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The Subarctic Athabascans ( Athapaskans, Dene ) : A Selected, Annotated Bibliography
 0883530120, 9780883530122

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NUNC COCNOSCO EX PARTE

THOMAS J. BATA LIBRARY TRENT UNIVERSITY

Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2019 with funding from Kahle/Austin Foundation

https://archive.org/details/subarcticathabasOOOOhipp

THE SUBARCTIC ATHABASCANS A Selected Annotated Bibliography

Arthur E. Hippier and John R. Wood

Institute of Social, Economic and Government Research University of Alaska

I >10

I'K-H

Standard Book Number: 88353-012-0 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 74-620010 ISEGR Report Series Number: 39 Published by Institute of Social, Economic and Government Research University of Alaska Fairbanks, Alaska 99701 1974 Printed in the United States of America

PREFACE

This ISEGR Report is one in a series of selected, annotated bibliographies on Alaska Native groups that are being published by the institute. It comprises annotated references on the Northern Athabascan Indians, both in Canada and Alaska. Forthcoming bibliographies in this series will collect and evaluate the existing literature on Aleut, Eskimo, and Southeast Alaska Tlingit and Haida groups. ISEGR bibliographies are compiled and written by institute members who specialize in ethnographic and social research. They are designed both to support current work at the institute and to provide research tools for others interested in Alaska ethnography. Although not exhaustive, these bibliographies indicate the best references on Alaska Native groups and describe the general nature of the works. Victor Fischer Director, ISEGR February 1974

V-72ST-4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The

preparation

of this

bibliography

was support in part by National Science

Foundation Grants GS 3026 and P35-1191-000 and by the Institute of Social, Economic and Government Research of the University of Alaska. We wish to extend our appreciation to all who helped us with this work. We are especially grateful for the assistance of June Helm whose comments we found most useful. The authors, of course, bear the final responsibility for any deficiencies of content. Appreciation is also due to Victor Fischer, ISEGR director, who provided general institute support. Peggy Raybeck had general responsibility for editing and preparing the manuscript for publication, with the production assistance of Lavonia Wiele. Arthur E. Hippier John R. Wood February 1974

CONTENTS

Introduction.1 Subarctic Athabascan Map.5 Section I:

Alphabetical list of Athabascan literature by author.1-1

Section II:

Reference annotation and bibliographic information, listed alphabetically by author.II-l

Section III:

List of Athabascan literature by tribal group or area of Canada and Alaska Alaskan Athabascan groups: Atna (including the Copper River Indians).Ill -1 Eyak .Ill - 2 Ingalik (including the Ten’a and Kolchan Indians).Ill - 3 Koyukon (Yukon and Koyukuk Indians included).Ill - 5 Kutchin (includes both Alaskan and Canadian Kutchin and the Han Indians).Ill - 7 Tanaina.III-l 1 Tanana (includes the Upper and Lower Tanana and Nabesna Indians ..III-12 Canadian Athabascan groups: Bearlake .III-15 Beaver .III-16 Carrier .III-17 Chilcotin .III-20 Chipewyan .III-21 Dogrib .III-25 Hare .III-27 Nahane (including various central western Canadian groups: Kaska, Liard, Mountain, Pelly River, Tagish, Tahltan, Takutine, Tsetsaut, Tuchone).III-28 Sarsi .III-30 Sekani .III-31 Slave .III-32 Yellowknife.III-34

General Alaskan Athabascan references .III-35 General Canadian Athabascan references.111-41 General Subarctic Athabascan references .III-51 Section IV:

List of Athabascan literature according to time of observation Pre-contact and early white contact, early 1700’s through 1800 .IV -1 1801-1900 .IV-2 1901-1940 .IV-13 Contemporary, 1941 through the present .IV-28

Appendix A:

Partial list of unpublished Athabascan literature

.A-l

Appendix B:

Partial list of Athabascan references in foreign languages.B-l

INTRODUCTION

We have compiled this annotated bibliography of the Northern Athabascan Indians primarily as a research tool for those concerned with subarctic Indians of North America. The bibliography is selective; most of the references included are of a general or cultural anthropological nature, which is our own field of specialization. References concerning linguistic, archaeology and physical anthropology data are not included because they are outside our scope of competence to annotate adequately, and their inclusion would have made this work too cumbersome for practical use. Readers who are interested in a more inclusive listing of titles concerning these subarctic

peoples

are

referred

to

June

Helm’s

forthcoming unannotated

“Subarctic

Athapaskan Bibliography.” Of further use are overview articles about many aspects of subarctic Athabascans which will appear in Volume VI (edited by June Helm) of the forthcoming “Handbook of North American Indians,” William Sturtevant, editor. The coincidental appearance of a number of intensive and extensive works on northern Athabascans reflects a recent increased interest in the study of hunting and gathering peoples. Though the history of this interest is too complex to detail here, we might note that it partly results from a concern over rapidly disappearing cultures (a continual concern for anthropologists), and the need to record their cultures before they are changed irreversibly and lost. In addition this recent concern reflects a more sophisticated interest in the entire problem of human development. Humans for the greater part of their history have lived in small, relatively isolated hunting and gathering bands. Substantial aspects of man’s heritage, including the way he responds to others, his cognitive functioning, and his emotional organization, had their roots in this ancient way of life. If we are to understand man, we must understand him as he was for most of his existence. The

annotation

here

differs

in

tone and emphasis from most other annotated

bibliographies. We have annotated certain works in greater detail than others, particularly those relating to culture and personality studies, basic ethnographies, and studies of sociocultural change. This reflects the theoretical perspective of the senior author—that the relationship between culture and personality is a crucial part of the overall study of man in society. Some works which might have been included were not because many of them are relatively useless for serious anthropological research or contribute little to understanding these Indians. Usually such sources contained only a sentence or two of description.

Other entries have been included which are actually impressionistic characterizations of Indians made by early explorers, traders, and adventurers. These were included not because the

early

observers were particularly objective or lacking in bias, but because their

remarkable uniformity of observation does reflect the way the Athabascans appeared to the first

whites

who

contacted

them.

Regardless

of the

unsystematic

nature

of

many

observations, these impressions are significant and useful in themselves. Different Indian groups do seem to impress observers as having a unique character. In some cases, value judgements are made about the works. This is because our purpose is to point out the best works and clarify shortcomings in others rather than preparing an exhaustive and briefly annotated bibliography. We have made no attempt to annotate collections of mythology since their nature precludes this treatment. The reader is referred to the original sources. Note our spelling of “Athabascan” in preference to “Athapaskan” and other variations. Regardless of the linguistic proprieties involved, Athabascan is both more easily pronounced in English, and its spelling more familiar to the orthography of English speakers. The ethnography atlas included in our bibliography was adapted from John R. Swanton’s (1952) Map 2, “Northwestern North America.” Names used on the map are intended to show only general locations of Athabascan groups mentioned in the annotated literature. We did not attempt to delineate tribal boundaries; there is much discussion concerning whether boundaries are meaningful distinctions, and certain distinctions made in the past regarding ethnic divisions of subarctic Athabascans are no longer considered realistic. For example, the “Nahane” group is clearly a meaningless term as suggested in Honigmann’s 1956 article. We reflect this both in the map and in our own subdivision of Indian groups. Tribal designations are, in part, an artifact of limited meaning. While it is true that many

peoples distinguish

their group

from

neighbors

by

using definite

terms, our

observations in Alaska, and those of Michael Krauss, linguist from the University of Alaska, suggest that the realities of group definition are somewhat different. Dr. Krauss has found that rather than actual linguistic isoglots or definitive language separations, for the most part,

linguistic

differences

exist

on

gentle

gradients

from

one

village

to

the next.

Neighboring villages understand each other better than those a little farther away. Though there are some significant linguistic differences between widespread groups, they tend to occur as part of this gradient. The situation is similar culturally; all over Alaska, Athabascans appear to be very much like each other, minor differences between adjacent communities notwithstanding. Our analysis of the literature suggests this similarity is found throughout the Athabascan subarctic region. In fact, current descriptions of Athabascans from the most widely separated groups indicate substantial similarity, which appears to have persisted through time. The entries, though listed in several ways and cross-indexed, are annotated only once. The references annotated in this book are in English and generally easy to obtain. We have included an appendix which contains authors’ names and titles of unpublished notes, manuscripts, and archival collections, as well as a list of references in foreign languages. These entries are not annotated. There are doubtless many other sources of similar nature which were difficult to obtain and were not included.

2

SUBARCTIC ATHABASCAN MAP

The body of Athabascan literature confirms a high degree of group mobility and nomadism among the Indians in most of the Athabascan subarctic area. Traditional tribal names and locations have proven not to be as useful in determining ethnic differences among Athabascans then as a means to organize the annotated literature geographically. Thus, we have included a general map showing these traditional areas as a reference to the annotations. In this bibliography, area cross-referencing generally follows Swanton (1952). These informal Athabascan group designations and their areas are as follows: Atna and Copper River:

basin of the Copper River, Alaska

Eyak:

Copper River delta, Alaska

Ingalik, Ten’a and Kolchan:

between Anvik and Holy Cross on the lower Yukon River

and

the

Kuskokwim

River

drainage

above

Georgetown, Alaska Koyukon, Yukon, and Koyukuk:

includes the Yukon River drainage south of where the Tanana

River drains

into

it, and also includes the

northern drainage of the Innoko River and the full drainage of the Koyukuk River, Alaska Kutchin and Han:

northeastern

part

of Alaska

and

the

north central

portion of the Yukon Territory, extending to the lower course of the Mackenzie River Tanaina:

Cook Inlet drainage north of Seldovia, and the northern part of Lake Iliamna and its drainage, Alaska

Tanana and Nabesna:

drainage of the Tanana River between Tok, Alaska, and the region around the confluence of the Tanana and Yukon rivers; the Nabesna occupy the drainage of the Nabesna and Chisana rivers, Alaska

Dogrib:

area

between

Great

Slave

and

Great

Bear

lakes,

Northwest Territories, Canada Hare:

northwest of Great Bear Lake to the Mackenzie River, Northwest Territories, Canada

Nahane:

(Kaska, Liard, Mountain, Pelly River, Tagish, Tahltan, Takutine, Tsetsaut,

Tuchone)

the

area

in

northern

British Columbia and the Yukon Territory between the coast range and the Rocky Mountains, with some bands extending to the Mackenzie River Sarsi:

upward areas of the Saskatchewan and Athabaska rivers in Saskatchewan and Alberta, Canada

Sekani:

headwaters of the Peace and Liard rivers and some of the

close

western

slopes

of the Rocky Mountains,

British Columbia and Yukon Territories, Canada Bearlake:

the

area

surrounding

Bear

Lake

in

Northwest

Territories, Canada Beaver:

Peace

River area in northern Alberta and northern

British Columbia, Canada Carrier:

area around Eutsuk, Francis, Babine and Stuart lakes and the headwaters of the Fraser River in central British Columbia, Canada

Chilcotin:

valley of the Chilcotin River, British Columbia, Canada

Chipewyan:

area north of Churchill River and between Great Slave Lake

and

Slave

and

Athabaska rivers, N.W.T., and

northern Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta Slave:

the area around the Hay River and western end of Great Slave Lake, and along the Mackenzie River to Fort Norman, N.W.T., Canada, as well as around the Hay Lakes, and the Upper Hay River region of northern Alberta

Yellowknife:

formerly, the area northeast of Great Slave and Great Bear

lakes,

as well

as

the

drainage

Coppermine River, N.W.T., Canada

4

of

the

upper

5

Section I:

Athabascan literature is listed alphabetically by author, including date of publication, title, abstract number, and page in this bibliography.

Adney, Tappan

1900

Moose Hunting With the Tro-chu-tin. no. 1, p. II-l.

Adney, Tappan

1902

The Indian Hunter of the Far Northwest, on the Trail to the Klondike, no. 2, p. II-l.

Allard, E.

1928

Notes on the Kaska and Upper Liard Indians, no. 3, p. II-l.

Allen, Henry T.

1887

Report of an Expedition to the Copper, Tanana and Koyukuk Rivers in the Territory of Alaska in the Year 1885. no. 4, p. 11-2.

Allen, Henry T.

1889

Atnatanas: Natives of Copper River, Alaska, no. 5, p. II-2.

Anderson, Alex A.

1863

Notes on the Indian Tribes of British North America, and the Northwest Coast, no. 6, p. II-2.

Anderson, Hobson D. Eells, Walter C.

1935

Alaska Natives: A Survey of Their Sociological and Educational Status, no. 7, p. II-2.

Anderson, Kristian Bolstad, Atle Ldyning, Yngve Irving, Laurence

1960

Physical Fitness of Arctic Indians, no. 8, p. II-3.

Anderson, Rudolph

1913

Arctic Game Notes, no. 9, p. II-3.

Anonymous

1895

Note on Athapaskans of the West, no. 10, p. II-3.

Anonymous

1920

The Influenza Pandemic, no. 11, p. II-3.

Aronson, Joseph D.

1947

The History of Disease Among the Natives of Alaska. no. 12, p. II-3.

Back, George

1970

Narrative of the Arctic Land Expedition to the Mouth of the Great Fish River and Along the Shores of the Arctic Ocean in the Year 1833, 1834, and 1835. no. 13, p. II-4.

Balikci, Asen

1963

Family Organization of the Vunta Kutchin. no. 14, p. II-4.

1-1

Balikci, Asen

1963

Vunta Kutchin Social Change, no. 15, p. II-5.

Balikci, Asen

1968

Perspectives on the Atomistic Type Society: Bad Friends, no. 16, p. II-6.

Balikci, Asen Cohen, Ronald

1963

Community Patterning in Two Northern Trading Posts, no. 17, p. II-7.

Bancroft, Hubert H.

1886

History of the Pacific States, no. 18, p. II-8.

Bancroft, Hubert H.

1886

The Native Races, no. 19, p. 11-8-

Bancroft, Hubert H.

1887

History of British Columbia 1792-1887. no. 20, p. II-8.

Bancroft, Hubert H.

1959

History of Alaska 1730-1885. no. 21, p. II-8.

Banfield, Alexander William F.

1961

Migrating Caribou; Barren-Ground Herds Face Serious Threat to Survival, no. 22, p. II-9.

Baptie, S. Hughes, J. P.

1939

Legend of Big River, no. 23, p. II-9.

Barbeau, C. Marius

1915

Loucheux Myths, no. 24, p. II-9.

Barbeau, C. Marius

1933

Songs of the Northwest, no. 25, p. II-9.

Barbeau, C. Marius

1939

Assomption Sash, no. 26, p. 11-10.

Barbeau, C. Marius Melvin, G.

1943

The Indian Speaks, no. 27, p. 11-10.

Bartlett, G. W.

1915

The Diary of Robert Campbell, no. 28, p. 11-10.

Beaman, C. C.

1867

Our New Northwest, no. 29, p. 11-10.

Begg, Alexander

1894

History of British Columbia, no. 30, p. 11-10.

1-2

Bell, James Mackintosh

1903

Fireside Stories of the Chipewyan. no. 31, p. 11-10.

Bell, Robert

1901

Legends of the Slavey Indians of the Mackenzie River. no. 32, p. 11-11.

Bethune, William Clark

1937

Canada’s Western Northland, no. 33, p. 11-11.

Bettis, Laura

1914

An Indian Girl’s Alaskan Experience, no. 34, p. 11-11.

Binning, G.

1941

Indians of the Yukon, no. 35, p. 11-11.

Birket-Smith, Kaj

1930

Contributions to Chipewyan Ethnology, no. 36, p. 11-11.

Birket-Smith, Kaj

1930

The Cultural Position of the Chipewyan Within the Circumpolar Culture Region, no. 37, p. 11-12.

Birket-Smith Kaj

1930

Folk Wanderings and Culture Drifts in Northern North America, no. 38, p. 11-13.

Birket-Smith, Kaj Laguna, Frederica de

1938

The Eyak Indians of the Copper River Delta, Alaska. no. 39, p. 11-13.

Boas, Franz

1895

The Tinneh Tribe of the Portland Inlet, The Ts’ets’a’ut. no. 40, p. 11-15.

Boas, Franz

1968

Ethnological Problems in Canada, no. 41, p. 11-16.

Bompas, William Carpenter

1888

Colonial Church Histories, Diocese of Mackenzie River. no. 42, p. 11-16.

Boon, Thomas C.

1965

William West Kirkby, First Anglican Missionary to the Loucheux. no. 43, p. 11-16.

Boram, Clifford

1973

Kutchin Quarrelling, no. 44, p. 11-16.

Bowes, Gordon E. ed.

1964

Peace River Chronicles. no. 45, p. 11-17

1-3

Brooks, Alfred Hulse

1900

A Reconnaissance in the Tanana and White River Basins, Alaska, in 1898. no. 46, p. 11-17

Brooks, Alfred Hulse

1901

A Reconnaissance Eagle City, Alaska, no. 47, p. 11-17.

Brooks, Alfred Hulse

1953

Blazing Alaska’s Trails, no. 48, p. 11-18.

Bryce, George

1968

The Remarkable History of the Hudson’s Bay Company. no. 49, p. 11-18.

Buckham, A. F.

1950

Indian Engineering, no. 50, p. 11-18.

Burpee, Lawrence J.

1945

Campbell of the Yukon, no. 51, p. 11-18.

Cady, Wallace Martin Wallace, R. E. Hoare, J. M. Webber, E. J.

1955

The Central Kuskokwim Region, Alaska, no. 52, p. 11-18.

Cadzow, Donald A.

1925

Habitat of Loucheux Bands, no. 53, p. 11-19.

Cadzow, Donald A.

1925

Old Loucheux Clothing, no. 54, p. 11-19.

Campbell, John

1896-97

from

The Denes of America Tungus of Asia, no. 55, p. 11-19.

Pyramid

Identified

Harbor

with

to

the

Campbell, Robert

1885

The Discovery and Exploration of the Youcon (Pelly) River, no. 56, p. 11-19.

Campbell, Robert

1958

Two Journals of Robert Campbell (Chief Factor Hudson’s Bay Company 1808 to 1853). no. 57, p. 11-19.

Cantwell, John C.

1904

Report of the Operations of the U.S. Revenue Steamer Nunivak of the Yukon River Station, Alaska. no. 58, p. 11-20.

Capps, Stephen R.

1913

The Yentna District, Alaska, no. 59, p. 11-20.

Capps, Stephen R.

1915

The Willow Creek District, Alaska. no. 60, p. 11-20.

1-4

Capps, Stephen R.

1916

The Chisana-White River District, Alaska, no. 61, p. 11-21.

Capps, Stephen R.

1919

The Kantishna Region, Alaska, no. 62, p. 11-21.

Capps, Stephen R.

1935

The Southern Alaska Range, no. 63, p. 11-21.

Carroll, James A.

1957

The First Ten Years in Alaska, Memoirs of a Fort Yukon Trapper, 1911-1922. no. 64, p. 11-21.

Chang, Kwang-Chih

1962

A Typology of Settlement and Community Patterns in Some Circumpolar Societies, no. 65, p. 11-21.

Chapin, Theodore

1918

The Nelchina-Susitna Region, Alaska, no. 66, p. 11-22.

Chapman, John Wight

1903

Athapascan Traditions from the Lower Yukon, no. 67, p. 11-22.

Chapman, John Wight

1912-13

Chapman, John Wight

1914

Ten’a Texts and Tales from Anvik, Alaska, no. 69, p. 11-23.

Chapman, John Wight

1921

Tinneh Animism, no. 70, p. 11-23.

Chapman, John Wight

1939

The Animistic Beliefs of the Ten’a of the Lower Yukon, Alaska, no. 71, p. 11-24.

Chapman, John Wight

1948

A Camp on the Yukon, no. 72, p. 11-24.

Chapman, John Wight

1968

Notes on the Tinneh Tribe of Anvik, Alaska, no. 73, p. 11-24.

Clairmont, Donald H. J.

1963

Deviance Among Aklavik, N.W.T. no. 74, p. 11-25.

Clark, Annette McFadyen

1970

Koyukon Athabascan Ceremonialism, no. 75, p. 11-25.

Cody, Hiram Alfred

1908

An Apostle of the North, Memoirs of the Right Rev. William Carpenter Bompas. no. 76, p. 11-26.

The Happy Hunting Ground of the Ten’a. no. 68, p. 11-22.

1-5

Indians

and

Eskimos

in

Cohen, Ronald

1962

An Anthropological Survey of Communities in the Mackenzie-Slave Lake Region of Canada, no. 77, p. 11-26.

Cohen, Ronald Van Stone, James W.

1964

Dependency and Self-Sufficiency in Chipewyan Stories. no. 78, p. 11-26.

Cook, Frederick A.

1908

To the Top of the Continent, no. 79, p. 11-27.

Cooper, John M.

1938

Snares, Deadfalls, and Other Traps of the Northern Algonquians and Northern Athapaskans. no. 80, p. 11-27.

Cox, Bruce

1970

Land Rights of the Slavey Indians at Hay River, N.W.T. no. 81, p. 11-27.

Cronk, H. K.

1954-57

Sarcee Miscellany: 1885. no. 82, p. 11-27.

Culin, Stewart

1907

Games of the North American Indians, no. 83, p. 11-27.

Curtis, Edward S.

1970

The North American Indian, no. 84, p. 11-28.

Dali, William Healey

1869

On the Distribution of the Native Tribes of Alaska and the Adjacent Territory, no. 85, p. 11-28.

Dali, William Healey

1877

On the Distribution and Nomenclature of the Natives Tribes of Alaska, no. 86, p. 11-28.

Dali, William Healey

1885

The Native Tribes of Alaska, no. 87, p. 11-29.

Dali, William Healey

1898

The Yukon Territory, no. 88, p. 11-29.

Dali, William Healey

1970

Alaska and Its Resources, no. 89, p. 11-29.

Darnell, Regna

1970

The Kaska Aesthetic of Speech Use. no. 90, p. 11-29.

Davidson, Daniel Sutherland

1937

Snowshoes. no. 91, p. 11-30.

1-6

Dawson, Carl Addington ed.

1947

The New North-West, no. 92, p. 11-30.

Dawson, George M.

1881

Sketches of the Past and Present Condition of the Indians of Canada, no. 93, p. 11-30.

Dawson, George M.

1888

Report on an Exploration in the Yukon District, N.W.T., and Adjacent Northern Portion of British Columbia, 1887. no. 94, p. 11-31.

Dennis, Alfred Pearce

1899

Life on a Yukon Trail, no. 95, p. 11-31.

Department of Citizenship and Immigration, Indian Affairs Branch, Canada

1964

Traditional Linguistic and Cultural Affiliations of Canadian Indian Bands, no. 96, p. 11-31.

Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Canada

1967

Indians of the Prairie Provinces, no. 97, p. 11-32.

Dobbs, Arthur

1744

An Account of the Countries Adjoining to Hudson’s Bay, in the Northwest Part of America, no. 98, p. 11-32.

Doughty, Arthur G. Martin, Chester

1929

The Kelsey Papers, no. 99, p. 11-32.

Douglas, R. Wallace, J. N. eds.

1926

Twenty Years of York Factory 1694-1714, Jeremies Account of Hudson Strait and Bay. no. 100, p. 11-32.

Drane, Frederick B.

1916

The Potlatch at Nenana. no. 101, p. 11-32.

Drane, Frederick B.

1916

A Trip to the Hunting Camps of the Indian, no. 102, p. 11-32.

Drane, Frederick B.

1919

Fish Camp and a Canoe, no. 103, p. 11-33.

Drane, Frederick B.

1926

New Experiences on the Yukon and Koyukuk. no. 104, p. 11-33.

Driver, Harold E. Massey, William C.

1957

Comparative Studies Indians. no. 105, p. 11-33.

1-7

of

North

American

Duchaussois, Pierre

1937

Mid Snow and Ice, the Apostles of the NorthWest. no. 106, p. 11-33.

Duff, Wilson

1951

Notes on Carrier Social Organization, no. 107, p. 11-33.

Dunning, R. W.

1959

Ethnic Relations Canada. no. 108, p. 11-34.

Eakin, Henry M.

1913

A Geologic Reconnaissance of a Part of the Rampart Quadrangle, Alaska, no. 109, p. 11-34.

Eakin, Henry M.

1916

The Yukon-Koyukuk Region, Alaska, no. 110, p. 11-34.

Eakin, Henry M.

1918

The Cosna-Nowitna Region, Alaska, no. Ill, p. 11-34.

Eggan, Fred

1955

Social Anthropology: Methods and Results, no. 112, p. 11-34.

Elder, Max Q. ed.

1954

Alaska’s Health: A Survey Report to the United States Department of the Interior, no. 113, p. 11-35.

Eldridge, George H.

1900

A Reconnaissance in the Sushitna Basin and Adjacent Territory, Alaska, in 1898. no. 114, p. 11-35.

Emmons, George Thornton

1911

The Tahltan Indians, no. 115, p. 11-35.

Farrand, Livingston

1898

The Chilcotin. no. 116, p. 11-36.

Farrand, Livingston

1900

Traditions of the Chilcotin Indians, no. 117, p. 11-36.

Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in Alaska

1968

Alaska Natives and the Land, no. 118, p. 11-37.

Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in Alaska

1969

Estimates of Native Population Towns and Boroughs of Alaska, no. 119, p. 11-37.

Fellows, F. S.

1934

Mortality in the Native Races of the Territory of Alaska, With Special Reference to Tuberculosis, no. 120, p. 11-37.

1-8

and

the

Marginal

in

Man

in

Villages,

Finnie, Richard

1940

Dogrib Treaty, no. 121, p. 11-38.

Foote, Don Charles MacBain, Sheila K.

1964

A Selected Regional Bibliography for Human Geographical Studies of the Native Populations in Central Alaska, no. 122, p. 11-38.

Franklin, John

1913

Chipewyan Stories, no. 123, p. 11-38.

Franklin, John

1969

Narrative of a Second Expedition to the Shores of the Polar Sea, in the Years 1825, 1826, and 1827. no. 124, p. 11-38.

Franklin, John Richardson, J.

1970

Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea in the Years 1819, 20, 21, and 22. no. 125, p. 11-38.

Fried, Jacob

1963

Settlement Types and Community Organization in Northern Canada, no. 126, p. 11-39.

Fried, Jacob

1963

White-Dominated Settlements in the Canadian Northwest Territories, no. 127, p. 11-39.

Frison-Roche, Roger

1969

Hunters of the Arctic, no. 128, p. 11-39.

Gibbs, G.

1867

Notes of the Tinneh or Chipewyan Indians of British and Russian America, no. 129, p. 11-39.

Gillespie, Beryl C.

1970

Yellowknives: Quo Iverunt? no. 130, p. 11-40.

Glover, Richard ed.

1958

A Journey from Prince of Wales’s Fort in Hudson’s Bay to the Northern Ocean, 1769, 1770, 1771,1772. no. 131, p. 11-40.

Goddard, Pliny Earle

1914

Dancing Societies of the Sarse Indians, no. 132, p. 11-41.

Goddard, Pliny Earle

1917

The Beaver Indians, no. 133, p. 11-41.

Goddard, Pliny Earle

1921

Notes on the Sun Dance of the Sarsi. no. 134, p. 11-43.

1-9

Goddard, Pliny Earle

1968

Assimilation to Environment as Illustrated by Athapascan Peoples, no. 135, p. 11-43.

Godsell, Philip H.

1938

Red Hunters of the Snows, no. 136, p. 11-44.

Godsell, Philip H.

1943

Arctic Trader, the Account of Twenty Years with the Hudson’s Bay Company, no. 137, p. 11-44.

Goldman, Irving

1941

The Alkatcho Carrier: Historical Background of Crest Prerogatives, no. 138, p. 11-44.

Goldman, Irving

1963

The Alkatcho Carrier of British Columbia, no. 139, p. 11-44.

Gordon, George Byron

1917

In the Alaskan Wilderness, no. 140, p. 11-45.

Gould, Sydney

1917

Inasmuch—Sketches of the Beginnings of the Church of England in Relation to the Indian and Eskimo Races, no. 141, p. 11-45.

Graham, Angus

1930

Surgery with Flint, no. 142, p. 11-45.

Grantham, E. N.

1951

Education Goes North, no. 143, p. 11-45.

Grossman, Daniel

1965

The Nature of Descent Groups of Some Tribes in the Interior of Northwestern North America, no. 144, p. 11-45.

Gruening, Ernest

1954

The State of Alaska, no. 145, p. 11-46.

Gsovski, Valdimir

1950

Russian Administration of Alaska and the Status of the Alaskan Natives, no. 146, p. 11-46.

Guedon, Marie-Francoise

1972

People of Tetlin Why Are You Singing? no. 147, p. 11-46.

Habgood, Thelma (translator)

1970

Indian Legends of North-Western Canada, by Emile Petitot. no. 148, p. 11-47.

Hadleigh-West, Frederick

1959

On the Distribution and Western Kutchin Tribes, no. 149, p. 11-47.

Haeberline, H. K. Teit, James A. Roberts, Helen H.

1928

Coiled Basketry in British Columbia and Sur¬ rounding Region, no. 150, p. 11-47.

Haldeman, J. C.

1951

Problems of Alaskan Eskimos, Indians, Aleuts, no. 151, p. 11-48.

Hale, H.

1893

Man and Language, an American Example. The Athapascans, North and South, no. 152, p. 11-48.

Hallowell, A. Irving

1926

Bear Ceremonialism sphere. no. 153, p. 11-48.

Hallowell, A. Irving

1949

The Size of Algonkian Hunting Territories: A Function of Ecological Adjustment, no. 154, p. 11-48.

Hamilton, G.

1878

Customs of the New Caledonian Women Belong¬ ing to the Nancausky Tine or Stuart’s Lake Indians, Natotin Tine or Babine’s and Nantley Tine or Fraser Lake Tribes, no. 155, p. 1148.

Hanbury, David T.

1904

Sport and Travel in the Northland of Canada, no. 156, p. 11-49.

Hardisty, William L.

1867

The Loucheux Indians, no. 157, p. 11-49.

Harmon, Daniel Williams

1903

A Journal of Voyages and Travels in the Interior of North America, Between the 47th and 58th Degrees of N. Lat., Extending from Montreal nearly to the Pacific, a Distance of about 5,000 Miles. (See Lamb, W. Kaye ed., 1957.) no. 255, p. 11-92.

Harrington, George L.

1918

The Anvik-Andreafski Region, Alaska, no. 158 p. 11-49.

Harrington, Richard

1947

In the Land of the Chipewyans. no. 159, p. 11-49.

Harris, Donald A. Ingram, George C.

1972

New Caledonia and the Fur Trade, a Status Report. no. 160, p. 11-50.

1-11

in

Territories

the

Northern

of the

Hemi¬

Hawthorn, H. B. Belshaw, C. S. Jamieson, S. M.

1958

The Indians of British Columbia, a Study of Contemporary Social Adjustment, no. 161, p. 11-50.

Hayes, Charles Willard

1892

An Expedition through the Yukon District, no. 162, p. 11-51.

Haynes, Thomas S.

1940

The Nulato Massacre, no. 163, p. 11-51.

Hearne, Samuel

1958

A Journey from Prince of Wales’s Fort in Hudson’s Bay to the Northern Ocean, 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772. (See Glover, Richard ed., 1958.) no. 131, p. 11-40.

Heinrich, Albert C.

1957

Sib and Social Structure on the Upper Tanana. no. 164, p. 11-51.

Heinrich, Albert C. Anderson, Russell

1968

Co-Affinal Siblingship as a Structural Feature Among Some Northern North American Peoples. no. 165, p. 11-51.

Helm, June

1961

The Lynx Point People: The Dynamics of a Northern Athapaskan Band, no. 166, p. 11-52.

Helm, June

1965

Bilaterality in the Socio-Territorial Organization of the Arctic Drainage Dene, no. 167, p. 11-52.

Helm, June

1965

Patterns of Allocation Among the Arctic Drain¬ age Dene, no. 168, p. 11-52.

Helm, June

1968

The Nature of Dogrib Socioterritorial Groups, no. 169, p. 11-53.

Helm, June

1972

The Dogrib Indians, no. 170, p. 11-53.

Helm, June Damas, David

1963

The Contact-Traditional All-Native Community of the Canadian North: The Upper Mackenzie “Bush” Athpaskans and the Igluligmiut. no. 171, p. 11-54.

Helm, June DeVos, George A. Carterette, Teresa

1963

Variations in Personality and Ego Identification Within a Slave Indian Kin-Community, no. 172, p. 11-54.

1-12

Helm, June Leacock, Eleanor Burke

1971

The Hunting Tribes of Subarctic Canada, no. 173, p. 11-54.

Helm, June Lurie, Nancy 0.

1961

The Subsistence Economy of the Dogrib Indians of Lac La Martre in the Mackenzie District of the Northwest Territories, no. 174, p. 11-55.

Helm, June Lurie, Nancy 0.

1966

The Dogrib Hand Game, no. 175, p. 11-57.

Helm, June Vital, Thomas

1966

Tales from the Dogribs. no. 176, p. 11-57.

Hemstock, C. Anne Cooke, Geraldine A.

1973

Yukon Bibliography, Update 1963-1970. no. 177, p. 11-57.

Herron, Joseph S.

1901

Explorations in Alaska, 1899, for an AllAmerican Overland Route from Cook Inlet, Pacific Ocean, to the Yukon, no. 178, p. 11-58.

Hippier, Arthur E.

1973

The Athabascans of Interior Alaska: A Culture and Personality Perspective, no. 179, p. 11-58.

Hippier, Arthur E. Boyer, L. Bryce Boyer, Ruth M.

1972

The Psychocultural Significance of the Alaska Athabascan Potlatch Ceremony, no. 180, p. 11-59.

Hippier, Arthur E. Conn, Stephen

1972

Traditional Athabascan Law Ways and Their Relationship to Contemporary Problems of “Bush Justice.” no. 181, p. 11-60.

Hobson, Richmond P.

1951

Grass Beyond the Mountains, no. 182, p. 11-61.

Hodge, Frederick Webb ed.

1912

Handbook of American Mexico., no. 183, p. 11-62.

Hodgkinson, Jean

1970

Is Northern Education Meaningful? no. 184, p. 11-62.

Hoijer, Harry

1956

Athapaskan Kinship Systems, no. 185, p. 11-62.

Holmes, G. William Foster, Helen L.

1968

Geology of the Johnson River Area, Alaska, no. 186, p. 11-62.

M3

Indians

North

of

Honigmann, John J.

1944

On the Alaska Highway, no. 187, p. 11-62.

Honigmann, John J.

1945

Northern and Southern tology. no. 188, p. 11-63.

Honigmann, John J.

1946

Ethnography and Nelson Slave. no. 189, p. 11-63.

Honigmann, John J.

1947

Cultural Dynamics of Sex. no. 190, p. 11-64.

Honigmann, John J.

1947

Witch-Fear in Post-Contact Kaska Society, no. 191, p. 11-64.

Honigmann, John J.

1949

Culture and Ethos of Kaska Society, no. 192, p. 11-65.

Honigmann, John J.

1949

Parallels in the Development of Shamanism Among Northern and Southern Athapaskans. no. 193, p. 11-66.

Honigmann, John J.

1954

The Kaska Indians: An Ethnographic Recon¬ struction, no. 194, p. 11-66.

Honigmann, John J.

1956

Are There Nahani Indians? no. 195, p. 11-68.

Honigmann, John J.

1956

Notes on Sarsi Kin Behavior, no. 196, p. 11-68.

Honigmann, John J.

1963

Community Organization and Patterns of Change Among North Canadian and Alaskan Indians and Eskimos, no. 197, p. 11-68.

Honigmann, John J. ed.

1968

Ethnographic Study of Churchill, no. 198, p. 11-69.

Honigmann, John J.

1968

Interpersonal Relations in Atomistic Communi¬ ties. no. 199, p. 11-69.

Honigmann, John J.

1969

Culture Patterns and Human Stress, a Study in Social Psychiatry. no. 200, p. 11-69.

1-14

Athapascan

Acculturation

Escha¬

of the Fort

Honigmann, John J.

1971

Formation of Mackenzie Delta Frontier Culture, no. 201, p. 11-70.

Honigmann, John J.

n.d.

Northern Townsmen, no. 202, p. 11-70.

Honigmann, John J. Honigmann, Irma

1945

Drinking in an Indian-White Community, no. 203, p. 11-70.

Honigmann, John J. Honigmann, Irma

1947

A Kaska Indian String Oracle, no. 204, p. 11-71.

Honigmann, John J. Honigmann, Irma

1970

Arctic Townsmen, no. 205, p. 11-71.

Hooper, William Hulme

1853

Ten Months Among the Tents of the Tuski, with Incidents of an Arctic Boat Expedition in Search of Sir John Franklin, no. 206, p. 11-72.

Hosley, Edward H.

1961

The McGrath Ingalik. no. 207, p. 11-72.

Hosley, Edward H.

1968

The Kolchan: Delineation of a New Northern Athapaskan Indian Group, no. 208, p. 11-72.

Hrdlicka, Ales

1930

The Ancient and Modern Inhabitants of the Yukon. no. 209, p. 11-73.

Hrdlicka, Ales

1930

Anthropological Survey in Alaska, no. 210, p. 11-73.

Hulley, Clarence C.

1953

Alaska, 1741-1953. no. 211, p. 11-73.

Hurlbert, Janice

1962

Age as a Factor in the Social Organization of the Hare Indian of Fort Good Hope, N.W.T. no. 212, p. 11-73.

Ingstad, Helge

1933

The Land of Feast and Famine, no. 213, p. 11-75.

Innis, Harold A.

1962

The Fur Trade in Canada, no. 214, p. 11-75.

Irving, Laurence

1958

Naming of Birds as a Part of the Intellectual Culture of Indians at Old Crow, no. 215, p. 11-75.

1-15

Isbister, A. K.

1847

On the Loucheux Indians, no. 216, p. 11-75.

Jackson, Sheldon

1880

Alaska and Missions on the North Pacific Coast, no. 217, p. 11-76.

James, Alton James

1942

The First Scientific Exploration of America and the Purchase of Alaska. no. 218, p. 11-76.

Jenness, Diamond

1929

The Ancient Education of a Carrier Indian, no. 219, p. 11-76.

Jenness, Diamond

1931

The Sekani Indians of British Columbia, no. 220, p. 11-76.

Jenness, Diamond

1933

An Indian Method of Treating Hysteria, no. 221, p. 11-77.

Jenness, Diamond

1934

Myths of the Carrier Indians, no. 222, p. 11-77.

Jenness, Diamond

1937

The Sekani Indians of British Columbia, no. 223, p. 11-79.

Jenness, Diamond

1938

The Sarcee Indians of Alberta, no. 224, p. 11-80.

Jenness, Diamond

1943

The Carrier Indians of the Bulkley River, Their Social and Religious Life. no. 225, p. 11-81.

Jenness, Diamond

1955

Canadian Indian Religion, no. 226, p. 11-81.

Jenness, Diamond

1955

The Indians of Canada, no. 227, p. 11-82.

Jenness, Diamond ed.

1956

The Chipewyan Indians: An Account by an Early Explorer. no. 228, p. 11-82.

Jenness, Diamond

1956

The Corn Goddess and Other Tales from Indian Canada. no. 229, p. 11-83.

Jette, Pere Julius

1907

On the Medicine-Man of the Ten’a. no. 230, p. 11-84.

Jette, Pere Julius

1908-09

On Ten’a Folklore. no. 231, p. 11-85.

1-16

Russian

Jette, Pere Julius

1911

On the Superstitions of the Ten’a Indians, no. 232, p. 11-85.

Jette, Pere Julius

1913

Riddles of the Ten’a Indians, no. 233, p. 11-85.

Jones, S.

1867

The Kutchin Tribes, no. 234, p. 11-86.

Keewatin, Bishop of

1913

The Chipewyan Indians, no. 235, p. 11-86.

Keim, Charles J. ed.

1964

Kutchin Legends from Old Crow, Yukon Terri¬ tory. no. 236, p. 11-86.

Kenney, James F. ed.

1932

The Founding of Churchill, Being the Journal of Captain James Knight, Governor-in-Chief in Hudson Bay, From the 14th of July to the 13th of September, 1717. no. 237, p. 11-87.

Kennicott, Robert

1869

Biography of Robert James, 1942.) no. 218, p. 11-76.

Kerr, Robert

1953

For the Royal Scottish Museum, no. 238, p. 11-87.

Kidd, Kenneth E.

1957

Trading into Hudson’s Bay. no. 239, p. 11-87.

King, Richard

1836

Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Arctic Ocean in 1833, 1834, and 1835. no. 240, p. 11-87.

King, W. Cornwallis Weekes, Mary

1939

Akaitcho, a Link with Franklin, no. 241, p. 11-87.

King, W. Cornwallis Weekes, Mary

1943

Founding Fort Nelson, no. 242, p. 11-88.

Kirby, W. W.

1864

A Journey to the Yukon, Russian America, no. 243, p. 11-88.

Koolage, William W.

1968

Chipewyan Indians of Camp-10, no. 244, p. 11-88.

Komer, Ija N.

1959

Notes of a Psychologist Fieldworker. no. 245, p. 11-89.

1-17

Kennicott.

(See

A. J.

Krenov, Julia

1951

Legends from Alaska, no. 246, p. 11-89.

Krieger, Herbert W.

1928

Tinne Indians of the Lower Yukon River Valley, no. 247, p. 11-89.

Krieger, Herbert W.

1929

American Indian Costumes in the United States National Museum. no. 248, p. 11-90.

Kroeber, Alfred L.

1937

Athabascan Kin Term Systems, no. 249, p. 11-90.

Kroeber, Alfred L.

1947

Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America. no. 250, p. 11-90.

Laguna, Frederica de

1934

Ceremonial Paddles Alaska. no. 251, p. 11-90.

Laguna, Frederica de

1936

Indian Masks from the Lower Yukon, no. 252, p. 11-91.

Laguna, Frederica de

1937

A Preliminary Sketch of the Eyak Indians, no. 253 p. 11-91.

Laguna, Frederica de

1969-70

The Atna of the Copper River, Alaska: The World of Men and Animals, no. 254, p. 11-91.

Lamb, W. Kaye ed.

1957

Sixteen Years in the Indian Country, The Journal of Daniel Williams Harmon, 1800-1816. no. 255, p. 11-92.

Latham, R. G.

1848

On the Ethnography of Russian America, no. 256, p. 11-93.

Laviolette, Gontran

1956

Notes on the Aborigines of the Prairie Provinces, no. 257, p. 11-93.

Leech man, Douglas

1948

Caribou for Chipewyans. no. 258, p. 11-93.

Leechman, Douglas

1948

Old Crow’s Village, no. 259, p. 11-93.

Leech man, Douglas

1948

The Pointed Skins, no. 260, p. 11-93.

Leechman, Douglas

1949

Indian Summer, no. 261, p. 11-94.

1-18

from

the

Eyak

Indians,

Leechman, Douglas

1950

Loucheaux Tales, no. 262, p. 11-94.

Leechman, Douglas

1952

Folk-Lore of the Vanta-Kutchin. no. 263, p. 11-94.

Leechman, Douglas

1954

The Vanta Kutchin. no. 264, p. 11-95.

Leechman, Douglas

1957

The Trappers, no. 265, p. 11-95.

Leechman, Douglas Lloyd, Scott

1953

The Carriers, no. 266, p. 11-95.

Leechman, Douglas Lloyd, Scott

1953

The Loucheux. no. 267, p. 11-95.

Lofthouse, J.

1913

Chipewyan Stories, no. 268, p. 11-95.

Loftus, Audrey

1956

According to Mama, no. 269, p. 11-96.

Lotz, James Robert

1964

Yukon Bibliography, Preliminary Edition, no. 270, p. 11-96.

Lowie, Robert H.

1909

The Chipewyans of Canada, no. 271, p. 11-96.

Lowie, Robert H.

1909

An Ethnological Trip to Lake Athabasca, no. 272, p. 11-96.

Lowie, Robert H.

1967

Windigo, a Chipewyan Story, no. 273, p. 11-96.

Loyens, William John

1964

The Koyukon Feast for the Dead, no. 274, p. 11-96.

Loyens, William John

1966

The Changing Culture of the Nulato Koyukon Indians. no. 275, p. 11-97.

Lurie, Nancy O.

1961

The Dogrib Indians of Canada, no. 276, p. 11-98.

Lustig-Arecco, Vera

1972

Concerning the Kutchin: Of Women and Things, no. 277, p. 11-98.

Lutz, Harold J.

1959

Aboriginal Man and White Man as Historical Causes of Fires in the Boreal Forest, with Particular Reference to Alaska, no. 278, p. 11-98. 1-19

MacClellan, Catharine

1950

Culture Change and Native Trade in Southern Yukon Territory, no. 279, p. 11-99.

MacClellan, Catharine

1956

Shamanistic Syncretism in Southern Yukon, no. 280, p. 11-99.

MacClellan, Catharine

1961

Avoidance Between Siblings of the Same Sex in Northwestern North America, no. 281, p. 11-99.

MacClellan, Catharine

1964

Culture Contacts in the Early Historic Period in Northwestern North America. no. 282, p. 11-100.

MacClellan, Catharine Rainier, Dorothy

1948

Ethnological Survey of Southern Yukon Terri¬ tory, 1948. no. 283, p. 11-100.

McGrath, J. E.

1893

The Boundary South of Fort Yukon, no. 284, p. 11-100.

MacKeevor, Thomas

1819

A Voyage to Hudson’s Bay During the Summer of 1812. no. 285, p. 11-101.

McKennan, Robert A.

1935

Anent the Kutchin Tribes, no. 286, p. 11-101.

McKennan, Robert A.

1959

The Upper Tanana Indians, no. 287, p. 11-101.

McKennan, Robert A.

1965

The Chandalar Kutchin. no. 288, p. 11-104.

McKennan, Robert A.

1969

Athapaskan Groupings and Social Organization in Central Alaska. no. 289, p. 11-106.

McKennan, Robert A.

1970

Athapaskan Groups of Central Alaska at the Time of White Contact. no. 290, p. 11-107.

MacKenzie, Alexander

1941

The Dogrib Tribe. no. 291, p. 11-107.

MacKenzie, Alexander

1966

Voyages from Montreal, on the River St. Laurence, Through the Continent of North America, to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans; in the Years 1789 and 1793. no. 292, p. 11-107.

1-20

MacLachlan, Bruce B.

1957

Notes on Some Tahltan Oral Literature, no. 293, p. 11-107.

MacLeod, William Christie

1925

Certain Mortuary Aspects of Northwest Coast Culture. no. 294, p. 11-108.

MacLeod, William Christie

1926

Father Morice and the Sikanni. no. 295, p. 11-108.

McMinimy, Donald J.

1947

Preliminary Report on Tuberculosis Incidence in Alaska. no. 296, p. 11-108.

MacNeish, June Helm

1954

Contemporary Folk Beliefs of a Slave Indian Band. no. 297, p. 11-108.

MacNeish, June Helm

1955

Folktales of the Slave Indians, no. 298, p. 11-109.

MacNeish, June Helm

1956

Leadership Among the Northeastern Athaba¬ scans. no. 299, p. 11-109.

MacNeish, June Helm

1956

Problems of Acculturation and Livelihood in a Northern Indian Band. no. 300, p. 11-110.

MacNeish, June Helm

1957

The Poole Field Letters (1913). no. 301, p. 11-111.

MacNeish, June Helm

1960

Kin Terms of Arctic Slavey, Chipewyan. no. 302, p. 11-111.

McQuesten, Leroy N.

1952

Recollections of Leroy N. McQuesten of Life in the Yukon, 1871-1885. no. 303, p. 11-112.

Madara, Guy

1915

An Indian Potlatch, no. 304, p. 11-112.

Madara, Guy

1920

Musings of a Former Sourdough Missionary, no. 305, p. 11-112.

Maddren, Alfred Geddes

1913

Koyukuk-Chandalar no. 306, p. 11-112.

Marchand, John F.

1943

Tribal Epidemics in the Yukon, no. 307, p. 11-112.

1-21

Drainage

Dene:

Region, Alaska,

Hare,

Marshall, Robert

1933

Arctic Village, no. 308, p. 11-113.

Marshall, Robert

1956

Arctic Wilderness, no. 309, p. 11-113.

Martin, George Curtis Katz, F. J.

1912

A Geologic Reconnaissance Region, Alaska, no. 310, p. 11-113.

Mason, J. Alden

1946

Notes on the Indians of the Great Slave Lake Area. no. 311, p. 11-113.

Mason, Michael H.

1924

The Arctic Forests, no. 312, p. 11-114.

Mason, Otis Tufton

1889

Cradles of the American Aborigines, no. 313, p. 11-114.

Mason, Otis Tufton

1899

The Man’s Knife Among the North American Indians. no. 314, p. 11-114.

Masson, L. R. ed.

1960

Les Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest. no. 315, p. 11-115.

Mendenhall, Walter C.

1900

A Reconnaissance from Resurrection Bay to the Tanana River, Alaska, in 1898. no. 316, p. 11-115.

Mendenhall, Walter C.

1902

Reconnaissance from Fort Hamlin to Kotzebue Sound, Alaska, no. 317, p. 11-115.

Mendenhall, Walter C.

1905

Geology of the Central Copper River Region, Alaska. no. 318, p. 11-116.

Mertie, John Beaver

1928

Preliminary Report District. no. 319, p. 11-116.

Mertie, John Beaver

1929

The Chandalar-Sheenjek District, Alaska, no. 320, p. 11-116.

Mertie, John Beaver

1930

Geology of the Eagle-Circle District, Alaska, no. 321, p. 11-116.

Mertie, John Beaver

1931

A Geological Reconnaissance of the Dennison Fork District, Alaska, no. 322, p. 11-116.

1-22

on

the

of

the

Sheenjek

Iliamna

River

Mertie, John Beaver Harrington, G. L.

1924

The Ruby-Kuskokwim Region, Alaska, no. 323, p. 11-116.

Michael, Henry N. ed.

1967

Lieutenant Zagoskin’s America, 1842-44. no. 324, p. 11-117.

Mitchell, William

1961

Billy Mitchell in Alaska, no. 325, p. 11-117.

Moffit, Fred H.

1907

Mineral Resources of Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, no. 326, p. 11-117.

Moffit, Fred H.

1912

Headwater Regions of the Gulkana and Susitna Rivers, Alaska, no. 327, p. 11-117.

Moffit, Fred H.

1914

Geology of the Hanagita-Bremner Alaska. no. 328, p. 11-117.

Moffit, Fred H. Knopf, Adolph

1910

Mineral Resources of the Nabesna-White District, Alaska, no. 329, p. 11-118.

Moffit, Fred H. Mertie, John Beaver

1923

The Kotsina Kuskulana District, Alaska, no. 330, p. 11-118.

Morgan, Lewis Henry

1959

The Indian Journals, 1859-62. no. 331, p. 11-118.

Morice, Adrian G.

1890

The Western Denes—Their Customs. no. 332, p. 11-118.

Morice, Adrian G.

1892

Are the Carrier Sociology and Mythology Indi¬ genous or Exotic? no. 333, p. 11-119.

Morice, Adrian G.

1894

Notes Archaeological, Industrial, and Sociologi¬ cal on the Western Denes. no. 334, p. 11-119.

Morice, Adrian G.

1895

Three Carrier Myths, no. 335, p. 11-120.

Morice, Adrian G.

1899

On the Classification of the Dene Tribes, no. 336, p. 11-120.

Morice, Adrian G.

1901

Dene Surgery. no. 337, p. 11-120.

1-23

Travels

in

Russian

Region,

Manners

River

and

Morice, Adrian G.

1901

Who Are the Atnas? no. 338, p. 11-120.

Morice, Adrian G.

1905

The Canadian Dene, no. 339, p. 11-121.

Morice, Adrian G.

1906-07

Morice, Adrian G.

1907

Morice, Adrian G.

1910 Hare Indians. no. 342, p. 11-121.

Morice, Adrian G.

1910

Loucheaux. no. 343, p. 11-121.

Morice, Adrian G.

1911

Carrier Indians, no. 344, p. 11-122.

Morice, Adrian G.

1911

Nahanes. no. 345, p. 11-122.

Morice, Adrian G.

1912

Denes. no. 346, p. 11-122.

Morice, Adrian G.

1912 Yellow-Knives. no. 347, p. 11-122.

Morice, Adrian G.

1921

Smoking and Tobacco Among the Northern Denes. no. 348, p. 11-123.

Morice, Adrian G.

1925

About Cremation. no. 349, p. 11-123.

Morice, Adrian G.

1925

Two Points of Western Dene Ethnography, no. 350, p. 11-123.

Morice, Adrian G.

1928

The Fur Trader in Anthropology: And a Few Related Questions, no. 351, p. 11-123.

Morice, Adrian G.

1933

Carrier Onomatology, no. 352, p. 11-123.

Morris, Margaret W.

1972

Great Bear Lake Indians: A Historical, Demo¬ graphy and Human Ecology, no. 353, p. 11-124.

The Great Dene Race, no. 340, p. 11-121. A Reply to Mr. Alphonse L. Pinart. no. 341 p. 11-121.

1-24

Morris, Margaret W.

1973

Great Bear Lake Indians: A Historical Demo¬ graphy and Human Ecology, no. 354, p. 11-124.

Morton, Arthur S.

1939

A History of the Canadian West to 1870-71. no. 355, p. 11-125.

Munsterhjelm, Erik

1953

The Wind and the Caribou, no. 356, p. 11-125.

Murphy, Robert F Steward, Julian H.

1956

Tappers and Trappers: Acculturation, no. 357, p. 11-125.

Norick, Frank A.

1966

Acculturation and Social Maladjustment Among the Native People of Alaska, no. 358, p. 11-125.

Ogden, Peter Skene

1853

Traits of American Indian Life and Character, by a Fur Trader, no. 359, p. 11-126.

1887-88

Exploratory Survey of Part of the Lewes, Tat-On-Duc, Porcupine, Bell, Trout, Peel, and MacKenzie Rivers, no. 360, p. 11-126.

Olson, Ronald L.

1927

Adze, Canoe, and House Types of the North¬ west Coast, no. 361, p. 11-126.

Osgood, Cornelius

1932

The Ethnography Indians. no. 362, p. 11-126.

Osgood, Cornelius

1933

Tanaina Culture, no. 363, p. 11-127.

Osgood, Cornelius

1934

Kutchin Tribal Distribution and Synonymy. no.-364, p. 11-128.

Osgood, Cornelius

1936

Contributions to Kutchin. no. 365, p. 11-128.

Osgood, Cornelius

1936

The Distribution of the Northern Athapaskan Indians. no. 366, p. 11-129.

Osgood, Cornelius

1937

The Ethnography of the Tanaina. no. 367, p. 11-130.

Ogilvie, William

1-25

of

the

Parallel

the

Great

Process

Bear

Ethnography

of

in

Lake

the

Osgood, Cornelius

1940

Ingalik Material Culture, no. 368, p. 11-131.

Osgood, Cornelius

1953

Winter. no. 369, p. 11-131.

Osgood, Cornelius

1958

Ingalik Social Culture, no. 370, p. 11-131.

Osgood, Cornelius

1959

Ingalik Mental Culture, no. 371, p. 11-132.

Osgood, Cornelius

1971

The Han Indians, A Compilation of Ethno¬ graphic and Historical Data on the AlaskaYukon Boundary Area, no. 372, p. 11-133.

Oswalt, Wendell H. ed.

1960

Eskimos and Indians of Western Alaska 1861-1868: Extracts from the Diary of Father Illarion. no. 373, p. 11-133.

Oswalt, Wendell H.

1962-63

Historical Populations in Western Alaska and Migration Theory, no. 374, p. 11-133.

Oswalt, Wendell H.

1965

The Kuskokwim River Drainage, Alaska: An Annotated Bibliography, no. 375, p. 11-134.

Oswalt, Wendell H.

1966

This Land Was Theirs—A Study of the North American Indians, no. 376, p. 11-134.

Oswalt, Wendell H. Van Stone, James W.

1963

Partially Acculturated Communities: Canadian Athapaskans and West Alaskan Eskimos, no. 377, p. 11-135.

Parker, James M.

1972

The Fur Trade and the Chipewyan Indian, no. 378, p. 11-135.

Parnell, C.

1942

Campbell of the Yukon, no. 379, p. 11-135.

Parsons, Elsie Clews Reed, T. B.

1967

Cries-For-Salmon, a Ten’a Woman, no. 380, p. 11-135.

Paulson, Ivar

1952

The “Seat of Honor” in Aboriginal Dwellings of the Circumpolar Zone, with Special Regard to the Indians of North America, no. 381, p. 11-136.

1-26

Penard, J. M.

1929

Land Ownership and Chieftaincy Among the Chippewayan and Caribou-Eaters, no. 382, p. 11-136.

Peters, W. J.

1904

Reconnaissance in Northern Alaska, no. 383, p. 11-136.

Petitot, Emile F. S.

1883

On the Athabasca District of the Canadian North-West Territory. no. 384, p. 11-137.

Petitot, Emile F. S.

1884

On the Athabasca District, no. 385, p. 11-137.

Petroff, Ivan

1884

Report on the Population, Resources of Alaska, no. 386, p. 11-137.

Phillips, R. A. J.

1967

Canada’s North. no. 387, p. 11-137.

Pike, Warburton

1967

The Barren Ground of Northern Canada, no. 388, p. 11-138.

Pike, Warburton

1967

Through the Subarctic Forest, no. 389, p. 11-138.

Pinart, Alphonse L.

1906

A Few Words on the Alaskan Dene, no. 390, p. 11-138.

Poppe, Roger

1971

Kutchin Bibliography, an Annotated Biblio¬ graphy of Northern Yukon Kutchin Indians, no. 391, p. 11-139.

Porter, Robert P.

1893

Report on Population and Resources of Alaska at the Eleventh Census: 1890. no. 392, p. 11-139.

Portlock, Nathaniel

1789

A Voyage Round the World; But More Particu¬ larly to the Northwest Coast of America: Performed in 1785,1786, 1787, and 1788. no. 393, p. 11-139.

Price, John A.

1971

United States and Canadian Indian Periodicals, no. 394, p. 11-139.

Prindle, Louis Marcus

1913

A Geologic Reconnaissance Quadrangle, Alaska, no. 395, p. 11-139.

1-27

Industries,

of

the

and

Circle

Province of British Columbia

1944

Forty-Seventh Report of the Provincial Board of Health for the Year Ended December 31st, 1943. no. 396, p. 11-140.

Province of British Columbia

1947

Fortieth Report of the Provincial Board of Health and First Report of the Department of Health and Welfare (Health Branch), Year Ended December 31st, 1946. no. 397, p. 11-140.

Ray, Verne F.

1942

Culture Element Distributions: XXII Plateau, no. 398, p. 11-140.

Rich, Edwin Ernest ed.

1938

Journal of Occurrences in the Athabasca Depart¬ ment by George Simpson, 1820 and 1821, and Report. no. 399, p. 11-140.

Rich, Edwin Ernest ed.

1949

James Isham’s Observations on Hudsons Bay, 1743 (and Notes and Observations on a Book Entitled A Voyage to Hudson’s Bay in the Dobbs Gallery, 1749). no. 400, p. 11-141.

Rich, Edwin Ernest ed.

1953

John Rae’s Correspondence With the Hudson’s Bay Company on Arctic Exploration, 1844-55. no. 401, p. 11-141.

Rich, Edwin Ernest ed.

1955

Black’s Rocky Mountain Journal, 1824. no. 402, p. 11-141.

Rich, Edwin Ernest ed.

1957

Hudson’s Bay Company, no. 403, p. 11-141.

Richardson, John

1851

Arctic Searching Expedition: A Journal of a Boat Voyage Through Ruperts Land to the Arctic Sea, in Search of the Discovery Ships Under Command of Sir John Franklin, no. 404, p. 11-141.

Richardson, John

1855

The Last of the Arctic Voyages; Being a Narrative of the Expedition in H.M.S. Assistance, Under the Command of Captain Sir Edward Belcher, no. 405, p. 11-142

Richmond, Sara

1970

Cognitive and Structural Bases for Group Identity: The Case of the southern Arctic Drainage Dene, no. 406, p. 11-142.

1-28

Ridington, Robin

1969

Culture and Creation, no. 407, p. 11-143.

Ridington, Robin

1969

Kin Categories Versus Kin Groups: A TwoSection System With Sections, no. 408, p. 11-143.

Ridington, Robin

1971

Beaver Indian Dreaming and Singing, no. 409, p. 11-143.

Ridington, Robin Ridington, Tonia

1970

The Inner Eye of Shamanism and Totemism. no. 410, p. 11-144.

Robinson, J.

1944

Among the Caribou-Eaters, no. 411, p. 11-145.

Robinson, M. J. Robinson, J. L.

1946

Exploration and District, N.W.T. no. 412, p. 11-145.

Ross, Bernard R.

1859

On the Indian Tribes of McKenzie and Arctic Coast. no. 413, p. 11-145.

Ross, Bernard R.

1861

An Account of the Animals Useful in an Economic Point of View to the Various Chipewyan Tribes, no. 414, p. 11-145.

Ross, Bernard R.

1862

An Account of the Botanical and Mineral Products Useful to the Chipewyan Tribes of Indians. no. 415, p. 11-146.

Ross, Bernard R.

1867

The Eastern Tinneh. no. 416, p. 11-146.

Rourke, Louise

1924

The Land of the Frozen Tide, no. 417, p. 11-147.

Russell, Frank

1898

Explorations in the Far North, Being the Report of an Expedition Under the Auspices of the University of Iowa During the Years 1892, 1893, and 1894. no. 418, p. 11-148.

Russell, Frank

1900

Athabascan Myths, no. 419, p. 11-148.

Sapir, Edward

1924

Personal Names Among the Sarcee Indians. no. 420, p. 11-148.

1-29

Settlement

of

MacKenzie

Saum, Lewis O.

1965

The Fur Trader and the Indian, no. 421, p. 11-148.

Savishinsky, Joel S.

1970

Kinship and the Expression of Values in an Athabascan Bush Community, no. 422, p. 11-149.

Schaeffer, C. E.

1942

The Grasshopper or Children’s War—A Circumboreal Legend? no. 423, p. 11-150.

Schmitter, Ferdinand

1912

Upper Yukon Native Customs and Folk-Lore, no. 424, p. 11-150.

Schrader, Frank Charles

1900

Preliminary Report on a Reconnaissance Along the Chandlar and Koyukuk Rivers, Alaska, no. 425, p. 11-150.

Schrader, Frank Charles

1900

A Reconnaissance of a Part of Prince William Sound and the Copper River District, Alaska, in 1898. no. 426, p. 11-151.

Schwatka, Frederick

1893

A Summer in Alaska, no. 427, p. 11-151.

Schwatka, Frederick

1898

Along Alaska’s Great River, no. 428, p. 11-151.

Seton, Ernest Thompson

1912

The Arctic Prairies, no. 429, p. 11-151.

Shapiro, H. L.

1931

The Alaskan Eskimo, a Study of the Relation¬ ship between the Eskimo and the Chipewyan Indians of Central Canada, no. 430, p. 11-151.

Sheldon, Charles

1911

The Wilderness of the Upper Yukon, no. 431, p. 11-152.

Sherwood, Angus

1958

Some Remarks About the Athapaskan Indians no. 432, p. 11-152.

Sherwood, Morgan B.

1965

Exploration of Alaska 1865-1900. no. 433, p. 11-152.

Simms, S. C.

1904

Traditions of the Sarcee Indians, no. 434, p. 11-152.

1-30

Simpson, Thomas

1843

Narrative of the Discoveries on the Northern Coast of America; Effected by the Officers of the Hudson’s Bay Company During the Years 1836-39. no. 435, p. 11-152.

Slobodin, Richard

1960

Eastern Kutchin Warfare, no. 436, p. 11-152.

Slobodin, Richard

1960

Some Social Functions of Kutchin Anxiety, no. 437, p. 11-153.

Slobodin, Richard

1962

Band Organization of the Peel River Kutchin. no. 438, p. 11-154.

Slobodin, Richard

1963

The “Dawson Boys”: Peel River Indians and the Klondike Gold Rush, no. 439, p. 11-155.

Slobodin, Richard

1969

Leadership and Participation Trapping Party, no. 440, p. 11-155.

Slobodin, Richard

1970

Kutchin Concepts of Reincarnation, no. 441, p. 11-156.

Slobodin, Richard

1971

The Chief is a Man. no. 442, p. 11-156.

Smith, Harlan I.

1925

Entomology Among the Bellacoola and Carrier Indians. no. 443, p. 11-156.

Smith, J. G. E.

1970

The Chipewyan Hunting Group in a Village Context. no 444, p. 11-156.

Smith, Philip S.

1917

The Lake Clark-Central Kuskokwim Region, Alaska. no. 445, p. 11-157.

Smith, Philip S. Eakin, Henry M.

1911

A Geologic Reconnaissance in Southeastern Seward Peninsula and the Norton Bay-Nulato Region, Alaska, no. 446, p. 11-157.

Smith, Philip S. Mertie, John Beaver

1930

Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska. no. 447, p. 11-157.

Sniffen, Matthew K. Carrington, Thomas Spees

1914

The Indians of the Yukon and Tanana Valleys, Alaska. no. 448, p. 11-157. 1-31

in

a

Kutchin

Spry, Irene M.

1963

The Palliser Expedition, an Account of John Palliser’s British North American Expedition 1857-1860. no. 449, p. 11-158.

Spurr, Josiah Edward

1900

A Reconnaissance in Southwestern Alaska in 1898. no. 450, p. 11-158.

Steffanson, Vilhjalmur S.

1909

A Preliminary Report of an Ethnological Investigation of the Mackenzie Delta, no. 451, p. 11-158.

Steward, Julian H.

1940

Recording Culture Changes Among the Carrier Indians of British Columbia. no. 452, p. 11-158.

Steward, Julian H.

1941

Determinism in Primitive Society, no. 453, p. 11-159.

Steward, Julian H.

1941

Investigations Among British Columbia. no. 454, p. 11-159.

Steward, Julian H.

1960

Carrier Acculturation, Approach, no. 455, p. 11-160.

Steward, Julian H.

1963

Variation in Ecological Adaptation: The Carrier Indians. no. 456, p. 11-160.

Stirling, Matthew W.

1949

Nomads of the Far North, no. 457, p. 11-160.

Stuck, Hudson

1914

Ten Thousand Miles with a Dog Sled, no. 458, p. 11-161.

Stuck, Hudson

1925

Voyages on the Yukon and Its Tributaries, no. 459, p. 11-161.

Sturtevant, William C.

1962

Bibliography on American Indian Medicine and Health. no. 460, p. 11-161.

Sue, Hiroko

1965

Pre-School Children of the Hare Indians, no. 461, p. 11-161.

Sullivan, Robert J.

1942

Temporal Concepts of the Ten’a. no. 462, p. 11-162.

1-32

the

the

Carrier Indians of

Direct

Historical

Sullivan, Robert J.

1942

The Ten’a Food Quest, no. 463, p. 11-163.

Swan ton, John R.

1904

The Development of the Clan System and of Secret Societies Among the Northwestern Tribes. no 464, p. 11-163.

Swanton, John R.

1952

The Indian Tribes of North America, no. 465, p. 11-163.

Tache,A.

1870

Sketch of the North-West of America, no. 466, p. 11-163.

Taylor, Phyllis

1953

Tales from the Delta, no. 467, p. 11-164.

Teit, James A.

1906

Notes on the Tahltan Columbia. no. 468, p. 11-164.

Teit, James A.

1907

Notes on the Chilcotin Indians, no. 469, p. 11-164.

Teit, James A.

1909

Two Tahltan Traditions, no. 470, p. 11-165.

Teit, James A.

1914

Indian Tribes of the Interior, no. 471, p. 11-165.

Teit, James A.

1914

On Tahltan (Athabaskan) Work, 1912. no. 472, p. 11-165.

Teit, James A.

1917

Kaska Tales. no. 473, p. 11-165.

Teit, James A.

1921

Tahltan Tales. no. 474, p. 11-166.

Teit, James A. et al.

1924

Coiled Basketry in British Columbia, no. 475, p. 11-167

Teit, James A.

1956

Field Notes on Tahltan and Kaska Indians: 1912-1915. no. 476, p. 11-167.

Thompson, Stith

1929

Tales of the North American Indians, no 477, p. 11-169.

Tims, Winifred A.

1929

The Interesting Origin of the Sarcee Indians of Canada. no. 478, p. 11-169.

1-33

Indians

of

British

Tollemache, Stratford

1912

Reminiscences of the Yukon, no. 479, p. 11-169.

Townsend, Joan B.

1970

Tanaina Ethnohistory: An Example of a Method for the Study of Culture Change, no. 480, p. 11-169.

Townsend, Joan B.

1970

The Tanaina of Southwestern Historical Synopsis, no. 481, p. 11-170.

Turner, J. Henry

1893

The Boundary North of Fort Yukon, no. 482, p. 11-171.

Tyrrell, James Williams

1897

Across the Sub-Arctic of Canada, no. 483, p. 11-171.

Tyrrell, Joseph ed.

1968

Journals of Samuel Hearne and Philip Turnor Between the Years 1774 and 1792. no. 484, p. 11-171.

Underwood, Frances W. Honigmann, Irma

1947

A Comparison of Socialization and Personality in Two Simple Societies, no. 485, p. 11-172.

Alaska:

An

United States Bureau of Education

annual

United States Senate

1900

Compilation of Narratives on Explorations in Alaska. no. 487, p. 11-173.

Urquhart, J. A.

1935

The Most Northerly Practice in Canada, no. 488, p. 11-173.

Van Stone, James W.

1961

The Economy of a Frontier Community, a Preliminary Statement, no. 489, p. 11-174.

Van Stone, James W.

1963

Changing Patterns of Indian Trapping in the Canadian Subarctic, no. 490, p. 11-174.

Van Stone, James W.

1965

The Changing Culture Chipewyan. no. 491, p. 11-175.

Vaudrin, Bill

1969

Tanaina Tales from Alaska, no. 492, p. 11-178.

Annual Reports, no. 486, p. 11-172.

of

the

Snowdrift

Wallace, W. S.

1968

John McLean’s Notes of a Twenty-Five Year’s Service in the Hudson’s Bay Territory, no. 493, p. 11-178.

Wardle, H. Newell

1901

Notes on the Designation, Atna. no. 494, p. 11-178.

Waterman, T. T.

1921

Native Houses of Western North America, no. 495, p. 11-179.

Waterman, T. T.

1927

The Architecture of the American Indians, no. 496, p. 11-179.

Waugh, F. W.

1919

Canadian Aboriginal Canoes, no. 497, p. 11-179.

Welsh, Ann

1970

Community Pattern and Settlement Pattern in the Development of Old Crow Village, Yukon Territory, no. 498, p. 11-179.

West, Frederick H.

1959

On the Distribution and Western Kutchin Tribes, no. 499, p. 11-180.

West, John

1824

The Substance of a Journal During a Residence at the Red River Colony, British North America; and Frequent Excursions Among the NorthWest American Indians, in the Years 1820, 1821,1822,1823. no. 500, p. 11-180.

Wheeler, David E.

1914

The Dog-Rib Indian and His Home, no. 501, p. 11-180.

White, Charles B.

1958

Rejoinder. no. 502, p. 11-180.

Whitney, Casper

1896

On Snow-Shoes to the Barren Grounds; TwentyEight Hundred Miles After Musk-Oxen and Wood-Bison, no. 503, p. 11-180.

Whymper, Frederick

1868

A Journey from Norton Sound, Bering Sea, to Fort Youkon (Junction of Porcupine and Youkon Rivers), no. 504, p. 11-181.

Whymper, Frederick

1868

A Journey from Norton Sound, Bering Sea, to Fort Yukon, at the Junction of the Porcupine and Yukon Rivers, no. 505, p. 11-181.

1-35

Territories

of the

Whymper, Frederick

1869

Russian America—Alaska: The Natives of the Youkon River and Adjacent Country (1868). no. 506, p. 11-181.

YVhymper, Frederick

1969

Travel and Adventure in the Territory of Alaska, no. 507, p. 11-181.

Wickersham, James

1938

Old Yukon Tales—Trails—and Trials, no. 508, p. 11-182.

Williamson, Robert G.

1955-56

Slave Indian Legends, no. 509, p. 11-182.

Wilson, Clifford

1947

Founding Fort Yukon, no. 510, p. 11-182.

Wilson, Clifford

1970

Campbell of the Yukon, no. 511, p. 11-182.

Wilson, E. F.

1888

Report on the Sarcee Indians, no. 512, p. 11-182.

Wilson, E. F.

1889

The Sarcee Indians, no. 513, p. 11-183.

Wissler, Clark

1915

Culture of the North American Indians Occupy¬ ing the Caribou Area, no. 514, p. 11-183.

Wissler, Clark ed.

1917

Anthropological Papers of Museum of Natural History, no. 515, p. 11-183.

Wolforth, John

1971

The Evolution and Community. no. 516, p. 11-183.

Wright, Arthur

1908

An Athapascan Tradition from Alaska, no. 517, p. 11-184.

Wright, Arthur R.

1926

The Potlatch—What Is It? no. 518, p. 11-184.

1-36

Economy

the

of

American

the

Delta

Section 11: Complete bibliographic information including abstract is listed alphabetically by author.

1. Adney,Tappan l900

Moose

Hunting

with

the

Tro-Chu-Tin. Harpers

Monthly Magazine, vol. 100. pp. 495-507.

The Tro-chu-tin or “Klondike Indians” lived in a village of 60 to 70 persons at the mouth of the Klondike River, Canada, until they were crowded away by the gold rush. This general, unsystematic article describes how these Indians came to depend on the whites for food and supplies, and contains speculation that when the whites leave, the Athabascans would revert to aboriginal subsistence means such as moose hunting.

2. Adney, Tappan 1902

The Indian Hunter of the Far Northwest, on the Trail to the Klondike. Outing, vol. 39, no. 6. pp. 623-633.

Notes for this article were made around 1897 in the Yukon area of Alaska, and refer to the Athabascans encountered in that area. The author reported that though there were many villages, the Indians were not numerous and were becoming less numerous each year. The Athabascans lived along the rivers during the summer and fished; during winter, they moved inland and hunted. Whole camps were moved sometimes 6 or 7 miles a day; moving was accomplished by the women and dogs while the men went ahead and hunted. The author said that frequently one hunter would get two moose while the others got none. In this case sharing was necessary, though the hind quarters remained the property of the man who killed the animal. The fore shoulders were also valued and given to a selected person who then would be under obligation to reciprocate. Adney said that on one hunting expedition, which took 5 weeks and moved 45 miles, 48 moose were killed. The base camp would be moved every time a radius of 6 miles around it had been scoured of game.

3. Allard, E. 1928

Notes

on

the

Kaska

and

Upper

Liard

Indians.

Primitive Man, vol. 1. pp. 24-26.

The Kaska are Canadian Athabascan Indians living in small groups of one to three families around Dease Lake and Dease River. They have a subsistence economy based on hunting and fishing. Allard reported that their social organization was limited; however, he did note the existence of polygamy, clans, and use of the potlatch. He was unable to obtain any information on their religion, though witchcraft was in use. The Upper Liard Indians were distinguished from the Kaska, though the two groups were said to be culturally alike. The Upper Liard Indians intermarried with Indians down the Liard River at Fort Liard and Fort Simpson, and were regarded as a mixture of Sikani, Beaver, and Slave Indians. Information for this article was based on observations made in 1925. Allard felt that the Indian population was on the decrease when he arrived in the area at that time.

Ill

Report of an Expedition to the Copper, Tanana and Koyukuk Rivers in the Territory of Alaska in the Year 1885. United States Government Printing

4. Allen, Henry T. 1887

Office, Washington. This report includes general information on the Tanana, Koyukuk, and Copper River Indians collected in 1885 by Allen during his explorations of Central Alaska. He notes poverty, hunger and a general lack of material culture among Indians in the Copper River area. Much the same is noted in the upper Tanana area too though the Indians there were considered to be more fierce. In the Koyukuk River area, Allen again notes the poverty of the Indians as well as a scarcity of game.

Atnatanas: Natives of Copper River, Alaska. Annual

5. Allen, Henry T. 1889

report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, 1886. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, pp. 258-266.

Allen obtained information for this article in 1885 while exploring the Copper River (in Alaska) and its principal tributaries. He generally describes the Atnatanas or Copper River Indians,

including

information on their social organization, subsistence, and material

culture. Allen noted poverty among these unwarlike Indians. Their families, usually small, consisted of a father, mother and rarely more than three children. They practiced polygamy, and generally treated women with little consideration. Hunger was the main cause of illness. A man’s property went to the tribe when he died, leaving his family destitute. The oldest son then became head of the family.

6. Anderson, Alex A. 1863

Notes on the Indian Tribes of British North America, and the Northwest Coast. Historical Magazine, vol. 7, no. 3. pp. 73-81.

Anderson was found to be unclear and a poor ethnographic source.

Eells, Walter C.

Alaska Natives: A Survey of their Sociological and Educational Status. Stanford University Press,

1935

Stanford, California.

7. Anderson, Hobson D.

This sociological study of Alaska Indians and Eskimos was done in the 1930’s, and contains

general

information about habitat, native physical appearance, and material

and social culture. Special attention is given to the educational needs of natives—their abilities, achievements, and opportunities.

II-2

8. Anderson, Kristian Bolstad, Atle L^yning, Yngve

Physical

Fitness

of

Arctic

Indians. Journal

of

Applied Physiology, vol. 15, no. 4. pp. 645-648.

Irving, Laurence 1960 Field studies were carried out among the Vunta Kutchin of the Porcupine River valley around 1958. The authors treated these Athabascans as representative of peoples living in an arctic environment. The Indians studied made a living by hunting, fishing, and trapping; they were generally dependent on their own strength and endurance for supporting themselves and their families. Their fitness was comparable to that of groups of white men engaged in hard manual labor in our society.

9. Anderson, Rudolph M. 1913

Arctic Game Notes. American Museum Journal, vol. 13, no. 1. pp. 5-21.

Anderson, a zoologist, considers the distribution and occurrence of large game animals in Alaskan and Canadian polar regions. Except for moose in the Mackenzie delta region, most large game animals were on the decrease.

10. Anonymous 1895 The note

Note

on

Athabascans

of

the

West. American

Antiquarian, p. 118. outlines biographic events in the life of Rev. Adrian G. Morice, a French

priest of the Oblates of Mary Immaculate who was a missionary among the Canadian Athabascans from 1882.

11. Anonymous 1920

The Influenza Pandemic. Alaskan Churchman, vol. 14, no. 3. pp. 67-69.

Brief information on the effects of influenza that struck Nenana and Fairbanks in 1920 is provided by this anonymous author. Indian men suffered the heaviest toll.

12. Aronson, Joseph D. 1947

The History of Disease Among the Natives of Alaska. Alaska’s Health, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 1-2; no. 4, pp. 3-4; no. 5, pp. 5-6; no. 6, pp. 4-5; no. 7, pp. 3-4.

After reviewing records of white-native contact, especially in south and coastal Alaska, the author concludes that diseases due to food deficiency probably did exist prior to white contact. Smallpox, syphilis and tuberculosis, were introduced by the whites and have increased the Indian mortality rate.

II-3

Narrative of the Arctic Land Expedition to the Mouth of the Great Fish River and Along the Shores of the Arctic Ocean in the Years 1833, 1834, and 1835. Charles E. Tuttle Company, Publishers,

13. Back, George 1970

Rutland, Vermont. Back’s narrative of his explorations in northern Canada contains some material about the Eskimos he encountered and brief references to Yellowknife and Chipewyan Indians. He noted conflict existed between these groups as well as between them and the Esquimaux Indians to the east. Back made a number of references to food shortages among the Yellowknife and Chipewyan during winter.

Family Organization of the Vunta Kutchin. Arctic

14. Balikci, Asen 1963

Anthropology, vol. 1, no. 2. pp. 62-69.

Balikci defines 1961 variations in Indian patterns in Old Crow and finds two types exist:

husband-father,

wife-mother,

and

offspring; and

matrifocal.

He felt that the

matrifocal family was a more recent occurrence in the area since the division of labor between adult males and females created a situation in which adult males spent a good deal of time away from the community on trap lines. Balikci further found specific local social and cultural reasons for the predominance of matrifocality here rather than in other northern areas: (1) Government

relief

addressed

family

allowances

to

the

mother,

thus

strengthening her economic position. (2) Women could operate a trap line and shoot caribou to further increase their income. (3) The local pattern of receiving gifts against sexual favors strengthened the independence of women. (4) Many adult women resided with adult consanguines, usually grown-up sons, who were definitely an asset. The matrifocal family did rather well economically in comparison to the nuclear family. The author felt that the matrifocal situation may have been less conducive to the male-female hostilities generally present in a marriage; in the absence of a husband, sexual relations could be continued without as much risk of involvement in a continued close relationship that would eventually and characteristically result in greater, more explosive hostility. Balikci gives background information on the aboriginal Kutchin family and other social structures as an aid to understanding the variation in present family patterns. The traditional leaders were polygynous tribal chiefs, wealthy men, moiety chiefs, war captains, and shamans. With the introduction of the fur trade, much of the traditional social structure and subsistence patterns changed. New economic and religious ways also furthered change. Since 1950, a federal day school has led to the abandonment of winter trapping camps. In general, traditional male leadership patterns were disrupted, and the original moiety system lost significance. These changes led to a presently weak social organization and new family structures in Old Crow. Balikci also gives information on present marriage patterns. Generally, a girl’s father would watch for a desirable boy for her to marry. The girl’s first intercourse was at 13, and

11-4

at that time, she offered much resistance; in some cases, it was a traumatic experience. Much more sexual activity continued until marriage at 16. Sometimes pregnancy determined that a girl should be married. Extra-marital relations were frequent and generally initiated by the woman. The author said that men generally rejected this idea by saying, “if you want to have a woman, you must keep going after her.” Age was not considered too significant in sex relationships. Balikci says that marriage, as well as other interpersonal relationships within Kutchin society, had an element of antagonism, which Honigmann found to be so characteristic of the Kaska. He found evidence of suspicion, hypocrisy, hostility, jealousy, and hate. Alcohol was conducive to verbalizing these latent tensions, and “nice talk” easily turned into malicious back biting.

15. Balikci, Asen 1963

V unta

Kutchin

Social

Change.

Northern

ordination and Research Center, 63-3.

Co¬

Department

of Northern Affairs and Natural Resources, Ottawa. A comparison was made between the traditional culture of the Vunta Kutchin of Old Crow in the Yukon Territory with the contemporary population in this basic ethnography done in 1961. Changes were found in resident patterns, economy, and social organization. The author comments on the area’s subarctic environment including flat, marshy lowlands and some of the coldest winter temperatures in the world. Caribou was (and has remained) an important food source though fluctuations of animal populations occur periodically. There were few moose in the area. Rabbits were also an important food source. Muskrat, marten, mink, beaver, and lynx were important for their furs. Both men and dogs depended considerably on fish, various species of which were caught in all seasons. Most hunting was done individually. Dwellings were semi-permanent since subsistence required continual movement. Social organization was based on a matrilineal clan system which cut across different tribal groups and appeared to be a sib-moiety organization. Exogamy was observed only to a limited degree. This type of social organization served to establish a uniform matrilineal descent system, regulate marriage and increase social cohesion which transcended the tribal unit. Feuding and war activities were closely associated with the sib-moiety structure and each clan had its own war leader. Aside from war leaders, there were political chiefs who functioned as economic leaders as well. Wives were picked in a number of ways: a boy could choose his wife from his premarital sexual partners, propose to her,

and then take up common residence; he could

choose his wife when she was 5 or 6 years old; he could choose a girl and take up residence with the parents-in-law; marriages could be arranged by parents; they could be arranged by shamanistic techniques. Polygamy existed among the wealthy. Families where this occurred were patrilocal. Generally, though, residence varied. The author attributed this to the influence of a multiplicity of personal, economic, and purely social factors. The tendency was towards camp bilaterality and household neolocality. The nuclear family probably functioned as the main socioeconomic unit. Within the family a division of labor occurred to maximize survival techniques. In subsistence activities, the family usually was a cooperative part of a larger group. Within this larger group,

individual partnerships were formed especially for hunting and fishing activities. Sharing of food occurred. If food was scarce, the larger group broke up and scattered. The larger group did not remain constant in size. Euro-Canadian contact caused various changes, especially in subsistence techniques and social organization. These changes occurred especially with the advent of fur trading. The increased need to live in small, isolated settlements along the rivers for trap-line operation, greater

involvement

in

a

money

economy, greater reliance on European foods and

availability of government services at Old Crow all prompted the population consolidation that eventually took place there. The present Old Crow economy is characterized by the important subsistence activities of caribou and moose hunting, fishing, and fur trapping, although trapping activity is slowly decreasing because of falling prices for furs. Government family allowances supplement subsistence activities. Traditional moiety structure has almost entirely disappeared, though it is evidenced on certain ceremonial occasions. There is also some rival feeling between the two moieties. Generally the Old Crow people are bilateral in most kin behavior and there is no evidence of matrilocality. Usually older men marry younger women. Typically the girl has her first intercourse at the age of 13, an experience usually arranged by her parents. The girl’s father selects a boy he considers a promising marriage partner. The boy then “rapes” the girl, who offers resistance. After several such experiences, she marries the boy who first raped her. The concentration of population in Old Crow increases the opportunities for pre- and postmarital promiscuity, Balikci says, which are frequent anyway. Noted teasing between males and females stops after marriage. Residence tends toward neolocality. Balikci points out that ingroup relations and marriage relations at Old Crow are characterized by suspicion, hypocrisy, hostility, jealousy, and hate. Drinking is an obsession, which frequently ends in trouble over women, and gambling is another important social activity.

16. Balikci, Asen

Perspectives on the Atomistic Type Society: Bad Friends. Human Organization, vol. 27, no. 3. pp. 191-199.

1968

The title “Bad Friends” signifies ambivalence between trapping partners in particular and among members of Kutchin society in general. For instance, people may be nice on the one

hand,

but gossip

viciously

on

the

other.

The author observed that distrustful

competition, envy, and evil thoughts could be found everywhere under an amiable social surface. Social drinking of home brew eliminated what cultural restraints on these feelings existed, and stimulated the expression of intense feelings of hatred and jealousy directed toward others. Balikci refers to similar findings in Honigmann’s study on the Kaska Indians, and suggests that this hostility is typical of the Yukon Indian groups. In Old Crow Kutchin society, much of the present social life centers around drinking. Good drinkers, of which there are few, drink slowly without becoming intoxicated; bad drinkers drink fast and become quarrelsome. Recklessness, quarreling, physical aggression, singing, joking, depression, and heightened expression of sexuality occur frequently during drinking. There is, however, very little overt acting out of hostility when sober. Balikci

11-6

attributes this to fear of witchcraft and the policeman, as well as to the relatively free verbal expression of hostility. He notes that most interview sessions with informants ended with informants bitter remarks about other people. The Kutchin evidently find bad talk a useful release of hostile feelings. Premarital and extramarital lovemaking are also valuable releases of hostility because men regard lovemaking as action against the female partners toward whom they feel hostile. Gambling is another channel for releasing hostility because it diminishes the opponent’s esteem. Antiethical feelings toward another seem to grow stronger as a relationship grows closer. Balikci feels that Old Crow society is sewn together without forming close relationships, which would be uncomfortable. Background information on the Kutchin sheds some light on their present behavior. The original pre-contact Kutchin Indians were caribou hunters who hunted in small groups using a surround method. Traditional leadership was held by a succession of polygamous tribal chiefs who owned the caribou surrounds. Moiety chiefs, war chiefs, war captains, and religious leaders also provided leadership through shamanism. The introduction of fur trading created a redistribution of the population because it required people to winter in small trapping camps of two to five single-family households instead of small bands. Traditional collaborative economic patterns became obsolete as the individual hunter’s activities became tied to the trader. Traditional leadership based on the surround was destroyed, and shamanistic leadership lost significance as the moiety became disorganized. In the early 1950’s, the establishment of a federal day school at Old Crow further led to the abandonment of the winter trapping camps and concentration of the population in the village. As a result of these changes, the Euro-Canadians were able to become the new leaders through their control of trading posts and wealth. Individual profit incentive led to further disintegration of traditional cooperative groups. As the traditional moiety structure disappeared, cooperative activity decreased and the Kutchin nuclear family emerged as the only basic socioeconomic unit, though even this is an unstable unit at best. Trapping relationships still exist, but sharing has become arbitrary rather than prescribed. Though trapping partnerships could diminish loneliness and provide help in case of danger, each man increasingly traps for himself rather than cooperatively. Rewards have been reduced largely to economic profit from the trading post. Fish caught are treated as individual property. Moose hunting is generally declining, but was always an individual activity. Today, the meat is shared more selectively than in the past. The author concludes that partnerships exist primarily for companionship and do not imply complementary division of labor or interdependence. Any interactions which do take place reflect ambivalence and atomism in Kutchin society.

17. Balikci, Asen Cohen, Ronald 1963

Community Patterning in Two Northern Trading Posts. Anthropologica, vol. 5. pp. 33-45.

The authors consider traditional ecological and social features of both Eskimo and Indian life around trading posts in northern Canada. The paper includes studies of Eskimos at Fort Chimo, Little Whale, and Great Whale rivers and Athabascans at Fort Good Hope on the Mackenzie River.

II-7

Emergence of the white trader’s importance was accompanied by the decline of Indian self-government. The Indian community was less socially organized than the Eskimo trading post communities.

18. Bancroft, Hubert H. 1886

History of the Pacific States. A. F. Bancroft and Co., San Francisco. Vol. 28.

Some historiographic information on white-native conflicts and relations is of value, though the work is of limited ethnographic use.

19. Bancroft, Hubert H. 1886

The Native Races, Vol. 1, Wild Tribes. The History Company, San Francisco.

Volume 1 of this standard history of central and northern North America is a systematic, general compilation of native groups, based largely on primary sources. Bancroft says he has not attempted ethnological classification but wishes only to plainly portray such customs and characteristics as were peculiar to each people at the time of contact; his information is organized by geographic definition. Bancroft presents general description of the Alaskan and Canadian Athabascan Indians, dividing them into four large families: Chipewyan, Carrier, Kutchin, and Kenai. Generally the male is master of the household, marriage is without ceremony, and divorce is frequent. Superstition is prevalent among these Indians and warfare is incessant particularly between the Kutchin and Eskimo.

20. Bancroft, Hubert H. 1887

History of British Columbia 1792-1887. The History Company, San Francisco.

Basically a historical reference, this includes some notes on Athabascans taken from other journals.

21. Bancroft, Hubert H. 1959

History of Alaska, 1730-1885. Antiquarian Press, Ltd., New York. (First published in 1886 by A. L. Bancroft and Company, New York.)

Bancroft’s broad, detailed history of Russian contact and settlement of Russian America is based on extensive archival information and observations by his assistants. Several chapters pay particular attention to the Russian American Company’s trading activities along the coasts and in the interior of Alaska. Although Bancroft’s work is limited for ethnographic use, it does contain material concerning white-native conflicts.

II-8

22. Ban fie Id, Alexander William F. 1961

Migrating Caribou, Barren-Ground Herds Face a Serious Threat to Survival. Natural History, vol. 80, no. 5. pp. 56-63.

Banfield, a zoologist, feels that the increased use of caribou meat and fur by the Indians and Eskimos in the arctic and subarctic regions of North America may threaten the survival of caribou. The increase in demand for caribou has been caused largely by white contact and the advent of the fur trade.

23. Baptie, S. Hughes, J. P. 1939 A bowdlerized English group: Legend of Big River.

24. Barbeau, C. Marius 1915

Legend of Big River. Beaver, Outfit 270, No. 1, June. pp. 42-43.

translation

of a

myth

from an undefined Athabascan

Loucheux Myths. Journal of American Folklore, vol. 28. pp. 249-257.

English translations: The Origin of the World The Deluge The Beaver’s Tail The Culture-Hero Tetogolee The Crow’s Tricks The Trickster The Grizzly Bear and the Crow The Crow’s Home The Man in the Moon The Wolverene and the Man Why the Bears Have Short Tails The Old Man, the Bear, and the Ermine

25. Barbeau, C. Marius 1933

Songs of the Northwest. Musical quarterly, vol. 19, no. 1. pp. 101-111.

Barbeau provides some brief notes on Carrier Indian songs and gives the text of one song.

11-9

26. Barbeau, C. Marius 1939

Assomption Sash. National Museum of Canada, Bulletin 93, Anthropological Series No. 24. Department of Mines and Resources, Ottawa.

Barbeau traces the use and historical development of the “assomption sash,” an item of clothing used by some Athabascan and other Indian groups.

27. Barbeau, C. Marius Melvin, G. 1943

The Indian Speaks. Caxton Printers, Ltd. (Includes, “Why Not Obey Me?” the remonstrance of Sanaindi, the head chief of the Dog-Ribs on the lower Mackenzie, to Father Petitot. pp. 49-50.)

The short reference expresses the Indians’ concern that their own observations, experiences, and authority structures are ignored by the French priests, who do not even recognize Indian hospitality.

28. Bartlett, G. W. 1915

The Diary of Robert Campbell. The Canadian Magazine, vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 331-333; no. 5, pp. 409-412; no. 6, pp. 517-520.

This work contains information of historical value taken from Campbell’s diary. See C. Wilson, Campbell of the Yukon, 1970, for a more complete reconstruction of the diary.

29. Beaman, C. C. 1867

Our New Northwest. Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, July. pp. 21-23.

Most information in this superficial article concerns coastal Indians. Among other materials presented, there is a population figure for the Kenai Athabascans.

30. Begg, Alexander 1894

History Toronto.

of

British

Columbia. William

Briggs,

The scant information present in this history comes from other sources. It includes population figures (1892) for some areas in British Columbia, but fails to identify the Indian groups discussed.

31. Bell, James MacKintosh 1903

Fireside Stories of the Chipewyan. Journal American Folklore, vol. 16, no. 61. pp. 73-84.

This article describes some folktales; it is unclear to what extent they were edited.

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of

32. Bell, Robert 1901

Legends of the Slavey Indians of the Mackenzie River. Journal of American Folklore, vol. 14. pp. 26-29.

English translations: The Long Winter The Guardian of the Copper Mine

33. Bethune, William Clark 1937

Canada's Western Northland. Department of Mines and Resources, Lands, Parks and Forests Branch. J. O. Patenauds, Ottawa.

As part of a chapter on population, anthropologist Diamond Jenness contributes a general, coherent view of Canadian Athabascans (pages 49 through 60). He particularly stresses the harsh environmental conditions under which these Indians have endured. The Indian food quest kept them almost constantly moving in search of game; they were able to stay in one place for only 3 or 4 weeks before exhausting the local food supply.

34. Bettis, Laura 1914

An Indian Girl's Alaskan Experience. Alaskan Churchman, vol. 8, no. 2. pp. 45-47.

Written by an Athabascan Indian girl who was born at Nenana, Alaska, this short article contains firsthand information on her socialization by whites and her impressions of white man’s life in the early 1900’s. The commentary seems to reflect her “Christianized” acculturation.

35. Binning, G. 1941

Indians of the Yukon. Royal Canadian Mounted Police Quarterly, July. pp. 64-65.

This article includes general comments on the Canadian Yukon River area Indians.

36. Birket-Smith, Kaj 1930

Contributions to Chipewyan Ethnology. Report of the Fifth Thule Expedition 1921-24. Vol. 6, no. 3.

In 1923 Birket-Smith observed the Chipewyan living around the mouth of the Churchill River. In this area the Eskimos and Indians differed less than one would expect, being rather alike in physical stature and personality. The Chipewyan Indians, though, seemed to lose self-control easier and be more stoic than the Eskimos. The Chipewyan regarded their Cree and Eskimo neighbors with fear and hostility. The Chipewyan territory comprised both boreal forest and barren grounds to the north. The Chipewyan preferred forest living, but did make hunting excusions to the barren grounds. They were exclusively hunters and fishermen; Birket-Smith discusses their hunting equipment in some detail. Caribou was the most important game animal, though bears and

11-11

small game were important too. Most hunting was a winter occupation. Fishing for trout, whitefish, pike, burbot, and tullibee was the important summer activity. Generally Chipewyan life fluctuated between these subsistence activities. Chipewyan physical culture, including travel equipment, clothing, and dwellings, is described. Since the Chipewyan were nomadic, their physical culture was fairly limited and shelters were of a temporary nature. Social organization among these Indians as well as among Eskimos was characterized by individualism. In the Chipewyan community there was practically no differentiation between age and sex groups. Though chiefs existed, their power seemed based essentially on personality. In Chipewyan society formerly one man could have several wives; bride price and bride capture were also common. The only limitation on marriage partners was culturally defined close consanguinity. There were no limits on sexual intercourse out of wedlock. The monograph also includes a collection of mythology and some remarks about Chipewyan religion and shamanism. Souls of the dead were dangerous and had to be protected against. Taboos on use of animals were clustered around females; women could not touch wolf or bear. Spirits such as “ejuna” and “ena plini” were armed monsters in the woods. Beliefs in thunderbird, the aurora, and caribou were associated with shamanistic practice. The myths reported include: The Flood (2 versions) The Sun and the White Fronted Goose The Raven and the Caribou The Man in the Moon The Raven and the Blackbird The Arctic Fox The Ermine and the Musk-Ox The Woodpecker and the Jay The Man and the Otter How the Caribou Came Back to Man Bedziaze The Two Brothers Who Visited the Lord of the Giants The Two Giants that Were Fighting The Stolen Sisters The Metal Women When the Cree Indian Attacked the Chipewyan Another War with the Cree The First Time the Chipewyan Met White Men

37. Birket-Smith, Kaj 1930

The Cultural Position of the Chipewyan Within the Circumpolar Culture Region. International Congress of Americanists, 24th session. Friederichsen, de Gruyter and Company, Hamburg, pp. 97-101.

The author attempts to show relationships among various Indian groups by tracing the diffusion of culture traits in the polar regions of North America.

11-12

38. Birket-Smith, Kaj 1930

Folk

Wanderings and

Culture

Drifts in Northern

North America. Journal de la Societe des Americanistes, new series, T, vol. 22. pp. 1-32.

Birket-Smith proposes a way to describe the movements of various peoples by delineating changes in culture throughout northern North America. He notes specific movements of a number of Canadian Athabascan groups, who were pressured in part by intertribal conflict. He especially notes the tendency of Athabascan groups to adopt overt features of neighboring cultures.

39. Birket-Smith, Kaj Laguna, Frederica de 1938

The Eyak Indians of the Copper River Alaska. Levin and Munksgaard, Copenhagen.

Delta,

Fieldwork for this major ethnography was done in 1933 during an archaeological and ethnological expedition to Prince William Sound. Though there were only a few surviving Eyak at that time, the former Eyak territory extended inland around the north end of the Cook Inlet and up the Copper River valley. The Eyak were originally interior Athabascans who moved into this area and became influenced by both Eskimos and coast Indians. Birket-Smith and De Laguna state that these were the only coast-living Athabascans. Their typical Athabascan subsistence of fish and game was supplemented by marine mammals and fish. The Eyak were divided into two exogamous, matrilineal moieties. The moiety was not divided into smaller groups or clans other than individual families. Each moiety had a chief who was somewhat more wealthy than the other people. One chief was tribal chief; his position was patrilineal. Polygyny was practiced with no preference in marrying sisters or cross-cousins. Bride price existed in the form of bridegroom work, followed by mother-in-law avoidance after marriage. Some wife exchange existed and there was some indication that rape was one aspect of marriage. Men often stole wives too. Two real Eyak concerns centered on avoiding offenses across moiety lines and fear of pubertal females. Females were secluded at puberty. By the age of 10, boys had to avoid menstrual women. Many taboos surrounded birth. Death taboos forbid matrilineal kinsmen to touch the body, and potlatching paid the death duty to the opposite moiety for taking care of the body. The magical concerns and anxieties of the Eyak were extensive. Their beliefs in cannibals and wood monsters, represent the typical Athabascan fear of the surrounding world. Men also attributed magical danger'to women, and feared them especially during the hunting season. Religious animism included a belief in thunderbird and raven myths. The ethnography reproduces the following 24 tales of the Raven Cycle and 32 other myths: Raven Cycle Where Old Raven Made the Earth Raven Makes the Rivers and other Geographical Features

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Ugly Baby Crow Raven and Echo Raven and the Grass Blanket Raven Steals the Fisherman’s Bait Where Old Raven was Walking in Back of the Waves (Raven and the King Salmon) (How Raven became Black) Raven Robs his Partners Raven and the Owner of the Tides Old Raven and Magpie Where Old Raven Went Visiting the Eagle Where Old Raven Went into a Whale Where Old Raven Pitched the Seals’ Eyes Together (Raven and the Blackfish) ‘I am Light.’ (Raven Kills his Partner) Raven Pretends to Use his own Body for Bait Raven and Porcupine (Raven Raises an Army in the Sky) (Raven Journeys to the End of the Earth) Raven Teaches the People Raven and the People with the Magic Canoe Raven Marries Raven Turns War Parties into Rocks Other myths Porcupine and Beaver in Partnership Porcupine and Beaver Where Wolverine and Fox were Cousins Wolverine Man Taken by the Fish People Salmon Boy Turned into a Ground Hog Living with the Black Bear The Woman who Married a Bear Brown Bear People Porpoise People Blackfish People He Came Back to Shore Together with the Seal People Boy Turning into a Loon Where a Man Killed Lots of Land-Otters The Man and the Land-Otters The Porcupines’ Dance The Giant Mouse The Giant Mole Giant Animals The Giant Devilfish Alder People and Sun People Calm Weather’s Daughter

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Around-the-Lake People Wolf People Tree People One-eyed Frog The Man and the Salmon Tail The Man who Fed a Starving Animal The Girl and the Dog Good-for-Nothing A Tlingit War Story The Man who Killed his Children The Illegitimate Child The Man who Left his Wife The Little Girl who Played with Dolls Taking away by Owl Taking away by Checkers People

40. Boas, Franz 1895

The Tinneh Tribe of the Portland Inlet, the Ts'Ets'A'Ut. Report of the Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 65th. pp. 555-592.

Information obtained from an old member of the Tinneh Indians, the general category of northern Athabascans. The man came from a Stikeen River tribe that numbered about 500 around 1830. This population was subsequently reduced by intertribal warfare according to the informant. During this reduction, the group moved around the Portland Inlet and claimed that area as their own. The tribe was said to have two clans; each was exogamic and matrilineal. Avoidance was noted between mother-in-law and son-in-law; one would leave the house before the other entered, or if this was impossible, the woman would hide her face or turn the other way while the man was near her. The informant explained that this was based on a traditional story in which a man married his sister. Their brothers, ashamed, tied them together and deserted them. Eventually the man broke away. They had a child who acquired the ability to kill with a glance of his eyes. It is this glance which must still be avoided. Teknonymy was noted for these Indians. Several customs concerning birth are also discussed. A woman was separated from the rest of the camp when giving birth to a child. Use of the potlatch was noted for marriage and upon death. When one was about to die, his friends deserted him by leaving the house. The area was thereafter avoided. Sometimes the body was put in an embryonic position and placed in a tree or on a pile of stones. For a chief, an extensive ceremony was held during which the body was eventually burned. The people who prepared the body were paid for their services. This article also includes a map with Tinneh geographical names and locations (no fixed village sites), and some comparative linquistic information.

11-15

Ethnological Problems in Canada. International Con¬

41. Boas, Franz

gress

1968

of

Americanists,

15th

Session,

vol.

1. pp.

151-160. (First published in 1906.) Boas comments generally on ethnological work which had been done in Canada before 1906, and

suggests

ethnological

work

that should

be done. There is little specific

information on the Indians.

42. Bompas, William Carpenter 1888

Diocese

of

Mackenzie

Histories. Society ledge, London.

of

River. Colonial

Promoting

Christian

Church Know¬

Much of the Athabascan information came directly from the early journals of Samuel Hearne, Alexander Mackenzie, John Franklin, and George Back. From Bishop Bompas’s own observations and knowledge of the Mackenzie River area, he states that both the animal and Indian populations were declining. The animal decrease was caused in part by the Indian’s wasteful and excessive destruction after the introduction of firearms. Smallpox had taken a heavy toll in Indian lives. In the Bishop’s opinion “cruelty and vice” were less characteristic of the Indian character than before, though superstition was still prevalent. The value of this book lies in its reflection of late 19th century attitudes and historical outlook, rather than in the information presented.

43. Boon, Thomas C. 1965

William West Kirkby, First Anglican Missionary to the Loucheux. Beaver, Outfit 295, Spring, pp. 36-43.

Boon’s analysis of archives that relate to Dr. Kirkby contains a brief discussion of aborigines in the mid-19th century, mentioning the hostility between Eskimos and Indians in the Northern Yukon Territory. Boon describes three social classes for the Kutchin of that area—Chit-sa, Nate-sa, and Tanges-at-sa. These social classes were exogamous matrilineal groups which functioned to reduce feuds. Women married early, worked hard, and died young. Polygamy provided many slave-like wives. Infanticide was also practiced.

44. Boram, Clifford 1973

Kutchin Quarrelling. Ethnology, vol. 12, no. 4. pp. 437-448.

Supplementing Balikci’s 1963 and 1968 work concerning frequent quarreling and social atomism among the Old Crow Kutchin, Boram further examines possible reasons for this behavior among the Kutchin in Birch Creek, Alaska. He identifies the factors that promote hostility: (1) crowding (2) unpredictable social relationships (which are partly due to social atomism), (3) impingement, lying, and misperception (which support the strong individual automony), (4) jealousy, and (5) brittle self-esteem.

11-16

The declining fur trade, accompanied by economic instability, and acculturative pressures are also discussed in terms of their effect on hostility. Boram mentions that the Kutchin personality seems to lack some of the normal restraints on disharmonic behavior such as the strong ego. He concludes that though the psychological influences during childhood are the prime determiners of factors promoting hostility, the social and economic influences from Euro-American society have mediated the strength and expression of Kutchin interpersonal hostility.

45. Bowes, Gordon E. ed. *964

Peace

River

Chronicles. (1793-1962). Prescott

Publishing Company, Vancouver, Canada. (Second printing.)

These chronicles include various letters, journals and accounts concerning the Peace River area of central Alberta and British Columbia in the period from 1793 through 1962. Some of the earlier journals, especially those of D. W. Harmon, John McLean, J. D. Moodie, Hulbert Footner and Philip H. Godsell, include brief firsthand observations of Athabascan Indians. Though these accounts vary in quality of observation and objectivity, several of them report poverty of culture and winter starvation.

46. Brooks, Alfred Hulse 19°°

A Reconnaissance in the Tanana and White River Basins, Alaska, in 1898. In: 20th Annual Report of the

United

States

Geological

VII. United States Government Washington, pp. 425-494.

Survey,

Printing

Part

Office,

Although this geological survey contains minimal information on the Indians of the Tanana-White River area, it gives population figures for the upper Tanana Indians.

47. Brooks, Alfred Hulse 1901

A Reconnaissance from Pyramid Harbor to Eagle City, Alaska. Department of the Interior, United States Annual

Geological Report

Survey, extract from of

II. United States Washington.

the

Survey

Government

the

21st

1899-1900. Part Printing

Office,

This geological report relates some general information on the Athabascans in the Kluane Lake, upper Tanana River and upper Copper River areas. (United States Geological Survey Reports often include short sections on local native populations.)

11-17

Blazing Alaska's Trails. Arctic Institute of North

48. Brooks, Alfred Hulse 1953

America, Washington, and the University of Alaska, College, Alaska.

These essays on observations in Alaska from 1914 to 1922 by a geological surveyor include a section on native tribes which contains general information on Athabascans and notes their social organization to be simple, with no tribal divisions outside the individual communities, and their religion to be meager. The author commented on the constant friction between Athabascans and neighboring Indians and Eskimos.

49. Bryce, George 1968

The Remarkable History of the Hudson's Bay Company. Burt Franklin, Research and Source Work Series No. 171, American Classics in History and Social Science No. 25. New York.

(First published

in 1904.) Bryce’s work is a historical narrative of the Hudson’s Bay Company. Aside from a Beaver Indian tale, little useful information on the Athabascan Indians is given. The Hudson’s Bay Company was reported to have abused the Indians by charging high prices for supplies and paying low prices for furs.

50. Buckham, A. F. 1950

Indian Engineering. Canadian Geographical Journal, vol. 40, no. 4. pp. 174-181.

A rarely mentioned art of the Indian is that of bridge building. Buckham described eleven bridges built by the Canadian Indians which he considered of significant size. The development of bridge-building skill remained limited to relatively light-capacity bridges since the Indian had only light loads to carry across rivers.

51. Burpee, Lawrence J. 1945

Campbell

of the

Yukon.

Canadian

Geographical

Journal, vol. 30, no. 4. pp. 200-201.

Burpee’s brief article recounts Campbell’s journeys on the Pelly, Liard, Mackenzie, and Porcupine rivers between 1840 and 1851. There is only occasional reference made to the local Indians.

52. Cady, Wallace Martin Wallace, R. E. Hoare, J. M. Webber, E. J.

The Central Kuskokwim Region, Alaska. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey Professional Paper No. 268. United States Government Printing Office, Washington.

1955 This geological survey includes brief historical notes concerning the area, but no consistent ethnographic observation.

11-18

53. Cadzow, Donald A. 1925

Habitat of Loucheux Bands. Museum of American Indian. Indian Notes, vol. 2. pp. 172-177.

The Loucheux or Kutchins are Athabascan Indians occupying the general area west of the lower Mackenzie River, north of the Stewart River in Yukon Territory, and extending into the northeast part of Alaska to the region around the Chandalar River and middle Yukon River. The author of this short article geographically defines the nine bands of this tribe. He spent several seasons in the area between 1912 and 1919.

54. Cadzow, Donald A. 1925

Old

Loucheux

Clothing.

Museum

of

American

Indian. Indian Notes, vol. 2. pp. 292-295.

Cadzow briefly describes a Loucheux suit of skin.

55. Campbell, John 1896-97

The Denes of America Identified with the Tungus of Asia. Transactions of the Canadian Institute, vol. 5, part 2. pp. 167-223.

Of little use to any modern study of Athabascans, Campbell speculates on the relationship between Asian and Amerindian populations.

56. Campbell, Robert 1885

The Discovery and Exploration of the Youcon (Pelly) River. Manitoba Free Press, Printer, Winnipeg.

A narrative of Robert Campbell’s journey up the Yukon River, this short work contains little useful Indian ethnography.

57. Campbell, Robert 1958

Two Journals of Robert Campbell (Chief Factor Hudson's Bay Company 1808 to 1853). Facsimile Reproduction,

the

Shorey

Book

Store,

Seattle,

Washington. These journals date from 1808 to 1851 and 1850 to 1853. Campbell, a fur trader for Hudson’s

Bay

Company, gives

useful historical notes interspersed with ethnographic

information on Canadian Athabascans. He describes an “immense camp” on the Stikine River where both inland and coastal Indians camped for several weeks each year and lived on salmon. Campbell met a Nahane chieftainess there who, with her father, held sway over 500 Indians. Unfortunately, there are few specific notes about her.

11-19

58. Cantwell, John C. 1904

Report of the Operations of the U.S. Revenue Steamer Nunivak on the Yukon River Station, Alaska. 58th Congress, 2nd Session, Document No. 155. United

States

Government

Printing

Office,

Washington. Written between 1899 and 1901, this extensive report contains general but useful description of Alaskan Athabascans of the lower Yukon River. The Indians had taken up many white ways of living, particularly of cooking and cabin-building. The principal Indian settlements were all located around white villages. Cantwell says that the Indians seemed to be exceedingly gregarious. Indian families were rarely large because an abnormally high infant mortality rate existed. During the enforced winter inactivity when the Indians gathered together, a considerable amount of time was spent giving feasts, especially when food was plentiful. Card playing, gossip and dancing were popular activities during these gatherings. In spite of the Indians’ apparent adoption of white ways, the author notes that they were reluctant to talk about their religion and “superstitions.” Cantwell includes some relevant observations about Athabascan socialization. He was impressed by the amount of devotion and affection parents had for their children. It was not uncommon to find a mother nursing two children of different ages, though she was suffering from lack of food. The report concludes with information on subsistence, trade, and articles of native manufacture.

59. Capps, Stephen R. 1913

The Yentna

District, Alaska. Department of the

Interior, United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 534. United

States

Government

Printing

Office,

Washington. Capps reported that there were no permanent native settlements in the Yentna basin. The natives along the Susitna River make hunting and trapping expeditions into the area in the fall and winter.

60. Capps, Stephen R. 1915

The Willow Creek District, Alaska. Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 607. United

States

Government

Printing

Office,

Washington. Capps provides minimal historical information about Knik Village and the Indians on the shores of Knik Arm and upper Cook Inlet.

11-20

The Chisana-White River District, Alaska. Department

61. Capps, Stephen R. ^9^®

°f the

Interior, United States Geological Survey,

Bulletin 630. United Office, Washington.

States

Government

Printing

Capps includes a 1908 population estimate for the headwater areas of the Copper, Nabesna, Chisana, and White rivers; the figures included whites. The report gives minimal ethnographic information.

62. Capps, Stephen R.

The Kantishna Region, Alaska. Department of the

1919

Interior, United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 687. United Washington.

States

Government

Printing

Office,

There is minimal information about interior Alaskan Athabascans.

63. Capps, Stephen R.

The Southern Alaska

1935

Range. Department of the

Interior, United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 862. United Washington.

States

Government

Printing

Office,

Capps provides brief historical information and population figures for villages in the area.

The First Ten Years in Alaska, Memoirs of a Fort Yukon Trapper, 1911-1922. Exposition Press, New

64. Carroll, James A. 1957

York. Although the author gives little useful information on the Kutchins around Fort Yukon, he notes their myths about “bushmen” who come from the Arctic Ocean to steal women.

A Typology of Settlement and Community Patterns in Some Circumpolar Societies. Arctic Anthropology,

65. Chang, Kwang-Chih 1962

vol. ls no. 1. pp. 28-41. Chang studies the effect of cultural ecology on social organization, and attempts to construct some basic definitions. He defines settlement as any form of human occupation, of any size, over a particular locale, for any length of time, with the purpose of dwelling or ecological

exploitation.

He

defines

sedentary

seasonal

settlement as a

more-or-less

permanent camp during at least one extended period or season. According to the author, Athabascan settlements fit into this category since they generally had an annual cycle of shifting occupations which were carried on between one or two concentrated settlements.

11-21

Within this category, Chang sees two variations in living patterns: (1) the western zone type where fishing was equal to hunting in subsistence production and allowed more extended fish camp life, and (2) the eastern zone type, where Indians followed the migratory routes of herds and were unable to settle in one place for long. Chang relates social organization to settlement type by stating that the western zone settlement type largely had a Siberian type social system which consisted of matrilineal descent and local sectors of one or more matrilineages or clans. The clan had a name derived from the locality and a common territory which was subdivided for use among its constituent extended families. The local group always resided together, either in separate houses or in a communal house. The kinship-bound unity was symbolically represented by a preconceived plan of house clusters. The Kutchin, northern Athabascans with eastern zone type settlements, had matrilineal clan organization and a more “plastic” community composition which was possibly related to their more nomadic life. Other Indian groups of the eastern zone were characterized by bilaterality and band membership which was not based on kinship.

The Nelchina-Susitna Region, Alaska. Department of

66. Chapin, Theodore 1918

the Interior, United States Geological Survey, Bul¬ letin 668. United States Government Printing Office, Washington.

Chapin’s

geological

report

includes

little information about the Central Alaskan

Athabascans living around Tazlina and Klutina lakes and on the Susitna River.

67. Chapman, John Wight 1903

Athapascan

Traditions

from

the

Lower

Yukon.

Journal of American Folklore, vol. 16. pp. 180-185.

English translations: The Crow’s Disappointment The Little Hawk How the Fox Became Red Origin of Amphibians The Wolverine

68. Chapman, John Wight 1912-13

The Happy Hunting Ground of the Ten'a. Journal of American Folklore, vol. 25, no. 95. pp. 66-71.

The text of this Ingalik myth about a woman who was taken to the “city of the dead” and had returned clearly depicts the Athabascans’ great fear of the dead.

11-22

69. Chapman, John Wight

Ten'a Texts and Tales from Anvik, Alaska. Publi

1914

cations of the American Ethnological Society, vol 6. E. J. Brill, Limited, Leyden.

An excellent collection of mythology, some of which has interlinear translation: The Creation Origin of the Feast for the Dead No’unne’gu The Sun and the Moon The Injured Wife’s Revenge A Young Man in Search of a Wife Wolverene Wolverene and Her Brothers The Young Man and the Dog-Sisters “You Smell of my Wife,” a Girl’s Adventure in a Family of Bears Young-Man Wolf and Old-Man Gull The Hunter and the Bear-Man The Knocked-Down Mouse The Chief’s Son and the Ghoul A Sentimental Journey Fishing for Husbands The Woman Who Frightened her Baby Origin of Languages Spiders Children and Giantess How the Boys Escaped Little-Hawk The Little Girls and the Mink The Raven Woman The Fish-Hawks The Grand-Daughter and the Beads The Old Woman and the Singing Fish Raven Tales Story of a Young Man Who Was Purified from Sin A Young Man in Search of a Wife The Tri’gudihltu’xun and the Two Bears How the Fox Became Red The Old Woman and the Singing Fish

70. Chapman, John Wight 1921

Tinneh Animism. American Anthropologist, vol. 23, new series, no. 3. pp. 298-310.

From information collected on Ingalik superstition in Anvik, Alaska on the lower Yukon River, Chapman emphasizes the Athabascan involvement in a world of good and evil spirits. He also compares Ingalik mythology to the beliefs of the Battaks of the Indian Archipelago.

11-23

Beliefs include: the soul of a person is an independent thing and can leave at any time; all excrements have part of the soul; hateful names protect children against monsters; the dead are dangerous and must be handled gingerly.

71. Chapman, John Wight 1939

The Animistic Beliefs of the Ten'a of the Lower Yukon, Alaska. The Church in Story and Pageant, Publication

65. Church

Missions

Publishing

Com¬

pany, Hartford, Conn. Chapman, a missionary, writes mostly about the mythology of the Ingalik or Ten’a, Athabascans of central Alaska. In spite of the “rather meagre resources of the country,” Chapman realized that they had developed a complex set of interpretations and philosophy of nature. He noted that these Indians lived in a world of imagination, believing that all nature was animated by spirits which one should never offend. The Ten’a were especially concerned with offending spirits of killed animals. Favored children sometimes were given belittling names “to fool the spirits.” Bear flesh was taboo to women. Owls were feared since they brought messages of sickness or death as did flocks of little birds. People often heard the voices of dead relatives. The breaking of taboos and ghosts were thought to frighten away game. These Indians also feared brush monsters who were lonely and would steal people. The ghosts of the dead were dangerous until a shaman drove them away. The Indians feared “spirit lights” (phosphorescence) or any unknown thing. Some belief in transmigration was noted. Creation myths stressed an unapproachable, arbitrary and thoughtless creator.

72. Chapman, John Wight 1948

A Camp on the Yukon. The Idlewild Press, New York.

In response to a calling from the Episcopal Church, Chapman first came to Alaska in 1887 to help the Alaskan natives who appeared to be degraded by the growing association with foreign whaling fleets. He worked in the Yukon area, largely with the Interior Alaskan Athabascans. This missionary has written numerous accounts of his work and life in Alaska, some of which contain observations of the Ten’a, or Ingalik, Athabascans of the lower Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers. This particular work describes these Indians generally, as well as describing their mythology. The author notes the Ingalik’s great fear of spirits and the dead, and compares their mythology with the Battak.

73. Chapman, John Wight 1968

Notes on the Tinneh Tribe of Anvik, Alaska. International Congress of Americanists, 15th Congress, vol. 2. (First printed in 1906.) pp. 7-38.

Several myths recorded here include information on Ingalik ceremonies collected by a missionary stationed in Anvik, Alaska. Most people practiced shamanism; the power to do so came in dreams. The shaman operated mostly in the men’s house or kashime (an Eskimo

11-24

derivative?), and helped protect against spirits. After a person died, his spirit stayed in the area and could kill. Illustrations of ceremonial dolls and masks strongly resemble Eskimo ones, and may have been borrowed. The potlatch, which is clearly Athabascan, also exists among these Indians. Recorded myths include the following: The Escape of Two Boys How the Raven Brought Light to His Own People The Wolverine and Her Brothers

74. Clairmont, Donald H. J. 1963

Deviance Among Indians and Eskimos in Aklavik, N.W.T. Northern Co-ordination and Research Center, 63- 9. Northern Co-ordination and Research Center, Department of Northern Resources, Canada.

Affairs

and

National

Clairmont presents an analysis of deviant behavior within the context of the social structure of Aklavik, Northwest Territory, on the Mackenzie River delta. Fieldwork was done in 1961. Consideration is given to Aklavik demographic structure, family organization, ethnic relations, and mechanisms of social control. Attention is also given to excessive drinking and crime as well as to job instability and sexual promiscuity. Of note is the author’s finding that both Indians and Eskimos believe that they are unable to control their behavior under the influence of alcohol. Since alcohol was available, its use tended to absolve them of blame for resulting community problems. The author concludes that deviant behavior among young native adults is largely an adaptation to stress caused by an acceptance of white middle class values and goals on the one hand, and lack of access to legitimate means for achievement within white man’s society on the other.

75. Clark, Annette McFadyen 1970

Koyukon Athabascan Ceremonialism. The Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology, Special Issue: Athapascan Studies, vol. 2, no. 2. pp. 80-88.

Clark discusses ceremonial concepts of the Athabascans in Allakaket in the Koyukuk River in Alaska, based on her fieldwork done there in 1961 and from 1968 to 1970. The Athabascan’s view of their supernatural universe derives from a pantheistic concept of

spirits

who

control

the world and

pose seemingly

insurmountable

obstacles to

maintaining their health and welfare. These Indians deal with these spirits through an intricate network of taboos and abstinences which, the author says, permeate the fabric of their culture and permit them to effectively meet the challenges advanced by their unseen adversaries. Prevalent in this system of beliefs is a concept of dual-soul, where each man and some animals seem to have two souls. The primary soul is life giving and remains in the body until death. The secondary soul “comes out of you easy,” according to an informant, and is susceptible to disease and evil. Both souls are necessary for life. After death, the primary soul may be reborn.

11-25

The primary soul remains omnipresent for some time after death and during this period it can harm those around it, including relatives and enemies. Remains of the dead seem to pose the greatest threat to life. After the death of a person, precautions are taken to insure that his spirit goes away or at least does not bother the living. Relatives and women and children remain inside their dwellings, protected by a fire in the entrance; men attempt to run the spirit up river before burying the body.

76. Cody, Hiram Alfred 1908

An Apostle of the North, Memoirs of the Right Rev. William Carpenter Bompas. Musson Book Company, Limited, Toronto.

The memoirs of Bompas, missionary and Bishop of Athabaska, include geographical locations and topography of the Tenni (interior northwestern Canadian Athabascans) area, and report a grim picture of starvation, sickness, and dwindling Indian population.

An Anthropological Survey of Communities in the Mackenzie-Slave Lake Region of Canada. Northern

77. Cohen, Ronald 1962

Co-ordination and Research Center, 62- 3. Northern Co-ordination and Research Center, Department of Northern Affairs and Natural Resources, Ottawa. Done

in

1960,

this

preliminary survey of the socioeconomic conditions of the

Mackenzie-Slave Lake region was prepared to serve as a base for later, more intensive community studies. It includes information on population, location of settlements, and settlement patterns as well as some short biographies of local residents of Yellowknife, Fort Providence, Mission Boat, Hay River, Fort Simpson, Lac le Martre, Fort Smith, Fort Norman, Fort Good Hope, Aklavik, Fort McPherson, and Inuvik. In all these villages, a strip of white houses was separate from the cluster of native houses.

Van Stone, James W.

Dependency and Self-Sufficiency in Chipewyan Stories. In: Contributions to Anthropology, 1961-62,

1964

National

78. Cohen, Ronald

Museum

of

Canada,

Bulletin

62,

Part

2. National Museum of Canada, Ottawa, pp. 29-55. This article traces the occurrence of dependency and independency themes which various authors have found in Athabascan folklore. It concludes that government assistance increases dependency fulfillment. Comparison of changes between traditional and modern folk tales indicates a drop in N achievement from traditional to modern days, and a drop in power need (always low), in affiliation, and in negative need affiliation.

11-26

79. Cook, Frederick A. 1908

To the Top of the Continent. Doubleday, Page and Company, New York.

This concerns explorations in central Alaska from 1903 to 1906. It contains no useful ethnography except in Appendix C written by Charles Sheldon, who noted that the Cook Inlet and Copper River Athabascans feud with neighboring tribes.

80. Cooper, John M. 1938

Snares, Deadfalls, and Other Traps of the Northern Algonquians and Northern Athapaskans. Catholic University

of

America

Anthropological

Series,

V. The Catholic University of America, Washington, pp. 1-144. An authoritative account of the mechanics of trapping from firsthand field experience and experimentation.

81. Cox, Bruce 1970

Land Rights of the Slavey Indians at Hay River, N.W.T. The Western Canadian Journal of Anthro¬ pology, Special Issue: Athabascan Studies, vol. 2, no. 2. pp. 150-155.

Cox discusses how Treaty Eight applies to the Dogribs, Yellowknives, Caribou-Eater Chipewyan, and Hay River Slaves, all Canadian Athabascans; he presents no ethnographic material.

82. Cronk, H. K. 1954-57

Sarcee Miscellany: 1885. Plains Anthropologist, vols. 1-4, nos. 1-8. pp. 34-39.

Cronk briefly notes the Sarsi physical culture; the Sarsi are more closely related to the Plains Indian cultures than to the other northern Athabascans.

83. Culin, Stewart 1907

Games of the North American

Indians. Twenty-

fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1902-03. United Printing Office, Washington.

States

Culin describes the games basic to most subarctic Athabascan cultures.

11-27

Government

84. Curtis, Edward S. 1970

The

North

American

Indian.

Vol.

18. Johnson

Reprint Corporation, New York. (First published in 1928.)

This is one volume in a series of works describing various Indian groups in the United States and Canada. It includes sections on the Chipewyan and Sarsi. Though both are Athabascan, they are strikingly different. The Sarsi have taken on many Plains Indian characteristics from associating with the Blackfoot Indians; the Chipewyan are character¬ istically northern Athabascan. Each section gives general historic and ethnographic information. The volume also contains a collection of mythology from Sarsi and Chipewyan folklore: (Chipewyan) His Grandmother She-Reared-Him Powerless Small Woman Copper She-Found The First Beavers Lower-Leg Trembles Little Beak Excrement (Raven) Head (Sarsi) His-Grandmother Reared-Him The Girl Who Married a Star The Creation Sarsi Migration Myth His Brother Chopped the Tree Down with Him in the Water Snake Sleeping

85. Dali, William Healey 1869

On the Distribution of the Native Tribes of Alaska and the Adjacent Territory. Proceedings of the American

Association

for

the

Advancement

of

Science, vol. 18. pp. 263-273. Dali usefully defines and describes the distribution of Alaskan natives, and presents brief historical information.

86. Dali, William Healey 1877

On the Distribution and Nomenclature of the Native Tribes of Alaska. Contributions to North American Ethnology, Department of the Interior, I. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, pp. 24-36.

Dali provides a useful definition, description and brief commentary and comparison of the character and culture of the Alaska Athabascan groups.

11-28

87. Dali, William Healey 1885

The Native Tribes of Alaska. Proceedings of the American Science,

Association vol.

34,

for

Ann

the

Arbor

Advancement Meeting,

of

August,

1885. Printed at the Salem Press, Salem, Mass. pp. 3-18. Dali presents the distribution and general ethnographic information of all the Alaskan Athabascan groups.

88. Dali, William Healey 1898

The

Yukon

Territory.

Downey

and

Company,

Limited, London.

Dali makes brief references to the Koyukon, Alaskan Athabascan Indians of the lower Yukon and Koyukuk rivers. Two other accounts, by G. M. Dawson and W. Ogilvie, included in the work contain no useful information for Indian studies.

89. Dali, William H. 1970

Alaska and Its Resources. Arno Press, Inc., New York. (First published by Lee and Shepard, Boston,

1870.) One of Dali’s most comprehensive works compiling Alaska geographical and ethno¬ graphical information, the first part contains narratives of his explorations of Norton Sound’s coast, the Yukon River, and Alaskan interior; the second part includes sections on Alaskan geography, history, inhabitants, and resources. Dali’s extensive observations of Alaskan Athabascan groups provide valuable historical, ethnographic, and subsistence material. Some important characteristics attributed to the Indians were honesty, courage (although firm outside intervention could easily alter this), avarice, and habit of withholding affection except toward children. Eskimo thievery and untrustworthiness were contrasted to the Indian’s apparent honesty.

90. Darnell, Regna 1970

The Kaska Aesthetic of Speech Use. The Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology, Special Issue: Athapascan Studies, vol. 2, no. 2 . pp. 130-139.

Darnell examines Kaska language use in everyday life. Most of her information on Kaska language use comes from Honigmann’s studies and reflects his interpretation of the Kaska personality. Verbal dexterity is not a particularly developed or important part of Kaska social relationships. In fact, the Kaska frequently avoid speaking, dislike loud or joking remarks, and greatly fear being talked about. Rather, it is often more important to avoid speaking. Avoiding speech functions primarily as training for personal control, which the Kaska value highly. Parents do not talk to children, and a boy is expected to refrain from crying at puberty ordeals. Since avoiding speech is one way the Kaska hide their emotions, the children’s instruction in language which necessarily increases verbal freedom also increases

11-29

the need for social control. To counteract verbal freedom, the Kaska emphasize restraint on exuberance; one way they do so is to periodically require a child to sit quietly by his parents during the age of 4 to 8 when he is receiving language instruction. Verbal exchange always had the potential to cause violence, even taunting can turn into fighting. Thus, avoidance of speech is very important in adult life, especially for males. It is a way to deal with ambiguous feelings toward others and a way to avoid the danger of expressing emotions. Violence in Kaska society is reduced because people avoid speech (cf. the Apache expression “to give up on words”) in order to avoid aggravating a difficult social situation. Avoidance of certain topics in particular relieve potential danger. Witchcraft and pregnancy are not discussed, for instance, and young men talk about sex carefully, in low voices.

91. Davidson, Daniel Sutherland 1937

Snowshoes. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society,

vol.

6. American

Philosophical

Society,

Philadelphia. The author made a complete study of the types and distribution of snowshoes in various parts of northern North America, Asia, and Europe. He believes that the different designs represent variations on an archaic type of snowshoe and that the differences in design can be explained on a functional basis according to how the snowshoe is to be used.

92. Dawson, Carl Addington, ed. 1947

The New North-West. University of Toronto Press, Toronto.

This collection of articles on Canada’s north deals primarily with political and economic issues rather than anthropological studies. There is little information on local Indians. However, Griffith Taylor’s papers “A Mackenzie Domesday: 1944,” pages 39-85, and “A Yukon Domesday: 1944,” pages 89-107, briefly describe the history and physical features of the main settlements in the respective areas.

93. Dawson, George M. 1881

Sketches of the Past and Present Condition of the Indians of Canada. Canadian Naturalist and Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. 9, new series, pp. 129-159.

Dawson’s article is general, providing summary historical information on nearly all Canadian Indian groups. The discussion includes very little useful ethnographic material.

11-30

94. Dawson, George M. 1888

Report of an Exploration in the Yukon District, N.W.T., and Adjacent Northern Portion of British Columbia, 1887. Dawson Brothers, Montreal. In: Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada, Annual

Report,

1887-88. William

New Foster

Series,

vol.

Brown

and

3,

part

1,

Company,

Montreal, pp. 191B-213B. (This includes Callbreath, “Notes on the Tahl-tan Indians.”)

J.

C.

Dawson generally introduces the Tahltan, Canadian Athabascans living around the Stikine and upper Taku rivers. Useful information on these and other Athabascan groups appears in the notes by J. C. Callbreath, which comprise most of this article. The Tahltan, hunters and gatherers, reportedly had a kinship system that divided the tribe into two castes and required an individual to marry outside his own caste. It included a complex method of arranging marriage and inheritance, which was exacerbated by frequent separation and divorce. Property remained matrilineal, transferable strictly through the female line. Chieftaincy existed among the Tahltan, but the power associated with the position was not absolute. There were no war chiefs. If one clan were in any way responsible for the death of a member of the opposite clan, it was particularly important to repay the dead man’s clan; failure to do so could lead to another death. The potlatch, also used for personal aggrandizement, was one means of repayment. Callbreath also gives relevant information on the Kaska who are Athabascans living to the east of the Tahltan. Much intermarriage was carried on between these two Indian groups and with other neighboring Athabascans. Some native population figures for the area and comparative Athabascan vocabularies appear at the end of the article.

95. Dennis, Alfred Pearce 1899

Life on a Yukon Trail. National Geographic Magazine, vol. 10, no. 10. pp. 377-392.

The group apparently under study was the Tahltan Indians living on Telegraph Creek in British Columbia. These Indians traced relationship through the female line, and children of a marriage belonged to the mother’s family. They observed bride price, bride capture, and exogamy. When a man died, his friends took most of his portable property; his wife received some compensation through the distribution of presents at the potlatch given in his honor.

96. Department of Citizenship and Immigration, Indian Affairs Branch 1964

Traditional Linguistic and Cultural Affiliations of Canadian Indian Bands. Department of Citizenship and Immigration, Indian Affairs Branch, Canada.

This somewhat superficial document contains brief comments on all Canadian Athabascan groups, and defines culture areas on the basis of similarity in language, subsistence, and material culture.

11-31

97. Department of Indian Affairs

Indians

of

the Prairie Provinces. Department of

and Northern Development

Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Indian

1967

Affairs Branch. Queen’s Printer, Ottawa.

This superficial reader contains very general comments on Canadian Indians.

98. Dobbs, Arthur 1744

An Account of the Countries Adjoining to Hudson's Bay, in the Northwest Part of America. Printed for J. Robinson, London.

Dobb’s interesting early narrative notes intertribal conflict and makes brief references to Indian groups, which are difficult to identify. One can deduce that “Northern Indians” included some Canadian Athabascans.

99. Doughty, Arthur G.

The Kelsey Papers. Published by the Public Archives

Martin, Chester

of Canada, and the Public Record Office of Northern

1929

Ireland. F. A. Acland, Ottawa. (The notes date 1690 and 1722.)

These papers consisted essentially of journal notes made by Hudson’s Bay employees from about 1690 through 1722. Because the Indian groups were not clearly identified, the ethnographic information is of limited use.

Wallace, J. N., ed.

Twenty Years of York Factory 1694-1714, Jeremies Account of Hudson Strait and Bay. Thorburn and

1926

Abbott, Ottawa. (First published in 1720.)

100. Douglas, R.

Useful historical notes made before 1720 include references to the Dogribs, Canadian Athabascans living northwest of Great Slave Lake. Their subsistence was reportedly based on fish and caribou. The “factory” in this title refers to a fur trading post.

101. Drane, Frederick B. 1916

The Potlatch at Nenana. Alaskan Churchman, vol. 10, no. 3. pp. 75-79.

Detailed description of a potlatch ceremony in which seven men combined forces and reportedly amassed $7,000 worth of goods to exchange. The potlatch is typical of most Alaskan and southwest Canadian Athabascans. Usually, a clansman holds the potlatchseveral days of dance, feast, and gift exchange—some time after one of his kin has died.

102. Drane, Frederick B. 1916

A Trip to the Hunting Camps of the Indian. Alaskan Churchman, vol. 10, no. 4. pp. 118-122.

Drane’s narrative of his trip to an Indian hunting camp at Minto, Alaska, contains minimal information on the Tanana Athabascans who live there.

11-32

103. Drane, Frederick B.

Fish Camp and a Canoe. Alaskan Churchman, vol. 13,

1919

no. 3. pp. 88-93.

This narrative of visits to Indian fish camps on the Tanana and Yukon rivers in Alaska by Drane, a missionary priest, contains the observation that the Indians living around the missions go to fish during the summer to amass food for the winter. Otherwise, it provides minimal information.

New

104. Drane, Frederick B. 1926

Experiences

on

the

Yukon and

Koyukuk.

Alaskan Churchman, vol. 20, no. 1. pp. 13-18.

The author, originally stationed at the Nenana mission, describes his tours to several other mission stations on the Yukon and Koyukuk rivers. The work contains little useful ethnographic information.

Comparative Studies of North American Indians.

105. Driver, Harold E. Massey, William C.

Transactions of the American Philosophical Society,

1957

new series, vol. 47, part 2.

This comprehensive reference, important for overview information, includes physical and cultural traits of all North American Indian cultures in a format which is useful in comparative studies.

Mid Snow and Ice, The Apostles of the North-West.

106. Duchaussois, Pierre 1937

Missionary

Oblates

of Mary Immaculate, Buffalo,

New York, and Ottawa University, Ottawa. In this autobiography of his life and work among Athabascans in Canada’s north, Duchaussois, a

missionary

priest,

gives

some

general historical information and his

impressions of different Indian groups. Like many early sources, this reference is less objective than most modem ethnographic works. Physical strength, great endurance, stoic silence, and high regard of self were attributed to these Athabascans generally. They were also peaceful, timid, and even cowardly around strangers, yet cruel to their own flesh and blood, especially women, and they saw life as a struggle to avoid evil powers which are everywhere.

107. Duff, Wilson 1951

Notes on Carrier Social Organization. Anthropology in British Columbia, no. 2. pp. 28-34.

Duff’s survey of the Carrier social organization concludes that these Athabascans have been greatly influenced by the coastal Indians; he describes Carrier matrilineal phratries and the operation of a moiety system within their society, both of which features are typical of the coastal Indians. Duff compares the degree of complexity of these features among various

11-33

Carrier groups to determine the degree to which these groups have been influenced by the coastal Indians.

108. Dunning, R. W. 1959

Ethnic Relations and the Marginal Man in Canada. Human Organization, vol. 18. pp. 117-22.

Dunning describes social and economic relations in northern Canadian communities and notes that government service people often predominate over the Indians.

109. Eakin, Henry M. 1913

A Geologic Reconnaissance of a Part of the Rampart Quadrangle, Alaska. Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 535. United States Government Printing Office, Washington.

Eakin reports population figures and notes a general decline in native population over the previous 20 years.

110. Eakin, Henry M. 1916

The Yukon-Koyukuk Region, Alaska. United States Geological

Survey,

Bulletin

631. United

States

Government Printing Office, Washington. Eakin estimates population figures for Rampart and Tanana, but says little else that might be relevant to Indian studies.

111. Eakin, Henry M. 1918

The Cosna-Nowitna Region, Alaska. Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, Bul¬ letin 667. United States Government Printing Office, Washington.

Here Eakin describes a region that is practically uninhabited, but serves as hunting grounds for both Tanana and Kuskokwim Athabascans.

112. Eggan, Fred 1955

Social Anthropology: Methods and Results. In: Fred Eggan, ed., Social Anthropology of North American Tribes. University

of Chicago

Press,

Chicago, pp.

485-551. Eggan discusses the social organization of the Kaska and Chipewyan Indians; both are Canadian Athabascan tribes. Of note is the influence that the northwest coast Indians have had on Athabascan social organization. The Chipewyan and Kaska both have a social organization that favors unilateral cross-cousin marriage. The Chipewyan are northeastern Canadian Athabascans, located farther than any other Athabascan group from the Northwest Coast Indians; they

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favor patrilateral cross-cousin marriage. By contrast, the Kaska are separated from the Northwest Coast Tlingits, who favor matrilateral cross-cousin marriage, only by the Tahltan Athabascans;

both

the

Kaska

and

Tahltan

favor the

Northwest

Coast matrilateral

cross-cousin marriage pattern. The Carrier Athabascans, who are in direct contact with the Tsimpshian Northwest Coast Indians, also favor the northwest matrilateral cross-cousin marriage pattern. Despite the pattern of Athabascan matrilateral preference found close to the Northwest Coast Indians and patrilateral preference occurring farther northeast, the reasons for Athabascan selection of different systems are not clear.

Alaska's Health: A Survey Report to the United States Department of the Interior. Alaska Health

113. Elder, Max Q., ed. 1954

Survey

Team,

Thomas

Parran,

Chief. Graduate

School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh. Elder’s very general information on Alaskan natives emphasizes Athabascan accultura¬ tion, and refers briefly to traditional Athabascan social organization, which was thought to be matrilineal. Even though the old culture has largely been broken up, a strong maternal influence in the family remains.

A Reconnaissance in the Sushitna Basin and Adjacent Territory, Alaska, in 1898. In: 20th Annual Report

114. Eldridge, George H. 1900

of

the

United

States

Geological

7. United States Government Washington, pp. 1-29.

Survey,

Printing

Part

Office,

Eldridge provides minimal information about two Athabascan villages established around trading posts. This is mainly a geological reference.

The Tahltan Indians. University of Pennsylvania, the

115. Emmons, George Thornton 1911

Museum

Anthropological Publications, vol. 4, no.

1. University Museum, Philadelphia. Fieldwork was done between 1904 and 1906 for this old-style ethnography, which provides valuable information on the Tahltan, Canadian Athabascans of the Stikine and upper Taku rivers. It mainly describes Tahltan material culture and subsistence, but also has some information on child socialization and cultural values. The Tahltan area seemed to have a better food supply than many of the other Athabascan

areas;

it

bordered

on

the

coastal region

of British

Columbia.

Tahltan

subsistence, based on more abundant game, fish, and birds, allowed more permanent settlements, and the Tahltan followed the characteristic Athabascan nomadic pattern to a lesser extent than did other Athabascan groups. Tahltan social organization, generally influenced by the coastal tribes, was matrilineal. A chieftaincy existed, though its position was more honorary than power-based. Despite the coastal influence, the Tahltan have retained many typical Athabascan practices such as bride

11-35

price, polygamy, isolation of new mothers, hiding of afterbirth, teknonymy, female pubertal seclusion, mortuary potlatch, belief in animal spirits, and shamanism. The ethnography describes these practices, and also includes fragments of some Tahltan myths.

116. Farrand, Livingston 1898

The Chilcotin. Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, vol. 68. pp. 645-648.

Farrand’s short, general description of the Chilcotin Athabascans of the Chilcotin River valley in central British Columbia indicates their intense contact with the Coastal Indians, especially the Bella Coola, and their consequent adoption of many Coastal Indian customs and ideas. Farrand found no evidence of a clan system among the Chilcotin. He found blood relationship was a bar to marriage, though there were no local preferences in contracting marriages. He obtained little information on inheritance, but noted that property was probably transferred bilaterally. The potlatch ceremony was a means of obtaining rank. The article concludes with information on Chilcotin material culture, especially subsistence fishing.

117. Farrand, Livingston 1900

Traditions of the Chilcotin Indians. Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 4, the Jesup North Pacific Expedition. American Museum of Natural History, New York. pp. 1-54.

English translations: Lendix’tcux Raven Obtains Daylight Raven Obtains Fire Raven and Tutq. Raven and his Stepdaughter Raven Imitates his Hosts Raven and the Salmon Story of the Woman Who Became a Bear The Man Who Married a Bear Story of the Salmon Boy How the Young Man Obtained Thunder’s Daughter The Adventures of the Two Sisters The Young Man and the Magic Tree Yitai (the Great Bear) and the Hunter The Young Men Who Were Turned into Stars The Two Sisters and the Stars The Young Man and Dt’an (Famine) The Man and the Three Wolves The Boy Who Was Helped by the Wolves The Boy and his Wonderful Dog The Blind Man Who Was Cured by the Loon

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The Boy Who Was Helped by the Wolves The Gambler Who Received Supernatural Aid The Man Who Married Eagle’s Daughters Porcupine and Wolverine Wolverine and Wolf Fisher and Marten The Young Man Who Captured the Wind The Men and the Monsters Story of Waiwauus Estene’iq’o’t I. Estene’iq’o’t II.

118. Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in Alaska

Alaska Natives and the Land. United States Government Printing Office, Washington,

1968 A compilation of information relating to Alaska natives and the land they occupy, this comprehensive study provides a background base for use in resolution of the Alaska native land claims. As stated in an introductory letter, the authors’ effort was “to record all relevant, available data and information on the Native peoples, the land and resources of Alaska, the uses which these people have made of them in the past, their present uses and ownership, and the future—often conflicting—needs of the Native peoples, the State of Alaska, and the federal government.” The ethnographic information is superficial and brief, but useful for giving an overview of each ethnic area of Alaska. Most attention is centered on subsistence information.

119. Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in Alaska 1969

Estimates of Native Population in Villages, Towns, and Boroughs of Alaska. Division of Planning and Research, Office of the Governor. State of Alaska, Juneau.

This lengthy but superficial report provides general information on government services throughout Alaska and current population estimates by area.

120. Fellows, F. S. 1934

Mortality in the Native Races of the Territory of Alaska, with Special Reference to Tuberculosis. Public Health Reports, vol. 49, no. 9, March 2. pp. 289-298.

Fellows, in comparing native and white disease and mortality rates in Alaska, suggests the far higher native mortality rate reflects high levels of tuberculosis and upper respiratory disease.

11-37

121. Finnie, Richard 1940

Dogrib Treaty. Natural History, vol. 46, no. 1. pp. 52-58.

Finnie describes a gathering of Dogribs, Canadian Athabascans, to receive “treaty money” granted to them under Canadian law. Little ethnographic information beyond that is presented.

122. Foote, Don Charles MacBain, Sheila K. 1964

A Selected Regional Bibliography for Human Geographical Studies of the Native Populations in Central Alaska. Geography Department Publication No. 12. McGill University, Montreal.

The purpose of this general bibliography is to provide background information on native populations in central Alaska to interested scholars and government agencies. Though not extensive, it focuses on high quality selections on ethnography and human geography.

123. Franklin, John 1913

Chipewyan Stories. Transactions of the Canadian Institute, vol. 10, part 1. pp. 53-56.

Since Franklin apparently bowdlerized these untitled myths, their use is minimal to scholars.

124. Franklin, John 1969

Narrative of a Second Expedition to the Shores of the Polar Sea, in the Years 1825, 1826, and 1827. Greenwood Press, Publishers, New York. (First pub¬ lished in 1828.)

In his journals, Sir John

Franklin presents a detailed narrative of his northern

explorations and reports the prevalence of fear and conflict among Canadian Athabascans to whom he refers only in passing.

Richardson, J.

Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea in the Years 1819, 1820, 1821, and 1822. Charles E.

1970

Tuttle

125. Franklin, John

Company,

Publishers,

Rutland,

Vermont.

(First published in 1828, by J. Murray, London.) These journals from Franklin’s earlier northern explorations make only passing references to various Canadian Athabascan groups he encountered. For instance, in referring to the Chipewyan, who occupy the general area north of Churchill River between Slave Lake and Slave and Athabaska rivers on the west and Hudson Bay on the east, Franklin simply noted their reserved manner, habit of begging, and selfishness, and said they rarely steal. He gave similarly general impressions of the Dogrib and Copper Indians.

11-38

126. Fried,Jacob

Settlement Types and Community Organization in Northern Canada. Arctic, vol. 16, no. 2, June. pp.

1963

93-100. Since World War II, many new settlements have emerged in northern Canada. Both their emergence and differentiation have resulted in part from various government development programs instituted since the year. This article ranks a number of these settlements according to: (1) degree of planning community,

in

determining the

nature

and

structure

of the

(2) identification of task or tasks carried out in the settlement, and (3) nature of social organization in the settlement. There is only brief reference to the local Indians and little specific information about them.

127. Fried, Jacob

White-Dominated Settlements in the Canadian Northwest Territories. Anthropologica, 5, no. 1. pp.

1963

57-66. Fried examines the structure of white-dominant communities that have emerged in the Canadian

northwest territories since World War II and the problems of community

integration that have accompanied the influx of government and industry personnel into the frontier settlements. He delineates three population components in the modern northern settlement—government

civil

servants

and

other,

private-agency

sponsored, southern

Canadians; nongovernment northern whites; and native Indian, Eskimo, and Metis groups. Fried shows that disparities in the socioeconomic and cultural living standards of these groups provide very little basis for group integration in the settlements. Whereas the 19th century produced a group of natives who were peripherally adapted to the frontier world of miners and trappers, the post World War II period of economic growth and government programs produced a whole generation of 18-35 year old natives with formal schooling and wage employment who identify with settlement living, but are still socially peripheral to the dominant white society. Fried suggests changes which might help prevent the native from becoming a marginal man in the modem northern settlement.

128. Frison-Roche, Roger 1969

Hunters of the Arctic. Chaucen Press, Suffolk. (First edition in 1966.)

A general narrative of hunting experiences in northern Canada, this is not very useful for ethnographic material.

129. Gibbs, G. 1867

Notes on the Tinneh or Chipewyan Indians of British and Russian America. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, 1866. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, pp.

303-327. The volume is composed of papers by B. R. Ross, W. L. Hardisty, and S. Jones. We have annotated them under their respective authors.

11-39

130. Gillespie, Beryl C. 1970

Yellowknives: Quo Iverunt? Reprinted from, Migration and Anthropology—Proceedings of the 1970 Annual Spring Meeting of the American Ethno¬ logical Society. University of Washington Press, Seattle, pp. 61-71.

A number of references to the Yellowknife, a Canadian Athabascan group, appear in the early literature, including indications that they merged or otherwise ceased to exist as an independent group by the early 1900’s. It is interesting that other contiguous groups of Athabascans have no memory of the Yellowknives. After a survey of the literature, the author concludes that the Yellowknife people merged with Dogribs and Chipewyans by living with them and intermarrying.

131. Glover, Richard, ed. 1958

A Journey from Prince of Wales's Fort in Hudson's Bay to the Northern Ocean, 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772. MacMillan Company of Canada, Limited, Toronto.

Samuel Hearne wrote this journal between 1769 and 1772 while exploring northern parts of Canada for the Hudson’s Bay Company. He was employed to obtain information about the Indians to further the company’s trade. Hearne’s apparent objectivity and acute observations give an extreme useful, early account of northern Canadian Athabascans. Much information occurs throughout the text and one section contains specific descriptions and impressions of the Athabascans or “Northern Indians.” The Northern Indians, more specifically the Chipewyan, live north of the Churchill River and West from Hudson Bay to the Slave and Athabaska rivers. Hearne notes that these Indian’s extreme poverty is partly due to harsh environmental conditions which make survival difficult. Subsistence consists of hunting, gathering and some fishing. The Indians were generally inept at hunting and showed poor judgement in the use of firearms in hunting. Hearne also comments on the personality of the Chipewyan, saying that they do not possess the activity of body and liveliness of other Canadian Indians. They had morose and covetous dispositions generally. They used emotion to obtain immediate benefits; the women in particular cried hysterically, a behavior which Hearne considered contrived. Shallow flattery and short-lasting, flexible opinions were combined to manipulate others, yet the Indian was willing to work if put under a firm hand of a trader. Jealousy also prevailed in Chipewyan society, especially between men and women. Marriage was almost without ceremony and divorce was common. Men often wrestled for wives and feared losing a wife to a stronger man. Instances of wife capture resembled rape. Children of the opposite sex were carefully separated from each other and could not play together. Jealousy was further reflected in the custom of setting fishing nets far enough apart to prevent their becoming jealous of each other because the Indians believed that jealous nets would not catch fish. Chipewyan religious cosmology was minimally developed but did reflect the Indian’s fear of old age, fear of death, and suspiciousness even among family members. They believed death was caused by conjure; the body was left where death occurred.

11-40

132. Goddard, Pliny Earle 1914

Dancing Societies of the Sarsi Indians. Anthropo¬ logical Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 6. American Museum of Natural History, New York. pp. 463-474.

Goddard describes Sarsi (northern Athabascan) dancing societies, which are more typical of Plains Indian cultures than northern Athabascan culture. In fact, Sarsi culture generally has become less representative of the northern Athabascans because of close Sarsi association with Plains Indians such as the Blackfoot.

133. Goddard, Pliny, Earle 1917

The Beaver Indians. In: Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 10, part 4. American Museum of Natural History, New York. (Paper date, 1916.) pp. 201-293.

Goddard collected material for this useful paper in 1913 among the Beaver, Canadian Athabascans living on the upper Peace River. He includes a brief description of Beaver culture and a collection of Beaver myths. Goddard says the Beaver were impoverished on three accounts. First, their struggle to secure food was especially severe. They hunted moose and bear. When these sources failed, they fished. Second, social organization of the Beaver and of the whole Mackenzie culture area generally was “meager and loose;” kinship was matrilineal. Third, religion was of slight importance for the Beaver, especially compared to the Plains cultures. Fear of the dead and shamanism existed, however. The following is a list of Beaver Indian myths that are included in the paper. Mythology: Tumanale, A Culture Hero Agait’osdunne, The Hair Scrapings Man—First Version Agait’osdunne, The Hair Scrapings Man—Second Version Atcecq Kills Buffalo Atcecq Kills a Bad Man Agait’osdunne Marries the Chief’s Daughter The Orphan Boy Kills Beaver The Moose that had been a Man Wonyoni Avenges the Death of his Sons The Revenge of Wonyoni Wonyoni Escapes from the Cree A Young Man is taken to Another World by Fledgling Geese The Woman who Discovered Copper Crow Monopolizes the Game A Man is Carried away by a Giant Bird The Underwater People The Beaver who went Home with a Cree—First Version The Beaver who went Home with a Cree—Second Version A Man Marries the Daughter of a Bird A Man Turns into a Squirrel and Escapes from a Bear

11-41

Watc’agic Kills the Dancing Birds The Earth Recovered by Diving The Giant Beaver and Muskrat The Man who Talked to the Buffalo The Potency of War Songs The Curing of a Woman with a Medicine Lodge The Medicine Lodge The Man who Entered a Fish The Man who Wintered Without Food The Origin of Mosquitoes The Killing of the Large Human Mosquitoes The Shiftless Husband A Young Man Carries about Fire all Winter A Man Overcomes Obstacles in Rescuing his Sisters A Stolen Wife is Recovered from beyond the Sea The Treacherous Wife A Woman Agrees to Betray her Sons to the Cree A Man Avenges his Son-in-Law An Old Man Escapes a Plot only to be Killed in Revenge A Man Wins his Faithless Wives by Wrestling The Rival Husbands A Young Man Tries to Escape the Responsibility of Parenthood Torturing the Enemy Two Brothers Escape the Enemy by Flight A Man and his Wife are Saved by Lightning A Beaver Kills an Entire Band of Cree A Man Saves his Parents-in-Law from Starving A Man, Frightened by his Wife, Kills Swimming Caribou An Entire Band is Killed by the Cree A Cree, Caught Alone, is Killed by the Beaver A Man Scares off the Cree with a Gun The Beaver, their Arrows having been used on Buffalo, are Killed by the Cree A Man and his Wife Alone Escape the Cree A Woman Hides Bear Meat from her Starving Husband Starving Beaver Visit the Rocky Mountains Fournier’s Family Escapes Starvation The Escape of the Brothers from the Beaver Lodge The Killing of the Children Avenged A Man Finds Beaver in Srpall Places Putting the Enemy to Sleep by Magic A Blind Man’s Attempt at Defence A Battle on an Island—First Version A Battle on an Island—Second Version A Dog-Rib Kills Some Men The Killing of the Trader at Fort St. John—First Version The Killing of the Trader at Fort St. John—Second Version Childbirth Customs

11-42

A Description of Primitive Life Hunting Experiences—Dunvegan Dialect Dispersion of the Tribes—Dunvegan Dialect The Redeeming of a Doomed Man The Equally Matched Magicians A Magician Cuts his Throat with Impunity A Magician Spends a Winter in a Lake A Magician Escapes the Cree by Turning into a Buffalo Fournier’s Grandfather’s Supernatural Power Th underbirds The Boy who was Cared for by the Wolf The Loaned Hunting Dog The Hunting Fetish

134. Goddard, Pliny Earle 1921

Notes of the Sun Dance of the Sarse. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 16. Clark Wissler, ed., Sun Dance of the Plains Indians. American Museum of Natural History, New York. pp. 271-385.

In discussing the Sarsi sun dance, Goddard notes similarities to Plains Indian groups. Though the Sarsi are from the northern Athabascan area, they have taken on many Plains Indian characteristics.

135. Goddard, Pliny Earle 1968

Assimilation to Environment as Illustrated by Athapascan Peoples. International Congress of Ameri¬ canists,

15th Session, vol. 1. pp. 337-359. (First

printed in 1906.) Goddard argues essentially two points: (1) Athabascans were once quite widespread and intruded upon by other linguistic groups. (2) Athabascans are extremely flexible in their response to the ecological niche they occupy. As examples he notes that the Hupa who are Athabascans seem very much like their non-Athabascan Yurok neighbors, even to the extent of having adopted Yurok religion. The Tolowa Athabascans have become like the Porno, their non-Athabascan neighbors, in basket making. However, Tolowa folklore seems to be more distinctive and conservative. The Sarsi are an Athabascan group very much like their recent Blackfoot neighbors, and the Kiowa Apache are more Kiowa than Apache. Although both Apache and Navaho are Athabascan, they are somewhat distinctive from other Athabascans. Goddard suggests that intermarriage has been one catalyst in this rapid assimilation of features from other, nearby Indian groups.

11-43

136. Godsell, Philip H. 1938

Red Hunters of the Snows. Robert Hale,

Limited,

London.

An account of Godsell’s experience as a fur trader and explorer in the Canadian north; includes spotty information on Athabascans and a fair amount of information on the Cree, who are not Athabascan.

137. Godsell, Philip H. 1943

Arctic Trader, the Account of Twenty Years with the Hudson's Bay Company. MacMillan Company of Canada, Limited, Toronto.

Godsell’s account includes a few references to the Beaver Indians, Athabascans of the Peace River area. According to Godsell, the Beaver are protective of their land and more war-like than the neighboring Cree Indians who are not Athabascan. Most of Godsell’s book deals with his own experiences as a trader in the north.

138. Goldman, Irving

1941

The Alkatcho Carrier: Historical Background of Crest Prerogatives. American Anthropologist, vol. 43, new series, no. 3. pp. 396-418.

Goldman analyzes the Carrier social organization and cultural assimilation. These Canadian Athabascans, living around Eutsuk, Francis, Babine, and Stuart lakes in central British Columbia, border several different Northwest Coast Indian tribes who have greatly influenced them through trade and intermarriage. This influence is especially noted in Carrier social organization. Compared to the southwestern Carriers, the northeastern Athabascans (including the Kaska, Slave, Dogrib, Hare, Yellowknife, Bear, and Chipewyan) have a relatively simple social organization. In these groups, the basic social unit is the small individual family, or at times several families that have combined into a loose-knit band. By contrast, southwestern Athabascans such as the Carriers acquired a more complex social organization with more societal integration and a more defined political structure.

139. Goldman, Irving 1963

The Alkatcho Carrier of British Columbia. In Ralph Linton, ed., Acculturation in Seven American Indian Tribes. Peter Smith, Gloucester, Mass. (First printed in 1940.) pp. 333-386.

Goldman’s contribution to Linton’s volume on acculturation among Amerindians considers acculturation among a group of Carrier Athabascans living on Lake Gatcho in central British Columbia. He notes the great extent to which these Carriers have adopted culture elements from Northwest Coast Indian cultures.

11-44

140. Gordon, George Byron 1917

In the Alaskan Wilderness. Company, Philadelphia.

John

C.

Winston

Gordon’s account of his journey into northern Alaska in 1907 makes passing reference to Eskimos and Indians, including the observation that the Indians in the Koyukon region had small families and were relatively untouched by foreign influences.

141. Gould, Sydney 1917

Inasmuch—Sketches of the Beginnings of the Church of England in Relation to the Indian and Eskimo Races. Handbook No. 1. The Missionary Society of the Church of England in Canada, Toronto. Second edition.

This handbook, essentially of information on the beginnings of the Church of England in Canada s north and the conditions faced by the early missionaries, presents some useful historical information and brief description of Canadian Athabascans taken from various journals, though a strong anti-native bias is evident.

142. Graham, Angus 1930

Surgery with Flint. Antiquity, vol. 4. pp 233-237

Graham’s article relates some formerly undocumented information on the aboriginal practice of medicine in a Kutchin, Canadian Athabascan tribe.

143. Grantham, E. N. 1951

Education Goes North. Canadian Journal, vol. 42, no. 1. pp. 43-49.

Geographical

Grantham makes only passing reference to the local Indians of northern Canada.

144. Grossman, Daniel 1965

The Nature of Descent Groups of Some Tribes in the Interior of Northwestern North America. Anthropologica, new series, vol. 7, no. 2. pp. 249-262.

In an attempt to demonstrate that several tribes in the Alaska and Canada interior had nonunilineal descent, Grossman focuses on the Carrier and the Chilcotin Athabascan groups. The basic Carrier social unit was the netsi, a group whose members lived together as one family in the same village and shared common fishing sites and hunting territory. Netsi members participated jointly in potlatches and used a totemic animal as a crest. The core of this group, composed of siblings and their descendents, was called a sadeku. The sadeku was patrilocal and patrilineal. Within it,primogeniture was enforced; the oldest son represented the crest group, carried prestige, and regulated the use of hunting territory and fishing sites. An individual could be a member of several netsi on both male and female sides of the family depending on how he traced his ancestors. He could also select a marriage partner

11-45

from his own netsi or from another crest group. Thus, the social system takes on a nonunilineal look. Possibly the Chilcotin had the same type of social system, though the ethnographic information for them is very sparse. Grossman notes that Goldman (1940 and 1941) attributed the flexibility in Carrier descent to the influence of the bilateral Bella Coola Indians to the south on the original matrilineal Carrier system. By contrast, Grossman follows Sahlins (1959) in concluding that the administrative core of the crest group or netsi was the sadeku, which was based on patrilineal descent, primogeniture, and patrilocal residence. Political rights were only given within this group. Full economic rights, however, were given to all within the larger crest group. Grossman argues that the present Carrier social system may have developed from an original patrilocal band system. The crest group resulted from an adjustment of the patrilocal band to less nomadic life in the salmon area and an effort to maintain more control over the good fishing sites. The sadeku maintained political control and the netsi was formed by agnatic and consanguineal relatives of various types who attached themselves to the core of brothers to share the bounty of salmon resources. Ambilineal descent would allow people to claim membership in several descent groups and therefore claim rights in different fishing areas.

145. Gruening, Ernest 1954

The State of Alaska. Random House, Inc., New York.

Basically a historical reference, this work is of little ethnographic use for Indian studies.

146. Gsovski, Valdimir 1950

Russian Administration of Alaska and the Status of the Alaskan Natives. Senate Document No. 152, 81st Congress, 2nd Session. United States Government Printing Office, Washington.

This comprehensive administrative history of Alaska under the Russian American Company from 1749 to 1867 discusses the company’s charters and decrees as well as its administrative policies and acts. In particular the text describes the nature of the Russian American Company and its treatment of half-breeds and settled natives.

147. Guedon, Marie-Francoise 1972

People of Tetlin, Why Are You Singing? Ph.D. dissertation, Bryn Mawr College, 1971. Printed by University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.

Guedon’s modem ethnography, based on fieldwork in 1969 and 1970, describes Athabascans of the upper Tanana River in central Alaska. These Indians are semi-nomadic and have a subsistence based primarily on moose and caribou hunting. Their social organization, the main interest of this descriptive work, is based on a matrilineal type of kinship system with kin groups organized into a moiety system.

11-46

Guedon notes that adults value individualism. The Indians generally do not like to ask for help, and interpersonal communication is kept at a minimum. Being stared at is regarded with suspicion. Socialization, supportive of this adult behavior, teaches children to learn humility, as the author describes it. One should not show how much he can do. A child is left to fend for itself after the sometimes sudden weaning when it is replaced by a younger sibling. Guedon notes that the high point of Upper Tanana life is the potlatch in which the dynamic elements of Upper Tanana culture are expressed. The potlatch is described in some detail.

148. Habgood, Thelma (translator) 19^0

Indian Legends of North-Western Canada, by Emile Petitot. The Western Canadian Journal of Anthro¬ pology, Special Issue: Athapascan Studies, vol. 2, no. 2. pp. 94-129.

English translations: The Sailor The Creation The Woman with the Eggs Inkfwin-Wetay The Two Brothers who went to the Moon The Invisible Woman The Wise One, or He who Crosses all Difficulties on the Water The Caribou Taboo The Origin of the World Origin of the Dog-Ribs The Flood of Tra-Kwele-Ottine The Man who Walked Around the Sky Creation of Man The Child Raised by his Grandmother The Sun Taken in a Snare The Arctic Giant

149. Hadleigh-West, Frederick 1959

On the Distribution and Territories of the Western Kutchin Tribes. Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska, vol. 7, no. 2. pp. 113-116.

Hadleigh-West provides a map giving the then assumed locations of the Athabascans of the northeastern part of Alaska.

150. Haeberlin, H. K. Teit, James A. Roberts, Helen H. 1928

Coiled Basketry in British Columbia and Surrounding Region. Forty-first Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1919-24. United States Govern¬ ment Printing Office, Washington.

This reference includes a description of coiled basketry among the Chilcotin, the only Athabascan Indians who make coiled baskets. 11-47

151. Haldeman, J. C. 1951

Problems of Alaskan Eskimos, Indians, Aleuts. United States Public Health Service, Public Health Report 66. pp. 912-917.

This general article on health ethnographic information.

152. Hale, H. 1893

conditions in Alaska contains very little useful

Man and Language, an American Example, the Athapascans, North and South. American Antiquar¬ ian, vol. 15. pp. 20-24, 79-89.

A generally hortatory statement about northern and southern Athabascans, this is of minimal ethnographic use.

153. Hallowell, A. Irving 1926

Bear Ceremonialism in the Northern Hemisphere. American Anthropologist, vol. 28, new series, no. 1. pp. 1-175.

Hallowell looks at ceremonial and economic aspects of bear hunting in order to learn more about man’s functional and psychological relation to important elements of his environment. Most of his discussion concerns non-Athabascan native groups. Except for the early journals of Heame, which describe some of the tools used in bear trapping, there is little information available on bear ceremonialism among Athabascan Indians.

154. Hallowell, A. Irving 1949

The Size of Algonkian Hunting Territories: A Function of Ecological Adjustment. American Anthropologist, vol. 51, new series, no. 1. pp. 35-45.

Hallowell discusses factors controlling the size of hunting territories, an important issue which is rarely treated in the literature, including the size and composition of hunting groups, population density, ratio of hunters to the rest of the group, and density of animal populations. Size varies according to these factors, although certain localities may be limited by natural physical features. There is reference to some Athabascan hunting territories.

155. Hamilton, G. 1878

Customs of the New Caledonian Women Belonging to the Nancausky Tine or Stuart's Lake Indians, Natotin Tine or Babine's and Nantley Tine or Fraser Lake Tribes. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 7. pp. 206-208.

Hamilton’s limited observations contain a few notes on menstruation, birth, and puberty of Carrier women, Athabascans of central British Columbia, and two untitled myths that are rather freely translated.

11-48

156. Hanbury, David T. 1904

Sport and Travel in the Northland of Canada. MacMillan Company, New York.

Hanbury’s rather popular treatment is a narrative of his 20-month journey through the Canadian north. He presents information on northern Athabascans, and includes a description of a gathering for treaty money at Fort Resolution around 1898. Like the explorers, Hanbury found the Indians consulted at great length with their brothers, uncles, aunts, and cousins before agreeing to help him. Even when an agreement was reached, the Indians did not feel bound to it the next day. Indians found trapping and trade could be more worthwhile than hunting; those who elected trading post life could afford to become “lazy and extravagant.”

157. Hardisty, William L. 1867

The Loucheux Indians. In: G. Gibbs, Notes on the Tinneh or Chipewyan Indians of British and Russian America. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, 1866. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, pp. 311-320.

Hardisty’s general description of the Loucheaux, Canadian Athabascans of the Peel River valley in the northern part of the Yukon Territory, reports that these Indians subsisted on hunting and had extensive trade relations with other Indians, at least in the 1860’s. They lived in large parties headed by a chief and several medicine men. The chief was subject to the medicine man’s powers. Other information given appears to be less objective.

158. Harrington, George L. 1918

The Anvik-Andreafski Region, Alaska. Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, Bulle¬ tin 683. United States Government Printing Office, Washington.

These are reports of a geological survey with minor population data for Indians in the area (probably the Ingalik).

159. Harrington, Richard 1947

In the Land of the Chipewyans. Beaver, Outfit 278, December, pp. 25-33.

Harrington’s photographs of the Chipewyan, Canadian Athabascans are of little use for Indian studies.

11-49

160. Harris, Donald A. Ingram, George C. 1972

New Caledonia and the Fur Trade, A Status Report. Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology, Special Issue: The Fur Trade in Canada, vol. 3, no. 1.

In this preliminary report on multi-disciplinary research to reconstruct the operation of the fur trade in the central area of British Columbia between the Coast and Rocky mountains, the authors include information on effects of the fur trade on various Athabascan groups, with emphasis on the Sikani and Carrier. The Sikani were especially influenced by the neighboring Beaver Indians who had use of firearms, and later the advent of fur trading. By using firearms that were obtained in fur trading, the Beaver Indians were able to drive the Sikani from their traditional plains hunting grounds to more mountainous land to the west. As the Sikani moved closer to the coast, according to Jenness, they also underwent a shift from bilateral social structure to adoption of exogamous matrilineal phratries accompanied by crest and potlatch systems, possibly from coastal Indian influence. One reason why the shift failed to become established was because of the fur trade. The Sikani were forced into a different system of distributing their hunting yields. Hunting yields were traded instead of shared between members of the hunting group. This, in turn, affected social organization which traditionally had been defined and reinforced by food distribution. Eventually, the author says, the Sikani shifted away from both hunting and fur trading to riverine existence and depended on fishing for subsistence. Also discussed in detail were the Carrier who lived in fairly stable village complexes. They depended more on salmon than hunting for food. Already living a more sedentary life than other Athabascans, they became more attached to the trading posts. Life around the trading post benefited both the post and the Indian. While the post had a great business volume, the Indian could rely on the post supplies in times of food shortages. Carrier subsistence did not change as much as social organization. The Carrier nobility system broke down when supplies and economy shifted from gifts to cash. Also noted in this paper was the fact that the traders tried to end feuding between Indian groups so more time could be spent trapping and hunting and that missionaries introduced new ideas to the Indians.

161. Hawthorn, H. B. Belshaw, C. S. Jamieson, S. M. 1958

The Indians of British Columbia, A Study of Contemporary Social Adjustment. University of California Press and the University of British Columbia, University of Toronto Press, Toronto.

This study of general acculturation trends among the Indians of British Columbia conducted between 1954 and 1956 is of limited use for anthropology research on specific areas and ideas. It includes information from several local studies. One study which was conducted at Necoslie involves some Carrier Athabascan residents, but most Indians mentioned are northwest coast groups.

11-50

162. Hayes, Charles Willard 1892

An Expedition Through the Yukon District. National Geographic Magazine, vol. 4. pp. 117-162.

Hayes led a party from Nizina River to White River in the upper Yukon territory. In this journal the author says that the Yukon area was sparsely populated. The Indians appeared to live in small groups in temporary camps even though the land was fairly well-supplied with game. Hayes compared the Athabascans of the Copper River with the northern Indian groups and recognized that the Copper Indians were physically superior and had much more elaborate family and tribal organization.

163. Haynes, Thomas S. 1940

The Nulato Massacre. Alaska 12-13.

Life, October, pp.

Of mainly historical interest, this is an account of the “Nulato Massacre” which took place in 1856 when local Koyukon Indians raided and burned the lower Yukon River trading post and killed both Russian soldiers and local Indians.

164. Heinrich, Albert C. 1957

Sib and Social Structure on the Upper Tanana. In: Science in Alaska, 1957. Proceedings, Eighth Alaskan Science Conference, Alaska Division of American Association for the Advancement of Science, Anchorage, pp. 10-22.

From his study of Upper Tanana Athabascans of central Alaska, Heinrich reports the existence of sibs and moieties, exogamy, matrilineal descent, and cross-cousin marriage. He interprets this combination of social organization features to represent a dynamic situation where traditional organization is being influenced by coastal Indian tribes.

165. Heinrich, Albert C. Anderson, Russell 1968

Co-Affinal Siblingship as a Structural Feature Among Some Northern North American Peoples. Reprinted from Ethnology, vol. 7, no. 3. pp. 290-295.

The author compares representative social structural data of two widely separated Athabascan groups (those of the Fort Liard area, Northwest Territories, and those of the Tanacross-Tetlin-Northway area in the Upper Tanana drainage) and two separated Eskimo groups (those of the Mackenzie delta and those of the Chesterfield Inlet, Northwest Territories). His purpose was to identify distinctive social structure features both before and after white contact. He finds the matriliny is a trait of old Athabascan culture and that co-affinal siblingship is a vestigal survival.

11-51

166. Helm, June 1961

The Lynx Point People: The Dynamics of a Northern Athapaskan Band. National Museum of Canada, Bulletin 176. Anthropological Series, no. 53. Depart¬ ment of Northern Affairs and National Resources, Ottawa.

Lynx Point is a Slave Indian community in Canada’s Northwest Territories. Helm’s modem ethnography of Lynx Point Athabascans contains much useful information, especially about sociocultural change and small group interaction. Helm found that a high value placed on individualism and personal autonomy characterized not only the community generally, but also its members individually. On the community level, she found that hierarchical power relations were nonexistent and that social demands on the individual’s time, energy and emotions were strikingly few. A few positive expectations did exist between individuals as members of the same social body, such as lending, sharing, and assistance, especially in food-getting. On the individual level, she found marked noninterference and constraint in interpersonal contacts.

167. Helm, June 1965

Bilaterality in the Socio-Territorial Organization of the Arctic Drainage Dene. Ethnology, vol. 4, no. 4. pp. 361-385.

Helm looks at Arctic Drainage Dene (northern Canadian Athabascans) social organization from a functional point of view. Harsh environment and frequently resulting periods of starvation dictated small size, low density, and instability of Dene populations. However, Dene social organization, a complex but vague web of relationships existing “from task group to local band to regional band to tribe,” allowed quick reestablishment of kin lines when disaster struck. This system was optimal in its adaption for hunting band societies.

168. Helm, June 1965

Patterns of Allocation Among the Arctic Drainage Dene. In: June Helm ed., Essays in Economic Anthropology, Proceedings of the 1965 Annual Spring Meeting of the American Ethnological Society. American Ethnological Society, University of Washington Press, Seattle, pp. 33-45.

In her useful paper, Helm notes the lack of formal structure in social organization among the Arctic Drainage Dene both presently and historically. These northern Athabascans typically lived in isolated families or in small bands of linked families. Tribal integration was lacking except for seasonal gatherings, which soon fragmented when supplies ran low. Within Dene society the nuclear family was the basic unit. Aside from interfamily relation by kinship, ties could be established among families through the communal distribution of goods and services such as at a potlatch. Assumption of repayment established certain ties that may or may not have reflected kin ties.

11-52

169. Helm, June 1968

The Nature of Dogrib Socioterritorial Groups. In: Man the Hunter, Richard B. Lee and Irven DeVore, editors. Aldine Press, Chicago, pp. 118-125.

Helm defines the extreme flexibility of post nuptial residence rules among these Canadian Athabascans. Post nuptial residence was limited only by the requirement that some consanguineal relative lived with the newly married couple.

170. Helm, June 1972

The Dogrib Indians. In: Marco Bicchiere, ed., Hunters and Gatherers Today. Holt, Rinehart, Winston, New York. pp. 51-89.

Helm’s work provides a very useful summary of ethnographic information on the Dogrib Indians. These Athabascans, located north of Great Slave Lake in Canada, live in a physical environment comprised of boreal forests interspersed with many small lakes, streams and swamps. The climate of this area is extreme, with average winter temperatures of -20 degrees. First foreign contact was in the early 1700’s, when the Dogrib traded with the Hudson’s Bay Company indirectly through the Chipewyan Indians to the east. Subse¬ quently, the Dogribs became involved in fur trade and a money economy. Currently, these Indians are between the traditional subsistence economy and the new money economy, and cannot fully support themselves by either. Many articles of the physical culture and some of the food used are European-purchased. Fur trapping is the primary source of earned income, but fur prices have fluctuated and generally declined since World War II and the Dogrib cannot support themselves with this unsteady income. They still depend on hunting for subsistence, which is governed seasonally. Helm found Dogrib social organization lacked cults, soldalities, and clans. Social identity was derived bilaterally. Presently, the household is the daily food-producing and sharing unit. Though it basically consists of a single nuclear family, frequently this household includes other kin. Within the household, child care was everyone’s responsibility; children were the object of much attention. Weaning, though, was abrupt and took place upon the arrival of a new baby. At this point, the first child was put under the care of an older sister. As children grew older, boys and girls were kept apart more, sexual intercourse was proscribed and casual contact discouraged; limiting contact was thought to protect the boy’s hunting luck and ability. Strong taboos came into effect especially concerning menstruating women, a general feature of Athabascan society. The author concludes that the qualities of character and temperament valued by the Dogrib were those which fostered physical welfare and social harmony. They include “generosity, emotional equanimity, egalitarianism and the commitment to hard work and physical endurance...”

11-53

171. Helm, June Da mas, David 1963

The Contact-Traditional Community of the Canadian North: The Upper Mackenzie "Bush” Athapaskans and the Igluligmiut. Anthropologica, new series, V. pp. 9-21.

In this fairly general, but useful article, Helm delineates the all-native community of the contact-traditional period (the recent past period of regularized relations between natives and white people and institutions). She studies all-native communities in two subcultural areas in the subarctic region. One is the upper Mackenzie Drainage area occupied by Slave and Dogrib Athabascans. The other is the Melville Peninsula and Baffin Island inhabited by the Igluigmiut Eskimo. General distinctions are noted between the Indian and Eskimo groups and their settlement patterns.

172. Helm, June De Vos, George A. Carterette,Teresa 1963

Variations in Personality and Ego Identification Within a Slave Indian Kin-Community. In: Contri¬ butions to Anthropology, National Museum of Canada Bulletin No. 190, part 2. Anthropological Series No. 60. Canada Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources, Ottawa, pp. 94-138.

The study was carried out in the small Slave Indian community of Lynx Point, and information was obtained by fieldwork and administration of Rorschach and Murray Thematic Apperception Tests. The article demonstrates manifest variations in personality in terms of certain family and other primary group determinants, and also in terms of the overall group determinants that enter into the formation of personality, such as historical and environmental influences. The paper is useful because it includes detailed case history information and test results, as well as theoretical discussion. Though Slavey modal personality was not the main focus of the work, some salient emotional inclinations and behavior patterns were noted: (1) a constraint in interpersonal relationships, tending toward emotional isolation, which serves as a self-defensive stance calculated to ward off rebuff, ridicule, infringement, and aggression; (2) the obverse of fear of aggression from other, namely, in sobriety, a virtually complete repression of one’s own hostile impulses; (3) a high valuation on personal autonomy—‘every man his own boss and a free agent’—that reinforces the social atomism of Slavey life; (4) reliance primarily upon the techniques of avoidance, withdrawal, and flight from sources of anxiety, such as aggression and infringement on autonomy, (p. 127)

173. Helm, June Leacock, Eleanor Burke 1971

The Hunting Tribes of Subarctic Canada. In: Eleanor Burke Leacock and Nancy Ostereich Lurie, eds., North American Indians in Historical Perspective. Random House, New York. pp. 343-374.

Helm and Leacock provide general information about northern Canadian Athabascans, noting their extremely harsh ecological niche, the limited social organization and leadership 11-54

of their fairly isolated, small hunting bands, and their poverty of religion. The article also contains useful historical contact information.

174. Helm, June Lurie, Nancy O. 1961

The Subsistence Economy of the Dogrib Indians of Lac La Martre in the Mackenzie District of the Northwest Territories. Northern Co-ordination and Research Center, 61-3. Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources, Ottawa.

Fieldwork for this useful, modern ethnography was done in 1959 among a group of Dogrib, northwest Canadian Athabascans. The initial concern is with the position of the Dogrib in relation to other Athabascan groups. The authors follow Osgood’s revision of Jenness’s (1932) early general classification of northern Athabascans. Jenness divided the stock into tribes of the Cordillera and those of the Yukon and Mackenzie basins based on slight but significant environmental differences and intertribal associations. Osgood (1936) revised this by dividing Athabascans into Pacific Drainage and Arctic Drainage cultures. The Dogribs are Arctic Drainage Athabascans along with the Yellowknife, Chipewyan, Slave, Hare, and Bear Lake Indians. The Pacific Drainage Athabascans depended heavily on salmon for subsistence, and developed a complex of traits connected with catching and using salmon. By contrast, the Arctic

Drainage

Athabascans, including the

Dogribs, have traditionally maintained a

precarious survival based on hunting, gathering, and fishing in the harsh environment of the sparse, subarctic forest and tundra. They never developed the salmon-associated complex typical of Pacific Drainage Athabascans. This study was done in the Dogrib village of Lac la Martre on the southern side of Lac la Martre, located north of Great Slave Lake and east of the Mackenzie River. One family can trace its permanent dwellings in the present village to the first half of the 1800’s and has built (though not continuously occupied) three other dwellings since then. Another family settled the village with the first family. Three other household lines built permanent dwellings there later. In 1959, the village population was 110 persons, comprising 18 households. A few cabins at the north end of Lac la Martre indicate that settlement also existed there in the past. In addition, there is evidence of a few other cabins scattered around the lake. Apparently the population was fluid, moving seasonally about the lake or into the mountains, and at certain times, relations would share a cabin. Generally, the household was a functioning collective of nuclear families associated both by kinship and mutual help in subsisting. The nuclear family seemed to function within the larger household unit. When couples married, they did not necessarily set up a separate residence; they may have continued to live in the permanent dwelling until several children were bom. The couple eventually may have established a tent dwelling close to the family cabin, but still maintained close contact with the other household members. Kinship was bilateral with rather simple kinship terminology. The authors found no evidence of preferential marriage patterns among classes of relatives, but they did note the widespread Athabascan trait of bride service. They also noted that unlike the Dogribs and other Arctic Drainage Athabascans, the Pacific Drainage Athabascans generally tended toward matrilineal kinship organization.

11-55

Today much of the daily activity of the Dogribs continues to take place within a context of kinship and involves some form of economic occupation. If necessary, each household can maintain itself independently. Within the household, there is a sexual division of work with reciprocal exchange of services only when necessary. Women’s activities consist of general camp preparations of food, skins, clothing, and cleaning; men procure the materials needed. On occasions when men and women combine efforts for specific jobs, they are usually from different households. Though the Dogrib still depend largely on hunting, they have been significantly committed to a money economy to acquire many of the material goods they use since the establishment of the white trading post system throughout northern Canada. They normally purchase building materials, canvas, lanterns, rifles, ammunition, oil, radios, cutting tools, sewing equipment, canoes, outboard motors, dog-toboggans, traps, nets, clothing, and certain foods. Survival to a large degree depends on success of money-producing subsistence activity, mainly trapping. There is a general description of Dogrib social life. Women care for children, do camp chores, and frequently gather for talks. The older women who have no children occasionally play cards. Younger children, ages four and five, play in groups of two or three. Boys and girls play together only during the school recess, and this sometimes results in a fight. Card playing and brewing are major social activities among men. Men have drinking parties at night in a rather secretive manner. The rest of this monograph is devoted to a detailed description of the subsistence uses of both flora and fauna. Spruce, willow, birch, and moss were the most useful items from the available flora. They were sources of building materials, fuel, and some food (berries). The Dogrib generally depended on fauna for both subsistence and cash. The authors estimate that a family of two adults and four children would need at least two fish a day or a total of 730 fish a year. An average team of five dogs would require about 1,360 fish a year. A family and dog team would therefore require somewhere around 5,225 pounds of fish a year. Today small game, including rabbits, plays a minor role in diet. With better fishing nets and European foods, large game is also unimportant as a present source of food. However, caribou skins are in demand as a source of cash and clothing. In the past, large game was more important as a source of food and skins. Especially during the deep winter when thick ice prevented fishing and supplies began to run low, men would hunt caribou and moose. Several informants remembered harsh winter famines with anxiety. Field notes describe a caribou hunt in 1959. The hunting party consisted of 28 men and a boy. They carried only enough supplies and gas to get to the barren ground to the north. A chief, who was chosen before the hunt, led the party. His decisions were not questioned, and he was more or less responsible for the group. Each man within the group knew how much he had to cooperate with the group and to what extent he could be individualistic; things were shared but each man took good care of his share. Generally, a careful balance was maintained within the group. The hunters cached some of the meat and took the rest back to Lac la Martre. Upon returning, they did not openly share the meat, as in the past. However, during the year they probably distributed some meat as gifts, although skins were not shared. In any case, a firm spirit of reciprocity was always demonstrated. The summary and comparison of past and present Dogrib life note the present balance between self-sufficient subsistence and dependence on a money economy. To some degree

11-56

the trade market of Rae on Great Slave Lake has attracted the Dogrib to nearby Lac la Martre.

Increased government services, including a school, have both stimulated and

followed this consolidation. With the introduction of European goods, subsistence patterns have changed and taken on some new purposes; a greater dependence on fishing seems to have evolved along with a more permanent settlement type of life.

175. Helm, June

The Dogrib Hand Game. National Museum of Canada

Lurie, Nancy Ostereich

Bulletin 205, Anthropological Series No. 71. National

1966

Museum of Canada, Ottawa.

Helm and Lurie’s article includes a general description of feasting, dancing and celebrating during “treaty time” when some northern Canadian Athabascans would gather for their treaty payments. Much detailed information is given about the hand game, a guessing game in which opposing groups symbolically “kill” each other. The game must be kept balanced in the number of players. Some comparative historical analysis of the game is also presented.

176. Helm, June Vital, Thomas

Tales from the Dogribs. Beaver, Outfit 297, Winter, pp. 52-54; Autum, pp. 16-20.

1966 English translations: A Fish Story The Boy with Thunder Medicine in the Land of the Icebergs The Young Man Who Did Not Shame Himself Before Strangers Zhamonzha and His Beaver Wife The Origin of the Dogribs How the Barrens Came to Be and Went-Inside-Mountain Got Its Name The Captive Woman When the First Pale Men Came How the Medicine Man Got the Hudson’s Bay Man’s Mind

177. Hemstock, C. Anne

Yukon

Bibliography, Update 1963-70. Occasional

Cooke, Geraldine A.

Publication No. 8-1, Boreal Institute for Northern

1973

Studies.

The

University

of

Alberta,

Edmonton,

Alberta. A rather extensive though only partially annotated, general bibliography, this work covers most published material on the Yukon area of Canada. There is a short section listing references on natives of the Yukon.

11-57

Explorations in Alaska, 1899, for an All-American Overland Route from Cook Inlet, Pacific Ocean, to the Yukon. War Department, Adjutant General’s

178. Herron, Joseph S. 1901

Office, no. 31, Office Document No. 138. United States Government Printing Office, Washington. In exploring for overland routes to the Yukon River from the Cook Inlet, the author encountered several Athabascan groups. He says that only by exercising phenomenal energy and ingenuity, the Indians managed to obtain a bare subsistence by hunting and trapping game and fish. Because of the uncertainty of catching game, they were always more or less in danger of starvation. Other than some population figures, little more information concerning the Indians appears in this work.

The Athabascans of Interior Alaska: A Culture and Personality Perspective. American Anthropologist,

179. Hippier, Arthur E. 1973

vol. 75, New Series No. 5. pp. 1529-1541. This analysis of Indian behavior is based on the psychodynamics in child socialization and relates traditional Athabascan institutions to the modal personality and culture of the group. The author suggests that the whole Athabascan socialization process seems generally to have promoted deep oral longings and anxieties about these longings. Elements of fear, rage, and guilt, all in ambivalent confusion, were involved in the child’s first attempts to organize the external world. Reality

factors—effects

of the

harsh environment, hunger, fear of war by the

surrounding world of hostile Indians—also reinforced the unsatisfied oral needs which became

fused

with aggressive instincts and murderous impulses that the Athabascan

outwardly directed at out-groups and game-animals. Defense against these feelings lay in a massive expenditure of emotional energy in order to control emotional expressions within the kin group; repression and control were central to the Athabascan for both psychological and practical reasons. The fearful, pathetic aspects of adult personality which could potentially result from such socialization were integrated personally and socially through the traditional legal system and the gift-giving, reciprocal obligation systems (potlatches). The difficult introjects were handled intrapersonally by projecting them as varied demons into the world at large. The aggressive and hostile impulses toward other individuals allowed functional modifica¬ tions to develop within a highly structured authority system in which the clan was of central importance. The matrilineal society’s clans were organized into a moiety system. Individual clans within one moiety exchanged wives with clans in the other moiety, with cross-cousin marriage

the

preferred

form.

The

ubiquitous exchange systems

between matri-clans

redistributed wealth and thereby reduced tensions and jealousy. At the death of a kinsman, members of the opposite moiety had to be called in to handle the body which was tabooed as dangerous for matrilineal kinsmen to touch. Payments for this duty took the form of extensive gift-giving potlatch ceremonies. The potlatch also provided a technique for

11-58

escalating reciprocal exchanges and thereby furthered the political power of the headmen of a clan. The potlatch was therefore a creative expression of dependency needs, projected guilts and fears, aggressive urges and the need to develop a base for external control as expressed in the legal system, which tended toward absolute directives from the chief who balanced competing clan interests. Missionized for the most part by Roman Catholic, Russian Orthodox, and Anglican missionaries whose god was one of love, paternality, and forgiveness and whose law was not harsh and implacable, Athabascans found they could not rely on this god for punitive controls. This increased their desire to turn to a more fundamentalist kind of Christianity later. By the middle of the 20th century, heavy drinking and attendant antisocial activity were becoming Athabascan norms. The traditional legal system became so overloaded with problems of adultery, theft, violence, and murder as a result of alcohol abuse that it completely broke down with the introduction of white law, traditional chiefs no longer had recourse to the death penalty. The advent of Euro-American power also increased the possibility for opportunists to be selected as local leaders. Such a state of affairs not only reduced the moral legitimacy of chieftainship, but also exacerbated old interclan rivalries and released distrust and hostility. Generally, the old institutions and the values which supported them no longer held in check the tendency toward excessive, explosive behavior and infantile dependence. Hippier

concludes that increasingly within the last 10 years, large numbers of

Athabascans have found their way to a more productive, integrated life by abandoning alcohol. The vehicle for this has been fundamentalist Christianity with its absolutist and authoritarian beliefs, well-suited to Athabascans. These beliefs are useful in terms of Athabascan functioning; paradoxically, Athabascans can apparently best deal with certain aspects of change by adopting social control systems similar to the more traditional authoritative ones.

180. Hippier, Arthur E. Boyer, L. Bryce

The Psychocultural Significance of the Alaska Athabascan Potlatch Ceremony. To appear in Psycho-

Boyer, Ruth M.

analytic Study of the Child,

n.d. An anthropological-psychiatric approach in this work suggests a basis for under¬ standing both Athabascan character development and culture. Fieldwork was done in 1971. The

conscious and

social thought concerning the

potlatch

include matters of

affiliation, alliance, distribution of goods, and perpetuation of aboriginal social structure. Like other Athabascans, the Tanana are organized in matrilineal clans. These clans are grouped into a number of phratries, which, in turn, are divided into a dual moiety system. An individual generally marries outside his matriline, preferably with a cross-cousin. Since members of the matriline are prohibited by taboo from touching the dead body of a matrilineal kinsman, they call on people from the opposite moiety to prepare the cadaver for burial. This service is recompensed by the distribution of gifts at the potlatch. Gifts are distributed according to affiliations, political considerations, and expectations of future rewards.

Thus,

presents

are

often

bestowed

settlements who may be distant relatives.

11-59

upon

important

individuals

of far

off

The psychological functions and the unconscious concerns reflected in the potlatch ceremony generally pertain to conflicts regarding the death of the loved one, ambivalent feelings toward him, and archaic notions about fusion with the parental imago. Inferring that potlatch taboos oppose the individual’s deepest desires, the authors maintain that the taboo

which

prohibited

members

of the

matriline

from touching the body of the

consciously revered dead person reflected their unconscious murderous wishes to defile the body. Showing typical ambiguous feelings toward the mother, and generally toward all others, Athabascans frequently demonstrated a fear of the angry ghost of the deceased, a projection of guilt associated with the kinds of tensions that result from their deep oral longings. This fear meant that death duties could only be undertaken by someone unrelated in the Athabascan sense and therefore not subject to the ghost’s anger. The psychological significance of the potlatch was seen to lie in its function as a means to work out some of these deep emotions as well as a way to handle the emotionally dangerous situation of death. Payments for death duties took the form of extensive gift-giving, which was also psychologically significant since it provided a technique for escalating reciprocal exchanges and political powers. By subtle manipulation of the amounts to be given to different individuals, animosity as well as amity could be expressed, thereby allowing an outlet for both aggressive and affiliation needs.

Conn, Stephen

Traditional Athabascan Law Ways and their Relationship to Contemporary Problems of "Bush Justice."

1972

Institute

181. Hippier, Arthur E.

of

Social,

Economic

and

Government

Research Occasional Paper No. 7. Institute of Social, Economic and Government Research, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska. This paper, based on an interdisciplinary study in the Upper Tanana area in 1972, describes traditional law ways among Alaskan Athabascans and considers the present Indian legal and administrative position in relation to the contemporary Anglo-American legal system. Traditionally, the Upper Tanana Indians were organized into matrilineal clans which were further divided into phratries. The phratries, in turn, were grouped within a dual exogamous moiety system. Relationships between two moieties were based on a series of mutual expectations and reciprocal obligations that functioned to maintain a balance in duties and rights among individuals. Within the family the most important male made pertinent decisions and worked in conjunction with his age mates in arranging marriages, potlatches and other cooperative activities. Leadership of a group was in the hands of family elders. Together these people constituted a village council over which a chief presided. Unlike family membership, the chieftainship was inherited patrilineally. Intertwined in this social organization and forming its unconscious core were certain basic values of Athabascan emotional organization. Though these values are more fully described in other papers by Hippier, they concern the primary importance Athabascans place upon control of emotional impulses and the need for balancing all relationships and obligations to prevent social conflict.

11-60

This need for control was expressed in Athabascan culture especially in the legal system. Athabascan law ways were traditionally based on (1) absolute authority, (2) assumed guilt if one were called before that authority, and (3) sentencing by the authority dependent upon the wrongdoer’s state of repentence and social position. These features reflect the ubiquity of a very punitive guilt and the need for external controls. Within the Athabascan legal system the tendency was for slow and careful deliberation to maintain equality and balance within society and to avoid any disruption, because of the grave fear that irreparable damage might be done to the precariously balanced interclan relationships. Murder was the most serious of crimes and required extremely careful consideration. Even on settlement, tension, wonder and fear of retaliation continued. If the chief’s decision was considered too hasty, its implementation was postponed and other leaders were consulted. The important functions of the legal system were essentially to protect the group from fission as well as other negative results of the suspicious and somewhat violent attitudes that the clans held toward each other. Maintenance of equality was done in the constant fear of what might occur if the controls broke down. The authors note disjunctions between past and present law ways. Unlike traditional procedures, present law ways are impersonal, arbitrary, and even seemingly irrational procedures in Athabascan eyes. The present system treats certain acts, such as drunkenness, as criminal which were not considered crimes traditionally. The Anglo-American legal system is an adversary system; the traditional system was not an adversary one. The judge in the present system does not seek to become personally engaged in a case, as the chief and elders did traditionally. The Anglo-American trial places initial burden of proof on the prosecution, whereas when an Athabascan was brought before the chief in the past, he was assumed to be guilty. Anglo-American protection of the defendant’s rights contrasts with the

traditional

Athabascan

notion

of wrongdoers

meekly

confessing and

accepting

punishment; the Athabascan defendant does not expect a verdict of innocent and only wishes to appease authority figures’ anger. The authors point out other weaknesses in the present legal system. Local magistrates are often poorly trained in legal and correctional processes. Fines are not appropriate in the Athabascan’s eyes, since

they

do

not

allow

public demonstration of a defendant s

repentance and direct, concrete payment of damages.

182. Hobson, Richmond P. 1951

Grass

Beyond

the

Mountains.

J.

B.

Lippincott

Company, New York.

Hobson’s book is a narrative of a trip north to British Columbia in 1934. It contains some reference to the Chilcotin Indians who generally occupy the Chilcotin River valley. The Carrier Indians border on the north of Chilcotin land, and the Kwakiutl on the west. There is little useful ethnographic material in this book.

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183. Hodge, Frederick Webb ed. 1912

Handbook of American

Indians North of Mexico.

Bulletin of the Bureau of American Ethnology No. 30, Parts 1 and 2. (Second impression.) United States Government Printing Office, Washington.

A useful alphabetical listing of most American Indian groups, including location, historical information, and brief ethnographical notes for each group. Names of the authors of longer notes are indicated, though most writers remain anonymous.

184. Hodgkinson, Jean 1970

Is

Northern

Education

Meaningful? The Western

Canadian Journal of Anthropology, Special Issue: Athapascan Studies, vol. 2, no. 2. pp. 156-163.

Hodgkinson’s article concerns Euro-Canadian education and its meaning to aboriginal inhabitants. The author contrasts traditional Indian education, which was pragmatically oriented towards transmission of survival skills, with Western education, and maintains that the Western system has undermined the traditional system by excluding its practical elements. Western education teaches skills that may not be of immediate or practical use to the native.

185. Hoijer, Harry 1956

Athapaskan

Kinship

Systems.

American

Anthro-

pologist, vol. 58, no. 2. pp. 309-333.

Hoijer assumes that kinship terms fall into sets of words which in large part reflect the dynamic relationships of kinship systems. He maintains that analysis and comparison of kinship systems may well profit from a comparative linguistic study. This paper presents such a linguistic study in which he collected and analyzed information about protoAthabascan by comparative-historical inference.

186. Holmes, G. William

Geology of the Johnson River Area, Alaska. Depart-

Foster, Helen L.

ment

of

the

Interior,

United

States

Geological

1968

Survey, Bulletin 1249. United States Government Printing Office, Washington.

A population estimate and little else concerning the Indians are included in this geological survey.

187. Honigmann, John J. 1944

On the Alaska Highway. Dalhousie Review, vol. 23. pp. 400-408.

Honigmann notes how the Alaska Highway allowed many new areas of northern Canada to become accessible and thus has had broad effects on economic development of the land and acculturation of local natives.

11-62

Northern

188. Honigmann, John J.

and

Southern

Athapascan

Eschatology.

American Anthropologist, vol. 47, new series, no. 3.

1945

pp. 467-469. Honigmann compares the eschatology of the Navaho, as representative of the southern Athabascans, with the eschatology of the Sarsi, a northern Athabascan group. While he notes differences between northern and southern Athabascans, he also finds they have similar concerns such as belief in ghosts and fear of the dead.

Ethnography and Acculturation of the Fort Nelson Slave. Yale University Publications in Anthropology,

189. Honigmann, John J. 1946

no. 33. Yale University Press, New Haven. A general, descriptive ethnography which includes a reconstruction of aboriginal culture and a view of the contemporary culture with regard to European contact and its influence. Fieldwork was done in 1943, upon the completion of the Alaskan Highway which passed through Fort Nelson. Before then, accessibility to this area was limited and difficult. Honigmann uses a functional approach here. He found that the food quest was the central goal of traditional Slave society since there was usually no surplus yield. Mobility, directly relating to the need to follow game and food sources, was another important concern. Individualism also characterized traditional Slave culture. Again, this related directly to the techniques of hunting and gathering. Though individuals seldom hunted alone, their hunting was a matter of parallel activity rather than cooperative interaction. Hunting was individual and competitive; it provided a means to acquire prestige. Honigmann also found minimal traditional political organization, especially in Slave tribal designation. The important unit of organization was the extended family or the group of several families who hunted together. In any case, the group was only loosely organized and transitory. There were no chiefs, but the best hunters had most prestige within the group, and disobeying their wishes could often mean starvation. Another type of leader defined was the war chief, who was a good fighter as well as good hunter. War and mistrust between the Slave and other Athabascan groups were frequent. Generally, though, every man was his own leader. Honigmann says that retinue, paraphernalia, and formally organized shamanism were incompatible with the Slave hunting society; each group had a number of potential curers rather

than

a recognized

shaman.

Honigmann

reasoned

that since

illness

could

be

particularly incapacitating in a society that depended on mobility for its survival, everyone had to be a potential curer. Group welfare also required certain attitudes toward the aged and infirmed, which while conflicting with patterned ideas of fidelity and affection, were suited

to

the

demands

of a mobile society. Generally, the Slave culture developed

interpersonal relations which minimized anxiety and guilt when the sick and aged were abandoned. In his later works, Honigmann expands on this idea of Slave emotional disinvolvement, using psychiatric-based explanations. In looking at the contemporary Fort Nelson Slave culture, Honigmann notes several significant changes that have occurred. One was the shift from self-sufficient aboriginal subsistence to a money economy which was integrated with trading post activities. Furs were prime economic goods and trapping became a dominant activity. While hunting was

11-63

still important, meat and other food shortages could be filled by purchased supplies. As Indian dependence on the local trading post increased, dwellings became more permanent and emphasis on mobility was reduced. Aboriginal continued,

orientation toward individualism

but was no longer necessary for group survival. Community organization

continued to be almost nonexistent.

Cultural Dynamics of Sex. Psychiatry, vol. 10. pp.

190. Honigmann, John J. 1947

3747.

This discussion of sexual dynamics among Kaska Athabascans notes that sexual behavior is related to Kaska personality dimensions, primarily to the fear of expressing affection overtly. Honigmann found that the Athabascan child is traumatically deprived of maternal affection by the third year. This emotional isolation manifested itself in the adult as a form of “sexual constriction.” Honigmann also relates sexual expression to social structure and economic patterns. Sexual

behavior among

the Kaska was ambivalent and surrounded by secrecy.

Although dances promoted social interaction and sexual activity, incest and menstruation taboos constrained it. Partial undressing and modesty reflected sexual ambiguity and secrecy. Afraid of love, the Athabascan sought the protection of his early childhood lesson to fear and avoid all emotional expression. Honigmann notes that premarital sexual activity started for boys around the age of 17 and for girls around puberty. Little occurred in winter, much in summer. Girls both desired and feared sexual aggression. They initiated sexual activity by teasing boys, and were then chased and caught. For men, sex was something to master with self-assertion. They viewed sexual intercourse as an equivalent to killing when hunting; the sex organ was a weapon and sex was equated with rape. In any case, sex led to embarrassment the next day. Honigmann attributes female frigidity and male orgasmic difficulties to ambiguity in the Kaska attitude toward sex, and notes latent homosexuality is evidenced by embracing, wrestling, and physical closeness. On the other hand, expression of homosexuality created great anxiety.

191. Honigmann, John J. 1947

Witch-Fear in Post-Contact Kaska Society. American Anthropologist,

vol.

49,

new

series, no.

2.

pp.

222-243. The

Kaska

are

northern

Athabascans

living along the Dease River in Canada.

Honigmann examines the historical development of Kaska witchcraft and attempts to analyze the material from a psychological point of view, providing much insight into Athabascan character. Witch-fear or witch hunting developed in Kaska society after white contact. Though the Kaska believed that strong sorcery powers could induce illness in one’s enemy, there was no evidence that sorcery in aboriginal Kaska society was ever as prevalent as in certain African and Melanesian groups. Nevertheless, following white contact and increased contact with the Tlingit who also practiced witchcraft, witch-fear developed among the Kaska to the point where certain accused Indians were killed.

11-64

Honigmann indicates that at the time of contact, the Kaska were psychologically ready for the development of witch-fear. Traditionally living in small, isolated groups with little intergroup contact, and restrained interpersonal relationships, the Kaska (and Athabascans generally) were notably suspicious and paranoid. The child rearing process supported this. For the first two or so years of a child’s life, he would receive extremely favorable treatment from his mother. She comforted him when he cried and generally gave him constant attention. Usually by the third year, however, the mother’s behavior changed and she became suddenly more remote and self-occupied. She scolded the child for crying and ignored his demands for affection. Honigmann calls this “emotional rejection,” and says that it left the child with an inadequately developed ego. New stresses in Kaska life were brought with contact which included an influx of strangers into the area, an upset in the balance of game, new illnesses, and changes in living standards. The Kaska were unable to deal with these new problems in traditional ways and witch-fear and witch-hunting developed as one response to the new stresses. Hostilities centered around children since they were the safest targets and defenseless. The Kaska personality was already predisposed toward belief in child sorcery too; ambivalent feelings toward children stemmed from sibling rivalry and the frequent experience of sibling death in an extreme environment. The development of witch-fear therefore functioned to relieve the additional anxieties and hostilities that the conditions of acculturation generated in an already anxious personality.

192. Honigmann, John J. 1949

Culture and Ethos of Kaska Society. Yale University Publications in Anthropology, no. 40. Yale University Press, New Haven.

The Kaska are Canadian Athabascans living west of the Rocky Mountains in the upper Liard, Dease, and Frances river areas of the southern Yukon and northern part of British Columbia. When fieldwork was done in 1945, the Kaska had a two-part annual cycle, living in winter settlements and hunting and trapping during the cold winter and spending an idle summer living around trading posts and subsisting on expensive trader’s stocks. Furs from winter work were generally used for summer expenses. The nuclear or slightly extended family was the basic economic and social unit of Kaska society. Only a few adults were necessary to the effective operation of hunting type society; a large group would not be able to support itself in the harsh Kaska environment. The nuclear family tended toward matrilineality, though authority was ideally vested with the husband. Extending outside the family was a moiety system, though any social organization beyond kinship was of slight functional significance. The Kaska, as other Athabascans, had no tribal government, no castes, and no classes. Also concerned with methodology, Honigmann extends the approaches of Kardiner, Linton, Bateson, and Mead, and uses some concepts from psychoanalytic psychiatry. The resulting work relies heavily on Kaska childhood socialization as the key to interpretation. Honigmann successfully constructs a picture of Kaska personality or “ethos,” which he defines as:

*

the socially patterned dominant motivations of personality and their expression in motivated behavior together which constitute a dynamically interrelated system of meanings, goals, or values by which the individual views himself and the external world.

11-65

Honigmann maintains that Kaska childhood socialization lent itself to the develop¬ ment of a Kaska personality or ethos that fit well with their rather simple social structure and limited social obligation. He describes Kaska society as infant-centered with ready affection and attention given to babies, especially until the infant is about 2 years old. This is evidenced by constant diapering, washing, and feeding of the infant. At night the baby sleeps with his mother; during the day he is carried about by her. The infant is rarely left alone for this first 2-year period, and is seldom punished. Between the ages of 3 and 4 years, however, certain changes occur. The parents emotionally withdraw from the child, often leaving him in the care of an older sibling. For reasons unknown to the child, he becomes less tolerated; his wishes are often ignored, he is not allowed to cling, and he must endure pain alone. A child may be seen weeping in solitude or may be scolded if he runs to his parents when injured. As a result of the child’s upbringing, Honigmann believes, he must feel rejected and develops feelings of emotional withdrawal, rejection, and guilt. These feelings are further exacerbated by the commonly witnessed occurrence of a death of either parent or child (by poor health or malnutrition). In sum, Honigmann emphasizes that the harsh environment, which does not allow large local groups for lack of adequate food resources, enforces the limited Kaska social organization. This rather simple social structure, in turn, entails rather limited social contact and obligations. The adult personality or Kaska ethos stemming from childhood—emotional suppression, ambiguous feelings between the sexes, and unsure interpersonal relationships— also support and lend themselves to the limited social organization and obligations.

193. Honigmann, John J. 1949

Parallels in the Development of Shamanism among Northern and Southern Athapaskans. American Anthropologist,

vol.

51,

new

series,

no.

3.

pp.

512-514. Honigmann argues that shamanistic rites have developed independently in northern and southern Athabascan groups, although some parallels exist.

194. Honigmann, John J. 1954

The Kaska Indians: An Ethnographic Reconstruction. Yale University Publications in Anthropology, no. 51. Yale University Press, New Haven.

Honigmann gives much useful information on environment, population, personality, life cycle, physical culture, and subsistence activities in this reconstruction of aboriginal and time-of-contact lifeways of the Kaska Indians of northern British Columbia and southern Yukon territory in Canada. The observations came primarily from the Upper Liard and Dease River Kaska. Aboriginal Kaska subsistence varied depending on the season. In late summer when game was plentiful, the Kaska moved into the mountains in search of goats, sheep, caribou, gophers, and ground hogs. During deep winter, they remained in more permanent camps. Hunting continued through the spring, and the Indians reassembled around the fishing lakes in late spring.

11-66

The nuclear family, usually incorporated into a large extended family or band, served the most important functions of Kaska life. However, the makeup of these bands tended to be fluid; when people gathered around a central figure or band leader, it was because he was a good hunter. Several bands occupying contiguous districts constituted the “unorganized and highly amorphous” macrocosmic band or tribe. Tribe members intermarried and used similar dialects, but had little else in common. Moieties were recognized, however. They were matrilineal and cross-cut by three social classes which were based on wealth, especially as represented in food distribution. Tribe leadership was patrilineal. Tribe leaders were of less functional importance than band leaders. Neither bands nor tribes seemed to have their own territories. Unfavorable

public

opinion, exile, fines, and blood revenge were the strongest

sanctions used within the local groups. Relations between these groups were characterized by hostility. Kaska shamanism was used in vision quest for guardian animal spirits and in war. Some myths and much information appear on the rather extensive use of magic, mostly connected with hunting and curing illness. Life

cycle:

a

girl’s

pregnancy was announced only to another female. Several

observances for the women at this time included avoiding certain foods, halting sexual relations during pregnancy and after childbirth, and sleeping facing away from males. A baby was first fed only after a day. Even when he began to suckle, he was given only enough milk “to wet his mouth.” If a mother lacked milk, she would enlist help from a wet nurse. Animal brain and water were also substituted. Unless interrupted by illness of his mother, a child was allowed to suckled for 3 years. An older sibling never shared a breast—displacement of this kind not infrequently stirred up aggression toward a younger sibling. A baby spent all of his time with his mother or with mother’s sister. Naming occurred after he began to speak. He was carried about in a moss bag until he was 2 years old or more. After this, toilet training began. During the winter, the child slept next to his mother for protection against the cold; otherwise he slept in a suspended cradle. Male and female children were kept apart, and sexual curiosity met with warning. Vision quest marked the end of childhood. At this time, boys started training in endurance and also in controlling emotional expression. For girls, adolescence marked the beginning of many menstrual avoidances. First menstruation was accompanied by a feeling of shame on the girl’s part, and the thought of being injured by a boy. During these periods, girls were isolated from camp. Honigmann gives detailed information about sex attitudes, noting how important modesty and hostility were between sex partners. He also noted that women’s sex organs were themselves to women.

considered poisonous, and men took care not to expose

Marriage took place when boys were about 18 and girls about 16 years old. Marriage between close relatives and members of the same matrilineal moiety was barred, with marriage to a maternal cross-cousin preferred. Bride service for up to 2 years was noted as was matrilocal residence. Within the marriage, the woman’s role was not necessarily an inferior one. Divorce was not encouraged, but was frequent. Old age was rare in Kaska society, but those who did grow old experienced waning prestige and dissatisfaction from others in the group. Informants denied a fear of the corpse when

a

person

died.

The

body

was

disposed

11-67

of through

cremation, inhumation,

abandonment, or caching in a tree, depending on the weather. Those who participated in this burial activity underwent several rituals to ward off the malevalent influences which were associated with death. Burial places were then avoided.

Are There Nahani Indians? Anthropologica, no. 3. pp.

195. Honigmann, John J. 1956

35-38.

There is confusion in the literature about the Athabascan tribal name “Nahanni,” and to whom it refers. The possible conclusions are either that the Nahanni were a nomadic tribe who were known by many other Athabascan groups, or that the term was applied to several distinct groups. The last explanation seems more plausible to Honigmann. “Na-” signifies enemy or hostile in Athabascan terms. Also, Athabascans use the term Nahanni to designate any people about whom they know little. European misunderstandings may be another reason for the confusion.

Notes on Sarsi Kin Behavior. Anthropologica, vol. 2.

196. Honigmann, John J. 1956

pp. 17-38.

Firsthand observation in 1944 among the Sarsi Indians on a reserve near Calgary, Alberta provided this information on childbirth and socialization. There was one informant whose views were thought to give insight into aboriginal Sarsi lifeways before the very strong influence which the Blackfoot and other Plains Indians exerted on Sarsi life in the late 1800’s. Grandparents received minimal respect, perhaps to facilitate their abandonment in times of famine. Children were morally directed by same sexed parents. Sexual chastity was demanded in girls, but not so in boys. This tended to set up cross pressures. Abortion, masturbation and bastardy were equally abhorred. Relationships between siblings were extremely respectful. Males acted as protectors and moral guides for their sisters. In general, Plains Indian mores prevail among the Sarsi today.

Community Organization and Patterns of Change among North Canadian and Alaskan Indians and Eskimos. Anthropologica, vol. 5. pp. 3-8.

197. Honigmann, John J. 1963

In

this

general review

of recent anthropological research on the Eskimos and

Athabascans, two questions are raised: (1) why does Eskimo social organization seem to be more adaptable to change than Athabascan;and (2) is

the

apparent

cultural disintegration

of Athabascans a

function

of

acculturation or of older patterns. The author suggests that more ethnographic fieldwork is necessary to determine reasons for these differences, though he suspects Athabascan disorganization reflects earlier traditional Athabascan patterns.

11-68

Ethnographic

198. Honigmann, John J. ed. 1968

Research

in

Study Social

of

Churchill.

Science,

Institute

University

of

for

North

Carolina, Chapel Hill. Mimeographed. Fieldwork for this general ethnography of Churchill, Manitoba, was done in 1966. Of the ethnic groups which make up Churchill’s population, the Chipewyan group remained the most separate and segregated. They generally made poor adjustment to town life. The Chipewyan section of the settlement suffered marked social disorganization. Conflicts with the police, alcoholism and delinquency were common. As well, the Chipewyan remained the most homogeneous group. Further discussion by W. W. Koolage of the Chipewyan section of Churchill appears in the annotation under Koolage’s name.

199. Honigmann, John J.

Interpersonal Relations in Atomistic Communities.

1968

Human Organization, vol. 27, no. 3. pp. 220-229.

In this worthwhile paper, Honigmann considers the use of “atomism” as a descriptive ethnographic term, pointing out that it is important to distinguish between atomism in social organization and an individual’s “atomistic feelings.” Criteria for determining the degree of atomism in social organization include relatively empirical behaviors such as: (1) primary concern with one’s individual interests and freedom from, or avoidance of, social constraints, (2) tendency to retreat from too intense or unnecessary contact with neighbors, (3) reluctance

to

commit

oneself

to

large groups even

when

ecological

conditions allow it, (4) weak, ineffectual leadership, and (5) social relationships marked by strain. By contrast, determining “atomistic feelings” depends on psychological criteria which are harder to observe. They include such attitudes as covert hostility, envy, and fear of social relationships. Honigmann notes that other discussions of atomistic behaviors and beliefs have generally shown that they have a disintegrating effect on social organization within a society. But he finds that atomism does not affect all societies in the same way. In considering the Kutchin, Canadian Athabascans in the Yukon Territory, he notes that both structural and psychological atomism exist in Kutchin society. On the other hand, these Indians strongly appreciate some degree of social and physical contiguity. This suggests that an atomistic type of society may include incorporative features that are compatible with atomistic social and psychological norms.

200. Honigmann, John J. 1969

Culture Patterns and Human Stress, A Study in Social Psychiatry. In: Lawrence C. Grebstein, ed. Toward Self-Understanding,

Studies

in

Personality

and

Adjustment. University of Rhode Island, Scott, Foresman and Company, Glenview, Illinois, pp. 206-214. The author looks at culture patterns that contain inherent sources of stress to which all members of the society are exposed. He uses the Kaska as an example and feels that in 11-69

some ways they represent a “detached personality type” (as described by Karen Horney) that is governed by a tendency to suppress all feelings. Kaska adults have been enculturated to meet crisis situations by denying their existence or minimizing their importance. One result of this attitude is to neglect illness because the threat of facing disease is too great. To openly admit fear of illness is also disturbing. The Kaska also lack techniques for getting close to other people psychologically. This results in painful shyness and profound reserve. Sexuality also reflects emotional constriction. Hostility, inevitably generated in the system, is deflected into gossip and suppressed into covert behavior.

Formation

201. Honigmann, John J. 1971

of Mackenzie Delta

Frontier Culture.

Excerpt from Anthropologica, new series, vol. 13, no. 1+2. pp. 185-192.

Certain distinctly native values found in the Mackenzie Delta frontier culture today are not necessarily traditional values, but emerged during the fur trading era from contact with representatives of the white society.

Northern

202. Honigmann, John J. n.d.

Townsmen.

Northwest

Anthropological

Research Notes, vol. 5, no. 1. pp. 97-122.

In the Western Canadian arctic towns of Inuvik and Great Whale River, most of the native groups seemed to adjust impressively to acculturation. Many natives held regular jobs, several owned homes, school attendance was high, use of alcohol was quite moderate, and there were few encounters with the police and courts. Of all the ethnic groups, the Athabascans of Inuvik seemed to have greatest difficulty in adjusting to town roles.

Drinking in an Indian-White Community. Quarterly

203. Honigmann, John J. Honigmann, Irma

Journal of Studies on Alcohol, vol 5. pp. 575-619.

1945 This participant observation study was undertaken to uncover cultural differences in behavior related to alcohol consumption. It concerns the interaction of an unidentified but probably Kaska band of Athabascans living near the Alaska Highway in Canada with Canadian and United States Air Force and other personnel. The authors note that in Athabascan child socialization the role of the father is minimal, children are trained to develop emotional isolation, and little stimulus exists to interact socially. Although Athabascans prepare various forms of home brew in secret to avoid sharing, their drinking is a communal activity among friends. They drink fast and become quickly intoxicated, which often results in fighting, depression, and aggression against the self. In general, drinking facilitates otherwise inhibited social interaction and releases sexual and aggressive impulses. Local white’s drinking of home brew also tends to release sexual inhibitions, but does not result in their fighting as much as Athabascans. It seems to encourage good fellowship and release expressions of individual attitudes (particularly against the law prohibiting

11-70

alcohol). The authors conclude that the Athabascans they studied strikingly confirm Horton’s hypothesis that drinking tends to reduce anxiety.

204. Honigmann, John J. Honigmann, Irma

A Kaska Indian String Oracle. Man, vol. 47, article 159. pp. 139-140.

1947 The Honigmanns relate information on divination which was gathered while living with a Canadian Athabascan family in the Upper Liard River area. They note details of a string oracle in particular, and say that these Indians do not use many other forms of divination. However, they do consult tea leaves, interpret dreams, use intuition, and believe that a cracking fire may confirm one’s decision.

205. Honigmann, John J. Honigmann, Irma

Arctic Townsmen. Canadian Research Center for Anthropology. Saint Paul University, Ottawa.

1970 The Honigmann’s Arctic Townsmen is a descriptive and analytic account of the adaptation of native and white Canadians in an emerging Mackenzie Delta town, Inuvik. In establishing

the acculturation framework, the authors survey the history of contact,

migration, and economic change and the social structural factors operative in acculturation in Inuvik. Within this framework, they discuss differential access to power and involvement in

the community between white and native groups and also among native groups.

Interpersonal relations with special emphasis on child socialization, heavily weighted in the direction of school experience, is also discussed. Special attention to psycho cultural and socio-structural aspects of acculturation is given, including much detail on measurable aspects of behavior, though they present less explanation of antecedents of behavior than in earlier works. There is a general description of how the Indians, Eskimos and Metis respond differently to settlement living, ultimately because of different psychological dynamics. Some of the findings have serious implications for difficulties inherent in contemporary Indian and Eskimo acculturation. For example: (1) A white parent (nearly always male) provides an inestimable advantage for the native child in adaptation to white norms. This implies the emergence of a caste system and the denigration of “native” parents. (2) The anti-white, pan-native culture newly emerging among both Indians and Eskimos (and to a lesser extent among Metis) appears to be very poorly adapted to contemporary society and also appears to be pathological on its face. This implies that the very means used to defend oneself against a negative self-image are fraught with problems. (3) Fundamentalist religions, contrary to their past destructive influence, seem to be providing a significant aid to stopping drinking and instituting personal controls. This suggests a further eroding of both “native” norms and a poor adaptation to contemporary norms, although the psychological price is not spelled out.

11-71

(4) The increase in importance of peer group socialization is a causative factor in general maladaptive responses to schooling. This implies that shorn of parental authority and antagonistic to white norms, children are thrown back on their own immature peer groups for values.

Ten Months among the Tents of the Tuski, with Incidents of an Arctic Boat Expedition in Search of Sir John Franklin. John Murray, London.

206. Hooper, William Hulme 1853

Hooper traveled around the Mackenzie River area, the northern coast of Alaska, and the land of the “Tuski” across the Bering Sea. His book contains very little reference to Athabascans.

The McGrath Ingalik. Anthropological Papers of the

207. Hosley, Edward H. 1961 Ethnographic

University of Alaska, vol. 9, no. 2. pp. 93-113. information

on

the

McGrath

Ingalik

Athabascans

of the

upper

Kuskokwim River in central Alaska was collected in 1960. Historical notes show the progression of white contact in the area, with the first trading post being established in 1907 at McGrath. Others were later established at Medfra and Nikolai. Hosley defines contemporary Indian culture as a yearly cycle in which living at the fish camp during the summer, alternated with living in the settlement, growing crops, and going to school during the winter. This cycle is far more sedentary than the aboriginal hunting and fishing life. While in settlements, the McGrath Ingalik live in more permanent cabins and have become more dependent upon manufactured items for their subsistence. The Indians now are well-integrated into a money economy, and furs are their chief source of income. Religion plays an important part in the lives of Ingalik. The Russian Orthodox church in Nikolai, for example, is said to be a source of community pride. The regional priest is an Eskimo, and great interest is shown in his bi-annual visits. The people are described as very devout, with icons and religious pictures on the walls of their cabins. Marriage today tends to be initially matrilocal with some bride service, then neolocal or patrilocal. Descent is patrilineal. The governing body at Nikolai comprises a chief, subchief, and council of adult men from the community. Choice of a chief depends upon personality and leadership qualities rather than descent. Informants said that in the past, villages had no chiefs. The author includes some notes on ritual observances and says that, in the past, the potlatch was an important part of Ingalik ceremonial life. No reasons were given for its decreased importance. Some legends and folklore are also discussed in the article.

208. Hosley, Edward 1968

The Kolchan: Delineation of a New Northern Athapaskan Indian Group. Arctic, vol. 21, no. 1. pp. 6-11.

Prior to the Russian period, the Kolchan (Hosley’s name for a group of aboriginal Athabascans) extended from the western foothills of the Alaska Range to the eastern slope 11-72

of the Kuskokwim Mountains, and from the Swift River on the southwest to the divide between the Kuskokwim and Kantishna drainages. Presently most of these people live in Nikolai on the Kuskokwim River. The aboriginal bands described were scattered, small, autonomous and semi-nomadic. Their subsistence consisted mostly of hunting, especially caribou. Social organization was unilineal with three matrilineal clans, according to Hosley.

209. Hrdlicka, Ales 1930

The Ancient and Modern Inhabitants of the Yukon. Smithsonian Institution, Exploration and Fieldwork in 1929. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, pp. 137-146.

Short and not very useful, this article reports some archaeological and anthropometric information on the Yukon River Eskimos and Athabascan Indians. The author sees some mixture of Indians and Eskimos at contact points along the river.

210. Hrdlicka, Ales 1930

Anthropological

Survey

in

Alaska.

46th

Annual

Report, Bureau of American Ethnology. Government Printing Office, Washington.

Most of the information in this reference concerns archaeological and physical culture material. It contains little useful ethnography.

211. Hulley, Clarence C. 1953

Alaska, 1741-1953. Binfords and Mort, Publishers, Portland.

Though a general history of Alaska, some comments are made about each of the four subdivisions of Alaskan aborigines: Aleuts, Eskimos, Tlingit-Haida Indians, and Athabascan Indians. The author notes that the Yukon basin, populated by Athabascans, never had enough fish and game to support, a large population. Possibly as a consequence, the interior Athabascans were “semi-nomadic” and had only loose social organization.

212. Hurlbert, Janice 1962

Age as a Factor in the Social Organization of the Hare Indian of Fort Good Hope, N.W.T. Northern Co¬ ordination and Research Center, 62-5. Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources, Ottawa.

A useful study of Hare Indians of Fort Good Hope done in 1961, this monograph seeks

to

give information about existing age and sex groupings and the process of

socialization in the movement of the individual from one group to the next. The author wished to determine the degree to which culture was learned and retained in each phase of the life cycle of community members.

' 11-73

After giving a summary of historical contact and documentation of Fort Good Hope Indians, the author composed a table of approximate Hare population estimates from 1827. Of note is the rather stable population figure maintained, 300 to 350 for the area. Since food supply is a major factor in population density, the author assumed that 350 is the critical limit. She also noted starvation to be a frequent cause of death, with major cyclic periods of starvation about every 10 years. Hare social organization was minimal. Traditionally the Hare tribe had no leader. Recently,

however,

the

Canadian

government established

the

position

of chief for

administrative purposes. The chief is selected according to respect and ability. His role is conciliatory. He is expected to be a wise man who listens to his peers. Each band traditionally consisted of several households which were distinguished by their composition of kindred. Because of the high death rate, men and women often married two or three times, and the children went with the surviving parent. Step-relatives were included among primary and secondary kin. This was reflected in the wide range and narrow depth of Hare geneologies. In 1961 the author found that 15 percent of the child population was adopted. Generally the household was defined as all those people who lived together and cooperated in economic activities. The yearly cycle of subsistence for these Indians was based on hunting done during the winter. Chapter

3

discusses

each age grade as representing a step in the Hare Indian

socialization process. The significant material is summarized below:

(1) Infancy: Birth attended by taboos and prohibitions on parents relates to the infants future fortune. The child is cradled in a hanging cradle and socialized primarily by older siblings; the youngest sibling is usually jealous of the infant. Inconsistent toilet training and concern with cleanliness alternate with permissiveness; attention alternates with nonattention.

(2) Childhood: Childhood extends from the time of walking (15 months) to the age of 9 or 10 years. During this period sharp social sex role distinctions are initiated, culminating in unisexual association groups in late latency. Parents respond to temper tantrums either by coldly ignoring them or by exploding violently, though shaming is the preferred socialization tactic. Authority rests strictly with males, according to age. Fear of wandering strangers and enuresis until age 12 is common. The emotional defense against pain and anxiety is withdrawal and stoicism. (3) Adolescence: Girls used to be married at 14, and boys in late teens; now girls marry at 18 or 19, and boys at 20 to 25. First hunt ceremonies for boys and pubertal seclusion for girls is still the rule. Sexual avoidance in teens is common as is the initiation of drinking. (4) Adulthood: Full status is attained with adulthood, though irresponsible drinking and heavy gambling occur. (5) Old Age: Psychological maturity, respect, and full competence in social matters occur at this time. Sexual separation in social events continues, but irresponsible activity declines.

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213. Ingstad, Helge 1933

The Land of Feast and Famine. Alfred A. Knopf, New York.

This is not an authoritative source, but the information is useful. When Ingstad was trapping in northern Canada, caribou hunting was of primary importance to Athabascan subsistence. They trapped only when they had time. Diet consisted largely of meat which was preferred even though fish were more plentiful during summer. Ingstad coined the term “socialistic impulse,” meaning he who owned more than his fellows must divide, to describe the communal living of the Indians. He believed this was absolutely essential to the existence of a people entirely dependent on the variable luck of the hunter. Dispute resolutions were entrusted to the eldest of a family group or a commonly recognized chief during larger summer gatherings. Most problems seemed to be resolved with minimal interaction and by only the parties involved. Possibly, the problem was ignored. When one borrowed a sled, for example, he was bound to return it, but was not responsible for any damage done during its use. Articles were exchanged at one’s own risk and there was no recourse in the event of future dissatisfactions. Stealing was rare, but property was minimal. Other than ostracism, there appeared to be no formal means of punishment. A marriage relationship seemed to be based on the woman’s capacity to work and the man’s ability to hunt. Marriage was contracted by the bride’s parents whom the groom had to please. After marriage, the woman might continue to have relations with other men while her husband was away hunting. It seems that this was known and allowed by the husband as long as the affair was kept “secret.” Myths are not reported in detail and appear to be freely translated into English.

214. Innis, Harold A. 1962

The Fur Trade in Canada. Yale University Press, New Haven.

A useful general history of trade relations and treaties with Canadian Athabascan groups, this book nonetheless has only minimal ethnographic data.

215. Irving, Laurence 1958

Naming of Birds as a Part of the Intellectual Culture of Indians at Old Crow. Arctic, vol. 11, no. 2. pp. 117-122.

Local, Indian names for common species of birds in the area of Old Crow, Yukon Territory, were obtained by the author.

On the Loucheux Indians. Report of the British

216. Isbister, A. K.

Association for the Advancement of Science, Notices

1847

and Abstracts, pp. 121-122. Two paragraphs give little useful information on the Loucheux, a group of northern Canadian Kutchin Athabascan Indians.

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217. Jackson, Sheldon 1880

Alaska Missions on the North Pacific Coast. Dodd, Mead and Company, New York.

Information on the Alaskan Athabascans is taken directly from Dali’s Alaska and its

Resources (1870). Some pre-1880 population figures are included.

218. James, Alton James 1942

The First Scientific Exploration of Russian America and the Purchase of Alaska. Northwestern University Studies in the Social Sciences, no. 4. Northwestern University, Chicago.

Various journals are included in this book. One of note is that of Robert Kennicott, which dates between 1859 and 1862 and provides some information about the interior Alaskan and northern Canadian Athabascan Indians. Kennicott also came into contact with the Mackenzie River delta Eskimos and compared them with the northern Athabascans. He noted that the Eskimos were far more clever and intelligent, but at the same time, were more difficult to manage. Thievery was also cited among the Eskimos.

219. Jenness, Diamond 1929

The Ancient Education of a Carrier Indian. Canada Department of Mines, National Museum of Canada, Bulletin 62. National Museum of Canada, Ottawa, pp. 22-27.

Jenness describes how the Carrier evolved an education system which consisted of two parts: secular education by direct instruction (geretne), and religious education by story telling (gidete). Some elements of this system originally came from the coast tribes, but became well-integrated into a functioning Carrier system. According to the author, with increased white contact and forced change in subsistence patterns, the traditional ways became discredited, leading to disorganization and dysfunction of society.

220. Jenness, Diamond 1931

The Sekani Indians of British Columbia. Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, vol. 25, sec. 2. pp. 21-34.

This article provides tribal location and some historical information on the Sekani Indians who inhabited the upper Peace River area. The Carriers had a marked influence on the social organization of the Sekani. Jenness believes that the Sekani were matrilineal until they established contact with the Carriers, Athabascans to the southwest. The Carriers in turn were probably influenced by the coast tribes.

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221. Jenness, Diamond 1933

An Indian Method of Treating Hysteria. Primitive Man, vol. 6. pp. 13-20.

The article contains little ethnographic information, but is useful as a study in primitive medicine. Four cases of Indian mental illness ended in the deaths of the patients when they were sent to a white asylum. The traditional Indian treatment, on the other hand, seemed to be more successful in curing and returning the patient to functional life. While doing fieldwork on the Carrier Indian reserve at Hagwilgate, close to Hazelton, British Columbia, Jenness was invited to attend a performance treatment to discover reasons for these different results. No date was given, but the events described probably occurred in 1932 or 1933. The patients and their symptoms were not described in detail. They were only noted to have “Indian dream sickness” which develops into insanity if not treated. Typically, “hysteria” would overtake the patient every sunset and he would begin to whistle and cry “hoo-oo.” The patient was also noted to dream. The performance lasted two hours and the patients returned to normality at the end. Jenness explains that the patient was seized by a mystic, unseen power. The doctor and his assistants drove the spirit from the patient’s body and blew it back into the mountains from where it came. The only people who could care for the patient, especially during hysteria, were those who had suffered a similar illness and been cured. Jenness’s rational explanation assumed that the patients were somewhat mentally unbalanced. The general notion within the culture was that the illness was caused by lurking supernatural powers which may induce hysteria at any time. The medicine man induces hysteria by creating the culturally proper conditions under which the spirit is thought to become active. Within this controlled situation, the hysteria is allowed to express itself until the patient is physically exhausted and his mind clears. The whole process has a beneficial if short-lasting effect on the patient.

222. Jenness, Diamond 1934

Myths of the Carrier Indians. Journal of American Folklore, vol. 47, no. 184-185. pp. 97-257.

An extensive collection of 82 myths which have been translated into English: The Giant’s Grandson or the Salmon Boy The Orphan Boy who became a Culture Hero The Orphan Boy as a Culture Hero Variant The Magic Feather and the Four Culture Heroes The Woman who Married a Grizzly The Dog Children The Flood The City of the Dead Kaits The Dead Woman’s Son The Revenge of the Mountain Goats The Two Lost Sisters The Kindly Bear

11-77

The Gambler Anklaz The Sky Boy and the Magic Arrows The Magic Flowers The Girl who Married the Frog The Boy who had Medicine for Fish The Man who Ate his Wives The Girl who Married the Sekani The Boys’ Vengeance The Abduction of the Bride The Rival Medicine-Youths “Do Not Mock the Poor” The Wolverine’s Hunting-Medicine The Man who Sought the Wolf Medicine The Woman who had Medicine for Fish Ayasu Chicken-hawk The Monstrous Bear The Orphan’s Revenge The Magic Arrows The Bear Wife The Girls who were Carried into the Sky Origin of Beaver The Swift Runner The Trickster Another Trickster Story Origin of the Clan-Name Ginerhlaiya and the Crest Kaigyet Skawah and the Origin of the Crest Sun or Moon Origin of the Crest Sleepy Origin of the Crest Kaigyet The Otter Husband and the Four Culture Heroes Origin of the Crest Whale Origin of Creaking Trees and of Certain Crests Origin of the Crest Antler Club War with Kitamat and the Origin of Certain Crests Origin of Special Clan Hats, Leggings and Rattles Origin of the Crests Guxlet and Kanots Origin of Personal Crest Grizzly Bear Origin of Fire and of the Crest Fox Origin of the Crest War-Chief Origin of the Crest Marten Origin of the Crest Owl Origin of the Crest Mountain Goat Origin of the Crest Porcupine Origin of Tribes Origin of Fort Fraser The Sekani

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Caribou-man and the Sekani Dwarfs The Snaring of the Sun The Great Bear Origin of Death and the Seasons Origin of Owl Origin of Snowshoes Porcupine Porcupine and Beaver Grouse and Raven Raven and Deer Robin and Song Sparrow Frog and Rabbit A Big Frog Water Nymphs Monstrous Fish A Dangerous Canyon Francois Lake Variant Coming of White Men

223. Jenness, Diamond 1937

The Sekani Indians of British Columbia. National Museum

of Canada,

Bulletin 84, Anthropological

Series No. 20. Canada Department of Mines and Resources, Ottawa. Jenness began the fieldwork for this general ethnography in 1924, among the Sekani Indians. Their heavily wooded country includes areas within the Rocky Mountains and around the upper Peace River in British Columbia. Since the river drains toward the Arctic, it lacks the great shoals of salmon which were the mainstay of most of the Indian tribes in coastal British Columbia. The Sekani fished extensively for trout and whitefish and also relied on game for their food. Game included bear, moose, beaver, porcupine, and rabbits from the forests and caribou, goats, sheep, and groundhogs from the mountain slopes. After devoting some chapters to Sekani group locations, historical contact and documentation, and physical culture, Jenness described their social organization. The Sekani are a disorganized, small group of bands related most closely to the Beaver Athabascans of the lower Peace River, though there has always been much intermixing between all the Athabascan groups of Canada in spite of sporadic conflicts between them. These wandering bands usually possessed little formal leadership and lacked definite chiefs and group councils. Each band did have a leader who obtained his position through force of character, sane judgement, and hunting skill. This man carried no real authority, though, and at any time a new leader could supercede him. The only laws were those prescribed by custom. Since every family was coequal with every other, one family would often depend upon another. One shared food with his small group to avoid being labeled as unsociable. Land rights and hunting territory came into being only recently when fur trade induced a man to return year after year to productive

11-79

hunting grounds. Generally, blood feud was the only legal recourse these Indians had. Feuding between these small groups of closely related kin was noted to be frequent. Unless a death obviously resulted from violence, it was attributed to sorcery and often these Indians sought vengeance on the supposed murderer or any member of his kindred. The

Sekani

kinship system was extremely simple with matrilineal descent and

exogamy prevailing. Marriage was regulated by degree of consanguinity; first cousins could not marry. The levirate was mentioned and polygamy was not uncommon. Marriage itself was a simple ceremony which involved bride service. Wrestling for wives, common among some Mackenzie River valley tribes, was unknown to these Indians according to the author. Divorce took place at the will of either party. The penalty for the unfaithful wife was death or severe beating and death for her paramour. But since the society was so loosely organized and the task of exacting the penalty devolved on the husband and his kin, the misconduct sometimes went unheeded. Mothers kept careful watch over their unmarried daughters and shielded them from abduction. Jenness obtained other information on child socialization from the work of Morice and the journals of Harmon as well as from his own fieldwork. A pregnant woman could bring bad luck to a hunter; a woman in labor had to camp away from her husband, the hunter. Babies were named soon after birth. At puberty both boys and girls underwent special rituals. The final chapters of the work concern Sekani religion and includes useful informant observations and accounts of religious practices. The “old” religion was described as a body of ideas where animals were like people and strange monsters existed which preyed upon mankind. Since these old times, the monsters have been destroyed by various heroes. There still is a basic belief in a link between man and the animal world. Animals are thought to possess special powers which they grant to men only if approached in the proper way. This wisdom is desired especially for its hunting benefits and is sought by a boy after he reaches puberty.

224. Jenness, Diamond 1938

The Sarcee Indians of Alberta. National Museum of Canada, Bulletin No. 90, Anthropological Series No. 23.

Canada Department of Mines and Resources,

Ottawa. A general ethnography based on 1921 fieldwork, this report gives an overview of the Sarsi Indians of Alberta and is especially useful for information on ceremonial aspects of Sarsi life. Because of the Sarsi’s close association with the Blackfoot Indians of Alberta, these once typical northern Athabascan India.ns have become more like a Plains group. The Sarsi subsistence is based on buffalo. The society is cross-cut by five societies of men. Girls belonged to their mother’s bands and boys over 9 or 10 years old belonged to their father’s bands. These bands seem to be fluid, dispersing in the winter and joining again for the summer.

11-80

225. Jenness, Diamond 1943

The Carrier Indians of the Bulkley River, their Social and Religious Life. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American

Ethnology,

logical

No.

Paper

25.

Bulletin 133, Anthropo¬

United States Government

Printing Office, Washington, pp. 469-586. This excellent detailed ethnography is a standard source on Carrier Indians. It includes useful information on historical contact and intertribal relations between the Carriers and other Indian groups. The Carriers, Canadian Athabascans, live around Eutsuk, Francis, Babine and Stuart lakes and around the headwaters of the Fraser River. They are the most southwestern Athabascan group and because of their proximity to the northwest coast Indian tribes, have been influenced greatly by them. Carrier social organization was based on a five-phratry system. Each phratry was divided into two or more clans. Each clan had its own chiefs, crests, nobility status and titles, commoners and slaves. Each clan chief was supported by a body of nobles, most of whom were close kinsmen. The chief of the largest clan was head of the phratry and possessed much power and influence. All chiefs settled disputes. Chieftaincy was passed matrilineally. Inheritance and descent also followed the female line. No man could marry a woman of his own phratry. Children belonged to the clans and phratries of their mothers. Much attention was directed at establishing a child’s status and clan

identification.

This

was signified by a complex process of name changing and

potlatching as the child grew older and became more socialized into the culture. Hunting territory

and

fishing rights were divided among the various phratries.

Trespassing led to quarrels and often bloodshed. Families made mutual arrangements where each would hunt, though two or three families would travel together to reach their hunting areas. In earlier times, hunting territory consisted of many discrete, scattered strips of land. As white populations moved into the area, the lands became consolidated so that the Carriers could no longer spread out over a large territory; Jenness indicated that there may have been fewer disputes between families before the consolidation of the hunting grounds. The Carriers tried to use the mysterious forces operating in the adolescent girl to prevent the constant death of infants in a family, which the Indian attributed to the violation of some taboo by one of the parents during youth. The rather diffuse Carrier religion included a vague idea of a somewhat powerful sky-god which became especially prominent after European contact. More importantly, the Carriers looked mainly to the powers of the animal world for an explanation of life and for assistance in daily life. Shamanism was associated with an extra degree of communication with the animal world, an especially useful relationship to hunting. Each man had his own guardian spirit in animal form.

226. Jenness, Diamond 1955

Canadian Indian Religion. Anthropologica, no. 1. pp. 1-17.

A remarkable uniformity of religious beliefs exists among Canadian Athabascan groups. The basic doctrine reflected in Athabascan religion was a kinship of man with nature, which contrasts with the European idea of man as a separate creation apart from

11-81

nature. All nature was felt to be one in kind; although all of its parts had different outside forms, all were alike in possessing a personality. Unlike the various outside forms, these personalities or souls that the Indians projected into everything were unchanging. Thus, the author concludes, the universes of the Indians became filled with spiritual entities, all claiming the Indians as their kin. Generally there was no grading in this cosmos, though some elements including wind, thunder and light-giving sun, were far mighter than others. The author notes that some Indians of the north simply considered the universe a playground for spiritual forces where each acted independently. However, most Indians ordered this society, and that yielded life more intelligible. Ultimately, Jenness says, a conception of a Supreme Being was formed. Unlike Christians, the Indians did not make the god a source of good or evil. Existence of good and evil was simply accepted as a fact. Evil was avoided if possible. Their god was too far removed to become concerned with good and evil. In fact, they were more involved with the lesser gods whose influence was more immediate. Sacrifices were common, but did not involve killing; tobacco would be thrown into the water, sticks would be added to a pile, or a little food would be thrown into the fire. These sacrifices were meant to insure luck and safety. Prayers were more frequent than sacrifices. Praying was usually spontaneous and often done in solitude in the hope of communicating with the supernatural world. This occurred especially at adolescence when one wanted to establish a link for future success in life. However, even when established, this link was a delicate one. Dreams were significant since the soul at the time was free of the body and could associate with supernatural forces. Both the religion and mythology of northern Athabascans expressed a fluid condition in which realism and mysticism were blended. All elements of the Indian’s world had emotions similar to his own. “He did not hesitate to destroy their outward forms, to shoot down the buffalo with his arrow or to tear up the plant from its native soil; but he extended to all things a certain measure of reverence, as befitted one who himself played a role in the same amphitheatre.” (p. 17)

227. Jenness, Diamond 1955

The Indians of Canada. National Museum of Canada Bulletin

No.

65, Anthropological

Series

No.

15.

Canada Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources, Ottawa. (Third edition, first published in 1932.) This general survey of Canadian Indians includes information about tribal locations, languages, economic conditions, subsistence and physical culture. Chapters 22 and 23 include more specific information on Athabascan groups, but only a few paragraphs about each. However, Jenness’s other ethnographies give more detailed information on particular Canadian Athabascan groups.

228. Jenness, Diamond ed. 1956

The Chipewyan Indians: An Account by an Early Explorer. Anthropologica, vol 3. pp. 15-33.

Jenness edited these useful but biased, general observations made from 1801 to 1803 by John MacDonell who was a contemporary of Alexander Mackenzie. The account

11-82

concerns the Chipewyan Indians, Canadian Athabascans living north of the Churchill River between Great Slave Lake and the Slave and Athabaska rivers on the west and Hudson Bay on the east. Subsistence at that time was based on both hunting and fishing; although fishing was a “never failing” source of food, hunting was preferred. MacDonell

says

that

these

Indians

have always

been

in

a state

of

“darkest

superstitition,” and even after long intercourse with Europeans, they have become no more enlightened. They believed in a Supreme Being whose power could cause sickness, famine, death, and such mishaps as missing a shot at game. “Professed jugglers or conjurers” existed among these Indians. Their sayings and dreams were considered ominous and influencial enough to throw one into a “state of sadness and despondency.” For protection, each man carried a small leather bag containing sacred objects which, if touched by a woman, would lose all worth and potency. Themes of fear and the dangerousness of women were further reflected by the Chipewyan ideas of a future state where dexterity in hunting and a charitable environment would be realized. To arrive at this land, one must cross a river in a stone canoe. The qualified

Indian reaches the destination. The bad Indian “approaches with fear and

trembling” close enough to be tantilized by this land, but then the canoe “sinks into the gloomy river with its wicked load which is never heard of again as should it not be immediately devoured by the fishes and beasts of prey it is thrown out and is consumed by the sun and water and once more becomes earth.” MacDonell describes everyday life among these Indians. He was particularly impressed by the poor treatment of women. They carried on most of the camp activities while the men hunted. Men were extremely jealous of their women and watched them closely. Even so, the women were feared, especially during menstruation. The women were also promiscuous. Each family comprised a distinct community, patriarchal in nature. Elders seemed to form a council and had the right to advise but not dictate. They apparently maintained equilibrium and stability within the community. MacDonell says that these councils acted as a counterpoise to the impetuosity of youth. Yet they only dealt with problems verbally and relied on respect for their advice to be followed. Oration was the main activity at a meeting of elders and this was “grave but not serious.” Lying, cheating, and theft all went unpunished, showing Athabascan reluctance to offend. Even incest, a grave crime among these Athabascans, would not be censored in the presence of the guilty because censor would offend his relatives. Murder was avenged, but according to MacDonell, “Still they are afraid to attempt it while in a sober state but generally when intoxicated he (the murderer) runs a greater risk.” Even if the murderer gave all his property to the relatives of the murdered, he would never be absolved entirely.

229. Jenness, Diamond 1956

The Corn Goddess and Other Tales from Indian Canada. National Museum of Canada, Bulletin 141, Anthropological Series No. 39. Canada Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources, Ottawa.

Athabascan tales include: The Bride of the Evening Star How the Indians Obtained Dogs The Foundling who was Befriended by Wolves

11-83

The Mermaid The Blind Hunter Flying Wonder The Magic Gifts The Orphan Hero The Revenge of the Mountain Goats The Sky Boy The Return of the Child

230. Jette, Pere Julius 1907

On the Medicine-Men of the Ten'a. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 37, new series, vol. 10. pp. 157-188.

This paper contains much Ten’a folklore with Jette’s own interpretations and much useful information on spiritual practices of central Alaskan Athabascans of the Yukon River and its tributaries who Jette calls the Ten’a. However, the reader has to cull out the relevant material. Athabascans have a wonderful faculty for believing or disbelieving what they choose. Intellect seems to be at the will’s command. Frequently they judge the credibility of a report not by its merits but by the self benefits they would accrue from it. According to Jette, the Ten’a believe in the medicine man because of his beneficial manipulative powers and because they fear him. Religion seems to be rather vague. There was no notion of a single god. Belief was centered on devils and on the pervasive and continual action of evil spirits. Jette says, “Their imagination is always on the alert to descry some devil moving about in the dark or in the broad daylight... Hence, to hear them talk, one would think that they are constantly in touch with the devil, that they have seen it hundreds of times...” (p. 159). These Indians believed in numerous devils and spirits that were essentially malignant. Although some of these spirits could help men, they did so by doing evil in response to other evils. Some could also provide the necessities of life, but this was considered the cause of jealousy between men. A man or woman who had command of a spirit was a medicine man. Jette estimates that there were about five men to every woman who had such powers. The most powerful medicine men often had more than one spirit under their control. The social standing of a medicine man was generally a desirable one, though not always. The medicine man was influential. However, he could cause both good and evil, which apparently made his position ambiguous. He was paid for his services and was respected for his ability. He could help in times of sickness by somehow drawing the disease out of the patient’s body. The calling to the profession was through a dream which would be later interpreted to mean that the individual had been contacted in some special communication from the supernatural world. The average medine man was more intelligent than other Indians around him, observed Jette. Frequently he seemed to be a better hunter than the others, too. Though he carried out daily occupations of hunting and working just as other Indians, his gains were always considered to be gifts from the supernatural. Some useful vocabulary and village names are also included.

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231. Jette, Pere Julius 1908-09

On Ten'a Folklore. Journal of Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 38, new series, vol. 11, pp. 298-367; vol. 39, new series, vol. 12, pp. 460-506.

Jette presents valuable Ten’a folklore from the area between Kaltag and the Tanana River in Alaska. The extensive information, collected between 1900 and 1908, contains a good collection of myths with some interlineal translation as well as much interpretation by the author. Myths include: The Grandmother and Her Grandson The Raven The Second Making of Man The Bugbear The Bugbear or the Goblin The Man-Eagle The Bear-Skin The Canoe The Woman-Porcupine The Big-Raven The Owl The Raven The Mouse The Poor Young Man

232. Jette, Pere Julius 1911

On the Superstitions of the Ten'a Indians. Anthropos, vol. 6. pp. 95-108, 241-259, 602-615,699-723.

This fundamental source for anyone concerned with Athabascan emotional and social life comes from observations of the Ten’a, Athabascans who lived between Kaltag and the Tanana River in Alaska. There is extensive information concerning chief spirits, souls, shaminism, magical beliefs, superstitions, and local monsters, as well as information on childbirth, puberty, menstruation, and death. Dreams and the appearance of certain animals in dreams are also discussed. An excellent source of expressive symbolic material on an Alaskan Athabascan group.

233. Jette, Pere Julius 1913

Riddles of the Ten'a Indians. Anthropos, vol. 8. pp. 181-201.

Jette’s Ten’a folklore reference provides detailed description of over 100 Athabascan riddles; this is a rich source of significant ethnographic information.

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The

234. Jones, S.

Kutchin Tribes. In: G. Gibbs, Notes on the

Tinneh or Chipewyan Indians of British and Russian

1867

America. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the

Smithsonian

Government

Institute,

Printing

1866.

Office,

United

Washington,

States pp.

320-327. Jones gives a general, biased description of the Kutchin Indians, Athabascans of the central portion of the Yukon Territory and the lower course of the Mackenzie River. Kutchin subsistence was based on small game and fish, although large game, including bear, moose, and deer, were also hunted. The Kutchin were semi-nomadic and therefore had movable shelters and minimal physical culture. In contrast to other Athabascans, Jones says, the Kutchin seemed to be more generous, honest, hospitable, proud, and high-spirited rather like the Plains Indians. The Kutchin were governed by chiefs whose power was limited. Chiefs were selected for their wisdom and courage rather than birth. The legal system was also limited. Theft usually went unpunished, and small matters were handled by the parties concerned. However, adultery was serious and would be punished by beating and even death. Murder was revenged by the victim’s relatives or by a paid medicine man. These Indians practiced slavery; one with no friends would be made a slave. Generally, women were treated little better than slaves. Women did most of the work around camp but did not cook. That was a male job. Men and women did not eat together. Women remained separated from the household during menstruation. The only ceremonies Jones noted occurred when a man of consequence died. The Kutchin then held dances which lasted for 10 or 12 days. Gifts were exchanged at this time. The men who actually buried the corpse were required to live apart from the tribe for 2 months after the event.

235. Keewatin, Bishop of 1913

The Chipewyan Indians. Transactions of the Canadian Institute, vol. 10, part 1. pp. 41-42.

Aside from the locations of some Canadian Athabascan groups, this article is of little ethnographic use.

236. Keim, Charles J. ed. 1964

Kutchin Legends from Old Crow, Yukon Territory. Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska, vol. 11, no. 2. pp. 97-108.

Legends collected from an Old Crow informant: Willow Man Story of an Indian Who was Called “Grass Pants” Story of a Crow Story of a Swan and a Teal Story of a Crow and a Big Fish The Lucky Boy

11-86

The Boy in the Moon A Brushman The Lucky Girl The Stranger The Stranger and the Rabbit

237. Kenney, James F. ed. 1932

The Founding of Churchill, Being the Journal of Captain James Knight, Governor-In-Chief in Hudson Bay, from the 14th of July to the 13th of September, 1717. J. M. Dent and Sons, Limited, Toronto.

Knight’s journal narrates the founding of the Hudson’s Bay Company’s trading post at Churchill in 1670. The journal includes little direct information on the Athabascans though it mentions they did some trading at the fort. Conflict between the Athabascans and the Cree Indians limited the Athabascan trading effort.

238. Kerr, Robert 1953

For the Royal Scottish Museum. Beaver, Outfit 284, June. pp. 32-35.

Kerr refers to early explorers and traders of northern Canada in this article. He includes some pictures of Dogrib and Kutchin clothing.

239. Kidd, Kenneth E. 1957

Trading into Hudson's Bay. Beaver, Outfit 288, no. 3. pp. 12-17.

This history of the fur trade around York Factory discusses the acculturative effects of firearms and new economic patterns on local Indians.

240. King, Richard 1836

Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Arctic Ocean, in 1833, 1834, and 1835. Samuel Bentley, Printer, London. Vol. 1 and 2.

The journal includes scattered reference to various Canadian Indian groups encoun¬ tered, but little specific information. It does note starvation among the Indians as well as disease, both of which took large numbers of lives.

241. King, W. Cornwallis Weeks, Mary

Akaitcho, A Link with Franklin. Beaver, Outfit 270, no. 1, June. pp. 25-27.

1939 One bowdlerized myth, no title.

11-87

Founding

242. King, W. Cornwallis Weeks, Mary

Fort

Nelson.

Beaver,

Outfit

274,

December, pp. 42-43.

1943 A historical reference, this sketches the founding of a settlement in the Peace River area, British Columbia, occupied by the Beaver Indians.

A Journey to the Yukon, Russian America. Smith-

243. Kirby, W. W. 1864

sonian

Institution

Government

Annual

Printing

Report.

Office,

United

States

Washington,

pp.

416-420. Kirby’s journal

of travel in the Yukon River area contains some disorganized

information on Kutchins of northern Alaska and notes matrilineality, feuding among Indian groups, and a general decrease in population.

Chipewyan Indians of Camp-10. In: Ethnographic

244. Koolage, William W. 1968

Study of Churchill, John J. Honigmann, ed. Institute for Research in Social Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. pp. 61-127. (Mimeographed.)

Koolage’s section of this general, 1966 ethnography of Churchill, Manitoba, contains relevant

information

on

Athabascan

community

living.

The

Chipewyan

segment

of

Churchill’s population comprised a homogeneous, segregated group and generally made poor adjustment to town life. The Chipewyan suffered marked social disorganization and had a high frequency of alcoholism, delinquency and conflict with the police and with the Euro-Canadians of Churchill. They also had no strong leaders, although some Christian religious activity centered around a dozen older people who could read and who attended church more frequently than others. These Athabascans were generally unwilling to discuss the dead or even mention names of the dead. Koolage observed that they also exhibited a fear about bad or wild white men. They believed that these evil men stole babies and attacked wives. About socialization, Koolage said that after birth the child spent most of its time wrapped in blankets, in a hammock-like sling that was often placed above the parents’ bed. When the child was old enough to walk, it was watched less closely and sometimes put in the care of an older sibling. Chipewyan children began to walk and play outside at about 15 months. They were seldom forbidden to do anything. From age five or six to adulthood, children depended mostly upon their peer group for entertainment. Many of their games involved rough play for both sexes. During adolescence, though, there was little contact between males and females. Parents had little control over children. Punishment was rare. Within the Chipewyan area, it is quite common for children’s peer groups to mug drunks or adults who had hurt a member of their group. The Chipewyan residents generally disliked the camp area and would express a desire to get caught by the police and be sent away. Jail was not considered a bad thing.

11-88

Koolage divided adult relationships into three categories: (1) kin were treated with calm reserve, cooperativeness, and noninterference in one another’s activities, (2) others met with avoidance, noncooperation, and verbal hostility, and (3) drinking party behavior was initially convivial but became hostile in the end. (Extra-marital sex was most common after drinking.) Useful information conditions in Churchill.

is also presented on Chipewyan physical culture and living

245. Korner, Ija N. 1959

Notes of a Psychologist Fieldworker. Anthropologica, new series, vol. 1, no. 1 and 2. pp. 91-105.

Interesting impressions of this clinical psychologist come from his experience in anthropological fieldwork in a northwestern Canadian Indian village. His thoughts are random and more useful as reflections on methodological problems of fieldwork than as field observations of the Athabascan Indians. Korner believed that the life of these Indians could not be understood unless one considered the influence of the Hudson’s Bay Company, the Royal Mounted Police, the Roman Catholic Church, and other institutions which have affected them. While interviewing these Athabascans, the author says that his reactions ran from exhilaration to exasperation since they were often suspicious and unwilling to part with information.

246. Krenov, Julia 1951

Legends from Alaska. Journal de la Societe des Americanistes, vol. 40, new series, pp. 173-195.

English translations: The First People The Kenai Indian and the Russian Czar Jaconestus, Bom of Mooljaa, The Spirit Makarka—The Sooktoo, The Conjuror The Russian Bishop and the Indian Conjuror The Two Shamans, The Indian and the Russian The Wolves-Folk Nan-Teena, Spirits of the Forest The Land of the Dead, A Yukon Story Willingyetaraliks, the Man-Haters Toolookoorook, the Raven

247. Krieger, Herbert W. 1928

Tinne Indians of the Lower Yukon River Valley. Explorations

and

Fieldwork

of

the

Smithsonian

Institute in 1927. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, pp. 125-132. Krieger briefly compares archaeological and cultural material of the lower Yukon River valley and notes the similarity in subsistence between archaeologically described Indians and present Indians. The fieldwork for this report was done in 1927. 11-89

248. Krieger, Herbert W. 1929

American Indian Costumes in the United States National Museum. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, 1928. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, pp. 623-661.

This survey includes only brief comments on Athabascan clothing.

249. Kroeber, Alfred L. 1937

Athabascan Kin Term Systems. American Anthro¬ pologist, vol.

39,

new series, no. 4, part 1. pp.

602-608. A comparison of similarities between kinship terminology of northern, Californian, and southern Athabascan Indians.

250. Kroeber, Alfred L. 1947

Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America. University of California Press, Berkeley.

The objectives of this study were to review the relationships between environment and the native cultures of North America and to examine historic relationships within the designated culture areas or geographical units of cultures. The general assumption is that no culture is wholly intelligible without reference to its physical environment. General findings were as follows for the Athabascan area. The whole north of the continent except its shores and a belt of tundra is a coniferous forest with subarctic climate. Subsistence was based on hunting and fishing, though the author concluded that it became more profitable for the Indians to depend on the trading posts as they were established. Hunting increased and food consumption patterns changed; this transformation proceeded rather uniformly over the whole region. Underlying this vegetation region was a uniformity in both native culture and ecology. The coniferous belt was generally equal to the caribou food area with divisions between the Yukon and Mackenzie drainage and the Hudson Bay and Atlantic drainage. The Hudson Bay and Atlantic drainage division corresponds to the Athabascan-Algonkin boundary. On either side of this division, the cultures remain fairly uniform and linguistically alike.

251. Laguna, Frederica de 1934

Ceremonial Paddles from the Eyak Indians, Alaska. Pennsylvania University Museum Bulletin, vol. 5, no. 2. pp. 57-59.

The Eyak Indians of southeast Alaska, never numbering more than 200 and now reduced to 30, have been classed as both Athabascan and Eskimo. Their language was a very divergent dialect of Athabascan. Style of dress and many religious notions were typically Eskimo. Eyak hunting methods were Athabascan and their material culture and ceremonial life resembled that of the Tlingit.

11-90

The author suggests that the Eyak were originally an inland Athabascan tribe who migrated down the Copper River to its mouth where they came into contact with Prince William Sound Eskimos. Tlingit influences came later.

252. Laguna, Frederica de 1936

Indian Masks from the Anthropologist,

vol.

38,

Lower Yukon. American new

series, no.

4.

pp.

569-585. Similarities shown between Ingalik and Eskimo masks and ceremonial life indicate borrowing between these groups. The Ingalik occupy the middle and lower areas of the Yukon River in Alaska. The author provides a good descriptive account.

253. Laguna, Frederica de 1937

A Preliminary Sketch of the Eyak Indians. Publi¬ cations of the Philadelphia Anthropological Society, vol. 1. pp. 63-75.

The Eyak Indians are originally from the Copper River and eastern edge of Prince William Sound in Alaska. De Laguna visited these Indians in 1930 and deduced that the Eyak are Athabascans who have been greatly influenced by the coast Indians and Eskimos. Their

material

and

spiritual

culture

represents

a

blending

of interior Athabascan,

southwestern Alaska Eskimo, and Tlingit culture. Their physical culture includes the interior Athabascan shelter, northwest coast potlatch house, and Eskimo canoes. Like the Tlingit, the Eyak were divided into two exogamous matrilineal moieties. Within each of these were partially differentiated groups. Each moiety had a chief and subchief and these offices were passed on to brothers. The chief’s family seemed to have more wealth than other families. Other aspects of social organization noted were bride service,

some matrilocality, mother-in-law and son-in-law avoidance, father-in-law and

daughter-in-law avoidance, polygyny, sororate, and levirate. Potlatch ceremonies were in use as death ceremonies. Members of the opposite moiety prepared the body and the deceased’s possessions were burned or distributed at the death potlatch. The author felt that much of the potlatch institution came from Tlingit culture. At puberty the girl was secluded for several months, ate from special dishes, and could not touch, see, or eat fresh meat or fish for fear of offending the animals. During a birth, men would not be present. More extensive information may be found in de Laguna’s ethnography on the Eyak co-authored with Birket-Smith and published in 1938. An annotation for this work appears under Birket-Smith.

254. Laguna, Frederica de 1969-70

The Atna of the Copper River, Alaska: The World of Men and Animals. Folk, vol. 11-12. pp. 17-26.

This short but useful paper outlines the culture of the Atna, Alaskan Athabascans of the Copper River. They were a hunting and fishing people whose lives were governed by the seasons and movements of game. These Indians lived in small groups of matrilineal and exogamous clans.

11-91

Mammals, birds, and fish furnished food, tools, hunting equipment, and valuable furs. These animals, so important to Atna livelihood, were recognized as social, moral, and religious beings who were controlled by spiritual powers and protected by an elaborate system of taboos. Many of these taboos applied to Atna hunting activity and were used to avoid offending animals and spirits. Another complex system of taboos centered around stages of human life, including the dangerous crises of birth, adolescence, bereavement, manslaughter, and potlatching. These and hunting taboos combined in many ways to insure the well-being of an unsure individual in a treacherous world.

255. Lamb, W. Kaye ed. 1957

Sixteen Years in the Indian Country, the Journal of Daniel Williams Harmon, 1800-1816. MacMillan Com¬ pany of Canada Limited, Toronto.

Journal notes of this early trader contain very useful information on Canadian Athabascans, especially on the Carriers and Sekani of central British Columbia. They document the Athabascan woman’s inferior status; women had to do most camp chores, heavy moving work, and cooking, while the men restricted their work to hunting. Harmon reported valuable information on childbirth and socialization. Before the birth of a child, the woman would erect a small shelter some distance away from the main camp where she stayed until her child was born. Another woman from a neighboring tribe sometimes helped during the delivery. Delivery itself was relatively easy. After the birth, the mother remained in the small dwelling for about a month. A feast was given after the birth of a male. In general, children were not often chastised and they seemed to have affection and respect for their parents. A father never interfered with the bringing up of his daughters. However, he taught his sons how to hunt. This training began as soon as possible. Until a son was married, he was considered to be under his father’s control. The aged were commonly treated with respect. Murder and theft were considered crimes and both could be punished with death. The offended party could sometimes be appeased for theft, but not for murder; a killing was avenged. Generosity was considered a virtue. In any case, property held by individuals was minimal. Most of a man’s property was buried with him when he died. Harmon observed that when someone was very sick, his family and relatives would each sacrifice a piece of their clothing to the evil spirit whom they supposed to be the cause of illness. He also noted that these Indians appeared to be more distressed with the loss of an infant than of an adult. Although men appeared ashamed to manifest their grief, women gave full vent to their feelings. A mother would pull out the hair from her head as well as cut her face, arms, and legs. To further render herself as “wretched,” she would bum her clothes and would stand outside for hours in stormy weather. All the Indian tribes frequently warred with each other. Generally, the Indians of the woody country did not wage war as much as those who lived in the large plains to the north. All Indians east of the Rocky Mountains believed in a Great Spirit who was perfect. However they considered the bad spirit who plotted against their peace and safety more important. Their world also comprised many other lesser spirits of good and evil. Religious observances consisted of prayers, feasts, and small sacrifices of property. Each male carried a

11-92

medicine bag with him which contained a carved animal or figure, war cap, tobacco, roots and other items thought to have valuable medicinal qualities or bring good luck. The priest among these Indians was also a physician and conjurer. In general, these Indians were credulous and superstitious.

256. Latham, R. G. 1848

On the Ethnography of Russian America. Journal of the Ethnological Society, vol. 1. pp. 266-274.

Population figures of various Indian groups make this a useful paper.

257. Laviolette, Gontran 1956

Notes on the Aborigines of the Prairie Provinces. Anthropologica, vol. 2. pp. 107-130.

Laviolette provides demographic information on the natives under federal government jurisdiction in the provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. Although some historical notes are made, the information mainly applies since 1941 and there is only brief mention of Athabascans.

258. Leechman, Douglas 1948

Caribou for Chipewyans. Beaver, Outfit 278, March. pp. 12-13.

A brief article on Chipewyan caribou preparation, this contains some photographs and no useful information.

259. Leechman, Douglas 1948

Old Crow's Village. Canadian Geographical Journal, vol. 37, no. 1. pp. 2-16.

Little mention is made of the local Athabascans in this historical and contemporary description of the northern Canadian village of Old Crow, which is located on the upper Porcupine River. The village is said to be named after an Indian chief.

260. Leechman, Douglas 1948

The Pointed Skins. Beaver, Outfit 278, March, pp. 14-18.

The Canadian Chipewyan Indians were caught between two forces: the Eskimos who were well-off, self-reliant, smiling, helpful, competent, and alert, and the Cree Indians who were aggressive. The Chipewyan were inferior to both the Eskimos and Cree and were frequently the target of their hostility. Leechman mentions that the Chipewyan had no chiefs, clans, or secret societies, and that a man had as many wives as he could take by force and feed.

11-93

261. Leechman, Douglas 1949

Indian Summer. Ryerson Press, Toronto.

This work consists of 10 biographical sketches of Indians who Leechman knew during his 40 year’s work in northern Canada and 11 legends: The Ghost of Raft River Courage, Canoes, and Whales How Bobby Lost His Eye The Eighth Wife Brushman Grass Pants Wrinkled Old Leggings Old Crow Funeral When the Caribou Come “Beasts and all Cattle-” The Chief’s Daughter

Loucheux Tales. Journal of American Folklore, vol.

262. Leechman, Douglas 1950

63. pp. 158-162.

English translations: A Young Medicine Man The Woman Who Was a Bear The Jealous Old Woman The Defeat of the Eskimos Daddy Long-Legs

263. Leechman, Douglas 195'2

Folk-Lore of the Vanta-Kutchin. In Annual Report of the National Museum of Canada for the Fiscal Year 1950-51, Bulletin No. 126. Canada, Department of Resources and Development, National Parks Branch, Ottawa, pp. 76-93.

Vunta Kutchin folklore collected in Old Crow, Yukon Territory, in 1946: A Man Who Left His Wife The Man Who Killed Two Chiefs The Origin of Phratries The Little Boy’s Trail The Big Fish The Young Man With Two Girls The Loon’s Necklace The Girl Who Married a Dog Muskrat and Beaver The Widow’s Revenge Brush men Culture 11-94

264. Leechman, Douglas 1954

The Vanta Kutchin. National Museum of Canada Bulletin No. 130, Anthropological Series No. 33. Canada Department of Northern Affairs and National Resources, National Parks Branch, Ottawa.

Fieldwork for this brief, general ethnography of the Vunta Kutchin was done in 1946 in the village of Old Crow on the Porcupine River. It includes some material about historical contact and elements of physical culture, and some useful information on hunting and fishing gear. Leechman considered these Indians a subtribe of the Loucheux, Athabascans of the northwest part of the Yukon Territory.

265. Leechman, Douglas 1957

The Trappers. Beaver, Outfit 288, no. 3. pp. 24-31.

This general discussion of Canadian trappers and their relations with Athabascan Indians is of little use, except for describing Cree depredations on the Dogribs and other Athabascans to the west.

266. Leechman, Douglas

The Carriers. Beaver, Outfit 283, March, pp. 26-27.

Lloyd, Scott 1953 Photographs and few brief paragraphs constitute this article; it is of little use for ethnographic study.

267. Leechman, Douglas

The Loucheux. Beaver, Outfit 284, June. pp. 26-27.

Lloyd, Scott 1953 The few paragraphs of general description and photographs in this article provide little useful information.

268. Lofthouse, J. 1913

Chipewyan

Stories.

Transactions

Canadian Institute, vol. 10. pp. 43-51.

English translations: The Animal Age The Man who Married the Mouse The Age of Man The Man who Dreamt of the Buffalo No title No title

11-95

of

the

Royal

269. Loftus, Audrey 1956

According to Mama. St. Matthew’s Episcopal Guild, Fairbanks.

Athabascan shamanism, menstruation, and marriage are among the aspects of Indian life discussed in this and two other short papers in this series; they are of little use for ethnographic study since the information is highly edited.

270. Lotz, James Robert 1964

Yukon Bibliography, Preliminary Edition. No. 1 in the Yukon Research Project Series. Northern Co¬ ordination

and

Research

Center,

Department

of

Northern Affairs and National Resources, Ottawa. A short, incomplete section lists references concerning the local Indians.

271. Lowie, Robert H. 1909

The Chipewyans of Canada. Southern Workman, vol. 38. pp. 278-283.

In 1908 Lowie observed that these Athabascans had a subsistence based on game and fish, their bands were small, and they had little social organization. Information is so general it is of minimal use.

272. Lowie, Robert H. 1909

An Ethnological Trip to Lake Athabasca. American Museum Journal, vol. 9. pp. 10-15.

The area around Lake Athabasca is often considered to be the “homeland” of Athabascan Indians. The author notes the great simplicity of Athabascan social organization and their extraordinary susceptibility to extraneous influences. He said that these Indians had no elaborate ceremonies, no strongly centralized executive power, and no esoteric fraternities or age-based societies. Shamanistic activity flourished among these Indians until the early 1900’s.

273. Lowie, Robert H. 1967

Windigo, A Chipewyan Story. In: American Indian Life, Elsie Clews Parsons, ed. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, pp. 325-336.

An edited Chipewyan story taking place around Fort Hearne, Canada, this details Athabascan wife stealing.

274. Loyens, William John 1964

The Koyukon Feast for the Dead. Arctic Anthropology, vol. 2., no. 2. pp. 133-148.

The Koyukon Indians are central Alaskan Athabascans who inhabit the Yukon River area between the mouth of the Tanana River and the village of Kaltag on the lower Yukon. A potlatch, or “feast for the dead” was held in 1962 when two Kaltag men died.

11-96

After the burial, a small feast was held to which only relatives were invited. Loyens observed that the bodies were handled by nonrelatives. Sometime later, the two widows indicated that they wanted to hold a “stick dance” in honor of their deceased husbands, as well as repay the burial participants in a formal, traditional way. Consent was requested of the people who prepared the body. The ceremony lasted several days. The main potlatch feast started on the first day, followed by the widows’ speeches to honor their deceased husbands. The widows were dressed in old, tom clothes at that time. The ceremony continued with mourning songs and dancing. Later the two men who handled the bodies left the hall and returned with a spruce pole around which the stick dance was performed. After extensive singing and dancing, goods were distributed in payment for the burial services. All the items were tied together and all present took hold of this chain. The dancing continued and eventually the gifts were deposited in a comer of the hall. These events continued through the first night and second day. On the evening of the second day, a “dressing” ceremony took place where the two who handled the bodies undressed and were given new outfits piece by piece by the widows. After this, the widows directed the gift distribution. They were assisted by their sons or close relatives. Presents were distributed to all who had shared in the work of the burial. This series of events ended with a feast, which generally concluded the entire ceremony. The remaining text reports historical documentation of the potlatch for comparative purposes.

275. Loyens, William John 1966

The Changing Culture of the Nulato Koyukon Indians. Thesis for Ph.D. Reproduced by University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1972.

Loyens has incorporated and continued Jette’s earlier work among the Koyukon with an added discussion of acculturation. He details the essential nomadism of the groups prior to contact and presents demographic information as well as describing the subsistence economy, a pan Athabascan hunting and fishing type culture. The introduction of the rifle brought indiscriminate slaughter of big game. This reduced the number of certain species significantly. There was a strict sexual division of labor, and distinct ideas concerned the sharing of game and a number of taboos relating to women and hunting in general. The condition of children varied depending on their status (illegitimate, adopted etc.) and orphans were poorly treated. Child socialization was by harsh command or by shaming in front of others. There was no male puberty ceremony, but there was sequestration for female puberty in the house of parents behind a blanket. Numerous taboos attended puberty rites. Immediately upon post pubertal betrothal to a boy in his 20’s, a period of bride service with initial matrilocal residence had to be performed by the groom for her parents. Preferred marriages were cross-cousin. The sororate and levirate also existed among the Koyukon. Included in his discussion of social oranization, Loyens gives the kinship terms of these Athabascans.

11-97

The Koyukon boasted of lacking chiefs. Public opinion was the most effective social control. Murder, theft, and adultery were recognized serious offenses that could lead to feuds. The author briefly describes taboo systems. He discusses the effects of both Russian and American traders and missionaries on the Indians. The essential dynamic he finds is the increasing concentration of the Lower Koyukon into Kaltag and Nulato. This came about because of traders, missions, and schools. An extended discussion of the role of Catholic missionaries notes their systematic campaign, in conjunction with some “legal” assistance by the army and federal government, to eradicate aboriginal beliefs. Curiously the effect of these practices was to secularize what was previously religious or supernatural, and to substitute a new set of taboos and spirit beliefs for the old at the same time. The stick dance—a post mortem ceremony—was railed at by missionaries until the people were able to convince the priests that the ceremony had no religious content. Presently outmigration of young women and subsequent marriage with whites has had a depressing effect on young men.

276. Lurie, Nancy O. 1961

The Dogrib Indians of Canada. Lore, vol. 11, no. 2. pp. 60-67.

The reader is referred to a later, extensive monograph which Lurie co-authored with June Helm on the Dogribs of Lac la Martre in Canada for detailed treatment of these Indians. In this article, Lurie recalls some of her fieldwork experiences.

277. Lustig-Arecco, Vera 1972

Concerning the Kutchin: Of Woman and Things. In: Wendell

H. Oswalt, ed.,

Modern

Alaskan

Native

Material Culture. University of Alaska Museum, Uni¬ versity of Alaska, College, pp. 43-72. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate that the modernization process can be measured by the differential technological adoptions of households. Household inventory and statistical analysis form the body of this paper. The work was carried out in the Alaska Athabascan communities of Arctic Village, Chalkyitsik, and Venetie.

278. Lutz, Harold J.

1959

Aboriginal Man and White Man as Historical Causes of Fires in the Boreal Forest, with Particular Reference to Alaska. Yale University, School of Forestry, Bulletin No. 65. Yale University Press, New Haven.

Much of the boreal forest referred to here is Athabascan Indian territory. Lutz quotes the early journals of Thompson, Dali, and Brooks, who all stated that the natives were careless. But other early accounts of Bell, E. J. Krapp, and Mitchell, did not agree. Whether from man’s actions or nature, the author notes that most journals indicated that large areas of forest had been burned.

11-98

Lutz says that Indians used fires for camps, signals, gumming canoes, hunting, and combating insects. They used smoke to drive animals out of hiding places, herd, and attract fish. A rather complete list of early journals is found in the bibliography of the paper.

279. MacClellan, Catharine 1950

Culture Change and Native Trade in Southern Yukon Territory.

Ph.D.

Thesis,

University

of

California.

University Microfilms, Ann Arbor. The author considers the “survival” of Tlingit traits among the interior Athabascan population of the southern Yukon area. She suggests that the interior Indians probably acquired their Tlingit traits during the 19th century as a result of internative trade relations which were intensified by a growing demand for furs. The Tlingit had acted as middlemen between the whites and the interior Indians; they eventually gained economic dominance and cultural influence over the interior groups.

280. MacClellan, Catharine 1956

Shamanistic

Syncretism

in

Southern

Yukon.

Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 19, series 2. pp. 130-137.

The author proposed that in spite of the fact that aboriginal practitioners (shamans) allied themselves with Christianity in several ways, the degree of shamanistic absorption of Christianity typifies a patterned adaptability which can be discerned in other facets of native life that involve a willingness to entertain new ideas. Since ideas actually incorporated are practical, and Christianity offers few of these, the aboriginal traditions may remain essentially unchanged. The author links this tendency to a fluid, informal pragmatic approach to life. MacClellan collected her information from Athabascans in the southern Yukon where she found that the supernatural belief system was extensive, loosely conceptualized, and open to considerable personal interpretation. One important being was “Animal Mother,” whose relationship

to

animal heroes and

monsters was vague. In everyday life, all

Athabascans were concerned with avoiding certain spirits and engaging others. A specialist simply had a greater degree of control than others over some spirits. MacClellan says these Indians have accepted Christianity to a very limited extent. The churches have condemned polygamy and shamanism and in effect have caused the natives to go under cover with shamanism. Shamans have used trappings of the church to appear allied with the church; for example, they use prayer meetings and hymns. Shamans have by-passed that part of Christianity which was not useful, such as confessions and restrictions on drinking. They used only those ideas which fit into the traditional ways, such as session on Sunday, an idea of souls, and an idea of the devil.

281. MacClellan, Catharine 1961

Avoidance Between Siblings of the Same Sex in North America. Southwestern Journal of Anthro¬ pology, vol. 17, no. 2. pp. 103-123.

In substantiating avoidance between siblings of the same sex, special note is made of the Atna of the Copper River drainage, Tlingit, Tagish, Tanana, and Tena Indians. After

11-99

summarizing the rather sketchy available ethnographic information, the author concludes that: (1) The Atna of the middle Copper River had both sororal and fraternal avoidance. (2) The Teslin Tlingit had fraternal avoidance. (3) The Tagish, southern Tutchone, and Tanana may have had both fraternal and sororal avoidance. (4) The Tena may have had sororal avoidance.

282. MacClellan, Catharine 1964

Culture Contacts in the Early Historic Period in Northwestern North America. Arctic Anthropology, vol. 2, no. 2. pp. 3-15.

In a comprehensive examination of some aspects of contact and intercommunication among northern peoples, MacClellan suggests that the traditional linguistic and “tribal” classifications of the northern Athabascans should be re-evaluated since the implied rigidity of groupings probably never existed. She also suggests that matriliny may have characterized old Athabascan culture and the bilateral influence came later from contact with Eskimos. She agrees with Steward’s suggestion that the more complex development in Athabascan social organization resulted from contact with the coastal Indians and the shift to a fishing-based economy.

Rainier, Dorothy

Ethnological Survey of Southern Yukon Territory, 1948. In Annual Report of the National Museum for

1948

the

283. MacClellan, Catharine

Fiscal

Canada,

Year

Bulletin

1948-49,

National

Museum

of

No.

National

Museum

of

118.

Canada, Ottawa, pp. 50-53. Indian groups at Carcross, Teslin, Klukshy, and Burwash Landing in the southern area of the

Yukon

Territory are

discussed

generally.

Borrowing occurred between these

Athabascans and coastal Indians.

284. McGrath, J. E. 1893

The Boundary South of Fort Yukon. Part II of T. C. Mendenhall’s

“The

Alaskan

Boundary

Survey.”

National Geographic Magazine, vol. 4. pp. 181-188. Noting lack of cleanliness and high instances of disease, McGrath says that the inhabitants of the lower Yukon were the most miserable, foul, and degraded beings that he saw in Alaska. He attributed poor living conditions to yearly flooding and excessive rain. These Indians maintained a fish diet for half a year, supplemented by game hunted the rest of the year.

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285. MacKeevor, Thomas 1819

A Voyage to Hudson's Bay During the Summer of 1812. London, pp. 48-76.

MacKeevor’s journal notes include some general information about what he calls “Northern Indians,” which may include northern Canadian Athabascans and especially the Chipewyan. Much of his information comes from other journals.

286. McKennan, Robert A. 1935

Anent the Kutchin Tribes. American Anthropologist, vol. 37, new series, no. 2. p. 369.

McKennan adds to C. Osgood’s Kutchin classification

(AA, Vol. 36, 1934, pp.

168-179) by defining a ninth group or tribe, the Dihai Kutchin. These people formerly inhabited the area around the north fork of the Chandalar River and the middle and south forks of the Koyukuk River. Now only a few Eskimos inhabit this area. The term Dihai signifies “yonder” or “farthest distant.” McKennan considers the Dihai Kutchin the most westerly of the true Kutchin tribes. He says they were more nomadic mountain dwellers than the other Kutchin. They lived almost exclusively by hunting and seldom went down to Fort Yukon. Therefore, they were not mentioned by the early writers. The Dihai Kutchin were never numerous because of famine, disease, and warfare with the Eskimos. They eventually moved to the east fork of the Chandalar River and merged with the Nedse Kutchin.

287. McKennan, Robert A. 1959

The Upper Tanana Indians. Yale University Publications in Anthropology, no. 55. Yale University Press, New Haven.

Fieldwork for this ethnography of the Upper Tanana Athabascans was done between 1921 and 1930. At that time, these Indians had not been influenced greatly by fur traders or other foreigners. Aside from brief contact during the gold rush activities around 1913, the original culture was still functioning. The author worked with informants who had been living there when the first white men entered the upper Tanana River region in Alaska. The ethnography is especially useful for information on subsistence and description of material culture. The Upper Tanana Indians are Athabascans living in the area of the upper Tanana River in central Alaska. The author notes, though, that what have been called tribes are really little more than geographic groups distinguished by minor dialectic differences and possibly a few ethnic peculiarities. The Upper Tanana culture centers around a nomadic, hunting existence, with the main food animals being caribou, moose, and sheep. The caribou is the most important source of food. Herds pass through the area twice a year, in the end of November and middle of May. Large quantities of these animals are killed at these times, the meat is frozen in the fall and dried in the spring. Other game included bear, though this meat was forbidden to women, a taboo widespread among northern Athabascans. During famine, the author noted, wolves were eaten. Generally though, wolves were included under the same taboo that forbade eating the flesh of the dog, fox, wolverine, and otter. Again, this was a general northern Athabascan taboo. The hare was an important and abundant small game animal used for food.

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Fish were of secondary importance in subsistence. McKennan notes that since fishing was restricted to a few spots on Clearwater streams, it has been responsible for the location of a few semipermanent villages. (Fishing for salmon was more important in the Yukon, Porcupine,

Kuskokwim,

Susitna,

Matanuska,

Copper,

Stikine, and Fraser rivers. The

Athabascans of the Mackenzie River depended upon fish other than salmon.) Vegetable foods were unimportant to the Upper Tanana Indians. Cannibalism may have occurred especially in the harsh circumstances of winter. McKennan notes that the cooking among the Upper Tanana was formerly done by the men. After the food was cooked, the men ate by themselves; the women did not eat until afterward. This practice was also common for several other northern Athabascan groups. The nomadic life of these Athabascans was governed by their constant food quest, the search for fish, moose, caribou and sheep at various seasons. The need for food did not allow much time to be spent in villages. The family constituted the basic unit of Upper Tanana society since subarctic conditions and hunting-based subsistence strictly limited larger grouping of people. The economy of this small family group depended upon a division of labor and cooperation between all members. The author notes that there was no romantic idea of love exhibited within the family; rather, it was a “smoothly working unit” with a man and woman showing mutual regard for each other and affection for the children. Marriage was without ceremony. Usually an older man could marry a woman after her first menstruation. Marriage seemed to be defined simply by living with the girl. Marriage was exogamous. Further or more complex social organization was limited; McKennan says that a striking feature of Upper Tanana clans was their impermanence. He also notes polygamy, easy divorce, bride purchase generally in the form of service, and a tendency to matrilocal residence. It can be added that all these features were common in other northern Athabascan groups. Upper Tanana society placed little emphasis on wealth because there was little available and also because traditional Athabascan traits of wealth sharing, hyperindivi¬ dualism that recognized no social order, and the tendency to judge every man by his individual prowness were contradictory to establishing wealth. Also, little value was placed on inheritance; upon death, a man’s possessions were usually destroyed. On another level, the author recognized forces of white trade and plutocracy of the northwest coast tribes operating within Upper Tanana society too. McKennan says that formal law is absent from Upper Tanana culture. The Indians lived as isolated families in which formal government was unnecessary. Though chiefs existed, they did not signify a political organization. Their position was based on hunting ability and ambitions. A chief could advise but not control. Individualism was the keynote in this culture, yet individualism was tempered with respect for public opinion. The danger of violating group taboos and becoming the topic of gossip were tremendous deterrents to antisocial action. The potlatch was noted as a means for obtaining prestige and more importantly as a death ceremony. Wars between groups were mainly for blood revenge. As the social and political organization of the Upper Tanana was rather loose and undefined, so too was the religious life of these people. The magico-religious system was nebulous and reflected considerable variation from individual to individual. Many of the omens, charms, amulets, songs, and beliefs were associated with crises of life and hunting. The shaman was the main figure of religious life.

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McKennan’s monograph ends with a collection of mythology: Tsa-o-sha Stories Tsa-o-sha Origin of Copper Tsa-o-sha and Wolverine Tsa-o-sha Kills Wolf Tsa-o-sha Takes Fox for a Partner Tsa-o-sha Kills Tcetin, the Tailed Man Tsa-o-sha and Bear Tsa-o-sha Escapes from Bear Tsa-o-sha Kills Marten Tsa-o-sha Outwits Nighthawk Tsa-o-sha Kills the Mink Girl Tsa-o-sha and Otter Tsa-o-sha Kills Cony Tsa-o-sha Visits the Camp of the Sun Tsa-o-sha Creates Fly Tsa-o-sha Visits the Camp Robber and the Mosquito People Tsa-o-sha Outwits Wolverine Tsa-o-sha is Tricked by His Partner Tsa-o-sha Visits the Gnat People Tsa-o-sha Returns Home Raven Stories Raven Raven Builds Alaska Raven Procures the Sun and the Moon Raven Creates Women Raven is Swallowed by Big Fish Raven and the Fishermen Raven’s Eye is Stolen Raven Pretends Death Raven Eats the Eyes of Children Miscellaneous Stories Tson-shan, the Man Who Went to the Moon Tson-shan Destroys His Enemies Yatco The Wise and Foolish Sisters How Fox Received the White Tip on His Tail Origin of the Sheep Song Origin of the Sweat House A Raid by the Dluthshin The Man Who Befriended a Dluthshin Wolverine is Killed by His Brother-in-law Crane and Her Lost Son The Contest for Chieftaincy among Moose, Sheep, and Caribou Bald Eagle and Osprey Lynx and Marten

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Beaver and Muskrat Argument over the Immortality of Man Marriage to a Willow Leaf The Flood Creation of Man from Rock The Man Who Married a Bear A Boy Who Was Killed by a Bear A Bear Story Killing of Teetin Yataiyada

The Chandalar Kutchin. Arctic Institute of North

288. McKennan, Robert A.

America, Technical Paper No. 17, Arctic Institute of

1965

North America, Montreal. Though a basic ethnographic reconstruction, much of this information was relevant to the Chandalar Kutchin Athabascans of Arctic Village, Venetie, and the immediate area in 1933 when it was elicited. These subarctic Athabascans lived by caribou hunting and fishing, spread out in widely spaced bands of one to two dozen persons. McKennan provides information on subsistence hunting techniques of which the caribou surround was a favorite. Social relationships among subsistence hunting partners were important, as was the maternal-based social organization that influenced these hunting relationships and other associations of daily life. Social organization consisted of three matrilineal clans, with no cross-cousin marriage. Residence was matrilocal. Polygamy and the levirate both existed. Men were known to fight for wives. Warfare between clans was endemic. The Chandalar Kutchin knew of the potlatch, but did not practice it. Like other subarctic Athabascans, the Chandalar Kutchin chieftainship was inherited through the male line. McKennan

notes

that some

infanticide

of first born

(who

might be spoiled)

exacerbated an already high infant mortality rate. Child rearing was rigorous and taboo ridden; children had a vague feeling that they were surrounded by danger. Although incest taboos curbed sexual behavior, it was relatively freely indulged in. Rape, lesbianism, and masturbation were common. Chandalar Kutchin cosmogony stresses a culture hero who distinguishes men from animals.

Mythological

beliefs

include brushmen, werewolf monsters, snakes, man-like

creatures, shamans and spirit helpers. The section on mythology is extensive and even includes minor superstitions and beliefs. The mythology includes: Raven Cycle Raven Makes Land Raven Steals the Sun Raven and Fox Secure the Moon Raven Makes Woman Raven and Mallard Girl How Raven Became Black Raven Fools the Birds

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Raven Kills Bear Raven Regains his Beak Raven Tries to Secure Caribou Fat Raven is Killed and Comes Back to Life Raven Steals Fox’s Arm from Bear Raven Tricks the Big Fish Raven Tries to Starve the People Jateaquoint Cycle Jateaquoint: His Boyhood Jateaquoint: The Son-in-Law Tests Jateaquoint: The Flood Jateaquoint Build the First Canoe Jateaquoint and the Mouse Women Jateaquoint and Brown Bear Jateaquoint and Bear Jateaquoint and the Giant, Zeatco Jateaquoint and Marten Jateaquoint and the Dog Excrement Jateaquoint and the Tailed Man Jateaquoint and the Little Man, Etsiohonjik Jateaquoint and the Giant Loche Jateaquoint and the Poison Fogs Jateaquoint and the Dangerous Tree Jateaquoint and the Giant Lynx Jateaquoint and the Deadly Teeth Jateaquoint Kills Big Mosquito Jateaquoint and Otter Woman Jateaquoint and Wolverine Jateaquoint Outwits Wolverine The Travels of Jateaquoint Sagithuk Cycle Sagithuk Fools his Wife Sagithuk and the Dancing Ducks Sagithuk and Fox Race for the Ducks Sagithuk Tries to Kill Fox Sagithuk Bums his Anus Sagithuk Loses his Eyes Sagithuk and his Moose Sagithuk Marries his Daughter Sagithuk Sails Away Animals Myths Wolf and Wolverine Beaver and Muskrat Wolverine, Wolf, and Lynx Loche’s Potlatch Teal Kills Swan Bullhead and Caribou

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Ground Squirrel and Tree Squirrel Camp Robber and the Indian Miscellaneous Myths Tcazik The Two Brothers Spider Woman and the Two Lost Sisters The Girl who Journeyed to the Land of the Dead The Boy who Visited Spider Woman The Girls who Desired a Star Little Fur Man and the Scale Men The Sky Ladder The Man who Became an Eagle The Man who Lived with a Bear The Eskimo and the Goose Snares The Headless Man The Man in the Moon The Big Jackfish of the Porcupine The Eskimo who Lived in a Walrus A Flood Legend Why Indians do not Eat Marten The Adolescent Girl Legends Kaihenjik Two Ice-Bear Stories The Two Men who Married One Wife The Indian who Tried to Fly

289. McKennan, Robert A. 1969

Athapaskan Groupings and Social Organization in Central Alaska. In: Contributions to Anthropology: Band Societies. National Museums of Canada Bulletin 228, Paper

No.

4.

National Museum of Canada,

Ottawa, pp. 93-115. McKennan’s paper is extremely valuable as a summary of the present thinking about Alaskan Athabascan social origin and organization. After giving a good history of foreign contact in the area and reviewing the historical observations, McKennan concludes that there never were discrete tribes of Athabascans. Instead there seemed to be overlapping groups of matrisibs, which were more exogamous in the past than they are now. McKennan indicated that sib affiliations played an important part in both native warfare and potlatch ceremonies. Although a unilineal descent pattern has been frequently attributed to spread from its origin from contact with coastal Indians whose subsistence is river-based, it is simply not documented enough to theorize about. Matrilineal descent, matrilocal residence, and

bifurcate

collateral

terminology

also seem to appear frequently among Alaskan

Athabascans. The article concludes by defining the major gaps in our knowledge of Athabascan ethnographic material.

11-106

290. McKennan, Robert A. 1970

Athapaskan Groups of Central Alaska at the Time of White Contact. In: 7th Congress International Des Sciences Anthropologiques Et Ethnologiques. Vol. 10. pp. 314-319.

At the time of contact, the basic ethnic and social group in central Alaska was the band whose subsistence centered mostly on hunting caribou and moose, with fishing primarily for whitefish being a secondary means of support. Arrival of whites and subsequent trading contacts led to changes in social organization, subsistence, and material culture. The former hunting bands tended to concentrate in the semipermanent villages along the Yukon and Tanana rivers. Fishing became increasingly important especially after the fishwheel was introduced. In delineating Tanana bands at the time of contact, McKennan sees a cultural and linguistic continuum along the Tanana drainage, and maintains that the Tanana bands can be divided into three groups on the basis of an increasing use of salmon from the upper to the lower Tanana.

291. MacKenzie, Alexander

The Dogrib Tribe. The Totem Pole, vol. 7, no. 2. p. 4.

1941 MacKenzie’s reference provides one page of notes about northern Canadian Athabascans which date around 1800. The author reports that the men of these tribes tattooed their cheeks. These Indians dressed mainly in skins and lived in simple branch-covered dwellings. They used bows and arrows, spears, and clubs for hunting.

292. MacKenzie, Alexander 1966

Voyages from Montreal, on the River St. Laurence, Through the Continent of North America, to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans; in the Years 1789 and 1793. University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor. (First printed in 1801 by R. Noble, London.)

Although MacKenzie’s journals give more useful information on the eastern Canadian Indian groups, they include some information on the Chipewyan Athabascans of northern Canada which is rather scanty for ethnographic use. MacKenzie did note that the position of Chipewyan women was higher than in other Athabascan groups despite their seclusion during menstruation. He also said there was abundant game in the country, yet some Indians starved in winter. Although these people were peaceful, they quarreled among themselves and were superstitious.

293. MacLachlan, Bruce B. 1957

Notes on Some Tahltan Oral Literature. Anthropologica, vol. 4. pp. 1-9.

These notes are very poor and only a secondary reference at best.

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294. MacLeod, William Christie 1925

Certain Mortuary Aspects of Northwest Coast Culture. American Anthropologist, vol. 27, new series, no. 1. pp. 122-148.

MacLeod’s paper is most useful for northwest coast burial customs. However, it includes some information on death among the southern groups of northern Athabascans, especially the Carrier and Sikani. Much of this information was quoted from other works. Morice was the main reference for the Carrier material. When a Carrier man died, his body was removed from the house and put under a roof-like shelter. The widow and her children were required to erect a small shelter close to this and live in it until the deceased’s heir assembled enough wealth to potlatch. Cremation of the body took place at a certain point during the potlatch. On the basis of Morice’s information, MacLeod noted that the widow was required to keep the arms and legs of the body straight during the burning. She was also obliged to embrace the remains of her late husband, even though surrounded by flames. Generally, the woman was the object of cruelty from the husband’s relatives. Although men who lost their wives were required to go through the same ordeal in general, only women were required to carry the charred bones around for several years after cremation.

295. MacLeod, William Christie 1926

Father Morice and the Sikanni. American Anthropologist, vol. 28, new series, no. 3 pp. 566-570.

The author discusses Sikani and Carrier cremation practices as described in Harmon’s notes of 1810 and compares this with some of his own field observation. The article shows that much confusion results from associating certain traits with a particular group of Athabascans since there was a certain amount of interaction between all the groups. Some burial practices, for example, were widespread and were not necessarily characteristic of particular groups.

296. McMinimy, Donald J. 1947

Preliminary Report on Tuberculosis Incidence in Alaska. Alaska’s Health, vol. 6, no. 10. pp. 4-5.

The survey was done along the Glennallen, Richardson, and Alcan highways in 1946 and 1947. Of 5,592 natives (Indian, Aleut, Eskimo), 12.9% showed signs of tuberculosis.

297. MacNeish, June Helm 1954

Contemporary Folk Beliefs of a Slave Indian Band. Journal of American Folklore, vol. 47. pp. 185-198.

MacNeish describes this paper as “an exposition of the nature and vitality of indigenous folk knowledge as it has been preserved in one ‘bush’ band of Slave Indians...” Discussed are the “Naka” or bush monsters, taboos concerning blood, menstruation, game that women can eat, death and burial practices, guardian spirits, medicine, shamanism, supernatural animals, and several myths within Athabascan folklore.

11-108

The Naka are thought to be all young men searching for girls and children. They may make homosexual attacks on men as well. The fear is most lively in women and children. MacNeish relates these beliefs to the historical reality of raiding. Isolation of menstrual, childbearing and menarche women is practiced. The fear of women stepping over a rifle, etc., is ubiquitous. There is an overt recognition of rifles as phallic. Slave Indians deny fear of ghosts, but vacate a house in which someone has died for 2 days. Guardian spirits and shamanism have declined to near nonexistence. Belief still exists in giant underground animals, thunderbird, frogs that take blood, and a man who appears as a moose. Miscellaneous beliefs and some myths are presented: The Travels of the Two Brothers and the Reform of the Man Eating Animals The Fast Growing Baby Mola and the Slavey Cree Wars The Bullet Proof Shirt

298. MacNeish, June Helm 1955

Folktales of the Slave Indians. Anthropologica, vol. 1. pp. 37-44.

English translations: The Crow and the Loon Fragments of the Saga of Ehtsontsie Fragments of the Saga of the Two Brothers The Tiny People The Giant-Killer

299. MacNeish, June Helm 1956

Leadership Among the Northeastern Athabascans. Anthropologica, vol. 2. pp. 131-163.

With the object of determining the grounds for considering Athabascan social and political organization to be minimal, MacNeish has explored the existing literature and has included the Northeastern Dene, which comprise the Bear Lake, Mountain, Slave, Dogrib, Yellowknife and Chipewyan Athabascans. Generally, the Athabascans did not consider themselves as composing neat political or cultural units (Osgood, 1936). Osgood does not use “tribe” to designate Athabascan groups, but did use a correspondingly vague term, “group,” instead. MacNeish uses “tribe” and notes that Honigmann further separates this category by “macrocosmic” band to mean local group. MacNeish prefers “band” for the true local group. Conditions are noted which make it difficult to delineate tribes among these Athabascans. Several local groups (MacNeish’s “bands”) live in physical contiguity, but not together. They speak a mutually intelligible tongue, share a common culture, and have at least a vague sense of common identity as a result. There is evidence that some recruitment and coordination for purposes of warfare occurred among these local groups on an

11-109

intermittent basis. However, a lack of action, coordination, and differentiation of power roles characterized these intragroup affairs. Furthermore, no political affairs were discernible within local groups or bands. The main political significance in kin affiliations was that they served as “ins” to enter other bands when one was travelling. Although bilateral descent was the rule, little information has been obtained on how kinship functioned. Kindred had little shape, boundary, or political manifestations; the little evidence that does exist of blood revenge indicates that only primary relatives or kin within single bands were involved. MacNeish concludes that there were two sorts of Athabascan local groups: (1) those who travelled together in groups of one or two to twenty families with no formal ties among them, and (2) macro-assemblages, usually larger than the band and called “the trading gang” by Hearne. These groups included social gatherings and war parties. Generally, the ultimate locus of power and decision was in the largely unorganized sentiments and opinions of the social body as a whole. This was expressed when adult men of the band came together to discuss issues. Leadership roles included leaders of the basic band, trading chiefs, and war leaders. The article discusses them further. There is no mention of marriage customs, matrilineality, or cross-cousin marriage in this article. It may be that they did not exist among the Northeastern Dene.

300. MacNeish, June Helm 1956

Problems of Acculturation and Livelihood in a Northern Indian Band. Contributions A L’Etude des Sciences de L’Homme, vol. 3. pp. 169-181.

This acculturation study is based on fieldwork done in 1951 and 1952. The Mackenzie River Indian population, about 4,000, has remained stable for the past 100 years according to the author. Most of these Indians live in small isolated settlements throughout the area. The author says these Indians have a split economy: money and market, aboriginal subsistence. Their livelihood is closely associated with both economies. Fluctuations in source of food and fur animals affect subsistence. Financial problems center around fluctuating and declining fur prices. MacNeish further notes that Slave social organization is characterized by limited social relations, atomism, and egalitarianism, and does not lend itself to stabilizing their economy. The tribe can be delineated linguistically and to some extent by custom, but not politically. Although lack of political and social organization is at variance with European traditions, Western technology is an attraction. The outcome is that the Slave have become more dependent on the money economy and somewhat less dependent on traditional subsistence patterns. However, the poor fur market makes living within the money economy difficult. Further complicating the Slave’s problems of earning a living is the fact that education offered to these Indians has been irrelevant to their lives. It has trained them for little if anything, and thus continues to push them into the dead end of trading. Also, white-Indian relations have been generally poor and confusing. For example, the lower class whites who comprised the Indian’s contact group for the most part did not exemplify the Puritan model that the missionaries had proposed to the Indians to follow.

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301. MacNeish, June Helm ed. 1957

The Poole Field Letters (1913). Anthropologica, no. 4. pp. 47-60.

For many years Poole Field was a trader and trapper in the Yukon and Northwest territories. The notes given in these letters cover a period of about 10 years from 1913. They contain quite useful information on the Athabascans living and hunting in the country between the upper Liard, Pelly, and Mackenzie rivers and the Yukon River. Among the Pelly Indians, the main cause for quarreling was said to be death during a fight between men. The fight would be continued by the deceased’s relatives. The author notes much intertribal raiding. During these raids women were frequently taken. Generally, land was owned by women. A man from a foreign tribe was supposed to hunt in his wife’s country. A man could have several wives, though he had to pay bride prices. Either party could get a divorce for almost any reason. Belief in witches and casting spells was strong, especially before white contact. Field says that shamans had the ability to detect witches. Upon discovery, the witch was strung up and killed. If the reported witch had powerful relatives, he could sometimes save his life by giving the shaman presents. The shaman also had the power to foretell the future and cure the sick. Field relates a belief in “little men of the mountains” who were strong and wise, and would occasionally capture women for wives. He also gives some information on socialization. When a girl reached puberty, she was separated from the camp for a period of time. She was not allowed to cook during this seclusion; another female sent food to her. Men were careful to keep their distance at this time, since they believed the girl could cause bad luck in hunting. To further protect other people, the girl kept her face covered. These Indians subsisted principally on meat and fish. There were no moose in the past, but caribou were plentiful and beavers were also killed whenever possible. Bows and arrows, spears, snares, and fences were used to capture these animals. Field also describes a few burial practices and myths.

302. MacNeish, June Helm I960

Kin Terms of Arctic Drainage Dene: Hare, Slavey, Chipewyan. American Anthropologist, vol. 62, no. 2. pp. 279-295.

Earlier investigations of Slave Indian kinship terms indicated a Hawaiian cousin type of terminology wherein all cousins were called by sibling terms. However, in studying the “Lynx Point” Slave, MacNeish found that informants produced nonsibling terms for cross-cousins. This article includes kin terms for Hare, Lynx Point Slave, and Chipewyan groups. MacNeish finds that these groups emphasize bifurcate merging, where each generation is bisected so that only half the collateral kin are merged into the lineal kin group. In elucidating this bifurcate merging pattern among these groups, MacNeish notes that Murdock (1949) demonstrated that three social determinants tend to produce bifurcate merging: unilineal descent, certain forms of marriage, and matrilocal or patrilocal residence. In applying this to the Slave, Hare and Chipewyan, MacNeish notes there is no record of unilineal descent among them. Several authors, however, attribute matrilocal residence to

11-111

the Slave and Chipewyan, and patrilocal residence to the Hare. Nevertheless, MacNeish feels that although unilocal residence may be the case for these groups, it still remains to be proven because Athabascan residence requirements may apply to bride service only. On the other hand, MacNeish notes that the Chipewyan and Yellowknives practiced polygamy, the Slave had the sororate, the Hare had the levirate, and all these groups had cross-cousin marriage. Bifurcate merging is compatible with all these marriage patterns.

303. McQuesten, Leroy N. 1952

Recollections of Leroy N. McQuesten of Life in the Yukon, 1871-1885. Copied from the original in possession of Yukon Order of Pioneers. Dawson City, Canada.

McQuesten’s short book contains minimal Indian information; it may be of more value as a historical reference.

304. Madara, Guy 1915

An Indian Potlatch. Alaskan Churchman, vol. 9, no. 4. pp. 115-116.

Madara comments generally on the potlatch ceremony, saying it was associated with the death of a relative. Feasting at the potlatch would go on for as long as a week. The article is not very useful.

305. Madara, Guy 1920

Musings of a Former Sourdough Missionary. Alaskan Churchman, vol. 14, no. 2. pp. 42-45.

Biased and general, Madara’s comments suggest that Indian hunting grounds in the Tanana Valley were definitely mapped out and feuds began by violations of these territories.

306. Maddren, Alfred Geddes 1913

Koyukuk-Chandalar Region, Alaska. Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, Bul¬ letin 532. United States Government Printing Office, Washington.

Some population figures and settlement descriptions are given in this geological survey.

307. Marchand, John F. 1943

Tribal Epidemics in the Yukon. Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 123, no. 16. pp. 1019-1020.

Marchand details occurrences of diseases among local Indians during the period in which the Alaska Highway was being constructed.

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308. Marshall, Robert 1933

Arctic Village. Harrison Smith and Robert Haas, New York.

Marshall’s book is not very useful as a reference on Athabascans since it is lacking in ethnographic detail. The Eskimos of northeast Alaska are discussed to some degree, however.

309. Marshall, Robert 1956

Arctic Wilderness. University of California Press, Berkeley.

Though Marshall’s book is not a useful source for ethnographic information, it does point out that the Athabascans seemed less friendly than the Eskimos.

310. Martin, George Curtis Katz, F. J. 1912

A Geologic Reconnaissance of the lliamna Region, Alaska. Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 485. United States Government Printing Office, Washington.

Some population figures for the lliamna region are estimated in this survey.

311. Mason, J. Alden 1946

Notes on the Indians of the Great Slave Lake Area. Yale University Publications in Anthropology, no. 34. Yale University Press, New Haven.

Somewhat impoverished information is given in these notes made in 1913 on the Athabascans living around Great Slave Lake in Canada. The groups of Indians in this area included the Chipewyan, Yellowknife, Slave, and Dogrib. At the time of fieldwork, staple foods were caribou, moose, and fish. Smaller game was also used for food. Vegetable use was negligible, though small amounts of flour, raisins, and other commodities were purchased from the trading post. Mason gives some information on the physical culture of these Athabascans. Summer houses were generally temporary; more solid log shelters were built for winter. Artistic taste was less developed than in other Indian cultures. Art was monochromatic with geometric designs. About personality, Mason says the natives were pleasant though retiring and suspicious; they were comparatively honest, but inclined to be greedy, grasping, and ungrateful. Mason recognized no enforced pregnancy taboos except that the woman’s “medicine” was thought to be extremely powerful at this time. There were no puberty taboos for a boy; a girl was secluded. Children were seldom beaten. Marriage occurred at an early age and seemed to be free and unrestricted. Polygyny and polyandry both existed. One could win a wife by wrestling, but bride price was also required. Mason noted that sickness was very prevalent during his observations. The mortality rate among these Indians was high. Both sickness and death were associated not with natural causes, but with shamanism. No death ceremonies were noted. 11-113

Social organization was minimal. Several families would camp, travel, and hunt together. These bands were continually on the move in search of food. There seemed to be no clans. Constant warfare occurred among these small groups. Cosmology included some vague ideas of demons and spirits. One such demon was Nayani who went about killing natives, stealing women and children, and generally working evil. Religion was closely associated with powers of shamanism. Some mythology appears at the end of these notes: The Girl, The Wolf, and the Copper Knife The Two Sisters The Man Who Changed into a Musk Ox The Great Bear Lake Monster The Great Beaver

312. Mason, Michael H. 1924

The Arctic Forests. Hodder and Stoughton Limited, London.

Mason’s account of his experiences in the north includes a chapter of general observations on the northern Indians and their physical culture. It is difficult to know how objective his impressions are about these nomadic Indians.

313. Mason, Otis Tufton 1889

Cradles of the American Aborigines. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institute for the Year Ending June 30, 1887. Part 2. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, pp. 161-212.

The author discusses the physical characteristics of Eskimo and northern Indian cradles with interest in how the shape of the cradle may affect the child’s physical development. He includes some pictures. Of Athabascans, he notes the tendency to lash the infant in a sitting position in a scuttle or in a bag allowing only freedom of movement of the head. This was done for at least the first year of life. The southeastern Alaska Indians used this type of system as well. Swinging cradles were also used, which the child was lashed in. Eskimos’ more permanent settlements meant more freedom for the child, yet for the first period of life, the child spent much time inside the mother’s parka. Navaho and Apache cradles were similar to the Athabascan ones as they allowed free movement of the head only.

314. Mason, Otis Tufton 1899

The Man's Knife Among the North American Indians. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institute for the Year Ending June 30, 1897. Part 1. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, pp. 725-745.

Mason’s study of knife collections in the United States National Museum makes some very general references to Eskimo and Indian types of knives. 11-114

315. Masson, L. R. ed. I960

Les Bourgeois De La Compagnie Du Nord-Ouest. Vols. 1 and 2. Antiquarian Press, Ltd., New York. (First published in 1889-90, Quebec.)

These two volumes, especially the second one, contain a collection of journals, narratives, and letters concerning Canada’s northwest. Some of these are written in English and provide quite useful reference to local Indians. George Keith’s letters from 1807 described the Beaver Indians of the Peace River. He noted they were particularly careful to observe each others hunting territory, yet game killed was shared. He considered them a friendly people with “inoffensive dispositions.’’ About their social structure, he said that cohabiting was forbidden between mother and son and between brother and sister. He also included texts of some Beaver tales. In another letter, of 1812, Keith described the Athabascans to the north of the Beavers, the Bear Lake Athabascans. He also commented on the rather frequent feuding among all Athabascan groups. Frequently women were captured and treated poorly by the holding tribe. Keith said males were dominant; female babies were neglected. He also noted several menstruation taboos and general superstitiousness. Leadership among these Canadian Athabascans was defined loosely. There were many leaders; the position was obtained by having many relatives, some prestige, and hunting ability. Letters of Wentzel, contained in Volume 1, further described the Beaver Indians. His notes cover between 1807 and 1824. Wentzel indicated that polyandry, incest, and female infanticide existed among these Indians. He also noted self-mutilation occurred upon the death of a relative. In general, these people had little social organization.

316. Mendenhall, Walter C. 190o

A Reconnaissance from Resurrection Bay to the Tanana River, Alaska in 1898. In: 20th Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, Part 7. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, pp. 265-340.

Indian villages of the area are located in this survey.

317. Mendenhall, Walter C. 1902

Reconnaissance from Fort Hamlin to Kotzebue Sound, Alaska, by Way of Dali, Kanuti, Allen and Kowak Rivers. Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey. Professional Paper No. 10. United States Government Printing Office, Washington.

Mendenhall notes that the Yukon Indians fish and hunt in the vicinity of the Dali River and have a village at its mouth.

11-115

318. Mendenhall, Walter C. 1905

Geology of the Central Copper River Region, Alaska. Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey.

Professional Paper No. 41. United States

Government Printing Office, Washington. Mendenhall includes some brief comments on the population of the area and offers historical settlement information as well.

319. Mertie, John Beaver 1928

Preliminary Report on the Sheenjek River District. United States Geological Survey Bulletin No. 797C. United States Government Printing Office, Washing¬ ton. pp. 99-123.

As in the other geological surveys, settlements and populations are noted.

320. Mertie, John Beaver 1929

The

Chandalar-Sheenjek

District,

Alaska.

United

States Geological Survey Bulletin No. 810B. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, pp. 87-139.

Settlements are located in this survey.

321. Mertie, John Beaver 1930

Geology

of

the

Eagle-Circle

District,

Alaska.

Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 816. United Printing Office, Washington.

States

Government

The settlements for the area are located.

322. Mertie, John Beaver 1931

A Geological Reconnaissance of the Dennison Fork District, Alaska. Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 827. United States Government Printing Office, Washington.

This includes some population figures and settlement locations.

323. Mertie, John Beaver

The Ruby-Kuskokwim Region, Alaska. Department

Harrington, G. L.

of the

1924

Bulletin 754. United Office, Washington.

Interior, United States Geological Survey,

The principal settlements are located in this report.

11-116

States

Government Printing

324. Michael, Henry N. ed. 1967

Lieutenant Zagoskin's Travels in Russian America, 1842-1844. Arctic Institute of North America. Anthropology

of

the

North:

Translation

from

Russian Sources No. 7. Arctic Institute of North America, University of Toronto Press, Toronto. Zagoskin’s work gives some information on the natives of the lower Yukon River area, but the source is generally not useful for ethnographic material. Zagoskin did notice the Indian’s minimal material culture.

325. Mitchell, William 1961

Billy Mitchell in Alaska. American Heritage, vol. 12, no. 2. pp. 64-79.

Mitchell narrates his experiences while helping to lay a telegraph line across Alaska from St. Michael to Eagle City, in 1901. He mentions the Middlefork Indians on Forty Mile Creek; they were hunters and trappers as well as fishermen. Each tribe had its own clearly defined hunting grounds and boundaries. Mitchell noticed hostilities among the tribes.

326. Moffit, Fred H. 1907

Mineral

Resources

of

Kenai

Peninsula,

Alaska.

Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey,

Bulletin

277.

United

States

Government

Printing Office, Washington. Moffit provides some population figures in this survey of the Kenai Peninsula.

327. Moffit, Fred H. 1912

Headwater Regions of the Gulkana and Susitna Rivers, Alaska. Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, Bulletin 498. United States Government Printing Office, Washington.

Population and settlement locations are given for the area.

328. Moffit, Fred H. 1914

Geology of the Hanagita-Bremner Region, Alaska. Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey,

Bulletin

576. United

Printing Office, Washington. Settlements and their populations are noted.

11-117

States

Government

Mineral Resources of the Nabesna-White River District, Alaska. Department of the Interior, United

329. Moffit, Fred H. Knopf, Adolph 1910

States Geological Survey, Bulletin 417. United States Government Printing Office, Washington.

In this geological survey, the authors noted the population, saying that the natives of the area depend almost entirely on game for food and amass a large supply each fall for the winter.

The Kotsina-Kuskulana District, Alaska. Department

330. Moffit, Fred H. Mertie, John Beaver

of the

1923

Bulletin

Interior, United States Geological Survey, 745.

United

States

Government Printing

Office, Washington. Some population information is given in this report.

The Indian Journals, 1859-62. University of Michigan

331. Morgan, Lewis Henry 1959 Since

Press, Ann Arbor, pp. 115-117, 128, 217, 219. Morgan’s notes

are

so

general, they are not useful for northern Indian

ethnographic material.

332. Morice, Adrian G. 1890

The Western

Denes—Their Manners and Customs.

Proceedings, Canadian Institute, 3rd series, vol. 7. pp. 109-174.

Extensive and general information on Canadian Athabascans is provided with subtribe locations and population figures for each Indian group. The eastern Athabascans were more nomadic than those of the west, where a semi-nomadic existence could be developed along the rivers. The western Athabascan Chilcotin and Carrier

would winter in villages where several families stayed together in a

lodge. A clan system seemed to be in existence, with each clan having its own emblem. This organization extended beyond village limits. Individuals of the same clan did not intermarry. Mother-right was felt to be the rule, especially in the southwest Canadian Athabascan groups. Morice suggested that this was an influence of the coastal tribes. In the eastern Athabascan groups, father-right was more usual. Morice described marriage simply as cohabitation; there was no intention on either side to consider the union as a permanent connection. Divorce was frequent. Generally the female was barely pubescent when mated. Sexual retiscence and modesty of the Denes was noted. Though not true among the Sekani, the Carrier and other groups had a 2-year work price the groom paid to the bride’s parents. Both polygamy and teknonymy were common. Morice reported frequent child death; these Indians were fond of their children. Circumcision was unknown. Babies were never carried in the mother’s arms, but in a pack on her back. Parental authority was nil.

11-118

Puberty seclusion, menstrual seclusion and general fear of women were common. Food for all Athabascans was obtained by hunting, fishing and collecting. Fishing was of greater importance in the southwestern areas. Fur hunting was minimal before the trading companies became established. Morice observed much hate and mistrust among tribes, though fighting was rare enough. Warfare generally consisted of surprise raids, involving many quick murders. Shortly before and after death, members of the opposite clan had important roles to play in the associated prayers and potlatch ceremonies. Morice presents a good description of the Carrier potlatch. At a certain point during the potlatch ceremonies, the exo-clansmen were paid for their services. Property of the deceased was given away. His wife, in a degraded position, was practically a slave of her brothers-in-law and sisters-in-law for 2 or 3 years afterward. Men, upon the loss of their wives were also placed in a degraded social position. Some mythology is included also.

333. Morice, Adrian G. 1892

Are the Carrier Sociology and Mythology Indigenous or Exotic? Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, series 1, vol. 10, part 2. pp. 109-126.

The Carriers, among the southernmost Canadian Athabascans, live around the Eutsuk, Francis, Babine, and Stuart lakes and around the headwaters of the Fraser River. Village locations are provided in the text. The Carriers are almost totally surrounded by Indians of other stock and have been especially influenced by the coastal Indian groups. Carrier social organization was cross-cut by noble and common classes, with title handed matrilineally. Morice says that rank was obtained through the potlatch, kinship was based on a clan system, and marriage was exogamous. Within the Carrier family, women had no authority and worked as slaves. Morice observed that polygamy flourished. At puberty, girls underwent an ordeal of sequestration accompanied by body mortifications and penitential privations. A pubescent girl had to wear a bonnet and veil to protect passers-by from the malign influences which were supposed to emanate from her while she was menstruating. Activities carried on at the death of a Carrier included much lamentation and feasting. Charred bones of the deceased were sometimes carried by the widow for 1 to 3 years or more. During this time, the widow had to endure the wrath of the husband’s relatives; her hair was clipped and her face was disfigured by gum or dirt to signify her degraded condition. At the end of the period, a final potlatch was given and the widow was liberated from her bondage.

334. Morice, Adrian G. 1894

Notes Archaeological, Industrial, and Sociological on the Western Denes. Transactions of the Royal Canadian Institute, vol. 4, no. 7, part 1. pp. 1-222.

Although most reference is made to the Carriers of central British Columbia, this is a general ethnography of the Dene, with comments on the names and distribution of the

11-119

northern Athabascans. Some population estimates and physical characteristics of each group are given. Psychologically, the northern Athabascans are considered to be pusillanimous, timid and cowardly. The Carriers seem to be the proudest and most progressive of these Indians, yet they still were very superstitious and fearful. Great honesty, gentle disposition, and remarkable receptiveness were other characteristics of these Indians. Morice compares them to the southern Athabascans who seem to have opposite characteristics. The northern Athabascans have adopted white man’s religion and many of his customs. The southern Athabascans, by contrast, have remained aloof from the civilizing influences. Several observances of northern Athabascan hunters and trappers revealed their repugnance and fear of menstruating women. Before bear-snaring, for example, the hunter could not use the same utensils that his wife had used in the preceeding month. A period of sexual abstinence was demanded. Other observances required a man to eat the root of a special species of herb of which the bear was said to be fond. Once an animal was secured, some part of it was cut off immediately as a means of pacifying its fellows irritated by its killing. Young women in menstruation could not eat the head, heart, or hind part of certain animals, and could not step over snares of any type. The rest of this book deals with material culture. Some mythology is also included.

335. Morice, Adrian G. 1895

Three

Carrier Myths. Transactions of the Royal

Canadian Institute, vol. 5. pp. 1-36.

English translations: Pursued by Their Mother’s Head The Burning Down of a Country Made Celestial

336. Morice, Adrian G. 1899

On the Classification of the Dene Tribes. Transactions of the Royal Canadian Institute, vol. 6. pp. 75-83.

A review of Athabascan classification is presented here.

337. Morice, Adrian G. 1901

Dene Surgery. Transactions of the Royal Canadian Institute, vol. 7. pp. 15-27.

Specific information on western Athabascan tools used in medical practice is reported in this article. Many of the practices seemed to involve cutting, slashing, stabbing, and burning diseased areas of the body.

338. Morice, Adrian G. 1901

Who are the Atnas? American Antiquarian, vol. 23. pp. 307-312.

A general article, it discusses the terminology of Athabascan classification.

11-120

339. Morice, Adrian G.

The Canadian Dene. Annual Archaeological Report (being part of Appendix to the Report of the Minister

1905

of Education), pp. 187-219. A general report on the Canadian Athabascans, this is useful for population figures and tribal locations. Also included is general information on each of the Athabascan groups, much of which comes from other journals.

340. Morice, Adrian G.

The

Great

229-277,

1906-07

Dene

483-508,

Race.

Anthropos,

695-730;

vol.

vol. 2,

pp.

1,

pp. 1-34,

181-196; vol. 4, pp. 582-606; vol. 5, pp. 113-142, 419-443, 643-653, 969-990. Morice develops a body of general information describing the Canadian Athabascans in this series of articles. One article locates traditional tribal groups and provides historical information on foreign contact. Several articles are devoted to Athabascan material culture, and one article on mental and moral characteristics confirms the timidness and childishness of Athabascan character as well as typical labile anger. The last article details Athabascan physical environment, noting that life was a constant struggle with hunger, cold, and fatigue. Subsistence was based largely on game.

341. Morice, Adrian G. 1907

A Reply to Mr. Alphonse L. Pinart. Anthropos, vol. 2. pp. 197-200.

This note contains information on Athabascans living in the Cook Inlet area who traveled to the coast areas and may have mixed with the coast Indians and Eskimos. Linguistic information is also included.

342. Morice, Adrian G.

1910

Hare

Indians. Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 7. pp.

136-137.

This short entry gives general information on the Hare Indians, Athabascans of the Mackenzie

River

area west of Great Bear Lake. Subsistence was based on hunting.

Superstition was prevelant and was attributed partly to the harsh environment in which starvation occurred.

343

Morice, Adrian G.

Loucheux.

1910

367-368.

Catholic

Encyclopedia,

vol.

9.

pp.

The entry contains general information of the Loucheux of the northeastern part of Alaska. The author feels that the Loucheux were superior physically and mentally to other Athabascan groups; they have been least influenced by Catholicism, according to Morice.

11-121

344. Morice, Adrian G. 1911

Carrier Indians. In: James Hastings, ed., Encyclopaedia

of

Religion and Ethics. Charles Scribner’s

Sons, New York. pp. 229-230. The Carriers are Athabascans occupying the interior of northern British Columbia. Morice writes that their population was greatly reduced by white contact, but is now increasing because of the strong influence wielded by the Catholic missions. Included in this article is historical information. In all of these encyclopaedia entries, Morice seems to color his comments with bias.

345. Morice, Adrian G. 1911

Nahanes.

Catholic

Encyclopedia,

vol.

10.

pp.

669-670.

Nahanes are considered those Athabascans whose habitat was east and west of the Rocky Mountains, and north of 58 degrees latitude. The information provided in this entry is general and brief.

346. Morice, Adrian G. 1912

Denes. Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, James Hastings, ed. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York. pp. 636-641.

This is one of Morice’s best general works on Athabascan Indians. It considers the Dene, a nomadic race of hunters and fishermen who had neither permanent villages nor any elaborate social system. Morice suggested that father-right was characteristic of these people originally; small groups of kindred formed bands which were headed by a man. Within the society, women had an exceedingly low position and lived as slaves of their husbands. In some tribes, however, mother-right became important. In all cases, exogamy was practiced. Morice says that for widows, prescriptions of the levirate were also practiced. The society in many ways reflected a dread of menstruating women. During menstruation, a woman was separated from the rest of the group; special foods were given to her and meat from any large freshly killed animal was forbidden. Emanations from the menstruating woman were believed to be so deleterious that taboos were designed to keep her away from all hunting equipment. Shamanism in Dene society was concerned with conjuring for cures and bringing good and bad luck. Much importance was attached to dreams as this was considered the medium of exchange for the supernatural.

347. Morice, Adrian G. 1912

Yellow-Knives.

Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 15. p.

733.

Less useful and shorter than Morice’s other encyclopedia entries, this provides general information on the Yellow-Knife Canadian Athabascans northeast of Great Slave Lake.

11-122

348. Morice, Adrian G. 1921

Smoking and Tobacco Among the Northern Denes. American Anthropologist, vol. 23, new series, no. 4. pp. 482-488.

The author discusses the origin, use, and terminology of tobacco and smoking among the Canadian Athabascans. He refers especially to the Carriers, and indicates that smoking and tobacco were unknown to these people before contact.

349. Morice, Adrian G. 1925

About Cremation. American Anthropologist, vol. 27, new series, no. 4. pp. 576-577.

Morice says that extensive cremation ceremonies seem to depend in part on the existence of potlatching; use of the potlatch seems to depend on having a semi-sedentary existence.

350. Morice, Adrian G.

Two Points of Western Dene Ethnography. American Anthropologist,

1925

vol.

27,

new

series, no.

3.

pp.

478-482. Morice emphasizes two things: (1) The Bella Coola (non-Athabascan) and Chilcotin (Athabascan) had much contact with each other. (2) The peoples of the Bulkley River were not all Carriers; Babines who were members of an Athabascan subtribe comprised a distinct ethnographic division.

351. Morice, Adrian G. 1928

The Fur Trader in Anthropology: And a Few Related Questions. American Anthropologist, vol. 30, new series, no. 1. pp. 60-84.

Morice corrects some of the observations made in the early journals of Harmon and McLeod about the Sekani and concerns himself in detail with burial customs of the Sekani and Carriers of southwest Canada. He also recapitulates some of the differences between the eastern and western Athabascans, matriarchy being a point of issue. Matriarchy seems to occur more in the southeast area and this is attributed to borrowing from the coastal Indians. Northern groups of Athabascans, such as the Loucheux, have associated more with the patrilineal Eskimos.

352. Morice, Adrian G. 1933

Carrier Onomatology. American Anthropologist, vol. 35, new series, no. 4 pp. 632-658.

This reference concerns uses of names in the Carrier Athabascan language. Of interest is the immense amount of things named after body parts. Often personal names seem based

11-123

on oedipal and woman terror themes in old legends. Other names of people are based on individual idosyncracies or on formula names.

Great Bear Lake Indians: A Historical Demography and Human Ecology. Musk-Ox Publication No. 11.

353. Morris, Margaret W. 1972

Institute

for

Northern

Studies,

University

of

Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada, pp. 3-27. The value of this source is not only in the relationship between demography and ecology among the Great Bear Lake Athabascans as they are viewed through time, but also in the useful framework it provides for viewing such aspects of all subarctic Athabascan populations. Morris describes the setting, natural and animal resource base, general material culture, social organization and culture of Satudene, and gives demographic analysis through time, relying upon an extensive and intensive analysis of older records. The hunting and gathering rhythm of Satudene life are detailed, and the flexible social organization and small band groupings which resulted from it are described. The author says that the minimal social organization of these Indians was consonant with some cooperative hunting activity. The poverty of leadership reflected the ecological niche occupied and the rigors of life kept the population small through starvation and infant mortality. Detailed information is provided on precontact and early contact band and family size. Numerous taboos surrounded birth and there were special restrictions on newly nubile girls. Marriages were arranged for girls at an early age, and polygamy was practiced. Everpresent death was a serious concern and was the focus of religion and medicine beliefs. Death was surrounded by extensive mortuary practices. These concerns seem to reflect the great awareness of the possibility of death due to the harsh condition of existence. The limited cosmology, religion and “medicine” beliefs also seem to reflect the impoverished social order. It is an excellent description of the integration of culture and subsistence needs.

Great Bear Lake Indians: A Historical Demography and Human Ecology. Musk-Ox Publication No. 12.

354. Morris, Margaret W. 1973

Institute

for

Northern

Studies,

University

of

Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada, pp. 58-80. This

article

is

a

continuation

of Morris’s exposition on the Great Bear Lake

Athabascans which was published in 1972. The first part describes and analyzes changes in human ecology and demography prior to European contact; this part does the same thing for the post contact period, particularly after the spread of such European influences as traders, explorers and missionaries. Morris traces the Indian trend toward a more settled, permanent pattern of residence as a result of these influences and as a result of the new trapping economy which began to supplement the old hunting livelihood. Included in this second article is an extremely useful and thorough demographic analysis of population shifts that accompanied the increased foreign influences and subsistence changes in the 19th century.

11-124

Morris notes a decrease in birth rate. He also notes that a decrease in absolute size of the group was related to disease. Inappropriate use of firearms and increasing immobility meant the destruction of game, which exacerbated mortality rates. Diet changed from caribou to fish an inadequate basis for subsistence. Individual autonomy was reduced by the introduction of “trading chiefs.” General social demoralization occurred and the missionary influence undermined the traditional belief systems.

355. Morton, Arthur S. 1939

A History of the Canadian West of 1870-71. Thomas Nelson and Sons, Ltd., London.

An extensive history of the Canadian northwest, Morton’s work generally describes the Dene or Canadian Athabascans though his information is taken from early journals. The Indians were discussed mostly in relation to the fur trade and establishment of trading posts.

356. Munsterhjelm, Erik 1953

The Wind and the Caribou. George Allen and Unwin Ltd., Ruskin House, London.

A narrative of his journey into Canada’s north to Lake Athabaska in Chipewyan territory, Munsterhjelm’s book includes Indian information interspersed throughout. The author observed a great amount of hostility between Chipewyan Indians and the Cree to the southeast. He said the Chipewyan especially feared Cree medicine men, and believed implicitly in the power of Cree conjurers. They believed that evil spirits, curses, bewitched objects, the evil eye, conjured sickness and other bad medicine were real dangers. Munsterhjelm noted promiscuity of Chipewyan women while the men were away hunting, and indicated that men were suspicious of women anyway. He also said child mortality was so high that the survival of the tribe was always in danger. Food shortage was frequent.

Steward, Julian H.

Tappers and Trappers: Parallel Process in Accul¬ turation. Economic Development and Cultural

1956

Change, vol. 4. pp. 335-355.

357. Murphy, Robert F.

Though it concerns the eastern Canadian Indians and their relationships to the white trappers and traders, this article is worthwhile reading.

358. Norick, Frank A. 1966

Acculturation and Social Maladjustment Among the Native People of Alaska. Research and Demonstration Grant No. SAV 1054-67. Vocational Rehabilitation Administration, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington.

The author says that native drinking patterns are not as pathologic as those of whites. He takes at face value statements by Indians to mean that their problems are all social. He

11-125

says drinking among both Eskimos and Indians is a sign of acculturative stress, and feels that those exposed least to white middle class culture drink least.

Traits of American Indian Life and Character, by a Fur Trader. Smith, Elder and Co., London. (This is

359. Ogden, Peter Skene 1853

available on microcard.) Though there is some reference to the Sikanni, Athabascans of British Columbia, the information is unclear and possibly biased.

Exploratory Survey of Part of the Lewes, TatOn-Duc, Porcupine, Bell, Trout, Peel, and Mackenzie Rivers. Part 8 of Canada Department of the Interior

360. Ogilvie, William 1887-88

Annual Report for 1889. Queen’s Printer, Ottawa. The journal notes in this book contain scattered information on the Indians in the included area. The suspicious nature of the Indians of the southwest coast and central part of Canada was noted.

Adze, Canoe, and House Types of the Northwest Coast. University of Washington Publications in

361. Olson, Ronald L. 1927

Anthropology, vol. 2, no. 1. University of Washington Press, Seattle, pp. 1-38. Material culture trait diffusion and distribution in the northwest coast area is the subject of Olson’s reference. The southern Canadian Athabascans are briefly mentioned and pictures of Athabascan canoes are included.

The Ethnography of the Great Bear Lake Indians.

362. Osgood, Cornelius 1932

Annual

Report

Canada,

Bulletin

for No.

1931. 70.

National

Museum

of

Canada Department of

Mines, Ottawa, pp. 31-98. Osgood’s monograph is based on 1928 and 1929 investigations of the Canadian Athabascans of Great Bear Lake in the Mackenzie River area including the Dogribs, Yellowknives, Hares and Slaves. These Indians lived in a harsh environment where it was a constant struggle to procure sufficient food; the Indians were “always facing the bitter odds of hunger and cold, always starved and woebegone in seeming consciousness of the inevitable,” (p. 37) according to an early traveler. Environmental conditions were possibly not this bad in actuality, but still were the most noteworthy part of Athabascan life. Osgood gives

a detailed

picture

of available food sources and subsistence means and much

information concerning Indian material culture, which was rather impoverished at best. Meagreness of art is also documented.

11-126

The family was the main unit of social organization among these Indians. Sometimes, even when two families lived together and the people within the group worked together and shared, very little authority was exercised by any one member. A sexual division of labor also characterized the group, women did most camp labor while men hunted. Though the woman’s position within society has historically been reported as an inferior one, Osgood believes that the division of labor was not unfair. Information on the group’s treatment of children is also included. Ownership was a weakly developed concept. Women owned practically nothing. A son could appropriate things when he got old enough to use them. Trap lines and beaver lodges seemed to be unowned. Osgood finds that a general communal feeling toward ownership of property existed in the local group. Tribal organization among these Indians was extremely simple. The author felt that there was much admixture anyway between all the Indians of that area. Chiefs didn’t exist; authority probably rested with family heads. Age and ability were respected. Osgood gives some information about socialization. Birth was generally an easy process. These Indians believed that a baby was a reincarnation. From past literature, Osgood noted some of the many taboos associated with birth, particularly postpartum sexual taboos, no feeding of the infant for the first 4 days, and female infanticide. Puberty customs for girls were very rigorous, and included both taboos and isolation. Women underwent numerous taboos at recurring periods. Boys apparently went through fewer ordeals, if any at all. Marriage was sometimes arranged and frequently was at an early age. Osgood noted the use of bride price, bride capture, and the existence of polygamy and polyandry. The author recognized a great fear which these Indians had of death, which was most frequently due to disease. The dead were abandoned, placed on a scaffold, or cached on the ground in a flexed position. Burial assistance polluted the people involved. In keeping with the other social development of these Indians, religious concepts were simple. These people believed they lived in a world of multitudinous spirits that influenced and controlled their destinies. Finally, Osgood notes frequent wars among these Indians, and between them and the Chipewyan to the south and Eskimos to the north. Causes of war involved the desire to capture women, blood feuds, and the belief that another group was using “medicine” against them. Fighting may have occurred over good hunting territory too.

Tanaina Culture. American Anthropologist, vol. 35,

363. Osgood, Cornelius

new series, no. 4. pp. 695-717.

1933

In

this

ethnography,

Osgood

expresses

extreme

concern

with

the results

of

contemporary acculturation on the natives. His general description of the Tanaina culture is based on 1931 fieldwork. The paper opens with some historical information on foreign contact in the Cook Inlet area. The first contacts were with Russian traders and missionaries in the early 18th century. In 1818, the Indian population was 1,471. The Cook Inlet area is the only Athabascan territory that includes coastal land and subsistence based on seafood in addition to game and freshwater fish. Dress, shelters, and methods of transportation are briefly described. The canoe was used more extensively in this area than in other Athabascan territories.

11-127

Tanaina social organization has been affected by foreign contact. The general Indian population has been greatly reduced; number of villages has declined which, in turn, reduced the need and functionality of more complex social organization. Generally the society was divided by moiety organization, each moiety being composed of several clans. Exogamy was practiced as well as other social and ceremonial relationships between moieties. Society was stratified by an upper and lower class. The upper class was composed of a few more wealthy individuals. Osgood notes that chiefs existed and were of this wealthy class. Within a village, the chief’s house was in the center with the other houses arranged irregularly around it. Socially, women were seen by the author to hold a relatively great amount of authority. Males were hunters and supporters. The potlatch remains an active part of Tanaina social life. Potlatches were essentially moiety affairs and of two categories: those that concerned small affairs of life, and those that were given in honor of the dead. Tanaina religion seemed to consist of a system of everpresent supernatural beings which were frequently evil and secretive. A concept of the “Bad Indian” was well-known. This spirit stole people and was greatly feared.

364. Osgood, Cornelius 1934

Kutchin

Tribal

Distribution

and

Synonymy.

American Anthropologist, vol. 36, new series, no. 2. pp. 168-179.

The Kutchin are delineated into eight division or tribes: Yukon Flats Kutchin Birch Creek Kutchin Chandalar River Kutchin Black River Kutchin Crow River Kutchin Upper Porcupine River Kutchin Mackenzie Flats Kutchin Peel River Kutchin

365. Osgood, Cornelius 1936

Contributions to the Ethnography of the Kutchin. Yale University Publications in Anthropology, no. 14. Yale University Press, New Haven.

Osgood provides a useful reconstruction of the 19th century life of the Kutchin, Athabascans who inhabited the region around the great bend of the Yukon River, eastward into the Mackenzie River valley, north to the littoral of the Arctic Ocean held by the Eskimo, and south to about 65 degrees north latitude. The material for this ethnography was gathered around 1935. The author divides the Kutchins into eight groups, according to their geographical location. Subsistence throughout the area is based on both fishing and hunting. Material culture is also similar throughout the area, though it is noted to be never extensively developed. Both material and nonmaterial culture are described in this ethnography.

11-128

Socially these people were divided into 3 matrilineal clans with patrilineal chieftains and village councils. Coinciding with this system, Osgood noticed the presence of a two-class stratified society (though one could describe it as four classes). The nuclear family was more important among the Kutchin than among other Athabascan groups. Osgood adds that women dominated the home while men merely supported the household; women had a higher position within Kutchin society than in other groups. Male partnerships, special joking relationships, and potlatching were also reported. Birth isolation, female pubertal and menstrual seclusion, polygamy, all common Athabascan features, were reported in this ethnography. The Kutchins were noted as a war-like people, primarily fighting the Eskimos to the north. Wars were fought to capture Eskimo possessions, acquire prestige, capture women, and gain revenge. Osgood includes a very brief and general discussion of culture change, focussing primarily on material culture. Mythology reported includes: The Grey Woman Along the River The Story of A-ta-tco-kai-yo The Man Without Fire Dinizok, the Shaman The Last Adventure of Dinizok, the Shaman Wolverine and Wolf

366. Osgood, Cornelius 1936

The Distribution of the Northern Athapaskan Indians. Yale University Publications in Anthropo¬ logy, no. 7. Yale University Press, New Haven.

Osgood provides a general overview of the subarctic Athabascan groups, including a map. In discussing the various northern Athabascans, he uses the criteria of. range (geographic distribution, first European contact), comment (subdivisions and reasons for categorization) reference (best reference material) handbook (the term under which the group is referred to in the Handbook of American Indians) name (the designation for the group) Osgood divides the northern Athabascan into the following groups: Ahtena (Atnas, Copper River) Bear Lake (Satudene, Great Bear Lake) Beaver (Tsattine) Carrier (Takulli) Chilcotin (Tsilkotin) Chipewyan (Montagnais) Dogrib (Thlingchadinne) Han (HanKutchin) Hare (Kawchodinne) Ingalik (Kaijuhknotana) Kaska (Nahani)

11-129

Koyukon (Unakhotana, Tenai) Kutchin (Loucheux, Dindjie) Mountain (Montagnais, Montagnard) Nabesna (Nabesnatana, Upper Tanana) Nicola (Stuichamukh) Sarsi (Sarcee) Sekani(Tsekehne) Slave (Slaves) Tahltan Tanaina (Knaiakhotana, Kenaitze) Tanana (Nukluktanas, Lower Tanana) Tsetsaut Tutchone (TutchoneKutchine) Yellowknife (Tatsanottine, Copper knife)

367. Osgood, Cornelius 1937

The Ethnography of the Tanaina. Yale University Publications in Anthropology, no. 16. Yale University Press, New Haven.

One of the few major ethnographies on Athabascans, Osgood’s monograph recon¬ structs the late 19th century life of the Tanaina Indians. These Indians occupy the area around the Cook Inlet, Alaska. Fieldwork was carried out in the early 1930’s. The beginning of this ethnography includes good geographical tribe definitions, historical contact material, and informants’ descriptions. Most northern Athabascans depended on both freshwater fish and game for food. As noted throughout the literature, these resources frequently were uncertain. The Tanaina obtained sea mammals and fish to supplement their diet. Osgood devotes much of the ethnography to describing Tanaina subsistence activities. Like most other Athabascan groups, these Indians resided in more permanent winter shelters during the hunting seasons and in scattered fish camps during the summer. Tanaina society was characterized by a dual organization of matrilineal sibs that were united to form two exogamous phratries. People were also divided into two social classes based on wealth. The potlatch was noted as a means to distribute material wealth and gain prestige. Osgood gives an excellent description of a potlatch. He also describes other Tanaina social customs and finds they are similar to those of other Athabascan groups. Children were desired. Girls were thought to be less trouble simply because they were less independent than boys. Control of everyone was essential, but if one were very independent, there seemed to be no way to deal with him. Women were secluded during pregnancy and birth. The baby was thought to be a reincarnation. Nursing continued for 1 to 5 years. For the first few years, infants were generally confined in a suspended moss bag. When children began to move about by themselves, they were seldom forced to act against their own wishes and were seldom punished. Girl’s puberty rites were rigorous and included separation from the family during menstruation. Osgood reports superstitions and some of the shaman’s activities in the last part of this monograph. He also includes a collection of Tanaina folklore: The Warrior at Anchor Point The Stealing of the Chief’s Daughter 11-130

Raven Gets the Light Raven Brings the Fish Raven and the Rich Girl Raven Gets Thirsty The Raven That Wanted to go South The First Sea Otter The Woman and the Ducks Porcupine Man Knik Flood Story Man in the Moon The Two Brothers Tcu-kun The Girl Who Shot the Bows and Arrows

368. Osgood, Cornelius 1940

Ingalik Material Culture. Yale University Publications in Anthropology, no. 22. Yale University Press, New Haven.

In a brief introduction to the Ingalik culture of the lower Yukon River, Osgood defines their geographical position, describes their habitat, and gives a short account of their history of foreign contact. He then describes Ingalik material culture very completely. His purpose was to present a complete account of one aspect of Ingalik culture; this work would later be combined with works on other aspects of Ingalik culture for intensive analysis of the society. The information on material culture was collected between 1934 and 1937.

369. Osgood, Cornelius

Winter. W. W. Norton and Company, New York.

1953 Fascinating reading, this is a narrative of Osgood’s observations and living experiences in the Great Bear Lake region of Canada in 1928 while he was an ethnographer for the Canadian government. It contains worthwhile ethnographic observations and a general construct of the texture of life in the far north.

370. Osgood, Cornelius 4958

Ingalik Social Culture. Yale University Publications in Anthropology, no. 53. Yale University Press, New Haven.

This work continues the reconstruction of Ingalik life that was started in another monograph by Osgood on Ingalik material culture. This monograph focuses on the social life of these Indians with information on daily living activities, subsistence, and family life. As noted, the Ingalik are Athabascans of the lower Yukon River and adjacent sections of the Innoko and Kuskokwim rivers of Alaska. Starting with a look at ecological conditions, Osgood notes that the weather in this part of Alaska is not as extreme as in more central areas. The summers are warm and have

11-131

frequent rains, while the winters are not as bitterly cold as in more interior areas. Coinciding with these seasons is a general duality in life patterns, symbolized by winter and summer villages. Winter villages had larger populations, though they were seldom over 200 in size. The summer villages were always smaller because the people had to spread out to take advantage of the best fishing sites. Subsistence itself was based on summer fishing and winter hunting. Though the information in this book is somewhat disconnected, the reader can obtain a good picture of Athabascan character from the material.

Ingalik Mental Culture. Yale University Publications

371. Osgood, Cornelius 1959

in Anthropology, no. 56. Yale University Press, New Haven.

Osgood presents a “record of ideas” of the Ingalik, lower Yukon River Athabascans. The material could be very useful in the study of Athabascans if interpreted carefully. The first quarter of the book describes Ingalik ideas about the physical world. Next are their ideas about other Athabascan groups. In differentiating peoples, the Ingalik note differences in clothing and subsistence. The Ingalik recognize three social classes. One is not clearly labelled, but consists of the common people. Another comprises the wealthy or those who have a food surplus. The third group is composed of “people who do nothing.” There is a connotation of shame attached to this group. These people live off the community and do as little work as possible. They do not marry. Athabascans of this area differentiate several personality types. A person “who doesn’t know how to make anything” is contrasted with the “only man.” The gossip is “the one who laughs about other people.” Other categories contain those who have nothing, those who have something, and those who steal. Social ordering and personality types seem to be generally based on concrete functionality more than anything else. Osgood gives much attention to sensory perception. He notes that these Indians pay attention to things they hear. They avoid noise, and even prefer quiet eating. Whistling is objectionable. Direct eye contact is avoided; a native will not look straight at another. Touching each other is also avoided. While dancing, they do not lock hands or elbows. Their movement is confined to a small space and is restrained compared to movement of body parts, particularly arm gestures. Shuffling and sliding forward or sideward characterize body movement, whereas running, jumping, or leaping do not—these actions conflict with Ingalik tradition of quiet restraint. Osgood gives significant information about emotions. Generally there is an effort to downplay the expression and use of emotions. For example, if a woman does not cook well, her husband may smack his lips or make some other noise. This would make the woman ashamed. Shame seems to be an important Ingalik expression. Fear is another common emotion. Osgood notes there is fear of eyes and eye contact, as well as fear of one who seeks seclusion. He also notes that jealousy and anger are frequent enough and so forceful on occasions that he could recognize a general effort to suppress them. Property is usually unmarked and is easy to borrow. Osgood says that although things are not returned, fear and shame are involved if one does not lend.

11-132

Little information could be obtained on Athabascan sense of values. However, Osgood found that beauty often was associated with functionality. Good was associated with conservative. There was much concern with evil, which was often associated with death and aggression. Concern was also apparent for some aspects of sex; masturbation in children, sex play and carelessness in showing sex organs were considered somewhat evil. Noise, pointing, staring, and laughing at someone were all considered things to avoid. Shamans were considered bad when they manipulated spirits, but good when they tried to save a person from various tribulations. A collection of mythology also appears in this work: The Origin of the Hot Dance The Story of the Paddle Dance in the Animal’s Ceremony The Story of the Big Funny Face Man and His Maul in the Animal’s Ceremony The Story of the Big Funny Face Man and the Stolen Woman in the Animal’s Ceremony The Story of the Marten Dance from the Animal’s Ceremony The Raven and the Fish Duck The Raven and the Purple Grackle The Man Who Slept in a Bear Hole The Man Who Turned into a Hawk The Sharing of Fire The Fine-Looking Boy and the Cannibal Woman The Origin of Shell Beads

372. Osgood, Cornelius 1971

The Han Indians, a Compilation of Ethnographic and Historical Data on the Alaska-Yukon Boundary Area. Yale University Publications in Anthropology No. 74. Yale University Press, New Haven.

As a compilation of 19th century ethnographic information and a discussion and comparison of different historical accounts, this monograph provides an excellent base for further Indian studies; it is strictly a survey of available Han ethnographic material.

373. Oswalt, Wendell H. ed. I960

Eskimos and Indians of Western Alaska 1861-68: Extracts from the Diary of Father Illarion. Anthropo¬ logical Papers of the University of Alaska, vol. 8, no. 2. pp. 100-118.

The information contained in these notes is rather sketchy for ethnographic material.

374. Oswalt, Wendell H. 1962-63

Historical Populations in Western Alaska and Migration Theory. Anthropological Papers of the Univer¬ sity of Alaska, vol. 11, no. 1. pp. 1-14.

The author discusses the historical ethnic groups along the Kuskokwim River system of western Alaska. 11-133

375. Oswalt, Wendell H. 1965

The Kuskokwim River Drainage, Alaska: An Annotated Bibliography. Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska, vol. 13, no. 1. pp. 1-73.

Complete with brief annotation for most references given, Oswalt’s bibliography also contains many sources that do not concern Athabascans.

376. Oswalt, Wendell H. 1966

This Land Was Theirs—A Study of the North American Indian. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.

Oswalt’s book contains ethnographic sketches of a number of North American Indian groups, one of which is the Chipewyan tribe of northern Canada. The summary of information covers historical contact and physical social culture of these Athabascans. The Chipewyan supported themselves in the forbidding subarctic environment by hunting and fishing. Settlements ranged from isolated individual family dwellings to clusters of family dwellings, though larger clusters were used for only short durations. The size of the local community was a function of seasonal subsistence activities and availability of food. Chipewyan social organization was simple. Each household was practically selfsufficient and each man assumed complete responsibility for himself and his family. Individualism was highly developed. Oswalt goes further to say that group identity and a concept of community cohesion were unknown among these Indians. If semi-permanent groups did gather around leaders, it was because of the leader’s hunting abilities. Ancestry was traced through both male and female lines with a recent tendency to prefer the mother’s brother’s daughter as a marriage partner. Chipewyan women were considered subordinate to men in every way. Though information on Chipewyan life cycle was incomplete, Oswalt outlined the major events and associated attitudes. Before delivery, a woman was isolated from the rest of the camp; men avoided all contact with her at this time. Blood associated with pregnancy and menstruation was considered potentially harmful and could contaminate fish and game. The mother cared for her child during his first year, carrying him in a pack on her back or in her skin clothing. Names for the infant were selected from the seasons, places, or animals. Compared to their sisters, males were favored among siblings. Parents were careful to prevent a girl from participating in sexual intercourse before she was married. Usually a girl married upon reaching puberty; boys married when they were twice as old. Marriages were arranged by relatives and parents. They were brittle. Group rape and wrestling for women both seemed common. According to the author, the life span for these Indians was rather short—less than 30 years. Death by accident, disease, and starvation was frequent. However, those who did grow old became an increasingly unwanted burden on the family. People died in isolation. Upon death, their property was destroyed as was the property of some of their relatives. Shamanism was a powerful force among these Indians. They feared spirits of dead people and certain animals.

11-134

Van Stone, James W.

Partially Acculturated Communities: Canadian Athapaskans and West Alaskan Eskimos. Anthropo-

1963

logica, vol. 5. pp. 23-31.

377. Oswalt, Wendell H.

The authors compare the contemporary villages of Napaskiak and Snowdrift and find that Eskimos develop better leadership patterns than Indians, who tend toward atomism.

378. Parker, James M. 1972

The Fur Trade and the Chipewyan Indian. In: The Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology, vol. 3, no. 1. pp. 43-57.

Parker’s article contains very general information on Canadian fur trade.

379. Parnell, C. 1942

Campbell of the Yukon. Beaver, Outfit 273, June, pp. 4-6; Sept., pp. 16-18; Dec., pp. 23-27.

Robert Campbell was one of the longtime employees of the Hudson’s Bay Company. This article is mostly a biographical sketch of his life. Of note is Campbell’s passage about a Nahane chieftain ess whom he encountered. She was described as a remarkable woman who, along with her very old father, held sway over a 500-member tribe. Conversation with her was limited since Campbell had no interpreter.

380. Parsons, Elsie Clews

Cries-For-Salmon, A Ten'a Woman. In: American

Reed, T. B.

Indian Life, Elsie Clews Parsons, ed. University of

1967

Nebraska

Press,

Anthropos, titled

Lincoln, “A

pp.

Narrative

337-361.

(Also

in

of the

Ten’a

of

Anvik.” Vols. 16-17. pp. 51-71,1922.) Cries-for-Salmon is a mission-educated Native of Anvik, Alaska, who related her view of Ten’a (Athabascan) life to Parsons in 1920. This excellent aboriginal description includes Athabascan myths, superstitions and beliefs as well as phases of individual and social life. Ceremonial aspects of childbirth and attendent practices are described in detail. Differences between child rearing and child behavior of boys and girls are explained in the context of adult expectations. The unusual integration of Eskimo and Athabascan beliefs and practices which characterize the Indians of the Anvik area is explicitly and implicitly clear in this work.

11-135

381. Paulson, Ivar 1952

The "Seat of Honor" in Aboriginal Dwellings of the Circumpolar Zone, with Special Regard to the Indians of North America. In: Selected Papers of the 24th International Congress of Americanists, Sol Tax ed. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 63-65.

The common occurrence of Amerindian seating of males opposite the dwelling door and far away from it is documented by Paulson.

382. Penard,J. M. 1929

Land Ownership and Chieftaincy Among the Chippewayan and Caribou-Eaters. Primitive Man, vol. 2. pp. 20-24.

Penard’s article concerns property rights and chieftaincy among the Chipewyan of northern Canada. He argues that ‘‘their social and political condition has always been one of pure ‘anarchy’,” and their subsistence was based solely on hunting and fishing. The only private property these Indians recognized was acquired upon the death of one’s father or by opening up a trap line, which gave the owner the exclusive right to the game in the area he covered in his annual movement around the trap line. Only the owner could set traps in his territory, and he could appropriate any game from an intruder’s traps. However, if a man started trailing game in his own territory, he could pursue it onto another’s property for the kill. The right to hunt beaver was a special case. It went to the first man who discovered the beaver’s habitation and marked it with a pole. Penard says that although this loose determination of property caused some disputes, they were normally settled amicably. Although there was no chief, properly speaking, a good hunter would attract others around him who hunted in his territory according to where he designated; in this way small bands were formed. The fur from a hunter’s catch belonged to him; the meat was distributed to the whole band by the chief. Either the chief or a joiner could voluntarily dissolve the relationship. Finally, Penard notes that although chiefs had more power during war, it is unclear how war chiefs were chosen and what their authority was. The Chipewyan had been at peace for some time when he observed them and had little knowledge of this matter.

383. Peters, W. J. 1904

Reconnaissance in Northern Alaska. Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, Profes¬ sional

Paper

No.

20.

United

States

Printing Office. Washington. Some population figures are noted for northern Alaska in this survey.

11-136

Government

On the Athabasca District of the Canadian North-West Territory. Proceedings of the Royal Geo¬

384. Petitot, Emile F. S. 1883

graphical Society and Monthly Record of Geography, vol. 5. pp. 633-655. Miscellaneous information pertains especially to the geographical characteristics of this district of Canada. Some population estimates are included. Other than this, there is little information on Indians.

On

385. Petitot, Emile F. S. 1884

the

Athabasca

District.

Canada

Record

of

Science, vol. 1. pp. 27-53.

Petitot’s article contains minimal information on the Indians, but does give some population estimates.

Report on the Population, Industries, and Resources of Alaska. United States Census Office, 10th Census,

386. Petroff, Ivan 1884

1880.

United

States

Government Printing Office,

Washington. (Also printed in: U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Military Affairs, Compilation of Narra¬ tives

of

Explorations

Congress,

1st Session,

in

Alaska.

Report

No.

Senate, 1023.

56th United

States Government Printing Office, Washington.) Alaska’s first comprehensive population enumeration, the 1880 census contains useful historical, geographic, ethnographic, economic, and demographic information generally arranged by census districts: Arctic, Yukon, Kuskokwim, Aleutian, Kadiak (sic), and Southeast. Under the Yukon division, Petroff makes a village-by-village survey of the populated areas, noting topography, climate, food and natural resources, and various ethnographic and historical information. Chapter 5, “Notes on Alaskan Ethnology,” also comprises a substantial collection of anthropological material on Alaskan Eskimo, Aleut, and Indian groups.

387. Phillips, R. A. J.

Canada's North. MacMillan of Canada, Toronto.

1967 A general history of Canada, this reference includes physical description of the territory occupied by northern Athabascans and conjecture about early Indian migrations. Phillips gives the tribal classification of the Athabascans as Kutchin, Hare, Nahanni, Yellowknife, Dogrib, Chipewyan, Sekani, and Beaver. However, he said that tribal divisions have

little

more

meaning

among

the

Indians

than

among

Eskimos.

The northern

Athabascans have vaguer tribal definition than most Indians to the south of the Athabascan area.

. Phillips notes that the real social unit of Athabascans was the family. In comparing the

Eskimos to the Indians, he said that both showed a tendency for families to band together

11-137

“to withstand some human danger,” implying starvation or intergroup hostilities. He indicated that in the case of the Indian groups, lack of agriculture and sparseness of game encouraged the people to disperse. Each Indian family had a group leader. This leadership position was defined by hunting ability. It was not hereditary. These groups moved about rather freely compared to the Eskimos. Frequent movement reduced the feasibility of complex political systems. Also, the Indians were seen to be more individualistic. Some bands had shamans who could help in hunting by manipulating supernatural powers. For this ability, the shaman received a certain amount of respect and was possibly feared. The social life of these Indians was neither rich nor varied. Though there were a few large gatherings, lavish entertainment was never popular. Dancing and gambling were popular diversions. The author says that the Indian generally seemed to have a gloomier outlook than the Eskimo and leaned toward pessimism. The Indian, however, lacked nothing in bravery. Finally Phillips notes the Indian’s fast acceptance of European goods, which in turn brought changes in life ways.

388. Pike,Warburton 1967

The Barren Ground of Northern Canada. Arno Press, New

York.

(First

published in 1892 by Edward

Arnold, New York.) Pike was an English pioneer and explorer who lived between 1861 and 1916. Both his books concern his experiences in northern Canada and contain periodic, unsystematic, and biased references to the Athabascans whom he encountered. Pike described the Yellowknife Indians as a “curious mixture of good and bad, simplicity and cunning; with no very great knowledge of common honesty, thoroughly untrustworthy . . .” (p. 120). They were also timid. Women were said to be lax in their morals. Males won respect by their hunting ability. All these Indians were superstitious.

389. Pike, Warburton 1967

Through the Subarctic Forest. Arno Press, New York. (First published in 1896, Edward Arnold, New York.)

The second of Pike’s narratives, this contains limited ethnographic information, but does refer to the Kaska and Liard Indians of northwest Canada. The author notes feuding between bands and frequent child deaths. He also implied that the Indians were better off when isolated from white contact.

390. Pinart, Alphonse L. 1906

A Few Words on the Alaskan Dene. Anthropos, vol. 1. pp. 907-913.

In this reply to Morice’s work, “The Great Dene Race,” Pinart corrects some of Morice’s geographical description of Athabascan tribes by saying that the Dene did not occupy the shores of Norton Bay or the mouth of the Kuskokwim River.

11-138

391. Poppe, Roger 1971

Kutchin Bibliography, An Annotated Bibliography of Northern Yukon Kutchin Indians. Canadian Wildlife Service, Edmonton, Alberta.

Poppe’s rather complete and useful general bibliography was compiled as part of the preliminary research activity of a proposed research project for the Canadian Wildlife Service in the western division of Canada, around the Old Crow region. Some references are briefly annotated. The bibliography includes divisions of area ethnography, natural and physical sciences, culture change, mental world (mythology), anthropological studies in theory, and miscellaneous references.

392. Porter, Robert P. 1893

Report on Population and Resources of Alaska at the Eleventh Census: 1890. Department of the Interior, Census Office. United States Government Printing Office, Washington.

Porter’s 1890 population survey includes some central Alaskan Athabascan village population figures and some brief historical comment on the area.

393. Portlock, Nathaniel 1789

A Voyage Round the World; but More Particularly to the Northwest Coast of America: Performed in 1785, 1786, 1787, and 1788. J. Stockdale and G. Goulding, London.

Though there is some reference to the northwest coast Indians and to Indians around the Cook Inlet, much of the information is unclear and would be difficult to use for ethnographic purposes.

394. Price, John A. 1971

United

States

and

Canadian

Indian

Periodicals.

Program in the Anthropology of Complex Societies. pp. 1-16.

This list of periodicals is very incomplete and not too useful in Athabascan studies.

395. Prindle, Louis Marcus 1913

A Geologic Reconnaissance of the Circle Quadrangle, Alaska. Department of the Interior, United States Geological

Survey,

Bulletin

538.

United

Government Printing Office, Washington. A few population figures for the area appear in this reference.

11-139

States

396. Province of British Columbia 1944

Forty-Seventh Report of the Provincial Board of Health for the Year Ended December 31st, 1943. Charles F. Banfield, Victoria.

Some general information on Indian health appears in this report. In 1943, 65 percent of all Indians who died in British Columbia were under 30 years of age, 35 percent were under 5 years of age, and over 20 percent were under 1 year of age. Tuberculosis caused 30 percent of all Indian deaths, and three-fourths of those Indians were under 30 years of age.

397. Province of British Columbia 1947

Fortieth Report of the Provincial Board of Health and First Report of the Department of Health and Welfare (Health Branch), Year Ended December 31st, 1946. Don McDiarmid, Victoria.

Most of this health information applies to non-Indians. For Indian health, the report says that in 1946, 31 percent of Indian deaths occurred among those less than 1 year of age, 22.4 percent occurred among those age 60 and over, and tuberculosis was the leading cause of death.

398. Ray, Verne F. 1942

Culture Element Distributions: XXII Plateau. Anthropological Records of the University of California, vol. 8, no. 2. pp. 99-257.

“Culture element” is a notion that divides what people do and are into discrete units. The work discusses their distribution as if they were discrete portable commodities. Some analysis of North American Athabascan areas appears here also.

399. Rich, Edwin Ernest ed. 1938

Journal of Occurrences in the Athabascan Department by George Simpson, 1820 and 1821, and Report. Vol. 1. Champlain Record Society, London.

Simpson was employed in the Athabasca district by the Hudson’s Bay company. His journals contain occasional reference to the Athabascans of Canada. He described the Indians of Lake Athabasca as being a “miserable abject race, covetous,” but brave, cunning, and boastful. About the Chipewyan Indians, he noted: ... it is an unfortunate characteristic of the Chipewyans, that if unsuccessful for any length of time in the early part of the season, their superstitions gain such an ascendancy over them, and they become so fully impressed with the idea that some evil genius haunts them, that they give themselves up entirely to despair; they become careless, neglect their hunts, lay dormant in their encampments for weeks together, while a morsel of Leather or Babiche remains to keep them in existence, at length to escape the miseries of famine, they murder their Families and perish without a single exertion. Whole bands of these poor wretches are annually consigned to oblivion in this melancholy way; when in this situation they are deaf to all arguments and entreaty. (p. 197) 11-140

Simpson characterized the Beaver Indians of the Peace River in much the same way. Again, he was impressed by their extreme suspiciousness.

400. Rich, Edwin Ernest ed. 1949

James Isham's Observations on Hudsons Bay, 1743 (and Notes and Observations on a Book Entitled, A Voyage to Hudson's Bay, in the Dobbs Galley, 1747). Hudson’s

Bay

Record

Society,

the

Champlain

Society, vol. 12. London. The brief references to Indians in these narratives are not very useful for ethnographic work.

401. Rich, Edwin Ernest ed. 1953

John Rae's Correspondence with the Hudson's Bay Company on Arctic Exploration, 1844-55. The Hudson’s Bay Record Society, London.

John Rae’s notes, journals, and letters contain sporadic and not too useful reference to Canadian Athabascans. Generally his information indicates these Indians suffered much privation during the winter both from lack of food and disease.

402. Rich, Edwin Ernest ed.

Black's Rocky Mountain Journal, 1824. Hudson’s Bay Record Society, vol. 18. Hudson’s Bay Record

1955

Society, London. These are brief notes on the local Indians throughout Black’s journals, but the total amount of information is minimal. especially

for

The book would be useful as a historical reference,

trading post activities.

Of note

was the

high

amount

of intertribal

communication between Canadian Athabascan groups.

403. Rich, Edwin Ernest ed. 1957

Hudson's Society,

Bay vol.

Company. 20.

Hudson’s Bay Record Hudson’s Bay Record Society,

London. Basically a historical reference, the text refers briefly to Canadian Athabascans and their dealings with the Hudson’s Bay Company.

404. Richardson, John 1851

Arctic Searching Expedition: A Journal of a Boat Voyage Through Ruperts Land to the Arctic Sea, in Search of the Discovery Ships Under Command of Sir John Franklin. Longman, Brown, and Longmans, London.

Date of observation and plentiful ethnographic information interspersed throughout Richardson’s journals, make this an excellent Canadian Athabascan reference. Greatest 11-141

detail is given of the Chipewyan, Yellowknife, Dogrib, Bearlake,and Kutchin Indians. These groups cover interior areas from Alaska’s northeast to the northwestern part of Canada to Hudson’s Bay. By reporting their frequent inattention to personal appearance, want of cleanliness, and abject and stoic behavior, Richardson constructs a picture of Athabascan personality. He saw these Indians “to fear pain, show little daring, express their fears with disguise, and live in constant dread of enemies . . . They were not a morose people; they were remarkably lively and cheerful when living in a secure situation.” Generally timid and unwarlike, the Athabascans Richardson encountered lived in small groups and supported themselves by hunting, fishing and gathering. Within the group, property and hunting rewards were shared. The group system of government where order was maintained and decisions made solely by public opinion was also communal. Any leader “under such

leaders

whose

guidance a

greater or smaller number of families place

themselves . . .” emerged because of his superior cleverness and hunting abilities.

405. Richardson, John 1855

The Last of the Arctic Voyages; Being a Narrative of the Expedition in H.M.S. Assistance, Under the Command of Captain Sir Edward Belcher. L. Reeve, London.

Most reference to Indians in this book concern the Esquimaux, not an Athabascan group.

406. Richmond, Sara 1970

Cognitive and Structural Bases for Group Identity: The Case of the Southern Arctic Drainage Dene. The Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology, Special Issue: Athabascan Studies, vol. 2, no. 1. pp. 140-149.

Richmond is concerned with finding a basis for Athabascan group designations such as Slavey, Beaver, Dogrib, and Chipewyan, among the people for whom such names are given. She wonders if such classifications are meaningful to the natives. The article is basically a theoretical one, based on fieldwork done in 1969 and 1970. The author determines that group differentiation is a result of cognitive function. Similar institutions within a society allow communication and are based on cultural similarity which is not totally dependent upon language. Ethnicity occurs where one group of people does not or cannot effectively communicate with another. Richmond’s study assumes that cultural or ethnic groupings do not necessarily have explanatory criteria that are replicable and universal, but instead entail problems of determining what attitudes in one particular area might keep one group of people from communicating effectively with another group. Richmond finds that among the Athabascans, many traditional methods of deter¬ mining ethnicity such as trait distribution, territorial contiguity, political organization, language, ecological adjustment, and local community structure do not apply in equal degrees if they apply at all. Distinctions between Athabascans and non-Athabascans are much easier to make than between Athabascan groups. Members of an Athabascan group

11-142

recognize a greater difference between themselves and non-Athabascans and a much lesser distinction between their own and other Athabascan groups. Thus, there is more potential for communication among all Athabascan groups than between Athabascans and other groups such as whites and Eskimos.

407. Ridington, Robin

Culture and

1969

Creation. Paper, University of British

Columbia.

Ridington’s excellent article defines the optimal size of Athabascan hunting and wandering bands, which given subarctic woodland resources, is about 20 to 30 people, assuming one-quarter of a moose per square mile and a strong dependence upon them. This probably

holds

true

for

much

of the subarctic population, and

may

be used for

extrapolation. It further empirically supports certain assumptions made by numerous other authors concerning certain aspects of Athabascan social organization and ecology.

408. Ridington, Robin

Kin Categories Versus Kin Groups: A Two-Section

1969

System with Sections. Ethnology, vol. 8, no. 4. pp. 460-467.

Ridington argues that the Beaver Indian kinship system is a system with egocentric conceptual marriage categories that have not crystalized into a sociocentric moiety system because of ecological conditions that favor flexibility in marriage and group affiliation. The Beaver world consists of kin and nonkin or enemies, though not all kin are friends.

Parallel

cousins

are

classed

with

cousins

and cross-cousins are classed with

siblings-in-law. This is bifurcate collateral technically, bifurcate merging functionally. All relatives fall into categories: (1) grandparents, (2) grandchildren, (3) parallel relatives, and (4) cross relatives. Ego may marry any cross relative of the opposite sex, but may not marry relatives in the other three categories. All relatives are called by either a cross or parallel term from ego’s point of view. Since there are no unilocal residence rules, the system allows for maximum flexibility in an individual’s choice of association while providing a formal means of defining relationship. Ridington says that a system of egocentric marriage dichotomization without group duality is perhaps more congenial to a nomadic hunting society in which gathering by women is a major source of subsistence. In societies where women are primary subsistence producers (most hunting and gathering societies), men may have to devise systems for the exchange of women in order to control the means of production.

409. Ridington, Robin 1971

Beaver Indian Dreaming and Singing. In: Anthropologica, “Pilot not Commander—Essays in memory of Diamond Jenness,” new series, vol. 13, no. 1 and 2. pp. 115-128.

Ridington’s sardonic paper is an attempt to explore the inner, psychological meaning of shamanistic singing. Essentially he reports the ethno-nomenclature and meaning of 11-143

certain Beaver Indian behavior in Beaver terms while avoiding anthropological terminology. This approach could be especially useful if it were integrated into a more comprehensive analysis.

410. Ridington, Robin

The Inner Eye of Shamanism and Totemism. History

Ridington, Tonia

of Religions, vol. 10, no. 1. University of Chicago

1970

Press, Chicago, pp. 49-61.

An interesting article, it starts with the assumption that the mental structure of totemism reflects and expresses the entire cosmic structure of shamanism. It abstracts one element, totemism, from the universe of shamanic meaning as representative of that universe. Information for this work was collected among the Beaver Indians between 1964 and 1968. The Beaver creator God drew a cross upon primeval waters, defining quarters of the earth into East, South, West, and North. Totemic associations to each of these directions are: East, birth and rebirth, good, male, animal and childbirth blood, spring. South, good, female, summer. West, dangerous, female, menstrual blood. North, dangerous, male, winter. When the cross was drawn, it set in motion not only the seasons, but also the sequence of stages of human development. East is birth. South is nursing, warmth, and a protecting mother. Mother at this time is important and benevolent (oral stage of the infant). West is female and dangerous; it is fall and signifies the cooling of the warm nutrient mother. The child is weaned, and he sees the mother is harmful, even killing. Sex is powerful and destructive in the fall. Moose rutting, which occurs at this time, is crazy. West is red and associated with menstrual blood which kills. The mountains of the west are the body of a giant woman, and the people can be lured between these mountains and trapped. North is winter, a horror of nightfall after the shocks of the preceeding seasons. As fall leaves are covered with snow, so too is the child’s experience covered by wisdom. So the cycle continues year by year. All forces are joined at the center of the cross, which symbolizes the connection between the upper spiritual and lower real levels of the earth and the direction of true rebirth of man. Vision quest is tied to the discovery of this rebirth. Between weaning and puberty, boys and girls seek supernatural power from animal friends and supernatural beings. Sometimes, Beaver children live apart from the rest of the group during this quest. This is a time of developing independence, of transforming dependence from parents to animals and learning to subsist. It is a time of experience and encounter with the boss of one’s selected animal totem. Shamanism is used to a greater degree than usual to gain this communication and knowledge. This type of communication is powerful and can be dangerous as well as beneficial. The relationship between an individual and his totem is delicate but strong. By contrast, interpersonal relationships between Athabascans are characteristically shallow and unfeeling.

11-144

Among the Caribou-Eaters. Beaver, December, pp.

411. Robinson, J.

38-41.

1944

Though a very general article describing the Caribou-Eaters (northern Chipewyan), it does bring out some important features of Athabascan life in the subarctic. Livelihood is made almost entirely from fishing and hunting. Dwellings must be of a temporary nature to allow these Indians to follow the seasonal movement of the game. A few superstitions are also noted, some of which show that women, their clothing, and their blood can be a detriment in hunting which is done by the men.

Robinson, J. L.

Exploration and Settlement of Mackenzie District, N.W.T. Canadian Geographical Journal, vol. 32, no. 6.

1946

pp. 246-255. (Part

412. Robinson, M. J.

II of this article did not appear in

the following July issue as indicated.) Little reference to Indians is made in this brief history of the Mackenzie District.

On the Indian Tribes of Mckenzie and Arctic Coast.

413. Ross, Bernard R.

1859

Canadian Geographical Journal, vol. 4. pp. 190-197.

Ross generalizes about the Chipewyan groups of the area north of the Churchill River between Great Slave Lake and Slave and Athabaska rivers on the west and Hudson Bay on the east. He divides this “race” into: Chipewyans of English River, Athabasca Lake, and Great Slave Lake Beaver Indians of Peace River Caribou Eaters and Yellow knives of Athabasca and Great Slave Lake Dogribs of Great Slave Lake and Martin Lake Slaves of Great Slave Lake and the Mckenzie River and Bear’s Lake Hare Indians of the Mckenzie River and Bear’s Lake. Though Ross may not have been completely objective, his observations are still useful. He

notes

polygymy

and

the

low status

of women, and

comments

on the Indian

acculturation to Christianity. Subsistence activity, teknonymy, food taboos, and some mythology are described. Hunting taboos concerning women and fighting for wives were two other common aspects of Athabascan culture discussed.

414. Ross, Bernard R. 1861

An Account of the Animals Useful in an Economic Point of View to the Various Chipewyan Tribes. Canadian

Naturalist

and

Geologist,

vol.

6.

pp.

433-444. Ross listed the available animals and briefly commented on their use by the northern Canadian Indians. He found that rabbits were among the most essential animals for food and clothing.

11-145

415. Ross, Bernard R. 1862

An Account of the Botanical and Mineral Products Useful to the Chipewyan Tribes of Indians. Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, vol. 7. pp. 133-137.

Ross lists plants and minerals that the Athabascans of the Mackenzie River district used.

416. Ross, Bernard R. 1867

The Eastern Tinneh. In: G. Gibbs, Notes on the Tinneh or Chipewyan Indians of British and Russian America. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the

Smithsonian

Government

Institution,

Printing

1866.

Office,

United

Washington,

States pp.

304-311. Ross’s article is of value for its early information about the northern Canadian Athabascans. Ross talks about the Tinneh or Chipewyan groups, and includes some useful information on child rearing within the society and within the especially harsh environment. Children were secured in a moss bag after they were born. Arms and limbs were restrained and only the head could move freely. Normally the child was not weaned until another took its place, if the mother had enough milk to give it in the first place. The author notes that it was not unusual for an Indian woman to suckle a child 3 or 4 years old even with another baby at her breast too. Children were allowed to suck as long as the mother had milk. When the milk ran out, a switch was made to whatever soft food was available. Ross notes two superstitions here. One was that female infant’s nails were not cut until they were four years old. This assured that they would not be lazy in adulthood. The other superstition was against feeding the infant for the first four days after birth. This was said to render the child capable of enduring starvation, a frequent occurrence in later life. Boys reached puberty at about 12, and married when they were between 16 and 20 years old. Puberty for girls was less defined. They married at 13 or younger. Ross recognized that an instinct to love their offspring was common among these Athabascans, but says this was modified by the selfishness that was so conspicuous in their character. In sickness, for example, they appeared to sympathize strongly, yet their affection was seldom strong enough to induce them to do anything that would require self-exertion. In adulthood, bonds between relatives were easily broken and adolescents paid “scanty deference” to parents. Generally male children were cared for better than female children. Female children conceded to their brothers. Ross later adds that only in early age do children pay much attention to the commands of their parents whose control is soon loosened. Ross notes the curious circumstance in which children were treated exactly as adults and talked to as such, but also says that since the general character of all ages was decidedly childish, the manner suited all parties equally well. The life span was short and many children died at an early age. Most families had about three children, according to Ross. He said that these Indians were far from a healthy race. Causes of death proceded from weakness of constitution and hereditary taint rather than from epidemic diseases. In all probability, want of proper and regular nutriment and exposure in children undermined their constitutions before they came of age.

11-146

Ross adds that the death of a child was apparently not much regretted. Immediate mourning was short and although in later years a mother would lament her offspring’s death bitterly, this was far more customary than heartfelt. Ross continues with some description about Tinneh religious life and says these Indians were averse to laying open their religious beliefs. In any case, Ross gives his impressions without the aid of reading the account of Mackenzie and Heame first. His impressions are insightful. Ross says that these Indians seem to possess as cold and simple a theology as any known race of mankind. He feels, though, that in the past this may not have been the case. Various things, the mockery from whites not least among them, have caused the Tinneh to wean away from the traditional beliefs. Ross also notes that these Indians were “great imitators and respectors” of more civilized races, and feels that Christianity is replacing the heathen ideas so they will eventually become nothing more than memories. However, Ross doubts if many of these Indians will become sincere Christians at heart, although they will at least submit willingly to the outward semblance of Christian religion and conform to its ceremonies in a highly plausible manner. Generally, fear characterized Tinneh religion during Ross’s time of observation. He noted that knowledge of a First Cause or Maker was faint, and the idea of future reward carried little sway over daily life. Ideas of good and evil were not polarized. Demons peopled the woods, streams, the lonely localities, and moaned among the caches of the dead. Though the natives tried to propitiate these spirits, the author felt that the Indians had a sneaking, superstitious fear that their appeasements were not sufficiently strong to overcome the avarice that formed so predominant a trait in their character. An idea of fatalism was also characteristic; there was little struggle to combat adverse circumstances. Ross noted an “inferior” species of totemism existed among these people. A totem was selected by each hunter. Help was asked of the totem only in times of need. There was no regular order of priesthood in Tinneh religious life, but anyone who felt inclined could become a medicine man. Esteem was gained by conjuring away sickness and foretelling future events. The idea that conjurors could kill other Indians at a distance was common in many Athabascan tribes. About the character of these Indians, Ross says they were honest, not bloodthirsty or cruel, but were confirmed liars or at least were adept at fabricating false reports to serve their own interests. Ross considered the whole race unwarlike. Even among themselves, personal combat consisted only of wrestling and hair pulling, usually a harmless way of settling disputes. Ross notes a remarkable fear of enemies which these Indians had even in peaceful times. They were also timid; a strange footprint or an unusual sound in the forest was enough to cause great excitement in the camp. In the last paragraph of his article, Ross makes some statements about the subsistence of the Tinneh. These people were obliged to lead a very wandering life in order to gain food by either fishing or hunting. Yet he notes that these Indians were not wedded to their ancient manners and customs by strong ties, and easily fell into the habits of Europeans.

417. Rourke, Louise 1924

The

Land

of the

Frozen Tide. Hutchinson and

Company, Publishers, Ltd., London.

Rourke’s observations cover from 1920 to 1940, and include information about the northern Canadian Athabascans. She felt that the Indian population was on the decline. The book includes some unidentified mythology collected from the Chipewyan area.

11-147

418. Russell, Frank 1898

Explorations in the Far North, Being the Report of an Expedition under the Auspices of the University of Iowa During the Years 1892, 1893, and 1894. State University of Iowa, Iowa City.

Russell’s narratives include brief information on the Canadian Athabascans. He said they were not friendly at first and seemed to be rather aloof. These Indians depended to a large degree on caribou for food; fish was a secondary source, and if this source failed, starvation was inevitable. Also included in Russell’s account are population figures for the Mackenzie River district for 1858, and description of Indian material culture.

419. Russell, Frank 1900

Athabascan Myths. Journal of American Folklore, vol. 13. pp. 11-18.

English translations: Little Hairy Man The Raven The Wolf and Wolverine The Great Beaver Origin of the Pine

420. Sapir, Edward 1924

Personal Names Among the Sarcee Indians. American Anthropologist,

vol.

26,

new

series, no.

1.

pp.

108-119. Material for this paper was collected in 1922; Sarsi names and translations constitute the text. The author concludes that the names reflect how Sarsi assimilated the Plains Indian culture with which they came into contact, since many names found in Sarsi duplicate Blackfeet names. In the article, the names are grouped into categories of geographical reference, tribal names, animal and medicine names (the largest portion), and names referring to horses and riding, war, incidents, and personal characteristics.

421. Saum, Lewis O. 1965

The

Fur

Trader

and

the

Indian.

University

of

Washington Press, Seattle.

In a good secondary reference, Saum draws together early observations of the northern Athabascans as reflected by traders and trappers, which are noted under original source names in this bibliography.

11-148

Kinship and the Expression of Values in an Athabascan Bush Community. The Western Canadian

422. Savishinsky, Joel S.

1970

Journal of Anthropology, Special Issue: Athabascan Studies, vol. 2, no. 2. pp. 31-59. Savishinsky’s excellent paper is based on fieldwork done between 1967 and 1968 and on unpublished doctoral dissertation material of 1970. Fieldwork was carried out among members of a Colville Lake band of Hare Indians. This group was selected because the author felt that these people were in a transition stage between aboriginal and more settled village life. Despite the range of cultural diversity shown by circumpolar peoples, the author feels that a strong case can be made for some cultural continuities which cut across these areas: strong emphasis upon kinship ties, generosity, emotional restraint, and behavioral flexibility. He notes the argument that these attitudes may involve adaptive measures to the extreme subarctic environment. He also notes that recent research has shown that these continuities were carried into settlement life, though in some cases, the old values may have been modified to suit new institutions. In other cases, the continuance of old values has produced stress and tension in settlement life. Historically Savishinsky noted that the social ties within the settlement could be traced bilaterally and affinally. The bilateral ties constituted a noncorporate, informal, flexible group of kindred. Usually patrilineally linked families did not join and corporate. Though

sometimes households did

cooperation

usually

was

highly

combine to

variable.

live

in

one location, the degree of

There was no fixed pattern by which the

Athabascan families combined in this loose and flexible society. The author adds that underlying this vague system, the nuclear family was the major socio-economic unit of society. Savishinsky says that historically this fluid bilateral system may have been an adaption to the environmental pressures of starvation and nomadic life. The flexibility of the kinship system continually allowed people to move around and always be able to reconstitute their group organization; kinship could be seen as a means of establishing loose organization lor camping alliances which fluctuated according to seasonal activities. When fieldwork was done, the settlement was composed of 14 separate families or 56 people. Twelve of the households consisted of people related to the “original” Colville Lake area families. Through the past years, these households became interrelated through a series of consanguineal and affinal ties. Sharing, generosity, and emotional restraint are still important features of Athabascan social living, especially within the family. Savishinsky suggests that the crucial economic role of the family, combined with the premium that survival in the bush places on smooth-working, cooperative social units, are all factors which would be conducive to an emphasis on characteristic Athabascan emotional restraint as a behavioral norm. Generally in settlement life, the author notes that the Colville Lake people have retained some of their social flexibility though band members have become more dependent on one another with stronger ties of kinship, intermarriage, friendship, generosity and mutual reliance.

11-149

423. Schaeffer, C. E. 1942

The Grasshopper or Children's War—A Circumboreal Legend? Pennsylvania Archaeologist, vol. 12. pp. 60-61.

Wide distribution of the “Children’s War” myth motif is documented by Schaeffer.

424. Schmitter, Ferdinand 1912

Upper

Yukon

Native

Customs

and

Folk-Lore.

Smithsonian Institute, Miscellaneous collection, vol. 56, no. 4. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, pp. 1-30.

Schmitter’s article is useful for its information on the Indians of Fort Egbert, Alaska, in 1906. The Athabascans of this area are classed as Vunta Kutchin. These Indians were seasonally migratory, though there was some use of permanent cabins by 1906. Diet consisted of fish, game, and berries. Caribou were hunted throughout the year and were more common than other large game. The Indians never ate dog, wolf, raven, hawk or eagle, and seldom ate wolverine. The author says that there was good opportunity for agriculture. These Vunta Kutchin cooked over hot stones, and used some birch baskets for containers. Cooking implements were limited as was most of their material culture. Schmitter said the group’s chief had despotic authority, yet public opinion was strong and each individual had great respect for the community’s opinion of his personal actions. Marriages were arranged during the child’s infancy. Potlatching was an active institution. Ceremonies occurred when a child was born and when a boy made his first kill. A feast was given when a girl reached puberty. Shamanism existed and included such ideas as extracting evil spirits from a patient’s body. The shaman could also defeat an enemy by magic. There were both good and bad shamans. Schmitter described the psychology of these Indians as simple and child-like, and said they were “fond of mystery and mysticism.” A folklore section includes an earth driver myth, the escape of winds because of curiosity myth, a reduced culture hero myth, a raven cycle myth, theft of the sun myth, and female murder of husband and male murder of wife myths.

425. Schrader, Frank Charles 1900

Preliminary Report on a Reconnaissance Along the Chandalar and Koyukuk Rivers, Alaska. Department of the

Interior, United States Geological Survey.

Extracted from the 21st Annual Report of the Survey 1899-1900.

Part

II.

United

States

Government

Printing Office, Washington. Though this is a geological survey, it is somewhat useful for its population figures and settlement descriptions for the included area. Schrader noted that Indian subsistence was based on both fish and game. The natives spent only a few months of the year in cabins—the coldest months. For the rest of the year, they roamed about in search of food. Destitution and suffering were occasionally great.

11-150

Schrader further described the Athabascans of this area as shiftless and improvident, yet intelligent.

426. Schrader, Frank Charles 1900

A Reconnaissance of a Part of Prince William Sound and the Copper River District, Alaska, in 1898. In: 20th Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, Part VII. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, pp. 341-423.

Some population figures are included in this report.

427. Schwatka, Frederick

Summer in Alaska. J. W. Henry, St. Louis.

1893 A narrative of a journey down the Yukon River in the 1880’s comprises this volume. Unfortunately there is only general information given about Athabascans encountered. The book is not a very useful reference.

428. Schwatka, Frederick 1898

Along Alaska's Great River. George M. Hill Company, New York.

Schwatka’s book contains minimal ethnographic information.

429. Seton, Ernest Thompson 1912

The

Arctic

Prairies.

Constable

and

Company,

Limited, London.

Seton traveled around northern Canada in 1907 to gather information about caribou; his account does include some mention of northern Canadian Athabascans, especially the Chipewyan. Seton states that they were dirty, shiftless, and improvident, yet honest, and that these Indians have greatly suffered from the diseases introduced by white contact.

430. Shapiro, H. L.

1931

The Alaskan Eskimo, A Study of the Relationship Between the Eskimo and the Chipewyan Indians of Central Canada. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 31, part 6. pp. 347-384.

The author finds evidence of general admixture between Eskimos and Indians where the two groups met.

11-151

The

431. Sheldon, Charles

Wilderness

of

the

Upper

Yukon.

Charles

Scribner’s Sons, New York.

1911

Sheldon provides a narrative of hunting experiences and natural history observation in the Yukon Territory. He included brief references to the Pelly Indians, Athabascans of the Pelly River drainage. One group encountered was thriving in life around a trading post. The author felt that when Indians began to live around trading posts, they normally became lazy and demoralized by whiskey.

Some

432. Sherwood, Angus 1958

Remarks

about

the

Athapaskan

Indians.

Anthropologica, no. 1. pp. 51-56.

Valuable, generalized remarks from the author cover a period of 45 years from 1911, and concern northern groups of Canadian Indians. Of interest was the report that the increased use of dog teams after white contact has put a great demand on the food supply—a demand which, according to the author, was too great for the land.

433. Sherwood, Morgan B. 1965

Exploration Americana

of

Alaska

Series, 7.

1865-1900.

Yale

Yale Western University Press, New

Haven. A good historical reference, Sherwood’s book contains only minimal ethnographic information.

Traditions of the Sarcee Indians. Journal of American

434. Simms, S. C. 1904

Folklore, vol. 17. pp. 180-182.

The English translations here include three myths with no titles.

435. Simpson, Thomas 1843

Narrative of the Discoveries on the Northern Coast of America; Effected by the Officers of the Hudson's Bay Company During the Years 1836-39. R. Bentley, London.

Journal notes given here include reference to disease among Canadian Athabascans, but little other useful ethnographic information.

436. Slobodin, Richard

Eastern Kutchin Warfare. Anthropologica, new series,

I960 Slobodin

vol. 2, no. 1. pp. 76-94. defines

a cultural

gradient

of social complexity among the northern

Athabascans from simple in the east, to more complex in the west. The gradient can be seen

11-152

even within the Kutchin area. By eastern Kutchin standards, the western Kutchin groups had more complex, rigid, and authoritarian social organization. The westerners seemed more war-like and aggressive too. The eastern Kutchin groups had loosely structured, relatively simple social organization. As far as warfare was concerned, the eastern Kutchin saw themselves as quiet, modest, good humored, even gay, but tough enough when occasion demanded. According to Kutchin informants, all the Kutchin groups fought wars in the past, especially with the Eskimos. Informants indicated that hostilities between Eskimo and Kutchin groups had not always existed; they were started by Eskimo raiding. The Kutchin continued conflict more for revenge than for capture of goods and women; once raiding and retaliation had been established, there was always a death which occurred to carry on the momentum. Kutchin raiding parties, initiated by a principal mourner who appointed three leaders, consisted of two or three dozen people. Slobodin notes that captives, loot, and war honors were among the products of intercommunity strife. Though obtaining these things was not the main purpose of raiding, a raid did further cultural diffusion by distributing these goods and captives. Captives were usually adopted into the band and became full members, except in the cases of some women. Fighting between communities began to end with the establishment of trading posts. As trade became more common, the Kutchin found themselves to be middlemen between the Eskimos and interior trading posts. This valuable economic position provided incentive for the establishment of better relations with the Eskimos.

437. Slobodin, Richard I960

Some

Social

American

Functions

Anthropologist,

of vol.

Kutchin 62,

no.

Anxiety. 1.

pp.

122-133. Slobodin’s excellent article concerns anxiety of subarctic people, especially the Kutchin. According to Hallo we 11 (1941), this anxiety tends to make it impossible for individuals to cooperate because it is originally based on a belief in the possibility of interpersonal malevance. Slobodin adds to Hallowell’s concept by showing that anxiety also works to integrate a society such as the Kutchin’s; he believes that anxiety underlies both the social processes that segregate individuals and those that bring them together. Both forces held Kutchin society stable, if only by their ambivalent and countering influences. For instance, while self-sufficiency was highly valued, so was social responsibility and regard for community interests. Social structure was flexible; it was not amorphous. To illustrate this process, Slobodin shows how anxiety is expressed in recurring themes concerning the lone survivor in Kutchin folklore, especially in “bushman” tales. He tells of an example where a family becomes separated from the main group. This family eventually finds food, but never finds the main group, which eventually starves. In spite of hardships endured, the surviving family can never face people again. Although they are respected for their strength and resourceful endurance, they are also suspected for possible supernatural powers. Thus, the respected survivors are regarded with caution. Eventually the survivors become bushmen. Although the survivor or isolate is not openly accused of wrongdoing, he is not accepted into the group. He is regarded with fear, suspicion, pity, respect, and friendliness. These attitudes represent both the segregative and

11-153

integrative forces operating in Kutchin society. Bushmen are also considered half-human and half-supernatural for their ability to survive; this adds to the ambiguity of feelings associated with them. This anxiety is expressed in the recurring theme of starvation too. In fact, Slobodin adds that according to an informant, a story is not good unless it includes starvation. To endure starvation implies individual strength, which is respected. However, starvation may work as an integrative force; when it threatened a large group of people or a number of small camps within a restricted area so that it became impossible to seek further for food, there was a strong tendency for them to draw together and await death as a cohesive group. Today the threat of starvation is replaced by disease, but the characteristic Kutchin inclination to draw into a large encampment remains. As an individual falls ill, his kinfolk crowd in upon him. Slobodin finds that the necessary physical crowding in everyday life in the aboriginal tent has been transferred to cabin living. Social ties among the Kutchin are represented physically; the most common congregation is between status-equivalents or age-mates of the same sex. It is not uncommon for six to eight youths of the same sex to pack on a small sofa.

Individuals

of

the

same

sex sometimes hold

hands

while

walking,

yet

overt

homosexuality is almost unknown. Kutchin society is generally unstratified, with little difference between rich and poor. Food seems to be shared among all. Though the Kutchin project anxiety only on the solitary figure as contrasted to the group figure, they will accept an isolate into the group. Nevertheless, the community attitude remains ambivalent toward the isolate. It fears and suspects the isolate, yet it reaches out toward him; it seeks to reintegrate him, but according to tradition and personality, such reintegration is difficult. Slobodin concludes that the behavior toward the bushman illustrates certain Kutchin themes: (1) expression of social distance in physical distance; (2) expression of fellowship by means of physical contact, and of group solidarity in physical contiguity; (3) preponderance of achieved status, extending in part to the status as a member of society, hence to status as a human; (4) negative attitude toward solitude and an ambivalence regarding the solitary individual—isolation soon tends to dehumanize; and (5) need to reintegrate the isolate.

438. Slobodin, Richard 1962

Band

Organization

National

Museum

Department

of

of of

the

Peel

Canada

Northern

River

Bulletin

Affairs

and

Kutchin. No.

179.

National

Resources, Ottawa. Slobodin’s analysis of leadership patterns and bands among the Peel River Kutchin contains excellent historical and ethnographic material. Like other subarctic Athabascans, the Kutchin’s social organization was characterized by matrilineality, matrilocal post nuptial residence, and some polygymy. The people were divided into matrilineal exogamous sibs, but with some endogamy. Pubertal exclusion existed for both boys and girls. There were post-mortuary potlatches. Antagonism between males and females and brittle marriages

11-154

were also evident. Social groupings informally seemed to devolve around one’s age-sex mates. Some tendency existed toward a moiety system, perhaps based on class. Leadership patterns varied with group size and subsistence activity. The trapping party and aboriginal war party had a chief and subchief. The larger camp groupings were organized by the sib heads without reference to an overall authority. Band chieftainship here, as elsewhere among subarctic Athabascans, followed the male lineage.

The "Dawson Boys;" Peel River Indians and the Klondike Gold Rush. Polar Notes, no. 5. pp. 24-36.

439. Slobodin, Richard 1963

Slobodin defines alterations in residence, occupation, and life habits of the Kutchin Athabascans of Peel River during the Klondike gold rush in 1897 and 1898, with particular note of a group at Dawson City. Unlike the complete dissolution of culture and social life experienced

by a

nearby

group of Han Athabascans, the Dawson group apparently

maintained hunting practices and remained rather cohesive.

440. Slobodin, Richard

1969

Leadership and Participation in a Kutchin Trapping Party. In: Contributions to Anthropology: Band Societies. National Museum of Canada Bulletin 228, Paper No. 3. National Museum of Canada, Ottawa, pp. 93-115.

Early in 1947, Slobodin traveled with a trapping party of Kutchin Indians in the upper drainage of the Peel River, Yukon Territory, Canada. What followed in this paper is a good ethnographic

narrative

describing the

trip,

party

members, and party structure and

functioning, including a consideration of interpersonal relationships. Of note are the author’s introductory remarks concerning Kutchin social organization as it adapts to their environment and subsistence. The Kutchin live mostly within the boreal forest bordering on an arctic ecological zone. These people have subsisted in this fairly productive environment by hunting, trapping, and freshwater fishing, supplemented slightly by plant-gathering in the summer. Most of the typical Kutchin life is spent within the nuclear family, which usually exists as a distinct physical and social entity. This group fluctuates in size, though, depending on seasonal subsistence activites. Important variations of this group are (1) paired family, several (usually sibling) families living in commensalism, unlike situations where newly married couples live with the parents of one or the other side; (2) trapping party, four to eight families gathered together for fur trapping in the mountains under a temporary leader; (3) meat camp, winter aggregation of 15 to 50 families subsisting on caribou; (4) fish camp, in late spring 10 to 30 families gathered in favorite fishing areas; (5) band assembly, ceremonial or emergency occasions when the entire band assembles under the leadership of the hereditary band chief; and (6) local group, stable unit of closely related families. This group fluctuation demonstrated the flexibility of Kutchin society.

11-155

441. Slobodin, Richard 1970

Kutchin

Concepts

of

Reincarnation.

Western

Canadian Journal of Anthropology, Special Issue: Athabascan Studies, vol. 2, no. 1. pp. 67-79.

A Peel River Kutchin woman who recovered from a serious illness in 1938 reported having to look for a pregnant woman so she could be reborn. This reflected a still strong belief among these Indians that birth is associated with reincarnation. The author also surveys the literature on Athabascan beliefs in reincarnation.

442. Slobodin, Richard 1971

The Chief is a Man. The Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology, vol. 2, no. 3. pp. v-vii.

In a minor note, Slobodin identifies a Kutchin whose picture appears on the cover of an issue of the Western Canadian Journal of Anthropology (Vol. 2, No. 1,1970).

443. Smith, Harlan I.

1925

Entomology Among the Bella Coola and Carrier Indians. American Anthropologist, vol. 27, new series, no. 3. pp. 436-440.

Based on material collected between 1920 and 1923, Smith briefly lists and describes the uses of various insects by the Bella Coola and Carrier Indians.

444. Smith, J. G. E. 1970

The Chipewyan Hunting Group in a Village Context. The

Western

Canadian

Journal

of

Anthropology,

Special Issue: Athapascan Studies, vol. 2, no. 2. pp. 60-66. Smith did fieldwork among the Chipewyan Indians of northern Canada between 1967 and 1968. This paper discusses adaptation problems that these hunting groups encounter as they begin to live in sedentary villages, within the four-phase adjustment process suggested by Helm and Damas (1963): (1) aboriginal period; (2) early fur trade; (3) first cabins built; and (4) concentration of village life. Major problems emerge as traditional social groupings adjust to population concentration and the continued influence of government and other white institutions. Traditionally the Chipewyan viewed themselves as one people within a nation, yet the largest functioning social entity was the ellelotine, which included both consanguineal and affinal relatives. A smaller group, within the ellelotine, the enthagebedele, included only blood relations and formed the nucleus of the traditional settlements. Its members expected cooperation, assistance, and hospitality. Both groups had flexible social boundaries and overlapping membership. They were both means of establishing wide social cooperation, assistance and reduction of friction. The next smaller unit was the nuclear family, which formed a settlement. The smallest and most essential unit was the hunting-trapping-fishing partnership. The partners were friends, possibly father and son.

11-156

With present village life, the ellelotine is seen by the author to be declining in importance since it has lost much of its functional value; its extensiveness is difficult to maintain in a less mobile society. On the other hand, the blood group or enthagebedele has retained importance since its members are more immediate to each other. One can freely borrow and share within this affinal group. Reciprocity operates. Of the other groups, the hunting and trapping partnerships not only have continued to be important in subsistence living, but have taken on new economic significance with the development of fur trading.

445. Smith, Philip S. 1917

The Lake Clark—Central Kuskokwim Region, Alaska. Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey,

Bulletin

655.

United

States

Government

Printing Office, Washington. Smith’s survey gives some population figures and settlement descriptions for this region.

446. Smith, Philip S. Eakin, Henry M. 1911

A Geologic Reconnaissance in Southeastern Seward Peninsula and the Norton Bay—Nulato Region, Alaska. Department of the Interior, United States Geological

Survey,

Bulletin

449.

United

States

Government Printing Office, Washington. A few population figures and settlement descriptions are given in this survey.

447. Smith, Philip S. Mertie, John Beaver 1930

Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska. Department of the Interior, United States Geological

Survey,

Bulletin

815.

United

States

Government Printing Office, Washington. As some of the other geographical reports, this is useful for its population estimates.

448. Sniffen, Matthew K. Carrington, Thomas Spees 1914

The Indians of the Yukon and Tanana Valleys, Alaska. No. 98, second series, 3,000. Indian Rights Association, Philadelphia.

Sniffen and Carrington were both physicians who traveled down the Yukon and Tanana rivers to observe intercultural relations. The report is short, but contains some valuable information on various Alaskan Athabascan tribes, including the Koyukon, Ingalik, Tanana and Kutchin. In discussing white impact, the authors note that frequently white men used native women as mistresses. Promiscuity for both native and white seemed to be typical. The authors also found that poverty was common, and suggested that the potlatch was partly responsible. Serious health problems and poor nutrition were also apparent.

11-157

449. Spry, Irene M. 1963

The Palliser Expedition, an Account of John Pa Miser's British North American Expedition 1857-60. The MacMillan Company of Canada Limited, Toronto.

Spry’s work contains narratives of explorations in southern Canada between 1857 and 1859. There is brief mention of the Sarsi’s warlike character; they associated with the Plains Indians and eventually became a part of the Blackfoot Confederacy. Hostility existed between the Sarsi and the Cree Indians to the north. The narratives contain no other ethnographic information on northern Athabascans.

450. Spurr, Josiah Edward 1900

A Reconnaissance in Southwestern Alaska in 1898. In: 20th Annual Report of the United States Geolo¬ gical Survey, Part VII. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, pp. 31-264.

In this geological report, the author makes some general comments on the local natives of the Sushitna and upper Kuskokwim area in Alaska. On the Kuskokwim, Spurr found that the natives were poor, scattered, and wandered continually without possessing any villages. In the whole area he saw no more than 100 Indians and guessed that the population was around 200 to 300.

451. Steffanson, Vilhjalmur S. 1909

A Preliminary Report of an Ethnological Investigation of the Mackenzie Delta. In: Summary Report

of the

Geological

Survey

Branch

of the

Department of Mines, Canada, for the calendar year 1908. Sessional Paper No. 26. C. H. Parmelle, Ottawa, pp. 190-202. Observations for this report were made in 1906, 1907, and 1908 of the Mackenzie delta region. Both Indians and Eskimos were noted and, in some cases, compared. The author felt that there was a general decline in population due to white man’s diseases (measles, scarlet fever, syphilis) as well as consumption and ptomaine poisoning. The article contains useful insight into both Eskimo and Indian character. Steffanson says that the Eskimo was generally more aggressive than the Indian; Eskimo groups would penetrate far into Indian country on raids. He also considered the Indian less industrious than the Eskimo. In the past there seemed to be more trade carried on between the Eskimo and Indians.

452. Steward, Julian H. 1940

Recording Culture Changes Among the Carrier Indians of British Columbia. Smithsonian Institution, Explorations and Field-work. United States Govern¬ ment Printing Office, Washington, pp. 83-90.

Steward shows how culture change is based on subsistence. His argument is developed in greater detail in the following reference which includes further annotation; this article is short and general. 11-158

453. Steward, Julian H. 1941

Determinism in Primitive Society. Scientific Monthly, vol. 53, July-December. pp. 491-501.

Realizing a new interest in economic determinism, Steward presents an anthropo¬ logical view of the question. He first describes the subsistence patterns in primitive society, making the point that this is extremely important in shaping cultural life. Slim food resources and low population density are characteristic of a gathering and hunting society. To obtain adequate food most families must forage alone for most of the year, larger population aggregates are possible only for short times, and hunters hunt in more or less the same areas year after year. Steward says that local groups rarely number more than 50, and frequently the members of these groups are related through the male line. Usually a man took his

wife

from

another group.

Generally

the

group

was

patrilineal, patrilocal,

exogamous, and land owning. Steward added that this pattern is repeated so consistently under identical economic and environmental conditions that a cause and effect relationship is unmistakable. As an ethnographic example, the author uses the Carrier Indians of central British Columbia. He said that the Carrier socioeconomic organization must have originally been based on some kind of loose bands, and their system rested on a balance of complementary subsistence activities during winter and summer. During the course of time, the Carriers were influenced by the matrilineal Pacific Coast Indians who had a far more complex social organization than the primitive bands because their economy, based on abundant salmon runs, allowed large groups and surplus wealth. The Carriers adopted such features of coastal social organization as totemic moieties and clans, children belonging to the mother’s group, clans and moieties having certain titles of nobility held by men and passed to the sister’s son, clan membership rights to the produce of fisheries, and the privilege of requiring one’s clansmen of the “common class” to amass feast goods. Carrier adoption of these features, originally because of contact with the coastal groups, was further strengthened and allowed to a greater degree by the introduction of white man’s tools and traps, which allowed a much greater accumulation of goods with the same amount of labor. Still, limited by a less abundant economy and environment than coastal Indians, Carrier potlatches were sorry affairs by comparison. At a certain point, however, the Carrier social system was undermined by changes in the social environment as a result of white contact. Steward says that the priest Morice was a main influence on the Carrier. By banning cross-cousin marriage, the church and whites generally disrupted the system of inheriting wealth. Formerly, a man married his mother’s brother’s daughter, lived for some years in his uncle’s household, and eventually inherited it. The clan land hunting rights were also disrupted because they were part of the inheritance. Potlatching also diminished as the Indian learned that it was better to keep what goods he had.

454. Steward, Julian H. 1941

Investigations Among the Carrier Indians of British Columbia. Scientific Monthly, vol. 52, January-June. pp. 280-283.

Steward comments generally on the Athabascans of Canada and gives rough locations of the various tribes. He then briefly related how the Carriers took on matrilineal clan and potlatch systems by contact with the coast Indians. 11-159

This article seems to be a review of the more extensive one, “Determinism in Primitive Society,” which immediately precedes it in this bibliography.

455. Steward, Julian H. 1960

Carrier Acculturation, The Direct Historical Approach. In: Stanley Diamond, ed., Culture in History, Essays in Honor of Paul Radin. Published for Brandeis University by Columbia University Press, New York. pp. 732-744.

Steward notes that the Carriers of British Columbia adopted the matrilineal clan and potlatch in the last 100 years. He attributes this to better ecological conditions and a greater surplus of fish; these conditions allowed changes and development in social organization. Whatever the reasons for these changes, they are historically documented in this article.

456. Steward, Julian H. 1963

Variation in Ecological Adaptation: The Carrier Indians. In: Theory of Culture Change by Julian H. Steward.

University of Illinois Press, Urbana. pp.

173-177. In this chapter Steward looks at how cultural ecology “allows” cultural variation by comparing Athabascans of two different areas: those of interior British Columbia and those of the Mackenzie Basin. Both groups were once divided into simple hunting bands, but some of the western groups had replaced their bands with a system of matrilineal moieties and others were in the process of this change at the time of white contact. If neither the habitat nor the technology changed, then the variation in social organization was at least allowed by the cultural ecology. The basic difference in the two environments was that the area in British Columbia lacked the large caribou herds found in the Mackenzie Basin, but did possess salmon streams of some importance. These fish streams allowed a more settled life, while dependence on herds required a more nomadic existence. The fish camp subsistence could lend itself better to a more complex social organization too. Combined with this was the fact that fishing produced a surplus of food during certain times of the year. The surplus could be used as a tool in social interactions. With the coastal tribes, the surplus was large and was controlled by a noble class. Potlatch-giving was a very important part of social life since it was through the potlatch that one could demonstrate his wealth. With this model and their ecology, the western Athabascans could copy the coast Indians to some degree and fundamentally change their type of society. The Athabascans to the north could not do this since they were restricted by environmental circumstances.

457. Stirling, Matthew W. 1949

Nomads

of the

Far North. National Geographic

Magazine, vol. 96, no. 4. pp. 471-504.

Of little value, this article gives very general descriptive information on various native groups of Alaska and Canada.

11-160

458. Stuck, Hudson 1914

Ten

Thousand

Miles

with

a

Dog

Sled. Charles

Scribner’s Sons, New York.

Stuck’s book contains a journal of travels in central Alaska between 1905 and 1906. A little useful information appears in the scattered references to the various Indian groups he encountered.

459. Stuck, Hudson 1925

Voyages on the Yukon and Its Tributaries. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York.

Presented are more of Stuck’s journals from his travels around central Alaska. They include minimal useful ethnographic information. Stuck notes a general population decline in villages along the Yukon River except at Fort Yukon where a hospital was built in 1915. He feels that the land could support two or three times the Indian population that existed at that time.

460. Sturtevant, William C. 1962

Bibliography on American Indian Medicine and Health. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology. Washington.

A very general reference, it is not much use for Athabascan studies.

461. Sue, Hiroko 1965

Pre-School Children of the Hare Indians. Northern Co-ordination and Research Center, 65-1. Depart¬ ment of Northern Affairs and Natural Resources, Ottawa.

Sue’s study was carried out at Fort Good Hope, Northwest Territories between 1961 and 1963 among the Hare Indians. In this study, he is primarily interested in child socialization and describes each step of growth starting from birth. The information is summarized as follows: Pregnancy: There was no evidence of preventive birth control practices A man did not sleep with his wife when she had a baby in her stomach, this would bring bad hunting luck to man A pregnant woman also should not attend funerals A pregnant woman should not sleep too long or eat too much to avoid becoming lazy No food taboos reported Delivery: Usually there was an easy delivery Men and children were usually not involved in the delivery traditionally Another woman would assist the mother There was the belief that a dead person may be reborn 9

11-161

Infancy, the first 2 years: Now children are baptized after birth Parents often referred to teknonymously Not common to give a birth feast when a child was born though it was done in some cases Babies were breast-fed if possible The Hare were noted to be extremely fond of children and all ages enjoyed touching, carrying, talking to and playing with any baby who was closely related or remotely related by kin ties The mother had primary responsibility for the child’s care If the baby cried, someone would try to divert his attention The new-born baby was often laid on the bed in the cabin or in a hammock, and at night was laid next to the mother No regular napping or sleeping hours were noted Generally the baby was kept cleaner than the adults; there was an old belief that the baby’s head should not be washed Occasionally the baby’s hair was not cut for the first two or three years though it was commonly believed that a child’s hair could be cut at any time Toilet training was as soon as possible, and most seemed to be trained by the time they were 2 years old The children began to crawl when about eleven months old and walk at the fifteenth month Early childhood, between 2 and 6 years: No regular time for weaning and two children may be found suckling at once By the time the child is 3 years old, it eats the same food as adults No regular time for meals was noted, children ate when hungry and when there was food on hand If a child did not show any interest in eating, in some cases the mother may threaten him by pretending that she is going to hit him Kissing was considered to be an important means of expressing affection Children noted to rarely wet the blanket during the night when they were 3 years old Children are left alone by the time they are 1 or 2 years old and play by themselves Boys and girls usually play alone until they are 3 years old; when they start to play in groups, they play in loosely cooperative way Generally, the parents keep close watch on their children

462. Sullivan, Robert J. 1942

Temporal Concepts of the Ten'a. Primitive Man, vol. 15. pp. 57-65.

Based on fieldwork done in 1936 and 1937 in the villages of Koyukuk, Nulato, and Kaltag and on the notes of Jette, Sullivan describes the temporal concepts held by the Athabascans in these villages. In general, time was marked by recurrence of distinct, individual phenomena.

11-162

463. Sullivan, Robert J.

The Ten'a Food Quest. The Catholic University of

1942

America, Anthropological Series No. 11. Ph.D. disser¬ tation. The Catholic University of America Press, Washington.

Sullivan’s work is a study of food quest of the Koyukon Indians, Athabascans of the lower Yukon River. With no agriculture and no domestic animals in such an extreme environment,

food-getting

Athabascans.

For the

necessarily

is

a

main

preoccupation

in

daily

life

of all

Koyukon, the two seasons of winter and summer were each

characterized by a dominant subsistence pattern, the summer being devoted to fishing and the winter to trapping and hunting. The reference is descriptive in nature and for this it is useful. Fieldwork was done between 1936 and 1937.

464. Swanton, John R. 1904

The Development of the Clan System and of Secret Societies Among the Northwestern Tribes. American Anthropologist, vol. 6, new series, no. 3. pp. 477-485.

Southeast Alaska Athabascan and interior continental Athabascan clan systems are the subject of Swanton’s article. He suggests that the development of matrilineal clan systems moved from the coastal southeast Alaskan Denes to the interior Canadian and Alaskan groups. He offers as evidence the existence of patrilineality among the far removed Chilkotin. Swanton notes a connection between the matrilineal clan system and mother right, potlatches, burning of the dead, and systematic wooing of a young woman’s parents by a man. He believes that these and the idea of secret societies all originated on the coast.

465. Swanton, John R. 1952

The Indian Tribes of North America. Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 145.

United

States

Government

Printing Office,

Washington. Swanton’s

useful

but general reference

contains geographical definition of the

Athabascan groups in Alaska and Canada. Included in each section are a brief history of foreign contact, a list of villages, and population estimates.

466. Tache, A. 1870

Sketch of the North-West of America. (Translated by D. R. Cameron.) John Lovell, Montreal.

An early source, Tache’s book describes the geography and resources of northern Canada

and

includes

a chapter on the inhabiting Indian tribes: Algonquin, Stonies,

Blackfeet, Chipewyan and Esquimaux. Tache describes the Chipewyan (Athabascans) as more gentle, timid, and indolent than other Indians. He was impressed by these Indian’s pervasive superstitiousness and their fear of both the living and the dead. They displayed

11-163

grief up to a year after the death of a relative. They also held women in contempt and practiced polygamy. The author confirms the Dene’s continuous fear of strangers,and superstitious dread often resulted, as other authors have described, in hysterical panic and random outburst of fright and flight. Hysterical asthmatic attacks and nearly deadly edemas seemed to result from ghost fear. This is especially so of the Chipewyan. Tache also reports cannibalism among the Dogribs and some female infanticide which occurred in 1840. The Loucheux were characterized as more warlike, spirited and capable than other Denes, and Loucheux women had a higher status.

467. Taylor, Phyllis 1953

Tales from the Delta. Beaver, Outfit 284, June. pp. 22-25.

One bowdlerized tale: Medicine Man

468. Teit, James A. 1906

Notes on the Tahltan Indians of British Columbia. In: Boas Anniversary Volume, Anthropological Papers. G.

E.

Stechert

and

Company,

New

York.

pp.

337-349. The author defines the geographic locations of these Athabascans and names their villages. He reports that they have had social intercourse with the northwest coast Indians as well as with other Athabascan groups to the north and east. Teit briefly describes Tahltan industry, habitations, dress and food supply, and documents matrilineal descent and clan organization and powerless chiefs. These notes were made between 1903 and 1905. More information appears in greater detail in “Field Notes on Tahltan and Kaska Indians: 1912-1915,” edited by June Helm MacNeish. Additional annotation occurs under this title and Teit’s name.

469. Teit, James A. 1907

Notes on the Chilcotin

Indians. Memoirs of the

American Museum of Natural History, vol. 4. pp. 759-789.

Teit made these notes during the summer of 1900 on the Chilcotin Indians of the Chilcotin River valley. He gave fairly exact locations of the tribe and bands, and noted a total population of 550. These Indians in the past maintained frequent contact with the Carrier Athabascans directly to the north and with the coast Indians. In the past the populations had been larger, but had declined since a siege of small pox in 1862. Contact with other tribes had also decreased. Chilcotin subsistence was based on fish, game, roots, and berries. Teit noted that game had declined since the inflow of whites, and after the gold rush, the government of British Columbia introduced agriculture to the Chilcotin with some degree of success.

11-164

The Chilcotin waged wars with the Carriers and the coastal tribes, though they never fought with the Bella Coola. They had more frequent contact with the Bella Coola, especially in the form of trade relations. Teit also commented on the material culture, and noted that Chilcotin social organization was similar to that of the coast tribes. A clan system was in operation, but Teit felt that this was a recent introduction. Some bands had hereditary chiefs; others did not. Rank could be obtained by potlatching.

470. Teit, James A. 1909

Two Tahltan Traditions. Journal of American Folklore, vol. 22. pp. 314-318.

English translations: Story of the War Between the Tahltan and the Taku The Three Sister Rocks

471. Teit, James A. 1914

Indian Tribes of the Interior. Provinces, vol. 21. pp. 283-312.

Canada

and

Its

Teit documents the increasing complexity of Canadian Athabascan social organization from east to west, which may reflect western contact with the coastal Indian tribes. Levirate, sororate, and polygymy all existed throughout the Athabascan area.

472. Teit, James A. 1914

On Tahltan (Athabaskan) Work, 1912. In: Summary Report of the Geological Survey, Canada, Depart¬ ment of Mines for the Calendar Year 1912. Sessional Paper No. 26. C. H. Parmelee, Ottawa, pp. 484-487.

As noted in Teit’s other articles, the Tahltan Indians maintained frequent contact with the coastal Indians and were influenced especially in social organization. Teit’s summary information provides interesting insight into Tahltan mythology. The earth was thought to be held up by the “earth mother,” and earthquakes were caused by her tiring and changing position. The Tahltan believed that she was becoming older and weaker all the time; eventually the earth would drop down into the waters and be submerged. Another Tahltan belief centered on the “meat-mother” who gave birth to all animals and controlled them. Generally the Indian supernatural world is full of spirits who are rather ominous in nature.

473. Teit, James A. 1917

Kaska Tales. Journal of American Folklore, vol. 30. pp. 427-473.

A good collection of Kaska mythology: Story of Beaver Origin of the Earth

11-165

The Great Flood Origin of Fire, and Origin of Death Raven Big-Man The Brothers, Big-Man, and the Giants The Giants and the Boys Bladder-Head Boy; or, The Monster that ate People The Kaska Man who made Whales War with the Swan People The Deserted Woman The Sisters who married Stars The Man who cohabited with his Sister Story of the Water-Man The Deceitful Wife The Owl-Woman The Dog-Man and Dog-Children Story of Lynx-Man The Fog-Man Rabbit-Man Wolverene Wolverene and his Wives Wolverene and Wolf Story of the Baby stolen by Wolverene

474. Teit, James A. 1921

Tahltan Tales. Journal of American Folklore, vol. 34, no. 134. pp. 335-356.

English translations of the following Tahltan tales: The Lynx War with the Sky People or Swan People The Woman who married the Black Bear The Grizzly-Bear Twins Story of Tsa’shwa The Girl who married a Toad The Child who became a Sea-Gull The Salmon Girl The Man who became a Marmot Big-Toad of Chesley River Ete’tuata and Big-Toad of Teslin Yatsdu’sa’tz Big-Man and the Boy The Hunter and the Giant The Brothers and the Giant The Man who fooled the Cannibal Giant The Hunter and the Duci’ne Origin of Duci’ne

11-166

The Shaman and the Duci’ne The Woman stolen by the Duci’ne The Man taken by Ku’staka’ The Woman taken by Ku’staka’ The Young Man and the Ku’staka’

475. Teit, James A. et al. 1924

Coiled Basketry in British Columbia. Annual Reports of the

Bureau

United

of American

States

Ethnology,

Government

Printing

vol. 41. Office,

Washington, pp. 119-484. Though this is an extensive report, it covers mostly the basketry of the coastal Indians and only briefly notes some baskets made by the southern groups of northern Athabascans.

476. Teit, James A. 1956

Field Notes on Tahltan and Kaska Indians: 1912-15. June Helm MacNeish, ed. Anthropologica, vol. 3. pp. 39-171.

Teit composed this excellent collection of fieldnotes between 1912 and 1915, while investigating Athabascans for ethnographic material for the Anthropological Division of the Geological Survey of Canada. In geographically defining both Kaska and Tahltan groups of northwestern interior British Columbia, Teit notes that tribal classification is difficult since two or more names were applied to the same group, the groups were nomadic, and there was much overlapping of territories. In spite of these problems, Teit gives rather detailed locations of the groups. Generally the territory occupied by these Indians was of semi-mountainous and semi-forest nature, with extreme temperatures in summer and winter. Teit describes the clothing, ornaments, and personal adornments of these Athabascans. The information is very useful. Few other ethnographers have provided such extensive and detailed information of this type. Food for these Athabascans consisted of both game and fish, supplemented with vegetables during the summer, though animal flesh was most important. These Indians traveled mainly on foot. They used canoes to some degree, but never developed their construction technique to any great extent. They used snowshoes during the winter. It is unclear when these Athabascans first used dogs. In early times, dogs were used mainly for hunting. More recently, dogs have been used for transportation. The Tahltan first saw horses about 1875, but few became owners since it was impractical. The Indian population was small and widely scattered, and trade between tribes was minimal before trading posts were established. Trade relations were established between the Tahltan and Tlingit of the coast. The Tahltan sold caribou skins and other game fur to the Tlingit and in return received slaves, fish oil, shells, and clothing. Later they obtained iron axes and hatchets from the Tlingit. Trade between the Kaska and Tahltan consisted of light, valuable furs. The Kaska desired many of the same things the Tahltan received from the coast Indians, and the Tahltan acted as intermediaries between the Kaska and coast Indians.

11-167

One

result

of contact was that the coast Indians influenced some of the southern

Athabascan groups greatly, especially in social organization. Teit also gives much valuable information on childbirth and socialization. The idea that exercise would protect the child from future laziness was commonly associated with pregnancy. The pregnant woman exercised and also restrained her eating. Childbirth took place in a small isolated shelter. One or more female relatives attended. All men were excluded from the shelter. During a hard birth, a shaman would occasionally be consulted. The new-born infant was wrapped in fur to keep him warm. Moss was used as diapering. The baby was usually kept in a bag of skins and carried on his mother’s back. In the house, he frequently slept in a hammock. Teit notes that infants suckled for 2 or 3 years. Though very young children were fed the most tender parts of meat picked for them by their elders, all attention of this kind ended at an early age and the child subsequently helped himself to whatever he could eat. Mothers taught their girls and maternal uncles taught boys, according to the author. Little serious teaching of children occurred before they reached puberty. Teit said that puberty was considered the most critical and important part of a girl’s life. These Athabascans regarded pubescence as a great mystery. They thought that girls had supernatural powers over persons and things during this time. Misuse of this power could be dangerous. A girl could cast spells on people without even knowing it. She was also considered unclean and could offend game. According to Teit, these powers had to be controlled, and girls were isolated. He gives some excellent detail about the various taboos and observances that were directed at this control. Pubescence for boys marked the time when they started serious training in subsistence activities. Their puberty observance was less definite than girl’s observance. Boys were isolated and put through strenuous labor, which seemed to aid in developing their physiques and skills. Boys did not have dangerous powers during puberty. However, Teit notes that some boys went through a special training and were called by the same name that was used for pubescent girls. These boys developed some kind of hard lump in their chests. Teit reports that between puberty and marriage young men lived in a lodge by themselves. He may have been referring to the coastal Indians in this case. (In reading this ethnography, one should note that Teit talks about certain customs of coastal Indians as well as those of interior Athabascans.) People married out of their own group and some bride service was indicated. Teit says that residence did not matter as much as the requirement that a husband give presents to his wife’s parents from time to time. In case of death, children went to their mother’s group. Early marriages were the rule with most girls marrying after they finished puberty training. Marriages were occasionally arranged for children. Incentive for marriage seemed to be for rights to hunt in certain territory and establish better status with a wealthy man or family. Polygamy was documented as was the sororate. Notions held about marriage included the following: (1) Marriage was thought to change one’s luck, an unlucky hunter would become lucky, and the reverse. (2) For a man, lack of sexual intercourse was as bad as too much. (3) A middle-aged or elderly man made women conceive more quickly because he had more maturity and stamina. (4) Conception would only take place from one man. Teit also discusses noteworthy customs concerning female restriction and burials.

11-168

477. Thompson, Stith

Tales

of

the

North

American

Indians.

Harvard

University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

1929 Athabascan tales include:

Determination of the Seasons The Woman Stolen by Killer-Whales

478. Tims, Winifred A. 1929

The Interesting Origin of the Sarcee Indians of Canada. The American Indian, vol. 4, no. 2. p. 7.

A brief article with little ethnographic material, it relates how the Sarsi migrated to the southern part of Canada. They fought with both the Cree and the Blackfoot Indians with whom they eventually began to associate.

479. Tollemache, Stratford

Reminiscences

of

the

Yukon.

Edward

Arnold,

London.

1912

Tollemache narrates his experiences in the Yukon area from 1898 to 1909. Chapter 10 includes observations of Athabascan Indians, the author noting their extreme superstitious¬ ness and fear of death. Tollemache said that the moral influence of the whites had not been good for the Indians and their population is on the decline.

480. Townsend, Joan B. 1970

Tanaina Ethnohistory: An Example of a Method for the Study of Culture Change. In: Margaret Lantis, ed., Ethnohistory in Southwestern Alaska and the Southern Yukon, Method and Content. Studies in Anthropology No. 7, University Press of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky.

Following Herskovits (1958) and Steward (1942) in her approach to culture change, Townsend presents an analysis (to be presented later in greater depth) of studying change in one culture over as long a period of time as possible, using the Tanaina Athabascans in the Iliamna Lake region of southwest Alaska as an example. She considers that a culture’s change and persistence can be discerned in the very close relationship between social organization and subsistence and trading aspects of economy, a relationship of major importance in the culture. She then presents information from archaelogical, historic, and ethnographic

sources, and discusses Tanaina social organization and economy in the

aboriginal, fur trade, and modem periods. Townsend says that aboriginal subsistence based on plentiful salmon enabled the Tanaina to maintain their considerable semi-sedentary population and trade in luxury items with other tribes. Social structure was based on eleven matrilineal sibs. The potlatch existed as a death ceremony and there was some suggestion of a wealth-based class system. Although residence patterns were unclear, matrilocality was the tendency.

11-169

In the fur trading period, roughly in 19th century, matrilineal sib organization continued, though in the last half began to shift toward pa trilineality, some property going from father to son. Also, the uncle-nephew training pattern expanded so that the uncle involved could be from either parent’s side. Residence patterns and ways of getting a wife also changed by the end of the century. A boy had to accumulate wealth to pay bride price. Polygamy became a symbol of wealth. Use of the potlatch was extended to honor the living and to validate marriages, and the potlatch also became a primary means to gain any display wealth. A wealthy man was considered a “chief.” His large extended-family dwelling housed his poorer relatives and slaves. Townsend says that these shifts in social organization reflected the fur trading relationships in which the best Tanaina trappers and hunters were able to amass great wealth and prestige on credit from the company. In turn, they became increasingly involved in the fur trade in order to pay debts and maintain their social position. The matrilineal-based inheritance system was undermined because the movable wealth was in the hands of these men and tended to remain in the few wealthy families. Economic hardship and cutoff of credit around the end of the century brought further changes in Tanaina social organization. Residence became increasingly neolocal, since a once-wealthy chief could no longer support an extended family. The church undermined one symbol of wealth by preaching against polygamy, and potlatches were less significant in this depressed economy. Today, the Tanaina are increasingly participating in the Bristol Bay commercial fishery. Here too, they are reflecting the old pattern of individual initiative. They purchase equipment from the canneries on credit in return for their catches, much like the fur trade pattern. Successful fishermen continue to amass luxury items as symbols of status; they also continue to aid poorer relatives. Townsend notes that persistence of the tradition of individual

enterprise has mollified influences toward disorganization and enabled the

Tanaina culture to continue functioning.

The Tanaina of Southwestern Alaska: An Historical Synopsis. The Western Canadian Journal of Anthro¬

481. Townsend, Joan B.

1970

pology, Special Issue: Athapascan Studies, vol. 2, no. 2. pp. 2-16. Townsend summarizes present information on the Tanaina Athabascans of the Cook Inlet, Alaska, including several maps, a brief review of archaeological work, and much historical and ethnographic material. Tanaina aboriginal subsistence was based on large salmon runs as well as shellfish, sea animals, and large and small game animals. Hunting and trapping were winter occupations and people lived in extended-family houses in a village. Fishing took place during the summer and smaller, more dispersed temporary shelters were used. Aboriginally, the Tanaina were organized into 10 to 15 matrilineal exogamous clans. Marriages

were

often

arranged

by

parents,

and cross-cousin marriage was preferred.

Residence after marriage tended to be matrilocal. Bride service was required, and polygyny was an accepted practice. Although leadership was not clearly defined, shamans and wealthy men, who were respected and prestigious, often acted in a leadership capacity. Social behavior generally was not highly controlled; individualism was characteristic. 11-170

Townsend notes the aboriginal use of a death potlatch. People of another clan helped in preparing the body. Frequent feuding occurred with the Eskimos and other Indians. The Tanaina also fought the Russians. Throughout the 19th century, the Tanaina became increasingly involved in the fur trade. The best hunters amassed great wealth which increased their status and political power.

Though

matrilineal

clans

continued

to

function,

emphasis slowly shifted to

patrilocality. Some property also was passed from father to son. By the end of the century, patrilineality was practiced. The potlatch was also used more to honor the living and establish one’s own prestige. Missionaries influenced the Tanaina to a slight degree. European-introduced diseases and epidemics had a greater effect on the Tanaina. They probably reinforced the pattern of consolidation of wealth in a few families. Townsend also discusses the boom and bust in the fur trade after the sale of Alaska to the United States and the later influence of reindeer herding, commercial fishing, and government facilities and services on the Tanaina. Today the Tanaina live in nuclear family dwellings. Clans function mainly in regulating marriage and death obligations. Wealth, individual initiative, and prestige are still highly regarded; there is some interdependence between relatives in difficult times. Subsistence also remains much the same, though there is much more involvement in the money economy. Townsend says that on the whole the Tanaina do not show characteristics of social disorganization such as alcoholism, excessive dependence on welfare, or loss of purpose and personal worth. She attributes this partly to Tanaina and Athabascan “extreme pliability and adaptability.”

482. Turner, J. Henry 1893

The Boundary North of Fort Yukon. (Part 3 of T. C. Mendenhall’s geological survey, The Alaska Boundary Survey.) National Geographic Magazine, vol. 4. pp. 189-198.

Only brief comments on the Porcupine River Athabascans occur in this article. The author observed that these Indians lacked resistance to diseases introduced by the whites. When an Indian did become seriously sick, his family and relatives avoided him.

483. Tyrrell, James Williams 1897

Across the Sub-Arctic of Canada. William Briggs, Toronto.

Tyrrell’s account of his canoe and snowshoe travels through northern Canada contains little useful Athabascan ethnographic information.

484. Tyrrell, Joseph B. ed. 1968

Journals of Samuel Hearne and Philip Turnor Between the Years 1774 and 1792. Greenwood Press, New York. (First published by Champlain Society as Publication 21, in 1934.)

The only journal relevant to the Athabascan area in this collection is Peter Fidler’s “Journal of a Journey with the Chipawyans or Northern Indians, to the Slave Lake, and to 11-171

the East and West of the Slave River in 1791 and 1792,” on pages 493 to 555. Fidler set out to spend a winter with northern Canadian Indians to learn their language and customs. His notes are in nearly original form but are of little value since the information he gives is general and vague. Fidler did report conflict between Athabascan groups and between Athabascans and the Cree Indians. Food hardships were experienced by all the Indians.

Honigmann, Irma

A Comparison of Socialization and Personality in Two Simple Societies. American Anthropologist, vol.

1947

49, new series, no. 4. pp. 557-577.

485. Underwood, Frances W.

The authors compare child upbringing in two societies: Kaska society of northern Canada and Haitian society of the southern peninsula of Haiti. The authors note the atomistic nature of Kaska society is reflected by the physically unplanned community. Sociability within the society was found to not be intense unless alcohol was introduced into the situation. Sanctions in the community were rarely severe. For the Kaska, children were wanted and welcomed though the actual birth was casual and without ceremony. The baby was put into a moss bag and bound, though its hands remained free. The baby was fed when it looked hungry and comforted when it cried. The author concludes that the child’s initial experiences in life were such as to foster a sense of security. The adults though are undemonstrative and emotionally aloof. This would indicate that some change in socialization occurred. Weaning occurs for the Kaska children between 1 and 3 years, and is a gradual process. Elimination control occurs at about 2 years, and also is not severe. When a child learns to walk, he is left more on his own though. Emotional weaning takes place at this time. The parent takes on a “passive acceptance” of the child. The author notes that a child is not directly refused anything but tricked or distracted from the desire. Temper tantrums occurred between 18 and 24 months, suggesting that they may be an expression of resentment against the early weaning. Being put on its own poses a threat to the child’s original sense of security. This loss of a sense of security may be demonstrated by the small play groups formed by the children and these consist of close-aged siblings. Play itself seems to be an indVidual operation. The author also notes as significant the emotional withdrawal of the parent. Discipline is generally lax. Motives of social approval, sexual opportunities and economic independence instigate the behavioral trend to emotionally withdraw. Equally detailed information is given for Haitian socialization. Parallels are not made between the two societies.

486. United States Bureau of Education

Annual Reports. United States Government Printing Office, Washington.

Useful only for their historical information, these reports were published annually from 1886 through 1918, and biennially between 1918 and 1928. The 1912 report was issued as a Bulletin of the Bureau of Education. Also issued as bulletins were the reports for

11-172

1913, as No. 36; 1914 as No. 31; 1915 as No. 48; 1916 as No. 47; 1917 as No. 32, 1918 as No. 5; 1919 as No. 40; 1921 as No. 35; 1923 as No. 45; 1925 as No. 16; 1927 as No. 6; 1929 as No. 12. The title varies as follows: 1885-86

Report on Education in Alaska

1886/87-1898/99

Education in Alaska

1899/1900-1900/01 Education and Reindeer in Alaska 1901/1902-1904/05 Report on Education in Alaska 1905/06

Report on Education in Alaska and the Industry of Reindeer

1906/07

Report on the Alaska School Service and on the Alaska Reindeer Service

1907/08-1908/09

Report on Education in Alaska

1909/10-1910/11

Report on Education of the Natives of Alaska and the Reindeer Service

1911/12-1915/16

Report of the Work of the Bureau of Education for the Natives of Alaska

Work of the Bureau of Education for the Natives of Alaska 1916/17-1926/28 Between 1928 and 1958, the reports were published by Alaska (Territory), Territorial Department of Education, Juneau. From 1958 through recent years, the reports have been published by Alaska, Department of Education, Juneau. Since 1928, the education reports have contained very little useful ethnographic information.

487. United States Senate 1900

Compilation of Narratives on Explorations in Alaska. Report No. 1023. United States Government Printing Office, Washington.

Reports of C. P. Raymond, I. Petroff, F. Schwatka, W. R. Abercrombie, H. T. Allen, and others constitute this volume. The totality of information on Alaskan Athabascans is not great, but some useful notes are included. Petroff provides 1880 population figures for the Yukon area and some village descriptions.

488. Urquhart, J. A. 1935

The Most Northerly Practice in Canada. Canadian Medical Association Journal, vol. 33. pp. 193-196.

Some general medical information about Canadian Northwest Territory Indians and Eskimos is provided in this paper by a physician. Urquhart says that although the northern Indians and Eskimos are two very different groups, both exhibit the same features from a medical point of view. There is no cancer among them, and this may be associated with their diet of fat and protein. Gastric and deuodenal ulcers are extremely rare. Constipation is common, but this may be related to the hardship of going outside to the latrine in extremely cold weather. Nephritis is rare. Teeth are generally in good condition. Urquhart notes that the Indians show a higher rate of tuberculosis than the Eskimos, and says it has been suggested that fat is a factor in protection against tuberculosis. The Eskimo eats more fat than the Indian. However, he feels that housing may be a more important factor in the occurrence of tuberculosis; Eskimos rebuild housing each year, whereas Indians will reinhabit the same dwelling regardless of the medical history of previous inhabitants. 11-173

Venereal disease is rare among the native population. Typhoid fever has moderate frequency because of using snow near camps for drinking water. The common cold is rare unless brought in by an outsider in which case it spreads quickly. Finally, Urquhart notes, frost bite is indeed unusual among these people.

The Economy of a Frontier Community, A Preli¬ minary Statement. Northern Co-ordination and

489. Van Stone, James W. 1961

Research

Center,

61-4.

Canada

Department

of

Northern Affairs and Natural Resources, Ottawa. Van Stone’s work in the Mackenzie River valley and Great Slave Lake arose from an interest in the problems of culture change in frontier communities. The Athabascan village of Snowdrift on the southeastern shore of Great Slave Lake was chosen for field study of acculturation since it was a rather isolated community, had a relatively homogeneous population, and benefited only slightly from organizing influences that affect the more accessible river communities. Snowdrift’s physical environment was subarctic with extreme seasonal temperatures and rather thin, stunted forests and tundra. In 1960 when fieldwork was done, Snowdrift had existed as a permanent village for no more than 5 or 6 years, though it had been a focal point for residents of the surrounding region for over 35 years. The past population consisted of an unknown number of Chipewyan families who hunted, fished, and trapped throughout the area. In 1925 the Hudson’s Bay Company established a trading post at Snowdrift. This provided a more convenient trading center for the local Indians who previously traveled some distance to the southwestern part of Great Slave Lake to trade. The new trading post quickly attracted a large number of families who came to depend on the post for supplies. These families, though, did not spend much time in the area until recently, since hunting and fishing demanded mobility. Recently the author noticed consolidation of Indian population at Snowdrift. The hardships of hunting and fluctuating fur prices have discouraged the traditional way of life. Now more time is spent around the village with families and in comfortable housing. Further attracting the concentration and stabilization of the Snowdrift population have been government services and benefits. Consequently less time is spent in subsistence activities and commercial trapping.

Changing Patterns of Indian Trapping in the Canadian Subarctic. Arctic, vol. 16, no. 3. pp. 159-174.

490. Van Stone, James W. 1963

The fieldwork for this study was done at Snowdrift, a Chipewyan community on the east end of the Great Slave Lake in Canada. Information obtained concerned recent acculturative

influences

thought

to

be affecting the

traditional

trapping

pattern

at

Snowdrift. The same influences may be common to communities throughout the eastern and western subarctic. Traditionally, the trapping season began in November. Many trappers stayed out at their trap lines for about 2 weeks at a time. Some took longer, but generally the length of stay varied according to the supplies that the trapper took with him and his hunting success.

11-174

The trapper had to feed himself and his dogs; he was unwilling to leave the village if no caribou had been reported in the trapping area for this was a main source of food. (This was also noted by a Hudson’s Bay Company manager at Snowdrift in the 1930’s.) Trapping success was directly related to the presence of Caribou; a reduction in the available game would limit the amount of trapping done. Aside from the long periods the trapper had to spend away from his family during the trapping season and the worry about game supply, the trapper was always faced with highly unstable fur prices once he returned with his skins. In recent years, trapping seems to be declining. Though trapping territories seem to be disputed today, the author feels that the total area trapped by Snowdrift residents has been shrinking, especially since the Indian began to become more established around the trading post. Monthly family allowances, government services and wage employment reduce the need of the Indian to rely on trapping income which at best is an unsteady means of support. Comfortable housing and stable family and community life further attracted the Indian away from the hard trap line life with its unpredictable rewards. Van Stone surveyed the literature of other areas of Canada in this article as well, and found that the Indians are commonly turning toward wage-employment and dependence on government assistance. He says this pattern indicates their desire to achieve financial stability and freedom from the uncertainties of a trapping economy.

491. Van Stone, James W. 1965

The Changing Culture of the Snowdrift Chipewyan. National

Museum

Anthropological

of

Series

Canada, No.

Bulletin

74.

No.

Queen’s

209,

Printer,

Ottawa. In an excellent ethnography, Van Stone looks at acculturation among Chipewyan Indians at Snowdrift, Northwest Territories, where he did fieldwork between 1960 and 1962. He chose this subarctic community because of its isolation from white influence and its rather homogeneous population. Van Stone first summarized historical contact with the Snowdrift area, and noted a severe population decrease from disease in the late 18th century and periodic times of starvation. Van Stone gives kinship terminology for the Chipewyan of Snowdrift, though he says this information was difficult to obtain and possibly unreliable. He notes characteristic bilateral descent which has been historically documented too. Informants denied knowledge of any preferential marriage customs. For the first year after marriage, couples frequently set up households with the side of the family best suited to receive them, though neolocal residence was desired and the couple would attempt to build their own cabin as soon as possible. Residence generally was fluid, historically and presently. The author considers the pattern of sharing to reflect community organization. He noted complete and indiscriminate sharing of moose and caribou. When a man killed a moose, a representative of every family would visit him and come away with a share of the animal. Indiscriminate sharing also appeared to apply to fish. This pattern of sharing did not apply to trapping; each man kept his own catch. Nor did it apply to community activities. Borrowing occurred frequently but was universally condemned by the villagers. Most borrowing of objects was reciprocal; borrowing of money and food was less so. Such specific information on sharing patterns is difficult to find historically.

11-175

Generally community leadership was poorly developed. This was true historically as well as in the present. Leadership as it existed was based on hunting ability. Traditionally, according to informants, less skilled hunters and their families would gather around the more skilled hunter. The group was not based upon kinship ties. With the establishment of trading posts, the traders endeavoured to reinforce the chief’s authority and position for administrative

purposes.

However,

the

chief generally had difficulty in asserting his

authority since his position was recent and unclearly defined. He did not know how to assert power, and people did not know exactly how he should be approached. Van Stone’s ethnography continues with information on acculturative effects of education and health services offered in Snowdrift. Tobacco was in popular use in Snowdrift. Drinking was also an important aspect of Chipewyan culture pattern since European contact. Home brew was most popular and people seemed to drink to get drunk. If the home brew ran out before people were drunk, they would walk around the village in search of other supplies of the drink. Drinking was the time for easy social intercourse with a usual low undercurrent of nondescript small talk which eventually centered on sex. Intoxication frequently ended in fighting between men, usually over women. Gossip was not noted to be a strong force in Snowdrift, though people tended to distrust their neighbors and relatives. Subsistence for Snowdrift varied with the seasonal cycle: autumn, fishing and caribou hunting; winter and spring, trapping was a source of cash; summer, inactivity, picnicing and berry picking, and in August, caribou hunting. Van Stone noted that recently government assistance was becoming more important as an income source and stabilizer of the Snowdrift population. Van Stone further describes the present physical culture of Snowdrift and notes the existence of frame and log houses, which replaced temporary tents used in the past. Other important items included outboards, rifles, and building materials. European canned foods, eggs, bread, oranges, apples, crackers, peanut butter, coffee, tea, butter, sugar, flour, evaporated milk, and candy bars were all popular and reflect changes in life style. Much useful material is given on present day socialization and life cycle. Below is a list of the significant information presented: Birth: Children were generally desired and motherhood was regarded as normal Contraceptives were not used, though they were known Abortions were rare Male children were greatly preferred Women took no particular precautions during pregnancy, and no dietary restrictions At birth, the woman may be attended by a midwife, an elderly woman past child-bearing age Infancy: The baby was received with a great deal of affection and joy Other children took pride in babies Parents played with young babies, but this demonstrative affection tended to taper off as the child outgrew babyhood No special attempt to keep the baby warm was made In the house the baby remained in a crib, suspended from the ceiling Babies were kept reasonably clean, diapers were first checked when the baby started to cry

11-176

Babies were not weaned for up to 2 years; many not weaned until 3 or 4 years Weaning generally was a very easy process Babies began to walk between the ages of 1 or 2 years Children could play with anything which attracted them, though they were protected from dangerous objects Considerable effort would be made to quiet a crying baby only if the parent was not busy with something else Men played a large part in the experiences of an infant, and were often seen walking around the village carrying their small children Little stress on toilet training Naming was done after living relatives Childhood: Small children stayed close to their homes Much individual play When children reached 7 or 8 years old, their mothers have less concern as to where they were Children stayed home when dark Because of close living conditions, children saw death and sexual intercourse, intercourse was taken as a part of every day life Older boys and girls were usually observed in groups of two or three and wandered around the village No organization to the games and no sides Disciplining of children appeared to be relatively mild and adults did not often discipline other people’s children It was noted that children occasionally objected strenuously to a parental decision and would sulk or cry for a long time, but would seldom wheedle Outward signs of affection between parents and children appear to end at the age of 10 or

11 Youth: A long period with no clearly defined limit, but terminated with marriage Man becomes active in subsistence activities The increasing tendency toward sedentary community life and school responsibilities kept young men from hunting and trapping and the period of youth was extended Any money they did earn was appropriated by the family Sex interest for boys increased when they were 15 or 16, and for girls, when they were 13 or 14 Pre-marital sexual relations were very common Adult Life: Associated with marriage Much visiting in the village in free time Depend heavily on the assistance from relatives In adult life, one becomes responsible Aged: The aged were not respected

11-177

492. Vaudrin, Bill

Tanaina Tales from Alaska. The Civilization of the American

1969

Indian

Series.

University

of Oklahoma

Press, Norman. This English translation of legends from the Cook Inlet area is severely bowdlerized: The Chickadee Story The Mouse Story The Porcupine and the Beaver The Loon Story The Lynx and the Wolverine First Beaver Story Second Beaver Story The Crow Story First Brown Bear Story Second Brown Bear Story The Sea Gull Story First Eagle Story Second Eagle Story The Wolf Story The Black Bear Story The Fox Story The Mountain Squirrel Story The Cat Story The Wolverine Story The Woman and the Wolves The Mink Story The Trout Story The Beaver and the Porcupine Woman The Flounder Story

493. Wallace, William Stewart 1968

John McLean's Notes of a Twenty-Five Year's Service in the Hudson's Bay Territory. Greenwood Press, New

York.

(First

published

in

1932

by

the

Champlain Society). Colored by prejudice, these journals span the latter half of the 1800’s; Chapter 17 mentions the Mackenzie tribes of Canada.

494. Wardle, H. Newell 1901

Notes on the Designation, Atna. American Antiquarian, vol. 23. pp. 137-139.

The author discusses the term “Atna” as it applies to the Athabascan Indians.

11-178

Native Houses of Western North America. Museum of

495. Waterman, T. T. 1921

the American Indian, Heye Foundation, Indian Notes and Monographs, Miscellaneous Series, no. 11.

Waterman’s reference contains some brief comments on housing of the Carrier Indians of central British Columbia.

496. Waterman, T. T. 1927

The Architecture of the American Indians. American Anthropologist, vol. 29, new series, no. 2. pp. 210-230.

By using physical evidence, conjecture, and imagination, the author attempts to reconstruct the evolution of Indian architecture. He indicated that the round house was first generally used throughout North and South America, and the square one occurred as the Indian

became

more

civilized.

There

seems to

be

little

useful

information on the

Athabascans here. He refers a few times to the Eskimos.

497. Waugh, F. W. 1919

Canadian

Aboriginal

Canoes.

Canadian

Field-

Naturalist, vol. 23, no. 2. pp. 23-33.

Descriptions of various Canadian Indian canoe types comprise this article; brief comments on Dogrib and Slave canoes are included.

498. Welsh, Ann

1970

Community Pattern and Settlement Pattern in the Development of Old Crow Village, Yukon Territory. The

Western

Canadian

Journal

of

Anthropology,

Special Issue: Athapascan Studies, vol. 2, no. 2. pp. 17-30. Welsh’s study is based on 1968 fieldwork completed in the Kutchin village of Old Crow on the Porcupine River in northern Yukon Territory. She attempts in this article to combine historical and ecological approaches in a discussion of the processes and forces leading to the formation and development of Old Crow, which presently has a population of 190 Indians, Metis, and a few whites. Welsh notes that aboriginal settlement patterns were characterized by flexibility. They were influenced by seasons, availability of food, and size and composition of group. The largest group was the band, primarily based on economic cooperation. Membership of this band was flexible, yet there was a tendency for the same people to use the same hunting and fishing areas year after year. With the establishment of trading posts and increased involvement in the fur trade, housing and life ways changed. A notable aspect was the breakdown of aboriginal forms of leadership. Election of chief and band council replaced chieftaincy by hunting ability. The author notes as characteristic of present village life malignant gossip, drunken aggression, aggressive sexuality, generalized hostility, suspicion and fear. She considers all of these

11-179

characteristics to be classical symptoms of social breakdown. She adds that though these features may have been present in aboriginal culture, they would have been checked by social controls which then were operational.

499. West, Frederick H. 1959

On the Distribution and Territories of the Western Kutchin Tribes. Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska, vol. 7, no. 2. pp. 113-116.

West reviews the classification of Kutchins and notes some more information about the Dihai Kutchin, a ninth group categorized by McKennan. The author says that there are a few Dihai Kutchin living at the village of Venetie on the Chandalar River. West maintains that tribal distinctions of Kutchin are unclear.

500. West, John 1824

The Substance of a Journal During a Residence at the Red River Colony, British North America; and Frequent Excursions Among the North-West American Indians, in the Years 1820, 1821, 1822, 1823. L. B. Seeley and Son, London, (microcard)

West’s journal contains only passing reference to the Chipewyan, Canadian Atha¬ bascans living north of the Churchill River and west of Hudson Bay.

501. Wheeler, David E. 1914

The Dog-Rib Indian and His Home. Geographical Society of Philadelphia, Bulletin 12, ii. pp. 1-23.

The Dogribs are Canadian Athabascans living south of Great Bear Lake in the Northwest Territories. Wheeler observed in 1910 that these Indians were suspicious and callous toward strangers. His article is useful since it gives the locations of Dogrib groups and many local names.

502. White, Charles B. 1958

Rejoinder. American

Anthropologist, vol. 60, new

series, no. 1. pp. 155-156.

Reconstruction of linguistic kinship terms poses one problem, while the actual type of system that various Athabascans have developed in using these terms is a different one. White expands these questions in his rejoinder to other articles on proto kinship of Athabascans.

503. Whitney, Casper 1896

On Snow-Shoes to the Barren Grounds; Twenty-Eight Hundred Miles After Musk-Oxen and Wood-Bison. Harper and Brothers, New York.

Whitney tells of his journey through northern Canada in the 1890’s. His account does not seem objective, but does contain some general information on the northern Athabascans and one unidentified myth. 11-180

504. Whymper, Frederick 1868

A Journey from Norton Sound, Bering Sea, to Fort Yukon (Junction of Porcupine and Youkon Rivers.) Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. 38. pp. 219-237.

Whymper narrates his 1867 travels up the Yukon River, briefly mentioning the Ingalik Indians of the lower Yukon and the Koyukon rivers, but the reference is not very useful for ethnographic material. The Athabascans came from up to 300 miles away to trade at Nulato at the juncture of the Koyukuk and Yukon. Whymper said that these Indians mourned for the dead for up to a year; at the end of this period, a feast was given. A few superstitions are included.

505. Whymper, Frederick 1868

A Journey from Norton Sound, Bering Sea, to Fort Yukon, at the Junction of the Porcupine and Yukon Rivers. Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. 12, session 1867-68, no. 3. pp. 186-188.

In this brief narrative of his journey from Norton Sound to Fort Yukon, Whymper describes the fish traps that were used by the natives of the Yukon River around Nulato. He notes that these Indians took salmon and dried it for winter use. The full description of Whymper’s trip appears in the Journal of the Royal Geographic

Society, Vol. 38,1868, and an annotation appears here in the preceding reference.

506. Whymper, Frederick 1869

Russian America—Alaska: The Natives of the Youkon River and Adjacent Country (1868). In: Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London, vol. VII, new series. John Murray, London, pp. 167-185.

The information contained in this article was quoted directly from Whymper’s own

book, Travel and Adventure in Alaska, first published in 1868. Annotation appears in the following reference.

507. Whymper, Frederick 1969

Travel and Adventure in the Territory of Alaska. University

Microfilms,

Inc.,

Ann

Arbor.

(First

published in 1868, by John Murray, London.) Whymper’s journal of expeditions through Alaska from 1865 contains scattered but useful information on various Athabascan Indian groups. The Koyukon, Kutchin, and Tanana are specifically noted. All were central Alaskan groups living in drainages of the Yukon and Tanana rivers. At the time of observation, the Koyukon were considered to be the largest group of Indians in Interior Alaska and the one most feared by other Indians. The Tanana were the least sophisticated of all Indians encountered. All of these Indian groups traded together at a certain time of the year. The author reports that up to 600 Indians would gather together.

11-181

He

felt

that

potlatching

may have been associated with these large gatherings too.

Subsistence throughout the area was based on a combination of hunting and fishing though food shortages were reported a number of times. A quality of superstitiousness was also noted commonly about these Indians.

508. Wickersham, James 1938

Old Yukon Tales—Trails—and Trials. Washington Law Book Company, Washington D.C.

Wickersham’s collection of random tales about trappers, prospectors, fur traders, and adventurers in the Yukon River area contains minimal information on Athabascans.

509. Williamson, Robert G. 1955-56

Slave Indian Legends. Anthropologica, no. 1, pp. 119-143; no. 2, pp. 61-92.

English translations: A Story of a Giant The Story of the Little Boy The Two Brothers The Son of Loua Metah Widow’s Son and Stranger Boy The Story of Ah Nontin Eh’tsontsia Saga Yampa Deja Saga

510. Wilson, Clifford

Founding Fort Yukon. Beaver, Outfit 278. pp. 38-43.

1947 A brief history of Fort Yukon is given here with little useful reference made to the local Indians.

511. Wilson, Clifford 1970

Campbell

of

the

Yukon.

Macmillan

of

Canada,

Toronto.

Campbell worked for the Hudson’s Bay Company from 1830 to 1871, and kept a faithful diary during these years. Though the original diary was destroyed by fire, this work comprises a reconstructed diary as told to his son by Campbell. This is a better historical reference than an ethnographic one.

512. Wilson, E. F. 1888

Report on the Sarcee Indians. Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, pp. 242-255.

Wilson provides some specific and useful information in this brief report on the Sarsi Indians. The Sarsi were originally from the southern Chipewyan area in northern Canada. 11-182

They migrated south and became closely associated with the Plains Indians, especially the Blackfeet, and acquired many new characteristics. The Sarsi were not as willing to converse as the Blackfeet, indicating an Athabascan characteristic suspiciousness. At the end, Wilson included a list of Sarsi vocabulary.

513. Wilson, E. F. 1889

The Sarcee Indians. Our Forest Children, vol. 3, no. 9, new series, no. 7. Indian Tribes, Paper No. 7. pp. 98-102.

Briefly and generally, Wilson discusses the Sarsi Indians, northern Athabascans who moved southward and became associated with the Plains Indians, taking on many of their characteristics.

514. Wissler, Clark 1915

Culture of the North American Indians Occupying the Caribou Area. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 1. pp. 51-54.

Wissler makes general comments on subsistence and culture in this article. He defines “Caribou Culture” as all the caribou range or those cultures of most of Canada and Interior Alaska except those on the Pacific drainage. All cultures included in this area have certain similar physical culture features such as bark canoes, toboggans, snowshoes, dog traction, general use of snares for taking game, use of the net for fishing, soft moccasins and hooded coats, methods of dressing and smoking skins, and the use of tipi-like shelters.

515. Wissler, Clark ed. 1917

Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, Vol. 10. American Museum of Natural History, New York.

An excellent mythology collection with some interlinear translation: Goddard, Pliny Earle

Chipewyan Texts. Part 1. (1912) Analysis of Cold Lake Dialect Chipewyan. Part 2. (1912)

Lowie, Robert H.

Chipewyan Tales. Part 3. (1912)

Goddard, Pliny Earle

The Beaver Indians. Part 4. (1916) Beaver Texts. Part 5. (1916) Beaver Dialect. Part 6. (1917)

516. Wolforth, John 1971

The Evolution and Economy of the Delta Commu¬ nity. Northern Science Research Group, Mackenzie Delta Research Project, 11. Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Ottawa.

The Mackenzie Delta Research Project’s purpose was to describe and analyze social and economic factors of development in the Mackenzie delta region, with particular interest in native involvement and adjustment. Fieldwork was done in 1965 and 1968.

11-183

The work includes good summary historical information about the Indian’s relation to the developing Canadian fur trade, though generally, the material within this publication is presented more from an economic approach than from an anthropological perspective.

517. Wright, Arthur 1908

An Athapascan Tradition from Alaska. Journal of American Folklore, vol. 21. pp. 33-34.

English translation of an Athabascan myth; no title.

518. Wright, Arthur R. 1926

The Potlatch—What Is It? Alaskan Churchman, vol. 20, no. 1. pp. 18-22.

Rev. Wright details potlatch activities. He feels that a potlatch was given when one lost a relative or close friend; it was a means on which to base social status.

11-184

Section III:

Athabascan literature is listed by tribal group and general location in Alaska and Canada under "Alaska Athabascan Groups" and "Canadian Athabascan Groups". References that note a specific area or group of Indians only briefly in passing and give little specific information are listed under "General Alaska," "General Canada," and "General Subarctic". Sources cross-referenced in this section include only the most useful ones for each area.

ALASKAN ATHABASCAN GROUPS

ATNA

Allen, Henry T.

1887

Report of an Expedition to the Copper, Tanana and Koyukuk Rivers in the Territory of Alaska in the Year 1885. no. 4, p. II-2.

Allen, Henry T.

1889

Atnatanas: Natives of Copper River, Alaska, no. 5, p. II-2.

Cook, Frederick A.

1908

To the Top of the Continent, no. 79, p. 11-27.

Franklin, John

1969

Narrative of a Second Expedition to the Shores of the Polar Sea, in the Years 1825, 1826, and 1827. no. 124, p. 11-38.

Hayes, Charles Willard

1892

An Expedition Through the Yukon District, no. 162, p. 11-51.

1969-70

The Atna of the Copper River, Alaska: The World of Men and Animals, no. 254, p. 11-91.

MacClellan, Catharine

1961

Avoidance Between Siblings of the Same Sex in Northwestern North America, no. 281, p. 11-99.

Mendenhall, Walter C.

1905

Geology of the Central Copper River Region, Alaska. no. 318, p. 11-116.

Moffit, Fred H.

1914

Geology of the Alaska. no. 328, p. 11-117.

Pinart, Alphonse L.

1906

A Few Words on the Alaskan Dene, no. 390, p. 11-138.

Schrader, Frank Charles

1900

A Reconnaissance of a Part of Prince William Sound and the Copper River District, Alaska, in

Laguna, Frederica de

1898. no. 426, p. 11-151.

III-l

Hanagita-Bremner

Region,

EYAK

Birket-Smith, Kaj Laguna, Frederica de

1938

The Eyak Indians of the Copper River Delta, Alaska. no. 39, p. 11-13.

Laguna, Frederica de

1934

Ceremonial Paddles from the Eyak Indians, Alaska. no. 251, p. 11-90.

Laguna, Frederica de

1937

A Preliminary Sketch of the Eyak Indians, no. 253, p. 11-91.

III-2

INGALIK

Allen, Henry T.

1887

Report of an Expedition to the Copper, Tanana and Koyukuk Rivers in the Territory of Alaska in the Year 1885. no. 4, p. II-2.

Cady, Wallace Martin Wallace, R. E. Hoare, J. M. Webber, E. J.

1955

The Central Kuskokwim Region, Alaska, no. 52, p. 11-18.

Cantwell, John C.

1904

Report of the Operations of the U.S. Revenue Steamer Nunivak of the Yukon River Station, Alaska. no. 58, p. 11-20.

Chapman, John Wight

1912-13

The Happy Hunting Ground of the Ten’a. no. 68, p. 11-22.

Chapman, John Wight

1914

Ten’a Texts and Tales from Anvik, Alaska, no. 69, p. 11-23.

Chapman, John Wight

1921

Tinneh Animism, no. 70, p. 11-23.

Chapman, John Wight

1939

The Animistic Beliefs of the Ten’a of the Lower Yukon, Alaska, no. 71, p. 11-24.

Chapman, John Wight

1948

A Camp on the Yukon, no. 72, p. 11-24.

Chapman, John Wight

1968

Notes on the Tinneh Tribe of Anvik, Alaska, no. 73, p. 11-24.

Dali, William Healey

1898

The Yukon Territory, no. 88, p. 11-29.

Hosley, Edward H.

1961

The McGrath Ingalik. no. 207, p. 11-72.

Hosley, Edward H.

1968

The Kolchan: Delineation of a New Northern Athapaskan Indian Group, no. 208, p. 11-72.

Jette, Pere Julius

1907

On the Medicine-Men of the Ten’a. no. 230, p. 11-84.

Jette, Pere Julius

1908-09

On Ten’a Folklore. no. 231, p. 11-85.

111-3

INGALIK

Jette, Pere Julius

1911

On the Superstitions of the Ten’a Indians, no. 232, p. 11-85.

Jette, Pere Julius

1913

Riddles of the Ten’a Indians, no. 233, p. 11-85.

Krieger, Herbert W.

1928

Tinne Indians of the Lower Yukon River Valley, no. 247, p. 11-89.

Laguna, Frederica de

1936

Indian Masks from the Lower Yukon, no. 252, p. 11-91.

McGrath, J. E.

1893

The Boundary South of Fort Yukon, no. 284, p. 11-100.

Mertie, John Beaver Harrington, G. L.

1924

The Ruby-Kuskokwim Region, Alaska, no. 323, p. 11-116.

Osgood, Cornelius

1940

Ingalik Material Culture, no. 368, p. 11-131.

Osgood, Cornelius

1958

Ingalik Social Culture, no. 370, p. 11-131.

Osgood, Cornelius

1959

Ingalik Mental Culture, no. 371, p. 11-132.

Parsons, Elsie Clews Reed, T. B.

1967

Cries-For-Salmon, a Ten’a Woman, no. 380, p. 11-135.

Sniffen, Matthew K. Carrington, Thomas Spees

1914

The Indians of the Yukon and Tanana Valleys, Alaska. no. 448, p. 11-157.

Spurr, Josiah Edward

1900

A Reconnaissance in Southwestern Alaska in 1898. no. 450, p. 11-158.

Sullivan, Robert J.

1942

Temporal Concepts of the Ten’a. no. 462, p. 11-162.

Sullivan, Robert J.

1942

The Ten’a Food Quest, no. 463, p. 11-163.

Whymper, Frederick

1868

A Journey from Norton Sound, Bering Sea,to Fort Youkon (Junction of Porcupine and Youkon Rivers), no. 504, p. 11-181.

Whymper, Frederick

1969

Travel and Adventure in the Territory of Alaska, no. 507, p. 11-181. II1-4

KOYUKON

Allen, Henry T.

1887

Report of an Expedition to the Copper, Tanana and Koyukuk Rivers in the Territory of Alaska in the Year 1885. no. 4, p. II-2.

Binning, G.

1941

Indians of the Yukon, no. 35, p. 11-11.

Cantwell, John C.

1904

Report of the Operations of the U.S. Revenue Steamer Nunivak of the Yukon River Station, Alaska. no. 58, p. 11-20.

Clark, Annette McFadyen

1970

Koyukon Athabascan Ceremonialism, no. 75, p. 11-25.

Dali, William Healey

1898

The Yukon Territory, no. 88, p. 11-29.

Drane, Frederick B.

1926

New Experiences on the Yukon and Koyukuk. no. 104, p. 11-33.

Haynes, Thomas S.

1940

The Nulato Massacre, no. 163, p. 11-51.

Krieger, Herbert W.

1928

Tinne Indians of the Lower Yukon River Valley, no. 247, p. 11-89.

Loyens, William John

1964

The Koyukon Feast for the Dead, no. 274, p. 11-96.

Loyens, William John

1966

The Changing Culture of the Nulato Koyukon Indians. no. 275, p. 11-97.

McKennan, Robert A.

1969

Athapaskan Groupings and Social Organization in Central Alaska. no. 289, p. 11-106.

McKennan, Robert A.

1970

Athapaskan Groups of Central Alaska at the Time of White Contact. no. 290, p. 11-107.

Madara, Guy

1920

Musings of a Former Sourdough Missionary, no. 305, p. 11-112.

Maddren, Alfred Geddes

1913

Koyukuk-Chandalar Region, Alaska, no. 306, p. 11-112.

Mendenhall, Walter C.

1902

Reconnaissance from Fort Hamlin to Kotzebue Sound, Alaska, no. 317, p. 11-115. III-5

KOYUKON

Peters, W. J.

1904

Reconnaissance in Northern Alaska, no. 383, p. 11-136.

Schrader, Frank Charles

1900

Preliminary Report on a Reconnaissance Along the Chandalar and Koyukuk Rivers, Alaska, no. 425, p. 11-150.

Sniffen, Matthew K. Carrington, Thomas Spees

1914

The Indians of the Yukon and Tanana Valleys, Alaska. no. 448, p. 11-157.

Spnrr, Josiah Edward

1900

A Reconnaissance in Southwestern Alaska in 1898. no. 450, p. 11-158.

Sullivan, Robert J.

1942

The Ten’a Food Quest, no. 463, p. 11-163.

Tollemache, Stratford

1912

Reminiscences of the Yukon, no. 479, p. 11-169.

Whymper, Frederick

1868

A Journey from Norton Sound, Bering Sea, to Fort Youkon (Junction of Porcupine and Youkon Rivers), no. 504, p. 11-181.

Whymper, Frederick

1969

Travel and Adventure in the Territory of Alaska, no. 507, p. 11-181.

Wright, Arthur R.

1926

The Potlatch—What Is It? no. 518, p. 11-184.

III-6

KUTCHIN

Adney, Tappan

1900

Moose Hunting with the Tro-chu-tin. no. 1, p. II-l.

Adney, Tappan

1902

The Indian Hunter of the Far Northwest, on the Trail to the Klondike, no. 2, p. II-l.

Anderson, Kristian Bolstad, Atle L^yning, Yngve Irving, Laurence

1960

Physical Fitness of Arctic Indians, no. 8, p. II-3.

Balikci, Asen

1963

Family Organization of the Vunta Kutchin. no. 14, p. II-4.

Balikci, Asen

1963

Vunta Kutchin Social Change, no. 15, p. II-5.

Balikci, Asen

1968

Perspectives on the Atomistic Type Society: Bad Friends, no. 16, p. II-6.

Barbeau, C. Marius

1915

Loucheux Myths, no. 24, p. II-9.

Bompas, William Carpenter

1888

Colonial Church Histories, Diocese of Mackenzie River. no. 42, p. 11-16.

Boon, Thomas C.

1965

William West Kirkby, First Anglican Missionary to the Loucheux. no. 43, p. 11-16.

Boram, Clifford

1973

Kutchin Quarrelling, no. 44, p. 11-16.

Burpee, Lawrence J.

1945

Campbell of the Yukon, no. 51, p. 11-18.

Cadzow, Donald A.

1925

Habitat of Loucheux Bands, no. 53, p. 11-19.

Cadzow, Donald A.

1925

Old Loucheux Clothing, no. 54, p. 11-19.

Carroll, James A.

1957

The First Ten Years in Alaska, Memoirs of a Fort Yukon Trapper, 1911-1922. no. 64, p. 11-21.

Graham, Angus

1930

Surgery with Flint, no. 142, p. 11-45. III-7

KUTCHIN

Hadleigh-West, Frederick

1959

On the Distribution and Western Kutchin Tribes, no. 149, p. 11-47.

Hardisty, William L.

1867

The Loucheux Indians, no. 157, p. 11-49.

Honigmann, John J. Honigmann, Irma

1970

Arctic Townsmen, no. 205, p. 11-71.

Irving, Laurence

1958

Naming of Birds as a Part of the Intellectual Culture of Indians at Old Crow, no. 215, p. 11-75.

Isbister, A. K.

1847

On the Loucheux Indians, no. 216, p. 11-75.

James, Alton James

1942

The First Scientific Exploration of America and the Purchase of Alaska, no. 218, p. 11-76.

Jenness, Diamond

1955

The Indians of Canada, no. 227, p. 11-82.

Jones, S.

1867

The Kutchin Tribes, no. 234, p. 11-86.

Keim, Charles J. ed.

1964

Kutchin Legends Territory. no. 236, p. 11-86.

Kerr, Robert

1953

For the Royal Scottish Museum, no. 238, p. 11-87.

Kirby, W. W.

1864

A Journey to the Yukon, Russian America, no. 243, p. 11-88.

Leechman, Douglas

1948

Old Crow’s Village, no. 259, p. 11-93.

Leechman, Douglas

1950

Loucheux Tales, no. 262, p. 11-94.

Leechman, Douglas

1952

Folk-Lore of the Vanta-Kutchin. no. 263, p. 11-94.

Leechman, Douglas

1954

The Vanta Kutchin. no. 264, p. 11-95.

Leechman, Douglas Lloyd, Scott

1953

The Loucheaux. no. 267, p. 11-95. III-8

from

Territories

Old

Crow,

of the

Russian

Yukon

KUTCHIN

Lustig-Arecco, Vera

1972

Concerning the Kutchin: Of Women and Things, no. 277, p. 11-98.

McKennan, Robert A.

1935

Anent the Kutchin Tribes, no. 286, p. 11-101.

McKennan, Robert A.

1965

The Chandalar Kutchin. no. 288, p. 11-104.

McKennan, Robert A.

1969

Athapaskan Groupings and Social Organization in Central Alaska. no. 289, p. 11-106.

McKennan, Robert A.

1970

Athapaskan Groups of Central Alaska at the Time of White Contact. no. 290, p. 11-107.

Morgan, Lewis Henry

1959

The Indian Journals, 1859-62. no. 331, p. 11-118.

Morice, Adrian G.

1910

Loucheaux. no. 343, p. 11-121.

Morice, Adrian G.

1928

The Fur Trader in Anthropology: And a Few Related Questions, no. 351, p. 11-123.

Osgood, Cornelius

1934

Kutchin Tribal Distribution and Synonymy, no. 364, p. 11-128.

Osgood, Cornelius

1936

Contributions to Kutchin. no. 365, p. 11-128.

Osgood, Cornelius

1971

The Han Indians, A Compilation of Ethno¬ graphic and Historical Data on the AlaskaYukon Boundary Area. no. 372, p. 11-133.

Poppe, Roger

1971

Kutchin Bibliography, an Annotated Biblio¬ graphy of Northern Yukon Kutchin Indians, no. 391, p. 11-139.

Richardson, John

1851

Arctic Searching Expedition: A Journal of a Boat Voyage Through Ruperts Land to the Arctic Sea, in Search of the Discovery Ships Under Command of Sir John Franklin, no. 404, p. 11-141.

Schmitter, Ferdinand

1912

Upper Yukon Native Customs and Folk-Lore, no. 424, p. 11-150. III-9

the

Ethnography

of

the

KUTCHIN

Slobodin, Richard

1960

Eastern Kutchin Warfare, no. 436, p. 11-152.

Slobodin, Richard

1960

Some Social Functions of Kutchin Anxiety, no. 437, p. 11-153.

Slobodin, Richard

1962

Band Organization of the Peel River Kutchin. no. 438, p. 11-154.

Slobodin, Richard

1963

The “Dawson Boys”: Peel River Indians and the Klondike Gold Rush, no 439, p. 11-155.

Slobodin, Richard

1969

Leadership and Participation Trapping Party, no. 440, p. 11-155.

Slobodin, Richard

1970

Kutchin Concepts of Reincarnation, no. 441, p. 11-156.

Slobodin, Richard

1971

The Chief is a Man. no. 442, p. 11-156,

Sniffen, Matthew K. Carrington, Thomas Spees

1914

The Indians of the Yukon and Tanana Valleys, Alaska. no. 448, p. 11-157.

Turner, J. Henry

1893

The Boundary North of Fort Yukon, no. 482, p. 11-171

Wallace, W. S.

1968

John McLean’s Notes of a Twenty-Five Year’s Service in the Hudson’s Bay Territory, no. 493, p. 11-178.

Welsh, Ann

1970

Community Pattern and Settlement Pattern in the Development of Old Crow Village, Yukon Territory, no. 498, p. 11-179.

West, Frederick H.

1959

On the Distribution and Western Kutchin Tribes, no. 499, p. 11-180.

Whymper, Frederick

1969

Travel and Adventure in the Territory of Alaska, no. 507, p. 11-181.

III-10

in

a

Territories

Kutchin

of

the

TANAINA

Beaman, C. C.

1867

Our New Northwest, no. 29, p. 11-10.

Boas, Franz

1895

The Tinneh Tribe of the Portland Inlet, the Ts’ets ’a’ut. no. 40, p. 11-15.

Cook, Frederick A.

1908

To the Top of the Continent, no. 79, p. 11-27.

Herron, Joseph S.

1901

Explorations in Alaska, 1899, for an AllAmerican Overland Route from Cook Inlet, Pacific Ocean, to the Yukon, no. 178, p. 11-58.

Martin, George Curtis Katz, F. J.

1912

A Geologic Reconnaissance Region, Alaska, no. 310, p. 11-113.

Moffit, Fred H.

1907

Mineral Resources of Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, no. 326, p. 11-117.

Moffit, Fred H.

1912

Headwater Regions of the Gulkana and Susitna Rivers, Alaska, no 327, p. 11-117.

Moffit, Fred H. Mertie, John Beaver

1923

The Kotsina-Kuskulana District, Alaska, no. 330, p. 11-118.

Osgood, Cornelius

1933

Tanaina Culture, no. 363, p. 11-127.

Osgood, Cornelius

1937

The Ethnography of the Tanaina. no. 367,11-130.

Pinart, Alphonse L.

1906

A Few Words on the Alaskan Dene, no. 390, p. 11-138.

Portlock, Nathaniel

1789

A Voyage Round the World; But More Particu¬ larly to the Northwest Coast of America: Performed in 1785,1786,1787, and 1788. no. 393, p. 11-139.

Townsend, Joan B.

1970

Tanaina Ethnohistory: An Example of a Method for the Study of Culture Change, no. 480, p. 11-169.

Townsend, Joan B.

1970

The Tanaina of Southwestern Alaska: An His¬ torical Synopsis, no. 481, p. 11-170.

Vaudrin, Bill

1969

Tanaina Tales from Alaska, no. 492, p. 11-178. III-ll

of

the

Iliamna

TANANA

Allen, 1 lenry T.

1887

Report of an Expedition to the Copper, Tanana and Koyukuk Rivers in the Territory of Alaska in the Year 1885. no. 4, p. 11-2.

Anonymous

1920

The Influenza Pandemic, no. 11, p. II-3.

Bettis, Laura

1914

An Indian Girl’s Alaskan Experience, no. 34, p. 11-11.

Brooks, Alfred Hulse

1900

A Reconnaissance in the Tanana and White River Basins, Alaska, in 1898. no. 46, p. 11-17.

Brooks, Alfred Hulse

1901

A Reconnaissance Eagle City, Alaska, no. 47, p. 11-17.

Cantwell, .John C.

1904

Report of the Operations of the U.S. Revenue Steamer Nunivak of the Yukon River Station,

from

Pyramid

Harbor

to

Alaska. no. 58, p. 11-20. Capps, Stephen R.

1913

The Yentna District, Alaska, no. 59, p. 11-20.

Capps, Stephen It.

1915

The Willow Creek District, Alaska, no. 60, p. 11-20.

Capps, Stephen R.

1935

The Southern Alaska Range, no. 63, p. 11-21.

Drane, Frederick B.

1916

The Potlatch at Nenana. no. 101, p. 11-32.

Drane, Frederick B.

1916

A Trip to the Hunting Camps of the Indian, no. 102, p. 11-32.

Drane, Frederick B.

1919

Drane, Frederick B.

1926

Fish Camp and a Canoe, no. 103, p. 11-33. New Experiences on the Yukon and Koyukuk. no. 104, p. 11-33.

Eakin, Henry M.

1913

A Geologic Reconnaissance of a Part of the Rampart Quadrangle, Alaska, no. 109, p. 11-34.

111-12

TANANA

Eldridge, George H.

1900

A Reconnaissance in the Sushitna Basin and Adjacent Territory, Alaska, in 1898. no. 114, p. 11-35.

Guedon, Marie-Francoise

1972

People of Tetlin, Why Are You Singing? no. 147, p. 11-46.

Heinrich, Albert C.

1957

Sib and Social Structure on the Upper Tanana. no. 164, p. 11-51.

Herron, Joseph S.

1901

Explorations in Alaska, 1899, for an AllAmerican Overland Route from Cook Inlet, Pacific Ocean, to the Yukon, no. 178, p. 11-58.

Hippier, Arthur E. Boyer, L. Bryce Boyer, Ruth M.

1972

The Psychocultural Significance of the Alaska Athabascan Potlatch Ceremony, no. 180, p. 11-59.

Hippier, Arthur E. Conn, Stephen

1972

Traditional Athabascan Law Ways and Their Relationship to Contemporary Problems of “Bush Justice.” no. 181, p. 11-60.

Holmes, G. William Foster, Helen L.

1968

Geology of the Johnson River Area, Alaska, no. 186, p. 11-62.

MacClellan, Catharine

1961

Avoidance Between Siblings of the Same Sex in Northwestern North America, no. 281, p. 11-99.

McKennan, Robert A.

1959

The Upper Tanana Indians, no. 287, p. 11-101.

McKennan, Robert A.

1969

Athapaskan Groupings and Social Organization in Central Alaska, no. 289, p. 11-106.

McKennan, Robert A.

1970

Athapaskan Groups of Central Alaska at the Time of White Contact, no. 290, p. 11-107.

Madara, Guy

1915

An Indian Potlatch, no. 304, p. 11-112.

Mendenhall, Walter C.

1900

A Reconnaissance from Resurrection Bay to the Tanana River, Alaska, in 1898. no. 316, p. 11-115.

Mertie, John Beaver

1930

Geology of the Eagle-Circle District, Alaska, no. 321, p. 11-116. III-13

TANANA

Mertie, John Beaver

1931

A Geological Reconnaissance of the Dennison Fork District, Alaska, no. 322, p. 11-116.

Sniffen, Matthew K. Carrington, Thomas Spees

1914

The Indians of the Yukon and Tanana Valleys, Alaska. no. 448, p. 11-157.

Whymper, Frederick

1969

Travel and Adventure in the Territory of Alaska, no. 507, p. 11-181.

III-14

CANADIAN ATHABASCAN GROUPS

BEARLAKE

Masson, L. R. ed.

1960

Les Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest. no. 315, p. 11-115.

Morris, Margaret W.

1972

Great Bear Lake Indians: A Historical Demo¬ graphy and Human Ecology, no. 353, p. 11-124.

Morris, Margaret W.

1973

Great Bear Lake Indians: A Historical Demo¬ graphy and Human Ecology, no. 354, p. 11-124.

Osgood, Cornelius

1932

The Ethnography Indians. no. 362, p. 11-126.

Osgood, Cornelius

1953

Winter. no. 369, p. 11-131.

Richardson, John

1851

Arctic Searching Expedition: A Journal of a Boat Voyage Through Ruperts Land to the Arctic Sea, in Search of the Discovery Ships Under Command of Sir John Franklin, no. 404, p. 11-141.

III-15

of

the

Great

Bear

Lake

BEAVER

Bowes, Gordon E. ed.

1964

Peace River Chronicles, no. 45, p. 11-17.

Bryce, George

1968

The Remarkable History of the Hudson’s Bay Company. no. 49, p. 11-18.

Goddard, Pliny Earle

1917

The Beaver Indians, no. 133, p. 11-41.

Godsell, Philip H.

1938

Red Hunters of the Snows, no. 136, p. 11-44.

Godsell, Philip H.

1943

Arctic Trader, the Account of Twenty Years with the Hudson’s Bay Company, no. 137, p. 11-44.

Jenness, Diamond

1955

The Indians of Canada, no. 227, p. 11-82.

Lamb, W. Kaye ed.

1957

Sixteen Years in the Indian Country, the Journal of Daniel Williams Harmon, 1800-1816. no. 255, p. 11-92.

Masson, L. R. ed.

1960

Les Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest. no. 315, p. 11-115.

Rich, Edwin Ernest ed.

1938

Journal of Occurrences in the Athabasca Depart¬ ment by George Simpson, 1820 and 1821, and Report. no. 399, p. 11-140.

Ridington, Robin

1969

Kin Categories Versus Kin Groups: A TwoSection System with Sections, no. 408, p. 11-143.

Ridington, Robin

1971

Beaver Indian Dreaming and Singing, no. 409, p. 11-143.

Ridington, Robin Ridington, Tonia

1970

The Inner Eye of Shamanism and Totemism. no. 410, p. 11-144.

Sherwood, Angus

1958

Some Remarks About the Athapaskan Indians. no. 432, p. 11-152.

III-16

CARRIER

Bowes, Gordon E. ed.

1964

Peace River Chronicles, no. 45, p. 11-17.

Duff, Wilson

1951

Notes on Carrier Social Organization, no. 107, p. 11-33.

Eggan, Fred

1955

Social Anthropology: Methods and Results, no. 112, p. 11-34.

Goldman, Irving

1941

The Alkatcho Carrier: Historical Background of Crest Prerogatives, no. 138, p. 11-44.

Goldman, Irving

1963

The Alkatcho Carrier of British Columbia, no. 139, p. 11-44.

Grossman, Daniel

1965

The Nature of Descent Groups of Some Tribes in the Interior of Northwestern North America, no. 144, p. 11-45.

Hamilton, G.

1878

Customs of the New Caledonian Women Belong¬ ing to the Nancausky Tine or Stuart’s Lake Indians, Natotin Tine or Babine’s and Nantley Tine or Fraser Lake Tribes, no. 155, p. 11-48.

Harris, Donald A. Ingram, George C.

1972

New Caledonia and the Fur Trade, a Status Report. no 160, p. 11-50.

Hawthorn, H. B. Belshaw, C. S. Jamieson, S. M.

1958

The Indians of British Columbia, a Study of Contemporary Social Adjustment, no. 161, p. 11-50.

Jenness, Diamond

1929

The Ancient Education of a Carrier Indian, no. 219, p. 11-76.

Jenness, Diamond

1933

An Indian Method of Treating Hysteria, no. 221, p. 11-77.

Jenness, Diamond

1934

Myths of the Carrier Indians, no. 222, p. 11-77.

Jenness, Diamond

1943

The Carrier Indians of the Bulkley River, Their Social and Religious Life, no. 225, p. 11-81.

Lamb, W. Kaye ed.

1957

Sixteen Years in the Indian Country, the Journal of Daniel Williams Harmon, 1800-1816. no. 255, p. 11-92.

HI-17

CARRIER

Leech man, Douglas Lloyd, Scott

1953

The Carriers, no. 266, p. 11-95.

MacLeod, William Christie

1925

Certain Mortuary Aspects of Northwest Coast Culture. no. 294, p. 11-108.

MacLeod, William Christie

1926

Father Morice and the Sikanni. no. 295, p. 11-108.

Morice, Adrian G.

1892

Are the Carrier Sociology Indigenous or Exotic? no. 333, p. 11-119

Morice, Adrian G.

1894

Notes Archaeological, Industrial, logical on the Western Denes, no. 334, p. 11-119.

Morice, Adrian G.

1895

Three Carrier Myths, no. 335, p. 11-120.

Morice, Adrian G.

1911

Carrier Indians, no. 344, p. 11-122.

Morice, Adrian G.

1925

Two Points of Western Dene Ethnography, no. 350, p. 11-123.

Morice, Adrian G.

1928

The Fur Trader in Anthropology: And a Few Related Questions, no. 351, p. 11-123.

Morice, Adrian G.

1933

Carrier Onomatology, no. 352, p. 11-123.

Sherwood, Angus

1958

Some Remarks About the Athapaskan Indians, no. 432, p. 11-152.

Smith, Harlan I.

1925

Entomology Among the Bellacoola and Carrier Indians. no. 443, p. 11-156.

Steward, Julian H.

1940

Recording Culture Changes Among the Carrier Indians of British Columbia, no. 452, p. 11-158.

Steward, Julian H.

1941

Determinism in Primitive Society, no. 453, p. 11-159.

Steward, Julian H.

1941

Investigations Among the British Columbia, no. 454, p. 11-159. III-18

and

Mythology

and

Socio¬

Carrier Indians of

CARRIER

Steward, Julian H.

1960

Carrier Acculturation, Approach, no. 455, p. 11-160.

Steward, Julian H.

1963

Variation in Ecological Adaptation: The Carrier Indians. no. 456, p. 11-160.

III-19

the

Direct

Historical

CHILCOTIN

Farrand, Livingston

1898

The Chilcotin. no. 116, p. 11-36.

Farrand, Livingston

1900

Traditions of the Chilcotin Indians, no. 117, p. 11-36.

Haeberlin, H. K. Teit, James A. Roberts, Helen H.

1928

Coiled Basketry in British Columbia and Sur¬ rounding Region, no. 150, p. 1147.

Harris, Donald A. Ingram, George C.

1972

New Caledonia and the Fur Trade, a Status Report. no. 160, p. 11-50.

Morice, Adrian G.

1925

Two Points of Western Dene Ethnography, no. 350, p. 11-123.

Teit, James A.

1907

Notes on the Chilcotin Indians, no. 469, p. 11-164.

III-20

CHIPEWYAN

Back,George

1970

Narrative of the Arctic Land Expedition to the Mouth of the Great Fish River and Along the Shores of the Arctic Ocean in the Years 1833, 1834, and 1835. no. 13, p. II-4.

Bell, James Mackintosh

1903

Fireside Stories of the Chipewyan. no. 31, p. 11-10.

Birket-Smith, Kaj

1930

Contributions to Chipewyan Ethnology, no. 36, p. 11 -11 .

Birket-Smith, Kaj

1930

The Cultural Position of the Chipewyan Within the Circumpolar Culture Region, no. 37, p. 11-12.

Bompas, William Carpenter

1888

Colonial Church Histories, Diocese of Mackenzie River. no. 42, p. 11-16.

Cohen, Ronald Van Stone, James W.

1964

Dependency and Self-Sufficiency in Chipewyan Stories. no. 78, p. 11-26.

Curtis, Edward S.

1970

The North American Indian, no. 84, p. 11-28.

Eggan, Fred

1955

Social Anthropology: Methods and Results, no. 112, p. 11-34.

Franklin, John

1913

Chipewyan Stories, no. 123 p. 11-38.

Franklin, John

1969

Narrative of a Second Expedition to the Shores of the Polar Sea, in the Years 1825, 1826, and 1827. no. 124, p. 11-38.

Harrington, Richard

1947

In the Land of the Chipewyans. no. 159, p. 11-49.

Honigmann, John J. ed.

1968

Ethnographic Study of Churchill, no. 198, p. 11-69.

Jenness, Diamond

1955

The Indians of Canada, no. 227, p. 11-82.

Jenness, Diamond ed.

1956

The Chipewyan Indians: Early Explorer. no. 228, p. 11-82.

111-21

An Account by an

CHIPEWYAN

Keewatin, Bishop of

1913

The Chipewyan Indians, no. 235, p. 11-86.

King, Richard

1836

Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Arctic Ocean, in 1833, 1834, and 1835. no. 240, p. 11-87.

Koolage, William W.

1968

Chipewyan Indians of Camp-10, no. 244, p. 11-88.

Leechman, Douglas

1948

Caribou for Chipewyans. no. 258, p. 11-93.

Leechman, Douglas

1948

The Pointed Skins, no. 260, p. 11-93.

Lofthouse, J.

1913

Chipewyan Stories, no. 268, p. 11-95.

Lowie, Robert H.

1909

The Chipewyans of Canada, no. 271, p. 11-96.

Lowie, Robert H.

1909

An Ethnological Trip to Lake Athabasca, no. 272, p. 11-96.

Lowie, Robert H.

1967

Windigo, a Chipewyan Story, no. 273, p. 11-96.

MacKeevor, Thomas

1819

A Voyage to Hudson’s Bay During the Summer of 1812. no. 285, p. 11-101.

MacKenzie, Alexander

1966

Voyages from Montreal, on the River St. Laurence, Through the Continent of North America, to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans; in the Years 1789 and 1793. no. 292, p. 11-107.

MacNeish, June Helm

1960

Kin Terms of Arctic Slavey, Chipewyan. no. 302, p. 11-111.

Morgan, Lewis Henry

1959

The Indian Journals, 1859-62. no. 331, p. 11-118.

Munsterhjelm, Erik

1953

The Wind and the Caribou, no. 356 p. 11-125.

Oswalt, Wendell H.

1966

This Land Was Theirs—A Study of the North American Indian, no. 376, p. 11-134.

111 -2 2

Drainage

Dene:

Hare,

CHIPEWYAN

Parker, James M.

1972

The Fur Trade and the Chipewyan Indian, no. 378, p. 11-135.

Penard, J. M.

1929

Land Ownership and Chieftaincy Among the Chippewayan and Caribou-Eaters, no. 382, p. 11-136.

Rich, Edwin Ernest ed.

1938

Journal of Occurrences in the Athabasca Depart¬ ment by George Simpson, 1820 and 1821, and Report. no. 399, p. 11-140.

Richardson, John

1851

Arctic Searching Expedition: A Journal of a Boat Voyage Through Ruperts Land to the Arctic Sea, in Search of the Discovery Ships Under Command of Sir John Franklin, no. 404, p. 11-141.

Robinson, J.

1944

Among the Caribou-Eaters, no. 411, p. 11-145.

Ross, Bernard R.

1861

An Account of the Animals Useful in an Economic Point of View to the Various Chipewyan Tribes, no. 414, p. 11-145.

Ross, Bernard R.

1862

An Account of the Botanical and Mineral Products Useful to the Chipewyan Tribes of Indians. no. 415, p. 11-146.

Ross, Bernard R.

1867

The Eastern Tinneh. no. 416, p. 11-146.

Rourke, Louise

1924

The Land of the Frozen Tide, no. 417, p. 11-147.

Seton, Ernest Thompson

1912

The Arctic Prairies, no. 429, p. 11-151.

Shapiro, H. L.

1931

The Alaskan Eskimo, a Study of the Relation¬ ship between the Eskimo and the Chipewyan Indians of Central Canada, no. 430, p. 11-151.

Simpson, Thomas

1843

Narrative of the Discoveries on the Northern Coast of America; Effected by the Officers of the Hudson’s Bay Company During the Years 1836-39. no. 435, p. 11-152.

III-23

CHIPEWYAN

Smith, J. G. E.

1970

The

Chipewyan Hunting Group in a Village

Context. no. 444, p. 11-156. Tache,A.

1870

Sketch of the North-West of America, no. 466, p. 11-163.

Van Stone, James W.

1961

The Economy of a Frontier Community, a Preliminary Statement, no. 489, p. 11-174.

Van Stone, James W.

1963

Changing Patterns of Indian Trapping in the Canadian Subarctic, no. 490, p. 11-174.

Van Stone, James W.

1965

The Changing Culture Chipewyan. no. 491, p. 11-175.

Wallace, W. S.

1968

John McLean’s Notes of a Twenty-Five Service in the Hudson’s Bay Territory, no. 493, p. 11-178.

West, John

1824

The Substance of a Journal During a Residence at the Red River Colony, British North America; and Frequent Excursions Among the NorthWest American Indians, in the Years 1820,

of

the

Snowdrift

Year’s

1821,1822,1823. no. 500, p. 11-180. Whitney, Casper

1896

On Snow-Shoes to the Barren Grounds; TwentyEight Hundred Miles After Musk-Oxen and Wood-Bison, no. 503, p. 11-180.

III-24

DOGRIB

Bompas, William Carpenter

1888

Colonial Church Histories, Diocese of Mackenzie River. no. 42, p. 11-16.

Douglas, R. eds. Wallace, J. N.

1926

Twenty Years of York Factory 1694-1714, Jeremies Account of Hudson Strait and Bay no. 100, p. 11-32.

Franklin, John

1969

Narrative of a Second Expedition to the Shores of the Polar Sea, in the Years 1825, 1826, and 1827. no. 124, p. 11-38.

Hanbury, David T.

1904

Sport and Travel in the Northland of Canada, no. 156, p. 11-49.

Helm, June

1968

The Nature of Dogrib Socioterritorial Groups, no. 169, p. 11-53.

Helm, June

1972

The Dogrib Indians, no. 170, p. 11-53.

Helm, June Lurie, Nancy O.

1961

The Subsistence Economy of the Dogrib Indians of Lac La Martre in the Mackenzie District of the Northwest Territories, no. 174, p. 11-55.

Helm, June Lurie, Nancy O.

1966

The Dogrib Hand Game, no. 175, p. 11-57.

Helm, June Vital, Thomas

1966

Tales from the Dogribs. no. 176, p. 11-57.

Jenness, Diamond

1955

The Indians of Canada, no. 227, p. 11-82.

Kerr, Robert

1953

For the Royal Scottish Museum, no. 238, p. 11-87.

King, Richard

1836

Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Arctic Ocean, in 1833,1834, and 1835. no. 240, p. 11-87.

Lurie, Nancy O.

1961

The Dogrib Indians of Canada, no. 276, p. 11-98.

MacKenzie, Alexander

1941

The Dogrib Tribe. no. 291, p. 11-107.

II1-25

DOGRIB

MacKenzie, Alexander

1966

Voyages from Montreal, on the River St. Laurence, Through the Continent of North America, to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans; in the Years 1789 and 1793. no. 292, p. 11-107.

Pike, Warburton

1967

The Barren Ground of Northern Canada, no. 388, p. 11-138.

Richardson, John

1851

Arctic Searching Expedition: A Journal of a Boat Voyage Through Ruperts Land to the Arctic Sea, in Search of the Discovery Ships Under Command of Sir John Franklin, no. 404, p. 11-141.

Russell, Frank

1898

Explorations in the Far North, Being the Report of an Expedition Under the Auspices of the University of Iowa During the Years 1892, 1893, and 1894. no. 418, p. 11-148.

Wheeler, David E.

1914

The Dog-Rib Indian and His Home, no. 501, p. 11-180.

III-26

HARE

Hurlbert, Janice

1962

Age as a Factor in the Social Organization of the Hare Indian of Fort Good Hope, N.W.T. no. 212, p. 11-73.

Jenness, Diamond

1955

The Indians of Canada, no. 227, p. 11-82.

MacNeish, June Helm

1960

Kin Terms of Arctic Slavey, Chipewyan. no. 302, p. 11-111.

Morice, Adrian G.

1910

Hare Indians. no. 342, p. 11-121.

Richardson, John

1851

Arctic Searching Expedition: A Journal of a Boat Voyage Through Ruperts Land to the Arctic Sea, in Search of the Discovery Ships Under Command of Sir John Franklin, no. 404, p. 11-141.

Savishinsky, Joel S.

1970

Kinship and the Expression of Values in an Athabascan Bush Community, no. 422, p. 11-149.

Sherwood, Angus

1958

Some Remarks About the Athapaskan Indians, no. 432, p. 11-152.

Sue, Hiroko

1965

Pre-School Children of the Hare Indians, no. 461, p. 11-161.

III-27

Drainage

Dene:

Hare,

NAHANE

Allard, E.

1928

Notes on the Kaska and Upper Liard Indians, no. 3, p. II-l.

Bompas, William Carpenter

1888

Colonial Church Histories, Diocese of Mackenzie River. no. 42, p. 11-16.

Burpee, Lawrence J.

1945

Campbell of the Yukon, no. 51, p. 11-18.

Campbell, Robert

1958

Two Journals of Robert Campbell (Chief Factor Hudson’s Bay Company 1808 to 1853). no. 57, p. 11-19.

Darnell, Regna

1970

The Kaska Aesthetic of Speech Use. no. 90, p. 11-29.

Dawson, George M.

1881

Sketches of the Past and Present Condition of the Indians of Canada, no. 93, p. 11-30.

Dennis, Alfred Pearce

1899

Life on a Yukon Trail, no. 95, p. 11-31.

Eggan, Fred

1955

Social Anthropology: Methods and Results, no. 112, p. 11-34.

Emmons, George Thornton

1911

The Tahltan Indians, no. 115, p. 11-35.

Honigmann, John J.

1947

Witch-Fear in Post-Contact Kaska Society, no. 191, p. 11-64.

Honigmann, John J.

1949

Culture and Ethos of Kaska Society, no. 192, p. 11-65.

Honigmann, John J.

1954

The Kaska Indians: An Ethnographic Recon¬ struction, no. 194, p. 11-66.

Honigmann, John J.

1968

Interpersonal Relations in Atomistic Communi¬ ties. no. 199, p. 11-69.

Honigmann, John J.

1969

Culture Patterns and Human Stress, a Study in Social Psychiatry, no. 200, p. 11-69.

Honigmann, John J. Honigmann, Irma

1947

A Kaska Indian String Oracle, no. 204, p. 11-71.

III-28

NAHANE

MacLachlan, Bruce B.

1957

Notes on Some Tahltan Oral Literature, no. 293, p. 11-107.

MacNeish, June Helm

1957

The Poole Field Letters (1913). no. 301, p. 11-111.

Morice, Adrian G.

1911

Nahanes. no. 345, p. 11-122.

Parnell, C.

1942

Campbell of the Yukon, no. 379, p. 11-135.

Pike, Warburton

1967

Through the Subarctic Forest, no. 389, p. 11-138.

Sheldon, Charles

1911

The Wilderness of the Upper Yukon, no. 431, p. 11-152.

Sherwood, Angus

1958

Some Remarks About the Athapaskan Indian, no. 432, p. 11-152.

Teit, James A.

1906

Notes on the Tahltan Columbia, no. 468, p. 11-164.

Teit, James A.

1909

Two Tahltan Traditions, no. 470, p. 11-165.

Teit, James A.

1914

On Tahltan (Athabaskan) Work, 1912. no. 472, p. 11-165.

Teit, James A.

1917

Kaska Tales. no. 473, p. 11-165.

Teit, James A.

1921

Tahltan Tales. no. 474, p. 11-166.

Teit, James A.

1956

Field Notes on Tahltan and Kaska Indians: 1912-1915. no. 476, p. 11-167.

Underwood, Frances W. Honigmann, Irma

1947

A Comparison of Socialization and Personality in Two Simple Societies, no. 485, p. 11-172.

111-29

Indians

of

British

SARSI

Cronk, H. K.

1954-57

Sarcee Miscellany: 1885. no. 82, p. 11-27.

Curtis, Edward S.

1970

The North American Indian, no. 84, p. 11-28.

Goddard, Pliny Earle

1914

Dancing Societies of the Sarse Indians, no. 132, p. 11-41.

Goddard, Pliny Earle

1921

Notes on the Sun Dance of the Sarsi. no. 134, p. 11-43.

Honigmann, John J.

1956

Notes on Sarsi Kin Behavior, no. 196, p. 11-68.

Jenness, Diamond

1938

The Sarcee Indians of Alberta, no. 224, p. 11-80.

Morice, Adrian G.

1928

The Fur Trader in Anthropology: And a Few Related Questions, no. 351, p. 11-123.

Sapir, Edward

1924

Personal Names Among the Sarcee Indians, no. 420, p. 11-148.

Simms, S. C.

1904

Traditions of the Sarcee Indians, no. 434, p. 11-152.

Spry, Irene M.

1963

The Palliser Expedition, an Account of John Palliser’s British North American Expedition 1857-1860. no. 449, p. 11-158.

Tims, Winifred A.

1929

The Interesting Origin of the Sarcee Indians of Canada. no. 478, p. 11-169.

Wilson, E. F.

1888

Report on the Sarcee Indians, no. 512, p. 11-182.

Wilson, E. F.

1889

The Sarcee Indians. no. 513, p. 11-183.

III-30

SEKANI

Harris, Donald A. Ingram, George C.

1972

New Caledonia and the Fur Trade, a Status Report. no. 160, p. 11-50.

Jenness, Diamond

1931

The Sekani Indians of British Columbia, no. 220, p. 11-76.

Jenness, Diamond

1937

The Sekani Indians of British Columbia, no. 223, p. 11-79.

Jenness, Diamond

1955

The Indians of Canada, no. 227, p. 11-82.

Lamb, W. Kaye ed.

1957

Sixteen Years in the Indian Country, the Journal of Daniel Williams Harmon, 1800-1816. no. 255, p. 11-92.

MacLeod, William Christie

1925

Certain Mortuary Aspects of Northwest Coast Culture. no. 294, p. 11-108.

MacLeod, William Christie

1926

Father Morice and the Sikanni. no. 295, p. 11-108.

Sherwood, Angus

1958

Some Remarks About the Athapaskan Indian, no. 432, p. 11-152.

III-31

SLAVE

Bell, Robert

1901

Legends of the Slavey Indians of the Mackenzie River. no. 32, p. 11-11.

Bompas, William Carpenter

1888

Colonial Church Histories, Diocese of Mackenzie River. no. 42, p. 11-16.

Hanbury, David T.

1904

Sport and Travel in the Northland of Canada, no. 156, p. 11-49.

Helm, June

1961

The Lynx Point People: The Dynamics of a Northern Athapaskan Band, no. 166, p. 11-52.

Helm, June DeVos, George A. Carterette, Teresa

1963

Variations in Personality and Ego Identification Within a Slave Indian Kin-Community,

Honigmann, John J.

1946

Ethnography and Nelson Slave, no. 189, p. 11-63.

Ingstad, Helge

1933

The Land of Feast and Famine, no. 213, p. 11-75.

Jenness, Diamond

1955

The Indians of Canada, no. 227, p. 11-82.

MacKenzie, Alexander

1966

Voyages from Montreal, on the River St. Laurence, Through the Continent of North America, to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans; in the Years 1789 and 1793. no. 292, p. 11-107.

MacNeish, June Helm

1954

Contemporary Folk Beliefs of a Slave Indian

no. 172, p. 11-54. Acculturation

of the Fort

Band. no. 297, p. 11-108. MacNeish, June Helm

1955

Folktales of the Slave Indians, no. 298, p. 11-109.

MacNeish, June Helm

1956

Problems of Acculturation and Livelihood in a Northern Indian Band. no. 300, p. 11-110.

MacNeish, June Helm

1960

Kin Terms of Arctic Slavey, Chipewyan. no. 302, p. 11-111.

111-32

Drainage

Dene:

Hare,

SLAVE

Mason, Michael H.

1924

The Arctic Forests, no. 312, p. 11-114.

Rich, Edwin Ernest ed.

1955

Black’s Rocky Mountain Journal, 1824. no. 402, p. 11-141.

Russell, Frank

1898

Explorations in the Far North, Being the Report of an Expedition Under the Auspices of the University of Iowa During the Years 1892, 1893, and 1894. no. 418, p. 11-148.

Sherwood, Angus

1958

Some Remarks About the Athapaskan Indians, no. 432, p. 11-152.

Williamson, Robert G.

1955-56

Slave Indian Legends. no. 509, p. 11-182.

111-33

YELLOWKNIFE

Back, George

1970

Narrative of the Arctic Land Expedition to the Mouth of the Great Fish River and Along the Shores of the Arctic Ocean in the Years 1833, 1834, and 1835. no. 13, p. II-4.

Bom pas, William Carpenter

1888

Colonial Church Histories, Diocese of Mackenzie River. no. 42, p. 11-16.

Hanbury, David T.

1904

Sport and Travel in the Northland of Canada, no. 156, p. 11-49.

Jenness, Diamond

1955

The Indians of Canada, no. 227, p. 11-82.

Morice, Adrian G.

1912

Yellow-Knives, no. 347, p. 11-122.

Pike, Warburton

1967

The Barren Ground of Northern Canada, no. 388, p. 11-138.

Richardson, John

1851

Arctic Searching Expedition: A Journal of a Boat Voyage Through Ruperts Land to the Arctic Sea, in Search of the Discovery Ships Under Command of Sir John Franklin, no. 404, p. 11-141.

Russell, Frank

1898

Explorations in the Far North, Being the Report of an Expedition Under the Auspices of the University of Iowa During the Years 1892, 1893 and 1894. no. 418, p. 11-148.

III-34

GENERAL ALASKAN ATHABASCAN REFERENCES

GENERAL ALASKA

Anderson, Hobson D. Eells, Walter C.

1935

Alaska Natives: A Survey of Their Sociological and Educational Status, no. 7, p. II-2.

Aronson, Joseph D.

1947

The History of Disease Among the Natives of Alaska. no. 12, p. II-3.

Bancroft, Hubert H.

1959

History of Alaska 1730-1885. no. 21, p. II-8.

Bartlett, G. W.

1915

The Diary of Robert Campbell, no. 28, p. 11-10.

Brooks, Alfred Hulse

1953

Blazing Alaska’s Trails, no. 48, p. 11-18.

Cantwell, John C.

1904

Report of the Operations of the U.S. Revenue Steamer Nunivak of the Yukon River Station, Alaska. no. 58, p. 11-20.

Capps, Stephen R.

1916

The Chisana-White River District, Alaska, no. 61, p. 11-21.

Capps, Stephen R.

1919

The Kantishna Region, Alaska, no. 62, p. 11-21.

Chapin, Theodore

1918

The Nelchina-Susitna Region, Alaska, no. 66, p. 11-22.

Chapman, John Wight

1903

Athapascan Traditions from the Lower Yukon, no. 67, p. 11-22.

Cook, Frederick A.

1908

To the Top of the Continent, no. 79, p. 11-27.

Dali, William Healey

1869

On the. Distribution of the Native Tribes of Alaska and the Adjacent Territory, no. 85, p. 11-28.

Dali, William Healey

1877

On the Distribution and Nomenclature of the Native Tribes of Alaska, no. 86, p. 11-28.

Dali, William Healey

1885

The Native Tribes of Alaska, no. 87, p. 11-29.

Dali, William Healey

1898

The Yukon Territory. no. 88, p. 11-29.

111-35

GENERAL ALASKA

Dali, William Healey

1970

Alaska and Its Resources, no. 89, p. 11-29.

Eakin, 1 lenry M.

191(5

The Yukon-Koyukuk Region, Alaska, no. 110, p. 11-34.

Eakin, 1 lenry M.

1918

The Cosna-Nowitna Region, Alaska, no. Ill, p. 11-34.

Elder, Max Q. ed.

1954

Alaska’s Health: A Survey Report to the United States Department of the Interior, no. 113, p. 11-35.

Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in Alaska

1968

Alaska Natives and the Land, no. 118, p. 11-37.

Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in Alaska

1969

Estimates of Native Population in Villages, Towns and Boroughs of Alaska, no. 119, p. 11-37.

Fellows, F. S.

1934

Mortality in the Native Races of the Territory of Alaska, with Special Reference to Tuberculosis, no. 120, p. 11-37.

Foote, Don Charles MacBain, Sheila K.

19(54

A Selected Regional Bibliography for Human Geographical Studies of the Native Populations in Central Alaska, no. 122, p. 11-38.

Gordon, George Byron

1917

In the Alaskan Wilderness, no. 140, p. 11-45.

Gruening, Ernest

1954

The State of Alaska, no. 145, p. 11-46.

Gsovski, Valdimir

1950

Russian Administration of Alaska and the Status of the Alaskan Natives. no. 146, p. 11-46.

Haldeman, J. C.

1951

Problems of Alaskan Eskimos, Indians, Aleuts, no. 151, p. 11-48.

Harrington, George L.

1918

The Anvik-Andreafski Region, Alaska.

no. 158, p. II 19. Hayes, Charles Willard

1892

An Expedition Through the Yukon District, no.

L62,p. 11 51.

111-36

GENERAL ALASKA

Hippier, Arthur E.

1973

The Athabascans of Interior Alaska: A Culture and Personality Perspective, no. 179, p. 11-58.

Hippier, Arthur E. Boyer, L. Bryce Boyer, Ruth M.

1972

The Psychocultural Significance of the Alaska Athabascan Potlatch Ceremony, no. 180, p. 11-59.

Hippier, Arthur E. Conn, Stephen

1972

Traditional Athabascan Law Ways and Their Relationship to Contemporary Problems of “Bush Justice.” no. 181, p. 11-60.

Hrdlicka, Ales

1930

The Ancient and Modern Inhabitants of the Yukon. no. 209, p. 11-73.

Hrdlicka, Ales

1930

Anthropological Survey in Alaska, no. 210, p. 11-73.

Hulley, Clarence C.

1953

Alaska, 1741-1953. no. 211, p. 11-73.

Jackson, Sheldon

1880

Alaska and Missions on the North Pacific Coast, no. 217, p. 11-76.

Kirby, W. W.

1864

A Journey to the Yukon, Russian America, no. 243, p. 11-88.

Krenov, Julia

1951

Legends from Alaska, no. 246, p. 11-89.

Latham, R. G.

1848

On the Ethnography of Russian America, no. 256, p. 11-93.

Loftus, Audrey

1956

According to Mama, no. 269, p. 11-96.

Lotz, James Robert

1964

Yukon Bibliography, Preliminary Edition, no. 270, p. 11-96.

Lutz, Harold J.

1959

Aboriginal Man and White Man as Historical Causes of Fires in the Boreal Forest, With Particular Reference to Alaska, no. 278, p. 11-98.

McKennan, Robert A.

1969

Athapaskan Groupings and Social Organization in Central Alaska, no. 289, p. 11-106.

II1-37

GENERAL ALASKA

McMinimy, Donald J.

1947

Preliminary Report on Tuberculosis Incidence in Alaska. no. 296, p. 11-108.

McQuesten, Leroy N.

1952

Recollections of Leroy N. McQuesten of Life in the Yukon, 1871-1885. no. 303, p. 11-112.

Marchand, John F.

1943

Tribal Epidemics in the Yukon, no. 307, p. 11-112.

Marshall, Robert

1933

Arctic Village, no. 308, p. 11-113.

Mertie, John Beaver

1928

Preliminary Report District. no. 319, p. 11-116.

Mertie, John Beaver

1929

The Chandalar-Sheenjek District, in Alaska, no. 320, p. 11-116.

Michael, Henry N. ed.

1967

Lieutenant Zagoskin’s America, 1842-44. no. 324, p. 11-117.

Mitchell, William

1961

Billy Mitchell in Alaska, no. 325, p. 11-117.

Moffit, Fred H. Knopf, Adolph

1910

Mineral Resources of the Nabesna-White River District, Alaska, no. 329, p. 11-118.

Moffit, Fred H. Mertie, John Beaver

1923

The Kotsina-Kuskulana District, Alaska, no. 330, p. 11-118.

Norick, Frank A.

1966

Acculturation and Social Maladjustment Among the Native People of Alaska, no. 358, p. 11-125.

Osgood, Cornelius

1971

The Han Indians, A Compilation of Ethno¬ graphic and Historical Data on the AlaskaYukon Boundary Area, no. 372, p. 11-133.

Oswalt, Wendell H. ed.

1960

Eskimos and Indians of Western Alaska 1861-1868: Extracts from the Diary of Father Illarion. no. 373, p. 11-133.

III-38

on

the

Sheenjek

Travels

in

River

Russian

GENERAL ALASKA

Oswalt, Wendell H.

1965

The Kuskokwim River Drainage, Alaska: An Annotated Bibliography, no. 375, p. 11-134.

Petroff, Ivan

1884

Report on the Population, Resources of Alaska, no. 386, p. 11-137.

Porter, Robert P.

1893

Report on Population and Resources of Alaska at the Eleventh Census: 1890. no. 392, p. 11-139.

Prindle, Louis Marcus

1913

A Geologic Reconnaissance Quadrangle, Alaska. no. 395, p. 11-139.

Schwatka, Frederick

1893

A Summer in Alaska, no. 427, p. 11-151.

Sherwood, Morgan B.

1965

Exploration of Alaska 1865-1900. no. 433, p. 11-152.

Smith, Philip S.

1917

The Lake Clark-Central Alaska. no. 445, p. 11-157.

Smith, Philip S. Eakin, Henry M.

1911

A Geologic Reconnaissance in Southeastern Seward Peninsula and the Norton Bay-Nulato Region, Alaska. no. 446, p. 11-157.

Smith, Philip S. Mertie, John Beaver

1930

Geology and Mineral Resources of Northwestern Alaska. no. 447, p. 11-157.

Spurr, Josiah Edward

1900

A Reconnaissance in Southwestern Alaska in

Industries,

of

the

Kuskokwim

and

Circle

Region,

1898. no. 450, p. 11-158. Stuck, Hudson

1914

Ten Thousand Miles with a Dog Sled, no. 458, p. 11-161.

Stuck, Hudson

1925

Voyages on the Yukon and Its Tributaries, no. 459, p. 11-161.

Tollemache, Stratford

United States Bureau of Education

1912

annual

Reminiscences of the Yukon, no. 479, p. 11-169. Annual Reports. no. 486, p. 11-172.

III-39

GENERAL ALASKA

United States Senate

1900

Compilation of Narratives on Explorations in Alaska. no. 487, p. 11-173.

Whymper, Frederick

1868

A Journey From Norton Sound, Bering Sea, to Fort Youkon (Junction of Porcupine and Youkon Rivers), no. 504, p. 11-181.

Whymper, Frederick

1868

A Journey From Norton Sound, Bering Sea, to Fort Yukon, at the Junction of the Porcupine and Yukon Rivers, no. 505, p. 11-181.

Whymper, Frederick

1869

Russian America—Alaska: The Natives of the Youkon River and Adjacent Country (1868). no. 506, p. 11-181.

Whymper, Frederick

1969

Travel and Adventure in the Territory of Alaska, no. 507, p. 11-181.

Wickersham, James

1938

Old Yukon Tales—Trails—and Trials, no. 508, p. 11-182.

Wilson, Clifford

1947

Founding Fort Yukon, no. 510, p. 11-182.

Wright, Arthur

1908

An Athapascan Tradition from Alaska. no. 517, p. 11-184.

III-40

GENERAL CANADIAN ATHABASCAN REFERENCES

GENERAL CANADA

Back, George

1970

Narrative of the Arctic Land Expedition to the Mouth of the Great Fish River and Along the Shores of the Arctic Ocean in the Years 1833, 1834, and 1835. no. 13, p. II-4.

Balikci, Asen Cohen, Ronald

1963

Community Patterning Trading Posts. no. 17. p. II-7.

Bancroft, Hubert H.

1887

History of British Columbia 1792-1887. no. 20, p. II-8.

Beaman, C. C.

1867

Our New Northwest, no. 29, p. 11-10.

Begg, Alexander

1894

History of British Columbia, no. 30, p. 11-10.

Bethune, William Clark

1937

Canada’s Western Northland, no. 33, p. 11-11.

Birket-Smith, Kaj

1930

The Cultural Position of the Chipewyan Within the Circumpolar Culture Region, no. 37, p. 11-12.

Boas, Franz

1968

Ethnological Problems in Canada, no. 41, p. 11-16.

Bompas, William Carpenter

1888

Colonial Church Histories, Diocese of Mackenzie River. no. 42, p. 11-16.

Bowes, Gordon E. ed.

1964

Peace River Chronicles, no. 45, p. 11-17.

Bryce, George

1968

The Remarkable History of the Hudson’s Bay Company, no. 49, p. 11-18.

Buckham, A. F.

1950

Indian Engineering, no. 50, p. 11-18.

Chang, Kwang-Chih

1962

A Typology of Settlement and Community Patterns in Some Circumpolar Societies,

in

Two

Northern

no. 65, p. 11-21. Cody, Hiram Alfred

1908

An Apostle of the North, Memoirs of the Right Rev. William Carpenter Bompas. no. 76, p. 11-26.

III-41

GENERAL CANADA

Cohen, Ronald

1962

An Anthropological Survey of Communities in the Mackenzie-Slave Lake Region of Canada, no. 77, p. 11-26.

Cox, Bruce

1970

Land Rights of the Slavey Indians at Hay River, N.W.T. no. 81, p. 11-27.

Department of Citizenship and Immigration, Indian Affairs Branch, Canada

1964

Traditional Linguistic and Cultural Affiliations of Canadian Indian Bands, no. 96, p. 11-31.

Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Canada

1967

Indians of the Prairie Provinces, no. 97, p. 11-32.

Douglas, R. eds. Wallace, J. N.

1926

Twenty Years of York Factory 1694-1714, Jeremies Account of Hudson Strait and Bay. no. 100, p. 11-32.

Duchaussois, Pierre

1937

Mid Snow and Ice, the Apostles of the NorthWest. no. 106, p. 11-33.

Dunning, R. W.

1959

Ethnic Relations Canada. no. 108, p. 11-34.

Eggan, Fred

1955

Social Anthropology: Methods and Results, no. 112, p. 11-34.

Finnie, Richard

1940

Dogrib Treaty. no. 121, p. 11-38.

Franklin, John

1969

Narrative of a Second Expedition to the Shores of the Polar Sea, in the Years 1825, 1826, and

and

the

Marginal

Man

in

1827. no. 124, p. 11-38. Franklin, John Richardson, J.

1970

Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea in the Years 1819, 20, 21, and 22. no. 125, p. 11-38.

Fried, Jacob

1963

Settlement Types and Community Organization in Northern Canada, no. 126, p. 11-39.

Fried, Jacob

1963

White-Dominated Settlements in the Canadian Northwest Territories, no. 127, p. 11-39.

111 -4 2

GENERAL CANADA

Frison-Roche, Roger

1969

Hunters of the Arctic, no. 128, p. 11-39.

Gillespie, Beryl C.

1970

Yellowknives: Quo Iverunt? no. 130, p. 11-40.

Godsell, Philip H.

1943

Arctic Trader, the Account of Twenty Years with the Hudson’s Bay Company, no. 137, p. 11-44.

Gould, Sydney

1917

Inasmuch—Sketches of the Beginnings of the Church of England in Relation to the Indian and Eskimo Races, no. 141, p. 11-45.

Grantham, E. N.

1951

Education Goes North, no. 143, p. 11-45.

Habgood, Thelma (translator)

1970

Indian Legends of North-Western Canada, by Emile Petitot. no. 148, p. 11-47.

Haeberlin, H. K. Teit, James A. Roberts, Helen H.

1928

Coiled Basketry in Surrounding Region, no. 150, p. 11-47.

Hanbury, David T.

1904

Sport and Travel in the Northland of Canada, no. 156, p. 11-49.

Harmon, Daniel Williams

1903

A Journal of Voyages and Travels in the Interior of North America, Between the 47th and 58th Degrees of N. Lat., Extending from Montreal Nearly to the Pacific, a Distance of about 5,000 Miles. (See W. K. Lamb, ed., 1957.) no. 255, p. 11-92.

Harris, Donald A. Ingram, George C.

1972

New Caledonia and the

Hawthorn, H. B. Belshaw, C. S. Jamieson, S. M.

1958

Helm, June

1965

British

Columbia

and

Fur Trade, a Status

Report. no. 160, p. 11-50. The Indians of British Columbia, a Study of Contemporary Social Adjustment, no. 161, p. 11-50. Bilaterality in the Socio-Territorial Organization of the Arctic Drainage Dene, no. 167, p. 11-52.

Helm, June

1965

Patterns

of

Allocation

Drainage Dene, no. 168, p. 11-52. 111 -43

Among

the

Arctic

GENERAL CANADA

Helm, June Damas, David

1963

The Contact-Traditional All-Native Community of the Canadian North: The Upper Mackenzie “Bush” Athapaskans and the Igluligmiut. no. 171, p. 11-54.

Helm, June Leacock, Eleanor Burke

1971

The Hunting Tribes of Subarctic Canada, no. 173, p. 11-54.

Hemstock, C. Anne Cooke, Geraldine A.

1973

Yukon Bibliography, Update 1963-1970. no. 177, p. 11-57.

Hobson, Richmond P.

1951

Grass Beyond the Mountains, no. 182, p. 11-61.

Hodgkinson, Jean

1970

Is Northern Education Meaningful? no. 184, p. 11-62.

Honigmann, John J.

1944

On the Alaska Highway, no. 187, p. 11-62.

Honigmann, John J.

1956

Are There Nahani Indians? no. 195, p. 11-68.

Honigmann, John J.

1963

Community Organization and Patterns of Change Among North Canadian and Alaskan Indians and Eskimos, no. 197, p. 11-68.

Honigmann, John J. ed.

1968

Ethnographic Study of Churchill, no. 198, p. 11-69. Northern Townsmen, no. 202, p. 11-70.

Honigmann, John J.

n.d.

Honigmann, John J. Honigmann, Irma

1945

Drinking in an Indian-White Community, no. 203, p. 11-70.

Honigmann, John J. Honigmann, Irma

1970

Arctic Townsmen, no. 205, p. 11-71.

Ingstad, Helge

1933

The Land of Feast and Famine, no. 213, p. 11-75.

Innis, Harold A.

1962

The Fur Trade in Canada, no. 214, p. 11-75.

Jenness, Diamond

1955

Canadian Indian Religion, no. 226, p. 11-81.

Jenness, Diamond

1955

The Indians of Canada, no. 227, p. 11-82. 111 -4 4

GENERAL CANADA

Jenness, Diamond

1956

The Corn Goddess and Other Tales from Indian Canada. no. 229, p. 11-83.

Kenney, James F. ed.

1932

The Founding of Churchill, Being the Journal of Captain James Knight, Governor-in-Chief in Hudson Bay, from the 14th of July to the 13th of September, 1717. no. 237, p. 11-87.

Kidd, Kenneth E.

1957

Trading into Hudson’s Bay. no. 239, p. 11-87.

King, Richard

1836

Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Arctic Ocean in 1833, 1834, and 1835. no. 240, p. 11-87.

King, W. Cornwallis Weekes, Mary

1943

Founding Fort Nelson, no. 242, p. 11-88.

Korner, Ija N.

1959

Notes of a Psychologist Fieldworker. no. 245, p. 11-89.

Lamb, W. Kaye ed.

1957

Sixteen Years in the Indian Country, The Journal of Daniel Williams Harmon, 1800-1816. no. 255, p. 11-92.

Laviolette, Gontran

1956

Notes on the Aborigines of the Prairie Provinces, no. 257, p. 11-93.

Leechman, Douglas

1949

Indian Summer. no. 261, p 11-94.

Leechman, Douglas

1957

The Trappers. no. 265, p. 11-95.

MacClellan, Catharine

1950

Culture Change and Native Trade in Southern Yukon Territory, no. 279, p. 11-99.

MacClellan, Catharine

1956

Shamanistic Syncretism in Southern Yukon, no. 280, p. 11-99.

MacClellan, Catharine Rainier, Dorothy

1948

Ethnological Survey Territory, 1948. no. 283, p. 11-100.

MacKeevor, Thomas

1819

A Voyage to Hudson’s Bay During the Summer of 1812. no. 285, p. 11-101.

111-45

of

Southern

Yukon

GENERAL CANADA

MacNeish, June Helm

1956

Leadership Among the Northeastern Athaba¬ scans. no. 299, p. 11-109.

Masson, L. R. ed.

1960

Les Bourgeois de la Compagnie du Nord-Ouest. no. 315, p. 11-115.

Morice, Adrian G.

1890

The Western Denes—Their Customs. no. 332, p. 11-118.

Morice, Adrian G.

1894

Notes Archaeological, Industrial, and Sociolo¬ gical on the Western Denes, no. 334, p. 11-119.

Morice, Adrian G.

1899

On the Classification of the Dene Tribes, no. 336, p. 11-120.

Morice, Adrian G.

1905

The Canadian Dene, no 339, p. 11-121.

Morice, Adrian G.

1921

Smoking and Tobacco Among the Northern Denes. no. 348, p. 11-123.

Morice, Adrian G.

1925

About Cremation. no. 349, p. 11-123.

Morice, Adrian G.

1928

The Fur Trader in Anthropology: And a Few Related Questions, no. 351, p. 11-123.

Morton, Arthur S.

1939

A History of the Canadian West to 1870-71. no. 355, p. 11-125.

Munsterhjelm, Erik

1953

The Wind and the Caribou, no. 356, p. 11-125.

Ogilvie, William

Manners

and

1887-88

Exploratory Survey of Part of the Lewes, Tat-On-Duc, Porcupine, Bell, Trout, Peel, and MacKenzie Rivers, no. 360, p. 11-126.

Osgood, Cornelius

1971

The Han Indians, A Compilation of Ethno¬ graphic and Historical Data on the AlaskaYukon Boundary Area, no. 372, p. 11-133.

Petitot, Emile F. S.

1883

On the Athabasca District of the Canadian North-West Territory, no. 384, p. 11-137. III-46

GENERAL CANADA

Petitot, Emile F. S.

1884

On the Athabasca District, no. 385, p. 11-137.

Phillips, R. A. J.

1967

Canada’s North, no. 387, p. 11-137.

Pike, YVarburton

1967

The Barren Ground of Northern Canada, no. 388, p. 11-138.

Pike, Warburton

1967

Through the Subarctic Forest, no. 389, p. 11-138.

Province of British Columbia

1944

Forty-Seventh Report of the Provincial Board of Health for the Year Ended December 31st, 1943. no. 396, p. 11-140.

Province of British Columbia

1947

Fortieth Report of the Provincial Board of Health and First Report of the Department of Health and Welfare (Health Branch), Year Ended December 31st, 1946. no. 397, p. 11-140.

Rich, Edwin Ernest ed.

1938

Journal of Occurrences in the Athabasca Depart¬ ment by George Simpson, 1820 and 1821, and Report. no. 399, p. 11-140.

Rich, Edwin Ernest ed.

1953

John Rae’s Correspondence with the Hudson’s Bay Company on Arctic Exploration, 1844-55. no. 401, p. 11-141.

Rich, Edwin Ernest ed.

1955

Black’s Rocky Mountain Journal, 1824. no. 402, p. 11-141.

Rich, Edwin Ernest ed.

1957

Hudson’s Bay Company, no. 403, p. 11-141.

Richardson, John

1855

The Last of the Arctic Voyages; Being a Narrative of the Expedition in H.M.S. Assistance, Under the Command of Captain Sir Edward Belcher, no. 405, p. 11-142.

Richmond, Sara

1970

Cognitive and Structural Bases for Group Identity: The Case of the Southern Arctic Drainage Dene, no. 406, p. 11-142.

Ridington, Robin

1969

Culture and Creation, no. 407, p. 11-143. 111-47

GENERAL CANADA

Robinson, M. J. Robinson, J. L.

1946

Exploration and District, N.W.T. no. 412, p. 11-145.

Russell, Frank

1898

Explorations in the Far North, Being the Report of an Expedition Under the Auspices of the University of Iowa During the Years 1892, 1893, and 1894. no. 418, p. 11-148.

Seton, Ernest Thompson

1912

The Arctic Prairies, no. 429, p. 11-151.

Shapiro, H. L.

1931

The Alaskan Eskimo, a Study of the Relation¬ ship Between the Eskimo and the Chipewyan Indians of Central Canada, no. 430, p. 11-151.

Sherwood, Angus

1958

Some Remarks about the Athapaskan Indians, no. 432, p. 11-152.

Simpson, Thomas

1843

Narrative of the Discoveries on the Northern Coast of America; Effected by the Officers of the Hudson’s Bay Company During the Years 1836-39. no. 435, p. 11-152.

Steffanson, Vilhjalmur S.

1909

A Preliminary Report of an Ethnological Investi¬ gation of the Mackenzie Delta, no. 451, p. 11-158.

Teit, James A.

1914

Indian Tribes of the Interior, no 471, p. 11-165.

Teit, James A. et al.

1924

Coiled Basketry in British Columbia, no. 475, p. 11-169.

Tyrrell, James Williams

1897

Across the Sub-Arctic of Canada, no. 483, p. 11-171.

Tyrrell, Joseph B. ed.

1968

Journals of Samuel Hearne and Philip Turnor Between the Years 1774 and 1792. no. 484, p. 11-171.

Urquhart, J. A.

1935

The Most Northerly Practice in Canada. no. 488, p. 11-173.

III-48

Settlement

of

MaeKenzie

GENERAL CANADA

West, John

1824

The Substance of a Journal During a Residence at the Red River Colony, British North America; and Frequent Excursions Among the NorthWest American Indians, in the Years 1820, 1821,1822,1823. no. 500, p. 11-180.

Wolforth, John

1971

The Evolution and Community, no. 516, p. 11-183.

III-49

Economy

of the

Delta

GENERAL SUBARCTIC ATHABASCAN REFERENCES

GENERAL SUBARCTIC

Anderson, Alex A.

1863

Notes on the Indian Tribes of British North America, and the Northwest Coast, no. 6, p. II-2.

Anderson, Rudolph M.

1913

Arctic Game Notes, no. 9, p. II-3.

Anonymous

1895

Note on Athapaskans of the West, no. 10, p. II-3.

Bancroft, Hubert H.

1886

History of the Pacific States, no. 18, p. II-8.

Bancroft, Hubert H.

1886

The Native Races, no. 19, p. II-8.

Banfield, Alexander William F.

1961

Migrating Caribou; Barren-Ground Herds Face Serious Threat to Survival, no. 22, p. II-9.

Baptie, S. Hughes, J. P.

1939

Legend of Big River, no. 23, p. II-9.

Barbeau, C. Marius

1933

Songs of the Northwest, no. 25, p. II-9.

Barbeau, C. Marius

1939

Assomption Sash, no. 26, p. 11-10.

Barbeau, C. Marius Melvin, G.

1943

The Indian Speaks, no. 27, p. 11-10.

Birket-Smith, Kaj

1930

Folk Wanderings and Culture Drifts in Northern North America, no. 38, p. 11-13.

Burpee, Lawrence J.

1945

Campbell of the Yukon, no. 5T, p. 11-18.

Campbell, John

1896-97

The Denes of Tungus of Asia, no. 55, p. 11-19.

America

Identified

with

the

Campbell, Robert

1885

The Discovery and Exploration of the Youcon (Pelley) River, no. 56, p. 11-19.

Campbell, Robert

1958

Two Journals of Robert Campbell (Chief Factor Hudson’s Bay Company 1808 to 1853). no. 57, p. 11-19.

III-51

GENERALSUBARCTIC

Clairmont, Donald H. J.

1963

Deviance

Among

Indians

and

Eskimos

in

Aklavik N.W.T. no. 74, p. 11-25. Cooper, John M.

1938

Snares, Deadfalls, and Other Traps of the Northern Algonquians and Northern Athapaskans. no. 80, p. 11-27.

Culin, Stewart

1907

Games of the North American Indians, no. 83, p. 11-27.

Davidson, Daniel Sutherland

1937

Snowshoes. no. 91, p. 11-30.

Dawson, Carl Addington ed.

1947

The New North-West, no. 92, p. 11-30.

Dawson, George M.

1881

Sketches of the Past and Present Condition of the Indians of Canada, no. 93, p. 11-30.

Dawson, George M.

1888

Report on an Exploration in the Yukon District, N.W.T., and Adjacent Northern Portion of British Columbia, 1887. no. 94, p. 11-31.

Dennis, Alfred Pearce

1899

Life on a Yukon Trail, no. 95, p. 11-31.

Dobbs, Arthur

1744

An Account of the Countries Adjoining to Hudson’s Bay, in the Northwest Part of America, no. 98, p. 11-32.

Doughty, Arthur G. Martin, Chester

1929

The Kelsey Papers, no. 99, p. 11-32.

Driver, Harold E. Massey, William C.

1957

Comparative

Gibbs, G.

1867

Notes of the Tinneh or Chipewyan Indians of British and Russian America, no. 129, p. 11-39.

Glover, Richard ed.

1958

A Journey from Prince of Wales’s Fort in Hudson’s Bay to the Northern Ocean, 1769,

Studies

of

North

American

Indians. no. 105, p. 11-33.

1770,1771,1772. no. 131, p. 11-40.

III-52

GENERAL SUBARCTIC

Goddard, Pliny Earle

1968

Assimilation to Environment as Illustrated by Athapascan Peoples, no. 135, p. 11-43.

Hale, H.

1893

Man and Language, an American Example. The Athapascans, North and South, no. 152, p. 11-48.

Hallowed, A. Irving

1926

Bear Ceremonialism sphere. no. 153, p. 11-48.

Hallowed, A. Irving

1949

The Size of Algonkian Hunting Territories: A Function of Ecological Adjustment, no. 154, p. 11-48.

Heinrich, Albert C. Anderson, Russell

1968

Co-Affinal Siblingship as a Structural Feature Among Some Northern North American Peoples. no. 165, p. 11-51.

Hodge, Frederick Webb ed.

1912

Handbook of American Mexico. no. 183, p. 11-62.

Hoijer, Harry

1956

Athapaskan Kinship Systems, no. 185, p. 11-62.

Honigmann, John J.

1945

Northern and Southern tology. no. 188, p. 11-63.

Honigmann, John J.

1947

Cultural Dynamics of Sex. no. 190, p. 11-64.

Honigmann, John J.

1949

Parallels in the Development of Shamanism Among Northern and Southern Athapaskans.

in

the

Northern

Indians

Hemi¬

North

Athapascan

of

Escha¬

no. 193, p. 11-66. Honigmann, John J.

1968

Interpersonal Relations in Atomistic Communi¬ ties. no. 199, p. 11-69.

Honigmann, John J.

1971

Formation of Mackenzie Delta Frontier Culture, no. 201, p. 11-70.

Hooper, William Hulme

1853

Ten Months Among the Tents of the Tuski, with Incidents of an Arctic Boat Expedition in Search of Sir John Franklin, no. 206, p. 11-72.

III-53

GENERAL SUBARCTIC

James, Alton James

1942

The First Scientific Exploration of America and the Purchase of Alaska, no. 218, p. 11-76.

Kennicott, Robert

1869

Biography of Robert James, 1942.) no. 218, p. 11-76.

King, W. Cornwallis Weekes, Mary

1939

Akaitcho, a Link with Franklin, no. 241, p. 11-87.

Krieger, Herbert W.

1929

American Indian Costumes in the United States National Museum, no. 248, p. 11-90.

Kroeber, Alfred L.

1937

Athabascan Kin Term Systems, no. 249, p. 11-90.

Kroeber, Alfred L.

1947

Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America, no. 250, p. 11-90.

MacClellan, Catharine

1964

Culture Contacts in the Early Historic Period in Northwestern North America, no 282, p. 11-100.

Marshall, Robert

1956

Arctic Wilderness. no. 309, p. 11-113.

Mason, J. Alden

1946

Notes on the Indians of the Great Slave Lake Area. no. 311, p. 11-113.

Mason, Otis Tufton

1889

Cradles of the American Aborigines, no. 313, p. 11-114.

Mason, Otis Tufton

1899

The Man’s Knife Among the North American Indians. no. 314, p. 11-114.

Morice, Adrian G.

1901

Dene Surgery. no. 337, p. 11-120.

Morice, Adrian G.

1901

Who Are the Atnas? no. 338, p. 11-120.

Morice, Adrian G.

1906-07

Morice, Adrian G.

1907

Kennicott.

The Great Dene Race, no. 340, p. 11-121. A Reply to Mr. Alphonse L. Pinart. no. 341, p. 11-121. III-54

Russian

(See

A. J.

GENERAL SUBARCTIC

Morice, Adrian G.

1912

Denes. no. 346, p. 11-122.

Murphy, Robert F. Steward, Julian H.

1956

Tappers and Trappers: Acculturation. no. 357, p. 11-125.

Ogden, Peter Skene

1853

Traits of American Indian Life and Character, by a Fur Trader, no. 359, p. 11-126.

Olson, Ronald L.

1927

Adze, Canoe, and House Types of the North¬ west Coast, no. 361, p. 11-126.

Osgood, Cornelius

1936

The Distribution of the Northern Athapaskan Indians. no. 366, p. 11-129.

1962-63

Historical Populations in Western Alaska and Migration Theory, no. 374, p. 11-133.

Oswalt, Wendell H. Van Stone, James W.

1963

Partially Acculturated Communities: Canadian Athapaskans and West Alaskan Eskimos, no. 377, p. 11-135.

Parnell, C.

1942

Campbell of the Yukon, no. 379, p. 11-135.

Paulson, Ivar

1952

The “Seat of Honor” in Aboriginal Dwellings of the Circumpolar Zone, with Special Regard to the Indians of North America, no. 381, p. 11-136.

Poppe, Roger

1971

Kutchin Bibliography, an Annotated Biblio¬ graphy of Northern Yukon Kutchin Indians, no. 391, p. 11-139.

Price, John A.

1971

United States and Canadian Indian Periodicals, no. 394, p. 11-139.

Ray, Verne F.

1942

Culture Element Distributions: XXII Plateau, no. 398, p. 11-140.

Rich, Edwin Ernest ed.

1949

James Isham’s Observations on Hudsons Bay, 1743 (and Notes and Observations on a Book Entitled A Voyage to Hudson’s Bay in the Dobbs Gallery, 1749). no. 400, p. 11-141.

Oswalt, Wendell H.

III-55

Parallel

Process

in

GENERAL SUBARCTIC

Ross, Bernard R.

1859

On the Indian Tribes of Mackenzie and Arctic Coast. no. 413, p. 11-145.

Russell, Frank

1900

Athabascan Myths, no. 419, p. 11-148.

Saum, Lewis O.

1965

The Fur Trader and the Indian, no. 421, p. 11-148.

Schaeffer, C. E.

1942

The Grasshopper or Children’s War—A Circumboreal Legend? no. 423, p. 11-150.

Schwatka, Frederick

1898

Along Alaska’s Great River, no. 428, p. 11-151.

Slobodin, Richard

1970

Kutchin Concepts of Reincarnation, no. 441, p. 11-156.

Stirling, Matthew W.

1949

Nomads of the Far North, no. 457, p, 11-160.

Sturtevant, William C.

1962

Bibliography on American Indian Medicine and Health. no. 460, p. 11-161.

Swan ton, John R.

1904

The Development of the Clan System and of Secret Societies Among the Northwestern Tribes. no. 464, p. 11-163.

Swanton, John R.

1952

The Indian Tribes of North America, no. 465, p. 11-163.

Taylor, Phyllis

1953

Tales from the Delta, no. 467, p. 11-164.

Thompson, Stith

1929

Tales of the North American Indians, no. 477, p. 11-169.

Wardle, H. Newell

1901

Notes on the Designation, Atna. no. 494, p. 11-178.

Waterman, T. T.

1921

Native Houses of Western North America, no. 495, p. 11-179.

Waterman, T. T.

1927

The Architecture of the American Indians, no. 496, p. 11-179.

III-56

GENERAL SUBARCTIC

Waugh, F. W.

1919

Canadian Aboriginal Canoes, no. 497, p. 11-179.

White, Charles B.

1958

Rejoinder. no. 502, p. 11-180.

Wilson, Clifford

1970

Campbell of the Yukon, no. 511, p. 11-182.

Wissler, Clark

1915

Culture of the North American Occupying the Caribou Area, no. 514, p. 11-183.

Wissler, Clark ed.

1917

Anthropological Papers of Museum of Natural History, no. 515, p. 11-183.

III-57

the

Indians

American

Section IV: This list of Athabascan literature is according to time of observation. Within each period, the references are listed by author, and include the date of publication, title, abstract number, and page in this bibliography. The observation dates, or in some cases the estimated observation dates, are included in parentheses under the published date. In the case of theoretical or historical works, we considered their observation date to be the same as the first published date. Those historical sources which included extensive direct quotation from early journals and notes, are listed under both the early observation dates and the published dates. A few references include historical reconstructions which have been noted in their annotations. These references are listed only under the published date since they are not direct observations, though they may be based on contemporary fieldwork and historical research.

PRE-CONTACT - 1800

PRE-CONTACT - 1800

Dobbs, Arthur

1744 (early 1700’s)

An Account of the Countries Adjoining to Hudson’s Bay, in the Northwest Part of America, no. 98, p. 11-32.

Doughty, Arthur G. Martin, Chester

1929 (1690-1722)

The Kelsey Papers, no. 99, p. 11-32.

Douglas, R. eds. Wallace, J. N.

1926 (1694-1714)

Twenty Years of York Factory 1694-1714, Jeremies Account of Hudson Strait and Bay. no. 100, p. 11-32.

1958 (1769-72)

A Journey from Prince of Wales’s Fort in Hudson’s Bay to the Northern Ocean, 1769, 1770,1771,1772. no. 31, p. 11-40.

1932 (1700’s)

The Founding of Churchill, Being the Jour¬ nal of Captain James Knight, Governor-inChief in Hudson Bay, from the 14th of July to the 13th of September, 1717. no. 237, p. 11-87.

MacKenzie, Alexander

1966 (1789-93)

Voyages from Montreal, on the River St. Laurence, Through the Continent of North America, to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans; in the Years 1789 and 1793. no. 292, p. 11-107.

Portlock, Nathaniel

1789 (1785-88)

A Voyage Round the World; But More Particularly to the Northwest Coast of America: Performed in 1785, 1786, 1787,

Glover, Richard ed.

Kenney, James F. ed.

and 1788. no. 393, p. 11-139. Rich, Edwin Ernest ed.

Tyrrell, Joseph B. ed.

1949 (1743)

James Isham’s Observations on Hudsons Bay, 1743 (and Notes and Observations on a Book Entitles a Voyage to Hudson’s Bay in the Dobbs Gallery, 1749). no. 400, p. 11-141.

1968 (1744-92)

Journals of Samuel Hearne and Philip Turnor Between the Years 1774 and 1792. no. 484, p. 11-171.

\

IV-1

1801 - 1900

-

1801 - 1900

Adney, Tappan

1900 (1890’s)

Adney, Tappan

1902 (1897)

The Indian Hunter of the Far Northwest, on the Trail to the Klondike, no. 2, p. II-l.

Allen, Henry T.

1887 (1885)

Report of an Expedition to the Copper, Tanana and Koyukuk Rivers in the Territory of Alaska in the Year 1885. no. 4, p. II-2.

Allen, Henry T.

1889 (1885)

Atnatanas: Natives of Copper River, Alaska, no. 5, p. II-2.

Anderson, Alex A.

1863 (1863)

Notes on the Indian Tribes of British North America, and the Northwest Coast, no. 6, p. II-2.

Anonymous

1895 (1882)

Note on Athapaskans of the West, no. 10, p. II-3.

Moose Hunting with the Tro-chu-tin. no. 1, p. 1-1.

Bancroft, Hubert H.

1886 (1800’s)

History of the Pacific States, no. 18, p. II-8.

Bancroft, Hubert H.

1886 (1800’s)

The Native Races, no. 19, p. II-8.

Bancroft, Hubert H.

1887 (1800’s)

History of British Columbia 1792-1887. no. 20, p. II-8. The Diary of Robert Campbell, no. 28, p. 11-10.

Bartlett, G. W.

1915 (1830-71)

Beaman, C. C.

1867 (1867)

Our New Northwest, no. 29, p. 11-10.

Begg, Alexander

1894 (1894)

History of British Columbia, no. 30, p. 11-10.

Boas, Franz

1895 (1800’s)

The Tinneh Tribe of the Portland Inlet, the Ts’ets’a’ut. no. 40, p. 11-15.

Bompas, William Carpenter

1888 (1800’s)

Colonial Church Mackenzie River, no. 42, p. 11-16.

Boon, Thomas C.

1965 (1800’s)

William West Kirkby, First Anglican Mission¬ ary to the Loucheux. no. 43, p. 11-16.

IV-3

Histories,

Diocese

of

1801 - 1900

Bowes, Gordon E. ed.

1964 (1800’s)

Peace River Chronicles, no. 45, p. 11-17.

Brooks, Alfred Hulse

1900 (1898)

A Reconnaissance in the Tanana and White River Basins, Alaska, in 1898. no. 46, p. 11-17.

Brooks, Alfred Hulse

1901 (1899)

A Reconnaissance from Pyramid Harbor to Eagle City, Alaska, no. 47, p. 11-17.

Burpee, Lawrence J.

1945 (1840-51)

Campbell of the Yukon, no. 51, p. 11-18.

Campbell, John

1896-97 (1896)

The Denes of America Identified with the Tungus of Asia, no. 55, p. 11-19.

Campbell, Robert

1885 (1800’s)

The Discovery and Exploration Youcon (Pelley) River, no. 56, p. 11-19.

Campbell, Robert

1958 (1808-53)

of

the

Two Journals of Robert Campbell (Chief Factor Hudson’s Bay Company 1808 to 1853). no. 57, p. 11-19.

Chapman, John Wight

Cronk, H. K.

Dali, William Healey

1948 (1887) 1954-57 (1885) 1869 (1869)

A Camp of the Yukon, no. 72, p. 11-24. Sarcee Miscellany: 1885. no. 82, p. 11-27. On the Distribution of the Native Tribes of Alaska and the Adjacent Territory, no. 85, p. 11-28.

Dali, William Healey

1877 (1877)

On the Distribution and Nomenclature of the Native Tribes of Alaska, no. 86, p. 11-28.

Dali, William Healey

1885 (1885)

The Native Tribes of Alaska, no. 87, p. 11-29.

Dali, William Healey

1898 (1898)

The Yukon Territory, no. 88, p. 11-29.

Dali, William Healey

1970 (1870)

Alaska and Its Resources, no. 89, p. 11-29.

IV-4

1801

-

1900

Dawson, George M.

1881 (1800’s)

Sketches of the Past and Present Condition of the Indians of Canada, no. 93, p. 11-30.

Dawson, George M.

1888 (1887)

Report on an Exploration in the Yukon District, N.W.T., and Adjacent Northern Portion of British Columbia, 1887. no. 94, p. 11-31.

Dennis, Alfred Pearce

1899 (1890’s)

Life on a Yukon Trail, no. 95, p. 11-31.

1900 (1898)

A Reconnaissance in the Sushitna Basin and Adjacent Territory, Alaska, in 1898. no. 114, p. 11-35.

Farrand, Livingston

£ g 00 o £ 00

The Chilcotin. no. 116, p. 11-36.

Farrand, Livingston

1900 (1890’s)

Eldridge, George H.

rH

Traditions of the Chilcotin Indians, no. 117, p. 11-36.

Franklin, John

1969 (1825-27)

Narrative of a Second Expedition to the Shores of the Polar Sea, in the Years 1825, 1826, and 1827. no. 124, p. 11-38.

Franklin, John Richardson, J.

1970 (1819-22)

Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea in the Years 1819, 20, 21, and 22. no. 125, p. 11-38.

1867 (1866)

Notes of the Tinneh or Chipewyan Indians of British and Russian America, no. 129, p. 11-39.

1950 (1800’s)

Russian Administration of Alaska and the Status of the Alaskan Natives, no. 146, p. 11-46.

1893 (1893)

Man and Language, an American Example. The Athapascans, North and South, no. 152, p. 11-48.

1878 (1800’s)

Customs of the New Caledonian Women Belonging to the Nancausky Tine or Stuart’s Lake Indians, Natotin Tine or Babine’s and Nantley Tine or Fraser Lake Tribes, no. 155, p. 11-48.

Gibbs, G.

Gsovski, Valdimir

Hale, H.

Hamilton, G.

IV-5

1801

-

1900

Hanbury, David T.

1904 (1898)

Sport and Travel Canada. no. 156, p. 11-49.

Hardisty, William L.

1867 (1866)

The Loucheux Indians, no. 157, p. 11-49.

Hayes, Charles Willard

1892 (1866)

An Expedition Through the Yukon District, no. 162, p. 11-51.

Haynes, Thomas S.

1940 (1856)

The Nulato Massacre, no. 163, p. 11-51.

Herron, Joseph S.

1901 (1899)

Explorations in Alaska, 1899, for an AllAmerican Overland Route from Cook Inlet, Pacific Ocean, to the Yukon, no. 178, p. 11-58.

1853 (1800’s)

Ten Months Among the Tents of the Tuski, with Incidents of an Arctic Boat Expedition in Search of Sir John Franklin, no. 206, p. 11-72.

Hooper, William Hulme

in

the

Northland

of

Isbister, A. K.

1847 (1847)

On the Loucheux Indians, no. 216, p. 11-75.

Jackson, Sheldon

1880 (1880)

Alaska and Missions on the North Pacific Coast. no. 217, p. 11-76.

1942 (1850’s)

The First Scientific Exploration of Russian America and the Purchase of Alaska, no. 218, p. 11-76.

1956 (1801-02)

The Chipewyan Indians: An Account by an Early Explorer, no. 228, p. 11-82.

James, Alton James

Jenness, Diamond

Jones, S.

1867 (1866)

The Kutchin Tribes, no. 234, p. 11-86.

Kennicott, Robert

1869 (1859-62)

Biography of Robert Kennicott. (See A. J. James, 1942). no. 218, p. 11-76.

King, Richard

1836 (1833-35)

Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Arctic Ocean in 1833,1834, and 1835. no. 240, p. 11-87.

1864 (1864)

A Journey to the Yukon, Russian America, no. 243, p. 11-88.

Kirby, W. W.

IV-6

1801 Lamb, W. Kaye ed.

1848 (1845)

On the Ethnography of Russian America, no. 256, p. 11-93.

McGrath, J. E.

1893 (1893)

The Boundary South of Fort Yukon, no. 284, p. 11-100.

MacKeevor, Thomas

1819 (1812)

A Voyage to Hudson’s Summer of 1812. no. 285, p. 11-101.

McQuesten, Leroy N.

1900

Sixteen Years in the Indian Country, the Journal of Daniel Williams Harmon, 1800-1816. no. 255, p. 11-92.

1957 (1800-16)

Latham, R. G.

MacKenzie, Alexander

-

Bay

During the

The Dogrib Tribe, no. 291, p. 11-107.

1941 (1800’s)

Recollections of Leroy N. McQuesten of Life in the Yukon, 1871-1885. no. 303, p. 11-112.

1952 (1871-85)

Mason, Otis Tufton

1889 (1887)

Cradles of the American Aborigines, no. 313, p. 11-114.

Mason, Otis Tufton

1899 (1897)

The Man’s Knife American Indians, no. 314, p. 11-114.

Among

the

North

1960 (1800’s)

Les Bourgeois de la Compagnie du NordOuest. no. 315, p. 11-115.

Mendenhall, Walter C.

1900 (1898)

A Reconnaissance from Resurrection Bay to the Tanana River, Alaska, in 1898. no. 316, p 11-115.

Michael, Henry N. ed.

1967 (1842-44)

Lieutenant Zagoskin’s Travels in America, 1842-1844. no. 324, p. 11-117.

Morgan, Lewis Henry

1959 (1859-62)

The Indian Journals, 1859-62. no. 331, p. 11-118.

Masson, L. R. ed.

Russian

Morice, Adrian G.

1890 (1800’s)

The Western Denes—Their Customs. no. 332, p. 11-118.

Morice, Adrian G.

1892 (1800’s)

Are the Carrier Sociology and Mythology Indigenous or Exotic? no. 333, p. 11-119.

IV-7

Manners

and

1801

-

1900

Morice, Adrian G.

1894 (1800’s)

Notes Archaeological, Industrial, and Socio¬ logical on the Western Denes, no. 334, p. 11-119.

Morice, Adrian G.

1895 (1800’s)

Three Carrier Myths, no. 335, p. 11-120.

Morice, Adrian G.

1899 (1800’s)

On the Classification of the Dene Tribes, no. 336, p. 11-120.

Ogden, Peter Skene

1853 (1800’s)

Traits of American Indian Character, by a Fur Trader, no. 359, p. 11-126.

Ogilvie, William

1887-88 (1887)

Exploratory Survey of Part of the Lewes, Tat-On-Duc, Porcupine, Bell, Trout, Peel, and MacKenzie Rivers, no. 360, p. 11-126.

Osgood, Cornelius

1971 (1800’s)

The Han Indians, a Compilation of Ethno¬ graphic and Historical Data on the AlaskaYukon Boundary Area, no. 372, p. 11-133.

1960 (1861-68)

Eskimos and Indians of Western Alaska 1861-1868: Extracts from the Diary of Father Illarion, no. 373, p. 11-133.

Petitot, Emile F. S.

1883 (1880’s)

On the Athabasca District of the Canadian North-West Territory, no. 384, p. 11-137.

Petitot, Emile F. S.

1884 (1880’s)

On the Athabasca District, no. 385, p. 11-137.

Petroff, Ivan

00

Pike, Warburton

and

Report on the Population, Industries, and Resources of Alaska, no. 386, p. 11-137.

1884 (1880)

£3

Oswalt, Wendell H. ed.

Life

The Barren Ground of Northern Canada, no. 388, p. 11-138.

Pike, Warburton

1967 (1892)

Through the Subarctic Forest, no. 389, p. 11-138.

Porter, Robert P.

1893 (1890)

Report on Population and Resources Alaska at the Eleventh Census: 1890. no. 392, p. 11-139.

IV-8

of

1801

-

1900

John Rae’s Correspondence with the Hudson’s Bay Company on Arctic Explora¬ tion, 1844-55. no. 401, p. 11-141.

Rich, Edwin Ernest ed.

1953 (1844-55)

Rich, Edwin Ernest ed.

1955 (1824)

Rich, Edwin Ernest ed.

1957 (1800’s)

Hudson’s Bay Company, no. 403, p. 11-141.

Richardson, John

1851 (1800’s)

Arctic Searching Expedition: A Journal of a Boat Voyage Through Ruperts Land to the Arctic Sea, in Search of the Discovery Ships Under Command of Sir John Franklin, no. 404, p. 11-141.

Richardson, John

1855 (1850’s)

The Last of the Arctic Voyages; Being a Narrative of the Expedition in H.M.S. Assistance, Under the Command of Captain Sir Edward Belcher, no. 405, p. 11-142.

Ross, Bernard R.

1859 (1800’s)

On the Indian Tribes of MacKenzie and Arctic Coast. no. 413, p. 11-145.

Ross, Bernard R.

1861 (1860’s)

An Account of the Animals Useful in an Economic Point of View to the Various Chipewyan Tribes, no. 414, p. 11-145.

Ross, Bernard R.

1862 (1860’s)

An Account of the Botanical and Mineral Products Useful to the Chipewyan Tribes of

Black’s Rocky Mountain Journal, 1824. no. 402, p. 11-141.

Indians. no. 415, p. 11-146. Ross, Bernard R.

1867 (1860’s)

Russell, Frank

1898 (1892-94)

Russell, Frank

1900 (1890’s)

The Eastern Tinneh. no. 416, p. 11-146. Explorations in the Far North, Being the Report of an Expedition Under the Auspices of the University of Iowa During the Years 1892,1893, and 1894. no. 418, p. 11-148. Athabascan Myths, no. 419, p. 11-148.

IV-9

1801

-

1900

Schrader, Frank Charles

1900 (1899-1900)

Preliminary Report on a Reconnaissance Along the Chandalar and Koyukuk Rivers, Alaska. no. 425, p. 11-150.

Schrader, Frank Charles

1900 (1898)

A Reconnaissance of a Part of Prince William Sound and the Copper River District, Alaska, in 1898. no. 426, p. 11-151.

Schwatka, Frederick

1893 (1880’s)

A Summer in Alaska, no. 427, p. 11-151.

Schwatka, Frederick

1898 (1880’s)

Along Alaska’s Great River, no. 428, p. 11-151.

Simpson, Thomas

1843 (1836-39)

Narrative of the Discoveries on the Northern Coast of America; Effected by the Officers of the Hudson’s Bay Company During the Years 1836-39. no. 435, p. 11-152.

Spry, Irene M.

1963 (1857-60)

The Palliser Expedition, an Account of John Palliser’s British North American Expedition 1857-1860. no. 449, p. 11-158.

1900 (1898)

A Reconnaissance in Southwestern Alaska in 1898. no. 450, p. 11-158.

Spurr, Josiah Edward

Tache,A.

Turner, J. Henry

1870 (1800’s) 1893 (1893)

Sketch of the North-West of America, no. 466, p. 11-163. The Boundary North of Fort Yukon, no. 482, p. 11-171.

Tyrrell, James Williams

1897 (1890’s)

Across the Sub-Arctic of Canada, no. 483, p. 11-171.

United States Senate

1900 (1800’s)

Compilation of Narratives on Explorations in Alaska. no. 487, p. 11-173.

Wallace, W. S.

1968 (1800’s)

John McLean’s Notes of a Twenty-Five Year’s Service in the Hudson’s Bay Terri¬ tory. no. 493, p. 11-178.

IV-10

1801 West, John

-

1900

1824 (1820-23)

The Substance of a Journal During a Resi¬ dence at the Red River Colony, British North America; and Frequent Excursions Among the North-West American Indians, in the Years 1820,1821, 1822,1823. no. 500, p. 11-180.

Whitney, Casper

1896 (1890)

On Snow-Shoes to the Barren Grounds; Twenty-Eight Hundred Miles After MuskOxen and Wood-Bison, no. 503, p. 11-180.

Whymper, Frederick

1868 (1867)

A Journey from Norton Sound, Bering Sea, to Fort Youkon (Junction of Porcupine and Youkon Rivers), no. 504, p. 11-181.

Whymper, Frederick

1868 (1867)

A Journey from Norton Sound, Bering Sea, to Fort Yukon, at the Junction of the Porcupine and Yukon Rivers, no. 505, p. 11-181.

Whymper, Frederick

1869 (1868)

Russian America—Alaska: The Natives of the Y oukon River and Adjacent Country (1868). no. 506, p. 11-181.

Whymper, Frederick

1969 (1865)

Travel and Adventure in the Territory of Alaska. no. 507, p. 11-181.

Wilson, Clifford

1970 (1830-71)

Campbell of the Yukon, no. 511, p. 11-182.

Wilson, E. F.

1888 (1880’s)

Report on the Sarcee Indians, no. 512, p. 11-182.

Wilson, E. F.

1889 (1880’s)

The Sarcee Indians, no.- 513, p. 11-183.

IV-11

1901

-

1940

1901

Allard, E.

Anderson, Hobson D. Eells, Walter C.

1928 (1925)

1935 (1930’s)

Notes on the Indians. no. 3, p. II-l.

Kaska

and

Upper

-

1940

Liard

Alaska Natives: A Survey of Their Sociolo¬ gical and Educational Status, no. 7, p. II-2.

Anderson, Rudolph

1913 (1913)

Arctic Game Notes, nc. 9, p. II-3.

Anonymous

1920 (1920)

The Influenza Pandemic, no. 11, p. II-3.

Baptie, S. Hughes, J. P.

1939 (1939)

Legend of Big River, no. 23, p. II-9.

Barbeau, C. Marius

1915 (1915)

Loucheux Myths, no. 24, p. II-9.

Barbeau, C. Marius

1933 (1933)

Songs of the Northwest, no. 25, p II-9.

Barbeau, C. Marius

1939 (1939)

Assomption Sash, no. 26, p. 11-10.

Bell, James Mackintosh

1903 (1903)

Fireside Stories of the Chipewyan. no. 31, p. 11-10.

Bell, Robert

1901 (1901)

Legends of the Slavey Indians of the Mac¬ kenzie River, no. 32, p. 11-11.

Bethune, William Clark

1937 (1937)

Canada’s Western Northland, no. 33, p. 11-11.

Bettis, Laura

1914 (1900’s)

An Indian Girl’s Alaskan Experience, no. 34, p. 11-11. Contributions to Chipewyan Ethnology, no. 36, p. 11-11.

Birket-Smith, Kaj

1930 (1921-24)

Birket-Smith, Kaj

1930 (1930)

The Cultural Position of the Chipewyan Within the Circumpolar Culture Region, no. 37, p. 11-12.

Birket-Smith, Kaj

1930 (1930)

Folk Wanderings and Culture Northern North America, no. 38, p. 11-13.

IV-13

Drifts

in

1901

-

1940

Birket-Smith, Kaj Laguna, Frederica

Boas, Franz

Bowes, Gordon E. ed.

Brooks, Alfred Hulse

Bryce, George

1938 (1930’s)

1968 (1906)

The Eyak Indians of the Copper River Delta, Alaska. no. 39, p. 11-13. Ethnological Problems in Canada, no. 41, p. 11-16.

1964 (1900’s)

Peace River Chronicles, no. 45, p. 11-17.

1953 (1914-22)

Blazing Alaska’s Trails, no. 48, p. 11-18.

1968 (1904)

The Remarkable History of the Hudson’s Bay Company, no. 49, p. 11-18.

Cadzow, Donald A.

1925 (1912-19)

Habitat of Loucheux Bands, no. 53, p. 11-19.

Cadzow, Donald A.

1925 (1912-19)

Old Loucheux Clothing, no. 54, p. 11-19.

Cantwell, John C.

1904 (1900’s)

Report of the Operations of the U.S. Revenue Steamer Nunivak of the Yukon River Station, Alaska, no. 58, p. 11-20.

Capps, Stephen R.

1913 (1910)

The Yentna District, Alaska, no. 59, p. 11-20.

Capps, Stephen R.

1915 (1915)

The Willow Creek District, Alaska, no. 60, p. 11-20.

Capps, Stephen R.

1916 (1916)

The Chisana-White River District, Alaska,

Capps, Stephen R.

1919 (1919)

The Kantishna Region, Alaska, no. 62, p. 11-21.

Capps, Stephen R.

1935 (1930)

The Southern Alaska Range, no. 63, p. 11-21.

Carroll, James A.

Chapin, Theodore

1957 (1911-22)

1918 (1918)

no. 61, p. 11-21.

The First Ten Years in Alaska, Memoirs of a Fort Yukon Trapper, 1911-1922. no. 64, p. 11-21. The Nelchina-Susitna Region, Alaska, no. 66, p. 11-22.

IV-14

1901 Athapascan Traditions Yukon. no. 67, p. 11-22.

from

the

-

1940

Lower

Chapman, John Wight

1903 (1903)

Chapman, John Wight

1912-13 (1912)

Chapman, John Wight

1914 (1914)

Ten’a Texts and Tales from Anvik, Alaska, no. 69, p. 11-23.

Chapman, John Wight

1921 (1921)

Tinneh Animism, no. 70, p. 11-23.

Chapman, John Wight

1939 (1939)

The Animistic Beliefs of the Ten’a of the Lower Yukon, Alaska, no. 71, p. 11-24.

Cody, Hiram Alfred

1908 (1908)

An Apostle of the North, Memoirs of the Right Rev. William Carpenter Bompas.

The Happy Hunting Ground of the Ten’a. no. 68, p. 11-22.

no. 76, p. 11-26. Cook, Frederick A.

Cooper, John M.

1908 (1900’s) 1938 (1938)

To the Top of the Continent, no. 79, p. 11-27. Snares, Deadfalls, and Other Traps of the Northern Algonquians and Northern Athapaskans. no. 80, p. 11-27.

1907 (1902)

Games of the North American Indians,

1970 (1928)

The North American Indian, no. 84, p. 11-28.

Davidson, Daniel Sutherland

1937 (1937)

Snowshoes. no. 91, p. 11-30.

Drane, Frederick B.

1916 (1916)

The Potlatch at Nenana. no. 101, p. 11-32.

Drane, Frederick B.

1916 (1916)

A Trip to the Hunting Camps of the Indian,

Drane, Frederick B.

1919 (1919)

Fish Camp and a Canoe, no. 103, p. 11-33.

Drane, Frederick B.

1926 (1900’s)

Culin, Stewart

Curtis, Edward S.

no. 83, p. 11-27.

no. 102, p. 11-32.

New

Experiences

Koyukuk. no. 104, p. 11-33.

IV-15

on

the

Yukon

and

1901

-

1940

Duchaussois, Pierre

1937 (1923)

Mid Snow and Ice, the Apostles of the North-West. no. 106, p. 11-33.

Eakin, Henry M.

1913 (1913)

A Geologic Reconnaissance of a Part of the Rampart Quadrangle, Alaska, no. 109, p. 11-34.

Eakin, Henry M.

1916 (1916)

The Yukon-Koyukuk Region, Alaska, no. 110, p. 11-34.

Eakin, Henry M.

1918 (1918)

The Cosna-Nowitna Region, Alaska, no. Ill, p. 11-34.

Emmons, George Thornton

1911 (1904-06)

The Tahltan Indians, no. 115, p. 11-35.

Fellows, F. S.

1934 (1934)

Mortality in the Native Races of the Terri¬ tory of Alaska, with Special Reference to Tuberculosis, no. 120, p. 11-37.

Finnie, Richard

1940 (1940)

Dogrib Treaty, no. 121, p. 11-38.

Franklin, John

1913 (1913)

Chipewyan Stories, no. 123, p. 11-38.

Goddard, Pliny Earle

1914 (1900’s)

Dancing Societies of the Sarse Indians, no. 132, p. 11-41.

Goddard, Pliny Earle

1917 (1900’s)

The Beaver Indians, no. 133, p. 11-41.

Goddard, Pliny

1921 (1900’s)

Notes on the Sun Dance of the Sarsi. no. 134, p. 11-43.

Goddard, Pliny Earle

1968 (1906)

Assimilation to Environment as Illustrated by Athapascan Peoples, no. 135, p. 11-43.

Godsell, Philip H.

1938 (1930’s)

Red Hunters of the Snows, no. 136, p. 11-44.

Godsell, Philip H.

1943 (1900’s)

Arctic Trader, the Account of Twenty Years with the Hudson’s Bay Company, no. 137, p. 11-44.

1941 (1935-36)

The Alkatcho Carrier: Historical Background of Crest Prerogatives,

Goldman, Irving

no. 138, p. 11-44.

IV-16

1901 Goldman, Irving

1963 (1940)

The Alkatcho Carrier of British Columbia, no. 139, p. 11-44.

Gordon, George Byron

1917 (1907)

In the Alaskan Wilderness, no. 140, p. 11-45.

-

1940

Gould, Sydney

1917 (1900’s)

Graham, Angus

1930 (1930)

Surgery with Flint, no. 142, p. 11-45.

Haeberlin, H. K. Teit, James A. Roberts, Helen H.

1928 (1919)

Coiled Basketry in British Columbia and Surrounding Region, no. 150, p. 11-47.

Hallowed, A. Irving

1926 (1926)

Bear Ceremonialism in the Northern Hemi¬ sphere. no. 153, p. 11-48.

Harrington, George L.

1918 (1918)

The Anvik-Andreafski Region, Alaska, no. 158, p. 11-49.

Harmon, Daniel Williams

1903 (1903)

A Journal of Voyages and Travels in the Interior of North America, Between the 47th and 58th Degrees of N. Lat., Extending from Montreal Nearly to the Pacific, a Distance of about 5,000 Miles. (See Lamb, W. Kaye, ed., 1957.) no. 255, p. 92.

Hobson, Richmond P.

1951 (1934)

Grass Beyond the Mountains, no. 182, p. 11-61.

Hodge, Frederick Webb ed.

1912 (1912)

Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico. no. 183, p. 11-62.

Hrdlicka, Ales

1930 (1929)

The Ancient and Modern Inhabitants of the Yukon. no. 209, p. 11-73.

Hrdlicka, Ales

1930 (1930)

Anthropological Survey in Alaska, no. 210, p. 11-73.

Ingstad, Helge

1933 (1930)

The Land of Feast and Famine, no. 213, p. 11-75.

Inasmuch—Sketches of the Beginnings of the Church of England in Relation to the Indian and Eskimo Races, no. 141, p. 11-45.

IV-17

1901

-

1940

Jenness, Diamond

1929 (1929)

The Ancient Education of a Carrier Indian, no. 219, p. 11-76.

Jenness, Diamond

1931 (1931)

The Sekani Indians of British Columbia, no. 220, p. 11-76.

Jenness, Diamond

1933 (1932)

An Indian Method of Treating Hysteria, no. 221, p. 11-77.

Jenness, Diamond

1934 (1934)

Myths of the Carrier Indians, no. 222, p. 11-77.

Jenness, Diamond

1937 (1937)

The Sekani Indians of British Columbia, no. 223, p. 11-79.

Jenness, Diamond

1938 (1921)

The Sarcee Indians of Alberta, no. 224, p. 11-80.

Jenness, Diamond

1943 (1943)

The Carrier Indians of the Bulkley River, Their Social and Religious Life, no. 225, p. 11-81.

Jenness, Diamond

1955 (1932)

The Indians of Canada, no. 227, p. 11-82.

Jette, Pere Julius

1907 (1907)

On the Medicine-Men of the Ten’a. no. 230, p. 11-84.

Jette, Pere Julius

1908-09 (1908)

Jette, Pere Julius

1911 (1911)

On the Superstitions of the Ten’a Indians, no. 232, p. 11-85.

Jette, Pere Julius

1913 (1913)

Riddles of the Ten’a Indians, no. 233, p. 11-85.

King, W. Cornwallis

1939 (1939)

Akaitcho, a Link with Franklin, no. 241, p. 11-87.

Krieger, Herbert W.

1928 (1927)

Tinne Indians of the Lower Yukon River Valley. no. 247, p. 11-89.

Krieger, Herbert W.

1929 (1929)

American Indian Costumes in the United States National Museum, no. 248, p. 11-90.

Kroeber, Alfred L.

1937 (1937)

Athabascan Kin Term Systems, no. 249, p. 11-90.

On Ten’a Folklore, no. 231, p. 11-85.

IV-18

1901

-

1940

Laguna, Frederica de

1934 (1934)

Athabascan Kin Term Systems, no. 249, p. 11-90.

Laguna, Frederica de

1936 (1936)

Indian Masks from the Lower Yukon, no. 252, p. 11-91.

Laguna, Frederica de

1937 (1937)

A Preliminary Sketch of the Eyak Indians, no. 253, p. 11-91.

Lofthouse, J.

1913 (1913)

Chipewyan Stories, no. 268, p. 11-95.

Lowie, Robert H.

1909 (1908)

The Chipewyans of Canada, no. 271, p. 11-96.

Lowie, Robert H.

1909 (1908)

An Ethnological Trip to Lake Athabasca,

McKennan, Robert A.

1935 (1935)

Anent the Kutchin Tribes, no. 286, p. 11-101.

McKennan, Robert A.

1965 (1933)

The Chandalar Kutchin. no. 288, p. 11-104.

MacLeod, William Christie

1925 (1925)

Certain

no. 272, p. 11-96.

Mortuary

Aspects

of

Northwest

Coast Culture, no. 294, p. 11-108.

MacLeod, William Christie

1926 (1926)

Father Morice and the Sikanni. no. 295, p. 11-108.

MacNeish, June Helm

1957 (1913)

The Poole Field Letters (1913). no. 301, p. 11-111.

Madara, Guy

1915 (1900’s)

An Indian Potlatch, no. 304, p. 11-112.

Madara, Guy

1920 (1900’s)

Musings of a Former Sourdough Missionary, no. 305, p. 11-112. Koyukuk-Chandalar Region, Alaska,

1913 (1913)

no. 306, p. 11-112.

Marshall, Robert

1933 (1933)

Arctic Village, no. 308, p. 11-113.

Martin, George Curtis

1912 (1912)

A Geologic Reconnaissance of the Iliamna

Maddren, Alfred Geddes

Katz, F. J.

Region, Alaska, no. 310, p. 11-113.

IV-19

1901

-

1940

Mason, J. Alden

1946 (1924)

Notes on the Indians of the Great Slave Lake Area. no. 311, p. 11-113.

Mason, Michael H.

1924 (1913)

The Arctic Forests, no. 312, p. 11-114.

Mendenhall, Walter C.

1902 (1902)

Reconnaissance from Fort Kotzebue Sound, Alaska, no. 317, p. 11-115.

Mendenhall, Walter C.

1905 (1905)

Geology of the Region, Alaska, no. 318, p. 11-116.

Mertie, John Beaver

1928 (1928)

Preliminary Report on the Sheenjek River District. no. 319, p. 11-116.

Mertie, John Beaver

1929 (1929)

The Chandalar-Sheenjek District, Alaska, no. 320, p. 11-116.

Mertie, John Beaver

1930 (1930)

Geology of the Eagle-Circle District, Alaska, no. 321, p. 11-116.

Mertie, John Beaver

1931 (1931)

A Geological Reconnaissance Dennison Fork District, Alaska, no. 322, p. 11-116.

Mertie, John Beaver Harrington, G. L.

1924 (1924)

The Ruby-Kuskokwim Region, Alaska, no. 323, p. 11-116.

Mitchell, William

1961 (1900’s)

Central

Hamilin

Copper

of

to

River

the

Billy Mitchell in Alaska, no. 325, p. 11-117.

Moffit, Fred H.

1907 (1907)

Mineral Resources Alaska. no. 326, p. Ii-117.

Moffitt, Fred H.

1912 (1912)

Headwater Regions of the Susitna Rivers, Alaska, no. 327, p. 11-117.

Moffit, Fred H.

1914 (1911)

Geology of the Hanagita-Bremner Region, Alaska. no. 328, p. 11-117.

Moffit, Fred H. Knopf, Adolph

1910 (1901)

Mineral Resources of the River District, Alaska, no. 329, p. 11-118.

IV-20

of

Kenai

Peninsula,

Gulkana

and

Nabesna-White

1901

-

1940

Moffit, Fred H. Mertie, John Beaver

1923 (1914)

The Kotsina-Kuskulana District, Alaska. no. 330, p. 11-118.

Morice, Adrian G.

1901 (1901)

Dene Surgery. no. 337, p. 11-120.

Morice, Adrian G.

1901 (1901)

Who Are the Atnas? no. 338, p. Ii-120.

Morice, Adrian G.

1905 (1905)

The Canadian Dene. no. 339, p. 11-121.

Morice, Adrian G.

1906-07 (1906)

Morice, Adrian G.

1907 (1907)

A Reply to Mr. Alphonse L. Pinart. no. 341, p. 11-121.

Morice, Adrian G.

1910 (1910)

Hare Indians. no. 342, p. 11-121.

Morice, Adrian G.

1910 (1910)

Loucheaux. no. 343, p. 11-121.

Morice, Adrian G.

1911 (1911)

Carrier Indians. no. 344, p. 11-122.

Morice, Adrian G.

1911 (1911)

Nahanes. no. 345, p. 11-122.

Morice, Adrian G.

1912 (1912)

Denes. no. 346, p. 11-122.

Morice, Adrian G.

1912 (1912)

Yellow-Knives. no. 347, p. 11-122.

Morice, Adrian G.

1921 (1921)

Smoking and Tobacco Among the Northern Dene. no.. 348, p. 11-123.

Morice, Adrian G.

1925 (1925)

About Cremation. no. 349, p. 11-123.

Morice, Adrian G.

1925 (1925)

Two Points of Western Dene Ethnography. no. 350, p. 11-123.

Morice, Adrian G.

1928 (1928)

The Fur Trader in Anthropology: And a Few Related Questions, no. 351, p. 11-123.

The Great Dene Race. no. 340, p. 11-121.

IV-21

1901

-

1940

Morice, Adrian G.

1933 (1933)

Carrier Onomatology, no. 352, p. 11-123.

Morton, Arthur S.

1939 (1939)

A History of the Canadian West to 1870-71. no. 355, p. 11-125.

Munsterhjelm, Erik

The Wind and the Caribou, no. 356, p. 11-125.

1953 (1900’s)

Olson, Ronald L.

1927 (1927)

Adze, Canoe, and Northwest Coast, no. 361, p. 11-126.

House

Types

of the

Osgood, Cornelius

1932 (1931)

The Ethnography of the Great Bear Lake Indians. no. 362, p. 11-126.

Osgood, Cornelius

1933 (1931)

Tanaina Culture, no. 363, p. 11-127.

Osgood, Cornelius

1934 (1934)

Kutchin Tribal Distribution and Synonymy, no. 364, p. 11-128.

Osgood, Cornelius

1936 (1932)

Contributions to the Ethnography of the Kutchin. no. 365, p. 11-128.

Osgood, Cornelius

1936 (1936)

The Distribution of the Northern Athapaskan Indians. no. 366, p. 11-129.

Osgood, Cornelius

1937 (1937)

The Ethnography of the Tanaina. no. 367, p. 11-130.

Osgood, Cornelius

1940 (1940)

Ingalik Material Culture, no. 368, p. 11-131.

Osgood, Cornelius

1953 (1928)

Winter. no. 369, p. 11-131.

Osgood, Cornelius

1971 (1900’s)

The Han Indians, A Compilation of Ethno¬ graphic and Historical Data on the AlaskaYukon Boundary Area, no. 372, p. 11-133.

Parnell, C.

1942 (1934)

Campbell of the Yukon, no. 379, p. 11-135.

Parsons, Elsie Clews Reed, T. B.

1967 (1920)

Cries-For-Salmon, a Ten’a Woman, no. 380, p. 11-135.

IV-22

1901 Penard, J. M.

Peters, W. J.

1929 (1929)

-

1940

Land Ownership and Chieftaincy Among the Chippewayan and Caribou-Eaters, no. 382, p. 11-136.

1904 (1900’s)

Reconnaissance in Northern Alaska, no. 383, p. 11-136.

Pinart, Alphonse L.

1906 (1906)

A Few Words on the Alaskan Dene, no. 390, p. 11-138.

Prindle, Louis Marcus

1913 (1913)

A Geologic Reconnaissance of the Circle Quadrangle, Alaska, no. 395, p. 11-139.

Rourke, Louise

The Land of the Frozen Tide, no. 417, p. 11-147.

1924 (1920’s)

Sapir, Edward

1924 (1924)

Personal Names Among the Sarcee Indians, no. 420, p. 11-148.

Schmitter, Ferdinand

1912 (1906)

Upper Yukon Native Customs and FolkLore. no. 424, p. 11-150.

Seton, Ernest Thompson

1912 (1907)

The Arctic Prairies, no. 429, p. 11-151.

Shapiro, H. L.

1931 (1931)

The Alaskan Eskimo, a Study of the Relationship between the Eskimo and the Chipewyan Indians of Central Canada, no. 430, p. 11-151.

Sheldon, Charles

1911 (1911)

The Wilderness of the Upper Yukon, no. 431, p. 11-152.

Sherwood, Angus

Some Remarks About Indians. no. 432, p. 11-152.

1958 (1911-50)

the Athapaskan

Simms, S. C.

1904 (1904)

Traditions of the Sarcee Indians, no. 434, p. 11-152.

Slobodin, Richard

1970 (1938)

Kutchin Concepts of Reincarnation, no. 441, p. 11-156.

Smith, Harlan I.

1925 (1920-23)

Entomology Among Carrier Indians. no. 443, p. 11-156.

IV-23

the

Bellacoola

and

1901

-

1940

Smith, Philip S.

1917 (1914)

The Lake Clark-Central Kuskokwim Region, Alaska. no. 445, p. 11-157.

Smith, Philip S. Eakin, Henry M.

1911 (1911)

A Geologic Reconnaissance in Southeastern Seward Peninsula and the Norton BayNulato Region, Alaska, no. 446, p. 11-157.

Smith, Philip S. Mertie, John Beaver

1930 (1930)

Geology and Mineral Resources of North¬ western Alaska, no. 447, p. 11-157.

Sniffen, Matthew K. Carrington, Thomas Spees

1914 (1914)

The Indians of the Valleys, Alaska, no. 448, p. 11-157.

Steffanson, Vilhjalmur S.

1909 (1906-08)

Yukon

and

Tanana

A Preliminary Report of an Ethnological Investigation of the Mackenzie Delta, no. 451, p. 11-158.

Steward Julian H.

1940 (1940)

Recording Culture Changes Among Carrier Indians of British Columbia, no. 452, p. 11-158.

the

Steward, Julian H.

1941 (1941)

Determinism in Primitive Society, no. 453, p. Ii-159.

Steward, Julian H.

1941 (1941)

Investigations Among the Carrier Indians of British Columbia, no. 454, p. 11-159.

Stuck, Hudson

1914 (1905-06)

Ten Thousand Miles with a Dog Sled, no. 458, p. 11-161.

Stuck, Hudson

1925 (1905-06)

Voyages on the Yukon and Its Tributaries, no. 459, p. 11-161.

Sullivan, Robert J.

1942 (1936-37)

Temporal Concepts of the Ten .a. no. 462, p. 11-162.

Sullivan, Robert J.

1942 (1936-37)

The Ten’a Food Quest, no. 463, p. 11-163.

Swanton, John R.

1904 (1904)

The Development of the Clan System and of Secret Societies Among the Northwestern Tribes. no. 464, p. 11-163.

IV-24

1901 Teit, James A.

1906 (1903-05)

Teit, James A.

1907 (1900)

Notes on the Chilcotin Indians, no. 469, p. 11-164.

Teit, James A.

1909 (1909)

Two Tahltan Traditions, no. 470, p. 11-165.

Teit, James A.

1914 (1914)

Indian Tribes of the Interior, no. 471, p. 11-165.

Teit, James A.

1914 (1912)

On Tahltan (Athabascan) Work, 1912. no. 472, p. 11-165.

Teit, James A.

1917 (1917)

Kaska Tales, no. 473, p. 11-165.

Teit, James A.

1921 (1921)

Tahltan Tales, no. 474, p. 11-166.

Teit, James A. et al.

1924 (1924)

Coiled Basketry in British Columbia, no. 475, p. 11-167.

Teit, James A.

-

1940

Notes on the Tahltan Indians of British Columbia. no. 468, p. 11-164.

1956 (1912-15)

Field Notes on Tahltan and Kaska Indians: 1912-1915. no. 476, p. 11-167.

Thompson, Stith

1929 (1929)

Tales of the North American Indians, no. 477, p. 11-169.

Tims, Winifred A.

1929 (1929)

The Interesting Origin of the Sarcee Indians of Canada. no. 478, p. 11-169.

Tollemache, Stratford

1912 (1898-1909)

Reminiscences of the Yukon, no. 479, p. 11-169.

United States Bureau of Education

annual (1900’s)

Annual Reports, no. 486, p. 11-172.

Urquhart, J. A.

1935 (1900’s)

The Most Northerly Practice in Canada, no. 488, p. 11-173.

Wardle, H. Newell

1901 (1901)

Notes on the Designation, Atna. no. 494, p. 11-174.

Waterman, T. T.

1921 (1921)

Native Houses of Western North America, no. 495, p. 11-179.

IV-25

1901

-

1940

1927 (1927)

The Architecture of the American Indians,

Waugh, F. W.

1919 (1919)

Canadian Aboriginal Canoes, no. 497, p. 11-179.

Wheeler, David E.

1914 (1910)

The Dog-Rib Indian and His Home, no. 501, p. 11-180.

Waterman, T. T.

Wickersham, James

Wissler, Clark

Wissler, Clark ed.

Wright, Arthur

Wright, Arthur R.

no. 496, p. 11-179.

Old Yukon Tales—Trails—and Trials, no. 508, p. 11-182.

1938 (1900’s)

Culture of the North American Indians Occupying the Caribou Area, no. 514, p. 11-183.

1915 (1915)

Anthropological Papers of Museum of Natural History, no. 515, p. 11-183.

1917 (1912-17)

the

American

An Athapascan Tradition from Alaska,

1908 (1908)

no. 517, p. 11-184.

1926 (1926)

The Potlatch—What Is It? no. 518, p. 11-184.

IV-26

1941 - PRESENT

1941 - PRESENT

Anderson, Kristian Bolstad, Atle Ldyning, Yngve Irving, Laurence

1960 (1958)

Physical Fitness of Arctic Indians, no. 8, p. II-3.

Aronson, Joseph D.

1947 (1947)

The History of Disease Among the Natives of Alaska, no. 12, p. II-3.

Balikci, Asen

1963 (1961)

Family Organization of the Vunta Kutchin. no. 14, p. II-4.

Balikci, Asen

1963 (1960)

Vunta Kutchin Social Change, no. 15, p. II-5.

Balikci, Asen

1968 (1960)

Perspectives on the Atomistic Type Society: Bad Friends, no. 16, p. II-6.

Balikci, Asen Cohen, Ronald

1963 (1963)

Community Patterning in Two Northern Trading Posts, no. 17, p. II-7.

Banfield, Alexander William F.

1961 (1961)

Migrating Caribou; Barren-Ground Herds Face Serious Threat to Survival, no. 22 p. II-9.

Barbeau, C. Marius Melvin, G.

1943 (1943)

The Indian Speaks, no. 27, p. 11-10.

Binning, G.

1941 (1941)

Indians of the Yukon, no. 35, p. 11-11.

Boram, Clifford

1973 (1973)

Kutchin Quarrelling, no. 44, p. 11-16.

Bowes, Gordon E. ed.

1964 (1964)

Peace River Chronicles, no. 45, p. 11-17.

Buckham, A. F.

1950 (1950)

Indian Engineering, no. 50, p. 11-18.

Cady, Wallace Martin Wallace, R. E. Hoare, J. M. Webber, E. J.

1955 (1955)

The Central Kuskokwim Region, Alaska, no. 52, p. 11-18.

IV-27

1941 - PRESENT

Chang, Kwang-Chih

Chapman, John Wight

Clairmont, Donald H. J.

Clark, Annette McFadyen

Cohen, Ronald

1962 (1962)

A Typology of Settlement and Community Patterns in Some Circumpolar Societies, no. 65, p. 11-21.

1968 (1900’s)

Notes on the Tinneh Tribe of Anvik, Alaska, no. 73, p. 11-24.

1963 (1961)

Deviance Among Indians and Eskimos in Aklavik, N.W.T. no. 74, p. 11-25. Koyukon Athabascan Ceremonialism,

1970 (1968-70)

no. 75, p. 11-25. An Anthropological Survey of Communities in the Mackenzie-Slave Lake Region of

1962 (1960)

Canada. no. 77, p. 11-26. Cohen, Ronald Van Stone, James W.

1964 (1964)

Dependency and Chipewyan Stories, no. 78, p. 11-26.

Cox, Bruce

1970 (1970)

Land Rights of the Slavey Indians at Hay River, N.W.T. no. 81, p. 11-27.

Darnell, Regna

1970 (1970)

The Kaska Aesthetic of Speech Use. no. 90, p. 11-29.

Dawson, Carl Addington ed.

1947 (1947)

The New North-West, no. 92, p. 11-30.

Department of Citizenship and Immigration, Indian Affairs Branch, Canada

1964 (1964)

Traditional Linguistic and Cultural Affilia¬ tions of Canadian Indian Bands, no. 96, p. 11-31.

Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Canada

1967 (1967)

Indians of the Prairie Provinces, no. 97, p. 11-32.

Driver, Harold E. Massey, William C.

1957 (1957)

Comparative Studies Indians. no. 105, p. 11-33.

Duff, Wilson

1951 (1951)

Notes on Carrier Social Organization, no. 107, p. 11-33.

Dunning, R. W.

1959 (1959)

Ethnic Relations and the Marginal Man in Canada. no. 108, p. 11-34.

IV-28

Self-Sufficiency

of North

in

American

1941 - PRESENT

Eggan, Fred

1955 (1954)

Social Anthropology: Methods and Results, no. 112, p. 11-34.

Elder, Max Q. ed.

1954 (1953)

Alaska’s Health: A Survey Report to the United States Department of the Interior, no. 113, p. 11-35.

Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in Alaska

1968 (1968)

Alaska Natives and the Land, no. 118, p. 11-37.

Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in Alaska

1969 (1969)

Estimates of Native Population in Villages, Towns and Boroughs of Alaska, no. 119, p. 11-37.

Foote, Don Charles MacBain, Sheila K.

1964 (1964)

A Selected Regional Bibliography for Human Geographical Studies of the Native Populations in Central Alaska, no. 122, p. 11-38.

Fried, Jacob

1963 (1963)

Settlement Types and Community Organi¬ zation in Northern Canada, no. 126, p. 11-39.

Fried, Jacob

1963 (1963)

White-Dominated Settlements Canadian Northwest Territories, no. 127, p. 11-39.

Frison-Roche, Roger

1969 (1966)

Hunters of the Arctic, no. 128, p. 11-39.

Gillespie, Beryl C.

in

the

Yellowknives: Quo Iverunt? no. 130, p. 11-40.

1970 (1968-69)

Grantham, E. N.

1951 (1951)

Education Goes North, no. 143, p. 11-45.

Grossman, Daniel

1965 (1965)

The Nature of Descent Groups of Some Tribes in the Interior of Northwestern North America, no. 144, p. 11-45.

Gruening, Ernest

1954 (1954)

The State of Alaska, no. 145, p. 11-46.

Guedon, Marie-Francoise

1972 (1969)

People of Tetlin, Why Are You Singing?

1970 (1970)

Indian Legends of North-Western Canada, by Emile Petitot. no. 148, p. 11-47.

Habgood, Thelma (translator)

no. 147, p. 11-46.

IV-29

1941 - PRESENT

Hadleigh-West, Frederick

1959 (1959)

On the Distribution and Territories of the Western Kutchin Tribes, no. 149, p. 11-47.

Haldeman, J. C.

1951 (1951)

Problems of Alaskan Aleuts. no. 151, p. 11-48.

Hallowell, A. Irving

1949 (1949)

The Size of Algonkian Hunting Territories: A Function of Ecological Adjustment, no. 154, p. 11-48.

Harrington, Richard

1947 (1947)

In the Land of the Chipewyans. no. 159, p. 11-49.

Harris, Donald A. Ingram, George C.

1972 (1972)

New Caledonia and the Fur Trade, a Status Report. no. 160, p. 11-50.

1958 (1954-56)

The Indians of British Columbia, a Study of Contemporary Social Adjustment, no. 161, p. 11-50.

Hawthorn, H. B. Belshaw, C. S. Jamieson, S. M.

Eskimos,

Heinrich, Albert C.

1957 (1957)

Sib and Social Structure Tanana. no. 164, p. 11-51.

Heinrich, Albert C. Anderson, Russell

1968 (1968)

Co-Affinal Siblingship as a Structural Feature Among some Northern North American Peoples, no. 165, p. 11-51.

Helm, June

1961 (1961)

The Lynx Point People: The Dynamics of a Northern Athapaskan Band, no. 166, p. 11-52.

Helm, June

1965 (1965)

Bilaterality in the Socio-Territorial Organi¬ zation of the Arctic Drainage Dene, no. 167, p. 11-52.

Helm, June

1965 (1965)

Patterns of Allocation Among the Arctic Drainage Dene, no. 168, p. 11-52.

Helm, June

1968 (1968)

The

1972 (1970)

The Dogrib Indians, no. 170, p. 11-53.

Nature

of

Groups. no. 169, p 11-53.

• Helm, June

IV-30

Dogrib

on

the

Indians,

Upper

Socioterritorial

1941 - PRESENT

Helm, June Damas, David

1963 (1963)

The Contact-Traditional All-Native Com¬ munity of the Canadian North: The Upper Mackenzie “Bush” Athapaskans and the Igluligmiut. no. 171, p. 11-54

Helm, June DeVos, George A. Carterette, Teresa

1963 (1963)

Variations in Personality and Ego Identifi¬ cation Within a Slave Indian KinCommunity, no. 172, p. 11-54.

Helm, June Leacock, Eleanor Burke

1971 (1971)

The Hunting Tribes of Subarctic Canada, no. 173, p. 11-54.

Helm, June Lurie, Nancy O.

1961 (1961)

The Subsistence Economy of the Dogrib Indians of Lac La Martre in the Mackenzie District of the Northwest Territories, no. 174, p. 11-55.

Helm, June Lurie, Nancy 0.

1966 (1966)

The Dogrib Hand Game, no. 175, p. 11-57.

Helm, June Vital, Thomas

1966 (1966)

Tales from the Dogribs. no. 176, p. 11-57.

Hemstock, C. Anne Cooke, Geraldine A.

1973 (1973)

Yukon Bibliography, Update 1963-1970. no. 177, p. 11-57.

Hippier, Arthur E.

1973 (1970-72)

The Athabascans of Interior Alaska: Culture and Personality Perspective, no. 179, p. 11-58.

Hippier, Arthur E. Boyer, L. Bryce Boyer, Ruth M.

1972 (1971)

The Psychocultural Significance of Alaska Athabascan Potlatch Ceremony, no. 180, p. 11-59.

Hippier, Arthur E. Conn, Stephen

1972 (1972)

Traditional Athabascan Law Ways and Their Relationship to Contemporary Problems of “Bush Justice.” no. 181, p. 11-60.

Hodgkinson, Jean

1970 (1970)

Is Northern Education Meaningful? no. 184, p. 11-62.

Hoijer, Harry

1956 (1956)

Athapaskan Kinship Systems, no. 185, p. 11-62.

Holmes, G. William Foster, Helen L.

1968 (1968)

Geology of the Johnson River Area, Alaska, no. 186, p. 11-62.

IV-31

A

the

1941 - PRESENT

Honigmann, John J. Honigmann, Irma

1945 (1945)

Drinking in an Indian-White Community, no. 203, p. 11-70.

Honigmann, John J. Honigmann, Irma

1947 (1947)

A Kaska Indian String Oracle, no. 204, p. 11-71.

Honigmann, John J. Honigmann, Irma

1970 (1967)

Arctic Townsmen, no. 205, p. 11-71.

Hosley, Edward H.

1961 (1961)

The McGrath Ingalik. no. 207, p. 11-72.

Hosley, Edward H.

1968 (1968)

The Kolchan: Delineation of a New Nor¬ thern Athapaskan Indian Group, no. 208, p. 11-72.

Hulley, Clarence C.

1953 (1953)

Alaska, 1741-1953. no. 211, p. 11-73.

Hurlbert, Janice

1962 (1961)

Age as a Factor in the Social Organization of the Hare Indian of Fort Good Hope, N.W.T. no. 212, p. 11-73.

Innis, Harold A.

1962 (1962)

The Fur Trade in Canada, no. 214, p. 11-75.

Irving, Laurence

1958 (1958)

Naming of Birds as a Part of the Intellectual Culture of Indians at Old Crow, no. 215, p. 11-75.

James, Alton James

1942 (1942)

The First Scientific Exploration of Russian America and the Purchase of Alaska, no. 218, p. 11-76.

Jenness, Diamond

1955 (1955)

Canadian Indian Religion, no. 226, p. 11-81.

Jenness, Diamond

1956 (1956)

The Com Goddess and Other Tales from Indian Canada, no. 229, p. 11-83.

Keim, Charles J. ed.

1964 (1964)

Kutchin Legends from Old Crow, Yukon Territory. no. 236, p. 11-86.

Kerr, Robert

1953 (1953)

For the Royal Scottish Museum, no. 238, p. 11-87.

Kidd, Kenneth E.

1957 (1957)

Trading Into Hudson’s Bay. no. 239, p. 11-87.

IV-32

1941 - PRESENT

King, W. Cornwallis Weekes, Mary

1943 (1943)

Founding Fort Nelson, no. 242, p. 11-88.

Koolage, William W.

1968 (1966)

Chipewyan Indians of Camp-10, no. 244, p. 11-88.

Komer, Ija N.

1959 (1959)

Notes of a Psychologist Fieldworker. no. 245, p. 11-89.

Krenov, Julia

1951 (1951)

Legends from Alaska, no. 246, p. 11-89.

Kroeber, Alfred L.

1947 (1947)

Cultural and Natural Areas of Native North America. no. 250, p. 11-90.

1969-70 (1969)

The Atna of the Copper River, Alaska: The World of Men and Animals, no. 254, p. 11-91.

Laguna, Frederica de

Laviolette, Gontran

1956 (1941)

Notes on the Aborigines Provinces. no. 257, p. 11-93.

Leechman, Douglas

1948 (1948)

Caribou for Chipewyans. no. 258, p. 11-93.

Leechman, Douglas

1948 (1948)

Old Crow’s Village, no. 259, p. 11-93.

Leechman, Douglas

1948 (1948)

The Pointed Skins, no. 260, p. 11-93.

Leechman, Douglas

1949 (1949)

Indian Summer, no. 261, p. 11-94.

Leechman, Douglas

1950 (1950)

Loucheux Tales, no. 262, p. 11-94.

Leechman, Douglas

1952 (1946)

Folk-Lore of the Vanta-Kutchin. no. 263, p. 11-94.

Leechman, Douglas

1954 (1946)

The Vanta Kutchin. no. 264, p. 11-95.

Leechman, Douglas

1957 (1957)

The Trappers, no. 265, p. 11-95.

Leechman, Douglas Lloyd, Scott

1953 (1953)

The Carriers, no. 266, p. 11-95.

IV-33

of the

Prairie

1941 - PRESENT

Leechman, Douglas Lloyd, Scott

1953 (1953)

The Loucheux. no. 267, p. 11-95.

Loftus, Audrey

1956 (1956)

According to Mama, no. 269, p. 11-96.

Lotz, James Robert

1964 (1964)

Yukon Bibliography, Preliminary Edition, no. 270, p. 11-96.

Lowie, Robert H.

1967 (1967)

Windigo, a Chipewyan Story, no. 273, p. 11-96.

Loyens, William John

1964 (1962)

The Koyukon Feast for the Dead, no. 274, p. 11-96.

Loyens, William John

1966 (1966)

The Changing Culture Koyukon Indians, no. 275, p. 11-97.

Lurie, Nancy Oestreich

1961 (1959)

The Dogrib Indians of Canada, no. 276, p. 11-98.

Lustig-Arecco, Vera

1972 (1972)

Concerning the Kutchin: Of Women and Things. no. 277, p. 11-98.

Lutz, Harold J.

1959 (1959)

Aboriginal Man and White Man as Historical Cuases of Fires in the Boreal Forest, with Particular Reference to Alaska, no. 278, p. 11-98.

MacClellan, Catharine

1950 (1950)

Culture Change and Native Southern Yukon Territory, no. 279, p. 11-99.

MacClellan, Catharine

1956 (1956)

Shamanistic Syncretism in Southern Yukon, no. 280, p. 11-99.

MacClellan, Catharine

1961 (1961)

Avoidance Between Siblings of the Same Sex in Northwestern North America, no. 281, p. 11-99.

MacClellan, Catharine

1964 (1964)

Culture Contacts in the Early Historic Period in Northwestern North America, no. 282, p. 11-100.

MacClellan, Catharine Rainier, Dorothy

1948 (1948)

Ethnological Survey Territory, 1948. no. 283, p. 11-100.

IV-34

of

of

the

Nulato

Trade

Southern

in

Yukon

1941 - PRESENT

McKennan, Robert A.

1959 (1959)

The Upper Tanana Indians, no. 287, p. 11-101.

McKennan, Robert A.

1969 (1969)

Athapaskan Groupings and Social Organi¬ zation in Central Alaska, no. 289, p. 11-106.

McKennan, Robert A.

1970 (1970)

Athapaskan Groups of Central Alaska at the Time of White Contact, no. 290, p. 11-107.

MacLachlan, Bruce B.

1957 (1957)

Notes on Some Tahltan Oral Literature, no. 293, p. 11-107.

McMinimy, Donald J.

1947 (1946-47)

MacNeish, June Helm

1954 (1954)

Contemporary Folk Beliefs of a Slave Indian Band. no. 297, p. 11-108.

MacNeish, June Helm

1955 (1955)

Folktales of the Slave Indians, no. 298, p. 11-109.

MacNeish, June Helm

1956 (1956)

Leadership Among the Northeastern Athaba¬ scans. no. 299, p. 11-109.

MacNeish, June Helm

1956 (1951-52)

Problems of Acculturation and Livelihood in a Northern Indian Band, no. 300, p. 11-110.

MacNeish, June Helm

1960 (1960)

Kin Terms of Arctic Drainage Dene: Hare, Slavey, Chipewyan. no. 302, p. 11-111.

Marchand, John F.

1943 (1943)

Tribal Epidemics in the Yukon, no. 307, p. 11-112.

Marshall, Robert

1956 (1956)

Arctic Wilderness, no. 309, p. 11-113.

Morris, Margaret W.

1972 (1972)

Great Bear Lake Indians: A Historical Demo¬ graphy and Human Ecology, no. 353, p. 11-124.

Morris, Margaret W.

1973 (1972)

Great Bear Lake Indians: A Historical Demo¬ graphy and Human Ecology, no. 353, p. 11-124.

Preliminary Report dence in Alaska, no. 296, p. 11-108.

IV-35

on

Tuberculosis Inci¬

1941 - PRESENT

Murphy, Robert F. Steward, Julian H.

1956 (1956)

Tappers and Trappers: Acculturation. no. 357, p. 11-125.

Parallel Process in

Norick, Frank A.

1966 (1966)

Acculturation and Social Maladjustment Among the Native People of Alaska, no. 358, p. 11-125.

Osgood, Cornelius

1958 (1958)

Ingalik Social Culture, no. 371, p. 11-132.

Osgood, Cornelius

1959 (1959)

Ingalik Mental Culture, no. 371, p. 11-132.

Osgood, Cornelius

1971 (1971)

The Han Indians, A Compilation of Ethno¬ graphic and Historical Data on the AlaskaYukon Boundary Area, no. 372, p. 11-133.

Oswalt, Wendell H.

1962-63 (1962)

Historical Populations in Western Alaska and Migration Theory, no. 374, p. 11-133.

Oswalt, Wendell H.

1965 (1965)

The Kuskokwim River Drainage, Alaska: An Annotated Bibliography, no. 375, p. 11-134.

Oswalt, Wendell H.

1966 (1966)

This Land Was Theirs—A Study of the North American Indian, no. 376, p. 11-134.

Oswalt, Wendell H. Van Stone, James W.

1963 (1963)

Partially Acculturated Canadian Athapaskans and Eskimos. no. 377, p. 11-135.

Parker, James M.

1972 (1972)

The Fur Trade and the Chipewyan Indian, no. 378, p. 11-135.

Paulson, Ivar

1952 (1952)

The “Seat of Honor” in Aboriginal Dwellings of the Circumpolar Zone, with Special Regard to the Indians of North America. no. 381, p. 11-136.

Phillips, R. A. J.

1967 (1967)

Canada’s North, no. 387, p. 11-137.

Poppe, Roger

1971 (1971)

Kutchin Bibliography, an Annotated Biblio¬ graphy of Northern Yukon Kutchin Indians, no. 391, p. 11-139.

IV-36

Communities: West Alaskan

1941 - PRESENT

Price, John A.

1971 (1971)

United States and Canadian Indian Periodi¬ cals. no. 394, p. 11-139.

Province of British Columbia

1944 (1943)

Forty-Seventh Report of the Provincial Board of Health for the Year Ended December 31st, 1943. no. 396, p. 11-140.

Province of British Columbia

1947 (1946)

Fortieth Report of the Provincial Board of Health and First Report of the Department of Health and Welfare (Health Branch), Year Ended December 31st, 1946. no. 397, p. 11-140.

Ray, Verne F.

1942 (1942)

Culture Element Plateau. no. 398, p. 11-140.

Richmond, Sara

1970 (1969-70)

Ridington, Robin

1969 (1969)

Ridington, Robin

1969 (1964-68)

Ridington, Robin

1971 (1971)

Ridington, Robin Ridington, Tonia

1970 (1964-68)

Distributions:

XXII

Cognitive and Structural Bases for Group Identity: The Case of the Southern Arctic Drainage Dene, no. 406, p. 11-142. Culture and Creation, no. 407, p. 11-143. Kin Categories Versus Kin Groups: A TwoSection System with Sections, no. 408, p. 11-143. Beaver Indian Dreaming and Singing, no. 409, p. 11-143. The Inner Eye of Shamanism and Totemism. no. 410, p. 11-144.

Robinson, J.

1944 (1944)

Among the Caribou-Eaters, no. 411, p. 11-145.

Robinson, M. J. Robinson, J. L.

1946 (1946)

Exploration and Settlement of MacKenzie District, N.W.T. no. 412, p. 11-145.

Ross, Eric

1970 (1970)

Beyond the River and the Bay. no. 413, p. 11-145.

Saum, Lewis O.

1965 (1965)

The Fur Trader and the Indian, no. 421, p. 11-148.

IV-37

1941 - PRESENT

Savishinsky, Joel S.

1970 (1967-68)

Kinship and the Expression of Values in an Athabascan Bush Community, no. 422, p. 11-149.

Schaeffer, C. E.

1942 (1942)

The Grasshopper or Circumboreal Legend? no. 423, p. 11-150.

Children’s

War—A

Sherwood, Morgan B.

1965 (1965)

Exploration of Alaska 1865-1900. no. 433, p. 11-152.

Slobodin, Richard

1960 (1960)

Eastern Kutchin Warfare, no. 436, p. 11-102.

Slobodin, Richard

1960 (1960)

Some Social Functions of Kutchin Anxiety, no. 437, p. 11-153.

Slobodin, Richard

1962 (1962)

Band Organization of the Peel River Kut¬ chin. no. 438, p. 11-154.

Slobodin, Richard

1963 (1963)

The “Dawson Boys”: Peel River Indians and The Klondike Gold Rush, no. 439, p. 11-155.

Slobodin, Richard

1969 (1947)

Leadership and Participation in a Kutchin Trapping Party, no. 440, p. 11-155.

Slobodin, Richard

1971 (1971)

The Chief is a Man. no. 442, p. 11-156.

1970 (1967-70)

The Chipewyan Hunting Group in a Village Context. no. 444, p. 11-156.

Steward, Julian H.

1960 (1960)

Carrier Acculturation, the Direct Historical Approach. no. 455, p. 11-160.

Steward, Julian H.

1963 (1955)

Variation in Ecological Carrier Indians, no. 456, p. 11-160.

Stirling, Matthew W.

1949 (1949)

Nomads of the Far North, no. 457, p. 11-160.

Sturtevant, William C.

1962 (1962)

Bibliography on American Indian Medicine and Health. no. 460, p. 11-161.

Smith, J. G. E.

IV-38

Adaptation:

The

1941 - PRESENT

Sue, Hiroko

1965 (1961)

Pre-School Children of the Hare Indians, no. 461, p. 11-161.

Swan ton, John R.

1952 (1952)

The Indian Tribes of North America, no. 465, p. 11-163.

Taylor, Phyllis

1953 (1953)

Tales from the Delta, no. 467, p. 11-164.

Townsend, Joan B.

1970 (1970)

Tanaina Ethnohistory: An Example of a Method for the Study of Culture Change, no. 480, p. 11-169.

Townsend, Joan B.

1970 (1970)

The Tanaina of Southwestern Alaska: An Historical Synopsis, no. 481, p. 11-170.

Underwood, Frances W. Honigmann, Irma

1947 (1947)

A Comparison of Socialization and Person¬ ality in Two Simple Societies, no. 485, p. 11-172.

Van Stone, James W.

1961 (1960-61)

The Economy of a Frontier Community, a Preliminary Statement, no. 489, p. 11-174.

Van Stone, James W.

1963 (1960-62)

Changing Patterns of Indian Trapping in the Canadian Subarctic, no. 490, p. 11-174.

Van Stone, James W.

1965 (1960-62)

The Changing Culture Chipewyan. no. 491, p. 11-175.

of the

Snowdrift

Vaudrin, Bill

1969 (1969)

Tanaina Tales from Alaska, no. 492, p. 11-178.

Welsh, Ann

1970 (1968)

Community Pattern and Settlement Pattern in the Development of Old Crow Village, Yukon Territory, no. 498, p. 11-179.

West, Frederick H.

1959 (1959)

On the Distribution and Territories of the Western Kutchin Tribes, no. 499, p. 11-180.

White, Charles B.

1958 (1958)

Rejoinder. no. 502, p. 11-180.

Williamson, Robert G.

1955-56 (1955)

Slave Indian Legends, no. 509, p. 11-182.

IV-39

1941 - PRESENT

Wilson, Clifford

Wolforth, John

1947 (1947) 1971 (1965-68)

Founding Fort Yukon. no. 510, p. 11-182. The Evolution and Economy of the Delta Community, no. 516, p. 11-183.

IV-40

APPENDIXES

Appendix A.

Partial list of unpublished Athabascan materials.

The references in this list include letters, journals, and notes that are sometimes cited in other Athabascan works, but are unpublished. Although we obtained some of these references, we decided not to attempt compiling a complete and annotated list of unpublished works. Nevertheless, there is a tremendous amount of information in these unpublished sources.

Acland, Eric

The Northern Indian. (A paper read before the Canadian Political Science Association Study Group. Ottawa, January 21, 1958.)

Anderson, James

Census of the Population of Mackenzie River District. (Manuscript MG 19-A29 in Dominion Archives, Ottawa. June 1,1858.)

Anonymous

Comment on a Statement of Father Jette’s Paper, “The Ten’a.” (Archives, University of Alaska.)

Bloom, Joseph

Population Trends of Alaskan Natives and Planning. (1971)

Brady, Golden 0.

Notes from Five Years as a Nurse at Nulato. (Archives, University of Alaska.)

Bortnovsky, John

Travel Journal of Priest John (Archives, University of Alaska.)

Chambers

Walrus Sia. (Archives, University of Alaska.)

Cooper, John M.

The Northern Athabascan-Algonkian Culture Area.

Dali, William H.

Account of the Nulato Massacre. (Archives, University of Alaska.) Accounts of Jette and Bancroft are also included in this file.

Fathauer, George H.

Social Organization and Kinship of the Northern Athabascan Indian. (M.A. thesis, University of Chicago,

Bortnovsky,

Kenai.

1942.) Gendron, Peter

Notes of Fort Resolution. (Welfare Division, Northern Administration Branch, Department of Northern Affairs annd National Resources, 1963.)

Geoghegan, James

Sojourn in Yucon and Alaska. (Archives, University of Alaska.)

Goddard, Elizabeth H.

Yukon and Koyukuk Rivers, Alaska. (Archives, Univer¬ sity of Alaska.)

Hannum, Walter W.

The Social Situation of the Natives of the Upper Yukon, Some Personal Observations. (1968)

Helm, June

The Contact History of the Subarctic Athapaskans: An Overview. (1971)

Helm, June

Field Notes.

Honigmann, John J.

Sarsi Field Notes. (1943)

A-l

Honigmann, John J.

Kaska Field Notes. (1944)

Honigmann, John J.

Great Whale River Field Notes. (1949-50)

Honigmann, John J.

Changes in Sarsi Social Culture.

Hosley, E. H.

Factionalism and Acculturation in an Alaskan Athapaskan Community. (Ph.D. thesis, University of California, 1966.)

Illarion

Travel Journal of Hiermonk Illiarion. (Archives, Univer¬ sity of Alaska.)

Jette, J.

Letter to Mr. Falph P. Mackie, McKinley Park, Alaska. (Archives, University of Alaska, 1926.)

Jette, J.

Manuscript on the Indians of the Koyukuk River and Adjoining Areas.

Kirby, W. W.

Manuscript Letters and Journals. (Church Missionary Society, London.)

Laing, F. W.

Colonial Farm Settlers on the Mainland of British Columbia, 1858-1871. (Library, Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Ottawa.)

Lane, Robert

Cultural Relations of the Chilcotin Indians of West Central British Columbia. (Ph.D. Thesis, University of Washington.)

Lawson, Virginia K.

Field notes on the Beaver Indians of Alberta. (1970)

McDonald, R.

Manuscript Letters and Journals. (Church Missionary Society, London.)

McKennan, Robert A.

Indians of the Upper Tanana, Alaska. (1929)

McKennan, Robert A.

Manuscript on the Chandalar Kutchin. (1933)

Macllwraith, T. F.

The Bella Coola. (National Museum of Canada.)

Mason, J. Alder

Notes on Northeastern Athabaskan Culture. (National Museum of Canada, 1913.)

Masson Collection

Public Archives of Canada.

Nicholas (Abbot)

Travel Journal of Abbot Nicholas, Kenai. (Archives, University of Alaska.)

Nikita (Hieromonk)

Travel Journal of Hieromonk Nikita, Kenai. (Archives, University of Alaska.)

A-2

Olson, Wallace M.

Minto, Alaska: Cultural and Historical Influences on Group Identity. (M.A. thesis, University of Alaska, 1968.)

Osgood, Cornelius

The Ethnology of the Northern Dene. (Ph.D. thesis, University of Chicago, 1930.)

Osgood, Cornelius

The Ingalik. (1934)

Osgood, Cornelius

Han.

Pitts, Roger S.

The Changing Settlement Patterns and Housing Types of the Upper Tanana Indians. (M.A. thesis, University of Alaska, 1972.)

Rainey, Froelich G.

Notes. (Archives, University of Alaska.)

Riddington, Robin

The Cultural Happening: Aren’t in the book. (1970)

Rogers, Edward S.

Modernization of Indians of the Central Subarctic: A Myth. (1969)

Sim, V. C.

Manuscript Letters and Journals. (Church Missionary Society, London.)

Slobodin, Richard

Kutchin Polyandry and the Culture of Poverty. (1963)

Smith, David M.

Field notes. (1968)

Smith, Derek G.

Domestic Economy of the Native Peoples, Mackenzie Delta, N.W.T. (Department of Northern Affairs and Natural Resources, Ottawa.)

Smith, Harlan I.

Field Notes on the Alkatcho Carrier Material Culture. (National Museum of Canada.)

Sullivan, Robert J.

The Ethnology of the Ten’a Indians of Interior Alaska. (M.A. thesis, Catholic University of America.)

Teit, James A.

The Tahltan. (National Museum of Canada.)

Tritt, Albert E.

Arctic Village Journals. (Archives, University of Alaska.)

Tritt, Albert E.

Manuscript Journal. (Archives, University of Alaska.)

Vitt, Ramon B.

Hunting Practices of the Upper Tanana Athapaskans. (M.A. thesis, University of Alaska, 1971.)

Wilson, Alice B.

The Acculturation of Alaskan Natives in the Public School at Fort Yukon, Alaska. (1958)

A-3

Things

People Learn that

Appendix B.

Partial listing of Athabascan references in foreign languages.

ANONYMOUS 1874

UEBER DIE KINAIVOLKER IM AUSSERSTEN NORD-WESTEN AMERIKAS. Globus, Vol. 26. pp. 87-8. (among the Kenai Indians)

BAER, K. E. 1839

BEITRAGE ZUR KENNTNISS DES RUSSISCHEN REICHES UND DER ANGRANZENDEN LANDER ASIENS. Vol. 1, No. 38. St. Petersburg. (People of Russia and adjacent areas)

BASILE, MARIE-JEANNE MCNULTY, GERARD E. 1971

MONTAGNAIS LEGENDS. Universite Laval, Quebec. (Canadian Indian legends)

BENVENISTE, E. 1953

LE VOCABULAIRE DE LA VIE ANIMALE CHEZ LES INDIENS DU HAUT YUKON (ALASKA). Bulletin de la Societe Linguistique de Paris, Vol. 49. pp. 79-106. (Indian vocabulary, animal names)

BERGEN, HANS VON 1928

JAGDLFAHRTEN IN KANADA UND ALASKA. J. Neumann, Neudam. (hunting in Canada and Alaska)

BOAS, FRANZ 1896

DIE VERBREITUNG DER INDIANER-SPRACHEN IN BRITISCH-COLUMBIEN. Petermanns Mitteilungen aus Justus Perthes Geographischer Anstalt, Vol. 42. Gotha, (spread of Indian languages in Canada)

BREYNAT, MGR. GABRIEL 1945

CINQUANTE ANS AU PAYS DES NEIGES. 1, Chez les Mangeurs de Caribou. Fides, Montreal, (among Canadian Indians including the Caribou-Eaters)

BRUET, E. 1945

L’ALASKA. Paris. (Alaska)

BUSCHMANN, J. C. E. 1855

DER ATHAPASKISCHE SPRACHSTAMM. Abhandlungen der Koniglichen Akademie der Wissenschaften. pp. 149-319. (Athabascan linguistics)

1858

DIE VOLKER UND SPRACHEN IM INNERN DES BRITISCHEN NORDAMERIKA’S. Monatsberichte der Koniglichen Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, pp. 465-86. (people of interior British Columbia)

1859

SYSTEMATISCHE WORTTAFEL DES ATHAPASKISCHEN SPRACHSTAMMS. Abhandlungen der Konigli¬ chen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vol. 3. pp. 501-86. (Athabascan word list)

1862

DIS VERWANDTSCHAFTS-VERHALTNISSE DER ATHAPASKISCHEN SPRACHEN. Abhandlungen der Koniglichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vol. 2. pp. 195-252. (Athabascan linguistic work) B-l

CLUT, I. 1887

VICARIAT APOSTOLIQUE D’ATHABASKAMACKENZIE. Annales de la Propagation de la Foi pour les Provinces du Quebec et de Montreal, Vol. 31, new series, pp. 85-92. (church records in the Athabasca Mackenzie district)

DUCHAUSSOIS, R. P. 1928

AUX GLACES regions)

FARAUD, H. J. 1866

DIX-HUIT ANS CHEZ LES SAUVAGES. Paris (experi¬ ences among the northern Indians)

GALITZIN, E. 1853

OBSERVATIONS RECUEILLIES PAR L’ADMIRAL WRANGELL SUR LES HABITANTS DES COTES NORD-OUEST DE L’AMERIQUE. (Wrangell’s observa¬ tions of the northwest coast)

GROUARD, E. J. B. n.d.

SOUVENIRS DE MES SOIXANTE ANS D APOSTOLAT DANS L’ATHABASKA-MACKENZIE. Winnepeg. (memoirs of a priest)

HATT, GUDMUND 1914

ARKISSKE SKINDDRAGTER I EURASIEN OG AMERIKA. Copenhagen, (arctic skin boats in Eurasia and America)

1916

KYST- OG INDLANDSKULTUR I DET ARKTISKE. Copenhagen, (coast and interior arctic regions)

HERMANT, P. 1904

EVOLUTION ECONOMIQUE ET SOCIALE DE CERTAINES PEUPLADES DE L AMERIQUE DU NORD. Bulletin de la Societe Royale Beige de Geographis, Vol. 28. pp. 341-57. (concerns social and economic aspects of northern peoples)

HOLMBERG, HENRIK J. 1855

ETHNOGRAPHISCHE SKIZZEN UBER DIE VOLKER DES RUSSISCHEN AMERIKA. Part 1, Vol. 4. (Russian American Sketches)

INGSTAD, H. M. 1931

PELSJEGERLIV BLANDT NORD-KANADAS INDIANERE. Oslo, (fur trapper’s life in the north of Canada)

JETTE, JULIUS 1906

L’ORGANISATION SOCIALE DES TEN’AS. Interna¬ tional Congress of Americanists, 15th Session, pp. 395-409. (Ten’a social and geographical organization)

KONIG, H. 1928-29

DAS RECHT DER POLARVOLKER. Anthropos, Vol. 23-24. (law of polar peoples)

KRUSENSTERN, A. J. 1813

WORTER-SAMMLUNGEN AUS DEN SPRACHEN EINIGER VOLKER DES OSTLICHEN ASIEN UND DER NORDWEST-KUSTE VON AMERIKA. St. Petersburg, (linguistics of eastern Asia and northwest America) B-2

POLAIRES.

Paris

(concerns

polar

LAUBER, HEDWIG 1949

ZWISCHEN ZWEI WELTEN: VOM SCHICKSAL DER INDIANER IN NORDAMERIKA.

LEGOFF, L. 1889

GRAMMAIRE DE LA LANGUE MONTAGNAISE. Montreal, (linguistic work)

LEGOFF, R. P. 1906

NOTE SUR LA LANGUE DES DENES. Congres Inter¬ national des Americanistes, 15 Session, Part 2. pp. 217-224. (notes on the Dene)

LINDENKOHL, A. 1892

DAS GEBIET DES JUKON-FLUSSES. Petermanns Mitteilungen aus Justus Perthes Geographischer Anstalt, Vol. 38. Gotha, pp. 134-9. (concerns the Yukon River area)

LOSKIEL, G. H. 1789

GESCHICTHS DER MISSION DER EVANGELISCHEN BRUDER UNTER DEN INDIANERN IN NORDAMER¬ IKA. Barby. (history of religion in the north)

MACNEISH, JUNE HELM 1960

LES INDIENS DENE DE LA FORET SUBARCTIQUE. Science et Nature, Vol. 71. pp. 37-43. (concerns the Indians of the subarctic)

MICHEA, JEAN 1959

LES CHITRO-GOTTINEKE, GROUPE ATHAPASCAN DES MONT AGNES ROUCHEUSES. Societe des Americanistes Journal, Vol. 48, new series, pp. 197-235. (concerns the Rocky Mountain Indians)

MIKE, WILHELM 1959

ATHAPASKISCHE CHRONOLOGIE: VERSUCH EINER REVISION. International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 25. pp. 182-188. (linguistic work)

MORICE, ADRIAN G. 1897

AU PAYS DE L’OURS NOIR. Paris, (country of the black bear)

1906

LA FEMME CHEZ LES DENES. Congres International des Americanistes, 15 Session, pp. 362-394 (Dene women)

1908

LE VERBE DANS LES LANGUES DENEES. Congres International des Americanistes, 16 Session, pp. 577-595. (linguistic work)

1924

L’ABSTRACTION DANS LA LANGUE DES PORTEURS. International Congress of Americanists, 21st Session, Part 1. pp. 320-322. (linguistic work)

1928

LES DENES DU NORD. Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie, Vol. 22. pp. 146-90. (Dene)

B-3

PETITOT, EMILE 1868

ETUDE SUR LA NATION MONTAGNAISE OU TCHIPPEWAYNE. Les Missions Catholiques, Vol. 1. pp. 135-6, 144, 151-2, 159-60,168,183-4, 199-200, 106-8, 215-16. (Chipewyan)

1875

EN ROUTE POUR LA MER GLACIALE. Paris, (travel in the north)

1875

ESSAI SUR L’ORIGINE DES DENE-DINDJIE. Paris, (linguistic work concerning the Dene language)

1875

GEOGRAPHIE DE L’ATHABASKAW-MACKENZIE ET DES GRAND LACS DU BASSIN ARCTIQUE. Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie, serie 6, Vol. 10. pp. 5-42, 126-183, 242-290. (geography in northern Canada)

1875

LES DENE-DINDJIES. Proceedings of the International Congress of Americanists, Vol. 1, Part 2. pp. 13-37, 245-56. (Dene)

1875

OUTILS EN PIERRE ET EN OS DU MACKENZIE. Materiaux pour THistoire Primitive et Naturelle de l’Homme. pp. 398-405. (stone and bone tools of the Mackenzie people)

1876

DICTIONNAIRE DE LA LANGUE DENE-DINDJIE. Paris, (linguistic work)

1876

MONOGRAPHIE DES DENE-DENJIE. Ernest Leroux, Paris. (Dene)

1878

SIX LEGENDES AMERICAINES. Les Missions Catholi¬ ques, Vol. 10, pp. 605-7, 616-20. (mythology)

1883

DE L’ORIGINE ASIATIQUE DES INDIENS DE L’AMERIQUE ARCTIQUE. Actes de la Societe Philologique, Vol. 12. pp. 41-58. (origin of American Indians in Asia)

1884

LA FEMME AU SERPENT. Melusine, Vol. 2. pp. 19-20. (mythology)

1884

PETIT VOCABULAIRE SARCIS. Actes de la Societe Philologique, Vol. 14. pp. 193-8. (linguistic vocabulary of Sarsi)

1886

TRADITIONS INDIENNES DU CANADA NORDOUEST. Les Litteratures Populates de Toutes les Nations, Vol. 23. pp. 345-442. (mythology)

B-4

PETITOT, EMILE 1889

QUINZE ANS SOUS LE CERCLE POLAIRE. Paris, (in the polar region)

1891

AUTOUR DU GRAND LAC DES ESCLAVES. Paris. (Slave Lake area)

1893

EXPLORATION DE LA REGION DU GRAND LAC DES OURS. Paris, (exploration of the Great Bear Lake region)

1899

DE CARLTON-HOUSE AU FORT PITT. Societe Neuchateoloise de Geographie, Bulletin 11. pp. 176-95. (travel account in Canada)

PINART, A. L. 1875

SUR LES ATNAHS. Ernest Leroux, Paris, (concerns the Ahtena)

PRUD’HOMME, A. 1929

LE. R.P. GROLLIER, PREMIER APOTRE DU MAC¬ KENZIE. Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, Section 1, Vol. 23. pp. 57-69. (priest’s experiences in northern Canada)

RADLOFF, L. 1857

EINIGE KRITISCHE BEMERKUNGEN UBER HRN. Buschmann’s Behandlung der Kinai-Sprache. Academie Imperiale des Sciences, Melanges Russes, Vol. 3. pp. 364-99. (some critical comments on Buschmann’s discussion of the Kenai language)

1874

WORTERBUCH DER KINAISPRACHE. Memoires de l’Academie Imperale des Sciences de St. Petersbourg, Series 7, Vol. 21, Part 8. pp. 1-33. (vocabulary list in Kenai)

SCHOTT, W. 1894

UEBER ETHNOGRAPHISCHE ERGEBNISSE DER SAGOSKINSCHEN REISE. Archiv fur Wissenschaftliche, Kunde Von Russland. Vol. 7. pp. 480-512. (language comparison of Kenai and Tungas)

SELIGMANN, K. 1939

LE MAT-TOTEM DE GEDEM SKANISH. Journal de la Societe des Americanistes, Vol. 31, new series, pp. 121-8. (totems of the Sekani)

TACHE, J. C. 1869

ESQUISSE SUR LE NORD’OUEST DE L’AMERIQUE. pp. 86-91. (sketches of the northwest)

1888

VINGT ANNEES DE MISSIONS DANS LE NORDOUEST DE 1’AMERIQUE. Montreal, (missions in the northwest)

WOLDT, A. 1884

CAPITAIN JACOBSEN’S REISE AN DER NORDWESTKUSTE AMERIKAS. Leipzig, (northwest coast exploration)

B-5

BEITRAGE ZUR KENNTNISS DES RUSSISCHEN REICHES UND DER ANGRANZENDEN LANDER ASIENS. Vol. 1. pp. 103-16. (northwest coast explora¬ tion)

WRANGELL, F. P. 1838

OBIT ATE LI SEVERO-ZAPADNYKH BEREGOV AMERIKI. Syn Otechestva, Vol. 7. pp. 51-82. (concerns residents of the northwest coast)

1J

4 850 4 B-6

L'rK'w, Mnnur t

ThJ suharetic Athabascans

FOR REFERENCE ONLY Do Not Remove From The Library

242874

a