The Stone Age of South India and Sri Lanka: A critical review 9780860542971, 9781407338491

Table of contents :
Cover
Copyright
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I. THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT OF SOUTH INDIA & SRI LANKA IN THE PLEISTOCENE
CHAPTER II. PERIODIZATION PROBLEMS OF THE STONE AGE OF INDIA
CHAPTER III. STONE AGE OF SOUTHERN INDIA
CHAPTER IV. STONE AGE OF SRI LANKA
CHAPTER V. SOME PROBLEMS OF THE SOUTHERN INDIAN & SRI LANKAN STONE AGE
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Illustrations

Citation preview

The Stone Age of South India and Sri Lanka A critical· review Edmund Wickramapathirana

BAR International Series 228 1984

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R Walker, M.A.

BAR-S228,t984 :'The Stpne Age of South India and Sri Lanka' © Erunund.Wickramapathirana,1984

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542971 paperback ISBN 9781407338491 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542971 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C ONT ITTS

I ntroduction C hapter I :

1 T he n atural e nvironment o f S outh I ndia a nd S ri L anka i nthe P leistocene .

7

C hapter I I :

P eriodisation p roblems o f t he S tone A ge o f I ndia .

C hapter I II :

S tone A ge o f S outhern I ndia .

2 4

C hapter I V :

S tone A ge o f S ri L anka.

5 7

C hapter V :

S ome P roblems o f t he S outhern I ndian a nd S ri L ankan S tone A ge.

7 3

C onclusion B ibliography I llustrations

8 2

I NTRODUCTION

Many r esearchers a re g reatly i nterested i n t he e arliest p eriod o f d evelopment o f m ankind - t he S tone A ge . P roblems c oncerning s tages o f S tone A ge d evelopment d o n ot p resent a c lear p icture f ree o f a ny c ontradictions , b ut r ather r eflect a c omplicated a nd d iscrepant p rocess o f t he e mergence a nd p rogress o f a ncient m an a nd h uman s ociety . N ew p roblems k eep o n a rising a long w ith t he p rogress o f s cience : t he p lace o f o rigin o f m an , h is s ettling a nd m igrations, l ocalization o f c ultures a nd t heir r elations , t heoretical p roblems o f a nthropogenesis , o f t he o rigin o f r ace a nd o f t he p eriodization a nd e volution o f e arly s ocieties a re s et a nd s olved i n an ew w ay. I t s hould b e n oted t hat t he e xtent t o which t he S tone A ge h as b een i nvestigated i n d ifferent p arts o f t he w orld v aries f rom p lace t o p lace . E urope a nd t hose p arts o f N orth A frica a nd t he M iddle E ast a djacent t o i t h ave b een i nvestigated f ar b etter t han A sia a nd i n p articular i t 's S outhern p arts , i n s pite o f t he f act t hat r esearch i nto t he S tone A ge o f S outh I ndia a nd S ri L anka b egan a lmost s imultaneously w ith t hat o f E urope. R esearch i nto t he S tone A ge o f t he A sian c ontinent h as b een c arried o n f or m ore t han a c entury . M any d iscoveries w ere m ade a nd h undreds o f S tone A ge s ites w ere i nvestigated . Y et m odern w orks o n H istory p ublished i n S outh I ndia a nd S ri L anks i nclude m aterials b ased o n w ritten s ources i ngnoring s ignificant m aterial f rom t he p re-literate e poch c overing h uge p eriods o f t ime. T his e normous s tage

o f h uman H istory i f o ften c alled P rehistoric a nd

e xcluded f rom t he p rocess o f t he g eneral h istorical d evelopment o f I ndia a nd S ri L anka . T hus , t he S tone A ge o n t he w hole - o ne o f t he m ost i mportant p eriods i n t he h istory o f m ankind - i s l eft w ithout p roper a ttention . H owever , S tone A ge s tudies a re i mportant a nd n ecessary b ecause i t w as w ithin t his p eriod m an o pposed n ature a nd t he e lements, c reated a nd d eveloped i mplements , e conomic a ctivites , s ocial r elations a nd p rogressing f urther h e c reated h imself a s ab iological s pecies f rom H omo h abilis t o H omo s apiens . I f w e t urn t o I ndia a s aw hole ,

w e s hall s es t hat f or t he f irst t ime

i nterest t oward P rehistoric A rchaeology a rises w ith t he a rrival o f s pecialists o f E uropean o rigin . I n I ndia t he b eginning o f t he H istory o f t he i nhabitants o f t his s ubcontient i s t raditionally r eferred t o a s t he p eriod o f t he a rrival o f A ryan t ribes a nd m igrations o f D ravidian ( Tamil) t ribes t o f urther S outh . I t i s t ied i n w ith t he f act t hat I ndian t radition s pecifically d eals w ith H istory a nd C hronology . T hough I ndia p ossesses a ncient l iterary w orks r ecording e vents w hich t ook p lace i n r emote t imes ( the " Vedas" , " Puranas ' ' , " Ramayanaya" , " Mahabaratha" ) , H istory i s t reated i n t hem t hrough t he m edium o f m yths , d ates a nd f igures b eing o n ac osmic s cale . T hus i t i s b elieved t hat t he w orld e xists i n t wo p hases : a p hase o f b eing ( Kalpa) w hen t he w orld t ogether w ith i ts i nhabitants e xists , a nd t hat o f n on-being ( Paralaya) . K alpa c onsists o f f our Y ugas; K rita Y uga , T reta Y uga , D vapara Y uga , a nd K alpa Y uga , i n t he p rocess o f w hich t he w orld g oes f rom f lourishing s tate t o d ecay ( Krita Y uga i s a lso c alled S athya Y uga , w hich

m eans

t he e ra o f J ustice ,

t he G olden A ge) .

T he

d uration o f

t hese

Y ugas i s e qual t o 4 800 , 3 600 , 2 400 a nd 1 200 y ears o f g ods r espectively . T ranslated i nto a stronomica l y ears t hey a re :

1

K rita Y uga

=

1 ,728 ,000

T reta Y uga

=

1 ,296 ,000

D vapara Y uga

=

8 64 ,000

K ali Y uga

=

4 32 ,000 s olar y ears . ( Underhill , 1 921).

A dherence t o t his k ind o f c hronology i nhibited I ndians f rom r ecording e xact f acts w ithin a n arrower t ime l imits . T hat i s why H istory a s a s ubject i s u nderdeveloped i n I ndia a s w ell a s i s A rchaeology . T he I ndians n ever s howed m uch i nterest i n a ncient t hings . T his w as p robably d ue t o r eligious b eliefs . F or i nstance i t w as c onsidered s acrilegious t o k eep a d amaged r epresentation o f g od , t o s ay n othing o f w orshipping i t. T he f irst a ttempts t o s tudy t he S tone A ge i n I ndia , 1 50 y ears a go w ere o f ac asual a nd f ragmentary c haracter . b e n oted t hat , u nlike S ri L anka ,

t hough b egun o ver H owever , i t m ust

I ndia h as p rogressed g reatly i n P rehistoric

s tudies . A fter t he p roclamation o f i ndependence i n 1 947 t here w ere g reat c hanges i n t he A rchaeological s tudies o f t he S tone A ge i n I ndia . I n r ecent d ecades i ndigenous A rchaeologists h ave b een t rained a nd a n I ndian s chool o f A rchaeology w ith i ts o wn m ethods o f i nvestigation h as b een e stablished . T oday t here e xists a w ide r ange o f A rchaeological I nstitutions i n I ndia a long w ith a l arge n umber o f R esearch C entres a nd M useums ,

c oordinated b y

t he A rchaeology D epartment o f I ndia . T he n ames o f I ndian A rchaeologists s uch a s A .K . G hosh , H .D . S ankalia , V .D . K rishnaswamy, S .C . M alik , B . S ubbarao , R .V . J oshi a nd m any o thers a re w idely k nown . A n A rchaeological j ournal ' Ancient I ndia" - a c entral o rgan o f I ndian A rchaeology - r anks a mong t he b est A rchaeological p ublications . T he h istory o f t he s tudy o f t he S tone A ge

S ri L anka e xtends b ack o ver

1 00 y ears , b ut i f w e c onsider t he s tate o f k nowledge o f t his s ubject , w e f ind t hat t he S tone A ge o f t he i sland i s a s y et h ardly i nvestigated , b ecause o f t he s carcity o f s pecialists w ith a t horough u niversity e ducation . C ertain S rilankan s cholars w ho h ave d ealt w ith p roblems o f S tone A ge s ites a t t he s ame t ime d ealt w ith v arious o ther s cientific q uestions , a nd w ere a ctually a mateurs r ather t han q ualified P rehistorians . A lso s tudents a re n ot p articularly i nterested i n t he s ubject a s t he H istory o f e arly s ociety h as n ot w on r ecognition a t t he u niversities o f S ri L anka . T he b eginning o f

t he h istory o f S ri L anka i s a ttributed t o t he f irst

I ndo-Aryan s ettlers ( both b y S rilankan a nd E uropean s cholars) w ho w ere t o b ecome t he a ncestors o f t he S inhalese n ation a nd f orm t he m ajority o f t he p resent d ay S rilankan p opulation . T his i nformation i s m ainly t aken f rom t he S rilankan c hronicle , " Mahavansa" , d ating b ack t o t he 5 th c entury . I t r eads a s f ollows : i n t he f irst m illenium B .C . t here w as a k ingdom u nder t he l eadership o f " Lal" i n N orthern I ndia , w hose r ulers w ere s aid t o h ave l ions b lood i n t heir o rigin . B ecause o f i nternecine w ars , V ijaya , t he e ldest s on o f o ne o f t he r ulers t ogether w ith h is s upporters l eft h is n ative l and a nd , a fter m any a dventures s ailed t o t he i sland i n 5 43 B .C ., w hich was c alled a fter V ijaya 's c lan " Sinhaladvipa" . T he S inhalese h ad t o e ncounter n umerous c lashes w ith t he a borogines o f t he i sland , t he %eddas ' ' . T hey w ere p artly d estroyed a nd p artly a ssimilated w ith t he S inhalese . t hey a mount t o o nly s ome h undreds o f p eople.

2

N owadays

T hus i t b ecomes c lear why t he S inhalese w ere n ot p articularly i nterested i n s tudying t he S tone A ge o f t he i sland - t heir h istory d id n ot o riginate i n i t . A mong t he l ocal p opulation t here w ere n o p eople e ducated e nough t o s tudy t he S tone A ge o f t he i sland , b ecause b y t he t ime o f t he S inhalese a rrival t he V eddas w as a n i nferior c ulture . T oday t here a re n o s pecialists o f t his k ind a mong t he V eddas . T he a ttitude o f t he S inhalese a ccording t o w hich t he V eddas c ontribution t o t he g eneral c ulture o f t he i sland h as b een s o i nsignificant , h as p revented t he S inhalese f rom s tudying t he a ncient c ulture o f t he o riginal s ettlers o f A ge.

t he i sland .

i .e .

t he S tone

T oday A rchaeology o ccupies q uite a r espected p osition i n t he c ultural a nd s cientific l ife o f S ri L anka . T here a re s pecial a rchaeological I nstitutions f unctiononing i n t he r epublic , s uch a s t he D epartment o f A rchaeology, a nd a n umber o f Museums w h . h s tudy p ractically a ll t he A rchaeological e pochs r epresented i n t he i s ‘ Id i . T hough t he D epartment o f A rchaeology e njoys p opularity a nd s upport a r t,ng t he p opulation o f S ri L anka , o wing t o t he f act t hat t he A rchaeologists & Le r egarded a s t he c ustodians o f t he B uddhist r eligious m onuments w hich a re p lentiful i n t he i sland , s till i nvestigation i nto i ts e arly s tages i s a lmos t n eglected. I t i s aw idespread a ssumption t hat t he c ask o f t he A rchaeologists i s t o d iscover a nd r estore t hese B uddhist m onuments . a t A rchaeological s ites i s v ery n othing t o d o w ith A rchaeology.

A lso ,

r econstruction w ork

o ften e xecuted b y d epartments

W hich h ave

" Spolia Z eylanica" a nd t he " Journal o f t he N ational M useum o f C eylon" , p ublished b y t he N ational Museum o f C olombo , c an .b e r eferred t o a s s cientific j ournals d ealing w ith p roblems o f A rchaeology , E thnography , Z oology, e tc .,. P ublished m aterials o n t he S tone A ge o f I ndia i s q uite v oluminous , w hile i n S ri L anka t here a re v ery f ew w orks o n t he s ubject . A l arge n umber o f b ooks h ave b een p ublished which h ave b een much c ommented o n i n t he s cientific w orld . S ankalia 's w ork s hould b e n oted f irst o f a ll a mong t hem ( Sankalia , 1 974) . A mong A rchaeological b ooks , s ome s pecial w orks h ave b een p ublished c oncerning t he r adiocarbon d ating o f a ncient s ites . M any b ooks a nd l ong a rticles c an b e q uoted t o g ive a c lear i ndication o f t he s uccesses a ttained i n t he s tudy o f T he S tone A ge o f I ndia . T he r ole o f I ndian A rchaeologists i n d iscovering a nd i nvestigating n ew S oanian a nd A cheulian s ites s hould b e s tressed (A11, 1 956 ; J oshi , 1 966 ; M isra , 1 967 e tc .) . T hey a lso c ontributed g reatly t o t he d etermination o f t he M iddle ( Banerjee , 1 957) a nd U pper p alaeolithic ( Murty, 1 968) . I n I ndia s eminars a re h eld o n P rehistoric A rchaeology w here p roblems o f t he T ypology o f t he S oanian a nd A cheulian c omplexes a re d iscussed , e tc . ,

(Msra

& M ate ,

1 965) .

w ith t he p eriodization o f t he S tone A ge

H owever ,

n ot a ll

t he s cientific a nd g eneral

a spects a nd t rends a re r epresented i n t he P rehistoric A rchaeology o f I ndia a nd S ri L anka . J udging f rom t heir p ublications , t he P rehistorians i n t he f irst p lace t ry t o g ive t he r esults o f e xcavated s ites , t o d efine t heir a ge a nd c ultural c ontext , t o r elate c ultures a nd s o o n . C ertainly , a ll t his i s r elevant t o t he m ost i mportant p roblems o f P rehistoric A rchaeology , i s h ardly p ossible t o r estrict t he s tudy w ithin s uch l imits .

b ut i t S ome

f undamental i ssues a re n ot i ncluded i n t his l ist . F or i nstance : t o w hat e xtent S tone A ge c ultures h ave b een s tudied i n d ifferent p arts o f I ndia a nd S ri L anka? H ow a re t he s tone t ools a nalysed? W hat s uccess h as b een a chieved i n S tone A ge A rchaeology i n r econstructing t he s ocio-economic

3

s tructures o f a ncient s ocieties? T o a nswer t hese q uestions o ne s hould r egard P rehistoric A rchaeology f rom t he p oint o f v iew o f H istoriography a nd t he S tudy o f s ources . I n o ther words, i t i s h igh t ime t hat g eneral t heoretical w orks w ere p roduced . A ny s cience , A rchaeology i ncluded , c an s olve i ts s pecific p roblems o nly i f i t g eneralises w hat h as a lready b een a chieved , r ealizing i ts s cientific a nd g eneral c oncepts a s w ell a s m ethods t reating i ts s ources a nd p roblems . H aving g eneralized t he a ccumulated d ata , a nd c orrected i ts o riginal c oncepts , a s cience m akes f urther p rogress . S o f ar t here h ave b een n o w orks d edicated e ither t o H istoriography o r t he S tudy o f t he s ources o f t he S tone A ge i n I ndia a nd S ri L anka . T he a im o f t his w ork i s t o p rovide a S tudy o f s ources ( and i n o ne s ense H istoriography) o f t he S tone A ge o f S outh I ndia & S ri L anka . W e w ill g ive a c ritical r eview o f t he a vailable l iterature o f t he P leistocene a nd H olocene e nvironments , o f t he S tone A ge p eriodization o f t hese c ountries a nd o f t heoretical a nd s ystemetic c oncepts o f t heir P rehistoric A rchaeology. I n t he l ater c hapters w e w ill t ry t o p resent n ot o nly a f ull l ist o f k nown a nd i nvestigated s ites b ut a lso t o d emonstrate t he i ncompleteness i n t heir G eological a nd P alynological s tudies . W e s hall a lso t ouch u pon t he q uestion o f s tone t ool T ypology a nd t heir p robable f unctions a s w ell a s p roblems o f t he o rigin o f t he L ower , M iddle a nd U pper p alaeolithic , M esolithic a nd N eolithic i n S outhern I ndia . T he P alaeolithic , M esolithic a nd N eolithic o f S ri L anka w ill b e s tudied s eperately . W hen c onsidering t he a vailable l iterature , o ne p erceives t hat q uestions o f e nvironmental s tudies a re r ather p oorly w orked o ut . N evertheless t he e nvironment s hould h e u nderstood n ot a s a f ormal b ackground t o b e o verlaid b y aT ypological s tructure o f c ultures , b ut a s a p rocess w hich f or a f airly l ong p eriod o f t ime i nfluenced t he p hysical d evelopment o f t he a ncient m an , t he f orm o f h is i ndustries , h is w ay o f l ife a nd e ven h is s ocial r elations . A ll t his i s p roved n ot o nly b y A rchaeological m aterial b ut a lso b y E thnographic d ata . U nfortunately a ttention i s n ot p aid t o t hese q uestions i n t he l iterature o n t he S tone A ge o f S outh A sia . Q uestions r elating t o p hysical a nd t echnological p roperites o f t he r aw m aterials u sed f or p roducing i mplements a re a lso v ery p oorly t reated . T his d ata a s w ell a s i nformation a bout s hapes a nd p reforms , a re i mportant f or t he a nalysis a nd c lassification o f A rchaeological m aterial. A s t o t he S tone A ge p eriodization , t here i s s till much c ontroversy h anging a bout a mong t he s cholastic c ircles . A n umber o f d ifferent , a nd s till s ometimes i ncompatible , p oints o f v iew c oncerning t his q uestion a re p ossible h ere . T his i s e xplained b y t he f act t hat t he P rehistoric A rchaeology o f S outh A sia i s r ather a y oung s cience , a nd a lso t hat t he s tone i ndustries o f t his r egion a re v ery s pecific . T he l atter p oint s eems o f m ore s ignificance . T here i s m ore t han o ne o pinion c oncerning t he u se o f t he t erms L ower , M iddle a nd U pper P alaeolithic , M esolithic a nd N eolithic o n t he o ne h and , a nd E arly, M iddle a nd L ate S tone A ge a nd N eolithic o n t he o ther . B oth o pinions a re s ure t o p ossess g ood a nd b ad p oints. F or i nstance , M iddle P alaeolithic a s w ell a s U pper P alaeolithic h ave n ot b een f ound a ll o ver I ndia . F urthermore , t ypologically t he s tone i ndustries o f t hese p eriods a re m arkedly d istinguished f rom t heir a nalogies i n E urope a nd C entral A sia . H owever , h ere w e a re r unning t he r isk o f t urning a d iscussion o n t erminology i nto a f ruitless d ispute a bout t erms , s liding o ver t he s urface o f t he q uestion . T he t erm " Middle P alaeolithic" , f or e xample , c an n ot b e r ejected j ust b ecause i ts i ndustries d o n ot f ully c orrespond t o t hose o f W estern E urope . I t i s m ore i mportant t hat i t d iffers

4

t ypologically

f rom t he L ower P alaeolithic .

W e

t hink

t hat A rchaeological

e pochs s hould f irst o f a ll i nvolve t ypologically d ifferent i ndustries d istinguished f or p articular t erritories . G eneral ( systematic) r esemblance c an b e a bsent . I n t his r espect , p eriodization p ut f orward b y S ankalia f or I ndia , i .e . L ower , M iddle , U pper P alaeolithic , M esolithic a nd N eolithic c an b e q uite a cceptable . ( Sankalia , 1 973) . S erious a ttention h as n ot b een p aid t o m ethodological a s w ell a s s ystematic c oncepts o f P rehistoric A rchaeology a nd s cientifically s ubstantiated a pproaches t o t he s olution o f t heir p roblems o f t he P rehistoric A rchaeology o f S outhern I ndia a nd S ri L anka .

F irstly i t s hould

b e n oted t hat m any I ndian a rchaeolgists d o n ot m ake u se o f t he n ewest t ypological m ethods o f s tone t ool a nalysis, which h ave r apidly g ained p opularity i n E urope . M icrowear a nalysis a nd e xperimental s tudy o f s tone t ools a re p ractically n ot k nown y et i n I ndia a nd S ri L anka a lthough t hese m ethods a re h ighly a cclaimed among P rehistorians t hroughout t he w orld , t hanks • t o t he work b y S .A . S emenov , o f t he L eningrad A cademy o f S cience ( Semenov , 1 950 , 1 957, 1 964 , 1 968) . E xperimental-microwear a nalysis p rovides t he o pportunity n ot o nly t o s tudy t he m orphology a nd t echnology o f t ool p roduction m ore t horoughly , b ut a lso p rovides a b asis t o r econstruct t he e conomy a nd p roduction o f a ncient s ocieties . M any r esearchers, e specially t hose d ealing w ith t he M esololithic a nd N eolithic d o n ot f ully r ealize t hat t heir p rincipal t heoretical t ask i s t o r econstruct t he c ultural p rocess a s w ell a s t he e conomy a nd t he s ocial s tructure o f a ncient t ribes . W orks b y V .M . M asson ( 197 0 , G .F . K orobkova ( 1969) , V .P . L ubin ( 1977) , H .de L umley ( 1972) , L . R . B inford ( 1972) w ell i llustrate t heoretical a pproaches t o t hese p roblems b ased o n a n e normous v olume o f f actual m aterial . T here a re n o s pecial p ublications o n t he H istory o f t he s tudy o f t he I ndian a nd S rilankan S tone A ge . M any r esearchers p refer t o t ouch c asually u pon t his q uestion . O ur a im t hen i s t o g ive more o r l ess a d etailed a ccount o f t he s ubject, t o s how t he g reat a chievements o f I ndian A rchaeologists i n t he l ast 2 0 y ears . I t i s o f i mportance t hat i t w as m ade b y I ndian A rchaeologists w ho t oday f orm a n a uthoritative s cientific s chool . A t t he s ame t ime t he c lose a ttention p aid t o t he S tone A ge o f S outhern I ndia a nd S ri L anka b y f oreign s pecialists , p articularly f rom t he S oviet U nion m ust b e n oted . F irst o f a ll , P .I . B oriskovsky , V .A . R anov , V .M . M asson a nd A .Y . S hetenko s hould b e m entioned . P rofessor S ankalia i n h is p reface t o a l arge c ollection o f a rticles b y I ndian s cholars p ublished i n 1 965 p oints o ut t hat , a part f rom S oviet s cholars , t he m ajority o f W estern s cholars h ave p aid l ittle a ttention t o I ndian p ublications o n t he l atest a chievements o f I ndian A rchaeology ( Sankalia , P reface t o " Indian P rehistory 1 964") . I n t his c onnection we would l ike t o c ite P rofessor B oriskovsky 's w ords " indeed , S oviet A rchaeolgists, p articularly t hose i nvestigating P rehistoric A rchaeology o f C entral A sia , S iberia a nd t he C aucasus , s how m uch i nterest t oward t heir I ndian c olleagues 's a chievements , m aking w ide u se o f t heir d iscoveries f or t he p rofound c omprehension o f t he p rehistoric p ast o f o ur c ountry" ( Boriskovsky ,

1 967 p .

7 1) .

W e w ould l ike t o b elieve t hat s uccessful i nvestigation o f t he S tone A ge o f I ndia a nd S ri L anka w ill c ontinue t o d evelop . e xperience a nd t hat o f t heir E uropean c olleagues , t he

U sing t heir o wn A rchaeologists o f

t hese c ountries w ill t ry t o i mprove m ethods o f s ite s tudy a nd a nalysis o f s tone a rtefacts a s w ell a s i ncluding a l arge n umber o f t heoretical p roblems i n t heir f ield o f i nterest. T his w ork i s w ritten o n t he b asis o f p ublished m aterial , s tudied b y t he

5

a uthor i n t he l ibraries o f L eningrad , L ondon a nd C olombo . I t w as c ompleted a t t he D epartment o f A rchaeology o f t he L eningrad S tate U niversity . T he a uthor e xpresses h is p rofound g ratitude t o t he g overnments o f t he U .S .S .R . a nd S ri L anka f or t he o pportunity t o s tudy A rchaeology a t t he L eningrad S tate U niversity a nd l ater a t t he L eningrad I nstitute o f A rchaeology o f t he U .S .S .R . A cademy o f S ciences, a nd a lso t o t he B ritish G overnment f or p ermission t o c arry o ut r esearch w ork i n t he U .K . a t v arious p eriods. T he a uthor i s g reatly i ndebted t o h is s cientific a dviser p rofessor B oriskovsky w hose r emarks a nd c riticism w ere v ery h elpful i n t he w ork . T here

c an

b e n o d enial o f

t he a uthor 's

i ntellectual d ebt t o h is

t eachers a t t he L eningrad S tate U niversity , e specially t o t he H ead o f t he D epartment o f A rchaeology P rofessor A .D . S toliar a nd a lso t o A ssociate P rofessor L eo S . K lejn a l eading f igure i n T heoretical A rchaeology . T he f ollowing e minent a uthorities o n P alaeolithic a nd N eolithic w ho w ere l ater t he a uthor 's c olleagues a t t he L eningrad I nstitute o f A rchaeology o f

t he

U .S .S .R .

A cademy

o f

S ciences

g ave

h im

t he u tmost s upport

b y g oing

t hrough t he m anuscript a nd m aking v aluable s uggestions o n v arious a spects o f t he w ork . T he a uthor e xpresses h is d eepest g ratitude t o t hem ; P rofessor V .M .

M asson

( Director) ,

P rofessor

G .P .

G rigorev ,

P rofessor

Z .A .

A bramova ,

P rofessor G .F . K orobkova , P rofessor P .M . D olukanov , D r . A .E . M athukhin , D r . N .D . P raslov , D r . A .Y . S hchetenko , D r . V .E . S hchelinski a s well a s D r . E .E . F radkin o f t he I nstitute o f E thnography a nd A nthropology o f t he U .S .S.R . A cademy o f S ciences. T he a uthor i s i ndebted t o M rs ,

H elen G ordon M .A .

f or m ajor h elp w ith

t he p reparation o f t his E nglish e dition . T hanks a re a lso d ue t o Mr . R obin F letcher M .A . ( Cant .) who k indly s ponsored t he a uthor 's v arious s tays i n t he U nited K ingdom a nd a lso t o M iss J ean A rrowsmith a nd M rs . S heila M ackay ( Museum o f M ankind , L ondon ) , M r . D avid M inoli B .Sc ,

Mr . E dward G allagher ,

M iss . E lizabeth C urran ,

M argaret C urran B .A .H .Dip . E d" M r . H enry H enriques , D e . S ilva f or t heir f inancial a nd o ther s upport .

B .A .R .

Mrs .

T anya K uvshinova a nd S .

F inally , t he a uthor e xpresses h is t hanks t o t he G eneral E ditors o f t he P ublishers D r . A .R . H ands a nd M r . D .R . W alker w ho a greed t o p ublish

t his b ook i n t heir I nternational S eries.

6

C HAPTER 1 T HE N ATURAL E NVIRONMENT O F S OUTH I NDIA & S RI L ANKA I N T HE P LEISTOCENE

T he h istorical s tudy o f a ny c ountry o r a ny c ulture i s a lways c losely c oncerned w ith t he e mergence a nd d evelopment o f t he h uman s ociety f ormed b y i ts i nhabitants . L ife o f a s ociety i s i nfluenced b y a n umber o f f actors , t hat o f t he g eographical c onditions p laying o ne o f t he m ain r oles. T his

f actor i s

i mportant

b ecause

i t d etermines

t he

c haracter

o f

t he

e conomic a nd c ultural w ay o f l ife o f t he p eople . A t t he d awn o f h uman s ociety , t he i nfluence o f n ature w as v ery s trong , e arly m an h aving n either k nowledge n or e xperience t o o ppose i t . H ence , w ithout t aking i nto c onsideration t he g reat i nfluence o f n ature s urrounding e arly m an , a nd t he h ard c onditions o f h is e xistence , i t i s n ot p ossible t o u nderstand t he h istory o f t he d evelopment o f p rehistoric h uman s ociety. I n t his r eport i t i s r elevant t o q uote t he g reat t hinker F . E ngels " We k now o nly o ne s cience , t he s cience o f H istory . C onsidering H istory f rom t wo s ides , i t m ay b e d ivided i nto a H istory o f n ature a nd a H istory o f t he p eople . H owever , t hese t wo s ides a re i nseparably c onnected ; a s p eople e xist, a H istory o f n ature a nd a H istory o f t he p eople a re m utually d ependant" ( Marx & E ngles, 1 955 , p . 1 6 -i n R ussian). H ence

t he

n atural

e nvironmental

s tudy

o f

t he

S ri

L ankan

i sland

a nd

S outhern I ndia m akes i t p ossible t o d efine f actors w hich d etermine t he e ssential f eatures o f t he h istorical d evelopment o f t his r emote p art o f t he w orld. T he t erritory

o f

S outhern

I ndia

t o

t he s outh o f 2 00 r esembles a

t riangle i n s hape ( Figure 1 ) . A m ain f eature i n t he S outh I ndian r elief i s t he D eccan p lateau , r esembling a v ast p latform b roken i nto s everal p arts b y n umerous f aults , a nd i nclined f rom t he w est t o t he e ast . T he p latform i s l argely c omposed o f g neisses , g ranites , c rystalline s chists a nd l imestone o f p re-Cambrian a ge . T he p lateau i s f lanked b y t he E astern C hats r anges o n t he e ast , a nd t he l oftier W estern G hats r anges . T he a verage h eight o f t he W estern G hats i s 1 ,200 n u A n atural c ontinuation o f t hese r anges i n t he s outh o f t he I ndian p eninsula i s t he N ilgiri H ills r eaching 2 ,670 m i n h eight . T o t he s outh f rom t he N ilgiri l ies t he P alghat G ap , which s eparates t he N ilgiri f rom t he A naimudi m ountains , w ith t he A naimudi p eak , t he h ighest p oint o f t he p eninsula ( 2 ,695 m ) .

F arther t o t he

s outh

s tretch t he K ardamon m ountains , a nd f arther o n t o t he e ast l ie t he P almi r ange ( 2 ,233 m ) d escending t o t he K arnataka p lain . R ivers o f t he s outhern p art o f t he D eccan p lateau f low i nto t he B ay o f B engal b asin . o f t hem ,

t he C auvery r iver ,

T here i s

T he l argest

s tarts i n t he W estern G hats .

a m onsoon c limate i n I ndia .

R egions o f d iffering c limatic

c onditions c an b e d istinguished : i t i s h ot a nd f airly d amp o n t he M alabar c oast, w hile b oth t he C oromandel c oast a nd t he K arnataka p lain a re c haracterized b y ad rier c limate . T he c losed r egion o f t he D eccan-Mysore

7

h as t he c limate o f a rid s avannas . D iversity o f c limatic c onditions c auses s oil d ifferences . R ed s oils f orm o n t he c rystalline r ocks o f t he s outhern D eccan . T he n orthern p art o f t he M alabar c oast a nd a l arger p art o f K arnataka a re c overed b y l aterite . Ah igher p art o f t he K arnataka p lain i s m ade u p o f b lack e arth - l ike s oils o f a rid s avannas , " regur" ; o n t he s outh o f t he M alabar c oast t here a re s andy b rown s oils . F lora a nd f auna o f S outhern I ndia a re r ich a nd m ultifarious .

M alay-

t ype d amp e vergreen f orest p redominates h ere , t ogether w ith s avannas w ith s parse b ranchy t rees . T he f auna o f S outhern I ndia i s r epresented b y v arious k inds o f l arge u ngulates, b easts o f p rey, b irds, s nakes a nd m onkeys. S ri L anka i s o ne o f t he l argest i slands o f t he g lobe , a nd i s s eparted f rom t he I ndian p eninsula b y t he P olk S trait , l ess t han 2 0 k m i n w idth , a nd b y t he G ulf o f M annar ( Figure 2 ) . T he

r elief o f

t he i sland

i s

c haracterised b y

s everal

t erraces .

T he

f irst t errace e xtends f rom s ea l evel t o ah eight o f a l ittle m ore t han 1 00 m , t he s econd t errace , u p t o 5 00 m , w hile t he a verage h eight o f t he t hird t errace r eaches 1 ,200 m , i n s ome p laces g oing u p t o 2 ,000 - 2 ,500 m a bove s ea l evel . T hese l evels c an b e e xplained b y t he t ectonic r ise o f t he w hole i sland f ollowed b y d enudation . T he c limate o f t he i sland i s e quatorial-monsoon . A verage m onthly t emperatures c hange s lightly ( 2 - 4° ) , d aily t emperatures h aving m ore m arked c hanges . T he a verage a nnual t emperature i n T rincomali i s 2 7 .5 °C , i n G alle 2 6 .5 ° . S oils

a nd v egetation o f

t he

i sland a re v ery v aried .

A s i n S outhern

I ndia , l aterite i s e ncountered t hroughout t he i sland . L aten tes r esult f rom t he d ecomposition o f a ncient c rytsalline r ocks ; i n t he u pper h orizon t hey c ontain i ron c ompounds a s s mall a ggregates . T hese a re r ed-orange bar ns ,

r ather a lkaline o n a ccount

o f h eavy p recipitation .

T he s oils a re

p oor i n h umus , d ue t o r apid d ecomposition o f o rganic m atter , a nd t hus a re r ather i nfertile . A s S tatira G uzder p oints o ut , d espite t he f act t hat l aterite p lays a n i mportant p art i n t he p rehistoric i nvestigations , y et s o f ar i ts r ole r emains i ndeterminate , a lthough r esearch o n t he s ubject h as b een c arried o n f or 1 60 y ears ( Guzder , 1 977 , p . 1 ) . S oils o f t he f oothills a re d arker i n c olour a nd t hey a re h ighly f ertile ,

b ecause t he m ineral

m atter , c ontained i n t he b lack s oils i s w ashed o ut b y water i nto d epressions . O n t he J affna p eninsula , r ed-brown l oams a re w idespread , t he p roduct o f t he c hemical w eathering o f l imestone . F ertile a lluvial s oils a re e ncountered a long r iver v alleys a nd s andy s oils a long t he s ea c oast . T he i sland o f S ri L anka a bounds i n v arious k inds o f b easts o f p rey , b irds , m onkeys e tc . T he c onstruction o f ad etailed p alaeoenviornmental f ramework , i ncluding t he g eological p rocesses a nd e volution o f t he f lora a nd f auna d uring t he P leistocene i n I ndia a nd S ri L anka i s a n i mportant p rerequisite t o t he s tudy o f t he S tone A ge o f t hese c ountries .

D ue t o t he e xamination o f t he h istory

o f t he P leistocene u ndertaken i n I ndia b y D e T erra a nd P atterson , T . d e C hardin , M ovius a nd o thers , a nd i n S ri L anka b y D eraniyagala a nd W ayland , t he e volution o f m an a nd h is a ncient s tone c ultures m ay b e c onsidered i n c lose r elationships t o t he e nvironment ( climate , f auna a nd f lora) . T he p roblem o f t he c haracter o f e nvironmental c hanges i n t he I ndian

8

s ubcontinent d uring t he P leistocene s till h as n ot b een c ompletely s olved . I nformation g athering b y a n e xpedition f rom Y ale a nd C ambridge U niversities , i n t he 3 0s , t o t he n orthern p art o f t he s ubcontinent , r emains o f m ajor i mportance . T he e xpedition p roved t he e xistence o f f our g lacial p eriods i n t he H imalayas a nd i nvestigated t he p alaeoenvironmental p rocesses c onnected w ith t hem i n t he p eriglacial z one . We d o n ot p ropose t o d eal h ere w ith t he c haracter o f t hese g lacial p eriods , a s an umber o f w orks e xist w here t hese p eriods a re t reated i n f ull d etail ( Terra & P atterson , 1 939 , p p . 2 23-235 ; B oriskovsky , 1 971; D olukhanov , 1 972) . W e s hall r estrict o ur a ttention t o t he r esults o f t he I nvestigation o f t he P leistocene o f S outhern I ndia w hich i s t he s ubject o f t his work . T he t erritory o f S outhern I ndia w as n ot d iretcly i nfluenced b y g lacial p rocesses t aking p lace i n N orth I ndia . D e T erra 's e xpedition d id n ot I nvestigate t he K otlayar v alley i n t he s outh o f I ndia a s t horoughly a s o ther r egions . H owever w e m ust u se i ts d ata b ecause n o s erious r esearch o f t he v alley h as b een u ndertaken s ince t hen . F or e xample ,

R . A llchin

R "

1 973 ,

p .

3 27) w rites t hat s ince

t he v ery f irst a ttempts o f D e T erra a nd P atterson t o d etermine l inks b etween g lacial s tratigraphy i n K ashmir a nd S ivalik a nd t he s tone i ndustries ' c hronology , t his f ield h as b een v ery p oorly i nvestigated , e xcept f or t he M iddle S tone A ge g roup o f i ndustries a nd t heir r elation t o t he p eriods o f r iver a ggradation a nd e rosion i n P eninsular I ndia . A ccording

t o D e T erra a nd P atterson 's

d ata ,

c omplicated p rocesses

o f

a ggradation , e rosion a nd l aterite-type s oil-formation w ere t aking p lace o n t he M adras c oastal p lain d uring t he Q uaternary p eriod . T he r esearch h as d istinguished t hree e rosive-aggradation c ycles b ringing a bout t hree t errace f ormations i n t he K otlayar r iver v alley Marra & P atterson , 1 939 , p . 3 27) . D e T erra a nd P atterson t ried t o c orrelate t hese e rosive-aggradation c ycles a nd g lacial a nd i nter-glacial p hases o f t he n orth , b ased m ainly o n s tone t ool t ypology . H owever , m any r esearchers a ssume t hat t heir c onclusions

c an n ot

b e

t ransferred

t o S outhern I ndia b ecause o f

t he

e nvironmental d ifferences a nd t he d iversity o f t he s ubcontinent ( Boriskovsky, 1 971, p . 1 3; M alik , 1 965 , p p . 1 98-203 ; S ubbarao , 1 958 , p . 5 0). T hough

t he

m ethod

u sed

b y

D e

T erra

a nd

P atterson

i n

s tudying

P leistocene d eposits i s n ormal , i t i s o nly s uitable f or c ertain g eographical r egions . S ome I ndian a rchaeologists ( e .g . R .V . J oshi) s tudied t he s ections i nvestigated b y D e T erra a nd P atterson i n t he K ashmir b asin a nd f ound a c omplicated s ystem o f d eposits e xisting i n t he r iver v alleys . B ut u ntil d etailed r esearch o f t his r egion i s c arried o ut i t i s d ifficult t o a ssess D e T erra a nd P atterson 's c onclusions. T he r iver v alleys

o f p eninsular I ndia s how e vidence o f m ultiple

e rosive- a ggradation c ycles . A n a ggradation c ycle s tarts g ravel , n ormally a bove w eathering l evels o r o n b ed-rock .

w ith d epositing T his g ravel w as

i ntensely c onsolidated a nd t hen t urned i nto s trong l ayers o f s mallg ranulated s oils , i nlcuding g ravel l ayers . T hen a s econd c ycle f ollowed , i n t he

c ourse

o f w hich a s econd

w ell-consolidated

d eposited i n s ome c ases o n aw eathered s urface .

9

l ayer w as

f ormed ,

A t hird c ycle i s t raced d own i n s ome p laces , i n t he c ourse o f w hich a g ravel l ayer w as f ormed which was l ess s trong , o verlaid b y a s mallg ranulated s oil l ayer , t urning i nto s urface s oil . I t i s i mportant t o s tudy t hese e rosive-aggradation p hases t o e stablish t he c orrelation o f g lacial a nd i nter-glacial p hases i n N orthern I ndia b ecause t hey a re l ikely t o b e c onnected w ith c limatic a nd s ea-level c hanges t aking p lace g lobe i n t he d istant p ast , p articularly i n t he P leistocene .

a ll

o ver

t he

S o f ar , q uite a n umber o f r iver v alleys i n I ndia h ave b een i nvestigated , t he r esults s howing e rosive-aggradation p eriods o f c onstant c haracter . I t s hould b e s tressed t hat s oem r egions ( Gujarat i n p articular ) where t hese p rocesses were t aking p lace , w ere i nfluenced b y t ectonic d islocations a nd t he s uccession o f e vents n oted i n p articular s ections o f a r iver m ay n ot f ully c oincide i n t ime w ith s uccessions i n o ther s ections , a s t hey m ay b e i nfluenced b y l ocal f actors . S cholars t hink t hat t he i nfluence o f t hese d islocations w ere n ot a s i mportant a s i n t he H imalayan r egion . F rom t his p oint o f v iew S outhern I ndia s eems t o b e i n a m ore a dvantageous p osition b ecause n o c onsiderable d islocations h ave b een o bserved i n t his a rea . S outhern I ndia c an b e r egarded a s a c ontrol p oint f or t he c orrelation o f t his r iver s tratigraphy w ith l ess s table r egions s uch a s t he H imalayas i n t he n orth o r G ujarat i n c entral I ndia w here t ectonic m ovements h ave b een r ecorded . W e h ave p reviously n oted t hat s urface g laciation o n a c omparatively s mall s cale w as w idespread o nly i n t he r egion i mmediately a djacent t o t he H imalayas . S outhern A sia , a s w ell a s A frica , A ustralia a nd S outh A merica w ere n ot c overed b y c ontinental i ce d uring t he Q uaternary p eriod . I n t ropical c ountries d uring t he P leistocene n umerous c hanges o f g eneral h umidity - p luvials - t ook p lace . T he t erm " pluvial" m eans s ome i ncrease i n h umidity a nd s oem d ecrease i n a verage t emperatures c ompared w ith m odern v alues . I nterpluvials c orresponding t o i nterglacials a re c haracteristized b y t he r eturn t o m odern c onditions ( Dolukhanov , 1 972, p . 2 26). A t p resent w e h ave n o e xact s ynchronization o f p luvial a nd i netrpluvial p eriods w ith c ontinental g lacial a nd i nterglacial p eriods , a nd m ountain g lacial p eriods . I t i s d ifficult t o r elate P leistocene c limatic c hanges i n t he s outh o f A sia w ith t he s cheme o f g lacials o ccurring i n E urope , t hough i t i s b elieved t hat c limatic c hanges t aking p lace i n t he Q uaternary p eriod i n v arious p arts o f t he g lobe , t hough d iffering i n s trength , w ere i lkely t o b e s imultaneous o n t he w hole . A ccording t o V ishnu M ittre ( Vishnu M ittre , 1 964 , p . 1 6) , t he g lacial t heory h as b een f ully s ubstantiated , b ut t he p luvial t heory i s o nly n ow b eing w orked o ut ; h ence t he g lacial/pluvial c orrelation i s a s y et u ncertain . S ankalia 's

( Sarkalia ,

1 976 ,

p .

1 2) o pinion i s t hat t he t heory o f f our

g lacial a nd t hree i netrglacial e priods s hould b e r evised o n t he whole . S uch a n ecessity f ollows t he d iscovery a nd i nvestigation o f M oraines a nd g lacial-river d eposits i n P ahllan which m akes t he f our g lacial t heory d oubtful . O nly o ne g lacial/alluvial f ormation c ontaining i mbedded i mplements w as f ound i n P ahllan w hich i ndicates a s ingle l owering o f t he s now l ine i n t he P leistocene . H e a lso q uestioned t he p ostulation o f p luvials a nd d ry p hases , o r j ust d rier a nd d amper p hases i n t he P leistocene , e specially i n c onnection w ith t he d eposits

o f p eninsula I ndia.

C limatic c onditions i n g lacial a nd i nterglacial p eriods o f t ropical I ndia a nd S ri L anka h ave n ot s o f ar b een c learly d etermined . A ccording t o F .E .

Z euner ,

( Hedge ,

I .P"

1 964 ,

p .

1 0

2 7) p luvial h ypotheses

c an n ot

b e

a pplied

t o t he

I ndian p eninsula o wing

t o t he f act

t hat

t he l atest I ndian

P leistocene s tratigraphy s hows e ssential r egional d ifferences . A h ypothesis o f c limatic d ifferences i n t he r emote p ast o f I ndia a ppeared a s a r esult o f i nvestigations c arried o ut b y Z euner i n G ujarat a nd D eccan ( Zeuner , 1 950b) . A ccording t o K .K . M arkov a nd A .A . V elichko ( Markov & V elichko ,

1 967 ,

p .

2 70 , t he e nvironment o f t ropical c ountries d id n ot d iffer g reatly f rom t hat o f m odern t imes . E nvironmental c hanges i n t he whole P leistocene w ere r elatively s mall . " Palaeogeographical c hanges - i nterzonal a nd z onal ( in t ropical z ones) c ertainly r esemble m odern o nes c losely" . M arkov a nd V elichko 's c onclusions c an b e a ccepted w hen t hey w rite a bout t he r elative d egree o f c limatic c hanges d uring t he P leistocene . H owever , i t m ust a lso b e a ccepted t hat , s o f ar , v ery l ittle w ork h as b een d one b y I ndian o r S ri L ankan r esearchers o n p alaeoenvironmental c onditions. M arkov a nd V elichkW is a ssumtpions a re c onfirmed b y t he r esults o f t he l atest w orks o f C hacrabarti i n K alibjar ( in t he V ahvangr r egion) , C orvinus a nd P appu i n C hirki N evasa , a nd M isra i n V acancar ( Bhametk) . I n t he p laces i nvolved , t hese r esearchers d iscovered i mplements i n a s tate o f g ood p reservation , w hich s hows t hat t here w ere n o g reat c limatic c hanges ( Sankalia , 1 978 , p . 12). G eologically S ri L anka a nd t he I ndian p eninsula f orm o ne a nd a re t he r emains o f t he h uge a ncient c ontinent G ondvana . E .J . Wayland ( Wayland , 1 919 , p . 1 22) s uggested t hat a t t he b eginning o f t he P leistocene S ri L anka w as c onnected w ith t he c ontinent a nd t hat i s h ow t he i sland w as p opulated b y p rehistoric m an . H owever , h is t heories w ere n ot s upported . I n h is b ook K . O akley

( Oakley ,

1 964 ,

p p .

2 69-270) w rites

t hat

t he s ea s traits

s eparating

S ri L anka f rom I ndia a re c omparatively s hallow , h ence i t i s n ot s urprising t hat s ome E arly P alaeolithic h unters s hould h ave c ome t o t he i sland d uring s ea

r egressions . I mportant d ata c oncerning t he p alaeogeography o f S ri L anka d uring t he

P leistocene h ave b een o btained t horough e xamination o f a ncient r ed l aterite c lay-like d eposits . T wo k inds o f l oam a re e ncountered o n t he i sland ; t he f irst - n on-laterite l oam - i s e ncountered i n a d ry z one o f t he i sland ; w hile t he s econd - Q uaternary l aterite l oam - i s m et i n ad amp s outh-eastern z one . R eddish s oil b rought b y w ind t o v ast t erritories i n t he n orthern p art o f t he i sland , c ontains c onsiderable q uantities o f c lay-like m aterial o f a lluvial o rigin ; w hile f urther t o t he c entre o f t he c ountry , b rown-red s oil i s e ncountered w hich h as e merged t hrough t he w eathering o f l imestone .

I ron

o xides w eathered f rom l aterite c olour t hese s oils r ed o r b rown a nd i n p laces w here t he s oils a re s aturated w ith c ommon s alt s olution t hey a cquire a w hite c olour . A ccording t o P .E .P . D eraniyagala ( Deraniyagala , 1 958b , p . 8 ) y ellow l ayers f ound i n s ome g em p its s uggest t hat a lluvium c ontained i n t hem h ad b een d eposited d uring a d ry p eriod . D eraniyagala r eports m uch e vidence t o s how t hat f looded r iver v alleys a nd d eltas l ay a bove u nderwater p eneplains .

A ccording t o h im , d espite t he

e ven c oastline a nd t he a bsense o f f iords , t he s tudy o f i sobaths d emonstrates t he e xistence o f f looded r iver v alleys . D eraniyagala c onsiders t he o scillatory movements o f v arious p arts o f t he i sland t o h ave o ccurred u nevenly. H is c onclusions r egarding c hanges i n p rehistoric r iver s ystems i n t he f ar p ast o f t he i sland a re o f i nterest .

1

F rom t he s tudy o f a c onsiderable

n umber o f r iver t erraces , b anks , a nd m olluscs , h e h as b een a ble t o d educe t he o riginal d irection o f t he r ivers , t he c haracter o f t heir m ouths , a nd t he c hanges w hich t oök p lace a t t hat t ime ( Deraniyagala , I bid , p . 1 2). R iver t erraces o f S ri L anka d o n ot t hose i n c ountries w ith d rier c limates ,

p rovide m uch i nformation , u nlike s ince t he s oft d eposits o f t hese

t erraces w ere w ashed a way i n t he h umid c limate . T he e astern c oasts o f t he M undel l agoon a re o f i nterest b ecause g ravel-covered t erraces a re e ncountered , a s w ell a s P leistocene d eposits . T he l atter o ccur b etween M uduran K uli a nd M aha K imbik K adavela . T he A ndankani r egion i s s ignificant f or i ts o rganic d ebris . T he p resence o f r olled p ebbles , t ogether w ith p recious s tones a nd o rganic d ebris i n t he S abaragamuwa r egion i s e xplained b y r e-deposition o f t hose l ayers i n t he P leistocene . T he s ea l evel o f S ri L anka c hanged s everal t imes i n t he P leistocene . T races o f al evel h igher t han t he m odern a re r egistered b y m eans o f t he l owest p eneplain w ashed b y t he s ea a s w ell a s c orals a nd l agoon d eposits e ncountered w ithin a d istance o f f rom 2 t o 5 m iles f rom t he c oast . N umerous l agoons a re f ound a long t he c oast w hich a re o ften s ubmerged u nder r iver d eposits . T he p resence o f c ertain s pecies o f e xtinct m ammals s uggest t he e arly e xistence o f b ig l akes o n t he i sland . ; f or e xample , t he r emains o f ah ippopotamus w ere f ound i n s wamps i n t he K uruvita r egion . L ake-sediments f illing a ncient h ollows a re w idely e ncountered o n t he i sland . I n P leistocene.

s ome

c ases

t hese

d eposits

a re

a scribed

t o

t he

U pper

T he f ossil v egetation a nd p alaeofauna o f S ri L anka i ndicate t hat s avanna c onditions p redominated o n t he i sland d uring t he P leistocene . D eraniyagala d iscovered 1 0 s pecies o f P leistocene f lora which h e c alls R atnapura f ossil f lora . P leistocene f auna w as a lso c alled R atnapura , a fter t he c apital o f t he S abaragamuwa p rovince. R atnapura f auna i s c orrelated w ith S ivalik f auna o f I ndia . T he l atter i s w idely e ncountered i n t he n orthern p arts o f I ndia , r elating t o t he e nd o f t he T ertiary p eriod , a nd c ontains a l arge n umber o f f ossil m ammals , f ossil a nthropoid a pes b eing a mong t hem ( Nestroukh , 1 970 , p . 7 7) . F rom t he f oothills o f t he H imalayas s ome s pecies o f S ivalik f auna s pread t owards t he s outh - t o S ri L anka , D eraniyagala ,

B urma ,

I ndo-China a nd t he i sland o f J ava .

i n h is s tudy o f R atnapura f auna ,

c oncludes t hat i t

c ontains o ne f ourth o f t he s pecies k nown i n t he n orthern p art o f S ivalik r egion . I t r esembles t he f auna o f t he N arbada-Burma b asin , d iffering f rom i t i n t he a bsence o f t he f ossil h orse ,

t hus r esembling t he J ava f auna .

A bundance o f a quatic f auna i n S ri L anka a nd i ts f ossil r emains s uggest a l arge n umber o f r ivers,

l akes a nd s wamps o n t he i sland .

I t i s

o f

i nterest t hat a quatic f auna o f S ri L anka r esembles t hat o f I ndia , i ndicating i ts I ndian o rigin . T he a ppearance o f s ome a nimal s pecies i n S ri L anka c an b e e xplained b y t heir m igration f rom I ndia . M any a nimals m oved t o S ri L anka d uring v arious e pochs , g iving r ise t o n ew s pecies ; h owever , r ecent m igrants k ept t heir o riginal a ppearance .

S ome a nimal s pecies o f S ri L anka p robably a ppeared i n

t he P liocene a nd e ven i n t he M iocene , i ndicates

t hat

S ri L anka a nd

b ut m ainly i n t he P leistocene .

I ndia w ere

1 2

T his

t hen c onnected b y a l and b ridge ,

t hus p ermitting t he m igration o f a nimals , a nd a lso o f S tone A ge m an . I t i s a pparent f rom t he s tudies d evoted t o t he p roblems o f t he P leistocene o f I ndia a nd S ri L anka , t hat P leistocene s tratigraphy i n t hese c ountries h as n ot b een g iven a dequate a ttention . D espite s ome i ntense r esearch , I t

t he P leistocene s tratigraphy i s s till u nclear .

f ollows

t hat u nless

a ccurate

c orrelation

o f

t he

H imalyan

g lacial

s tratigraphy w ith t hat o f E urope i s e stablished ; D e T erra a nd P attersons 's i nvestigation c an n ot b e c onsidered c omplete . I t i s i mportant when s tudying t he P leistocene h istory o f t hese c ountries t o i nvestigate l ocal s tratigraphy d emonstrating v ariations i n c limate , H ydrography , v egetation a nd G eomorphology . I n t his c onnection , i mprovement i s n eeded i n m ethods r elated t o t he s pecific c onditions o f S outhern A sia . T he e xample o f E urope s hows a pplication o f m odern m ethods f or t he s tudy o f Q uarternary d eposits . I t m ust b e r ealized t hat t he p erfection o f t ool t ypology a lone c an n ot s olve a ll p roblems c onnected w ith t hese q uestions . A n ew a pproach i s n eeded b ased u pon P alaeoecology d ata o f I ndia a nd S ri L ankan Q uaternary G eology . A pplication o f d ata o btained i n o ther c ountries c an r esult i n l arge d iscrepanices i n t he i nterpretation o f t he S outh A sian P leistocene . A s w e h ave s tated a bove ,

t he u se o f a n i nterdisciplinary i nvestigation

i s e ssential . S uch a n i nvestigation h as a lready b een s tarted i n W estern A sia b y B . A llchin , K .T .M . H edge a nd A . G oudie ( Allchin , B . ; A . G oudie, 1 971 , p p . 2 48-265 ; G oudie , 1 973 , p p , 3 0-37) . T hey h ave i nvestigated t he G ujarat p lain a nd i ts r ivers u sing G eological , G eomorphological a nd A rchaeological m ethods , a nd h ave o btained u seful r eults d emonstrating t he p lace o f I ndian L ower P alaeolithic i ndustries i n t he c limatic a nd G eomorphological s tratigraphy . A t t he s ame t ime , S .K . G upta i n h is c urrent s tudy o f s ea-level c hanges o n t he S aurashtra c oast i s o btaining r esults which a re l ikely t o b e o f g reat b enefit t o t he u nderstanding o f t he Q uaternary i nvestigations ( Gupta , S .K . 1 976 , p p . 1 81-194) . I t i s a lso w orth m entioning t he v aluable r esearch u ndertaken b y S ubramanium a nd D alavai ( Subramanium a nd D alavai , 1 968 , p p . 1 517) i n s tudying t he d enudation o f I ndian ' r ivers ' , t he r esults o f w hich s how t he h igh l evel o f e rosions i n I ndia. W ork i n A frica d emonstrates t he s uccessful u se o f G eomorphological d ata i n c limatic r econstruction ( Narson , p p . 2 1-28) . S everal r ecent p ublications o n t his s ubject i n I ndia r eport s atisfactory r esults ( Agrewal & G uzder , 1 974 ; A grawal , 1 976 ; D hir , 1 976 , p p . 1 27134 ; N awani , 1 976 , p p . 2 392 42 ; Amalkar ,

S ingh , G hose ,

1 977 ,

p p .

1 6-20 ; S ingh ,

G hose & G hose ,

1 978 ,

p p .

1 -14) . H owever , t hese works a re c onfined t o p articular G eographical r egions a nd d o n ot p ermit r econstruction o f ap alaeoclimate o n a n a ll-Indian s cale. O ther a spects o f t he P leistocene s tratigraphy t o w hich d ue a ttention h as n ot b een p aid, i nclude " shore l ine , t he r ecognition o f p ereglacial f eatures ,

e ffects o f s tream t ransport o n t he d eposition o f s ediments,

p ediments

a nd

t he

f actors

g overning

t heir

f ormation ,

d eep

s ea

c ore

s tratigraphy , t errace f ormation , t he p rinciples o f s tream b ehaviour , r ates o f s edimentation a nd t he p rinciples i n f ormulating t he s tratigrapbical c lassification o f t he P leistocene e tc . ," ( Vishnu M ittre , F .E . Z euner ( Zeuner ,

1 950 a , P . 2 72) s tressed t he

1 964 ,

p .

i mportance

1 5) . o f

p recise

d efinition o f s ea-level p ositions o f v arious P leistocene c oastal l ines f or e stablishing

a r elative

c hronology

t o

1 3

b e

d ated

b y

a stronomical

m ethods .

H owever , t here a re c ertain l imitations , b ecause t hese m ethods a re a pplicable o nly t o t he s tudy o f c oastal r egions . P ollen a nalysis

i s

a lso

o f

i mportance ,

b eing

a r eliable

m ethod

f or

e stablishing t he p ast v egetation , a nd f or a g eneral r econstruction o f t he p ast . A t p resent t here a re n o p llen d ata t o p rovide i nformation f or p alaeobotanical m aps, s howing z onal d istribution o f v egetation i n t he P leistocene o f S outhern I ndia a nd S ri L anka ( though p ollen a nalysis d ata e xists f or E ast R ajastan ( Singh , G .A ,

I G).

S o f ar I ndian f aunal r emains h ave h ardly b een i nvestigated , t hough t hey a re v ery i mportant f or P leistocene d eposit d ating . T he I ndian P alaeontologist K han ( Kum , R IA , p . 4 85) b elieves t hat t he f ossil f auna o f N arbada c an b e p laced b etween 1 ,200 ,000 a nd 6 0 ,000 B .C . H owever t his v iew c an n ot b e f ully a ccepted , b ecause K han u sed E uropean c riteria f or t he N arbada f auna . B . A llchin I bid , p . 4 89) s tresses t hat , o wing t o t he a bsence o f n umerous E uropean f ossil s pecies , c riteria in t he c onditions o f I ndia .

o ne c an n ot u se E uropean

R anov n otes t hat t he Q uaternary G eology o f t he c ontinent h as b een n eglected . D epositions h ave b een i nadequately d efined , a nd m ore i mportant , f ew p ublications i nclude r iver p rofiles , h owever s ketchy ; r iver t errace r atios a re e ither o mmitted , o r p oorly p resented . M oreover , t he g eneral g eomorphological p icture o f a r egion i s o ften a bsent , a lluvial d epositions a re n ot r egionally r ecorded a nd t heir c onnection w ith o ther h orizons a re n ot t horoughly i nvestigated . T hus d eposits o f d ifferent a ge o n t ectonically a ctive r egions a nd z ones o f r iver r ejuvenation a nd e rosion o f d ifferent a ge a re r egarded a s c ontemporary ( Ranov ,

1 976 ,

p . 9 1) .

V .N . M isra ( Misra , 1 964 , I P . p . 4 84) i s r ight i n h is r emark t hat f or d etailed

s tudy

o f

P leistocene

d eposits

i n I ndia m ore a ttention s hould b e ,

p aid t o : 1 )

P recise t erminology

2 )

T he s tudy o f G eomorphological p rocesses a nd f aunal r emains i n A rchaeological s ites

3 )

T he s tudy o f d ated P leistocene d eposits

H e e xplains t hat I ndian a rchaeologists n ormally u se t he f ollowing t erms:- b oulder g ravel , p ebble g ravel , s andy g ravel , l oam , l oamy s and , s andy l oam e tc . ,. T hese t erms a re n ot c learly d efined . S tratigraphic n omenclature i s s eldom u sed . T he u se o f c limatic t erms s uch a s " pluvial" , " inter-pluvial" e tc" a nd t he w ay i n w hich t he d eposits a re c limatically i nterpreted i s u nclear . M isra a lso n oted t hat t here i s n o s cientific b asis f or a c limatic i nterpretation o f r iver d eposits . B e i s r ight i n t hat b efore a ttributing t hese d eposits t o c limatic c onditions , m odern c limatic , G eomorphological a nd o ther p rocesses b ringing a bout t his k ind o f d eposition m ust b e i nvestigated . A t

t he

Q uaternary

s ame

t ime ,

r esearch ,

J oshi

a g lacial

p oints

o ut

s tratigraphy

t hat i n

t o

r aise

N orthern

t he

I ndia

l evel

o f

s hould

b e

e stablished i n a ddition t o t he d etailed s tudy o f s ite s tratification , p articularly i n t he N arbada r iver v alley . M orphological r esearch m ust p ay p articular a ttention t o t he m apping a nd e xamination o f a lluvial d eposits , S tone A ge i ndustries , a nd f resh-water m olluscs e ssential i n t he c omparative

1 4

s tudy o f r egional d eposits ( Joshi , I bid , p p . 4 87-488). J oshi 's r emarks a re c ertainly v ery i mportant . A t t he s ame t ime t he l imited v alidity o f m oraine s tratigraphy m ust a lso b e c onsidered . W e k now t hat i n t he p ast s pecial a ttention w as p aid t o t he s tudy o f m oraines a nd g lacial r iver t erraces . I t i s c ommon k nowledge t hat t he p rogress o f i ce d estroys a l arger p art o f d epositions f ormed d uring e arlier g lacial p eriods , a nd h ence a s tratigraphy b ased s olely o n m oraine s tudy i s n ot s ufficient ( Zeuner , 1 959 , p . 5 1) . T hus t he c omprehensive s tudy o f l ake s ediments i n ap en -glacial z one , w here t hese d eposits a re i ntact , i s o f g reat i mportance . S uch a s tudy w as s uccessfully c ompleted w hen t he B iva l ake d eposits w ere i nvestigated i n J apan ( Hon e ,

1 973).

I t i s a ppropriate t o a dd t hat ,

i n t his f ield , D endrochronolgy c ould b e

u sed t o i ndicate p recipitation l evel , t emperature , a tmospheric p ressure a nd p revailing w inds ( Lamarche , 1 976). R egarding e arlier P leistocene s tudies , i t c ould b e c oncluded t hat m ost a re

o f

a p reliminary

c haracter .

I nvestigations

c urrently

c ompleted a re

i nsufficient f or an understanding o f t he p recise n ature o f P alaeogeographical e vents i n t he P leistocene . R anov ( Ranov , I bid) r ightly h olds t he o pinion t hat a t erritory a s v ast a s I ndia i s d ivided i nto a n umber o f p hysico-geographical d istricts d iffering i n t heir n atural f eatures a nd g iving a v ery v ariogated p icture o f P alaeolithic c ultures i n w hich i t i s d ifficult t o d istinguish r egional p articulars . T he c losing w ords o f P .M . D oloukhanov 's ( Dolukhanov , 1 972 , p . 2 73) a rticle o n t he P alaeogeography o f t he I ndian S tone A ge a re w orth q uoting : . " a l ot i s t o b e d one . T he c orrelation i s n ot p erfect i n m any w ays , i t n eeds c hecking a nd a re s till m any q uestions i n t he t ypological s tudy o f H owever t he c ontinuing c ollaboration o f S oviet a nd

o f Q uaternary d eposits s pecification . T here P alaeolithic c ultures . I ndian s cholars g ives

h ope t hat t hese q uestions w ill b e a nswered i n t he c ourse o f f ruitful c oo perative i nvestigation o f s tratigraphy o f P alaeolithic c omplexes e tc .

1 5

C HAPTER I I P ERIODIZATION P ROBLEMS O F T HE S TONE A GE O F I NDIA

F irst

a ttempts

t o

e stablish

t he

c lassification

a nd

s ystematic

c ollection o f s tone i mplements o f p rehistoric I ndia w ere m ade b y R .B . F oote a s e arly a s 1 916 ( Foote , 1 916 , p . 2 ) . H e t hen p ointed o ut f our s tages i n m an 's c ultural p rogress:1 ) T he P alaeolithic , o r R ude S tone A ge 2 ) T he N eolithic , o r P olished S tone A ge 3 ) T he E arly I ron A ge 4 ) T he L ater I ron A ge A ll I ndian p re-Neolithic s tone i mplements h aving b een t hus u nited u nder t he o ne h eading " Palaeolithic o r t he S tone A ge R ough i mplements" , i t b ecame a pparent t hat f urther c lassification o f t he S tone A ge w as n ecessary , a nd i t w as t hen d ivided i nto t hree c hronological p eriods : E arly S tone A ge , M iddle S tone A ge , a nd L ate S tone A ge . T his d ivision w as w idely a ccepted i n e arly s tudies o f t he I ndian P alaeolithic , u nder t he i nfluence o f E uropean t erminology . B ut h aving n o c lear s tratigraphic d ata , M .C . B urkitt a nd C .A . C ammiade w ere t he f irst t o r eject t his c lassification , a nd t hey d ivided a c ollection o f s tone t ools f rom S outh-Eastern I ndia i nto a s eries o f f our ( I1 V), a ccording t o t heir t ypological a nd t echnological c haracteristics: i )

T he

o ldest

i ndustries

a re

c haracterised b y

t he p resence o f

q uartzite h andaxes , v arious t ypes b eing r epresented , s ome o f t hem c losely r esembling s imilar A frican i mplements . i i)

F lake i ndustries w ith m ore t horoughly w orked h andaxes.

i ii) I ndustries c haracterized b y t hin b lades w ith t reatment , s everal k inds o f b urins a nd s crapers .

r ough d orsal T he m aterial

i s l argely f lint . i v)

M icrolithic t ools m ade o f q uartzite a nd a gate , t he m ost w idespread i mplements b eing " pygmy t ools" ( Cammiade; B urkitt, 1 930 , p p . 3 27-328) .

B urkitt a nd C ammiade a ttempted t o c orrelate t hese s eries w ith c ertain c limatic p hases a nd s oil f ormation o n t he E astern I ndian c oasts a nd i n A frica .

T hey s uggested t hat t hese s eries g enerally c orresponded t o L ower

M iddle-Upper P alaeolithic a nd M esolithic c ultures o f E urope . D r . I saac 's i nvestigation c arried o ut l ater i n t he K urnool r egion , c onfirmed t his f our p eriod c lassification b ecause h is i nvestigation w as b ased u pon s tratigraphic d ata .

1 6

B . A llchin ( Allchin , 1 963 , p p . 2 13-214) s tudying t he s tone i nventory o f I ndia i n t he 5 0 's , c oncluded t hat t he c lassification o f p re-Neolithic s tone t ools o ffered b y B urkitt c an n ot b e a pplied t o I ndia b ecause o f t he a bsence o f t he t ypical b lades a nd b urins i ndustry , w hich i s c haracteristic o f U pper P alaeolithic c ultures o f W estern E urope a nd W estern A sia . O n t his a ccount A llchin c onsidered a m odificatioin o f t he f our - p eriod c lassification o f p re-Neolithic c ultures t o b e o f g reat s ignificance . A ccording t o h er , i ndustries l ying i n a s tratigraphic s equence b etween h andaxes a nd m icrolithic t ools d efied t he s trict c lassification m arked b y s eries I I a nd I II , b ut t hey a re l ikely t o f orm o ne g roup t ogether w ith s ome l ocal a nd t emporary v ariations . H ence d iscrepancies i n t he u sage o f t hese t erms . I n 1 958 A llchin t ogether w ith S ubbarao a nd D ani o ffered a nother t hree - f old s ystem i ncluding h andaxes , f lake a nd m icrolithic t ools s uccessively . T hey c alled t hese g roups b y t he t erms E arly , M iddle a nd L ate S tone A ge , s imilar t o a n A frican p eriodization . I n t his s ystem t he t erm N eolithic h as i ts d irect m eaning . A t t he f irst I nternational A sian A rchaeological C ongress i n 1 961 , a t erminology c ommittee a pproved t he u sage o f E arly , M iddle a nd L ate S tone A ge , t ime.

t erms f or w ant o f a n omenclature m ore a ppropriate a t t hat

I t i s a ccepted t hat A llchin a nd S ubbarao 's t erminology , b ased o n t he i nadequate k nowledge o f t he I ndian S tone A ge i n t he 5 0 's w as q uite j ustified , a nd c ompared t o B urkitt 's s cheme i t w as a s tep f orward i n S tone A ge c lassification o f t his S outh A sian r egion . a ssessment , t he a uthors o verestimated t he i ndustries i nvolved .

H owever , d espite o bjective s pecificity o f t he s tone

L et u s e xamine t he M iddle S tone A ge p roblem m ore t horoughly. I n I ndia t here w as f or a l ong t ime a h iatus b etween L ower P alaeolithic s tone t ool c omplexes a nd t he m icrolithic t ools o f M esolithic a nd m ore l ater e pochs . U ntil 1 954 t here w as n o e xplanation f or t he d isappearence o f L ower P alaeolithic m an i n I ndia b ecause o n m any s ites t he s trata , o verlying t hose c ontaining h andaxes a nd c leavers , w ere f ound t o b e s terile e xcept i n N orthw estern P unjab , K handivli n ear B ombay a nd K urnool i n A ndhra P radesh . O nly i n 1 954-56 , t hanks t o s tudies b y I ndian a rchaeologists , S ankalia a nd h is p upils i n p articular , o n L ower P alaeolithic s ites n ear N evasa , M iddle S tone A ge o ccupation w as d iscovered w hich h ad p artly b ridged t hat g ap . R egarding n omenclature f or t his P alaeolithic c ultural s tage , I ndian i nvestigators s uggested a c lassification d efining L ower P alaeolithic ( Chellean-Acheulean ) a s ' Series I " , t he n ew c omplexes o f i mplements f illing t he g ap b etween L ower P alaeolithic a nd M icroliths a s ' Series I I" a nd m icroliths a s " Series I II" . H owever , t he p roblem a rose t hat n umerous s tone t ools o f t he " Series I I" w ere f ound i n m any p arts o f I ndia , b ut g enerally i n i rregular s tratigraphic p ositions . I n m any c ases i t w as i mpossible t o s tate t o w hat h orizon t hose t ools c ould b e r elated .

L ocal v ariations c onnected w ith t he e conomic a nd

o ther f actors a nd d iversity

o f

t he

I ndian p eninsula h ad

t o b e

t aken i nto

c onsideration . H ence , t aking i nto c onsideration t hese f actors i t was p roposed t he t erm M iddle S tone A ge s hould d esignate a ll t ypologically s imilar t ools o f " Series I I" i n s tratified a nd n on s tratified c onditions . T hough t his t erm w as a ccepted b y t he f irst A sian C ongress o f A rchaeology , I ndian a rchaeologists a rgued a gainst t his p eriodization ( which w as u sed t o d esignate I ndian P alaeolithic a nd M esolithic) . N . M isra ( Misra , 1 964 , p p . 4 6-47) p ointed o ut t hat S ubbarao d id n ot p rovide e nough d ata t o j ustify t his p eriodization b ut o nly s tressed t he f itness o f E uropean n omenclature f or I ndian m aterial . A ccording t o M isra t he c ommittee o f t his C ongress g ave

1 7

i nsufficient c onsideration t o t his q uestion a nd t heir d ecision w as p remature a nd n ot u nanimous . P rofessor B raidwood , a m ember o f t he c ommittee s poke a gainst i t . M isra t ried t o p rove a dmissibility o f t he E uropean p eriodization , r ejecting S outh A frican p eriodization . H e a rgued t hat , i f t he P alaeolithic a nd i ts d ivisions h ad n o s cientific b asis , w hy w as i t s till i n u se i n E astern a nd S outhern A frica a nd W estern , C entral a nd S outh-East A sia? O nly N orthern A frica d id n ot a dhere t o t his n omenclature . G eneral t erminology i s

a dditionally

i mportant

b ecause

o f

t he g eneral

s imilarity o f t he e arly s tages o f c ultural d evelopment i n d ifferent h uman s ocieties . M isra a sked i f i t w as n atural t o k eep a t erm N eolithic i n I ndia i f P alaeolithic a nd M esolithic t erms w ere t o b e r ejected . T he a bsence o f U pper P alaeolithic ( a E uropean e quivalent) i n I ndia , a ccording t o M isra , m ade L ower a nd M iddle P alaeolithic t erms u seless . H e t hought t hat t he o nly s olution t o t his w as t o s ubstitute M iddle P alaeolithic w ith t he t erm L ate P alaeolithic . H owever , l ater M isra a greed t o t he t erm " Middle P alaeolithic" ( Sankalia , 1 974 , p . 1 45) . W e c onsider M isra t o b e c orrect i n h is v iew o f t he g eneral t echnicot ypological r esemblance b etween P alaeolithic i ndustries i n E urope a nd S outh A sia . I n s uggesting t he t erm L ate P alaeolithic i nstead o f M iddle S tone A ge , h e d irectly o r i ndirectly m akes a n i mportant i nference a bout t he a ffinity o f t he M iddle P alaeolithic a nd t he M iddle S tone A ge i ndustries i n I ndia . S trictly s peaking t he t erm M iddle S tone A ge i s r ather a bstract s ince i t d oes n ot i ndicate t he t ypological a nd c hronological a spect o f t he t ools, i .e. t he p eriod t o w hich t hey b elong . A nother

s upporter

( Ran cw , 1 976 , p . 9 3) . t he u se o f E uropean

o f

t he E uropean

p eriodization

f or

I ndia

i s

R anov

A ccording t o h im , d espite c ertain d ifficulties i n t erms i n I ndian P alaeolithic s tudies, t hey c an

c ontribute t o t he u nderstanding o f t he c hronological p lace o f t he I ndian P alaeolithic i n t he s ystem o f o ther c ontemporary c ultures o f d ifferent p arts o f t he w orld . K .V . S oundar R ajan ( Soundar R ajan ,

1 964 , p . 4 5) w rites t hat M iddle

P alaeolithic a nd M iddle S tone A ge h ave t he s ame m eaning . A ccording t o h im t he p roblem o f t he u se o f t he E uropean t erm U pper P alaeolithic i s t hat i t d oes n ot c orrespond t o t he L ate S tone A ge o f I ndia . H e c onsiders t hat t he w ord P alaeolithic w ith i ts t hree d ivisions s hould b e a voided e specially i n I ndian c onditions . B oriskovsky t ogether w ith S ankalia a nd M isra d isagree s trongly w ith t he M iddle a nd L ate S tone A ge c lassification c onsidering t hat M iddle S tone A ge i mplies M esolithic a nd L ate S tone A ge N eolithic ,

t hough t he s upporters o f

t hese t erms d istinguish t he e pochs i nvolved f rom M esolithic a nd N eolithic . H e i s a lso r ight i n s aying t hat a S outh A frican p eriodization f or t he I ndian P alaeolithic i solates i t f rom t he P alaeolithic o f M iddle A sia , M iddle E ast , E urope a nd N orthern A frica . A ccording t o h im , s uch a c lassification c ould i solate t he I ndian P alaeolithic f rom t he P alaeolithic c ultures o f t he e ntire w orld. T he

q uestion

o f

t he

c orrelation o f

I ndian M iddle P alaeolithic s ites

w ith t hose o f o ther c ountries i s m uch m ore c omplicated b ecause t he I ndian M iddle P alaeolithic i s c haracterized b y s ome p eculiarities a s w ell a s b y i ts i ndependent t echnical t radition a nd i ts d issimilarities f rom c ultures i n o ther r egions o f t he world. T he t erm M iddle p alaeolithic c an b e a ccepted , b ecause i t i s i mpossible t o c all t his p articular p eriod o f S tone

1 8

A ge b y t he w idespread t erm " Mousterian" .

I t s hould b e e mphasized t hat t he

I ndian M iddle P alaeolithic i n s pite o f i ts c hronological c orrespondence , s till d iffers e ssentially f rom t he M ousterian c ultures i n o ther c ountries . A ccording t o S ankalia , t hough M iddle P alaeolithic ( or N evasian c ulture) , i s o f c hronological a nd t ypo-technological i mportance , i t h as n othing t o d o w ith t he E uropean t erm " Middle P alaeolithic" o r e ven w ith t he A frican , d espite t he f act t hat t here a re s ome i mplements i n t hese c ultures which r esemble t o s ome e xtent o nes i n t he I ndian M iddle P alaeolithic . S ankalia a nd M isra d o n ot a gree w ith t he u se o f t he t erm " Late S tone A ge" . A ccording t o t hem , i t i s t o t he M esolithic t hat m ost o f I ndian M icroliths s hould b e d ated a nd n ot L ate S tone A ge . T he o pinion w as l ong h eld t hat I ndia 's d evelopment p assed f rom L ower P alaeolithic d irectly t o h er m odern s ocial s tructure . H owever , g radually , B ronze a nd I ron A ges h ave b een d iscovered a nd , l ater , t races o f M iddle P alaeolithic a nd M icrolithic i ndustries . I t w as t hen f ound t hat c ertain g roups o f t ools s hould b e a ttributed n either t o t he M iddle P alaeolithic n or t o t he M esolithic . I t s hould b e r emembered t hat a s e arly a s i n t he 3 0 's B urkitt h ad a llocated c ertain t ools t o t he U pper P alaeolithic t hough h is p roposal w as n ot t aken s eriously . F oote s uggested t hat s ome b one a rtifacts f ound i n t he K urnool r egion s hould b e a ttributed t o t he M agdalenian , t hough h e c ould n ot p recisely d efine a n U pper P alaeolithic c ulture i n I ndia . O nly i n t he 6 0 's a n i nvestigation i nto t his p roblem g ave f irst r esults . Murty

m anaged

t o

f ill

i n

t he

g ap

b etween

I ndian

M iddle

p alaeolithic a nd I ndian m icroliths . H is d iscovery o f U pper P alaeolithic s tone t ools b rought U pper P alaeolithic s tudies t o an ew l evel. S ankalia ( Sankalia , 1 973 a , p . 5 05) p roposed t o c all t he b lade a nd b urin i ndustries o f A ndhra P radesh , M aharashtra a nd G ujarat ' Upper P alaeolithic" . B ut J oshi ( Joshi , 1 973 , p . 5 05) o pposed t he u se o f t he t erm " Upper P alaeolithic" i n t he I ndian c ontext f or t he f ollowing r easons : f irstly , t he t erm ' Upper P alaeolithic" i s u sed t o d efine a c ertain c ultural p eriod i n E uropean p leistocene , w here n ot o nly b lades a nd b urins b ut a lso a l arge n umber o f o ther i mplements w ere d eveloping ( scrapers o f e xtremely s pecialized t ypes . , p oints o f d ifferent s izes a nd v arious b one t ools) . T his p eriod i s a lso c haracterized b y t he a ppearence o f c ave p aintings a nd e ngravings . S econdly , i n t he E uropean U pper P alaeolithic p eriod t here w as a s uccession o f c ultures, d ivided o n t he b asis o f s tratigraphy o f P alaeolithic c omplexes e tc . J oshi f urther p oints o ut t hat t here i s a s ingle " blade a nd b urin" c omplex i n I ndia i n a n o bscure s tratigraphic s ituation . M urty 's c ollection ( which i s c onsidered t he b est e xample o f I ndian U pper P alaeolithic) i s d evoid o f a c ontext ; i t i ncludes f ragments o f s tone r ings w hich a re c onnected w ith N eolithic . J oshi s uggests t hat i f t his i ndustry i s a ttributed t o t he P leistocene , i t c an e asily f it i n t he M iddle S tone A ge . K .N . D ikshit ( Dikshit , 1 973 , p . 5 05) t ook a d ifferent v iew . A ccording t o h im t he b urin i ndustries h ave n othing i n c ommon w ith t he

E uropean U pper

S tote A ge" .

P alaeolithic ,

a nd

t his

p eriod

s hould

b e

c alled

" Late

H e t hinks t his t erm i s m ore a ppropriate s ince i t c onforms w ith

e xisting n omenclature . T he t erm " Late S tone A ge" ( uniting a p eriod f rom m icroliths t o " blade a nd b urin" c omplexes) h as b een e nergetically r ejected b y R . S harma ( Sharma , 1 973 , p . 5 00 . H e p refers t he t erm " Upper P alaeolithic" a nd h e c riticises J oshi 's p roposal t hat a n ame o f a p articular s ite s hould s erve a s t he n ame f or a c ulture ( . .g . G uddalah i ndustry o r K urnool i ndustry) . S harma t hi n ks

1 9

t hat t he u se o f s imilar r egional n ames f or " blade a nd b urin" c omplexes w ill m ake t his q uestion e ven m ore c omplicated a nd w ill c onfuse s tudents . I t s hould b e n oted t hat S harma 's c onclusion i s a n i mportant s tep i n r ecognizing t hat b y t heir t echnological n ature b lade a nd b urins c an n ot b e i ncluded i n t he f lake i ndustries o f t he M iedle S tone A ge . B . A llchin 's v iew s hould a lso b e c onsidered ( Allchin , 1 973 u , p . 5 06) . S he w rites " In t he c ontext o f I ndia , U pper P alaeolithic " c an b e o nly g enerally a ccepted , a nd n ot i n a E uropean s ense . T hings s imilar t o I ndia 's c an b e f ound o nly c lose t o h er , i .e .

i n I ran ,

I raq ,

a nd M iddle A sia" .

A ccording t o C .P . G upta 's a rgument , t he t erm " Upper P alaeolithic" c an n ot b e u sed i n t he I ndian c ontext b ecause t he s tratigraphical p osition o f b lades a nd b urins h as s light b asis a nd l ittle h as b een p ublished o n i t . R ajaguru , c ommenting o n G upta 's a ssumptions, c onsiders t hat t he s tratigraphical p osition o f t he " blades a nd b urins" i ndustry s hould b e f ixed b efore t he u se o f t he t erm ' Upper P alaeolithic" i s a ttempted h ere . B .K . T hapar ( rhapar , 1 973 a , p . 5 09) s upported J oshi; h e c onsiders t he t erm " Upper P alaeolithic" , i n r espect t o K urnool , G uddalah , o r G ujarat , w ill b e u niversally a ccepted i f t he g eneral n ature o f t his t erm f or t he whole c ountry i s a bandoned , a nd a ll p ossible r egional s tratigraphical a nd e conomic f actors a re i ncluded i n i t. J oshi a nd G upta a re c orrect

i n e mphasizing t he i mportant d ifferences

b etween t he I ndian a nd E uropean U pper P alaeolithic i ndustries . T hey a re a lso r ight i n p ointing o ut t he u nclear s tratigraphy o f t he f ormer ; ( however , t aking d ata a vailable i nto c onsideration , i t i s n ot t rue t o s ay t hat t he p resent s tratigraphic p osition o f t he U pper P alaeolithic i s n ot f irmly b ased) . T he t erm " Upper P alaeolithic" d enotes a g eneral t echnicot ypological s imilarity o f i ndustries a nd n ot a c ultural-local o ne . I n t his s ense i t i s q uite a pplicable • t o c orresponding s tone c onsider S nakalia a nd M urty's v iew t o b e s ound . S ankalia ( Sankalia ,

i ndustries .

T hus w e

1 973 a , p . 5 09) r aised t he q uestion w hich i s n ew f or

I ndian a rchaeology o ften c haracterized b y c onservative v iews : p revents u s f rom c alling a n ew " blade a nd b urin" c omplex

" What " Upper

P alaeolithic"? F urther , h e s tresses t hat t he e xistence o f r egional a nd c limatic v ariations i n a c ountry a s v ast a s I ndia d oes n ot m ean t hat U pper P alaeolithic c omplexes o f d ifferent s ites s hould b e q uite d ifferent . W hat h ad b een p redicted b y S ankalia s ix y ears a go i s p artly p roved b y n ew w ork b y I ndian a rchaeologists - " during t he n ext f ive y ears I 'll b e w aiting f or n ews f rom a lmost a ll r egions o f t he c ountry o f d iscoveries o f t his i ndustry" ( Sankalia , I bid, p . 5 09). G hosh ,

o ne o f t he l eading s pecialists i n t he I ndian P alaeolithic

o ffered a nother s cheme f or a n omenclature o riginally w orked o ut f or E astern I ndia , w hich h e c onsiders c orresponds b etter t o t he a bove c hronological p eriods ( Ghosh , 1 973 , p p . 2 7-28 , 1 976 a , p . 8 5 , 1 982 , p p . 2 65-282) . B y t his n ew c lassification o f I ndian P alaeolithic c ultures T he I ndian S tone A ge i s d ivided i nto t hree c hrono-stratigraphic g roups : P ebble-Core , F lake a nd F lake-Blade .

G hosh p rimarily b ased t his c hrono-stratigraphic d efinition o n

at raditional a ffinity. G hosh w rites t hat u ntil 1 969 , a ccording t o S ankalia , t erms l ike " series I I" , " Middle S tone A ge" a nd " Middle P alaeolithic" w ere c omparable . F or i ndustries w hich f ollowed M iddle P alaeolithic S ankalia e ven o ffered t he t erm " blade i ndustry" o r " blade a nd b urin i ndustry" . G hosh p oints o ut t hat t he m ain d ifference b etween h is a nd S ankalia 's v iews l ies i n t he u se o f t he

2 0

t erms, a nd n ot c oncepts .

G hosh a sks:

" Why a re t here d iscrepancies i n

n omenclature f rom s eries I I o r M iddle S tone A ge , o r M iddle P alaeolithic , o r N evasian c ulture u p t o " blade a nd b urin i ndustries"? ( Ghosh 1 976 b , p . 2 8). H e a sserts t hat two s eparate g roups o f p arameters

w ere u sed f or

i ndentification o f s imilar i ndustrial c omplexes , a nd t his i s o ne o f t he p oints w here h e a nd S ankalia d iffer i n o pinion . F urther , G hosh a rgues a gainst S ankalia 's c lassification , a ccording t o w hich t he P alaeolithic i s d ivided i nto t hree p eriods : L ower , M iddle a nd U pper , c onsidering t hat t he S tone Age i s n ot l imited t o t hese t hree , o r r ather , i t i ncludes t he N eolithic . H is o pinion d iffers f rom S ankalia 's f or t he f ollowing r easons : t he d ivision o f P alaeolithic i nto t hree p eriods h as a n E uropean o rigin a nd b est f its t o E uropean c onditions . S ankalia a nd D atta d emonstrated g reat s imilarity b etween b oth t he I ndian a nd E uropean P alaeolithic , a nd t he I ndian a nd A frican . H owever c ultures c an n ot b e c lassified o n m orphological e vidence a lone , a nd i t s hould b e e mphasized t he I ndian P alaeolithic h as a s pecific c haracter o f i ts o wn . F urther , h e n otes t hat t he d ivision o f t he P alaeolithic i nto t hree p eriods i mplies t hat t hey a re o f e qual d uration w hich i s n ot a ctually t he c ase . G hosh c onsiders t hat h is t erminology c orresponds m ore p recisely w ith t he I ndian P alaeolithic , a nd t hat h is n omenclature i s m ore m eaningful . H e a lso b elieves h is t erminology t o b e w idely a ccepted i n I ndia w ith c ertain r egional v ariations . H owever , R anov q uestions much f uture f or s uch t erminology r ightfully s tressing t hat G hosh h ad m ainly c hosen d ominant t echnial a nd t ypological f eatures a nd n ot c ultural-historical s tages f or h is s cheme . R anov w as r ight i n p ointing o ut t hat " periodization b ased u pon t echnical f eatures n arrows t he c oncept o f a c ultural-historical s tage , w hich i ncludes n ot o nly t he s pecific m ethod o f s tone t ool p roduction a nd t heir t ypology b ut a lso t he c oncept o f a d efinite h istorical s tage o f h uman d evelopment" ( Ranov , 1 976 , p .92) . R anov o pposes G hosh 's n omenclature u sing t he d ata o f t he G issarian N eolithic c ulture o f S outhern T ajicistan . i mpossible t o c haracterize t his c ulture

A ccording t o h im , i t w ould b e w here c hoppers a nd l arge f lakes

r epresent a pproximately 7 0% o f a rtifacts a nd t he r est i s f lint m icrolithic c ores a nd t hin b lades , i f o ne i s t o u se G hosh 's n omenclature b ecause t he t erm " Flake-Blade" c an b e a pplied t o t he G issarian i ndustry o f I V-III m illenium B .C . a s w ell a s t o t he I ndian U pper P alaeolithic c ulture w hich a ppeared 2 010 t housand y ears e arlier . A t p resent t here a re t hree c learly d istinguishable t echnological s tages o f t he d evelopment o f t he P alaeolithic i n I ndia. a ) L ower P alaeolithic , r epresented b y p ebble t ools, h and a xes a nd c leavers. b )

M iddle P alaeolithic ,

r epresented b y f lake t ools m ade b y t he

L evalloisian t echnique a nd i ts v arieties ; c )

U pper P alaeolithic , r epresented b y b lade t ools.

E arlier , e specially i n t he 7 0 's a nd 8 0 's o f t he X IXth c entury,

t he

o pinion w as h eld t hat a h iatus e xisted b etween t he P alaeolithic a nd N eolithic . T his h iatus was a ttributed t o t he t heory t hat t he a ncient E uropean p opulation c ould n ot g et a ccustomed t o t he e nvironment c aused b y t he p resent g eological e poch ( Holocene) a nd e ither w ere f orced t o m igrate t o

2 1

t he n orth o f E urope a nd A sia , d ied o ut o r l ed a s qualid l ife i n t he l ocations o f e arlier s ettlements . H owever , i nvestigation o f a n umber o f c aves i n S outhern F rance e stablished t he e xistence o f a n A zilian c ulture a nd s howed t hat t here w as n o s uch h iatus b etween t he P alaeolithic a nd N eolithic . T o d efine a t ransitional p hase b etween t he P alaeolithic a nd N eolithic t he t erm " Mesolithic" was p roposed . I t i s n ow k nown t hat t his t erm w as s uggested l ong a go b y A . C arlyle f or s ome s ites i n C entral I ndia , a nd i t w as t hen a ccepted b y J . D e . M orgon ( Efimenko , 1 938 , p . 6 23) . C arlyle , i nvestigating C entral I ndian s ites i n 1 8681888 , was i nterested i n t he h iatus b etween t he P alaeolithic a nd N eolithic . H is e xcavation y ielded t ypical t rapezes a nd o ther g eometrical m icrolithic t ools l ying t ogether w ith P alaeolithic t ools a nd c eramics . A s a r esult o f t his e xcavation h e p ut f orward t he s uggestion t hat t here w as n o h iatus b etween t he P alaeolithic a nd N eolithic a nd t hat t hese m icroliths m ade u p a t ransitional i ndustry w hich h e c alled " The M esolithic" ( Binford , 1 972 , p p . 4 21-422) . I n 1 894 W ilson s uggested t hat t he t erm " Mesolithic" s hould b e a ccepted t o d enote a t ransitional p eriod b etween t he P alaeolithic a nd N eolithic . T hough t he t erm " Mesolithic" i s n ow f irmly e stablished i n W estern E uropean a rchaeological w orks , I ndia p resents a d ifferent p icture a s w as d emonstrated a t t he s eminar o f I ndian P rehistory w hich t ook p lace i n 1 964 i n P oona . M isra ( Misra , 1 964 a , p . 5 7) , f or i nstance , writes t hat m any r esearchers p refer t he t erm " Microlithic" t o t he m ore a rguable " Mesolithic" . H e i s r ight i n t hat A rchaeologists s hould d eal w ith c ultures a nd h ence , a rchaeological t ime s hould b e d ivided i nto c ultural p eriods . I n t his c onnection , t he t erm " Microlithic" c annot h e s ubstituted f or t he t erm " Mesolithic" , b ecause t he f ormer h as a p urely t echnical a nd n ot a c ulturale conomic m eaning . A shok G hosh i s a lso a s upporter o f t he t erm " Mesolithic" . T o j ustify t he u se o f t his t erm h e p uts f orward d ata f rom t he s ite S inghbum ( i Ghosh ,A . 1 964 , p . 8 0). T hapar d oes n ot a gree w ith M isra 's o pinion , c onsidering t hat M esolithic t ools o f I ndia d o n ot h ave s imilar f eatures t o t hat o f E urope . A ccording t o h im, c ompared w ith E urope t here i s l ittle e vidence o f n ew ways o f e xistence e merging a t t he e nd o f t he P leistocene i n I ndia t hus i t i s d ifficult t o d etermine w hat e conomic o r t echnical s tage i s r eflected b y t hose m icroliths ( 2m .pax , 1 964 , p . 7 1) . G upta ( Gupta ,

1 964 ,

p p .

8 1-81) j oins t he g roup o f o pponents o f t he t erm

" Mesolithic" . A ccording t o h im , t he t erms ' Palaeolithic" a nd " Mesolithic" c an n ot d efine t he e conomic t ypes a ttributed b y A rchaeologists t o e ach o f t hese p eriods; t hey o nly s how s uccession - e arly a nd m iddle . H e a lso t hinks t hat n o s ingle t erm e xists i n A rchaeology t o c orrespond t o t his p eriod .

T he m eaning w e a scribe t o i t , h e s ays i s o f m ore i mportance t han

t he t erm .

H e c oncludes t hat t he o nly r emaining c ourse i s t o f ollow c losely

t he t erminology r ecomended b y t he I nternational C ommittee ,

e ven t hough i t

d oes n ot c learly c haracterize t his p eriod . T here i s n o o bjections t o t he t erm " Mesolithic" i n S ankalia 's w ork , t hough h e t hinks t his t erm h as l imited m eaning i n t he s tratigraphy o f m icroliths .

S ankalia p oints

' Palaeolithic" a nd

o rigin i s u nreasonable B oriskovsky

o ut

" Mesolithic"

i s

t hat

o bjection t o t he u se

i n I ndia o n

( Sankalia ,

t he g rounds

o f

o f

t he t erms

t heir E uropean

1 973 a , p . 5 05) .

a s upporter

o f

2 2

t he

t erm

" Mesolithic"

i n

I ndian

c lassification . a cceptable .

H e

w rites

" We

c onsider

t his

l ast

p eriodization a s

P alaeolithic, which h as a ppeared i n t he l ast y ear . c onfirm t hat i n I ndia , a

t ransitional

( Boriskovsky , T hus

m ost

S outh A frican p eriodization l eaves n o p lace f or I ndian U pper

i t

s tage

1 971, c an

a s i n a ll o ther c ountries ,

p .

b e

b etween

t he

I t i s p ossible t o

t he M esolithic e xisted a s

P alaeolithic

a nd

t he

N eolithic"

9 0) .

c onsidered

t hat

t hough

s ome

c onfusion

c oncerning

t he

E uropean t erm " Mesolithic" e xists , n evertheless i t c an p romote a b etter u nderstanding o f t he p lace o f t he M esolithic o f S outhern A sia i n t he s ystem o f o ther c ontemporary c ultures. C losing t his c hapter o n t he c lassification p roblems o f t he I ndian S tone A ge ,

w e

s uggest

t hat

S ankalia 's

m ost s uitable s olution .

( Sankalia ,

1 973 a , p .

A ccording t o i t ,

t he t erms

5 09) p roposal

i s

t he

' ! Early S tone A ge" a nd

" Middle S tone A ge" , s hould h e r eplaced b y " Lower P alaeolithic" a nd " Middle P alaeolithic" r espectively , w hile ' Upper P alaeolithic" s hould b e t aken t o d enote " blade a nd b urin i ndiustries" .

T he

l ast

p hase

o f

t he

S tone A ge

o f

I ndia i s c haracterized b y t he p resence o f p olished s tone a xes . S ubbarao p oints o ut t hat t his p hase i n t he C entral D ecan f ollows " Late S tone A ge" a nd c an

b e

c alled ' Neolithic"

( Subbarao ,

1 958 ,

p .

4 0) .

T here

a re n o

s erious

o bjections f rom I ndian a rchaeologists t o t he u se o f t he t erm ' Neolithic" i n I ndian

c ontexts .

2 3

C HAPTER I II S TONE A CE O F S OUTHERN I NDIA

L OWER P ALAEOLITHIC O F S OUTH I NDIA T he s tudy o f I ndian L ower P alaeolithic t ools p rovides o nly l imited i nformation o n t he e conomic a nd s ocial l ife o f t heir m anufacturers . T his s ituation i s a ggravated b y t he a bsence o f s tone t ools w hich w ere d eposited i n c learly s tratified c onditions . T he i mplements c an o nly g ive a c lue t o t heir t endency t o d evelop f rom r ougher a nd l arger i mplements t o s maller a nd m ore a ccurately w orked d iversified f orms . A t t he e nd o f t he L ower P alaeolithic t he t radition o f f lake t ools b egins t o a ppear . A ccording t o S . P iggott ( Piggott , 1 952 . p . 3 5) t he m ost i mpressive f eature o f L ower P alaeolithic i ndustries i s t heir v ast t ime r ange a nd t he s low r ate o f h uman p rogress i n t echnological a chievement . T he e arliest s ites i n S outhern I ndia w ere f ound a t t he e nd o f t he l ast c entury ; s ince t hat t ime a n a dequate n umber o f i mportant s ites h ave b een f ound , p roviding l arge c ollections o f r emains o f m aterial c ulture , av ery r ich s ource o f i nformation o n t he w onderful r ange o f S tone A ge i mplements . I t i s n ot a ccidental t hat m any S tone A ge s ites o f S outhern I ndia l ie n ear w ater s ources . I t i s h ighly p robable t hat t he m ajority o f s ites w ill b e d iscovered i n t he f uture i n t he b ig r iver v alleys . E arly m an w as p robably a ttracted t o r iver v alleys b ecause o f t he a vailability o f p ebbles , t he r aw m aterial o f h is s tone i ndustry . I t m ay b e n oted t hat o ther s ites , i n w ell d ocumented p arts o f I ndia , t end t o b e c oncentrated i n r iver v alleys f or t he s ame r eason . B ecause o f t he a bsence o f s ystematic i nvestigation o f m ost S outhern I ndian r iver v alleys t he m apping o f t hese s ites d oes n ot a dequately r eflect t his s ituation , w hich m ay b e f urther d istorted b ecause o nly s ites w ith s ubstantial c ultural r emains a re i ncluded d ue t o t he f act t hat w here s trikingly r ich s ites a bound, p oor s ites w ere n ot c onsidered w orth i nvestigation

( Sankalia ,

1 974 ,

p .

6 5) .

T he d istribution o f t he s ites o f E arly m an i n S outhern I ndia a nd a djacent r egions d uring t he P alaeolithic i s d ocumented i n a lmost a ll m ajor p ublications o f t he S tone A ge o f I ndia a nd P akistan . I n r eviewing t his f ield i t

i s a pparent

t hat

m ost

s ites

i nterpretation o f g eological d ata . a ttributed t o a s pecific p eriod .

l ack s ystematic c ollection a nd

H ence t hey c an b e o nly r elatively D etailed g eological i nvestigation ,

e nabling p recise d etermination o f a ge ,

h as n ot s o f ar b een e ncountered i n

p ublished w ork . I n t he c hapter o n t he e nvironment o f S outhern I ndia a nd S ri L anka i n t he P leistocene t he s equence o f f ormation o f l ayers o f c onsolidated , s mallg ranulated s oil w as d escribed . T hose c onsolidated l ayers , f ormed a t t he b eginning o f e ach a ggradation p hase , o ften c ontain a s ubstantial q uantity o f s tone t ools. S tone t ools f ound i n t he l ayers o f t he f irst p hase a re r elated t o t he i ndustries o f t he E arly S tone A ge , w hile t he t ools f ound i n

2 4

g ravel l ayers ( the s econd p hase) a re r elated m ainly t o f lake i ndustries o f t he M iddle S tone A ge . T he t ools f ound i n t he g ravel o f t he t hird a ggradation p hase a re a lso r elated t o t he c omplex o f t he M iddle S tone A ge , b ut t o i ts d eveloped s tage . T his s tage i s c haracterized b y s maller s ized c ores a nd f lakes , i mprovement i n k napping t echnique a nd d iversity o f s hape . L ate S tone A ge i ndustries a re i mmediately b eneath t he s oils o f t he u pper h orizon . L ower P alaeolithic s tone i ndustries o f S outhern I ndia a re o ften c alled M adrasian i ndustries , b ecause h andaxes a nd o ther i mplements w ere f ound f or t he f irst t ime i n A ttirampakam , n ear M adras . M adrasian c ulture d iffers f rom S oanian c ulture o f N orthern I ndia i n t he r atio o f p ebble t ools t o h andaxes a nd c leavers . I t h as n ow b ecome c lear f rom t he a vailable d ata t hat i t i s i mpossible t o d raw a d emarkation l ine b etween t hese t wo g roups . A cheulian i ndustries ( Madrasian c ulture) , c haracterized b y h andaxes , o ccur l argely i n C entral a nd S outhern I ndia . M ost r esearchers a re a greed i n c lassifying t his i ndustry u nder a g eneral n ame " Acheulian" b ecause o f i ts t ypological s imilarity w ith A cheulian c ultures o f A frica , W estern E urope a nd W estern A sia . Q uartizite w as t he m ain r aw m aterial f or t he h andaxe i ndustry , c leavers m ade o f f lakes b eing a lso a n i mportant e lement . T he u se o f q uartzite f or t ool p roduction a nd t he p resence o f c leavers a re c onsidered t o b e i ndications o f t he c lose r elationship b etween I ndian A cheulian a nd t he c ultures o f C entral a nd S outhern A frica a nd W estern A sia . T o u nderstand L ower P alaeolithic c ulture o f S outhern I ndia w e m ust c onsider b riefly t he s tone i nventory c haracteristics o f s ome i mportant P alaeolithic s ites . P alaeolithic s ites n ear M adras

( Figure

3 ) a re

t he

m ost

i lluminating ,

a nd

p rovide n ew i nformation a bout t he e mergence o f e arly t ools o n t he I ndian p eninsula . I t w as i n t he v icinity o f Madras t hat i n 1 863 R .B . F oote d iscovered t he I ndian L ower P alaeolithic . F or m any y ears h e h ad b een i nvestigating a n umber o f s ites a nd p ublishing r esults o f h is f ield i nvestigations ( Foote , 1 866 , 1 916 ) . I nvestigation o f t he v icinities o f M adras was c ontinued l at r o n b y P atterson , K rishnaswami a nd B anerjee ( Krishnaswami , 1 938a , 1 938 D, 1 947 ; P atterson , 1 939) . F rom t he m ore i mportant L ower P alaeolithic s ites o f S outhern I ndia , s uch a s A ttirampakam ( Figure 4 ) , V adamadurai ( Figures 5 , 2 , 5 ) a nd G udiem , a c lear i dea o f p rehistoric m an 's i nventory i n t hat p eriod c an b e o btained . T he p rincipal e lements o f t he L ower P alaeolithic o f S outhern I ndia a re k nown t o b e h andaxes a nd c leavers . A bbevillian-type h andaxes h ave r ough i rregular s hapes . C ores a re l arge , m ostly e longated o r r ound w ith r ough i rregular f laking ; s ometimes p reliminary f laking o ccurs . E arly A cheulian h andaxes m ade b y s tep-flaking h ave a more r egular s hape . p eriod .

D iscoid c ores w ith c onstant a lternate f laking m ostly o ccur i n t his F lakes h ave n on-faceted s triking p latforms ; t here a re t races o f

p reliminary f laking o bservable o n d orsal s urfaces , b ut t he r egularity i s n ot y et s ignificant. M iddle A cheulian h andaxes w ere m ore o ften p roduced b y s tep-flaking . P ear-shaped h andaxes a nd o vates p redominate . C ores a re d iscoid , m ainly , a nd h ave m ore r egular t rimming . Most f lakes h ave p reliminary d orsal t rimming a nd o nly a f ew h ave

t races

p latforms a re a bsent.

2 5

o f

r e-touch .

F aceted

s triking

H andaxes o f t he E arly A cheulian p eriod a re o f t wo p rincipal t ypes: o vates w ith f lat s tep-flaking a nd e longated o r p ointed f orms w ith r egular f ree t rimming . T he p resence o f o vates w ith t wisted c utting e nds a nd c leavers m ade o n f lakes i ndicates a r elationship b etween I ndian m aterial a nd t hat o f h orizon I V a t O lduvai G orge , T anzania . C ores a re r epresented b y v arious t ypes - d iscoid , e longated , o val w ith o ne o r t wo p latforms , a nd f lat . F lakes h ave n on-faceted s triking p latforms , s ome o f t hem w ith t races o f r e-touch ( they w ere p robably u sed a s s crapers). C leavers w ere m ostly m ade o f f lakes , w ith t heir s urfaces p artly o r e ntirely worked . T hey a re m ostly r ectangular . W orking e dges a re s traight, s ometime o blique, o r c onvex o r c oncave i n v ery r are c ases. T he A ttirampakam s ite i s i nteresting n ot o nly a s a c lassical s ite o f t he M adrasian c ulture , b ut a lso a s as ite y ielding i mplements c haracteristic o f t he S oanian c ulture o f N orthern I ndia - c hoppers a nd c hopping t ools . A lthough h andaxes a nd c leavers p redominate h ere , t he a bundance o f c hoppers a nd c hopping t ools s erves a s e vidence a gainst c ontrasting t wo L ower P alaeolithic c ultures : t he M adrasian c ulture o f h andaxes a nd c leavers , a nd t he S oanian c ulture o f c hoppers a nd c hopping t ools ; ( the c oncept o f t hese t wo P alaeolithic c ultures r esulted i n H .L . M ovius 's w ork c orrelating m aterial o f t he S oanian c ulture a nd o ther L ower P alaeolithic c ultures ( Movius, 1 944 , 1 949) . Movius a ttributed c hoppers t o al arge n umber o f P alaeolithic c ultures i ncluding C hina , B urma , N orthern I ndia a nd t he s oc alled " Madrasian h andaxe c ulture" , t o a nother b ranch - A frica , W estern a nd E astern E urope , S outhern I ndia) . T hanks t o r ecent a rchaeological i nvestigations , c haracteristic p eculiarities o f P alaeolithic t echnique i n p articular r egions h ave b een d ifferentiated . F or e xample , t he s ites o f M ysore , A ngawadi , a nd B agalkom y ielded m any U -shaped c leavers . I t w as t here t hat V -shaped c leavers w ere a lso f ound . M ost o f t hem h ave a s traight w orking e dge , a f ew c onvex o r c oncave . T he A ngawadi s ite i s i mportant b ecause t wo r are k inds o f i mplements w ere f ound t here - a t ool w ith a c hisel e nd ( Figures 6 , 1 , 2 , 3 ) a nd o ne w ith a b eak-shaped p oint ( Figure 6 , 6 ) . M assive f lakes , w hich w ere p robably u sed l ike c hoppers , a re a lso o f g reat i nterest . N orthern K arnataka , w hich f orms p art o f M ysore , i s d istinguished b y i ts a bsence o f p ebble t ools . P rehistoric m an i n t his r egion e ven u sed g neiss f or t he p roduction o f t ools , t hough i t i s d ifficulat t o w ork . T he m ost i nteresting f eature i n t he M ysore i ndustry i s ac ombination o f v arious s mall f lake t ools a nd h eavier t ools ( choppers) . K arnataka s tone i ndustries h ave a nalogues w ith P alaeolithic c ultures o f G odovari , S abarmati , a nd M adras . T he d iscovery o f b asalt p ebble

t ools

i n N ittur

( Bellari

r egion) ,

t ogether w ith t he r emains o f " Bos" b ones s hould b e n oted . Among t hem a re u nifaces ( with p ointed, s traight c onvex a nd c oncave w orking e dges) a nd b ifaces ( with a c leaver-like e dge).

P ebble t ools a lso o ccur i n A ngawadi.

B anerjee i nvestigated t he E astern c oast f rom M adras t o N ellur . T he r esults o f h is i nvestigation a re o f i mportance b ecause t hey p rovide e vidence t hat ,

a part f rom t he W estern G odavari i n t he n orth ,

a nd T innevelly i n t he

s outh , a lmost e very r egion w as p opulated b y p rehistoric m an . I n K handivli ,

n ear

t ools a s e arly a s t he

B ombay ,

1 930 's .

o f L ower P alaeolithic s equence :

ULU .

T ood

d iscovered

L ower P alaeolithic

H is s tratigraphy s hows t he f ollowing t ypes l ow c lay - C lacton-type i mplements ;

2 6

l ow

g ravel - f rom C hellean - C lacton t o l ate A cheulian-Clacton t ypes. H owever , i n M alik 's c ollection , f rom s ites n ear B ombay i nvestigated i n 1 956-7 , t here a re n o C lacton a nd C hellean-Acheulian c omplexes o f s tone t ools d escribed b y T odd ( Malik , 1 959 , p . 4 3) . H e f ound o nly a f ew o bscure s tone t ools i n t his c ollection . R esearch

b y

M alik,

S ankalia

a nd

S ubbarao

i n K handivli

s howed a

d ifferent p icture f rom T odd's. Where T odd d istinguished t hree s tratigraphic l ayers , S ankalia , M alik a nd S ubbarao o bserved o nly o ne . T he p recise n umber o f t ools f ound b y T odd h as n ot , s o f ar , b een s tated . T hough S ankalia a nd M alik s earched f or L ower P alaeolithic t ools s uch a s c leavers , h andaxes e tc ., n one h ave b een f ound . H ence S ankalia b elieves n o L ower P alaeolithic i ndustry e xisted i n K handivli ( Sankalia ,

1 974 ,

p .

1 59 ) .

T hus, m ost d istricts o f S outhern I ndia e xcept K erala a nd Malabar ( western c oastal d istricts) h ave y ielded P alaeolithic s tone t ools. H owever , S ankalia c onsiders t hat r esearch o f a ncient s ea s hores c an p rovide i mportant a dditional i nformation , a nd t he a bsence o f P alaeolithic t ools c ould b e a ttributed t o t he a bsence o f r esearch i n t hose d istricts ( Sankalia , 1 974 , p . 6 9). O ur k nowledge o f t hese s tone i ndustries i s l imited b y t he a bsence o f f ull d escriptions o f s ites o r w orkshops . T hough m aterial g athered f rom r iver t erraces c an b e u seful i n t he d etermination o f r elative c hronology a nd t ypological d evelopment o f t hese i mplements , i t p rovides l ittle e vidence f or a c lear r econstruction o f t he w ay o f l ife o f t he e arly m an w ho p roduced t hem . P alaeolithic s ites w ell i llustrate t hat p rehistoric m an a ppeared i n t his a rea a t ap eriod w hen t he c limate w as m ore h umid t han a t p resent . A t t hat t ime r ivers c arried a h eavy l oad o f p ebbles a nd b oulders w hich w ere d eposited a s t he c limate b ecame d rier . T his p henomenon e xplains t he d eposition o f a l ayer o f p ebble g ravel i n a lmost a ll t he r iver v alleys o f t his t erritory . T his p hase w as f ollowed b y a d rier p hase , w hen r ivers d eposited a l ayer o f s ilt o verlaid b y a l ayer o f e arly p ebble g ravel . P rehistoric m an s ettled a long t he b anks o f t hese r ivers , w hich w ere w ider t han a t p resent. D uring t he L ower P alaeolithic , M adras , B ombay a nd K arnataka w ere d ensely p opulated , m ore d ensely t han a ny o ther S outhern I ndian d istrict . I n t he c hoice o f t hese p laces , r aw m aterial a nd t he a vailability o f w ater s ources p robably p layed a n i mportant p art . W e k now t hat i n M adras a nd B ombay i n p articular t hese s ites a re l argely s ituated a t t he f oothills , i n t he p roximity o f t he s ea . T his i s p robably c onnected w ith t he f act t hat e arly m an a voided l ow, m arshy a reas, s ea c oasts a nd d ense f orests f or s ettling .

P roof o f t his h ypothesis c an b e i llustrated b y W estern d istricts

( Dharvar) w here n ot a s ingle s tone t ool h as e ver b een f ound . O pen p lains i n t he B ijapur d istrict , o n t he o ther h and, s hown b y t he a bundance o f r emains o f m aterial v ulture , t hat t hey were f avoured b y e arly m an f or s ettlement . I t s eems h e a lso p referred p lateau-type p lains . S ankalia

( Sankalia ,

1 978 ,

p .115)

s tudying

c onditions

o f

s ite

d istribution i n t he L ower P alaeolithic f ound t he s ites w ere s ituated a long r iver b anks . H e e xamined n umerous s ites i n A ndhra P radesh a nd T amil N adu a nd c oncluded t hat t hey a ll r epresented o pen a ir f actory s ites f or p roducing t ools f rom t he a vailable m aterial . A g ood e xample o f t his k ind o f s ite i s

2 7

i n G ujarat w here a c ave i s f ormed i n a c onglomorate . S ankalia c onsiders t he C hirki N evasa s ite t o b e t he b est k nown e xample o f a c ombination o f f actory a nd s ettlement . R esults o f e xcavations a t t he H unsgi a nd K arnataka s ites , b y K . P addaya , w here a s m any a s 3 00 t ools w ere f ound ( in a n a rea o f 4 x 5 m ) g ive h ope o f f urther d iscoveries o f s imilar s ites . T hroughout m ost o f S outhern I ndia ( although s ometimes i n s mall a ssemblages) t ools i nclude v arious k inds o f h andaxes , c leavers , s crapers , c hoppers, c hopping t ools a nd c ores . S cholars i nvestigating t hese i mplements v ary i n t heir i nterpretation o f t heir u sage , a nd h ence i t i s a ppropriate t o c onsider t he q uestion m ore f ully . T he

E skimos

a nd

T asmanians

p ossessed

S oanian-type

i mplements .

P atterson a nd D rummond ( Patterson & D rummon , 1 968 , p .114) i vestigating e thnographic p arallels c oncluded t hat p ebble t ools w ere p robably u sed f or v arious p urposes: c utting , b reaking , h ollowing o ut, c arving , p iercing , b oring , s awing , d e-barking , s craping . T hese t ools c an a lso b e u sed f or p olishing , t hreshing , p ressing , p laning a nd d igging . P ebble

t ools

c an b e u sed

f or a ll t he p urposes i ndicated b y P atterson

a nd D rummond . H owever , t he f unction o f h andaxes i s more o bscure . A ccording t o S ankalia ( Sankalia , 1 974 , p . 1 37) , p ointed h andaxes w ith a m assive b utt c ould b e u sed f or d igging , w hile f lat t riangular h andaxes w ith s harp e dges a long t he p erimeter c ould s erve a s t he s pear-heads . S ome o f t hem h aving f acets o n l ateral e dges c ould b e u sed w ith a b one o r w ooden h andle . F urther , S ankalia p ointed o ut , J effry 's v iew t hat t hin e longated o vates w ere u sed a s p rojectile-heads . S imilar t ools w ere u sed f or h unting l and o r w ater f owl . H andaxes , a ccording t o S ankalia s erved m any p urposes . C leavers ,

a ccording t o S ankalia ( Ibid ,

p .

1 37) ,

w ith t heir f our t ypes

o f e dge a nd b utt , h ave f unctions s imilar t o t hose o f h andaxes ; t ools w ith s traight o r c onvex e dges w ere u sed f or c utting a nd c hopping . I n D eccan C ollege t hey e xperimented w ith h andaxes , c leavers a nd o ther i mplements , b ut a d etailed r eport h as n ot y et b een p ublished . S imilar e xperiments w ere c onducted a t t he C hirki N evasa s ite . P alaeolithic i nhabitants o f t his s ite n eeded i mplements f or c utting a nd c hopping v ariegated s izes a nd f orms , b ut t he s pecific f unctions o f o val , p ointed a nd s emi-pointed h andaxes a re n ot c lear . S ankalia c onsiders t hat r oots c an b e d ug o ut o f t he g round b y a ny p ointed t ool a nd e ven b y a p ebble o r a s tone , b ut t he p resence o f e longated t enons o r p rojections s imilar t o s pear-heads i ndicates m ore s pecific u se. H aving i nvestigated t he f unctions o f L ower P alaeolithic i mplements , P atterson a nd D rummond ( Patterson & D rummond , 1 968 , p p . 1 35136) c ame t o t he c onclusion t hat t he p eople o f t he S oanian c ulture o f c hoppers a nd c hopping t ools w ere p eaceful g atherers , i n c ontrast t o t he p eople o f t he h andaxe c ulture who w ere h unters a nd u sed w eapons a gainst a ll k inds o f e nemy . S ankalia ( Sankalia ,

1 974 ,

p . 1 37) ,

s uch a c onclusion w as a ccepted ,

q uestioning t his s tatement ,

s aid t hat i f

I ndia m ust b e d ivided i nto t wo v ast z ones -

a p eaceful P unjab a nd a n a ggressive I ndian p eninsula . H owever , s uch a p icture c ontradicts a ll t he e thnological a nd c ultural h istory o f t he c ountry . I n t his r espect P atterson a nd D rummond 's c onclusion i s a nt i historical. S o f ar ,

f rom t he i nformation a vailable ,

r emains o f f ossil f auna h ave

n ot b een f ound i n S outhern I ndia . B ut t he g ravel o f G odavari , N arbada a nd P ravara i s d ated t o t he M iddle P leistocene b y t he p resence o f t he f ossil f auna " Bos N amadicus" a nd " Elephas A ntiquus" . I n t he a bsence o f a ny o ther

2 8

m eans f or d ating t hese f ossils i t m ust h e a ccepted a s t he b asis f or d ating t he L ower P alaeolithic c ultures i n I ndia . S ankalia ( Sankalia , 1 976 , p . 1) t hinks t hat, t aking i nto a ccount t he d ating p roposed b y D e T erra a nd P atterson ( based o n g lacial s tudies i n W estern P unjab ) a nd b y W einray ( based o n s ea l evel c hanges r ecorded i n N arbada) c leavers a nd h andaxes w hich h ave d iversified f orms c an b e r elated t o a l ate p hase o f t he M iddle P leistocene o r t he b eginning o f t he U pper P leistocene . T hus , a ccording t o S ankalia ( Ibid , p . 1 1) , i f t he r adio-carbon d ating i n M aharashtra i s t aken i nto c onsideration , t he L ower P alaeolithic f inishes a pproximated 5 0 ,000 B .P . w hile i t s tarts a bout 1 00 ,000 B .P . o r e arlier . T he

c hronology

o f

t he

S outhern

I ndia

L ower

P alaeolithic

r aises

t he

p roblem o f i ts o rigin . A bsence o f a s tratigraphically s harp d ivision b etween e arly A bbevillian-type h andaxes a nd l ate A cheulian-type o nes h as g iven r ise t o ah ypothesis a bout e arly m an e xisting i n I ndia o r c oming h ere w ith a s ufficient k nowledge o f t ool p roduction . S ome a uthors ( e .g . D ikshit) p ut f orward t he h ypothesis o f t he a utochthonal o rigin o f t he S outhern I ndian p opulation a nd t he i ndependent d evelopment o f L ower P alaeolithic m an h ere . O ther r esearchers c onsider t hat s imilarities b etween t ypes o f i mplements o n A frican a nd I ndian s ites c onfirm t he c lose c ontact a nd m utual i nfluence o f c ultures i n t hese t wo p arts o f t he w orld . F or e xample , C ammdade a nd B urkitt t hink t hat a ll t he s eries o f s tone i ndustries h ave t heir a nalogues , m ainly i n S outhern A frica . F urther , t hey n ote " naturally , r egional c onditions s hould b e t aken i nto c onsideration , h owever , t he s equence o f p luvials a nd d ry p eriods i n A frica a nd I ndia , s tarting f rom t he L ower P alaeolithic , a nd g oing o n t ill t he M esolithic h as m uch i n c ommon , t hough t hey a re r ather f ar f rom e ach o ther" ( Cammiade & B urkitt , 1 930 , p p . 3 27-328) . T hus t hese f actors e stablished c lose l inks b etween t he t wo t erritories . D .H . G ordon ( Gordon , 1 958 , p . 6 ) c onsiderd I ndian a nd E astern a nd S outhern A frican t ools v ery s imilar . A riyappan , i n h is b ook o n t he M anley c ollection o f s tone t ools i n t he M adras museum q uotes V an R yte L oy who w rites - %n e ntire a ssemblage o f a rtifacts o f t he O ld S tone A ge f rom M adras i s l iterally i ndistinguishable f rom o ne o f S tellenbosch" a nd i t w as t his s imilarity t hat m ade B urkitt a nd C ammdade c orrelate d ry a nd w et p hases o f t he t wo a reas. G ordon t hinks t hat V an R yte L oy 's s tatement t hat " in S outhern A frica t he L evallois i n i ts i nception i s a n i ntegral p art o f g reat h andaxe c ulture a nd i t c ontinues t o r emain s o a nd t o d evelop i ntegrally w ith b if a ce t ools" i s t rue f or t he l arger p art o f I ndia ( Gordon , I bid , p . 6 ) S ankalia

( Sankalia ,

1 978 ,

p .

13) c onsiders

t hat

I ndian h andaxes

a nd

c leavers a re s imilar t o O ldovan a nd S outh A frican , b ut t hey a ppeared l ater t han i n A frica . T he p resence i n t he t erritory o f M adrasian c ulture n ot o nly o f h andaxes a nd c leavers b ut a lso o f c hoppers a nd c hopping t ools w hich a re t hat

i n m ost p arts s imilar t o t hose o f O lduvai , I ndia

c ould h ave

a dopted

t his

i ndustry

b ears w itness t o t he v iew

f rom

A frica .

A ccording

t o

B ordes , ( Bordes , 1 956 , p . 5 ) t his i ndustry i ncludes a L evallois e lement o f f laking a s i n A frica a nd W estern E urope . T hen , p ossibly , I ndia r eceived t he i ndustry o f h andaxes f rom A frica , i ncluding S -twisted o vates w hich , a ccording t o L . L eaky ( Leakey ,

1 953 ,

p . 7 7) m igrated f rom E urope t o A frica .

M arate d iscovered i n U mreti o n t he H iran r iver i n S aurashtra , a s ite w ith m ost i nteresting s tratigraphy , w hich w ell i llustrates t he s equence o f L ower a nd M iddle P alaeolithic s tone i ndustries . T his s ite a ccording t o M arate a nd R ajaguru g ive i ndisputable e vidence o f P alaeolithic m an 's

2 9

m igration f rom A frica 1 967, P . 1 7). R .

( Eastern A frica) w hen t he s ea-leval f ell

S inger a nd J . W ymer ( Singer & W ymer ,

1 978 ,

p p .

( Sankalia ,

1 3-27) c ame t o t he

c onclusion t hat t he t ypological s imilarity o f m ost h ighly d eveloped h andaxes ( twisted o vates o f Madrasian A cheulian a nd h orizon I II O lduvai i n p articular) r esult f rom i ntercontinental c onnection a nd n ot f rom i ndependent d evelopment . T hey s uggest t he o ccurrence o f m igration a nd c ontacts o f r elatively d eveloped A cheulian h unting c ommunities i n A frica a nd I ndia . T hey t ried t o c onfirm t heir c onclusions b y l ocating L ower P alaeolithic s ites b etween A frica a nd I ndia , p articularly i n I ran . T o s upport t heir h ypothesis t hey d eomonstrated t he s imilarities o f v ertebrates a nd p rimates o f A frica , E urope a nd A sia w hich p roved i ntercontinental m igrations t ook p lace i n t he M iocene .

H owever , t he o nly e vidence o f ap re-Mousterian

I ranian p opulation i s a n A cheulian-type h andaxe f ound b y D r . I ranpanah o n a l ow t errace w ithin 1 km o f t he r oad f rom M ianeh t o l ake G ouri D joll . O ther a ttempts a t f inding h andaxes w ere n ot s uccessful , b ut t hree o ther a rtifacts w ere a ttributed t o t he L ower P alaeolithic . F or t his r eason S inger a nd W ymer c oncluded t hat a p ossible c onnection b etween P akistan , I ndia a nd A frica i n t he E arly a nd M iddle P leistocene e xisted t hrough a s outhern r oute -a long t he c oast o f t he I ndian O cean . T hey a lso s uggested t hat c onnections c ould h ave b een v ia t he A rabian a nd I ranian d eserts e xcept d uring p eriods o f l ow s ea-level . T races o f s uch c onnections a re o bservable , w hich a re s ubmerged b eneath t he p resent s ea-level ( Singer & W ymer , I bid , p . 2 4) . S inger a nd W ymer ,

w ith i nsuffient d ata ,

c ould o nly g uess a t t he

e xistence o f a s outhern r oute . P .J . B oriskovsky, c ommenting o n t heir a rticle , b elieves t hat n ew I ranian i nvestigations w ill l ead t o t he d iscoveries o f t he s ame k ind . H e w rites " we e xpect n ew f ind o f A cheulian b ifaces i n t his d istrict i n t he f uture" ( Boriskov sky , 1 978 , p . 2 7) . I n t his c ase , w e w ill b e a ble t o o btain m igration d ata n ot o nly f or a s outhern , a lso f or a n orthern r oute . A ccording t o V .A . R anov ,

t he B arda-Balka s ite i n I raq

b ut

i s o f g reat

i nterest f or d emonstrating s imilarities b etween I ndian a nd A frican i mplements . H e w rites " Barda-Balka c an b e r egarded a s a n e xample o f t he c onnections i n s tone-working t raditions b etween I ndia a nd A frica" ( Ranov , 1 978 ,

p . 2 02) .

T hus i t a ppears t hat t he m ajority o f t he f acts s upports t he

h ypothesis o f aW estern o rigin o f t he I ndian P alaeolithic. T here i s a n i ndustry o f h andaxes ( Patijan ) o n t he i sland o f J ava ,

b ut

i t i s p robably o nly a s pecialized F acy , a nd i ts s imilarity t o t he M adrasian h andaxe i ndustry c an b e e xplained b y c onvergence . H andaxes a re a bsent i n B urma a nd M alaya , t hus e xcluding a ny c onnection w ith S outhern I ndia t hrough g enetic m igration . T he M iddle P alaeolithic o f S outhern I ndia F lake i ndustries i n s tratigraphic s equence w ere f ound f or t he f irst t ime a s e arly a s t he 1 930 's b y C ammiade a nd B urkitt i n S outh-Western I ndia , T odd i n K handivli , n ear B ombay , a nd b y D e T erra a nd P atterson i n S oan a nd N arbada . T odd f ound s imilar s equences o f s tone i ndustries b oth i n B orivili a nd G oregaon a nd i n K handivli . A ccording t o T odd ( Todd , 1 939) t he s equence s tarts w ith C hellean-Acheulian a nd C lacton c omplexes o verlaid b y a n i ndustry o f f lake-blade-scraper a nd b lade-burin , i ndustry o n t he s urface.

3 0

a nd f inally t here w as a m icrolithic

M any r esearchers h ave d oubted w hether s uch a s mall s tratified c uts ection n ear B ombay c ould s how a c ontinuous s equence o f s tone i ndustries , p articularly s ince , i n t hose d ays , i t w as i mpossible e ven t o t hink o f a bout t he U pper P alaeolithic i n I ndia . M oreover , t hese i nvestigators d id n ot p rovide a d etailed a ccount o f t hese t ools , n or d id t hey t ry t o r elate t hem t o o ther s tone i ndustries . W e h ave a lready s tated t hat i n 1 9541956 S ankalia a nd h is p upils f ound as tone i ndustry n ear N evasa , o n t he G odavari t ributary o f t he P ravar r iver , w hich s tratigraphically a nd t ypologically w as y ounger t han a ny C heulleanA cheulian i ndustry , a nd h ad n othing t o d o w ith m icroliths . T his s tone t ool c omplex f illed a h iatus

b etween t he L ower P alaeolithic i ndustry a nd

m icroliths a nd w as c alled M iddle P alaeolithic . T hanks t o r ecent s tratigraphical a nd t ypological d ata o f t he t ools i n N evasa , i t b ecame o bvious t hat s uch d evelopmental s equences o f s tone i ndustries c an b e f ound i n o ther p arts o f I ndia . A fter m uch r esearch b y S ankalia a nd h is p upils , m any s imilar s tone t ool c omplexes w ere f ound i n o ther p arts o f I ndia . S ankalia ( Sankalia , 1 974 , p .148 ) a sks w hether t he M iddle P alaeolithic i s a ctually a f lake i ndustry? B e p oints o ut t hat a lthough t he m ajority o f i mplements a re f lake t ools, f lakes , e specially L evalloisean , were n ot c onsidered e ssential . S o , i n h is o pinion , a ny f lat p iece o f s tone - a f lake , a n odule o r a c ore - w as s ufficient t o b e t urned i nto a b orer o r a s craper . H ence t he M iddle P alaeolithic i s n ot a f lake c ulture i n t he s ame s ense a s i n E urope o r A frica . T he M iddle P alaeolithic h as b een p rimarily d istinguished f rom t he L ower P alaeolithic b y t he m aterial u sed i n t ool p roduction .

I n t his p eriod t ools

w ere m ade m ainly o f v arious k inds o f c rypto-crystalline s ilicate , s uch a s c halcedony , j asper , a gate , a nd f lint w hich g ave a m ore d istinct c oncoidal f racture t han g ranulated l imestone . O ther r ocks s uch a s f lerite a nd b asalt , p opular i n t he L ower P alaeolithic , w ere s eldom u sed . E arly m an o ften u sed r iver p ebbles f or t ool p roduction . T he

s ize

o f

i mplement

i n t he M iddle P alaeolithic ,

c ompared w ith t he

L ower P alaeolithic , i s e qually i mportant . M iddle P alaeolithic t ools a re s maller t han t hose o f t he L ower P alaeolithic . T ools r eaching 2 5 c m i n w idth a nd 3 c m i n t hickness s eldom o ccur. T he c haracteristics o f M iddle P alaeolithic t ools a re t reated i n d etail i n o ther p ublications ,

h ence i t w ill b e s ufficient t o e nlarge h ere o n t he

p rincipal f eatures o nly o f t his i ndustry ( Allchin , B" 1 959 , 1 963) , ( Al l _chin , B . a nd I L , 1 968) , ( Boriskovsky , 1 971) , ( Malik , 1 959) , ( Sankalia , 1 964 a , 1 964 b , 1 971 , 1 974 , 1 978) . M iddle p alaeolithic f lakes h ave v ariegated s hapes - r ound , p ointed , r ectangular ; l ong p arallel-sided b lade f lakes a lso o ccur . M any o f t hem h ave b ulbs o f p ercussion w hich i ndicate t hat p ossibly t hey w ere d etached f rom c ores b y t he u se o f ap iece o f w ood o r s mall p ebble . S mall e longated p ebbles , u nifacially o r b ifacially t rimmed a re f ound i n m any M iddle P alaeolithic s ites , a nd i t m ay b e a ssumed t hat t hey s erved a s h ammer s tones f or t ool p roduction . F lakes w ith n on-faceted s triking p latforms s ituated a t a n o btuse a ngle t o av entral s urface f requently o ccur . t his

f eature

t hat a c lear d istinction

I t i s i n

b etween t he M iddle P alaeolithic o f

I ndia a nd t he M ousterian t echnique i s o bserved ( Boriskovsky ,

1 971, p .84).

T he t ypical M ousterian p oints a nd l imaces a re a bsent i n t he M iddle P alaeolithic i nventory o f I ndia . H owever , b oth i n E urope a nd I ndia f lat

3 1

h andaxes , s crapers, p oints a nd a wls, t hin i n c ross s ection , a re f ound . L evallois a nd M ousterian f lakes w ith f aceted s triking p latforms p laced a t a r ight a ngle t o t he l ower s urface o f t he f lake o ccur i n c onsiderable n umbers . E longated a nd b lade f lakes s eldom o ccur . A long w ith p rimitive c ores, t ypical L evallois t ortoise , d iscoid a nd p rismatic c ores a re f ound. T here a re n o i ndustries i n t he I ndian p eninsula w hich c an b e c ompared w ith t he a uthentic E uropean M ousterian . G hosh s uggested t hat c ertain I ndian s ites r esembling M ousterian o nes s hould b e c alled M ousteroid ( Ghosh , 1 976 a , p .86) . R anov t hinks t hat G hosh i s r ight i n h is a pplication o f t his t erm t o d efine I ndian P alaeolithic i ndustries, t hough m any r esearchers d o n ot a pprove o f i t b ecause o f i ts i nexactitude . R anov ( Ranov , 1 976 ,p .93) n otes a s pread o f t echnical M ousterian f eatures s uch a s t he L evalloisean t echnique , t hough t ypical Mousterian t ools - p oints a nd l imaces - a re a bsent . A ccording t o h im, s uch a p aradox i s e xplicable . H e a lso m entions t hat a rchaeologists h ave t o w ork w ith i ncomplete a ssemblages o f t ools f or s everal r easons : t he i nadequacy o f t he m ethods u sed i n i nvestigating n ew s ites , t he d isturbed g eological c onditions o f t he m aterial .

a nd

A s s uggested b y R anov , f uture f indings o f n ew , q ualitatively d ifferent m aterial c an b e e xpected t o s how t hat t he M iddle P alaeolithic e merged a utochthonally i n I ndia o ut o f l ocal c ultures o f t he L ower P alaeolithic . ' Doubtless m inor i nfluences f rom W estern a nd M iddle A sia p layed s ome p art . T he M iddle P alaeolithic a nd a g roup o f c ultures w ith a t echnical M ousterian b asis d id n ot p roduce c orresponding a ssemblages a nd t he i nnovations o f t he a ncient c raftsmen w ere l imited t o a s mall n umber o f " primitive" t ools . A ctually , t he " primitivism" o f t he I ndian P alaeolithic i s d eceptive" ( Ranov , I bid , p .83) . G hosh d istinguishes t wo m ain f acies i n t he I ndian M ousterian . T he f irst o ne i s i n t he n orth ( beyond p eninsular I ndia) ; t he o ther i s s ituated i n s outhern p eninsular I ndia . Mousterian f eatures o f b oth a re e qually c haracterized b y t he L evallois t echnique ,

b ut i t c an n ot b e p roved t hat t he

l atter e merged f rom t he s ame s ource . T he n orthern M ousterian f acy c an b e c alled M ousterian w ith a L evallois t radition , w hile t hat o f p eninsular I ndia c an b e c alled M ousterian w ith a A cheulian-Levallois t radition . T he l atter a ppeared t he e arliest , a nd h ere A cheulian a nd L evallois m ethods o f t ool p roduction a re r epresented i n t he s ame c omplex o f t ools , w hile i n t he n orth t he A cheulian i s s eparated f rom t he L evallois . G hosh ( Ghosh , I bid , 8 9) m ay b e c orrect i n a ttributing t wo s eparate M ousterian f acies t o t he I ndian P alaeolithic f or t he f ollowing r easons : " The a bsence o f A cheulian t echnique i n o ne S oanian v ariety , a nd i ts p resence i n o thers i ndicates t hat t he s pread o f L evallois

t raditions

f rom p eninsular I ndia w as

l imited ,

a nd t hat

n eighbouring a reas a dopted o nly e ssential t echniques" . S o f ar , l ess i s k nown o f t he M iddle P alaeolithic o f S outhern I ndia t han o f C entral I ndia a nd t he I ndus a nd G anges v alleys .

T his c an b e e xplained b y

i nsufficient r esearch r ather t han b y t he a bsence o f M iddle P alaeolithic r emains . E .g . i n t he K erala d istrict , t he M iddle P alaeolithic h as n ot b een i nvestigated a t a ll . N o d oubt M iddle P alaeolithic c ultures w ere a s w idespread a s t hose o f t he L ower P alaeolithic . M iddle p alaeolithic t ools f ound i n v arious p arts o f I ndia c onfirm t he f act t hat t heir d istribution w as a ctually w ider t han t hat o f t he L ower P alaeolithic , f or s everal r easons : t he s ize a nd c haracteristics

o f

t he

i mplements ,

a nd

t he

a vailability

o f

r aw

m aterial. T he M iddle P alaeolithic h as s o f ar b een f ound i n a f ew p laces i n

3 2

S outhern

I ndia ,

a mong t hem M adras a nd N orthern M ysore ( or K arnataka) .

I n

1 964 B anerjee i nvestigated t he A ttirampakam a nd V adamadurai s ites ( where i n w hose v icinities) M iddle P alaeolithic t ools w ere f ound . I n A ttirampakam , i n t he s econd h orizon o f d etritic l aterite , a f lake i ndustry w as f ound w hich c ontained p oints , s crapers a nd l ong b lade f lakes . I n t he s ame a rea , i n t he G udiem s ite , a s imilar i ndustry w as d iscovered , o verlaid b y a m icrolithic i ndustry . T his s ite i s o f g reat i mportance b ecause h ere c an b e c learly s een a n i ntermediate s ituation o f af lake i ndustry i n as tratigraphy w here a lmost a ll P alaeolithic i ndustries a re p lainly o bservable . R eports o f t he e xcavations m ade i n G udiem s ites h ave n ot b een p ublished , i ndustry c an n ot b e c haracterized i n d etail . T he M iddle P alaeolithic o f t he M ysore s tate h as

h ence t his

a lso b een t horoughly

i nvestigated ( F 4> 7 , 8 ) . T hough m any t ypes o f t ools w ere f ound h ere , o nly 1 4% w ere r egular t ypes . T hough t he p repared c ore t echnique i s n ot c learly s een , t here a re s ome t ortoise-like c ores . F lakes w ith f aceted s triking p latforms a re w ell r epresented . M ost i mplements a re f lake t ools o f t he f ollowing t ypes : s crapers ( five s ub-types) , p oints , b orers a nd s craperb orers. T he S alvadgi s ite i n M ysore s hows t races o f e arly s ettlement d uring t he M iddle P alaeolithic , a nd a gain i n t he N eolithic . N o t races o f U pper P alaeolithic m an w ere f ound . T he R eningunta s ite i s i nteresting i n t hat i t d emonstrates a c lose r elationship o f t he M iddle a nd L ower P aleolithic . T ools c haracteristic o f t he L ower P alaeolithic - h andaxes a nd c leavers o ccur h ere i n c onjunction w ith M iddle P alaeolithic t ools ( Fig . 9 ) . M iddle P alaeolithic s tone i mplements n ear B ombay w ere l argely p roduced f rom v arious k inds o f j asper a nd c hert o f p oorer q uality t han t hose o f N arbada a nd G odavari , w here t he t ools w ere o f t he s ame , b ut b etter , m aterial ( Malik , 1 959 , p . 4 3) . T ypical t ools h ere a re v ariegated s crapers, b orers a nd c ombined t ools . T hese t ools c ontinued u ntil t he L ate S tone A ge . I n t he K handivli s ite , a bundance

o f

q uantities o f s tone t ools w ere f ound ( Fig .

m aterial f or t ool p roduction ,

s uch a s

1 0 a nd 1) .

j asper ,

f lint ,

T he

c hert ,

b asalt c ould b e t he r eason f or t he l arge n umber o f t ools f ound h ere . I n H yderabad a nd o n t he b anks o f t he K rishna r iver , s ites d ating b ack t o t he e nd o f t he M iddle P alaeolithic w ere f ound i n p roximity t o M esolithic s ites . T he s ame p henomenon o ccurs i n T innevelly , n ear M adras , a nd y et t he c entres o f d istribution o f t hese t wo i ndustrial t raditions a re c learly d istinguishable . S uch a p henomenon , a ccording t o B A llchin , i s e xplicable b y c ultural c ontinuity ( Allchin B . 1 963 , p . 2 20) . I t w ould a ppear t hat t he e mergence o f n ew t echniques o f t ool p roduction , o r t he t ransmission o f i ndustrial t raditions o ccurred g radually , w ithout a brupt c hanges . T he n umber o f M iddle P alaeolithic s ites i n I ndia h as c onsiderably i ncreased, a nd p robably t here w ill b e m ore d iscoveries i n t he f uture . A lready i t c an b e s aid t hat s tratigraphical a nd p aleontological d ata i n t he M iddle P alaeolithic a re c onsiderable . T he e xistence o f t he M iddle P alaeolithic h as f inally b een p roved r ecently a s a r esult o f n ew d iscoveries n ot o nly i n S outh I ndian s ites s uch a s M ysore , M adras , b ut a lso i n m any o ther p laces

i n I ndia .

A n i mportant f inding i s o f f ossil a nimals i n

G odvarai a nd N arbada . S o f ar M iddle P alaeolithic f aunal r emains h ave n ot b een k nown i n t he t erritory o f S outhern I ndia . I t i s e stablished, h owever , t hat t ypical P leistocene a nimals s uch a s " Elephas a ntiquus" a nd " Bos n omadicus" l ived i n C entral I ndia u ntil t he M iddle P alaeolithic . S ankalia ( Sankalia , 1 976 ,

3 3

p .16) g ives r ecent d ata a bout t he d iscovery o f a l arge n umber o f f ossil a nimal r emains i n B elan , a nd h ippopotamus r emains i n P oona . A s t o M iddle P aleolithic f lora , n o r emains h ave b een f ound i n S outhern I ndia e xcept f or o ne s pecies , t he s o-called T erminalia a rj ma . I t w as f ound i n g ravels o f t he r iver H ula, n ear A hmednagar . I f

t he h andaxe was t he m ain t ool o f p rehistoric m an i n t he L ower

P alaeolithic o f S outhern I ndia , i n t he M iddle P alaeolithic t he s craper b ecame t he m ost w idespread t ool . I t h as a lready b een s tated t hat , e xcept f or a f ew r are e xamples , p oints w ere a bsent d uring t he M iddle P alaeolithic . S ankalia d isputes t his , a sserting t hat p oints o ccur i n a lmost a ll p arts o f I ndia a nd e xplaining t his b y u sing a d ifferent d efinition o f p oints f rom t hat c ommonly a dopted i n E urope ( Sankalia , 1 974 , p . 1 48 ) . H e s uggested t hat t ools s uch a s p oints w ere l ikely t o h ave b een made o f w ood o r b one , a nd n ot o f f lint . C onsidering t hat i n t he c ountries o f S outh a nd S outh-Eastern A sia , p eople e ven t oday u se b amboo f or p rojectile p oints a nd k nives , i t i s q uite p ossible t hat i n t he M iddle P alaeolithic t hese m aterials w ere a lso v ery p opular i n I ndia ( Sankalia , 1 976 , p . 1 6). T he d istribution o f M iddle P alaeolithic s ites d emonstrates t hat e arly m an p referred o pen f orest t errain t o t hickets w hich p robably i nterfered w ith h unting. S ince M iddle P alaeolithic s ites i n I ndia a re o ften w idely s eparated , a nd e nvironmental c onditions h ave c hanged a ccording t o t ime a nd p lace ( during t he M iddle P alaeolithic t he c limate i n I ndia w as d amper t han d uring t he L ower P alaeolithic) i t s eems t hat t he d iversity i n t he m aterial c ultural r emains o f t he v arious s ites r eflects t he c ultural d ifferences o f t he e arly s ettlers o f t hese s ites . P ossibly t he I ndian M iddle P alaeolothic w as n ot u niform , b ut p resented a c ombination o f

c ultures w hich d iffered i n t he m ethods o f t ool

p roduction , p articularly o f f lake t ools , a nd i n t heir p reference f or v arious s crapers. S ankalia ,

f or e xample ,

c onsiders

r epresented m ainly b y f lake t ools ,

t hat

M iddle

P alaeolithic

i ndustries

e mployed r aw m aterial w hich h ad n ot b een

u sed h itherto . A ccording t o h im t his i ndicates t he a ppearance o f n ew c ultural t raditions ( Sankalia , 1 964 , I .P . p . 4 2) . A ccording t o G hosh " the M iddle P alaeolithic" i s a c hronological t erm a nd i ncludes s everal c ultures . I t w ould b e w rong t o t hink t hat o n a s ubcontinent a s b ig a s I ndia , w ith i ts l arge r egional d iversity, o nly o ne c uclture e xisted i n t he M iddle P alaeolithic ( Ghosh , H owever ,

I bid , p . 4 9).

i n c ontrast

t o t he M ousterian o f E urope

o r t he M iddle E ast ,

w here l ocal d ifferences a re o bservable m ore o r l ess c learly , i n I ndia t hey a re n ot s o a pparent . B oriskovsky i s r ight i n a ffirming t hat i t i s n ot y et p ossible t o d istinguish a l ocal g roup o f M iddle P alaeolithic s ites w hich w ould d iffer c onsiderably f rom o thers o f t he s ame p eriod o f t ime L ate S oanian i n P unjab) ( Boriskovsky , 1 971 , p . 12) . A t

p resent

t here

i s

n o u nanimity

o f

o pinion

c oncerning

t he

( except

g enetic

c onnection o f t he M iddle P alaeolithic a nd t he a rchaeological c ultures p rior t o i t . F or e xample , K hatri ( Kbatri , I bid , p . 4 3) p oints o ut t hat M iddle P alaeolithic t ools w ere m ade b y t he p eople r e-inhabiting t hese r egions . A ccording t o S . R ajan ( S . R ajan , I bid, p . 4 3) t he s tratigraphy s hows h ow A cheulian t ools a nd M iddle f alkes l ying o ne o ver t he o ther o n t he s urface o f t he s econd g ravel l ayer i n N arbada , t ogether w ith t he r amins o f B os n amadicus i n g ravel l ayers i n G odavari , N arbada a nd o ther p laces , i n t he

3 4

L ower a nd M iddle P alaeolithic , d emonstrates a g radual c hange i n e cology a nd c ontinuity o f c ulture . S ankalia ( Sankalia , I bid , p . 4 2) a lso s upports t his i nterpretation . A ccording t o h im, t he p resence o f f auna i n g ravels r elating t o t he s econd a nd t hird t erraces o f p eninsular I ndia s o f ar c onsidered t o b e t ypically M iddle P leistocene , a nd t he s mall h andaxes f ound i n s ome d istricts s uggest a r elationship o f t his I ndustrial e lements t o t he L ower P alaeolithic . A ccording

t o

G upta

( Gupta ,

I bid ,

p p .

p eriod

4 8-49)

a nd

t here

s ome

w as

o f

n o

i ts

s uch

r elationship b etween t hese c ultures . I n B oriskovsky 's v iew , i n s pite o f L ate S oanian c hoppers a nd c hopping t ools c learly i ndicating L ate S oanian e merging o ut o f t he E arly S oanian o f P unjab , p rior t o i t , i t i s n ot p ossible t o s ay t he s ame a bout t he M iddle P alaeolithic o f I ndia o n t he w hole , b ecause t he g enetic c onnection o f t he M iddle P alaeo lithic w ith p rior a rchaeological s ites i s n ot s o c learly d istinguishable ( Boriskovsky , 1 971, p . 12) . T he d iscovery o f M iddle P alaeolithic r emains i n t he S angho c ave i n P eshevar e nables I ndian a rchaeologists t o e xtend M iddle P alaeolithic b oundaries t o t he e dge o f t he L evallois-Mousterian c ultures d istributed t hrough A fghanistan , C entral A sia a nd I ran where , i n t wo c ases, t he a rchaeological m aterial w ere a ssociated w ith t he r emains o f N eanderthal m an . T hus, N eanderthal m en w ere p ossibly t he b earers o f M iddle P alaeolithic c ulture i n I ndia. T he e xistence o f al arge n umber o f t ool t ypes m eans t hat t he M iddle P alaeolithic p eople w ere e ngaged i n d iverse a ctivities .

H owever t he

f unctions o f t hese t ools a re s till n ot c lear . S ankalia ( Sankalia , 1 976 , p . 1 6) s uggests t hat p oints ( large a nd s mall) c ould b e u sed a s s pear-heads , b orers a nd s crapers f or t he p roduction o f l arger t ools o f w ood a nd b one . H e c oncludes t hat s ome I ndian M iddle P alaeolithic t ools , a s i n E urope a nd A frica , s erved a s s econdary t ools . I t

i s a pparent

t hat

m any

I ndian M iddle P alaeolithic t ools w ere g iven

n ames r eflecting t heir f unctional p urposes , t hough t heir n ames a ctually d o n ot c orrespond t o s uch f unctions . I ndian a rchaeologists p ay l ittle a ttention t o f unction f or more p recise i nterpretation o f m an 's c ultural d evelopment. I t

i s w idely h eld t hat s tatistics s hould p lay a n i mportant p art i n t he

i nterpretation o f a rchaeological m aterial ( Bonch-Osmolovsky , 1 940 , p . 1 4) ; ( Spaulding, 1 953, p p . 3 05-13, 1 960, p p. 6 0-83); ( Clarke, 1 968) . U nfortunately, u ntil r ecently , I ndian s cholars d id n ot u se s tatistical m ethods i n t he d etermination o f a ssemblages o f p rehistoric t ools ( Jayaswal & P ant, 1 973 , p p . 3 8-53) . T hese a ssemblages o r " sets o f t ools" a re d istinguished a s c omplexes o f t ool t ypes , t he f requency o f o ccurrence v arying f rom s ite t o s ite . I t i s k nown t hat L .R . & S .R . B inford t ried t o d istinguish Mousterian a ssemblages i n F rance w ith i nteresting r esults . U ntil t he r elation b etween a ssemblages a nd e nvironmental f actors ( climate , f auna ,

f lora a nd s ituation o f s ites) i s e stablished i n I ndia ,

o ne c an n ot

e xpect a m ore s cientific i nterpretation o f t he M iddle P alaeolithic . M aterial r emains o f e arly m an p rovide i nformation o n t heir l ife s tyle i n t he M iddle P alaeolithic . I t i s e vident t hat t he a dvances d uring t his p eriod i s n ot o nly i n m aterial c ulture a nd t ool t echnology , h ut a lso i n t he d evelopment

o f

s ocial

s tructure .

I n

t he

r econstruction

o f

s ocial

o rganisation , e thnographical d ata a re o f i mportance , a s t heir t races a re n ot p reserved i n m aterial c ultural r emains .

3 5

H owever i t s hould b e n oted

t hat

d ata o n m odern p eoples h ave v ery l imited a pplication i n t he r econstruction o f M iddle P alaeolithic s ocial o rganisation . A rchaeological d ata i ndicate t hat M iddle P alaeolithic m en w ere h unter-gatherers . T hey l argely o ccupied s trictly d efined t erritory w here t hey g ot t heir f ood a nd o ther e ssential m aterial . A s ettled w ay o f l ife i n c aves a nd o ther s uitable l iving a reas e nabled d omestic o rganisation t o e merge w ith N eanderthal m an . P robably d istribution o f l abour w ithin a M iddle P alaeolithic c ommunity w as b ased o n a s exual-age p rinciple . T he p roblem o f t he I ndian M iddle P alaeolithic c onnection w ith M ousterian c ultures o f o ther c ountries i s o f i nterest . A ccording t o a vailable d ata , t he I ndian M iddle P alaeolithic i s d ated b etween 5 0 ,000 a nd 3 0 ,000 B .P . T hus , t he I ndian M iddle P alaeolithic h as s imilarities w ith o ther W estern A sian a nd E uropean c ultues o f t hat t ime i n a t ypological a nd c hronological r espect ( Sankalia , 1 976 , p . 1 7) . A ccording t o S ankalia ; t his c orrelation i s n ot a ccidental , a nd p ossibly i ndicates a s low c ultural d iffusion . H e a lso n otes t hat i t w ould b e i ncorrect t o d eny t his c onnection b ecause o f t he a bsence i n t he I ndian r ecord o f f ossil m an a ssociated w ith t hese c ultures. A ccording

t o

G hosh

( Ghosh ,

1 976 a , p .

8 9) ,

M ousterian

a nd

M ousteroids

t radition o f A frica h ave n ot b een t raced i n I ndia . A ny s imilarity o f t ool t ypes o r t echniques o f p roduction i s s light a nd s eems t o h ave b een o f a n I ncidental c haracter . A s y et n o c orrelation b etween A frican a nd I ndian M ousteriod c omplexes c an b e e stablished . B oriskovsky 's ( Boriskovsky , 1 971 , p . 1 12) v iew i s t hat w e c an n ot s peak a bout I ndian Middle P alaeolithic s imilarity t o a M ousterian c ulture o f s ome d efinite t erritory , b ecause t he I ndian M iddle P alaeolithic i s a v ery p eculiar c ulture l ike t he .A terian i n N orthern A frica a nd s ome M iddle S tone A ge c ultures i n S outhern A frica . A t t he s ame t ime B oriskovsky s ees a s imilarity o f t he l arger p art o f t he s tone i nventory o f t he U st ' K anskaya c ave i n t he A ltai , s tudied b y S .N . A stakhov a nd N .K . A nisutkin , w ith t he I ndian M iddle P alaeolithic . T he c ave a ssemblage i ncludes L evallois t echnique , w ith a p redominance o f s crapers ; t here a re a lso L evallois c ores a nd f lakes . T he L evallois t echnique i s a lso c haracteristic o f t he I ndian M iddle P alaeolithic , w ith a p redominance o f s crapers . H owever , h ere t here a re a f ew p oints . B ut i n t he U stL -K anskaya c ollection , M ousterian a nd L evallois f eatures a re m ore p ronounced t han i n t he I ndian M iddle P alaeolithic . T he U pper P alaeolithic o f S outhern I ndia W ith t he t ransition t o t he U pper P alaeolithic , e ssential c hanges o ccur i n t he h istory o f m ankind .

T he p rincipal c hanges o f t his e poch a re t hose

i n t echniques o f t ool p roduction a nd c hanges i n t he p hysical h uman t ype e .g . N eanderthal m an i s r eplaced b y modern m an . G .P . G rigoriev ( Grigoriev , 1 968 , p . 1 48) , a well-known S oviet s pecialist o f t he P alaeolithic , c haracterizes t he m ain f eatures o f t his e poch i n t he f ollowing w ay : " Comparing t he U pper P alaeolithic w ith t he L ower P alaeolithic c ultures, i nstead o f " pre-tribes" a ppear t ribes, i nstead o f p rimitive s helters

- s helters

s urrounded b y p its . p rjectile p oints .

w ith well-marked h earths ,

a nd

s torage-pits ,

a nd

A long w ith s imple b one p oints a ppear l ong r egular b one P rimitive c lothing g ives p lace t o s titched c lothes , a s

d emonstrated b y t he a ppearance o f n eedles ( often w ith a n e ye) a nd a wls ; I nstead o f h orn a nd s ticks f or d igging w e f ind v arious m attocks i n t he U pper P alaeolithic . A rtifacts w ith c omplicated p atterns l ike M esin b racelets o r I sturitsky w ands r eplace t he e xtremely r are i ncised b one f ragments . W ith t he u se o f o chre a ppear s plendid c ave p aintings ;

3 6

i nstead o f p rimitive c ults

( such a s

t he b ear c ult) - r eligion w ith c omplicated r ites ;

b urials - b urials w ith c omplicated a ccompanying a rtifacts a nd o rnaments" .

c eremonies

a nd

i nstead o f p it

a whole

s et

o f

T ools f ollowing t he S outhern I ndian M iddle P alaeolithic c omplexes t ypologically a nd s tratigraphically c ame t o b e a ttributed t o t he U pper P alaeolithic . T he e xistence o f t he U pper P alaeolithic e lements i n I ndia a s w e h ave n oted a bove , w as f irst n oticed b y C ammiade a nd B urkitt , a nd t heir f indings w ere o f g reat s ignificance i n t he u nderstanding o f t he d evelopment o f p rehistoric c ultures i n I ndia . A lthough a t t hat t ime m any s cholars q uestioned t he e xistence o f t he I ndian U pper P alaeolithic s ome ( e .g . K rishnaswami a nd I saac) r emained o pen-minded . K rishnaswami ( Krishnaswami , 1 953 , p p . 6 3-64) a ccepted i ts a ppearance w hen h e a ttributed K urnool b one a rtifacts c ollected b y F oote , a nd s eries I II t ools d efined b y C ammiade , t o t he U pper P alaeolithic . H e e ven n oted a s imilar p icture f ound b y T odd i n K handivli n ear B ombay . H ere , a t t he b oundary b etween a n u pper g ravel l ayer a nd u pper c lay , a b lade a nd b urin i ndustry w as s ituated , w hich a ppeared t o s how f urther d evelopment i n t he u pper l ayer o f c lay ( Figure , 1 2) . T hese t ools r esembled t hose o f E uropean a nd M iddle E astern A urignacian . H owever , a fter e xamining t he a vailable d ata , K rishnaswami n oted t hat t he c oncept o f t he i ndividual U pper P alaeolithic c ulture w as n ot e ssential i n S outhern I ndia , s ince m icrolithic i ndustries i n t his a rea c ould h ave d eveloped f rom t he p revious L evallois f lake i ndustry . S eshadri i s

o f

t he s ame o pinion ( Seshadri ,

1 953 ,

p . 3 0) .

H e a lso

c onsidered t hat t he o nly e lement i n t he S outhern I ndian S tone A ge w hich c ould b e c alled g enuine U pper P alaeolithic w as a n e lement o f s eries I II f rom N andi K ama P ass . B ut h e w as n ot c ertain t hat h is c onclusion w as c orrect w hen h e d iscovered t hat t hese e lements a lso o ccurred i n m icrolithic c omplexes .

I n

h is a nd K rishnaswami 's o pinion , m icrolithic i ndustries o f S outhern I ndia , p robably o riginated d irectly f rom t he L evallois f lake i ndustry p rior t o i t . S eshradri t hen w rote i n t his r espect S outhern I ndia i s n ot u nique , e .g . t he A terian c ulture o f N orthern A frica , t he I bero-Maurasian c ulture , a nd t he M agosian c ulture a re d irect s uccessors o f a L evallois t echnique . S . R ajan f inally r ecognized t he e xistence o f t he I ndian U pper P alaeolithic , s uggesting t hat b lades a nd b urins f rom t he N agarjunakonda s ite r elated t o t he U pper P alaeolithic t hough t he d ata d id n ot i nclude s tratification . r elated a b lade f lake f rom G iddalur I I t o B urkitt 's s eries I II 1 952 , p . 7 0). B .

A llchin b elieved t hat

b lade a nd

( S .

H e a lso R ajan ,

b urin i ndustries c ould b e f ound i n

P leistocene c ontexts i n s ome p arts o f I ndia .

A ccording t o h er ,

t hese

i ndustries s hould b e s ituated i n t he N orth-East a nd n ot i n p eninsular I ndia ( Allch ij i , B . 1 963 , p . 2 13) . U pper P alaeolithic o ccupation w as c onfirmed i n t he r eports o f i nvestigations c arried o ut i n C hittoor a nd K urnool i n t he A ndhra

P radesh

s tate ,

b ased

n ot

o nly

u pon

s tratigraphy

b ut

a lso

o n

p alaeontology. W e

h ave

a lready

p ointed

o ut

t hat

t hanks

t o M urty 's

i nvestigation i t

b ecame p ossible t o f ill t he h iatus b etween t he M iddle P alaeolithic a nd t he m icrolithic c ultures i n I ndia . H is i nvestigation o f t he R eningunta s ite o n t he R allakalava r iver ( Chittoor d istrict) r evealed U pper P alaeolithic t ools . N eighbouring s ites o n t he R allakalava r iver c ontained n ot o nly U pper b ut a lso

L ower

a nd

M iddle

P alaeolithic

m aterial .

A t

s ome

s ites

( e .g .

V edullacheruvu , N allagundlu , t ools o f U pper P alaeolithic c haracter l ay t ogether w ith m icroliths) .

D ifference

3 7

i n t he

r aw

m aterial d istinguished

t he i mplements o f t he t wo p eriods . A t p resent t he e xistence o f t he U pper P alaeolithic i s c onfirmed b y t he d istribution o f t ools o f t his p eriod i n m any p arts o f S outhern I ndia ( Figure , 1 3) .

p p .

M urty ( Murty , 1 968/9 , p p . 8 3101) a nd B oriskovsky ( Boriskovsky , 1 971 , 1 01105) g ave a d etailed a ccount o f t he R eningunta s tone i nventory a fter

e xamining t he c ollection i n t he A rchaeology D epartment o f t he U niversity o f P oona . T he f ollowing i s a b rief s ummary o f t his i nventory which i s i mportant f or t he u nderstanding o f t he w hole I ndian U pper P alaeolithic . S mall g ranulated g reyish-green a nd b rown q uartizite w as t he p rincipal r aw m aterial; s ome t ools w ere made o f b lack j asper-like l ignite; w hite q uartz w as s eldom u sed. T here a re a s mall q uantity o f f lakes ( Figures, 1 4 , 9 0 , 9 4) i n t he i nventory b ut M ousterian f lakes w ith f aceted s triking p latforms p laced a t a n o btuse a ngle t o t he l ower,f lake p rismatic ( Figures , 1 4 , 9 5100) .

s urface s eldom o ccur . C ores a re m ainly E longated b lades w ith r egular p arallel

e dges ( Figures , 1 5 , 6 8-83) f orm a n i mportant p art o f t he i nventory . M ost o f t hese b lades h ave n o r etouch . B urins ( Figurs , 1 6 , 1 -18) , p oints ( Figures , 1 7 , 6 1-62) a nd b acked b lades ( Figures , 1 7 , 4 3-59) p redominate among t he c ompleted t ools . T ypical e nd-scrapers m ade o n e longated b lades a re a lmost a bsent . O nly a f ew t ypical s craper-like a rtifacts o ccur . B oriskovsky w as t he f irst t o n otice t he a bsence o f b ladelets a nd " pieces e caillees" w hich a re f requent i n t he I ndian M iddle P alaeolithic . I n t he R eningunta s tone i nventory , m arkedly p ronounced e lements o f t he M iddle P alaeolithic a re s eldom f ound . A ccording t o B oriskovsky ( Boriskovsky , I bid , p . 1 05) t here a re n o g rounds f or c onsidering t he R eningunta s tone i nventory t otally u nusual b ecause o f t he a bsence o f e nd-scrapers s ince t he s ame p henomenon i s o bserved i n t he u pper c ultural h orizon o f t he T elmanskaya U pper P alaeolithic s ite i n K ostenki ; w hile a t s ome U pper P alaeolithic s ites i n t he N orthern B lack S ea r egion ( Amvrosievka , B orshaya A kkarzha e tc) b acked p oints a nd b urins a re a lso t he p rincipal t ypes o f t ool . T he N agarjunakonda U pper P alaeolithic s ite d iscovered b y S . R ajan i s o f i nterest b ecause h ere t ools o f s everal p eriods o f t he S tone A ge o ccur ( S . R ajan , 1 958 , p p . 4 9113) . H owever , s tratigraphic d ata i s a bsent , a nd t he d isturbed n ature o f p arts o f t he s ite s omewhat p revents e xact d efinition o f p eriod . S ankalia , ( Sankalia , 1 974 , p . 2 19) f or e xample , t hinks t hat i t i s n ot p ossible t o r elate N agarjunakonda t ools d ated b ack t o t he U pper P alaeolithic w ith t hose o f c lassical W estern b lades a nd b urins t ypes , o r w ith C hittoor a nd K urnool t ools . A ccording t o h im , M esolithic t ools p robably d eveloped f rom t hese U pper P alaeolithic t ools. K .

P addaya

( Paddaya ,

1 976 ,

p .

1 83) e xcavated s even U pper P alaeolithic

s ites i n S horapur D oab ( Gulbarg d istrict i n K arnataka) . T his i s o ne o f t he f ew d istricts i n I ndia w here d ata o n t he U pper P alaeolithic p hase h ave b een r ecently T he

o btained . s ites

l ie o n r iver b anks

a nd a mong t hem a re

t wo w orkshops w here

a rtifacts m ade o f f ine-grained r eddish-brown c hert w ere f ound i n a l ayer o f b lack/brown s ilt o verlying g ravel c ontaining A cheulian a nd M iddle P alaeolithic t ools . T he m ain t ypes o f t ool w ere b lades r etouched o n o ne o r b oth s ides , f aceted b lades , t ransverse b lades , b lades w ith b utts , p oints , b urins a nd b orers. M urty ( Murty ,

1 976 ,

p . 1 82) r eports e xcavations i n t he c aves o f K urnool

3 8

w hich y ielded a b lade t ool i ndustry a nd b one i mplements t ogether w ith L ate P leistocene f auna . U pper P alaeolithic s tone i mplement a ssemblages i n S outhern I ndia a re a lso f ound i n t he v icinity o f B ombay ( Khandivli) , i n t he s outh o f B ihar s tate ( Singhbhum) a nd i n t he t eritory o f t he A ndhra P radesh s tate ( Vemula a nd E ragondapalem s ites). I ndian a rchaeologists c onsider t hat t heir U pper P alaeolithic s tone i nventory c an b e d ivided i nto t wo g roups:a )

a c lassical b lade/burin i ndustry ( 92 t ypes o f t ools) a nd o bjects o f

a rt . S crapers p lay a l arge r ole h ere ; b lades a nd b urins a re l ong a nd w ell r etouched ( resembling G ravettian p oints) . b ) a s ub-classical b lade-burin i ndustry . B lades a nd b urins a re n ot p roduced w ith t he s ame p recision , a nd d iffer f rom t ypical E uropean t ools. I n S outhern I ndia t he i nventory o f t he f irst g roup i s s eldom f ound .

I t

m ight b e h eld t hat t he c lassical b lade/burin i ndustry w as t he p roduct o f a d eveloped , e nergetic p opulation w ith a n a dvanced t ool k it a nd c ulturally a dvanced a rt t radition ; w hile t he s ub-classical b lade/burin c ulture w as m ore b ackward . H ence t he I ndian U pper P alaeolithic h as b een r egarded a s l ess a dvanced . A c omparison o f n orthern E skimos w ith A frican P igmies o ffers a n a lternative i nterpretation . I t i s a ccepted t hat w ithout t heir d eveloped s tone i nventory p rehistoric m an i n E urope c ould h ardly h ave s urvived t he c old c limate o f t he l ast g lacial p eriod . W hereas i n t ropical c onditions m an 's o nly p roblem b eing f ood c ollection , h unting w as o f n o g reat i mportance . I t f ollows t hat i n s outhern r egions a q ualitatively l arge s tone i nventory w as l ess n ecessary t han i n t he n orth . I t m ay b e n oted t hat t he n ames g iven t o t he s tone t ools o f t he S outhern I ndian U pper P alaeolithic , l ike t hose o f t he L ower a nd M iddle P alaeolithic , r eflected t heir s upposed f unctions . I n f act t he r eal f unctions o f t he g reat m ajority c an o nly b e g uessed . T he S oviet s chloar , S .A . S emenov , m ade t he f irst a ttempt t o o btain a ccurate d ata b y m icro-wear a nalysis o n U pper P alaeolithic a rtifacts . T he h ypothesis o f m ost I ndian a rchaeologists r egarding t he c ontinuation o f t he M iddle P alaeolithic t radition i nto t he U pper P alaeolithic i s p robably l argely b ased o n i nformation f rom E astern a nd C entral E urope , a s w ell a s f rom t he M iddle E ast , w here t he U pper P alaeolithic i s s upposed t o h ave d eveloped f rom t he M ousterian . H owever , d ata o btained f rom m any e xcavations d o n ot p rove t his h ypothesis . R egarding t he M iddle E ast a nd N orthern A frica , f or e xample , s ometimes t he r oots o f t he U pper P alaeolithic t ypes o f t ools a re f ound n ot o nly i n t he p eriod p rior t o t he U pper P alaeolithic , M ousterian , b ut a lso i n t he L ate A cheulian p eriod . A ccording t o J . W aecheter , t he p roblem o f t ransition f rom t he M iddle t o t he U pper P alaeolithic i s t ended t o c omplicate d ue t o o ver-simplification b y m any s cholars . H e t hinks t hat t here i s n o o ne s tage-to -s tage t ransition . R oots o f t he U pper P alaeolithic p enetrate m uch d eeper t han t he Mousterian a nd t he t echniques u sed b y c ompetent c raftsmen c ould h ave b een a pplied a t t he r ight t ime , i rrespective o f t ime o r h uman t ype . T he s ame p henomenon i s o bserved i n A frica a nd t he F ar E ast , w here , i n m any c ases , m odern m an i s s atisfied w ith h is i ndustries w hich , i n E uropean t erms , w ould b e c lassified a s a rchaic ( Waechtey , 1 976 , p . 1 15).

3 9

T here i s n o i nformation c oncerning t he e xistence o f P alaeolithic a rt i n I ndia , e xcept o ne e ngraved s hell f ound i n P atna , a b one s tatuette f rom B elan a nd p endants f rom t eeth f ound i n t he S urgam c ave i n K urnool d istrict .

I t i s

s uggested t hat s ome c ave p aintings o f C entral I ndia r elate t o t he U pper P alaeolithic , t hough i n g eneral t hey a re a ttributed t o t he N eolithic . I s i s i mportant t o n ote t hat F oote e mphasized t he i ncorrectness o f t he a ssumption t hat t he p eople w ho h ad e ngraving t ools a nd b urins s imilar t o t hose u sed b y E uropean P alaeolithic p eople f or t heir r emarkable r epresentations o f c ontemprary m en a nd a nimals , d id n ot c reate a ny o bjects o f a rt ( Ayyangar , 1 926 , p p . 1 9-26) . F oote 's o pinion i s t hat P alaeolithic p eople d id p roduce o bjects o f a rt , b ut p robably t hey w ere d estroyed b y t he o mnipresent d estructors o f m an-made a rtifacts - t ermites - w hich a re k nown t o h ave e aten h uman s kulls i n a ncient E gyptian t ombs . I n I ndia i n p articular , w here t hese i nsects a re w idespread , o bjects o f a rt c ould h ave b ecome t hier v ictims. B ut i nadequate i nvestigation o f I ndian c aves a s y et i s p robably a m ajor r eason f or t he l ack o f c ultural a rtifacts . T here a re a l arge n umber o f c aves i n I ndia e specially i n t he d istricts o f w idespread l imestone d eposits . M any c ave e ntrances a re p robably b locked b y s tones a nd a re u nnoticeable . T he p resence o f l arge q uantities o f o chre a nd p igments a lso g ive a c lue t hat t heir a vailibility c ould s erve t he a rtistic p urposes o f e arly m an . S uch d eposits s ituated a long a w estern b order o f D harvar r ock i n t he B ellary d istrict i s a n e xample. T he S outh I ndian U pper P alaeolithic i s v ery p oor i n r espect t o a n e asily d efined b one i nventory . I n W estern a nd E astern E urope i t i s k nown t hat t he s uccessors t o N eanderthal m an u sed b one f requently t o m ake e asily d efinable b one t ools ( in a ddition t o s tone t ools) . H owever , s o f ar , n o b one a rtifacts h ave b een f ound i n I ndia e xcept i n t he B illa S urgam c aves , a nd M uchchatala C hintamnu G avi i n K urnool d istrict . T he u nfavourable c onditions f or t he p reservation o f b one a nd s imilar m aterials i n t ropical p arts o f I ndia c an a ccount f or t he a bsence o f t he majority o f t hese a rtifacts i n t he U pper P alaeolithic . I t c an b e a ssumed t hat H omo s apiens was r esponsible f or t he U pper P alaeolithic c ultures o f I ndia a s t hese c ultures f it i nto c hronological l imits o f t he U pper P alaeolithic c ultures o f o ther c ountries . T hough t he U pper P alaeolithic d ating v aries c hronologically f rom c ountry t o c ountry , i t i s g enerally c oncentrated w ithin t he p eriod o f 3 5 ,000 t o 1 0 ,000 B .P . R egarding t he I ndian U pper P alaeolithic p arallels w ith t he c omplexes i n o ther c ountries , a nd t he q uestion t o w hich o f t he t hree f ields o f d evelopment -E uropean-preglacial , S iberian-Chinese o r A frican-Mediterranean - I ndia c an b e a ttributed , B oriskovsky ( Boriskovsky , 1 971 , p p . 1 05 ,113) b elieves t hat I ndian U pper P alaeolithic r esembles t he U pper P alaeolithic o f t he M iddle E ast . F urther o n h e g ives i nteresting f acts w hich p lay a n i mportant p art i n t he s tudy o f t he I ndian U pper P alaeolithic . A c omplex o f t ools f rom t he Z arzi c ave i n I raq c onsisted o f n umerous b acked p oints , s egments , a nd b urins , c losely

r esembling

t he

R eningunta

t ool

c omplex .

I t

i s• i nteresting

t here i s a n a bsence o f c ore-tools i n t he I ndian U pper P alaeolithic , t hese a re w idespread i n t he U pper P alaeolithic o f t he M iddle E ast .

t hat w hile T ools

f rom S hanidar a nd P alegavra i n I raq a lso h ave s imilar f eatures t o t hose o f U pper P alaeolithic o f Z arzi a nd R eningunta . M aterials f rom t he K ara-Kamar c ave

i n A fghanistan h ave

n o

s uch

4 0

s imilarities

w ith

R eningunta U pper

P alaeolithic

t ool

c omplexes ,

t hough

a t

t he s ame

t ime ,

t hey

d o n ot d iffer

g reatly f rom t he I ndian U pper P alaeolithic . I t i s a ppropriate t o a dd t hat t he U pper P alaeolithic o f S horapur s hows r emarkable s imilarities w ith t he U pper P alaeolithic o f I raq , p articularly w ith t he Z arzi s ite . H ere s imilarities a re m ainly o bserved b etween p oints , b urins a nd s egments , a s w ell a s n otched b lades . B oriskovsky 's v iews w ill b e o f g reat v alue i n f urther i nvestigations o f t he P alaeolithic o f S outh a nd S outh-Eastern A sia . H is c ontribution i s a cknowledged i n t he p rincipal p ublication o n t he p re-history a nd p rotoh istory o f I ndia a nd P akistan b y S ankalia , t he f oremost I ndian p rehistorian : " Presently , t he c ircumstances a re m ore f avourable f or a d iscussion t han t hey u sed t o b e t welve y ears a go. F irst, t here a ppeared m ore i nformation c oncerning I ndia a nd C entral A sia . S econd , a nd t his i s v ery i mportant, P rofessor B oriskovsky 's v iewpoints w ho s tudied I ndian m aterials i n D eccan C ollege f or t hree w eeks w ere o f g reat i mportance a s h e i s o ne o f f ew s cholars w ho t horoughly i nvestigated E uropean , C entral-Asian , a nd I ndian m aterials" . T he M esolithic o f S outhern I ndia T he M esolithic a ge f ollowed t he P alaeolithic p eriod . T he u se o f t he b ow a nd a rrow a re k nown t o b e c haracteristic o f t his p eriod . M icroliths n ew k inds o f s tone t ools , u sed a s w orking e dges o f b one a nd w ooden i mplements a nd a s a rrow h eads , a ppeared d uring t his p eriod . T hanks t o t echnological d evelopment , a nd i ncrease i n p roductive p ower , a s well a s t o f avourable e nvironmental c onditions, g atherers a nd n omadic h unters w ere g radually t urning i nto s ettled a griculturalists a nd p asturalists . T hough i t s hould b e n oted t hat t hese t ribes b ecome u ltimately s ettled o nly i n t he N eolithic e poch . T he b eginning o f a nimal d omestication , d ogs f irst o f a ll , a lso c oincides w ith t he M esolithic p eriod .

A t t he e nd o f t his p eriod c eramics

a nd l and c ultivation a ppear . S tudies i n m icrolithic i ndustries s tarted i n I ndia a t t he e nd o f t he X IX c entury ; h owever f or a l ong t ime o nly a f ew a rchaeologists w ere i nterested i n t his c ulture , p roduction t echnology , t ypology e tc . B etween 1 914 a nd 1 916 B . F oote f ound m any s ites w ith m icrolithic t ools i n M adras , K urnool , A ndhra P radesh a nd K arnataka .

H e c ould n ot p lace t hem c orrectly i n t he S tone A ge

o f I ndia, m istakenly r elating t hem t o t he N eolithic . S ince t he 1 920s M esolithic s tudies w ere r evived b y C ammiade , B urkitt a nd T odd 's a ctivities ( Ca lmmaide , 1 924 ; C ammiade & B urkitt , 1 930 , p p . 3 27-339 ; T odd , 1 950 , p . 4 17) . I n t he 1 950s s ystematic e xploration a nd s tudy o f m icroliths w ere s tarted i n N orthern G ujurat b y S ankalia , w hich b rought a bout a g eneral i nvestigation o f t he M esolithic o f I ndia . A t a bout t he s ame t ime m uch r esearch w as c onducted b y w orld-famous s cholars s uch a s Z euner , B . A llchin , M isra a nd m any o thers , w hich p roduced a l arge q uantity o f m aterial o f t his p eriod . M icrolithic s ites o f I ndia a re l argely r elated t o l ater p eriods , s ome b ordering o n t he I ron A ge , a nd s howing c ontinuous o ccupation i nto t he X X c entury A .D . B ut t he e arliest o nes g o a s f ar b ack a s t he M esolithic , a nd a re c lose t o t he U pper P alaeolithic R eningunta-type t ools. T he i mportance o f S outh I ndian m icrolithic s ites w as s tressed b y Z euner a nd A llchin ( Zeuner & A llchin ,

1 956) i n t he 1 950s when t hey i nvestigated

m icrolithic s ites i n t he T innevelly d istrict, M adras s tate. S o

f ar t here a re f ew m icrolithic s ites w ith a bsolute d ating i n I ndia ,

4 1

t he o nly e xception b eing t he T eri s ite w hich c an b e u sed a s a c hronological s tandard f or t he d ating o f o ther s ites ( Figure , 1 8) . S ince t hey a re w ell i nvestigated c ompared t o o ther S outh I ndian s ites, i t i s a ppropriate t o c haracterize t hem b riefly. Z euner's i nvestigation i n t he T innevelly r egion g ives a g ood p icture o f t he c limate, g eological f ormations a nd t ool t ypology . H e was a ble t o c orrect A iyappan 's c onclusion t hat t he l ayer c ontaining t ools w as l aterite . T aking i nto a ccount t he p resence o f s ilica i n t hese l ayers , Z euner d efined t hem a s R otlehm , r elating t hem t o t he K ubiena g roup ( Zeuner , I bid , p . 7 ) . W hen m an s ettled i n t hese a reas, s ea-level was much h igher ( approximately 2 0-30 f t) t han a t p resent . S and d unes c ame t o b e f ormed , a nd l ater t hey b ecame c onsolidated b y t he a ppearance o f v egetation , s oil f ormation a nd r ainfall i ncrease . W hen a d rier c limate s et i n a gain , t he s and s tarted t o m ove . I t m oved u nder t he i nfluence o f t he w ind , b ut i n s ome c ases t ools w ere l eft o n t he s urface o f t he f ormer s oil. T ools o f t he m ajority o f t hese s ites f orm a w hole i ndustrial t radition , w ith o ne e xception . Z euner d ates t he T eri i ndustry b ack t o t he L ate A tlantic - c irca 4 ,000 B C s upposedly . B ut h e t hinks t hat f urther g eological i nvestigation w ill m ake i t p ossible t o p ut t his d ate c loser t o t he P leistocene. T he m ain f eatures o f t his i ndustry a re t ools m ade o f q uartz a nd c hert , a s w ell a s g eometrical f lake a nd b lade t ools , d iscs , s crapers , s mall c hopping t ools a nd p oints o f v arious k inds ( including i mplements b ifacially t reated b y p ressure f laking) ( Fig . 1 9) . T hese p oints a re o f g reat i nterest s ince t hey d o n ot o ccur i n i ndustries i n o ther p arts o f I ndia , t hough t hey a re f ound , i n s mall q uantities, i n S ri L anka , where t he m ajority o f t ools a re m ade o f f lakes ( Allchin , B . , 1 968a , p . 1 4) . B lade a nd p rismatic c ores a re n ot c haracteristic o f t his i ndustry . V arious k inds o f s crapers , d oubtful b urins , f lakes w ith t races o f u tilization , c ores a nd f ragments o f a rtifacts o ccur . B lades o n t hese s ites a re p oorer i n s hape c ompared t o C entral o r N orthern I ndian b lades . T his i s a ttributed t o t he p eculiarity o f t he m aterial u sed , r ather t han t o t he m ethod o f p roduction . E .g . i n S outhern I ndia q uartz w as m ainly u sed , w hile i n C entral a nd N orth W estern I ndia t hey u sed c halcedony ,

c hert ,

j asper a nd r ocks w hich g ave c oncoidal f racture .

A llchin a nd Z euner p articularly d istinguished t he M agnanapuram i ndustry w hich p resents a m ore a ncient s tage ( blades a nd g eometrically s haped t ools d o n ot o ccur h ere) . H owever , s imilarities i n o ther t ypes o f t ools s uggest t he c onnection o f t his i ndustry w ith o ther T eri i ndustries . T hree c hronological g roups o f i ndustries a re d istinugished : a )

t he e arliest T eri i ndustry c ontaining f lake a nd c ore t ools,

b )

a l ater T eri

i ndustry

r esembling

t he p revious

o ne b ut

c ontaining

b lades a nd g eometrically s haped t ools ; c )

aN eolithic b lade i ndustry t ogether w ith s tone a xes a nd v essels.

A llchin

A llchin ,

B "

I bid ,

p . 9 4) s uggests t he T eri i ndustries b elonged

t o f ising c ommunities a s was t he c ase i n B ombay s ites . T o s upport h er h ypothesis , s he g ives d ata o n m odern f ishing c ommunities , l iving i n p laces s imilar

t o

T eri .

T he

m ain d rawback

4 2

o f

t he w ork p ublished b y

Z euner a nd

A llchin i s t he p oor q uality o f t he d rawings o f t ools , w hich d o n ot c ontribute t o ab etter u nderstanding o f t he k napping t echnique , t hough Z euner a nd A llchin g ive a g ood d escription o f t he T eri s tone i nventory .

t heir

M ost I ndian M esolithic s ites a re n ot s tratified , w hich n aturally i mpedes d ating . G enerally t he t ools , m icroliths i n p articular , l ie i n t he

u pper l ayers . B one a nd o ther o rganic m aterial b eing p erishable , a ny i ndustrial a ssemblage i ncludes o nly s tone a rtefacts . D espite t horough r ecent i nvestigation o f m any s ites , s o f ar v ery f ew i n I ndia , p reserve t he r espective P alaeolithic , M esolithic a nd N eolithic s tratigraphic l ayers i ntact .

T he o nly s ite o f t his k ind i s K arnataka n ear B ellary .

T he S anganakallu a nd J alahalli s ites o ccupied a n i mportant p lace i n t he S outh I ndian M esolithic d ue t o t heir s tratigraphic p osition ( Misra , 1 964 a , p . 6 8) . S ankalia ( Sankalia , 1 974 , p . 2 24) b elieves t hat i t i s t he S anganakallu s ite t hat g ives a c lassical p icture o f t he M esolithic i ndustry . S ubbarao f ound a l arge n umber o f f lakes h ere m ade o f q uartz a nd b asalt i n a l ayer u nderlying t he N eolithic . A s terile s trata l ay b etween t hese t wo . J alahalli s ites y ielded a c haracteristic q uartz i ndustry w here a f laking t echnique o f p repared c ores was o bserved a s w ell a s am icrolithic b lade t echnique . B ut t he s econd g roup w as l ess d eveloped b ecause o f t he p oor q uality o f t he m aterial . H ere v arious s crapers , b urins , b orers , p oints a nd s egments a re p resent . S everal i solated q uartzite t ool c omplexes were r ecorded o n t he G iddalur a nd M alabar c oast . M icrolithic t ools o ccur i n t he B ombay d istrict ( Figure , 2 0 ) , A ndhra P radesh , K arnataka a nd M alabar . A lthough n o m icrolithic c ultures i n I ndia c an c ompare w ith t he E uropean , n evertheless t here a re m icrolithic i ndustries h ere w hich c an b e a ttributed t o a r ange o f c ultures ( according t o C larke) .

M esolithic m icroliths d iffer i n

p roduction t echnology a nd t ypology f rom a nalogous P alaeolithic a nd N eolithic o nes . W hile i n t he P alaeolithic , p eople p referred t o s ettle m ainly i n r iver v alleys , i n t he M esolithic t hey s tarted t o s ettle a t ag reater d istance f rom r ivers. M isra ( Misra , I bid , p . 6 0) d ivided a ll t he h abitats o f t he M esolithic p eople i nto f ive g roups : 1 ) o pen r ock a reas 2 ) s andy a reas 3 ) c oastal a reas 4 ) c aves a nd r ock s helters 5 ) r iver b anks

a reas .

M esolithic m an o f K arnataka a nd J alahalli s ettled l argely i n o pen r ocky O n t he o ther h and , i n S outhern M adras M esolithic m an l ived i n s andy

d istricts . n ear s ea

S uch s ites w ere c onvenient b ecause t hey n ormally w ere s ituated o r r iver .

S ites

i n t he v icinity

o f

B ombay a re c oastal .

A gate

o utcrops o ccur h ere w hich w ere u sed a s r aw m aterial f or t ool p roduction . T here w ere b anana a nd c oconut p alms h ere a s w ell a s a bundance o f b irds a nd f ishes . F ishing p layed a n i mportant p art h ere , a s i t d id i n T innevelly . T here a re t wo g roups o f c aves k nown i n K urnool a nd A ndhra P radesh w here s o f ar n o t races o f h abitation b y e arly m an h ave b een f ound . A l arge n umber o f M esolithic s ites a re c onnected w ith r iver v alleys . M esolithic

s ites

a re

f ound

t hroughout

4 3

m ost

o f

I ndia .

I t

c ertainly

i ndicates t hat , d uring t he M esolithic , e xtensive t han d uring t he P alaeolithic. I n I ndia ,

s ettlements

i n t his

a rea w ere m ore

d istricts w ith a h igh r ainfall a re s eparated b y c onsiderable

b elts w ith l ower r ainfall . T hus h igh-rainfall a reas a ppear a s " islands" . I ndustries c onnected w ith s imilar l ocal " islands" d o n ot o nly d iffer f rom e ach o ther , b ut a lso d evelop d ifferently o n a ccount o f t heir c ontacts w ith n eighbouring d istricts . T hese M icrolithic i ndustries h ave a d istinct c haracter , t he t ool m akers o f t his p eriod w ere m ainly p roducing s mall , l ight t ools a lthough t hey i nclude a s mall r atio o f l arge t ools . T hese i ndustries h ave t heir s pecial s et o f M icrolith c omponents w hich c ould b e u sed t o b uild u p c omposite a rrows , h arpoon-heads , o r v arious k inds o f c utting t ools . I n t he m ajority o f c ases t wo h ighly s pecialized t echniques w ere u sed t o p roduce m icroliths . T he f irst i s t he p roduction o f p arallel s ide b lades ; t he s econd , t he p roduction o f w ell d efined f orms n ormally c lassified a s l unates , t riangles , t rapezoids e tc . , f rom t hose b lades . H owever t here a re e xceptions w here s ome o f t hese t echniques a re a bsent i n a n i ndustry a ttributed t o t he m icrolithic . M ost o ften t hese u nusual , f or e xample , h ad t wo p hases ; a n e arlier o ne i s r epresented b y t he M agnanapuram s ite a t a 5 0 f t b each-line c orrelated w ith t he M iddle S tone A ge c hronologically ; a nd a l ater p hase b eing a d evelopment o f t his o ccurring a t t he 2 0 - 3 0 f t b eachl ine w hich p roduction .

i ncluded b oth t he L ate S tone A ge t echniques a nd b ifacial p oint T hese i ndustries h ave n o p arrallels i n I ndia , b ut , a s w e h ave

p ointed o ut a bove , o ccur o nly i n S ri L anka a mong L ate S tone A ge i ndustries . " This s imilarity i s s o m arked t hat o ne c an o nly a ssume a d irect c onnection b etween t he S tone A ge c ultures o f S outh I ndia a nd t hose o f C eylon a t t his p eriod" ( Allchin ,

B ,

1 966 ,

p p .

15116) .

T he p resence o f g eographical z ones i n S outhern A sia h as r esulted i n d ifferences i n s tone t ool p roduction t raditions f rom t he E arly a nd M iddle S tone A ge . I n t he M esolithic , t he a reas o f s uch d ifferences a pproximately c oincide w ith t hose o f m odern g eographical a nd c ultural z ones . W ith t his i n m ind , i t i s e asy t o c onclude t hat t he q uartz t ools o f S outhern T amilnadu a nd S ri L anka d eveloped s eparately . I t s hould b e n oted t hat K arnataka t ools f orm a n i ntermediate g roup b etween t he m icroliths o f t he C entral , a nd t hose o f t he N orthern D eccan . T he a bundance o f s uch t ools i n t he r iver G odavari a nd K rishna b asins s uggests t hat t heir c entre w as s ituated i n t he t erritory o f A ndhra.

( Allchin , B . I bid).

A llchin c onsiders t hat i t i s t oo e arly t o r aise t he q uestion o f t he p attern i n d istribution o f I ndian M esolithic I ndustries i n r elation t o t he I ndian g eographical e nvironment . S he p oints o ut t hat t here a re m any v arying g eographical d istricts i n I ndia , a nd s ome o f t hem l ack a dequate a rchaeological e xamination . S everal i nteresting d etails c an b e n oted , s uch a s t he u se o f d ifferent r aw m aterials i n d ifferent z ones . I n o ne d istrict j asper , w hile

c hert

a nd

o ther

f orms

i n o ther d istricts

a vailability o f c ertain r aw t his k ind o f s pecialization .

o f

c rypto-crystalline

t hey u sed q uartz.

s ilica

D uring

t he

w ere

p opular ,

e arly p eriod

m aterial p robably p layed a n i mportant r ole i n L ater i t b ecame a t radition t hat t his k ind o f

m aterial w as u sed e ven w hen o ther k inds b ecame a vailable . E .g . i n S ir L anka q uartz w as p referred t o s uch e asily t reated r ocks a s j asper , c hert a nd o thers .

" Thus w hat s tarted a s a

o f c hoice , I bid,

q uestion o f e xpediency b ecomes a q uestion

a nd e ventually n o d oubt t akes a n i mportance i n i tself" ( k lichin ,

p . 1 17) . B ,

I bid,

p .

4 4

1 19)

h as

o ffered

a n

i nteresting

e xplanation f or t he c hoice o f q uartz , w ith r eference t o t he m aterials o n t he A ndaman i slands . T he i nhabitants o f t hese i slands a re s aid t o h ave h eated b locks o f q uartz i n f ires a nd t hen s truck t hem w hile t hey w ere s till h ot s o t hat t hey s hattered i nto n umerous s harp-edged f ragments, o f which t he s harpest w ere c hosen t o s erve p articular p urposes . P robably s ome p arts o f I ndia a bound i n q uartz a nd t hey p referred t his q uick a nd e conomical m ethod o f c hipping t o t he p roduction o f b lades a nd f lakes f rom p repared c ores . I t p rovided s mall f ragments f or a rrowhead c omponents a nd o ther t ypes o f t ools . T his m ethod o f c hipping p robably b ecame t raditional a nd w as u sed o nly b y s pecific g roups o f p eople . T hus q uartz a s a l ocal r aw m aterial b ecame a t radition . E ven w hen t hese p eople t ried t o o btain p arallel s ide b lades , t hey s till u sed q uartz . A llchin b elieves t hat t he p eople l eaving L ate S tone A ge i ndustries b elong mainly t o a V eddoid o r p roto-Australoid g roup w hich i s well r epresented a mong t he m odern S outh I ndian p opulation . A ccording t o t he S oviet a nthropologist A .F . D ebetz ( Alekseyev , 1 964 , p . 2 1) , n egroid f orms o ccupied a s ubstantial p lace among r acial t ypes o f S outhern I ndia , e specially d uring t he U pper P alaeolithic .

A ppearing o nly i n t he M esolithic

p eriod , t heir g eographical d istribution w as b roken b y E uropoids i n t he W est a nd b y aM ongoloid r ace i n t he E ast . A ccording t o V .P .

A lCkseyev

( Kkk fm rev ,

I bid ,

p .

2 1) ,

t his

c an e xplain

t he p resence o f n egroid f eatures i n t he s kulls f rom M esolithic b urials i n P alestine a nd I ran , a s w ell a s t he c lose s imilarities b etween A frican N egroes a nd A ustralians . T his a ssumption i s c onnected w ith t he f act t hat N egroid e lements p revail among t he T amil i n p opulation o f S outhern I ndia , s uccessors o f t he e arly N egroids i n t his a rea .

t he

Mesolithic i ndustries i n I ndia a re c losely c onnected w ith p eople r esembling m odern h unter-gatherer t ribal g roups w ho e ngage i n l ittle t rade t hough o ccasionally t hey t raded w ith m ore d eveloped t ribes . S uch a t rade c ould o ccur w hen L ate M esolithic g roups e stablished c ontacts w ith t heir N eolithic n eighbours . M esolithic p eople o ften s ettled o n h ills a nd a t t he f oot o f m ountains , o thers) d o t oday .

a lways a bove r iver v alleys , a s m odern t ribes ( Chenchu a nd T hey p robably c hose s uch s ites f or p rotection a gainst

w ild b easts , f or t he a bsence o f f lying i nsects , f or t he g ood v iew a nd t he p resence o f f reshwater s ources e tc . " Thus i t i s p ossible t o s uppose t hat I ndian M esolithic a nd L ate S tone A ge p opulation b elonged t o t he s ame t ype" ( Allchin . B , I bid , p . 13) . T he e thnic i nvestigation o f t he C henchu g roup i s o f g reat i mportance , a s i t p rovides i nformation , b y a nalogy , a bout t he l ife o f M esolithic p eople ( The s tudy o f C henchu w as b riefly d one b y S ubbarao , 1 958 , p p . 1 41144) . A ctual c urrent k nowledge o f t he I ndian M esolithic i s i n g eneral t erms o nly . E thnographic m aterial c an p rovide i nteresting m aterial f or c omparison . H owever , t here a re p ractical d ifficulties ; f or e xample , t he C henchu g roup m ake t heir t ools o f m etal . B ut s ocial p atterns o f b ehaviour , s uch a s t he c arefree n omadism w ith f ew p ossessions a nd f limsy h uts , h unting a nd g athering a s t heir e conomic b asis , b elief i n p atron d eity , a nd s ocial s tructure , s uggest t hat t he C henchu m ight r epresent t he r emains o f t he e arliest M esolithic p opulation i n P eninsular I ndia ( Allchin . B , I bid , p. 1 13) . I f we c onsider t he a rchaeological i nvestigation o f t he I ndian s ubc ontinent o n t he w hole , i t w ill b e c lear t hat t here h ave b een f ew f unctional a pproaches t oward a rchaeological i nterpretation . H owever a n i nterest i n t he e cological a spect o f p rehistory h as r ecently a ppeared . T he I ndian a rchaeologist

S .

R ao

( Rao ,

1 976 ,

p .

4 5

2 67)

h as

a ttempted

t o

s tudy

t he

M esolithic

c ulture

o f

t he L ower

G odavari

v alley f rom

t his p oint o f v iew ,

u sing e thnographic p arallels f rom s tudies o f t he a borigines o f t he s ame r egion . R ao r econstructed t he p ast o f t he M esolithic p eople u sing m ore m odern m ethods, a nd h e m ade t he i nteresting d iscovery t hat M esolithic t echnology c onditioned t heir w ay o f l ife , c haracterized b y h unting , f ishing a nd g athering . M aterial e quipment r epresented b y m icrolithic t ools a nd h unting i mplements w ere u sed f or o btaining t he s ubsistence t hat w as e xisting i n t heir h abitat : na cquatic t errestrial" . T he M esolithic p eople m oved a ctively a bout t he v alley a s i ndicated b y t he v arious k inds o f M esolithic s ites . S ome s ites a re c lose t o t he p laces w here m odern a borigines l ive , e ngaged i n h unting , g athering a nd p rimitive l and c ultivation . H owever , i ron h as e ntirely d isplaced s tone t ools . P ence i t i s p roposed t hat t here i s a p ossible c ultural l ink b etween t he M esolithic a nd t hese a borigines b ased o n t he s tudy o f t he c haracter o f t heir s ettlements . B ows a nd a rrows w ere u sed b y h unters a ll t hrough S outhern I ndia .

M any

M esolithic t ools a re s uitable f or u se a s v arious k inds o f a rrowheads . H ence i t c an b e a ssumed t hat b ows a nd a rrows w ere p art o f t he I ndian M esolithic c ulture . S imilarly d igging s ticks a nd w oodworking t ools w ere p art o f t he M esolithic t ool k it . D igging s ticks a re s till p opular a mong s urviving t ribes t oday . N o h uman o r a nimal b one h as b een f ound a t a ny M esolithic s ite i n S outhern I ndia . H uman a nd a nimal b ones f ound a t t he L anghanj s ite ( Gujurat s tate) a re i n a p oor s tate o f p reservation . O nly a f ew a nimal s pecies h ave b een i dentified a nd i t i s n ot c lear w hether t hese w ere d omesticated o r w ild ( only f ragments o f b ovine b ones w ere p reserved ) . H uman s keletal r emains g ive s ome i dea b oth o f b urial r ites a nd t he a natomical f eatures o f t he p eople . T he d ead were b uried i n a n o pen p lace n ear a s ettlement . T he s keletons a re c haracterized b y t he s imultaneous p resence o f V eddoid a nd Mediterranid f eatures . D r . E hrhardt ( Misra , 1 964 a , p . 6 5) s tudying t he s keletal r emains , p ointed o ut t hat t he b reaks a nd c racks o n t he s urface o f t he s kulls w ere a ncient m arks o f b lows , b earing w itness t o t he m en h aving b een k illed b y b lows i nflicted b y ah eavy b lunt o bject . I t c an o nly b e s upposed t hat d uring t he M esolithic , S outhern I ndian w as i nhabited b y t he s ame k ind o f p eople a s a t t he L anghanj s ite , t hough n o s keletal r emains w ere p reserved. A c lear M esolithic ,

c ontinuation o f h as

M iddle

P alaeolithic

b een o bserved i n I ndia .

t raditions

I t i s a pparent

i nto

t hat

t he

M iddle

P alaeolithic e lements a re more markedly p ronounced i n S outhern t han i n N orthern I ndia . I n t he W estern p art o f C entral I ndia w e s ee q uite a nother p icture . B lade i ndustries f lourish h ere . T he a ppearance o f b lade t echnique i s n ormally e xplained b y t he m erging o f n ew e thnical e lements w ith t he i ndigenous p opulation . B . A llchin ( Allchin , B . I bid , p . 1 19) b elieves t hat w hether w e c onsider t he m ain c oncept o f b lade g eometrical t echnique t o h ave b een b rought f rom t he o utside , o r t o h ave g one f rom o ne h unter g roup t o a nother , o r ( which i s m ore p robable) t o h ave b een a c ombination o f t hese p rocesses , w e s hould a ssume t hat t hey a rrived f rom t he n orth-west . S uch a n a ssumption i s a ppropriate b ecause w e k now n othing a bout I ndian M esolithic c ulture l inks w ith C entral a nd W estern A sian c ultures o f t he s ame p eriod . A t t he s ame t ime d ata o n W estern P akistan a nd A fghanistan M esolithic a re p oor . A s ite d iscovered i n A fghanistan h as n ot b een p ublished , a nd I nformation a bout i s i s n ot a vailable . S ankalia t hinks t he I ndian M esolithic s hould b e a s e arly a s t he M esolithic c ultures t o t he W est o f i t , a nd i t c an b e c oncluded t hat M esolithic I ndian c ultures w ere p rimarily

4 6

i nfluenced f rom t he W est ( Sankalia , 1 974 , P . 2 75) . B . A llchin B , I bid , p . 1 19) b elieves t hat e ven i f t he p rinciples o f a n ew t echnique c ame f rom t he o utside , s till t he m ost h ighly d eveloped M esolithic i ndustries w ere ap eculiarly I ndian d evelopment ; a nd , m oreover , t hey m ade u p a p art o f l ocal a nd r egional t raditions w ithin I ndia i n j ust t he s ame w ay a s t he c hoice o f r aw m aterial w as a lso d etermined b y t hese t raditions. B . A llchin B , I bid , p . 1 81) t ried t o c ompare a rchaeological m aterials o f t he L ate S tone A ge o f A frica , S outhern A sia , I ndonesia a nd A ustralia . A ccording t o h er , t heir c ommon o rigin g oes b ack t o t he l ate h unter c ultures o f I ndia a nd A frica t o t he s outh o f t he S ahara , w hich h ave a g reater s imilarity t o t he N atufian a nd Z arzian c ultures o f t he M iddle E ast t han t o t hose o f E uropean a nd o ther M esolithic t raditions. A ccording t o K rishnaswami ( Krishnaswami ,

1 953 , p . 6 4) , I ndian m icroliths

a re v ery s imilar t ypologically t o t he W estern C aspian M esolithic i ndustries . H e c onsiders t he I ndian M esolithic t o b e p robably o f w estern o rigin s ince t he t ools o f t his p eriod h ave n ot b een f ound s o f ar , a lso i n o ther S outh-Asian c ountries. J .C .

G lover ( Glover ,

1 973 ,

p .

5 1) s uggests

f or e xample ,

t hat

i n B urma a nd

t ypological s imilarity

b etween b acked b ladelets o f I ndia , C eylon , C elebes a nd A ustralia i ndicates a l arge-scale d iffusion o f t echnical i deas , o r , p ossible , o f p eople m oving e astward. A lthough m icrolithic i ndustries a re w idespread i n m any p arts o f t he w orld, i t i s k nown t hat t here e xist c onsiderable t echno-typological d istinctions . Z euner ( see S ubbarao , 1 958 , p . 7 7) , f or i nstance , p oints o ut t hat a symmetric t ools d istributed t hroughout I ndia r epresent o ne o f a f ew g roups o f a rtifacts d istinguishing I ndian m icrolithic i ndustries f rom W ilton o f S outhern A frica . M eanwhile, b ifacial p oints d istributed t hroughout C eylon , A frica a nd A ustralia a re p ractically a bsent f rom I ndia ( a f ew e xamples o f t hem b eing f ound o nly i n t he T eri s ites) . I n I ndia " microburins" ( which r epresented a b y-product o f b lade p roduction , s egments a nd t rapezes m ade b y ap re-formed f acet a nd s plitting t echnique) h ave n ot , s o f ar ,

b een f ound ,

t he q uestion s till o pen .

e xcept f or s ome r andom e xamples .

A ccording t o S ubbarao ,

o f t heir b elonging t o d ifferent t echnological t raditions i s A s i n A frica , m icroliths which were c onsidered a m ain

c onstituent o f i ndustries f ound i n n on-forested a reas , h ave n ow b een f ound i n j ungles . A s w e h ave a lready n oticed , a rrowhead-like f orms , a nd o ther b ifacial t ools h ave n ot y et b een f ound .

T his c an p robably b e a ttributed t o

t heir s ubstitution b y a symmetrical p oints w ith a m assive m iddle r ib a nd a p rotruding d orsal s urface . C .P .

G upta

( see

R anov ,

1 968 ,

p p .

1 13-117)

w as

t he

f irst

I ndian

a rchaeologist t o b ecome a cquainted w ith t he M esolithic i ndustry o f T ajkistan , t hat o f T utkaul a nd O bi-Kyik i n p articular ;

h e c oncluded t hat i t h as a

n oticable s imilarity t o t he M esolithic a ssemblages o f C entral a nd S outhern I ndia . I n h is v iew t his s imilarity c an b e e xplained b y a c ommon o rigin . H e a lso p oints o ut t hat a ll t hese i ndustries o riginated i n t he M iddle E ast. T he N eolithic o f S outhern I ndia T he N eolithic a ge , t he l ast s tage o f t he S tone A ge , l asted f or m any m illenia , a nd w as i mportant i n t he h istorical d evelopment o f e arly m an a nd h is m aterial c ulture . T he p rincipal f eature o f t he N eolithic i s t he n ew t echnique o f t ool p roduction b y m eans o f p olishing a nd g rinding . T he

4 7

i nvention o f c eramics w as a lso a n i mportant f eature . T hough t hese f eatures w ere c onsidered c haracteristic o f N eolithic c ultures t hey a re n ot n ecessarily e ssential . I n d efining t he N eolithic a s a h istorica l e poch , p rincipal e conomic f eatures h ave b een d istinguished , s uch a s c hanges i n t he m eans o f s ubsistence , i .e . d evelopment o f l and c ultivation a nd c attle b reeding . H owever , i n E urope i t h as b een p roved t hat e conomic c riteria a re n ot u niversal i n d efining t he N eolithic e poch . H ence , a s A .L . M ongait ( Mongait , 1 973 , p . 1 97) p ointed o ut , t he d efinition o f t he N eolithic m ust b e b ased o n ac omplex o f f eatures , i ncluding t he a ppearance o f c eramics a nd n ew w ay o f s tone t reatment , t hough o n t he o ther h and i t i s n ot e ssential t hat a ll t hese f eatures b e p resent. N eolithic t ools w ere f irst f ound i n I ndia , i n 1 842 , i n R aichur , M ysore S tate . I n 1 862 , L e M esurier f ound t races o f t he N eolithic , i ndicated b y p olished a nd g round s tone t ools , i n E ast T ons r iver v alley i n U ttar P radesh . A fter t hese d iscoveries, m any o ther N eolithic a rtifacts w ere f ound t hroughout I ndia . T he c ollection o f t ools w as c onducted w ithout a dequate s cientific m ethod . T he f inds w ere h oused i n m useums i n I ndia a nd o ther c ountries ' m useums , t hus l osing t heir s cientific v alue . E .g . i n 1 938 a t t he W orld A nthropological a nd E thnographical S ciences C ongress i n C openhagen , A .B . A nderson r eported t hat a N orwegian m issionary , P .O . B odding i n t he c ourse o f 4 0 y ears h as e ngaged i n a mateur a rchaeology i n t he S antal P arganas d istrict . A c ollection c onsisting o f a lmost 3 ,000 a rtifacts i s n ow h oused i n t he m useum o f E thnology a t O slo U niversity . T his r ichest I ndian N eolithic c ollection h as s till n ot b een i nvestigated . T . T asker l earned f rom A nderson t hat t he c ollection w as g athered b y t he l ocals f or t he m issionary , h ence n o i nformation i s a vailable c oncerning t heir p lace o f o rigin ( Krishnaswami , 1 953 , p . 5 6) . I n h is

w ork

" The

N eolithic

P attern

i n

I ndia" K rishnaswami c ites

C hakravarti a bout e arlier a rchaeological u nderstanding o f

t he N eolithic

p eriod . ' Even w ith a v ast l ithic c ollection , a ll t hat c ould b e s aid a bout t hem , e ven a s l ate a s 1 944 , w as t hat N eolithic p eople o f I ndia w ere p rincipally t ool m akers a nd h ence c ulturally i nferior t o t he N eolithic E gyptians w ho k new i n a ddition t o t ool m aking , m anufacture o f 1 962 , p . 2 6). W arman w rote

a griculture , d omestication o f a nimals, p ottery a nd t extile i ndustry" ( Krishnaswami ,

t hat

" there

w as

n o

I ndian c ulture

t hat

c ould s urely

b e

c alled N eolithic" ( Ibid , p . 2 6) . H e n oted t he p resence o f s moothed s tone c elts a nd c oncluded t hat t hey w ere r estricted t o A ssam a nd B engal , a s w ell a s t o C entral a nd S outern I ndia . F rom t he s tudy o f t he t ypology a nd d istribution o f t he c elts , W orman m ade t he f ollowing p reliminary c onclusions : a ) t here i s n o p ositive

p roof

i ndicating t he

e xistence

o f N eolithic

p eoples a ny t ime b efore o r a fter t he u se o f m etals c ame i nto I ndia. b ) I ndian s moothed s tone c elts o f N eolithic t ype , c ultural s imilarity ,

a ppeared

t o h ave

d espite t heir

o riginated o n t he w hole f rom S outh—

e astern A sia a t d ifferent d ates. c )

t he t ypological c orrelation o f I ndian a nd F ar E astern c elt t ypes

c orroborate t he a bove p ostulate a nd s upports t he t heory t hat c ertain I ndian

4 8

t ypes a re e arlier i n d ate t han o thers

a nd t hat

t he E astern p art o f I ndia

b elongs t o a v ery v ast c ultural z one e mbracing t he S outh a nd S outh-eastern A sia where e volution o f p ost-Pleistocene c ultures h as much i n c ommon ( Krishnaswami , I bid , p . 2 7) . I n s tating t hese t entative c onclusions , W orman a dmitted t hat t hey a re b ased o n v ery i ncomplete d ata a nd s hould b e c hecked i n f uture w ork. U ntil 1 947 n ot a s ingle N eolithic c ollection w as t horoughly d ocumented , a nd t he t ransition o f t he P roto-Neolithic i nto t he N eolithic , a nd t he l atter i nto t he B ronze A ge i n t he n orth , a nd i nto t he I ron A ge i n t he s outh , w as l eft w ithout i nvestigation . A rchaeologists w orking i n S outhern I ndia d id n ot h ave a ny c lear i dea o f t he o rigin o f t he N eolithic c ulture i n t his a rea , t hough a t t he s ites i n M ysore , A ndhra P radesh a nd Madras, p ottery a nd p olished s tone t ools h ad b een f ound . A s e arly a s 1 936 , P atterson c onfirmed t he a ntiquity o f N eolithic f inds , s tudying F oote 's c ollection f rom B ellary ( Figure , 2 1) . s everal c hronological g roups, p atination o f t rappe t ools .

H e d ivided t hem i nto

t aking i nto c onsideration t he e xtent o f T his d ivision was t hen c ompleted b y

K rishnaswami i n t he c ourse o f h is s tudies o f t he H yderabad c ollection ( Krishnaswami , 1 947 , p . 3 9). S ince 1 947 t he i nvestigation o f t he I ndian N eolithic h as b een r aised t o an ew l evel b y t he f ield r esearch o f S ir M ortimer W heeler i n B rahmagiri a nd C handravalli . E xcavation s howed t hat t he B ellary N eolithic , a s P atterson b elieved , w as i ndeed v ery a ncient . I t w as f ound t hat i n C handravalli b eneath a t hin l ayer o f S atavahana t here w as a M airian l ayer s tretching d ownwards t o an on-dated I ron A ge l ayer . U nder i t l ay t he N eolithic . I n B rahmagiri a d eveloped N eolithic l ies a bove a r ough m icrolithic i ndustry w ith m oulded c eramics .

T his N eolithic l ayer i s u nder a l ayer c ontaining

I ron A ge a rtifacts . W heeler , u sing t he s tratigraphical d ata , p laced t he c ulture b etween t he I m illenium B .C .

a nd t he b eginning o f t he I I c entury B .C .

W heeler 's w ork

s tarted a l arge p rogramme o f f ield r esearch u ndertaken b y I ndian a rchaeologists t o l ocate n ew N eolithic s ites . T hus , R . A llchin d iscovered a nd s ystematically e xcavated m any s ites , i ncluding t wo a sh-mounds . Among t he m ost i mportant s ites w ere S anganakallu , P iklihal , U tnur , T ekkalakota , a nd

H allur .

While

t he

B rahmagiri e xcavation r esulted

i n a g reater

u nderstanding o f s ite s tratigraphy a nd c hronology , t he l atest e xcavations h ave p rovided d ata o n t he N eolithic way o f l ife , t ypes o f s ettlement , s ubsistence a nd e conomy , t echnology a nd b urial c ustoms . O n

t he

b asis

o f

s tone

b ifacially t rimmed s toneaxes ,

s toneaxes

f ound

o n

t he

s urface ,

s uch

a s

s toneaxes w ith a p ointed b utt , f ully t rimmed

a nd l ance-like s toneaxes , f our g roups w ere d istinguished , c haracteristic o f c ertain g eographical d istricts ( Allchin . B . & 1 968 a , p . 1 58) . a )

aN orthern g roup ( Velli , K ashmir S tate)

b ) a S outhern g roup

( distributed s outh o f

t he C odavari

r iver i n

p eninsular I ndia). c )

a n E astern g roup ( including t he A ssam M ountains).

d )

a n E ast-Central g roup ( including B ihar , O rissa , C hota N agpur).

4 9

H owever ,

t he

I ndian r esearcher T hapar

(T hapar ,

1 964 ,

8 8) p roposes

P .

t hree p rincipal N eolithic c ultural d istricts : N orthern , S outhern a nd E astern . Among a ll t he d istricts o f S outhern I ndia , K arnataka p ossesses t he m ost t ypologically d istinguishable i ndustries . I t a lso h as b een s tudied i n g reater d etail t han t he o thers . A l arge n umber o f s tone a xes f ound i n t his d istrict w ere f irst d escribed b y F oote . T he c ultural d ivision a nd c hronology o f t he I ndian N eolithic h as b een t he s ubject o f m uch r ecent w ork b y E nglish a nd I ndian A rchaeologists: a ) S anganakallu ( Subbarao ,

1 948)

b ) P iklihal ( Allchin , F .R .

1 960)

c ) M ask' ( Thapar B .K .

1 957)

d ) U tnur ( Allchin , F .R . e ) T . N arsipur ( JA-AR , f ) H allur ( JA-AR , U sing

t he

1 963) 1 959-60 ,

6 1-62)

1 964-65)

d ata a vailable

a ttempts

h ave

b een m ade

t o

r econstruct

t he

N eolithic c ulture a nd t o s how i ts d evelopmental s tages a ccording t o r egional d ivisions ( Krishnaswami, 1 962 , p p. 2 5-64). H ere o nly

t he S outhern g roup

( Figure ,

2 2) w ill b e

d escribed .

N ot

s o

l ong a go t he S outh I ndian N eolithic w as d ivided i nto t hree s tages ( Allchin , B . & F .R . 1 968a , p . 1 61-170) . T he f irst , e arliest p hase i s r epresented b y U tnur , P iklihal , M aski I , a nd , p artly , B rahmagiri L A s ites . T his p hase i s r egarded a s a p rimary N eolithic p hase d ue t o a bsence o f m etal . B y t he r adio-carbon d atings o f t he U tnur s ite , t his p hase o ccurred 2 ,300 - 1 ,800 B .C . A t t hat t ime s ettlements e xisted o n t he s ummits o f g ranite h ills , o r o n l evelled t erraces o n t he h illsides o r o n s addles o r p lateaux b etween h ills . T he i nhabitants m anufactured g round s toneaxes ( Figure , 2 3) a nd r udimentary

f lakes

o r

b lades

( Figures ,

2 4-25) .

T hey

a lready

h ad

d omesticated a nimals a nd h and m ade p ottery o f g rey o r b uff-brown c olour . S ometimes t hey u sed h and m ade w ares w ith r ed-black b urnished s lip a nd c rude h andmade w ares w ith p urple p ainted d ecorations ( Figures ,

2 6 ,

2 7 ,

2 8) .

T hey

a lso c ultivated t he l and . A ccording t o T hapar (T hapar ,

1 964 , p . 9 0) t he e arliest s ite o f t he S outh

I ndian N eolithic c ulture i s a t S anganakallu , p hase I , w here a l arge n umber o f h ighly p atinated f lakes o f t rap a nd s andstone t ogether with r ough m icroliths o f q uartz a nd c hert h ave b een f ound .

C eramics a re a bsent .

A

s terile l ayer d ivides t his p hase f rom t he n ext s ucceeding o ne . T his s econd p hase i s r epresented b y t he B rahmagiri s ite I A a nd B , S anganakallu I , T ekkalakota I , H allur I a nd N arsipur I .

B y t he r adiocarbon

d atings o f T ekkalakota I , H allur a nd S anganakallu I , t his p hase o ccured f rom 1 ,800 t o 1 ,500 B .C .

I t i s c haracterized b y t he f irst a ppearance o f m etal

a rtifacts, d emonstrating t he e xistence o f c ontacts b etween N eolithic s ettlers o f t he S outhern a nd N orthern p art o f I ndia . A s a t t he f irst p hase s ites , h ere w ere a lso f ound g round b urins , s ome p olished ( Fi g ure , 2 9 ,

s tone a xes ( Figure , 2 9 , 1 -7) , p ointed 1 016) , r ough f lakes a nd b lades . I n

t his p hase t raits s uch a s p ractise o f a griculture a nd d omestication o f

5 0

a nimals w hich w ere p resent d uring t he p revious p hase m ake c ontinuation .

A s

t o c eramics , h andmade b urnished g rey-ware c ontinued , b ut p ots w ith p urple p ainted d ecorations a nd p ots w ith r ed-black b urnished s lip d isappear . I nstead t he f ollowing n ew k inds a ppear : p erforated p ottery , s pouted v essels a nd p ottery r oughened o ut o n t he o uter s pace . C ircular h utments o f w attle a nd d aub o n aw ooden f rame t ogether w ith m ud f loors s eem t o a ppear d uring t his p eriod ( Figure , 3 0) . T hapar ( Thapar , I bid, p . 9 0) b elieves t hat, a ccording t o t he c eramics , p hases :

t his s econd p hase c an b e d ivided i nto t wo s ub-

a ) l ower s ub-phase - w ith p ale-grey w are a nd b rown f ragments. b )

u pper-sub-phase

-w ith p redominance

w are . P ale-grey w are d o n ot q uantities. T he s econd p hase ,

o f

s ome

c oarse

e ntirely d isappear b ut

o n t he w hole ,

c oarse b lack a nd

b lack

c ontinue

a nd i n

b rown

r educed

i s r egarded a s af ully d eveloped s tage

o f t he N eolithic c ulture . M etal w as n ot f ound a t S anganakallu , b ut i s p resent a t P iklihal a nd B rahmagiri . T hapar e xplains t his b y t he c ontact o f t he S outhern N eolithic c ulture w ith t he C halcolithic o f t he N orthern D eccan . O ther a ssemblages o f t his p hase c ontain p olished s tone t ools ( axes , a dzes , p ounders , c hisels , s lick s tones o r p olishers , s ling s tones a nd m icroliths) , w ith a b ias f or t he p arallel-sided b lades . T he t hird p hase i s r epresented b y T ekkalakota I II ,

H allur ( horizons 8 -

9 ) , a nd , p ossibly , P aiyampalli . I t i s d ated t o 1 ,400 - 1 ,050 B .C . b y t he r adio-carbon d ates o f a Uprwe" p hase i n M aharashtra . I n t his p hase t he n umber o f c opper a nd b ronze t ools i ncrease , b ut t he a xe a nd b lade i ndustries s till t end t o c ontinue . I n t he f ield o f c eramics i t i s c haracterized b y t he a ppearance o f n ew k inds o f h arder s urfaced g rey a nd b uff w are . A t t he s ame t ime t here a ppeared u nburnished w are w ith p urple o rnamentation ( Uorwet ype" ) m ade o n t he p otter 's w heel . T he p resence o f e xtended b urials f ound a t t he s ites o f N agarjunakonda , T . N arasipur , B rahmagiri ; p ot b urials f ound a t H allur , B rahmagiri , T ekkalakota a nd p ottery h ead-rests w hich w ere f ound a t T . N arasipur a nd H allur , i s a lso o f s pecial i nterest . W hile T hapar (T h a wr , I bid , p . 9 0) b elieves t hat t he s econd p hase d id n ot d erive f rom t he p revious o ne , A llchins ( A nchin , B . &F .R . I bid , p . 1 69) c onsiders t hat t here i s a d istinct r elationship b etween t he t hree p hases , a nd c ontinuous s ettlement o f t he s ites . T haper , i n o ur v iew , i s r ight i n r elating S anganakallu I t o t he f irst p hase . B ut a ccording t o A llchin , S anganakallu I a nd N arasipur b elong t o t he s econd p hase , a fter U tnur I a nd P iklihal e arly p hase d espite t he p resence o f s ome p rimitive t raits i n t he f ormer. I n N agaraju 's

v iew

( Nagaraju ,

1 973 ,

p .

7 4) ,

o ne s hould d istinguish t he

d istinctions b etween c ultural a nd c hronological s equences i n t he r econstruction o f t he e volution o f a c ulture . T his i s p articularly i mportant i n c onsidering t he e volution o f c ultures i n a t erritory a s v ast a s S outhern I ndia . N agaraju p oints o ut t hat A llchins , d ividing t he N eolithic i nto t hree s tages p ays m ore a ttention t o r adio-carbon d ating t han t o c ultural e lements i n t he

s equence.

T he m ost w idespread t ool o f t he S outhern N eolithic c ulture i s p ointedb utt a xe . S uch a xes f orm t he m ajority o f s urface f inds . i n l arge n umbers o n t he h ills o f S hevaro a nd J avadi h ills ,

5 1

T hey a re f ound a nd t o t he e ast

o f t hem o n T amil c oastal p lains , t o t he s outh o f M adura a nd e ven i n t he e xtremity o f t he p eninsula . K rishnaswami ( Krishnaswami , 1 962 , p p . 4 7-48) p oints o ut t wo N eolithic p rovinces - a s outh s toneaxe c ulture i n K arnataka , a nd a n e astern o ne s pread o ver O rissa , B ihar , B engal a nd A ssam . H e c ame t o s uch a c onclusion b ecause p ointed-butt a xe d o n ot u niformly o ccur t hroughout a ll I ndia , b ut p rofuse i n K arnataka a nd E astern I ndia , w ith a n i ntermediate r egional g ap b etween t he K rishna a nd M ahanadi b asin . C onsidering t he s imilarity o f t hese s toneaxes , K rishnaswami s uggests t he m ovement o f t he N eolithic s toneaxe c ulture t o b e f rom t he n orth-east t o t he s outh-west ( Krishnaswami , I bid , p . 4 7) . R . A llchin ( Ar ichin , F .R . 1 957 , p p . 3 21-335 ) s tudying a l arge s urface c ollection g athered b y F oote a nd o ther a rchaeologists i n t he n orthern K arnataka d istrict , d istinguished t hree m ain t ypes o f s tone w orking t echnique - f laking , p ecking a nd g rinding . A ccording t o h im t hey i ndicate M iddle E astern a nd I ranian N eolithic i nfluence . Among t he t ools, s toneaxes, a dzes, c hopping t ools, c hisels , w edges, s crapers , p oints , g rinders , h ammer-stones , a nd m ace-heads s hould b e m entioned . I n i t 's e arly p hase , i t i s r elated t o t he p ost-Palaeolithic f laking t echnique , a rising i n a m icrolithic m ilieu . L ater i t a bsorbed t he p ost-Harappan c ulture o f r ibbon f lake t echnique , p ainted c eramics a nd c opper c elt t raits , w hich s pread f rom C entral a nd W estern I ndia . J udging b y t he s urface c ollection A llchin 's i nvestigation ) a nd b y s tratigraphic s equence ( Brahmagiri a nd S anganakallu) t he N eolithic s toneaxe c ulture e volved i n B ellary f rom a p roto-Neolithic p hase t o ad eveloped N eolithic .

( R .

K rishnaswami ( Krishnaswami , 1 962 , p . 5 0 ) b elives t hat K arnataka c ulture o f p olished s toneaxes i s a utochthonal a nd a ppeared h ere a bout 2 ,000 B .C . A ccording t o h im , i t would b e wrong t o l ook f or i ts r oots i n t he I ndus v alley , o r i n W estern A sia a nd I ran ( as A llchin b elieved) o r t o c onsider a ll -e astern o rigin ( suggested b y W o man ) o n t ypological g round a s E astern c omplex d iffers f rom a S outhern o ne , c haracterized b y p ointed-butt s toneaxes a nd i t 's v ariations . T urning b ack t o t he t hree f old c lassification o f t he S outhern N eolithic c omplex , i t i s a pparent t hat s tone a xes o ccur t hroughout i n l arge n umbers a nd f ine s tone b lades o nly i n t he l ast t wo p hases . T he b lade i ndustry h as m uch i n c ommon w ith C entral a nd D eccan m icroliths . R ather l ess t han t hree q uarters o f t he i ndustry i s m ade u p o f n on-retouched b lades , o ften w ith b oth b ulb o f p ercussion a nd d istal e nds s napped o ff . A s a r ule t hey h ave v ery f ew t races o f s econdary t reatment . T ools w ith s econdary t reatment m ake u p a s mall p ercentage o f t he i ndustry a nd i nclue : b lades , s errated , b acked o r k nife-shaped , l unates , t rapezes , p oints e tc . P robably m ost b lades w ere h afted i n g um t o f orm c omposite k nives o r s ickles , b ut t here a re n o e vidence o f t his ( Allchin , B . &F .R ., 1 968a , p . 1 66). R . A llchin F .R . 1 963 , p . 3 8) , h aving f ound a s mall N eolithic b lade i ndustry i n U tnur , p ointed o ut t hat t he t ool p roduction t echnique w as p oorly d eveloped c ompared w ith t he i ndustrial t echniques a t s ites a s l arge a s M aski a nd P iklihal . H e s ucceeded i n s howing t hat i n P iklihal , r aw m aterial f or t ool p roduction w as b rought f rom t he K rishna r iver , a nd e ven r emoter a reas . R . A llchin t hinks t hat r aw m aterial n ot o nly w as i mported t o l arge s ettlements b ut a lso t hat t ool p roduction w as i n t he h ands o f s tone-working s pecialists. G round a nd p ecked t ools w ere r ecovered f rom t he s ame d istricts w here b lade i ndustry w as f ound . A bsence o f b asalt , p ossibly , c aused t he

5 2

u nderdevelopment o f t echniques w hich i s g enerally a ssociated w ith i t a t o ther s ites . T heir p roduction t echnique a nd r aw m aterial i s l agging b ehind t hat o f P iklihal a nd t he e ven m ore t han t hat o f l arger w orkshops i n B ellary a nd S anganakallu. O ther f orms o f p roduction i nclude w orking i n b one a nd b eads . A p ossible b one t ool w as f ound i n U tnur

m anufacture o f F .R . , I bid , p .

4 4) . O ne o f t hem i s as plit b ovine b one c ut a nd g round a t o ne e nd t o o btain a f lattened c hisel-like b lade . S ome r are w orked b ones w ere a lso f ound a t P iklihal a nd H alakundi N eolithic s ites. D r . S irinivasan f rom O smania U niversity , h aving s tudied f aunal r emains f rom e xcavated s ites , c oncluded t hat t he m ajority o f t hem b elong t o c attle ( Ibid , p . 4 5) . T hese f aunal r emains w ere a ttributed t o B os i ndicus - t he a ncestor o t t he m odern c attle o f U tnur - s imilarly a s i n M aski a nd P iklihal . R emains o f g oat a nd s heep w ere a lso f ound . T his s uggests t hat t he e conomic s tructure was b ased o n c attle r aising , b ut a t T ekkalakota I a nd H allur r emains o f D olichos b iflorus a nd e leusine c oracona ( varieties o f g ram a nd m illet) w ere d iscovered . T he d iscovery o f as tructural r emains o f ac attle p en w ith s tockade a t t he U tnur a sh-mound f urther i ndicates t hat a p astoralt ype e conomy w as p ractised b y t he N eolithic s ettlers . P rof . Z euner f ound t races o f s uccessive b urnings r ecorded a t U tnur a sh-mound which was i dentified a s b urnt c ow-dung , f urther s upplements t he i dea o f p astoal-type e conomy w hich p revailed i n t he S outhern N eolithic c ulture . A llchin l ooked f or i ts r eflection i n t he e thnographic a nalogies i n t he p astoral e lements f ound i n t he f olk r eligion o f p eninsular I ndia ( Ibid , p p . 1 13142) . H owever , t he r easons f or t he d ominant p osition o f c attle b reeding i n t he e conomy o f N eolithic m an o f t he S outhern D eccan p eninsula a re n ot a pparent . S hchetenko ( Schetenko , 1 968 , p . 1 38) s uggests t hat a p rimary f actor m ay b e t he g eographic e nvironment , h ill f orest - s teppe l andscape w ith s oils m ore s uitable f or p asture t han f or c ultivation . A fter

m any y ears '

s tudy

o f

N eolithic

c omplexes

i n S outhern

I ndia ,

R .

A llchin p roposed t he h ypothesis t hat t he N eolithic p eople a re t he a ncestors o f t he m odern T amil-speaking p eople o f S outhern I ndia . A ccording t o h im , N eolithic t ribes a ppeared i n I ndia i n I II m illenium B .C . a fter t he m igration o f c attle-breeders f rom N orth-Eastern I ran . S cholars h ave r ightly o pposed t his t heory o n t he g round o f l ack o f e vidence ( Sankalia , 1 974 , p p . 2 71-272 ; S chetenko, 1 968 , p p . 1 39-140 ; B oriskovsky & Masson , 1 964 , p . 1 60) . A ccording t o S chetenko , A llchin 's h ypothesis r egarding t he p ossible c onnections b etween t he S outhern N eolithic c ulture a nd m odern T amil p eople d oes n ot c ontradict m odern d ata b ecause h e b ases h is c onclusions o n an umber o f E thnographic a nd L inguistic d ata ( Schetenko , I bid , p p . 1 39140) . S outhern I ndian N eolithic c ultures a re c haracterized b y a s imilarity o f b urial r ites .

B urials where t he d ead l ay i n t he e xtended a rticulated

p osition w ere c ommon ,

a s w ell a s t he

m ore

f requent u rn b urials

( possible

c hild b urials) . N ormally m any o f t hem a re a ccompanied b y g rave g oods - a m an 's b urial w ith t wo s tone a xes a nd f ive l arge b lades , a nd a w oman 's w ith a s pouted p ot a nd a d eep m ilking v essel . B urials a re f ound w ithin t he s ettlement a rea i tself . t he t hird N eolithic p hase , s tate) .

M ultiple p ot b urials o f T ekkalakota b elonging t o a re s imilar t o J orwe p hase b urials ( Maharashtra

I n N arsipur a nd o ther b urials o f t he s econd p hase ,

r ests o f d istinctive f orm o ccur .

5 3

p ottery h ead-

T he N eolithic s ites o f S anganakallu , P iklihal a nd T ekkalakota y ielded a nother d istinctive t ype o f p ottery-perforated p ottery . S uch a f orm o f p ottery w as w idespread i n t he S outhern D eccan N eolithic . S imilar p ottery a re k nown among s urface f inds o n s ites i n D harwar a nd S horapur D oab d istricts ( Mysore s tate) a nd S outh W estern A ndhra P radesh . T he m ajority o f f inds a re r epresented b y f ragments, h ence i t i s e xtremely d ifficult t o r econstruct t he o riginal s hape o f t he v essel . T he o nly p ossibility i s a n c onjectural r econstruction o f t he o riginal s hape . R . A llchin a fter s tudying f ragments f rom P iklihal , s uggested t hat t heir s izes i ndicate t heir b elonging t o n arrow v essels . A ccording t o h im , s uch N eolithic v essels c ould b e u sed a s b raziers f or b urning i ncense , a s c overs o f v essels f or b oiling m ilk o r s team c ooking o f c ereal p roducts . S ankalia c onsiders t hem t o b e c olanders. H owever , n o t heory h as y et b een A rchaeologists h ave l ooked f or E thnographic 1 969) , f or i nstance , watched p easants i n P radesh u sing p erforated p ottery, f inding p articular k inds o f f ood ( gruel a nd m ilk).

s cientifically p roved , a nd e vidence : P addyya ( Paddyya , t he c oastal r egion o f A ndhra t hat i t was u sed f or c ooking

R egarding c ultural a nalogues , D . G ordon ( G mkm , 1 950 ,p . 8 4) c onsiders t hat t he N eolithic o f I ndia a nd P akistan w as c onsiderably i nfluenced b y t he p attern o f N ear E astern c ultures . H e d raws a ttention t o S .S . M cCown 's o pinion t hat " polished s tone t ools a re f ound i n P alestine i n r elatively s mall n umbers a nd a lways i n a ssociation w ith c opper a nd b ronze . I t a ppears t hat s omewhere i n t he N ear E ast , o r n ot f ar f rom i t t he u se o f c opper a nd t hen o f b ronze w as d iscovered b efore t he u se o f p olished s tone t ools b ecame w idespread o r p erhaps k nown a t a ll" a nd t hinks t hat i t i s t herefore q uite r easonable t o s uppoe t hat t he a rrival o f t he p ointed-butt g round a nd p olished s tone a xe f rom t he N orth-East c ame m uch l ater t han t hat o f t he c opper f lat a xe f rom t he W est. T he A llchins ( Allchin , B . &F .R . 1 968 a , p . 1 68) b elieved t hat S outh I ndian s tone a xes a re c loser t o K ashmir o nes ( North-Western I ndia) t han t o t he o ccasional s tone a xes f rom I ran . A ccording t o N agaraju ( Naw m aju , 1 973 , p . 7 6) e lements o f t he s tone a xe i ndustries o f t hese t wo g eographically w idely s ituated a reas ( a s outhern N eolithic c ulture) a nd B urzhom ( a n orthern N eolithic c ulture) o ccur s imultaneously a nd d ate b ack t o t he l atter h alf o f t he I II m illenium B .C . c omponents

o f

t hese

H e a lso s urmises t hat d ifferences i n c orresponding c ultures

( Burzhom N eolithic

a nd

S outhern

I ndian

N eolithic) c an b e a ttributed t o t he c ontention t hat t he t wo o ffshoots i mbided o ther e lements f rom d ifferent s ources . A t t he s ame t ime h e c oncludes t hat S outh I ndian N eolithic c eramics a re t ypologically c lose t o s ome o f I ranian N eolithic c eramics . T here a re s ome d ifficulties i n d efining t he s equence o f b lade i ndustry d evelopment . I n p hase I ( Sangakanallu , H allur , N arsipur) b lades a re p oorly r epresented a nd s ometimes a bsent , b eing s ubstituted b y q uartz t ools . T his c learly i ndicates a c ontinuity L ate S tone A ge i ndustries o f A llchins ' o pinion ( Allc .hin , B . p . 9 4) g ives a s a n e xample

o f t hese i ndustries a nd t heir o rigin i n t he t he r egion i nvolved . I t a ccords w ith t he & I bid , p . 1 68) . T hapar (T ha lmn 7b 1 964 , o f a L ate S tone A ge s ite , w ith a p urely

m icrolithic i nventory ,

( the B urhabalang v alley i n O rissa) w here i ts

K uchai

i nhabitants' p rincipal o ccupation w as h unting .

T his w as s ucceeded b y a

N eolithic

o bserved .

o ccupation ,

b ut

n o

t ool

c ontinuity

w as

H ence

T hapar

b elieves t hat N eolithic i ndustries c ould n ot h ave o riginated f rom t he

5 4

m icrolithic i ndustries .

H e a lso s tressed a p re-ceramic f lake c omplex f rom

S anganakallu w hich w as f ollowed a fter a n i nterval i n o ccupation b y a f ully d eveloped N eolithic i ndustry a nd h ere a gain n o c ontinuity b etween t he t wo N eolithic p hases c an b e o bserved. T hapar ( Thapar ,

I bid, p . 9 3) s uggests a n a utochthinal o rigin o f a

S outhern N eolithic c ulture w hose c haracteristic f eatures i nclude a p ointedb utt i ndustry a nd b urnished g rey w are . H owever t his c an n ot b e a ccepted , a s t he m ajority o f f eatures o f t his c ulture h ave n o l ocal r oots . T hey a ppear i n t he d eveloped f orm w hich c ontradicts t he h ypothesis o f a n i ndigenous o rigin o f t he c ulture . T hapar d oes n ot r ecognise t he p resence o f N eolithic c ultures i n R ajasthan , C entral I ndia o r N orthern D eccan , a nd h ence h e d enies aW estern A sian o rigin o f t he S outh N eolithic c ulture ( Agrawal , 1 964 , I P . p . 9 5) . T hapar d raws a ttention t o n atural h abitat z ones o f p otentially d omesticable p lants a nd a nimals w ithin I ndia ( Thapar , I bid , p . 9 4) . H owever , a ccording t o M isra ( Misra , 1 964 c . p p . 9 7-98) s uch a s earch i s d oomed t o f ailure . H e s uggests a d iffusional N eolithic s pread f rom W estern A sia w here a griculture a nd d omestication w ere k nown s ince V II m illenium B .C . , a nd p ottery a nd m etallurgy s ince V I-V m illenium B .C . , r espectively . S ankalia ( Sankalia , I bid , p . 1 05) m akes a c areful s tatement p ointing o ut t hat i t i s u nclear w hether a s ingle e conomic z one o f f ood p roduction e xisted , o r s everal . T hapar 's v iew w ould a ppear t o b e r easonable w hen h e i ndicates t hat d omestication c ould , i n t heory t ake p lace a t a ny t ime w here m an was i n c ontact w ith a n a ppropriate a nimal , t hus a s ingle z one o f d omestication m ight b e a f iction (T hope" , I bid , p . 1 09) . S axon b elieves t hat

A rchaeological

a nd f aunal m aterial i n t he L evant a nd M agrib s upport

s uch a h ypothesis a nd t hat t he f irst a ttempts o f w ild a nimal d omestication c an b e r elated t o t he U pper P alaeol ithic ( Saxon , 1 978 , p . 3 57) . S tudying t he c eramics o f p hase I , t he A llchins ( Allchin , B . & FJ Z . , I bid , p . 1 68 ) d istinguished t wo p rincipal i nfluences : g rey b urnished w are ( the u nburnt , r ed o chre p ainted t ype i ncluded) s imilar t o t he e arly B urzahom p ottery . H owever , t here i s ab road s imilarity b etween t he f inishes o f t hese g rey w are a nd t hose o f H issar , T uran-tepe , a nd S han-tepe i n N orth E astern I ran . S . R ajan ( Soundara , 1 964 , p . 1 06) a lso s uggests t here a re l inks b etween t he B urzaholm N eolithic c ulture a nd o ther p arts o f t he I ndian s ubc ontinent . A t s ome s ites i n t he P unjab ( H immp im i , A ttock , K angra v alley i n T ashil D ehra C opijur N eolithic c elts w ere f ound which i ndicated t heir s outhern a ffiliation . U sing t his d ata , S oundara R ajan p ostulates a s poradic s pread o f D eccan N eolithic t raditions i n I I m illenium B .C . i nto s elective p laces b eyond t he p eninsula . D uring t he s econd p hase a b lade i ndustry d eveloped p ossibly d ue t o c ontacts o r e xchange w ith g roups o f t he L ater S tone A ge . T he t hird p hase d emonstrates e ven s tronger e xternal i nfluences ( " Jorwe"-type p ottery , o bjects o f c opper o r b ronze o f J orwe o r p ost-Harappan a ffinities) .

T here i s y et a nother h ypothesis r egarding t he E astern o rigin

o f t he N eolithic c ulture ,

b ut

b ecause

o f

l ack o f a ny

e vidence

i t h as n ot

g ained r ecognition . P addaya

( Paddaya ,

1 971,

p p .

1 34138) o btained r adio-carbon d atings f or

e ight s ites ( Terdal , U tnu , T ekkalkota , S angakallu , H allur , P alavoy, T . N arsipur, B ainapalli) which c aused h im t o r evise W heeler 's N eolithic c hronology . T he e arliest o f t hese s ites, U tnur ( BM - 5 4) s tretches t he l ower l imit b ack a w hole m illenium t han p reviously b elieved , a nd i s n ow h eld t o b e 2 ,200 B .C . F or t he S outh I ndian N eolithic c ulture t here a re t hree d ates:

9 45 B .C .

( 1F-575) ,

8 70 B .C . ( TF-573)

a nd 1 ,020 B .C . ( TF-570) ,

t he

f irst o f t hem r elating t o t he t erminal p hase o f N eolithic c ulture a nd t he t wo l ast b elonging t o t he N eolithic - M egalithic o verlap p hase .

5 5

T he u pper

l imit o f t he c ulture i s d ated b ack t o 1 ,000 B .C . a nd i ts e ntire d uration i s d etermined f rom 2 ,200 t o 1 ,000 B .C . P addaya b elieves t hat h ere w e e ncounter o n t he o ne h and , aB arbaric S outhern c ulture, a nd o n t he o ther h and , a n u rban c ivilization o f t he I ndus v alley o n t he N orth-West ( Paddaya , I bid). T hus

a n u neveness

o f

h istorical d evelopment

c an b e s een i n I ndia a t

t hat p eriod i nsofar a s s eparate d istricts d iffer f rom e ach o ther i n t heir c ultural a nd e conomic l evels . F or a n u nderstanding o f t his p henomenon a ttention s hould b e p aid p rimarily t o h istorical-geographical c haracteristics o f e ach d istrict . A s M asson ( Masson , 1 964 , p . 4 9) r ightly p oints o ut, l arge c ultural-economic z ones s hould b e t aken i nto a ccount r ather t han p articular l ocalities . F ollowing t his t heoretical c oncept , S chetenko ( Schetenko , 1 968 , p . 1 29) d istinguishes f our m ain c ulturale conomic r egions e xisting i n I ndia d uring I II - I I m illenia B .C.: 1 ) H arappa a nd p ost Harappan t owns o f t he n orth-west; 2 ) B ronze h oards a nd a c ulture o f g rey p ainted c eramics o f t he G anges v alley ; 3 ) C halcolithic s ettlements o f C entral I ndia ; 4 ) N eolithic s ites o f t he S outhern D eccan . H aving t hus e stablished t he H istory o f t he d evelopment o f I ndian N eolithic c ultures , t he q uestion a rises w hether b ackward N eolithic t ribes i n t he s outh , a nd d eveloped c ommunities w ith u rban c ivilization i n t he n orth , c ould h ave c o-existed s imultaneously i n c ontiguous t erritories? I s i t p ossible t hat S outhern N eolithic s ettlers f ailed t o b orrow a dvanced c ultural t raditions f rom t heir m ore h ighly c ivilized n orthern n eighbours? S chetenko t ried t o a nswer t his c omplicated p roblem : " a l ower l evel i n t he d evelopment o f p roduction a nd c onsequently o f t he s ocial r elations i nvolved i n p roduction i n a s ociety w hich w as s till i n a N eolithic s tage c ould h ardly h ave p romoted t he e stablishment o f s table c ontacts w ith a m ore d eveloped u rban c ulture" ( Schetenko , I bid , p . 1 38 ) . T hus , a r etarded d evelopment o f N eolithic t ribes o f S outhern I ndia i s c onditioned b y o bjective p rocesses o f t he h istorical d evelopment . A s a r esult, n ew c ultural t raditions w ere a dopted v ery s lowly . I n t his r espect N orthern D eccan s ettlers w ere g reatly a dvanced i n c omparison w ith t he s outhern p opulation , a nd b y t he m iddle o f I I m illenium B .C . , t hey d iffered m arkedly f rom i t , a lthough t hey c ould n ot c ompletely g et r id o f t he p rimitive c ommunal s tructure . T he r etarded d evelopment o f t he s outhern p opulation c an b e a ttributed t o t he G eographical e nvironment . T he a bundance o f r aw m aterial , a nd t he a dequacy o f s imple t ool p roduction w ere t he m ain f actors r etarding t he d evelopment o f n ew i mplements .

P rimitive

l and

c ultivation ,

i n i ts

t urn ,

t ied w ith m inimum

l abour u sing d igging s ticks p rovided t he f ood n ecessary f or l iving w ithout t he a ccumulation o f s urplus a nimal p roducts . T hus , a ccording t o t he l evel o f t he p roductive f orces, t he m ost s uitable f orm o f o rganisation w as a p rimitive c ommunal s tructure a t t hat p eriod .

5 6

( Schetenko ,

C HAPTER I V S TONE A GE O F S RI L ANKA

T he s tudy o f t he p rehistory o f S ri L anka b egan i n 1 880 w hen J . P ole , a n a mateur a rchaeologist , a nd E . G reen a n e ntomologist , c ollected t he f irst s tone a rtifacts i n t he v icinities o f P eradeniya , M askeliya a nd N avalapitiya . P ole a ppeared t o b e am ore i nterested a nd d evoted a ntiquities c ollector t han G reen . F or t wenty f ive y ears h e h ad b een a ccumulating s tone a rtifacts f rom a lmost a ll p arts o f t he i sland a nd h e c ame t o t he c onslusion t hat t he m ajority b elonged t o t he P alaeolithic p eriod ( Pole , 1 907 , p .227) . A ccording t o h im , a ncient m an c ame t o t he i sland f rom t he N orth s o f inds f rom t he n orthern p art o f i t w ere o f s pecial i nterest . P ole s ent p art o f h is c ollection t o I ndia a nd L ondon f or e xamination b y s pecialists b ut t he f inds w ere r ecieved w ith s cepticism a nd r egarded a s p seudo-artifacts . B ruce F oote a lone a ccepted s ome a s a uthentic a rchaeological o bjects. ( Foote , I bid.,p.278). O nly i n 1 907 w as t he c orrectness o f h is c onclusions c onfirmed b y t wo p rominent S wiss s cholars , t he b rothers D r . P aul a nd D r . F ritz S arasin w ho f ound m any S tone A ge a rtifacts i n t he i sland . I n 1 908 a c omplete a ccount o f t heir i nvestigations w as p ublished i ncluding d escriptions o f c ave e xcavations a nd t he c ollection o f s urface m aterials f rom t he U va h ills ( Sarasin F a nd P , 1 908) . T he b ook b y S arasin b rothers r emains t he m ost s erious a ttempt t o d eal w ith t he S tone A ge o f S ri L anka t hough s ome m ention c oncerning i t i s m ade i n t he w orks o f E L P arker , t he S eligmans a nd J . P ole ( Parker , 1 909 ; S eligman C .G . a nd B .Z. 1 911; P ole, a bove c ited). T he S arasin b rothers c onducted v aluable i nvestigations o f t he V edda s ettlements e specially i n t he E astern l owland p arts o f t he i sland . I n 1 907 i n t he n ewspaper " Ceylon O bserver" t hey

f ormulated

t he

m ain

o bjective

o f

t heir w ork i n t he f ollowing w ay " This t rip w e m ade f or t he e xpress p urpose o f s olving t he p roblem a s t o w hether t here e xisted i n t he c aves f ormerly a s w ell a s p resently i nhabited b y V eddas ,

a ny i ndustry i n t he m aking o f s tone

i mplements r epresenting i n i tself t he S tone A ge o f V eddas , a nd i ncluding t hat o f C eylon" . T heir r esearch s howed t hat t he V eddas b elonged t o al ower a nd o lder t ype t han t he o ther i nhabitants o f t he i sland ( the S inhalese a nd T amils) h ence t hey s hould r epresent t he f ew r emnants o f t he o riginal a borigines f ound b y t he S inhalese o n t heir f irst a rrival a ccording t o t he o ld c hronicle " Mahavansa" , t he V eddas w ere c alled " Yakas" b y t he n ewly a rrived S inhalese .

T he S arasin b rothers c onsidered t hat

t hese a utochthons

w ere a t t hat t ime l iving i n t heir S tone A ge . H owever , t here w as n o r cord t o b e f ound o f V edda s tone i mplements i n a ny o f t he A nthropological l iterature . T herefore w ith t he a im o f d issipating d oubts a bout t he a utochthony o f t he V eddas ,

t he S arasins t hought t hat t he d iscovery o f s tone i mplements s hould

p lay a n i mportant r ole . T he S arasin b rothers f ound a c ave i n N ilgala ,

w hich u ntil r ecently w as

i nhabited b y V eddas w here a l arge n umber o f s tone i mplements o f av ery r ough k ind w as f ound . A s imilar p icture w as f ound i n o ther c aves n ear K ataragama a nd K alodai a s w ell a s o n h ill t ops o f t he U pper U va r egion . T hese d ata p rovided e vidence o f t he V eddas a utochthony a nd d emonstrated t hat t hey w ere

5 7

t hen more w idely d istributed t han n ow ( throughout most o f t he i sland , i ncluding t he l ow c ountry a s w ell a s t he m ountainous p art). S tone t ools w ere f ound a t a s hallow d epth o n h ill s lope s ites w hich w ere t he o pen a ir s ites o f t he s ame p opulation t hat i nhabited t he c aves . O n t he h ills i n t he v icinities o f K andy a nd P eradeniya , t he S arasin b rothers f ound t ools t ypologically c lose t o t hose d iscovered e arlier o n t he h ills. F rom t heir i nitial e xamination o f t he s tone a ssemblages o f t he i sland t hey c oncluded t hat a ll t he k nives h ad t wo w orking e dges . H owever , l ater t hey f ound s mall k nives w ith o nly o ne w orking e dge s ituated o pposite t he f lat e dge , which t hey a ttributed t o a b acked b lade t radition n ormally e ncountered i n t he l ast p hase o f t he E uropean M agdalenian . A p roportion o f p oints w ere a lso b cked t o a v arying d egree . T hey c onsidered t hat g eometrical f orms o f t ools o riginated f rom t hese t ools . E ndscrapers w ere made f rom p ebbles a nd t reated s o a s t o p reserve t he p reform; p rimary s urfaces c ould b e s een o n m any o f t hem . M ost s tone t ools o f t he i sland a re s mall , b ut s ometimes v ery , l arge a rtifacts s crapers o ccur i n c aves o r o n h ills .

r esembling d iscoids

A ccording t o t he b rothers S arasin 's ( Sarasin F . &P .

o r m assive

1 907 a p .

1 89 ) v iew

t he s hape o f t he f lakes , k nives , l anceolates , s crapers a nd f ragments o f b one a wls a re a nalogous t o t he M agdalenian , t hough t he n ature o f t he m aterial ( white q uartz) p ermits t heir c lassification a s a s pecial " Vedda f acies W) T hey a ttributed t his i ndustry t o V edda a ncestors, s uggesting t hat t hey m aintained a P alaeolithic c ulture b efore t he a rrival o f I ndian i mmigrants b ringing i ron w ith t hem . T hey a lso f ound r ed , y ellow a nd b lack v arieties o f q uartz e mployed i n g reat p rofusion . C onsidering t he s mall s ize o f t hese i mplements t he S arasins c oncluded t hat t hey m ust h ave b een u sed b y as malls ized t ype o f p eople . I n a ddition t o t he t echno-morphological n ature o f t he i ndustry, t he a bsence o f t he f ollowing f eatures c ontributed t o i ts i dentification a s P alaeolithic : p olished h andaxes , c eramics , i ndications o f l and c ultivation a nd b ones o f d omesticated a nimals . A ccording t o t he S arasins ' v iew i t was a ssumed t hat t he P alaeolithic A ge was a t o nce s ucceeded b y t he I ron A ge . H .

P arker c riticized

t he b rothers

c oncerning t he r elation o f t hese t ools

S arasin f or b asing t heir v iew

t o t he M agdalenian ( Parker o p . s it .)

o n t he t ypological s imilarity a nd t he a bsence o f t ypical N eolithic e lements a lone . C . H artley a lso c riticized t heir w ork o n t he g rounds t hat t heir i nvestigation o f t he i sland w as t oo b rief . H e r ejected a M agdalenian d ating o f t he s tone t ools . H owever t he b rothers S arasin p ointed o ut t hat H artley 's c riticism w as g roundless , f or t hey w rote o nly a bout a c luture a nalogous t o t he E uropean M agdalenian , r ather t han t he M agdalenian a ge o f t hese t ools ( Sarasin F . a nd P . I bid .p .92) . I t c an b e s aid t hat t he b rothers S arasin l aid t he b asis o f S ri L ankan P rehistoric A rchaeology i n w orld l iterature . T hey r eported t heir w ork i n t he s outh e astern p art o f t he i sland i n a dequate d etail, a nd while i t c ontains m ethodological f aults a nd u njustified c onclusions,

n evertheless

t hey l eft g ood d ocumentation o f t he A rchaeological s ites . T heir r eports a nd c omments , a nd t heir t endency t o r elate E thnographic d ata w ith A rchaeological m aterial s how a n a dmirable b readth o f a pproach . T he S eligmans,

i n c ontrast t o P aul a nd F ritz S arasin r elated t he

a rtifacts t hey f ound t o t he N eolithic p eriod . T heir i nvestigations c oncentrated m ainly o n t he s earch a nd s tudy o f S tone A ge a rtifactss . T hey

5 8

w ere

t he

f irst

t o

d istinguish

t hree

c ultural

l ayers

i n

c ave , w hich w as e xcavated w ith m ethods n ew t o S ri L anka . m any p ainstaking e fforts i n o rder t o a chieve g eneral

t he

B endiyagalge

T he S eligmans m ade r ecognition o f t he

a uthenticity o f t he S ri L ankan s tone t ools w hich t he m ajority o f e xperts r egarded a s e oliths r ather t han g enuine a rtifacts m ade b y o ur p rehistoric a ncestors. T he r esults o f t heir i nvestigations were p ublished i n 1 911 i n a c omprehensive b ook " The V eddas" m entioned a bove ; t hey h ad a lready p ublished a n umber o f a rticles o n t he p rehistoric t ools a nd t he V eddas ( Seligman C .C . a nd B .Z . 1 908a , 1 908b , 1 908c , 1 908 0 . T hey d escribe s pecific f eatures o f V eddas - t hen s till a f lourishing r ace , w hose w ay o f l ife w as t ypical o f M esolithic h unters a lthough t hey h ad a lready a cquired i ron a rrow h eads. T he S eligmans d escribed t he s ocial s tructure o f t he V eddas a nd t heir f amily r elations , r eligion , m agic c eremonies , m usic , l anguages a nd s enses i n f ull d etail . T heir m onograph w hich c ontains f our h undred p ages w ith s eventy o ne p lates , t hirty f our m usical r ecords , n umerous s ongs a nd a v ocabulary s hould b e c onsidered a s t he b est e xisting r ecord o f t he f ast v anishing V edda r ace . T he S eligmans s upported P arker 's t heory t hat t he u pper r anks o f t he V eddas were a bsorbed b y t he c onquering S inhalese, who i n t heir t urn i nherited a n umber o f c ustoms o f t he c onquered . H owever , t he V eddas b y a ccident o r c hoice a voided c omplete a ssimilation a nd r emained t rue t o t heir t raditions. T he S eligmans p ublication s ums u p a lmost a ll p revious w orks d edicated t o t he V eddas ( Robert K nox , H owever ,

t he

b ook

d oes

1 681; P arker , o p .cit;

n ot

d eal

t horoughly

S arasin ,

w ith

( ) p l ait. e tc .) .

p rehistoric

s tone

i mplements : t heir d escription o ccupies f ive p ages w ith a s ingle t able a nd u nsufficient a ttention i s p aid t o m aterials g athered b y t he S arasin b rothers, P ole a nd G reen . I n 1 913 P ole p ublished a n a rticle o n t he s tone t ools o f S ri L anka ( Pole , 1 913) . O n t he b asis o f t heir r aw m aterial h e d ivided t hem i nto t wo s eries - c hert t ools a nd q uartz t ools .

A ccording t o P ole ,

t he f irst s eries

i s t he o ldest . T hese t ools a re m ore p rimitive , r etouched e xamples a re v ery r are , w hile q uartz a rtifacts a re r epresented b y m ore d eveloped f orms . P ole a lso d escribed s everal o bjects f ound o n t he s urface o f M askeliya which r esemble L ower P alaeolithic i mplements . T hese a re s ome l arge f lakes a nd t hree d amaged t ools o f c hert . O ne o f t hem was a ttributed b y G reen t o C hellean h andaxes . A ccording t o F . S arasin , t he a ge o f t he f ind s uggested b y P ole i s c ontradicted b y i ts g ood s tate o f p reservation ( Sarasin , 1 926) , p .90) .

S arasin p oints o put a lso t hat t ools m ade o f c hert a s w ell a s q uartz

n ormally c ould b e f ound i n t he s ame l ayer ( in c aves) i ndicating t heir c ontemporaneity. P ole 's c onclusions w ere u nacceptable t o p rehistorians b ecause h e c ompared d irectly S tone A ge m aterials o f E urope a nd S ri L anka . S econdly , h e c ompletely i gnored s ite s tratigraphy w hcih p lays a n i mportant r ole i n t he s cientific s tudy o f P rehistoric A rchaeological s ites .

I t w as n ot a ccidental

t hat c onclusions m ade b y P ole w ere m ostly r ejected o r n ot t aken s eriously b y t he s pecialists . F or i nstance , H artley c riticized P ole f or h is i gnorance o f t he p rehistoric f ield . a rtificial f laking , P ole f unction ;

H e p ointed o ut t hat a ny s tone s howing m arks o f r egarded a s a n i mplement t o w hich h e a scribed a

a s a r esult h is c ollection m ainly c onsisted o f f ragmented o bjects

n ormally d iscarded b y Archaeologists b ecause o f t heir n atural o rigin . ( Hartley , o p .cit . p p . 2 65-266) . P ossibly , H artley w as n ot q uite o bjective

5 9

i n h is a ppreciation o f P ole 's works . P ole was n ot a n A rchaeologist b y e ducation , n evertheless h e m ay b e r egarded a s t he p ioneer i n t he s tudy o f P rehistoric A rchaeology i n S ri L anka . T hus ,

w orks

b y

P ole ,

G reen ,

P . a nd F . S arasin ,

C . a nd B . S eligman a nd

H artley s howed t hat i n t he e arly d ays S ri L anka w as i nhabited b y ap rimitive p eople w hose w eapons a nd t ools w ere m ade o f s tone , b one a nd w ood . H owever , o pinions r egarding p eriodization o f t he

t he a ge o f t hese a rtifacts, t he d uration a nd S tone A ge w ere h eavily d ivergent . F or i nstance , J .

P arsons b elieved t hat t he t ools f ound i n t he i sland w ere s imilar t o e oliths ( Parsons, 1 907 , p .17) , t he S arasin b rothers r elated t hem t o t heUpper P alaeolithic a nd t he S eligmans t o t he N eolithic .

I n 1 913 P ole t ried t o s um

u p t he c ofusion o f i deas r egarding t he S tone A ge P eriodization a s f ollows : " So l ittle h as b een d iscovered a bout o ur ( Ceylon) S tone A ge t hat i t i s d ifficult t o b elieve t hat t here m ust l ie s omething b eyond t hat o ur s urface f inds w aiting t o b e b rought t o l ight;

e specially s o ,

a s w e h ad b een t aught

t hat C eylon p ossessed n one; n evertheless, Mr . C . H artley i s p inning h is f aith t o t he P atnapura g em p its f or f urther d evelopments" ( see D eraniyagala , 1 936 , p . 2 61). I n 1 919 a g eologist E . Wayland a nnounced a d iscovery o f much o lder t ools t han s o f ar f ound , C eylon" ( Wayland , 1 91 9 , E olithic t ools .

i n a l ong a rticle ' Outlines o f t he S tone A ge o f i n w hich h e d escribed a ncient P alaeolithic a nd

T he a rticle i mmediately a ttracted t he a ttention o f a ll w ho

w ere i nterested i n t he P rehistory o f t he i sland . A ccording t o W ayland , a ncient m an c ame t o t he i sland f rom I ndia a long t he e xisting l and b ridge . A t t hat t ime h e h ad n ot y et a chieved t he P alaeolithic s tage o f c ultural d evelopment w hich t ook p lace a fter s ettlement i n t he i sland . I mplements o f a ncient m en o ccur a t t he e dges o f t erraces , o n r iver b eds, o n s andy c oasts, i n g ravels a nd o n h ill s lopes. H e d enoted t hese a s ' travel v alleys" a nd r elated t hem t o ap luvial d uring w hich l arge r ivers b rought g reat q uantities o f g ravel t o l owlands o f t he i sland . T hese g ravels t hen f ormed a c ontinuous p lateau d amaged l ater b y e rosion , o nly s cattered r emains b eing l eft . • T he r ed s oil o verlying t he g ravel h e c onsidered t o b e o f E olithic o rigin a nd w as f ormed l ater , i n a n a rid p eriod. W ayland d ivided t he l arge c ollection o f s tone t ools i nto t wo s eries : t he " Hill s eries" a nd t he " Lowland s eries" . T he a rtifacts o f t he f irst s eries h e a scribed t o t he N eolithic a ge . M ost o f t he s tone t ools o f t he s econd s eries o ccur i n d etrital d eposits o r o n t he s urface o f s uch d eposits . A ll t he t ypes o f t ools o f t he ' Hill s eries" a re p resent i n t he " Lowland s eries" t ogether w ith a nother a rchaic a ssemblage , i n w hich t ypes m issing f rom t he " Hill s eries" a re p resent . M ain f eatures o f t his " Lowland s eries" a re t he p resence o f s teep-sided s crapers o r p lanes , s plit a nd w orked p ebbles, t ortoise-like p ieces, a nd t he s ize o f t he t ools a nd t heir c omposition . A rtifacts o f t his s eries a re b igger t han t hose o f t he " Hill s eries" . S mall i mplements o f q uartz a re a lso p resent . L arger t ools w hich f orm t he d ominant g roup a re m ainly m ade o f c hert . O ther r aw m aterials s uch a s c halcedony, o pal , f lint, m ilky a nd c rystal q uartz, v olcanic g lass r esembling o bsidian , a nd s ilica w ere a lso u sed o ccasionally . R ough t ools o ccur i n t his s eries w ith f inely w orked f orms . W ayland t ried t o c haracterize s pecific f eatures o f t his s eries . O ne s et o f t ools m ade f rom q uartz c losely r esembles p re-palaeolithic t ools o f D armsden , S uffolk o f E ngland . T hese i mplements c omprise s crapers , b lades a nd a xes o f v arious s izes . H e n amed t hese t ools " chipped p ebbles" ( Fig .31) . T he o ther s et o f t ools ,

h e

c alls

" split p ebbles" ,

w hich p ossibly

6 0

r epresent a dvance

f lakes ,

w hich a re a lso t rimmed . T hese f lakes w ere d etatched f rom p ebbles b y ab low d elivered w ith a h ammer s tone . T he a im o f s uch a b low w as t o s plit f rom t he p ebbles a n o val f lake , f lat-concave i n c ross s ection , w hich c ould h ave b een u sed a s ak nife , w hile e dge t rimming t ransformed i t i nto a s craper . W ayland j oined " chipped p ebbles" a nd " split p ebbles" i nto a s o c alled " pebble g roup" . A nother c lass o f p ebble t ools w hich h e c onsidered t o b e c hronologically l ater , c omprise s mall o val p ebbles o f c rystal q uartz , w hich h ave b een w orked i n s uch a m anner t hat t hey r esemble v ery t iny h adaxes o f t he C hellean p eriod . A ccording t o W ayland , a nd t he p urpose o f t hese t ools i s o bscure .

t hey a re f ound o nly i n S ri L anka

Wayland b elieves t hat t he C hellean p hase o f S ri L anka s eems t o b e r epresented b y h andaxes t hough t hey a re s carce ( F ig . 3 2) . O ne o f t hem w as f ound i n s itu a t M arichchukkaddi .

A mong o ther f orms t here a re v arious t ypes

o f s crapers ( hollow, r ound, s traight, a nd i rregular) . S ide s crapers ( racloir) a nd p oints o f Mousterian t ype o ccur a s d o p rismatic t ools. P ointed i nstruments w ith e dge t rimming , which r esemble t he A urignacian c ulture , a nd h oof-shaped p ieces r esembling t hose o f E gypt a nd N orth-Fleet i n E ngland a re c haracteristic , w hile s teep-faced s crapers a re v ery c ommon . C olumnar

c ores,

c onical

c ores

a nd

t hrowing

d iscs

a re

f ound

i n

f air

q uantities . B eaked t ools , p icks m ade f rom l arge t hick f lakes a nd l arge r ude d igging t ools a re t ypical i n t his s eries . C hopping t ools a re f ound m ore o ften w hile a rrow h eads a re r are , s pear h eads , v arious t ypes o f p oints , b orers a nd d iscarded b ulb-ends a re a lso f ound . F lakes a nd h ammer s tones o ccur i n g reat a bundance . W ayland c onsiders w ell-worn s tones r esembling E uropean e oliths t o b e c hipped b y m an . B eside t hese , t here a re s ome q uite u nworn t ools o f E olithic t ype , w hich W ayland c onsiders t o b e t he w ork o f m an . U nfortunately , a bsence o f i llustrations m ake i t p ractically i mpossible f or t he r eader t o j udge h is a ssumption r egarding t his p articular m atter. F .

S arasin c riticized W ayland 's work f or p articular r easons .

T he

f ormer c ame t o t he i sland i n 1 925 i n o rder t o c heck t he L ower P alaeolithic a ge o f t he t ools f ound b y W ayland . A ccording t o S arasin , a c onsiderable p roportion o f t he i mplements w ere o f n atural o rigin - a r esult o f c ollision o f p ebbles i n r ivers ( Sarasin , O p . c it , p p . 1 00101) . A s imilar e xplanation w as g iven r egarding t he l arge s hapeless i mplements w ith r etouch a t t he e nd w hich a re n umerous i n t he c ollection . T he p roblem o f d istinguishing w hether t hese s tone t ools w ere t he work o f m an o r j ust n atural p roducts s till r emains u nsolved . S arasin c onsidered t hat n o t ool c ould b e a ttributed w ith c ertainty t o a d efinite t ype ( Chellean , M ousterian o r A urignacian) . M any o ther o bjects f rom W ayland 's c ollection r epresent c ores o f v arious f orms a nd s izes. J udging b y h is i llustrations , i t i s h ard t o r elate W ayland 's i mplements t o a ny A rchaeological e poch w ith p recision . H owever a fter e xamination o f s ome e xamples f rom W ayland 's c ollection a t t he C olombo N ational M useum w e c onsider t hat s ome a re g enuine t ools d espite S arasin 's o pinion t hat t hey a re a ll e oliths . S arasin 's r eaction t o t he d iscovery b y Wayland c an b e u nderstood w hen o ne c onsiders t he f act t hat w hen t he l atter a nnounced h is d iscovery , p ebble t ools w ere p ractically u nknown i n t he w orld A rchaeological l iterature ,

w hile C hellean h andaxes w ere r egarded a s t he o ldest ,

a uthentic

t ools m ade b y m an . W ayland i s t oday r espected a s t he p ioneer i n d iscovering p ebbles t ools i n U ganda ( these p ebble t ools w ere c onditionally c alled K aufan t ools i n 1 927) , ( Wayland , 1 934) . I t i s a lso w orth m entioning t hat W ayland h ad a f air k nowledge o f e oliths w hich i s c learly d emonstrated b y h is a rticle i n w hich

6 1

h e g ives o bjective r easons c onditions. ( Wayland , 1 915).

f or

t he

a ppearance

o f

e oliths

i n d esert

I t i s n ot i nconceivable t hat h andaxes ( Fig . 3 2 , 1 , 2 , 3 ) w ere m ade b y m an i n t he P alaeolithic p eriod a nd r epresent t he o ldest f orm o f t ool a long w ith o ther p ebble t ools. T his h ypothesis i s c onfirmed b y a nother f ind g iving e vidence o f P alaeolithic o ccupation o f t he i sland - a n A cheulian-like h andaxe

( Fig .

3 3) ,

w hich w as f ound m uch l ater i n t he c ave " Nirvana G alge"

b etween R atnapura a nd M athugama . U nfortunately t here i s n o g eomorphological d escription o f t he p lace w here t his h andaxe w as f ound.

t he

I nvestigations o f m any y ears s how t hat W ayland 's c onclusion r egarding e xistence o f L ower P alaeolithic t ools i n S ri L anka i s s ubstantiated .

T hus , h is w ork o n t he i nvestigation o f t he S tone A ge o f S ri L anka s hould n ot b e d ismissed s ince h e was t he f irst t o i nitiate s erious g eological e xamination o f A rchaeological s ites . I n t he 7 0s o f X X c entury S . D eraniyagala t urned t o t he q uestion o f t he t wo s eries o f i mplements r aised e arlier b y W ayland . I n 1 972 h e p ublished a n a rticle i n t he j ournal o f C ornwall U niversity , a bout i n t he l owland o f S ri L anka ( Deraniyagala , S . 1 972) . D eraniyagala a nalyses

aM esolithic i ndustry I n t his a rticle S iran

t he g eomorphological p osition o f s ites a nd t he

p edalogy o f t hree s edimentary f ormations w ith t ools d ated t o t he M esolithic p eriod . H e c oncluded t hat t hese t hree g roups o f s edimentary d eposits a re c orrelated a nd w ere f ormed d uring a p eriod o f h eavier r ain f all a nd h ence e vaporation i n t hese d istricts t han a t p resent. S . D eraniyagala s ucceeded i n p roving t hat t he m ajority o f W ayland 's s econd s eries t ools a re r eally M esolithic . T he r esult o f h is w ork a lso s howed t hat s edimentary l ayers o ccurred t hroughout l owland z ones . W ayland o n t he o ther h and , c onsidered s uch s edimentation t ook p lace i n s pecific a reas

o nly .

A nother S rilankan a rchaeologist , P .E .P . D eraniyagala , t he f ormer d irector o f C olombo N ational M useum , w hose f inds a nd p ublications a re m uch m ore v oluminous a dopts t he d ivision s uggested b y W ayland a nd n ames t he o lder g roup a s " Ratnapura C ulture" , w hich r oughly c orrespond t o t he P alaeolithic , w hile t he M esolithic a nd N eolithic w ere c ombined i nto a s ingle c ulture " Balangoda C ulture" ( Deraniyagala P .E .P . , 1 939 , P P . 3 59-361) , ( Fig . 3 4) . B oth o f t hese p hases were n amed a fter t he l ocalities where t hey w ere d iscovered i nitially . R emains o f t he R atnapura c ulture o ccur a t t he d epth o f 3 -6 t o 1 2 m etres . D eraniyagala , t entatively s ubdivided t he R atnapura c ulture i nto t he t hree f ollowing p hases ( Deraniyagala P .E.P .,

1 956a , p .6).

D uring t he f irst p hase a rtifacts a re h ardly d istinguishable f rom n aturally f ractured s tones . H ippopotamus i s t he e arliest k nown f ossil f orm f ound which i s o f M iddle P leistocene a ge . A rtifacts f ound i n t he g em s and a lso s upport t he v iew t hat t hey b elong t o t he s econd g lacial p eriod. T he

s econd p hase i s d ated b ack t o t he s econd i nterglacial i n w hich a

p ebble c ulture i s p redominant . V arious e xtinct a nimal f ossils a re n oticed w hich p ossess n o l iving r epresentatives . T he m ain t ools a re r oughly s haped , n on-retouched c hoppers w ith n o s table f orms ( Fig . 3 5-36) . T hough t hese t ools a re l arger t han t hose o f t he f irst p hase , t hey a re a pproximately h alf t he s ize o f t he u sual q uartzite A palaeoliths o f M adras a nd a re c loser t o e arly S ohan c luture o f P unjab t han t o t he Madras h andaxe c ulture . m aterials e mployed f or t hese a rtifacts w ere c hert, q uartz,

6 2

T he

j asper a nd

c orundum . D uring t he t hird p hase d ated b ack t o t he t hird i nterglacial p eriod ( the U pper P leistocene) , t he p roportion o f p ebble t ools d ecreases b ut a c onsiderable p redominance o f f lakes a nd c ores s haped i nto c rude h andaxes a nd t ortoise b acked s crapers i s n oticeable ( Fig . 3 7) . T hese a rtifacts a re s maller i n s ize a nd s how s ome a ttempt a t r etouching .

S ometimes whole

c rystals o f q uartz o r c orundum w ere u sed , t he a pex b eing f laked i nto a s harp e dge , a nd t he r est r oughly c hipped t o p rovide a s ecure g rip . D eraniyagala c alled t hese i mplements " Crystaliths" ( Fig . 3 8) .

I n t he t ools o f t his

p eriod t he c ortex w as r emoved b y s pecial a rtificail t reatment . T his u pper p hase o f t he R atnapura c ulture a ppears t o r esemble t he P alaeolithic o f J abulpore i n C entral I ndia . ( Dr . A . A iyappan o f M adras M useum b elieves t hat t hese a rtifacts a re s omewhat c lose t o s ome e xamples f rom J abulpore a nd T innevelly) ( Deraniyagala P .E .P . , 1 939 , P .359) . F auna i s r epresented b y e xtinct a nimals s ome o f w hich a re E LEPHAS MAXIMUS S INHALEYUS .

s ubspecies

o f

t hose n ow a live

s uch

a s

A ccoring t o P . D eraniyagala H omo S inhaleyus m ay h ave b een t he c reator o f a t l east s ome o f t he a rtifacts o f t he R atnapura c luture ( Deraniyagala , 1 958 b , p .57) . T he o nly a nthropological f ind o f t he a bove r ace i s a s ingle l eft s upraorbital r idge r aised f rom a d epth o f 1 2 1 /2 f eet t ogether w ith h ippopotamus f ossils i n J ahinge A ngiliya i n t he S abaragamuwa p rovince . D eraniyagala e ven b elieves t hat H ippopotamus m ight d ate b ack t o t he M iddle P leistocene i n w hich c ase t his r ace t oo i s o f s imilar a ge . C onsidering t he t hickness a nd t he d ifference i n s hape f rom t he s upraorbital r idge o f H omo S apiens a nd t he s mall s ize o f t he e ye s ocket , D eraniyagala b elieves a n ew s pecies , H omo S inhaleyus c an b e d istinguished . I n P . D erani a 's v iew , t he o ldest t ools o f t he i sland d id n ot r each t he l evel o f d evelopment c haracteristic o f S outh I ndian t ools , w hich s how s kilful workmanship s uch a s m adras h andaxes ( Deraniyagala P .E .P . , 1 953 , P .116) . D eraniyagala a ttributes t his t o t he f act t hat S tone A ge m an a ppeared o n t he i sland b efore d eveloping t he t echnique o f m aking i mplements a nd m astered t heir s kills i ndependently a fter t he i sland 's i solation . T hese p eoples l ived i n m ore f avourable c onditions t han t hose o f t he m ainland a nd h ence h ad l ittle i ncentive t o p rogress ; t hey c onsequently f ailed t o a dvance b eyond a p hase s omewhat c lose t o A bbevillian , i n which t hey r emained u ntil t he e nd o f t he e arly s tone c ulture p hase o f S ri L anka . D eraniyagala a cknowledges t hat t his i s av ery g eneral p icture o f t he d evelopment o f R atnapura c ulture , s ince t he m ost r eliable d ata f or e stimating t he a ge o f t hese a rtifacts was s upplied b y r ecoveries f rom t he g em s ands o f t he R atnapura s trike v alleys . A s we h ave p ointed o ut a bove, P . D eraniyagala m ade a c omprehensive s tudy o f R atnapura f auna a nd c ompared i t w ith t hat o f S ivalik . I n o ur o pinion , h is d ivision o f t he S tone A ge i ndustries i nto t wo m ain g roups i s n ot o nly j ustified, b ut a lso s ubstantiated. T hus u nlike o ther A rchaeologists ( Allchin , 1 958 , p . 1 80) , ( Oakley, 1 969 , p p . 2 73-274) , w e s upport D eraniyagala 's c onclusion a bout t he L ower P alaeolithic a ge o f R atnapura

c ulture .

N evertheless ,

t here a re a n umber o f d rawbacks i n D eraniyagala Ys w ork ,

p artly d ue t o h is m ethods o f r esearch . H e p ays l ittle a ttention t o t he p osition o f f inds i n t he l ithological h orizon o r t he s ite s tratigraphy . D rawings o f a rtifacts i n h is p ublications a re n ormally o f p oor q uality a nd h ence i ncomprehensible.

6 3

N ow w e s hall r egard a q uestion o f t he e xtent o f i nvestigation o f S rilankan M esolithic a nd N eolithic . A t a n e arly s tage i n t he s tudy o f t he S tone A ge m ost s cholars c onsidered t hat t here w as n o M esolithic p eriod o n t he i sland a nd s everal p oints o f v iew w ere h eld o n t he N eolithic p eriod . E .g . t he S arasins b elieved t hat t he N eolithic d id n ot e xist o n t he i sland a t a ll ( Sarasin , O p .cit . p .190) . P ole wrote t hat h e n ever m anaged t o f ind N eolithic

t ype

p olished

t ools

( Pole . ,

O p .cit ,

p . 14) .

T he S eligmans o n t he

c ontrary, a scribed a ll t he d iscovered t ools e ntirely t o t he N eolithic ( Seligman C .G . a nd B .Z . , 1 908 a , P .119) . W ayland a lso b elieved t hat s urface a rtifacts w ere m ainly d ated b ack t o t he N eolithic ( Wayland , 1 919 , p .86) . A ccording

t o H artley ,

a ll

C eylon

t ools

s hould

b e

d etermined

o nly o n t he

b asis o f t heir s izes , f orms a nd t rimming ; i f c ompared t o E uropean e xamples , i t i s e vident t hat f or t he m ost p art t hey a re N eolithic a nd a re p ossibly n ot v ery a ncient . ( Hartley , 1 913 , p . 119) . F urther h e p ointed o ut t hat n o t ools b earing m arks o f p olishing h ad e ver b een f ound . A s t o t he s o c alled p ygmy t ools ( Microliths) ,

t hey c an b e r elated t o t he N eolithic p eriod d ue t o t heir

s tate o f p reservation a nd t he n ature o f t heir p roduction , t hough s ome o f t hem a re v ery o ld ( Hartley , 1 914 , p .59) . W ayland t hought t hat " pygmy t ools" r epresent a c ertain c ultural s tage i n t he h istory o f m ankind e ither a t t he e nd o f t he P alaeolithic o r a t t he b eginning o f t he N eolithic . A l ittle l ater Noone N .A . and H .V .V ., d ealing with t he B andarawela s ite i nvestigation , c onfirmed t hat t he t ools f ound t here r esembled P alaeolithic o r M esolithic t ypes r ather t han N eolithic , b ut t hey c ould n ot f inally d etermine a M esolithic a ge o f m any o f t hem ( Noone . N .A . a nd H .V .V . , 1 940 , p .19). A s t he m ajority o f N eolithic t ools w ere f ound i n t he B alangoda r egion , P . D eraniyagala c alled t his s tone i ndustry t he B alangoda c ult ( Deraniyagala P .E .P . , 1 939 , P .361) . I t was a t t hat t ime b elieved t hat t he S rilankan N eolithic w as n ot a s w ell d eveloped a s t he I ndian a nd t he a rt o f g rinding a nd p olishing s tone a rtifacts w s p ractically u nknown t o t he N eolithic i nhabitants o f t he i sland . T ools o f t hat p eriod a re m ade o f q uartz , a nd n o t races o f f ine w orkmanship w ere p resent . S o c alled " Pygmy" t ools r esembling S olutrean a rtifacts o f E urope a lso w ere r egarded a s N eolithic . A l ower l evel a nd a h igher l evel i s d istinguished i n t he B alangoda c ult . T he l ower l evel c ontains s crapers , p oints , l unates , a nd c harcoal a nd t he h igher l evel i s r epresented b y a rtifacts o f s maller s ize i n a ssociation w ith f ish , a nimal r emains a nd p ottery. I n

1 943

P .

D eraniyagala

a nnounced

h is

f inds

o f

l arge

p olished s tone

t ools i n t he i sland . ( Deraniyagala , 1 943 , p .94) . I n t he l ight o f t hese n ew d iscoveries h e s ubstituted t he t erm " Balangoda c ult" f or t he " Balangoda c ulture" .

T he u pper l evel o f t his c ulture i s c haracterized b y l are g round

a nd p olished c elts o ccuring a long w ith m icroliths . T he l ower l evel d oes n ot s how a ny s ign o f g round o r p olised a rtifacts . T his l evel c ontains p itted p ebble a rtifacts , r esembling a rtifacts f rom B ritish L ake C ulture p hase ( Fig . 3 9) .

D eraniyagala a lso t hinks t hat t his c omplex o f p itted p ebbles h as i t 's

p arallels i n S outh A sia ( Madras) a nd America . I n h is o ther w ork D eraniyagala s tresses t hat t he B alangoda c ulture i s a c omplex o f n ormal a nd m icrolithic a rtefacts o f Mesolithic f ad es w ith p itted a nd g round o r p olished m acroliths a nd b one a rtifacts . ( Der aniyagala , I bid , p . 134) . H e r egards c onical d rilling a nd g rinding a r ough s urface a s c lear s igns o f t he M esolithic p hase ( Deraniyagala , 1 953b , p .126) . V arieties o f p erforation a re a lso u sed a s a n i ndication f or d istinguishing t ribes , b ecause i t d iffers f rom p lace t o p lace.

6 4

F inally P . D eraniyagala r earranges t he w hole m aterial r eferring t o t he M esolithic p hase a s t he B ellan B andi P alassa P hase" ( Fig . 4 0-41-42) a nd t he N eolithic

a s

t he " Udupiyan P hase"

( Deraniyagala ,

1 958b ,

p .64) .

T he

l atter

a ppears t o h ave e volved f rom t he p revious o ne. A s w e h ave a lready m entioned , t he S tone A ge o f S ri L anka i s d ivided I nto t wo s eries b y W ayland a nd i nto R atnapura a nd B alangoda c ultures b y P . D eraniyagala . A ccording t o t he N oones r eport , t ypes o f t ools c haracteristic f or b oth c ultures w ere f ound a t t he B andarawela s ite . T hey a lso r eport t hat m any t ypes o f t ools a re p resent i n R atnapura a s w ell a s B alangoda c ultures . I n e ssence , w e d eal w ith o ne c omplex , w hich t hey c alled B andarawelian ( Noone N .A . a nd H .V .V . , O p .cit . p .20) . T his v iew w as s upported b y B .Allchin ( Allchin . O p .cit . p .180) w ho b ased h er c onclusions o n t he m aterial i n m any E uropean m useums . B ut t here w as o ne e xception - t he m aterial c ollected b y W ayland i n t he p lateau g ravels , c onsisting o f h eavily r olled a nd w eathered q uartz p oints, c hoppers a nd s crapers .

I n o ur o pinion , t he d iscovery o f

v arious t ypes o f t ools c haracterizing d ifferent c ultures i mplies t he e xistence o f s everal c ultures , n ot o nly a s ingle o ne . I t s hould b e n oted t hat w e a re d ealing h ere w ith a c ollection o f s urface f inds . A c ombination o f v arious c ulture c omplexes i s q uite p ossible . O n t he o ther h and , t he d ivision o f c ulture o ffered b y D eraniyagala i s m ore o r l ess s ubstantiated a s h e m ainly b ases h is c onclusions o n s tratigraphy a nd f aunal d ata. A llchin u nites t he M esolithic B alangoda t he L ate S tone A ge .

c ulture u nder a g eneral

W e f ollowing B oriskovsky ( Boriskovsky ,

t erm

1 971 , p .116) ,

d o

n ot c onsider t his t erm a n a ppropriate o ne . W e t hink t hat t he M esolithic c ulture o f t he i sland c an b e c alled t he B andarawelian c ulture o nly b ecause h ere i t i s b etter r epresented t han i n B ellan B andi P alassa . T wo m ain g roups o f s ites a re k nown i n S ri L anka : c aves o r l iving s ites a nd o pen a ir f actory s ites w hich n ormally o ccur o n h ill t ops . T hese c aves w hich c ontain p rehistoric o ccupation d eposits s howing a c onsistent s equence a re o f p aramount i mportance t o t he A rchaeologists a s t he m ain s ource o f c ultural i nformation i n t heir A rchaeological e xcavations a nd s ubsequent i nterpretations . S ome c aves w ere u ntil r ecently i nhabited b y V eddas w hile t here a re a lso s ome o thers o ccupied b y B uddhist m onks w ho t ransformed t hese i nto r ock t emples a fter c learing t hem o f e arlier o ccupational l evels . A mong c ave s ites t he f ollowing a re o f p articular i nterest: K ataragama G alge , N ilgala , V auwela G alge , B endiya G alge , L unu G alge , B atadoma L ena a nd W ehi G alge . T hey w ere s tudied b y P .Deraniyagala , S eligman , H artley, S arasin b rothers a nd A llchin . B oriskovsky d escribes t hese s ites i n d etail i n h is b ook , h ence a n a ccount o f t heir e xcavations a nd s tone t ool t ypology w ill n ot b e i ncluded h ere . W e s hall o nly g ive a b rief a ccount o f t he s equence o f c ultural d eposits s ince m ost o f t he c aves t end t o c ontain a c onsistent p attern o f o ccupational l evels . U pper l ayers a re c haracterized b y t he p resence o f c oarse p ottery , c harcoal , a nimal b ones , g rinding s tones , a f ew m etal o bjects i ncluding A reca n ut c utters . T he l ayers b elow s how h ow m etal o bjects a nd p ottery d crease a nd f inally d isappear , q uartz t ools a ppear a nd c ontinue o n d own t o t he n atural s oil .

H owever l ack o f d etailed s tudy o f t he

i nventory i n r elation t o s ite s tratigraphy h as i nhibited t he o bservation o f t echnological d evelopments i n t ool t raditions which m ust h ave o ccurred d uring t he l ong s pan o f t ime . A s A llchin r ightly p oints o ut , t his h inders t he e stablishment o f t he p osition i n t he s equence o f t he f irst a ppearance o f b lade t echnique o r o f b ifacial p oints ( Allchin , 1 966 , p .135) . T hickness o f c ultural l ayers i n s ome c aves u ndoubtedly i ndicates p eople l iving t here f or a c onsiderable p eriod o f t ime . A ccording t o A llchin , t he c haracter o f d ifferent l ithological h orizons i n t he c aves s hould b e s tudied , s ince t heir

6 5

c hanges c ould r eflect c limatic v ariation ( Allchin ,

1 958 , p .187) .

N o v isible

d evelopment i n t he t ool t ypes h ad b een o bserved i n t he c ultural l ayers u ntil t he a ppearance o f c eramics i n t he u pper l ayers. H artley

m ade t he

i mportant

d iscovery

o f

m icroliths

( so

c oiled

p ygmy

t ools) . T hese t ools w ere t he m ain a ttraction o f A rchaeological r esearch i n S ri L anka a t t hat t ime b ecause t hey w ere r eported t o h ave a worldwide d istribution . W ayland c onsidered t hat t hese m icroliths r epresent a p articular c ultural s tage i n t he h istory o f m an e ither a t t he c lose o f t he P alaeolithic o r a t t he b eginning o f N eolithic . H e s uggested t hat t hese t ools m ust h ave b een u sed m ainly i n t he m anufacture o f b one n eedles . H e e ven b elieved t hat t he m akers o f t hese t ools " maintained a n i nglorious e xistence b y p reying o n t he l esser c reatures a nd t rusting t o f light f rom t he m ore f ormidable" ( Wayland , 1 919 , p .91). H artley

d istinguished

t wo

g roups

o f

t ools :

t he f irst

g roup

i ncluded

l arger a rtifacts m ade o f c hert . T hey a re h eavily p atinated a nd w ere f ound i n t he l owlands. Among t he i mplements g athered o n t he h ills t ypes o f a rtifacts w ere v ery f ew ; n ot a s ingle i mplement w as f ound r esembling a n a xe , n or c hoppers o r h eavy b lades , n o s pearheads o r f abricators , n o s ling s tones o r t hrowing d iscs , n or a ny s ign o f p ot-boilers . T he m ain g roup o f a rtifacts c onsist o f " Pygmy" t ools m ade l argely o ut o f q uartz ( Hartley, O p . c it, p .64) . C onsidering t he a bsence o f l arge t ools o n h ill s ites H artley c ouldn 't u nderstand h ow t he p rehistoric m en w ere a ble t o h unt a nimals a s l arge a s E lephants, L eopards e tc. u sing o nly t hese s mall i mplements. A ccording t o Wayland ,

t he p rehistoric

i slanders h ad t wo s ets o f

i mplements : ac ommon s et t o m eet d emands o f i mmediate n ecessity , a nd a nother f or m ore p ermanent u se . T he f irst s et o f t ools w as c rude a nd o f u nskilled m anufacture , w hile t he s econd w as p roduced b y a f ew s pecialized c raftsmen . H e s uggested t he e xistence o f " Pygmy" t ool m anufacture w as b rought u p f rom t he v alleys a nd t he i ndustry w as p resumably s pecialized , t he c ommon t ools w ere m ade i n t he v alleys b elow , w here l arge q uantities o f q uartz w ere e asily a vailable. W aylands h ypothesis c oncerning f actory s ites o f as pecilaized c haracter w as c onfirmed w hen H artley i nvestigated a l arge f actory s ite i n B andarawela , w here f rom f our h ills h e g athered 4 768 i mplements . T hree h ills y ielded a c omplete c ycle o f s tone w orking , w hile o n t he f ourth h ill o nly f inished t ools , l arge l unates w ere p resent . T his f act i ndicates a c ertain k ind o f p roduction s pecialization ( Allchin , 1 966 , p . 131) . T he w ide d istribution a nd a bundance o f t hese t ools h as b een i nterpreted i n t wo w ays : e ither t hey w ere l eft b y a l arge p opulation o ver a s hort p eriod o f t ime , o r t hey h ave b een a ccumulated h ere f or m any h undreds o f y ears . I n t he l atter c ase , t ypological c hanges i n t ool d evelopment s hould b e e xpected . S ince n o s uch t ypological s hifts h ave b een o bserved d uring t his p eriod , t he f irst i nterpretation m ay b e a ccepted . A ccording

t o

H artley,

t here

a re

1 8

t ypes

o f

a rtefacts

a t

t he

B andarawela s ite ( Fig . 4 3-44-45-46) 1 , C rescentic o r L unate , 2 , S emil unate , 3 , i rregular , 4 , R homboidal, 5 , A ngular , 6 , D -shaped , 7 , B eaked, B orers ,

8 , C urved P oints, 9 , S traight P oints , 1 0 , D rill P oints, 1 1, 1 2 , A rrowheads , 1 3 , B lades , 1 4 , C hisels , 1 5 , H ollow S crapers ,

1 6 , R ound S crapers ,

1 7 , R ounded P ebbles o f Q aurtz ,

G neiss.

6 6

1 8 ,

R ounded P ebbles o f

H e a lso p oints o ut d ifferences i n t he t echnique o f m aking m icroliths a nd l arger t ools . A ll t he m icroliths w ere r etouched i n o rder t o b lunt t hem , a t r ight a ngles t o t he f lake s urface . T he l arger t ools w ere r etouched i n o rder t o p roduce a s traight s harp c utting e dge a t a bout 4 5 d egrees t o t he f lake s urface . T en p ercent o f t he m icroliths h ad t heir c utting e dges t rimmed , s ometimes t o s ecure a s ymmetrical s hape , s ometimes a pparently t o b lunt o n b oth s ides a like . S ix t ypes d o n ot p ossess a ny c utting e dge a t a ll a nd s quare e dged i mplements a re h igh i n p roportion t o t he c urved p oints . ( Hartley , O p . c it" p .50-61) . H aving r eviewed t his c lassification , A llchin p oints o ut t wo m ain d rawbacks : f irstly i t e xcludes a ll u nretouched t ools , a nd s econdly i t c ontains a c onsiderable n umber o f u nnecessary s ubdivisions a nd o verlapping o f t ypes ( Allchin , 1 958 , p .190) . T he N oones h ave g reatly c ontributed t o t he s tudy o f t he S tone A ge o f S ri L anka a nd t ool c lassification . I n 1 940 t hey v isited a n umber o f s ites n ear B andarawela w here S arasin a nd H artley h ad c ollected n early 2 000 s urface f inds . T heir f inds w ere m ode c hiefly o n t he s urface o f k nolls a nd r ises a long t he r idges o f t he g rassy p atnas . A ccording t o N oone , t he p resence o f k napping t ools a nd q uantities o f c ore-like p ieces s how t hat t hese k nolls h ad o nce b een w orking s ites ( Noone N .A . a nd H .V .V . O p . c it . p .1) . Most o f t he t ools w ere m ade o f q uartz a nd r ock c rystals , o nly a f ew b eing m ade o f c hert . T he a rtefacts d emonstrate t hat t he q uality o f w orkmanship a nd t he s izes v aried g reatly .

D ifferent t ype o f

r etouch w as

e xplained

b y

t he d ifferent

p urposes o f t he t ools . P rismatic a nd c onical c ores a nd b lades i ndicate t he p resence o f a t rue b lade t echnique . M any f lakes h ad b een s truck o ff f rom s pecially p repared c ores r esembling I ndian o nes . A s E ol-i skovsky s howed , s imilar f lakes o ccurred i n t he I ndian P alaeolithic ( Boriskovsky , O p . c it . , p .117). T he N oones t entatively d ivided a ll s tone t ools f rom a ll t he s ites i nto s everal g roups : p olyhedra's , b i'aces - f lake f orms w ith f urth,: s2, .h eadings A cc -7 . dfng

a nd

b lade

t ools , g eometrical c omments : " It i s a n

a nalytical c lassification , w hico c an b e a pplied t o a ny g roup o f m aterial , a nd i n t his r eerect , i t p resc - t s a d eti , , t e a dvance o n t ne more r igid p redetermined t ypologies i nvol -_ 1 1 i n E urc : :: . a nd a pplizd e lsewhere , i nto which s uch m aterial i s

c ommunly

f orced .

I t

i s a lso a n a dvance u pon

H artley 's t ypology a s i t i s m ore i nclusive a nd d ivides t ools i nto m ajor g roups a nd t hen i nto m inor s ubdivisions" O p .cit . , p .190) . H owever , A llchin m ade a mendm -- . s t : N oones c lassifica . :fon , b ecause s oue d istinctions h e ' -e en g roups w ea rt r _ficial . S he f un .h,, d iv ided t he w hole c omplex u nder ' wo m ajor h e s a gs: a ) u n -, 7 orked t ools. b ) f laked t ools . C ertain d eductiu i ts w ere m ade . J J A ll hin w ho u sed H art:: ' . , ngures f or t he d ifferent t ypes a nd c hecked t r- ' m f i gainsu h er o wn t i -Logy a nd a gainst m aterial f rom B andarawela a nd s r -l iar s ites . S he c ame = 0 s everal e ssentia_ c onclusions : L unates a nd i rregula2 l unates a re j ust o ver 1 C% w hile t riangles a nd t rapezes a re l ess t han o ne p er c ent o f t he t otal . T ransverse a rrow h eads a lso o ccur i n av ery s mcll l rorortion , b ut A lichin t hinks H artley m ust h ave p robably i ncluded t hem a n r o ther h eadings . A symetrical a nd s ingle t rimmed p oints a lqo f orm n ine p e:cenu o f c . , ce a s6 . emblage , b orers a nd s crapers o ccur

i n i nsignificant n umpe • :s .

T he u ndescribed p ieces o f q uartz ( over

3 ,000) , w orked b y m an , a ccording t o A llchin , i ncluded d iscoids , b lade c ores , l arge f lake s crapers a nd p oinzs a nd a lso l o ifacial p oint : ) . A lthough m icrolithic c lassifications e laborated b y H artley , A llchin a nd N oones a re s uitable f or t he s tudy o f m esolithic t ools o f t he i sland ,

t hey

f ail t o p rovide c lear c riteria f or a istinguishing t axonomic u nits ( the

6 7

c lassifications u sed i n d istinguishing t axonomical u nits v arious i ncompatible c riteria s uch a s a f unction , f orm , s econdary t reatment) . I t h inders t he e stablishment c lassificatory s ystem a nd u nification o f m ethods o f c omparison c omplexes o f d ifferent t imes, which i s e ssential f or d etermination o f c hronology , p articularly i n t he a bsence o f

a re b ased o n p rimary a nd o f a s ingle o f s tone t ool c hecking t he s tratigraphic

d ata . S uch c lear c lassification i s n ecessary w hen a c omplex i s m ixed w ith N eolithic m aterials . A u nified c lassificatory s ystem o f s tone t ool a ssemblages w as p ut f orward b y G .N . M atiushin w ho b ased h is a ssumptions o n S outh U ral M esolithic m aterials ( Mathushin , G .N . 1 976 , P P . 4 0-61) . H owever , t here a re v arious o pinions i n t he S oviet A rchaeological l iterature r egarding M athushin 's w ork ( Krizhevskaya L .Y . 1 978 , p p .261168 ; V inogradov A .V . 1 979 , p p . 2 81-294) . T he e xistence o f

o ther h ill-top f actory

s ites

i n t he u plands o f

S outhern S ri L anka h as b een r ecorded while o n t he o ther h and ,

t here i s

l ittle e vidence o f M esolithic c ultures o n t he c oastl p lains . T he T rincomalee s ite ( Northern p art o f S ri L anka) d emonstrates t he d istribution o f t his c ulture t o a p lace s ituated c lose t o I ndia . T ools f ound a t t his s ite w ere l ying u nder t wo f eet o f s lightly s andy r eddish e arth .

T his

s imilarity o f t he w ay o f d eposition , l ed A llchin t o s uggest a r elationship w ith c oastal s ites i n S outhern I ndia ( Allchin , 1 966 , p .135). N early 9 0% o f t he M esolithic t ools o f t he i sland w ere m ade o f q uartz . I t i s s urprising h ow a ncient c raftsmen c ould p roduce g eometrical m icroliths a nd d elicately worked b ifacial a rrow-heads f rom q uartz, which i s c haracterized b y i ntractability . T he m ajority o f t ools w ere m ade o n f lakes , p resumably f rom p repared c ores a s t he t races i ndicate . T he e xistence o f n umerous b lade c ores c learly s hows t hat t he M esolithic i slanders w ere m aking u se o f s uch a dvanced t echnique . U nfortunately t he r efractory n ature o f q uartz w ould n ot a llow t he e stablishment o f h ow t hese f lakes w ere s truck b y t he M esolithic s tone k nappers : w hether t hey w ere o riginally s truck f rom a c ore o r b roken b y m eans o f t hermal f racture ( a m ethod e mployed b y t he A ndaman i slanders) . A n o bvious a bsence o f b ulbs o f p ercussion o n s ome s pecimens s eem t o s uggest t he s econd m ethod . L arge p atches o f c harccal f ound i n a ssociation w ith t ools a nd w aste m aterials o n t he h ill-tops p rovide a dded e vidence t hat t he q uartz w as b roken u p b y m eans o f t hermal f racture , b y h eating n odules a nd s hattering t hem w ith b lows ( Allchin ,

1 966 , p .113 ) .

T hus, c haracteristic f eatures o f t he S ri L anka M esolithic a re t he l unates o n t hin s egments o f q uartz w ith n o v isible b ulb o f p ercussion . S hort b road v ariety o f t hese l unates a re a lso k nown a s t ransverse a rrowh eads. T hese w ith s mall a nd d elicately worked b ifacisl p oints f ind a p arallel w ith b ifacial p oints o f t he T eri i ndustry o f T amil N adu ( South I ndia) . T he s mall g eometric t ools o f t his c ollection a re o f p articular i nterest b ecause r etouch o f t hese s pecimens i s s ometimes s o f ine a s t o b e i nvisible t o t he n aked e ye . I t h as b een s uggested t hat t hese t ools w ere m ade f or c hildren t o u se a s t oys ( as c omponents o f t he d imunitive b ows a nd a rrows u sed b y p resent d ay V edda c hildren) . A ccording t o A llchin , t heir n umbers a nd e normous c are t hat m ust h ave b een l avished o n t heir m anufacture s uggest s ome a dditional i ncentive .

S he e ven t hinks t hat t hey p ossibly

r epresented o bjects o f p ride a nd c raftsmanship , a s i n t he c ase o f m any a borigine h unters

( 1 01c lAn ,

1 966 ,

p .133) .

T o e xplain t he e xistence o f l arge n umbers o f d elicately p roduced m icroliths F . S arasin t urns t o e thnographic a nalogues . T hus E . M an w atched t he a borigines o f A ndaman i slands c ollect q uartz a nd c rystalline r ocks t o b e

6 8

u sed f or s having ,

t atooing a nd c ircumcision r ites .

E ach t ool i s u sed o n o ne

s ole o ccasion , a nd i s t hen p iled u p t o p revent i t f rom b eing s tepped u pon . T hese c ircumstances c an p ossibly e xplain t he l arge d eposits o f t hese m icroliths f ound i n af ew p laces o nly . S arasin a sks: " Do s uch p laces r epresent t he r emains o f a r eligious c eremony , i nitiation o r c ircumcision?" ( Sarasin F . , 1 926 , p .96) . I n s uch c ases A ustralian a borigines, f or i nstance , u se s tone t ools . S arasin f urther p oints o ut t hat t hese o bjects a re e xamples o f r eligious c eremonies w hich m ight h ave o riginated i n I ndia a nd t hen s pread a s f ar a s t o t he M editerranean s ea a nd f urther W est , t o E urope , a nd o n t he o ther h and , a lso b een f ound.

o f

t o A ustralia w here s imilar m icroliths h ave

L ittle i s k nown o f t he p urpose o f m ost t ools o f t his p eriod . T he u se s mall d eep l unates a s t ransverse a rrow-heads h as a lready b een n oted .

M ost o f t he l unates a nd i rregular s pecimens m ust h ave b een i nserted i nto a h aft f orming h eads a nd b arbs o f c omposite a rrows a nd h arpoons , b ut n o h afts h ave b een f ound i n S ri L anka . T he l arge c oarse l unates ( sometimes b ifacially r etouched) a re s imilar t o A ustralina " Eloura t ype" t ools a nd t his s imilarity h as b een u sed t o s uggest i dentical f unctions , n amely t hat o f a n a dze b lade o r k nife . S teep s crapers , h orsehoofs a nd b eaked t ools a re s aid t o b e u sed i n t he p reparation o f h ides a nd b ark c loth . B one p oints a re c onsidered t o b e u sed a s a rrow-heads f or h unting o f s mall f owl , f or e xtracting m olluscs f rom t heir s hells o r f or b asket m aking. P itted h ammer s tones f ound i n m any i sland c aves w ere d escribed b y v arious a uthors a s h andaxes , h ammers , a nvills , g rinders e tc . T hese a re o val o r c ylindrical s tones, s urfaces i ntact o r r oughly c hipped , b ut u sually b attered o n b oth e nds o r s ides t hrough u tilization . S ometimes t hese a re p itted w ith a s mall r ound d epression o n o ne o r b oth f lat s urfaces .

S o f ar

o pinions d iffer c oncerning t heir p recise f unctions t hough i t i s t hese a rtefacts t hat m ake u p ac onsiderable p art o f t he i ndustries o f t his p eriod. Most o f t he s hells,

f ound i n l arge q uantities i n c ave s ites , h ave

r egular h oles p erforated i n t heir s trongest p art . W ood s havings p reserved i n t he i nner p art o f t he s hell i n m any c ases i ndicate t heir u se a s ap lane . D onax s hells o f A ustralia , a lso s how t hat a borogines m ake s imilar h oles i n t hese s hells a nd t hen h old t hem i n t he p alm o f t he h and w ith t he h ole o utwards f or s moothing t he s urface o f w ood . O n t he A ndhra c oast o f S outhe astern I ndia s imilar s hells a re u sed f or p eeling m angoes ( Allchin , 1 966 , p .135). U ndoubtedly m any t ools m ust h ave b een m ade o f w ood i n t he M esolithic . T he c oncave s tone s crapers w ere p ossibly u sed i n t he p roduction o f a rrow s hafts , f or t he c oncavities h ad a s uitably s mall d iameter . M icroliths w ere f ixed i nto h afts o f c omposite t ools w ith g um o r r esin .

A s tick w as s plit a t

t he e nd t o h old a g eometric m icrolith u sed f or c utting a nd s craping . W hen a w orking e dge b ecame b lunt t hrough u se , i t w as f laked a gain a nd s o g radually b ecame s mall r esulting i n s mall t ools k nown a s " thumbnail m icroliths" . T he e xtremely s mall n umber o f b ifacial p rojectile p oints i s a ttributed t o t he f act t hat b amboo a nd w ooden a rrow p oints w ere u sed. I t s hould b e m entioned t hat t he f unctions o f t hese t ools a re p urely c onjectural . E xperimental a nd m icrowear s tudies c an b e o f g reat v alue h ere n ot o nly t o d etermine p recisely t he f unctions o f t ools , b ut a lso t o o btain a c omplete

p icture

o f

t he

t otal

p ossible u ses

A rchaeological u nit.

6 9

o f

i mplements

f rom t he

T he m ost r emarkable a chievement o f t he M esolithic h unters w as t he i nvention o f t he b ow a nd a rrow whose e xistence c an b e d educed f rom t he a ppearance o f t ransverese a rrow h eads . T his n ew i nvention p ermitted h unting o f p reviously u nobtainable a nimals . H owever t he m ajority o f c omposite t ools m ade w ith m icroliths , s uch a s s pears s tudded w ith l unate s haped m icrolithic f lakes , h ad n ot l ost t heir u sefulness a nd i n a ddition a v ariety o f t raps , n ets, p itfalls a nd t echniques o f f ishing a nd f owling must h ave b een i nvented , a s w ith M esolithic p eople e lsewhere . I t i s q uite p ossible t hat t he V eddas n ow l iving i n c aves a re t he d escendants

o f

t hese M esolithic

m en ,

a s

i ndicated

b y

t he c ontinuous

c ave

o ccupation s ince t he P alaeolithic , a nd t he o bvious s imilarity o f t he m aterial c ulture o f t he V edda h unters . I f t his a ssumption b e r ejected t hen i t s hould b e a ccepted t hat t he M esolithic c ave i nhabitants d isappeared w ithout a ny u ndetermined.

t race

while

t he

o rigin

o f

t he

m odern

V eddas

r emains

W e h ave a lready p ointed o ut t hat V eddas a re a n e xample o f ap eople w hose w ay o f l ife r esembles t hat o f M esolithic h unters , t hough t hey u se i ron a rrow h eads . H unting p lays t he c entral r ole i n t heir w orld v iew , s ymbolized b y t heir d early p rotected l ong b ows a nd t he d imunitive b ows a nd a rrows f or t heir c hildren . T hey h ighly v alue t heir h unting d ogs who a re a lmost c onsidered a s f amily m embers . T hey u se g ourds a s c ontainers , o btain f ire t hrough s triking t wo s tones t ogether a nd p refer t o l ive i n r ock s helters . I n c ommuncal c aves e ach f amily o ccupies a s eparate p art a nd j ealously d efends t heir o wn t erritory . T he V eddas w ay o f l ife i ncluding s uch d etails a s r itual d ances , s hamanism a nd t heir e xagamous c lans w ith c ross c ousin m arriage, i ndicate t hat M esolithic p eople m ust h ave p ractised s imilar t raits. T he f irst M esolithic t umulus w as f ound b y P . D eraniyagala i n B ellan B anndi P alassa c ontaining s ix c omplete s keletons a nd f ragments o f t en m ore t ogether w ith M esolithic k itchen m idden r emains ( both a nimal a nd v egetable) a nd a lso s tone a nd b one t ools ( Deraniyagala P .E .P . , 1 956 c ,pp .1431-1482) . M icroliths o ccur i n l arge q uantities , i ncluding c rescents . c ollection o f f lakes a t t he M useum o f C olombo ( Fig .47) h as I ncluding s ome o f E vallois

t radition ( Fig .

4 7 ,

7 ) .

W here f rom a b een s tudied ,

T here a re a lso s everal

s tone t ools w ith a t hinned b utt ( Fig . 4 8) , b orers ( Fig . 4 9 , 1 ) , b ifacial s crapers w ith a c hisel-like e nd ( F ig . 4 9 , 2 ) , a nd a b iface w ith a t ransverse c utting e dge ( Fig . 4 9 , 3 ). T he m ajority o f t he b urials a re o riented w ith t he h ead t owards t he E ast o r S outh-east , t hough s ome a re t owards t he N orth-west . T he b urials w ere c overed w ith s labs o f r ock . M ale s kulls h ave h eavy d iffuse b row r idges a nd m arkedly r eceding f oreheads . D eraniyagala t hinks t hat h ere w e a re d ealing w ith t he k itchen m idden o f a c anibal t ribe , w hich c eremoniously k illed a nd i nterred i ndividuals w ithin i t .

H e b ased t his a ssumption o n t he a bundance

o f b roken b ones a nd h uman m andibles w ithout c lavaria f ound s cattered o n t he s urface .

H owever ,

t his v iew d oes n ot s eem c onvincing .

D eraniyagala d ates

t his c omplex b ack t o t he M esolithic a s i ndicated b y t he a bsence o f p otherds , t he a bundance o f m icroliths w ith c rescents , t he u npolished n ature o f t he a rtifacts , t he p ebbles w ith p its p roduced b y c onical d rilling , t he a dvanced m ineralization o f t he b ones a nd a lso t he d isintegration o f s ome v arieties o f r ock .

D eraniyagala

b elieves

t he

h uman r emains f rom B ellan B andi P alassa

b elong t o a h itherto u nknown r ace which h e d enotes a s " Homo S apiens B alangodensis" , w hich w as r esponsible f or t he a rtifacts o f t he B alangoda c ulture ( Deraniyagala , 1 958 a , p .2221 , D eraniyagala p ublished a n umber o f

7 0

a rticles o n t his s ubject; h owever , n o l eading a nthropologist h as g one t horoughly t hrough t hese r emains a nd i nterpreted t hem u sing a dvanced s cientific m ethods, a nd S .P .F . S enaratne r emarked " Many o f t he e arlier s tatements m ade a bout t he " Balangodensis" a re c onsequently w ithout f oundation . P erhaps t his i s t he r eason w hy B alangoda m an d oes n ot f igure p rominently i n S toudt 's " rhe p hyscical A nthropology o f C eylon" ( S kmaratne , 1 969 , p .33) . N o e vidence i s y et f ound o f r ock p aintings o f t he S rilankan M esolithic . H owever , p ieces o f h ematite f ound i n c aves d o i ndicate t hat d uring t his p eriod c ave d wellers d ecorated e ither c ave w alls o r t heir o wn b odies w ith t his s ubstance , a s p ractised b y p resent d ay V eddas. T hus w e s ee t hat t he o ldest c ultural r emains b elong t o t he M esolithic w hile t he b ulk o f t he f inds c an b e a ttributed t o t he N eolithic . A ccording t o D eraniyagala t he w idest d istribution o f B alangod M esolithic M an d ates b ack t o t he m iddle o r c lose o f t he L ake P hase , w hile N eolithic m an p ersisted i nto r ecent t imes . ( Deraniyagala , 1 953 c , p .125) . D eraniyagala c onsiders t hat s everal h ydrological p hases c an b e d istinguished f or S ri L anka : a ) T orrential r ivers ,

b ) f ollowed b y a l ake p hase w ith s low f lowing r ivers ,

c )

t he l akes d isappeared m ore o r l ess c ompletely , d ) t oday t here a re o nly s wamps a nd r ivers ( Deraniyagala , B oriskovsky r ightly r emarks t hat i t i s d ifficult t o d ivide b etween M esolothic a nd l ater e pochs a nd t hat t he c riteria f or s uch d ivision a re s till o bscure ( Boriskovsky , o p .cit . , p .121) . T he " Udupiyan" c ultural p hase , w hich d eveloped f rom t he p revious p hase " Bellan B andi P alassa" i s r egarded a s t he S rilankan N eolithic , a nd i s m arked b y t he f irst a ppearance o f p itted p ebble h ammer s tones i n a ssociation w ith p ottery . D eraniyagala f urther d ivides t his p hase i nto t wo s ub-phases : T he e arly s ub-phase i s c haracterized b y c onical d rilling a nd h and-made p ottery w hich i s a lso s un-baked . I n t he s econd s ub-phase c ylindrical d rilling i s a dded t o t he c onical a nd t he i mplements w ere s ubjected t o g rinding a nd p olishing .

T he

p ottery

i s

w heel

m ade

a nd

f ired .

( Deraniyagala ,

1 958

b ,

p .64). A l arge c ollection o f s tone a rtifacts w ith t races o f g rinding a nd p olishing w ere f ound i n c aves a t U dupiyan G alge a nd B atadoma L ena i n a ssociation w ith b one a rtifacts a nd m icroliths ( Deraniyagala , 1 942 , p p . 3 843 85) .

L arger a rtifacts l ay o n t he s urface o f t he c ave d eposits a nd d own t o

t he l ayer b elow t o a d epth o f 3 0 c m . S maller a rtifacts o ccur a t ad epth o f a bout s ix f eet . T he m ajority o f a rtifacts a re made o f amphibolite , g ranulite o r g neiss . T hese a rtifacts w ere h eavily p atinated . T he i nventory i ncludes c elts , h ammer s tones f ashioned f rom p ebbles w hich s how s igns o f d rill h oles ( 24> 5 0) , p ossible a nvils u sed f or m aking b urins , g rind s tones , m ortars a nd p estles .

B one a rtifacts s uch a s s ingle p oints ,

r hombic f orms

w ith t he n arrower e nds g round i nto c onical p oints w ere a lso p resent . F aunal r emains , s uch a s s wamp s nails , m ashier , r eptiles a nd m ammals , a s w ell a s s hells o f t he n ut C anarium Z eylanicum . J udging b y t he c haracter a nd t he s tratigraphical p osition o f t he l arger a rtefacts a nd f aunal r emains , D eraniyagala s uggests t hat t hey b elong t o t he u pper l evel o f t he B alangoda p hase . T he g ood s tate o f p reservation o f t he f aunal r emains a nd C anarium n ut s hells i ndicates t hat t his c ulture p hase s urvived u ntil r ecently .

T he a rtifacts w ere n ot a scribed t o t he V eddas a s

t hey h ave n o t radition o f s tone t ool u se. L et u s n ow b riefly c onsider t he p ottery o f t he N eolithic p hase o f t he

7 1

B alangoda c ulture ( Deraniyagala , 1 953 b , p . 1 39) . R emains o f p ottery f ound i n g em p its s how t hat t he m ain t ype w as g ourd-shaped . P late-like s ubconical v essels w ith a v ertical r im b ecame m ore w idespread w ith t he a ppearance o f t he p otters w heel . N one o f t hese h ad a b ase o r a p edestal . S ome o f t he g ourd-shaped v essels s eem t o h ave b een m ade b y p lacing s ix c lay r ings v ertically o n e ach o ther a nd p ressing t hem i nto a w icker-basket . S ometimes t hey s how t he u se o f af iner g reyish c lay p aste i nternally b y m eans o f w hich t he v essel b ecame m ore w ater t ight . T he e xternal w icker o r m at-basket d esign i s a s d istinct u pon t he b ottom a s u pon t he s ides o f t hese v essels . I n c ertain u tensils , p robably t he b elly o r v enter w as m ade b y h and w hile t he c ervix o r n eck b y t he w heel . T he a bsence o f e ntirely h and m ade p ottery i ndicates t hat t he w heel a ppeared v ery e arly o n t he i sland . T he p ersistence o f t he w icker-basket d esign a nd g ourd-like s hape t o t he p resent d ay s uggest t hat N eolithic t ribes t ogether w ith t heir d esigns w ere a bsorbed b y t he S inhalese r ace N o

f urther

( Deringayala , I bid) . c haracteristics

o f

N eolithic

c eramics

c an

b ecause t hey a re i nadequately d escribed i n t he l iterature . n ot e ven m ention t he s ubject i n t heir p ublications.

b e

g iven h ere

S ome a uthors d o

P . D eraniyagala c ompared v arieties o f t he B alangoda c ulture w ith e xisting t ribes . F or i nstance , h e b elieves t hat d ifferent b one i mplement p atterns i ndicate t hat t he w hole r ace w as o nce d ivided i nto s ix t ribes . H e s uggests t hat t he f ind o f u npitted p ebbles i n t he K abara G alge a nd A lu G alge c aves i ndicates t hat a R avana t ribe l ived t here ( bifacially p itted p ebbles a re c haracteristic o f t he U dupiyan t ribe) ( Deraniyagala , 1 955 b , p .301) H owever ,

t hese d ata a re h ardly

s ufficient f or s olving t his

d ifficult

p roblem . D eraniyagala i gnores t he f act t hat a t ribe i s a s ocial c ommunity a nd i s d istinguished f rom o ther s imilar c ommunities b y a n umber o f c haracteritics. T he d iscovery o f s orghum s eeds a t r udimentary l and c ultivation i n S ri L anka . S ri L anka h ave f ewer t ype f ossils

c ertain s ites i s e vidence o f H owever N eolithic c omplexes i n

t han t hose i n S outh I ndia .

G round t ools

s o c haracteristic o f t he S outh I ndian N eolithic a re s carce i n S ri L anka , a nd f ew e xamples e xist s o f ar . P itted m acroliths o f B alagodian t ype a re k nown o nly f rom s urface m aterial f ound a t B ellary n ear M adras a nd K olar g oldf ields i n Mysore . T hese t ools c an b e c orrelated, t hough t he I ndian a rtefacts a re l arger. T hus,

P itted a nvil-cum-grind s tones a re u nknown i n I ndia .

a lthough we c annot r eport w ith c ertainty a bout a ll c ultural

c ontacts t he g eneral s imilarity o f t he M esolithic s ites o f t he i sland a nd S outhern I ndia i s i ndisputable .

7 2

C HAPTER V S OME P ROBLEMS O F T HE S OUTHERN I NDIAN & S RI L ANKAN S TONE A GE

T his c hapter i s d evoted t o t heoretical ( historical) a nd m ethodological p roblems o f t he s tudy o f t he S tone A ge o f S ri L anka , a nd , e specially , I ndia . H ere p articular a ttention s hould b e p aid t o ar evue o f m ethods a nalysis a nd i nterpretation o f s tone t ools a nd t heir p lace i n I ndian a rchaeology . W e w ould l ike t o c onsider i n d etail t he r ole o f e xperimental a nd m icro-wear a nalytical m ethods , w hich a re n ot y et p opular i n a rchaeology , p articularly i n I ndia .

A t t he s ame t ime we s hall t ouch u pon t he w ay o f a pplying

t ypological a nalysis i n a rchaeology .

T he s tudy o f s ome c lassificatory

s ystems o f p ebble t olls a nd b ifaces i s a lso g iven h ere . O ne o f t he m ost d ifficult t asks f acing a r esearcher o f t he P alaeolithic i s t he s tudy o f e arly t echniques o f s tone w orking . T he t ransition f rom t he u se o f u nworked s tones t o t he m anufacture o f s tone t ools w as c ertainly g radual , a nd l ittle i s k nown o f h ow i t t ook p lace . P resumably t he p roduction o f s imple t ools f rom p ieces o f u nworked r ock d id n ot r equire m uch e ffort . H owever i t w as m uch m ore d ifficult t o m ake t ools f rom f lakes a nd g ive t hem t he n ecessary s hape b y m eans o f s econdary t reatment . I n s tudying t he t echnology o f t he P alaeolithic s tone i ndustry d ifficulties a re o ften e ncountered i n d istinguishing r ough i mplements m ade b y e arly m an f rom n atural s tones s plit u nder n atural c onditions . H ow t hese s tones , t he s o-called e oliths , w ere p roduced h as b een t he s ubject o f d ispute f or a l ong t ime . F inally i t h as b een p roved t hat t hey were f ormed b y n atural a gencies . H owever ,

d espite

e very

e ffort

i n

w orking

o ut

t he

c riteria

f or

d ifferentiating b etween t rue i mplements a nd e oliths , s cientists c onsider t his p roblem t o b e s till u nresolved . I t s hould b e k ept i n m ind t hat t hese c riteria w ere e laborated i n r espect t o E uropean f lint . T he d ifficulty i s much g reater i n d istinguishing b etween d eliberately p roduced t ools a nd p seudo-tools o f q uartz , q uartzite , s andstone e tc . S ome o f t hese r ocks a re c haracteristic o f S outh-Eastern A sia , I ndia a nd S ri L anka i ncluded . I t i s p articularly i mportant t o f ind o ut t he o rigin o f e oliths i n t hese c ountries .

t hose

T he r eason f or t he f ormation o f e oliths h ere m ay w ell b e d ifferent f rom w hich e xisted i n E urope . T hus t he d ifficult t ask o f e laborating

c riteria f or t he i dentification o f p seudo-tools o f l ocal r ocks s till f aces t he s tudents o f t he S outh-Eastern A sian P alaeolithic . N aturally t he e xperience o f E urope i s o f v alue . T he p roblem o f t he e volution o f s tone t ools i s a lso c onnected t o s ome e xtent w ith t he p hysical d evelopment o f m an . S o f ar n o c redible r emains o f P alaeolithic m an h ave b een f ound i n I ndia o r S ri L anka . l ong t ime e arly h uman r emains

w ere

f ound

o nly

i n E urope ,

f ossil F or a

h ence

t he

w idespread v iew o f m an 's o rigin t here . W hen s cientists f ound t he r emains o f J ava m an , t hey c oncluded t hat e arliest m an a ppeared i n S outh-Eastern A sia . S ubsequently , d ue t o t he d iscovery o f h uman f ossils i n A frica , t he

7 3

f urther h ypothesis h as b een p ropounded , t hat m an a ppeared f irst i n A frica . Z euner ( Zeuner , 1 951, p . 2 1) s uggests t hat n ow i t i s I ndia 's t urn . H e e xpects f ossil b ones t o b e f ound i n I ndia w here s tone t ools a re s o ab undant . I n t he n orth o f t he c ountry a g reat n umber o f a nthropoid a pe b ones h ave b een f ound w hich a re b elieved t o b e t hose o f m an 's a ncestors , d ated t o t he U pper T ertian p eriod . P .I . B oriskovsky ( Boriskovsky , 1 971, p . 2 3) , t aking c ertain f actors i nto c onsideration , c ame t o t he c onclusion t hat P akistan , N orthern I ndia , t he I ndo-Ganges p lain a nd C entral I ndia c ould c onstitute t he g eneral a rea i n which man g radually e volved f rom t he a nthropoid a pe . S outhern I ndia w as n ot i ncluded b ecause n o b one r emains o f a nthropoid a pes w ere f ound t here . H owever , t he l arge n umber o f P alaeolithic s ites t hroughout S outhern I ndia p roves o ccupation o f e arly m an a nd o ne c an h ope t hat f ossil r emains w ill s oon a ppear . T here a re s everal r easons f or t he f ailure t o l ocate e arly s keletal r emains i n S outhern I ndia , d espite i nvestigations o ver a l ong p eriod b y I ndian a rchaeologists . I n t he f irst i nstance , t he s earch h as n ot b een s ystematic . S econdly , u nlike E uropean m an w ho r equired t he p rotection o f c ave s helters , t he i nhabitants o f S outhern I ndia , w ith i ts w armer c limate , a re l ikely t o h ave o ccupied o pen s ites w here t heir r emains w ill h ave b een e xposed t o n atural d estructive f orces . A ccording

t o

S .

A yyangar

( Ayyangar ,

1 926 ,

p .

4 ) ,

a bsence

o f

a nthropological f inds i n I ndia c an b e c onnected w ith t he f act t hat p rehistoric p eople l ived i n d istricts s ubjected t o w inds a nd h eavy r ains t hus w ashing t he r emains i nto t he s ea ; o r t he r emains w ere e aten b y a nimals a nd b irds . s ea.

H owever ,

n ot a ll P alaeolithic s ites w ere i n p roximity t o t he

N o t race o f t he u se o f f ire b y p rehistoric m an h as y et b een f ound , e ither i n I ndia o r S ri L anka . T his m ay b e a ttributed , a mong o ther r easons , t o t he o pen n ature o f l iving s ites a nd t he l ack o f e xcavation o f p ossible c ave s ites . F ire c ould h ave b ecome a vailable f rom b amboo t hickets , w here s pontaneous c ombustion i s k nown t o o ccur , o r b y t he u se o f s imple f irem aking t echniques . R eviewing

t he

p roblems

i n

I ndia

a rchaeology ,

o f

i nterpretation

a nd

c lassisfication , i t w ill b e n oted t hat n o g eneral t heoretical p ublication o f a n i nterdisciplinary c haracter h as y et a ppeared ; a lthough e thnographical , a nthropological a nd n atural s cientific d ata a re u sed , t heir i nterpretation I s a t ad escriptive l evel . A s y et I ndian a rchaeologists h ave t ended t o u se c oncepts f rom h istory , g eology , a rchitecture , a rts e tc . t oo u ncritically , i nstead o f a ttempting t he d evelopment o f s pgcifically a rchaeological t heories. O nly a f ew r ealize t he n ecessity f or t urning t o t he s ocial s ciences f or af uller i nterpretation o f t heir m aterial . H ence t raditional , p urely d escriptive c oncepts c ontinue t o p revail . A ccording t o S .C . M alik ( Malik , 1 968 , p . 6 ) , I ndian A rchaeologists s till c ontinue t o f ollow o bsolete d iffusionist t heories o f X IX a nd e arly X X c enturies ( a G erman a nthropoligcal s chool a nd a n E nglish s chool o f E . S mith a re b ased o n t he c onservatism o f h uman i dentity o f a n e lement o r a c omplex o f t ransmitted f rom o ne c ulture t o a nother

a nd P erry) . B oth t hese s chools s ociety; t hey c onsider t hat t he f eatures c ould b e p reserved w hen i n a ny p art o f t he w orld . T he

w idely h eld v iew o f t he s tatic n ature a nd c onservatism o f H arappa c ivilization i s a n e xample o f a n a rchaeological i nterpretation b ased o n t hese a ssumptions .

7 4

I ndian A rchaeologists c losely c onnected w ith E nglish s cience a nd i nfluenced b y H egel 's h istorico-philosophical v iews s till a ccept h is t heory o f t he s harp c ontrast b etween t he E ast a nd W est , a nd o f t he i nability o f t he f ormer t o d evelop i ndependently . T he m echanism o f t he d evelopment o f a ncient s ociety i s c onsidered t o b e t he s pread o f c ultural a chievement b y m eans o f d iffusion a nd t he m igration o f p eople , l inguistic g roups , r aces , e tc . while t he c reative a bility t o e volve i ndependently i s d enied ( Scletenko , 1 979 , p . 3 0 ) . T he r easons f or t he s low d evelopment o f I ndian a rchaeology l ie i n t he u se o f o utdated c oncepts , s low a ccumulation o f d ata , a nd c lose a dherence t o c hronological a nd t axonomic s chemes . O bsolete t heories i mpede a dvance . M eanwhile, w ith i ts w ealth o f p rehistoric m aterial, i t i s o f g reat i mportance

t o i nterpret

a rchaeological

d ata b y m eans o f s ocial s cience

c oncepts , t o r elate a ntiquity t o t he p resent , a nd h ence t o t hrow l ight f rom a ncient t imes o n s ome p roblems f acing m odern I ndian s ociety . A lthough r ealizing t he s ocial s ignificance o f t heir r esearch , I ndian a rchaeologists h ave n ot a ttempted t o c onsider t he t heoretical f oundations o f a rchaeology , a nd t hey u se a v ariety o f u nrelated c oncepts . I n t his s ituation , i t i s o ur o pinion t hat t hey s hould t urn t o o ther s ocial s ciences , p articularly t o a d ialectical m aterialist p hilosophy . A n u nderstanding o f t he s ocial a nd c ultural p rocesses c an n ot o therwise b e a ttained . T he h istory o f a ny s ociety

i s

t reated i n t he M arxist

s ense a s

a

n atural-historical p rocess o f d evelopment a nd r eplacement o f s ocio-economic f ormations w hich i s a s ingle whole i n i t 's p rincipal f eatures . T he d evelopment o f e very s ociety i s g overned b y c ommon l aws w hich d etermine i ts e ssence .

T hus t he m ethod o f p roduction d etermines t he t ype o f s ocial

r elations b elonging t o i ts s tructure a s w ell a s t he p rinciples o f s ocial o rganisation a nd t he i deology p revailing i n t he s ociety ( Schetenko , I bid , p . 2 03). A nother i mportant p roblem o f I ndian a rchaeology i s t hat o f t he p rincipal a rchaeological d efinitions . M any r esearchers u se a n E uropean t erminology a nd a re s ometimes a t al oss b ecause i t i s n ot a lways a pplicable t o t heir m aterials a nd t heories . F ew I ndian a rchaeologists c cnsider i t t o b e t heir f unction t o i nterpret a rchaeological m aterial . T hey l imit t heir a ctivities t o c ollecting a nd d escribing t heir d ata a ccording t o o ne o r o ther c hronology , l eaving t heoretical f ormulations t o a rchaeologists a ccept n ew e xample, when i n 1 961, a t D elhi , M alik p ut S tone A ge

h istorians , a nthropologists a nd o thers . I ndian i deas , c oncepts a nd s chemes r eluctantly . F or t he f irst C onference o f A sian a rchaeology i n t erminology i nto a c ultural-historical c ontext ,

t his w as n ot a ccepted b y t he m ajority o f a rchaeologists ( with t he e xception o f B raidwood) I bid, p . 5 5) . T he o ther a rchaeologists d efended o bsolete v iews w hich l imited t he p otentiality o f t he d ata . I n I ndian a rchaeology,

i nterpretation i n most

c ases

i s

b ased

o n

I ntuitive, r ather t han s ystematic p rinciples . A n atural s cientific a pproach i s l imited t o s imple e numeration o f t he s pecies o f f lora a nd f auna , a nd

a p etrological

c haracterisation

o f

t he

r aw

m aterial a nd

t ools .

N o

a ttention i s p aid t o t he n atural m icro-environment , a nd s ocio-economic s ystems ( large a nd s mall) . D ifficulties i n t he r econstruction o f t he p alaeoclimate a nd l andscape c onditions i n t he r egion c oncerned i nevitably l ead t o a l ack o f i nterest i n t he p roblem o f t he i nteraction b etween

7 5

e nvironment a nd t he m aterial c ulture o f t he S tone A ge ( Malik ,

I bid) .

G . C lark 's ( Clark , 1 952 , p .8) c omments o n t he i nfluence o f e cological f actors o n t he p rehistoric e conomy a re p ertinent : " There i s n o m ore f aithful i ndication o f r egional d ifferences o f s oil a nd c limate a nd f ew w hich d efine m ore a ccurately t he l imits o f e conomic z ones a t d ifferent s tages o f p rehistory t han v egetation, s ince t he q uest f or f ood i s t he c entral f act o f e conomic l ife , i t f ollows t hat p lant e cology a nd i t 's d evelopment m ust b e o f t he u tmost r elevance t o e conomic h istory" . T hat

I ndian h istory

i s

v ery c ontradictory i s c ommon k nowledge .

h ighly d eveloped u rban c ivilization i n t he

I ndus

v alley

c an

b e

T he s een

f lourishing s imultaneously w ith p rimitive S tone A ge s ocieties i n m ore s outhern d istricts . S ometimes t he l atter s urvive t ill t oday ( if t he I ndian a borigine 's e conomy i s t aken i nto c onsideration) . S ubbarao ( Subbarao , 1 958 , p . 1 1) a ttributes s uch c ontrasts t o d ifferences i n e cology a nd g eography o f t he v arious c ultural r egions o f I ndia .

H e w as o ne o f t he

f irst I ndian a rchaeologists t o u nderstand t he s ignificance o f e cology a nd g eography i n t he p recise s tudy a nd s cientific i nterpretation o f a rchaeological f inds . I n h is b ook S ubbarao t ried t o c orrelate p hysicog eographical a nd c ultural r egions f rom t he a rchaeological p oint o f v iew . E thnographic d ata a re n ot s ufficiently u sed i n t he i nterpretation o f a rchaeological m aterial i n I ndia . L . B inford ( Binford , 1 972 , p . 6 3) s tresses t hat e thnographic d ata c an p lay t wo p rincipal p arts : f irstly , t hey p rovide a s ource f or c hecking u p h ypotheses c oncerning r elations o f m aterial , b ehavioural a nd c ultural p henomena ; s econdly , t hey c an o ften ( but n ot a lways) s erve a s a b ase f or modelling c ertain s ocial r elations . A ccording t o B inford , e thnographic a nalogues s hould n ot b e t he o nly b sis f or i nterpretation . Models c an b e f ormed p urely t heoretically e ven when e thnographic a nalogues a re a bsent . N evertheless t he r ole o f e thnographic s ources i s e normous . A rchaeologists s hould s ystematize t heir d ata , t aking i nto c onsideration " living s ociety" . I t i s o f i mportance , b ecause s ometimes n ot o nly t ool t ypology b ut a lso k nowledge o f f unctions a nd t echnology o f t ool p roduction d o n ot f ully r eveal t he a ncient p eople 's w ay o f l ife . E .g . W .E .H . S tanner ( Stanner , 1 964 , p p . 2 88-298) s tudying A ustralian a borigines , p ointed o ut t hat n omadic h unters a nd g atherers n either b uild , n or c ultivate , n or r emain i n o ne p lace f or a ny c onsiderable l ength o f t ime . T hus v ery f ew p hysical t races a re l eft, a nd t heir d etection m ay r equire s kilful o bservation . W ithin a f ew weeks t heir t emporary c amp i s d estroyed b y t he s un , w inds a nd r ain . A fter t hat t here r emains o nly a c ouple o f f lint s tones , a s tone q uarry , r ock p aintings , h eaps o f s hells o n t he s urface , a nd o ne m ight t hink t his t erritory h as n ever b een f requented

b y

m an .

T his

e thnographic

e xample

i llustrates

t hat

m aterial

t races l eft b y t he a borigines a re i nsufficient f or f uture a rchaeolgists , w ho m ight u ndertake u seless e xcavations i n a n a ttempt t o r econstruct t heir w ay o f

l ife . O f p articular i mportance f or f ruitful t echnico-typological a nalysis o f

a rchaeological m aterial , i s t he s tudy o f m odern a borigine 's t ools, f or i nstance i n A ustralia o r N ew G uinea ( Blackwood , 1 896 ; T homes , 1 906 ; H owitt , 1 904). P articular t ypological a nalysis o f s tone t ools h as b ecome a most a ttractive p art o f m odern I ndian a rchaeology. s uccessful .

H ere i t h as b een v ery

B ut c learly a s ingle t ypological m ethod c an n ot b e e xpected t o

r eveal t he whole c ontent o f i nformation e xisting i n a s ingle o bject .

7 6

B ecause

o f

a n o verestimation o f t he r ole o f t ypology ,

s ome a rchaeologists

w rongly c onsider t hat t he a im o f t heir s ubject i s " to f ind r egularities i n t he d evelopment o f f ossil o bjects a nd t heir i nter-relationships" ( Grigoriev) ( see M atukhin , 1 975 , p . 1 8) . B ut , o nly r eal p henomena s hould b e c onsidered t he s ubject o f a rchaeology; i .e . t he i nvestigation o f t he r egular d evelopment o f p rehistoric p eople 's a ctivities w hich i s e xpressed t hrough a rchaeological o bjects , a nd n ot f ormal o r f ormalized c ategories . T here a re s ome I ndian a rchaeologists w ho r ecognise t he i nsufficiency o f t ypology a lone i n t he s tudy o f a rchaeolgical o bjects . T hus , a ccording t o G hosh ( Ghosh , 1 976 b , p . 4 2) , d ifferent t ypological s ystems a re , a s a r ule , a like i n t heir c ontent .

T hey a re p oorly r elated t o e ach o ther ,

a nd t heir

p rincipal c omponents l ack d efinition . A ccording t o G hosh , a t ypology b ased o n d ifferent m ethodical f oundations r esults i n c haos . H e t ried t o u se a n ew a pproach , t he e ssence o f w hich l ies i n t he e laboration o f c orresponding m odels . G hosh b ased h is r esearch o n t he m aterials o f S outh a nd S outhE astern A sia . H e p roposed t hree s tages o f a nalysis o f t he m aterial , a nd , a s a r esult , t he q uestions o f d istinguishing t he o rigin , s pread , s urvival , d ying o ut a nd r e-appearance o f c ultures c an b e s olved m ore s uccessfully t han h itherto. T he i mportance o f e xperimental m icro-wear a nalysis i n t he i nterpretation o f a rchaeological o bjects h as o ften b een d emonstrated b y s cientists, p articularly b y S oviet s cientists ( Semenov , 1 950 , 1 957 , 1 964 , 1 968 ; K orobkova , 1 968 ;

1 969 ,

K eeley ,

1 972; M atukhin ,

1 980)

e tc .

m odern s cientific m ethod p rehistoric t echniques .

1 975 ,

E xperimental o f

s tudying

A pplying m icro-wear a nalysis ,

1 976 ,

1 977 ; R obert,

m icro-wear

t he

a nalysis

r egularities

o f

1 961; C oles, r epresents

d evelopment

w e c an s tudy t he d ynamics o f p roduction ,

n on-coordination o f as hape a nd f unction , p oly-functionality o f t ools , b y f acilitating t he c reation o f ab asis f or s ocial r econstruction .

t he

a o f

t here

T he v alue o f t he e xperimental m ethod l ies i n i ts a bility t o r econstruct a ctual p rocesses o f p roducing a nd a pplying t he t ools, a llowing

c orrection o f t he m icro-wear a nalysis ( Matukhin , I bid , p . 2 1) . Af inal a im o f a ny e xperimental m icro-wear r esearch i s t he s tudy o f a ncient h istorical p rocesses d emonstrating t he i nner r egularities o f t ool-manufacture , a pplication a nd t he i ntellectual a bilities o f p rehistoric m an . T he e xperimental m icro-wear a nalytical I ndian a rchaeologists .

F requently

m ethod

i s n ot

t heir

w idely u sed b y

t he f unctions o f t ools a re i nterpreted

f rom e thnographic d ata o r f rom t he g eneral s hape o f t he w orking e lements . H owever t his i nterpretation i s b ased o n s upposition a nd n ot o n s cientific e vidence . I t i s e ssential t o u se t he m icro-wear a nalytical m ethod i n c ombination w ith t he p hysical r econstruction o f v arious w orking o perations u sing e xperimental t ools a nalogous t o e xamples f rom s ite m aterial ( Schelinski ,

1 977 ,

p p .

1 82-183) .

A ttempts h ave b een m ade i n t he S oviet U nion t o s tudy p ebble t ools f rom t ypological , t echnological a nd f unctional p oints o f v iew .

E xperiments w ith

p ebble t ools a re o f g reat i mportance i n o ne r espect - t hey c an c larify n ot o nly t he t echnico-typological a nalysis o f e xamples i n a rchaeolgical c ollections b ut a lso q uestions a s g eneral a s t he e mergence o f l abour a nd t ool p roduction , a nd t he d evelopment o f t hought p atterns a nd m anual d exterity o f E arly P alaeolithic m an ( Matukhin , 1 976 , p . 8 ) . T he s tudy o f p ebble t ool f unctions b y m eans o f a n e xperiment i s n ot i n i tself c onclusive ,

7 7

e specially i n t he c ase o f s urface m aterial . H ere t he u se o f m icro-wear a nalysis i s o f l imited v alue ; e vidence f rom s uch e xperiments o nly i ndicated t he p ossible f unction o f t hese t ools ( cutting , s craping , c hopping) . T he v alue o f t he m icro-wear a nalytical m ethod i ncreases s harply when t he f unctional d etermination i s a pplied t o c ulturally s tratified t ools , a s w as c learly i llustrated b y G . F . K orobchova 's ( k )robkova , 1 972 , p p . 1 61162) , S amarkand , a nd V .E . S chelinsky 's ( Schelinsky, 1 972 , p p . 1 42-156) E nisei r iver s ite m aterial . U pper P alaolithic p ebble t ools w ere u sed a s h andaxes , s crapers , f or h ide d ressing e tc . M atukhin ( Matukhin ,

1 977 ,

p p . 2 58-263) h as c arried o ut a s eries o f

i nteresting e xperiments c oncerning c hoppers a nd c hopping t ools u sed f or c utting t runks a nd b ranches o f t rees a nd t he e piphyses o f l ong b ones . T he m ain a im o f t hese e xperiments w as t o e stablish a ) t he e ffectiveness o f c hoppers a nd c hopping t ools o f v arious t echnico-morphological c haracter i n c utting v arious k inds o f w ood ; a nd b ) t he i nfluence o f r e-working o n t he c utting p roperties o f t he p ebble t ools; a nd c ) t he t ime t aken i n c utting t runks o f v arious d imensions ; a nd s o o n . A s a r esult o f t hese e xperiments ,

i t w as f ound t hat t he e fficiency o f

p ebble t ools d epends o n t he c haracter o f t he r aw m aterial , t he w eight o f t he t ool , t he d egree o f s harpness o f t he p oint , t he s hape a nd c haracter o f t he w orking e dge , t he c onvenience o f h andling , t he a ngle o f i ts p osition i n r elation t o t he t runks's s urface , t he s kill o f t he e xperimenter a nd t he s trength o f t he b low . C hoppers , c ompared w ith c hopping t ools , p roved t o b e m ore e ffective , o n a ccount o f t he l atter 's t ortuous w orking e dge , w hich o ften r esulted i n d ecrease i n t heir p ositive c haracteristics . A .E . M atukhin a lso p oints o ut ( Ibid , p . 2 59) t hat c hoppers a nd c hopping t ools m ade o f f lint , w ell s olidified s andstone o r s chists , p osses a g reater e fficiency t han t ools m ade o f s oft v arieties o f t he s ame r ocks . T he e fficiency o f c utting t ools d ecreases w hen a w orking e dge b ecomes b lunt , e specially i n t he c ase o f c hopping t ools w ith a s harp t ortuous e dge , t hough t hey a re s uitable f or c utting t hin t runks a nd b ranches o f t rees . D iscussing t he p ositive c haracteristics o f p ebble t ools, Matukhin c oncludes t hat t hey a re f airly e ffective f or w ood c utting a nd i n t he r espect n ot worse t han h andaxes . H e a lso c onducted a s eries o f e xperiments b reaking t ubular b ones o f l arge d omestic a nimals . I t w as f ound t hat a fter t he d elivery o f an umber o f h eavy b lows , d amage f acets a ppeared o n c hoppers a nd c hopping t ools , a nd s ometimes n egatives o f f airly l arge f lakes r esulting i n s elf-sharpening i .e . r e-sharpening o f t heir w orking e dge . I n s ome c ases , d amage f acets c an r esult i n t ools b ecoming b lunt . T he b lunting o f f lint c hoppers a nd c hopping t ools c an a lso b e t he r esult o f w ear d ue t o l ong u se . M atukhin f ound t hat f lint t ools n eed t o b e r e-worked a fter 1 . 5 -2 h ours ' w ork , w hile a ny s andstone t ool c an b e u sed w ithout r e-working f or m ore t han 1 0 h ours . w orking e dge t akes

I t i s a ssumed t hat i n t his c ase s elf-sharpening o f t he p lace , w ood p laying t he p art o f a s pecific a brasive .

O ften r e-working o f c hoppers a nd c hopping t ools m ade o f v arious l eads n ot t o t he s harpening , b ut t o R e-working o f f lint t ools , a s w ell a s I s t he m ost s uccessful . S ometimes c hange i n t he o riginal f orm o f t he

m aterials

t he b lunting o f t heir working e dge . o f t ools m ade o f s chist a nd s andstone r e-working b rings a bout a n e ssential t ools w hich i s e xpressed i n t heir

t echnico-morphological c haracter . T aking i nto c onsideration e xperimental a nd m icro-wear a nalytical d ata , t his

r esearcher h as

c ome

t o t he c onclusion

7 8

t hat

t he

p rincipal

d ifference

b etween p ebble

t ools

f rom O ldowan ,

S oanian

a nd G issar c omplexes

l ies

i n

t heir d ifferent e fficiency . I n s pite o f s ometimes n otable s imilarities i n p roduction a nd t ypology t echnique, S oanian p ebble t ools w ere more i ntensively u sed t han t hose a t O lduvai ( Matukhin , 1 976 , p . 2 3) . E xperimental-microwear a nalytical i nvestigation o f a ncient i ndustries p rovides r eliable d ata f or d efinition o f t he e conomy . A pplication o f t hese m ethods i s n ot l imited t o t he s tudy o f O ld S tone A ge s ites a lone . T he S oviet r esearcher , K orobkova ( Korobkova , 1 972 ,. p p . 1 6-22) s tudying M esolithic a nd N eolithic s ites i n t he S oviet U nion , t ried t o r econstruct a g eneral p icure o f h unting s ocieties , a ncient l and c ultivators a nd c attle b reeders, a nd t o i ndicate s ome l ocal d ifferences i n t heir e conomy a nd c ulture . H er c onclusion c oncerning l ocal v ariability o f t wo t ypes i n t he e conomy o f s outhern l and c ultivating a nd c attle b reeding t ribes a ) i n a p roductive e conomy s phere a nd b ) i n ad omestic a nd c raft s phere , i s o f g reat i nterest. T hough

t he

t raditional

i .e .

d escriptive

s tudy o f p ebble t ools i s

s uccessful o n t he whole , t heir t ypology r equires i mprovement . T her i s n o u niformity i n t he m eaning o f t he t erms " pebble c ulture" a nd " pebble t echnique" . I n o ne v iew , t he t erm " pebble c ulture" s hould b e a pplied o nly t o t he s ites w here t ools a re m ade f rom r iver p ebbles . L . L eakey , o n t he o ther h and , m aintained t hat c orresponding a rtifacts f rom a l ower l ayer o f O lduvai c an n ot b e d enoted b y t his t erm s ince t hey a re m ade a lso f rom f ragments o f r ounded p ebbles. H ence , h e s uggested r eplacing t he t erm " pebble c ulture" f or t he l ower l ayer o f O lduvai w ith t he t erm " Oldowan" . I n h is v iew , i t i s t heoretically p ossible t o f ind a n O lduvai s ite w here r iver p ebble t ools a re a bsent ( see R anov , 1 970 , p . 1 8) . A ccording t o R anov , t he c haracter a nd m ethods o f t reatment o f t he t ool a re o f more i mportance t han what i s u sed a s ap re-form - a p ebble o r a s uitable f ragment . H e a lso c onsiders t hat a t erm " pebble c ulture" c an b e u sed o nly when i t d enotes a c ulture c haracterized b y s pecific m ethods o f s tone-working . E .g . t he t erm " pebble c ulture" i s a pplicable t o t he G issarian c ulture i n a l imited s ense ( Ibid . p . 1 9) . A " pebble t echnique" i s d escribed b y R anov a s " a s et o f m ethods" f or working p ebbles a s r aw m aterial . T his i s a t echnique o f m aking t ools f rom p ebbles choppers a nd c hopping t ools - i n w hich s pecific t echnical i ndices h ave a ccompanying m aterials ( pebble c ore , p re-forms , b lade - a nd f lake-tools ( Ibid , p . 1 9) . I n o ne o f t his a rticles h e b ought t ogether a ll k nown t ypological c lassifications o f t hese t ools ( Ranov, 1 971) . H e b elieves t he c lassification w orked o ut b y T . P atterson , H . M ovius , B . L al , H . V an H ecker , A . S eiveking , t o b e m ainly o f a d escriptive c haracter , a nd , e xcept f or H . M ovius 's w ork , d o n ot p rovide c omparative m aterial . S ome s tudies o f p ebble t ools i n A sia t ake a s ab ase t he p osition o f t he w orking e dge i n r elation t o t he l ong a xis o f t he p ebble, a nd , l ess f requently, t he c haracter o f t he t reatment o f t he working e dge ( Ibid, p . 1 3) . I n c ontrast, F rench c lassification i s b ased o n t echnical , r ather t han m orphological , i ndices . E .g . B iberson d ivided w orked p ebbles i nto s everal g roups a ccording t o t he t ype o f s plitting 1 ) s imple s plit ,

2 ) w ith a s ingle f lake ,

3 ) w orked i n o ne

d irection , 4 ) w orked i n m any d irections ; a nd a lso s eparate g roups o f h anda xes . t riangular t ools , h atchets a nd p ebble-cores ( Ibid) . R anov p oints o ut t he e xcellence o f t he p ebble t ool c lassification o ffered b y L . R amando , a ccording t o w hich a ll p ebble t ools c an b e d ivided i nto t hree c ategories : 1 ) s plit p ebbles ( a c onditional c ategory) 2 ) p ebbles w orked o n o ne s ide o nly , 3 ) p ebbles w orked o n s everal s ides . E ach o f t hese

7 9

c ategories i s s ubdivided i nto u p t o 1 0 t ypes , t he p ebbles b eing p laced a ccording t o t he c omplexity o f t heir s urface t reatment , a nd t he n umber o f s urface f acets ( Ibid , p . 1 4) . R anov c oncluded t hat t he b est c lassification s o f ar a vailable i s t he o ne e laborated b y t he H ungarian r esearcher , L . V ertesh . H is c lassification was worked o ut f or t he V ertesszolos s ite , a nd d iffers f rom o thers i n d istinguishing f ive c riteria : 1 ) t he r aw m aterial , 2 ) t he g eneral s hape , 3 ) t he c haracter o f f laking , 4 ) t he s hape o f t he f inished t ool , 5 ) t he n ature o f t he working e dge , which i ncludes b oth t he p ebble a ccompanying m aterial , p articularly f lakes ( Ibid , p . 1 5) .

t ool

a nd

t he

R anov 's v iew r egarding t he c lassification o f p ebble t ools i s v aluable . H e i s o ne o f t he f ew s pecialists w ho a re a cquainted i n d etail n ot o nly w ith t he p ebble t ools o f C entral A sia b ut a lso w ith t hose o f I ndia . H e c ompared a ll c lassifications a vailable , a nd i t n ow r emains t o u se t hese v aluable i ndices f or f urther r esearch i n S outhern A sia . H is c onclusion o f p articular i nterest , i s t hat t he t echnical c riterion i s m ore i mportant t han t he p osition o f t he w orking e dge i n r elation t o t he l ong a xis o f t he p ebble , t he n ormal c riterion i n t he p ebble t ool c lassification i n S outh a nd S outh E ast A sia ( Ibid , p . 2 4) . L ittle a ttention h as b een p aid t o b iface t ypology i n I ndian p rehistoric a rchaeology , a lthough t hese t ools o ccupy a n i mportant p osition i n A cheulian a ssemblages . A s f ar a s w e k now , n o I ndian a rchaeologist h as a ttempted t o a pply a ll t he a vailable m ethods t o t he s tudy o f t hese t ools . U p t o n ow a b iface t ypology p roposed b y F . B ordes m any y ears a go h as b een u sed o ccasionally . W e t hink t hat , a part f rom i ts m orphology , i t i s e xpedient t o u se t he m etric a nalysis o f b ifaces . I n t his r espect , t he b est r esults h ave b een a chieved b y t he E nglish a rchaeologist , D . R oe , w ho p roposed a n umber o f n ew m ethods f or s tudying t he L ower a nd M iddle P alaeolithic a ssemblages o f B ritain ( Roe , 1 964 , p p . 2 45-267 ; 1 968 , p p . 1 -83) . H owever , t here a re s ome d rawbacks i n D . R oe 's m ethods . F or e xample , n ot e nough a ttention i s p aid t o t he d efinition o f b ifacial s hapes , a nd i n t his r espect F . B orde 's c lassification i s m ore u seful . D espite t his D . R oe 's c lassification h as l ed t o s ome v aluable r esults . I n o ur o pinion ,

o ne o f t he most i mportant y et l east i nvestigated

p roblem o f t he S tone A ge o f I ndia i s t he r ate o f i ndustrial e volution , i .e . t he r elation b etween t he d evelopment o f t he m aterial c ulture a nd t he e nvironment. D oloukhanov

( Dolukhanov ,

1 972 ,

p .

2 72) s uggests

t hat

f rom

t he M iddle

P leistocene o nwards t here i s a c ertain i nequality o bservable i n t he r ates o f P alaeolithic c ultural d evelopment o f p re-glacial E urope a nd t he M iddle E ast o n o ne h and , a nd A frica , C entral a nd E astern A sia o n t he o ther . I t o ccurs b ecause i n I ndia a nd A frica d uring t he g reater p art o f P leistocene c ontinued , a s h e w rites - " rather m onotonous d evelopment o f p ebble c ultures w hich e volved i nto h and-axe c ultures o f A chuelian a ppearence" . H e l ater p oints

o ut

t hat ,

i n c ontrast

t o

t he

p re-glacial E urope

a nd

M iddle

E ast ,

U pper P alaeolithic c ultures o f E uropean a ppearance d id n ot e merge h ere . I n h is o pinion t he r eason f or t his r etarded d evelopment l ies i n t he p articular c haracter o f t he e nvironmental d evelopment , e specially i n t he l imited r ange o f g eographical c hanges w hich o ccurred d uring t he P leistocene . c hanges o f t he p luvial-interpluvial t ype w ould h ave r esulted i n o nly l imited c hanges i n t he g eographical e nvironment , w hich w ould n ot h ave s timulated t he

8 0

a daptive d evelopment o f i ndustrial i nnovation" ( Ibid) . H owever ,

D oloukhanov 's c onclusions c oncerning t he r etarded d evelopment

o f P alaeolithic t echniques i n I ndia a re d ifficult t o a ccept .

T he d iversity

o f v egetation k nown t o h ave e xisted a t t hat t ime w ould h ave p rovided a n a bundant s ource o f m aterial f or P alaeolithic t ool p roduction . M any t ools w ere p robably m ade o f w ood , e specially o f b amboo , a nd h ence a re u nlikely t o h ave s urvived . A s B osiskovsky ( Boriskovsky , 1 974 , p . 6 1) r ightly p oints o ut , t he a pparent s carcity o f t echniques w as e xaggerated t han i n r eality , p articularly w hen c ompared w ith P alaeolithic a nd M esolithic t echnqiues o f E urope a nd S iberia , w here t he t ools w ere m ade o f f lint a nd b one . B oriskovsky d escribed t he c haracter a nd p roperties o f b amboo w hich p robably w as s ubstituted f or f lint b lades , b one a nd a ntler , a nd s uggested t hat t he s o-called c ultural u nderdevelopment o f S outh a nd S outh-Eastern A sia i s s imply a d evelopment o f a n a lternative c ulture u sing a s pecific m aterial . T hus h e a ttempted t o p rove t he E astern M ousterian c ultures a nd t he c hronologically c omparable o nes o f E urope , M iddle , S outh a nd S outh E astern A sia a nd t ropical A frica t o b e a pproximately a t t he s ame l evel o f d evelopment. A gainst t he h ypothesis o f t he c ultural b ackwardness o f t ropical c ountries , t he f ollowing e vidence i s m entioned b y B oriskovsky : ( Ibid , p . 5 9) 1 .

T he a ppearance o f h omo s apiens i n N ia c ave ( Kalimantan I s .) w hile N eanderthal m an w as s till l iving i n t he M iddle E ast a nd E urope .

2 .

H oabinian c ulture ( North-Western T hailand) y ielded t he o ldest e vidence o f l and c ultivation , d ating b ack t o b etween 1 0 a nd 6 m illenium B .C .

3 .

T he a ppearance o f c opper p roduction i n T hailand a t a v ery e arly s tage , n early 3 ,000 B .C .

4 .

S tone a xes w ith p olished b lades d ated t o 1 9 ,000 - 2 5 ,000 B .P" f ound i n t he n orthern p art o f A ustralia a nd O enpelli .

T hus , B oriskovsky c oncludes , t he a pparent s carcity a nd m onotony o f t he U pper P alaeolithic w hich c haracterizes t he t ropical c ountries o f A sia a nd A frica c ontrast w ith t he U pper P alaeolithic o f S iberia a rd t he M iddle E ast . H owever , f or t he a bove r easons i t would b e u nwise t o c onclude t hat t he c ultures o f t he t ropical c ountries w ere u nderdeveloped .

8 1

C ONCLUSION

D ue t o r esearch i n t he l ast t wenty y ears , b y I ndian A rchaeologists , t he P alaeolithic m ap o f I ndia , i n c ontrast t o t hat o f S ri L anka , h as c onsiderably e nlarged . D uring t his p eriod i mportant d ata a bout p rehistoric m an 's w ay o f l ife h ave b een c ollected . P ractically e very I ndian d istrict h as y ielded r emains o f t he m aterial c ulture o f p rehistoric m an . H owever a s y et n o e xcavations h ave b een c onducted o n s ites s uch a s C hirki N evasa w here m uch s ufficient m aterial h as b een g athered a bout t he l ife o f P rehstoric p eople . H ence o nly s uppositions c an b e m ade a bout p rehistoric m a in 's w ay o f l ife i n t hese a reas . M aterial o btained b y I ndian a rchaeologists t estify t hat I ndia h as g one t hrough t he s ame s uccessive s tages o f t he S tone A ge i n h er d evelopment a s d id m any o ther c ountries , t hough i n c ontrast w ith t hese c ountries I ndia 's d evelopment h as c haracteristics p eculiar t o h erself . T he f ollowing s tages o f S tone A ge r elatively c learly d istinguishable :1 .

d evelopment

i n S outhern I ndia a re

T he L ower P alaeolithic ( represented b y h andaxes ,

c leavers a nd

p ebble t ools - t he M adrasian c ulture) 2 .

T he

M iddle

P alaeolithic

( represented

b y

f lake-tools

m ade

b y

t he

L evallois t echnique a nd i ts v arieties) c orresponding t o t he M iddle E astern M ousterian e poch , t hough t here i s n ot a n I ndian M ousterian 3 .

T he U pper P alaeolithic w ith i ts c haracteristic i ndustries o f

" blade-burin" t ools

( Reningunta s tone t ools a nd o thers)

4 .

T he M esolithic r epresented b y r icroliths ( a T eri-like i ndustry).

5 .

T he N eolithic c haracterized b y t he p resence o f p olished s toneaxes

a nd b urnished g rey w are. S pecial a ttention s hould b e p aid t o t he M adrasian c ulture a s i ts c ultural p lace i s n ot n ow c learly d istinguishable . 0 M engin w as t he f irst t o u se t he t erm ' Madrasian" t o d efine A bbeville-Acheulian b ifaces, o n a ccount o f t heir u niformity , b ut i gnoring t he l ocal v arieties , i nevitable i n s o v ast a c ountry . T his c oncept m ay n ow b e r evised s ince c ollections o f t his c ulture c ontain i n g eneral a m echanical a nd c hronological

m ixture o f

h eterogeneous e lements . R egarding t he c orrelation b etween t he s tages o f t he S tone A ge i n I ndia a nd o ther c ountries , s o f ar a s t he L ower P alaeolithic o f I ndia i s c oncerned , t here i s a d efinite s imilarity o f m aterial w ith t hat o f S outh a nd E ast A frica , w hich t o s ome e xtent p rovides e vidence f or t he v iew t hat d irect c ontacts a nd i nter-influence e xited a t t hat t ime b etween t hese t wo t erritories . N ew d ata c ontinues t o a ppear s upporting t his h ypothesis . H owever a n a bsence o f s ufficient P alaeoanthropological d ata p revents a f inal a nswer t o b e g iven t o t his u ndoubtedly i mportant p roblem .

8 2

T he M iddle P alaeolithic o f

S outhern I ndia i s n ot s o w ell k nown ;

a lthough t he s equence o f m ost i ndustries i s n ow m ainly u nderstood , s till m any q uestions c oncerning t heir c ultural i nterpretation r emain u nanswered . A t s ome s ites t ool a ssemblages i ndicating t ransitional s tages b etween t he L ower a nd M iddle P alaeolithic h ave b een f ound ( in v iew o f s tratigraphy a nd t ypology) . I n t his c onnection t he q uestion o f g enetic t ies b etween t he M iddle P alaeolithic a nd p rior A rchaeological c ultures e merges . S ome A rchaeologists ( e .g . S ankalia , S aundar R ajan) h old t he v iew t hat t he M iddle P alaeolithic s hows a c onnection w ith t he L ower P alaeolithic . D ata s upporting t his h ypothesis i nclude t he d eposits o f s mall h andaxes i n s ome d istricts , a nd t he s uccessive d eposits o f A cheulian t ools a nd f lakes o n t he s urface o f t he s econd g ravel l ayer i n N arbada . T he t heory t hat M iddle P alaeolithic t ools a re a ttributable t o an ew w ave o f s ettlers , i s d ifficult t o a ccept . S uch s ettlers w ould h ave b een e xpected t o h ave r etained l inks w ith t he d istrict o f t heir o rigin . S ankalia s uggests t hat t he M iddle P alaeolithic h as m uch i n c ommon , c hronologically a nd t ypologically , w ith W estern A sia a nd E urope . H owever , i n B orisovsky 's v iew, t he M iddle P alaeolithic o f S outhern I ndia r epresents a n i ndependent a utochthonous t ype o f c ulture , j ust a s d oes t he A terian i n N orthern A frica , a nd c onsequently S ankalia 's a ssumption i s w ithout s upport . A ccording t o G hosh , t here c an b e n o s uch r elation a lso w ith A frica . H ence t he M iddle P alaeolithic i s l ikely t o h ave h ad a l ocal o rigin , t hough , a s P J B oriskovsky p oints o ut , g enetic c onnections b etween t he M iddle a nd L ower P alaeolithic a re n ot o bviously p ronounced ( they c an b e c learly t raced i n t he P unjab o nly) . B orisovsky n oted t he s imilarity o f t he I ndian M iddle P alaeolithic w ith m aterial f rom t he U st ' K anskaya c ave i n t he A ltai r egion , t hereby r aising t he q uestion w hether c ultural p arallels c an b e d rawn b etween t he t wo r egions . H owever t he c oincidence i s p robably m erely a ccidental . U ntil r ecently ,

k nowledge o f t he U pper P alaeolithic o f S outhern I ndia

w as b ased o n a s mall n umber o f s ites ( mainly o n t he R eningunta s ite) . H owever , a s p reviously m entioned , t his n umber h as b een c onsiderably i ncreased, i ndicating t hat t his c ulture o ccupied a wider a rea t han w as p reviously s upposed .

B orisovsky p oints o ut t hat t he U pper P alaeolithic o f

I ndia i s v ery s imilar t o t hat o f I raq ( azzian c ulture) . T he d iscovery o f n umerous t ools o f t his p eriod i n K arnataka ( Shorapur D oab) c onfirms h is v iew . T his p henomenon c ould b e e xplained b y t he d iffusion o f N orth-Western c ultural t raditions . H owever a s y et t here i s i nsufficient d ata t o s ubstantiate t his v iew . T he o rigin o f t he M esolithic i s p rimarily c onnected w ith t he c ultures o f t he N orth-West . A s y et t here i s n o c onfirmation o f t he t heory t hat M esolithic c ultures c ame t o I ndia f rom A frica , t hough I ndian t raditions a re c lose t o t he A frican i n m ay ways .

T here i s m ore e vidence o f c ultural

c ontacts w ith s outh-eastern c ountries s uch a s S ri L anka , A ustralia , C elebes , s ince h ere t here w ere f ound b acked b ladelets h aving m uch t ypological s imilarity w ith t he I ndian . G lover 's h ypothesis o f t he d iffusion o f i deas o r t echnical t raditions, a nd p ossibly m igration o f p eople f rom t his d irection s eems m ore p robable o n a ccount o f t he p resence o f t ypologically s imilar t ools i n t hese c ountries, d oubtless d ue t o t heir c oastal s ituation . R egarding t he S outh I ndian N eolithic , t o a ssume i ts a utochthonous o rigin w ould b e i ncorrect s ince t he m ajority o f i ts f eatures h ave n o l ocal r oots . T he s imilarity o f c ertain f eatures ( stoneaxes) b etween t he S outhern a nd N orthern ( Burzhom) N eolithic p robably d emonstrates t hat t hey o riginated f rom t he s ame s ource . T he N orthern N eolithic c ultures

d ating o f t he e arliest l ayers o f S outhern a nd t o t he s econd p art o f I II m illenium B C a lso

8 3

c onfirms

t his h yopothesis .

A ccording t o M isra ,

i t w as p robably t hen t hat

t he N eolithic o f I ndia e merged a s a r esult o f d iffusion f rom W estern A sia , W here c ultivation o f l and a nd c attle b reeding h ave b een k nown s ince t he b eginning o f I II m illenium B C , a nd c eramics a nd m etallurgy s ince V I-V m illenium B C r espectively . C oncerning S ri L anka , a s y et l ittle e vidence e xists o f h ow t he i sland w as o riginally s ettled i n t he r emote p ast . N o d oubt a ncient p eople a rrived i n t he i sland f rom S outh I ndia d uring t he P alaeolithic , a cross t he s trait s eparating t hese t wo c ountries w hen t he s ea l evel w as l ow . T he p resence o f p ebble t ools r esembling e arly S oanian , A cheulian-like h andaxes , a nd o ther r ough t ypes o f t ool , a s w ell a s t he r emains o f f ossil a nimals s uch a s h ippopotamus , d eposited t ogether w ith t hese t ools , c onfirms t his a ssumption . T he p aucity o f P alaeolithic r emains c an b e a ttributed n ot t o t he a bsence o f a p rimitive p opulation o n t he i sland , b ut t o i nsufficient r esearch . I n S ri L anka , t he S tone A ge p eriods a re i ndistinct . s tages h ave

b een d escribed :

t he m ost a ncient c ulture

T he f ollowing

Satnapura" ,

d ating

b ack t o t he P alaeolithic , r epresented b y e arly S oanian-type t ools . T his w as s ucceeded b y " Balangoda" , m arked b y t he f irst a ppearance o f m icrolithic s egments , a nd t he u se o f p ebbles a s h ammerstones ; a lthough t he u se o f P alaeolithic t ypes o f t ools , s uch a s c hoppers , c ontinued . T he B alangoda c ulture h ad t wo p hases - a M esolithic " Bellan B andi P alassa" ( represented b y h ammer s tones - u npitted p ebbles , a nd a bsence o f c eramics) a nd a N eolithic Tdupiyan" ( represented b y p itted p ebbles a nd c eramics) . N ow t he q uestion a rises o f P alaolithic l inks w ith l ater c ultures o f S ri L anka a nd S outhern I ndia . T he i nadequate i nvestigation o f t he S ri L ankan P alaeolithic h as h itherto p revented t he s olution o f t his p roblem . T he P alaolithic s tages o f S outhern I ndia h ave n ot b een o bserved i n S ri L anka . S ri L ankan a rtefacts a re r elatively a morphous a nd l ack t he d eveloped f orms f ound i n S outhern I ndia s uch a s h andaxes a nd c leavers. T hough w e k now v ery l ittle a bout e arly p hases o f t he S ri L ankan S tone A ge , t he r emains o f i ts l ater p hases a re f ound b oth i n c aves a nd i n o pen-air f actory s ites , w hich p rovide c onsiderable i nformation a bout t hese c ultures . T he M esolithic a nd N eolithic o f S outhern I ndia a re c learly d istinguishable s tratigraphically a s s tages o f S tone A ge d evelopment . H owever , m any s ites o f t his p eriod i n S ri L anka r esemble t he H oabinian a nd B akshon c aves i n V ietnam , w here e xcavations h ave n ot p rovided c lear d ifferentiation b etween v arious S tone A ge e pochs . I n t his s ituation

B oriskovsky 's v iew i s c orrect t hat t he c o-existence

o f M esolithic t ools w ith c eramics m akes d ating d ifficult . H owever , i n S ri L anka f ew e xamples o f p olished t ools h ave b een f ound a s y et,

c eramics

a re

r epresented

b y

r ougher

f orms,

a nd

f ew

t races

o f

c ultivation h ave b een i dentified, d oubtless d ue t o i nsufficient i nvestigation s o f ar . N evertheless , i f a n a ttempt i s m ade t o r econstruct t he c ulture o n t he b asis o f t hese f inds , a m ore p rimitive s ociety b ecomes a pparent . P robably t he r eason f or t his l ower l evel o f d evelopment l ies i n t heir i solation , i n c ontrast t o t heir S outh I ndian n eighbours; w ho s ucceeded , t o s ome e xtent , t raditions f rom t he n orth .

i n

b orrowing

m ore

p rogressive

t echnical

I t s hould b e p ointed o ut t hat P alaeolithic s ites a nd c aves w ith a n u ndisturbed c ultural l ayers r arely o ccur i n S ri L anka .

8 4

H ence d ifficulties

a rise i n d etermining t he a bsolute a ge o f t he s ites b y r adio c arbon d ating . T hough o ne l aboratory e quipped f or r adiocarbon d ating e xists i n I ndia , f or m ost s ites i n S outhern I ndia a nd n eighbouring S ri L anka t his m ethod h as b een l ittle u sed . T he f ew d atings s o f ar o btained r eflect b oth t he s hortage o f a pparatus a nd t he l ack o f f inancial s upport . H owever , t he n umber o f d atings w ill i ncrease i n t he f uture . T hus a ll d atings f rom I ndia s hould b e t reated w ith r eserve ,

e specially

w hen d ealing w ith t he L ower a nd M iddle P alaeolithic s ites . E ven t he b est o f t hese s ites h as i ll-defined s tratigraphies ( e .g . t he s tratigraphic p icture o f t he H iran r iver v alley i n S aurashtra) . T hough m uch r esearch i s b eing c arried o n i n t he f ield o f P rehistoric A rchaeology i n I ndia , i nsufficient a ttention h as b een p aid t o t he P leistocene H istory. T he s ame i s a pplicable t o S ri L anka . E arlier r esearch i s i nsufficient t o p rovide a b asis f or a ccurate c haracterisation o f P leistocene e vents a nd t heir . c ausation . U nfortunately , am ultidisciplinary a pproach h as b een n eglected i n I ndia a nd S ri L anka , a nd h ence o nly a m ost g eneral i dea c an b e o btained o f t he g eological p ast o f t hese c ountries . I t f ollows t hat a r econstruction o f t he P leisitocene H istory o f I ndia h as n ot y et b een c ompleted . A lthough

I ndian A rchaeologists

h ave

a chieved

c onsiderable

s uccess

i n

t heir s cience , i n c omparison w ith t he c olonial p eriod , i t s hould b e r ecognised t hat t hey l ag b ehind t heir E uropean c olleagues i n s ome r espects . I ndian A rchaeologists s till c ling t o o bsolete c oncepts , w hile t he a bsence o f t horough t heoretical w ork m akes r econstruction o f

t he p ast m ore d ifficult .

T hey a nalyse g eneral q uestions o f A rchaeological s cience s uch a s " the S ubject a nd O bject o f A rchaeology" o r " Aims a nd T asks o f A rchaeology" o n t he e mpirical l evel n eglecting a nalysis o n a l ogical-theoretical a nd p hilosphical l evel , w here p rehistoric p rocesses i nseparably c onnected w ith m an a nd h is a ctivities s hould p lay a m ore i mportant r ole t han m aterial s ources. W e h ave p ointed o ut t hat t he m ajority o f I ndian A rchaeologists a re s atisfied w ith d escribing A rchaeological m aterial , f lora a nd f auna e tc . T his i s f ar f rom b eing e nough . I t i s i mportant t o d etermine t he S ociological b asis o f P rehistory w ith m ore p recision . I ndian a rchaeologists h ave s ucceeded w ell i n t he a pplication o f t ypological a nalysis . H owever i n o verestimating t he r ole o f t ypology , t he r egular

d evelopment

o f

p rehistoric

a ctivities

r eflected

i n

t he

a rchaeological o bjects i s i gnored. I n S outhern I ndia S tone A ge t ools a re r epresented b y v arious t ypes o f c leavers , h andaxes , c hoppers , s crapers , m icroliths , h atches e tc . T hey a re a ll p resent i n S ri L anka , e xcept c leavers . B ut i t s hould b e n oted t hat t he a ctual u se o f t hese t ools i n t he e conomy o f p rehistoric m an h as n ot b een f inally e stablished . M any t ools h ave b een g iven n ames a s i f d enoting f unctions , t hough i n r eality t heir n ames m ay n ot r eflect t heir f unctions . I t c an b e a dded t hat t he u se o f s tatistics f or d etermining v arious g rouping o f t ools u sed b y p rehistoric m an , h as b een a lmost t otally n eglected i n t hese c ountries , a nd u ntil l inks b etween a ssemblages a nd e nvironmental f actors c an b e e stablished , n o c learer r esults p ermitting a m ore p recise r econstruction o f t he p ast c an b e e xpected . A s o utlined a bove ,

t he m any c omplex p roblems o f t he d evelopment o f t he

8 5

S tone A ge i n I ndia h ave n ot y et L een s tudied i n d epth . I n S ir L anka t he l ack o f p rofessional A rchaeologists, a nd t he u se u ntil n ow o f v ery i nadequate m ethods o f i nvestiration , h as p revented e ven t he l evel o f u nderstanding a chieved i n I ndia e .g . t he d ate o f t he f- r st a ppearance o f m ar o n t he i sland i s s till n ot e stabl . . _shed.

8 6

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o f

o f

t he

W orld .

( in R ussian ) .

t he

L ower

G odavary

A f unctional a pproach.

U ISPP . 1 69 .

R obert , A .

1 70 .

R oe , D .A .

1 961. 1 964 .

E xperimental A rchaeolog y.

A A .

V ol. 6 3.

T he B ritish L ower a nd M iddle P alaeolithic :

P roblems, M ethods o f S tudy a nd P reliminary R esults. 1 71.

R oe ,

D .A .

P PS

( New

1 968 .

R ichards ,

F .G .

1 73.

S ankalia , H .D .

S ome

P PS.

B ritish L ower a nd M iddle P alaeolithic H andaxe G roups .

s eries) ,

1 72.

N4 .

v ol . X XX IV .

1 930 . 1 962.

C eylon J ournal o f S cience . I ndian A rchaeology T oday.

9 5

A ntiquity , B ombay.

N 5 .

1 74 .

S ankalia ,

R .D .

1 964a .

T he

S tone A ge T ools ,

t heir T echniques ,

N ames

a nd P robable F unctions. P oona . 1 75.

S ankalia , P akistan .

1 76 .

1 77 .

1 78 .

H .D . 1 964b . M iddle S tone S cience. V ol. 1 46. N3 642.

A ge

C ultures

i n

I ndia

a nd

S ankalia ,

H .D .

A ge

C ultures

i n

I ndia

a nd

P akistan .

I .P.

1 964c .

M iddle

S tone

S ankalia , H .D . 1 969 . P roblmes i n I ndian A rchaeology a nd M ethods a nd T echniques A dopted t o T ackle t hem . W 4 Vol. 1 , p p. 2 9-39. S ankalia , H .D .

1 971.

T he M iddle P alaeolithic C ultures o f I ndia ,

C entral a nd W estern A sia a nd E uropep .

T OPS ,

1 971, p p. 1 09114.

1 79 .

S ankalia , H .D.

1 973a.

B asis a nd T erminology o f P eriodization.

1 80 .

S ankalia , H .D .

1 973b .

R amayanaya M yth o f R eality.

1 81.

S ankalia ,

1 973c .

T he R ole o f A rchaeology i n I ndia .

3 , p p. 1 82.

1 83.

H .D .

D elhi. B DCRI ,

S ankalia ,

H .D .

P akistan .

P oona.

1 974 .

S ankalia , H .D . a nd P akistan .

1 976 . I X .

P rehistory

S ankalia ,

P rotohistory

o f

I ndia

a nd

e n A sie C entrale ,

e n C hina e t d ans l e S ud-

N ice.

H .D .

E .P.S.E .A,

a nd

E arly a nd M iddle P alaeolithic C ultures i n I ndia C ongress . C olloque V II . L e P alaeolithiene

I nferieur e t M oyen e n I nde ,

1 978 .

T he

E arly

P alaeolithic

i n

I ndia

a nd

P akistan .

P aris.

1 85 .

S arasin , F . &P .

1 907a.

S tone I mplements i n V Pdda C aves ,

1 86 .

S arasin , F . &P .

1 907b .

T he S tone A ge i n C eylon , S Z , V ol. I V.

1 87 .

S arasin , F . &P .

1 908 .

1 88 .

v ol .

1 -20 .

E st A siatique. 1 84.

R IA .

S arasin , F .

1 926 .

D ie S teinzieit a uf C eylon .

S Z , I V .

W iesbaden .

E tude c ritique s ur l 'age d e l a p ierre a C eylan .

L' Anthropologie , 3 6 . 1 89 .

1 90 .

S axon , E . C . 1 978 . M esolithic C oaseal E conomies i n t he L evant a nd N orth A frica . V iews o f t he p ast . E OWPP . S eligman ,

C .C .

& B .Z .

1 908a .

A n I tinerary o f t he V edda c ountry .

S z .

V ol. V , p art 2 0 . 1 91.

1 92.

S eligman ,

C .C .

( Ceylon).

V ol. X XI , N 6 1.

S eligman , C .G .

1 908b .

1 908c .

N otes

o n R ecent

W ork a mong t he V eddas .

Q uartz I mplements f rom C eylon .

L ondon . 1 93 .

S eligman , C .G .

1 908d.

1 94.

S eligman , C .G. & B .Z.

T he V edda C ult o f t he D ead. 1 911.

T he V eddas.

9 6

C ambridge.

O xford.

J RAS

N an , N 6 3 .

1 95 .

S emenov ,

S .A .

1 950 .

A M icro-wear

S tudy

o f

M aterials o n t he Q uaternary P eriod o f U .S .S .R . , 1 96 .

S emenov ,

S .A .

1 957 .

P rehistoric

I nstitute o f A rchaeology. 1 97. 1 98 .

P alaeolithic

t ools .

I ssue 2 . ( in R ussian) .

t echnique .

M aterials

o f

t he

( in R ussian).

S emenov , S .A .

1 964.

P rehistoric

S emenov ,

1 968 4

T he D evelopment o f t echnique i n t he S tone A ge .

S .A .

T echnology.

L eningrad .

( in

R ussian ) .

1 99 .

S enaratne , V ol. 1 .

S .P .F .

1 965 .

2 00 .

S enaratne , S .P .F.

1 969 .

2 01.

S harma , R .

B asis a nd T erminology. R IA .

2 02.

S hchelinsky,

1 973. V .E .

L ondon .

S ome P ossible A rtefacts f rom W ilpattu .

P rehistoric A rchaeology i n C eylon .

1 972 .

J NMC .

C NMHS.

T he S tudy o f F unctions o f P ebble T ools

f romthe Emisey R iver L ate P alaeolithic S ites . ( in R ussian ) . 2 03.

S hchelinsky ,

V .E .

1 977 .

E xperimental

m icro-wear

s tudying

o f

l ate

P alaeolithic t ool f unctions . P roblems o f t he E astern & C entral E uropean P alaeolithic . L eningrad . ( in R ussian ) . 2 04.

2 05 .

S hchetenko ,

A .Y .

L eningrad.

( in R ussian).

1 968 .

S hchetenko, A .Y .

1 969 .

k eeper o f S outh I ndia . 2 06 . 2 07.

S hchetenko ,

A .Y .

S heshadri ,

M .

1 979 . 1 953 .

A ncient

l and-cultivation c ultures

( Review) .

A llchin F .R .

S oviet A rchaeology , P rehistoric - I ndia .

N 2 .

o f D eccan .

N eolithic C attle

( in R ussian ) .

L eningrad .

( in R ussian ) .

M icrolithic I ndustries o f M ysore .

U LIA .

9 .

A nnual r eport. 2 08 .

S inger ,

R .

& W ymer ,

J .

1 978 .

A H and-axe f rom N orthwest I ran :

T he

Q uestion o f H uman Movement b etween A frica a nd A sia i n t he L ower P alaeolithic P eriod . V iews o f t he p ast . E OWPP . 2 09 .

S ingh ,

G .A .

P alynological A pproach T owards t he P roblem o f s ome l ower

P alaeolithic P roblesm i n R ajasthan . 2 10 .

S ingh ,

G .A . &C hose , B .

1 976 .

I G . 3 ( I).

G eomorphology o f t he L uni B asin a nd i ts

P alaeoclimatic I nferences. E AWI. 2 11.

S ingh , S " C hose , B . &A mal K ar . 1 978 . G eomorphic C hanges a s E vidence o f P alaeoclimate a nd D esertification i n R ajasthan D esert. M E , V ol. 2 .

2 12.

S oundar R ajan . K urnool.

2 13.

A I.

1 952 .

S tone A ge i ndustries n ear G iddalur D istrict

N 8 .

S oundar R ajan . 1 958 . S tudies i n t he S tone A ge o f N agarjunakonda a nd i ts N eighbourhood , A J , N 1 4.

9 7

2 14.

S oundar R ajan . 1 961 . Q uaternary P ebble C ore a nd F lake I ndian S ubcontinent: a n a ppraisal o f D ata . A l , N 1 7.

2 15 .

S oundar R ajan .

2 16 .

S ourindranat R . 1 953 . ( 17841902). A l. N 9 .

2 17 .

S oundara R ajan . K .V . I ndia a nd P akistan .

2 18 .

S pate , O .H .Y . 1 954 . G eogrpahy. L ondon .

2 19.

S paulding , A .C . A rtifact T ypes.

2 20 .

S paulding , A .C . 1 960 . S tatistical D escription a nd C omparison o f A rtifact A ssemblage . T he A pplication o f Q uantitative m ethods i n A rchaeology . V iking F und P ublication , N 2 5 .

2 21.

S tanner ,

1 964 .

C ultures

o f

C omments o n N eolithic P roblem i n I ndia . I P . I ndian A rchaeology f rom J ones t o M arshall

1 964 . I P .

C omments o n M iddle S tone A ge C ultures i n

I ndia

a nd

P akistan

-A G eneral

R egional

1 953 . S tatistical T echniques f or t he D iscovery o f A A , v ol 1 8. C hicago.

W .E .H .

1 964 .

t he D reaming ,

C ultural a nd S ocial A nthropology.

a n A ustralian

2 22.

S ubbarao , B .

1 948 .

T he S tone A ge C ultures o f B ellary.

2 23 .

S ubbarao , B .

1 958 .

T he P ersonality o f I ndia.

2 24 .

S ubramanium , M E , V ol . 2 .

2 25 .

T erra ,

V .

& D alavai ,

H . D e &P atterson ,

a nd A ssociated C ultures .

R .A .

T .T .

w orld v iew .

E d. P eter H ammond.

1 968 .

1 939 .

P oona.

B aroda.

D enudation b y

I ndian R ivers .

S tudies o n t he I ce A ge i n I ndia

W ashington .

2 26 .

T hapar , B .K .

1 957.

M aski.

2 27.

T hapar , B .K .

1 964 .

N eolithic P roblem i n I ndia .

2 28 .

T hapar , V .K . I ndia . I P .

1 964 .

C omments o n M esolithic P hase i n t he P rehistory o f

2 29 .

T hapar , B .E.

1 973a.

2 30 .

T hapar ,

F .

1 973b .

A l.

N 1 3. I P.

B asis a nd T erminology o f P eriodization . T he H istorian a nd A rchaeological

D ata .

R IA . R IA .

p p .

3 78-89 . 2 31.

T heobald ,

W .

1 860 .

O n t he T ertiary a nd A luvial D eposits o f t he

C entral P ortion o f t he N arbaddu v alley : 2 32 . 2 33 .

T homas , N .W . T odd ,

K .R .U .

2 34 .

T odd , K .R .U .

2 35 .

V ishnu

1 906. 1 939 . 1 950 .

M ittre .

I ndia .

N atives o f A ustralia .

M .G .I.,

M icrolithic I ndustries o f B ombay. S ome

P roblems

c oncerning

J RAI .

L XIX .

A l. V I. P leistocene

S tratigraphy o f I ndia w ith r emarks o n P olen S tratigraphy . I P .

9 8

C alcutta.

L ondon.

P alaeolithic I ndustries o f B ombay .

1 964 .

2 .

2 36.

W adia , D .N .

2 37.

W aechter , E lsevier .

2 38 .

W ainwright , G .J . &M alik , S .C . P leistocene C hronology i n I ndia .

2 39 .

W ayland ,

1 953 .

G eology o f I ndia a nd B urma.

J . 1 976 . P haidon .

E .J .

M aking

1 9 15 .

o f

t he

P ast .

L ondon . M an

b efore

H istory .

1 967 . P roblems o f A rchaeology a nd P PS . 3 3 . 1 32 .

N otes c oncerning t he O ccurrence o f S mall D esert

T racts i n t he N orth-West C eylon .

S z.

V ol.

1 0 , p art X XXVII.

2 40 .

W ayland , E .J . I I, p art 4 1.

1 919 .

2 41.

W ayland , E .J .

1 921.

2 42.

Wayland , E .J . 1 934 . J RAI. V ol. L XIV .

2 43.

c a l eoe R .E .M . 1 948 . B rahmagiri a nd C hnadravalli 1 947 : M egalithic a nd o ther C ultures i n t he C hitaldrug D sitrict. M ysore. A l , N 4 .

2 44 .

W heeler , R .E.M .

2 45.

W ijesekera , N .D .

2 46 .

W ormm ln ,

E .C .

O utlines o f t he S tone A ge o f C eylon .

F ossilferous B eds i n C eylon , S Z. V ol. X I. R ifts, R ivers , R ains a nd E arly M an i n U ganda .

1 959 .

E arly I nida a nd P akistan t o A shoka.

1 949 .

1 949 .

S Z . V ol .

T he P eople o f C eylon .

C olombo.

T he N eolithic P roblem i n t he P rehistory o f I ndia .

J RAS . V ol . X NA , N 6 . 2 47.

Z euner ,

F .E.

G eochronology. 2 48 .

Z euner ,

F .E .

1 950a.

D ating

t he

P ast.

An

I ntroduction

t o

L ondon . 1 950b .

S tone A ge a nd P leistocene C hronology i n G ujarat .

P oona. 2 49 .

Z euner ,

F .E .

E arly M an . 2 50 .

Z euner ,

F .E .

1 951. P oona.

P rehistory i n I ndia . ( DCHS) ,

& A llchin ,

B .

1 956 .

T innevelly D istrict, M adras S tate. 2 51.

Z euner ,

F .E .

1 959 .

T he M icrolithic I ndustries o f A l. N 1 2.

T he P leistocene P eriod .

a nd F aunal S uccessions.

F our B roadcats T alks o n

1 .

L ondon .

9 9

I ts C limate ,

C hronology

P ur l

B ombay

C hat ropur 19°%1% l ' re th e rona m

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g le e ,

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F IG .

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t he v icinity o f M adras;

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T ools w ith a c hisel e nd ;

4 ,

5 , h andaxes w ith e vidence o f h afting ;

w ith a b eak s haped p oint . ( After S ankalia) .

1 05

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• •

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F IG .

8 :

M iddle P alaeolithic t ools f rom K arnataka .

S ankalia).

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( After

l i e=a

F IG .

9 :

M iddle

P alaeo lithic

p oint w ith a t ang ; s craper ;

6 ,

o vate

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1 14

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N eolithic p ottery t ypes .

1 26

( After A llchin) .

F IG .

2 8 :

P iklihal

a nd

B rahmagiri,

S ankalia).

1 27

N eolithic

p ottery

t ypes .

( After

r • •

2

z 1 • " 4 ) 4j

4 1

A C I D e r l

c r c o

0

4. )

( I )

4 1 • r I

• X V ; )

r— I

a ) °

E 0 c d r . ) 0 1 c ‘ J c > 0 • H

r : 2 4

F a b r i c a t o r s

r j. 0

1 28

S . «O .

• S .

N .

S.

•

• •

S . •

•

/

I I I I

I I I

I

1 I

• •

/

I I I

M

I

2> 2 I

?

• • • • •

1

I o

I I

l i lt J RI .

I

I I

• 1

I

I I

•

•

• r d. , «Me .

TKT I TR.1 POST

HO LES II N

RE D

M O OR UM

4-10

F IG .

3 0 :

P lan o f a c ircular s tructure ,

1 29

a .s ,

T ekkalakota .

( After S ankalia) .

7

•

F IG . 3 1:

W orked p ebbles.

1 3C

( After W ayland).

I

% \

/--- N . . ,

F IG . 3 2 :

H and a xes.

( After W ayland).

1 31

F IG. 3 3 :

H andaxe .

1 32

8 0T O O-

c e i / & J . /

3 a•

90 . 0

•

TR 3

•A I I I IRRON

n c a a Ar a .

I L ZR .

8 00

8. 0

Tag 5 9

• BW ID R J ZIVE .CR RK T I IRPURR O

, • Bf i f -N 199 1 )

( 50

0 ?el iE0

T I liC

• IC S 04 1COL 1 TI 1 3C

F IG .

3 4 :

I mportant S tone-age s ites i n S ri L anka.

1 33

C 1= M

= 1Z

C

CZ =3 1 1 10. 11 1 1 C

F IG . 3 5 :

R atnapura .

P hase I I ,

c hopper.

1 34

( After D eraniyagala).

•

F IG . 3 6 :

R atnapura .

P hase I I , c hopper .

1 35

( After D eraniyagala).

C .

F IG. 3 7:

R atnapura.

T ortoise-like t ools.

1 36

( After D eranlyagala).

• •

a

•

•

•4 0

F IG .

3 8 :

R atnapura .

f lake a rtefacts ;

d ,

L ower P alaeol ithic t ools . c rystalith .

a ,

( A fter D eraniyagala) .

1 37

c ore-tool ;

b ,

c ,

e ,

• • •

1 3P

1 39

B e l a n B a n d i P a l a s a ,

1 40

I se

9 1 1,

I .

o

;

e n )

B a n d i P a l s a .

•

4 1i t •

e t '

e i

0 ;

z .•

1 41

J76

3 75

2 05

3 5*

3 55

2 44

2 04

i 340 1 3 35

2 02

3 7 1

3 1 . 1

2 03

3 72

352

2 07

2 10

3 . I rregular .

• 4

et

4 .3 4

0

4 L

• * P

4 3 "t

LA __Semi-Lvnato

6 7.

‘gn

4 7 /

6 86

F IG . 4 3 :

6 fo

6 7 2

7 34

4 4 , 8

# 34

B andarawela , m icroliths.

1 42

. 455

1 4 3t

/ 4 5o

4 76

44

( After H artley).

_/ 4 4 1

L4 Rho mboi dal

2 oo

/ 357

Cif

5 c to

9 3

54

{ 3 . , 4ngular

51

5 23

2 37

/ 367

2 17

Cif

13 57

5/ 5

5 28 "

5/ 6

1 3SY

6D -shapec n

C C ODDD 1 387

1 398

1 370

[ 7B eaked

5 78

/ 374 1

l e

405

1 407

1 372

/ 400

m i i6

1 41

1 4 10

l

6 10

6/ 7

6 24

6 03

6 o#

6 60

A S t,

6 4;

/ 1 .B orers

7 57

7 6/

9 ' 62

/ 473

F IG .

4 4 :

4 7 7

937 ? 4 . 2

B andarawela , m icroliths.

1 43

7 63

9 6 4

( After H artley).

/ 2?o

c i

7 5 0

7 5 2

1 6 1

1 51

1 61

8 26

8 38

( ) 1 ( , M

5 ( 8 1 4,

8 15

8 22 8 23

g 4 .6

7 78

8 13

8 63

doo

8 73

re

8 68

7 11

1 4"

9 /3

C A ise ls

7 8 1

9 83

9 82

99 8

I / 3B lades

1 00 1

1 009

/ 023

/ 024

414

21 j e da iriz aiA itid

/ 034

/ 475

miy

1 0 12 [ 21

999

I

/ 0 /5

I 03y

/ 0 3/

I1 3 I A dllu to Scra pers'

r " -„ 3A • -

1 0 62

/ 063

F IG. 4 5 :

t 0 4 . 4

/ 06S

/ 06h

B andarawela, m icroliths.

1 44

/el

( After H artley).

4

2 . 4

7 # ‘

= • 4

C ‘ I r

1 45

( A f t e r H a r t l e y ) .

a l dr ee ..0.

t e l

t e .

0

I I I IP

5

C4

. 0

4 1 1.

4 -

0

B a n d i P a l s a ,

e s

1 46

a

3

CM

F IG . 4 8 :

B ellan B andi P alassa , s tone a rtefacts w ith t hinned b utt.

1 47

2

CM I

F IG . e nd ;

4 9 :

I

B ellan B andi P alassa .

a

1 , A wl ;

2 , B ifacial s craper w ith a c hisel

3 , B iface w ith a t ransverse c utting e dge .

1 48

C r i

F IG. 5 0 :

P ebble h ammers w ith b ifacial d rilling.

1 49