The Spiritual Heritage of India: 10 [10, 1° ed.] 0367144204, 9780367144203

Table of contents :
Cover
Half Title
Title
Copyright
Original Title
Original Copyright
PREFACE
TRANSLITERATION OF SANSKRIT ALPHABET
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
BOOK I
1. The Vedas: General Aspects
2. Saṁhitās, Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas
3. Upaniṣads
BOOK II
4. The Auxiliary Scriptures
5. The Bhagavad-Gītā
6. The Smṛtis, the Purāṇas, the Tantras
BOOK III
7. Jainism
8. Buddhism
BOOK IV
9. The Six Systems of Thought : General Remarks
10. Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika
11. The Sāṁkhya System
12. The Yoga System of Patañjali
13. The Pūrva Mīmāṁsā
14. The Uttara Mīmāṁsā or the Vedānta Sūtras
BOOK V VEDĀNTA AND ITS GREAT EXPONENTS
15. Gauḍapāda
16. Śaṁkara
17. Bhāskara
18. Yāmuna
19. Rāmānuja
20. Nimbārka
21. Mādhwa
22. Vallabha
23. Śrī Caitanya
24. Śrī Rāmakṛṣṇa
25. Epitome
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Part I Works significantly referred to in this book
Part II Other Works pertaining to Indian Philosophy
INDEX

Citation preview

R O U T L E D G E L IB R A R Y E D IT IO N S : H IN D U IS M

Volume 10

THE SPIRITUAL HERITAGE OF INDIA

THE SPIRITUAL HERITAGE OF INDIA

SWAMI P R A B H A V A N A N D A

First published in 1962 by George Allen & Unwin Ltd This edition first published in 2019 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 1962 George Allen & Unwin Ltd All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: ISBN: ISBN: ISBN:

978-0-367-14300-8 978-0-429-05711-3 978-0-367-14420-3 978-0-429-03194-6

(Set) (Set) (ebk) (Volume 10) (hbk) (Volume 10) (ebk)

Publisher’s Note The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint but points out that some imperfections in the original copies may be apparent. Disclaimer The publisher has made every effort to trace copyright holders and would welcome correspondence from those they have been unable to trace.

SWAMI PRABHAVANANDA with the assistance o f Frederick Manchester

T H E SPIRITUAL HERITAGE OF IN D IA

London

GEORGE ALLEN & UNWIN LTD RUSKIN HOUSE

MUSEUM STREET

FIRST P U BL IS HE D I N

1962

This book is copyright under the Berne Convention. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose o f private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright A ct, 1956, no portion may be reproduced by any process without written permission. Enquiry should be made to the publisher. ©

George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1962

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN

in 10 on 11 pt. Spectrum type BY UNWIN BROTHERS LIMITED WOKING AND LONDON

PREFACE

The Spiritual Heritage o f India is a brief history of th e philosophy of a country th a t has never distinguished philosophy from religion. The account extends from centuries of which there is no historical record to the recent Sri Rämakrsna revival of the ancient Vedanta. In connection w ith each of the subjects taken up I have tried to supply sufficient quotation from the texts concerned, as incidental illustration and sometimes also as appended passages, to give body and force to th e exposition. My point of view is in one respect different from th a t of the Western scholar. I speak always as one born to the religious tradition of India, convinced of the profound tru th of its essential message and familiar w ith its manifestations in the life of m y people. Thus a religious phenom enon th at to the Western scholar m ight well seem rem ote and merely curious, an item to be scientifically noted b u t n o t to be taken seriously—I refer to the transcendental consciousness—is to m e a plain fact o f suprem e significance. I have dwelt in close association w ith m ost of th e monastic disciples of Sri Rämakrsna, each of w hom had attained th a t ultim ate and blessed experience; and I have seen one of them , m y spiritual master, Swami Brahmananda, living almost constantly—as a direct result o f that experience—in a state of ecstatic com m union w ith God. I have just m entioned Sri Rämakrsna. As a representative of the monastic order founded m ore th an half a century ago in his name, I may be forgiven for having often invoked him in this book. That I should do this was natural—indeed almost inevitable—since it is th ro u g h Sri Rämakrsna, as reported by those who knew him, m ore th an thro u g h anyone else, that I have come to whatever understanding I possess of the religion o f India. This religion has two aspects. There is its essential message, regarding w hich its leading representatives are in complete and obvious agreem ent. Then there are its m any secondary elements, regarding which these same representatives often differ—or rather, as we shall see, appear to differ. Now in relation to this second aspect it may be well to anticipate briefly an im pòrtant idea th a t will be set forth at greater length, again and again, in the course of the following chapters—an idea which constitutes a warning, especially to the Western reader. A Western reader, as he goes from one m ore or less intricate system o f th o u g h t to another contrasting w ith it in detail after detail, may

8

The Spiritual Heritage o f India

n o t unnaturally conclude th at despite agreement in a few concepts these systems are m utually contradictory, and that one should speak n o t of Indian religion but o f Indian religions. But this, to the Indian m ind, w ould be to ignore the fact th at finite views of the infinite are necessarily partial, and the further fact th at they are relative to time and place, to individual tem peram ent, and to the plane of consciousness th a t they reflect. W hen therefore one teaching seems to contradict another, it m ay in fact n o t so m uch contradict it as supplem ent it, the total tru th residing n o t in any one theory b u t in a synthesis in which all theories have their part. The flexibility suggested is, and has always been, a prim ary characteristic of Indian religion. The passages from the Upanisads are from th e PrabhavanandaM anchester translation, and those from the Bhagavad-Gïtâ are from th e Prabhavananda-Isherwood translation. Passages from the Bhâgavatam are from m y translation entitled The Wisdom of God. The chapter on th e Yoga Aphorisms of Patañjali has incorporated m any of the com m ents on them contained in the book How to Know God, by Prabhavananda and Isherwood. The chapter on Samkarawas rew ritten by Christopher Isherwood, and has been published as an introduction to the Prabhavananda-Isherwood translation, entitled Shankara’s Crest-fewel o f Discrimination, o f the Vivekacüdämani. The teachings of Sri Rämakrsna (pp. 352 f.)—selected from Swami Brahmananda’s S ri S ri Rämakrsna Upadesa—were translated by Swami Prabhavananda and Frederick Manchester. Translations from Sanskrit and Bengali, th ro u g h o u t the volume, w hen n o t attributed to others, are by the present author. C hapter and verse references for quotations from the Upanisads, the Bhagavad-Gïtâ, the Bhägavatam, and the Vivekacüdämani are to the Sanskrit originals. Grateful acknowledgements are due to a num ber of publishers for permission to reprint material from their books: to Advaita Ashrama, Mayavati, India, for passages from The Complete Works o f Swami Vivekananda; to George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London, for passages from Indian Philosophy, by S. Radhakrishnan, and for passages from Outlines o f Indian Philosophy, by M. Hiriyanna; to the Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry, India, for passages from Essays on the Gita, by Sri Aurobindo Ghose; to the Cambridge University Press for a passage from What is Life?, by Erwin Schrödinger; to Ganesh & Co. Ltd., Madras, for passages from Sakti and Säkta, by Sir John Woodroffe; to Longmans, Green & Co. Ltd., for a passage from Ramanuja’s Idea o f the Finite Self, by P. N. Srinivasachari; to the Sri Ramakrishna Centenary Committee, Belur M ath, Calcutta, for passages from The Cultural Heritage o f India; and finally to the Vedanta Society of Southern California, Hollywood, for passages from the following

Preface

9

works, all m entioned above: Shankara’s Crest-Jewel o f Discrimination, the Bhagavad-Gita (translated by Prabhavananda and Isherwood), How to Know God, The Upanishads (translated by Prabhavananda and Manchester), and The Wisdom of God. I am happy to record m y obligation to several persons w ho have given assistance in the production of this work. To the late Percy H. H ouston I am indebted for editing a considerable portion of the original manuscript; and to the late V. Subrahmanya Iyer for reading a large section of it and making valuable suggestions. To the m em ory of those two scholars, one of the West, one o f the East, I offer my homage. To the physicist Joseph Kaplan I am indebted for a series of notes showing the parallelism between the cosmological ideas of Kapila, the Sämkhya philosopher, and the findings of m odern science. By special arrangem ent, the final draft of this history has had m uch attention, as regards form , from Frederick Manchester. He has rew ritten the Preface, chapters 1-4, 10, 24, and 25; and—except of course for m atter previously published and here reproduced unaltered—he has edited the remainder of the book. Finally, for m uch painstaking labour in preparing the m anuscript for the press, I am indebted to a m em ber of m y immediate household, Brahmacharini Usha. P. December 1960

A*

T R A N S L I T E R A T I O N OF S A N S K R I T A L P H A B E T

VOWELS

short: long: anusvära : visarga :

a

i

u

e

ο

ä

!

ü

ai

au

m h

CONSONANTS

gutturals : k kh g palatals: c ch j cerebrals : t th d th d dentals: t p labials : P h b semi-vowels : y r 1 s a s i n sit sibilants :

aspirate :

gh

ή

jh

fí

dh n dh n bh

m

V

s palatal sibilant pronounced like the soft Russian s s cerebral sibilant as in show h

CONTENTS page 7

PREFACE T R A N S L I T E R A T I O N OF S A N S K R I T A L P H A B E T

11

IN TR O D U C TIO N

15 BOOK I

1. The Vedas: General Aspects 2. Samhitäs, Brähmanas, Aranyakas 3. Upanisads

25 31 39

BOOK Π

4. The Auxiliary Scriptures 5. The Bhagavad-Gïtâ 6. The Smrtis, the Puränas, the Tantras

79 95 134

BOOK III

7. Jainism 8. Buddhism

155 168 BOOK IV

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

The Six Systems o f Thought : General Remarks Nyäya-Vaisesika The Sämkhya System The Yoga System of Patañjali The Pürva Mimärhsä The Uttara Mimämsä or the Vedänta Sütras

199 202 208 226 265 268

BOOK V VEDÄNTA AND ITS GREAT EXPONENTS

15. Gaudapäda 16. Samkara 17. Bhäskara

273 279 299

14

The Spiritual Heritage o f India

18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Yämuna Rämänuja Nimbärka Mädhwa Vallabha Sri Caitanya Sri Rämakrsna Epitome

page

301 304 317 319 322 324 333 354

BIBLIO GRAPH Y

Part I Works significantly referred to in this book Part II Other Works pertaining to Indian Philosophy IN D EX

357 358 362

IN T R O D U C T IO N

The word darsana, which is usually translated ‘philosophy’, means in Sanskrit seeing or experience. From this we may gather th at Indian philosophy is n o t merely metaphysical speculation, b u t has its foundation in immediate perception. God and the soul are regarded by the H indu mind, n o t as concepts, speculative and problematical, as is the case in Western philosophy, b u t as things directly know n. They can be experienced n o t merely by a chosen few, but, under right conditions, by all hum anity. This insistence upon immediate perception rather than on abstract reasoning is w hat distinguishes th e Indian philosophy of religion from philosophy as Western nations know it. Imm ediate perception is the source from which springs all Indian thought. This perception, it m ust be made clear, is n o t o f the senses, nor m ust it be confused w ith the operations of the intellect, n o r of the emotions; it is supersensuous, transcendental—som ething n o t to be fully explained in rational terms. The M ändükya Upanisad speaks of three states of consciousness— waking, dreaming, and dreamless sleep.1 These are com m on to all m en. In addition, there is turiya (The Fourth), the transcendental state—know n also as samädhi—which may be described as the ultim ate consciousness. Though it is realizable by all men, they do n o t experience it in their spiritually ignorant condition. Indian philosophers call the transcendental state by various names, but all of the names unmistakably point to the same concept. Turiya, or samädhi, is a phenom enon well know n th ro u g h o u t the history of Indian life. Today, as well as in earliest times, it is experienced. Sri Rämakrsna, the greatest saint of m odern India, tho u g h n o t a learned m an, attained samädhi, and having realized the highest illum ination spoke words of solace and wisdom to all men. The state is conceivably attainable by anyone who strives hard to free himself from the dross of worldliness. The Hindu, however, is careful n o t to confuse reveries, dreams, hallucinations, and hypnotic spells w ith transcendental experience. Before a state is recognized as genuinely transcendental, it m ust pass certain tests. 1 The Upanisads are a portion o f the Vedas, the authoritative scriptures o f India. Why the Vedas are regarded as authoritative will be explained in Chapter 1.

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First, the revelation it brings m ust be related (as was said by Jaimini, founder of th e Pürva Mimämsä school of thought) to arthe anupalabdhe—som ething w hich is otherwise unknow n and unknowable. T he transcendental revelation is therefore n o t a revelation of things o r tru th s norm ally perceived or generally know n, n o r of truths capable of ordinary perception or of apprehension th ro u g h the ordinary instrum ents of knowledge. And yet it m ust be universally understandable in relation to h u m an experience, and m ust be comm unicable to us in h u m an terms. Second, the tru th it reveals m ust n o t contradict other truths. It is necessarily beyond and above reason, b u t it m ust n o t contradict reason. Thus Indian religion, though having its foundation in supernatural revelation, gives a legitimate place to logic and reason, and it has never been an obstacle to the grow th o f philosophic thinking. In fact, no race has produced a succession of m ore subtle or m ore rigidly logical thinkers th an the Hindus—and yet, w ithout exception, they have declared th a t reason, unaided by transcendental experience, is blind. Those w ho are called orthodox philosophers accept the Vedic scriptures as recording revealed truths; and they make these scriptures the basis o f their reasoning. Samkara, one of the forem ost philosophers of India, has this to say concerning the limitations o f reason in the investigation of tru th : ‘As th e thoughts of m an are altogether unfettered, reasoning which disregards the holy texts and rests on individual opinion only has no proper foundation. We see how arguments, which some clever m en have excogitated w ith great pains, are shown, by people still m ore ingenious to be fallacious, and how the argum ents of the latter again are refuted in their tu rn by other m en; so that, on account o f the diversity of m en’s opinions, it is impossible to accept m ere reasoning as having a sure foundation.’1 1 áam kara’s com m entary on the Vedänta Sütras, trans. George Thibaut,

Sacred Booh o f the East, vol. XXXIV, pp. 314-15 (Π. i. 11). Explaining the final cause

and substance o f the universe, Sam kara further rem arks as follow s: ‘Perfect know ledge has the characteristic m ark o f uniform ity, because it depends on accom plished actually existing things; for whatever thing is perm anently o f one and the sam e nature is acknowledged to be a true or real thing, and knowledge conversant about such is called perfect knowledge, as, for instance, the knowledge em bodied in the proposition “Fire is h ot” . Now, it is clear that in the case o f perfect knowledge a m utual conflict o f m en’s opinions is impossible. But that cognitions founded on reasoning do conflict is generally know n; for we continually observe th at w hat one logician endeavours to establish as perfect knowledge is dem olished by another, who, in his turn, is treated alike by a third. How, therefore, can knowledge, which is founded on reasoning, and whose object is n ot som ething perm anently uniform , be perfect know ledge! . . . N or

Introduction

17

The systems o f Indian philosophy fall into two m ain divisions according as they do or do n o t accept the authority o f the Vedas. All systems except Buddhism and Jainism are pronounced ästika— meaning, in effect, orthodox; these two, w hich deny the authority of the great prim ary scriptures, are nästika—unorthodox. If, however, we interpret ästika literally—belief in existence after death—th en all systems of thought, w ith the exception of the system attributed to Cärväka, are ästika. W hat Cärväka really taught, or w hether there was a philosopher nam ed Cärväka at all, it is difficult to know, for we hear of him only thro u g h the refutation, by various other schools of thought, of a philosophy o f sensualism attributed to him. This philosophy was, in effect, b u t the simple philosophy o f scepticism w hich appears as a crosscurrent in every age and every country. The nam e Cärväka literally means sweet word. Some Oriental scholars translate nästika as atheist. B ut if this meaning of th e w ord is applied to Buddhism and Jainism because they reject an anthropom orphic God, then it should be applied also to m any o f the orthodox schools. The Sämkhya philosophy, for example, denies God as creator, yet it is held to be orthodox. Curiously, there is no equivalent in Sanskrit for the word atheism. In the Gita m ention is made of those w ho do n o t believe in God, the intelligent principle, b u t these are spoken of m erely as o f ‘deluded intellect’. As we have intim ated, the Vedas, or árutis (revealed truths), stand as an absolute authority behind w hich the orthodox schools cannot go. In this sense their authority m ight seem to resemble th a t o f the Holy Bible in m any periods o f Christian thought; b u t in th e words of D r S. Radhakrishnan, ‘The appeal to the Vedas does n o t involve any reference to an extra-philosophical standard. W hat is dogm a to the ordinary m an is experience to the pure in heart.’1 With th e exception of Buddhism and Jainism, all Indian schools of tho u g h t regard the can we collect at a given m om ent and on a given spot all the logicians o f the past, present, and future time, so as to settle (by their agreem ent) that their opinion regarding som e uniform object is to be considered perfect knowledge. T he Veda, on the other hand, which is eternal and the source o f knowledge, m ay be allowed to have for its object firm ly established things, and hence the perfection o f that knowledge which is founded on the Veda cannot be denied by any o f the logicians o f the past, present, or future. We have thus established the perfection o f this our knowledge which reposes on the Upanishads, and as apart from it perfect knowledge is impossible, its disregard w ould lead to “absence o f final release” o f the transm igrating souls. O ur final position, therefore, is that on the ground o f Scripture, and o f reasoning subordinate to Scripture, the intelligent Brahm an is to be considered the cause and substance o f the w orld.’ (Ibid., pp. 316-17.) 1 Indian Philosophy, vol. I, p. 51.

18

The Spiritual Heritage o f India

Vedas as recording th e transcendental experience of th e first m ighty seers of India. This experience cannot and should n o t contradict similar experience in any age or country. Furtherm ore, it is accessible to all. For these reasons, all Hindus believe th at the Vedas are eternal— beginningless and endless—and th at in th em transcendental experience has had its standard manifestation. W hat then of Buddhism and Jainism’ Shall we exclude them from the highest expressions of Indian thought? The fact is th at they accept th e authority of revealed knowledge and transcendental experience, th o u g h they deny the authority of the Vedas, particularly of the ritualistic portions, as a result of certain historical circumstances. They were born at a tim e w hen the spirit of the Vedas had been lost, w hen the Hindus held faithfully only to th e letter o f the law, and w hen priestcraft reigned supreme. Religion confined itself to sacrificial rites. The yearning to know th e tru th of the Self, or B rahm an in one’s own soul, which is attained only by the pure in heart, was absent. Buddha, though he denied the authority of th e Vedas, actually impressed their spirit u p o n his followers by urging them to live the pure life in order to free themselves from th e burden of sorrow. And he showed the way by himself attaining nirvana—another nam e for samädhi, th e transcendental state. Thus the teachings of Buddha do n o t contradict the spirit of the Vedas b u t are in entire harm ony w ith it; and the same is true of the teaching of Mahävira, founder of Jainism. From the foregoing it can be readily seen th at the Indian philosophy of religion is fundam entally mystic and spiritual. Says Professor M. Hiriyanna: . . Indian philosophy aims beyond Logic. This peculiarity of the view-point is to be ascribed to the fact th at philosophy in India did n o t take its rise in w onder or curiosity as it seems to have done in the West; rather it originated un d er the pressure o f a practical need arising from the presence of m oral and physical evil in life. It is the problem of how to remove this evil th at troubled th e ancient Indians most, and moksa in all the systems represents a state in which it is, in one sense or another, taken to have been overcome. Philosophic endeavour was directed prim arily to find a remedy for the ills of life, and the consideration of metaphysical questions came in as a m atter of course.’1 This, then, is central in Indian philosophy—an overmastering sense of the evil of physical existence combined with a search for 1 Outlines o f Indian Philosophy, pp. 18 f.

Introduction

19

release from pain and sorrow—and by these tw o things it is distinguished from the philosophies of any other race or country. We are led here to a consideration of the charge of pessimism brought against Indian philosophy by the West—the charge th a t it springs, as has been asserted, ‘from lassitude and a desire for rest’. This criticism by those who, as is so m uch done in the West, seek fulfilm ent thro u g h positive, aggressive action, arises from a misunderstanding of the purpose of Indian philosophy. This philosophy is pessimistic if by pessimism is m eant acknowledgement of the true nature of life in this world—th at it is a strange mingling of good and evil, th at on the plane of the senses it yields b u t a doubtful happiness, and th at physical and m oral evils continue to the end of o u r m ortal existence. The distinctive characteristic of Indian philosophy lies in the fact, n o t merely th a t it is dissatisfied w ith existing suffering, but th a t it points o u t the path towards the attainm ent of moksa, or release, w hich is a state o f unalloyed and infinite bliss. Philosophers differ, however, w ith respect to the exact nature of moksa; and the differences make up the substance of H indu thought. These are due in part to varying grades of experience in realizing the transcendental life; and o f course they are due above all to the attem pt to express the inexpressible. In one thing, however, the philosophers all agree. T hat is, th at spiritual perfection can be attained here and now. ‘M an’s aim’, says Professor Hiriyanna, ‘was no longer represented as the attainm ent of perfection in a hypothetical hereafter, but as a continual progress towards it w ithin the limits of the present life.’1 Moksa, or th e attainm en t o f freedom from the limitations and sufferings of physical life, is the suprem e aspiration of all Indian philosophy.2 áamkara, speaking of the suprem e goal o f hu m an life, says: ‘A m an is born n o t to desire enjoym ents in the w orld of the senses, b u t to realize the bliss of jivanm ukti [liberation while living].’ And the Upanisads over and over again emphasize this tru th : ‘Blessed is he who attains illum ination in this very life; for a m an n o t to do so is his greatest calamity.’3 But in these same scriptures it is pointed o u t 1 Outlines o f Indian Philosophy, p. 19. 2 The Pürva M im äm sä, one o f the six philosophical system s o f India, is an apparent exception to w hat I have ju st said; for it does n ot speak o f m oksa, or release, but rather teaches w ork and sacrifices as a m eans o f reaching heaven and realizing the enjoym ents thereof. But, th ough this philosophy does n ot directly specify m oksa as the goal o f its striving, indirectly it does. For work, as tau gh t by Jaimini, brings purification o f the heart, which leads one to m oksa. If, however, we take Pürva and U ttara Mim äm sä as form ing one system o f thought, then we m ay declare that, w ithout exception, Indian philosophies set forth m oksa as the ultim ate goal, and affirm th at it m ay be attained in this life. (Pürva and U ttara M im äm sä are discussed in detail in Chapters 13 and 14.) 3 Kena, Π. 5.

20

The Spiritual Heritage o f India

th a t if a m an fails to attain the supreme goal in this life he can attain it in some other life, for he will be given unlim ited opportunities, by rebirths, to reach the goal o f perfection. The failure to attain direct experience of the tru th , and consequently of freedom, is due to m an’s spiritual ignorance, which is all b u t universal, and which forms the chief cause of sin and suffering. It can be dispelled by direct knowledge of ultim ate tru th obtained th ro u g h purification of the heart, and through a constant striving for detachm ent of the soul from worldly desires. By transcending the limitations of the body, th e mind, and the senses, one may enter the superconscious state. The m ethods o f attaining this highest state o f consciousness are hearing about, reasoning about, and meditating u p o n the ultim ate reality. One m ust first hear about it from the Sruti, or Vedas, and from the lips of a guru, an illum ined teacher. Then one m ust reason about it. Finally comes m editation u p o n it in order to realize the tru th for oneself. Different schools offer different m ethods of attaining the same goal, b u t all agree in recom m ending the practice of yoga, or th e exercises prescribed in the art of concentration and meditation. To tread the path of philosophy is to seek after tru th and follow a way of life. Before a m an sets o u t on the quest after tru th , he m ust fulfil certain conditions. Samkara sums th em up as follows: First, there m ust be discrimination between the real and the unreal. This statem ent means, n o t th at a m an m ust possess complete knowledge of absolute reality, which is attained only after long practice of meditation, b u t th at he m ust unfailingly subject the nature-of things to a rigid analysis by discriminating between w hat is transitory and w hat is abiding, or between w hat is true and w hat is false. The second condition is detachm ent from the selfish enjoyments of life. The aspirant m ust learn th at the highest good is realized n o t th ro u g h w orldly pleasure, b u t thro u g h a continuous search for the infinite, the enduring joy. This ideal of renunciation m ust be realized by a gradual purification of the seeker’s heart and mind. A third condition is th a t the student m ust acquire tranquillity of m ind, self-control, patience, poise, burning faith in things of the spirit, and self-surrender. These are called th e six treasures of life. The thirst for moksa, or release, is the fo u rth condition.1 Deliverance from spiritual darkness, entrance upon the path of illum ination, comes only th ro u g h annihilation of the false ego. ‘When the ego dies, all troubles cease’, says Sri Rämakrsna. Such a condition of being does n o t im ply the loss of one’s individuality, b u t rather the attainm ent o f a greater individuality, for we can lose nothing th a t is 1 See áam kara’s Com m entary on the Brahm a Sütras, Athäto Brahm a jijfiäsä, I. i. 1.

Introduction

21

real. Kälidäsa, the great Hindu poet and dramatist, has beautifully expressed this tru th . He says th at the ideal of renunciation consists in owning the whole w orld while disowning one’s own self. W hat th en is the relation o f psychology and ethics to Indian religious philosophy? The science of psychology, as Westerners know it, is m an’s attem pt to explain the behaviour of his m ind with reference to his body and the stim uli received thro u g h his senses. Ethics is the form ulation of the science of conduct in relation to society as m an faces his multifarious activities as a social being. Are these interpretations of m an ’s ordinary n atu re and life considered by the philosophies of Indiai They are, in a very definite way. As a m atter of fact, Indian philosophy and Indian psychology are n o t merely allied subjects, b u t the latter is actually an integral part of the form er. To the H indu mind, psychology has its inception in th e thinking self and n o t in the objects o f thought. It is n o t content w ith m erely observing the workings of th e m ind in the norm al planes of consciousness, as is the case w ith the m odern system called behaviourism, b u t points out how the m ind ranges beyond the conscious plane of psychic activity, and how the resulting experience is even m ore real than experience of the objective world. It differs also from the psychoanalysis o f Freud, in that, th o u g h it accepts the subconscious m ind, it holds th a t m an is capable of controlling its impressions as well as those of his conscious m ind, and of attaining to the superconscious state, w hich no school of Western psychology has yet taken into consideration. By teaching th e norm al m ind methods of restraining its own vagaries, w ith the aim of gaming suprem e mastery over itself, and of ultim ately rising above itself, Indian philosophy distinguishes its beliefs from those of all other know n systems of philosophy or psychology. The Yoga system o f Patañjali deals specifically w ith th e process of m ind control. Ethics also has a role in Indian philosophy. Though n o t identical w ith it, ethics is its very foundation. Philosophy seeks by ethics to transcend the mere life of conduct, so th at ethics supplies the means for making itself superfluous. Moreover, H indu ethics n o t only concerns itself w ith outer hum an activity, b u t extends to the inner life as well. Every teaching is conditioned by the phrase ‘in thought, word, and deed’. Ways of achieving right conduct are explicitly revealed—ways which, if followed, will enable one instinctively to live the ethical life. Emphasis is laid upon ultim ately transforming the whole being ánd rising above the injunctions of m oral codes. The wise m an is n o t troubled, we read in the Upanisads, by thoughts like these: ‘Have I n o t done rig h t’’ ‘Have I done w rong’’ Bhavabhuti, a Sanskrit poet, says, appropriately: ‘An ordinary m an is tru th fu l

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w hen the words follow th e fact. But the saint’s words are followed by the fact.’1 Such is the relation between saintliness and truthfulness. Indian philosophy is thus n o t a m ere way of thinking b u t a way of life, a way o f light, and a way of tru th . To become a philosopher is to become transform ed in life, renewed in m ind, and baptized in spirit. 1 Uttara-Rämacaritam.

BO O K I TH E VED AS AND THE UPANISADS PEACE C H A N T

M ay my speech be one with my mind, and may my mind be one with my speech. 0 thou self-luminous Brahman, remove the veil o f ignorance from before me, that I may behold thy light. Do thou reveal to me the spirit o f the scriptures. M ay the truth o f the scriptures be ever present to me. May I seek day and night to realize what I learn from the sages. M ay I speak the truth o f Brahman. M ay I speak the truth. M ay it protect me. M ay it protect my teacher: Om . . . Peace—peace—peace. R g -V e d a

C H A PTER 1

TH E V E D A S: G ENERA L A SPEC TS

The oldest scriptures of India, and the m ost im portant, are the Vedas. Orthodox Hindus, w ho include all schools of Indian th o u g h t past and present except Buddhists and Jains, recognize in them the origin of their faith and its highest w ritten authority. Buddhists and Jains reject them , though in varying degree: the Buddhists renouncing them altogether, the Jains acknowledging their spiritual validity but denying th at they are in any peculiar sense sacred. Of Jains there are in India today about a million and a quarter; of Buddhists, in India proper, there are virtually none. For the vast m ajority o f m odern Hindus, therefore, amongst all their sacred writings, the Vedas are supreme. This does not, however, suggest the whole story. For the term Vedas, as used by the orthodox, n o t only names a large body of texts composed in times indefinitely rem ote, and handed down by generation after generation to our own day, but in another sense stands for nothing less than Divine T ru th itself, the inexpressible tru th of which the Vedic texts are of necessity b u t a pale reflection. Regarded in this second aspect, the Vedas are infinite and eternal. They are th a t perfect knowledge which is God. Even m ore than the other scriptures of the world, the Vedas make a special claim to be divine in their origin. The Bible, the Koran, and other revelations of the word of God owe their authority to delivery of the sacred message through an angel, or prophet, or other special messenger from God to certain chosen persons. And these revelations m ust be accepted on faith. No question is raised as to w hether any hum an being today can verify these revelations in his own experience. The Vedas, on the other hand, are said to be apauruseya, which means divine in origin. In fact, in the words of Säyanäcärya, the learned com m entator on the Vedas, Yo vedebhyah akhilam jagat nirm am e—God created the whole universe o u t of the knowledge of the Vedas. That is to say, Vedic knowledge existed even before the creation of mankind. The authority of the Vedas does n o t depend

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upon anything external. They themselves are authority, being the knowledge of God. And, as we shall see later, their tru th is verifiable by any spiritual aspirant in transcendental consciousness. But it is the Vedas in th e concrete sense of scriptures with which alone we are henceforth concerned. As such, they are divided into four m ajor parts, and each of these, in tu rn , is fu rth er divided and subdivided—as may be conveniently seen in the following table:

ß jc i

Work

ÇSamhitäs < Brähmanas

(_Aranyakas

Knowledge (Upanisads)

{

Samhitäs Brähmanas Aranyakas

I Knowledge (Upanisads) W ork Yajur

f Samhitäs ■< Brähmanas Aranyakas

Knowledge (Upanisads)

{

Samhitäs Brähmanas

Atharva

Aranyakas

Knowledge (Upanisads) Many questions suggested by this classification we shall pass by for the m om ent, while we inquire how, in the view of orthodox Hindus, this body of sacred texts came into being. The answer involves certain H indu beliefs with which, if only in preliminary fashion, we should now become acquainted. To the Hindu, creation is beginningless and endless. T hat it is beginningless he proves by a simple process of logic. If creation had a beginning, th en m ust the creator also have had a beginning, since until there is a creation there can be no creator; b u t to adm it th a t the creator had a beginning would be to adm it th at God had a beginning, since God is n o t God until he creates—and to think of God as having had a beginning would, to the Hindu, be a

The Vedas: General Aspects

27

manifest absurdity. God, who contains within himself the seed, the material cause, of the universe, first brings forth the universe o u t of his own being, and then in due tim e takes it back again to himself. This process of creation and dissolution goes on for ever and ever, for it is as endless as it is beginningless. Eternity is witness, n o t o f one universe only—that, for example, of which we are now a part—but of an infinite succession of universes. The birth, life, and destruction of a universe constitutes a cycle. To say th at there was never a first cycle, and will never be a last, is only a way of affirming th at the creative function of God is, like himself, eternal. Further beliefs concern the stuff of which the successive universes are composed. This stuff is simply an immense m ultitude of beings, some animate, some inanimate. Plants, animals, and m en are animate; rocks and stones are inanimate. But all are alike beings. These, by their nature, are involved in a process the final goal of which is their complete absorption into God—in his quiescent, or noncreative, aspect. When an individual being is thus absorbed he is free forever from the cycles of finite existence; b u t the process leading to this blessed state may be a long one. N ot only may a being be born, live, and die, and then be born again, live, and die, indefinitely, within the bounds of a single universe, but he may also be born again and again into an indefinite series of universes. The history of a particular individual, the num ber of times he experiences rebirth, or reincarnation as it is called, depends entirely upon the quality of his will, upon the m oral effort he puts forth. As he rises in m oral and spiritual stature he is born into an ever higher plane of existence u n til at last he returns to the world as man. Birth as a hum an being is extolled as a sacred birth, n o t because to be born as m an necessarily leads to immediate liberation—far from it—but because the achievement of liberation is possible to m an alone. Against the background of these conceptions the orthodox view of the origin of the Vedas may be quickly sketched. At the very beginning of each cycle, holy seers are born into the world, m en who in previous universes have ascended far towards the suprem e goal and are therefore especially capable of perceiving divine tru th . These blessed saints—rsis, the Hindus call them —m editate on God, and while so meditating discern the everlasting laws of the spirit; and it is the concrete record of these laws, so discerned, th at constitutes, in each cycle, the m ost authoritative or sacred writings. The record of the meditations of the rsis born at the beginning of our own cycle is, then, w hat we know as the Vedas. Thus far the account is, to orthodox eyes, literal tru th . However, around the origin and early developm ent of the Vedas are clustered m any m yths and symbols. Some of these we may now glance at—

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th o u g h in so doing we should realize th at th e gods of the Hindu, or devas as he calls them , m ust always be sharply distinguished from God. God is th e one suprem e being, the uncreated; while the gods, th o u g h supernatural, belong (together with m any other orders of supernatural beings) am ong the creatures. Like the Christian angels, they are m uch nearer to m an than to God. ‘As smoke and sparks arise from a lighted fire kindled with damp fuel’—runs one account—‘even so, Maitreyi, have breathed forth from the Eternal all knowledge and all wisdom—w hat we know as the Rg-Veda,1 th e Yajur Veda, and the rest. They are the breath of the Eternal.52And another, m ore circumstantial: ‘Thegods perform ed a sacrificial rite, m editating on the transcendental being as the sacrifice itself. From o u t th a t sacrifice came Rk, Säma, and Yajur.’3 (The Atharva—see th e Table, above—which was probably later th an the others, and of m inor im portance, is n o t here m entioned.) And another relates, w ith still m ore circumstance, how the god Brahma was once m editating on his creator w hen there was manifested w ithin the shrine of his heart the eternal w ord Om—the seed of all knowledge and of all thought. One by one were also manifested the sounds of all th e letters, and through these letters there became know n u n to Brahma the wisdom of the Vedas. T hen in order to spread this knowledge th ro u g h the world he taught it to his disciples —to Marici, Atri, Añgiras, and others—and these in tu rn to th e world around them . In this fashion did the Vedas become know n to all m ankind. By way of accounting for certain subdivisions of the Yajur a story is told4 which has about it, like so m any of the ancient scriptural narratives, a quaint, childlike hum our. On a certain occasion the rsis, it seems, planned a conference. ‘Whoever fails to attend’, they announced, ‘will com m it a great sin—equal to th a t of killing a brahm in.’5Now Vaisampäyana failed to attend, and, as a consequence, th e curse of all the other rsis fell upon him. In order to expiate his offence he requested his disciples to practise austerities. One disciple, however, Yajñavalkya by name, rem onstrated thus: ‘Master, how can you expiate your sin by the austerities of these thy worthless disciples? I am the one am ongst them who alone can bring good u n to thee by m y practices.’ At this Vaisampäyana grew angry, and said: ‘How dare you speak thus? I w ant no such hot-headed, 1 Rk, when joined with Veda, becom es Rg, by a regular change o f consonant.

2 Brhadäranyaka Upanisad, II. iv. 10.

3 Rg-Veda, x. 90: Purusa Sükta, 9. 4 From the Sanskrit quoted in the Introduction to D urgacharan Sam khyaVedanta Tirtha’s Bengali translation o f the Isa Upanisad with áam kara’s com m entary (C alcutta: Kshirode Chandra M ajum dar). s A m em ber, that is, o f the brahm in, or priestly, caste.

The Vedas : General Aspects

29

egotistical disciple as you! Give back w hat you have learned from me, and be off!’ So the egotist Yajñavalkya spewed from his m o u th all th a t he had learned, and departed. His fellow disciples, unable to endure this insult to their knowledge, assumed the form of tittiri birds and gathered up the lore th a t had been ejected and taught it to their pupils. Thus it was th a t th e branch o f th e Yajur called the Black Yajur, or, w ith reference to the birds, th e Taittiriya, came into being. Now Yajñavalkya, having cast away his knowledge of th e Vedas, felt how em pty he was, and realized w hat a very beast a m an becomes w ho is destitute of this wisdom. But w here m ight he find a teacher? Then it occurred to him th a t th e sun-god never separates himself from the Vedas; for in the m orning he is adorned w ith the Rg-Veda, at noon w ith the Yajur Veda, and in the evening w ith the Säma Veda. And so, accepting th e sun-god as his master, Yajñavalkya prayed to him for knowledge. The sun-god, pleased w ith the ardour of his new votary, did according to his desire, and the portion of the Vedas w hich he taught him was henceforth know n as the White Yajur. Yajñavalkya then, in his tu rn , tau g h t this to his disciples. For the study of th e Vedas, according to long tradition, and even according to the Vedas themselves, one m ust have—as Yajñavalkya had—a master, or guru: ‘Approach a teacher’, says the M undaka,1 ‘w ith hum ility and w ith a desire to serve.’ Elsewhere we read: ‘To m any it is n o t given to hear of the Self. Many, th o u g h they hear of it, do n o t understand it. W onderful is he who speaks of it; intelligent is he who learns of it. Blessed is he who, taught by a good teacher, is able to understand it.’2 The function of the ‘good teacher’, as Hinduism conceives it, is twofold. He of course explains the scriptures, th e spirit as well as the letter; but, w hat is m ore im portant still, he teaches by his life—by his little daily acts, by his m ost casual words, sometimes even by his silence. Only to be near him, only to serve and obey him in hum ility and reverence, is to become quickened in spirit; and the purpose of the study o f th e Vedas is n o t m erely or primarily to inform the intellect, b u t to purify and enrich the soul: Pleasant indeed are th e study and teaching of the Vedas! He w ho engages in these things attains to concentration of mind, And is no longer a slave to his passions; Devout, self-control] ed, cultivated in spirit, He rises to fame and is a blessing to m ankind.3 1 I. ii. 12. 2 Katha, I. ü. 7. 3 áatapatha Brähm ana, M ädhyandim sakhä, XI. v. 7, Swädhyäya prasam sä, 1.

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We have said th a t the orthodox H indu regards the Vedas as his highest w ritten authority. Any subsequent scripture, if he is to regard it as valid, m ust be in agreem ent w ith them : it may expand them , it may develop them , and still be recognized, b u t it m ust n o t contradict them . They are to him, as nearly as any hum an docum ent can be, th e expression of divine tru th . At the same tim e it w ould be a mistake to suppose th a t his allegiance to their authority is, in the final analysis, blind and autom atic. If he considers th em the w ord of God, it is because he believes their tru th to be verifiable, immediately, at any m om ent, in his ow n personal experience. If he found on due examination th a t it was n o t so verifiable, he w ould reject it. If he found th at any part of it was n o t so verifiable, he w ould reject that. In short, he conceives th at his faith in the Vedas is as well founded, and on grounds exactly as critical, as is th e natural scientist’s belief in any physical law. And in this position these very scriptures themselves, he will tell you, uphold him. The real study, they say, is—n o t study o f themselves—b u t study of th a t ‘by which we realize th e unchangeable’. In other words, the real study, in religion, is first-hand experience of God. T he Vedas teach the knowledge o f God, and lay dow n w ork as a means to th a t knowledge—the w ord w ork here signifying both sacrificial rites and unselfish perform ance o f secular duty. W hen th ro u g h w ork o u r hearts are purified, we are ripe for divine know ledge. W ork and knowledge—these two are the subjects of the Vedas, and nam e the parts into w hich (as a Table has already indicated) Rk, Säma, Yajur, and Atharva are each divided. The two following chapters will deal, respectively, w ith the w ork portion of the Vedas and w ith the knowledge portion—the latter and m uch the m ore im portant being universally know n as th e Upanisads.

CHAPTER 2

SA M H IT A S, B R A H M A N A S , A R A N Y A K A S

The w ork portion of the Vedas, im m ensely im portant though it has been to th e concrete practice of religion in India, has less interest for us today th an the knowledge portion. Still, we m u st n o t fail to obtain some fu rth er idea of it, and especially of th e first of its three divisions— th e Samhitäs. Samhitäs

The Samhitäs are collections of m antras, or hym ns, m ost of which sing the praises of one or another personal god. Sometimes the god is conceived as little m ore than a magnified m an. In one hym n, for example, Indra, the god o f rain, has a body clad in golden arm our, is very strong, and descends to earth, w here he lives and eats w ith his votaries, fights and overcomes their enemies th e dem ons, and establishes his dom inion. Similarly Varuna, in another hym n, is described as a m ere nature god, presiding in anthropom orphic form over air and water. But, again, the god—even at times the same god th at was just now so m u ch a m an—becomes nothing less th an the Supreme Being, omniscient, omnipresent, om nipotent—and that w ithin w hich the visible w orld is contained. Thus Varuna: Wherever tw o together plot, and deem they are alone, King V aruna is there, a third, and all their schemes are know n. This earth is his, to him belong these vast and boundless skies; Both seas w ithin him rest, and yet in th a t small pool he lies. W hoever far beyond the sky should th in k his way to wing, He could n o t there elude the grasp o f V aruna th e king. His spies descending from the skies glide all this w orld around; Their thousand eyes all-scanning sweep to earth’s rem otest bound. W hate’er exists in heaven and earth, w hate’er beyond the skies, Before th e eyes of Varuna, the king, unfolded lies. The ceaseless winkings all he counts o f every m ortal’s eyes: He wields this universal frame, as gamester throw s his dice.1 1 John M uir (trans.); Atharva Veda, iv. 16. 1-5.

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In Varuna, in his m ore exalted manifestation, dwells Rta—conceived as th e principle of universal law and order, physical and spiritual. Existing forever in Varuna, in com plete perfection, this principle is b u t palely reflected in th e created world. Yet it is because of it th at there exists a m oral order, because of it th a t th e sun, m oon, and stars, m orning and evening, day and night, keep their appointed times. ‘The dawn follows th e path of Rta, the right path—as if know ing it before. Never does she lose her way. The sun follows the p ath o f Rta.’1 Perhaps highest in conception of th e gods w ith concrete names is Hiranyagarbha: ‘Before the universe appeared, there first appeared Hiranyagarbha. He, being manifest, became the one lord of the manifested universe. O ut of himself came the invisible world, o u t of him self came th e sky and this earth. U nto him whose being is unknow n and unknowable, whose desire it was th a t this universe be created, w ho is the source of happiness—u n to him we offer o u r sacrifice! U nto him w ho is the purifier of o u r hearts, w ho is the giver of strength, whose com m and all beings, together w ith the gods, obey, whose shadow is im m ortality as well as m ortality, whose being is unknow n and unknowable, whose desire it was th a t this universe be created, w ho is th e source o f happiness—u n to him we offer o u r sacrifice!’2 In th e following famous hym n, th e Purusa Sükta, th e Supreme Being, or God, is represented as at once concrete (‘infinite heads’, ‘unnum bered eyes’) and in th e highest degree abstract—‘beyond all predicates’. He both is and is n o t the created universe, for while the created universe is a part of his being it is n o t the w hole of it: ‘The Universal Being has infinite heads, unnum bered eyes, and unnum bered feet. Enveloping the universe on every side, he exists transcending it. All this is he—w hat has been and w hat shall be. He is the lord o f im m ortality. T hough he has become all this, in reality he is n o t all this. For verily is he transcendental. The whole series of universes—past, present, and future—express his glory and power; b u t he transcends his own glory. All beings o f the universe form , as it were, a fraction of his being; the rest o f it is self-luminous, and unchangeable. He w ho is beyond all predicates exists as the relative universe. T hat part of him w hich is the relative universe appears as sentient and insentient beings. From a part of him was born th e body of th e universe, and o u t o f this body were born the gods, the earth, and m en .’3 1 Rg-Veda, i. 24.

2 Ibid., x. 121. 1-2.

3 Ibid., x. 90. 1-5.

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33

In the passage, it may be observed in passing, there is a definite rejection of pantheism : ‘T hough he has become all this, in reality he is n o t all this.’ The words are characteristic of all Indian thought, and will be echoed and re-echoed in later pages of this book. There is, properly speaking, whatever appearances may sometimes suggest to the contrary, no pantheism in India. T he H indu sees God as th e ultim ate energy in and behind all creation, b u t never, either in ancient or in m odern times, as identical w ith it. It is a far cry from th e rain-god Indra, w ith his golden arm our, to a Universal Being w ho envelops and transcends the world; b u t a step still rem ained to be taken, and this also the Samhitäs took. Indra and th e Universal Being had one thing in com m on: they were b oth personal gods. It is tru e th at the Universal Beihg was said to be ‘beyond all predicates’, b u t also, in alm ost the same breath, he was said to possess heads, and eyes, and feet, and to transcend ‘his own glory’. ‘Who has seen the first-born, w hen he th at had no bones bore him th at has bones? Where is the life, the blood, the self of the universe? Who w ent to ask of any w ho knew?’1 Thus from the conception o f God as a personal being the Vedic seers passed on to alm ost their final conception of him as utterly impersonal, so rem ote indeed from resemblance to anything hum an th a t no longer will they refer to him as ‘h e’ or ‘him ’, b u t only as TAD EKAM—in English, THAT. It is un d er this designation th at he appears in th e hy m n o f creation, called the Näsadiya hym n: Existence was not, n o r its opposite, N or earth, n o r heaven’s blue vault, n o r aught beyond. The subtle elements th at are the veil Of this so insubstantial world, w here then M ight they find o u t a place? by w hom be known? The deep abyss of waters—w here was that? Death was n o t yet, n o r deathlessness; th e day Was night, night day, for neither day n o r night Had com e to birth. T hen THAT, th e prim al font O f life—breathless—to its own maya joined— Brooded eternally. Itself beside, In the wide universe there nothing was. In the beginning gloom —gloom hidden in gloom! From its cause undistinguished stood th e w orld: But lo, thereafter, from its darkling state— Yet undistinguished from its cause—it rose, By the pure will of THAT made manifest. 1 Rg-Veda, i. 4. 164. Q uoted by S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, vol. I, p. 93 (London, A llen & Unwin, 1923).

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Whence came this will? From o u t a seed it came Asleep w ithin the heart o f THAT—the seed Of vanished worlds th a t have in order wheeled Their silent courses from eternity: The manifest in the unm anifest they found— The sages, searching deep w ithin them selves.. . . Ah, w hat are words, and w hat all m ortal thought! Who is there truly knows, and w ho can say, Whence this unfathom ed world, and from w hat cause? Nay, even the gods were not! Who, then, can know? The source from w hich this universe h ath sprung, T hat source, and th at alone, which bears it up— None else: THAT, THAT alone, lord of the worlds, In its ow n self contained, im m aculate As are the heavens, above, THAT alone knows The tru th of w hat itself hath made—none else!1 This famous hym n has provided the basis for a great deal of philosophic speculation. For in it God is represented (it m ay be observed) as both the m aterial and th e efficient cause of the universe—both th at o u t of w hich it was made, and th at by w hich it was made. In it also is th at extraordinary conception of th e universe, alluded to in th e preceding chapter, as continually alternating between the phase of expression and th e phase of potentiality: birth, existence, destruction—th en a state of quiescence—then again birth, existence, destruction; and so on forever. The preceding brief survey of the varying conceptions of God in the Samhitäs quite naturally raises two questions. The first is this: Why is it th a t now one god, now another, is lifted to the loftiest position and celebrated as the suprem e divinity? Professor Max M üller has observed this phenom enon, and nam ed it henotheism, but has done little to fathom its mystery. Its tru e explanation is to be found in th e hym ns themselves; ‘and it is a grand explanation,’ declares Swami Vivekananda, ‘one th at has given the them e to all subsequent th o u g h t in India and one th at will be the them e of the w hole w orld of religions: Ekam sat viprâ bahudhâ vadanti2—“That w hich exists is One: sages call it by various nam es”.’3 The subject is w orth pausing with, for in the quoted words lies the secret n o t only of an aspect of the Vedic hymns b u t also—as Swami Vivekananda suggests—of an aspect of the religious life of India th ro u g h o u t her long history. Casual visitors to this ancient land 1 Rg-Veda, x. 129. 1-7. Sw am i Prabhavananda and Frederick M anchester (trans.), Voice o f India, vol. HI, no. 1. 2 Ibid., i. 164. 3 Complete Works o f Swami Vivekananda, vol. I, p. 347.

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carry away w ith th em th e impression o f an elaborate polytheism. T rue it is th a t India has always had m any gods—b u t in appearance only. In reality she has had b u t one god, th o u g h w ith prodigal inventiveness she has called him ‘by various nam es’. Indra, Varuna, Hiranyagarbha—Rama, Krsna, Siva: W hat does it matter? Whichever of these or of m any others the Hindu chooses for his adoration, th at one becomes for him God himself, in w hom exist all things, including, for the tim e being, all other gods. It is because India has been so perm eated w ith the spirit o f Ekam sat viprä bahudhä vadanti th at she has know n relatively little o f religious fanaticism, o f religious persecution, of religious wars. Characteristically she has sought the tru th in every faith—even in faiths n o t her own. But there was a second question: Why is it th a t in th e Vedic hym ns we find elem entary ideas o f God as well as th e m ost advanced? To the Western scholar there is here no mystery; for he is accustom ed to think of all things in term s of evolution, as he conceives evolution, and in th e simpler anthropom orphic notions he sees the first stages of a grow th w hich slowly ripens to abstraction. But n o t so th e o rth o dox Hindu. W hat he sees in the graduated scale of Vedic conceptions is a beneficent correspondence to varied stages o f religious attainm ent. Some m en are b u t barbarians in spiritual things; others are seers and sages. The Vedas (and this, say the orthodox, was a clear purpose of th e exalted rsis) m inister to all according to their needs. Some they teach to fly; some they m ust first teach to walk. To those at a low stage they offer polytheism, even at times materialism; to those at a higher stage m onotheism ; and to those at the top o f th e scale a notion of God so utterly impersonal, so devoid of anything describable in hum an term s, as to be suited only to the greatest saints, and to these only in their m ost strenuous m om ents. For it w ould appear, in general, th a t even th e greatest o f H indu saints have found the conception o f God as abstract reality too rarefied for constant use. Occasionally they rise to it, b u t n o t for long. Like m ore ordinary m ortals they too have yearned for a notion of divinity close to their m inds and hearts, som ething they could readily love, and m editate upon, and worship. In the contrasting spiritual levels of th e Vedic hym ns, as interpreted by th e orthodox, we to u ch on a general aspect o f Indian th o u g h t to w hich we m u st often retu rn : its variety and flexibility, despite its extraordinary central oneness—its remarkable genius for adaptation. Brähmanas

T he Brähmanas, in comparison w ith th e Samhitäs, are concerned w ith practical, everyday things—w ith th e details o f sacrificial rites and w ith specific duties and rules o f conduct.

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Brähm anäh vividisanti yajñena dänena—The brahm ins desire to know, w ith th e sacrifices and charity as th e means. T hat is, w hen th e heart becomes purified by the perform ance of sacrifices and charity, there arises the knowledge of Brahman. Thus is acknowledged the need for the perform ance of sacrifices and for th e ceremonials and rites of religion. But it is tru e th at at times undue im portance was laid on these things, as well as on the m ere chanting of the words of th e Vedas, so m u ch so th a t the sacrifices themselves often took the place o f a living religion—a circumstance th at occurs in the developm en t o f all religious institutions. U nder such conditions, prayer and supplication before the object of worship becomes unnecessary; for by the perform ance of elaborate and fixed sacrifices th e gods m ay be forced to grant one’s desires. Professor Das G upta believes th a t in these sacrificial rites is to be found the germ of th e law o f karm a (which M anu later systematized philosophically): ‘T hou canst n o t gather w hat th o u dost n o t sow. As th o u dost sow, so wilt th o u reap.’1 This hardening o f the institutional part o f religion exalted in time th e pow er of the priests; and it was in opposition to this externalizing and crystallizing of w hat should have rem ained living symbols of tru th s behind appearances, and also in opposition to th e tyranny of a rising priesthood, th a t Buddha rose in revolt. The Bhagavad-Gitä had already condem ned the tendency to attribute undue im portance to ritualistic sacrifices. The duties and rules of conduct prescribed by the Brähmanas are largely those com m on to all religious creeds. Self-control is em phasized, and love, and kindness; theft, m urder, and adultery are forbidden. We are all deep in debt, declare the Brähmanas, the m ost im p o rtan t o f o u r obligations being those to the gods, to the seers, to th e spirits o f the dead, to living m en, and to animals. O ur debt to th e gods we m ust pay w ith sacrifices; to th e seers w ith feelings of adm iration and devotion; to departed spirits with prayers in their behalf; to living m en w ith love and kindness; to animals w ith food and drink—and to all o f these, whenever we partake of nourishm ent, we m u st tender a portion to the accom panim ent of fitting prayers. By th e due discharge of these o u r m oral debts we achieve no m erit, b u t if we neglect th em we become u nw orthy of o u r privileged status as hum an beings. O ur duties m ust be perform ed, moreover, w ith no th o u g h t o f self o r selfish ends, b u t simply because they are, for a righteous m an, duties—and because they purify the heart. ‘ Cf. ‘Whatsoever a m an soweth, that shall he also reap’ (Gal. vi. 7).

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Äranyakas

The Äranyakas, or forest treatises, need detain us b u t a m om ent. They may m ost simply be regarded as a supplem ent to th e Brähmanas—and a corrective. Like th e Brähmanas, they deal m u ch in rites and ceremonies, b u t unlike th e Brähmanas they do n o t rest in them . They are vividly aware th a t n o t in rites and ceremonies, b u t in th e tru th s they stand for, lies their real im portance; and so from the fruit or flesh o f the sacrifice they pass to its spiritual interpretation. In so doing, in so occupying themselves less w ith the outw ard symbol th an w ith the inner reality, they come close to the chief and central glory o f all th e Vedas—th e universally admired Upanisads. Before we com e to deal w ith the Upanisads, a few remarks regarding th e division of each o f th e Vedas seem pertinent. Professor Paul Deussen has_ rightly declared th a t this division into Samhitäs, Brähmanas, Äranyakas, and lastly Upanisads is based on the principle of dividing life into äsramas, o r stages. According to Vedic teachings, m an ’s life is divided into four stages. First is th e brahmacarya, or student life, w hen a boy lives w ith his teacher and receives both religious and secular instruction. The you th is trained in self-control and acquires such virtues as chastity, truthfulness, faith, and selfsurrender. The next stage is gärhasthya, or m arried life. T he chief injunction for this stage is to practise the ritualistic sacrifices as explained in th e Brähmanas. At the stage of vänaprastha, or retirem ent, a m an is no longer required to adhere to ritualism, b u t is instructed to follow the Äranyakas and engage in symbolic meditation. Finally he enters u pon the life of renunciation, in w hich he is bound neither by w ork n o r by desire, b u t is dedicated w holly to acquiring knowledge of Brahman. Thus the general plan of life as tau g h t in the Vedas is, successively, student life, married life, the life o f retirem ent, and th e life o f renunciation. Each o f these periods of a m an ’s m ortal existence has its special duties and observances, though it is also true th a t th ro u g h a special Vedic declaration a person m ay enter immediately into the life of renunciation, and n o t pass th ro u g h the interm ediate stages of probation. T hrough the institution o f monasticism a m an m ay begin early the life o f renunciation. W hen one enters a monastery, one passes th ro u g h a Vedic ritual, m eanwhile m editating upo n the tru th s of the Upanisads. According to Vedic teaching, m onastic life is the highest stage a m an m ay attain. M odern India retains this idea, and there are n o t w anting today m en highly trained in Western science and literature w ho are willing to assume monastic vows. Thus the influence o f the Vedas has been perpetuated th ro u g h the ages.

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Parenthetically it may be said th at the daily life and conduct of the people of India even today are guided by the injunctions of the Vedas. This is particularly tru e of th e ceremonies connected w ith birth, marriage and death. In the words of Professor S. N. Das Gupta, ‘The laws w hich regulate the social, legal, domestic and religious customs and rites of the Hindus even to the present day are said to be b u t m ere systematized memories of old Vedic teachings, and are held to be obligatory on their authority.’ Every brahm in repeats daily the Vedic prayer called the Gayatri m antra, which is a verse from the Rg-Veda. It runs as follows: O m b h u r bhuvah swah tat savitur varenyam, bhargo devasya dhim ahi, dhiyo yo nah pracodayät, Om. (May we m editate on the effulgent Light [or power] of him w ho is worshipful, and w ho has given birth to all worlds. May he direct the rays of o u r intelligence towards the path of good.)

CHAPTER 3

U P A N IS A D S

Preliminary Considerations

The Sanskrit title Upanisads is th e plural of Upanisad, w hich is in itself a very interesting word. Literally, it means sitting near devotedly, and so brings concretely to m ind an earnest disciple learning from his guru, his spiritual master. It also means secret teaching—secret, no doubt, because a teaching vouchsafed only to those w ho are spiritually ready to receive it and profit by it. Still another interpretation of the w ord is sponsored by th e great com m entator áamkara: knowledge of God. In this sense it points to the central subject of th a t portion of the Vedas which it has named. It is this portion, the so-called knowledge portion, th at we are now to examine. Since they brought to a close each o f the four Vedas, the Upanisads came to be spoken of often as th e Vedanta—the anta or end of the Vedas. The w ord anta, like the related end (Sanskrit and English belonging to th e same family of languages), has, in addition to its literal meaning, the figurative m eaning of goal or purpose. Thus it is th at w hen a m odern H indu speaks of the Vedanta he m ay have both senses m ore or less in mind, the scriptures referred to being for him the last p art of the Vedas and at the same tim e their ultim ate reason for existence, their perfect culm ination—in a word, their highest wisdom. How m any Upanisads once existed is unknow n. One hundred and eight have been preserved, these ranging in length from a few hundred to m any thousands of words, some in prose, some in verse, some part one, part the other. In style and m anner they vary widely, often w ithin the same Upanisad, being now simply and concretely narrative, now subtly and abstractly expository, often assuming, in either case, a dialogue form . Their tone too fluctuates, the characteristic seriousness and elevation finding occasional relief in hom ely hum our. Who w rote them , no one knows, nor, w ith any accuracy, w hen they were w ritten. The rsis (sages) whose insight they embody remain

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wholly in th e background, im personal as th e tru th they stood for, their individual lives lost forever, and even their names— In the dark backward and abysm of time. O f th e one hundred and eight extant Upanisads sixteen were recognized by Samkara as authentic and authoritative. In his com m entary on th e Vedanta Aphorisms he included quotations from six. O n the other ten he w rote elaborate commentaries. It is these ten which, partly on account of their intrinsic im portance, b u t mainly no doubt because of áam kara’s commentaries, have com e to be regarded as the principal Upanisads. Together they constitute, and will probably always constitute, th e prim ary object of attention for all who w ould know th e H indu religion. Following are their names: Isa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, M undaka, M ändükya, Chändogya, Brhadäranyaka, Aitareya, and Taittiriya. These will be o u r m ain concern in the rest o f this chapter. But before we begin a study o f their ideas, we should note carefully certain characteristics, thus far unm entioned, of the Upanisads as a whole. One of these is their essential homogeneity. M any apparently differing conceptions are to be found in them , b u t these are, roughly speaking, to be found in all of them , n o t distributed, one in one Upanisad, another in another. It is tru e th at one Upanisad may emphasize certain ideas, or a certain view, m ore th an th e rest, or may specialize as it were in a particular topic; b u t such distinctions often seem purely accidental, and are never im portant. The partitions between the Upanisads m ight therefore, for all practical purposes, be completely done away w ith, the w hole hundred and eight being reduced to one. Accordingly, in o u r own brief analysis of the ten chief Upanisads, none will receive separate scrutiny. A nother and m ore im p o rtan t characteristic arises from the fact th a t the Upanisads are th e w ork of saints and seers. Their authors were concerned w ith reporting insights w hich came to th em in th o u g h t or vision, n o t w ith making these insights superficially coherent. They were n o t builders o f systems b u t recorders o f experience. We m ust be prepared, therefore, for apparent inconsistency, for obliviousness to one conception th ro u g h tem porary absorption in another. Nowhere m ust we expect to find the w hole tru th gathered together once for all in easy, trium phant, conscious form ulation. Still another characteristic of the Upanisads has to do w ith their form . Never were ideas set dow n—an expositor m ight suspect—with less regard for his convenience. Nowhere is there a logical beginning, now here a logical end. Such basic order, therefore, as appears in the

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following sum m ary o f their th o u g h t is an order w hich is imposed up o n them , n o t discovered in them . Furtherm ore, attention at all points is n o t upo n parts, clearly recognized as parts, b u t upo n wholes —upon brief, comprehensive, unanalysed statem ent, it m ay be, or up o n such particular elem ents as ro u n d out, w hen taken together, a m om entary conception. Accordingly, the reader m ust be prepared to find, in passages adduced to illustrate a given detail, n o t only the expected m atter, b u t often other m atter having no im m ediate connection. Sometimes, moreover, for the same reason, an outstanding passage m u st m ore th an once m ake its appearance. Brahman

Like all mortals, before and since, th e rsis looked o u t upon a w orld in m otion—wind and wave, waxing and waning m oon, grow th and decay, birth and death. But was th a t all there was? Was there nothing th a t stayed the same, and could therefore be felt as real—in contrast w ith the things th at changed? Yes, answered the rsis, there was something; and they called it Brahm an—God. Still if Brahm an was conceived as th e perm anent, the enduring, th a t was evidently because of the existence, in some sense, of the transient. On the one hand there was Brahman; on th e o th er hand there was th e universe. W hat was th e relation between them ? To this question the Upanisads give w hat may appear to be three separate answers. Often they speak o f Brahm an and the universe: two things, n o t one, and both possessed of a perm anent reality. N ot th a t the two are really separate, however, and unrelated: distinctly not. The connection between th em is expressed in a great variety of ways. Sometimes they are referred to as soul and body, Brahm an being th e soul, the universe th e body—Brahm an th e indwelling life, light, force, energy; the universe th a t in w hich Brahman resides. But this is an image w hich m ust be interpreted in th e light o f other images—as, for example, th a t in w hich Brahm an is clay, the universe individual vessels into which clay has been m oulded. The universe, in this view, is of the same ultim ate substance as Brahman, tho u g h Brahm an is and remains distinct from the vessels into which some of it has been shaped. In the following illustrative passages m any other images will be m et w ith—the language of th e Upanisads is often richly inventive; b u t w hat is to be especially observed is th a t in each o f th em th e seer has before his m ind a duality—Brahm an on the one hand, the universe on the other—and th at this duality persists. ‘In the heart o f all things, of whatever there is in the universe, dwells the Lord.’1 1 ïsa, 1.

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‘This is the tru th of Brahm an in relation to nature: w hether in the flash of the lightning, or in the wink of the eyes, the power th a t is shown is the pow er of B rahm an.’1 ‘This is the tru th of Brahm an in relation to m en: in the m otions of the m ind, the power th a t is show n is th e power of Brahm an.’2 ‘The Imperishable is the Real. As sparks innum erable fly upw ard from a blazing fire, so from the depths o f th e Imperishable arise all things. To the depths o f th e Imperishable they again descend. ‘Self-luminous is th at Being, and formless. He dwells w ithin all and w ithout all. He is unborn, pure, greater than the greatest, w ithout breath, w ithout m ind. ‘From him are born breath, m ind, the organs of sense, ether, air, fire, water, and the earth, and he binds all these together. ‘Heaven is his head, th e sun and m oon his eyes, the four quarters his ears, the revealed scriptures his voice, the air his breath, the universe his heart. From his feet came the earth. He is the innerm ost Self of all.’3 ‘Self-luminous is Brahman, ever present in the hearts of all. He is th e refuge of all, he is the suprem e goal. In him exists all th a t moves and breathes. In him exists all th at is. He is both th a t which is gross and th at which is subtle. Adorable is he. Beyond th e ken of the senses is he. Suprem e is he. Attain th o u him! ‘He, the self-luminous, subtler than the subtlest, in w hom exist all th e worlds and all those th a t live therein—he is the imperishable Brahman. He is the principle of life. He is speech, and he is m ind. He is real. He is im m ortal. Attain him, O m y friend, the one goal to be attained!’4 In the following passages again th e duality has been resolved by identifying Brahm an w ith the universe—‘yet is he still the same’. T hou art the fire, T hou art the sun, T hou art the air, T hou art the m oon, T hou art the starry firmam ent, T hou art Brahm an Supreme: T hou art the waters—thou, The creator of all! * Kena, IV. 4.

3 M undaka, Π. i. 1-4.

2 Ibid., 5. 4 Ibid., ii. 1-2.

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art wom an, th o u art man, art the youth, th o u art the maiden, art the old m an tottering w ith his staff; facest everywhere.

T hou art the dark butterfly, T h o u art the green parrot w ith red eyes, T hou art th e th u n d er cloud, the seasons, the seas. W ithout beginning art thou, Beyond time, beyond space. T hou art he from w hom sprang The three w orlds.1 Filled Filled From From

w ith Brahm an are the things we see; w ith Brahm an are the things we see not; o u t of Brahm an floweth all th a t is; Brahm an all—yet is he still th e same.2

Let us note in passing the relation of these last lines to the question, already touched upon, of pantheism in India. If th e universe em anated from Brahman, th en clearly he—or rather some portion of him — is th e universe; and to th at extent the idea is pantheistic. B ut observe th a t despite this em anation Brahm an ‘is still th e same’—in which case it is evident, whatever else may be true, th at th e universe and Brahm an are n o t identical; and it is precisely the identity o f th e two th a t the West understands by pantheism .3 It was on such passages as we have just been reading th a t th e great com m entator Ram anuja, as we shall see later, based his interpretation of the Upanisads, and consequently his own religious philosophy. According to a second conception, for w hich there is am ple apparent support in the text of th e Upanisads, there is no longer question o f Brahm an and the universe; there is only Brahman. B rahm an is completely transcendent—if such an expression can be used w hen there is no longer anything to transcend. ‘This is Brahman, w ithout cause and w ith o u t effect, w ithout anything inside or outside.’ In the course of his teaching, th e sage Yajñavalkya says: 1 ávetasvatara, IV. 2-4. 2 Peace chant in the U panisads o f the White Y ajur Veda. 3 Pantheism, says Webster, is ‘the doctrine th at the universe, taken or conceived o f as a whole, is G od; the doctrine that there is no G od but the com bined forces and laws which are m anifested in the existing universe*.

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‘My beloved, let nothing I have said confuse you. But meditate well th e tru th th a t I have spoken. ‘As long as there is duality, one sees the other, one hears the other, one smells the other, one speaks to the other, one thinks of the other, one knows the other; b u t w hen for th e illum ined soul the all is dissolved in the Self, w ho is there to be seen by w hom , w ho is there to be sm elt by w hom , who is there to be heard by w hom , w ho is there to be spoken to by w hom , w ho is there to be th o u g h t o f by w hom , w ho is there to be know n by w hom ? Ah, Maitreyi, m y beloved, the Intelligence w hich reveals all—by w hat shall it be revealed? By w hom shall th e Knower be known? The Self is described as not this, not that. It is incom prehensible, for it cannot be com prehended; undecaying, for it never decays; unattached, for it never attaches itself; unbound, for it is never bound. By w hom , O m y beloved, shall the Knower be know n?’1 In a view in w hich Brahm an is ‘w ithout eifect’, or in w hich Brahm an is assumed b u t there is declared to be no duality, there is manifestly no provision for a universe. In other passages of similar purport, of w hich th e following is an example, the figure of clay is used—and the m any forms it takes from th e hand of th e potter: ‘In words or speech alone th e modification originates and exists. In reality there is no such thing as modification. It is m erely a name, and the clay alone is real.’2 So the universe o f nam e and form is in nam e and form alone, for Brahm an is th e only reality. O n this point the M undaka Upanisad speaks thus: ‘As rivers flow into the sea and in so doing lose nam e and form , even so the wise m an, freed from nam e and form, attains the Supreme Being, the Self-luminous, th e Infinite.’3 It was from such sayings as these th a t the greatest o f H indu com m entators, Samkara, drew the philosophy for w hich he is know n. This, like th at of Ram anuja, we shall examine later. Still a third conception of Brahm an is hinted in the Upanisads. No affirm ation w hatever regarding Brahman, the rsis sometimes felt, can be made. He escapes all definition, all description. ‘Brahm an is he w hom speech cannot express, and from w hom the m ind, unable to reach him , comes away baffled.’4 1 Brhadäranyaka, IV. v. 14-15. 3 M undaka, ΙΠ. ii. 8.

2 Chändogya, VI. i. 5. 4 Taittiriya, Π. 4.

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‘T hat w hich cannot be expressed in words b u t by w hich th e tongue speaks—know th at to be Brahman. Brahm an is n o t the being w ho is worshipped of m en. ‘That w hich is n o t com prehended by the m ind b u t by w hich the m ind com prehends—know th a t to be Brahman. Brahm an is n o t the being w ho is worshipped o f men. ‘T hat w hich is n o t seen by the eye b u t by which the eye sees—know th a t to be Brahman. Brahm an of men. ‘T hat w hich is n o t heard by the ear b u t by w hich the ear hears— know th a t to be Brahman. Brahm an is n o t th e being w ho is w orshipped o f m en. ‘T hat w hich is n o t draw n by th e breath b u t by w hich the breath is draw n—know th at to be Brahman. Brahm an is n o t th e being w ho is worshipped o f m en.’1 And again, in a passage preserved only in Samkara’s com m entary: ‘“Sir,” said a pupil to his master, “teach me the nature of B rahm an.” The m aster did n o t reply. W hen a second and a third tim e he was im portuned, he answered: “I teach you indeed, b u t you do n o t follow. His nam e is silence.” ’ This last paradoxical view of Brahm an seems the m ore w orth noting because o f the possibility th a t it too, like th e others we have defined, had an im portant place in later H indu philosophy—perhaps indeed a m ore im portant place th an either o f the other two. For w ho can say w hether the apparent agnosticism of Buddha, often miscalled atheism, his refusal to make any affirmation whatever regarding Brahman, or God, m ay n o t have come from his attention to such passages as we have just quoted? For nobody doubts th a t Buddha made the m ost thorough study o f th e ancient scriptures. Three views of Brahman, then, to sum up, all have a basis in the text of th e Upanisads, th e first tw o of which, prim arily associated respectively w ith R am anuja and Samkara, have for centuries divided the allegiance o f orthodox saints and scholars. M ust they continue to do so? Is there no means by w hich they can be reconciled? None, it is clear, if reconciliation is to depend u p o n a discovery of identity between passages w hich on a natural interpretation are plainly dissimilar in meaning. T hat th e relation of Brahm an to the universe is variously represented in th e Upanisads there can be no m anner of doubt; and if a student is forced to m ake a choice between one form ulation and another, th en he will naturally lean to th at one 1 Kena, I. 5-9.

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w hich seems to him the best supported and the least productive of difficulties. But is he forced to choose? May n o t each of the three principal interpretations be correct—and at the same time, taken by itself, incomplete? Such a view tends to seem natural and plausible the m ore one comes to realize a general characteristic o f th e Upanisads w hich has already been m entioned. They are n o t calculated constructions of logic b u t spontaneous records of mystic experience, and mystic or transcendental experience is n o t a static thing b u t a process. W ith one stage of this experience there corresponds one view of reality, w ith another stage another view, and the tru th is th a t each of the three views we have encountered can be explained as a simple reflection of a particular stage of mystic experience. This will be clearer on closer analysis. The prim ary step towards mystic experience is th e negation or denial of all external things. Brahm an (or À tm an) is neither ‘this’ n o r ‘th a t’—neti neti Âtmâ. As th e sages became absorbed in m editation, as they rose above the plane of physical perception, the universe o f finite objects and the universe of ideas were both obliterated from their consciousness. ‘Who is there to be seen by w hom , who is there to be smelt by w hom , who is there to be heard by w hom , w ho is there to be spoken to by w hom , w ho is there to be th o u g h t o f by w hom , w ho is there to be know n by w hom ?’1 In th at ineffably exalted state, tim e and space and causation, which are the conditions of objective experience, entirely cease to exist. Here there is no thought, here there is no theory. W hat now is the relation between Brahm an and the universe? . . . But w hat Brahman? But w hat universe? áantoyam A tm â—His nam e is silence. Thus may we account, in terms of inexpressible experience, for th a t view or no view which am ounts, in finite form ula, to som ething like agnosticism. Let us follow fu rth er the mystic cycle. O n his retu rn from the peak of unitary consciousness, th e sage, now enlightened w ith regard to the ultim ate nature of reality, may find him self either in the norm al state o f consciousness or in bhävam ukha, an interm ediate state in w hich his consciousness is both norm al and transcendental. If he is in th e norm al state, he will clearly perceive finite objects, but—th e m em ory o f th e transcendental vision of Reality being present in his consciousness—the finite m ist th at veils the Infinite dissolves before his eyes as fast as it appears. The clay vessels—to revert to the familiar figure—are seen to be all of one substance, w hat makes them apparently separate being b u t nam e and form. Name and form , w hich give us the appearance of a finite universe, are 1 Brhadäranyaka, IV. v. 15.

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realized as appearance only. If th en th e sage, while in such a state, is moved to give an account o f his experience, he will depict God as the only reality and th e w orld as mäyä, an appearance. If, on th e o th er hand, as he descends from th e height of m editation, he finds him self in bhävam ukha, he will again perceive w hat we call finite objects, being partly in a norm al state o f consciousness; but since the transcendental vision is still also present, w ith its allenveloping unity, he will be vividly aware th a t in reality they em anate from God and share in his being. Giving expression to this experience, he will supply th e basis for th e first view to w hich attention has been drawn. All three views, then, are actually present in th e Upanisads. On this point there need be no controversy. All three views are tru e— for each corresponds w ith and exactly expresses a typical stage of transcendental experience. As to w hich is the highest, th e truest tru th , probably no mystic w ould doubt, since th at for him m u st be th e one w hich best interprets the culm ination of his vision. ár! Räm akrsna from his own personal experience of Brahm an described th e different stages of perception of God: ‘W hen one attains sam ädhi [transcendental consciousness] then only comes to him the knowledge of Brahman. T hen only does he attain th e vision of God. In th at ecstatic realization all thoughts cease. One becomes perfectly silent. There is no pow er of speech left by w hich to express B rahm an.’1 ‘The jfîâni, or follower of the p ath o f knowledge, analyses the universe o f th e senses, saying, “B rahm an is n o t this, n o t th a t”, and gives up worldliness. Thus does he attain to knowledge of Brahman. He is like the m an w ho, climbing a stairway, leaves each step behind, one after another, and so reaches th e roof. But the vijfiäni, w ho gains an intim ate knowledge of Brahman, has his consciousness further extended. He knows th at ro o f and steps are all of the same substance. First he realizes, “All is not, God is.” Next he realizes, “All is God.” ‘Few can stay long on the roof. Those w ho reach samädhi and attain B rahm an soon re tu rn to th e norm al plane of consciousness, and th en they realize th a t he has become everything. They th en see God in the heart of all.’2 A tm a n

If the rsis, looking outw ard, saw a w orld in m otion, so also w hen they looked within. W ithin themselves, also, they found incessant change—sensations, emotions, images, thoughts, fancies—fancies, thoughts, images, emotions, sensations—forever succeeding one 1 Sri Sri Rämakrsna Kathämrta, vol. HI, pp. 9-10.

2 Ibid., 11, 12,

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another, like restless waves u p o n a shoreless sea. But was th at all there was? Did nothing m idst all this ceaseless phantasm agoria stay the same? Again the searching question, as before in relation to the external world; again th e answer of confident affirmation. Yes, somewhere w ithin or behind th e tu m u lt, apart from it, superior to it, there was, the rsis said, a silent and constant witness. This they called the Atm an, or Self. T he A tm an exists equally, they said, in all beings, inanim ate as well as animate, rocks and stones and trees as well as birds and beasts and m en. ‘At the heart of all—whatever there is in th e universe—abides the Self.’1 Beings diifer enorm ously, however, in the degree to which th e Atman, present in all, has come to be realized—to be known, in other words, for w hat it really is. At the bottom of a vast scale are inanim ate objects; at the top (and this is his m ost sacred privilege) is m an. In all beings, at w hatever point in the scale they may be, a spiritual process goes on: ‘He who is aware how th a t th e Self gradually unfolds w ithin him obtains for himself a greater developm ent. Herbs and trees and animals he sees, and he knows th at in th em too th e Self is gradually revealed. For in herbs and trees there is only sap, b u t in animals there is mind. A mong animals, moreover, it can be seen th a t the Self is manifested little by little, for in some of th em th o u g h t is present as well as sap, b u t in others there is sap only. And in m an, especially, the Self by degrees unfolds itself, for he o f all beings is m ost endowed w ith consciousness. He says w hat he has know n, he sees w hat he has know n, he knows w hat is to happen tom orrow , he knows the gross and the subtle. In his m ortality he desires the im m ortal. Thus is he endowed. In o ther anim ate beings understanding goes no fu rth er th an hunger and thirst: they do n o t say w hat they have know n, n o r do they see w hat they have know n. They do n o t know w hat is to happen tom orrow , n o r do they know the gross and the subtle. To a certain point they go—b u t they go no fu rth er.’2 Here, plainly enough, there is a theory of evolution, tho u g h a theory very different from th a t now cu rren t in th e West. According to the Western conception only animate things evolve, and in these the developm ent implies radical changes in the organism as a whole. Nowhere w ithin the organism is there a perm anent elem ent standing apart from the change. According to th e Upanisads, on the other hand, all creation evolves, inanim ate as well as anim ate, and the developm ent in w hich alone they are interested is interpreted n o t as a process of radical change b u t rather as a gradual uncovering or 1 Isa, 1. 2 Aitareya Äranyaka, Π. ii. 1-5.

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bringing to light of a quintessence originally present and incapable of modification. Here, as everywhere else, Indian philosophy holds fast to an im m utable elem ent at the very heart of th e flux. To uncover the Ä tman, to come to know it for w hat it really is, is to see th a t it is separate and distinct from its dwelling place; and the individual being in w hich the perception of this distinctness is perfect —and this can only be a m an in his highest spiritual developm ent— exists no longer. For, according to the Upanisads, all individual beings had their origin in a mistaken identification of th e Ä tm an w ith body, senses, m ind. As the m oon, shining, appears itself to be a source of light, th o u g h in reality it b u t reflects the sun, so body, senses, m ind, reflecting w ithout knowing it the power o f th e Ä tman, imagine themselves to have an independent and separate being. The w hole process of spiritual evolution is only a process of undoing this prodigious original error. The relation of the Ä tm an to the individual being in w hich it resides is dramatically set forth in th e following story—in which, as often, the Ä tm an is referred to as th e Self or th e tru e Self, and the individual being, by implication, as th e other, or ordinary, self. ‘It was said of old: “The Self, w hich is free from impurities, from old age and death, from grief, from hunger and thirst, w hich desires nothing b u t w hat it ought to desire, and resolves nothing b u t w hat it ought to resolve, is to be sought after, is to be inquired about, is to be realized. He w ho learns about th e Self and realizes it obtains all the worlds and all desires.” ‘The gods and demons both heard of this tru th , and they th o u g h t to themselves: “Let us seek after and realize this Self, so th a t we may obtain all th e worlds and all desires.” ‘Thereupon Indra from the gods, and Virochana from the demons, w ent to Prajapati, th e renow ned teacher. For thirty-tw o years they lived w ith him as pupils. Then Prajapati asked th em w hy they had both lived w ith him so long. ‘“We have heard”, they replied, “th a t one w ho realizes the Self obtains all the worlds and all desires. We have lived here because we w ant to learn of this Self.” ‘Then said Prajapati: “T hat which is seen in the eye, th at is th e Self. T hat is im m ortal, th a t is fearless, and th at is Brahm an.” ‘ “Sir,” inquired the disciples, “is th at the Self w hich is seen reflected in the water, or in a m irror?” ‘“The Self is indeed seen reflected in these,” was th e reply.1 ‘T hen Prajapati added: “Look at yourselves in the water, and whatever you do n o t understand, come and tell m e about it.” 1 Chändogya, VIH. vii. 1-3.

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‘Indra and Virochana gazed on their reflections in th e water, and returning to th e sage, they said: “Sir, we have seen the Self; we have seen even the hair and the nails.” ‘T hen Prajapati bade th em don their finest clothes and look again in th e water. This they did, and returning to the sage, they said: “We have seen the Self, exactly like ourselves, well adorned and in our finest clothes.” ‘To w hich Prajapati rejoined: “The Self is indeed seen in these. The Self is im m ortal and fearless, and it is B rahm an.” And the pupils w ent away well pleased. ‘But Prajapati, looking after them , lam ented thus: “Both of them departed w ithout analysing or discriminating, and w ithout truly com prehending the Self. Whosoever follows a false doctrine of the Self will perish.” ‘Now Virochana, satisfied for his part th a t he had found o u t the Self, returned to the demons and began to teach th em th a t the body alone is to be worshipped, th at the body alone is to be served, and th a t he w ho worships the body and serves the body gains both worlds, this and the next. Such doctrine is, in very tru th , the doctrine of the dem ons!1 ‘But Indra, on his way back to the gods, realized the uselessness of this knowledge. “As this Self”, he reasoned, “seems to be well adorned w hen the body is well adorned, well dressed w hen the body is well dressed, so will it be blind w hen the body is blind, lame w hen the body is lame, deformed w hen the body is deformed. W hen the body dies, this same Self will also die! In such knowledge I can see no good.” ‘So he returned to Prajapati and asked for fu rth er instruction. Prajapati required him to live w ith him for another thirty-tw o years, after which tim e he taught him thus: ‘“T hat w hich moves about in dreams, enjoying sensuous delights and clothed in glory, th at is th e Self. T hat is im m ortal, th a t is fearless, and th a t is B rahm an.” ‘Pleased w ith w hat he had heard, Indra again departed. But before he had reached the other gods he realized the uselessness of this knowledge also. “T rue it is”, he th o u g h t to himself, “th a t this Self is n o t blind w hen th e body is blind, n o r lame or h u rt w hen the body is lam e or h u rt. B ut even in dreams it is conscious of m any sufferings. So in this doctrine also I can see no good.” n Thus it was th at Prajapati started his disciple step by step on the long process o f thinking o u t his problem. The theory th a t the body was th e Self was clearly n o t tenable. N or was the second hypothesis 1 Chändogya, VUI. viii. 1-5.

2 Ibid., ix. 1-2.

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m u ch m ore satisfactory, tho u g h in dreams one does indeed attain a freer state of m ind th an in waking, and th o u g h the dream self therefore seems above the physical self. Again th e disciple approached th e master, w hereupon Prajäpati gave still a third explanation: ‘W hen a m an is sound asleep, free from dreams, and at perfect rest—th en is he the Self. The Self is im m ortal and fearless, and it is Brahm an.’1 It was to make clear to Indra th a t the m ind is n o t th e Self, because th e Self continues to exist w ithout th e m ind, th a t Prajäpati wished his disciple to analyse th e state of deep sleep; and now the inquiring god, w ho had ignorantly identified th e m ind w ith the Self, did indeed discover th at he had n o t know n the Self—for in dreamless sleep m ind, he found, is ‘almost annihilated’. ‘For even before he had reached hom e, he felt the uselessness also of such a teaching. “In reality,” th o u g h t he, “one does n o t know oneself as this or as th at while asleep. One is n o t conscious, in fact, o f any existence at all. The state of one in deep sleep is next to annihilation. I can see no good in this knowledge either.” ’2 Once m ore Indra approached his teacher and asked to be taught. And this tim e Prajäpati gave him the highest tru th o f the Self: ‘This body is m ortal, always gripped by death, b u t w ithin it dwells the im m ortal Self. This Self, w hen associated in o u r consciousness w ith the body, is subject to pleasure and pain; and so long as this association continues, freedom from pleasure and pain can no m an find. But as this association ceases, there cease also th e pleasure and the pain. Rising above physical consciousness, knowing the Self to be distinct from the senses and the m ind—knowing it in its true light—one rejoices and is free.’3 ‘The gods, the lum inous ones, m editate on th e Self, and by so doing obtain all the worlds and all desires. In like m anner, whosoever am ong m ortals knows the Self, meditates upon it, and realizes it—he too obtains all the worlds and all desires.’4 Deep, then, w ithin us all—if we may attem pt a simple restatem ent of the last few pages—resides the A tm an, the Self. Often it remains so deep w ithin th at we are unaw are of its existence, and so falsely imagine th a t we consist only of body, senses, and m ind. We imagine, further, th a t this individual being we call ourselves has a separate and independent existence, whereas in fact it is only an appearance—a light 1 Chândogya, xi. 1.

1 Ibid., xi. 2.

3 Ibid., xii. 1.

4 Ibid., 5.

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u p o n a screen, th e source of which, the A tm an, we do n o t see. Once we tu rn away from th e screen and face the A tm an—once we uncover it, bring it w ithin o u r vision—we discern w hat is unreal and w hat alone is real. This process o f realizing th e A tm an for w hat it is, the Reality, and o u r individual being for w hat it is, a m ere appearance, is th e process of spiritual grow th. It is evident th a t the rsis were deeply concerned w ith w hat we should now call psychology, and it m ay be of interest to pursue som ew hat fu rth er their ideas in this field. T he senses they regarded as the gateways to finite experience. These are ten in num ber, five being know n as the senses of knowledge (sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste), and five as senses of action (speech, grasping, moving, excretion, and generation). As the senses com e into contact w ith their objects, countless sensations arise, b u t only a part o f th em reach th e field of consciousness. Further, as W estern psychology likewise points out, th e senses do n o t of th em selves give a total picture; for this the ‘points of sensation’ m u st be gathered together and made into a whole. Now the m ind in its relation to the materials provided by the senses is know n as antahkarana, the ‘internal in stru m en t’, and also by three other names according as it is th o u g h t of as perform ing one or another of its three several functions. W hen it receives impressions of the outer world th ro u g h the senses, it is called manas. W hen it is engaged in identifying an object, in distinguishing one object from another, or in classifying or relating objects, it is called buddhi. W hen it is engaged in establishing th e stream of incom ing sense data as belonging to itself—in annexing it, in other words, as th e experience of a particular person—it is called aham kära, the ego-sense. T he A tm an is o f course beyond the m ind in all its aspects. It is in no sense an instrum ent: it is the user of instrum ents. Says the Katha Upanisad: ‘Above the senses is the m ind. Above th e m ind is the intellect. Above the intellect is the ego. Above the ego is th e unm anifested seed, th e Primal Cause. And verily beyond th e unm anifested seed is th e Self, the unconditioned, knowing w hom one attains to freedom and achieves im m ortality.’1 In one passage the A tm an is described as enclosed in a series of sheaths. First, there is the annamaya, the food-body. This is the sheath of 1 Π. vi. 7-8.

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the physical self, nam ed from th e fact th a t it is nourished and m aintained by food. Second, and ‘different from this body of food, there is another and subtle sheath, which is pränam aya’. Pränamaya means composed of präna; and präna is the vital principle, the force w hich vitalizes and holds together the body and the m ind. It pervades th e whole organism, and its gross manifestation is breath. As long as this vital principle exists in the organism, life continues. Third, and ‘different from the sheath composed o f präna, there is the m anom aya’. M anomaya means composed o f manas; and w ith the function o f manas, an aspect of th e m ind, we are already acquainted. Fourth, and ‘subtler th an the sheath composed o f manas, there is another sheath, called vijflänamaya’. Vijñanamaya means composed o f vijñana; and vijñana means intellect, and refers to th e faculty w hich discriminates, determines, or wills. Fifth, and ‘different from the sheath made up of vijñana, there is th e änandamaya’. Anandamaya means composed o f änanda; and änanda means bliss, and the sheath refers to the ego. In th e Upanisads th e sheath is know n also as the ‘causal body’. In deep sleep, w hen the senses and the m ind cease functioning, there still stands the causal body between the finite w orld and the blissful Self. As this fifth sheath is nearest of all to the blissful Self, its nam e in the Upanisads is änandamaya. Such are the five sheaths w hich are said to cover the Self. The tru e Self, or Atman, is obviously none of these—n o r can its true nature be know n as long as it is identified w ith th em .1 The Upanisads identify, in all, three states of consciousness, to which we have already been introduced by the story of Indra and Prajäpati. The first is the waking state, characterized by the awareness of things external to the body, sensual enjoym ent o f gross objects, and conviction as to the identity of consciousness and the physical body. W hen a m an is in this state he is know n as vaiswänara, because he is th en ‘lord of his physical body’. The second is the dream ing state. W hen in this a m an is know n as taijasa. He is aware o f internal phenom ena and enjoys m ental impressions. This is a condition interm ediate between waking and deep sleep. The m ind is now active, th o u g h independently of the sense organs, and is w ithout consciousness of th e gross body. In this state a m an is a purely m ental being. The third state is th at of deep sleep. W hen in this a m an is know n as präjfla. He is entirely unaware of the external world, and also of th e internal world. As w hen the darkness of night covers the day, 1 See Taittiriya Upanisad.

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and w ith the day th e objects before us seem to disappear, similarly th e gloom o f ignorance in deep sleep covers up consciousness, and thoughts and knowledge apparently vanish. With this third state we reach the ego, or ‘causal sheath’, so-called because it contains the ro o t o f ignorance. Besides these three states there is the Pure Consciousness, w hich should n o t be called a state because it transcends all states. It is know n simply as The Fourth—turiya. O f a different order from th e three preceding, having no connection w ith the finite m ind, it comes into being only w hen in m editation th e ordinary self is left behind and the Ä tm an, or tru e Self, is fully realized. It is thus described: ‘The Fourth, say th e wise, is n o t subjective experience, n o r objective experience, n o r experience interm ediate between these two, n o r is it a negative condition w hich is neither consciousness n o r unconsciousness. It is n o t the knowledge of the senses, n o r is it relative knowledge, n o r yet inferential knowledge. Beyond the senses, beyond the un d erstanding, beyond all expression, is T he Fourth. It is pure unitary consciousness, wherein awareness of th e w orld and of multiplicity is com pletely obliterated. It is ineffable peace. It is th e suprem e good. It is one w ith o u t a second. It is the Self. Know it alone!’1 Turiya, The Fourth, is, in short, the suprem e mystic experience. Such is the conception of th e Ä tm an to be found in th e Upanisads, and also of various phenom ena w ith w hich it is associated. But does th e Ä tm an actually exist, or is it only a figm ent of th e imagination? W hat proof do the Upanisads offer of its reality? N one directly, explicitly, it m ust be said, nothing in the way of definite, conscious, philosophical reasoning. Still, im plied in their revelations, are th e following argum ents. If, first of all, there is no Ä tm an, if there is nothing beyond body and m ind, w hat is it, then, th a t bridges the gap occasioned by the obliteration o f m ind in deep sleep and so affords continuity to o u r individual existence? The Ä tm an supplies th e answer. Again, it is evident th a t the m otion of any object can be know n only in relation to an object th a t is comparatively static; the m ovem e n t o f this in tu rn m ust be know n in relation to a third object m oving still m ore slowly; and so on indefinitely u n til one arrives at som ething com pletely at rest. T he body, th e m ind, everything we experience, we know to be in m otion; beyond them , therefore, there m ust be som ething w hich stands fast. This som ething is the Ätm an. Finally, o u r minds, egos, senses, bodies, we recognize as objects. 1 M ändükya, 7.

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B ut objects imply a subject: if these things are objects, then a subject m u st be assumed. This subject, th e silent witness, is the Ä tman. Thoughts such as these, suggested by the Upanisads, m ay thus be given th e shape of argum ent; b u t it m ust always be rem em bered that it was n o t u p o n argum ent, however seemingly conclusive, th at the rsis based their convictions. For, once m ore, th e rsis were seers, reporters of direct experience, n o t dialecticians. If they affirmed the existence of the Ätm an, it was prim arily for th e m ost im m ediate of all reasons—they had discovered it w ithin themselves. Identity o f Brahman and Ätman

Endless change w ithout, and at the heart of the change an abiding reality—Brahman. Endless change within, and at the heart o f the change an abiding reality—Ätman. Were there th en two realities’ No, answered the rsis, Brahm an and Ä tm an are one and th e same. And they sum m ed up th e prodigious affirmation in the words Tat Tvam asi—T hat th o u art. Of the H indu identification of Brahm an and Ä tm an, Paul Deussen, best know n perhaps of all W estern students o f th e Upanisads, has said: ‘It was here for the first tim e the original thinkers of the Upanisads, to their im m ortal h onour, found God. They recognized one Ätman, one inm ost individual being, as th e Brahman, the inm ost being of universal N ature and o f all her phenom ena.5 The tribute is an impressive one, tho u g h in the implication that the startling discovery was th e climactic point in a developm ent of reason or experience, it is scarcely in keeping w ith the texts of the Upanisads—at least as these are interpreted by H indu orthodoxy. For in this interpretation th e identity of Ä tm an and Brahm an was a vital portion of th e wisdom know n to th e rsis from the beginning. Certain it is th at in the Upanisads th e idea is nearly everywhere either stated or implied—tho u g h now here perhaps m ore simply and attractively th an in th e following famous story. We shall find a title for it in words already quoted. ‘That A rt T h o u ’ W hen Svetaketu was twelve years old, his father Uddalaka said to him, ‘Svetaketu, you m ust now go to school and study. None of our family, m y child, is ignorant of B rahm an.’ Thereupon Svetaketu w ent to a teacher and studied for twelve years. After com m itting to m em ory all the Vedas, he returned hom e full of pride in his learning.

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His father, noticing the young m an’s conceit, said to him : ‘Svetaketu, have you asked for th a t knowledge by w hich we hear the unhearable, by w hich we perceive th e unperceivable, by w hich we know th e unknow able?’ ‘W hat is th a t knowledge, sir?’ asked Svetaketu. ‘My child, as by know ing one lum p of clay, all things made o f clay are know n, th e difference being only in nam e and arising from speech, and th e tru th being th at all are clay; as by knowing one nugget of gold, all things m ade of gold are know n, the difference being only in nam e and arising from speech, and th e tru th being th a t all are gold—exactly so is th a t knowledge, know ing w hich we know all.’ ‘But surely those venerable teachers of m ine are ignorant of this knowledge; for if they possessed it, they w ould have tau g h t it to me. Do you therefore, sir, give m e th a t knowledge.’ ‘Be it so,’ said Uddalaka, and continued th u s:1 ‘In the beginning there was Existence, one only, w ith o u t a second. Some say th at in the beginning there was nonexistence only, and th a t o u t of th a t the universe was born. But how could such a thing be? How could existence be born of nonexistence? No, m y son, in th e beginning there was Existence alone—one only, w ithout a second. He, th e One, th o u g h t to himself: Let m e be many, let m e grow fo rth .2 ‘Thus o u t of him self he projected the universe: and having p ro jected o u t of him self the universe, he entered into every being and every thing. All th a t is has its self in him alone. He is th e tru th . He is th e subtle essence o f all. He is the Self. And that, Svetaketu, T hat art T h o u .’ ‘Please, sir, tell m e m ore about this Self.’ ‘Be it so, m y child.3 ‘As th e bees make honey by gathering juices from m any flowering plants and trees, and as these juices reduced to one honey do n o t know from w hat flowers they severally came, similarly, m y son, all creatures, w hen they are merged in th a t one Existence, w hether in dreamless sleep o r in death, know nothing o f their past or present state because o f th e ignorance enveloping them —know n o t th at they are m erged in him and th a t from him they came. ‘Whatever these creatures are, w hether a lion, or a tiger, or a boar, or a w orm , or a gnat, or a m osquito, th a t they still are w hen they com e back from dreamless sleep. ‘All these have their self in him alone. He is the tru th . He is the subtle essence o f all. He is the Self. And that, Svetaketu, T hat art T h o u .’ 1 Chândogya, VI. i. 1-7.

2 Ibid., ii. 1-3.

3 Ibid., viii. 7.

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‘Please, sir, tell m e m ore about this Self.’ ‘Be it so, m y son.1 ‘The rivers in the east flow eastward, the rivers in the west flow westward, and all enter into the sea. From sea to sea they pass, the clouds lifting them to th e sky as vapour and sending them dow n as rain. And as these rivers, w hen they are united w ith the sea, do n o t know w hether they are this o r th a t river, likewise all those creatures th a t I have named, w hen they have come back from Brahman, know n o t whence they came. ‘All those beings have their self in him alone. He is the tru th . He is the subtle essence of all. He is the Self. And that, Svetaketu, T hat a rt T hou.’ ‘Please, sir, tell m e m ore about this Self.’ ‘Be it so, m y child.2 ‘If someone were to strike once at th e root of this large tree, it w ould bleed, b u t live. If he were to strike at its stem, it w ould bleed, b u t live. If he were to strike at th e top, it w ould bleed, b u t live. Pervaded by the living Self, this tree stands firm, and takes its food; b u t if th e Self were to depart from one o f its branches, th a t branch w ould w ither; if it were to depart from a second, th at w ould wither; if it were to depart from a third, th a t w ould wither. If it were to depart from the whole tree, the w hole tree w ould wither. ‘Likewise, m y son, know this: The body dies w hen the Self leaves it—but th e Self dies not. ‘All th a t is has its self in him alone. He is the tru th . He is the subtle essence of all. He is the Self. And that, Svetaketu, T hat art T hou.’ ‘Please, sir, tell me m ore about this Self.’ ‘Be it so. Bring a fruit of th at Nyagrodha tree.’ ‘Here it is, sir.’ ‘Break it.’ ‘It is broken, sir.’ ‘W hat do you see?’ ‘Some seeds, extremely small, sir.’ ‘Break one of them .’ ‘It is broken, sir.’ ‘W hat do you see?’ ‘Nothing, sir.’ ‘The subtle essence you do n o t see, and in th a t is the w hole o f the Nyagrodha tree. Believe, m y son, th a t th at which is the subtle essence —in th at have all things their existence. That is the tru th . T hat is the Self. And that, Svetaketu, T hat art T h o u .’ ‘Please, sir, tell m e m ore about this Self.’ ‘Be it so. Put this salt in water, and come to m e tom orrow m orning.’ 1 Chândogya, ix. 1-4.

2 Ibid., x.

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Svetaketu did as he was bidden. The next m orning his father asked him to bring the salt w hich he had p u t in the water. But he could no t, for it had dissolved. T hen said Uddalaka: ‘Sip the water, and tell m e how it tastes.51 ‘It is salty, sir.5 ‘In th e same way,5 continued Uddalaka, ‘tho u g h you do n o t see Brahm an in this body, he is indeed here. T hat w hich is the subtle essence—in th a t have all things their existence. T hat is the tru th . T hat is the Self. And that, Svetaketu, T hat art T hou.5 ‘Please, sir, tell m e m ore about this Self,5said the y o u th again. ‘Be it so, m y child. ‘As a m an may be blindfolded, and led away, and left in a strange place; and as, having been so dealt with, he turns in every direction and cries o u t for som eone to remove his bandages and show him the way hom e; and as one thus entreated may loose his bandages and give him com fort; and as thereupon he walks from village to village, asking his way as he goes, and arrives hom e at last—just so does a m an w ho meets w ith an illum ined teacher obtain tru e knowledge. ‘T hat w hich is th e subtle essence—in th a t have all beings their existence. T hat is the tru th . T h at is the Self. And that, O Svetaketu, T hat art T hou.5 ‘Please, sir, tell m e m ore about this Self.5 ‘Be it so, m y child. ‘When a m an is fatally ill, his relations gather ro u n d him and ask, “Do you know me? Do you know me?’5 Now u n til his speech is merged in his m ind, his m ind in his breath, his breath in his vital heat, his vital heat in th e Suprem e Being, he knows them . But w hen his speech is merged in his m ind, his m ind in his breath, his breath in his vital heat, his vital heat in the Supreme Being, then he does n o t know them . ‘T hat w hich is th e subtle essence—in th at have all beings their existence. T hat is the tru th . T hat is the Self. And that, O Svetaketu, T hat art T hou.’1 ‘T hat art T h o u ’ (where ‘T h o u ’ means, of course, n o t the ordinary self, th e individual being, b u t th e A tm an) is one of th e mahäväkyas, or great sayings—concise utterances in w hich the Upanisads sum up their whole teaching. Others are Aham Brahmäsmi2 (I am Brahman), Prajñanam Brahm a3 (Pure Consciousness is Brahman), Ayam Ätmä Brahma4 (This Self is Brahman). It is interesting to note th at th e ten orders of m onks o f the school of Samkara are differentiated to this day by the particular mahäväkya upo n w hich they meditate. 1 Chandogya, xi-xv. 3 Aitareya, ΙΠ. i. 3.

2 Brhadäranyaka, I. iv. 10. 4 Brhadäranyaka, Π. 5.

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In the story just summarized, th e identity of Brahm an and À tm an is explicitly and repeatedly asserted, b u t nearly everywhere, as has been already indicated, it is at least implied. Observe, for example, th e following passages: ‘W hat is w ithin us is also w ithout. W hat is w ith o u t is also within. He who sees difference between w hat is w ithin and w hat is w ithout goes evermore from death to death.’1 ‘The wise m an who sees him revealed in his ow n soul, to him belongs eternal peace; to none else, to none else.’2 ‘T hat being, o f the size of a thum b, dwells deep w ithin the heart.3 He is the lord of time, past and future. Having attained him , one fears no m ore. He, verily, is the im m ortal Self.’4 ‘T hat being, of the size of a thum b, is like a flame w ith o u t smoke. He is the lord of time, past and future, the same today and tom orrow . He, verily, is the im m ortal Self.’5 ‘The suprem e person, o f the size of a thum b, the innerm ost Self, dwells forever in the heart o f all beings. As one draws the pith from a reed, so m ust the aspirant after tru th , in his mind, w ith great perseverance, separate T hat from his body. Know That to be pure and im m ortal—yea, pure and im m ortal.’6 ‘The Self, w ho understands all, w ho knows all, and whose glory is manifest in the universe, lives w ithin th e shrine of the heart, th e city of Brahman.’7 ‘Brahm an is supreme; he is self-luminous, he is beyond all thought. Subtler th an the subtlest is he, farther th an th e farthest, nearer than th e nearest. He resides in th e shrine of the heart o f every being.’8 ‘The Self is n o t know n by the weak, n o r by the thoughtless, n o r by those who do n o t rightly meditate. B ut by th e rightly meditative, the thoughtful, and the strong, he is fully know n.’9 ‘Smaller than a grain of rice is th a t Self; smaller than a grain of barley, smaller than a m ustard seed, smaller th an a canary seed, yea, smaller even th an the kernel of a canary seed. Yet again is th at Self w ithin the shrine of m y heart greater th an th e earth, greater than th e heavens, yea, greater th an all the worlds.’10 1 Katha, Π. iv. 10. 2 Ibid., v. 12. 3 The sages ascribe a definite, m inute size to the Self in disciple in m editation. * Katha, H. iv. 12. 5 Ibid., iv. 13. 7 M undaka, Π. ii. 7. 8 Ibid., ΓΠ. i. 7. 10 Chândogya, HI. xiv. 3.

order to assist the 6 Ibid., vi. 17. 9 Ibid., ii„ 4.

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‘Formless is he, th o u g h inhabiting form . In the m idst o f the fleeting he abides forever. All-pervading and suprem e is th e Self. The wise m an, knowing him in his tru e nature, transcends all grief.51 ‘Like two birds o f golden plumage, inseparable companions, the individual self and the im m ortal Self are perched o n the branches of the selfsame tree. The form er tastes of the sweet and bitter fruits of th e tree; the latter, tasting of neither, calmly observes. The individual self, deluded by forgetfulness of its identity w ith th e divine Self, grieves and is sad. But w hen he recognizes th e worshipful Lord as his own tru e Self, and beholds his glory, he grieves n o m ore. W hen the seer beholds the Effulgent One, the Lord, th e Suprem e Being, then, transcending both good and evil, and freed from impurities, he unites him self w ith him .’2 In the following ancient fable the popular im agination found its ow n way of illustrating th e oneness of th e A tm an, th e Self within, and Brahman. It is here given in the words of Swami Vivekananda, w ho had it from Sri Räm akrsna, who, in tu rn , had heard it from Tota Puri, his early friend and master. ‘A lioness in search of prey came upo n a flock o f sheep, and as she jum ped at one of them , she gave birth to a cub and died on the spot. The young lion was brought up in th e flock, ate grass and bleated like a sheep, and it never knew th a t it was a lion. One day a lion came across this flock and was astonished to see in it a huge lion eating grass and bleating like a sheep. At his sight the flock fled and the lion-sheep w ith them . But the lion w atched his opportunity and one day found the lion-sheep asleep. He woke him up and said, “You are a lion.” The other said, “No,” and began to bleat like a sheep. But the stranger lion took him to a lake and asked him to look in the w ater at his own image and see if it did n o t resemble him , the stranger lion. He looked and acknowledged th a t it did. T hen the stranger lion began to roar and asked him to do the same. The lion-sheep tried his voice and was soon roaring as grandly as th e other. And he was a sheep no longer.’3 Realization of Brahman

At the heart of the world w ithout is Brahman. A t the heart of the w orld w ithin is A tman. And Brahm an and A tm an are one. But the Upanisads do n o t end w ith a m ere theory of existence. They do n o t even begin w ith it. For everywhere their ultim ate appeal is n o t to 1 Katha, I. ii. 22. 3 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. I, pp. 324-5.

1 M undaka, ΙΠ. i. 1-3.

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th e intellect b u t to the will. They w ould have m en n o t only u n d erstand, th o u g h th at is im portant, b u t do. And the one thing they w ould have th em do is to realize God. And w hat is it to realize God? Put m ost simply, it is to en ter into u nio n w ith him. And w hen does one achieve this union? It is w hen one reaches the suprem e state of consciousness—called, as we have seen, turiya (The Fourth), since it differs from the three states which we ordinarily experience. Turiya, the final, all-embracing goal of the spiritual life, is sometimes conceived by the Upanisads as a state of knowledge, sometimes as a state of liberation. Of course the knowledge referred to, w hen th e goal is conceived as knowledge, is n o t w hat we ordinarily understand by the word. Here a sharp distinction is made. ‘There are tw o kinds of knowledge, th e higher and the lower. The lower is knowledge of the Vedas (the Rik, the Sama, th e Yajur, and th e Atharva), and also o f phonetics, ceremonials, gram m ar, etym ology, m eter, and astronom y. The higher is knowledge o f th a t by w hich one knows the changeless Reality. By this is fully revealed to th e wise th a t w hich transcends th e senses, w hich is uncaused, w hich is indefinable, w hich has neither eyes n o r ears, neither hands n o r feet, which is all-pervading, subtler th an the subtlest—the everlasting, th e source o f all.’1 The lower knowledge, being o f the intellect and the senses, is limited to th e objective, finite world. With Brahm an o r A tm an, ‘unseen b u t seeing, unheard b u t hearing, unperceived b u t perceiving’, it can in th e n atu re of things have nothing to do. ‘None beholds him w ith the eyes, for he is w ithout visible form . Yet in the heart is he revealed th ro u g h self-control and m editation. Those who know him become im m ortal.’2 ‘The Self is n o t know n th ro u g h study o f th e scriptures, n o r th ro u g h subtlety o f the intellect, n o r th ro u g h m uch learning. But by him w ho longs for him is he know n. Verily u n to him does th e Self reveal his true being.’3 Elsewhere the A tm an is described as ‘th at from w hich speech, along w ith th e m ind, tu rn s away—n o t able to com prehend’.4 Knowledge of the A tm an, of Brahman, is of course th e higher knowledge—parävidyä. It is neither objective knowledge, taking cognizance of the external world, n o r subjective experience o f concepts and emotions; it transcends indeed all the three categories o f empirical knowledge—th e knower, th e thirtg know n, and the act o f knowing. Yet it is by no means a condition of emptiness or 1 M undaka, I. i. 4-6. 1 Ibid., I. ii. 23.

2 Katha, Π. vi. 9. 4 Taittiriya, Π. 4.

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darkness; on the contrary it is associated w ith fullness of joy and w ith infinite illum ination. W hen th e Self appears, all is light. ‘He shining, everything shines.’1 And w ith th e light comes peace. ‘The wise m an w ho sees Him revealed in his own soul, to him belongs eternal peace; to none else, to none else.’2 To achieve th e higher knowledge is the ultim ate purpose o f all beings, and th e immediate and principal purpose of m an. ‘Blessed is he w ho attains to this suprem e wisdom in this very life; if he does not, he has lived in vain.’3 Conceived as liberation—moksa—turiya is the state which results w hen th e bonds of ignorance have been burst asunder, and implies freedom n o t only from all imperfections and limitations, b u t also from birth and death. Moksa, say th e Upanisads, may be attained either during the course o f one’s life or at the m om ent o f death. For him w ho has achieved liberation during life the vision of th e w orld has changed into the vision o f the final reality—Brahman. He is th en called ‘th e living free’. For him delusion is gone forever. He is-free from all selfish desire, for all sense o f w ant in him is extinguished by th e ineffable experience of the Self. His only delight is in God. ‘Having fully ascertained and realized the tru th o f Vedanta, having established themselves in purity o f conduct by following the yoga of renunciation, these great ones attain to im m ortality in this very life.’4 For him w ho has n o t achieved m oksa during life there is th e possibility of obtaining it at death—provided th a t during his life he has disciplined and prepared himself for it, making it his sole aim. B ut w hether achieved during life or at its close, th e attainm ent of moksa is the attainm ent of im m ortality, tho u g h n o t in the sense in w hich the w ord is sometimes understood. Im m ortality as tau g h t in th e Upanisads does n o t im ply a survival to all eternity o f th e individual self, of w hat we know in this w orld as an individual m an or personality. This self has no absolute reality, and can therefore have no absolute o r perm anent existence. W hen moksa is achieved, it altogether disappears. Furtherm ore, th e im m ortality of the Upanisads, in contrast w ith a com m on Western conception, cannot properly be regarded as in any sense a continuance in time. As a m atter o f fact, th e very w ord tim e, as well as th e w ord eternity, is, strictly speaking, o u t o f place in th e present context—although its use is inevitable. For th e im m ortality of th e Upanisads is nothing b u t th e coming into its own of th e divine Self, and this Self is beyond time, which, w ith space and a thousand o ther conditions o f hu m an life, belongs only to th e finite world. 1 Katha, Π. v. 15.

2 Ibid., 12.

3 Kena, Π. 5.

4 M undaka, ΠΙ. ii. 6.

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‘The Self is the om niscient Lord. He is n o t born. He does n o t die. He is neither cause n o r effect. This Ancient One is unborn, eternal, imperishable; th o u g h th e body be destroyed, he is n o t killed. If the slayer th in k th at he slays, if the slain th in k th at he is slain, neither of th em knows the tru th . The Self slays not, n o r is he slain .. . . Soundless, formless, intangible, undying, tasteless, odourless, eternal, w ithout beginning, w ith o u t end, im m utable, beyond nature, is the Self. Knowing him as such, one is freed from death. Smaller th an the smallest, greater than the greatest, this Self forever dwells w ithin the hearts of all. W hen a m an is free from desire, his m ind and senses purified, he beholds the glory of th e Self and is w ithout sorrow.51 In words th a t may stand as a com m entary on th e w ell-know n passage just quoted, Swami Vivekananda says: ‘. . . as a m an having a book in his hands reads one page and turns it over, goes to the next page, reads that, tu rn s it over, and so on, yet it is the book th at is being tu rn ed over, the pages th at are revolving, and n o t he—he is w here he is always—even so w ith regard to the soul. The w hole of nature is th at book w hich the soul is readihg. Each life, as it were, is one page o f th a t book; and th at read, it is tu rn ed over, and so on and on, u n til the whole of th e book is finished, and the soul becomes perfect, having got all the experiences o f nature. Yet at th e same tim e it never moved, n o r came n o r went; it was only gathering experiences. But it appears to us th at we are moving. The earth is moving, yet we think th a t th e sun is moving instead o f the earth, w hich we know to be a mistake, a delusion o f the senses. So is also this delusion th a t we are born and th at we die, th a t we come or th at we go. We neither come n o r go, n o r have we been born. For w here is the soul to go? There is no place for it to go. Where is it n o t already?’2 The conception of im m ortality to be found in the Upanisads runs counter, it m ust be admitted, to a com m on h u m an desire. Most of us cling fondly to w hat we call o u r individuality, or personality, and we long to retain it th ro u g h w hat we th in k of as an infinite extension of earthly time. Against this prepossession there lies implicit in the Upanisads the following argum ent. This so-vaunted individuality of ours—w hat is it, after all? Born as it is of the false identification of the Self w ith the non-Self, it is but th e illusory product o f a radical m isunderstanding. It has no genuinely real, no ultim ate, existence. And, further, if only we will but observe and reflect, we shall realize th a t everything which pertains to this particularized self, w hether of body or mind, is in a state of incessant change. To cherish o u r finite 1 Katha, I. ii. 18-20.

2 Complete Works of Vivekananda, vol. VI, pp. 21 f.

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individuality is therefore to expend o u r affections on w hat, m om ent by m om ent, we are losing forever. But on the other hand, beside this elusive, ever-vanishing self, there is an o th er Self, the Ä tm an, the real m an, motionless behind th e flux. In that, and only in that, lies o u r higher and tru e r individuality, which, so long as we continue in o u r blindness, we can never know. It is only w hen we have achieved m oksa th at we com e to know it; and th en we realize it in its fullness. The Path to Realization

To experience turiya, to become a know er of Brahman, to be liberated from every finite bond—in sh o rt to realize God: such is the allim p o rtan t purpose of life. But how is this purpose to be achieved? It is to be achieved, say the Upanisads, th ro u g h two types of spiritual discipline, both of w hich are essential: observation o f m oral laws and th e practice of m editation. The m oral laws are sum m ed up in the single principle o f selfcontrol—a check on selfish impulses, passions, and desires. This it is th at finds imaginative expression in the following famous passage: ‘Know th at th e Self is the rider and the body the chariot; th a t the intellect is the charioteer, and th e m ind the reins. The senses, say the wise, are the horses; th e roads they travel are th e mazes of desire. The wise call the Self the enj oyer w hen he is united w ith th e body, th e senses, and th e m ind. W hen a m an lacks discrimination, and his m ind is uncontrolled, his senses are unmanageable, like the restive horses of a charioteer. B ut w hen a m an has discrimination and his m ind is controlled, his senses, like th e well-broken horses o f a charioteer, lightly obey th e rein. He w ho lacks discrimination, whose m ind is unsteady, and whose heart is im pure, never reaches the goal, b u t is born again and again. B ut he w ho has discrimination, whose m ind is steady, and whose heart is pure, reaches th e goal, and having reached it is born no m ore. The m an w ho has a sound understanding for charioteer, a controlled m ind for reins—he it is th a t reaches the end o f the journey, the suprem e abode o f Vishnu, the all-pervading.1 ‘The Self, deep-hidden in all beings, is n o t revealed to all; b u t to the seers, pure in heart, concentrated in m ind—to th em is he revealed. T he senses o f the wise m an obey his m ind, his m ind obeys his intellect, his intellect obeys his ego, and his ego obeys the Self.’2 Elsewhere th e Upanisads en ter som ew hat m ore fully into details of conduct: ‘Let your conduct be m arked by right action, including study and 1 Katha, I. iii. 3-9.

2 Ibid., 12-13.

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teaching o f the scriptures; by truthfulness in word, deed, and thought; by self-denial and the practice of austerity; by poise and self-control; by perform ance of the everyday duties of life w ith a cheerful heart and an unattached mind. ‘Speak the tru th . Do y o u r duty. Do n o t neglect the study o f the scriptures. Do n o t cut the thread o f progeny. Swerve n o t from tru th . Deviate n o t from the p ath of good. Revere greatness. ‘Let your m o th er be a god to you; let your father be a god to you; let your teacher be a god to you; let y o u r guest also be a god to you. Do only such actions as are blameless. Always show reverence to the great. ‘Whatever you give to others, give w ith love and reverence. Gifts m ust be given in abundance, w ith joy, humility, and compassion. ‘If at any tim e there is any doubt w ith regard to right conduct, follow the practice of great souls, w ho are guileless, o f good judgm ent, and devoted to tru th . ‘Thus conduct yourself always. This is the injunction, this is the teaching, and this is the com m and of the scriptures.’1 The ultim ate m oral ideal of th e Upanisads is complete selfabnegation, the u tter renunciation of all selfish and personal desires. To one in such a state of inner purity there is no longer th o u g h t of ‘m e’ and ‘m ine’, the individual self to which such words pertain being wholly absorbed and extinguished in the infinite oneness of God. Once a m an has achieved turiya, his ultim ate goal, he has no further concern w ith m oral laws. ‘W hen the seer beholds the Effulgent One, th e Lord, th e Supreme Being, then, transcending both good and evil, and freed from impurities, he unites himself w ith him .’2 To be ‘beyond both good and evil’ is n o t of course to be able to do evil w ith im punity, b u t rather to be incapable of it. The practice of meditation, the second and m ore im portant of the tw o types o f spiritual discipline, m ust, say the Upanisads, be led up to by hearing and reflection. We m ust first hear th e tru th of Brahman, and we m ust hear it— this idea we have before encountered—from a guru, or teacher—one to w hom it has been fully revealed. ‘To m any it is n o t given to hear o f the Self. Many, though they hear o f it, do n o t understand it. W onderful is he w ho speaks o f it: intelligent is he w ho learns o f it. Blessed is he w ho, tau g h t by a good teacher, is able to understand it.’3 ‘The tru th of the Self cannot be fully understood w hen taught by an C

1 Taittiriya, I. xi.

1 M undaka, ΙΠ. i. 3.

3 Katha, I. ii. 7.

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ignorant m an, for opinions regarding it, n o t founded on knowledge, vary one from another. Subtler than the subtlest is this Self, and beyond all logic. T aught by a teacher w ho knows the Self and Brahm an as one, a m an leaves vain theory behind and attains to tru th .’1 ‘Words cannot reveal him. M ind is unable to reach him. The eyes do n o t see him. How then can he be com prehended save w hen taught by those seers w ho indeed have know n him ?’2 ‘Arise! Awake! Approach the feet of the master and know THAT. Like th e sharp edge of a razor, the sages say, is the path. Narrow it is, and difficult to tread.’3 But hearing is n o t enough. No tru e teacher demands blind acceptance of his doctrine. In order to reach intellectual conviction, we m ust therefore reflect. As aids to reflection we may engage in the study of logic or of natural science, and in independent philosophical speculation.4 Having heard the tru th of God, and having duly reflected u p o n it, we are ready for meditation. And w hat is meditation? In its highest form , say the Upanisads, it is concentration u pon the tru th A ham Brahmäsmi (I am Brahm an).5 As aids to meditation, various symbols o f Brahm an are accepted, of w hich the m ost im portant is the mystic syllable Om. ‘Affix to the Upanishad, the bow incomparable, the sharp arrow of devotional worship; then, w ith m ind absorbed and heart m elted in love, draw the arrow and h it th e m ark, the imperishable B rahm an.1 Om is the bow, the arrow is the individual being, and Brahm an is the target. With a tranquil heart, take aim. Lose thyself in him, even as the arrow is lost in the target. In him are woven heaven, earth, and sky, together w ith the m ind and all the senses. Know him , the Self alone. Give up vain talk. He is the bridge of im m ortality. W ithin the lotus of the heart he dwells, where, like the spokes of a wheel, the nerves meet. Meditate on him as Om. Easily mayest th o u cross the sea of darkness.’6 Scattered hints on the technique of m editation, such as th at m entioned in th e passage just quoted, are found in the Upanisads, b u t no full and adequate inform ation. T hat is because in ancient 1 Katha, I. ii. 8. 2 Ibid., Π. vi. 12. 3 Ibid., I. iii. 14. 4 It was as aids to reflection that six m ain schools o f th ought within H induism were developed. These we shall consider later. s Brhadäranyaka, I. iv. 10. 6 M undaka, Π. ii. 3-6.

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times, as at present and th ro u g h o u t th e intervening centuries, the exact m ethods to be followed were com m unicated directly from master to disciple and were never form ally set dow n in writing. For this practice th e H indu w ould offer several reasons. One is that, as th e Upanisads indicate, such details can have no use or m eaning for one w ho is n o t spiritually prepared for them , and another is th at in actual practice they are infinitely varied to suit the needs o f individual disciples. T he guru has perhaps n o m ore im p o rtan t duty th an to study carefully the personality and tem peram ent of th e pupils com m itted to his charge, and to prescribe to each, according to his nature, an appropriate m ethod o f m editation. M editation is the last step on the path o f realization. ‘None beholds him w ith the eyes, for he is w ithout visible form. Yet in the heart is he revealed, th ro u g h self-control and m editation. Those w ho know him become im m ortal. W hen all the senses are stilled, w hen th e m ind is at rest, w hen th e intellect wavers n o t—then is know n, say th e wise, the highest state. The calm o f the senses and th e m ind has been defined as yoga. He who attains it is freed from delusion.’1 Of this ‘highest state’—samädhi, moksa, turiya—we shall continue to hear in later chapters, sometimes u n d er still other names. For it is th e shining sun to w hich all H indu religion points. It is this th a t is m eant by th e realization o f God. Karma and Reincarnation

For those w ho fully realize God, w hether during the course o f their lives or at th e point of death, finite existence is at an end. But n o t so w ith those w ho fall sh o rt o f the goal. W hat happens to these after death is set fo rth in a num ber of passages. ‘W hen a m an is about to die, th e subtle body, m ounted by the intelligent Self, groans—as a heavily laden cart groans u n d er its burden. ‘W hen his body becomes th in th ro u g h old age or disease, the dying m an separates him self from his limbs, even as a m ango or a fig or a banyan fruit separates itself from its stalk, and by th e same way he came he hastens to his new abode, and there assumes another body, in w hich to begin a new life.’2 ‘W hen his body grows weak and he becomes apparently un co n scious, th e dying m an gathers his senses about him and com pletely 1 Katha, Π. vi. 9-11.

2 Brhadäranyaka, IV. iii. 35-6.

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withdrawing their powers descends into his heart. No m ore does he see form or colour w ithout. ‘He neither sees, n o r smells, n o r tastes. He does n o t speak, he does n o t hear. He does n o t think, he does n o t know. For all the organs, detaching themselves from his physical body, unite w ith his subtle body. T hen the point of his heart, w here the nerves join, is lighted by th e light of the Self, and by th a t light he departs either th ro u g h the eye, o r th ro u g h the gate of the skull, or th ro u g h some other aperture of the body. W hen he thus departs, life departs; and w hen life departs, all th e functions o f the vital principle depart. The Self remains conscious, and, conscious, the dying m an goes to his abode. The deeds of this life, and th e impressions they leave behind, follow him. ‘As a leech, having reached the end of a blade o f grass, takes hold o f another blade and draws itself to it, so the Self, having left this body behind it unconscious, takes hold of another body and draws himself to it. ‘As a goldsmith, taking an old gold ornam ent, m oulds it into another, newer and m ore beautiful, so th e Self, having given up the body and left it unconscious, takes on a new er and better form, either th at of the fathers, o r th at of the celestial singers, o r th at of the gods, o r th a t of other beings, heavenly or earthly. ‘The Self is verily Brahman. T hrough ignorance it identifies itself w ith w hat is alien to it, and appears to consist o f intellect, un d erstanding, life, sight, hearing, earth, water, air, ether, fire, desire and the absence of desire, anger and the absence o f anger, righteousness and the absence of righteousness. It appears to be all things—now one, now another. ‘As a m an acts, so does he become. A m an of good deeds becomes good, a m an o f evil deeds becomes evil. A m an becomes pure th ro u g h pure deeds, im pure th ro u g h im pure deeds. ‘As a m an’s desire is, so is his destiny. For as his desire is, so is his will; as his will is, so is his deed; and as his deed is, so is his reward, w hether good or bad. ‘A m an acts according to th e desires to w hich he clings. After death he goes to the next world, bearing in his m ind the subtle impressions o f his deeds; and after reaping there th e harvest o f his deeds, he returns again to this w orld of action. Thus he w ho has desire continues subject to rebirth. ‘But he in w hom desire is stilled suffers no rebirth. After death, having attained to the highest, desiring only the Self, he goes to no other world. Realizing Brahman, he becomes Brahman. ‘W hen all the desires w hich once entered into his heart have been driven o u t by divine knowledge, the m ortal, attaining to Brahman, becomes im m ortal.

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‘As the slough of a snake lies cast off on an anthill, so lies the body o f a m an at death; while he, freed from the body, becomes one with th e im m ortal spirit, Brahman, the Light Eternal.’1 ‘Those w ho offer sacrifices and do deeds o f charity go to the region o f shade; from shade to night, the w orld o f th e fathers; from the w orld of the fathers to the realm o f ether; from ether to som a.’2 Certain ideas emerge w ith m ore or less clearness from these several passages. First o f all, it is evident th a t the fortunes th at await a m an after death depend entirely u p o n his m oral quality, and th a t this in tu rn depends u p o n his deeds. Simple as this statem ent m ay appear, it yet leaves room for considerable misunderstanding. By deeds, for example, we are to understand n o t m erely external action—this gift of food to the hungry, th a t theft o f m oney from the till—but also every thought, feeling, impulse, imagination. Again, the deeds referred to are n o t w holly the deeds done in this present life, b u t also th e deeds done in all past lives; and yet even such a statem ent is far less complex th an th e facts—as these are envisaged by the ancient rsis. For one’s m oral w orth at death is n o t determ ined by a simple casting up of th e long account o f actions done th ro u g h a succession o f lives: these actions, from the first to the last, are interrelated as cause and effect—each action a cause of other actions to follow, and these again a cause o f others, in an endless series. Notice ‘a cause’, n o t ‘the cause’. A new action is n o t a product merely of the action th at precedes it; rather it is the product o f a state of m oral character w hich itself is the cum ulative product o f all past deeds. Your nature at this m o m en t is infinitely m ore complex a com pound th an ever chemist achieved by the successive addition to an original elem ent of any num ber o f other elements each interacting w ith the rest. Only—for th e figure is n o t perfect—in the m oral alchemy each new elem ent is the product o f the total com pound th a t precedes it. Even yet one factor has been com pletely ignored—and th a t the m ost im p o rtan t of all, tragically im portant, for upo n it depends nothing less th an m an’s hope of salvation. Thus far each new action has been spoken of as if it were simply the product o f the com pound of character th a t came before it. Sometimes—far too often th e rsis w ould say—this is indeed the case: events take their natural course, and w hat follows is an inevitable sequence u p o n w hat precedes. But, happily, n o t always. For th a t w ould m ean th a t m en are as 1 Brhadäranyaka, iv. 1-7.

2 Chändogya, V. x. 3-4.

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helpless to m o u ld their ow n destiny as a leaf in the stream o r a feather in th e wind. Indian philosophy is at n o time, or in any sense, fatalistic. The will as conceived by th e Upanisads, and o ther Indian scriptures, has in it an elem ent o f com plete freedom , a pow er sufficient to enable a m an to act in direct opposition to the spontaneous tendency of his accum ulated character—and therefore to control his future. An elem ent of com plete freedom —observe. The will, to an indeterm inate extent, is itself caught in th e hard chain o f cause and effect, is itself form ed and modified by deeds. The outw ard act you perform today, th e th o u g h t you think, qualify your will o f th e next m om ent, your will of tom orrow . They m ake it better, or they m ake it worse; still in th e next m om ent, o r tom orrow , there still remains th a t particle of ineluctable liberty th a t perm its you to rem ake your life. In this region we m eet again w ith a w ord universally associated w ith Indian philosophies—karm a.1 It is the w ord translated as deeds in a passage lately quoted: ‘A m an of good deeds becomes good, and a m an of evil deeds becomes evil.’ Karma, then, in the sense w ith w hich we are here concerned, means, first o f all and m ost simply, deeds. But it is deeds w ith a special connotation n o t present in the English w ord—deeds conceived n o t only as isolated acts beginning and ending in themselves, b u t also as acts in a stream o f causation, each one being at once an effect and a cause, or, in a com m on image, at once a fruit and a seed. W hen we use th e w ord karm a correctly, referring to th e m oral law, we should have in m ind all the ideas w ith w hich th e present section has dealt. If at death a m an ’s karm a is good, th en one of tw o paths is possible for him , the p ath of the fathers or the p ath of the gods. If his spiritual grow th has alm ost enabled him to attain liberation in this life, th en he enters th e p ath o f the gods, th e p ath of no retu rn . Following th a t p ath from ‘light’ to ‘light’ (higher planes o f existence, or, perhaps, states o f consciousness), and finally to Brahm an, he gradually becomes one w ith the divine Being in his im personal aspect and so reaches at last th e end of his journey. If his goodness is of a low er order, th en he enters th e p ath of th e fathers, so-called, w here by ‘fathers’ are m eant those souls o f the departed w ho m u st retu rn to earth. Taking this path, he goes to one or another heaven, w here he enjoys the fruits o f the good deeds w hich he has done in the body—th e pleasures being rarer b u t n o t essentially different from those know n on earth; and w hen these fruits are no m ore, he is born again. It appears th a t w hichever p ath is taken by th e good m an after death, he walks th at 1 K arm a is a singular noun, the plu ral being karm äni (deed, deeds); but in the philosophical sense only the singular is used. Strictly, for linguistic conform ity, the passage above m ight be rendered: ‘A m an o f good c o n d u c t. .

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path clothed in a new body appropriate to a new and higher realm of being. If at death the quality of his karm a is evil, th en a m an goes to the regions of the wicked, there to eat the bitter fruits o f his deeds. These fruits once exhausted, he too returns to earth. Two aspects o f the subject, above all, m ust n o t be lost sight of. First, it is on this earth th a t a m an determ ines his spiritual destiny and achieves his final realization. The other worlds are only places w here w hat is done here is given its reward of happiness o r o f misery. Even the good m an whose privilege it is to take th e path o f no retu rn owes his blessed fortune, n o t to anything he does after he leaves this earth, b u t to w hat he did w hen he was here—in his latest and in his previous lives. If he does n o t retu rn to earth, th a t is only because his realization was already virtually achieved. And, as for the vile m an, nothing th at he experiences in another w orld after death either advances or retards his progress. Earth, and earth alone, then, is the scene of m an’s spiritual struggle. A second aspect is at m ost implied rather than stated in the passages quoted above. T hat is the fact th at ultim ately all m en will achieve liberation, however long, for some, may be the struggle, and however m any returns, lower and higher in the scale of being, may be in store for them . The Upanisads know no such thing as eternal dam nation— and the same is tru e of every other H indu scripture. SELECTED PASSAGES FROM TH E UPANISADS

Know the Self and Be Free

The Self is n o t to be know n th ro u g h study of the scriptures, nor th ro u g h subtlety of the intellect, n o r th ro u g h m u ch learning. But by him w ho longs for him is he know n. Verily u n to him does the Self reveal his tru e being. The Self is n o t to be know n by the weak, n o r by the thoughtless, n o r by those w ho do n o t rightly meditate. But by th e rightly m editative, the thoughtful, and the strong, he is fully know n. Having know n the Self, th e sages are filled w ith joy. Blessed are they, tranquil of m ind, free from passion. Realizing everywhere the all-pervading Brahman, deeply absorbed in contem plation o f his being, they enter into him, th e Self o f all. Having fully ascertained and realized the tru th o f Vedanta, having established themselves in purity of conduct by following th e yoga of renunciation, these great ones attain to im m ortality in this very life; and w hen their bodies fall away from th em at death, they attain to liberation.1 1 M undaka, ΠΙ. ii. 3-6.

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‘The Infinite is the source of joy. There is no joy in th e finite. Only in th e Infinite is there joy. Ask to know of the Infinite.’ ‘Sir, I wish to know o f it.’ ‘Where one sees nothing b u t the One, hears nothing b u t the One, knows nothing b u t the One—there is the Infinite. W here one sees another, hears another, knows another—there is th e finite. The Infinite is im m ortal, the finite is m ortal.’ ‘In w hat does the Infinite rest?’ ‘In its own glory—nay, n o t even in that. In the w orld it is said th a t cows and horses, elephants and gold, slaves, wives, fields, and houses are m an ’s glory—b u t these are poor and finite things. How shall the Infinite rest anywhere b u t in itself? ‘The Infinite is below, above, behind, before, to the right, to the left. I am all this. This Infinite is the Self. The Self is below, above, behind, before, to the right, to th e left. I am all this. One who knows, meditates upon, and realizes th e tru th of the Self—such an one delights in th e Self, revels in th e Self, rejoices in the Self. He becomes m aster o f himself, and m aster o f all the worlds. Slaves are they who know n o t this tru th .’1 The City of Brahman

As one n o t know ing th at a golden treasure lies buried beneath his feet, m ay walk over it again and again, yet never find it, so all beings live every m om ent in the city of Brahman, yet never find him, because of the veil o f illusion by w hich he is concealed. The Self resides w ithin th e lotus o f th e heart. Knowing this, consecrated to the Self, the sage enters daily th a t holy sanctuary. Absorbed in the Self, the sage is freed from identity w ith the body and lives in blissful consciousness. The Self is the im m ortal, the fearless; the Self is Brahm an. This Brahm an is eternal tru th .2 The Self w ithin the heart is like a boundary w hich divides the w orld from THAT. Day and night cross n o t th at boundary, n o r old age, n o r death; neither grief n o r pleasure, neither good n o r evil deeds. All evil shuns THAT. For THAT is free from im purity: by im purity can it never be touched. Wherefore he w ho has crossed th a t boundary, and has realized th e Self, if he is blind, ceases to be blind; if he is w ounded, ceases to be w ounded; if he is afflicted, ceases to be afflicted. W hen th at b oundary is crossed, night becomes day; for th e world of Brahm an is light itself.3 1 Chändogya, VH. 23, 24, 25.

2 Ibid., VIH. iii. 2-4.

a Ibid., VUI. iv. 1-2.

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One day the boy Satyakama came to his m other and said: ‘M other, I w ant to be a religious student. W hat is m y family name?’ ‘My son,’ replied his m other, Ί do n o t know. In m y you th I was a servant and worked in m any places. I do n o t know who was your father. I am Jabala, and you are Satyakama. Call yourself Satyakama Jabala.’ Thereupon the boy w ent to G autam a and asked to be accepted as a student. O f w hat family are you, m y lad?’ inquired the sage. Satyakama replied: Ί asked m y m o th er w hat m y family nam e was, and she answered: “I do n o t know. In m y y o u th I was a servant and worked in m any places. I do n o t know w ho was your father. I am Jabala, and you are Satyakama. Call yourself Satyakama Jabala.” I am therefore Satyakama Jabala, sir.’ Then said th e sage: ‘N one b u t a tru e brahm in w ould have spoken thus. Go and fetch fuel, for I will teach you. You have n o t swerved from the tru th .’1 For the Sake o f the Self

Yajnavalkya (addressing his wife): ‘Maitreyi, I am resolved to renounce th e w orld and begin the life of renunciation. I wish therefore to divide m y property between you and m y other wife, Katyayani.’ Maitreyi: ‘My lord, if this whole earth belonged to me, w ith all its wealth, should I th ro u g h its possession attain im m ortality?’ Yajnavalkya: ‘No. Your life w ould be like th a t of the rich. None can possibly hope to attain im m ortality th ro u g h w ealth.’ Maitreyi: ‘T hen w hat need have I o f wealth? Please, m y lord, tell m e w hat you know about the way to im m ortality.’ Yajnavalkya: ‘Dear to m e have you always been, Maitreyi, and now you ask to learn of th a t tru th w hich is nearest m y heart. Come, sit by me. I will explain it to you. Meditate on w hat I say. ‘It is n o t for th e sake of the husband, m y beloved, th a t the husband is dear, b u t for the sake of th e Self. ‘It is n o t for the sake of the wife, m y beloved, th at the wife is dear, b u t for the sake of the Self. ‘It is n o t for th e sake o f the children, m y beloved, th a t th e children are dear, b u t for the sake of the Self. ‘It is n o t for the sake of wealth, m y beloved, th at w ealth is dear, b u t for th e sake of the Self.’2 The Light for Man

Once w hen Yajnavalkya came to the court of King Janaka, th e king welcomed him w ith a question. 1 Chändogya, IV. iv. 1-5.

1 Brhadäranyaka, Π. iv. 1-5.

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Janaka: ‘Yajnavalkya, w hat serves as the light for m an?’ Yajnavalkya: ‘The light of th e sun, Your Majesty; for by the light of the sun m an sits, goes out, does his w ork, and returns hom e.’ Janaka: ‘True indeed, Yajnavalkya. But w hen the sun has set, w hat serves th en as his light?’ Yajnavalkya: ‘The m oon is th en his light.’ Janaka: ‘W hen the sun has set, O Yajnavalkya, and the m oon has set, w hat serves th en as his light?’ Yajnavalkya: ‘The fire is th en his light.’ Janaka: ‘W hen th e sun has set, O Yajnavalkya, and the m oon has set, and the fire has gone out, w hat serves then as his light?’ Yajnavalkya: ‘Sound is th en his light; for w ith sound alone as his light, m an sits, goes out, does his work, and returns hom e. Even th o u g h he cannot see his own hand, yet w hen he hears a sound he moves towards it.’ Janaka: ‘True indeed, O Yajnavalkya. W hen the sun has set, and th e m o o n has set, and the fire has gone out, and no sound is heard, w hat serves th en as his light?’ Yajnavalkya: ‘The Self indeed is his light; for by the light of the Self m an sits, moves about, does his w ork, and w hen his w ork is done, rests.’ Janaka: ‘Who is th at Self?’ Yajnavalkya: ‘The self-luminous being who dwells w ithin the lotus of the heart, surrounded by the senses and sense organs, and w ho is the light of th e intellect, is th at Self.’1 To None Else

As fire, th o u g h one, takes the shape of every object which it consumes, so th e Self, th o u g h one, takes the shape of every object in w hich it dwells. As air, tho u g h one, takes the shape of every object which it enters, so the Self, th o u g h one, takes the shape of every object in w hich it dwells. As the sun, revealer of all objects to the seer, is n o t harm ed by the sinful eye, n o r by th e im purities of the objects it gazes on, so the one Self, dwelling in all, is n o t touched by the evils of the world. For he transcends all. He is one, the lord and innerm ost Self of all; of one form, he makes o f him self m any forms. To him who sees the Self revealed in his own heart belongs eternal bliss—to none else, to none else!2 1 Brhadäranyaka, IV. iii. 1-7. 2 Katha, II. v. 9-12.

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The Blessed Sages

Having know n the Self, th e sages are filled w ith joy. Blessed are they, tranquil o f m ind, free from passion. Realizing everywhere th e allpervading Brahman, deeply absorbed in contem plation o f his being, they enter into him, the Self of all. Having fully ascertained and realized th e tru th o f Vedanta, having established themselves in purity of conduct by following th e yoga of renunciation, these great ones attain to im m ortality in this very life; and w hen their bodies fall away from them at death, they attain to liberation.1 The Knower o f Brahman

He w ho knows Brahm an becomes Brahman. No one ignorant of Brahm an is ever born in his family. He passes beyond all sorrow. He overcomes evil. Freed from the fetters of ignorance, he becomes im m ortal.2 1 M undaka, EE. ii. 5-6.

2 Ibid., 9.

BO O K II T H E A U X IL IA R Y S C R IP T U R E S

CHAPTER 4

THE A U X I L I A R Y S C R IP T U R E S

The Vedas, whose acquaintance we have been making, are the principal, ultim ate, and basic scriptures of India. They alone are conceived of as Sruti—which is to say, ‘direct from God’ or ‘God reveals it’. But they are by no means the only writings held sacred by the orthodox Hindu. Indeed, to an extent seldom if ever paralleled elsewhere, literature and scripture have been in India one and the same thing. The Vedas, as we have seen, are often abstract and difficult. To be com prehended by the m ultitude they required simplification, expansion, illustration—in a word, popularization. Thus it was th a t alongside of the Vedas there gradually came into being a large body of writings, sometimes half-secular in nature, sometimes almost w holly religious, w hich are appropriately know n as Auxiliary Scriptures. These, in contrast w ith the Vedas, are th o u g h t of as of merely hum an origin. They are man-m ade, n o t God-made. Some prelim inary notion of them m ay be obtained from the following brief account: Epics. Of these there are two principal works, the Rämäyana and the Mahäbhärata, together w ith m any others th at are subordinate or derivative. These are all know n in India as itihäsa, or history, and are accepted as tru e records of the events they narrate. One brief portion o f the Mahäbhärata, know n as the Bhagavad-Gitä (often referred to simply as the Gita), has emerged from its context to become virtually an independent work, and to assume such im portance as to be called th e Bible of India. (See the reference to th e Gita below, under Smrtis.) Smrtis. The Sanskrit w ord sm rti means memory, and, accordingly, the Smrtis are writings devised to fix in rem em brance, for practical use, the spiritual laws and precepts stated or implied in the Vedas. The resemblance is such between the Smrtis proper and the BhagavadGitä th a t it has become custom ary w ith Indian com m entators to speak of the latter n o t as ‘history’, w hich by origin it really is, b u t as ‘Smrti’. To bear this fact in m ind is to avoid m uch possible confusion. Puränas. O f these there are eighteen. They are long narratives in

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verse, th e chief of w hich is th e Bhägavatam. After the Vedas and th e Bhagavad-Gitä, the Bhägavatam is now regarded by Hindus as the m ost authoritative of their scriptures. Tantras. T antra literally means th a t w hich saves by th at w hich spreads; or, loosely rendered, spread th e scriptures and save m ankind. The Epics in Indian Culture

O ur concern in the present chapter is w ith the tw o chief epics— exclusive, however, o f the Bhagavad-Gitä, whose im portance is such as to dem and for it a separate and detailed consideration. From the beginning th e Räm äyana and the M ahäbhärata have exercised a profound influence u p o n India. The legends w hich compose them , th e national heroes w hom they celebrate, and th e tru th s of w hich they are the imaginative expression, have supplied poets and dramatists, theologians and political thinkers, painters and sculptors, w ith their principal them es and their never-failing inspiration. Thus indirectly, as well as directly, they have perm eated the national consciousness, from th e highest classes to th e lowest. U neducated as well as educated have been familiar w ith them , even during British rule, w hen literacy was at its lowest ebb. In th e quiet hours of evening, w hen w ork is finished, m en, w om en, and children m eet together in villages th ro u g h o u t th e land, and listen eagerly to recitations from th em by specially trained storytellers. Thus are brought to the hum blest cottage the essential m oral lessons and the great spiritual tru th s of an im m em orial tradition. The beneficent effect upon th e vast masses o f the Indian population can scarcely be exaggerated. By virtue o f it one may say th a t even th e lowest Indian peasant or labourer, th o u g h illiterate, is still in a deep sense cultivated. T hough he m ay be ignorant in all else, he is spiritually informed. M uch of th e appeal o f the two great epics is suggested in the following words o f Swami Vivekananda: ‘The internal conflicts between righteousness and filial affection in the m ind of the God-fearing yet feeble old blind King D hritarashtra; th e majestic character of th e grandsire Bhisma; th e noble and virtuous n atu re o f the royal Yudhisthira and of the other four brothers, as m ighty in valour as in devotion and loyalty; th e peerless character of th e wom en, the stately queen Gandhari, th e loving m o th er Kunti, th e ever devoted and all-suffering Draupadi—these and hundreds of o th er features o f this epic and of th e Ramayana have been th e cherished heritage o f the w hole H indu w orld for th e last several thousands of years, and form th e basis of its thoughts and of its m oral and ethical ideas.’1 1 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. IV, pp. 96-7.

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To understand well th e Rämäyana and the M ahäbhärata is in large m easure to understand India. The Rämäyana

The Rämäyana (Life of Räma) is generally regarded as the first poetical w ork of purely hum an origin in the literature o f India, and its traditional author, Välmiki, as the first Indian poet. The general style in w hich th e poem is composed differs from th at o f the verse portions of th e Vedas by its greater diffuseness, simplicity, and charm. Legends, as was natural, grew up concerning Välmiki and his work. The poet, we hear, was originally an ignorant m an and a highway robber, whose life and character were transform ed th ro u g h the mediation of the great saint Närada. Having been instructed by the sage in th e worship of Räma, he fell one day into such deep meditation th at he lost all consciousness o f the external w orld and remained in this condition even w hen ants built their m ounds all about him. From this incident he received his name, for Välmiki signifies ‘born o f an an t h ill’. On another occasion, as he was about to bathe in a river, he saw amid the branches of a tree a pair o f doves wheeling and billing. The sage—for he was now become such—was greatly pleased at the sight, b u t in a m o m en t an arrow whisked past him and buried itself in the body of th e male bird. As the dove fell to th e ground, his m ate whirled about him in deep grief, w hereupon Välmiki, looking about and seeing th e hunter, exclaimed in righteous anger: For endless years to come, O hunter, never shall thy soul find peace, Since for love itself th o u w ouldst n o t from th y cruel slaying cease.1 As soon as he became conscious o f w hat he had said, he rem arked to himself: ‘W hat is this? W hat am I saying? I have never before spoken like this!’ Now it happened th at the words he had uttered were arranged in m eter—the very same pattern in w hich he afterwards wove his story of Räma. The substance of his poem , we are told, he learned from Närada. Following is a brief sum m ary of its central narrative. Story o f the Rämäyana

Dasaratha, th e high-souled royal sage, was the beloved ruler o f the beautiful city o f Ayodhyä. Three queens were his, Kausalyä, Kaikeyi, 1 The passage is here given the form chosen by R om esh C. D u tt for his condensed versions o f the Indian epics. In the original the verse has eight feet but, as in the Iliad and the Odyssey, there is no rhyme.

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and Sumiträ, b u t none of th em had borne him children. So, yearning for sons, he perform ed a sacrifice, to w hich he invited all the great sages, w ith Vasistha at their head. The cerem ony was n o t w ithout effect. From th e sacred fire on the altar there arose a celestial being of matchless beauty, holding in his arms a certain food which w hen eaten causes conception. This was divided am ong the three queens. In due time, Queen Kausalyä gave birth to Rama, revered by all, and possessed of all virtues. Kaikeyi b rought fo rth Bharata, rich in valour, and Sum iträ bore the bright and bold twins Laksmana and Satrughna. As th e boys grew in years they received the education befitting princes of the blood. W hen they had arrived at their sixteenth year, Viswämitra, greatest of ascetics, came to the co u rt of their father in search of aid against ferocious dem ons who were disturbing the peace of his hermitage. All four brothers were ready to come to his assistance, but it was Räm a th at he chose, for he knew th e lad’s m iraculous powers and recognized him as a divine m an, being him self a pure soul steadfast in his vows. So Räma, the lotus-eyed, w ith his loving brother Laksmana followed Viswämitra and overpowered and killed the demons. T hen Viswämitra brought Räm a and Laksmana to the kingdom of Mithilä to attend the sacrificial rite perform ed by King Janaka in order to find a suitable husband for his foster daughter, th e beautiful Sitä. King Janaka addressed the sage in these words: Ό best of ascetics, this is th e famous effulgent bow. If Räm a succeeds in stringing it, I will offer him in marriage m y daughter Sitä, n o t born o f m ortals.’ Thereupon Räm a took th e m ighty bow, and having fixed its string, easily and gracefully bent it, and even broke it in twain, so great was his strength. M any a prince before him had p u t fo rth his best effort to accomplish the feat—b u t in vain. W hen Räma took his bride Sitä to his hom e, his father decided th at th e tim e had come w hen he should give up his pow er and install Räm a as prince regent. W ith the consent of his subjects, therefore, he arranged th a t Räm a should th e next day be anointed ruler. While th e w hole kingdom rejoiced because of the approaching ceremony, a wicked maid in the service of Queen Kaikeyi aroused in her mistress a furious jealousy of Räma, and advised her to take advantage of two boons which the king had once offered her. Let her now dem and th at they be granted, for the king could n o t break his word. Let her ask th a t her son, Bharata, be placed upo n the throne, and th at Räm a be exiled for fourteen years. W hen Queen Kaikeyi insisted upo n the fulfilm ent o f his promise, th e king was overwhelmed, b u t Räma gladly offered to renounce the th ro n e and go into exile. Shortly afterward he departed from the c o u rt in com pany w ith his loving wife, Sitä, and his devoted brother,

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Laksmana. As Ram a took leave of his m other, Kausalyä, she said to him : ‘May the law of tru th and righteousness, to which you adhere so strictly, protect you always.’ When Ram a begged Sita n o t to follow him, she replied: ‘Wherever Rama goes, there goes Sita. The sufferings and hardships of. a forest life, O Rama, if I have your love, become experiences of joy. W here you are, it is heaven, and w here you are not, everything is darkness.’ And Ram a answered: ‘Even heaven will n o t be heaven to m e w ith o u t you by m y side.’ Immediately after Ram a’s departure, King Dasaratha, whose very life and soul Ram a had been, passed away, unable to bear th e grief of separation. Now Bharata, having been absent on a visit to his m aternal uncle, was unaw are of w hat had occurred in Ayodhyä. W hen he learned of his father’s death and of th e exile of his beloved brother, he straightway w ent into the forest, sought o u t Rama, and entreated him to retu rn and accept the throne; b u t Rama, rather th an allow his father’s promise to be broken, refused. Obliged to go back disappointed, Bharata yet carried w ith him Ram a’s sandals. These he kept on the th ro n e while he ruled as Ram a’s regent. M eanwhile Rama, Sita, and Laksmana journeyed southw ard along the bank of the River Godavari, and as they w ent they built little cottages for shelter and lived by hun tin g deer and gathering fruit. One day, as Sita sat alone, Rävana, the king o f Ceylon, appeared disguised as a beggar and abducted her. He entreated her to become his queen, but Sita, w ho was the very em bodim ent o f chastity and purity, and w ho was forever devoted to her beloved Rama, refused even to look at him. So Rävana, th e dem on king, w ho had conquered gods and m en—in fact alm ost th e entire w orld—took her in an ‘air chariot’ to Ceylon, and thçre imprisoned and to rtu red her to force her to his will—but w ithout success. W hen Räm a and Laksmana retu rn in g to the cottage found Sitä missing, their grief was boundless. In vain they sought for her everywhere, u n til finally, from a dying bird, they learned of her fate. Sitä, they were told, was in Ceylon; but how were they to reach th e island and fight the dem on king? At least they could set o u t towards th at far-off place, and this they im m ediately did. Fortunately, on their way, they m et a m ighty race of m onkeys,1 w ho u n d er their holy leader, H anum än, proved to be m ost friendly and m ost desirous of giving aid. In the end H anum än and his people joined Räm a in waging war on Rävana. A bridge was built by th e monkeys connecting the 1 The m onkeys and dem ons are im aginative transform ations o f the aboriginal tribes o f India. H anum än is regarded as the greatest o f devotees, one w ho com pletely surrendered him self to the divine Räm a.

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southernm ost point of the m ainland of India w ith Ceylon—a little squirrel, according to legend, helping in the work. ‘Blessed art th o u ,’ said Rama to the squirrel, ‘for th o u dost act to the best of thy ability.’ T hen he gently stroked the back of his little friend, and squirrels to this day bear the marks of Ram a’s fingers. The bridge completed, Ram a and his arm y entered Ceylon and gave battle to King Rävana. After several m onths’ warfare the dem on king was conquered and killed, his th ro n e given to his brother Bibhisana (who was devoted to Rama), and Sita rescued. In the very m o m en t of their trium ph, however, Rama and Sita had to face a new ordeal. M urm urs were heard am ong their followers touching Sita’s virtue. ‘How do we know ’, they questioned, ‘th at Sita continued pure during all the tim e she lived in th e household o f the dem on king?’ To this Ram a replied, simply: ‘Sita is purity and chastity itself.’ But the complaints of the people were n o t stilled. ‘We w ant the test,’ they cried. Finally, to m eet their demand, Sita plunged into sacrificial fire. No sooner did this happen than from o u t the flames there rose up the god of fire himself, bearing on his head a throne—and there, seated upon the throne, was the slandered Sita, unharm ed. At the expiration of his term of exile Rama returned w ith Sita and Laksmana to the kingdom of Ayodhyä, where, to the great satisfaction of all, he was at last crowned king. Thereafter m any years passed pleasantly w ith Sita, until at last evil whispers regarding her began again to be heard. She had been stolen and carried off by a dem on, people said, and the proof th at had been given of her chastity was n o t enough. She m ust subm it to a further test, or she m ust be driven from the court. Now a king m ust bow before public opinion. T hough it was like tearing out his own heart to do it, Rama forced himself to banish his beloved and faithful wife. Into the forest she went, and dwelt in the hermitage of the sage and poet Valmiki. There she gave birth to twin boys, w ho were brought up in ignorance of their identity. Valmiki, meanwhile, composed his poem, the Rämäyana—or rather the part, of it preceding the exile of Sita—and taught the youths, now his pupils, to sing it. The time came w hen Rama was called upo n to perform a sacrificial rite w hich could n o t be com pleted w ithout a wife by his side. Accordingly, his subjects begged him to marry, b u t this he refused to do. For the first tim e in his life he held o u t firmly against their wishes. ‘This’, he said, ‘cannot be. My life is Sita’s.’ So a golden statue of Sita was made in order th at Ram a m ight complete his sacrifice, and for the pleasure of the guests w ho should attend the sacred ceremony a dramatic entertainm ent was arranged. To it came Valmiki, together w ith Lava and Kusa, the unrecognized sons of Rama and Sita. At the

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bidding of the sage the two boys sang the life story of their parents in th e presence of Rama and a vast audience of his subjects. W hen they came to tell of Sitä’s exile, Ram a’s grief was beyond control. Beholding his anguish, Välmxki thus addressed him : ‘Grieve not. I will bring Sita here.’ Then, to the unspeakable joy of Rama, his wife appeared u po n the stage. But suddenly from the assembled m ultitude, even at this m om ent, there arose a m u rm u r: ‘The test! The test!’ Hearing this, Sita appealed to th e gods to exonerate her. As if in answer, the earth instantly opened at her feet; and crying o u t ‘Here is th e test!’ she disappeared into the bosom o f her m other. (For Sita was born of Earth, her very nam e m eaning ‘furrow ’.) Overwhelming was Ram a’s sorrow, and loud the people’s lam entation. Presently a messenger from the gods appeared and announced that Ram a’s mission, w hich was to bring peace and happiness to all the world, was fulfilled; w hereupon Rama, realizing to the full his true Self, departed out o f his body and joined his beloved Sita in his celestial abode. Interpretation o f the Rämäyana

Only an occasional h in t w ould lead the reader of this sh o rt synopsis to th in k of the Rämäyana as in the least a sacred scripture, and indeed if he were to read the entire seven books o f the epic he w ould find in th em but an inadequate suggestion o f its full m eaning to the devout Hindu. For the H indu brings to it a spiritual interpretation w hich has been a tradition for centuries, almost one m ight say for ages. The tradition finds especially com plete expression in one o f the Smrtis, a subordinate, derivative epic know n as the Adhyätma Rämäyana. This poem, whose authorship and date are alike unknow n, tells over again in briefer form Valmiki’s tale, and in doing so, makes perfectly plain, th roughout, its second or symbolic meaning. Räma and Sita are revealed as avatärs, divine incarnations, the first in a series w hich will include Krsna and Buddha. In Räma and Sitä, according to the Adhyätm a Rämäyana, we behold th e em bodim ent of Brahm an in his dual aspect, th e unm anifest and the manifest: R äm a representing him as im personal absolute existence, quiescent, contained w ithin himself; Sitä (the ‘furrow ’, symbol of fertility) representing him as personal, creative, self-projecting. Both are recognized as God by all th e characters in the poem , and as such are devoutly worshipped. Rävana, even, hating Räm a as he does, robbing him of Sitä and fighting against him —even Rävana worships them . Indeed, his very enm ity is a form of worship. This idea o f worshipping God as enemy, peculiar to th e Auxiliary Scriptures, m ay seem at first m ere paradox. It is explained as follows. Salvation is unio n w ith God—a u nion brought about by constantly

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dwelling on his nam e, by keeping him always in one’s consciousness. To th in k of God is to come closer to him. Now ordinarily concentration u pon him arises, of course, from love; b u t it may also arise from hate, since hate too, as all m en know, fastens one’s m ind u p o n its object. Rama, regarded as a m ortal, is of course the em bodim ent of all the virtues, b u t especially of the virtue of truthfulness—both in its prim ary sense and in the sense of faithfulness to the given word. It is for the sake of tru th th a t he loses his kingdom. His father had promised rashly, b u t the promise had nevertheless to be kept. This extrem e devotion to tru th is to be understood in th e light of th e characteristic H indu belief th a t it is this quality by w hich God him self is chiefly know n. God is, above all, tru th . The m an who loves tru th m ust therefore in the end love God; th e m an w ho does n o t love tru th will never love God—until his n atu re has suffered radical change. All other crimes can be forgiven, for they represent faults th at can be overcome, b u t n o t so untruthfulness. This alone, for the Hindu, is the unpardonable sin. N ot only are the main characters o f th e Rämäyana interpreted by the Adhyätm a Räm äyana1 as religious symbols, b u t also all the main incidents. The carrying off o f Sitä, for example, is viewed as a vivid expression of th at profound hatred for Räm a w hich for Rävana is, as we have seen, the paradoxical substitute for love. The Yoga-Väsistha

There is a second subordinate, derivative Rämäyana, know n as the Yoga-Väsistha, th e reputed au th o r o f w hich was the sage Vasistha, chief priest of King Dasaratha. In this poem it is related how there awakened in th e heart o f Räma, while he was still very young, a feeling of detachm ent from the world. He realized th a t th e w orld is a vain shadow, th a t life is transitory, th a t everything we sense or experience today is and tom orrow is not, th a t everywhere and always there is suffering, th a t no state o f existence is free from pain and grief, and th a t nothing is unconditionally good. Such were the thoughts of Räm a as he brooded on h u m an fate. So Vasistha instructed him regarding the unchangeable Reality, by way of illustration telling m any interesting stories. The philosophy of the poem m ay be sum m ed up in few words: Life as it is know n to m ost m en is fleeting and filled w ith sorrow. This sorrow has its ro o t in ignorance. In ignorance we foolishly think th e transitory w orld to be real, n o t perceiving th at o u r present 1 It is interesting to note th at àrî R äm akrsna was especially fond o f the A dhyätm a R äm äyana, and warm ly recom m ended it to his devotees and disciples.

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consciousness and all o u r daily experiences are but the stuff of dreams. Let us th en awake betimes to the true Self, the universal Self, the one im m utable Reality behind the change. Once awake, we shall know suffering and death no more. By right thinking and diligent discrimination we attain to the tru th of Brahman. The Mahabhärata

The M ahabhärata—as its nam e hints—tells th e story of the noble descendants of King Bharata. Its reputed au th o r was Vyäsa. In its original form it consisted of tw enty-four thousand verses, in its final form of m ore th an two hundred thousand. It is a rich collection o f m any histories and m any legends. It has been tru ly said of it th a t it ‘represents a w hole literature rather th an a single hom ogeneous w ork’, and th at ‘it constitutes a veritable treasure house of Indian lore, both secular and religious, and gives, as does no other single work, an insight into the innerm ost depths of the soul of the people of H industan’1—w here ‘H industan’ is merely another word for India. The scene of the poem is the ancient kingdom o f the Kurus; and the central story—the germ o f w hich is to be found in the Vedas— concerns a great dynastic war. Following is a sketch—of course the merest sketch—of this central story. Story o f the Mahabhärata

After the death of King Pändu, his brother D hrtarästra became king, and brought up the five sons of Pändu along w ith his own hundred sons. As they grew up, the five sons of Pändu—the Pändavas— distinguished themselves for their valour, their piety, and their heroic virtues. In consequence Duryodhana, the eldest son of King Dhrtarästra, burned w ith jealousy, and together w ith his brothers and his evil counsellors plotted in m any ways against the lives of his noble cousins. On one occasion the Pändavas were prevailed upo n to visit w ith their m other a distant tow n called Väranävata, on the plea th at a religious festival was being held there. There they were accomm odated in a palace built, by D uryodhana’s direction, of inflammable materials. But the Pändavas were w arned of the plot by a good man; and so they managed to escape before the house was set afire. When D uryodhana and his brothers learned th at the palace had been reduced to ashes, they felt th at all obstacles were now removed from their path. The Pändavas had fled to the forest w ith their m other, where they 1 Cultural Heritage o f India, vol. I, p. 98.

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lived in the guise of brahmins. Many were the adventures they had, b u t their fortitude of m ind, physical strength, and extraordinary valour made th em overcome all dangers. By chance, in course o f time, they heard of th e approaching marriage festival of the princess of a neighbouring country. Kings and princes were to assemble at the co u rt o f her father, and th e princess was to choose for her husband th a t one am ong th em w ho could string a bow o f great m agnitude and pierce a difficult target. The Pändavas decided to go to th e cerem ony in their role as brahmins. A t last the day came w hen suitors gathered from the four corners of India, all anxious to win th e hand of the princess. A mong th em was D uryodhana. One after another they tried their skill, and every one failed even to bend the bow. But finally Arjuna, th e third born of the Pändavas, arose, quietly approached th e arena, and w ith ease and skill both strung the bow and hit the target. T hen the princess, Draupadi, threw th e garland of flowers over A rjuna’s head, accepting him as her husband. The o ther kings and princes there assembled, however, could n o t bear the idea th a t a princess should be w on by a poor brahm in, and they tried to prevent th e marriage by force of arms. The five brothers fought all these warriors, w on th e battle, and carried away th e bride in trium ph. The five brothers now retu rn ed w ith Draupadi to their hom e in the forest, w here they had been living on alms, as was the custom o f brähm ins, and said to their m other, in jest: ‘M other, we have today b ro u g h t hom e a m ost w onderful gift.’ To this the m other replied: ‘Enjoy th e gift in com m on, m y children, all of you.’ Then, seeing th e princess, she cried out: O h , w hat have I said! It is a girl!’ But w hat could be done? The m o th er’s w ord was spoken once for all and could n o t be disregarded. So Draupadi became th e com m on wife of all th e Pändavas. D hrtarästra th e king and his jealous son now learned n o t only th at the Pändavas were alive, b u t th a t they had m arried Draupadi, thus form ing a strong alliance w ith a powerful neighbouring king. T hough D uryodhana conceived of fresh plots to destroy them , King D hrtarästra was prevailed u p o n by the wise counsels o f his uncle Bhisma and other elders to send for th e Pändavas and offer them half of his kingdom. Accordingly th e kingdom was divided. D uryodhana took possession o f th e richer eastern portion, w ith its ancient capital Hastinäpur, on th e Ganges, and Yudhisthira, the eldest of th e Pändavas, was given the w estern portion of th e kingdom, w hich was th en a wilderness. The Pändavas cleared a space in the forest and there built for themselves a beautiful city. This they called Indraprastha. Their kingdom thus happily established, they made plans to hold th e

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räjasüya, or Imperial Sacrifice, in order to crow n th e eldest, Yudhisthira, as king. But in the interim , by th e advice of Krsna, their cousin (but n o t a brother o f D uryodhana), th e Pändavas decided to attack and conquer a ty ran t king, Jaräsandha by name, w ho held captive m any other kings w ith th e intention o f killing them . After fourteen days o f continuous battle Jaräsandha was killed, and the captive kings were set free. To the Imperial Sacrifice came th e liberated kings w ith rich offerings. O ther kings came to pay tribute. D hrtarästra and his sons, having been duly invited, were present, and also Krsna. Amidst great rejoicing Yudhisthira was crowned. The vast splendour and w ealth o f th e Pändavas and th e great honours show n them at the sacrifice caused th e heart of D uryodhana to burn anew w ith intense jealousy, and w hen he came back to his ow n kingdom he devised a new plan for their destruction. King Yudhisthira, esteemed for his piety, truthfulness, and upright conduct, had b u t one weakness—his love o f gambling. Taking advantage of this, D uryodhana challenged him to play at dice w ith Sakuni, a crafty gambler, and Yudhisthira regarded it as a point of h o n o u r to accept the challenge. Sakuni played dishonestly, and the king lost everything he possessed, including even his kingdom . T hen m addened by th e game, he staked his brothers, himself, and, finally, the fair Draupadi—and lost all. The Pändavas were now com pletely at the m ercy o f Duryodhana, w ho heaped insults upo n th em and subjected Draupadi to m ost in h u m an treatm ent. At length D hrtarästra intervened, set the brothers and Draupadi free, and gave Yudhisthira back his kingdom. But again Duryodhana, w ith the permission o f his father, challenged Yudhisthira to play at dice, this tim e un d er a strange condition. The loser w ould have to give up his kingdom and retire to the forest for twelve years, thereafter live unrecognized in a city for one year, and if he were found o u t during th at year th e same term of exile w ould have to be endured again. This game also Yudhisthira lost, and with his brothers and Draupadi w ent to live in the forest. There they dwelt for twelve years, practising m any virtues and austerities and perform ing m any deeds o f valour. The p art o f th e epic dealing w ith this period in their lives is replete w ith interesting stories and w ith ethical and spiritual teaching. Once, while w andering in the forest, th e Pändavas felt very thirsty, w hereupon Yudhisthira sent one of the younger o f them , Nakula, to search for water. N akula found a crystal lake, b u t as he was about to drink from it, he heard a voice say: ‘Stop, child. First answer m y questions, and then drink of the w ater.’ But N akula in his thirst gave no heed to the words, drank of the water, and dropped dow n dead.

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Since he failed to return, another brother, Sahadeva, took up the quest—and, as it chanced, came to the same lake, and there discovered N akula’s lifeless body. In his great thirst he was about to drink of the w ater w hen he heard the same warning voice th at Nakula had heard before him. But he too gave no heed to it, took of the water, and at once fell dead. One by one, A rjuna and Bhima followed in the footsteps of their brothers, acted in every respect as they had done, and suffered the same fate. At last came Yudhisthira. He beheld his four brothers lying dead, and while lam enting his sudden unaccountable loss, he heard a voice crying: ‘Yudhisthira, m y child, answer m y questions, and your grief and thirst will be over.’ Ί will answer your questions according to m y understanding,’ replied Yudhisthira. ‘Ask of m e.’ Now the voice was th e voice of Dharm a, or Virtue, w hich had assumed the form o f a crane. ‘W hat’, asked th e crane, ‘is the path to heaven?’ ‘Truthfulness.’ ‘By w hat means does one find happiness?’ ‘By right conduct.’ ‘By subduing w hat do m en escape grief?’ ‘By subduing their m inds.’ ‘W hen is a m an loved?’ ‘W hen he is w ithout vanity.’ O f all th e w onderful things in the world w hat is the m ost w onderful?’ ‘T hat no m an, tho u g h he sees people dying all around him, believes th at he will die.’ ‘By w hat p ath does one reach religion?’ ‘By argum ent it cannot be reached. O f scriptures and doctrines there are many, b u t they avail not. The path to religion is th at trodden by the saints.’ D harma, well pleased, revealed himself to Yudhisthira and brought back to life the dead brothers. Since D harm a knew th a t th e thirteenth year of the exile to which the Pändavas were doom ed had just begun and th a t it was required of th em th at they should live in a city unrecognized, he helped th em all to change their appearance and advised th em to go to the kingdom of Virât. M any were the incidents th a t befell them during th e year in which, disguised, they served the king of Virât, b u t their identity was discovered only at its close. Thus were all the conditions o f the wager finally fulfilled, and their ordeal was past. T hen Yudhisthira asked D uryodhana to restore to him his half of the kingdom. But to this th e evil prince w ould n o t listen. T hen

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Yudhisthira said he w ould be content if only he and his brothers were each given a village. But even this proposal D uryodhana rejected. ‘W ithout a struggle,’ he cried, Ί will n o t yield even so m uch land as can be covered by the p oint of a needle.’ Elders of th e hostile families did their utm ost to settle the quarrel, even Krsna exerted all his influence—but D uryodhana was adamant. In the end preparations were begun for inevitable war. Krsna, th o u g h both sides desired his aid, w ould take no active part in the strife, b u t he gave his arm y to D uryodhana and offered himself as charioteer to Arjuna, prince of warriors and leader of his brothers’ forces. Neighbouring kings were drawn into the conflict, and even rem ote ones, until th e whole of India was involved. The war was fought in one great contest on the plain of Kuruksetra. Here it was, in the space between the opposing armies, before the fight was begun, th a t Krsna, w ho is the avatar of the Mahäbhärata, as Räm a was th e avatär of the Rämäyana, gave to A rjuna the im m ortal teachings of the Bhagavad-Gitä. The battle lasted eighteen days, and ended, w ith the death of D uryodhana, in favour of the Pändavas. Yudhisthira now became undisputed em peror and ruled India for thirty-six years. At his death Pariksit, the grandson of Arjuna, was placed on th e throne; and the Pändavas, together w ith Draupadi, retired to th e Himalayas. There, far w ithdraw n from the cares o f the world, they practised m any austerities. The epic ends w ith the story o f their great journey to the abode o f God—God, th a t is, in his personal aspect. All set o u t together, the five brothers and the queen; but one by one all fell dead by the way, because they were n o t sufficiently pure to be able to enter heaven in their h u m an bodies—no, n o t quite all, for Yudhisthira was w ithout fault and so reached heaven while yet alive. Awaiting him there were Queen Draupadi, his four brothers, and others, relatives and friends, w ho had died on earth. Thus, as we last glimpse th e characters whose fortunes we have followed thro u g h so m any sorrowful adventures, they are reunited in joy. An incident near th e close of the poem m ust hardly go unrecorded, for it is a touching example of th e simple appeal, the homely hum anity, th a t is characteristic of India’s epics. Yudhisthira is accompanied on his last journey by his faithful dog D hruba. W hen, together, they come to heaven, Yudhisthira is freely granted admission—b u t n o t Dhruba. ‘W ithout D hruba’, declares Yudhisthira, Ί will n o t enter!’ W hen at length Yudhisthira goes to his happiness, D hruba is by his side.

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The Spiritual Heritage o f India Comment on the Mahäbhärata

T he M ahäbhärata, like th e Rämäyana, is—we recall—an auxiliary scripture. T hat is to say, it follows, expands upon, illustrates, the all-im portant Vedas. Necessarily, however, in so brief a sketch as has here been given of so m on u m en tal a w ork, this quality has been inadequately suggested. Still some signs of it have appeared. The barest outline o f th e action of th e poem cannot conceal th a t in its m ain course it is an illustration o f th e Vedic doctrine—the doctrine indeed o f all religions—th a t right prevails. In it virtue and tru th , th o u g h sorely tried, triu m p h at last over vice and wickedness. And th e dialogue between D harm a and Yudhisthira is of course explicitly didactic. The burden of any discussion o f the subject, however, m ust centre in a study of th e sublime episode called th e Bhagavad-Gitä. This is tru e for tw o reasons: first, because it is in the Gitä alone th a t the poem gives a systematic exposition of religious ideas, and second, because even certain topics th a t are elsewhere taken up, or th a t implicitly pervade the narrative, are here given their m ost com plete and analytic treatm ent. So im portant is the Gitä th a t it will be reserved for a separate chapter. W hat follows here is a miscellaneous collection of passages of an ethical or religious nature, all draw n from other parts of the poem. The first is th e circum stantial statem ent of a rule of morals th at has been universally acknowledged—th o u g h not, unhappily, u n iversally practised: ‘Treat others as th o u w ouldst thyself be treated.’1 ‘Do nothing to thy neighbour w hich hereafter th o u w ouldst n o t have th y neighbour do to thee.’2 ‘He who is always a friend of others and by his word, thought, and deed is continually engrossed in doing good to others—he, O Jäjali, knows th e m eaning of dharm a.’3 From the m o u th of Yudhisthira comes the following group of m oral maxims, some in no respect peculiar to India, others bearing traces, in idea or emphasis, o f its characteristic thought: ‘Alms-giving is the way to fame, truthfulness is th e way to heaven, 1 ¿an ti parva, 167. 9. This and the follow ing passages from the M ahäbhärata have been translated from Sriman-Mahäbhäratam (G orakhpur: Gita Press). 1 A nusäsana parva, 113. 8. 3 áánti parva, 262. 9.

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right conduct is the way to happiness. The best o f gains is the gaining o f health, and the best of happiness is contentm ent.’1 ‘There is no greater virtue than kindness. They w ho have their m inds u n d er control never come to grief. Friendship w ith the holy never ages.’2 ‘He who gives up vanity is loved by all. He w ho gives u p anger never grieves. He who gives up greed becomes happy.’3 ‘Kindness is desiring happiness for all. Straightforwardness is m ental poise. Holy is he who is kind to all. Wicked is he w ho is cruel.’4 With the exception of three excerpts from the Anusäsana parva, th e rem aining passages are from the Santi parva, one of th e m ost beautiful of the eighteen cantos of th e poem, and easily the longest. The scene is at the bedside of Bhisma, affectionately know n as the ‘grandsire’, tho u g h a celibate—the ideal celibate of the poem. He was revered for his pure life, his devotion to tru th , his great wisdom, and his incomparable heroism. Old th o u g h he was, he fought valiantly at Kuruksetra, only at last to go w ounded from the field. T hen it was th a t Krsna, desirous th at his friends and disciples should learn the words of tru th from the lips o f the sage, came to him , accompanied by the Pändavas and others, and asked him to give of his wisdom. M any were the things he talked of, from the duties o f a m onarch to th e secrets of philosophy, illustrating his rem arks w ith endless tales of kings and saints and gods. His teachings, occupying nearly onefo u rth of the entire epic, constitute an im m em orial storehouse of H indu laws, m oral codes, and spiritual practices. These, then, are words o f the holy sage, as he lay dying o n his ‘bed of arrows’: ‘Man should always worship God w ith devotion—this I consider the greatest of all tru th s.’5 ‘The blessed ones w ho love the Lord and are devoted to him are free from anger, malice, avarice, and evil th o u g h t.’6 ‘Meditating on thee, O Krsna, th e energy of y o u th has come back to me. By thy grace I am able to speak o u t w hat w ould bring good to all.’7 Ί consider hum an endeavour greater than dependence on fate. He who depends on fate confounds himself.’8 1 Vana parva, 313. 70. 3 Anusäsana parva, 149. 8. 7 Santi parva, 54. 23.

2 Ibid., 76.

3 Ibid., 78. 6 Ibid., 149. 133. 8 Ibid., 56. 15.

4 Ibid., 90.

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‘There is no sight equal to learning, no austerity equal to tru th fu lness, no misery like passion, and no happiness equal to following th e ideal of renunciation.’1 ‘The secret m eaning o f the Vedas is tru th ; of tru th , self-control; of self-control, freedom from all limitations. This is the sum o f all scriptures.’2 ‘Purity of conduct is th e greatest purity. To th in k o f God continuously, to worship him , to chant his nam e and sing his praises— this is the best way of attaining the highest good.’3 ‘The M ahabhärata’, says Ä nandavardhana, perhaps th e greatest of Sanskrit literary critics, as he sums u p the philosophy o f th e poem — ‘The M ahabhärata teaches m an ultim ately to renounce the vanity of earthly glories and attain dharm a [truth and righteousness], vairägya [renunciation], sänti [eternal peace], and m oksa [salvation], Vyäsa him self remarks in his epic th a t he has sung th e glory of the Lord and th a t his epic is th e Näräyana Kathä, “The Story of th e Lord”, th u s clearly indicating w hat th e message o f his epic is; for the story of th e Pändavas is only an occasion,, th e purpose being to reveal the greatness o f th e Lord. Shun, therefore, all worldliness and love th e Lord.’4 1 áanti parva, 176. 35. 3 A nusäsana parva, 108. 12.

2 Ibid., 251. 11. i Dhvanyaloka.

C H A PTE R 5

THE B H A G A V A D - G Ï T Â

The Teacher and the Disciple

Embedded in one book o f th e great Indian epic the M ahäbhärata occurs th e Bhagavad-Gita, or Song of God, th e m ost popular w ork in all the religious literature of India. This great docum ent is assigned by scholars to a tim e somewhere between the fifth and the second centuries before Christ. Its influence u pon th e m inds of prophets, reformers, and ascetics, and upo n the laity—indeed u pon the w hole of H indu life and th o u g h t th ro u g h countless generations—is recognized by all students o f Indian culture. W ithout fear of contradiction it m ay be said to be th e Holy Bible o f India, though, unlike the Upanisads, it is n o t regarded as Sruti,1 or revealed scripture, b u t only as Smrti, o r tradition elaborating th e doctrines o f the Upanisads. The following passage from the Invocation prefixed to th e poem expresses the same idea thus: ‘All th e Upanisads are the cows, th e son of the cowherd [Krsna] is th e milker, Pârtha [Arjuna] is the calf, m en of purified intellect are th e drinkers, and the suprem e nectar know n as th e Gita is the m ilk.’ The Song o f God is w ritten in the form of a dialogue between Krsna, w ho m ay be called the Christ of India, and his friend and disciple, A rjuna. This Krsna is the Divine One, th e ‘Lord w ho abides w ithin th e heart of all beings’. He represents a conception w hich is th e basis o f all Indian religious thought, namely, th at all existence is a manifestation of God, and th at God exists in all beings as the innerm ost Self. In every heart Krsna is concealed, and w hen the veil of ignorance w hich covers the inner sanctuary is w ithdraw n, we hear th e voice of Krsna, the very voice of God. In the Gita, Krsna openly 1 The áruti, or revealed scripture, as has before been noted, is regarded as having originated in God himself. The Sm rti embodies the teachings o f divine incarnations, prophets, saints, and sages. It derives its authority from the áruti, which it m u st in no way contradict. The distinction em phasized is th at between revealed scripture on the one hand, and religious com m entary and tradition on the other.

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declares himself to be one w ith Brahman, the Infinite Self, and urges A rjuna to attain to ‘m y being’. Flying from fear, From lust and anger, He hides in m e His refuge, his safety: B urnt clean in the blaze of my being, In me m any find hom e.1 Thus Krsna of the Gita as a historical personage has b u t a secondary im portance.2 Therein he differs from the Christ o f the New Testam ent, at least the Christ upo n whose personality is based the whole religion of Christianity. The Gita is m ainly concerned w ith Krsna the teacher, who is identical w ith the divine Self, or the Infinite in man. Indeed, to those w ho seek spiritual illum ination, it m atters little, in th e case of either Krsna or Christ, w hether the figure ever existed as a historical personage, so long as it is possible for th em to attain th ro u g h him their heart’s desire, namely, union w ith God—the Universal Self. And in th e Gita we find stress laid n o t on Krsna as an individual personality, b u t on Krsna in his transcendental aspect, as the Soul of all souls, the great Ί AM’—a fact illustrated by A rjuna’s vision of the Universal Form in the body of Krsna, described in the eleventh chapter. Arjuna, the disciple and friend of w hom Krsna is the constant com panion, is typically hum an, being neither a saint n o r a sinner, b u t a struggling soul seeking to escape from grief and misery. He is represented in the Gita as a m an of action, a fighter—a m an living 1 IV. 10. 2 ‘The historical Krishna, no doubt, existed. We m eet the nam e first in the Chhandogya Upanishad where all we can gather about him is th at he was well know n in spiritual tradition as a knower o f the Brahm an, so well known indeed in his personality and the circum stances o f his life that it was sufficient to refer to him by the nam e o f his m other as Krishna son o f Devaki for all to understand w ho was m eant. In the sam e Upanishad we find m ention o f King Dhritarashtra son o f Vichitravirya, and since tradition associated the tw o together so closely th at they are both o f them leading personages in the action o f the M ahabharata, we m ay fairly conclude that they were actually contem poraries and that the epic is to a great extent dealing with historical characters and in the war o f Kurukshetra with a historical occurrence im printed firm ly on the m em ory o f the race. . . . There is a hint also in the poem o f the story or legend o f the Avatar’s early life in Vrindavan which, as developed by the Puranas into an intense and pow erful spiritual sym bol, has exercised so profound an influence on the religious m ind o f India. We have also in the Harivansha an account o f the life o f Krishna, very evidently fu ll o f legends, which perhaps form ed the basis o f the Puranic accounts.’ Sri Aurobindo Ghose, Essays on the Gita (First Series), pp. 19-21.

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in th e world, b u t confused as to his duty and the tru e meaning and goal of life, and eager to find a way to peace and freedom. The Gita is, then, in th e form of a conversation between Krsna, who is Näräyana, or God, and Arjuna, w ho represents nara, or m an. The Gita is the song of God chanted in thrilling notes to h u m an ears. The Teachings o f the Gitä

T he commentaries upo n the Gita are num erous. Each school of philosophy in India has found in it th e source of its metaphysical system, and from it every philosopher o r saint has draw n inspiration. So th e Gita contains th e germs o f all forms and systems of Indian religious thought, b u t it cannot itself be limited to any particular system of metaphysics or religion. For it is n o t a metaphysical treatise, n o r is it the fruit of the traditional religious thinking of any particular sect; rather, one should say, it contains metaphysical tru th s in their diverse aspects, and embodies every form o f religious thought, practice, and discipline. Conflicting ideas apparently lie side by side unreconciled. A person w ho holds to one religion as exclusively tru e will find in the Gita, as some W estern critics hold, ‘different stream s of tradition becom ing confused in th e m ind of the au th o r’. The spirit o f catholicity is a prom inent feature o f all Indian teachings. They evince a spirit of harm ony rather th an of conflict, of synthesis and toleration rather th an o f opposition and sectarianism. Infinite is God, infinite are his aspects, and infinite are th e ways to reach him. In th e Atharva Veda we read: Ekam jyotir bahudhä bibhäti—The one Light appears in diverse forms. This ideal of harm ony has held its own in India dow n to the present time. The Gita carries it to its logical conclusion in blending, synthesizing, and reconciling conflicting metaphysical theories and opposed conceptions o f spiritual discipline. We read in its pages: Whatever wish m en bring me in worship, T hat wish I grant them . Whatever path m en travel Is m y path: No m atter where they walk It leads to m e.1 Sri Aurobindo has rightly remarked: ‘The Gita is n o t a weapon for dialectical warfare; it is a gate opening on th e whole w orld of spiritual tru th and experience, and the view it gives us embraces all the * IV. 11. D

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provinces of th a t suprem e region. It maps out, but it does n o t cut up or build walls or hedges to confine o u r vision.’1 Fundam entally the Gita insists upon knowledge of the Self, or God, as the only goal of life. All religions, all doctrines spring from God; and yet no religion or doctrine can encompass his being; any one religion has value only inasm uch as it helps m an to attain to him. The conflicts of doctrines cease only w hen he shines in our hearts. ‘When the whole country is flooded, the reservoir becomes superfluous. So, to th e illum ined seer, the Vedas are all superfluous.’2 In his last utterance Sri Krsna, the divine teacher, clearly and definitely states the ‘suprem e w ord’ of the poem, the highest note of the discourse: Hear th o u again m y suprem e word, he says, the profoundest of all— Give m e your w hole heart, Love and adore me, Worship me always, Bow to m e only, And you shall find me: This is m y promise Who love you dearly. Lay dow n all duties In me, your refuge. Fear no longer, For I will save you From sin and from bondage.3 This ‘suprem e w ord’ of the Gita, th o u g h a simple utterance, is n o t easy to obey and realize. Self-surrender, knowingly ‘to live, move, and have o u r being in God’, is central in all religious teachings—or yogas, as they are called in the Gita. These yogas, w hich are peculiar to Indian life, are fully expounded in the Gita. The w ord yoga literally means union—unio n w ith God. Its secondary meaning, a p ath to union w ith the Godhead, applies to th e different disciplines. These paths of attainm ent may be found in the earliest Indian scriptures, and they have always been know n to the sages and scholars o f the land. They are principally four: jñana yoga, or the path of union th ro u g h knowledge; räja yoga, o r the path o f realization th ro u g h m editation and psychic control; bhakti yoga, or the path of realization th ro u g h love and devotion; and karm a yoga, or the path of union th ro u g h work. N ot only have all o f these been expounded in the Gita as the various m ethods of attaining union w ith God, b u t in its teachings they stand reconciled, blended, and harmonized. 1 Ghose, op. cit. (First Series), p. 10.

2 II. 40.

3 XVIII. 65, 66.

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Most com m entators, however, stress one or another yoga as the characteristic teaching of Sri Krsna. Formerly, either jñana yoga or bhakti yoga—attainm ent by means of knowledge or devotion—was stressed; today m uch emphasis is p u t on karm a yoga, or the p ath of w ork. But the fact is th at whenever Sri Krsna speaks of one o f them , he naturally attaches extrem e im portance to th at particular one—so m uch so th a t each o f th e yogas in tu rn assumes the· pre-em inent place. The perfect m an of the Gita, w ith some resemblance to the Aristotelian conception of the ideal m an as the harm onious embodim en t of all the virtues, is one who is active as well as meditative, who is full of devotion, and w ho at the same time possesses the knowledge of the Self. The Gita is divided into eighteen chapters, w hich can be grouped into three sections, or books. The first of these three books deals w ith karm a yoga, the path of work, and here the insistence is upon action. The second book is an exposition of jñana yoga, the path of knowledge, and here th e insistence is upon knowledge of the Self. The subject of karm a is n o t entirely dismissed, b u t is harm onized w ith the p ath of knowledge. The last of the books discusses bhakti yoga, or the path of love and devotion, and the insistence here is on worship and love of the one Suprem e Lord. Jñana (knowledge) and karm a (work) do n o t disappear, b u t are both harm onized with devotion. As Sri Aurobindo has beautifully expressed it: ‘The double path [jñana and karma] becomes the triune way of knowledge, works and devotion. And the fruit of the sacrifice, the one fruit still placed before th e seeker, is attained—union w ith the divine Being and oneness w ith the suprem e divine nature.’1 And in and th ro u g h this triune way of knowledge, works, and devotion, runs the thread of räja yoga, or the path of meditation, w hich insists on poise, selfcontrol, tranquillity, and the meditative life. From another angle, the first book, comprising the first six chapters, deals w ith the true nature of Tvam, or T hou (i.e. the tru e nature of the Self), a w ord th at appears in the great Vedäntic saying Tat Tvam Asi—T hou art T hat.2 The second book explains the nature of Tat, or That; and the last book brings o u t the identity of T hou w ith That. Thus the great Vedäntic tru th embodied in th e saying T hou art T hat forms the subject-m atter of the Gitä, and the whole poem is only an exposition of its meaning. The Doctrine o f Renunciation

Once, w hen Sri Räm akrsna was asked, ‘W hat does th e Gita teach?’ he replied, ‘If you u tter th e w ord “Gitä” a few times, you begin to say 1 Ghose, op. cit. (First Series), p. 54.

2 Chändogya, VI. xiii. 3.

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“tägi, tägi”—m eaning one w ho has renounced. The call to renunciation pervades th e Gita.’ R enunciation is indeed th e beginning, the middle, and the end of spiritual life. It is inseparable from any of th e yogas tau g h t in th e Gita. It does n o t necessarily imply, however, adoption of the monastic life. For it is a discipline th a t has to be practised by all, by m onks no m ore th an by m en of th e w orld. Otherworldliness, in spite o f the associations of the word, does n o t im ply escaping into th e forest and shunning the duties of everyday life. T hroughout, th e Gita insists on th e perform ance o f the duties of life, th o u g h w ith a heart free from attachm ent and thoughts of w orldly gain, and devoted entirely to th e adoration o f God. It is interesting to note th a t th e Gita condem ns in unm istakable term s acceptance o f m onastic life if th e spirit o f renunciation is lacking in the heart. The failure to grasp th e tru e spiritual outlook of th e Gita has led m any in m odern times to read th e ideals o f m odern secularism into th e pages of this ancient Indian scripture. Instead of th e ideal of renunciation—th e denial o f ‘m e’ and ‘m ine’ and th e conversion of th e lusts of th e flesh into a passionate love of God—they find in it only a condem nation of otherworldliness and an insistence on living in th e w orld for th e perform ance of th e w orld’s works. The ideal of knowledge, devotion, m editation, and nonattachm ent, they aver, is subservient to karm a, according to th em the central doctrine of the Gita. So the W estern ideals of hum anitarian service and social uplift, besides political activity and family life, have been identified w ith the karm a yoga o f the Gita. All of these objectives and ideals m ay o f course be laudable, and th e Gita does n o t condem n them , b u t it is also certain th a t it does n o t teach th em as karm a yoga. G ranting th a t these ideals are recognized in th e Gita, unless they are spiritualized they have no relation to karm a yoga. N ot karm a, m ere action, b u t karm a yoga, union w ith God th ro u g h action, is the essence of th e teaching of th e Gita on this subject. Thus, n o t sacrifice for hum anity, b u t service to hum anity as a sacrifice u n to God, whose image we learn to see in m an, is the tru e ideal. No political activities undertaken w ith a selfish motive, b u t such activities perform ed as worship of God; n o t m erely family life and th e perform ance of th e ordinary domestic duties, b u t a life of no n attach m en t in the m idst of these duties, combined w ith know ledge of the n atu re of one’s im m utable, eternal Self—this is the real message of the Bhagavad-Gitä. It is only as w orldly affairs are spiritualized and transform ed th a t they become a p art of karm a yoga. In short, tem poral life and spiritual values stand in a relation of harm ony; they constitute one divine life—as th e Gita tells us.

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Insistence on the perform ance of svadharma, o r one’s secular duty, in th e spirit of yoga, is indeed often m et w ith in th e Gita, b u t this insistence ceases to have force and m eaning w ith th e grow th of higher knowledge. Sri A urobindo makes this issue abundantly clear w hen he says: ‘An inner situation may even arise, as w ith th e Buddha, in w hich all duties have to be abandoned, tram pled on, flung aside in order to follow th e call of the Divine within. I cannot th in k th a t th e Gita w ould solve such an inner situation by sending Buddha back to his wife and father and the governm ent o f th e Sakya State, o r w ould direct a Ram akrishna to become a Pundit in a vernacular school and disinterestedly teach little boys their lessons, or bind dow n a Vivekananda to support his family and for th a t to follow dispassionately th e law or medicine or journalism . The Gita does n o t teach the disinterested perform ance o f duties, b u t the following of th e divine life, the abandonm ent of all dharmas, sarvadharmän, to take refuge in the Supreme alone, and th e divine activity of a Buddha, a Ram akrishna, a Vivekananda is perfectly in consonance w ith this teaching.’1 The Battlefield o f Kuruksetra

The great poem opens w ith a description of tw o armies arrayed against each other. The scene is laid in th e field of Kuruksetra, where, accompanied by his divine charioteer, Krsna, stands Arjuna, th e hero, about to give battle to the host of th e Kauravas. As A rjuna views both th e armies he is filled w ith melancholy. The horrors of w ar and the terro r of death overwhelm him, and he tu rn s to Krsna, w ho urges him to carry on the fight against his enemies, the enemies of righteousness and tru th . A rjuna’s feeling of revulsion against useless slaughter meets w ith Krsna’s stern rebuke. ‘A rjuna,’ he says, ‘is this h o u r of battle the tim e for scruples and fancies? Are they w orthy o f you, w ho seek enlightenm ent? Any brave m an w ho merely hopes for fame or heaven w ould despise them .’2 So, at th e very beginning o f th e great book, we are astonished to see one of th e suprem e teachers of spiritual tru th supporting war. How is this to be explained? As we proceed, we discover th a t th e way o f realizing th e divine consciousness, and attaining eternal life and infinite peace, is th ro u g h com plete detachm ent and self-surrender. We can understand the Gita as a holy scripture and Krsna as a divine teacher only w hen we consider th a t this war is b u t an occasion for bringing spiritual tru th s to our attention. But it is still difficult to understand how th e actual w ar, and Krsna’s urging to wage it to th e end, can be reconciled w ith 1 Ghose, op. cit. (First Series), pp. 45-6.

2 Π. 2.

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any spiritual teaching. T he Gita’s ideal m an is certainly n o t th e superm an of Nietzsche’s imagination, w ho w ould crush all opposition in his struggle for power. Quite the contrary, it is he ‘w ho delights in God’, like a yogi (one w ho practises yoga), whose spiritual practices correspond to th e life of contem plation w hich Aristotle considers the highest attainm ent of m an. Yoga, or unio n w ith God, has been defined in the Gita as follows: * “The light of a lam p does n o t flicker in a windless place” : th a t is th e simile which describes a yogi of one-pointed mind, w ho meditates u p o n the Atm an. W hen, th ro u g h th e practice o f yoga, the m ind ceases its restless m ovem ents, and becomes still, he realizes the A tm an. It satisfies him entirely. Then he knows th at infinite happiness w hich can be realized by th e purified heart b u t is beyond the grasp of th e senses. He stands firm in this realization. Because of it, he can never again w ander from th e inm ost tru th of his being.’ Now th a t he holds it He knows this treasure Above all others: Faith so certain Shall never be shaken By heaviest sorrow. ‘To achieve this certainty is to know the real meaning of the word yoga. It is the breaking of contact w ith pain.’1 But we are still facing th e problem of w ar and the destruction it involves. This Gordian k n o t can easily be cut if we read a symbolic m eaning into th e battlefield o f Kuruksetra. M any com m entators say th a t K uruksetra is n o t an external battlefield but one of o u r ow n making, w ithin ourselves. It is th e battlefield of life. It is n o t the scene of a w ar in th e w orld outside, b u t of one w hich we continually wage w ithin us against the evil forces of passion, prejudice, and evil inclination, in order th a t we m ay hold dom inion over ourselves. A rjuna was awakened enough to realize the need o f struggling against these forces; b u t th en despondency and weakness of will got the upper hand, and he longed to fall back to th e familiar ways o f pleasure, w hich are th e ways of least effort. At this point o f weak despair, Krsna, th e voice of God, urged him to struggle fu rth er against his evil n atu re and win the kingdom of heaven. This explanation is in entire harm ony w ith the teachings o f the Gita. If the Gita had been a book independent of the M ahäbhärata, we need n o t have concerned ourselves w ith the question w hether or n o t the war was actually fought. But since it forms a chapter of th e 1 VI. 19-23.

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great epic, dealing w ith th e war between th e Pändavas and the Kauravas, we are forced to find a means of reconciling the fact o f war w ith the aspiration after spiritual life w ith w hich it is permeated. Ancient com m entators such as Samkara, Räm änuja, and áridhara took the actual war for granted. N one of them made any attem pt either to explain the w ar away or to establish harm ony between the spirit of war and the spirit of peace; for they all took it for granted th a t the readers of the Gitä were familiar w ith the dharm a o f India based on caste, or gradation of life and duties. But the m odern m ind is n o t familiar w ith this ancient tradition, and, moreover, it knows th e worst horrors of war. Hence it finds it difficult to justify Krsna’s urging A rjuna to fight. In order, therefore, th a t we may perceive m ore clearly just why Krsna bade A rjuna fight, and how by fulfilling his duty as a w arrior A rjuna could attain to th e highest peace and beatitude, we m ust familiarize ourselves w ith the caste system o f India. This was rooted in the Vedas, and was know n as Varnäsrama dharm a, or religion and duty based on the different orders o f life. The democratic West, at least theoretically, does n o t believe in caste. ‘All m en are born equal5 is the central doctrine in its social philosophy. Equal opportunities will bring equal results. But has this theory any foundation in the facts of life? Even supposing equality to be established, w ould this w orld then remain a world? Variety and unity in variety make up the universal law of creation. Take away the variety, and this world w ould cease to be. The facts o f birth and death, and of life itself, contradict the theory of equality and uniform ity. Since individuals are born w ith different tem peram ents, they cannot grow and succeed in the same way and to the same extent, however equal m ight be the opportunities afforded them . Indian philosophy recognizes the variety as well as the unity. In th e soul of m an there is no distinction either of sex or caste, and the one God dwells in the hearts of all beings alike. In the Gitä, as well as in the Upanisads, God is described as Purusa—one w ho resides in the tem ple of th e body. But God is n o t expressed equally in all beings, and all beings are n o t living equally in God; n o r is God's power equally manifest in nature and in m an. Sri Krsna on the one hand, declares th at Seeing all things equal, The enlightened m ay look On the brahm in, learned and gentle, On the cow, on th e elephant, On the dog, on the eater of dogs.1 1 V. 18.

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On th e other hand, he points o u t th e difference between m an and beast, as well as between m an and m an. And this difference is caused by th e ‘differentiation of guna and karm a’.1 M ost Indian philosophers accept th e view of the Sämkhya philosophy th at th e w hole of nature is composed of three forces, or gunas, called in Sanskrit sattwa, rajas, and tamas. In the w orld o f m ind and m atter these correspond, respectively, to equilibrium , activity, and inertness. Sattwa, o r equilibrium , expresses itself in calmness, purity, and tranquillity; rajas, or activity, in desire, power, and energy; tamas, o r inertia, in dullness, laziness, and weakness.2 Every m an has in him these three forces. At times tamas prevails, and we are lazy; we lack incentive, and o u r wills grow weak. Again rajas prevails, and we becom e active, hopeful, and ambitious; we w ant to be up and doing. Or sattwa possesses us, as a result of w hich we grow calm and serene, and high and noble thoughts fill our minds. T hough all three gunas w ork in each m an, always one or another predom inates over th e other two; and the one th a t predominates determ ines the group, or caste, to w hich he belongs. There is no denying th a t h u m an society is a graded organization. Since m en have different m ental constitutions, they cannot all follow one and the same ideal. Swami Vivekananda has m ade this wise rem ark u pon th e subject: ‘Two ways are left open to us—the way of th e ignorant, w ho th in k th a t there is only one road to tru th and th a t all th e rest are w rong—and th e way of th e wise, w ho adm it that, according to o u r m ental constitution or th e plane of existence in w hich we are, duty and m orality m ay vary. The im p o rtan t thing is to know th a t there are gradations of d u ty and morality, th at the duty of one state o f life, in one set of circumstances, will n o t and cannot be th a t o f another.’3 All this does n o t mean, however, th a t the universal ideal o f n o n resistance, purity, nonattachm ent, tranquillity, and the like—in short, th e ideal of living in the consciousness o f God—has to be adapted to th e individual tem peram ent; for the high spiritual goal of life m ust be kept in view by all m en. But at the same tim e different levels of being m ust be recognized, 1 IV. 13. 2 Cf. Plato’s threefold division o f the soul ( Republic, IV) into the rational, the spirited, or concupiscent, and the tem perate. These are reconciled by justice, or righteousness. Plato m ay have arrived at his conclusions th rough study o f Hindu philosophy. 1 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. I, p. 35.

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so th a t everyone m ay be enabled, step by step, sooner or later, to attain to suprem e good. Indian systems of m orality and religion have stressed this fact from the earliest times, and in the H indu scriptures and books on ethics different rules of conduct are form ulated for different types o f men. The Gita insists th a t a m an should shape his ideals according to the type to w hich he belongs, and th u s endeavour to follow his svadharma—to do his duty according to the state of his grow th. This is a surer way to progress than th a t of taking u p other m en ’s ideals, w hen these are so unsuited to one’s tem peram ent th at they can never be fully realized. One should n o t be expected to perform a task beyond one’s strength. ‘For instance,’ to quote Swami Vivekananda, ‘we take a child and at once give him the task of walking tw enty miles; either th e little one dies, or one in a thousand crawls the tw enty miles to reach th e end exhausted and half dead.’1 Nonresistance is recognized by all th e great teachers as the highest virtue. The Gita also regards it as th e highest virtue, b u t does n o t say th a t all people un d er all circumstances m ust practise it. On the contrary, it points o u t th a t for some it is necessary to learn to resist evil in order th at by this means they m ay grow into a state in which they have th e m oral strength to endure it. Consider the m an who does n o t resist because he is weak or lazy and will n o t m ake the effort to do so. Is this th e virtue o f nonresistance? T hen consider another w ho knows th a t he can strike an irresistible blow if he likes, and yet does n o t strike, b u t blesses, his enemy. In the w ords of Swami Vivekananda: ‘The one w ho from weakness does n o t resist commits a sin, and therefore cannot receive any benefit from his nonresistance; while th e other w ould com m it a sin by offering resistance.’2 T hat is to say, we m ust gather th e pow er to resist; then, having gained it, we m ust renounce it. Then only will nonresistance be a virtue. If, merely lacking in will, we deceive ourselves into the belief th at we are actuated by the highest motives, we do n o t m erit praise. Says Swami Vivekananda, speaking of m eritorious resistance: ‘. . . this nonresistance is the highest manifestation of pow er in actual possession, and w hat is called the resisting of evil is b u t a step on the way towards it.’3 ‘A rjuna became a coward at the sight of the m ighty arm y arrayed against him ; his “love” made him forget his duty towards his country and king. T hat is why Sri Krishna told him th a t he was a hypocrite, and said, “T hou talkest like a wise m an, b u t thy actions betray thee to be a coward; therefore stand u p and fight”. ’4 1 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. I, p. 39. 3 Ibid., p. 37.

2 Ibid., pp. 36-7. Ibid.

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Paul Elmer More, reviewing the teachings of Christ, such as nonresistance, humility, and renunciation, remarks: ‘The doctrines of Christ, if accepted by the w orld in their integrity—the virtues, th at is, of humility, nonresistance and poverty—w ould . . . simply make an end of the w hole social fabric . . . ; and there is every reason to believe th at he [Christ] looked to see only a few chosen souls follow in his footsteps.’1 Only a few can follow in his steps, because only a few are ideal brahmins, endowed w ith sattwa. All others m ust seek graded ideals, graded standards and duties, in order th at in tim e they also may become ideal brahm ins and so attain to the highest. More, making a distinction between w orldly and spiritual virtues, adds: ‘To apply the laws o f the spirit to the activities of this earth is at once a desecration and denial of religion, and a bewildering and unsettling of the social order.’ He declares, in effect, th a t as we m eet o ther m en w ho are n o t inspired by religious virtues—a particularly com m on experience—we cannot, in our relations w ith them , practise virtues like hum ility, purity, poverty, chastity, and nonresistance in their highest form ; for if we did, the very structure of society w ould be underm ined. In place of these, he w ould have us practise the Aristotelian or cardinal virtues of justice, tem perance, prudence, and fortitude. The Gita and all H indu books on ethics m eet this central problem of conduct in a som ew hat different way. Instead of drawing a sharp line of distinction between virtues, worldly and spiritual, they indicate th e existence of graded virtues—virtues different according to the different types of hum anity and their varying conditions in life. But they insist th a t each is a step leading to a virtue higher in the scale of life, and th at the ultim ate goal is the attainm ent of spiritual consciousness. To quote the Gita: All m ankind Is born for perfection And each shall attain it, Will he b u t follow His n atu re’s duty.2 Sri Krsna asserts th at people are differentiated ‘according to the gunas, born of their own n atu re’. Pie says in the Gita: 1 Shelburne Essays, ‘The Religious Ground o f H um anitarianism ’, p. 243. 2 ΧΥΠΙ. 45.

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Seer and leader, Provider and server: Each has the duty Ordained by his nature Born of the gunas. The seer’s duty, Ordained by his nature, Is to be tranquil In m ind and in spirit, Self-controlled, Austere and stainless, Upright, forbearing; To follow wisdom, To know the Atman, Firm of faith In the tru th th at is Brahman. The leader’s duty, Ordained by his nature, Is to be bold, Unflinching and fearless, Subtle of skill And open-handed, Great-hearted in battle, A resolute ruler. Others are born To the tasks of providing: These are the traders, The cultivators, The breeders of cattle. To w ork for all m en, Such is the duty Ordained for th e servers: This is their n atu re.1 Since, as the Gita teaches, a m an m ust perform the duties and practise the virtues suitable to his individual being, he should learn to worship God by so doing. This will ultim ately help him to rise above both duty and virtue. To rise above the gunas, says the Gita, is the highest ideal of m an. Hence, th o u g h Sri Krsna does urge A rjuna to fulfil his duty as a ksatriya (a m em ber of the w arrior caste), he 1 XVIII. 41-44.

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wishes him also to be nistraigunya—one above the three gunas. The state o f such a m an is identical with union w ith Brahman, or God. In his com m entary on the Gita, Swami Swarupananda remarks: ‘The highest worship of the Lord consists in the closest approach to him . Mäyä, which includes Karma, or habits, tendencies and actions, prevents a m an from nearing the Lord, i.e., realizing his own Self. By working o u t one’s Karma alone, according to the law of one’s being, can this veil be ren t and the end accomplished.51 The Gita furtherm ore explains how, by fulfilling the law of one’s being, and by offering the Lord all w ork and duties and virtues as worship, one may attain purity of heart, self-control, and dispassionateness of spirit. T hen it is th at one . . . casts from him Vanity, violence, Pride, lust, anger And all his possessions, Totally free From th e sense of ego And tranquil of heart; T hat m an is ready For oneness with Brahm an.2 Thus hum an society becomes a graded organization. Though the highest goal of life is the same for all m en, and certain truths are universal, these matters of highest im port cannot be attained by all in precisely the same way. The special requirem ents of individuals— varying w ith their natures, tendencies, tem peram ents—m ust be recognized; and m an has to be treated as a spiritual being in the process of formation. Hence the necessity of an accepted scripture or a teacher to enable a person to know w hat particular ideals are suited to the law of his own life and being, and will therefore best help him to move towards perfection.3 1 Srimad-Bhagavad-Gita (trans. Swam i Sw arupananda [Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1956]), p. 387. 2 XVIII. 53. 3 The subject should perhaps n ot be dropped w ithout a further w ord to prevent any possibility o f m isunderstanding on an extrem ely im portant point. In the Hindu idea o f a m an ’s proper conduct there is unquestionably an elem ent o f relativity; one m an ’s m oral requirem ents and responsibilities m ay not in all respects be the sam e as another m an ’s. But it is im portant to realize that there are sharp lim its to this relativity. The allowable differences between one m an ’s conduct and another m an ’s all fall within a com paratively narrow and innocuous zone. N o m an, whatever his tem peram ent or condition in life, m ay lie or steal or m urder. The T en Com m andm ents o f Moses, on which Western m orality is based, are as absolutely and universally valid in India as they are in America.

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Is Nirväna Compatible with Work in the World?

As we have already learned, in o u r study o f the Upanisads, the suprem e goal of h u m an life is moksa, or liberation. It is release from th e wheel of birth and death th ro u g h attainm ent of knowledge o f the tru e Self, w hich is one w ith Brahman. It is also complete cessation of pain and sorrow. As already explained, o u r suffering is an imm ediate experience, and, as such, it can be got rid of only th ro u g h imm ediate experience of the Self in union w ith the blissful Brahm an. Moksa is called in the Gita Brahma-nirväna—extinction in Brahman, o r union w ith Brahman. It exactly corresponds to attaining the kingdom of heaven within. Christ teaches us: ‘Be ye therefore perfect, even as your Father which is in heaven is perfect.’ The same ideal of perfection is taught in the Gita. Moksa, or Brahma-nirväna, is n o t an experience to be had only after death, b u t one th a t can be attained here and now. Every age produces living souls th a t do experience nirväna in this life. Thus the Gitä, speaking of the know er of God: Absorbed in Brahm an He overcomes th e world Even here, alive in the world. Brahm an is one, Changeless, untouched by evil: W hat hom e have we but Him? The enlightened, the Brahman-abiding, Calm-hearted, unbewildered, Is neither elated by th e pleasant Nor saddened by the unpleasant. His m ind is dead To the touch of the external: It is alive To the bliss of the Atman. Because his heart knows Brahm an His happiness is for ever.1 All consumed Are their imperfections, Doubts are dispelled, Their senses mastered, Their every action Is wed to the welfare 1 V. 19-21.

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O f fellow-creatures: Such are the seers Who enter Brahman And know nirvana.1 Only th at yogi Whose joy is inward, Inward his peace, And his vision inward Shall come to Brahman And know nirvana.2 Thus th e Gita teaches th at th ro u g h yogic practices o f nonattachm ent, and th ro u g h freedom from lust and anger, one attains purity and perfection and everlasting peace (the peace th a t passeth all understanding) while still living in this world. Nirvana, or self-extinction in Brahman, clearly implies extinction o f the ego, the false self, in the higher Self—the source of all know ledge, of all existence, and of all happiness. One w ho experiences it no longer identifies himself w ith the limitations of th e body, the senses, and the m ind, b u t unites himself in consciousness w ith Brahman, th e all-pervading and divine Being. This consciousness is the transcendental consciousness; it is th e samädhi of the yogis, the nirvana of the Buddhists, and the kingdom of heaven of the Christians. One does n o t dwell continuously, however, in th at state of complete absorption. One returns to norm al consciousness w hen one is in contact w ith w hat we may call outer w orld consciousness, b u t the illum ination which one experienced in the transcendental state never again leaves one. T hough one is now experiencing the world, and is vividly conscious of the manifold universe, one knows one’s tru e Self, and th e sense o f the divine presence is ever w ith one. Of one in this state we read in the Gita: His heart is w ith Brahman, His eye in all things Sees only Brahman Equally present, Knows his own A tm an In every creature, And all creation Within th at Atman. ‘T hat yogi sees me in all things, and all things w ithin me. He never loses sight of me, n o r I o f him. He is established in union with me, 1 V. 25.

2 V. 24.

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and worships m e devoutly in all beings. T hat yogi abides in me, no m atter w hat his m ode o f life.’1 Thus we realize th a t th e illum ination derived from th e transcendental experience is n o t confined to th e state of actual absorption, b u t extends beyond into the norm al state, in w hich one perceives th e m ultiplicity of th e changing world. But one w ho has had th at transcendental experience looks u p o n the relative universe w ith a calm, penetrating eye; for, though one sees m ultiplicity and relativity, and the concom itant play o f joys and sorrows, of life and death, yet one glimpses behind th e relativity and the m ultiplicity th e one, im m utable, blissful Brahman. It is then, affirms th e Gita, th at one discovers a love for all one’s fellows and nourishes the will to do th em good. Clearly nirvana is philosophically compatible w ith worldly activity. In practice also we see, in Krsna, Buddha, Christ, Samkara, Rämakrsna, Vivekananda, and m any others, how, having attained to transcendental consciousness, one may continue to live an illum ined life in th e service of hum anity. But this hum anitarian service is founded first of all on the love of God—a love which perceives all m en as partakers of his being. More th an all the other sacred scriptures of th e world, the Gitä insists on action in the world, and exhorts m en never to tu rn away from activity and the doing of good to others. We shall see, w hen we come to discuss karm a yoga, how works aid in self-purification and th e attainm ent of Brahma-nirväna. Having reached perfection in yoga, w ith nothing m ore to gain from works, one still does n o t cease from action. The charge brought against Indian religions, especially Buddhism, th a t they inculcate passivity and inaction, is w ith o u t any real basis. Both H induism and Buddhism have as their ideal nirväna, or the attainm ent o f the kingdom of heaven, w hich is an experience of unalloyed bliss in God while one continues to live a life of intense activity in this world. One very pertinent question, however, arises in this connection. The Brahma-nirväna o f the Gita, as well as the nirväna of Buddhism, clearly means the extinction of th e ego in the realization o f the transcendental consciousness; b u t as one returns from the transcendental to th e norm al state, does n o t one’s form er ego-consciousness retu rn to one? W ithout this consciousness, how is it possible again to perceive the m ultiple universe o r perform any service to hum anity? Sri Rämakrsna, to w hom samädhi, or transcendental consciousness, may be said to have been as natural as is norm al consciousness to us, 1 VI. 29-31.

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and w ho yet continued to live for the good of hum anity, explained this problem as follows: ‘Some retain the sense o f ego as “the servant I” or “the devotee I”— the sense “T hou art the Lord, I am Thy child”—even after attaining samädhi. The “I” of a devotee does no harm to any living creature. It is like a sword which, after touching the philosopher’s stone, is tu rn ed to gold. The sword retains the same form , but it does n o t cut or injure anyone.1 The dry leaves of the coconut tree drop off in the wind, leaving marks on the tru n k ; those marks only show th at there _ were leaves there at one time. Similarly, only the form or m ark of ego is left in one w ho has reached God. Also his passions rem ain only as em pty forms. He becomes simple and pure like a child.’2 ‘Samkara and spiritual teachers like him came dow n to the consciousness of “ego” for the teaching and good of hum anity. . . . T he bee buzzes until it alights in the heart of the flower. It becomes silent as soon as it begins to drink th e honey. T hen again, after it has d ru n k its fill, it makes a sweet hum m ing sound.’3 ‘Few can stay long on th e roof. Those w ho reach samädhi and attain Brahm an retu rn to th e lower plane of consciousness and th en realize th a t it is he w ho has become m an and th e universe. The singer cannot hold to the highest note very long. He comes dow n to th e lower notes. Similarly, the m an of realization comes back from th e transcendental consciousness and perceives the w orld of relativity, and, tho u g h he sees the world, he sees Brahm an everywhere.’4 A liberated m an overcomes the w orld of karma, and th o u g h he continues to live and work, he is n o t bound or tainted by it. He lives only to exhaust w hat are know n as th e prârabdha karmas.5 After he has exhausted his prârabdha, his body falls away, and he attains w hat is know n as absolute freedom. The state of m ind of th e free soul at death is thus described in the Gitä: ‘At th e h o u r of death, w hen a m an leaves his body, he m ust depart w ith his consciousness absorbed in me. T hen he will be united w ith me. Be certain of that. Whatever a m an remembers at the last, w hen 1 Kathamrta, vol. I, p. 146. 2 Ibid., vol. I, p. 91. 1 Ibid., vol. ΙΠ, p. 10. 4 Ibid., vol. ΙΠ, p. 11. s In the teachings o f the Gita, however, a distinction is m ade between the avatars, or divine incarnations, such as Krsna, Christ, and others on the one hand, and ordinary souls, who attain nirvana through struggles o f their own, on the other. The form er have no prârabdha karm as (the stored-up karm as o f the past which unfold in the present life), and have never been subject to the law o f karm a; the latter free them selves from all karm a except the prârabdha.

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he is leaving the body, will be realized by him in the hereafter; because th a t will be w hat his m ind has m ost constantly dwelt on, during this life.’1 This is the general law: a m an’s next life is guided by his present one. The sum total of his deeds in the present life, th at attachm ent or desire th at has been his, comes to his m ind before death and determines his immediate future existence. And this same law applies to a free soul, whose only attachm ent has been to God. He goes, n o t to another life, but, as it is said, to him. Thus we read in the Gita: W hat fashion His form has, who shall conceive of it? He dwells beyond delusion, the dark of maya. On Him let m an meditate Always, for th en at the last h o u r Of going hence from his body he will be strong In the strength o f this yoga, faithfully followed: The m ind is firm, and the heart So full, it hardly holds its love. Thus he will take his leave: and now, w ith th e life-force Indraw n utterly, held fast between the eyebrows, He goes forth to find his Lord, T hat light-giver, w ho is greatest. ‘Now I will tell you briefly about the nature of Him w ho is called the deathless by those seers who truly understand the Vedas. Devotees enter into Him w hen th e bonds of their desire are broken. To reach this goal, they practise control o f passions. ‘When a m an leaves his body and departs, he m ust close all the doors of the senses. Let him hold th e m ind firmly within the shrine of the heart, and fix the life-force between the eyebrows. Then let him take refuge in steady concentration, uttering the sacred syllable Om and m editating upo n me. Such a m an reaches the highest goal. W hen a yogi has meditated upon m e unceasingly for m any years, w ith an undistracted m ind, I am easy of access to him, because he is always absorbed in me. ‘Great souls who find m e have found the highest perfection. They are no longer reborn into this condition of transience and pain.’2 The Gita raises one m ore problem, this tim e w ith reference to the m an w ho struggles to attain perfection and fails to realize it in this life. A rjuna says: 1 v m . 6.

1 v m . 9-15.

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‘Suppose a m an has faith, b u t does n o t struggle hard enough? His m ind wanders away from the practice of yoga and he fails to reach perfection. W hat will become of him then? ‘W hen a m an goes astray from the path to Brahman, he has missed b oth lives, the w orldly and the spiritual. He has no support anywhere. Is he n o t lost, as a broken cloud is lost in th e sky? ‘This is th e doubt th at troubles me, Krishna; and only you can altogether remove it from m y m ind. Let m e hear your answer.’ Sri Krishna: ‘No, m y son. T hat m an is n o t lost, either in this w orld or the next. No one who seeks Brahm an ever comes to an evil end. ‘Even if a m an falls away from the practice of yoga, he will still win the heaven of the doers o f good deeds, and dwell there m any long years. After that, he will be reborn into the hom e of pure and prosperous parents. He may even be born into a family of illum ined yogis. But such a birth in this w orld is m ore difficult to obtain. ‘He will th en regain th a t spiritual discernm ent w hich he acquired in his form er body; and so he will strive harder th an ever for perfection. Because of his practices in the previous life, he will be driven on tow ard union w ith Brahman, even in spite of himself. For the m an w ho has once asked the way to Brahm an goes fu rth er than any m ere fulfiller o f the Vedic rituals. By struggling hard, and cleansing him self of all impurities, th at yogi will move gradually tow ard perfection th ro u g h m any births, and reach the highest goal at last.’1 The Ultimate Reality : God and Avatar

In its analysis of th e ultim ate reality, the Gita brings o u t explicitly w hat is implied in th e direct experiences o f the seers and sages of the Upanisads. Behind the objects of this phenom enal w orld lies a changeless, perm anent reality, the suprem e Brahman; and behind the fleeting senses and m ind of an individual hum an being is th e Self, also a changeless, perm anent reality; and the suprem e Brahm an and this Self are one. Every individual houses w ithin himself the Eternal Spirit, the im m utable, timeless self-existence; and tho u g h this Eternal Spirit dwells w ithin all, and all beings exist in him, he is n o t tainted or affected by the thoughts and actions, good or evil, of individual m en. The Lord is everywhere And always perfect: What does He care for m an ’s sin Or the righteousness of man? ‘ VI. 37-45.

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The A tm an is th e light: The light is covered by darkness: This darkness is delusion: That is w hy we dream. When the light of the Atman Drives o u t our darkness T hat light shines fo rth from us, A sun in splendour, The revealed B rahm an.1 Knowledge of the immutable, eternal, timeless self-existence is called, as we have seen, Brahma-nirväna. It is n o t to be confused with intellectual concepts, n o r w ith a m ethod of thinking. It is a direct, immediate experience, in which, as ¡Sri Räm akrsna once told his disciple Vivekananda, the spiritualized consciousness sees God m ore directly, m ore intimately, than th e physical consciousness sees the objective w orld.2 Is it then possible to give an account o f this experience of God? T he Gitä affirms th at this svarupa, or true being, is unthinkable, indefinable, and yet realizable. T hat it is realizable is plain, for, says the Gitä, U tterly quiet, Made clean o f passion, The m ind of the yogi Knows th at Brahman, His bliss is the highest.3 Sri Rämakrsna says: ‘When one attains samädhi, th en alone comes the knowledge of Brahman, and one attains the vision of God. In th at ecstatic realization, all thoughts cease, and one becomes perfectly silent. There is no power of speech left by which to express Brahman. For verily is he beyond th o u g h t and speech.’4 The m ethod com m only adopted by the philosophic m ind o f India to describe the Indescribable has been th at of negation—neti neti Ätmä (The A tm an is neither this n o r that). Buddha did n o t attem pt even this negative way of describing. When questioned about the Indescribable, he always remained silent. But the Gitä admits th a t the 1 V. 15-16. 2 Cf. Plato’s distinction between knowledge and opinion. ( Republic, IV.) 3 VI. 27. 4 Kathämrta, vol. EH, pp. 9-10.

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abstract and difficult m ethod of negation can be adopted only by a select few of exceptional n atu re and training. ‘As for those others, th e devotees o f God the unmanifest, indefinable and changeless, they worship th a t w hich is omnipresent, constant, eternal, beyond th o u g h t’s compass, never to be moved. They hold all the senses in check. They are tranquil-m inded, and devoted to th e welfare of hum anity. They see the A tm an in every creature. They also will certainly come to me. ‘But the devotees of the unm anifest have a harder task, because th e unm anifest is very difficult for embodied souls to realize.’1 So, because of th e arduous nature o f the p ath of God, we find in th e Gita as well as in the Upanisads, n o t merely th e abstract notion o f an absolute w ho is m erely the Beyond, b u t a God who is ‘the Father, the M other, the Sustainer of th e w orld’.2 In the Gita we find God portrayed as ‘the Goal, th e Supporter, the Lord, the Witness, the Abode, the Refuge, the Friend, the Origin, th e Dissolution, the Substratum , th e Storehouse, the Seed im m utable’3—a conception answering the need of the h u m an heart, the need for love, and work, and worship. This idea of an im personal-personal God w hich we find in th e teachings of the Indian scriptures is n o t th e fruit o f hu m an reason. Indeed, m ost H indu thinkers do n o t believe th at p ro o f of th e existence o f God lies in th e realm o f reason, b u t rather in the fact th a t he is realized, in the experience o f actually seeing him and know ing him in his fullness. Both aspects o f the Godhead—the personal and the impersonal—are realized and experienced by those whose eyes have been opened. Sri Rämakrsna, the greatest mystic philosopher of o u r age, having realized God in all his aspects, utters this tru th concerning th e conception of an impersonal-personal Godhead—a conception present also in the Gita: ‘The jñani, o r one o f philosophic m ind, analyses th e universe of the senses, saying “Brahm an is n o t this, n o t th a t”, and gives up all worldliness. Thus does he reach the knowledge o f Brahman, just as th e m an w ho climbs a stairway leaves each step behind and so reaches th e roof. But the vijñani, w ho gains an intim ate knowledge of him , has his consciousness extended. He knows th at th e ro o f and the steps are all made of th e same substance. He w ho is realized as Brahm an by the process o f elim ination is also realized as becoming m an and th e universe. T he vijñani knows th a t he w ho is w ithout attributes 1 ΧΠ. 3-5.

2 Gita, IX. 17.

3 Ibid., IX. 18.

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in one aspect is, in another aspect, th e repository of all blessed attributes. ‘The tru e knower knows th at he w ho is Brahm an is the personal God; th at he who is impersonal, attributeless, and beyond the gunas, is again the personal God, the repository of all blessed qualities. Man, th e universe, mind, intelligence, love, dispassion, knowledge—these are the expressions of his power and glory.’1 The conception of a personal God contained in th e Gitä has been identified by certain m odern Indian thinkers w ith theism, whereas some Western writers have called it pantheism . But it w ould be a great mistake to identify the teachings o f the Gitä w ith any Western system. God, to traditional H indu thinkers, is n o t a mere intellectual abstraction, n o r a m ode of thinking; he is a being realized and realizable. Western theism and pantheism are at their best intellectual concepts, or convictions of the m ind, whereas God, as has been clearly asserted in all H indu scriptures, is beyond m ind and thought. W hen this being beyond th o u g h t is given by the seers a nam e w ithin th e dom ain of thought, this nam e may resemble theism or pantheism, yet it signifies som ething vastly different from any intellectualized God of the West. Sri Aurobindo, w ho perhaps of all m odern interpreters of the Gitä has best caught th e spirit of the poem, says of the Gxtä’s concept of God: ‘. . . it is no shrinking and gingerly theism afraid of the w orld’s contradictions, b u t one w hich sees God as the omniscient and om nipotent, the sole original Being, w ho manifests in him self all, whatever it may be, good and evil, pain and pleasure, light and darkness as stuff of his own existence, and governs himself w hat in himself he has manifested. Unaffected by its oppositions, u n bound by his creation, exceeding, yet intim ately related to this N ature and closely one w ith her creatures, their Spirit, Self, highest Soul, Lord, Lover, Friend, Refuge, he is ever leading them from w ithin th em and from above th ro u g h the m ortal appearances of ignorance and suffering and sin and evil, ever leading each th ro u g h his n atu re and all th ro u g h universal nature towards a suprem e light and bliss and im m ortality and transcendence. This is th e fullness of the liberating knowledge. It is a knowledge of the Divine w ithin us and in the world as at the same tim e a transcendent Infinite. An Absolute w ho has become all th at is by his divine Nature, his effective power of Spirit, he governs all from his transcendence. He is intim ately present w ithin every creature and the cause, ruler, director of all cosmic happenings and yet is he far too great, m ighty and infinite to be limited by his creation.’2 1 Kathämrta, vol. ΙΠ, pp. 11 f.

2 Ghose, op. cit. (Second Series), pp. 133 f.

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The ideal of a personal God is certainly present in the Gita, b u t it is the ideal of an impersonal-personal Deity, expressing ultim ate oneness in w hich there exists no T or ‘T hou5 b u t only the one indivisible, self-luminous, blissful Existence. Absorption in the absolute and perfect union, from w hich the devotee, preoccupied too exclusively w ith some divine personality and w ith the values of th e finite world, m ay at first shrink, is borne witness to by the mystic experiences of the saints and sages. A St. Francis of Assisi or a Sri Caitanya o f Bengal, th o u g h he may begin his life of devotion by loving and worshipping a personal God, concludes it by realizing his oneness w ith the Eternal and by being absorbed in him. In the same way the teachings of Christ or of the Bible as a w hole cannot be reconciled w ith any of the theological conceptions of Godhead, either theistic or pantheistic. W hen Christ bids us pray to the Father in heaven, we can give his words a theistic or deistic interpretation; b u t w hen he indicates th a t the kingdom of God is w ithin, and th a t ‘I and m y Father are one5, he implies a mysticism n o t usually associated w ith the word theism. And in the 139th Psalm occur the following words, of great mystic significance: >

‘W hither shall I go from thy spirit? Or w hither shall I flee from thy presence? If I ascend up into Heaven, th o u art there; if I make m y bed in hell, behold, th o u art there. If I take the wings of the m orning and dwell in the u tterm ost parts of th e sea, even there shall thy hand lead me, and thy right hand shall hold m e.5 Just as the idea o f one im m utable God, personal and yet impersonal in his nature, pervades all advanced religions, so the conception o f an avatar, th e Supreme Being descending upo n earth in hum an form , seems also to be universal. This conception finds its place for th e first tim e in Indian philosophy in the Gita, though its basis is laid in certain passages of the Upanisads. T hat God dwells in the heart of all beings as their innerm ost Self is th e fundam ental tru th of both these scriptures. To know th a t innerm ost Self is to become one with God. ‘A know er of Brahm an becomes B rahm an5,1 declare the seers of the Upanisads. Since God exists in all beings, every being in a sense represents a descent from God into the finiteness of nam e and form, and only the veil of ignorance hides from him his essentially divine nature; and w hen a being is born w ith the full knowledge o f the Self, and w ith the divine consciousness n o t veiled by ignorance, th at being is a full em bodim ent of the Godhead. Such a m an is know n as an avatar. The Gita doctrine of the avatar is parallel and alm ost identical w ith 1 M undaka, ΙΠ. ii. 9.

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the conception of the Word made flesh, ‘full of grace and tru th ’, as we find it in the Gospel according to St John,1b u t w ith this difference, th a t Jesus of Nazareth is alone identified w ith the Logos; he is called the only begotten Son of God,2 whereas in the Gita it is clearly stated th a t God is made flesh m any times, in different ages and in different forms. It is thus easy for the Hindus to accept Christ as an avatar and to worship him unreservedly, exactly as they worship Krsna. They cannot accept him, however, as th e only Son of God. Krsna, the teacher of the Gita, openly declares himself to be an incarnation of the Godhead, asserting th at he appears whenever he is needed upon earth. His birth, however, was n o t similar to th at of A rjuna and other embodied souls, w ho were born in consequence of their past karmas, are tied by the fetters of ignorance, and remain under the thralldom of mäyä. The birth of a Krsna or a Christ is the result of free choice; for the Incarnation does n o t yield to the dom ination of mäyä, b u t rather puts mäyä under subjection, does n o t live in ignorance b u t in full consciousness of his divinity. Krsna speaks: I am the birthless, the deathless, Lord of all that breathes. I seem to be born; It is only seeming, Only m y maya. I am still master of m y Prakriti, The power th at makes me.3 He w ho knows the nature Of m y task and m y holy birth Is n o t reborn W hen he leaves this body: He comes to me.4 Compare w ith these last lines the words of the Bible: ‘But as m any as received him, to th em gave he power to become the sons of God; even to them th at believe on his nam e.’5 To know a Krsna or a Christ is to know God; for verily these are the children of Light—indeed, they are Light themselves. Though God dwells everywhere, to see him one m ust look th ro u g h these divine incarnations. To worship a Krsna or a Christ is not, however, to worship a m an as God, is n o t to worship a person; it is to worship God himself, the impersonal-personal Existence, in and th ro u g h a 1 ‘In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was G od.’ 2 John iii. 16. 3 IV. 6. 4 IV. 9. 5 John i. 12.

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man-god. Sri Räm akrsna said th at the divine incarnations are like so m any doors th ro u g h which we peep into or touch th e Infinite. The Hindus have a theory, dem onstrated by historical events, th at spiritual culture moves in cyclic waves. An upw ard m ovem ent is followed by a downward one, the downward one by an upward one, and so on—an alternation w hich may be described as the dilation and contraction of the higher life of society. W hen the pendulum swings low and tru th and righteousness are forgotten, the necessity arises for th e birth of an avatär. The Gitä says: W hen goodness grows weak, W hen evil increases, I make myself a body. In every age I come back To deliver th e holy, To destroy the sin of the sinner, To establish righteousness.1 From tim e to time, then, a divine incarnation is needed to re-establish the eternal tru th , the eternal spirit of religion, by his living example. God descends upon earth in the form of a m an to instruct m an how to ascend towards him . Thus does the avatär really become the way, the tru th , and the life. Swami Saradananda, one of the forem ost disciples of Sri Rämakrsna, has beautifully summ arized th e characteristics of avatärs: \ . . first and fo rem o st,. . . they [the avatärs] are born free. The endless struggle and hardship which they undergo to discover the hitherto unknow n path to superconsciousness are prom pted to them always by their desire to enrich th e lives of their fellow beings, and n o t by any selfish motive whatsoever. Indeed, every action in their lives proceeds from a beneficent motive. Secondly, they are born endowed w ith perfect m em ory. This enables th em to rem em ber their form er births and the deeds which they accomplished in those. It helps them besides to rem em ber always the utterly transitory n atu re of hum an life and its enjoyments, and makes th em ru n to th e goal as fast as possible. And by means of this power they are able m oreover to compare the present w ith the past and find out the direction along w hich the developm ent of people’s minds has proceeded hitherto, and the means w hich w ould help them to grow and reach the goal quickly in the future. Thirdly, they are the discoverers of new paths in the field o f religion. Fourthly, they are able to transm it knowledge * IV. 7, 8.

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to their fellow beings simply by a to u ch or even by an act o f will. Fifthly, they are able to perceive clearly, at th e very first sight, the samskaras, or tendencies, produced by past karmas o f their fellow beings, although they are never eager to make a show of th a t pow er to others; and this ability helps th em to know instantly w hat w ould aid one to reach easily the highest stage of superconsciousness. Thus they are th e born spiritual guides of hum anity. And, lastly, they are conscious of their mission th ro u g h o u t their lives.’1 Ethics and Moral Disciplines

We have already seen th at the purpose of life should be to break down the barrier of the ego and realize Brahman, th e innerm ost Self in all beings, and th a t the means to this end is to see the one Self revealed in all and to love all equally. So the m an w ho aspires to the divine state devotes his life to the service o f God in hum anity. Who burns w ith the bliss And suffers the sorrow Of every creature W ithin his own heart, Making his own Each bliss and each sorrow: Him I hold highest Of all the yogis.2 And we find this tru th echoed in a different setting, and am ongst a different race, w hen Jesus of Nazareth declared: ‘Therefore all things whatsoever ye w ould th a t m en should do to you, do ye even so to them ; for this is the law and the prophets.’3 The inner life of m an m ust possess perfect tranquillity—complete freedom from passions and passionate desires—in order th at he may realize the blissful Brahman. This tranquillity is not, in the words of Sri Aurobindo, ‘an indolence, incapacity, insensibility, inertia; it is full of im m ortal power, capable o f all action, attuned to deepest delight, open to profoundest love and compassion and to every m anner of intensest A nanda (bliss)’. To gain this tranquillity requires th e practice of self-control. By self-control are n o t m eant th e repressions and inhibitions so m uch talked about in the recent psychology o f the West, for these very things are condem ned by Sri Krsna in unmistakable terms: 1 Saradananda, Sri Ramakrishna the Great Master (M adras: Ram akrishna M ath, 1920), vol. I, pp. 25-6. 2 Gita, VI. 32. 3 Matt. vii. 12.

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‘A m an w ho renounces certain physical actions b u t still lets his m ind dwell on the objects of his sensual desire is deceiving himself. He can only be called a hypocrite. The tru ly admirable m an controls his senses by the pow er of his will. All his actions are disinterested. All are directed along the path to union w ith B rahm an.’1 But the behaviouristic alternative of giving free play to all impulses and all desires, w hich is creating a condition of m oral chaos am ong the y o u th of today, is n o t th e alternative offered by the Gita. Even a m ind th at knows the path Can be dragged from the path: The senses are so unruly. B ut he w ho controls the senses And recollects the m ind And fixes it on me, I call him illum ined.2 This alternative is in short the direction of the thoughts and energies of the m ind towards God. Direction, rather than repression, is the m ethod of th e Hindus for achieving self-control. The uncontrolled m ind Does n o t guess th at th e A tm an is present: How can it meditate? W ithout m editation, w here is peace? W ithout peace, w here is happiness? The wind tu rn s a ship From its course upo n th e waters: The wandering winds of the senses Cast m an’s m ind adrift And tu rn his better judgm ent from its course. W hen a m an can still the senses I call him illum ined.3 A fu rth er distinction is made in th e Gita between th e divine m an and the asura, or demoniac m an. The one moves towards the attainm en t of liberation, while the o ther moves away from God to plunge dow n to lower births and deeper sufferings. ‘A m an w ho is born w ith tendencies tow ard th e Divine, is fearless and pure in heart. He perseveres in th a t path to union w ith Brahm an w hich the scriptures and his teacher have taught him . He is charitable. 1 ΙΠ. 6, 7.

2 Π. 60, 61.

3 Π. 66-8.

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He can control his passions. He studies th e scriptures regularly, and obeys their directions. He practises spiritual disciplines. He is straightforward, tru th fu l, and o f an even tem per. He harm s no one. He renounces th e things of this world. He has a tranquil m ind and an unm alicious tongue. He is compassionate tow ard all. He is n o t greedy. He is gentle and modest. He abstains from useless activity. He has faith in th e strength of his higher nature. He can forgive and endure. He is clean in th o u g h t and act. He is free from hatred and from pride. Such qualities are his birthright. ‘W hen a m an is born w ith demonic tendencies, his birthright is hypocrisy, arrogance, conceit, anger, cruelty and ignorance.’1 Describing evil qualities further, th e teacher concludes: ‘Hell has three doors: lust, rage and greed. These lead to m an ’s ruin. Therefore he m ust avoid them all. He who passes by these three dark doors has achieved his own salvation. He will reach the highest goal at last.’2 One m ore point is to be considered regarding self-control and the m oral life. The Gita lays great stress on self-exertion for the sake of self-improvement, and at th e same tim e exalts divine grace and the need for us to surrender ourselves to God. ‘The self is to be saved by one’s own self’; so m u st one ‘exert oneself’. Buddha laid stress on self-exertion, and Christ on divine grace. But these tw o stand reconciled in the life of a m an w ho has become absorbed in a godly life. He is aware th a t he m u st strive, b u t th ro u g h his strivings he ultim ately learns th at all th e success he gains is only by divine grace, th a t in the end he m ust rely upon a higher will. But the prelim inary striving is essential. Says Sri Räm akrsna: ‘The breeze of divine grace is blowing u p o n all. But one needs to set the sail to feel this breeze of grace.’ The Yogas

The Gita is considered a handbook of practical living as well as a guide to spiritual attainm ent. In fact, practical life, if rightly pursued, follows one o f the paths towards the spiritual goal. These paths, know n as yogas, we have already briefly discussed. T he w ord yoga literally means yoking, or unio n (the tw o words yoga and yoke are derived from th e same root). In this it resembles th e w ord religion, w hich has at its core th e ideal of binding together. The distinction between individuals, w ith their finiteness and lim itedness, is caused, as we have noted again and again, by ignorance, and does n o t represent th e tru e nature of m an. U ntil the barrier of ego 1 XVI. 1-4.

2 XVI. 21, 22.

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is broken down, and union w ith the tru e Self is consum m ated, one cannot attain to the inward state described as the kingdom of God. T he w ord yoga defines the m ethods by w hich m an’s unio n w ith God is made possible. M any are the paths by w hich one may travel to reach this one destination. ‘Many religions, m any paths.’ H indu philosophy recognizes four m ain paths (yogas) to attainm ent. They are, as previously indicated, jñana yoga, the path of knowledge; karm a yoga, th e path of action; bhakti yoga, the p ath of devotion, or love; and raja yoga, the p ath of meditation. Each of these yogas is an independent path to God, and w hen the end is attained, all four seem to join together in one. Supreme love, divine knowledge, true meditation, and tru e and divine action are at last identical and cannot be differentiated from one another. The Gita insists th at they m ust all be practised. M an is a complex o f faculties—reason, will, em otion, and th e im pulse to action—and he m u st seek unio n w ith God th ro u g h all of them . He m ust be active as well as meditative; he m ust cultivate his intelligence and seek the suprem e knowledge as well as cultivate love for the Divine Being— such, in short, is th e yoga ideal as taught in the Gita. Jñana yoga literally means th e path of union th ro u g h knowledge. It has come to connote intellectual analysis leading to th e immediate perception (anubhuti) o f God, who is both transcendent and im m anent, who is the inner reality of both m an and the external universe. Philosophic reasoning does n o t imply m ere natural ratiocination, b u t som ething more, for m an ’s unaided intellect cannot lead him to God. There m ust be in addition a transform ation o f life and conduct, a conversion of the soul, before the knowledge o f God, or the Self, can be attained. Thus says the Gita: ‘There are some who have actually looked upon the Atm an, and understood It, in all Its w onder. Others can only speak of It as w onderful beyond their understanding. Others know of Its w onder by hearsay. And there are others who are told about It, and do n o t understand a w ord.’1 For immediate realization and understanding of the Self, jñana yoga advocates th at reasoning about God be followed by certain disciplines. First of all, th e philosopher m ust learn to discriminate between th e real and the unreal. The opening chapters of the Gita explain this process of discrimination: ‘T hat which is nonexistent can never come into being, and th a t 1 Π. 29.

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w hich is can never cease to be. Those w ho have know n th e inm ost Reality know also the nature of is and is n o t.’1 The only abiding reality—the im m utable, the illimitable, th e indestructible Reality—is th at by w hich the w hole universe is pervaded. It is the same as the Self in m an. Whatever we perceive or sense or experience has b oth beginning and end; therefore m ust o u r faculty of discrimination lead us to hold fast to the enduring reality, th e Self, or God, in the m idst of fleeting objects and the experiences of life and death. ‘A serene spirit accepts pleasure and pain w ith an even m ind, and is unm oved by either. He alone is w orthy of im m ortality.’2 Since we know the Self alone to be real, we should learn to realize in it the great source o f happiness and renounce the desire for pleasure. W hen he has no lust, no hatred, A m an walks safely am ong the things of lust and hatred. To obey the A tm an Is his peaceful joy: Sorrow melts Into th at clear peace: His quiet m ind Is soon established in peace.3 To follow the path of philosophy is also to follow the path of self-control, directing the m ind towards the Reality. Says the Gita: So, w ith his heart serene and fearless, Firm in the vow of renunciation, Holding the m ind from its restless roaming, Now let him struggle to reach m y oneness, Ever-absorbed, his eyes on m e always, i His prize, his purpose.4 Jñana yoga is the very declaration of neti, neti (n o t this, n o t this), which we considered in our study of th e Upanisads. The Self m ust n o t be identified w ith im perm anent entities like the body, the mind, and the senses, n o r w ith any object or instrum ent of experience. W hen a person has become an adept in detaching his tru e Self from the non-Self, he becomes blessed w ith the vision o f the Divine, and » Π. 16.

2 Π. 15.

3 Π. 64, 65.

4 VI. 14.

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there dawns u p o n him the knowledge o f th e Self in all and o f all in th e Self. Following th e path of knowledge and discrimination does n o t im ply giving up the norm al activities of life. W hat one is required to do is to regard the body as th e house which one inhabits, and the m ind and th e senses as the instrum ents of living—to all of which the Lord is the witness. A person so doing acts b u t does n o t identify him self w ith his actions. He experiences the objective universe, but from this universe he has learned to detach himself. Action, we have already noted, is n o t opposed to the highest wisdom. An individual w ho has attained th e highest knowledge and th e suprem e peace, th o u g h he has nothing to gain by action, n o r anything to lose by inaction, yet works, n o t however for his ordinary self, but, th ro u g h exercise of m ind, senses, and body, for his true Self, which he has identified w ith the Lord of the universe. Never forgetful of his tru e Self, he is forever one w ith God; and knowing th a t th e Self exists in all, he engages in the service of God in all mankind. Such a m an, steady in wisdom, experiences intense rest in the midst o f intense action. ‘He w ho sees the inaction th a t is in action, and the action th a t is in inaction, is wise indeed. Even w hen he is engaged in action he remains poised in the tranquillity o f the A tm an.’1 Thus a perfected soul, th o u g h active in the world of impermanence, unites his consciousness w ith God, and, says the Gita, achieves this unio n th ro u g h his very activity. This is just w hat is m eant by karm a yoga. Before th e advent of Sri Krsna there came a period in the spiritual life o f India w hen th e teachings of the Upanisads were misinterpreted. We have seen that, according to the scriptures, knowledge alone can give freedom or salvation, b u t knowledge cannot be acquired th ro u g h action. Karma, moreover, creates bondage. And over and above all concern w ith life in the w orld is the ideal of renunciation o f worldly things—an ideal w ith which the Upanisads are permeated. This, in course of time, w hen n o t thoroughly understood, led to the belief in passivity as the suprem e state. As we have seen, the opening chapters of the Gita tell how the disciple Arjuna, confused as to the path and the conduct to choose, tu rn ed to Krsna for counsel. Krsna, God incarnate, th en gave the correct interpretation of the teachings of th e Upanisads. Renunciation, he pointed out, is renunciation n o t of the w orld b u t of worldliness, n o t of actions b u t o f desires. Karma leads to bondage if it increases the weight of desires and magnifies the ego; it leads to 1 IV. 18.

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freedom if it helps to deny the self or to free one from attachm ent to the fruits of action. Sri Rämakrsna, in o u r own time, has illustrated this interpretation of karm a yoga and the ideal of renunciation by a simile of a boat resting on the water. ‘Let the boat rest on the w ater,’ he said, ‘b u t let n o t the w ater come into the boat. Let a m an live in the world, b u t let n o t the world live in him .’ That is, be in the w orld b u t n o t of it. The Gitä says: ‘You have the right to work, b u t for the w ork’s sake only. You have no right to the fruits of w ork. Desire for the fruits of w ork m ust never be your motive in working. Never give way to laziness either.’1 The Upanisads teach th at knowledge alone can give freedom, and th a t infinite knowledge is stored in the soul of m an. The very nature of the Self implies n o t only im m ortality and perfect bliss but also cit, or pure consciousness. Says the Gita: ‘The A tm an is the light. The light is covered by darkness. This darkness is delusion.’2 The poem clarifies the issue by teaching the secret of work, namely, th at we m ust so w ork th at every act will help to unfold the knowledge of the Self by rem oving the ignorance of the ego. The one aim and the true goal of karm a yoga is th e union of one’s self w ith God th ro u g h action. N ot th ro u g h any special actions do we accomplish this, b u t th ro u g h o u r svadharmas—the particular duties proceeding from the law o f o u r individual natures. W hatever your action, Food or worship; W hatever the gift T hat you give to another; Whatever you vow To the work of the spirit: O son of Kunti, Lay these also As offerings before m e.3 In order to effect this union w ith God th ro u g h activity, we m ust possess tranquillity and the peace th at comes th ro u g h meditation. Since to th e unm editative m an no peace will come, the Gita puts emphasis u p o n the practice of meditation, technically know n as räja yoga. Patañjali explains räja yoga as an eightfold path consisting o f yama (m oral disciplines), niyama (religious disciplines), äsana (posture), pränäyäm a (breathing exercises), pratyähära (releasing 1 II. 47.

2 V. 15.

3 IX. 27.

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th e m ind from the thralldom of the senses), dhäranä (concentration), dhyäna (meditation), and samädhi (the superconscious state). The Gitä does n o t systematically explain these eight steps, yet they are implied in its teachings. The m ain stress is laid on stilling the restless m ind and becoming absorbed in the consciousness o f the divine Self. ‘Patiently, little by little, a m an m ust free himself from all m ental distractions, w ith the aid of th e intelligent will. He m ust fix his m ind u p o n the A tm an and never th in k of anything else. No m atter w here the restless and unquiet m ind wanders, it m ust be draw n back and made to subm it to the A tm an only.’1 Utterly quiet, Made clean of passion, The m ind of the yogi Knows th at Brahman, His bliss is the highest.2 In connection w ith the practice of yoga, the Gitä counsels m oderation in eating, drinking, sleeping, and recreation. Extremes m ust be avoided. In unmistakable term s Sri Krsna condem ns th e excessive practice of austerities in the nam e of yoga. ‘You m ay know ’, says the Gitä, ‘those m en to be of dem onic n atu re who m ortify th e body excessively, in ways n o t prescribed by the scriptures. They do this because their lust and attachm ent to sense-objects has filled them w ith egotism and vanity. In their foolishness, they weaken all their sense-organs, and outrage me, the dweller in the body.’3 Knowledge is n o t of th e dry intellectual kind; neither is m editation directed to some dry or abstract principle; rather, they are knowledge of, and m editation upon, Him w ho is rasa, or full of bliss, and w ho is love itself. The pursuit of a spiritual ideal is always accomplished in an atm osphere o f joy. In this atm osphere sorrow itself, which for an aspirant can be only the sorrow o f separation from th e beloved Lord, loses m uch of its sting, for along w ith it there is always th e expectancy o f union w ith him. In separation from God, as in unio n w ith him , th e aspirant, as well as th e perfected soul, lives in continuous adoration of th e Infinite. Bhakti yoga, o r the path o f love, is this adoration, and worship is constant worship of the Lord, w ho is the inner being, the Self in m an, and th e em bodim ent of love and all blessed qualities. The teachings of th e Gitä emphasize a ‘wholesouled devotion’ to the Supreme. As this devotion grows, the sinner becomes a saint. 1 VI. 25-6.

2 VI. 27.

3 XVII. 5, 6.

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T hough a m an be soiled W ith the sins of a lifetime, Let him but love me, Rightly resolved, In u tte r devotion: I see no sinner, That m an is holy. Holiness soon Shall refashion his nature To peace eternal; O son of Kunti, Of this be certain: The m an th at loves me, He shall n o t perish.1 The culm ination of bhakti yoga, and in fact of all the yogas, is the com plete unconditional surrender o f the lower self, or ego, to God, or the Supreme Self. W hen the barrier of the ego is removed, by following the path either of knowledge, or of work, or of love, or of m editation, or by following all of th em at once, the omnipresent, omniscient, im m ortal Lord of the universe becomes revealed as the Lord of the heart—the Supreme Self.

SELECTIONS FROM TH E BHAGAVAD-GÏTÂ

Arjuna

Is this real pity th at I feel, or only a delusion? My m ind gropes about in darkness. I cannot see where m y d uty lies. Krishna, I beg you, tell m e frankly and clearly w hat I ought to do. I am your disciple. I put myself into your hands. Show m e the way.2 Sri Krishna

Your words are wise, Arjuna, b u t your sorrow is for nothing. The truly wise m o u rn neither for the living n o r for the dead.3 Just as the dweller in this body passes thro u g h childhood, youth and old age, so at death he merely passes into another kind of body. The wise are n o t deceived by that.4 1 IX. 30, 31. E

2 Π. 7.

3 Π. 11.

*

Π. 13.

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W orn-out garm ents Are shed by the body: W orn-out bodies Are shed by the dweller Within the body. New bodies are donned By th e dweller, like garm ents.1 Arjuna

Krishna, how can one identify a m an w ho is firmly established and absorbed in Brahman? In w hat m anner does an illum ined soul speak? How does he sit? How does he walk?2 Sri Krishna

He knows bliss in the A tm an And wants nothing else. Cravings to rm en t the heart: He renounces cravings. I call him illum ined.3 The tortoise can draw in its legs: The seer can draw in his senses. I call him illum ined.4 The recollected m ind is awake In the knowledge of th e A tm an Which is dark night to th e ignorant: The ignorant are awake in their sense-life Which they think is daylight: To the seer it is darkness.5 He knows peace who has forgotten desire. He lives w ithout craving: Free from ego, free from pride. This is the state of enlightenm ent in Brahman: A m an does n o t fall back from it Into delusion. Even at the m om ent of death He is alive in th a t enlightenm ent: Brahm an and he are one.6 1 Π. 22. 4 Π. 58.

2 II. 54. 5 II. 69.

3 II. 55. 6 Π. 71, 72.

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Arjuna

But, Krishna, if you consider knowledge of Brahm an superior to any sort of action, why are you telling m e to do these terrible deeds? Your statements seem to contradict each other. They confuse my m ind. Tell m e one definite way of reaching the highest good.1 Sri Krishna

I have already told you that, in this world, aspirants m ay find enlightenm ent by tw o different paths. For the contem plative is the p ath of knowledge: for th e active is th e p ath o f selfless action.2 The w orld is im prisoned in its own activity, except w hen actions are perform ed as worship of God. Therefore you m ust perform every action sacramentally, and be free from all attachm ent to results.3 Perform every action w ith your heart fixed on the Supreme Lord. R enounce attachm ent to th e fruits. Be even-tem pered in success and failure; for it is this evenness of tem per which is m eant by yoga.4 The yoga of action, say th e ignorant, Is different from the yoga of th e knowledge of Brahman. T he wise see knowledge and action as one: They see truly.5 Take either path And tread it to th e end: The end is the same. There th e followers o f action M eet th e seekers after knowledge In equal freedom. It is hard to renounce action W ithout following the yoga o f action. This yoga purifies The m an of meditation, Bringing him soon to Brahman.6 Arjuna

Tell me, Krishna, w hat Brahm an is. W hat is th e Atman, and w hat is the creative energy of Brahman? Explain the n atu re of this relative world, and of th e individual m an.7 1 ΙΠ. 1. 5 V . 4.

2 m . 3. 6 V. 5, 6.

3 m . 9.

7 vm . i.

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Sri Krishna

Brahm an is th a t which is im m utable, and independent o f any cause b u t Itself. W hen we consider Brahm an as lodged w ithin the individual being, we call Him the Atman. The creative energy of Brahm an is th at which causes all existences to come into being.1 He is all-knowing God, lord of the emperors, Ageless, subtler far th an m ind’s inm ost subtlety, Universal sustainer, Shining sunlike, self-luminous. W hat fashion His form has, w ho shall conceive of it? He dwells beyond delusion, th e dark of Maya. On Him let m an meditate Always . . } Make a habit of practising m editation, and do n o t let your m ind be distracted. In this way you will com e finally to the Lord, w ho is the light-giver, the highest o f th e high.3 Arjuna

Some worship you w ith steadfast love. Others worship God the unm anifest and changeless. Which kind of devotee has the greater understanding of yoga?4 Sri Krishna

Those whose minds are fixed on me in steadfast love, worshipping m e w ith absolute faith. I consider th em to have the greater understanding of yoga.5 Quickly I come To those w ho offer m e Every action, Worship m e only, Their dearest delight, With devotion undaunted.6 A m an should n o t hate any living creature. Let him be friendly and compassionate to all. He m ust free him self from th e delusion of T and ‘m ine’. He m ust accept pleasure and pain w ith an equal tranquillity. He m ust be forgiving, ever-contented, self-controlled, united constantly with m e in his m editation. His resolve m ust be 1 vm . 3.

2 vm . 9.

3 vm . 8.

4 χπ . l.

5 xn. 2.

6 xn. 6.

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unshakable. He m ust be dedicated to m e in intellect and in mind. Such a devotee is dear to m e.1 Now I have taught you th a t wisdom which is th e secret o f secrets. Ponder it carefully. T hen act as you think best. These are the last words th a t I shall say to you, the deepest of all tru th s. I speak for your ow n good. You are th e friend I chose and love. Give m e your w hole heart, Love and adore me, Worship m e always, Bow to m e only, And you shall find me: This is m y promise Who love you dearly. Lay dow n all duties In me, your refuge. Fear no longer, For I will save you From sin and from bondage.2 Arjuna

By your grace, O Lord, m y delusions have been dispelled. My m ind stands firm. Its doubts are ended. I will do your bidding.3 1 XU. 13, 14.

2 x v m . 63-6.

3 x v m . 73.

C H A PTE R 6

T H E S U R T I S , T H E P U R À N A S , THE T A N T R A S

The Smrtis

T he Smrtis embody the laws form ulated by saints and sages—M anu, Yajñavalkya, and others. No date can be definitely assigned to these scriptures, since Oriental scholars differ by as m uch as several centuries in their estimates. The Code of M anu, for instance, is assigned by Sir William Jones to 1250 BC, and by Sir M onier Williams to as late as 500 b c . We can be safe in asserting th a t the Smrtis are post-Vedic, inasm uch as th e code of laws found in them is traditionally supposed to be based on th e Vedas. Since to the H indu m ind only the Vedas are w holly sacrosanct, it follows th at th e Smrtis at best possess b u t a secondary authority. They record civil laws, social obligations, and ceremonies perform ed at the birth o f a child, during initiation into Vedic m antra, at marriage, and at the m o m en t of death. They comprise, in short, the daily duties, usages, and custom s to be observed by th e several castes and by people in different stages of life; and their avowed purpose is to aid all m en to attain the highest spiritual developm ent. The extraordinary thing about these ceremonies, usages, and customs, for daily observance and for special occasions, as practised in every part o f India, is their infinite variety and yet their substantial underlying unity. The variety is accounted for by the fact th a t they were given m any different forms, each developing independently of th e rest in a particular p art of the country; their u nity by their com m on source in the Vedic religion. For centuries the authority of the Smrtis has held sway over the minds of the people of India, who have rigidly followed the social laws of these codes. At th e present time, however, there is discernible a certain laxity in their observance, due to the revolutionary changes th a t have everywhere occurred. O rthodox Hindus do n o t feel unduly alarm ed at this, for they have always regarded the Smrtis as of

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secondary im portance. Swami Vivekananda once rem arked to a disciple th a t a new Sm rti ought to be w ritten for the guidance of m odern India. It has already been observed th a t a distinction is made between Smrti, or traditions, and áruti, or revelations. The Srutis are direct, immediate experience o f Reality; th e Smrtis are m an-m ade laws. The latter embody, to be sure, certain eternal truths, b u t they are truths capable of adaptation to changing times. O f all the Smrtis, th e Code o f M anu possesses th e highest authority. M anu, according to the orthodox view, was the first m an.1 Tradition declares th a t Brahma gave him a code of laws in one hundred thousand verses, which for practical purposes he reduced to four thousand. A m ong the duties and disciplines prescribed by the Laws o f M anu are conquest o f the senses, freedom from lust and greed, study of th e sacred scriptures, and detachm ent from th e world. One m ust speak only w hen necessary, h o n o u r old age, respect one’s parents, and injure no one, w hether in thought, word, or deed. In the twelve books of M anu there is an account of creation, and there are teachings regarding education, marriage, domestic life, laws of th e state, punishm ents, reincarnation, and ultim ate freedom. The main purpose of the code was to preserve a fixed society, and it has actually m aintained during m any centuries the racial integrity of the Indian people. Fundam entally, the code insists u pon the intelligent exercise of th e will in conform ity to th e will of God. The principles involved, n o t necessarily the laws as crystallized by long and form al application, are universal in their tru th and in their acceptability. Self-control, for example, receives great stress. A m an m ust subdue his lust, and even while he is a student he m ust n o t consciously lapse from strict continence. All this is in preparation for marriage and for the ultim ate state of sannyäs, or renunciation. The Puränas2

The word puräna literally means ancient, the nam e being applied to certain scriptures to m ean ‘th a t w hich lives from of old’ o r ‘that 1 See the story o f creation in the next section. 2 ‘A Puräna or sacred poetical work, supposed to be com piled or com posed by the poet Vyäsa; and com prising the w hole body o f Hindu theology; each Puräna should treat o f five topics especially: the creation, the destruction and renovation o f w orlds; the genealogy o f gods and heroes; the reigns o f the M anus, and the transaction o f their descendants; but great variety prevails in this respect and few contain historical or genealogical m atter. There are eighteen acknowledged Puränas.’ ( Shabda-Sagara [Sanskrit-English Dictionary] by Pandit-Kulapati Jivananda Vidyasagara [Calcutta: Bhattacharyya, 1900].)

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w hich is ever new th o u g h old’. The Puränas were w ritten m ainly to popularize th e abstract ethical and spiritual truths of the Vedas and the Upanisads by means of concrete illustrations from the lives of avatars, saints, sages, kings, and devotees, w hether historical or legendary. K. S. Ramaswami, the Indian scholar, has thus described them : *. . . th e Puränas are a vital portion o f the scriptures o f the Hindus. They are primarily an extension, amplification and illustration of the spiritual truths declared in th e Vedas. Outsiders m ay call th em legends like the works of fiction cu rren t today. Some insiders too may regard th em as m ere illustrative fictions Or allegories, o r as relating to yogic realities unconnected w ith the external material world. But the bulk of the Hindus and the m ain body of traditional opinion attribute to the Puränas a double character, viz. illustrative value and impressive actuality. They have largely m oulded public life, belief and conduct in o u r land for thousands of years, and they m ust be fully utilized by us if we are to realize the tru th s of the Vedas. Herein lies their perm anent and suprem e value to us.’1 Altogether there are eighteen Puränas, six devoted to Visnu, six to Brahmä, and six to Siva. All o f them are w ritten in verse, and all are usually attributed to Vyäsa, th e reputed au th o r of the M ahäbhärata and editor of th e Vedas. Their date m ay safely be assigned to the som ew hat uncertain Epic Period. At this tim e the Vedic gods, such as Indra, Mitra, Varuna, and Skanda, were transform ed into the three divinities Brahmä, Visnu, and Siva; and these in tu rn were conceived as b u t manifestations of th e one Primeval Spirit, the Lord adored by all, the one undecaying B rahm an.2 Brahmä, Visnu, and Siva (the last o f these being also called Rudra, Mahädeva, and Maheswara) are know n as the Trim ürti, or Trinity, of the Hindus. In the words of the Visnu Puräna: ‘The Lord God, th o u g h one w ithout a second, assumes the three form s respectively of Brahmä, Visnu, and Siva for creation, preservation and dissolution of the w orld.’ And in the Padma Puräna we read: ‘Brahmä, Visnu, and Siva, th o u g h three in form, are one entity. No difference between the three exists except w ith respect to attributes.’ Moreover, th e votaries of this T rim urti make no distinction between them , as they identify one w ith another. Visnu, for example, is described as Siva’s arrow, and Siva as Krsna’s flute. Krsna, again, is regarded as the incarnation o f Visnu. 1 Cultural Heritage o f India, vol. I, pp. 181 f. Brahm an (neuter) denotes the im personal God, and Brahm a (m asculine) is the personal Creator, one o f the Trim ürti. 1

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The Puränas, then, popularize the abstract teachings of the Upanisads by means o f stories concerning saints, sages, and kings. Some of these legends and tales are com m on to all the Puränas, th o u g h in details and in m ethod o f presentation they difFer widely. The principal beauty of the Puränas lies in the fact th a t they reconcile knowledge and devotion. Sri Rämakrsna, speaking of the Bhägavata Puräna, quaintly b u t suggestively remarks, ‘It is fried in the b u tter of knowledge and steeped in th e honey of love.’ The Bhägavatam is n o t only th e m ost popular o f all th e Puränas b u t is regarded by the Vaisnavas as one of the genuinely authoritative scriptures.1 For these reasons we shall choose it for special attention. Vyäsa, according to legend, w rote the Bhägavatam and tau g h t it to Suka his son, w ho in tu rn made it public. As an introduction to th e Bhägavatam, th e narrator tells an interesting story concerning this Suka, w ho is regarded by all Hindus as one of th e greatest saints of all the ages. ‘Suka, the son of Vyasa, was indeed a great yogi, a know er of Brahman, w ho realized unity in the m idst of diversity. His m ind and consciousness were always united w ith God. We have heard about him , and how, after beginning the life o f renunciation, having no consciousness of his body, he w ould walk about naked. One day, w hile thus walking in the wood, he passed by a lake in w hich some nym phs were bathing. They watched h im pass, feeling no shyness in his presence; b u t as Vyasa, who was following his son, approached, they hastily got out of th e w ater and clothed themselves. This surprised the great sage, and he asked the nym phs, “Why do you act so strangely, m y children? You did n o t shrink from th e young Suka, w ho was naked, yet you feel shy before me, an old m an, fully clothed.” To this th e nym phs replied: “Revered sir, in you there lingers a trace o f the consciousness of sex, b u t in your son Suka there is none.” ’2 Following is Suka’s prayer to the Lord as recorded in the Bhägavatam . It is typical of th e H indu mind. O th o u Lord supreme, I bow dow n to thee! For thy sole pleasure and play didst th o u bring fo rth this universe. T hou art th e highest in the highest! Who can sing thine infinite glory? T hou art th e innerm ost ruler of every heart; Thy paths are mysterious; Thy ways are blessed. 1 Vaisnavism, which teaches the ideal o f love for God and com plete selfsurrender to him, is som etim es called the Bhägavata religion. 2 I. iv. 1-5. E*

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T hou dost wipe away all th e tears of thy devotees; T hou dost destroy the wickedness of the wicked. Thy form is purity itself, and th o u dost give purity and Self-knowledge to those who seek thee. Salutations to thee again and again, O Lord of hosts! I praise thee, O Lord! T hou art the strength and support of all th y worshippers; T hou art manifest in the hearts o f all tru e yogis; The evildoer findeth thee not. T hou art one w ithout a second. T hou dost shine in thine own glory, in th y resplendent, blissful Self. W hat sweetness is in thy name, W hat joy is in thy remembrance! Those who chant th y holy nam e, and meditate on thee, become forever free from all evils; The wise, worshipping thy feet, conquer all fear of life and death: Thus do they realize thee, th o u suprem e goal of all tru e seekers. Before thee there is no barrier of caste, or race, or creed: All thy children attain purity th ro u g h th y holy name. Calm souls worship thee, know ing th a t they are one w ith thee. T hou art the Lord supreme, T hou art indeed th e Vedas, T hou art the T ruth, T h o u art the goal of all discipline; Thy lovers m editate on th y blissful form , and become lost in the joy thereof. Shower thy grace upo n me, O Lord, and in thy mercy look upon me! T hou art the Lord of wealth, T hou art the Lord of all creation, The Lord of all th y lovers and devotees. Look upo n all beings w ith th y mercy! Blessed are they th at meditate on thy Lotus Feet, For they shall be purified; Blessed are they th at are purified, For they shall attain Self-knowledge. The wise call thee th e impersonal, w ithout attributes; They also call thee the personal God w ith divine attributes; T hou art both, and th o u dost manifest thyself as the one or the other, According to o u r understanding. O Lord, forever look in mercy upo n m e!1 1 Π. iv . 11-24.

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Cosmology has a definite place in all o f the Puränas. The following is a résum é of the story of creation as we find it recounted in the Bhägavatam. ‘Creation has no absolute beginning. The present universe is but one of a series of worlds th at are past and of worlds th a t are to be. T he cosmic energy alternates between periods of potentiality and of expression. The phase o f potentiality is know n as dissolution; the phase of expression is know n as creation. ‘Created things are o f different kinds. The avyakta, or cosmic energy, consists of three gunas. W hen the equilibrium of the gunas is disturbed, there are manifested universal intelligence, universal ego, the m ind, the senses and the organs o f sense, the subtle principle of th e elements, and th e elements themselves. As these combine and recombine in various ways, all beings attain to existence. ‘Among th em there are sthavara, or stationary beings, such as herbs, shrubs, creepers, and plants. They have unmanifested consciousness. In them the sense of touch alone has evolved. ‘Then there are the brute species, the animals, in which the sense of smell is highly developed. ‘Next comes man. ‘Lastly, there are the devas, th e pitris, the gandharvas, and the kinnaras. These are gods, demigods, angels, and spirits. ‘All things whatsoever were created by Brahma. ‘Thus it was th a t Creation came to pass: ‘While the world was yet submerged beneath the ocean, God lay brooding on Naga, king of the serpents, as Naga floated u p o n the waters. God was resting w ith eyes closed, but his consciousness was fully awake. He was completely merged in the bliss of his ow n Self. ‘As the tim e of creation drew nigh, God felt a stir w ithin his being, and there issued forth from the centre of his person a full-blown Lotus. Its light was dazzling, and the whole ocean was illum ined by its splendour. ‘Within this Lotus were all the materials for creation. ‘Immediately Brahma came forth from the Lotus, and, seating himself u p o n it, turned his head in all directions to see w hether any o ther beings were present. Hence he is called the four-faced Brahma. ‘Brahma did n o t recognize himself, and had no recollection o f his previous creations. After a tim e he became restless and felt a desire for knowledge. Looking about him and seeing in th e external w orld no hope for th e fulfilm ent of this desire, he sought in m editation for th e knowledge w hich he realized m ust be w ithin himself, and at last he found th e T ruth, and God himself, w ithin his own heart. He then saw God everywhere, and felt blest indeed.

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‘T hen God spoke to him , saying: “ O h Brahma, I com m and thee: again create th e world, as th o u heist often done in times past. To create is to thee n o t new. W hatsoever is to be created is already w ithin me, as th o u well knowest. Creation is only the projection into form of th a t w hich already exists.” ‘While God was yet speaking, a strong wind arose and lashed th e w ater into a fury. With th e knowledge and power which he had acquired th ro u g h the practice of tapas, Brahm a w ithdrew into him self the wind and all th e waters o f the sea; and then finding him self floating on the water, still seated on the Lotus, he re-entered th e heart of th e Lotus, and dividing it into three sections created the three spheres—heaven, earth, and sky. ‘Brahma also gave to th e w orld the four Vedas: the Rik, the Sama, the Yajur, and th e Atharva. ‘Brahma is th e personification of w hat th e philosophers call the Sphota, the w ord Om. He is called th e first-born o f God. ‘Brahma’s first h u m an creations were saints, w ho, immediately u p o n being created, fell into deep m editation, finding no interest in th e things of th e world. Thus, th ro u g h them , Brahm a saw no possibility of propagation of their species. While he was meditating u p o n w hat course he should pursue, his ow n form divided itself; one half became m an and th e other half became woman. ‘The m an was called M anu, and the w om an Shatarupa; and from th em have sprung all m ankind.’1 As we have already seen, neither th e Puränas n o r th e other scriptures of the Hindus, n o r the philosophers of India at any time, declare in favour of an absolute beginning or an absolute end o f creation. Rather, they believe th a t th e cosmic universe passes th ro u g h phases of potentiality and manifestation. The Puränas assert, moreover, th at th e universe moves in cycles. They describe the historic evolution of life by a division of these into four, called the four yugas—satya, tretä, dwäpara, and kali. The duration of kali yuga, which is the present age, is 432,000 years. T hat o f satya, tretä, and dwäpara is respectively, four times, three times, and twice th e duration o f kali yuga. All four yugas combined form a mahäyuga, or great cycle. The peculiar characteristics of each of the four are nam ed in the Puränas. In satya yuga, for example, virtue is in the ascendant, and it grows progressively less th ro u g h th e cycles until in kali yuga it is practised least. After kali yuga, however, satya yuga again appears, and so on th ro u g h eternity. According to the orthodox view, Räma, the hero of the Rämäyana, 1 See The Wisdom o f God, Bk. ΠΙ, chap. 2, pp. 42-5.

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lived in treta yuga, and Krsna lived near the end of dwäpara yuga. At Krsna’s passing, kali yuga came into existence, and about 400,000 years of this cycle have already elapsed. The final impression left on th e m ind by this vast procession of num bers is th a t this w orld of ours is very, very old. M any a civilization has appeared and in tim e disappeared, and still h u m an life continues. O f the twelve books into w hich th e Bhägavatam is divided, the te n th and th e eleventh are the m ost im portant. The te n th tells the life story o f Krsna, and th e eleventh contains th e instructions he gave to his disciple and friend Uddhava. T he chief part of Sri Krsna’s story is the räsa-lilä, his play w ith the shepherdesses; and this part is m ost glaringly misrepresented by W estern scholars, who have failed to understand th e m eaning o f the original. A brief sum m ary o f the episode will help us to interpret correctly th e significance of Sri Krsna to the H indu mind. He embodies the quality o f love. Love is divine, and love finds expression in m any forms. To Yasodä, God was her own baby Krsna. To the shepherd boys he was Krsna, their beloved friend and playm ate, and to th e shepherd girls he was Krsna, their beloved friend, lover, and com panion. W hen Krsna played on his flute, th e shepherdesses forgot everything, even their own bodies, and ran to him for th e sake of his great, compelling love. Once Krsna, to test their love for him , said to them , O h , ye p u re ones, your duties m ust first be to your husbands and children. You do n o t need to come to me, for if you only m editate on me you will gain salvation.’ The shepherdesses replied, O h , th o u cruel lover, we aspire to serve only thee. T hou know est the scriptural truths, and th o u dost advise us to serve o u r husbands and our children. Yes, we will abide by th y teaching. B ut th o u art in all, and th o u art all. By serving thee we serve all.’ Krsna, w ho gives delight to all and is blissful in his ow n being, divided him self into as m any Krsnas as there were gopis, or shepherdesses, and danced and played w ith them . Each gopi felt th e divine presence and the divine love of Sri Krsna. Each one felt herself m ost blessed, and each one’s love for him was so absorbing th a t she felt herself one w ith him —each one even realized th a t she was Krsna. Truly has it been said th a t those w ho m editate on the divine love o f Sri Krsna, and upon this sweet relationship w ith th e gopis, become free from lust and sensuality. Swami Vivekananda has made some pertinent remarks u p o n the idyl of th e shepherdesses in the life of Krsna; ‘Ah, th a t m ost marvellous passage of his life, the m ost difficult to understand, and which none ought to attem pt to understand until

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he has become perfectly chaste and pure, that m ost marvellous expansion of love, allegorized and expressed in th at beautiful play in Brindaban, w hich none can understand b u t he who has become mad with, and d ru n k deep of, the cup of love. Who can understand the throes of the love of the gopis—the very ideal of love, love th a t wants nothing, love th a t does n o t care even for heaven, love th a t does n o t care for anything in this w orld or the world to come?1 ‘The historian who records this marvellous love of the gopis is one w ho was born pure, the eternally pure Suka, the son of Vyasa. So long as there is selfishness in th e heart, so long is love of God impossible; it is nothing b u t shopkeeping.2 ‘Aye, forget first the love for gold, and nam e and fame, and for this little trum pery world of ours. Then, only then, you will understand the love of the gopis, too holy to be attem pted w ithout giving up everything, too sacred to be understood until the soul has become perfectly p u r e .. . . ‘T hat is the very essence of the Krishna incarnation. Even the Gita, th e great philosophy itself, does n o t compare w ith th a t madness, for in the Gita the disciple is tau g h t slowly how to walk towards the goal, b u t here is th e madness of enjoym ent, the drunkenness of love, where disciples and teachers and teachings and books, all these things, have become one, even the ideas of fear and God and heaven! Everything has been throw n away. W hat remains is the madness of love. It is forgetfulness o f everything, and the lover sees nothing in the w orld except th at Krishna, and Krishna alone—the face of everything becomes a Krishna, his own face looks like Krishna, his own soul has become tinged w ith the Krishna colour. T hat was the great Krishna.’3 The eleventh book contains the teachings of Krsna regarding love, knowledge, service, and meditation. They are essentially the teachings of the Upanisads and the Gita. Perhaps they are best summarized in the following words of Krsna, addressed to Uddhava, from the eleventh book; ‘The first requisites for spiritual life are these: doing no injury; being truthful, honest, nonattached, modest; abstaining from wealth; maintaining faith in an after-life; practising continence, silence, patience, forgiveness, fearlessness, physical and m ental purity, austerity, self-reliance, hospitality; chanting the nam e of the Lord; perform ing sacrifices; surrendering the self to me; making pilgrimages; working for th e good of others; and serving the teacher. These are know n in yoga as th e practices of yama and niyama. These, m y friend, if rightly followed, bring great spiritual unfoldm ent. ' Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. ΙΠ, p. 257.

2 Ibid., p. 258.

3 Ibid., p. 259.

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Calmness is a steady flow of the m ind tow ard God. Self-restraint is control of the organs of sense. Patience is bearing the burden of life cheerfully. Steadiness is overcoming the palate and the im pulse of sex. The highest charity is refraining from violence. Austerity is th e giving up of desire. Valour is the conquest of one’s own self. To know th e tru th is to see the oneness of the Self with God. Truthfulness is tru e and agreeable speech as exemplified by the sages. Purity is nonattachm ent to work. Renunciation is overcoming the world. Virtue is the treasure w hich m en covet. I, the suprem e Lord, am the sacrifice. The greatest gift is the gift of knowledge. The greatest strength is the control o f prana. Fortunate is he who meditates on m y divine powers. The highest profit is in devotion to me. Wisdom is removing false ideas of multiplici ty and realizing the unity o f the Self. Modesty is abhorrence of evil deeds. Excellence of character arises from disregard of worldly considerations. Happiness is the transcending of both pleasure and pain. Misery is hankering after pleasures of sense. Learned is he who discriminates between bondage and freedom. Ignorant is he who identifies himself w ith the body. The right path is th at w hich leads to me. The w rong path is th at which causes restlessness of the mind. Heaven is the dom ination of sattwa in the mind. Hell is the predom inance of tamas. The teacher who has realized his oneness with m e is the tru e friend. He indeed is rich who is rich in virtues. Poor is he w ho is discontented. Mean is he who is n o t m aster of his senses. Godly is he w ho is n o t attached to objects of sense. Divine is he w ho has overcome both good and evil.’1 The Tantras

The Tantras are th e scriptures by means of which knowledge is spread in order to save hum anity from ignorance.2 They are also 1 Bhägavatam , XI. xix. 32-45. 2 O f all Indian scriptures, the Tantras are m ost often m isunderstood by Western scholars, and even native scholars are not altogether free from error in dealing

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know n as Ägamas—revelations, in conformity, th a t is, w ith the revelations of the Vedas. Their authorship is unknow n, though there is a tradition th at Siva uttered them to his divine consort Sakti (the Divine M other), and th a t th ro u g h her they reached m ankind. Their date is uncertain, b u t since Buddha was familiar w ith them they are obviously pre-Buddhistic. Buddhistic Tantras exist, however, belonging to th e Tibetan school of Buddhism. T he original Tantras are divided into three m ain groups according as th e deity chosen for worship is Visnu, Siva, or Sakti. Thus there are Vaisnava Ägamas (or Pafícaratra), th e Saiva Ägamas, and the Säkta Ägamas, besides th e later Buddhistic Ägamas composed in Tibet. The Säkta group is the m ost popular, so m u ch so th at the w ord Tantra has com e to mean, generally th o u g h mistakenly, only th e Säkta Ägamas. It is to these th at we shall give o u r attention. The Tantras are all broadly divided into three parts: sädhanä, which includes spiritual practices and disciplines and ritualistic forms of worship; siddhi, or attainm ents from such practices; and philosophy. Let us examine the last of these first. The philosophy of the Tantras is based on the Upanisads. It is nondualistic, upholding the identity of the individual soul w ith Siva-Sakti—th a t is, in the language of the Upanisads and o f Samkara, th e identity o f th e individual self w ith Brahman, or th e Universal Self. Samkara calls the creative power of the universe mäyä, o r illusion, the universe for him possessing in itself no absolute reality, whereas the Tantras call this creative pow er Sakti, or God the M other, and regard the universe as her play w hen she has become m ind and m atter. Here, in their interpretation o f reality, the Tantras apparently approach the philosophy of Räm änuja, w ho looked u p o n the universe of m ind and m atter as a transform ation o f Brahman—as, in effect, the body of God. This Sakti, or God the M other, is n o t distinct from Siva, or Brahman, th e Absolute o f the Upanisads, b u t is the pow er o f th e Absolute. In th e transcendental plane, w hich is static, where there is b u t one with them . B ut I m u st declare in this connection that in recent years one Western student o f Eastern philosophy, Sir John WoodrofiFe, an Englishm an and at one tim e C hief Justice o f the High C ourt o f Calcutta, has, through a lifetime devoted to the study o f Täntric literature, done yeom an service in the cause o f a proper understanding o f these difficult scriptures, both through translations o f original m anuscripts and through correct interpretations o f their spirit. ‘Tantra Shastra [scriptures]’, he says, ‘—(is) generally spoken o f as a jum ble o f “ black m agic” , and “ erotic m ysticism ” , cem ented together by a ritual which is “m eaningless m um m ery” . A large num ber o f persons who talk in this strain have never had a T antra in their hands, and such Orientals as have read som e portions o f these scriptures have n ot generally understood them , otherwise they w ould n ot have found them to be so “m eaningless” . They m ay be bad, or they m ay be good, but they have a m eaning. M en are n ot such fools as to believe in w hat is m eaningless.’

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undivided, absolute existence, and w here there is no universe, the tru th is know n as Siva, o r the Absolute Existence-Knowledge-Bliss; b u t in th e active, im m anent plane, th at is, th e plane in w hich the universe is know n, there is experienced by th e seer th e play of Sakti, o f God the M other. Sri Räm akrsna was w o n t to say th a t just as fire and its burning power are inseparable, so inseparable are Brahm an and Sakti. ‘W hen I meditate upon Reality as at rest,’ he once rem arked, ‘th at is, w ithout the activities of creation, preservation, and dissolution, I call it Brahman. W hen I m editate upo n Reality as creative, I call it Sakti. In either case I am concerned with one and the same tru th , the difference being only in nam e and aspect.’1 According to the Tantras, God the M other has w ithin herself the seeds of creation. At the end of a cycle she gives birth to a new world and lives w ithin it. In th e Upanisads a figure is given of the female spider and her web. The spider weaves her thread o u t of herself and th en lives u p o n it. God the M other is both the container and the contained. ‘It is th e desire for the life of form [writes Sir John Woodroffe, in explaining th e philosophy of th e Tantras] w hich produces the universe. This desire exists in the collective Väsanäs [thirst or desires], held like all else in inchoate state in the M other-Power, which passing from its ow n (Svarüpa) formless state gives effect to them . U pon the expiration of th e vast length of tim e w hich constitutes a day of Brahmä th e w hole universe is w ithdraw n into the great Causal Womb (Yoni) which produced it. The limited selves are w ithdraw n into it, and again, w hen the creative throes are felt, are p u t forth from it, each appearing in th at form and state which its previous Karma had made for it. Those w ho do good Karma but w ith desire and self-regard (Sakäma) go, on death, to Heaven and thereafter reap their reward in good future birth on earth—for Heaven is also a transitory state. The bad are punished by evil births on earth and suffering in the Hells w hich are also transitory. Those, however, who have rid themselves of all self-regarding desire and w ork selflessly (Niskäma Karma), realize the Brahm an nature w hich is Sacchidänanda. Such are liberated, th at is never appear again in the W orld of Form, w hich is the w orld of suffering, and enter into th e infinite ocean of Bliss Itself. This is Moksa or M ukti or Liberation. As it is freedom from the universe of form , it can only be attained th ro u g h detachm ent from th e w orld and desirelessness. For those w ho desire th e w orld of form cannot be freed o f it. Life, therefore, is a field in w hich m an, who has gradually ascended th ro u g h lower forms of 1 Kathämrta, vol. I, p. 49.

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mineral, vegetable and animal life, is given the opportunity of heavenlife and Liberation. The universe has a m oral purpose, nam ely the affording to all existence of a field w herein it may reap the fruits of its actions. The forms of life are therefore the stairs (Sopäna) on which m an m ounts to the state o f infinite, eternal, and formless Bliss. This then is the origin and the end of m an. He has made for himself his own past and present condition and will make his future one. His essential nature is free. If wise, he adopts th e means (Sädhanä) w hich lead to lasting happiness, for th at of the world is n o t to be had by all, and even w hen attained is perishable and mixed with suffering.’1 This quotation adequately summarizes the attitude n o t merely of th e Tantras b u t of the whole body of the H indu scriptures toward the origin and end of man. The teachings of the Tantras are never at variance w ith those of the Upanisads. Even the worship of God the M other is n o t new in the Tantras. In the Kena Upanisad we find, for example, w hen the gods grew arrogant because of their victory over the demons, th at it was Umä, God the M other, w ho brought them to their senses and offered them the supreme knowledge. (Correspondingly, th e Tantras hold th at by worship of God in th e aspect of M other supreme knowledge and liberation can be achieved. ‘She brings to light and freedom those w ith w hom she is well pleased.’) Further, there is a hym n in the Rg-Veda in h o n o u r of God th e M other, which reads: Ί spread the heavens over the earth. I am the energy in Brahman, I am the m other of all. It is for m e th at Brahm an resides in all intellects, and it is I who have penetrated all the worlds w ith m y power and am holding them in their places. . . . Again, apart from the heavens and apart from this earth, I remain always the all-intelligent prim al energy, as well as the one intelligent being, perfect and untouched by my magic creation.’2 Sädhanä and Siddhi

The Tantras are primarily and fundam entally practical scriptures on sädhanä. The w ord sädhanä means a striving or discipline for the attainm ent of a certain prescribed goal. And th at goal, or siddhi (attainm ent), as may be guessed, is moksa, liberation from the bondage of ignorance, and from the chain of recurring birth and death, through knowledge of the tru e Self as one w ith Siva, or Brahman. The attainm ent of this knowledge, though possible only thro u g h effort, m ust be direct and immediate. According to the Tantras and all the other H indu scriptures, infinite knowledge, 1 Sakti and Säkta, pp. I l f .

2 Rg-Veda, x. 125. 3, 7.

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power, and bliss are latent in every m an. The object o f sädhanä is just to unfold this knowledge and pow er and to realize this bliss. The authority of the scriptures does n o t depend upon m ere belief in th em as revelations, b u t upon th e fact th at their tru th s can be revealed in one’s own soul. In other words, th e test of their validity is primarily a positive one. They contend, moreover, th at th e spiritual practices they inculcate will bring the promised results to all who follow them . Briefly, they insist th a t one m u st act in order to experience the tru th o f God. The sädhanäs, or spiritual disciplines, however, should be undertaken only w ith the help of a guru, or spiritual teacher. All H indu schools of thought, in fact, m aintain th a t submission to th e direction o f a com petent teacher is essential if one is to attain to knowledge of God, for religion is a practical science to w hich neither books n o r scriptures can be a com plete guide. The aspirant m ust therefore associate him self w ith one who is com petent and holy, w ho has dem onstrated the tru th s of religion in his own life, and w ho can therefore initiate the disciple into the secrets of spiritual unfoldm ent. The Tantras define two kinds o f diksa, or initiation: sâmbhavï (or sakti) and m äntri. áambhavi occurs w hen th e disciple immediately experiences divine vision, attaining th e suprem e knowledge by the m ere wish or touch of the guru. T hough to us this sudden transform ation m ay seem fantastic, we may see it substantiated in the lives of Krsna, Christ, and Rämakrsna. Christ said to his disciple, ‘Be th o u w hole [perfect]’, and the disciple instantly attained perfection; Krsna by a w ord gave divine sight to Arjuna, and th e realization of God; and w ithin living m em ory Rämakrsna by a to u ch gave illum ination to his disciples.1 But this form of initiation is possible only th ro u g h suprem e teachers. Lesser teachers m ust have recourse to the other form of initiation, namely, m äntri. In this the guru initiates the disciple by presenting him w ith a m antra, or sacred w ord or form ula. In the Tantras the philosophy involved in th e m antras is given detailed explanation, th e underlying principle being th a t words and thoughts are inseparable, and th at a person may effect a com plete change in his character by m editating upon a th o u g h t w ith the help o f a w ord and by repeating th e word. The ro o t of initiation, declare these scriptures, is th e m antra; th e m antra is the body of God; and God is the ro o t o f siddhi, or attainm ent of knowledge and perfection. M en vary in capacity, tem peram ent, and level o f grow th in the 1 I m yself had the blessed fortune to live in the society o f m any o f ári R äm akrsna’s disciples, each one o f w hom testified to the fact that he had attained sam ädhi through the M aster’s touch. T he effects o f that touch one could perceive in their lives and their characters.

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intellectual, m oral, and spiritual spheres. Accordingly, th e Tantras classify hum anity into three general categories: divya, or divine; vira, or heroic; and pasu, or animal. The pasus, in w hom animal passions predom inate, m ust avoid all objects of tem ptation and regularly observe the ritualistic forms of worship and m editation. The viras, in w hom there is a greater love for spiritual th an for material things, may abide in the m idst of the objects of tem ptation, while they learn to m aintain their equanim ity and self-control by devoting their thoughts m ore and m ore to God. And the divyas, w ho have become established in self-control, whose minds are absorbed in the th o u g h t of God, and in w hom is to be found an expression o f all divine qualities, such as love, kindness, and truthfulness—like the em anation o f fragrance from a flower—these are beyond all need o f spiritual discipline. Four forms o f worship and m editation are prescribed in the Tantras. The highest is Brahma-sadbhäva—m editating on the identity of the inner Self of m an w ith Brahm an as he exists in all and all exist in him . The second in this scale is constant m editation on the chosen ideal of God w ithin one’s own heart. The third is japa, repetition of the m antra (the w ord corresponding to the chosen ideal of God) and prayer. And th e last and lowest is external worship of an image or a symbol. Those who are advanced enough to m editate on the identity of the inner Self w ith God do n o t need the aid o f external symbols or rituals, b u t for others symbols and rituals are always very helpful and in m ost cases are needed. Says Sir John Woodroffe: ‘Brahmanism thus sagely resolves th e Western dispute as to the necessity or advisability of ritual. It affirms it for those w ho have n o t attained the end of all ritual. It lessens and refines ritual as spiritual progress is made upwards; it dispenses w ith it altogether w hen there is no longer need for it. But u n til a m an is a real “Knower”, some sädhana is necessary if he w ould become one. . . . W hat may be suitable for th e unlettered peasant may n o t be so for those m ore intellectually and spiritually advanced. It is however a fine general principle of Täntric worship th at capacity, and n o t social distinction such as caste, determines competency for any particular worship.’1 The Tantras developed elaborate rituals and symbols for those w ho needed them , and supplied m ost o f th e tem ple rituals in India. In the worship o f som ething outside th e Inner Self—for example, a Chosen Deity—an external symbol, such as an image, a picture, an emblem, or a geometrical design called yantra, may be used. In 1 ¿akti and ¿aha, p. 514.

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practising ritualism worshippers m ust also practise inward m editation and adoration. Those w ho follow the ritualist path are falsely accused by the ignorant of being idolators, for if one will only learn their form of worship, one may perceive for oneself w hat disciplines are involved. As a m atter o f fact, in this process of external worship there is a w onderful harm ony and blending of jñana (knowledge), bhakti (love), karma, and räja yoga. Sir John Woodroffe has correctly explained the m atter: ‘According to H indu views, prim ary im portance is attached to m ental states, for as th e Divine T hought made the world, m an makes his character therein by w hat he thinks. If he is always thinking on material things and has desires therefore he himself becomes material and is given over to lust and other passions. If, o n the contrary, he has always his m ind on God, and associates everything w ith the th o u g h t of Him, his m ind becomes pure and divine.’1 As we have already noted, the Säkta T antra teaches th e M otherhood of God—God as Sakti, or the pow er which creates and preserves the universe and dissolves it into herself. The concept M other, indeed, takes m any forms, has m any aspects, and w hat is experienced as terror and death and destruction is included in her play. These three— terror, death, and destruction—are b u t the obverse o f bliss, life, and creation. The tender M other shows her benign aspect to those who are her votaries, in whatever form o r aspect they may worship her. And she is to be seen and realized everywhere in the universe. A beautiful prayer occurs in the Candí, a prayer book o f the Säkta Tantras: Ό M other, th o u art the em bodim ent of all knowledge. Wherever there are intelligence and learning, there art th o u manifest. All w om en are th y forms. T hou hast th y being in th e universe, filling and perm eating all things.’ Thus spiritual aspirants are taught to look upo n all w om en as the em bodim ent of Sakti, or M other.2 ‘ Sakti and Säkta, pp. 530 f. 2 It should be noted th at there evolved a school o f th ough t am ongst the áaktas know n as väm äcära. Its ritual o f wine and w om en, apparently a pure sensualism , gained som e notoriety. If, however, we penetrate a little into the m eaning o f the accessories used we shall find no groun d fo r condem nation. T he sym bols o f wine and w om en were em ployed in order to teach freedom from lustful passions by trying to see everywhere the Divine M other. In course o f time, it is true, the original spirit o f the ritual was forgotten, and degeneration o f the w hole form o f worship ensued. The idea involved was an admirable one, but in its application it becam e dangerous and actually evil.

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A m ost im portant portion of the Tantras is th at which deals w ith w hat is technically know n as kundalini yoga. The w ord kundalini literally means the coiled up. According to the scriptures, the divine energy remains unmanifested w ithin us, and to the yogi’s eye it has a form like th at of a coiled serpent. The object of spiritual practices is to awaken this sleeping power in man. There are, assert the Tantras, seven centres of consciousness, the seventh of which is located in the brain. These centres, resembling lotuses, are technically know n as cakras. T hrough certain prescribed exercises the kundalini, or Divine Energy, rises th ro u g h the centres until it reaches the seventh, and in this seventh occurs a mystic union w ith the Supreme Lord, w ho there resides. Then it is th at one attains transcendental consciousness. This kundalini and these seven cakras or lotuses are n o t physical b u t subtle and vital, and th e mystic w ith his divine sight opened sees them . He also experiences various psychic and spiritual visions as his sleeping energy awakens to full life. Once Sri Räm akrsna spoke of th e centres of energy in this way: Tn th e scriptures m ention is made of the seven centres of consciousness. W hen the m ind is attached to worldliness, consciousness dwells in the three lower centres, th e plexus sacro-coccygeal, sacral, and solar. Then there are in it no high ideals or pure thoughts. It remains immersed in lust and greed. The fo u rth centre of consciousness is the region of th e heart. Spiritual awakening comes w hen the m ind rises to this centre. At this stage m an has a spiritual vision of the Divine Light and is struck w ith w onder at its beauty and glory. His m ind then no longer runs after worldly pleasures. The region of the th ro at is the fifth centre of consciousness. W hen the m ind rises to this centre, m an becomes free from nescience and ignorance. He th en talks only on subjects relating to God and grows im patient if any worldly topic is discussed. He avoids hearing about worldly subjects. The sixth centre is between the eyebrows. W hen the mind rises to this centre, m an becomes merged in divine consciousness. There is still left in him, however, the consciousness of a separate ego. Seeing the beatific vision of God he becomes m ad w ith joy and longs to come closer to him and be united w ith him . But he cannot, for there is still the ego which stands between them . One may com pare God to th e light in a lantern. You seem to feel its w arm th; yet though you wish to do so, you cannot to u ch it, on account o f the glass intervening. The centre in the brain is the seventh centre. W hen one rises to this plane, there is samädhi. T hat is th e transcendental consciousness, in which one realizes his oneness w ith God.’1 1 Kathämrta, vol. I, pp. 72-3.

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SELECTED PASSAGES FROM THE MAHÄNIRVÄNA TANTRA

The Lord of this universe becomes pleased with him who is engaged in doing good to the w orld, since the Lord is its soul and refuge. He is one. He ever is. He is the T ru th , one w ithout a second. He is the suprem e Being. He is self-effulgent, ever shining. He is eternal consciousness and bliss.1 He is unchangeable, self-existent, and serene, and he is beyond all predicates. He is the witness of all, th e Self of all, pervading everything; he is the omnipresent. He, the eternal, dwells concealed in the heart of all beings. Though himself devoid of senses, he is the illum inator of all the senses, the source of their powers.2 He knows all, but none knows him .3 The world of forms appears real because he, the ground of all existence, is real.4 T hrough fear of him the wind blows, the sun gives heat, the clouds shower rain, and the trees in the forest flower.5 All gods and goddesses—nay, the whole universe from Brahma to a blade of grass—are his forms.6 If he be pleased, the universe is pleased.7 Just as the pouring of water at its ro o t nourishes the branches and leaves of a tree, so by worshipping him all the gods and goddesses attain bliss.8 As all rivers m ust go to the ocean, so all acts of worship reach him as the ultim ate goal.9 For the attainm ent of liberation w ith ease and delight, there is no way but to worship him, to meditate upo n him, and to pray to him .10 1 Π. 33-4. 4 Ibid., 46.

2 Ibid., 35-6. 7 Ibid., 47.

3 Ibid., 37. 8 Ibid., 48.

4 Ibid., 38. 9 Ibid., 50.

3 Ibid., 44. 10 Ibid., 52.

BO O K III JA IN IS M A N D B U D D H IS M

C H A PTE R 7

JAINIS M

What is Jainism ?

The words Jain and Jainism are derived from th e Sanskrit ro o t ji, w hich means to conquer. A Jain is one w ho believes in conquering the flesh in order to attain to th a t suprem e purity w hich leads to infinite knowledge, infinite happiness, and infinite power—th e same conquering th e flesh and the same self-liberation th at all other religions of India have taught. It is said th at Jainism is as old as the Vedic religion. Vardhamäna, know n also as Mahävira, or th e suprem e spiritual hero, whose nam e has come to be identified w ith Jainism, is b u t the last in a long series of inspired prophets, or seers.1 According to its tradition, Jainism goes back to the beginning of tim e and its tru th s were gradually revealed to certain divine m en called tirthañkaras. Its cosmogony has paralleled th a t o f other Indian faiths in th at it postulates a series of cosmic cycles, consisting of utsarpini, or ages of expansion, and avasarpini, or ages of contraction, or decay—our own age being one of the latter. D uring the present period of contraction, tw enty-four tirthañkaras have appeared from tim e to time, Rsabha being th e first and Mahavira th e last. Rsabha is, then, th e founder of th e sect for th e present cycle, having uttered the tru th s by which th e cycle is governed. His nam e is to be found in the Rg-Veda, and th e story o f his life is told in two o f the Puränas, the Visnu Puräna and th e Bhägavata Puräna. In all these scriptures he is regarded as a great saint. 1 It is custom ary am ong Western scholars to discover points o f similarity between the lives o f Mahavira and Buddha, w ho were contem poraries, and in consequence o f this and o f the further fact th at both Jainism and Buddhism lay em phasis upon ahimsä, or noninjury, they look upon Jainism as an ofishoot o f Buddhism . But these two religions are really independent o f each other, though parallel in their developm ent. M ahavira is n o t the founder o f Jainism but only, as rem arked above, the last in a lon g succession o f sages and seers. Parswanâtha, w ho lived two centuries before the time o f Mahavira, is another in this succession and also a historical figure.

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Mahâvïra, the last one o f th e tw enty-four tírthañkaras, was born in th e latter part of the sixth century b c , of ksatriya parents, near Vaisäli, the m odern village Basrah, about tw enty miles n o rth of Patna. He m arried and had one daughter. From his earliest boyhood he possessed a reflective and inquiring m ind. At the age of tw entyeight he renounced the w orld and thereafter practised austerities and m editation for twelve years, at the end of which tim e he was spiritually illum ined (kevala). Then for thirty years he preached his Jain doctrines to the people, and at the end of his ministry he attained final liberation. This story, so similar to th a t of Buddha, adds to Jainism the personal note necessary to the propagation of any religion. Mahâvïra popularized the doctrine of ahimsâ (doing no harm ), and in so doing made his chief contribution to the spread of Jainism. He also organized the com m unity into tw o classes, m onks and householders. Finally, he opened the doors o f his religion to all aspirants, irrespective of caste or sex. With regard to the m ain precepts of Jainism, all Jains are at one. A bout the beginning of the Christian Era, however, they divided into two sects, which became know n as digambaras and swetâmbaras because of certain differing regulations regarding the life and conduct o f the monks. The m ost im portant o f these is th at the digambara monks, who are supposed to be free from consciousness of their bodies, are allowed to wear no garm ents whatever, whereas the swetâmbara m onks are enjoined to wear white robes. T he scriptures of the Jains consist chiefly of the Angas, the Pürvas, and the Prakirna. There are also other sacred writings, comparatively m odern, containing systematic interpretations of Jain philosophy and religion in both Prakrit and Sanskrit.1 The Goal o f Jainism

Jainism denies the existence o f a First Cause, or creator of the universe. In fact it regards the belief th a t th e cosmic universe had a definite beginning in tim e as illogical and unthinkable, for th at belief involves the fu rth er belief th a t a God, noncreative before creation, suddenly changed his m ind and became creative. The universe, therefore, consisting of jivas, or souls, and ajivas, or beings w hich are n o t souls, m ust necessarily be w ithout beginning and w ithout end. It is n o t necessary to postulate a deity to explain the nature of the 1 There are altogether only about one and a h alf m illion Jains in all India. They are a peace-loving people, and have no quarrel with other Hindu religions. In fact they look upon them selves as quite within the Hindu fold, and are so regarded by the m ain body o f the orthodox.

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cosmos, for th e very fact of the eternal existence of jivas and ajivas requires a cosmos in w hich they can be manifested. To th e critics of Jainism, w ho contend th a t for everything th at is there m ust be a maker, the Jains p u t the question, How then could the m aker exist w ith o u t another m aker w ho made him, and so on backward w ithout end? And if it is possible for one being to exist self-subsistent and eternal, w hy is it n o t possible for m any to be likewise self-subsistent and eternal? This ancient problem of a First Cause is thus solved by Jainism th ro u g h a flat denial th a t a problem exists. Neither a theory of a definite origin in tim e of the universe, n o r a theory of a God in the sense of creator and sustainer, is adm itted in its metaphysics. It does believe, however, in the divinity o f every soul and in the perfected soul as th e Paramätman, the Suprem e Spirit, w ho is the object of worship and adoration. And every soul is a potential Paramätman. In this sense th e Jain religion, despite its denial of the personal factor in creation, is very far from being purely atheistic, for it posits definitely th e divinity o f the soul and the possibility of our realizing its divinity. The ontological argum ent of th e Jainists runs thus: W hen a m an breaks the bonds of his karmas by subduing his passions and realizing the suprem e purity o f the soul, and there is revealed to him in his own soul infinite knowledge, bliss, and power, he becomes at once a Paramätman, or Perfected Soul. Since all souls are potentially divine, there are m any th at have achieved perfection and m any m ore th a t are on the way to achieving it. The following is a typical prayer o f a Jain devotee: ‘Him w ho is the revealer of the path to salvation, w ho is the rem over o f m ountains of karmas, and w ho is the know er of all reality, him I worship, in order th a t I may realize his qualities w ithin myself.’ So we come to the conclusion th at th e Jains are believers in m anGod, though the concept is n o t quite th e same as the H indu avatar or the Christian Son of God. The object of their worship is the m an-God, and they consider th at th e best way to worship him is to become, themselves, Sons of God—Paramätmans, suprem e perfected spirits. It is tru e th at souls rank variously. He who has become perfect by realizing his divine nature, who has so overcome the w orld th a t he is n o t touched by the good and evil in it, is in the highest rank. Such a m an is called Siddha Paramesthin. Next in the scale of being is the A rhat, one w ho has n o t as yet attained final liberation, b u t w ho has received illum ination, has a desire to serve hum anity, and looks

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u p o n his fellows with love and kindness. Such a soul reveals the eternal truths of religion to struggling hum anity. Arhats enter into h u m an life at certain cosmic periods for the good of all. The three next gradations are composed of ordinary h u m an teachers. These have gained som e conquest over the flesh and some knowledge o f the divine n atu re o f the soul. Each of the five stages of individual evolution represents the suprem e goal of life at a certain level of illum ination. The highest perfection, Siddha Paramesthin, can be described as a state absolutely unconditional, a state of passionless peace, in w hich one is released from action and is w ithout desire. Metaphysically, moksa is liberation from the bonds o f karm a and rebirth. Like all other schools of Indian thought, Jainism accepts karm a and reincarnation, b u t unlike the others, it conceives of karm a as som ething material, which, uniting w ith the soul, binds a m an to the w orld and its attractions. T hough it is regarded as a m aterial substance, karm a is yet so subtile th a t it is unperceivable by th e senses. It is in this karm a th at the soul is bound, and it is for this reason th a t th e soul is embodied in th e substance o f a being and th a t it is embodied from a beginningless past. But, th o u g h this bondage has no beginning, it m ay definitely have an end, for the soul is essentially free and divine, and just as soon as its tru e n atu re is realized karm a disappears. The Vedäntic doctrine o f avidyâ, or ignorance, also holds th at individual ignorance, tho u g h it may end, has no beginning. This bondage of the soul to karm a is n o t caused by anything extraneous, b u t by karm a itself. As th e soul comes into contact w ith the world outside, certain psychic conditions arise, such as the desire for enjoym ent, w hich lead to ignorance of the soul’s true nature, and cause the karmic molecules to ‘flow in ’ towards it and in the process to surround it. This ‘flowing in ’ of the subtile m atter o f karm a is peculiar to Jain metaphysics, and is technically know n as äsrava, the first stage in karm ic bondage. The next stage is the actual bondage, know n technically as bandha. In this the molecules become settled and build up a subtile body know n as the karm ana sarira, and the soul is weighed dow n by its own karmas. The physical body dies w ith death, b u t th e karm ana sarira, w hich corresponds to the subtile body in Hinduism, lingers on until the final liberation. Freedom from th e weight of karm a is gained first by samvara, self-restraint, for w hen this is exercised no fresh karm a is attached to the soul. Then by self-discipline, both ethical and spiritual, there is induced a state know n as nirjara, or the shedding of all past karmas. At this point rebirth ceases, and a certain prelim inary liberation is attained, b u t th e next tw o (and last) stages m ust precede moksa,

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the final liberation. The first of these is Arhat, in which the enlightened soul, freed from karmas, continues to live in th e world, actively engaged in the service of hum anity yet no longer tainted by good and evil. This state is comparable w ith th a t of the jivanm ukta, free while living, of the H indu ideal. In the next stage of its progress, the soul transcends th e w orld. Here, where there is no m ore activity, it attains th e perfect state, characterized by infinite knowledge and infinite peace. This, the final state, is know n as Siddha Paramesthin. The Way to Fulfilment

Moksa is achieved thro u g h triratna—the three jewels o f right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct.1 The three together m ake a single unit. Right faith is unshaken faith in the teaching of the Jains; right knowledge is tru e understanding of their principles; and right conduct is practical living in accordance w ith these principles. The first of these, right faith, is th e foundation of the ethical and spiritual life. Before one can have right faith, one m ust be free from ignorant superstitions—the idea, for example, th at spiritual m erit m ay be acquired by bathing in a river said to be sacred, or by propitiating imaginary gods, or by observing certain external rites. Freedom from superstitions, as well as from pride or arrogance or conceit, is the prim ary necessity for developing right faith. With right faith arises right knowledge—enlightened understanding o f the tru th s of religion—which in tu rn m ust be united w ith the third jewel, right conduct. Right conduct comprises the five vratas, or observances: (1) ahimsä, or noninjury—great emphasis being laid on this principle, which requires n o t only th at one do no harm to living creatures b u t also th a t one show them kindness; (2) satya, or truthfulness; (3) asteya, or nonstealing—understood to extend to the prohibition of covetousness; (4) brahmacarya, or chastity in word, thought, and deed; and (5) aparigraha, or nonattachm ent to the world. W hen applied w ithout limitation, these vratas are know n as the mahävratas—the suprem e vows taken by the monks. Thus Jainism makes a distinction between conduct prescribed for its m onks and th at prescribed for its lay brethren. Great emphasis is placed by Jainism, as by all other Indian schools o f thought, upo n hum an birth as a means to the attainm ent of divine perfection. Even the gods and angels, w ho partake of celestial joys in some kind of heaven, m ust appear on earth in h u m an form if 1 Com pare the way to salvation through the offices o f the R om an Catholic C hurch: faith, instruction, and works.

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they w ould reach the ultim ate goal. Blessed, therefore, is hum an birth.1 Jain Metaphysics2

The difficult subject of Jain metaphysics is involved in the Jain view of life. Reality, which is uncreated and eternal, is1defined as that w hich is ‘characterized by birth and death in the midst of perm anence’. T hat is, it maintains its identity and perm anence th ro u g h the process of continual change—th ro u g h birth and death. Changes in appearance are the modifications a substance undergoes, the underlying substance rem aining always th e same. In gold, for example, the underlying substance remains gold despite the modifications involved in th e m anufacture from it of various ornam ents. In the aspect of modification, called paryäya, there are birth and death; in the aspect o f substance, or dravya, there is only permanence. One m ode disappears, another appears, b u t the underlying substance is invariable. Substance and its qualities, the gunas, can never be separated— there can be no substance w ithout a quality, and no quality w ithout a substance—b u t they are distinct from each other in the m ind of the observer. This is called the bheda-abheda point of view (bheda— different; abheda—identical), a position fundam entally different from th at of the Nyäya-Vaisesika school, which recognizes an absolute distinction between substance and its qualities.3The ultim ate realities, w hich are uncreated and eternal and w hich make up the structure o f th e cosmos, are six in num ber. The first five are jiva (soul or spirit), pudgala (m atter), dharm a (the principle of m otion), adharm a (the principle o f rest), and äkäsa (space). They receive the technical name 1 Edward W ashburn Hopkins (Religions o f India, p. 297) caricatures Jainism when he says that it is ‘a religion in which the chief points insisted u p on are that one should deny God, worship m an, and nourish verm in’. One can caricature any religion. Jainism denies the existence o f an extracosmic God and o f an allpervading Spirit, but it accepts the im m ortal soul and the kingdom o f God within. M oreover, it believes in m an-Gods—saints who have realized perfection. Such a m an-God was Christ, w ho is worshipped by m any m illions o f m en. Again, Jainism insists upon noninjury. ‘T h ou shalt not kill’—a com m andm ent very imperfectly observed by the West—is sim ply extended to protect all living creatures. Perhaps in this connection it should be pointed ou t that the Jains, true to the characteristic spirit o f Indian religion, do n ot regard theirs as the only true religion. They believe that non-Jains, if they truly follow the precepts o f their respective religions, m ay in their own way arrive at m oksa, the goal o f all life. The w hole tru th cannot emerge from any .one teaching, and we need, therefore, to be tolerant o f ways o f salvation not our own. We shall return to the Jain theory o f religious tolerance in the section ‘Jain Logic and Theory o f Knowledge’. 2 The general reader m ay wish to om it this section since it is highly technical in nature. 3 Cf. chap. 10.

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pañcastikayas, five astikäyas. The w ord astikäya means an existence capable of spatial relations. To these (the pañcastikayas) m ust be added käla (time), which is a substance different in nature from the five astikäyas, because tim e is nonspatial, and ‘corresponds to unilateral series in mathematics and hence it is excluded from the class of astikäyas. In Jain metaphysics, nevertheless, it is included un d er the six dravyas, or realities which compose the universe of beings or things.’1 These six dravyas, ultim ate realities, fall into two divisions: jiva (spirit), and ajiva (nonspirit), the distinction between them being th a t jiva is conscious (cetana) and ajiva unconscious (acetana). The jiva is identified with life and consciousness. Consciousness is n o t in any way the product of m atter b u t is rather the property of th e soul, and is identical w ith the soul, which exists independently of matter. In fact, the soul may exist independently of the body, beyond material units or space units. And there is an infinite num ber of souls—uncreated and eternal. Birth and death in the material w orld are n o t the gunas (properties) of the soul, b u t rather paryäyas, its modifications, while it is in the bonds o f karm a. In this w orld of m atter and spirit, the souls th at are still w ithin the shackles of karma are associated w ith bodies and have measurements corresponding to the measurements of the bodies which they inhabit. Four main groups of souls dwell in the cosmos. First there are the devas, or gods, living in th e heavens. According to the orthodox Hindus as well as the Jains, gods are embodied beings, higher in the scale of evolution than m an but like m an subject to birth and death. The heavens are places where m en are born as gods to enjoy the fruits of their good deeds b u t where they die w hen the effects of such deeds are exhausted. The gods, it is said, have to retu rn to earth as hum an beings to attain liberation. The second group of jivas consists of hum an beings. Third in order come the tiryaks, or lower animals, and the vegetable kingdom. The last group comprises närakas, or beings inhabiting the hells, or lower regions.2 All four classes of beings, since they are subject to the law of karma, are happy or miserable according to their deeds in this or other lives.3 1 Cultural Heritage o f India, vol. I, p. 198. 2 We cannot definitely locate the heavens and hells, but the Jains, as well as

the Hindus, believe in them as places to which m en m ay go after death. The m an o f good deeds goes to one o f the heavens and there receives his due reward; the m an o f bad deeds goes to one o f the hells and there suffers his due punishm ent. Each, after his tem porary enjoym ent or misery, returns to earth. 3 According to Jain metaphysics, the jiva is a knower, an actor, and an enjoyer. This conception differs som ew hat from the Säm khya view o f Purusa, or the soul. According to Säm khya philosophy, the Purusa is distinctly inactive, th ough he remains the knower and enjoyer. F

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Ignorant of their pure, conscious, and divine nature, they are subject to birth and death. Moksa consists in freeing oneself from the shackles of karma, thereby escaping the cycle of birth and death and reaching beyond th e w orld of relativity to the realm of infinite knowledge, happiness, and power, w here there is no m ore desire and no m ore action, for no limitations hold the soul back from its destined liberation. The jiva w ho attains this final stage of evolution is the pure jiva, know n as the siddha, or perfected soul. The samsäri jiva, the soul still bound by karma, is always enclosed w ithin a material body. The prim ary classification of jivas has been given. They are also classified according to th e num ber of sense organs they possess. The lowest class have evolved only one sense organ. They are to be found in the vegetable kingdom in the form of trees and plants endowed w ith the sense of touch. They also exist, microscopic in size—and these are the next higher class—on the earth, in water, in air, and in light. This part of th e theory, concerned w ith microscopic organisms, is often misinterpreted as animism—the belief th at the earth, air, water, and light themselves possess souls. For such a m isinterpretation there is really no foundation. Worms, the third class in an ascending scale, possess the senses of touch and taste. Ants, in the fo u rth class, have touch, taste, and smell, and bees, also in the fo u rth class, are endowed n o t only w ith these three but also with sight. Higher animals compose the fifth class, w ith hearing as the fifth sense. M an is at the top of the scale, being possessed of m ind in addition to the five senses. The sense organs and th e bodies to which they belong are not, however, properties of the jiva. The jiva has indeed but one property— consciousness. This lies dorm ant in lower beings b u t progressively unfolds as the jiva journeys th ro u g h successively higher bodies, until it comes into full expression in the pure jiva, the perfected soul.1 It has already been noted th at the universe is made up of jiva (spirit) and ajiva (nonspirit). The characteristic of ajiva is th at it is inert, nonliving. The ajiva substances, which are uncreated and eternal, are pudgala, m atter; dharma, the principle of m otion; adharm a, the principle of rest; äkäsa, space; and käla, time. Of these only käla is nonspatial. Pudgala is corporeal, while the others have no bodily existence. Pudgala, m atter, is a substance associated w ith the sense properties— colour, taste, smell, touch, and sound—and existing independently 1 It is interesting to note in this connection that the great Hindu scientist, Sir J. C. Bose, proves through specially constructed scientific instrum ents that life and consciousness exist not only am ong the plants but even in the m ineral kingdom .

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of the perceiver, the jiva. It is the physical basis of the universe, and is composed of entities called param änus (atoms). A param änu has no parts, n o r any beginning, middle, or end; it is eternal, uncreated, and ultimate. In itself it has no form , though it is the irreducible basis of pudgala, which has form . When two or m ore atoms unite, they are called skandha (an aggregate). The aggregate of atoms w hich constitutes the universe is know n as the m ahäskandha (the great aggregate). The atoms are subject to modification, producing different substances as they combine differently, th o u g h no differences exist in the prim ary atoms. In this respect th e atoms of Jain m etaphysics differ from the param änus of the Nyäya-Vaisesika philosophy, w hich holds th a t there are as m any kinds of atoms as there are prim ary elements. These are five in num ber: earth, air, ether, fire, and water. The m ovem ent and combination of atoms are caused by the intervention o f äkäsa (space), dharm a (principle of m otion), and adharm a (principle of rest)—uncreated, eternal, and formless substances. Äkäsa, space, is infinite in extent and possesses objective reality. Its only function is to provide a place in which the other substances can exist. D harm a (the principle of m otion), and adharm a (the principle of rest), are the two categories peculiar to Jain philosophy. Both m otion and rest are to be found in jiva and pudgala. These two, spirit and m atter, tho u g h in themselves capable of m otion, yet are conditioned by dharm a and adharm a, which pervade the cosmos. D harm a and adharm a rem ain nonoperative, and yet they serve as prerequisites of m ovem ent and the cessation of m ovem ent. W ith respect to dharm a, we may use as an illustration the m ovem ent of fish in the sea. When a fish swims, the operating cause is present in itself, yet it could n o t do so w ithout pressure from the water. Water is, therefore, n o t an operating but a conditioning cause of the swimming of the fish. So also while life and m atter are capable of moving under their own impulsion, this m ovem ent is determ ined by causal nonoperating conditions called dharm a, or the principle of m otion. Similarly, w hen a moving object comes to rest of its own accord, the opposite principle, or adharma, is present. This also, as we may perceive, is nonoperating b u t conditioning. A bird, w hen it ceases to beat its wings, stops its flight and comes to rest. But this cessation of activity depends on a further condition, in this case the branch of a tree upon w hich it perches. The branch serves as a nonoperative condition of rest, and concretely illustrates the adharm a principle. The two principles, of m otion and o f rest, are necessary for postulating an orderly structure of the world.

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The last category is käla (time). Time is an objective reality b u t nonspatial. It is a necessary condition of all grow th and decay—of the evolution and involution th at constitute th e life o f the universe. T he process of change is unthinkable and unintelligible w ithout käla. The five ajiva substances, together w ith jiva, form th e six dravyas, or categories, of Jain metaphysics. Before we consider the subject of Jain logic and its theory o f knowledge, we ought to review the Jain classification of substances and categories. This classification includes seven tattwas (principles), nine padärthas (categories), six dravyas (substances), and two further tattwas (ultim ate reals)—‘according to the point of view adopted and th e purpose for w hich the categories are enum erated5.1 A table may facilitate the com prehension of this difficult subject: Tattwas f 1. (Ultimate reals) (_2. 1. 2. Dravyas 3. (Substances) " 4. 5. 6.

Jiva (spirit) Ajiva (nonspirit) Jiva (spirit) Pudgala (m atter) D harm a (principle o f m otion) Ajiva A dharm a (principle of rest) I (nonspirit) Äkäsa (space) Käla (time)

The first five dravyas, called astikäyas, are spatial; käla is nonspatial.

Tattwas (Principles)

1. Jiva (spirit) 2. Ajiva (nonspirit) 3. Asrava (the flowing in of karm ic molecules th at bind the jiva) 4. Bandha (bondage to the karm ana body) 5. Samvara (the checking of fresh karmas for th e jiva) 6. Nirjara (the shedding of karmas) 7. Moksa (salvation as the jiva realizes his true nature)

W hen punya (m erit) and päpa (demerit) are added to the seven principles m entioned above, we obtain the nine padärthas (categories) of Jain metaphysics. Jain Logic and Theory o f Knowledge

Since th e jiva is by its very nature pure consciousness, infinite knowledge is its inherent possession. But this knowledge is overlaid 1 Appaswami Chakravarti, ‘Jainism ’, The Cultural Heritage o f India, vol. I, p. 208.

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by ignorance created by the karmic body. While dwelling within th e bonds of karma, the jiva can express only finite knowledge; bu t as the im pediments to greater knowledge are removed, infinite knowledge is manifested, and the tru e nature of the soul is revealed. These impediments are the desires and passions, and as the soul frees itself from these and from its egoism, and learns th e lesson of selfrestraint, there comes greater and greater knowledge. Five different kinds o r types of knowledge appear as the jiva passes through various stages of unfoldm ent: mati, sruti, avadhi, manahparyäya, and kevala. Mati is ordinary cognition, including sense perception, m em ory, and inference; and since the soul is dependent for it on the senses and the ordinary operations of the m ind, it is know n as paroksa —indirect knowledge. This last is in contradiction to Western psychology, which regards the knowledge obtained from the senses as immediate or direct. Sruti, testimony, is revelations of the scriptures—also called paroksa, indirect knowledge, since the revelations were n o t made to ourselves. Avadhi is knowledge derived from the psychic power of clairvoyance and clairaudience—the perception of things and events at great distances of tim e and space. This knowledge, since it is n o t dependent u p o n the senses coming into contact w ith objects, is know n as pratyaksa—direct or immediate knowledge. M anahparyäya is the direct and immediate knowledge of others’ minds. Kevala is the perfect knowledge which the jiva gains w hen he is completely free from the bonds of ignorance and has realized his inherent purity. This knowledge is direct, immediate, and independent of the senses and the mind, and can only be felt and experienced—cannot be expressed in logical terms. This kevala, knowledge of the soul, is equivalent to the transcendental knowledge o f the Upanisads and the nirväna of the Buddhists. O f the five types of knowledge, the first two are in the possession of every norm al man, and the third and fourth may be developed in anyone who will practise self-restraint and concentration; b u t the fifth is granted only to him who in m editation has attained to absolute purity—an illum ined soul. Both jivas and ajivas are, as we have already noted, realities. They are n o t interdependent for their existence. External objects possess reality independently o f jiva, the perceiving subject. Appaswami Chakravarti explains the m atter in this way: ‘The function of jnäna [knowledge] is merely to reveal, on the one hand, the objective reality which is already existing, and also to reveal

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itself on the other hand. Knowledge, therefore, is like a lam p which on account of its luminosity reveals other objects as well as itself, the objects so revealed being real. The external objects so know n are independent, inasm uch as they exist by themselves and yet are related to knowledge as they are revealed by knowledge. Similarly, in the case of the soul, it is both the subject and the object of knowledge in one; this inner experience is able to reveal the nature of chetana [conscious] entity—the soul.’1 Jainism may be called pluralistic realism, since it asserts the reality of both spirit and nonspirit as eternal and uncreated substances, these being m any in num ber and existing independently of one another. Jain logic, and indirectly Jain metaphysics, w ould n o t be complete w ithout an explanation of their peculiar system of predication, a system strangely anticipatory o f the new doctrine of relativity in Western physics. This system declares th at both positive and negative predication m ay be made about the same thing. This is know n as asti-nästi—the thing is and is not. The apparent absurdity will reveal, w hen closely examined, a genuinely logical implication. An affirmative predication about a thing is dependent u p o n four conditions: sva-dravya (its own substance), sva-ksetra (its own locality), sva-käla (its own tim e of existence or duration), and sva-bhäva (its own modification); and correspondingly the negative predication about the same thing depends upon four conditions: para-dravya (alien substance), paraksetra (alien locality), para-käla (alien time of existence, or duration), and para-bhäva (alien modification). Let us illustrate by a concrete instance. If you wish to describe an o rn am en t made of gold, you can do so in th e following ways: „ , ΓThe necklace is made of gold, u stance ^ The necklace is n o t made of any other metal. _ ,. ΓThe necklace is in the box. oca lty The necklace is n o t on the table. Time of existence ΓThe necklace exists today. or duration 1 The necklace did n o t exist yesterday. J The necklace is round. Modification LThe necklace is n o t square. Thus it is clear th at affirmative and negative statem ents may be made about the same thing if these are made from different points of view—it w ould of course be absurd to affirm and negate from an identical point of view. The doctrine is n o t applicable, however, to 1 Cultural Heritage o f India, vol. I, pp. 209-10.

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an object th a t is n o t real, for no predication of any kind can be made of an absolute nonentity.1 According to Jainism, no absolute predication about a thing is possible. Reality does n o t adm it of absolute predication, b u t is characterized by appearance and nonappearance in the m idst of permanence. One can speak neither of an absolutely unchanging perm anence n o r of absolute change w ithout perm anence. The reality, however, maintains its identity and perm anence th o u g h it expresses itself in m ultiple forms. Jain philosophy is, therefore, called anekänta-väda—unity in multiplicity. O ut of this concept grew the general theory of a pluralistic universe. 1 U pon this doctrine o f asti-nästi is based another Jainist doctrine know n as sapta-bhañgi—the seven m odes o f predication. The m odes are as follow s: (1) Syäd asti (perhaps is). An affirmative predication about a thing is in relation to its own substance, locality, tim e o f existence or duration, and modification. (2) Syäd nästi (perhaps is not). A negative predication about a thing is in relation to its alien substance, locality, etc. (3) Syäd asti-nästi (perhaps is and is not). Affirmative and negative predications about a thing are in relation to its own substance, etc. (4) Syäd avaktavya (perhaps inexpressible). If one attem pts to represent both affirmative and negative in the same predication, language fails; it is therefore inexpressible. (5) Syäd asti avaktavya (perhaps is and is inexpressible). We note the existence o f a thing, and yet predication is inexpressible if our attem pts to represent both affirmative and negative are in the sam e predication. (6) Syäd nästi avaktavya (perhaps is not, and is inexpressible). We note the relation o f a thing to an alien substance, etc., as well as its inexpressibility. (7) Syäd asti-nästi avaktavya (perhaps is, is not, and is inexpressible). We note the inexpressibility o f a thing as well as w hat it is and w hat it is not.

C H A PTER 8

BUD DHISM

Introduction

In the Bhagavad-Gita we have read: When goodness grows weak, W hen evil increases, I make myself a body. In every age I come back To deliver the holy, To destroy the sin of the sinner, To establish righteousness.1 As if to fulfil this promise of Sri Krsna, Buddha appeared. At the time of his birth spiritual culture in India was at a low ebb. What was then universally recognized as religion consisted wholly in the observance of rituals and sacrifices, for the people had forgotten the simple fact th at religion is primarily a m atter of experience and realization. W hen the externals of religion usurp its inner truth, there ceases to be any struggle towards purification of the soul, or any positive effort to know the Brahman within. It was to the end of relighting the flame of religion in the hearts of individual m en that Buddha dedicated his life. His protest against the hardening of the outer forms of religion at the expense of its inner light may be compared w ith the mission of Christ, who sought to purify and revivify the religion of the Jews. How very m uch the spirit of religion was misinterpreted at the tim e of Buddha’s ministry may be learned from his own words as recorded in one of the ancient Buddhistic scriptures, the Tevijja Sutta. In it we are told of a young man, Väsettha by name, w ho approached Buddha ίο learn of the path to union w ith Brahman. Before, however, the Master was able to tell him of this 1 IV. 7-8.

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path, he was obliged to rem ove his ignorance concerning the way of spirit: ‘Then you say, too, Vasettha, th a t the brahmins bear anger and malice in their hearts, and are sinful and uncontrolled, whilst Brahm an is free from anger and malice, and sinless, and has selfmastery. Now can there, then, be concord and likeness between the brahmins and B rahm ani . . . ‘That these brahmins, versed in the Vedas and yet bearing anger and malice in their hearts, sinful, and uncontrolled, should after death, w hen th e body is dissolved, become united to Brahman, who is free from anger and malice, sinless, and has self-mastery—such a condition of things has no existence. ‘So th at thus then, Vasettha, the brahmins, versed th o u g h they be in the three Vedas, while they sit dow n (in confidence), are sinking dow n (in the mire); and so sinking they are arriving only at despair, thinking the while th a t they are crossing over into some happier land. Therefore is it th at the threefold wisdom of the brahmins, wise in their three Vedas, is called a waterless desert, their threefold wisdom is called a pathless jungle, their threefold wisdom is called destruction!’1 Thus did Buddha u tte r the tru th to be found in the Upanisads— th at Brahman is to be realized, n o t by m uch learning but by purity of heart and rightness of conduct. It is easy to m isinterpret him as denouncing the Vedic religion, whereas in fact he only bro u g h t to light the tru th th a t religion does n o t lie in mastering the Vedas or other sacred books, b u t in realizing the spiritual life in one’s own soul. This tru th , as a m atter of fact, is made manifest in th e Vedas themselves—th at the spiritual life cannot be attained by m ere study of the Vedas b u t by following their teachings, th a t is, by living righteously, and by becoming aware of the light w ithin one’s own heart. This th e brahm ins had forgotten, and Buddha came into the world to reveal once m ore the tru e spirit of sanätan dharm a—the eternal religion. Buddha taught no new religion; rather he restated and reinterpreted the ancient and genuine Vedic faith, infusing new spirit—the eternally new and eternally old spirit—into a religion th a t existed before m an lived upon this earth, and will exist w hen m an is forgotten. Life o f Buddha

Prince Gautama, the nam e of Buddha before he attained his illum ination, was born in 560 b c at Kapilävastu, in n o rth ern India. At his 1 I. 37-9.

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birth wise m en prophesied th at either he w ould become the greatest m onarch on earth or, stung by the woes of men, w ould renounce the w orld and become a great religious leader. King Suddhodhana, his father, meditated w ithin himself: ‘Stung by the woes of men, he will renounce the world. My son shall never know the woes of m en.’ T he king was determ ined th at his son should be the greatest ruler in the world and th at there should exist no possibility of his becoming a religious mendicant. So, legend says, the king built a palace, and beside it laid out a garden opening on a park th a t stretched for m any miles in every direction. In this palace the young prince lived, and there grew to m anhood amid beautiful surroundings and in association w ith youthful, happy companions. He was bright and cheerful, clever at books and games, and always exhibited a loving disposition. From his earliest years he was kind and affectionate towards all living beings, including all dum b creatures. So tru e was this th at even w hen he was a little boy his friends called him ‘the compassionate one’. W hen he had grow n to be a young m an he married the beautiful Yasodharä, and from th at tim e he seemed to be caught in a netw ork of roses. A son was born to him, w hom he nam ed Rähula. Prince Gautam a was th en about thirty years old. One day, during this period of his life, he bade his charioteer drive him thro u g h the city th a t lay beyond the park surrounding the palace, for he desired to view the city of Kapilävastu and know life as it was lived by th e people. As he rode th ro u g h the streets of the city, he saw m any things, am ong them children playing and m en and w om en carrying on their work. At all this he was pleased, for he cried to his charioteer, Ί see here labour, and poverty, and hunger; yet so m u ch beauty, love, and joy are mingled with them —surely life, after all, is very sweet.’ No sooner had he uttered these words than there came into view, one after another, the three woes of m en—weariness, disease, and death. This was the turning point of his life. First came weariness. Before him appeared an old, old m an, tottering on his crutches, w hich he held w ith trembling hands. The charioteer explained: ‘All m en are subject to old age, and old age, if it lasts long enough, will always end thus.’ T hen drew near to him a m an, ghastly to look upon, suffering from the deadly poison of leprosy. Prince G autam a ran straight to him, and embracing him cried, ‘My brother!’ Again did the charioteer explain w hat the prince saw. He said th at the m an was suffering from a disease and th at every m an is subject to disease in m any forms. ‘And this is the life’, mused Gautama, ‘th at I th o u g h t so sweet!’ For some tim e he was silent. T hen he asked, ‘How can one escape from

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life? W hat friend has he to release him ?’ ‘D eath,’ replied th e charioteer. ‘Look! There come bearers o f the dead, carrying one to the riverside to burn. ‘But indeed,’ he continued, ‘m en do n o t wish to die. Death, they think, is their worst enemy. Him they hate and try to escape, though there is no escape.’ ‘Take m e hom e,’ Prince Gautam a now com m anded the driver. He had been ‘stung by the woes of m en’. Thenceforth he sought a way to escape misery, n o t for himself only b u t for all hum anity. His .heart melted in sympathy and compassion for all beings. The life he was living no longer offered him joy or sweetness. Restlessness came upon him, until at last, as he lay on his couch, he heard a voice calling to him, a cry of agony, as it were, from all hum anity: ‘Awake! T hou the awakened! Arise, and help the world! Sleep no m ore!’ So m ust he seek a way of salvation. Thereupon he arose and stole to the bedside of his sleeping wife and bade her good-bye by gently kissing her feet. For he knew that she w ould bear half the sacrifice he was about to make, and th a t hers would be half the wisdom he sought, also, and half the glory. Thus Prince G autam a renounced the world, the world th at was his—a kingdom, a beautiful wife, a loving son—in order to heed the call of suffering hum anity. For six or seven years he wandered through the land, spending his tim e in prayer and meditation. He visited m any sages and masters, but he never found a reply to his obstinate questioning. At last he seated himself under a Bo-tree in Gaya, and, firmly resolved to realize the tru th , fell into deepest meditation. There, un d er th e tree, after prolonged wrestling w ith his spirit, he discovered the true secret of life and death, and the knowledge th at can be found only w ithin oneself. Thenceforth he was no longer know n by his family name; he became the Buddha—the Awakened One, the Blessed One. After he had attained illum ination, he w ent straightway to Bañaras, for he was n o t content to gain eternal peace for himself alone. There, at Sarnath, he preached his first sermon. There also for the first time he called freedom and eternal peace nirvana, and the life of struggle in search of it the Way of Peace. In no way did he forget Yasodharä, his beloved wife, who in her palace was living the life of a n u n as she did her utm ost to share her husband’s life. On one occasion, as Buddha in company w ith his disciple Ananda entered the palace to m eet Yasodharä, Rähula approached his father and asked for his inheritance. Ananda, the chief disciple, w ith the permission of Buddha, gave the lad the yellow cloth, the emblem of renunciation, and adm itted him to th e Way of Peace.

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T hen they saw the m other, behind her son, evidently longing to enter th e Order. Thereupon Änanda asked, ‘Master, may a w om an n o t enter the Order? May she n o t be one of us?’ And Buddha replied: ‘Nay, do n o t the three woes come to w om en as well as to men? Why should their feet also n o t tread the Way of Peace? My T ru th and my Order are for all. Yet this request, Änanda, was for you to make.’1 For m ore than forty years thereafter Buddha preached his tru th . At the age of eighty he passed from the earth. He is know n by m any names: Buddha, The Awakened One; Säkyamuni, the Sage of the Säkyas; Tathägata, He Who Has Attained th e Highest T ruth. After the death of Buddha, his disciples held their first council, at Rajagrha, near Magadha, and organized the remembered teachings of th e Master; and these were orally transm itted u n til they were finally reduced to writing in the year 80 b c . These original Buddhistic teachings, preserved in three collections called the Tripitaka— literally, the three baskets—form the Pâli canon. The three collections are named, individually, the Vinayapitaka, which prescribes rules, in the greatest detail, for the conduct of the monks of th e Order; the Suttapitaka, tales, containing conversations of Buddha which reveal practical m ethods of spiritual attainm ent; and the Abhidhammapitaka, doctrines, which deals w ith Buddha’s psychology and ethics. Religion as Realization

We read in one of the Buddhistic scriptures, ‘The Tathägata has no theories.’2 If anyone came to Buddha w ith the in ten t of merely satisfying an idle curiosity w ith respect to metaphysical problems, he was certain to be disappointed. We hear of an inquirer w ho came to discuss theories of the soul and the world, and the problem of knowledge. To him Buddha observed th at if one has been w ounded by a poisoned arrow and refuses to accept help from the physician u n til he has learned the exact nature of the m an who w ounded him— to w hat caste he belonged, his stature and his complexion—such a one w ould indeed be foolish. Some questions Buddha dismissed as useless and unnecessary, while others, he said, could n o t be answered in logical terms. Just so do the Upanisads admonish us ‘to give up vain talk, for it brings weariness to the tongue’; and they further speak of the tru th ‘which words cannot express’—‘the m ind’, they say, ‘comes away baffled, unable to reach it.’3 Moreover, Buddha, like the sages of the Upanisads, insisted that 1 See Sister Nivedita, Siva and Buddha, p. 47. 2 M ajjhim a Nikäya, I. 486.

3 Taittiriya, Π. 4.

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one should experience th e tru th for oneself. In the Upanisads we read: Ί have known, beyond all darkness, th at great Person of golden effulgence. Only by knowing him does one conquer death. There is no other way of escaping the wheel of birth, death, and rebirth.’1 And Buddha says: T o r Brahm an I know, Väsettha, and the world of Brahman, and the path w hich leadeth u n to it. Yea, I know it even as one who has entered the Brahm an world, and has been born within it.’2 And the tru th of Brahman is to be know n by one’s own exertion in one’s own soul. For we read in the teachings of Buddha: ‘Therefore, O Ananda, be ye lamps u n to yourselves. Be ye a refuge to yourselves. Betake yourselves to no external refuge. Hold fast to the tru th as a lamp. Hold fast as a refuge to the tru th . . . .3 A nd whosoever, Ananda, either now or after I am dead, shall be a lam p u n to themselves and a refuge u n to themselves, shall betake them selves to no external refuge, but holding fast to th e tru th as their lamp, and holding fast as their refuge to the tru th , shall look n o t for refuge to any one besides themselves—it is they, Ananda, am ong my bhikkhus, w ho shall reach the very topm ost height! But they m ust be anxious to learn.’4 ‘But they m ust be anxious to learn’; and to learn one m ust experim ent—an action dem anded by all the great religious teachers of India. For th em essential religion does n o t lie in dogm a or creed, nor in doctrines or theories, b u t in experience alone. From the Vedic age to our own, every leader has declared this prim ary tru th —th at one m ust realize God in one’s own soul. And Buddha, for all his apparent negation, belongs to the group of Indian teachers who have affirmed in this way the life of th e spirit. He undertakes to show the way to ‘peace of m ind, to the higher wisdom, to full enlightenm ent, to nirvana’5—all of them to be realized n o t in another life b u t here and now. The late Irving Babbitt, of Harvard University, a deep student and w arm admirer of the H indu saint, remarks: O n e should add th at the ‘‘Nirvana here and now ” (Samditthakam Nibbanam) of the Buddhist has m uch in com m on w ith the “release in this life” (jivanmukti) o f the H indu philosopher. One may, however, affirm confidently th a t no religious teacher was ever m ore opposed th an Buddha in his scheme of salvation to every form of postponem ent and procrastination. He w ould have his followers 1 ávetasvatara, ΙΠ. 9. 2 Tevijja Sutta, I. 43. 3 Mahä-parinibbäna Sutta, Π. 33. 4 Ibid., 35. 5 Foundation o f the Kingdom o f Righteousness, 4.

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take the cash and let the credit go—th o u g h the cash in this case is n o t the imm ediate pleasure b u t the im mediate peace.’1 Philosophically, the Buddhist nirvana is identical w ith the moksa of the H indu philosophers, w hich is the release from bondage to karm a and ignorance and the attainm ent of the kingdom of heaven within. I have purposely used the phrase ‘attainm ent of the kingdom of heaven w ithin’, in order to rem ind Western readers th a t in reality there is no difference in the ultim ate goal between Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianity. The moksa of th e Hindus, the nirvana of the Buddhists, and th e ‘kingdom of heaven w ithin’ of the Christians are really one and the same, tho u g h unfortunately th e exponents of Christianity w ould have us believe otherwise. The late G. K. Chesterton, for example, attem pts to show the superiority of Christian over Buddhist saints, declaring, ‘The Buddhist saint always has his eyes shut, while the Christian saint always has th em very wide open. . . . The Buddhist is looking w ith peculiar intentness inwards. The Christian is staring w ith frantic intentness outwards.’ Irving Babbitt has beautifully m et Chesterton’s effusion: ‘But a saint, w hether Buddhist or Christian, who knows his business as a saint is rightly meditative and in proportion to the rightness of his m editation is the depth of his peace. We have it on an authority w hich Mr. Chesterton is bound to respect th at the kingdom of heaven is w ithin us. It w ould be interesting to hear Mr. C hesterton explain how a saint can find th at w hich is w ithin by “staring frantically outwards.” Failing like many others to discriminate between rom anticism and religion, Mr. Chesterton has managed to misrepresent both Buddhism and Christianity. The tru th is, th at th o u g h Christianity from the start was m ore em otional in its tem per th an Buddhism, and tho u g h an elem ent of nostalgia entered into it from an early period, it is at one in its final emphasis w ith the older religion. In both faiths this emphasis is on the peace th a t passeth understanding.’2 Is Buddhism Pessimistic ?

The Four Noble Truths which Buddha taught are these: (1) T hat there is suffering; (2) th at there is a cause of suffering; (3) th a t suffering can be overcome; and (4) th at there is a way to overcome it.3 Because Buddha taught th at th e w orld is full of suffering, he has often been called pessimistic. But th at is a mistake. If he drew attention to the misery in life, it was only in order to direct the soul towards 1 The Dhammapada, pp. 97-8. 3 See Mahä-parinibbäna Sutta, Π. 2.

2 Ibid., p. 99.

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freedom from it. So long as we cling to sense experience, he knew, so long shall we fail to discover th e path to happiness; it is therefore well th at we should realize as speedily and vividly as possible the sorrow which is at the core of such experience. Death, for example: let us face that. ‘Not in the sky’—so reads the Dhammapäda—‘n o t in the midst of the sea, n o t if we enter the clefts of th e m ountains, is there know n a spot in the whole world where death could n o t overcome (the m ortal).’1 And again: ‘How is there laughter, how is there joy, as this world is always burning? Do ye n o t seek a light, ye who are surrounded by darkness?’2 ‘This body is wasted, frail, full of sickness; this heap of corruption breaks to pieces; life indeed ends in death.’3 In this recognition o f suffering, Buddhism b u t joins hands w ith all the religions of the world. Had the joys of the flesh proved entirely satisfactory, the need either of religious consolation or even of inquiry into spiritual truths w ould n o t have been apparent. Did n o t Jesus cry out to her who gave him w ater from the well: ‘Whosoever drinketh of this water shall thirst again?’4 Thus it is, he m eant to say, w ith the pleasures of the world. And th en he continued: ‘But w hosoever drinketh of the water that I shall give him shall never thirst; bu t the water that I shall give him shall be in him a well of water springing up into everlasting life.’5 In like m anner the Upanisads declare, ‘There is no happiness in the finite. In the Infinite alone is happiness.’6 If by pessimism, therefore, is m eant full acknowledgement of the obvious facts th at the world bears a burden of sorrow, th at earthly joy is but a m om entary experience, that m ortal life ends inevitably in death, then Buddhism is clearly pessimistic. And if by pessimism is meant, further, th at tru e unalloyed happiness cannot be achieved in a finite world unless it be achieved by overcoming all worldliness, then is Buddhism clearly pessimistic. But likewise pessimistic, it m ust be added, are all other religions. It all am ounts to this. If we w ould steadfastly seek after eternal happiness and peace, we m ust necessarily look upon the m om entary pleasures o f the world w ith indifference, knowing th at they end in suffering. Buddha’s message was n o t essentially different from th a t of Christ w hen Christ said, ‘In the w orld ye shall have tribulation: but be of good cheer; I have overcome the w orld.’7 To overcome the world and its tribulation is to find the peace th a t passeth understanding. And the desire to overcome the w orld and attain perfect peace cannot arise in one who still clings to the lusts of the flesh. We read in the Katha Upanisad the story of Naciketâ, who w ent to the 1 IX. 128. s Ibid.. 14.

2 XI. 146. 3 Ibid., 148. 6 Chändogya, VH. xxiii. 1.

4 John iv. 13. 7 John xvi. 33.

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King of Death to learn the secret of im m ortality. But before the King o f Death taught him he tested him to discover if it was really a longing for knowledge th at filled the heart of the young boy. He offered him, instead of the secret he came for, the w orldly objects th a t m en most desire. But Naciketä replied, ‘These things endure only till the m orrow , and the pleasures they give wear o u t the senses. Keep th o u therefore horses and chariots, keep dance and song for thyself! How shall he desire wealth, O Death, w ho once has seen th y face’’1 ‘Blessed are they’, said Jesus, ‘which do hunger and thirst after righteousness, for they shall be filled.’2 Buddha’s doctrine, then, is n o t one of despair, since it insists upon perfect happiness as possible for all m en. They need only rise above the w orld of the senses to achieve a blissful peace. Buddha regards this w orld of sense experience as a dream world. If we compare our state w ith th a t of a Buddha, we are living in a dream . The saying of Goethe, the wise m an of the world, th a t ‘error stands in the same relation to tru th as sleeping to waking’,3 finds its religious counterpart in the alm ost identical words of the Gita: ‘W hat is sleep to the ignorant, that, to the wise, is waking.’4 The w ord Buddha, as we have seen, means ‘awakened’. The Philosophy o f Flux and Nirvana

W ith respect to the world of m ind and m atter, Buddha has very forcefully declared th at all things are in a state of constant flux. Nothing in the universe is perm anent. It is for this reason th at he makes his reiterated declaration that the world is full of suffering. In one of his dialogues he remarks: ‘And th at which is transient, O monks, is it painful or pleasant? Painful.’5 Because of th e transitory and changing nature of the world, Buddha does n o t say th at it is either real or unreal, b u t th at it is somewhere between the real and the unreal. ‘This world, O Käccana, generally proceeds on a duality, on the “it is” and the “it is n o t”. But, O Käccana, whoever perceives in tru th and wisdom how things originate in the world, in his eyes there is no “it is n o t”. Whoever, Käccana, perceives in tru th and wisdom how things pass away in this world, in his eyes there is no “it is” in this world. . . . “Everything is”—this is one extreme, O Käccana. 1 I. i. 26. 2 Matt. v. 6. 3 Quoted by Irving Babbitt, Spanish Character and Other Essays (Boston: H oughton Mifflin Co., 1940), p. 154. 4 Π. 69. 5 M ajjhim a Nikäya, EL 19.

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“Everything is n o t”—this is another extreme. The tru th is the middle.51 Buddhistic literature employs the figure of the torch whirled rapidly ro u n d so as to create a circle of fire in order to illustrate the tru th th at the identity or perm anency of anything in our experience is n o t real, b u t the illusory result of succession and constant flux. T hat is to say, an object never remains the same from m om ent to m om ent, b u t there exists the appearance of perm anence because of a series of states. Furtherm ore, an unchanging law, called by Buddha dharma, continues to operate, the law of causation, which accounts for the appearance o f continuity and identity. Ί will teach you the dharm a,5 says Buddha: ‘That being present, this becomes; from the arising of that, this arises. T hat being absent, this does n o t become; from the cessation of that, this ceases.52 The operation upon one state of this dharm a, or law of causation, changes it into a successive state, and thus is created the ceaseless pulsation, or continuous flux. D r S. Radhakrishnan makes this com m ent on th e doctrine of dharma: ‘The causal evolution is n o t to be viewed as a mechanical succession of movements, in which case the w orld process becomes a series of extinctions and fresh creations, b u t is one state working itself up to another state or inform ing it w ith a ceaseless pulsation. It is the determ ination of the present by th e past. Buddhism believes in transitive causation, where one state transmits its paccayasatti, or causal energy, to some newly conceived germ. Causal relations are of the type of the seed growing into the tree, where the one is necessary for the other.53 Buddha is n o t concerned w ith th e philosophical explanation of this law of dharm a, nor is he interested in explaining the doctrine o f the flux. He simply states the psychological experience one has of the universe of flux and proceeds to an analysis of it. ‘All are im perm anent, body, sensation, perception, sañkharas [impressions of past deeds and thoughts], and consciousness—all these are sorrow. They are n o t self.5 Both the world outside and the w orld w ithin are in a state of constant flux. Does a being, a reality, som ething perm anent, exist behind this ever-changing flux?4 The meaning and purpose of all philosophy 1 Sam yutta Nikäya. 2 M ajjhim a Nikäya, Π. 32. 3 Indian Philosophy, vol. I, p. 372. 4 An affirmative answer is n ot unfam iliar in the West. Plato answers yes in his doctrine o f the One and the m any; and in the sam e sense both Shelley and

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and all religion alike, and of life, are bound up in the effort to find, in the words of the Upanisads, ‘the eternal amongst the noneternals, the consciousness of the conscious’.1 And in the midst of change there is possible, in the words of Buddha, escape from sorrow in the cessation of the flux, as one attains ‘peace of mind, higher wisdom, full enlightenm ent, and nirvana’.2 Before we explain the nature of this attainm ent, let us repeat th at Buddha asserts, n o t a mere philosophy of the flux, but a philosophy th at will enable one to escape the flux. And herein lies the fundam ental difference, as philosophers of the flux, between Buddha and certain Western writers. In fact Buddha’s teachings have often been mistakenly identified w ith the philosophy of flux as expounded by Bergson and Croce. This identification is especially urged w ith respect to Bergson. Superficially indeed, the tw o appear m uch alike, but on deeper analysis they prove to be at opposite poles. According to Bergson, the ultim ate reality is an incessant flux, a creative evolution, or real duration. Buddha assumes, it is true, th a t the universe of experience is in constant flux; b u t he does n o t adm it th at this incessant flux is the ultim ate reality. The universe of flux, to Buddha, is neither unreal n o r real. It is, and it is not. Bergson, on the other hand, revels in the flux, and his intuition, in Babbitt’s phrase, ‘w ould ask nothing better th an to whirl forever on the wheel of change’,3 or, in Hindu parlance, ‘w ithin the bonds of mäyä’. To Bergson ‘tim e’ or ‘duration’ is real, and we should accordingly strive to see things n o t sub specie aeternitatis b u t sub specie durationis. Buddha perceives the flux b u t rises above it, above time, space, and causation. Wordsworth m ay be quoted. Shelley, doubtless remembering Plato, says in ‘Adonais’ : The One remains, the m any change and pass: Heaven’s light forever shines, Earth’s shadows fly: Life, like a dom e o f m any-coloured glass, Stains the white radiance o f Eternity, Until Death tram ples it to fragments. And W ordsworth says in The Excursion: Even such a shell the universe itself Is to the ear o f Faith; and there are times, I doubt not, when to you it doth im part Authentic tidings o f invisible things; O f ebb and flow, and ever-enduring power; And central peace, subsisting at the heart O f endless agitation. 1 ávetasvatara, VI. 13. 2 Foundation o f the Kingdom o f Righteousness, loc. cit 3 Spanish Character and Other Essays, pp. 156 f.

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Plato, too, points o u t the weakness in assuming flux and change to be ultimate. If they were, knowledge \yould be impossible. His impatience w ith the later Heracleiteans—‘All things whatsoever are in change’—is expressed in the Theaetetus where he has Theodorus go so far as to call the followers of the doctrine maniacs since they cannot even stand ‘still to attend to an argum ent or a question’.1And Plato’s words may be justly applied to the m odern votaries o f the God Whirl. Buddha, like Plato, sought to find the state beyond the flux— Bhäva-nirodha-nibbänam. ‘To withdraw from the flux’, he said, ‘is to attain nirvana.’ The philosophers m entioned above—Bergson and Croce—have done great service to Western philosophy by pointing o u t th at the ultim ate reality cannot be discovered by the intellect alone, but they have egregiously failed to discover a way whereby one may rise above the intellect and arrive at the very source of knowledge itself. It is true that both Bergson and Croce speak m uch of intuition, b u t this intuition of theirs is confined to the realm where ‘tim e’ is supreme and a sense of the ‘m any’ prevails. Theirs is essentially a naturalistic interpretation of reality—that is, it issues entirely from the senses and the faculty of cognition. The Bergsonian élan vital is merely vital expansion w ithin the universe of relativity and plurality and flux or change—within, th at is, the bonds of mäyä. Frankly, the use of this word intuition by the m odern philosophers of the flux—or rather abuse—can only m ean a sinking below the reason and the conscious m ind into the realm of instinct which we share with the lower animals. This pseudo-intuition of Bergson and Croce has of course no relation to the nirvana of Buddha, the samädhi of the yogis, and the turiya, or transcendental consciousness, of the Upanisads. Nirvana is in fact the ‘state in which both sensations and ideas have ceased to be’, in which ‘the sage is delivered from tim e’. It is th e state of sunyatä, wrongly translated as ‘nothingness’, which really means ‘the absence of subject-object relation’. The M ändükya Upanisad thus describes turiya, which is identical w ith the Buddhistic nirvana: ‘Turiya is n o t subjective experience, nor objective experience, nor experience intermediate between these two, n o r is it a negative condition which is neither consciousness n o r unconsciousness. It is n o t the knowledge of the senses, n o r is it relative knowledge, n o r yet inferential knowledge. Beyond the senses, beyond the understanding, beyond all expression, is The Fourth. It is pure unitary consciousness, wherein awareness of the world and of multiplicity is completely 1 Theaetetus, 179c-183c (trans. F. M. Cornford, Plato’s Theory o f Knowledge, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd., London, 1946).

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obliterated. It is the supreme good. It is one w ithout a second. It is the Self. Know it alone.’1 The nirvana of the Buddhists and the turiya of the Upanisads are n o t conceptual, since they are beyond the relation of subject and object or of the know er and the object of knowledge, beyond time, space, and causation. In sum , they refer to consciousness itself, w ithout the contents of consciousness—som ething from the relative point of view unthinkable and inconceivable but yet attainable. They are consciousness itself, beyond all awareness of flux and relativity; they are n o t attainable within the bounds of our norm al consciousness, n o r by the submersion of the self below the level of consciousness, b u t rather by a control of th e conscious and the subconscious m ind, and by a suprem e act of self-restraint and of meditation, a rising above and beyond reason. So long as we remain upon the level of the flux, and experience only the objects within the flux, we are asleep. ‘How m any people’, asks Buddha, ‘eat, drink, and get married; buy, sell, and build; make contracts and attend to their fortunes; have friends and enemies, pleasures and pains; are born, grow up, love, and die—but asleep?’ To attain nirvana is simply to break this sleep in which we experience only the flux and to wake to the intuition of the One. Buddha, like all the other philosophers of India, believed in the law of karm a and in reincarnation as the working o u t of this law. He believed that we are bound to the wheel of birth and death until we finally break our chains and attain illum ination in nirvana. Then no longer are there birth and death, as we pass into a state of being th at is indescribable and unthinkable in concrete terms. Buddha even refused to define concretely w hat he m eant by the w ord nirvana. To define is to limit, and definition is possible only of som ething w ithin ‘time, space, and causation’. But though nirvana m ust rem ain indefinable, we know the effects it produces in life. ‘By their fruits ye shall know them ,’ said Jesus.2 And St Paul has enum erated these fruits as follows: ‘love, joy, peace, long-suffering, gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness, tem perance.’3 Asoka, the great Buddhist em peror of India and founder of a Buddhistic canon, carved in stone these fruits: ‘compassion, liberality, tru th , purity, gentleness, peace, joyousness, saintliness, self-control.’ Thus we may see th a t however divergent the paths taken by the great religions, and however varied the approach, we may know experimentally th a t they all lead to the same ultim ate goal, the release of the hum an spirit from the wheel of change and the refining of o u r individual lives thro u g h the developm ent of similar high 1 7.

2 M att. vii. 20.

3 Gal. v. 22-3.

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qualities in our several natures. They all lead, in the words of the Upanisads, to the attainm ent of ‘infinite knowledge, infinite freedom, and infinite peace5. ‘My peace I give unto you,5 said Christ. And Buddha said of the awakened soul: ‘His thought is quiet, quiet are his word and deed, w hen he has obtained freedom by true knowledge, w hen he has thus become a quiet m an.51 The Ultimate Reality

There is an ancient charge th at Buddha was an atheist, th a t he disbelieved in the soul and in God, th at he denied the existence of anything th at is abiding, perm anent, unchangeable. But this charge is w ithout any foundation. If it had any foundation, the whole teaching of nirvana—the ideal of Buddhahood—would fall to pieces. Buddha expresses himself very clearly on this point w hen he says: ‘There is an unborn, an unoriginated, an unm ade, an uncom pounded; were there not, O mendicants, there w ould be no escape from the world of the born, the originated, the made, and the com pounded.52 But Buddha steadfastly refused to define the nature of this unchangeable, uncom pounded reality, and he emphatically declared it to be beyond the experience of our senses and o u r minds. Similarly, the Upanisads declare th at Brahman, who is identical w ith the Atman, is ‘beyond speech, and the m ind comes away baffled, unable to reach him 5.3 Sri Rämakrsna remarked concerning this ultim ate reality: ‘What Brahman is, none can define in words. Everything has been defiled, as it were, like the leavings of food. The Vedas, the Tantras, th e Puränas, the Systems of philosophy, all are defiled; they have been studied and they have been uttered by hum an tongues. But there is one tru th , one substance, th a t has never been defiled, and th at is Brahman. None has ever succeeded in describing Brahman in words.4 ‘True it is th at the Vedas and the other scriptures speak of him, but do you know w hat it is like? When a m an returns from seeing the ocean and is asked to describe it, he exclaims in amazement, “Oh, w hat a vast expanse! How huge the waves are!55 Like u n to this is the talk of Brahman.5 ‘When one attains samädhi, then alone comes the knowledge of Brahman. One realizes him. In th at realization, all thoughts cease; one becomes perfectly silent. There is no power of speech left by which to express Brahman.56 1 Dham mapäda, VII. 96.

* Kathämrta, vol. ΙΠ, p. 8.

2 Udäna, VH[. 3. s Ibid., p. 9.

3 Taittiriya, Π. 4. 6 Ibid., pp. 9-10.

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So Buddha held his peace on this subject. He simply stated the fact th at within the range of o u r norm al experience there exist only com pound and changeable objects—objects pertaining therefore only to the non-Self. To Buddha, as well as to the seers of the Upanisads, the m ind and the ego are as clearly non-Self as is the body. This is the view, confirmed tho u g h it is by the entire H indu religious tradition, th at has been misinterpreted by Western scholars into a denial of the tru e Self, or God. The m isinterpretation is highly significant. It indicates a fundam ental divergence between East and West, for it is the tendency of the West to identify th o u g h t w ith being, a tendency th a t reaches as far back as Parmenides; whereas the East, as represented by both Buddha and the Upanisads, declares th at the m ind and the ego are as m uch objects of cognition as the external objects of knowledge, and hence n o t being, the knower, the Self. One im portant difference, however, between the teachings of Buddha and those of the Upanisads lies in the distribution of em phasis. Buddha stresses the im perm anence of the flux—the im perm anence of everything w ithin the limits of our sense experience. The Upanisads lay their chief emphasis u pon the abiding—the perm anent and th e unchangeable reality behind the flux, beyond the limits of our sense experience. Buddha did n o t deny this perm anent reality, b u t he did consistently deny the possibility of positing it so long as we dwell within th e limitations of sense experience, because he feared th at the elem ent w ithin m an which is com m only know n as the self, b u t which is really the ego, dependent on the flux for its character and existence, w ould be mistaken for the tru e Self, which does n o t change. We read in one of the Buddhistic scriptures how, w hen a m onk asked Buddha if there is a Self, the Master maintained silence. When asked if there is no Self, he again maintained silence. Then, w hen his disciple Änanda asked w hy he maintained silence in the face of these opposing questions, he explained th a t if he had declared th at there is a Self, th e m onk m ight have regarded the im perm anent elem ent as perm anent, and if he had replied in the negative, the m onk m ight have th o u g h t th a t ‘belief in annihilation’ had been confirmed. The Upanisads declare again and again, as we have seen, th at the tru e Self m ust n o t be identified w ith the body, the senses, or the cognitive mind. To think th a t they are the same is possible only th ro u g h ignorance. And this false identification, according to the same authority, gives rise to the concept o f the individual soul, or jiva. Buddha, as a great psychologist, recognizes the falseness of assuming the com pound and changeable elements of m an to be the

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perm anent Self. He first invokes the fact of ordinary experience, and then he points out th at nirvana does exist—the way to peace and knowledge—beyond the range of this ordinary experience, and that just so soon as the veil of our ignorance is removed, the tru th is revealed. There is no problem in Buddhism as to th e relation of the soul to God. Buddha takes a firm stand upon the reality of the final experience, the turiya of the Upanisads, and upon the reality of his own personal experience of nirvana. In these things he clearly finds a nonduality. W hat is there to relate to whom, w hen there is but the One? The Causes of Suffering

Of the Four Noble Truths taught by Buddha, two have already been discussed: th a t the world is full of suffering and that from this suffering there may be found an escape. It remains to consider the two other Noble Truths: th at this suffering has a cause, and that there is a way to peace. Buddha, ‘stung by the woes of m en’, sought a way o u t of the suffering th at lay heavy on the world. He saw th at m en are ushered into this earthly existence, that they m ature, decay, die, and are born again; and he saw th at none knew the way of escape. As he meditated upon this hapless lot of hum an kind, he learned the ro o t cause of suffering, decay, and death, and discovered the way of escape and of peace. We read in the Mahävägga, an early Buddhistic scripture, as follows: ‘Then the Blessed One (at the end of these seven days) during the first watch of the night fixed his m ind upon the Chain of Causation, in direct and in reverse order: “From Ignorance spring the samkhäras, from the samkhäras springs Consciousness, from Consciousness spring Name-and-Form, from Name-and-Form spring the six Provinces (of the six senses), from the six Provinces springs Contact, from Contact springs Sensation, from Sensation springs Thirst (or Desire), from Thirst springs A ttachm ent, from A ttachm ent springs Existence, from Existence springs Birth, from Birth spring Old Age and Death . . .” n In this ‘wheel of existence’ (bhäva-cakra), the first in the series is ignorance (avijjä)—the root cause of all suffering. This ignorance is universal, and how it came into the world is a mystery which neither Buddha n o r any other seer or philosopher attem pts to explain. For the nature of this ignorance is th at it is neither real, nor unreal; it is, 1 I. i. 2.

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and it is not. ‘It is’, so long as we remain in ignorance; ‘it is n o t’ w hen we attain nirvana—illum ination. Buddha, like all other Indian seers and philosophers, accepts the law of karm a and reincarnation. According to the Upanisads, karma attaches itself to one who, because of ignorance (avidyä), identifies his true Self w ith the non-Self. And, according to Buddha, the law of karm a operates, there is the chain o f birth and death, we rem ain in th e ‘wheel of existence’, w ith th e direct consequence of suffering, only so long as we attach ourselves to the flux and ignorantly cling to the ego as perm anent. This d o c trin e \)f the ‘wheel of existence’, which we have been discussing, is know n in Buddhist terminology also as the ‘doctrine of dependent origination’. It leads us straight to the central doctrine o f Buddhism, th a t existence in ignorance is suffering and th at the clinging to a false individuality—or, as we should term it, the ego— as something real and perm anent, is the root of this ignorance. This central doctrine has often been misinterpreted by Western scholars— by Schopenhauer in particular, who declared th at the greatest sin of m an is to have been born, th at life itself is painful, and th at the goal of living is the absence of pain and of life itself. But Buddha declares th a t only life as we know it, and as we live it in ignorance, is painful. This life in ignorance, as we have seen, is compared by Buddha to sleep and forgetfulness; and once we have awakened from this sleep we can attain nirvana in this very life. The possibility of achieving spiritual rebirth is central also in the Gospel of Christ: ‘Except a m an be born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God. Nicodemus saith u n to him, How can a m an be born w hen he is old? Can he enter the second tim e into his m o th er’s womb, and be born? Jesus answered, Verily, verily, I say unto thee, except a m an be born of water and of the spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God. T hat which is born of the flesh is flesh; and th a t which is born o f the Spirit is Spirit.’1 And is n o t this birth in the Spirit the same as awakening from the sleep of ignorance? W hat alone distinguishes Buddha from Christ, in this m atter, is th at he couched the doctrine in different terms, in declaring that by the death of the ego, the life in ignorance, one attains nirvana—where by nirvana is m eant, n o t a mere negation of pain and suffering, but, in Buddha’s own words, ‘the highest wisdom, the full enlightenm ent and peace’. The approaches to the attainm ent of Christian salvation and Buddhist nirvana are different. Christ said, ‘Thy will be done’. And 1 John iii. 3-6.

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Dante expressed the central Christian doctrine in these words: Ίη His will is our peace.’ Buddha, on the other hand, taught the exercise of the higher will, saying th at ‘Self is the lord of self . . .sl Christ taught us to efface our ordinary will by submitting ourselves to the will of God. Buddha taught elimination of the false self, which wills to desire, by exercise of the will to check, the will to control. As the will to desire is controlled, the false self is eliminated and nirvana is attained. Christ taught elimination of the ego by surrendering ourselves to the will of God, and Buddha taught achievement of the same end by self-effort. Whichever means may be adopted, the effect is the same— namely, death of the ego and birth in the Spirit. Buddha and Christ, then, it w ould seem, set up the same goal, though as regards the path to it they differ. The two paths—the Buddhistic and the Christian—are both adum brated in the Upanisads. The Way o f Peace

We read in the Mahä-parinibbäna Sutta, one of the earliest Buddhistic scriptures, these words: ‘There the Blessed One addressed the brethren, and said: “It is thro u g h n o t understanding and grasping four truths, O brethren, th a t we have had to ru n so long, to wander so long in this weary p ath of transm igration—both you and I! And w hat are these four? The noble conduct of life, the noble earnestness in meditation, the noble kind of wisdom, and the noble salvation of freedom. But when noble conduct is realized and know n, w hen noble meditation is realized and known, w hen noble wisdom is realized and known, w hen noble freedom is realized and know n—then is the craving for existence rooted out, th at which leads to renewed existence is destroyed, and there is no m ore birth.’2 The goal is the noble way of freedom, nirvana, wherein there is no m ore birth, n o r suffering, nor old age, n o r death. This nirvana, it should be emphasized, may be attained in this present life. ‘Be earnest in effort, and you too shall soon be free from the great evils . . .’3 The state of attainm ent is described only in negative terms, a state in which one is ‘delivered from tim e’. It is paralleled by the ‘eternal life’ of Christian teachings. In general, there exists in the Western w orld the misconception th at eternal life, or im mortality, is a continuation o f life in time. What, then, is the explanation of Christ’s adjuration to his followers to come u n to him th at in him they m ight 1 Dham m apäda, ΧΠ. 160.

2 IV. 2.

3 Ibid., V. 35.

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find eternal life? The very fact th a t a being exists implies a continuity of existence, though the existence may be in different forms and under different conditions. M odern science proves conclusively the impossibility of complete annihilation. The ‘im m ortality’ of Christ’s reiterated plea, and the similar doctrine to be found in all other great religions, cannot, therefore, m ean simply a continuity of life after death, b u t rather, and primarily, the life of realization and perfection while one still lives in this world. To one w ho achieves this life, there can be no m ore birth nor death. The Upanisads regard the true Self as unb o rn and undying, the unchangeable reality w ithin us. As we realize th at tru e Self, they say, we realize it as one w ith Brahman, and th en and then only, rising above and beyond time, we attain to im m ortality. It is then th at the experience of the Self as living in time, w ith a past, a present, and a future, passes like a dream, and the Self is realized as im m ortal. So Buddha points to the same goal of im m ortality above time, to be reached by realizing ‘the unborn, undying, and changeless’. The nirvana of Buddha is therefore n o t a state of annihilation but the attainm ent of the unchangeable reality, which can be positively described as the eternal peace. But w hat this peace really is, no words can define; all definition can be only symbol and can offer only a vague suggestion. Buddha employs negative term s for its description, such as freedom from misery and death, freedom ‘from sensuality, from the ego, from delusion, from ignorance’.1 This state of freedom is attainable by the ‘noble kind of wisdom’—a phrase already quoted from the Buddhist scripture and signifying w hat the Vedanta calls transcendental knowledge. The wisdom m eant is n o t a wisdom of the intellect, which implies a knower and an object of knowledge, b u t rather a state, sunyatä, in which no subject-object relation exists, and in which one transcends both intellect and m ind—these two words representing, in Hindu psychology, separate entities. Christ refers directly to this transcendental wisdom w hen he says: ‘And ye shall know the tru th and the tru th shall make you free.’2 It is identical w ith perfection, the same perfection th at Christ has in m ind w hen he says: ‘Be ye therefore perfect, even as your Father which is in heaven is perfect.’3 It is, in brief, the direct, immediate knowledge of th at which is timeless, unconditional Existence. The ‘noble kind of wisdom’ is attainable by ‘the noble conduct of life’ and ‘the noble earnestness of m editation’. This ‘wisdom’ is existent in every being, covered up, in the Vedäntic phrase, by layers of ignorance, and according to Buddha, by avijjä, ignorance. Remove this avijjä, and wisdom shines, nirväna is attained. 1 Mahä-parinibbäna Sutta, V. 35,

2 John viii. 32.

3 Matt. v. 48.

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Christ w ould seem to have referred to the same tru th w hen he said, ‘The kingdom of heaven is at hand.’ This wisdom, then, this kingdom of heaven, is for Christ, like the self-luminous sun, already ‘at hand’; only, if we w ould find it, we m ust ‘watch and pray’. And Christ’s ‘watch and pray’ is Buddha’s ‘right conduct of life and m editation’. Practising ‘right conduct of life’ is likened by Sri Rämakrsna to ‘using soap on a dirty cloth’ and the act of ‘m editation’ to ‘washing th e cloth clean’. ‘Both are essential,’ he says, ‘and n o t until through these means the evils of ignorance and misconception are washed away can spiritual peace be attained.’ Ethical conduct is the foundation of all spiritual life, but it does n o t represent th e w hole of religion. It has often been said th a t Buddha’s teachings are merely ethical in their im port. Similarly Christianity has been mistakenly defined, by M atthew Arnold, as ‘m orality touched by em otion’. But real Christianity and real Buddhism reach far beyond such tepid doctrine, for the peace of heaven and nirvana transcends m orality and tran scends emotion. Evil, no doubt, needs to be overcome by good in this realm of hum an struggle, b u t there exists a state of attainm ent that transcends both good and evil—som ething far different, again, from Nietzsche’s ‘beyond good and evil’. Both m orality and meditation come w ithin th e range of Buddha’s survey, and one w ithout the other is fruitless. Both of them , however, are b u t means to the attainm ent of illum ination, or nirväna. Moral conduct, in Buddha’s view, has its genesis in psychology. Right conduct is called right because it is a prerequisite to knowledge of the secret of life, the road to illum ination. All conduct, therefore, is m oral w hich has th at knowledge in view. As Swami Vivekananda has declared: ‘That w hich leads to illum ination is good; th at which makes for greater ignorance and greater bondage is evil.’ In order to follow these paths of right conduct and right meditation, we m ust be earnest and in ten t upon exercising the will to action—where by ‘action’ is m eant the highest form of activity, the control of the m ind. Mere acceptance of religious doctrine is not sufficient u n to salvation, it m ust be reinforced by strenuous spiritual strivings. He w ho merely acquiesces is compared by Buddha to a ‘cowherd who is merely counting others’ kine’. On one occasion Buddha begged a rich farm er for alms, b u t in re tu rn was reproached for being an idler. Buddha replied: “ ‘Faith is th e seed, penance the rain, understanding m y yoke and plough, modesty the pole of the plough, m ind the tie, thoughtfulness my ploughshare and goad, . . . exertion m y beast of burden.” As a result of this spiritual husbandry one achieves the “fruit of im m ortality”.’1 To be engaged in spiritual husbandry is to exert one’s will. Moral 1 As quoted by Babbitt, The Dhammapada, p. 92.

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laziness, failure to be diligent in self-control, is th e greatest sin— pamäda; its opposite, appamäda, ‘n o t to be morally lazy, but to be strenuous in exerting one’s will, is the greatest virtue’. The entire responsibility for either bondage or freedom is placed directly upon one’s self. ‘Therefore, O Änanda,’ says Buddha, as we have already seen, ‘be ye lamps u nto yourselves. Be ye a refuge to yourselves.’1 Buddha thus lays extraordinary emphasis upon the will as a psychological phenom enon. The will to satisfy thirst (broadly interpreted), w hich is form ed by previous habits of self-indulgence, leads us to gratification of the senses; the flux within ourselves seeks to rem ain w ithin th e limitations of the flux of the objective world. But another will also exists, w ithin o ur deepest selves, a higher will, which, though it may be very weak in m ost of us, seeks to cut loose to freedom from the limitations of the flux and to attain to the perm anent, abiding reality. This is the inner check, the will to attain the supreme goal. Buddha indeed insists u pon the continual strengthening of this higher will in order th a t we may rise above all th e flux of life. He does n o t say, however, th at the will is ultim ate and perm anent, as does Schopenhauer in his interpretation of Buddhistic philosophy. It is, on the contrary, to be of param ount im portance only for the sädhaka, or aspirant after spiritual attainm ent; to the siddha, the perfected one, it is no m ore of any value, and it is at last dissolved in the flux. For the will is as m uch a com pound substance as any other object w ithin the flux. The teachings of Vedanta bring out this tru th w ith great clearness in declaring th at all scriptural instruction and all spiritual struggles are w ithin th e limitations of mäyä, or, as Buddha w ould have said, of the flux. They are, however, a necessary part of our effort to attain the ultim ate liberation. The tru th is in fact self-luminous, and it is only by ignorance th a t it is ever veiled from the eyes of men; b u t the veil is only too universally there, and to remove it the instruction and the struggles are needed. The will to control m ust be exercised, b u t w hen it has done its w ork by removing ignorance, it becomes superfluous. Sri Rämakrsna was in the habit of illustrating this great tru th by the simile of using one th o rn to remove another from the body. W hen the task is com pleted both thorns may be throw n away. Similarly, we read in the Gitä: ‘When the whole country is flooded, th e reservoir becomes superfluous. So, to the illum ined seer, the Vedas are all superfluous.’2 But so long as the spiritual aspirant is still struggling to attain illum ination, the higher will is param ount. ‘Let small and great exert themselves’, taught the great Buddhistic Emperor, Asoka; and this 1 Mahä-parinibbäna Sutta, loc. cit.

2 Π. 46.

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exertion m ust be directed towards right conduct (sila) and right contem plation (samädhi). ‘Great is the fruit, great the advantage of earnest contem plation, w hen set rou nd w ith upright conduct. Great is the fruit, great the advantage of intellect w hen set round with earnest contem plation. The m ind set round w ith intelligence is freed from the great evils, th at is to say, from sensuality, from individuality, from delusion, and from ignorance.’1 Right conduct and right m editation have been further analysed and their parts set forth in w hat is know n as the Eightfold Path, which is also referred to by Buddha as the Middle Path or the Golden Mean. It has been explained by Buddha in ‘The Foundations of the Kingdom of Righteousness’ as follows: ‘There are two extremes, O Bhikkus, which the m an who has given up the w orld ought n o t to follow—the habitual practice, on the one hand, of those things whose attraction depends upon the passions, and especially of sensuality—a low and pagan way of seeking satisfaction, unw orthy, unprofitable and fit only for the worldly-minded —and the habitual practice, on the other hand, of asceticism or selfmortification, which is painful, unw orthy, and unprofitable. There is a middle path, O Bhikkus, avoiding these two extremes, discovered by the Tathägata—a path which opens the eyes and bestows understanding, w hich leads to peace of m ind, to the higher wisdom, to full enlightenm ent, to nirväna. ‘W hat is th at middle path, O Bhikkus, avoiding these two extremes, discovered by the Tathägata—th at path which opens the eyes and bestows understanding, which leads to peace of m ind, to the higher wisdom, to full enlightenm ent, to nirväna? Verily, it is this noble eightfold path; that is to say: right view, right aspiration, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right contem plation.’2 The Eightfold Path

The first step in the path of progress towards infinite peace is right view, or right faith. There is a saying in Bengali th at a m an is as his faith is, th at our actions are guided by o ur faith. Right faith, according to Buddha, is the faith th a t nirväna, the eternal peace, can be attained in this life if we cease to cling to the false individual self. Wrong faith is faith th at results in clinging to the non-Self as Self, and m ust be replaced by right faith, or right view. 1 Mahä-parinibbäna Sutta, I. 18.

2 1-4.

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R ight aspiration arises from right faith. It is th e aspiration to renounce the false self, to shun all selfishness, and ‘to live in love and harm ony with all’. Buddha’s ow n aspiration was n o t merely to attain nirvana for him self but to show the way to it to all m ankind. Such also was to be the aspiration o f his followers: to live for their fellow men, renouncing all regard for self. But to aspire is n o t enough. We m ust act to fulfil our aspiration, and our actions m ust necessarily find expression th ro u g h our speech, o ur conduct, and o ur daily work. Right speech, right conduct, and right work are, in effett, the practice of such virtues as tru th fu lness, noninjury, noncovetousness, and chastity. In the words of the Tevijja Sutta: ‘. . . Putting away the m u rder of th a t which lives, [the aspirant] abstains from destroying life.. . . he is compassionate and kind to all creatures th a t have life! ‘Putting away th e theft of th a t w hich is n o t his, he abstains from taking anything n o t given. He takes only w hat is given; therew ith is he content, and he passes his life in honesty and in purity of heart! . . . T u ttin g away unchastity, he lives a life of chastity and purity, averse to the low habit of sexual intercourse. . . . ‘Putting away lying, he abstains from speaking falsehood. He speaks tru th , from th e tru th he never swerves; faithful and trustw orthy, he injures n o t his fellow m an by deceit. . . . ‘Putting away slander, he abstains from calum ny. W hat he hears here he repeats n o t elsewhere to raise a quarrel against the people here; w hat he hears elsewhere he repeats n o t here to raise a quarrel against the people there. Thus he lives as a binder together of those w ho are divided, an encourager of those w ho are friends, a peacemaker, a lover of peace, impassioned for peace, a speaker of words th a t make for peace. . . . ‘Putting away bitterness of speech, he abstains from harsh language. W hatever w ord is hum ane, pleasant to the ear, lovely, reaching to the heart, urbane, pleasing to the people, beloved of the people— such are the words he speaks. . . . ‘Putting away foolish talk, he abstains from vain conversation. In season he speaks; he speaks th a t w hich is; he speaks fact; . . . he speaks, and at the right time, th a t which redounds to profit, is wellgrounded, is well-defined, and is full o f wisdom.’1 The practice of these virtues involves a double process, one step in w hich we may term negative and the other positive: first a vice m ust be abstained from , and th en the opposite virtue m ust be acquired. 1 Π. 1-7.

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Right livelihood means earning one’s living by acceptable means. Such means do n o t include the occupations, for example, of slave dealer, butcher, publican, or trafficker in poisons. After proper external conduct, inner purification m ust be achieved. So rig h t effort is practice w ith the purpose of controlling the m ind, n o t allowing it to rem ain a slave to the passions of lust, anger, greed, envy, and pride, and freeing it from the two extremes of selfindulgence and self-mortification. This practice of right effort, or self-control, is n o t possible w ithout right mindfulness and right m editation. It is possible to refrain from passion and the life of the senses only w hen th e m ind is engaged in som ething higher or greater. Right mindfulness is thinking thoughts concerning the evil effects of clinging to the objects within the flux. The last stage, right meditation, is keeping the m ind occupied in spiritual contem plation, in order ultim ately to free it from all thought, and, transcending all thought, to attain nirvana. Right faith, right aspiration, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right contem plation form the Eightfold Path of Buddhism, and lead one to the highest goal—nirvana—the siipreme enlightenm ent and peace. Later Schools o f Buddhism

Before we discuss Buddhism in its developm ent after the death of its founder, we shall do well to point o u t once m ore its relation to the Vedic religion. Swami Vivekananda has expressed this relationship in th e following words: ‘The relation between Hinduism (by Hinduism, I m ean the religion of the Vedas) and w hat is called Buddhism at the present day is nearly the same as between Judaism and Christianity. Jesus Christ was a Jew, and Shakya M uni was a Hindu. The Jews rejected Jesus Christ, nay crucified him, and the Hindus have accepted Shakya M uni as God and worship him. But the real difference th a t we Hindus w ant to show between m odern Buddhism and w hat we should understand as the teachings of Lord Buddha, lies principally in this: Shakya M uni came to preach nothing new. He also, like Jesus, came to fulfil and n o t to destroy. Only, in the case of Jesus, it was the old people, the Jews, who did n o t understand him, while in the case of Buddha, it was his own followers who did n o t realize the im port of his teachings. As the Jews did n o t understand the fulfilm ent of th e Old Testament, so the Buddhists did n o t understand the fulfilm ent of the truth s of the Hindu religion. Again, I repeat, Shakya M uni came n o t to destroy,

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b u t he was the fulfilment, the logical conclusion, the logical developm en t of the religion of the Hindus.’1 In just the same way that Christ abhorred crystallized Jewish dogm a and Jewish ritual, Buddha abhorred all ceremonials and the ritualistic portion of the Vedas. Even this was nothing new. The Upanisads, which comprise the later Vedas, insisted th at true religion consists n o t in rites and ceremonies b u t in realization of the Self; so also did the Gita. Once m ore was the spirit of religion brought to the fore w hen Buddha preached his gospel of renewed spiritual life. Nowhere does he actually contradict the teachings of the Upanisads. In fact, two elements in these he does emphasize, the acosmic aspect of Brahman and monastic discipline. The Hindus therefore readily accepted Buddha as one w ithin their ow n fold. Later followers of Buddha, however, falsely judged his opposition to the ceremonial portions of the Vedas—the Brähmanas—to be his general attitude towards the Vedic religion, and cut themselves off from the main body of the m other religion. For a few centuries Buddhism flourished in India but th en died a natural death, though Buddha himself survives as a living spiritual force. Truly has it been said by Dr Radhakrishnan : ‘Buddha today lives in the lives of those Indians who have n o t given up their past traditions. His presence is felt in all around. T hroughout worshipped as a god, he has a place in the m ythology which is still alive, and so long as the old faith remains w ithout crum bling down before the corrosive influence of a new spirit, Buddha will have a place am ong the gods of India. His life and teaching will compel the reverence of mankind, give ease to many troubled minds, gladden m any simple hearts, and answer to many innocent prayers.’2 After the passing of Buddha, his disciples, who came to be known as the Elders, m et together at Räjagrha to compile the three Pitakas, the original teachings of Buddha. About a hundred years later a second council m et at Vaisäli, where a split occurred among the delegates. One group, w ho m ight be called the progressive party, desired some relaxation in the rigour of monastic vows, but the orthodox party clung to the laws and regulations laid down by the Elders, and they w on the day. The progressives, however, gained a large following and proceeded to hold a council of their own, which they called the Great Council and which broke w ith the main body 1 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. I, p. 19. 2 Indian Philosophy, vol. I, pp. 609 f.

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o f Buddhists. According to Dr Radhakrishnan, this schism was an early effect of th a t m ovem ent w hich was to find its full expression in M ahäyäna Buddhism, w hich emerged in the first century a d . Buddhism, w hich had been only a local sect w ithin the fold of Hinduism, assumed a wider aspect about three hundred years after Buddha’s death, w hen Asoka, the great em peror of India (274-232 bc ), was converted to Buddhism by Upagupta, a w ell-known Buddhist m onk. Asoka became actively engaged in spreading his adopted religion th rou g h o u t his empire, his ow n transform ation from a cruel tyrant into a loving, kind, and compassionate ruler providing a great example. He dispatched missionaries to m any countries outside of India, am ong them Syria, Egypt, Macedonia, and Epirus, and under his influence Buddhism gradually attained the status of a world religion.1 W ithin India itself, it became, m ore th an ever before, a part of the life of the people. It inspired, for example, the splendid M auryän stone sculpture, w hich is distinguished by its expressive symbolism and technical mastery. In tem ple and statue and relief the story o f the Buddha was repeated, and these m onum ents still bear witness to one of the happiest periods in the history of India. Thus in the third century before Christ Buddhism reached its greatest power and made its influence m ost widely felt. Asoka particularly stressed the ethical teachings of the Master— self-control and loving service to all living beings. These he popularized thro u g h o u t the vast empire of India by engraving them on stone pillars and by illustrating them in his ow n conduct. Hinduism, however, did n o t die out. Asoka, th ou gh a Buddhist ruler, showed the same spirit of toleration and the same sympathy in relation to Hinduism th a t the Hindus had show n in relation to Buddhism. Hinduism regained its vigour during the rule of the Guptas, w ho came into power in the first century a d . Coinciding w ith this revival of Hinduism were the decline of the early Buddhism and the rise of Mahäyäna. Elements of the Mahäyäna, or the Great Way, had been present in Buddhistic th o u g h t and practice alm ost from th e beginning, but they coexisted with the original Buddhism, or Hinäyäna (the Narrow Way, as it came to be called) u n til this time, w hen they were given a definite form . They engendered an extensive literature in Sanskrit—n o t in Pâli, the language of the canon of the Elders. Generally speaking, th e tendency of the Mahäyäna was to popularize the original teachings of the Buddha, giving a mystical and devotional tu rn to his doctrine. Thus it preached th a t higher th an A rhathood (or personal sanctity, w hich was the ideal of the Hinäyäna), was Buddhahood, the state of supreme perfection w hich G autam a reached, a state w hich was accessible to 1 See S. Radhakrishnan, op. cit., vol. I, p. 582. G

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all. Instead of the asceticism and monastic seclusion of th e Hinäyäna, it visualized th e attainm ent of perfection in the midst of the tu m u lt of the world. Instead of the unaided spiritual effort of the Hinäyäna, it urged dependence on and worship of Buddha as an incarnation of God. Furtherm ore, it was responsible for the exalted conception of the Bodhisattva, the compassionate being, w ho vows from the beginning of his spiritual life to postpone his own salvation u n til all have attained th a t cherished goal. This was a m arked contrast to the objective of exclusive, personal salvation w hich is generally attributed to the Hinäyänists. As we have noted, the Hinäyäna, under Asoka’s patronage, spread far beyond the boundaries o f India, and it remains to this day a dom inant religious and cultural influence in countries to the south and east such as Ceylon, Burma, and Siam. The Mahäyäna spread to the no rth , w here it flourished in Tibet, Mongolia, China, Korea, and Japan. In Tibet alone, a mysterious land long closed to travellers from the outside w orld, it has n o t only been made into a national religion b ut has become the ruling pow er of the state. The lamas, or holy m en, are the priests of a theistic religion, for whose God, Buddha, temples have been built and an elaborate ritual has been created. In China, Mahäyäna has exerted a profound influence. There also Buddha has been worshipped, and other Buddhas and Bodhisattvas— or heavenly helpers of the aspirant—have found favour. In the year a d 648 there were approximately four thousand Buddhist monasteries in th e country. Zen Buddhism, a peculiar blending of M ahäyäna Buddhism w ith the native Taoism, by enhancing the tendency to m editation spread th ro u g h o u t China, and was carried to Japan, where it established itself as one of the chief religions of the land. In both China and Japan Buddhism was the inspiration of their greatest artistic trium phs.

SELECTED PASSAGES FROM TH E DHAMMAPÄDA

‘All th a t we are is the result of w hat we have thought: it is founded on o u r thoughts, it is made up of o ur thoughts. If a m an speaks or acts w ith an evil thought, pain follows him, as the wheel follows th e foot of the ox th a t draws the carriage. ‘All th at we are is the result of w hat we have thought: it is founded on our thoughts, it is made up of our thoughts. If a m an speaks or acts w ith a pure thought, happiness follows him, like a shadow th at never leaves him. * “ He abused me, he beat me, he defeated me, he robbed me,”—in those w ho harbour such thoughts hatred will never cease.

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‘“He abused me, he beat me, he defeated me, he robbed m e,”—in those w ho do n o t harbour such thoughts hatred will cease. ‘For hatred does n o t cease by hatred at any time: hatred ceases by love; this is an old rule.’1 ‘If a m an is earnest and exerts himself, if he is vigilant, if his deeds are pure, if he acts w ith consideration and restraint and lives according to law—th en his glory will increase. ‘By rousing himself, by earnestness, by restraint and self-control, the wise m an may make for himself an island w hich no flood can overwhelm.’2 ‘It is good to tam e the mind, w hich is difficult to hold in and flighty, rushing wherever it listeth; a tam ed m ind brings happiness. ‘Let the wise m an guard his thoughts w hich are difficult to perceive, very artful; they rush wherever they list: thoughts well guarded bring happiness.’3 ‘Like a beautiful flower, full of colour, but w ithout scent, are the fine b u t fruitless words of him w ho does n o t act accordingly.’4 ‘Like a beautiful flower, full of colour and full of scent, are the fine and fruitful words of him w ho acts accordingly.’5 ‘If a fool be associated w ith a wise m an even all his life, he will perceive the tru th as little as a spoon perceives the taste of soup. ‘If an intelligent m an be associated for one m inute only w ith a wise m an, he will soon perceive the tru th , as the tongue perceives the taste of soup.’6 ‘Well-makers lead th e w ater (where they like); fletchers bend the arrow; carpenters bend a log o f wood; wise people fashion them selves.7 ‘The gods even envy him whose senses, like horses well broken in by th e driver, have been subdued, w ho is free from pride, and free from appetites.’8 ‘Let no m an think lightly of evil, saying in his heart, It will n o t come nigh u n to me. Even by th e falling of water-drops a w ater-pot is filled; the fool becomes full of evil, even if he gather it little by little. ‘Let no m an thin k lightly of good, saying in his heart, It wall no t com e nigh u n to me. Even by the falling of water-drops a w ater-pot is filled; the wise m an becomes full o f good, even if he gather it little by little.’9 . 1 I. 1-5. 6 V. 64-5.

2 II. 24-5. 7 VI. 80.

3 III. 35-6. 8 VII. 94.

4 IV. 51. 9 IX. 121-2.

5 IV. 52.

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‘M en who have n o t observed (religious) discipline, and have n o t gained (spiritual) w ealth in their youth, perish like old herons in a lake w ithout fish.’1 ‘By oneself the evil is done, by oneself one suffers; by oneself evil is left undone, by oneself one is purified.’2 ‘Rouse thyself! Do n o t be idle! Follow th e path of virtue! Do n o t follow th at of sin. The virtuous m an rests in bliss, in this world and in the next.’3 ‘Better than sovereignty over the earth, better th an going to heaven, better th a n lordship over all worlds, is the reward of the first step in holiness.’4 ‘Even the gods envy those w ho are awakened and m indful, who are meditative, who are wise and who delight in the repose of retirem en t (from the w orld).’5 ‘N ot to com m it any sin, to do good, to purify one’s ow n heart—this is the teaching of the Awakened.’6 ‘There is no fire like passion; there is no losing th row like hatred; there is no pain like this body; there is no happiness higher th an serenity.’7 ‘H ealth is the greatest o f gifts, contentedness the best of riches; tru st is the best of relationships, Nirvana, th e highest happiness.’8 ‘He w ho possesses virtue and intelligence, who is just, speaks th e tru th , and does w hat is his own business, him the w orld will hold dear.’9 ‘The wise w ho control their body, tongue, and m ind are indeed well-controlled.’10 ‘Make for thyself an island, w ork hard and prom ptly, be wise! W hen thy impurities are blow n away and th o u art free from guilt, th o u w ilt n o t again enter into birth and decay.’11 1 XI. 155. * XIV. 181. 9 XVI. 217.

2 ΧΠ. 165.

3 Xm . 168-9.

6 XIV. 183. 7 XV. 202. 10 XVn. 234.

4 Xm. 178. 8 XV. 204.

11 x v m . 238.

BO OK IV T H E S IX S Y S T E M S O F T H O U G H T

CHAPTER 9

T H E SIX S Y S T E M S OF T H O U G H T : REMARKS

G ENERA L

The spiritual aspirant, as we have read repeatedly in the course of this book, first hears the tru th , second, reasons u po n it, and, third, meditates up o n it. The Six Systems of H indu philosophy are concerned w ith the second of these three steps. They have always in view the goal of the aspirant, w hich is final liberation, b u t as a means to th at goal they seek to give him a com plete intellectual grasp of th e Self, God, and th e universe in w hich he lives. The Six Systems of H indu th o u g h t are the Vaisesika of Kanada, the Nyäya of Go tama, th e Sämkhya of Kapila, the Yoga of Patañjali, the Mimämsä (also called Pürva Mimämsä) o f Jaimini, and the V edanta (also called U ttara Mimämsä) o f Vyäsa. Because o f certain metaphysical similarities, these six systems (independent th o u g h they were in origin) may for convenience sake be reduced to three, Vaisesika and Nyäya form ing one group, Sämkhya and Yoga a second, and Mimämsä and Vedänta a third. The exact dates of th e origin of these schools o f th o u g h t are n o t know n, th o u g h it is certain th a t th e general ideas th a t make up their substance existed prior to Buddhism and even during the Epic Period. N or is it know n just w ho their founders were: Kanäda, Gotama, and the others whose names are associated w ith th em are n o t their founders. The sütras in w hich th e views embodied in th em were systematically form ulated were a series o f aphorisms uttered by the sages sometime during the early Buddhistic period—roughly between 600 and 2 0 0 b c . 1 From a tim e w hen th e art of w riting was still unknow n, these 1 Professor M ax M üller observes: ‘The sütras o r aphorism s which we possess o f the six system s o f philosophy, each distinct from the others, cannot possibly claim to represent the very first attem pt at a system atic treatm ent; they are rather the last sum m ing up o f w hat had been grow ing during m any generations o f isolated thinkers.’ (Six Systems o f Philosophy.')

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sütras were preserved in m em ory and handed dow n by w ord o f m o u th from teacher to pupil. They are so extremely laconic in form as to be well-nigh unintelligible w ithout com m entaries and explanatory notes, and oral supplem ents o f this nature were early associated w ith the original aphorisms and transm itted w ith them . M ore and m ore com m entaries and notes were gradually added, and in tim e w ritten down, and the custom of composing them persisted even u n til the sixteenth or seventeenth century of the Christian era. The Six Systems are regarded as ästika, or orthodox, because, unlike Buddhism and Jainism, they accept the authority of the Vedas on all questions pertaining to th e nature of the universe. M oreover, there is nothing unortho do x in expanding, w ithin limits, on the original revelations. For, as has already been explained in the introductory chapter of this book, th o u g h reason is given its due p art in all the philosophies of India, there is everywhere the assumption th a t it will be aided by those intuitive perceptions to w hich the Vedas give the first recorded expression. Actually the Six Systems of philosophy, reduced to three distinct groups, are n o t m utually contradictory, tho ug h in certain of their theories they w ould seem to be so. They really represent, n o t conflicting schools of thought, b u t a progressive developm ent from tru th to higher tru th to th e highest tru th . Nyäya and Vaisesika prepare the m ind for philosophic th o u g h t and are therefore called the groundw ork of philosophy; b u t passing beyond them thro u g h evolving ideas as expressed successively in Sämkhya, Yoga, and Mimämsä, we at last arrive at the flower o f Indian philosophy in Vedanta. Almost w ithout exception, critics of Indian philosophy perceive the harm ony behind the apparent discord, and so w ould reconcile the Systems as a perception of the same tru th from different angles of vision. T he individual systems are variously looked upon. In the estimation of m odern students, Vaisesika is n o t of great im portance. Nyäya for its system o f logic, and Sämkhya for its system o f cosmology and certain other metaphysical theories, are popular w ith scholars, b u t only as aids to th e study of th e philosophy of Vedänta. Mimämsä is closely related to H indu law, and is considered useful in the elucidation o f th e ritual portio n of the Vedas. Yoga and Vedänta are accepted as th e chief of th e six schools. Yoga is concerned w ith the practical side of philosophical and religious life and is devotedly studied by aspirants. Vedanta, in one or the other of its various aspects, was th e ancient faith o f India, and all Hindus now accept it as their living faith. In th e following pages we shall briefly discuss the Vaisesika, Nyäya,

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Sämkhya, and M imämsä systems, reserving th e fuller treatm ent for Yoga and V edanta.1 Before entering on this task, however, we should call the attention o f W estern readers to the fundam ental difference between the psychology of India and th e psychology of the West. This difference lies in th e fact th a t W estern psychology identifies consciousness w ith m ind, being w ith th ou gh t, and th o u g h t w ith th e soul, or th e Self; whereas Indian psychology distinguishes m ind from consciousness. The distinction is due to the fact th a t W estern psychology recognizes only one plane of experience, and gives no consideration to w hat Hindus call the pure cit, th e suprem e unconditional consciousness, th e Being, w hich they regard as th e real Self, or th e soul, different from th e rationalizing m ind and realized in th e superconscious, or transcendental, state. Pure unconditional consciousness cannot be th e property of the m ind, they believe, for it is the source of th e m ind’s apparent consciousness. M ind is said by th e H indu psychologist to be th e ‘veiling pow er’ of the pure consciousness, the Self, and it is associated w ith the Self only as a necessary condition of w orld experience. All systems of Indian philosophy recognize a Self separate from th e m ind, and this poses an im p o rtan t problem in each o f them . As we proceed w ith o u r study we shall learn their notio n o f the real nature of the m ind as well as of th e Self. 1 It should be em phatically stated th at all six schools believe in the law o f karm a, in pre-existence, in rebirth, and in the attainm ent o f m oksa as the highest goal o f h um an endeavour. A ll o f them are concerned with the nature o f the true Self, im m ediate experience o f which m akes one free.

C H A PT E R 10

NYÄYA-VAISESIKA1

G otam a is th e nam e of the sage who systematized the philosophy o f Nyäya in the form of sütras or aphorisms. In the same way U luka compiled the sütras of Vaisesika. Very little is know n about either of these m en. Tradition has it th a t Uluka, com m only know n as Kanada—literally, he w ho eats very little—was an austere soul who made his living by picking up the left-over particles of corn from th e harvest, and th a t he attained the grace of the Lord Siva, w ho com m anded him to systematize the philosophy of Vaisesika. He flourished at some period before the birth of Buddha. Gotam a came som ew hat later. The tw o systems w hich were embodied in the sütras composed by these two m en are regarded by all authorities as constituting one school of philosophy, th o ug h they differ in some details and th o u g h in their aphoristic form they were evolved independently o f each other. Chronologically, Vaisesika is the older of th e two. The following discussion of the twin philosophies will be divided into three parts: Part I, the first and largest part, will deal w ith technical ideas th a t they hold in com m on; Part Π will deal briefly w ith points in w hich they differ; Part ΙΠ will re tu rn to the school as such, and supplem ent, w ith certain broad considerations, w hat was said in Part I. The Seven Categories

I. Common Doctrine

At the very beginning of the Vaisesika sütras Kanada asserts th a t the proper object of his philosophy is to expound dharm a (virtue), so th a t m en may have abhyudaya (grow th or unfoldm ent in life or character) and attain nisreyasa (the highest good). This nisreyasa is then explained as attainable th ro u g h im m ediate perception o f the 1 The general reader m ay wish to om it this section since it is highly technical in nature—though far less elaborate and detailed than it w ould need to be if it fully presented its subject.

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ultím ate realities of Self and the universe. These ultim ate realities —padärthas, or categories—are dravya (substance), guna (quality), karm a (action or m otion), sämänya (genus), visesa (species), and samaväya (relation). To these original six, later philosophers added another category, abhäva (negation). No attem pt is made to reduce th e seven padarthas to one; on the contrary, a common-sense scientific position is sought th ro u g h a perception of th e universe as m ultiple. The padarthas, it should be added, m ake up the universe of external experience as well as th at o f th e inner m an. A brief characterization o f each of the seven categories follows: (1) Dravya, substance, first and forem ost of the categories, is th e only one of th em th at has an independent existence. The rem aining six depend upon it. The substances are nine in num ber. They are: The Self—the basis o f consciousness and experience—though, according to a doctrine peculiar to th e Nyäya-Vaisesika school, its ow n consciousness is rather an adventitious th an an essential characteristic. In reality it is unconscious; it becomes conscious only w hen it is joined to manas (receiver of sense impressions). The existence of th e Self is considered a self-evident fact. The Self is eternal. Its junction w ith the body is know n as birth, and its severance from the body is know n as death. Manas (m ind)—the instrum ent of experience, as of happiness and misery, in th e same way th a t the eyes are the instrum ent o f seeing. Besides being th e in stru m en t of experience, th e m ind is itself an object o f experience—quite as m uch so as th e objects of sense. The Self alone is th e experiencer. It wields th e m ind and the body as the fighter wields, according as he wills, the sword in his hand. As the Self associates itself w ith th e m ind, it becomes associated w ith the senses and the body and th ro u g h them w ith th e external world. This association is th e prim ary cause of bondage and suffering. The manas accompanies th e Self in death and is n o t dissociated from it u n til th e attainm ent of moksa. W ith rebirth the body and th e senses are completely renewed. Earth, air, water, fire, ether—objective elem ents, since they are perceived by the external senses, tho u g h they are n o t perceived in their refined, causal states. In their causal states, unperceivable by th e senses, conceivable only by th e m ind, they are called param änus. They are active in th e periodic process o f creating the universe. Käla, time, and dik, space—substances having objective reality. (2) Guna, quality, is distinct from substance, and, like th e rem aining categories, dependent upo n it—since it cannot be know n apart from the substance w hich it modifies. The qualities are broadly

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divided into general properties, such as m agnitude, w hich are com m o n to one or m ore substances, and are perceived by one or m ore senses, and special qualities, such as taste, odour, colour, w hich specifically qualify only one substance and are perceivable by one sense only. Time and space, th o u g h substances, have no specific qualities. (3) Karma, m otion, is a distinct category, th o u g h it is dependent on earth, water, air, fire, and ether. It is of five kinds: upw ard, dow nward, contraction, expansion, and m ovem ent in general. (4) Sämänya, generality, is a category independent o f thought. It is also know n as jäti, or th e that-ness w hich groups together m any individuals into a class. T here is a higher and a lower generality. The low er generality signifies a particular quality, such as cowness, com m on to cows. Being-ness, it may be said, characterizes the largest num ber of entities. This kind of generality has som e resemblance to the Platonic ‘idea’, bu t it differs in th a t th e Nyäya-Vaisesika system does n o t recognize particulars as copies of universale. (5) Visesa, particularity, enables us to perceive th a t things differ from each other. It is the distinctive feature in each. (The later philosophers of the school did n o t adm it this as an independent category.) (6) Samaväya, necessary relation, possesses an objective reality independent of the percipient. It is th a t w hich relates a substance to its qualities, a w hole to its parts, a cause to its effect. The relation concerned is inherent, as distinguished from ordinary relations,w hich can be brought about at will. Two or m ore objects, for instance, can be brought together, related to each other, and th en separated; b u t such a relation w ould n o t be samaväya, or necessary relation. A necessary relation is like th a t between th e thread and th e cloth made from it, or between genus and species. (7) Abhäva, negation, is n o t m entioned by Kanäda, w ho recognized b u t six categories. Later com m entators added it in order to m ake th e philosophy of th e system realistic. They considered th a t th e negation of false knowledge is the cause o f the negation of misery and gives rise to nisreyasa, or the highest good. The Nyäya-Vaisesika philosophy, to sum up the preceding analysis, postulates seven categories—the substances, their properties, and their relations. These taken together compose th e universe. In their prim ordial form they are real and eternal. Of the seven categories, the dravya, w ith its nine elem ents, is the m ost im portant. Of the nine elements, the Self, as th e substratum of consciousness, and th e only experiencer, is prim ary. The others, including m ind, are objective realities, b u t tho ug h they possess reality they are dependent u po n substance.

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The Conception o f Godin the Nyäya-Vaisesika system, m an ’s self is called jivätm an—the

individual self as distinguished from Param ätm an, the Suprem e Self. The proofs o f the existence of God as given by this system are neither very convincing n o r very im portant. They bear some similarity to the argum ent from design as we find it in the teleological side of Christian theology. Briefly, we see in th e universe a physical order and a m oral order, and these im ply a controller, a lawgiver, and a governor w ho dispenses justice. M oreover, a w orld w hich is an effect m ust have n o t only its m aterial cause b u t also its efficient cause. God m u st therefore exist as the efficient cause. There is, finally, no way to disprove th e existence o f God, just as, in th e words of the Sämkhya system, there is no way to prove his existence. The Law o f Causation

The Nyäya-Vaisesika system regards cause and effect, th o u g h there m u st always be the relation between an invariable antecedent and consequence, as two distinguishable conditions o f things. Further, its doctrine of causation has this peculiarity, th a t th e effect is regarded as nonexistent before its actual appearance. For example, th e w orld as an effect, w hich is noneternal, is a production of th e eternally pre-existing substances, w ith their properties and relations, b u t is also som ething absolutely new. Every cycle of creation, therefore, is called ärambhaväda—th a t w hich admits of an entirely fresh creation. II. Differences

The two systems, in so far as they differ, do so m ainly in their approach to the central problems of philosophy. The Vaisesika begins w ith the conception of being and develops its ideas from that; the Nyäya begins w ith knowing. W here Vaisesika has seven categories, Nyäya has sixteen, one of w hich contains all b u t one o f the Vaisesika seven (the exception being th e Self, basis o f all experience), and the rem aining fifteen of w hich deal n o t w ith the universe, b u t w ith the means by w hich we understand it. The fifteen categories are proof, objects o f authentic knowledge, doubt, illustration, conclusion, syllogism, argum ent, settlem ent (agreem ent on th e tru th ), discussion, wrangling, idle contention, fallacy, fraud, baseless objection, and occasion for reproof. The last half-dozen o f these are negative in character, calling attention to obstacles on the way to tru th . All Indian philosophy considers th a t ignorance bars th e way to liberation. Nyäya philosophy fu rth er indicates th a t this ignorance results from identification o f the Self w ith th e body, the senses, and

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th e m ind. Because of this identification we are slaves to raga (attachm ent) and dvesa (hate), and these are the cause o f all o ur sinful acts and th e principal cause of suffering and death. And death causes rebirth because of our ignorance of th e tru e Self. W hen we attain to transcendental knowledge of the tru e Self, we have no m ore slavery to räga and dvesa, and thus th e wheel of birth and death is stopped and there is an end to misery. III. The Nyäya-Vaisesika : Way to Liberation

According to the Nyäya-Vaisesika system of philosophy, the ignorance w hich is the cause of bondage and suffering and death is n o t merely a lack of knowledge of th e Self b u t a positive error, or false know ledge. This false knowledge (m oha, or delusion) can be eliminated only by right knowledge, w hich again is n o t m erely intellectual attainm ent b u t a transcendental insight th a t gives imm ediate perception of the tru th . In order th a t this im m ediate knowledge o f the transcendental Self may be acquired, we m ust undergo m oral and spiritual disciplines. One way of liberation, according to the school we are studying, is thro u g h understanding th e different categories and realizing the tru e nature of the Self. And how does one realize th e tru e nature of th e Self? Udäyana, a well-know n ancient student of Nyäya philosophy, declares th a t one does so, w ith consequent liberation, thro u g h worship of God, devotion, and self-surrender. Philosophical speculation he looked up o n as a m ode of worship. God, therefore, is the suprem e Self, endowed w ith blessed attributes and devoid o f evil. He is th e creator and controller of all beings and all things. Individual selves are separate from God and are related to him as children to their father or as creatures to their creator. Individual souls are eternal—beginningless, and im m ortal—and are born into this w orld according to the deeds of their past. Justice and the m oral order exist because o f the law of karm a. M an suffers or enjoys according to his ow n deeds. By surrender and devotion to God, and by worshipping him and m editating u p o n him , m an, purified, becomes freed from th e wheel of birth and death and realizes his tru e nature. W ith respect to m oral disciplines, this school w ould follow the duties of caste and of the orders of life. The rules of the conduct to be followed according to one’s station in life prescribe faith, n o n injury, compassion, nonattachm ent, freedom from lust, right motive, freedom from anger, cleanliness, purity, and devotion to God. Liberation is release from pain and suffering. Consciousness,

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according to this school, is an adventitious property of th e Self, n o t its in h eren t nature; inevitably, therefore, th e state of liberation is devoid of consciousness—a conception w hich seems to be identical w ith com plete materialism or w ith a species o f philosophic m aterialism. In order to avoid such a m isconstruction, later philosophers of the Nyäya school describe this state, n o t as one of m ere negation o f pain, b u t as positive bliss. Liberation comes after release from the body. Jivanmukti, or freedom while living, is n o t form ally recognized by this school, tho ug h it does recognize a stage corresponding to it—a stage in w hich a person has extricated him self from m oha, or delusion, and has found enlightenm ent. He is n o t ‘free’, however, in th e strict sense o f th e word. For such a soul, final liberation comes w ith death.

C H A P T E R 11

THE SAMKHYA SYSTEM

Date and Origin

T he sage Kapila, w ho is generally regarded as the founder of Sämkhya philosophy, is a historical figure, tho u g h m any m yths have gathered about his personality. In the Gitä, Sri Krsna m entions him thus: O f th e great sages, I am Kapila.5 The Bhägavata Puräna describes him as a partial incarnation of Visnu, born w ith th e knowledge of tru th for the good of hum anity. It is impossible to assign a definite date to Kapila; it can be safely affirmed, however, th a t he lived before the tim e of Buddha. Two books, Tattw a Samäsa and Sämkhya Pravacana Sütra, have been attributed to Kapila, tho u g h a difference o f opinion exists am ong the scholars o f India as to w hether Kapila actually w rote them . A nother book on Sämkhya, very popular am ongst students of philosophy, is th e Sämkhya Kärikä of Iswarakrsna, a w ork of the third century a d . Besides these there exist innum erable com m entaries by th e followers of this school of thought. Samkara, the great Vedäntist, in the course of his refutation of some of the Sämkhya tenets, quotes th e Kärikä and ignores the Sütra. For this reason m any hold th at th e Sütra was of later origin. However, Vijnänabhiksu, the w ell-know n com m entator on the Sütra, attributes its authorship to Kapila. The Purpose and Goal o f Philosophy

T he Upanisads say—as we have already stated—th a t if a m an w ould have a transcendental experience of the Self, he m ust first read about it in th e scriptures and hear about it from a teacher; second, subject it to rational analysis; and, finally, m editate upo n it.1 According to Vijfiänabhiksu, the philosophy of Sämkhya was propounded in relation to th e second of these steps. It provides a rational analysis of the tru th . And as we study this philosophy, we m ust agree w ith the 1 See Brhadäranyaka, Π. iv. 5.

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Western scholar and student of Sämkhya, Richard Garbe, w ho says: ‘In Kapila’s doctrine, for th e first tim e in th e history of the world, th e com plete independence and freedom o f the h u m an m ind, its full confidence in its own powers, was exhibited.’1 T he first aphorism in th e Sämkhya Sütra runs thus: ‘The suprem e goal of life is to p u t an end com pletely to the three kinds o f suffering.’ Thus in com m on w ith all Indian schools of tho u gh t, and indeed in com m on w ith all the religions o f the w orld, th e com plete cessation of suffering is declared to be the goal of life. The ‘three kinds of suffering’ are adhyätmika, th e pain caused by diseases of th e body, m ental disturbances, and unrest; ädhibhautika, th e pain produced by extraneous causes, such as m en or beasts; and ädhidaivika, th e pain caused by supernatural agencies, by the planets, and by the elements. Every living being is in some way subject to pain, yet n o t one desires it, and m an has the pow er to rid him self of it. The Sämkhya system purports to show how he can do this. T he usual m ethods he adopts for this purpose are totally inadequate. Medicine, for instance, may cure a physical ailm ent b u t can never get rid o f disease perm anently, for one may fall ill again. N either are m ere good deeds n o r the perform ance of Vedic rites efficacious. Only by right knowledge arising from right discrimination between the Self and the non-Self— between Purusa and prakrti—can one destroy pain. Sämkhya declares th a t the cause of misery (and by misery is m eant th e discontent th at arises from uncertainty, aimlessness, and a sense of the fleeting nature o f all earthly joy) is w rong knowledge, by w hich one identifies Purusa w ith prakrti. Misery is to be found in prakrti and n o t in Purusa. O ur experience of misery is im mediate, for o u r identification of Purusa with prakrti is immediate. W henever right knowledge dawns, giving im m ediate experience of Purusa as separate and detached from prakrti, and only then, will com e com plete cessation of misery. T he Sämkhya philosophy is claimed by its followers to be a direct means to the attainm ent o f the im m ediate experience of the transcendental Purusa as separate from prakrti and thus to a com plete freedom from all misery. Realism

The Sämkhya philosopher does not, however, see only misery in the w orld. On th e contrary, it is m ost explicitly stated th a t prakrti (understood in all Indian philosophy to m ean the w orld o f th o u g h t and m atter) is a m ixture of happiness, misery, and delusion. Take a beautiful young m arried w om an (an illustration draw n directly from the Sämkhya philosophy). She gives happiness to her husband; she 1 Philosophy o f Ancient India, p. 20.

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creates jealousy am ong w om en w ho are n o t so beautiful; and she brings delusion to the m ind of some lustful m an. T he same person, then, is the cause of happiness, misery, and delusion. Vacaspati Misra, a com m entator, remarks: ‘By this illustration of the girl it is know n th a t all objects in th e universe are a com bination of happiness, misery, and delusion.’ T he above illustration m ay not, however, be w holly convincing; for happiness, misery, and delusion are subjective. They are n o t concrete objects. How th e n can the objective universe be a combination of these feelings? In reply it may be said th a t feelings or sensations are the subjective experiences produced by those same substances or forces w hich compose th e objective universe. And, according to Sämkhya, th e w orld of experience is real in its ow n right, and w hat we experience really belongs to th e object, tho u g h we may only partially see its characteristics and n o t know it in its completeness. Different people m ay apprehend the same object differently, and this difference is entirely due to subjective characteristics of individual tem peram ent, character, and education. O ur knowledge of the objective universe is, therefore, one-sided, and o u r prejudices affect o u r judgm ents; hence o u r knowledge is bound to be personal and fragmentary. Nevertheless, w hat fragm entary knowledge we may acquire does actually correspond to external reality. Thus tho ug h Sämkhya, in th e term inology of the West, m ay be called realistic, yet its realism avoids th e two extremes o f W estern thought; th a t things are precisely as they are apprehended, and th a t th e m ind makes its ow n images, independently o f any objective reality. Professor M. Hiriyanna offers som e very pertinent rem arks on the subject. He says: ‘Such a view of knowledge is n o t w ith o u t its lesson for us. The lesson is twofold: it behoves us to feel less positive th a n we ordinarily do about the correctness of o u r own views, and to be m ore regardful of th e views of others. In o th er words, it teaches us th e need for hum ility and charity in o u r intercourse w ith fellow-men, and impresses upon us the need for doing o ur utm o st to see things n o t only as they appear to us b u t also as they may appear to others. The differences between one m an and another m ay at first sight appear unbridgeable; b u t it m ay be th a t they can be easily adjusted, if only each tries to learn and appreciate the oth er’s point of view. In one w ord, it bespeaks toleration which, as a m atter of fact, is a striking feature o f all Indian th o u g h t.’1 This passage m u st n o t be understood to say th a t no perfect know ledge is possible. Sämkhya m aintains th a t th e object of philosophy is 1 Cultural Heritage o f India, vol. I, p. 323.

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to gain th e perfect and com plete knowledge of th e tru th , w hich is no m ere aggregate of all th e possible views and experiences of the objective world, b u t an im m ediate experience of reality in the transcendental consciousness. This knowledge can be attained only w hen all impurities of th e m ind and all prejudices and tem peram ental peculiarities o f individual personality have been transcended and overcome. T hen it is th a t knowledge of all things (as distinct from Purusa, th e real Self) dawns, and they are seen as they actually are. The attainm ent of this transcendental knowledge is the climax of philosophic thought. Dualism

Sämkhya is dualistic, for it postulates two ultim ate realities, Purusa (Self—n o t the empirical self), and prakrti, prim ordial nature. Purusa, th o u g h independent of prakrti, inactive and separate from her, is regarded as th e prim e mover, th e first cause o f th e cosmic process. By the proxim ity of Purusa, and n o t th ro u g h its volition in any way, o r direct action, prakrti, w hich contains w ithin herself the m aterial o f the universe, evolves as m ind and m atter. The nature of prakrti is to be active, b u t her activity implies a m over n o t itself in m otion. Purusa is like th e magnet, and prakrti like the iron as it responds to th e magnetic influence. Purusa, in relation to prakrti, m ay be com pared to a lam e m an seated on th e shoulder of a blind m an w ho walks, th e lam e m an serving as the guiding eye, while the actual walking is done by th e blind m an. Purusa is th e unchanging principle of intelligence and this, being reflected in prakrti, creates th e visible universe. Prakrti

Purusa, th e unchanging principle o f intelligence, is distinct fro m the physical and m ental universe and independent of it. The term m ind, as used in th e West, corresponds to the Sämkhya antahkarana, w hich is composed of the intellect, the ego, and the manas (receiver of sense impressions). The antahkarana (the m ind stuff), the senses, and m atter (the objective universe) are all products of the same m aterial cause, th e uncaused cause, prakrti. The relation o f m ind to m atter form s one of th e m ost im po rtan t and intricate problems in W estern philosophy. Theories th a t explain th e universe in chemical, mechanistic, or biological term s ignore a conception o f m ind as a separate entity, for according to Western materialistic conceptions of substance, m ind is b u t a pro d uct of m atter. Subjective idealism, on th e other hand, ignores m atter and regards th o u g h t or m ind as th e only reality. Realism regards m ind and m atter as separate substances and both as real. These W estern

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schools of materialism, idealism, and realism pivot ro un d this central problem of th e m ind-m atter relationship. Indian philosophy, on the contrary, has n o t this particular problem , simply because it places m ind and m atter in the same category, neither of th em exclusively m ind n o r exclusively m atter b u t both products of one and the same substance. To give Eastern philosophy Western names, such as idealism or realism, is fundam entally misleading. To th e philosophical Indian m ind the only problem is th a t of the soul. W hat is the real Self? How is it distinguished from m ind and body? W hat is its nature? How can it be known? These are the only issues and concerns of H indu schools of thought. It was stated just above th a t m ind in the West corresponds in Sämkhya to antahkarana, or m ind stuff. Strictly speaking, however, such a statem ent is hardly justified. Western psychology regards m ind as intelligent by its inherent nature; the m ind is, therefore, considered to be th e thinker, th e know er, and to know its ow n thoughts. But according to Sämkhya th e antahkarana, or m ind stuff, comprising intellect, ego, and manas, is in itself nonintelligent. It is the product of prakrti, w hich is nonintelligent in character, and it is the instrum en t w hich Purusa, the unchanging principle of intelligence, the Pure Consciousness, illumines, so th a t it appears intelligent. In brief, the consciousness of m ind is a reflected intelligence, borrowed from Purusa, whose inh eren t nature is pure consciousness. Let us take an illustration. W hen a bar of iron is heated in a furnace, th e heat is borrowed, no t from its own intrinsic nature, b u t from fire. So the antahkarana by its proxim ity to Purusa appears intelligent. T he real know er of thoughts or objects is n o t the m ind b u t Purusa, th e principle of intelligence. The antahkarana is the instrum ent of knowledge, just as the senses and sense organs are also instrum ents of knowledge. Finite experience, or w hat is com m only called knowledge, is th a t w hich is gained th ro ug h the m ind, senses, and body; th a t is, it is the p rod uct of antahkarana in proxim ity to Purusa. W estern psychology does n o t even take up the question of the existence of a suprem e unitary consciousness, though in metaphysics the West does have its monistic schools. But th e aim of Indian philosophy, w hich again cannot be separated from Indian religion, is n o t m erely to prove th e existence of Purusa, the unchanging principle of consciousness, bu t to realize a transcendental experience of this Purusa as distinct from all changing phenom ena of m ind and body. Prakrti, on th e oth er hand, is th e uncaused cause of the universe. This universe o f m ind and m atter is a parinäm a, or transform ation,

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o f prakrti, th e prim ordial nature. Prakrti may be defined as the sum o f three gunas, o r forces, in a state of equilibrium . We do n o t know th e real n atu re of prakrti, n o r of th e gunas, for o u r knowledge is lim ited to phenom ena only, th e product of prakrti. Strictly, therefore, prakrti is a m ere abstraction, sam jnä m ätram , a m ere nam e. But its existence is assumed as th e prim al single substance, the uncaused cause of m ultiple things. It is n o t a m aterial substance; n o r is it an intelligent principle, since Purusa, th e Pure Spirit, w hich alone is intelligent and conscious, exists independently of it and is separable from it. It is n o t a m aterial substance for the reason th a t it is the ground o f th e psychical as well as of the physical universe. All objective existence, including the psychical, is its product. The Gunas

The three gunas, sattwa, rajas, and tamas, the constituents of prakrti, form the m aterial structure of the universe. T hat is to say, n o t only prakrti b u t every object in th e universe evolved from prakrti consists o f these three gunas. In th e Sämkhya view of causality, th e effect is essentially identical w ith th e cause; and the universe, w hich is a product, is therefore only a superficial transform ation of prakrti and is essentially constituted o f the gunas. The principle involved is identical, according to th e physicist Joseph Kaplan,1 w ith w hat is know n in W estern physics as the principle of superposition: ‘In o u r m odern description of nature, we proceed as follows: Let us say we are describing a m olecule of nitrogen. Instead of giving a com pletely detailed account o f its structure, as we m ight do in describing a chair or a house, we say th a t the m olecule is adequately described for experim ental purposes by giving all th e possible energy states in w hich the nitrogen m olecule can find itself, and th en assigning to each such state a num ber w hich gives its relative weight, th a t is, th e relative num ber of times th a t state appears com pared w ith oth er states. Thus th e m olecule is n o t som ething w hich takes on successive states, b u t it is the states themselves. So dice are th e sum of possible ways in w hich they can fall. The principle is know n as the principle of superposition. So the three gunas represent th e universe, and as th e three occur in various relative intensities, so the properties of things are determ ined.’ The constituent elem ents of the m anifold objects in th e universe, physical and psychical, are the same, and Sämkhya fu rth er declares 1 D r Kaplan’s statem ents in this chapter were w ritten specifically for this book.

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th a t it is possible for one elem ent to change into another. W ith this, m odern physics is in agreem ent.1 It is extrem ely difficult to give an exact English equivalent of the w ord guna. It literally m eans bo th quality, and, the rope w hich binds. B ut if we take it in its literal meanings, we lose th e associative co nn otation o f the term . Quality is a pro du ct o f th e gunas; b u t as substance and quality in Sämkhya are one, the w ord guna m ay m ean substantive entities.2 ‘The rope w hich binds’ characterizes th e guna as the cause o f th e bondage of Purusa, b u t as we shall see later, it also brings freedom to Purusa. Such are th e traditional explanations o f guna. Nevertheless, th o u g h it m ay be presum ptuous in me, I prefer to explain it in term s o f th e m odern physicist. M atter has been dematerialized by m odern science and reduced to energy. Says D r Kaplan: ‘The fundam ental positive and negative charges o f th e physicist have now been reduced to energy; th a t is, even th e electron (plus or m inus) or th e p ro to n or th e n eu tro n is n o t as fundam ental as energy.’ So th e gunas of Sämkhya philosophy can be said to denote energies o r forces w hich are never at rest. They are, in the words o f the m odern physicist, bundles o f energies; three form s w hich are essentially distinct from each other and in a way antagonistic to each other, b u t w hich can never be separated. Each guna is a distinct type of energy. Later com m entators on Sämkhya expressly state that, th o u g h three general types exist, the gunas are in reality infinite in num ber. They are grouped into three classes, each class representing a type, o n the basis of similarities and differences in behaviour. T he three types, sattwa, rajas, and tamas, are, we repeat, the m aterial cause o f the psychic and th e physical universe, and their characteristics are know n fro m their products. Each of th em stands for a distinct 1 ‘The transm utability o f the elem ents has been show n in m any ways. For exam ple, it is possible, by bom barding certain elem ents w ith extrem ely rapidlym oving electrical particles, to change them into others, and to even produce elem ents which do n o t occur in n ature because they are unstable (radioactive). We go even furth er. It is possible to produce m atter, such as electrons, from radiation (light). T h u s th e ultim ate constituent o f the universe o f the physicist is energy o f radiation—th at is, light. T h u s the Säm khya theory is in absolute agreem ent with the latest results o f physics. It is interesting here to m ake the follow ing com m ent. T he atom ic theory is the p rod u ct o f the W estern m ind. In his naïve w ay the W estern scientist generalizes the experience th at one can subdivide m atter un til one m eets an ultim ate particle into an atom ic theory assum ing m any elem ents. T he H indu philosopher goes m uch furth er and reduces everything to one elem ent.’—J. Kaplan. 2 ‘The statem ent th at substance and quality are identical is again in keeping w ith the point o f view o f m o d em physics in th at we describe substance by stating all its possible qualities.’—J. Kaplan.

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aspect o f reality in the physical realm and a distinct characteristic of psychic experiences in the realm of th o u g h t and feeling. T hough the three gunas form th e m aterial of th e universe, bo th physical and psychic, and th o u g h they coexist and cohere, one of th em u po n any specific occasion predom inates over th e others. From the dom inant characteristic o f any phase o f a m aterial or psychic object we may learn w hich of the gunas has, in th a t object, th e predom inance. In the physical w orld, sattwa inform s all th a t is p u re and fine, rajas inform s th e active principle, and tam as inform s th e principle of solidity and resistance. All three are present in everything, b u t one g una always predom inates. For example, sattwa predom inates in sunlight, rajas in an erupting volcano, and tamas in a block o f granite. The gunas also represent th e different stages in the process of evolution of any particular entity. Sattwa is th e essence or th e form to be realized, tamas is the in h eren t obstacle to its realization, and rajas is th e pow er by w hich the obstacle is rem oved and it becomes manifest. Sattwa, finally, is th a t pow er by w hich a pro du ct manifests itself to consciousness.1 In the m ind of m an, sattwa expresses itself as tranquillity, purity, and calmness; rajas as passion, restlessness, aggressive activity; tamas as stupidity, laziness, inertia. Sometimes one guna is predom inant, sometimes another; and a m an’s m ood and character vary accordingly. B ut m an can cultivate any one of the gunas by his actions and thoughts and way of living. We are taug ht th a t tamas can be overcome by the cultivation of rajas, and rajas by th e cultivation of sattwa. However, th e ultim ate ideal is to transcend sattwa also and reach the Purusa, w hich is above and beyond th e gunas. Cosmic Evolution

According to th e Sämkhya doctrine, this heterogeneous universe is a developm ent (srsti) o u t o f hom ogeneous prakrti, and to prakrti it returns. T here has been no creation, n o r will th ere be a destruction; th e present universe is b u t one of a series o f worlds w hich have existed in th e past and are yet to be. H erbert Spencer, in his First Principles, echoed Sämkhya w hen he said: ‘And thu s th en is suggested 1 ‘The argum ents in the text about the roles o f the three gunas are well m ade and in entire accord w ith the point o f view o f the m odern physicist. By this I m ean th at if a m odern physicist were to discuss the gunas, he w ould, in the light o f his know ledge and experience, use the sam e argum ents. T o p u t it differently, the th ough t processes o f the W estern philosopher are such that he is antagonistic to the physicist whereas the H indu philosopher is sym pathetic. O nly in the relatively un im portan t realm o f classical physics—unim portan t as regards its fundam ental character—does the W estern philosopher have any sym pathy.’— J. Kaplan.

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th e conception of a past during w hich there have been successive Evolutions similar to th a t w hich is now going on; and a future during w hich successive other such Evolutions m ay go on .’ So also did Thom as H. Huxley corroborate this tru th in saying: ‘It m ay be that, as Kant suggests, every cosmic m agm a predestined to evolve into a new w orld has been th e no less predestined end of a vanished predecessor.’1 Thus did Sämkhya philosophy propound its ow n theory of evolution ages before th e w ord evolution was know n in th e West. And it affirms th a t in th e process of evolution, of srsti, nothing is added, b u t th a t th e effect is a reproduction, a transform ation, o f the cause; th a t is, th e w hole of the effect exists potentially in the cause. So evolution is th e gradual unfoldm ent o f w hat is involved, and the only condition for th e fulfilm ent of the process is the rem oval of barriers. Patafíjali, the founder of Yoga philosophy, following th e Sämkhya theory o f evolution, fu rth er explained the process by the illustration o f a ‘farm er rem oving th e obstacles to the course of water, w hich th en runs dow n by its ow n n a tu re ’. The w ater intended for irrigation of th e fields being already in th e canal, th e farm er opens th e gates, and th e w ater flows in by itself, by th e law o f gravitation. The pow er to rem ove obstacles exists in th e natu re of the gunas, w hich are the potential cause of every result. These same gunas, operating as different aspects of prakrti, are seen in th e evolution of bo th organic and inorganic m atter. For this reason th e distinction between organic and inorganic has never troubled the evolutionists in India, th o u g h u n til th e discoveries of m odern W estern physics th ere had always existed an insurm ountable barrier between th e two am ong scientists o f the West. It is the gunas w hich are never at rest, ever evolve, n o t the soul, or Purusa. Purusa is th e Pure Consciousness (cit), never undergoing any change; b u t in the process o f biological evolution it is released m ore and m ore. The higher th e soul in th e scale of evolution, th e greater the release. Transcendental consciousness is th e full release of th e pristine purity and th e infinite unchangeable consciousness of Purusa, or the Self—a state in w hich Purusa knows itself independent o f prakrti, and in w hich there is no longer any reflection of its consciousness, or any identification o f it w ith antahkarana, or m ind stuff, th e product of prakrti. We m ust rem em ber, however, th a t prakrti does n o t evolve by itself, single and alone, b u t rather th ro u g h its proxim ity to Purusa; and Purusa remains entirely unchanged. This, then, is the process of evolution in prakrti. 1 T . H. Huxley, ‘Prolegom ena’, T . H. H uxley and Julian Huxley, Touchstone for

Ethics (New York: H arper & Bros.), p. 43.

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We have already defined prakrti as th e state o f equilibrium of the three gunas, and the beginning of evolution as th e loss of this equilibrium. The first p roduct of evolution is m ahat. M ahat is the cosmic intelligence, w hich m ust n o t be confused w ith Pure Intelligence, th e Purusa. We o ught rather to translate m ahat as the cosmic apparatus by w hich th e intelligence of Purusa, th e basis of the individual intelligence, is reflected. Next comes buddhi, w hich is th e individual apparatus illum ined by th e intelligence of Purusa. Its function is to discriminate, to distinguish objects, enabling Purusa to experience them . In th e individual, buddhi works directly for Purusa, and all other organs function for buddhi. Purusa remains unchanged and yet, th ro u g h buddhi, experiences the objective universe. Buddhi, being a product of prakrti, contains all th e gunas as its substantive material, th o u g h one or an o th er o f th em may predom inate at different times in an individual, or one or another m ay be the predom inating characteristic o f an individual. In his sattwa state, the individual is characterized by purity, tran quillity, knowledge, freedom from desire, and possession of divine powers. Here m ay be found the greatest reflection of th e pure, intelligent Purusa. In his rajas state, the individual is a victim of desires, is restless. In his tamas state, he is lethargic and ignorant. It is the experience of all, therefore, th a t th e buddhi (an aspect of th e m ind in th e Western m eaning of the w ord) does n o t express an equal degree o f intelligence at all times—one of the chief reasons w hy pure intelligence cannot be inherent in the buddhi. Its intelligence is rather the reflected intelligence of Purusa, the unchanging Self, and th e am o u n t of intelligence reflected differs at different times in accordance w ith th e predom inating guna. According to Vijñanabhiksu, the w ell-know n com m entator, buddhi is the storehouse of all subconscious impressions. The next product is ahamkära, or self-sense. In its individual psychological aspect, aham kära is the ego; and the sense of doer or agency (kartä) belongs to th e ego and n o t to Purusa. W hen sattwa predom inates, we perform good deeds; w hen rajas, we act selfishly; and w hen tamas, we are lazy and indifferent. The gunas take three different courses of evolution from ahamkära, according to th e preponderance of sattwa or tamas, w ith rajas aiding in either direction. In their sattwa aspect evolve manas, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action. In their tamas aspect evolve th e five tanm äträs, the subtle elem ents w hich by fu rth er preponderance of tamas, and by combining and recom bining w ith one another, w ith th e aid of rajas, produce th e five gross elem ents— ether, air, fire, earth, and water. The sattwa elem ent in th e gross

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elem ents is manifested in so far as they reveal themselves directly to buddhi and indirectly to Purusa. Manas is th e organ w hich receives impressions th ro u g h th e senses and th en presents th em to th e buddhi. It also has the function of carrying o u t th e orders of th e will th ro u g h th e organs o f action. Manas, therefore, is necessary for bo th knowledge and action. It is not, however, an undivided entity, b u t is made u p o f parts. T hus Indian psychology makes a distinction between buddhi, aham kära, and manas according to th eir functions; and all three together form the antahkarana—the inner organ, the m ind stuff. Besides manas, as already stated, from aham kära, or ego-sense, there evolve the five sources of perception—sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch; and th e five organs of action—th e tongue, th e feet, the hands, and th e organs of excretion and o f generation. As also stated, w ith the preponderance o f tamas there evolve from th e aham kära the tanm äträs, or the subtile principles th a t form the physical universe—the w orld as th e object o f perception. These Purusa Prakrti

I ! Buddhi I '

1. M ahat 2.

3. Ahamkära 4. Manas

5-9. Five organs of perception 10-14. Five organs of action 15-19. Five tanm äträs 20-24. Five gross elem ents

Five organs o f perception: hearing, touch, sight, taste, sm ell. Five organs o f action: hands, feet, speech, excretory organs, generative organs. Five tanm äträs: sound-potential, touch-potential, sight-potential, taste-potential, sm ell-potential. Five gross elem ents: ether, air, fire, water, earth. T he tw enty-four num bered categories m ake u p the universe o f m ind and m atter.

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tanm äträs (the finer materials of th e gross elem ents) are five, corresponding to th e five sense organs—th e essences of sound, touch, colour, taste, and smell; and they com bine and recom bine in different ways to produce the gross universe as perceived th ro u g h o u r senses. T hrough th e five senses this physical universe manifests itself to us in five ways as smell, touch, taste, sight, and sound. O ut of th e tanm äträs are produced th e gross elem ents—earth, water, fire, air, and ether. T he gross elem ents are combinations of the five tanm äträs, w ith considerable variety in the combinations. Because o f this variety, the universe presents itself to us in m anifold aspects. For instance, earth, corresponding to the tanm äträ smell, is composed o f one-half smell and one-eighth each of th e o ther fo ur tanm äträs; water, corresponding to th e tanm äträ taste, is composed o f one-half taste and one-eighth each of th e o ther four tanm äträs; and so on. The tanm äträs—the finer materials o f the gross elem ents—cannot be seen by one of ordinary vision, b u t only by yogis of high attainm ent. The stages o f evolution may be thus presented in diagrammatic form (see page 218). Perception and the Sources o f Knowledge

In w hat we ordinarily call knowledge, three factors are involved: the knower, th e object of knowledge, and th e process o f knowing. Such knowledge is to be distinguished from intuition, or transcendental consciousness, w herein these three factors are transcended to give place solely to w hat m ay be called th e unitary consciousness. For all form s o f knowledge, however, according to Sämkhya, th e know er is the Purusa, th e experiencer; the object of knowledge, as experienced by th e Purusa, is in effect th e modification (vrtti) of th e m ind stuff; and the process o f know ing is th e projection in th e Purusa of the wave of impression (vrtti) proceeding from th e object. The senses play their p art by com ing into contact w ith th e objects and by carrying impressions of th em to their respective brain centres, or organs.1 The organs carry these impressions to th e manas, w hich receives th em and arranges th em in a percept; th e aham kära, or self-sense, refers the percept to th e buddhi; th e buddhi interprets the percept and th e concept is formed. From th e buddhi th e Purusa receives th e concept, and perception follows. The buddhi, ahamkära, and manas are the nonconscious inner apparatus for receiving the 1 M odem physiologists tell us that vision is n o t in the eyes but in one o f the nerve centres o f the brain, and so also w ith respect to the other senses. Säm khya tells us the sam e things, only from a psychological rather than from the physical point o f view.

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impressions of the objective w orld, and they are modified according to th e impressions. T hen Purusa, th e unchanging intelligent principle th a t is reflected and so modified, in th e buddhi, appears to assume th e modification o f the buddhi. And it is this apparent identification w ith th e modification o f th e buddhi th a t is know n as apprehension. The reflection o f th e Purusa in the buddhi, and its identification w ith th e modifications, is n o t real, b u t only apparent, being due to ignorance and a failure to perceive the distinction between Purusa and buddhi. It is this association between Purusa and buddhi, due to ignorance, w hich results in a confused notion of their respective tru e natures; so th a t Purusa, the unchanging reality and th e only witness, regards itself as th e doer, o r active agent, and th e buddhi, w hich is only th e in strum en t of knowledge, appears as conscious and intelligent.1 Knowledge derived from th e senses and th ro u g h sense activity is know n as perception. Apart from sense perception, Sämkhya admits o f a kind of perception, called yogic, in w hich the senses do n o t have to com e into contact w ith objects; on th e contrary, a peculiar pow er enters an individual’s m ind w hich has been disciplined th ro u g h concentration and m editation, so th a t it is able to com e into contact directly w ith past and fu tu re objects and perceive them . In m em ory, perception comes th ro u g h the activities of manas, aham kära (self-sense), and buddhi (the faculty of discrimination), and th ere is no activity of th e senses, th o u g h there is presupposed th e results o f their previous activities. M em ory is possible only because all o u r experience leaves impressions in th e inner organ, the m ind stuff; no th o u g h t or action is therefore com pletely lost. The sum to tal o f these impressions constitutes character. In internal perception, also, no activity of th e sense organs occurs. Introspection, or cognition o f o u r thoughts, is possible n o t because there is another, superim posed cognition, as is asserted in W estern psychology, bu t because th e Purusa witnesses all changes or modifications o f th e m ind stuff. Besides perception, Sämkhya admits tw o other sources of know ledge: (1) inference, and (2) äptaväkya, or revealed words—the scriptures. Scriptures are regarded as tru e only because they have been tested and found tru e by the seers. Furtherm ore, revelation m ust n o t contradict reason. A niruddha, an ancient com m entator, quotes this 1 T hus in the so-called know ledge in which the three factors (knower, object o f know ledge, and process o f know ing) are involved, there is also involved a universal ignorance, o r false identification o f Purusa and prakrti. T rue or transcendental know ledge lies beyond the ‘three knots o f know ledge’, for it is the unitary consciousness in which the Purusa no lon ger identifies itself with prakrti, but exists altogether independently in its transcendental nature.

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verse from an ancient text: ‘The seers never speak o f impossible things, such as huge dem ons dropping dow n from heaven. Words w hich conform to reason should alone be accepted by m e and m en like you.’ Purusa

In th e course o f o u r discussion we have learned th a t Purusa is separate and distinct from prakrti and its products, such as m ind stuff, th e senses, the body, and so forth, and th a t therefore it is distinct from th e gunas. Purusa is consciousness itself—n o t th a t it is conscious, b u t th a t it is th e unchanging principle of consciousness. As we do n o t say th a t ‘w ater is w et’, because wetness is its in heren t quality, and the tw o cannot be separated, so we do n o t say th a t Purusa is conscious, because consciousness is its inh erent nature. All knowledge or intelligence manifested either in the m ind stuff or in th e objective w orld is a borrow ed consciousness, th e reflection of th e Purusa, or th e Self. Purusa is th e unchangeable Reality behind all th e changing phenom ena of th e universe, w hich in tu rn are th e products o f th e neverresting gunas. Hence it is ever free—free from th e accidents o f finite life, above and beyond th e limits of time, space, and causation. It has neither beginning n o r end. It is eternal. It is suddha, buddha, and m u k ta—th a t is, purity, consciousness, and freedom. The following, according to Sämkhya, are the proofs o f the existence o f Purusa. First, we may say th a t every com pounded substance exists for a being th a t is n o t com pounded. The objects of the universe w hich are com pounded exist to serve som e purpose of som e being w ho is th e eternal subject, never an object. Prakrti, therefore, exists to serve the purpose of an oth er being, w hom we nam e Purusa, and Purusa m ust exist th a t prakrti may serve him . Second, all objects of knowledge are composed o f three gunas, whose existence implies a seer independent of them . M ind stuff is also an object of knowledge, and the thoughts of th e m ind can be cognized only by a seer o f thoughts—a being separate from themselves. Third, since prakrti is nonintelligent, there m u st be som ething or som eone to experience its operation. Fourth, there m ust be a suprem e background, a centre, to co-ordinate all experience, for o ur experiences are m ultiple, and we m ay have m ultiple experiences simultaneously. Lastly, there exists a longing in every h u m an being to be free. All o f us feel limitations of w hich we strive to be rid. There exists therefore a reality w ithin us w hich is by natu re free and w hich possesses th e power to escape lim itation. In th e words o f Swami Vivekananda: ‘The Soul [identical w ith Purusa] is free, and it is its freedom th a t tells you every m o m en t th a t you are free. B ut you mistake, and

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m ingle th a t freedom every m o m en t w ith buddhi and m ind. You try to attribute th a t freedom to th e buddhi, and im m ediately find th a t th e buddhi is n o t free; you attribute th a t freedom to th e body, and im m ediately n atu re tells you th a t you are again m istaken. T h at is w hy there is this sense o f freedom and bondage at th e same tim e. T he yogi determ ines w hat is free and w h at is bound, and his ignorance vanishes. He finds th a t th e Purusha is free, is th e essence o f th a t knowledge which, com ing th ro u g h th e buddhi, becomes intelligence, and, as such, is b ound.’1 To th e foregoing five proofs o f th e existence o f Purusa, Patañjali, father o f Yoga philosophy, adds another: ‘The states of th e m ind are always know n because th e lord o f th e m ind, th e Purusa, is unchangeable.’ T he fact is th a t th e universe in its various elem ents is b oth m ental and physical and th a t in b o th aspects it is in continual flux. A book or a table or a desk is a group o f m olecules (gunas) in continual m otion— a w hirlpool o f infinitesimal objects striking one ano th er w ith greater or less velocity. B ut the book or the table or th e desk rem ains th e same, possessing substantial u n ity in itself. The changes it undergoes have an orderly rhy th m , and the object sends impressions to th e m ind that, p u t together, create an integral picture. This process of integration and change also goes on in th e m ind. The m ind and th e body m ay be likened to tw o layers o f a single substance th a t m ove at different rates of speed. Since one layer is slower th an th e other, the eye can distinguish between th e tw o layers. Let us suppose th a t three trains are m oving in th e same direction b u t at different rates o f speed along parallel railroad tracks. Train A is th e fastest of the three; Train C is th e slowest. N ow a passenger w ho looks at Train A from a w indow of Train B will say: ‘T hat train is moving. We are standing still.’ If, however, he looks o u t of the opposite window, at Train C, he will correct himself: ‘No—I was w rong. We are moving. But that train is at rest.’ In o th er words, th e m otion o f a given object, A, can be m easured only in relation to another object, B, w hich has less m otion —and so on ad infinitum. Universal m otion can be recognized only if we know th a t there is som ething w hich is eternally static. All scientists agree th a t th e entire physical universe is moving; and all psychologists agree th a t th e m ind is in perpetual flux. To understand o ur recognition of this physical and m ental m ovem ent, we m u st assume th e existence o f a third factor—unchangeable reality. So, declares Swami Vivekananda, ‘Behind this never-ending chain o f m otion is th e Purusha, th e changeless, th e colourless, th e pure. All impressions are m erely projected u p o n it, as a 1 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. I, p. 255.

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magic lan tern throw s images u p o n a screen w ith o u t in any way tarnishing it.’1 The Purusa in m any respects resembles th e Ä tm an of th e Vedas, b u t w ith this fundam ental difference, th a t th e Ä tm an, th e unchanging, om nipotent Self, w hich is one w ith th e all-pervading Brahm an, is one, bu t th e Purusas are m any. They are infinite in num ber, the Sämkhya argues, because if there had been b u t one Self all m en w ould attain freedom w hen one attained it.2 T he Purusa of Sämkhya, like th e Ä tm an of the Vedas, is formless, subtle, om nipresent, beyond m ind, senses, and intellect, beyond tim e, space, and causation. It is unborn, undying, uncreated, w ith o u t beginning and w ith o u t end. It is im m ortal in the sense th a t it is unchangeable, and perfection and freedom are its in h eren t nature. The jiva, th e individualized spirit, the empirical self, is distinguished from the Purusa by its connection w ith th e buddhi, th e manas, and th e senses. It is also lim ited by th e body. While Purusa is th e pu re Self beyond th e buddhi and the senses, th e jiva, w ith its aham kära, o r ego-sense, is its reflection in buddhi. T he ego, w hich is a p ro d u ct o f prakrti and is n o t to be confused w ith th e tru e Self, is the jivahood, th e individualized aspect of m an. T hrou gh ignorance, w hich is universal, we do n o t recognize o u r tru e selves, and we do n o t know th a t o ur b irthrig ht is purity and know ledge and freedom . In consequence we identify Purusa w ith buddhi and experience lim itation and ignorance, pleasure and pain, and bondage to birth and death. But this identification is only tem porary, for w ith tru e know ledge we at last recognize th e Purusa for w hat it is and gain o u r eternal freedom. Thus jiva, th e individual self, is in reality Purusa, th e tru e Self, in association w ith th e buddhi, th e manas, the senses, and th e body. T here exist th e gross body and th e subtle body. The gross body is th e physical body; th e subtle body is th a t w hich contains w ithin itself th e buddhi, th e manas, and the senses. The subtle body, still a p ro d u ct o f prakrti, appears conscious, th o u g h nonconscious, because of association w ith Purusa; and it is subject to pleasure and pain and to the laws of karm a and of rebirth. T he Purusa, th o u g h free, appears subject to th e vicissitudes of the subtle body because of ignorance. Forgetting its birthright o f eternal peace and freedom , it identifies itself w ith the form s of finite existence and experiences the bondage and miseries o f life and death. T he gross body dies w ith physical death, b u t th e subtle body continues to exist. In th e subtle body are stored all th e impressions 1 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. I, p. 299. 2 N ondualistic Vedanta, as we shall see later, insists that there is but one Self,

and n ot m any.

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o f all o ur experiences, and in accordance w ith th e law of karm a, the circumstances o f o u r futu re birth are determ ined by these im pressions. In Sanskrit the subtle body is know n as liñga sarira—the distinguishing m ark of an individual—th a t is, his character as it is form ed by his ow n thoughts and deeds. T he subtle body is a com position whose ingredients are th e three gunas. As we have already seen, one or an o th er guna predom inates in th e successive stages of evolution th ro u g h m any lives. In the lowest stage o f evolution o f anim al life, tamas predom inates, for this stage is m arked by ignorance and stupidity. Since th e three gunas are never separated, rajas and sattwa also appear in these elem entary forms, bu t in th em they play b u t little part. With th e predom inance o f rajas begins th e evolution of h um an life. T here occurs n o t only activity, b u t also som e effort towards freedom from pain and suffering. As this effort is directed into proper channels, sattw a takes charge, and w ith sattwa appear purity, knowledge, and tranquillity. Ultim ately, Purusa knows him self as pure being, separate from th e gross body—as the eternal witness, free and uncontam inated. This final stage is th a t of seership. T hen, as the gross body dies, Purusa attains com plete freedom and is detached from th e subtle body also. In this condition he exhibits his tru e n atu re and his pristine glory. He is now in th e final state of absolute liberation. Thus prakrti brings one both bondage and freedom . She brings bondage w hen one identifies oneself w ith her th ro u g h ignorance. But as one gathers experience and learns th a t prakrti exists for th e sake o f th a t experience, one learns detachm ent from her. One learns th a t the w hole of natu re is created for th e Self, and n o t the Self for nature. As th e bee comes to suck honey, n o t to get its feet entangled in it, so one is born to gather experience from nature, n o t to become entangled in it by identifying oneself w ith it. Eventually one awakes, for th e freedom inh erent in Purusa ever reasserts itself, and one at last discovers th a t one is eternally pu re and free. T hen prakrti no longer holds one, and one need no longer subm it to th e bonds of karm a. In th e words of Swami Vivekananda: ‘N ature’s task is done, this unselfish task w hich o u r sweet nurse has imposed up o n herself. She gently to o k the Self-forgetting soul by th e hand, and showed him all th a t is in th e universe, all manifestations, bringing him higher and higher th ro u g h various bodies till his glory came back and he rem em bered his ow n nature. T hen the kind m o th er w ent back th e same way she came, for others w ho also had lost their way in th e trackless desert o f life. And th us is she w orking, w itho ut beginning and w ith o u t end. And thu s th ro u g h pleasure and pain, th ro u g h good and evil, th e infinite river o f souls

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is flowing into th e ocean of perfection, or self-realization.1 G lory u n to those w ho have realized their ow n nature; m ay their blessings lie o n us all.’2 1 T h u s W ordsw orth, w ho sees only one side o f the p lay o f N ature—the side w hich tends to cause forgetfulness in the so u l o f its true n ature, b u t n o t the side w hich leads it back, at last, to its ‘im perial palace’ : Earth fills h er lap w ith pleasures o f her ow n; Yearnings she hath in h er ow n natural kind, And, even w ith som ething o f a m other’s m ind, A nd no unw orthy aim , T he hom ely nurse doth all she can T o m ake her foster-child, her Inm ate M an, Forget th e glories he h ath know n, A nd th at im perial palace w hence he cam e. *

H

Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. I, p. 304.

CHAPTER

12

T H E Y O G A S Y S T E M OF PA TA Ñ J A LI

Introduction

T ru th is o f tw o kinds: (1) th a t w hich is perceived by the five ordinary senses or inferred from th e data they provide, and (2) th a t w hich is perceived by th e subtle, supersensuous pow er o f yoga. T he first kind o f tru th is called scientific, or empirical, knowledge; th e second kind is called transcendental, or yogic, knowledge. T he person in w hom supersensuous pow er is manifested is called a rsi, a seer, a yogi w ho has achieved u n io n w ith God. To develop supersensuous pow er is to practise genuine religion. So long as a spiritual aspirant does n o t develop this power, so long is religion a m ere em pty w ord to him . He has n o t yet taken th e first step tow ards his goal. So we m u st strive for supersensuous perception, and there exist m ethods or processes w hich we may use if we will. These require as a prerequisite, if they are to be effective, a life o f lofty ethical attainm ent, b u t they are in themselves definite spiritual disciplines. They are know n to th e H indus as yogas. The prim ary m eaning of th e w ord yoga, w hich is related to th e English w ord yoke, is union, and w hat is referred to is un ion w ith th e tru e Self, o r God; in its secondary m eaning it is a m ethod for achieving th a t union. Patañjali employs it to signify a striving towards th e realization of Purusa, or the Divine Self—‘an effort to separate Purusa from prakrti’. From the earliest times aspirants have followed th e practices o f yoga. All the earliest H indu scriptures and all th e subsequent systems of philosophy n o t only express their conception of spiritual tru th b u t also offer practical m ethods for realizing th e divine consciousness. These m ethods, however, receive b u t casual m ention in th e Vedas, th e Upanisads, and o ther early works, and w hatever references there are to th em deal w ith the specific and detailed processes of Self-realization handed dow n orally, generation after generation, from teacher to disciple. T he same processes have been followed even to the present day. All

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aspirants after spiritual things m u st practise th em if they w ould acquire personal experience of the tru th they are seeking. Patañjali, th e a u th o r o f th e Yoga system of philosophy, can therefore scarcely be called th e founder o r originator o f yoga, b u t he was th e first to gather together th e spiritual practices know n to the yogis and build th em into a system. It is impossible to assign a definite period to th e life of this great yogi. One Patañjali, a gram m arian, lived in the m iddle of the second century bc, b u t it is uncertain w hether he and the a u th o r of the Yoga Aphorisms are one and th e same. Conception o f God in Yoga Philosophy

The Yoga system as form ulated by Patañjali is a systematized religious discipline providing a m eans of attaining th e highest consciousness, w hich in tu rn leads to final release. All spiritual aspirants in India, w hatever m ay be their individual religious preference, accept th e discipline of yoga, th ou g h, strictly speaking, Yoga philosophy in its metaphysical aspects is closely allied to Sämkhya, w ith one im porta n t difference—its acceptance o f God. Sämkhya, as we have seen, leaves no ro om for God, either in its system o f metaphysics, or in its scheme o f salvation. While Sämkhya asserts th a t th ere can be no p roo f of th e existence of God, Patañjali advances certain proofs, and in his plan of salvation declares th a t worship of God and m editation u p o n him are one of th e m eans of attaining suprem e knowledge and liberation. He does adm it, however, th a t it is n o t absolutely necessary to believe in God in order to experience th e tru th o f religion, holding th a t tru th will m ake itself felt in spite of belief or disbelief provided one follow th e practices of yoga. He only says th a t it is easier to gain th e end o f spiritual enlightenm ent th ro u g h faith in God and th ro u g h w orshipping him and m editating u p o n him. For those, however, w ho cannot believe in a personal deity, o ther m ethods are provided th a t will bring th em the same enlightenm ent. Indeed, religious truths, as we have already pointed o u t over and over in o ur account of Indian philosophy and religion, are n o t m ere dogmas, accepted on faith, b u t facts m ade visible by an in n er light. Belief o r no belief, it is Patañjali’s claim th a t if we follow any o f th e yoga practices faithfully, we shall be led directly to th e spiritual goal. Devotion to God is one of the means, declared Patañjali, to attain liberation and the tru th of the spirit. In Sanskrit, God is called ïswara, interpreted by Bhoja, th e w ell-know n com m entator, to m ean th e O n e w ho by his m ere wish has the pow er to give liberation to all w ho seek him .’ Patañjali him self has defined ïswara as a ‘special kind o f Being’—

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distinct from m an, inasm uch as ‘he is u ntou ch ed by ignorance and th e products o f ignorance*. He is ‘n o t subject to karmas or samskäras or th e results o f action’.1 U nlike m an—in other words—he is n o t b o u n d by th e law o f karm a; he has neither birth n o r death; he is eternal, unborn, undying, and unchangeable. And he is free from desires.2 B ut Iswara, as th e yogis look up o n him , is n o t th e creator o f th e universe. Its evolution had been explained by Sämkhya w ith o u t adm itting th e existence of a creator. Yoga arrives at a proof o f G od’s existence in a peculiar fashion of its own. Patañjali says: ‘In God knowledge is infinite; in others it is only a germ .’3 From this aphorism th e com m entators have derived their p ro o f of th e existence o f God. T he Purusas, they declare, are all endow ed w ith knowledge, som e w ith m ore and som e w ith less, and th e fact of lim ited knowledge proves th e existence of unlim ited knowledge. T here m ust therefore exist a Being possessed of infinite knowledge. This argum ent should be com pared w ith th e rem ark o f Kant th a t the concept o f th e finite involves th e existence of th e infinite. Patañjali also says of Iswara: ‘He was th e teacher even of th e earliest teachers, since he is n o t lim ited by tim e.’4 The deduction from this aphorism is th a t no knowledge can com e w ith ou t a teacher—and th a t God is th e teacher of all teachers. Swami Vivekananda rem arks: ‘It is true, as th e m odern philosophers say, th a t there is som ething in m an w hich evolves o u t of him ; all knowledge is in m an, b u t certain environm ents are necessary to call it out. We cannot find any know ledge w ith o ut teachers. If there are m en teachers, god teachers, or angel teachers—they are all lim ited; . . . w ho was th e teacher before them ? We are forced to adm it, as a last conclusion* [the existence of] one Teacher, w ho is n o t lim ited by tim e; and th a t one Teacher of infinite knowledge, w ithout beginning or end, is called God.’s How m ay one express devotion to God, how w orship him and m editate u p o n him? In spite o f all definitions and all descriptions, God rem ains to th e h u m an m ind b u t an abstraction. Patañjali, realizing this fact, offers a definite, concrete way of understanding 1 M an is subject to unhappiness because o f his false identification o f h im self w ith the buddhi th rou gh ignorance. God has n ot this ignorance; hence he is free from suffering and unhappiness. 2 M an identifies h im self with the buddhi th rou gh ignorance and is therefore controlled by desires arising from im pressions o f p ast deeds and thoughts. G od is free from identification o f h im self with the buddhi and has therefore n o stored im pressions o f past deeds or thoughts. 3 Yoga Aphorisms, I. 25. * Ibid., I. 26. 5 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. I, p. 217.

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God w hich th e m ind m ay grasp and m editate upon. He says: ‘The w ord w hich expresses him is Om. This w ord m u st be repeated w ith m editation u p o n its m eaning. Hence com e knowledge of th e Purusa and destruction of the obstacles to th a t knowledge.’1 In the Upanisads, as we have already noted, th e w ord O m was held sacred by sages and seers, being regarded as a symbol of Brahm an. From Vedic times u n til th e present day it has been so understood, and it has been employed as an aid in m editation by all aspirants after God. It is accepted both as one w ith B rahm an and as th e m edium , th e Logos, connecting m an and God. It is God, and by its aid m an m ay realize God. The entire history o f th e syllable is in th e revelations o f th e Vedas and the Upanisads, and this history in th e hands o f th e later philosophers developed into w hat became know n as sphotaväda, or philosophy o f th e Word. The similar doctrine of th e Logos, later also th a n th e Vedas and th e Upanisads, we discover am ong Greek metaphysicians—a doctrine w hich influenced th e w riter of th e F ourth Gospel. As indicated, th e sphota-väda is n o t precisely th e Logos o f th e Greek philosophers. T he Greeks first conceived o f th e Logos as a bridge over th e gulf th a t separates m an and God, th e know n and the un k no w n . The earliest Greek conception was a crude one. T he Logos was identified w ith one or another of th e physical elem ents, according as one o r an o th er was th o u g h t to be th e ultim ate substance o f th e universe. Heraclitus, w ho lived in th e sixth century b c , was th e first w ho tried to break away from a purely physical conception of creation, substituting for the m aterial first cause of his predecessors a principle w hich he called intelligence. This principle of intelligence was th e Logos. T he advance Heraclitus made, however, was rendered som ew hat equivocal by his identification o f th e Logos w ith th e physical elem ent fire. In the hands o f Plato the theory o f th e Logos u nderw ent a com plete transform ation. He regarded the Logos as th e cosmic purpose, th e highest idea, th e suprem e Good, un d er w hich all lesser ideas—i.e. eternal archetypes o f things, relations, qualities and values—are subsumed. According to him , these ideas are arranged in a logical order, and are governed by th e Logos: th us the universe is a u n ity in diversity, a rational, organic whole. The Stoics denied th e validity of Plato’s supersensual archetypes, accepting rath er the essential theory o f Heraclitus: like Heraclitus, they posited a principle o f reason im m anen t and active in th e universe. To th em th e Logos was this eternal reason, ‘m ade concrete in th e endless variety o f th e physical w orld’. The fact th a t this rational principle was regarded by th e Stoics as th e essence of h u m an n a tu re 1 Yoga Aphorisms, I. 27-9.

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is of special significance, as far as their ethical teachings are concerned. A m an is free, they believed, insofar as he lives in conform ity w ith his reason, and hence, in harm ony w ith th e rational nature of the universe. The Stoic conception o f th e Logos as an active principle pervading th e universe and determ ining it was adopted by the Hellenized Jewish philosopher, Philo o f Alexandria, a contem porary of Jesus of N azareth. B ut whereas th e Stoics, by conceiving o f th e Logos as th e principle of reason in heren t in all things, endeavoured to escape from th e recognition of a divine Creator, Philo was com m itted from the beginning to th e Jewish belief in a suprem e, self-existent Deity to w hom the reason of the w orld m ust be m ade subservient. Philo also accepted Plato’s idea of the Logos as the transcendent Good in w hich all individual ideas are com prehended, b u t he made this conception distinctively his ow n by com bining w ith it the conception o f the Logos as the im m anent and active reason. All of these theories of Philo regarding th e Logos stem ultim ately from his view o f God as a transcendent Being of w hom nothing can be predicated, and from the necessity of explaining how such a pure and perfect Being could have any contact w ith th e finite w orld. Philo’s descriptions of th e Logos as m ediator between God and the w orld reflect the tw o sources from w hich he drew—Greek philosophy and Jewish religion. He speaks of an infinite variety of Divine Forces, th ro u g h w hich an active relation between God and th e w orld is effected. ‘Sometimes he describes these powers as properties of God, as ideas or thoughts o f God, as parts of th e universal pow er or reason, sometimes as messengers or servants o f God, as souls, angels, or dem ons—thinking now in term s of Greek philosophy, now in term s o f th e Jewish religion. All such powers he combines into one, the Logos, the Divine Reason or W isdom .. . . The Logos is th e container or place of all ideas, the pow er o f all powers, the highest o f the angels, th e first-born son of God, th e image o f God, the second God, the G od-m an . . Philo’s system contains an unresolved conflict between the Greek and Hebraic conceptions: sometimes, in accord w ith the Greeks, he represents th e Logos as an independent and personal Being, a ‘second G od’, and sometimes, in accord w ith th e Jews, he conceives o f it as a distinct and subordinate thing, a m ere aspect of th e divine activity. The au th o r o f the Fourth Gospel used Philo’s Logos theory as th e basis for his interpretation of th e life of Christ, b u t gave it new 1 Frank Thilly, A History o f Philosophy, p. 148.

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expression to serve the theological needs of Christianity.1 T he Logos, th a t is, w hich is identical w ith God, and th ro u g h w hich the universe was created, was ‘m ade flesh’ in Jesus Christ. T hus Jesus, one w ith th e Logos, became the ‘only begotten son of God’ and identical w ith him . ‘In th e beginning was th e W ord,’ says St John, ‘and the W ord was w ith God, and th e W ord was God.’ The verse is alm ost identical w ith one in th e Vedas: ‘Prajäpatir vai idam agre âsït—In th e beginning was Prajapati (Brahm an); Tasya vag dvitiyä asit—w ith w hom was the W ord; Vag vai Paramam Brahma—and th e W ord was verily B rahm an.’ In adapting Philo’s doctrine of th e Logos to his account o f a historical person, St. John altered it in several respects. In addition to the change we have already described, th a t of attributing a real personality to th e Logos, he emphasized, n o t its creative aspect b u t its redem ptive function, its com m unication of spiritual pow er to m en. Also, he stressed m ore th an Philo did the Old Testam ent conception o f the Logos as W ord, as distinguished from th e Greek view of th e Logos as Reason; th a t is, he interpreted it as an expression of the divine will, an outpouring of G od’s goodness and power, light and love. T he Philonic and Johannean conceptions o f th e Logos m ay conceivably owe no debt to Indian th ou g ht, for the tru th is no m onopoly of any race or nation, and w ith spiritual grow th th e same tru th is often realized by different peoples independently o f one another. Yet it is also possible th a t both Greek philosophers and Christian theologians were in some degree un der obligation to India for their initial ideas, since it is a w ell-know n fact th a t H indu th o u g h t exercised a strong influence upon th e m inds o f early W estern thinkers. N ot only, however, are there general points o f similarity between th e Eastern conception of th e Logos and th a t w hich took ro o t in th e West; there are differences th a t are quite as great. To a H indu m ind, th e expressed sensible universe is th e form behind w hich stands the eternal Sphota, the inexpressible, th e Logos or W ord. This eternal Sphota, th e essential m aterial of all ideas or nam es, is th e pow er th ro u g h w hich God creates all things.2 ïswara, B rahm an conditioned by mäyä, first manifests him self as the Sphota, th e inexpressible Word, o u t o f w hich he th en evolves as th e concrete, sensible world. T he Christian Logos, on th e o th er hand, is n o t regarded as the m aterial cause o f the universe, for God, according to Christianity, is only an efficient cause. 1 Cf. J. Reville: La Doctrine du Logos dans le quatrième Evangile et dans les Oeuvres de

Philon.

2 Patañjali, however, did n o t agree w ith this last statem ent, for the universe was to him a product o f prakrti. The V edânta accepts the Säriikhya-Pätafijali view, and then reduces its dualism to nondualism by regarding prakrti as m äyä, or the pow er o f G od—the pow er to create, preserve, and dissolve the universe.

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T he Christian Logos, as we read in th e F ourth Gospel, ‘was m ade flesh, and dw elt am ong us (and we beheld his glory, th e glory as of th e only begotten o f th e Father), full o f grace and tr u th ’. T here is here a second interesting difference between the Christian and the H indu Logos. T he Christian Logos was incarnate once, in the person o f Jesus, whereas th e Sphota o f the H indus was and is and will be incarnate in all persons—and n o t in persons only b u t in all o th er beings, th ro u g h o u t th e universe—each of w hom m ay directly realize God th ro u g h his power, th e pow er of th e Sphota. Says Swami Vivekananda: ‘This Sphota has one w ord as its only possible symbol and this is O m. A nd as by no possible m eans of analysis can we separate th e w ord from th e idea, this O m and th e eternal Sphota are inseparable; and therefore it is o u t o f the holiest of all holy words, th e m o th er o f all nam es and form s, th e eternal Om, th a t th e w hole universe m ay be supposed to have been created. But it m ay be said that, although th o u g h t and w ord are inseparable, yet as there m ay be various w ordsymbols for the same th o u g h t it is n o t necessary th a t this particular w ord O m should be the w ord representative of th e th o u g h t o u t of w hich th e universe has becom e manifested. To this objection we reply th a t this O m is the only possible symbol w hich covers the w hole ground. The Sphota is th e m aterial o f all words, yet it is n o t any definite w ord in its fully form ed state. T h at is to say, if all the particularities w hich distinguish one w ord from another be rem oved, th en w hat rem ains will be th e Sphota; therefore this Sphota is called th e Nada-Brahman, th e Sound-Brahm an. ‘Now, as every word-sym bol intended to express th e inexpressible Sphota will so particularize it th a t it will n o longer be th e Sphota, th a t symbol w hich particularizes it th e least and at th e same tim e m ost approxim ately expresses its nature, will be th e Om, and th e O m only; because these th ree letters A, U, M, pronounced in combin ation as Om, m ay well be th e generalized symbol o f all possible sounds. The letter A is th e least differentiated o f all sounds. Again, all articulate sounds are produced in th e space w ithin th e m o u th beginning w ith th e ro o t o f th e tongue and ending in th e lips—th e th ro a t sound is A, and M is th e last lip sound; and th e U exactly represents th e rolling forw ard o f th e im pulse w hich begins at th e ro o t of th e tongue and continues till it ends in th e Bps. If properly pronounced, this O m will represent th e w hole ph enom enon o f sound production, and no oth er w ord can do this; and this, therefore, is th e fittest symbol o f th e Sphota, w hich is th e real m eaning o f th e O m. And as th e symbol can never be separated from th e thing signified, the O m and th e Sphota are one. A nd as th e Sphota, being th e

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finer side of th e manifested universe, is nearest to God, and is indeed th e first m anifestation o f Divine Wisdom, this O m is tru ly symbolic of God.’1 M ore th a n this, th e yogis say th a t th ro u g h m editation one m ay hear this w ord O m vibrating th ro u g h th e universe. According to Patañjali, w orship of God can be effected by repeating O m and m editating u p o n its m eaning. What Yoga Is

Patafíjali, th e father of Indian Yoga philosophy, has defined yoga as ‘th e control of thought-w aves in th e m ind’. T he m ind (citta), according to Patañjali, is m ade u p o f three com ponents, manas, buddhi, and aham kära. Manas is th e recording faculty, w hich receives impressions gathered by th e senses fro m th e outside world. Buddhi is th e discriminative faculty, w hich classifies these impressions and reacts to them . A ham kära is th e ego-sense, w hich claims these impressions for its ow n and stores th em u p as individual knowledge. T he m ind seems to be intelligent and conscious. Yoga philosophy teaches th a t it is not. It has only a borrow ed intelligence. Purusa is intelligence itself, is pu re consciousness. T he m ind reflects th a t consciousness and so appears to be conscious. Knowledge, or perception, according to Patañjali, is a vrtti, a thought-w ave in th e m ind. All knowledge is therefore objective. Even w hat W estern psychologists call introspection o r self-knowledge is objective knowledge according to Patañjali, since the m ind is n o t th e seer, b u t only an in stru m en t o f knowledge, an object of perception like th e outside w orld. T he Purusa, th e real seer, rem ains unknow n. Every perception arouses th e ego-sense, w hich says: Ί know this.’ But this is th e ego speaking, n o t th e Purusa, th e real Self. T he egosense is caused by th e identification o f Purusa w ith the products of prakrti—th e m ind, th e senses, etc. W hen an event or object in th e external w orld impinges on th e senses, a thought-w ave is raised in th e m ind. T he ego-sense identifies itself w ith this wave. If th e thought-w ave is pleasant, th e ego-sense feels, Ί am happy’; if unpleasant, it feels, Ί am unhappy’. This false identification is th e cause of all o u r misery; even th e ego’s tem porary sensation o f happiness brings anxiety, afear th a t th e object o f pleasure will be taken away—unhappiness in itself and a preparation for possible m ore acute unhappiness to com e. T he Purusa, in contrast, rem ains forever outside th e pow er o f thought-w aves; eternally pure, enlightened, and free, it experiences th e only true, unchanging 1 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. HI, pp. 57-8.

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happiness. It follows, therefore, th a t m an can never know his real Self as long as Purusa is identified w ith th e products of prakrti. In order to become enlightened we m ust bring th e thought-waves un d er control, so th a t this false identification m ay cease. To clarify this m atter, th e com m entators em ploy a simple image. If th e surface o f a lake, they say, is lashed into waves, or if the w ater is m uddy, the b otto m cannot be seen. The lake represents the m ind, and th e b ottom o f th e lake th e Purusa, th e Self. W henever th e m ind is m ade tranquil, knowledge of the Self is revealed. Subduing th e thought-w aves th a t w ould possess th e m ind is n o t a simple act, n o r one to be quickly accomplished, for it com pletely transform s th e m ind. It is an act, however, m ade possible by yogic discipline. Doubtless St Paul had reference to a discipline o f this kind w hen he said, ‘Be ye transform ed by th e renewing of y o ur m ind.’ In order to achieve this renewal of th e m ind, Yoga psychology considers n o t only the actual states o f th e m ind b u t also the latent states, called th e samskäras, o r potentialities. Before we can hope to restrain the thought-w aves successfully, we m ust endeavour to eradicate the potentialities, th e ro o t impressions w hich control the actual states. For w hen one m ental state passes into another, it is n o t altogether lost, b u t leaves behind it an impression—latent state or samskära—w hich in tu rn tends to give rise to actual states similar to itself. Thus th e actual states cause the samskäras, and th e samskäras cause th e actual states. The samskäras are deep roots in the soil of the m ind from w hich grow th e plants, th e actual states, th e th o u g h twaves. To destroy th e weeds, we m ust eradicate th e roots, and to do this it is n o t enough to restrain the actual states; it is necessary also, th ro u g h yoga discipline, to overcome, weaken, and destroy the samskäras, th e potentialities o f th e actual states. M odern W estern psychology, particularly Freudian, takes into consideration these potentialities. Freud postulates three ‘areas’, or states of m ind: th e unconscious, the preconscious, and the conscious. The unconscious is the receptacle of such of o ur past experiences as have been definitely forgotten and cannot be recalled by the ordinary m ethod of recollection. The preconscious is th a t p art o f th e m ind in w hich are stored experiences which, th o u g h apparently forgotten, can be recalled by an effort of th e will. M odern Western psychologists differ in their explanation o f th e unconscious m ind, some holding th a t it is the receptacle o f o u r individual past experiences, and of these alone, while others w ould include w ith th e m th e com m on experiences of th e race. Yoga psychology agrees w ith th e W estern view th a t th e unconscious is a depository o f certain individual past experiences, b u t as to the

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extent o f o u r individual past it differs radically. To Patañjali, o ur individual past is n o t lim ited to th e present life, as all W estern psychologists w ould assume, b u t continues indefinitely backward th ro u g h a succession of incarnations. According to th e law of karm a, o u r birth is th e result o f o u r past lives, in each of which, and in th e present life, we possess th e same m ind. In th e ‘unconscious m ind5, if we may adopt th e Freudian term , are stored th e impressions and th e tendencies w hich have been form ed in o u r previous existences, and in o u r present existence up to this m om ent, and which, taken together, have m ade us w hat we are. T he sarhskäras, o r potentialities, represent therefore th e ro o t impressions received from all o u r past experiences, including those o f o u r form er lives, and they have m oulded o u r characters so that, even th o u g h largely forgotten, they still indirectly control or influence o u r every act and th o u g h t. They m ay also take on fresh life and potency w ith o u t o u r conscious effort o r will. Now Yoga philosophy— and this is th e very core o f its doctrine—proposes a discipline whereby these ro o t impressions m ay first be overcome, and th en destroyed, and w hereby in consequence a com plete transform ation o f character m ay in th e end be effected. Yoga psychology agrees w ith Freud th a t th e conscious is controlled and guided by th e unconscious, b u t it insists th a t th ere is a pow er inh eren t in th e m ind th ro u g h w hich the m ind, restraining itself, can overcom e th e unconscious and all its tendencies, and achieve by so doing a com plete renewal. T hus is its original p urity restored—a purity th a t reflects th e suprem e purity and infinite knowledge of th e Purusa. T hus at last does th e Purusa learn his tru e n ature—his u tte r separateness fro m prakrtl·—and attain to freedom . A ny thought-w ave arising in the m ind, Or any perception apprehended by th e m ind, is a vrtti—or w hat we have called an actual state. The objects o f perception and o f th o u g h t are innum erable: innum erable, therefore, are th e vrttis. These Patañjali has roughly classified into tw o m ain divisions: klista, painful, and aklista, n o t painful. A painful wave, according to Patañjali5s use of th e term , is n o t necessarily a wave w hich seems painful w hen it first arises in the m ind; it is a wave w hich brings w ith it an increased degree of ignorance, addiction, and bondage. Similarly, a wave w hich seems painful at first m ay actually belong to th e category of th e n o t painful, p ro vided th a t it impels th e m ind tow ard greater freedom and knowledge. For example, Patañjali w ould describe a lustful thought-w ave as painful, because lust, even w hen pleasantly satisfied, causes addiction, jealousy, and bondage to th e person desired. A wave of pity, on the o ther hand, he w ould describe as n o t painful, because pity is an unselfish em otion w hich loosens th e bonds o f o u r egotism. We may

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suffer deeply w hen we see others suffering, b u t o u r pity will teach us understanding—and hence freedom. This distinction between th e tw o kinds o f thought-w ave is very im p o rtan t in th e practice of yoga discipline. For th e thought-w aves cannot all be controlled at once. First, we have to overcom e th e painful thought-w aves by raising waves w hich are n o t painful. To o u r thoughts o f anger, desire, and delusion, we m ust oppose thoughts o f love, generosity, and tru th . Only m u ch later, w hen the painful thought-w aves have been com pletely stilled, can we proceed to th e second stage o f discipline: th e stilling of the n o t painful waves w hich we have deliberately created. T he idea th a t we should ultim ately have to overcom e even those thought-w aves w hich are good, pure, and tru th fu l m ay at first seem shocking to a stud en t w ho has been trained in th e W estern approach to m orality. B ut a little reflection will show him th a t this m ust be so. The external w orld, even in its m ost beautiful appearances and noblest manifestations, is still superficial and transient. It is n o t th e basic reality. We m ust look th ro u g h it, n o t at it, in order to see th e Purusa. Certainly, it is better to love th a n to hate, better to share th a n to hoard, better to tell th e tru th th a n to lie. B ut th e thought-w aves w hich m otivate th e practice o f virtue are nevertheless disturbances in th e m ind. We all know instances o f admirable, earnest m en w ho becom e so deeply involved in th e cares of a great reform m ovem ent o r social relief project th a t th ey cannot th in k of anything beyond the practical problem s of th eir daily w ork. Their m inds are n o t calm. They are full o f anxiety and restlessness. The m ind o f th e tru ly illum ined m an is calm—n o t because he is selfishly indifferent to th e needs o f others, b u t because he perceives th e peace of th e Purusa w ithin all things, even w ithin the appearance of misery, disease, strife, and w ant.1 N ow it is a characteristic o f th e citta, th e m ind, th a t it tends b o th tow ards good and towards evil. Vyäsa, an ancient com m entator, com pares it to a river th a t should flow at th e same tim e in opposite directions. T hough, again, th e citta plays this dual role, its tendency tow ards good, th e will to freedom in h eren t in every m an, is th e greater of th e opposed forces. Having noted this superior strength of th e will to freedom , Professor Das G upta observes, in substance: This point is rath er rem arkable. It affirms th a t th ere is w ithin us, at bottom , a greater desire fo r liberation th a n for w hat as ordinary h u m a n beings we co u n t as pleasure or happiness. 1 *A holy m an is freed from all sam skäras, bu t the thought-w ave o f com passion stays w ith him to th e last m om en t o f his life.’—Sri R äm akrsna.

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C ould it be, one wonders, th a t th e will to freedom described in Yoga philosophy is th e force w hich Freud w rongly interprets as the ‘death-instinct’? Freud finds w ithin us tw o innate tendencies: th e life-instinct and the death-instinct. B ut the death-instinct is n o t, he thinks, to be found in its p u re form , b u t is inextricably mixed w ith its opposite, th e life-instinct—a theory th a t w ould explain th e strange p henom ena o f sadism and m asochism and th e feeling of alternate love and hate towards th e same object. We are n o t concerned, however, w ith th e tru th o r falsity o f Freud’s explanation of th e p henom ena we have just m entioned, b u t rath er w ith th e fact th a t by his characterization o f th e tw o instincts as antithetical he alm ost arrived at th e position taken by Yoga psychology—and yet som ehow failed to do so. Yoga m entions th e tw o opposed instincts: th e will to live and th e will to freedom . T he will to liberation exists, according to Yoga, side by side w ith th e will to live (the will to desire), th o u g h in some m en it is d orm ant and in others expressed. It is th e principal purpose o f Yoga psychology to show how th e will to freedom , the higher will, m ay be strengthened and th e will to live overcome. As the will to freedom gains in strength, th e will to live, w h at Freud calls th e life-instinct, grows weaker. Evidence o f this fact m ay be seen in th e lives o f all w ho check im pulse and desire. And, strange tho u g h it m ay seem, im pulse and desire can be com pletely overcome, th o u g h th e will to freedom cannot. T he concrete means by w hich spiritual con tro l is exercised Patañjali analyses in considerable detail. C ontrol comes, he says, ‘from practice and n o n attach m en t’. By ‘practice’ is m eant, he tells us, th e exercise o f the ethical and spiritual disciplines. These are yama, cultivating o f m oral virtues, such as truthfulness, noninjury, continence; niyama, acquiring regular habits of study and worship; äsana, sitting quietly in order to achieve tranquillity; pränäyäm a, taking breathing exercises in order to gain control o f th e m ind; pratyähära, freeing th e m ind from the thraldo m o f th e senses; dhäranä, concentrating; dhyäna, m editating; and samädhi, rising to th e superconscious state.1 T he eight disciplines we are to practise, and along w ith th e practice, says the yogi, we m ust sow th e seed o f n on attach m en t in o u r hearts. In fact, practice and n o n attach m en t m u st go together. N onattachm ent, in Patafíjali’s words, is ‘th a t effect w hich comes to those who have given up their thirst after objects either seen o r heard’. There are stages of n o n attach m en t th ro u g h w hich we pass, the com m entators p oin t out, as we practise th e yoga disciplines and as we strive to attain to com plete renunciation. T here are fou r such stages. T he first is yatam äna, during w hich th ere arises an inner 1 These ‘lim bs o f yoga’, as they are called, are later explained m ore fully.

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struggle from o u r n o t perm itting th e m ind to seek gratification of th e senses. T he second is vyatireka, during w hich, th ro u g h selfanalysis, we realize th e m easure o f o u r ow n achievem ent in th e field o f self-control. We realize w h at desires we can control and w hat we as yet cannot. T hen w ith vigour and enthusiasm we m u st continue to attack all desires th a t still rem ain in th e way of illum ination. The third is ekendriya, during w hich greater self-control is achieved, and th e heart no longer desires th e objects o f enjoym ent, know ing their ephem eral and shadowy nature; yet there m ay still rem ain in it a longing curiosity. W hen this longing also has been overcome, we attain th e fo u rth and highest stage of renunciation. This is know n as vasikara. This, the suprem e goal of renunciation, is achieved only by him w ho has attained com plete enlightenm ent. ‘W hen, th ro u g h know ledge of the Purusa, one ceases to desire any manifestation of prakrti, th e n one experiences th e highest kind of n on attachm en t,’1 says Patañjali. And the Gita says: T he abstinent ru n away from w hat they desire B ut carry their desires w ith them : W hen a m an enters Reality, He leaves his desires behind h im .2 Again th e Gita, sum m ing up th e w hole tru th of yoga: ‘W hen m en have throw n off their ignorance, they are free from pride and delusion. They have conquered the evil o f w orldly attachm ent. They live in constant un io n w ith th e A tm an. All craving has left them . They are no longer at th e m ercy of opposing sensereactions. Thus they reach th a t state w hich is beyond all change.’3 How to Become a Yogi

Bhoja, the com m entator, indicates how rare are th e souls w ho at birth are endowed w ith m inds having an aptitude for yoga. Most m en, he says, have to m ature slowly as they gradually equip th em selves w ith m inds fit for practising it. And th e learned com m entator proceeds to discover in m inds five types. The first three of these m ay be grouped together. The first is the scattered m ind, w hich is filled with rajas and im pelled by its pow er to be ever in search of excitem ent in th e external w orld; never at rest, b u t ever tossed up and dow n by th e waves th a t bring to it th e m anifold experiences of pleasure and pain. The second is th e d u ll 1 Yoga Aphorisms, I. 16.

2 Π. 59.

3 XV. 5.

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m ind, its perceptions veiled by th e pow er o f tamas; such a m ind revolts from undertaking even th e obligatory duties o f life and is a slave to low passions. The third is th e m iddling or average m ind, restless at times and again m om entarily calm and serene. Those possessed o f m inds represented by one or another of these th ree types are n o t suited to higher yoga practices. They m ust first undergo the prelim inary disciplines of habitual ethical conduct. Bhoja’s fo u rth and fifth types, unlike th e others, are one-pointed, concentrated. W henever sattwa predom inates in it the m ind is characterized by a natural purity; it is tranquil, never agitated by the rise of passions from below, b u t possessing th e pow er o f control over them , and it rises continually towards higher and higher planes of being. Such is the one-pointed m ind. The concentrated m ind n o t only is p u re and tranquil, b u t also is absorbed in th e contem plation o f Purusa, th e Self, or God, forgetful of th e body. A ttaining th e state o f absorption, and advancing beyond it to sam ädhi and illum ination, can com e only gradually, step by step, and only by following th e prescribed rules of conduct and th e other practices of yoga. In a general way th e necessary discipline has been defined by Patañjali in th e following aphorism : ‘The concentration o f th e tru e spiritual aspirant is attained th ro u g h faith, strenuousness, recollectedness, absorption and illum ination.’1 The prim ary requirem ent is faith. T he w ord faith, however, m ust n o t be understood in its generally accepted m eaning o f belief in som ething th a t reason cannot penetrate. At th e very beginning there m ust be understanding, a conviction in th e m ind; th en comes the effort to have faith—w hich m eans response in th e heart. M ost people, in an abstract sort of way, believe in th e existence o f God. B ut as to realizing God—few do anything about that. W hen one has faith, one will act on th a t faith. Bhoja, the com m entator, explains th e Sanskrit w ord sraddhä, translated faith, as signifying a condition in w hich the h eart is ‘pleasantly inclined towards attaining yoga’. There m ust, m oreover, be spiritual strenuousness. Buddha pointed o u t th at if there is any sin it is laziness. Strenuousness grows by strenuous acts. As faith increases and strenuousness grows, th e m ind takes a direction. It becomes recollected, in the basic m eaning o f this w ord. O ur thoughts have been scattered all over th e m ental field. Now we begin to gather them together and direct th em tow ard a definite goal—knowledge of the Purusa. As we do this, we find ourselves becoming increasingly absorbed in th e th o u g h t o f God. And so, at length, absorption merges in illum ination, and the knowledge is ours. Success in yoga depends up o n th e a m o u n t of energy we p u t fo rth 1 Yoga Aphorisms, I. 20.

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in o u r struggles for its attainm ent. Patañjali says: ‘Success in yoga comes quickly to those w ho are intensely energetic’; and to th e same purpose: ‘Success varies according to th e strength o f the effort expended to attain it—m ild, m oderate, or intense.’1 Again, in order th a t we m ay p u t fo rth energy for success in yoga, we m ust rem ove certain physical and m ental obstacles th a t stand in th e way. ‘Sickness, m ental laziness, doubt, lack o f enthusiasm , sloth, craving for sense-pleasure, false perception, despair caused by failure to concentrate and unsteadiness in concentration: these distractions are th e obstacles to knowledge. These distractions are accompanied by grief, despondency, trem bling of th e body, and irregular breathing. They can be rem oved by th e practice of concentration u p o n a single tru th .’2 In order to achieve this concentration, we m ust calm and purify o u r minds. Patañjali tells us how to do this. ‘U ndisturbed calmness of m ind is attained by cultivating friendliness tow ard th e happy, compassion for th e unhappy, delight in the virtuous, and indifference tow ard the wicked.’3 Hatred, jealousy, fear—in short, th e restless, distracted states of m ind—are th e ro o t causes o f m ost o f o u r physical and m ental ills. Every reaction in th e form of hatred, o r jealousy, or anger, is so m uch loss to body and m ind, and each tim e we restrain ourselves fro m such reactions, good energy is stored u p in o u r favour for conversion into higher powers. In order, again, th a t we m ay restrain ourselves from th e evil reactions to th e end th a t we m ay establish o u r m inds in tranquillity, Patañjali advises th a t we assume a m ental attitude th a t will purify o u r hearts and bring peace o f m ind. He teaches th a t w e m ust learn to be happy in th e happiness o f others; th a t we m ust be m erciful towards those w ho are in pain. Let us be glad w hen others do good deeds and be indifferent to the wicked. By raising opposite waves in th e m ind, th e waves o f love and friendliness and mercy, we m ay overcom e offensive m ental waves of jealousy, hatred, and anger. By arousing tranquillity in th e h eart th ro u g h such transform ing practices, we also free ourselves from physical and m ental ills. This consideration of how to gain con tro l over th e m ind leads us to th in k of th e prelim inary disciplines th a t w ork towards yoga. In th e w ords of St Paul, w hich we have already quoted, th e spiritual life requires a ‘renew ing of th e m in d’, and this is achieved by a gradual entire readjustm ent of outlook and habits; for th e im purities o f th e m ind are nothing else th a n habits o f life and th ou gh t, and to overcom e one set of habits one m u st form ano th er and contrary set of habits. This process consists in th e practice o f kriyä yoga, th e accessory 1 Yoga Aphorisms, I. 21-2.

2 Ibid., I. 30-2.

3 Ibid., I. 33.

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disciplines o f yoga: ‘austerity, study, and the dedication o f th e fruits o f one’s w ork to God’.1 A usterity is th e practice o f conserving energy and directing it towards th e goal of yoga, towards realizing th e tru e n atu re o f the Purusa. Obviously, in order to engage in this, we m u st exercise selfdiscipline; we m ust control o ur physical appetites and passions. In th e Gita, th e three kinds o f tru e austerity are defined: ‘Reverence for th e devas, th e seers, th e teachers, and th e sages; straightforwardness, harmlessness, physical cleanliness, and sexual purity—these are the virtues w hose practice is called austerity o f th e body. To speak w ith o u t ever causing pain to another, to be tru th fu l, to say always w hat is kind and beneficial, and to study the scriptures regularly— this practice is called austerity o f speech. T he practice o f serenity, sym pathy, m editation u p o n th e A tm an, w ithdraw al o f th e m ind from sense-objects, and integrity of motive, is called austerity o f the m ind.’2 T he practice o f austerity, as described by com m entators on th e Yoga Aphorisms, m ay also include th e regular perform ance o f ritualistic worship. T he observánce o f ritualism is an excellent training for th e w andering m ind of th e beginner. Each successive act recalls his m ind to th e th o u g h t behind th e act. He is too busy to th in k of anything else. T h o ug ht and action, action and thou gh t, form a continuous chain; and it is amazing to find w hat a comparatively high degree o f concentration he can achieve, even from th e very first. ‘It is of vital im portance’, said Swami B rahm ananda, m y master, ‘th a t a m an begin his spiritual journey from w here he is. If an average m an is instructed to m editate on his un ion w ith th e absolute Brahm an, he w ill n o t understand. He will neither grasp th e tru th th a t lies behind th e instructions n o r be able to follow them . * . . H ow ever,. . . if th a t same m an is asked to worship God w ith flowers, incense, and oth er accessories of th e ritualistic worship, his m ind will gradually become concentrated on God, and he will find joy in his w orship.’3 ‘Study’ in th e context o f th e Aphorisms—it should be noted—m eans study o f th e scriptures and of oth er books w hich deal w ith th e spiritual life. It also refers to th e practice o f japa, th e repetition of th e sacred nam e of God. T o dedicate th e fruits of one’s w ork to God is to w ork w ith n o n attachm ent, to practise karm a yoga. 1 Yoga Aphorisms, Π. 1. * XVII. 14-16. 3 Sw am i Prabhavananda, The Eternal Companion, p. 115.

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All th e great religions hold as a prim ary article of their faith th a t the Self is innately pu re and divine. ‘God m ade m an in his own image.’ All of them hold, further, th a t th a t original purity and th a t divinity have som ehow been lost. Christianity attributes the fall of m an from his pristine state o f innocence to th e fall o f the first m an, Adam, and believes th a t now we are ‘born in sin and iniquity’ th ro u g h having inherited his weakness and th a t we can be saved only th ro u g h th e grace of a m erciful heavenly Father as revealed in the sacrifice of his Son, Jesus Chriat. T he tru th in this doctrine w ould appear to be th a t m an in his original nature is innocent and pure, a perfect image of God, b u t th a t as an effect of som e inexplicable cause he has lost his pristine attributes. T he sin w hich th e story of th e Fall of Adam inform s us we have inherited cannot, however, be real and perm anent, cannot really have altered o u r original nature. Christianity itself offers us the goal of conquest over sin and th e attainm ent of liberation and a renewed perfection: we are to becom e perfect— even as the ‘Father w hich is in heaven is perfect’. This goal w ould be meaningless, because it could never be attained, had we been born in sin. For it is n o t possible to change the innate character of a substance w itho u t destroying the substance itself. One cannot change th e natu re of fire, w hich by th a t very nature m u st radiate heat, except by destroying fire itself. Nevertheless its inborn nature, its heat, m ay be sm othered by a covering o f ash. Remove th e ash, fan th e fire, and you will again have both fire and heat. The same thing is tru e of the Self—its innate purity and divinity may be covered by ignorance b u t n o t lost. Indian philosophy proclaims: ‘You are forever free and divine. Your apparent im perfection is due to ignorance; realize w hat you are, and be free.’ The same tru th appears in Christian teachings, although it m ay n o t be recognized as such by all theologians, for does n o t the Bible say: ‘The light shineth in darkness; and the darkness com prehended it n o t’? We are pure, free, and divine. Suffering, sin, lim itations, and all im perfections are due to avidyä, ignorance, w hich veils the tru e n atu re of th e Self, causing us to identify ourselves w ith th e non-Self. Patañjali says: ‘The obstacles to enlightenm ent—the causes of m a n ’s sufferings— are ignorance, egoism, attachm ent, aversion, and the desire to cling to life.’ And again: ‘To regard th e non-eternal as eternal, th e im pure as pure, the

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painful as pleasant and th e non-Self as th e Purusa—this is ignorance.’1 T he ignorance is of course universal, and is th e basis of o u r ordinary, finite lives, th e cause of all conditioned experience. Ignorance, says Patañjali, leads to egoism, attachm ent, aversion, and the desire to cling to life—the im m ediate causes of suffering and confusion. ‘To identify consciousness w ith th a t w hich m erely reflects consciousness—this is egoism.’2 T he central act o f ignorance is th e identification of th e Purusa, w hich is consciousness itself, w ith th e m ind-body—‘th a t w hich m erely reflects consciousness’. This is w hat Patañjali defines as egoism. ‘A t whose behest does th e m ind think?’ asks th e Kena Upanisad. ‘Who bids th e body live? W ho makes th e tongue speak? W ho is th a t effulgent Being th a t directs the eye to form and colour and th e ear to sound? The A tm an is th e ear of th e ear, m ind o f th e m ind, speech o f th e speech. He is also breath of th e breath and eye of th e eye. Having given up the false identification of th e A tm an w ith th e senses and the m ind, and know ing the A tm an to be Brahm an, th e wise become im m ortal.’3 W estern philosophy has produced tw o schools o f th o u g h t w ith regard to th e problem of consciousness—th e m aterialist and th e idealist. T he materialists believe th a t consciousness is th e p rod uct of a process; th a t it arises w hen certain conditions are fulfilled and is lost w hen these conditions do n o t exist. Thus, according to the m aterialist philosophers, consciousness is n o t th e property o f any single substance. The idealists, on th e other hand, believe th a t consciousness is th e property of the m ind, and are therefore faced w ith th e conclusion th a t it m u st cease w henever th e m ind becomes unconscious. M odern scientists w ould seem inclined to reject bo th these hypotheses, and to believe th a t consciousness is always present everywhere in th e universe, even th o u g h its presence cannot always be detected by scientific m ethods. In this they approach the view point of Vedanta. And indeed there are som e distinguished scientists and scientific writers w hose thinking has bro ug ht th em to a study of H indu philosophy. For example, Erwin Schrödinger in his book What is Life? writes as follows: ‘Consciousness is never experienced in the plural, only in the sin g u lar.. . . How does th e idea of plurality (so em phatically opposed by th e Upanishad writers) arise at all? Consciousness finds itself 1 Yoga Aphorisms, Π. 3, 5.

2 Ibid., Π. 6.

3 I. 1-2.

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intim ately connected w ith, and dependent on, th e physical state of a lim ited region of m atter, th e body___ Now, there is a great plurality o f similar bodies. Hence th e pluralization of consciousness or minds seems a very suggestive hypothesis. Probably all simple ingenuous people, as well as th e great m ajority of W estern philosophers, have accepted i t . . . . The only possible alternative is sim ply to keep to th e im m ediate experience th a t consciousness is a singular of w hich th e plural is unknow n; th a t th ere is only one thing and that, w hat seems to be a plurality, is m erely a series of different aspects of this .one thing, produced by a deception (the Indian Maya); th e same illusion is produced in a gallery of m irrors, and in th e same way Gaurisankar and M ou n t Everest tu rned o u t to be the same peak seen from different valleys.. . . ‘Yet each o f us has the undisputable impression th a t th e sum total o f his ow n experience and m em ory form s a unit, quite distinct from th a t of any oth er person. He refers to it as “I”. What is this “I ” ? ‘If y ou analyse it closely you will, I think, find th a t it is just a little bit m ore th a n a collection of single data (experiences and memories), nam ely the canvas upon which they are collected. A nd you will, on close introspection, find th at, w hat you really m ean by “I”, is th a t ground-stuff u p o n w hich they are collected. You m ay com e to a distant country, lose sight of all your friends, m ay all b u t forget them ; you acquire new friends, you share life w ith th em as intensely as you ever did w ith your old ones. Less and less im p ortan t will become th a t fact that, while living y ou r new life, you still recollect th e old one. “T he y ou th th a t was I”, you m ay come to speak of him in th e third person, indeed th e protagonist of th e novel you are reading is probably nearer to your heart, certainly m ore intensely alive and better know n to you. Yet there has been no interm ediate break, n o death. And even if a skilled hypnotist succeeded in blotting o u t entirely all y o u r earlier reminiscences, you w ould n o t find th a t he had killed you. In n o case is there a loss o f personal existence to deplore. N or will there ever be.’1 T he m ind m erely reflects consciousness and is th e instrum en t of perception and experience; th e identification of th e Purusa, w ho is consciousness itself, w ith th e instrum ent, th e m ind, is, as we have seen, egoism. We say Ί am happy’ o r Ί am suffering’, b u t happiness or suffering is b u t waves of th o u g h t arising in th e m ind. T hro u g h egoism th e Self, becoming identified w ith th e m ind, identifies itself w ith th e waves o r thoughts in th e m ind, and either enjoys or suffers. T h rough egoism there arises th e desire for pleasurable sense experiences, and there grows attachm ent to th em . Desire for 1 (New York: Cam bridge University Press, 1955), p p. 90 ff.

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sensational and em otional experiences and attachm ent to th em cause suffering. Therefore attachm ent to those experiences and a desire for th e m m ust be avoided if we are to obtain tranquillity of m ind and heart. Opposed to attachm ent is aversion, w hich is also a cause of suffering, and to be avoided. $ri Krsna says in the Gita, W hen he has no lust, no hatred, A m an walks safely am ong th e things o f lust and hatred. To obey th e A tm an Is his peaceful joy: Sorrow melts Into th a t clear peace: His quiet m ind Is soon established in peace.1 N ot a com plete withdraw al o f the senses from th e w orld, n o r a denial o f th e norm al experiences o f life, is required for tranquillity of m ind, b u t a freeing o f th e m ind from bo th attraction and aversion. T he last o f th e ‘pain-bearing obstructions’, according to Patañjali, is th e desire to cling to life, a feeling w hich may perhaps be correlated w ith Freud’s life-instinct. C om m entators have explained it as fear of death, w hich exists instinctively in all living beings. This fear o f death is another cause of unhappiness. These five causes o f suffering are the chief obstacles in th e path of yoga; of th e m all, ignorance is the ro o t cause. They exist universally in all beings, th o u g h in different states and degrees in different people. Patañjali says, ‘They m ay exist either in a potential o r a vestigial form , or they m ay have been tem porarily overcom e or fully developed.’2 In m ost people these obstacles exist fully developed, in som e in a repressed or overpowered condition. T hrough th e practices of yoga and self-discipline, they m ay be attenuated and finally destroyed. T he goal of yoga is to eradicate these obstacles com pletely and thus to rem ove th e causes of suffering. T he ro o t cause, as we have seen, is ignorance, w hich is th e ‘productive field’ for all o th er obstacles; and its rem oval is possible by means of its opposite, vidyä, or knowledge. Patañjali says, ‘Ignorance is destroyed by awakening to knowledge of th e Purusa, u n til no trace o f illusion rem ains.’3 This knowledge th a t removes th e ignorance is n o t knowledge such as is associated w ith th e intellect, b u t rather an im mediate, direct illum ination in one’s ow n soul. ‘T he experiencer gains this knowledge’, says Patañjali, ‘in seven stages, advancing tow ard the highest.’4 1 Π. 64. » Ibid., Π. 26.

2 Yoga Aphorisms, Π. 4. 4 Ibid., Π. 27.

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T he seven stages are as follows: (a) T he realization th a t the source of all spiritual wisdom is inside ourselves; th a t th e kingdom o f heaven is w ithin us. As Swami Vivekananda says: ‘After long searches here and there, in tem ples and churches, in earths and in heavens, at last you com e back, com pleting th e circle from w here you started, to y o u r ow n soul and find th a t He, for w hom you have been seeking all over th e w orld, for w h om you have been weeping and praying in churches and temples, on w hom you were looking as th e m ystery o f all mysteries shrouded in th e clouds, is nearest of th e near, is y ou r ow n Self, th e reality of y o u r life, body and soul.’1 These are stirring words, to w hich o u r hearts can im m ediately respond; b u t a firm realization o f their tru th is n o t so easily achieved. It is n o t enough to accept it as an intellectual proposition. It is n o t enough to glimpse it in m om ents of religious em otion o r tem porary insight. We cann ot claim to have reached th e first stage u n til we are continuously aware of th e presence o f th e A tm an, o r Purusa,2 w ithin us. W hen we are aware of this, we know also, w ith o u t any doubt, th a t un ion w ith th e A tm an is possible, since n o external obstacles can arise to prevent it. (b) The cessation of pain. Pain, as we have seen, is caused by o u r attachm ent o r aversion to th e phenom ena o f th e external universe. As th e m ind tu rn s inw ard towards know ledge o f th e A tm an, this attachm ent or aversion loses its pow er. We have already quoted th e Gita’s phrase: ‘Yoga is th e breaking of contact w ith pain.’3 (c) Samädhi—com plete realization of, and un io n w ith, th e A tm an. T he objective universe disappears. T he A tm an is experienced as total existence, consciousness, and joy. In this experience all sense of individual separateness and differentiation is lost. ( d) The state of consciousness following samädhi. W hen a m an comes o u t of samädhi, he return s to consciousness o f th e objective universe; b u t this consciousness differs from th e kind w hich we all experience. To one w ho has achieved samädhi, th e external w orld is know n to be m erely an appearance. In Samkara’s phrase, ‘it is and is n o t’. The m an of illum ination no longer identifies th e external w orld w ith th e A tm an. He sees th a t it is only a reflection o f th e A tm an— n o t, indeed, u tterly unreal, since it is projected by th e Reality; yet 1 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. Π, pp. 81-2. 2 A tm an and Purusa are interchangeable term s.

3 VI. 23.

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lacking substance and independent existence, like an image in a m irror. In this stage, a m an knows th a t he is no longer bound by any w orldly du ty or obligation. This does n o t m ean, o f course, th a t a m an w ho has achieved sam ädhi will thenceforw ard do n othing at all. O n th e contrary, m ost of th e great saints have been very active, particularly in teaching others. ‘They are like big steamships,’ said Sri Räm akrsna, ‘w hich n o t only cross th e ocean themselves b u t carry m any passengers to th e oth er shore.’ But the actions o f th e saint differ from th e actions o f ordinary m en, because they are n o t m otivated by any attachm ent or selfish desire. They are, in th e m ost literal sense of th e w ord, voluntary actions. Action, for the rest o f us, is only partially voluntary; it always contains an elem ent of com pulsion due to o u r past karm as and present involvem ents in th e life of th e senses. For this reason, th e behaviour of a saint is often very hard for us to understand; it seems strange, arbitrary, or capricious, precisely because it is n o t subject to o u r familiar com pulsions. A great teacher was once asked to explain one of th e m ost seemingly m ysterious actions recorded in th e Gospels, C hrist’s cursing of the barren fig tree. ‘Become a Christ,’ he replied smilingly, ‘and th en you will know w hy he did th a t.’ (e) Freedom from need o f th e m ind and th e objective w orld—the realization th a t the m ind and th e objective w orld have b o th ended their services. T he m ind has been th e instrum ent, and th e w orld th e object o f th e experience w hereby th e experiencer has com e to know th e A tm an, his real n ature. The m ind has been used to transcend th e m ind—just as we use a ladder to transcend a ladder: once we have reached th e sill o f th e w indow against w hich it rested, the ladder can be kicked away; we do n o t need it any m ore. (f ) Freedom from impressions and gunas. Now th e stored-up impressions w ithin th e m ind, and th e gunas themselves, fall away forever, like rocks, to quote one of th e classic com m entators, ‘fallen from th e top o f th e m o u n tain peak, never to re tu rn ’. (g) U nion w ith th e A tm an. And so th e final stage is reached—th e state of eternal existence in un io n w ith th e A tm an. Now there is no m ore return in g from sam ädhi to partial sense-consciousness, no m ore identification o f the A tm an w ith th e m ind. We realize, in th e w ords o f Vivekananda, ‘. . . th a t we have been alone th ro u g h o u t all tim e, neither body n o r m ind was ever related, m u ch less joined, to us. They were w orking th eir ow n way and we, th ro u g h ignorance, joined ourselves to them . But we have been alone, om nipotent, om nipresent, ever blessed; o u r ow n A tm an was so pure and perfect th a t we required no th in g

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e lse .. . . T h ro u g h o u t th e universe th ere can be noth in g th a t will n o t becom e effulgent before o u r knowledge. This will be th e last state, and th e yogi will becom e peaceful and calm , never to feel any m o re pain, never to be again deluded, never to be touched by misery. He will know th a t he is ever blessed, ever perfect, alm ighty.’1 The Limbs o f Yoga

Two o f the yoga aphorism s provide th e text for this section: ‘As soon as all im purities have been rem oved by th e practice o f spiritual disciplines—th e “limbs” of yoga—a m an ’s spirit opens to th e light-giving knowledge o f th e Purusa. ‘The eight limbs of yoga are: th e various form s o f abstention from evil-doing (yama), th e various observances (niyama), posture (äsana), co n tro l of th e präna (pränäyäm a), w ithdraw al o f th e m ind from sense objects (pratyähära), concentration (dhäranä), m editation (dhyäna), and absorption in th e Purusa (samädhi).’2 Yoga has been aptly com pared to a tree bearing luscious fruit. T he seed o f th e yoga-tree is nourished by yam a and niyam a; as it begins to germ inate it is fu rth er fed by posture and pränäyäm a; and as it m atures and becomes a full-grow n tree it bears flowers in th e practice o f pratyähära, and abundant fruits in concentration, m editation, and samädhi. So im p o rtan t are th e eight limbs th a t each will be accorded special com m ent. Yama, the first, has been analysed in th e tw o following aphorisms: ‘Yama is th e abstention from harm ing others, from falsehood, from theft, from incontinence, and from greed. ‘These form s o f abstention are basic rules of conduct. They m u st be practiced w ith o u t any reservations as to tim e, place, purpose, or caste rules.’3 It will be noticed th a t yam a, thus understood, embraces th e ethical principles universally tau g h t in all th e great religions. A bstention fro m harm ing others is living and acting in such a way as never to cause any pain to a living soul by one’s th o u g h t, w ord, or deed. It is said to be th e greatest of th e virtues. In its positive aspect th e injunction is to do good to all and to learn to live in love and h arm on y w ith all. 1 Complete Works o f Viveltananda, vol. I, pp. 258-9. 1 Yoga Aphorisms, II. 28, 29.

3 Ibid., Π. 30, 31.

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‘W hen a m an becomes steadfast in his abstention from harm ing others, th e n all creatures will cease to feel enm ity in his presence.’1 W hen a m an has truly and entirely renounced violence in his ow n thoughts, and in his dealings w ith others, he begins to create an atm osphere around him self w ithin w hich violence and enm ity m u st cease to exist, because they find no reciprocation. Animals too are sensitive to such an atm osphere. T here is a saying th a t the tiger and th e lam b will play together before a tru e yogi. ‘The test of ahimsa [harmlessness] is absence of jealousy, . . .’ said Swami Vivekananda. ‘T he so-called great m en of th e w orld m ay all be seen to becom e jealous o f each oth er for a small nam e, for a little fame, and for a few bits o f gold. So long as this jealousy exists in a heart, it is far away from th e perfection of ahimsa.’2 Abstention from falsehood is truthfulness in th o u g h t, w ord, and deed. In th e Gita we are adm onished ‘to speak w ith o u t ever causing pain to another, to be tru th fu l, and to say always w hat is kind and beneficial’. A nd thus Patañjali: i

‘W hen a m an becomes steadfast in his abstention from falsehood he gets th e pow er of obtaining for him self and others th e fruits of good deeds, w ith o u t having to perform th e deeds themselves.’3 Such a m an cannot th in k o r even dream a lie; everything he says is or becomes true. Facts, as it were, follow his words. If he blesses som eone, th a t person becomes blessed. A bstention from theft has a deeper significance th a n w hat the phrase literally means. We m ust realize th a t no th in g belongs to us; consequently, we m ay n o t harbour th e idea o f possession o r ow n attachm ent to things of this w orld. ‘W hen a m an becomes steadfast in his abstention from theft, all w ealth comes to him .’4 Swami Vivekananda, com m enting u p o n this aphorism , rem arks, ‘The m ore you fly from nature, th e m ore she follows you, and if you do n o t care for her at all, she becomes y o u r slave.’5 A bstention from incontinence is chastity in th o u g h t, w ord, and deed. ‘W hen a m an becomes steadfast in his abstention from incontinence, he acquires spiritual energy.’6 Such energy is indispensable to a religious teacher. W ith it comes trem endous force and gigantic will to tu rn hu m anity into th e path o f good. Abstention from greed is freedom from covetousness. T he foregoing are the virtues included u nd er yama. 1 Yoga Aphorisms, Π. 35. 2 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. ΠΓ, pp. 67-8. 3 Yoga Aphorisms, Π. 36. * Ibid., Π. 37. s Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. I, p. 263. 6 Yoga Aphorisms,ΨΊ1. 38.

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T he second lim b o f yoga is niyama. Patañjali has defined it thus: ‘The niyamas [observances] are purity, contentm ent, m ortification, study, and devotion to G od.’1 Purity is cleanliness, b o th physical and m ental. Just as a regular habit of bathing is form ed for physical cleanliness, in th e sam e way a regular habit is to be form ed o f bathing o u r inner organ, th e m ind, by feeling w ithin it th e living presence o f God. From th e practice o f cleanliness, physical and m ental, ‘one achieves purification of th e heart, cheerfulness o f m ind, th e pow er o f concentration, control o f th e passions, and fitness for th e vision of th e Purusa’.2 C om m enting on this aphorism , Swami Vivekananda rem arks: ‘The first sign o f y ou r becom ing religious is th a t y ou are becom ing cheerful. W hen a m an is gloom y, his condition m ay be dyspepsia, b u t it is n o t religion. To th e yogi everything is bliss, every h u m an face th a t he sees brings cheerfulness to him . This is th e sign o f a virtuous m an.’3 C o n ten tm en t is th e practice o f quiet acceptance o f w hatever comes in th e course o f o u r lives, and th e m aintenance o f an in n er poise. T he rem aining three regular habits have already been discussed in o u r explanation o f kriyä yoga, th a t is, th e prelim inary practices for achieving grow th towards yoga. We m ay note, however, th a t study, w hich has been interpreted as th e chanting o f sacred w ords and prayers, is o f three kinds: verbal, semi-verbal, and m ental. The first is audible chanting; th e second is th e m oving of th e lips from w hich no sound issues as one repeats th e sacred w ord; and th e th ird is th e repetition o f th e sacred w ord in the m ind. In all these cases repetition m u st be accom panied by m editation u p o n th e m eaning of th e w ord o r prayer. For th e effective practice of th e virtues m entioned above, Patañjali suggests: ‘To be free from tho ug hts th a t distract one from yoga, tho u gh ts of an opposite kind m u st be cultivated.’4 W hen a wave o f anger, for example, has entered the m ind, let it be controlled by raising an opposite wave of love. Yama and niyam a are the first two limbs of yoga; äsana, posture, is th e third. A series o f exercises, for th e m ost part m ental, is to be followed each day u n til certain of the higher states o f consciousness 1 Yoga Aphorisms, Π. 32. 3 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. I, p. 264.

2 Ibid., Π. 41. * Yoga Aphorisms, Π. 33.

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are reached. It is necessary th a t we should learn to be seated in a firm position, Patañjali advising th a t th e easiest and m ost n atu ral one should be chosen. ‘Proper posture requires th a t one be seated in a position w hich is firm b u t relaxed.’1 T he Gita says, ‘His posture m ust be m otionless, w ith th e body, head and neck held e r e c t. . .’2 Swami Vivekananda suggests, ‘Let th e w hole w eight o f th e body be supported by th e ribs, and th e n you have an easy, n atu ral posture, w ith th e spine straight.’3 In one o f th e Säm khya Sütras we read: ‘A ny posture w hich is easy and steady is an äsana; there is n o o th er ru le.’4 W ith regard to posture Patañjali gives this advice: ‘Posture becomes firm and relaxed th ro u g h control of the n atu ral tendencies of th e body, and th ro u g h m editation on th e Infinite.’5 T he purpose o f äsana is to calm th e m ind; and calm is achieved if w hen seated we m editate on the all-pervading presence o f God, o r fix o u r m inds u p o n som e th o u g h t concerning vastness or infinitude. ‘Thereafter, one is n o longer troubled by th e dualities o f senseexperience.’6 After a period during w hich we observe o u r bodies in a certain posture, we gain in co n trol over them , and th e n th e dualities, heat and cold and th e o th er pairs o f opposites in o u r em pirical lives, cease to disturb th e equilibrium o f o u r minds. In this connection it m ay be interesting to learn w hat V edänta 1 Yoga Aphorisms, Π. 46. 1 VI. 13. 3 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. I, p. 138. 4 T he p osture as tau gh t by Patañjali has n oth in g to do w ith the postu res and

practices m istakenly associated w ith the w ord yoga. T h e West, ignorantly, has connected the w ord yoga w ith acrobatic feats, sw ord-sw allow ing, lying on spikes, crystal-gazing, and so on. T h e so-called yogis w ho are to be m et with in the busy streets o f Bañaras or in the places o f pilgrim age are never regarded by the H indus as genuine yogis. They m ake a practice o f show ing their feats, or lie in the public gaze, proclaim ing the m ortification o f their flesh in order to obtain a few cents fro m the credulous and the ignorant. T hey are m isguided in the sam e w ay as are the A m erican pole-sitters and m arath on dancers, an d their num ber is correspondingly sm all. U nfortunately, how ever, th e pictures o f these fakirs are printed and reprinted in A m erican new spapers and m agazines as pictures o f the genuine yogis o f India. In hatha yoga, which is radically different from Patañjali’s system , greater im portance is attached to the practice o f asanas, or postures. H atha yoga is a system o f physical exercises and can hardly be correlated w ith system s the purpose o f w hich is the attainm ent o f spiritual freedom . Physical health is its principal objective. M any o f the exercises in p osture are n o t dissim ilar to th e practices recom m ended by D elsarte and other W estern teachers. T h e hatha-yoga exercises n o doubt have definite therapeutic value. 5 Yoga Aphorisms, Π. 47. 6 Ibid., II. 48.

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philosophy has to say w ith respect to posture. T he following are aphorisms from Vyäsa: ‘W orship is possible in a sitting posture, because this encourages m editation. T he m editating person is com pared to th e im m ovable earth. There is no law o f place; w herever th e m ind is concentrated, th ere w orship should be perform ed.’1 T he fo u rth lim b o f yoga is pränäyäm a. This w ord means control of vital energy, o r of th e life-principle. Just w h at th e life-principle really is, no one can tell, b u t we do recognize its expression. It is th e energy th a t enables us to act, to think, to breathe. Pränäyäma is control of this energy, and th e w ord has com e to be associated w ith breathing exercises based on a principle som ew hat analogous to th a t p ro pounded by William James to th e W estern w orld. T he principle m ay be stated thus: T he m ind and th e body are closely related, and act and react u p o n each other; em otions cause characteristic changes in th e body, and changes in th e body evoke corresponding em otions in th e m ind. O n this principle of experim ental psychology, discovered in th e West in recent years, b u t know n to th e yogis o f India from alm ost a beginningless past, th ere is tau g h t control o f th e breath to bring calmness and concentration to th e m ind. The state o f th e m ind, w heth er it be lethargic o r restless o r calm, is first observed in th e breathing, for the rise o f passions brings about characteristic changes in th e way we breathe. If, then, breathing can be m ade rhythm ic, calm is th e inevitable result. If, m oreover, th e m ind is in process o f concentration, we scarcely breathe, and w hen th e m ind is in a state o f com plete concentration, we do n o t breathe at all. Pränäyäma needs therefore to be practised first in order to w in control over the body and m ind, and finally to co n trol th e very life energy itself. In th e w ords o f Swami Vivekananda: ‘In this body of ours, th e breath m otion is the “silken th read ” ; by laying hold o f and learning to control it we grasp th e pack thread o f th e nerve currents, and from these th e sto u t tw ine of o u r thoughts, and lastly th e rope o f prana, controlling w hich we reach freedom .’2 According to Patañjali, th e pränäyäm a consists o f three parts: inhalation, exhalation, and pause. This pause m ay be either internal, w hen th e breath is held in th e lungs, or external, w hen it is prevented from entering them . A fo u rth kind o f pränäyäm a exists w hen in the 1 Vedänta Sütras, IV. i. 7-9, 11. 2 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. I, pp. 143-4.

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process o f m editation th e yogi enters th e stage o f kum bhaka, or n atural cessation of breath.1 T he fifth in order of th e limbs of yoga is pratyähära, th e practice u ndertaken to gain detachm ent of th e m ind fro m objects o f sense by n o t perm itting th e m ind to join itself to the centres o f perception or th e organs o f sense. In th e words o f th e Gita: T he tortoise can draw in its legs: T he seer can draw in his senses. I call him illum ined.2 T h at is pratyähära. Swami Vivekananda rem arks: ‘He w ho has succeeded in attaching his m ind to th e centres o f perception at will, or in detaching it from them , has succeeded in pratyahara, w hich m eans “gathering tow ards”, checking the outgoing powers o f th e m ind, freeing it from th e thrald o m o f th e senses. W hen we can do this we shall really possess character; th e n alone we shall have taken a long step tow ards freedom .’3 1 I have purposely refrained from giving the breathing exercises know n to the yogis, for they should never be practised w ithout previous instruction fro m an adept teacher. M any books published in A m erica on the subject o f yoga describe breathing exercises w hich are n o t the pränäyäm a as tau gh t by Patafljali, bu t rather th at belonging to the sch ool o f hatha yoga. I am certain th at those w ho write indiscrim inately o f yoga breathing exercises do m u ch unintentional harm . For these exercises are dangerous to the beginner w ithout the proper personal guidance. Furtherm ore, it is m y opinion th at th e m any varieties o f breathing exercises tau gh t by hatha yogis are dangerous even w hen practised un der the supervision o f teachers skilled in hatha yoga. They m ay som etim es aid in building th e physical body, bu t they ju st as often in jure the brain. T here are instances in India, to m y personal know ledge, o f m en w ho have becom e m entally unbalanced by such practices. U nfortunately an interest in breathing exercises th at go by the nam e o f yoga has been created in A m erica by irresponsible authors and teachers. 1 do n o t wish, how ever, to entirely disappoint readers w ho m ay wish som e healthful exercises for their individual practice. Prelim inary to pränäyäm a there is a breathing exercise w hich is very easy to practise and quite harm less. As great an authority as áam kara, one o f the greatest o f all yogis and Vedäntists, recom m en ds it. He says, ‘The m ind w hose dross has been cleared away by pränäyäm a becom es fixed in Brahm an; therefore pränäyäm a is taugh t. First, the nerves are to be purified; then com es the pow er to practise pränäyäm a. Stopping the right n ostril w ith the thum b, th rou gh the left nostril breathe in air, according to capacity; then, w ithout any interval, expel the air th rou gh the right nostril, closing the left one. Again, inhaling th rou gh the right nostril, expel the air th rou gh the left, according to capacity. By practising this three or five tim es at fo u r periods o f the day, before dawn, during m idday, in the evening, and at m idnight, in fifteen days o r a m on th one m ay attain purity o f the nerves.’ 2 Π. 58. 1 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. I, pp. 173-4.

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H ow difficult it is to gain co ntrol over th e m ind, w hich has been aptly com pared to a m addened m onkey d ru n k w ith w ine and stung by a scorpion! Like th a t m onkey, th e h u m an m ind is restless, d ru n k w ith th e wine o f desires and stung by th e passions. C o ntrol over this restless m ind is n o t an easy task, b u t th ro u g h th e discipline of yoga it can be attained. In the beginning, th e yogi w ould let th e m ind ru n its full course while he learned to becom e a witness to its action. Let us listen again to Swami Vivekananda, w ho has th e com parison to a m addened m onkey in m ind: ‘T he first lesson is to sit for som e tim e and let th e m ind ru n on. T he m ind is bubbling u p all th e tim e. It is like th a t m onkey jum ping about. Let th e m onkey ju m p as m u ch as he can; you simply w ait and w atch. Knowledge is pow er, says th e proverb, and th a t is true. U ntil you know w h at th e m ind is doing, y ou c an n o t co n tro l it. Give it th e rein; m any hideous th o ug hts m ay com e in to it; you will be astonished th a t it was possible for you to th in k such thoughts. B ut you will find th a t each day th e m ind’s vagaries are becom ing fewer and less violent, th a t each day it is becom ing calm er. In th e first few m on th s you will find th a t th e m ind will have a great m any thoughts, later you will find th a t they have som ew hat decreased, and in a few m ore m on th s you will find th a t they are fewer and fewer, u n til at last th e m ind will be u n d e r perfect control—b u t we m u st patiently practise every day.’1 C oncentration, th e sixth lim b o f yoga, has been defined by Patafíjali as ‘holding th e m in d w ithin a centre o f spiritual consciousness in the body, o r fixing it on som e divine form , either w ithin th e body or outside it’.2 We again repeat th a t the kingdom o f heaven is w ithin; th a t is to say, Purusa, or th e Divine Self, is w ithin th e sanctuary o f th e body. T hus all th e form s o f w orship or o f concentration and m editatio n tau g h t to aspirants after spiritual life are directed tow ards th e search for this kingdom o f heaven w ithin one’s ow n self. T he Upanisads teach th a t th e Self is to be m editated u p o n w ithin th e cavity o f th e heart. T here are w ithin th e body, declare th e Indian yogis, different spiritual centres w ithin w hich one m ay tu rn o n e’s m ind u p o n th e light of God. Patañjali, in defining concentration, has reference to th e tu rn in g o f th e m ind in ten tly tow ards these centres o f spiritual consciousness. B ut this practice m u st be u n d ertak en only u n d e r th e instruction o f an adept. M en vary b o th in capacity and in tem peram ent. A single fo rm o f concentration m ay n o t suit all m en in th eir search for spiritual realization. Patañjali suggests a few simple form s, how ever, 1 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. I, pp. 174-5.

2 Yoga Aphorisms, Π1. 1.

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w hich everyone m ay practise. The first tw o of these are contained in th e following aphorisms. ‘This w ord [Om] m u st be repeated w ith m editation u p o n its m eaning.’1 ‘C oncentration m ay also be attained by fixing th e m ind u p o n th e In n er Light, w hich is beyond sorrow .’2 This in n er light deserves com m ent. T he ancient yogis believed th a t th ere was an actual centre o f spiritual consciousness, called ‘th e lotus o f th e h eart’, situated betw een th e abdom en and th e thorax, w hich could be revealed to th e aspirant in deep m editation. They said th a t it had th e form o f a lotus and th a t it shone w ith an in n er light. It was said to be ‘beyond sorrow ’, since those w ho saw it were filled w ith an extraordinary sense o f peace and joy. From th e very earliest times, th e masters of yoga em phasized the im portance o f m editating u p o n this lotus. According to the Kaivalya Upanisad: ‘T he suprem e heaven shines in th e lotus of th e heart. Those w ho struggle and aspire m ay en ter there. . . . Retire in to solitude. Seat yourself on a clean spot in an erect posture, w ith th e head and neck in a straight line. C ontrol all sense organs. Bow dow n in devotion to y ou r teacher. T hen en ter th e lotus o f th e heart and m editate there o n th e presence of B rahm an—the pure, th e infinite, th e blissful.’3 And in th e Chändogya Upanisad we read: ‘W ithin th e city o f B rahm an, w hich is th e body, th ere is th e heart, and w ithin th e heart there is a little house. This house has th e shape of a lotus, and w ithin it dwells th a t w hich is to be sought after, inquired about, and realized. ‘W hat, then, is th a t w hich dwells w ithin this little house, this lotus of th e heart? W hat is it th a t m u st be sought after, inquired about, and realized? ‘Even so large as th e universe outside is th e universe w ithin th e lotus of th e heart. W ithin it are heaven and earth, th e sun, th e m oon, th e lightning, and all th e stars. W hatever is in th e m acrocosm is in this m icrocosm also. ‘All things th a t exist, all beings and all desires, are in th e city of Brahm an; w hat, then, becomes of th e m w hen old age approaches and the body dissolves in death? ‘T hough old age comes to th e body, th e lotus of th e heart does n o t grow old. It does n o t die w ith th e death of the body« T he lotus o f th e heart, w here B rahm an resides in all his glory—that, and n o t th e body, 1 Yoga Aphorisms, I. 28.

2 Ibid., I. 36.

3 3, 4, 5.

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is th e tru e city o f Brahm an. Brahm an, dwelling therein, is u n to u ch ed by any deed, ageless, deathless, free from grief, free from hu ng er and fro m thirst. His desires are right desires, and his desires are fulfilled.’1 A nd in th e M undaka Upanisad: ‘W ithin th e lotus of th e h eart he dwells, w here th e nerves m eet like th e spokes o f a wheel. M editate u p o n him as Om, and you m ay easily cross th e ocean o f darkness.2 In th e effulgent lotus o f th e h eart dwells Brahm an, passionless and indivisible. He is pure. He is th e light o f all lights. T he know ers of B rahm an attain him .’3 M editation in th e h eart centre is helpful because it localizes o u r image o f th e spiritual consciousness tow ards w hich we are struggling. If th e body is th o u g h t of as a busy and noisy city, th e n we can im agine th a t in the m iddle o f this city there is a little shrine, and th a t w ithin this shrine th e A tm an, o u r real nature, is present. No m atter w h at is going o n in th e streets outside, we can always en ter th a t shrine and w orship. It is always open. O r again—a th ird form —one m ay m editate ‘u p o n th e h eart o f an illum ined soul, th a t is free from passion’.4 In th e Upanisads we read, ‘A know er o f B rahm an has becom e B rahm an.’ By w orshipping such a know er, we actually w orship God. A nd such a know er is any one of th e G od-m en—for example, Krsna, Buddha, or Christ. Or—a fo u rth form —one m ay substitute ‘a dream experience, or th e experience o f deep sleep’.5 By ‘a dream experience’ Patañjali m eans a dream about a holy personality or a divine symbol. Such a dream can properly be called an experience, because it brings a sense o f joy and revelation w hich rem ains w ith us after we have awakened. In th e literature o f Indian spirituality we find m any instances of devotees w ho dream ed th a t th ey received a m an tra fro m som e great teacher. Such a d ream -m antra is regarded as being ju st as sacred as one received in th e waking state, and the devotee w ho is blessed by it w ill continue to use it and m editate u p o n it th ro u g h o u t th e rest o f his life. Or, finally, one m ay substitute ‘any divine form o r sym bol th a t appeals to one as good’.6 O ne of th e m ost attractive characteristics o f Patañj ali’s philosophy is its breadth of vision, its universality. T here is no attem p t here to im pose any particular cult u p o n th e spiritual aspirant. God is w ithin us, and it is by th e light o f his presence—no m atter how dim ly it shines th ro u g h th e layers of o u r ignorance— th a t w e fashion o u r ow n pictures and symbols o f goodness and * v m . i. 1-5.

4 Yoga Aphorisms, I. 37.

2 Π. ii. 6.

5 Ibid., I. 38.

3 Ibid., 9. 6 Ibid., I. 39.

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project th e m u p o n th e outside w orld. Every such picture, symbol, or idea is holy if it is conceived in sincerity. It m ay be crude and childish, it m ay n o t appeal to others; th a t is un im p o rtan t. A ll-im portant is o u r attitude tow ards it. W hatever we tru ly and purely worship, we m ake sacred. As concentration deepens, we arrive at th e next, th e seventh lim b o f yoga, called m editation. ‘M editation (dhyäna) is an unbroken flow o f th o u g h t tow ard th e object of concentration.’1 In o th er words, m editation is prolonged concentration. T he process o f m editation is often com pared to th e p ouring of oil from one vessel to an other in a steady, unbroken stream . We have seen th a t Patañjali defines th o u g h t as a wave (vrtti)2 in th e m ind. O rdinarily a th o u g h twave arises, rem ains in th e m ind for a m om ent, and th en subsides, to be succeeded by another. In th e practice o f m editation a succession o f identical waves is raised in the m ind; and this is done so quickly th a t no one wave is allowed to subside before an other rises to take its place. T he effect is therefore one o f perfect continuity. If you shoot a h u n d red feet of film w ith o u t m oving y o ur cam era or y o ur object, and th e n project the result on a screen, the spectator m ight just as well be looking at a single still photograph. T he m any identical images are fused into one. It will be seën th a t Patafîjali’s dhyäna does n o t exactly correspond to o u r usual understanding of m editation. We com m only m ean by it a m ore o r less discursive operation of th e m ind aro u n d a central idea. If, for example, we say th a t we have been m editating o n Christ, we are apt to m ean th a t we have n o t only tried to fix o u r m inds on C hrist’s ideal fo rm b u t have also been thinking about his teachings, his miracles, his disciples, his crucifixion, and so on. All this is very good, b u t it is a m ere prelim inary to w hat m ay properly be called dhäranä and dhyäna. T he final stage of m editation is samädhi, absorption. This is th e last, th e eighth lim b of yoga. This absorption is n o t precisely sam ädhi in th e sense of transcendental consciousness, w hich will be explained later; it is rath er th e door to its attainm ent. It is th e state we achieve w hen m editation deepens and th e m ind takes on th e form o f th e object of m editation. T hen is th e m in d entirely freed from any o ther th o u g h t, th e n th ere is com plete forgetfulness of everything b u t th e object of m editation, and th e sense o f tim e is annihilated. ‘T he m ind becomes one-pointed w hen similar thought-w aves arise in succession w ith o u t any gaps betw een th em .’3 1 Yoga Aphorisms, ΙΠ. 2. I

1 Ibid., I. 2.

3 Ibid., ΙΠ. 12.

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Patañjali declares th a t ‘these three—concentration, m editation, and absorption—are m ore direct aids to spiritual experience th a n th e five limbs previously described.’1 They represent the th ree stages o f th e process of contem plation, o f w hich th e th ird is th e culm ination, and together they are know n as samyama, w hich in tu rn is to be followed by th e low er stage o f samädhi, transcendental consciousness. T he o th er five limbs of yoga are preparatory to th e practice of contem plation. W hen one has passed th ro u g h samyama—th a t is, w hen one has attained perfection in m editation—illum ination arises in the m ind. ‘By th e practice of samyama comes th e light of know ledge.’2 Before, however, we discuss this last victory th a t rewards th e aspirant’s efforts, we o u g h t briefly to consider th e psychic experiences and occult powers w hich now m ay be in his possession. Yoga and Occult Powers

W hile engaged in an explanation o f concentration and m editation, Patañjali refers to th e way in w hich th e m ind, while becom ing deeply absorbed in any particular object or th o u g h t, acquires vibhütis, or occult powers, and psychic p henom ena occur. Different powers are acquired as a result of concentrating u p o n different objects. If one, for instance, should exercise samyama on th e peculiar signs or features in an o th er’s body, one gains knowledge of his m ind. Or, ‘if one exercises samyama on th e form o f one’s ow n body, obstructing its perceptibility and separating its pow er o f m anifestation from the eyes of the beholder, th e n one’s body becomes invisible.’3 A yogi, for example, tho u g h he m ay n o t actually depart from th e ro om in w hich he is seated, m ay disappear from the sight o f everyone present. He has in reality attained to th a t pow er of concentration w herein form and th e thing form ed have becom e separated. As he exercises samyama o n his ow n form , the pow er to perceive form s by others is so obstructed th a t he becomes invisible. Patañjali describes exercising samyama on various objects and concepts, and claims therefrom the acquisition o f various occult powers and th e appearance o f various psychic phenom ena. We read in th e Bible how Christ perform ed m any miracles—for example, walking on the w ater, tu rn in g w ater into wine, feeding a m ultitud e w ith five loaves and two fishes, healing th e sick, and raising the dead. According to Indian yogic claims, such miracles are n o t exceptions; rath er can they be perform ed by every m an provided he follows certain practices, and th e principal apparatus for testing th e validity of these claims is the m ind cultivated by th e practices of concentration 1 Yoga Aphorisms, III. 7.

2 Ibid., m . 5.

3 Ibid., m . 21.

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and m editation. If it is asked w hether these powers and p henom ena are capable o f scientific dem onstration, th e answer is yes and no. They are dem onstrable in th e sense th a t the yogi can exhibit his powers before anybody, b u t n o t in th e sense th a t he can explain to just anybody how he does so. To com prehend his dem onstration, one m u st oneself in som e degree be a yogi—just as to understand a dem onstration in physics or chem istry one m ust be already, in som e degree, a scientist. T he educated m an will understand th e dem onstration, b u t will a boor, or a m oron? T he law of cause and effect, as we know it in th e w orld of science, does n o t apply to th e process of m editation u p o n a particular object o r concept and to th e developm ent o f a particular result therefrom . B ut th a t th ere is here an invariable sequence can be proved th ro u g h continued experim ent. C ertain powers are easily attainable, while others are th e result o f long and strenuous practice. Such powers as clairvoyance, clairaudience, thought-reading, telepathy, are child’s play com pared w ith som e o ther yogic powers, such as the pow er of becom ing invisible, of levitation, of w alking on w ater, and th e like. All these occult or psychic powers m ay be developed by an exact application o f Patafíjali’s special instructions, o r th ey m ay suddenly com e to a yogi w ho is n o t seeking to acquire th e m b u t whose m ind is concerned w ith spiritual illum ination th ro u g h a simple following o f yoga practices. However, th e yogi w ho is tru e to his ideal of spiritual life pays no heed to th e occult powers he m ay discover in himself, n o r does he exercise th em . Patafíjali proves th a t these powers are n o t abnorm al p henom ena n o r magic—th a t they live w ithin all m en and can be developed by all; b u t he shows at th e same tim e th a t they have n o th in g at all to do w ith spiritual life. O n th e contrary, they are veritable obstacles, stum bling blocks on th e road to spiritual attainm ent. ‘They are powers in th e w orldly state, b u t they are obstacles to sam ädhi.’1 T he greatest power, it is contended by all yogis, is th e pow er to co ntro l these o th er powers w hen they are present. Just as th ere are physical obstacles and lusts o f th e flesh w hich m u st be overcom e, so there are psychic phenom ena—th e subtler lusts of th e m ind, th e tem ptations o f pow er—w hich one m u st w holly overcom e if one w ould approach th e door to God. We read in th e life o f Sri R äm akrsna how w hen he received occult powers he discarded th em as heaps o f rubbish. T he following simple story th a t he used to tell illustrates how futile and vain they are. ‘T here w ere tw o brothers. One o f th e m w ithdrew from th e w orld in his search for tru th . After twelve years, years o f struggle and self1 Yoga Aphorisms, ΙΠ. 38.

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denial, he retu rn ed to his b rother, w ho th e n asked him , “W hat have y ou gained in these years of austerity?” “ C om e and I will show you,” answered th e first brother. They came to a river bank, and th e yogib ro th er crossed th e river by walking on th e water. The lay bro th er called for a boat, paid th e boatm an a copper, and was ferried across. T h en he said, “B rother, is this all you have gained in twelve long years of struggle—to be able to do som ething th a t can be had for the price of a copper piece?” ’1 Samädhi or Transcendental Consciousness

T h e know ledge w hich is gained fro m inference and th e study of scriptures is know ledge of one kind. B ut the know ledge w hich is gained from sam ädhi is o f a m u ch higher order. It goes beyond inference and scriptures.’2 Here Patañjali describes th e tw o kinds of knowledge: knowledge obtained th ro u g h th e m ediation o f th e reason, and knowledge obtained by direct, superconscious experience. O rdinary knowledge comes to us by way of sense perception, and th e interpretation of this by o u r reason. O rdinary knowledge is therefore necessarily lim ited to ordinary objects; th a t is to say, to those objects w hich are w ithin the grasp of o ur senses. W hen ordinary know ledge attem pts to deal w ith w hat is extraordinary, its im potence is im m ediately revealed. For example, we have th e various scriptures and writings w hich tell us about th e existence o f God. We m ay read these and accept their teachings—up to a certain point. But we cannot claim to know G od because we have read them . All th a t we can say we know is th a t these scriptures w ere w ritten by m en w ho claimed to know God. W hy should we believe them ? True, o u r reason m ay suggest to us th a t th e authors o f th e scriptures were probably honest and reliable, n o t self-deluded o r insane, and th a t therefore we should believe w h at they tell us. B ut such belief can only be partial and provisional. It is very unsatisfactory. It is certainly n o t knowledge. So now we have tw o alternatives. Either we m ust decide th a t there is only one kind o f knowledge, lim ited to th e objects of sense-contact, and thereby resign ourselves to a p erm an ent agnosticism concerning th e teachings of th e scriptures. Or we m u st adm it th e possibility of another, a higher kind of know ledge w hich is supersensory and therefore capable of confirm ing th e tru th o f these teachings th ro u g h direct experience. Such is th e know ledge w hich is obtained th ro u g h ' Sw am i Brahm ananda, ¿rï Èri Râmakrsna Upadesa, p. 78. 2 Yoga Aphorisms, I. 49.

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samädhi. A nd each one of us has to find it for himself. Said Swami Vivekananda: ‘Realization is real religion; all th e rest is only preparation. Hearing lectures, o r reading books, o r reasoning, is m erely preparing th e ground; it is n o t religion. Intellectual assent and intellectual dissent are n o t religion.’1 Religion is, in fact, a severely practical kind o f research. You take n othing o n trust. You accept n othing b u t y o ur ow n experience. You go forward alone, step by step, like an explorer in a virgin jungle, to see w hat you will find. All th a t Patañjali, or anybody else, can do for you is to urge you to attem pt th e exploration and to offer certain general hints and warnings w hich m ay be of help to you on y o ur way. Patañjali tells us th a t in th e state o f nirvicära sam ädhi th e m ind becomes ‘p u re ’ and ‘filled w ith tr u th ’. T he m ind is said to be pure because, in this state, all th e m in or thought-w aves have been swallowed u p by one great wave of concentration u p o n a single object. It is tru e th a t ‘seeds’ o f attach m en t still exist w ithin this wave, b u t only in a state of suspended anim ation. For th e m om ent, at least, they can do no harm , and it is very im probable th a t they will ever become fertile again, because, the devotee having progressed thu s far, it is com paratively easy for him to take th e final step, w hich will cause their annihilation. T he m ind, in nirvicära samädhi, is said to be filled w ith tru th because it now experiences direct supersensory knowledge. Those w ho have m editated o n som e Chosen Ideal or spiritual personality experience direct contact w ith th e object of m editation, n o longer som ething subjectively imagined, b u t som ething objectively know n. If you have been m editating on Krsna, or on Christ, and trying to picture either o f th em to yourself in y o ur im agination, you will find th a t y o u r picture dissolves into th e reality of a living presence; and, in know ing th a t presence, you will see th a t y o ur picture o f it was im perfect and unlike th e original. Those w ho have had this experience liken it to th e action o f a m agnet. In th e prelim inary stages of m editation, th e effort seems to com e entirely from oneself; one keeps forcing one’s m ind to rem ain pointed at its object. B ut later one becomes aware o f an outside force, a magnetic pow er, w hich draws one’s m ind in th e desired direction, so th a t th e effort is no longer one’s own. This is w hat is know n as grace. How can we be sure th a t th e revelations obtained th ro u g h sam ädhi are genuine revelations, and n o t som e form o f self-delusion or auto1 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. I, p. 232.

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hypnosis? C om m on sense suggests several tests. For instance, it is obvious th a t th e know ledge so obtained m u st n o t contradict the know ledge w hich has already been obtained in th e same way by others; th ere are m any know ers b u t th ere is only one tru th . Again, it is clear th a t this know ledge m ust be som ething w hich is n o t know able by oth er m eans—n o t knowable, th a t is to say, by m eans of o u r ordinary sense experience. And, finally, this know ledge m ust bring w ith it a com plete renew al of th e m ind and transform ation of character. ‘T he rig h t relation betw een prayer and con du ct’, w rote Archbishop Tem ple, ‘is n o t th a t conduct is suprem ely im p o rtan t and prayer m ay help it, b u t th a t prayer is suprem ely im p o rtan t and co nd u ct tests it.’ If this is fo u nd tru e in th e prelim inary phases of spiritual life, it should be even m ore strikingly dem onstrated in th e final, unitive state of sam ädhi. In achieving that, a m an becomes a saint. For, as Patañjali says: ‘T he impression w hich is m ade u p o n the m ind by sam ädhi wipes o u t all o ther impressions.’1 A nd now he goes o n to tell us how to take th e ultim ate step into com plete u nio n w ith B rahm an: ‘W hen the impression m ade by th a t sam ädhi is also wiped out, so th a t there are no m ore thought-w aves at all in th e m ind, th e n one enters th e sam ädhi w hich is called “seedless”.’2 It has already been explained th a t sam ädhi is achieved by raising one object, one great wave of concentration in th e m ind by w hich all o th er thought-w aves, all samskäras, or past impressions, are swallowed up. B ut now even this one wave has to be stilled. W hen it has subsided, we enter th e highest sam ädhi of all, w hich is called nirvikalpa in th e V edänta system of philosophy. Nirvikalpa sam ädhi is said to be seedless because it is noth ing b u t pure, undifferentiated consciousness; it contains no phenom enal impressions whatever, n o seeds of desire and attachm ent. In nirvikalpa sam ädhi one is no longer oneself, one is literally one w ith Brahm an; one enters into th e real natu re o f the apparent universe and all its form s and creatures. It is hard to follow Patañjali to such heights, even theoretically; and perhaps it will be well, before concluding this chapter, to go back to its beginning and try to recapitulate in a simple and nontechnical m an n er w hat he has tau g h t us. We have to start, we are told, by training th e m ind to concentrate, b u t Patañjali has w arned us th a t this practice of concentration m u st be accom panied by no nattachm en t; otherw ise we shall find ourselves in trouble. If we try to concentrate w hile rem aining attached to th e things o f this w orld, we shall either fail altogether or o ur newly 1 Yoga Aphorisms, I. 50.

2 Ibid., I. 51.

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acquired powers will bring us into great danger, because we shall inevitably use th em for selfish, unspiritual ends. W hat is th e simplest way to acquire nonattachm ent? We m ust begin by cultivating attachm ent to the highest object we can conceive of, to God himself. We can do this, first of all, on the lowest level, th e level o f gross phenom ena. Take som e great spiritual teacher, a B uddha or a Christ, o r any oth er m ajor saint of any country o r religion. This m an actually lived on this earth in h u m an form . You can read about his life. You can approach him as a h u m an being. It is easy to grow to love him , to w ant to be like him , to try to serve him and spread his message by m odelling y o ur life u p o n his. T h rough this service and this love, n o n attach m en t to other, lesser loves and objectives comes naturally. It is n o t th a t we becom e indifferent to o th er people o r to o u r own w ork and duties. But o ur love for others is included in o u r love for o u r Ideal—it ceases to be exclusive and possessive; and o u r w ork, because it is now done as service to th a t Ideal, takes on a new m eaning, and we feel m ore enthusiasm for it th a n ever before. T h ro u gh devotion to o u r Ideal and m editation u p o n his life, we shall com e gradually to an understanding of th e spirit w ithin th e m an; and so we pass from th e level of gross phenom ena to th e subtle or spiritual level. We shall no longer adm ire a B uddha or a Christ as a h u m an being w ithin tim e, b u t we shall w orship him as an eternal, spiritual being. We shall know him in his divine aspect. T h at is the second stage. T here is, however, a th ird stage, a th ird level of consciousness. For behind Buddha, behind Christ, behind any conception of a personal God, there is Brahm an, th e central reality of w hich these figures are only partial, individual projections. W hen we becom e united w ith Brahm an, we are united w ith th a t w hich was manifested in Christ and hidden w ithin o u r unregenerate selves, b u t w hich is eternally present in all of us. And this union is th e state of nirvikalpa samädhi. T he low er stages of sam ädhi all contain a vestige o f th e sense of duality; it is still T w ho am m editating u p o n ‘m y’ Ideal; there is a separation between o u r Ideal and ourselves. A nd it is n atu ral th a t even the great saint finds it painful to surrender his intense personal love for his Ideal in order to achieve final, im personal union. In describing how he first reached nirvikalpa samädhi, Sri R äm akrsna said: ‘Every tim e I gathered m y m ind together, I came face to face w ith th e blissful form o f Divine M other. However m u ch I tried to free m y m ind from consciousness of M other, I didn’t have the will to go beyond. B ut at last, collecting all th e strength of m y will, I cu t M other’s form to pieces w ith the sword of discrimination, and at

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once m y m ind became “seedless”, and I reached nirvikalpa. It was beyond all expression.’1 Nirvikalpa sam ädhi has been described by Samkara as follows: ‘T here is a continuous consciousness o f th e u n ity o f A tm an and B rahm an. T here is no longer any identification o f th e A tm an w ith its coverings. All sense o f duality is obliterated. T here is pure, unified consciousness. T he m an w ho is well established in this consciousness is said to be illum ined. ‘A m an is said to be free even in this life w hen he is established in illum ination. His bliss is unending. He alm ost forgets this w orld of appearances. ‘Even th o u g h his m ind is dissolved in Brahm an, he is fully awake, b u t free from th e ignorance o f waking life. He is fully conscious, b u t free from any craving. Such a m an is said to be free even in this life. ‘For him , th e sorrows of this w orld are over. T h o u g h he possesses a finite body, he rem ains u n ited w ith th e infinite. His h eart knows no anxiety. Such a m an is said to be free even in this life.’2 W hile in nirvikalpa Sri R äm akrsna experienced u n io n w ith th e im personal B rahm an. But, on retu rn in g to n orm al consciousness, he w ould speak o f God in th e aspect o f th e Divine M other, his Chosen Ideal. The Divine M other did n o t lose h er reality for h im because he had know n Brahm an. It is im p o rtan t to rem em ber this, for, in o u r ordinary speech, th e w ord real is used vaguely and loosely, and is apt to lead to confusion. W hen we say th a t B rahm an alone is real, we do n o t m ean th a t everything else is illusion, b u t rath er th a t B rahm an alone is fundam ental. T he several aspects o f God, th e divine incarnations, have their ow n relative order o f reality. The materialists—those w ho describe themselves as being ‘dow n to earth ’—are th e ones w ho are living in an unreal w orld, because they lim it themselves to th e level o f gross sense perception. The perception of th e illum ined saint ranges over th e w hole scale, from gross to subtle and from subtle to absolute; and it is only he w ho knows w hat th e n atu re o f this universe actually is. 1 Liläprasahga, Sädh ak bhäv, pp. 319-20.

2 Vivekacüdâmani, vss. 427-30.

C H A P T E R 13

TH E P Ü R V A M I M Ä M S Ä

Jaimini, th e com piler o f th e M imämsä Sütras, th o u g h som e co ntroversial issues have been raised by m o dern O riental scholars as to his identity, was long accepted by Indian com m entators as a disciple of Vyäsa, th e fam ous au th o r o f the M ahäbhärata. W hen th e com pilation was m ade cann ot be ascertained w ith any exactness, b u t m any scholars believe it to be one of th e earliest collections know n to Indian philosophy. One fam ous com m entary u p o n th e aphorism s o f Jaimini, by Savara Swämi ( a d 400), has m ade th e m intelligible to a m odern reader, altho ug h it in tu rn has been interpreted in tw o different ways, one by Prabhäkara (a d 650) and th e o th er by Kum ärilla B hatta ( a d 700). T he tw o m ain objectives of M imämsä philosophy are to establish th e autho rity o f th e Vedas as th e incontrovertible source o f all knowledge and to explain their tru e m eaning. It does n o t claim to be a com m entary u p o n them . First, then , by way o f accepting th e au th ority o f th e Vedas as a p ro o f and source o f knowledge, th e M imämsä philosophy, n o t dogmatically b u t logically, enters th e lists of controversy w ith m any subtle argum ents respecting the relation of w ord and th o u g h t to each o th er w hich we need n o t concern ourselves w ith here. Briefly, it declares th a t th e Vedas are apauruseya—self-revealed. By saying they are self-revelations M imämsä denies their authorship even to God, for if self-revealed they are w ith o u t authorship o f any sort, h u m an o r divine. In fact, it is n o t clear w hether M imämsä at all accepts an om nipotent, om nipresent, self-existent God, for now here does it discuss th e question o f his existence. Furtherm ore, th e com m entators are also silent u p o n this m atter. Later exponents of the system, however, in defining its purpose, declare th a t it m erely attem pts to explain th e n atu re of Vedic rites and ceremonies w ith ou t any concern w hether or n o t God exists. This system, they assert, has n oth in g to add concerning God and salvation to w hat has been exhaustively set fo rth in V edänta philosophy.

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T he w ord m im äm sä denotes th e reasoning process to be followed if one w ould understand the m eaning of a w ord or a sentence in the Vedas. The epithet pürva indicates th a t th e prim ary aim of th e M imämsä philosophy is to explain th e tru e m eaning o f th e pürva, or earlier portio n o f th e Vedas. This philosophy is also know n as Karma M imämsä, since it seeks to explain th e karm a, th e rites and ceremonies tau g h t in th e Vedas, and the effects o f their perform ance. It explains th e Vedas as essentially injunctions concerning th e perform ance o f th e sacred rites, and it subordinates th e Upanisads, th e last, philosophical part of th e Vedas, to th e p art giving such in ju nctions. It attributes so m u ch im portance to sacrificial rites th a t even th e deities in whose favour these rites are perform ed seem to occupy a secondary place. It denies their very existence, in fact, as separate from th e m antras, o r revealed words o f th e Vedas. A dherents o f th e M imämsä school cite th e following Vedic story to show the im portance of ritual sacrifice: ‘T here was once a fam ous sage nam ed Bharadväja. By din t of penance he attained a long life o f three hu nd red years, during w hich he rem ained unm arried and devoted him self to perform ing th e ordained Vedic rites and studying th e Vedas. At last, crippled w ith age, he was confined to his bed. One day Indra him self came to him and said, “Bharadväja, if I extend your life by a hu n d red years, w hat will you do w ith it?” Bharadväja replied, “I shall continue to do as I have done so far.” W hereupon Indra showed him three large m ountains th a t he had never seen and placed before him a handful of dust from each, saying, “Bharadväja, th e three m ountains th a t you see are th e th ree Vedas—Säma, Rk, and Yajur; they are eternal and endless; w hat you have learned from your teacher and from study o f the Vedas, by observing celibacy, is equal only to these three handfuls of dust; th e endless rem ainder lies unexplored before you. Come, learn from m e th e real im p ort o f th e Vedas. They are th e source of all know ledge.” So saying, and wishing to give him th e m eans o f attaining Vedic knowledge, Indra initiated th e sage into the worship of th a t fire w hich is connected w ith the sun. Bharadväja worshipped th e sun as he had been instructed and obtained eternal life.51 M imämsä philosophy thu s lays m ost stress u p o n w ork, w hich chiefly denotes th e perform ance of cerem onial rites.2 1 Taittiriya Brähm ana, DI. i. 11. 1 C om pare the m edieval discussion am on g Christian divines concerning the relative im portance o f faith and w orks, the latter m eaning essentially the perform ance o f the offices o f the church. M oral conduct, in the M im äm sä

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T rue religious life, therefore, is th e observance o f dharm a, or religious duties and cerem onial rites w hich lead to heaven in th e life hereafter; and th e Vedas alone can guide us concerning w hat is right and w hat is w rong, so th a t we m ay do th e one and avoid th e other. T he perform ance of dharm a gives rise to a peculiar quality called apürba (literally, never before, or som ething unexpected), and it is by possessing th a t th a t one is entitled to th e felicity o f heaven. Mxmämäs regards th e attainm ent of heaven as th e prim ary objective in life; b u t no explanation is offered, either in th e original w ork of Jaimini or in th e com m entaries, o f th e n atu re of heaven, w hether it is a place o f unalloyed happiness, as we find it in popular interpretations of Christianity, or a blissful state of th e soul. Certain followers o f th e school accept it as a place o f enjoym ent to w hich we go after death. O thers believe it to be th e present attain m en t of a ‘happiness w hich is n o t mixed w ith sorrow , o r eclipsed by any oth er m ental state, w hich never ends, and w hich m ay be had by m erely wishing for it’. Except for Mlmämsä, all schools o f Indian th o u g h t m ake o f the problem o f th e Self th e m ain subject o f discussion. M lmämsä gives no specific attentio n to it, b u t we m ay gather from careful study th a t it regards th e Self as distinct from th e body, senses, and m ind—and intelligence, will, and effort as its n atu ral attributes. If one uses these attributes in th e right way by following th e injunctions o f th e Vedas, one m ay in th e afterlife attain felicity in heaven. philosophy, is a necessary condition fo r the perform ance o f rites, bu t m oral con duct is n o t regarded as an ideal in itself; rather, right living is a prerequisite for the perform ance o f Vedic rites.

C H A P T E R 14

THE U T T A R A -M IM A M S Ä OR THE VEDANTA SÜTRAS

T he w ord V edanta means, literally, th e end of th e Vedas, w ith specific reference to th e Upanisads, th e last p o rtion or th e essential p art o f each o f th e fo u r Vedas. T he Upanisads, as we have already noted, m ake n o a ttem p t to order th eir contents b u t m erely record th e extraordinary experiences of th e seers. T here accordingly arose th e necessity of interpreting th e m in term s of h u m an reason and organizing th e m in to a systematic philosophy. Bädaräyana is th e a u th o r of th e V edanta Sütras in w hich th e systematizing attem p t is made. From h im we learn of oth er sages w ho preceded him in th e same attem p t b u t whose writings have n o t been preserved. A bout Bädaräyana little is know n, th o u g h Indian tradition identifies him w ith Vyäsa, a u th o r o f th e M ahäbhärata, w ho flourished som etim e betw een 500 and 200 b c . T he V edänta Sütras are also know n as Brahm a Sütras because they expound th e philosophy of B rahm an, and as Sariraka Sütras because th ey deal w ith th e n atu re o f th e unconditioned Self embodied in h u m a n form . T ho ug h th e Sütras undertake to interpret and organize th e Upanisads, they are themselves quite unintelligible -without com m entaries. T he com m entaries, m oreover, are so diverse and often so conflicting th a t it is w ell-nigh impossible to arrive at th e precise views held by Bädaräyana. T he V edänta Sütras are unquestionably o f great authority, however, for every im p o rtan t philosopher has w ritten com m entaries u p o n them . They are indeed one o f th e three great w orks u p o n w hich all th e theologies o f India rest. T he others are th e Upanisads, of course, and th e Gitä. To understand th e place o f th e three w orks in m odern Indian philosophy, we recall to m ind once again th e three steps in attaining Self-knowledge prescribed by th e Upanisads. We m u st hear of th e tru th o f th e Self, we m u st reason u p o n this tru th , and we m u st m editate u po n th e Self.1 T he Upanisads speak to us of th e tru th of 1 Brhadäranyaka, Π. iv. 5.

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th e Self. T he V edanta Sütras aid us to reason and understand. Finally, th e Gita affords us practical ways and m eans o f living and prescribes details o f co nd uct and m ethods o f m editation. O f th e m any philosophers w ho have com m ented u p o n these fundam ental scriptures, th e chief are Samkara, Bhäskara, Yädava Prakäs, R äm änuja, Nimbärka, Kesava, N ilakantha, M ädhwa, Baladeva, Vallabha, and V ijñanabhiksu. Five of these have had a large following: Samkara, th e exponent o f nondualism ; R äm änuja, the exponent o f qualified m onism ; Nimbärka, th e exponent o f the philosophy o f u n ity in difference; M ädhwa, th e exponent of dualism; and Vallabha, th e exponent of th e philosophy o f devotion. O f these Samkara and R äm änuja are th e m ost famous. It is difficult to state w ith any definiteness w hich o f these philosophers presents th e correct view of th e original V edänta Sütras o f Bädaräyana, for opinions differ, and each school of th o u g h t believes th a t it represents th e tru e tradition. D r G. T hibaut is of th e opinion th a t R äm änuja is th e tru est interpreter. My b ro th er m o n k Swami Vireswarananda, in th e learned in tro du ctio n to his translation o f th e Vedänta Sütras, has argued th a t Sam kara’s interpretation closely follows Bädaräyana. A brief sum m ary o f th e V edänta Sütras and of th e points o f agreem ent regarding th em m ay help to clarify w hat really is a m ost obscure and com plex problem . T he Sütras contain fo u r chapters in all. T he first deals w ith B rahm an, his relation to th e w orld and to th e soul o f m an. An attem p t is m ade to reconcile m etaphysically th e various Vedic passages on th e subject, th e recorded experiences o f B rahm an on the p a rt of th e early rsis, o r seers. The second chapter meets th e objections to th e view o f Brahm an, th e soul, and th e w orld expounded in the first, and reveals th e fallacious n a tu re o f all rival theories on th e subject. T he th ird chapter is m ainly concerned w ith m ethods by w hich an individual can attain know ledge o f B rahm an, b u t incidentally discusses the question of rebirth for those w ho fail to attain this knowledge, together w ith som e m inor psychological and th eo logical topics. The last chapter takes up th e fruits of the know ledge o f B rahm an—these differing in relation to th e differing experiences o f aspirants and knowers, th e deeper th e experience, the greater the fruits. It also discusses at length m oksa and th e tw o paths possible after death—re tu rn (rebirth) and n o n re tu rn (gradual liberation). According to Bädaräyana, perception and inference are th e tw o sources o f all knowledge. O n th e spiritual plane, he identifies perception, direct divine insight, w ith Sruti, or th e revealed scriptures, particularly th e Upanisads; and inference w ith Smrti, th e auxiliary scriptures—th e Gitä, th e M ahäbhärata, and th e Laws o f M anu. Perception in relation to know ledge o f B rahm an (pratyaksa

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upalabdhi) is n o t sense perception, for nobody sees God w ith physical eyes—it is supersensuous perception; spiritual inference depends on revelation, for logic independent o f revelation is blind and leads now here. B rahm an is regarded by Bädaräyana as th e m aterial as well as the efficient cause of th e universe, its origin and support, him self uncreated and eternal. It is difficult to state w ith any definiteness, how ever, w hat Bädaräyana actually believed concerning th e universe, w hether th a t it is a transform ation o f B rahm an o r th a t it is only som ething superim posed u p o n him . N or is it clear how th e individual soul is related to B rahm an, w heth er as a p art of him or as a m ere reflection of him . Because o f these obscurities or uncertainties, the various schools of th o u g h t have flourished. But all are agreed th a t th e ultim ate goal in V edanta is certainly th e know ledge o f B rahm an and th a t it can be attained in this life. This knowledge, once attained, burns away all th e seeds of k arm a and gives the prom ised liberation. T he o ther various metaphysical, ethical, and psychological aspects o f th e V edänta Sütras will be fully explained w hen we discuss th e philosophers w ho com m ented u p o n them .

BOOK V V E D Ä N T A A N D IT S G R E A T E X P O N E N T S

This last section will be devoted to a review o f th e lives and teachings of certain of th e saints and thinkers o f India, ancient and m odern, w ho have been followers of V edanta. These include n o t m erely distinguished com m entators u p o n th e Indian scriptures, b u t others w ho have influenced philosophical th o u g h t and b rou g h t spiritual blessings to their fellow m en.

C H A P T E R 15

GAUDAPADA

To Gaudapäda, th e first historic philosopher o f th e system o f Vedanta, and th e expounder of its nondualistic aspect, no definite date can be assigned. T here is a tradition th a t Samkara, w ho lived in th e seventh century a d , 1 m et G audapäda and received his blessing. Samkara, in his com m entary on th e M ändükya Upanisad, makes obeisance to Gaudapäda as his g u ru ’s guru. Thence arose th e belief o f m any scholars th a t G audapäda and Sam kara were contem poraries. O ther scholars, on th e contrary, consider th a t G audapäda lived m any centuries before Samkara, perhaps even before Buddha. A nd their contention is th a t th e tradition of Sam kara’s m eeting w ith G audapäda is true, b u t th a t they m et each o th er on th e yogic plane, w here, th e spiritual eye o f th e aspirant being opened, a direct com m union w ith th e great souls o f the past m ay be obtained. Sam kara is also said to have m et Vyäsa, au th o r o f th e M ahäbhärata; if so, he m ust have m et him too o n th e yogic plane, fo r undoubtedly Vyäsa lived m any centuries before Samkara. G audapäda’s being saluted by Samkara as his g u ru ’s g u ru m ight be due to th e fact he was one o f th e m ost im p o rtan t of th e early teachers of th e Vedäntic order. Scholars qu ote ano th er tradition to th e effect th a t Gaudapäda was a disciple o f Suka and therefore a contem porary of th e M ahäbhärata. Some W estern scholars claim Gaudapäda as a Buddhist saint, their m ain argum ent being th a t at the beginning o f th e fo u rth chapter o f his philosophical treatise, th e Kärikä, he adores th e ‘superm an’, w hom they identify w ith Buddha. But th e w ord superm an had been used in the M ahäbhärata and th e Puränas, even before th e advent of Buddha, to denote one w ho has know n Brahm an, and also to denote G od conceived in h u m an form —Näräyana; and according to Indian tradition G audapäda also used th e w ord superm an to denote Näräyana. Anandagiri, a disciple of Samkara, m entions th a t G audapäda 1 See chap. 16, pp. 279 281

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practised austerities and m editation in Badarikäsrama,1 and th a t Näräyana, God in h u m an form , appeared before him and revealed to him th e highest tru th of Vedanta. W hatever m ay have been th e period in w hich G audapäda lived, he is regarded by Indian authorities as th e first Vedäntic philosopher and one o f the greatest seers o f all th e ages. The Kärikä

T he advaita V edanta (V edanta in its nondualistic aspect) is as old as th e Upanisads, for, how ever variously th e ancient scriptures have been interpreted, and how ever m u ch they have supplied th e foundations for varying schools, it is th e consensus of opinion th a t their final tru th consists in th e identification of th e Self w ith B rahm an and th e absolute reality of one and only one existence. O f th e Upanisads, th e M ändükya m ost em phatically declares th e tru th of advaita. Gaudapäda m ade him self fam ous by w riting the Kärikä, a com m entary u p o n this single Upanisad. Samkara, w ho w rote com m entaries o n th e Kärikä of Gaudapäda, very tru ly rem arked, ‘The M ändükya Upanisad, w ith th e Kärikä, embodies in itself th e quintessence of all th e Upanisads or Vedanta.’ T he Kärikä is divided in to four chapters. T he first, th e ägama (scripture), glosses th e verses of the M ändükya Upanisad. The second, th e vaitathya (th e n atu re of sense experience), th ro u g h an elaborate arg um ent explains th e relative and phenom enal n atu re o f the objective universe. T he third, th e advaita (nondualism ), establishes by m eans of logic and reason th e tru th of nondualism . The final chapter, th e alätasänti (th e quenching of th e fire-brand), fu rth er establishes th e sole reality of th e Ä tm an and th e relative n atu re of o u r experiences in th e ordinary states of consciousness. The Philosophy o f Experience

To arrive at th e ultim ate tru th , philosophy m ust consider n o t only o u r experiences in the w aking state b u t those in oth er states of consciousness, such as dream and dreamless sleep, and co-ordinate th em all by extending its inquiry to th e possible source of all consciousness. Gaudapäda, as well as th e Upanisadic rsis, meets this requirem ent. V. Subrahm anya Iyer rightly rem arks o f Gaudapäda: 1 Badarikasram a, in the Him alayas, is a w ell-know n place o f pilgrim age, w here devotees from th rou gh o u t India gather in great num bers every sum m er. A t other tim es o f the year the roads to it are covered with heavy snow . The place has in it a fam ous tem ple, dedicated to the w orship o f N äräyana. had the privilege o f visiting this holy shrine in 1916.

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‘His distinction lies in th e emphasis he lays on th e impossibility o f reaching th e highest tru th unless th e totality of h u m an experience or know ledge be taken into consideration.’1 This totality Gaudapäda him self investigates. W estern philosophy, in contrast, seems to have ru n into a blind alley, n o t only because it fails to recognize transcendental consciousness, b u t also because it does n o t attem p t to co-ordinate th e th ree o ther states of consciousness. Says M r Iyer: ‘Philosophy, according to Gaudapäda and Sankara, is an interpretation of th e totality of h u m a n experience or of the whole o f life fro m th e standpoint of tru th . Philosophy, therefore, is th e w hole, of w hich Religion, Mysticism (Yoga), Theology, Scholasticism, Speculation, A rt and Science are b u t parts. Such philosophy or V edänta as ignores any p art or parts is n o V e d än ta.. . . And th e object sought by philosophy, as these tw o pre-em inent H indu philosophers say, is the happiness (sukham) and welfare (hitam) of all beings (sarva sattwa) in this w orld ( ihaiva).’2 In analysing th e three states of consciousness, waking, dream ing, and dreamless sleep, G audapäda discovers as th e witness behind th em an unchangeable reality. For in all these states th ere is th e Self everpresent, th o u g h rem aining unk no w n. It is th e experiencer o f all actions and tho ug hts in all the th ree states, b u t it is never affected by them . It forever rem ains pure, free, perfect. T h ro u gh o u r ignorance, however, th e Self becomes identified w ith experience and appears to be changing, as w hen it appears first happy and th en miserable, or to be born and th e n to die. B ut th e appearance has no absolute reality. T he Self rem ains unaltered, and w hen we rise above and beyond th e three states to turiya, Pure Consciousness, its absolute oneness w ith all things, th e absolute nonduality, is at last clearly revealed. It is tru e th a t in deep sleep all experience seems to be annihilated. W hat th e n is th e difference between deep sleep and turiya? In th e w ords of Gaudapäda, ‘Deep sleep (p raj fía) does n o t know anything either o f th e Self or of th e non-Self, either of tru th , or of u n tru th . B ut turiya is ever existent and ever all-seeing.’3 Again he says: ‘D ream is th e w rong apprehension o f reality. Sleep is th e state in w hich one does n o t know w hat reality is. W hen th e false experience in these 1 Forew ord to Mändükyopanishad with Gaudapäda’s Kärikä and Sankara’s Commentary (Sw am i N ikhilananda trans., Sri R am akrishna A shram a: M ysore, 1949), p. v. 1 Ibid., pp . vi-vii. 3 Kärikä, I. 7. 12. This and the follow ing passages fro m the Kärikä have been translated by the author.

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tw o states disappears turiya is realized.’1 In th e following verse he m akes a clear distinction betw een a m an w ho is asleep and a m an w ho is in turiya: Ί η deep sleep th e m ind is w ithdraw n. B ut it is disciplined, and n o t w ithdraw n, in turiya. One whose m ind is disciplined becomes one w ith B rahm an—w ho is fearless and th e light o f w hose know ledge shines in every direction.’2 T he real Self, th e ultim ate reality, rem ains u n k no w n in th e three ordinary states o f consciousness. ‘W hen, how ever,’ says Gaudapäda, ‘th e individual soul, sleeping u n d er th e influence o f m äyä (ignorance), is awakened, it th e n realizes nonduality, beginningless and endless.’3 T he Self (o r A tm an), as we know , is im m ortal, in th a t it has neither birth n o r death. It is nondual, th o u g h it appears to be m any, just as th e one sun, reflected in m any lakes, appears m anifold. Describing th e natu re o f th e A tm an, G audapäda says, ‘This A tm an is beyond all expression by words, beyond all acts o f th e m ind. It is peace, eternal effulgence, absence of activity; and it is attainable w hen th e m ind becomes p u re and tranquil.’4 Gaudapäda, like all th e oth er saintly philosophers o f India, points o u t th e way to illum ination w ithin one’s ow n soul. W ith patience and perseverance, he tells us, we should seek to con tro l th e vagaries o f th e m ind; th e n th ro u g h th e practice o f discrim ination w e m u st learn to renounce th e pleasures o f th e senses; and finally, by th e practice of concentration and m editation, w hen we are quite absorbed in o u r devotions, we arrive a t a kind o f bliss, a low er stage of samädhi. We m u st also, G audapäda insists, give u p o u r attach m en t to this bliss if we w ould realize th e suprem e bliss. My m aster, Swami B rahm ananda, also, used to tell us th a t w e m u st n o t stop w ith th e bliss w e m ay find in deep contem plation b u t go deeper and deeper. In th e w ords of Gaudapäda: ‘The m ind should n o t be allowed to enjoy th e bliss th a t arises o u t o f th e condition o f absorption. It should be freed from attachm en t to such happiness th ro u g h th e exercise o f discrim ination. W hen th e m ind does n o t lose itself in inactivity and oblivion, o r is n o t distracted by desires—th a t is to say, w hen th e m ind achieves quietness and does n o t give rise to appearances—it verily becomes B rahm an. This, th e highest bliss, is based u po n th e realization of Self; it is peace, identical w ith liberation, indescribable, and u nb orn . It is fu rth er described as th e om niscient Brahm an, because it is one w ith th e u n b o rn Self, w hich is th e object sought by know ledge.’5 Gaudapäda contends th a t th e waking and th e dream ing states are 1 Kärikä, I. 7. 15. 4 Ibid., ΙΠ. 37.

2 Ibid., m . 35. s Ibid., ΠΙ. 45, 46, 47.

3 Ibid., I. 7. 16.

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equally real and equally unreal. They are real only in a relative sense, and so th ey are unreal as com pared w ith th e transcendental, in w hich there is identification w ith th e Reality, th e unchangeable Self. The definition of Reality is th a t it is never contradicted at any tim e b u t persists forever. ‘A nything w hich is nonexistent at th e beginning, and also at th e end, necessarily does n o t exist in th e m iddle.’1 By this test, all experience of b o th dream ing and w aking is unreal. A nd fro m th e standpoint o f th e ultim ate reality, experience o f th e waking state is b u t a prolonged dream . Shakespeare seems to have caught th e dream like quality o f this w orld o f appearances in th e fam ous lines: . . . These o u r actors, As I foretold you, were all spirits, and Are m elted into air, in to th in air; And, like th e baseless fabric o f this vision, T he cloud-capp’d towers, th e gorgeous palaces, T he solem n temples, th e great globe itself, Yea, all w hich it inherit, shall dissolve, And, like this insubstantial pageant faded, Leave n o t a rack behind. We are such stuff As dream s are m ade on, and o u r little life Is rounded w ith a sleep. Consistent w ith his philosophy o f nondualism , G audapäda did n o t believe in th e absolute reality o f creation. T he one absolute, n o n d u al Self, or God, n either created this universe n o r did he becom e this universe. In reality there is no creation, for th e one infinite Existence appears to be th e m anifold universe just as a rope m ay appear to be a snake. T he universe is n o t a reality b u t som ething superim posed u p o n the A tm an. ‘T here is no death,’ says Gaudapäda, ‘no birth; there is n o one in bondage, n o one aspiring to knowledge; th ere is no seeker after liberation, n o one liberated. This is th e absolute tru th .’2 In evident allusion to expressions such as these, S. R adhakrishnan observes: ‘T he general idea pervading G audapäda’s w ork, th a t bondage and liberation, th e individual soul and th e w orld, are all unreal, makes th e caustic critic observe th a t the theory w hich has nothing better to say th a n th a t an unreal soul is trying to escape from an u n real bondage in an unreal w orld to accomplish an u n real suprem e good, m ay itself be an unreality.’3 N ow if one fails to take in to consideration th e m ain con tentio n o f Gaudapäda, th e above criticism m ay apply. W hat is his m ain conten1 Kärikä, IV. 31. 2 Ibid., Π. 32. 3 Indian Philosophy, vol. Π, p. 463.

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tion? T h at th e highest good, th a t is, freedom , suprem e bliss, is th e very n atu re o f th e Ä tm an, an absolute reality w hich persists. T he suprem e good, therefore, is not, as D r R adhakrishnan alleges, unreal, b u t som ething you already have. To seek to possess som ething th a t y ou already have is foolish fancy. To th in k th a t you do n o t have som ething, th o u g h you always have it, is delusion. T he story is told of a m an w ho had a tow el on his shoulder b u t sought for it everyw here. He b u t needed to awake to th e fact th a t th e tow el was w here h e had placed it. So it is w ith us. T hinking we are bound, we seek liberation, th o u g h the liberation we seek is already w ithin us. We b u t need to awake from th e sleep of ignorance to realize Ί am B rahm an.5 Either th a t we are boun d or th a t we seek liberation is false. D r R adhakrishnan fu rth e r rem arks: ‘If we have to play th e gam e o f life, we cann ot do so w ith th e conviction th a t th e play is a show and all the prizes in it m ere blanks. No philosophy can consistently hold such a view and be at rest w ith itself. The greatest condem nation o f such a theo ry is th a t we are obliged to occupy ourselves w ith objects, the existence and value of w hich we are continually denying in theory.’1 To this one m ay reply w ith th e question, Can we play the gam e o f life well if we take life itself as a reality? T he gam e is th e n no longer a gam e b u t a burden. O nly for a genuine yogi, w ho has seen life as m ere play, is it possible to play w ith satisfaction th e game o f life. To him th e prizes are n o t blanks b u t th e bliss of a free soul. We can play th e gam e o f life well only w hen we recognize th a t it is n o t everlasting, th a t joys and sorrows are in their very n atu re im perm anent. The genuine yogi enjoys th e game, plays it better th a n does one w ho clings to th e enjoym ents o f life and finds to his despair th a t th ey elude his grasp a t every m om ent, howsoever he m ay ‘bid th e clouds to stay’. Howsoever one m ay try to fool oneself by asserting th e reality of th e w orld, there is no w orld w hen life ends in death. As one holds fast to life and its experiences, th e prizes in th e gam e becom e m ere blanks. The fact is th a t G audapäda does n o t in any way reveal a rom antic desire to chase th e shadows o f life n o r does he attem pt to hide his head in th e sand. R ather does he boldly seize u p o n naked reality and fearlessly face th e facts of life by rising above th em , above life and death, above joys and sorrows, into th e realization Ί am B rahm an.’ 1 Indian Philosophy, vol. Π, p. 463.

CHAPTER

16

SAMKARA

Introduction

As p ro p h et and as thinker, Sam kara stands am ong the greatest figures in th e history o f th e w orld. He is, prim arily, th e unrivalled p ro p o u n d er of advaita V edanta, th e nondualistic aspect of th e Vedic teachings. By m eans of his rem arkable clearness, his suprem e wisdom, and his profound spirituality he has so stam ped him self up o n V edanta th a t it has rem ained th e paragon o f Indian philosophy, and has given solace to th e sorrow ful h eart o f a large segm ent of m ankind. Life o f Samkara

Beautiful and fantastic clouds o f legend su rro u n d the austere, charm ing, boyish figure o f Samkara—saint, philosopher, and poet. But, historically speaking, we know very little about th e circum stances o f his life. He was b orn in or aro u nd the year a d 6 8 6 o f brahm in parents, at Kälädi, a sm all village of w estern Malabar, in so u th ern India.1 By th e 1 T he date is th at given by Pandit R ajenrda N ath G hosh, a n oted authority on áarhkara. S. R adhakrishnan w rites (Indian Philosophy, vol. Π, p. 447): ‘A ccording to Telang, Sam kara flourished abo u t the m iddle or the end o f the sixth century a d . (His argu m en t is th at Pürnavarm an referred to in Sam kara’s com m en tary on the B rah m a Sütras w as a Buddhist kin g o f M agadha about th at tim e.) Sir R. G. Bhändärkar proposes a d 680 as the date o f Sam kara’s birth, an d is even inclined to go a few years earlier. M ax M üller and Professor M acdonell h old th at he was born in a d 788 and died in a d 820. T hat he flourished in th e first quarter o f the n in th century is also the opinion o f Professor Keith.’ T o an Indian scholar, A. V. Sankaranarayana R ao, I owe the follow ing recent statem ent: ‘T h e date o f SaA kara has n ot been definitely arrived at and is still a m atter o f controversy. It is the consensus o f opinion th at he lived after Bhagavän Buddha. T h e dates assigned to h im vary fro m sixth century b c to eighth century a d . The traditional date is Kaliyuga 2593 o r 509 b c . It has been generally accepted by m an y m odern historians th at h e lived between 788 and 820 a d . T his h as been m ore or

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age of ten, he was already an intellectual prodigy. N o t only had he read and m em orized all th e scriptures, b u t he had w ritten com m entaries on m any o f them , and had held discussions w ith fam ous scholars w ho cam e to him fro m every p a rt o f th e country. Yet th e boy was dissatisfied. A t a tim e w hen m ost children are only beginning to study, he was already disgusted by th e emptiness o f book-know ledge. He saw, m oreover, th a t his teachers did n o t practise th e lofty principles they preached. Indeed, th e w hole society in w hich he lived was materialistic and pleasure-seeking. India was passing th ro u g h a period of spiritual decadence. Samkara, burning w ith y o u th fu l zeal, resolved to m ake his ow n life an exam ple w hich w ould lead m en back to th e paths o f tru th . T he death o f his father set him puzzling over th e riddle o f life and death, and he determ ined to solve it. He w ould reno un ce everything in his search for th e m eaning o f existence. It was th e n th a t he w rote th e poem called ‘M oha M udgaram ’—‘The Shattering o f Illusion5. O f this th e following is a m ore o r less literal translation: W ho is th y wife? W ho is th y son? The ways of this w orld are strange indeed. Whose a rt thou? W hence art th o u come? Vast is th y ignorance, m y beloved. Therefore ponder these things and w orship th e Lord. Behold th e folly o f M an: In childhood busy w ith his toys, In y o u th bewitched by love, In age bowed dow n w ith cares— And always u n m in d fu l of th e Lord! T he hours fly, th e seasons roll, life ebbs, B ut th e breeze o f hope blows continually in his heart. Birth brings death, death brings rebirth: This evil needs n o proof. W here then , O M an, is th y happiness? This life trem bles in th e balance Like w ater on a lotus-leaf— And yet th e sage can show us, in an instant, How to bridge this sea o f change. less supported by the investigations m ade by Prof. M ax M üller an d Prof. M acdonell as w ell as by Prof. Keith and D r Bhandarkar. Prof. Telang, on the basis o f a reference to Pürna V arm an, th e Buddhist king o f M agadha, in the Sütra Bhäsya o f áañ kara, pleads th at he m u st have lived in the sixth cen tu ry a d .’ (Prabuddha Bharata, N ovem ber, 1957.)

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W hen th e body is w rinkled, w hen th e hair tu rns grey,

W hen th e gum s are toothless, and the old m an ’s staff Shakes like a reed beneath his weight, The cup of his desire is still full. T hy son m ay bring thee suffering, T hy w ealth is no assurance o f heaven: Therefore be n o t vain of th y w ealth, O r of th y family, o r of th y y o u th — All are fleeting, all m ust change. Know this and be free. E nter th e joy of th e Lord. Seek neither peace n o r strife W ith k ith or kin, w ith friend o r foe. O beloved, if th o u w ouldst attain freedom . Be equal u n to all.1 Samkara now persuaded his m o th er to let him take the m onastic vow, prom ising th a t he w ould re tu rn to visit h e r before she died. T hen, having m ade arrangem ents for her needs, he set o u t in search o f a teacher. O n the banks of th e River N arm ada he m et Gaudapäda,2 a fam ous philosopher and seer, w ho had attained know ledge o f th e Reality. Sam kara asked th e old m an for initiation, b u t G audapäda refused. He had m ade a vow to rem ain absorbed in un io n w ith B rahm an. However, he sent th e boy to his forem ost disciple, Govindapäda. Govindapäda initiated him and instructed him in m editation and in th e w hole process o f yoga. W ithin a very sh o rt tim e, Samkara achieved com plete mystical realization, and him self w ent o u t to teach. One m orning, w hen he was on his way to bathe in the Ganges, he m et a candäla, a m em ber o f the low est caste, th e untouchables. T he m an had fo u r dogs w ith him , and they were blocking Sam kara’s path. For a m om ent, inborn caste-prejudice asserted itself. Samkara, th e brähm in, ordered th e candäla o u t o f his way. B ut th e candäla answered: ‘If there is only one God, how can th ere be m any kinds of m en? How can there be any distinctions of caste or creed V Samkara was filled w ith sham e and reverence. He prostrated him self before th e candäla. This incident inspired one o f Sam kara’s finest poems, 1 Translated by Sw am i Prabhavananda and Christopher Isherw ood. 2 There is difference o f opinion regarding the m eeting o f áariikara with G audapäda. See chap. 15, p. 273.

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th e ‘Manisa Pafícaka’. It consists of five stanzas, each one ending w ith th e refrain: He w ho has learned to see the one Existence everywhere, He is m y m aster—be he brahm in o r candäla. Samkara began his teaching am ong th e scholars of the country, converting the teachers first, and th e n their pupils. One of the teachers was th e famous philosopher M andan Misra. M andan Misra held th a t th e life of th e householder was far superior to th a t o f the m onk, and his opinion was respected and widely shared th ro u g h o u t India. Samkara determ ined to argue w ith him , and journeyed to his hom e. W hen he arrived, he found th e doors locked. Misra was holding a religious cerem ony and did n o t wish to be disturbed. Samkara, w ith th e mischievous spirit of a boy in his teens, climbed a near-by tree and jum ped dow n from it into th e courtyard. Misra noticed him am ong th e crowd. He disapproved o f m onks—especially w hen they were so y outhful—and asked sarcastically: ‘W hence comes this shaven head?’ ‘You have eyes to see, sir,’ Samkara answered saucily: ‘The shaven head comes u p from th e neck.’ Misra lost his tem per, b u t Sam kara continued to tease him , and at length th e tw o o f th e m agreed to hold a debate on th e relative m erits of the life of th e m on k and th e life of th e householder. It was understood th a t Samkara, if he lost, should becom e a householder, and th a t Misra, if he lost, should becom e a m onk. T he debate lasted for several days. Bhärati, th e learned wife o f Misra, acted as um pire. Finally, Samkara was able to convince Misra o f th e superiority of th e m onastic life, and Misra became his disciple. It was he w ho later annotated Sam kara’s com m entaries on th e Brahm a Sütras. Sam kara’s life came to an end at K edarnath in th e Himalayas. He was only thirty-tw o years old. D uring this brief period, he had established m any monasteries, and had founded ten m onastic orders. This was th e first tim e th a t H indu monasticism had ever been organized in India, and Sam kara’s system still exists. He was a reform er rath er th a n an innovator. He preached n o new doctrine or creed. B ut he gave a new im pulse to th e spiritual life of his tim e. Separated by intervals of a thousand years, Buddha, Samkara, and Räm akrsna dom inate India’s religious history. Sam kara’s literary o u tp u t was enorm ous. He n o t only m ade com m entaries on th e V edanta Sütras, th e principal Upanisads, and th e Bhagavad-Gïtâ, b u t produced tw o m ajor philosophical works, th e Upadesäsähasrl and the Vivehacüdämani ( The Crest-Jewel o f Discrimination). He was also th e au th o r o f m any poems, hym ns, prayers, and m inor w orks on Vedanta.

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The Spirit o f Samkara’s Philosophy

‘B rahm an—th e absolute existence, knowledge, and bliss—is real. T he universe is n o t real. B rahm an and Ä tm an are one.’1 In these words, áam kara sums u p his philosophy. W hat are the im plications o f this statem ent? W hat does he m ean by ‘real’ and by ‘n o t real’? Sam kara accepts as ‘real’ only th a t w hich neither changes n o r ceases to exist. In m aking this definition, he follows th e teachings of th e Upanisads and of Gaudapäda, his predecessor. No object, no kind o f knowledge, can be absolutely real if its existence is only tem porary. Absolute reality implies p erm an ent existence. If we consider o u r various experiences during th e states of waking and dream ing, we find th a t dream-experiences are contradicted by waking-experiences and vice versa—and th a t b oth kinds o f experience cease in dreamless sleep. In o th er words, every object of knowledge, external o r internal (for a th o u g h t or idea is as m u ch an object o f know ledge as is th e external w orld), is subject to m odification and therefore, by Sam kara’s definition, ‘n o t real’. W hat, then , is the reality behind all o u r experiences? T here is only one thing th a t never leaves us—pu re consciousness. This alone is th e constant feature o f all experience. A nd this consciousness is th e real, absolute Self. In dreamless sleep, even, th e real Self persists (as we realize on waking, there being no break in essential continuity), w hile th e ego-sense, w hich we call ‘ourself’, o r individuality, has becom e tem porarily m erged in ignorance (avidyä) and has disappeared. V edänta philosophy occupies a central position betw een realism and idealism. W estern realism and idealism are b o th based on a distinction betw een m ind and m atter; Indian philosophy puts m ind and m atter in th e same category—both are objects of knowledge, áam kara should not, however, be regarded as a precursor o f Berkeley: he does n o t say th a t th e w orld is unreal simply because its existence depends u p o n o u r perception. The w orld, according to áam kara, ‘is and is n o t’. Its fundam ental unreality can be understood only in relation to th e ultim ate mystical experience, th e experience of an illum ined soul. W hen th e illum ined soul passes in to transcendental consciousness, he realizes th e Self (th e A tm an) as pu re bliss and pure intelligence, th e one w ith o u t a second. In this state o f consciousness, all perception of m ultiplicity ceases, th ere is no longer any sense of ‘m ine’ and ‘th in e’, th e w orld as we ordinarily know it has vanished. T hen th e Self shines fo rth as th e One, th e T ru th , th e B rahm an, the basis of th e apparent w orld. The apparent w orld, as it is experienced in th e w aking state, m ay be likened, says áam kara, to an im agined 1 Brahmajriänävalimälä, v. 21.

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snake w hich proves, on closer inspection, to be no th in g b u t a coil of rope. W hen th e tru th is know n, we are no longer deluded by th e appearance—th e snake-appearance vanishes into th e reality o f th e rope, th e w orld vanishes into Brahm an. O ther systems of H indu philosophy—Sämkhya, Yoga, and Nyäya— m aintain th a t th e phenom enal w orld possesses objective reality, even th o u g h it m ay n o t be apparent to th e eyes of an illum ined soul. Advaita V edänta denies this objective reality. The p o in t is a vital one. M ind and m atter, finite objects and their relations, áam kara holds, are a misreading o f B rahm an—and noth in g more. The Nature o f the Apparent World

W hen áam kara says th a t th e w orld of th o u g h t and m atter is n o t real, he does n o t m ean th a t it is nonexistent. T he apparent w orld is and is not. In the state o f ignorance (o u r everyday consciousness) it is experienced, and it exists as it appears. In th e state of illum ination it is n o t experienced, and it ceases to exist. áam kara does n o t regard any experience as nonexistent as long as it is experienced, b u t he very n aturally draws a distinction between th e private illusions o f th e individual and th e universal, or w orld, illusion. The form er he calls prätibhäsika (illusory) and th e latter vyavahärika (phenom enal). For example, a m an ’s dream s are his private illusions; w hen he wakes, they cease. But th e universal illusion—th e illusion o f w orldphenom ena—continues th ro u g h o u t a m an ’s w hole waking life unless he becomes aware of th e tru th th ro u g h knowledge of Brahm an, áam kara makes, also, a fu rth er distinction between these tw o kinds of illusion and those ideas w hich are altogether unreal and imaginary, w hich represent a total impossibility o r a flat contradiction in term s— such as the idea o f the son of a barren w om an. Here, then, we are confronted by a paradox—the w orld is and is no t. It is neither real n o r nonreal. And yet this paradox simply recognizes th e existence of w hat áam kara calls mäyä. Mäyä, this apparent w orld, has its basis in B rahm an, th e eternal. According to áam kara, it consists o f nam es and form s. It is n o t nonexistent, yet it differs from th e Reality, the Brahm an, u p o n w hom it depends for its existence. It is n o t real, since it disappears in the light o f knowledge of its eternal basis. The apparent w orld is mäyä; th e Self, th e A tm an, alone is real. Superimposition, or Mäyä

The m ost difficult o f all philosophical problem s is th a t of the relation betw een the finite and th e Infinite; th e problem of how this finite w orld came into being. If we believe th a t th e finite has an absolute

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reality o f its ow n, and th a t it has em erged from th e Infinite and is an actual transform ation of th e Infinite, or if we regard th e Infinite as a transcendental first cause o f th e phenom enal w orld (a position held by m ost Christian theologians), th en we m u st adm it th a t th e Infinite is infinite no longer. A God w ho transform s him self into th e visible universe is him self subject to transform ation and change—he cannot be regarded as th e absolute reality. A God w ho creates a w orld limits him self by th e very act o f creation, and th us ceases to be infinite. The question ‘Why should God create at all?’ rem ains unansw ered. This difficulty is overcome, however, if we consider th e w orld as mäyä; and this explanation o f o u r universe is, m oreover, in perfect accord w ith th e findings of m odern science. ‘A soap-bubble w ith irregularities and corrugations o n its surface is perhaps th e best representation o f this new universe revealed to us by th e theory o f relativity. T he universe is n o t th e interior o f th e soap-bubble b u t its surface—and th e substance o u t o f w hich this bubble is blow n, th e soap film, is em pty space w elded into em pty tim e.’1 Thus it is only w hen we analyse th e nature o f th e universe and discover it to be mäyä—neither absolutely real n o r absolutely n o n existent—th a t we learn how the phenom enal surface of th e soapbubble safeguards th e eternal presence of th e Absolute. T he Upanisads, it is true, appear to consider B rahm an th e first cause o f th e universe, b oth m aterial and efficient. They declare th a t th e universe em anates from , subsists in, and finally merges in th e absolute Brahm an, Sam kara never directly contradicts th e Upanisads, although sometimes he appears to interpret th e m to suit his ow n views. The universe, he says, is a superim position u p o n Brahm an. B rahm an rem ains eternally infinite and unchanged. He is n o t transform ed into this universe. He simply appears as this universe to us, in o u r ignorance. We superim pose th e apparent w orld u p o n Brahm an, ju st as we som etim es superim pose a snake u p o n a coil o f rope. This theory of superim position (vivartaväda) is inseparably linked w ith the theory o f causality. Causal relation exists in th e w orld of multiplicity, w hich is mäyä. W ithin mäyä, th e m ind can n ot function w ith o u t causal relation. B ut to speak o f cause and effect w ith reference to th e Absolute is simply absurd. To seek to know w hat caused th e w orld is to transcend th e w orld. To seek to find th e cause o f m äyä is to go beyond mäyä—and, w hen we do that, m äyä vanishes, th e effect ceases to exist. How, then, can there be a cause of a nonexistent effect? In o th er words, th e relation between B rahm an and mäyä is, 1 Sir Jam es Jeans.

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by its very natu re, unknow able and indefinable by any process o f th e h u m a n intellect. M äyä : A Statement o f Fact as Well as a Principle

Thus, according to Samkara, th e w orld of th o u g h t and m atter has a phenom enal o r relative existence, and is superim posed u p o n B rahm an, th e unique, absolute reality. As long as we rem ain in ignorance (th a t is, as long as we have n o t achieved transcendental consciousness), we shall continue to experience this apparent w orld, w hich is th e effect o f superim position. W hen transcendental consciousness is achieved, superim position ceases. W hat is th e n a tu re o f this superim position? In th e in tro d u ctio n to his com m entary on th e B rahm a Sutras, Sam kara tells us th a t ‘Superim position is th e apparent presentation to consciousness, by th e m em ory, of som ething previously observed elsew here.’1 We see a snake. We rem em ber it. Next day we see a coil o f rope. We superim pose th e rem em bered snake u p o n it, and thereby m isunderstand its nature. Sam kara foresees an objection to his theory and goes on to anticipate and answ er it. We m ay challenge th e theory o f superim position by pointing o u t th a t B rahm an is n o t an object o f perception. How can we superim pose a snake u p o n a rope w hich we do n o t perceive? H ow can we superim pose a w orld-appearance u p o n a reality w hich is n o t apparent to o u r senses? ‘For every m an superim poses objects only u p o n such o th er objects as are placed before h im (th a t is, as com e into contact w ith his sense organs).’2 To this, Sam kara answers: ‘B rahm an is no t, we reply, non-objective in th e absolute sense. For B rahm an is th e object of th e ego-idea. We know quite well, by in tu ition, th a t th e in n er Self m u st exist, since th e ego-idea is a presentation o f th e Self. N or is it an absolute rule th a t objects can be superim posed only u p o n such o th er objects as are placed before us; for ig no ran t people superim pose a dark blue colour u p o n th e sky, w hich is n o t an object of sense perception.’3 This statem ent needs som e fu rth er explanation. A lthough B rahm an is never apparent to o u r everyday sense perception, th ere is a m an n er in w hich we are aware o f th e Reality, th e inner Self. B rahm an, it has been said, is absolute existence, knowledge, and bliss. Only in tra n scendental consciousness can we know this fully. Yet B rahm an is partly apparent to o u r n o rm al consciousness also. B rahm an is Existence, and we all know th a t we exist. In this sense, every one of us has an intuitive know ledge of th e in n er Self (th e A tm an, o r 1 C om m en tary on I. i. 1.

2 Ibid.

3 Ibid.

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B rahm an-w ithin-the-creature). T he in n er Self, th e Reality, is never an object o f sense perception, how ever—because, in o u r ignorance, we superim pose th e idea o f a private individuality—of being M r Sm ith o r M rs Jones—u p o n o u r awareness of Existence. We are unable to understand th a t Existence is n o t o u r private property, th a t it is universal and absolute. T he in n er Self is therefore present in o u r n o rm al consciousness as ‘th e object of th e ego-idea1—a literal translatio n o f Sam kara’s phrase. T he superim position o f th e ego-idea u p o n Existence is o u r first and m ost im p o rtan t act as h u m a n beings. T he m o m en t we have m ade this central act of superim position—th e m o m en t we have said Ί am I, I am private, I am separate, I am an individual·—we have m ade fu rth er superim position inevitable. T he claim to individuality for ourselves implies individuality everywhere. It autom atically superimposes a m ultip le w orld o f creatures and objects u p o n th e one, undivided reality, th e Existence w hich is Brahm an. Ego-idea and w orld-appearance depend u p o n each other. Lose th e ego-idea in transcendental consciousness, and th e w orldappearance m u st necessarily vanish. W hen and how did this act of superim position occur? Was it at o u r latest individual birth, or in som e previous life? Was there a historical m o m en t—corresponding to th a t in w hich A dam is said to have fallen—in w hich th e phenom enal w orld came in to being as th e result o f th e ego-idea? T he futility of such questions should be self-evident. We m erely go ro u n d in a circle. W hat is this w orld-appearance? Mäyä. W hat causes it? O ur ignorance. W hat is this ignorance? Mäyä, also. If there always was, and is, and always will be one unchanging reality, how can we possibly assume th a t m äyä began at som e definite historical m o m e n t in time? We cannot. Therefore we are forced to conclude, as Sam kara does, th a t mäyä, like Brahm an, is w ith o u t any beginning. Ignorance as th e cause and th e apparent w orld as th e effect have existed always and w ill always exist. They are like seed and tree. T he ‘coupling o f th e real and th e u n re a l5, produced by o u r ignorance, is a process universally evident in o u r daily lives. Sam kara says: ‘It is obvious and needs n o p ro o f th a t th e object, w hich is th e nonego, and th e subject, w hich is th e egoidea (superim posed u p o n th e Self), are opposed to each other, like light and darkness, and can n o t be identified. Still less can th eir respective attributes be identified. . . . Nevertheless, it is n a tu ra l to m an (because o f his w rong ideas) n o t to be able to distinguish betw een these distinct entities and betw een th eir respective attributes. He superimposes u p o n each th e n a tu re and attributes o f th e o ther, u niting th e real w ith th e u nreal and m aking use of such expressions as “I am th a t,55 “T h at is m ine55.51 1 C om m en tary on I. i. 1.

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Sam kara is speaking here o f tw o stages in th e process o f superim position. First, th e ego-idea is superim posed u p o n th e in n er Self, th e existence-reality. T h en th e ego-idea, reaching outw ard, as it were, identifies itself w ith th e body and th e body’s m en tal and physical attributes and actions. We say, as a m atter o f course, Ί am fat’, Ί am tired’, Ί am w alking’, Ί am sitting do w n ’—w ith o u t ever stopping to consider w h at this T really is. We go fu rth er. We claim purely external objects and nam es for o u r ow n. We say Ί am a Republican’, o r ‘This house is m in e’. As superim positions m ultiply, extraordinary statem ents becom e possible and no rm al—such as ‘We su n k three subm arines yesterday’ o r Ί carry a good deal o f insurance’. We identify o u r ego, m o re o r less, w ith every object in th e universe. And all th e w hile, th e in n er Self looks on, u tterly detached fro m these m oods and antics, yet m aking th e m all possible by lending to th e m in d th a t light o f consciousness w ith o u t w hich m äyä could n o t exist. T h at m äyä is beginningless can be show n if we re tu rn fo r a m o m en t to th e image o f th e rope and th e snake. T he superim position of th e snake u p o n th e rope is possible only if we can rem em ber w hat a snake looks like; a child w ho had never seen a snake could never superim pose it. H ow th e n is it possible for th e new born child to superim pose th e w orld-appearance (th e snake) u p o n B rahm an (the rope)? We can answer this question only if we postulate a universal snake-m em ory th a t is co m m on to all m ankind and th a t has existed from a tim e w ith o u t beginning. This snake-m em ory is mäyä. Mäyä, says Samkara, is n o t only universal b u t beginningless and endless. A distinction m u st be m ade, however, betw een mäyä as a universal principle and ignorance (avidyä), w hich is individual. Individual ignorance is beginningless, b u t it can end at any m o m en t; it is lost w hen a m an achieves spiritual illum ination. T hus th e w orld m ay vanish fro m th e consciousness o f an individual and yet co ntin ue to exist for th e rest of m ankind. In saying this, Sam kara’s philosophy differs essentially fro m th e subjective idealism of th e West. Brahman and Iswara

In a sense, B rahm an is th e ultim ate cause o f th e universe, since, by th e action o f mäyä, th e w orld-appearance is superim posed u p o n him . B rahm an is th e cause, m äyä th e effect. Yet B rahm an cann ot be said to have transform ed him self into th e w orld, or to have created it, since absolute Reality is, by definition, incapable o f tem poral action o r change. A n other w ord, Iswara, m u st therefore be em ployed to describe th e creative principle. Iswara is B rahm an united w ith m äyä— th e com bination w hich creates, preserves, and dissolves th e universe in an endless and beginningless process. Iswara is God personified, God w ith attributes.

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According to th e Säm khya system of philosophy, th e universe is an evolution o f prakrti—undifferentiated m atter, com posed o f th ree forces called th e gunas. C reation is a disturbance in th e balance o f these forces. T he gunas e n ter into an enorm ous variety o f com binations—som ew hat like th e atom s in W estern physics—and' these com binations are individual elem ents, objects, and creatures. This concept of p rakrti corresponds, m ore or less, to Sam kara’s concept of mäyä—b u t w ith this im p o rtan t difference: p rakrti is said to be o th er th a n and independent o f Purusa (th e absolute Reality) while m äyä is said to have no absolute reality b u t to be dependent on B rahm an. Therefore, according to Samkara, it is Iswara, rath er th a n prakrti, w ho can be described as th e ultim ate cause of th e universe. Are th ere th e n tw o Gods—one th e im personal B rahm an, th e o th er th e personal Iswara? N o—for B rahm an appears as Iswara only w h en viewed in th e relative ignorance o f mäyä. Iswara has th e same degree of reality th a t m äyä has. God th e person is n o t B rahm an in his ultim ate nature. In th e w ords o f Swami Vivekananda, ‘The personal God is th e highest possible reading o f th e Absolute by th e h u m a n m ind.’1 T he idea is th u s ingeniously illustrated by Sri Räm akrsna: ‘B rahm an m ay be com pared to an infinite ocean, w ith o u t beginning o r end. Just as, th ro u g h intense cold, som e portions o f th e ocean freeze in to ice and th e formless w ater appears to have form , so, th ro u g h th e intense love o f th e devotee, B rahm an appears to take o n fo rm and personality.2 B ut th e form m elts away again as th e sun of know ledge rises. T h en th e universe also disappears, and there is seen to be n o th in g b u t B rahm an, th e infinite.’3 A lthough Iswara is, in a sense, a person, we m u st beware o f regarding him as similar to, o r identical w ith, th e jiva, th e individual h u m a n soul. Iswara, like th e jiva, is B rahm an united w ith mäyä, b u t w ith this fundam ental difference—Iswara is th e ru le r and co ntro ller o f mäyä, th e jiva is m äyä’s servant and plaything. We can therefore say, w ith o u t paradox, th a t we are, at th e same tim e, God and th e servants of God. In o u r absolute nature, we are one w ith B rahm an; in o u r relative nature, we are o th e r th a n th e Iswara, and subject to him . D evotion to th e Iswara, th e Personal God, m ay lead a m an very far along th e p a th of spirituality; it m ay even m ake him into a saint. B ut by itself it does n o t give th e ultim ate knowledge. To be com pletely enlightened is to go beyond Iswara, to know th e im personal Reality 1 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. ΙΠ, p. 37. 2 Kathämrta, vol. V, p. 40.

K

3 Ibid., vol. IV, p . 255.

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behind the personal divine Appearance. We can becom e B rahm an, since B rahm an is present in us always. B ut we can never becom e Iswara, because Iswara is above and distant from o u r h u m an personality. It follows, therefore, th a t we can never becom e rulers o f the universe. To ru le it is Iswara’s function, and th e desire to usurp this function is th e ultim ate m adness o f th e ego. It is symbolized in Christian literature by th e legend o f th e fall of Lucifer. Vyäsa, th e a u th o r of th e B rahm a Sütras, makes th e same p o in t w hen he says th a t no one will acquire th e pow er of creating, ruling, o r dissolving th e universe, since th a t pow er belongs to Iswara alone. A nd Sam kara in his com m entary discusses th e problem as follows: ‘If a m an, by w orshipping th e qualified B rahm an (Iswara), achieves know ledge o f th e Suprem e R uler w hile still preserving his individual consciousness—is his pow er lim ited o r unlim ited? W hen this question arises, some w ill argue th a t his pow er is unlim ited, and they will q u o te th e scriptural texts (referring to those w ho achieve know ledge o f Iswara): “They attain th eir ow n kingdom ”, “To th em all th e gods offer w orship”, and “Their desires are fulfilled in all th e w orlds”. ‘B ut Vyäsa answers this question w hen he adds: “Except for th e pow er o f creating th e universe”. The powers of Iswara can be acquired by th e liberated, b u t th a t pow er belongs to Iswara alone. H ow do we know this? Because he is th e subject o f th e scriptural texts concerning creation. These texts do n o t refer to th e liberated souls, in any connection w hatsoever. T h at is w hy he is called “th e ever-perfect”. T he scriptures also say th a t th e powers of th e liberated are acquired by w orshipping and searching after God; therefore th e liberated have n o place in th e ruling of th e universe. Again, because these liberated souls still preserve their individual consciousness, it is possible th a t their will m ay differ, and th at, w hile one desires creation, an o th er m ay desire destruction. T he only way to avoid this conflict is to m ake all wills subordinate to som e one will. Therefore we m u st conclude th a t th e wills of th e liberated are dependent on th e will of th e Suprem e R uler.51 If th ere is only one consciousness, one Brahm an, w ho is the seer and w ho is th e seen? W ho sees B rahm an as Iswara, and w ho is th e jiva? Are they different or one? As long as m an is w ithin th e lim itations of mäyä, th e One is seen as m any. Ignorance can do no better th a n to w orship Appearance; an d Iswara is th e ru ler of all appearances—th e highest idea w hich th e h u m a n m ind can grasp and th e h u m an heart can love. T he h u m an m ind can never grasp th e absolute Reality, it can only infer its * C om m en tary on the Brahm a Sütras, IV. iv. 17.

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presence arid w orship its projected image. In th e process o f this worship, th e m ind becomes purified, th e ego-idea thinS away like mist, superim position ceases, ïswara and w orld-appeärance b o th vanish in th e blaze o f transcendental consciousness, w herein there is ño seer, no seen—^nothing b u t B rahm an, the single, all-embracing, timeless fact. The Problem o f Evil

Every religion or system of philosophy has to deal w ith the problem of evil—and u nfortunately it is a problem Which is usually explained àway rath er th a n explained. ‘Why’, it is asked, ‘does God p erm it evil* w hen he him self is all goodness ?’ One of tw o answers is usually given to this question by W estern religious th o u g h t. Sometimes We are told th a t evil is educational and penal. God punishes us for o u r sins by visiting tis w ith war, famine» earthquake, disaster, and disease. He employs tem ptation (either directly or th ro u g h th e agency o f th e Devil) to test and strengthen th é virtue o f th e good. This is the ans W ei given by th e Old Testamenti, It repels m any people today and has becom e unfashionable—although, according to Vedanta, as we shall see in à m om ents it contains à certain a m o u n t o f tru th . T he oth er answer—now m ore generally accepted—is th a t evil doës nOt exist at all. If we view life sub specie aeternitatis, we shall know th a t evil has no reality; th a t it is simply a misreading o f good. V edanta philosophy disagrees With b oth these answers—-With th e second even m ore radically th a n w ith th e first. How, it asks, can evil be changed into good, m erely by viewing it in a special m annet“? Pain and m isfortune m ay be borne m ore easily th a n w ould otherwise be possible, if we fix o ü r m inds u p o n God, b u t they are very real experiences nevertheless, even th o u g h their duration is lim ited. V edanta agrees th a t evil, in th e absolute sense, is unreal. B ut it rem inds US th a t in this sense good is Unreal also. T he absolute Reality is beyond good and evil, pleasure and pain, success and disaster. B oth good and evil are aspects o f mäyä. As loñg äs mäyä exists, they exist. W ithin m äyä they are real enoughs T he question ‘Why does God p erm it evil?’ is, in fact, m ost misleadingly phrased. It is as absurd as if ohe were to ask ‘W hy does Gòd perm it good?’ Nobody today w ould ask w hy rain ‘p erm itted’ à catastrophic flood; nobody w ould blam e o r praise fire because it büfñs one m an ’s hoUse and cooks ano th er m an ’s dinner. N or can it be piroperly said th a t B rahm an is ‘good’ in any personal sense o f the w ord. B rahm att is n o t good in th e sense th a t Christ Was good—for C hrist’s goodness was w ithin mäyä. T he Reality itself is beyond all phenom ena; even th e noblest. It is beyond purity, beauty, happiness,

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glory, or success. It can be described as good only if we m ean th a t absolute consciousness is absolute know ledge, and th a t absolute know ledge is absolute joy. B ut perhaps th e question does n o t refer to B rahm an at all. Perhaps, in this connection, ‘G od’ m eans ïswara, th e R uler of mäyä. If this is granted, can V edänta philosophy agree w ith th e Old T estam ent th a t G od is a law-giver, a stern and som ew hat unpredictable father, w hose ways are n o t ours, w hose punishm ents and rewards often seem unm erited, w ho perm its us to fall in to tem ptation? T h e answer is yes and no. T he V edänta doctrine o f karm a is a doctrine of absolute, autom atic justice. The circum stances o f o u r lives, o u r pains and o u r pleasures, are all th e result o f o u r past actions in this present existence, and in countless previous existences, fro m a beginningless tim e. Viewed fro m a relative standpoint, m äyä is quite pitiless. We get exactly w h at w e earn, n o m ore, n o less. If we cry o u t against som e apparent injustice, it is only because th e act th a t b ro u g h t it u p o n us is buried deep in th e past, o u t o f reach of o u r m em ory. To be b orn a beggar, a king, an athlete, o r a helpless cripple is simply th e com posite consequence o f th e deeds o f o u r o th er lives. We have n o one to th a n k b u t ourselves. It is n o use trying to bargain w ith ïswara, o r propitiate him , o r h old h im responsible for o u r troubles. It is no use inventing a Devil as an excuse for o u r weakness. Mäyä is w h at we m ake o f it—and ïswara sim ply represents th a t stern and solem n fact. Viewed from a relative standpoint, this w orld of appearance is a bleak place, and as such it often drives us to despair. T he seers, w ith th eir larger knowledge, tell us otherwise. Once we becom e conscious, even dimly, o f th e Ä tm an, th e Reality w ithin us, th e w orld shows itself in a very different aspect. It is no longer a co u rt of justice b u t a kind of gym nasium . G ood and evil, pain and pleasure, still exist, b u t they seem m ore like th e ropes and vaulting-horses and parallel bars w hich can be used to m ake o u r bodies strong. Mäyä is no longer an endlessly revolving w heel o f pain and pleasure b u t a ladder w hich can be climbed to consciousness of th e Reality. From this standpoint, fo rtu n e and m isfortune are b o th mercies—th a t is to say, op po rtu nities. Every experience offers us th e chance o f m aking a constructive reaction to it—a reaction w hich helps to break som e chain o f o u r bondage to m äyä and bring us nearer to spiritual freedom , áam kara therefore distinguishes betw een tw o kinds o f mäyä—avidyä (evil or ignorance) and vidyä (good o r know ledge in a relative sense). Avidyä is th a t w hich causes us to m ove farth er away from th e Self and obscures o u r know ledge o f th e T ru th . Vidyä is th a t w hich enables us to com e nearer to th e Self by rem oving th e veil o f ignorance. Both vidyä and avidyä are transcended w hen we pass beyond m äyä in to consciousness o f th e absolute reality.

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It has been said already th a t m äyä is th e superim position o f th e ego-idea u p o n th e Ä tm an, th e real Self. T he ego-idea represents a false claim to individuality, to being different from , o r separate from , o u r neighbours. It follows, therefore, th a t any act w hich contradicts this claim will bring us one step back towards rig ht knowledge, tow ards consciousness o f th e in n er reality. If we recognize o ur bro therho od w ith o ur fellow m en; if we try to deal honestly, tru th fully, charitably w ith them ; if we w ork for equal rights and equal justice, politically and economically, and for abolition o f barriers of race and class—th e n we are in fact giving th e lie to th e ego-idea and m oving tow ards awareness of the universal, nonindividual Existence. All such actions belong to w h at is know n as ethical goodness—just as all selfish actions belong to ethical evil. In one sense, and in one sense only, goodness m ay be said to be m ore ‘real’, o r m ore valid, th a n evil: since evil actions and th ou gh ts involve us m ore deeply in mäyä, while good tho ug hts and actions lead us beyond mäyä, to transcendental consciousness. T he w ords sin and virtue are som ew hat alien to th e spirit o f V edänta philosophy, because they necessarily foster a sense o f possessiveness w ith regard to th o u g h t and action. If we say Ί am good’ or Ί am bad’, we are only talking th e language of mäyä. Ί am B rahm an’ is th e o nly tru e statem ent regarding ourselves th a t any of us can m ake. St François de Sales w rote th a t ‘even o u r repentance m u st be peaceful’ —m eaning th a t exaggerated rem orse, just as m u c h as excessive self-congratulation, sim ply binds us m ore firm ly to th e ego-idea, th e lie o f mäyä. We m u st never forget th a t ethical con du ct is a means, n o t an end in itself. Knowledge o f th e im personal reality is the only valid knowledge. A part from th at, o u r deepest wisdom is black ignorance and o u r strictest righteousness is all in vain. The Supreme Goal

It m ay be objected th a t V edänta philosophy, like every oth er system o f religious th o u g h t, is based u p o n a central hypothesis. Certainly, th e suprem e goal of life is to know B rahm an—if B rahm an exists. B ut can we be sure o f this? Isn’t it possible th a t th ere is no underlying reality in th e universe? Isn’t it possible th a t life is ju st a meaningless flux, a d y in g and a becom ing in eternal alternation? W hat is so attractive about V edänta is its undogm atic, experim ental approach to tru th . Sam kara does n o t tell us th a t we m u st accept th e existence o f B rahm an as a dogm a before we can enter u p o n the spiritual life. No—he invites us to find o u t for ourselves. N othing—n o teacher, no scripture—can do th e w ork for us. Teachers and scriptures are m erely encouragem ents to personal

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effort. But, as such, they can be very effective. Im agine th a t the existence o r nonexistence o f God is th e subject of a law suit and th a t you are th e judge. Try to listen im partially to bo th sides. Consider th e witnesses for B rahm an—th e seers and saints w ho claim to have kno w n th e eternal reality, Consider th e circum stances of their lives, their personalities, their words. Ask yourself, Are all these witnesses liars or hypocrites or insane persons, or are they telling th e tru th ? C om pare th e great scriptures o f the w orld and ask, Do they con tradict each other, o r do they agree? T hen give your verdict. But m ere assent, as Sam kara insists, is n o t enough. It is only a prelim inary step tow ards active participation in th e search for B rahm an. Direct personal experience is th e only satisfactory p ro o f o f his existence, and each of us m u st have it. M odern science goes a long way tow ards confirm ing th e V edanta w orld-picture. It admits th a t consciousness, in varying degrees, m ay be present everywhere. Differences betw een objects and creatures are only surface differences, varying arrangem ents o f atom ic pattern. Elements can be changed in to o ther elem ents. Identity is only p ro visional. Science does n o t yet accept th e concept o f absolute reality, b u t it certainly does n o t exclude it. Sam kara knew no th in g of science, b u t his approach is fundam entally scientific. It is based u p o n th e practice of discrim ination—a discrim ination to be applied to ourselves and to every circum stance and object o f o u r experience, at each in stant of o u r lives. Again and again—-thousands and thousands of times a day—we m ust ask ourselves, Is this real o r unreal, is this fact o r fancy, is this n atu re or only appearance? T hus we probe deeper and deeper tow ards th e tru th . We all know th a t we exist. We are all aware of o u r ow n conscious^ ness. B ut w hat is the n atu re o f this consciousness, this existence? Discrim ination will soon prove to us th a t th e ego-idea is n o t th e fundam ental reality. T here is som ething beyond it. We can call this som ething ‘B rahm an’—b u t ‘B rahm an’ is only ano th er w ord. It does n o t reveal th e n atu re o f th e th ing we are looking for. Can B rahm an be know n as an existing substance o r thing? N ot in th e ordinary m eaning of th e verb to know . To know som ething is to have objective know ledge o f it, and such know ledge is relative, depending u p o n space, tim e, and causation. We cann o t know absolute consciousness in this m anner, because absolute consciousness is know ledge itself. B rahm an is th e source o f all o th er knowledge; he comprises th e know er, th e knowledge, and th a t w hich is know n. He is independent of space, tim e, and cause. In this sense, th e practice o f discrim ination differs from the m ethod o f scientific research. T he scientist concentrates u p o n som e object o f knowledge, and pursues it beyond th e range o f physical sense-

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perception, w ith th e aid o f m echanical apparatus, chem ical analysis, m athem atics, and so forth. His research extends like a journey, deeper and deeper into tim e and space. T he religious philosopher, on th e o th er hand, is trying to annihilate tim e and space, th e dimensions o f th e ego-idea, and thu s uncover th e Reality w hich is nearer and m ore instant th a n th e ego, th e body, or th e m ind. He is trying to be aware of w h at he already and always is, and this awareness is n o t an aspect of consciousness, b u t consciousness itself. The illum ined seer does n o t m erely know B rahm an; he is Brahm an, he is Existence, he is Knowledge. Absolute freedom is n o t som ething to be attained, absolute know ledge is n o t som ething to be w on, B rahm an is n o t som ething to be fo un d anew. It is only mäyä w hich has to be pierced, ignorance w hich has to be overcome. T he process of discrim ination is a negative process. T he positive fact, o u r real nature, eternally exists. We are B rahm an—and only ignorance divides us from know ledge o f th e fact. Transcendental consciousness, o r u n io n w ith B rahm an, can never be investigated by th e m ethods o f scientific research, since such research depends ultim ately u p o n sense perception, and B rahm an is beyond th e grasp o f th e senses. B ut this does n o t m ean th a t we are doom ed to doubt, o r to blind tru st in th e experience o f th e seers, u n til we have reached th e suprem e goal for ourselves. Even a little effort in m editation and th e spiritual life will rew ard us w ith th e conviction th a t this is really th e way to tru th and peace, th a t we are n o t sim ply deceiving o r hypnotizing ourselves, th a t Reality is accessible. We shall have o u r ups and downs, of course, and o u r m om ents o f uncertainty, b u t we shall always re tu rn to this conviction. No spiritual gain, how ever small, is ever lost or wasted. By tem peram ent, Sam kara inclined towards jnäna yoga, th e way of p u re discrim ination, alth ou gh he was capable o f great devotion also. R enunciation, discrim ination, self-control—these are his w atchw ords. Some m ay find his austerity too forbidding, b u t it is precisely this austerity w hich supplies a valuable corrective to th e dangers o f an easy sentim entality, an excess o f carefree optim ism , a confusion of real devotion w ith m ere em otional self-indulgence. Sam kara was u n d er n o illusions about this w orld o f mäyä; he condem ns its apparent pleasures and delights w ith brutal frankness. For this very reason he was able to describe so pow erfully th e com plete transform ation o f th e universe w hich takes place before th e eyes of the illum ined seer. W hen B rahm an is experienced, w hen all creatures and objects are seen in th eir real relation to th e Absolute, th e n this w orld is indeed a paradise; it is n oth in g b u t B rahm an, no th in g bu t u tte r consciousness, knowledge, and peace.

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To quote Samkara, describing th e experience of an illum ined soul: ‘T he ego has disappeared. I have realized m y identity w ith Brahm an, and so all m y desires have m elted away. I have risen above m y ignorance and m y knowledge of this seeming universe. W hat is this joy th a t I feel? W ho shall m easure it? I know no th in g b u t joy, limitless, unbounded! ‘T he ocean of B rahm an is full o f nectar—the joy o f th e A tm an. T he treasure I have found th ere can no t be described in words. The m ind cannot conceive of it. My m ind fell like a hailstone into th a t vast expanse o f B rahm an’s ocean. T ouching one drop o f it, I m elted away and became one w ith Brahm an. And now , th o u g h I re tu rn to h u m a n consciousness, I abide in th e joy o f the A tm an. ‘W here is this universe? W ho took it away? Has it m erged in som eth in g else? A while ago, I beheld it—now it exists n o longer. This is w onderful indeed! ‘H ere is th e ocean of B rahm an, full o f endless joy. How can I accept or reject anything? Is there anything apart or distinct from Brahman? ‘Now, finally and clearly, I know th a t I am th e A tm an, w hose n a tu re is eternal joy. I see nothing, I hear nothing, I know nothing th a t is separate from m e.’1

SELECTED PASSAGES FROM SAMKARA’ S VIVEKACÜDÄMANI CREST-JEW EL OF DISCRIM INATIO N

A m an should be intelligent and learned, w ith great powers of com prehension, and able to overcom e doubts by th e exercise of his reason. One w ho has these qualifications is fitted for knowledge of th e A tm an. He alone m ay be considered qualified to seek B rahm an w ho has discrim ination, whose m ind is tu rn e d away from all enjoym ents, w ho possesses tranquillity and th e kindred virtues, and w ho feels a longing for liberation.2 Longing for liberation is th e will to be free from th e fetters forged by ignorance—beginning w ith th e ego-sense and so on, dow n to th e physical body itself—th ro u g h th e realization of one’s tru e n atu re.3 A m ong all m eans o f liberation, devotion is suprem e. To seek earnestly to know one’s real natu re—this is said to be devotion.4 1 Vivekacüdämani, w . 481-5. 3 Ibid., v. 27. '

2 Ibid., w . 16, 17. 4 Ibid., v. 31.

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T he spiritual seeker w ho is possessed o f tranquillity, self-control, m ental poise and forbearance, devotes him self to th e practice o f contem plation, and m editates u p o n th e A tm an w ithin him self as th e A tm an w ithin all beings. T hus he com pletely destroys th e sense of separateness w hich arises fro m th e darkness of ignorance, and dwells in joy, identifying him self w ith B rahm an, free fro m distracting th o u g h ts and selfish occupations. Those w ho echo borrow ed teachings are n o t free from th e w orld. B ut those w ho have attained sam adhi by m erging th e external universe, th e sense organs, th e m ind and th e ego in th e p u re consciousness o f th e A tm an—they alone are free from th e w orld, w ith its bonds and snares.1 Be devoted to B rahm an and you will be able to co n tro l y o u r senses. C on tro l y o u r senses and you w ill gain m astery over y o u r m ind. M aster y o u r m ind, and th e sense of ego will be dissolved. In this m anner, th e yogi achieves an u nb ro k en realization o f th e joy o f B rahm an. Therefore le t th e seeker strive to give his h eart to B rahm an.2 T he self-lum inous A tm an, th e witness o f all, is ever-present w ithin y o u r ow n heart. This A tm an stands apart fro m all th a t is unreal. Know it to be yourself, and m editate u p o n it unceasingly.3 W hen th e m in d achieves perfect u n io n w ith B rahm an, th e wise m an realizes B rahm an entirely w ithin his ow n heart. B rahm an is beyond speech or th o u g h t. It is th e pure, eternal consciousness. It is absolute bliss. It is incom parable and im m easurable. It is ever-free, beyond all action, boundless as th e sky, indivisible and absolute.4 To taste, w ithin his ow n heart and in th e external w orld, th e endless bliss o f th e A tm an—such is th e rew ard obtained by th e yogi w ho has reached perfection and liberation in this life.5 T h e fru it o f dispassion is illum ination; th e fru it o f illum ination is th e stilling o f desire; th e fru it o f stilled desire is experience o f th e bliss of th e A tm an, w hence follows peace.6 Teachers and scriptures can stim ulate spiritual awareness. B ut th e wise disciple crosses th e ocean of his ignorance by direct illum ination, th ro u g h th e grace of God.7 O u r perception o f th e universe is a continuous perception o f B rahm an, th o u g h th e ignorant m an is n o t aware o f this. Indeed, 1 Vivekacüdämani, w . 355, 356. 4 v. 408. 5 V. 418.

2 v. 368. 6 v. 419.

3 v. 380. 7 v. 476.

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this universe is noth in g b u t B rahm an. See B rahm an everywhere, u n d e r all circum stances, w ith th e eye o f th e spirit and a tra n q u il heart. How can th e physical eyes see anything b u t physical objects] H ow can th e m ind of th e enlightened m an th in k o f anything o th er th a n th e Reality?1 1 Vivekacüdämani, v. 521.

CHAPTER

11

BHÄSKARA

Still an o th er aspect o f Vedanta, know n as Bhedabhedaväda, or doctrine o f identity in difference, finds its exponent in Bhäskara. O uduium i originated th e system, b u t his writings are n o t now available, and We know o f him only th ro u g h m en tio n of him in the B rahm a Sütras o f Vyäsa. Bhäskara w rote Commentaries u p o n th é Sütras and in so doing explained his ow n and O u d ulu m i’s philosophy. In th e m ain he attem pted an attack u p o n Sam kara’s doctrine of mäyä. He therefore lived after Samkara^—according to Indian au th o rities, in th e early p art o f th e n in th century. The Philosophy o f Identity in Difference

B rahm an is one w ith o u t a second, th e unchangeable reality, endow ed w ith blessed attributes, including th e pow er to create, sustain, and dissolve th e universe. He is th e formless, personal God w ho in his causal state is transcendental—beyond tim e, space, and causation; in his aspect as effect, he has evolved o r becom e transform ed into th e empirical universe. Since B rahm an, th e Infinite, has made him self finite, as finite he is real, th o u g h he, th e Infinite, is n o t necessarily conditioned by th e finitude. B rahm an as cause contains th e w hole universe potentially w ithin himself, and th e universe is th e cause actualized, th o u g h in p a rt only, since th e cause has n o t exhausted itself in th e effect. Again, as effect, B rahm an is b o th jiva, o r th e individual soul, and th e w orld. He is endow ed w ith pow er o f tw o kinds: bhogya, th e kind w hich evolves as th e objective universe, and b h oktr, th e kind w hich evolves as living souls. This pow er o f B rahm an is n o t mäyä, b u t is real in th e absolute sense. Empirical existence therefore consists o f (1) th e subject, the experiencer, th e jiva, and (2) th e object of experience, th e w orld of th e senses. T hou gh th e em pirical w orld o f subject and object is n o t separate fro m Brahm an, for it is B rahm an th a t is evolved as th e

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universe, yet again B rahm an is n o t m erely th e universe o f nam e and fo rm —he is transcendental as w ell.1 Individual souls are m any, and they are parts of B rahm an. They are related to h im as are th e rays o f the sun to th e sun. They are neith er absolutely different from God, n o r are they absolutely identical w ith him . In the state o f bondage—th a t is, ignorance—individual souls are different from God; and in th e state of liberation—th a t is, know ledge —th ey becom e one w ith him . To th e self, purified by spiritual discipline, is revealed th e know ledge of B rahm an, and as th e self finally becomes one w ith B rahm an, all consciousness o f separation is dissolved. B ut this u nio n is possible only after death, never at any tim e during life. In this respect th e philosophy o f Bhäskara differs from all th e o th er systems we have studied.2 U nion w ith B rahm an is th e suprem e goal. As th e m eans o f achieving this, Bhäskara, like all o th er teachers of religion, offers th e ideal of no nattach m ent, th e ideal of being in th e w orld and yet n o t o f it, and th e w orship of B rahm an and m editation u p o n him . 1 N a prapañ cam atram Brahm a. 2 C om pare this philosophy o f u n ion w ith G od after death w ith the Pauline interpretation o f the teachings o f Christ.

CHAPTER

18

YAMUNA

Visistädvaita Vedänta, th e V edänta in its aspect o f qualified n o n dualism , traces its origin to th e period o f th e Upanisads; at least it had gained followers at th e tim e o f th e com position o f th e M ahäbhärata, being identical w ith th e doctrine o f Pancarätra m entioned in th a t poem . In th e te n th century a d , how ever, it received greater im petus and a brighter light from th e teachings o f th e saint Yäm una; and in th e eleventh centu ry th e great teacher R äm änuja, w ho had been influenced by Y äm una, gave it a sound philosophical basis, and m ade it a popular religion, particularly in so u th ern India. Y äm una and R äm änuja belong to th e long line o f Vaisnava saints recognized in so u th ern India and generally know n as Älvärs. Älvär is a T am il w ord w hich m eans ‘he w ho rules th e w orld by his love o f and devotion to G od’. M any legends are to ld of these ancient Älvärs, and all o f th em clearly express love o f G od and devotion and self-surrender to him . O ne o f th e Älvärs was N ätham uni, grandfather of Yäm una. He was know n to history as a great saint living in th e early p a rt o f th e te n th century. Born of a w ell-know n brähm in family, o n th e death o f his son he gave u p th e life o f th e w orld and em braced a life of renunciation. He w rote tw o books w hich are regarded as authoritative by the Sri Vaisnava, th e school o f qualified nondualism . Yäm una, his grandson, was b o rn in a d 953. A t th e age o f twelve he became king of h alf th e kingdom o f Pändu. T here is extant an interesting account, th o u g h obviously legendary, o f how he ascended th e th ron e. T he king o f Pändu, it seems, had a co u rt p u n d it w ho was very clever in debate; and it was th e custom o f th e co u n try th a t w hoever challenged th e scholarship o f th e p u n d it and defeated h im in argum e n t was appointed c o u rt p u n d it in tu rn ; and w hoever challenged th e p u n d it and was defeated by him m u st pay him an ann ual sum as tax. Bhäsya, teacher o f th e boy Y äm una, had been defeated by th e p u n d it and had thus becom e subject to th e penalty. N ow it so happened th a t once th e tax-collector appeared w hen Bhäsya was

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absent from hom e, and Y am una, feeling th e hum iliation o f his m aster, challenged th e p u n d it to debate. T h o u g h th e king and his p u n d it were am azed a t th e child’s tem erity, th ey w ere obliged to accept th e challenge. T he boy was b ro u g h t to c o u rt and accorded due h o n o u r and respect. The queen felt sure th a t he w ould be crow ned victor, for she could see th a t he was n o ordinary child. W hen she confided her th o u g h ts to th e king, he laughed and jokingly offered to lay a wager against him . T he queen said, ‘If th e boy is defeated, I prom ise to be th e slave of Y our Majesty’s slaves.’ To this the king replied, ‘If th e boy wins, I will offer him h alf m y kingdom .’ So th e boy and th e p u n d it entered in to debate. To th e surprise o f all, th e boy was victorious, and th e p u n d it was obliged to acknowledge him self beaten at th e hands o f a child, T he king, paying his bet, offered Y äm una h alf his kingdom · T he boy accepted th e gift and ruled for m any years at peace w ith all m en. T he news o f Y am una’s elevation to th e th ro n e cam e to the ears of N ätham uni, his grandfather» w ho was th e n living as a m onk. Fearing lest his grandson ¡should give him self over to worldliness, M uni charged Nambi, his favourite disciple, to w atch over him and see th a t he did n o t lose him self in love o f th e w orld b u t th a t instead he so ug ht th e tru th . W hen Y äm una was thirty-five years o f age, and still reigning over his kingdom , Nam bi appeared before h im and said, ‘Y our grandfather has left a vast treasure w ith m e. If it is y o u r desire to find this treasure, you m u st follow m e, and follow m e alone.’ So Y äm una left his kingdom and followed Nambi. As he associated closely w ith his grandfather’s disciple, he cam e to adm ire his greatness, his love for God, his purity o f conduct, and above all th e peace and joy th a t shone in his countenance. A nd there arose in th e h eart of King Y äm una a m ighty longing to find God and attain peace. He lost all taste for th e enjoym ents o f th e w orld, even th e desire to re tu rn to his kingdom , B oth king and devotee retired to th e tem ple o f Sri R anganätha. Thus Y äm una became a m o n k and teacher. In his later years Y äm una w rote fo u r fam ous books, He wished to w rite, in addition, a com m entary on th e B rahm a Sütras, b u t passed away before th e fulfilm ent of this desire. As he lay dying, he expressed a wish th a t R äm änuja, w h om he loved m uch, should w rite th e com m entary. H earing o f this, R äm änuja, w ho had already w on fame for himself, hastened to him , b u t arrived too late. He prom ised, however, to carry o u t Y äm una’s wish, and succeeded in doing so. Briefly—for we shall consider th e doctrine o f qualified nondualism in som e detail in th e chapter on R äm änuja—th e philosophy of Y äm una consists o f th e following ideas,

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God is th e Suprem e Being. He is th e whole, o f w hich individual souls are th e parts. We are related to him as are th e waves o f th e ocean to th e ocean. T he universe is a transform ation of God. God is its soul; th e visible w orld is his body. T h e ideals o f all-consum ing love for God, and self-surrender to him , Y am una has expressed beautifully in a fam ous prayer: ‘God is beyond th e realm of speech and m ind. He is th e g rou n d o f speech and m ind, and he is th e ocean o f m ercy. H ow can we pray to h im or praise him , w ho is w orshipped and praised even by th e great gods? In th e ocean are drow ned th e high m o u n tain and th e small atom . No difference betw een th em is felt by th e ocean. ‘My beloved, Q th o u Sweet One, “I” and “m e“ and “mine*’ all belong to thee. A nd if I am conscious o f this tru th th a t w hatever I have—all—belongs to thee forever, th e n w hat can I offer thee?’ ‘I am Thine* i this expresses the attitu de of th e devotees of Visistadvaita. T he Vaisnava devotees o f Bengal preach an o th er beautiful tru th : ‘T h o u a rt m ine.’ Elsewhere Y am una writes: ‘T h ou a rt father, th o u art m other, th o u a rt son, th o u a rt daughter, th o u a rt dear friend, th o u a rt g u ru , th o u a rt th e suprem e goal and refuge o f th e w hole universe.’ A ccording to Yam una, th e highest ideal is to take refuge in th e Lord and surrender oneself com pletely to him . This ideal o f surrendering oneself to God was developed by R am anuja, as we shall now see, into a com plete philosophy.

C H A P T E R 19

RÄMÄNUJA

Since h u m a n beings possess widely differing tem peram ents, they con du ct their lives u p o n different levels. For this reason, n o one system o f religion can equally well satisfy everyone, and th ere exist diverse form s of religious tru th . And yet, how ever divergent they m ay be, they have an underlying unity, and all o f th em lead m en by one p a th or an o th er to a single goal. T he varied scriptures o f th e w orld m ay be likened to a kind m o th er w ho cherishes her m any children by granting their dem ands according to their needs. After Samkara, R am anuja ranks first am ong th e greatest interpreters o f Vedanta. Samkara’s philosophy, th o u g h it did afford spiritual com fort to m any, yet did n o t m eet th e requirem ents o f all aspirants. T here are m en in every age w ho hu ng er for a God w ho m they can love, w hom they can worship. Now th e Absolute o f Sam kara becomes to such m en entirely too m u ch of an abstraction to be th e object of love and worship. It is tru e th a t Sam kara does reserve a place in his system for a God o f love, and th ere is ro o m in it fo r devotion to him ; b u t to m any his Iswara is n o t w holly satisfying, for th ey regard him as b u t a low er aspect of B rahm an, the Absolute. T he Sam kara philosophy touches indeed such dizzy heights o f abstraction, and at th e sam e tim e offers such a surpassing degree of spiritual illum ination, th a t it becomes extrem ely difficult, if n o t impossible, for m ost m en either to com prehend it or to accept it. They are therefore inclined to regard this Absolute of Sam kara as, in th e w ords of D r R adhakrishnan, ‘a bloodless Absolute dark w ith th e excess of light’.1 So th e kind m other, th e scriptures, spoke once m ore, this tim e th ro u g h th e lips o f R am anuja, and led th e people to th e bosom of tru th .2 R am anuja argues th a t God and th e souls of m en are n o t th e 1 T h e above rem ark rem inds one, by w ay o f contrast, o f the bold, im personal thinkers o f the Vedic age w ho asked, ‘Who has seen the first-born, w hen he th at had no bones bore him th at has bon es’ ’ (Rg-Veda, i. 4. 164, quoted by S. R adhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy, vol. I, p. 93.) 2 R äm än u ja did n o t originate the philosophy associated w ith his nam e, bu t h e is its chief exponent.

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same, th o u g h they are n o t separate fro m each other, and th a t th e highest ideal and th e u ltim ate goal are to love and w orship God and surrender ourselves u tterly and com pletely to him . The m aterial w orld and h u m an beings, th o u g h different, have a real existence of th eir ow n as th e body of B rahm an, w ho is their soul and controlling pow er. A part from B rahm an they are literally nonentities. So R am anuja’s philosophy is know n as Visistädvaita—th a t is, advaita, nondualism , w ith visesa, or qualifications—because it adm its th e plurality b o th o f m atter and o f souls. Life o f Rämänuja

R äm änuja was b o m at S ri-perum -budur in so u th ern India in th e year a d 1017. His m o th er was th e granddaughter of Y äm una, th e saint and philosopher w h om we have already m et. In his y o u th R äm änuja journeyed to Conjeevaram in o rder to study V edänta w ith a teacher kn o w n as Yädava Prakäs. Yädava Prakäs, a celebrated in terpreter o f Vedänta, w rote a com m entary u p o n th e B rahm a Sütras w hich has un fo rtu n ately been lost. We do know , however, th a t his interpretation closely followed th a t o f Bhäskara, w ho, as we have already discovered, believed in th e u n ity o f th e soul w ith B rahm an in relation to transcendental know ledge, and acknowledged difference fro m him in relation to ignorance. In th e view of Yädava, this difference is as real as is th e unity. Like Bhäskara, Yädava interpreted th e philosophy o f Bhedäbheda, o r un ity in difference. For a tim e, th e yo uth fu l R äm änuja pursued his studies u n d e r th e direction o f Yädava, b u t th eir paths soon parted. T he fact was th a t th e young m an soon developed his ow n interpretation of th e philosophy o f V edänta, and this seemed m ore reasonable to th e o th er students gathered about th e m aster th a n did th a t o f th e m aster himself. Yädava became furiously angry. He accordingly conceived a dislike and a consum ing envy o f his brilliant pupil. M atters came to a head w hen Yädava was requested by th e ru le r of th e co u n try to heal his little daughter supposed to be possessed by dem ons. W hen th e m aster failed, R äm änuja was called u po n. The story goes th a t at th e young m an ’s bidding th e spirit left th e girl, and she became quite well. Yädava n ow hated R äm änuja, w ho was obliged to leave th e m aster’s school. B ut this was n o t enough. Yädava became so possessed by hate and jealousy th a t he even attem pted to assassinate his young pupil, w ho was saved by a w arning given to him by a h u n te r and his wife. M any years later, however, Yädava recognized R äm änuja’s greatness, repented, and became his loyal follower.

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R äm änuja n ow retu rn ed to his m o th e r’s hom e, and at her request to o k Upon him self th e state o f a householder by m arrying a girl of her choice. A bout this tim e, Yam una, head of th e tem ple of Srirangam , being old and sick and hearing o f R am anuja’s learning and p u rity o f character, desired to install him as his successor. W hen th e aged saint was about to breathe his last, his disciples sent for R am anuja to com e to his bedside, b u t he did n o t arrive till ju st as Y am una’s body was being conveyed to th e river bank for crem ation. As R äm änuja viewed th e corpse, he rem arked th a t th ree fingers of the right hand rem ained closed. The disciples in explanation said th a t th e closed fingers indicated th e existence of an unfulfilled desire, w hich—as already m entioned—was a wish to com pose a com m entary u p o n th e Brahm a Sütras. W hen R äm änuja prom ised to take u p o n him self th e fulfilm ent o f this task, legend has it th a t the th ree fingers fo rth w ith assumed th eir n atu ral position. After R äm änuja’s re tu rn to Conjeevaram , his spirit grew restless, for he could see no way to fulfil his prom ise. Accordingly, he sought advice o f th e head priest o f th e tem ple of Srirangam, w ho u ttered a Sanskrit verse w hich seemed to be th e w ord of God, and his will: Ί am th e Suprem e, T he T ru th is based u p o n distinction. Selfsu rren der is th e surest way to th e d oo r o f salvation. W hether m an struggles or n o t, salvation will com e in th e end. Accept th e discipleship o f Periä Nam bi.’ So R äm änuja set o u t to m eet Nambí at th e same tim e th a t N ambi was approaching C onjeevaram to m eet him . They cam e together in a tem ple on th e road, and Nambi initiated R äm änuja in to th e mysteries of Vedänta. R äm änuja was n o t happy in his m arriage, for in his heart he longed for th e tim e w hen he m ig h t devote him self un in terru p ted ly to a life o f w orship and m editation. His wife, instead of aiding him to attain th e spiritual ideal he desired, constantly irritated him by h er th o u g h tless conduct. A t last R äm änuja, feeling th e call o f God from w ithin, renounced all w orldly ties, to o k m onastic vows, and set o u t for Srirañgam , w here th e greät saint Y äm una had desired th a t he should live. W hile he was a m o n k at Srirangam, R äm änuja became extrem ely popular, and m any aspirants gathered ro u n d him ; B ut still he rem ained unsatisfied. Now th ere was living at th a t tim e an o th er saint, w hose nam e was G osthi-pürna. R äm änuja w en t to him and reverently begged to be initiated. Six times he w ent to him , and six tim es was refused. At last, however, seeing R äm änuja’s earnest devotion, G osthi-pürna initiated him w ith a holy m antra, a nam e of God, b u t w arned h im th a t he m u st never give th a t m an tra to anyone* for if he did he w ould be dam ned, w hile w hoever heard th e sacred

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words w ould attain salvation. U pon hearing this, R äm änuja w ent a t once in to th e tem ple, gathered a crow d around him , and u ttered th e holy m an tra O m nam o Näräyanäya’, in th e hearing o f all. G osthi-pürna pretended to be very angry and rebuked him for his disobedience, b u t R äm änuja replied, ‘If by m y dam nation so m any can be saved, dam nation is m y suprem e desire.’ Pleased, th e saint answered, ‘Because o f y o u r great love for hum anity, th e philosophy o f Visistädvaita shall henceforth be know n as th e R äm änuja Philosophy.’ R äm änuja now m ade Srirañgam his headquarters, b u t travelled occasionally to various parts o f th e country, preaching and gathering m any disciples. It was during this period th a t he w rote his com m entary u p o n th e B rahm a Sütras, as he had prom ised before th e corpse o f Y äm una th a t he w ould do. This w ork is know n as Sri Bhäsya, and is held in great respect by th e followers o f Sri Vaisnavism. He also w rote com m entaries u p o n th e Gitä and som e original philosophical treatises propounding his doctrine. He passed away in th e year AP 1137 after a fruitful life of one h u n d red and tw enty years. He is w orshipped today by thousands o f his followers, and is regarded by all India as one o f th e greatest saints and philosophers in its history. Visistädvaitaväda o f Rämänuja

A t th e beginning of o u r discussion o f R äm änuja’s philosophy, we need to m ake quite clear th e distinction betw een th e definition of know ledge given by Sam kara and th a t given by R äm änuja, for u p o n this distinction is based th e entire difference betw een these tw o great philosophers. If properly understood, it will at once m ake clear in how m any different lights th e same tru th m ay be viewed. According to Samkara, know ledge is self-lum inous, light itself. It illum ines objects of knowledge, and is therefore apart from and beyond th e relation of subject and object. Relative know ledge is n o t tru e knowledge; it is n o t p u re consciousness, th o u g h grounded u po n it. Knowledge, by itself, is absolute. It is th e A tm an, Light itself. Relative know ledge is infinite know ledge m ade finite. R äm änuja, o n th e o th er hand, does n o t take into consideration know ledge th a t is self-lum inous and absolute. Knowledge, he declares, is always relative, and in it th ere is always a distinction betw een subject and object. In short, R äm änuja does n o t adm it nirvikalpa samädhi, th e un itary consciousness, th e experience of th e Self as one w ith B rahm an. He was at h eart a bhakta, a devotee, w ho preserved his distinction fro m B rahm an in order to enjoy th e bliss o f divine love. In consequence, his philosophy is one of devotion, although, being based on careful reasoning, it is n o t m erely em otional in its nature.

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O ne other p o in t of difference betw een th e tw o great philosophers should be noted. W hat Sam kara calls mäyä, w hich is neither real n o r unreal, and which, w hen joined to B rahm an, th e Absolute, attributeless and im personal, becomes th e personal Iswara, or God, R äm änuja calls áakti, or pow er, w hich in its n atu re is real and eternally coexistent w ith Brahm an. T hus R äm änuja does n o t accept th e im personal, attributeless B rahm an o f Samkara, b u t rath er an eternal personal B rahm an, th e repository o f all blessed qualities. Theory o f Knowledge

Perception, inference, and scripture are valid as sources of knowledge, and also, each on its ow n level, as an affirm ation of reality. U nlike Samkara, R äm änuja does n o t adm it a distinction betw een illusory perception and tru e perception, for he declares th a t even in illusory perception, so-called, th ere is som e perception o f reality. T hus all experience has its validity. R äm änuja’s theory o f dharm a-bhüta-jnäna, or consciousness as an attribute and n o t the th ing itself, explains his conception o f th e threefold function of knowledge: it gives reality; it has th e pow er to reveal the tru th ; and it can reveal th e tru th of Brahm an. So long as m an, owing to his im perfections imposed' by karm a, is crippled in knowledge, B rahm an m ay n o t be revealed to him . B ut after he has been purified, he m ay have im m ediate in tu itio n o f God. This im m ediate intuition, as we have elsewhere rem arked, is n o t th e highest transcendental consciousness described in th e Upanisads and by Samkara as turiya, and as nirvikalpa sam ädhi by th e yogis, b u t rath er it is a transcendental experience o f God in w hich th ere still rem ains the ego as distinct fro m him . T he experience is described as savikalpa sam ädhi by the yogis, and it comes th ro u g h absorption in m editation and devotion. This revelation of God in m editation possesses a self-certifying character, and, further, th e fact th a t God is so revealed in th e heart of m an is borne witness to by th e seers and saints o f th e Upanisads, as well as by th e saints and seers o f all ages and in all lands. Brahman, or God

In th e Upanisads we read, ‘T he know er of B rahm an attains the highest.’1 This text expresses th e un ity o f th e threefold n atu re of wisdom, nam ely: tattw a, or intellectual and philosophic u n d erstanding of B rahm an; hita, o r way to B rahm an; and purusärtha, direct perception of B rahm an as the suprem e goal. Let us first try philosophically to com prehend th e n atu re of 1 Taittiriya, Π. i. 3.

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B rahm an. This is tattw a. B rahm an is determ inate an d can therefore be defined by a statem ent o f his essential attributes. In th e w ords o f th e Upanisads, ‘B rahm an is satyam [or real], jfíanam [or conscious], and anantam [or infinite]’.1 Sam kara does n o t consider these as attributes o f Brahm an. B ut R am anuja accepts th e m as essential. B rahm an is th e basis o f all existence, and since he is also th e suprem e good, he is also th e suprem e goal. T he universe is com posed o f cit, th e sentient, and acit, th e nonsentient. Cit and acit have th eir source in Brahm an, and he is th e indw elling Self w ithin all and th e ru ler o f all. B rahm an is b o th th e first cause and th e final cause o f the universe o f th e sentient and th e nonsentient. ‘B rahm an . . . wills to be m an y’, we read in th e Upanisads, and he divides him self in to th e m anifold universe o f th e living and o f th e nonliving. This fact does n o t m ean, however, th a t th e act of creation had an absolute beginning in tim e. T he universe, as explained by all systems o f Indian th o u g h t, alternates betw een th e phases o f involution and evolution. In th e phase o f involution it rem ains laten t in B rahm an, and creation or evolution is th e actualization o f th e latent. T he one becomes th e m any, n o t in th e pantheistic sense o f em anation, b u t in th e sense th a t Brahm an, by exercise o f his will, evolves th e tw enty-four categories and th e jivas, or individual souls. B rahm an is th e m aterial as well as th e efficient cause o f th e universe. ‘From h im th e universe has emerged, in him it exists, and u n to h im it retu rn s.’2 ‘As th e web comes o u t o f th e spider and is w ithdraw n, as plants grow fro m th e soil and hair fro m th e body of m an, so springs th e universe from th e eternal B rahm an.’3 God, as th e source and su pp o rt o f th e universe, has transform ed him self in to th e cosmic m anifold; and he is th e indw elling Self in his creation, th e ruler and director o f th e cosmic process. T he evil th a t th e universe contains is th e result o f the karm a of individuals, for w ho m God is th e dispenser o f th e law. He, himself, rem ains unaffected by evil, and is forever absolutely good. God, th o u g h he has transform ed him self in to th e universe of sentient and non sentient form s, rem ains distinct from them . M atter is th e object o f experience, individual souls are th e experiencing subjects, and God is th e lo rd and ru ler of all. He is defined in th e Upanisads (as we have seen) as satyam, real; jñanam , conscious; and anantam , infinite. R am anuja, in com m enting on this text, points o u t th a t because of these distinctive attributes God is above and beyond m atter (w hich is changing phenom ena) and distinct from individual souls caught in its meshes. Thus, th o u g h th e universe is a transform atio n of B rahm an, he rem ains by his n atu re beyond change, and th o u g h im m anent, he is transcendent. ‘ Taittiriya, Π. i. 3.

2 Ibid., ΠΙ. i.

3 M undaka, I. i. 7.

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So does R äiiiänuja define God as th e repository of infinite, ñoble, and blessed qualities, and as one ‘n o t only differentiating him self into th e cosmos b u t rem aining absolutely distinct from it’. Yet, again, ‘he is its stuff and soul’. Brahm an, then, is related to th e cosmos as th e soul is related to th e body. As a m an has a soul and a body, and as th e soul, th o u g h distinct fro m th e body, yet controls and guides it, lives in it, and uses it as art instru m en t, similarly B rahm an is th e soul o f th e universe, th e source and sustenance o f all beings w ithin it, and th e ru ler over all. Irt this body-and-soul connection betw een B rahm an and th e cosmos are included th e th ree relations defined by R äm änuja: ‘ädhära and ädheya—support and th e supported; niyäm aka and iiiyamya—th e co ntro ller and th e controlled; sesin and sesa—th e Lord and his servant’. Professor P. N. Srinivasachari, a deep stu d en t o f R äm änuja, speaks o f this triu n e relationship thus: ‘T he relation of ädhära and ädheya [support and th e thing supported] is from th e p o in t o f view of metaphysics Which defines B rahm an as real (satya), conscious (jfiäna), and infinite (anànta). This relation emphasizes th e in n er u n ity o f Reality. T he relation o f niyäm aka and niyam ya [controller and th e controlled] brings o u t th e transcendental goodness o f God and his redem ptive impulse. T hè relation of seshin and sesha [the Lord and his servant] satisfies th é highest dem ands o f ethics and aesthetics by defining Gòd as th e suprem e Lord for whose satisfaction th e w orld of chit [the sentient] and achit [the insentient] lives, moves and has its being. The relation o f body and soul combines all th e three together and serves as art analogical representation o f a spiritual tru th .’1 G od as th e controller of th e universe is absolutely good and thé redeem er o f all beings. Evil and suffering, be it repeated, aré caüsëd by th e individual’s karmas. Karmas—good of evil deeds—create happiness o r misery; b u t by karm as alone m art Canrtót rédeem himself. Only th e grace o f God can save him ; God is therefore th e saviour. In his infinite love, his absolute goodness, he is forever m erciful, fo r he even becomes flesh in h u m a n form in ordër to redeem th e prodigal and to rejoice in th e ecstasy o f co m m un io n w ith his devotee. T he Gitä, as we have seén, expounds th e idea of avatär, or divine incarnation; R äm änuja tells us th a t th é central m otive o f God in descending to earth irt h u m a n form is his loVe for h um an ity and his desire to save it. 1 Cultural Heritage o f India, vol· I, p. 567.

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ßvas, or Individual Souls

T he finite self is n o t a separate self-existent entity, b u t an organ, an elem ent o f Brahm an. It is a part o f B rahm an, essentially different fro m him b u t inseparably bou n d to him . The finite self is anu, o r atom ic like th e p o in t o f a goad, th o u g h it admits of n o spatial division fro m th e fact th a t it is spirit. T he finite self, th en , is an essential attribute (präkära) o f God; and as substance and attribute, th o u g h inseparably associated, are yet absolutely distinct fro m each other, so God as substance is absolutely distinct from th e individual soul. As inseparably associated w ith God, th e individual self is eternal; and as distinct fro m him , it has a personality o f its ow n and a free will. But God, being also th e in n er ru le r o f th e cosmos, w hich form s his body, ‘m akes th e ¡soul act’. N ot th a t m a n ’s acts are good o r evil as guided o r forced by God—for God perm its th e individual to choose between good and evil. Eventually, however, by his grace God restores all souls to himself. M an’s choice of good or evil, in short, is an exercise o f his free will th a t makes him responsible for his actions, while God rem ains unaffected by them . Free will, fu rtherm ore, is given in order th a t m an m ay eventually detach him self fro m th e meshes o f ignorance and grow in to the ‘personality o f G od’. T h o u g h R äm änuja tries to refute th e doctrine o f mäyä as expounded by Samkara, he is obliged to adm it in th e final analysis th e existence o f mäyä, o r ignorance, in m an; for th e self, he believes, has forgotten its divine origin and its divine destiny, and tends to identify itself w ith m atter, u n til it becomes subject to th e evils of samsära, o r em pirical existence. T he tru e Self, w hich is an eternal m ode o f God, has degenerated in to ego by becom ing a m ode of m atter. We free ourselves from this ego w hen we surrender our-* selves to God. O ur free will, a gift o f God, finds fulfilm ent o f its purpose w hen we live in conform ity w ith th e will o f God, w ho is o u r divine source and th e Self o f ourselves. T he poet Tennyson in tw o lines sum s up th e im plications o f free will and self-surrender: O ur wills are ours we know n o t how, O ur wills are ours to m ake th em Thine. The Supreme Goal

As we have already stated, God is th e tattw a, th e tru th ; he is the hita, th e ways and means, and he is th e purusärtha, th e suprem e goal.1 N ot only m u st we give intellectual assent to th e tru th th a t we live, 1 Cft; Ί am the way, the truth, and the life’ (John xiv, 6).

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m ove, and have o u r being in God, b u t w e m u st have awareness o f this tru th . Like all tru e saints and philosophers, R äm änuja held th a t God can be know n and realized, th a t a vision o f his being is possible for m an, and th a t m an m u st strive to attain it. A nd he realized, like all saints, th a t th e vision o f God is vouchsafed to m an by God him self o u t o f his infinite love and grace. Self-effort and divine grace are n o t opposed to each other; neither is divine grace conditional. In th e w ords o f Sri Räm akrsna, th e breeze o f divine grace is blowing, b u t we m u st set sail to catch it. In th e same way R äm änuja explains how w e m u st love God, serve him , and m editate on him ; and th en , as spiritual hu n g er grows w ithin us, we experience love and divine grace flowing from him and flooding o u r w hole being. T he culm ination of spiritual experience, he says, is th e n realizing G od’s unbo u n d ed love and finding com plete refuge in him . To find com plete refuge in h im is th e ideal o f self-surrender, or prapatti, w hich is n o t extinction o f self, b u t rath er a u n io n of o u r will w ith th e will of God. R äm änuja did n o t believe in a com plete identity o f m an w ith God. For him kaiñkarya, o r living in th e service o f God, was th e suprem e ideal. This ideal o f service, however, m u st n o t be confused w ith a m o d ern Christian ideal, th a t o f helping God to realize his ow n fullness. In this Christian ideal th ere exists a strong elem ent o f egotistical pride. The tru th is th a t God does n o t need o u r help; we realize o u r ow n fullness by loving and serving him . R äm änuja did no t, how ever, believe in jivanm ukti, or liberation in this life, b u t rath er in videha m ukti, o r liberation after death— death, for him , being a passing ‘th ro u g h th e p ath o f light’ to o u r p erm an en t h o m e in God. In death th e self realizes u n io n w ith God as his body, his part, his attribute. Never is there a dissolution o f jivahood, or individual personality. Professor P. N. Srinivasachari has beautifully sum m arized this ideal of freedom in th e following words: ‘Release is n o t freedom in em bodim ent b u t freedom from embodim en t; it refers to th e re tu rn o f th e präkära or m u k ta [released soul] to his hom e in th e absolute. [Ram anuja’s absolute, however, is n o t th e Absolute proper—b u t th e Personal God.] M ukti [freedom] is beyond th e range o f m aterialism and m entalism and involves th e in tu itio n o f th e infinite as well as its attainm ent. T he finite has its roots in th e infinite and in m u k ti there is th e coalescence of co n ten t w ith o u t th e abolition o f existence. W hen th e freed self sees God face to face, its logical outlook becomes a spiritual insight, and freed from th e nescience o f empirical life, it expands in to omniscience. It has a sense o f th e infinite and sees everything w ith the eye o f th e all-self. W hen th e self is Brahmanized, it is stripped o f its self-hood and sense

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o f separateness, shakes off th e shackles o f karm a based o n käm a [desire] and effaces itself in spiritual service and solidarity. T he finite rem ains, b u t th e fetters o f finitude and individualism are rem oved.’1 The Ways and Means o f Attainment

In explaining hita, th e practical aspect o f his philosophy, R äm änuja insists th a t God is th e Lord o f Love, and he prescribes bhakti yoga. ‘Bhakti yoga’, explains Swami Vivekananda, ‘is a real, genuine search after th e Lord, a search beginning, continuing, and ending in Love. O ne single m o m e n t o f th e madness o f extrem e love o f God brings us eternal freedom .’2 Sam kara laid great stress u p o n jfiäna yoga, th e p ath o f knowledge, b u t R äm änuja laid stress u p o n bhakti yoga, th e p ath o f love. Both these saintly philosophers adm it th e need of love and devotion as w ell its th e need o f know ledge; only Sam kara preaches love as a m eans to know ledge and R äm änuja preaches love as bo th m eans and end. R äm änuja, o n th e o th e r hand, adm its know ledge as a m eans to love, whereas Sam kara insists th a t know ledge is b o th m eans and end. I do n o t believe th a t th ere exists, after all, any real difference between th eir explanations o f th e m eans. Swami Vivekananda declares, it is a distinction w ith o u t m u c h difference. W hen R äm änuja speaks o f know ledge as a means, he has in m ind n o t transcendental know ledge b u t intellectual analysis; and w hen Sam kara speaks o f love as a m eans, he has reference to an inferior fo rm o f w orship. ‘Each seems’, says Swami Vivekananda, ‘to lay a great stress u p o n his ow n particular m ethod o f w orship, forgetting th a t w ith perfect love tru e know ledge is bou n d to com e, even unsought, and th a t fro m perfect know ledge tru e love is inseparable.’3 As he explains w hat m editation is, R äm änuja also explains w h at tru e love is, and how w ith love and devotion we necessarily m u st m editate u p o n God. In his com m entary u p o n th e first aphorism of th e V edänta Sütras, he gives an illum inating explanation o f this interlocking o f love and m editation: ‘M editation is a constant rem em bering [of th e thing m editated upon], w hich flows like oil poured from one vessel to another. W hen this kind o f rem em bering has been attained [in relation to God] all bonds break. T hus th e scriptures speak o f constant recollectedness as a m eans to liberation. This rem em bering again is th e sam e as seeing, because it has th e same significance, as is evident fro m th e passage, “W hen He w ho is far away and near is seen, th e bonds o f th e 1 Ramanuja’s Idea o f the Finite Self, pp. 98-9. 2 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. ΙΠ, p . 31.

* Ibid., vol. ΙΠ, p. 34.

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h eart are broken, all doubts vanish, and all effects o f karm a disappear.” He w ho is near can be seen, b u t he w ho is far away can only be rem em bered. Nevertheless th e scriptures say th a t we have to see H im w ho is near as well as far away, thereby indicating to us th a t th e above kind o f rem em bering is as good as seeing. This rem em brance w hen exalted assumes th e same form as seeing. . . . W orship is constant rem em bering, as m ay be seen fro m th e principal texts o f th e scriptures. Knowing, w hich is th e sam e as repeated Worship, has been described as constant rem em bering. . . . T hus th e m em ory, w hich has attained to th e level o f direct perception, is spoken o f in th e Sruti [scripture] as a m eans o f liberation. “This A tm an is n o t to be reached th ro u g h various sciences, n o r by intellect, n o r by m u c h study o f th e Vedas. W hom soever this A tm an desires, by h im is th e A tm an attained; u n to him this A tm an reveals himself.” Here, after saying th a t m ere hearing, thinking, and m editating are n o t th e m eans o f attaining this A tm an, th e passage continues—“W hom soever this A tm an desires, by him th e A tm an is attained.” T he extrem ely beloved is desired; he by w h o m this A tm an is extrem ely beloved becomes th e m ost beloved o f th e A tm an. So th a t this beloved m ay attain th e A tm an, th e Lord him self helps. For it has been said by th e Lord: “Those w ho are constantly attached to Me and w orship Me w ith love—I give th a t direction to th eir will by w hich they com e to Me.” Therefore it is said, to w h o m soever this rem em bering, w hich is th e sam e as direct perception, is very dear, because it is dear to th e object o f such m em ory-perception, he is desired by th e Suprem e A tm an, by him th e Suprem e A tm an is attained. This constant rem em brance is denoted by th e w ord bhakti (love).’1 W ith respect to th e m eth o d and m eans o f attaining bhakti, R äm änuja rem arks: ‘Its attain m en t comes th ro u g h discrim ination, co n tro l o f th e passions, habitual practice o f religious disciplines, sacrificial w ork, purity, strength, and suppression o f excessive joy.’ By discrim ination is m ean t th e distinguishing, am ong o th er things, o f good food fro m bad. Body and m ind being interrelated, p u rity o f food is im p o rtan t, especially for beginners, because it enables th e m to th in k p u re thoughts. C o n tro l o f th e passions is th e strengthening o f th e will and its guidance tow ards m editation o n th e Lord. ‘By practice and n o n attach m en t is it to be attained.’ Sacrificial w ork refers to th e five great sacrifices m entioned in th e Vedas. Purity is b o th external and internal. In th e list o f qualities conducive to purity, R äm änuja enum erates th e following: satya, truthfulness; ‘ V ivekananda’s tran slation ; Compiete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. Ut, pp. 34-5.

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ärjava, sincerity; dayä, doing good to others; ahimsä, nonin ju ry ; abhidyä, noncovetousness, n o t thinking vain tho u g h ts, n o t brooding over injuries received fro m others. Strength is vigour o f m ind. Lastly is suppression o f excessive joy. Excessive joy fritters away th e energies o f th e m ind, and yet we m u st be cheerful. Swami Vivekananda rightly says: ‘T he person w ho aspires to be a bhakta m u st be cheerful. In th e W estern w orld th e idea o f a religious m an is th a t he never smiles, th a t a dark cloud m u st always hang over his face, w hich, again, m u st be long-draw n w ith th e jaws about collapsed. People w ith em aciated bodies and long faces are fit subjects for th e physician, they are n o t yogis. It is th e cheerful m in d th a t is persevering. It is th e strong m ind th a t hews its way th ro u g h a thousand difficulties. A nd this, th e hardest task o f all, th e cutting o f o u r way o u t o f th e n e t o f maya, is th e w ork reserved only for giant wills.’1 R äm änuja makes som e slight distinction betw een bhakti, or devotion, and prapatti, or self-surrender. W hen love fo r God arises in th e heart, th e highest attain m en t comes in th e surrendering o f o u r wills to G od’s will and in o u r living, literally, in th e service o f God. But, as we have seen, according to R äm änuja there never comes com plete u n io n o f m an and God, o f th e lover and th e beloved. And yet th e greatest lovers and devotees tell o f th e ultim ate consum m ation o f love in mystic u n io n —Ί and m y Father are one’—th e u n io n w hich know s n eith er separation n o r distinction. T o th e stu d en t o f W estern philosophy, R am anuja’s ideas concerning G od and th e soul bear an astonishing resem blance to ideas on th e sam e subjects w ith w hich Scholastic philosophy concerned itself during th e Christian M iddle Ages. The personality and th e attributes o f G od th e Heavenly Father, th e relation o f m an to God, th e question of free will and divine grace, th e submission o f th e will o f m an to a higher will th a n his, th e u n io n o f h u m a n and divine, th e relative positions o f reason and love in th e divine schem e, th e vision o f divine love and grace, and th e release o f th e soul fro m bondage after death—it was principally on these topics th a t th e Schoolm en speculated th ro u g h m any hundreds o f years, from St A ugustine u n til th e final synthesis o f faith and reason in St T hom as Aquinas. A nd R äm änuja, living in th e te n th century, m ight w ell have been th e spiritual father o f th e Christian D ante. It is tru e th a t medieval Christianity placed far greater emphasis u p o n th e sense o f sin th a n is to be found anyw here in H indu philosophy, b u t in th e teachings o f 1 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. ΠΙ, p. 69.

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R äm änuja all th e o th er mysteries o f Christian theology seem to find th eir counterpart. We m ay add in this connection th a t th e greatest Christian mystics attained th e height o f realization by following bhakti yoga, o r th e p ath o f love and devotion, th e same m eth o d of attain m en t th a t was tau g h t by R äm änuja.

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NIMBÄRKA

T here are fo u r chief schools o f Vaisnavism (V edanta in its devotional aspect): Sri, o f w hich R äm änuja is th e principal exponent; Sanaka founded by N im bärka in th e eleventh century; Brähm a, founded by M ädhwa in th e tw elfth century; and R udra, founded by Vallabha in th e sixteenth century. To these should be added th e Bengal Vaisnavist school, w hose fo u n d er was Sri Caitanya, th e p ro p h e t of Nadiä. We are here concerned w ith N im bärka only. Very little is know n o f N im bärka’s life, b u t he is held in reverence as one o f th e greatest saints o f India, and th e m onastery he is said to have founded is still a celebrated place o f pilgrimage. Nim bärka’s philosophy rem ains u n iq u e in th a t it never attacked o th er schools o f philosophy. Nearly all o f those w ho w rote com m entaries o n th e B rahm a Sütras in th e wake o f Sarhkara attem pted to refute his doctrine o f nondualism , b u t w ith o u t m u ch success. In m y discussion o f certain o f these philosophers I have avoided their endless disagreements w ith Sam kara and w ith one an o th er in favour of points o f agreem ent and harm ony. Infinite is God and infinite are th e ways to apprehend and com prehend him —and such was th e opinion o f N im bärka also as he approached th e fundam ental problem s of God, th e universe, and th e h u m a n soul. According to N im bärka’s philosophy o f Bhedäbheda, o r dualism in nondualism , B rahm an has tw o aspects, th e absolute and th e relative, or, in o th er words, th e im personal and th e personal. In his personal aspect, B rahm an possesses attributes, and fro m him as person has issued th e universe o f nam e and form . B ut B rahm an has n o t exhausted him self in th e creation o f th e universe, for he is also transcendental and im personal, w ith o u t attributes, and as such he is greater th a n th e universe. T he universe is, however, one w ith, as w ell as different from , Brahm an, even as th e wave is one w ith b u t different from th e ocean, o r a ray o f th e su n is one w ith b u t different from th e sun. Such also is th e relationship betw een individual souls and B rahm an; they are

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at once one w ith h im and different fro m him . It is n o t m erely a distinction betw een th e p a rt and th e w hole th a t we have in m ind, for they are b o th a p a rt o f B rahm an, and one w ith him . T hus th ere exists alm ost an identity betw een th e philosophy o f N im bärka and th a t o f Bhäskara, b u t w ith th e im p o rtan t difference th a t according to Bhäskara th e individual soul is a p a rt of B rahm an only so long as it rem ains in ignorance—th a t in know ledge and em ancipation it becomes one w ith him ; whereas N im bärka declares th a t th e individual soul is ä p art o f B rahm an, and is also one w ith him , b o th in th e state o f ignorance and in th a t o f know ledge and em ancipation. In th e state o f ignorance—according to Nimbärka—th e individual soul experiences th e em pirical w orld Of phenom ena, while in th e state o f liberation it attains th e superconscioUs, transcendental vision o f th è noum enalj th e absolute Brahm ani at th e sam e tim e th a t it realizes itself as living b o th in u n io n w ith B rahm an and separate from him . N im bärka lays stress u p o n b o th know ledge and dévotion as m eans o f attaining freedom . Knowledge reveals th e tru e n a tu re o f B rahm an, and dévotion culm inates in all-absorbing love for him and in com plete su rren d er o f th è finite will to th e infinite will, alth o u g h in b o th th e love and th e su rrender th e individual sëlf rem ains. For th e follóWérs o f Nimbärka^ Krsna and his divine consort R ädhä em body b o th suprem e Will and suprem e love.

C H A P T E R 21

MADHWA

Mädhwa, an o th er celebrated co m m en tato r u p o n th e B rahm a Sutras, founded th e Vaisnava sect know n as B rahm a o r Sad Vaisnavism. He was b o rn in th e year a d 1199, o f brahm in parents, in th e village o f Biligram, w hich is near th e m o d ern to w n of Udipi in th e w estern p a rt o f w h at is now th e Madras Presidency. He was sent to th e village school b u t proved him self to be m ore an athlete th a n a scholar. Physically strong and swift, he defeated his playm ates in ru n n in g , in jum ping, in swimming, and in o th er athletic feats. B ut he left school at an early age and con tin u ed his studies o f th e sacred scriptures at ho m e alone. In later years, his learning was show n in his know ledge o f these scriptures, especially th e Puränas, and o f th e science o f logic. D uring th e period o f his study at hom e, he was seized w ith a burning desire for renunciation, and at th e age o f twenty-five he to o k m onastic vows and devoted him self to th e V edänta philosophy u n d e r th e guidance o f a teacher w ho expounded its nondualistic aspect. Soon, however, M ädhw a began to differ fro m his g u ru in his in terp retatio n o f Vedänta. He w ro te an independent com m entary u p o n th e Gitä, revealing scholarly ability and logical penetration, As a result o f his studies, he soon developed a school o f philosophy o f his ow n. In th e course o f extensive travels in th e peninsula of India, he encountered th e exponents o f m any systems o f th o u g h t, discussed ideas w ith th em , and attem pted w ith success to gain a hearing for his doctrines. He passed away at th e age o f seventy-nine. M ädhw a w rote com m entaries u p o n th e Upanisads, in addition to those on th e B rahm a Sütras and th e G itä already m entioned, and also m any treatises in w hich he expounded his ow n views and attacked others, particularly Sam kara’s th eo ry o f mäyä. In th e following paragraphs are sum m ed u p m ain aspects o f his philosophy. T he proposition on w hich M ädhw a bases his realism is th a t b o th th e know er and th e object o f know ledge m u st be real, for otherw ise n o know ledge w ould be possible. Knowledge necessarily implies

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th em . All know ledge is relative. Absolute know ledge, o r th e transcendental consciousness, in w hich all distinction betw een knowledge, know er, and k n o w n vanishes—as absolute know ledge is defined in Yoga and by áam kara—can n o t be adm itted. ‘No know ledge can be k n o w n ’, says M ädhwa, ‘w ith o u t th e know er and th e k n o w n .’ Pramänas, th e m eans and instrum ents o f know ledge, are perception, scriptural texts, and inference. W hatever is know n th ro u g h these is directly related to th e object o f know ledge, w hich has a reality o f its own. O n this th eo ry o f know ledge, M ädhw a erects his th eo ry o f th e objective reality o f th e w orld. T he w orld is real because it is perceived as such. T he objects presented to o u r perception m ay be either subject or n o t subject to change, and th e fact th a t an object is fleeting and changeable does n o t m ean th a t it is n o t real. O u r experience is th e experience o f difference. We see things and things, people and people, and we perceive th em to be different fro m one another. Different fro m all living beings and nonliving things is God, w ho exists in order th a t his law m ay be fulfilled in th e universe, and in order th a t finite souls, less lim ited th an nonliving things in pow er and intelligence, m ay find release fro m th e sufferings and bondage o f th e w orld in loving h im and surrendering themselves to him . M ädhw a’s w hole philosophy is th u s based u p o n th e idea o f difference o r distinction. And distinctions are kn o w n to be five in nu m b er: (1) G od is distinct fro m individual souls; (2) God is distinct fro m nonliving m atter; (3) one individual soul is distinct fro m every other; (4) individual souls are distinct fro m m atter; and (5) in m atter, w hen it is divided, th e parts are distinct fro m one another. T h e universe is divided in to tw o categories: Sw atantra, independent being, and aswatantra, dependent beings. G od is th e only independent being. He is th e one o m nipotent, om niscient, and om nipresent being. H ow God, w ho is distinct fro m individual souls and nonliving things, can be om nipresent is explained by saying th a t he is n o t lim ited by tim e and space and th a t th e dependent beings ‘do n o t fo rm a resisting m ed iu m to his presence’. (1) M atter is distinct fro m God and h u m a n souls and in itself is only a dependent being. (2) G od is th e ru le r o f th e universe, b u t th e universe is real and eternally existent. Each soul is distinct fro m every other, and all souls are distinct fro m God, th o u g h they have dependent existence in him . By n a tu re souls are intelligent. Each soul w hen b o rn in to this w orld and invested w ith body and senses is in a state o f bondage, b u t by contin u ed struggle th ro u g h m an y lives release fro m this bondage m ay be obtained.

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M oreover, although souls are distinct from one another, they fall into classes. O f these there are three, differing in their essential n atu re as well as in their destiny. One class, w ho are m oral and devoted to God alone, will attain salvation and enjoy th e eternal felicity o f heaven—an abode called V aikuntha. T he second class will never attain salvation b u t will rem ain subject to rebirth, experiencing in life after life b o th happiness and misery. The th ird class, w ho revile Visnu and his devotees, will never attain salvation b u t will be subject to dam nation. This belief o f Mädhwa, th a t only a few attain salvation while the rest cannot, and some even suffer dam nation, is contrary to the teachings of all o th er Indian religious schools. M ädhwa m ay possibly have been influenced by certain Christian missionaries w ho during his tim e m ay have penetrated into India. O nly such souls as are devoted to Visnu will attain salvation—th a t is, go to V aikuntha and enjoy the beloved com pany of God. B ut even in V aikuntha there are gradations of souls and therefore differences between them .

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VALLABHA

Vallabha, th e founder of th e Vaisnava sect know n as R udra, lived during th e first half o f th e sixteenth century. He was celebrated for his saintly character and for his great love o f God and o f th e divine incarnation Sri Krsna. Like m o st o f th e o th er V edanta philosophers, he w rote com m entaries u p o n th e B rahm a Sütras in w hich he expounded his philosophy. He also com m ented u p o n the Bhägavatam , one o f th e Puränas—a class of scriptures w hich he held in high esteem. D uring th e latter p art o f his life he resided in Bañaras, w here a m onastery has been built in his nam e and w here he is w orshipped as th e greatest teacher o f th e R udza sect. B rahm an in his aspect o f love is th e centre o f Vallabha’s teaching. B rahm an is personal; th a t is, he is endow ed w ith divine attributes. He also possesses a spiritual body, w hich is blissful. A lover o f God can realize mystic u n io n w ith him in his spiritual body. B rahm an has projected this universe o u t o f himself. No o th er m otive can be attributed to him for this act of creation th a n a purely sportive one; th a t is, it was done as play (lilä)—just fo r fun. T h o u g h B rahm an has transform ed him self in to th e universe, he rem ains unchanged. This act o f unchanging change is called avikrta parinäm a, unchanged transform ation. It m ay be added th a t th o u g h God has becom e everything, he rem ains unaffected by th e sinfulness of individual souls. T h o u g h an individual soul is atom ic, it is yet a p art o f B rahm an, and as such is p u re and divine. The soul resides in the heart, th o u g h its intelligence is m anifested in every p a rt o f th e being o f m an, as th e fragrance o f sandal paste is diffused in th e atm osphere th o u g h th e paste itself occupies b u t a sm all p o rtio n o f space. T he soul is u n b o rn and undying, for it is the body th a t undergoes b irth and death and change. Souls, w hich differ in their n atu re because God desires variety for the sake o f play, m ay be divided into th ree classes: those w ho are steeped in worldliness, those w ho follow spiritual injunctions and gradually grow spiritual in their nature, and those w ho love God for love’s sake.

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According to Vallabha, th e universe is real if it is seen truly, as a creation o f God and as one w ith him . T he universe in w hich suffering and bondage are experienced is n o t one w ith God; it is an appearance caused by ignorance o f individual souls and therefore is unreal. This ignorance, th e cause o f th e unreal universe, consists o f egoism and attachm ent. Souls differ in their nature, as we have seen, and th e difference is due to th e will of God. T h at there is th e ignorance o f egoism and attach m en t is also due to th e will o f God; he wills it, this too, because he loves variety and play. In all o f this n o ro o m is left for h u m an responsibility. God is m ade responsible, as in a jest, for evil and suffering. Vallabha admits the efficacy of th e paths of knowledge, selfless w ork, and devotion, if one w ould attain spiritual grow th. He also adm its th e state of absorption in and u n io n w ith B rahm an. B ut to him to love for love’s sake is th e suprem e path, and living in mystic u n io n w ith th e Beloved Lord is th e suprem e goal o f life. After we have freed ourselves from all egoism, and from all attach m en t to the u n real w orld, and have found th e real w orld in God, and after there arises a h u n g er for G od’s love like th a t of th e shepherdesses for Krsna, th e n it is th a t we reach th e suprem e goal. T o love Krsna as th e Beloved, as this love is depicted in th e Bhägavatam, is regarded by Vallabha as th e highest achievem ent in life.

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sr

T

CAITANYA

In Sri Caitanya is to be fo u n d th e culm ination and fulfilm ent o f th e philosophy and th e religion o f love. T h ro u g h him Vaisnavism, w hich is th e philosophical expression o f th e ideal o f love for God, ushered in a new era in th e higher life o f Bengal. His ideas have found exquisite expression in a richly em otional collection of hym ns w hich have been a peculiar contribution of Bengal to Indian culture. Every Bengali has in his blood a liberal adm ixture of Sri Caitanya’s religion of love. Even m ore th a n his philosophy, it is Sri Caitanya’s p u re and gentle character—his loving-kindness and his ecstatic love o f God—th a t has ruled, and still rules, th e hearts of th e people of Bengal. He knew no distinction o f caste or creed in his im m ense love o f God and m an; all m en, w h eth er they w ere sinners o r saints, were to him b u t creatures o f God, and his h eart overflowed w ith sym pathy for the lowly, the suffering, and th e destitute. So his very nam e excites genuine spiritual em otions in the hearts o f those w ho know about him . His followers see in him Krsna reborn in th e flesh. Sri Caitanya was born in th e year 1485 at Navadwip, at th a t tim e a large city in Bengal and th e seat of Sanskrit learning, particularly o f gram m ar and logic. His parents lost their first eight children, all of th e m daughters, in infancy, and th e n in th , a boy nam ed Viswarüpa, at an early age entered a m onastery in so u th ern India. Sri Caitanya was th e youngest son. He was given th e nam e o f Viswambhar and was nicknam ed Nimäi. He was also called G our o r G ourañga (fair com plexioned) because o f th e exquisite beauty o f his person. The n am e Sri Krsna Caitanya he received w hen he was adm itted to th e order of m onks. As a sm all baby he was afflicted w ith prolonged fits o f weeping, th e only rem edy for w hich his m o th er fo u n d to be th e chanting o f the nam e of Hari (God). As a boy, he was full o f m ischief and to o k pleasure in teasing others and playing pranks. He lost his father w hen he was eleven years old. It was th en th a t he seriously applied him self

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to studies in literature and gram m ar and o th er branches o f knowledge. His m aster was Väsudeva, th e w ell-know n teacher o f Sanskrit and the fam ous founder, in con ju n ctio n w ith his brilliant pupil R aghunäth, o f th e Neo-logic (Nabya-Nyäya) o f th e Bengal school. An interesting story is told of the relation between R aghunath and th e young Caitanya. T he form er, a fellow -student, being at w ork u p o n his fam ous treatise on logic, learned th a t Caitanya was w riting a book of th e same character. He asked his friend to read a few pages to him , and w hen he heard them he grew dispirited. Ί cherished a hope’, he said in answer to a question from Caitanya, ‘o f leaving a nam e behind me, b u t I realize th at m y w ork will n o t be read if yours is given to th e public.’ To this Caitanya replied: ‘This trivial m atter m u st n o t disturb you. I w ill see th a t y o u r w ork is recognized.’ T hereu p o n Caitanya threw his ow n m anuscript into th e Ganges. T ho u g h he had n o t yet com pleted his education, at sixteen he opened a school o f his ow n at Navadwip, and in th a t city he gained fame as one o f th e greatest teachers o f gram m ar and logic o f his tim e. H undreds of students flocked to him . While he was teaching at Navadwip, he w rote a book on Sanskrit gram m ar w hich was widely used. A t th e age of tw enty-tw o or tw enty-three he departed on a pilgrimage to Gaya, the site o f a fam ous tem ple dedicated to Visnu. It was at Gaya th a t Buddha, centuries before, sat u n d er th e Bodhi tree, and here the young Sri Caitanya, th e n know n as Nimäi Pundit, while w orshipping at th e feet o f Visnu, received a sudden illum ination th a t transform ed his being. Tears rolled dow n his cheeks, and he lost him self in ecstasy. A m ongst the pilgrims was a m onk, Iswar Puri, a sannyäsin of th e order o f Samkara, w ho had m et Caitanya before and knew him as a great scholar. Now, as he witnessed his ecstatic condition, he recognized in him a great devotee. Caitanya asked for blessings from Iswar Puri, w ho th en initiated him into th e w orship of Krsna. Nimäi retu rn ed to Navadwip a changed m an. The unrivalled scholastic debater, the gram m arian, th e logician, now disappeared. Instead, th ere stood before m en a serene, exalted person, continually chanting ‘Krsna, Krsna’. His form er students gathered about him as had been their custom , b u t he could no longer teach them . ‘Brothers,’ he cried, Ί can n o longer give you lessons. W henever I attem p t to explain anything to you, I see before m e th e little boy Krsna, playing u p o n his flute. You had better seek som e o ther teacher.’ T hereupon he sang a kirtan (chant), w hich has com e dow n to this day and is sung by the Vaisnavas of Bengal.1 1 T his chant, w hich is com posed o f the m any nam es o f K rsna, together w ith w ords describing his various attributes, is sun g to the accom pan im ent o f certain

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N ow th e re gathered ro u n d th e m aster devotees w ho fo und joy in th e co n tem p latio n of God. So did Sri Caitanya becom e a great spiritual force in th e city o f Navadwip, and th e lives o f m any unbelievers were transform ed by th e to u ch o f this G od-intoxicated m an. Som e of his disciples in later years played an im p o rtan t p art in the religious life o f Bengal by preaching his message of love and giving peace and consolation to m any a h u n g ry soul. A t th e age o f twenty-five, b u t tw o years after his conversion at Gaya, Sri Caitanya was seized by a burning desire to forsake th e w orld. Of his renunciation Swami D urga C haitanya Bharati, a follower o f Sri Caitanya, and his biographer, writes as follows: ‘T he story o f G ouranga’s renunciation has few parallels in history. T he heart-rending story o f his renunciation, w hen he left his aged m o th er, loving young wife, and all Navadwip bewailing his separatio n from th em , soon spread in all directions and m oved th e people in a way th a t n o th in g else had done before in Bengal. This story has since been carried to th e fu rth est corners o f th e c o u n try th ro u g h poetry, songs, ballads, dram as, and discourses, and yet even after these four h u n d re d and forty-four years it has n o t lost in th e least in its original pathos. T here is no m an or w om an, young or old, w ho even to this day hearing o f G ouranga’s renunciation is n o t m oved to tears.’ He took m onastic vows at th e hands of Kesava Bharati. To h im he related how in a dream he had received a m ahäväkya—th e sacred w ords T at Tvam asi1 (T hat T h o u art) w hich were revealed to th e seers of th e Upanisads, and w hich th e great saint and philosopher Sam kara accepted as containing th e very essence o f ultim ate tru th . Kesava Bharati, in initiating G ouränga in to th e mysteries o f th e life of a m onk, also initiated him into this sam e mahäväkya. W hatever his disciples m ay have set fo rth in th eir systems of th o u g h t, Sri Caitanya discovered an essential h arm o n y betw een love and knowledge. His biographers tell us th a t he possessed a dual personality. O n th e one hand, while he was in sam ädhi, having lost consciousness o f th e outer w orld and all sense o f ‘m e and m in e’, he ta u g h t m en th a t he was one w ith God; on th e other, u p o n his re tu rn to n o rm al consciousness, he rem ained a lover o f God, and he could n o t bear th e th o u g h t th a t he was one w ith him. In th e n o rm al state o f consciousness he desired ‘to taste th e sweetm usical in strum en ts. T he devotees jo in in th e sin gin g and dance in ecstatic joy. T h e ch an t begins th u s: ‘H ari H araye nam ah , K rsna Jädaväya n am ah ; G opäla, G ovinda, R äm a, Sri M adh usudan a.’ 1 C händogya, VI. xiii. 3.

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ness o f sugar, n o t to becom e sugar’. Sri R äm akrsna has explained this attitude o f th e saint by rem arking th a t like an elephant he had tw o sets o f teeth, one w ith w hich to chew his food, th e o th er w ith w hich to defend him self against attack. Sri Caitanya m oved in tw o states of consciousness. While in th e n o rm al state, he was a dualist: he was th e lover o f God, and God was th e Beloved. In samädhi, however, he realized th e tru th of nondualism ; th e lover and th e Beloved became one. To th e outside w orld and for th e masses of m en, he preached th e ideal o f love and th e philosophy of dualism; b u t to th e chosen few he preached th e highest tru th , w hich he dared n o t reveal to all m en since n o t all m en are prepared to receive it—the suprem e tru th o f nondualism . This aspect o f his practice is corroborated in his fam ous conversation w ith R äm änanda Roy, w hich we shall describe later. Sri Räm akrsna, w ho fully appreciated the spiritual greatness of Sri Caitanya, rem arked: ‘Sri Caitanya used to experience th ree m oods. In the inm ost m ood he w ould be absorbed in samädhi, unconscious of th e o uter w orld. In th e semiconscious m ood he w ould dance in ecstasy b u t could n o t talk. In th e conscious m ood he w ould sing the glories o f God.’1 It is interesting to note in this connection th a t Sri Caitanya, th o u g h he did n o t accept Sam kara’s doctrine o f mäyä, now here denounced Samkara, as did m ost of th e philosophers o f the doctrine of love w ho preceded him . O n th e contrary, he very plainly stated, as is recorded by his disciples, th a t Sam kara w rote his com m entary and expounded his philosophy by direct com m and o f G od.2 B ut to re tu rn to th e story o f Caitanya. After his initiation in to th e m onastic order he set o u t for Puri, th e w ell-know n place of pilgrimage. T here he resided for m any years, w ith occasional departures for preaching or teaching. At one tim e he to u red so u th ern India, w orshipping in m any o f th e tem ples, b u t w ith o u t prejudice against form s or aspects o f th e one G odhead other th a n those w hich they represented. He also visited Brindaban, the holy seat o f th e Vaisnavas, w here Krsna had engaged in his divine play w ith th e shepherds and shepherdesses. T he present Brindaban owes m u ch to Sri Caitanya and his disciples for rescuing th e holy place from oblivion. 1 Kathämrta, vol. IV, p. 223. 2 ári Caitanya did n o t com m en t on the B rah m a Sütras as did his predecessors. O nce he rem arked th at th e Bhägavata Purâna is the best com m entary o n the B rah m a Sütras. V aladeva V idyäbhusan, one o f his follow ers, w rote a com m en tary called G ovinda Bhâsya, in w hich he expounded the C aitanya philosophy.

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D uring m ost o f the last twelve years o f his life, Caitanya lived in sam ädhi and in th e state m idw ay betw een sam ädhi and n o rm al consciousness. In these states he was like m ad in his love o f Krsna, som etim es enjoying th e sweetness o f u n io n w ith him , and suffering th e pangs o f separation fro m him . The pangs, too, were sweet. Sri Caitanya’s last days were spent in Puri. Here his overm astering, consum ing love for God transform ed th e lives o f thousands. In th e Jagannath Tem ple of Puri his influence continues to be felt. T he passing o f Sri Caitanya is shrouded in mystery, his biographers giving no certain account o f it. M ost o f them , however, do state th a t at th e age o f forty-eight he entered a tem ple and cam e o u t n o m ore, simply disappearing. So th ere exists th e belief th a t in the image of God in the tem ple Caitanya lives for eternity. Sri Caitanya’s Philosophy o f Love

Sri Caitanya gave little care or atten tio n to a theoretical consideration o f th e problem s o f God, th e h u m a n soul, and th e universe. Above all things he was a God-intoxicated m an. His spiritual experiences transcended th e realm of tim e, space, and causation; his m ind plunged in to th e dom ain w here God is n o t an abstraction, b u t a reality in w hich dwell all joy, all sweetness, all love—a reality situated deep in th e loving hearts o f his devotees. God, it is said, is Sat-chid-änanda—Existence, Knowledge, and Bliss—he is absolute, indefinable, inexpressible. He is th e repository o f infinite blessed attributes, th e one Existence from w h o m th e universe has issued forth, in w h o m th e universe at last dissolves— th e om nipresent, th e om niscient, th e om nipotent. Such has been th e account m en have given o f God, b u t to Sri Caitanya these aspects o f th e G odhead m ean t little. For him God was Krsna, the God o f love—enchantingly beautiful, eternally youthful; and m an was th e eternal playm ate, th e eternal com panion. For him , however, this Krsna was n o t th e Krsna o f history, w ho u ttered th e m ighty spiritual discourses of th e Gitä, th e philosopher and th e harm onizer and th e avatar. For him he was the Krsna o f Brindaban, th e great lover and th e em bodim ent of love, divested o f all the powers o f th e G odhead, th e com panion o f shepherds and shepherdesses, playing u p o n his flute and draw ing souls u n to him by his com pelling love; he was th e Soul o f souls eternally dwelling in Brindaban—n o t a land one can p o in t to o n a m ap b u t th e heart of m an, th e Brindaban th a t is beyond tim e and space. Love divine, w hich is Krsna, is n o t to be acquired by m an, for it is already existent in th e soul, th o u g h covered by ignorance, by attach m e n t to the w orld o f the senses. W hen th e clouds o f ignorance have

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been swept away, this love, forever existing, becomes manifest. T hen does m an realize himself. We may rem ind the reader in this connection of th e philosophy o f Samkara. Sam kara declared th a t infinite know ledge is identical w ith th e Self, b u t th a t this know ledge is covered over by ignorance. W hat Sam kara called infinite know ledge Sri Caitanya called infinite love. In reality, th ere is no difference between th e two. To m ake m anifest this infinite love—according to Sri Caitanya— one m u st practise sädhan-bhakti, o r disciplinary devotion, by chanting th e nam e o f God, hearing and singing his praises, m editating upon th e divine play and deeds o f Krsna, and engaging in th e rites and cerem onies of worship. He laid special stress on japa—repeating the nam e o f God to the co u n t o f beads. Patañjali, also, th e father o f Yoga philosophy, approved th e practice o f japa as one of the m ethods of spiritual attainm ent, for th e nam e o f God and God, he said, are inseparable. In chanting G od’s nam e one necessarily m editates u p o n his presence. Sri Caitanya also emphasized th e practice of ethical virtues, particularly hum ility and forbearance. By th e co n d u ct recom m ended, one causes th e divine love to be m ade m anifest in the heart. O f this m anifestation th ere are five stages, corresponding to various expressions o f love on th e plane o f h u m a n life. First th ere is sänta, th e peaceful stage, in w hich, as he finds joy in th e th o u g h t o f God, th e aspirant attains poise and tranquillity. He feels God n ear him , b u t still no definite relationship between th e tw o has been established. T hen comes däsya, th e servant stage, in w hich th e aspirant feels th a t God is th e m aster, o r th a t he is th e father, th e protector. T he th ird is sakhya, th e stage o f friendship. G od is now realized as friend and playm ate. He is felt to be nearer as th e sense o f awe vanishes and the God of pow er and grandeur is forgotten. He is now only th e God o f love—a cherished friend. The fo u rth is vätsalya, th e child stage. Now, Krsna, God o f love, is a child, and th e devotee m u st take care o f him . This stage we th in k o f as higher th a n the preceding stages because in o u r h u m a n relationships a father or m o th er has a deeper affection for a child th a n a child has for its parents. T he fifth and last stage is m adhura, th e sweetest o f relationships, th e relationship betw een th e lover and th e beloved. T he strongest of h u m a n ties, th a t betw een m an and wife, finds its ultim ate realization in th e new tie betw een m an and God, in w hich God is th e beloved, and in w hich all th e elem ents of love—adm iration, service, com radeL*

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ship, com m u n io n —are present.1 T he highest expression o f this type of love is to be fo und in th e shepherdesses o f Brindaban, above all in Rädhä. W hen this kind o f love possesses th e heart, mystic u n io n is attained. T he following fam ous conversation between Sri Caitanya and Räm änanda, one o f his principal disciples, epitomizes th e philosophy of th e M aster as this is recorded by his biographers, and w hich I give here in m y ow n words. Sri Caitanya. W hat is the goal o f life? Disciple. A m an m u st follow th e rules and injunctions prescribed in

th e scriptures. Sri Caitanya. This is the external p art o f religion—only a means, n o t th e goal. T ry again. Disciple. Surrendering th e fruits of action to Krsna. Sri Caitanya. This, too, is external. Try again. Disciple. Realizing th e devotion th a t arises from self-surrender. Sri Caitanya. This, too, is external. Try again. Disciple. Realizing devotion w ith knowledge. Sri Caitanya. This, too, is external. Try again. Disciple. Realizing p ure devotion, w hich knows no reason. Sri Caitanya. T h at is good. Go further. Disciple. Realizing loving devotion, w hich is the best goal. Sri Caitanya. T h at is good. Go further. Disciple. Acquiring th e spirit o f service to Krsna. Sri Caitanya. T h at is good. Go further. Disciple. To love Krsna as a friend. Sri Caitanya. T h at is very good. Go further. Disciple. To love Krsna as a child. Sri Caitanya. T h at is also good. Go further. Disciple. To love Krsna as th e beloved bridegroom . Sri Caitanya. This is n o dou b t th e ultim ate goal. But tell m e if th ere is any attain m en t fu rth er th a n this. Disciple. My understanding does n o t reach beyond this. But there is an o th er stage called Prem-Viläs-Vivarta. T he biographers of Sri Caitanya record th a t at this point Sri Caitanya stopped R äm änanda from speaking, indicating thereby th at th e highest tru th , th e highest secret, m u st n o t be divulged. Prem Viläs-Vivarta is th e tru th of mystic union, w herein th ere is no longer a distinction between the lover and th e beloved. In this is realized the tru th of nondualism : T at Tvam asi—T h o u a rt That. 1 A n analogy m ay be draw n betw een this attitu de o f m ad h u ra an d the m ystic m arriages w hich are perform ed in certain Christian m onastic orders betw een the n un s and Christ the H eavenly Bridegroom .

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A PRAYER1

by Sri Caitanya C h an t th e nam e o f th e Lord and His glory unceasingly T h at th e m irro r o f th e h eart m ay be wiped clean And quenched th a t m ighty forest fire, W orldly lust, raging furiously w ithin. O h N am e, stream dow n in m o o n lig h t on th e lotus-heart, O pening its cup to know ledge o f Thyself. O h self, drow n deep in th e waves of His bliss, C hanting His Nam e continually, Tasting His nectar at every step, Bathing in His Name, th a t bath for weary souls. Various are T hy Names, O h Lord, In each and every N am e T hy pow er resides. No times are set, n o rites are needful, for chanting o f T hy Name, So vast is T hy mercy. How huge, then, is m y w retchedness W ho find, in this em pty life and heart, No devotion to Thy Name! Oh, m y m ind, Be h u m b ler th an a blade o f grass, Be patient and forbearing like th e tree, Take n o h o n o u r to thyself, Give h o n o u r to all, C h an t unceasingly th e Name o f th e Lord. O h Lord and Soul o f th e Universe, M ine is n o prayer for w ealth o r retinue, T he playthings of lust o r th e toys o f fame; As m any tim es as I m ay be reborn G rant me, O h Lord, a steadfast love for Thee. A drow ning m an in this w orld’s fearful ocean Is T hy servant, O h Sweet One. In T hy m ercy C onsider him as dust beneath T hy feet. 1 T ran slated fro m the San skrit by Sw am i Prabhavananda and C h ristoph er Isherw ood, Vedanta for the Western World (C h ristoph er Isherw ood, ed., New Y ork: V iking Press, 1960; London: A llen & U nw in, 1948), p. 225.

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Ah, how I long for th e day W hen, in chanting T hy Name, th e tears will spill dow n From m y eyes, and m y th ro a t will refuse to u tte r Its prayers, choking and stam m ering w ith ecstasy, W hen all th e hairs o f m y body will stand erect w ith joy! Ah, how I long for th e day W hen an in stan t’s separation from Thee, O h G ovinda,1 Will be as a thousand years, W hen m y h eart burns away w ith its desire And th e w orld, w ith o u t Thee, is a heartless void. Prostrate at T hy feet let m e be, in unw avering devotion, N either im ploring th e embrace o f T hine arms N or bewailing th e w ithdraw al o f T hy Presence T h o u g h it tears m y soul asunder. O h T hou, w ho stealest th e hearts o f T hy devotees, Do w ith m e w hat T h o u w ilt— For T h o u a rt m y h eart’s Beloved, T h o u and T h o u alone 1 G ovinda is an oth er nam e o f ári Krsna.

C H A P T E R 24

SRI R A M A K R S N A

Sri R äm akrsna has appeared frequently in the preceding chapters, at points w here he has been invoked to light up som e obscure doctrine or to reconcile som e apparently conflicting views. He now becomes, himself, th e subject o f a chapter. He was b o rn in 1836 in K äm ärpukur, a small village in West Bengal, to a brähm in family. His parents were of hum ble means, b u t extrem ely pious and devout. W hen Sri R äm akrsna was five years old, he was sent to th e village prim ary school. Here he learned to read and write, b u t showed great aversion to arithm etic. His speech was charm ing, and he was endow ed w ith so w onderful a m em ory th a t if he b u t once heard a song o r a play he could perfectly reproduce its text. He loved acting. Instead o f attending school and m inding his studies, he w ould r u n away w ith som e o f his schoolfellows to a m ango-grove o n th e outskirts o f th e village, and there, w ith boyish exuberance, perform th e pastoral dram a o f Sri Krsna’s life. W hen he was six o r seven years old, he had a striking experience— one w hich he often related to his disciples in later years. Ί was walking alone in a paddy field,’ he w ould say, ‘carrying a sm all basket o f puffed rice. Looking at th e sky overhead w hile eating th e rice, I saw th a t it was covered w ith rain clouds. Suddenly I noticed snow -w hite wild cranes flying in a row against th a t dark background. I was overw helm ed by th e beautiful sight. A n ecstatic feeling arose in m y heart, and I lost all outw ard consciousness. I do n o t know how long I rem ained in th a t state. W hen I regained consciousness I was in m y hom e, b ro u g h t th ere by som e friendly people.’1 A t th e age o f nine Sr! R äm akrsna was invested, according to brähm in custom , w ith th e sacred thread, and initiated in to the Gäyatr! m antra, a Vedic prayer. He was thenceforw ard allowed to do th e w orship o f th e household deity, Räma. He m anifested religious m oods. He w ould often rem ain for a long tim e absorbed in God, losing all outw ard consciousness. He used to go alone into th e woods, 1 See Líláprasañga, Sädh ak bhäv, p. 47.

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find a solitary place, and th ere m editate for hours u n d er th e shade of a tree. M any w andering m onks w ould halt and rest at K äm ärpukur o n th eir way to Puri, the w ell-know n place of pilgrimage. A rich m an o f th e village had built a guesthouse for th e pilgrims and had also m ade it a practice to provide th em w ith food. As a young boy, Sri Räm akrsna was often in their com pany and w ould do small services for them , and they loved him . D uring his early teens, th e ideal of a m onastic life attracted Sri Räm akrsna, b u t he soon gave u p the idea, thinking to himself, ‘To renounce th e w orld just for one’s ow n liberation is selfishness. I m ust do som ething th a t will be o f benefit to all m ankind.’1 W ithin a sh o rt tim e after his investiture w ith th e sacred thread, there occurred an incident w hich showed his keen spiritual u n d e rstanding. An im p o rtan t gathering o f pundits took place at th e house o f a rich m an o f th e village o n th e occasion o f a m em orial service. A t this m eeting there arose a controversy regarding a complicated philosophical question, and th e scholars could n o t arrive at any correct solution. Sri Räm akrsna and o th er young boys were present to see the fun. W hile his friends were enjoying themselves m im icking th e gestures o f th e pundits, Sri Räm akrsna was seated silently by an elderly scholar and was listening intently to the discussion. Suddenly he touched th e p u n d it and whispered in his ear. T he elderly m an listened attentively to Sri R äm akrsna’s words, and seeing im m ediately th a t th e boy had given a cogent solution, he stood u p w ith him on his shoulder and repeated it to th e com pany. All th e pundits praised young Räm akrsna and blessed him w ith all their heart. And the villagers m arvelled at his understanding.2 W hen he was seven years old, Sr! R äm akrsna’s father died. R äm kum är, his eldest brother, w ho was a great Sanskrit scholar, w en t to C alcutta and opened a Sanskrit school to earn his living and su p p o rt the family. W hen, years later, he learned th a t young R äm akrsna was neglecting his studies in th e village, he sent for him , intending to have him study in his Sanskrit school. It is a shame, R äm kum är th o u g h t, th a t a brahm in boy o f his family should rem ain ignorant. So Räm akrsna, now seventeen, w en t to C alcutta. B ut w hen R äm kum är asked h im to attend his school, th e young boy replied w ith great firmness, ‘Brother, I do n o t wish to waste m y life on a m ere bread-w inning education. I w an t to acquire th a t know ledge w hich w ould awaken in m e consciousness of th e eternal Reality and th u s m ake m y life blessed forever.’ He rem ained adam ant on th e subject, and his b rother was at a loss w h at to do w ith him .3 1 See Liläprasahga, Bälya jivan, p. 140. 3 Ibid., Sädhak bhäv, p. 64.

1 Ibid., G u ru bhäv, Pt. I, p. 137.

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An unexpected event solved th e problem . An enorm ously w ealthy w om an nam ed R äni Räsam ani built a tem ple on th e bank o f th e Ganges at Daksineswar, five miles n o rth o f Calcutta. It was dedicated to th e M other o f the Universe. R äm kum är was asked to be th e priest o f this tem ple, and he to o k his young b ro th er to help him . Sri R äm akrsna liked th e calm, serene atm osphere o f th e place, and so it cam e about th a t here at Daksineswar, by th e sacred river, he spent th e rest of his life. R äm kum är died after serving only a year as tem ple priest. Räm akrsna was now appointed to his b ro th e r’s place. He perform ed th e daily duties o f a priest, b u t his inquiring m ind longed for som ething m ore, and he questioned w ithin himself: ‘W hat is all this for? Is th e Divine M other real? Does she listen to m y prayers, or is this m ere im agination conjured u p by h u m a n brains?’ He began to yearn increasingly for th e direct realization o f God th e M other. And soon life became unbearable w ith o u t her. He w ould rub his face o n th e g ro u n d like one gripped by pain and cry: O h , M other, an o th er day is gone and still I have n o t seen you!’ Finally, one day, she revealed herself. Sri R äm akrsna later described his first vision o f th e Divine M other to his disciples. To quote his words: ‘House, walls, doors, th e tem ple—all disappeared in to nothingness. T h en I saw an ocean o f light, limitless, living, conscious, blissful. From all sides waves o f light, w ith a roaring sound, rushed towards m e and engulfed and drow ned m e, and I lost all awareness o f outw ard things.’ W hen Sri R äm akrsna regained consciousness, he was u tterin g the w ords ‘M other, M other’.1 To his disciples he used to say: ‘W hen tru e yearning for God comes, th e n follows th e sight o f him , th e n rises th e su n of know ledge in th e heart. Yearn for him , and love h im intensely! . . . The m o th e r loves h er child, th e chaste wife loves h er husband, th e miser loves his w ealth; let y o u r love for God be as intense as these three loves com bined—th e n shall you see him !’2 After th e first vision o f th e M other o f th e Universe, Sri R äm akrsna longed to see h er continuously. A sort o f divine madness seized him . A nd then, to use his ow n words, he began to see th e M other ‘peeping fro m every n o o k and co rn er’. After this he could n o longer perform th e ritualistic w orship. W orldly people th o u g h t he had lost his sanity. O ne day, in th e m idst o f th e food offering to th e Deity, he gave th e offering to a cat w hich had walked in to th e tem ple, recognizing the 1 See Liläprasahga, Sädhak bhäv, p. 124.

2 Kathämrta, vol. I, p. 27.

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presence o f th e Divine M other in th e cat. N aturally in the eyes of the w orld this was either m adness o r sacrilege. Sri R äm akrsna’s behaviour became stranger and stranger; b u t it m u st be no ted th a t w henever persons of genuine spirituality m et him they considered him to have attained a blessed state—as we shall see later. A t last ru m o u rs of his strange co n d u ct reached th e ears o f his m o th e r at K äm ärpukur, and she became anxious to see him . So he w en t to his village to visit her. He was now tw enty-three years old. In K äm ärpukur he continued to live in a G od-intoxicated state, indifferent as ever to w orldly concerns. Finally his m o th er and b ro th er th o u g h t m arriage w ould be just th e thing by w hich to interest him in w orldly m atters. Accordingly they began to look about for a suitable bride. Sri R äm akrsna did n o t object, and the search was enthusiastically continued, b u t w ith no success. In th e end, finding his m o th er and b ro th er depressed by th eir failure, Sri R äm akrsna said to th em in a semiconscious state: ‘It is useless to try here and there. Go to Jayrämbäti [a village three miles from Käm ärpukur] and there you will find th e bride, th e daughter o f R äm acandra M ukhopädhyäya, providentially reserved for m e.’ T he girl was found, b u t she was only five years old. Her parents were agreeable to th e marriage, b u t C andrä Devi, m o th e r of Sri Räm akrsna, was som ew hat hesitant because o f her tender age. However, considering th e fact th a t th e girl was th e one selected by her son, she assented. So w ith o u t delay Sri Räm akrsna was m arried to Säradä Devi. After th e m arriage cerem ony was over—it was m ore a sort o f betrothal—Säradä Devi was sent back to her parents’ hom e. Sri R äm akrsna continued to stay at K äm ärpukur for about a year and a half. W hen Sri R äm akrsna retu rn ed to th e tem ple garden at Daksineswar, he forgot his m arriage and its responsibilities and plunged deeper and deeper into spiritual practices. In 1861, about six m o n th s after his re tu rn from K äm ärpukur, Sri R äm akrsna one m o rning noticed a sannyäsini (n u n ) w ith long dishevelled hair alighting fro m a co u n try boat and entering th e courtyard o f th e tem ple. He sent for her. As soon as th e sannyäsini m e t Sri Räm akrsna, she bu rst in to tears o f joy and said, ‘My son, you are here! I have been searching for you so long, and now I have found you at last.’ ‘H ow could you know about me, M o th er’’ asked Sri Räm akrsna. She replied, ‘T h ro u g h th e grace o f th e Divine M other I cam e to know th a t I was to m eet th ree o f you. Tw o I have already m et, and today I have fo und y o u .’1 This n u n ’s nam e was Yogeswari, b u t she was know n as th e 1 LUäprasahga, Sädh ak bhâv, p. 204.

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Brahm ani. She was a w om an o f high spiritual attainm ents and was w ell versed in Vaisnava and Täntric literature. Sri Räm akrsna sat beside her like a little boy sitting by his m o th er, and told h er o f his spiritual struggles, visions, and attainm ents. He fu rth er m entioned to h er th a t people th o u g h t he was m ad. Full o f m otherly tenderness, she said, ‘W ho calls you m ad, m y son? This is divine madness. Y our state is w h at is know n as mahäbhäva. Sri R ädhä experienced it, and so did Sri Caitanya. I shall show y ou in the scriptures th at w hoever has earnestly yearned for God has experienced this state.’1 So far, w hatever spiritual advances Sri R äm akrsna had m ade were th e result o f his ow n independent struggles. He saw th e Divine M other o f th e Universe, and talked w ith her. Now she com m anded him to undergo spiritual disciplines u n d er th e direction o f th e Brähmani. Sri R äm akrsna accepted h er as his first gu ru . She also, as we have seen, had received the m andate from th e M other to teach this young m an. T he Brähm ani, as already stated, was learned in H indu religious literature. She began at once to teach Sri R äm akrsna th e spiritual disciplines recom m ended in the Tantras. But o f this we m ay hear from Sri R äm akrsna himself: ‘After perform ing th e worship o f th e Divine M other, I used to m editate according to th e B rähm ani’s directions. As soon as I began to tell m y beads, I w ould be overw helm ed w ith ecstatic fervour and e n ter into samädhi. I can n o t describe th e w onderful spiritual visions I used to have. They followed one an o th er in quick succession. The B rähm ani m ade m e undergo all th e sixty-four kinds o f spiritual disciplines m entioned in th e principal Tantras. M ost o f these were difficult practices, b u t th e infinite grace of th e M other carried m e th ro u g h th e m w ith ease.’2 After attaining th e goal aimed at in th e Täntric spiritual disciplines, Sri Räm akrsna took to th e practices o f Vaisnavism. The Vaisnavas follow th e p ath o f devotion, w hich advocates w orshipping God as a Personal Being in his aspect of Visnu. It is Visnu w ho fro m tim e to tim e appears on earth in h u m an form —an avatär. He once lived as Räma, th e hero of th e Räm äyana, and again as Krsna, th e avatär of th e Bhagavad-Gitä and th e Bhägavata Puräna. In following th e p ath o f devotion, th e w orshipper enters in to a relation to God in his form o f R äm a o r Krsna. T here are five such relations, corresponding to those o n th e h u m a n plane (we have m et th e m before): Sänta, the peaceful attitude, w ith only an indefinite relation; däsya, th e relation o f servant to m aster or o f child to parent; sakhya, th e relation of 1 Hläprasahga, Sädhak bhäv, p. 205.

2 Ibid., p p . 220-1.

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friend to friend; vätsalya, th e relation o f p aren t to child; and m adhura, th e sweet relationship o f lover to th e beloved. Vaisnavism is the philosophy p ro p o u n d ed and lived by such saints and seers as R äm änuja, Vallabha, M ädhwa, and Sri Caitanya. Sri R äm akrsna entered into th e Vaisnava p ath first by w orshipping R äm a as his ow n child, th e relation o f vätsalya, for th ere had com e to h im a mystic saint, Jatädhäri, w ho had attained th e highest spiritual state as a devotee o f Räma, and w ho initiated him in to his ow n fo rm o f w orship. Afterwards Sri R äm akrsna to o k u p various relations in his devotion to Krsna. T h ro u g h each o f these he achieved u n io n w ith God. A few m o n th s later T otä Puri cam e to the tem ple garden at Daksineswar. T otä Puri was a Vedäntic m o n k o f th e order o f Samkara, and an illum ined soul, a know er of B rahm an. As soon as he m et Sri R äm akrsna, he recognized in h im a highly advanced spirit. He asked him , ‘Should y o u like to learn V edänta fro m me?’ Sri R äm akrsna answered, Ί d o n ’t know , b u t I shall ask M other.’ ‘All right, go and ask M other. I shall n o t be here long!’ Sri R äm akrsna w en t to th e tem ple and received a com m and from th e Divine M other—‘Yes, go and learn o f him . It is for this purpose th a t he has com e here.’ In a state o f semiconsciousness, and w ith a beam ing countenance, Sri R äm akrsna retu rn ed to T otä Puri and said th a t he had received th e M other’s perm ission.1 T otä Puri now acquainted h im w ith th e Upanisadic teaching o f th e identity o f th e A tm an w ith B rahm an, and initiated him into the m onastic life. ‘After th e initiation [says Sri Rämakrsna] “the naked one”2 asked m e to w ithdraw m y m ind fro m all objects and to becom e absorbed in contem plation o f th e A tm an. B ut as soon as I w ithdrew m y m ind fro m th e external w orld, th e familiar fo rm o f th e blissful M other, radiant and o f th e essence o f p u re consciousness, appeared before m e as a living reality and I could n o t pass beyond her. In despair I said to th e naked one, “It is hopeless. I can n o t raise m y m ind to the u nconditioned state and reach th e A tm an.” He grew excited and sharply said, “What! You say you can’t do it! No, you m ust!” So saying he looked about him , and finding a piece o f broken glass picked it up. Pressing its p o in t betw een m y eyebrows, he said, “C oncentrate th e m ind o n this p o in t.” T hen w ith great determ ination I began to m editate as directed, and w hen this tim e also th e blessed fo rm o f th e M other appeared before m e, I used m y discrim ination as a sword and severed h e r fo rm in tw o. T hen m y m ind soared 1 LHäprasanga, Sädh ak bhäv, p p . 311-12. 1 Sri R äm akrsna used to refer to T o ta Puri as nafigta, th e naked one.

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im m ediately beyond all duality and entered in to nirvikalpa, th e nondual, u n itary consciousness.’1 T ota Pur! sat for a long tim e silently w atching his disciple. T h en he left th e room , locking th e door behind him . T hree days passed, and still he heard n o sound. W hen Tota Puri finally opened th e door, he found Sri R äm akrsna seated in th e sam e position in w hich he had left him . T otä Puri w atched him , and w ondered, ‘Is it really tru e th a t this m an has attained in th e course o f a single day w hat to o k m e forty years o f strenuous practice to achieve?’ He exam ined Sri R äm akrsna closely and in joyous bew ilderm ent exclaimed, ‘G reat God! It is n o th in g sh o rt o f a miracle!’ It was th e nirvikalpa sam ädhi— th e culm ination o f n o n d u al Vedäntic practice. T o tä Puri now to o k steps to bring his disciple’s m ind dow n to th e n o rm al plane. Slowly Sri R äm akrsna regained consciousness o f th e o u ter w orld, and seeing his g u ru before him , he prostrated. A nd T otä Puri gave his disciple a w arm em brace.2 After T otä Puri had left Daksineswar, Sri R äm akrsna resolved to rem ain im m ersed in nirvikalpa sam ädhi, and he passed six m o n th s in this state w ith o u t any consciousness o f body o r o f external surroundings. In later years he referred to this period o f his life as follows: ‘For six m o n th s I rem ained continuously in th e bliss o f u n io n w ith B rahm an. I was n o t conscious o f day o r night. It w ould have been impossible for th e body to survive except th a t a m o n k w ho was present at th e tim e realized m y state o f m ind and regularly b ro u g h t m e food; and w henever he found m e a little conscious, he w ould press it in to m y m o u th . O nly a little o f it reached m y stom ach. Six m o n th s passed in this way. . . . A t last I received th e M o th er’s com m and: “R em ain in bhävam ukha for th e good o f m ankind.” ’3 H enceforward, in general, Sri R äm akrsna lived in bhävam ukha, a state betw een sam ädhi and n o rm al consciousness. It is very difficult to understand exactly w h at this state is. In later years, however, th e M aster described it. He said it was as if o n th e ocean o f B rahm an, th a t infinite ocean o f existence, know ledge, and bliss, a stick was floating, dividing th e ocean in to tw o parts. O n one side is God, and o n th e o th er side his devotee—in this case Sri R äm akrsna. T he stick w hich divides th e ocean is th e ripe ego,4 never forgetful th a t it is a child o f God. The ripe ego is n o t harm ful. It is like a sword th a t has to uched th e philosopher’s stone and tu rn e d in to gold. 1 Lîlâprasatiga, Sädh ak bhäv, pp. 319-20. 2 Ibid., Sädh ak bhâv, p. 321. 3 Ibid., G u ru bhäv, Pt. I, pp. 61-2. 4 T he un ripe ego is the barrier th at separates m an fro m G od and m akes him forgetfu l o f d ie divine.

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In later years while Sri R äm akrsna w ould be teaching the w ord of God he often w en t into sam ädhi. This was a daily occurrence. N ow to resum e o u r story. T he practice of spiritual disciplines, however, did n o t stop w ith th e Vedäntic experience in Sri R äm akrsna’s case. He had travelled th e paths of devotion, yoga, and knowledge, and he had realized th e tru th s ta u g h t in Täntrikism , Vaisnavism, and V edänta. B ut his h eart longed to enjoy th e divine life o f those outside th e pale o f H induism. B uddha he regarded as one of the incarnations o f God. He rem arked about him : ‘People th in k B uddha was an atheist, b u t he was n o t. O nly he could n o t express in w ords w hat he had experienced. W hen o n e’s buddhi [intellect] merges in th e absolute, p u re consciousness, one attains th e know ledge o f B rahm an, one realizes one’s tru e n ature, and th a t is to becom e Buddha—enlightened.’1 So, according to Sri Räm akrsna, B uddha was a Vedäntist—only m isunderstood. Islam and Christianity, however, belonged in a different category. These n ow attracted Sr! Räm akrsna. A Sufi mystic living at Daksineswar initiated h im in to th e Islam faith. In Sri R äm akrsna’s own words: Ί began to repeat th e holy nam e o f Allah, and w ould recite the N am az regularly. After th ree days I realized the goal o f th a t fo rm o f devotion.’2 First, Sri R äm akrsna had a vision o f a radiant person w ith a long beard and a solem n countenance. T h en he experienced B rahm an w ith attributes, w hich finally m erged in to th e Im personal Existence, th e attributeless B rahm an.3 It was som e years later th a t Sri R äm akrsna w anted to explore Christianity. O ne devotee used to explain th e Bible to him w henever he came to Daksineswar. T hus Sri R äm akrsna becam e draw n to C hrist and Christianity. T h en one day while he was seated in th e draw ing-room o f Jadu M allick’s garden house, he saw a p icture of th e M adonna and Child. He fell into a deeply m editative m ood, and th e picture suddenly became living and effulgent. A deep love for C hrist filled Sri R äm akrsna’s heart, and th ere opened before him a vision o f a Christian ch u rch w ith devotees b u rn in g incense and lighting candles before Jesus. For th ree days Sri R äm akrsna was u n d er th e spell o f this experience, and o n th e fo u rth day, while he was pacing n ear th e Pañcavati grove at Daksineswar, he saw an extraordinarylooking person o f serene countenance approaching w ith his gaze in ten tly fixed o n him . From th e inm ost recesses o f Sri R äm akrsna’s 1 Kathämrta, vol. V, p. 109. 2 See Liläprasanga, Sädh ak bhäv, p. 335.

3 Ibid.

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h eart came th e realization: ‘This is Jesus, w ho poured o u t his h eart’s blood for th e redem ption o f m ankind. He is no n e o th er th an th e rsi Christ, the em bodim ent o f love.’ T he Son o f M an th en em braced Sri R äm akrsna and became m erged in him . At this th e M aster w ent in to sam ädhi. T hus was Sri R äm akrsna convinced th a t Jesus was an incarnation o f God. Once Sri R äm akrsna was asked w hy he had followed so m any paths; was n o t one p ath enough by w hich to reach th e suprem e goal Ì His answ er was: ‘T he M other is infinite—infinite are h er m oods and aspects. I longed to realize h er in all o f th em . A nd she revealed to m e th e tru th o f m any religions.’ Thus, th o u g h he did n o t practise varied spiritual disciplines w ith th e specific purpose o f bringing h arm o n y am ong th e m any faiths, his life dem onstrated th a t harm ony. In this connection let us hear som e o f Sri R äm akrsna’s teachings o n th e essential identity o f th e great religions: ‘So m any religions, so m any paths to reach th e sam e goal.1 I have practised H induism , Islam, Christianity, and in H induism again, th e ways of th e different sects. I have fo u n d th at it is th e same God towards w h o m all are directing their steps, th o u g h along different p ath s.2 ‘T he tan k has several ghäts. At one H indus draw w ater and call it jal; at an o th er M oham m edans draw w ater and call it pani; at a th ird Christians draw th e sam e liquid and call it w ater. T he substance is one th o u g h th e nam es differ, and everyone is seeking th e same th in g . Every religion o f th e w orld is one such ghät. Go w ith a sincere and earnest h eart by any o f these ghäts and you will reach th e w ater o f eternal bliss. B ut do n o t say th a t y o u r religion is better th an th a t o f a n o th er.’3 To com plete th e story o f Sri R äm akrsna’s life, we m u st now tu rn o u r atten tio n to his relationship w ith his wife. We have already m entioned how w hen he was tw enty-three years old he m arried Säradä Devi, th e n a five-year old girl. Afterwards, for a tim e, he apparently forgot all about his m arriage. B ut w hen he was about to take m onastic vows, and T otä Puri was ready to initiate him in to sannyäs, Sri R äm akrsna told him o f his m arriage.4 T otä Puri said merely, ‘W hat does it m atter? Have y o u r wife near you. T h a t will be 1 Kathâmrta, vol. Π, p. 166. 2 See Gospel o f Sri Ramakrishna, Sw am i N ikhilananda (tran s.), p. 35. 3 Kathâmrta, vol. I, p. 49.

4 It was on his initiation in to sannyäs th at he received th e nam e R äm akrsna— com bining th e n am es o f tw o o f India’s great avatars; th e ‘á ri’—a title o f reverence —was added later w hen his high spiritual gifts becam e apparent. His original n am e w as G adädhar Chatterjee.

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th e real test o f y o u r vows and th e real p ro o f th a t you have become a know er o f B rahm an.’ All these years Säradä Devi had been living w ith h er parents. From her earlier years she had show n an intensely spiritual tem peram ent. Like her husband she had had divine visions. W hen she grew to be a young w om an she longed to be near Sri Räm akrsna. B ut th ere was n o call from him . T hen during the period o f th e M aster’s practice of Islam, people again began to say th a t he had lost his m ind. How could it be th a t a H indu priest should worship Allah? T he ru m o u r spread and reached th e ears o f Säradä Devi—now eighteen years old—and th o u g h she did n o t believe it, she felt it h er d u ty to be by th e side o f h e r husband. Accordingly she expressed her wish to her father, w ho to o k h e r to Daksineswar. Sri R äm akrsna w elcom ed his wife and m ade arrangem ents for h er to stay near him . B ut he asked her, ‘Tell m e, have you com e to drag m e dow n to w orldly ways?’ H er p ro m p t reply was, O h , no. I have com e to help you in y o u r chosen p a th .’ Sri R äm akrsna initiated h er in to th e mysteries o f spiritual life and supervised h er progress. She became his first disciple. W ithin six m o n th s o f his wife’s arrival, o n an auspicious night, Sri R äm akrsna m ade special preparations for w orshipping th e Divine M other in his ow n ro o m and instructed Säradä Devi to be present. T he altar, th e seat for a w orshipper, and all th e paraphernalia for w orship were ready. T here was, however, no image on th e altar. Sri R äm akrsna seated him self o n the w orshipper’s seat and beckoned to Säradä Devi to be seated o n th e altar. In an ecstatic m ood she obeyed him . Sri R äm akrsna invoked th e presence o f th e M other o f th e Universe in his wife and began to worship. Säradä Devi, in th e meanw hile, entered in to samädhi, and Sri R äm akrsna likewise became absorbed. T hus they rem ained for a long tim e. W hen partial o u ter consciousness cam e to Sri Räm akrsna, he laid, w ith appropriate m antra, th e fruits o f all his spiritual struggles, to g eth er w ith his rosary, at th e feet o f th e M other o f th e Universe in th e form o f his wife. Säradä Devi lived in h e r husband’s com pany for fourteen years and served him and his disciples u n til Sri R äm akrsna’s death. In later years kn o w n as th e Holy M other, she becam e th e guiding spirit o f the O rder founded in h er husband’s nam e. Sri Räm akrsna, speaking o f his wife, used to say: ‘After m arriage I earnestly prayed to th e Divine M other to ro o t o u t all consciousness o f physical enjo y m en t fro m h e r m ind. T h at m y prayer had been granted, I knew fro m m y long association w ith her.’ A m ong th e sayings o f Sri R äm akrsna is this: ‘W hen th e lo tu s blossoms, th e bees com e o f th eir ow n accord to seek th e honey. So let th e lotus o f y o u r h eart bloom , realize God seated w ithin it, and

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th e bees, th e spiritual aspirants, will seek you o u t.’ O f th e m o m e n t of Sri R äm akrsna’s readiness for aspirants, Swami Vivekananda, his chief disciple, speaks thus: ‘All th e struggles w hich we experience in o u r lives [Sri Rämakrsna] had passed th ro u g h . His hard-earned jewels o f spirituality, for w hich he had given three-quarters o f his life, were now ready to be offered to hum anity, and th en began his mission.’1 M any no ted intellectuals of th e day soon began to visit Sri Räm akrsna, am ong th e m Keshab Sen, w ho was th e first m an o f W estern education to recognize his spiritual genius. Keshab, one o f th e great religious leaders in India at th e tim e, had a large following, and b o th in his serm ons and in his magazines he spread th e n am e and fam e of th e new saint. As a result, m any m en and w om en w ere attracted to religion—including college professors, actors, and scientists. Som e o f th e m became Sri R äm akrsna’s disciples. B ut Sri R äm akrsna’s real w ork to o k ro o t w hen th ere came to him a n u m b er o f young m en, m ostly in th eir teens, u n to u c h ed by w orldly ways. Some o f th e m began to live at Daksineswar, associating w ith him intim ately. A m ong th e m was Rakhal, w ho later became know n as Swami B rahm ananda, and w ho was regarded by Sri R äm akrsna as his spiritual son. D uring Sri R äm akrsna’s fatal illness, w hen he was rem oved to Cossipore garden house, m ost o f these young m en rem ained w ith h im to serve and nurse him . O f these, N aren, later kn o w n as Swami Vivekananda, was chosen as th e leader. It was N aren th a t Sri R äm akrsna ta u g h t how to organize an order o f m onks to propagate his message. Sri R äm akrsna died in A ugust, 1886. After his death his young disciples banded together and dedicated their lives ‘to o u r ow n salvation and to the good o f m an k in d ’. This is th e order know n today as th e ‘R am akrishna M ath and Mission’, w hose headquarters is located at Belur, near Calcutta. Since th e founding o f th e O rder in 1886, participants in th e R äm akrsna m ovem ent, o r Vedäntic revival, have gradually increased in num bers, strength, and influence, b o th in India and in foreign countries. V edänta societies, so called, founded in Sri R äm akrsna’s n am e and presided over by m onks trained in th e M ath at Belur, have been established in m any parts o f th e w orld, especially in W estern Europe and in N o rth and S outh America. Easily th e m ost characteristic aspect o f Sri R äm akrsna’s doctrine can be sum m ed up in th e w ords tolerance, reconciliation, harm ony. 1 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. IV, pp. 172-3.

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T he ideas th e w ords stand for are n o t o f course new to Indian religion, w hich, from its rem ote beginnings, as we have seen, has seldom been narrow ly exclusive or dogm atic; b u t in Sri R äm akrsna they fo u n d a com prehensive and seemingly definitive em bodim ent. He n o t only b ro u g h t in to agreem ent th e diverse views o f H induism , b u t also m anaged som ehow to include in his native faith all th e faiths o f the outside w orld. T he idea of th e u nity o f th e religious sentim ent could hardly be carried further. In th e ultim ate reaches of H induism , there were, to be sure, no diverse views to be reconciled. W hen th e aspirant attained his u ltim ate goal, views, o f w hatever kind, ceased to exist. He was absorbed in turiya, th e transcendental consciousness, he had becom e one w ith God. B ut at low er levels, w here th e m in d tried to determ ine th e n a tu re of God and th e universe, differences early arose. Som e said th a t God was personal, som e th a t he was im personal; som e said th a t he was w ith form , som e th a t he was w ith o u t form . Sri Räm akrsna, bringing to bear his ow n mystic experiences, dissolved, in his simple way, all such oppositions: ‘Infinite is God and infinite are his expressions. He w ho lives contin u o u sly in th e consciousness o f God, and in this alone, know s him in his tru e being. He know s his infinite expressions, his various aspects. He know s him as im personal n o less th a n as personal.’1 ‘B rahm an, absolute existence, knowledge, and bliss, m ay be com pared to an infinite ocean, w ith o u t beginning o r end. As th ro u g h intense cold som e portions o f th e w ater o f th e ocean freeze in to ice, and th e formless w ater appears as having form , so th ro u g h intense love o f th e devotee th e formless, absolute, infinite Existence manifests him self before h im as having form and personality. B ut form s and aspects disappear before th e m an w ho reaches th e highest sam ädhi, w ho attains th e height o f nondualistic philosophy, th e V edänta.’2 ‘So long as th ere is yet a little ego left, th e consciousness th a t “I am a devotee”, God is com prehended as personal, and his fo rm is realized. This consciousness o f a separate ego is a barrier th a t keeps one at a distance from th e highest realization. T he form s o f Käli o r o f Krsna are represented as o f a dark-blue colour. Why? Because the devotee has n o t yet approached th em . At a distance th e w ater o f a lake appears blue, b u t w hen y o u com e nearer, you find it has no colour. In th e same way, to h im w ho attains to th e highest tru th and experience, B rahm an is absolute and im personal. His real n atu re can n o t be defined in w ords.’3 Following th e teachings of Sri R äm akrsna, th e highest vision o f God 1 Kathämrta, vol. I, p. 71.

2 Ibid., vol. I, p. 69.

3 Ibid., pp. 71-2.

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can be described in the following words: He indeed has attained the suprem e illum ination w ho n o t only realizes th e presence o f God, b u t know s him as both personal and im personal, w ho loves him intensely, talks to him , partakes o f his bliss. Such an illum ined soul realizes th e bliss o f God while he is absorbed in m editation, attaining oneness w ith th e indivisible, im personal Being; and he realizes th e sam e bliss as he comes back to n o rm al consciousness and sees this universe as a m anifestation of th a t Being and as a divine play. W hat is th e relation o f God to th e universe? In o u r discussion o f th e Upanisads we have seen th a t in th e n o n d u al u n itary consciousness th e universe disappears and th ere rem ains only B rahm an—the absolute existence, knowledge, and bliss. Again, th e universe is seen as B rahm an w hen th e divine sight opens up. In th e Bhagavad-Gitä we read about th e illum ined soul: His heart is w ith B rahm an, His eye in all things Sees only Brahm an Equally present, Knows his ow n A tm an In every creature, A nd all creation W ithin th a t A tm an .1 Sri R äm akrsna reconciled th e tw o views of th e universe, th e one in w hich it dissolves in illusion, and th e o th er in w hich it is one w ith God, in th e following words: ‘In turiya, th e universe o f plurality becomes annihilated—there is attained oneness w ith Brahm an. ‘W hen, having attained th e n o n d u al B rahm an in samädhi, one comes back to th e plane o f th e ego, one realizes th a t it is B rahm an w ho has becom e this universe of plurality. To get to th e flesh o f th e fru it you discard its skin and seeds. B ut w hen you w an t to know th e to tal w eight o f th e fruit, you m ust weigh th e m all together. T he skin, th e seeds, th e flesh—all belong to one and th e same fruit. Similarly, having realized th e unchangeable reality—th e one absolute Existence —one finds th a t he w ho is th e absolute, formless, im personal, infinite God is again one w ith th e relative universe. He w ho is absolute in one 1 VI. 29. T o see G od in th e universe, to see Brahm an in all, w as considered by ári R äm akrsna to be th e h ighest spiritual attainm ent. O nce w hen a youn g disciple cam e to him , the M aster asked h im w hat his goal o f life w as. W hen he received th e reply ‘T o see G od everyw here’, ári R äm akrsna rem arked, ‘Well, m y boy, th at is the last w ord o f religion.’

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aspect is relative in an o th er aspect, and b o th aspects belong to one and th e same substance. . . . ‘T he sacred syllable O m is explained in th e scriptures as a com bination o f th e sounds A, U, M, representing creation, preservation, and dissolution respectively. I com pare th e sound o f O m to the sound o f a bell th a t dissolves in silence. T he relative universe dissolves in th e im perishable absolute—th e great silence. The gross, th e subtle, th e causal—everything visible and invisible dissolves in th e G reat Cause. Waking, dream ing, and dreamless sleep, th e th ree states o f consciousness, are dissolved in th e turiya, th e transcendental. Once m ore the bell rings. T he sound O m is heard and as it were a heavy w eight falls o n th e bosom o f th e calm , infinite ocean; im m ediately th e ocean becomes agitated. From th e bosom o f th e absolute rises th e relative; fro m th e G reat Cause issues fo rth th e causal, th e subtle, th e gross universe; fro m th e transcendental com e th e th ree states o f consciousness—waking, dream ing, and dreamless sleep. Again th e waves dissolve in th e ocean, and th ere is th e great calm. From the absolute comes th e relative, and in to th e absolute th e relative dissolves. I have experienced this infinite ocean o f bliss and consciousness; and M other has show n m e how innum erable worlds issue from th e ocean and go back in to it. I do n o t know , o f course, w h at is w ritten in books o f philosophy.’1 Ί see th e tru th directly: w h a t need have I to philosophize? I see how G od has becom e all this—he has becom e th e individual beings and th e empirical w orld. T here is n o th in g b u t he. B ut this tru th can n o t be experienced u n til th e h eart is illum ined. It is n o t a m a tte r o f philosophy, b u t of experience. T h ro u g h th e grace o f God th e light m u st first shine in o n e’s ow n soul. W hen th a t comes to pass, one attains sam ädhi. Then, th o u g h one comes back to th e n o rm al plane, one loses th e m aterial sense, one loses all attach m en t to lust and gold. O ne th e n loves only to hear and speak th e w ord of G od.’2 ‘To reason o u t th e tru th o f God is one thing, and to m editate on G od is another. B ut again, w h en illum ination comes th ro u g h th e grace of God, th e n only is th e tru th o f God know n and experienced. Just as a dark ro o m is lighted u p w hen you strike a m atch, so is th e h eart lighted u p by the grace o f God. T h en alone are all doubts dissolved away.’3 T he three m ain schools o f th o u g h t in V edänta—dualism, qualified m onism , and nondualism —Sri R äm akrsna reconciled in th e following 1 Kathämrta, vol. I, pp. 213, 214, 215. 2 Ibid., p. 239.

3 Ibid., p. 240.

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m anner. Q uoting an ancient verse fro m th e H indu scriptures, he told how Räm a, w ho was w orshipped as a divine incarnation, asked his faithful devotee H anum än how he looked u p o n him . H anum än replied: ‘W hen I consider m yself as a physical being, th o u a rt the master, I am th y servant. W hen I consider m yself as an individual being, th o u a rt th e whole, I am one o f th y parts. A nd w hen I realize m yself as th e A tm an, I am one w ith thee.’1 Thus Sri Räm akrsna pointed o u t th a t dualism, qualified m onism , and nondualism are n o t m u tu ally exclusive and contradictory concepts b u t successive steps in realization—th e th ird and last being attained w hen th e aspirant loses all consciousness o f self in u n io n w ith God. Thus, in a way m ore or less peculiar to himself, th ro u g h atten tio n m ainly to th e mystic experience, Sri R äm akrsna harm onized conflicting notions of God and th e universe and o f th eir relations to each other. B ut this was n o t his only way. A nother, still m ore peculiar to him , m ight be called, in c u rren t term s, pragm atic. Any idea o f God, any m ode o f w orshipping him , th a t worked—th a t led th e aspirant to th e ultim ate goal—m u st be valid and true. B ut how could one be sure th at an idea or a m eth o d is really thus effective? Clearly, by trying it oneself. And that, in all simplicity and sincerity, is w hat Sri Räm akrsna did. He practised th e teachings of m any divergent sects w ithin Hinduism , and th ro u g h each o f th em achieved th e same suprem e realization. B ut even this was n o t sufficient. W hat of th e M oham m edanism th a t had long been alive in India? W hat of Christianity? The story o f his experim ental contacts w ith these religions we have already told. In th e end he arrived at the grand conclusion w ith w hich th e ancient rsis began, and w hich we have m ore th an once recalled: Ekam sat viprä bahudhä vadanti—in Sri R äm akrsna’s words, ‘So m any religions, so m any paths to reach one and the same goal.’ In defining this goal Sri Räm akrsna was of course at one w ith all his spiritual ancestors. It was simply to realize God w ithin o ne’s ow n soul. Sam kara declared th a t ‘Study o f th e scriptures is fruitless so long as B rahm an has n o t been experienced’; and ‘He is born to no purpose,’ says Sri Räm akrsna, ‘w ho, having the rare privilege o f being b o rn a m an, is unable to realize G od.’ C ontinuing, Sri Räm akrsna emphasized th e im portance of means: ‘A dopt adequate means for the end y ou seek to attain. You cannot get b u tte r by crying yourself hoarse, saying, “T here is b u tter in the m ilk!” If you wish to m ake butter, you m u st tu rn th e m ilk in to curd, and c h u rn it well. T hen alone you can get butter. So if you long to 1 Kathämrta, vol. ΙΠ, p. 13.

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see God, practise spiritual disciplines. W hat is the use of m erely crying “Lord! Lord!’” 1 To an aspirant w ho should ask about particular means to adopt, we can easily anticipate Sri R äm akrsna’s answer. Pursue sincerely and diligently any spiritual path, he w ould say, and you will u ltim ately achieve realization. As to w hat th e basic paths are he accepted th e H indu belief th a t for all religions they can be reduced to the fo u r yogas: jnäna yoga, th e p ath o f discrim ination between th e Real and th e unreal; bhakti yoga, the p ath of loving devotion; karm a yoga, th e p ath o f selfless w ork; and räja yoga, th e p ath of concentration and m editation. In o u r study o f th e Bhagavad-Gitä we have seen th at Sri Krsna advocated a harm onious com bination o f all th e yogas. T h e spiritual aspirant should cultivate discrim ination and devotion as w ell as concentration and m editation. Sri R äm akrsna stressed this again and again in his teachings. He did n o t w ant anyone to be one-sided. To be sure, special emphasis should be placed on one or an o th er p a th according to th e tem p eram en t o f the devotee. Sri Räm akrsna advocated emphasis on jn än a yoga, however, only for an exceptional few, pointing o u t th at if this p ath is followed w ith o u t th e necessary u n fo ld m en t o f certain virtues, such as dispassion, m editation o n th e u n ity o f A tm an and B rahm an will be m isunderstood and misapplied. For m ost spiritual aspirants he recom m ended emphasis on bhakti yoga, because th e p ath o f devotion is a n atu ral one leading to realization. Everyone has love in his heart—it m erely needs to be directed tow ards God; and for a follower o f bhakti yoga discrim ination, dispassion, and all th e o th er virtues unfold easily and naturally. Sri R äm akrsna used to say: ‘T he m ore you m ove tow ards th e light, the farth er you w ill be from darkness.’ He told his disciples how he him self prayed for devotion during a period o f intense spiritual disciplines: Ό M other, here is sin and here is virtue; take th e m b o th and grant m e p u re love for thee. Here is know ledge and here is ignorance; I lay th em at th y feet. G ran t m e p ure love for thee. Here is purity and here is im purity; take th em both and g ran t m e p u re love for thee. Here are good works and here are evil works; I lay th em at thy feet. G rant m e p u re love for thee.’2 B ut w hatever p ath th e aspirant chiefly follows, according to Sri Räm akrsna, m editation is th e m ost im p o rtan t aspect o f his spiritual life. Som ehow o r o th er he m u st keep his m ind fixed on God. M editation is perform ed n o t m erely w ith closed eyes b u t w ith eyes open as well. 1 Kathâmrta, vol. Π, p. 185. Cf. M att. vii. 21.

2 Ibid., vol. I, p. 54.

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T here are m any ways to m editate and m any form s o f m editation. For th e jñana yogi, for example, th ere is the m editation o n th e identity o f Ä tm an and B rahm an; he tries to live in th a t identity. T here are m any means to achieve this end, the one best for a particular aspirant depending o n his tem peram ent. For th e bhakti yogi th ere is m editation o n a chosen ideal o f God, w hich m ay be w ith o r w ith o u t form . To those w ho preferred to m editate o n God w ith form , Sri R äm akrsna said: ‘Wash away all the im purities o f y o u r m ind; th en let th e Lord be seated w ithin th e lotus o f y o u r heart. M editate on him as a living presence. Tie y o u r m ind to the feet o f y o u r Chosen Ideal w ith a silken thread, b u t rem em ber n o t m erely to th in k o f him while you are form ally m editating: keep recollectedness at o th er times. D on’t you know th a t in th e shrine of M other D urgä a light burns continually before th e image, and the housewife sees to it th a t th e light never goes out? Keep the light o f awareness always burning w ithin y o u r heart. Keep y o u r th o u g h ts awake. While engaged in y o u r daily activities, occasionally gaze inw ard and see if th e light is burning.’1 To those w ho preferred to m editate o n God in his formless aspect, he said: ‘T hink o f him as an infinite, shoreless ocean. You are like a fish swim m ing in th a t ocean o f existence, knowledge, and bliss absolute, o r like a vessel dipped in it w ith th a t Presence inside, outside, and everywhere.’2 ‘Some devotees approach God by going from th e aspect w ith o u t fo rm to th a t w ith form ; others by going from th e aspect w ith form to th a t w ith o u t form . To realize th a t he is both w ith form and w ith o u t form —th a t is best.’3 Two w atchw ords Sri R äm akrsna set before m ankind were renunciation and service. Spiritual aspirants can follow either th e way o f th e m o n k o r th e way of th e householder, b u t renunciation is an ideal w hich th e tw o ways have in com m on. The m o n k ’s renunciation m u st be external, however, as well as m ental. The householder renounces m entally. B ut w hat, really, does renunciation m ean? It is deification—which m eans seeing God everywhere and in everything, know ing for oneself the tru th expressed in the Isa Upanisad: ‘In th e heart o f all things, o f w hatever th ere is in th e universe, dwells the Lord. He 1 Lïlâprasahga, G u ru bhäv, Pt. I, pp. 89-90. 2 Kathâmrta, vol. ΙΠ, p. 256. 3 Lilaprasanga, G u ru bhäv, Pt. I, p. 90.

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alone is th e reality. W herefore, ren o u n cin g vain appearances, rejoice in h im .’ Sri R äm akrsna used to tell his householder disciples to live in the w orld in a spirit of detachm ent, keeping th eir m inds o n God. G radually they w ould begin to realize th a t all objects and persons are parts o f him . T he aspirant, he said, m u st serve his parents, his wife, and his children as m anifestations o f God. He w ho lives in th e w orld in this m anner, renouncing all sense o f possession, is th e ideal householder. He overcom es all fear o f death. B ut in order to reach this ideal th e aspirant m u st occasionally go in to solitude, practise co n tem plation, and yearn to realize God. In connection w ith th e ideal of service ta u g h t by Sri Räm akrsna, I shall m en tio n a very interesting incident fro m his life. One day, in a state of ecstasy, he was recalling th e precepts o f a n o th er great saint. O ne o f these preached compassion for m ankind. Sri R äm akrsna repeated several times th e w ord compassion. T h en he exclaimed: 'Compassion! W ho am I to be compassionate! Isn’t everyone God? H ow can I be com passionate tow ards God? Serve him , serve him , serve him !’ In this way Sri R äm akrsna elevated th e ideal o f p h ilan th ro p y to th e w orship o f G od in every being. He considered th e attain m en t of liberation for oneself to be a low ideal. Swami Turiyananda, one o f his disciples, used to say th a t nirväna was th e highest state of realization and was rebuked for w h at his m aster called a ‘m ean conception’. N aren, later know n as Swami Vivekananda, one day was asked by Sri R äm akrsna w h at his ideal was. W hen N aren answered th a t he w anted to rem ain im m ersed in sam ädhi and re tu rn to n o rm al consciousness only in order to keep his body alive, Sri R äm akrsna exclaimed: ‘Sham e o n you! I th o u g h t y ou were greater th a n th a t!’ And he ta u g h t him th e tw in ideal o n w hich Vivekananda later founded th e m onastic O rder o f R äm akrsna: liberation for oneself and service to G od in m an. C oncerning this same Swami Vivekananda a story is told w hich illustrates th e extraordinary m eans to w hich Sri R äm akrsna som etim es resorted in order to advance th e spiritual welfare o f his disciples. W hen young N aren first cam e to Sri Räm akrsna, he was a m em ber of th e B rähm o Samäj, an Indian reform m ov em en t w hich believed in th e ideal o f theism . Recognizing in his new disciple an aspirant w ith th e capacity to follow th e difficult p ath o f jfiäna yoga, Sri R äm akrsna asked him to read treatises o n advaita V edanta and m ade him sing a song expressing th e n o n d u al conception. N aren com plied w ith his m aster’s wishes, b u t he could n o t accept th e doctrine o f nondualism , for to h im it seemed blasphem ous to lo o k o n m an as one w ith his C reator. O ne day he laughingly rem arked to a friend: ‘How im possible! This vessel is God! This cup is God! W hatever we see is God!

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A nd we ourselves are God!’ A t this m o m e n t Sri R äm akrsna cam e o u t o f his room , smiling, and touched N aren. T he effect o f this to u ch Naren described as follows: ‘T h at strange to u ch im m ediately caused a com plete revolution in m y m ind. W herever I looked I saw B rahm an and B rahm an alone. I lived in th a t consciousness th e w hole day. I re tu rn e d hom e, and th a t same experience continued. W hen I sat dow n to eat I saw th a t th e food, th e plate, th e server, and I m yself—all were B rahm an. I to o k one or tw o m orsels of food and again was absorbed in th a t consciousness. . . . All th e tim e, w h eth er eating o r lying dow n, o r going to college, I had th e same experience. W hile walking in th e streets I noticed cabs plying b u t did n o t feel inclined to m ove o u t o f th e way. I felt th a t th e cabs and m yself were m ade of th e sam e substance. . . . W hen this state changed a little, th e w orld began to appear to m e as a dream . W hile w alking in Cornwallis Square I struck m y head against th e iro n railings to see if they w ere real or only a dream . After several days, w hen I retu rn ed to th e n o rm al plane, I realized th a t I had had a glimpse o f n o n d u al consciousness. Since th e n I have never doubted th e tru th o f nondualism .’1 To sum u p th e message o f Sri R äm akrsna, especially in its relation to practice, we perhaps could do n o b etter th a n qu o te th e follow ing w ords of th e distinguished swami to w h o m we have ju st listened: ‘Do n o t depend on doctrines, do n o t depend o n dogmas, o r sects, or churches, o r tem ples; they c o u n t for little com pared w ith th e essence o f existence in m an, w hich is divine; and th e m o re this divinity is developed in a m an, th e m ore pow erful is he for good. Earn th a t spirituality first, acquire that, and criticize n o one, for all doctrines and creeds have some good in th em . Show by y o u r lives th a t religion does n o t m ean words, o r names, o r sects, b u t th a t it m eans spiritual realization. Only those can u n d erstan d w ho have perceived th e Reality. Only those w ho have attained to spirituality can com m unicate it to others, can be great teachers of m ankind. T hey alone are th e powers o f light.’2 1 Liläprasanga, Divya bhäv, pp. 161, 162, 163. 2 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, vol. IV, pp. 182-3.

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The Spiritual Heritage o f India SELECTED PRECEPTS OF SRI RÄMAKRSNA

Know yourself and you will know God. W hat is y o u r ego? Is it your han d o r fo o t o r flesh or blood o r any o th er p art o f y o u r body? Reflect w ell and y ou will find th a t th e ego has n o real existence. Just as, if you peel off th e skin o f an onion layer after layer, in search o f a kernel, for a while m ore and m ore skin appears, and th en n o th in g at all, so it is if you go looking for th e ego. T here is n o kernel w ithin th e onion; th ere is n o ego w ithin yourself. In th e last analysis w h at is w ithin you is only th e Ä tm an—Pure Consciousness. W hen th e illusion o f th e ego disappears, th e n appears th e Reality—God. T here are tw o kinds o f ego—one ripe, and th e o th e r unripe. T he u n rip e ego thinks, ‘This is my house, my son, my this, my th a t.’ T he ripe ego thinks, Ί am th e servant o f th e Lord, I am his child; I am th e Ä tm an, im m ortal, free; I am Pure Consciousness.’1 T he light o f th e sun shines equally o n all surfaces, b u t it reflects clearly only o n bright surfaces like w ater, m irrors, and polished m etals. In like m anner, alth o u g h God dwells in th e hearts o f all, he is clearly m anifest only in th e hearts o f th e holy.2 How long does one argue about th e m eaning o f th e scriptures? O nly u n til th e Sat-chid-änanda becomes revealed in o n e’s ow n heart. T he bee buzzes only so long as it does n o t sit o n th e flower. As soon as it sits o n th e flower and begins to drink of th e honey, all noise stops—there is com plete silence.3 Useless is th e study o f th e scriptures if one has n o discrim ination and dispassion. One can n o t find God unless one is endow ed w ith these. Discrim ination is know ledge o f w h at is eternal and w h at is n oneternal, and devotion to th e eternal, w hich is God; it is know ledge th a t th e A tm an is separate fro m th e body. Dispassion is n o n attach m e n t to th e objects o f sense.4 T he tru e hero is he w ho can discipline his m ind by devotional exercises w hile living in th e w orld. A strong m an can look in any direction w hile carrying a heavy b u rd en on his head. Similarly, th e perfect m an can keep his gaze constantly fixed on God while carrying th e burden o f w orldly duties.5 1 Sw am i Brahm ananda, Sri Èri Ramakrsna Upadesa, pp. I f . 3 Ibid., p. 35. 4 Ibid., pp. 37 f.

2 Ibid., p. 24. 5 Ibid., p. 46.

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A boy holds o n to a pillar and circles ro u n d it w ith headlong speed. W hile he is spinning, his atten tio n is constantly fixed o n th e pillar. He know s th a t if he lets go his h o ld u p o n it he w ill fall and h u rt himself. Similarly, th e wise householder holds o n to th e pillar o f God: keeps his m in d fixed o n him , and perform s his w orldly duties. T h u s is h e free from all dangers.1 Let th e boat stay on th e w ater: th ere is n o harm . B ut let n o t w ater get in to th e boat, lest th e boat sink. Similarly, th ere is n o h arm if th e devotee lives in th e w orld, provided he lets n o t worldliness en ter in to his m in d .2 Clay in its n atu ral state can be m o u ld ed in to any form , b u t b u rn t clay cannot. Similarly, spiritual tru th s can n o t be impressed u p o n hearts th a t have been b u rn t by th e fire o f lust.3 To bring o ne’s h eart and o n e’s speech in to accord is th e goal o f all spiritual discipline. If you say, Ό Lord, T h o u a rt m y all in all,’ while in y o u r h eart y o u believe th e objective w orld to be all in all, y o u r devotional exercises are b o u n d to be fruitless.4 Countless are th e pearls lying hidden in th e sea. If a single dive yields you n o n e, do n o t conclude th a t th e sea is w ith o u t pearls. Similarly, if after practising spiritual disciplines fo r a little w hile y ou fail to have th e vision o f God, do n o t lose heart. C o n tin u e to practise th e disciplines w ith patience, and at th e p ro p er tim e you are sure to obtain grace.5 Strike a m atch, and th e light disperses all at once th e darkness o f a ro o m , even th o u g h accum ulated for centuries. Similarly, a single gracious glance o f th e Lord disperses th e accum ulated sins o f in n u m erab le births.6 T he m agnetic needle always points tow ards th e n o rth , w hatever th e direction in w hich th e ship is sailing; th a t is w hy th e ship does n o t lose h er course. Similarly, if th e m ind o f m an is always tu rn e d tow ards God, he will steer clear o f every danger.7 T here is o n ly one God, b u t endless are his aspects and endless are his nam es. Call h im by any n am e and w orship h im in any aspect th a t pleases you, you are sure to see him .8 ‘ Sw am i B rah m ananda, Sri Ért Rämakrsna Upadesa, pp. 49 f. 3 Ibid., p. 65. 4 Ibid., p. 68. 7 Ibid., pp. 124 f. 8 Ibid., p. 132.

2 Ibid., p p . 50 f. 6 Ibid., p. 118. M

5 Ibid., p. 101.

CHAPTER

25

E P IT O M E

A lthough in th e course o f its long history, reaching far back in to an unrecorded past, Indian religion has had its share o f sects and doctrines, o f reform ations and revivals, it has nevertheless preserved at its core, unchanged, fo u r fu n d am en tal ideas. These m ay be very sim ply expressed: God is; he can be realized; to realize him Is th e suprem e goal o f h u m a n existence; he can be realized in m any ways. God is. This trem endous proposition, th o u g h variously interpreted, is o f course com m on, n o t only to th e religions o f India, b u t to all th e religions o f th e w orld. In every age G od-m en have proclaim ed it, each according to his ow n spiritual vision, and in every age people have asked for proofs th a t it is tru e. M any plausible dem onstrations have been devised by philosophers, establishing God as a logical necessity. However, there is n o t a single arg u m en t substantiating G od’s actuality o n th e basis o f reason w hich has n o t been contradicted by equally plausible argum ents of opposing philosophers. T he only real p ro o f th a t God is m u st be sought elsewhere. God can be realized. T h at is to say, he can be know n, felt, experienced, im m ediately, in th e depths o f o n e’s ow n soul. U pon this awe-inspiring fact th e religions and philosophies o f India, w ith o u t exception, have been founded. From th e dim ages o f th e Vedic seers, dow n th ro u g h th e m any centuries to o u r ow n day, it has been consistently declared th a t th e ultim ate reality o f th e universe can be directly perceived— th o u g h never in n o rm al consciousness. To th e unique, transcendent state in w hich th e m iracle happens, various nam es have been given— turiya, samädhi, nirvana—nam es th a t have occurred over and over again in th e pages o f this book. To realize God is the supreme goal o f human existence. In this all Indian religions and philosophies have at all times been agreed. ‘Arise, awake, approach th e feet o f th e m aster and k n o w T h at,’ says th e rsi o f th e K atha Upanisad. ‘Study o f th e scriptures is fruitless,’ says th e great Samkara, ‘so long as B rahm an has n o t been experienced.’ ‘He is born to n o purpose,’ says Sri Räm akrsna, ‘w ho, having th e rare privilege

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o f being b o rn a m an, is unable to realize G od.’ A th o u san d voices have proclaim ed w h at is for pious H indus th e o ne basic ru le o f life. God can be realized in many ways. ‘T ru th is one,’ declares th e Rg-Veda, m o st ancient o f H indu scriptures, ‘sages call it by various nam es.’ ‘So m any religions, so m an y paths’, declares Sri Räm akrsna, ‘to reach one and th e same goal.’ It will be observed th a t th e call for tolerance, harm ony, universal consent, applies only to th e paths to th e goal, n o t to th e goal. This, once realized, admits n o diversity o f opinion—adm its indeed n o opinion. For n o t only is it beyond th e senses; it is beyond all th o u g h t. T he Upanisads say ‘neti, neti, Ä tm ä’—th e Ä tm an, o r B rahm an w ithin, is ‘n o t this’, ‘n o t th a t’. ‘In th a t ecstatic realization’, says Sri Räm akrsna, speaking o u t o f his ow n abundant experience, ‘all th o u g h ts cease.. . . No pow er o f speech is left by w hich to express B rahm an.’ If this were all, th ere could of course be n o religious doctrines, no religious philosophies. B ut it is n o t all. T he mystics sooner o r later em erge fro m transcendental consciousness, and th en , it som etim es happens, th ey talk—n o t for th e ir ow n sake (they have n o th in g to gain th a t they do n o t already possess) b u t for th e good of th eir fellow m en. A nd in talking they m ay express variously th e sam e ultim ately inexpressible tru th . T he seers and sages and philosophers o f India, as elsewhere, have defined God in m any ways, often apparently contradictory. They have, for exam ple, p ro n o u n ced h im im personal, beyond attributes, and again personal, th e repository o f infinite blessed qualities; they have p ro n o u n ced him w ith form , and again w ith o u t form . Hence have arisen divergent sects, b u t w h at is to be no ted is th a t seldom if ever did differences in doctrine lead to intolerance, let alone to persecution. O n th e rare occasions w hen one system o f philosophy o r religion tried to prove and establish its ow n tru th at th e expense o f others (this was likely to be some system o th er th a n nondualistic), it could n o t get very far. It could never dom inate th e m inds o f the people o f India as a w hole, so th o ro u g h ly ingrained in their hearts was th e spirit o f understanding and sym pathy. For after all, they felt, it was th e saintly life th a t counted. Saints and sages have been p ro duced by following th e order of Samkara, b u t also by following the order o f R äm änuja, o f M ädhwa, o f Vallabha, o r o f Sri Caitanya; and they are recognized as such, n o t only by th eir particular followers, b u t by th e w hole o f India. M oreover, by a n a tu ra l extension o f their liberal attitude, Hindus revere th e saints and sages o f religions o th er th a n th eir own. T he first systematic a ttem p t to harm o n ize th e m any doctrines of H induism is to be fo u n d in th e teachings o f th e Bhagavad-Gïtâ—th e Bible of th e H indus. By th e tim e of th e Epics m any schools o f th o u g h t,

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w ith varied ideas o f God and th e G odhead, as well as varied paths, called yogas, had com e in to existence. These w ere all incorporated in th e teachings o f th e Gita like ‘pearls in a necklace’. Sri Krsna says: W hatever p a th m en travel Is m y path: No m a tte r w here th ey walk It leads to m e.1 After m any centuries, w h en H induism cam e for th e first tim e in to contact w ith a foreign religion, attem pts were m ade by tw o great teachers, G u ru N änak and Kabir, to harm onize th e new M oham m edanism w ith th e native faith; an d m o re recently, w hen confronted by Christianity, H induism has once m ore, especially by th e precepts and practices o f Sri Räm akrsna, continued its role o f peacem aker am ong th e creeds. It is perhaps n a tu ra l in closing this book to emphasize strongly th e age-old effort o f India to reconcile differing faiths. For it is probably by continuing this effort o n an international scale th a t she is doing m o st to advance th e spiritual welfare o f m ankind. T o bring together against ram p an t evil th e great religions o f th e w orld is n o d o u b t a gigantic task, b u t it is one for w hich India has th e special qualification th a t she strives for unity, n o t by calling fo r a co m m o n doctrine, b u t only by pointing to a c o m m o n goal, and by exhorting m en to its attainm ent. T he path, she assures us, m atters little; it is th e goal th a t is suprem e. A nd w h at is th e goal? It is only—once again—to realize God. 1 Gita, IV. i i .

B IB L IO G R A P H Y PART I

Works Significantly Referred to in This Book1

Babbitt, Irving. ‘B uddha and th e O ccident’, The Dhammapada. New York: O xford University Press, 1936. Bhägavatam. See Prabhavananda, Swami (tr.). The Wisdom o f God. B rahm ananda, Swami. Srt Sri Rämakrsna Upadesa. C alcutta: Udbodhan. Office, 15th ed. Ghose, Sri A urobindo. Essays on the Gita. First Series, 1926; Second Series, 1928. C alcutta: Arya Publishing House. Gita. See Prabhavananda, Swami, and Isherwood, C hristopher (trs.). Bhagavad-Gita.

Hiriyanna, M. Outlines o f Indian Philosophy. London: Allen & U nw in, 1932. Kamaleswarananda, Swami. Sruti Sangraba. C alcutta: G adadhar Asrama. Kathämrta. See M. S ri S ri Rämakrsna Kathämrta. Liläprasahga. See Saradananda, Swami. Sri Sri Rämakrsna Liläprasahga. M. S ri S ri Rämakrsna Kathämrta. Vol. I, 10th ed.; vol. Π, 5th ed.; vol. ΙΠ, 4th ed.; vol. IV, 2nd ed.; vol. V, 1st ed. C alcutta: Pravas C handra G upta. M ahäbhärata. Sriman-Mahäbhäratam. G orakhpur: Gita Press. M üller, Max (ed.). Buddhist Suttas. (Sacred Books o f the East, vol. VH.) New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1900. ----- (tr.). The Dhammapada. (Sacred Books o f the East, vol. ΧΠ.) New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1901. Nivedita, Sister. Siva and Buddha. C alcutta: U dbodhan Office, 1946. Prabhavananda, Swami (tr.). The Wisdom o f God (Srimad Bhagavatam). H ollywood: V edanta Press, 1943. Prabhavananda, Swami, and Isherwood, C hristopher. How to Know God: The Yoga Aphorisms o f Patañjali. (Tr. w ith new com m entary.) New York: H arper & Bros., 1953. London: Allen & Unwin. ----- (trs.). Bhagavad-Gita: The Song o f God. New York: H arper & Bros., 1951. London: Phoenix House. ------ (trs.). Shankara’s Crest-Jewel o f Discrimination ( Viveka-Chudamani). H ollywood: V edanta Press, 1947. Prabhavananda, Swami, and M anchester, Frederick (trs.). The Upanishads. H ollyw ood: V edanta Press, 1947. 1 Bibliographical data for works only incidentally referred to are given in the footnotes.

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R adhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. Vol. 1 ,1923; vol. Π, 1927. New York: T he M acm illan Co. London: Allen & U nwin. Sri R am akrishna C entenary M emorial. The Cultural Heritage o f India, Vol. I. Belur M ath. C alcutta: Sri R am akrishna C entenary C om m ittee, 1936. Saradananda, Swami. S ri S ri Rämakrsna Lïlâprasahga. C alcutta: U dbodhan Office, 1955. Srinivasachari, P. N. Ramanuja’s Idea o f the Finite Self. C alcutta: Longmans, G reen & Co., 1928. T hibaut, George (tr.). The Vedänta Sutras with the Commentary by Sahkaräkärya, Pt. I. ( Sacred Books o f the East, ed. M ax M üller, vol. XXXIV.) Oxford: C larendon Press, 1890. Upanisads. See Prabhavananda, Swami, and M anchester, Frederick (trs.). Vivekacudämani. See Prabhavananda, Swami, and Isherwood, C hristopher (trs.). Shankara’s Crest-Jewel o f Discrimination. Vivekananda, Swami. The Complete Works o f Swami Vivekananda. Vol. I, 1950; vol. Π, 1948; vol. ΙΠ, 1948; vol. IV, 1932; vol. V, 1947; vol. VI, 1947; vol. VH, 1947; vol. VID, 1955. Mayavati: Advaita Ashrama. Woodroffe, Sir John (A rth u r Avalon). Sakti and Sakta. Madras: Ganesh & Co., Ltd., 1959. Yoga Aphorisms. See Prabhavananda, Swami, and Isherwood, C hristopher. How to Know God.

PART II

General

Other Works Pertaining to Indian Philosophy

Bhattacharyya, Haridas (ed.). The Cultural Heritage o f India. Vol. ΙΠ, T he Philosophies; vol. IV, T he Religions. C alcutta: R am akrishna Mission Institute o f C ulture, 1953. Brahm a, Nalini Kanta. The Philosophy o f Hindu Sadhana. London: Kegan Paul. C hatterjee, S. C., and D atta, D. M. A n Introduction to Indian Philosophy. C alcutta University. Dasgupta, Surendranath. A History o f Indian Philosophy. Four vols. Cam bridge University Press, 1922-49. G am bhirananda, Swami. History o f the Ramakrishna M ath and Mission. C alcutta: Advaita A shram a, 1957. ----- Holy Mother, Sri Sarada Devi. Madras: Sri R am akrishna M ath, 1955. M aitra, Sushil K um ar. The Ethics o f the Hindus. C alcutta University. M üller, Max. Six Systems o f Indian Philosophy. London: 1899.

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N ikhilananda, Swami. Hinduism : Its Meaning for the Liberation o f the Spirit. New York: H arper & Bros., 1958. ----- (tr .). The Gospel o f Sri Ramakrishna, by M. New York: R am akrishnaVivekananda Center, 1952. Prabhavananda, Swami. The Eternal Companion. (Life and Teachings of Swami B rahm ananda.) Hollywood: V edanta Press, 1947. Saradananda, Swami. Sri Ramakrishna, the Great Master. Swami Jagadananda (tr.). Madras: Sri R am akrishna M ath, 1956. Tapasyananda, Swami. Sri Sarada Devi, the Holy Mother. (Conversations translated by Swami N ikhilananda.) Madras: Sri R am akrishna M ath, 1958. Zim m er, H einrich. Philosophies o f India. Edited by Joseph Campbell. New York: Pantheon. Bollingen Series XXVI, 1951. London: R outledge & Kegan Paul, Ltd. Sämkhya

Colebrooke, H. T., and Wilson, H. H. Samkhya-karika (w ith th e Bhasya of Gaudapada). Text and translation. Bombay, 1887. Garbe, R. Die Samkhya Philosophie. Translated by R. D. Vadekar. Poona. Jha, G anganath. The Samkhya-karika o f Isvarakrishna (w ith Tattvakaum udi of Vacaspati Misra). Text and translation. Bombay. Yoga

Coster, Geraldine. Yoga and Western Psychology. Oxford University Press. Dasgupta, Surendranath. The Study o f Patañjali. C alcutta University. Nyäya-Vaisesika

Chatterjee, Satish C handra. The Nyaya Theory o f Knowledge. C alcutta University. G ough, A. E. Vaisesika-Sutras o f Kanada (w ith com m ents fro m Sankara Misra’s Upaskara and Jayanarayana’s Vivriti). Text and translation. Bañaras. M adhavananda, Swami. Bhasa-pariccheda (w ith Siddhanta-m uktavali). Text and translation. C alcutta: Advaita Ashrama. Pürva Mimämsä Keith, A. B. The Karma Mimamsa. Oxford University Press. M adhavananda, Swami. Mimamsa-paribhasa. Translated and annotated.

Belur M ath: R am akrishna Mission Sarada Pitha.

Advaita

Deussen, Paul. Outlines o f the Vedanta System of Philosophy according to Shankara. Translated by J. H. Woods and C. B. R unkle. New York.

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Jagadananda, Swami. Upadesasahasri o f Shankaracharya. Text and translation. Madras: Sri R am akrishna M ath. M adhavananda, Swami. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. Text w ith translation o f Shankara’s com m entary. C alcutta: Advaita Ashram a. ----- Vedantaparibhasa. Text and translation. C alcutta: Advaita Ashrama. ----- Vivekachudamani. Text and translation. C alcutta: Advaita Ashrama. M ahadevan, T. M. P. Gaudapada: A Study in Early Advaita. Madras University. M üller, Max. Three Lectures on Vedanta Philosophy. London. Nikhilananda, Swami. Atmabodha. T ext and translation. Madras: Sri R am akrishna M ath. ----- The Upanishads. Translation. Four vols. New York: H arper & Bros. Nityaswarupananda, Swami. Ashtavakra Samhita. Text and translation. C alcutta: Advaita Ashrama. Sharvananda, Swami. Isha, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Aitareva, and Taittiriya Upanishads. Text and translation w ith notes. Madras: Sri R am akrishna M ath. Tyagisananda, Swami. Svetasvatara Upanishad. Text and translation w ith notes. Madras: Sri R am akrishna M ath. V im uktananda, Swami. Aparokshanubhuti. Text and translation. C alcutta: Advaita Ashrama. Vireswarananda, Swami. Brahma-Sutras. Text and translation w ith notes. C alcutta: Advaita Ashram a. Visistädvaita

Adidevananda, Swami. Yatindra-mata-dipika. Text and translation Madras: Sri R am akrishna M ath. Srinivasachari, P. N. The Philosophy o f Vishishtadvaita. Madras: The Adyar Library. Dvaita

Maitra, Sushil Kum ar. Madhva Logic. C alcutta University. Rau, S. Subba. Pumaprajna-darsana (V edanta-Sutra w ith th e com m entary o f Sri M adhvacharya). Translation. Madras. Bhedäbheda and Suddhädvaita

C haudhuri, Mrs. Rom a. Doctrine o f Nimbarka and H is Followers. Calcutta: Asiatic Society. M ajum dar, Sridhar. The Vedanta Philosophy on the Basis o f the Commentary by Nimbarkacharya. Bankipur. Srinivasachari, P. N. The Philosophy o f Bhedabheda. Madras: T he Adyar Library.

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Nikhilananda, Swami (tr.). The Bhagavad-Gita. New York: Ram akrishnaV ivekananda C enter, 1952. R adhakrishnan, S. (tr.). The Bhagavad-Gita. New York: H arper & Bros. Sw arupananda, Swami (tr.). Srimad-Bhagavad-Gita. C alcutta: Advaita Ashram a, 1956. Vireswarananda, Swami (tr.). Srimad-Bhagavad-Gita. Text and gloss of Sridhara Swami. Madras: Sri R am akrishna M ath, 1948. Tantra

Woodroffe, Sir John (A rth u r Avalon). The Great Liberation (M ahanirvana Tantra). Text and translation. Madras: Ganesh & Co., Ltd. ----- The Principles o f Tantra. Two vols. Madras: G anesh & Co., Ltd. ----- The Serpent Power. Madras: Ganesh & Co. Ltd. ----- Vamamala (Garland o f Letters). Studies in th e M antrasastra. Madras: Ganesh & Co., Ltd. ----- The World as Power. Six vols. Madras: Ganesh & Co., Ltd. Tainism

C hakravarti, Appasvami (ed. and tr.). Kundakundacharya’s Pancastikayasara (Sacred Books o f the fainas). Allahabad: 1920. Jacobi, H erm ann. ‘Jainism’, in Hastings, Encyclopaedia o f Religion and Ethics, vol. VII, pp. 465-74. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. ----- Jaina Sutras. (Sacred Books o f the East, vols. ΧΧΠ and XLV.) Oxford, 1884 and 1895. Jaini, Jagm andar Lai. Outlines o f Jainism. Cambridge: 1916. ----- (ed. and tr.). Tattvarthadhigama Sutra. (Sacred Books o f the Jainas.) Arrah. Buddhism

Conze, Edward. Buddhism: Its Essence and Development. Oxford: Bruno Cassirer, Ltd., 1951. Evans-Wentz, W. Y. (tr.). Tibetan Yoga and Secret Doctrines. London: 1935. M üller, Max (ed.). The Sutta Nipata. (Sacred Books o f the East, vol. XII.) New York: 1901. Pratt, James Bissett. The Pilgrimage o f Buddhism. New York: 1928. Rhys Davids, T. W. Buddhist India. C alcutta: Susil G upta (India) Ltd. W arren, H. C. Buddhism in Translations. Cambridge: H arvard University Press.

IN D EX Abhäva, 204 A bhidham m apitaka, 172 Aborigines, o f India, 83 η. A bsolute, 285, 289, 295, 304, 312, 346 A ction, path of, 124, 126-7, 131; see also Karm a yoga, W ork A dam , 242, 287 A dharm a, principle o f rest, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164 A dhyätm a R äm äyana, 85, 86 A dvaita Vedänta, 274, 279, 284 A gam as, 144 A gnosticism , 46 A ham kära, 52, 217, 218, 223, 233 A him sä, 155 η ., 156, 159, 248-9 A itareya U panisad, 40, 58 Ä käsa, 160, 162,' 163, 164 Älvärs, 301 A nanda, Buddha’s disciple, 171, 172, 173, 182 A nandagiri, 273 A nandam aya, 53 A nandavardharm a, 94 Añgas, 156 Añgiras, 28 A nim als, debt to, 36 A nim ism , 162 A niruddha, 220-1 A nnam aya, 52 A ntahkarana, 52 A parigraha, 159 A quinas, S t T h om as, 315 A ranyakas, 26, 37 A rhats, 157-9 A ristotle, 99, 102, 106, 113-14 A rjuna, 88, 90, 91, 95-7, 101, 102, 103, 105, 107, 119, 126, 129-33, 147 A rn old, M atthew , 187 A sana, 127, 237, 248, 250-2 A soka, 180, 188, 193, 194 A sram as, 37 Asteya, 159 Astika, 17 Astikäyas, 161 A sti-nästi, 166-7 A sura, 122-3 A tharva Veda, 26, 28, 31, 97 n A theism , 17, 340

A tm an, and Brahm an, identity of, 49, 50, 51, 55-60, 110, 114-15, 131-2, 181, 243, 264, 349, 355; and G audapäda, 274, 276, 278; and Purusa, 223; and R äm akrsna, 338, 352; and R äm änuja, 314; an d áam kara, 283, 286, 292, 296, 297; un ion with, 238, 247, 256; in U panisads, 47-55, 61, 64; and yoga, 102, 124, 127, 128 A tom ic theory, in Jainism , 163 A tri, 28 A ugustine, St, 315 A um , see O m A usterity, 241,295; see also R enunciation Avadhi, 165 Avatärs, 85, 91, 112 n., 118-21, 157, 168, 310, 337, 341 n. Avidyä, 158, 288, 292; see also Ignorance A yodhyä, 81, 83, 84 Babbitt, Irving, 173, 174, 176, 178, 187 Bädaräyana, 268, 269, 270 Badarikäsram a, 274 Baladeva, 269 Bañaras, 171, 251 η., 322 Basrah, 156 Behaviourism , 21 Belur, 343 Bengal, 118, 317, 324, 325, 326 Bergson, 178, 179 Berkeley, 283 Bhagavad-G itä, as Bible o f India, 355-6; cited o r m entioned, 8, 17, 36, 79, 91, 92, 142, 307, 310, 319, 345, 348, 356; date of, 95; quoted, 168,176, 188, 208, 238, 241, 245, 246, 249, 251, 253; teaching of, 97-133; an d V edänta, 268, 269 B hägavatam , Bhägavata Puräna, 8, 80, 137-43, 155, 208, 322, 323, 327 η . B hakti yoga, 98, 99, 124, 128-9, 132-3, 149, 313-16, 348, 349 Bhändärkar, Sir R . G ., 279 n., 280 n. Bharadväja, 266 Bharata, 82, 83, 87 Bharati, Sw am i D . C., 326 Bhäskara, 269, 299-300, 305, 318

Index Bhäsya, 301 Bhavabhuti, 21-2 Bhävam ukha, 46, 47, 339 Bhedäbhedaväda, 160, 299, 305, 317 Bhikkhus, 173, 189 Bhim a, 90 Bhism a, 80, 88, 93 Bhoja, 227, 238, 239 Bibhisana, 84 Bible,' 17, 25, 119 Biligram , 319 Black Y ajur Veda, 29 Bliss, 276, 278 Bodhisattvas, 194 Body, gross and subtle, 223-4; and soul, 310 Bondage, see Ignorance Bose, S ir J. C., 162 n. Brahm ä, 28, 135, 136, 139-40 Brahm acarya, 37, 159 Brahmajnänavaltmälä, 283 Brahm an, and A tm an, identity of, 49, 50, 51, 55-60, 110, 114-15, 131-2, 181, 243, 264, 349, 355; an d Bhäskara, 299-300; and Buddha, 173, 181, 192; city of, 72, 255-6; as final cause, 17 n .; in the Gitä, 114-20, 130-2; and Iswara, 288-91; n ature of, 41-7; and N im bärka, 317-18; O m as sym bol of, 229, 231, 232; and R äm akrsna, 344, 345; and R äm än uja, 305, 307, 308-10; in R äm äyana, 85; realization of, 60-7, 70, 71, 75; and áatíikara, 283-4, 285, 286, 287, 293-6; and T antras, 144-6, 148, 151; and T rim ürti, 136; un ion w ith, 262, 263, 264, 276, 295, 296, 297, 339, 340; and Vallabha, 322-3; in V edänta Sütras, 269-70 Brahm a-nirväna, 109-11, 115 Brahm a-sabdhäva, 148 B rah m a Sütras, 20, 286, 290, 299, 302, 305, 306, 307, 317, 319, 322, 327 n .; see also V edänta Sütras Brahm ananda, Swam i, 7, 241, 260 n., 276, 343, 352 n., 353 n. Brähm anas, 26, 35-6, 37, 192 Brahm ani, th e, 336-7 Brähm a sch ool o f Vaisnavism , 317, 319 Brahm ins, 28, 36, 38, 106, 169 B rähm o Sam äj, 350 Breath, con trol of, 252-3 Brhadäranyaka Upanisad, 28, 40,44,46, '58, 66, 67, 69, 73, 74,' 208

363

Brindaban, Vrindavan, 96 η., 142, 327, 328, 330 Buddha, agnosticism of, 45, 340; and Christ, 168,175,184,185, 186, 191,192; and G audapäda, 273; life of, 169-72; as living force, 192; and M ahävira, 155 n., 156; m entioned, 85, 101, 111, 115, 123, 239, 256, 263, 282; his m ission, 36, 168; and R äm akrsna, 340; and T antras, 144; teaching of, 172-96; w orship of, 194 Buddhi, 52, 217, 218, 219, 220, 222, 223, 233 Buddhism , and Christianity, 174, 187; an d H induism , 169, 173, 174, 191-2, 193; and Jainism , 155 n .; and nirvana, 110, 111; num bers in India today, 25; spread of, 192-4; and Vedas, 17, 18, 25, 200 Burm a, 194 Caitanya, Sri, 118, 317, 324-32, 337, 355 C alcutta, 334, 335 Candi, 149 C an drä Devi, 336 Cärväka, 17 Caste, 103-4, 107, 108, 281-2 Categories, o f Jainism , 164; o f M ädhwa, 320; o f Nyäya-Vaisesika, 202-4, 205; o f Säm khya, 217-19; see also M etaphysics C ausal body, 53, 54 C ausation, and Buddha, 177, 183; and Nyäya-Vaisesika, 205; and áam kara, 285 Ceylon, 83, 84, 194 Chakravarti, A., 164, 165-6 C händogya U panisad, 40, 96 n., 99, 175; quoted, 44, 49, 50, 51, 56-8, 59, 69, 72, 73, 255-6, 326 Charity, 36 Chastity, 249 C hatterjee, G adädhar, 341 n. C hesterton, G. Κ., 174 China, 194 Christ, and Buddha, 168, 175, 184, 185, 186, 191, 192; and Krsna, 95, 96, 119; and Logos, 230-2; m entioned, 109, 111, 112 n., 118, 121, 123, 147, 160 n., 175, 176, 180, 181, 247, 256, 257, 261, 263, 293, 300 n .; m iracles of, 258; and non-resistance, 106; and R äm akrsna, 340-1

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C hristianity, and the Bible, 17; and Buddhism , 174, 187; and H induism , 231, 232, 242, 321, 356; and Logos, 231-2; m ystic m arriages in, 330 n .; an d R äm akrsna, 340, 347; and R äm än uja, 312, 315-16; and ritual, 266 n ., 267 n. Cit, 201 Clairvoyance, 165 C ognition, in Jainism , 165 Complete Works o f Vivekananda, 60, 63, 80, 104, 105, 142, 192, 222, 223, 224-5, 228, 232-3, 246, 247-8, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253,254,261,289,313, 314 n ., 315,343, 351 C oncentration, 254-7, 262, 348 C onduct, and Buddha, 187, 189, 190-1; an d Jainism , 159; and prayer, 262; rules of, 36; see also M oral T eaching C onjeeveram , 305, 306 Consciousness, and Buddha, 180; Eastern and W estern views of, 201; fo u r states of, 15, 49-51, 53-4, 274-7, 283, 346; in Jainism , 161, 162; and Nyäya-Vaisesika, 206-7; and R äm än u ja, 308; and áam kara, 294, 295; and Säm khya, 212,221; seven centres of, 150; and yoga, 243—4, 246; see also T ranscendental consciousness C ontem plation, 258 C om ford , F. M ., 179 C reation, and G audapäda, 277; and Jainism , 156-7; and R äm än uja, 309; and áam kara, 284-5, 288, 290; and Säm khya, 211, 215; in Sm rtis, 135, 139-40, 144, 145; in Upanisads, 56; and Vallabha, 322; and Vedas, 26-7, 32, 33-4; and Yoga, 228 Croce, 178, 179 Cultural Heritage o f India (Srinivasachari), 87, 136, 161, 164, 165-6, 310 Daksinesw ar, 335, 336, 338, 339, 340, 342, 343 D am nation, 321 D ante, 185, 315 Darsana, 15 D asaratha, 81, 83, 86 Das G upta, Prof., 36, 38, 236 D eath, 67-9, 70-1, 112-13, 129-30, 175, 176, 312 Death-instinct, 237 Delsarte, 251 n.

D elusion, 206, 207 D em ons, 49, 50 Desire, con trol of, 113, 122, 130; see also Self-control D eussen, Prof. Paul, 37, 55 Devaki, 96 n. Devas, 28, 161 Devil, 291, 292 D evotion, and know ledge, in Puränas, 137; p ath of, 98, 99, 100, 118, 124, 128-9, 132-3, 307, 318, 330, 348; five stages in, 329-30, 337-8 D ham m apada, 174, 175, 180, 185, 186, 187, 194-6 D häranä, 128, 237, 248, 254-7 D harm a, and Buddha, 177; in M ahäbhärata, 90, 92; and Mlmäxiisä, 267; principle o f m otion , 160, 161, 163, 164 D hrtarästra, King, 80, 87, 88, 89, 96 n. D hruba, 91 D hyäna, 128, 237, 248, 257-8 D igam baras, 156 Dik, 203 D iscrim ination, 294-5, 314, 348, 352 D istinction, philosoph y of, 320 Divine M other, 263-4,335,336,337,338, 341, 342, 348; see also M other w orship Doctrine du Logos.. . . (Reville), 231 D raupadi, 80, 88, 89, 91 Dravya, 160-2, 164, 203 D ream -m antra, 256 D ream state, 15, 50, 51, 53 D ualism , o f Säm khya, 211, 327, 346-7 D ürgä, 349 D uryodhana, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91 D u tt, R om esh C ., 81 η . East, an d West, different approach of, 15, 18-19, 117, 182, 201, 211-12, 275 Ego, an d Buddha, 182, 184, 185; death of, 20-1, 110, 111, 112, 123-4, 129; and R äm akrsna, 150, 339, 344, 352; and R äm än u ja, 311; and áam kara, 286, 287, 288, 290, 293, 294, 295, 296; and Säm khya, 217, 223; in Upanisads, 52, 53, 54; and Vallabha, 323; an d yoga, 233, 243, 244; see also S e lf Eightfold Path, o f Buddhism , 189-91 Elem ents, and Säm khya, 217-19, transm u tation of, 214 n. Epics, Indian, 79, 80, 81 n. Equality, 103-4

Index Essays on the Gita (G hose), 96 n., 117 Eternal Companion, The (Prabhavananda),

241 Ethics, and Indian philosophy, 21-2; see also M oral teaching Evil, problem of, 123, 187, 195, 196, 291-3, 309, 310, 311, 323 Evolution, 48-9, 215-19, 224 Experience, ph ilosoph y of, 274-8

Faith, 159, 189, 227, 239, 266 n ., 267 n. Fall o f m an, 242 Fatalism , 69-70 First Cause, 156-7, 285; see also C reatio n First Principles (Spencer), 215-16 Flux, 176-9, 180, 182, 188, 222 Form , life as, 145-6, 151 Foun dation o f th e K ingdom o f R ig h teousness, 173, 178, 189 Francis, St, 118 Freedom , an d G audapäda, 277, 278; w ill to , 236-7; an d yoga, 247, 253, 264 Free so u l, 112-13, 221-2, 224 Free w ill, 70, 311 Freud, 21, 234, 235, 237, 245 G andhari, 80 G anges, 88 Garbe, R ichard, 209 G ärhasthya, 37 G audapäda, 273- 8, 281, 283 G autam a, Prince , 169; see also Buddha Gaya, 171, 325 G äyatri m an tra, 38 G hose, Sri A urobindo, 96 n ., 97, 98, 99, 101,117, 121 G hosh, Pandit R ajen dra N at h , 279 n. G ita, see Bhagavad-G itâ G o d , a n th r o p o m o rp h ic , 17; an d Bhagavad-G itä, 95, 98, 100, 103, 115-20; an d Buddha, 181, 183; and creation, 26-7, 139, 140, 285; creation as sp o rt of, 322-3; as enem y to be w orshipped, 85-6; existence of, 354; experim ental approach to , 293-4, 295, 347; an d evil, 291; H indu view of, 33, 35; an d Jainism , 156, 157, 160 n .; know ledge of, 260-1, 270; love of, 301, 303, 304-5, 307, 310, 313-16, 322, 324, 328, 329, 330, 337-8, 348; n ature of, 355; an d NyäyaVaisesika, 205, 206; path s to know l-

365

edge of, 347-9, see also Bhakti yoga, Jfläna yoga, K arm a yoga, R aja yo ga; personal, 288-91; as present in everyth ing, 349-51; an d R äm akrsn a, 246, 344-7, 353; realization of, 60-7, 239, 311-16, 354-6; surren der to , 311, 312, 315, 320; and T antras, 147, 149; as teacher, 228; u n ion w ith, 96, 226, 300, 308, 312, 315, 323, see also T ran scendental consciousness; an d Vedas, 25, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, 35, 265; in yoga ph ilosoph y, 227-33,241, 250, 256,263; see also B rah m an G od-m an, 157, 160 n ., 256, 273, 354 G od th e M other, 144-6, 149; see also Divine M other G odavari, river, 83 G oethe, 176 G ods, H indu, 28, 31, 32, 34-5, 36, 49, 50, 51, 161, 192 G ood, an d evil, 187, 195, 291-3, 311; suprem e, 229, 230 G opis, 141-2 Gospel o f Sri Ramakrishna (N ikhilananda), 341 n. G osthi-pürna, 306-7 G otam a, 199, 202 G our, G ourän ga, 324, 326 G ovinda, 332 G ovinda Bhäsya, 327 n. G ovindapäda, 281 G race, divine, 123, 261, 310, 312, 346 G reat Cause, 346 G reek philosophy, 229, 230, 231 G un as, 107, 160; in Nyäya-Vaisesika, 203-4; and Säm khya, 104,213-15,216, 217, 221, 224, 289 G u p ta dynasty, 193 G u m , 20, 29, 67, 147 H an um än, 83, 347 H ari, 324 H arivansha, 96 n. H astinäpur, 88 H ath a yoga, 251 n., 253 n. H eaven, 145, 161 n ., 267, 321; kin gdom of, w ithin, 109,110, 124, 174, 184, 246, 254 H ell, 145, 161 n. H enotheism , 34 H eraclitus, 229 H inäyäna Buddhism , 193, 194

366

The Spiritual Heritage o f India

H induism , and Buddhism , 169, 173, 174, 191-2, 193; and Christianity, 231, 232, 242, 321, 356; epitom e of, 354-6; influence of, 231; and R äm akrsna, 344; six system s o f th o u gh t of, 66 n., 199-200; three great w orks of, 268 H indus, as thinkers, 16 H iranyagarbha, 32, 35 H iriyanna, Prof. M ., 18, 19, 210 History o f Philosophy, A (Thilly), 230 H opkins, E. W., 160 n. H ouston, Percy H., 9 H um anitarianism , 100, 111 H uxley, T. H., 216 H ym ns, 31, 324 Ideal, Chosen, 261, 263, 264, 349 Idealism , 211, 212, 243, 283 Ignorance, veil of, 20, 117, 118, 127, 158, 182, 183-4, 186-7, 188, 205-6, 220, 223, 242-3, 245, 283, 284, 287, 288, 290, 292, 295, 297, 311, 318, 323, 328-9 Illum ination, see Liberation Illusion , 284 Im m ortality, 62-3, 73, 185-6 Incarnation, 119, 120, 159-60 India, an d w orld religion, 356 Indian philosophy, and the BhagavadG itä, 97; influence of, 231; as m ystic and spiritual, 18; system s of, 17; variety and flexibility of, 35, 97; and W estern, 211-12 Indian Philosophy (R adhakrishnan), 17, 33 n., 177, 192, 277, 278, 279 n., 304 n. Individuality, 63-4, 287, 293; see also Ego, S elf Indra, 31, 33, 35, 49, 50, 51, 136, 266 Indraprastha, 88 Inference, in V edänta Sütras, 269 Infinite, the, 72; and th e finite, 284-5, 299 Initiation, 147 Inner Light, 255 Intellect, in U panisads, 52, 53 Intuition, 179 Isa U panisad, 28 n., 40, 41, 48, 349-50 Isherw ood, Christopher, 8, 281 n., 331 n. Islam , 340, 341, 342, 347, 356 Isw ara, 227-8, 231, 288-91, 292, 304, 308 Isw arakrsna, 208 ïsw ar Purl, 325 Iyer, V. Subrahm anya, 9, 274, 275

Jagan n ath T em ple, Puri, 328 Jaim ini, 16, 19 n., 199, 265 Jainism , 17, 18, 25, 155-67, 200 Jam es, W illiam, 252 Jan aka, King, 73-4, 82 Japa, 329 Japan, 194 Jaräsandha, 89 Jatädhäri, 338 Jayräm bäti, 336 Jeans, Sir Jam es, 285 Jesus, see C hrist Jewish religion, 191, 192, 230, 231 Jiva, 160, 161,162, 163,164, 223,289,299, 311 Jivanm ukti, 159, 173, 207, 312 Jivätm an, 205 Jfläna yoga, 98, 99, 124, 131, 149, 295, 313, 348, 349, 350 John, St, 119,175, 184,186, 230, 231, 232, 311 n. Jones, Sir W illiam, 134 Judaism , 191, 192, 230, 231 Kabir, 356 Kaikeyi, 81, 82 Kaivalya Upanisad, 255 Käla, 161, 162, 164, 203 Kälädi, 279 Käli, 344 Kälidäsa, 21 K äm ärpukur, 333, 334, 336 Kanäda, 199, 202, 204 K ant, 216 Kapila, 9, 199, 208, 209 Kapilävastu, 169, 170 Kaplan, Joseph, 9, 213, 214, 215 n. Kärikä, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277 K arm a, law of, 36, 68-71, 108, 112, 126, 145, 201 n .; and Buddha, 180, 184; and Jainism , 158, 161, 162; and Nyâya-Vaiàesika, 204, 206; an d R äm än uja, 309, 310; an d Säiiikhya, 224; and V edänta, 292; and yoga p h ilosoph y, 235 K arm a M im äiiisä, 266 K arm a yoga, 98, 99, 100, 111, 124, 126-7, 131, 149, 241, 348 Kathämrta, 47, 112, 115, 116-17, 145, 150, 181, 327, 335, 340, 341, 344, 346, 347, 348, 349 K atha U panisad, 1 9,29,40,52,59,60,61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 74, 175-6, 354

Index Kauravas, 101, 103 Kausalyä, 81, 82, 83 Keith, Prof., 279 n., 280 n. Kena U panisad, 40, 42, 45, 62, 146, 243 Kesara Bhärati, 326 Kesava, 269 Keshab Sen, 343 Kevala, 165 Know ledge, and devotion, 137, 326; direct, 115, 117; higher and low er, 61-2; and Jainism , 159, 164-6; and M ädhw a, 319-20; and N im bärka, 318; and Nyäya-Vaisesika, 206; path of, 98, 99, 100, 124, 127, 128, 131, 149, see also Jfläna yoga; an d R äm än uja, 307,308,313; and áaiñ kara, 16 n ., 294, 307; and Säriikhya, 209, 210-11, 212, 213, 219-21, 223; and T antras, 146-7; tw o kinds of, 226, 260-2; an d V edänta Sütras, 269-70; and w ork, 30; and yoga, 227, 233, 245 Koran, 25 Korea, 194 Krsna, and Caitanya, 324, 325, 327, 328, 329,330, 332; in G itä, 95-7, 98, 99, 101, 102, 103, 105,106, 107, 111, 112 n., 114, 119, 121, 122, 126, 128, 129-33, 141-3, 245; m entioned, 35, 85, 89, 91, 93, 147, 168, 208, 256, 261, 318, 322, 323, 337, 344, 348, 356; and R äm akrsna, 333, 338; as in carnation o f V isnu, 136 K um ärilla Bhatta, 265 K undalini yoga, 150 K uñti, 80, 127, 129 K uruksetra, 91, 93, 96 n., 101, 102 K urus, 87 Kusa, 84 Laksm ana, 82, 83, 84 Lava, 84 Law, and M im äm sä, 200 Laziness, 188, 239 Liberation, 27, 62, 71, 145; an d G audapäda, 278; an d Nyäya-Vaisesika, 206-7; and R äm akrsna, 350; and R äm än uja, 312; and Säriikhya, 224; see also M oksa, T ranscendental consciousness Life, fo u r stages of, 37; gam e of, 278; goal of, 19, 209, 330 Lilä, 322 Liläprasanga, 264, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 349, 351

367

Logic, in Jainism , 166-7; and Nyäya, 200 Logos, 119, 229-32 Lotus, 139, 140 Lotus o f the h eart, 255-6, 349 Love, o f G od, 301, 303, 304-5, 307, 313-16, 322, 323, 324-32, 337-8; and Krsna, 141-2; path of, 98, 99, 124, 128-9, 132-3, see also Bhakti yoga; philosoph y of, 328-30 Lucifer, fall of, 290 M acdonell, Prof., 279 n., 280 n. M adura, 329-30 M ädhw a, 269, 317, 319-21, 355 M ahäbhärata, com m en t on, 92-4; and th e G ita, 95, 96 n., 102; m entioned, 79, 80, 269, 273, 301; story of, 87-91 M ahädeva, 136 M ahänirväna T an tra, 151 M ahä-parinibbäna Sutta, 173, 174, 185, 189 M ahävägga, 183 M ahäväkyas, 58 M ahävira, 18, 155, 156 M ahäyäna Buddhism , 193-4 M ahesw ara, 136 M aitreyi, 28, 44, 73 M ajjh im a N ikäya, 172 n., 176, 177 M allick, Jadu, 340 M an, dem oniac, 122, 123, 128; fall of, 242; and G od, 228; perfect, ideal, 99, 102; origin and end of, 145-6; three types of, 148 M an-gods, 157, 160 n., 256, 273, 354 M anahparyäya, 165 M anas, 52, 203, 217, 218, 219, 220, 233 M anchester, Frederick, 9, 34 n. M ändükya U panisad, 15, 40, 54, 179-80, 273, 274 M anom aya, 53 M antras, 31, 147, 148 M äntri, 147 M anu, 36, 134, 135, 140, 269 M arici, 28 M aterialism , 207, 211, 212, 243, 264 M ati, 165 M atter, in Jainism , 160, 162-3, 164; and m ind, 283, 284; an d R äm än uja, 309; and Säriikhya, 211, 212, 214; see also Substance M atthew , St, 121, 176, 180, 186 M auryan sculpture, 193

368

The Spiritual Heritage o f India

M äyä, 47, 108, 119, 144, 188, 231, 308, 311, 319, 327; an d áaiiik ara, 284-8, 289, 292, 293, 295 M editation, 65-7,348,349; an d Buddha, 187, 189,191; p ath of, 98, 99, 100, 124, 127-8, 132, see also R aja yo ga; and R äm än uja, 308, 313; and yoga, 256, 257-8, 261 M em ory, 220, 314 M etaphysics, an d Buddha, 172; o f Jainism , 160-4, 166; and R äm än uja, 310; o f Säm khya, 200, 211-19 M im äiiisä, 199 M im äiiisä Sütras, 265 M ind, an d Buddha, 182, 191, 194, 195; and consciousness, 201; co n trol of, 122, 254,276; five types of, 238-9; and m atter, 283, 284; and Nyäya-Vaisesika, 203; o ccu lt pow ers of, 258-60; an d sam ädhi, 261; an d Säm khya, 211, 212, 215, 218, 220, 221; in U panisads, 51, 52; and yoga, 233-6, 240, 244, 247, 251, 252, 254 M isra, M andan, 282 M ithilä, 82 M itra, 136 M oham m edanism , 340, 341, 342, 347, 356 M oksa, 62, 64, 67, 145, 146, 201, 269; in th e G itä, 109; as g o al o f life, 18, 19; an d Jainism , 158, 159, 162, 164; and nirväna, 174; see also M ukti, N irvana, T ranscendental consciousness, T uriya M onasticism , 37, 100, 159,172, 192, 194, 282, 326, 327, 330 n ., 334, 338, 341, 343 M ongolia, 194 M onism , qualified, 346-7 M oral teaching, o f Bhagavad-G itä, 105-8, 121-3; o f Buddha, 187, 189-91, 193; o f M ahäbhärata, 92-5; in M im äiiisä, 266 n ., 267 n .; o f NyäyaVaisesika, 206; o f R äm än uja, 314-15; ' and áam kara, 293; in U panisads, 64-5, 69, 70; and yoga, 236, 237, 248-9 M ore, Paul Elm er, 106 M oses, 108 n. M other w orship, 144-6, 149; see also Divine M other M otion, principle of, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 204 M uir, John, 31 n. M ukti, 145, 312; see also Jivanm ukti

M üller, Prof. M ax, 34, 199 n., 279 n., 280 n. M undaka U panisad, 40, 42, 44, 59, 60, 61, '62, 65, 66, 71, 118, 256, 309 M ystic experience, 54, 118, 150; o f R äm akrsna, 333, 335; see also T ran scendental consciousness M ystic m arriage, 330 n. M ystics, 316; see also Seers N aciketä, 175-6 N adia, 317 N aga, 139 N akula, 89 N am bi, 302, 306 N änak, G u ru, 356 N ärada, 81 N äräyana, 97, 273, 274 N aren, 343, 350 N äsadiya hym n, 33-4 N ästika, 17 N ätham uni, 301, 302 N ature, and Säriikhya, 224-5 Navadw ip, 324, 325, 326 N egation, 46, 47, 115-16, 204 N icodem us, 184 N ietzsche, 102, 187 N ikhilananda, Sw am i, 341 n. N ilakantha, 269 N im äi, 324, 325 N im bärka, 269, 317-18 N irväna, 18, 109-14, 165, 350; and Buddha, 173, 174, 178, 179, 180, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 189, 191 N irvikalpa sam ädhi, 262, 263, 264, 307, 308, 339 Nivedita, Sister, 172 n. N iyam a, 127, 142, 237, 248, 250 N on-attachm ent, 100, 101, 110, 237-8, 262-3, 350, 352 N ondualism , 273,274,279,327,344,345, 346-7, 350-1 N on-injury, 248-9; see also A him sä N onresistance, 105-6 Nyäya, 199, 200, 202, 205, 284 N yäya-Vaisesika, 160, 163, 202-7 O ccult pow ers, o f yogis, 258-60 Om , th e eternal w ord, 28, 66, 113, 140, 346; in yoga, 229, 232-3, 255, 256 O ntological argum en t, o f Jains, 157 O riginal sin, 242

Index O rthodoxy, H indu, 17, 25, 156 η. O therw orldliness, 100 O udulum i, 299 Outlines o f Indian Philosophy (H iriyanna), 18, 19 Padm a Puräna, 136 Pain, and pleasure, 51, 125; and Säm khya, 209; and yoga, 246 Pâli canon, 172, 193 Paflcarätra, 144, 301 Pândavas, 87-9, 93, 94, 103 Pändu, 301 Pändu, King, 87 Pantheism , 33, 43, 117, 118 Param änus, 163, 203 Param ätm an, 157, 205 Parävidyä, 61 Pariksit, 91 Parm enides, 182 Parsw anätha, 155 n. Pärtha, 95 Passivity, 111, 126 Patañjali, 8, 21, 127,216, 222,226-62, 329 Patna, 156 Paul, St, 180, 234, 240, 300 n. Peace, Way of, 171, 185-91 Peace Chant, o f Rg-V eda, 22; o f Y ajur Veda, 43 Perception, as source o f Indian p h ilosophy, 15; and R äm än uja, 308; and Säm khya, 219-20; tw o m odes of, 226-7; in V edänta Sütras, 269-70 Pessim ism , 19, 174-6 Philo, 230-1 Philosophy, o f experience, 274-8; o f love, 328-30; p ath of, 124-6; purpose of, 208-9, 212; six system s o f Indian, 199-200 Philosophy o f Ancient India (G arbe), 209 Physics, m o d em , 213-14, 215 n. Plato, 104 n ., 115 n ., 177 n., 178 n ., 179, 204, 229, 230 Plato’s Theory o f Knowledge (C orn ford ), 179 Pleasure and pain, 51, 125 Polytheism , 34-5 Posture, 251-2 Prabhäkara, 265 Prabhavananda, Sw am i, 8, 34 n., 241, 281 n., 331 n. Prajapati, 49, 50, 51 Präjfia, 53-4 Prakirna, 156 N

369

Prakrti, 209, 211, 212-13, 216, 217, 220, 221, 223, 224, 231 n „ 233, 234, 238, 289 Pränam aya, 53 Pränäyäm a, 127, 237, 248, 252-3 Prärabdha karm as, 112 Prasna U panisad, 40 Pratyähära, 127, 237, 248, 253-4 Prayer, by Caitanya, 331-2; an d con duct, 262; o f áu k a, 137-8 Predestination, 69-70 Predication, Jain system of, 166-7 Priestcraft, 18, 36 Prem -Viläs-Vivarta, 330 Psalm s, 118 Psychology, 121, 165, 212, 234-5, 237; eastern and w estern, 201; and Indian philosophy, 21; and rsis, 52 Pudgala, 160, 162, 164 Puränas, 79-80, 96 n., 135-43, 273, 319, 322 Pure consciousness, 54, 212, 216, 262, 264, 275, 283, 294, 295, 297, 307, 352 Puri, 327, 328, 334 Purusa, 103, 161 n., 209, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 219, 220, 289; and Säiiikhya, 221-4; and yoga, 226, 228, 229, 233, 234, 235, 236, 238, 243, 246, 254 P urusa Sükta, 28, 32 Pürva M im äm sä sch ool, 16, 19 η., 199, 265-7 Pürvas, 156 Q ualities, see G unas R ädhä, 318, 330 R ädhä, ári, 337 Radhakrishnan, D r S., 17, 33 η ., 177, 192, 193, 277, 278, 279 η ., 304 R agh un äth , 325 R äh ula, 170, 171 R äjagrh a, 172, 192 R äja yoga, 98, 99, 124, 127-8, 149, 348 R ajas, 104, 213, 214, 215, 217, 224, 238 R äkhal, 343 R äm a, 35, 81-6, 140, 337, 338, 347 R äm akrsna, ári, life of, 333-43; m en tioned, 7,15, 20, 60, 86 η., 99-100, 101, 111-12, 115, 147, 282; quoted, 47, 115, 116-17,120,123,127, 137,145,150,181, 187, 188, 236 η ., 247, 259-60, 263-4, 289, 312, 327, 352-3, 354-5; teaching of, 343-51, 356

370

The Spiritual Heritage o f India

R am akrishna M ath and M ission, 343 R äm akrsna, m onastic Order of, 350 R äm änanda R oy, 327, 330 R äm än uja, 144, 269, 301, 302, 304, 317, 355; and the Gitä, 103; life of, 305-7; teaching of, 307-16; and Upanisads, 43, 44, 45 Ramanuja's Idea o f the Finite Self (Srinivasachari), 312-13 Ram asw am i, K. S., 136 R äm äyana, 79, 80, 81-6, 91, 92 R äm kum är, 334, 335 R anganätha, 302 R ao, A. V. Sankaranarayana, 279 η. Räsa-lilä, 141 R äsam ani, Räni, 335 R ävana, 83, 84, 85 Realism , 209-11, 212, 283, 319-20 Reality, Ä tm an as, 52; and Buddha, 181-3; and G audapäda, 277; and the Gitä, 114-21, 125; and Jainism , 160, 167; and R äm än uja, 310; and áam kara, 283, 284, 286, 287, 288, 290-1, 295, 298 Reason, and G od, 116, 124; insufficiency of, 16, 270; and Logos, 229-30, 231; and revelation, 220-1 Rebirth, 20, 27, 70-1, 269 R eincarnation, 27, 68-71, 201; and Buddha, 180, 184; and Jainism , 158 R elation, in Nyäya-Vaisesika, 204 Relativity, theory of, 166, 285 Religion, diversity in, 304; essential identity of, 341, 344, 347, 355, 356; goal o f all, 180-1, 226-7, 261; in stitutionalizing of, 36; m eaning of, 123-4; renew al of, 168, 191-2 Religions o f India (H opkins), 160 n. R eligious tolerance, 35; see also T olerance R enunciation, 20, 21, 37, 295, 326, 349-50; doctrine of, 99-100, 126; and yoga, 237-8 Republic (Plato), 104 n., 115 n. Rest, principle of, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164 R etirem ent, 37 Revelation, H indu, 16, 25, 79, 220-1; o f sam ädhi, 261-2; in V edänta Sütras, 270 Reville, J., 231 Rg-Veda, 23, 26, 28, 29, 32, 33-4, 38, 146, 155, 304 n., 355 R itual, 148-9, 241, 266

R itualism , 18, 36, 168, 192, 335 R om an Catholic C hurch, 159 n. Rsabha, 155 Rsis, 27, 35, 36, 41, 47-8, 52, 55, 75, 226, 347; see also Seers Rta, 31 R udra, 136 R udra sch ool o f Vaisnavism , 317, 322-3 Sacred Books o f the East, 16 n ., 17 n.

Sacrificial rites, 28, 36, 314 Sad Vaisnavism , 319 Sädhanä, 144, 146-7, 148 Sages, see Rsis, Seers Sahadeva, 90 Saints, 35,40,118,140, 174, 247, 262, 264, 294, 312, 355 Säkta A gam as, 144-6, 149 Sakti, 144-6, 308 Sakti and Säkta (W oodroffe), 145-6, 148, 149 áakun i, 89 Säkyam uni, 172; see also Buddha Sales, S t François de, 293 Salvation, and Buddha, 173, 184, 193-4; and M ädhwa, 321; and R äm än uja, 306-7 Sam ädhi, and Caitanya, 326, 327; as final lim b o f yoga, 257-8; m entioned, 15, 67, 110, 111, 112, 115, 128, 150, 181, 237, 246, 248, 297; nirvikalpa and savikalpa, 308; and Patañjali, 260-4; and R äm akrsna, 47,337, 339,340,341, 342, 344, 345,' 350 Säm änya, 204 Sam aväya, 204 Säm a-V eda, 26, 29 àâm bhavï, 147 Sam hitäs, 26, 31-5, 37 áaiñkara, abstract n ature of, 304; and Bhäskara, 299; and Caitanya, 327,328, 329; and G audapäda, 273, 274, 275, 281, 283; on perfect know ledge, 16; life of, 279-82; m entioned, 8,103, 111, 112, 144, 246, 253 n., 269, 317, 319, 325, 326, 355; quoted, 19, 20, 45, 347, 354; and R äm änuja, 307-8, 309, 313; and sam ädhi, 264; and Säm khya, 208; teaching of, 283-98; and Upanisads, 39, 40, 44, 58 Säriikhya, 161 n., 199, 205, 227, 228, 231 n „ 251, 284, 289

Index Säm khya sch ool, system , 17, 104, 208-25 Säm khya Kärikä, 208 Säm khya Pravacana Sütra, 208, 209 Sariisara, 311 Saiiiskäras, 234-5 Sam yam a, 258 Sam yu tta Nikäya, 177 Sanakal, 317 Sanskrit, 17, 39, 324, 325, 334 Sapta-bhañga, 167 n. Saradananda, Sw am i, 120 Säradä Devi, 336, 341-2 á ari raka Sütras, 268 Sarnath, 171 áatapatha B rähm ana, 29 áatrugh na, 82 Sattw a, 104, 106, 213, 214, 215, 217, 224, 239 Satya, 159 Satyakam a, 73 áavara Sw äm i, 265 Säyanäcärya, 25 Scepticism , 17 Scholasticism , 315 Schopenhauer, 184, 188 Schrödinger, Erwin, 243-4 Science, 243-4, 285, 294 Seers, 27, 36, 40, 55, 220-1, 226, 295, 355 Self, in the Gitä, 98,110, 114,121, 125-6, 127; and Bhäskara, 300; and Buddha, 182-3, 184, 185, 186; and G audapäda, 275, 276, 277; and M im äm sä, 267; and m ind, 201; and Nyäya-Vaisesika, 203, 204,205, 206; and R äm än uja, 307, 309, 311; and áam kara, 283, 284, 286, 288, 292; and Säm khya, 209, 211, 221, 223, 224; in Sm rtis, 87; in U panisads, 44, 47-55, 56-60, 61-8, 71, 72, 73,'74; and yoga, 234, 242, 244 Self-abnegation, 65 Self-control, 64-5, 121-3, 125, 135, 143, 148, 158, 188, 191, 193, 241, 276, 295, 297 Self-exertion, 123 Self-know ledge, three steps tow ards, 268-9 Self-realization, 226 Self-surrender, 98, 101, 123, 129, 301, 303, 306, 311, 312, 315 Sense experience, and Buddhism , 175, 176, 182

371

Senses, in Jainism , 162; and Säm khya, 218-19; in U panisads, 52 Service, 350 Shakespeare, 277 Shatarupa, 140 Sheaths, o f the self, 52-3 Shelburne Essays, 106 Shelley, 177 n., 178 n. Siam , 194 Siddha Param esthin, 157, 158, 159 Siddhi, 144, 146 Sin, and V edänta, 293 Sitä, 82-6 áiva, 35, 136, 144, 145, 202 Éiva and Buddha (N ivedita), 172 n. Six Systems o f Philosophy (M üller), 199 n. Skanda, 136 Sleep, state of, 15, 51, 53-4, 275-6, 283 Sm rti, and áru ti, 95 n., 135 Sm rtis, 79, 134-5, 269 S o u l, and body, 310; im m ortality of, 63; and Jainism , 157,158,160,161,162, 165, 166; and M ädhw a, 320-1; and m ind, 201; and R äm än uja, 311; and Säm khya, 221-2, 223; in V edänta Sütras, 270; and Vallabha, 322-3; see also Jiva, S e lf Space, in Jainism , 160,162, 163, 164; and Nyäya-Vaisesika, 203, 204 Spanish Character and Other Essays (Babbitt), 176, 178 Spencer, Herbert, 215-16 Sphota-väda, 140, 229, 231, 232; see also Om ári Bäsya, 307 ári sch ool o f Vaisnavism , 317 áridhara, 103 Srimad-Bhagavad-Gita, 108 Ériman-Mahabhâratam, 92-4 Srinivasachari, Prof. P. N., 310, 312-13 ári-perum -budur, 305 Sri Ramakrishna the Great Master (Saradananda), 121 ¿ri Rämakrsna Upadesa (Brahm ananda), 260 n., 352, 353 árirañgam , 306, 307 áruti, in Jainism , 165; and Sm rti, 95 n., 135; in V edänta Sütras, 269 árutis, authority of, 17, 20, 79 Stoicism , 229-30 Substance, and Jainism , 160, 166; and Nyäya-Vaisesika, 203; and Säm khya, 214

372

The Spiritual Heritage o f India

áuddh odh an a, King, 170 Suffering, and Buddha, 170-1, 174, 183-5; five causes of, 244-5; and Säm khya, 209 Sufis, 340 áuka, 137, 142, 273 Sum iträ, 82 Sun , w orship of, 29, 266 Sun yatä, 179, 186 Superim position, theory of, 285-8 Superm an , 273 Superposition, 213 Superstition, 159 Sütras, 199-200 Suttapitaka, 172 Svadharm a, 101, 105, 127 Svarupa, 115 Svetaketu, 55-8 ávetásvatara U panisad, 43, 173, 178 Sw arupananda, Sw am i, 108 àw etam bâras, 156 Sym bols, 148-9, 256-7 T aijasa, 53 Taittiriya U panisad, 29, 40, 44, 53, 61, 65, 172, 181, 266, 308, 309 T am as, 104, 213, 214, 215, 217, 218, 224, 239 T an tras, 80, 143-51, 337, 340 T aoism , 194 T ath ägata, 172, 189; see also Buddha T attw a Sam äsa, 208 Teacher, G od as, 228; see also G u ru T elan g, Prof., 279 n., 280 n. T em p le, A rchbishop, 262 T en C om m andm ents, 108 n. T en n yson , 311 T ev ijja Sutta, 168-9, 173, 190 T h a t A rt T h o u , 55-8, 99, 326, 330 Theaetetus (Plato), 179 Theism , 117, 118, 350 Thibaut, D r G., 16 n., 269 T hilly, Frank, 230 Thought-w aves, 233-6, 257, 261, 262 Tibet, 144, 194 Tim e, and Buddha, 178, 179; and Jainism , 161, 162, 164; and NyäyaVaisesika, 203, 204 T irtha, 28 n. Tirthankaras, 155, 156 T olerance, 210, 355 T o tä Puri, 60, 338, 339, 341 Touchstone for Ethics (H uxley), 216

T ranquillity, 121, 126, 240, 245, 251 T ranscendental consciousness, experience, know ledge, 15-16,18,20,46,47, 110, 111, 112, 150, 165, 186, 206, 208, 211, 212, 216, 262, 264, 283, 286, 291, 295, 320, 346, 354, 355 T rim ürti, 136 T ripitaka, 172, 192 T ru th , 86, 90; eternal, 72; fo u r noble o f Buddhism , 174, 183,185; tw o kinds of, 226-7 Truth fuln ess, 249 Turiya, 15, 54, 61, 62, 67, 275-6, 277, 344, 345, 346; and nirväna, 179-80, 183; realization of, 64-7 T uriyananda, Sw am i, 350 U däna, 180 U däyana, 206 U ddalaka, 55-8 U ddhava, 141, 142 U luka, 202 U m ä, 146 U nconscious, the, 234-5 Universal Being, 32, 33 Universe, and Bhäskara, 299; and Brahm an, 41, 43, 45, 46; and Buddha, 176, 178; cycles of, 140-1, 155; final cause of, 16 n., 17 n .; and G audapäda, 277; H indu view of, 27, 32; and Jainism , 156-7, 164; and M ädhw a, 320; and N im bärka, 317-18; principle o f order in, 32; and R äm akrsna, 345-6; and R äm än uja, 309-10; and áaihkara, 284,285,289,290,297-8; and Särfikhya, 211, 213, 214-15, 218-19, 222; in T antras, 144; in U panisads, 56; and Vallabha, 322-3; in V edänta Sütras, 270; in Vedas, 33—4; and yoga, 228, 231 n .; see also C reation U padesahasri, 282 U pagupta, 193 Upanisads, A tm an in, 47-55; as authoritative, 17 n., and Bhagavad-Gita, 95, 99, 114, 116, 118, 126, 127; and Brahm an, 41-7, 308, 309; identity o f A tm an and Brahm an in, 55-60; and Buddha, 169, 172-3, 182, 185, 186,192; described, 39-41; on goal o f life, 19; K arm a and reincarnation in, 67-71; m eaning o f w ord, 39; m entioned, 8, 21, 26, 28, 29, 30, 37, 208, 274, 285, 319; and Mimäifasä, 266; passages from ,

Index 71-5; principal, 40; realization o f Brahm an in, 60-7; and the Sm rtis, 136, 137, 142, 144, 145, 146; and Vedanta, 268-70; and yoga, 226, 229, 254, 256; see also under individual Upanisads U sha, Brahm acharini, 9 U ttara-M im äm sä, 19 n., 199, 268-70; see also V edänta Uttara-Rämacaritam, 22 Väcaspati M isra, 210 V aikuntha, 321 Vaisäli, 156, 192 V aisam päyana, 28 Vaisesika, 199, 200, 202, 205 V aisnavism , 137, 144, 301, 303, 307, 324, 325, 327; fo u r sch ools of, 317, 319, 322; and R äm akrsna, 337-8, 340 Vaisw änara, 53 V aladeva Vidyäbhusan, 327 η. V allabha, 269, 317, 322-3, 355 V älm iki, 81, 84, 85 V äm äcära, 149 η. V änaprastha, 37 V äranävata, 87 V ardham äna, 155 V ärnäsram a dharm a, 103 V aruna, 31, 32, 35, 136 V äsettha, 168-9, 173 Vasistha, 82, 86 V äsudeva, 325 V edänta, 199; and Buddhism , 188; central position o f in philosophy, 283-4; and identity in difference, 299-300; as living faith today, 200; nondualistic aspect of, 273-8; origin of, 39; and posture, 251-2; and R äm akrsna, 338, 340, 346-7; and qualified nondualism , 301-3, 305; revival and spread of, 343; and sam ädhi, 262; and áam kara, 279; and universe, 231 n. V edänta Sütras, 16 η., 17 η., 40, 252, 268-70, 313; see also Brahm a Sütras Vedanta for the Western World, 331 n. Vedas, authority of, 16, 17, 18, 20, 25-6, 30,79, 200; and Buddha, 169,192; and the caste system , 103; described, 25-30; division of, 26, 37; influence of, 37, 38; know ledge p ortion of, 39-75; and M ahäbhärata, 87, 92, 94;

373

and M im äm sä, 265-7; as self-revealed, 265; and th e Sm rtis, 134,136,140, 144; w ork portion of, 31-8; and yoga, 226, 229, 231 Vichitraviriya, 96 n. Vidyasagara, 135 n. V ijflänabhiksu, 208, 217, 269 V ijflanam aya, 53 V inayapitaka, 172 Virât, 90 Viresw arananda, Sw am i, 269 V irochana, 49, 50 V irtue, and Buddha, 190; and Vedänta, 293; w orldly and spiritual, 106; and yoga, 250 Visesa, 204 Visistädvaita V edänta, 301-3, 305, 307 V isñu, 64, 144, 208, 321, 325, 337 V isnu Puräna, 136, 155 Visw am bhar, 324 Visw äm itra, 82 Visw arüpa, 324 Vivekaclidämani, 264, 282, 296, 297-8 Vivekananda, Sw am i, 34, 60, 63, 80,101, 104, 105, 111, 115, 135, 141-2, 187, 191, 221, 222, 223, 224-5, 228,232-3,246-54, 289, 313, 314 n., 315, 343, 350, 351 Voice o f India, 34 n. Vrindavan, 96 n .; see also Brindaban Vyäsa, 87, 94, 135 η., 136, 137, 142, 199, 236, 252, 265, 268, 273, 290, 299 War, 101, 102, 103 W ebster, 43 n. West and East, different approach of, 15, 18-19, 117, 182, 201, 211-12, 275 What is Life (Schrödinger), 243-4 W heel o f existence, 180, 183, 184 White Y ajur Veda, 29, 43 n. Will, and Buddha, 187-8 W illiams, Sir M onier, 134 W isdom, 186-7 Wisdom o f God, The, 140 W oodroffe, Sir John , 144 n., 145, 148, 149 Word m ade flesh, 118-19 W ordsw orth, 178 n., 225 n. W ork, and know ledge, 30; and m oksa, 19 n .; path of, 348, see also K arm a yoga; realization th rou gh , 98, 99,100, 101, 111, 124, 126-7 W orship, 313-14; fo u r form s of, 148

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Yädava Prakäs, 269, 305 Yäjflavalkya, 28-9, 43-4, 73-4, 134 Y ajur Veda, 26, 28, 29, 43 η. Yam a, 127, 142, 237, 248 Yâm una, 301-3, 305, 306 Yantra, 148-9 Yasodä, 141 Yasodharä, 170, 171 Yoga, false view of, 251 n .; fo u r disciplines of, 98-9, 100, 149, 348-9, 356; in the Gitä, 113-14, 123-9, 131; goal of, 242-8; G od in, 227-33; H atha, 251 n., 253 n .; and Krsna, 142; kundalini, 150; lim bs of, 237, 248r-58;

m eaning of, 67,102,123-4,226, 233-8; m entioned, 20, 199, 284; and occult pow ers, 258-60 Yoga Aphorisms, 227-9, 238-41, 243, 245, 248-51, 254-60, 262 Yoga-Väsistha, 86-7 Yogeswari, 336-7 Yogi, 226, 297; and gam e o f life, 278; how to becom e a, 238-41 Yogic perception, 220 Yudhisthira, 80, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92 Yugas,' 140-1, 155 Zen Buddhism , 194