the first chord has sounded. Efficiency is key, so a direct path should be taken from one chord to the next. Do not lift the fingers too far from the fingerboard. Practice moving

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 191

THE GUITAR AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

191

between chords, fingers pressed and depressed, off and on, together with slight movement. A pivot finger may remain on the same string or in the same fret. Work to keep it still while the other fingers move. Keep an eye on the left hand at first, but work toward the goal of changing chords without looking. Knowing the version (voicing) of a chord to use requires knowing the fingerboard. It could be dictated by the particular sonority (color) desired in the music, the voicing of chords around it, and the size or position of your hands. An important early step is to memorize all the notes on the high E string, as this will inform placement on bar or barre chords, which are chords that use a single finger in a single fret, up and down the neck. Greater emphasis can be placed on certain pitches by obtaining them from the highest string or doubling the pitch within the chord. Placing the extended chord tones on different strings can create unique colors. Figure 14.13 shows multiple ways to voice a B≤9 chord to create distinctive sounds.

FIGURE 14.13 Chord diagrams showing three different voicings for a B≤9 chord: d=down, u=up, m=mute, r=rest

Vibrato on the guitar differs from that effect on the violin, where it is accomplished by altering the length of the string. On the guitar, vibrato is achieved by varying string tension. For notes above the fifth fret, the technique of pushing and pulling the string toward and away from the bridge is usually used; for those notes that lie closer to the nut, the string is pulled perpendicular to the other strings. A capo is a tool that can be placed across any fret of the guitar to easily transpose a song. Use of a capo is great for beginners who know only a few chords or for anyone needing to quickly and easily move a song to a new register. A good capo applies equal pressure to all six strings and remains firmly in place. It is wise to check the tuning after attaching a capo, as strings can go flat or sharp during this process.

The Electric and Bass Guitars The electric guitar can shatter glass and eardrums but is exhilarating to hear and play. There are three types, named in accordance with their bodies: solid, semi-hollow (or semi-solid), and hollow. The bodies of these instruments are about 1½ to 2½ inches thick, as compared to an acoustic model’s four or five inches. The solid-body model is made of very dense wood or perhaps acrylic glass, creating a bright and long-sustained tone. The hollow-body electric guitar is essentially an acoustic guitar with pickups, or devices placed on the guitar to “listen” to string vibrations. The semi-hollow version is in effect a compromise between the other two, combining the long-sustaining characteristics of the solid body with the round, jazzy sound of hollow-body models. Steel strings are used almost exclusively as are magnetic pickups. This instrument was developed in the late 1930s as electricity made possible the long-awaited opportunity to amplify the guitar’s sound for use at concerts in large settings. The emerging recording industry also required higher volumes for good recordings. Country and jazz artists embraced the tool first, with other musicians catching on later. Les Paul of the Gibson Guitar Company was influential early on. The solid-body guitar soon became the most popular, as it allowed for the pickup rather than the body of the guitar to recognize the vibrations of the string. Sound production occurs both magnetically and electronically. Pickups, consisting of a magnet wrapped with copper wire, are placed near the strings and convert the vibrations into electric signals. These signals are transmitted through a cable to an amplifier and then blasted out through a loudspeaker, which acts like an acoustic guitar’s soundboard. The placement of the pickup is one of the most important means for determining the tone of the guitar and is analogous to finger placement for plucking on an acoustic guitar, as it determines the tone quality. The closer the pickup is to the bridge, the brighter the sound will be, as more energy will be picked up from the high part of a string’s spectrum.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 192

192

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

The two basic types of pickups are single-coil and humbucking (double-coil). The first pickups were single-coil, providing a bright sound but also picking up electronic hum. Wiring two single coils together in series and out of phase causes the electrical noise to be picked up by both coils simultaneously, one with a positive voltage and the other with a negative voltage, so as to cancel each other out. Higher frequencies are also canceled out, resulting in a broad or mellow tone. Some guitars have movable pickups, but the standard practice is to use two or more pickups at various (stationary) positions on the string. The invention of the bass guitar followed a similar path as the electric guitar, with multiple manufacturers attempting to increase the volume of the bass with various string types and pickups prior to World War II. The instruments were typically without frets and were played similarly to an upright acoustic bass. In 1951, the Fender Precision Bass came on the market, at about the same size as the electric guitar, with a solid body and frets. Heavy-gauge wire is on all four strings, which are tuned in an ascending perfect fourth, E-A-D-G, with the E located a single leger line below the bass clef. Like the electric guitar, the bass is notated an octave higher than it sounds. Figure 14.14 shows the bass guitar strings and corresponding notation. Bass guitars typically play a single note line using alternating index and middle fingers to strike the string with the thumb anchored on one of the pickups, on the neck, or on a string when it is not being played. The tone changes depending on where FIGURE 14.14 Bass guitar strings and the strings are plucked, with more harmonics corresponding notation heard closer to the bridge, creating a brighter sound. The strings are plucked upward using an even, moderate stroke. When a slap bass technique is required, plucking of the index finger alternates with the right thumb, which rotates (like turning a door knob counterclockwise) and strikes the string with the outside of the thumb. The left hand then mutes the strings across the neck. Electric guitars often have treble and bass, or tone, control knobs on the soundboard. These serve as a preamplifier, in that they amplify the voltage from the pickup and equalize or compensate for any loss of high or low frequencies that may have occurred. The guitar may also have a vibrato (or whammy or tremolo) lever that allows the player to vary TABLE 14.4 Selected guitar sound effects the string tension to change the pitch. Purpose Amplifiers are responsible for the tone of the electric Effect guitar. They do not work like typical public address systems, Distortion Tone and/or timbre changes. Making the and each style can sound quite different from the next. If pitch center less distinguishable. Overdrive you plug a guitar directly into a keyboard or bass amplifier, and fuzz use varying types of distortion. you will get a vastly different sound from that of a Fender Reverb Sounds like you are in rooms of different Twin Reverb, and so on. This is because the onboard sizes, from a concert hall to a closet. preamps shape the tonal characteristics of the signal before Repeats the sound so it is distinctly heard sending it through the speaker. Acoustic guitars can go right Echo/Delay as a repetition. into a public address system, as many have their own onboard preamps; electric guitar tones come primarily from Tremolo Changes the volume over time in a regular pattern. the guitar–amplifier combination and are then colored using the various pedals and effects (FX). Volume Allows for subtle or extreme changes of Effects are electronic devices and circuits that process volume on command. electric signal input from an instrument and alter the sound Allows for subtle or extreme changes in for output. The premise is to help the instrument sound Wah (Cry baby) pitch on command. better in various musical contexts and styles. Some effects can cause the original vibration of the string to be indiscernible. The effects are commonly housed in foot pedals and stomp boxes on the floor so that performers can easily turn them on with a quick press of the foot. However, they can also be housed in other devices. Some common effects used and their purposes are shown in Table 14.4.

THE UKULELE The ukulele is growing in popularity as an entry-level fretted instrument in general music classes, as its small size, low cost, and use of only four strings make it both versatile and accessible. The instrument is based on the Portuguese machete, which was introduced to Hawaii in 1879 by Portuguese immigrants coming to work in the sugar cane fields.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 193

THE GUITAR AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

It grew in popularity in Hawaii, thanks in part to its popularity among the royal family there, and made its way to the mainland by 1924 where Cliff Edwards, known as Ukulele Ike, made the instrument popular. A recent surge in ukulele use within pop culture makes has helped to encourage teachers to incorporate the instrument into classrooms. The typical instrument is a soprano ukulele about 21 inches in length, with its 4 nylon strings tuned to G-C-E-A, from top to bottom. In contrast to the guitar, the ukulele’s strings are not tuned from lowest to highest as one moves from ceiling to floor. The G string is tuned to the G just above middle C, the C string to middle C, and the E string between the two, with the A sitting a major second above the G, making the outer strings the ones with the highest pitches. There are 12 to 15 frets on most instruments. The ukulele is most often strummed to accompany singing. The wrist is used to move the index finger across the strings in a variety of patterns, using down–up strumming. The nail is used on the down strum and the finger pad on the upstroke. The proper way to hold the ukulele is shown in Figure 14.15.

193

FIGURE 14.15 Ukulele performing position

RESOURCES Websites 911 Tabs 911tabs.com Austin Classical Guitar Society Resources guitarcurriculum.com Guitar Foundation of America guitarfoundation.org Las Vegas Academy Guitar Program classroomguitar.com Little Kids Rock littlekidsrock.org NAfME Guitar Education Page nafme.org/category/interest-areas/guitar-education Ultimate Guitar ultimate-guitar.com

Texts Bay, W. and M. Christiansen (2000). Mastering the Guitar: A Comprehensive Method for Today’s Guitarists! Pacific, MO: Mel Bay. Coelho, V. (2003). The Cambridge Companion to the Guitar (Cambridge Companions to Music). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Eckels, S.Z. and MENC, the National Association for Music Education (U.S.) (2009). Teaching Classroom Guitar. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education. George, J.L. (2009). Guitar Smart: The Better Beginning Classroom Method. Frome: Luniver.

Glise, A. (1997). Classical Guitar Pedagogy: A Handbook for Teachers. Pacific, MO: Mel Bay. Huber, J. (1994). The Development of the Modern Guitar, revised ed. (Guitar studies series, v. 2). Westport, CT: Bold Strummer. Noonan, J. (2008). The Guitar in America: Victorian Era to Jazz Age (American made music series). Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Purse, B., J.L. Jordan, N.L. Marsters, and Music Educators National Conference (U.S.) (1998). Strategies for Teaching Middle-Level and High School Guitar. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference. Royal Conservatory of Music (2011). Bridges: A Comprehensive Guitar Series. Guitar Repertoire and Etudes. Toronto, CA: Frederick Harris Music. Schwarz, W. and M. Haringer (1984). Guitar Bibliography: An International Listing of Theoretical Literature on Classical Guitar from the Beginning to the Present. München, GE: K.G. Saur. Sokolow, F. (1995). The Dictionary of Strum & Picking Patterns. Milwaukee, WI: H. Leonard. Turnbull, H. (1974). The Guitar from the Renaissance to the Present Day. London, UK: B.T. Batsford.

Video Recordings Benson, G., A. Roth, G. Sears, A. Duprey, Hot Licks Productions, Inc., Camelot Media Group, and Music Sales Corporation (2006). George Benson. The Art of Jazz Guitar. New York, NY: Hot Licks. Grossman, S. (2004). Fingerpicking Guitar Techniques. Sparta, NJ: Stefan Grossman’s Guitar Workshop.

NOTES 1.

Elpus, K. (2013). Is it the Music Or is it Selection Bias? A Nationwide Analysis of Music and Non-music Students’ SAT Scores. Journal of Research in Music Education, 61(2): 175–194.

2.

Green, L. (2009). Music, Informal Learning and the School: A New Classroom Pedagogy. London, UK: Ashgate.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 194

194

THE ENSEMBLES AND CLASSROOM TEACHING

Tablature for Common Guitar Chords

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 195

PART

III

The Woodwind Instruments

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 197

CHAPTER 15

Winds Principles

15

Each wind instrument has its unique characteristics, including fingerings, inherent intonation problems, and timbre. The wind instruments also have common characteristics. As their collective name indicates, each instrument’s “tone generator” is dependent on air, affecting tone quality and intonation. This chapter is devoted to common characteristics of wind instruments, primarily addressing similar and dissimilar factors of the woodwind family and, to a lesser extent, similar factors of the brass family, which are covered more thoroughly in Chapter 21. First and foremost, the brass or woodwind player must have a good sound. No matter how well developed other musical skills are, if the student plays with a bad tone all else is of little concern. Tone quality is determined by a number of factors: equipment, embouchure, and breathing. The first two topics are covered in the chapters for individual FIGURE 15.1 Proper and improper positions: the effect on breathing instruments and the third topic is covered in the present chapter. Each instrument produces a unique timbre, determined by the overtones present, their strength, and the degree to which they are audible. The harmonic overtone tone that predominates helps create the unique timbre. Whenever a particular musical pitch is produced by a wind instrument, one or more overtones of that pitch also sound. The details of sound production and perception make up the discipline of acoustics.

BREATHING AND POSTURE Proper breathing involves maximizing the amount of air drawn into the lungs plus the process of exhaling that supports the tone; good breathing habits are possible only when the performer establishes and maintains good posture. Though the position for playing a wind instrument may appear unnatural, the proper position need not and should not strain any part of the body. The neck, throat, shoulders, chest, and arms must be free of tension; the upper part of the body rests naturally on the lower part, and the player is alert but relaxed. Good performance posture is difficult to attain if the student has used the wrong muscles for years and incorrect posture has become habitual. Figure 15.1 illustrates the difference between proper and improper posture and the effect of the breathing system. Figure 15.2 illustrates proper posture for playing a wind instrument. Note that the player pictured appears to be relaxed and comfortably seated. The arms are free, extended from the body. Elbows are comfortably away from the rib cage and feet are flat on the floor, balancing any weight. The instrument is held with the hands and neck strap, not propped on a leg or chair. The body is erect, eyes straight ahead, and no neck tension is apparent.

FIGURE 15.2 Proper posture while playing

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 198

198

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

The “rag doll” approach is frequently used to eliminate tension throughout the body so that the right muscles for playing can take over. To be a rag doll, flop over from the hips, let the top of the body fall in a limp, rag doll fashion, and rotate the head in a large arc. In rehearsal this exercise can be used as part of the warm-up before students take their seats. Exercises to loosen facial muscles, such as dropping the jaw and taking deep relaxed breaths through a “throat as open as a tunnel,” yawning, and extending a pencil straight out of the middle of the lips for 30 seconds, then yawning more, will further aid relaxation. Encouraging relaxation techniques as the first item of business in rehearsals and lessons can establish good habits. Relaxation exercises are limited only by the teacher’s imagination. For all winds, the correct playing position is based on moving the instrument to the player, the mouthpiece or reed to the embouchure. In no case, not even with the sousaphone, tuba, or baritone saxophone, is it desirable to bring the player to the instrument or to adjust the head and shoulders to the position of the mouthpiece. On the larger instruments, any supporting stand should be adjusted, extra shanks used, or even a towel folded to the correct width (on the knee for the baritone) to bring the mouthpiece to the player. The player should sit or stand tall with the spine straight to prevent bending the trachea. Most players will need to sit away from the back of the chair, unless they are tall enough to keep the spine straight. The notion of a string attached to the top of the head being pulled like a puppet will help create a posture in which the air column is not constrained at the throat or by the rib cage. A relaxed but erect posture is also necessary in marching band. Players must remain erect (“stand tall”) without tension and allow the breathing apparatus to remain relaxed in order to maximize the airstream necessary to adequately project the sound.

Diaphragm Proper breathing involves the diaphragm as well as the lungs. With hands on the waist just below the rib cage, thumbs in front and fingers in back, one can feel movement in the lower torso when breathing properly. If the diaphragm draws the maximum amount of air into the lungs, the lower torso will expand in the back as well as the front. It is impossible to expand the back of the abdominal cavity without expanding the front, but it is possible for the front to expand without the back expanding. Dome-shaped Top muscle The diaphragm is a rather large, flat muscle located on a plane muscle of of diaphragm parallel with the floor that separates the upper body from the lower diaphragm (Figure 15.3). When the diaphragm is relaxed, it has the shape of a dome lying over the abdomen. When this muscle contracts, it flattens to create a vacuum, drawing air into the lungs and displacing the organs in the abdomen, resulting in a slight projection FIGURE 15.3 Drawing of upper torso showing location of diaphragm of the abdominal wall. Due to the fixed nature of the abdominal viscera, there is a limit to how far this projection can extend; consequently, full and deep breaths result in the rib cage expanding. Proper breathing does not raise the shoulders. One inhales downward, drawing air toward the waist, a practice that eliminates raising the shoulders and helps ensure the proper use of the diaphragm. The feeling for a deep breath can be developed by taking a sudden inward gasp, with the fingers positioned to feel the expansion of the lower back and stomach, then shouting “hey” in a deep voice and feeling what happens to the muscles. Practicing Santa Claus belly laughs or panting like a tired puppy on a hot day can reinforce these sensations. The following devices are helpful for teaching the student to inhale correctly: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Imagine stepping into a cold shower on a hot day. The result is a sudden gasp as the air rushes deep inside, seemingly to the stomach. Imagine taking an unmannerly “slurp” of soup. Actually make the sound, and then duplicate the sound silently. Sit in a chair and lean forward with the chest touching or almost touching the knees and the arms extending beside the legs to the floor. Breathe as deeply as possible. In this position it is difficult to inhale incorrectly. Inhale several short breaths in sequence. For instance, before playing a whole note, inhale on the four preceding counts. Stand with the heels and shoulder blades touching the wall. Inhale without moving the shoulders or chest. Lying on the floor, inhale slowly, the small of the back touching the floor.

Whereas these exercises communicate the feel of proper breathing, in actual performance the majority of breaths are taken very quickly. Therefore, breathing exercises should also be practiced rapidly. Musicians should also try to eliminate unnecessary sounds during inhalation.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 199

WINDS PRINCIPLES

199

Controlled proper breathing means inhaling sufficient air and then exhaling it under pressure. Many players run out of air because they force it out too fast, a universal problem with beginning flute players. The player who can sustain a long phrase is one who has: (1) a good embouchure that enables an economical use of air; and (2) control over the muscles used for exhaling air. Although most students can learn to inhale properly, the process of exhaling correctly has the most direct effect on tone quality, pitch and intonation, and range. To exhale properly, the following exercises are helpful: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Hiss in imitation of a teakettle (being careful to make sure that the sound is produced by air rushing by the tongue and not produced by a tense, tight throat). Blow up a balloon. Whistle a note in a comfortable register and sustain it as long as possible without diminuendo. Place a piece of paper against the wall. Let go and try to keep it in place with your airstream.

Exhaling is often neglected, or taught in such a manner as to increase tension or pressure in the body. The first exhale following a slow inhale should be like a sigh. The inhale should be silent (as any noise indicates tension in the throat or mouth), and the sigh should expel all the air in a second or less. Exercises to assist in controlling the exhale might include a slow, four-count, relaxed inhale followed by blowing out 16 separate candles (“hooing”) and observing the belly bouncing. Initially, some students will have difficulty hooing 16 times; others may cheat, holding back the air to have enough air remaining in the lungs at the end of the count. One of the signs of an incorrect exhale is that the belly is not bouncing. Another exhalation exercise has the student hold a sheet of music in the middle and at the top about 6 inches in front of their face. Then they should take a slow, full, relaxed breath and exhale toward the paper attempting to blow it straight away from the face. Any exercise that attempts to blow an object straight out reduces unnecessary pressure from the muscles surrounding the lungs. Here are additional inhaling and exhaling exercises that may speed the development of proper breathing habits: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Inhale as though yawning and exhale by sighing to promote relaxation through both the inhale and the exhale. Inhale as in a relaxed gasp. Inhale rapidly. Pretend to blow out the candles on the birthday cake at your 100th birthday. Inhale while the teacher counts aloud to 4 and then exhale hot air in 4 counts at the same tempo. Inhale while the teacher counts aloud to 4 and then exhale cold air in 8 counts. Inhale while the teacher counts aloud to 4 and then exhale while hissing for 12 counts.

A helpful concept is to think of blowing the air through the horn, through the stand, and through the wall. The idea of projecting air through the instrument rather than just into the mouthpiece helps both inhaling and exhaling and creates a more centered tone. Tense throat muscles that constrict the throat and affect the free passage of air are a common breathing problem. Symptoms of a closed throat include raised shoulders, tense neck muscles, slightly protruding tendons and blood vessels in the neck, a pinched sound in the upper register, a weak lower register, and the inability to tongue rapidly. A closed throat may result from attempting to play in the upper register before the muscles are developed (usually to satisfy the demands of the performing situation, as in jazz and marching band). For players with a closed throat, the remedy lies in pretending to yawn, relaxed gasping, and fogging a mirror while saying “ah” (i.e., slower inhalation and exhaling a warm airstream). When practicing to correct a closed throat, the student should avoid playing in the upper register of the instrument, concentrating on the registers in which playing is comfortable, relaxed, and in which a good sound can be produced. Tension must be avoided in all parts of the body for good wind playing. Breathing can be restricted by playing with the teeth together (a problem with young brass players), blocking the air passage with the tongue, or failing to exhale completely. The quantity of air required for good tone quality varies with the different instruments. Among woodwind instruments, the oboist requires the least amount of air, the bassoonist and clarinetist the most. With the brasses, the air required is proportionate to the overall length and diameter of the tubing in the various instruments: The tuba requires the most, the trombone more than the trumpet, and the horn the least. Young players often confuse the quantity of air with the speed of the airstream. The quantity of air determines the volume level, and the speed of the air determines the pitch of the note. Students frequently exhale too much air when they should be blowing the same amount of air faster. Another common problem is exhaling too slowly for a given pitch, which creates an unfocused tone. The steadiness of the speed of the airstream is crucial both to good tone quality and to good intonation. Gaining the benefits of breathing exercises and proper breath support takes time—months and years—not a few focused rehearsals. Band and orchestra rehearsals should frequently start with breathing exercises. Breathing exercises in the midst of a rehearsal are also a valuable way to refocus a group after a break or intensive rehearsing.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 200

200 THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

Full ensemble practice on breathing exercises should include the percussionists and string players, as proper breathing improves virtually every aspect of band or orchestra performance (e.g., entrances) and emphasizes the importance of proper breathing in daily life. The exercises should start with a relaxed, slow inhale that fills the lungs at the bottom, then the middle, then the upper part without raising the shoulders. Having students extend both hands/arms above their head and inhale a large amount of air demonstrates filling the bottom part of the lungs. A student may attempt to please the teacher by pushing the stomach out—muscles that obviously are not related to the breathing apparatus. Teachers must emphasize relaxation during inhaling to allow the appropriate parts of the body to expand. As the daily breathing exercises progress, the inhaling should become more rapid, with continual emphasis on a relaxed, erect body.

ACOUSTICAL PRINCIPLES FOR WINDS Although more detailed and technical explanations are available, some knowledge of the acoustics of woodwind and brass instruments is useful for clarifying any misconceptions from “common wisdom.” Two important terms for all musical instruments are resonance and damping. Everything that can vibrate has a resonant frequency, the “pitch” at which it will vibrate most freely when set in motion. Some objects have more than one resonant frequency. Multiple resonant frequencies are related mathematically, as one frequency is twice as fast as its fundamental, or three times as fast, and so on. The resonant frequency is the frequency with the greatest amplitude (loudness), or the longest sound, for any given object. Tuning forks are labeled with their resonant frequencies, and it is this frequency’s pitch that is heard when a tuning fork is made to vibrate.1

Damping All sounds have a measurable decay. A pen striking the desk is dampened very quickly—in a matter of a few milliseconds. The water glass has a longer damping time and the tuning fork still longer. Factors such as friction, mass, and shape affect the damping time. Mass and shape along with the damping time affect resonance.2 The frequency of a pitch is the number of wavelengths per second. The sound perceived comprises the pitch’s fundamental frequency plus pitches derived from its multiples, called overtones. “Pure” sounds that are generated electronically have only one frequency. Upper harmonics, overtones, or partials are present in the tone produced by all musical instruments; their amplitudes vary with the instrument. A glockenspiel sounds brighter than a marimba due to the upper partial being much stronger (greater in amplitude). The presence of specific partials (multiples) when a fundamental pitch is sounded, as well as each partial’s individual amplitude, gives each musical instrument its own timbre. A musical instrument achieves its maximum amplitude (loudness) at its resonant frequency. The resonant frequency is also the least damped frequency. When a trumpet player attempts to make a piano string sound by playing a specific note, while depressing the damper key, the resonate frequency will dominate and the upper partials will quietly ring. When the exact same pitch is played, the piano string will vibrate. Air contained in a bottle, jug, pipe, or other solid container will vibrate at its particular resonant frequency if some type of tone generator (vibrating reed, plucked string, buzzing lips) sets the air molecules in motion at the appropriate speed. Wind instruments are lengths of plastic, wood, or metal tubing in which the air column inside the tube is set into motion at a resonant frequency; the string instrument is a somewhat oddly shaped box that encloses the air, providing a multitude of resonant frequencies due to that shape. For winds, the vibrating air column is called a standing wave, as it primarily remains in the tubing with very little air escaping, due to the difference in air pressure on the “bell end” (or open tone holes) and the tone generator on the other end. The cymbals and timpani are particularly useful for coloring effects due to their relatively long damping time. The bursts of air from brass instruments pass through the mouthpiece and create a pressure wave inside the brass tubing where air molecules push against each other traveling longitudinally through the horn (as opposed to transverse motion when a violin string is plucked). The longitudinal pressure wave is kept in motion by a stream of tiny bursts of air at an appropriate frequency or speed. Open Pipe (Conical) These standing waves are stationary between points called nodes—points where the longitudinal motion is reversed. For brasses the Open Open vibrating air column in the tubing is reversed Air Air at the bell and at the mouthpiece where the air column is reenergized (see Figure 15.4); for woodwinds it is at the bell or last open One Cycle Complete hole reversed to the point where the reed FIGURE 15.4 Illustration of the standing wave of most wind instruments re-energizes the air column.3

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 201

WINDS PRINCIPLES

201

Brass A standing wave in a brass instrument is created by exciting the enclosed air column with a steady stream of tiny bursts of air. These tiny bursts of air are created by the performer opening and closing the lips very, very rapidly (appearing to buzz the lips) and are controlled (i.e., contained, directed, and even altered) by the shape and size of the mouthpiece. This air passing through the lips is needed to resupply the vibrating air inside the instrument as there is a large amount of friction and a mass of air escaping from the bell—both producing a damping effect. Partial The change of air pressure at the bell of a brass instrument is enough to reflect the pressure wave back toward the mouthpiece (see Figure 15.5). Only a slight amount of air escapes the bell FIGURE 15.5 of a brass instrument; this phenomenon can be observed by placing the hand over the bell of an Change of pressure instrument being played at a high pitch and at a very loud dynamic level. Pressure waves that start at bell at the player’s lips and travel through the tubing are reflected at the bell (by the change in air pressure), and travel back to the player’s lips where they are resupplied with air (energy) (Figure 15.6). This type of vibrating air column is defined as a standing wave. Because the lips are more pliable than the reeds used by woodwind players, brass players have more control over the frequency of the pitch. When the brass player creates greater tension in the lips in order to produce a stream of airbursts at twice the speed, a new resonant frequency is heard. This frequency, twice that of the fundamental, becomes the new primary pitch. The process of mathematically increasing the speed of the “tiny burst of air” (or what we view as buzzing lips) can be repeated in order to continue raising the fundamental pitch through the overtone series. Closed Pipe Start Pull (Air Reflected)

Resupported with Air

One Cycle Complete

FIGURE 15.6 Illustration of the standing wave of a clarinet

The instant the initial vibration is doubled, a node appears at approxi- 2nd Partial mately the middle of the length of the tube (slightly toward the mouthpiece or the energy source) of the brass instrument. A node is a spot inside the tube that remains stationary when the speed of the vibrating standing wave changes, dividing the standing wave into two equal waves that are half its length. The node cuts the standing wave by half and the frequency is doubled. 3rd Partial The doubling of the air column is achieved by the player’s lips buzzing twice as fast as tiny bursts of air are projected at a sufficient speed to sustain the faster vibration of the air column. This new pitch enhances the higher partials (overtones) that give brass instruments their unique timbre (Figure 15.7).4 Brass players are prone to miss the initial pitch, as the first tiny bursts 4th Partial of air sent through the instrument must wait for the wave to be reflected at the bell before the pressure wave and lips work together to “lock” onto the desired pitch; during that brief instant, one occasionally hears brass players “crack” pitches. This coordination between air, lips, and brass instrument becomes a performance problem when a musical passage requires frequent FIGURE 15.7 Illustration of the standing wave of and rapid changes between partials. Experience and practice develop the a brass instrument with a node halving the kinesthetic skill required to create the necessary firmness in the embouchure standing wave that increases frequency to obtain the desired pitch consistently. The simplest illustration of the overtone series is the valveless bugle. The bugler is capable of producing at least the second to eighth partials in the overtone series shown in Figure 15.8. The fundamental is B≤ (extremely difficult to play due to the small diameter of the tubing in proportion to the length). Each pitch has its resonant frequency and each pitch also contains the higher overtones, although some are barely audible. These overtones can be heard by playing a pitch into a piano soundboard with the damper pedal depressed and listening to hear the resonant frequency dominate and the upper partials ring.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 202

202 THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

FIGURE 15.8 The overtone series for a B≤ brass instrument

Each pitch in the overtone series can be lowered to pitches of the chromatic scale by adding the appropriate length to the bugle’s tubing (this is how the trombone operates). For trumpet, cornet, baritone, euphonium, trombone, and tuba, the largest interval between the “usable” notes in the overtone series is that which occurs between the second and third partials (the interval of a perfect fifth). There are six pitches missing between these two notes. Consequently, the trombone is designed with six slide positions beyond the first position. Each slide position on the trombone progressively lowers the pitch one half-step, enabling the trombone to bridge the gap between the second and third partials. The valved brasses produce each of the six missing pitches between the second and third partials (the perfect fifth) in the following manner. The middle valve adds tubing to the extent that the partial is lowered one half-step, the first valve lowers the partial by two half steps, and the third valve lowers the partial by three half steps (as do the first and second valves in combination). Different combinations of these valves are used to lower the third partial four, five, and six half steps in order to play chromatically to the second partial. Today, many of the brass instruments have devices to enhance the lower register to reach the first partial: F and G attachments on trombones, a fourth valve on baritones and euphoniums, and four or five valves on the tuba. A musical instrument achieves its maximum amplitude (loudness) at its resonant frequency. The resonant frequency is also the least damped frequency. If one blows into an empty soft drink bottle at just the right angle, the air inside the bottle will respond at its resonant frequency. Altering the angle and/or the speed of the air inside the bottle will set the “trapped” air in motion at a faster or slower frequency, but only the resonant frequency will respond at maximum amplitude. This resonant frequency can be altered by changing the shape and size of the trapped air by partially filling the bottle with water.

Woodwinds With the woodwinds, there are exceptions to virtually every common denominator. For example, all woodwinds are (or were) made of wood—except the saxophone; all use a wooden reed as a tone generator—except the flute; all have undergone extensive improvements to the key mechanisms during the last century—except the bassoon; all overblow the octave for their second register—except the clarinet; all of the upper woodwinds have one register key—except the oboe; all are based on the acoustics of a pipe closed at one end—except the flute; all have been manufactured with open tone holes that are covered with the fingers—except the saxophone; all behave acoustically as a conical bore instrument— except the clarinet; all are suitable for beginners—except the bassoon; all have bells—except the flute . . . and so on. Woodwind instruments, like the brasses, produce sound from the longitudinally vibrating air column contained inside the instrument. Air enters a woodwind instrument through the mouthpiece, vibrating the reed that acts as the tone generator to force the air column inside the instrument to vibrate. The air molecules move longitudinally back and forth between nodes at a frequency equal to the pitch being played. As with the brasses, the basic node is at the bell of the instrument where the air column is reversed; unlike with brass, the last open key can also be a node that shortens the fundamental and reflects the air column in the opposite direction.5 The length of the air column is determined by the length of the instrument (which is shortened or lengthened by the tone holes). There is always at least one node present when the low register is played on any woodwind; this node forms near the bell (or the first open tone hole) where the change in air pressure is sufficient for the air column to be reflected. As tone holes are uncovered, the node moves up the instrument to the highest open hole; consequently, the air column is shortened and the pitch is raised proportionately. The sound is projected through the first open tone hole where the air column is reversed, and the air surrounding the instrument is set into motion, carrying the sound to the listener (the same as the node at the end of a brass bell and the f-holes in a string instrument. The air remains in the instrument, but the air directly at the node radiates in all directions). One important feature that makes woodwinds different from brasses is that each woodwind makes extensive use of its fundamental pitch and uses its second partial for the middle registers (except the clarinet). The woodwinds have six tone holes that are uncovered one at a time to produce a seven-note scale. The upper tonic of the scale is played by again covering all of the tone holes and overblowing the fundamental frequency to sound the second partial—this point between the first and second registers is called “the break.” Additional tone holes and keys are added to extend the range downward and to play the chromatic scale. For all of the woodwinds, keys extend the range and create chromatic pitches. The exception to the above is the clarinet, the only truly cylindrical instrument in the woodwind family, which overblows a twelfth, skipping the even-numbered partials. If one depresses all the keys, the lowest note is a written E.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 203

WINDS PRINCIPLES

203

Overblowing to the next partial sounds a B (an octave and a fifth). The notes in the gap between that upper fifth (B) and the missing octave (E) are achieved by “throat tone” keys located near the middle of the instrument where a node is needed to divide the vibrating air column to half its length. On all woodwinds, the second register is made accessible by use of an octave or register key that opens a vent hole closer to the mouthpiece than to the open end. (On the clarinet this is not an octave but a twelfth.) The octave or register key makes the lower register (fundamental pitches) impossible to sound due to an opened vent hole that changes the instrument’s resonant frequency. In short, the octave key does not facilitate the second register; it simply makes the lower register difficult to play. The left thumb operates the register or octave key. Woodwind players often have difficulty developing a good tone quality, due to the woodwind player’s dependence on the reed and the instrument’s unforgiving reliance on a proper embouchure. Woodwind beginners should be instructed in homogeneous classes to avoid the mistake of matching the brass players, which results in poor tone quality. Homogeneous ensembles, such as woodwind choirs, clarinet or flute choirs, and saxophone quartets, also promote better intonation, balance, blend, and tone quality. Woodwind performers are expected to be able to play lush, lyrical, or fast and technically demanding passages equally well, and with proper style and precision. For example, the clarinet and trumpet are both pitched in B≤, but due to the clarinet’s ability to play lower and higher than the trumpet, as well as its ability to play larger intervals with ease, the music considered idiomatic for each is quite different. Fast passages are found more frequently in woodwind than in brass music. And while double- and triple-tonguing are becoming more commonplace among reed players, they must first learn to single-tongue at rapid tempos. Consequently, technique is an element of woodwind performance that is constantly practiced and improved. Because technique is a psychomotor skill not unlike a sport, woodwind players must continually work to retain the skills they have, plus work toward faster fingers and a faster tongue, all with control and precision. Technique is the synchronization of the embouchure, the fingers, and the tongue with the brain. The way the instrument is held is essential to finger dexterity. Almost all beginners initially find the woodwind holding position awkward. Scales and arpeggios are the basis of at least 75 percent of all finger technique required of school bands and orchestras, and form the foundation of exercises designed to improve finger dexterity. Scales should be practiced systematically in all major and minor keys (plus chromatic); the maximum tempo should be established at which the student can play evenly and accurately with good tone quality and intonation. Scales are best practiced beginning on the tonic, playing up to the highest note learned (or possible) in that key, then down to the lowest note learned (or possible) in that key, and back up to the tonic. Due to the fact that woodwinds raise their pitch by uncovering tone holes, adjacent notes are often different in tone color. This is especially apparent when the break (or octave) is crossed. Practice on scales while listening and thinking about tone color helps the student maintain good, and consistent, tone quality throughout the range of the instrument. Arpeggios are an excellent means to practice raising and lowering more than one finger at a time. Arpeggios also help develop the embouchure, secure good tone quality across registers, and train the ear.

Flute With a flute, the sharp outer edge of the embouchure hole splits the airstream. This split airstream is a simple division, some of the air going into the flute and the rest blown across the top of the embouchure hole. Almost all of the airstream is directed into the head joint (which fills with air in milliseconds); the airstream is deflected out of the embouchure hole and “across the room” until the air pressure in the head joint is lowered again and the airstream is again pulled into the head joint (again, taking only milliseconds). This “up-and-down” motion across the sharp edge of the embouchure hole creates turbulence that triggers one of the flute’s resonant frequencies (depending on how many tone holes are covered and the speed of the air); a fundamental pitch should sound. Increasing the speed of the airstream will cause a slight rise in pitch (but only within the confines of the length of the flute’s bore). A greater increase in the air speed with a slight change of direction of the airstream will cause the vibrating air column to double in frequency and the second partial will sound (the second octave). This principle of a sharp edge splitting the airstream to produce a sound is also how a recorder works—the performer blows through a rectangular chamber which controls the direction of the airstream and the amount of air that is allowed to reach the sharp edge (consequently determining the tone quality, the volume level, and, to an extent, the pitch). The flute embouchure serves the same function, but the flutist has greater freedom to alter the tone quality, volume, and pitch.

Reeds The other woodwinds use a reed as the primary tone generator. The fundamental and second partial produce the first and second registers (except on the clarinet, previously discussed) and six tone holes are used to relocate the “last” node.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 204

204

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

The reeds are flexible slivers of wood carefully carved to vibrate at the appropriate resonant frequencies. Because reeds are considerably less flexible than brass players’ lips, woodwind players cannot manipulate pitch as easily. Whereas a brass player can play seven to ten pitches without changing the valves/slide combination, the woodwind player can play only one pitch (sometimes two and rarely three) using the same fingering. Reed players learn to care for the reed early in their instruction (another advantage to homogeneous classes). Singlereed players do not make their own reeds; double-reed players, however, benefit from learning how to finish and make reeds. Many single reeds are playable straight from the box, but most can be improved and adjusted to respond better. Basic care and adjustment of the reed includes sanding the back of the reed to make and keep it flat, lightly sanding or rubbing the beveled portion of the reed to close the pores, and clipping the tip if necessary. Unfortunately, accurate reed adjustments take a great deal of experience, and students will produce more poor than good reeds in the process of learning this skill. The ability to produce a good sound on a good reed is obviously a prerequisite to being able to evaluate and adjust a reed.

Single Reeds When the air is expelled into the instrument, the resonant frequency determined by the fingering is set in motion and the instrument responds. Because the reed itself has a resonant frequency, care must be taken not to allow it to sound (this happens when the player bites); nor should it be allowed to squeak (as happens with incorrect embouchures). As the air pressure inside the single-reed mouthpiece builds, it forces the flexible reed to bend open allowing more air to enter the mouthpiece, but only if the air pressure in the performer’s mouth is greater than that inside the instrument. This puff of air forces the “high-pressure area” inside the mouthpiece and down through the instrument that in turn creates lower pressure in the mouthpiece. The low pressure acts as a vacuum to pull the reed toward the mouthpiece, sealing off the player’s airstream. This oscillation of the reed is very fast; it is considerably faster than the frequency of the pitch being sounded by the instrument. Two factors make it difficult to play softly on a reed instrument. First, the frequency of the reed must be faster than that of the instrument’s air column (which requires a fast airstream). Second, any slight drop of the performer’s air pressure will force air into the mouth rather than into the instrument. Both factors require the player to blow a steady, supported, fast airstream into the mouthpiece. (It is often difficult for students to realize the difference between velocity of the airstream and the volume of the air blown.)

Clarinet A cylindrical pipe closed at one end, such as the clarinet, produces only the odd-numbered partials of the overtone series. This means it misses 18 half steps in the normal overtone series. The basic six-tone-hole scale produced is a G scale; tone holes and keys are added to extend the range down to an E and up to the G, G≥, A, and A≥ above the seventh scale degree. To play the next B, all of the tone holes are covered (as if fingering the low E), and the fundamental is overblown to the third partial (the interval of a twelfth). The second partial, or octave, will not sound; rather, the clarinet jumps to the third partial. The second register is assisted by pressing the register key that opens an additional vent hole near the mouthpiece and destroys the resonant frequencies for all of the fundamental pitches. For some of the higher notes in the second register and for notes in the third register, additional tone holes covered by the first few fingers are opened to serve as additional vent holes. The distinctive timbre of the clarinet is due to the odd-numbered partials sounding. When a low F concert is played the octave partial is not present. However, the third partial, C, is sounded and becomes the dominant pitch when the register key is pressed. The fifth, seventh, and ninth (A, E≤, and G) partials are also present.

Saxophone The saxophone uses a single reed like a clarinet but is the most obviously conical instrument in the woodwind family. Because it is conical it overblows the octave with the help of an octave key that opens a vent hole on the neck. Its basic six-tone-hole scale is D, like the flute, but it has additional tone holes and keys to extend the range down to B≤ and to provide the chromatic scale.

Double Reeds The tone generator for double reeds is also the reed—but in this case two reeds sounding simultaneously. Whereas the area inside a single-reed mouthpiece acts as a vibrating chamber, the double reed’s vibrating chamber is the area between

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 205

WINDS PRINCIPLES

205

the two curved reed blades and is much smaller in size, producing the nasal-like quality these instruments have. This vibrating chamber allows the performer to have more control over pitch, volume level, and tone color. The two flexible reeds vibrate toward each other and then away from each other to create the same effect as a single reed vibrating.

Oboe The oboe is a conical-shaped instrument that overblows the octave. The basic six-tone-hole scale is D to C with keys to extend the range down to B≤. The octave key destroys the resonant frequencies of the lower octave. Some notes in the second and third octaves require additional octave keys. To compensate, the oboe is provided with several vent holes, and also uses a half-hole technique to provide a small vent for obtaining some pitches. Other pitches are played with upper tone holes opened while lower tone holes are covered to provide yet a third type of vent hole (called “forked fingerings”), and this technique is also used to improve intonation in the lower octave. The oboe has virtually the same fundamental pitches as the flute. Though the oboe and clarinet are similar in size and shape, the pitch difference occurs because the clarinet is cylindrical and the oboe is conical.

Bassoon The bassoon is also a conical-shaped double-reed instrument. Its total length is about 100 inches (over eight feet), doubled up to position the six primary tone holes and keys within reach of an average-sized adult hand. Even in this position the fingers must stretch for certain keys. The double reed attaches to the bocal that is inserted into the wing joint. If the first three tone holes were positioned properly in the bore of the bassoon, they would be too far apart for the fingers of one hand to cover all three. Wood has been added to this joint to make the area thicker, allowing for the tone holes to be cut at an angle such that the first three fingers of the left hand can cover them and still open into the bore of the instrument with the correct distance between them. The basic six-tone-hole scale is G to F. The range is extended down to a low B≤ with the addition of keys and tone holes. Because the tube is so long, there is no way for one vent hole to serve as an octave key for all pitches. As the notes ascend upward, additional octave keys are provided that open vent holes farther up the instrument.

RESOURCES Websites Basics in Music Acoustics phys.unsw.edu.au/jw/basics.html Woodwind Resource File mholtttwoodwinds.weebly.com/gerneral-woodwindpedagogy.html

Texts History of Instruments Montagu, J. (2007). Origins and Development of Musical Instruments. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow. Sachs, C. (2006). The History of Musical Instruments. Mineola, NY: Dover; reprint of 1940 ed.

Tuning and Acoustics Benade, A.H. (2012). Fundamentals of Music Acoustics, 2nd ed. (rev.). New York, NY: Dover. Berg, R.E. and D.G. Stork (2005). The Physics of Sound, 3rd ed. Princeton, NJ: Recording for the Blind and Dyslexic. Fletcher, N.H. (2014). The Physics of Musical Instruments. New York, NY: Springer. Hall, D.E. (2001). Musical Acoustics, 3rd ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Nederveen, C.J. (1998). Acoustical Aspects of Woodwind Instruments (rev.). DeKalb, IL: Northern Illinois Press. Parker, S.E. and A.S. Jamison (2013). Musician’s Acoustics. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado. Rossing, R.D. and N.H. Fletcher (2010). Principles of Vibration and Sound, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Springer.

Repairing Instruments Biba, G. (2006). Band Instrument “Quick Fix” Repair Solutions. Chicago, IL: GIA. Bluemel, C.P. and C. Anderson (2011). Guide to Brass Musical Instrument Repair: The Ultimate Guide to Brass Instrument Repair. Glenmoore, PA: Northeastern Music. Burton, S. (1978). Instrument Repair for the Music Teacher. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred. Saska, R. (2013). A Guide to Repairing Woodwinds, 2nd ed. Glenmoore, PA: Northeastern Music. Thorp, R. (2005). The Complete Woodwind Repair Manual. Normal, IL: National Association of Band Instrument Repair Technicians.

Woodwind Instruments Baines, A. (2012). Woodwind Instruments and Their History, 3rd ed. New York, NY: Dover; reprint of 1967 ed.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 206

206

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

Byo, J.L. (2016). The Woodwinds: Perform, Understand, Teach. New York, NY: Routledge. Campbell, M., C.A. Greated, and A. Myers (2006). Musical Instruments: History, Technology and Performance of Instruments of Western Music. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Ely, M.C. and A.E. Van Deuren (2009). Wind Talk for Woodwinds: A Practical Guide to Understanding and Teaching Woodwind Instruments. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Griswold, H.G. (2008). Teaching Woodwinds. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Pagliaro, M.J. (2012). The Musical Instrument Desk Reference: A Guide to How Band and Orchestral Instruments Work. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow. Paul, R. (2010). Successful Strategies for Clarinet Reed Making: Including a Step-By-Step Process. Saarbrücken, Germany: VDM Verlag Dr. Müller. Saucier, G.A. (2002). Woodwinds: Fundamental Performance Techniques, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Schirmer.

The Instrumentalist Co. (1992). Woodwind Anthology: A Compendium of Woodwind Articles from the Instrumentalist. Northfield, IL: The Instrumentalist Co. Thompson, K. (1985). Wind Bands and Brass Bands in School and Music Centre. San Antonio, TX: Southern Music. Timm, E. (1971). The Woodwinds: Performance and Instructional Techniques, 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Westphal, F. (1990). Guide to Teaching Woodwinds, 5th ed. Dubuque, IA: W.C. Brown.

Journals/Associations The Instrumentalist. Monthly from Instrumentalist Company; 200 Northfield Road, Northfield, IL 60093. NACWPI Journal. Quarterly from National Association of College Wind and Percussion Instructors Journal. nacwpi. org

NOTES 1. 2. 3. 4.

Benade, A.H. (1992). Horns, Strings, and Harmony. New York, NY: Dover, 29–31. Ibid., 412. Benade, A.H. (1990). Fundamentals of Musical Acoustics. New York, NY: Dover, p. 406. Ibid., 412.

5.

For a more detailed explanation, see Backus, J. (1969). The Acoustical Foundations of Music. New York, NY: Norton; Benade, Horns, Strings, and Harmony; or Timm, E. (1971). The Woodwinds: Performance and Instructional Techniques, 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 207

CHAPTER 16

The Flute

16

The flute is the soprano instrument of the woodwind family, together with the C piccolo (which uses the same fingerings and reads in the same register as the flute but sounds one octave higher). Pitched in C, the flute is nontransposing. Other flutes include the seldom used E≤ flute, which is pitched between the regular C flute and piccolo; the alto flute pitched in G (below the C flute), which is becoming more popular in jazz; and the bass flute in C pitched one octave below the regular C flute, which is not a popular instrument.

HISTORY The flute has the longest history of any of the wind instruments. There is in existence today a flute taken from the Geissenklösterle cave in southern Germany that dates to approximately 35,000 BCE. Made from a single wing bone of a griffon vulture, it had three finger holes and was less than five inches long; it was not playable. There are also two flutes taken from Egyptian tombs that scholars date to about 2200 BCE, and both are in playing condition. Wall drawings and paintings from this period show flute players at various court and religious functions. Around 1300 BCE, a doublepipe instrument related to the flute existed, each pipe with three finger holes. By 79 CE the art of music had advanced to the extent that a fifteen-hole instrument existed that was fitted with silver bands that slid or twisted to cover the holes not being played. Most of the ancient flutes were not transverse but held vertically, and the vertical flute, in its familiar form the recorder, was popular through Bach’s time. Transverse flutes also existed in ancient times. Pictures of transverse flutes are found on Japanese monuments dating from about 50 BCE. During the 1600s the flute began to take on its modern aspects. The first key, the D≥ (E≤) key, was added about 1600; the bore was changed from cylindrical to conical in 1680; the round embouchure hole was replaced by an oval hole in 1724. By the mid-eighteenth century, the flute was among the most popular wind instruments. Alterations continued for the next century, with the most significant by Boehm, who made the flute very similar to what it is today. In 1832 Boehm invented a ring-key flute; in 1847 he changed the conical bore back to cylindrical; and in 1851 he added covered, open-standing keys.

SELECTING THE INSTRUMENT Most student-line flutes manufactured by reputable companies are fine for beginners. The majority of these flutes have a head joint bore that starts at 17 millimeters at the cork end and is graduated to 19 millimeters where it joins the main body. The remaining length of the flute is cylindrical, through the body and foot joint. Various aspects of new flutes can provide evidence of the quality of craftsmanship. Those aspects include the keys, tone holes, post mounting, and optional keys. A good student-line instrument has forged keys as opposed to cast ones, “pulled” lone holes as opposed to soldered ones, and posts mounted on ribbing rather than directly on the body of the flute. Optional keys may be added to the flutes at additional cost, to help mitigate technical difficulties such as an awkward fingering or trill. Perhaps the easiest to justify is the low B key, which primarily adds resonance and enhanced tone quality to the lower register. Other keys such as the split E key (to make the high E easier to play) and the C≥ trill key are recommended, as are the rollers on C≥ and D≥ to facilitate fingering. Other optional keys should be avoided except by the most advanced players. Adding keys complicates mechanical adjustment problems. The closed-hole plateau instrument is easier to master in the early stages than an open-hole French flute, and it is usually less expensive. The primary advantages of the open-hole flutes are that: (1) the player can control the intonation more exactly by partially covering the holes with the fingers (some avant-garde music requires pitches played by partially covered holes); and (2) the open hole promotes proper hand position. In fact, it cannot be played successfully without good hand position. Used flutes should be inspected for common signs of use such as worn pads and for indications of abuse such as damaged keys and rods, and dents or scratches. These may indicate more serious neglect or excessive wear. Furthermore, the

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 208

208 THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

prospective buyer should make sure that the outer edge of the embouchure hole is still sharp to the touch, that the keys are in alignment and the pads seat properly, that the cork in the head joint is tight (if the crown can be turned easily with the fingers, the cork may be too loose), and most importantly, that the instrument fits together easily but not too easily. Although minor FIGURE 16.1 Flute with curved head joint repairs may be inexpensive, too many repairs may warrant buying a new instrument. A possible option for the young flutist is the curved head joint available from a few manufacturers as shown in Figure 16.1. This option makes good hand position easier while enabling a satisfactory tone. As the student grows physically, this head joint should be replaced with a standard one.

PICCOLO The piccolo is similar to the flute, and all accomplished flutists should also be able to play the piccolo. It has the following distinguishing characteristics: 1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7. 8.

Low D is the lowest note because the piccolo has no foot joint; otherwise, the piccolo plays the same range and notes as the flute but sounds an octave higher. The piccolo usually does not go beyond a written G. Although the C piccolo is almost universal today, the D≤ piccolo is scored in older march music and transcriptions. The ability to transpose is useful. The piccolo has less pitch flexibility than the flute. The wooden piccolo, more sonorous than the metal, is more desirable for orchestral playing, but lacks an embouchure plate. The lower lip is often placed higher on the wooden instrument. The metal piccolo is easier to blow and more brilliant in quality. Plastic piccolos have become common and are satisfactory. The piccolo requires a tighter embouchure and more pressure on the extreme high notes to overcome the instrument’s tendency to sound flat in this register; hence, it is more tiring to play than the flute. Because there is greater resistance, a smaller quantity of air is required, but the airstream must move more rapidly. Piccolos are made with either a cylindrical or a conical bore. Most flute teachers recommend the cylindrical-bore instrument for marching band and the conical-bore instrument for professional and orchestral players. An advanced flutist with good intonation is the best candidate for playing the piccolo. Students with small, dexterous fingers and thin lips are usually the most successful.

ASSEMBLING THE FLUTE Although assembling the flute is a simple matter, a few precautions may help establish good habits that contribute to playing technique and to keeping the instrument in good repair. The flute consists of three pieces: the head joint, which includes the embouchure hole, the embouchure plate, and the cork; the body of the instrument; and the foot joint that contains three tone holes. Correct alignment of the three pieces is important. To align, the head joint should be grasped between the embouchure plate and open end with the left hand (where the label or manufacturer’s name is engraved). The right hand gently picks up the body of the flute without grabbing the key mechanism any more than is necessary. The two pieces are twisted together, not pushed or wiggled. The center of the embouchure hole in the head joint should align with the center of the line of keys. The foot joint is grasped in such a way that the keys will not be damaged, then gently twisted onto the body of the flute. The rod on the foot joint should bisect the D key on the body of the flute. In correct position, with the fingers of the right hand on the keys, the little finger of the right hand can drop to the low C key without the right wrist having to move. If the foot joint is turned in too far, the little finger will hang over; if out too far, the little finger must poke at the key rather than depress it. Student-line flutes are often made with an engraved mark on the head joint and a matching mark on the body so correct alignment can be achieved. If the embouchure hole is turned in, a slightly covered sound and flat pitch result. If the hole is turned out, higher pitch and better projection are obtained. The correct alignment allows complete finger freedom, proper balance, and an embouchure hole parallel with the lips. The beginning student must adjust the embouchure to the correct alignment, not the alignment to the embouchure. After a player has acquired considerable skill, the head joint may be turned slightly one way or the other, but experimenting should be postponed until the student has had considerable experience playing with the conventional alignment. The head joint is not pushed all the way in, but is pulled from one-eighth to one-quarter of an inch, to allow for tuning with other instruments. The tenons, the ends of the joints where two pieces fit together, are somewhat delicate

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 209

THE FLUTE

209

and can bend easily if assembled carelessly. The flute should be assembled with a smooth, circular movement, pushing and turning the parts together. If the flute is difficult to assemble, clean only the tenons with a mild silver polish. Using a lubricant causes the tenons to attract dirt and grime.

HOLDING THE FLUTE Most students are uncomfortable when first attempting to hold the flute. Their fear of dropping the instrument often results in improper habits, and beginners must be monitored carefully. The size of the hand determines the hand position that will allow the fingers to rest properly on the keys. The flute is supported primarily by the base of the left forefinger and the thumb of the right hand, with the right little finger adding balance. The lips also serve to balance the instrument. The right thumb supports the flute from below and should be placed approximately underneath the F key, or between the right index finger and middle finger (see Figure 16.2). The thumb does not extend under and past the flute; it should be bent so the side of the thumbnail supports the instrument. The right wrist should not bend; it should be held straight with the fingers slightly curved, the hands forming a C, or as if feeding a hamburger to a person sitting FIGURE 16.2 Hand position for the flute across the table from you. The pads of the four fingers should rest on their proper keys (rechecking the alignment of the foot joint is advised). The instructor must watch that the fingers do not overlap the keys, a practice that reduces finger dexterity and in extreme cases can cause uneven wear of the keypads. In general, the left wrist must be curved, so that the base of the left forefinger touches the instrument for support but the left thumb is free to manipulate the B and B≤ keys. The fingers of the left hand, especially the forefinger and less so for each successive finger, are curved more than those of the right hand to allow easy manipulation of the proper keys. The left hand has a tendency to rotate to the left, forcing the fourth finger to stretch for the G≥ key, thus hindering technique. The fingers must be kept very close to the keys. The left thumb is placed on the B key at a slight tilt so that the edge of the thumb presses the key. Beginners often have a tendency to slide their thumb too far under the instrument to help hold it. The left thumb should not be used primarily to support the instrument: it must be able to move freely to manipulate the B≤ key. Initially, this position may feel somewhat artificial and unnatural to beginners. The teacher should check frequently to see that the player has not relaxed into habits that feel more natural but will eventually affect technique. The position for playing the flute is shown in Figure 16.3. The flute is held approximately parallel to the line formed by the lips; that is, the embouchure hole should be parallel with the lips both horizontally and vertically. Proper position keeps the flute almost parallel to the floor—with the end joint a little lower than the rest of the flute (no more than a 20-degree tilt for the instrument). A slight tilt to the head is appropriate as long as it is not due to poor posture and does not restrict the airstream. The right elbow is raised until the muscle in the upper part of the arm begins to pull. The correct position is when the elbow is dropped to a point where pulling ceases. Beginning students often drop the right arm to a more comfortable position, but this cramps the hands, flattens the fingers, and hampers technique. In playing while seated, the feet are flat on the floor with one foot slightly in front of the other; the body is erect and the back is away from the chair. The bottom half of the body is rotated approximately 45 degrees to the right, which results in the right arm being placed in a more FIGURE 16.3 Holding position for the flute comfortable position. The arms must be free of the body, not draped over the chair. The student should stand part of the time during lessons and practice. Proper upper body position does not change when standing. For beginners, maintaining correct playing position may cause some fatigue; therefore, the beginning flutist should practice frequently for short periods of time. Good flute playing depends upon good flute position. In slow passages students tend to raise their fingers far above the keys. Young players also learn incorrect fingerings. An example of the latter is the D≥ (E≤) key. This key should be

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 210

210 THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

used for most of the notes played on the flute. As the little finger is usually the weakest finger, many youngsters soon discover that the D≥ (E≤) key can be avoided completely and play these notes “close enough” to pitch that many teachers do not catch the error.

EMBOUCHURE AND REGISTER The flute is not played like a pop bottle. This approach, taught all too often, results in a hollow sound. The air is directed primarily across the embouchure hole, although somewhat downward for the low register, slightly upward for the upper register, and more directly into the embouchure hole for louder volume (see Figure 16.4). The beginner should start on the head joint alone so that he or she can concentrate solely on the proper embouchure to produce an adequate tone and not get dizzy. Then, relax the lips as if vocalizing “mmm” (this keeps the teeth apart and the lips together). The head joint is tilted upward ever so slightly. The bottom lip is spread gently across the embouchure plate and turned out as if slightly pouting (some of the pink should FIGURE 16.4 Direction of airstream for playing flute be visible). The lower lip covers approximately one-quarter to one-third of the embouchure hole. The corners of the lips are then tucked slightly to anchor the embouchure. With the head joint closed by the palm of the right hand (see Figure 16.5), the student should be asked to blow air as if vocalizing “pee” (syllables such as “poo” cause the embouchure to pucker too much and should be avoided). This small puff of air should produce second-space A; when the hand opens the head joint, an A an octave higher is sounded. Beginning students often use more air than is required and become dizzy when placing their first tones. Students should be encouraged to focus the airstream, keeping the aperture of the embouchure a small oval as if holding a coffee stirring straw. The width of the embouchure opening should not exceed the width of the flute’s embouchure hole. FIGURE 16.5 Student playing head joint in closed position The head joint should align on two planes—parallel to the lips and the embouchure hole centered on the chin. With this position the airstream (fast and focused) has the best chance to be directed to the edge of the embouchure hole where the airstream is split evenly without wasted air (as shown in Figure 16.5). The instrument should not be angled too far backward or forward. The head joint should not be rolled in too far, as this results in a muffled nasal sound, nor rolled too far out where the sound is thin and unfocused. A telltale sign of where the airstream is crossing the plate is the trail of condensation formed by the breath. The trail should look like a small triangle with the base at the far edge of the embouchure hole. The “pee”-type articulation is recommended to help the student produce the beginning sounds, but its use should not become automatic because the syllable “pee” uses a burst of air to open the lips, whereas the player should form the embouchure opening prior to blowing the air. The Suzuki flute teacher Takahashi advocates that students “spit out one grain of rice at a time” to establish the embouchure. This task keeps the aperture in the embouchure small and the corners firm (but not too firm), and a burst of air pressure is required to send the rice flying. When the student can sustain the two A’s on the head joint for two or three seconds without fainting, he or she should be guided to focus the airstream by making the aperture in the embouchure slightly smaller and blowing the air more toward the outer edge of the embouchure hole. This can be accomplished by moving the jaw forward slightly while maintaining the “spitting rice” embouchure. This change should produce the third harmonic, high E, when played on the closed head joint. In the first attempts, the student may blow more air rather than a faster airstream. Usually, blowing more air results in blowing the aperture of the embouchure open, which in turn loses focus of the air and actually allows the air to slow down, defeating the intention. Encouraging students to maintain the size of the aperture and blow the wind faster helps students comprehend the difference between amount of air and air velocity. The player should try to produce the upper harmonic by blowing less air more quickly. Beginners generally have a problem in focusing the airstream. It is common for these beginners to use excessive wind, most of it wasted, and find themselves

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 211

THE FLUTE

211

short of air, dizzy, unable to complete a note or phrase, and completely frustrated. Beginning flute players should know that it is okay to take breaks and try again. Basically, the flutist’s embouchure has these characteristics: (1) The corners of the mouth are stretched somewhat down but not too firm or pinched or clamped; (2) the corners of the mouth are straight or even turned or tucked down rather than in a smiling position; (3) the lower lip is drawn back just enough to allow the upper lip to protrude over it slightly. If the lower lip is too far back, the air column is directed straight down; if it is even with the upper lip, the air column will go straight out as when blowing out a candle. The player may need to move the head joint up and down, raising and lowering the flute on the lip to find the best spot. Experimenting with very slight movements is necessary. There are two common approaches: 1.

2.

The upper lip is relaxed while the lips are held in an even position. Only enough pressure from the corners of the lips to smooth out the wrinkles in the lower lip is used. The lower lip will cover approximately one-fourth to one-third of the embouchure hole, and the column of air will be blown just inside the outer edge of the embouchure hole. The upper lip should remain relaxed yet be firmly positioned against the upper teeth. This embouchure can be thought of as being long, straight, and thin, rather than round and open. Blow over the moist inner surface of the lower lip, such as by vocalizing “pee,” with the corners of the mouth held firmly. While playing in the upper register, the student relaxes the lip and covers more of the hole.

With either approach, the lower register will require less of the embouchure hole covered and more of the air directed into the flute. The upper register requires the flutist to direct the air toward the outer edge of the embouchure hole and cover more of the embouchure hole with the lower lip. For the low register the mouth should be open about the width of the embouchure hole, narrower and more oval shape for the middle register, and a yet smaller oval for the upper register. The mouth aperture should not be round. Intonation should improve with these embouchure changes. An embouchure opening that is too wide for any register produces a coarse, breathy, and inflexible tone. If the opening is too small, which seldom happens, the tone will be small and thin. Initially, the smaller the lip opening the better. It makes for more resistance to the airstream, enables production of a better tone, and helps avoid dizziness.

Correcting the Embouchure If too little of the embouchure hole is covered, the tone will be breathy and require more air. If the lips are too tight and too far away from the hole, the air striking the sides of the aperture will cause extraneous vibration in the upper lip. The air column may not be focused, resulting in a thin tone with poor intonation. To improve focus, the student should cover more of the embouchure hole with the lip and attempt to direct more air into the flute while not changing the hand position. If too much of the embouchure hole is covered, the tone will be small and thin, there will be a limited response, legato playing will be more difficult, dynamic range will be limited, and flexibility impaired. To correct this, the student should direct the airstream out across the hole (which may require pushing the jaw forward). Variations in facial structure that affect the embouchure follow: 1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

A relaxed or receding jaw results in a spread, unfocused tone. To correct, the student should bring the lower lip out or turn up the corners of the mouth. A protruding jaw may produce a breathy tone or no tone at all. To correct, roll the head joint in more. An overhanging upper lip may cause the mouth opening to be too wide and the lower lip to cover too much of the hole, letting air strike the sides of the embouchure. Use the same solution as for a receding jaw. Thick lips will need to be compensated for by placing the flute higher onto the pink portion of the lower lip. A slight dip in the center of the upper lip can be accommodated by keeping it raised and supported by the upper teeth. The student with a very pronounced dip may meet with some success by playing off center; the aperture of the embouchure, however, should be centered on the embouchure hole. Students with the infamous “cupid’s bow,” or “teardrop lip,” however, will more likely be FIGURE 16.6 Split vapor trail due to “cupid’s bow” successful on another instrument (see Figure 16.6).

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 212

212 THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

INTONATION Flute players are notorious for their intonation problems. Because the instrument’s range is in the upper register of the grand staff (see Figure 16.7), the wavelengths are shorter and pitch variations among players cause interference between the close sound waves. The points of interference occur two, three, or four times per second faster than for other instruments and are more easily heard. The result is therefore considerably more annoying than when four tuba players play slightly out of tune.

FIGURE 16.7 The three registers (octaves) of the flute

Generally, the flute has these intonation problems: the low register is flat, the middle register is in tune, and the upper register is sharp. Both middle and upper registers, however, change with the volume—flatter when soft and sharper when loud. The flute player deals with pitch by applying two principles: (1) covering the embouchure hole or directing more of the air into the instrument, which lowers the pitch; and (2) uncovering the embouchure hole or blowing more air across the instrument, which raises the pitch. These two procedures are explained to students in a variety of ways, including “raising or lowering the head” (which can affect the airstream), directing the air “at the wall or at the floor” (keeping the head erect), and the most common, “rolling the flute in and out” (which usually results in poor hand position and should be avoided). The best is to encourage students to “direct the air to the floor or wall.” Intonation with beginning players is related to the lack of proper air support. When more air is used, the note pops up to the next octave due to immature embouchure formation, not intonation. Proper air support in the low register is difficult until a student develops better control over the embouchure muscles. The flute tends to play flat in cold temperatures. The instrument should be thoroughly warmed before tuning by gently blowing air into the instrument with all keys closed. The flute can cool down so quickly that flutists need to warm it by blowing warm air into it prior to making an entrance after long rests. The A and F without vibrato are good tuning notes, but one well-tuned pitch does not ensure correct intonation on all notes. Particular tones on the flute have their own intonation problems, as shown in Figure 16.8. The biggest offender is the C≥ in the staff and, to a slightly lesser extent, the C≥ above the staff. To bring the pitch down, add one to three right-hand fingers starting with the D key and moving up toward the F key. To correct sharpness, the player must lower the jaw very slightly to direct the air more into the embouchure hole. The F is usually tested after tuning, as it is often flat. If higher notes sound flat in relation to lower notes, the cork (the stopper at the end of the head joint) is too far from the embouchure hole and needs adjusting.

FIGURE 16.8 Intonation characteristics of the flute: arrows indicate pitch tendencies (hash marks indicate degree of tendency)

Flute players have a tendency to go flat at the ends of phrases and sustained notes because the breath support diminishes. To counteract the sagging pitch on diminuendos, players can direct the airstream up and protrude the jaw at the end of a note. The greatest flutists disagree about whether the flute goes sharp or flat as the volume increases. When other factors are held constant, an increase in volume raises the pitch, but seldom are all other factors held constant. The player usually tightens the embouchure when the volume is increased to prevent the flute from skipping to the next octave higher, focusing the airstream more directly into the flute and lowering the head to compensate for the increased volume. As the air pressure builds, the pitch rises, and the player must blow more directly into the tone hole to compensate for the higher pitch. Some flutists drop the lower jaw rather than lowering the head. To keep forte playing from being sharp, the player needs to open or relax the throat, lips, or jaw. Blowing the air in an arc that follows the contour of the mouth and is aimed at the outer edge of the embouchure hole will help maintain an open throat and mouth. In soft playing, the lips must be stretched to raise the pitch. The cork, at the end of the head joint, determines the intonation within the flute itself. Most of today’s studentline instruments have replaced the cork with a synthetic material. The cork should not be tampered with once it is set,

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 213

THE FLUTE

213

as moving it makes the pitch at both extremes harder to control. Adjustments are made only when necessary, and then by a repairperson who unscrews the crown cap and moves the cork to the proper position. The possibility of adjustment is best kept a closely guarded secret from beginners and their parents. In summary, to lower pitch on the flute: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Direct the airstream more into the flute. Cover more of the embouchure hole with the lower lip. Drop the lower jaw or lower the head. Pull the corners of the mouth back and down slightly. Roll the flute inward.

To raise pitch on the flute, do the opposite.

TONE QUALITY A good sound should always be the primary consideration of any performing musician—especially flute players, who play in the upper registers of bands and orchestras and are easily heard. Good tone is dependent on: (1) a good instrument; (2) proper breathing and air support; (3) good posture; and (4) correct embouchure formation. It also requires a solid mental concept of the sound desired, especially important for upper woodwind players as they are in larger sections and have difficulty hearing themselves in full ensemble rehearsals. Private teachers, recordings, concerts, master classes, and especially small chamber ensembles where the student can hear him or herself and focus on tone, intonation, and balance all help to develop a good tone. A good flute tone is round and full-bodied, not thin, shrill, or breathy. As for all instruments, the tone should be well centered and focused, not spread. A “sweet” tone is not necessarily a good tone. It may be the result of covering too much of the embouchure hole with the lip or turning the flute in too far. Either of these habits limits the player’s development, for both make lip slurs difficult and produce a delay in attacks. The embouchure plays an important role in flute tone. It controls the size of the airstream—as small and focused as possible but more open in the lower register. One of the best ways to improve tone quality on all wind instruments is to practice playing long notes. Long tones are especially difficult for beginning flutists. The player’s ability to create resistance in order to use the air efficiently is a skill learned over a period of time. The B above the staff is one of the best notes for developing embouchure, and practicing long notes in the key of G centering on B is helpful. To develop richness and focus, the student should strive to project the tone. One good exercise is to take a deep breath, using diaphragm support, and then exhale all of the air in eight beats. When working for projection of the tone, the player must avoid the windy-sounding tone that comes from relaxing the cheeks and the corners of the mouth. The same embouchure and support are used for loud, driving tones as for softer tones. The greatest difference in tone quality between adjacent pitches on the flute is found between fourth-space E and fourth-line D; E is a dark tone, D is bright. For a legato passage in which these notes occur in succession, the player must adjust the embouchure so the tones match.

Vibrato Vibrato is essential to musical playing on the flute but it should not be used all the time. The flute sound is easily turned into a saccharine, overly sentimental one if vibrato is overdone. The flute can also have a pure, classical, crystal clear sound. The student should understand these opposites, learn how to produce both, and use each with discrimination. The great flute performer/pedagogue Marcel Moyse was one of many who compared flute vibrato to vocal vibrato— both in the production of vibrato and in its use. Vibrato is used to enhance the tone and provide expression and melodic direction, not to mask intonation or poor tone quality. Diaphragm vibrato is preferred by most flutists. The teacher introducing vibrato to students for the first time will probably have the best results when the student practices a slow alternation of loud and soft. Diaphragm vibrato is developed by having the student vocalize “ha–ha–ha–ha,” gradually turning it into “a–a–a–a.” The speed of the alternations should be increased, use a metronome, until an even and real vibrato results. The slow vibrato should be practiced with a definite difference between the loud and soft; then as the speed increases the vibrato should become narrower until the flutist is able to produce fast and slow vibratos, wide or narrow. The normal vibrato is about seven pulsations per second. Finally, the student should increase the pulsations in a way that follows the musical line—that is, not mechanical but changing speed with the phrasing. This stage is monitored to ensure that the vibrato is not: (1) too fast when it should be slow or even stopped; (2) too slow and wide; or (3) moved too far up into the throat. In expressive performance the flute player, like the vocalist and violinist, uses a variety of speeds and pitch fluctuation as dictated by the music. Vibrato is mastered when the student uses it expressively with discretion.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 214

214

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

TECHNIQUE: ARTICULATIONS AND FINGERINGS Articulation for the flute player is similar to the tonguing technique used by brass players. The section on articulation in Chapter 21, “Brass Principles,” should be consulted, with “tee” substituted for “duh” or “doo.” The flute player has available a great variety of articulations including double-, triple-, and flutter-tonguing. Tonguing is introduced by having the student vocalize “tee” while playing. The student should sustain a tone, holding a pitch steady for as long as possible, then repeat the tone while disrupting the steady airstream at a slow, regular pace. This is done by the tongue touching the spot on the roof of the mouth as for the syllable “tuh”; “pee,” “kee,” “lee,” and “gee” are useful syllables to demonstrate various degrees of legato tonguing; the syllables “doo” or “loo” should be avoided because they adversely affect the student’s embouchure. The flute is the only woodwind on which it is easy to double- and triple-tongue without faking. For multiple tonguing, special attention is given to the “second” and “third” syllables, practicing them individually as if single-tonguing. The flute player double-tongues by rocking the tongue inside the mouth, alternating tongue placement for each note between the syllables “tu-ku-tu-ku” to give a distinct definition to each note or the syllables “da-ga-da-ga” to obtain a more legato double-tongue. Triple-tonguing is achieved by rocking the tongue back across the roof of the mouth as though vocalizing: “ta-da-ga, ta-da-ga.” Flutists are also called upon to flutter-tongue on occasion: rolling the tip of the tongue on the roof of the mouth as a child may do when pretending to be a motorboat. Single- and multiple-tonguing should be practiced slowly and gradually increased in speed. Practices to be avoided are tonguing between the teeth and not retracting the tongue quickly enough. In learning staccato, players should not stop the note with the tongue; this creates a pitch change, leads to breathing problems, and makes it more difficult to control the next attack. Fingerings for the flute have been divided into four class types by the number of fingers that move on either hand, and whether the direction of movement is the same or different (Table 16.1).

TABLE 16.1 The four fingering classes for the flute

Class

Movement

Example

1

Single finger moving, either hand

A to B

2

Finger(s) in both hands move in same direction

F to A

3

Finger(s) in one hand move in opposite direction

E to F≥

4

Finger(s) in both hands move in opposite direction

E to F≥ in 3 octave

The idea is that when multiple fingering options are available; choose the one that is in class 1 before 2; 2 before 3 and 4, etc.

WHAT TO PRACTICE Tone quality is the most important aspect of performance, and intonation and tone quality go hand in hand. Long tones will be more like “short” tones in daily practice until the economical use of the air supply is learned. But still they should be practiced, listening to match tone quality on adjacent pitches; control of the air supply is facilitated by playing simple melodies. When long tones are first introduced, they should be played in the middle register and gradually extended toward the upper and lower registers while a steady, clear, uniform sound is attempted in all three registers. Long tones played while crescendoing and decrescendoing follow as the player begins to develop control. Scales, including the chromatic scale, should be part of the daily routine, as should tonguing exercises at various tempos and in various styles. The three flute registers have dissimilar tonal characteristics, and even within one register the notes at the extreme ends have different timbres. Students should play a scale with the objective of not letting the “audience” know where the change in timbre takes place. Such a task is more difficult when playing arpeggios. Eventually larger and larger intervals are to be practiced. Flexibility studies should be included in every flute student’s daily routine. The control of airspeed and embouchure will promote flexibility. Unlike brass players, the flutist intent on improving flexibility is also confronted with the task of changing the direction of the airstream and using the jaw to cover and uncover the embouchure hole. Harmonics can be sounded on a flute by fingering the fundamental and overblowing in a particular manner, namely by reducing the size of the oval-shaped aperture, increasing the air speed, and directing the airstream upward. Practicing harmonics is an excellent way for students to develop their embouchures so that they can change registers and play large intervals. It also helps in the high register and in teaching the player control of the decrescendo. Harmonics on the flute follow the pattern shown in Figure 16.9.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 215

THE FLUTE

215

FIGURE 16.9 Flute harmonics based on low C

If the player has difficulty obtaining harmonics, it is usually due to lips that are too stiff. Harmonics are usually flat when played without adjusting the embouchure, so the player must direct the air more across the embouchure hole while ascending and tighten the embouchure. Harmonics can also be produced on the head joint alone—E above the staff and A above that. Harmonics are notated in contemporary music with a small circle above the note. The first four overtones above the fundamental are the most common flute harmonics.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF THE FLUTE The bore of the flute should be swabbed and dried frequently during and after each playing session so that dust does not accumulate in the damp interior. Some type of soft absorbent cloth is fine for a swab cloth. Most flute cases are equipped with a cleaning stick that also serves as a tuning rod. The swab should be inserted through the eye of the cleaning rod and then wrapped around the rod to prevent metal from touching metal and to avoid scratching the inside of the flute. The foot joint should be swabbed first (as it collects the least moisture). Next swab the body, then the head joint. When swabbing the head joint, care must also be taken to avoid poking the metal covering of the cork located inside. Do not use fuzzy materials to absorb moisture as the fuzz tends to fall off and accumulate under or stick to the pads. The exterior of the flute does not need elaborate care. In fact, silver polish on a metal flute may damage it; all the finish needs is to be wiped off after each playing session with a gentle, small-fibered cloth. Care should be exercised in wiping the head joint because excessive rubbing may dull the outer edge of the embouchure hole. Sticky pads cause a delayed response when a finger is lifted from a key. To clean, the pad should be closed lightly over a clean coffee filter, which is then withdrawn with the pad closed. A simple item of preventive maintenance to teach flute players from their first day is to hold the instrument with the pads up when not playing, thus preventing moisture from collecting in the tone holes and being absorbed by the pads. The pivot screws should be oiled at least once every four months to ensure that they work properly. Occasionally these screws must be loosened using a jeweler’s screwdriver, oiled, then retightened. If the tenons become dirty and sticky, they can be cleaned with denatured alcohol. Protector rings for the end joints are frowned on for two reasons: (1) They make it more difficult to keep the ends clean; and (2) they add wear with the frequent removing and replacing. In the days of wooden instruments and poorly constructed cases, protector rings were necessary for the preservation of the cork on the ends, but today there is no longer a reason for them, and most companies no longer make them.

HEALTH ISSUES The flute is an awkward, and at times, uncomfortable instrument to hold. The linear setup of the instrument places the fingers in an abnormal position for the upper limbs, and problems with holding the flute and manipulating its keys can impact the fingers, wrist, shoulder, elbow, neck, and even the back. Small adjustments to the instrument help alleviate the pain. Most flutists seem reluctant to make these changes perhaps bowing to history or aesthetics, but they can be helpful to beginning players as can key extensions, which place the fingers in a more natural playing position, alleviating some stress. (The most common extensions occur on the G, G≥, and C≥ keys.) To alleviate stress in the right thumb and hand caused by supporting the instrument, cork or a similar substance can be placed on the nearside of the flute to extend thumb placement backward. This places the right hand in a more comfortable position. Commercial devices such as the BoPep (Figure 16.10) and Thumbalina are available. BoPep also makes a device for the left hand that helps to extend the instrument where it rests at the base of the left index finger. Others use a simple garden hose to do the same thing. Flutes with bent head joints and vertical/upright flutes are available to help place hands, arms, and fingers in a more natural position for FIGURE 16.10 BoPep right thumbrest to support weight of flute playing.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 216

216

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

TROUBLESHOOTING Equipment Sticky Pads 1. 2. 3. 4.

Moisture absorbed by pads. (If pad is not damaged, place coffee filter paper between pad and tone hole, press key, and gently pull paper out: repeat several times pulling the paper out in different directions.) Bent rods. (Have repaired by competent repairperson.) Worn springs. (Have repaired by competent repairperson.) Pivot screw at end of rod through post needs oiling. (Use one drop.)

Pads Not Seating Correctly 1.

2. 3. 4.

Leaking pads—usually discovered when lower register does not respond easily. (If pads are in good shape, readjustment of the adjusting screws may be necessary. Insertion of thin paper “washers” behind pad can be made by a repairperson. Possible bent rods to be repaired.) Brittle or hardened pads. (Have replaced by competent repairperson.) Torn pads. (Have replaced by competent repairperson.) Loose pads. (Reheat the glue; seal the pad with gentle pressure.)

Tone Breathy 1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

Airstream not centered with embouchure hole. (Practice in front of a mirror to keep embouchure centered. If due to physical shape of lip—such as a teardrop-shaped upper lip—move the embouchure hole off center to the left; many players switch to another instrument.) Aperture in embouchure is too large or too round. (In upper register keep aperture small; in low registers keep embouchure flatter and slightly wider.) Not enough air support. (Breathe correctly and let air flow, keeping constant pressure behind the airstream. Be careful not to overblow; however, keep airstream focused.) In upper register, too much of a smile-shaped embouchure. (Make more rounded.) Too much embouchure hole covered. (Adjust to cover one-fourth to one-third of the embouchure hole.)

Fuzzy, Hollow 1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

Flute turned out too far. (Correct alignment of head joint or hand position.) Misdirected airstream. (Blow air slightly more into the flute.) Airstream not focused or incorrect shape of aperture in embouchure. (Aperture should be relatively flat and wide for lower notes and small and round for upper pitches. Physical shape of lip can prohibit focused airstream—attempt to pull upper lip more firmly against teeth.) If in low register, commonly due to too small an aperture. (Relax corners of mouth. Pull back and down on corners and attempt to raise center of upper lip.) Leaky pads. (Have replaced.) Not enough of embouchure hole covered. (Move head joint up to cover one-fourth to one-third of the embouchure hole. Roll flute inward.)

Thin, Strident, Shrill 1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6.

Too much tension in lip around embouchure hole. (Relax upper lip. Focus airstream.) Playing on outer surface of lip. (Roll lips out to play more on the moist inner surfaces.) Blowing too hard. (Blow easier yet maintain air pressure. Focus air more.) Airstream not centered. (Roll flute up and down to center embouchure hole with embouchure. Hold flute so that embouchure hole is parallel with lips. Cover more of the embouchure hole, pull corners back and down more, roll flute in slightly—or a combination of these.) In upper register—corners of lips too tense (i.e., too much of a smile embouchure). (Relax corners.) Too much air blowing over and out of flute. (Blow more air into instrument.)

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 217

THE FLUTE

7. 8.

217

If in low register, aperture too small. (Attempt a wider, flatter embouchure.) With poor flexibility—not enough embouchure hole covered. (Move head joint down, cover at least one-fourth of embouchure hole, but not more than one-third.)

Stuffy 1. 2.

Flute rolled in too far. (Roll out. Correct alignment of head joint.) Too much of embouchure hole covered. (Move head joint up to cover one-fourth to one-third of the embouchure hole. Roll flute out.)

Weak 1. 2. 3.

Not enough air support. (Breathe correctly.) Leaky pads. (Reseat or replace.) Too much of embouchure hole covered. (Move head joint up.)

Difficulty with the Higher Register 1. 2. 3. 4.

Bring jaw forward and cover more of the embouchure hole with the lower lip in upper register. Use faster, more focused airstream. On sharp notes such as C≥ direct air slightly more downward into embouchure hole or try arching tongue more toward roof of mouth. Focus and direct air more toward outer edge of embouchure hole with more rounded embouchure aperture.

Difficulty with the Lower Register 1. 2.

Lips too open. (Direct airstream more downward.) Lips too tense. (Practice softly, relaxed on lowest pitches. Blow more air being careful not to overblow.)

Flexibility Problems 1. 2.

Too much of embouchure hole covered. (Move head joint up or roll flute out.) Aperture of embouchure too large. (Common problem when playing in low register—keep aperture only as wide and large as necessary.)

Pitch Flat 1. 2. 3.

Airstream is directed too much into the flute. (Raise head or lower jaw slightly, blow more toward outer edge of embouchure hole.) Too much of embouchure hole is covered. (Raise head joint, roll flute out.) To avoid going flat when descending into the first octave, uncover embouchure hole while directing more air into the embouchure hole.

Sharp 1. 2. 3. 4.

Airstream is directed too much toward the outer edge of the embouchure hole. (Lower head or jaw slightly, blow more into the embouchure hole.) Not enough of the embouchure hole is covered. (Lower head joint, roll flute in.) In lower register—pull the corners of the mouth back and down slightly. A C is being played. (Lip down, fake it, or cough at the appropriate moment.)

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 218

218 THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

RESOURCES Websites American Flute Guild flutespecialists.com Fingering Chart www.wfg.woodwind.org/flute Flute.com www.flute.com Flute History www.flutehistory.com Flute Information www.fluteinfo.com Flute World fluteworld.com Larry Krantz Flute Pages www.larrykrantz.com Mark Shepard Flute Page markshep.com/flute National Flute Association nfaonline.org The Flute Network www.flutenet.com

Texts Bate, P. (1979). The Flute: A Study of Its History, Development and Construction, 2nd ed. New York, NY: W.W. Norton. Boehm, T. (1899); Miller, Dayton (1931 English trans.). The Flute and Flute Playing in Acoustical, Technical, and Artistic Aspects, 2nd English ed. by Dayton Miller. New York, NY: Peter Smith. Brown, R. (2002). The Early Flute: A Practical Guide. New York, NY: Cambridge. Chapman, F.B. (1973). Flute Technique, 4th ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Cooper, A. (1980). The Flute, 2nd enlarged ed. London, UK: Author. Debost, M. (2010). The Simple Flute: From A to Z. New York, NY: Oxford. De Lorenzo, L. (1992). My Complete Story of the Flute: The Instrument, the Performer, the Music, rev. and expanded ed. Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech University Press. Dick, R. (1986). Tone Development through Extended Techniques. New York, NY: Multiple Breath Co. ––– (1989). The Other Flute: A Performance Manual of Contemporary Techniques. New York, NY: Multiple Breath Co. Galway, J. (1982). Flute. New York, NY: Schirmer. Gärtner, J. (1981). The Vibrato. Trans. Elinar W. Anderson. Regensburg, Germany: Gustav Bosse Verlag. Howell, T. (1974). The Avant-Garde Flute: A Handbook for Composers and Flutists. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Levine, C. and C. Mitropoulos-Bott (2002). The Techniques of Flute Playing (Die Spieltechnik der Flöte). New York, NY: Bärenreiter. Milan, S. (2006). Flute Notes: A Performer’s Handbook of Programme Notes for the Flute Repertoire: 146 Composers and Over 400 Works. Cambridge, UK: Susan Milan.

Morris, G. (1991). Flute Technique. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Moyse, M. (1974). How I Stayed in Shape (Comment jai pu maintenir ma forme). Trans. P.M. Douglas. West Brattleboro, VT: Author. Pellerite, J.J. (1972). A Modern Guide to Fingerings for the Flute, 3rd ed. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred. Phelan, J. and M.D. Brody (1980). The Complete Guide to the Flute from Acoustics and Construction to Repair and Maintenance. Boston, MA: Conservatory. Powell, A. (2002). The Flute. New Haven, CT: Yale. Putnik, E. (1970). The Art of Flute Playing. Miami, FL: SummyBirchard. Quantz, J. (2001). On Playing the Flute, transcribed by Edward Reilly. Boston, MA: North-Eastern University. Rainey, T.E. (1988). The Flute Manual: A Comprehensive Text and Resource Book for Both the Teacher and the Student. New Wilmington, PA: Son Rise. Shepard, M. (1999). How to Love Your Flute. Los Angeles, CA: Shepard. Solum, J. (1992). The Early Flute: New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Stevens, R.S. (1967). Artistic Flute: Technique and Study, ed. Ruth N. Zwissler. Hollwood, CA: Highland Music. Toff, N. (1996). The Flute Book: A Complete Guide for Students and Performers, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Journals/Associations Flute Talk. Published ten times per year: instrumentalist magazine.com Flute View. thefluteview.com Flute World. fluteworld.com The Flutist Quarterly. Published Quarterly by National Flute Association: nfaonline.org

Flute Studies Easy/Beginning (Elementary or Middle School) Arnold. Introduction to the Flute (C. Hansen). Buchtel. Elementary Method for Flute (Kjos). Cavally. Original Melodious and Progressive Studies (Southern Music). Eck. Tone Development for Flute (Belwin-Mills). Gariboldi. 30 Easy and Progressive Studies (Books 1 and 2) (Edwin F. Kalmus). Hart. Introduction to the Flute (Oxford University Press). Kincaid. The Art and Practice of Modern Flute Technique (Vol. 1) (MCA Music). ––– The Art and Practice of Modern Flute Technique (Vol. 2) (MCA Music). Lejeune. A Flutist’s Manual (Summy-Birchard). ––– Pitch and Sound Search Studies for Flute (Broude). Louke and George. Flute 101 and Flute 102: Mastering the Basics (Carl Fischer). Moyse. Beginner Flutist (Le De’butant Flutiste) (A. Leduc).

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 219

THE FLUTE Pares. Daily Exercises and Scales (Carl Fischer). ––– Pares Scale Studies (Belwin-Mills). Platanov. School of Flute Playing (Leeds). Takahashi. Takahashi Flute School (Suzuki Method, Vols. 1 and 2) (Summy-Birchard). Wye. Beginning Books for the Flute (Vols. 1 and 2) (Novello).

Medium (Middle or High School) Adler. Harobed—7 Studies (Southern Music). Andersen. 18 Studies for Flute, op. 41 (International). Bona. Rhythmical Articulation (G. Schirmer). Cavally. Melodious and Progressive Studies (Books 2 and 3) (Southern Music). Gatti. 15 Studi Moderni (Edizioni Berben). Koehler. Romantic Etudes (Southern Music). ––– 20 Easy Melodic Progressive Exercises (Vols. 1 and 2) (BelwinMills). Moyse. Exercices Journaliers (A. Leduc). ––– 24 Etudes Petites Melodious (A. Leduc). Pares. Daily Exercises and Scales (Carl Fischer). Porcelijn. Communication for Easy Flute and Modern Flute (Vol. 1) (Zalo Publications). Steensland (ed. Ployhar). Studies and Melodious Etudes for Flute (Levels 2–3) (Belwin-Mills). Taffanel (ed. Gaubert). Complete Method for Flute (especially “17 Daily”) (A. Leduc). Takahashi. Takahashi Flute School (Suzuki Method, Vols. 3–5) (Summy-Birchard). Wye. Practice Book for the Flute (Vols. 1–4) (Novello).

Advanced (High School or College) Andersen. 24 Exercises (Southern Music). ––– 24 Studies (Southern Music). ––– 24 Technical Studies (Southern Music). Barrere. The Flutists’ Formulae (G. Schirmer). Baxtresser. Orchestral Excerpts for Flute (Theodore Presser). Berbiguer. 18 Exercises or Etudes (Breitkopf & Härtel). Camus. 12 Etudes (A. Leduc). Donjon. The Modern Flutist (includes Karg-Elert below) (Southern Music). Drouet. 25 Etudes for Flute (A. Leduc). Filas. Top Register Studies for Flute (Carl Fischer). Galli. 30 Exercises (G. Ricordi). Gates. Odd Meter Etudes (Fox Publishing). Jean-Jean. 16 Modern Studies (A. Leduc). Karg-Elert. 30 Caprices (Southern Music). Kincaid. The Art and Practice of Modern Flute Technique (Vol. 3) (MCA Music). Kujala. The Flutist’s Vade Mecum, 2nd ed. (Progress Press). Moyse. De La Sonorite (A. Leduc). Salvo. 243 Double and Triple Tonguing Exercises: Progressively Arranged for Flute or Piccolo (Alfred). Taffanel and Gaubert. Grands Exercises Journaliers de Mecanisme (A. Leduc).

Flute Fitness Care and Easy Repair That You Can Do (James Phelan, 1992). Stoneham, MA: Conservatory. Flute for Beginners (Rebecca Magg, 1995). Chatsworth, CA: Maestro Instructional Video Series. Flute Fundamentals. United States Army Field Band. armyfieldband.com/pages/education/flute.html Flute Seminars (Marcel Moyse, 1989). Eight videocassettes by six flutists including Marcel Moyse. Brattleboro, VT: Moyse Enterprises. Flying Lessons (3 vols.) (Robert Dick, 2000). Multiple Breath Music. How to Play the Flute in the Traditional Irish Style (Mickie Zekley, 1986). Mendocine, CA: Lark in the Morning. Native American Flute Lessons. www.youtube.com/playlist?list= PLB9FF571DE9DC7826 Play the Flute: A Beginner’s Guide (Trevor Wye, 1988). Sevenoaks, UK: Novello. Steps to Excellence: A Flute Clinic (James Walker, 1985). Grand Rapids, MI: Yamaha Music. Steps to Excellence: A Video Clinic, Vol. 1 (James Walker, 1984). Grand Rapids, MI: Yamaha Music. Ultimate Beginner Series-Flute, Vols. 1 and 2 (Elizabeth Rowe, 1998). Miami, FL: Warner Brothers.

Recommended Flute Artists Julius Baker playing Mozart, Vivaldi, and Telemann James Galway playing Bach and Debussy Emmanuel Pahud playing Baroque, jazz, contemporary Jean-Pierre Rampal playing Haydn Paula Robison playing Telemann and Beaser Bud Shank, Herbie Mann, and Yusaf Lateef playing jazz

Flute Parts

Instructional Videos Belwin 21st Century Band Method: Flute, Level 1 (Jack Bullock, 1996). Miami, FL: Warner Brothers Music. The Flute (Rebecca Magg, 1998). Canoga Park, CA: Backstage Pass Instructional Videos.

219

FIGURE 16.11 Flute parts

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 220

220 THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

Flute Fingering Chart 1

G# 3

2

1

2

B@

B

(

123, 123 C , C B

((

123 G , D B

(

123, 3 D B

( ( ( (

123 G , 123 D B 23G , Tr2 D B

(

123, 123 C B

(

(

12, D B

(

(

(( ( (

123, D B

(

(

,D

(

(

(

( (

(

23, D B 23,Tr1 D B

(

23, 2D B 23, 123C B

(

(( 123G( , 123C( 23G , D

1, 123, 123 C(

(

2, 1 D B

, 1 Tr1 B 13, Tr1 23 B 13, Tr1 3 , 1 Tr2

(T)

8a

( ( (

( ( ( (

123 G , 1 C 2 G, 1 C 2 G , 13 C

((

2G , C , C 3, 1 2C B

(

3, 1 2 C , C B 123, G , Tr1 3D B

( (

123, 1 D B

(

B

1 3, Tr 2 B 123 G , 1(D )

(

123, 12 D B

,D

123, 1D

123, D

13, 3 D B 13, 123 B

(

123, D B

(

23, 123D B

1, D

(

(

( (

13, 1 D B 13, 1 C B

(

1, D B 13, 12 D B

(

(

123, 3 D B

(

23, 123 B

1, 1 D B 1, D

12, D B 12,123 B

(

123, 1 D B

(

1, D

(

123G , D B 123G , 123D B

12, 12 D B 12, 12 Tr2 D B

(

123, 12 D B

(

1, D B

D#

C C#

B Back

123, 123 D B

(

1, 1 D B 1, D B@

Tr2

Tr1

(

123, 123 B

3

(

(

123 G , 1 Tr1, 3 D B 12, 2Tr2 3 G , Tr1 2 CC , B

(

(

2, 2 Tr2

(

(

123, 12 Tr2 12 G , Tr2 3 D

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 221

CHAPTER 17

The Oboe

17

The oboe has the most limited compass of any woodwind instrument and seems to resist any effort to achieve a good tone. However, when mastered, its unique timbre and expressive possibilities are ample reward to the player. When played correctly it can express humor, satire, calm, mystery, and despair, among many other qualities. Unfortunately, when played badly it can be downright unpleasant. For years there has been a controversy over whether beginners should start on oboe or play a year or two on another instrument before switching to oboe. A fourth grader is fully capable of beginning on the oboe if the music teacher is able to devote a bit of extra time and attention to the student; if not, there are advantages to starting on another woodwind instrument such as the clarinet. One reason that beginning oboists have problems is that most class method books start on concert F, a note that promises immediate success on trumpet, low brass, clarinet, and saxophone but for the oboist is one of the most awkward fingerings used—a forked F. These method books generally progress through E≤, D, and C, all of which are difficult notes for the young oboe player.

HISTORY The double-reed instruments are nearly as old as the flute. Their record of use and popularity is perhaps greater because their fuller tone gave them a wide adaptability. Instruments with a double-reed mouthpiece of cane date from 3700 BCE; an ancestor of the modern oboe is mentioned as early as 2000 BCE in the literature of Mesopotamia. The instrument, appearing in many shapes and forms, dominated the music of the ancient world for centuries. It had only three or four finger holes up to about 400 BCE. Collars and half stops were added until the player had to operate as many as fifteen holes. Various forms of oboes are to be found in all parts of the East. They were used by shepherds and by fakir snake charmers in the old Turkish Empire, in the harems of Baghdad, and in the temples of Cairo. Egyptian oboe players had the unique practice of breathing through the nose while they played, which enabled them to sustain a tone continuously. The ancestors of the oboe belonged to the Asian world until Europe began to be aware of Near Eastern civilization in the late Middle Ages. At about the thirteenth century the shawm, derived from the Arabian double-reed instruments called the zamr, was introduced to Europe by returning Crusaders. This instrument was called the bom-barde by the French, pommer by Germans. Its cousin was the krummhorn, on which the reed was encased and could not be placed in the mouth, but was set in motion by blowing into an opening in a way similar to the manner by which organ pipes are sounded. With the exception of the krummhorn, these early instruments were played by taking the entire reed into the mouth, the lips resting against a metal disc. From the high Renaissance through the Baroque period, the oboe was increasingly important. It was a popular member of Elizabethan bands. By the middle of the seventeenth century, the descant shawm had assumed the form of the early modern oboe. It was introduced into the orchestra by Lully, and was a favorite instrument of Handel, whose orchestra contained 26 oboes, 46 first violins, and 47 second violins. Bach used the oboe d’amour for sprightly and plaintive effects; he was particularly fond of it in combination with the solo voice. By the time of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, the oboe had become a standard part of the orchestra. Today there is interest in performing early music (Renaissance and Baroque) authentically using excellent replicas of the hautbois (oboe). Although one might believe that simple “recorder” fingerings might suffice, performing is more complex, requiring extensive use of alternate fingerings to play the required modes in tune.

SELECTING THE INSTRUMENT Let the buyer beware. The prospective automobile owner always kicks the tires and slams the doors in an involuntary admission that the requisite knowledge of engine quality is not present. An oboe is an expensive purchase (a probable minimum of $2000) that one hopes to keep for many years. Knowing what to look for is vital, because good oboes are not mass-produced and one cannot always trust name brands.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 222

222

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

As with any other musical instrument, the overall sound is the primary guide for selecting an oboe, whether new or used. Oboes differ in tone quality, even those made by the best manufacturers. Unless the instrumental music teacher is an accomplished oboe player, he or she may be unable to evaluate the potential of an instrument. A skilled oboe player should therefore be found to assist in selecting an oboe whether the buyer is a parent or the school. The conservatory system, based upon the innovations and improvements of Boehm, is almost universal, but many different models exist within it. The plateau system has covered tone holes (vented plates with pads). This system was initiated about 1906 by F. Lorée, one of the most famous makers of oboes. The full conservatory oboe with forked F key, alternative F, and third octave key is a common professional instrument. Because there is such a great variance in oboes, a stable reed should be used when checking the overall pitch of the instrument, and each note should be checked with an electronic tuner. All notes throughout the registers of the instrument should respond freely, with a good tone quality and a full, resonant sound. Oboes come with either a semiautomatic key or two additional octave keys. With a semiautomatic key, the player must add the side octave key to all high notes beginning with A above the staff. Both the oboe and the bassoon profit from the addition of extra keys. Of major importance for the oboe is the low B≤ key. An oboe without this key is not a good purchase. Though school-grade music seldom requires the low B≤, it must be available when it does appear, and it improves the resonance of low B and C. The F resonance key, once considered optional, is a feature common on most beginner-to-professional–level oboes. It opens automatically when the forked fingering for F is used, eliminating the need for the E≤ key to be pressed with the right little finger. The standard order of importance for remaining optional keys might be the following: the B–C≥ trill key, the C–D trill, the left little finger F key, and the B≤–B trill key. Because a musical instrument is expensive to manufacture, ways are continually sought to lower the cost. One of these ways is to substitute plastic for wood. Quality plastic oboes, costing $2000–4000, provide an adequate choice for a school oboe. Grenadilla oboes cost twice that amount. Quality plastic English horns are also available but cheap plastic instruments are to be avoided. Experiments with inexpensive plastic oboes have met with varying levels of success, but have been mostly unsuccessful—the basic element of tone quality is lacking. The traditional oboe is made of grenadilla wood, and the quality of the wood is crucial to the quality of the instrument. The instrument should be made of wood with the straightest grain possible. Secondhand instruments should be checked for cracks and for scoring inside the bore. The reed is almost as important as the instrument and is a favorite topic of conversation among teachers and players. Reeds appropriate for beginners are essential for initial success. They may be purchased from a music retailer, but few of these are considered good reeds by the professional oboist. A better source for reeds is the professional who makes and sells them; these custom-made reeds are usually of good quality and the professional can make them for various levels of embouchure development. Reeds appropriate for beginners should have a relatively small opening and blow easily without changing pitch at different dynamic levels. More advanced high school students should learn to make their own reeds; this skill should be considered an essential element of any oboe player’s instruction and development.

ASSEMBLING THE OBOE The key mechanism of the oboe can be damaged when putting the instrument together or taking it apart, so care is encouraged. The oboe has four parts: the reed, the upper section, the lower section, and the bell. The beginner should learn to assemble it with careful movements, not by wiggling or forcing, because: (1) the tenons are thin and easily broken; (2) the cork can be compressed or loosened; (3) the ends of the tenons can become rounded from wear; and (4) the keys can be easily bent. These four factors affect the snug fit necessary to prevent leakage of air around the joints and pads. The upper and lower joints are assembled by placing the left hand at the top of the upper joint and the right hand over the rings or pads between the lower joint and the bell section. The keys on the lower joint and bell sections are not depressed when assembling because touching the F≥ tone hole or C–D trill key raises the bridge key. The two joints are pushed together with a gentle turning motion aligning the bridge keys. The corks at the ends of the joints (the tenons) may be slightly greased to make assembly easier. The reed is grasped at the cork by the thumb and first finger and inserted in the upper joint by a slight downward push. If the reed is not pushed in all the way, an air pocket is created that affects intonation and tone. Grabbing the cane of the reed while inserting it will damage one or both blades or destroy the fit, causing air leaks. After the reed has been inserted, it can be easily turned so that the blades line up with the rest of the instrument. One of the two blades will always be stronger than the other; as players gain experience they will notice that the instrument plays better when one particular side of a reed is up. To identify that side each time, an ink mark can be placed on the cork.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 223

THE OBOE

223

HOLDING THE OBOE The oboe is held with the left hand on the upper joint and the right hand on the lower joint as shown in Figure 17.1. The fingers are slanted slightly downward toward the bell to facilitate the use of the C and C≥ keys by the right little finger and enabling the left little finger to play the G≥, B, and B≤ keys more easily. The right thumb points slightly upward. The fingers should be slightly arched, with the fleshy pad of each finger centered on the tone hole. The little finger of the right hand rests lightly on the D≥ key and the little finger of the left hand on the B key. The inside edge of the right thumbnail is on the thumb rest. If the thumb is placed too far under the oboe, the right fingers will be cramped and unable to move rapidly. Hand position will vary somewhat according to the size of the hand, however. Freedom of finger movement and avoiding tension are the important considerations in thumb placement. The left thumb rests against the instrument at an angle of approximately 60 degrees (approaching 90 degrees for students with small hands) just below the octave key so that it can activate the octave key by a rolling motion (i.e., not by lifting it and placing it on the key). The index finger of the left hand should be on the first tone hole; the first joint of that finger rests lightly on or over the second octave key. This position enables the index finger to do two things: (1) roll back and forth to half hole; and (2) depress the second octave key with the first joint of the finger while keeping the other fingers of the left hand in place. The oboe should be brought to the erect head, not the head to the oboe. The instrument should be centered on the embouchure. Movements of the head, body, and instrument are not necessary when playing the instrument and can in fact detract from the playing. When the head is moved, the embouchure is changed and the position of lips on the reed is altered, so control is lost, tone quality is distorted, and pitch and response are jeopardized.

FIGURE 17.1 Hand position for the oboe

The Angle of the Instrument The oboe is positioned directly in front of the player whether standing or sitting (see Figure 17.2). The head is kept erect. The oboe is held between 30 and 45 degrees from the body as a general rule, but should be adjusted to fit the student’s mouth cavity. It is supported primarily by the right thumb and steadied by the embouchure. Beginning students may try to copy clarinet positions, especially if the new oboists are former clarinetists, in which case the instrument will be held too low. Others may get into the habit of holding their head down, which is the same as holding the instrument too high. As a general rule, the lower the instrument is held, the darker the tone; as the angle increases, the tone becomes brighter due to change of reed position in the mouth. The present trend is toward a brighter oboe sound. If the head is held erect and the student sits or stands tall, the angle of approximately 30 to 45 degrees will produce a bright tone and allow for a fast, light tonguing action. When the oboe is lifted too high, the reed is pulled away from the lower lip cushion and the upper lip presses too tightly on the reed. The result is a drop in pitch, particularly in the upper register, and a bright, harsh tone. Holding the oboe down to produce a dark tone with a mysterious, haunting quality must not be carried to the extreme. When the oboe is nearly parallel to the body, the upper lip is prevented from serving its normal function, the sound becomes not only dark, but also hard, and the tone has a tendency to be sharp in all registers.

FIGURE 17.2 Sitting position for playing the oboe

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 224

224

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

EMBOUCHURE Embouchure formation is easier to explain than to do, and much easier to do than to maintain. The focus should be on the relationship of the embouchure and the reed. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

The player drops the jaw about a half inch and relaxes the lips. With the mouth slightly open, the reed is placed on the tongue, which can then guide the reed to the center of the lower lip. The top of the reed should be about halfway over the lip. Roll the lower lip in while allowing the reed to follow the rolling motion into the oral cavity—students must experiment to determine exactly how much reed needs to be rolled in. With the reed resting on the lower lip that serves as a cushion, form the vowel “ooo” while keeping the lower lip and reed in place. Seal the lips around the reed with equal pressure from all directions. The player should feel that he or she is holding the reed in place with the sealed lips and not from pressure through “biting.” At this point, with the reed sealed by the lips and pressure exerted from all directions, the student should attempt to lower the jaw as if to vocalize “ah.” In this position, the oral cavity is fully open, the teeth are apart, and the only pressure on the reed is from the lips.

If there is no response, gently press the reed blades together with the thumb and forefinger to change the size of the opening, or possibly soak the reed a bit longer. Frequently, a new reed is too stiff; beginners may try a softer reed in order to obtain an immediate response, but tone quality and intonation will suffer. As the embouchure becomes stronger and more developed, the student should switch to stronger reeds. The correct oboe embouchure is formed by rolling both lips in slightly over the teeth to form a cushion above and below the reed. Extreme overbite or underbite can prevent the player from applying equal pressure to both blades of the reed. Lips should be in a vertical line, usually with more of the pink of the lower lip rolled in. The edge of the lower lip (where the pink meets the flesh) should be directly over the teeth. A thick lower lip appears to be an advantage, as it forms the cushion necessary to avoid a nasal quality. Figure 17.3 illustrates the lips rolled in and the alignment of the teeth. The facial muscles form a gentle pucker that exerts pressure on the reed from all sides. The corners of the mouth are pushed in toward the reed. A “smile” pucker or “crocodile face” should be avoided. A flat chin, although not as important as for the clarinet, usually accompanies an embouchure that surrounds the reed with even pressure. If the corners of the mouth are held firmly and forward toward the reed, the chin will remain flat. Air bulges may appear in the cheeks, caused by lack of muscular control—unequal tension between the FIGURE 17.3 muscles pulling to a pucker and those pulling to a smile. A fleshy upper lip may only give Oboe embouchure: teeth the appearance of an air pocket; if probing with the index finger disturbs the embouchure, and lips there is, in fact, an air pocket. The correct oboe embouchure is shown in Figures 17.4 and 17.5. With the beginning student, one of these problems usually occurs: (1) too much of the lip is turned in—only enough lip needs to be rolled in to control the reed; (2) with a clarinet-type embouchure, too little lip is turned in; (3) when the upper lip is short and less flexible, it is often placed too far on the reed. The young oboist learns that the amount of reed inserted into the mouth depends on the tessitura of the music. A different lip cushion is required for each octave. The reed is placed farther in the mouth for the upper register and is moved out slightly for lower tones. A second factor determining reed placement is the type of tone desired. A third is the lip and jaw formation. A fourth factor is the reed itself. Oboists must deal with a different kind of endurance challenge than do brass players. The oboist’s endurance problems result from the amount of air pressure in the mouth as so little air goes into the instrument. Thus the oboe player must gain a great deal of strength in the embouchure muscles before playing complete phrases or for long periods of time. The framework of the embouchure is formed by the teeth. The teeth determine the size and shape of the embouchure and must be kept open so that the other elements of the embouchure function properly. There is no upward bite in the normal embouchure. The lower teeth and jaw drop away from the reed. Control is derived entirely from the lips.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 225

THE OBOE

FIGURE 17.4 Oboe embouchure (side view)

225

FIGURE 17.5 Oboe embouchure

Reed Placement Usually the reed is positioned in the mouth with about one-third to one-half of the cane covered by the lips. To check placement, the student should play second space A and slur down one step to G. If too much of the reed is in the mouth, the A will sound wild and quite sharp in relation to the G. Then experiment with less of the reed in the mouth until the two-note slur can be played with good intonation and consistent tone quality. If too little of the reed is in the mouth, which rarely occurs, the G will be flat. When a bright, hard tone is desired, more reed is put in the mouth, with adjustments to keep the intonation correct. If the player puts too little reed in the mouth, the tone may be fuzzy and weak as well as flat. As the beginner’s control grows, the amount of reed placed into the mouth should change.

The Grip There is no biting in a good oboe embouchure, but the lips must be firm enough to control the reed. The grip of the lips depends on the amount of reed in the mouth as well as the tessitura of the music. The firmness for the higher registers should not cause the throat to tighten. The student should start with a rather relaxed embouchure; it will soon tighten of its own accord. Regardless of the advancement of the player, too tight a grip on the reed will choke off the tone, cut off most of the lower overtones, or make the primary pitch sharp. The player should always be able to feel the reed vibrating, even when playing in the upper range of the instrument where the greatest firmness is required. Conversely, if the player relaxes the lips too much on the low tones, the reed vibrates excessively and some of the overtones become stronger than the fundamental. The oboe requires different embouchures in different registers and for crescendos and decrescendos; these are opposite to those used by clarinet players. In playing crescendo passages many oboists allow their lips to roll out slightly, covering the teeth with somewhat less lip while relaxing the embouchure. This action counteracts the sharpness accompanying an increase in volume.

The Jaw For most players, leaving the jaw alone is best. The lower jaw is normally pulled down and slightly back so the lower teeth drop away from the reed, thus forming the smile pucker. Probably the most common fault of the young oboe player is jutting out the lower jaw, perhaps to create some feeling of needed support from the lower lip. A player with a receding lower jaw should hold the oboe at less than a 30-degree angle rather than push the jaw forward in an unnatural position.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 226

226

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

INTONATION Although professional orchestras tune to the principal oboist, the young oboist cannot be so confident of the pitch. An electronic tuner should be used to check individual pitches and adjust the overall tuning. If each and every pitch is in need of adjustment, it is time to get a better instrument, learn to make reeds, or switch to percussion. Intonation on the oboe is related to embouchure as well as to the position of the reed in the mouth. Specifically, sharp intonation is caused by the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

an embouchure that is too tight; too much reed in the mouth (especially for the second octave); too stiff a reed; holding the oboe at an angle of less than 30 degrees from the body; too much of either lip turned under.

The tone will be flat when the reverse errors occur. When a combination of faults occurs, intonation problems will be difficult to correct as there are so many variables to test. The ear is the key: students must learn to listen carefully and evaluate their pitch in relation to that of other players. All intonation problems do not lie with the player. The instrument itself, no matter how fine, is never perfectly in tune. Usually, the ring keys played with the right hand and the low D≥, C, C≥, B, and B≤ keys of either hand should be tried to see if they improve intonation or enhance the resonance. Defects in the dimension of the bore may make the low tones unstable. The very high pitches are often sharp and the low register flat with notes interspersed in the upper register that also tend to be flat. As a new oboe is broken in, some of the keys will need adjusting to stabilize or correct pitch and enhance finger dexterity. Most oboes, including student-line instruments, have at least a dozen small set screws for regulating key height and the evenness of the mechanism. Because height and evenness of the keys affect intonation, pads must be adjusted. Until students learn to make these adjustments, the music teacher or a competent repairperson should do it. Although the oboe is tremendously difficult to play in tune if it is out of adjustment, having it in adjustment does not guarantee that it will play in tune. However, the oboe is by no means the most difficult instrument to play in tune, being considerably easier to control than, for example, the clarinet or flute. Pitch can be altered by the reed itself and by the player’s approach to the reed. A higher arch to the tongue raises the pitch and a lower arch lowers it. The arch changes as one goes from a high to a low register—moving from a position for vocalizing “ee” to one for vocalizing “ah.” The temperature of the instrument and the amount it is pulled at the joints also affect pitch. Figure 17.6 illustrates notes that generally tend to be out of tune on the oboe.

Sharp

Flat

FIGURE 17.6 Intonation problems of selected pitches on the oboe

If the pitch is unstable (some notes going sharp and others going flat within the same register), the player may not be blowing directly into the reed. To obtain consistent pitch, both blades of the reed must vibrate equally. The player should try tipping the head up and down or slightly altering the angle at which the oboe is held while listening to the result. When experimenting, the player must play and listen throughout the entire range. A problem known as “flat staccato” is not really a problem of intonation but rather of poor timbre that makes the pitch sound flat. Flat staccato is caused by having too much reed in the mouth, which forces the tongue to curl into an incorrect position in order to reach the lip of the reed for tonguing. The same term is sometimes applied to the poor tone quality that results when the angle of the reed is too great and there is too little bottom lip on the reed. This situation also impairs the accuracy of the attack and the speed with which the player can tongue. In attempting to flatten the pitch, the oboist should not pull the reed from the upper joint. If the reed is pulled out more than just the slightest amount, an air pocket will form, causing the instrument to lose response. A general unevenness of sound will result: low notes will tend to become wild and some tones will be difficult to attack clearly and will be fuzzy in quality.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 227

THE OBOE

227

TONE QUALITY All performers should strive for beauty of tone, the oboe player among them. A good oboe tone depends upon four things: (1) the player’s concept of tone; (2) breath control; (3) embouchure; and (4) a good reed. The typically coarse and uncontrolled tone of a beginner is due to too much air going through the reed. If the tone is dead and unresonant, there is insufficient pressure. The abdominal muscles must pressurize the air, and the embouchure must be firm enough to control this pressure; a balance of these forces creates an appealing tone. A small tone, even when pleasant, is limited in dynamic variety and carrying power. The reasons for a small tone are biting the reed, too little reed in the mouth, not enough lip over the teeth, and holding the instrument too close to the body. A squawky tone results from the opposite set of factors. Sometimes a player becomes accustomed to a nasal tone and even strives to maintain it. Oboists must listen to their own playing and compare the tone with the sounds they would like to imitate. Harmonics are useful. The oboe harmonic is the second overtone, an octave and a fifth (a twelfth) above the fundamental; for example, if the player fingers low B≤, top-line F will sound. Harmonics are produced by overblowing and using either the first or second octave key—tightening the lips more and using more pressure than necessary for the fundamental tone. Using the low C key with these harmonics will help keep them in tune—harmonics are usually flat. There are two uses for harmonics, the more common being to add tone color; the other is their use in quiet orchestral passages and for pianissimo notes. Oboe players almost always double on the English horn, and this doubling can interfere with their oboe tone. Too much concentrated practice on the English horn can make the oboe tone hard and less controlled because of the difference in the reeds of the two instruments. The playing of the two instruments, however, is nearly identical.

Vibrato Oboe players in some countries disapprove of vibrato. They believe it destroys the characteristic oboe sound and prevents the instrument from blending well. Most players, however, feel that vibrato enhances the sound by adding warmth and expressiveness to the tone. Diaphragm vibrato seems to be preferred. Throat and jaw vibrato tend to constrict and tighten muscles, producing a disappointing, artificial sound. Vibrato on oboe is probably not for beginners.

Reeds The world’s greatest oboist would sound like a child on a kazoo without a good reed. The quest for good reeds has forced oboists to make their own; learning to play the instrument includes learning to make a satisfactory reed. The teacher must make the reeds or purchase them for the beginning player. Purchasing reeds does save time, but all reeds need adjustment, even those guaranteed to play. Purchased oboe reeds are usually too stiff for normal playing; minor adjustments are necessary. The ideal reed is one that is balanced. It responds to louds and softs, highs and lows, and staccatos and legatos with little effort. On it the player can control pitch, tone quality, and dynamic changes with a minimum of embouchure manipulation. “The reed should sound good with no help, so that when there is help, it sounds great.”1 Every player should have multiple reeds ready to play. Clarinet and saxophone players rotate reeds, but this is not necessary for the oboist. One should not play on a reed until it is worn out, since the embouchure will compensate, forming bad habits, as the reed wears out. Players should have another reed ready and broken in, switching to a new reed as soon as signs of the reed’s final days are apparent—usually seen in a lack of response, instability of pitch, or difficulty in controlling the reed.

Cane Selection If students desire to make their own reeds, the cane can be purchased by the pound in tubes bundled together, but starting with uncut cane requires more tools than does precut cane. Most student oboists should purchase cane that has already been split, gouged, and shaped. When purchasing either cane or ready-made reeds, the appearance of the cane and its pliability are guides to its selection. A shiny golden to brownish color with spots indicates sufficient ripeness and curing. Avoid green cane. White cane may be good. Cane need not be spotted—this is not always an accurate indication of ripeness—but if too green it will not make a satisfactory reed. Pliability and porousness are also considerations. On a ready-made reed, pliability can be checked with the thumbnail; if the nail makes a noticeable mark, the cane is probably too soft. Cane that is hard to cut was harvested too late and is not pliable; cane that is too soft flakes off while being gouged and scraped. The porousness of the cane can be tested by wetting the butt end. If it darkens to an orange arc, it is properly aged. If bubbles appear when one blows on the butt end, the reed is too porous.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 228

228

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

Reed Selection Because the oboist is not likely to be able to play a commercial reed before purchasing it, the following points may serve well when selecting one: 1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

6. 7.

The cane should match the staple so that the oval sides of the reed are flush with it and without cracks on the sides. Slivers of cane appearing at the sides of the reed may not be serious unless their removal will leave a crack. Reeds that have a feathered tip usually have faulty workmanship. The craftsman has feathered out a faulty stroke by scraping and sanding to make it appear acceptable. Reeds made with decisive, sure strokes are almost universally superior to those made by short, choppy strokes. Reeds made with thinner cane make good tone production easier. The cane should fit snugly together past the staple and somewhat above the fishskin. The fishskin is immediately above the string wrapping and aids in preventing air leaks. The sides of the reed do not meet evenly at the tip, but should be slightly offset when the reed is dry; soaking will counteract the shape. If the tips are flat and parallel rather than oval-shaped when dry, too much offset will occur when the reed is soaked. The sides should meet firmly when the reed is soaked. The reed should be held up to light to determine that the two sides of each blade are scraped symmetrically and that the two blades are symmetrical with each other (see Figure 17.7).

65 mm 61 mm 50 mm tip

staple

thinnest part of tip

47 mm

blend between heart and tip 70 mm heart spine

back

bark

FIGURE 17.7 Illustration of an oboe reed

The general craftsmanship of the reed is important. These things indicate a good piece of work: Is the string even? Has it been waxed? Is there a good invisible knot? Is the fishskin on at the correct spot and evenly applied? So many items can be so skillfully hidden that making one’s own reeds seems the only certain way to get a good product. On a commercial reed one cannot see how far onto the staple the cane was placed or whether the winding extends too far beyond the end of the staple. The winding should end exactly with the end of the staple or at most one thread beyond it. (But beauty is only skin deep; the best-looking reed may not play.) David Weber and Ferald Capps in The Reed Maker’s Manual write, “deciphering the sound [of the crow] is all that is needed to determine where and how to scrape the reed.”2 Thus, learning about the crow is important. To produce a crow, one inserts the moist reed well into the mouth, closes the lips up to the string, and blows a stream of air through it. The crow should respond immediately and sound a C (or close) in at least two octaves. All new students must experiment with the help of their teacher as to how much reed is inserted in the mouth for the best, clearest, and fullest crow. Figure 17.8 illustrates several cuts used by oboists. The more advanced player may be able to judge the type of cut that he or she prefers, whether V-shaped, U-shaped, W-shaped, and so forth; these can easily be identified by the eye. FIGURE 17.8 Cuts of oboe reeds

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 229

THE OBOE

229

Reed Care Store reeds in a reed case for protection and to insure proper drying. The narrow plastic cases that reeds come in make it hard to return the reed to the case without damaging the tip; furthermore, they do not allow the reed to dry and may cause it to become moldy unless small holes are punched through the plastic. Reeds become dirty during playing and then tend to play flat. Lipstick clogs the pores, dust and lint cling to the moist reed, small food particles from the mouth become lodged in the reed—all unnecessary damage to the reed. To remove these particles, a small piece of paper or pipe cleaner is placed between the blades from the top and gently pulled back and forth a couple of times, with care taken to avoid breaking the delicate tip of the reed. Rinsing one’s mouth at the water fountain before playing and avoiding lipstick and cookies during oboe practice and rehearsal are recommended.

Adjustments While Playing Before starting to play a passage one must check the reed opening and adjust it if needed. The player can pinch the reed to obtain the best opening for playing, but a clumsy squeeze, with too much pressure or in the wrong place, may split the blades down the middle. If the reed is too stiff or is not responding, the player may pinch the two pieces of cane together, pinching close to the wrapping on the flat of the blades. This adjustment may raise the pitch slightly. If the reed is soft and closing up, press at the sides where the two pieces join. This is usually only a quick fix, but soaking it longer may also help. Besides pinching, another way of getting the reed to open up is to put more reed into the mouth, down past the beginning of the winding, and alternate between sucking and blowing air through the reed. The fishskin can be tightened to better support the blades if the tip is still too closed.

Use of the Knife in Reed Adjustments Professional oboists appear to be as opinionated and exacting with regard to the knife they use (type, size, shape of blade handle, weight, material, and so on) as what to do with the knife. They do agree that the knife should be very sharp. Only a few of the most common adjustments are given here. Each oboist, upon reaching the stage of being able to adjust the reed, should possess three tools: a knife and mandrel (see Figure 17.9b) along with a plaque. The scraping of the reed is done in three sections: the tip, the scrape, and the back, but never the spine. Common adjustments for intonation include these: If low C and D are out of tune, open the reed by tightening the fishskin. This will involve inserting the plaque between the blades and scraping the tip of the reed to offset the stiffness coming from a tighter wrapping. If the general pitch is too flat, cut off some of the tip of the reed or trim it slightly on the sides to make it a bit narrower. If the reed is then too stiff, too sharp, or too dull in sound, scrape the tip. If some (a) pitches are sharp, the scraped area should be lengthened or thinned at the cut; sometimes cutting the tiniest bit from the corners helps flatten the pitch. If the player cannot “crow” a C, then the reed is unequally scraped or too thin or thick in the areas listed previously (see Figure 17.7). Comparing the pitch of second-line G with the one an octave higher is often used to test the intonation of a reed. The general rule for altering the reed to adjust intonation is this: If the top note is sharp, more of the reed should be scraped; if the top note is flat, the tip of the reed should be cut off or the sides of the reed narrowed. A reed that plays sharp can be scraped more, or the cut (grattage) of the reed can be changed from a V-shape to a U-shape. For a reed that plays flat, filing the staple, not the tip, is preferable, but filing the staple should be a last resort. Sometimes “slipping” the reed— that is, moving the blades so that they do not coincide and are slightly offset—will help raise the pitch. (b) Tone quality, response, and intonation are affected by the various cuts of the reed. If the tone is shrill, bright, and brassy, lengthen the heart by scraping at the bottom, accentuating a U-form over a V- FIGURE 17.9 Reed-making devices: form, and diminishing the width of the sides toward the opening. (a) staple; (b) mandrel

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 230

230 THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

Shrillness may also be caused by the winding being too far up the reed. If the top tones are dull and thick, scrape the tip slightly, or sometimes only the very end of the tip. Narrowing the sides of the reed will also brighten and harden the sound. If the low notes are difficult to play and are stuffy in sound, thin the bottom of the scrape, particularly at the sides, or else thin both sides of the scrape just below the tip of the reed. Poor response on low notes comes from too short a lay or unevenness in the thickness of the blades. If the reed blows hard in the upper register, scrape more off the tip. If it blows hard in the lower register, scrape a little at the base near the bark. Whistling may result from unevenness in the thickness of the blades, too short a grattage, or a reed tip that is too thin or is too long for balance. When the reed seems to be causing uncertainty in attacks yet the cane itself is good, there are probably bumps or unevennesses in the scrape. If a new reed seems hard to play, delay making adjustments until the reed is sufficiently broken in and its opening has assumed its regular shape. New reeds and those not recently used will have wide openings that may narrow with playing. If the opening remains too wide, go lightly over the spine of the scrape, and lengthen or thin the V at the bottom of the scrape. If the opening is too small, the reed is probably excessively thin or soft and will produce a loose, edgy, thin tone or else a bright, wild sound. The reed can be improved by scraping the sides, with most of the scraping at the bottom of the scrape. In restoring the original length of the lay after trimming the tip, be careful not to make the lay too long, because then the high notes will not respond. There is an optimum ratio for each reed; when correcting one fault, don’t create a worse problem.

TECHNIQUE: ARTICULATIONS AND FINGERINGS Good tonguing is inseparable from artistic playing. For the oboe, while the tone is being produced, the tip of the tongue touches the lower lip or rests on it slightly. To stop the tone, the tongue may stop both blades by touching the tip of the reed with the upper, flat part of the tongue, or stop the lower blade just under the tip of the reed with the very tip of the tongue. Both techniques are used by experts, but students find the second method easier. The oboist has less success with “doo” tonguing than does the clarinetist. A “t” motion gives a sharper, cleaner attack. Double-tonguing on the oboe is seldom used. The “k” sound required in double-tonguing is not successful because it tends to produce a flat tone and a fuzzy, muddy attack. The oboe player should achieve a facile single-tongue and depend on it for fast passages. The reed or the instrument itself can be twisted slightly to the left, making it possible to tongue on the corner of the reed. This achieves a rapid, clean tonguing action. The horizontal approach should be mastered first. Finger dexterity is developed by practicing slowly, then speeding up. Coordinating tonguing with fingering is absolutely essential. The young player should begin tonguing on a five-note scale passage, concentrating on synchronization of fingers and tongue. Slow practice will allow time to listen and think about what is happening. Evelyn Rothwell explains the importance of conscientious practice of technique and the music beyond technique: When you play . . . you may sacrifice—consciously or unconsciously—certain details for the effect of the whole. For instance, if you are in an orchestra, other instruments are playing at the same time as yourself and may cover up the imperfections in your own technique of which you may not be aware. You may, even when playing quite by yourself, be too carried away by the musical pleasures of what you are doing to listen critically enough to small technical faults, particularly to careless intonation. The purpose of real practice is to acquire complete coordination and control of the muscles you need, by conscious and concentrated mental discipline. No slip or fault, however slight, must be allowed to pass. Train your ears to observe imperfections, and use your brain to put them right.3

Contemporary composers demand of the advanced oboist a range of expressive devices—a range above A3, special fingerings for micropitches (difficult or impossible with covered finger-hole instruments), double and triple tonguing (which is tricky on the oboe because of the reed and because the ululations occur farther back in the mouth with softer syllables), flutter-tonguing, and pitch-bending chords. Not only does one need a command of alternate fingerings (especially in the extreme upper register), but reeds with different scrapes and considerable embouchure flexibility.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF THE OBOE A well-fitting case is important. It protects the keys of the instrument against damage and it helps prevent extremes of heat and cold from damaging the wood. A vinyl (or fleece-lined nylon) case cover further protects against damage and sudden temperature changes. Always allow the outside of the wooden oboe to warm up before blowing through the instrument. Dirt is more harmful to an oboe than to other instruments because the small tone holes are easily clogged. The instrument should be swabbed after each playing. A swab of soft silk is satisfactory for the bell and lower joint; for the

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 231

THE OBOE

231

upper joint a soft pheasant or turkey feather could be used. The feather sometimes may dry out tone holes or vents but will at least spread the moisture about, preventing buildup. The feather should first be washed with soap to get rid of natural oils. Many oboe players oil the bore to guard against splitting wood. However, most reputable manufacturers now guarantee their instruments against cracking, and preparation of the wood in the factory includes soaking it in oil. If oiling the instrument seems desirable, a small amount of bore oil should suffice. Too much oil remaining in the bore adds to the accumulation of dirt. The springs of the oboe should be oiled very lightly several times each year with key oil, which is available with a needle applicator. Moisture that collects in the smaller tone holes and the octave keys can be blown out as a temporary solution. A piece of coffee filter or cigarette paper placed between the tone hole and the key and pressed gently will absorb any remaining moisture. The tone holes should be cleaned regularly with a pin or with the quill of a feather. The pads and keys of the instrument should be checked frequently because pads leak and keys are easily bent. The keys should be wiped occasionally with a soft cloth. They should not be polished with silver cleaners because this may clog the mechanism and destroy the silver plating.

HEALTH ISSUES The primary health issue reported by oboists is not glaucoma, aneurisms, or brain damage from the built-up air pressure in the head as urban myths expound, but rather muscle strain in the right hand, which supports nearly the entire weight of the two-pound instrument. The confined position of the fingers, due to the small diameter of the instrument, can also lead to muscle strain. Oboists can experiment with a variety of available thumb rests and their positions, or adapt a thumb rest using softer materials made from foam or rubber (such as a pencil grip) to help alleviate or prevent pain and discomfort. A neck strap may also be used, but could merely transfer the weight to the neck, creating tension there. A support system, Fhred, is available to relieve some weight. The system involves a brass telescoping pole that attaches to a ringed thumb rest at one end. The other end is rubber and rests between the player’s legs on a chair. It can be used when standing by fitting it in a small pouch held with a belt around the waist.

TROUBLESHOOTING Equipment Difficulty in Assembling 1.

Grease corks on joints, including reed cork if necessary.

Sticky Pads 1. 2. 3. 4.

Moisture in tone hole(s) or absorbed by pads. (If pad is not damaged, place tissue paper between key and tone hole and cover and hold gently for paper to absorb moisture; do not use talcum powder.) Bent rods—probably the bridge keys. (Have repaired by competent repairperson.) Worn springs. (Have repaired.) Pivot screws at end of rods need oiling (one drop). (Occasionally screws may need to be loosened, oiled, then retightened.)

Pads Not Seating Correctly 1. 2.

Leaking pads—usually discovered when the lower register does not respond easily. (If pads are in good condition, adjusting of the screws may be required; possible bent rods to be repaired by competent individual.) Pads are damaged. (Replace or have replaced.)

Gurgling Sound 1. 2. 3.

Water collected in tone hole(s) under pads that usually remain closed. (Open appropriate key, blow water out of the hole and into the bore; blowing must be sudden and forceful. Clean with a feather; bore may need oiling.) On low notes—often with a tight throat and the first overtone trying to sound. (Relax throat, drop jaw, blow steady air without forcing.) Too much reed in mouth.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 232

232 THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

Tone Reedy, Nasal, Harsh, Rough 1. 2. 3. 4.

Head down or oboe held too high. (With head erect hold oboe at a 15- to 30-degree angle.) Biting on reed. (Drop jaw; lip down and blow faster air to compensate; use firmer lips/embouchure to control reed.) Jaw protruding. (Correct embouchure, including jaw.) Reed too hard. (Try softer reed or scrape reed.)

Pinched, Small 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Oboe held too close to body. (With head erect hold oboe 30 to 45 degrees away from torso.) Opening in reed too small—overall contour or sides too weak. (Trim end one millimeter at a time and scrape reed when necessary to reform the tip; keep lip pressure on sides of reed.) Biting the reed. (Drop jaw; use more lip to control reed and use slightly faster air to compensate for pitch.) Not enough reed in mouth. (Place more reed in mouth.) Not enough lip over teeth for reed. (Check reed; use more lip over teeth—less red of lip showing.) Not enough breath support. First-space F≥ is weak or breathy. (Play F≥ with G≥ key down. If G≥ key does not close, replace the G≥ cork.)

Unresponding, Cold 1. 2. 3.

Reed too hard. (Adjust for free blowing or wrong cut—scrape.) Inappropriate reed cut. (Try different brand of reed.) Not enough air. (Blow more air after taking proper breath; use proper embouchure to hold the increased pressure.)

Squawky 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Reed too stiff. (Player attempting to overblow; adjust reed or replace it with a softer one. Try playing softly or starting mf with decrescendos.) Too much reed in mouth. (Place less reed in mouth.) Too much lip over teeth. (Place less lip over teeth.) Reed too open. (Carefully close reed between thumb and first finger to reduce stiffness.) Embouchure too loose.

Trouble with Control 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Oboe too high or too low. (With head erect, hold oboe at between a 30- and 45-degree angle from body.) At pp volume levels—reed too stiff; biting reed; lips in wrong place for reed. Jaw protruding. Reed too soft. (Try harder reed or trim tip.) Cheeks puffing. (Firm corners to keep chin and cheeks flat.) Embouchure too loose.

Trouble with Flexibility 1. 2. 3. 4.

Too much lip rolled over teeth. (Let some red show.) Too much reed in mouth. Practice overblowing to obtain harmonics; practice slowly moving from note to note in middle of staff in which few fingers are used, gradually adding fingers as range increases. Embouchure too loose.

Squeaks 1. 2. 3. 4.

Too much reed in mouth. Bent bridge key to bell, pads not seating. Biting reed with lower jaw. (Try dropping jaw as if lipping the note flat—increase airstream and firm up embouchure/lips.) Oboe held too low. (With head erect, oboe should be 30 to 45 degrees from body; experiment for appropriate position.)

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 233

THE OBOE

233

Pitch Sharp 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Embouchure too tight. (Use less lip over teeth, loosen embouchure, and/or drop jaw by trying to blow a pitch flat.) Especially in second octave, too much of reed in mouth. (Pull reed out.) Reed too stiff. (Scrape reed or try a softer replacement.) Holding oboe at less than 30 degrees from body. Too much bottom and/or top lip turned in. A combination of items 1–5. On individual notes—keys/pads may be rising too far. (Adjust adjusting screws to open keys properly.) Scrape both sides of reed.

Flat 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Embouchure too loose. (Firm up lips, especially corners; try more lip over teeth, that is, less red showing; blow faster airstream.) Not enough reed in mouth. Reed too soft. (Cut tip one millimeter at a time; scrape when necessary to reform tip.) Head down or holding oboe too high. Too much red showing on bottom and/or top lip. (Correct embouchure.) Combinations of items 1–5. On individual notes—keys/pads not opening enough. (Adjust screws to allow for proper opening of pads.) Tone holes or vent holes dirty. (Clean with feather or needle.) Flat overall with reed inserted all the way. (Cut 1 millimeter at a time from reed, scrape tip when necessary to reform tip—repeat as needed; reed opening too large—press together with fingers to slightly weaken the reed— soak longer–scrape shoulder of reed; file staple to shorten.)

RESOURCES Websites International Double Reed Society idrs.org The Oboe Site theoboesite.com Oboes for Idgets oboesforidgets.com Oboe Insight oboeinsight.com

Texts Bate, P. (1975). The Oboe: An Outline of Its History, Development and Construction, 3rd ed. New York, NY: W.W. Norton. Berman, M. (1995). The Art of Oboe Reed Making. Toronto: Canada Scholar’s Press. Burgess, G. and B. Haynes (2004). The Oboe. London: Yale University Press. Fitch, W.D. (1984). The Study of the Oboe: A Method for the Beginner with Previous Beginner Music Experience, 4th ed. Ann Arbor, MI: George Wahr. Goossens, L. and E. Roxburgh (1980). Oboe, 2nd ed. London: Macdonald. Haynes, B. (2007). The Eloquent Oboe: A History of the Hautboy from 1640 to 1760. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; reprint of 2001 ed.

Joppig, G. (1988). The Oboe and the Bassoon. Portland, OR: Amadeus. Ledet, D. (2000). Oboe Reed Styles—Theory and Practice. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press; reprint of 1981 ed. Light, J. (1983). The Oboe Reed Book: A Straight-Talking Guide to Making and Understanding Oboe Reeds. Des Moines, IA: Drake University. Mcfarland, J.P. (1983). Oboe Adjustment Guide. Atlanta, GA: McFarland Oboe Shop. Ott, H. (1998). Oboe. In W. Dietz, (ed.), Teaching Woodwinds New York, NY: Schirmer. ––– (1977). The Oboist’s Companion (3 vols.). London: Oxford University Press. Rothwell, E. (1982). Oboe Technique, 3rd ed. London: Oxford University Press. Schuring, M. (2009) Oboe Art and Method. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Sprenkle, R. and D. Ledet (1961). The Art of Oboe Playing. Miami, FL: Summy-Birchard. Van Cleve, L. (2004). Oboe Unbound: Contemporary Techniques. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow. Weber, D.B., B. F. Capps, and V.K. Weber (1990). The Reed Maker’s Manual: Step-by-Step Instructions for Making Oboe and English Horn Reeds. Phoenix, AZ: Authors.

Journal/Association The Double Reed (published four times per year) from The International Double Reed Society: www.idrs.org

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 234

234

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

Oboe Studies

Instructional Videos

Easy/Beginning (Elementary or Middle School)

Beginning Oboe (1993). Bowling Green, KY: Music Education Video. Belwin 21st Century Band Method: Oboe, Level 1 (Holly White, 1996). Miami, FL: Warner Brothers. The Oboe Starting Right (Marc Finke, 1993). Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin–Madison. The Reed Maker’s Video: A Supplement to the Reed Maker’s Manual (David Weber and Ferald Capps, 1990). Understanding the Oboe (Kerry Wilinghem and Kurt Hider, 1997). Ft. Mead, MD: U.S. Army Field Band. www.armyfield band.com/pages/education/oboe.html

Andraud. First Book of Studies for Oboe (A. Leduc). ––– Practical and Progressive Oboe Method (Southern). Edlefson/Weber. Student Instrumental Courses: Oboe Student (3 vols.) (Belwin-Mills). ––– Tunes for Oboe Technique (3 vols.) (Belwin-Mills). Fitch. Elementary School (C.F. Peters). Hinke. Elementary School (C.F. Peters). Hovey. Elementary Method for Oboe (Rubank). Langey-Fischer. Tutor for Oboe (C. Fischer). Macbeth. Learn to Play Oboe (2 vols.) (Alfred). Mayer. Essentials of Oboe Playing (Karnes Music). Snavely. Basic Technique for Oboe (Kendor).

Medium (Middle School or High School) Andraud. Practical and Progressive Oboe Method (Southern). Barrett. (ed. Schuring). Complete Method for Oboe (Boosey & Hawkes). Bozza. 18 Etudes (A. Leduc). Brod. 20 Etudes (A. Leduc). Dufresne and Voisin. Develop Sight Reading (Colin). Ferling. 48 Famous Studies (Southern Music). Giampiori. 16 Daily Studies (Ricordi). Luft. 24 Studies for Oboe (Ilillaudoi). Pares. Daily Technical Exercise for the Oboe (C. Fischer). Prestini. Collection of Studies for Oboe (Ricordi). Rothwell. The Oboist’s Companion (2 vols.) (Oxford). Teal. Studies in Time Division (Fox). Tustin. Daily Scales (Southern).

Recommended Oboe Artists Nancy Ambrose-King playing Vaughan Williams and Britton Heinz Holliger playing Milhaud and Mozart Alex Klein playing Vivaldi and Strauss Albrecht Mayer playing Bozza and Handel Mitch Miller, Bob Cooper and Paul McCandless playing Jazz/Contemporary

Oboe Parts

Advanced (High School or College) Bach/Rothwell. Difficult Passages (Boosey & Hawkes). Barret (ed. Barre). Complete Method for Oboe (Boosey & Hawkes). Bassi. 27 Virtuoso Studies (C. Fischer). Bozza. Graphismes (A. Leduc). Brown. 370 Exercises for the Oboe (A. Leduc). Debondue. 100 Exercises (A. Leduc). ––– 32 Etudes (A. Leduc). Ferling. 48 Etudes, op. 31 (Costallat). Ferrillo. Orchestral Excerpts for Oboe (Theodore Presser). Flemming. 60 Progressive Studies (3 vols.) (C.F. Peters). Gekeler. Method for Oboe (2 vols.) (Alfred). Gillet. Studies for the Advanced Teaching of the Oboe (A. Leduc). Karg-Elert. Etuden-Schule (Broude). Loyon. 32 Etudes (Bilkmdot). Prestini. 12 Studies on Chromatic Harmonies (Belwin-Mills). Rothwell. Difficult Passages for Oboe and English Horn (Boosey & Hawkes). Tomasi. 3 Concert Etudes (Eschig).

FIGURE 17.10 Oboe parts

NOTES 1

2

Light, J. (1983). The Oboe Reed Book: A Straight-Talking Guide to Making and Understanding Oboe Reeds. Des Moines, IA: Drake University, p. 7. Weber, D.B., F.B. Capps and V.K. Weber (1990). The Reed

3

Maker's Manual: Step-by-step Instructions for Making Oboe and English Horn Reeds. Phoenix, AZ: Weber Reeds. Rothwell, E. (1982). Oboe Technique, 3rd ed. London: Oxford University Press, 61.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 235

THE OBOE

Oboe Fingering Chart

1 1/2

OK 2 Y

2

OK 1

Z 3 8 D#

7B

G# Back

B B 1

C-D 2 F

C C# D#

3 6

1 2 3 B 1 2 3 C

1 2 3 B 1 2 3-6

1 2 3

1 2 3 D 1 2 3

1 2 3 D





1 2 3 B 1 2 3 C

1 2 3 B 1 2 3-6

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2

1 2 F

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3 C

1 2 3-6

1 2 3 C

1 2 3-6 C

1 2 3

1 2 3 1 3 D







1 2 3

1 2 3

1

1

3

1 2 3

235

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 236

236

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

1 2 3 G

1 2 3



1 2 3

1 2

1 2

1



3 G

7B

1

1 2

1

X 1

X 1

4

1/2 2 3

1 2 3 D

1/2

2 3 D 1 2 3



OK2 1 2

OK2 1 2 X

1

OK1 1 2 3

OK1 1 2 3

OK1 1 2 3

1 2

1 2

1

F

D

1



1 3 B 1 2 3 C

(OK1) 1 2 3 B 1 2 3

3

OK2 1 OK2 1 C

1 (OK1) 1/2 2 2 3

1

1/2

3

2 3

1

1 2 3 C

1 2 3 C

1 2 3 C

OK1 1 OK1 1 2 2 3 3 B 1 1 2 3 C

OK1 1 2 3 G



1/2

1 Z

1

1 2 3



1/2

2 3

2 3



OK1 1/2 2 3 B

OK2

3 1 C-D

3 C

C

2 3

OK1 1/2 OK1 1/2 2 2 3 1

1

OK1 1 3 1

OK1 1/2 OK1 1/2 OK1 1/2 2 2 2 3 3 G -D G -D 4 2 2 3 3 D

1/2

2 3 G

OK2 OK2 2 3 1



   

C

OK1 1/2 3 B 2 3

OK1 1 OK1 1/2 3 B

3 C

G



2 3

C

2 3

OK1 1/2 2 G

OK1 1/2 2

OK1 1/2 OK1 1 2 2

 G -D 

4

D

1 2 3



C

OK1 1 OK1 1/2 OK1 1/2 OK1 1/2 3 G



3

3

3 G -D

2

2

2 3 D

2

C

C-D

1 2 3

1

1/2

1

4



1/2

Y 1

OK2 1 OK2 1 2 2 3

OK2 1

1 2 3 D

1

OK1 1 OK1 1 2 2 3 3

3

1

1

2 3





1 2 F C

3 1 2 F

1

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 237

CHAPTER 18

The Clarinet

18

HISTORY Single-reed instruments are known to have existed in Russia, Egypt, China, and Greece as early as 2700 BCE. These early instruments were the forerunners of the present-day clarinet and were found in various forms including “double” and “triple” clarinets, which were instruments with parallel pipes that used fingers to cover the holes of each pipe at the same time. A triple instrument dating from this period, the launedda, is used in Sardinia to the present day. A clarinetlike instrument called the jaleika was found in Russia; it also dates from the pre-Christian era. The true forerunner of the present-day clarinet is a Greek single-tube instrument called the chalumeau. This instrument was never as popular as the double-reed shawm due to problems of mouthpiece construction and a short, incomplete scale that was hard to overblow. The chalumeau increased in popularity during the sixteenth century but was still not favored by the more important composers. Its first real use occurred in two obscure operas written in 1710: Reiser’s Croesus and Bononcini’s Turno Aririna. By this time, the chalumeau was already a thing of the past, for in 1690 Johann Christoff Denner had added two keys to create an instrument with a range of two octaves. By 1720, finger keys and the speaker key had been added. This clarinet, using a small reed, sounded a bit like an oboe. The clarinet remained a minor instrument and did not appear in scores until the early 1700s, followed by works by Telemann in the 1720s, Graupner in 1754, Stamitz in 1765, and the Concerto for Clarinet in A by Mozart in 1791. Muller added a key system in 1810. The clarinet did not become a modern instrument until Klosé added the Boehm system in 1843 making it possible to play in all keys. Numerous forms of the clarinet appeared in the nineteenth century with clarinets pitched in G and D, bass clarinets, the bathyphone (in E), and the basset horn—an alto clarinet pitched in F with a narrow bore and thin wall. Today the clarinet has four registers—the low chalumeau register, the middle or throat-tone register, the upper register—called the clarion because it is loud and A brilliant, and the altissimo (see Figure 18.1). Presently 1 G# made in five or six different keys, ranging from the small R 2 TR 4 T sopranino to the contrabass, the clarinet is one of the most TR 3 3 TR 2 useful instruments. Since the time of Mozart, composers TR 1 C# C have given the instrument a superior repertoire. E F# 1 The clarinet is the backbone of symphonic and Back concert bands. Ideally, the symphonic band has more B≤ 2 B F# soprano clarinets than any other single instrument. The 3 E G# clarinet is somewhat popular as a jazz instrument, as a F classically oriented solo instrument in and as an essential element in the orchestra. Its range extends almost an octave higher and lower than that of an oboe, giving it FIGURE 18.1 The four registers of the B≤ clarinet (written pitches) one of the widest ranges of all the wind instruments.

SELECTING THE INSTRUMENT Knowledge of the troublesome idiosyncrasies of an instrument is important to teach or play it well. Clarinets are made of various materials, natural and synthetic; of these, grenadilla wood is the favorite. Several factors enter into the superiority of grenadilla wood: it is easy to work with; it is dense, which minimizes moisture absorption; and it is available in sufficient quantities to keep it from being prohibitively expensive. The clarinet has been the most successful plastic instrument because the quantities sold have justified the research required to produce an adequate product. Manufacturers are now making plastic clarinets (especially the alto and bass) that approach the evenness of scale, intonation, and tone quality of the wooden instrument.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 238

238 THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

Straight-grained wood is always desirable. On older instruments it is important to check whether the wood has dried out excessively or the posts have become loose. Small cracks are not serious if they have been repaired expertly; they can be pinned or banded so that intonation and response are not affected. The appearance of more than one crack may indicate that the wood was not originally aged and seasoned properly. The most important part of a clarinet to check is the joints; any chip in the joints will prevent a perfect seal, allowing air to leak and affecting the intonation. Some professional models (such as the Selmer Paris) have metal caps to reinforce tenon joints. Checking the interior of the barrel is essential because scratches and scorings affect intonation and tone. One should always play an instrument before making a decision about its adequacy—there is no other way to estimate intonation and tone quality. Every clarinet will respond somewhat differently. Pitch should be checked by playing and listening. The performer testing the instrument should play octaves to determine intonation (with an electronic tuner) and then scales to determine that the intervals are in tune at various dynamic levels. The merits of a new or used clarinet are judged on its tone quality, intonation, and response. At a pitch of A = 440, the barrel should be pulled about one-sixteenth of an inch at 68 to 72 degrees Fahrenheit. This fraction of an inch gives the player freedom to push the barrel in when room temperatures and air density make a sharper pitch desirable. Because warmer rooms raise pitch at different rates for different instruments, the clarinetist needs to be able to match this sharpness when necessary. Sometimes clarinets cannot be adjusted to match the ensemble’s pitch. If a particular clarinet plays under the pitch A = 440 with the barrel pulled one-sixteenth inch, a shorter barrel will be necessary. The quality of the keys should be considered. Keys should be made from good, forged nickel silver so they are not easily bent or broken. Bent keys are important on any woodwind, because a bent key may not open the proper distance, creating intonation problems. Bending the key back into place does not remedy the initial damage (or the intonation problem); it simply makes location of the problem more difficult. The clarinet is far from a perfect instrument, and many compromises have been necessary in its manufacture. The register key (not an octave key) and the speaker key (for third-line B≤) are the same. To correct the problems caused by this doubling up, it would be necessary to place the speaker key higher on the clarinet and reduce it in size (its present placement results in clarinets having a flat fourth-line D and fourth-space E). Alto, bass, and contrabass clarinets often have both keys, one the B≤ and one the register key. A single middle joint would allow a better C≥ and G≥ because that tone hole could be placed lower, but the loss of the option of pulling at this joint for intonation purposes has prevented this design from being adopted on better soprano instruments.

ASSEMBLING THE CLARINET The various instruments of the clarinet family, ranging from the E≤ soprano to the contrabass, are constructed with similar parts. Precautions that apply to the assembly of one apply to all. The B≤ soprano clarinet has five parts: the mouthpiece (which holds the reed by means of a ligature), the barrel, the upper joint, the lower joint, and the bell. The parts fit together tightly—the tenons, covered with cork, ensure a close fit. The pieces do not slide together easily but must be coaxed. The corks should be greased prior to attempting the first assembly and should remain greased. They should never be assembled by wiggling. The left hand firmly holds the upper joint, with the fingers depressing the three rings over the tone holes to raise the bridge key. The right hand holds the lower joint with the thumb just below the thumb rest and the fingers grasping the joint without depressing any key rings, though the keys activated by the pinky finger may be depressed gently in order to secure a better grip. The joints are coupled together using a slight twisting motion taking care not to bend the bridge key. A bent bridge key may prevent certain keys from closing, making some notes hard to play. Next, holding the two joints in the right hand with the right thumb against the thumb rest, the bell is twisted on the bottom joint with the left hand. Then the barrel is twisted on the top joint—the wider end of the barrel is connected to the upper joint. The manufacturer’s labels on the barrel, the upper joint, and the bell should be aligned. Finally, with the instrument still held carefully in the left hand, the mouthpiece is assembled so that the flat side, or table, is in line with the thumb rest and register key and the ligature is placed over the mouthpiece. The reed is slipped under the ligature rather than the ligature placed over the reed and mouthpiece. For beginners the ligature screws usually go on the same side of the mouthpiece as the reed (although Bonade and similar ligatures are reversed). The bottom screw should be tightened just enough to hold the reed firmly in place. The upper screw should be tightened only enough to prevent it from vibrating and causing an unpleasant buzzing sound. Stein advocates tightening the top screw and leaving the bottom one loose, for greater elasticity throughout the entire reed.1 Caution: If the ligature is screwed too tightly for too long or not loosened after playing, it may cause the mouthpiece to warp when the reed becomes soaked and expands. The type of ligature is important, as the object of the ligature is to provide maximum vibration of the reed and avoid a choked or buzzing tone quality. The use of Velcro or string wound around the mouthpiece to hold the reed in place allows the reed great freedom to vibrate. For years David Pino has used a flat, cloth shoestring as a ligature.2 There are many satisfactory ligatures.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 239

THE CLARINET

239

A ligature placed too high on the mouthpiece hinders reed vibration, encourages squeaks, and results in a stuffy tone. When the ligature is positioned too low, the reed has too much freedom to vibrate and the tone becomes harsh: placing the ligature slightly below the lines marked on the mouthpiece is a valid recommendation. The reed is placed so that it is centered on the mouthpiece and only a very slight “rim” of mouthpiece is visible when the tip of the reed is gently depressed. The mouthpiece cap should be a frequently used item.

HOLDING THE CLARINET Two guidelines that are important in establishing a good position for holding the clarinet are: (1) the angle at which the instrument is held; and (2) the flexibility of the fingers and the hand position. The angle at which the clarinet is held should be established first because correct embouchure depends in part on it. The player’s posture should be erect whether sitting or standing (see Figure 18.2 for the correct posture when seated). Stiffness should be avoided. Neck, shoulders, and arms must stay relaxed with the head erect. Arms held too far out from the body can create tension in the neck and in the fingers. One of the first impulses of the beginner is to lower the head to meet the mouthpiece. Instead, the instrument should be brought to the mouth, not the mouth to the instrument. Depending upon the embouchure formation, the clarinet should be held directly in front of the body at an angle of about 30 degrees from the body. Each student has different posture habits, different teeth formation and lip structure, and the sensible teacher considers these in determining the angle that fosters the best embouchure. The student who rests the clarinet on one knee shifts the clarinet to one side and develops an improper embouchure and a rough tone. Some authorities feel that FIGURE 18.2 Sitting position for there is little harm in letting a beginner rest the bell on the knee if the student is tall playing the clarinet enough. These clarinet teachers advocate this practice with the belief that this will keep the hands and fingers relaxed and prevent their being used to support the instrument. Resting the instrument on the knee, however, can indeed lead to a misaligned embouchure, the development of the wrong facial muscles, poor breathing habits, and restricted finger dexterity. If the student finds the clarinet too heavy to hold without resting it on the knee, a neckstrap can be used or the student can be encouraged to practice for shorter lengths of time. Proper position may not initially feel comfortable or natural, but if the embouchure seems correct and the student is able to produce what promises to be a good tone, the student should be encouraged to adjust to the position. Head up, horn down. If the student’s head is lowered, or the instrument held too far out from the body, the lower jaw is positioned directly beneath the upper jaw when it should be farther down on the mouthpiece. When the lips are equidistant from the mouthpiece tip, the tone is less flexible and more uneven between registers, and the lower lip loses sensitivity. It is better to keep the lower lip about three-quarters of an inch from the tip of the reed and the upper lip about one-half inch from the tip. This is facilitated by holding the instrument at the appropriate angle. This quarter-inch difference contributes to better tone, more flexibility, more consistency throughout the entire range of the clarinet, and a more focused tone. One common rule is that the lower lip should be placed as far down as possible without squeaking. If the player has thin lips, the angle of the clarinet should be decreased. If the player has thick or full lips, holding the instrument out more than 30 degrees may improve the embouchure and tone quality, the position depending upon the jaw. A player with a protruding jaw must hold the instrument at a greater angle from the body to compensate for increased pressure from the lower jaw. Generally, the smaller the angle at which the clarinet is held, the more shrill the tone. The tone mellows as the angle is increased. A completely dull sound is obtained, however, if the clarinet reaches a 90-degree angle, excluding the rare exceptions such as Benny Goodman and Buddy DeFranco, whose sounds in this position can hardly be described as dull, but such a position is inappropriate for most players when playing music of a classical nature. Correct hand position is shown in Figure 18.3. The thumb rest should lie between the nail and the first end joint of the right thumb. The right thumb is responsible for supporting the clarinet, with the left thumb and embouchure only helping to balance or steady it—the right-hand and left-hand fingers cover the holes without gripping the instrument. If the player allows the thumb rest to slip FIGURE 18.3 Hand position for the clarinet

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 240

240

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

farther back on the thumb, the right fingers curve excessively to fit over the keys, which produces a tense wrist. The right thumb must be firm but should not push the clarinet into the mouth. Deep teeth marks in the mouthpiece indicate excessive right-thumb pressure. The right hand should slant slightly so the side keys are easily accessible to the middle of the index finger as the fingertip rests over the fourth tone hole. The left thumb rests over the register key at a 45-degree angle without touching it, and the fingers of the left hand lie almost at right angles with the clarinet. The left index finger is positioned over the G≥ and A keys. The slant necessary for the fingers to reach the auxiliary keys depends on the size and shape of the hands and the length of the fingers. The tips of the little fingers on both hands should rest on the tips of the F keys. For dexterity and coverage, the pads of the fingers, not the flat or tips of them, are used to cover the tone holes. The fingers should be slightly curved in a natural, relaxed position so that the fleshy pad fits comfortably over the tone hole. Small air leaks caused by insufficient covering of the tone holes can cause large changes in intonation and tone. Students should be encouraged to keep their fingers close to the keys and tone holes, especially the little fingers. The novice is apt to exaggerate each fingering motion and thereby slow technique. Some teachers suggest raising the fingers high in order to ensure their synchronization, but this usually causes bad habits. From the beginning, students should use as little finger movement as necessary. The problem of synchronizing fingers is more a matter of paying close attention to the finger action than of exaggerating it. Jazz clarinetists use alternate fingerings to alter pitches and shade the tone holes slightly to play micropitches, flat/sharp notes, but all clarinetists emphasize that one must learn to play correctly before experimenting with such special effects.

EMBOUCHURE Clarinet embouchures vary a great deal: Some teachers prefer more bottom lip over the teeth; others prefer the corners of the mouth pulled downward, or outward, or inward or simply tightened. The upper teeth should not bite into the mouthpiece or push down on it; the mouth should simply be closed and the teeth vertically aligned. Blowing a fine stream of air or inhaling through the lips as if pulling through a soda straw is a good way to describe the action. Many players glue a small piece of very thin vinyl to the top of the mouthpiece to prevent damage to it and to limit the vibrations felt by the teeth (known technically as the “heebie-jeebies”). Figure 18.4 illustrates the lips and teeth. The corners of the lips are held together so that there is a firm grip all around the mouthpiece. The student should not think of forming a huge smile. The chin and jaw should be kept as still as possible, because any movement of the jaw tends to raise or lower the pitch. The final embouchure adjustment is based on tone quality; the mouthpiece may be pulled or pushed into the mouth while experimenting with more or less lip over the bottom teeth. The pressure on the reed comes principally from the lips and corners of the mouth (Figures 18.5 and 18.6). In addition, the need for keeping the chin down has to be stressed often with the FIGURE 18.4 Clarinet: lips and teeth beginner, because the sensation is not natural. Practicing with a mirror or with a parent watching can help to keep the chin pointed. Placing the chin in the proper position is relatively easy, but it tends to return to its natural position as soon as air pressure builds up. Unless the chin is held down and flat, intonation in the high register becomes difficult, the lower register loses some of its carrying quality, and the cheeks tend to puff out, especially in the lower register. Advanced players need not be so concerned about the pointed chin. With a well-developed embouchure the clarinet can be held down farther with most of the support on the lower lip, the upper lip pulled downward with corners forward, encasing the mouthpiece to prevent air leakage and produce the desired tone. When the player has developed a good embouchure, he or she should learn to initially take any breath slowly and to try to avoid any disturbance of the embouchure. As the “hows” and “whys” of a proper embouchure are better understood, the student should be encouraged to breathe through the corners of the mouth while keeping the center of the lips on the mouthpiece. When the air is blown into just the mouthpiece, a tone approximating a high C or D will sound. Practicing on just the mouthpiece to obtain these pitches is fine, although a room full of students eagerly practicing does contribute to noise pollution.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 241

THE CLARINET

FIGURE 18.5 Clarinet embouchure

241

FIGURE 18.6 Clarinet embouchure (side view)

There should be minimal change of embouchure for different registers and for wide skips. A good exercise is to practice harmonics. If the player finds high E, F, and G difficult to produce, the lower lip may not be low enough on the reed and the player should experiment with putting more of the mouthpiece in the mouth. The corners of the mouth may need to be stretched as the high register is reached, perhaps starting at about G above the staff. This stretch helps eliminate the “crying” effect so often heard in the high registers. Another recommendation is that the chin be pulled down farther than normal for the upper register without disturbing the basic embouchure. Experimenting is necessary. As the embouchure tires during a rehearsal or concert, more pressure will be needed to play the upper notes. Proper embouchure formation will prevent damage to the muscles. The use of the lips helps determine quality and volume of clarinet tone, and the pressure of the lips alters according to the volume desired. For fortissimo playing, the pressure is shifted lower on the reed, farther from the tip; for pianissimo playing, closer to the tip. The embouchure does not change—the lip pressure is exerted in different areas for different dynamic levels. Adjusting lip pressure affects tone: a relaxed lip results in a bigger, unfocused, mellower sound, whereas more pressure against the reed by the lip provides increased intensity of tone. Squeaks, one of the continual plagues of the beginning clarinet player, are usually due to: (1) having too much of the mouthpiece in the mouth; or (2) using an embouchure that is too tight, biting too much, or exerting too much jaw pressure. Squeaks may often be eliminated by a gentler attack on the mouthpiece. Squeaks are also caused by broken reeds, the fingers not covering the holes completely, a leaking instrument, or occasionally an inferior mouthpiece. The members of the clarinet family are very similar and most playing techniques apply to the entire family. However, there are some important differences. In playing the E≤ and B≤ soprano clarinets, the best embouchure is one in which equal pressure is exerted on the mouthpiece from above and below. The higher of these, the E≤ instrument, will be most easily controlled when less mouthpiece is placed in the mouth than that used for the other clarinets, while also employing a firmer embouchure and more breath support.

BASS CLARINET When the bass clarinet squeaks in the high register, there is usually too much pressure being exerted from below by the lower lip and jaw, not enough pressure from the upper teeth, or an insufficient amount of the mouthpiece in the mouth. The general rule is that as one goes higher the pressure from the lower lip and jaw is shifted to the top and sides. The upper teeth continue to apply the same or slightly more pressure. Thus the player must take more of the mouthpiece into the mouth, relax the lower lip, drop the jaw, and at the same time slightly increase the pressure on the top and sides, pushing the instrument forward so a little more of the upper side of the mouthpiece enters the mouth. This procedure will help remove tension from the lower lip and eliminate much of the problem of high-register squeaking. A good bass clarinet embouchure (Figure 18.7) requires more mouthpiece in the mouth and less pressure. A slightly softer reed should be used than for the B≤ soprano because of the more relaxed embouchure. Tenor saxophone reeds

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 242

242

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

are sometimes chosen for the bass clarinet, but this is not a good idea; reeds for the tenor saxophone are slightly longer and narrower than those for bass clarinet and will be unwieldy when used on the clarinet mouthpiece.

INTONATION Some of the major problems of intonation arising within the band and orchestra stem from the built-in characteristics of even the best instruments. The solution is to teach the students to listen and adjust. The clarinet is designed to overblow at the interval of a twelfth when the register key is depressed. In other words, the fingering that produces B≤ in the low register produces the F an octave and a fifth above when the register key is depressed. Unfortunately, these twelfths are not in tune with each other. The clarinet is built to play slightly sharp. As the clarinet is somewhat inflexible in pitch, tuning to it is not out of order, and many bands do this. (The oboe, the traditional tuning instrument, is more flexible.) Probably the best tuning notes on the clarinet, once a student has a good embouchure, are thumb F and open G, but for best FIGURE 18.7 Bass clarinet: embouchure results several notes in different ranges should be used. Changes in temperature and in the density of air affect the pitch; cold and heat, dryness and humidity alter the pitch just as change of volume does. In cold temperatures the pitch will drop; in warm temperatures it will rise. Thin, dry air gives a faster sound wave and a higher pitch, whereas moist air causes slower waves and a lower pitch. Changes of volume also have an effect: pianissimo playing without adjustment will be sharp and forte playing flat (the opposite of the flute). The clarinet tends to go sharp in the lower register and throat tones, and flat in the upper register, also opposite to the tendencies of the flute. To play in tune, soft tones should be produced by controlling the airstream with the large breathing muscles, but some players pinch off the air with their lips, thus tightening the embouchure and producing a sharper pitch. The fact that tighter lips produce a better tone quality in soft playing complicates the problem.

Sharp Tones Pitches that are particularly sharp when played softly are shown in Figure 18.8. First-line E≤ may also be sharp when soft. To correct, open the throat more and use more breath support. Only as a last resort should one use less pressure from the lower lip. Tend to be flat:

Tend to be sharp:

FIGURE 18.8 Pitch tendencies of certain notes on the clarinet

Flat Tones Low E and F may be flat in forte playing, even though generally sharp in normal and soft playing. The beginning player should constantly be reminded of intonation problems so that the ear becomes sensitive to small discrepancies.

Adjustments and Corrections Tightening the lips will raise the pitch slightly. Adequate breath support will keep the pitch from sagging. When the throat is relaxed, the pitch will be steady as well as of better quality; tension in the throat will raise the pitch and adversely

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 243

THE CLARINET

243

affect tone quality. Any jaw movement will alter the intonation, as will changing the angle at which the clarinet is held. None of these changes make large differences in the pitch; for larger differences, the player relies on alternate fingerings.

Physical Alterations If the clarinet is consistently sharp, the player should pull slightly at the joints, the barrel, the middle joint, and the bell, although the lower joints have less effect. If the throat tones are in tune and the middle register sharp, the middle joint may be pulled to improve the intonation of the middle register. However, pulling too much can add to intonation problems rather than eliminate them; for example, middle-line B≤ uses only one-fourth of the clarinet tube as its vibrating chamber, so pulling affects this four times as much as it affects the B natural one half-step above, which uses all the tube for its vibrating chamber. Adding tuning discs to correct sharpness lengthens the clarinet without forming air pockets. A shorter barrel primarily raises the throat tones and the left-hand notes. A barrel that is too short produces the same general problems as if the player had failed to pull the barrel sufficiently: throat tones or the entire register will be faulty and excessively sharp. Conversely, pulling the barrel too much will flatten the throat tones.

Other Factors Other factors that may affect pitch relate to reeds, position of instrument, and use of the jaw, the most common being: 1.

2. 3.

A cheap mouthpiece may play extremely sharp. If the throat tones, G, G≥, and A, are out of tune, the fault may be with the mouthpiece rather than with the instrument. The tone chamber—that part of the mouthpiece that is immediately below the air entrance—is not proportioned correctly for the clarinet. A mouthpiece with a bore slightly smaller than that of the instrument will raise the pitch of notes in the lower register. A mouthpiece bore slightly larger than that of the instrument will lower the pitch of the low notes. The diameter of the barrel also makes a discernible difference in intonation as well as in tone quality.

TONE QUALITY In the spectrum of instrumental sound, the clarinet’s unique contribution is a quality that has both an edge and a large, full sound. Those who want to make the clarinet always sound mellow or who want a personal, romantic sound from the instrument fail to understand and appreciate its tonal possibilities. The clarinet sounds like a clarinet due to the odd-numbered partials sounding. When a low F concert is played (see Figure 18.9) the second partial, the FIGURE 18.9 octave, is not present. The third partial, C concert, is sounded and becomes the predominant B≤ clarinet: the oddnumbered partials when a pitch when the register key is depressed, as well as the fifth, seventh, and ninth (A, E≤, and low F concert is played G). This effect is due to the clarinet’s being a cylindrical pipe, closed at one end. Other wind instruments are either conical, having the same acoustical properties as open pipes (that is, sounding all partials), or a combination of conical and cylindrical that results in a combination of odd- and even-numbered partials sounding. Hearing good clarinet tone is desirable but apparently not essential in concept formation, as students have been known to overcome a variety of models heards online. The notes D, E, and F at the top of the staff are considered model tones for tone production. Good tone is accomplished by practicing sustained tones, first within a narrow range then gradually enlarging the range as skill increases. An occasional good tone does not constitute good playing: tone quality must be attractive at all times and in all registers. It is easier for teachers to focus their attention on the more objective elements of performance, such as technique and dynamics, than to encourage good tone. Variables in good tone production are the instrument and reed, the mouthpiece, the player’s lip and facial structure, the embouchure, breath support, the amount of mouthpiece in the mouth, and the angle at which the clarinet is held. The speed of the air determines the intensity of the tone, and good tone demands intensity. A small, flaccid tone is a result of playing with little air support. The beginner should play with as much air, or as big a sound, as possible. The player should learn to control the tone gradually, to focus it, and to reduce the volume while still keeping the intensity in the tone. Overblowing causes harsh sounds and incorrect intonation, especially in the high register. If the embouchure is correctly formed, the air support/pressure should be as great as the muscles of the lips and jaw will allow. An open throat aids in the production of good tone. This is often taught with the help of vowels, an “ah” for the lower pitches and progressing toward “ee” as the pitch rises. The vowel “ee” helps to lift the tongue and compress the space through which the air must travel, thus helping to achieve the rapid air necessary for the high register tones. This vowel change, with its corresponding change of tongue position, can be acquired by practicing slurs of a tenth or a twelfth.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 244

244

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

A good clarinet sound is generally described as being somewhere on a continuum between “dark” and “brilliant”— with a tone on the brilliant side being that most preferred. Others claim that the best clarinet tone is somewhat on “top of the pitch”—that is, approaching being sharp. Therefore, according to this theory, the player should play on top of the tone at all times. The only way to make the pitch any sharper at that degree of intensity would be to tighten the lip, producing a pinched sound and sacrificing tone quality. Few approve of vibrato on clarinet. There are times, however, when it is appropriate. Traditionally the diaphragm vibrato has been preferred; however, most jazz clarinetists use jaw vibrato.

The Clarinet Mouthpiece Double-reed players blame all faults on their reeds, clarinet players on their mouthpieces. The average player is advised to buy a good standard mouthpiece and adjust to it. The teacher should know what to look for in a good mouthpiece and what possible troubles may arise from poor or inadequate equipment. Many instrumental teachers request that the local music retailers supply a specific model mouthpiece with all clarinets sold or rented to their students. The slight difference in cost is built into the contract. A clarinet mouthpiece is illustrated in Figures 18.10 and tip rail 18.11. Mouthpieces may be made from a variety of materials: baffle side rail plastics of several kinds and rubber. Crystal mouthpieces come and go in popularity. Currently they are extremely popular chamber window among jazz clarinet players in Europe. An open crystal throat mouthpiece with a medium-hard reed is used to get a breathy table tone quality. Probably the best mouthpiece for the average student is made of hard rod rubber. It retains its shape, plays easily, and has the strongest fundamentals and more overtones than mouthpieces made from other materials. bore Mouthpieces with shiny inside surfaces are usually molded rubber or plastic, and to date have not been successful because FIGURE 18.10 Clarinet mouthpiece viewed from they warp easily. Warping, on better mouthpieces, is caused the top and side by temperature changes and by the ligature being consistently put on too tightly. Some temperature changes cannot be avoided, but one can avoid washing the mouthpiece in hot water. Although on an average mouthpiece the width of the open window is 11.5 millimeters and that of the tip is 11.0 millibeak tip opening tip rail bore meters, there is no foolproof formula—the mouthpiece tip medium open shank reed opening, for instance, varies from 0.9 to 1.5 millimeters. Knowchamber medium ledge, experience, instinct, and trial and error are required. If the side rails of the mouthpiece are not identical, the medium close facing clarinet will squeak. Where a set of feelers (used in checking pad closings) is available, the mouthpiece is placed on a piece close of glass and the feelers pulled through to determine whether there is an equal amount of resistance. Another way of checking medium medium medium long short long the rails and facing is to blow on a piece of glass or mirror so that it clouds over, then place the mouthpiece face down and roll toward the tip. When the mouthpiece is carefully removed FIGURE 18.11 Clarinet mouthpiece viewed from the side, showing tip openings between reed and tip rail and length of from the glass, the points of contact can be checked by the side rails or facing. Used by permission of Vandoren Paris impression left on the glass. The tip rail at the very end of the © 2000, from www.vandoren.com/Products/products.htm mouthpiece should be about 11⁄32 inch thick; excessive squeaking may be due to the fact that the tip rail is too thin. On the other hand, if the tip rail is too thick, there will be too much resistance. The tone produced will be a soft, clear tone, attractive to the beginning player, but not a characteristic clarinet tone. The lay of the mouthpiece determines the amount of opening between the reed and the tip of the mouthpiece; it makes a large difference in the kind of sound produced. A wide variety of lays, or facings, are available because different people prefer different clarinet sounds. Some recommend the close, short French lay; “short” because the tip of the mouthpiece curves away from the reed a short distance; “close” because the opening that results at the very end of the mouthpiece is narrow. This lay is preferred because it is easier to control and does not require as much pressure.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 245

THE CLARINET

245

Such a detailed discussion of the lay may seem unnecessary, but it is important because in a mouthpiece the lay itself and its relationship to the bore are the most important factors in sound production. For example, the quicker the mouthpiece curves away from the reed (usually making it more open), the harder the reed needed, and consequently, the more difficulty there is in controlling the tone. The average mouthpiece is the medium French, with a lay of about 18 millimeters in length. With a longer lay, the tip should be closer so that a long facing is not combined with too open a tip. A long, open lay would require such a soft reed that good control of the tone would be almost impossible; the sound would be easier to produce but the tone would have less body. A short, closed lay generally produces a harsh tone quality. The tone chamber at the bottom of the curve of the mouthpiece influences the quality of the tone. A tone chamber with a small bore will tend to have a brilliant tone with an edge, and a pitch that is somewhat sharp. A tone chamber with a large bore produces a still more brilliant tone, but the quality is broader, with less edge. This latter sound is better for band work because it blends well with other instrumental timbres. The typical intonation produced by a large tone chamber is a flat chalumeau and clarion register, and a slightly sharp high register. The small tone chamber, conversely, produces opposite intonation effects, a flat high register, and somewhat sharp low and middle registers. The following list of mouthpiece faults is a guide for locating possible sources of common playing difficulties.3

Excessive Squeaks May Be Due To 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

a vent that is too straight; a thin tip rail; a facing that is too short; a convex baffle near tip rail; an uneven facing; an irregular tip rail; a facing that is too open.

Hard Blowing May Be Due To 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

a wide tip rail; an excessively curved vent; a baffle that is too concave; a baffle that is convex; the pivot in the facing is too close to the tip.

A Rough Tone May Be Due To 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

an unduly flat facing; a facing that is too open; a facing that is too long; a facing that is both too open and too long; an extremely concave curve in the baffle.

The taper of the barrel may be at fault if the problem is thin tone quality in the upper register or extremely coarse tone in the lower register. Intonation problems most characteristic of barrel trouble are these: If the clarinet appears to be a good instrument except for a tendency to sharpness in the upper register, there is a good chance that the bore of the barrel is too large at the mouthpiece end for the instrument. If throat tones have a tendency to sharpness in an otherwise satisfactory instrument, the barrel is probably too small at the end that joins the clarinet body. Jazz musicians agree that the advertised “jazz mouthpieces” are “snake oil.” Most use the same mouthpiece for jazz and classical playing. A “jazz sound” on the clarinet consists merely of alterations in articulation, rhythm, and drive. A distinct feature of classical playing, on the other hand, is its emphasis on balance and blend—fitting into the band and orchestra.

TECHNIQUE: ARTICULATIONS AND FINGERINGS Few successful musicians rate technique as more important to performance than good tone quality and expressive playing. Technique, however, is the control with which the performer manages the mechanized piece of expensive wood that is the clarinet. Technique can be fast and flashy, and many young clarinetists are impressed by such playing and focus their energy on developing it. Rapid practice merely enables the student to perform bad habits more rapidly.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 246

246

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

The most popular method, and some would argue only, of tonguing is to touch the reed with the tip of the tongue about one-eighth inch down from the tip of the reed. Beginners should be encouraged to touch the reed gently, just enough to stop the vibration. When tonguing is introduced, the instructor explains that the tongue is like a switch that merely touches the reed to stop the vibration and then allows it to vibrate. The tongue moves to the bottom of the mouth to let the reed vibrate and returns to touch the reed to stop the vibration. Encourage students to play quarter notes while blowing air through the clarinet as if playing whole notes, while the tongue touches the reed gently on each beat. This approach, legato tonguing, prevents the bad habit of starting and stopping the note with the tongue. It is particularly important for the player to think about pitches when tonguing. Because playing is like singing, the player invariably thinks of a syllable, and the syllable formed will influence the type of tone produced. The type of articulation executed, from legato to marcato, depends on how the tongue touches the reed; the amount of air determines the dynamic level as well as the style of articulation. Only the forward part of the tip of the tongue need move; excessive movement from the tongue or the jaw will reduce tonguing speed and control and can result in a tight throat, further affecting both tonguing and tone quality. The tongue should remain relaxed and resting at the bottom of the mouth as much of the time as possible. As players progress, they will not try to form “t” with each stroke but will relax the tip of the tongue over the tip of the mouthpiece and let the movement itself become more flexible, omitting the hard, time-consuming “t” sound before the vowel. A softer, “d” sound becomes more the norm. Heavy, harsh tonguing is a major problem for many players. Directors may inherit these players and need suggestions for curing their faults. The use of legato studies and legato tonguing is one possibility. Another is to instruct students to coordinate their breathing with the tongue touching the reed. If air pressure is built up before the tongue “opens” the reed, an explosive articulation occurs.

Fingerings Technique involves the development of correct, appropriate tonguings and the development of accurate fingerings. Simple scalewise and arpeggiated exercises for finger dexterity can be created by the teacher. Repeating a scalewise pattern over and over (up or down) and starting on different notes of the scale provide practice on lifting one finger at a time and then closing several together (or in descending, vice versa). Occasionally, however, there is no alternative to the fingers sliding from one key to another. If a finger is raised and then presses another key, a “grace note” will usually sound or tempo/articulations will be impaired. The most common problem of this sort is playing an F≥ to an A in the throat register without sounding a G between the two. The “diabolus in musica” (the tritone) was the most dreaded element in music in the Middle Ages; today, it can be helpful in teaching beginning clarinetists to cross “the break,” that is, playing from the B≤ in the staff to the vast realm of unknown notes above. Though students are anxious about crossing the break; that is a learned fear. If students are playing confidently in the chalumeau and throat registers, it is merely a matter of pressing the register key with the side of the thumb to play notes above the break. Having students play in the low register (low F to C) and then activate the register key is a much easier way to cross the break than to approach it scalewise; playing from second-space A to the third-line B requires changing from one key pressed with the left index finger to nine holes/keys pressed with eight fingers and a thumb. The right hand can continue to cover the tone holes/keys while playing the throat tones to reduce finger movement. Many alternate fingerings are possible on clarinet. The instrumental music teacher should recommend alternatives when the need arises (e.g., to make rapid passages and trills easier and cleaner). The most common alternate fingerings are contained in the fingering chart at the end of this chapter.

REEDS Clarinet players often become as fussy about selection and care of reeds as Stradivarius was about the varnish on his violin. Much of the concern over finding the right reed is unnecessary; the average student should select a brand and a strength that works well and stick with it. Contrary to common wisdom, even jazz clarinetists use medium-strength reeds. It is nearly impossible to tell by looking at a reed whether it has the desired qualities. Green cane will absorb water readily and give a fuzzy tone, yet some artists like cane with a slightly green tint because it offers more resistance. The cane needs to be sufficiently dry, and spotted cane is often thought to indicate dryness. Coarse-grained cane, however, which is golden and spotted, soaks water readily and gives a harsh tone and is therefore no more desirable than green cane. The generally accepted characteristics that mark a good piece of reed cane are (1) straight grain; (2) heavy fibers evenly spaced; and (3) gold or darker color. Mottled or streaked cane is not necessarily bad when these spots are on the bark. Holding prospective reeds to the light to find those that have a well-balanced fiber structure is a good practice,

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 247

THE CLARINET

247

but it is virtually impossible to obtain a reed that will be perfect without some additional work. One can wet reeds and expose them to sunlight for additional curing. After well-aged golden cane with straight, even grain has been selected, the next problem is to obtain the proper degree of stiffness. The lay of the mouthpiece influences the appropriate playing stiffness of the reed; and each reed, being slightly different, will have to be placed slightly differently on the mouthpiece. General guidelines can nevertheless be established. Teachers who do not play the clarinet often recommend softer reeds, probably from lack of personal experience, but a stiffer reed (21⁄2 or 3) will produce a better embouchure if used from the beginning. Further, cane can be scraped or shaved from a reed, but cannot be added. The strength numbers cannot be taken as absolute; strengths vary. After selecting the reed, the player should be able to make minor adjustments to it. To add life and resistance, a new reed should be well soaked with saliva. Then the back of the reed should be immediately massaged by the finger for about 30 seconds, or pressed hard on a piece of glass and rubbed vigorously up and down with the forefinger. The massaging closes the pores and prevents the reed from becoming soaked too quickly. The stock of the reed is about three inches long. The tip of the reed is about onetip eighth of an inch long and should not contain any fiber that runs the length of the reed. If the fibers or grains come closer to the end than one-eighth of an inch, the reed profile will tend to have a coarse sound; if they do not extend this close to the end but stop heart farther down on the reed, making the tip more than one-eighth inch deep, the reed will not have enough resiliency. The heart extends to within one-quarter inch from vamp the end of the reed (Figure 18.12). shoulder A good reed clipper, one that has the same cut as the mouthpiece, is necessary for successful work on reeds. The two cutting surfaces of the clipper should come exactly together—the cutting blade should not pass under the cutting edge but should strike stock it evenly so that clean cuts occur. Fine sandpaper or garnet paper can be used for sanding dry reeds; Dutch rush is used when the reed is wet. The end of the rush is used to butt remove specific spots, or it can be used lengthwise for broader areas. Before working on the reed to correct apparent faults, it should be moved around on the mouthpiece FIGURE 18.12 and played in each position. For example, if the lower notes are heavy sounding, the Parts and areas of the clarinet reed reed may be moved lower on the mouthpiece, decreasing resistance. If this does not (same as saxophone) help, it may be moved slightly to one side of the lay. An extremely slight movement is all that is necessary. Shifting the center even minutely changes all of the dimensions of the reed. If moving it does not produce satisfactory results, then one can chop and scrape. The two principal approaches to modifying a reed are sanding thick spots to a uniform thickness and clipping to alter the tip. To determine whether the reed is even or whether it has thick, heavy spots that need to be sanded, the reed may be flexed on the thumbnail. The following checklist includes reed problems that can be minimized or corrected by scraping. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7.

8.

If the sides of the reed are uneven, the player will blow harder because of the stiffer side, making the weaker side vibrate too fast and causing the reed to feel soft. Sand the stiffer side so that it matches the weaker side. Low register: if the reed responds well except in the low register, remove some cane at the beginning of the cut. If the low notes are harsh with proper response, shave the entire reed. High register: if high notes respond but are sluggish, thin the tip of the reed; if high notes fail to respond, work just below the point of resistance. Staccato: if the staccato is poor, the reed is too heavy and should be sanded; if staccato is sluggish, there is a hard spot in the tip. If the reed has a good forte but sounds tubby or otherwise poor when played piano, the tip or the left side is probably too thick. If the reed blows hard, go over the entire reed; if it has a good sound but is a little too heavy, work on the lower edge, right side, to thin it down. If the reed gives a poor response, shift it slightly first to one side then the other to see if any improvement occurs; one side being stronger than the other may cause the poor response. If the reed squeaks, one side is too resistant in the heart. Because this reed will have to be discarded if sanding cannot improve it, the player can feel free to work on the heart area to see if the squeak can be eliminated with some judicious sanding. Ordinarily the heart of the reed should be left alone, as faulty intonation will result if too much wood is taken off this area. If a reed causes faulty intonation, the heart is generally the cause and almost nothing can be done except to discard the reed. If the intonation fault is very minor, lightening the side of the reed may correct it. If the reed is too stiff, sand on the sides near the tip. The tip plus the heart governs staccato, freedom, pitch, and squeaking.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 248

248

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

The following defects can be improved or eliminated by clipping the tip of the reed, although clipping can add problems by changing the reed’s proportions. In using the clipper, the reed should be damp and drawn down from the blade of the clipper. After clipping, the tip is often somewhat rough, but this can be smoothed down with garnet paper (Number 8–9) when the reed is dry. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

The tone is thin and nasal. The reed closes up on high notes, response is stuffy, or generally makes playing the high notes difficult. High notes are flat. Clip the reed about 1 millimeter at a time, and scrape when it becomes necessary. The reed plays too freely. Trim it down and then work it over with Dutch rush. The reed is soft when playing forte passages, and too heavy or strong for pianissimo passages. Trim the tip or take some off at the lower left side. The tone is buzzy. Trim the tip at each side slightly. However, buzzing usually indicates that the reed is very old or else split—throw it away.

Rotate reeds daily, keeping from four to six good reeds on hand and using a different one each day. Not only does this prolong the life of the reed but also it keeps the player’s embouchure in better shape. When the same reed is used continually, the player tends to adjust the embouchure to it as it gradually alters, so that by the time the reed must be discarded the embouchure may be distinctly different than when the reed was new. A few things can be done to rejuvenate an old reed. It can: (1) be cleaned; (2) have a groove put in its back under the ligature screws and the ligature tightened somewhat more than normal; and (3) be placed in a hydrogen peroxide solution until the solution stops bubbling, then rinsed in cold water.

Emergencies If the reed is squeaking during a concert, blowing some saliva into the mouthpiece between the rails and the reed and sucking it out just before the clarinet’s entrance in the music will usually eliminate the danger of squeaks. A partial solution to a soft reed is to keep the head up and the clarinet down—allowing more reed in the mouth and placing the lower jaw farther down on the mouthpiece than the upper teeth. With this change of embouchure, one can apply more pressure without closing the reed, as the lower jaw is positioned nearer the heart of the reed (thus allowing the softer reed greater vibrancy and liveliness of sound). The placement of the ligature can influence the stiffness of a reed; try raising the ligature if the reed is too stiff and lowering it if the reed is too soft.

WHAT TO PRACTICE Practicing is the same for jazz or classical performers. If tonguing is practiced, it should be based on the concept that the tongue is used to stop the vibrations of the reed, then “releasing” the reed to allow the air to vibrate it. One approach 4 to fast, even tonguing is to tongue on the first beat of each 4 measure and to rest the tongue on the three succeeding beats without lessening the breath support. The player gradually tongues closer together—on every other beat, then every beat, and so on—as the tongue muscles develop. Any attempt to tongue short notes by using a “hard” tongue creates tension and reduces control. The tongue does not close off the reed during staccato tonguing; the airstream continues through the mouthpiece. The tongue’s movement away from the reed is what produces the desired effect, not the tongue touching the reed. A warm-up routine is valuable to get the air moving and the reed responsive. Long tones are essential for development of tone quality at various dynamic levels and in different registers. Students should start a note (alternating registers) as softly as possible, crescendo for a specific number of beats, decrescendo for an equal number of bears, and fade to air. As new literature makes more demands on clarinet articulations (speed), many clarinetists learn to double tongue. It is similar to the procedures described in “Brass Principles” (Chapter 21), but on the clarinet, because the tongue works as a valve, the “tah” syllabic is used as a valve on the reed, and the “kah” is used as a valve on the throat (or back of the mouth). Students should start by repeating “tah-kah” over and over while riding the bus, watching television, and so on, then apply the tongue to the mouthpiece with the barrel striving for evenness—starting slowly and gradually increasing tempo. Finally, add the instrument and play double-tongue exercises. Slow octave slurs are useful for students as they develop endurance, greater air intake (striving to lengthen the notes over time), control of intonation, control of the extremes of dynamics, and improved tone quality. Warm-ups are not limited to long tones—arpeggios, technique exercises, rhythm patterns, and awkward fingering passages are all part of a systematic warm-up.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 249

THE CLARINET

249

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF THE CLARINET All clarinets should be swabbed with a weighted silk, cotton, or linen swab after each use. Residual moisture will combine with dust and lint particles in the air to form a layer of sediment that gradually builds up in the bore, mouthpiece, and tone holes. This layer of dirt and sediment will make noticeable differences in the intonation of the affected notes and also a noticeable difference in the odor of the clarinet. Swabbing should not be overdone—too much will wear down the bore of wooden instruments and round the edge of the tenons where the swab enters the instrument. A few times through with the swab is sufficient. Damage can also occur from dropping the metal weight of the swab into the clarinet, which after a while may chip the walls of the bore. Even tiny differences in the bore affect the instrument’s response; chips in the mouthpiece are even more serious. The mouthpiece, the most crucial part of the clarinet, should be treated with special care. The silk, cotton, or linen swab should be twisted and drawn through the mouthpiece (no weight). A chamois or the string on the swab should never be used to swab the mouthpiece, as the sharp edges will wear away with the continual application of the heavy material. Mouthpieces can be cleaned satisfactorily by running lukewarm water through them or by swabbing with a soft linen handkerchief. The mouthpiece will warp if left lying in the sun or close to a radiator. The reed should never be allowed to dry on the mouthpiece; it should be stored in a commercial holder that allows it to dry properly. Because swabbing does not rid the tone holes of accumulated moisture, a piece of coffee filter, cigarette paper, or a dollar bill can be kept in the case to blot the water from under the pads. The paper can also be used to clean pads by closing the pad gently on the paper and holding it for a few seconds. Tone holes should be cleaned every month or so, using cotton ear swabs or a satisfactory substitute. Abrasive materials enlarge the tone hole, causing the pitch to rise. The advisability of oiling the clarinet is debatable. A well-aged instrument adequately cured during the manufacturing process may never crack from lack of swabbing after use, but there are other reasons why the instrument should be oiled. Moisture from the player’s breath penetrates the wood and will in time affect the resonating quality of the wood. Instruments dry out in heated homes during the winter. A clarinet should be oiled more often when new—perhaps as often as every two months—with a minute amount of olive oil or commercial bore oil. Oiling is accomplished by placing a few drops of oil on a swab and running the swab through the barrel and through the upper and lower joints and bell. Gradually, the oiling can be eliminated—twice a year is probably enough for a clarinet that has had good treatment. The chief disadvantage of oiling too often is that oil may get on pads and rot or harden them; oil may also add to the accumulation of dirt and lint on the key mechanism. Some shrinkage that may loosen posts and the rings on the ends of the joints can be expected to take place. When the tenon rings become loose, they should be tightened by inserting a small ring of cloth or paper under the ring to prevent the instrument from expanding and cracking. One should not be fooled if the bell or other ring has been crimped on and cannot be rotated—this offers no protection if it can be determined that it no longer fits. Moving parts of the keys should be oiled very lightly every three to six months, depending on the use the instrument gets. If the climate is humid, a small amount of oil should occasionally be applied to the steel springs to prevent rusting. Springs become worn with time. They can be temporarily rejuvenated by carefully bending them. The cork tenons should be sparingly greased. Post screws should be loosened and retightened once a year to prevent jamming, so that when a pad needs to be replaced, the screw can be unscrewed instead of drilled out. Equipment in the clarinet case should include: (1) a camphor stick to help control humidity and prevent tarnishing of the keys; (2) cork grease; (3) a small screwdriver; (4) extra reeds; (5) a swab; (6) a pencil; and (7) possibly a lyre. In addition, a handkerchief in the case, spread over the clarinet, will protect the case lining from discoloration due to tarnishing keys and add a layer of insulation for the instrument. An outside covering for the case of any wooden instrument helps preserve the expensive case and offers protection against the effects of extreme temperature changes. When clarinets are brought in out of the cold they should be allowed to warm in the case before they come into contact with the even warmer human breath. A good rule would be never to take a quality wooden instrument outside unless it is in a case. A check on the condition of the clarinet is to play the chromatic scale through the entire range of the instrument, listening carefully for fuzzy notes caused by swollen pads or keys that have become bent and are opening too far or not far enough. A light or a feeler should be used on each key. An important caveat for clarinetists is that not everyone should feel compelled to be an instrument repairperson.

HEALTH ISSUES The right thumb supports almost the entire weight (about 28 ounces) of the clarinet while playing, the rest being distributed between the mouth area and the left thumb. Significant weight on the right thumb can lead to pain in the wrist, hand, and arm. Stretching the hand and arm muscles prior to and during practice and performances can help alleviate some

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 250

250

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

of the pain. Additionally, a number of tools have been developed to help clarinetists deal with this pain, including neck straps, thin pegs long enough to reach either the floor or a chair attached to the clarinet at one end, and larger thumb rests that better distribute the weight of the instrument. Of course, it’s important to check that the clarinet is resting on the thumb and not on the thumb nail. Because the right thumb may not adequately support the instrument, some young and not-so-young clarinetists tend to bite down on the mouthpiece, which can lead to tightness in the jaw, potentially causing pain. Some players use cigarette paper or Lip-Ease teeth cushions between their lower lip and the two middle bottom teeth to prevent the bottom lip from being cut. Of course, any increase in the time and amount of practicing and irregular or poor technique can lead to injuries that require rest.

TROUBLESHOOTING Equipment Sticky Pads 1.

2. 3. 4.

Moisture absorbed by pads. (If pad is not damaged, place thin paper between pad and tone hole, press key, and gently pull paper out; repeat several times pulling paper out in different directions. Last resort—apply a slight amount of talcum powder to absorb the moisture being careful to keep it off mechanism.) Bent rods. (Have repaired by competent repairperson.) Worn springs. (Have replaced by competent repairperson.) Pivot screws at end of rods may need oiling (one drop); occasionally they must be loosened and oiled, then retightened.

Pads Not Seating 1.

2. 3.

Leaking pads. (If pads are in good shape, heat back of key with match to melt “glue” and hold pad down firmly to correctly reseat—use soft rag over hot key; readjustment of the mechanism may be necessary to align keys; bent rods to be repaired by competent repairperson.) Worn springs. (Have repaired by repairperson.) Brittle, hardened, or torn pads. (Have replaced.)

Gurgling Sound 1.

2.

Water collected in tone hole(s) loosen pads that normally remain closed. (Open appropriate pad, quickly blow water into bore; clean with a pipe cleaner or use cigarette paper to absorb water.) This can usually be avoided by frequent, preventive swabbing. Consistent water in one tone hole may indicate a path to that key; careful oiling or thorough swabbing may change the path.

Tone Squeaks 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Reed crooked on mouthpiece. (Realign reed.) Too much mouthpiece in mouth. (Correct embouchure.) Tone holes not covered. (Correct finger position.) Bent bridge key preventing pads on lower joint from closing. (Have repaired by competent repairperson.) Leaky pads. (Replace or have replaced.) Bad reed. (Try another reed.) Inadvertently pressing side key with hand. (Correct holding position.) Mouthpiece problems: (A) (B) (C) (D)

facing (or lay) which is too short; an uneven facing; a facing which is too open; an irregular, thin, tip rail.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 251

THE CLARINET

251

Small, Pinched Sound 1. 2. 3. 4.

Biting on reed. (Firm lips around mouthpiece while trying to drop jaw as if playing flat.) Not enough reed in mouth. (Experiment to find the best and most appropriate sound.) Throat/oral cavity too tight. (Hold shoulders down; keep tongue high inside mouth.) Reed too soft. (Try a harder reed, or clip tip of reed.)

Squawky, Loud Sound 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Not enough lower lip over teeth. (Correct embouchure.) Lips around mouthpiece not firm enough, especially corners. (Correct embouchure.) Bad reed—usually too soft, or poorly made. Mouthpiece is too open at tip. (Try a different mouthpiece.) Too much breath—overblowing. (Correct breathing.) Low tongue position. (Raise tongue in mouth.)

Hard, Strident Sound 1. 2.

Reed too hard. (Try softer reed or scrape reed.) Lay is too open and/or too long on mouthpiece. (Try another mouthpiece.)

Control Of Soft 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Not projecting a smooth, steady airstream into the instrument. (Check and correct breathing.) Reed too soft. (Try harder reed or clip the reed.) Mouthpiece too open at tip. (Try different mouthpiece.) Poorly shaped or too tight embouchure. (Work on all aspects of the embouchure.) Cheeks puffing. (Firm up corners of mouth to flatten chin and keep cheeks flat.) Upper teeth not on mouthpiece. (Correct embouchure.) On “throat tones.” (Try adding right-hand keys to notes.)

Of Loud 1. Underdeveloped embouchure—usually too loose or flabby. (Do not demand too much too soon; allow development; encourage and provide material for embouchure development.) 2. Overblowing. (Do not try to force too much air into instrument.) 3. Angle of mouthpiece too high or head too low. (Hold head erect; keep instrument no more than 45 degrees from body.) 4. Too much mouthpiece in mouth. (Correct embouchure.)

Pitch Sharp 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Embouchure too tight or biting on reed. (Correct embouchure.) Reed too hard. (Try softer reed or scrape reed.) Barrel too short. (Try longer barrel.) Embouchure not relaxed enough for softer passages. Clarinet held too low. (Correct holding position.) Individual notes: (A) keys too open. (Have instrument readjusted.) (B) dirty tone holes. (Clean with pipe cleaner or needle.) (C) worn corks that determine the opening of keys. (Replace or have replaced.)

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 252

252

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

Flat 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Reed too soft. (Try harder reed.) Clarinet too high or head down. (With head held erect, clarinet should be about 30 degrees from body.) Not enough mouthpiece in mouth. (Correct embouchure.) Not enough air. (Correct breathing—both inhaling and exhaling.) Embouchure not tightening for loud sections. (Correct embouchure—lips, especially corners, firm up for loud.) Barrel too long. (Try shorter barrel.) Individual notes: (A) keys not opening enough. (Have clarinet adjusted.) (B) barrel pulled out too far. (Push in barrel, pull at middle and bell.) (C) dirty tone holes. (Clean with pipe cleaner.)

8.

Insufficient practice.

RESOURCES Websites International Clarinet Association clarinet.org The Clarinet Pages woodwind.org/clarinet World Clarinet Alliance wka-clarinet.org

Texts Anderson, J.E. (1996). Concepts for the Clarinet Teacher: The Study of the Clarinet as a Secondary Instrument for College Music Education Students, 3rd ed. Minneapolis, MN: Jeanne. Bok, H. (2011). New Techniques for the Bass Clarinet. Place of Publication Not Identified: Shoepair Music Productions. Bonade, D. and L. Guy (eds.). (2007) The Complete Daniel Bonade. Stony Point, NY: Rivernote. Brymer, J. (2001). Clarinet. London: Kahn & Averill. Gold, C.V. (1997). Clarinet Performing Practices and Teaching in the United States and Canada, rev. ed. Akron, OH: University of Akron Press. Heim, N.M. (1993). Ornamentation for the Clarinetist. Hyattsville, MD: Norcat Music. ––– (2006). Clarinet Literature in Outline. Las Vegas, NV: Van Cott Information Services. Hoeprich, E. (2008). The Clarinet. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Kroll, O. (1968). The Clarinet. R. Kielhard, Trans. New York, NY: Taplinger. Lawson, C. (ed.) (1996). The Cambridge Companion to the Clarinet. London: Cambridge University Press. Pino, D. (1998). The Clarinet and Clarinet Playing. New York, NY: Dover Publications; reprint of 1980 ed., New York, NY: Scribner. Platamone, V. (2001). Clarinet and Saxophone Reed Adjustments, 2nd ed. Prescott, AZ: Author. Rehfeldt, P. (1990). Study Materials for Clarinet, 3rd ed. Mentone, CA: Mill Greek Music. ––– (1977/2003). New Directions for Clarinet, rev. ed. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Rendall, F.G. (1954). The Clarinet: Some Notes Upon its History and Construction, 2nd rev. ed. New York, NY: Philosophical Library. Rice, A. (1992). The Baroque Clarinet. New York, NY: Oxford. ––– (2008). The Clarinet in the Classical Period. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; reprint of 2003 ed. Richmond, S. (1972). Clarinet and Saxophone Experience. New York, NY: St. Martin’s. Ridenour, T. (2002). The Educator’s Guide to the Clarinet, 2nd ed. Duncanville, TX: Author. Smith, W. (1993). The B-flat Clarinet. Seattle, WA: Parkside. Spratt, J. (1981). How to Make Your Own Clarinet Reeds, 2nd ed. Old Greenwich, CT: Jack Spratt Woodwind Shop. Stein, K. (1958). The Art of Clarinet Playing. Miami, FL: SummyBirchard. Stier, C. (1991). Clarinet Reeds: Definitive Instruction in an Elusive Art. Olney, MD: Halcyon. Strom, Y., (ed.) (2012). Shpil: The Art of Playing Klezmer. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow. Stubbins, W.H. (1974). The Art of Clarinetistry: The Acoustical Mechanics of the Clarinet as a Basis for the Art of Music Performance, 3rd ed. Ann Arbor, MI: Guillaume. ––– (1976). The Study of the Clarinet: For Soprano, Alto or Bass Clarinet, 5th ed. Ann Arbor, MI: George Wahr. ––– (1991). The Study of the Clarinet: An Introduction to the Problems of Clarinet Playing. Troy, MI: Piansano. Thurston, F. (1985). Clarinet Technique, 7th ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Tose, G. (1962). Artistic Clarinet: Technique and Study. Hollywood, CA: Highland Music. Vagner, R. (1966). Single Reed Guide for the Clarinet and Saxophone Player. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Book Stores. Westin, P. (1976). The Clarinet Teacher’s Companion. London: Robert Hale.

Journals/Associations The Clarinet. Quarterly from the International Clarinet Association: clarinet.org Clarinet and Saxophone Society of Great Britain: cassgb.org

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 253

THE CLARINET

Clarinet Studies Easy/Beginning (Elementary or Middle School) Albert/Pares/Hovey. Daily Exercises for Clarinet (Belwin-Mills). Buck. Elementary Method for Clarinet (Kjos). Cailliet. Elementary Clarinet Method (Leblanc). Hovey. Elementary Method for Clarinet (2 vols.) (Rubank). ––– First Book of Practical Studies (Belwin-Mills). Klosé. Celebrated Method for Clarinet (Book I) (C. Fischer). Lester. The Developing Clarinetist (Belwin-Mills). Liegel. Basic Method for Clarinet (C. Fischer). Opperman. Clarinet (Vol. I) (Pro-Art Music). Perier. La Debutante Clarinetistte (A. Leduc). Stubbins. The Study of the Clarinet (George Wahr). Waln. Waln Elementary Clarinet Method (Belwin-Mills).

Medium (Middle or High School) Albert. 24 Varied Scales and Exercises (C. Fischer). Baermann (ed. Langenus). Complete Method for Clarinet (2 vols.) (C. Fischer). ––– Daily Studies (Boosey & Hawkes). Delecluse. 12 Easy Etudes (A. Leduc). Gambaro. 21 Caprices (Billaudot). Gee. Style Etudes and Technical Exercises (Southern Music). Hite. Melodious and Progressive Studies (2 vols.) (Southern Music). Hovey. Second Book of Practical Studies (Belwin-Mills). Jean-Jean. Etudes Progressive and Melodiques (A. Leduc). ––– 16 Modern Etudes (A. Leduc). ––– 25 Etudes Technique and Melodiques (A. Leduc). Klosé. Klosé Method for Clarinet (complete or in 2 parts) (C. Fischer). Lester. The Progressing Clarinetist (C. Fischer). Opperman. Modern Daily Studies (M. Baron). Perron. Daily Exercises (Billaudot). Stark (ed. Barbarino). 24 Studies in All Tonalities (CundyBettoney). Stubbins. 22 Etudes for Clarinet (George Waln).

Advanced (High School or College) Baermann-Langenus. Complete Method for Clarinet (3 vols.) (C. Fischer). Bitsch. Douze Etudes de Rhythm (A. Leduc). Bozza. 14 Etudes (A. Leduc). Cavallini. 30 Caprices (A. Leduc). Delecluse. 14 Grand Etudes (A. Leduc). Faulx. 20 Virtuoso Studies after Bach (Henri Elkan). Gabucci. Dix Etudes Modernes (A. Leduc). ––– 26 Cadences en Forme de Prelude (A. Leduc). Kroepsch (ed. Bellison). Progressive Daily Studies (Books 3 and 4) (G. Fischer).

253

Langenus. Complete Method for the Boehm Clarinet (3 vols.) (C. Fischer). Lazarus. Method for Clarinet (3 vols.) (C. Fischer). Perier. 20 Etudes de Virtuosite (A. Leduc). ––– 21 Etudes Modernes (A. Leduc). ––– 24 Grand Virtuoso Studies (Cundy-Bettoney). ––– 331 Exercises Journaliers de Mecanisme (A. Leduc). Polatschek. Advanced Studies (G. Schirmer). Rose. 40 Studies for Clarinet (Books I and II) (C. Fischer). ––– 32 Studies for Clarinet (C. Fischer).

Instructional Videos Beginning Video for Clarinet (Andrea Bryk, Robert Howe, Mark Freed, 2001). Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard. Belwin 21st Century Band Method: Clarinet, Level 1 (Jack Bullock and Anthony Maiello, 1996). Miami, FL: Warner Brothers Music Publishers. The Clarinet (Ron Reynolds, 2006). Chatsworth, CA: MVP Home Entertainment, 2006. Clarinet in a Masterclass (David Shifrin, 1987). Clarksville, TN: Austin Peay State University. Clarinet with Ron Reynolds for Beginners (Ron Reynolds, 1995). Van Nuys, CA: Backstage Pass Productions. Getting Started with the Clarinet (James Schoepflin, 1996). Spokane, WA: Getting Started Productions. Improving Your Clarinet Section Through the Use of Clarinet Quartets (Dennis Strawley, David Jones, Jim Hefferman: Bb soprano; Jean Gould: Bb bass, 1997). Ft. Mead, MD: U.S. Army Field Band. www.armyfieldband.com/pages/education/clarinet. html The Master Speaks: Clarinet and Saxophone Principles Techniques That Work (Joe Allard, 1987). Seattle, WA: American Motion Pictures. www.youtube.com/watch?v=K-0N7XETP5M Ultimate Beginner Series—Clarinet, Vols. 1 and 2 (Malena Calle, 1998). Miami, FL: Warner Brothers Music.

Recommended Clarinet Artists Sidney Bechet and Johnny Dodds playing New Orleans Dixieland Anthony Braxton and Don Byron playing avant-garde Eduard Brunner playing Copland Milhaud Jack Brymer and Sabine Meyer playing Mozart Larry Combs playing chamber music Buddy DeFranco and Eddie Daniels playing innovative jazz Naomi Drucker playing Babbitt and Kuferman Pete Fountain playing New Orleans Revival Benny Goodman, Woody Herman, and Artie Shaw playing swing Richard Stolzman playing Fischer and Poulenc Frankie Teschemacher playing Chicago Dixieland

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 254

254

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

Clarinet Parts

NOTES 1. 2. 3.

FIGURE 18.13 Clarinet parts

Stein, K. (1958). The Art of Clarinet Playing. Miami, FL: Summy-Birchard, 6. Pino, D. (1980). The Clarinet and Clarinet Playing. New York, NY: Scribner, 21–22. Ritchie, R. (1961). The Clarinet Mouthpiece, The Instrumentalist, 66, Nov.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 255

THE CLARINET

Clarinet Fingering Chart

A 1

G#

R

2 TR 4 TR 3 TR 2 TR 1

T 3 C# C E F# 1

Back

2

B F#

3

E

G#

F

T1 T1 2 2 3 3 E E 1 2 3 F

1 2 3

T1 2 3

T1 2 3 1 2 3 F

1 2 3 E

T1 2 3 C

T1 T 1 T1 2 2 2 3 3 3 F F

(

1 2 3

1 2 3 F

T1 2 3

T1 2 3

T1 2 3

1 2

1

1

T1 2 3

(

1 1 2 2 3 3 F

(

T1 2 3

T1 2 3

T 1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3 G

T1 2 3

T1 2 3 C

( T1 2

(

2 3 B

T1 T1 2 D



1

T1

T

T

1

T

open

G





TG

A

2 3 Tr1

3 Tr 1 & 2

1 or 2

Tr = trill keys

3 Tr2

Tr3

255

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 256

256

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

RA RA 2

A

T 1 T1 T1 R2 R2 R2 3 3 3 E E 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 F E

Tr3

T1 R2 3

T1 R2 3

1 2

1

A3

RA 2 3

T1 R2 3

Tr4

Tr3

1 2 3 F

T1 T1 R2 R2 3 3

T1 R2 3

T1 R2 3 C 1 2 3

RA

Tr4

T1 T1 R2 R2 3 C 1 2

1 2

T1 R2 3 F 1 2 3 F

T1 R2

T1 R2 3 1 2 3 F

T1 R2 3 F 1 2 3

T1 R2 3

T1 R2 3

1 2 3

T1 T1 T T1 R 2 R 2 R2 R 3 D C Tr1 1 or 2

2 3 G

T1 T T R R2 R

T R

T R

T T R2 R 3

D Tr1

1 Tr1 2 Tr2

B (G )

( ) optional

T T TG R 2 R2 R 3 3

T T T R2 R2 R2 3 3 3

1

1

1

T R2 3

T R2 3

T T1 T T R2 R2 R2 R 3 3 3 C C G

1

1 2 3

2 or 3 B G

G

T R2 3

T R2 3

T R2 3

1

1

B G

G

Tr1

2 B G

T1 R2

G

T R2 3

1 1 2 2 F or G F

F

T R2

TG R1 2 C F 1 1 2 or 3 2 G

G

F or F

T A or G R

1

T1 R

T1 RG

1

1

G F or G

F

1 2 3 G

G

T1 TA R2 R2 3 3 C G 1 1 2 2 3 3 F F

T T R2 R 3 C

Tr4

G

T T T R2 R2 R2 R 3 3 3

T1 R2

T R2

T R2 2 3 3 C C 1 2 3 F

TG R2 3 C

G

T R2 D

1 2 G

TG R2 3 C 1 2 3 F

T T T1 R2 R 2 R 3

1 Tr1 1 2 G

G

G

G

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 257

CHAPTER 19

The Saxophone

19

HISTORY The saxophone differs from other instruments in that it did not gradually evolve, but was deliberately invented. It is also far younger than other instruments, being little more than 170 years old, compared to the 35,000-year evolution of the flute and 3,000-year history of the trumpet. When Deshontenelles produced a clarinet with a bent mouthpiece in 1807, and Lazarus a tenoroon in 1820, they created the closest predecessors to the saxophone. In 1840, Adolphe Sax, an instrument craftsman of Brussels, set out to combine a woodwind mouthpiece with a brass body that would have woodwind fingerings. The saxophone, an instrument similar to one created by Miekle some 20 years earlier, was the result, and except for a few minor changes remains today as Sax invented it. Its original popularity has not faded, due to its extreme dynamic range and the possibility for producing a very personal, intimate, and sentimental tone quality well suited to many kinds of music. The instrument stands in a class by itself, being neither brass nor woodwind, having a clarinet mouthpiece, oboelike fingerings, and a brass body. In America, the saxophone was once associated with only jazz and popular music. It is now accepted as a solo instrument of classical music and written for by contemporary orchestral composers.

SELECTING THE INSTRUMENT The entire family of saxophones includes 10 instruments (E≤ sopranino, C and B≤ sopranos; E≤ alto, C melody; B≤ tenor; E≤ baritone; and the B≤ bass, E≤ contrabass, and B≤ subcontrabass), each differing from the others in range, tone, appearance, and playing issues. The most commonly used saxophones include the B≤ soprano, made in curved and straight versions, which sounds one step lower than written notes; the E≤ alto, the most popular and useful of the family, which sounds a major sixth lower; the B≤ tenor, which sounds a ninth lower; and the E≤ baritone, which sounds an octave and a sixth (a thirteenth) lower than the written notation. The principal item to look for in purchasing a saxophone is good-quality workmanship. The horn should be well crafted and of reasonably good-quality metal. The pads should be put on securely and should close without leaks. The resonators on the pads should be carefully attached and centered, there should be no noisy keys, and the tone holes should open evenly. Playing the instrument will show the purchaser the quality of the response and the intonation. New instruments sometimes respond a little stiffly because the springs loosen with use and pads need to be broken in. Neither a new nor a used saxophone should leak air around or under the pads. The key action should be even for all keys, with no “bounce” from the keys when they are released. Replaced springs must be regulated with the others to maintain even action. Bending springs often weakens them. Any drag in the key action is an indication of bent rods or posts that can be costly to repair. Most pads on saxophones are leather and will show signs of wear with use. Torn or scuffed pads should be replaced by a competent repairperson. When purchasing any used wind instrument, the prime considerations are tone quality, intonation (with itself), and response. The guidance of an expert is desirable, preferably a saxophone player well grounded in classical playing. This advice is especially important due to the relatively high cost of upper-line used saxophones. Special keys such as the low A for the baritone saxophone and high F≥ can be obtained on some saxophones. The standard model baritone saxophone with a low B≤ key is recommended for school use, although more and more pieces requiring the low A are finding their way into the high school and middle school repertoire.

ASSEMBLING THE SAXOPHONE The saxophone is not as sturdy as it appears to be. The three sections—mouthpiece, neckpiece (neck), and body of the instrument—are simple to assemble and care for. Assembling the saxophone involves putting the neck onto the body of the instrument. Like the flute, there is no cork on the joint where the two pieces fit together, so forcing or wiggling

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 258

258

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

can damage the metal and alter the fit. The parts fit easily if placed together with a slight turning motion, but the clamp screw must be loosened. All too soon adolescent players learn that with a little force the saxophone can be assembled and the neck moved without loosening the screw. This is not good. Some saxophones have an octave key lever that must go inside the octave key ring on the neck; this ring should not have to be bent because it is adjusted before the instrument leaves the factory, but if it does, it should be taken to a competent repairperson. Often a damaged ring is the result of good intentions backed up by the mistaken belief that the key ring should be round. In careful assembly, the octave key is not depressed and the neck should be put on at approximately the proper angle because turning it too much after it is on the instrument can cause damage. The cork on the neck should be greased to ensure proper fit. The mouthpiece, without the reed or ligature, is put on straight so that the player’s head need not be cocked to either side when playing. The mouthpiece has no regular stopping place on the neck such as a rim or edge beyond which it will not go, so it can be put on a small distance or pushed down nearly to the octave key depending upon the strength and determination of the student and the thickness of the cork. Intonation is directly affected by the distance the mouthpiece goes on the neck and disproportionately affects lefthand placement, so careful listening and tuning are recommended. A pencil mark can be placed on the cork as a starting position for good intonation, but small adjustments will have to be made to accommodate temperature and humidity and to adjust to the pitch of other instruments. Students generally fail to put the mouthpiece on far enough; the cork on a new instrument is initially a little too large to allow for wear and shrinkage. Thus, it is understandable that students may play on instruments that are slightly flat and form bad habits. If the cork is indeed too thick it should be sanded to allow for proper fit of the mouthpiece. The ligature is the metal or synthetic band that holds the reed in its place on the mouthpiece. The ligature screws should be turned only enough to hold the reed centered on the mouthpiece without slipping. Players often FIGURE 19.1 Sitting position for playing the turn the screws as far as they will go, which cuts into the reed and limits the saxophone (saxophone held in front) vibration, making tone quality suffer. The tip of the reed should be about even with the tip of the mouthpiece. Always put the ligature on the mouthpiece before adding the reed to avoid damaging the reed tip. The neck strap is among the most neglected yet essential parts of the saxophone. The alto saxophone is larger and heavier than the flute, trumpet, clarinet, and other beginning instruments. The neck strap should be of sufficient quality and designed to disperse the weight across as much of the neck as possible; an inadequate strap or its lack of adjustment is the cause of many performance problems. A harness that provides added back support is recommended for the larger tenor and baritone saxophones.

HOLDING THE SAXOPHONE Contrary to widespread opinion, the angle of the alto saxophone is correct (whether the player is standing or sitting) when the instrument is held in front of the body and the player’s head is in a normal upright position with the neck relaxed (this position is imperative when standing). When the saxophone is held at the side and the bottom crook of the instrument is pulled too far back, there is tension in the right arm and fingers, and likely a bad embouchure as well. Alto saxophones should be held in front unless the performer’s trunk is so short that the right wrist would be in a cramped position. Holding the instrument directly in front of the player results in fewer errors of posture and position. Positions for holding the saxophone are shown in Figures 19.1 and 19.2. It is not incorrect to play the alto saxophone to the side when seated, although the angle must be less than that of a tenor saxophone. Whether sitting or standing, the mouthpiece must be adjusted so that the head and neck remain in a straightforward, relaxed position. The practice of holding the instrument to the right side

FIGURE 19.2 Sitting position for playing the saxophone (saxophone held to the side)

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 259

THE SAXOPHONE

259

is so prevalent among younger students, that most manufacturers of student-line instruments have redesigned them so that the keys are on the right of the bell. The right arm is positioned slightly back to keep the right hand and wrist relaxed. When the saxophone is held to the side, the player’s chair should be rotated approximately 30 degrees counterclockwise. This chair placement allows rotation of the player’s trunk to the right, more closely approximating the front-held position. The placement of the music stand deserves mention. Both beginning flute and saxophone players can develop poor posture and playing position because of crowded seating conditions. If possible, do not allow saxophonists to share a stand. If they must, be sure that players have adequate room to properly support the instrument and play. The stand should be placed so that the student can comfortably see the music and teacher while maintaining proper posture and carriage. The tenor and baritone saxophones are usually held to the side along the leg, but not pulled all the way back to the hip unless the student is very small. These students must adjust their holding position as they grow physically. When the instrument is held too far back, the right arm is put in an awkward position, creating tension and forcing the head to be buried, which, in turn, restricts the airstream and makes the mouthpiece and reed enter the mouth at an inappropriate angle. For these larger instruments, the head remains in a normal, relaxed position with the mouthpiece straight with the player’s mouth, not straight with the instrument. The tenor and baritone instruments can be held to the side because the neck of the instrument is a different shape and the mouthpiece will enter the mouth at the proper angle. With the larger baritone saxophone, many players will rest the instrument on a specially designed stand. The neck strap should be placed so that it is correctly adjusted when the student is playing in an accurate posture and holding position—the purpose of the neck strap is to support the instrument while playing, not while counting rests. Neck strap adjustment is critical, as a neck strap that is too short can make the head tilt down; one too long provides little support. No alteration of embouchure or hand position should be needed because of the strap. Support comes from two areas: from the right thumb positioned on the thumb rest on the back of the instrument (similar to the clarinet) and from the neck strap attached to a ring midway on the back of the horn. The left hand merely serves to steady the saxophone. The right thumb, resting under the thumb rest, acts as a pivot point minimizing tension and allowing for right-hand flexibility. The thumb, properly placed, is able to steady the saxophone at the place where it contributes most to comfort, good embouchure, and good tone quality. The instrument is held with the left hand above, right hand below, and fingers placed similar to their position on the oboe, except that the pads of the fingers lie on pearl buttons positioned on the keys rather than on open tone holes. Left-hand fingers lie on the second, fourth, and fifth buttons, with the little finger on the G≥ key (Figure 19.3). The left thumb rests below the octave key on a thumb rest at a FIGURE 19.3 Left-hand position for 30- to 45-degree angle, depending on student size, always positioned near the octave playing the saxophone key. The right-hand fingers rest on the lower buttons with the little finger near the E≤/C keys and the thumb under the thumb rest. The fingers should not be flat and hang over the far side of the keys; neither should the hands be drawn away from the instrument so the fingers barely touch the keys. A relaxed arch to the fingers, with the pads of the fingers resting on the keys, will allow the most flexibility and synchronization of movement (Figure 19.4). If the instrument is held too far from the body, not enough of the mouthpiece is in the mouth; if it is held too close to the body, the arms become cramped and tense. Some saxophone teachers advocate an instrument position that allows the tip of the mouthpiece to point slightly upward, resulting in more facile tonguing than when the mouthpiece is more horizontal. To point the tip of the mouthpiece upward, the player holds the instrument closer to the body. Experimentation is necessary to find the angle that produces the best sound with each individual’s embouchure formation. The player should sit or stand comfortably erect (allowing for full chest expansion), shoulders back but relaxed, and breath support from the depth of the abdomen. Saxophonists often lean forward in a tense position with the left shoulder high, right elbow back, and head twisted, with the entire upper torso showing obvious strain. The secret with the saxophone, as with all instruments, is to avoid FIGURE 19.4 Right-hand position for playing the saxophone any position that causes tension.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 260

260

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

EMBOUCHURE The saxophone is among the easiest instruments on which to produce a sound but among the most challenging to master. The student should initially begin to play with only the mouthpiece so that the embouchure is the sole area of concentration. It is important to explain to aspiring saxophone players that their initial sounds may be less than desirable, but at the same time a good teacher provides models (e.g., demonstrations by high school players, recordings, and such) to reveal to the beginners where they should be headed. Beginners should use a reed that is a bit on the soft side, but no softer than a 2 lest improper habits be encouraged. To establish the proper feeling for the embouchure: 1. 2. 3.

4.

The student should vocalize “oou,” then retain this general position while opening the mouth a little wider and pointing the chin. The mouthpiece is then inserted rolling the lower lip over the teeth. An attempt should be made to align the edge of the lip (where the red of the lip meets the flesh-colored part of the chin) to a position directly above the teeth. The lips and corners of the mouth close toward the mouthpiece from all directions and the teeth rest on top of the mouthpiece about a half inch from the tip. Inexpensive nylon or rubber patches are useful in helping the student avoid biting the mouthpiece. The upper lip should close around the mouthpiece and should be held firmly against the eyeteeth. Because most children have an overbite to varying degrees, slightly more of the lip is on the top than on the bottom.

The point where the mouthpiece begins to curve away from the reed is placed directly above the lower teeth. This detail will require experimentation by teacher and student to find the best position for the best sound—a difficult task for beginners. As with the clarinet embouchure, the lower lip should be held firmly against the lower teeth, with a feeling of tautness or “pointing” in the chin. It is important not to jut the lower jaw while trying to point the chin. The sound will be thin and nasal if there is not enough mouthpiece in the mouth, and wild and loud if there is too much. Approximately one-half inch of the mouthpiece should be inserted into the mouth, leaving the reed free to vibrate inside the mouth (see Figure 19.5). Every note requires some minimum jaw support. The secret is to determine the minimum amount of lower jaw necessary. Biting should always be avoided. The student must not rest the saxophone on the lower lip or, worse, on the lower teeth—the teacher should be sure that the student is using the hands FIGURE 19.5 Saxophone embouchure (the right thumb) to push the instrument up and out, anchoring it on the upper teeth. The lower lip and corners push toward the mouthpiece. Donald Sinta recommends cutting a quarter- to half-inch plastic or rubber hose into sections for beginners to hold in their mouths and squeeze to help develop embouchure muscles. One of the best ways to check a student’s embouchure is by pitch. When the alto saxophone mouthpiece is played alone, the pitch produced with a correct embouchure and mouthpiece placement approximates A = 440. If the pitch is too high, the player probably has too tight a grip on the mouthpiece, usually by the lower teeth. If the pitch is too low, the embouchure is not sufficiently developed or there is lack of air support: the player has to learn to play with a firmer embouchure all around the mouthpiece. As students progress they should be encouraged to alter the A played on the mouthpiece alone to a pitch almost a perfect fourth below. Students should be encouraged to play short melodies on their mouthpieces without an extreme or apparent change in the embouchure. Teaching the student to make changes inside the mouth and throat is much like singing. A bad saxophone tone is often caused by using a clarinet embouchure; loosening the tension of the lips and checking for a horizontal pull at the corners of the mouth can help improve the quality. The embouchure for the higher, smaller saxophones is firmer than that for the larger ones, but still not as firm as for the clarinet, though the embouchure for the soprano saxophone is similar to the clarinet. The tongue is also part of the embouchure. It should be relaxed but forward and flat. The tongue does not strike the reed to begin a tone, but acts as a valve and pulls away to let the reed vibrate. The tongue maintains contact with the reed prior to the attack. Although some air will build up behind the tongue, too much air pressure will produce a harsh attack. One of Sinta’s suggestions to determine where the tongue touches the reed is to mark the reed with a “marker” and have the student tongue a few notes. Most beginners will show dots on the tongue in various places; expert saxophonists will have a single dot about a half inch from the tip of the tongue.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 261

THE SAXOPHONE

261

The middle of the upper lip stays on the mouthpiece at all times, except when breathing. The lower lip may be thought of as resting against the reed. The pressure is upward where the mouthpiece pushes against the upper teeth, and not downward where the reed meets the lower lip. The mouthpiece remains stationary for the entire saxophone range; it is not moved in and out to achieve the extreme ranges. The player breathes through the corners of the mouth without removing the upper teeth or lower lip from the mouthpiece. Dropping the jaw often causes the player to lose the embouchure formation and tends to move the mouthpiece in and out. Many jazz players change their embouchures in an attempt to get a bright or dark tone (e.g., Duncan Martin), but these are combo players, not section players who are expected to fit into a balanced, blended section. With the correct embouchure, the corners of the mouth push toward the mouthpiece, a balance between the muscles pulling out to a smile and those pulling into a pucker—somewhat analogous to a rubber band around the mouthpiece. All pressure must be toward the mouthpiece, because horizontal pull at the corners of the mouth gives a squeezed, tight sound. If the embouchure has a tendency to stretch as well as push toward the mouthpiece, dimples will be apparent in the cheeks. From the teacher’s view, the mouthpiece should appear to be placed about one inch in the mouth. From the player’s standpoint, the teeth are placed about a half inch on the mouthpiece for the alto saxophone, perhaps five-eighths of an inch for tenor saxophone, and slightly more for baritone saxophone (see Figure 19.6), though this will vary depending on the muscular structure of each individual. The amount of mouthpiece in the mouth has a definite effect on the tone. The sound will be too thin if there is too little mouthpiece in the mouth and noticeably spread and uncontrolled if too much of the mouthpiece is taken in, the chin is not down, or the chin muscles are bunched. A good check for proper mouthpiece placement and lip tension is for the student to play octaves on the instrument. If both octaves respond with only the octave key manipulated, then the embouchure is close to being correct. If only the upper octave speaks, then the embouchure is too tight or there is not enough mouthpiece FIGURE 19.6 Saxophone embouchure in the mouth; if only the lower octave speaks, then the embouchure is probably showing teeth and lips too loose or there is too much mouthpiece in the mouth. The following symptoms are clues to the types of problems that the student may be developing: 1.

2. 3. 4.

A quiver in the tone usually means that the throat muscles are too tight and breath support inadequate. To get the right feeling in the throat for an open, unobstructed flow of air, use the syllable “hoo.” Using “hoo” must be understood as pertaining to throat relaxation and not to the syllable formed in the mouth. “Hoo” may be used for any instrument when the player needs a word to help understand the feeling for throat relaxation. A harsh tone and a low register in which the tones are difficult to produce may mean that the embouchure is too firm or the reed too stiff; working over the reed or changing to one of less resistance may help. If the sound is deficient in resonance, the problem is usually that the mouthpiece tip is too closed. The lack of resonance may also be due to the player’s embouchure—too much lower lip over the teeth. A weak, breathy tone may be characteristic of the beginner who lacks sufficient wind to fill the mouthpiece. More air pressure and breath support can be developed, and the tone quality can be improved by changing to a more closed mouthpiece.

RANGE No discussion of the saxophone would be complete without reference to the octave above top-line F, known as the second octave register. Today many advanced saxophone players include these notes in their playing range, and music utilizing them is common. These pitches are harmonics and achieved by a firm embouchure and intense breath support. An advanced player does not necessarily find harmonics easier to play; one learns how to do so by specific practice, and such practice can be started as soon as the player has established a reasonably good embouchure. Harmonics require experimentation with air pressure, breath support, tongue, lip, and teeth pressure, and so on, in addition to much work. The notes are there, and the ambitious student should learn to play them to be considered competent. Good pitches to start on are the alternate fingerings for high E and F. Another good exercise is to produce harmonics from the fundamental pitches of low B≤ to first-space F.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 262

262

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

INTONATION In listening to school saxophonists, one is often hard pressed to decide which is the more objectionable, the intonation or the tone quality. The sad part about this is that the poor sound is unnecessary; there is absolutely no reason for a beginning saxophonist (and his or her family and teacher) to suffer from bad intonation or lousy tone quality. The saxophone is one of the most perfectly designed instruments and thus easier to play in tune than other instruments. It may be that the instrument is so easy to play initially that the instrumental teacher neglects the saxophonists. Poor band scoring also contributes to the problem; performance in saxophone ensembles and jazz groups helps. Pitch problems depend partially on the instrument itself: how well it is cared for. For example, if the keys open too wide, the pitch will be sharp. Although perhaps the most perfectly in tune of all woodwinds, the saxophone still has built-in intonation flaws, as illustrated in Figure 19.7. The soprano saxophone has intonation problems similar to those of the E≤ soprano clarinet; it is a smaller instrument that, even when of good quality, requires careful listening. The more common alto, tenor, and baritone saxophones are generally well made by leading manufacturers, and such instruments can be played well when their pitch characteristics are understood. Tend to be flat:

Tend to be sharp:

FIGURE 19.7 Intonation problems on the saxophone

Basic tuning is accomplished by adjusting the mouthpiece on the neck to lengthen or shorten the instrument. When vibrato is used, the instrument is frequently tuned slightly sharp. This practice is often overused, but it keeps the tone from dropping below pitch on the low side of the vibrato. Intonation is controlled by tightening and loosening a properly formed embouchure during performance. Without proper listening and control, most saxophonists will tend to blow flat on loud passages and sharp on soft passages. Jazz musicians make use of this tonal effect . . . but on purpose. The double octave key mechanism makes intonation a series of compromises. The lower octave of the alto saxophone is usually sharp, the upper octave generally flat. The upper octave is especially flat when players have inadequately developed embouchures and lack breath support. For other flat notes—low C≥, low E, chromatic F≥, G≥—the S1 and the S2 keys may be added. Additional fingering changes that may improve intonation are as follows: 1.

2. 3. 4.

Third-space open C≥ is almost always flat with the fingering ordinarily suggested for it. It can be corrected by using the low C≥ fingering (which makes the pitch quite sharp), or using an open fingering and adding either the side C key or one to three right-hand keys. The first leger line A≥ is out of tune and can be improved by the addition of the F≥ key—third finger, right hand. The following chromatic fingerings are usually fingered for technical ease and not for intonation: (a) F≥, use forked F≥ key; (b) B≤, use the side key; (c) C, use the B key and the second trill key. Right hand 1, 2, and 3 may be added for high notes as required above second-leger-line C≥.

In general, closing additional tone holes other than those required to produce a particular note will lower a pitch. At least one tone hole below the lowest one used for the actual fingering must obviously remain open, and the closer the open or closed tone hole is to those used for the actual fingering, the greater its effect on the intonation.1 The saxophone embouchure does not have as much lip flexibility as do those of other woodwind instruments. Advanced players learn to vocalize every note, placing every note as with singing. The player who tightens the throat slightly to make a minute adjustment in the pitch usually forms bad habits, constricts the throat muscles, and produces an inadequate tone. Some players find that a mouthpiece with a comparatively open tip will allow the use of a softer reed and greater pitch flexibility. Pitch problems can sometimes be corrected by changing the angle of the mouthpiece in the mouth, or varying the amount of bottom lip over the teeth. These adjustments should be used as a last resort. The same admonition applies to lipping up the pitch—changing it by raising the jaw to tighten the embouchure. If the player’s embouchure seems correct and one or more individual notes are still out of tune, the teacher should consider the excellent pitch alteration chart in The Art of Saxophone Playing.2

TONE QUALITY True saxophone tone, with its own characteristic and beautiful sound, is not commonly heard by young instrumentalists. In the mid-twentieth century, The Saxophones of Paris was one of the few recordings useful as a guide to good saxophone sound. Within 40 years, however, many recording artists, in both the jazz and classical fields, contributed greatly to a growing discography of the saxophone. Still, listening has to be selective, because the commercial music on the Internet

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 263

THE SAXOPHONE

263

and television, as well as many recordings, may portray the instrument with an unpleasant, strident sound. For every instance in which the true sound of the instrument is heard, there are a hundred instances of bad sound. Practicing on the mouthpiece and neck can improve tone quality as this portion of the instrument responds quickly to embouchure changes and breath support. Later, remind the student to blow through the saxophone rather than into the mouthpiece. Practicing on the mouthpiece and neck also allows students to get closer to a mirror and observe if the throat is moving while tonguing (it should remain still), and to ensure the embouchure remains still while playing long tones with crescendos and decrescendos, and while tonguing on every beat. The sound of E, F, and G at the top of the staff is most characteristic of the instrument’s tone quality and an acceptable tone should be easiest in this range. The factors in bad tone quality are poor breath support and poor embouchure. The player should develop the muscles of the mouth and cheek to withstand additional air pressure so that a more intense column of air can be sent through the mouthpiece. The player should have the breath support and air pressure similar to that used by the trumpet player for high notes. The study of harmonics should begin when the saxophonist has developed sufficient embouchure control, as an aid to good tone and successful altissimo performance. Harmonics can help to develop breath control and support, a firmer embouchure, and a consciousness of pitch. In addition, harmonics themselves are useful, for they can literally add octaves to the top range of the saxophone, but not until the traditional range of the instrument has been mastered. Poor tone quality results when beginners are told to play softly. The student tightens his or her throat, ignores proper breathing, and finds no reason to work on a firmer embouchure because there seems to be no need for control. These habits stay when playing at other dynamic levels. Vowel formation in the mouth will help produce the type of tone color desired. The more open vowels should be used in the middle and low registers, and the more closed vowels in the upper. An “oh” or “oou” is often suggested to produce the fuller, rounder sound desirable for Romantic music, with “ay” or “ee” for the Classical repertoire because it produces a brighter, less personal sound. For the upper register, the “ee” or “i” sound will result in a brilliant yet free tone quality, while an “aw” or “ah” is appropriate for the lowest register. Frequently, the saxophone sound is spread, lacking brilliancy and beauty, with no center or focus to the tone. To obtain an edge or focus to the tone is not easy. The player must have the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

a concept of the sound wanted; an unobstructed throat; a vowel formation in the mouth; air pressure to support the tone; a well-controlled embouchure; sufficient intensity of air pressure.

When these six qualities are present, the tone takes on a focus and edge that makes it beautiful and interesting.

Vibrato A good vibrato enhances a beautiful tone, but an inappropriate vibrato can make the saxophone tone glaring and rough. Vibrato adds warmth when needed but is best used prudently. For solo playing, a straight tone tends to sound somewhat manufactured except in the hands of a real artist, though it is useful in rapid passages. In ensemble playing, vibrato must be prudently used or avoided completely, because vibrato seldom blends with other instruments. Blend is particularly important for saxophones and horns (midrange instruments), whose range is such that unisons are frequent and especially obvious. One of the primary differences between classical and jazz saxophone playing is in the use of vibrato. In classical playing it is often fast and very narrow, with even undulations; jazz musicians tend to play with a broader selection of vibrato types, often wider, and adjust the speed to match the phrasing. Players also use terminal vibrato, in which a wide, exaggerated vibrato is added toward the end of a tone after starting with a steady tone. Unlike other instruments, the saxophone is not at its best with diaphragm vibrato and does make successful use of jaw vibrato because it can be accurately controlled. Because the lower lip is only providing a cushion for the reed rather than support for the embouchure, jaw vibrato can be used without distorting the embouchure, provided the player has both correct embouchure and the correct approach to vibrato. The lower jaw may be moved with discretion to assist proper intonation. Jaw vibrato is an alteration of high and low pitch rather than of fluctuating intensity and must be handled with care. A change of vibrato speed is sometimes required for the high, low, and middle registers: Unless the music dictates otherwise, a slow and spare vibrato is used for the low register, a faster and narrower one for the high register, and one of medium pace and width for the middle register. In passages that require intensity for a specific musical effect, a fast, narrow vibrato will be required regardless of register. Because jaw vibrato does alter the pitch, one can readily see why the saxophone is often tuned sharp enough for the bottom of the vibrato to be on pitch. When should the student begin learning vibrato? Because control is not possible without training, many saxophonists advocate beginning vibrato study by the second or third week, with a few minutes of practice a day devoted to vibrato,

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 264

264

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

striving for evenness. The embouchure, however, should be securely developed. Others practice to develop a solid embouchure, good breathing habits, and a pleasant and correct tone without vibrato. For some saxophonists, one to three years of playing without vibrato is not uncommon.

The Mouthpiece The saxophone mouthpiece, like the clarinet mouthpiece, is a vital factor in the tone quality of the slot of windway windway instrument (Figure 19.8). The size and shape of the tone chamber, the proportion of the facing, the type tip ball of baffle, and the material of the mouthpiece all table influence the tone quality in specific ways. Unforbaffle tunately, mouthpiece selection is not simply a matter side ball of determining what type of sound one wants and length of vamp picking the appropriate mouthpiece to produce that sound. The student’s facial characteristics, lip size, shape of teeth, and structure of jaw must be considered. A major objective in selecting a mouthpiece facing is to neutralize those facial characteristics that could curve hinder the development of tone quality and enhance those characteristics that help in the production of tip opening good tone. One style of mouthpiece has a large, round tone chamber allowing a resonant, refined sound. Another type of mouthpiece with a smaller bore and elongated for volume produces a more piercing tone. A FIGURE 19.8 Saxophone mouthpiece chamber with straight walls produces a slightly more brilliant sound. The baffle, the part of the mouthpiece that lies immediately opposite the opening, influences the volume of the tone and the amount of air needed to produce it. A concave baffle gives a softer sound and requires more air for the tone. The convex baffle gives a louder sound and requires less air. (An extended or elongated baffle produces a very loud, harsh sound and will rarely be desirable.) One mouthpiece makes a good tone more difficult to produce and the other may make it more difficult to control. The side rails on which the reed rests may also be found in a variety of shapes. For jazz band work the usual requirement is straight, flat side rails similar to those of the clarinet. The side rails that best combine with a large tone chamber will be slightly convex to complement the shape of the chamber. The facing is the curve on which the tip end of the reed rests; the curve and length of the curved rails of the facing determine the size of the tip opening. A short facing produces a smaller tip opening, and a long facing produces a larger one. The longer facing requires a firmer embouchure and a softer reed, which consequently reduces loud dynamic levels and makes the high register more difficult because more pressure is necessary to close the larger tip opening. With a well-developed embouchure, however, the longer facing provides additional pitch flexibility. At the other extreme, a shorter facing requires less embouchure pressure and a stiffer reed that results in greater control on the part of the player. The medium facing is the most useful unless the player is advanced enough to know his or her preferences and how to handle a differently proportioned mouthpiece facing. Mouthpieces come in a variety of materials. Glass and wooden mouthpieces exist but are extremely rare. Plastic mouthpieces, formerly avoided because of their tendency to become brittle and crack, have improved greatly and may now be purchased with confidence. They are durable as well as inexpensive. Hard rod rubber, or ebonite, is the standard mouthpiece material because it combines high durability with a good tone quality. Metal mouthpieces are also acceptable for the saxophone. Their advantage is that they will never warp under misuse as will plastic and ebonite. Also, they can be made with slightly smaller exterior proportions because of metal’s greater strength, which is a true advantage to smaller tenor and baritone saxophone players who often feel that they are playing with a baseball bat in their mouth. Both metal and ebonite can be retooled and refaced easily.

REEDS Saxophone reeds are adjusted in a similar way as are clarinet reeds (see Chapter 18). Beginners should replace the reed about every four to six weeks. New reeds can be broken in as the old ones are wearing out. The resistance of the reed is the single most important factor. Beginning saxophonists usually play with a number 2, 21⁄2, or 3 reed, depending on

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 265

THE SAXOPHONE

265

the brand. The player, the facing of the mouthpiece, and the reed itself vary, so any reed may be too soft or too stiff. If the tone becomes open, flat in pitch, and cuts out completely in the upper register, the reed is probably too soft. Other signs of an overly soft reed are these: the lower harmonic is heard when upper register notes are played, biting harder does not produce more edge to the tone, dynamic changes are difficult to produce, attacks tend to scoop, and releases drop in pitch. For a guide to reed adjustment that presents excellent information in a neat, accessible form, specifically for the saxophone but also applicable to the clarinet, the reader may wish to look at the chart in The Art of Saxophone Playing.3

TECHNIQUE: ARTICULATIONS AND FINGERINGS The placing of the mouthpiece in the mouth can help or hinder correct tonguing. If the mouthpiece is too horizontal, the action of the tongue will be impeded; if the tip of the mouthpiece points slightly upward, tonguing will be more easily mastered. There are at least two correct ways to tongue; the one to use depends on the individual. The traditional method is to use the tip of the tongue to stop the reed, placing it lightly on the reed either near the tip or a little farther down. Sigmund Rascher, for one, believed in touching the reed a short distance from the tip because it keeps the reed from closing up on the mouthpiece—the vibration of the reed is stopped for an instant but the air going through the mouthpiece is not halted. The tongue action must be as rapid and as slight as possible so that it does not interfere with the smoothness of the tone. Using the tip of the tongue can cause a small movement of the jaw, thus tightening the jaw and altering the embouchure. The second type of tonguing, anchor tonguing, consists of resting the tip of the tongue at the base of the teeth (at the gum line) and using the middle of the tongue to touch the reed. For many students this seems the natural way to tongue. The curved mid-tongue makes a small movement forward to contact the tip of the reed. Those players who can use this method find it to be as fast and as well controlled as using the tip of the tongue, with the added advantage that there is no danger of moving the jaw. With either method, the tone is articulated by touching the reed with the tongue. Moving the jaw results in flattened pitches on each tongued note and too much mouthpiece in the mouth. The problem can be helped by having the student tongue the same pitch repeatedly, gradually increasing the speed, while watching the embouchure in a mirror. As soon as the jaw starts to move, the student should reduce the speed in order to “lock in” the proper feel and coordinate the proper tonguing. Two types of incorrect tonguing can be detected by the sounds that accompany them. A small “thud” with each tonguing action indicates that the player is placing too much of the tongue on the reed, often called a “slap tongue.” Besides the unpleasant sound, this kind of tonguing can never be done with much speed or delicacy. The tip of the tongue should be touching only near the tip of the reed. The second sound is a small “oink,” present when the student is tonguing with the throat. Here, movement in the throat is visible with each tonguing. A player can become so skillful at throat articulation that it is both rapid and quiet. But even so, it is far from desirable because the throat action tightens the muscles and restricts the openness needed for tonal resonance. Tightening the throat is one of the most difficult habits to break. Multiple tonguing can be done on single-reed instruments. The ability to single-tongue very fast and with control, however, is more important. Hand position is critical for developing good technique. Young saxophonists often acquire bad habits since they do not have to cover tone holes directly with their fingers. Supplementary exercises should be provided to young students to help develop finger coordination. Fingers must be lifted together, lowered together, and raised and lowered in coordination. Slurs between certain notes, such as a D≥ to a G≥, help develop the coordination required for complex finger patterns. The saxophonist can leave right-hand fingers down during certain passages, even though the normal fingering does not require them, as long as intonation is not compromised. The fingering chart at the end of the chapter gives, under each note, the normal fingering that is usually taught to beginners. The fingerings that follow are given in the order that they least affect intonation. Beginners should learn the primary fingering for each new note. Alternate fingerings such as the B≤, the side key C, and the forked F≥ should be integrated into the regular fingering patterns. Other alternates can be introduced after the normal fingering is learned.

WHAT TO PRACTICE Good tone quality, that most essential element in music whether classical or jazz, is best developed through the practice of long tones. Early development of good tone can be achieved through practice of simple melodies, because the embouchure, if properly established, does not change for register, dynamic level, articulation, or pitch. Beginners should form the correct embouchure, breathe carefully, and play these melodies while maintaining the correct embouchure and a steady airstream with only the fingers moving.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 266

266

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

Scales are excellent for practicing tone quality and intonation as well as finger dexterity. Scales demand use of different finger combinations and patterns beyond those required in the beginning method books, which are usually limited to the keys of G, C, and D for alto saxophone. Scales can also help develop good intonation.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF THE SAXOPHONE Daily care of the saxophone involves the following: (1) tipping it upside down to drain the excess moisture; (2) swabbing it with a soft, lint-free cloth for sanitation and to extend the life of the pads (swabbing should be from the large end to the small end, least moisture to most moisture); (3) wiping and drying the mouthpiece; and (4) storing reeds in a reed guard or case. Every week the mouthpiece should be cleaned by running lukewarm water through it (hot water may warp it). It is not advisable to use a swab stick or a rough-surfaced object to pull the cloth through the mouthpiece because scratches or nicks on the interior of the mouthpiece can alter tone quality. A simple cloth, such as the swab used by most clarinetists, is fine. Dropping the mouthpiece can chip the facing. After each playing, the reed should be wiped off and put in a safe place to dry. To be avoided are the cardboard containers in which some reeds are purchased. Metal or plastic reed holders are better but can damage the heart of the reed if handled carelessly. The neck tends to collect dirt faster than the lower part of the instrument. The exterior of the end that fits into the body should be kept clean by wiping it with a moist cloth. This makes a good fit easier. Two or three times a year the posts and pivots should be oiled, first loosening the rods to ensure a more even distribution of the oil. Pads should be checked periodically for air leakage by pulling a piece of sturdy thin paper gently through each closed key (if resistance is offered by the closed key it shuts sufficiently to form a seal), or shining a light in the instrument and examining for cracks of light from the closed key. Bumper corks adjust the height of the key opening. Two important ones that tend to wear out are the tone hole above the first finger of the right hand for articulated G≥ and the forked B≤ fingering. The exterior of the instrument requires no particular care, although players who like a shiny surface will polish it with a soft cloth. Wiping off fingerprints is sufficient. To prevent damage to the instrument, one should replace the instrument plug when returning the saxophone to the case.

HEALTH ISSUES A neck strap should be used at all times to support the weight of the saxophone. Despite the use of the neck strap, the right hand (especially the thumb and wrist) will carry some of the instrument’s weight. This can lead to issues of pain, particularly among young players. Players should be sure to rest the right hand and thumb when not playing and place a thumb rest cushion on the thumb hook to help mitigate the pressure. For the larger tenor and baritone saxes, special attention should be taken to help students learn to support the instrument. Specially designed harnesses are available that will help distribute the weight across the player’s back and shoulders away from the neck. Furthermore, instrument stands on which to place these instruments are available.

TROUBLESHOOTING Equipment Sticky Pads 1.

2. 3. 4.

Moisture absorbed by pads. (If pad is undamaged, dry by placing tissue paper, dollar bill, or small piece of coffee filter between pad and tone hole and closing gently. As a last resort: Apply a slight amount of talcum powder to pad, being careful not to get it on the mechanism.) Bent rods. (Have repaired by a competent repairperson.) Worn springs. (Have replaced by a competent repairperson.) Pivot screws at end of rods may need oiling. (Usually these must be loosened to oil—oil sparingly, then retighten.)

Pads Not Seating 1. 2. 3.

Leaking pads. (Even if pads are in good shape, they usually cannot be heated and reset like clarinet pads; they must be replaced.) Bent keys or rods. (Have repaired by competent repairperson.) Brittle or “scuffed” pads. (Have replaced.)

Gurgling Sound 1. 2.

Water has collected at the bottom bowl of the instrument or in a tone hole. (Dry with a swab.) Water in mouthpiece or neck. (Swab neck piece; remove ligature and reed to dry mouthpiece.)

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 267

THE SAXOPHONE

267

Tone Squeaks 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Worn pads or pads not seating correctly. (Have pads replaced by competent repairperson.) Too much mouthpiece in mouth. (Use less mouthpiece, practice playing soft attacks and playing decrescendos.) Unequal pressure on sides of reed. Can especially occur when beginners hold instrument by their sides without adjusting neck and/or mouthpiece (Correct holding position; if due to leaking pads see early note.) Trying to articulate by biting and releasing reed with mouth. (Correct articulation.) Inadvertently pressing side key(s). (Correct holding position.)

Thin, Pinched 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Biting on mouthpiece. (Drop lower jaw—push mouthpiece toward upper teeth.) Corners of mouth not pushing toward mouthpiece. (Correct embouchure.) Not enough lower lip for cushion. (Either not enough lower lip over teeth or lower lip is stretched too thin and needs to be “bunched up” more . . . or both.) Mouthpiece entering mouth at too much of an angle. (Hold bottom of saxophone farther away from body or tilt head downward slightly.) Not enough mouthpiece in mouth. (Insert more mouthpiece, being careful not to put in too much.) Throat too tight or oral cavity too tight. (Drop shoulders; practice “bending” or “lipping” notes as flat as possible— at least a full step—to open airstream; keep tongue down except when needed to articulate.) Reed too soft. (Try stronger reed or clip reed and scrape as necessary.)

Loud, Wild, Harsh 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Too much mouthpiece in mouth—makes it easier to play loudly. (Use less mouthpiece—may require loosening or tightening the embouchure—practice very soft attacks and decrescendos on long tones to reinforce softer tone.) Too much lip over lower teeth. (Pull lip out—try to align the point where the red of the lip is directly over the lower teeth.) Not enough pressure on reed from lower lip. (Be careful not to encourage pressure from the jaw or teeth, tighten and direct muscular force toward reed.) Corners and/or upper lip too loose. (Tighten corners and clamp together; upper lip should be firm and press against eyeteeth.) Mouthpiece too open. (Try another, more appropriate mouthpiece.) Reed too hard. (Scrape the reed or try a softer reed.)

Uncontrolled 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Cheeks puffing. (Keep corners of mouth firm.) Upper teeth not on reed. (Correct embouchure.) Embouchure too loose. (Direct all muscular pressure from lips and surrounding muscles toward mouthpiece.) Corners of mouth not firm or smiling. (Keep corners firm and direct toward mouthpiece.) Throat too tight or oral cavity too small. (Keep tongue down except when needed to articulate; shoulders down; practice bending notes down a full step then back to pitch.) Too much mouthpiece in mouth. (Correct position; try to align the point where the mouthpiece begins to curve away from the reed directly above the teeth.) Reed too hard. (Try softer reed or scrape reed.)

Pitch Sharp 1.

2. 3. 4.

Biting on mouthpiece. (Drop lower jaw and compensate by using more lower lip pressure against reed; practice bending notes flat; push or direct corners of mouth toward mouthpiece; push mouthpiece up, toward reed; or a combination of these.) Reed too hard. (Try softer reed or scrape reed.) Mouthpiece at too much of an angle with embouchure. (Hold bottom of saxophone away from body more and/or tilt head slightly downward.) On individual notes: pads over tone holes too open. (Have competent repairperson readjust.)

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 268

268

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

Flat 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Mouthpiece not pushed in far enough on neck. (Push it in.) Reed too soft. (Try harder reed or clip reed.) Embouchure too loose. (Direct all muscular pressure from lips and surrounding muscles toward mouthpiece.) Saxophone held too far out so that mouthpiece enters mouth almost directly instead of at an angle. (Hold head up and/or pull bottom of instrument toward body.) On individual notes: pads over tone holes too closed. (Have adjusted by competent repairperson.)

RESOURCES Websites Bighorn Sax bighorn.co.uk North American Saxophone Alliance saxophonealliance.org Saxophone Life saxophonelife.com Saxophone.org saxophone.org The Saxophone the-saxophone.com

Texts Benger, R. (1995). Studies in Style: Classical, Traditional, Rock and Pop for Saxophone. Monmouth: Spartan. Brown, J.R. (1994). How to Play Saxophone, U.S. ed. New York, NY: St. Martin’s. Cottrell, S. (2013). The Saxophone. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Harvey, P. (1995). Saxophone. London: Kahn & Averill. Hemke, F. (1977). Teacher’s Guide to the Saxophone. Elkhart, IN: Selmer. Ingham, R. (1998). The Cambridge Companion to the Saxophone. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Liebman, D. (1994). Developing a Personal Saxophone Sound, 2nd ed. Medfield, MA: Dorn. Londeix, J.-M. (2003). A Comprehensive Guide to the Saxophone Repertoire, 1844–2003. Glenmoore, PA: Roncorp. Luckey, R.A. (1992). Saxophone Altissimo: High Note Development for the Contemporary Player. Lafayette, LA: Olympia Music. McLaughlin, P.A. (1992). A Practical Owners Guide to the Saxophone. Eustis, FL: Instrumental Press. Parker, C. (1999). My Life in E-flat. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. Piatamone, V. (1998). Clarinet and Saxophone Reed Adjustments, 2nd ed. Prescott, AZ: Author. Reed, R. (2004). The Saxophone Reed: The Advanced Art of Adjusting Single Reeds. West Conshohocken, PA: Infinity. Richmond, S. (1972). Clarinet and Saxophone Experience. New York, NY: St. Martin’s. Rousseau, E. (2013). Saxophone Artistry in Performance and Pedagogy. Ham Lake, MN: Jeanné Music. Russell, R. (1996). Bird Lives! The High Life and Hard Times of Charlie (Yardbird) Parker. New York, NY: Da Capo. Skinner, D. and J. Feist (2013). The Saxophone Handbook: A Complete Guide to Tone, Technique, Performance, and Maintenance. Boston, MA: Berklee.

Teal, L. (1963). The Art of Saxophone Playing. Miami, FL: SummyBirchard. Terrien, P. and S. Kahan (2015). A History of the Saxophone through the Pedagogical Methods Published in France, 1846–1942. Sampzon, France: Editions Delatour France. Thomas, J.C. (1988). Chasin’ the Trane: The Music and Mystique of John Coltrane. New York, NY: Da Capo. Weinstein, I.J. (1988). The Master Speaks: Joe Allard’s Saxophone and Clarinet Principles, 2nd ed. Seattle, WA: RIA Business Concepts.

Journals/Associations Saxophone Symposium North American Saxophone Alliance: saxophonealliance.org Clarinet and Saxophone Association of Great Britain: cassgb.org Saxophone Today: saxophonetoday.com

Saxophone Studies Easy/Beginning (Elementary or Middle School) Cailliet. Method for Saxophone (Book 1) (Belwin-Mills). Cough. Let’s Play Saxophone (Chapel Music). Eisenhauer. Elementary Supplement Studies for Saxophone (Alfred). Hegvik. Modern Course for the Saxophone (2 vols.) (Elkan-Vogel). Hetzel. Hetzel’s Visual Method for the Saxophone (Ditson). Hovey. Daily Exercises for the Saxophone (Belwin). ––– Elementary Method for Saxophone (Rubank). ––– Practical Studies for Saxophone (2 vols.) (Belwin). Linderman. Saxophone Made Easy (2 vols.) (Colin). Rossari-Iasilli. 53 Etudes (2 vols.) (Southern). Rousseau. Eugene Rosseau Saxophone Method (2 vols.) (Kjos). Skornicka. Intermediate Method for Saxophone (Rubank).

Medium (Middle or High School) DeVille. Universal Method for the Saxophone (Allegro). Ferling. 48 Studies (Southern). Hegvik. Modem Course for the Saxophone (Vols. 3 and 4) (Rubank). Iasilli. 33 Concert Etudes (Fischer). Klose. 25 Daily Exercises for the Saxophone (C. Fischer). Londeix. Les Gammes Conjointes et en Intervalles (Lemoines). Loyon. 32 Etudes for Oboe and Saxophone (Billaudot). Pares. Scales and Daily Exercises for Saxophone (C. Fischer). Rascher. Top-Tones for Saxophone (C. Fischer). Sellner. Etudes (Vol. 1, Elementary) (Robert Martin). Small. 27 Melodious and Rhythmical Studies (C. Fischer). Teal. The Saxophonist’s Workbook (University Music).

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 269

THE SAXOPHONE Vereecken. Foundation to Saxophone Playing (C. Fischer). Voxman. Advanced Method for Saxophone (2 vols.) (Rubank).

Advanced (High School or College) Bozza. Twelve Etudes-Caprices (A. Leduc). Capelle. 20 Grandes Etudes (A. Leduc). Corroyez. 22 Pieces of J.S. Bach (Billaudott). Curtis. Introducing Extended Saxophone Techniques (Mel Bay). DeVille. Universal Method for the Saxophone (C. Fischer). Ferling. 48 Studies (Southern). Gates. Odd Meter Duets (Alfred). ––– Odd Meter Etudes (Alfred). Karg-Elert. 25 Caprices (Zimmerman). Labanchi (ed. Iasilli). 33 Concert Etudes (C. Fischer). Massis. Capriccio-Studies (A. Leduc). Mule. 18 Etudes after Berbiguier (A. Leduc). ––– Enseignement for Saxophones (A. Leduc). Rascher. 24 Intermezzi (Bourne). Vadala. Improve Your Doubling: Advanced Studies for Doublers (Dorn). Voxman. Selected Studies for Saxophone (Rubank).

269

Steps to Excellence, A Video Clinic-Alto Saxophone (Vol. 3) (Eugene Rousseau, 2012). Grand Rapids, MN: Yamaha Music Products. Ultimate Beginner Series-Saxophone (Vols. 1 and 2) (Ed Calle, 1998). Miami, FL: Warner Brothers Music.

Recommended Saxophone Artists Sophie Cherrier playing Berio, Takemitsu, and Boulez Claude Delangle playing Stockhousen and Raskatov Paul Desmond and Stan Getz playing Cool Jimmy Dorsey playing Dixieland Johnny Hodges, Ben Webster, and Coleman Hawkins playing Swing Timothy McAllister playing Mead and Carter Charlie Parker playing Bebop Sohre Rahbari playing Debussy, Faure, and Milhaud Donald Sinta playing Creston and Benson

Saxophone Parts

Jazz Materials (High School and Beyond) Aebersold. A New Approach to Jazz Improvisation (Aebersold Music). Arnold. Jazz Styles for Saxophones (Music Scales). Baker. Techniques of Improvisation (Studio P/R). Berle. Complete Handbook for Jazz Improvisation (Music Scales). Coker. A Complete Method for Jazz Improvisation (Studio P/R). ––– Patterns for Jazz (Studio P/R). DiBlasio. DiBlasio’s Bop Shop: Getting Started in Improvisation (Kendor). ––– DiBlassio’s Bop Shop: The Sequel (Kendor). Gerard. Improvising Jazz Saxophone (Colin). Giuffre. Jazz Phrasing and Interpretation (Associated Music). Hejda. Selected Studies and Jazz Compositions (Polskie Wydawnictwo). McGhee. Improvisation for Saxophone (Colin). Niehaus. Basic (and Intermediate and Advanced) Jazz Conceptions (Colin). ––– Jazz Improvisation for Saxophone (Colin). Parker. Charlie Parker Omnibook. (Atlantic Music). Viola. The Technique of the Saxophone (3 vols.) (Berklee).

Instructional Videos The Art of the Saxophone (Steve Wilkerson, Llew Matthews, John Leitham, and Gregg Field, 1993). Timonium, MD: Reyner Products. Basic Jazz Improvisation for Saxophone (Lynda Reid, 1988). Levelland, TX: Texas Music and Video. Basic Jazz Saxophone Techniques (Lynda Reid, 1992). Levelland, TX: Texas Music and Video. The Master Speaks: Clarinet and Saxophone Principles (Joe Allard, 1987). Palatine, IL: Sharper Video Productions. Saxophone Essential Techniques with Don Sinta (Don Sinta, 2000). Palatine, IL: Sharper Video Productions.

FIGURE 19.9 Saxophone parts

NOTES 1. 2. 3.

Westphal, F.W. (1990). Guide to Teaching Woodwinds, 5th ed. Dubuque, IA: W.C. Brown. Teal, L. (1963). The Art of Saxophone Playing. Miami, FL: Summy-Birchard. Ibid.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 270

270 THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

Saxophone Fingering Chart

X

D# 1

Y

D F

2 F

3

G# C# B B@

6 OK Thumb rest

5 4

1

F# Back

2

3 E@ C

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 271

THE SAXOPHONE

1 2 3 B 1 2 3 C

1 2 3 B 1 2 3 C

1 2 3

1 2 3 C 1 2 3 C

1 2 3 C

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2

1

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3 E

1 2 3

2

1 2

1 2

1

1

1 Y

1

1

OK 1 2 3

open OK

2

1 4

OK



1 2 3

5 2

OK 1 2 3

OK 1 2

OK

OK 1 OK 1 OK 1 OK 1 2 Y

OK 1 2 3

OK 1 2 3

OK 1 2 3

OK 1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2

1

OK 1

OK D

4

OK

OK

OK

OK X

3 C

OK

OK

( ) optional

OK

OK

OK

OK

OK 2 3 1

5 2

OK

2 3

OK

2

1 2

OK 1

OK

OK X 2

OK

OK

OK

OK

OK

271

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 272

CHAPTER 20

The Bassoon

20

HISTORY The origin of this strange and wonderful instrument is unknown, but it can be traced back to the phagotus, which Afranio of Ferrara built in the early sixteenth century. Its name was derived from its resemblance to a bundle of sticks. Another early form of the bassoon was the curtal, or short wood, which was about 40 inches long. The curtal, also dating from the sixteenth century, had a reed similar to that used today; its primary function was as an accompanying instrument, used in the church as the bass with cornets and trombones. The French bassoon, with its characteristic mellow sound, grew out of this instrument sometime after 1675. Also appearing in the sixteenth century was a dolcian, made from a single block of wood. The bassoon was a favorite of the composers of the late Baroque and the Classical eras; Bach, Handel, Haydn, and Mozart all used its wide musical resources to good effect. However, the bassoon had gross instability of pitch and could be played in tune only by the most skillful players; it did not become widely used until after 1825 when Carl Almenrader made improvements to it. His innovations improved the pitch but in the process destroyed the bassoon’s characteristic tone quality. J.A. Heckel in turn improved the bore of the Almenrader instrument until its tone quality was acceptable. The Heckel bassoons appeared in the early part of the nineteenth century. They became common after 1879. The Heckel family still makes bassoons that are considered some of the finest available. The Heckel system, also called the German system, has become widespread. French-system bassoons are easily distinguished from the German type as they have fewer keys, especially on the boot joint; they are seldom found in the United States. Many attempts have been made to refine the bassoon further, but all have resulted in a destruction of the tone quality, so musicians are forced to adapt themselves to its frailties. With all of its failings, the bassoon is one of the most delightful and beloved instruments, capable of every response from broad farce to genuine pathos.

SELECTING AN INSTRUMENT Because bassoons are handmade, there will be only general consistency between instruments from the same company, and each bassoon should be checked by both the eye and the ear. A list of things to look for helps in making a wise selection: Good bassoons are usually made of hard maple. A high-quality instrument is indicated by straight-grained wood, carefully made tone-hole edges, and tenons that fit snugly. With a secondhand instrument, the wood should be checked for dryness; dryness clues to watch for are joints that no longer fit, loose keys and key posts, and cracks. A crack may not be important at the time the instrument is purchased, but it invariably gets bigger. Some cracks are easily repaired on the bassoon, others difficult or impossible. If an instrument with a crack seems acceptable in other respects, a competent repairperson should be consulted before the instrument is purchased. The lacquer and the stain on the wood are matters of personal taste and are of minimum importance. Above all, the instrument must be played to evaluate tone quality, clarity, and intonation. If the intonation is poor, beware. The purchaser has some option as to the number of keys on the instrument. The full Heckel system is usually considered to be 22 keys plus the F≥ trill key on the wing joint. The addition of one more key, the high D octave key, is very desirable, for without it several upper pitches are more difficult. A lock is advisable between the long and the wing joint to insure a minimum of damage in assembly. Post locks are standard on most instruments. To prevent clothing catching on the B≤ and F≥ keys, bassoons should have a protective plate that covers these keys. As with all good instruments, the bassoon should offer some resistance to the player, though not to the point where it becomes stuffy.

ASSEMBLING THE BASSOON Proper assembly is one of the principal aspects of caring for the bassoon. Because the instrument is both large and fragile, its assembly is both awkward and delicate. If the instrument is to survive the eager student’s initial experiments, the teacher must make sure that correct assembly is one of the first things learned.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 273

THE BASSOON

273

If the bassoon has a locking mechanism between the long and wing joints, these two sections should be assembled first, locked and fitted into the boot joint. Inserting the long and wing joints into the boot at the same time helps ensure that they are not at an angle, which could damage the tenons. The two joints assembled together are heavy, and the disadvantage is that they may be dropped. If the instrument is not equipped with a lock, one should not try to put the two sections into the boot joint together. There are too many delicate keys and fittings that can be injured if either part slips from place. The bell is placed on the top of the long joint before it is inserted. Either the wing or long joint may be placed into the boot first and the other fitted carefully next to it with a pushing motion and a slight turning without wiggling. A small amount of cork grease on the tenons is recommended for corked tenons, petroleum jelly for wrapped string. The joints fit tightly and are rarely pulled for tuning purposes. The last part of the instrument to be put into place is the fragile metal tube, the bocal, often called the mouthpipe or crook, which is inserted into the upper end of the wing. The bocal should not be grasped on the curve or on the reed end, but coaxed into place gently by grasping the cork end. If forced, the metal may split. Although this can be repaired, tone is adversely affected. The bocal is usually not pulled for tuning. The tiny hole that the whisper key covers is on the bocal, and must fit under the key that extends up from the wing joint. Correct playing posture is made even more important by the whisper key. The player must sit comfortably without moving the bocal to either side. Moving it will result in improper closing of the whisper key. The bassoon may be held in two different ways: 1.

2.

Many student bassoonists support the instrument using a neck strap that hooks onto the instrument and can be adjusted for comfort. Often used with the neck strap is a crutch or widget that screws into the instrument near the top of the boot joint. This is a wing-shaped piece of wood that rests in the crotch of the thumb and forefinger of the right hand. It impairs right-hand flexibility somewhat and is not practical for bassoonists with short fingers. Without it, however, the instrument becomes less steady on the open or near-open tones when few fingers are down to help support it. The seat strap is used by most professionals. It eliminates the need for the widget, offers maximum flexibility, and holds the bassoon firmly. The seat strap either hooks on to the end of the boot joint or is made in the form of a cup in which the bassoon sits. The other end of the strap is held securely at the right length by sitting on it, bringing the lower end of the instrument close to the body. The seat strap has the advantages of taking all the weight off the neck and freeing the right hand from supporting the instrument so that more rapid right-hand technique is possible.

HOLDING THE BASSOON The bassoon is held in front of the player at an angle that allows the instrument to bisect the body of the player from lower right to upper left (see Figure 20.1). It will nearly rest on the right thigh and pass directly in front of the player’s face, with the lefthand position almost directly in front of the player. One of the most common mistakes is to lean the bassoon out too far, forcing the wrists—the right wrist in particular—into an unnatural position. The bassoon player seems irresistibly drawn to tip the bassoon down to where the bell touches the top of the music stand, to cross the left leg over the right knee, and to hunch over the instrument. The player should sit on the edge of the chair with both feet on the floor. The posture should be erect and the head only slightly tilted to the left, if at all. The arms should not touch the body. The upper torso should be pulled up out of the hips so that the chest is lifted naturally and there is no cramping of the diaphragm. The bassoon should be brought to the player, not the player to the bassoon. Correct playing posture is essential to manipulating the whisper key and also to play comfortably without moving the bocal to either side. Moving it will result in improper closing of the whisper key. As with all of the instruments, the fingers should be slightly curved, with the balls of the fingers covering the keys and holes (Figures 20.2 and 20.3). With either neck or seat strap support, much of the balance of the bassoon is necessarily borne by the left hand. The weight then falls on the base of the fingers rather

FIGURE 20.1 Bassoon: position for playing

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 274

274

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

FIGURE 20.2 Right hand FIGURE 20.3 Left hand

than on the fingertips. The right thumb rests over the pancake key, the right little finger over the low F key (Figure 20.4). The left thumb rests lightly on the whisper or adjacent key and the left little finger over the low C≥ and D keys. The fingers remain over the holes at all times. The resting position for the flexible left thumb is shown in Figure 20.5. The bassoon should be played sitting down. Standing only complicates embouchure problems and usually puts an unnecessary strain on the bocal and the player. It is inconceivable that this instrument would be needed for marching (which only ruins player, reed, and instrument). It is done, however, and not infrequently. If the bassoonist must march, there is often room in the percussion section. Harnesses are available for when a bassoonist must stand. FIGURE 20.4 Right thumb

EMBOUCHURE In forming the bassoon embouchure, the player draws the lips over both upper and lower teeth to form an ample cushion for the reed. The more lip cushion provided, the more easily a full, dark sound can be achieved. Teeth are apart to avoid biting and the lips support the reed. Only rarely would a student have such long teeth as to affect the embouchure. A small school of bassoon players believes there is no need for the player’s lips to be drawn over the teeth. These players develop their lip muscles to such an extent that their lips support the reed without assistance from an understructure of teeth. They are able to demonstrate this successfully. However, this embouchure is difficult to achieve and the player tires more rapidly. Figure 20.6 illustrates the teeth and lips from the first and more common school of thought. The player should exert all the pressure toward the center of the lips (Figure 20.7). Playing is controlled where the lips touch the reed. The lips are primarily in front of the teeth, rolling over them only enough to gain support. Because the pressure is directed FIGURE 20.6 Bassoon embouchure: teeth and lips

FIGURE 20.5 Left thumb

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 275

THE BASSOON

275

to the center of the lips, maximum pressure is against the edges rather than the flat sides of the reed, thus preventing the reed from closing. The jaw muscles should be relaxed. The use of the jaw in bassoon playing constricts the throat and causes biting or pinching. The lower jaw should recede slightly behind the upper, with the reed anchored against the lower lip. The lower lip should be firm and straight with the reed centered on it. About one-quarter inch of the lower side of the reed goes into the mouth. The student should experiment with the exact placement of the reed, in and out, and with the relative positions of the upper and lower lip. A slight change can make a big improvement. This experimentation should continue for at least the first six months of playing. There is a danger that the student will produce an acceptable tone and be satisfied with it, when with more searching an embouchure that would provide a really fine tone would be found. With the player’s lower jaw behind the upper, the top lip is set on the reed almost to the wire so that much more of the upper lip covers the reed than the lower. A very common embouchure fault with bassoon players is not putting sufficient reed into the mouth and not placing enough of the upper lip on the reed. The characteristic bassoon tone is due to the fact that the top half of the reed vibrates more than the lower. The embouchure must be formed so that this happens. FIGURE 20.7 Bassoon embouchure Too little lip on the reed, almost invariably meaning too little upper lip, results in a nasal sound; too much lip, usually too much lower lip, produces a pinched, dark sound. The teacher will rarely be confronted with a student who is unable to make a sound unless he or she is biting on the reed, keeping it from vibrating. The problem is rather getting the right sound. Although whistling produces a pucker, it is not a good illustration of bassoon embouchure; the lips protrude too much and do not have the support of the teeth. Pronouncing the word “oh” is sometimes used, but this pulls the lips from the teeth. Some fine texts recommend finding the buzz point of the reed and straddling this for the correct embouchure. This can be successful with the teacher who is a performing bassoonist but has some hazards for others: (1) Poor reeds do not buzz or crow; (2) students who do not know what a buzz or crow sound is may get their reeds too far into the mouth, produce a weird sound, and declare that the reed has crowed; (3) the beginning student whose embouchure is undeveloped is inclined to pinch the reed and may have difficulty making the reed crow. A player transferring to the bassoon from the flute or saxophone has fewer challenges to overcome than one who transfers from the clarinet. The clarinetist has learned to pull the chin tightly and produce too much of a smiling embouchure. A smile will make the bassoon tone windy, hard, and nasal because there is not enough cushion and not enough control in the lips. The chin has to be sufficiently relaxed to assure full support from the diaphragm. However, the idea of a relaxed embouchure can lead to the opposite fault—a loose chin that allows small pockets of air. With the bassoon, the lower lip is the anchoring point for the reed and the only place where a constant embouchure is maintained. Thus the chin has to be relaxed enough to let the sound come from the diaphragm but firm enough so that the chin muscles do not move during tonguing, breathing, or rapid leaps in pitch. If the chin moves, the lip is apt to be forced off its lower teeth support. The player needs to discover the combination of muscles that will provide a firm chin but not a stiff one, and ample support for the reed without biting or tensing the throat muscles. The bassoon embouchure resembles the oboe embouchure in that it changes with the various registers. In the low register, less lip is required. As the pitches ascend the lip must roll more, taking the reed with it. A similar requirement exists for dynamics: for extremely soft playing there may be less lip and less reed in the mouth; increasing volume demands that more lip be rolled in. The embouchure is not so relaxed and uncontrolled that it cannot move in and out continually. The movements should be very slight and are accomplished by applying a little more or a little less pressure. The player develops lip flexibility for adjusting quickly to large skips or sudden dynamic changes. Flexibility and control are synonymous in this respect, because without the first, the second is impossible. The bocal must have a slight downward slant if the reed is to enter the mouth correctly. Players who tilt the instrument forward are forced to lean over it in order to get any semblance of a good embouchure, thus cramping the breathing apparatus and hindering good tone. Although nothing helps develop an embouchure like playing and practicing, the bassoonist may not be aware when the lips are being overworked and may continue to play by expending a great deal of effort and using the lips in ways which destroy rather than build a good embouchure.

INTONATION The bassoon is imperfect and has many intonation problems. It has 23 keys plus 5 holes that must be placed on a bore 8 feet in length. It is made from material that changes with the climate. The doubling back of the bore, the slanting holes, and the rods which run completely through the instrument all require an exactness of construction difficult to

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 276

276

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

achieve. Tuning may be improved by moving the bocal in or out, but it can be moved only a very short distance without upsetting the relationship of the whisper key to its hole on the bocal. The whisper key is very important to the bassoonist’s intonation for most pitches within the staff and to the clarity, response, and resonance of other notes. A high-quality bocal is important, as bocals affect the sound and feel of the bassoon, dominating response, resistance, and tone. Five bocals of different sizes are manufactured to help the bassoonist adjust to ensemble pitch. The bocal also affects relative intonation. They are numbered according to size: the number 0 is for pitches higher than A = 440; the number 1 is for standard pitches; 2, 3, and 4 are for lower pitches. School instruments often have only one bocal, depending upon which of the two that originally came with the instrument has become broken or lost. The bassoon is the least mechanically flexible of the orchestra or band instruments to tune: thus, in theory, the band or orchestra should tune to the bassoon but it won’t. The bassoon has flexibility in lipping, but it is not wise to use this method when mechanical means are available on other instruments. It may be argued that the reed itself makes so much difference in the intonation that any quibble about the bocal becomes unnecessary. The reed is a large factor in bassoon pitch, but each factor—the instrument, the bocal, the reed, and the player must be recognized, and all utilized, to make intonation as good as possible. Improving any one of these will improve pitch but will not make up for deficiencies in the others. The section on reeds offers some details, but the general rules are these: A stiff reed raises the pitch; a soft reed flattens it. Reeds that are old and water soaked are flat. The reed problem is compounded because the fit of the reed on the bocal is rather inexact. Bassoon reeds are not made on a staple like the oboe reed, but depend on the skill of the reed maker. There are variations in the size of the butt opening, which naturally affect the pitch. Each bassoon has its own intonation problems and these display less uniformity than those of other instruments. More of the out-of-tune pitches tend to be sharp rather than flat (see Figure 20.8).

very sharp

sharp

most are sharp

flat

sharp

FIGURE 20.8 Bassoon intonation tendencies

The teacher may suggest the student lower the pitch by: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

adding a tuning ring; covering only 1/2 the hole; changing lip and breath pressure; adjusting the bocal; adding the right little finger; adding the left-hand C≥ key; adding the E≤ key; opening the reed.

The player should try these and others to determine which is most effective for the instrument. Most texts refer to “lipping” a note in tune. Lipping means doing one of several things: receding the lower jaw, lessening the tension in the center of the lips, changing the direction of the air, loosening the firmness of the embouchure, reducing the speed of the air and the amount of breath support, or putting more reed into the mouth. All make the tone flatter. The opposite action will “lip up” the pitch. A tight throat and a pinched or bunched-up chin make the pitch sharper; to lower the pitch the player should maintain proper breath support, drop the lower jaw, and play with an open, relaxed throat. A reed that is too soft or a key too closed tends to flatten. On the bassoon, alternate fingerings and trick fingerings are usually more successful than lipping the pitch in tune because changing the embouchure or airstream can affect the tone quality as much as, or more than, it can change the pitch. For example, a low C≥ is usually played much better in tune by adding the low D key with the left thumb, the third-space E is improved with the low C key in the right hand, and the written E≤ (half step down) is helped by pressing the low C≥ key and using the left little finger on low D. In addition, a different fingering may improve not only intonation but also tone quality. Bassoons are so individual in character that each one could have its own fingering chart, worked out by a player who explored that instrument to see which fingerings were best for every note. Accomplished performers usually develop a set of fingerings for slow passages to produce the best pitch, quality, response, and resonance, then use the more standard fingerings for fast passages in which agility is decisive.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 277

THE BASSOON

277

TONE AND EFFECTS The bassoon has an established musical place today despite the same mechanical defects that have long since relegated the ophicleide, saxhorn, and serpent to the museum. Its popularity is due to its unique color possibilities. In the hands of an expert the bassoon can sound as mellow as a cello or as piercing as a trumpet. It can imitate with amazing fidelity the tone of a clarinet, baritone, or horn. It can be shrill, grotesque, pompous, and comical—in short, the clown of the orchestra—but it can be rich and powerful as well. Good tone is not difficult to teach but it is difficult to talk about or explain in a text. This is truer with the bassoon than with the trumpet or flute, whose good tone quality is commonly heard and can be easily imagined. Good tone depends upon correct training and proper habits. Breath support and embouchure coupled with the reed and the instrument make the sound. If the reed or the instrument is average, good use of breath support and embouchure can produce a bassoon tone that is above average, even exceptional. Good exercises to strengthen embouchure and encourage breath control are sustained tones, slurs in one register, slurs across registers, slow scales that extend over more than one register, and intervals. The player should attempt to match each tone with the preceding one, remembering, however, that the bassoon has three distinctly different registers. From low B≤ to second-space C is the bottom register, the next octave is the middle register, and the high register is the remainder of the range. Each register in the bassoon range has its own characteristic sound; if it does not, incorrect breathing is the probable cause (tone is being controlled by the chest or throat and not by the diaphragm). Not putting enough reed into the mouth, especially not covering the top of the reed with the upper lip, is usually the cause of an unpleasant or buzzing quality. If the lip position seems to be correct but the buzzing quality persists, the reed may be too soft at the tip or the player’s lips may be too relaxed. To improve the reed, a very small amount of the tip may be cut off with a sharp knife or razor blade. If the tone quality is not improved, the student might pucker his or her lips around the reed more firmly, bringing more of the lower lip into contact with the reed. More of the reed should not be covered with the lower lip, but rather the lip should be made firmer. Poor response and poor quality on the low notes may be due to a reed that has closed. It is easily opened by pressing in gently on the sides or edges of the reed, though this is usually only a temporary remedy. If the reed is not closed, it may be dried out. It should be moistened well and frequently. If this does not help, the player may be pinching the reed and should relax the embouchure, particularly the upper lip. If the player produces a poor tone coupled with irregular response in the higher register, the problem may be with fingerings. Experimentation with alternate fingerings should be done. The lower lip may be too relaxed, or the reed may be too soft. If only the tip is at fault, and the rest of the reed is not overly soft, cutting a bit off the tip can improve the reed and the player’s tone quality. Unsteady pitch on the middle E and F—typically flatness with accompanying bad tone quality—usually indicates that the reed is too soft. The tip may be cut off, or the reed replaced. Another common problem is a tone that cracks on the attack and often in the middle register. Cracking may indicate a faulty embouchure, too much pressure from the top and bottom, not enough from the sides. Students who transfer from other instruments in which the pressure is placed more up and down than into the center seem to have difficulty applying pressure to the sides of the reed. Cracking is also caused by a plugged hole under the whisper key. Finally, cracking may be due to a flaw in the instrument, and if so, the instrument must be humored into a different response. Flicking one of several keys just as the note is attacked often mitigates cracking; it may help to flick the first hole of the left hand to allow a small amount of air in and flick the whisper key or the D or A key just as the note is attacked. This requires some concentration until the player gets used to flicking one finger as s/he puts down other fingers for the desired pitch. When the middle F≥ and G respond with poor tone quality or when they crack on the attack, other gradations of the half hole should be tried. The bassoon is temperamental and unpredictable; half-holing with various fine shadings is one of the best ways to conquer the instrument’s foibles. The tones in the low register can be produced best by dropping the lower jaw and applying more pressure to the sides of the reed. The embouchure is not relaxed; the reed rather is given more freedom to vibrate. If the embouchure is relaxed, the pitch drops. For the upper register, the embouchure is altered in the opposite direction: More pressure is applied from the top and the bottom, the lower lip and jaw are somewhat more firm, and the corners of the mouth exert less pressure. As with other instruments, a change in the dynamic level must be accompanied by appropriate changes in the embouchure. Forte playing demands a relaxation of the embouchure so that the reed is more free to vibrate; pianissimo playing requires a more careful, restricted, cushioned embouchure. Soft playing should not be done by closing the throat; it is the embouchure that is more restricted, while the throat remains open to support the tone. Two important areas of learning are required of the bassoonist. First, familiarity with the tenor clef should begin as soon as possible. Adjusting to a second or third clef is not difficult even for a young pupil—young pianists learn to read two clefs simultaneously and think nothing of it. Second, a flexible thumb must be developed. The bassoonist needs to play eight or more keys with the left thumb, so adjusting to this is strange.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 278

278

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

Finally, the instrument must be in good repair, and the bocal should not leak; the reed should be suited to the embouchure and in good condition. The student should check for proper posture and breath support, continually work for a better embouchure, and listen, listen, listen.

Vibrato There are purists who insist that a really beautiful tone does not need vibrato to enhance its beauty and that vibrato is used only when it fits a style of music. However, most musicians seem to agree that no matter how fine a tone quality one produces, a good vibrato adds warmth and a human quality. Because the human voice is the most expressive and personal of all musical instruments, other instruments imitate its qualities if not its timbre. Of the different ways to produce vibrato, both diaphragm and lip vibrato are acceptable on the bassoon.

TONGUING Tonguing on the bassoon is somewhat different from the other reed instruments because the reed lies farther in the mouth, making it more difficult to tongue at the very tip of the reed. If the player uses the tip of the tongue on the tip of the reed, the tongue will have to be high in the mouth for contact. This tends to tighten the throat and cut down on the resonance. Only the bottom half of the reed needs to be stopped in order to achieve a clean articulation. The tongue should touch the underside of the reed about one-quarter to one-eighth inch from the tip. When this is done naturally, the part of the tongue that touches the reed is not the tip but an area about a half inch from the tip on the top side of the tongue. The action of the tongue is more nearly up and down than forward and back. The player should find the easiest and most natural place for tongue and reed to come together. If the tongue is short, using the very tip of the tongue may facilitate articulation; if the tongue is long or thick, touching the reed at a spot farther back on the tongue may work more efficiently. Double-tonguing is looked upon with skepticism by many reed players. However, William Spencer mentions a type of double-tonguing different from that ordinarily used. The technique consists of flipping the tongue rapidly up and down across the reed, producing one sound on the way up and another on the way down. This would be hard on both tongue and reed but could achieve great rapidity. There will be few passages, however, that the bassoonist cannot handle with well-developed single-tonguing.1

FINGERING Many notes require awkward fingerings on the bassoon. Bassoonists and music educators joke about the dilemma encountered by the left thumb, which activates nine keys, sometimes as many as four at once (See Figure 20.9). Besides learning the basic fingering for each note, the young bassoonist must also learn how to move from one note to another smoothly and without tension, sliding the left thumb instead of letting it jump about. The position for holding the bassoon described earlier is essential to keep the hands relaxed. If the left wrist, for example, is forced into a tense, angled position, thumb dexterity is hampered. As with the flute, numerous notes can be played on the bassoon without pressing or lifting all of the keys. On the flute these fingerings affect pitch; on the bassoon these alternate fingerings affect not only pitch but also tone quality and control. For example, many notes that should be played with the whisper key pressed will sound without it, but lack control. Unlike the oboe, intonation and tone quality can be greatly affected on the bassoon by half holing. The bassoonist needs to half hole certain notes, such as fourth line/space F≥, G, and G≥, which should be played FIGURE 20.9 Left thumb on whisper key (flicker keys with a half hole by the left first finger. These notes can be played with are top two above the thumb) that finger completely lifted, but with poor intonation and a harsher tone quality. Players must learn to listen carefully and make adjustments with the embouchure, alternate fingers/keys, and the extent to which the first tone hole is opened. While the bassoonist’s thumb is extremely busy, the little fingers have fewer keys to operate than on the clarinet or oboe. The keys manipulated by the little fingers are used more in alternate fingerings. As the complexity of the music increases, the alternate fingerings should be taught and practiced. Teachers should always select the best fingerings for the young player until the student matures to the point where he or she can make those determinations. The fingering

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 279

THE BASSOON

279

chart included at the end of this chapter indicates many bassoon fingerings: the first one for each note is the basic fingering, the rest are listed in approximate order of their use. Coordination of tongue and fingers is of great importance in good bassoon technique as with all the other winds. The bassoon reed takes slightly longer to begin to vibrate than do the other reeds. Although this delay is perhaps only 200 milliseconds, the delay is an aspect of technique with which the player must deal. A steady airstream with adequate breath support is essential.

REEDS The first weeks of teaching the bassoon to beginners are often the most pleasant, because they have not yet learned how much trouble the reed can be or how it can enhance prestige to be able to complain to the trombone player about reed problems. The first sounds come easily from the bassoon, and players are so busy holding the instrument and finding the right places for the fingers that they are blissfully unaware of the difficulties about to be encountered. The wise teacher will not be too hasty in giving the beginner more awareness of reed problems than can be handled with understanding. The bassoon player who is given too much information about the reed too soon will spend much time making and fixing reeds instead of practicing. Students will never play better than practicing has prepared them to do, even though they may have a reed worthy of a professional. No reed lasts forever. When a player has a good reed, a search must begin immediately for another. Like a good meal, a good reed gives tremendous satisfaction for a while but will be consumed in time and need to be replaced. Public school students tend to believe a good reed is imperishable. As a reed is used it deteriorates, and the embouchure with it as the student tries to compensate for changes in the reed. Soon there is no reed, embouchure, nor a concept of good tone quality. Although reeds are usually purchased, the student should learn to make them if only to learn to adjust them. Reeds should not be discarded, because they have a use: Students can learn from working on them, taking them apart, and inspecting previous workmanship. The double reed is actually two reeds, held together with three pieces of wire and some string. To be satisfactory, the cane should be golden in color rather than green, neither too soft nor too hard, and the fibers should run the full length of the reed. Cane which is only slightly green may improve if allowed to cure in the open air. Though most players look for a golden shade, various shades of yellow may be satisfactory, and so may be mottled, spotted cane. Coarse-grained cane does not produce satisfactory tone quality for most players, but it responds easily. Because of their easy response students often feel that these are the better reeds, but one with a harder response will produce a better tone. Because no sealing agent is used, the edges must fit all the way to the tip, and the tip opening should be oval or elliptical. The tone quality and response of the reed will be determined by the quality of the cane, the workmanship and evenness of the reed, the shape of the tip opening, and the condition of the edges. In selecting commercial reeds, several criteria besides the quality of the cane may be considered. Drawing the fingernail over the reed can show how hard the reed is. It should have a springy quality. If it is too hard, the fingernail will leave no mark; if it is too soft, the fingernail will leave an indentation. It is better to buy a reed that is too stiff than one that is too soft, as the stiff reed can be altered without destroying its resistance. The sides should be of equal thickness for balance and taper without either thick or thin spots. The tips should be even. The corners should have even shading. One can insert a plaque into the reed to check this thickness and also to check the curve of the blades. Cracks and splits should be avoided, especially deep scoring marks on the butt, because they can extend onto the blade with the slightest pressure. If the throat of the reed is not completely formed, the reed will be unsatisfactory. Reeds that are alike in color, shape, thickness, and cut will not necessarily play alike. The workmanship varies and the cane even more so; reeds that look good and that have been selected with care may still prove to be unsatisfactory or beyond fixing. The experienced player becomes accustomed to this. It is always difficult to criticize something that apparently works. The plastic reed works but is not recommended by professionals. It is, however, amazingly durable and difficult to crack, it can be worked and shaved like a cane reed, it is always ready to play without soaking, it has a consistent response regardless of the register, and it costs about twice as much as a regular reed while outliving a dozen. Transfers from clarinet like it because they can master it much more easily than a regular reed that demands a better bassoon embouchure. The plastic reed has serious drawbacks, however. The wide difference of tone colors possible in the various registers cannot be achieved with the plastic reed; in eliminating the undesirable variables the desirable ones have also been lost. Because the bassoon’s great appeal lies in its tonal possibilities, the plastic reed detracts from rather than enhances the value of the instrument. Bassoon reeds vary in size and shape to such an extent that it is often surprising to the novice that all can play in tune. There are two specific styles, the French and the German, and two general sizes, long and short. The French reed has less center, or heart, than the German reed. The French reed tip is about the same thickness at the edges as at the center, whereas the German is tapered from the center of the tip to the edges and comes to a point at each side where the two blades meet. This makes the French reed a thicker, heavier reed. Such characteristics make major differences in the tone quality. The French quality is lighter and more reedy, even nasal, whereas the German quality is darker and more mellow.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 280

280 THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

Spencer has an interesting picture showing the relative size and shape of 10 different bassoon reeds. They vary more than one-quarter inch in length and show different widths and bindings.2 They can all play in tune because they are cut with a lay that is in proportion to their length, a fact more essential to the pitch than the actual length of the reed. Tone quality differs more than pitch in different reeds. Beginners and even some advanced players will prefer the wide, thinner reed because it gives a rich, full sound, is easy to control, and is especially compatible to players who have transferred from the clarinet. A narrow, more resistant reed may be chosen by the professional or near-professional whose embouchure is highly developed and who wants to be able to control the upper register, the part of the range little used in school music but prevalent in symphonic literature. Longer reeds are usually preferred over the shorter ones. Figure 20.10 designates the various parts of the reed. The lay is that part of the reed above the wire, thicker in the heart and tapering out to the edges and the tip. The shoulder is the small ridge where the lay ends and the tube begins. Three wires hold the two sides of the reed together. The throat is that part of the tube lying between the second wire and the shoulder.

wires throat

shoulder lay

edge

tip

FIGURE 20.10 Bassoon reed

Problems of Response If the upper register is unresponsive, the reed may be either too stiff or too soft. For a low register that speaks slowly, the bottom third of the reed or the tip is too stiff and should be scraped. If the tip is very thin, the reed may not respond readily in any part of the range; more should be taken off the edges, and the tip scraped. If the tip and edges are thin enough, cane in the area of the sides and around the heart should be removed. If cane has been removed at the sides of the reed and the response is still sluggish, one can take a little from the heart, but this must be done delicately and carefully, as this area is best not tampered with. If too much is removed from the heart, the reed will be thin and buzzy and impossible to improve. The smallest change may be sufficient to improve or ruin the reed. Additional guidelines for adjusting reeds include the following: 1. Reeds become stronger during the breaking-in period. Play only a few minutes a day for the first week or 10 days. 2. Make small adjustments and then try the reed; minor differences in scraping, sanding, and clipping can result in the change desired. 3. Do not scrape the reed until it has been well soaked. 4. Wires must always be tight. Tightening the wire takes care and practice; the wire is very fine and a single twist can break it. Wires that are too tight will choke the reed and prevent proper vibrating. 5. To improve quality, scrape below the tip. 6. To increase resistance, scrape the sides of the reed. 7. When scraping one blade of the reed, always support the other blade. 8. Sand only a dry reed; scrape a wet reed. 9. A reed with thin spots cannot be repaired. 10. A reed warped at the tip may right itself when soaked, but a wavy tip may indicate the tip has been scraped too thin. 11. If a reed produces a dull tone, thin the tip.

Pitch Problems For general low pitch, the tip of the reed should be trimmed. For general sharp pitch, the lay or work on the bottom of the reed at the sides should be lengthened. Lengthening the lay will sometimes mean simply scraping the shoulder back a little, or it may be necessary to rework the entire reed. In selecting reeds or fixing them, C, D, E, and F on the staff are key notes for intonation. Flatness here indicates the reed is too soft, sharpness indicates it is too stiff. Specific intonation problems include the following: 1. 2. 3.

For sharp low notes, the back and sides of the reed are too heavy. For sharp high notes, the reed is probably too closed and the top wire should be tightened. For flat high notes, the reed is too open. Gentle pressure with the pliers on the first wire area of the butt can close the reed somewhat, but the reed must be well soaked and the pliers used carefully or the reed will be ruined. The reed should be squeezed on the flat sides; squeezing on the edges will serve to open it more.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 281

THE BASSOON

4. 5.

281

For flat E and F on the staff, the tip of the reed is too long, the heart is too thin, or the reed is old and soggy. When fourth-space G and forked E≤ are very sharp, the reed is too heavy and needs general scraping. These notes are good notes on which to check intonation.

Wire adjustments control the size of the opening and change the quality of the tone. When the second wire is squeezed from the sides, a lighter sound results; tonguing will be easier but there will be less resistance and the reed will tend to close up on forte passages in the low register. If the second wire is squeezed on the top and bottom, the tone is somewhat heavier and the low register easier to obtain. Squeezing the first wire produces the opposite effects. Squeezing the first wire on the top and bottom closes the reed, thins the tone, decreases the resistance, and improves the upper register. Because squeezing the wire usually loosens it, tightening the second wire before adjusting the first wire is recommended in order to keep from loosening the reed and destroying the fit at the edges. A test for proper adjustment of the opening is to tongue low F rapidly—the opening is not too small if low F is in tune and responds normally; play high F (F above middle C)—if this note is in tune and responds normally, the opening is not too large. Tests for a good reed include the following: 1.

2.

Put the reed well into the mouth and blow; the reed should crow. If the crow is too high and tight, the lay is too short, too thick, or both, and more scraping is necessary; if the crow is too deep, the reed is too thin and the lay too long—the tip should be cut off and the reed reworked. If a reed does not crow, it may be leaking or the tip may be too far apart. Try tightening the wires and soaking. Suck briefly on the reed, take it out of the mouth, put a finger over the butt opening, and wait a few moments. There should be a “pop” as it dries and the air pressure becomes equal. The reed that does not stay closed is too stiff or too open and needs more work; if the reed stays closed a long time, it indicates softness. The remedy is to cut off the tip and rework the reed.

Reed Care Reeds should not be kept in the clear plastic containers provided by manufacturers. They are fairly airtight and do not allow a wet reed to dry as it should after each use. A small plastic box can be used for reed holders. The reed is cleaned with a small feather or even a pipe cleaner gently pushed through from the butt end of the reed. A completely clean reed does not play as well as one which has accumulated a little bit of scum inside, perhaps two or three days’ worth. This saliva sediment acts as a cushion against excessive vibrating and helps produce a darker, clearer tone.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF THE BASSOON Bassoons do not work well with bent or dirty bocals, loose reed wires, or accumulation of dust under the keys. The bocal, small in diameter and fairly fragile, needs to be cleaned frequently and carefully. It should be carefully blown out after each playing and warm soapy water should be run through it occasionally, followed by thorough rinsing and swabbing. The holes that are covered by the fingers accumulate grease and dirt from the hands and, because of the holding position of the bassoon, are susceptible to moisture from the inside of the instrument. This results in tiny layers of sediment around the edges of the holes that decrease the size of the hole and make the pitch sharper. They should be cleaned with a pipe cleaner, cotton swab, toothpick, or some similar tool. Wiping the wooden surface and the keys is a good idea, as it keeps the exterior clean and the finish intact. Swabbing the entire bassoon is not a necessity; neither is oiling the bore. Most bassoons are made with partial rubber linings or specially treated interiors to protect the pertinent areas from moisture. Oil causes these materials to deteriorate. The nonlined portions—usually the larger part of the butt joint, the tenor, and the bell joints—may need an occasional slight oiling, but even a little too much oil aids in collecting dust and dirt. It is better not to oil at all than to use too much. Swabbing discourages the unpleasant smell that unswabbed horns inevitably acquire. The wing joint and the boot should be swabbed with a linen hand towel rather than a brush swab, as the latter leaves lint in the instrument. Springs and bearings, joints, posts, and rods need minute applications of oil about twice a year. Use a pin or an instrument screwdriver to apply the oil. The bottom cap and tube of the boot joint should be cleaned occasionally with soap and water. The cap and the tube should be removed from the joint, then washed, rinsed, and dried before replacing. The gasket should not leak when reassembled, as a leak may affect tone quality and the intonation of several pitches. General care includes keeping the instrument away from excessive heat, and avoiding sudden extremes of temperature. When the instrument is cold, allow it to warm to room temperature before blowing through it. Check the spot where the bocal fits into the wing joint, as this occasionally leaks air.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 282

282

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

HEALTH ISSUES The bassoon is an awkward and heavy instrument. The possible fingering combinations create demands on the fingers, arms, and hands that can lead to musculoskeletal injuries if care is not taken. When playing the bassoon, arms need to be raised to an upward position and the elbows pointed outward. These behaviors can lead to irritation and pain in the shoulders and/or outer parts of the upper arm. Plenty of rest during practice and performance is important to help alleviate or reduce these injuries. Seat straps are used in place of a neck strap to reduce tension on the upper back. When standing is necessary (and it rarely is) a double-harness neck strap will assist in dispersing the weight of the bassoon across the back and shoulders. Floor stands are also available to support the instrument.

TROUBLESHOOTING Equipment Sections 1.

Difficulty in assembling joints. (Grease corks on joints, use petroleum jelly on threaded joints.)

Sticky Pads 1. 2. 3. 4.

Moisture in tone hole(s) or absorbed into pads. (If pad is not damaged, place piece of a coffee filter or cigarette paper between the key and tone hole and cover gently for paper to absorb moisture.) Bent rods or keys. (Have repaired by competent repairperson.) Worn springs. (Have repaired by competent repairperson.) Pivot screws require oiling. (Use a single drop.)

Pads Not Seating Correctly 1. 2. 3.

Leaking pads. (Readjustment of mechanism may be required if some keys are remaining open.) Pads damaged or hard and brittle. (Have replaced.) Some pads that are worn but not damaged can be reseated by carefully heating the back of the key and pressing the key over the tone hole. (Be careful to cover the hot key with a soft cloth and realize that the key may cause other leaks due to its new position.)

Gurgling Sound 1.

Water in tone holes. (Blow water into bore; clean with feather or pipe cleaner; maintain instrument well—dry out after playing if possible.)

Tone Raucous, Loud Sound 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Too much reed in mouth. (Try just a small amount of reed and gradually insert more until the desired sound is produced.) Reed too hard. (Try softer reed or scrape and trim as needed.) Cheeks puffing. (Firm up corners to flatten chin and cheeks.) Embouchure too loose. (Correct embouchure.) Reed too open. (Carefully close soaked reed between thumb and index finger to reduce stiffness.)

Pinched, Small Sound 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Not enough reed in mouth. (Place so that upper lip is at least one-quarter inch from first wire.) Chin bunched. (Tighten corners of mouth or direct the corners more toward the reed.) Not enough air. (Correct breathing, be careful not to overblow.) Throat or oral cavity too tight. (Try dropping lower jaw; use less jaw, more lower lip pressure.) Biting on reed. (Drop jaw leaving lip pressure around contour of reed.) Bad reed, poorly made. (Try new reed, perhaps a different cut.)

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 283

THE BASSOON

7. 8.

283

Bassoon held with boot too far back—bad angle for reed. (Boot should be by thigh, head erect.) Reed not open enough. (Trim end of reed a very small amount at a time until the opening produces desired sound.)

Hard, Strident Sound 1. 2. 3.

Reed too hard or has inappropriate cut for embouchure. (Try a softer reed or one with a different cut.) Biting on reed. (Drop jaw, more lip pressure under reed.) Not enough breath support. (Correct breathing.)

Trouble with Control 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Not maintaining a smooth airstream. (Correct breathing.) Biting on reed or poor embouchure. (Correct embouchure.) Angle of reed entering mouth is too high or too low. (Correct holding position.) Jaw not dropped or pulled back. (Correct embouchure.) Reed too soft or too hard. (Adjust reed as above and as in oboe chapter.) Embouchure too loose. (Keep firm embouchure around reed.)

Pitch Flat 1. 2. 3. 4.

Bocal too long. (Try shorter bocal.) Embouchure too relaxed. (Correct embouchure with pressure directed toward reed from all sides.) Reed too long. (Shorten, trim and scrape.) Individual pitches: (A) Keys may not be opening enough. (Have adjusted by competent bassoon repairperson.) (B) Dirty tone holes. (Clean with a pipe cleaner or feather.)

Sharp 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Problems with bocal. (Pull out bocal or try longer bocal.) Embouchure too tight. (Occurs with a great deal of back pressure; student may be blowing too hard. Relax airstream— ”let it flow”—and relax embouchure slightly.) Reed too short. (Try new, longer reed.) Biting on reed. (Drop jaw, more lip pressure under reed.) Reed too hard. (Try softer reed, scrape or trim as needed.) Not enough reed in mouth. (Place more reed in mouth.) Individual pitches: (A) Keys may be opening too far. (Have adjustments made by competent bassoon repairperson.) (B) Adjust embouchure. (Lipping up or down.)

RESOURCES Websites

Texts

Army Field Band Bassoon Basics armyfieldband.com/pages/education/bassoon.html Bassoon Resource bassoonresource.org British Double Reed Society www.bdrs.org.uk International Double Reed Society www.idrs.org Stees Reed Making steesbassoon.com/reed-making

Best, A.S. (1959). The Bassoon. Elkhart, IN: Conn Corp. Cooper, L.H. and H. Toplansky (1976). Essentials of Bassoon Technique (German Technique). Union, NJ: Howard Toplansky; reprint of 1968 ed. Corey, G. (2002). Bassoon Trills, Shakes, and Skills. Ottawa, Canada: Lacan Badian. Ewell, T., W. Waterhouse, and P. Bate (2009). Celebrating Double Reeds: A Festschrift for William Waterhouse and Philip Bate. Baltimore, MD: International Double Reed Society.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 284

284

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

Fletcher, K.K. (1988). The Paris Conservatoire and the Contest Solos for Bassoon. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University. Jansen, W. (1978). Bassoon: Its History, Construction, Makers, Players, and Music, 5 vols. Buren, The Netherlands: Uitgeverij F. Knuf. Joppig, G. (1988). The Oboe and the Bassoon. Portland, OR: Amadeus. Kilbey, M. (2002). Curtal, Dulcian, Bajón: A History of the Precursor to the Bassoon. St. Albans, UK: Author. Klimko, R. (1974). Bassoon Performance Practices and Teaching in the United States and Canada. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho, School of Music. Langwill, L.G. (1975). The Bassoon and Contrabassoon. New York, NY: W.W. Norton. Lipori, D.G. (2002). A Researcher’s Guide to the Bassoon. Lewiston, NY: E. Mellen. McKay, J., R. Hinkle, and W. Woodward (2000). The Bassoon Reed Manual: Lou Skinner’s Technique. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Pence, H. (1963). Teacher’s Guide to the Bassoon. Elkhart, IN: Selmer. Popkin, M. and L. Glickman (2007). Bassoon Reed Making, 3rd ed. North Conway, NH: Charles Reed. Sampson, J. (2014). Contemporary Techniques for the Bassoon: Multiphonics. Bowling Green, OH: ADJective New Music. Schillinger, C. (2016). Bassoon Reed Making: A Pedagogic History. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Spencer, W. and M. Spencer (1969). The Art of Bassoon Playing, rev. ed. Miami, FL: Summy-Birchard. Waterhouse, W. (2003). Bassoon. London: Kahn & Averill.

Journals/Associations The International Double Reed Society publishes The Double Reed four times each year. Available at idrs.org British Double Reed Society publishes Double Reed News four times each year. Available at bdrs.org.uk

Bassoon Studies Easy/Beginning (Elementary or Middle School) Buck. Elementary Method for Bassoon (Kjos). Gekeler-Hovey. Belwin Bassoon Method Book One (Belwin). Hawkins. Melodious and Progressive Studies for the Bassoon (Southern Music). Herfurth. A Tune a Day for Bassoon (Boston Music). Jancourt. 26 Melodic Studies, op. 15 (International). Lentz. Lentz Method for Bassoon (Vols. 1 and 2) (Belwin-Mills). McDowell. Practical Studies for Bassoon (Vols. 1 and 2) (BelwinMills). McDowell-Hovey. Daily Exercises for Bassoon (Belwin-Mills). Pares. Scales and Daily Exercises for Bassoon (C. Fischer). Skornicka. Elementary Method for Bassoon (Rubank). Weissenborn. Bassoon Studies for Beginners (Book 1) (C. Fischer). ––– Practical Method for Bassoon (C. Fischer).

Medium (Middle or High School) Fink. Introducing the Tenor Clef for Trombone (Bassoon) (Accura). Gambaro. 18 Etudes (International). Giampieri. 16 Daily Studies (G. Ricordi). Jacobi. 6 Caprices (International). Jancourt. 26 Melodic Studies, op. 15 (Coslellat). Kopprasch. 60 Studies for Bassoon (Vols. 1 and 2) (International). Milde. Concert Studies (Vol. 1) (International). ––– 25 Studies in Scales and Chords, op. 24 (International). Oubradous. Gammes et Exercises Journaliers (Vols. 1 and 2) (A. Leduc). Salzenhofer. 24 Studies for Bassoon (International). Weissenborn. Practical Method for the Bassoon (C. Fischer).

Advanced (High School or College) Bitsch. 20 Studies for Bassoon (A. Leduc). Bozza. 12 Caprices, op. 64 (A. Leduc). Giampieri. 16 Daily Studies for Perfection (G. Ricordi). Klengel. Daily Exercises for Cello (Breitkopf). Milde. Concert Studies for Bassoon (Vol. 2) (International). ––– 50 Concert Studies, op. 26 (Kalmus). Oubradous. Gamines et Exercises Journaliers (Vols. 2 and 3) (A. Leduc). Piard. 90 Etudes (Vols. 1 and 2) (Theodore Presser). Satzenhofer. 24 Studies for Bassoon (International). Schoenbach. 20th Century Orchestral Studies for Bassoon (G. Schirmer). Weissenborn. 50 Advanced Studies (Books 1 and 2) (C. Fischer).

Instructional Videos Basics of Bassoon (Richard Lottridge and Richard Wolf, 1993). Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin-Madison. Bassoon Basics (Richard Spittal, Lynn Peck, and Roy Carson, 1997). Ft. Meade, MD: U.S. Army Field Band. www.armyfieldband.com/pages/education/bassoon.html Bassoon Fundamentals (Veronica Chairez, 2007). Milwaukee, WI: B. Giacobassi. Bassoon Reed Making (Veronica Chairez, 2007). Milwaukee, WI: B. Giacobassi. Music and the Bassoon (Kristin Wolfe Jensen, nd). www.musicand thebassoon.org/three-beginner-lessons-one-week Oboe and Bassoon (Allen Signs, 1987). Bellingham, WA: Band Instrument Repair Video.

Recommended Bassoon Artists Stefano Conuti playing Rossini and Mendelssohn Christian Davidson playing Hummel and Schnitke Janet Grice playing Swing and Classical Mauro Monguzzi playing Hindemith and Tansman Daniel Smith playing Bach and Vivaldi Frank Tiberi playing Swing, Bop, and Hard Bop.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 285

THE BASSOON

Bassoon Parts

NOTES 1. 2.

FIGURE 20.11 Bassoon parts

285

Spencer, W. (1958). The Art of Bassoon Playing. Miami, FL: Summy-Birchard, 55. Ibid., 26.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 286

286

THE WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS

Bassoon Fingering Chart

B B C D

C# tr 1

Ok2 Ok1 C# WK 1

2 B F 3

F# tr 2

F#

3

G#

D# C# Left Hand Front

B E F# G#

LT

{

{

RT

B B 1 2 3

B

C

C

D

D

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3

E 1 2 3 F

E 1 2 3 F

E 1 2 3 F

1 2 3 C E 1 2 3 F

1 2 3 D E 1 2 3 F

WK 1 2 3

WK WK 1 1 2 2 3 3 F 1 1 2 2 3 3 F



1 2 3 F



WK

WK

WK

WK

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 B

Right Hand Front

B 1 2

 WKC 

WK DC 1 2 3

1 2 3 (E)

1



E 1 2 3 F

WK 1 2 3

WK 1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3 G



WK

WK

1 2

1 3



E 1 2 3 F

WK 1 2 3 G1 1 2 3

WK 1 2 3



1 2



WK C 1 2

WK WK 1

1



3 D B 2

(F)

1 2

WK WK 1

1

3 B 1

E

WK

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 287

THE BASSOON

(WK) (WK) 1/2 1/2 2 2 3 3 F 1 1 2 2 3 3 F F

(WK) 1/2 2 3



2 3

1 2 3



C

1/2 or 1 1/2 or 1

1 2 3 G



2 3 G 1 2 3



 C C D 1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3

C 1 2

1 2

2 3 F

2 3 F

WK WK (WK)

(WK)

1/2

1/2

1/2

1/2

1/2

2 3 D B 1

2 3 D

2 3 D

2 3 D B 1

2 3 D

3

3

   1

F

OK2 (WK) 1 3

G



 

1 2

OK1 1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2

1 2

1 2

1

D

3 D

3

1 2 3

1 2 3



3

3 F

3 G



1 2 B

1 2 B

1 2 3

OK2 1 2 3

1

1

G

(OK2) 1 2 3



1

1

 D

1/2

1 2 3 D

3 D

 

1 2

1 2

1/2

1 or 2

2 3 D B 1

2

2

1 2

B 1 2

 D3 D  D3 

1 2

B 1 2

F

  

OK1 OK1 OK1 C C C 1/2 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 D D D

  

 OK1 C

OK1 C (1) 2 3 D

1 2 3 D E 1 2

1 2

3

OK2 1 2

 

OK2 OK2 OK2 OK2 1

1

1

1

(B  )



D

1 (2)

1 2

B 1 2

1

F

F

F

F

D

 D D D

3 F

3 D

(OK2) 1 2 3

WK

1 2

1

OK2 OK2 (WK) 1

1 2 3





OK2 (WK) C 1/2 F Tr 2 3 3 D G







1 3

(OK2) 1 2 3 B 1 2

3 F



C Tr

F

C 2 3

1 2 3





OK2 OK1 C 1 1/2 F Tr 2 3 D B C Tr 1 2 3 G G







 

 

OK1 C C F Tr 2 2 3



F

C 1 2



OK1 1 2



1 2 3 G

 

G

1

1

287

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 289

PART

IV

The Brass and Percussion Instruments

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 291

CHAPTER 21

Brass Principles

21

We described fundamental principles that pertain to both woodwind and brass band instruments in Chapter 15 and we suggest that readers examine the content there before continuing with the present chapter, which focuses on those elements unique to brass instruments. All brasses play pitches based on the overtone series and are fitted with valves or a slide to play a complete chromatic scale. With the exceptions of the valve surfaces of all brass instruments and the fiberglass used for some sousaphones, brass instruments are constructed of a brass alloy of mostly copper and zinc.

CONICAL AND CYLINDRICAL INSTRUMENTS Brass instruments can be divided into two classes: those constructed of tubing that is primarily cylindrical throughout the bore and those that are almost completely conical. The cylindrical instruments have a slightly conical-shaped leadpipe (the first section of tubing—before the main tuning slide—in which the mouthpiece is inserted) and an exaggerated conical shape forming the bell. Roughly two-thirds of the total length, however, is cylindrical. Conical-shaped brass instruments are tapered almost completely from mouthpiece to bell. About one-third of the total tubing is cylindrical, consisting primarily of the section comprising tuning and valve slides. The greatest difference between these two classes occurs in the decrease in thickness (taper) of the leadpipes. The acoustical difference is that a conical-shaped standing wave eliminates several of the upper partials from each pitch, Register Cylindrical Conical resulting in a less “brilliant” sound than that produced by cylindrical brass instruments. A more rapidly flaring leadpipe soprano trumpet* cornet enables a brass player to change the speed of the air more easily, enhancing flexibility. A cylindrical leadpipe is less forgiving, alto horn, alto horn* reducing flexibility and affecting control on lip slurs. Thus, mellophone initial success is easier on the conical cornet than the cylindrical tenor trombone* euphonium trumpet. Both classes of brass instruments are available in soprano, bass sousaphone tuba* alto, tenor, and bass voicings in the brass section (see Figure 21.1). Bands and orchestras use both conical and cylindrical instruments within the same voice range (for example, the FIGURE 21.1 The two classes of brass, with those most commonly used in the orchestra frequent use of cornets and trumpets as well as euphoniums and trombones), as composers make use of the differing timbres.

SELECTING THE INSTRUMENT Many manufacturers of brass instruments produce good-quality instruments. Used brass instruments that are less than 30 years old are generally fine. One important consideration with all brass instruments is bore size. Medium- or mediumlarge-bore instruments are the most popular and generally offer the most immediate success. The common recommendation that beginners should select small-bore instruments is erroneous. Small-bore trumpets/cornets and trombones may enable the student to produce an initial sound with less effort, but only because the student does not have to breathe properly in order to produce the tone. Small-bore instruments are easily overblown, which can be appropriate if the attempt is to learn to get to a higher partial, but good tone is often fleeting at best. The resulting distorted sound becomes hard to correct. At the advanced and/or professional levels, the size and material of the bell becomes a matter of concern. The standing wave that produces the quality of tone in a brass instrument is established by the reflection of the pressure wave originating at the embouchure and is reflected by the change of air pressure at the bell. A greater rate of flare has the effect of damping the upper partials, thus creating a “darker” tone quality. A slower or lesser flare projects the upper

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 292

292

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

overtones heard by the audience. Consequently, the darkest tone is produced by an instrument that has a small bore but a large bell. Bells are made of various materials; most are of the same brass alloy as the rest of the instrument, but some professionalline manufacturers offer the player a choice of alloys for the bell. Opinions differ as to the value of these various brass alloys; many find no difference whatsoever between them. The effect, if any, seems to be in the degree of brilliance. To further complicate matters for the student, but to facilitate the tastes of the professionals, many brass manufacturers make instruments with detachable bells. Schilke invented the first to serve as a tuning device to avoid interruption of the main tuning slide. The metal of the brass instruments is important for tone quality, and most companies presently use a satisfactory grade. A yellow brass lacquer finish is the most common although silver plating is preferred by many professionals. Silver plating is of course a part of the material of the instrument itself in contrast to an “overcoat” of lacquer. Silver is thinner than lacquer and some professionals suggest that it results in a darker tone quality, but others disagree. Student-line instruments often are manufactured with nickel plating. These wear better and normally produce a slightly more brilliant sound. Most repair shops, however, do not have the facilities to replate nickel. A number of professionals prefer a “raw brass” finish (or lack thereof) which produces the darkest or “purest” tone quality. Different alloys have been used for bells on trombones and trumpets such as red brass, which has the most copper and results in the darkest tone quality, and gold brass, which has less copper. Both of these are “stuffy” in soft passages but provide a rich, full sound at fuller dynamic levels. Yellow brass is the default of most brass instruments and has even less copper than gold brass.

STARTING THE BEGINNER Many brass methods, teachers, players, and texts list physical aspects necessary to learn a brass instrument. Some of these authorities recommend that the teacher inspect each child’s teeth, lips, fingers, jaw, arms, hooves, and the like before allowing them to start a brass instrument. In reality, interest in the instrument is the primary predictor of success. The only characteristic of the child that the teacher can truly rely on is that the student will change. If Louis Armstrong had been assessed under these rules, he would have played bass drum. Although some famous trumpet players have suggested that all they do is screw up their lips and blow, there are guidelines to initial production of tone. The following are helpful suggestions: 1.

2.

3. 4.

5.

Moisten the lips, then with the lips alone (and keeping the teeth apart), produce a puttering sound like a child imitating a motorboat. Increase the “speed of the motor” by tightening the corners of the mouth to produce a buzz. Watch for excessive puckering. If buzzing is difficult and the tendency is to “flap” the lips like a horse, curl the lips under more (so that less pink of the lip is showing) and place them closer together. Practice the buzzing until it comes naturally, feels easy, and can be sustained for several counts. At this point, place the mouthpiece lightly to the lips, avoiding any pressure other than the minimum amount necessary to seal off escaping air. Place the lips together as if saying “em” (this keeps the teeth apart), firm the corners, add the mouthpiece, and blow until a sound is produced. The student should be cautioned not to pull the mouthpiece back into the lips but to let the airstream make the sound. Excessive pressure against the lips prevents the lips from flexing to change pitches. Excessive pressure is a natural tendency for the beginners, as they are using facial muscles in a different manner than before. Unfortunately, excessive pressure is among the more common bad habits for brass players and is the primary reason for poor upper register playing. Excessive pressure is usually a symptom of an under developed embouchure or lack of a supported airstream. Have the student gently blow into the instrument without firming the lips—as if “sighing” into the brass instrument; then very gradually bring the lips closer together, firming the corners until a pitch responds. Place the mouthpiece against the lips and release a burst of air into the mouthpiece while simultaneously making a “toe” or “tah” syllable (depending on the instrument) with the tongue touching the roof of the mouth near the teeth. Try the same procedure with the mouthpiece inserted into the instrument. If none of the above helps produce a sound on the mouthpiece, the teacher has two alternatives: (1) try a brass instrument with a larger mouthpiece (if the student isn’t already playing a tuba); or (2) let the student try blasting to produce the initial sounds. Brass playing is a vigorous physical activity; in some cases what feels like blasting is exactly what may be required. Blasting is never advocated, but it may be worth trying when all other means fail, especially if the term blasting conveys the concept of blowing a fast airstream.

When students can consistently produce a tone with each attempt, they are ready to experiment with raising and lowering pitches by tightening and loosening the corners of the mouth and changing air speed. Playing short melodies with just the mouthpiece is valuable embouchure training; it is also fun, and it helps the all-important development of the ear.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 293

BRASS PRINCIPLES

293

EMBOUCHURE The correct brass embouchure consists of a lip position that uses a balance of smiling and puckering muscles. Because individuals differ in facial structure, the safest way to help a student develop a correct embouchure is to have them close the mouth with the lips touching (but the teeth remaining slightly apart, as if saying “em”). The corners of the lips are held firm (which results in a flat chin) and the center of the lips will be loose enough to vibrate with the outgoing stream of air. Lip tension is adjusted by slightly tightening or loosening the strongest muscles in the face, those at the corners of the mouth (the corners of the mouth do not clamp on anything but themselves). The process works somewhat like a “zip-lock bag” in that the aperture at the center of the embouchure is closed by tension moving from the outside of the lips toward the inside. The chin remains flat. This position makes it virtually impossible to puff out the cheeks. When the airstream is increased in velocity to play pitches higher in the overtone series, the corners of the lips must become firmer to prevent the increased air pressure from blowing the lips open. The lips vibrate more rapidly when the airstream is moving more rapidly. Tension at the corners of the mouth makes the aperture smaller while retaining a similar shape. Initially, students should be encouraged to produce a higher pitch by simply tightening the corners of the mouth or lips. By “thinking” higher and lower pitches, the player can increase and decrease the speed in much the same way a singer produces higher and lower pitches. The smile embouchure tends to produce lips that are stretched to produce higher pitches but can result in a thin sound. The pucker-type embouchure creates tension in the center of the lip, a lip that needs to be free to vibrate. The pucker-type embouchure also makes it difficult for the chin to remain flat. The type of embouchure affects tone quality between registers. Every effort should be made to center the mouthpiece on the lips horizontally and vertically. Though there are many shades of opinion regarding the vertical placement of the mouthpiece, most teachers prefer to have equal amounts of each lip vibrating for cornet, trumpet, and tuba, and more of the upper lip on the mouthpiece for horn and trombone. The shape of the front teeth may also impact placement. An embouchure visualizer can be helpful in checking mouthpiece placement (Figure 21.2). When one-third of the upper lip and two-thirds of the lower lip show FIGURE 21.2 Brass embouchure visualizer from the outside, the actual placement is closer to half-and-half on the inside of the cup. The lip and jaw structure affect the placement. If the upper lip is fuller, the mouthpiece may be positioned slightly higher on the lip; if the lower jaw recedes, the mouthpiece will be positioned a bit farther down. The lower jaw should be exactly beneath the upper jaw, with the incisors aligned, making the lower jaw jut out in such a position that it sends the column of air almost directly into the mouthpiece, neither excessively upward nor downward. Most students need to be encouraged to move their lower jaw forward to align the teeth and lips. Although beginning players, as previously stated, are encouraged to center the mouthpiece both vertically and horizontally, a slight drift to one side or the other may occur with students who have uneven teeth; this drift should be no cause for alarm. The teacher must maintain a careful watch, however, to make sure the drift does not extend to the point where the mouthpiece placement becomes detrimental to the player. The direction of the air changes in different registers (more so with larger mouthpieces)—generally the higher the register the more the air is directed downward, or toward the end of the cup as seen in Figure 21.3. The embouchure remains basically the same, but there is slight shifting of pressure from one lip to the other depending upon the register. Upper and lower lips and teeth may not remain perfectly vertically aligned, as the lips move into these slightly different positions. (The head or the instrument may be pivoted just enough to transfer pressure from one lip to another.) According to the brass pedagogue Donald Reinhardt, the direction of the airstream in conjunction with the degree of lip tension and air speed determines the pitch. In addition, the tongue directs and governs the size of the airstream through the embouchure. Generally, articulations such as “doe” are used in the lower registers and articulations such as “dee” are used in the upper registers; these two vowel sounds require a different placement of the back of the tongue but use the same consonant for the beginning of FIGURE 21.3 Direction of airstream inside mouthpiece the note. Articulations such as “toe” and “tee” are slightly more defined and are used for marcato or accented passages.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 294

294

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

Both range and dynamics affect the size of the embouchure opening (aperture), the aperture becoming smaller for higher notes and softer tones. Players who resort to a pucker for the lower register and a smile for the higher notes usually experience tension and fatigue. A more satisfactory solution seems to lie in pivoting—that is, in changing the position of the lower lip because it is not as crucial in producing the “buzz.” Pivoting can also be accomplished by raising or lowering the lower lip by rolling it in and out or, in extreme cases, by slightly lowering the jaw. If the teeth are sufficiently far apart it will be easier to get the right feeling in the lips. Some trumpet pedagogues say that the lips should form a small oval resembling the opening of an oboe reed. Beginning players may misinterpret this and open the lips too much, but the visual imagery of the opening of an oboe reed can help students in properly forming their lips. With higher-pitched brass instruments, the opening is so small that it can hardly be felt by the player, but it can be seen with an embouchure visualizer. An aperture that is too open allows the air to “spread” and the sound loses focus. The tone produced by a too-open embouchure will be soft and hollow with no center or resonance; the resulting tone often sounds airy or “fuzzy” and pitch will sag. When the embouchure is too closed, articulations will usually be very explosive, tones will be choked, and pitch will rise. Practicing in front of a mirror is an excellent way for the student to check the embouchure, mouthpiece placement, instrument position, and general posture.

Embouchure Faults Too much mouthpiece pressure is the most common and the most destructive fault of a poor embouchure. Pressure affects the quality of tone, flexibility, endurance, and range. When the mouthpiece is pushed into the lips, the sound will be thin and hard with little breath support, or the player overcompensates and the sound is harsh. Pressure should be only enough to create a seal between the instrument and the lips. An illustration in The Art of French Horn Playing1 shows the author playing the horn resting on a mantelpiece; his only point of contact with the instrument is his lips on the mouthpiece. Herbert L. Clarke was famous for his apocryphal stunt of hitting high C with the horn suspended from the ceiling by a string. Both examples serve as superb illustrations that little mouthpiece pressure is necessary. Pressure restricts the flow of blood to the lips, causing them to tire quickly. The cure is to use less pressure, to remove the mouthpiece from the lips at every opportunity, and to increase air support. Insufficient air or an underdeveloped embouchure is a cause of excessive mouthpiece pressure, as the player makes the lips vibrate by pulling the mouthpiece back into the lips rather than by relying on an adequate flow of air or firm corners of the mouth to create the lip vibration. Brass students should always be encouraged to rely on more air instead of a change of embouchure, and should regularly practice both long tones and lip slurs. The player should feel as though the air is pushing the mouthpiece away from the lips rather than pushing the lips into the mouthpiece. When the lips are pushed into the mouthpiece (pucker), notes are scooped upward toward the center of the pitch. Also, the tone will be stuffy and dull. The lower-pitched brasses allow the player to assume a more relaxed embouchure that may give the feeling of more puckering, although tuba players must maintain firm corners and prevent the embouchure from “caving in.” Beginners often produce a strange, pinched sound for which the cause is not readily apparent. This sound may result from keeping the jaws too closed or bringing the teeth too close together. It may be caused by a lack of breath support, the player squeezing the throat to increase air velocity, or clamping the jaws together to keep the pitch up. To separate the jaws properly, hold a long tone while slowly raising and lowering the lower jaw, carefully listening to identify the position where the best sound is obtained. The proper distance between the jaws differs for the trumpet and the tuba player. Air in the cheeks causes the lips to stretch at the center, destroying the setting and preventing the muscles at the corners of the mouth from working properly. The smiling embouchure has the same result as air in the cheeks, stretching the center of the embouchure and preventing a good tone. To be sure the mouthpiece is centered during lengthy practice sessions, the player should take the instrument away from the lips at every opportunity and reposition it correctly. As portions of the lips begin to tire or become irritated from constant contact with the mouthpiece, the mouthpiece will “slip” to a new position. As the embouchure develops, the mouthpiece will always fit into the same “grooves” nicely and comfortably. One of Louis Armstrong’s unique traits as a trumpet player was his ability to play for hours seemingly without embouchure fatigue. Scholars have observed that this phenomenon was due to his having developed several embouchures. When he felt fatigue setting in, he moved the mouthpiece to a different spot. This is not recommended for most players.

ENDURANCE Herbert L. Clarke said, “Endurance is 90 percent of cornet playing.”2 On any brass instrument, endurance is the prize for practicing regularly and correctly. Some performers have unbelievable staying power as a result of hard work and their natural gifts. Many more are barely warmed up before they are through for the day. A majority of brass players

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 295

BRASS PRINCIPLES

295

believe that endurance and range are the two most difficult aspects of performance. Both require physical and mental skills that are developed over relatively long periods of time and are the focus of much practice. Some pressure on the mouthpiece is needed to play any note on a brass instrument; however, excessive pressure is the primary enemy of endurance. The best way to reduce this pressure or force (and increase endurance) is to develop a strong embouchure. Proper breathing is necessary along with practicing long tones and lip slurs. Practicing with only the mouthpiece helps, as pressure prevents one from attaining a full, “loud” buzz. Another exercise is to support the instrument by lightly balancing it on the thumbs, avoiding a firm, left-hand grasp. Careful practice is practice alternated with rest. The worst scenarios are those in which students do not practice all week and make up for it by practicing for four or five hours on a Sunday afternoon. Those five hours equal 30 minutes of focused practice plus more than 4 hours of frustration and bad habits. During any practice, the brass player should remove the mouthpiece from the lips and rest a few seconds whenever there is more than a slight strain. Another rule of thumb is to rest for as much time as you play. Most published exercises do not warn the player to rest after a few lines, with the result that the students often force themselves to play an entire exercise regardless of how fatigued their lips and embouchure are. As a student’s embouchure becomes more stable, the muscles at the corners of the mouth become stronger. The result is greater staying power, increased range, greater flexibility, and more control at various dynamic levels. Performance anxiety is also a common cause of poor endurance and because a brass mouthpiece rests against the performer’s mouth, it can shake and quiver. The student, unable to control those quivers, suffers from increased performance anxiety. A lack of confidence results in loss of mental control over the physical responses to the performance stimuli: physical tension, shortness of breath, and improper use of the embouchure. Teachers should concern themselves with development of the mental, as well as physical, attributes that enhance endurance. Increased endurance and the development of a correct embouchure depend upon intelligent and conscientious practice. Control and flexibility, so necessary to the brass player, are gained by careful practice. All brass players must also concern themselves with tension throughout the body, not just the embouchure. A sample of common tension points is illustrated in Figure 21.4. Tension in these areas of the body will cause fatigue that affects all aspects of performance. Because brass playing FIGURE 21.4 Common areas susceptible to tension is such a physical endeavor, relaxation and flexibility of body parts is in brass playing © 1989 The New York Times essential for accurate playing for any extended period of time and for good Company. Reprinted with permission playing for any length of time.

WARM-UP AND WARM-DOWN The daily warm-up is one of the most important activities of a practice routine. Although the warm-up affects the instrument itself (in terms of pitch), its essential purpose is to condition the player in much the same way an athlete’s “daily dozen” keeps him or her in condition—the warm-up increases blood circulation throughout the body and especially the embouchure. For beginning brass players the warm-up is an “embouchure-training” exercise. The muscles used in brass playing must be loosened every day before placing the strain of actual performance on them, gently awakening the lips rather than announcing an abrupt reveille. The warm-up not only conditions the muscles for playing but also helps the player coordinate other physical processes before starting to practice. Calisthenics can help loosen an athlete’s body up before a game and build stronger muscles for future endeavors. Similarly, a brass player’s warm-up routine is also a muscle-building session that will result in good tone, breath support, tonguing, endurance, flexibility, control, good intonation, and range—in short, almost all the desirable elements of beautiful playing. The word routine is important here, because the warm-up is a daily process, not a spasmodic occurrence. Individual routines differ, but most include the following: work in long tones, lip slurs, tonguing, finger or slide exercises, and intervals, played in various registers and at various dynamic levels. Also of importance is the “warm-down.” When players have been playing in the upper range for an extended period or exerting physical demand on their embouchure, playing a few warm-down exercises in the low range relaxes the lips to prevent “stiffness,” comparable to an athlete’s exercise to avoid that “morning-after” stiffness. The most common warm-down is to play short exercises softly, in the lowest register of the instrument (including pedal tones for more advanced players) with frequent periods of rest (the mouthpiece off the lips).

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 296

296

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

Long Tones Long tones are essential. They provide a daily test of steady breath support, endurance, and a way to listen for and improve tone quality and intonation. Sustained tones are an excellent way to coordinate breathing, range, and dynamics simultaneously throughout the entire register. The player should concentrate on producing and projecting a centered tone regardless of how soft the dynamic level, as well as a well-focused attack and accurate intonation.

Lip Slurs Lip slurs are the technique of changing pitches within a harmonic series by adjusting the embouchure only, without changing slide position or valve combinations. Students should practice lip slurs in all registers, beginning each day with the middle register and gradually extending to the upper and lower registers. Lip slurs help strengthen the important muscles of the embouchure and help coordinate breathing with embouchure change. If lip slurs are difficult for the player to perform successfully, it is usually because the upper note fails to respond. This problem may be caused by: (1) failure to maintain a steady stream of air; (2) unconsciously making a break between the two notes of the slur; (3) not enough flesh of the lower lip in the mouthpiece to start the slur; (4) failure to increase the air speed necessary to sound a higher pitch in the overtone series—often resulting from students’ confusion between the speed of the air and the amount of air; or (5) failure to firm the muscles at the corners of the mouth for the upper tone (resulting in the increased speed of the airstream blowing the aperture too open). The airstream must increase in speed to slur upwards cleanly and slow to slur downward; for most beginners, this is accompanied by a change in dynamic level from piano to forte and the reverse. Lip slurs are helped by arching the tongue to an “ee” position (which can be demonstrated by having a student whistle and “slur” from a low pitch to a high pitch—this can be done only with the tongue) and by moving the lower lip in and out.

CONTROL In the good old days trumpet players were judged by their ability to whip through such favorites as the “Carnival of Venice,” “Emmett’s Lullaby,” and the “Grand Russian Fantasia.” Today, amateur performers are required to play what once was left to more advanced groups. The requirements for the “Carnival of Venice” and the trombone part of a Beethoven symphony are vastly different, but both make serious demands on the performer. The former, with all of its flourishes and runs, looks more difficult, but the symphonic part is just as difficult to play. To play a few isolated notes in various registers with perfect control may be more difficult than to play music that requires a dazzling technique. The first measure of Wagner’s “Rienzi Overture” may frighten more trumpet players than does any solo in the literature. The following suggestions can help in achieving control: 1.

2.

3. 4. 5.

Practice single attacks. Learn to play any scale or arpeggio one note at a time, removing the instrument from the lips after each tone. Then preface each single attack with one, two, or three articulated grace notes. Try to acquire the ability to play any pitch in the playing range at any level of volume in any musical style in tune. This procedure helps develop a “memory” of how the embouchure should feel for various pitches. Practice intervals from any given tone. For instance, begin on second-line G in treble clef or fourth-line F in bass clef, and play a major second, a major third, a fourth, and so on. Practice ascending intervals, descending intervals, and sequences of thirds, fourths, fifths, and sixths. Write out a series of unrelated tones and practice them daily. Refer to Farkas’ The Art of French Horn Playing for examples of this kind. Similar studies are available in various books. (See the bibliography at the end of the chapter.) Work on tones that seem difficult to play accurately on the various brass instruments (e.g., the sixth partial F≥ concert on B≤ instruments). Keep a record of your progress. Try to make fewer mistakes the second time through an exercise. Learn to practice critically. Players who habitually miss dozens of notes in their daily practice sessions are always at a loss to understand why they miss dozens of notes in a performance. Herbert L. Clarke relates that he hadn’t actually been aware of his inaccurate playing until the day a friend commented on the large number of errors he heard.3 He revised his practice habits and became the most famous cornetist of all time.

FLEXIBILITY Many players lack the flexibility to slur upward—they cannot attain the upper note. Others get it by using an unmusical burst of air. Excessive pressure reduces flexibility and contributes to the difficulty of slurring. Players tend to pull the mouthpiece back into the lips to get that higher note. This use of pressure is not entirely wrong, but it should not be used as a crutch to overcome slurring difficulties.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 297

BRASS PRINCIPLES

297

Occasionally the trumpet or horn player must execute a lip trill. The lip trill is nothing more than a fast lip slur usually between notes a whole tone apart. Because a trill must be rapid to be effective, it usually is practiced slowly, and the speed gradually increased to gain flexibility.

RANGE It isn’t easy to develop a good high range and there are far too many clips on YouTube demonstrating that this is so. The young player always hopes to find a secret that will suddenly empower him or her to soar flawlessly into the upper registers. Whereas a major scale can be practiced sufficiently in one evening to be played very fast, learning to play high notes takes a great deal of time, and progress is usually slow. A good high register results from the combination of good embouchure and a diaphragm-supported airstream developed through practicing sustained tones and lip slurs in a comfortable register at medium volume. As strength develops, the range and dynamic level may be extended. Much patience is required. High tones are produced by coordinating the breath, lips, and tongue, not by violent physical exertion. The corners of the mouth must be held firmly together to increase tension; the more developed the muscles become the greater is their ability to contract. Players must tense the corners of their mouths with a feeling that the corners of the lips are pressing against the teeth. They must exhale with greater abdominal pressure to increase the speed of the airstream and vibrate the lips faster. The tongue should be raised or arched as if forming an “ee” sound—the arch is in the middle of the tongue, not at the back (Figure 21.5). Tightening muscles or tension in the back of the tongue will close the throat. The lower lip must not be allowed to collapse into the mouth over the lower teeth or behind the upper lip. For the high range, the lower jaw will often rise somewhat so that the lip and teeth opening becomes smaller. Some horn players hold the head back to alter the angle of the flow of air entering the mouthpiece; a more acceptable alternative is to draw the lower lip back so it is slightly under the upper lip, keeping the lips together, and sending the stream of air downward. The brass player using the pivot system does the same thing. For the upper limits of the range, suddenly forcing the air out with greater speed will help produce the higher pitches. Students attempting to increase their upper range should play softly in that register—this approach aids the student in distinguishing between the speed and the volume of the air. Even a very soft, slight squeak (played with little mouthpiece pressure) is fine at first; a baby crawls before it walks and walks before it runs.

FIGURE 21.5 Approximate location of the tongue for low, middle, and high notes

Learning to play in the high register demands practicing in the high register, but with care, frequent rest, and alternate low-register practice (still with plenty of air support). Buzzing on the mouthpiece or with the lips can help strengthen the facial muscles. When attempting to increase one’s range, the habit of warming down cannot be stressed enough. The player must take these few minutes to relax the facial muscles and increase the flow of blood to the muscle tissue.

ARTICULATIONS As the term is defined in most dictionaries, articulation is how sounds are connected—that is, not only how a sound is started but how it ends. This definition is important because many wind players are adept at starting a pitch using the tongue, but far too many use the tongue to end the note. Use of the tongue to end the tone not only results in an unpleasant sound but also handicaps the player in fast passages or long, soft, tapered phrase endings. For attacks the tongue is used merely to clip off the “wind sound” at the beginning of each tongued note (i.e., the milliseconds between the point that the air is released and the point that a standing wave in the instrument produces a tone). The cleanest beginning of each note is achieved by letting the tongue touch the roof of the mouth just behind the upper teeth. Use the syllable “duh” because it is slightly less explosive than “tuh,” although every brass player will eventually face an articulation that requires an explosive attack.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 298

298

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

Students should experience the difference in tongue placement when vocalizing “tuh,” “duh,” “thuh” (which is not used in performance), and “kuh” (typically used only in double-tonguing, but given here to demonstrate various ways one can start a tone). While tongue placement for the vowel sound is the same for each of these syllables, the tongue is used differently for each of the consonant sounds (the vowel “ah” is often used, but because it involves movement by the jaw it can lead to associating jaw movement with tonguing). The tip of the tongue is farthest forward and touches the teeth on “thuh,” with the middle of the tongue touching the roof of the mouth for “kuh.” The tongue stays out of the way when inhaling and during the actual time the tone is being produced. It rises very quickly, touches the roof of the mouth when the consonant “d” is vocalized then quickly, returns to the bottom or middle of the mouth (as if vocalizing “oe” in the low register and “ee” in the upper). Teachers must be careful when working with students who choke off the airstream; too much emphasis in keeping the tongue at the bottom of the mouth can result in tension and poor articulations. In general, students should be directed to keep the tongue relaxed and to tongue using the least amount of tongue movement. If teachers emphasize the appropriate vowel sound in vocalizing exercises and melodies, the tongue will respond properly. The rule of thumb (or tongue) is that the shorter the distance that the tongue must move, the greater the control, the quicker it can move, and the less fatiguing will be rapid and prolonged passages. Most pitches are stopped when the air is stopped; they should not be stopped abruptly with the tongue except with jazz articulations. One of the most difficult concepts for a beginning brass player to understand is that notes are connected unless the music indicates something different. The words in this sentence are printed with spaces used to separate them; when vocalized or read aloud, however, the words run together and the vowel sounds are articulated by consonant sounds. Students must understand that notes in a musical phrase are analogous to the vowel sounds when speaking and are separated when tongued only by the consonant “d” used at the beginning of each note which quickly “disrupts” the airstream. In very fast passages, the tongue starts and stops tones with the same motion. A common articulation problem occurs when students hold the air until it is time to play the note. Holding the air prior to an attack will guarantee tension in the throat, neck, and chest, and makes it difficult to “restart” the airstream with control. To counter this habit the mouthpiece should be placed on the lips (which should be relaxed and completely at rest), the breath taken through the corners of the mouth “around” the mouthpiece (not through the horn), and released with no hesitation. At the instant that the air is released, the lips form the proper embouchure for the desired pitch (from memory), and the tongue moves to touch the area just behind the top teeth. The placement of the tip of the tongue must be the same for the same style articulation whether the note is played loudly or softly, and regardless of register. The player should blow through the note, not just blow “at” the note; golfers, pitchers, and musicians refer to this concept as “follow through.” Important to all wind players is speed of tonguing and evenness of rapid tonguing. Students should see, through demonstration, that taking a proper breath and vocalizing “duh, duh, duh, duh” will result in no movement in the face or jaw. If the students blow or vocalize as if playing a long tone and repeat “duh,” the tongue will slightly and properly disrupt the air without stopping it. When controlled and accurate tonguing becomes a habit, and as demands in the music require, the student can gradually be introduced to the variety of articulations used by brass players. Syllables such as “luh, luh, luh” are appropriate and commonly used for legato passages; “tuh, tuh, tuh” for marcato passages. Brass players (and flute players) have the advantage of being able to double-tongue and triple-tongue easily. Doubletonguing is done by “see-sawing” the tongue so that the tip touches the teeth alternating with the middle of the tongue in touching the roof of the mouth: “tuh-kuh, tuh-kuh” or “duh-guh, duh-guh.” In learning multiple tonguings it is much easier to vocalize these syllables than to use them in playing an instrument. The student should then practice by starting a long tone, and very slowly articulating that pitch over and over by placing the tongue in the positions for the consonants “duh-guh” (Figure 21.6). This exercise should be repeated slowly until the articulations are even. This may require separate practice on the “guh” syllable, until it flows easily. The tempo should be increased gradually.

FIGURE 21.6 Initial exercise to coordinate the tongue for double-tonguing

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 299

BRASS PRINCIPLES

299

FIGURE 21.7 Initial exercise for coordinating fingers with tongue in double-tonguing

= 100 to 200

d = duh

g = guh

d g d g d g d g d g d g d g d g duh

d g d g d g d g d g d g d g d g duh

FIGURE 21.8 Coordinating fingers with double-tonguing

Only when the student begins to feel comfortable with the task of double-tonguing, and a moderate to fast tempo is achieved, should use of the valves be added minimally to the task (Figure 21.7). Finally, difficult passages may be introduced that require much greater coordination of the lips, tongue, and embouchure, as well as the fingers (e.g., illustrated in Figure 21.8). Each of these types of exercises should be singletongued, then practiced using only the “guh” articulation, and then slowly double-tongued, striving for evenness and a good tone quality. In triple-tonguing, the tongue makes a somewhat circular motion, repeating “tuh-duh-kuh, tuh-duh-kuh.” Again, the same technique of starting slowly, and gradually increasing speed and accuracy is used. This technique is followed by stages of adding valves, then the actual coordination of embouchure, tongue, air, and fingers. Other series of syllables may work well for triple-tonguing and seem to be more natural for some players. The syllables that are not useful are “tuh-kuh-tuh, tuh-kuh-tuh.” “Tuh-kuh-tuh” seems natural for many students who learn to double-tongue first, and try to add another “tuh” after the double-tongued notes, but this pattern of syllables makes it virtually impossible to play the notes evenly. Essential to every successful brass player is the ability to play with a wide variety of articulations, including: slurs (lip and valve), accents (emphasized notes), staccato (separated notes), legato, sforzando, double- and triple-tonguing (legato, staccato, etc.), and flutter-tonguing (placing the tip of the tongue near the center of the roof of the mouth and vibrating the tongue like a greatly exaggerated “rolled r”).

INTONATION Two of the primary factors in intonation for a brass instrument are: (1) the harmonics of the overtone series; and (2) valve combinations. The overtone series, being a “natural” phenomenon, does not conform to the rules of the tempered scale used in Western music; certain pitches are higher or lower than their equivalent in the tempered scale. In relation to the tempered scale, partials 5 and 10 are somewhat flat; partials 3 and 6 are sharp. When those partials are used, the player must make pitch corrections to play in tune with other instruments using the tempered scale. The fingerings commonly used by valve instrument players are suggested specifically to avoid these partials or to compensate for outof-tune partials. Nearly all brass instruments are made so that the slides must be pulled slightly to be in tune. The tuning slide should be pulled, and for the valved instruments, all the valve slides may be pulled, especially for the horn and tuba. The general rule is to pull the first slide twice as much as the second, and the third slide three times as far as the second. Any tuning is useless unless the player listens and uses the embouchure to make fine adjustments when playing. Many trumpets and cornets are designed with a ring on the third valve slide that is moved by the ring or middle finger of the left hand. Other brass instruments use a fourth (and sometimes a fifth) valve, and the trombone has a trigger. Most professionalline and middle-line trumpets and cornets and even some beginning-level instruments have similar devices on the first valve slide, but these may be difficult to manipulate with small hands. The brass player can alter pitch by changing the position of the lips or tongue, the direction of the airstream, or the amount of air pressure. The general rules are as follows. To raise the pitch: • •

Tighten the muscles at the corners of the lips. Arch the middle of the tongue slightly by thinking “ee,” as though moving to a higher register.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 300

300 THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

• •

Increase the amount of air pressure (using the abdominal muscles) to increase the speed of the airstream. Focus the airstream at an angle rather than straight into the mouthpiece (see Figure 21.3).

To lower the pitch: • • • •

Loosen the muscles at the corners of the lips. Lower the tongue and jaw by thinking the syllable “aw,” as though moving to a lower register. In the lower registers, direct the stream of air down into the mouthpiece. In the higher register any angling of the airstream will sharpen the pitch, but in the low register a downward direction of the air can help flatten the pitch.

MUTES Mutes in general tend to raise the pitch of the instrument in the lower register. They also make the instrument slightly harder to play and less responsive. Students should not practice excessively with mutes. Because they add resistance, they are considered by many teachers to be a viable means to build the embouchure, but it is impossible to work on tone quality when the instrument is muted and tone quality is, after all, the most important element in musical skill building. Practice mutes exist that offer less resistance and allow musicians to play at softer volumes to facilitate practice in close environments. Straight mutes, except for the plastic variety, tend to raise the pitch. The straight mute produces a brighter tone but a thinner sound than the cup mute does; the tone seems to be affected most in the lower register, somewhat less in the high register, and least in the middle register. The most popular straight mutes are of metal. The “stonelined” mute is still a popular product and is less expensive. The metal mute sounds a bit raspier and was initially preferred by jazz musicians; now the metal mute has been refined and most trumpet players prefer it. Cup mutes, frequently used in solo literature as well as in jazz ensembles, lower the pitch in the medium register. Use of the cup mute gives a velvety tone quality with the tone attenuated most in the lower register and less as the pitch rises. Wah-wah (e.g., Harmon) mutes tend to raise the pitch in the middle register and lower it in the high register. These mutes produce a buzzing sound or tone. They thin out the tone more in the extremities than in the middle range but are adjustable using the stem projecting from the center. Because these mutes fit snugly inside the bell of the instrument, and the cork completely surrounds the mute, the trumpet player must blow warm, moist air into the bell to create a layer of water vapor to keep these mutes in place. Figure 21.9 shows the trumpet versions of the three most common types of mutes plus a plunger. All brass instruments use mutes, including the euphonium and tuba. FIGURE 21.9 Common trumpet mutes (clockwise from top): straight, cup, plunger, wah-wah

DYNAMICS After good tone quality, the factor that can most enhance the music is dynamic control. The player who has developed the complete dynamic range from pianissimo to fortissimo approaches professional standards. Whereas the amateur often has little besides an ear-shattering fortissimo and an ever-present mezzo forte, the professional seems to have developed every gradation from a whisper to a sforzando, all produced with a consistently fine tone. Dynamic control depends upon breath support and control as well as a responsive and flexible embouchure. Powerful tone requires that air be pushed more quickly into the instrument; soft tone requires it be pushed more slowly. To develop volume the student practices inhaling a large amount of air and then getting rid of it rapidly. To play softly, the same amount of air is inhaled but is exhaled more slowly, making it last for a much longer time, and increasing control to avoid wavers, quavers, and bends. More muscular control is necessary for soft playing; more embouchure control is necessary for loud playing, as an increase in the air pressure tends to force the lips open. To maintain a pianissimo tone, the lips should be relaxed and close together, the throat open and relaxed, and the air blown with intensity as a small, thin, steady stream. If the lips are too far apart the tone may break. The ability to attack and sustain a note played pianissimo can be developed by practicing whole notes as softly as possible alternated with whole rests. The player should remove the mouthpiece from the lips on each rest and make a fresh start for each tone. A common problem in playing softly is the tendency to keep too much air in the lungs, even on soft passages.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 301

BRASS PRINCIPLES

301

The tone must be projected and constant air support maintained. A valuable mental concept is to project the soft note to the back of the auditorium.

THE MOUTHPIECE The mouthpiece on a brass instrument is as important as a reed on an oboe—it influences intonation, tone quality, and response, and it is a factor in accuracy, flexibility, and endurance. Fortunately, brass mouthpieces are not as fragile and temporary as reeds. If the player finds one that works, it is available forever. Finding the right one is a problem; the mouthpiece can cause a dozen playing faults. The dimensions of most mouthpieces are identified by number and letter. The three most popular manufacturers use different numbering systems, so it is necessary to give both size and brand name when speaking of mouthpieces. With the Bach and Giardinelli, the low numbers indicate a larger cup diameter as measured across the inner edge of the rim (a 3 is larger than a 7), whereas the opposite is true for Schilke numbers. A letter indicates the depth of the cup. The Bach A cup is the deepest; models without letters have medium-deep cups. Bach B cups are medium deep but slightly livelier than the unlettered cup, and the C cup is medium shallow. There are four critical areas to consider in selecting a mouthpiece. They are the rim, cup, bore (or throat), and backbore (see Figures 21.10 and 21.11).

SCHILKE MOUTHPIECE LABELING SYSTEM

c

FIGURE 21.10 Mouthpiece for brass instrument

Refers to the BACKBORE

Example 9C3c (Trumpet mouthpiece) 9

Refers to the CUP DIAMETER Smallest numbers have smallest diameters

C

Refers to the CUP VOLUME A. Small Cup B. Medium-small C. Standard (medium size) D. Medium-large E. Large

3

Refers to the RIM CONTOUR 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Roundest Semi-round Standard Semi-flat Only slightly rounded

a

b

c

d

e

a. Tight b. Straight c. Standard d. Slightly curved out e. Large When a Schilke mouthpiece has a standard backbore, rim, and cup, only the cup diameter (first number) is shown on the mouthpiece. In the example shown, only the #9 is necessary to identify the mouthpiece because the "C" is the standard cup volume, "3" is the standard rim, and "c" is the standard backbore. Whenever measurements differ from the standard sizes, the alterations are shown on the mouthpiece.

FIGURE 21.11 Schilke mouthpiece labeling

The Rim A medium-wide rim offers good flexibility without cutting off blood circulation to the lips. A wide, flat rim (Figure 21.12a) provides for greater endurance by spreading the pressure from the embouchure toward the mouthpiece over a greater area, but possibly at the expense of flexibility and accuracy. The narrower rim (Figure 21.12b) enhances flexibility, but tends to decrease the player’s endurance as it “cuts” into the embouchure more. Rounded outer and inner rims reduce the amount of flat surface coming in contact with the lips, tending to reduce endurance but enhancing flexibility. Wide-rimmed mouthpieces coupled with a round rim and a large cup diameter may result in a poor high register and less lip flexibility.

FIGURE 21.12 Relative difference between: (a) wide rims and (b) narrow rims

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 302

302 THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

The rim of the mouthpiece may have a fairly sharp inner edge often called a “bite”; a rounded inner rim will give more comfort, but at the expense of control of articulation and accuracy. Of the two most popular brands of brass mouthpieces, Bach and Schilke, probably the most significant difference is that Bach mouthpieces have this “bite” and Schilke ones do not. On the horn, a sharp bite facilitates clean attacks but hinders the production of clean slurs; a rounded rim produces the opposite effects.

The Cup Both Renold Schilke and Vincent Bach recommended the use of the largest possible cup diameter, because the player is then forced to use their lip muscles correctly rather than pinching out the high tones (Figure 21.13). Warburton manufactures the largest cup volume for each of the brass instruments. A narrow and shallow cup favors the upper harmonics, producing a sound that is thin, shrill, and almost nasal and may be most appropriate for those playing higher parts in jazz and marching ensembles. If the dimensions are both shallow and small—though the upper register is easier to attain—the tone is choked, hard, and stuffy, and a FIGURE 21.13 The cup: the black area denotes the area inside the brass mouthpiece cup good tone is hard to produce (although it may be easy to get “a sound”). A deep, big cup gives increased volume and tone in the low and middle registers, but carried to extremes, results in a dull, unfocused tone. The smaller sizes are recommended for players who have weaker embouchures. In short, the deeper the cup the darker the sound, and usually the more difficult the upper range. With the horn, euphonium, and tuba mouthpieces, the shape of the cup from the rim to the bore can be only slightly bowl-shaped or nearly straight. The bowl-shaped cup will produce a somewhat darker and more resonant tone; the straight will result in a less resonant but smoother, lighter tone. This difference is caused by the angle of the “edge” at which the cup joins the throat.

The Throat or Bore Tone quality is also determined by the size of the throat opening in the mouthpiece, called simply “the throat” or “the bore.” Larger throats enable the player to produce a darker or mellower sound and to play louder without overblowing or distorting the tone; at the same time the larger throat often reduces control at softer dynamic levels. A large throat demands more muscular strength in the embouchure and greater endurance. Small-sized throats make the sound more brilliant and make playing in the upper register easier, but the sound usually becomes more and more shrill as the range is extended upward. Further, a tight throat can hurt intonation. For the average player a mouthpiece with an enlarged bore (many repair shops can enlarge the bore) is not recommended because his or her lips are not in shape for long hours of playing. Many brass players will have a favorite mouthpiece bored out as their range and endurance develop.

The Backbore The backbore of the mouthpiece must be related to the instrument as well as to the size of the rim, cup, and bore (Figure 21.14). If the backbore is small, notes in the high register can usually be played more easily, but tend to be stuffy; if too large, there is insufficient resistance in the instrument, resulting in poor endurance and airy, spread tones. Most mouthpieces are made with mediumsized backbores for average players. The standard Schilke mouthpiece is made with a larger backbore than the Bach; the Bach is often bored out by moreadvanced players.

General Considerations The best mouthpiece for beginning students is probably a compromise of the available sizes in the four parts of a mouthpiece; that is, a medium-sized cup with a standard rim on a medium-sized throat and backbore. A quick Internet search will reveal a multitude of “mouthpiece comparison charts” available for assessing various sizes and brands. As the student develops embouchure strength and the teacher observes the player’s strengths and weaknesses, a mouthpiece can be selected to help accommodate the strengths and weaknesses of the player (Figure 21.15).

FIGURE 21.14 Parts of the lower portion of a brass mouthpiece that affect all aspects of performance

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 303

BRASS PRINCIPLES

303

Students who have a tendency to play with excessive tension and a squeezed tone, and cannot seem to relax the sound, may benefit from a mouthpiece with less resistance. Conversely, those with a tendency to overblow may be helped by a more open mouthpiece. Split tones or a strident, thin sound are often a sign of too small and too shallow a mouthpiece.

CARE, CLEANING, MAINTENANCE

FIGURE 21.15 Parts of the brass mouthpiece

All brass instruments accumulate a certain amount of dirt and grease. Brass instruments can be washed by pouring warm, soapy water through them, followed by a rinse in clear water to remove all the soap. Running clear, warm water through the instrument every couple of weeks is recommended. The outside should be dried with a soft cloth. Piston valves and slides should be removed to clean them. When using a swab, the student should be certain the metal end is covered with a soft, lint-free cloth to prevent scratching the soft valve casings. The valves must be handled carefully, because even a tiny bump can cause them to jam. The valves and valve casings should be carefully wiped without the fingers touching them because dirt, perspiration, or acid from the hands slows valve action. After cleaning, the valves are returned to the instruments with the numbers of the valves matching the numbers on the casings. Valve slides (not trombone slides) should be slightly lubricated with slide grease. Most of the scum accumulates in the mouthpiece and leadpipe. A small, flexible brush or cloth plus lots of warm water should be used to clean these areas regularly. Placing the mouthpiece in boiling water may be necessary if it is extremely dirty. When mouthpieces become stuck in the horn, it may be because the mouthpiece is extremely dirty, the student drove it in with his or her hand, the horn was dropped, or the shank is bent. If the mouthpiece does become stuck, it should not be removed by wiggling it back and forth. The use of a mouthpiece puller or the services of a repairperson are required. Almost any repairperson can recall fantastic tales of damage to instruments at the hands of well-meaning but uninformed parents. Proper preventive actions will eliminate this problem altogether. The player should remove the mouthpiece when finished playing and keep the mouthpiece and receiver clean. The tuning slides can also stick, due to a copper precipitate that builds up or to sludge resulting from saliva passing through the horn. Removing the slides often and keeping them greased eliminates this problem. If a slide becomes stuck, one can sometimes loosen it by inserting a handkerchief or belt through the tubing and exerting pressure. This move failing, it is best to call a repairperson who has special equipment to loosen these slides. Daily care is important. The valves and slides must be kept lubricated, but too much lubricant can cause dirt and sludge to accumulate quickly. Saliva should not be substituted for oil because it is injurious to the valves and contains acids that in time will corrode the valve or casing. One way to oil a valve is to pull the first valve slide and allow the oil to run through, working the valves up and down and removing the excess oil from the third valve slide. This method prevents dirt in the air from contacting the valve, keeps the valve from being handled so much, and reduces the chance of dropping it. Applying oil directly onto the valve can help insure that the valve tops do not become corroded and stuck. The valve casing can be cleaned with a chamois cloth. The valve itself can be cleaned by lintless paper such as a coffee filter without causing damage. The dirt that tends to accumulate in the small ports in the valves can be removed by drawing a small cloth through the ports. The cleaning rod should not be used for this purpose as there is danger of denting the valve casings where the star aligns the valves. This dirt can be removed with a toothpick. Threads on caps should be kept clean to insure their easy removal when needed. The felt at the top of the valves becomes worn and must be replaced occasionally, as is also true of the corks on the valves. New instruments should be flushed with warm water before they are used; otherwise, dust that has worked its way into the instrument during packing and shipping may cause damage to valves or valve casings. Running a small amount of oil through the leadpipe will keep the acid in the saliva from producing a slimy copper precipitate inside the tubing. New valved brass instruments require frequent cleaning and reoiling of the valves for a three-day period or until no trace of dirt or grime appears on the valves. The student should not be carrying schoolbooks or the day’s lunch in the instrument case. If the case has a special compartment, that should be used for instrumental accessories. All these items should be secure and out of contact with the instrument, because even the smallest dents on the mouthpiece or the mouthpiece shank will affect intonation and tone quality. Dents that occur must be removed immediately by a competent repairperson. All braces should be kept soldered to prevent weakening the instrument. Sodas, candy, or other sugary foods should never be put in the mouth when playing. Sugar in the instrument can cause moving parts to stick. Rinsing out the mouth or, better yet, brushing one’s teeth before playing will promote cleanliness of the instrument.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 304

304 THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

TROUBLESHOOTING Equipment Sluggish Piston Valves 1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

Oil valves separately by loosening retaining cap and carefully lifting from valve casing; a small amount of olive oil may be added to the valve oil to make it slick for longer. (Most brass instruments are constructed so that the leadpipe goes directly into the first valve; consequently, much oil is washed off by condensation.) Make sure student is pressing valves straight down and not at an angle. Remove valves and clean them and the casing with lint-free cloth; oil well and replace. Interrogate student to determine whether he or she has instructions backwards—petroleum jelly should go on tuning slides, oil on valves. If horn is well used, try stretching or rotating springs between valves.

Sluggish Rotary Valves 1. 2.

Place several drops of valve oil into first valve slide, holding instrument so that it runs down the tubing; work the other valves up and down; expel excess oil out of third-valve water key or slide. Oil the front bushing, and remove the valve cap to oil the bushing in back—using rotary valves that are not oiled can quickly ruin the valves.

Trombone Slide Moves Slowly, Not Freely 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Place several drops of slide oil onto slide; expel excess oil out of water key. Make sure student is keeping right arm, hand, and fingers relaxed. Inspect slide for slide cream/oil mixture. (Thoroughly clean and use either oil or slide-cream water.) If student uses slide cream, spray water until the water beads up on the slide. Remove slide and lay it on table; the slide should lie flat, as one raised “corner” indicates alignment problems. Inspect slide for edges rubbing the tubing inside the slide; worn plating will cause brass against brass friction and excessive wear. Interrogate student to determine whether he or she was only half-listening when you explained petroleum jelly on tuning slide.

Air Will Not Pass Freely 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Inspect F attachment on trombone for correct alignment. Inspect for clogged leadpipe or bell. (Mouthpieces fit very snugly in the bell.) Inspect for a dirty mouthpiece. Make sure piston valves are in correct casings. Make sure rotary valves are aligned. Inspect for worn spit-valve corks.

Mouthpiece Wiggles 1. 2. 3.

Shank too long. (Have competent repairperson remove short sections one at a time.) A mouthpiece shank that is too short causes moderate to severe intonation problems. Shank out of round. (Again, have repaired by competent repairman.) Euphoniums and tubas may require a special-sized shank designed for the particular manufacturer.

Instrument Leaks Air 1. 2. 3. 4.

Inspect and if necessary replace cork on water key. If around trombone’s F valve casing, have resoldered by competent repairperson. If around euphonium/baritone’s valve casing, have resoldered by competent repairperson. If new instrument, have retailer replace it. If leak is around the trombone slide, it is a very serious problem; try slide cream/water solution; replating is a costly alternative.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 305

BRASS PRINCIPLES

305

Buzzing Sound 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Inspect for broken brace(s); have resoldered. Determine if a recent soaking may have loosened residue inside. (Rewash or use flexible brush.) Inspect for loose receiver spring on trombone. Be sure the trombone’s receiver screw connects bell to slide tightly. Determine if euphonium/baritone mouthpiece is too small; purchase correct size.

Gurgling Sound 1. 2.

3.

If water gurgles without valves pressed, inspect for clogged water key (remove running slide and dump); expel any water by rotating baritone to pour out of an open slide tube, leadpipe, or bell section. If water sounds with valves pressed (especially a problem with the second piston valve), remove valve slides to expel; tilt baritone to pour. (Many students forget that the third valve must be pressed for the third-valve water key to work effectively.) Horn: empty valve slides, unwind horn slowly to drain out excess water from the leadpipe; if left for too long, some will pass all three valves and must be drained through bell.

Tone Thin, Strident 1. Lack of air and/or air pressure. 2. Teeth together. (Drop jaw.) 3. Aperture too small. (Have student pucker lips as if whistling, then buzz without mouthpiece; then add mouthpiece; then add instrument.) 4. Tongue tense or possibly too high. (Relax tongue or try pushing against the back of lower teeth; use “taw” syllable.) 5. Tension in throat. (Drop shoulders; drop tongue as in yawning; rag-doll approach.) 6. Embouchure too stretched. (Relax mouth, tighten corners, and/or buzz without mouthpiece.) 7. Mouthpiece too shallow and/or backbore too tight. 8. Aperture too flat. (Attempt to get student to pucker more, like a whistle; try a “doo” articulation rather than “dah” or “duh.”) 9. Too much lip (especially upper lip) in the mouthpiece. (Keep the corners tight or try to think “em” with corners tight.) 10. Horn: right hand too straight or not inserted enough. (Cup more; try to cover more bell.) 11. Tongue too high. (Try articulating “daw” rather than “dee.”) 12. Practice breathing large amounts of air with the mouth in shape for vocalizing “o-o-o-o-o.”

Dull, Spread, or Unfocused Sound 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Lips not buzzing evenly. (Buzz without mouthpiece, then with mouthpiece alone.) Not enough air support. (Blow “fast” air.) Cheeks puffing. (Practice buzzing without mouthpiece.) Embouchure too slack. (Tighten corners and encourage student to focus pitch—blow a fast “pencil thin” airstream.) Aperture too large. (Same as number 4.) Mouthpiece too large in diameter. Chin may not be stretched flat. (Keep corners firm and teeth apart to flatten chin.) Horn: right fingers may be apart. (Keep fingers together.) Horn: head too high, tilted back. (Reposition horn so that student can bring mouthpiece to embouchure at approximately same angle as a clarinet.) 10. Horn: too much pucker in embouchure. (Buzz without mouthpiece.)

Forced Sound with Excessive Edge 1. 2. 3. 4.

Mouthpiece too shallow or throat/backbore too small. Throat too tight. (Relaxation exercises.) Embouchure too stretched. (Attempt more pucker.) Too much bottom lip. (Try two-thirds upper.)

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 306

306

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

5. Embouchure too stretched which flattens aperture. (Attempt to pucker more; buzz without mouthpiece, then with mouthpiece alone before adding trombone.) 6. Tongue is too high. (Articulate with “daw” instead of “dee” or “dah.”) 7. Practice inhaling and exhaling large amounts of air with mouth in shape for vocalizing “o-o-o-o-o” and without “holding” the air. 8. Attempt to play while pulling mouthpiece away from embouchure. 9. Work toward mental image of “warmer” airstream. 10. Dirty mouthpiece or leadpipe. 11. May try a more funnel- or V-shaped mouthpiece.

Stuffy, Fuzzy Sound (Airy) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9. 10. 11. 12.

Too much lip in the mouthpiece; try a larger mouthpiece or keep corners tighter. Lips pinched together. Teeth together. (Drop jaw as in “aw.”) Air pocket behind upper or lower lip. (Keep corners of mouth firm and practice buzzing without and with only the mouthpiece.) Cheeks puffing. (Buzz without mouthpiece.) Closed throat. (Pull shoulders down; drop tongue as if there’s a hot potato in your mouth.) Head tilted. (Correct playing position.) Fatigue. (Relax embouchure by “flapping” lips like a horse, buzzing without mouthpiece and on the mouthpiece alone; work on pedal tones with a focused sound—lips may not buzz evenly when they are tired and/or swollen; this can be caused by lack of proper warm-up, warm-down, trying for too many high notes too soon, or simply after a demanding practicing session.) Too much saliva in mouthpiece/embouchure. Improper mouthpiece placement. (Correct embouchure and posture.) Embouchure may be too spread for the low notes, without keeping corners firm. Horn: too much hand in bell.

Difficulty with Upper Range 1. Excessive playing of low notes. (Rely more on air and less on pressure; corners of the mouth should be kept firm, attempt to pull horn and mouthpiece away from embouchure when playing.) 2. Blow air faster; a “pencil-thin” jet airstream. 3. Fatigue; lack of proper warm-up or warm-down on previous day. 4. Mouthpiece too deep or diameter too large. 5. Try to direct air downward by rolling in lower lip. 6. Too much bottom lip in mouthpiece. 7. Embouchure may be too immature. (Be patient and work on lip slurs for strength.) 8. Improper mouthpiece angle. (Correct position for holding.) 9. Embouchure too tight. (Correct embouchure.) 10. Low brass: extensive work on pedal tones to open throat, keep air moving without excessive demand on embouchure endurance.

Articulation Explosive Attacks 1. Building air pressure behind tongue or “holding” onto the air before releasing it. (Try for better coordination between air and tongue. Inhale to exhale without stopping. Try practicing attacks completely without the use of the tongue.) 2. Tonguing between the teeth. (Work toward a “duh” articulation to replace “thuh.”) 3. Stopping the previous note with the tongue. (Practice playing the notes, merely disrupting the airstream with the tongue—notes are connected.) 4. Articulating with a “pah” or “mah” syllable. 5. Aperture too small. (Practice for a big, rich, full, but focused sound in all registers; use flexibility exercises to keep from “closing-down” when going into upper register.)

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 307

BRASS PRINCIPLES

307

6. Attempting to articulate with lips touching—“puh” or “muh.” (Work on long tones with big, opened, focused tone and use slow repeated “duh” articulations.) 7. Horn: head tilted back too far. (Reposition horn to keep head at approximately same angle as clarinet.)

Scooping Notes, Facial Movement 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Air taking too long to reach appropriate velocity. (Full breaths and complete diaphragm support.) “Chewing notes”; excessive chin movement; tongue moving too far. (Replace “taw-taw” with “doo-doo.”) Inspect for chin bunching up. (Buzz without mouthpiece; stress keeping corners firm.) Sometimes caused by students playing timidly. (Explain that mistakes are expected; encourage brass players to take a chance.) Slide not working smoothly. (Keep it well lubricated.) Drop back of tongue. Too much lip in the mouthpiece. (Practice forming an embouchure and buzzing without the mouthpiece, then trying to establish the same sensations when playing.) Horn: head tilted back too far. Jaw too closed. (Try opening jaw/teeth more at all times: inhaling, tonguing, exhaling.)

Difficulty with Slurs on Trombone 1. 2. 3. 4.

Smears on trombone. (Use legato tongue for all slurs: “duh” or “dah” articulation.) Teach alternate slide positions. Move slide very quickly. Do not change embouchures if pitches are on the same harmonic series (i.e., slurring from a middle-line D to a fourth-line F uses the same embouchure.) 5. Same as number 4.

Difficulty with Valve Slurs 1. Minimize embouchure change if valve slurs are within the same open partial (i.e., there should be absolutely no movement/change when slurring from a second-space A to fifth-line F.) 2. Too many long tones in daily practice schedule without a sufficient balance of flexibility. 3. Slam valves (i.e., press them very quickly.) 4. Steady airstream to avoid breaks.

Difficulty with Ascending Slurs 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Try directing air downward for slurs going up. “Lean” into lower pitch for slurs going up; followed by the upper pitch played slightly softer. Increase air speed (but not volume) when going to upper note. Avoid excessive pressure on upper note; tighten corners of mouth instead and let air do the work. Roll in lower lip for upper pitches. Do not let tone spread on lower pitches. (An easy habit to fall into because it is almost impossible to “undershoot” a low pitch.) Too many long tones on a daily basis without sufficient balance of flexibility studies. Mouthpiece rim too wide. Keep airstream steady to avoid breaks. For ascending slurs arch tongue—“tah-ee.” Not enough lower lip in mouthpiece can make upward slurs difficult.

Endurance Lacking 1. Too much pressure from mouthpiece on embouchure. (Loosen grip on instrument with left hand; try using only a few fingers on left hand to hold instrument; or practice while holding the instrument as far from the embouchure as possible and still get a tone.) 2. Fatigue from too-demanding practice sessions without enough rest periods. 3. Lack of proper warm-up and/or warm-down.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 308

308 THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

4. Not using corners of mouth properly (the strongest muscles in the face) and not relying on the air to do most of the work. 5. Mouthpiece placement may need correcting. 6. Lacking full intake of air. 7. Often due to mouthpiece being too low on embouchure. 8. Anxiety. (Relaxation and the realization that mistakes are going to happen—but it is not the end of the world.)

RESOURCES Texts Bachelder, D. and N.J. Hunt (2001). Guide to Teaching Brass, 6th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Bailey, W. with P. Miles, A. Siebert, W. Stanley, and T. Stein (2008). Teaching Brass: A Resource Manual, 2nd ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill. Farkas, P. (1956). The Art of French Horn Playing. Miami, FL: Warner Brothers. ––– (1989). The Art of Brass Playing: A Treatise on the Formation and Use of the Brass Player’s Embouchure. Rochester Wind Music; reprint of 1962 ed. Rochester, NY: Wind Music. Fasman, M.J. (1990). Brass Bibliography: Sources on the History, Literature, Pedagogy, Performance, and Acoustics of Brass Instruments. Bloomington, IL: Indiana University Press. Gordon, C. (1987). Brass Playing is No Harder than Deep Breathing. New York, NY: C. Fischer. Herbert, T. and J. Wallace (eds.) (2011). The Cambridge Companion to Brass Instruments. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Johnson, K. (2002). Brass Performance and Pedagogy. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Jones, G.R. (2016). Developing Expression in Brass Performance and Teaching. New York, NY: Routledge. Pagliaro, M.J. (2016). The Brass Instrument Owner’s Handbook. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Reinhardt, D. (1964). The Encyclopedia of the Pivot System. New York, NY: Charles Colin Music.

Schilke, R.O. (n.d.). The Acoustics of Inner Brass and the Acoustical Effects of Various Materials and Their Treatment. Chicago, IL: Schilke Music Products. dallasmusic.org/schilke/Brass%20 Clinic.html The Instrumentalist (2000). Brass Anthology: A Collection of Brass Articles Published in The Instrumentalist Magazine from 1946 to 1999, 10th ed. Northfield, IL: Instrumentalist. Whitener, S. (2006). A Complete Guide to Brass: Instruments and Technique, 3rd ed. New York: Schirmer.

Instructional Videos Canadian Brass: Breathing and Posture (Canadian Brass, 1991). Palatine, IL: Sharper Video. Canadian Brass: Inside Brass (Canadian Brass, 2003). Toronto, CA: Opening Day. Canadian Brass: Master Class (Canadian Brass, 1989). Reston, VA: MENC. Canadian Brass: Performing and Playing in an Ensemble (Canadian Brass, 1990). Palatine, IL: Sharper Video. Canadian Brass: Tonguing and Embouchure (Canadian Brass, 1991). Palatine, IL: Sharper Video. Developing Brass Ensembles (Richard Wolf, 1990). Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin–Madison Videotapes. A Master Class with Claude Gordon: The Seven Natural Elements of Brass Playing (Claude Gordon, 1984). Elkhart, IN: Selmer.

NOTES 1. 2. 3.

Farkas, P. (1956). The Art of French Horn Playing. Miami, FL: Warner Bros., 66. Clarke, H.L. (1912). Technical Studies for the Cornet. Elkhart, IN: L.B. Clarke, 22 Clarke, H.L. (1934). How I Became a Cornetist. St. Louis: Joseph Huber, 50.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 309

CHAPTER 22

The Trumpet and Cornet

22

HISTORY The history of the cornet and trumpet is ancient if the instruments are viewed as being related to the first lip-voiced instruments such as a shell or elephant horn of the prehistoric era. More directly related is a trumpet made of wood, mentioned in Sumerian texts in about 3000 BCE, and the silver and copper trumpets found in the tomb of King Tutankhamun (1341–1323 BCE). The present Swiss “alphorn” and Jewish “shofar” are descendants of this early wood instrument. Various horns of different lengths and shapes can be found throughout history. They were generally connected with war or ceremonial events. Some historians trace the present-day rivalry between the cornet and trumpet back to earliest times. For centuries there had been a fluctuation of preference for either the conical or cylindrical instrument, depending upon the situation and sound desired. Actually the trumpet was preferred until about 1400. It was the more effective in the primary use of such instruments; that of causing fright or awe. The first instrument that could be fingered as a direct ancestor was the “cornetto” or “zink,” traced to the Persians as early as CE 77, but not used widely until the Middle Ages. It was a conical instrument with a cup mouthpiece and holes in the body comparable to those of the recorder of today. This instrument culminated in the serpent, ophicleide, and keyed bugle of the nineteenth century. The trumpet has undergone fewer major changes in design than any other instrument, and only the addition of the valves has had any lasting effect upon its basic design. The trumpet was throughout history the instrument of royalty. By the sixteenth century, it had become such a specialized and “heroic” instrument that trumpet guilds, which had been forming since the fourteenth century, were among the strongest unions in Europe, stretching from England to the Russian border, including central Europe and Scandinavia. Members were exclusively allowed to play at royal events, church services, and other civic events. Just as the finest violins at the time were being produced in Brecseia and Cremona (e.g., Amati, Guarneri, and Stradivari), Europe’s trumpet center was Nuremberg. The first guilds were established there and grew northward to Scandinavia. Members of the guilds were status symbols themselves, with the kings of Poland having as many as 12; Saxony had 8, and Leipzig had 4 (including Gottfried Reiche for whom J.S. Bach wrote most of his post-1730 trumpet music). The trumpet was favored by Bach and Handel as well as other late Baroque composers. The Classical composers, however, did not like its shrill sounds, and not until Haydn used it in his London Symphonies did it come to be a standard part of the orchestra. The keyed bugle was invented by Kolbel of St. Petersburg in 1760. It was soon replaced, around 1815, by an instrument with a piston valve, the invention of Blumel, an oboe player from Silesia. Stolzel, who purchased the patent, added a second valve. By 1830, Muller added the third valve so the scale would be complete above the second partial as it is today. Although the valve trumpet was used by Halévy in La Juive, Wagner is generally considered the first composer to write well for the instrument. Wagner’s use of the trumpet occurred almost simultaneously with the rise of the band and the great cornet virtuosos such as Arban, Levy, Smith, Bellstedt, Clarke, and Goldman at the turn of the twentieth century. Throughout the early part of the twentieth century, the cornet was associated with bands, the trumpet with orchestras and dance bands. Today, in the hands of most school musicians, the cornet and trumpet have very small differences in sound, but definite opinions are held by professionals as to which to play. During the middle of the last century, at the height of the large symphonic bands (conducted by those such as William Revelli and Mark Hindsley), the cornet was preferred because it blended better with the woodwinds, while trumpets were reserved for true trumpet parts, to project through the ensemble. With the rise of wind ensembles, and the more typical small band that is erroneously called a wind ensemble, the trumpet has become the preferred instrument of beginners, retailers, and school musicians. Louis Armstrong also influenced the preference of trumpet over cornet when he switched to it for the Hot 5 and Hot 7 performances. In the hands of an accomplished player, the difference is noticeable and important.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 310

310 THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

SELECTING THE INSTRUMENT The lengths of the B≤ cornet and trumpet are the same: approximately 41⁄2 feet. The trumpet is approximately two-thirds cylindrical with only one basic winding whereas the cornet is about 70 percent conical and the tubing has two windings. Technically, the difference lies in the degree of taper. The tubing of the cornet tapers from the mouthpiece opening throughout its entire length except for the valve and tuning slides. The trumpet tubing is larger at the mouthpiece and remains cylindrical for most of its length. Although the bells are about the same size, the mouthpieces are not interchangeable between the two instruments. The sound differs between the two instruments because the cylindricalbore trumpet enhances the higher partials whereas the conical bore cornet enhances the fundamental and the lower partials. It matters little on which of the two instruments a student begins instrumental music, so the child should be allowed to select the instrument with which they are happiest and best suited physically. In addition to different-sized bores, instruments are obtainable with different-sized bells. A large-bore instrument with a small bell produces “brilliance” rather than a “darker” tone. A darker tone can be obtained from a medium-bore instrument with a large bell if a mouthpiece with a medium to large cup is used. The bore size is measured at the secondvalve port and the bell size is measured immediately before the flare. Trumpets come in all sizes, each in a different key. After the popular instrument pitched in B≤, the most popular is the one in C, which is often used in orchestra playing. The E≤ trumpet is required in many solo works such as the popular concertos by Haydn and Hummel. Piccolo trumpets are used in ceremonial performances such as weddings. Advanced trumpet players transpose, which enables them to play parts written for these instruments on a B≤ trumpet. Much discussion of instruments, parts, and accessories takes place among trumpeters and other instrumentalists alike. Though the quality of equipment is essential, it matters much less than the time spent working to develop musical and technical skills. Since 1980, companies offer detachable bells to convert B≤ trumpets to C trumpets (several offer an E≤, F, and G trumpet with three bells and three sets of tuning slides—of course, each configuration is a compromise). There are also other important details of construction. Top-valve spring action is superior for all small piston brass instruments (rather than the spring placed below the valve). The instrument should be tight (i.e., no loose parts banging around when shaken) with the valves freely moving. It should give the desired response in a playing test. When inspecting a used instrument for possible purchase, one should inspect the valves for undue wear at the bottom of each. One poor playing habit is to press the valves at a slight angle rather than straight down, a motion that creates wear and tear on the alloy coating on the valves and causes the valves to stick. If this coating is worn off, one can expect serious trouble from the instrument. Valves should also be tested to see if they “wiggle” in the valve casing, an additional sign of excessive wear, or if they bounce when pressed and then released—valves with good springs should not bounce up and down at the top of the stroke. And finally, but less serious, the outside of the instrument should be inspected for indentations in the instrument referred to as pits. Some brass players have excessive acid in their perspiration, and frequent handling of the instrument without wiping it off after playing can damage and pit the brass, especially around the valve casings. All valve combinations should be checked with an electronic tuner to determine if they are inordinately out of tune. One should start with the open tones and then the various valve combinations, knowing that low D and low C≥ will be considerably sharp. First-line E may be a tad sharp and fourth-line D may be a tad flat; any other out-of-tune notes should encourage further shopping. Compression in the valve slides is checked by pulling a valve slide, then depressing the valve and listening for the “pop.” The instrument being purchased should play responsively in all registers and not have too much or too little resistance. Most beginners find instruments with a small bore easier to play as they can “get by” without proper air support. Assistance from an advanced trumpet player or teacher should be sought when selecting an instrument. Most beginner-level instruments have a smaller bore to facilitate range and endurance. These crutches are not necessary for the young trumpet player; it is better to develop good playing habits from the beginning. Whether to purchase an instrument with an easily adjustable first- and/or third-valve slide is generally a matter of cost, but all trumpet players should at least have an adjustable third-valve slide, and learn to use it, by the time they reach middle school. Trumpets designed with this adjustment are manufactured with the third-valve slide slightly shorter, bringing the low E≤ and all A≤s in tune. Some instruments employ a trigger-operated device on the first-valve slide; the more common “hook” or “saddle” is preferred because it has no mechanism to break and makes removing the slide to drain water easier. If the first-valve slide is short enough to bring fourth-line D and third-space C≥ in tune, certain first- and second-valve combinations (such as the bottom-line E) will be sharp, requiring the player to extend the first-valve slide for that note. The professional-quality trumpet offers the player a choice of using either the first- or third-valve slide to adjust the most out-of-tune notes, low C≥ and D. Which slide to use depends on the fingering patterns and technical difficulty.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 311

THE TRUMPET AND CORNET

311

ASSEMBLING THE INSTRUMENT Assembling the trumpet or cornet should not present any problems. It consists of merely inserting the mouthpiece and giving it a slight twist. Mouthpieces for brasses can be damaged if they are forced or jammed into the instrument. Wiggling the mouthpiece back and forth to work it in can damage both the end of the mouthpiece and the leadpipe, allow air to leak, and affect intonation and tone quality.

HOLDING THE TRUMPET OR CORNET The remaining principles discussed will refer to trumpet, but hold true for cornet. The correct hand position for playing the trumpet is shown in Figure 22.1. The trumpet is held with the left hand and supported with both the left hand and arm. One grasps the trumpet with the fingers around the third-valve casing and the thumb around the first-valve casing. It is important that the thumb not be too high or the student may end up supporting the instrument with only the wrist. The wrist should be as straight as possible and in line with the forearm. If the wrist is bent, the wrist muscles will soon tire from supporting the weight that should be sustained by the entire arm. If the instrument is held so the valves are slightly tilted to the player’s right and the left wrist kept straight, the weight will be carried by the arm. It is then necessary for FIGURE 22.1 Left-hand position for playing the trumpet the player to experiment to find the point of balance of the instrument, for maximum comfort. Most modern trumpets are balanced at or near the third valve, so when properly held the point of balance in the left hand will be near the point where the bell tubing rests on the upper joint of the first finger. If the instrument is held in balance and tilted slightly to the right with both wrists held straight, both elbows will be about even, comfortably away from the body so as not to hamper breathing, but not out so far as to require real effort to support the elbows. The head rests easily on the shoulders without bending. The wrists are straight and the arms form an angle of approximately 60 degrees when viewed from the front. Proper posture is complete when the student rests both feet on the floor and sits or stands “tall” (Figure 22.2). Improper posture prohibits correct breathing and contributes to muscular tension. Whether the player should hold the trumpet parallel to the floor is a question upon which there is disagreement. Vincent Bach wrote: “Hold the instrument in horizontal position or slightly above—without leaning your head backwards . . . Push the lower jaw forward so the lower teeth are in line FIGURE 22.2 Sitting position for playing the trumpet with the upper ones.”1 Donald Reinhardt says: “Please do not take too seriously the greatly overrated mid-Victorian phrase, ‘hold the instrument in a horizontal position at all times.’ Forget this nonsense and hold your trumpet to conform to your type of jaw.”2 The jazz trumpeter Snooky Young and the symphonic player Vincent Cichowicz both play with their instruments “pointed” downward. The best approach to the problem is to keep in mind that a slightly downward tilt is acceptable and to experiment in achieving the best tone by moving the instrument in an arc from the horizontal while keeping the head erect and relaxed. The position that gives the best sound should be adopted. Poor hand position can tip the bell downward, putting pressure on the lower lip, changing the angle of the air and jaw, and resulting in a dead tone. Conversely, although less likely, poor hand position in tilting the bell upward results in poor endurance in the upper register. Students with an overbite will probably find they obtain a better sound by holding the instrument somewhat below horizontal. Students in marching ensembles who are asked to keep their instruments horizontal should also tip the head back to maintain the proper embouchure if they normally point somewhat to the ground. The right hand should be in a position resembling a backwards “C” (as if holding a tennis ball or a double cheeseburger), the fingers placed so that the fingertips curve in a relaxed manner above the valve buttons; the right hand

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 312

312 THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

should not help hold the trumpet. If the fingers are too flat, if the wrist is bent, or if the right hand is too low or too close to the instrument, the valves will be pulled down rather than pushed. For example, if the trumpet is held with the valves exactly perpendicular to the floor, the right wrist can be kept straight only by holding the right elbow high and far away from the body; the left wrist can be kept straight only by keeping the left elbow jammed into the left rib cage. Playing should be done with the fleshy balls of the fingers, not on the knuckles or on the extreme tip of the fingers. The right thumb should rest under the leadpipe between the first- and second-valve casings. This placement is important because it positions the fingers properly above the valves, allowing better use of the weak ring finger. The position of the thumb: (1) provides support for fingers when they depress the valves; (2) aids in keeping the fingers up; (3) prevents the hand from drooping inward toward the side of the instrument; and (4) helps balance the instrument. The finger ring or hook should not be used. The little finger should remain free to respond in sympathy with the third finger. The third finger is the weakest and should not be inhibited by a restricted little finger. The finger hook is used only when the player needs to hold the instrument with the right hand, as in turning pages or placing a mute in the bell. Using the hook may also lead to excessive and damaging pressure on the lips. Some players use the hook as an aid to the upper register (like an octave key on a woodwind instrument), but the added pressure on the embouchure results in less endurance and limited range, as there is a limit to the pressure the lips can withstand. One can demonstrate to students the technique problem caused by using the finger ring: Ask students to hold out their right hands and wiggle the fingers, then grasp and hold the little finger, completely restricting it from moving. Then ask them to wiggle their fingers—the resulting action is not only less comfortable, but the fingers simply cannot move as freely.

EMBOUCHURE The discussion of physical characteristics and their importance in trumpet playing is heard over and over, yet there are many exceptions to the rules. The older idea of thin lips being better for a trumpet player and thicker lips better for the larger brass instruments has been largely abandoned. The following differences may be considered for a student wishing to start on trumpet: 1.

2.

3.

4. 5.

Uneven teeth make it difficult for the player to seat the mouthpiece properly on the lips, although teeth that are only slightly irregular are not necessarily detrimental. Many good players have overcome a minor irregularity by placing the mouthpiece rim slightly to one side. The muscles of the face and tongue are sufficiently flexible so that with practice small variances can be overcome. When the player places the mouthpiece very much off center, however, it results in unequal muscular control. This imposes a strain on the embouchure muscles, limits range and endurance, and allows an uneven vibrating surface and improper position of the tongue that impedes tonguing. Two simple tests to determine whether the prospective player can place the mouthpiece in the center of the lips are: (1) whistle, to see if the whistle aperture is in the center of the lips; and (2) produce a buzzing sound with only the lips. A severe malocclusion (overbite or underbite) or failure of the jaws to come together evenly results in strain and prevents the mouthpiece from receiving correct support. A small degree of malocclusion is normal. Projecting the jaw forward corrects some overbite but is uncomfortable and forms tension. Instead, try adjusting the angle of the instrument to fit the embouchure. A player whose lips are considerably longer or shorter than his or her front teeth may have trouble. Lips that are long in relation to the teeth tend to roll inward too much. If the upper lip alone rolls in too far, it is injurious to both endurance and range. Lips short in relation to the teeth may not come together sufficiently at the center to form a proper embouchure. Front teeth that slant inward prevent the lips from providing a firm support for the mouthpiece. Unusual lips caused by such factors as injured facial muscles, harelips, and large scars should be carefully considered before allowing a student to begin on trumpet (or any other brass instrument).

To assist the formation of a correct embouchure, the student may be asked to place the lips in the position for vocalizing the syllable “em.” Then the student can raise the instrument to relaxed lips and vocalize “pooh.” This procedure will usually have immediate results. At this point,

FIGURE 22.3 Trumpet embouchure

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 313

THE TRUMPET AND CORNET

the student should be asked again to form the lips as if vocalizing “em,” then tighten the corners of the mouth and buzz the lips until a tone is produced. Practice and careful instruction in shaping a proper embouchure along with proper breathing will result in rapid improvement. Students who have initial difficulties producing a tone on the trumpet should buzz with the mouthpiece only, or buzz their lips without the instrument or mouthpiece. While buzzing the lips alone, the teacher can touch the student’s chin to determine if the air is being directed too far downward. If so, the student should be reminded to project the jaw a bit more forward. Buzzing without the mouthpiece is also useful for those students who have a tendency to puff out their cheeks, as buzzing strengthens the appropriate muscles. It is virtually impossible for one to puff out the cheeks when buzzing without the mouthpiece, just as it is impossible to bunch up the chin. A correct embouchure is shown in Figures 22.3, 22.4, 22.5, and 22.6. The mouthpiece should be centered on the lips horizontally and placed vertically so as to use one-third upper lip and two-thirds lower lip, which when observed using a mouthpiece visualizer is actually closer to half-and-half inside the mouthpiece. A visual half-and-half distribution on the lips (which in actuality means more upper lip) may be acceptable. Listen for where the tone is produced best—the “sweet spot.” The corners of the mouth are tightened and pressed against the teeth. The centers of the lips sympathetically tighten just enough to provide a fleshy cushion that vibrates when the airstream passes through it. Tightening the corners of the mouth also helps to keep the chin drawn flat.

313

FIGURE 22.4 Side view, playing low C

Mouthpieces The trumpet has attracted more mouthpiece manufacturers than has any other brass instrument. Many “gimmick-type” mouthpieces are available, sometimes advertised as extending the upper range and capable of doing half the work for the trumpet player. The student should select a mouthpiece from a reputable company and secure an upper and lower range by developing the embouchure FIGURE 22.5 Side view, playing middle C and correct breathing habits. Among the best all-around, general-purpose mouthpieces for beginning players are the Bach 7C, Schilke 9 or 11, Stork Vacchiano 7C, and Yamaha 11C4. For advanced players, the more popular mouthpiece brands are Monette, Josef Klier Reeves, Warburton (making the largest, and one of the few manufacturers to set inside-rim diameters at 17.5, 17.25, 17, 16.75 mm, etc.), and two of the best-selling custom mouthpieces are Stork Custom Mouthpieces and Marcinkiewicz. As the student grows physically and the embouchure muscles grow stronger, a larger mouthpiece should be tried under the guidance of a knowledgeable trumpet teacher. A larger mouthpiece (at least with regard to cup diameter and depth) allows for a richer, darker tone quality. A larger cup diameter allows the aperture of the embouchure to open more, with more of the lip vibrating, resulting in a tone that is clearer and fuller without sounding overblown. These mouthpieces also require more air support for successful playing. For students who have not developed a strong embouchure, a larger mouthpiece will hurt the upper range. Students should not be exposed to bad habits in order to play in FIGURE 22.6 Side view, playing high C the upper register; therefore, the teacher must be careful of the demands placed on nascent trumpet players. Jazz players, on the other hand, often prefer a shallower cup and tighter backbore to assist their endurance in the high register and to enable a variety of articulations and tone qualities. That is, they do not want to produce a deep, full trumpet tone. The primary considerations for these varied sounds are cup diameter, cup depth, throat or bore size, and backbore.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 314

314 THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

INTONATION Intonation requires practice and good listening habits. Trumpet players in most ensembles are given a brief opportunity to tune their C or B with the unwarranted assumption that the rest of the pitches are in tune. Intonation on any instrument can be improved by knowing the natural tendencies of the instrument—this is especially true with the trumpet, as most trumpets share common intonation flaws. Figure 22.7 shows the intonation tendencies of the majority of B≤ trumpets, whether manufactured as student-line or professional-line instruments. The medium- or professional-line instruments with devices to extend the first- and/or third-valve slides help correct intonation. Note that the pitches of the seventh harmonic are so flat that they are rarely used; these notes are played by using valve combinations that lower the eighth harmonic.

FIGURE 22.7 Trumpet: pitch tendencies of selected notes

Trumpet students should also be made aware of performance intonation tendencies. Students often play slightly flat in the upper register when tired but become quite sharp as they become even more fatigued and pinch for the high notes. Ideally, the fatigued trumpet player should immediately warm-down and put the instrument away, but during the spring concert this response may not please the audience, conductor, or the rest of the section (especially during a Haydn symphony). Temperature and performance anxiety also affect intonation.

TONE QUALITY AND EFFECTS Tone quality varies among professional players and even more so among students, but trumpet students are going to sound only as good as their mental image of the ideal tone. Often, the young student is so caught up in technique and range that tone quality is neglected. It matters little how fast a trumpet player can double-tongue or how many major and minor scales can be played if the tone is unpleasant; the effort, then, has been lost. Good tone quality depends on the student’s ability to mentally conceive a good trumpet sound, to listen critically, and to evaluate the tone produced. A fine teacher can encourage students to produce a better sound by demonstrating good and poor examples. For example, the student should strive for: (1) a focused, centered sound so that the tone does not spread on crescendos or become pinched on decrescendos; (2) a full tone quality that results from steady air support and an appropriately sized mouthpiece (for that individual); and (3) a relaxed sound, not forced, relying on plenty of wind while maintaining a good embouchure. Excessive mouthpiece pressure is often used to make up for lack of air or an underdeveloped embouchure. A trumpet has a great range of dynamics. The student should practice in all dynamic ranges and make dynamic changes while practicing to produce focused and clear tones. Long tones are a useful tool and can be made exciting to the student by an understanding and inspiring teacher. In The Art of Trumpet Playing, Keith Johnson discusses the importance of “imagination and experimentation” in playing the trumpet. His stress is on imagination, allowing the student to produce new ideas from existing information. He emphasizes that in order to improve trumpet sound the player must have existing information; that is, a firm grasp on how successful trumpet players sound, even though he or she may not want to emulate that exact sound.3 A model trumpet tone is best heard live via a music instructor or band director. If neither is able to provide a good tone, then encourage the student to listen to an older high school- or college-level musician. Well-made recordings of exemplary playing can serve as models, as well as from sources included at the end of this chapter. A young trumpet student can learn much and begin conceptualizing a good tone quality by listening to a professional flute player or other excellent performer on any instrument. As Johnson observes: Musical imagination, if properly used, is beneficial in several ways. First, it ensures receptiveness to new ideas that can be gained from listening to music of all types and sources. Trumpet players can gain unlimited ideas from fine singers, pianists, string players, and others. New ideas should be incorporated into one’s playing. Occasional alterations in vibrato, increasing or decreasing the volume level for certain passages, or modifying an articulation in some subtle way will enhance the musical interest of any performance. . . .

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 315

THE TRUMPET AND CORNET

315

In the process of acquiring new ideas, players should not be afraid to experiment. Many students are so conditioned to “right” and “wrong” judgments that they become overly cautious and afraid of making mistakes. . . . Fear of mistakes is a threat to imaginative, creative playing. . . . For substantial improvement to occur the student must be able to imagine a better sound than he has played previously, and in order to implement this new sound he must be willing to experiment. . . . The teacher should direct and encourage the student, guide his experimentation, and comment on the results with understanding and accuracy. . . . Any skill, artistic or otherwise, is learned through trial and error.4

Vibrato The most common method of vibrato for trumpet and the easiest to develop is hand vibrato. Hand vibrato is created by using the thumb of the right hand (which is resting gently under the leadpipe between the first- and second-valve casings) to move forward and backward making subtle pulsations in the pitch (about seven per second). The pulsations should be even and the pitch not noticeably affected. Many jazz trumpet players use a wider, broader vibrato, especially on phrase endings of ballads. Again, students should listen to recordings or live performances of successful trumpet players, and then let the ear determine what is most appropriate. Vibrato changes depend upon tessitura and style of the music. Some styles of music are best played with no vibrato, for example, classical orchestral literature. Many trumpet players also use a lip or jaw vibrato, achieved by playing a straight tone and moving the lips or the jaw slightly (the latter as if vocalizing “wah-wah-wah” rapidly). Lip vibrato can be executed more subtly than hand vibrato but can affect endurance and lip slurs if the teacher does not remind students to maintain a proper embouchure. When Adolph Herseth, former principal trumpet of the Chicago Symphony, was asked how he produced a vibrato, he replied he didn’t know. After a pause he said, “I guess I just wiggle my lips and blow.”

FINGERINGS AND TECHNIQUE The basic fingerings on brass instruments are easier to learn than those for the woodwinds. Having to rely on the embouchure to change the overtone series means that brasses are not necessarily easier to play than woodwinds. To play the entire range, tubing is added by the valves to lower individual notes of each overtone series. If the principle is understood, it is easy to memorize the seven valve combinations. Good hand position is important in developing fingering skill. The player should learn to push, not pull, the valves down firmly and feel a slight impact when the valve cap hits the valve top. Technique comes with practice. Scale studies are indispensable for developing technique, but they should not be the entire substance of the student’s musical diet. Fundamental tasks such as learning to play scales rapidly can be learned in a relatively short period of time. Other tasks such as good tone quality, extended upper range, and endurance require more practice and should not be neglected during any stage of the trumpet player’s development. Common and alternate fingerings are shown at the end of this chapter. Alternate fingerings should not be ignored, for they are needed for tuning and technique. Some passages are almost impossible to play without use of alternate fingerings. Alternate fingerings can also improve intonation. A few illustrations of the use of alternate fingerings may serve to point up the discussion. 1.

2.

3. 4.

Valves 1 and 2 equal valve 3. Passages involving an awkward movement to 1,2 should be tried with 3 as a substitute. For example, a passage where low D (1,3) to bottom-line E (1,2) is repeated rapidly it is much easier to “trill” between these two notes using only the third finger as in Figure 22.8. Valve 3 is sometimes preferable to 1,2 for intonation. For instance, first-line E is often too sharp when played with 1, 2. It can be played with 3 (a little flat) and lipped up to pitch. The same substitution may make A above the staff more in tune. On some good trumpets (especially C trumpets), a preference is given to finger fourth-space E with 1,2 and fourthspace E≤ with 2,3. Many quickly moving articulated passages are played more cleanly using alternate fingerings; a very simple example, but one with which young students can identify, are bugle calls, which can be played without valves or any single valve or combination of valves.

FIGURE 22.8 Third valve substitution for 1 and 3 for rapid passages

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 316

316

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

WHAT TO PRACTICE One of the things that discourages youngsters from studying an instrument is boredom. Confinement to a single method book is guaranteed to contribute to boredom. There are many excellent books to which students may be exposed. Those listed at the end of the chapter are not intended as a comprehensive list but are indicative of the variety of material available. The psychological principle of working on a single problem at a time is sound, and certain materials are better than others for solving problems and developing confidence and accuracy. Any of the complete methods offers a vast source of control exercises to challenge the virtually limitless combination of dynamics, range, articulations, and phrasing. For instance, the single-tonguing and interval studies in Arban’s should be practiced very slowly part of the time, emphasizing the perfect placement of each tone and the absolute evenness of each tongued note. When students are certain they can usually play any interval without errors, they are ready to audition. Daily practice should include playing long tones (while crescendoing and decrescendoing and also while maintaining the same dynamic level), flexibility studies (lip slurs) to insure continued embouchure development, studies on various articulations, technical studies to develop finger facility, and lyrical studies or melodic passages to promote expressive playing. Although this routine may appear somewhat long for first-year players, the teacher should remember that beginners’ lip slurs may be between only two notes for each valve combination; the articulations only of long tones, tongued quarter notes, and slurs; while their technical studies may consist of only parts of the C and F major scales. Young students should frequently play pieces they already know. Familiar pieces build confidence and musicianship and enable the student to concentrate on musical aspects of playing. One should never dismiss the value of “doodling around” or imaginative practice. Such playing by ear helps develop listening skills, versatility, and technical facility, and often keeps students interested. Good instrumental music teachers encourage their students to play by ear.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF THE TRUMPET/CORNET In general, brass instruments present fewer maintenance problems than do woodwinds, strings, or percussion instruments. The primary task of the young trumpet/cornet student is to keep the instrument clean. Care of the instrument on a daily basis should include wiping off the trumpet with a rag to remove acidic perspiration left by the hands. Some kinds of perspiration can destroy the finish and pit the brass over a period of time. As with all brass instruments, students must always be reminded to treat their trumpets with care, not to leave them unattended on chairs or the floor, not to bang the music stand when bringing them to playing position, and not to play rhythms or “tunes” by popping the mouthpiece with the palm of their hand. Dents in the leadpipe, valve or tuning slides, and valve casings cause serious problems in tone, intonation, and/or technique. These should be removed by a qualified repairperson. Students should know that the valves must be pressed in order to pull the slides; for example, the first valve should be pressed before adjusting the first-valve slide. One of the most common problems among beginning trumpet players is the inability to remove saliva through the third-valve slide water key, a frustration due to not pressing the third-valve while blowing air through the instrument. Valves should be oiled on a daily basis, and all slides pushed in when the instrument is not being played. This habit prevents stuck slides. The valve slides should be greased with petroleum jelly or slide grease at least once a month.

HEALTH ISSUES The right fingers, hand, and elbow can cause distress and inhibit trumpeters from performing at their best. These body parts are used to maneuver the valves and to create a subtle resistive force against the lips. The rapid and repetitive nature of fingering during trumpet playing can lead to muscle and tendon difficulties, especially the internal muscles of the hand and the elbow. To help prevent long-term pain, exercises that strengthen the wrist, hand, and arm muscles, such as grip exercises and wrist stretches and exercises, may be helpful. Trumpet players exert force from the lower back when playing, and this can often lead to back stress and strain. Using correct posture, conditioning the body, and strengthening the core muscles of the spine and abdomen will help prevent back injuries. Too much playing and/or too much lip pressure is a common ailment among brass players. As mentioned, the best remedy for this is development of strong embouchure muscles and sufficient periods of rest during both practice sessions and performances. Extreme pressure is not the only health issue related to the embouchure, as even a minor cut or cracking of the lips can influence a trumpet player’s performance. Thus, petroleum jelly or another protective ointment should be used on the lips regularly and particularly in cold weather.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 317

THE TRUMPET AND CORNET

317

RESOURCES Websites All About Trumpet allabouttrumpet.com All Things Trumpet allthingstrumpet.com Bryan Goff Trumpet Tips bgoff.org; http://www.bgoff.org/TrumpetTips/tips.html International Trumpet Guild trumpetguild.org Trumpet Exercises trumpetexercises.net Trumpet Herald trumpetherald.com Trumpeter’s Resource armyfieldband.com/pages/education/trumpet.html

Texts Bate, P. (1978). The Trumpet and Trombone: An Outline of Their History, Development, and Construction, 2nd ed. New York, NY: W.W. Norton. Broils, M. (1989). The Art of Trumpet Playing. New York, NY: Charles Colin Music. Bush, I.R. (1962). Artistic Trumpet: Technique and Study. Hollywood, CA: Highland Music. Campos, F. (2005). Trumpet Technique. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Dale, D.A. (1985). Trumpet Technique, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Davidson, L. (1975). Trumpet Profiles. Bloomington, IN: Author. Hickman, D. (2006). Trumpet Pedagogy: A Compendium of Modern Teaching Techniques. Chandler, AZ: Hickman Music. Johnson, K. (1994). The Art of Trumpet Playing, 2nd ed. Denton, TX: Gore. Loubriel, L. and M. Laureano (2011). Lasting Change for Trumpeters: The Pedagogical Approach of Arnold Jacobs as Applied to Trumpet Pedagogy and Performance, rev. ed. Minneapolis, MN: Scholar Publications. McNeil, J. (1999). The Art of Jazz Trumpet (complete ed. with one CD). Brooklyn, NY: Gerard & Sarsen. Reinhardt, D. (1992). Encyclopedia of the Pivot System. New York, NY: Charles Colin Music. Sherman, R. (1979). The Trumpeter’s Handbook. Athens, OH: Acura Music. Smithers, D. (1988). The Music and History of the Baroque Trumpet before 1721, 2nd ed. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press. Tarr, E. (1988). The Trumpet. Portland, OR: Amadeus. Wallace, J. (2011). The Trumpet. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Yanko, S. (2001). The Trumpet Kings: The Players Who Shaped the Sound of Jazz Trumpet. San Francisco, CA: Backbeat.

Trumpet Studies Easy to Medium (Elementary or Middle School) Balasanian-Musser. 25 Easy Studies (Belwin-Mills). Beeler. Method for the Cornet (2 vols.) (Warner Brothers).

Clarke. Elementary Studies (Carl Fischer). Concone (ed. Sawyer). Lyrical Studies (Brass Press). Getchell. Practical Studies for Trumpet (Book 1) (Belwin-Mills). Griffin. Buzz to Brilliance: A Beginning and Intermediate Guide to Trumpet Playing (Oxford University Press). Harnum, Sound the Trumpet: How to Blow Your Own Horn (Sol Ut Press). Hering. The Beginning Trumpeter (Carl Fischer). Little. Embouchure Builder (ProArt). Longinotti. Etude de la Trumpette (Henn & Henn). Musser and Del Borgo. Modes in Contemporary Music (Alfred). ––– Rhythm in Contemporary Music (Alfred). ––– Tonality in Contemporary Music (Alfred). Pfund. Bill Pfund’s Beginning Trumpet Method (Pfund). Robinson. Rubank Elementary Book (Rubank). Williams. Modern Method (Colin).

Medium (Middle or High School) Arban (eds. Goldman and Smith). Complete Conservatory Method (Carl Fischer). Bennett. 14 Melodic Studies (King). Bousquet. 36 Celebrated Studies (Carl Fisher). Broiles. Private Practice (Weissman Music). ––– Trumpet Studies and Duets (McGinnis). Clarke. Technical Studies (Carl Fischer). Clodomir. 70 Petite Exercises (International). Concone (ed. Sawyer). Lyrical Studies (Brass Press). Davidson. Trumpet Techniques (Louis Davidson). Getchell. Practical Studies for Trumpet (Book 2) (Belwin-Mills). Goldman. Practical Studies (C. Fischer). Haynie. How to Play High Notes, Low Notes, and All Those In Between (C. Colin). Hering. The Advancing Trumpeter (C. Fischer). ––– 28 Melodious and Technical Studies (C. Fischer). Irons. 27 Groups of Exercises for Trumpet (Southern). Johnson. Trumpet Aerobics (Hal Leonard). Loubriel. Back to Basics for Trumpeters: The Teaching of Vincent Cichowicz (Scholar). Pottag. Preparatory Melodies to Solo Work (Belwin-Mills). Saint-Jacome. Complete Grand Method (C. Fischer). Schlossberg. Daily Drills and Technical Studies (Baron). Smith. Lip Flexibility on the Cornet or Trumpet (C. Fischer). Stamp. Warm-Ups & Studies (Editions Bim). Vining and Plog. The Breathing Book. Trumpet Edition (Mountaiak Music). Williams. Complete Trumpet Method (Colin).

Advanced (High School or College) Arban (ed. Maire). Celebre Methode Complete (3 vols.) (A. Leduc). Balasanian. 20 Studies (International). Balay. 15 Etudes (A. Leduc). Bitsch. 20 Etudes (A. Leduc). Bordogni. 24 Vocalises (C.F. Peters). Brandt (ed. Vacchiano). 34 Studies and 24 Last Studies (BelwinMills). Broiles. Have Trumpet—Will Transpose (Colin). Bush. Top Tones for Trumpet (Colin).

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 318

318 THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS Caruso. Long Setting (Hal Leonard). Charlier. 36 Etudes Transcendantes (A. Leduc). Chavanne. 25 Characteristic Studies (A. Leduc). Clarke. Characteristic Studies (C. Fischer). Colin. Advanced Lip Flexibilities (Colin). ––– Complete Method for Trumpet (Colin). Deutsch. The Extended Trumpet Range (Colin). Dufrense and Voisin. Develop Sight-Reading (Colin). Gaily. 22 Exercises (A. Leduc). Gekker. 15 Studies for the Piccolo Trumpet (Colin). ––– Articulation Studies (Colin). ––– Endurance Drills (Colin). ––– Slow Practice (qPress). Harris. Advanced Studies, Trumpet (Colin). Hickman. 15 Advanced Embouchure Studies (Hickman Music Editions). Lin. Lip Flexibilities (Balquhidder). Longinott. Studies in Classical and Modern Style (International). Maxime and Alphonse. 20 Eludes Tres Difficules (A. Leduc). Maxwell. The First Trumpeter (Colin). Petit. 15 Etudes Technique et Melodiques (A. Leduc). Plog. Method for Trumpet (Books 1–7) (Balquhidder). Sachse. 100 Etudes for Trumpet (International). Shuebruk. The Complete Shuebruk Lip Trainers for Trumpet (C. Fischer). Smith. Top Tones (C. Fischer). Smith, P. 20 Minute Warm-Up Routine (Hip-Bone). Smith, W. Studies for Embouchure Development (G. Fischer). Vacchiano. Moving Transpostion. (Edition Peeters). Vizzutti. High notes for Trumpet. (Village Place Music). ––– Trumpet Method (Bks 1–3). (Alfred).

Trumpet, Vols. 1 and 2 (Mark Inouye and Thorn Proctor, 1998). Miami, FL: Warner Brothers Publications. Trumpet Course: Beginners and Intermediate (Clark Terry, 1981). West Long Beach, CA: Kultur. Trumpet Secrets Revealed (John Thomas, 2007). Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard.

Recommended Trumpet Artists Maurice André playing Hummel, Vivaldi Louis Armstrong playing early Jazz Chet Baker playing Cool Ketil Christensen playing Jorgenson, Haydn Miles Davis and Dizzy Gillespie playing Bebop Chris Gekker playing Ewazen Tine Thing Helseth playing Piazzolla Wynton Marsalis playing Haydn, Purcell

Trumpet and Cornet Parts

Instructional Videos A Trumpeter’s Resource (Army Field Band, n.d.). www.armyfield band.com/pages/education/trumpet.html Beginning Trumpet (Mary Lazarus, 1989). Atlantic City, NJ: Music Foundation Video. Belwin 21st Century Band Method: Trumpet, Level 1 (Rolf Smedvig, 1996). Miami, FL: Warner Brothers. Getting Started with the Trumpet (Leslie Grove, 1996). Spokane, WA: Getting Started Productions. I Love the Trumpet (Warren Vaché). Boston: Artists House. Keys to Trumpet Mastery (Allen Vizzutti, 1992). Palatine, IL: Sharper Video Productions. Marsalis on Music, 4 videotapes (Wynton Marsalis, Yo-Yo Ma, Seiji Ozawa, Daniel Anker, and others, 1995). New York, NY: Sony Classical Film & Video. A New and Different Way of Getting More Music out of the Trumpet (William Adam, 1997). Fairbanks, AK: Stewart Aull/ Moving Images. Playing Lead Trumpet (Wayney Bergeron, 2015). Van Nuys, CA: Alfred. Steps to Excellence: A Video Clinic (Vol. 5) (Allen Vizzutti, 1984). Grand Rapids, MI: Yamaha Musical Productions. The Trumpet (Drew Cremisio, 1991). Canoga Park, CA: MPV. The Trumpet (Drew Cremisio and Mark Arnett, 1998). Canoga Park, CA: Backstage Productions.

FIGURE 22.9 Trumpet and cornet parts

NOTES 1.

2. 3. 4.

Bach, V. (n.d.). Embouchure and Mouthpiece Manual. Elkhart, IN: Selmer; reprint of Genuine Bach Mouthpieces (1956). Mt. Vernon, NY: Vincent Bach Corporation, 11. Reinhardt, D.S. (1992). The Encyclopedia of the Pivot System. New York, NY: Charles Colin Music, 9. Johnson, K. (1994). The Art of Trumpet Playing, 2nd ed. Denton, TX: Gore. Ibid, 20–21.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 319

THE TRUMPET AND CORNET

Trumpet Fingering Chart FAKE

123

13

23

12

1

2 (Fundamental)

0

123

13

23

12

1

2

0

123

13

23

12

1

2 123

0 13

23

12 3

1 123

0 23

12 123

1 13

2 23

0 12 (123)

1

2 123 (23)

0 13 (12) (3)

23 123 (1)

12 13 3 (2)

1 23 123 (0)

2 13

2 12 13

0 1 23

123

13

2 12

Common and Alternate Fingerings for the Trumpet (Note: Parentheses indicate the seventh partial—always a bad note [very flat] and best played with another fingering)

0 1

23

2 23

12

0 12 13

1

(13)

1

319

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 320

CHAPTER 23

The Horn

23

HISTORY The horn has been in use throughout Europe and Asia for more time than one would care to imagine—probably about 30 centuries, give or take a few. For all except the last three of these, its existence had little to do with music. The ancient shofar of biblical times was used for war and worship; the nearer relative found in the Middle Ages was used for battle and hunting. These latter instruments were high-pitched and brilliant, even raucous, and were carried over the shoulder. The jagertrommet was one of the earlier hunting horns; the trompe de chasse was a later development of French origin, which came somewhat closer to the modern horn with its more tapered conical bore, wider bell, and longer tubing. The waldhorn, a German version of the trompe de chasse, was part of the orchestra at the end of the seventeenth century. Lully had used the horn as early as 1664. The characteristic that hindered the use of the horn in the orchestra was not so much its tone quality as its incomplete scale. Having no valves or keys, it was limited to those pitches that could be produced by lip alterations above the fundamental tone. To increase its pitch possibilities, crooks were added around 1718. Anton Joseph Hampel’s revolutionary contribution was the use of the hand in the bell. With the hand in a variety of positions in the bell, Hampel could not only mute the tone somewhat but also could change the pitch being produced, thus increasing the pitch flexibility of the instrument. During the later eighteenth and the early nineteenth century, the hand horn was popular and at its height valued for beauty of tone and appearance. The valved horn was introduced in the early nineteenth century and soon replaced the hand horn, though the latter is still played by a few aficionados today. The variety of crooks was discarded and gradually the F horn predominated over those in other keys. As orchestral music demanded increasing stamina in the higher range, the B≤ horn was thought to be the solution, especially for first and third horn parts with their higher tessitura. About 1900 the German firm of Kruspe produced the first double horn, designed to have the advantages of both the F and the B≤ horns. Musically, the life of the horn began in the late Baroque period in Germany; Keiser used it in an opera in 1705. Bach made much of it, and Handel’s writing for the horn is so characteristic as to be almost a trademark. In France, Rameau used it in his 1749 opera Zoroastre. These composers usually used two hand horns. Beethoven added a third horn in his Third Symphony. In the Ninth Symphony he added the fourth, and composers after him wrote for either two or four, depending on their musical objectives. Schumann was one of the first composers to recognize the advantages of the valved horn, especially in his Konzertstück for 4 Horns and Orchestra.

SELECTING THE INSTRUMENT: B≤ OR F HORN At the outset, the prospective horn player is faced with a choice of which horn to play. There are essentially three horns to choose from, all equally legitimate. A choice among the B≤ horn, the F horn, and the double horn depends primarily on the desired sound. The B≤ horn has nine feet of tubing length with a range lying a perfect fourth above the F horn. It can be used by beginning players to play lower because the fundamental of the F horn is so difficult for them to reach. It blends well with the other B≤ instruments of the band and orchestra in both intonation and tone color. Because it plays in a register in which the partials are similar to those of the trumpet, the beginner can learn to play with greater accuracy and confidence. Single B≤ horns have a different tone quality, a slightly brighter, more open sound than the F horn, but directors who use them are enthusiastic about them. Figure 23.1 illustrates the partials produced on the F horn and the B≤ horn. The principal difficulties that the B≤ horn causes beginners are in tone quality in the low register and often in intonation on the beginning pitches used in the most popular group method books. The single B≤ horn also has a builtin disadvantage. When the hand is used to stop the tone and produce hand-stopped sound, the pitch is lowered threequarters of a whole step rather than the half step of the stopped F horn. Because this pitch is impossible to correct by

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 321

THE HORN

321

FIGURE 23.1 Horn: partials on the open (no valves pressed) F horn and the open B≤ horn (in concert pitch)

FIGURE 23.2 Horn: approximate uses for F and B≤ sides

transposing, the hand alone cannot be used for muting. Some manufacturers have placed a fourth valve on professionalline horns that makes the necessary alteration in pitch when the hand is used for stopped horn. Some B≤ horns have a fifth valve that lowers the horn to F, referred to as a compensating horn. Tradition as much as anything else makes the F horn the preferred choice for beginners. The F horn has the most traditional horn quality. The tubing is about 121⁄2 feet in length, rarely has more than three valves, and has a practical range of approximately G at the bottom of the bass clef to second-leger line C above the treble clef (these pitches sound a perfect fifth lower). Because the F horn plays in the upper partials of the overtone series rather than the lower partials nearer the fundamentals, the pitches playable with any valve combination are close together, more so in the upper register. Beginners can lose confidence and become discouraged over the difficulty of playing the correct note when the notes are so close together for any given valve combination. Due to the difficulty of obtaining correct pitches on the F horn compared to other brass instruments, the double horn is standard in spite of its greater weight and price. The double horn is not a horn put into another key by adding a slide but rather two horns with a common mouthpiece, leadpipe, and bell. The B≤ side of the horn is accessed by a fourth valve (activated by the thumb) that reduces the overall length of the brass tubing to roughly nine feet. The B≤ side of the instrument has the advantage that its fundamental is a fourth higher than the F horn, so it plays in a lower register of the harmonic series in order to sound the same pitches. Usually the player of a double horn uses the F horn in the lower register for its tone quality and the B≤ horn in the upper register for its accuracy and tone quality. There is no unalterable spot at which one should change from one side to the other on a double horn; the right place is that which is the easiest, where the notes speak the best, and where the player can get the desired and most consistent tone quality. Often this is somewhere between written second-line G≥ (most common) and third-space C≥ in treble clef. Figure 23.2 shows where particular sides of the double horn are typically used. When selecting a double horn, whether new or used, it should be played by an expert hornist and the student, if experienced, in order to verify that the sides are in tune with each other. If there is any question that the player lacks a discriminating ear or is in the habit of manipulating pitch using the embouchure, then it is best to use an electronic tuner for such a task, because stability of intonation is of great importance in selecting an instrument. Horn players often purchase used instruments due to the relatively high cost of double horns. As when buying a used automobile, one should question why the owner wishes to part with it. The same concerns apply to the purchase of any used instrument; an additional concern for a used horn is the dents it may have. Because the bell of the horn is so thin, it is easily dented; dents in the leadpipe can cause intonation problems, while repairs made by an unqualified horn repairperson can increase the intonation problems and add tone quality problems by destroying the consistent thickness of the metal. A bell on which the lacquer has worn off is of little concern and some players prefer the sound of an unlacquered horn. Any repairs to the braces can usually be identified; these can give an indication of the maintenance and previous damage to the instrument. A used horn should be inspected for corrosion, or pitting, where the hands touch the instrument. A certain amount of wear should be expected on the valve stems, but pitted brass can wear through and result in costly damage. Another concern is the cleanliness of the bore. Horns have more resistance than any of the brass instruments; this resistance affects tone quality, flexibility, range, intonation—virtually every aspect of the instrument. This resistance should be constant and a characteristic of the horn itself, not due to years of accumulated dirt.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 322

322 THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

ASSEMBLING THE HORN The horn is taken from its case by grasping the outside tubing in the vicinity of the valves. The tubing is reinforced for this purpose; the rest of the horn is more fragile than one would imagine a metal instrument to be. The metal gets progressively thinner from leadpipe to bell—so thin that the bell can be dented by pressure from the fingers. Even the weight of the instrument will dent the metal when it is handled incorrectly. The single step in assembling the horn is to insert the mouthpiece into the leadpipe with a gentle twisting motion, unless the horn has a detachable bell—in that case, the bell must be taken in the opposite hand and carefully put together.

HOLDING THE HORN The player should sit on the right corner of a chair at about a 45degree angle with the horn. As players mature, they usually are encouraged to play with the horn off the knee. The left leg should be directly in line of vision with the conductor. This position facilitates seeing both music and conductor and keeps the player’s back well away from the back of the chair. Some younger players may need a stool or book on which to rest their right foot to keep the horn in the proper position for playing. See Figures 23.3 and 23.4 for examples of playing position while seated. Horn players also stand to play, especially in solo work, but they should not be used in a marching band. The body from the waist up should be in the same position whether sitting or standing, a naturally relaxed and efficient position. The right hand’s function is to move in and out of the bell, correcting intonation and altering tone quality; when standing, the player must listen carefully—as the right hand is used partially for support, this use can affect intonation and tone quality. The left hand holds the instrument and operates the valves. The little finger is placed within the hook to support the horn; the three middle fingers rest in a curved position on the valves. The horn uses rotary valves that are depressed considerably less distance than the piston valves used by most other brasses. Horn players must be reminded not to use the left hand to apply excessive pressure on the embouchure. The little finger should not clench and push the mouthpiece into the embouchure. On the single horn the thumb is placed around the tubing, resting lightly rather than grabbing it. Some single horns have a hook for the thumb that may aid in the development of good habits. This hook is replaced by the thumb valve on a double horn. The left arm hangs loosely from the shoulder, as relaxed and natural as possible, with just enough angle or slant to help the fingers move freely and rapidly. The placement of the right hand affects both tone quality and pitch and enables the student to produce the effects desired by composers and the conductor. Because of the wide variety of hand sizes and shapes, it is not possible to be specific about right-hand placement, shape, or use. To produce the same effects, the young student with a small hand will have a different placement than will a full-grown player. The use of the right hand can make the difference between a beautiful horn sound and one that is unpleasant. Because habits are so hard to break once set, some hornists recommend positioning the beginner’s hand as it will be used when the player reaches maturity, even though the sound temporarily suffers. Although there are several schools of thought on right-hand position, only one method is generally used in the United States today. The fingers are close together with no space between them and are extended with the knuckles almost straight. The hand is

FIGURE 23.3 Horn: sitting position with bell on leg

FIGURE 23.4 Horn: sitting position with bell off leg

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 323

THE HORN

323

cupped, bending at the knuckles to form an angle somewhat larger than 90 degrees. The thumb lies next to the index finger, fitting flush so no open space exists between the thumb and the hand. The thumb is bent a little so the tip of the thumb lies almost on top of the index finger rather than at its side. The hand goes into the bell of the horn with the fingers held vertically rather than horizontally, the back of the fingers touching the inside of the bell on the side away from the player. If the player’s hand is small, the thumb will not be brought over the index finger but will extend out from the hand, still joined. This formation makes it possible to close off the bell with the heel of the hand by moving the wrist to cup the palm more—the fingers remain as flat as they can and against the bell. The more the hand is inserted, the darker and flatter the pitch. The hand is used to alternate between tone quality that can be described as “dark” or “brassy.” The first involves inserting the hand farther than normal and the latter involves removing the hand almost completely. Good horn players adjust their hand position for the appropriate tone quality for the music played as well as for specific instrumentations; for example, hand placement is different when a hornist plays in a woodwind quintet than when playing in a brass quintet. The player determines how far the hand should be inserted into the bell by listening and adjusting. The hand is placed at the point where the tone quality is best and the pitch of the horn matches the pitch of the ensemble (examples of righthand positions are shown in Figures 23.5 and 23.6). Horns are manufactured about one-quarter step sharper than other brass instruments to compensate for the placement of the hand in the bell. This affects upper-register response and pitch more than the lower register. One idea is to place the hand in as far as it can go without muffling the tone, but the distance will not be the same for any two hands. The size of the hand alters tone as well as intonation, and the player must learn to produce the tone quality wanted with the hand size available. Cupping and straightening the hand is done gradually to avoid sudden FIGURE 23.5 Horn: normal position of the hand in the bell changes of tone quality. The horn should be held at an angle similar to that used for playing the clarinet. The mouthpiece, not the head, is tilted downward. The horn is commonly held at an angle so that the leadpipe is about 15 to 20 degrees from the horizontal plane. Horn players should, on occasion, stand to determine a proper relationship of the horn to the body, remembering that standing can adversely affect use of the right hand for tone quality. The bell should not face directly into the player’s body (vertical) or directly to the side (horizontal). An angle about halfway between the two would cover nearly all correct positions for holding the instrument. The double horn may rest on the right thigh.

THE BEGINNING STUDENT When a beginning student selects the horn as the instrument FIGURE 23.6 Horn: closed position of the hand in the bell of choice, no valid reason exists for starting on the trumpet, though this is often done. There are, in fact, many reasons opposing it. Problems of embouchure increase the difficulties of the horn player who has previously played the trumpet, and there is little evidence that trumpet study contributes to a keener ear or better harmonic sense. A source of frustration on the part of beginners is the fact that many beginning method books start all winds on F concert, a note that is comfortable and easily accessible for most winds but poor for the horn. Further, most beginning method books progress from that pitch downward. To have the F horn player play up an octave, third-space C, is not encouraged as this is the eighth harmonic for the horn, and the pitches both one step above and one step below are played with the same fingering, a discouraging factor. If the teacher does not wish to use a method book that starts the horn on a different pitch from the rest of the instruments, one alternative is to start horn players at a different time and/or place from other beginning wind players or allow them to play the same written pitches as the trumpet and sound a fourth lower.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 324

324

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

The B≤ horn and the double horn can be made accessible to an interested grade school student. Starting a pupil on a single F horn is easier at the middle school level as older students should have greater embouchure control (and strength) and a more accurate sense of pitch and intervals. For students of small stature who have difficulty reaching both the bell with their right hand and the mouthpiece with their embouchure, a competent, experienced instrument repairperson can bend the leadpipe to a more comfortable position with little or no effect on the horn or overall tone quality. The leadpipe can later be bent back to its original position when appropriate.

EMBOUCHURE In the United States, fairly standard practices govern the embouchure used to play horn. The mouthpiece is set on the lips after they have been properly shaped. Philip Farkas’s (professional hornist/teacher) excellent description likens the mouth to a drawstring on a bag, drawing the bag tightly shut over a coffee can—the tautness of the bag results from pulling forward and backward at the same time.1 The lower lip is turned in a little over the teeth; the chin must not bunch. (It may help to have the beginner exaggerate this slightly.) The teeth are somewhat apart and the mouthpiece is placed high on the lips. Having the mouthpiece entirely outside the pink of the lower lip reduces the range and produces poor tone; some middle-ground combination of the lips being in and on the mouthpiece is the more practical approach. If the jaw is flat, the corners of the mouth will not turn up into a smiling position. A correct embouchure is illustrated in Figure 23.7. Embouchure faults can develop when beginning students practice in the low horn register. The embouchure for this range is difficult to develop; for the extremely low pitches the player may actually remove some of the lip from the mouthpiece, which seems unnatural and incorrect.

INTONATION Initial tuning is done in the following manner: All the slides are pushed in. Then, if the double horn is used, the F side is tuned first using the F tuning slide. Usually the slide will need to be pulled one-quarter to one-half inch to bring the F horn down to standard pitch. The next step is to tune the B≤ side to the F side using the B≤ tuning slide. Having the open tones on both sides in tune, the player may then bring the other notes into correct relationship by pulling the other valve slides, those on the F side first and then those on the B≤ side. The main tuning slide in the leadpipe that affects both sides of the horn is reserved for tuning with the ensemble. This entire procedure is to no avail if the right hand is not in the correct position during the tuning. The player must not tip or move the hand, or favor notes during tuning; if one does, the instrument will not be tuned correctly. Most instrument companies provide excellent booklets on how to tune a horn. Each player should be sure to read one and follow the directions with patience. This entire procedure will be a waste of everyone’s time if the student does not listen FIGURE 23.7 Horn embouchure (a) front view; (b) side view carefully and develop an understanding of good intonation. For day-to-day tuning, players are often seen adjusting one valve slide and stopping. When one valve slide is altered, it is almost always necessary to adjust the others to it and to adjust both sides of the double horn. If only one valve slide is tuned, it will be incorrect when used in combination with others. The player should tune several notes, compare the B≤ and F sides, and adjust as necessary. Beginners will require the assistance of a teacher and possibly an electronic tuner—both are tools for developing the ear and not a substitute for listening. The double horn has fewer intonation problems than the other valved instruments, providing that it is a highquality instrument (see Figure 23.8). Unlike the temperamental woodwinds or even the trumpet, the double horn can be played well in tune on almost all pitches throughout its range. This is not because it is better designed than the other brasses, but because it is actually two horns. Bad notes on one side can be avoided by playing them on the other side. The double horn player has numerous devices to help play in tune, such as adjusting the two tuning slides as well as the six valve slides that affect the overall tuning or adjusting the embouchure while playing to change individual pitches. The player of a single horn (F or B≤) adjusts pitches in the same way, with one tuning slide and three valve slides.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 325

THE HORN

325

FIGURE 23.8 The double horn

Like all valved instruments, the tubing for each valve is a compromise required for equal temperament. For the double horn, some of the out-of-tune notes can be avoided by switching from one side to the other. In certain registers, however, when it is best to play on the F side or the B≤ side, there are pitch tendencies for particular notes. These are indicated in Figure 23.8.

TONE QUALITY Horn tone is produced in the same fashion as on other brass instruments except that the horn player has an additional way of changing tone quality. On all brass instruments, the tone is chiefly controlled by the embouchure and breath support; the horn player also places the right hand in the bell to change the sound. Beyond these techniques, the most important factor is the ear. As on all wind instruments, tone quality is primarily determined by the player’s mental image. On horn this is especially important because what the listener hears is different from what the player hears due to the position in which the horn is held and played. Further, the design and acoustics of the room affect horn tone quality more than that of any other wind instrument. The player should listen to as many horn players and good recordings as possible and choose the kind of tone desired. The players must then listen as they play and keep adjusting the embouchure and air until the sound approaches the mental ideal. Tone quality of the horn is different from performer to performer and from band to orchestra, and recordings differ in timbre between performers who play with woodwind quintets and those who play with brass quintets. Advanced horn players learn to approach the instrument differently depending on the context, performing equally well with brass and woodwind groups, chamber groups, large ensembles, and as soloists. Twentieth- and twenty-first-century music requires a distinctly different tone than that used for Romantic compositions. The horn is so adaptable that it can blend with woodwinds, brass, or strings. It is also a beautiful complement to the human voice. It can be the accompaniment or solo instrument and by changing the tone quality can be used in nearly every combination of instruments. With all these challenging possibilities, players should never limit themselves to an embouchure that produces only one kind of tone. To play every passage with a dark sound or a light, bright sound is to ignore the musical style and the meaning of the passage. The player who enjoys the instrument the most is the one who widens the range of sounds from dark to light just as conscientiously as those from high to low. Perhaps the single most important variable in good horn tone is the airstream. Because the horn has the most resistance of all brass instruments, it is quite easy to produce a sound with a minimum amount of air. The F horn is more than twice as long in tubing as a trumpet, requiring that the air must be constantly and consistently supported whether one is playing long lyrical lines or fast technical passages. Too much air, often a sign of an embouchure that is too tight, will promote overblowing and produce an overly brassy sound (this special effect is demanded on occasion).

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 326

326

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

A common problem among horn players is that they seem to crack more notes than the other brasses; this cracking is in part due to the closeness of the pitches with any given valve combination. Compared to the shorter brass and woodwinds, the length of the horn requires more time for the pressure wave from the embouchure to create the standing wave that makes the note speak. With experience and continued development of the breathing apparatus, hornists learn to time their attacks. Teachers should understand the horn player’s dilemma. The tone quality is also controlled by the embouchure: the size of the lip opening, the shape of the lips, the amount of mouthpiece pressure on the lips, and the angle at which the air enters the mouthpiece. A high palate and fairly large oral cavity also enhance the tone, but these are not within the power of the player to change. A more puckered embouchure, within reason, will give a smoother, mellower, darker sound. Too much pucker can make the tone so dark that it begins to resemble the baritone horn in quality. A more smiling, stretched embouchure will give a bright, brilliant tone, which can become brassy and harsh. The terms cuivré or schmetternd designate this brassy, harsh sound, which is used for special effects in orchestral and band literature. In ordinary playing, sufficient pucker is maintained to obtain a tone that is mellow but not overly subdued—the horn tone should have an element of brilliancy to it. The horn produces a wide variety of tone colors and effects for which there are many foreign labels. For example, mit dampfer (with mute) is often used synonymously with stopped, stark anblasen, gedampft with “+” above the note marked forte, gestopft with muted, con sordino, or the British closed. The player has to remember (or look up) specifically what each means, and then alter the practice with the conductor’s wishes. Some further explanation should be made of the term cuivré. Players are often puzzled as to whether this term indicates use of a mute. Cuivré means to play with a brassy tone; schmetternd indicates the same sound. The tone may be produced by forcing too much air into the horn or by using the mute (cheating) and forcing against it, creating sufficient air pressure to get the brassy quality required. If a forte passage is being played and some form of muting is called for, the cuivré effect is desired. There are three primary effects on the horn in addition to the straight horn tone. These are: (1) the stopped tone (hand tightly in the bell) used for special effects; (2) the muted tone produced by means of a regular mute; and (3) the brassy tone designated by cuivré or schmetternd. The hand in the bell makes the tone more open or more closed. If the tone is too dull and thick, the hand should be withdrawn a little. The closed hand darkens and subdues the tone, whereas an open hand allows the tone to emit freely. The stopped bell, like the muted bell, is used only for special effects specified by a composer and is not part of normal playing. The position of the bell also affects the sound for listener and player, but that sound is never the same for listener as for player. The player may like the dark tone one gets with the bell turned into the body, but the listener may find it lifeless, dull, and uninteresting. If the tone is not good, one should check for the following: Does the embouchure have enough of a pucker to get a good cushion on the upper lip? Is the upper lip free enough from pressure to enable it to vibrate? Are the teeth open enough to make a round tone? Think of forming an open vowel; “oo” is usually preferred, “oh” for a brighter tone, or “aa” or “ee” may help. Is the embouchure too tight or too smiling? Does the breath come from the diaphragm area through an open throat? Is the tongue bunched up in the back of the mouth?

Vibrato Though at present vibrato is more widely accepted, horn players traditionally have not used a vibrato except occasionally in solo works. The French have been an exception, favoring at times a thin tone with a vibrato, the same speed vibrato for all registers and dynamics. The vibrato seems to destroy the genuine horn quality, giving it a more sentimental, superficial character not in keeping with most of the music written for it. Although some hornists advocate diaphragm vibrato, the most popular method has been jaw vibrato.

Mutes and Stopped Horn Ideally a commercial mute is used for muted passages, and the hand is reserved for passages that call for hand stopping. When the hand is used, it goes into the bell of the F horn with the effect of shortening the overall length of the instrument (raising the pitch one half-step, or temporarily creating a horn in F≥). Normally, in order to play “hand stopped,” the hand is inserted about 61⁄2 inches into the bell, but the distance will vary with the size of the hand. When a commercial mute is used, the pitch obtained may depend on the status of the mute’s cork that becomes worn and is affected by moisture. Players of double horns normally play muted passages on the F side of the instrument or use nontransposing mutes if the register being performed requires use of the B≤ side of the instrument. Hand stopping is often referred to as stopped horn; other terms are sons bouches, bouchez, chiuso, and gestopft. The hand is useful for this purpose only to about the bottom of the treble clef because below that it is not powerful enough to resist the air pressure. A small hand may make the pitch too sharp even after transposing down a half step; a large

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 327

THE HORN

327

hand may produce the opposite pitch problem. In these cases, the player may be forced to compensate by altering the embouchure, lipping up or down, or, if the stopped passage is a long one, repositioning the slides. Today there are several manufacturers of special mutes that can be used for the appropriate sound and do not require transposition. These enable the hornist to use both the F and B≤ sides of a double horn. Criteria in selecting a nontransposing mute include good intonation as well as the desired muting effect. The use of any mute creates intonation problems because the player cannot use the hand to bring the pitch into tune. The hornist therefore must listen to the pitch created, make the necessary adjustments with the mute when possible, and adjust the pitch with the embouchure. Some mutes are manufactured with a screw arrangement by which the player can adjust the mute to assist in intonation. These have not been widely accepted because they take too long to adjust. Recently, mutes have been manufactured that allow a pitch adjustment on the outside that remains true throughout the register of the horn.

FINGERINGS The horn is a transposing instrument. Pitched in F, the notes played sound a perfect fifth below. When a player switches to the B≤ side of the double horn, he or she continues to read the notes for horn in F but uses a different set of fingerings. Consequently, these notes also sound a perfect fifth below those read and played, although they are played on a B≤ horn. The fingering chart at the end of this chapter shows the fingerings for both the F and B≤ horns (as well as the double horn). Those fingerings placed inside of parentheses mark the most common fingerings; however, depending on the particular passage, alternate fingerings and even the other side of the horn are frequently used. The chart covers a very broad range of written pitches for the horn; most public school horn players will never see music written to these depths or heights.

WHAT TO PRACTICE As with every brass player, successful performance depends on the quality and quantity of practice; a positive relationship exists between performance and preparation. For the beginning horn student, use of supplementary material is perhaps more critical than for any other brass student. Discouragement can beset young horn players who see their colleagues advancing rapidly through the book and find themselves lagging behind, often through no fault of their own. The warm-up for horn players should include long tones at various dynamic levels and crescendos/decrescendos in all registers of the instrument (the player diligently attempts to keep the pitch and volume from wavering; blasting at the upper dynamic ranges should carefully be avoided). Lip slurs for flexibility and scale exercises for finger dexterity should also be included. As players develop, scales and arpeggios can be extended to cover a full three-octave range. This greater range improves accuracy, the embouchure, endurance, control, flexibility over a wide range, and intonation. Attacks are usually a frustrating problem for beginning horn students. Daily practice on attacks should include all dynamic levels and all registers. A valuable study is to write out a series of unrelated pitches (not unlike a tone row), each followed by a rest, and have students attack each note. Emphasis should be placed on the “duh” articulation, as the “tuh” articulation creates an exaggerated explosive sound on the horn and leads to even more cracked pitches. Because of the small size of the mouthpiece and the normally puckered embouchure, tonguing with accuracy is more difficult on the horn than on the other brass instruments. Most importantly, the player must hear the pitch in one’s mind before playing it.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF THE HORN Moisture collects in the horn as in any other instrument. It presents more of a problem, however, because the horn cannot be swabbed, and the moisture doesn’t run out the bottom. The addition of water keys is becoming more common, and some professionals have several water keys added to their instruments. Horn players must unwind their instruments at every opportunity—they have enough trouble playing accurately without contending with bubbly notes. The valve slides should be emptied after playing, more frequently if needed. Running water through the horn or forcing in a small swab is not a good idea—these practices may push the sludge into some inaccessible spot where it will lodge permanently. Some of the slides are shaped so they can be cleaned with water or a brush, and a little common sense can indicate which ones these are. Moisture left in the horn will retain dust and grease which in time will change the tone of the instrument. Because cleaning the horn after it becomes dirty is so much more difficult than draining it each time it is used, the latter should be enforced or at least urged upon the student.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 328

328 THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

Removing the slides should be easy. If the horn is cared for properly, the slides are removed often for emptying, adjusted continually for tuning, and shouldn’t stick. Because students have been known to fail to accomplish that which they have been asked to do, slides sometimes go for semesters unmoved. In such cases the slides should not be yanked out by grabbing with the hand and pulling, for the soft metal will yield to the pressure of the hand and take a different shape than that intended. A repairperson is recommended if any real force is needed. Students often discover that when they pull out a slide they can get a “pop,” and slide pulling becomes a favorite pastime. The popping action can result in leaks in the slide or the valve casing; students should be urged to find other amusement. The affected valve should be depressed when removing or returning the valve slide—one slide at a time—which will eliminate the pop and keep the instrument in better condition. The slides should be lubricated with slight amounts of petroleum jelly or slide grease. The valves must be oiled regularly, with either special horn oil or regular valve oil. To oil these, pull the slides and insert three or four drops (not squirts) into each. Replace them, return the horn to playing position, press and release the valve numerous times, then remove the slide and expel the excess oil. Some books suggest letting the oil run down the casing onto the valve, but this is not recommended because the oil picks up dirt and lint on its way and deposits it on the valve. At least weekly the valve bearings should be oiled (top and bottom). The genuine corks on rotary valves are subject to wear and to hardening and should be replaced with a synthetic rubber “cork.” Most manufactures use this synthetic material. The corks are crucial to valve alignment, which determines pitch and greatly affects tone quality. The string on the valves needs to be replaced occasionally if breakage is to be avoided, perhaps once a year for players practicing an average amount. Strings do not break often but when they do it always seems to be at a critical time—the horn player must realize that unless the strings are replaced periodically, they are going to break—and if “Murphy” is correct, it will be two measures prior to a solo at the local solo festival. Only one string at a time is removed and replaced. Of importance is to line the valve up at the exact level of the other two. Instruction in how to replace strings on rotary valves is too often ignored by instrumental music teachers. The finish on the horn is a question of preference. Many horn performers play an instrument that has been stripped of all lacquer (sometimes just from the bell) or manufactured without lacquer. All student-line horns, however, are finished with lacquer to protect the brass from pitting. The finish can and should be preserved from damage caused by the acids of the student’s hands by frequent wiping with a soft cloth. The horn lacquer is as durable as that on other instruments, but the hands come into contact with more of the horn, so the possibility of deterioration is greater. Lefthand guards made of plastic or leather help. Leather is preferred because of its greater softness and flexibility. Pads are available to fit on the valve levers where the fingers touch for protection. Players like to polish the instrument to a beautiful sheen, but polishing should be done in moderation, as the lacquer is so thin that polishing can eventually remove it, particularly on the bell. Some manufacturers do not lacquer their instruments, and a new horn can look as dull as one used for 40 years.

HEALTH ISSUES The horn requires that a student utilize the right hand for both supporting the instrument and manipulating the pitch. The majority of the instrument’s weight is placed on the hand and many horn players have reported experiencing pain in the right wrist. Earlier in the chapter we recommended that beginning horn players rest the bell of the instrument on the thigh of the right leg for support, which tempers the weight. As a student grows more mature this may become less realistic because the sound is not projected as well as it projects into the body. The left hand and arm is the cause of more physical problems than the right as it takes on a myriad of tasks, which include supporting some of the weight of the horn, positioning and stabilizing the weight, manipulating the valves, and applying force against the embouchure. Frequent rests during practice could mitigate discomfort in the short term. To help prevent long-term pain, exercises that strengthen the wrist, hand, and arm muscles, such as grip exercises and wrist flexion stretches and exercises, may be helpful. Straps are available to help the left hand support the instrument and relieve some pressure on the pink. The muscles in the face may become fatigued from overuse, and embouchure dystonia has been noted in hornists. Rest, followed by reconditioning of the lips through mouthpiece buzzing, can be effective, and some players may need to find a new mouthpiece. Allergic reactions are sometimes noted in the lips, as they may react to the mouthpiece. Overuse via prolonged performance or practice can lead to injuries including “Satchmo’s Syndrome,” or rupture of the muscle that surrounds the mouth opening, and velopharyngeal incompetence, which is a reduction of the opening. Increased pressure on the pharynx due to extended playing in the upper register can lead to “blowing out” of the larynx, which will require medical treatment.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 329

THE HORN

329

RESOURCES Websites Horn Articles Online hornarticles.com Horn Matters hornmatters.com International Horn Society hornsociety.org

Howe. Method for French Horn (Marvin Howe). Matoshinhos. Guide to Starting the Horn (AvA Musical Editions). Singer and Ballou. Embouchure Building for French Horn (BelwinMills). Tuckwell. 50 First Exercises (Oxford University Press). Yancich. Method for the French Horn (Wind Music).

Medium (Middle or High School) Texts Bushouse, D. and J.D. Ployhar (1983). Practical Hints on Playing the French Horn. Melville, NY: Belwin-Mills. Cousins, F. (1992). On Playing the Horn, 2nd ed. Chapel-en-leFrith, UK: Caron. Farkas, P. (1956). The Art of French Horn Playing. Miami, FL: Summy-Birchard. Fitzpatrick, H. (1970). The Horn and Horn-Playing and the AustroBohemian Tradition from 1680–1830. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Gregory, R. (1969). The Horn: A Comprehensive Guide to the Modern Instrument and Its Music, rev. and enlarged ed. New York, NY: F.A. Praeger. Hill, D. (2001). Collected Thoughts on Teaching and Learning, Creativity, and Horn Performance. Miami, FL: Warner Brothers. Höltzel, M. and W. Melton (2006). Mastery of the French Horn: Technique and Musical Expression. New York, NY: Schott. Humphries, J. (2000). The Early Horn: A Practical Guide. New York, NY: Cambridge. Moore, R. and E. Ettore (1986). Mel Bay’s Anthology of French Horn Music. Pacific, MO: Mel Bay. Perry, G. (2014). The Essential Guide To French Horn Maintenance. Lexington, KY: Glen Perry. Reynolds, V. (1997). The Horn Handbook. Portland, OR: Amadeus. Schuller, G. (1962). Horn Technique. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Tuckwell, B. (1983). Horn. New York, NY: Schirmer. Yancich, M. (1971). A Practical Guide to French Horn Playing. Rochester, NY: Wind Music.

Journal/Association The Horn Call. Journal of the International Horn Society. Published three times each year. Available from www.hornsociety.org.

Horn Studies Beginning (Elementary or Middle School): All Start from Low C to Second-line G Clevenger, McDunn, and Rusch. The Dale Clevenger French Horn Methods (2 vols.) (Kjos). Clodomir. Methode Elementaire (A. Leduc). Getchell. First Book of Practical Studies (Belwin-Mills). Hill and Froseth. Introducing the French Horn (w/recording) (GIA).

Andraud and Pottag. 335 Selected Melodious, Progressive and Technical Studies (2 vols.) (Southern Music). Belloli. 8 Studies (International). ––– 24 Etudes (Sansone). Brophy. Technical Studies for Solving Special Problems on the Horn (Carl Fischer). Concone. Legato Studies (Belwin-Mills). ––– Lyrical Studies (Brass Press). Gallay. Unmeasured Preludes (Sansone). ––– 12 Grandes Etudes Brilliantes (Elkan-Vogel). ––– 30 Etudes (Sansone). Getchell. Second Book of Practical Studies (Belwin-Mills). Horner. Primary Studies for the French Horn (Theodore Presser). Maxime-Alphonse. 40 Etudes Facile (A. Leduc). ––– 70 Etudes Tres Facile (A. Leduc). Miersch. Melodious Studies for the French Horn (C. Fischer). Pares and Glaus. Daily Exercises and Scales for the French Horn (C. Fischer). Pottag. Daily Exercises for French Horn (Belwin-Mills). ––– Prepatory Melodies to Solo Work (Belwin-Mills). Shoemaker. Legato Etudes for Horn (Belwin-Mills). Singer. Embouchure Building for French Horn (Belwin-Mills).

Advanced (High School or College) Bitsch. 12 Etudes (A. Leduc). Bozza. 18 Etudes en Forme d’Improvisation (A. Leduc). ––– Graphismes (A. Leduc). Fearn. Exercises for Flexibility (Elkan-Vogel). Gallay. Unmeasured Preludes (Sansone). ––– 12 Grandes Etudes Brilliantes (Sansone). ––– 30 Etudes (Sansone). Hackleman. 21 Characteristic Etudes for High Horn Playing (Editions Bim). ––– 34 Characteristic Etudes for Low Horn Playing (Editions Bim). Kopprasch. 50 Etudes for French Horn (Southern Music). ––– 60 Selected Studies (C. Fischer). Maxime-Alfonse. Two Hundred New Studies in Six Books for Horn (A. Leduc). Mueller. 34 Studies (2 vols.) (International). Reynolds. 48 Etudes for French Horn (G. Schirmer). Sansone. A Modern Method for French Horn (2 vols.) (Sansone). Singer. Embouchure Building for French Horn (Belwin-Mills). Woude. French Horn Studies (Summy-Birchard).

Instructional Videos The French Horn (Philip Farkas, 1984). Juneau, AK: Mobile Video.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:20 Page 330

330 THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS Horn Drills and Excerpts (Vols. 1 and 2) (James Decker, 1994). Los Angeles: IVSI, School of Music, University of Southern California. Horn Playing: Past and Present (David Kirkpatrick, Tom Bartolomeo, Cathy Miller, Alan White, Pat Lippart, Joe Lovinsky, 1992). Ft. Meade, MD: U.S. Army Field Band. www.armyfieldband.com/pages/education/horn.html Real World Horn Playing (Wendell Rider, 2007). San Jose, CA: Wendell Rider. Steps to Excellence: A French Horn Clinic (Vol. 2) (L. William Kuyper, 1987). Grand Rapids, MI: Yamaha Music Products.

Horn Parts

Recommended Horn Artists Dennis Brain playing Mozart and Strauss Eric Ruske playing Mozart Alex Shuban playing Gershwin and Bernstein Barry Tuckwell playing Brahms and Strauss Swing: Claude Thornhill Bop: Julius Watkins Cool: Sandy Siegelstein Third Stream: Gunther Schuller Hard Bop: John Clark Post-Bop, Avant-Garde: Pete Levin

FIGURE 23.9 Horn parts

NOTES 1.

Farkas, P. (1962). The Art of Brass Playing. Bloomington, IN: Brass Publications, 17.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 331

THE HORN

Horn Fingering Chart F

(123)

(13)

(23)

(3) (12)

(2)

(0)

123

13

23

3 12

123

13

(23)

(12) 3

(1)

(2)

(1)

B(0)

1

2 123

0 13

0

1

2

123

13

23

13 (2)

123 (0)

13 3 (23)

123 23 (12)

3 12 (1)

13 23 1 (2)

3 12 (0)

13 1 2

23 0

3 12 2

12 3 123

1 13

23 2

(12) 0 3

(1)

(2)

(0)

(23) 123

(12) 13

(1) 23

2

0

3 12 23

(2) 12 123

(0) 1 13

(2) 23

12 3

23

B(0)

B(0) 1 23

23 (0)

3 12 (0)

(23)

F1

13 (2)

23 (2)

13 (0)

B0

123 (1)

13 (1)

(2)

123 F(1)

(3) (12)

123 3 (12)

F 1

3 1 12

(0) 12 3

0

(2) 12 3

2 1

0 2

0

0

0

2

0

(1) 123

(2) 13

(0) 23

(23) 12 3

(12) 1 3

(1) 2

(2) 0

331

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 332

CHAPTER 24

The Trombone and Baritone/Euphonium

24

HISTORY The Roman armies marched to the calls of brass instruments, among which were those named buccina. This instrument, about 12 feet in length, vaguely resembled the trombone although it was shaped more like the letter C. The Romans seemed to have mastered the art of bending metal tubing, but this art was lost with the fall of Rome and not rediscovered until the later Middle Ages; with the disappearance of this skill the buccina also disappeared. In the fourteenth century a definite ancestor of the trombone was used, bearing the unpoetic name of sackbut. It appears in paintings before 1500, and by the end of the sixteenth century it was found in several sizes and ranges—a family of sackbuts analogous to the family of stringed instruments, according to the common practice. These were useful instruments, because they could play the first four semitones below the open tone, so that with the use of overtones most of the notes of the chromatic scale could be obtained, a rare feat for a wind instrument. In the early 1500s, the fifth semitone was added, which made the complete scale available except for one or two low tones at the bottom of the range. The sackbut was especially prominent in the tower music in Germany and in the church music of the Gabrielis, Monteverdi, and others of the Venetian school. The early concept of the trombone as a sacred instrument for use in the church remained prominent for many years. In spite of this it found its way into one of the first operas, Orfeo, by Monteverdi. It was used thereafter in opera and ensemble music continuously, more for color effects than as a legitimate member of the orchestra. Mozart’s extraordinary sense of the potentialities of the trombone is shown in its use in the Requiem, in Don Giovanni, and in The Magic Flute, but only with Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony did it find a place in symphonic music. The possibilities of the trombone seem to have been better understood following Berlioz’s Treatise on Orchestration, and since that time (1844) it has been a standard member of the wind family. Most of the history of the baritone and euphonium is identical to that of the tuba (Chapter 25). During the early 1800s, the need for tenor brass instruments that could match the tone quality and dynamic range of higher brasses in wind bands and ensembles prompted the search that led to the baritone and euphonium. Between 1835 and 1850 instrument manufacturers used the Berliner-Pumpen and Vienna valves for a variety of instruments. In 1839, Pertinet of Paris introduced a modified Berliner-Pumpen valve that is still used in modern-day brasses. Efforts by instrument makers and players to improve design and performance quality continued through the nineteenth century. One result was the compensating systems that appeared first in the 1850s. Compensating systems are designed to help correct intonation (specifically the 1,3 and 1,2,3 valve combinations) on euphoniums and tubas by automatically adding extra tubing. In 1838, Moritz patented a five-valve bass tuba in E≤ and a four-valve “tenor tuba.” “Apparently there were many hybrid models of so called tenor horns, euphoniums, and bombardons that were called by various names from country to country with no standard nomenclature.”1 By midcentury this instrument was a fully developed euphonium with a larger bore invented by Sommer of Weimer. These instruments were called Barytone or cor-basse tenor in France, barytone in Germany, and baritono in Spain. Today’s instruments are made so that the euphonium is associated with the “baritone voice,” whereas the baritone, like the trombone, is associated with the “tenor voice.” In brass band literature there are separate parts for the baritone and euphonium. For many years, students playing the baritone/euphonium have been those whose embouchure or facial characteristics impaired success on trumpet (or who didn’t practice). Due to the relationship of its relatively large bore to its length, combined with a greater degree of conical taper than the baritone, the euphonium can produce among the most beautiful tone qualities of all brass instruments. In the hands of an accomplished performer, one with good listening skills, it can play virtuosic lines as well as any of the brasses.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 333

THE TROMBONE AND BARITONE/EUPHONIUM

333

SELECTING THE TROMBONE The trombone is a cylindrical brass instrument (approximately two-thirds cylindrical, one-third conical) pitched one octave below the B≤ trumpet. Although both are B≤ instruments, only the trumpet transposes (sounding one step below the written pitch). The trombone, like all bass clef instruments, is a nontransposing instrument—it sounds the pitch that is read. Like the trumpet, the trombone and baritone play in the register encompassing their second to ninth or tenth partials. In selecting a used trombone one should look for the following: 1.

2. 3.

4.

Possible leaks. These may be located by removing the slide from the bell section, stopping the threaded tube, and blowing through the leadpipe. Leaks can also be identified by immersing the slide in water and stopping one end with the hand while blowing in the other; bubbles will pinpoint the leak. A leak at the point where the slide section screws onto the bell section will be evident if condensation forms on the player’s left hand. Obvious wear. This is indicated by badly worn lacquer and, more seriously, by worn chromium plating on the inner slide. Worn plating will cause sticking due to brass rubbing against brass. Slide alignment (sprung slide) and valve alignment. The slide may stick and appear to be well worn in spots, indicating an alignment problem. The valve alignment may be checked by removing the valve cap and examining the position of the notches. The F attachment valve can be either a string valve, a mechanical rotary, or ball and socket. Loose braces and worn corks. Bass trombones occasionally leak at the valve; this may be checked by removing the F tuning slide, pushing the trigger, and blowing into the mouthpiece while holding the hand over the open tubes.

Today, many companies offer valves that provide improved response. The F attachment is a device consisting of extra tubing that is added onto the basic length of the instrument by means of a thumb-operated valve. It makes accessible six pitches at the bottom of the range from F down to C just below the bass clef. The F attachment also adds a multitude of possible slide positions, offering alternative positions, trills, and other possibilities for technically difficult passages. Why aren’t all trombones made with F attachments? Purists insist that the attachment distorts the basic proportion of two-thirds cylindrical and one-third conical, thus changing the tone quality. Further, it creates a noticeable difference in tone quality where passages use the F trigger on only a few interspersed notes (not unlike with the double hornist who strives to make the B≤ side sound like the F side). The characteristic trombone sound is to be desired; anything that mitigates it is undesirable. The improved axial-flow valve provides improved response and clearer pitch changes, especially on large-bore bass trombones. The B≤ tenor trombone is designed to play seven different fundamental positions. With the F attachment engaged, only six positions are available because the slide positions are farther apart. The B≤ trombone with F attachment is nearly identical to the bass trombone in range and playing techniques, but the difference in the size of the slide’s bore and a much larger mouthpiece produce the difference in sound. The bore of the B≤ tenor trombone is approximately 0.485 to 0.547 inches; the bass trombone has a larger bore, at least 0.562 inches. A larger bore makes the lower tones more accessible and of better quality and, conversely, the tenor trombone is better suited to playing in the upper register. Choice of equipment has an important bearing on tone. The jazz trombonist is not likely to favor the large-bore instrument with a 101⁄2-inch bell used by the bass trombonist in a symphony, and the symphony player would probably hesitate to face the wrath of the conductor if an appearance were made at a rehearsal with a narrow-bore, small-bell trombone. The four physical factors influencing the degree of brilliance possible for any low brass are: (1) size of bore; (2) size of bell; (3) type of metal used; and (4) mouthpiece. A larger bore, bell, and mouthpiece produce larger, deeper sounds. An increasingly popular option with beginners and some amateurs is the plastic “P-Bone.” This instrument weighs less and is less expensive but many players feel it lacks the resonance of the traditional brass instrument. The single-valve bass trombone has no low B-natural on the conventional model. Low B can be obtained by pulling out the F tuning slide, but this is an awkward maneuver and produces a low B that is unusually sharp. The C above it is also sharp. A solution to the problem of low B is a double-valve bass trombone. The second attachment adds more tubing and has an additional valve to open additional tubing along with the F tubing. The result is a complete chromatic scale without the nuisance of manipulating the tuning slide. Most jazz soloists and big band lead players play a smallbore tenor trombone with section players playing larger horns. The small-bore tenors allow more conservative use of the soloist’s air and are more responsive to the great variety of jazz articulations.

SELECTING THE BARITONE OR EUPHONIUM The baritone and euphonium are alike in several respects: Both are brass tubes approximately nine feet long, pitched in B≤, approximately two-thirds conical and one-third cylindrical, with the degree of taper greater for the euphonium. Their appearance is similar and with beginning students their tone quality is somewhat similar. The baritone/euphonium’s

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 334

334 THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

fundamental is the same as that of the trombone, with three valves lowering the pitches in the overtone series in a fashion identical to that used with a trumpet. The instruments are true bass instruments, and players should learn to read bass clef, as most serious music is written in bass clef. The distinction between American-marketed baritones and euphoniums is not clear. The vast majority of these instruments exhibit characteristics of both—a hybrid of sorts—and are commonly referred to by either name, though most band music calls for a baritone. European distinctions are clearer, perhaps because of the popularity of brass bands (whose instrumentation requires both instruments). The sound that most composers are after in the American concert band and when called for in orchestral music is a smoother, darker, fuller sound more characteristic of the euphonium. The euphonium has a larger bore (0.555–0.651 inches) and requires a larger mouthpiece than the baritone. The euphonium bell is approximately three inches larger than that of the baritone. Most euphoniums come with the fourth valve that lowers the fundamental to F below the bass staff. Whereas the F attachment on trombone extends the lower range and provides alternate positions to facilitate technique, on the euphonium the fourth valve adds this range but its most essential feature is the possibility for improved intonation, especially with compensating systems. Well-known euphonium soloist Brian Bowman suggests that an instrument can be tested to determine whether it is a true euphonium by reversing the tuning slide; the main tuning slide of a baritone will still fit the instrument when reversed due to its greater proportion of cylindrical tubing; the tuning slide of a true euphonium will not fit reversed because one end is larger than the other.2 Guidelines to follow in selecting a new or used baritone or euphonium are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Select an instrument with a good reputation. Check that the partials are reasonably in tune. The instrument should be checked for any air leaks. On a used instrument the valves should be inspected for tightness of fit (i.e., do the valves “wiggle”?) and for excessive wear at the bottom edge of the valves. If the plating is worn, replating could be costly in time and money. Compression can be checked by pulling the valve slides, then pressing the valve and listening for a “pop.” The instrument should have similar response and tone quality in all registers. Because lacquer is the most common finish for baritones and euphoniums, it should be inspected for wear; pitted brass can be a problem. Lacquer that has worn off can usually be replated by a reputable repairman.

ASSEMBLING THE INSTRUMENTS There are three sections to the trombone: the slide, the bell, and the mouthpiece. The slide and bell are assembled by resting the bottom of the slide on the floor and the taller side closest to the body. Be careful not to grasp the slide in the middle of both tubes as squeezing the tubing will ruin the alignment. Taking the bell section in the left hand, carefully fit it into the slide, then screw the two together. The angle at which the two sections fit together is 90 degrees or less, varying with the individual player’s hand size. The angle is usually less with the F attachment. The slide is made of thin, relatively soft metal. It can be dented by the slightest knock or bump, impairing intonation and slide movement. When detaching the bell from the slide, the bell should be rotated to the left so as to not have it collide with the slide. Care should be taken, when removing the slide and bell from the case and in assembling, so that the slide does not strike anything. Bumping a music stand often occurs when young students raise their trombones to play. At this point the slide can be unlocked. With older trombone players, it normally occurs when aiming a low C at the saxophone player sitting in front. Assembling the baritone should present no problem except for its weight and size. The euphonium is even heavier. The instrument should be removed from its case by grasping it through the thumb ring with the right thumb and carefully lifting with the right hand; the left hand assists in steadying the horn by holding the bell section. The mouthpiece for trombone and baritone/euphonium is inserted with a slight clockwise twisting motion and removed by a simple counterclockwise twist; forcing will damage it. The mouthpieces should be kept in pouches so that they do not bounce about in the case and damage the instrument.

POSITIONS FOR HOLDING The trombone, baritone, or euphonium player sits in an upright but relaxed erect position, bringing the instrument to the lips in such a way that mouthpiece pressure is distributed evenly between the upper and lower lip. During the early stages of instruction, the trombone should be held to the left side of the music stand so that the student can see “around” the bell and not hit the music stand with the slide. For all three instruments, the horn is brought to the head, not the head to the instrument.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 335

THE TROMBONE AND BARITONE/EUPHONIUM

335

Trombone The left hand holds the trombone by grasping the braces of the slide and bell section, the thumb around the brace of the bell section nearest the mouthpiece, the lower three fingers around the top brace of the slide and the slide receiver. The left index finger rests on the shank just behind the mouthpiece or leadpipe (the size of the student’s hand, consequently, will determine the angle at which the bell section and slide are secured together). The entire weight of the instrument is borne by the left hand and arm. The wrist must be straight or tension will cause it to tire quickly (see Figure 24.1). On most trombones, a weight is usually placed in the back brace of the tuning slide that balances the slide in first position. The farther the slide is extended, the more the left hand must grip to keep the balance. Balance is often difficult for the beginner; if forced to hold the instrument in playing position too long, bad habits like propping the elbow on the waist often develop. The right hand manipulates the slide, grasping the slide brace lightly between the thumb and the first two fingers. Control is best when the thumb and middle fingers are closer to the lower than to the upper part of the slide. The right hand and wrist should be in line with the elbow. The right hand and arm must be relaxed and loose. If the hand, wrist, or elbow is tense, flexibility will be limited. The right palm should face the player rather than the bell. The elbow should be out and away from the upper torso. If the elbow is near the torso, the wrist tends to bend FIGURE 24.1 Trombone: sitting position out of the straight position and hinder slide technique. Players should learn to position their body so that the right shoulder is in front of the left, which extends the reach of the slide. Correct hand position for playing the trombone without an F attachment is shown in Figure 24.2. Due to the weight of the trombone and the pressure of the counterbalance so close to one’s head, students may develop the habit of tilting the head, which occasionally results in the bell section’s resting on the player’s shoulder. Tilting the head will affect the airstream and consequently tone quality, range, flexibility, and articulations. The hand position for a trombone with the F valve is slightly different (Figure 24.3). The weight of the trombone is supported primarily by the lower three fingers of the left hand and the index finger that is placed over the leadpipe. The thumb remains free to operate the valve mechanism.

FIGURE 24.2 Trombone: Hand position without using the F attachment

FIGURE 24.3 Trombone: hand position using the F attachment

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 336

336

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

Baritone/Euphonium The baritone and euphonium are held diagonally across the chest in an upright position, resting against the crook of the left arm. The left hand should be extended across the body of the instrument so that the left thumb either reaches the ring of the tuning trigger (a very useful option) as in Figures 24.4 and 24.5, or grasps the bottom tubing wherever it is most comfortable. This position puts the weight of the instrument on bone rather than on muscle and helps to reduce fatigue.

FIGURE 24.4 Baritone: sitting position

FIGURE 24.5 Euphonium: sitting position

Correct hand positions for baritone and euphonium are illustrated in Figures 24.6 and 24.7, respectively. Some euphoniums have the fourth valve mounted on the side where the left hand holds the large tubing; thus the index or middle finger on the left hand manipulates the fourth valve. Players who have instruments with the fourth valve next to the third valve may hold their horn to manipulate the fourth valve with the index finger on the left hand. Although this appears awkward at first, the left index finger is far more dexterous than the right-hand little finger.

FIGURE 24.6 Baritone: hand position

FIGURE 24.7 Euphonium: hand position

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 337

THE TROMBONE AND BARITONE/EUPHONIUM

337

The right hand and arm should bear no weight as the fingers must be free to operate the valves with maximum speed and accuracy. The fingers of the right hand are slightly curved and placed on top of the valve caps. Players should use the fleshy part of the finger (not the tip or near the joint) and push, not pull, down on the valves. Students should avoid placing their entire thumb in the thumb ring as the palm will be against the valve casings, diminishing finger dexterity. Keep the tip of the thumb on the ring and lift the elbow, arm, wrist, and hand so that they are in somewhat of a straight line. The teacher must be careful not to demand that the beginner hold the relatively heavy baritone or euphonium in playing position too long.

THE BEGINNING STUDENT The most important physical characteristic in a beginning trombone or baritone student is adequate size. If the desire is present, however, physical size is less relevant. Lung capacity is something that can be developed. Students who play the lower brasses need to have good listening skills. Smaller students have difficulty reaching sixth and seventh positions on a trombone. Although many method books avoid introducing sixth-position notes, teachers tend to begin with songs that require use of low C, forcing the beginning trombone player to go from the first note to sixth position on the first two notes of the scale. Thankfully, low B is avoided in much early music for young trombonists. Among the most difficult tasks for the beginning trombone player is simply holding the instrument, even one that has a counterweight. The muscles used to hold the instrument must be developed. The procedures used for producing the initial sound on trumpet can be applied to starting euphonium and trombone players. The low brass player may not be required to blow the air as fast as a trumpet player, but ample air support is crucial. The teeth should be farther apart than for trumpet—articulations such as “doe” or “toe” substitute for “duh” and “tuh.” Buzzing with the mouthpiece alone reinforces the development of the embouchure, preventing cheeks from puffing, and keeping the corners of the mouth firm and the chin flat. Buzzing on the mouthpiece reinforces good intonation and pitch placement, but adding the instrument to the end of the mouthpiece makes it an entirely new task. A focused, well-centered tone will aid intonation. When students are transferred from trumpet, many teachers fail to provide careful instruction on tone production for the trombone or baritone. Trumpet players initially play the low brass instruments with a more “stretched” embouchure than is appropriate. Left unchecked, this embouchure results in a thin, cold tone quality and often a strident sound. Although the baritone/euphonium is easier to play due to less resistance, former trumpet players can get into the bad habit of being satisfied with a thin tone, instead of breathing deeply and projecting a thick, broad, lush sound. Students who puff their cheeks can be taught to use a formation similar to that when one whistles.

EMBOUCHURE A correct trombone embouchure is illustrated in Figure 24.8. The mouthpiece is usually placed with two-thirds of the upper lip and one-third of the lower lip forming the embouchure. This is not a hard and fast rule; some trombonists play with about half upper and half lower lip. For young players with small faces, the mouthpiece may fit tightly against the nose and also cover part of the chin. Ideally the trombone and baritone players should have a fairly square facial structure so that the large mouthpiece has a firm support. Players with a more V-shaped jaw or a somewhat pointed chin will find the mouthpiece less well adapted to their facial formation. The mouthpiece should be centered horizontally. When the player watches the slide to avoid striking music racks or other players, there is a tendency to pull it to one side, usually to the right. Moving the slide may move the mouthpiece on the embouchure unless the right shoulder is moved forward of the left and the head turned to the left. When young players with short arms attempt sixth or seventh positions, they often slide the mouthpiece to the right side of their face; rarely does the mouthpiece re-center when the arm returns to a closer position. The low brass player alters the airstream more than does any other brass player. Normally, for the lowest pitches on trombone— the pedal tones—the airstream is directed somewhat straight through the mouthpiece; the higher the pitch, the more the airstream is directed downward. The basic embouchure formation is similar to FIGURE 24.8 Trombone: embouchure

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 338

338 THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

that for other brass instruments—lips relaxed across the front of the teeth, corners of the mouth tightened firmly and anchored firmly against the teeth. There must be sufficient lip in the mouthpiece. A rigid embouchure should be avoided, as occasional adjustments are necessary. The lower jaw is dropped more than for a trumpet or horn embouchure. Playing the first, second, and third partials can help expose embouchure faults, as good sound cannot be produced in this range with a bad embouchure. The two greatest embouchure faults are: (1) stretching the lips too much, forming an aperture that is too flat, possibly too wide, and that does not provide enough lip to serve as a cushion for the mouthpiece, thus creating a harsh, edgy, and/or thin tone; and (2) too much lip jammed in the mouthpiece and/or teeth too closed, causing an uneven aperture that creates a stuffy or thick tone. Both problems are difficult to identify because the trombone or baritone/euphonium mouthpiece covers such a significant portion of the student’s mouth. A correct baritone/ euphonium embouchure is shown in Figure 24.9. It closely resembles the trombone embouchure.

MOUTHPIECE The mouthpiece is critical for a high-quality trombone tone. It is possible for FIGURE 24.9 Baritone: embouchure a trombone to play sweetly and lyrically or with great edge and projection. The mouthpiece can enhance either of these two extremes; proper mouthpiece selection for most students must take into account the player’s strengths, weaknesses, and desired tone; a mouthpiece should be selected that best enables one to perform in a variety of styles. Younger players may wish to begin with a mouthpiece similar to the Bach 12C, 7C, or 61⁄2 AL; high school players might begin on a Bach 5G or 5GS. A small cup diameter coupled with a shallow cup facilitates the upper register—especially when attached to a narrow backbore—but it may become edgy at a lower volume level. A larger cup, in both rim diameter and depth, enhances the lower register, increases volume, and provides a deep, dark tone. Its restrictions include making the upper register more difficult and reducing flexibility and endurance for those players with poorly developed embouchure. Some trombonists prefer a more funnel-shaped mouthpiece that produces a richer, mellower sound and eliminates all edge from the tone. Mouthpieces for these instruments have either a tenor or a bass shank. The shank is the back end of the mouthpiece and it fits into the bore of the instrument. Small bore trombones and baritones (usually between a .470 and .510 bore) use a tenor shank. Large bore trombones, euphoniums and bass trombones use mouthpieces with a bass shank. There are adapters that allow for a tenor shank mouthpiece to fit into a larger bore instrument.

INTONATION The trombone has the potential for being the only wind instrument with perfect intonation, and by the same token, it has the potential for having the worst. Playing in tune depends primarily upon two things: (1) tuning the instrument properly with whatever mechanical means are available; and (2) listening. The general practice is to tune the trombone in first position by pulling the tuning slide to the exact intonation. A few beginning instruments have a spring in the slide receiver that allows first position to be tuned normally and allows pitches such as D above the staff to be brought in tune by depressing the spring slightly. If the instrument has an F attachment, there is a second tuning slide on the attachment. The procedure for tuning with the F attachment is as follows: Adjust the B≤ tuning slide, and then tune the F tuning slide by playing fourth-line F on both the B≤ and F sides. After both slides are in tune, flicking the trigger that opens the extra tubing should produce a pitch matching sixth-position F on the B≤ trombone. An alternate and often recommended method is to tune both C and low F, as they are the primary notes to be played with the F attachment. Tune the F first. Though this results in the C being sharp, the slide can be lowered to bring it in tune. If the C is tuned first, the F will be flat and unable to be played in first position. Achieving accuracy in intonation is often difficult for young players. Proof of this may be had by simply watching these students as they measure pitch with their thumbs outstretched in a vain search for third or fourth position (the thumb should be kept on the slide at all times), or bump the slide against their teeth as they return to first position. Different partials have different pitch characteristics; two or three pitches played in the same position may each need a slightly different adjustment of the slide. Trombonists McDunn and Barnes argue there are at least 51 positions on the trombone, not seven.3 The player learns to play each tone as well centered, focused and in tune as possible. Other brass players humor pitch by adjustments in the embouchure, but this is neither necessary nor correct for the trombonist.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 339

THE TROMBONE AND BARITONE/EUPHONIUM

339

Younger players will play second and third position flat, and fifth, sixth, and seventh positions sharp. Teachers can remedy these pitch problems by pointing out that the difference between slide positions increases as the positions increase. The difference between first and second position is slightly less than the difference between fifth and sixth positions. Experienced music teachers will testify that beginning trombone players FIGURE 24.10 Beginners tend to play the E-natural routinely play A♮ too flat and A≤ too sharp. To develop the ear and help and E-flat in the third position. They should distinguish different slide positions, it is advisable to have students play practice this exercise and listen for the passages similar to that in Figure 24.10 on a daily basis, starting each time difference—E-natural is in the second position on different first-position partials. On most bass trombones, F below the staff is very flat and C below the staff is sharp; the F is tuned flat in an attempt to get C low enough. The best remedy is to play F in sixth position on the B≤ side. The double valve, the F attachment plus a D attachment, prevents the low B from being so sharp. The double valve puts low B in tune and the player adjusts the rest of the pitches. Instruments with these attachments are very costly; few schools use them, and even fewer high school players own one. The baritone and euphonium also have built-in intonation problems, many of which the compensating euphonium solves with the fourth valve. The fourth-valve slide is slightly longer in length than the 1,3 valve combination so it can be tuned to play those pitches accurately, whereas the 1,3 combination is always sharp. Similarly, the 2,4 combination can be substituted for the 1,2,3 valve combinations. The fourth valve also serves to extend the lower register. Many professional-model baritones and euphoniums are equipped with devices for quickly altering the valve slides (such as the “rings” or “saddles” found on many trumpets). When the school purchases a euphonium, it is wise to invest in a top-of-the-line model with a fourth valve. When alternate fingerings are used, the tone quality should remain unchanged. Practice with an electronic tuner is useful for students to develop the habit of automatically lipping certain notes in tune as well as developing a good overall sense of pitch. Practicing intervals with the mouthpiece alone and checking intonation with a piano are also beneficial for developing the ear and controlling intonation. The ideal broad, rounded sound of the euphonium must not be misinterpreted as a spread, unfocused sound, a quality that produces very poor intonation. Good intonation depends on good tone quality. Players learn early which notes must be coddled for good pitch in order to keep the tone quality consistent. Pitches that are sharp often sound strident or thin; pitches that are flat usually sound muddy or stuffy. Figure 24.11 indicates the pitch tendencies for the three- and four-valve instruments. 4-value

4th Harmonic

2nd Harmonic

5th Harmonic

3rd Harmonic

6th Harmonic

8th Harmonic

FIGURE 24.11 Baritone/euphonium: pitch tendencies of certain notes (4-value 2nd harmonic, 3rd harmonic, 4th harmonic, 5th harmonic, 6th harmonic, 8th harmonic)

TONE AND EFFECTS The tenor trombone has a brilliant sound. The euphonium is more mellow, the smaller-bore baritone sounding somewhat lighter but also very warm and full. Thus, the primary difference in the three instruments (which are of the same length and play in the same registers) is in the sound desired. The preferred trombone tone quality has progressively darkened during the past century, and many players mistakenly copy the mellow sound of the euphonium rather than developing the trombone’s own brilliant sound. A good trombone sound is produced by playing with enough breath support that the tone is in danger of cracking. If the player will practice cracking the tone (which most will do with great delight), then learn to stop just short of this, one can produce the large, projecting sound characteristic of the symphonic trombone. By no means, however, should the tone be crude and obnoxious. Absolutely essential to producing a good tone quality on any musical instrument is a well-developed mental image of what the tone should sound like. This is perhaps most critical for the young trombone player, who hears a wide variety of trombone sonorities that vary in quality in rock/funk tunes, Muzak, jazz, and new wave recordings. Without a mental goal for which to strive, the student trombonist is severely handicapped.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 340

340 THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

The average school player does not practice enough to develop a good upper register on a large-bore instrument. Arthur Pryor used a small-bore trombone that he played with the utmost virtuosity. The students of the late Emory Remington, famed trombone teacher at the Eastman School of Music, are almost unanimous in their choice of a largebore, large-bell trombone. Legato playing has a direct bearing on beauty and tone. Tommy Dorsey taught the world that a trombone can sing. This singing quality may have made the use of the sackbut (the predecessor to the trombone) especially predominant in Renaissance church music with voices. A fine legato depends upon the player’s mastery of lip slurs, legato tonguing, evenness of sound, and rapid pitch change. Lip slurs are used for two kinds of musical situations: (1) a slow contrarymotion slur in which the interval ascends and the slide extends, or the interval descends and the slide moves in; and (2) a slur for two pitches played in the same position— for instance, B≤ down to fourth-line F.

Vibrato The baritone/euphonium uses vibrato more than does any other brass instrument, partly because it has many lyrical lines in wind literature. As with other instruments, baritone/euphonium vibrato should be subtle, not distracting, and enhancing, not dominating. The preferred method of vibrato is the lip/jaw vibrato. The student must first establish and be able to maintain a well-centered, focused sound, then use the embouchure to create vibrato by forming “wah-wahwah” without lowering the jaw as much as when these syllables are actually vocalized. The student should begin with slow, even pulses and gradually work to increase speed. In performance, different styles of music require vibrato of different speeds and width. Careful listening, imitation, and practice are necessary to perform with the proper style. The trombone may be the easiest instrument on which to produce vibrato and among the most difficult on which to control it. Vibrato has traditionally been achieved by gently rotating the right wrist similar to a string player playing with vibrato with the left hand/wrist. The trombone player’s right hand moves the slide slightly, raising and lowering the pitch. Unfortunately, many young players attempt to play with vibrato before developing the fine muscular control required to play tastefully. More recently, jaw vibrato has become increasingly popular and preferred by many conductors and professional players.

SLIDE TECHNIQUE FOR TROMBONE The New Harvard Dictionary of Music defines portamento as “a continuous movement from one pitch to another through all of the intervening pitches, without, however, sounding them discretely . . . glissando remains the prevalent term for this effect in musical scores. Some writers have preferred to restrict the meaning of glissando to the motion in which discrete pitches are heard, reserving portamento for continuous variation in pitch, but musical practice is not consistent in this respect.”4 When a trombone player starts on an open tone and extends the slide to seventh position, the result is a portamento, not a glissando. Legato tonguing is needed for all slurs for which the slide moves in order to avoid a smear or portamento effect. A soft “doo” or “dee” syllable is used for legato tonguing by “denting” or “disrupting” the air without stopping the airstream. This syllable is coordinated exactly with the action of the slide so that the sound is clean and the slide movement is not heard. If the slide is moved too slowly, the tonguing will not be able to cover the portamento effect. Usually the legato tongue is better than the lip slur for slurs in rapid tempo—the effect will be cleaner and clearer. The feeling of legato is one of a constant flow of air, as in playing a long tone. The embouchure changes are necessarily minimal and smooth. Pitch changes should come from adjustments in the lips and in the airstream, never from tension in the throat. The prevailing school of brass playing favors the use of vowel singing (“oo–ee”) to produce an ascending lip slur. All slurred passages on trombone should be treated as a legato tongue. The slide always moves at the same rapid speed whether the notes are close or far apart, the music fast or slow. A common bad habit for trombone players is moving the slide slowly. To be able to select the best method, the player must know all possible positions of every note, something not generally taught. The chart at the end of the chapter contains the most frequently used slide positions for the B≤ trombone as well as the most useful alternate positions; slide positions for the B≤ trombone with the F attachment are given below the regular positions. The trombone has harmonics that are often performed out of tune, and slide positions that are sharp. The trombone player is expected and encouraged to develop listening skills to hear these problems and correct them immediately. The altered slide positions for certain notes should become a habit.

WHAT TO PRACTICE Trombones, baritones, and euphoniums follow the practice routines suggested for all brass players. For the trombone, practice of technical passages that challenge slide technique is especially important because the slide presents problems not found on any other wind instrument. Daily drill on the following will develop slide technique for trombone:

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 341

THE TROMBONE AND BARITONE/EUPHONIUM

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7.

341

Place the slide in position and play the written tone. Move the slide to the next position quickly before starting the new tone. Play one- to two-octave scales slowly in tenuto style and listen critically, striving to play each pitch in tune with the preceding note. Gradually increase the speed over a period of time. Practice in front of a mirror to be certain that the slide does not move before a tone ends or after a new one begins. In fast tempos, practice playing without stopping the slide at each tone. Learn to tongue in coordination with the slide so as to “pick off” each tone as it goes by. This is especially helpful for developing the ear and ridding one of the habits of reaching for third and fourth positions. Practice slurring and tonguing all possible tones at one slide position, from the fundamental up to the highest partial possible before moving on to the next position. Practice legato passages without using the tongue. Strive to play with a smooth, efficient slide technique, making full use of alternate positions. Go back through the passage adding a light tongue stroke, such as “dah” or “lah” during slow passages. Rapid movement of the slide must be taught early, from the first lesson, for the habits of slow motion are hard to break.

There are at least three viewpoints as to proper slide technique. One states that the slide should move the shortest distance in fast passages. In the higher register, for example, nearly all notes can be played in adjusted first, second, and third positions, thus necessitating very little Sequence 1 6 6 7 6 6 6 6 slide movement and requiring only a flexible wrist (see Figure 24.12, Sequence 2 6 2 1 3 4 4 6 Sequence 1). A second viewpoint advocates a circular motion wherein Sequence 3 6 2 1 3 1 2 2  4 1 2 3 1 2 2 the slide continues to move in the same direction as long as possible with F (Sequence 2). This continuous movement in one direction is smoother, attachment avoiding the jerkiness that may come from changing slide direction. FIGURE 24.12 Four sequences of slide positions for a Greater evenness of tone quality is possible because the use of all seven single passage covering a thirteenth positions offers a wider variety of alternate positions. If the player plays in only a few positions, both high and low partials will be used, and these vary greatly in richness. The third viewpoint is a compromise, playing as many notes as possible in a phrase within the same overtone series (Sequence 3). Slide movement is of less concern; matching tone quality is the deciding factor. For example the opening music for Der Rosenkavalier would be as shown in Figure 24.12. Practicing portamento is also desirable. To play it properly, the student must use breath support and fill the horn with air. The widest portamento possible on a trombone is an augmented fourth—six half steps—because there are but seven slide positions. Shorter portamentos are possible when the notes permit a single slide motion or when they are in the same harmonic series. Arrangers and composers may write out all the notes in a portamento, or they may put down only the terminal notes with the marking gliss. Arrangers seem to be somewhat uncertain of the actual portamento possibilities of the trombone, so occasionally music contains notes impossible to play; the F attachment can be used to allow the use of a different overtone series.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF THE TROMBONE AND BARITONE/EUPHONIUM The care of the trombone is a problem of some dimension, whereas care of the baritone and euphonium is similar to that of the trumpet (Chapter 22). With the trombone, beginners, both young and old, are inclined to drop the slide. The slide is remarkably delicate, with a wall thickness as small as 0.006 inches, or about the equivalent of three human hairs. The clearance between the inner and outer slides is even less, being only the width of a single hair or of a single sheet of bond-writing paper. With this in mind, the following rules for care of the trombone will assume proper importance. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Keep the slide locked except when playing the trombone. Assemble the instrument with care, so that hitting the slide is avoided. The case should remain on the floor and not on the lap. Handle the case with care and always open it from the middle. Opening the case from one end puts a strain on the slide. The slide is in the lid and twisting the lid can damage the slide. Never assume the slide is locked. Pick up the trombone by the two side braces. Do not put objects in the case that might damage the trombone. Keep a rubber tip on the bumper knob to prevent the instrument from slipping during rest periods. Never leave the instrument balanced on a chair. Be sure there is plenty of playing room so that the slide does not hit objects when extended to the lowest positions. Never lean on the trombone as this puts unnecessary stress on the slide.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 342

342

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

The slide is usually lubricated with slide cream and water. There are a number of commercially prepared lubricants for trombone slides (e.g., Superslick, Trombotine, Slide-O-Mix) that have few tendencies to gym up if used sparingly. Beginning trombonists might use slide oil because application is easier. In cleaning the trombone slide this procedure should be followed: 1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7.

Fill the assembled slide with warm (not hot) water. Clean the slide with a flexible wire cleaning brush and flush again with water. Do not use a cleaning rod, because it can easily damage the fragile inner slide. Take the slide apart and place the inner slide/mouthpiece section in a safe place while working on the outer slide. The outer slide may be cleaned with the cleaning rod wrapped in unbleached muslin or cheesecloth, but when the rod is used, the flexible brush must always follow it to move out any dirt or lint that has become lodged in the curve of the slide. Because this is true, it is easier and nearly as thorough to simply use the flexible brush. Always hold the side of the slide that is being cleaned—never hold one side while cleaning the other. After cleaning, lubricate with oil or slide cream. Between cleanings, wipe the inner slides periodically and spray with water as needed. Avoid working the slides when they are dry. The cork barrel next to the slide brace accumulates dirt that can get into the area between the slides and foul the action. Clean the barrel with a pipe cleaner. Clean the tuning slide the same way that the slides are cleaned, using a flexible brush and warm water, not the rod. If the tuning slide becomes dirty and begins to stick, even the use of a cloth to help pull it out may dent it. When adjusting the tuning slide, use equal pressure in both directions from the middle of the two tuning braces.

When the trombone is taken outside for football games or parades, dirt is invariably blown on the slide. It should have a thorough cleaning before it is played again because dust and cinder particles on the slide will scratch it as it is moved. Often there are microscopic metal filings from the manufacturer that can scratch and damage the slide. Trombones with one or two rotary valves require some additional care—a drop of oil applied beneath the valve cap each week. The valve should be dismantled annually and thoroughly cleaned. Use a certified instrument repairperson if the student or teacher does not feel qualified to do so.

HEALTH ISSUES The trombone and baritone/euphonium are the heaviest instruments played today without any type of support. The weight of the trombone is born almost completely by the left hand, wrist, and arm. This can be troublesome for those who do not have the strength to bear this stress. Problems include hand and wrist stiffness, and pain in the wrist, arm, elbow, shoulder, upper back, and neck. Developing strength to hold the instrument at the proper angle is important to avoid injury and to perform with proper posture. The distance from the end of the leadpipe to the bottom of the euphonium is too short for the instrument to rest comfortably on the leg. Several devices have been developed to help players support the instrument, including pillows, books, and blankets. Some players even set the instrument on their crossed legs in order to bring it into proper position. These solutions may work while sitting, but not while standing, and in the end the player needs to develop the strength to bring the instrument to the body in proper position. Similar health problems may arise with the arms, upper back, and neck as with the trombone. Stands that support the instrument are available to help reduce the amount of weight born by the trombone and euphonium players. The Ergobone for trombone attaches to the bottom slide with a metal fastener near the first and second slide braces, and employs an adjustable rod that can reach the floor or connect to a pouch worn over the shoulder. Both the Ergobrass and Stewart Stand redistribute the weight of the euphonium. The Ergobrass uses a stand that connects to a steel plate fastened to the instrument. As with the Ergobone, a long pole is connected with the other end placed on the floor or in a pouch. The Stewart Stand uses a shorter, one-piece peg, which is positioned on the chair and fastened to the euphonium using two clamps. These devices can support the full weight of the instrument, helping to alleviate pain, stress, and fatigue. As with the trumpet and horn, embouchure issues can be problematic for trombone and euphonium players. Extreme pressure and prolonged use causes fatigue and damage. Development of a strong embouchure through lip slurs and long tones helps lessen any damage. Trombone and euphonium players utilize a tremendous amount of air and regularly fill the lungs to capacity. Overinflation of the lungs and extreme blowing pressure have been associated with alveolus rupture. Problems in and around the mouth include canker sores, cold sores, and dry or chapped lips.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 343

THE TROMBONE AND BARITONE/EUPHONIUM

Trombone Parts

343

Euphonium Parts

RESOURCES Websites Euphonium.net euphonium.net Euphonium Music Guide swerden.com/emg/index.cfm International Trombone Association trombone.net International Tuba Euphonium Association iteaonline.org Online Trombone Journal trombone.org Trombone Page of the World trombone-usa.com

Texts Arling, H.J. (1983). Trombone Chamber Music: An Annotated Bibliography, 2nd ed. Nashville, TN: Brass Press. Baker, D.N. (1974). Contemporary Techniques for the Trombone: A Revolutionary Approach to Dealing with the Problems of Music in the Twentieth Century, Vols 1–6. New York, NY: Charles Colin Music. Digital Download: https://qpress.ca/product/

contemporary-techniques-for-the-trombone-volumes-1–6baker-pdf-download Bate, P. (1978). The Trumpet and Trombone: An Outline of their History, Development, and Construction, 2nd ed. New York, NY: W.W. Norton. Bone, L.E., E. Paull, and R.W. Morris (eds.). (2007). Guide to the Euphonium Repertoire: The Euphonium Source Book. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Bowman, B. (1985). Practical Hints on Playing the Baritone (Euphonium). Melville, NY: Belwin-Mills. Fink, R.H. (1977). The Trombonist’s Handbook: A Complete Guide to Playing and Teaching the Trombone. Athens, OH: Accura Music. Griffiths, J.R. (1980). The Low Brass Guide. Hackensack, NJ: Jerona Music. Guion, D.M. (1988). Trombone: Its History and Music, 1697–1811. Newark, NJ: Gordon and Breach. Herbert, T. (2006). The Trombone. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Kleinhammer, E. (1963). The Art of Trombone Playing. Miami, FL: Summy-Birchard. Kleinhammer, E. and D. Yeo (2000). Mastering the Trombone, 2nd ed. Hayward, WI: EMKO.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 344

344

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

Knaub, D. (1978). Trombone Teaching Techniques. Athens, OH: Accura Music. Louder, E.L. and D.R. Corbin (1988). Euphonium Music Guide. Evanston, IL: The Instrumentalist. Phillips, H. and W. Winkle (1992). The Art of Tuba and Euphonium. Miami, FL: Summy-Birchard. Raph, A. (1992). The Double Valve Bass Trombone: A Method for Trombone with Single Valve in F, Double Valve in E, Double Valve in D and “Independent” 2nd Valve in G. New York, NY: Carl Fischer. Rose, W. (1980). Studio Class Manual for Tuba and Euphonium. Houston, TX: Lola. Werden, D. and D. Winter (1990). Euphonium Music Guide. New London, CT: Whaling Music. Wick, D. (1996). Trombone Technique, 2nd ed. reprinted with corrections from 1984 ed. London: Oxford University Press.

Journals/Associations International Trombone Association: trombone.net International Tuba Euphonium Association Journal: iteaonline.org

Trombone Studies

––– Sequences—26 Melodic Exercises (C. Fischer). Kopprasch. 60 Studies (2 vols.) (C. Fischer). La Fosse. Complete de Trombone a Coulisse (A. Leduc). Mantia. Trombone Virtuoso (C. Fischer). Miller. Clef Studies (C. Fischer). Mueller. Technical Studies (C. Fischer). Ostrander. Bass Trombone and F Attachment for Tenor Trombone (Ostrander). Rochut. Melodious Etudes (Books 2 and 3) (C. Fischer). Tyrrell. 40 Progressive Studies in the Tenor Clef (Boosey & Hawkes).

Baritone/Euphonium Studies Easy/Beginning (Elementary or Middle School) Arban. First and Second Year (C. Fischer). Archimede. Foundation to Baritone Playing (C. Fischer). Beeler. Walter Beeler Method (Book 1) (Warner Brothers). Cimera. Method for Baritone (Belwin). Getchell (ed. Hovey). First Book of Practical Studies (BelwinMills). Long. Elementary Method for Trombone or Baritone (Rubank). Uber. 70 Beginning and Early Studies (PP Music). Young. Elementary Method for Trombone or Baritone (C. Fischer).

Easy/Beginning (Elementary or Middle School) Beeler. Method for Trombone (2 vols.) (Remick). Cimera. 55 Phrasing Studies (Belwin-Mills). Cimera and Hovey. Method for Trombone (Belwin-Mills). Endresen. Supplementary Studies (Rubank). Fink. Studies in Legato (C. Fischer). Gower and Voxman. The Rubank Method Series (Rubank). Harvey. Method for Trombone and Baritone (Belwin-Mills). Long. Elementary Method for Trombone and Baritone (Rubank). Pares. Scale Etudes (Rubank). Williams. Method of Scales for Trombone and Bass Clef Baritone (Colin). Young. Elementary Method for Trombone or Baritone (C. Fischer).

Medium (Middle or High School) Arban and Mantia. Method for Trombone (Rubank). Blazhevich. Clef Studies for Trombone (Leeds). ––– Sequences—26 Melodic Studies (C. Fischer). Blume. 36 Studies for Trombone (3 vols.) (C. Fischer). Campbell. 30 Contemporary Etudes (Sam Fox). ––– 170 Studies (Belwin-Mills). Fink. Introducing the Alto Clef (Accura). ––– Introducing the Tenor Clef (Accura). Gregoriev. 78 Studies (International). Kopprasch. 60 Studies (Vol. 1) (C. Fischer). Ostrander. Bass Trombone and F Attachment for Tenor Trombone (Ostrander). Remington. Warm-Up Exercises (Rochester Music). Rochut. Melodious Etudes (Book 1) (C. Fischer). Schlossberg. Daily Drills and Technical Studies (Baron). Voxman. Selected Studies (Rubank).

Advanced (High School or College) Bach. Six Suites for Unaccompanied Violincello (G. Schirmer). Blazhevich. Clef Studies for Trombone (Leeds).

Medium (Middle or High School) Arban (ed. Randall Mantia). Complete Method (C. Fischer). Clark. Technical Studies (C. Fischer). Endreson. Supplementary Studies (Rubank). Fink. From Treble Clef to Bass Clef Baritone (Accura Music). ––– Studies in Legato (C. Fischer). Getchell. Second Book of Practical Studies (Belwin-Mills). Gower. Rubank Advanced Method (Book 1) (Rubank). Langely. Practical Tutor for Bb Euphonium (4-valve, bass clef) (Boosey & Hawkes). Pares. Pares Scales (Rubank). Vandercook. Vandercook Exercises (Rubank). Vobaron. 34 Etudes Melodiques (Costallat). Voxman. Selected Studies (Rubank). Weber. Tunes for Technique (Belwin-Mills).

Advanced (High School or College) Blume. 36 Studies (C. Fischer). Bordogni (ed. Rochut). Melodious Etudes (3 vols.) (C. Fischer). Charlier. 32 Etudes de Perfectionnement (Lemaine). Concone (ed. Shoemaker). Legato Studies (C. Fischer). Goethe (ed. Ostrander). 60 Studies (International). Harris. Advanced Daily Studies (Colin). Mueller. Technical Studies (Vol. 3) (Fischer). Schlossberg. Daily Studies and Technical Drills (Baron). Slama. 66 Etudes (C. Fischer). Uber. Warm-Up Procedure for Trombone (Baritone).

Instructional Videos Beginning Brass: Trombone, Baritone and Tuba (various artists, 1996). Long Beach, CA: Music Education Coop. Beginning Trombone (Michael Lasater, 1989). Atlantic City, NJ: Music Education Video.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 345

THE TROMBONE AND BARITONE/EUPHONIUM Belwin 21st Century Band Method: Baritone, Level 1 (Kenneth Amis, 1996). Miami, FL: Warner Brothers. Belwin 21st Century Band Method: Trombone, Level 1 (Scott A. Hartman, 1996). Miami, FL: Warner Brothers. Getting Started with the Trombone (Dave Matern, 1996). Palatine, IL: Sharper Video Productions. A Master Class: Bass Trombone (John Rojak, 1999). Boston: The Boston Conservatory. Steps to Excellence: A Video Clinic (Vol. 4) (Donald Knaub, 1984). Grand Rapids, MI: Yamaha Music Products. Steps to Excellence: Fundamentals of Euphonium Playing (Vol. 6) (Paul Doste, 1989). Grand Rapids, MI: Yamaha Music Products. The Trombone (Hal Harris, 1998). Canoga Park, CA: Backstage Productions. A Trombone Clinic (Donald Knaub, 1986). Grand Rapids, MI: Yamaha Music Corporation. Trombone Lesson No. 1. www.youtube.com/watch?v=z-Yj_ jLNKKg The Trombone: A Player’s Guide Ft. Meade, MD: U.S. Army Field Band. www.armyfieldband.com/pages/education/trombone. html Ultimate Beginner Series for Trombone (Vols. 1 and 2) (Tim Conner, 1998). Miami, FL: Warner Brothers.

345

Recommended Trombone Artists Joseph Alessi playing excerpts Ron Baron playing Hindemith Tommy Dorsey, Tricky Sam Nanton, and Jack Teagarden playing Swing Slide Hampton, Curtis Fuller, and Phil Wilson playing Hard Bop J.J. Johnson, Carl Fontana, and Kai Winding playing Bop Christian Lindberg playing Sandstrom and Zwilich John Swallow playing Berio and Milhaud Miff Mole playing Dixieland Kid Ory playing New Orleans Jazz Most influential trombonists 1980–2015: Bill Watrous, Delfeayo Marsalis, Steve Turre, Wycliffe Gordon

Recommended Euphonium Artists Brian Bowman playing Bach Jean-Pierre Chevalier playing Handel and Danzi Robert Childs playing Wilby and Clarke Adam Frey playing Bitsch and Cosma

NOTES 1. 2.

Schwartz, H.W. (1938). The Story of Musical Instruments. Elkhart, IN: C.G. Conn, 232. Bowman, B.L. (1983). Practical Hints on Playing the Baritone (Euphonium). Melville, NV: Belwin-Mills, 23.

3. 4.

McDunn, M.R. and C. Barnes (1965). Trombone Artistry. Kenosha, WI: G. Leblanc. Randel, D. and W. Apel (1986). The New Harvard Dictionary of Music. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 342, 648.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 346

346

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

Trombone Fingering Chart Pedal tones

Slide: 7 with F attachment

6

Slide: 7 2 with F attachment

6

4

5

1



Slide: 3 4 with F attachment

5

2(7) 2

False notes without F attachment

3

4

7

1(6) 1

2

3

1

7

4

2

6

1

5

5

4

7

6

5

7

7

4

6

5

6

5

1( 7)

2

3(7) 6

6

2(6) 5

4 3

4 5

1(5) 4( 7)

(used to tune F attachment)

2( 7)

5(1,7)

3(6)

4(6)



2( 4,6)



2(4,6) 1( 2,5,7)

4(7)

2(4,6) 1( 4,5,7)

1(3,5,7)

2(5)

1(4,7)

2(5,7)



1(3,5,7) 1( 4,6)



3(6)

1( 4,6)



2(4,6)

2( 4,5)

2(5,7)

2(5,7)



1(3,5) 1( 4,5,6)



1(4,6)

1( 4,6)

2(4,7)

2(5,7)

3(5,7) 2(5,6)



1(4, 3,7) 1( 2,5,7)

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 347

THE TROMBONE AND BARITONE/EUPHONIUM

Baritone and Euphonium Fingering Chart

0

*

1234

34 124 4

134

14

(Fundamental)

1234 23 24

4

123

1234 23

3 12

13

23

12 3

4

24 2

1

2

0 13

1

2

0

1234 123 24

1

2

0

123

4 23

14 12

24 1

4 2

14 0

3 24 12

13 4 1

14 2

24 0

4 1

23

12 3

1

2 13

0 23

12 3

1 13

2 23

0 12 3

1 13

2 23

0 12

2

0 13

23 123

12 3 13

1 23

134 13 4

124 2-3

13

23

12 3

2 12 13

124 3 12

0 1

2 12

0 1

13 4 0

347

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 348

CHAPTER 25

The Tuba

25

HISTORY The tuba is the lowest of the brass instruments; its name, although applied specifically to one instrument, is also a basic name for those bass-pitched brass instruments that are held in the vertical position rather than the horizontal. Technically, tuba refers to alto horns in E≤ or F, baritones, and euphoniums, as well as the bass tuba in E≤ or F, the contrabass tuba in C or BB≤. The tuba as we know it was invented in the early nineteenth century and has no direct ancestors with the same general characteristics and appearance. One might consider the serpent, invented by Guillaume about 1590, to be an early forebear of the tuba, though the similarities between the two are not great. The ophicleide, 1817, originally pitched in B or B≤, matching the trombone, was soon built in a variety of pitches. The helicon may also be considered an ancestor of the tuba. Known as the rain catcher because its bell opened upward, it was carried in an upright position, wrapped around the body. In Germany the helicon was called bombardon and was built in B, F, or E≤ with a wide, semiconical bore. According to Berlioz, the bombardon differed from the bass tuba in having only three valves and an inferior tone quality. There is no connection between the present-day tuba and the old Roman tuba, which was more like a cornet or bugle with a conical bore and a cup mouthpiece. The question of who actually invented the tuba is unsettled. Stolzel and Moritz have both been credited with inventing the instrument, and both actually received patents for the tuba. The date for its invention is often given as 1835, but it was first used before 1835 by Wilhelm Wieprecht in the Trompeteer Corps of the Prussian Dragoon Guards in Berlin. It was an instrument in F with five valves, held in an upright position. For a short period, a version of this instrument was produced that was held over the shoulder, so that infantry marching behind the band could hear it adequately. The piston valve was added, and the first BB≤ bass was brought out by Cerveny of Koniggratz in 1845. Around 1848, Adolphe Sax produced the E≤ and B≤ upright bass tubas similar in most respects to those of the modern orchestra, with a conical bore like the French horn and the oblong shape and cupped mouthpiece of the trumpet. The Wagner tubas were developed for use in the Ring cycle, in which the horn sound was needed at low ranges. They were made in at least two keys, B≤ and F. They had a narrow conical bore and were played with a funnel mouthpiece like the horn. They were mellower and more agile than the regular tuba, but their sound failed to blend with the rest of the brasses. A bass tuba similar in construction to the euphonium existed for a while but was gradually replaced by the inventions of Sax, the double instruments in E≤ and B≤. These two have remained in use to the present, although the EE≤ is rarely found outside the brass band today. The BB≤ tuba is used in the band, whereas the CC and F are preferred for orchestral work. The F instrument is found largely in German and French orchestras. The sousaphone is a form of helicon bass tuba that was developed by Conn in 1898. The earliest sousaphones had a bell that opened upward; the bell-front version appeared about 1908 when it was officially adopted by U.S. military bands. The sousaphone rapidly replaced the helicon and has remained popular to the present, particularly in high school marching bands. Tubas come in different sizes and are usually discussed in quarters: 3⁄4, 4⁄4, 5⁄4, and 6⁄4, but these are not at all proportional to one another. Rather, they are based on bell and bore dimensions with a full-size (4⁄4) tuba having a 0.750 bore and around a 17-inch bell. The 3⁄4 tuba is often better for the younger student and usually lacks the breadth of tone desired for more mature students and ensembles. Most high school students perform on the full-size tuba, while the 5⁄4 and 6⁄4 instruments are utilized by college and professional tubists performing heavy repertoire, such as the symphonies of Bruckner, Mahler, and Wagner. The best criterion for selecting a student to play the tuba is desire, followed closely by the second criterion, a good ear. A teacher can point out the importance of the bass line; the essential part that the bass plays in all wind, string, and symphonic literature; and the necessity of having bright students, with accurate listening skills, to establish that foundation in a wind or orchestra ensemble. The number of tubas needed in a well-balanced band or orchestra is a matter open to debate. With bands there is a tendency to have large numbers, perhaps because the tuba part is often less complex than other parts, or perhaps

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 349

THE TUBA

349

because an entire row of sousaphones looks good in the marching band and the school letters can be spelled out on the bell coverings. One viewpoint says that using too many tubas makes a thick, muddy sound—three is plenty for the average band and one is the norm for orchestras. More than five probably never should be used in a band, even with a 120-piece organization according to this viewpoint. The other viewpoint is that of E.F. Goldman, who at one time said that he believed 10 percent of the band should be composed of tubas. Former Navy Band Commander and tubist Donald Stauffer states that it is better to have too many than too few. The kind of sound that the director wants and the competency of the players will be the deciding factor.

SELECTING THE INSTRUMENT Picking the player to fit the size of the instrument is unwise. Those big students who are picked in grade school to play the tuba frequently turn out to be the football heroes in high school, and the band loses its tuba section for the football season. This lowest-pitched brass instrument has two basic forms, the concert tuba and the sousaphone, quite different from each other in appearance and tone quality. The tuba is available in both bell-front style and the more popular upright models. Because of its weight and size, it is impractical for marching bands. A harness is made so that the tuba can be used in marching, but the instrument is seldom used. The tone quality of the tuba is superior to that of the sousaphone and is consequently favored for concert playing. The sousaphone is discussed further in Chapter 12, which is devoted to the marching band. Good-quality instruments can come with either piston or rotary-action (horn-like) valves. Those with rotary valves do not use string, like the horn—instead, a mechanical linkage of brass or similar alloy is used. The rotary action permits the tuba to be tilted slightly to the left, making the right-hand position more comfortable, but it has the disadvantage of taking up more space as a result. Instruments with pistons come with the valves clustered either in a front (forward) or upright position. Those in front position are placed in an identical position to the valves on rotary-valve tubas, while the valves on upright piston instruments are not. Upright-positioned valves have a long “stroke,” which significantly hampers technique. Most piston and rotary tubas have the option of a fourth valve, and most professional tubas have a fifth valve. The fifth valve is tuned to either a “long whole step,” (a step and a third or “American tuning”) or a major third (the equivalent of the second and third valves pressed down, or “German tuning”). The majority of tubas are constructed with a fourth valve, which serves in the same way as the fourth valve on euphoniums. Any new purchase, whether with rotary or piston valves, should include the fourth valve. The concert tuba is made in two versions—with the upright bell and the less common bell-front style. The upright bell produces a brighter sound and cleaner articulation; the front model spreads the sound and is less brilliant. Characteristics of the concert stage may make the upright bell disappointing; for example, if the stage ceiling is too high, the sound from the upright tuba will go straight up and never reach the audience. Experimentation with moving the tuba section to various positions on stage may produce good results. The upright bell has the definite advantage of cleaner articulations due to diffusing the sound more than the more directional bell front. Tubas are available in a number of finishes: brass lacquer, brass epoxy lacquer, nickel-plated (lacquered), and silverplated. Brass epoxy lacquer is the newest type of finish and is most durable. As with many other brass instruments, silver plating gives the darkest sound, which is perhaps most suitable for tubas. Due to the size of the instrument, however, the cost of silver plating is much more than that of a lacquer finish. The tuba is made in several keys: F, E≤, CC, and BB≤. The BB≤ tuba, pitched one octave below the baritone, is the most common school instrument. Presently Amati, JZ, Mirafone, Weril, and Yamaha make a relatively inexpensive 3 ⁄4 BB≤ tuba for younger players. The F tuba has become the choice for solo and chamber music in the United States. For orchestral playing, with its greater demands on the low register and frequent transposition, the CC tuba is the preferred instrument. Compared to the BB≤, the CC instrument has a better tone quality, has greater flexibility and better intonation, and is generally more full and powerful. The ease and certainty of the CC’s high range give it an additional advantage in orchestral works. Wagner, for example, wrote for E above the staff and higher, in which case it is handy to have the CC or an F tuba. Guidelines to follow in selecting a new or used tuba are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The overall quality and breadth of tone of the instrument are important. Whether the partials or overtone series are reasonably in tune (open, second valve, first valve, and all combinations) should be checked. The instrument should be checked for any air leaks. On a used instrument the valves should be inspected for tightness of fit and excessive wear at the bottom edge of the valves. Valve compression can be checked by pulling the valve slides, then pressing the valve and listening for a “pop.”

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 350

350

6. 7.

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

The instrument should have similar response and tone quality in all registers. Some tubas have more resistance as more valves are added; this is a serious handicap for a good sound and consistent technique—such an instrument should be bypassed when selecting a tuba. Valuable options include extra braces; a strong, protective butt plate on the bottom curve; and removable valve clusters for easier (and cheaper) repairs.

ASSEMBLING THE TUBA Assembling the tuba should present no problem except for its weight and size. The instrument should be removed carefully from its case by grabbing it through the thumb ring with the right thumb and lifting, the left hand assisting in steadying the horn by the bell. The mouthpiece is inserted with a slight twisting motion. The tuba may also include attaching the bell or putting the instrument in its stand. On school instruments, even putting on the mouthpiece may not be necessary, for it may not have been removed for years. This lack of responsibility on the player’s part is unacceptable.

HOLDING THE TUBA The tuba may be placed on a chair stand, in which case the stand is adjusted to fit the player’s height. If a stand is not used, the instrument is held with the left hand in a position comfortable for the embouchure to meet the mouthpiece. The instrument may rest on the chair between the player’s legs or in the player’s lap (see Figures 25.1 and 25.2). Adjusting the angle of the mouthpiece is important. The player should not need to strain or put the head and/or neck in an unnatural position to get to the mouthpiece, but instead adjust the angle of the instrument so that it is comfortable while sitting in a relaxed, upright position or slightly forward. The player may have to sit on books straddling the tuba (which rests on the chair) or possibly straddle the tuba, which is itself resting on books or a cushion—in either event, it is important that the student experiment to determine the correct height for placement of the mouthpiece on the embouchure.With a large instrument, the player often has a tendency to move the face and lips to the instrument. The player who adjusts to the horn asks for trouble, as posture will be poor, unnecessary tension will develop, and there will be trouble getting adequate breath support to produce a good tone. Fatigue will easily set in. If the player holds the tuba, a shift of the instrument to the place where the mouthpiece meets the embouchure comfortably must be made.

FIGURE 25.1 Playing position for tuba (front view)

EMBOUCHURE The proper tuba embouchure (Figures 25.3 and 25.4) may be said to more closely resemble that of the horn than that of the trombone. The embouchure is slightly more puckered than for the trombone, and the teeth are farther apart than for any brass instrument. The placement of the mouthpiece is less critical for the tuba because less pressure is needed (but due to the larger mouthpiece and bore, more air is needed). Like other brasses, the corners of the mouth should be kept firm, not tight. The best way to find the starting point for the tuba embouchure is to have the student buzz without the mouthpiece to identify the aperture in the lips. Then guide the student to center the mouthpiece on that aperture. The embouchure for the tuba is similar to that for all brass: the reader should review Chapter 21 carefully. The placement of the mouthpiece is less critical for the tuba because less pressure is needed. Still, the player needs to experiment until a placement is found that gives

FIGURE 25.2 Playing position for tuba (side view)

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 351

THE TUBA

351

the best results. Because the mouthpiece and the bore are larger, the upper and lower teeth are farther apart and less mouthpiece pressure is used. The additional space between the teeth is necessary to create a larger mouth cavity for the escape of air. A wider portion of the lips vibrates, so more air must be projected to set the lips in motion. One problem is an embouchure that has more tension toward the center of the lips than toward the corners of the mouth. A smile-type embouchure or air leaking at the sides of the mouth may be an indication of this problem. The beginning tuba player often has difficulty finding enough air to support the tone. Less pressure is required than for the higher brasses, but more air must be moved through the instrument because its bore is considerably larger than that of the upper brasses. A smile-type embouchure makes the lips too thin and destroys the cushion necessary for good tone. The cushion does not imply loose, flabby lips. A dull or airy tone will result from loose lips that push too much into the mouthpiece cup. For tuba, on the lower pitches from about B≤ below the staff down, the bottom lip does thicken and actually extends into the mouthpiece. For pitches above this, the tension must be adequate at the corners of the mouth to keep the lips from bunching up inside the mouthpiece. Because the mouthpiece covers such a wide area of the lips/face, FIGURE 25.3 Tuba embouchure (side view) many students should drop the entire lower lip from the mouthpiece to inhale large amounts of air required for good tone on the tuba. Beginners should initially be encouraged to breathe whenever necessary. The embouchure can be strengthened and developed more quickly if one buzzes on the mouthpiece with regularity. When buzzing, cover about 1⁄3 to 1 ⁄2 of the mouthpiece with the pinky to create some resistance. The most common problems among young tubists are: (1) lips too tight, which especially affects flexibility; (2) too much puckering often accompanied by a bunchedup chin; (3) chewing each note; (4) teeth too close together; and (5) the tongue too high in the mouth. Often the initial buzzing on the mouthpiece is “high” in pitch; if so, the student needs to drop the jaw to open the teeth more. This additional space between the teeth is necessary to create a larger mouth cavity for the escape of air. Although no exact rule-of-thumb exists for tuba mouthpiece placement, most successful players place it so that more upper lip appears to be in the mouthpiece. The late Harvey Phillips, a tuba virtuoso/teacher, advocates that the upper lip remain anchored to the mouthpiece, retaining its shape regardless of range and changing only slightly when ascending into the upper range. He writes that the lower lip changes shape, tension, thickness—becoming “larger, thicker, and looser when approaching the low register and thinner and tauter when approaching the upper register”— keeping the flexibility of the lower FIGURE 25.4 Tuba embouchure (front view) lip’s movement, altering the size of the oral cavity that serves as a resonating 1 chamber. With transfers from other instruments, the problem is usually not one of too much relaxation but of too much lip tension. Former trumpet players have difficulty realizing that the teeth should be fairly far apart and that little embouchure pressure is required for producing the tone. To open the teeth sufficiently and produce a rounder tone use the syllable “doe,” first spoken, then blown, then blown through the mouthpiece, and finally blown into the horn. Use of “doe” drops the lower jaw to keep the teeth open and creates a large oral cavity, but at the same time it keeps plenty of cushion in the center of the lips. The embouchure may change for the lower pitches, the jaw dropping and moving slightly forward as the pitches descend. A rule sometimes given is that for B≤ below the staff the teeth are sufficiently open to allow the first knuckle of the index finger to be placed between the teeth. For lower notes the opening is even wider. The corners of the mouth remain firm and do not change, even though the center of the lips is relaxed. In the middle and upper range, the syllable formed by the lips and oral cavity is similar to “doo,” with “dee” for the extreme top of the register (teeth closer together and the middle of tongue closing the oral cavity). If the student closes the aperture in the embouchure by stretching the lips (smiling), the resulting sound is a distorted tone. The air must move faster through the instrument, not just through the mouthpiece. Because this increased amount of air is accompanied by greater air pressure, the lips have a tendency to “blow open.” Students must be patient while their embouchure strengthens. Practice on pedal tones will help loosen the embouchure after demanding practice in the

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 352

352

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

upper range and will keep the throat relaxed and open. Practice on pedal tones also helps to keep the corners of the mouth firm. When the embouchure is too loose and relaxed or there is insufficient breath support, the tone will be airy and fuzzy. If the embouchure is too tense and not open enough, the sound will be raspy, cracked, or explosive. Young tuba players may get in the habit of letting their jaw move when changing registers. This habit may start by placing emphasis on dropping the jaw for the low register. Excessive jaw movement results in poor articulations, unstable pitch, and notes resembling a “wah-wah” guitar.

INTONATION Good pitch is an essential aspect of good tuba playing. It is also a very difficult task. Problems include hearing intonation discrepancies in the low register; control of pitch with such a large embouchure opening; lack of control when so much air is needed; and, frequently, the problems associated with neglected school-owned instruments. Yet good intonation is required of the tuba player and tuba section for a well-tuned band or orchestra, as the perception involved in listening to the pitch of any chord is based on the lowest or fundamental pitch. Notes below the staff, those most difficult to hear, are also the most troublesome in intonation. Figure 25.5 contains pitches that are commonly flat or sharp for the BB≤ tuba. 4-valve

4th Harmonic

2nd Harmonic

5th Harmonic

3rd Harmonic

6th Harmonic

8th Harmonic

FIGURE 25.5 Tuba: intonation problems for the BB≤ tuba

Good intonation begins with an instrument that is in good condition. Due to the size of the tuba, it is usually not cleaned as often as it should be. The bass player must work toward achieving control so that a steady, clear pitch—that is reliable—can be played. Good intonation requires that the student play in tune with the ensemble and with oneself. Many high school tubists play slightly above the “center” of the pitch—the resonant pitch for each valve combination— and need to relax and open up the oral cavity. Several things can be done to improve intonation. First, the tuning slides may be used. Besides the general tuning slide, each valve has its own slide, as with the other valved brasses. Most tuba players seem to be unaware of their existence: they never touch them, don’t know how to use them, and depend entirely on the general tuning slide. Because of the length of the tubing and the lower range of the instrument, the slides must be pulled much farther than on the higher instruments to change the pitch. An inch or more is not uncommon, and the player should go ahead and pull the slide boldly—if too great a change is made, it can be adjusted, but the correct pitch may never be achieved if the slide is pulled little by little. The tubist must learn to alter the first-valve slide while playing to flatten those pitches that require adjustment and then push that slide back in for other notes that use the first valve. Second, the tuba, like all brass instruments, becomes sharper with increased temperatures, but does so at a pace nearly twice that of the higher instruments. Therefore, if the temperatures are likely to be markedly warm (during a concert, for instance), tuning the rest of the group slightly sharper than normal will allow for the tuba’s rise in pitch. The tuba cannot pull the slide sufficiently to match pitch if the tuning standard remains at A = 440 throughout the concert. Third, vowel formation or the position of the tongue and lower jaw can affect the pitch. As on other instruments, a more closed vowel causes the pitch to rise slightly; a more open vowel lowers the pitch. Consequently, the tuba player is always struggling to maintain a consistent tone quality and centered pitch across the different registers of the instrument. This consistency requires the practice of long tones in different registers, patience, and a copious number of hours working with an electronic tuner. If the sound is somewhat choked, it will also be sharp. This sharpness can be remedied by pulling a slide or two, but this procedure does not help the tone quality. The student should attempt to open up the vocal cavity and throat and drop the tongue; each alteration will require the student to breathe properly. The immediate change will be a flatter, more open sound. The flatness can easily be fixed by adjusting the tuning slide. A fourth help for intonation is an adjustable first-valve slide. A player can also use the slide for any notes that need adjustment. When the slide is released, it will immediately return to its normal position. The spring mechanism is easily controlled with a flick of a left finger. This trigger is an expensive item and unfortunately rare on school-owned tubas.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 353

THE TUBA

353

FINGERINGS The fundamental that sounds when no valves are depressed is easily produced owing to the wide bore of the tuba. The entire low range is very sonorous because of the limited number of harmonics. When the fourth valve is added, it is a substitute for 1 and 3 and it improves the normally sharp intonation of this valve combination and the 1,2,3 combination, which can be played instead with the fourth and second valves. The fourth valve also extends the range an additional fourth because it can be used in combination with the other valves to reach even lower pitches. The fingering chart at the end of this chapter contains the common fingerings as well as alternate fingerings for three- and four-valved tubas. A fifth valve is sometimes recommended to help solve intonation problems and to extend the lower register with solid intonation. Use of the fifth valve enables a tuba player to play all pitches in tune down to the fundamental. When alternate fingerings are used, the tone quality should remain unchanged. Music for the tuba is often badly written and may need to be altered to achieve musical results. Among the common changes a director may expect to make are these: (1) The part may need to be moved up or down an octave; (2) Rapid slurred passages are often impossible for the entire section to play clearly and precisely; the usual solution is to have only the first chair play the passage as written, with the others tonguing every other note or a combination of tonguing and slurring; (3) Orchestral transcriptions frequently contain passages originally written for the string bass that sometimes make unreasonable demands upon the tuba player. These should be simplified, not only for the player’s morale but also for the sake of musical clarity and accuracy. It may improve the player’s technique to wrestle with impossible passages, but when these are genuinely unsuited to the instrument’s capabilities it is better to rewrite them than to expect the student to master the impossible.

TONE AND EFFECTS The elements having most influence on the tuba tone are plenty of air, consistent support for that air, and a relaxed throat and jaw. The more open the throat, the better the tone, provided there is adequate breath support from the diaphragm. Most players try to tighten the lips too much. They defeat their own purpose by putting forth too much effort. The cheeks should not puff out, which is more of a tendency for tuba than for other brasses. If the lips and jaw are relaxed (corners of the mouth tight), there will be less danger of air in the cheeks. One problem unique to the tuba, due to the long way the air has to travel, is the time lag between initiating the tone and its sounding. The tuba, as foundation of the band or orchestra, must be precisely on the beat, so the tuba player must anticipate the beat slightly. The lag, which can sometimes occur unnoticed by the tubist, prohibits the director from obtaining a precise, crisp, synchronized sound from the group. This problem is further aggravated if the student has difficulty with instrument response—the bane of many tuba players. A proper warm-up is essential for control and for a responsive embouchure. A fuzzy tone on tuba results from too much relaxation of the embouchure or diaphragm. The center of the lips should be loose and free, the jaw relaxed, but the corners of the mouth must remain firm and the abdominal wall offering firm support. A raspy or cracked tone may be due to a tongue that is arched too high in the middle or to insufficient breath support. It may also be due to jaws that are clamped shut restricting the airflow. A more open throat and jaw helps eliminate rasping and cracking. On the other hand, a cracked or blasting sound may be due to the player’s taking a breath for each note. Although beginning players should breathe when they need to, they should immediately begin striving to play longer phrases, until breathing with the phrase is habitual. If the problem is difficulty with sounding the very low notes, the solution is more air support and a more open jaw and throat. Most tuba players at all stages of development need to practice in the lowest register of the instrument. Long tones with crescendos and decrescendos while attempting to produce a “deep, dark” sound will help. Playing in the low register including pedal tones helps the student’s breathing and helps to establish good playing habits, such as opening the throat and dropping the jaw.

Mouthpieces Although the tuba mouthpiece is the most expensive mouthpiece of any wind instrument, parents must realize that these mouthpieces are less expensive than the instruments purchased by the parents of other wind instrumentalists. Students should be required to purchase their own mouthpieces because they do not have to purchase their own tubas, if for no other reason than to promote pride of ownership. Presently beginners use a Bach 24AW, Yamaha 65, Denis Wick 4L or 5L, advancing to larger-diameter mouthpieces with deeper cups such as the Bach 18 or 12, Yamaha 67C4, Schilke 11, or Conn Helleberg. The effect of a quality mouthpiece on the tonal quality and richness of a student’s sound cannot be overstated. A well-crafted, well-chosen mouthpiece will result in more efficient playing, more inherent resonance in the tone quality, and more pronounced overtones in the basic sound, which will improve the intonation of the individual, the section, and the ensemble. Increased projection and overall volume are other benefits.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 354

354

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

Vibrato Vibrato is seldom used by tuba players in ensembles as the tuba establishes the pitch for the entire group whether it is orchestra, band, or brass quintet. Most fine tuba soloists use jaw vibrato for solo literature.

Mutes Mutes are little used in tuba literature, though they are not completely unknown. In certain selections, such as Persichetti’s Symphony for Band and much orchestra literature, mutes are required for tuba. These mutes are made in shapes to fit either an upright-bell model or bell-front tuba. As with other brasses, tuba mutes tend to sharpen the overall pitch.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF THE TUBA All too often, tubas are purchased by the school without cases. This is merely asking for trouble. A hard, high-quality tuba case will increase the usability of any brass instrument by years. The tuba especially is prone to nicks, dents, scratches, and so forth due to its size. Schools that have purchased cases often find the time required to assemble the rather bulky instrument detracts from rehearsal time, so the cases are not used on a daily basis. The tuba and sousaphone are normally relatively maintenance-free instruments. The most important and often neglected aspect is cleaning the inside of the instruments. They should be taken apart like the other brasses and soaked in a bathtub of warm water, then flushed with great amounts of water to remove loosened particles of debris. This cleaning involves removing the slides, the bell section if possible, and piston valves if they are used on these instruments. A flexible brush (or “snake brush”) should be used to clean at least the leadpipe and tuning slide. While the horn and slides are soaking, the valves should carefully be wiped clean with a lint-free cloth and the valve ports inspected for dirt or grime; these can be cleaned with a cotton swab or pipe cleaner. The teacher should either do this task or make it very clear to the student that 18 feet of brass tubing filled with water is manageable only with care. The instrument should be dried with a soft cloth, the slides replaced after lubrication with petroleum jelly or slide grease, and the valves oiled well and replaced. Most piston-valve tubas have springs at the bottom of the valve casing. These should be inspected periodically and rotated between valves. Rotation works well with four-valve tubas—the first- and second-valve springs are exchanged with the third- and fourth-valve springs, thereby postponing the replacement of all four springs. Brass rotors on the tuba can be left in the instrument while soaking. Once a year, however, they should be removed and cleaned. All moving parts will require lubrication; valves need oiling on a daily basis. Additional items of importance for the tuba and sousaphone are the following: The mouthpiece bits for the sousaphone as well the mouthpiece should be cleaned weekly. The bits should not be boiled if they are lacquered because boiling will remove the lacquer finish. Warm water and a brush are sufficient. The mouthpiece should be removed when the tuba is not being played and stored in a mouthpiece pouch (vinyl or leather) to protect the rim and shank from nicks and scratches. Silver polish should be used on silver-plated instruments and soap and water on fiberglass sousaphones.

HEALTH ISSUES Though tubists generally report fewer health issues than other brass players, they are still susceptible to many of the same problems, particularly those associated with the size of the instrument and use of the embouchure. Proper support of the instrument, with use of a strap or stand can help the student focus more deliberately on performance and less on gripping the instrument. Requisite lip slurs and long tones will help the player develop embouchure strength and endurance, which may help to prevent fatigue from overstraining. As do the trombone and euphonium, the tuba requires a large amount of air to move through the instrument at a fast pace. This can cause the player to overinflate the lungs and use extreme blowing pressure, which leads to rupture of the alveolus. Of course, canker sores, cold sores, and chapped lips should be prevented.

RESOURCES Websites

Texts

Tuba News www.tubanews.com Tuba/Euphonium Site www.dwerden.com TubeNet (bulletin board) http://forums.chisham.com

Bell, W. and W. Morris (1967). Encyclopedia of Literature for the Tuba. New York: Charles Colin Music. Bevan, C. (2000). The Tuba Family, 2nd ed., reprinted and revised from 1978. Winchester, UK: Piccolo. Bird, G. (1994). Program Notes for the Solo Tuba. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 355

THE TUBA Little, D. with J.D. Ployhar (1984). Practical Hints on Playing the Tuba. Miami, FL: Warner Brothers. Morris, R.W. and D. Perantoni (2006). Guide to the Tuba Repertoire: The New Tuba Source Book. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Phillips, H. and W. Winkle (1992). The Art of Tuba and Euphonium. Miami, FL: Summy-Birchard. Steward, M.D. (1987). Arnold Jacobs: The Legacy of a Master: The Personal and Pedagogical Recollections of Thirty-One of His Colleagues, Students, and Friends. Northfield, IL: The Instrumentalist.

Journal/Association ITEA Quarterly journal of the International Tuba and Euphonium Association: www.iteaonline.org

Tuba Studies Easy/Beginning (Elementary or Middle School) Arban (ed. Prescott). First and Second Year (C. Fischer). Beeler. Method for Tuba (2 vols.) (Warner Brothers). Bell. Foundation to Tuba Playing (C. Fischer). Endresen. BBb Tuba Method (Cole). Getchell (ed. Hovey). First Book of Practical Studies (Belwin-Mills). Hovey. Elementary Method (3 vols.) (Rubank). Kuhn. Method for Tuba (Belwin-Mills).

Medium (Middle or High School) Arban. Arban-Bell Method (Colin). Bell. Tuba Warm-Up (Colin). Blazhevich. 70 Studies for BBb Tuba (Vol. 1) (King). Bobo. Mastering the Tuba (3 vols.) (Bim). Bordogni. 43 Bel Canto Studies (King). Concone. Legato Studies (C. Fischer). Endresen. Supplementary Etudes (Rubank). Fink. Studies in Legato (C. Fischer). Geib. Geib Method for Tuba (C. Fischer). Hedfa. Etudes (Boosey & Hawkes). Hilgers. Daily Exercise (Reift). Jacobs. Warm-up Studies (Encore). Pease. Bass Method (Book 1) (Pro Act). Rochut. Melodious Etudes (C. Fischer). Slama. 66 Etudes (International).

Advanced (High School or College) Arban (eds. W. Jacobs and J. Young). Arban Complete Method for Tuba (Encore Music). Bach. Bach for Tuba (Book 2) (Western International). Bernard. 40 Etudes pour Tuba (A. Leduc). Cimera. 73 Advanced Tuba Studies (Belwin-Mills). Delguidice. Dix Petits Textes (Eschig). Gallay. 30 Studies (King). Grigoriev. 78 Studies for Tuba (King). Jacobs. Jacobs’ Low Legato Etudes (Vols. 1–3) (Encore Music). Knaub. Progressive Studies for Tuba (Belwin). Kopprasch. 60 Selected Studies (King). Kuehn. 28 Advanced Studies (King). ––– 60 Musical Studies (Books 1 and 2) (Southern Music). Lachman. 25 Etudes (Hofmeister). Ostrander. Shifting Meter Studies (King). Sear. Etudes for Tuba (Cor). Snedecor. Low Etudes for Tuba (PAS Music). Tyrrell. Advanced Studies for BBb Bass (Boosey & Hawkes). Vandercook. Studies for Eb or BBb Bass (Rubank). Vaslev. 24 Melodious Etudes (King).

Instructional Videos Beginning Brass: Trombone, Baritone, and Tuba (various artists). Long Beach, CA: Music Education Coop. Belwin 21st Century Band Method: Tuba, Level 1 (Kenneth Amis, 1996). Miami, FL: Warner Brothers. Tuba Lessons with Roger Bobo. www.youtube.com/watch?v= oxTDkUVNSHg Tuba and Euphonium: The Individual and the Ensemble (Jay Norris and Scott Cameron, tubas, 1998). Ft. Meade, MD: U.S. Army Field Band. www.armyfieldband.com/pages/ education/tuba.html

Recommended Tuba Artists Oystein Baadsvik performing Fnugg and Vivaldi’s Winter Concerto Roger Bobo performing Galliard, Barat, John Stevens, and Thomas Stevens Arnold Jacobs performing Strauss, Monti, and Clarke Jeffrey Jarvis performing Ford, Taggart, and Penn Sam Pilafian performing Anderson and Dinicu Gene Pokorny performing “Orchestral Excerpts for Tuba” Joe Tarto, Don Butterfield, and Billy Barber playing Jazz

NOTE 1.

355

Phillips, H. and W. Winkle (1992). The Art of Tuba and Euphonium. Miami, FL: Summy-Birchard.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 356

CHAPTER 26

Percussion Instruments

26

HISTORY Percussion instruments are classified into four families: idiophones, membranophones, aerophones, and chordophones. Idiophones, such as cymbals, claves, and triangles are instruments that produce sound by vibrating the entire body. Tuned idiophones include mallet percussion, such as the marimba, where the entire bar vibrates. Membranophones, primarily drums, produce a sound when a membrane is struck. The timpani along with some Latin and marching instruments are examples of tuned membranophones. Aerophones require wind to produce sound (e.g., train whistles, slide whistles, sirens, and bullroarers) and are the percussionists’ toys. Chordophones produce their sound by striking a string with a hammer or similar device (e.g., piano and dulcimer). Noted percussion educator Gary Cook adds a category of electrophones that includes electronic percussion such as the drum machine.1 Together, percussion consists of the most ancient and primitive instruments known, as well as the most modern. Humans learned to rub and strike objects together before they learned to blow into a hollow reed or pluck a taut string. Idiophones (castanets, sticks, clappers, and similar instruments) are as a class more venerable than the drum. Stick clappers date back at least to 3000 BCE, rattles to 2500 BCE, and cymbals to 1100 BCE. The possible origin of the more sophisticated percussion instruments is a stimulating topic. Often the original instrument barely resembles its present-day descendant. For example, the chimes grew out of a stone slab that was suspended and struck; the xylophone was once nothing more than a wooden slab or two placed across the legs and struck. Some instruments reached a high degree of beauty and refinement early in their history; the Peking bell in China is over 4,000 years old. Drums as a class are somewhat more sophisticated than the idiophones, because making a head for a drum out of a stretched skin demands some previous thought and planning rather than simple accidental discovery. Opinion is that drums probably were invented rather than found by chance; they were used very early as signals and may have been created for that purpose. Most of the percussion entered the orchestra as late as the Classical or Romantic period. Kettledrums, or timpani, were the earliest to be utilized. They date from 600 CE in Persia and were introduced into Europe by the Crusaders about 1300, and were mounted on horses by 1457. They entered the orchestra about 1660 in connection with operatic effects. For many years, the timpani were tuned to the lowest trumpet part using common intervals of fourths and fifths, but Beethoven broke this tradition with the Eighth Symphony, in which he tuned them in unison with the bassoon. The timpani were tuned in octaves. Although the tambourine is spoken of as early as Genesis and Exodus in the Bible, called the tabret or timbrel, it was not until Weber used it that this instrument became part of the orchestra. Gluck had used the triangle as early as 1779; Haydn in The Seasons introduced a number of programmatic sounds including thunder, the whistle of a quail, gunshot, and the chirp of a cricket. Wagner and Tchaikovsky used the glockenspiel, Tchaikovsky made the celeste famous, and Mozart had a broom beating the edge of a drum. In almost every case, these were introduced for a programmatic effect but once used this way they began to be utilized for musical effects and gradually became legitimate members of the percussion section. Modern composers have made great use of them and have utilized some new ones, such as brake drums and kitchen chairs, instruments that would have astonished even Papa Haydn. In spite of their ancient origin, the percussion instruments have not been well respected until recently. They have had no literature of their own, no good texts or method books, and no systematic approach for learning the necessary techniques. Gunther Schuller, Steve Reich, Merc Britton, Michael Colgrass, and William Kraft continue to demonstrate the musical worth of the percussion instruments by writing solos and ensembles that go beyond mere noisemaking and have artistic merit. Teachers should provide real learning situations and also motivation for the percussionist. Percussion ensemble music offers challenging parts and demands real musical knowledge from the players. Percussionists benefit as much from small ensemble experience as the wind and string players do from their specialized ensembles. Due to faulty teaching methods, many percussionists do not develop strong musical skills; they are not asked to read melodic lines or to sing. They should be able to count accurately, but many cannot. An added deterrent to their musical growth is the tendency toward specialization. Often, snare drummers play only the snare drum, timpanists play only timpani, and so forth. This makes the student desultory and unoccupied. If students were expected to play all the

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 357

PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

357

percussion instruments, they would have occasional melodic parts (in addition to the rhythmic), they could double on instruments in the same composition, and might be encouraged to practice to improve competence in using sticks, mallets, and especially listening. Teachers should start students on keyboard instruments, and involve them in learning activities that include singing, ear training, and theory. An increasing number of ensemble programs schedule the percussion in a separate class. This does provide the opportunity to teach musicianship to the percussionists, but the obvious disadvantage is missing the percussion parts during the daily rehearsals—a loss of esprit de corps, and a possible second-class mentality. In the typical situation, the teacher must make every attempt to include every student in the musical learning process, including note reading and discussions about rhythm, tone quality, and musical interpretation. The small ensemble is important to percussionists and these ensembles should participate in public performances, contests, and festivals. A percussion ensemble (including ethnic-based ensembles, such as steel drums and an African drumming ensemble) can be the pride of the school.

SELECTING THE INSTRUMENT Only since 1950 have percussion instruments gained the serious attention of musicians. Beginning with Paul Price and his students and extending through the twentieth century, composers recognized the potential of percussion and began to write better parts for school orchestras and bands as well as ensemble and solo literature. Contemporary composers use varied percussion instruments for color and musical effects. Newer literature for middle and high school wind groups often incorporates 5–8 independent percussion parts. The days of assigning a student with a bad ear to “beat the drums” are over. Modern-day percussionists (not drummers) must be as competent musically as any member of the ensemble and be able to read both treble and bass clef, as well as to listen for balance, blend, and musical understanding. Piano instruction is of value to all instrumentalists, but it may benefit percussionists the most. Beginning percussionists should purchase or rent the full “beginner percussion kit” that includes bells, a snare drum (or practice pad), stands for both the drum and bells, mallets, and sticks—all in one case. Recruiting percussionists into a sixth-grade beginning band and allowing them to invest in only a drum pad and sticks while encouraging other students to invest in expensive instruments is recycling the decades-old problem of percussionist neglect—commitment, musicianship, and responsibility.

THE PERCUSSION SECTION Percussion instruments can be expensive, and most school budgets have limited funds. With care and regular maintenance percussion instruments can last many years, allowing the teacher to purchase additional equipment over time. To extend instrument life, all students must be convinced that marimba and timpani covers are just as important as an oboe case and are to be used, that timpani are not to be used as coffee tables, and that only percussionists should use the percussion instruments. Students must be expected to provide and care for their own sticks and mallets, with mallets shared by the section (e.g., tam-tam and large bass drum beaters) purchased by the school. A heavy-duty, quality stand for all mounted percussion is a necessity. These should be adjustable to each player’s height and should have deep protective guide arms to hold the instruments in place. Cases should be purchased for all small drums and assorted equipment. Large storage areas are needed in which to secure the equipment. The school system should, as with all instruments, invest only in professional-quality instruments. Over a period of time, or as a part of equipping a new building, the high school band and orchestra percussion section should include: 1. Four snare drums, consisting of one of each of the following: • • • • •

31⁄2 × 13 (or 14)-inch piccolo; 5 × 14-inch; 61⁄2 × 14-inch; marching band snare with the pitch lowered; gut or cable snares to use as a field drum.

2. Bass drum (18 × 36 inch) with a suspended stand that can be tilted; skin heads on both sides require care and should never be used in the marching band pit due to frequent changes in humidity and temperature. Renaissance® heads are less trouble, less expensive, and sound the same to the common ear. 3. Two pair of medium crash cymbals (18-inch medium heavy and 20- or 22-inch medium heavy) with leather straps (lighter-weight crash and suspended cymbals with a higher sound are more appropriate for marching band). 4. Two suspended cymbals (16 and 18 inch). 5. One 21⁄2-octave set of bells (with steel bars).

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 358

358

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

One 31⁄2-octave xylophone (rosewood or kelon). One 41⁄2- or 5-octave marimba (rosewood or kelon). One 3-octave vibraphone with variable speed motor. One set of chimes (with l1⁄2-inch tubes). Six tom-toms (6, 8, 10, 12, 14, and 16 inch). Four timpani: 23, 26, 29, and 32 inch (the basic requirement is a pair of 26- and 29-inch timpani. When additional drums are used, they are the 32 inch and then the 23 inch). 12. Tam-tam (30 inch) with stand. 13. Accessory percussion: the collection should include two triangles (6-inch and 8 or 9-inch with a variety of beaters) and clips, tambourines, bongos, two sizes of conga drums, timbales, ratchet, at least two sizes of cowbells, woodblocks of various sizes, claves, maracas, guiro, sleigh bells, agogo bells, castanets, cabasa, crotales, bell trees, wind chimes, finger cymbals, sirens, slide whistles, bird calls, whip cracks, shaker, temple blocks, vibraslap, and anvil. 14. A drum set including a 4 × 14 or 5 × 14 snare; an 18 × 22 bass drum; 10-, 12-, and/or 14-inch mounted toms; a 16 × 16 floor tom, 13- to 14-inch hi-hat; 20- to 22-inch (medium) ride cymbal; 18-inch (medium-thin) crash/ride cymbal; throne; pedal; and other necessary hardware. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

The middle school percussion section requires about one-half of the instruments of the complete high school section including two timpani (at least a 26-inch and a 29-inch pair), a 3-octave xylophone, a 3- or 31⁄2-octave marimba with synthetic bars, and 21⁄2-octave set of concert bells. Elementary schools need a 5 × 14 inch snare, 14 × 28 inch bass drum with folding metal stand, one pair of 16-inch crash cymbals either medium or lightweight, and one 15- or 16-inch suspended cymbal, a 31⁄2-octave xylophone, and a 21⁄2-octave set of aluminum or steel concert bells.

SNARE DRUM Purchase A good-quality drum will have these characteristics: 10 tension lugs; a snare release; and gut, wire, nylon, or a mix of cable and wire snares. The shells may be made of a synthetic material, wood, or metal, with metal producing the most brilliant sound and wood the warmest. The snare release is essential to prevent the drum from “buzzing” due to sympathetic vibrations when other winds or strings are played and to enable the snare to be used as a tom-tom. Gut snares are generally more articulate than wire snares, making them important for marching snare drums, but wire snares are fine for concert work. Student-line snare drums have wire snares. The size of the snare is determined by the use for which it is intended, the texture of the music, style, and the number of accompanying drums in the passage (although only one concert snare plays at a time). Figure 26.1, for example, contains four of the many popular snare drums. The 12 × 14 wooden snare would have the warmest sound with good control over a variety of dynamics, whereas the 12 × 15 chrome drum would have a higher loud end of the dynamic range but a brighter sound overall. The brass 61⁄2 × 14 enhances articulations but sounds very bright, whereas the 5 × 14 drum enhances articulations even more and sounds a bit darker. The two latter drums allow an extended soft end of the dynamic range continuum FIGURE 26.1 Four concert snare drums (left to right: wooden and are more likely to blend into a band or orchestra than the 12 × 14; chrome 12 × 15; brass 61⁄2 × 14; and aluminum acrolite 12-inch deep drums. 5 × 14)

Drumheads Snare drumheads are available in either plastic or calfskin (with Kevlar used by competitive marching bands). Although professionals often prefer a calfskin head, plastic heads are fine. They require less maintenance, are unaffected by weather, are cheaper, and sound and feel like skin heads. The snare head (bottom) needs to be as thin as possible, the batter head (top) of medium thickness. The batter head must be thicker in order to wear well. Plastic heads are available with a coating to enable effective brush usage. Thinness is important for the snare head because its role is to respond to the standing air set in motion by a stroke on the batter head. The batter head has an outer ring or flesh hoop made of metal. The snare head is held onto the shell by a metal counterhoop through which the tension rods are placed and evenly tightened. On bass drums the counterhoop is wooden. Percussionists must learn how to tighten the drumhead without having the head (especially calfskin heads) pull out of the flesh hoop.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 359

PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

359

The internal snare drum muffler is used to adjust the ringing in concert playing. It should be adjusted to barely touch the batter head. The adjustment is made with the snares off in order to hear the ring.

Sticks The stick appears to be the simplest piece of equipment used for making music, but it comes in a variety of sizes, shapes, weights, and materials. The parts of the stick are tip, neck, shoulder, shaft, and butt, and varying the size, especially of the tip and neck, affects the sound (see Figure 26.2). Each snare drum player should use the same type and size of stick when playing unison parts; a unison should not occur in orchestra or band but does occur with marching bands. Multiple snare players in concert literature are required only when special effects are desired. Generally, the more useful stick is one with a short taper which places the balance point farther forward with more of the stick weight in the tip end. A long taper facilitates the playing of the concert buzz roll up to about mezzo forte, but does not have the weight at the tip to achieve a good fortissimo. According to Cook, the size of the tip is among the most important elements of the stick’s effect on the drum. A smaller tip results in clearer articulations and a softer sound; a larger tip helps in playing loud passages, but is more difficult to play cleanly. The percussionist either compromises the musical effect or has numerous sticks at his or her disposal. Sticks were once classified with a letter and a number, the larger number usually indicating a larger stick. These numbers are no longer universal, each company having its own designation for length, taper, head size, material, FIGURE 26.2 Drumstick and weight. Too light a snare drumstick needs to be avoided even though students seem to prefer them. A medium-heavy stick is easier to control and generally has a wider range of usefulness. The sticks must be balanced, made of straight-grained hickory with each stick pitched identically and not warped (roll them on a table to ensure they are straight). Sticks with the higher pitch are preferred (tap them on a table and listen to the pitch).

Brushes There are two types of brushes: wooden handled, and the more traditional tube type that can be extended to the desired length. The material used for the bristles is usually plastic, nylon, or wire. Two faults often occur with the tube type: (1) The brush is used fully extended, making too large a fan and producing a spread, uncontrolled sound. The brush should extend far enough to leave one to one-half inch of the handle showing at the back end of the tube and should remain in that position; and (2) The player makes a circular pattern that is too large on the head.

SNARE PERFORMANCE Position for Holding Sticks There are two types of grips: the traditional and the matched grip, with matched grip generally preferred. The traditional grip (see Figure 26.3) resulted from the angle of the drum when played by military drummers. Timpanist and keyboard mallet players have always used matched grip. Snare drum stands allow one to position the snare drum at an angle to facilitate the traditional grip. One advantage of the matched grip (see Figure 26.4) is that the same wrist muscles are used for the vertical motion (lift and play) for each major percussion instrument. With traditional grip, different muscles are used requiring additional practice to perform accurate rhythms and obtain the desired musical effects with a different grip in each hand. When playing the snare or any percussion instrument, the student should avoid bodily tension. Tension can begin with

FIGURE 26.3 Snare drum: traditional grip

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 360

360

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

an incorrect grip or stance. The essential element in holding the sticks is to locate their balance point, that spot which when used as a fulcrum will enable the sticks to rebound freely several times. If the stick stays on the head or rebounds just once or twice, it is held too far back and too much weight is in front of the fulcrum. If the stick strikes the head only once and then remains in the air, it is held too far forward with too much weight behind the fulcrum. Most percussionists hold the stick slightly back of the balance point. Although it appears that the stick is held between the thumb and first finger, these fingers merely control placement; the stick actually rests in the curve of the second finger. There should be as little tension in the thumb and first finger as possible. To avoid gripping the stick with the thumb and first finger, the student must spend some time practicing balancing the stick without them. When that task is mastered, two controlling fingers can be added and the FIGURE 26.4 Snare drum: matched grip percussionist can learn to strike the head in a specific spot. The student will gradually be able to increase finger grip without tension. When fingers are used for control too soon, tension may develop that hinders facile and smooth technique. The left-hand stick is held differently from the right when the drumhead is played at an angle. The conventional grip for an angled drum is: the left-hand stick is placed between the thumb and first finger with the balance or fulcrum point resting on the crotch formed by these two fingers. The palm is approximately at a right angle to the floor, or turned up slightly. For tension-free playing, the left hand should initially control the stick as it rests in the crotch of the thumb and first finger without other fingers to hold, guide, or manipulate. The stick settles just below the cuticle of the ring finger, between the first knuckle and the end of the fingernail. The first and second fingers are curved above, but are not gripping it. The player may later wish to exert some control from the fingers, and in this case the index finger will curl around the stick somewhat, but will remain as relaxed as possible. When the drum is positioned horizontally, the right hand must be adjusted to a lighter use of the stick. The hand moves less and consequently needs less speed than with the angled drum.

The Matched Grip The drumstick should balance on the middle finger as the balance point acts as a fulcrum. Slight adjustments can be made later. Avoiding any tension, grasp the stick at the fulcrum between the thumb and first joint of the index finger. Stay relaxed as dropped sticks are a better situation than tensely gripped sticks. The remaining fingers loosely fold around the stick for possible support and to reduce tension in the grip. This is done with the palm up, the thumbnail pointing down the shaft. The stick is held naturally about half the distance between the base of the little finger and the start of the wrist— across the midpoint of the palm. In playing position, the hand actually resembles an angled “knock-on-the-door” hand position. The proper position places the wrist in its best position for vertical motions. Even though the thumb and index finger are at the balance point, there should be little tightness—definitely no squeezing. The stroke is with the hand and the wrist. There should be no twisting or horizontal rotation of the wrist or horizontal movement of the hands. A critical element in playing most percussion instruments is the height of the instrument in relationship to the body. For matched grip, the snare drum is placed 8 to 10 inches from the body, about waist high and level or tilted slightly toward the player. A stand adjusted too low or too high creates tension throughout the performer’s body. The proper height places the players’ forearms nearly parallel with the floor. With the stick head resting on the instrument, the elbows are at the player’s side or slightly forward. The position should feel natural.

The Traditional Grip Use the right thumb and index finger to “dangle” a stick, in order to determine its balance point. The shaft is slid butt end first over the web between the thumb and first finger of the left hand with the right first finger supporting the balance point an inch or two in front of the palm. The ring finger is brought under the stick to replace the supporting right finger with the little finger beneath the ring finger. Then the thumb closes over the top, touching the first finger between the two joints, and the index finger wraps comfortably over the stick beside the index finger. Then the palm is rotated upward. One must be careful not to play with the palm “up,” but actually with the palm facing the player. Control is achieved by the thumb and the index finger with the stick resting on the knuckle of the ring finger. The stick pivots between the thumb and base of the index finger requiring a grip from the side.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 361

PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

361

The Stroke “Principal” strokes begin with the stick about three inches above the batter head, then raised to about a foot above the batter head with the wrist, and are useful for developing wrist muscles and exaggerated motion to internalize the pulse. The fulcrum of each stick can be marked with a pen. The skillful drummer will equalize the bounces of the sticks to give the performance a smooth, even sound (rudiments are helpful in developing this technique). The striking area should be small, within a diameter of 3 to 31⁄2 inches. Striking area is important because the sound differs depending on where the head is struck. The exact center of the head is dead and dry; immediately beyond this spot has the most resonance and ring (unless heavily muffled). A stroke near the rim gives a clear, dry sound with a variety of overtones. Generally the player should strike the head about halfway between the rim and center, although rudimental drummers often play almost dead center for volume, moving toward the edge for softer passages. Experiment for the best musical effect on each drum.

Rudimental Drumming Rudimental drumming is a means through which percussionists learn to control the stroke, the bounce, grace notes, and the roll. Rudiments should be played musically; their primary value, however, is in the development of technique. Rudiments emphasize control of sound through various sticking combinations, speed, and dynamics—not unlike string and wind players practicing scales and arpeggios. Rudiments must be practiced slowly, softly and loudly, then fast (softly and loudly), then faster, and so on. First play slowly with control, accelerate (maintaining stick control), and then decelerate with control while remaining relaxed throughout the entire body. These rudimental strokes are practiced in a relaxed manner at all tempos and dynamics; beginners initially will lose control and even drop a stick from time to time. Control is the tone color of the percussionist and comes only with practice. Rudimental drumming practice is balanced with practice of materials that focus on phrasing and reading notation accurately and expressively. When rudiments are played starting slowly then increasing to one’s maximum speed and then slowed again, the loudest notes are at the slower speeds. The drummer plays softest at maximum speed because the stick is more difficult to lift and control when it is far above the drumhead at the fastest tempo. Rudiments are balanced with practice of materials that focus on phrasing and reading notation accurately and expressively. The single-stroke roll is played by alternating hands at a speed that creates a sustained sound. Speed comes from the wrist on the single stroke that is also used on the timpani, suspended cymbal, mallets, timbales, and other percussion instruments. Professionals can play sixteenth notes at MM = 200 using a single stroke. The late Buddy Rich was clocked at 208 and Dave Snavely, a Hollywood studio player, at 221. High school snare drummers might strive for MM = 140 for about a minute, but this must be done with no (or very little) increase in arm or body tension. Only allow a speed contest among your percussionists when you can observe possible bad habits. The drag is a principal stroke preceded by two grace notes. The first stick plays an unaccented tap followed by a controlled bounce (controlled by the third, fourth, and fifth fingers) followed immediately by the principal stroke. A precise drag is basic to much musical playing and requires considerable practice. The flam is another rudiment that is difficult to control and play evenly. It is written as a principal note preceded by one grace note. One difficulty with flams is the natural tendency to raise the stick for the grace note too high; whereas the principal stroke begins as much as 9 inches above the batter head, a half inch is ample to play the grace note, yet both sticks are to strike the head almost simultaneously. In jazz, flams are frequently played very open for style and to “kick in” a wind section (often called “fa-lam”).

Concert Playing All percussionists should start instruction on the snare drum and bell kit illustrated in Figure 26.5. With heterogeneous instruction the percussionist is usually the most ignored person except to be told to play more quietly. The teacher must be imaginative and teach the students that listening to others is part of becoming a musician. When the percussionists play bells in group classes, everyone learns notation together. Playing the snare drum expressively and musically in a beginning heterogeneous class is a challenge, and one player at a time on the snare is sound advice. Without melody or harmony, snare drummers must rely on stick control for expressive qualities. Faults of snare drumming are usually due to the lack of control of the stroke and/or bounce. The faults may be due to any or all of these factors: 1. incorrect stick grip—excessive use of fingers and grip too tight; 2. incorrect hand position—hand turned out, in, or up too much; 3. uneven balance in sound between sticks due to uncontrolled height above the drumhead;

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 362

362

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

4. wrist bent because the arm is held too close or too far from the body resulting in wrist, arm, and body tension; 5. using too much arm rather than wrist, thus producing large movements when small, agile, ones are required. (This is more of a problem with advanced performers); 6. not using a firm stroke; 7. not hitting the correct spot on the head for the sound desired; 8. not matching sounds—one stick hitting in a different spot than the other stick; 9. incorrect sticking patterns; 10. lack of controlled bounce (too many or not enough).

Care and Maintenance of the Snare Drum The snare drum needs to be in its case when not in use. About twice a year, the snare drum should be taken apart, oiled, and cleaned. All the movable parts can be oiled with light allpurpose oil such as “3-in-l.” One drop for each rod thread is enough. Any dirt between the flesh hoop and the counterhoops must be removed. Marks on the head may be erased with an art gum eraser. All loose screws and nuts should be tightened. If the springs inside the lugs are loose and buzz from sympathetic FIGURE 26.5 Percussion starter kit vibrations, a small piece of cotton can remedy the problem. Photo courtesy of The Selmer Company, Inc. After use, leave the snare drumhead at the same degree of tension. The snares should be left on when the drum is stored to prevent the head from shrinking or warping. Heads should be replaced before they break, ideally on an annual basis. For serious drum-corps-style marching bands, heads are tightened so much to project the sound that they require frequent replacement. Plastic heads are durable and require little maintenance. Their disadvantage traditionally has been a weak fundamental and excessive ring. Improvements during the last quarter century have virtually eliminated these problems. More care is required if one is fortunate to obtain quality calfskin or goatskin heads. The best preventative measure to maintain the collar and springiness of the head is to tune the drums before putting them away, thus leaving them with proper tension.

BASS DRUM After the snare drum, the bass drum may be the most frequently used percussion instrument (see Figure 26.6). A regulation bass drum stand to suspend the drum prevents extraneous vibrations and enables the drummer to adjust the angle of the instrument to direct the sound.

Purchase The width of the shell, rather than the diameter of the head, is the determining factor in volume. Shell depth for concert bass drums varies from 16 to 18 inches, with a diameter of 34 to 40 inches. A 16-inch drum is useful for middle schools; an 18-inch width is necessary to produce adequate volume for high school organizations—18 × 38 is best. Overall, the lower the sound, the better. Further, with the help of several high-quality mallets, a larger bass drum can produce a good, soft tone quality more easily than a small one can when played forte. A drum that is too small will be unable to produce the boom desirable in a bass drum. The best sound is produced by real calfskin heads, with Renaissance® second. A common compromise is calfskin on the batter side and a plastic head on the resonant side. Good bass drumheads are worth the extra money.

FIGURE 26.6 Bass drum: size 18 × 40 (pictured with plastic heads)

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 363

PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

363

Tuning The bass drum is the lowest nonpitched member of the percussion section. The heads are tuned by tuning the lugs, alternating across the batter head first and then thumping the head near each lug to hear the same pitch. The batter head should be tuned as low as possible without getting a flapping sound or loss of good tone. The resonant head needs to be tuned slightly higher. The concert bass drum has no exact pitch, but rather has more of a resonant “effect.”

Playing The right-handed player stands behind but somewhat to the right of the drum with the drum tilted or, in some occasions, laid almost flat. The sound is projected from the resonant head to the floor where it is reflected in all directions. With loose heads and the normal delayed sound, if the bass drummer actually plays precisely on the conductor’s beat (as most conductors repeatedly demand), the sound will always be a fraction late—giving many conductors a nervous breakdown. The beater should be held with the right hand using the same basic grip as used for the snare drum. The arm should be flexible and the wrist relaxed like a string bass player playing pizzicato. The blow used most of the time is a direct stroke on the head with the idea of drawing the tone out of the instrument. The slightly glancing blow is used most frequently in marches. A sharp perpendicular blow to the middle of the head produces a “cannon-shot” sound and the maximum volume. Most playing is done in the area about one-third to one-half of the distance to the center. Rhythmically active figures should be played closer to the rim because there is less ring there to muddy the articulations. The area next to the edge should be avoided. The bass drum is played for dynamic as well as rhythmic effects; it is struck harder and lighter and in different spots on the head. Marches require playing on a different spot on the head than the spot for overtures or symphonic transcriptions. Contemporary music for band, orchestra, and percussion ensemble calls for considerable experimentation and dexterity and cannot be played thoughtlessly or in routine fashion. The bass drummer must be a musician just like any other member of the organization. Special effects can be made on the bass drum, not only by different strokes but also by various kinds of beaters, muffling effects, and by striking it in specific places on the head. These effects, retained perceptually, should be part of the drummer’s repertoire. They will be useless, however, if the drummer cannot slightly anticipate the beat so that the sound occurs on the beat. At least four different beaters should be available: lamb’s wool, hard felt, a large timpani stick, and a wooden beater. The drummer will also need a car-wash mitt. Contrary to the snare drums, muffling is often external. Muffling can be accomplished by use of a hand or the car-wash mitt. The fuzzy mitt facilitates a variety of muffling effects depending on how much and how hard it touches the resonating head. When the bare hand is used for muffling, usually just after the stroke, just the fleshy tips of the fingers are placed on the drum. A complete muffle is with the entire left hand placed on the playing head as illustrated in Figure 26.7. Muffling is also accomplished by placing the right foot on a chair or small step as in Figure 26.8 and using the knee. The more common bass drum effects are achieved as follows: 1. 2.

Accents are played closer to the center. Pianissimo passages are played with harder, heavier sticks to achieve clarity. A sharp staccato, a crack, or a shot is produced by using a hard beater or a timpani stick and striking in dead center of the head.

FIGURE 26.7 Bass drum: left-hand “complete” muffle position

FIGURE 26.8 Bass drum: right-knee muffle position

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 364

364

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

A thud is made by striking the center with a soft mallet. A roar is produced by striking very hard with a pair of wooden beaters about one-third the distance between rim and center. The thump sound is made by striking softly with a hard stick in the middle of the drum, then muffling immediately. The roll is best accomplished on a bass drum by using two bass drumsticks (not borrowing a pair from the timpanist) or alternating between two mallets of a single stick. There should never be more than one bass drum in a band or orchestra unless there is a special requirement written in the score.

Care and Maintenance of the Bass Drum When the drum has a calfskin head and is to be left without playing for two or three days, tightening this head is essential. The only exception is when the equipment is very old and the room is subject to changes of humidity and temperature, though an internal humidifier may be used. In this case the hoops may warp unless the head is loosened. Warped hoops should be replaced as soon as possible. The calfskin head will lose its resiliency under continued beating, but the liveliness can be easily restored by applying a damp cloth to the head. This “wetting down” will need to be done once a year. It involves removing the head from the drum, moistening it with a damp cloth on both sides of the skin, replacing it on the drum, and allowing it to dry. At other times it may need to be moistened slightly and allowed to dry while on the drum. Cleaning should be done twice a year, the rods oiled once every year. The nuts and screws on the tension rods can work loose and fall into the inside of the drum; they should be tightened frequently to prevent this. Ensemble members seem to be tempted to stuff things into the airholes of the drum, a major offense in many ensembles.

MALLET PERCUSSION The major keyboard percussion instruments are similar in their playing techniques and are discussed together. They are the marimba (in a variety of ranges), vibraphone, concert bells (or glockenspiel), and xylophone. Marimbas have thinner wooden bars than the xylophone with resonators to enhance the sound, providing a greater dynamic range. Marimbas are designed with a 21⁄2-octave range for beginners (a very limited range), a 3-octave, 31⁄2octave, and the 41⁄2-octave instrument. The “concert grand” marimba has 5 octaves (adding notes descending to the C below the 4-octave marimba) and may be required for solos and some ensemble literature. Vibraphones have a 21⁄2- to 4-octave metal keyboard that produces vibrato by revolving fans, electronically powered, that open and close the resonators. A variable-speed mechanism allows the player to select the speed of the vibrato. The “black” bars are on the same level as the “white,” unlike the other mallet instruments; this facilitates playing on the ends of the bars, or in the center, the placement affecting subtle changes in tone quality. Concert bells or glockenspiels have a range of 21⁄2 octaves, starting on G above the treble staff and soaring into the range of the piccolo. Their sound is the most penetrating of any keyboard percussion instrument. The xylophone sound is produced by the vibration of hard wooden bars arranged from 21⁄2 to 31⁄2 octaves (the latter extending into the range of the piccolo). Xylophones may have resonators on a few of the lower notes to enhance the sound. The xylophone is played with hard rubber or plastic mallets to produce its brilliant, projecting tone quality.

Mallets The mallets for each of these four instruments are held with the matched grip used for snare drum and timpani. As illustrated in Figure 26.9, the wrists are an extension of the arms and the hand in a “knock-on-the-door” position—the body rotates rather than the wrist to play the appropriate notes as well as the player sidestepping up and down the keyboard as necessary. Keyboard mallets are held near the end with no more than an inch extending behind the back of the hand. The student puts their arms at the side, and then raises both hands to form the matched grip; the result is usually a reasonable angle for holding the mallets. Marimba mallets are made with a broad variety of hard to soft cores and hard to soft yarn or cord wrapping of these cores. Most mallet makers color-code the mallets. Each percussionist

FIGURE 26.9 Mallets: two-mallet playing position for vibraphone (marimba and xylophone)

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 365

PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

365

should have a variety including at least two pairs of each of the following: soft core–soft yarn, soft core–medium yarn, hard core–medium yarn, and hard core–cord-wrapped mallets. Vibraphones also require a wide variety of mallets. Because the bars are metal, cord-wrapped rather than yarn-wrapped mallets produce the clearest sound. Two pair each of soft, medium, and hard cord-wrapped mallets are the minimum for each percussionist. A few contemporary composers have scored for hard plastic and even brass mallets for the vibraphone; these should be played with great care to prevent denting the aluminum bars. Concert bells or glockenspiel have the hardest bars and require the hardest mallets. Because four-mallet work on these instruments is virtually unknown, the minimum set of mallets should include a pair of hard plastic (e.g., acrylic), a pair of hard rubber, and a pair of brass mallets. Xylophones generally use harder mallets than marimbas because of the difference in the thickness and density of the bars; a hard mallet will detract from the tone quality and permanently damage the fragile wood of a marimba. For xylophones, three pairs of mallets are the minimum: one pair of wood, one pair of vulcanized rubber or plastic, and one pair of hard-core yarn-wrapped. Xylophone mallets are 12 inches in length for regular playing and 16 inches for four-mallet work. Fiberglass handles are an excellent choice, since they are durable and nonwarping/and rattan is also acceptable.

Playing Instrument height should allow the player’s forearms to be parallel to the floor, which creates a logistical problem when the section has players of differing heights. For keyboard percussion, the instrument must be elevated to accommodate the tallest player by using small wooden blocks under the wheels. Shorter players will need to have their own personal riser to play. These risers must be sturdy. The body is positioned a few inches from the edge of the bars, centered according to the required playing area, the body shifting to keep the shoulders parallel to the keyboard and at the proper angle for the mallets. It is incorrect to rotate the body to play the higher and lower notes, as this movement ruins the positioning of the mallets, hampering technique. The shoulders are never moved and the elbows are rarely moved. The hands are held approximately 4 inches over the keyboard (or where the little finger can touch the bars); wrist action is used to make the stroke, which is light, fluid, and melodic in motion. There is a slight flexing of the sticks in the hand to maintain a floating feeling. The arms make only two motions: (1) moving right and left on the keyboard; and (2) to reach for the “black” keys. Two-octave scales are practiced as the sticking is reversed in the second octave. The motion is in the wrists with no tension in the arms or shoulders. Striking the bar where the string passes through it will result in a dead sound and is used only for special effects. The lower manual of keys is struck in the center of the bar over the resonators, unless playing at a faster speed, which requires placement closer to the upper manual, whereas the upper manual (the black notes) may need to be played near the edge to facilitate a faster performance.

Four Mallets When three or four mallets are required, the Musser grip (see Figure 26.10 and Figures 26.14 and 26.15) is the easiest to use, since the sticks do not cross inside the hand. Also, it is based on the matched-grip position. The Stevens grip (see Figure 26.11) is the most commonly used grip whereas the Burton grip (see Figure 25.12) is used on vibes. The Musser grip can be taught using the techniques listed next (teach first with palm up): 1. 2. 3. 4.

The outside mallet is held between the middle and ring fingers with the shaft secured against the fleshy part of the palm. It is secured by wrapping the ring finger and little finger around the shaft. The inside mallet is held between the thumb and index finger (a pivot point) with the second finger wrapped around near the bottom of the shaft for support (similar to the matched grip). With the hand closed around the two mallets, the mallets should appear parallel. Intervals between the two mallets are adjusted by rolling the inside mallet at the pivot point and using the index finger to determine the interval.

The traditional grip is not uncommon in four-mallet work (see Figures 26.13 and 26.16). The following steps are used to teach the traditional grip (again, this is easier to teach first with the palm up). 1. 2.

Hold a mallet in the matched-grip position, securing the mallet between the index finger and thumb (the pivot point). Slide the second mallet into the grip between the index and middle fingers.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 366

366

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 26.11 Stevens grip (a) upright, (b) performing

FIGURE 26.10 Mallets: four-mallet Musser grip for marimba (xylophone and vibraphone)

FIGURE 26.13 Mallets: four-mallet traditional grip for marimba (xylophone and vibraphone)

FIGURE 26.12 Burton grip for vibes

FIGURE 26.14 Drawing of the stick and finger placement of the Musser grip

FIGURE 26.15 Bottom view of the Musser two-mallet grip

FIGURE 26.16 Bottom view of the traditional two-mallet grip

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 367

PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

3. 4. 5. 6.

367

The shaft of the second mallet crosses the first mallet’s shaft at approximately the middle of the palm and on top (palm up). The end of the second mallet (the crossed shafts) is secured by the ring and little fingers against the palm. The interval is opened by sliding the thumb under the shaft to a position next to the index finger (palm down) and moving the thumb away from the index finger (an octave is about 90 degrees). The interval is closed by squeezing the shafts back to position using the middle, ring, and little finger while the thumb slides back to position outside the primary mallet (or inside if palms are down).

Concert Bells or Glockenspiel Concert bells are expensive and some directors substitute a marching bell-lyra (2-octave range). The marching bell-lyra’s difference in sound is appreciable and the substitution should be avoided. The substitution is often made to replace expensive hand-hammered orchestra bells. In securing secondhand bells, one should check for chips in the plating of the bars. Orchestra bells usually have a range of 21⁄2 octaves, sounding G above the treble staff to C. Composers, however, write concert bell music two octaves below where it sounds, which makes it easier for the player to read.

Care of Mallet Instruments The only in-house maintenance required for mallet instruments is occasional adjustment of the cord and screws that hold the bars in place, and checking for proper padding under the bars. Any retuning of the bars is done by a professional repairperson. The mounting cords on the keyboard instruments wear thin and break after much use and should be checked periodically. Bars should be wiped off after each use with a soft cloth. They should be inspected annually for cracks and checked for intonation. Marimba and xylophone bars made of rosewood need special attention. The delicate wood can become easily splintered by strokes and mallets that are too hard. Salt from perspiration can also deteriorate the wood. They should be wiped with a soft cloth. Refrain from taking rosewood instruments outside for marching rehearsals.

TIMPANI The timpani are considered by many to be the chief or most exalted member of the percussion family. Even in symphony orchestra programs, the timpanist is listed separately from the percussionists. It is the only primary percussion instrument that requires students to tune as they play. Each drum has a usual compass of at least a perfect fifth.

Tuning The timpanist must often change the pitch of the instruments during a number; hence, a sensitive musician with an acute ear is a must. Scales, arpeggios, and simple tunes assist in familiarizing the timpanist with the sound of common intervals. Tuning is achieved by a foot pedal (after the heads have been tightened to the appropriate range for each drum). The composer usually indicates at the beginning of the work what notes will be required of the timpani. Tuning is indicated in the music by “change” or “muta.” Until the ear is trained, timpani are tuned by reference to a tuning fork, the player mentally fixating the pitch, then tuning the drum by releasing the pedal to the lowest note and making a glissando up to the desired pitch. The pitch is verified by tapping lightly with the finger or timpani mallet in the playing spot and double-checked around the head near each lug at the approximate playing distance from the rim (4 to 6 inches). When tuning to the extreme pitches of the drum, attention should be given to the large pedal spring at the bottom of the bowl. If the low notes will not hold, the spring should be turned to the left to loosen it; if the high notes will not hold, the spring should be turned to the right to tighten. Timpani sound best when played in the middle register of their range, or a little higher. The ranges of most common timpani are shown in Figure 26.17. 23"

FIGURE 26.17 Timpani: ranges

26"

29"

31"

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 368

368

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

Heads and Mallets Striking in different areas of the head will produce a variety of sounds. The best sound is generally produced about 4 to 6 inches between the rim and the center of the head. Soft passages are played closer to the rim, but even extremely loud passages are seldom struck closer to the center than the normal playing area. Most timpani come with plastic heads, and they are, as for the other drums, entirely satisfactory, since they are durable, economical, and reliable. Mallets are available in assorted lengths and materials, each with a specific purpose. This is because the instrument relies principally upon the type of mallet used for its expressive character. Mallet heads are typically 11⁄2 inches in diameter and vary in consistency from soft felt to wood. Mallet handles should be at least 12 inches long. Longer ones are satisfactory if the player can handle them. In order to elicit a good tone from the head, the center of the stick head should consist of some noncompressible material. Often, inexperienced timpanists use felt heads that are too large, too fluffy, and too fat, when a firmer, smaller felt head would produce better results. When a student timpanist plays an entire number or even an entire concert with the same pair of mallets, it clearly indicates that the player has not learned the essentials of the art. Students need to experiment with various timpani mallets to find the heads that fit their style of playing, “based more on allowing for a natural rebound, drawing tone from a drum, or playing into the drum”2 as well as the instruments themselves, the performance hall, the ensemble (for balance), and for the proper length and weight. Studying with a professional timpanist who can provide direction in selecting appropriate mallets is recommended.

Playing Techniques There are two accepted ways of holding the timpani sticks, each with advantages and disadvantages. The French grip is vertical to the drumhead, the thumb on top of the stick and the four fingers cupped directly underneath (Figure 26.18). This grip requires rotary action from the wrists. The second, or German grip (Figure 26.19), requires the thumb to be on the side of the stick; the palm down; the hand, wrist, and forearm making a straight line. This matched (German) grip may feel more natural and is often modified to resemble the matched grip used on the snare drum and other mallet instruments. When the player sits on a stool, the forearms are nearly parallel with the floor. With the mallets resting on the instru- FIGURE 26.18 Timpani hand position: “French” ment, the elbows should be at the player’s side or slightly forward, so that striking 4 to 6 inches from the rim on the two center drums feels natural. The stool should be at the proper height to allow the arms and hands to play in a natural and comfortable position. If more than one student plays the timpani, different stools may be necessary or a stool of adjustable height. The timpani are frequently played while standing with the sticks held with an unchanged grip and the stroke begun with the sticks nearly parallel to the floor. The player’s height requires some adjustment in posture, as the height of the stick above the drumhead must be adjusted for tone color and dynamics. The timpani must be placed close together but not touch- FIGURE 26.19 Timpani hand position: “German” ing. Too many timpanists attempt to arrange multiple drums into a tight arc around themselves. This arrangement affects their performance, body movement, and resonance of the outside drums (making tuning difficult). The largest drum is on the player’s left, the smallest to the right (the opposite is a German setup). The timpani sticks are held parallel to the instrument, and the body rotates from drum to drum, or if sitting the entire upper torso rotates. The position of the timpani must be such that when the body rotates, the sticks remain parallel to the instrument. The stroke is a short, sudden, perpendicular stroke. The stick should bounce the instant it touches the surface of the head, as if the player has touched a hot iron and is drawing the sound out of the timpani. Only the wrist is used in making the stroke. Once struck, the sound will ring for a long time unless dampened, so each note may have to be stopped as well as started. The tone is stopped “on the fly” by placing the fleshy area of the fingertips on the head (see Figure 26.20). If all the fingers are placed on the head at once, an unattractive and unmusical slap is created at the end of the tone. To avoid this sound, drop the fingers on the head, starting with the little finger and with a rapid rolling motion, placing all the fingers on the head ending in a position illustrated in Figure 26.21.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 369

PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

Single sticking is used to practice equal notes of slow or moderate duration; alternate sticking is the more common practice depending upon the effect desired. Rolls are usually played with single sticking faster on the higher-pitched drums and slower on the lower drums. Dynamics are changed by alternating the stick height. By exerting different pressure on the stick with the thumb and first finger, different intensities and tone qualities can be created. For instance, a crisp staccato needs a tighter grasp by the thumb and forefinger than does a legato passage. A more intense tone needs more finger pressure. A different type of blow from the perpendicular will occasionally be needed; for example, an extreme legato is produced by a glancing blow. Timpani sticking, like snare drum sticking, is learned by listening and watching professionals. Hard and fast rules are not as useful as discerning what sounds right. A few commonsense practices illustrate this point. Although alternate sticks are usually used, there are passages where more musical sense would be achieved by using the same stick. Crossing of sticks is done to reduce movement and thus gain greater control with the crossing stick passing over the stationary stick (see Figure 26.22). Composers are not always careful about timpani writing; the player must use his or her ear to determine a note’s proper length in relationship to the music. In forte-piano rolls, the player should wait briefly after the forte note is struck before beginning the piano roll so that the forte will have time to fade. Because the area closer to the rim is better for soft playing, crescendo passages should begin in that area and move out to the usual playing spot. For diminuendo passages, the reverse takes place. Placing a handkerchief, wallet, or chamois on the head at the spot directly opposite the striking area mutes the instrument. Coperto means to put a cloth on the head to produce a distant sound; scoperto means to remove it.

369

FIGURE 26.20 Stopping the timpani ring while continuing to play (“on the fly”)

FIGURE 26.21 Stopping the ring completely, followed by a rest

Care and Maintenance of Timpani Plastic heads are as satisfactory as calfskin heads and require less care and maintenance (and are less than one-fourth the cost). Their disadvantage has been a weak fundamental and excessive ring. Maintaining the collar is essential if the low tones are to be accessible; the extra slack the collar offers is required when the tension is relaxed for the lowest notes. The heads should occasionally be wiped with a damp cloth to remove accumulated grease from fingers and air pollution. Plastic heads should be replaced every two years or so, since excessive scratches affect the tone quality. Covers for the timpani heads should be used. Nothing should be placed on the timpani head, certainly no books, instrument cases, or sharp objects. Percussionists should lay their FIGURE 26.22 Cross sticking sticks on an extra music stand or put them away in their stick bag; sticks should not be left on the timpani head. Other elements of care include fixing a creaking pedal. This sound indicates that the bowl of the kettle needs cleaning: The head should be removed, the rounded underside cleaned with a fine steel wool, and the edge that touches the rim of the kettle rubbed with paraffin wax. The head is then replaced exactly as it was by lining up the marks on the head. This alignment is essential, otherwise the head will never be seated correctly to produce a good tone. Dents in the bowl may be straightened with a rawhide or rubber hammer. The procedure is to tap gently, holding a piece of wood as a bevel against the outer side of the bowl. Dents most frequently come from carelessly pushing the

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 370

370 THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

drums. Students should be taught to drag the drum behind them rather than pushing. This helps ensure that it remains upright. Timpani should also never be moved by grasping the rim or tension handles, only by the bars running down the sides of the drum.

CHIMES Chimes are a set of long, tubular bells, covering a chromatic range of about 11⁄2 octaves from middle C upward to fifthline F. They are suspended by a gut string and struck at the top of the tube by a rawhide mallet. The regulation mallet weighs about 6 ounces. It is usually too hard and may be softened by making cross cuts on the striking end or by covering the end with chamois or another soft leather. Playing technique involves striking, with a rapid rebound, the top striking cap of each chime with the mallet and simultaneously dampening the previously struck chime with the free hand. Some chimes have a damper pedal, which is used with chord changes and allows the player to use two mallets, a technique frequently required in contemporary music. If the chimes seem to be out of tune, they may be sent to the factory for alterations.

TENOR DRUM AND TOM-TOMS The term tenor drum is a carryover from early marching band days. The instrument has a long history and is referred to as tamburo, cassa-rullante, caisse roulante, tam-bourin roulant, or ruhrtrommel, all indicating a field drum of approximately 12 × 15 to 18 inches with snares off, and tuned considerably lower than modern-day marching snare drums. It is played like the snare drum, but usually with heavier sticks. In modern marching bands, the tenor drum has been replaced with toms, that is, “triples,” “quads,” “quints,”— seemingly all the drums that one’s spine can carry. These multiple drums were adapted from tom-toms used in concert work; they provide marching percussionists with a wide range of pitches. Tom-toms differ from tenor drums in that they have only the top head. Most band and orchestral pieces that call for toms require four different sizes; many percussion ensemble works call for six to eight. A concert snare with snares off can be used as a quick substitute for a tenor drum or a single tom.

CYMBALS Cymbals are rarely given the treatment that their importance to an organization warrants. When directors look upon them as noisemakers that anyone can bang together, they become just that, with no care given to their purchase or their playing. Entire books have been written on cymbal performance, including the recent one by Frank Epstein of the Boston Symphony Orchestra. He opens his treatise by commenting on the importance of mental preparation and knowledge of the musical role of any cymbal sounds. The cymbal has an important contribution to make to the sound of the band and orchestra, and the quality of the sound is important. Though it is obviously not a complex instrument, there are techniques of playing and levels of quality in the physical characteristics of the instrument that make it either an asset or a detriment. Selection of good cymbals is important and they must be matched. Nothing can destroy a fine-sounding organization faster than to have (in a climactic moment) the clanging together of two plates seemingly borrowed from the kindergarten rhythm band. Because a poor cymbal is hardly better than a pie plate, the director should understand what makes a good sound, listen to the performance, and demand the proper sound. The difference in quality of cymbals is judged by the tone produced, by the rapidity with which the cymbal reaches full vibration, and by the lack of a single predominant pitch. The best cymbals do not produce one dominant pitch. They produce overtones of such size that they create the desired ringing crash rather than a specific pitch. Nevertheless, a certain amount of pitch in each cymbal is necessary for the sound to be musically pleasing. Pairs are made so that the pitch produced by one is an interval of second or a third from the other. Cymbals come in various sizes, weights, thicknesses, and pitches. They also come in a choice of materials—handhammered, medium-hammered, and spun brass. Hammered brass has a better tone and is more widely used in good organizations. Size does not determine the pitch. Small cymbals can be lower in pitch than larger ones. Size does determine the proportion of sound produced from striking the two instruments together. There will be some sound in striking, but with larger cymbals, less sound and more tone is produced. Cymbals too large, however, become unmanageable in the hands of student players. A variety of sizes will offer flexibility of sound and avoid limiting the organization to the gonglike quality of the oversized cymbal. At least seven weights of cymbals are available from most reputable manufacturers, ranging from paper-thin to extraheavy. The thinner and smaller the cymbal, the faster it will speak, this property is determined by the total amount of metal in the instrument. Medium and medium-heavy cymbals are the most popular. A cymbal that is too lightweight

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 371

PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

371

may sound better at close range, but it lacks the overtones and carrying power of the thicker instrument. Listen to it from a distance before deciding on its acquisition. A danger with lighter and thinner cymbals is that a fortissimo crash will turn them inside out because they lack the weight to resist the blow. It is poor economy to buy a thin cymbal in the larger size unless its only use is to produce a gonglike tone. A heavier cymbal of reasonably good quality is usually the best choice. Good cymbals should be played using leather straps; never use the wooden handles that bolt on the cymbal. Wooden handles detract both from the quality of the sound and from the life of the cymbal. They deaden the tone, eliminating almost all of the overtones, leaving only an uninteresting, plain sound rather than the rich welter of conflicting partials that the good cymbal offers. Cymbals also sound better if the lamb’s wool is removed as it interferes with the full range of overtones.

Playing Technique The cymbals are held by gripping the strap with the thumb on top and the other fingers underneath, most of the pressure being exerted by the thumb and forefinger (as in Figures 26.23 and 26.24). This position gives the most opportunity for control by the fingertips, knuckles, and wrists. It is tiring when the cymbals must be held for a long period without relaxing the grip; during marching the hand can be inserted into the strap. The fingertips and knuckles should be utilized for control, which requires a small felt or leather pad. The lamb’s wool pad makes it impossible to bring the hand in contact with the reverberating metal, consequently limiting control of the cymbals. The cymbal gripped by the left hand is held almost stationary and parallel to the floor (for a dark sound) to no more than a 60-degree tilt from the floor (for a bright sound) FIGURE 26.23 Cymbals: ready for crash for right-handed players. The cymbal held in the right hand is moved against it with the top edge leading into the stationary cymbal. This is the standard approach for righthanded players; left-handed players may reverse it. A straight blow is unsatisfactory; rather than producing a ringing crash, it traps the air inside the two cymbals as they come together and results in a muffled “pop.” A glancing blow is more effective, but this also can be carried to extremes because the sound will be too delicate and fragile if the blow is too glancing. The best sound is produced when the cymbals are held fairly close together with the one cymbal a little below the other. Figures 26.23, 26.24, and 26.25 show the left hand under the right. The right-hand cymbal is struck by moving the left-hand cymbal up in a modified glancing blow that begins striking the right-hand cymbal at a point about 3 inches from the top as the left-hand cymbal starts down. The top and bottom do not hit at the same time, but are more like a snare drum’s flam. The left-hand cymbal begins to move first and makes the more vigorous movement; the right-hand cymbal moves down to meet it. After a crash, the cymbals are opened toward FIGURE 26.24 Cymbal point of impact the audience, then usually held parallel to the floor (see Figure 26.26). A good crash cannot be made if the cymbals start too far apart. A long-running start is unnecessary to produce a huge sound; a vigorous push and a short stroke will suffice. When several crashes in a row are demanded, the left hand remains perfectly still. When successive blows (not crashes) are called for at a moderate or slow speed, the right hand will start the first one and then the hands alternate for each blow after that—the hand that has moved down in the preceding blow being in position to start upward for the next one. Moving both cymbals in opposite directions before, during, and after the crash is described by Cook as a technique developed by Sam Denov, formerly of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra.3 With this technique right-handed players move the cymbal in the left hand downward and the cymbal in the right hand upward for the crash with a

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 372

372 THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

follow-through, where the right wrist rotates palm up and the left wrist rotates palm down (see Figure 26.25). The advantage to this technique is that a different sound is made by the cymbals’ angle to the floor when crashed; perpendicular to the floor is a brighter sound, with a position nearly parallel to the floor, much darker. Whenever possible, the cymbal tone should be allowed to ring until it dies of its own accord (Figure 26.26). When the music calls for short sounds from the cymbal, it must be stopped before the ring is over. Stopping the sound is accomplished by placing the cymbal edge against the chest or upper torso at the precise moment the tone is to cease. The player initially will not be able to tell how long to let the cymbals ring and when to stop them. After the number has been played a couple of times, the player will know what follows the cymbal crash and how long a ring is appropriate. FIGURE 26.25 Cymbals: follow-through For soft crashes, Cook suggests aligning the cymbals together (the edges of each cymbal), then separating for the preparation only an inch or so and closing them gently with a quick rebound.4 Striking the inside facing of the left-hand cymbal with the right as in loud crashes results in a soft sound, but poor tone quality. The two-plate roll, also called the double-cymbal roll, is made by placing the cymbals together about an inch or two off center so that air will not be trapped between them. A fast clapping motion is then made with both hands and arms, resulting in a loud, harsh sound. The swish, also called “angels’ wings,” is achieved by rubbing the edge of one FIGURE 26.26 Cymbals: position for ringing cymbal lightly across the inside face of the other. A similar effect is produced by rubbing only the edges of the cymbals together. The suspended cymbal, preferably a 16- to 18-inch thin instrument, can be struck in many different places and with nearly every object imaginable to obtain a variety of effects (see Figure 26.27). It may be struck directly or with a glancing blow on the edge, middle, two edges at once, and so on, and with wood, nails, knife blades, saw blades, coins, and soft mallets. Regardless of the effect desired, the cymbal, like the gong, is set slightly in motion with the fingers before striking. A glancing blow is better for the instrument than a direct one because the direct blow tends to warp the edge. When wooden sticks are used, it is recommended that the blow be struck down and out with the thick part of the stick; the same motion is used with a felt-tipped mallet. The roll is produced by striking with small, rapid, alternate blows FIGURE 26.27 Suspended cymbal: position for playing on opposite sides of the cymbal, equidistant from the center and near the edge so that a balance with the suspended disc can be maintained. Hard-yarn mallets or fairly hard timpani sticks are most successful. Loud crashes are made by striking a glancing blow to the edge with a stick. If the note has a slur-type marking over a following rest (usually with the abbreviations l.v.), then the cymbal should be left ringing. Nonmetallic sizzling sounds are produced by placing the snare drum stick under the cymbal and striking on top with another stick; metallic sizzling is made by placing metal filings or keys on top of the cymbal and striking with a padded stick. Debussy, for example, wanted a metal coin scraped on the surface for a specific effect in Fêtes. The only limiting factor to the cymbal’s use seems to be the imagination of the composer, player, and teacher. Epstein identifies 11 strategies, each with a musical example. A suspended or mounted cymbal of any type must be left free enough to vibrate well and not be screwed too tightly to its holder. This reduces the danger of cracking around the center hole.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 373

PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

373

Care of the Cymbals Cymbals must not be left in excessive heat or in the direct rays of the summer sun. They are tempered with heat, and dead spots can result when they become extremely hot for any length of time. The edges are relatively fragile and can be chipped—being dropped on the floor or knocked together affects their temper and the director’s. Dirt and sediment dampen some of the overtones, so cleaning will help retain the brilliance of tone. Do not buff cymbals with a buffing wheel. The heat of the friction has exactly the same effect as the heat of the sun or an overly warm radiator—the temper of the instrument will be destroyed and dead spots will result. Cymbal polish can be purchased if a high sheen is desired, though most professional percussionists believe the polishing ruins the tone quality.

TAM-TAM For generations the term gong has been used synonymously with tam-tam. In truth, a gong is a pitched instrument that has a very pronounced tone. A tam-tam is a large disc that produces a nonspecific pitch. Composers also mistakenly score for gong when they desire a tam-tam. Unless a specific pitch is written, one can assume a tam-tam is the correct instrument. The spot for striking the tam-tam will probably be a little off center, but the best approach is to test the entire surface to find the area that gives the best sound. Because tam-tams are hand-hammered, they will be thicker in some spots than in others. Before being struck, the tam-tam needs to be set in motion by touching it inaudibly several times with the hand; otherwise, the tone is cold with little staying power. This procedure is also important in cold weather (such as marching band performances), since the tam-tam may crack if not properly warmed up. For best resonance, the tam-tam should be hung with gut bass-viol string; if possible it should be positioned at the height at which either the knee or the free hand can be used to dampen the sound after the tam-tam is struck—this will usually be about three feet off the floor. Like the cymbal, the tam-tam can produce different effects by being struck in different spots with a variety of beaters. It is often scraped with a coin or triangle beater to produce a mysterious effect. Because the tam-tam has a delayed response, there is general disagreement about its use. Cook indicates that the larger tam-tam should be “warmed up” quietly before the sound is desired in order to have the instrument sound at the proper time; McBeth indicates that modern composers are aware of the delay and a delayed sound is wanted.5

TAMBOURINE The tambourine is an interesting instrument, capable of producing many different sounds. The 10-inch size is the most common, with both larger and smaller sizes available. Tambourines are presently made of metal, plastic, and wood, and can be found with and without heads. A true tambourine has a skin head and is made of wood (metal is heavy and difficult to control; plastic is not very durable). Little upkeep is necessary, but the pins that hold the jingles should be examined occasionally since they work loose with playing. If the head becomes slack, it can be moistened with a wet cloth and allowed to dry out slowly. The tambourine is held in one hand and struck with the other (see Figure 26.28). The instrument is held immobile, and the striking hand moves, so that extraneous jingling sounds that result from moving the instrument can be kept to a minimum. For a right-handed person, the instrument is held in the right hand with the thumb on the outside of the rim and the four fingers gripping the inside and muffling the head. The center may be struck with the fleshy part of the left-hand fingertips, the heel of the hand, the knuckles, or on the knee. The rim may be struck with the fingers, with timpani sticks, or snare drumsticks. It may be shaken, played with a wet thumb to achieve a thumb roll, or muted with a handkerchief. Most FIGURE 26.28 Typical tambourine playing position of these are indicated in the music, but some are left to the discretion of the player. Loud playing is usually accomplished by striking with the fleshy part of the first three fingertips or with the knuckles, in the approximate center of the head. This technique is adequate for moderate or slow passages at forte volume. For rapid rhythmic passages, a different technique is necessary. Here the knee and the knuckles are used: The foot is placed on a chair so that the knee is bent, the tambourine is held head down just above the knee (Figure 26.29). The instrument is then moved up and down in the rhythm required, alternately striking the knee and the knuckles at the speed and volume required. In this fashion complex rhythms can be played forte with considerable precision.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 374

374

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

Soft, fast passages are played by setting the tambourine head down on a soft pad and using the hands or timpani sticks on the wood of the rim (Figure 26.30). Soft passages are also played by holding the tambourine parallel to the floor, head down, as though the instrument were resting on a pad or cushion, and striking the rim with fingers of the other hand. For any speed or any dynamic level, articulations are generally cleaner when the head is parallel to the floor. Muffling may be appropriate for any situation and is accomplished by placing a handkerchief on the inside of the head. Long rolls are produced by rotating the instrument with the wrist. A short, quiet roll of one or two counts may call for the thumb roll, which is a way of vibrating the jingles by means of friction between the thumb and head (Figure 26.31). The thumb is wetted, then rubbed around the edge of the head close to the rim with the tambourine tilted toward the empty hand. The friction sets the jingles in motion. This is a somewhat hazardous practice, as the player is never sure when the thumb is going to suddenly become dry. Some players use powdered rosin rather than wetting the thumb. An even more secure solution is to use wax around the edge of the head or to glue a thin strip of emery paper around the edge. Regular sandpaper is less satisfactory; it begins to wear away the skin of the thumb if many rolls are required.

FIGURE 26.29 Tambourine: knee position

TRIANGLE The pitch of the triangle is determined by its size. Two triangles varying from 6 to 10 inches are considered adequate for most playing needs. As with all other instruments, they need to be of good quality. A poor-quality triangle is hardly preferable to having none at all; the tinny sound of a cheap piece of metal will make its use ridiculous rather than musical. The twine or string that comes with the instrument should be replaced with a fine gut string or fishing line and this is attached to a holder. When the triangle needs to be suspended from the music stand, the clip serves as the fastener. The triangle remains suspended when not in use and when both hands are required to play it. The triangle should not extend more than 11⁄2 inches below the clip as it will rotate if the cord is too long. When considering the ideal sound of a triangle, a tinkle is preferred to a definite pitch. Because some strikers produce more specific pitches than others, the sound varies with the striker used. The regular triangle beater is usually at least 10 inches in length and from 1⁄16 to 3⁄8 inch in diameter. They can be purchased as a set that includes a storage bag and a variety of triangle beaters. Other strikers such as spike-sized nails, medium-sized metal nail files, pieces of wire coat hangers, and the wire handles from telescoping snare drum brushes, should also be collected. Most of these are for special effects, of course; the triangle beater is the most frequently used. Place the beater inside the triangle and strike the base about onethird of the way in from the closed lower corner. A single beat is often played outside, either on the closed face of the triangle or on the base, but rhythmic patterns are easier to control when the beater is placed inside and played on the base. Fast rhythms require striking both the base and the side. An extremely fast passage may necessitate the use of two beaters, one in each hand, with the instrument suspended by one or two clips (to ensure the triangle will not rotate). Triplets also are more successfully executed with two beaters. They tend to sound like a roll when a single beater is used.

FIGURE 26.30 Tambourine: position for controlled playing

FIGURE 26.31 Tambourine: thumb roll

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 375

PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

375

FIGURE 26.32 Triangle: normal position, single-stick rolls and fast rhythmic patterns

FIGURE 26.33 Triangle: single-stick position for special effects

FIGURE 26.34 Triangle: full kit (assorted beaters and triangles)

For single-stick rolls and fast rhythmic patterns, the beater extends approximately 2 inches through the triangle (see Figure 26.32). Soft rolls are played close to the closed angle, with little motion. Louder rolls will be wider, played farther away from the angle to allow for more vigorous striking and producing more volume. Rolls are started on the base (see Figure 26.33). With a full kit of triangles and beaters (see Figure 26.34), percussionists and directors have available a wide variety of sounds.

LATIN AMERICAN-INFLUENCED INSTRUMENTS There are other percussion instruments whose chief use was originally Latin American dance rhythms but are used in a wide variety of music by today’s orchestra and band composers. For Latin American rhythms there needs to be conga drums, timbales, cowbell, and of course, a drum set. The samba uses the snare drum with the regular drumstick in the right hand and the wire brush in the left. The right hand plays the first note on the edge of the drum, and the left hand brushes the second note near the center of the head. The snares should be off. The tambourine may be used to double the snare, and maracas are used on quarter notes. The characteristic bolero rhythm is a triplet on the second half of the first beat. In Latin American music, the bolero is simply a slow rumba, but all of its other specific characteristics have dwindled in importance until the only one left is the triplet rhythm. When substitute players are used to augment the percussion section, the percussionists need to be kept on the timbales and maracas because these demand more skill; the nonpercussionists can play the claves, guiro, and cowbells.

Castanets There are differing qualities of castanets: symphonic, traditional and double-ended clapper, and the castanet machine. The Epstein machine places the castanets into a holder, allowing the player to obtain greater precision, control, dynamic ranges, and even execute rolls. The single or symphonic castanet has one pair of blades, or clappers, attached to a wooden handle that serves as the sounding board (see Figure 26.35). The double-ended castanet has two sets of clappers (see Figure 26.36). It is held by gripping the handle with the bottom three fingers, the thumb resting lightly wherever comfortable, and the index finger furnishing control. Slower passages require use of the double castanet or the machine (see Figure 26.37) for dynamics from mezzo piano to fortissimo. Softer passages in moderate or slow speeds will use the single, which may be struck in the normal manner— on the open palm, on the knuckles of the closed fist, or on the leg. Rolls are produced by striking a double castanet rapidly against the knee. Use of the castanet machine allows more control over dynamic levels. Tremolos are produced by using a set in each hand.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 376

376

THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

FIGURE 26.35 Castanets: single clappers

FIGURE 26.36 Castanets: double clappers

FIGURE 26.37 Castanet machine

Terms for castanet playing are derived historically from Spanish dancers: Glopé indicates a single stroke with a single clapper or the machine. Double Glopé is two castanets playing a single stroke with single clappers or the machine. And the carretilla is played on the machine as three or four grace notes to the primary beat; the grace notes are played beginning with the little finger leading to the index finger or thumb (as if drumming one’s fingers impatiently).

Maracas Maracas are used in pairs. The left hand is in front of the body holding the lower-pitched instrument, the right hand alternates over the top of the left hand (Figure 26.38). They are usually played with a single beat in the left hand and a double beat in the right with a flick of the wrist. For soft passages, the maraca is held with thumb and bottom three fingers, and the base is tapped with the index finger. To perform a soft roll, hold both maracas with the gourds toward the floor and rotate in circles so that inner materials spin. For louder rolls, hold the maracas by the handles in one hand with gourds at opposite ends and then quickly shake; or alternate fast shakes between hands. Maracas are used for mambos, guarachas, Cuban boleros, rumbas, beguines, tangos, congas, and paso dobles.

Temple Blocks Authentic temple blocks are actually Korean blocks, each made of one piece of balsa wood and painted. They are very fragile, chip easily, and should be played near the edge with mediumhard rubber or yarn marimba mallets. True temple blocks are becoming more and more difficult to find and are increasing in cost. Most percussion sections today substitute “block” temple blocks as in Figure 26.39. They usually come in sets of five, although many more are available. These temple blocks allow a greater variety of tone colors by using different mallets (soft-tomedium rubber as well as all-yarn mallets). Very hard mallets can be used at soft volume levels for a resonant, projecting sound— snare sticks may damage the blocks. Even more durable models are available in plastic at a much lower cost, and they sound reasonably authentic.

FIGURE 26.38 Playing maracas

FIGURE 26.39 Playing five-pitched temple blocks

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 377

PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

377

Woodblocks The woodblock is related to the temple block, but is oblong in shape. They are made from various hardwoods and come in different sizes. The block is held in the left hand and struck with a hard-rubber mallet or butt of a snare stick (see Figure 26.40). For the best sound, the long tone slot faces the audience and is at the top of the block rather than at the bottom; the performer must practice until the spot with the greatest resonance is determined. When multiple woodblocks are needed, or the music requires two mallets, a holder is used to mount them. At least two should be available, a high-pitched one and a low-pitched one. Playing on the solid and on the hollow parts of the block produces different sounds.

FIGURE 26.40 Playing a woodblock

Claves Claves are two small, round sticks made of rosewood or grenadilla, and are played by striking together (see Figure 26.41). For Cuban rhythms, they are the most important instruments in the rhythm section. One is placed on the partially closed knuckles of the left hand with the palm turned upward and is held in place with the thumb. It is struck with the other clave, held loosely in the right hand. They furnish a steady beat in the mambo, Cuban bolero, rumba, and beguine. They are not used in the conga, samba, or paso doble.

Cowbells

FIGURE 26.41 Playing claves (note cupped left hand)

A regular cowbell could be used with the metal striker removed, played with a snare drumstick, and it will sound like one purchased at the local music store. Cowbells are useful on fast rumbas, congas, and the montuno. Two bells of different pitch are used on the conga and the montuno. The bell, available today in different sizes, is held in a cupped left hand (as in playing claves) and struck with the part of the snare stick that produces the sound desired. Muffling with adhesive tape deadens the tone. A finger touching the cowbell at various locations also produces different sounds. This muffled bell is used prominently in the conga and the montuno.

Conga Drum The conga drum is a deep, barrel-shaped drum made of wood or fiberglass, with a head of mule hide. At least two tunable sizes should be used with the smaller drum traditionally on the player’s left. They may rest on the floor or in a conga stand. Conga heads range from 10 to 13 inches and the body is approximately 30 inches long. Cook divides all conga playing into four basic sounds: 1.

2. 3. 4.

Open sound—striking the head between the center and edge FIGURE 26.42 Playing conga with a “relaxed open hand and fingers and allowing the fingers to strike the head and spring back to a straight position with the back of the hand.” Closed sound—played with either the heel of the hand or a cupped hand, or fingertips. Slap—played like an open sound, but “grabbing” at the head. Bass sound—played like an open sound but just off of the center, on the head, with a slightly cupped hand. This produces a good bass sound with the palm.6 The left hand plays rim shots with flat fingers, holding the fingers against the head after striking (Figure 26.42).

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 378

378 THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

Bongos Bongo drums are played in pairs; the most common pair has 71⁄4- and 81⁄2-inch heads. They are made with a calf-, mule-, or goatskin head and are used principally for boleros, rumbas, mambos, and similar dance types. The instruments should be tunable with the two drums about an interval of a fourth apart. The smaller of the two drums is played predominantly and is placed on the left. The tips of the fingers and the thumb are used near the edge to achieve a ringing sound, with softer sounds produced toward the center of the heads. Players can experiment with the various ways to strike the bongo, and with combinations of hand, fingers, and thumbs, to discover the remarkable number of sounds possible.

Timbales In France the term timbales indicates the timpani; in the United States it refers to two small tom-toms on a single stand (see Figure 26.43). The player must be sure of the composer’s intention and select the right instrument. Timbales are larger than the bongo drums but are tuned similarly with 13- and 14-inch heads. They are usually made of brass, although other metals are used for less expensive models. The sticks are either quarter-inch dowel rods or rattan. The timbales are commonly used in beguines, in which they serve to accent the first afterbeat typical of beguines. Different areas of the timbales are used for various effects: shell, rim, center, and so forth. In Latin or Afro-Cuban jazz, the timbale player is the master percussionist. A cowbell is occasionally attached and played with one stick while the other stick plays both drums. FIGURE 26.43 Playing timbales

Afuche/Cabasa The afuche or cabasa is very much like a maraca, except that the “rattlers”—small hard beads—are on the outside rather than the inside and are strung on a ribbon that wraps around the ball. A cabasa is available in three sizes and is held by the handle and struck with the palm of the other hand (see Figure 26.44). It is effectively used in sambas. It can also be held in the right hand, the beads selectively covered with the left, and the instrument spun back and forth. The beads may be tapped with the left hand to produce a third effect. The samba pattern is usually two taps followed by a spin with the right hand.

Guiro The guiro is a gourd-shaped instrument with a corrugated surface that is scraped with a small piece of wood, wire, or bamboo (see Figure 26.45). A wooden guiro produces the best sound. These are used principally in the rumba. The most common guiro rhythm is an ostinato.

FIGURE 26.44 Playing a cabasa

AUXILIARY PERCUSSION The list of items usable in percussion effects is nearly endless, depending upon the originality of the composer and the inventiveness of the player. The following list suggests the scope of possibilities; however, it is not inclusive: wind machine, anvil, steel drums, whistles, brake drums, rattles, slapstick, bird whistles, Quijada, agogo bells, talking drums, log drums, calypso maracas, 14-inch ka-meso, sleigh bells mounted, tablets, bata, djembe, and dumberg drums (a combination of conga and bongo drums). Of these ethnic instru-

FIGURE 26.45 Playing a guiro

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 379

PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

379

ments, the most popular is the djembe because of its various sizes and ability to project (see Figure 26.46). The djembe appears frequently in percussion ensemble music.

THE DRUM SET The drum set is one of the most visibly exciting instruments and often the instrument that makes the study of percussion attractive. The irony is that most students are offered little or no opportunity to learn about the drum set in school curricula. Those who are fortunate enough to purchase a drum set are often left to “figure it out” on their own due to lack of instruction or lack of information from their director. Drum set playing is not just for the after-school garage band. It is used in serious competition, and many of the soughtafter orchestral percussion positions include drum set playing in the audition process. The drum set (or its effects) is found in marching band shows, percussion ensembles, concert band music, orchestral FIGURE 26.46 Playing a medium-size djembe in a stand scores, chamber works, and the traditional combo or jazz-band settings. Drum set playing requires the utmost concentration and focus, but, with relaxation, limbs work interdependently and without tension with each other. The most important skill a student gains from performance on a drum set is not the physical coordination, but the ability to “multitask,” to use a recent buzzword. In order for the limbs to be physically coordinated, they must first be mentally coordinated. The increased mental agility is a major benefit of learning to play the drum set and is manifested in other areas of percussion performance. The feet and legs, which are responsible for playing the bass drum and hi-hat, often require the most practice when first learning the set, since they are the less dextrous body parts. Cook suggests foot-pedal technique should be approached similarly to the wrist stroke. The player should sit on the throne (seat) with the thighs parallel to the floor or slightly angled down. The bass drum stroke needs to rebound like a “bouncing ball” while the hi-hat is played by rocking the foot, heel to toe, back and forth or by lifting the heel. The ride cymbal is played with a loose French (thumb up) grip to allow for the stick to rebound freely off of the cymbal.7 When the hi-hat is played with a stick, players often cross their dominant arm over their body, but the closer, nondominant hand can be used just as effectively.

Drum, Cymbal, and Head Selection The basic modern-day drum set usually consists of a bass drum, a snare drum, two mounted toms, a floor tom, three cymbals (ride, crash, and a hi-hat cymbal) and the hardware (bass drum pedal, cymbal stand, tom-tom mounts) that link the pieces together. The composite array of these sounds makes up the “drum set” or “drum kit.” The most popular “jazz kit” includes a 16 to 18 × 22 inch bass drum, a 5 × 14 inch snare drum, two mounted toms (8 × 10 inch and 9 × 12 inch) and a 16 × 16 inch floor tom. A cymbal setup should include at least a 20-inch ride, an 18-inch crash/ride, 14-inch hi-hats, and possibly a 20-inch swish or China cymbal. The throne, pedals, stand, and hardware are also required. Cymbal selection also differs from cymbal selection in the orchestra or band (crash and suspended) and might feature a 22-inch ride (with a large bell), multiple crash cymbals, 14-inch hi-hat, and a variety of special effects. Appropriate drum and cymbal selection is generally influenced by the overall volume of the music, the stylistic context in which they are to be played, and, of course, personal taste. In a jazz setting, the responsibility for “the groove” lies with the ride cymbal and the hi-hat—finding a great ride cymbal–hi-hat pair is essential. In a rock or funk setting, the increased volume warrants explosive crash cymbals—a crisp ride with a powerful bell. The dramatic difference in volume between these two examples also affects the drumhead best suited for the music. Because brushes are frequently used in jazz drumming, drumheads that have a coated surface are most desirable; however, some jazz drummers select heads manufactured to emulate the sound of natural calfskin, attempting to re-create the sound of traditional jazz drums prior to the advent of plastic heads. Alternately, the increased volume of rock or funk settings may encourage the use of a noncoated head that allows a sharp attack, strong projection, and increased durability (thicker). The best compromise is a plastic-coated batter head that is loosely tightened, but not to the extent that the snare stick dents the head when playing. Toms should use Renaissance® heads with medium tension—the top and bottom heads should be tuned the same. Experimenting with different heads and muffling devices (both internal and external) while listening from a distance to the drummer with the ensemble is necessary to select the best tuning of the most appropriate heads.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 380

380 THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

The Setup Creating the arrangement of drums and cymbals must allow for the necessary independence of four limbs. This freedom of movement and unrestrained comfort is the most important aspect for the set player in determining the arrangement of the drum set (see Figure 26.47). Unlike the other percussion instruments that are played while standing, one of the early challenges of learning the drum set is to overcome the limitation of mobility, which is created by sitting. Because of this relative “grounding,” the importance of placing the cymbals and drums in relationship to one’s body shape is important not only for the enhancement of performance but also for injury prevention. Sitting at the correct height is perhaps the most important factor. When adjusting the throne height, a student sits so that the upper legs are just FIGURE 26.47 Drum set slightly above parallel to the floor and the back is straight. With the knees bent, the bass drum and hi-hat are placed at a distance away from the body that prevents the ankles from “flexing” when the legs are at rest. The bass drum is placed in front of the throne while the hi-hat is generally placed to the left. The angle between the knees can be determined by having the student “sit comfortably” on a drum throne; doing so will ensure that the angle is body-specific and natural for the student. Once this is determined, the student should place the hi-hat and bass drum pedals in the same relationship. Careful monitoring of toms and cymbal heights will allow a student’s shoulders to droop, encouraging the arms to stay relaxed, and allowing the entire drum set to be played with an economy of motion. “Boom-type” cymbal stands are recommended because they allow a greater range of adjustment when placing cymbals in the most appropriate spots.

Sticks Selecting the correct or appropriate stick is just as important as selecting the appropriate drums, heads, and cymbals for a particular kind of music. The overriding factor should be personal comfort, but a stick’s size and tip shape (along with a player’s stroke) can dramatically affect the resultant tone produced on drums and cymbals. Great care needs to be taken to select a stick that not only “feels” good but also is shaped and weighted in a way that helps the drummer produce the appropriate sounds for a specific type of music. For example, a stick generally used for a “combo jazz” setting is generally thinner and lighter than a stick used for a “rock” setting. More important than volume, recognizing which instruments within the drum set can portray the core of the rhythm/style is vital when selecting an appropriate stick. The core of a swing/jazz sound comes from three cymbals; the two that compose the hi-hat and the ride cymbal. A stick that produces an articulate ride-cymbal sound is more important than producing a high-volume drum tone. Conversely, in music where the center of the groove is found in the snare drum backbeat, stick selection centers on the quality and fullness of the drum sound, and less on that of the ride cymbal sound.

HEALTH ISSUES Percussionists require high physical stamina to practice, rehearse, and perform. This is particularly true when playing the drum set as it requires the use of both arms and legs. Some performances are the equivalent of an aerobic workout. Thus, percussionists need to remain in good physical condition by exercising, eating well, and using preventive care. Percussionists should physically warm up and stretch before playing, paying particular attention to the shoulders, arms, wrists, and hands. Consider warming up with a pillow or other soft surface. Equipment should match the size and strength of the player, be weighted toward the striking end, and be placed in a comfortable playing position that does not force a player to reach too far up, down, or to the side. Proper technique should be used; percussionists should stay relaxed and minimize awkward movements such as stick crossings. Overuse and misuse injuries appear to be the most common ones impacting percussionists. Muscle strains, tendonitis, tennis/golfer elbow, repetitive strain injuries, and carpal tunnel are common and one should immediately stop playing and rest if an issue arises. Sprains or strains need to be iced and the impacted area should be elevated above the heart to limit any swelling. Lower back pain can be an issue when performing in a sitting position and percussionists will want to keep the curve in the lower back by sitting tall.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 381

PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS

381

RESOURCES Websites Percussive Arts Society pas.org Rhythm Web rhythmweb.com Steve Weiss Music steveweissmusic.com World Beats (world music percussion) world-beats.com/Instru.htm

Rich, B., H. Adler, and H. Klickmann (1997). Buddy Rich’s Modern Interpretation of Snare Drum Rudiments. New York: Amsco. Salloum, T. (2016). Fun with Bongos. Fenton, MO: Mel Bay. Wanamaker, J. (2002). Drum Rudiment Dictionary: A Complete Reference Guide Containing The Percussive Arts Society 40 International Drum Rudiments. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred (eBook).

Journal Texts Backman, B. (2011). Stick Technique: The Essential Guide for the Modern Drummer. Cedar Grove, NJ: Modern Drummer. Beck, J. (2013). Encyclopedia of Percussion, 2nd ed. New York: Routledge. Black, D. (1990). Contemporary Brush Techniques. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred. Carson, R. and J. Wanamaker (1997). Percussive Arts Society’s Official International Drum Rudiments. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred. Caruba, G. (1996). Afro-Cuban Drumming: A Comprehensive Guide to Traditional and Contemporary Styles. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard. Cirone, A. (1977). The Orchestral Mallet Player. Menlo Park, CA: Cirone. ––– (1978). The Orchestral Timpanist. Menlo Park, CA: Cirone. Cirone, A. and J. Sinal (1977). The Logic of It All. Menlo Park, CA: Cirone. Cook, G. (2006). Teaching Percussion, 3rd ed. Belmont, CA: Thompson-Schirmer. Denov, S. (2001). Art of Playing the Cymbals: The Complete Guide and Text for the Artistic Percussionist. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred. Dworsky, A.L., B. Sansby, and M. Anderson (2001). Hip Grooves for Hand Drums: How to Play Funk, Rock & World-Beat Patterns on Any Drum. Minnetonka, MN: Dancing Hands. Epstein, F. and R. Sonner (2007). Cymbalisms: A Complete Guide for the Orchestral Cymbal Player. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard. Feldstein, S. (1995). The Complete Cymbal Guide for the Drumset. Miami: Manhatatan Music. Genis, T. and C. Cirone (2009). Symphonic Repertoire for Percussion Accessories: Tambourine, Triangle, Bass Drum, Castanets, Maracas, Concert Toms, and Roto Toms. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard. Goodman, S. (2000). Modern Method for Timpani. New York: Belwin Mills (CD). Grover, N. (1997). The Art of Tambourine and Triangle Playing. Fort Lauderdale, FL: Meredith Music/Milwaukee: Hal Leonard. Lang, M., C. Dowd, and A. Cirone (2010). Percussion Master Class on Works by Carter, Milhaud, and Stravinsky: A Complete Performance Analysis of Celebrated Works by Master Teachers and Performers. Menlo Park, CA: Cirone. Miller, M. (2005). Conversations in Claves: The Ultimate Technical Study of Four-Way Independence in Afro-Cuban Rhythms. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred. Miller, R. (2001). The Drum Set Crash Course: An Encyclopedia Designed to Develop an Understanding of Many Musical Styles. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred.

Percussive Notes Magazine. The journal of the Percussive Arts Society. Indianapolis: Percussive Arts Society.

Studies Aleo, K. (2011). Complementary Percussion: A Handbook for Developing Tambourine, Triangle, Cymbals and Bass Drum Performance (Bachovich Music). Bellson, L., H. Bellson, and D. Black (2000). Contemporary Brush Techniques (Alfred). Black, D. (2008). Drumset 101: A Contemporary Approach to Playing the Drums (Alfred). Cirone, A. (1985). Masterpieces for Marimba: A Collection from the Finest Musical Literature to Meet the Needs of the Percussion (Cirone). Cirone, A. and J. Sinai (2008). The Logic of It All: Professional Secrets Applying Imagination to Percussion (Meredith Music). Furth, V. (n.d.). Percussion 101: A Video Guide to Essential Percussion Techniques. (Zildjian). Girsberger, R. and A. Cirone (2000). Practical Guide to Percussion Terminology. (Meredith Music). Houghton, (1998). The Ultimate Drumset Reading Anthology for the Working Drummer. (Alfred). Igoe, T. (2012). Tommy Igoe: Groove Essentials, 1.0/2.0, Complete. (Hal Leonard). Kolor, T., C. Wuorinen, M. Feldman, R. Shapey, and C. Wolff (2015). American Masterpieces for Solo Percussion, Vols. 1 And 2. (Albany). Payson, A. (1972). Beginning Snare Drum Method. (Payson Percussion). Rich, B., H. Adler, and T. MacKenzie (2006). Buddy Rich’s Interpretation of Snare Drum Rudiments. (Amsco). Savage, M. (2001). Savage Rudimental Workshop: A Musical Approach to Develop Total Control of the 40 P.A.S. Rudiments. (Alfred). Schroedl. S. (2003). 101 Drum Tips: Stuff All the Pros Know and Use. (Hal Leonard).

Instructional Videos Army Field Band (n.d.). The Complete Percussionst. www.army fieldband.com/pages/education/percussion.html Bachman, B. (2007). Rudimental Beats: A Technical Guide for Everyone with Sticks in Their Hands. (Zildjian). Boivin, M. (2006, 2012). Percussion Master Class. ( San Francisco Conservatory of Music).

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 382

382 THE BRASS AND PERCUSSION INSTRUMENTS Brych, R. and R. Miller (2004). The Drumset Crash Course-Tuning Edition. (Warner Brothers). Chapin, J. and D. Famularo (2009). Speed Power, Control, Endurance. (Alfred). Feldstein, S., D. Black, and J. Wanamaker (2004). Alfred’s Drum Method, Books 1 and 2. (Alfred). Furth, V. (n.d.). Percussion 101: A Video Guide to Essential Percussion Techniques. ( Zildjian). Greb, B. (2016). Benny Greb: The Language of Drumming. (Hal Leonard). Hanning, C. and D. Charlemagne (2006). Island Grooves. (Panyard). Hernandez, H. (2006). Conversations in Clave: The Ultimate Technical Study of Four-Way Independence in Afro-Cuban Rhythms. (Alfred). Igoe, T., R. Wallis, P. Siegel, and P. Fallo (2001). Getting Started on Drums. (Hal Leonard). Igoe, T., P. Siegel, R. Wallis, G. McKean, and P. Fallo (2010). Tommy Igoe’s Great Hands for a Lifetime: Featuring the Lifetime Warmup. (Hal Leonard). Lang, G. (2006). Creative Coordination/Advanced Foot Technique. (Hal Leonard). Miller, R. (2004). The Drumset Crash Course. Tuning Edition: The Ultimate How To of Drum Set Tuning, Maintenance, and Set Up. (Alfred). Morello, F. and A. Roth (2006). Drum Method 1: The Natural Approach to Technique. New York: Hot Licks. (OverDrive). Pratt, J. (2009). Traditional Rudimental Drumming. (Hal Leonard). Queen, J., P. Fallo, P. Siegel, and F. Walis (2014). Playing With Sticks. (Hal Leonard). Riley, J., T. Scimeca, and D. Eves (2009). John Riley’s The Master Drummer: How to Practice, Play, and Think Like a Pro. (Alfred). Samuels, D. and F. Sanford (1988). Mallet Keyboard Musicianship Featuring Dave Samuels (Zildjian). Simvois, J. and G. Kollias (2013). Intense Metal Drumming: George Kollias. (Hal Leonard). Soph, D. (2004). Musical Time: A Step-By-Step Approach to Playing Musical Time in a Jazz-Rhythm Section. (Carl Fischer & Zildjian).

Thipgen, E., R. Carter, T. Purrone, and B. Friedman (2006). The Essence of Brushes by Ed Thigpen. (Alfred). Wachsman, M. and T. Igoe (2004). Tommy Igoe Groove Essentials. (Hal Leonard).

Recommended Artists Timpani Gerry Carlyss and the Philadelphia Orchestra Jauvon Gilliam playing Beethoven Saul Goodman. New York Philharmonic: Last movement of Tchaikovsky 4th symphony; Beethoven 8th Symphony and Petrouchka Weiland Welzel and the Berlin Philharmonic Takemitzu Concerto for five percussionists

Cymbals Keith Aleo playing Montagues Foundry Frank Epstein and the Boston Symphony Pictures at an Exhibition

Marimba Pius Cheung playing Bach Leigh Howard Stevens playing Maslanka and Schwantner Gordon Stout

Snare Svet Stoyanov Blue Devils Drum and Bugle Corps Snare Line

NOTES 1. 2. 3. 4.

Cook, G. (2006). Teaching Percussion, 3rd ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson Schirmer. Ibid., 165. Ibid. Ibid.

5.

6. 7.

Ibid., 240; McBeth, W. (1972). Effective Performance of Band Music: Solutions to Specific Problems in the Performance of 20th Century Band Music. San Antonio, TX: Southern Music, 291. Cook, Teaching Percussion, 269. Ibid.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 383

PART

V

The String Instruments

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 385

CHAPTER 27

Strings Principles

27

HISTORY By the sixteenth century, instruments resembling the modern violin, viola, cello, and bass were widespread in Europe. The Italian instrument makers of Brescia and Cremona, German artist-craftsmen in Mittenwald, and makers in France (who became better known for bows) remain legendary. During the attempt to perfect string instruments, the Brescia group flourished for about two centuries but was overshadowed by the astonishing perfection of the Cremona instruments. Among the string instrument makers of Cremona were Amati, Guadagnini, Ruggieri, Guarneri, and Stradivari. Although it is usually assumed that each of these famous violin makers also crafted violas, cellos, and basses, it is primarily the violins that have survived. Early bows were shaped like hunting bows, from which they were probably derived. The current design, with its inward curvature of the stick, was developed in France during the late Baroque period. One of the traditional pitfalls in many string classes is a lack of teacher imagination. String classes can profit from abandoning the books and playing by ear and immediately begin ear training, which allows the student to focus on his or her relationship with the instrument. The ability to play a tune (pizzicato) early in the training is a powerful incentive to perform traditional melodies. Tuning, harmonics, and use of all four left fingers should also be taught early.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS The four string instruments that comprise the modern string orchestra have much in common. All are made of wood and are similarly constructed. All use a bow drawn across the strings, the hair of which when properly rosined actually grabs the string and serves as a tone generator. On all four, pitch is altered by placing the left fingers at various locations on a fretless fingerboard or by playing on a different string. Inside each string instrument is a bass bar, sound post, and corner blocks. The bass bar is the critical element in each instrument’s tone quality. Serving to reinforce the top of the instrument, the bass bar is a strip of narrow wood glued along the length of the body below the lowest string that influences tone quality and dampens excessive vibration of the lower string. Figures 27.1 and 27.2 illustrate the parts of the string instruments.

FIGURE 27.1 Parts of a violin and cello: front view

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 386

386

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

high string •

neck upper bout ribs back waist lower bout

low string

sound post bass bar

FIGURE 27.3 Top of violin showing location of bass bar and sound post inside the body

FIGURE 27.2 Parts of a violin and cello: back view

The sound post is a dowel, which fits vertically between the front and back of the instrument. The sound post is generally positioned slightly to the bottom and right of the edge of the bridge, the exact placement being determined by the position that produces the best tone quality. Figure 27.3 illustrates the position of the bass bar, corner blocks (inside the “points” above and below the waist), and sound post.

Sound Post A string instrument should never be played without a sound post. The resulting strain can easily ruin the instrument. Sound posts do come loose occasionally and need to be reset. In resetting, the grain of the post should be kept at right angles with the grain of the top of the instrument. The quantity of vibration that the body of the instrument absorbs can occasionally shake loose not only the sound post, but eventually the bridge and even the tailpiece. The teacher can temporarily reset these but precision setting requires a skilled repairperson. The nut is a critical component usually made of ebony and fitted across the top of the fingerboard. It determines the height and spacing of the strings, and when it is an inappropriate size for the instrument must be adjusted or replaced by a competent repairperson.

The Bow Most student-line bows consist of a stick made of fiberglass, graphite, or a composite material, and synthetic hair. Higherquality bows are made of pernambuco, rosewood, or brazilwood with the hair from a horse mane or tail. Synthetic materials to replace expensive Mongolian or Siberian horsehair are rapidly improving in quality. Fine-quality composite bows are increasingly available. Figure 27.4 illustrates the parts of the bow. tip

stick

bow screw grip

hair

FIGURE 27.4 Parts of the violin bow

frog ferrule

slide

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 387

STRINGS PRINCIPLES

387

Viola bows are heavier and longer than violin bows. The cello bow is thicker and shorter, with the bass bow the shortest and heaviest (Figure 27.5). The bow hair is tightened or loosened by holding the frog with the left hand and turning the bow screw with the right. The hair is loosened when returning the bow to the case to prevent the stick from warping. Rosin is applied to the bow hair to increase friction when the bow is drawn across the FIGURE 27.5 (Top to bottom) Violin, viola, cello, and French and strings. The correct tension of the hair is a matter of trial and German bass bows error and depends upon the sound desired and the performing maturity of the student. It should not be stretched so tightly that the bow straightens. A good rule of thumb is to leave a space between the stick and hair the width of a pencil for violin and viola, and the width of a thumb for cello and bass. Getting the proper amount of rosin on the bow hair is also learned by trial and error. The type of rosin used can affect tone quality. To apply rosin, the bow is held at the frog and drawn back and forth on the rosin that is held in the left hand. To prevent unnecessary dirt or damage to the bow hair, avoid touching the hair.

The Bridge The bridge is critical to tone quality as well as technique. Its purpose is to space the strings evenly near the tail of the instrument and serve as a conduit for vibrations from the strings to the body of the instrument, which is the resonator. A high bridge assists beginning students to position the bow on only one string. Each time the pegs are adjusted to tune a string instrument, there is a tendency for the bridge to be pulled toward the fingerboard, causing it to tilt or become warped. The bridge should fit tightly between the top of the instrument and the strings, with the feet of the bridge uniformly in contact with the instrument. The bridge is never glued in place (except by an occasional frustrated parent), but fits snugly, and tilts slightly away from the fingerboard. Most new bridges are too thick and are designed to be thinned and professionally adjusted and fitted. Bridges are placed on the instrument between the notches of the f-holes by string instrument repair specialists, but every string teacher should be prepared to adjust bridges to a position that is appropriate and usable until the bridge can be checked by an expert. The top of the bridge is shaped to approximate the contour of the fingerboard; it is better to have the top of the bridge too curved than too flat to avoid playing on more than one string. The bridge is too curved if the bow scrapes the instrument when playing on the highest or lowest string. If a string instrument lacks responsiveness and has a sober tone, a thinner bridge can improve its sound. If the sound is somewhat too bright, a thicker bridge will help darken the sound.

Tuning Pegs and Fine Tuners Four tuning pegs are used on the violin, viola, and cello to macrotune the four strings. The bass uses a mechanical device to achieve the same purpose. The pegs are inserted into the peg box. These pegs adjust the pitch and should remain in position once set. To adjust when tuning, rather than turning the peg to the desired pitch and then pressing it into the peg box, pressure should be gradually applied toward the peg box as the peg is turned. When pegs slip (do not hold the pitch), a specialized peg compound should be used that is not as abrasive as chalk and does not affect the oil in the wood. Pegs slip when they do not fit properly. The fit of the peg can be determined by inspecting the shiny mark, which should have the same shiny width all around the peg. If the shine is only in spots, or if there are spots on the peg where there is no shine, the peg does not fit correctly. The problem may be an irregular peg hole, a peg that is worn, or one that is the wrong size. This problem should be fixed by a qualified string instrument repairperson. A wellfitting peg is one that does not have to be “eased off” in tuning or require a final “jam” to keep it in place. Fine tuners on the tailpiece are used with metal strings to adjust the microtuning on most violins, violas, and cellos reducing the need to adjust the pegs.

Mutes Mutes are required at times on all four string instruments to produce a contrast in tone quality. The most convenient are rubber “slide on” mutes. These are attached to the instrument in an “off position” and are moved into position when required (Figures 27.6 and 27.7).

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 388

388 THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

FIGURE 27.6 Violin mute: in the “off” position

FIGURE 27.7 Violin mute: in the “on” position

Strings There are three types of strings: gut core strings, steel core strings, and synthetic core or multi-strand strings. Each type of string enhances specific aspects of the sound. The single most important criterion for a good string is that it produces a pure fundamental tone without distortion from overtones or pitch fluctuations. Beginners seldom use gut strings, which are strings that produce a warm sound with complex overtones. Gut strings do not last as long as other types, and they are the most sensitive to temperature and humidity. Steel strings were developed as a reliable alternative to gut strings and are often found on violins, violas, and cellos, and should be considered for bass. Steel strings have a simple, clear, pure sound, with few overtones; the primary criticism is a somewhat brilliant and thin sound. Synthetic core strings sound more like gut strings, don’t stretch as much as gut, respond faster, and provide a more consistent sound than gut strings. Each type of string is available in three thicknesses or gauges: thin, medium, or thick. The thin and medium are sometimes labeled “forte” and “piano” or “orchestra” and “solo.” Thicker strings provide greater volume and are generally more powerful but are less responsive and require more tension. Excessive string tension can damage the bridge or the instrument. The best match of strings to an instrument is accomplished through trial and error, although steel strings are usually applied as a set. A good choice is to start with medium-gauge steel-core strings. Over time any quality string loses its edge, and becomes unresponsive due to normal wear and needs to be replaced. Because this change is so gradual many students fail to notice it. Wrapped strings should also be replaced if windings begin to unravel. Since all strings break, teachers and students need to know how to replace them (string players always carry a spare set of strings that match those on the instrument). The knot on the loop end is first inserted in the correct hole of the tailpiece or the loop is placed over the fine tuner; the other end of the string is fed through a hole in the proper peg, wound over the end to prevent slippage and tightened by turning the peg outward. The appropriate maneuver is one that results in keeping the string as straight as possible between the nut and the peg. The string should not overlap itself on the peg. Students should be aware that new strings need time to mellow and may vary in pitch for a few days. Thus, strings are not to be changed the day of a performance, but several days prior in order to give them time to “settle.” New strings can be false and unpredictable in the way they vibrate. A false string produces unreliable harmonics that would require altered fingerings when playing in higher positions. It should be promptly discarded.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 389

STRINGS PRINCIPLES

389

ACOUSTICAL PRINCIPLES FOR STRINGS Consider a string of fixed length that one cannot adjust, like a piano string (we know the piano is usually considered a percussion instrument, but think of it as a string instrument for the moment). Each string is set vibrating by a sudden action or disturbance, and rings freely until the energy is completely spent and the string comes to a stop. Plucking and striking a string produce the same effect. Glancing inside the piano, one sees that the lengths of strings vary from fairly short at the treble end to much longer at the bass end. Further, the strings on the bass side are wrapped with a metallic wire (usually copper). Consider these principles: 1.

2. 3.

A longer string vibrates at a lower pitch than a shorter string (when tension is equal on both), so that the longer string must be twice the length of the shorter string to play an octave lower. (Strings use the same harmonic series as brasses.) The frequency that a string sounds is proportionate with an increase in tension, so quadrupling the tension on a string will raise it an octave. Increase the tension on a string 16-fold and it will rise two octaves. For fixed string tension and length, the frequency is determined by the diameter of the string and its mass.

If the piano string tension and diameter were held constant, the highest C would be two inches long, the next C four inches long, and so forth; the lowest C on an 88-key piano would have to be 21 feet long. The tone would be thin and “bright.” Another approach would be to make most of the strings three or four different lengths and adjust the pitch by altering the tension. This, however, has a detrimental effect on the tone quality because each “set” sounds different. The third option would be to increase the diameter of the string for the lower pitches to reduce the length. The same tension on all the piano strings would require the diameter of the lowest notes to be pencil-size, with the tone adversely affected. The solution has been that from the highest C on the piano to the C an octave below middle C, the strings are lengthened by 1.94 for each octave rather than doubled, while their diameters are increased by 9.3 percent per octave. The notes are then tuned correctly by adjusting the tension.1 Below this C, the strings are lengthened by relatively small amounts, and the pitch is lowered primarily by increasing the mass by wrapping different diameters of copper wiring around the primary string so that the string itself doesn’t have to be as stiff (as a steel bar). The diameter (and stiffness) of the last unwound C string is selected to match the next lowest C (which is wrapped in copper wire) to produce a perfect octave with similar tone quality. Most pianos produce an acceptable sound around middle C, but there is a difference in tone quality between upright and concert grand pianos in the lower register. One point of trivia is that on a concert grand, the tension is over 400 feet per pound on some strings with the total “pull” on the frame being almost 20,000 feet per pound of torque. In the string family, the string bass is the best example of this compromise between tension, the string’s mass, and length. The resulting tension is so great that regular pegs cannot hold string bass strings in place. Rather, a mechanical device is used to secure FIGURE 27.8 Mechanical tuners for the string’s tension and allow tuning, as illustrated in Figure 27.8. string bass strings

The Bowed String Family The violin, viola, cello, and bass incorporate the same acoustical principles as the piano. Instead of a flat soundboard, they have a characteristically shaped “box” with four strings stretched over it. The box has a bridge that elevates the strings and serves as a conduit to the box or body and the air that fills the body. The sound is produced by rubbing tautly stretched hairs on a stick across the strings and using the fingers of the other hand to shorten or lengthen the vibrating strings, with the box acting as the resonating chamber. The rosin rubbed on bow hair creates a vibrating motion when the bow is drawn across the string. A string player can choose where on the string to bow and how much bow hair (friction) to use, and the amount of force to use. This action is like the pianist choosing a hammer (piano key) to strike a string. The bow affects tone quality, as the friction created by the bow damps the strings. A pitch produced by a plucked violin string dies away faster than the same note played on a piano. These and other factors determine why a string instrument produces a broad variety of sounds (both good and bad) with various uses of the bow.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 390

390

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

Effect of the Instrument Body The purpose of the shaped body of a string instrument is to ensure that the air inside has a large number of resonant frequencies (about 5,000 on a violin). When the box itself is set in motion via the bridge, the air oscillates violently and radiates from the f-holes. The skilled violin makers of the past discovered through trial and error that positioning the bridge with its shaped feet resting over the bass bar on one side and near the sound post on the other side produced the best sound. Bowing a string causes a side-to-side rocking of the bridge above the sound post so that the bass bar sets the entire top of the instrument vibrating, spreading to the rest of the body and finally to the enclosed air inside. As with the brass and winds, the string instruments make use of the harmonic series. Stopping a string at its midpoint produces an octave; one-half that length produces a twelfth and so forth.

SELECTING A STRING INSTRUMENT String instruments are either copies, models, or originals. The advances made by string manufacturers during the last century mean that most new string instruments are adequate. The primary criteria for selecting string instruments are condition (for a used instrument) and the sound the instrument produces. Because the sound potential is impossible for the beginner to determine, an expert is invaluable in helping students, parents, and the novice string teacher select the appropriate instrument. When purchasing a used instrument determine if the neck is centered between the f-holes, check for cracks and make certain that any repaired cracks are level on both sides. Other considerations include checking for: a cracked sound post (a negative), a smooth fingerboard, a solid peg box, a properly positioned tailpiece, a warped or cracked bow (also a negative), and an appropriately sized nut. Check that the pegs work and that there are no buzzes when the instrument is plucked or bowed. In advising parents about the purchase of either a new or used instrument, recommend that they obtain the opinion of an expert string repairperson.

LEFT-HAND FUNDAMENTALS Facility with the left hand is prerequisite to introducing the use of the right or bow arm. The DVD Secrets of String Success (listed in our resources), demonstrates, in motion, several excellent exercises.

Harmonics Harmonics are produced by lightly touching the string at its nodes; for example, gently placing a finger approximately at the middle of a string will cause it to sound an octave higher. The teacher should place markers on the fingerboard for the basic harmonics. The marker for the first harmonic is also a good place to hold the instrument for movement games. Placing the finger at one-fourth the length of the string from the bridge (or from the nut) will sound the note two octaves above the open string. Touching the one-third point very lightly on the string (either node) will sound the pitch a twelfth above the fundamental or open string. Obviously, long fingernails affect the ability to play these harmonics and possibly other notes; the teacher must be prepared with a fingernail clipper. The notation for natural harmonics is a small circle for an open string (to sound an octave higher). A diamond over a note (appearing as a double-stop) indicates a “false” or artificial harmonic that is played with a lower finger (usually first finger) stopping the string and an upper finger lightly touching the node. First have students play an open D pizzicato: flying, left-hand pizzicatos on all the open strings are fun for students and help avoid tension in the left arm. Next, slide the fourth finger toward the bridge touching the string to find the octave harmonic (halfway up the string). The student listens to match the pitch and find the best sound for the octave (first harmonic), which is a position where the student does not feel vibrations with the finger. This exercise should be repeated on all four strings using fourth, third, second, then first finger for violin and viola, and third, second, first, and thumb for cellos and basses (this introduces the thumb to the low strings in preparation for learning the thumb positions). Second position provides an excellent introduction to harmonics. Advantages of this harmonic approach are that it includes ear training, teaches a relaxed left hand (avoiding a death grip that can develop if the student stays in first position for weeks or months), uses much of the fingerboard to prepare for shifting, and instills the feeling of relaxation throughout the body. The ideal is to be as relaxed as our perception of the gypsy violinist. The position of the left hand for the first harmonic may also be an easier place to hold the violin and viola than in first position. Continuing to play by rote and from memory is important. Playing the instrument in guitar position, without the bow, and by rote promotes the habit of listening carefully to one’s own performance. With the instrument in guitar position for violin and viola, regular position for cello and bass, familiar tunes can be played pizzicato. Students should

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 391

STRINGS PRINCIPLES

391

be expected to play a large number of familiar and unfamiliar songs “by ear,” always listening carefully and deciding what could be improved. Playing by ear enables students to focus on intonation, rhythm, and, when playing with others, balance and blend. Holding the violin or viola in guitar position is not essential—what is important is the ability to “make music” and play simple tunes with only the left hand. These include Mary Had a Little Lamb; Row, Row, Row Your Boat; and Frère Jacques. When the bow is introduced, students should continue to practice playing by ear. Notation is also introduced early, which conveys the idea that all musicians play by ear and with notation. The notation should never interfere with developing the ear. Likewise, playing by ear should not promote inexact performance from notation. Both skills are critical; a well-developed ear allows one to hear notes mentally before they are played and make immediate adjustment with a piano or ensemble. Examples of harmonic exercises are in Figure 27.9. 1

4

3

2

1

2

0

1

4

1

2

4

2

3

4

3

4

4

FIGURE 27.9 String harmonic exercises (notated for violin)

Shifting Shifting refers to moving the left arm and hand in order to place the fingers in a new position. Problems seem to occur when a student doesn’t prepare mentally and physically and tries to shift only the fingers. Shifting is used for key changes, modes, tone color, and playing passages that are awkward in one position. Early shifting is recommended as it facilitates a flexible left hand, eliminates a tense death (or “what if I drop it”) grip on the neck, and promotes a free left arm. Students are reluctant to shift when the method book contains too much material in first position or they fear faulty intonation. When learning to shift is delayed, shifts are often jerky and students usually stop the bow between shifts. With the initial “ear approach” to string playing, shifting “games” are suggested. Paul Rolland called his shifting game “ghosting,” as the sound obtained by students moving their left hand up and down the fingerboard sounded eerie. Shifting may be introduced on each string instrument through harmonics, which develops a fluid and relaxed left hand and thumb. This relaxed, flexible left arm/hand approach should help convey the importance of a relaxed right bow arm and hand. In shifting, the thumb needs to be flexible. When shifting down, the thumb leads, preceding the hand and leaning in the direction of the shift. The thumb moves with the fingers on upward shifts. Regardless of whether the shift is up or down, the thumb and wrist both lean in the direction of the new position. The player anticipates the shift by leading with the arm, moving the thumb along the neck, and sliding the fingers into the new position. Cello and bass players also shift when playing in thumb position. Whenever a shift is performed, the player must steal from the duration of a note as a shift takes time. The decision whether to cheat the last note of the old position or the first note of the new position depends on the musical context. The string pedagogue Rami Kanaan has simplified the teaching of shifting by placing shifts in eight categories.

Types of Shifts 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Same finger shift (1–1, 2–2, 3–3, and 4–4 in an ascending and descending direction). Two-finger shift, which can be subdivided into: Low-numbered to high-numbered finger ascending (or vice versa when descending). High-numbered to low-numbered finger ascending (or vice versa when descending). Half shift (the thumb does not move from the original position while the hand and fingers extend to another position, and then come back to the original position). Retarded or delayed shift (the fingers extend or contract to the new position, and then the hand and the thumb follow the fingers). Shift from an open string (the hand shifts during the sound of an open string). Shift between two strings (the old and new positions are on two different strings). Substitution shift (shift to the same pitch with different fingers on the same string or on two different strings). The portamento (the audible slide which is used for its artistic effect).2

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 392

392

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

VIBRATO Vibrato is an expressive device, used on all string and wind instruments. There is a continuing topic of conversation about its use. The term comes from the Latin vibrare which means “to shake.” Many authorities suggest that its original purpose was to imitate the natural vibrato of the human voice on instruments, especially the strings. Others, tongue in cheek, suggest its purpose is to mask the poor intonation in string playing. Its primary purpose, however, is to enrich and intensify the music and is especially effective on long tones. Its use is so expected that composers would write senza vibrato if a straight tone were desired. Vibrato can be characterized as being wide or narrow, wide produced by a large variation above and below the true pitch and fast or slow depending upon the variation of the speed utilized. Decisions about the use and type of vibrato are musical decisions and depend on both the music and the performer’s interpretation of how to best convey musical affect. It should be more powerful on notes that are not enriched by natural overtones. Josef Gingold suggests that appropriate use of vibrato is one of the strongest assets a string player possesses. It can be produced only with the fingers, the most common technique for the violin, or aided by wrist or forearm on the lower string instruments. It is important that use of the vibrato not contribute to any tension in the string performer. When to introduce vibrato is a topic about which string pedagogues disagree. Mimi Zweig is an advocate of early introduction of vibrato and she initially physically moves the finger of the beginning student to introduce the idea of vibrato. Paul Rolland also advocated introducing vibrato in the first lessons as the free, relaxed movement of the finger helps prevent excessive grasping of the instrument’s neck and undue pressure on the string.

Left-Hand Fingers The fingers of the left hand determine the pitch of the notes other than the pitch produced by the open strings. The fingers of each hand are labeled: thumb, 1, 2, 3, and 4 (although 4 may be called little finger or pinky). In the string world, the terms low finger and high finger are used. The designation low finger means that the finger is placed one half-step below where it would normally be placed, in effect flatting the pitch of that tone. Low finger is the appropriate term regardless of the position, first, second, and so forth. High finger is the opposite, in effect raising the pitch. This terminology is used to facilitate rote instruction but may continue after the student has learned to read notation. Markers on the fingerboard designating where to place the fingers are a teaching device to indicate approximate pitches. Rather than hindering listening, markers enhance the ear by encouraging confidence in the playing of octaves and other intervals. Interval practice begins with the interval of a fourth on the string bass and chord tones on the other string instruments. The student obtains a mental image of the intervals and then matches the image with the performance. The mental image must initially be checked frequently by the teacher or with an in-tune piano or an electronic tuner. There is an eventual element of artistry in the use of the left-hand fingers as there is in all aspects of string performance. The string must be depressed sufficiently to produce a clear tone with the finger and left forearm remaining relaxed. Excessive finger pressure contributes to tension in the left hand, tension that often seeps into the wrist, arm, and elbow, and throughout the body. Beginners are admonished to keep the fingers down but they often overreact and press too firmly. As students advance, slightly releasing the fingers contributes to relaxation and flexibility. With strings, more than other instruments, if students are taught beyond the early years, what was initially taught will need to be modified. The strings are such marvelous instruments that an individual’s personality can be portrayed by the sound produced. Not only must the strings be touched in a fluid, artistic manner, the release is equally important. Fewer motions are more unmusical than a string bass player releasing all fingers at the same time.

Physiology Although problems of tension have been mentioned, there cannot be an overemphasis on the physical aspects of string playing. String instruments are relatively simple to play so that any challenge to performance excellence results from either an untrained ear or failure to understand human physiology and how the muscles of the body need to be used to perform technically demanding music. Correct breathing is often ignored. Adequate string performance is a headto-toe operation; failure to understand the interrelationships of the body parts (more than the muscles) will result in not only awkward performance but also possibly actual pain. More musicians have physical injuries than do athletes, although admittedly on a different scale. Because slouching and bad posture are related to playing while seated, violin, viola, and bass players should practice some or all of the time standing, as standing is the most natural and free playing position. With all string instruments the elbows move freely and are away from the body. One should be able to flex toes, knees, elbows, and more without affecting one’s performance.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 393

STRINGS PRINCIPLES

393

Practicing, Playing, and the Body The strings, more than any other instrument family, depend upon the student’s knowing and understanding the importance of flexibility in every part of the body. String pedagogues have long stressed multiple intelligences as they have emphasized that musical talent is aural, kinesthetic, visual, cognitive, and emotional. We began this chapter with a discussion of the left hand to emphasize the importance of separate thinking about each movement in practicing and playing a string instrument. The astute reader may have noticed several references to relaxed fingers, thumb, and arm in the section on shifting. The excellent materials of Mimi Zweig and the films of Kato Havas and Gerald Fischbach focus almost entirely on the physical aspects of performance. Paul Rolland, who influenced Zweig, enjoyed a major research grant to produce more than a dozen short films on how to avoid (or correct) tension in the multiple actions required of string performers. Because these three sets of publications show motion, something we cannot do in this text, we encourage teachers to view these materials as an important supplement to this text. The exercises suggested in Chapter 9 (The Physiology of Instrumental Music Performance) of this text should be required of all string players, adapted only for age and physical condition. No string instrument is actually held or gripped; the instrument rests on some part of the body or on the floor. The exception is, of course, the bow but we suggest that it also is not held but “rests” on the strings in performance. When the bow is introduced, some string teachers require that it be picked up with two hands and placed on the strings—never grabbed at the frog end and lifted to the strings, as the arm and fingers will be tense before even beginning to use the bow. Paul Rolland required violin and viola students to walk around the room holding their cases above their heads. The case is sufficiently heavy when held over the head that when the bow was lifted, it felt light, resulting in less initial tension in the right arm. Zweig has students raise the instrument above their heads in a “Statue of Liberty” stance while still learning the initial left-hand exercise. She is very much a hands-on teacher—helping to support the instrument, bowing for the student, moving and placing the student’s fingers, and more—all to increase freedom of motion. These expert teachers no doubt see one of their roles as “catcher”—catching the violin or viola that isn’t properly balanced on the shoulder blade. A teacher of violin and viola again becomes a catcher when the student begins to learn to tune with the pegs as one holds the instrument with the chin while reaching around the instrument to grasp the tuning pegs. These teachers also model. Cello and basses have the end-pin for support, but, again, the instrument should not be clutched; it can easily be rotated in any direction. The task of the string teacher is to devise multiple exercises that will initiate an appropriate stance while holding the instrument. Violin, viola, and bass players should practice standing as much as possible. Standing with the feet appropriately spaced supports the entire body, and the clever teacher can ask the student to flex knees, stomp, or make other body movements during specified notes or rests. Proper posture is critical in standing and sitting. We have mentioned “ghosting”—sliding back and forth on the fingerboard. Students should also tap each finger in each position as a check on any finger or wrist tension. Initial practicing in more than one position, say, first and third, further reduces the chance of setting the muscles in one position. The three string pedagogues cited recommend that when the bow is introduced, it not only be placed on the strings with both hands but held in a “high” bow hold position—not initially at the frog but a bit higher on the stick—which moves the fulcrum up and makes the bow seem lighter. To reduce tension in the bow hold, each finger should be lifted from the bow—in sequential order or randomly to ensure that there is no hugging of the instrument or bow. Some string teachers emphasize the neck muscles, and Zweig promotes all of the exercises in the Alexander technique. Chapter 28 (The Violin) should be read by everyone, since information is presented in that chapter that applies to all of the string instruments.

Double Stops A double stop is produced by simultaneously bowing across two adjacent strings. Double stops appear regularly in solo and ensemble literature for violin, viola, and cello. Basses seldom see double stops except in contemporary music, and when required they are usually played divisi. The bottom note of any double stop is the dominant pitch in forming the interval. Major and minor thirds and sixths, in which one of the two notes is an open string, are the most frequently written double stops and easily played on violin, viola, and cello. Fingered thirds and perfect fifths, without an open string, are deceptively difficult to play in tune. Two difficulties in playing double stops are: (1) fitting the fingers in the physical space required by the interval; and (2) bowing, as more bowing precision is required to play two notes evenly and together. Playing string instruments may require more physical energy than the winds and percussion since there must be musical intensity with minimal, or no, tension in any muscle in the body. Locked knees when standing or an awkward posture while sitting affects not only the technique but the sounds produced.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 394

394

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

RIGHT ARM AND HAND MOVEMENT The Bow The right hand guides and pulls (and sometimes pushes) the bow. Position and freedom of motion are both important. Since most tunes in beginning string methods could be executed by holding the bow like a baseball bat, bad habits are easily formed. The bow is held with a light touch and a relaxed right arm and hand. The bow is initially placed close to the bridge with light pressure. The first and second fingers may contact the bow stick at various points depending upon the tonal intensity desired and what seems natural for the player’s fingers. A technique that helps develop a correct right-hand position is to use a cardboard tube, egg carton, or special device to control the horizontal movement. Practicing in front of a mirror is always recommended. Paul Rolland advocated a changeable bow hold, with beginners using a higher bow hold (at the balance point) to compensate for the bow’s weight, especially when it is lifted from the strings. As the muscles strengthen, the hand gradually moves to the position pictured in Figure 27.10. When playing, the weight of the bow should not produce tension as it is supported by the strings, not the arm or wrist. When playing near the frog, the bow is controlled by the second and third fingers and the fourth finger (for violin and viola) is placed on top of the stick. When playing in the middle of the bow, the forearm and wrist are straight. When playing at the tip of the bow, the wrist is relaxed but rotated slightly downward. In all three positions the hand and two fingers move naturally to provide balance for the bow. Movement is through the large FIGURE 27.10 Correct bow hold for violin muscles—shoulder to elbow to wrist. The bow hold changes as it crosses the strings so the hand position will vary slightly depending upon the string being played. Crossing strings is a smooth operation and involves rolling the arm and bow together. Bass players think of reaching out as they “roll” to a higher string. The bow draws the tone from the string. The basic motion is either down- or up-bow (with notation as and , respectively) alternating for each note unless otherwise indicated, such as a slur or other specifically notated bowings. The three factors essential to perform dynamics with good tone are: (1) the placement of the bow (contact point) on the string; (2) the weight of the bow on the string (as controlled by the right shoulder and arm); and (3) the speed of the bow. These are not mutually exclusive as increased weight applied to the bow may require moving the bow closer to the bridge and vice versa; exact bow placement differs slightly by instrument. The tilt of the bow is a fourth factor. In order to maintain the same volume level and the same tone quality throughout the duration of a long note, the bow is held flatter to enable more hair to come in contact with the string. The lower strings, including the viola, use a flatter bow to focus on tone.

BOWING Emphasis should be placed on use of the full bow to “pull” the tone from the string. With beginners, however, the full bow is often overemphasized, resulting in tension. Initially short rhythm patterns should be played on open strings. Students with short arms should use one-half or two-thirds of the bow to ensure correct posture. Common bowing problems are touching two strings and maintaining a parallel bow. The use of initial bow strokes on two adjacent strings (a double stop), however, is a useful way to help keep the bow stroke perpendicular to the strings. The right elbow should straighten on a long down-bow with the wrist remaining flexible as the hand travels slightly away from the body.

Speed, Weight, and Point of Contact Speed and weight of the bow (in addition to having a high-quality instrument) are the primary ingredients of a good tone, though by no means are these the only ones. Too much weight of the bow on the string can produce a scratchy, dull sound because the upper overtones are suppressed; and excess pressure, coupled with too slow a bow speed on the upper strings, will make a raspy, harsh tone, extremely unpleasant in quality. Weight has more effect on tone as one plays closer to the frog unless the weight of the bow is reduced as it nears the frog. To improve tone quality ease the bow weight, appropriately increase the speed (usually), or shift the point of contact on the string. A scratchy tone may also be due to the bow not being at right angles to the string. Opposite tonal problems arise from the reverse bowing

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 395

STRINGS PRINCIPLES

395

faults. If too little bow weight is applied to the string, coupled with a fast bow or playing too far from the fingerboard, the tone will be hoarse and thin because of the lack of the fundamental pitch. (Sul tasto bowing over the fingerboard, of course, calls for just this type of fast, light bowing.) To correct a thin tone, increase bow weight, slow the speed, or play nearer the fingerboard. Volume of tone depends upon a good-quality instrument and bow speed—the faster the bow, the greater the sound produced. For this reason, a short forte note may use more bow than a short piano note. Louder tones are played nearer the bridge, softer tones nearer the fingerboard. Because using the bow near the bridge requires more weight, this weight is inextricably involved in volume though it is less a factor than speed. A full bow produces the best sound on the violin and viola, so teachers encourage students to use a full bow as early and often as feasible. For beginners, however, this procedure may result in too fast a bow. The full bow technique for expression is not applicable to cello or bass even though the bows are shorter. For comparable effects the bass player uses about one-half the bow length and the cellist about two-thirds the length.

DYNAMICS The down-bow results in a natural decrescendo, the up-bow in a natural crescendo. Because the bow is heavier at the frog and lighter at the tip, more weight must be exerted in the tip area if the sound is to stay constant. The listener wants to hear consistent intensity throughout the length of any note, requiring the rate of change to be greater near the frog. This rate of change explains why intelligent use of the bow is so difficult to master and why so many students are prone to avoid it. The weight on the bow is from the whole arm, not the fingers alone, but the arm weight is transferred to the bow through the fingers, especially the index finger. At times, however, the second, third, and fourth fingers are also used to increase bow weight depending on the section of the bow being used. Loudness is affected by increased speed and weight, the amount of hair on the string, and placing the bow closer to the bridge. Too much weight will cause the tone to crack. Too fast a bow will produce a surface tone, as will moving the bow too close to the bridge. Good tone quality on a high-quality instrument is produced by the friction of the stroke—the right proportion of bow speed and bow weight on the string. Friction is increased by slowing the speed of the stroke and applying greater weight. The position of the bow is also a factor; it must be at the right contact between the bridge and fingerboard and tilted at the correct angle so that the appropriate amount of hair contacts the string. The tension of the bow hair itself has an effect on the tone quality. When the left hand shifts to a new position, the bow also moves slightly in the same direction in order to keep the same proportion of the string vibrating. Arm weight is increased by rolling the forearm in toward the body and is commonly called pronation. Speeding up or slowing down the bow on a single note affects both tone and volume unless the player changes speed at the tip where more bow is needed, or at the frog where less is required. To keep an even tone quality and volume, different speed and weight are needed not only for the up-bow and down-bow, but also for the different strings. On the higher strings and in the higher positions, bow speed should generally be greater. The heavier strings require more weight and less speed. Attacks and releases are an important part of bow technique. There are at least two general methods of initiating sound: the attack and the touch. The attack is produced by placing the bow on the string in advance with weight starting at the instant the bow initiates motion; this method is called martélé (also for chords). The touch attack is produced by setting the bow in motion before the final weight is applied; the bow is pressed down rather gently to begin the tone. To assist with the release, a somewhat circular motion of the arm and bow is necessary if an attack and release are not to be abrupt and awkward. It is a figure-eight motion with its principal characteristic not the figure it makes but the smooth turning movement at the beginning and closing of the phrase. On a down-bow release, the right elbow lifts in a circular or elliptical motion. If the release comes at the tip of the bow, the player may perform it smoothly by slowing down, changing the balance from the index to the middle two fingers, and letting the bow drift noiselessly toward the fingerboard.

Position of the Bow on the String The bow must be drawn straight across the string to help keep the intensity constant and maximize the bow’s function. To counteract the tendency to pull the bow clockwise, the player should push the right wrist outward to keep the bow straight. The general rule is that the hair is at right angles to the string and the bow is about halfway between the bridge and the fingerboard, with variations for the lower strings—and the lower string instruments (Figure 27.11). When bowing at the tip, the first finger is firmly on the bow; at the frog, the third and fourth fingers do the work, almost lifting up on the bow. The middle area between the bridge and fingerboard is used for most playing; here the bow can be moved fairly rapidly with medium to heavy weight, or slowly with low or medium weight, without changing the tone quality. The slant of the hair on the string must not be confused with the angle of the entire bow. As the bow moves perpendicularly, it may be flat, which enables all the bow hair to touch the string, or it may be tilted. Cello and bass players

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 396

396

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

use a flat bow most of the time. When the full hair of the bow is used, particularly in the upper half of the bow close to the frog, it is desirable to use less hair since the bow is stiffer. More hair is used on the lower strings than on the higher; more is used for forte and fortissimo than for piano and pianissimo; more is used at the tip than at the frog. Lower string instruments with shorter bows use bow weight as a major factor for dynamics as their bowing is generally flat. The full hair is used for a bouncing bow with the bouncing motion reduced by tilting the bow. A more brilliant tone is produced with the edge of the bow hair, which favors the higher partials, and conversely a more mellow sound results from more hair on the bow. Abrupt stopping and starting of the bow within a phrase is unmusical; a new stroke is begun by the arm before the hand and wrist have brought the bow to the conclusion of its present FIGURE 27.11 Violin: bow at right angle to strings motion—the arm begins to move into the up-bow just as the down-bow is being completed so that the motion is continuous and smooth. The elbow is held out enough to help create the flowing movement, but not so far as to create tension. The motion of the forearm does not cease until the end of the phrase and a follow-through motion. The continual curving motion means that the down- and up-bows move on different planes; to stay on the same plane would require a complete halt and a shift to the opposite direction, creating a dead spot in the string. The point of contact on the string generally does not change, but the angle of the bow does, except in shifting, gradual dynamic changes, and other technical and expressive requirements. The sound must be in the mind; as Janos Starker reminds us—anticipation is part of the music—one anticipates time, dynamics, melody, and harmony. Some writers advocate using as little shoulder movement as possible; others suggest that a rotary motion in the shoulder will make for a smoother bowing action. The wrist is more flexible in fast bowings, but the action still originates in the body—through the shoulder, upper arm, forearm, and wrist. The tendency to tense the upper arm while playing fast notes, in an effort to exert more energy to the wrist, must be avoided. Because a beautiful tone is the ultimate goal of fine string playing, a brief summary of the factors and determinants of beautiful tone is appropriate. Tone comes from a combination of articulation of fingers and bow, quality of attack and release, finger application, vibrato, proper point of contact, control of bow speed, quality of the instrument, condition of the bow hair, quantity of rosin on the string, and the acoustics of the room. A harsh tone is produced by too much bow weight, too slow or weak bowing, or the bow placed too near the bridge. A thin tone is caused by insufficient bow weight, the bow placed too close to the fingerboard, or the bow moved too rapidly in relation to the weight applied. The overriding factor is one of ease; the whole body must maintain good posture and remain tension-free. If one part of the arm or hand is stiff, it is nearly impossible for the rest of the playing mechanisms to be relaxed.

Bowings/Articulations Bowings are a lifetime study, individual and orchestral. All types of bowings should be practiced on each of the string instruments (Table 27.1).

TABLE 27.1 Abbreviations are used to define six divisions of the bow

W.B.—Whole bow

Pt.—Point (upper third)

U.H.—Upper half (lightest part)

M.—Middle (middle third)

L.H.—Lower half (heaviest part)

Fr.—Frog (lower third)

Dynamic levels are generally altered by one or more of several techniques. To play louder: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Increase the focus (allow more bow hair to pull the string). Add more bow weight. Use a faster bow speed. Move the bow closer to the bridge, which will create more focus on the core sound.

To play softer, opposite actions are required, including using less bow weight and a faster bow (flautando).

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 397

STRINGS PRINCIPLES

397

Détaché Alternating down-bow and up-bow for each note is known as détaché, and is the most commonly used bowing. Bow direction is alternated smoothly for each note (Figure 27.12). It is a continuous stroke. Beginners practice in the upper half of the bow, which enables the teacher to observe the release by the forearm. In order to play this passage smoothly and with the same dynamic level, start FIGURE 27.12 Bow markings for détaché at the frog and play the first note 1⁄2 down-bow, up 1⁄4 bow, and the last note of the first measure 1⁄4 down-bow arriving at the middle of the bow. The second measure would be up-bow using 1⁄2 bow, then down 1⁄4 bow, and back up 1⁄4 bow ending the measure at the starting point (frog). A fuller sound at the same tempo is achieved by doubling the amount of bow used for each note. Changes of direction are done smoothly, without stopping or hesitation. The legato bow is a relaxed and slower détaché.

Staccato Staccato is played with a separated, swift bow movement while leaving the bow on the string. Unlike the détaché bowing, there is a brief silence after each note. Alternating bowing direction, the note begins and ends precisely. The area of the bow and speed of the bow are dictated by the dynamic level desired and the note duration (a quarter note or eighth note). One uses the upper half of the bow for a softer staccato and plays closer to the frog for forte.

Slurs Slurs between open strings are the most successful way to introduce playing two notes without a change in bow direction. Any part of the bow can be used depending on the music that precedes and what follows the slur (Figure 27.13).

FIGURE 27.13 Introduction of slurs

Slurred Staccato and Hooked Bow These techniques are similar to slurs in that the bow moves in the same direction while playing several notes. For slurred staccato, the bow stops between each note to give definition and a slight silence. The first line of Figure 27.14 illustrates an introduction to slurred staccato. (a)

(b)

(c)

W.B.

W.B.

FIGURE 27.14 Introduction of slurred staccato

Figure 27.15 introduces the preparation for hooked bowing at a slow tempo using meters that the student has previously mastered. Hooked bowing is similar to staccato slurs, but is used most frequently on dotted eighths and sixteenths, or quarter and eighths in, and is added to avoid distribution problems in détaché passages or to unify section bowings. At an extremely fast tempo, beyond the player’s ability to play hooked bow, détaché is used.

FIGURE 27.15 Hooked bowing

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 398

398

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

Spiccato An articulation unique to strings is spiccato. This technique uses the right arm, wrist, and fingers to bounce the bow on the string in either a brushing or crisp motion. It is normally played at the balance point of the bow and the direction is alternated for each note. Figure 27.16 illustrates spiccato notation.

off

on

FIGURE 27.16 Introduction of spiccato

Rolland suggests that an unhurried bouncing of the bow on a string is the best preparation for spiccato. Letting the bow bounce on the string helps to develop balance and control of the bow. The violist Barrett suggests that the fast spiccato or sautille also begins with slow even strokes but as the tempo increases, the weight of the hand is shifted to the little finger with the motion becoming one of up and down, rather than back and forth. Rolland also encourages students to hold the bow lightly; there being no need to grasp the bow tightly.

Tremolo Tremolo is executed by playing alternating down- and up-bows very rapidly using only a small amount of bow and a relaxed wrist. Tremolo is notated . It is played near the tip of the bow.

Marcato and Martélé Marcato is used to refer to the style of the music itself, whereas martélé refers to the bowing used to achieve a marcato style. It is notated with the term, the abbreviation for marcato, or the house top accent mark: . The bow stick is depressed before initiating the tone. Martélé is like a heavy staccato bowing and seldom is used in soft passages. It is a release stroke with a beginning and end. Bow weight is increased just before the bow moves, then immediately reduced. The bow remains on the string.

Portato Also called louré, portato is used to play several notes with the bow moving in the same direction. Portato differs from slurred notes and slurred staccato in that there is a definite “beginning” to each note, but each note is held as long as possible. This is achieved by giving slightly more weight to the longer note. Portato is notated in Figure 27.17.

FIGURE 27.17 Introduction to portato

Advanced Bowings A complete list of terms for bowings and string articulations would easily comprise an entire chapter in itself. Several sources are included in the resources section at the end of this book. Some of the more commonly encountered bowings are: 1. Détaché lance—a very slight separation between notes, but without an accent. 2. Détaché porté—a light swelling produced at the beginning of the note, followed by a diminuendo at the end. Similar to louré, but separate bows rather than the same bow are used for each of the notes in the passage. 3. Collé—detached notes initially produced with very short strokes near the frog. The bow digs in, not heavily, but suddenly. Fingers begin in a rounded position and are extended when the bow reaches the tip. 4. Sautillé—a springing stroke resembling a very rapid spiccato but used at faster tempos than when spiccato is used. The bow stroke is rapid and short and played near the balance point of the bow, allowing the natural bounce of the

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 399

STRINGS PRINCIPLES

5.

6.

7. 8. 9. 10.

399

bow to provide the articulation without the bow leaving the string. Speed is controlled by the movement of the hand and wrist. Staccato volante (or flying staccato)—marked like a slurred staccato is used in fast tempos. The bow is placed on the string and allowed to bounce as a series of notes are articulated in a single bow stroke. It is easier to perform in the up-bow direction than the down-bow direction, but both are required. Weight in the arm or hand is alternately applied and released through the bow in a “trembling” motion. Ricochet—unlike staccato volante, which starts with the bow on the string, ricochet is when the bow is dropped from above the string and allowed to bounce. This can be done only with the down-bow stroke and rarely involves more than two or three notes at a time. Speed is regulated by the bow’s position. Fouetté (or whipped bow)—produced near the tip or point, usually with an up-bow. After a down-bow, the bow is lifted slightly off the string and comes down with a fast, energetic attack. Col legno—striking the string with the wooden part of the stick rather than the hair. It is a special effect usually used for rhythmic ostinatos. Ponticello—the bow is placed very near the bridge. Light, swift strokes produce a tone with many of the upper partials and a weak fundamental. Sul tasto—bowed over the fingerboard, the result is a soft, dark, “wooden flute” tone quality. It is sometimes referred to as “flautando.”

SUZUKI No discussion of strings would be complete without reference to the methodology of Shinichi Suzuki. Almost half of string teachers maintain contact with developments in this methodology although are not strict Suzuki teachers. The basic principle is that playing a string instrument is as natural as learning one’s language. This idea promotes tensionfree playing as students are relaxed. Other principles include the importance of listening, playing by ear, and continually listening and adjusting intonation. Instruction is sequential, one skill at a time. The student is not introduced to a second skill until s/he has demonstrated mastery. Even with coping with the new skill, review of previous skills is part of his sequential curriculum. Parental support is important with parents sometimes learning along with their child. The two hands are introduced separately with emphasis on tone development in bowing and with pizzicato. Suzuki’s ideas do not differ from accepted practices, gaining their notoriety in the early beginning age. Other famous pedagogues have viable ideas. The five finger patterns of George Bornoff paired with basic bowing techniques encourages instrument facility. Paul Rolland’s complete body approach encourages relaxed playing and Mimi Zweig’s videos appear to integrate all approaches in a non-judgmental curriculum.

PEDAGOGY In 1991, the Music Educators National Conference published Paul Rolland’s Basic Principles of Violin Playing,3 followed in the same year by Teaching String Instruments, a course of study that divided the curriculum into six broad main categories: tone quality, rhythm and bowing, finger patterns and scales, ear training, music reading and vocabulary, and music theory and history. In 2011, The American String Teachers Association published the ASTA String Curriculum (Benham, Wagner, Aten, Evans, Odegaard, and Leiberman), that is quite specific and organized by scope and sequence with three main categories of executive, musicianship and artistic skills and knowledge. Included are benchmark standards for each content area and end-of-program goals. The profession also has an excellent text, Strategies for Teaching Strings: Building a Successful String and Orchestra Program, 3rd ed. by Donald Hamann and Robert Gillespie. The text includes material on the orchestra program, recruiting, and advocacy as well as the basic teaching material. String pedagogy involves proper posture and positions as well as motion studies in performing, which makes the Internet especially important as a teaching tool. There are free lessons on almost any topic, along with sample material for self-instruction including some lessons exclusively on the Internet. One can find excellent material on almost every topic: the parts of the instruments, how to hold the instrument, how to hold the bow, how to change and/or replace string, and how to replace a fallen bridge. There are warm-ups, stretching exercises, and 20+ fun violin games. For motivation there is material on famous musicians. One can find Leonard Bernstein introducing the 7-year-old Yo-Yo Ma performing at the Kennedy White House, Joshua Bell in a master class taught by Ivan Galamian, as well as data on the various intonation systems and what music would require just, equal, or expressive intonation. Itzhak Perlman describes why he uses a Franco-Belgian bow grip while Yehudi Menuhin has a complete sequence of lessons along with Geoff Chalmers (discoverdoublebass.com) for double bass. Celloprofessor.com charges $37.75 a year for unlimited downloads. As with all YouTube material there are advertisements and an olla podrida of teaching suggestions, with most being correct. Excellent DVDs can be purchased, including those of Gerald Fischbach, Young, and Neubert, Paul Rolland, and Mimi Zweig. Instruction books also contain supplementary materials. String Explorer, Essential Elements 2000 for Strings,

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 400

400 THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

Orchestra Expressions, New Directions for Strings, and Sound Innovations are compatible with SmartMusic. Essential Elements 2000 for Strings and Sound Innovations have a DVD. String Explorer and Essential Elements 2000 also have an interactive website with String Explorer also having an interactive practice CD. An accompaniment CD is a common supplement to instruction books, with All for Strings and Muller-Rusch String Method being the exception.

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF INSTRUMENTS AND BOWS Rosin dust will fall from the bow during practice or rehearsal. Because rosin is an abrasive, the dust should be gently wiped off the body of the string instrument and bow stick with a soft cloth. If rosin becomes caked on the instrument or bow, have a string repairperson remove it. The body of the instrument can be polished a few times a year with a commercial polish made for string instruments that is available from most string instrument retailers or manufacturers. Continued handling of a string instrument’s body will eventually eat through the varnish. Do not let students use commercial furniture polish, even if it does smell better. The instrument is better protected if there are adequate storage facilities with temperature and humidity controls. Portable racks for cellos and basses are one solution if instruments must remain in the rehearsal space. Bows and instruments have their place, a place off-limits to music, books, lunches, and extra athletic shoes.

Hair The bow hair wears down each time the bow is used. With metal strings, the hair will wear out fairly rapidly. Worn hair does not hold rosin well and a clear, full tone becomes difficult to produce. This change can be so gradual that the student does not notice the change. Further, as the student develops, his or her bow strokes may improve at a pace matching the decline of the condition of the bow hair, so that there is a seeming lack of improvement in tone quality. The bow hair needs to be inspected and replaced at least once a year. Frequently, a single hair or two will come loose from one end of the bow. The hair(s) is removed by cutting with scissors or a nail clipper. Although students delight in using their teeth to yank out these hairs, the bow can be damaged unless the yank is sophisticated. Annual maintenance costs for new strings and a rehaired bow range from $100 for violin to $350 for the bass.

HEALTH ISSUES String players appear to have many more health-related issues when compared to wind and percussion instrumentalists, with most issues associated with repetitive stress injuries, particularly with the left hand. Cellists tend to have fewer issues than other string instrumentalists, and the left hand appears to be more prone to injuries than the right among all string players. Common issues include tendonitis, carpal tunnel syndrome, tennis/golfer elbow, and focal dystonia. Modifications to some instruments have been made to help reduce pain and discomfort. Perhaps the most famous (though not that frequently used) is the “cutaway” viola, which has one shoulder cut out of the body to make shifting easier and to help to relieve pain and injuries caused by playing in the upper positions. However, the primary method for limiting health-related issues is to remain in good physical condition, regularly stretch all parts (shoulder, arms, wrists, and fingers) of the upper limbs and not just before but during practice and rehearsals. If one feels pain while performing stop as soon as possible, rest, and then ice the area of discomfort.

TROUBLESHOOTING Physical Problems Body Buzzes and Rattles 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Items inside or touching instrument. A loose tuner (screw it back on tightly). A loose chin rest (special chinrest tool or paper clip in a pinch). Tailpiece contacting the chin rest. Loose purfling. End of string in the peg box is rattling against something. Cracks or open seams. Loose screw on endpin, or endpin itself.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 401

STRINGS PRINCIPLES

401

Endpin Does Not Hold or Set 1. 2.

Endpin must be sharp or holder provided. The restrainer is broken or twisted so the thumbscrew cannot reach the endpin. (Broken restrainers and thumbscrews must be repaired by a competent repairperson.)

Strings Strings Break or Are Difficult to Tune 1. 2. 3.

String breaks at bridge. Bridge notch may be too narrow, or bridge has been planed so thin it cuts the string. Have bridge recut or replaced. String breaks at nut. Notch is cut too narrow and string is pinched. Gut and wound strings are difficult to tune. (Loosen string, remove from notch, and run lead [graphite] pencil in the notch several times. If unsuccessful see a competent string repairperson.)

Gut Strings 1. Frayed, particularly where fingers frequently touch the strings. (Snip off the frayed pieces if there is ample string.)

Wound Strings 1.

Winding separates or breaks and unwinds, due to flawed string, sharp edge on nut, fingernails too long, or simply wear. (Correct cause, replace string.)

False String 1.

Gives off irregular vibrations sounding overtones more than the fundamental. (Replace string.)

Bow Difficult to Loosen or Tighten 1.

Bow hair too short or too long or threads on bow screw stripped. (Have repaired.)

Individual or “Hunks” of Hair Pull from Tip 1.

Individual hairs indicate a problem with knot or bonding of hair at tip. Larger portions indicate a loose bonding of hair at tip of bow. (Rehair. If the problem remains, exchange bow or replace.)

Bow Becomes Warped 1. 2.

Failure to loosen bow after playing. (Repairperson can reshape fiberglass.) Uneven distribution of hair. (Rehair bow.)

Tip Breaks 1.

Faulty grain in wood or a damaged tip. (Replace.)

Bowing Difficulty in Smoothly Manipulating the Bow 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Thumb is inserted too far through the bow. Thumb bends in instead of out. Thumb is positioned too far from frog. The fingers are spread too far apart. Move closer together, maintain relaxation. Little finger is flat instead of curved. Instrument and/or bow too large. Place finger in correct position. Change the angle of the bow to the string through the rise and fall of the wrist and the inward pull of the ring finger.

Difficulty in Changing Bow Styles 1.

Instrument is held too high or too low.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 402

402

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

Finger Facility is Hampered and Shifting is Too Slow 1. 2. 3. 4.

Arm is held too far to the left, putting the fingers in an awkward position and creating problems in shifting. (Encourage the student to make the elbow mobile.) Instrument resting too low in crotch of hand between thumb and index finger. (Base of index finger should be the contact point with the neck of the instrument.) The left wrist is bent in so that it touches the neck of the instrument, which slows the shifting fingers. The left wrist is bent too far outward, straining the wrist and forearm.

Bow Direction or Change 1. 2. 3. 4.

Place bow on the string with sufficient arm weight. Slow bow speed and weight prior to change, lift weight more at change, and follow-through: The arm and elbow change direction first, then the wrist, then fingers and bow. Avoid rigid bow hold or wrist. Nonlegato connection of bow: use a slightly circular path with the frog circling toward the player at the change of direction. Curve the fingers in when reaching the frog and stretch them back out toward the tip.

String Crossings 1.

Prepare bow by moving near the new string.

Poor Détaché Bowing 1. 2. 3.

Emphasize release in initial movement coasting to a gradual stop. (Lift bow on approaching the frog on the upbow.) Increase bow weight and weight of the thumb. Tension in the bow arm. Relax.

Spiccato 1.

Reluctance to relinquish control over the bow. (Lighten bow hold and the rotary motion of forearm.)

Intonation Out-of-Tune Notes 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Vocalize scales, arpeggios, and melodic passages; overreliance on finger placement aids; poor initial tuning; relying on kinesthetic feel rather than ear. Playing too fast. (Encourage listening.) Awkward left-hand position, preventing the natural dropping of the finger. (Adjust hand position based on physical characteristics.) Poor orientation of the fingers to conform to the contour of the neck and fingerboard. Mold hand to proper finger position. (Use finger aids such as pencil marks or small stickers on the fingerboard.) Poor concept of tonality in general and finger patterns in particular. (Increase instruction in scales, interval spacing, and multiple strings.) Poor concept of distances when shifting. (Loosen the finger contact points.) Inability to match pitches. (Practice vocalizing scales and sight-singing.) Inability to improve resonance and clarity. (Adjust pitch to achieve maximum resonance.)

Tone Quality Thin and Small 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Failure to draw bow parallel to strings, too little bow weight, playing too far from fingerboard. Lack of rosin on the bow. Failure to “pull” sound from the string. Lack of knowledge of the relationship of bow speed, point of contact, and bow weight. (Have students play whole notes while changing one of these variables and compensating by altering the other two.) Keep elbow high in the upper half of the bow, weight to string. Unbalanced or unmatched quality of strings. Use less pressure or replace. Scratchy, dull tone. (Too much weight of bow on string.) Use more finger pressure and a wider, but not slower vibrato.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 403

STRINGS PRINCIPLES

403

Limited Dynamic Range 1. Inadequate volume. (Increase bow speed.)

Shallow Tone, Sluggish Response 1. 2.

Use more left-hand finger pressure. Use more bow weight and rotate forearm.

Shifting Jerky or Not Smooth 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Allow fingers to lead hand to new position. Focus attention on closing motion of elbow and a leading or anticipatory motion by the arm. Lighten the contact points. Anticipate finger movements by a slight arm movement. Unnecessary accents. (Decrease the bow speed and bow weight during the shift by a slight right-arm motion.) Pulling string out of line. (Practice following the string direction; watch for tendency to push string to the left.) Loss of balance of hand en route to new position. (Give attention to contour of hand position.) Speed of shift is inappropriate to speed of passage. (Make appropriate adjustment.) Failure to move out and over the ribs of the instrument when shifting above third position. Out-of-tune shifting. (Play in same position.)

Vibrato Irregular 1. 2. 3. 4.

Locking hand to instrument’s neck. (Release support of hand, usually base of first finger and/or thumb.) Irregular or convulsive pulsations: tension in the left arm. Attempting to vibrate at right angle to string. (Slide finger up and down the string to reinforce orientation. Compel the first joint of the finger to move with the hand.) Excessive arm vibrato. (Useful for double stops, particularly octaves; arm vibrato can be controlled by third-position practice.)

Low String Instruments 1. 2.

Distance shifting. Requires lightness of movement. Use open strings and harmonics for quicker shifts.

Left Hand General Principles 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8.

Use natural spaces. Don’t squeeze the fingers together. Moving the thumb back in thumb position gives the left hand more power. Play with a flat, unbent wrist. Fingers less perpendicular to the fingerboard. Play with the fleshier part, but not with flat fingers. Change fingers by rotating the whole hand. Never stop the movement of the left arm when shifting. During a shift upward, lift the elbow first and as the arm does a natural circle downward in a clockwise motion, release the hand and shift to the note. Use the weight of the arm to move on the fingerboard. When shifting back, let the elbow do a circular motion counterclockwise. As the elbow naturally rebounds upwards, shift back.

Right Arm General Principles 1.

2. 3.

Use the weight of the arm to create friction with the bow. Dynamics are produced by changing the amount of weight on bow. Fingertips should be on the top edge of the bridge when transferring the weight of the arm onto the bridge. Begin bow movement by moving the upper arm first. The elbow anticipates the bow change and leads the bow arm motion. Feel the third and fourth fingers on the bow at the frog, the first finger on the bow at the tip.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 404

404

4. 5.

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

With fast, short bow strokes, move the lower arm. Right elbow higher than the lower arm unless on a lower string.

Upper String Instruments Technique Inability to Keep Elbow Centered 1. 2. 3.

Instrument is too far left or right. Instrument is held too much at an angle, causing the right elbow to move too low for the top string, distorting bow arm. (Correct the position.) Instrument held too flat, causing the right elbow to move too high for the low string, distorting the arm and putting excessive strain on the hand and neck.

Lack of Finger Dexterity 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Left arm too close to body. Wrist is collapsed against neck of instrument. Neck has dropped into slot between thumb and forefinger. Fingers should approach strings approximately perpendicular. Thumb tightly gripping neck. Holding left elbow still. (Elbow must rotate to the right for lower notes and left for higher notes.) Failure to raise hand higher when moving to a lower note. (Reposition curvature of fingers.)

RESOURCES Websites American String Teachers Association astaweb.com Mimi Zweig String Pedagogy stringpedagogy.com String Pedagogy Notebook http://stringtechnique.com/stringtechnique.com The Teaching of Action in String Playing paulrolland.net

Texts Alton, R. and L. Gordon (1977). Applebaum String Method: A Conceptual Approach. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred. Aten, J. (2006). String Teaching in America: Strategies for a Diverse Society. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association. Barnes, G. (2003). Applying Research to Teaching and Playing String Instruments. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association. Benham, S. and American String Teachers Association (2011). ASTA String Curriculum: Standards, Goals and Learning Sequences for Essential Skills and Knowledge in K-12 String Programs, 2011 ed. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association. Berman, J., B. Jackson, and K. Sarch (1999). Dictionary of Bowing and Pizzicato Terms, 4th ed. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association. Cook, C. (1957). String Teaching and Some Related Topics. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association. Also available as an eBook.

Cowden, R. (1996). Highlights from the American String Teacher (1984–1994). Various Forums. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association. Dillon-Krass, J. and D. Straub (1991). Tips: Establishing a String and Orchestra Program. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Donnington, R. (1977). String Playing in Baroque Music. New York, NY: Simon & Shuster. Ervin, R.H. (2004). String Repair Manual. Normal, IL: National Association of Band Instrument Repair Technicians. Gerle, R. (2001). The Art of Bowing Practice: The Expressive Bow Technique. London: Stainer & Bell. ––– (2003). The Art of Practicing the Violin. London: Stainer & Bell. Gigante, C. (1986). Manual of Orchestral Bowing: Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association. Goodrich, K. and M. Wagner (2002). Getting it Right from the Start: A Guide to Beginning and Maintaining a Successful String Orchestra Program, 2nd ed. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association. Green, E. (1987). The Dynamic Orchestra: Principles of Orchestral Performance for Instrumentalists, Conductors, and Audiences. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ––– (1990). Orchestral Bowings and Routines, 2nd ed. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association. ––– (1999). Teaching Stringed Instruments in Classes. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association. Hamann, D. and R. Gillespie (2013). Strategies for Teaching Strings, 3rd ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Havas, K. and J. Landsman (1981). Freedom to Play: A String Class Teaching Method. New York, NY: Alexander Broude.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 405

STRINGS PRINCIPLES Hayes, P. (2002). The School Symphony Orchestra Experience: A Guide to Establishing a Full Orchestra in the Schools. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association. Honda, M. (2002). The Vehicle of Music: Reflections on a Life with Shinichi Suzuki and the Talent Education Movement. Miami: Summy-Birchard. Kanaan, R. (2007). A Handbook for Teaching Shifting to the Intermediate Level Violin Student. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, George Mason University. (AAT 3252078). Mischakoff-Heiles, A. (1985). Sforzando! Music Medicine for String Players: Selected Proceedings from the Illinois ASTA Conference, June 22–24, 1984. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association. eBook. Music Educators National Conference (1991). Teaching Stringed Instruments: A Course of Study. Reston, VA: Music Educators National Conference. Paterson, J. and J. Horsfall (1995). Early Days II; A Guide to the First States of String Playing. London: Rhinegold. Rabin, M. and J. Smith (1990). Guide to Orchestra Bowings through Musical Styles. A Manual to be Used with Video, revised ed. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin orchestra outreach. Rolland, P. (1972). Prelude to String Playing. New York, NY: Boosey & Hawkes. Rolland, P., S. Johnson, R. Wharton, R. Avery, and E. Krolick (1985). Young Strings in Action: Paul Rolland’s Approach to String Playing Farmingdale, NY: Boosey & Hawkes. Rolland, P., M. Mutschler, and A. Hellerandt. (2002). The Teaching of Action in String Playing. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association. Starker, J. (1979). An organized method of string playing. In M. Grodner (ed.) Concepts in String Playing: Reflections by Artistteachers at the Indiana University School of Music. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Starr, W. and C. Starr (1984). To Learn with Love: A Companion for Suzuki Parents. Miami: Summy-Birchard. Suzuki, S. (1990). Man and Talent: Search into the Unknown. Ann Arbor, MI: Shar. Turbyfill, H. (2005). Basic String Maintenance: A Teachers’ Guide. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association.

Instructional Resources Allen, M., R. Gillespie and P. Tellejohn Hayes. (2000). Advanced Technique for Strings. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard Corporation.

405

Capet, L. (1993). Superior Bowing Technique. Maple City, MI: Encore Music. Dick, W. and L. Scott. (2007/2008). Mastery for Strings: A Longitudinal Sequence of Instruction for School Orchestras, Studio Lessons, and College Methods Courses, Levels 1 & 2. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Music. Fishbach, G. (2003). Viva Vibrato. San Diego, CA: Kjos Music. Fisher, S. (2003). 300 Exercises and Practice Routines for The Violin. London: Simon & Schuster. Gazda, D. (1995). High Tech for Strings. San Diego, CA: Kjos Music. Green, E. A. (1999). Teaching Stringed Instruments in Classes. Bloomington, IN: Tichenor. Harmon, J. (1995). Improvise! Westford, MA: JIME. Klotman, R. (1996). Teaching Strings: Learning Through Playing. 2nd ed. New York: Schirmer. Kjelland, J. (2002). Orchestral Bowing: Style and Function. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Music. Norgaard, M. (2010). Jazz Wizard Series, Volumes 1& 2. Pacific, MO: Mel Bay. Rabin, M. and P. Smith. (1991). Guide to Orchestral Bowings Through Musical Styles. 2nd ed. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin-Madison Liberal Studies and the Arts. Sabien, R. and R. Phillips, (2000 & 2008). Jazz Philharmonic, Books 1 & 2. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Music. Starr, W. (1999). The Suzuki Violinist. Revised ed. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Music. Young, P. (1985). The String Play: The Drama of Playing and Teaching Strings. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.

Instructional Videos (see also Violin Instructional Videos) The Art of Vibrato with Gerald Fischbach. Ann Arbor, MI: Shar Music. Exploring the Bow Arm (2 Vols.). Ann Arbor, MI: Shar Music. Secrets of String Success. (2006). Chase, J., P. Young, G. Fischbach, B. Neubert, and B. Peterson. University of Texas String Project: Globalcity Films. String Clinic to Go (3 Vols.). Ann Arbor, MI: Shar Music. String Pedagogy. (Mimi Zweig, 2008). Bloomington, IN: Mimi Zweig String Pedagogy. The Teaching of Action in String Playing (14 Vols.) (Paul Rolland, 1989). Urbana, IL: Rolland String Research Associates. www.paulrolland.net/

NOTES 1. 2.

Benade, A. (1992). Horns, Strings, and Harmony. New York, NY: Dover, 113. Kanaan, R. (2007). A Handbook for Teaching Shifting to the Intermediate-Level Violin Student. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, George Mason University, VA, AAT 3252078.

3.

Rolland, P. (1990). Basic Principles of Violin Playing: A Report Prepared for the MENC Committee on String Instruction in the Schools. New York, NY: Boosey & Hawkes.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 406

CHAPTER 28

The Violin

28

HISTORY The history of the violin is filled with hundreds of ancestors from dozens of countries. The common characteristic of these ancestors is a sound produced by means of a stretched string. The most direct precursors of the violin were the rebec and the vielle. Known by a wide variety of names, the vielles came to Europe from Asia, probably in the ninth century. The vielles dropped their drone string(s), retaining three to five melody strings tuned similarly to those of modern Western string instruments. Scholars continue to debate whether the violin was a direct descendant of the vielle, as both were used widely in fifteenth- and sixteenth-century Europe. The first nonfretted fingerboard, F-shaped sound holes, and waist are often attributed to Caspar Tieffenbrucker (actual name Duiffoprugcar), but many authorities hesitate to assign an exact origin. It may be Vuillaume who a b patterned (1827) the violin on the viola da gamba, but the great instruments were made between the mid-seventeenth to mid-eighteenth centuries—by FIGURE 28.1 (a) Open strings and; (b) first position range of the violin Amati, Guarnerius, and Stradivarius. Amati began making violas in the early 1500s. A 1564 instrument survives at Oxford University. The violin is the soprano member of the string family and is available in 1⁄32, 1⁄16, 1⁄10, 1⁄8, 1⁄4, 1⁄2, 3⁄4, and full size. All violins have four strings that are tuned as shown in Figure 28.1. The majority of string students start on violin. Because literature for the violin is plentiful and the instrument itself can be obtained at a price many families can afford, the violin is an ideal beginning instrument.

SELECTING THE VIOLIN The size of the violin is important for young players because bad habits result from too large an instrument. Bad bowing positions, poor wrist and finger action, and an incorrect arm position can result when the violin does not fit the player. The correct size is determined by extending the left arm while holding the violin. The fingers should comfortably extend around the scroll with the elbow slightly bent (Figure 28.2a). When instruction is begun in the primary grades, schools should invest in the smaller sizes so parents do not constantly have to trade to a larger size. Students should not advance to larger physical instruments until physically ready. If the violin is too large, the arm must stretch uncomfortably to reach first position and the fingers will not be in the correct position on the strings (Figure 28.2b). If the violin is too short, the arm will cramp and the left elbow bend excessively, thus creating tension—the major cause of poor violin performance.

(a)

Chin Rests The chin rest provides an elevated, contoured surface that enables the performer to lever the violin with the left edge of the jaw. Chin rests are made in many sizes, shapes, and prices

(b) FIGURE 28.2 Checking violin size: (a) correct; (b) too large

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 407

THE VIOLIN

407

to accommodate the many sizes and shapes of jaws, chins, arm lengths, and parents’ purses. There are at least 50 different chin rests but all are basically of two types: one that straddles the tailpiece, and one that clamps to the left of the tailpiece. In either case, the chin rest is for the jaw, not the side of the face. It should have a fairly definite ridge at the top and on the side, and otherwise be flat enough to fit the chin. It is made so that it does not rest on the violin body, leaving the body free to vibrate. The chin rest helps the player adjust the instrument to the length of the neck and also protects the wooden body from the sweat and oils of the face. Rolland suggests the following considerations in selecting a chin rest: 1. 2. 3.

A chin rest should have a well-molded back ridge and a contact surface that slopes slightly downward toward the top of the violin. Avoid chin rests that have a surface that rises toward the direction of the scroll. The jawbone should rest far back on the chin rest, its inner arch pulling back against the ridge of the chin rest. The jawbone should cross over the lowest point of the chin rest, at the left side of the ridge. If the player has a large fleshy jaw, a broad, flat chin rest is appropriate. The player with a long neck requires a higher chin rest. Players with short arms usually like a chin rest that moves the violin to a position rather high on the shoulder.1

Chin rests are mounted over the tailpiece and are either centered directly over the tailpiece or lie to the left of the tailpiece. Those that assist the student in holding the violin to the left of the front of the body are by far the most useful. If the chin rest touches the tailpiece, an irritating buzz is possible. The chin rest should be padded with cork and securely tightened down with a chin-rest tool.

Shoulder Rests Shoulder pads are designed to reduce the distance between the back of the violin and the player’s left shoulder so that the player doesn’t have to move the head down or raise the shoulder—both sources of tension. Shoulder pads should be constructed from foam rubber that is inexpensive, can be cut to any shape, and can be stacked in multiple layers. Several commercial pads are available and may cost $40 or more. The Play on Air (air-filled) shoulder rest is often recommended for more advanced players. Any padding, of course, affects the tone quality and students should be encouraged to listen carefully as they experiment with various sizes of shoulder pads. Whether to use a shoulder pad is determined by the student’s physical characteristics, especially the length of the neck. A pad is needed if the student must move the head or shoulder to “balance” the instrument.

GUITAR POSITION Using the banjo or guitar position is one approach to starting beginners, especially very young children. With the guitar position, the student obtains the proper feel of the instrument, can play tunes by fingering with the left hand and plucking (or strumming) with the right, and, if care is given to left-hand finger positions (determined by the angle of the violin), can establish a solid foundation that is unchanged when the instrument is raised to the neck (Figure 28.3). A great advantage is that this position allows the teacher and student to focus on intonation. The transfer from guitar position to under-the-chin pizzicato playing or use of the bow is natural. In guitar position, the side of the left thumb and base of the firstfinger knuckle lightly touch the neck. Well-trimmed fingernails should point toward the bridge, not the ceiling. The palm faces the instrument.

HOLDING THE VIOLIN The violin is held on the left shoulder slightly less than 45 degrees to the front of the body. The end button pin touches the neck. The instrument rests on the inner part of the shoulder, close to the neck and over the collarbone. The fingerboard should be nearly parallel with the floor, but will change slightly as the player’s technique advances. To teach the proper holding position, ask the student to stand erect while facing you. The stance should be erect, but relaxed with the feet shoulder-width apart and the left foot slightly forward for balance—the

FIGURE 28.3 Violin held in guitar position

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 408

408

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

arms in a natural position by the sides. Have the student swing arms and flex knees to ensure total body relaxation. Place the violin on the shoulder and have the student rotate the head toward the chin rest. The side of the jaw is used as leverage for holding the violin. The palm of the left hand can be placed on the right shoulder, making a “shelf” for the violin and helping to keep the instrument nearly parallel to the floor. The instrument should be balanced between the relaxed shoulder and the relaxed jaw/chin; it is not gripped. Have the student continue to hold the instrument with the jaw and chin, with the line of vision on the scroll. Stand close enough to catch a dropped violin. The student should then turn the head slightly, facilitating the view of both the music stand and the teacher. While holding the violin lightly but securely with the jaw, chin, and shoulder (avoiding tension), the student brings the left hand to the neck of the violin without changing the hold on the instrument. Check that the teeth are not clenched— avoidance of tension at all steps of instruction is critical to good violin playing. The violin neck is partially supported or at least steadied between the left thumb and the base of the first finger as illustrated in Figure 28.4. The wrist is straight. The inside thumb is held lightly against the side of the violin neck, providing minimal support. The thumb must be free to move and may extend slightly above the neck depending on the length of the student’s fingers. The thumb must not be locked in a rigid position, as it has to move to maintain the proper posture of the four fingers over the fingerboard. Tapping FIGURE 28.4 Correct position of the thumb and hand on the neck the thumb against the side of the fingerboard reduces tension. of the violin For the rest position, the violin is taken from the shoulder and held in the lap, or when standing, by the right hip. See Figure 28.5 for the proper holding position. Common faults in holding a violin include the following: 1. 2.

3. 4.

5.

The instrument is angled too far in either direction, causing unnatural movements for the bow arm and for the left arm. The angle of the instrument is too flat; not only does this strain the head and neck, but forces the student to raise the arm inordinately to play on the lowest string. The instrument is held too low or too high; both interfere with left-hand shifting and right-hand bowing. The left elbow is too far to the left; this is awkward for the left fingers and is detrimental to shifting. Finger placement takes precedence over elbow position. The instrument when supported in the “crotch” of the left hand makes good fingering and shifting impossible, as the violin will bounce from excessive movement under the neck of the instrument.2

FIGURE 28.5 Correct holding position for playing violin while standing

LEFT ARM AND HAND MOVEMENTS The traditional approach to the position of the left hand is a kind of folklore. Apparently the authors of most method books were taught by a short, pudgy little man who had to have his left elbow as far to the right and under the instrument as possible in order to place his fingers correctly on the strings. Because this was his greatest problem, he drilled his students on the importance of keeping the left elbow well to the right regardless of how uncomfortable this might be for the six-foot-six guy with long arms (who probably became so uncomfortable in the orchestra that he was an easy recruit for basketball). This six-foot-sixer could always play more easily in third position on the violin’s G string than in first position on the E string—for good reason. The moral, we hope, is obvious: the position of the left elbow is only important to the extent that it helps the finger position. The elbow should be placed where it enables the fingers to fall perpendicularly on the strings in a fairly straight line. The fingers are placed on the string so that the fingernails do not touch the string, but neither are they as far back as the fleshy part used for playing wind instruments. The proper spot is somewhere in between—right at the end of the fingers (which have not been unduly stretched or flattened). The elbow position changes depending on: (1) the position being played; (2) the left thumb position; (3) the use of vibrato; (4) shifting; and (5) special effects made by the left hand.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 409

THE VIOLIN

409

A good check for proper elbow placement is to see where the middle knuckles are positioned. The knuckles should be approximately level with the fingerboard. If the knuckles get above the level of the fingerboard, the fingers will curve too far and touch the string too close to the fingernail. If they are too low, the weight will fall away from the fingertips, creating tension in the hand and fingers. Muscular action will then be impeded and some of the driving force needed to press the string down will be lost. If the hand is high enough, the fingers should automatically have as much power as needed to depress the string. It is not a matter of great muscular strength (this is reserved for marching with the string bass), but of posture. These principles must be modified for players with short arms or hands and individuals with fingers of unusual length. If the little finger is inordinately short, as occasionally happens, more wrist and thumb movement will be necessary when this finger is used, but this change by no means counteracts the need for proper knuckle level. With the average hand, the little finger should fall in line on the strings just like the others. The hand, wrist, and forearm are usually straight, except when playing half position; fifth position and above; unusual extensions; and double, triple, or quadruple stops. The hand should barely bend at the wrist, either to the side or back and forth. There will be some turning but this should come as a result of changing positions. If the wrist is bent out too much, the first and second fingers may not be affected, but the third and fourth will not be able to obtain the necessary leverage, and the tone quality, especially on the E string, will be ugly. If the hand is turned out too much— that is, if the wrist is turned in to facilitate the higher strings—the palm of the hand will be flattened, the third and fourth fingers will have some advantage, but the first two fingers will be cramped. Emphasis should be placed on the idea of an “open” hand. The instrument is never cradled in the palm or crotch of the thumb. The angle of the left-hand fingers changes for different strings. For rapid playing in which large movements of hand and arm are undesirable, the fingers are placed over one of the two middle strings and moved to the other strings by changing the angle of the fingers rather than by moving the wrist or elbow. Third position may be the most natural for young students—students who are playing by ear, to whom the names of the notes are relatively unimportant. What feels natural without tension is ideal. For players with large hands, the common position is to hold the thumb high, the violin neck near the base of the thumb and below the knuckle of the first finger, but not so low as to rest on the flesh connecting the thumb and forefinger. Too low a thumb, for these individuals, can make the fingers stiff because it forces them to curve excessively. The opposite thumb position is necessary for short-fingered students: the thumbnail is placed close to the neck so that the little finger can easily reach the lowest string. With small hands and fingers, the thumb’s position may be almost under the neck of the instrument and the wrist held as straight as possible to give the fingers ample flexibility. A low thumb will help to reduce excessive movement for a small hand. The general rule, then, is that a large hand can use a higher thumb than a small hand. If the neck slips into the soft flesh of the palm, the hand position will be too high. Teachers of string instruments adjust positions to fit individual students. Sufficient finger pressure on the string is imperative for a clear pitch. There must be springy resistance from the string for the bow to function properly. Left-hand support creates this resistance. The fingers of the left hand should not strike the string percussively from directly above (because this nearly always results in tension) but drop lightly like springs to maintain relaxed flexibility. Two opinions exist as to the source of the correct pressure: the knuckles or the whole arm. These opinions actually complement each other, for the action of the knuckles is moved by the fingers, and a strong “push” from this area of the hand produces a good solid feeling on the strings. But this action must be backed up with a relaxed arm that adds to the strength of the hand. There will be little tonal support from the arm unless it is relaxed and free, with the movement originating in the left shoulder and upper arm; a stiff arm will force the player to depend upon the fingers alone for striking the strings. The energy in the finger movement of both hands can actually be traced to the player’s back, where the strongest muscles are. This was a primary conclusion in Paul Rolland’s research— he found that the energy emanates from the back, through the shoulder, down the upper and lower arms, through the wrist to the fingers. It is essential that all the “connecting” points be free of tension to allow the energy to flow. The cellist Janos Starker has long promoted the importance of the back muscles in cello performance. In establishing the proper shape of the hand for any one position, the player should think of a flexible “frame.” The frame of the hand is that distance between the outside two fingers—first and fourth—that will produce a perfect fourth on one string and an octave interval on two adjacent strings. For example, if the hand has the proper frame in first position on violin, the first finger on the G string will produce A and the fourth finger on the D string (adjacent) will produce A an octave higher. The feeling for this distance will change in the higher positions, but a flexible frame gives the young player a stable interval by which to judge where to place the fingers. The young player can increase security of pitch by leaving the first finger down whenever possible (as long as the finger does not become rigid and contribute to tension) and placement of the other fingers can be measured from it. However, if this practice is used when no longer needed, it inhibits a good vibrato and leads to a stiff hand. All master string teachers have advocated tension-free playing. When standing, the violinist must maintain flexibility in the knees, legs, hips, and the rest of the body. The player must make any adjustments necessary to maintain freedom to move those parts of the body while playing. The player, whether a beginner playing pizzicato in guitar position or

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 410

410 THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

an advanced performer, should be able to transfer weight from one leg to another. Violin playing uses nearly all of the muscles in the body, and the movement of one reflects a movement, however slight, in other muscles. Observation of accomplished players reveals a freedom in the legs, body, shoulder, and neck as well as in both arms, hands, and fingers.

RIGHT ARM AND HAND MOVEMENTS The Bow Hold Using both hands, the student holds the bow stick near the tip in the left hand and puts the right hand on the frog. The teacher then guides the right hand into a proper bow hold (as illustrated in Figures 28.6, 28.7, and 28.8). It is difficult to describe in prose: The tip of the thumb is placed on the bottom of the stick with the left side of the thumb touching the grip (or wire) and the right side of the thumb touching the inside-lower edge of the frog. The bow rests on the bent thumb. The first joint of the thumb is bent slightly outward. Suzuki teachers allow very small children to place the thumb under the frog. Rolland suggested that young students will initially profit from the high bow hold— four inches or more up from the frog. This hold allows the hand to be closer to the balance point of the bow.

FIGURE 28.6 Correct hand position from front of bow hold

FIGURE 28.7 Correct hand position from back of bow hold

FIGURE 28.8 Correct position of bottom of bow hold

In a “mature” violin bow hold, the first three fingers curve over the top of the bow with all of the knuckles slanted toward the tip. The first joint (or between the first and second joint) of the index finger rests gently on the grip (or wire). The second finger curves over the stick and across the thumb; the third finger curves over the stick; the tip of the little finger is in contact with the top of the bow stick near the third finger. The second and third fingers touch each other, and there are spaces between the index and the middle fingers. The necessary space between the fingers is best determined by the individual’s hand when relaxed and hanging at the side. As hands differ, so does the spacing of the fingers. All of the fingers should be relaxed and bent. A common fault among young players is failure to use the lower and upper thirds of the bow, although Suzuki advocates short bow strokes. With older players, avoiding the lower third is avoiding the uncomfortable feeling of having to adjust the wrist and lower the right elbow to make use of that portion of the bow. Also, it is more difficult to make a smooth change of direction at the frog, because the wrist is in its most bent position, several inches above the frog, the point that is most natural for young players. Exercises taught by rote such as the one in Figure 28.9 can be fun when played by the entire class (practicing bowing while keeping the notes simple). This exercise can be played detaché, staccato, spiccato, all near the frog (using a circular motion for motion freedom). Violin students must be cautious when playing near the frog, as there is a strong tendency for the thumb to cave in, causing tension in the wrist and restricting it from bending enough to keep the bow straight. The natural result is

0

1

2

3

4

tip frog tip

tip frog tip

tip frog tip

Play staccato, then spiccato, then …

tip frog tip

tip frog tip

FIGURE 28.9 Sample rote exercises for proper intonation and bowing

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 411

THE VIOLIN

411

that the violin moves slightly out of position on the shoulder and toward the center of the body, again restricting the natural follow-through of the right arm. As the Suzuki approach so well illustrates, rote playing for beginners has a number of advantages over starting students with notation. If the student echoes rhythmic and tonal patterns, learning to make simple music on the instrument by rote, the focus can be on bow position movement. For Suzuki, a secure right hand is necessary before the student is taught use of the left hand. Rote learning can teach students to listen to the sounds produced. Robert Gillespie, in his 2000 publication Essential Elements, also recommends teaching the hands separately, as does Hamann and Gillespie.3

TUNING Students should have fine tuners on all four strings. Initially, the student may rest the instrument in the lap, and while plucking each string with one hand, turn the fine tuners with the other to obtain the correct pitch. If the pegs are set close to pitch (perhaps with the help of the teacher), the fine tuners are adequate for these tuning exercises. When the instrument is under the chin, it should not be removed by the teacher to tune. The teacher may occasionally adjust the fine tuners (or the pegs), with the student as a “partner” in deciding when the string is in tune—but some students are quite competent if given the opportunity. When the student is ready to learn to use the pegs, the base of the violin rests in the lap with the bridge facing the student and, while turning the peg for the A string with the right thumb and index finger, the student plucks the string with the left thumb. The player continues plucking while turning the peg. The left hand turns the G and D pegs while the right hand plucks the string. The pegs should be turned toward the violinist (to lower the pitch), then raised to the correct pitch while pushing in. When the student is able to balance the bow on two strings without tension, tuning should be accomplished while bowing the notes with the upper half of the bow and turning the peg or fine tuner with the left hand (see Figure 28.10). It requires practice (and patience on the teacher’s part) for the student to learn to tune the A string, then even more practice to tune the FIGURE 28.10 Tuning with fine adjusters and bow E string to the A string.

HARMONICS During the very first lessons, the violinist should play harmonics. These are essential to facilitate getting around on the fingerboard; ear training; developing a flexible left hand and thumb; and developing a relaxed elbow, shoulder blade, and left hand/arm. In first position, the student should pluck an upper string (D or A for the heterogeneous class) and then touch the string with the fourth finger to produce the second harmonic, using a finger weight no greater than that of a ping-pong ball. Next, the student should be shown how to slide the fourth finger noiselessly on the string lightly toward the bridge to find the same pitch. Then, the young violinist should play the open string and slide the fourth (then the third, second, and first) finger up the string to match the octave (first harmonic). Repetition, alternating pizzicato and bow, alternating fingers and strings, and adding rhythms are all ways to enhance the practice of shifting to this and higher positions. A faster bow is necessary for harmonics to sound—practicing aids tone production. When fingerings in first position are started, continue to work on harmonics by rote with exercises such as those in Figure 28.11. 1

4

3

2

1

2

0

1

4

1

2

FIGURE 28.11 Rote exercises for harmonics: using a light touch

4

2

3

4

3

4

4

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 412

412

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

THE SHIFT Shifting on the violin refers to smoothly sliding the entire left hand toward or partially toward the bridge and back toward the nut. Shifting is used to extend the playing range of the instrument and to avoid awkward fingerings. Learning to shift smoothly and musically is of critical importance. Proper shifting is tension-free. Without shifting, string players would be limited to a range from the lowest open string to the distance the little finger could reach on the highest string. Shifting extends the range of each string and in the case of the violin extends the upper range of the instrument by two octaves. Shifting on violin is accomplished by loosening the minimal left-hand points of support: thumb, base of first finger, and finger on the string, while maintaining a firm hold with the chin and shoulder. The elbow bends when moving to a higher position, and the actual shift requires the hand and arm to begin moving, with the finger on the string the last to leave its position. A second pattern requires a change of fingers in shifting. One either shifts with the old finger (movement toward the fingerboard) or with the finger to be used for the new position. With shifting, the size of the shift should never be overestimated, as being slightly flat at the completion of the shift allows the player to “lead into” the exact pitch, which is usually more musically appropriate, especially in Romantic-era music. Thus, some violinists have a shifting rule: ascend with the old finger in pre-Romantic music; ascend with the new finger in Romantic and later music. In a third pattern, the player shifts, both when ascending and descending, by leading with the finger designated to play the next note. All shifting requires both mental and physical preparation. For example, the balance in the left hand is shifted prior to the shift so the balance is appropriate at the end of the shift. The old note is often thought of as helping, thus making it acceptable to hear the pitches produced by the old note finger during the shifts. The tempo of the music may cover some of the sound that naturally occurs during the shift but also this “extra” sound is one of the important tonal characteristics of string instruments. The music and the player’s ability level affect the type of shift used. Normally, the hand position maintains the same contour, retaining the feeling of balancing or supporting the instrument while the hand is moving. The speed of the shift usually matches the tempo of the music. Students must decide whether to cheat the duration of the old or the new note to allow for the time involved in shifting. Again, the music dictates. To achieve a smooth shift, the left hand must be relaxed. Figure 28.12 shows three examples of shifting. Example A is a basic shift from first to third positions, while both B and C show types of portamento, a slide from one note to another. 1

1

1

A Shifting, same finger first to third position

1

3

B Portamento, original finger

3

2

1

C Portamento, ending finger

FIGURE 28.12 Examples of shifting

Figure 28.13 illustrates the third position for each violin string. This position extends the range of each string by a fourth. When the student shifts to third position on the E string, the first finger can be placed on an A that can be checked for pitch with the next open lower string. These checkpoints can be important when students first begin to shift. Also, see the section on shifting in Chapter 27 (Strings Principles). Note the top note of each scale indicates use of the harmonic for that string using the fourth finger. Third position 1

2

3

4

0

1

D string

2

3

0

4

Third position A string

1

2

1

2

1

2

3

4

3

4

4

3

4

4

First position

First position

0

Third position

4

E string

1

2

3

4

Third position

G string 3

4

First position

FIGURE 28.13 Notes played in first and third position on violin

4

0

1

2

First position

1

2

3

4

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 413

THE VIOLIN

413

TEACHING VIBRATO As soon as students display a secure left-hand position and some evidence of a pitch center, they are ready to start using or learning vibrato. Preparation for vibrato is taught by having the students tap on the fingerboard. Students should initially be taught true vibrato on the violin by a back-and-forth rolling motion of the entire hand. From the wrist, the violinist rolls from the center of the pitch causing small fluctuations in pitch. Some arm movement can be used in producing vibrato. Vibrato should be taught in third position or higher to enable the hand to rest against the violin, providing support while the fingers attempt something new. Another reason for teaching vibrato in third position is to enable the left arm, wrist, and fingers to move in a more relaxed fashion, close to the central focus of the player. Yet another is to allow gravity to assist in the initial and formative phases of the alternating movement, so important in the beginning stage of developing vibrato. Vibrato will usually start fairly easily with the second finger in third position, after which the student should try the third finger. Early vibrato training often reduces the tendency toward tension in the left hand. There is little agreement on when to teach vibrato; Hamann and Gillespie delay until the third year of instruction.

WHAT TO PRACTICE Emphasis should be placed on intonation in the beginning string class and reiterated daily. Too much emphasis, however, leads to tension. Students must be encouraged to practice using double stops with open strings, and to tune octaves and especially perfect fifths. Frequent audio recording, with students critiquing themselves and others, emphasizes the importance of good intonation. To improve technically—on intonation and shifting—violinists should practice scales. One octave of the D, G, and A major scales are generally the first taught by string method books. Students should be encouraged to strive for accuracy with speed and given a rhythm chart to play rhythmic patterns on each pitch. The next scales learned are generally a two-octave G scale and the F scale (with arpeggios), after which D minor can easily be approached. As violinists progress on the scales with good intonation and speed, they should be encouraged to attempt three-octave scales using a variety of shifting to play a variety of rhythms and bowings. Small ensembles are essential to every string student’s personal growth. The amount of literature at various levels for string groups is remarkable—dating from original Renaissance music. These small ensembles help individual students develop their concepts of intonation, balance, and expressive musicianship. When ready, the student learns to fiddle. It’s great ear training and is fun. Practice should be done in front of a mirror and with frequent videorecording.

RESOURCES Websites Fiddler Magazine fiddle.com The Violin Society of America vsaweb.org The Violin Site theviolinsite.com

Texts Allen, M., J. Higgins, R. Gillespie and P. Hayes (2000). Essential Elements for Strings. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard. Auer, L. (2013). Violin Playing as I Teach It. Reading, UK: Books Ltd. eBook. Bachman, A., E. Ysaye, and A. Wier (2008). An Encyclopedia of the Violin. Mineola, NY: Dover. Cremer, L. (2002). Physics of the Violin. Cambridge: MIT. Flesch, C. and E. Rosenblith. (2000). The Art of Violin Playing, Book 1. New York, NY: Carl Fischer. Flesch, C., and G. Saenger (1970). Problems of Tone Production in Violin Playing. New York, NY: C. Fischer. Galamian, I. (2013). Principles of Violin Playing and Teaching, 2nd ed. Mineola, NY: Dover.

Hart, G. (1977). The Violin and its Music. Boston, MA: Longwood. eBook. Havas, K. (2005). A New Approach to Violin Playing. London: Bosworth. Jacoby, R. (1985). Violin Technique: A Practical Analysis for Performers. Sevenoaks, UK: Novello. Katz, M. (2015). The Violin: A Research and Information Guide. New York, NY: Routledge. Krayk, S. (1995). The Violin Guide for Performers, Teachers and Students. Fairfax: American String Teachers Association. Lieberman, J. (1997). Improvising Violin. New York, NY: Huiksi Music. Menuhin, Y. and W. Primrose (2008). Violin and Viola. London: Kahn and Averill. Polnaurer, F. (1974). Total Body Technique of Violin Playing. Bryn Mawr, PA: Theodore Presser. Also eBook. Ross, B. (2004). A Violinist’s Guide for Exquisite Intonation. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association. Also eBook. Rush, M. (2006). Playing the Violin: An Illustrated Guide. New York, NY: Routledge. ––– (2014). Playing the Violin: New York, NY: Taylor & Francis. eBook. Stolwell, R. (2011). The Cambridge Companion to the Violin. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. eBook.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 414

414

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

Violin Studies Easy/Beginning (Elementary or Middle School) Applebaum. Building Technique with Beautiful Music (Belwin). Bornoff. Finger Patterns (ASTA). Erwin, Horvath, McCashin, and Mitchell. New Directions for Strings (FJH). Flesch. Scales (Carl Fischer). Fletcher. New Tunes for Strings (Book 1) (Boosey & Hawkes). Herfurth. A Tune a Day Scale Book (Boston Music). Hrimaly. Scale Studies (G. Schirmer). Kelobar. Elementary Scale and Chord Studies (Rubank). O’Reilly. Fiddle Magic (Kjos). ––– Fiddle Rhythms (Kjos). Rolland. Action Studies (Boosey & Hawkes). ––– Prelude to String Playing (Boosey & Hawkes). Rose. Progressive Studies for the Young Violinist (Kjos). Schloat. Introduction to the Violin (Schloat Prod.). Schradieck. School of Violin Technic (Book 1) (Carl Fischer). Sevcik. Exercises in the First Position, Part 1 (C. Fischer). Sitt. 20 Etudes in the 1st Position (Vol. 1) (G. Schirmer). Whistler. First Etude Album (Rubank). ––– Introducing the Positions (Rubank). ––– Scales in First Position (Rubank). Wohlfahrt. 40 Elementary Studies (G. Schirmer). ––– 50 Easy Melodious Studies (Book 1) (G. Schirmer). ––– Op. 45 (Books 1 and 2) (Allans Music).

Medium (Middle or High School) Brown. Two Octave Scales and Bowings (Ludwig). Dont. Op. 37 (International Music Co.) Kayser. Elementary and Progressive Studies (C. Fischer). Kreutzer. Etudes (Alfred). McConnell. The New Dancla-Beriot Position Method (C. Fischer). Mazas. Forty Selected Studies (G. Schirmer). Neumann. Violin Left-Hand Technique (Theodore Presser). Rode. Etudes (G. Schirmer). Schradieck. Scale Studies (C. Fischer). ––– School of Violin Technics (2 vols.) (C. Fischer). Svecik. School of Violin Technics, Parts 2 and 3 (C. Fischer). ––– 20 Etudes in the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th Positions (G. Schirmer). ––– Changing the Positions, op. 8 (Elkan-Vogel). ––– Preparatory Studies in Double Stopping, op. 9 (Bosworth). Sitt. 20 Etudes in the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th Positions (Vol. 2) (G. Schirmer). Sitt. 20 Etudes with Change of Position (Vol. 3) (G. Schirmer). Trott. Melodious Double Stops (2 vols.) (G. Schirmer). Whistler. Developing Double Stops (Rubank). ––– Introducing the Positions (2 vols.) (Rubank). ––– Preparing for Kreutzer (Rubank). Wohlfahrt. 50 Easy Melodious Studies (Book 2) (C. Fischer). ––– 60 Studies (2 vols.) (C. Fischer).

Advanced (High School or College) Blumenstengel. Scale and Arpeggio Studies (C. Fischer). Dont. 24 Etudes and Caprices, op. 35 (G. Schirmer). ––– Progressive Studies with a 2nd Violin (G. Schirmer). Fiorillo. 36 Studies or Caprices (G. Schirmer).

Flesch. Scale System (C. Fischer). Galamian-Newmann. Contemporary Violin Techniques (Galaxy). Gavinez. 24 Studies (G. Schirmer). Hrimaly. Scale Studies (G. Schirmer). Kreutzer. 42 Studies or Caprices (G. Schirmer). Mazas. 18 Artists Studies (Book 3) (G. Schirmer). ––– 25 Melodious and Progressive Studies (G. Schirmer). ––– 27 Brilliant Studies (Book 2) (G. Schirmer). ––– 30 Special Studies (Book 1) (G. Schirmer). Rode. 24 Caprices (G. Schirmer). Rovelli. 12 Caprices (G. Schirmer). Schradieck. Chord Studies (G. Schirmer). Spinosa and Rusch. The Artists’ Studio for Violin (Kjos). Wieniawski. 8 Etudes-Caprices (G. Schirmer).

Instructional Videos Basic Violin Video (Ed Marsah). Levelland, TX: Texas Music and Supply. Gingold Master Class (vols. 2–4). Ann Arbor, MI: Shar Music. The Heifetz Master Class at University of Southern California (8 vols.) (1962). Converted to videocassette in 1984 and 1985. Ann Arbor, MI: Shar Products. Master Class with Zakhar Bron. Ann Arbor, MI: Shar Music. Master Teacher Series. Lessons with Ivan Galamian (5 vols.) (1981). Ann Arbor, MI: Shar Music. Mel Bay’s Anyone Can Play Violin (Coral White, 1990). Pacific: MO. Mel Bay Productions. The Teaching of Action in String Playing (Paul Rolland, 1970). Mesa, AZ: Rolland String Research Associates. www.paul rolland.net The Violin (Bill Scutt, 1998). Gilbert, WV: Walkers Electronic Services. Violin in Motion: An Ergonomic Approach to Playing for All Levels and Styles (J.L. Lieberman, 1995). Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard. Violin Lab. Multiple videos at www.violinlab.com

Recommended Violin Artists Joshua Bell: For the love of Brahms, Nobel Prize concert, Maw violin concerto Stephane Grappelli: Jalouise Gil Shaham: Nigunim Hebrew Melodies, Prokofiev violin concertos Maxim Vengerov: Brahms violin concerto, Mendelssohn and Bruch Concertos Pinches Zukerman: Le Quattro Stagioni, Handel-Halvorson Passacaglia (with Itzhak Perlman)

NOTES 1.

2. 3.

Rolland, P. and M. Mutschler (1974). The Teaching of Action in String Playing, Teacher’s Manual. Urbana, IL: Illinois String Research Associates, 62. Lamb, N. and S. Cook (1994). Guide to Teaching Strings 6th ed. Dubuque, IA: Brown & Benchmark, 86. Hamann, D.L. and R. Gillespie (2013). Strategies for Teaching Strings: Building a Successful String Program, 3rd ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 415

CHAPTER 29

The Viola

29

HISTORY The viola is the patriarch of the string family and was the more common instrument until the violin was perfected. The viola is still considered by some to be less perfect than its relatives, requiring strings that are too thick and too heavy for its length. As a consequence, it produces a tone not as rich in overtones as the violin and cello. Its characteristic plainer tone color, however, makes it indispensable for orchestra and chamber ensembles, where it blends well with violin and lower strings and endears it to contemporary composers and audiences who love the less “typical” sound. It has been featured in the works of Berlioz, Holst, Fauré, Brahms, Hindemith, and today there is a rich repertoire by contemporary composers. Interestingly, the role of the viola is still evolving in this century. Few can deny that the viola was “second fiddle” to the violin in the nineteenth and most of the twentieth century. There is something about the viola sound, however, that is attractive to the contemporary listener. The viola does not impress with virtuosity (as does the violin) but with its haunting tone quality. William Primrose is one individual who helped establish the viola’s integrity as a beautiful, expressive solo instrument. Premier composers wrote for him and he promoted works written for the instrument. Primrose was the first major player/teacher who considered the viola to be more closely related to the cello than to the violin. Pitched a fifth below the violin, the viola is the alto member of the string family and music written for it uses the alto and treble clefs. It is larger than the violin with longer finger spacings and, consequently, different patterns. This difference creates a problem for many students switching from violin, as speed and flexibility are affected not only by the finger patterns but also by the wider instrument and its weight difference. The weight difference alone is justification for starting transferring violists in third position. Violas are made in several sizes. All violas are tuned as shown in Figure 29.1. The viola benefited from design changes during the twentieth century that resulted in an instrument with a bigger sound without approaching shrillness or distortion. a b The viola continues to serve primarily in an accompaniment role—both rhythmic and harmonic—in most string literature. The viola’s rich, mellow FIGURE 29.1 (a) Open-strings; and (b) first tone quality balances well with the upper and lower strings, and blends with position range of the viola horn and woodwinds. String orchestra viola sections usually comprise just under half as many violas as violins. While a large bone structure, including large hands and fingers, may be detrimental to the violinist, broad fingers are an asset to violists, aiding in the production of the full, round sound that resonates from the instrument’s thicker strings and larger body. Once all obstacles are dealt with, the viola becomes, for the composer, “an ideal medium for all the expression of life’s innermost feelings”; in the audience’s response, “unmatched richness and beauty of tone” and in the violist’s reaction, “a perfect instrument for tapping the reservoir of man’s culminating artistic achievement.”1

SELECTING THE VIOLA Violas are measured by their body length and are available in three basic sizes: junior, intermediate, and standard. Junior sizes have a body length of 131⁄4 or 131⁄2 inches. Intermediate-size instruments are 14 to 141⁄2 inches in length. Advanced, or full-size, violas are 15 to 161⁄2 inches in length (with some professionals playing instruments as long as 18 inches). A viola is matched to the student’s size; a beginning violist should play the largest instrument that fits. The tone quality obtained is directly related to the viola’s size. The fingers should be able to reach around the scroll, with the fingertips actually curled around it. It is important that the student be able to maintain the rounded hand (“C shape”) when playing in the higher positions. Smaller violas simply cannot provide the true viola sound—they are useful for beginners and allow early success in technique for many students, but the student should be transferred to a larger instrument as soon as feasible. This importance for playing an instrument of adequate size is one reason for schoolowned “undersized” instruments. Figures 29.2a and 29.2b illustrate a viola that is too large and one that fits the student well, respectively.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 416

416

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

HOLDING THE VIOLA To assume a playing position, the student keeps the head straighter than one would for violin and uses a jaw rest rather than a chin rest (Figure 29.3). With a well-fitting jaw rest that has a slight lip or edge and adequate shoulder padding, the viola should be balanced in playing position without any hand support and without any muscle constriction that could cause tension. Any tension in the holding position will spread throughout the body. The jaw works as a counterlever on the chin rest along a vector that goes down and in, creating leverage; there is no squeezing of the jaw rest. Shoulder pads may not be needed by violists to make the instrument “flatter”; their use is often simply to provide the necessary friction against clothing and the slippery varnish of the instrument. A handkerchief usually suffices. Although in theory the instrument is held without support of the left hand, some support usually reduces tension in the jaw that results from fear of dropping the instrument. The pad of the thumb is held lightly against the side of the viola neck for support and will usually extend slightly above the neck depending on the length of the student’s fingers. The thumb must not be locked in a rigid position; its role is gently to support the proper posture of the four fingers of the left hand. Sufficient finger pressure on the string is imperative, slightly more weight is required than for the violin because of the string’s heaviness. As a good, firm attack on the string by the bow provides the tone quality, the bow, as with the other string instruments, must meet a springy resistance to produce a good sound. Left arm, hand, wrist, and finger support create this resistance in the string. It is, again, important to avoid percussively striking the string directly from above because this nearly always results in undue tension. The artistry is more in lifting the fingers in a graceful, curved motion. When a beginner first experiences placing the viola under the chin, the inclination is to retract the neck or move the head out and down, resulting in misalignment. The teacher may have to demonstrate for the timid student that the instrument rests primarily on the collarbone and shoulder and does not require the left hand to hold it. The jaw is so relaxed that one should be able to talk while holding the instrument. The viola is held flatter than the violin, with the scroll lower, which should allow for greater flexibility. If the viola drops lower in playing, this can be natural and not necessarily tension producing.

(a)

(b) FIGURE 29.2 Checking viola size: (a) too large, (b) correct

FIGURE 29.3 Playing position for viola

LEFT ARM AND HAND MOVEMENTS As with the violin, the viola player’s upper left arm and back is the source of energy that moves down through the entire arm to the fingers. The viola, since it is heavier, requires greater strength than does a violin. The left elbow must rotate more to the left and some to the right to facilitate the natural power to depress the strings (while maintaining a reasonably straight line from the elbow through the forearm and wrist to the hand). The arm is extended more to reach the neck than is necessary with the violin. This position can be fatiguing and feel unnatural for a student switching from violin, but the viola position will soon become equally natural. The greatest danger from fatigue and any unnatural feeling is that arm tension can occur. When the muscles tire, practicing should cease.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 417

THE VIOLA

417

The Thumb Usually positioned opposite the second finger, the left thumb plays a more important role in viola playing than in violin playing. When playing the violin, the thumb maintains a relative position to the fingers as they move up and down the fingerboard. On the viola, however, the thumb equalizes the greater downward weight of the fingers on the thicker strings. It gently supports the neck of the instrument without gripping. The thumb rotates to the left so the nail almost touches the neck in low positions (as in Figure 29.4) and naturally moves slightly lower under the neck for higher positions. When playing in third position and higher, the thumb is positioned more directly under the neck to allow the fingers to reach the notes. The thumb position depends upon the size and dimensions of the player; the thumb can be a source of tension in the left hand if it does not remain relaxed in all positions.

The Fingers On a full-size viola the distance for playing whole steps in first position is about 1 ⁄8 inch greater than on a full-size violin. This distance adds an additional 1⁄2 inch for the left-hand fingers to cover. On a 161⁄2-inch viola, the difference in distance is more than twice that of a 15-inch viola. The fingers do not stretch more; the change occurs in the palm of the hand. Players with small hands must compensate with “minishifts” and by adjusting the balance of the left hand to avoid stretching and straining the fingers. What feels natural before bad habits take over is often correct. Mobility of the left hand is the key—students must not learn that any part of the left hand is used to hold the viola (as illustrated in Figure 29.5). Viola technique requires the performer to apply sufficient pressure on the strings, but this is often overemphasized. The difference from violin is not great. To attain this firmness, more of the pads of the left fingers are used than on the violin—the violinist uses the fingertips. The correct position has the pad of the fourth finger centered on the string. One result of pad use is a wider vibrato and a less brilliant tone quality—a darker, richer sound. With the proper hand position, the fingers are angled toward the bridge at about a 40-degree angle if viewed from the top. The fingers drop vertically (90 degrees) on the string from the base knuckle of each finger. The weight originates in the upper arm and travels through the forearm, through the wrist and hand, to the fingers. Harmonics utilizing the full length of the fingerboard are excellent exercises not only for training the ear but also for learning to play without tension.

FIGURE 29.4 Correct position of thumb and fingers on fingerboard

INTONATION FIGURE 29.5 Correct position of the fingers

Good intonation on viola requires a proper posture, proper instrument-holding and hand on the neck of the viola position, and no muscular tension in the left arm or hand. Although all string players require ear training and the keen ability to match pitches, the violist often makes more minor intonation adjustments due to: the need for unison playing with violins and cellos, the viola’s harmonic role in voice leading, and having to provide for the crucial thirds and sevenths in standard harmonization.

Shifting The principles of shifting on viola are the same as for the violin and are often similarly delayed in being introduced to students. The viola pedagogue, Henry Barrett observes that these principles are so simple that teachers should be amazed when students have difficulty with this technique.2 He attributes the violist’s lack of success to the failure to prepare mentally or physically for the task. In most cases the player is trying to shift with the fingers and not with the arm. Preparation includes loosening the contact points—base of the first finger, thumb, and the finger playing the note— while the jaw and collarbone assume greater support of the instrument. The finger movement in shifting is anticipated by a slight motion in the hand and arm.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 418

418

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

Barrett outlines the steps of shifting on the viola: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Shift is executed by the bending of the elbow and controlled by the ear. Left-hand contact points are lightened. Anticipatory motion is made in the arm and hand before the finger leaves the position. Glide the fingers along the string lines. Use a flatter angle of the finger while shifting. Maintain the contour of the hand position and retain the feeling of balance in the center of the hand. Match speed of shift to speed of passage. Hold out the note preceding the shift for full value (we believe, however, that the note to be held depends upon the music). Slow the bow at the moment of the shift to deemphasize the left-hand movements. Slide on the finger that is making contact (for either up or down shifts), until the new position is reached; then drop the new finger in place. Give special attention to the quality of sound of the note preceding the shift and the note following the shift. Do not hurry. Shift slowly and deliberately. Feel the pull of the entire arm. Practice without the viola or bow to improve coordination of the two arms working together. Shift without the thumb touching the neck to reduce friction, lighten the hand, and improve mobility. “In performance, the thumb will find its way.” The bow approaches the bridge on high shifts to provide a better sounding point for the shorter vibrating string. In extremely high positions, the base of the thumb moves over the ribs of the viola.3

Figure 29.6 shows the first five positions on the viola. As with the violin, shifting extends the range of the instrument a fourth and creates multiple options for playing pitches, making the fingering of some passages easier.

Position I A-string 0 1 2

Position II 3

4

1

2

3

Position III

Position IV

Position V

4 1

2

3

4

4

1

2

3

4

3

4

3

4

1

2

3

4

4

1

2

3

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

1

2

3

4

4

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

1

2

4

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

1

2

3

4

1

2

D-string 0

1

2

3

4

G-string 0

1

2

3

C-string 0

1

2

3

FIGURE 29.6 First five positions for viola

Vibrato Viola vibrato is generally slower and slightly wider than violin vibrato. The flatter part of the finger pad is used; the wrist must remain relaxed. If a student were to play with identical vibrato on the violin and viola, the listener would hear the viola vibrato as slower because the length of the string and its thicker gauge make it slower to respond to pitch fluctuations. Instruction in vibrato should begin early.

RIGHT ARM AND HAND MOVEMENTS The Bow Hold The viola bow for a 15- to 16-inch instrument is slightly longer than the violin bow. It is also heavier, thicker, and has a wider spread of hair. It has a curved end at the frog instead of the sharp angle of the violin bow. A more aggressive approach to bowing is suggested than with the violin: First, the bow is held higher than a violin bow—the thumb is moved slightly more under the stick and set opposite the third finger rather than the second finger.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 419

THE VIOLA

Second, the first finger drops on the stick, resting on the first joint and providing additional control. The little finger rests on top, over the pearl, counterbalancing the weight of the bow. The flat part of the bow hair is used the most, with the side of the bow hair used only for sotto voce. In general the violist uses slower bow speeds and shorter strokes due to the difference in strings, and strives for a “core” sound (like cello and bass). Figure 29.7a–d illustrates a correct viola bow hold from various angles.

419

(a)

Bowing In general, the larger muscles, such as those of upper arm and forearm, are used for power and for crossing strings. The fingers that hold the bow and contribute to articulations are, thus, controlled by the next larger muscle. That is, the fingertips are controlled by the fingers, then the base joint of the fingers, then the hand, up to the shoulder. Violists should practice double stops to improve bowing technique; this practice will also help single notes, sharpen the ear, and strengthen the left hand. The smaller muscles in the hand and fingers are used for more subtle bowing actions and various types of articulations/bowings. As with the other string instruments for both up- and downbows, the bow is kept perpendicular to the strings in a curved, smooth, natural motion. The bow arm is low and closely follows the height of each string. Practicing octaves is a helpful exercise. The bow weight, speed of bow, and point of contact each contribute to dynamic level and tone color. The bow is placed closer to the bridge than for violin in order to attain a characteristic sound. Bowing procedures and techniques, as with all strings, are determined by the music and the effect desired. Bowing technique is a prime difference between viola and violin playing.

(b)

(c)

TRANSFERRING FROM VIOLIN Transferring from violin to viola offers the player greater opportunities to participate, much interesting contemporary viola solo and chamber music, and the chance to be “special.” When a violinist approaches the viola with violin-playing technique, the results are often a shallow sound with little or no depth and a light tone that is unpleasant and unsatisfying. The new violist should be encouraged to use more bow weight, particularly any natural weight achieved through the use of the rotary motion of the right forearm. The player should also use more left-hand finger weight. Finally, the student should be taught to anticipate every entrance, as the strings do not respond as quickly as they do on the violin. The new violist is also confronted with greater distances, not only in fingering but with extensions and shifting. The change of clef is an additional challenge for the transfer student. One trick is to play viola music like violin music but to read each note down a third lower than printed. However, these tricks do not work well for long, since finger patterns are different. The best solution is for the violinist-turned-violist to learn to read the alto clef. This is achieved by first singing the note names while following the alto clef, then fingering through the music before attempting to play it. By no means should the new violist learn the music by rote without learning to read alto clef.

(d)

FIGURE 29.7 Viola bow hold from various angles: (a) front; (b) back; (c) bottom; (d) “inside”

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 420

420

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

RESOURCES

Websites American Viola Society americanviolasociety.org International Viola Society internationalviolasociety.org

Texts Barnes, G. (2005). Playing and Teaching the Viola: A Comprehensive Guide to the Central Clef Instrument and Its Music. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association. Cowden, R. (1996). Highlights from the American String Teacher (1984–1994). Viola Forum. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association. Tertis, L. (2008). My Viola and I: A Complete Autobiography with Beauty of Tone in String Playing and Other Essays. London: Kahn and Averill.

Viola Studies Easy/Beginning (Elementary or Middle School) Applebaum. Third and Fifth Position String Builder (Belwin-Mills). Benoit, H. and Benoit, R. Elementary Method (2 vols.) (A. Leduc). Berger. Basic Viola Technique (MCA). Bornoff. Finger Patterns (Thompson). ––– Fun for Fiddle Finger (Thompson). ––– Patterns in Position (Thompson). Carsé. Viola School (Book 1) (Augener). Cavallini. Elementary and Progressive School (2 vols.) (Ricordi). Erwin, Horvath, McCashin, and Mitchell. New Directions for Strings (FJH). Kayser. 36 Elementary and Progressive Studies (G. Schirmer). Lifschey. Daily Technical Studies (C. Fischer). ––– Scale and Arpeggio Studies (2 vols.) (G. Schirmer). O’Reilly. String Power (N. Kjos). Whistler. From Violin to Viola (Rubank). ––– Introducing the Positions (2 vols.) (Rubank). Wohlfahrt. Foundation Studies (G. Schirmer).

Medium (Middle or High School) Bruni. 25 Studies (C. Fischer). Carse. Viola School (Books 2 and 3) (Augener). Fischer. Selected Studies and Etudes (Belwin-Mills). Flesch-Karman. Scale System (C. Fischer). Harman. Improvise for Viola (JIME). ––– 6 Concert Studies (International). ––– Technical Studies (International). Hoffmeister. 12 Studies (Peters). Kayser. 36 Elementary and Progressive Studies (G. Schirmer). Matz. Intonation Studies (Breitkopf & Härtel) Mazas. Special Etudes (Books 1 and 2) (G. Schirmer). Preston. Direct Approach to Higher Positions (Belwin). Primrose. The Art of Practice of Scale Playing on the Viola (BelwinMills).

Primrose. Technique Is Memory (Oxford). Ross. The Violist’s Guide to Exquisite Intonation (ASTA). Schradieck. School of Viola Technique (International). Seveik-Lifschey. Selected Studies (G. Schirmer). Wohlfarht. 60 Studies (2 vols.) (Peters).

Advanced (High School or College) Anzoletti. Dodici Studi (Ricordi). Campagnoli. 41 Caprices (G. Schirmer). Carse. Viola School (Books 4 and 5) (Augener). Dont. 24 Studies (International). Dont-Bailly. 24 Viola Studies (G. Schirmer). Dont-Svecenski. 20 Progressive Studies for Viola (G. Schirmer). Fiorillo. 31 Selected Studies (International). Fuchs. Fifteen Characteristic Studies (Oxford). Gavinies-Spitzner. 24 Etudes (International). Green. 12 Modern Etudes for the Advanced Violist (Elkan-Vogel). Kievman. Practicing the Viola, Mentally and Physically (Kelton). Krevz. Select Studies (Books 3 and 4) (Augener). Magers, Spinoza, and Rusch. The Artist’s Studio for Strings, Viola (Kjos). Massias. 12 Etudes (Jobert). Mazas. Etudes Brilliant (International). ––– Etudes Special (International). Mogil. Scale Studies (G. Schirmer). Paganini. 24 Caprices (International). Rode-Blumenau. 24 Caprices (G. Schirmer). Wieniawski. Studies and Caprices (Marks).

Instructional Videos Master Teacher Series with Donald McInnes (4 vols.) (McInnes and Charles Avsharian, 1985). Ann Arbor, MI: Shar Music. William Primrose: A Violist’s Legacy (William Primrose and David Dalton, 1979). Ann Arbor, MI: Shar Music.

Recommended Viola Artists Lawrence Power: Shostakovich music for viola and piano; Hindemith complete music for viola William Primrose: Paganini violin capriccio Karen Tuttle: Brahms Songs for alto, viola, and piano; Haydn quartets

NOTES 1.

2.

3.

Primrose, W. (1970). Technique Is Memory: A Method for Violin and Viola Players Based on Fingers Patterns. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 107–108. Barrett, H. (1978). The Viola: Complete Guide for Teachers and Students, 2nd rev. ed. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 64. Ibid., 64–65.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 421

CHAPTER 30

The Cello

30

HISTORY The name violoncello (or “cello” for short) first became current in the mid-seventeenth century, but bass viols of one kind or another are mentioned in several literary works of earlier centuries. The cello actually originated in the early sixteenth century. Martin Agricola, writing in 1529, describes instruments of the early viol family, including a three-stringed bass instrument tuned F–C–G (with F being the lowest string, then ascending in fifths). Hans Gerle, writing in 1532, describes an instrument with the same tuning as our modern cello, C–G–D–A, in ascending order. Both writers were also lutinists. An instrument tuned a whole step lower (B≤–F–C–G) continued to be popular in England and France into the eighteenth century. The earliest known makers of instruments that would be recognized today as cellos were Andrea Amati of Cremona (who died before 1580), Gasparo da Salo (1540–1609) of Brescia, and his pupil Giovanni Paolo Maggini (1581–1632). Their instruments were larger than modern cellos (up to 80 centimeters in length).1One famous cello made by Amati is called “The King.” The instrument has paintings of the coat of arms, devices, and motto of King Charles IX of France. The physical characteristics of this cello are not much different from the modern-day instrument; violoncellos have not changed much.2 Some sixteenth-century cellos still exist. The move toward a smaller cello took place in Bologna in the 1600s when silver-wound lower strings were invented. Many luthiers were making cellos before the famous Stradivari; however, it was Stradivari who decided around the year 1707 to construct the instrument with a length of about 75 centimeters, which has become standard. In the early eighteenth century, cello makers experimented with five-string cellos. Some think that J.S. Bach may have had the five-string cello in mind for his Sixth Cello Suite. It was not until the late Baroque period that the instrument was used by composers such as C.P.E. Bach and Haydn for more than a basso continuo accompaniment. Many Romantic composers seized upon it as the ideal expressive instrument for some of their most beautiful works. This tradition has continued through to the twenty-first century with composers such as John Tavener, among many others. Today’s most famous cellist, Yo-Yo Ma, explores the entire range of cello-related instruments in his Silk Road performances. The cello sounds as the tenor voice of the string family and is the sound anchor. Its design and construction are virtually identical to that of the smaller violin and viola, with the addition of an endpin. The endpin extends to the desired length to enable the player to hold the instrument properly. The endpin is to the cello what the chin and jaw rest are to the higher-pitched strings; it is also a topic of conversation among cellists whether to use pins. The endpin must securely support the cello through any gyrations of the performer. A sharp endpin helps, but no matter how sharp, there are impenetrable floors. The cellist should never be without a strap or board on such occasions (a strap that attaches to the chair leg and is permeable to the sharpened endpin). The endpin needs to be sufficiently sharp to provide solid support in carpets with the deepest pile. A third solution is the rockstop (an endpin holder), which, when properly used, provides adequate support. a b Cellos are made in various sizes including 1⁄16, 1⁄8, 1⁄4, 1⁄2, 3⁄4, and full size. The cello is tuned one octave below the viola, as shown in Figure 30.1. FIGURE 30.1 (a) Open strings; and (b) first The cello has a range of more than four octaves. Due to its size and the position range gauge of its strings, it has an enormous dynamic range—from delicate and thin to powerful and full. Orchestras tend to use a few more cellos than violas.

SELECTING THE CELLO AND BOW As we have reiterated for more than a dozen chapters, band and orchestra directors should not decide what instrument a student should play based on the student’s physical characteristics. Interest is the primary criterion. A large hand and/or long fingers are an advantage but not an absolute necessity for playing the cello. Technically, playing requires stretching

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 422

422

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

the hand for finger positions, and the strength, speed, and facility required for technical passages present difficulties with a hand that is too small, but there are many examples of successful performers with small hands who compensate successfully. The stretch required between the first and fourth fingers is necessary for basic playing, but facility can be developed through practice. Players with small hands adapt by developing flexible and mobile hand movements. Most sixth-graders are physically mature enough to play a three-quarter-size instrument. Height of the instrument is adjusted with the endpin to ensure correct playing posture for students of varying size. The middle of the chin comes even with the scroll when standing. When seated, the top part of the lower bouts should be at knee length. The top of the instrument comes to the center of the breastbone. The student could hug the instrument. The instrument is too large if the endpin cannot be adjusted enough to compensate and the student has to drop the right shoulder and body to play at the tip of the bow. Full-size cellos actually differ in size. Before purchase, a professional should determine whether the size is appropriate and that the bridge and fingerboard are matched to the instrument and the student. The bow for the cello is heavier and shorter than the violin or viola bow, and like the other string instruments, a good bow plays a major role in tone quality and technique. Heavier bows on thicker strings require slightly more effort as the bow changes direction and crosses the strings. To apply adequate weight to the strings, the cello bow must have greater tension on the hair than those used by the upper strings (too much tension, however, will allow the bow to slip across the strings unless rosined well). In the middle of a tightened bow, there should be a distance of one-half to three-quarters of an inch between hair and stick— considerably more distance than for the violin bow. The cello bow should be matched to the instrument. A quality case for storage is important. As these are now available with wheels, the weight of the case may no longer be a critical factor in deciding between a high-quality cloth case and the more protective plastic.

HOLDING THE CELLO Though the basic principles of string-instrument playing are applicable to all four major members of the family, cello and bass differ from the higher-pitched strings due to their size and playing position. The left-hand positions on cello, for example, are different because the pitches are spaced farther apart than on the violin or viola. Further, the orientation of the left hand and arm must adapt to an up-and-down motion for the cello and bass (up- and down-bow for cello and bass is a metaphor). The cello player is invariably seated with the instrument’s weight resting primarily on the endpin. Interestingly, the endpin was not invented until the late nineteenth century by Adrien Seivais. This invention made cello playing easier. The endpin is placed slightly to the right of the player’s center. The cello is tilted toward the player and positioned by placing the lower bouts between the legs (with the lower ribs just above the knees) and the lower right tuning peg (the low C) slightly behind the left ear. The small projection extending from the back of the instrument that braces the neck should be at the player’s breastbone. The cello is turned very slightly to the right to position the strings more directly under the bow. Players distribute their weight evenly and securely between both feet. The student should be able to stand up comfortably from the seated position without adjusting the position of the feet. This principle can be taught by describing a triangle from the left leg to the sternum to the endpin. The position of the strings should run down the center of the body, with the right leg free from the instrument. The result is that the cello is held slightly to the left of center. Although the endpin allows adjustment to the height and tilt of the cello for tension-free posture, the chair is an important consideration. It is essential that the cellist sit on the edge of the chair when playing, with optimal chair height. The player sometimes sits erect, giving the impression of leaning forward slightly, but there is no need to bend over to see how things are going. Music industry manufacturers make chairs 181⁄2 inches tall for high school and adult players, with a forward-slanted seat designed to free the cellist to lean slightly into the instrument. Smaller players usually find themselves in a position in which their hipbones are higher than their knees. Tall performers may need to raise the chair or even bend the endpin to avoid high knees. Most players want the center of gravity to be on their feet or an imaginary tripod between the feet and the cello. This feeling is achieved FIGURE 30.2 Cello playing position (front)

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 423

THE CELLO

423

when the player moves forward on the chair from the hips, and leans into the instrument, rather than letting the instrument lean on him or her. The shoulder should not be turned because of instrument placement. An endpin that is extended too far can force the player back into a position that is physically and psychologically contradictory to good posture. Figures 30.2 and 30.3 illustrate the playing position for the cellist. This aspect of being able to “embrace” the cello is what makes the choice of chair so crucial. The knees are used to support and steady the instrument only while tuning with the pegs.

THE BEGINNING STUDENT It is important to devote extra time to the beginning cellist. Although the beginner benefits from the first lessons, which explain names of the parts of the instrument, the cellist should also be allowed to explore the “larger” instrument by plucking, trying the bow immediately, and discovering the various sounds, including harmonics, which the instrument can produce. For example, let the student explore the full length of the fingerboard and realize how the pitch changes. Playing by ear is as important for cellists as for violinists. William Pleeth believes that teaching isolated techniques on the cello for beginners will create mechanical performers. Instead, the teacher should teach basics of technique and allow the student to alter slightly these basics to his or her own “system.” All aspects of performing are based on relaxation, flexibility, and naturalness. Because some class method books are designed primarily for the FIGURE 30.3 Cello playing position (side) violin, the cellist is introduced early to challenging fingerings. Good left-hand habits begin with attention to the slope of the left hand, a slope that determines the angle with which the fingers meet the strings and enhances finger flexibility. The “square hand” or “block” is advocated by many method books and teachers—that is, the fingers are at right angles to the string—but this hand position is actually based on only the middle two fingers being at right angles. This position enables players with large hands to easily play in tune. A “sloped” left-hand position gives the beginner a better chance at more naturally controlling the space between the fingers and encourages flexibility when the pads of the four fingers are placed on the strings. This sloped hand position resembles the hand position on the upper strings, but is upside down. (The little finger should also be sloped and not collapse.) The sloped left-hand position seems more natural for players with smaller hands. Students should not start with the first finger—starting with the fourth finger depressed keeps all fingers more relaxed. Students need to get the feeling of motion in the left hand—they should feel the position of the second partial and play the harmonics, then the third partial. Simple songs should be played with natural harmonics, by ear. The thumb is eventually used on the strings, necessitating relaxed fingers and hand. Because the upper arm and back is where the strength and energy to perform are initiated, the sloped hand is advantageous, as a straight line can be formed through the hand to the elbow. Students should experiment with the shape of the hand to determine the angle that allows the greatest flexibility for the fingers and that feels comfortable and natural. The thumb should lightly touch the neck of the cello about 31⁄2 inches from the top of the neck. The cellist’s fingers are in first position when the thumb is opposite the second finger. Again, a mobile and flexible thumb is critical to making rapid progress on all string instruments—the thumb “floats” when playing the cello and bass. The angle of the upper arm (elbow) varies according to the string being played, the left elbow rising for the low strings and lowering for the higher strings. Bowing for beginners should be taught in a natural, comfortable way. Due to the weight of the bow and the angle of the instrument, students need to be reminded that the strength to “dig into” the string and prevent slipping starts in the right shoulder and moves through the upper arm, elbow, forearm, and down to the wrist. If any one of these body parts becomes tense, the entire process is hampered. There should always be a straight line from the elbow down to the forearm and to the wrist and hand. When the bow is at the frog, the wrist may be slightly convex, but never concave around the palm, or the straight line to the elbow is disturbed. As the bow is drawn, the elbow will not only bend outward but also move away from the body until about midbow. At that point the forearm also begins to move away from the body to continue the movement that began in the shoulder. Through the full bow, the wrist remains aligned with the elbow.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 424

424

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

TUNING AND INTONATION Too many teachers take too much class time to tune the students’ cellos, which takes precious learning time from the students, as students must eventually tune their own instruments. Playing left-hand pizzicato is a good exercise to begin intense listening. All string instruments should have fine tuners on all four metal strings (except bass) to facilitate this learning step. As with the violin and viola, one’s ear and skill improves and tuning can eventually be accomplished without the fine tuners. Tuning begins as a cooperative project between teacher and student but soon is the student’s responsibility. If one can’t hear when the string is tuned, one can’t play in tune. If the instrument does not have fine tuners on all four strings, the instrument is turned to face the seated player to be tuned. The C and G strings are plucked with the right thumb while the left hand turns the pegs; the D and A strings are plucked with the left hand while the right hand turns the pegs. Obviously, the importance of fully operational tuning pegs cannot be stressed enough. The pegs are turned and set as on the violin. When the cellists have become adept at plucking, bowing, and tuning individual strings, they should develop the skill to tune the four strings from a single string—usually the A. Because the tuning pegs slip more easily in the tuning process on the cello than on the higher-pitched strings (due to the increased weight and tension of the string), fine tuners are important. Students should also use the bow rather than plucking to tune as soon as they are comfortable using the bow. The upper half of the bow is used, starting at the tip; the A is tuned, then the D and A strings together (a double stop). It is important that the lower string predominates in these double stops. Students need opportunities and a patient teacher to develop the skill of hearing the “beats” of an out-of-tune perfect fifth and the ability to adjust the fine tuner to eliminate them. An advantage of the cello is that these “beats” are easier to hear than with the violin and viola due to the larger size of the instrument and the greater dynamic level possible. Students should also begin early in their instruction to play the octave A harmonic and the one-third string harmonic for a unison A.

Harmonics As suggested for the upper strings, cellists should begin soon to play harmonics. The thumb is used as a fret for thumb positions in the highest positions. One easy and fun exercise used to explore the upper register on harmonics is contained in Figure 30.4, “Taps.” Students know the tune, so good intonation can be achieved quickly. Cello Artificial Harmonics 4

4

2

4

2

1

4

2

1

4

2 1

4

2

*

1

2

1

1

1

2

4

4

4

2

*notation only approximates pitch here

Cello Natural Harmonics Thumb

3

1

1

2

thumb 1

3

2

3

1

thumb 1

thumb

3 thumb 1

thumb

3

thumb 1

1

FIGURE 30.4 “Taps” on cello played with two different harmonic systems

The use of harmonics requires a flexible thumb and left hand/fingers. It develops good habits with the elbow and explores the entire register of the cello when combined with the method books that usually begin in first position.

LEFT ARM AND HAND MOVEMENTS The best left-hand position is one in which the forearm forms a straight line from the elbow to the wrist. This position enables the full energy of the arm to flow to the fingers. The wrist, held as an extension of the forearm, forms a straight line. The arm cannot hang down in a totally relaxed position, as this will send the energy or weight to the elbow and no farther. The arm should be held out so that the forearm and hand are approximately parallel to the floor. The most

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 425

THE CELLO

425

active movements are in the upper arm. The lower arm remains relatively passive and the wrist steady. The forearm rolls back and forth in response to the movement of the upper arm and the hand. If the wrist is too flexible and active (i.e., not remaining in line with the forearm), the power coming from the shoulder will be lost, resulting in little energy being sent to the finger. The thumb, except for when vibrato is used, remains opposite the second finger when playing in the lower positions (Figure 30.5). The thumb touches the middle of the back of the neck to ensure that the fingers are farther away from the fingerboard (above the strings, as if holding a tennis ball). For playing on the C and G strings, the left elbow moves forward FIGURE 30.5 Thumb position: opposite second finger and the thumb slides to the left under the fingerboard, enabling the fingertips to more easily reach the lower strings. The lefthand fingers normally encompass a minor third without extending, but the player must learn to stretch the hand without losing power—the little finger should be as firm on the strings as the first finger. The fingers are slightly curved with the tips pointing down at an angle on the strings—the “sloped” hand position (Figure 30.6). The fleshy parts of the left-hand fingers stop the strings. It is important that the thumb not squeeze against the neck as this results in the other four fingers squeezing, limiting flexibility. On a full-size cello, the first finger is placed more than 3 FIGURE 30.6 Left finger position: sloped inches from the nut to produce a whole step. This distance is reduced in graduated steps with each smaller-size cello. On a half-size cello, an E is played on the D string by placing the first finger about 21⁄4 inches from the nut. When the first finger is placed about 3 inches from the nut on the D string to play an E, each finger can play a half step. First-position notes, without forward or backward extensions, are shown in Figure 30.7: The left hand must continually prepare for the next note. Because keys of D major, G major, A major, and F major predominate in today’s method books, the cello student is one of the first to be introduced to extensions.

C-string 0 1 2

3

4

G-string 0 1 2

3

4

D-string 0 1 2

3

4

A-string 0 1 2

3

4

FIGURE 30.7 First-position cello notes on each string

Extensions Extensions are used to avoid slides, glissandos, and unnecessary shifts. János Starker suggests avoiding extensions whenever possible. Backward extensions are introduced when the student plays an E≤ or a B≤ using low first finger. Forward extensions occur between the first and second fingers. Any additional stretch is unnatural, and should be treated as a shift of a half position with the hand pivoting on the first finger. Extensions are difficult for beginners but can be improved by exercises that develop the hand muscles, accustom the hand to stretching, and build strength in the left hand and left fingers. In extending the hand, the tip of the first finger remains in place, pivoting slightly; the middle finger and thumb move a half step forward from the first finger. The hand must turn so that the first finger is stretched upward and the thumb, with the weight of the arm, remains behind the middle finger. In effect, the arm and hand shift down (toward the bridge) a half step while the first finger is in place for hand orientation and to serve as a pivot. The backward extension is sometimes required in first through the higher positions. The backward extension involves moving the first finger back one half-step while leaving the hand and arm in place. The side of the finger is used instead of the pad, and the finger is not curved. The remaining three fingers are the usual position configuration, as shown in Figure 30.8.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 426

426

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS C-string 0 1 2

3

4

G-string 0 1 2

3

D-string 0 1 2

4

3

A-string 0 1 2

4

3

4

FIGURE 30.8 Backward extension on each cello string

The middle two fingers and the thumb do shift the center of the arm’s weight if necessary (usually in higher positions). Most teachers believe that the backward extension should be taught first since this is more natural and requires less adjustment from the whole hand. Also, among the first notes learned are E≤ and B≤, pitches requiring a lowered first finger. Half position, more common on string bass, occurs when the first finger is used to play one half-step above the open string and the remaining three fingers are adjusted back one half-step, as shown in Figure 30.9. C-string 0 1 2

3

4

G-string 0 1 2

3

4

D-string 0 1 2

3

4

A-string 0 1 2

3

4

FIGURE 30.9 Half-position notes on cello

Forward extension requires the left hand to move down the neck/fingerboard using the first finger as a hinge. The space between the first fingers and second fingers is increased, leaving the first finger once more in a “straightened” position and pointing toward the player’s left ear. The thumb remains opposite the second finger, enabling the fingering shown in Figure 30.10. C-string 0 1 2

3

4

G-string 0 1 2

3

4

D-string 0 1 2

3

4

A-string 0 1 2

3

4

FIGURE 30.10 Forward extension notes on cello

The fingering pattern and the notation for extensions are used frequently by the cellist, especially in a minor tonality. Scale drills will assist students to anticipate which fingers to use on which notes. In the example above, a student playing the passage on the G string may be confused as to whether the B should be played with second or third finger. By anticipating the need for the fourth finger for C≥, the student would know that the B should be played with the second finger.

Shifting There are three registers on the cello, each of which uses a different hand position. The first register includes the first four positions. Here, the thumb is in its normal place behind the second finger. The second register consists of positions five, six, and seven. The thumb is still placed behind the neck of the cello, but the fingers reach down to the part of the fingerboard that lies over the body of the instrument. The elbow should neither drop nor the wrist rise. Rather, the hand should remain in a position resembling first position, except that the fingers are closer together. The thumb can move slightly up the left side of the back of the neck if it feels natural and tension is avoided. The positions of the fingers are similar to those of the violin in that, this high on the fingerboard, a whole step can be reached from the first to the second finger and from the second to the third finger. Rather than requiring four fingers to span a third, it can be done in this register with three fingers. The third register includes all positions above seventh. These highest positions are called “thumb positions.” In these the edge of the thumb presses down the A and D strings while always remaining one whole step behind the first finger. These highest positions are the most demanding for the hand—the thumb’s position is awkward to maintain and the fingers must be lifted higher in order to depress the string with sufficient weight. On the lower, heavier strings, the difficulty is slightly increased because of the resistance and thickness of the strings—thumb weight must be sufficient if a good tone is to be produced. In practicing or performing scale passages in thumb position, both the thumb and the

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 427

THE CELLO

427

lower fingers remain down when the higher fingers move. This makes shifting easier and avoids the need for excessive movement of the fingers. When the lower fingers depress the string, less movement (because of less pressure) is required of the higher fingers. The thumb position is important for octaves, thirds, and in the higher positions. Thumb exercises strengthen the thumb and provide security. With the first finger in fourth position, substitute the thumb. Then check the natural harmonics by checking with the open strings above. If they match, the position should be remembered and used to practice the major scales and arpeggios. Adjusting the left hand to the different positions of the three registers, performing the shifts between positions efficiently, and making use of the extended position of the hand require turning of the hand and arm. Further, cellists frequently employ a slight rotation of the body, the left side of the body rotating slightly forward on an upward shift (left hand moving toward the bridge) and vice versa. This movement helps relax the body and assists in a smooth shift. In addition to this slight body rotation, the left elbow is slightly elevated when shifting to a higher position and lowered when moving back toward the scroll. This rotation seems to come naturally when shifting is introduced to young players. In fifth position, the whole arm has to be raised somewhat; in the upper positions, turning the upper part of the body may be necessary to get the fingers in the best position, particularly when 1–2–3 fingerings are used. Because the hand needs to move rapidly into place for the next note or the next shift into a new position, the hand will often parallel the strings slightly more than normal. Sometimes a half-step interval is played with the same finger sliding to the new note in order to avoid a bad shift. Fourth position is considered the easiest position on cello after first position. The thumb stops where the neck joins the body, so the position is easily located for accurate intonation. The fingers don’t have to stretch as far as in first, second, and third positions, nor do they have to apply as much pressure to the strings as in the higher positions. Often, fourth position is introduced before second and third or even first because it provides quicker success for the student in shifting (as this shift is easily checked if students have been taught to tune using harmonics). Shifting to a higher position can be taught using the analogy of throwing a baseball. The upper arm moves toward the bridge slightly before the lower arm and hand. Students should be taught to keep the finger on whatever note precedes the shift on the same string (with barely any contact) to assist in moving the hand in a straight line. Keeping the finger on the same string (even if it is not the finger used for the note after the shift) allows the cellist greater freedom in relaxing the left thumb and supporting fingers without fear of losing the hand’s orientation during the shift. The overall movement should resemble a graceful curve.

Vibrato Cello vibrato differs from that of the violin and viola. The forearm is used: It moves back and forth in a linear motion, with the fulcrum above the elbow (making it necessary for the thumb to leave its customary place when the fourth finger is on the string and in the higher positions). Because the finger is at a right angle to the strings, the fleshy pad of the finger rolls back and forth on the string to produce the fluctuation in pitch. This is in contrast to upper strings, where only the fingertip and knuckle joint move. Forte passages are played with a wider vibrato than are softer passages. Speed is a matter of individual taste, although for the lower strings, a slower vibrato is preferable to one that is too fast. Cello vibrato must be wide enough to establish a true feeling of the natural voice. If it is too narrow and fast, it sounds like stage fright; if it is too wide and slow, it sounds contrived. Students should learn to play vibrato with a wide range of pitch fluctuations, speed, and intensity. The vibrato serves to assist the bow in communicating the art inherent in the music.

RIGHT ARM AND HAND MOVEMENTS Bow Hold If the left hand is an expression of the cellist’s thoughts, the right hand is the cellist’s voice. To teach the proper bow hold, have the student take the cello bow in the right hand by the bow screw (with the bow hair facing to the left) while holding the bow securely with the left hand at the tip. (This allows a clear view of the following steps.) The thumb is inserted under the grip with the joint bent outward. (The tip of the thumb is securely placed on the stick and the right side of the thumb touches where the stick meets the grip.) Then, the first finger rests over the bow against the wire between the first and second joints. The second finger goes over the bow and down the side of the frog touching the ferrule (where the hair enters). The third finger, like the second, goes over the bow and rests on the side of the frog (with the third finger on the silver mount and the second touching the bow hair at the spot where it joins the frog). Finally, the little finger wraps over the bow to about the middle of the frog—the tip reaches just to the right of the pearl eye. Figure 30.11 illustrates this bow hold.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 428

428

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 30.11 Cello bow hold from various angles: (a) front; (b) back; (c) frog

Since the cello bow is shorter, thicker, and heavier than the violin bow, it requires more support. The fingers guide the bow on the string, and only “grip” it when controlling off the string bowings (and then the little finger serves as both support and counterbalance). The fingers guide the bow on the string, initiating the up- and down-bows, shifting the weight from one part of the hand to another. On the up-bow, the first two fingers may control the beginning of the motion, shifting control to the last two fingers as the bow nears the frog. In playing position, the stick is tilted slightly toward the scroll. The right wrist is slightly arched when the bow is on the string near the frog (Figure 30.11c), and works like a hinge when changing bow direction. When the downbow stroke brings the tip of the bow to the string, the wrist is straight or slightly bent—but it should not be dropped. The weight of the arm must be kept on the bow to prevent it from slipping downward. Because the bow tends to drop toward the floor, weight must be applied to keep it from slipping sideways and sagging completely out of playing position. On the other hand, too much weight stifles the resonance of the tone, making it dull. A happy balance must be achieved where the right hand is sufficient to control the bow but relaxed enough to “pull” the best possible tone from the instrument (in relation to speed and bow weight). The ear determines the most appropriate tone. Common problems of the bow hold include: (1) thumb inserted too far under the stick; (2) thumb being locked; (3) fingers dropping too far below the frog, resulting in holding the bow in the palm of the right hand; (4) the hand slanting too far forward toward the tip or toward the bow screw; and (5) the back of the hand tilting forward, placing the bow at the wrong angle to the string.

Bowing Movement starts with the body weight and moves through the upper arm, coming from a relaxed shoulder. Lack of movement in the shoulder indicates unnecessary tension. The upper arm is the strongest part of the arm and is used for the extra pull required for the cello bow. Strength originates in the right arm, through the forearm, and allows the “wrist” to follow through the motions. The forearm must be relaxed to rotate as needed and serves somewhat as a device to refine the upper arm’s strength into the wrist. During a change of bow direction, for example, the forearm changes direction slightly sooner than the fingers on the bow itself (the follow-through as discussed in Chapter 27). The right elbow’s position is correct when the arm is held comfortably out from the body. When the bow is held correctly, with the tip placed on the strings, a straight right arm or one that is bent only very slightly should result. When playing at the frog, the inside of the forearm almost touches the edge of the cello, the fingers are almost straight, and the wrist is higher than when playing at the tip. Many texts exaggerate the different positions of the wrist in cello bowing. It is not necessary that the wrist form an arch when playing at the frog, nor that it be lowered when playing at the tip. A common problem is that after an up-bow, some students fail to drop the elbow as they approach the frog on the down-bow. A slower bow is used on the C string. The correct direction of the wrist is “up” at the frog, “down” at the tip, but not to an extreme degree—only enough to keep the bow controlled and the wrist in a straight line through the forearm to the elbow. Playing at the tip depends almost entirely on the muscles of the arm. An arm stretched to its full length and using the smaller muscles of the hand and wrist is not appropriate.

Pizzicato When playing pizzicato on the cello, the thumb is placed at the side of the fingerboard. Plucking is done on different areas of the string for different effects—nearer the bridge for loud pizzicato and over the fingerboard for softer dynamics. The right thumb is placed against the right side of the fingerboard about four or five inches above the end of the fingerboard. The bow is held in a “fist” of the second, third, and fourth fingers, while the first finger plucks the string about two to three inches above the end of the fingerboard to get the clearest tone and pitch. A sharper, more strident tone is created by plucking closer to the end of the fingerboard. The strings are pulled to the side rather than up because an upward pull would create a downward slap against the fingerboard.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 429

THE CELLO

429

In spots where the pizzicato must be played very quickly after the bowed note, it is easier to keep the bow in its regular position and to turn the hand enough to pluck with the second finger. In a simultaneous three-note pizzicato chord, the thumb takes the bottom note, the first finger the middle note, and the second finger the top note (arpeggiated). A four-note chord is almost always strummed with the thumb.

WHAT TO PRACTICE Scales and etudes are a must for any musician. As students progress, they should be encouraged to play their scales over two octaves with a variety of bowings and rhythms. Several octave arpeggios may be used to practice shifting. Etudes are designed to work on specific skills like smooth bow changes or shifts. A number of etude books are listed (at three ability levels) at the end of this book. Students should supplement class activities with these materials. Thumb position is a technique required of all cellists. As mentioned earlier, thumb position is when the thumb comes to the front of the fingerboard and plays on the low string, while the other fingers curve more “over” the fingerboard. There is a common tendency to play sharp in thumb position. Possible solutions are: 1. 2.

Open the left hand and observe the natural gap between the thumb and first finger, unlike the gap between the other fingers. This space is too easily transferred to the fingerboard. Remain vigilant with the first finger, keeping it back; if the first finger is sharp, the other fingers will also be sharp. Practicing in front of a mirror is a means of checking one’s position—check for naturalness and relaxation.

RESOURCES Websites Internet Cello Society cello.org The Cello Professor celloprofessor.com

Texts Blake, J. and J. Harmon (1993). “Beginning to Improvise”: For Cellists Who Want to Learn to Improvise. Westford, MA: JIME. Cowden, R. (1995). Highlights from the American String Teacher (1984–1994) Cello Forum. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association. Epperson, G. (2004). The Art of Cello Teaching, rev. ed. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association. Pleeth, W. and N. Pyron (2007). The Cello, 7th ed. London: Kahn and Averill. Potter, L. (2014). The Art of Cello Playing: A Complete Textbook Method for Private or Class Instruction. New York, NY: Alfred. eBook. Sazer, V. (2003). New Directions in Cello Playing: How to Make Cello Playing Easier—and Play without Pain, 3rd ed. Los Angeles: Ofnote. Smith, G.J. (1993). Cellist’s Guide to the Core Technique, 2nd ed. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association. Stowell, R. (2011). The Cambridge Companion to the Cello. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. eBook. Young, P. and S. Blakemore (2009). Playing the String Game: Strategies for Teaching Cello and Strings, 9th printing. Ann Arbor, MI: Shar.

Cello Studies

Erwin, Horvath, McCashin and Mitchell. New Directions for Strings (FJH). Grant. First Position Studies (Ludwig). Herfurth. A Tune a Day (2 vols.) (Boston Music). Lee. 40 Easy Exercises (Leeds). Matz. The Complete Cellist (Tetra). O’Reilly. String Power (2 vols.) (Kjos). Popper. 15 Easy Studies (International). Sato-Suzuki. Sato Cello Method (Summy-Birchard). Such. New School of Studies (Augener). Werner. Practical Method for Violoncello (Book 1) (Suvini Zerboni). Whistler. Introducing the Positions for Cello (Book 1) (Rubank).

Medium (Middle or High School) Benoy-Sutton. Introduction to Thumb Position (Oxford). Deak. Modern Method for the Violoncello (2 vols.) (Elkan-Vogel). Dotzauer. Violoncello Method (Book 2) (C. Fischer). Duport. 21 Etudes (2 vols.) (G. Schirmer). Epperson. A Manual of Essential Cello Techniques (Fox). Frank. Scales and Arpeggios (Schott). Grant. Basic Thumb Position Studies for the Young Cellist (Concert Music). Kabelensky. Major-Minor Etudes (Leeds). Klengel. Daily Exercises (3 vols.) (Breitkof & Härtel). Kummer. 19 Etudes Melodiques (Peters). Marcelli. Cello Method (C. Fischer). Matz. 25 Studies (Dominis). Merk-Klengel. 20 Studies (International). Piatti. Cello Method (Book 2) (Augener). Popper. Intermediate Studies (International). Schroeder. 170 Foundation Studies (3 vols.) (C. Fischer). Whistler. Introducing the Positions for Cello (Book 2) (Rubank).

Easy/Beginning (Elementary or Middle School)

Advanced (High School or College)

Applebaum. String Builder (Belwin). Dotzauer. Violoncello Method (Book 1) (C. Fischer).

Cossman. Concert Studies (International). Duport. 21 Etudes (G. Schirmer).

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 430

430 THE STRING INSTRUMENTS Epperson, Spinoza, and Rusch. The Artist’s Studio for Cello (Kjos). Francesconi. Practical School for Violoncello (Book 3) (Suvini Aerboni). Francesconi. 12 Etudes (International). Franchomme. Caprices (International). Gruetzmacher. Daily Exercises (G. Schirmer). Gruetzmacher. Technology of Cello Playing (2 vols.) (International). Guerini-Silva. 13 Studies (Ricordi). Klengel. Technical Exercises (International). Kreutzer-Silva. 42 Studies (Peters). Lee-Rose. 40 Melodic Studies (G. Schirmer). Magg. Cello Exercises (Borlke). Schultz. 26 Technical Studies (Schirmer). Schultz. Technical Studies for the Advanced Cellist (Schott). Such. New School of Cello Playing (Stainer & Bell). Yampolsky. Violoncello Technique (MCA).

Instructional Videos The Art of Cello Teaching (Irene Sharp). Ann Arbor, MI: Shar Music. Casals Master Class (3 vols.) (Pablo Casals, 1961). Ann Arbor, MI: Shar. Cello Master Class with Bernard Greenhouse (2 vols.). (Bernard Greenhouse, 1993). Ann Arbor, MI: Shar Music. William Pleeth Master Class (8 DVDs). Ann Arbor, MI: Shar Music.

Recommended Cello Artists Steven Isserlis: Schumann, Brahms Yo-Yo Ma: New Impossibilities; Obrigado Brazil, Bach unaccompanied cello suites Zuill Bailey: Muhly Cello concerto; Block Hebraic Rhapsody

NOTES 1. 2.

Cowling, E. (1983). The Cello, 2nd ed. New York, NY: Scribner, 26–27. Ibid., 28.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 431

CHAPTER 31

The Double Bass

31

HISTORY The double bass survived the evolutionary process with less change than did the other string instruments. With its sloped shoulders, it is similar to the Renaissance bass viol. The present bass is pitched an octave lower than the older instrument and in this respect more nearly resembles the rare double bass viol popular through the seventeenth century. The string bass is sometimes treated as the stepchild of the string family. Typically, much less attention is given to its mastery in heterogeneous string classes. There is also far less material written about the bass than the other string instruments. The bass is the lowest voice of the string family. It is found in full, onequarter, half, and three-quarter sizes; the full-size, or symphony, bass is seldom seen in public schools; the three-quarter size is the most popular. Professionals use the 391⁄2- to 411⁄2-size instrument for solo performances. Whereas the other string instruments are tuned in fifths, the bass is tuned in fourths and sounds FIGURE 31.1 (a) Open strings; and (b) first position range an octave below the notation shown in Figure 31.1. The bass differs slightly in design from the other string instruments, having sloping and more rounded shoulders. Basses have large and small bouts, 40- or 43-inch strings, a flat or swell back, and adjustable bridges. They also use a mechanical tuning mechanism, due to the strings’ mass, length, and tension, rather than wooden pegs, as do the other strings. The bass tuning mechanism (Figure 31.2) holds the strings more firmly and precisely than do pegs, and a string winder reduces problems of replacing a broken string. In many respects the bass is the most difficult instrument for the young player—not only due to its size, but because its longer and thicker strings require more strength while still maintaining the same control as with other string instruments. When bowing, the bass is slower in response. Further, the intervals for the fingers are farther apart and the low pitches are more difficult to hear. The role of the bass in the orchestra is of paramount importance. The bass establishes the basis for balance of the ensemble and provides the harmonic foundation for orchestral music; it also serves as a rhythm instrument. Wind ensembles and symphonic bands use the bass to good advantage. Currently there is an increase in the number of high school bands and wind ensembles that are including a string bass in the group. The school’s jazz band will find the instrument indispensable; in the jazz band pizzicato becomes the primary playing technique. The greatest obstacles for the development of a bass player are the instrument’s expense FIGURE 31.2 Mechanical tuner and its transportation. Young players cannot be expected to carry the bass home each day for double bass to practice; ideally, the school could provide one for school use and one for home practice.

SELECTING THE DOUBLE BASS Although basses are available in smaller sizes, teachers, students, and parents should consider half- and three-quarter-size instruments. Because most bass purchases are made by the school, teachers should limit their purchases to half- and three-quarter-size instruments with about 75 percent at the three-quarter size. (See Figure 31.3 for a comparison of bass sizes.) Most basses are constructed of a solid spruce top with a solid neck and scroll. The tuning screws (rather than pegs) are preferably solid brass with nickel plating. The fingerboard should be examined by an expert to ensure it is not too high for the beginning student.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 432

432

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

Chromium steel strings are best for beginners, but students should experiment with gut-core strings as they progress. What is essential is the spacing of strings along the fingerboard. Sometimes bridges are not cut exactly, which prevents evenly spaced strings. Teachers should inspect beginners’ instruments and refer those instruments in question to a string repairperson. The bow should be made of brazilwood with an ebony frog and nickel silver ring. Most students start playing the bass with a French bow, but by the second year they should be instructed on German bow technique and provided the option of using a German bow. The French bow is easier to monitor in a class setting, but many private teachers and students FIGURE 31.3 Comparison of double basses of varying sizes themselves prefer the German bow. The bass section of the Fischbach DVD has a good explanation of the differences. A case for the bass is an essential investment. A fleece-lined canvas or cordubon case that fits well should be the minimum consideration. A bow holder, as illustrated in Figure 31.4, is useful for extended pizzicato sections and for jazz bassists who use the bow infrequently. Placing any bow on the music stand is asking for damage, and especially with the widest bow in the string family.

HOLDING THE DOUBLE BASS Whether the bass is played while one is seated on a stool or standing, the main task is to establish a position that is comfortable and that allows the left arm and hand and right arm and hand to move appropriately. Standing is more appropriate for beginners when being instructed. As with the cello, the endpin must be adjusted to facilitate correct playing position and correct posture. It must be sharp to provide instrument stability and should be positioned 8 or 9 inches in front and slightly to the right of the left foot. The endpin adjustment usually places the player’s left hand at chest level when playing in half position. One’s legs should be spread about shoulder width, at right angles, and the body’s weight evenly distributed. The knees are not locked and probably should be slightly bent to allow the player to flex them at any time. Likely slightly more of the player’s weight will be on the right foot—the important word being slightly. The endpin, preferably with a rubber tip, should be extended so that the right forearm is perpendicular to the floor and even with the top of the bridge. Place the side of the bass against the left side of the abdomen, near the groin, and allow it to balance (have the student raise his or her hands in the air). The student should strive for a “weightless” bass—when the left hand is free to move flexibly up and down the fingerboard and the right hand can attend to bowing (Figure 31.5). If the player sits on a stool a strap may be used, which is designed to stretch from the leg of the stool and has spaced holes in the strap for the endpin. Adjustable-height stools are important. Experimenting with the endpin will determine the length needed to position the bass comfortably and at the proper angle, as illustrated in Figure 31.6. When the player is seated, the nut of the instrument should align with the forehead and the player’s left hand should be positioned to “shake hands” with the bridge. Of importance is the ability to bow near the bridge without leaning over the instrument. When seated, the player sits with the left leg forward. The bass is tilted back and to the right so that the upper right bout rests against the left side of the body just below the rib cage. For a sixth-grade student of average height, a half-size bass should allow the lower right bout to rest against the left knee. The left knee may be used to partially support the instrument, but the left shoulder should not be. The left thumb serves to balance the bass and to prevent it from rotating but is not used to support the instrument, since the thumb must remain mobile. The body needs to be able to move and cannot be locked into

FIGURE 31.4 Bow holder for double bass

FIGURE 31.5 Holding a half-size double bass in a standing position

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 433

THE DOUBLE BASS

433

place by the instrument. The angle of the instrument varies with the student’s size but is generally tilted 60 to 75 degrees from an upright position. The thumb touches the back of the neck opposite the second finger, with the hand rounded as if holding an orange. The thumb, however, needs to feel natural, fall where it is comfortable, and move to assist the left fingers without ever becoming “locked” in any given position. The upper arm is well away from the body—only slightly below horizontal. The forearm angles upward to allow the wrist to be in a position that enables the fingers to touch the strings at a perpendicular angle.

TUNING There are two common methods for tuning the instrument, both using the bow. The most common method (or what is taught first) is to lightly touch the string with the left third finger halfway between the bridge and the nut. The sound will be an octave higher (first harmonic), which enables the student to hear the pitch more clearly and accurately. Basses then learn to tune to A, touching the fourth finger on the D string, which produces a harmonic A (Simandl third position) then touching the harmonic on the A string with first finger (in the same position), matching to the A harmonic on the D string. This continues in the same position for the A and E strings; then goes back to the D string, playing the harmonic with first finger. The D string is already in tune, so only the G string is left to tune. Touch the fourth-finger harmonic on the G string, and match it to the harmonic on the D string, which is already in tune.

FIGURE 31.6 Holding a three-quartersize double bass using a stool

LEFT ARM AND HAND MOVEMENTS The upper left arm is held away from the player’s body, with the wrist and the arch of the hand away from the neck so that the fingers can contact the string from as great a distance as possible. The elbow is up and the shoulder is down. The muscular strength for the left fingers starts in the body, moving from the back through the upper arm and runs through the arms to the fingers. As with the cello, the strings of the bass are depressed using the muscles at the base of the fingers. The distance between the wrist and the fingers is important to generate the extra weight needed. The wrist is almost a straight extension of the elbow with the elbow held high enough to allow the fingers to be approximately perpendicular to the strings (see Figure 31.7). The second and third fingers are placed at right angles to the strings. The idea of a rigid frame for the left hand has been overemphasized; the position of the fingers is most important and a slight downward slant of these fingers is not incorrect. The thumb reaches to about the center of the neck but does not hold the instrument; it simply rests against the neck to aid the motion of the opposite fingers. The little finger may be pointed slightly downward. Fingers must be placed firmly on the strings, using enough of the fleshy part of the tip to cover the thick string (but not so much that the tone is deadened). On the bass, the resistance offered by the heavy, long strings is such that the fingers must actually stop the string— push it down to the fingerboard rather than touching it only enough to change pitch. A lighter touch may produce a slight change of pitch or a harmonic but also can produce a rumble or a buzzing sound. Fingers become sore, especially those of beginners, but they soon toughen with daily practice. Students often initially play first in the upper positions where the need for left-hand finger pressure is less. Most teachers begin with third position rather than first. Open-string playing is usually delayed. Shifting is usually FIGURE 31.7 Left arm and finger accomplished with the finger that is down rather than with the finger that is to play positions for playing a “balanced” bass the next pitch. Players often shift more frequently than necessary to avoid using the weaker little finger, which is not a good habit. With sufficient use, the fourth finger gains greater in strength and can reduce the need for excessive shifting. One technique is to play major scales on one string using all four fingers with shifts, which assists with ear training as well as left-hand technique. Then practice chromatic scales of one or two octaves on each string, using shifts, and gradually increase the speed. Octaves on the bass are performed by skipping a string, using the first finger on the lower string and the fourth finger on the higher string. Bass players make many adjustments

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 434

434

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

of the left hand, pivoting rather than shifting, using the third finger, and in some cases using a collapsed hand. The third finger is commonly used for F≥ on the G string. Bass players who do not follow good principles of motion to achieve tension-free playing spend considerable time in the doctor’s office. The most common left-hand problems stem from holding the elbow too low and from using the left hand to help support the instrument. Unless the elbow is high enough to allow a straight wrist and fingers that are perpendicular to the string, tension will build, the wrist will fatigue and/or cramp, and the forearm will stiffen. If the instrument is leaning on the hand for support, shifting is difficult. The hand must be relaxed and free to move quickly and easily; it cannot be burdened by the weight of the instrument. Students must avoid the following: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Gripping too tightly with the left hand. Pinching too tightly between the thumb and fingers. Letting the hand collapse and the thumb slide under and around the neck (often called the “Babe Ruth grip”). The 1–2–4 finger spacing should resemble a cello extension—that is, the second finger should not be too close to the first.

Bass players must learn to listen to their own playing as do all fine instrumentalists. The bass string is so long that bass players can be “close” to pitch and it may seem acceptable. But being the harmonic bedrock of an ensemble makes it even more important to strive for good intonation. Visual aids can help, but the ear is the best judge. Playing harmonics that are easier to hear also provides kinesthetic landmarks. Many students in school music programs learn to play bass in first position. On a three-quarter-size bass, the distance from the nut to the first finger is approximately five inches. The left fingers require equal distances between first, second, and fourth fingers. Students can practice this position by holding ping-pong balls between these fingers. Gary Karr also uses ping-pong balls on the bow to demonstrate the importance of a horizontal bow stroke. The left hand is curved, with the wrist and arch of the hand away from the neck. It is essential for bass technique (finger action, vibrato, shifting) to keep the hand somewhat open and elongated. If the hand is too close to the neck, technique is limited. The palm should not rest against the neck. Contemporary music demands much of the double bass player—double and triple stops, finger slaps, rubbing sounds, and fingernail and lyric pizzicato of the left hand. Traditional pizzicato includes finger pizzicato and the thumb pizzicato that is executed by pushing the upper part of the string.

Vibrato Vibrato on the bass is produced by the left forearm and wrist in a near-identical manner to cello vibrato. The motion begins with the elbow and is a forearm rotation. Bass vibrato is usually slower and wider than for any of the other string instruments. The motion makes the fleshy finger pads roll on the string. Strength for playing with vibrato, especially on long notes, for which it is used most frequently, is achieved by keeping the fingers close together rather than spread. This “block” hand must be able to move readily back to a “melodic” position to cover moving notes. The best vibrato seems to be produced when the student attempts to oscillate the pitch at the same frequency the player feels the string is vibrating.

RIGHT ARM AND HAND MOVEMENTS There are two types of bass bows, both widely used: the French and the German. These require different bow holds. The French hold is more widely used by symphony players in the United States because it offers more flexibility and freedom of movement than the German hold. The grip for holding the French bass bow is similar to that for the cello (Figure 31.8a–b). The primary difference is that the index finger grips the bow at the middle joint rather than at the first joint. The inside corner of the thumb is placed in the corner of the frog, with the thumb bent and flexible. The third and fourth fingers contact the concave side of the frog; the little finger extends over the stick about the length of a fingernail. The wrist is generally straight but flexible. When playing at the bow tip, the index finger and thumb use a twisting motion to apply weight to the tip; at the frog, the bow is lifted and balanced by the thumb and the first and little fingers. American-made French bows are generally identical to German bows except for the frog; in reality the French bass bow should be shorter than a German bow due to weight. With the German bow (used by Gary Karr and Jeremy Miller, two outstanding contemporary bassists), the frog is placed between the thumb and little finger and against the web of the thumb and fingers (palm up). The first, second, and third fingers rest under the right side of the stick for support, with the first finger providing most of the support. The little finger must remain curved to prevent a tense wrist. Gary Karr calls the holding position the bow cradle, not a bow grip, to emphasize comfort and flexibility (Figure 31.9a–c). The German bow is more appropriate for some music and may be seen as a more robust approach.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 435

THE DOUBLE BASS

435

FIGURE 31.8 The French bow and bow hold: (a) view from the front; and (b) back

FIGURE 31.9 The German bow and bow hold: (a) view from the front ; (b) back; and (c) on strings

Although the bass bow requires some strength, the German bow and hold is increasing in popularity in the United States. Control of the bow is necessary to produce all the possible effects on the string bass. The elbow should not protrude to the right during bowing, but should generally fall along the line formed by a straight (though relaxed) arm. Free wrist action is necessary for a smooth bow change and for varying the type of bow stroke used. Because the bow position is controlled by the bow hold, the bow is tilted, resting on the inner edge of the bow hair. Because the weight applied to the bow is greater than with the other string instruments, most—and sometimes all—of the hair actually comes in contact with the string in spite of this tilt. The bow is usually placed as close to the bridge as possible to “pull” the darkest, richest sound possible. Gary Karr suggests that the distance from the bow’s contact point to the bridge is dictated by the length of the string (or left-finger position), and the player should always try to vibrate as much (length) of the string as possible. If given the option of playing A on the D string or open A, the open A is more desirable as it allows more string to vibrate. The bass player has proportionally much less bow hair available to produce a satisfactory tone (as compared to other string instruments) and must continually experiment, changing bow speed when changing the contact point and also changing speed and bow length when playing at the frog and the tip. String crossings also require adjustments in bowing to retain evenness in tone quality. A final, but important, point is that the bass player often needs to use a slower bow speed (relying on weight) than do higher-pitched string instrumentalists to produce the core sound. Many teachers call for full bow from the entire ensemble, which forces the bass players to use too much bow speed. John Cage asked that tone color be changed during a sustained note, which is done with the bow. Other timbre changes are made with mutes that are made of various materials, brass, rosewood, hard rubber, and plastic. Sul tasto bowing is done on the fingerboard while sul ponticello is almost on the bridge; both are subject to change by various electronic pickups such as FRAP. Today’s composers ask for considerable creativity from double bass players, as the instrument can be found in almost any type of ensemble—wind, string, or percussion.

WHAT TO PRACTICE The beginning student should start with pizzicato playing using a wide circular motion, rotating the entire right arm at the shoulder to pluck the strings and “pull” the string sound from the bass. The first efforts at bowing should use short

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 436

436

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

FIGURE 31.10 Fundamental and first four harmonics on each double bass string

strokes to emulate the sound of the pizzicato playing. Next, the bass player should pluck harmonics by rote. Figure 31.10 shows bass harmonics and the pitches they sound. Double bass players may use harmonics to the ninth partial. We show only the first four. Natural harmonics for the bass are produced in the same manner as on all string instruments. Because the string is touched lightly, the length of the string is not actually shortened; however, a harmonic is produced, causing the string to vibrate at the frequencies that have a node at that point. For example, the fourth harmonic is produced by touching at the location of a perfect fourth above the open string, producing a harmonic two octaves above the open string. Artificial harmonics are produced by fingering a note, which actually creates a new string length, and then lightly touching the string at a higher position. For example, on the violin, play a B, lightly touch a fourth higher and the sound is the harmonic two octaves above the fingered B. The third harmonic is usually avoided except on the string bass. Due to the required distance between positions on the bass, the thumb position is commonly used. The bass strings are not only longer, they are thicker and heavier, requiring more weight on the string for it to respond. Students should apply the greatest bow pressure at the beginning of the bow stroke—that is, “dig into the string”—then immediately adjust the pressure to produce the appropriate dynamic level. The weight of the bow does not change drastically, especially in forte or fortissimo passages, but there is a slight reduction for softer tones, only to have the weight reapplied and/or tilted so that more bow hair makes contact with the string when the stroke approaches the bow tip. This technique of using a “bite” or somewhat harsher articulation is easier to do at the frog than at the tip. Bass players practice both. Bass players also strive to reduce the harshness of the initial articulation so that it becomes more controlled. As with all string instruments, the bow is kept parallel to the bridge (see Figure 31.9c) and at a contact point between the bridge and fingerboard where the best tone is produced. Because the bow is farther from the eyes than with violin, this positioning is more problematic. This “level” bowing plane is a kinesthetic motion that needs to become automatic and requires the beginning player to practice with a mirror to learn the parallel feel of the right arm and wrist when playing on the four different strings. On the half-size bass, to play an E on the D string, the first finger stops the string about 33⁄4 inches from the nut; consequently, in order to play the ascending F≥, one must use fingers two, three, and four with four stopping the string in the appropriate spot for the pitch. On a three-quarter bass, the E requires the first finger to be about five inches from the nut with greater spacing between the fingers in order for the fourth finger to reach F≥. In general, the third finger is used to support and strengthen the fourth finger when playing bass (until position VI is reached). The third finger, in positions I–V, is rarely used as a substitute for a fourth- or second-finger pitch. For example, on the open D string the first finger plays E and the fourth finger plays F≥. (This explains why the bass is tuned in fourths rather than fifths like the other string instruments—the next string would be G.) Because of the size of the bass strings, and its sounding an octave below the notes written, there is some leeway with regard to finger placement for accurate intonation. Because the bass is so large, students tend to find their way around the instrument kinesthetically rather than by eyeing their fingers and bow motion. The E string on the bass is the lowest sound in the orchestra (except for bass extensions and the organ). It is traditionally played with a slower bow motion than any other string in the string family and a bow weight that requires digging into the E string almost to the extent that it is pushed to the A string. Young bassists must very quickly learn to play in higher positions to facilitate the performance of higher pitches. The first seven positions are identified in Figure 31.11, while Figure 31.12 shows a bassist playing in an upper position. Note the difference in hand position compared to earlier figures.

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 437

THE DOUBLE BASS Second Position Positions: 1/2 G-string

I

0

1

2

D-string 0

1

2

A-string 0

1

E-string 0

1

4

II

Third Position

II 1/2

D-string 1

III 1/2

4

1

2

4

1

2

4

1

2

4

1

2

2

4

1

2

4

1

2

4

1

2

4

1

2

1

2

4

1

2

4

1

2

4

1

2

4

1

2

4

1

2

4

1

2

4

1

2

1

2

4

1

2

4

0

1

2

4

0

1

2

4

0

2

4

0

Fifth Position Positions: IV G-string 2 1

III

V

4

4

4

Sixth Position

V 1/2

VI

4

1

2

4

1

2

4

1

2

3

1

VI 1/2 3 2

1

2

VII 3

2

4

1

2

4

1

2

4

1

2

3

1

2

3

1

2

3

A-string 1

2

4

1

2

4

1

2

4

1

2

3

1

2

3

1

2

E-string 1

2

4

1

2

4

1

2

4

1

2

3

1

2

3

1

2

3

3

FIGURE 31.11 First seven positions for double bass

CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF THE DOUBLE BASS Care of the instrument includes purchase of a high-quality soft case. The case is expensive but is a wise investment. If one spends $4,000 or more on a fine musical instrument, why not spend another $400 to make it last and depreciate less? Hard cases, with wheels, are also a possibility. Carrying the bass by the bouts or the neck is preferable over carrying it by the fingerboard; a wheel attachment is available as a replacement for the endpin, so heavy lifting can be minimized. Picking the instrument up from the floor should be done by gently rolling it on its ribs rather that sliding it along the floor, so that edges are not rubbed and damaged. Protectors are now available for the bouts when the bass is placed on its side. Also useful are the bow holds (quivers) that attach to the tailpiece. Bass rosin must be used on the bow hair—applied frog to tip—it is stickier than the rosin for the other string instruments.

FIGURE 31.12 Playing bass in an upper position

437

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 438

438

THE STRING INSTRUMENTS

RESOURCES Website International Society of Bassists isbworldoffice.com

Texts Benfield, W. and J. Dean (1995) The Art of Double Bass Playing. Van Nuys, CA: Summy-Birchard-Alfred. Cowden, R. (1995). Highlights from the American String Teacher (1984–1994), Double Bass Forum. Fairfax, VA: American String Teachers Association. Grodner, M. (2000). Comprehensive Catalog of Music, Books, Recordings, and Videos for the Double Bass, 4th ed. Littleton, CO: Grodner. ––– (2013). A Double Bassist’s Guide to Refining Performance Practices. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Also eBook. Turetzky, B. (1989). The Contemporary Contrabass, rev. ed. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Book and eBook.

Bille. Orchestral Bowing Etudes (Belwin). Bottesini. Method for Double Bass (Yorke). Butler. Progressive Method (2 vols.) (C. Fischer). Dragonetti. Five Studies (Garish). Flesch. Scale System (C. Fischer). Grodner. An Organized Method of String Playing (P. International). Hause. 96 Etudes (Theodore Presser). Kayser-Winsel. 36 Studies (International). Kreutzer-Simandl. 18 Studies (International). Lee. 12 Studies, Opus 31, for String Bass (International). Storch-Hrabe. 57 Studies (2 vols.) (Universal). Advanced (High School or College) Drew, Spinosa, Rusch. The Artists’ Studio for Strings (Bass) (Kjos). Hrabe. 86 Etudes (International). Janowsky. Rhythmic Studies in Velocity (Encore). Schwabe. Seals Studies (International). ––– 30 Etudes for the String Bass (C. Fischer). Simandl. Gradus ad Parnassuma 24 Studies (2 vols.) (International). Slama. 66 Studies in All Keys (International). Sturm. 110 Studies (2 vols.) (International).

Instructional Videos Double Bass Studies Easy/Beginning (Elementary or Middle School) Applebaum. Bass Methods (Belwin). Baklanova. 10 Easy Pieces (Leeds). Berryman. Intonation Plus (Hal Leonard). Erwin, McCashin. New Directions for Strings (FJH). Findeisen. Complete Method (4 vols.) (International). Gale. Gale’s Practical Studies for Double Bass (Double Bass Music). Marcelli. Carl Fischer Basic Method for the String Bass (2 vols.) (C. Fischer). Nanny. Complete Method for the Double Bass (A. Leduc). Simandl. New Method for the Double Bass (Book 1) (C. Fischer). Ward. Elementary Method for Double Bass (Rubank). Zimmerman. Elementary Double Bass Method (G. Schirmer). Medium (Middle or High School) Applebaum. Building Technique (4 vols.) (Belwin). Bille. New School for Double Bass (Ricordi).

All Star Bass Series—Left-Hand Bass Techniques (various artists, 1992). Santa Monica, CA: Star Licks. All Star Bass Series—Right-Hand Bass Techniques (various artists, 1992). Santa Monica, CA: Star Licks. Basically Karr (Gary Karr, 1992). Palatine, IL: Sharper Video Productions. Beginning Bass (2 vols., Larry Antonino, 2002). Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard. Karr Tunes (Gary Karr). Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin. Karrdiology (Gary Karr). Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin.

Recommended Double Bass Artists Ray Brown: Gravy Waltz Gary Karr: Poetic Schumann Bertram Turetzky: The contemporary contrabass; Transition and Transformation

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 439

Index

achievement levels 31, 32; see also assessment accountability 35, 41, 42, 47 acoustic guitars 183, 190, 191, 192 acoustic principles 112: bassoon 205; brass 201–202; clarinet 204; damping 200; double reeds 204–205; flute 203; oboe 205; reeds 203–204; saxophone 204; single reeds 204; standing wave 200, 201; for winds 200–205; woodwinds 202–203 acoustics, facilities and 59 ADD (attention-deficit disorder) 79, 80, 82 ADHD (attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder) 79, 80, 82 adjusted step 146 administration: budgeting 55–56; calendar 54–55; facilities 59–60; finances 55–56; music library 58–59; property and accountability 57–58; public relations 60; purchasing 56; relationships with administrators and colleagues 62; relationships with parents 61; relationships with students 61–62; school-owned instruments 57; school-owned uniforms 58; travel 62–63 administrators 54, 60, 62, 71 Advanced Placement (AP) music theory 17, 49, 71, 73, 74, 75 aerophones 356 aesthetic growth 32 affective objective 28 afuches 378 Agricola, M. 421 Alexander technique 88, 90, 393 Allentown Civic Band 6 Alsop, M. 11, 24 Alternating-Day Plan 74 alto horn 291, 348 alto saxophones 258, 261, 262, 266 Amati 309, 349, 385, 406, 421 American School Band Directors Association (ASBDA) 36 American Sign Language 82 American String Teachers Association (ASTA) 36, 175, 399

anchor standards 34–35 AP music theory see Advanced Placement (AP) music theory appreciation 32 arm exercises 91 Armstrong, L. 162, 164, 292, 294, 309 articulation: assessment and 47, 48; bassoon and 278; brass and woodwinds and 130; brass principles and 293–294, 297–299, 306–307; chamber ensembles and 76; clarinet and 245–246; curriculum and 37; double bass and 436; ensembles and 102–103, 110, 119–120; flute and 214; horn and 327; jazz 167–168, 172, 173; objectives and 32; oboe and 230; percussion instruments and 158, 358, 359, 363, 374; rehearsal plan and 153; saxophone and 265; standards and 31, 35; string principles and 396–399; student learner outcomes and 29; trombone and 335, 337; trumpet and 316; tuba and 349; viola and 419 Asperger’s syndrome 81 assessment 13–14, 21, 26–27, 37, 41–53, 60, 79, 80, 105, 138: formative, 45–46; summative, 46–49; selfassessment, 51; tests, 21, 67 assessment recording 31, 41, 42 at ease position 143 attention-deficit disorder see ADD attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder see ADHD attention position 142–143 attitudes 18, 134 audiation 28, 51, 128, 134 auditions 9, 30, 37, 41, 46–7, 48, 49, 75, 78, 94, 166; see also tryouts Autism (Autism Spectrum Disorder) 81 auxiliary (color guard), marching bands 145, 148, 149, 159 awards 21 Bach, V. 302, 311 backward step 146 Baker, C. 163, 174, 177

balance 112 Baltimore Symphony 11 bands 3, 4, 5–6, 8, 9, 47 Bandura, A. 15 baritones/euphonium 111, 144, 156, 202, 277, 304–305, 332–342, 348: assembly 334; embouchure 338; fingerings 347; health issues 342; intonation 339; playing position 334, 336–337; vibrato 340 Basie, Count 162–163, 167 bass (double bass) 385, 389, 392, 393, 430–436: bowing 389, 393, 394, 395–396, 434, 435; bows 387, 431, 433–434; double stops 393; fingerings 390, 432–433, 435, 436; jazz ensembles 166, 167, 170, 172–173; mutes 387; playing position 431–432; vibrato 433 bass clarinets 241–242 bass drums 158, 357, 362–364: playing position 363 bass guitars 191–192 basset horn 237 bassoons 5, 26, 200, 205, 272–279, 281, 285–287: assembly 272–273; embouchure 274–275, 276, 277, 282, 283; health issues 86, 87, 88, 282; intonation 275–276; playing position 273–274; reeds 276, 277, 278, 279–281, 282, 283; tonguing 278; troubleshooting 276, 280–281, 282–283; vibrato 278 Battisti, F. 22, 36, 106, 141 bebop 163–164 Beethoven, L. 6, 15, 117, 183, 221, 296, 320, 332, 356 Begian, H. 109 beginning instrumental instruction 126–134, 135–138 behaviorism 126 Bennett, R. R. 108 Bernstein, L. 28, 117, 399 blend 27, 32, 44, 46, 76, 100, 102, 105, 110–113, 117–118, 162, 165, 173, 188, 203, 245, 261, 263, 309, 320, 325, 357, 358, 391, 415 blind students 82

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 440

440

INDEX

block schedules 73–74 Bloom, B. 28, 37 blues 162 Bocelli, A. 80 body exercises 91–92 body movement, systems of 89–90 Boehm system 207, 222, 237 bongos 378 booster clubs 55, 61 Bornoff, G. 87, 399 Boston Brigade Band 5 bowing 120, 128, 131, 389–390, 393, 394–399, 401–402, 404: bass 389, 393, 394, 395–396, 434, 435; cellos 389, 393, 395–396, 423, 428; violas 389, 393, 394, 395, 417, 419; violins 389, 393, 394, 395, 410–411 bows 385, 386–387, 400, 401; bass 387, 431, 433–434; cellos 387, 422, 427–428; violas 387, 418, 419; violins 386, 387 brass bands 5, 6, 9 brass instruments 3, 6, 94, 197, 201–202, 204, 291–297, 300–303, 332: articulation 293, 294, 297–299, 306–307; beginning instruction 130, 131; breathing exercises 130–131; damping 200; embouchure 292, 293–294, 295, 296–297, 305–306; endurance 294–295, 307–308; fingerings 315–316; intonation 299–300; medical problems 85, 86, 87, 295; mutes 300; tonguing 297–299; troubleshooting 304–308; tuning 101, 102 Brazilian jazz 169 breathing exercises: brass instruments 130–131; group practice 100–101; wind instruments 129, 130–131, 134, 198–200; woodwind instruments 130–131, 198–200 Britton, M. 356 Bruner, J. 37, 127 buccina 332 budgeting 55–56 buzzing 28, 101, 153, 200, 201, 238, 248, 277, 292, 297, 300, 305, 312, 313, 337, 351, 358, 433 B≤ horns 320–321, 324, 326, 327 cabasas 378 calendar 54–55 canvas.net 62 Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, The 7, 34 castanets 375–376 cellos 131, 385, 386, 387, 393, 421–429: bowing 389, 393, 395–396, 423, 428; bows 387, 422, 427–428; double stops 393; extensions 425–426; fingerings 390, 421–422, 423, 424–426; health issues 87; mutes 387; playing position 422–423;

shifting 426–427; troubleshooting 400; vibrato 427 chair positions 20 chamber groups 9, 17, 76 Charles, R. 80 Charms Office Assistant 58 checklists 43–44, 45, 46, 49, 51: assessment recording 31, 41, 42 chimes 356, 370 chorales 102–103 chord diagrams 188–189, 194 chordophones 356 Civil War bands 6 clarinets 5, 27, 94, 131, 200, 202–203, 205, 237–245, 248–249, 254: articulation 245–246; assembly 238–239; bass 241–242; embouchure 239, 240–241, 242, 243, 248, 250, 251, 252, 260, 275; fingerings 204, 246, 255–256; health issues 86, 87, 249–250; intonation 242–243; playing position 239–240; reeds 238–239, 241–242, 246–248, 250, 251, 252; tonguing 246, 248; troubleshooting 245, 247–248, 250–252; vibrato 244 Clark, J. 7 Clarke, H. L. 6, 294, 296 claves 169, 377 cognitive objective 28, 30 cognitivism 126 Coleman report 50 Colgrass, M. 356 college bands 6, 7 color guard, marching bands see auxiliary (color guard) Colson, J. 117 commands, marching bands 141–143 comments 46, 47, 48 communication 121–122 competence 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 30: assessment 42, 44, 47, 48 Comprehensive Musicianship through Performance (CMP) approach 37 concert bands 5, 7, 9 concert bells 158, 364, 367 concerts 23, 36, 46, 48, 137–138: rehearsals 106, 109, 111, 118 conga drums 377 conservatories 7, 47 constructivism 126 contests 6, 8–9, 21, 23, 30, 33, 42, 46–48, 49, 61, 65, 357, 361 Contzius, A. 106 Conway, P. 7 Cook, G. 356, 359, 371–372, 373, 377, 379 cool jazz 163 coordination 54–55, 62 Cooper, L. 37 Copland, A. 104, 108, 148 Core Arts Standards 34, 73, 104; see also standards

Corelli, A. 3 cornets 202, 299, 309, 310, 311, 316, 319: playing position 311–312 Corporon, E. M. 122 cowbells 377 cramps 92, 94 Creatore, G. 7 Cremona 309, 385, 421 criticism 19–20, 21, 47 cross-training 85 Csikszentmihalyi, M. 12 curriculum see music curriculum; school curriculum Curwen hand signs 128, 134 cymbals 158, 200, 357, 370–373, 379–380; playing position 371–372 Dalcroze eurhythmics 128 Dallas Wind Symphony 104 damping 200–201 Damrosch, W. 4 Davis, M. 18, 163, 164, 174, 177, 178 deaf students 82 demonstrations 67–68 developmental processes 30 disabilities, students with 42, 78–83 Disabilities Education Act (2004) see IDEA diseases 94 double bass see bass (double bass) double horns 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327 double stops 393, 394 double-tonguing 214, 230, 248, 278, 298–299, 314 Down syndrome 81 drums 3, 356: bass drums 158, 357, 362–364; health issues 380; jazz ensembles 163, 164, 166, 167, 169, 170–171; snare drums 157, 356, 357, 358–362; tenor drums 157, 370; timpani 200, 356, 357, 358, 368–370 drum sets 379–380 Duckworth, A. 11, 14 Dudamel, G. 9 Duke, R. 31 Dweck, C. 11, 13 Earhart, W. 7 Eastman Wind Ensemble 9, 22 educational objectives 26, 27, 28 Education for All Handicapped Children (1975) 78 Eisner, E. 42, 45 elective courses 75 electric guitars 172, 190, 191 Elementary and Secondary Education Act (S1177, 2015) see ESSA Ellington, Duke 162, 163 Elliott, D. 35, 42, 43, 49, 51 El Sistema 9 embouchure see individual instruments emotionally disturbed students 81

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 441

INDEX endurance 294–295, 307–308 ensembles 3, 9, 17–18, 22, 37–38, 75, 76: creative experiences 104–105 epilepsy 81 equipment 56, 57, 60, 61 esprit de corps (group spirit) 18, 19 ESSA (Every Student Succeeds Act) 41, 42, 43, 45, 51, 78 euphoniums 156, 202, 332, 333–334, 337, 339, 341, 343: assembly 334; embouchure 338, 342; fingerings 339, 347; health issues 342; intonation 339; playing position 334, 336–337; vibrato 340 evaluation see assessment Evans, P. 14 excellence, tradition of 17, 74 exercises, preventive and corrective 90–93 expression 134 extrinsic motivation 16, 19–22 facial movement 307 facial muscles 86, 198, 224, 239, 292, 297, 312 facial structure 211, 243, 293, 337 Farkas, P. 117, 296, 324 feedback 26, 27, 45–46, 47, 48, 51 Feldenkrais technique 89–90 Feldman, E. 106 Fennell, F. 9 festivals 23, 33, 42, 46 F horns 320, 321, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327 Fiedler, A. 4 field-based shows, marching bands 147–149 finances 55–56, 60 fingerings see individual instruments fingerpicking 190 first-chair positions 20 flank step 146–147 flexibility 87, 89, 90–93, 94 flutes 3, 94, 130, 131, 203, 207–215, 219, 220: articulation 214; assembly 208–209; embouchure 203, 208, 210–211, 212, 213, 214–215, 216–217; fingerings 214, 220; health issues 86, 88, 90, 215; intonation 212–213, 214–215; playing position 209–211; tonguing 214; troubleshooting 216–217; vibrato 213 flutter-tonguing 37, 214, 230, 299 formative assessment 41, 42, 45–46, 48, 49 forward head position 88 forward march position 143 free jazz 164 Friday Night Lights 47 front ensemble, marching bands 148–149, 158–159 fusion style 164

GAFE (Google Apps for Education) 62 Gagné, R. 127, 128 Galamian, I. 399 Gates Foundation Measures of Effective Teaching 17, 41, 51 germs 94 gifted students 83 Gillespie, D. 163, 168, 174, 176, 177 Gilmore, P. 5, 6, 7 Glennie, E. 80 glide step 145 glockenspiel 200, 356, 364, 365, 367 Gluck, C.W. 3, 356 goal orientation theory 12, 13 goals 12, 13, 14, 15, 16–17, 19, 26, 27, 38 Goldman, E. F. 349 good music 7, 9, 11, 15, 16, 19, 23, 24, 174 grades 20, 49–50 Graham, L. 112 Grainger, P. 108 Green, B. 85, 94 Green, E. 120 grit 11, 12, 14 group membership 19, 21 group objectives 27, 31 growth mind-set 13, 14 Guarneri 309, 385, 406 Guild of American Luthiers 183 guiro 378 Guitar Center 10 guitar position 130, 131, 390–391, 407 guitars 90, 182–188, 190–191: acoustic 183, 190, 191, 192; electric 172, 190, 191; fingerpicking 190; jazz ensembles 163, 165, 166, 167, 171, 172; medical problems 87, 88; strumming 189–190; vibrato 190 halt position 143 Hampel, A.J. 320 hard bop 164 Harding, A.A. 7 Hattie, J. 13, 14 Haydn, J. 4 hearing 44, 93–94 hearing-impaired students 82 health issues 93–94; see also under individual instruments Heckel, J.A. 272 Herbert, V. 6 Hetland, L. 23, 33 high-quality music 16, 107–108, 174, 183 high step 145 Hindemith, P. 183, 415 Hindsley, M. 309 Holst, G. 27, 415 honor groups 76 honors courses 75 horns 5, 297, 320–321, 323–324, 325–326, 327–328, 330: assembly

441

322; embouchure 324, 325–326, 327, 328; fingerings 327, 331; health issues 328; intonation 324–325; mutes 326–327; playing position 322–323; tonguing 327; vibrato 326 House, R. 108 IDEA (Disabilities Education Act, 2004) 78, 79, 80 idiophones 356 IEPs (individualized education program) 79, 80 improvisation 127, 128, 134, 136: jazz ensembles 162, 164–165, 172, 174–175 instructional objectives 26, 27, 28–29, 30–33, 127 instruction materials 6, 30, 399–400 instrumental music 3, 9–10, 11, 12, 56, 59 instrumental objectives 33, 46 instructional organization 135–137 instruments 3, 18, 22, 56, 57, 68–69: see also individual instruments integrative assessment 45 interpretation 120–121 intonation see individual instruments intrinsic motivation 13, 14, 16–19 Ithaca (NY) High School Band 22 jazz 9, 161–164, 167, 168–169, 175 jazz ensembles 76, 161, 163, 164–167, 169–173, 175: improvisation 162, 164–165, 172, 174–175 jazz run 146 Jellison, J. 80 Jullien, L.-A. 4 junior high band program 28–29 Jurado, A. 183 just intonation 119 Karr, G. 434–435 Kennedy Center for the Arts 10, 80 King, B.B. 184 Kinyon, J. 27 Kirchhoff, C. 36 Kodály method 128 Kraft, W. 356 Kryl, B. 7 Labuta, J. 107 Laine, K. 47 LaPlante, P. 108 lateral (slide) step 146 Latin jazz 169 learning theories 126–127 legato tonguing 246, 340 legislation 78–79; see also ESSA; IDEA; NCLB Leonhard, C. 108 Liberti, A. 7 Lisk, E. 100–101, 112, 121 listening 18, 32–33, 44, 51, 104

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 442

442

INDEX

literature choice 107 Little Kids Rock 182 Locke, J. 115 Los Angeles Philharmonic 9 Lully, J.-B. 3, 221, 320 lutes 3, 183 lyres 3 Ma, Y. 86, 399, 421 Maddy, J. 8 mallet percussion 364–367: playing position 364–365, 366 maracas 376 marching bands 7–8, 33, 141–147, 153–155, 156–159, 198: competitions 148–149; field-based shows 147–149; marching drills 150–153, 154–155, 159; music selection 149–150; parade formations 144–145 marching competitions 148–149 marching drills 150–153, 154–155, 159 marching percussion (battery) 144, 145, 146, 148–149, 156–158 marimbas 157, 364 mark-time position 143 Marsalis, W. 50, 122 mastery learning 13, 14, 15, 16 matching student and instrument 86 materials see instruction materials maturity factors 86–87 McConathy, O. 8 McPherson, G.E. 11, 14, 15, 50 medical problems 85–86, 87–89: brass instruments 85, 86, 87, 295; string instruments 86, 88, 392, 393, 400; wind instruments 86, 88; woodwind instruments 87; see also individual instruments mellophones 156 Melos 117, 118, 121 membranophones 356 method books 137–138 Midwest Clinic 107 military bands 5, 7 Miller, J. 434 Millican, S. 127 Mingus, C. 163, 173, 177 Mnozil Brass 27 Modified Block Plan 74 Monteverdi, C. 3, 332 Morton, J. 9, 162, 176 motivation 11, 12–16, 19, 22, 23–24, 36: extrinsic 19–22; intrinsic 16–19 mouthpiece visualizer 313 Mozart, W.A. 4, 104, 108, 221, 237, 272, 332, 356 muffling 158 multiple tonguing 37, 214, 265, 298: double-tonguing 214, 230, 248, 278, 298–299, 314; triple-tonguing 203, 214, 230, 298–299 muscle mapping 90 musculoskeletal system 85, 87, 90

musical aptitude 13, 67 musical clinics 9, 85 Musical Futures 182, 188 musical independence 16, 18, 27, 38, 121 music curriculum 30, 36, 37, 38, 41, 42, 44, 45, 51 music education 11, 16, 24, 35, 51, 79 musicianship 11, 17 music instruction 32, 35, 126–129 music learning 11, 14, 16, 19, 32 music learning lab 102–105 music learning theory 128 music libraries 6, 58–59 music literature 137–138 music programs 17, 19, 26, 27, 31–33, 36, 38, 66, 69; see also assessment; finances; performance music selection 56, 59, 106–111, 149–150, 174 music standards see standards mutes 100, 163, 190, 191, 192, 300, 312, 320, 326–327, 354, 369, 387–388, 435 Nabb, D. 80 NAfME (National Association for Music Education) 27, 35, 59, 65, 71, 79, 81, 94, 172 National Association of Music Merchants (NAMM) 10, 65 National Coalition for Core Arts Standards (NCCAS, 2014) 34–35, 37 National Music Camp 8 national standards, voluntary 27, 34–35; see also standards NCLB (No Child Left Behind Act, 2001) 42, 49, 78, 83 new music 16, 30, 58, 59 New York Philharmonic 4, 6, 27 Oberlin High School Band 108 objectives 26–28, 30, 35, 37–38, 41, 44, 46: experiential 26, 30; instructional 26, 27, 30–33, 127; performance 26, 27, 35, 36 oboes 5, 200, 205, 221–231, 235–236: articulation 227–230; assembly 222; embouchure 223, 224, 225, 232, 233; health issues 231; intonation 226; playing position 223, 225; reeds 222, 224, 225, 226, 227–230, 232, 233; tonguing 226, 230; troubleshooting 231–233; vibrato 227 O’Halloran, T. 11, 24 O’Neil, S. 14 opera 3 orchestras 3–4, 7, 10: school 7, 8, 9, 33, 36, 61–62, 357–358 Orff–Schulwerk approach 128 organization 54–55 Orpheus Chamber Orchestra 122 Otto, J. 183

Page, W. 162, 173 parade formations, marching bands 144–145 parade rest position 143 parental support 20, 55, 61 Pavlov, I. 127 Paynter, J. 117 P-Bone 333 perception 28 percussion instruments 120, 130, 131–133, 356–358, 378–379: bass drums 158, 357, 362–364; chimes 356, 370; cymbals 158, 200, 357, 370–373, 379–380; Latin American instruments 375–378; mallet percussion 364–367; medical problems 87, 380; snare drums 157, 356, 357, 358–362; tambourines 356, 373–374; tenor drums 157, 370; timpani 200, 356, 357, 358, 368–370; triangles 374–375; tuning 102 performance 6, 13, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 36, 38, 46, 51, 137–138 performance anxiety 94, 295 performance curriculum 36, 37 performance objectives 26, 27, 35, 36 performance standards 30–31, 35 Perlman, I. 47, 80, 399 phrase endings: ensembles and 118; expression and 134 phrases: bowing and 396; chorales and 102, 106; ensembles and 121; jazz and 168 physical disabilities 80, 82 physiology: about 85–86; matching student and instrument 86–87; other health issues 93–94; performance anxiety 94; preventive and corrective exercises 90–93; systems of body movement 89–90; teacher responsibility 87–89 Piaget, J. 127 piano 90, 389: jazz ensembles 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 169, 171–172 piccolo 120, 156, 207, 208 Pilates 89 Pintrich, P. 12 pitch: assessment and 48; brass principles and 291, 292, 293–294, 296, 297–298, 299–300, 307; brass and woodwinds and 131; computer programs and 22; Curwen hand signs for 128, 134; grades and 49; improvisation and 136–137, 175; intonation guidance and 119; isolating 136; percussion instruments and 131–132, 133, 157, 158, 307, 359, 367, 370, 373, 374, 376–377; performance standards and 31–32, 35; reference 101; rehearsal plan and 111; string principles and 289, 385, 387, 388, 390, 392; student learner outcomes and 29; testing and 67;

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 443

INDEX wind principles and 197, 199, 200–205; see also tuning; individual instruments playing by ear 26, 127, 137, 390–391 playing position 85, 86, 87–88, 197–198; see also individual instruments Pleeth, W. 423 Popham, J. 45 posture 87–88, 90, 129, 130, 197–198 practice: assessment and 45–46; baritone and euphonium and 340–341; cello and 429; clarinet and 248; double bass and 435–436; ensembles and 103; facilities for 18, 59–60; flute and 214–215; grading and 20; horn and 327; importance of teaching 122–123; log for 50; motivation strategies and 14; parents and 20; saxophone and 265–266; student learner outcomes and 28; trombone and 340–341; trumpet and 316; violin and 413 practice rooms see rehearsal rooms praise 13, 14, 19 preventive and corrective exercises 90–93 preventive strategies 85, 86–87, 88–89; see also stretching exercises; warm-up exercises Primrose, W. 415 principals 62 private lessons 17, 31, 49, 75, 79 programming 10, 16, 83, 108–109 Pryor, A. 7, 340 psychomotor objective 28, 30 publicity 60 Public Law 108-446 78 public performances 8, 21, 23 Pujol, E. 183 ragtime 162 Ratliff, B. 104 Ravitch, D. 50 RCI Music Library Software 58 recordings 22, 48 recruiting 65–69 reed instruments 3, 130, 203–205 reeds 279: bassoons 276, 277, 278, 279–281, 282, 283; clarinets 238–239, 241–242, 246–248, 250, 251, 252; oboes 222, 224, 225, 226, 227–230, 232, 233; saxophone 260, 265, 267, 268 Rehabilitation Act (1973) 78–79 rehearsal rooms 18, 59–60, 80, 81, 82 rehearsals 16, 59–60, 99–100, 105–113, 117–123: music learning lab 102–105; seating plans 59, 113–116; tuning 101–102, 118–119 Reich, S. 356 relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis 81 Remind (remind.com) 62 resonant frequencies 200, 201, 202, 204, 390 retention 69

Revelli, W. 309 Reynolds, H.R. 118 rhythms (rhythm patterns) 133 Rolland, P. 391, 392, 393, 394, 398, 399, 407, 410 Rombach-Kendall, E. 114 Ross, A. 48 Rossini, G. 6, 117 rotating schedule 71–72 RTI (Response to Intervention) 80 rubrics 46, 47, 48 sackbut 332, 340 Sax, A. 257, 348 saxophone 204, 257–264, 266, 270–271: alto 258, 261, 262, 266; articulation 265; assembly 257–258; embouchure 259, 260–261, 262, 263, 264, 266, 267, 268; health issues 266; intonation 262; jazz ensembles 173; playing position 258–259; reeds 260, 265, 267, 268; soprano 173, 260, 262; tenor 241–242, 258, 261; tonguing 260, 265; troubleshooting 261, 266–268; vibrato 262, 263–264 Scarlatti, A. 3 schedules 9, 19, 22, 50, 71–72, 73–74, 75 Schilke, R. 292, 301, 302, 313, 353 schizophrenia 81 Schleuter, S. 127, 134 scholarships 21, 47, 48, 49 school bands 7, 8, 9, 36, 61–62, 357–358 school curriculum 26, 30, 31, 35, 36, 42–43 school ensembles 15, 27, 31–32, 33 school music 7, 8, 9, 33–34, 65 school orchestras 7, 8, 9, 33, 36, 61–62, 357–358 Schuller, G. 356 Schunk, D. 12 score preparation 109–111 seating plans 20, 59, 113–116 Segovia, A. 183 self-assessment 13, 43, 44, 46, 48, 50 self-concept 12, 13, 15 self-efficacy 12, 13, 15, 16 self-esteem 12, 14, 15 self-learning 15 self-motivation 14, 15, 16 self-regulation 14, 15 self-theories 13, 15, 16 Semester Plan 73–74 serpent 277, 309, 348 service bands 6–7, 10 Shearing, G. 80 Sheridan, K.M. 23, 33 Shively, J. 127 shuffle 167 side (crab) step 146 sight-reading 103–104 silent rehearsing 106 Silverman, M. 35, 42, 43, 49, 51

443

Skinner, B. F. 127 SmartMusic 50 snare drums 157, 356, 357, 358–362: playing position 359–360 Snell, A. 43 social activities 22 social media 60, 62, 66a soft skills 12, 46 Solo-Soli 106 soprano saxophones 173, 260, 262 soul (funk) jazz 164 Sousa, J.P. 6, 7, 104, 112, 117 sousaphones 144, 156, 291, 348, 349, 354 special needs students 78–83 spine exercises 93 standards 19, 21, 27, 30–31, 34–35, 37, 41, 43, 51 Stauffer, D. 349 Stradivari, A. 309, 385, 406, 421 Stravinsky, I.F. 12, 30 stretching exercises 85, 88–89, 90–93, 94 string instruction 9, 67, 90, 399 string instruments 3, 87, 130, 131, 200, 385–389, 393, 399–400: bowing 128, 131, 389–390, 393, 394–399, 401–402, 404; bows 385, 386–387, 400, 401; double stops 393, 394; fingerings 385, 390, 392, 403, 404; guitar position 130, 131, 390–391, 407; health issues 86, 88, 392, 393, 400; intonation 402–403; jazz ensembles 175; mutes 387; shifting 391, 403; troubleshooting 400–404; tuning 101, 102; vibrato 392, 403 strumming 189–190 student leadership 19, 31, 122 Student Learner Outcomes (SLOs) 28–29 student management guidelines 62 summative assessment 41, 42, 45, 46–49 summer music camps 22 supporting players 18 Suzuki, S. 9, 128, 399 Suzuki method 128, 410, 411 swing style 161, 162–163, 167 symphony orchestras 4, 7, 10 systems of body movement 89–90 Tabuteau, M. 121 Tai Chi 89 tambourines 356, 373–374 tam-tam 373 Tárrega, F. 183 Tavener, J. 421 Taubman exercises 90 Taylor, N. 85 teacher responsibility, physiology and 87–89 teachers 7, 9, 11–12, 13–14, 15–16, 17, 19, 24, 26 team teaching 75 technical drills 16, 17, 24, 103 temple blocks 376

7141 TEACHING INSTRUMENTAL PT_8.5x11 ins 01/09/2017 10:21 Page 444

444

INDEX

tempo 110, 117, 118 tenor drums 157, 370 tenor saxophones 241–242, 258, 261 tension 87, 88, 90 tests 21, 67 Thomas, T. 4 Thorndike, E. 127 3-2 clave 169 Ticheli, F. 117 Tieffenbrucker, C. 406 timbales 378 timpani 200, 356, 357, 358, 368–370 tom-toms 370 tonality 131, 133–134 tone quality: assessment and 46; baritone and euphonium and 332, 333–334, 337, 339; bassoon and 272, 276, 277–278, 279–280, 281; blend and 112; brass principles and 291–292, 293, 296, 299, 300–301, 302, 303, 311, 313, 314–315; cello and 422, 435; chorales and 102, 113; clarinet and 237, 238–239, 240, 242–246, 248; demonstration and 67; flute and 207, 213, 214; guitar and 191; horn and 320–321, 322, 323, 324, 325–326, 328; instructional objectives and 30; interpretation and 121; jazz and 164, 169, 176, 177; oboe and 27, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 229; percussion instruments and 357, 362, 364, 365, 369, 372, 373; performance objectives and 27, 35, 38; programming and 117; saxophone and 257, 258, 259, 261, 262–263, 264, 265–266; scheduling-related issues and 75; score preparation and 110; sousaphone and 156; string principles and 99, 385–386, 387, 389, 394, 395, 400, 402; teaching preparation and 126; trombone and 333, 335, 337, 341; tuba and 348, 349–350, 352, 353; viola and 415, 416, 417; violin and 407, 409; warmup guidance and 101; wind principles and 197, 199, 203 tonguing 214, 230, 246, 248, 265, 278, 298–299, 340, 353 tours 23, 63

travel 62–63 triangles 374–375 triple-tonguing 203, 214, 230, 298–299 trombones 5, 202, 299, 332, 333, 334, 337, 339–342, 343: assembly 334; embouchure 337–338, 342; fingerings 338, 346; health issues 342; intonation 338–339; jazz ensembles 173; playing position 334, 335; slide positions 202, 307, 333, 338–339, 340–341; tonguing 340; troubleshooting 304, 307; vibrato 340 trumpets 129, 132, 202, 203, 296, 297, 299, 309–310, 313–315, 316, 319: assembly 311; embouchure 294, 312–313, 314; fingerings 315–316, 319; health issues 317; intonation 314; jazz ensembles 173; playing position 311–312; vibrato 315 trust 11 tryouts 20–21 tubas 202, 348–350, 353, 354: assembly 350; embouchure 350–352, 353, 354; fingerings 353; health issues 354; intonation 352; mutes 354; playing position 350; vibrato 354 tuning 101–102, 118–119, 131; see also just intonation; individual instruments tuning forks 200, 367 turns 145, 147 ukulele 192–193 uniforms 58 United States Copyright Law 59 Vadala, C. 173 Vail, K. 42 Veeneman, S. 23 vibraphones 364, 365 vibrato see individual instruments vielles 3, 406 vihuela 183 violas 3, 130, 131, 385, 387, 392, 393, 415–420: bowing 389, 393, 394, 395, 417, 419; bows 387, 418, 419; double stops 393; fingerings 390, 417; health issues 86, 87, 88; mutes 387; playing position 416, 417; shifting 417–418; vibrato 418

violins 3, 129, 130, 131, 385, 386, 387, 392, 393, 406–413: bowing 389, 393, 394, 395, 410–411; bows 386, 387; double stops 393; fingerings 390, 411; guitar position 407; health issues 87, 88; mutes 387; playing position 407–410, 416; shifting 412; vibrato 190, 192, 413 visually impaired students 82 Vygotsky, L. 13, 127 Wagner, R. 6, 17, 104, 117, 118, 296, 309, 348, 349, 356, 399 warm-up exercises 21, 85, 89–90, 94, 100–101, 118, 198, 248, 295, 327 Watkins–Farnum Performance Test 14, 49 Watson, J. 127 Webster, B. 174 Weill, K. 107 Wenger 58 Whiteman, P. 9, 162, 177 Wieprecht, W. 6, 348 Wiggins, G. 30 wind instruments 129, 130, 197: breathing exercises 129, 130–131, 134, 198–200; damping 200–201; jazz ensembles 173; medical problems 86, 88; tuning 101 Winner, E. 23, 33 Wonder, S. 80, 148 woodblocks 377 woodwind instruments 130, 131, 197, 202–203: breathing exercises 130–131, 198–200; damping 200; medical problems 87; posture 197–198; reed instruments 201, 203–205; tuning 101, 102 wrist and arm exercises 91 xylophones 158, 356, 364, 365, 367 Yates, G. 13, 14 yoga 89 YouTube 111, 112, 113, 297, 399 Zweig, M. 392, 393, 399