The Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics 9819987903, 9789819987900

Table of contents :
Contents
1 Foreword: The Essence and Structure of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
2 The Forms of Traditional Chinese Aesthetic Spirit
The Sensual Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
The Graphemic Explanation of “Flavor/Wei” as Synonymous with “Beauty/Mei”
The Development of the Theory of Wei Mei [Flavor as Beauty]
Explaining the Theory of Wei Mei [Flavor as Beauty]
The Veneration of Wen in Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
The Grammatology of Wen
The Beauty of Diversified Forms
The Variation of Wen
The Reverence for Wen in the Chinese Aesthetic Tradition
The Subjective Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
“Mind” as Beauty
Material Beauty, Artistic Beauty, and Aesthetic Subjectivity
“Beauty Is of the Mind” and Its Cultural Foundation
The Moral Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
“Kindness Is the Essence of Beauty”
Mencius: “Moral Fulfillment Is Beauty Itself”
Xunzi: “What Ever Is Imperfect and Unrefined Does Not Deserve the Name of ‘Beauty’”
Laozi: “The Great Music has the Faintest Notes/The Great Form Is Without Shape”
Zhuangzi: “The Perfect Enjoyment Is to Be Without Enjoyment”
Guan Zhong: Nature’s Beauty Lies in Its Virtue
Han Fei Zi: “To Reside in the Essence Rather Than on the Surface”
Mo Zi: Beauty Is “Impartial Caring” and “Benefiting the People”
Buddhism: Beauty Lies in Nirvana
The Nature-Following Spirit in Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
The Aesthetic Object Must Suit Human Nature
An Object’s Natural State Creates Beauty
3 The Confucian Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
Confucians on the Spirit of “Virtue Comparison” in Natural Beauty
Confucius on “Virtue Comparison”
Mencius on “Virtue Comparison”
Xunzi on “Virtue Comparison”
Dong Zhongshu [董仲舒] on “Virtue Comparison”
Liu Xiang [刘向] on “Virtue Comparison”
Xu Shen [许慎] on “Virtue Comparison”
Li E, Wang Tong, Bai Juyi on “Virtue Comparison”
Song Confucians on “Virtue Comparison”
Natural Beauty as the Embodiment of Morality
Confucians on the Spirit of “Moral Integrity” in Personality Beauty
The Origin and Meaning of “Moral Integrity”
The Connotation of Fenggu as a Category of Confucian Personal Character
The Relationship Between Fenggu as Artistic Beauty and as Personality Beauty
Confucians on the Spirit of Zhonghe [Balanced Harmony] in Social Beauty
The Most Valuable Function of Observing Ritual Propriety Is to Achieve Harmony [礼之用, 和为贵]
The Realistic Manifestations of the Beauty of “Harmony”
Music and Poetry: The Propeller of Zhonghe Beauty
Confucians on the Spirit of “Regulation” [jiezhi] in Emotional Beauty
On Music [Yue Lun 乐论] and The Book of Music: The Source of Treating “Restraining Feelings” as Beauty
From the Han Dynasty to the Six Dynasties: From “No Emotion” to “Unrestrained Emotion”
From the Tang and Song Dynasties to the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties: From “Restraining Feelings” to “Eliminating Emotions” to “Indulging in Emotions” and to “Restraining Feelings”
The New Expression of Treating “Restraining Feelings” as Beauty in the Late Qing Dynasty
Confucians on the Connotation of “Pensiveness and Concerns” [沉郁 chenyu] in Artistic and Inner Beauty
The Origin and History of “Pensiveness and Concerns”
Three Connotations of “Pensiveness and Concerns”: Loyalty and Honesty, Indignation, and Implicitness
Confucians on the Requirement of “Being Purposive” [zhongdi 中的] in the Beauty of the Literary Form
The Proposal of “Zhong Di Wei Gong” 中的为工 and Its Relationship with the Saying “Ci Da Er Yi” 辞达而已
Confucius on “Wording Is Beautiful When It Expresses Meaning”
Han Yu on “There Is No Distinction Between Difficult and Easy in Articles, but only the Right Expression”
Su Shi on “Choosing Forms According to the Objects”
Representation Forms of “Beauty in Fitting the Purpose”
4 The Taoist Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
Beauty in Nonexistence: Taoist Thought on the Ultimate Beauty
Laozi: “Great Sound Is Imperceptible, and Great Image Is Without Form”
Zhuangzi: “Great Beauty Is Speechless” and “Ultimate Happiness Is Non-Happiness”
Master Lv’s Spring and Autumn Annals
Huainanzi: “Zero-Taste Is Tasteful Enough”
Metaphysics: To Tame Existence with Nonexistence, and to Govern Many by Few
Expressions of the Beauty of “Nonexistence”
The Limitation of Experiential Beauty
Beauty Lies in the Concept of Subtlety: Taoist Aesthetics Through Interconnectedness
That Which Is Divine and Untraceable Is Called “Miao”
Exploring the Profoundness of Xuan [Mystery]
Exploring the Profoundness of Yuan [Distant]
The Profundity of the Footloose and the Ancient
Seeing Richness in “Blandness”: The Taoist Ideal of Beauty
Laozi and Zhuangzi on Blandness
Han Dynasty After the Early Period: The Loss of “Plain Taste”
Neo-Daoism: Finding Beauty in Detachment and Emotional Calmness
Tao Yuanming: Founding Father in the Poetics of Blandness
Tang Dynasty: Pastoral Poetry and Ink-wash Landscape Painting
Song Dynasty: On the Beauty of Blandness and Detachment
Ming and Qing Dynasties: “Extreme Brilliance Returned to Simplicity”
Overall Understanding of the Beauty of Blandness
Softness as Beauty: The Taoist Life Philosophy on Retreat as Advance
The Beauty of “Softness,” “Weakness,” “Femininity,” and “Smallness”
The Beauty of “Lower,” “Base,” and “Foolishness”
The Art of Retreat
Nature as Beauty: The Unconsciousness of Taoist Aesthetic
Laozi and Zhuangzi on the Beauty of Nature
Negation of Natural Beauty in the Han Dynasty
Transcending the Constraints of Social Norms and Following the Natural Way
The Southern Dynasties: Natural Ingenuity Is Like Lotus Emerging from Water
Tang and Song Dynasties: “Natural Beauty Supersedes Elaborate Embellishment”
Ming and Qing Dynasties: “Beauty Lies in Human Nature”
“Vitality” as Beauty: Taoism on the Beauty of Life
Laozi’s and Zhuangzi’s Views on “Health Preservation” and “Nurturing Life”
The Book of Changes on Life
Neo-Daoism on Nurturing Life
Discussion on “Eternal Life” in Taoist Religion
The Fundamental Qi as the Original Force of All Things
Art Is Beautiful Because of the Vital Qi
5 The Buddhist Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
“Form Is Empty”: Buddhist Negation of Sensual Beauty
“Whatever Is Dependently Co-Arising, That Is Explained as Emptiness”
“Beautiful Appearances and Lustful Sounds Are All Sources of Suffering”
“Women’s Beauty Is Like a Bag Full of Filth, Causing Only Suffering”
The Practice of the “Patikulamanasikaraya” That Regards Beauty as Repulsive
“Nirvāṇa and Pure Land”: Buddhist Affirmation of Essential Beauty
The Beauty of “Nirvāṇa” and the Beauty of Buddha-Dharma
The First Aesthetic Symbolic of Nirvāṇa: The Beauty of Emptiness and Tranquility
The First Aesthetic Symbol of Nirvāṇa: The Beauty of Death
The Beauty of the Subjective “Buddha-Nature” and the Aesthetic Approach of Comprehending “Wondrous Enlightenment”
The Incarnations of Enlightened “Nirvāṇa”: The Beauty of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, and Arhats
“Nirvāṇa Is Called ‘Sweet Dew’”: Buddhist Assertion of Gustatory Beauty
“The Taste of the Food in One’s Mouth Is Like Taking Medicine in Sickness”
“Nirvāṇa Is Called ‘Sweet Dew’”
“Attaining Great Nirvāṇa from Prajnaparamita Is Like Obtaining Ghee”
“The Dharmakaya Has No Mark”: Buddhist Idea of the Beauty of Language
“The Practice of Mahayana Has No Words or Sign”
The Form of the “Incarnated Body” and the Beauty of Teaching via Images
“Teaching via Words”: The Beauty of Bianwen
“Brightness Is the Most Respectable”: Buddhist Preference for Brightness
The Ugliness of “Avijja”
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas’s “Wisdom Light” and “Body Light”
“Buddha Lands” and “Complete Brightness”
The Forms of “External Brightness”: Sun, Moon, Lamps, Gold, Mirror, and Pearls
“Round and Complete Perfection”: Buddhist Emphasis on the Beauty of Roundness “Form Is Round”
“Buddhist Truth Is Round”
“Wisdom Is Round”: “Round Awakening,” “Round Understanding,” “Round Illumination,” “Round Permeation”
“Dharma Is Round and Complete”
“Ten Is the Perfect Number”: Buddhist Devotion to Perfection
Du Shun: “Harmonization of Principles and Practices,” “One” and “Many” Are Indivisible
Zhi Yan: “One in Ten, Ten in One”
Fa Zang: “Ten” as the “Compete Number” That “Displays Boundless Meanings”
Cheng Guan: “To Create a Harmonious Display, One Must Often Mention Ten”
“The Purity of Dharma Sounds”: Buddhist Likings for Auditory Beauty
“Using Sound for Buddhist Practices,” “Bowing to Pure Music”
“Buddhist Music Is Subtle and Delightful”
“Fragrant Incense Fills the Air”: Buddhist Fondness for Olfactory Beauty
“Fragrance” Is a Worldly Pleasure and Desires for It Should Be Eliminated
“Fragrance Serves the Buddha” and “Fragrant Smell Permeates Everywhere”
“Lotus Is the Best”: Buddhist Acknowledgment of Secular Beauty
“Only by Seeing the Pure Lotus Can One Know the Untainted Mind”
“Innumerable Lotus Blossoms Surrounding the World”
“Entering the Lotus Womb and Experiencing All Joys”
“Seven Treasures Integrated”: Buddhist Thought on Utilitarian Beauty
What Are the “Seven Treasures”?
Seven Treasures of the Buddha’s Land Are Magnificent and Glorious
6 The Expressive Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
The Spirit of Expression in the Process of Literary and Artistic Creation
The Spirit of Expression in Literary and Artistic Works
The Spirit of Expression in Literary Appreciation
7 The Spirit of “Imagery Appreciation” in Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
Historical Evolution of the Theory of “Imagery”
The Aesthetic Implications of the Category of “Poetic World”
Similarities and Differences Between “Aesthetic Realm,” “Image,” and “Typicality”
8 On Aesthetic Characteristics of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
Pleasure of Aesthetic Feeling
Intuition of Aesthetic Feelings
Subjectivity of Aesthetic Feelings
Objectivity of Aesthetic Feelings
Authenticity of Aesthetic Feelings
9 Aesthetic Methodology of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics
“Beauty-Tasting” Method of “Chewing Aftertaste”
The “Static Observation” Method of “Observing Things with Objects”
“Emotional View” Method of “Viewing Things from My Perspective”
Bibliography
Index

Citation preview

The Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics Zhixiang Qi

The Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics

Zhixiang Qi

The Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics

Zhixiang Qi Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai, China

Translated by NI Fan: Chapter 1 (Foreword), Chapter 2, and 4; SHI Wei: Chapter 3 and 7; WU Juanjuan: Chapter 5; ZOU Li: Chapter 6, 8 and 9. ISBN 978-981-99-8790-0 ISBN 978-981-99-8791-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-8791-7 Jointly published with Shanghai People’s Publishing House The print edition is not for sale in China (Mainland). Customers from China (Mainland) please order the print book from: Shanghai People’s Publishing House. ISBN of the Co-Publisher’s edition: 978-7-208-15320-2 © Shanghai People’s Publishing House 2024 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publishers, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publishers nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publishers remain neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore Paper in this product is recyclable.

Contents

1 2

Foreword: The Essence and Structure of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics The Forms of Traditional Chinese Aesthetic Spirit The Sensual Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics The Graphemic Explanation of “Flavor/Wei” as Synonymous with “Beauty/Mei” The Development of the Theory of Wei Mei [Flavor as Beauty] Explaining the Theory of Wei Mei [Flavor as Beauty] The Veneration of Wen in Traditional Chinese Aesthetics The Grammatology of Wen The Beauty of Diversified Forms The Variation of Wen The Reverence for Wen in the Chinese Aesthetic Tradition The Subjective Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics “Mind” as Beauty Material Beauty, Artistic Beauty, and Aesthetic Subjectivity “Beauty Is of the Mind” and Its Cultural Foundation The Moral Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics “Kindness Is the Essence of Beauty” Mencius: “Moral Fulfillment Is Beauty Itself” Xunzi: “What Ever Is Imperfect and Unrefined Does Not Deserve the Name of ‘Beauty’”

1 9 9 11 14 17 19 19 21 22 25 27 27 30 33 36 36 40 42 v

vi

CONTENTS

Laozi: “The Great Music has the Faintest Notes/The Great Form Is Without Shape” Zhuangzi: “The Perfect Enjoyment Is to Be Without Enjoyment” Guan Zhong: Nature’s Beauty Lies in Its Virtue Han Fei Zi: “To Reside in the Essence Rather Than on the Surface” Mo Zi: Beauty Is “Impartial Caring” and “Benefiting the People” Buddhism: Beauty Lies in Nirvana The Nature-Following Spirit in Traditional Chinese Aesthetics The Aesthetic Object Must Suit Human Nature An Object’s Natural State Creates Beauty 3

The Confucian Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics Confucians on the Spirit of “Virtue Comparison” in Natural Beauty Confucius on “Virtue Comparison” Mencius on “Virtue Comparison” Xunzi on “Virtue Comparison” Dong Zhongshu [董仲舒] on “Virtue Comparison” Liu Xiang [刘向] on “Virtue Comparison” Xu Shen [许慎] on “Virtue Comparison” Li E, Wang Tong, Bai Juyi on “Virtue Comparison” Song Confucians on “Virtue Comparison” Natural Beauty as the Embodiment of Morality Confucians on the Spirit of “Moral Integrity” in Personality Beauty The Origin and Meaning of “Moral Integrity” The Connotation of Fenggu as a Category of Confucian Personal Character The Relationship Between Fenggu as Artistic Beauty and as Personality Beauty Confucians on the Spirit of Zhonghe [Balanced Harmony] in Social Beauty The Most Valuable Function of Observing Ritual Propriety Is to Achieve Harmony [礼之用, 和为贵] The Realistic Manifestations of the Beauty of “Harmony” Music and Poetry: The Propeller of Zhonghe Beauty

44 45 48 49 51 52 53 53 60 67 67 68 71 72 75 76 78 79 82 85 89 89 91 95 97 98 102 108

CONTENTS

Confucians on the Spirit of “Regulation” [jiezhi] in Emotional Beauty On Music [Yue Lun 乐论] and The Book of Music: The Source of Treating “Restraining Feelings” as Beauty From the Han Dynasty to the Six Dynasties: From “No Emotion” to “Unrestrained Emotion” From the Tang and Song Dynasties to the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties: From “Restraining Feelings” to “Eliminating Emotions” to “Indulging in Emotions” and to “Restraining Feelings” The New Expression of Treating “Restraining Feelings” as Beauty in the Late Qing Dynasty Confucians on the Connotation of “Pensiveness and Concerns” [沉郁 chenyu] in Artistic and Inner Beauty The Origin and History of “Pensiveness and Concerns” Three Connotations of “Pensiveness and Concerns”: Loyalty and Honesty, Indignation, and Implicitness Confucians on the Requirement of “Being Purposive” [zhongdi 中的] in the Beauty of the Literary Form The Proposal of “Zhong Di Wei Gong” 中的为工 and Its Relationship with the Saying “Ci Da Er Yi” 辞达而已 Confucius on “Wording Is Beautiful When It Expresses Meaning” Han Yu on “There Is No Distinction Between Difficult and Easy in Articles, but only the Right Expression” Su Shi on “Choosing Forms According to the Objects” Representation Forms of “Beauty in Fitting the Purpose” 4

The Taoist Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics Beauty in Nonexistence: Taoist Thought on the Ultimate Beauty Laozi: “Great Sound Is Imperceptible, and Great Image Is Without Form” Zhuangzi: “Great Beauty Is Speechless” and “Ultimate Happiness Is Non-Happiness” Master Lv’s Spring and Autumn Annals Huainanzi: “Zero-Taste Is Tasteful Enough” Metaphysics: To Tame Existence with Nonexistence, and to Govern Many by Few

vii

112 113 115

119 127 131 131 132 136 137 138 140 143 146 153 154 154 155 157 157 159

viii

CONTENTS

Expressions of the Beauty of “Nonexistence” The Limitation of Experiential Beauty Beauty Lies in the Concept of Subtlety: Taoist Aesthetics Through Interconnectedness That Which Is Divine and Untraceable Is Called “Miao” Exploring the Profoundness of Xuan [Mystery] Exploring the Profoundness of Yuan [Distant] The Profundity of the Footloose and the Ancient Seeing Richness in “Blandness”: The Taoist Ideal of Beauty Laozi and Zhuangzi on Blandness Han Dynasty After the Early Period: The Loss of “Plain Taste” Neo-Daoism: Finding Beauty in Detachment and Emotional Calmness Tao Yuanming: Founding Father in the Poetics of Blandness Tang Dynasty: Pastoral Poetry and Ink-wash Landscape Painting Song Dynasty: On the Beauty of Blandness and Detachment Ming and Qing Dynasties: “Extreme Brilliance Returned to Simplicity” Overall Understanding of the Beauty of Blandness Softness as Beauty: The Taoist Life Philosophy on Retreat as Advance The Beauty of “Softness,” “Weakness,” “Femininity,” and “Smallness” The Beauty of “Lower,” “Base,” and “Foolishness” The Art of Retreat Nature as Beauty: The Unconsciousness of Taoist Aesthetic Laozi and Zhuangzi on the Beauty of Nature Negation of Natural Beauty in the Han Dynasty Transcending the Constraints of Social Norms and Following the Natural Way The Southern Dynasties: Natural Ingenuity Is Like Lotus Emerging from Water Tang and Song Dynasties: “Natural Beauty Supersedes Elaborate Embellishment” Ming and Qing Dynasties: “Beauty Lies in Human Nature” “Vitality” as Beauty: Taoism on the Beauty of Life

161 170 173 173 179 181 185 188 189 189 190 192 193 196 197 199 200 200 202 204 205 205 208 209 212 214 216 219

CONTENTS

Laozi’s and Zhuangzi’s Views on “Health Preservation” and “Nurturing Life” The Book of Changes on Life Neo-Daoism on Nurturing Life Discussion on “Eternal Life” in Taoist Religion The Fundamental Qi as the Original Force of All Things Art Is Beautiful Because of the Vital Qi 5

The Buddhist Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics “Form Is Empty”: Buddhist Negation of Sensual Beauty “Whatever Is Dependently Co-Arising, That Is Explained as Emptiness” “Beautiful Appearances and Lustful Sounds Are All Sources of Suffering” “Women’s Beauty Is Like a Bag Full of Filth, Causing Only Suffering” The Practice of the “Patikulamanasikaraya” That Regards Beauty as Repulsive “Nirv¯ an.a and Pure Land”: Buddhist Affirmation of Essential Beauty The Beauty of “Nirv¯ an.a” and the Beauty of Buddha-Dharma The First Aesthetic Symbolic of Nirv¯ an.a: The Beauty of Emptiness and Tranquility The First Aesthetic Symbol of Nirv¯ an.a: The Beauty of Death The Beauty of the Subjective “Buddha-Nature” and the Aesthetic Approach of Comprehending “Wondrous Enlightenment” The Incarnations of Enlightened “Nirv¯ an.a”: The Beauty of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, and Arhats “Nirv¯ an.a Is Called ‘Sweet Dew’”: Buddhist Assertion of Gustatory Beauty “The Taste of the Food in One’s Mouth Is Like Taking Medicine in Sickness” “Nirv¯ an.a Is Called ‘Sweet Dew’” “Attaining Great Nirv¯ an.a from Prajnaparamita Is Like Obtaining Ghee” “The Dharmakaya Has No Mark”: Buddhist Idea of the Beauty of Language

ix

219 222 222 223 224 227 231 233 233 235 237 239 241 242 245 247

252 255 258 259 260 261 264

x

CONTENTS

“The Practice of Mahayana Has No Words or Sign” The Form of the “Incarnated Body” and the Beauty of Teaching via Images “Teaching via Words”: The Beauty of Bianwen “Brightness Is the Most Respectable”: Buddhist Preference for Brightness The Ugliness of “Avijja” Buddhas and Bodhisattvas’s “Wisdom Light” and “Body Light” “Buddha Lands” and “Complete Brightness” The Forms of “External Brightness”: Sun, Moon, Lamps, Gold, Mirror, and Pearls “Round and Complete Perfection”: Buddhist Emphasis on the Beauty of Roundness “ Form Is Round” “Buddhist Truth Is Round” “Wisdom Is Round”: “Round Awakening,” “Round Understanding,” “Round Illumination,” “Round Permeation” “Dharma Is Round and Complete” “Ten Is the Perfect Number”: Buddhist Devotion to Perfection Du Shun: “Harmonization of Principles and Practices,” “One” and “Many” Are Indivisible Zhi Yan: “One in Ten, Ten in One” Fa Zang: “Ten” as the “Compete Number” That “Displays Boundless Meanings” Cheng Guan: “To Create a Harmonious Display, One Must Often Mention Ten” “The Purity of Dharma Sounds”: Buddhist Likings for Auditory Beauty “Using Sound for Buddhist Practices,” “Bowing to Pure Music” “Buddhist Music Is Subtle and Delightful” “Fragrant Incense Fills the Air”: Buddhist Fondness for Olfactory Beauty “Fragrance” Is a Worldly Pleasure and Desires for It Should Be Eliminated “Fragrance Serves the Buddha” and “Fragrant Smell Permeates Everywhere”

264 266 267 269 269 271 272 274 278 282

284 285 287 288 289 290 292 294 294 296 299 299 300

CONTENTS

“Lotus Is the Best”: Buddhist Acknowledgment of Secular Beauty “Only by Seeing the Pure Lotus Can One Know the Untainted Mind” “Innumerable Lotus Blossoms Surrounding the World” “Entering the Lotus Womb and Experiencing All Joys” “Seven Treasures Integrated”: Buddhist Thought on Utilitarian Beauty What Are the “Seven Treasures”? Seven Treasures of the Buddha’s Land Are Magnificent and Glorious 6

7

8

9

The Expressive Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics The Spirit of Expression in the Process of Literary and Artistic Creation The Spirit of Expression in Literary and Artistic Works The Spirit of Expression in Literary Appreciation The Spirit of “Imagery Appreciation” in Traditional Chinese Aesthetics Historical Evolution of the Theory of “Imagery” The Aesthetic Implications of the Category of “Poetic World” Similarities and Differences Between “Aesthetic Realm,” “Image,” and “Typicality” On Aesthetic Characteristics of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics Pleasure of Aesthetic Feeling Intuition of Aesthetic Feelings Subjectivity of Aesthetic Feelings Objectivity of Aesthetic Feelings Authenticity of Aesthetic Feelings Aesthetic Methodology of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics “Beauty-Tasting” Method of “Chewing Aftertaste” The “Static Observation” Method of “Observing Things with Objects”

xi

302 302 303 304 305 305 307 311 312 316 320 325 326 337 338 343 344 351 356 360 364 371 371 376

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“Emotional View” Method of “Viewing Things from My Perspective”

382

Bibliography

389

Index

407

CHAPTER 1

Foreword: The Essence and Structure of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics

What is the spirit of traditional Chinese aesthetics (By “spirit” I mean the typical quality of a concept)? To approach this question, I suggest that the initial step is to examine traditional Chinese aesthetics from a macroscopic viewpoint. In order to discuss anything, we need to define what it is and to proffer the general concept before discussing the minute details. Here, I identify the conception of “beauty” as the crucial question. My argument is that the heart of the classical Chinese aesthetic spirit is the valuable sense of delight and its aesthetic objects. First, in Chinese, beauty (美 mˇei, lit: n. delicious, beautiful, good, ideal, pleased; v. praise, beautify) is both a pleasant emotion and the aesthetic objects that arouse that emotion. In the ancient Chinese dictionary Shuowen Jiezi [Explaining Graphs and Analyzing Characters ], Xu Shen (c. 58–148) wrote, “Beauty means delicious.”1 To him, beauty promotes delightful, happy feelings. Wang Bi (226–249), a renowned philosopher of Metaphysical School [Xuan Xue or: Mystic Learning2 ], added: “Beauty enacts appreciation, just as viciousness [恶 è] triggers loathing [恶 wù].” “Beautiful things delight people; and ugly things 1 Xu Shen. Shuowen Jiezi [Explaining Graphs and Analyzing Characters 说文解字], Yuelu Academy Press, 2006. 2 Translator’s Note: Xuanxue is a metaphysical post-classical Chinese the philosophical school that combines Taoist and Confucian teachings to interpret earliest texts such as I Ching. Xuanxue was popular during the Six Dynasty (222–589). (The notes that follow in the book, excluding the sources of citation, are all translators’ notes.)

© Shanghai People’s Publishing House 2024 Z. Qi, The Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-8791-7_1

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Z. QI

disgust people.”3 Defined from the psychological responses to a subject, “beauty” is a happy feeling people pursue, and 恶 [è/wù] refers to abominable, detestable, and irritated feelings. Thus, happy feelings are aesthetic feelings. As Xu Shen also put: “Plump [大, lit: big] sheep [羊] are considered as beautiful [美].”4 Wang Chong (25–100 CE), a philosopher who authored Lunheng, or Balanced Discourses , adds: “Delicacy [美味 meiwei, lit: delicious taste] is…. what a gourmet would like to relish.” “Beautiful visions [美色 meise, lit: beautiful visions] are different from each other, yet they are all agreeable to the eyes.”5 Ge Hong (283–342 CE) says, “Pentatonic scales vary, yet the music pleases the ears.”6 Here the “delicacy” [美味 meiwei], “Beautiful visions” [美色 meise], and beautiful music [美声 meisheng] all are objective substances that excite happy feelings. As I claim that “beauty” refers to both the valuable sense of delight and the aesthetic objects, I would like to add that here the “value” comes from the utilitarian function of aesthetic objects to the subject’s existence. Although humans prefer enjoyment and avoid suffering, their pursuit of such can go against their spiritual values if they indulge in excessive sensual pleasure, thus turning beauty into spitefulness. To ancient Chinese philosophers, it is the spiritual and ethical pleasure beyond sensual or material enjoyment that defines the ultimate happiness of true beauty, as in the Taoist philosopher Chuang Tzu (c. 369–286 BCE)’s words: “Perfect happiness is derived from the absence of excessive enjoyment.”7 Beauty is determined by the feelings of a subject. Considered from the material perspective, all these sensual beauties, such as stimulating tastes, colorful images, and vivacious music, are beautiful only when they satisfy the natural needs of a subjective being; once they become excessive and overwhelming, they lose their beauty and become detrimental to life. Chuang Tzu further adds: “There are five cases in which the inborn 3 Wang Bi. Annotations on Tao Te Ching [Laozi Daodejing zhu], edited by Lou Yulie, The Annotations by Wang Bi Explained, vol. 1, Zhonghua Book Company, 1980, p. 6. 4 In Chinese writing, the character 美 (beauty; beautiful things) consists of two radicals: when the character 羊 (lit: sheep) is added by 大 (lit: big), it makes the character 美. 5 Wang Chong. Lunheng [Balanced Discourses]. 6 Ge Hong. “Boyu” [Extensive Analogies], from the Outer Chapters in Baopuzi [Book

of the Master Who Embraces Simplicity]. 7 Zhuangzi. Library of Chinese Classics Chinese-English Edition 2 Volumes, English and Mandarin Chinese Edition by Zhuangzi, Chuang-Tzu, p. 287.

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nature is lost. First, the five colors confuse the eyes and make them less keen. Second, the five musical sounds confuse the ears and make them less sharp. Third, the five smells fill the nose and make it blocked. Fourth, the five flavors spoil the mouth and make it less sensitive. Fifth, likes and dislikes disturb the mind and disturb inborn nature. These five cases are all instances in which inborn nature is harmed.”8 As Zuo Qiuming (c. 556– 452 BCE), a renowned historian contemporary to Confucius, insists that aesthetic objects have to nourish life: “When music gets strident, or visual beauty blinding, their beauty is lost.”9 Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals also cautions people: “Although our ears thirst for sounds, eyes colors, noses scents, tongues tastes, we still have to stop when it turns out to be unethical for our lives.” “Therefore, the saints only choose to enjoy sensual pleasure that are good for nature, and refrain from things which are bad for nature, and this is the way to protect our inborn nature.”10 While emphasizing that the objects of sensual pleasure must be wholesome for human inborn nature, traditional Chinese aesthetics also underscore the moral implication in the objects of sensual pleasure. Only when the objects of sensual pleasure are at the same time objects of spiritual enjoyment can they become ultimate, real beauty. According to the neo-Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi (1130–1200), Confucius’s understanding of beauty is that kindness is “the essence of beauty.”11 Meanwhile, Confucius’ direct successor, Mencius (372–298 BCE), said: “Moral fulfillment is beauty itself.”12 Xun Zi (c. 310–235 BCE, alt. c. 314–217 BCE), the third-generation Confucian philosopher, added that a Confucian gentleman’s morality may be called beautiful if it is flawed or impure.13 Shangshu [Classic of History], one of the earliest Confucian six classics,14 repudiated indulgence in pleasure and abandonment of aspiration; meanwhile, it encouraged people to “constantly improve 8 Zhuangzi. Library of Chinese Classics Chinese-English Edition 2 Volumes, English and Mandarin Chinese Edition by Zhuangzi, Chuang-Tzu, p. 197. 9 Zuo Qiuming. Guoyu [Discourses of the States]. 10 Guisheng, Bensheng. 11 Zhu Xi. Sishu Zhangju Jizhu [The Collected Annotations to the Confucian “Four Books”]. 12 Meng Zi. Mencius. 13 Xun Zi. “Quanxue” [Persuasions of Learning], Xunzi. 14 The six Confucian classics include The Book of Rites, I Ching (or: The Book of

Changes), The Book of History, The Book of Songs, The Book of Music, and The Spring

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your morality so as to rest well.” According to I Ching , “beauty is a matter of the mind.”15 These teachings were carried on by scholars of later generations, such as the Taoist scholar Wang Chong (27–97) who wrote: “kindness and beauty are pleasant.”16 As for what we can learn from ancient Chinese teachings about the concept of “beauty,” my assumption is that beauty is the valuable sense of delight and its aesthetic objects. In aesthetic practice, we usually call the valuable sense of delight a “sense of beauty [美感 mˇeigˇan],” and its objects as “beauty [美 mˇei].” In other words, beauty is something that brings us pleasant feelings. The objects that elicit pleasant sensual feelings are of formal beauty, and those that take cognitive processing to generate happy feelings constitute inner beauty. To conclude, beauty includes all valuable objects that inspire “delights in the eyes and the mind.” Once we understand the implication of “beauty [美 mˇei]” in traditional Chinese aesthetics, we may apply its rules to contemporary aesthetic practices. What are the rules of beauty? To answer this question, the rules of beauty are the ways through which people feel beauty with unconscious value judgment. When humans seek self-improvement by following the rules of beauty, they seek to make others happy through their actions or works; meanwhile, they also want to make sure that their pleasant experience does not harm the aesthetic objects. According to these precepts, objects of entertainment are not really about beauty, and indulgence in sensual satisfaction and entertainment to excess can turn out as ugliness. We may pursue formal beauty if compatible with intrinsic human nature, yet we are encouraged to pursue sublime inner beauty that highlight genuineness and kindness. Nowadays, our commercialized society has seen a tendency to muddle beauty with ugliness, so it is beneficial that we should rethink the social environment by inquiring into the value of beauty’s delight. Under the precondition that beauty is the valuable object of pleasant feelings, traditional Chinese aesthetics expound five basic aesthetic forms that are complementary to each other.

and Autumn Annals. Among them, The Book of Music has been lost, and I Ching is considered as a common source for both Confucianism and Taoism. 15 Quoted from I Ching. 16 Wang Chong. Lunheng [Balanced Discourses].

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The first aesthetic form concerns “flavor” [味 wèi]. “Flavor” refers to tastes which give comfort to people. The appreciation of flavor is the basis of Chinese aesthetic tradition that values pleasure instead of asceticism. The second aesthetic form concerns “wen” [文 wén, patterns, rituals, writing, literature, culture, civilization]. Wen refers to forms of good writing or spoken literature. “Writing must be rhetorically elegant, and speech must be skillfully eloquent.”17 Traditional Chinese aesthetics values culture and literary ingenuity as a way of delight. The third aesthetic form is “heart” [心 x¯ın]. “Heart” refers to the mind’s world. Traditional Chinese aesthetics take the material objects that represent inner beauty as beautiful, hence: beauty of the jade comes from five virtues, the exquisiteness of flowers comes from its spirit18 , “beauty is not beauty in itself, it is only revealed by the mind.”19 “Heart” reveals the subjective spirit of traditional Chinese aesthetics, its ideal beauty, and value judgment. The fourth aesthetic form is “Dao” [道 Dào, way, road, path]. Dao is both the subject’s ethical belief and its objectification, or: the Way of Heaven and heavenly principles. Dao embodies the ethical spirit of traditional Chinese aesthetics, which also speaks about ideal beauty. The fifth aesthetic form is “following nature” [适性 shixing ]. Only as the aesthetic object and the subject correspond to each other may it become the valuable object of pleasure, be it formal, spiritual, or moral beauty. On the one hand, the material substance must be wholesome to the subject’s biological nature; on the other hand, the subject should also follow the endowed nature of the materials. Only when things and humans correspond to each other may there be unity between Heaven and humanity [天人合一 tianren heyi], and this mutually beneficial beauty embodies the cultural spirit of traditional Chinese aesthetics. The beauty of taste, of culture, of mind, ethics, and of “suitable to nature” comprise the mainstream traditional aesthetic spirit of China, but each has different characteristics in the three schools of thoughts: Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist aesthetics share fundamental rules but take diverse aesthetic forms. 17 Wang Chong. Chapter 30 “Ziji [the Story of My Life],” in Lunheng [Balanced Discourses]. 18 Shao Yong. Songs of the Appreciation of Flowers [邵雍《善赏花吟》 ]. 19 Liu Zongyuan. Journal on a Thatched Pavilion in Matui Mountain [柳宗元《马退山

茅亭记》 ].

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Specifically, Confucian aesthetic appreciation of nature follows the principle of “virtue comparison” [比德 Bˇıdé, to liken certain characteristics of natural existence to human virtues]; and its appreciation of human character emphasizes their fenggu [风骨 moral integrity]. Confucianism sees “balanced harmony” [中和zh¯onghé] as the ideal state of mind. Neither stifling nor indulgent in sensibility, Confucianism recommends “restraining feelings” [节情 jiéqíng]: In appraising artistic works, Confucianism values works that are “chenyu” [沉郁 pensive and concerning] in considering social problems, and it holds that artistic skills should serve to drive home the ideas the authors aim to express. In contrast, Taoist ontology advocates “non-existence” [无 wú] as beauty; for Taoism, beauty comes from the mutual transformation between void and concreteness. Taoist aesthetics appreciate subtleness and simplicity, “naturalness” and the aimlessness of beauty. Taoism holds that beauty should be autonomous, carefree, and “following nature” [适性 shixing]. It considers that life-giving is the ultimate kindness [生生为仁 shengsheng wei ren] and prefers the quality of liveliness: Taoism praises the quality of “softness” [柔 róu, gentleness] as an admirable attitude to life. In comparison, Buddhist ontological beauty can be epitomized by the idea of “nirvana, the ultimate happiness” [涅槃极乐 niepan jile]. Its attitude towards reality is negative affirmation: on the one hand, “the material form [r¯ upa] is no different from the void of shapeless emptiness [´su ¯ nyat¯a],”20 on the other hand, “all visible things are also different from emptiness.”21 For beauty of taste, Buddhism favors amrita [甘露 ganlu, lit: sweet drink, metaphor for the ontology of nirvana] and ghee [醍醐 tihu, the finest clarified butter, the last of the five flavors, and the symbol of the supreme wisdom]; for visual aesthetics, Buddhism specifies lotus, round shapes, the number ten, brightness, and teachings by image [相教 xiangjiao] as the symbols of beauty. For sound, Buddhism proffers dharma [法音 fayin]; for smell, incense; and for material objects, Saptaratna [七宝 qibao, the seven precious mundane treasures

20 From The Heart S¯ utra [X¯ın J¯ıng 心经]. https://pages.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/chin/ chtxts/ShinJing.html. Accessed 28 Feb 2022. 21 This quote comes from Zhi Dun [314–336 CE], a renowned Buddhist monk and philosopher lived in Eastern Jin Dynasty. Quoted in A New Account of the Tales of the World [Shishuo Xinyu].

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that Buddhist teachings employ to help people imagine the Buddhist paradise22 ] as different aesthetic forms. But Chinese aesthetic spirit is much more than that outlined above: In traditional Chinese literature and art, representation and narratives are vehicles rather than ends, whose real aim is to express through images [假象见意 jiaxiang jianyi], to persuade through evidence [即事明理 jishi mingli], to reveal and to recover one’s true nature of the heart [明心见 性 mingxin jianxing], and to convey morals in literature [文以载道 wenyi zaidao]. Traditional Chinese aesthetics value human subjectivity, which is conveyed in traditional Chinese art and literary theories: For art creation, it considers that writing is engendered from feelings [因情生文 yinqing shengwen] and writing is to express feelings [为情造文 weiqing zaowen]; literature must be directed by ideas of the subject [文以意为主 wen yi yi weizhu] and calligraphy and painting are about picturing the heart [书 画为心画 shuhua wei xinhua]. For art criticism, it allows the readers to approach the authors’ intention through the readers’ subjective mind [以 意逆志 yiyi nizhi], and to trace the authors’ pathos through their works [披文入情 piwen ruqing]. In this way, traditional Chinese artistic spirit highlights the sublimity of subjective inwardness. Traditional Chinese artistic spirit is also revealed in its veneration of images [尚象 shangxiang]. According to the ancient Chinese political traditions of edification through poetry in a reserved and broad-minded manner [温柔敦厚 wenrou dunhou] and persuasion through figures of speech [主文谲谏 zhuwen yuejian], good literary and artistic expression should be subtle and vivid with imagery [意象 yixiang]. Images are the fundamental thing that touches, moves, and delights people, and its ideal form is aesthetic scene [意境 Yijing]. Both yixiang [images] and yijing [aesthetic scene] are the epitomes of Chinese aesthetic thought that venerates images. Traditional Chinese aesthetic spirit also includes the rudimentary configuration of aesthetic activities. Traditional Chinese aesthetics describe aesthetic feelings as pleasurable, intuitive, subjective, and authentic. With respect to the methods of aesthetic appreciation, if we regard, for example, “flavor” [wei] as an aesthetic mode, traditional Chinese aesthetics encourages rumination to “savor” [体味 tiwei]. As 22 The Saptaratna differs from scripts to scripts, in Lotus S¯ utra, the seven treasures are gold, silver, lapis lazuli, seashell, agate, pearl, and carnelian. https://www.wisdomlib.org/ definition/saptaratna.

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for the “heart” as an aesthetic mode, it recommends people to approach objects through one’s subjective feelings [以我观物 yiwo guanwu]: with Dao as an aesthetic mode, it provides contemplation to observe issues in the objective ways [以物观物 yiwu guanwu]. All these provide different approaches to aesthetic experiences.

CHAPTER 2

The Forms of Traditional Chinese Aesthetic Spirit

Aesthetics is the philosophical inquiry into the nature and discipline of beauty and aesthetic responses. In this book, I argue that beauty is a “valuable sense of delight and the aesthetic object” in traditional Chinese aesthetics. In ancient China, various schools of thought have expressed their understanding of “beauty,” which formed the foundation and basic forms of traditional Chinese aesthetics. The basic forms are diversified, prolific, and mutually informing. There are four aspects to these aesthetic forms: first, beauty as “flavor”—this expresses the sensuous (yet nonhedonistic) spirit of classical Chinese aesthetics; second, beauty as wen (patterns, literature, culture)—this puts an emphasis on the exquisiteness of composition; third, beauty as “heart”—this reveals the subjective spirit of traditional Chinese aesthetics; last, beauty as the Dao—this embodies complying to nature in traditional Chinese aesthetics.

The Sensual Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics In his 1985 speech “The Chinese Wisdom,” philosopher Li Zehou (1930–2021) proposed that traditional Chinese culture can be considered as “culture of pleasure” that puts value on worldly human life, which forms a sharp contrast to Western Christian tradition’s “culture

© Shanghai People’s Publishing House 2024 Z. Qi, The Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-8791-7_2

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of sin” that emphasizes repentance and redemption.1 Li’s understanding is echoed in Lao Chengwan’s On Ancient Chinese Aesthetic Forms , which identifies ancient Chinese aesthetic forms as “the study of happiness.”2 In traditional Chinese aesthetics, “beauty” is what evokes pleasant feelings in people. Such objects of pleasure can be what bring either sensual pleasures or satisfaction to the mind. The “spirit of pleasure in traditional Chinese aesthetics lies predominantly in the theory of “beauty as flavor.” In mainstream Western aesthetic theories, the aesthetic sense is distinguished from physical sensation, and beauty is also differentiated from objects of sensual pleasure. Therefore, subjective gustatory delight is readily excluded from the consideration of beauty. For example, in Greater Hippias, Socrates declared that “the beautiful is that which is pleasing through hearing and sight.”3 This was reiterated by St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274): “The most intimate senses are vision and audition…. We only praise scenery or sounds as beautiful, but never use the same word for objects of other sensory perception (such as tasting and smelling).”4 The exclusion of taste in mainstream Western aesthetics exerts long-lasting influence, as is seen in R. G. Collingwood’s complaint about modern aestheticians in The Principles of Art : “We ought not, they say, to call a grilled steak beautiful. But why not?”5 The most distinctive feature of traditional Chinese aesthetics that sets it apart from its Western counterpart is that the former sees “flavor” as synonymous with “beauty” and uses “flavor” to describe sensations perceived by the other senses.

1 Li Zehou. “Tentative Comments on the Chinese Wisdom [试论中国人的智慧 Shilun Zhongguoren de zhihui]” in On the History of Chinese Philosophy [中国思想史论 Zhongguo Sixiang Shi lun], Anhui Literature and Art Press, 1999, pp. 299–326. 2 Lao Chengwan. On Ancient Chinese Aesthetic Forms [中国古代美学形态论 Zhongguo Gudai Meixue Xingtai lun], Chinese Social Science Press, 2010. 3 Plato. “Greater Hippias,” Plato’s Selected Dialogues on Arts [文艺对话集 Wenyi

Duihua ji], translated by Zhu Guangqian, People’s Press, 1963, p. 199. 4 St. Thomas Aquinas et al, in Western Philosophers on Beauty and Aesthetic Senses [西 方美学家论美和美感 Xifang Meixuejia lun Mei he Meigan], edited by the Department of Aesthetic studies at Peking University, Commercial Press, 1982, p. 53. 5 R.G. Collingwood. The Principles of Art [艺术原理 Yishu Yuanli], translated by Wang Zhiyuan and Chen Huazhong, Chinese Social Science Press, 1987, p. 40.

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The Graphemic Explanation of “Flavor/Wei” as Synonymous with “Beauty/Mei” Chinese philosophy is expressed in characters, and the aesthetic tradition of “beauty as flavor” is exhibited in the characters for “beauty.” Let us take a look at a group of characters for “beauty.” In Shuowen Jiezi [Explaining Graphs and Analyzing Characters] by linguist Xu Shen (58–148 CE), the character 美 [mei, beauty] is explained as sweetness. It is composed of a 羊 [sheep] radical and a 大 [big] radical, “for sheep is the main source of meat among the six kinds of livestock. 美 means the same as 善 [shan, goodness].”6 Contemporary graphemic scholar Zang Kehe indicated that the explanation of “sheep as the main source of meat”7 probably first appeared during the Song dynasty in Xu Xuan’s (916–991) annotated edition of Shuowen Jiezi.8 The explanations of 美 [mei, beauty] in the other editions before the Tang dynasty (618–907) also vary slightly. In Yiqiejing Yinyi [Pronunciation and Meaning in the Complete Buddhist Canon], Huilin monk (737–820) defined 美 as “sweet flour, composed of two radicals, 羊 [yang, sheep] and 大 [big]. 羊 means ‘to take in shan [膳 shàn, meal/ goodies],’ same as shan [善 shàn, goodness].” In another section, “tianmei” [tian, sweet; mei, beauty] of Yiqiejing Yinyi, the annotation to 美 adds: “yang [sheep] is a delicacy” (Yiqiejing Yinyi). Although these explanations vary in form, beauty [mei] is always seen as connected to flavor. The understanding of mei in different editions of Shuowen Jiezi is generally consistent. For example, Xu Xuan asserted in his annotation on Shuowen Jiezi that “plump [大 big] sheep [羊] are beautiful [美], hence the 大 radical” (Xu Xuan). Why “big sheep”? The graphemic scholar Wang Yun (1784–1854) provided an explanation: “Fat sheep is palatable…. Food is generally called xiu [羞 xi¯u], and lamb is the master dish, thus the word takes on the ‘sheep’ [羊] instead of ‘cattle’ [牛] radical.”9

6 Xu Shen, Shuowen Jiezi [Explaining Graphs and Analyzing Characters 说文解字], Yuelu Academy Press, 2006. 7 Zang Kehe. Chinese Characters and Aesthetic Mentality [汉语文学和审美心理 Hanzi Wenxue He Shenmei Xinli], Xuelin Press, 1990, p. 13. 8 Xu Xuan. Annotations on Shuowen Jiezi [说文解字注 Annotations on Explaining Graphs and Analyzing Characters]. 9 Wang Yun. “Explicating Shuowen Jiezi” [说文句读 Shuowen Judu], vol. 7.

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The pleasant sense of taste is considered connected to aesthetic experience. As Duan Yucai (1735–1835) stated: “gan [甘sweetness], is one of the five basic tastes, and the beauty of these five tastes is also called gan [ 甘 pleasantness].”10 In this way, the concept of beauty is defined through the sense of taste in ancient Chinese graphemics. The closest word for beauty is shan [善 good]. As Shuowen Jiezi notes: “beauty [mei] is goodness [shan]”11 (Xu Shen, 2006). The word shan, with the sheep radical [羊], also originates from food culture. In the bronze inscription on Shanfu Ke Ding [Chef Ke’s vessel],12 the word shan is used as 膳 [shan, food]. In one of the Confucian classics, the Rites of Zhou, both words are used interchangeably. For example, the chef [shanfu] is the person managing affairs of food [膳羞 shanxiu] for the king. The word shan [膳] means “to prepare or provide food,” and the food prepared by shanfu is supposed to be good and beautiful food [shanshi and meishi]. As stated in the chapter “Offices of the Heaven” in The Rites of Zhou (Chapter 1): “Shan [膳] sounds the same as shan [ 善], and beautiful things are also called zhenshan.” This is also expressed in the ancient Chinese Time dictionary Collected Rimes 13 in which shan is also used for shan [饍], and the latter consists of two radicals, 食 [shi, food] and 善 [shan, good]. 善 [shan] was used interchangeably with 鲜 [xian] in the Classical Age.14 An example of this can be seen in Classic of Poetry: “The king praises that I am not yet aged, and he acclaims that I am just at a vigorous

10 Duan Yucai. Section 4.1, “Explaining Shuowen Jiezi” [说文解字注]. 11 Xu Shen. Shuowen Jiezi [Explaining Graphs and Analyzing Characters], Yuelu

Academy Press, 2006. 12 Translator’s notes: Shanfu Ke Ding is a vessel made in memory of Ke, a shanfu (善 夫, a position for the official in charge of the king’s diet; the closest word for it might be Chef de Cuisine). More information about this vessel can be found on the website of the Shanghai Museum https://www.shanghaimuseum.net/resource/museum_files/show_ files/20151104094055028/index.html. 13 Collected Rimes, Jiyun, 1037. 14 The Classical Age (shanggu) of China is generally considered as the time before

the Qin Dynasty (221–202 BCE). It is usually considered to include the Xia Kingdom (1994–1523 BCE), the Shang Dynasty (1523–1028 BCE), the Zhou Dynasty (1027–221 BCE), the Spring and Autumn Period (770–476 BCE), and the Warring States Period (475–221 BCE).

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age [fitting for war].”15 Here, both jia and xian mean shan [v. to praise, adj. good, n. kindness]. Xian refers to the umami flavor of fresh food, especially fish, as is expressed in the “Neize” [The Pattern of the Family] chapter in The Book of Rites : “fresh fish and goose were (thought to be good) in winter, fried with the suet (of goat).”16 Apart from these words, according to Shuowen Jiezi, other words related to beauty include: gan [甘], sweet, indicating the aesthetic pleasure brought by the sense of taste; tian [甜], sweet, consisting of the radical 舌 [tongue] and gan; zhi [旨], things that taste pleasant, consisting of a 甘 radical and a bi [匕 ladle]; geng [羹], stock. The word consists of a gao [羔 lamb] radical, and a mei [美 beauty]; nong [醲], the rich taste of grain wine. In the ancient Chinese text Huainanzi [the Book of Master Huainan], senses of taste—fat, rich, sweet, crunchy—are described as “beautiful.”17 From these examples, we can see that the concept of “beauty” [mei] in ancient Chinese is closely connected to the sense of taste. Aesthetic judgment draws inspiration from the Chinese food culture.18 The idea of beauty in the sensual pleasure of taste has a long tradition in Han Chinese culture.19 Ancient Chinese graphemic scholars use “sweet tastes” either to explain the idea of beauty or to describe pleasant tastes as beautiful, which highlights the significance of the sense of taste in traditional Chinese aesthetics.

15 “Northern Mountains [Beishan],” a folksong in the genre of “Xiaoya” in Classic of Poetry [诗经 Shijing]. 16 The Book of Rites, “Neize.” 17 Huainanzi [The Book of Master Huainan]. 18 Zang Kehe. Chinese Characters and Aesthetic Mentality [汉语文学和审美心理 Hanzi

Wenxue He Shenmei Xinli], Xuelin Press, 1990, p. 13. 19 Li Zehou, Liu Gangji. A History of Chinese Aesthetics [中国美学史 Zhongguo Meixue Shi], vol. 1, Chinese Social Science Press, 1984, p. 80.

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The Development of the Theory of Wei Mei [Flavor as Beauty] The traditional Chinese aesthetic theory that sees beauty [mei] as flavor [wei] originates from early Chinese literature and has evolved over time. This section traces its historical development. In historical books during the Spring and Autumn Period (770–476 BCE), senses of sight, hearing, and taste are seen as related to one another. For example, in The Commentary of Zuo,20 the basic senses of sight, touch, and hearing are listed as parallel to one other: “Heaven has six basic qi patterns, five basic tastes, five basic chords,” and all can bring sensual pleasure as long as they are balanced and moderated. For instance, it is said that Confucius found so much pleasure in Shao music that meat becomes tasteless to him,21 which establishes the connection between the sense of hearing and the sense of taste. Laozi found the flavor of blandness in the spiritual satisfaction brought by the Dao: “When the Way emerges from its opening, it is insipid, having no taste. Look at it, you cannot see it. Listen to it, you cannot hear it. Use it, you cannot exhaust it.”22 Because of this, Laozi suggested that people “do without ‘doing.’ Get involved without manipulating. Taste without tasting.”23 Hence, spiritual satisfaction is also connected to the sense of taste. The synthesis of sensual pleasure and spiritual satisfaction is foundational to Chinese aesthetics. This development can be seen in works by Mencius (372–289 BCE), Xunzi (453–221 BCE), and Zhuangzi (403– 221 BCE) in the Warring States period. Mencius saw the commonalities between human senses and aesthetic judgment: There is a standard for taste, a standard for music, and a standard for beauty. Shouldn’t it also be so with things of the mind? What is it that is the same with people’s minds? It is that they know the same principle and have the same sense of fairness.24

20 The Commentary of Zuo [Zuozhuan], late fourth century BCE. 21 Chapter 7 “Shu Er” The Analects. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese

Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 22 Chapter 35, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 23 Chapter 63, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 24 Section 2.1, Chapter 11, “Teachings for the Children I” [Gao Zi I], Mencius.

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Zhuangzi, however, rejected “the five tastes” along with “the five colors.” He saw no distinction among “the five notes,” “the five odors,” and “preferences and dislikes” and considered them as “all injurious to life.”25 In the Warring States period, “beauty” was first referred to as “flavor,” as Xun Kuang (313–318 BCE)26 wrote: “It is human feeling that the taste and smell one likes are beautiful.”27 By using flavoring as a medium for aesthetic appreciation, scholars also developed an appreciation for the “lingering flavor” [遗味 yiwei] of unadorned things, as The Book of Rites states: “The best banquet for performing rituals should have water and fresh fish. The meat porridge should be unseasoned to lend a long-lasting flavor.”28 As Sun Xidan (1736–1784) claimed, although these food for rituals are plain and not palatable, they offer a lingering flavor that stands for the virtuous quality of the unadorned.29 In the Han dynasty, the theory of “beauty as flavoring” was further developed by authors like Wang Chong and Xu Shen. The word meiwei [beautiful flavor] was first used in Wang Chong’s Lunheng.30 In Explaining Graphs and Analyzing Characters , Xu Shen used mei and gan [甘] as synonyms for each other.31 Wei, or flavoring, became a common word in poetics in the era of the Six Dynasties (220–589). Liu Xie, author of the first Chinese book on literary theory The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons , invented three terms: ziwei [滋味], jingwei [精味], and yiwei [义味], for literature’s verbal beauty, formal beauty, and thematic beauty, respectively.32 Among them, ziwei is considered as the quintessential criterion for poetry and poetics. As Zhong Rong (468–518) commented in Shi Pin [Ranking 25 Chapter 15 “Heaven and Earth” in Outer Chapters, Zhuangzi. 26 Xun Kuang is also known as Xunzi (Master Xun). He is known as the third

generation Conficianist master, placed after Mencius, the second generation Confucianist master. 27 “Wangba” in Xunzi [The Book of Master Xun]. 28 The Book of Rites [Liji]. 29 Sun Xidan. Comprehensive Annotations on The Book of Rites [礼记集解], Zhonghua Book Company, 1995, p. 983. 30 Wang Chong. Lunheng, Disquisitions, ca. 76–84. 31 Xu Shen. Shuowen jiezi [Explaining Graphs and Analyzing Characters 说文解字],

Yuelu Academy Press, 2006. 32 Lu Xie. The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons.

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Poetry], wuyan (five-character metrical poems) is “the most flavorful [you ziwei] one among all genres” because it is a genre good at depicting things and conveying feelings.33 Zhong also added that the use of various rhetorical devices in poetry helps create for readers [wei zhi zhe, meaning: those who relish it] a lingering effect.34 Wei has also been widely used in literary criticism in the Tang dynasty (618–907), and one representative work is Ershisi Shi Pin [Twenty-four Styles of Poetry] by Sikong Tu (837–908). To Sikong, “to be able to distinguish flavors serves as a starting point to discuss poetry.”35 The analogy made between wei [flavor] and poetic appreciation, as seen in Sikong’s works, became widespread in the Song dynasty. Some of the works that exhibit this include those by writers such as Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072) and Su Shi (1037–1101), philosophers such as Shao Yong (1012–1077) and Zhu Xi (1130–1200), poets such as Yang Wanli (1127–1206) and Liu Kezhuang (1187–1269), lyric writers such as Jiang Kui (1155–1221) and Zhang Yan (1248–1320), and literary critics such as Zhang Jie and Yan Yu. Yang Wanli, a prominent figure of the Jiangxi School of Poetry,36 identified the commonalities of the school in wei instead of xing [form]. The theory of flavoring as an approach to poetics lies in “relishing the flavor beyond flavor (wei waiwei),” and two significant concepts are zhiwei [ultimate flavor] and yuwei [lingering flavor], as is indicated in the following lines: “Saltiness and sourness exist in all kinds 33 Zhong Rong. Shi Pin [The Appreciation of Poetry]. 34 Zhong Rong. Shi Pin [The Appreciation of Poetry]. 35 Sikong Tu. “Discussing Poetry with Gentleman Li”. 36 Translator’s note: “Jiangxi shipai [江西诗派 (江西詩派) Wade–Giles: Chiang-hsi shihp’ai, Jiangxi School of poetry] is a group of twenty-five poets of the Song dynasty centered around Huang Tingjian. It is an artificial grouping formed by Lü Benzhong [吕本中] (1084–1145), who composed ‘Chart of the Lineage of the Jiangxi Poetry School’ in the early twelfth century. An ardent devotee of Du Fu’s poetry and Han Yu’s prose, Huang believed that great poetry was the result of imitating the ancients through exhaustive study, which would eventually enable the poet to create his own individual style. He developed the skill of imitating previous poets’ writings by using two methods: huan gu [換骨 changing the bone] and duo tai [奪胎 evolving from the embryo]. The poets of the school created new expressions or elaborated certain concepts to further enrich their poetic language without changing the ancients’ original idea. The school’s literary theory was also influenced by the Chan Buddhist concept of sudden enlightenment.” Chang, Taiping. “Jiangxi Sipai” in A Dictionary of Chinese Literature, Oxford University Press https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191836183.001. 0001/acref-9780191836183-e-0079.

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of delicacies, within which the ultimate flavor [zhiwei] exists” (Su Shi, “Seeing off Master Canliao”)37 ; “magnificence exists within plainness, and the ultimate flavor [zhiwei] lies beneath silence”38 ; and “poetry is that which no amount of searching can exhaust its meaning, and savoring it only enriches its flavor.”39 The way to reach this zhiwei and yuwei is to refine yi [meaning]. As Shao Yong put it: “Brilliant arguments come from polishing words, and lingering flavor [yuwei] comes from refining meaning.”40 In the Ming and Qing dynasties, the theory of flavor in literary criticism remained consistent with that of the Song dynasty’s. In general, the writers ventured to uncover the “flavor in the bland” [dan zhong zhi wei] and “flavor beyond the body of works” [ti wai you wei] through “profound meanings” [yiwei shenchang] and “inexhaustive meanings” [yiwei wuqiong]. Therefore, there is a causal relation between yi [meanings] and wei [flavor], that is, “the deeper the meanings, the richer the flavor,” as said in Zhao Yi’s Oubei Shihua.41 Therefore, one can conclude that the theory of Wei Mei [flavor as beauty]—taking flavor as an analogous approach to aesthetic beauty—has a long tradition in traditional Chinese culture. Explaining the Theory of Wei Mei [Flavor as Beauty] Throughout history, the theory of “beauty as flavor” has had six layers of meanings. First, the word wei originally referred to all kinds of tastes/flavors and are neutral. Wei can refer to either the pleasant or the unpleasant tastes of the five basic tastes (sour, bitter, sweet, spicy, salty). Second, when the term wei entered the realm of aesthetics, it referred specifically to pleasant tastes like sweetness [甘 gan] or pleasurable flavors, in 37 Su Shi. “Seeing Off Master Canliao” [送参寥师] in Poems by Su Dongpo Annotated and Classified [集注分类东坡先生诗], vol. 21. 38 Su Shi. “Afterwords on Huang Zisi’s Poetry Collection [书黄子思诗集后 Shu Huang Zisi Shiji Hou],” Su Dongpo’s Writings for the Imperial Court, Compiled by Lang Ye [经 进东坡文集事略], vol. 60. 39 Wei Tai. “Treaties on Poetry Written in Recluse by the Han River” Treaties on Poetry of All Dynasties in Ancient China, Zhonghua Book Company, 1981. 40 Shao Yong. “On Verses and Odes” [论诗吟]. 41 Zhao Yi. Commentary on Poetry by Oubei [瓯北诗话 Oubei Shihua], ca. 1804.

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general. The ancient Chinese saw it as human nature to prefer the pleasurable flavors over the unpleasurable ones and to emphasize that literature should be “with flavor” [youwei]. Third, the word mei [beauty] is interchangeable with wei [flavor/taste] in various cases. The character mei has been frequently used in traditional Chinese gastrological culture, as shown in vocabulary such as meishi [beautiful/delicious food], meijiu [beautiful/delicious wine], xianmei [umami and delectable], feimei [rich and tasty], ganmei [sweet/luscious], and tianmei [mellow]. Furthermore, wei and mei are not merely used to describe objects of gustation; they are also used for the other senses such as visual, olfactory, and auditory. The example of Confucius mentioned in the earlier section also reveals how wei and mei can be used for both auditory (music) and gustatory (meat) senses. Another example is the art of incense lore (xiangdao, way of fragrance, or kodo), which shows how fragrance evokes a strong aesthetic appreciation. In addition, both wei and mei are not only used to describe sensual pleasure but are also used to describe intellectual and spiritual satisfaction. Yi [meaning] is a kind of wei [flavor]. Hence, there is yiwei [meaning with flavor] and quwei [interest with flavor]. According to Qiqi [Essays on Food], a book on gustatory culture by Prince Zhaoming (501–531): “[Peaches, jujubes, and taros] delight the palate and satisfy the spirit; they are most beautiful and enjoyable.”42 In this case, sensual pleasure and spiritual satisfaction are complimentary to one another. Ultimately, the theory of wei mei does not indicate that the goal is to gain stronger sensual stimulation. With the influence of Taoist and Chan Buddhist traditions, Chinese philosophers developed an appreciation for the flavor/beauty of blandness. From Laozi’s understanding of the “blandness” [wu wei] of the Dao [Way] to the notion that “the ultimate flavor is what satisfies people sensually” [zhiwei bu qian] in Huainanzi,43 the Taoist tradition highlights the flavor/aesthetics of “blandness.” This is also embodied in the Chan Buddhist culture in the Southern Song dynasty, where the “flavor within the bland” [dan zhong zhi wei] is upheld as the embodiment of ideal beauty. 42 The Complete Work in the Liang Dynasty [Quan Liang Wen], vol. 20, Zhonghua Book Company, 1958. 43 Huainanzi consists of a series of essays based on the debates at the court of Liu An (c. 179–122 BCE), Prince of Huainan. It is a book influenced by Confucianism, Taoism, and Legalism.

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The Veneration of Wen in Traditional Chinese Aesthetics Wen primarily refers to the formal and verbal beauty of literature, and the veneration of wen is prominent in traditional Chinese aesthetics. Wen derives from cultural-political rituals in Zhou dynasty (1100–256 BCE). As Confucius said: “Zhou had the advantage of viewing the two past dynasties. How complete and elegant are its regulations/rituals [wen]! In politics, I follow the Duke of Zhou.”44 Traditional Chinese literary criticism is also known for the use of vivid imageries and tropes, which is also rooted in the veneration of wen. The Grammatology of Wen Wen refers to formal beauty, which can be revealed through a grammatological analysis of the character. The character 文, as in oracle bone scripts and seal scripts, stands for crisscrossed patterns. As I Ching [The Book of Changes] stated: “The ancients called a mixture of things wen.”45 Xu Shen explained that “wen, crisscrossed strokes, originates from imitating the patterns of things.”46 James J. Y. Liu (1926–1986) accurately pointed out that wen used to be a pictograph that referred to patterns and markings.47 Furthermore, in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons , it is said that “water by nature is plastic [flexible], allowing the formation of ripples; and it is of the essential nature of trees to be solid, supporting flowers on their calyxes. The ornamental pattern of a thing is of necessity conditioned by its essential nature.”48 Here, wen is used in its original meaning—patterns.

44 Line 14, Chapter 3 “Ba Yi,” The Analects. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 45 I Ching [The Book of Changes, Yijing]. 46 Xu Shen. Shuowen Jiezi [Explaining Graphs and Analyzing Characters 说文解字],

Yuelu Academy Press, 2006. 47 James Y. Liu. Chinese Literary Theories, Sichuan Renmin Press, 1987 edition, p. 144. 48 Hsieh Liu. The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons , translated by Vincent

Yu-chung Shih, New York: Colombia University, 1959, 2016, p. 174.

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Of course, wen does not merely mean visual patterns or strokes. In fact, “complexities of things can be called ‘wen.’”49 Take the notion sheng wen [sound pattern] as an example: it is meant to express the idea that music is made by a combination of sounds. As noted in “Record of Music” [Yueji]: “Changes are produced by the way in which sounds respond to one another, and those changes constitute what we call the modulations of voice.”50 Similar to the patterns of words, music also has its modulations. Hence, the “sound pattern.” Another example of the use of wen is in wen shi [emblazonry] which defines wen as “brocade-like patterns in various colors, or meaningful texts as composed of many characters; texts are like patterns.”51 Wen can mean both 纹 [pattern] and 文 [texts], and wen shi refers to literary language and the formal beauty of compositions. As said in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons : “To adequately express ideas, words must be combined into literary forms, sincere sentiments must be embodied in masterly expressions; these are the touchstones of literary composition.”52 彣 [wen] is an archaic version of wen. As explained in Essays on the Nation’s Cultural Heritage [Guogu Lunheng], a book by renowned modern philologist Zhang Binlin (1869–1936), 彣 means literature, and “texts, words, and diction are all called wen; yet only when it is colorful and meaningful can we call it literature [彣 wen].”53 ,54 In grammatology, the radical 彡 refers to literary talent. Thus, there is a group of characters that are related to formal beauty such as 彰 [manifest], 修 [beautify], 彩 [color], 彤 [vermilion], 彪 [tiger stripes], 彦 [person of virtue and ability], and 彧 [refined/luxuriant].

49 Zang Kehe. The Chinese Characters and Aesthetic Mentality [Hanyu Wenxue He

Shenmei Xinli], Xuelin Press 1990), p. 13. 50 James, Legge. “Record of Music” in The Book of Rites [Liji]. See translation in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/liji/yue-ji/zhs?en=on Accessed 22 September 2022. 51 Liu Xi. Explaining Names [Shi Ming]. See translation in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/shi-ming/ens Accessed 22 September 2022. 52 Chapter 2 “Evidence from the Sage” in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons 53 Zhang Binlin. Essays on the Nation’s Cultural Heritage [Guogu Lunheng]. 54 See “Vol. 2 Literature: Foreword” [Wenxue Zonglue].

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The formal beauty of clothing (i.e., to be properly dressed for occasions) is also significant in the classical Confucian code of ethics [lijiao, ritual-teachings]. Because of the culture of rituals, there are a variety of words for the formal beauty of clothing that can be seen in the series of characters under the radial of 系 in Explaining Graphs and Analyzing Characters . The two common forms of beauty are brightness and vastness. The character 暀 [wang] means “beautiful sunlight,” as defined in the first Chinese dictionary Erya [Approaching What is Correct], and Explaining Graphs and Analyzing Characters . In the encyclopedia Guangya (c. 230) [Expanded Erya], 烈 [lie, burning fire] and 熹 [xi, roast], are both under the mei [beautiful] section. Here, light and fire bring brightness, and are thus aesthetically appealing. Vastness represents the beauty of majesty. As Erya stated: “Magnificence [皇皇 huanghuang] is beautiful.” 皇 huang, as in huangdi [emperor], means grandeur. It is a sublime beauty. Mathematics, heaven, earth, and the virtue of the Confucian junzi are examples of things that can evoke the beauty of grandness. As Zhuangzi asserts: “Heaven and Earth are majestic, and so are the virtues of the ancient kings, Huangdi, Yao, and Shun.” Confucius claimed that the virtuous governor embodied the benevolence of the Heaven and Earth: “Great indeed was Yao as a sovereign! How majestic was he! It is only Heaven that is grand, and only Yao embodied it.”55 Brightness and vastness are two prominent examples of wen. They are its the aesthetic forms. The Beauty of Diversified Forms The grammatological reading of wen reveals the law of aesthetic form— diversified forms make beauty. Hence: “wherever things mix, there is wen.” In order for the aesthetic form of wen to be present, certain requirements must be met. First, there must be variations in the forms. There will not be wen if there is no variation. In the Commentary of Zuo, the wise man Yan Zi, while persuading the Duke of Qi to take criticism, used music as an example: “if a piece of music is just the repetition of a single note, who can

55 Line 19, Chapter 8 “Tai Bo,” The Analects. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023.

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bear to listen to it?”56 Music, like patterns and society, must be composed of varieties. Second, the variations must be organized. In traditional Chinese music theories, music must follow certain rules. The Commentary of Zuo also recorded the visit of Prince Jizha (from the Wu state) to the state of Lu, where he was invited to appreciate the music of the Zhou dynasty. Jizha praised the eulogies57 by saying that “when it is direct, it is not haughty; when it is indirect, it is not bending. When it is played close, it is not overpowering; when it is played from a distance, it does not dissipate.”58 Here, the eulogy exemplifies the very balance between variation and order. The aesthetic form of wen is widely considered in all art forms. For instance, 文章 [wenzhang], which now refers to literary composition, originally referred to the collection of different colors: “The juxtaposition of green and red is wen, and that of black and white is zhang.”59 The Variation of Wen As discussed above, literature or wen originally meant “patterns.” Thus, the aesthetic form of literature is greatly emphasized. In this section, I will discuss the rule of the aesthetic form or the 参差 cenci [variation] of the form in classical Chinese literature. The variation was first seen in the structure of literary composition, which was organized in a balanced way: The works of the ancient people, though diversified, is structured by balance: If the beginning is sparse, the ending must be dense; if the first half is broad, the second half must be detailed; if one paragraph is representational, the following paragraph must be abstract; a work must be as expressive as it is illustrative.60

56 Section 20, Chapter 10 “The Twentieth Year Under the Regin of Duke Zhao,” The Commentary of Zuo. 57 Eulogy is a genre sung at spirit sacrifices in the court. There are forty eulogies recorded in the Classic of Poetry by Shijing. 58 Section 29, Chapter 9 “The Twenty-Ninth Year Under the Regin of Duke Xiang,” The Commentary of Zuo. 59 Book VI Craftsmanship, Rituals of Zhou [Zhouli]. 60 Li Mengyang. “Another Letter to Mr He,” Kongtong Ji, vol. 61.

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The balance of structure is observed in all genres, especially in lyrics and poetry. As Liu Xizai (1813–1881) wrote in the General Observations of Art : “The organization of ci (a genre of lyrical literature most popular in the Song dynasty) is all about correspondence and juxtaposition, such as implicitness/explicitness, concreteness/abstractness, open/ closed, and depiction/description.”61 For poetry, the balance is in the variation of organization: “Long poems have climatic turn and cadence just like the twist and turn of the Yellow River. In short poems such as jueju [Chinese quatrain], variation is essential in composition like ripples in the stream.”62 The variation is also reflected in the intonations. The interchange of intonations creates the musical and oral beauty of literature. Chinese syllables consist of sheng [consonant], yun [the final/rhyme], and diao [intonation]. The auditory beauty of syllables is contained in these three aspects. The repetition of sheng and yun in syllables creates a certain alliterative and rhyming beauty, which is widely seen among early poetry and folksongs, including works in Classic of Poetry and Verses of Chu. The fu (a genre of rhyming prose popular in the Han dynasty) was influenced by both classics of poetry, but it took the sound play of repetition to an extreme. As Qian Daxi (1728–1804) criticized: “The fu-composers indulge in sound repetition to the extent that it reads oddly.”63 In the Southern Dynasties period (420–589), Shen Yue (441–513) and Zhou Yong (d. 493) noted “eight usual ill practices” in literary works of the time, of which pangniu (if two characters in a couplet share the same finals) and zhengniu (if two characters in a couplet share the same consonant) are seen as the common ill practices to avoid. In The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons , Liu Xie (465–522) also noted the same problem: “A line with many discontinuous characters of the same consonant sounds discordant; a line with many intermittent characters of the same finals sounds odd.”64 Instead of rejecting all repetitive sounds, Liu recommended the moderate use of alliteration and rhymes to harmonize 61 Liu Xizai. “The General Observation of Lyric and Verse” [词曲概 Ci Qu Gai] in The General Observation of Art [艺概 Yi Gai]. 62 Liu Xizai. “The General Observation of Lyric and Verse” [词曲概 Ci Qu Gai] in The General Observation of Art [艺概 Yi Gai]. 63 Qian Daxin. “Questions and Answers on Sound and Rhyme” in Anthology of Qianyantang Studio. 64 Liu Xie. 7:33:2 “Sound Meters” in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons .

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the sound meter, which inspired poets and writers of later generations. Liu Xizai summarized the rule as “two repetitive constants or finals are enough in one line, no more.”65 The rhyming patterns in classical poetry also reflect the rule of variation. To make poems musical, the end of lines should rhyme with one another, but it would be repetitive and boring if all lines follow the same rhyming pattern. Therefore, the lüshi (an eight-line regulated verse form) is designed to rhyme in lines except the third and seventh lines. As the renowned philologist Gu Yanwu (1613–1682) discussed, this rhyming pattern common in lüshi originates from Guan Ju, the first folksong in Classic of Poetry; two other ways of rhyming—to rhyme in every other line and to rhyme in every line—originate from the folksongs in Classic of Poetry, but the all-rhyming poems are the least popular.66 As we can see, the rule of variation is applied here. There are four basic tones in standard Chinese, which can be classified as the level tone and oblique tones (the falling-rising tone, the falling tone, and the entering tone). The musical intonation comes from the collocation of the level tone and oblique tones, as Lu Ji (261–303) said in Essays on Literature: “The interactions of sounds and tones are like the five colors that enhance one another.”67 If all words were of rising tone, the sentence would sound disconnected; if all words came in the level tone, the sentence would sound flat. Therefore, the sentence can only be rhythmic when the level and oblique tones are collocated. The verse form of lüshi is designed according to the collocation of the level and oblique tones. The words must change within a line between level and oblique tones. For adjoining lines, the level tones must correspond with oblique ones, and for alternating lines, the tone pattern should be the same. In this way, the intonation of lüshi is organized in a varied manner. The variation of literary composition is also reflected in the visual beauty of the characters. Many Chinese characters are logographic and thus contain meaning through characters, rather than through phonemes (as in phonographic languages). In writing in ink with brushes, the shapes, composition, and number of strokes become important factors 65 Liu Xizai. “The General Observation of Lyric and Verse” [词曲概 Ci Qu Gai] in The General Observation of Art [艺概 Yi Gai]. 66 Gu Yanwu. Ri Zhi Lu, vol. 21. 67 Lu Ji, Shih-Hsiang Chen, and Ch’ung-ho Chang. Essay on Literature, Meriden

Gravure Company at the Anthoensen Press, pp. xxiv, 195.

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in the appreciation of literary scripts. Its rules have been well explained in the chapter “Philology and Choice of Words” in Liu Xie’s The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons . Liu proposed four laws in “grouping words and composing a piece.”68 First, a writer must “avoid what is odd and strange.” The odd and the strange refer to unusual characters because such words hamper the reading experience and spoil the piece. Second, they must “avoid characters with the same radical.” Characters with the same radical are those common in half of their forms. The scripts will look repetitive if consecutive characters share the same radical. Hence, Liu Xie suggested that such characters should not be used more than three in succession: “If it cannot be helped, it may be permissible for the number to grow to three in succession. Once it is allowed to go beyond three, is it not virtually a glossary?” Third, “he must carefully weigh his repetitions.” Reducing repetition includes avoiding homophones and repetitive words. However, this can be challenging as sometimes the apt diction makes it hard to avoid repeating certain words. “Therefore, good writers who have the wealth of ten thousand literary pieces to their credit may sometimes find themselves paupers with respect to the availability of one single word.” Fourth, “he must be balanced in the use of the simple and complex forms.” This refers to “the plump or the bony appearance of the characters.” The idea is to balance the simple and complex forms so that the lines look neither too sparse nor too bloated. Perhaps the four rules are no longer applicable to the simplified writing system in the age of printers, but they are still instructive to calligraphers. Liu’s understanding of the choice of words in terms of the written form echoes Shen Yue’s thoughts about the choice of words in terms of rhythmic effect—“to make the lines musical, the use of tones must be varied”—and both follow the rule of variation in form. The Reverence for Wen in the Chinese Aesthetic Tradition Historically, many Western philosophers have expressed their understanding of formal beauty. The Pythagoreans believed that beauty is the embodiment of definite proportions or relations among parts. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) defined formal beauty as a matter of aesthetic form 68 Liu Xie. “Philology and Choice of Words” in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons .

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completely uninfluenced by the content. He regarded formal beauty as “pure beauty,” which distinguished the beautiful from the true or the good. Clive Bell (1881–1964) proposed that the beauty of a painting is not in representation but in “the meaningful form.” The Russian formalists, including Viktor Shklovsky and Roman Jakobson, and the French structuralist Roland Barthes emphasized literariness and the difference between the signifier and the signified. They saw the beauty of literature in its form and structure. However, formalist theorists tended to neglect other factors. Traditional Chinese philosophers rarely separated the form from the content. Most literary theorists agree that the form must serve the content and the two aspects must complement each other in aesthetic judgment. Liu Zhou wrote in Liu Zi [The Work by Liu]: The artists imitate the form of things, hence the essential nature of things comes before the shape; writers write about human feelings – hence, the fact comes before the argument. To draw without meanings is not possible; to argue without evidence is not genuine. Heavy rouge on the face does not impress people, and overly complicated music does not touch the listeners. The form can do very little if the essence is not beautiful.

In “Preface to the Anthology of Ancient Works in Thirteen Genres,” Yao Lai (1731–1815) named the eight elements of literature: spirit, logic, flow, flavor, meter, rhyme, sound, and scene. To him, the first four elements are the essence or content of literature while the others comprise the form of literature. However, one cannot access the essence without the form. Scholars learn to master the form before all else, until eventually they may extract the essence and move beyond the form. Traditional Chinese aesthetics deems the content of work as essential in aesthetic appreciation, after which the form comes. It is, therefore, not surprising that there is a lot of discussion in traditional literary and art theories about moral beauty and the beautiful mind. This is significant in understanding the reverence for wen in traditional Chinese culture.

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The Subjective Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics As the object of pleasure, “beauty” is inseparable from the aesthetic subject. Hence, the question of the subject is important in traditional Chinese aesthetics. “Mind” as Beauty Traditional Chinese philosophers see “beauty” as coming from the “mind/heart” (xin) or the mind’s world. Here, I would like to present the appreciation of jade and flowers as two prominent examples. Liu Xiang (77–6) proposed the six virtues/beauties [liu mei] of jade in the Confucian story collection Shuoyuan: Jade has six virtues that gentlemen [junzi] value: seen from afar, it is gentle; approaching it, it is solid; the sound it makes is calm and reaches far; it is soft but not yielding; it is exquisite but not flimsy; it has edges but is not sharp; it does not hide its flaws. The gentleness of jade is comparable to the virtue of gentlemen, and its solidness to their erudition; the sound it makes is comparable to their chivalry, and its softness and unyieldingness to their courage; the exquisiteness of the jade is comparable to the gentlemen’s kindness, and its honesty with its flaws to the gentlemen’s trustworthiness.69

These virtues are all humanized spirits of the jade. The love of jade in traditional Chinese culture reflects the subjective spirit of the aesthetic tradition. Jade, as a stone of beauty/virtue [meishi], is appreciated for these virtues projected on it. Another example is Shao Yong’s poem “On the Appreciation of Flowers” which sees the ideal beauty of flowers in the “spirit”: Those who indulge in the look of flowers miss the real beauty, Those who understand this can appreciate their spirit. Skin-deep is their appearance that artificial work may imitate, The real wonder is the spirit of flowers which is not replicable.

69 Liu Xiang. Chapter 17 “Miscellaneous Words” [Zayan] in Shuoyuan.

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Both examples reveal that traditionally, ideal beauty lies in the subjective realm rather than in the objective one. The “six virtues of jade” and the “spirit of flowers” are the objectification of the mind’s world. The subjectivity of beauty can be attested to in literary and art theories. For example, comparison [bi] and affective image [xing], two of the rhetorical devices commonly used in Classic of Poetry, reflect the subjective spirit of aesthetic appreciation in classical Chinese poetry. Comparison is “to take things as a comparison,” and affective image is “to talk about a topic through a thing.”70 The natural scenes depicted in Classic of Poetry, instead of being objectively “natural,” are all related to human feelings and events. To take one example from “The Retiring Girl”71 : From the pasturelands she gave a shoot of the white grass, Truly elegant and rare. It is not you, O grass, that is elegant – You are the gift of an elegant girl.

Here, the white grass is seen as beautiful because it is related to a person considered as beautiful. Verses of Chu also frequently used the rhetorical device of comparison to liken certain characteristics in natural beings to human virtues. Comparing pleasant objects to human virtues is a tradition in classical poetry and culture. Hence, the well-known saying: “The wise take pleasure in the water, and the benevolent enjoy the mountains.” Traditional landscape painting is the embodiment of such aesthetic tradition, where the mountains and water represent not the physical landscape but the landscape of the heart. Another example is the concept of “elegant subtlety” [shenyun] in Chinese art theory. Elegant subtlety is seen as the ultimate beauty of a person or a work of art that lies underneath the appearance. Therefore, a painting or a poem must convey the similar spirit of the things depicted instead of presenting a simple imitation. The concept was popularized by a group of intellectuals in the Wei and Jin dynasties (220–420) and their philosophy highlighted “what goes beyond the semblance” [chao yi xing wai]. 70 Zheng Xuan. “The Rite of Zhou: the Masters” in Annotation on the Rites of Zhou, vol. 23. 71 “The Retiring Girl” [Jing Nv] from “The Songs of Bei” in Classic of Poetry, translated by James Legge https://ctext.org/book-of-poetry/jing-nu/zh?en=on.

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Gu Kaizhi (also known as Changkang, 348–504), a renowned artist famous for portraits in the Eastern Jin dynasty, is known for being able to “convey the spirit” [chuanshen] of the model. As Liu Yiqing wrote in A New Account of the Tales of the World [Shishuo Xinyu], a collection of notebook fiction: “When Gu Changkang paints a portrait, sometimes he leaves the eyes blank for many years. People wonder why, and he replies: ‘How the body looks is not that important on paper; it is the eyes that really convey the spirit of the person.’”72 Another artist and art theorist Xie He (fl. sixth century) developed the philosophy in his masterpiece Record of the Classification of Old Painters [Guhua Pinglu]: “The artist who only paints according to the physical appearance cannot deliver the essential quality; only when he is able to capture what lies beyond the semblance that he is able to deliver the elegant subtlety.”73 The spirit of things does not only exist within the semblance but also beyond it, and what lies beyond the semblance is what Xie called “artistic appeal” [qiyun]. Freehand ink-and-wash painting embodies this philosophy. As Wang Wei74 noted, the mountains and water in landscape painting must deliver the elegance of the mountains and the liveliness of trees. Wang Shizhen (1634–1711) quoted from his friend and developed the theory of elegant subtlety [shen yun]: “It is more important to write about the spirit of things rather than their appearance, and it is the meaning rather than the event that matters.”75 The appreciation of inner beauty also proffers the theory of “meaningful flavor” [yiwei]. Yi literally means “meaning” and wei means “flavor” because deep meaning leaves lasting flavor. Wu Ke put it best: “When reading those well-ornamented works, you might be impressed by their appearance, but they turn bland after a while; it is only those

72 Liu Yiqing. “Artistic Ingenuity” in A New Account of the Tales of the World [Shishuo Xinyu]. 73 Xie He. Record of the Classification of Old Painters [Guhua Pinglu]. 74 Wang Wei. On Mountains and Water [Shanshui Lun]. 75 Wang Shizhen. Humble Notes on ‘Songs among the Flowers’ and ‘Poetry of the Straw Cottage’ [Huacao Mengshi].

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works that contain deep meaning that stand repeated reading.”76 Traditionally, Chinese men of letters emphasize the elegant subtlety and deeper meaning in literature and artwork. Material Beauty, Artistic Beauty, and Aesthetic Subjectivity The subjective spirit of traditional Chinese aesthetics is also reflected in the aesthetic theories on material beauty and artistic beauty. The material world includes the natural world and the human one. As for the former, a large part of Chinese art is attributed to the beauty of the natural world, which is regarded as inseparable from the human mind. The highest level of aesthetic appreciation is to be one with things, or “forgetting about the self or things” [wu wo liang wang]. As one artist put it: “The feeling of the mountains is my feeling and their characteristics are mine too.”77 Artists of landscape painting compare the mountains to the different states of the human mind, as Guo Xi wrote in The Lofty Message of Forest and Streams [Linquan Gaozhi], a book of systematic art theory on landscape painting: The mountains and water change according to the season. The tender green of the Spring forests is like the gentle smile of a person, whereas their summer verdancy looks juicy. The mountains in Autumn are bright and clean as if in make-up, whereas their desolation in Winter feels asleep.

The mountains and waters [shanshui], and the gardens and fields [tianyuan] are not mere landscapes for traditional Chinese men of letters—they offer a mindscape of refuge from the madding crowd. As for the human realm, the ancient Chinese philosophers see the ultimate beauty of a person in his or her spirit and charm. While the spirit is related to moral integrity and kindness, charm is derived from manners and dignity. Xunzi wrote this about moral integrity:

76 Wu Ke. Wu Zanghai on Poetry [Zanghai Shihua]. 77 Tang Zhiqi. “The Characteristic of Mountains and Water” in Some Humble Thoughts

on Painting, vol. 1.

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Physiognomizing a person’s outer form is not as good as judging his heart, and judging his heart is not as good as ascertaining his chosen course. The outer form is not superior to the heart, and the heart is not superior to its chosen course.78

Therefore, a person’s good intentions and deeds are both important to his or her moral beauty. Aesthetic subjectivity is also reflected in the aesthetic judgment of the artwork. Let us start with literature. Literature (wen), as discussed before, has multiple layers of meaning. Generally speaking, wen encapsulates different genres of literature, including poetry, lyrics (ci), poetic exposition ( fu), historical records (shi), fiction, and drama. On the one hand, the mainstream (Confucian) tradition in premodern China insists on “literature as the vehicle to convey the Dao/ Tao” [wen yi zaidao]79 while, on the other hand, wen is considered as the natural response to one’s feelings evoked by things. These are the two defining features of literature in traditional Chinese literary theory. To write about things [yongwu] is thus considered secondary to the expression of thoughts [yanzhi]. When a poem talks about things, it is only of good quality when “the scene conjures the poet’s feelings.”80 Compared with the highbrow literature of code verse [lüshi], the genre of ci allows freer expression of emotions partly due to its accessibility and partly due to its less strict form. Historical records [shi] are generally considered for the record of historical events. In the Confucian tradition, instead of seeing the annals as objective or impersonal, the ancient Chinese historians were not only conscious of but also embraced their own subjectivity: “to entrust one’s intention in the recorded.”81 Historians were required to offer their insights on documents through something called “insights in minute words” [weiyan dayi]. As Liu Xizai wrote: “The primary task of historians is to not miss the details. Whether it is a record or commentary of the happenings, they all need to discover

78 Xunzi. Chapter 5 “Against Physiognomy” in Xunzi: The Complete Text, translated by Eric. L. Hutton, Princeton University Press, p. 77. 79 Li Yu. Sketches of Idle Pleasures [Xianqing Ouji]. 80 Li Yu. Sketches of Idle Pleasures [Xianqing Ouji]. 81 Liu Xizai. The General Observation of Art, Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing

House, 1978, p. 12.

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what lies behind the small things.”82 The educational function is also emphasized in narrative literature, which includes minor tales [xiaoshuo] and opera. Another aspect to consider is painting. The nature of Chinese inkwash painting, as the renowned artist Shi Tao (1642–1707) noted, is “following the heat.”83 Chinese landscape painting, or painting of the mountains and water, is destined to capture the spirit and “personalities” of mountains and water. Compared to its Western counterpart, Chinese landscape painting sees human characteristics in the mountains and water. The favored tropes of Chinese ink-wash painting like plum blossoms, orchids, chrysanthemums, and bamboo embody the noble virtues that the culture reveres. As Tang Hou (fl. late 1200s to early 1300s) wrote in Critique of Painting (Hua Jian): “Why is that painting of the orchid called sketches of the orchid? It is because the orchid embodies purity, and the artist must capture that purity. The point is not to simply mimic the appearance.” The same is true for the portrait. Artists are expected to convey the person’s traits through the work. There are two levels that a work of portrait may achieve—portraying the semblance and capturing the spirit. While the former is desirable, the latter is ideal.84 Using the same writing tools, Chinese calligraphy is considered “painting of the heart” [xinhua]. Calligraphy reflects the personality of the calligrapher. Calligraphers learn from earlier master calligraphers, but they are also encouraged to express themselves: Good works of calligraphy are those that can enter the realm of spirit. If one can get the spirit of the ancient masters, then he becomes like the ancient masters; if one can express his own peculiarity on top of that, then he may employ the ancient masters’ ingenuity for himself.85

Chinese people believe that calligraphy allows people to express themselves through ink and strokes. Perhaps this is not that different from music since music is another way of expressing what the heart feels. 82 Liu Xizai. The General Observation of Art, Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 1978, p. 42. 83 Shi Tao. Chapter 1 in Bitter-Melon Monk’s Commentary of Painting. 84 See Yang Weizhen, Preface to Connoisseurship of Paintings [Tuhui Baojan Xu]. 85 Liu Xizai. The General Observation of Art, Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing

House, 1978.

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The last example is the Chinese gardens. Traditional Chinese gardens are designed to represent the natural beauty of large-scale landscapes through small-scale parks based on existing natural environment. The designers aim to provide a space for people to rest and look inward, and this is reflected by the names of some well-known gardens such as “the Away-from-the Dust Garden” [Ligou Yuan], the “Heart-Cleansing Pavilion” [Xixin Ting], “Canglang Pavilion” [Canglang Ting],86 and “Brook of Dream” [Mengxi]. Quoting A Dictionary on Chinese Garden Aesthetics : “Traditional Chinese gardens and scenic spots are not devoid of manmade architecture, and this allows space for the landscape to interact with humans, their daily lives, and their emotions.”87 As is evident in the given examples, the highest praise for traditional Chinese art is that it is invariably linked to the human spirit. “Beauty Is of the Mind” and Its Cultural Foundation Traditional Chinese culture sees the human mind as the ontological substance of beauty—be it artistic or natural beauty. Such subjective spirit distinguishes Chinese aesthetic tradition from its Western counterpart. Classical Western philosophers tend to seek and define the nature of beauty in the form of the objects. The Pythagoreans regarded beauty as the harmonization of the various elements of things. Thomas Aquinas listed four qualities of beauty—completeness, proportion, clarity, and integrity.88 Edmund Burke juxtaposed the beautiful with the sublime and defined the former as the small and the delicate. He also believed that the law of beauty was “not alterable by subjective will.”89 Kant, however, proposed that the experience of the sublime arises from being 86 “Canglang” literally means “surging waves.” Legend has it that when Quyuan was disappointed with the political situation in the state of Chu, he met a Taoist hermit by the Canglang River. The hermit told Quyuan that if the water is clean, he can wash his hat, and if the water is dirty, he can wash his feet. Later, “water of the Canglang River” became an anecdote for acting according to the situation. The Confucian men of letters see retreat as the wise option if the political atmosphere is corrupted. 87 Chen Congzhou. Preface, A Dictionary on Chinese Garden Aesthetics, Shanghai: East China Normal University Press, 2001. 88 Western Aestheticians on Beauty and Aesthetic Senses, The Philosophy Department of Beijing University, the Commercial Press, 1982, p. 65. 89 Western Aestheticians on Beauty and Aesthetic Senses, The Philosophy Department of Beijing University, the Commercial Press, 1982, p. 122.

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overwhelmed by size or force. Even though Plato believed that beauty arises from form and Hegel regarded beauty as the “sensuous appearing of the Idea,” the “form” and “the Idea” they referred to retain their objective existence. Aristotle proposed that art is the mimesis or representation of the ideal type created by God, which dominated Western aesthetic tradition for over two thousand years.90 This is very different from Chinese aesthetic tradition, which mainly adheres to the idea that “beauty is of the mind.” Why is “the mind” held as the source of beauty in traditional Chinese aesthetics? The answer becomes clear when we look at its cultural foundation. The renowned philosopher Qian Mu (1897–1990) wrote: “The most important thing for the Chinese people (in premodern society) is the study of being with oneself, which is about ‘the nurturing of the mind.’”91 He also approached Chinese history as “a history of the mind.”92 For Qian, “history is not history without the humane mind.”93 Premodern Chinese society was organized using the feudal clan system; thus, its fundamental characteristic is that the political system was hierarchical based on the closeness of patriarchal bloodline. Hence, the saying “all under the Heaven as one family.” Of course, it is neither probable nor stable for the emperor to own “all under the Heaven.” The government then utilized ethical education as a way to enforce the feudal clan system. The pagoda-like feudal clan social network constructed by bloodline and hierarchy can only be stable if the people performed their roles and followed ethical principles (e.g., the first-born son from the wife enjoys the right of inheritance, the elders lead the younger family members). Therefore, the use of ethical teachings and self-discipline became a way to maintain political stability. The fundamental virtue in the feudal clan society is fidelity, and this fidelity extends from the family to the rest of the kingdom. The moral system encourages people to look inward.

90 Nikolay Chernyshevsky, Selected Essays on Aesthetics by Nikolay Chernyshevsky, translated by Guo Hongan, People’s Literature Press, 1959, p. 129. 91 Qian Mu. Discussions on Modern Chinese Scholarship, Hunan Yuelu Publishing House, 1986, pp. 3, 7. 92 Qian Mu. Discussions on Modern Chinese Scholarship, Hunan Yuelu Publishing House, 1986, pp. 3, 7. 93 Qian Mu. Discussions on Modern Chinese Scholarship, Hunan Yuelu Publishing House, 1986, pp. 3, 7.

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Hence, the saying “the inner world is valued above the outer world.”94 All the three major Chinese philosophy schools—Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism—share the same fundamental belief. The core of Confucianism is benevolence (ren). As Mencius says: “Benevolence is about the human mind.” The “school of benevolence” is thus also the “school of the mind,” of which the aim is to cultivate the heart that loves humans as well as oneself. Confucius and his disciples saw self-reflection as the way to moral education. For example, Zhengzi said: “I examine myself three times every day. Have I been true to other people’s interests when acting on their behalf? Have I been sincere in my interactions with friends? Have I practiced what I have been taught?”95 Mencius brought the moral “mind” of the subject to the level of the cosmos. Dong Zhongshu (179–104 AD) defined benevolence as “the heart/mind of the Heaven” that humans should follow.96 For Neo-Confucianists of the Song and Ming dynasties, the morality of Confucianism is regarded as the laws of the Universe [tianli]. Wang Yangming took it further when he claimed that the law of the Universe is the heart of oneself; hence, “understanding things” [gewu] must come from “knowing one’s heart” [gexin], and “to fully understand one’s own heart” is to understand the way of the Heaven.97 Taoism reveres “the Way of the Heaven” and advocates the unity between humans and Heaven, which can be attained by “letting the heart rest and the spirit free”98 and preserving a childlike heart. In this way, Taoism also encourages people to look inward into the heart and the mind. Buddhism initially sees the “emptiness of nature” [性空 xingkong] through discovering the chain of causes and effect. Thus, ontological emptiness leads to metaphysical emptiness. But when it was brought to ancient China, it absorbed the centripetal tendency of the family-clan culture and turned to the mind for ontology. For instance, followers

94 Liu Xizai. Notes on Gutong Studio. 95 Zengzi. Chapter 1 “Xue Er,” The Analects. See the translation by James Legge in

Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 96 Dong Zhongshu. “Chapter Seventeen Yuxu” in Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals. 97 Wang Yangming. “Chapter 13–14: Jin Xin” in Mencius. 98 Quotations on Taoism.

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of East Asian Yog¯ac¯ara [法相宗 Faxiang Zong, Consciousness Only] consider that “all three realms are derived from the mind” (source 109) and Chan Buddhism holds that “all things are in my own mind” (source 110). Similarly, the Huayan school99 has a saying that the mind is the master of a myriad things, and the Tiantai School100 believes that the boundless universe is contained in one single thought. We can see that the ontology of these Buddhist traditions has turned from cause-and-effect to the mind, and that it has developed an emphasis on Zen/Chan [Dhy¯ana, Buddhist meditation]. Hence, the saying “those who believe in Buddhism must learn to regulate their own mind.”101 To conclude, moral value, cognitive orientation, and the aesthetic tendency to look inward and to see the heart as the root of things are at the core of traditional Chinese culture. The human heart/mind is the center around which everything works. The subjective spirit that sees the beauty of the mind is part of this cultural tradition.

The Moral Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics “Kindness Is the Essence of Beauty” Traditional Chinese aesthetics take the heart as the source of beauty, which means that ethical consciousness is a key factor in aesthetic judgment. This section discusses the significance of “way/morality” [dao] in traditional Chinese aesthetics. All the major philosophical schools in ancient China—Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, Mohism, and Legalism—take morality as the precondition of beauty, although these schools have different views on what should be considered moral. Let us start with Confucianism. The word “morality” [daode] consists of two characters: dao [way/moral] and de [virtue], and it is a concept

99 Huayan is translated from the Sanskrit word “Avatamsaka,” literally meaning “Flower . Garland.” Derived from Mahayana Buddhism, the Huayan school was formed in China during the Tang dynasty (618–907). 100 The Tiantai school is a Buddhist tradition developed during the Sui dynasty (in sixth century) in China. It is also a tradition from Mahayana Buddhism. 101 Yan Yanzhi. Teachings for the House [庭诰 Tinggao].

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closely connected to beauty. The behaviors inspired by the five virtues— benevolence [ren], righteousness [yi], propriety [li], wisdom [zhi], and fidelity [xin]—are considered beautiful. Several convincing examples of this can be found in The Analects . Although Confucius himself did not define the concept “beautiful” [mei], the word is used more than ten times in the book. From how the word is used, one can get some idea of Confucius’ aesthetic view. First, beauty is what appeals to people and brings them happiness. He expressed this by saying: “The superior man seeks to perfect the admirable qualities of men and does not seek to perfect their bad qualities.”102 Here, the word “beauty” [mei] is used as a noun, which refers to the virtuous qualities of people; the word mei is also used in opposition to è [evil, bad]. Second, between the beauty of form and beauty of content, he considered the latter as the decisive factor in determining the aesthetic property of things. He indicated this by saying, “It is virtuous manners which constitute the excellence [mei] of a neighborhood.”103 The tension between “the beautiful” and “the good” can be found in another quote, and this tension is resolved through the distinction between beauty of form and that of content: “The Master said of the Shao that it was perfectly beautiful and also perfectly good. He said of the Wu that it was perfectly beautiful but not perfectly good.”104 The song of the Shao eulogizes the benevolent deeds of the two virtuous kings, Yao and Shun. Hence, it is described to be “perfectly beautiful” and “perfectly good.” In contrast, the song of the Wu praises the conquest of King of Wu without recognizing its brutality, which is why Confucius did not approve of it. Although the Wu is “perfectly beautiful” in its artistic form, its content still leaves this work of art problematic. As Zhu Xi stated, “‘beauty’ depicts the flourishing of colors and appearance, while ‘kindness’ [shan] is the essence of beauty.”105 Indeed, the saying “kindness 102 Line 14, Chapter 12 in The Analects. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 103 Line 1, Chapter 4 in The Analects. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 104 Line 25, Chapter 3 in The Analects. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 105 Zhu Xi, Annotations on the Four Classics [四书章句集注], Zhonghua Book Company, 2012, p. 68.

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is the essence of beauty” captures the aesthetic thoughts of Confucius, which is why Confucius advised his disciples to “look not at what is contrary to propriety.”106 If a pleasant thing is not ethical, then it does not possess true beauty. Confucius’ philosophy encourages people not only to admire but also to practice a morally upright life: “With coarse rice to eat, with water to drink, and my bended arm for a pillow, I still have joy in the midst of these things. Riches and honors acquired by unrighteousness are to me as fleeting and insubstantial as a floating cloud.”107 Materially scarcity does not hamper a happy life, because it is in living an ethically honorable life that determines inner happiness. For this, Confucius greatly appreciated one of his disciples named Yan Hui: Admirable indeed was the virtue of Hui! With a single bamboo dish of rice, a single gourd dish of drink, and living in his mean narrow lane while others could not have endured the distress, he did not allow his joy to be affected. Admirable indeed was the virtue of Hui!”108

Confucius’ understanding of morality was not limited to judging what is good. Rather, he encouraged people to practice a virtuous life and to take pleasure in the moral life regardless of material condition. Confucius also applied the aesthetics of human virtue in his appreciation of natural beauty. For example, Confucius saw persistence and a strong will against hard conditions in the pine and cypress trees: “When the year becomes cold, then we know how the pine and the cypress are the last to lose their leaves.”109 He had this conversation with his disciple Zi Lu as he was mired in career setback, dire poverty, and starvation in the state of Cai, on his way to the Chu state. Another prominent example comes from Chapter 6 of The Analects called “Yong Ye”: “The wise find pleasure in water; the virtuous find pleasure in hills. The wise

106 Line 14, Chapter 12 in The Analects. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 107 Line 16, Chapter 7 in The Analects. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 108 Line 11, Chapter 6 in The Analects. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 109 Line 28, Chapter 7 in The Analects. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023.

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are active; the virtuous are tranquil. The wise are joyful; the virtuous are long-lived.”110 Why should the wise enjoy water? Because water reflects the virtues that honorable gentlemen [junzi] embody. But what kind of virtues are these? The water follows the law of the universe closely without leaving any space, which is like the wise; it moves downward, which is like the humble; it dives deep without question, which is like the brave; it becomes clear as it meets obstacles, which is like people who know their own destiny; it adventures to go far without being destroyed, which is like virtuous people. Heaven and Earth are made with water, all beings are alive thanks to water, all matters are settled like flat water, all things must be correct: these are the reasons why the wise take pleasure in water.111

To compare the “virtue of water” to the virtues of the wise is a prominent example of Confucian aesthetics. Its fusion of aesthetic and ethical expression is also seen in common aesthetic objects including mountains, jade, flowers, and the earth. These natural things, in Confucius’ mind, embody certain moral traits and have aesthetic value in ethical symbolism. Moral (virile) beauty is of fundamental significance in Confucian aesthetics. In The Analects , Confucius made a distinction between the gentleman/superior man [junzi] and the mean/small man [xiaoren] by considering whether the things they take pleasure in are moral or immoral. For example: The superior man is easy to serve and difficult to please. If you try to please him in any way that is not accordant with right, he will not be pleased. But in his employment of men, he uses them according to their capacity. The mean man is difficult to serve, and easy to please.112

In the Confucian understanding of the ideal nobleman, ethical recognition is elevated to the level of aesthetic interest, and morality must be unified with the intellect. The moral beauty of junzi marks the ideal intellectual and governor. 110 Line 23, Chapter 6 in The Analects. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 111 The Outer Commentary to the Book of Songs by Master Han, vol. 3. 112 Line 25, Chapter 13 in The Analects. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese

Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023.

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Mencius: “Moral Fulfillment Is Beauty Itself” Mencius inherited Confucius’s thought about “virtue as beauty” and asserted that “moral fulfillment is beauty itself/he whose goodness has been fulfilled is what is called beautiful man” [chongshi zhi wei mei].113 By this statement, Mencius meant that beauty comes from the moral personality, which is determined by human nature. He wrote: Men’s mouths agree in having the same relishes; their ears agree in enjoying the same sounds; their eyes agree in recognizing the same beauty – shall their minds alone be without that which they similarly approve? What is it then of which they similarly approve? It is, I say, the principles of our nature and the determinations of righteousness.114

Because beauty is not simply the object of pleasure for the senses but also for the mind, Mencius claimed that “the principles of our nature and the determinations of righteousness are agreeable to my mind, just as the flesh of grass- and grain-fed animals is agreeable to my mouth.”115 The mind pursues virtue and righteousness as determined by human nature. Mencius believed that because humans are born noble, the teachings of the morally right would have a natural influence on people. Similarly, Mencius discussed goodness, truth, and moral beauty: “A man who commands our liking is what is called a good man. He whose goodness is part of himself is what is called a real man. He whose goodness has been fulfilled is what is called a beautiful man.”116 Goodness is what people voluntarily aspire to and being real/true/honest [xin] means having goodness within oneself, which must come before the kindness of others. In Mencius’s understanding, goodness and honesty are prerequisites to beauty. For him, “to fill up” [chongshi] means to live by “the principles of our nature” and to put “the determinations of righteousness” into real action. Mencius identified four principles as definitive to human nature, in which human feelings are the compass:

113 Chapter 14 “Jin Xin I” in Mencius. 114 Chapter 7 in Mencius. 115 Chapter 7 in Mencius. 116 Chapter 14 “Jin Xin I” in Mencius.

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The feeling of commiseration is the principle of benevolence. The feeling of shame and dislike is the principle of righteousness. The feeling of modesty and complacence is the principle of propriety. The feeling of approving and disapproving is the principle of knowledge.117

In this way, moral beauty becomes teachable and must be developed in everyone: “Since all men have these four principles in themselves, they are equipped with what they need for their own development and completion.”118 Additionally, “pleasure” is also closely connected to the virtue of the worthy king/governor. In Chapter 2 entitled “King Hui of Liang II,” Mencius had a conversation with King Xuan of Qi to compare three kinds of pleasure: “to enjoy music by oneself,” “to enjoy it with others,” and “to enjoy it with the common people.” King Xuan replied that he preferred the last option. Mencius used to listen to music with common people to show the king the importance of enjoying music beyond sharing the experience with the nobles. Generosity is a virtue of the king and a worthy king allows people to enjoy good things. Moral symbolism, as discussed in the previous section, also appears in Mencius’s aesthetic thought on natural beauty. Here, I would again take the example of water to showcase moral symbolism: There is an art in the contemplation of water. It is necessary to look at it as foaming in waves. The sun and moon brilliant and their light penetrates the tiniest orifice. Flowing water does not stop until it has filled all the hollows in its course. The student who sets his mind on the doctrines of the sage does not rush through them, but instead completes one lesson after another.119

In this quote, it is evident how Mencius saw the qualities of persistence and industriousness in the water, to which he compares the studious scholar. This, he thought, is “an art in the contemplation of water.”

117 Chapter 3 “Gong Sun Chou I” in Mencius. 118 Chapter 3 “Gong Sun Chou I” in Mencius. 119 Chapter 14 “Jin Xin I” in Mencius.

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Xunzi: “What Ever Is Imperfect and Unrefined Does Not Deserve the Name of ‘Beauty’” Compared with his two predecessors, Xunzi (Hsün Tzu, or Xun Kuang, c. 310 to c. 220 BCE) seemed to be more particular about the perfection of morality. To him, “whatever is imperfect and unrefined does not deserve the name of ‘beauty.’”120 This indicates that moral flaws damage beauty. The concept of beauty has two layers of meaning in Xunzi’s works. First, objects of pleasure fall under one type of beauty, and it is human nature to want to possess these objects: As for people’s natural dispositions, their eyes desire the utmost in sights, their ears desire the utmost in sounds, their mouths desire the utmost in flavors, their noses desire the utmost in smells, and their bodies desire the utmost in comfort. These “five utmosts” are something the natural dispositions of people cannot avoid desiring.121 ,122

Xunzi realistically observed that it is human nature to pursue pleasure and avoid discomfort. The human desire for sensuous enjoyment is natural and unavoidable, and Xunzi recognized that “human desire knows no limit.”123 So, how can we resolve the tension between the two? Mencius proposed the middle ground between self-reflection and self-regulation to strike a balance: “Even though desires cannot be eliminated, when what is sought is not obtained, one who is reflective will desire to regulate his seeking.”124 Unlike Mencius, Xunzi believed that humans are bad by nature because unrestricted pursuits propelled by human disposition cause chaos and disasters. The object of desire is not ideal beauty. Rather, ideal beauty is the moral image to restrain human desire:

120 Chapter 18 in Xunzi. 121 English translation (with amendment) is quoted in Xunzi: The Complete Text,

translated by Eric. L. Hutton, Princeton University Press, Hutton, p. 166. 122 Chapter 11 “The True King and the Hegemon,” Xunzi. 123 Chapter 11 “The True King and the Hegemon,” Xunzi. 124 Chapter 22 “Correct Naming” in Xunzi: The Complete Text, translated by Eric. L.

Hutton, Princeton University Press, Hutton, p. 347.

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The gentleman knows that whatever is imperfect and unrefined does not deserve the name of “beauty.” And so he repeatedly recites his leaning in order to master it, ponders it in order to comprehend it, makes his person so as to dwell in it, and eliminates things harmful to it in order to nourish it…. [Eventually] power and profit cannot sway him, the masses cannot shift him, and nothing in the world can shake him. He lives by this, and he dies by this. This is called the state in which virtue has been grasped.125

By “learning,” Xunzi meant to nurture one’s benevolent heart and moral integrity. Gentlemen are those who gained moral refinement through constant self-reflection and nourishment of learning. Xunzi believed that it is through education that a person’s bad nature may be improved and refined. The idea of moral beauty also applies to the appreciation of natural beauty: If one’s heart is peaceful and happy, then even if the sights are inferior to what is simply plain, they are still enough to nourish the eyes. Even if the sounds are inferior to what is simply plain, they are enough to nourish the ears. Greens for food and vegetable stew are still enough to nourish the palate. Clothes made from coarse cloth and shoes made with coarse thread are still enough to nourish one’s body. A thatched hut or storehouse for one’s home and dwelling, dried reeds for one’s bedding, and at most a single low table and mat are still enough to nourish one’s physical form. Thus, even while lacking the finest of a myriad things, one can still nourish one’s joy.126

According to this excerpt, the moral mind is a peaceful mind that can truly appreciate material things. When the moral mind is in a pleasant and peaceful state, beauty arises from it. Besides this, other examples of moral comparison in the other Confucian classics are also quoted in Xunzi’s work. Popular symbols, such as water, jade, earth, as well as newly acquired examples including clouds and silkworms, are also listed.

125 Chapter 1 “An Exhortation to Learning” in Xunzi: The Complete Text, translated by Eric. L. Hutton, Princeton University Press, Hutton, p. 43. 126 Chapter 22 “Correct Naming” in Xunzi: The Complete Text, translated by Eric. L. Hutton, Princeton University Press, Hutton, p. 349.

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Laozi: “The Great Music has the Faintest Notes/The Great Form Is Without Shape” The main virtue of Taoism is wu [non-being, not-being, the hidden].127 To Laozi [Lao Tzu], all things are born by means of you [being, the manifest], while “the formation and existence of you originate from wu.”128 Therefore, it is wu instead of you that is the original state of the cosmos. Being without smell, colors, tastes, or even a name, wu is the initial existence of the universe and hence predates all tangible existence. The Dao is formless, but all forms are born from the formless; the Dao is silence, yet all sounds come from the silence; the Dao is nameless, but all those with names emerge from the nameless; the Dao is tasteless, yet all tastes derive from the tasteless; and finally, the Dao is useless, yet everything useful emerges from the useless. Daoism uncovers a vast, alternative world of the Way [the Dao] that resides just beneath the tangible. To Laozi, all those worldly things deemed beautiful should not be considered to possess real beauty, as they may damage people’s natural innocence, which is a virtue according to the Dao: “The five colors blind the eye. The five tones deafen the ear. The five flavors cloy the palate. Racing and hunting madden the mind. Rare goods tempt men to do wrong.”129 Chapter 2 of Tao Te Ching claims that “when all the world recognizes beauty as beauty, this in itself is ugliness.”130 Correspondingly, it comes as no surprise that the virtues in Confucianism are not recognized as the real virtue:

127 Wu (无) and you (有) are two significant concepts in Taoist ontology. In Laozi’s understanding, the world does not begin with a myriad of things. Rather, it was born from the hidden and the non-existent. “Only an intangible and unidentifiable ontological existence gives countless specific beings their functions” (Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture, https://www.chinesethought.cn/EN/shuyu_show.aspx?shuyu_id=3521). In the different English editions of Tao Te Ching, wu and you are translated differently, such as the hidden and the manifest, non-being and being, nothing and something. 128 Wang Bi. Annotations on Tao Te Ching [老子道德经注 Laozi Daodejing Zhu],

edited by Lou Yulie, The Annotations by Wang Bi Explained, vol. 1, Zhonghua Book Company, 1980. 129 Chapter 12, in Tao Te Ching. See the translated by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 130 Chapter 2, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023.

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When the Great Dao declined, the doctrines of humanity and righteousness arose. When knowledge and wisdom appeared, there emerged great hypocrisy. When the six family relations are not in harmony, there will be the advocacy of filial piety and deep love of children. When a country is in disorder, there will be praise for loyal ministers.131

The Virtue in Laozi’s mind is not what it seems; it escapes from the recognition of the people. As the way of the cosmos and of nature is so vast and elusive, humans are unable to grasp it. The greatest virtue is thus not identified—“vast virtue appears like a valley” [shangde ruo gu]132 and “the highest good is like that of water” [shangshan ruo shui].133 Similarly, the highest form of beauty is tasteless/bland [dan]. As claimed by Laozi, “The Great Music has the faintest notes/The Great Form is without shape.”134 Great da has two layers of meaning: great and perfect, which means that the greatest note cannot be heard.135 The Great Music is the perfect sound. It is the original sound of the universe: “You listen for it, and do not hear its sound; you look for it, and do not perceive its form; it fills heaven and earth; it envelops all within the universe.”136 Zhuangzi: “The Perfect Enjoyment Is to Be Without Enjoyment” Zhuangzi incisively discussed beauty and the human subjects’ response to it, and his main argument can be summarized through this paradoxical saying: “the perfect enjoyment is to be without enjoyment.”137 There

131 Chapter 18, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 132 Chapter 41, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 133 Chapter 8, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 134 Chapter 43, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 135 Study of Ancient Chinese Aesthetics [中国古代美学史研究 Zhongguo Gudai Meixue Shi Yanjiu], Fudan University Press, 1983, pp. 105–106. 136 Zhuangzi. “The Revolution of Heaven” in Outer Chapters, Zhuangzi. 137 Zhuangzi. “Perfect Enjoyment,” Outer Chapters in Zhuangzi.

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are two layers of meaning in this claim. First, worldly objects of physical pleasure are not regarded as possessing real beauty in Zhuangzi’s philosophy: What the world honors are riches, dignities, longevity, and ability. What it delights in is rest for the body, rich flavors, fine garments, beautiful colors, and pleasant music…. If it does not have these things, it turns very sorrowful and becomes troubled by fears.138

The desire for bodily pleasure, fame, and success would lead to misery because it is impossible for one to always get what one wants. Furthermore, the excess of pleasure damages humans’ natural disposition and faculties: Now there are five things that produce [in men] the loss of their [proper] nature. The first is [their fondness for] the five colors which disorder the eye, and take from it its [proper] clearness of vision; the second is [their fondness for] the five notes [of music], which disorder the ear and take from it its [proper] power of hearing; the third is [their fondness for] the five odors which penetrate the nostrils, and produce a feeling of distress all over the forehead; the fourth is [their fondness for] the five flavors, which deaden the mouth, and pervert its sense of taste; the fifth is their preferences and dislikes, which unsettle the mind and cause their nature to go flying about. These five things are all injurious to life.139

In Zhuangzi’s ideal world, if everyone lives in a simple way according to his or her nature, then there is no need for the advocacy of propriety, kindness, or morality: “If the attributes of the Dao have not been disallowed, then how should they have preferred benevolence and righteousness? If the instincts of nature had not been departed from, then how could ceremonies and music have come into use?”140 On top of the negation of worldly beauty, Zhuangzi proposed his idea on beauty as Dao: that the essence of beauty is the ethical nature of being natural and non-acting. This beauty gives people the joy of “non-enjoyment,” and the wisdom lies in the attitude of non-pursuing:

138 Zhuangzi. “Perfect Enjoyment,” Outer Chapters in Zhuangzi. 139 Zhuangzi. “Heaven and Earth,” Outer Chapters in Zhuangzi. 140 Zhuangzi. Chapter 2 “Horses’s Hoofs,” Outer Chapters in Zhuangzi.

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“I consider doing nothing [to obtain it] to be great enjoyment, while ordinarily people consider it to be a great evil. Hence it is said, ‘Perfect enjoyment is to be without enjoyment; the highest praise is to be without praise.’”141 Non-acting/non-doing/doing nothing [wuwei] is the way to follow the Dao [The Way], and the pleasure it brings is enjoyment without enjoyment. Utmost beauty and pleasure [zhimei zhile] lie in returning to the original state of nature, as Zhuangzi wrote through Laozi’s voice in one story: “I was enjoying myself in thinking about the commencement of things.”142 Another prominent theme in Zhuangzi is “the beauty of the Heaven and Earth” [tiandi zhimei]. He argues that Heaven and Earth embody “vast beauty” [damei] because they “do everything while doing nothing,” which represents the non-action and naturalness of the Dao.143 As Chapter 6 entitled “The Way of Heaven” stated: “in their plain simplicity, no one in the world can strive with them [for the palm of] excellence.”144 The word pusu [plain simplicity] consists of two characters whose original meanings are “uncarved wood” [朴] and “undyed silk” [素], both of which represent the unadorned naturalness of the Dao. Zhuangzi’s work sheds a different light on popular aesthetic judgment. For example, in the chapter entitled “Man in the World, Associated with other Men,” he took as examples the hazardous trees in the state of Shang and the good trees in the state of Song—while the former is considered useless and hence spared from axes, the latter is readily pursued and cut as timber to build buildings or to make furniture. Therefore, Zhuangzi concluded, the uselessness of the “hazardous trees” protects them from ill fate and helps them enjoy their natural growth and lifespan, which is the real beauty of Heaven and Earth.145 In such cases, “ugliness can turn into beauty and imperfection can turn into perfection as long as it goes according to the Dao.”146 141 Zhuangzi. Chapter 11 “Perfect Enjoyment,” Outer Chapters in Zhuangzi. 142 Zhuangzi. Chapter 14 “Tian Zi-fang,” Outer Chapters in Zhuangzi. 143 Li Zehou, Liu Gangji. A History of Chinese Aesthetics [中国美学史 Zhongguo

Meixue Shi], vol. 1, Chinese Social Science Press, 1984, p. 243. 144 Zhuangzi. “The Way of Heaven,” Outer Chapters in Zhuangzi. 145 Zhuangzi. “Man in the World, Associated with other Men”. 146 Cao Chuji. “Explaining De Chong Fu” (lit: The Seal of Virtue Complete) in Simpli-

fied Annotations on Zhuangzi [庄子浅注 Zhuangzi Qianzhu], Zhonghua Book Company, 1985, p. 71.

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Zhuangzi also extended the aesthetics of nonhuman existence to the human world. Different from Confucianists, he proposed the concept of shengren [sages] and zhiren [the Perfect Man] to talk about the ideal way of living: The sages trace out the admirable operations of Heaven and Earth, and reach and understand the distinctive constitutions of all things; and thus it is that the Perfect Man [is said to] do nothing and the Greatest Sage to originate nothing, such language showing that they look to Heaven and Earth as their model.147

While the sages are the wise who follow the Dao, zhiren is the person who gets “the most admirable and the exercise of thoughts in what is most enjoyable.”148 To Zhuangzi, the virtue of humans is to recognize and internalize the “beauty of Heaven and Earth” and to follow the Dao. Specifically, the virtue is to be simple and to have no selfish desires. Guan Zhong: Nature’s Beauty Lies in Its Virtue Traditionally attributed to the renowned philosopher and politician Guan Zhong (720–645 BCE), Guanzi is classified as a legalist text, but it also reveals the influence of major schools of thought such as Confucianism and Taoism. The appreciation of virtues is not uncommon for this kind of work. For instance, Chapter 39 entitled “Shui Di” discussed “the nine virtues of jade” and “the virtue of water,” which shows some similarity to the Confucian idea of virtue comparison: Water is soft and clean, but it can help cleanse others’ dust, such is its kindness; water appears dark, but it is actually clear, such is its honesty; when measuring it, one does not need to flatten it, such is its integrity; water goes everywhere to make things equal, such is its righteousness; water alone goes downward instead of climbing up, such is its humbleness. Being humble is the basis of the Way and the quality of the king.149

147 Zhuangzi. “Knowledge Rambling in the North” in Outer Chapters in Zhuangzi. 148 Zhuangzi. “Tian Zi-fang” in Outer Chapters in Zhuangzi. 149 Guan Zhong. Chapter 30 in Guanzi.

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Another example can be found in Chapter 52 called “Xiao Wen,” in which Duke Huan of the Qi State asks his court if the crops can be compared to the virtues of gentlemen. Guan Zhong made an excellent explanation: When crops are yet new sprouts, they are so tender and gentle just like young students; as crops grow strong, they are reliable just like the scholar; when crops become mature and mellow, they are at ease and ever gentler. With crops, a state can be safe; without, the state would be in peril, that is why they are called crops [禾he].150 ,151

Han Fei Zi: “To Reside in the Essence Rather Than on the Surface” The representative legalist philosopher Han Fei Zi or Master Han Fei (280–233 BCE) is known for his utilitarian ethical orientation. To Han Fei Zi, things are good only when they are practiced and have actual impact on society. Han Fei Zi believed that it is the nature rather than the form that determines the aesthetic feature of things: Propriety is the mode of expressive of feelings. Embellishment is the decoration of qualities. Indeed, the superior man takes the inner feelings but leaves the outer looks and likes the inner qualities but hates the outer decorations. He who judges inner feelings by outer looks finds the feelings bad. He who judges inner qualities by outer decorations finds the inner qualities rotten.152

Famous treasures such as the jade of Pien Ho and the bead of Marquis Sui are not decorated because things with good inner qualities do not require decoration. “Truly, anything that functions only after being decorated must have poor qualities.”153 Likewise, it is the function of things that decides its value. For example, a luxurious vessel made of jade is of less

150 Synonymous to 和 he, harmony. 151 Guan Zhong. Chapter 52 in Guanzi. 152 “Commentaries on Lao Tzu’s Teachings” in The Complete Works of Han Fei Tzu, XX, p. 173. 153 “Commentaries on Lao Tzu’s Teachings” in The Complete Works of Han Fei Tzu, XX, p. 173.

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value than an earthen one if the former is broken.154 Furthermore, flashy decorations may even have the opposite of the desired effect by overshadowing an object’s inner quality. The allegory of the foolish customer who kept the ornamented box instead of the precious pearl is a good example of this.155 In this regard, Han Fei viewed Confucian cultural rituals and Mohist dialectics as outer decorations. Instead, in Han Fei’s understanding, the “inner qualities” [质美 zhimei] hold the functional goodness. “What does it mean by ‘standing firm rather than flimsy’ [处其厚不处其薄 chu qihou buchu qibao]? It means to follow one’s true feelings instead of etiquette.”156 He believed that “to act according to the Way is the key to success in all ventures.”157 To Han Fei, the Way is the “common good” [公义 gongyi] and the law. Thus, the court and the people under the reign of worthy kings would “have less selfish thoughts and act according to the common good.”158 Unlike Confucius, Han Fei asserted that it is personal gains that dominate the common people’s pursuits in society: “The carriage makers hope that people are richer; the coffin makers hope for more death. It is not that the carriage makers are kind, or that the coffin makers are mean; it is that both wish to see their own businesses grow.”159 He viewed laws as the way to promote the common good and regulate pursuits of selfish desires. To him, all humans are born selfish, and personal gains are the basic consideration in interpersonal relationships. People look at what benefits them as beautiful and what harms them as ugly; their aesthetic judgment is deeply tainted by such self-interested considerations. 154 Han Fei. Chapter 34 “On Governing the Officials: III [外储说右上 Wai Chu Shuo Youshang]” in The Book of Han Fei Zi Annotated, annotated by Chen Qiyou, Shanghai People’s Press. 155 Han Fei. Chapter 32 “On Governing the Officials: III [外储说右上 Wai Chu Shuo Youshang]” in The Book of Han Fei Zi Annotated, annotated by Chen Qiyou, Shanghai People’s Press. 156 Han Fei. Chapter 20 “Commentary on Laozi’s Teachings I” [解老 Jie Lao] in The Book of Han Fei Zi Annotated, annotated by Chen Qiyou, Shanghai People’s Press. 157 Han Fei. Chapter 54 “Absurd Encouragements” [诡使 Guishi] in The Book of Han Fei Zi Annotated, annotated by Chen Qiyou, Shanghai People’s Press. 158 Han Fei. Chapter 19 “On Pretensions and Heresies: A Memorial” [饰邪 Shixie] in The Book of Han Fei Zi Annotated, annotated by Chen Qiyou, Shanghai People’s Press. 159 Han Fei. Chapter 17 “Guarding Against the Interior” [备内 Beinei] in The Book of Han Fei Zi Annotated, annotated by Chen Qiyou, Shanghai People’s Press.

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In response to this, Han Fei upheld the beauty of “common good” that is represented by the laws. Mo Zi: Beauty Is “Impartial Caring” and “Benefiting the People” As the founder of Mohism, a major school of thought during the Spring and Autumn period, Mo Zi promoted morality that is of utilitarian value to the common people, or morality that “benefits the people” [利民 limin]. Accordingly, he also proposed to go beyond selfish care and upheld “impartial caring” [兼爱 jianai]. Chapter 32 entitled “Condemning Music I” [Fei Yue Shang] in Mozi [The Book of Master Mo] contains Mo Zi’s thoughts on the nature of beauty: The business of those who are ren must be to seek diligently to promote what benefits the world and eliminate what harms it, so that they will be deemed models for the world. If they are benefiting people, they act. If they are not benefiting people, they stop.160

Those who are ren [renzhe] are those who are loving, kind, humane, and benevolent. Their deeds [renzhe zhi shi] must be good for the people. Music, sculptures, extravagant colors, delicacies, and luxury housing are not unpalatable to the senses, but they are usually at the cost of people’s wealth, that is why these things do not possess real beauty in Mo Zi’s understanding. Hence Mo Zi argues in the agenda of “Condemning Music”: Although the body knows its comforts, the mouth its sweetness, the eyes their beauty and the ears their music, nevertheless, when we examine these things in terms of the high, they do not accord with the business of the sage kings, and when we evaluate them in terms of the low, they do not accord with the benefits of ten thousand people. This is why Master Mo said: “Making music is to be condemned.”161

Based on the idea of “benefiting people as beauty,” Mo Zi wrote in Chapter 6 called “Eschewing Faults” [Ci Guo] that the sage kings made 160 Mo Zi. Chapter 2 in Mozi. 161 Mo Zi. Chapter 2 in Mozi.

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clothes and dwellings to improve people’s lives rather than to please the eyes.162 All kinds of pleasurable things can be pursued only when such pursuits do not cause burden to the people. This captures the utilitarian aesthetics in Mohist philosophy. Buddhism: Beauty Lies in Nirvana Buddhism was brought into ancient China from ancient India between the Western and Eastern Han dynasties. Buddhists believe that all the beauty of the mundane world is evanescent and illusive; eternal beauty is nirvana or Buddhist enlightenment. Using karma as the overarching paradigm, Buddhism sees an illusiveness in all kinds of alluring beauty in the material world. As said in Diamond S¯ utra [金刚般若经, Sanskrit: Vajracchedik¯a Prajñ¯ap¯aramit¯a S¯utra]: This is how to contemplate our conditioned existence in this fleeting world: Like a tiny drop of dew, or a bubble floating in a stream; Like a flash of lightning in a summer cloud, Or a flickering lamp, an illusion, a phantom, or a dream. So is all conditioned existence to be seen.163

Beauty in the material world is considered a phenomenon and an appearance. “R¯upa/Matter” [se] is empty. Hence, “beauty” is also considered empty. Meanwhile, Buddhism also repudiates “worldly wisdom”164 [俗 智 sushi] and “deluded/attached thoughts”165 [妄念 wangnian], for it deems that human feelings and desires spring from “anger and ignorance” [chenchi] rooted in the ignorance of the emptiness of reality. Thus, the pleasant feeling of aesthetic appreciation is also rejected as illusive obsession. Buddhism refuses material beauty and aesthetic indulgence, but it does not reject the ontology of beauty, which refers to the Buddhist way.

162 Mo Zi. Chapter 1 in Mozi. 163 Chapter 32 in Diamond S¯ utra. 164 Worldly wisdom refers to the common wisdom that blurs or blinds the mind from reality because of the latter’s illusiveness. William Edward Soothill and Lewis Hodous. A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms. 165 Deluded thoughts refer to the thoughts that are attached to the illusive appearance of things rather than the wisdom of nirvana.

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The Buddhist way is nirvana [涅槃 nirvan.a] in the objective aspect and bodhi [菩提 wisdom/awakening] in the subjective aspect. By reaching nirvana, one reaches a state of 寂灭 [jimie], where the flame of delusion is extinguished. It is a state of being empty and is thus the law of non-doing. Nirvana is the actualization of eternity. When humans reach the state of nirvana, “all their desires, anger, ignorance is eliminated, and they are free from worries.”166 Nirvana is untainted, refreshing, peaceful, serene, and pleasant. These qualities all point to an alternative aesthetics: the pleasure beyond pleasure. Buddhist aesthetics unveil eternal beauty beyond this worldly realm. The Buddhists made statues not out of extravagance of decoration but to “convey wisdom through the objects.”167 As can be concluded from this discussion, regardless of the difference in ideals about beauty, ancient Chinese philosophical schools emphasize the beauty of the idea over other forms of beauty.

The Nature-Following Spirit in Traditional Chinese Aesthetics In traditional Chinese aesthetics, beauty is considered the object of pleasure valued by the subject. The value derives from the fact that the specific object of pleasure is suitable to the nature of the aesthetic subject. It comes from balance kept between humans’ desire for enjoyment and their biological nature. Thus, such beauty lies in “following nature.” The Aesthetic Object Must Suit Human Nature “Suitability as beauty” has been repeatedly discussed in ancient Chinese aesthetics. Based on the nature of suitability, distinctions are made between the suitability of the subject and that of the object. The suitability of the subject refers to situation when the object suits the species nature of the subject. In other words, when the object matches the species attributes or individual needs generated by acquired customs of the aesthetic subject, a pleasurable emotional reaction is produced. Hence, the aesthetic subject recognizes it as beauty. When people praise

166 Rong Ahan S¯ utra [荣阿含经 Rong Ahan Jing], vol. 18. 167 Hui Jiaohao. “Explaining the Buddhist Teachings” [义解论 Yijie Lun] in Legends

of the Buddhist Masters [高僧传 Gaoseng Zhuan], vol. 9.

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the beauty of an aesthetic object, they normally describe it as “goodlooking,” “good-sounding,” or “good-tasting,” which typically manifests the beauty of subject suitability. As for suitability of the object, the relationship of fit and comfort between the object of beauty and the aesthetic subject not only exists among the Chinese, but also among Westerners. The Japanese philosopher Nakaji Kasahara used the concept of “aesthetics of empathy” to address this human tendency to take the contents of empathy as beautiful and those of antipathy as ugly. For example, “The English words derived from ‘agree’—agreement, agreeableness, and agreeability—convey the meanings of conformity, harmony, concord, and pleasantness. The French phrase ‘sensation agreable’ connotes ‘pleasurable sensation,’ and the German word ‘gafallen’ means ‘pleasing’ or ‘agreeable.’”168 The beauty of subject suitability can be further expressed in the following ways. The Object Suits the Species Nature of the Subject. If a certain object is suitable for the species nature of the subject, it will evoke a pleasant feeling in the subject, and thus be recognized as beautiful by all individuals of that species. For example, the light waves visible to humans have wavelengths between 400 and 760 nanometers, while the audible sound frequencies for humans vibrate at 20 to 20,000 times per second. If the light is too strong or too weak, or the sound is too loud or too low, nearing the limit of human sensory acceptance, it will produce an uncomfortable sense of pain. As Discourses of the States [Guoyu]169 stated: The ears and eyes are the pivot of the mind, so one must listen to harmonious sounds and see what is proper. By listening to harmonious music, one can hear clearly, and by seeing what is proper, one can see clearly.... If what is seen and heard is not harmonious and causes shaking and dizziness, then... how can there be enjoyment?170

Let’s take bell sounds as an example. Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals [Lüshi Chunqiu] proposes the requirement of “suitable sound” 168 Kasahara, Nakaji. The Aesthetic Ideas of Ancient Chinese, translated by Yang Ruowei (translated from Japanese into Chinese). Beijing: Joint Publishing Co. Ltd, 1988, p. 50. 169 Guoyu is an ancient Chinese text that consists of a collection of speeches attributed to rulers and other men from the Spring and Autumn period (771–476 BCE). 170 “The Speeches of Zhou” [Zhouyu] in Discourses of the States [Guoyu].

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that is best for the auditory organs: “Too loud, too quiet, too clear, too muddy, are all unsuitable… Only when it is suitable for listening can it be harmonious.”171 The extravagant music common in chaotic times, which satisfies the ruling class’s desires for extravagance and exceeds the certain measure that people can accept in terms of pitch and clarity, makes people uncomfortable and is thus considered ugly. The extravagant music played by wooden and leather instruments sounds like thunder, that played by bronze or stone instruments sounds like a roar; and be it played by bamboo instruments or sung by people, extravagant music is uproarious. Such kind of sound can startle human spirit, surprise human perception, and change human temperament. But there is no way that such sound can be treated as music that is supposed to spread joy.172

The principle also holds true for the aesthetic judgment of visual and gustatory objects, as is evident in the following excerpts: “If you hear too much noise, your ears will become deafened, and you will refuse to listen; if you see too much, your eyes will become blinded, and you will refuse to look; if you eat too much, your taste will become dulled, and you will refuse to eat.”173 “If the body is saturated with excess sweetness, sourness, bitterness, spiciness, or saltiness, it will lead to harm… From excessively cold, hot, dry, humid, windy, rainy, and foggy conditions cause harm.”174 “Ears, eyes, mouth, and mind follow the natural order. If you go against the natural order, you will harm yourself and end up with ‘blindness,’ ‘deafness,’ ‘dullness,’ and ‘madness.’”175 Those that exceed the threshold of sensory perception or disturb the core nature of life can only stimulate the senses and cause people to fall into madness; they are not considered possessors of real beauty and must be restrained. Therefore, Huainanzi asserts: “Those who understand the nature of the mind should not devote themselves to things that the mind cannot achieve; those who understand the nature of life should not worry about

171 “The Speeches of Zhou” [Zhouyu] in Discourses of the States [Guoyu]. 172 Lv, Buwei. “Extravagent Music” in Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals. 173 Lv, Buwei. “Chunsheng” in Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals. 174 Lv, Buwei. “Jinshu” in Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals. 175 Wang Bi. Chapter 12, in Laozi Daodejing Zhu [Annotations to “Tao Te Ching” by

Laozi].

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what they cannot control.”176 Traditional Chinese aesthetics discourages people from pursuing things that do not suit the core nature of life. Physiological responses of the senses have species-specific properties, and so do psychological responses of the central nervous system. This determines the commonality of such aesthetic pursuit. When objects correspond to the universal pursuit of the human spirit, they will evoke a spiritual pleasure in people and be recognized as beauty. The aesthetic recognition of the mind works in this way. The common aesthetic principle of the human mind is determined by moral values. Things that fulfill this principle bring great feelings of “satisfaction of the mind” and “harmony of the spirit.” Therefore, in ancient Chinese aesthetic theory, aesthetic sensibility is not in conflict with senses, as expressed in Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals: “to meet the heart’s desires, one must follow reason.”177 This is also expressed in Response to Tao Yinju: “If something pleases both the eye and the heart, then it is first class.”178 Kang Youwei revealed in his book The Book of Universal Harmony [Datongshu] that for all living beings with spiritual sensibility, there is a distinction between suitable and unsuitable things, aptness and maladaptation; because humans are intelligent and are capable of profound thinking, their perception of these distinctions is sensitive, and the aesthetic fulfillment of their mind or the central nervous system carries a particularly strong feeling. The Correspondence Between the Object and the Subject. Why does the object that corresponds to the subject’s species nature produce a feeling of happiness within the subject? In essence, the reason is that when the object and the subject are in a state of homomorphism, emotional resonance is generated, resulting in a pleasant response. The Book of Changes states: Notes of the same key respond to one another; creatures of the same nature seek one another; water flows towards the place that is [low and] damp; fire rises up towards what is dry; clouds follow the dragon, and winds follow

176 Liu An. “Grand Reunion” [Taizu) in Huainanzi 177 Lv Buwei. “Shiyin” in Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals. 178 Xiao Yan. Response to Tao Yinju

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the tiger: [so] the sage makes his appearance, and all men look to him. Things that draw their origin from heaven move towards what is above; things that draw their origin from the earth cleave to what is below – so does everything follow its kind.179

The words “towards” [就 jiu], “follow” [从 cong], and “close” [亲 qin] all refer to closeness and affinity. Hence, things always tend to gravitate towards other similar things. This view is supported by Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals and The Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals [Ch¯unqi¯u Fánlù]. While the former book asserted that “things of the same kind are attracted to each other; similar energies combine, and comparable sounds correspond,”180 the latter pointed out that “all things abandon their differences and follow their similarities. Similar energies will gather, and comparable sounds will correspond… Things are drawn together because of their similarities.”181 The ancient Chinese believe that even inorganic objects have a natural tendency to be close to its own kind, and it is more so for living beings. Natural beings structurally similar to humans are regarded as beautiful objects. Therefore, Ge Hong stated in the Taoist classic The Master Who Embraces Simplicity [Baopuzi]: “It is natural for one to like what is akin and dislike what is unrelated; he values what suits him and disregards what doesn’t.”182 Liu Xie described the phenomenon of object-subject communication and homomorphism in aesthetic creation as “the eyes move and the heart breathes” and “feelings seem to be given, and emotions come in response.”183 Aesthetic theories in the Song dynasty reiterated the “unity of nature and human” and the homomorphism of object and subject. For example, as pointed out by Guo Ruoxu, an artist active in the eleventh century, only those with “heart of the forests and springs” can truly appreciate the beauty of mountains and rivers. In analyzing why people love landscape paintings, he said:

179 Chapter 14 in The Book of Changes. 180 Chapter 1 in Master Lü’s Spring and Autumn Annals. 181 Chapter 1 in The Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals. 182 Ge Hong. Chapter 4 in The Master Who Embraces Simplicity [Baopuzi]. 183 Lu Xie. The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons 10:46:5.

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Why do gentlemen love mountain and river scenery? It is because of their peace-loving nature. Gardens and orchards are where they often stay; springs, stones, and birds are where they are often happy; fishing, woodcutting, and reclining are where they often feel at ease; monkeys and cranes are what they often feel close to.Dust, noise, and chains are what they usually dislike; fairy mountains and saints are what humans desire to see but cannot.… But now, with marvelous brushwork, they are brought out, and not inferior to the grand banquets, and one can sit amid gorges and marvel at them. The sound of monkeys and birds echoes in one’s ears, and the splendor of the mountains and waters burst before the eyes. How can this not satisfy one’s desires and truly capture one’s heart? This is why landscape paintings are so highly regarded.184

Similarly, Xin Qiji wrote in the lyrics to the song “Congratulating the Newlyweds”185 : “Seeing the green mountains so graceful, I expect that they see me the same way.” The reason why the green mountains are “graceful” is that “I” see sentience in the mountains. Tang Zhixie (1579–1651), an artist in the Ming dynasty, proposed the notion of “the temperament of mountains and waters,” revealing that “the sentiment of the mountains is my sentiment, and the nature of the mountains is my nature.”186 Liao Yan, a scholar in the Qing dynasty, described the situation of resonance between things and the self as “the sentiment scatters and turns into all things, and all things gathered become the sentiment.”187 Thus, art is considered the product of resonance between aesthetic objects and inner feelings. There are two ways that beauty draws from resonance between the subject and the object. First, resonance between the object’s formal structure and the physiological structure of the subject’s senses results in formal beauty. This is exemplified by well-known sayings such as “Notes of the same key respond to one another.” Second, harmony between the object’s physical structure and the subject’s psychological and ethical value structure results in moral beauty. The ancients valued those who

184 Guo Xi. “The Lessons from the Mountains and Waters” in Lofty Messages of Forests and Streams. 185 Xin Qiji. “Congratulating the Newlyweds”. 186 Tang Zhixie. Subtle Words on the Activity of Painting [Huishi Weiyan]. 187 Liao Yan. “Epigraphs on Li Qian’s Thirty-Five Poems on Autumn” in Collected

Works Written in the Hall of Twenty-Seven Pine Trees, vol. 8.

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shared their moral values as “fellow travelers,” “kindred spirits,” or “soulmates,” believing that “those who do not share the same values cannot work together.” They also believed that “a thousand cups of wine are too few when shared with a true friend, but a single word is too much if conversing with someone who does not share the same value.”188 All of these demonstrate that something is considered beautiful when it connects with and reinforces the subject’s moral values. The Object Suits the Individual needs of the Subject. The beauty in an object’s “appropriateness” also implies that if a particular object suits the individual’s nurtured preference, it will evoke great pleasure in that individual and be recognized as beautiful. Liu Xie’s example in the Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons captured this idea well: “The passionate praises words with passion, and the reserved admires well-organized writings; the superficial rejoices at flowery language, and the inquisitive wonders at strange stories.”189 Aesthetic subjects have different functional needs according to their characteristics and customs. If the object meets their needs and fulfills their goals, it will produce an affinity between the subject and object, resulting in a joyous feeling that the subject perceives as beautiful. The beauty of “appropriateness” was made clear by the following examples in Liu Zhou’s (514–565) work: Things can be considered beautiful or ugly and that depends on whether they are appropriately used. There is neither constant beauty nor absolute ugliness. When a purple marten or a white fox is used to make fur clothes, it is luxurious like clouds, and dazzling like a jade, such is the beauty of fur coat. When wild grasses are woven into raincoats, and the leaves are gently latched together, the color is dull and it appears lifeless, yet that is the goodness about straw clothes. Regardless of their difference in forms, fur coats and raincoats are both for wearing. Although different in their looks, they achieve the same result when they are appropriately used. When a person lives in a nice mansion, a fur coat looks better on him than a straw raincoat, but a straw raincoat is better than a fur coat for snowy and rainy scenarios. Suitability should always be considered so that functions can be fulfilled at the right moment.190 188 Ouyang Xiu. “Verses for My Friend Xie Facao on a Spring Day” [春日西湖寄谢法

曹韵].

189 Liu Xie. Chapter 48 “Zhi Yin” [知音] in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons 190 Liu Zhou. “Shicai” [适才] in The Works of Master Liu [刘子 Liuzi].

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Therefore, according to traditional Chinese aesthetics, whether something is beautiful or not depends on the subject’s needs and preferences, and things can be used in their best ways according to the principle of appropriateness. An Object’s Natural State Creates Beauty Since things are considered beautiful when they suit the subject’s nature, humans tend to transform things according to their own needs. This practice has led to the destruction of ecology, which eventually threatened human survival. As a result, it is necessary to break free from anthropocentrism and stand on an equal footing with all things, respect the inherent nature and the right to live of each species, and enter the realm of “beautiful for all, beauty shared by all.” This will become a higher pursuit of beauty that surpasses the narrow-minded aesthetics of the subject’s nature. As early as two thousand years ago, Zhuangzi satirized the foolishness of humans who treated other animals using human standards: Once upon a time, a seabird stopped at the outskirts of the Lu state. The Lord of Lu greeted it with a chariot and a cup of wine in the temple. He entertained the bird with the music of the Nine Songs and offered it a sumptuous feast of meat. Yet the bird was befuddled and sad; it refused to eat or drink and died three days later. That is because it was treated in the way humans want to be treated, not in the way a bird wishes to be treated.

Even though the Lord of Lu treated the seabird like he would treat deities, its death could not be avoided. It is in the nature of nonhumans that all things are beautiful in their own way regardless of human desire. If we comply with the inherent nature of all species, even if it conflicts with human needs, humans should consider the larger picture, restrain their self-centeredness, and recognize the beauty that springs not from the subject’s need but from the inherent nature of nonhuman beings. The Theory of Beauty in the Object’s Suitability to Its Nature. Zhuangzi once made an important argument that the beauty of the object derives from suiting its own nature. He emphasized “self-adaptation to nature’s suitability” [自适其适], which means that by living in accordance with one’s own vital nature, one may achieve the ideal state of

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“free and ease” [xiaoyao]. Similar expressions include “allowing oneself to be governed by one’s vital nature” [任其性命之情], “settling down with one’s vital nature” [安其性命之情], and “keeping one’s vital nature” [不 失其性命之情]. “Qing” means “reality” in this context. The former two phrases mean that all things should follow and adapt themselves to their own vital reality, while the latter one means that all things must not lose their own vital reality. Take animals, for example: the white-foreheaded oxen and high-nosed pigs are deemed to be deformed and thus ominous and unworthy of being sacrificial offerings. But these very traits bring “great auspiciousness” in Zhuangzi’s thinking, for they allow the animals to preserve their vital reality. Another example is trees. According to Zhuangzi, because some trees are poisonous or not useful as wood, they “succeed in living out their natural term of years,” which demonstrates “the greater use of uselessness.” Conversely, “the Osmanthus tree that gets chopped down for cinnamon is edible; the lacquer tree that gets cut for its sap is useful. People generally know about the goodness in usefulness yet do not recognize the virtue in uselessness.”191 In the same vein, the “true men” and “wise men” Zhuangzi praised are far from perfect; they are not only physically deformed but also morally deficient in terms of benevolence and righteousness, and thus do not play a big role in society. It is precisely because of this that they can preserve their own vital nature and live according to their own temperament. Guo Xiang (c. 252–312) further developed this aesthetic ideal in his Annotations on Zhuangzi: “The nature of things should not be restrained and people’s duties should not be inconsistent with their abilities; everyone may enjoy carefree freedom as long as they live according to their own nature.”192 He added, “although what is beautiful may differ, they still share beauty in their disparate ways of beauty; each is beautiful in its own way, so all things are beautifully united.”193 All things are different in nature and the beauty that comes from being suitable to nature is presented in different ways. 191 Zhuangzi. “Man in the World, Associated with Other Men” [Renjian shi] in Inner Chapters in Zhuangzi. 192 Guo Xiang. “Annotations on Xiao-yao You” in Annotations on Zhuangzi [庄子注 Zhuangzi Zhu]. 193 Guo Xiang. “Annotations on De-Chong-Fu” in Annotations on Zhuangzi [庄子注 Zhuangzi Zhu].

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The Beauty of Suitability Is Diverse. The beauty of suitability is diverse because the nature of things is different. For example, different species have different preferences for gustatory delights. “Men eat animals that have been fed on grain and grass; deer feed on the thick-set grass; centipedes enjoy small snakes; owls and crows delight in mice; but does any one of the four know the right taste?”194 Zhuangzi further stated that the perception of beauty varies with the nature of the subjects and that there is no universally recognized beauty. Another allegory in Zhuangzi illustrates this: If the music of the Jiu-shao or the Xian-chi were performed in the wild of the Dongting Lake, birds would fly away, and beasts would run off when they heard it, and fishes would dive down to the bottom of the water; while men, when they hear it, would come all round together, and look on. Fishes live and men die in the water. They are different in constitution, and therefore differ in their likes and dislikes.195

The music that humans enjoy may not be liked by other animals. In the same way, the material that other animals like may be fatal to humans. Different animals have different species properties, so their preferences and judgments regarding beauty will naturally differ. In this regard, there is no such thing as a higher or lower aesthetic form. Instead, all forms should be respected. Zhuangzi particularly emphasized that “the perfectly correct path is not to lose the real character of the nature with which we are endowed.” For instance, the legs of wild ducks may be considered short compared to the legs of cranes, but they are suitable to the natural tendencies of wild ducks, so extending them would actually be harmful. From the perspective of wild ducks, the legs of cranes may be considered too long, but they satisfy the needs of cranes and are thus best for cranes. In the realm of human society, likewise, an excessive focus on money, career, and moral reputation does not fulfill the needs of human nature. The pursuit of fame and success at the expense of life’s natural state is a foolish act that follows not one’s own needs but that of others.196 In recognizing and affirming

194 Zhuangzi. “Inner Chapters: The Adjustment of Controversies” in Zhuangzi. 195 Zhuangzi. “Inner Chapters: Perfect Enjoyment” in Zhuangzi. 196 Zhuangzi. “Outer Chapters: Webbed Toes” in Zhuangzi.

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the diversity of beauty, Zhuangzi raised an all-encompassing proposition that the wise way is not to require uniformity. Guo Xiang further elaborated and developed the idea of “not clinging to the constant.”197 In his commentary on “Inner Chapter 1: Enjoyment in Untroubled Ease,” he used the examples of a great roc and a small bird to illustrate that all things are equal when in harmony with their natures: The big bird flies away and rests near Lake Tian for half a year; the small bird flies for half a morning and comes to rest on a branch of elm. Though there is a difference in their accomplishments, they are alike in conforming to their natures.

He further argued in Commentary on Zhuangzi that: If something is of a small essence, it does not need to be big; whereas if something is of a big essence, it cannot be made small. Thus, reason has its ultimate limits, and things have their inevitable bounds, and each is sufficient for its function. This is to achieve unity.

In his commentary on “Inner Chapter 2: The Adjustment of Controversies,” Guo Xiang stated that: If everything conforms to its nature, then even a speck of dust would not seem small, and even Mount Tai would not seem big. If we evaluate things according to their fitness to their nature, there is nothing more fit than a speck of dust in the world; and if fitness is not a criterion of greatness, then Mount Tai can be regarded as small.

From the perspective of “conforming to one’s nature is beauty,” both a speck of dust and Mount Tai share the beauty of self-satisfaction. Each person’s length of life and endowed fortune are different, but as long as they follow their own nature and fully realize their abilities, there is no need to envy what seems to be good in others. Guo Xiang asserted in Commentary on Zhuangzi:

197 Guo Xiang. Commentary on “Inner Chapter 1: Enjoyment in Untroubled Ease”.

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If one is content with one’s natural tendencies and lives at ease, then even Heaven and Earth do not make his life seem transient, for he lives along with Heaven and Earth; and even all living beings are essentially one with him, for he lives among all living beings.

Liu Zhou further supplemented: “If a sparrow aspires to fly like an eagle, if a dog or a sheep aspires to rush like a horse, it is obvious that it would not work.”198 The wisdom lies in appreciating what is given by nature and making it your strength. Since conforming to one’s own nature produces beauty, artistic creation should also be adaptive and not restricted by rigid rules. For instance, Su Shi (1137–1101) proposed that writing should “flow like water” [随物赋形 suiwu fuxing], using the most apt form, techniques, and rhetorical devices according to the motifs, themes, and emotions. In “A Letter in Response to Xie Mingshi,” he praised Xie’s writings by saying that they were “generally like flowing clouds and water, without a fixed form, typically moving along the proper course but stopping where they cannot help but stop, exhibiting natural literary expressions and postures.” Fan Wen, another scholar in the Song dynasty, explained this using the philosophy of Neo-Confucianism that states that literary writing should follow li [principle]. To him, literary works can only be subtle and ingenuous if it follows the principle and works that do not follow the principle end up as tedious prattle.199 Advocating for Natural Beauty That Complies with Nature. The essence of beauty lies in respecting the intrinsic nature of all things, which means respecting the vital essence of all creatures. Therefore, it is an essential aspect of Zhuangzi’s philosophy to see life or the natural state of beings as the embodiment of beauty. As the saying goes, “plainness and simplicity are second to none in the world.” This aesthetic thought has far-reaching influence in Chinese culture and has countless followers. Among them is Gong Zizhen (1792–1841), a notable figure for his criticism of “sick plum blossoms.” During Gong’s time, it was common for plum tree salesmen in the Jiangsu and Zhejiang regions to bend plum branches during cultivation, in order to appeal to the literati’s aesthetic taste for inclination. Highly critical of this trend, Gong bought three hundred bonsai plum trees and pledged to help the “sick trees” recover. 198 Liuzhou. “Junren” [均任] in The Work of Master Liu. 199 Fan Wen. The Poetic Eyes [潜溪诗眼 Qianzi Shiyan].

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After grieving for three days, he vowed to cure them, let them grow freely, and treat them with respect. By destroying the pots and planting the trees in the ground, he released the constraints on them. He promised to restore them to health within a five-year period.200 In his view, the truly beautiful trees are those that grow naturally and preserve their inherent vitality. Beauty is about thriving and vibrant things, and the vital energy and dynamic charm are emphasized in ancient Chinese aesthetics. Therefore, the idea of fitting one’s nature is advocating for the kind of health and ecological aesthetics in which the inherent life of all creatures gets to expand naturally. Such aesthetic attitude affirms the right of each species to exist so that all living beings can share and enhance beauty in one another. In summary, it is obvious that the spirit of suitability in traditional Chinese aesthetics requires both catering to the needs of humans and conforming to nature. It advocates striking a balance between respecting the nature of the aesthetic object and suiting the species’ attributes or individual characteristics to the aesthetic subject. Broadly speaking, this is also in line with the cultural paradigm of “unity of human and nature.”

200 Gong Zhizhen. “Record of Sick Plum Blossom Garden” in The Complete Works of Gong Zizhen, Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 1975, p. 186.

CHAPTER 3

The Confucian Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics

Confucian aesthetics is an important component of traditional Chinese culture. Indeed, it made significant contributions to the creation of the spirit of traditional Chinese aesthetics. The main forms of the Confucian spirit in traditional Chinese aesthetics are constituted by the spirit of “virtue comparison” [比德 bi de] in natural beauty, the spirit of “moral integrity” [fenggu 风骨] in character beauty, the spirit of “balanced harmony” [中和 zhonghe] in social beauty, the spirit of “regulation” [ 节制 jiezhi] in emotional beauty, the spirit of “pensiveness and concerns” [沉郁 chenyu] in artistic and inner beauty, and the pursuit for “being purposive” [中的 zhongdi] in literary beauty.

Confucians on the Spirit of “Virtue Comparison” in Natural Beauty “Virtue comparison” is one of the foundations of traditional Chinese aesthetics. It is believed that natural objects possess aesthetic traits that can be compared to human virtues or serve as symbols of human morality. This is why “natural” is considered “beautiful.” The essence of natural beauty does not lie in the natural attributes of objects, but in the moral significance that the natural objects symbolize.

© Shanghai People’s Publishing House 2024 Z. Qi, The Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-8791-7_3

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Confucius on “Virtue Comparison” The beauty in comparing nature to virtue is evident in Confucius’ statement about the preference for either the mountains or the water of “the wise” and “the benevolent.” In The Analects 6.23, Confucius said: “The wise find pleasure in water; the benevolent find pleasure in mountains. The wise are active; the benevolent are quiet. The wise are joyful; the benevolent are long-lived.” Zhu Xi [朱熹] interpreted zhi [知] as “wisdom.” Confucius intended to explain the different characteristics of “the wise” and “the benevolent.” In doing so, he also pointed out the Confucian aesthetic view of natural beauty regarding mountains and rivers. People, with different spiritual qualities, have different aesthetic preferences and also identify differently with natural mountains and rivers. The natural beauty of mountains and rivers lies in their analogy and isomorphism with the moral spirit of aesthetic subjects. Why do “the benevolent” find pleasure and beauty in mountains? In The Commentaries on the Book of History [Shangshu Dazhuan 尚书大传], Confucius once answered a question raised by Zi Zhang [子张]: Mountains are where grasses and trees grow, birds and animals thrive, and wealth is accumulated. They create wealth but do not spend it selfishly. People from all around come to cut wood and hunt, yet there is always enough for everyone. Rains and clouds connect heaven and earth, in this way, yin 阴 and yang 阳 complement each other, the rains keep everything moist, then everything is formed and people are offered food and drinks, and this is the reason why the benevolent find pleasure in mountains.

Liu Baonan [刘宝楠] in his Annotations to The Analects [论语正义 Lunyu Zhengyi] stated that “the benevolent find pleasure in mountains… meaning that the benevolent regard virtue as comparable to the mountains and therefore find pleasure in them.” Why do the wise find pleasure in water, or see beauty in it? Liu Baonan borrowed Confucius’ words: “Water is what the noble person compares himself to.” What “virtue” does the noble person compare to water? Bao Xian’s [包咸] annotation to “the wise find pleasure in water” was that “the wise enjoy using their

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talents and wisdom for governance, just like water flows without knowing it.”1 Han Yin [韩婴] explained in the third volume of his Supplementary Annotations to Han Yin’s Poems [韩诗外传] that: Water flows in accordance with certain rules but does not stick to the tiny piece of land, like the wise; it moves down, like the polite; undoubtedly flows into the deep, like the brave; it gets clearer where there are obstacles, like those who understand their destiny without destruction, like the virtuous. Water enables heaven and earth to be there; for all created things to live in the nation, to be peaceful, and for people to have proper characters. These are the reasons why the wise find pleasure in water.

The Analects 9.17 says, “While standing by a river, the Master said, ‘its passing is just like this [flow of water], and does not cease day and night.’” Liu Baonan explained in Annotations to The Analects that Confucius implied that “a wise man cultivates his virtue and refines his achievements with unceasing diligence, just like water [that] constantly flows.” Similar expressions of Confucius have been recorded in the chapter of “Three Ways of Reciprocity” of The Family Discourses of Confucius [孔子家语 · 三恕 Kongzijiayu. Sanshu] in Xunzi 28, the chapter of “Exhortation to Study” of Elder Dai’s Records of the Book of Rites [大戴礼记 · 劝学 Dadai Liji. Quanxue], and the chapter of “Miscellaneous Words” of the Garden of Sayings [杂言 · 说苑 Zayan. Shuo Yuan]. The Analects 9.28 also states: “Confucius said, only after experiencing the winter do we know that pine and cypress are the last to lose their leaves.” Confucius spoke these words to Zilu [子路] during a difficult time in Chen [陈] and Cai [蔡]. He used the endurance of pine and cypress in the cold as a metaphor for his steadfast adherence to the path of benevolence and righteousness and his ability to maintain his virtuous character in times of hardship. Xunzi. Dalüe [荀子 · 大略] said: A gentleman does not get lost although he is obstructed and thwarted, does nothing improper although he is weary from toil, does not forget

1 This is a quote from Zhong Zi’ao’s [钟子翱] “The Theory of ‘Comparative Virtue’ in Pre-Qin Aesthetics” [论先秦美学中的 “比德” 说] in Research on the History of Ancient Chinese Aesthetics [中国古代美学史研究], Fudan University Press, 1983.

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those simple yet valuable doctrines in times of hardship. Without experiencing the cold of winter, one cannot appreciate the resilience of pine and cypress trees; without facing hardships, one cannot recognize a true gentleman; every day is a test of one’s character.

This is the full quotation for the saying, “Only after experiencing the winter do we know that pine and cypress are the last to lose their leaves.” According to legend, Confucius edited The Book of Songs [诗经 Shijing ], which is a compilation of court music and folk songs from the early Western Zhou dynasty to the middle of the Spring and Autumn period. During the Zhou dynasty, the concept of ruling by virtue had become quite dominant, and moral inclination was ubiquitous, even to the point of considering it as the integration with “heaven.” It was also seen in the aesthetic appreciation of nature. The Book of Songs contains a large number of natural descriptions, which includes both the beauty of form derived from sensory pleasure and the beauty of images [物象 wuxiang] derived from moral analogies. For example, the phrase “my husband of good character, gentle as jade” in Qinfeng . Xiaorong [秦风 · 小戎] compares the virtue of a husband to the beauty of jade, exemplifying the use of natural images to express moral sentiment in ancient Chinese culture. The expression “dignified and contented, as mountains and rivers” in Yongfeng. Junzixielao [鄘风 · 君 子偕老] is a metaphor for the beauty of the deceased husband’s character. Xiaoya. Jiebinanshan [小雅 · 节彼南山] compares the majesty of Shiyin to towering mountains and steep cliffs with the lines “amidst the southern mountains stands a rocky cliff. People look up to Shiyin in reverence, as they would to a towering mountain.” Liu Xie [刘勰] in the Bi Xing [比兴] chapter of the book The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons [文心雕龙 Wen Xin Diao Long] analyzed the characteristic of “virtue comparison” in The Book of Songs by pointing out that: Waterfowls are different in male and female, which is used to imply the virtue of noble ladies; cuckoos are single-minded, which is used to liken the righteousness of the ladies; gold and tin are used to liken the virtues of a gentleman; jade and ceremonial bronze are used to liken the education of the people... that one’s mind cannot be curved like mats is used to liken the firmness of ambition.

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Liu indicated that many poems in The Book of Songs compare moral virtues to natural objects, which is in line with reality. Many works in The Book of Songs explicitly associate “mountains” with the virtues and achievements of the benevolent, such as Lusong. Huigong [鲁颂 · 閟宫], Zhousong. Tianzuo [周颂 · 天作], and Daya. Songgao [大雅 · 崧高]. Although there is no specific poem in The Book of Songs that links “water” to the pleasure of the wise, there are poems that associate the depiction of water with the expression of human pleasure, such as Qifeng. Zaiqu [齐风 · 载驱] and Tangfeng. Yangzishui [唐风 · 扬子水].2 This indicates that the practice of using natural objects as analogues for human attributes existed in the aesthetic practices of the Zhou people before Confucius, and this may be considered as the source of Confucius’ idea of “virtue comparison.” Mencius on “Virtue Comparison” Taking morality as beauty is a basic aesthetic view of Mencius. In Mencius 6A.7, it is stated that, “Thus reason and rightness please my heart in the same way as meat pleases my palate.”3 This clearly shows that moral righteousness can bring a pleasurable sensation akin to that of enjoying delicious food, and is the highest form of beauty. In Mencius 7B.25, it is said, “One who is filled with goodness is called beauty.” What kind of “goodness” is considered beautiful? In the context of Mencius’ overall philosophy, it refers to the richness of morality. Mencius aimed to illustrate that without a moral heart, one cannot be considered human; only with a moral heart can one be a perfect person. Mencius, in his appreciation of natural beauty, shared the characteristic of ethical universalism with Confucius. Mencius 4B.18 states: Xuzi said, “More than once Confucius expressed his admiration for water by saying, ‘Water! Oh, water!’ What was it he saw in water?” Mencius answered, “Water from an ample source comes tumbling down, day and 2 See Li Zehou [李泽厚] and Liu Gangji’s [刘纲纪] The History of Chinese Aesthetics [ 中国美学史], vol. 1, China Social Sciences Press, 1984, pp. 145–146. 3 Translator’s note: In this book, the translations of The Analects and Mencius are

mainly based on several books. See D. C. Lau, trans., The Analects, New York: Penguin Books, 1979; D. C. Lau, trans., Mencius, New York: Penguin Books, 2004; James Legge, trans., Han Ying Sishu 汉英四书 [The Chinese/English Four Books], ed. and annot., Liu Zhongde 刘重德 and Luo Zhiye 罗志野, Changsha: Hunan Chubanshe, 1992. In all cases, I have changed the romanization to pinyin.

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night without ceasing, going forward only after all the hollows are filled, and then draining into the sea. Anything that has an ample source is like that. What Confucius saw in water is just this and nothing more. If a thing has no source, it is like the rainwater that collects after a downpour in the seventh and eighth months. It may fill all the gutters, but we can stand and wait for it to dry up. Thus, a gentleman is ashamed of an exaggerated reputation.”

In borrowing Confucius’ explanation of “what was it he saw in water,” Mencius expressed his own view of the beauty of water. The beauty of water lies in its inexhaustibly “ample source,” as well as in its solid and gradual progress, just like how a “gentleman” has a profound moral “foundation” and progresses in moral cultivation step by step. In Mencius 7A.24, it is also stated: When he ascended the Eastern Mount, Confucius felt that the state of Lu was small, and when he ascended Mount Tai, he felt that the Empire was small. Likewise, it is difficult for water to come up to the expectation of someone who has seen the sea, and it is difficult for words to come up to the expectation of someone who has studied under a sage. There is a way to observe water. Watch for its ripples. When the sun and moon shine, the light shows up in the least crack that will admit it. Flowing water is such that it does not go further forward until it has filled all the hollows. A gentleman, in his pursuit of the Way, does not get there unless he achieves a beautiful pattern.

Mencius used his own understanding to elaborate on Confucius’ way to observe water: “Flowing water is such that it does not go further forward until it has filled all the hollows.” And this is just like: “A gentleman, in his pursuit of the Way, does not get there unless he achieves a beautiful pattern.” Xunzi on “Virtue Comparison” In the late Warring States period, Xunzi inherited Confucius’ ideas and used his words to express a view of nature that “virtue comparison” is beauty. In Xunzi. Youzuo, water is compared with virtue: Confucius looked at the waterway flowing eastward. Zigong asked Confucius, “Why is it that whenever a gentleman sees a large waterway, he is

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sure to gaze intently at it?” When the waterway is large, it provides for the various living things in an all-encompassing fashion, without any ulterior motive – this resembles virtue. Its flow is toward sunken and low places, and even through curves and bends it is sure to follow this pattern – this resembles yi. Its gushing current is never depleted or exhausted – this resembles the Way. If someone opens a channel for it to go through, its response is as swift as an echo, and it rushes at crevasses a hundred fathoms deep without fear – this resembles courage. When it pours into a basin, it is sure to achieve a balanced, level state – this resembles following proper models. When it fills up a place, one does not need a levelling stick – this resembles adhering to correctness. Being soft and supple, it reaches into even minute spaces – this resembles keen discernment. By going into and out of it, one uses it to become fresh and clean – this resembles being transformed to goodness. Even through ten thousand turns, it is sure to head east – this resembles having settled intentions. For these reasons, whenever a gentleman sees a large waterway, he is sure to gaze intently at it.”4

This is the most specific interpretation of Confucius’ “the wise find pleasure in water.” In Xunzi 30, it is stated: Zigong asked Confucius, “Why is it that the gentleman honors jade yet considers min of low value? Is it because jade is rare, and min is common?” Confucius said, “Ah, Duanmu Ci, what words are these? How would a gentleman consider something to be of low value merely because it is common, and honor something merely because it is rare! As for jade, the gentleman compares it with virtue. The way it is warm, smooth, and lustrous resembles ren. The way it has structure and contains patterns resembles wisdom. The way it is firm and unyielding resembles yi. The way it is sharp but does not cut resembles proper conduct. The way it can be broken but does not bend resembles courage. The way that even its flaws are visible resembles genuineness. In the way that when struck, its sound is pure, rises high, and can be heard far away, but when it stops, it finishes completely, resembles proper speech. Thus, though there is ornately decorated min, it is not as good as the elegance of jade. The Ode says, ‘Oh how I long for my gentleman! So warm is he, like jade!’ This expresses my meaning.”

4 Translator’s note: The translation of Xunzi in this book mainly refers to Eric L. Hutton, trans., Xunzi: The Complete Text, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2014.

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Confucius used “jade” as a comparison to virtue, which was not seen in The Analects or Mencius , but seen in the chapter “Water Ground” of Guanzi. Shuidi [管子 · 水地]: The reason why jade is considered precious is because it possesses nine virtues: it is warm and moist to the touch, which represents benevolence; it is clear and smooth, which represents wisdom; it is hard but not brittle, which represents righteousness; it is distinct in its edges and corners yet harmless, which represents the moral character of jade; it has a bright luster and is flawless, which represents refinement and honesty; its colors and patterns are diverse but harmonious, which represents the quality of tolerance; when struck, it produces a clear and resonant sound, which represents propriety. Therefore, the rulers value it, treasuring it as a precious object, cutting it into talismans, and these nine virtues are embodied in it.

In Xunzi 32, there is a record of Confucius using “soil” to illustrate virtues. Zigong posed a question for Confucius, saying, “I will be someone’s subordinate, but I do not yet know how to conduct myself.” Confucius replied: Being a person’s subordinate? Is this not like the ground? If one digs deeply into it, one will obtain a sweet spring from it. If one plants on it, the five grains will grow from it. Grasses and trees multiply upon it, and birds and beasts are nourished upon it. When one lives, one stands upon it. When one dies, one enters into it. It provides bountiful merits without cease. To be a person’s subordinate, is this not like the ground?

Confucius required Zigong to learn the moral character of “being a person’s subordinate” and “providing bountiful merits without cease.” This is the analogy of using “soil” to compare with virtues. Xunzi, through his narratives of Confucius, expressed his belief that “virtue comparison” is beauty. He also creatively used the method of “virtue comparison” to depict the artistic images of natural objects. In Xunzi 26, he praised “clouds” as a symbol of moral ideals by saying: The garden is regulated by the compass, the square, and the ruler, and it participates in the great patterns of heaven and earth. It possesses the virtues of Yao and Shun, and... its virtues are abundant and never abandoned, and it displays all five colors in a harmonious way.

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He also praised “silkworms” by saying: Its achievements are known throughout the world; it is a model for all ages; it creates harmony through rituals and music, and distinguishes between high and low. It takes care of the old and young, and preserves them only after caring for them.

“Clouds” and "silkworms" thus became symbols of moral ideals and were seen as beautiful. Dong Zhongshu [董仲舒] on “Virtue Comparison” In the Han dynasty, Dong Zhongshu inherited Confucius’ aesthetic view of “virtue comparison.” In the chapter “A Verse to the Mountains and Rivers” [山川颂 Shanchuan Song] of Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals [春秋繁露 Chunqiu Fanlu], he reaffirmed that the beauty of mountains and water lies in their symbolism of the moral cultivation and achievements of “virtuous and ambitious people.” Regarding “mountains,” he said: Mountains and rivers are established as deities; they produce treasures and cultivate resources, and their twists and turns conform to the principles of harmony and balance. The large ones can be used for palaces and pavilions, while the small ones can be used for boats and carriages. Every part of them can be used, and they serve different purposes. They can be cut down with an axe or harvested with a sickle. They are a source of life for humans and a place for animals to rest in death. Despite their great accomplishments, they remain humble, and that is why a gentleman uses them as metaphors. Moreover, mountains are formed by accumulated earth, and no loss is incurred. They become taller without causing harm and bigger without any loss. They are small at the top and broad at the bottom, and they will last for a long time and will never be abandoned by future generations. They stand alone, embodying the spirit of mountains.

And this is what he said regarding “water”: Water is like a natural spring, constantly flowing day and night without exhaustion, resembling the strength of a person. It fills up and flows evenly, resembling the impartiality of a person. It flows down the smallest gaps and crevices, resembling the vigilance of a person. It follows the stream

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without losing its way and can travel a thousand miles without fail, resembling the wisdom of a person. It can clear and purify itself, and can turn impurities into purity, resembling the virtue of a person. It can plunge into a thousand-foot abyss without hesitation, resembling the bravery of a person. All things are defeated by fire, but water alone can overcome it, resembling the power of a warrior. Everything needs it to live, and everything dies without it, resembling the importance of virtue.

During the Han dynasty, scholars favored the objective method of comparison in their ways of thinking. Under this way of thinking, the world and the mind, heaven and human, were in a system of homomorphism and mutual influence. Dong Zhongshu believed that “beautiful things call for beautiful categories, and ugly things call for ugly categories,” and “objects naturally call for similar objects.” The beauty of mountains and waters is precisely the product of the physical characteristics of mountains and waters and the moral pursuit of the aesthetic subject, which are similar to each other, call for each other, and interact with each other. Liu Xiang [刘向] on “Virtue Comparison” Liu Xiang was a scholar and writer in the later period of the Western Han dynasty. His book Shuo Yuan 说苑 [Collection of Stories] classifies and edits historical events and legends from the Pre-Qin period to the early Han dynasty, mixed with discussions to illustrate Confucianism as the main theme. The book provides a comprehensive explanation of Confucius’ saying, “The benevolent find pleasure in the mountains, the wise find pleasure in the water.” In Shuo Yuan. Za Yan [说苑 · 杂言], it is stated: Zigong asked, “Why do gentlemen always look at big rivers?” Confucius replied, “Because gentlemen compare themselves to rivers. They are ubiquitous and impartial, like the virtuous. They give life to all things, like the benevolent. Their lowly and humble path follows the natural order, like the righteous. Shallow rivers flow wide, while deep rivers are calm and reserved, like the wise. They plunge into the deepest valleys without hesitation, like the courageous. They can be expansive and gentle, yet penetrating and profound; this is the ability to observe the subtlest things. They receive all impurities without complaint, just like the magnanimous heart of the wise.

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They enter dirty and come out clean; this is the ability to educate and transform. They always keep to the right measure, which shows propriety. They never exceed their capacity, which shows moderation. They always persevere towards the sea, which shows determination. This is why gentlemen always look at big rivers.

In response to the question, “Why do the wise find pleasure in water?” Confucius said: Because the spring source is inexhaustible day and night, it resembles strength. Following principles and moving without missing anything, it resembles equanimity. Flowing downward with a sense of propriety, it resembles courtesy. Daringly plunging into a thousand-foot abyss without hesitation, it resembles courage. Clearing and purifying as it flows through barriers, it resembles understanding destiny. Entering impure and exiting pure, it resembles purification. When people take it evenly and regulate their qualities justly, all living things flourish. When they have it and perish when they don’t, it resembles virtue. Profound and unfathomable, it resembles sagehood. It pervades and moistens between heaven and earth, and completes a country. This is why the wise take pleasure in water.

To the question, “And why do the virtuous find pleasure in mountains?” Confucius replied, Mountains... are what all people look up to. Grass and trees grow on them, all kinds of creatures inhabit them, birds gather on them and beasts rest on them, precious things are found in them, and unusual people dwell on them. They nurture all things without fatigue; they take from all directions without limit, and they release clouds and winds, circulating between heaven and earth, thereby sustaining the harmony of the world and bringing peace to the nation. This is why the virtuous take pleasure in mountains.5

Here, the beauty of mountains and waters is entirely personified and moralized. The beauty of jade also originates from this personified morality. In the chapter “Miscellaneous Words” in Garden of Sayings , it is said:

5 Zhao Shanyi [赵善诒], Shuo Yuan Shuzheng [说苑疏证 Textual Research on Collection of Stories], East China Normal University Press, 1985, pp. 515–517.

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Jade has six beauties, which are highly valued by gentlemen. Its appearance is warm and gentle, and its texture is fine and smooth. Its sound is soft and clear, and can be heard from afar. It can be bent without breaking, and can be cut without becoming blunt. It has edges but will not hurt others. When it has flaws, it shows them openly. Therefore, it is highly valued. Its warm and gentle appearance is compared to virtue. Its fine and smooth texture is compared to wisdom. Its soft and clear sound is compared to righteousness. Its ability to bend without breaking and to be cut without becoming blunt is compared to courage. Its edge and harmlessness is compared to benevolence. Its openness about its flaws is compared to sensitivity.

Xu Shen [许慎] on “Virtue Comparison” Xu Shen was one of the representatives of Old Text Studies [古文经 学 Guwen Jingxue] and a philologist during the Eastern Han dynasty. The idea that “natural objects are beautiful when compared to virtues” has been inherited and reiterated by Confucianists throughout the ages and has greatly influenced Xu Shen. This idea is reflected in Elucidating Lines and Explaining Complex Characters [说文解字 Shuowen Jiezi],6 particularly in the interpretation of the character for “jade”: Jade and stones are beautiful in their five virtues: moistness and warmth, which are the virtues of benevolence; a pattern of thought that can be discerned from the outside to know the inside, which is the virtue of righteousness; a voice that is clear and far-reaching, which is the virtue of wisdom; not to bend but to break, which is the virtue of courage; and to be sharp and harmless to others, which is high moral character.

In the above interpretation of the beauty of nature, such as of mountains, water, and jade, the natural objects themselves have no independent aesthetic value. Only when they become symbols of certain moral concepts can they be considered beautiful. This idea was prevalent from the pre-Qin period to the Han dynasty. However, by the Sixteen Kingdoms and Southern and Northern Dynasties period, a significant transformation occurred to the idea that

6 Translator’s note: Shuowen Jiezi is a Chinese dictionary compiled by Xu Shen 许慎 in the Han dynasty.

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“virtue comparison is beauty.” With the disappearance of unified authoritarianism and the rise of mysticism, intellectual liberation and free debate became the social norm. The physical form and emotions as bases of beauty became the two major aesthetic currents during this period. In sync with conscious artistic expression, the forms of natural objects became independent of aesthetic appreciation and value, breaking free from the confines of morality, and giving rise to a large number of landscape poems during the Jin and Song dynasties. People were enthralled with the pleasure brought by admiring the beautiful natural scenery, without seeking moral concepts within natural objects. In the Sui dynasty, unified authoritarianism was restored and Confucian morality was re-established as a rational norm for governing the world amidst the rampant desires of society. During the Tang dynasty, as unified authoritarianism became even more consolidated, moral education became increasingly severe. Li E [李谔] and Wang Tong [王通] of the Sui dynasty and Bai Juyi [白居易] of the Tang dynasty criticized the formal aesthetics [形式美学 xingshi meixue] that were all about “sceneries of gentle breeze, blooming flowers, falling snow, and bright moonlight” in the Sixteen Kingdoms and Southern and Northern dynasties. Instead, they returned to the Confucian tradition of “virtue comparison is beauty.” Sceneries of gentle breeze, blooming flowers, falling snow, and bright moonlight are beautiful only when they become symbols of virtues. Otherwise, they are just hollow expressions. Li E, Wang Tong, Bai Juyi on “Virtue Comparison” During the Sui dynasty, Li E, the censor in charge of administering and judging criminal law in prisons, advocated in a letter to Emperor Wen of Sui that “in both writing and aesthetics, praise and confirmation should be given to the virtues, talents, merits, and justice.” He fiercely criticized the trend of focusing solely on formal beauty in poetry and prose since the Jian’an period, which had led to a departure from moral aesthetic norms. As time passed, this trend worsened. The Three Ancestors of Wei dynasty favored literature and poetry, neglecting the governorship of the nation and instead indulging in petty skills. This influence was passed down, and people competed to show off their literary prowess, becoming a trend or prevailing practice. In the Jiangnan region during the Qi and Liang dynasties, this trend reached its peak, where people of all ranks and

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intelligence only cared about composing poetry. Thus, they abandoned reason and followed trivialities, striving for the novelty of a rhyme or the cleverness of a word. Their works were endless, yet shallow, and only portrayed the scenery of the moment. Despite this, society placed great importance on these works, and the government promoted those who excelled in them. The road to power and wealth was open, and the love for art became more intense. Thus, the ignorant and the elite alike rushed to create five-character poems before having mastered the six arts. As for the classics of Fu Xi [伏羲], Shun [舜], and Yu [禹], or the sayings of Yi Yin [伊尹], Fu Yue [傅 说], Duke of Zhou [周公], and Confucius, these were no longer their concern. Arrogance and absurdity were considered elegant, and emotions and feelings were valued more than virtue and accomplishments. The simplicity of Confucianism was deemed rustic and old-fashioned, and flowery language was deemed gentlemanly. Therefore, as literary works multiplied, the government became more corrupt because they had abandoned the great teachings of the sage kings and used trivialities to replace them. This disregard for the fundamentals spread throughout the nation and continued for generations. In Zhong Shuo [中说 Correct Doctrine], a work imitating the Analects , Wang Tong advocated for moral beauty and sharply criticized many poets from the Southern dynasties for their lack of morals. Xie Lingyun’s [谢灵运] writing was arrogant, but gentlemen were cautious; Shen Xiuwen’s [沈休文] writing was frivolous, but gentlemen were dignified. Bao Zhao [鲍照] and Jiang Yan [江淹] were people with lofty and unrealistic ambitions, full of enterprise, and their writings were urgent with grievances; Wu Jun [吴筠] and Kong Gui [孔珪] were people of impatient temper and solitary habits, upright and did not commit wrongdoing, and their writings were strange with anger. Xie Zhuang [谢庄] and Wang Rong [王融] were those with gentle temperament, and their writing was fragmented. Xu Ling [徐陵] and Yu Xin [庾信] were those who boasted, and their writings were arrogant. When asked about the Xiaochuo [孝绰], Confucius said: “He was vulgar, and the writing was indecent.” When asked about Liu Yu [刘彧], Confucius said: “He was greedy, and his writing was fragmented.” Xie Tiao’s [谢朓] writing was profound but his knowledge was shallow. Jiang Zong’s [江总] writing was mysterious but empty.

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Wang Tong evaluated people’s writing based on moral qualities. Those whose ethics did not meet his Confucian standards were deemed unworthy of attention for their poetry and prose. Although he discussed the aesthetics of literature, he also touched upon natural beauty. The poets that Wang Tong criticized, such as Xie Lingyun and Xie Tiao, were representative writers of the Six Dynasties’ landscape poems. They only focused on describing the scenery without injecting moral values into their works, which incurred Wang Tong’s disapproval and rejection. During the Tang dynasty, many literati pursued moral beauty and criticized the pursuit of formal beauty, such as Chen Zi’ang [陈子昂], Xiao Yingshi [萧颖士], Li Hua [李华], Jia Zhi [贾至], Dugu Ji [独孤及], Liang Su [梁肃], Liu Mian [柳冕], Han Yu [韩愈], Liu Zongyuan [柳宗元], Li Ao [李翱], Bai Juyi [白居易], and Yuan Zhen [元稹]. Among them, Bai Juyi was the strongest critic of the tendency to revolve around sceneries of gentle breeze, blooming flowers, falling snow, and bright moonlight. In his view, one can write about these topics, but they must be morally grounded. He wrote, “When writing about separation, it is better to use the example of a pair of mandarin ducks, when alluding to gentlemen and villains, it is better to use the example of fragrant grass and evil birds.”7 This aesthetic ideal was best exemplified by The Book of Songs in the Zhou dynasty, but it began to decline with the Five-Character Poems of the Han dynasty. According to Bai Juyi in “A Letter to Yuan Jiu”: During the Jin and Song dynasties, few people achieved it. Xie Lingyun was too obsessed with mountains and rivers, while Tao Yuanming was too focused on rural life. The likes of Jiang Yan and Bao Zhao were too narrow in their focus... at this time, the Six Arts were in decline.

He added that “in the Qi and Liang dynasties, they could only mock the wind, flowers, snow, and plants.” In the two hundred years of Tang’s prosperity, there were countless poets, among whom Chen Zi’ang who wrote twenty poems regarding emotional resonance, and Bao Fang who wrote fifteen poems regarding inspiration. The most powerful poets were Li Bai [李白] and Du Fu [杜甫]. Li’s talent was exceptional and unique, and his use of literary allusions and metaphors was unmatched. Li wrote many poems praising the beauty of 7 Bai Juyi. “Yu Yuanjiu Shu” [与元九书 A Letter to Yuan Jiu], in Collected Works of Bai Juyi, vol. 45 Translator’s note: Yuan Jiu is Bai Juyi’s address to Yuan Zhen.

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mountains and rivers, but Bai Juyi said that “his literary allusions and metaphors were very few."Therefore, Bai Juyi was very dissatisfied with Li Bai. Du Fu, however, was much better than Li Bai in this sense. His poems such as “The Official in Xin’an” [新安吏] and “The Official in Shihao” [石壕吏] expressed concerns for the country and the people, with lines like: “The rich enjoy wine and meat at their luxurious gates, while the poor freeze to death on the cold roads at night.” However, there were also “idle words” like “butterflies and dragonflies flitting among flowers” that had nothing to do with morality and justice, and they made up the majority of Du Fu’s poetry. This caused Bai Juyi great regret. Bai said that “wind, flowers, snow, and plants” can be written about, as there are also many poems about nature in The Book of Songs, but the key is in how they are written. If they are written in a similar way as the poems in The Book of Songs that “uses the wind to pierce cruelty,” “sympathizes with the soldiers through the snow,” “alludes to brothers through flowers,” and “takes joy in offspring through the beauty of grass,” then nothing is wrong with it. But if the description of natural beauty is limited to the outward appearance and formal beauty of natural objects that discard the moral implications that natural objects convey, then it would be a wrong path to take. An example of this is the line: “the remaining rosy clouds scatter like silk, and the clear river is calm as a polished mirror” or “the departing flower exposes its dewdrops first, while the leaving leaf suddenly bids farewell to the wind.” As Bai Juyi wrote in his letter to Yuan Zhen, “Beautiful as it may be, I do not know what it intends to express.”8 Song Confucians on “Virtue Comparison” During the Song dynasty, the Confucian tradition of “taking virtue comparison as beauty,” which was inherited from the Sui and Tang dynasties, was continued. Confucians including Zhou Dunyi [周敦颐], Shao Yong [邵雍], Cheng Brothers [二程], and Zhu Xi [朱熹], all used the concept of “virtue comparison” to demand aesthetic requirements for nature, literature, and art. In terms of aesthetic appreciation of nature, Shao Yong’s [邵雍] “Ode to Appreciating Flowers” [善赏花吟 Shan Shanghua Yin] stated: 8 Bai Juyi. “Yu Yuanjiu Shu” [与元九书 A Letter to Yuan Jiu], in Collected Works of Bai Juyi, vol. 45.

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People who are not good at appreciating flowers only love their appearance; some people may be good at appreciating flowers but only love their elegance. The beauty of flowers lies in their colors, which can be imitated by humans; the elegance of flowers lies in their spiritual essence, which cannot be fabricated by humans.9

“Flowers” are common natural objects that exist in abundance in reality. Where does the beauty of flowers lie? According to Shao Yong, those who are “not good at appreciating flowers” only love the “appearance” of flowers and believe that beauty lies in their “appearance.” This is actually a shallow view and a misconception of aesthetic appreciation. Truly skilled “flower appreciators” will see beyond the “appearance” of flowers and grasp the moral “spirit” hidden behind them. This “spirit” is indescribably wonderful and cannot be “fabricated” by humans. It is a natural law, and it is the true essence of the beauty of flowers, which deserves the appreciation and love of people. Shao Yong’s theory is a public declaration that natural objects are beautiful because of their moral qualities. Zhou Dunyi and Cheng Yi respectively supported and refuted this theory with examples. Zhou Dunyi wrote the famous essay “On the Love of the Lotus” [爱莲说 Ai Lian Shuo] which depicted the moral and aesthetic image of the lotus, one that rises from the mud but remains unstained: Of all the plants, flowers, and trees, lotus is the most beautiful... I only admire the lotus, which grows out of the mud but is not stained by it. It washes in clear water but is not tempted by it. It is straight and upright, neither branching nor entwining... the lotus is the nobleman among flowers.

The beauty of the lotus lies in the moral character it represents, specifically that it “grows out of the mud without being tainted by it.” Cheng Yi referred to The Book of Documents and condemned the aesthetic activity of those who became infatuated with the beauty of objects and ignored their moral spirit as “losing oneself in idle pleasure.” He also said:

9 Shao Yong [邵雍], Yichuan Ji Rang Ji [伊川击壤集 Collection of Beating on the Ground at Yichuan], vol. 11.

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I am not fond of composing poetry. It does not mean that I do not compose at all, but I do not wish to indulge in such idle talk. Even if I were to compose poetry, it could never compare to the works of Du Fu.

As for lines such as “deeply I observe butterflies fluttering amidst flowers, and gracefully I watch dragonflies skimming over water,” what is the point of such idle talk? This is a criticism of the poetic description of the “flower-like” beauty advocated by Shao Yong as being nothing more than idle talk. In talking about the beauty of literature that lies not in the language but in the “conveyance of the Way” [载道 zaidao], Zhou Dunyi had this famous quote in the “Wenci” [文辞] chapter of The Book of the Universality [通书 Tong Shu]: Literature conveys the Way. Language is skills; morality is reality. Those who are sincere in their reality and skilled in language will produce beautiful works that will be loved, and that love will be passed on... Those who do not understand the importance of morality and only focus on language are nothing but skilled artists. Alas, this has been a problem for a long time.

Zhou Dunyi emphasized the connection between the beauty of literary works and the “Way” from a positive perspective, which is similar to Han Yu’s idea of “nurturing one’s character and cultivating one’s inner soul, enriching one’s substance and refining one’s light” during the Tang dynasty. Cheng Yi, however, emphasized the same connection from a negative perspective, noting that seeking beauty in language alone would hinder the moral beauty of literary works. He said: Is writing harmful to the Way? Yes, it is. If one is not focused when writing, they will not be skilled. If they are too focused, they will be limited in their thinking and how can they compare with the vastness of the universe? Nowadays, those who write only care about pleasing people with their language. But if their goal is to please people, how can they be anything but clowns?

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Natural Beauty as the Embodiment of Morality From the pre-Qin Confucians, to the Han Confucians, to the Sui and Tang Confucians, up to the Song Confucians, the idea that natural beauty is based on virtue comparison has been continuously inherited, emphasized, and spread, forming a tradition and a major feature of Confucian aesthetics. It is in this aesthetic tradition that the “Four Gentlemen” and “Three Friends of Winter” paintings in Chinese art were created, as well as a series of natural beauty images that were moralized in Chinese poetry and paintings. Although the moral values associated with these natural objects may not always be Confucian, it is undeniable that the abundance of Confucian discourse in this area greatly inspired people to view moral symbolism as an essential part of natural beauty. Mountains and rivers are symbols of moral and personality beauty that were first mentioned and extensively discussed in works of the preQin and Han Confucian scholars. During the Jin and Song dynasties, landscape painting became popular, and mountains and rivers became the subject of painting. The Southern Song painter Zong Bing [宗炳] declared in Preface to Landscape Painting [画山水序 Hua Shanshui Xu] that “landscape painting fascinates with form and embodies the Way. Isn’t it that the benevolent find pleasure in mountains?” He drew from the Confucian principle that says “the benevolent find pleasure in mountains, and the wise find pleasure in water,” and stated that “landscape painting fascinates with form and embodies the Way.” This shows that since the beginning of their incorporation into Chinese painting, mountains and rivers were not considered purely objective natural objects but as moral embodiments. During the Tang dynasty, landscape painting developed, and different schools of landscape painting emerged, represented by Li Sixun [李思训], Wu Daozi [吴道子], Zhang Zao [张璪], and Wang Wei [王维]. The moral implications of mountains and rivers in landscape painting leaned towards the Taoist and Buddhist schools. In his “Landscape Training” [林泉高致 · 山水训], the Northern Song painter Guo Xi [郭熙] summarized the previous experience of landscape painting and put forward requirements for painting mountains and rivers that conformed to the original Confucian meaning: Mountains are great objects. Their forms may be soaring and majestic, or gentle and meandering, or spacious and open, or squat and crouching, or rugged and precipitous, or thick and heavy, or powerful and majestic,

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or refined and spiritual, or solemn and dignified, or with a watchful and reverential look, or with a canopy above and a carriage below, or with a foundation in front and a support behind, or with a bird-eye view as if overlooking, or with a downstream view as if pointing and directing. These are the main characteristics of mountains. Water is a living entity. Its form may be deep and tranquil, or soft and smooth, or vast and expansive, or winding and twisting, or rich and greasy, or spraying and spouting, or surging and rushing, or with many springs, or flowing afar, or with waterfalls reaching to the sky, or splashing and falling on the ground, or with a leisurely fishing pleasure, or with thriving plants and trees, or with smoke and clouds as a beautiful backdrop, or with shining brilliance in the valley. These are the main characteristics of water as a living entity.

The consecutive parallel sentences in the excerpt above serve to explain the characteristics of “mountains as great objects” and “water as living entity.” The phrase “mountains as great objects” summarizes the moral image of “mountains that the virtuous take pleasure in” as being tall, heavy, and nurturing to all living beings. “Water as living entity” summarizes the intellectual image of “water that the wise take pleasure in” as flowing endlessly and progressing gradually. The qualities of mountains such as “thick and heavy,” “solemn and dignified,” “spacious and open,” “with a watchful and reverential look,” “closely connected and integrated,” “refined and spiritual,” and “gentle and meandering” represent the moral spirit of mountains as “the benevolent.” The features of water such as “winding and twisting,” “flowing afar,” “spraying and spouting,” and “surging and rushing” are the depictions of water as “the wise,” characterized by its flowing and lively personality. To depict the images of “great objects” and “living entity” within the limited space of a painting, Guo Xi proposes an effective technique: If a mountain is meant to be high, then showing it in full height does not make it look high. It appears tall when it is shrouded in mist and clouds. If water is meant to be far-reaching, then showing it in full length does not make it appear far. It looks distant when its streams are concealed by vegetation.

Guo Xi’s theory established the model for the representation of mountains and water in Chinese painting, in which mountains are depicted as

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tall, heavy, and nurturing, comparable to “the benevolent,” and water is depicted as flowing, lively and flexible, comparable to “the wise.” The pine tree, mentioned by Confucius in The Analects , is a natural symbol of beauty. Appreciation for the beauty of pines in ancient Chinese poetry and prose generally follows Confucius’ thinking. For instance, Liu Gonggan [刘公干] in the Wei dynasty wrote in a poem: Tall and straight on the mountaintop, swaying in the valley breeze. The wind roars, the pine branches are mighty. Wind and frost are harsh and bitter, yet they remain upright all year long. How can they escape the frost and snow? They are true to their nature, like pine and cypress trees.

Xie Lingyun praised pines as “the most spiritual of trees, soaring up to the clouds. Even jade disappears, but not the green mountains. You want to understand me? Seek it out in the depths of winter.” Xie Tiao’s “Ode to Tall Pines” [高松赋 Gaosong Fu] says, “The branches are lush and provide shade, the trunk is towering and soars high… Perched on green hills and trimmed like bonsai, swaying lightly while suspended… They do not falter in cold and heat, nor yield to the frost’s might.” Due to the pine tree’s characteristic of withstanding the wind and frost and severe coldness, it is often used as a metaphor and symbol for the character of a gentleman who stands firm in the face of adversity. Therefore, in ancient paintings, it is often portrayed as one of the “Three Friends of Winter.” In addition to pine, the “Three Friends of Winter” also includes bamboo and plum. Bamboo and plum also possess the characteristics of being unafraid of severe coldness and being unwavering, which can be compared to the character of a nobleman. Since the Northern Song dynasty, bamboo and plum have become independent painting genres. Moreover, bamboo and plum, along with orchids and chrysanthemums, have become the “Four Gentlemen,” repeatedly painted by artists since the Song and Ming dynasties. Jin Jiangyou’s “Ode to Bamboo” [晋江逌] states, “There is beautiful bamboo growing in the wild, standing pure and natural. With a hollow center that symbolizes the Way, and a round and strong texture that represents the nobility of heaven.” The phrase “with a hollow center that symbolizes the Way” typifies the moral beauty of bamboo. Liu Xiaoxian’s [刘孝先] “On Bamboo” [竹 Zhu] in the Liang dynasty said, “Bamboo grows in the empty wilderness, its top reaches a hundred feet high. Without anyone appreciating its pure beauty, it only holds on to its noble

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heart.” People see in bamboo the personality beauty that is symbolized by its physical characteristics. Painters in the Song dynasty also painted bamboo on the basis of this aesthetic view. For example, Wen Tong [文 同], famous for his bamboo paintings, praised bamboo in his poem “Ode to Bamboo,” by saying that bamboo is “hollow and different from other plants, with a strong texture beyond ordinary wood.” He also said that bamboo “grows as it wishes, and thrives without being arrogant; when it is deprived of its wishes, it becomes thin and barren but is not humiliated. It stands among a group without leaning, and remains unafraid while standing alone.” This is clearly not simply referring to bamboo, but to a nobleman. In Qu Yuan’s [屈原] description, orchids were compared to fragrant herbs that symbolized noblemen. Therefore, Li Bai said, “When describing an herb, it should be as if it were an orchid.” Zheng Sixiao [郑思孝], in his “Ink Orchid Painting” [墨兰图 Molan Tu], wrote that “the fragrance of one state, the toast of one state, in memory of the king, there is light in Chu.” “Orchid” became a symbol of Qu Yuan’s personality. Therefore, Xia Wenyan [夏文彦], in his “Illustrated Compendium of Paintings” [图绘宝鉴 Tuhui Baojian], inscribed his ink orchid scroll as “purely nobleman, without any small-mindedness.” As for the beauty of plum blossoms, Lu You’s [陆游] poem says, “Scattered and fallen, they turn to mud and dust, but their fragrance remains as before.” Wang Mian [王冕], famous for his ink plum blossoms in the Yuan dynasty, inscribed in his “Plum Blossom Painting” [梅花图 Meihua Tu] for Liang Zuo [良 佐] the saying, “Don’t let people praise its color, only let the clear qi fill the universe.” As for chrysanthemums, Tao Yuanming did not want to “bend over for five pecks of rice” and return to his hometown to farm. Instead, he “picked chrysanthemums in the Southern Mountains.” “Chrysanthemum” became a symbol of “ancient hidden gentlemen.” Therefore, Zhou Dunyi said in “On Love for the Lotus”: “chrysanthemum, the ancient hermit.” These examples confirm the Confucian spirit of taking virtue comparison as beauty in ancient China’s aesthetic view of natural objects.

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Confucians on the Spirit of “Moral Integrity” in Personality Beauty The Confucian tradition emphasizes “virtue comparison” in natural beauty and advocates “moral integrity” in personality beauty. The Origin and Meaning of “Moral Integrity” Fenggu was originally a term used to describe the character and demeanor of people in the Wei and Jin dynasties. The term feng [manner] originally referred to the intangible but perceptible “spirit” of a person. For example, Wang Yifu [王夷甫] described himself as fengshen yingjun [ 风神英俊 having extraordinary spirit and manners]10 and Huan Yi [桓 彝] described Xie An [谢安] by saying ci’er fengshen xiuche [此儿风神秀 彻 this young man has clear and charming spirit and manners].11 The term feng [风] was later used as a direct reference to shen [神 spirit] in describing the personality traits of individuals, such as fengqi [风器], fengqi [风气], fengqi [风期], fengqing [风情], fengwei [风味], fengyun [ 风韵], and fengzi [风姿], as recorded in the book Shishuo Xinyu [世说新 语 A New Account of Tales of The World].12 The position of feng in a person’s physical form is equivalent to that of gu [骨 bone] in a person’s body. Therefore, when referring to a person’s inner spiritual elements, “bone” and its metaphorical synonym “spirit” are synonymous. For example, during the Wei and Jin dynasties, people said that Ruan Sikuang’s [阮思旷] “spirit was inferior to those of the Right Army,” and Cai Shuzi [蔡叔子] remarked that “Han Kangbo [韩康伯] seems to possess no bones, yet he stands with his flesh and skin.”13 Gu Kaizhi’s [顾恺之] “On Painting” [Lun Hua 论画] stated that “the bone is extremely peculiar.” In this sense, “bone” (gu) became synonymous with “manner” ( feng ) and therefore fenggu came to be a term used to describe the spiritual essence of an individual. 10 Liu Yiqing [刘义庆]. “Yaliang” [雅量 Gracefulness] in Shishuo Xinyu [世说新语 A New Account of Tales of the World]. 11 Liu Yiqing. “Dexing” [德行 Virtue and Character] in Shishuo Xinyu. 12 Xu Fuguan [徐复观]. The Chinese Artistic Spirit [中国艺术精神 Zhongguo Yishu

Jingshen], Chunfeng Literature & Art Publishing House, 1987, p. 133. 13 Liu Yiqing. “Pin Zao” [品藻 The Practice of Appreciating Things of Beauty] in Shishuo Xinyu.

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In discussing Cao Buxing [曹不兴] in Appreciation of Ancient Paintings [古画品录 Guhua Pin Lu], Xie He [谢赫] used the expression guan qi feng gu [观其风骨 to view his spirit]. Records of Jin Emperors [晋帝 纪 Jin Di Ji] described Wang Xizhi [王羲之] as feng gu qing ju [having an upright character], where fenggu referred to the spirit of a person. In Discussions on Books [书议 Shu Yi], Zhang Huaiguan [张怀瓘] in the Tang dynasty would use fengshen and guqi together, which he regarded as superior. That’s why Qing dynasty’s Li Chonghua [李重华] explained in his Words on Poetry in Zhenyi Study [贞一斋诗说 Zhenyi Zhai Shishuo] that “manner is contained within the spirit, bone is provided by the qi [气 vital stuff], and the manner and bone are inextricably linked to the spirit and vital stuff.” In the criticism of Wei and Jin figures, the concept of fenggu is imbued with the Taoist pursuit of purity and elegance within the mystical atmosphere. However, mysticism is a blend of Confucianism and Taoism, and is a complex and diverse concept. Some eminent figures in Wei and Jin, such as Xiang Xiu [向秀], believed that mingjiao [名教 the Confucian ethical code] originated from nature, and Zhang Liaoshu [张辽叔] believed that “the Six Classics are like the sun, and not studying them is like living in darkness.” Thus, fenggu is an inner spiritual trait of one’s character, which, even in Wei and Jin, does not exclude Confucian moral connotations. In the “Shang Yu” [赏誉 Praise] chapter of Shishuo Xinyu, it is recorded that “Wang Youjun [王右军] saw Chen Xuanbo [陈玄伯] as having zhenggu [正骨 upright bones],” in which zhenggu referred to a just and upright character. Chen Xuanbo lived under the reign of Emperor Wen of the Western Jin dynasty, and he served as shizhong [侍中 a highranking official] and shangshu zuopu she [尚书左仆射 chief minister of the left]. He was known for his integrity, and in Shishuo Xinyu, his character is recorded as fangzheng [方正 upright and honest], a Confucian moral concept. Liu Xie of the Liang dynasty brought fenggu into the literary circle in his work The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons , in which he dedicated a special chapter for analyzing this concept. He traced the origin of fenggu to the feng [风] poems in The Book of Songs, which contains the Confucian ideal of moral education. When Confucianism regained its dominant position after the Tang dynasty, the Confucian trait of fenggu generally became the main connotation. For example, Li Yanshou [李延 寿] praised “upright and straightforward character” in his “Nanshi” [南

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诗 History of the Southern Dynasties], Chen Zi’ang [陈子昂] admired the “fenggu in the Han and Wei dynasties” in his “Preface to the Tall Bamboos” [修竹篇序 Xiuzhu Pian Xu], Yin Fan [殷璠] praised “having an awe-inspiring character” in his Collected Works of Master Poets of Rivers and Mountains [河岳英灵集 Heyue Yingling Ji], and Yan Yu [严羽] in his Notes on Poets and Poetry [沧浪诗话 Canglang Shihua] praised “moral integrity as in the prosperous Tang dynasty.” Hu Zhenheng [胡震亨] referred to Cen Shen’s [岑参] poetry as “poetry characterized by moral integrity” in his Records of the Tang and Yin Dynasties [唐音癸签 Tangyin Guiqian], and Shen Deqian [沈德潜] praised Yu Xin’s [庾信] poems as “oftenly show[ing] moral integrity” and Zhu Xi’s [朱熹] five-character poems as “naturally show[ing] interest and charm, and moral integrity,” which is the “sound of a virtuous person.” The Connotation of Fenggu as a Category of Confucian Personal Character First, as a category of Confucian personality beauty, fenggu was initially reflected in the spirit of engagement with the world and in the unyielding character of loyalty and integrity. As expressed in lines such as “feeling the times and thinking of the country, pulling out the sword and starting on the journey”14 ; “I have been worried about the people all year round, and my heart burns as I think of their suffering”15 ; “Even though my armors have been worn out after hundreds of battles, I shall never return without defeating the enemy”16 ; and “Laugh not if we lie drunk on the battlefield. Since ancient times how many have ever returned from campaigns afar?”.17 The beauty of moral integrity requires active involvement in reality, helping the country and the people, achieving great feats, and serving the people of the world. People with moral integrity do not bow to the world and are loyal to the people of the world but not sycophantic to the rulers, reflecting their uncompromising integrity and resolute spirit.

14 Chen Zi’ang. “Ganyu Shi” [感遇诗 A Poem of Emotional Experience]. 15 Du Fu. “Fu Fengxian Yonghuai” [赴奉先咏怀 Chanting on the Journey to

Fengxian]. 16 Wang Changling [王昌龄]. “Cong Jun Xing” [从军行 Marching with the Army]. 17 Wang Han [王翰]. “Liangzhou Ci” [凉州词 Ci Poem of Liangzhou].

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“Loyalty and righteousness” is the main theme of the beauty of fenggu. As Ji Yun [纪昀] wrote in “A Letter to Scholar Yao” [书韩致尧翰林集后 Shu Han Zhiyao Hanlin Ji Hou], “Loyalty and righteousness grow from the mind…. Moral integrity thus grows internally.” Second, the beauty of fenggu is characterized by emotions that are flowing, unrestrained, passionate, and straightforward. As individuals who actively engage in society and aspire to achieve success, it is impossible to remain indifferent to everything and have a calm demeanor. On the contrary, one’s heart is always filled with various ardent aspirations and intense emotions as reflected in the following lines: “As flames of war burn in Xijing, how can my heart be pacified”18 ; “To serve the call of the times, I have courage to face death, yet I have no path to realize my ambition”19 ; and “Nor those that are to come in the future far, and, all alone, grieve mutely with tears for my lorn star.”20 The beauty of fenggu is close to reality, generous, unrestrained, and rejects implicitness. It advocates for a free and uninhibited expression of lofty aspirations, honest character, and passionate emotions without any concealment. Examples of this include: “tears splash as I feel the times, my heart is startled by the departure of birds”21 ; “willing to die for the nation, looking upon death as a homecoming”22 ; “if you are to save the wounds, you should first kill the thieves”23 ; and “even in death, the bones of a hero exude a fragrance, unashamed to be among the world’s greatest.”24 All of these emotions are clear and direct, tumultuous and surging. If one were to compare the Confucian fenggu beauty with the Taoist pingdan [平淡 dull and ordinary] beauty, one would find that pingdan emphasizes stillness while fenggu emphasizes action. As Zhu Guangqian

18 Yang Jiong [杨炯]. “Cong Jun Xing” [从军行 Marching with the Army]. 19 Du Fu. “Sui Mu” [岁暮 End of the Year]. 20 Chen Zi’ang. “Deng Youzhou Tai Ge” [登幽州台歌 A Song at Youzhou Tower]. 21 Du Fu. “Chun Wang” [春望 Spring View]. 22 Cao Zhi [曹植]. “Baima Pian” [白马篇 White Horse]. 23 Du Fu. “Song Wei Feng Shang Langzhou Lushi Canjun” [送韦讽上阆州录事参军

A Poem for Wei Feng as He Takes Office of Military Commander in Langzhou]. 24 Li Bai. “Xiake Xing” [侠客行 Journey of a Swordsman].

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[朱光潜] said, “stiff beauty is dynamic, while soft beauty is static.”25 Pingdan emphasizes detachment, so it can be free of any desire, enter tranquility, and not be moved by emotions. It longs for a quiet environment where “the birds disappear in a thousand mountains and the paths are lost in ten thousand trails,” and has a leisurely and carefree demeanor, as expressed in the line “counting falling petals as I sit for a long time, leisurely searching for fragrant grass that returns late.” The beauty of fenggu showcases a dynamic world full of endless possibilities. Cen Shens’ [岑参] poems about the frontier best exemplify this dynamic world. One example says, “The northern wind blows and breaks the white grass, the Hu sky in August is covered in snow. Suddenly, a spring breeze comes overnight, a thousand trees and ten thousand trees blossom with pear flowers.” Another poem states: In September, the wind howls over Luntai, with stones as large as bowls scattering along the river. The Xiongnu grass is yellow, and their horses are fat. To the west, the smoke and dust of the Jinshan can be seen. The general leads his troops west. He does not take off his golden armor at night, and the sound of clashing weapons fills the air at midnight. The wind is like a knife, the force is like a cut. The warhorse galloped in the cold wind. The steaming sweat immediately froze on its coat. The ink water on the paper in the tent freezes. The enemy cavalry hears this and trembles with fear, knowing that they dare not engage in close combat. The Queshi Western Gate waits to present their victory.

In “On Poetry in Qianxi,” Fan Wen [范温] described Jian’an poems as zhi zhi [直致 direct and sincere]. This reveals the straightforward characteristic of fenggu beauty in its expressions. Third, the beauty of fenggu is a kind of vigorous and robust beauty. When lofty aspirations, upright and straightforward mind, and passionate emotions are expressed boldly and freely, they form a powerful and exciting fengli [风力 force of character] like gugeng [骨鲠 sharp bones]. Therefore, Liu Xie’s description of the characteristics of fenggu in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons is “sturdy and practical, radiant and new…. [full of] vitality and vigor,” and rich in fengli [also force of God]. Ma Rongzu [马荣祖] in the Qing dynasty described the 25 Zhu Guangqian. “Wenyi Xinli Xue” [文艺心理学 Psychology of Literature and Art] in Zhu Guangqian Meixue Wenji [朱光潜美学文集 Collected Works of Zhu Guangqian’s Aesthetics], vol. 1, Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House.

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characteristics of fenggu as similar to “giant birds flying in the sky" and “with force of God within it.” The beauty of fenggu has a kind of “loftiness of force” [力学的崇高 lixue de chonggao]. In ancient times, fenggu was called fengli, as seen in lines such as “Jian’an ‘fengli.’”26 They would also describe works with moral integrity as “having the force of bones and a strong spirit” and “full flesh and heavy forces.”27 Therefore, “powerless sound” would be equated to “moral integrity not flying”28 and weakness would be described as “lacking bones.”29 The strength characteristic of fenggu is very much linked to gu [bones], its metaphorical object. For example, in Oubei Poetry Discussions [瓯北诗话 Oubei Shihua], Zhao Yi [赵翼] used the expression “firm bones and strong forces.” In General Words on Art: Books [艺概 · 书 概 Yi Gai Shu Gai], Liu Xizai [刘熙载] used the expression “extraordinary strength of bones.” And in On Ci Poetry in Baiyu Study [Baiyu Zhai Cihua 白雨斋词话], Chen Tingzhuo [陈廷焯] used the expression “strong force of bones.” Thus, the beauty of fenggu holds the characteristics of strength, such as “stern,” “strong,” “powerful,” “extraordinary,” and “remarkable.” For example, Liu Xie evaluated Pan Xu’s [潘勖] poetry as “having stern bones,” and Sima Xiangru’s [司马相如] as “having a powerful character.” Zhong Rong [钟嵘], in Grades of Poetry [诗品 Shipin], described Cao Zhi as “having extraordinarily towering moral integrity” and “remarkable and unrivaled” while Liu Zhen’s [刘桢] poetry is described as “having an extraordinary character.” Gao Shi [高士], in his “Reply to Hou Shaofu” [答侯少府 Da Hou Shaofu], used the expression “moral integrity beyond the norm.” In “On Poetry in Qianxi,” Fan Wen used the expression “strong and robust in style.” Xie Zhen [谢榛] in “Siming Words on Poetry” [四溟诗话 Siming Shihua] used the expression “towering as if having bones inside.” He Yisun [贺贻孙], in On Poetry [诗筏 Shi Fa], described Shen Yue’s [沈约] poems as “having strong character.” In Arguments on Poetry [诗辩坻 Shibian Di], Mao Xianshu [毛先舒] used the expression “vigorous character.” All of these are descriptions of the 26 Zhong Rong. Grades of Poetry in He Wenhuan [何文焕], ed., Li Dai Shihua [历代 诗话 Words on Poetry in Past Dynasties], Zhonghua Book Company, 1981, vol. 1, p. 2. 27 Liu Xie. “Moral Integrity” in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons . 28 Liu Xie. “Moral Integrity” in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons. 29 Wei Qingzhi [魏庆之]. Shiren Yu Xie [诗人玉屑 Jade Pieces of Poets], vol. 2,

Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 1982, p. 315.

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beauty of strength in fenggu. In this sense, Liu Xie described fenggu as “having fresh manners and strong bones” [风清骨峻 feng qing gu jun].”30

The Relationship Between Fenggu as Artistic Beauty and as Personality Beauty Since Liu Xie [刘勰] listed fenggu as a special chapter in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons , fenggu has evolved from a Confucian category of personal beauty to an artistic category of beauty. However, as Ye Xie [叶燮] said in “Original Poetry” [Yuan Shi 原诗], “the foundation of poetry lies in the heart of the person.” The fenggu beauty that art worships is ultimately the embodiment of the artist’s personality beauty and moral beauty. In the perspective of Confucianism, the Way is the root and art is the branch. A person’s moral character determines the quality of their literature, and one must first have morals before one can create literature. Hence, “cultivation of a broad mind and horizons before [cultivation of] literature and art.”31 If one abandons the greatness of morality, forgets the foundation of fenggu, and becomes obsessed with words and rules, one will fall into “carving insects and small techniques,” which no great man is willing or able to do. That’s why ancient aesthetics hold that “fenggu is the main factor in poetry.”32 Mao Xianshu claimed that “poetry emphasizes fenggu, not just literary elegance.”33 Here, fenggu can be regarded as referring to Confucian personality beauty and moral beauty that is upright and unyielding. Liu Xizai stated in General Words on Art: Books that “the fenggu of Chu Ci is great.” Hu Yinglin [胡应麟] said in volume two within the internal volume that ““Song of Yishui” [Yishui Ge 易 水歌] once had a dozen characters, yet possesses fervent emotions, and scenes with a strength.” In “On Poetry in Qianxi,” Fan Wen [范温] said, “poems in the Jian’an period are with thoughts and not magnificent in 30 Liu Xie. “Moral Integrity” in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons . 31 Pei Xingjian [裴行俭]. “Wang Bo Zhuan” [王勃传 Biography of Wang Bo] in Jiu

Tang Shu [旧唐书 The lder Book of the Tang Dynasty. 32 Li Chonghua [李重华]. Zhenyi Zhai Shi Shuo [贞一斋诗说 Words on Poetry in Zhenyi Study. 33 Mao Xianshu. Shibian Di, vol. 1, in Qing Shihua Xubian [清诗话续编 A Sequel of Words on Poetry in the Qing Dynasty].

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words… [they] possess the character of elegant literary men.” In volume three of Arguments on Poetry, Mao Xianshu [毛先舒] said, “Chen Boyu’s [陈伯玉] verses have powerful bones, brilliant figures, bright colors and profound implications.” Fenggu here can be interpreted in this way. It is precisely this kind of upright and unyielding personality beauty that injects the “sublime of dynamics” into the beauty of fenggu. As a poetic style, fenggu embodies the personality beauty of artists. At the same time, it pursues the beauty of strength and character in ways such as “straightforward words,”34 “using brushes like bones,”35 “towering peaks of words,”36 and “the ability to strike words firmly and express sounds concisely.”37 Through the depiction of “majestic” and “magnificent” atmospheres, it creates a “mathematical sublime” [数字的 崇高 shuzi de chonggao]. For example, in his poem “Farewell to the Reader of Xie Jianshuo Tower in Xuanzhou” [宣州谢脁楼饯别校书叔云 Xuanzhou Xiaotiao Lou Jianbie Jiaoshu Shu Yun], Li Bai wrote: The Penglai articles have the bones of the Jian’an period, and Xie’s writing style is elegant and refined. Both have the leisurely excitement and grand thoughts to fly, and desire to go up to the blue sky and embrace the moon.

In volume six of the outer volume of Hu Yinglin’s [胡应麟] “Assemblage of Poems” [诗薮 Shisou], he commented on a poem by saying, “its fenggu are solemn, and many of the sentences are in the style of the old poet Du Fu.” Fang Dongshu [方东树] praised Cao Zhi’s poetry in volume two of “Sundry Words on Poems” [昭昧詹言 Zhao Mei Zhan Yan] by stating that “the character is vast and profound.” Pan Deyu [潘 德舆] commented on Li Xiya’s [李希涯] “Song of General Hua” [花将军 歌 Hua Jiangjun Ge] in “Notes on Poetry in Yangyi Study” [养一斋诗话 Yangyi Zhai Shihua]” by saying that “it is full of passion and strength.” Yao Ying’s [姚莹] “Preface to the Zhiqing Collection of Poems” [Zhiqing Shiji Xu 廌青诗集序] advocated for “fenggu that are strong and solid.”38

34 Liu Xie. “Moral Integrity” in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons 35 Xie He [谢赫]. Gu Hua Pinlu [古画品录] Appreciation of Ancient Paintings. 36 Hu Zhenheng. Records of the Tang and Yin Dynasties, vol. 5. 37 Liu Xie. “Moral Integrity” in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons 38 Yao Ying [姚莹]. Dongming Wenji (Buji) [东溟文集 · 补集 Collected Works in

Dongming, Supplement], vol. 9.

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When we look at some works, such as the Northern dynasty folk song “Chilechuan Plain” [敕勒川 Chi’le chuan], we find lines that say: “Chi’le chuan plain, under the Yin Mountains, the sky is like a dome, covering the four wilds. The sky is vast, the wilderness is vast, and the wind blows the grass low, revealing the cows and sheep.” Wang Zhihuan’s [王之涣] “Out of the Great Wall” [凉州词 Liangzhou Ci] says, “The Yellow River stretches far away into the white clouds, and a lone city lies amid the myriad peaks. Why should the Qiang flute lament the willow, when the spring breeze does not pass the Jade Gate Pass?” The poem “Ascending the Stork Tower” [登鹳雀楼 Deng Guanque Lou] reads, “The sun beyond the mountain glows, and the Yellow River flows into the sea. If I want to see the thousand-mile forest, I must climb to a greater height.” All of these works demonstrate the loftiness of fenggu through expansive artistic vision. Thus, figures such as those in the Chu Ci [楚辞], Yi Shui Ge [易水歌], Chile Ge [敕勒歌], Zuo Si [左思], the Cao family [曹氏父子], the Seven Masters of the Jian’an period [建安七子], Chen Zi’ang, Du Fu, Gao Shi [高适], Cen Shen [岑参], Wang Changling [王昌龄], Wang Zhihuan [ 王之涣], Lu You [陆游], Xin Qiji [辛弃疾], Chen Tingzhuo [陈廷焯], and others, all together formed a school of fenggu beauty in ancient Chinese poetry, with inner strength and robustness, and outer grandeur and magnificence. This beauty of fenggu is a form of masculine artistic beauty created by poets with the Confucian attitude of getting actively involved in the world, an ideal of serving all under heaven, a sense of concern for the country and the people, a magnificent and powerful style, and resounding and forceful wording. It has a strong educational function that can inspire people to reflect on themselves, strive for improvement, and transcend themselves through its overwhelming impact.

Confucians on the Spirit of Zhonghe [Balanced Harmony] in Social Beauty Society is a community formed by the interconnection of people. Confucians advocate that in dealing with social relationships between people, zhonghe should be regarded as beauty. The “zhong” in zhonghe refers to the doctrine of the mean, while “he” [和] refers to harmony, which is the result pursued by zhongyong. Confucius first proposed the concept of

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zhonghe when he said, “zhongyong as a virtue is the greatest!”39 According to Doctrine of the Mean, “The statements and behaviors of gentlemen conform with the regulation of balanced harmony, while villains betray those rules.” Zhu Xi [朱熹] in his commentary on the Doctrine of the Mean noted that “zhong” means to treat everything impartially without excess or deficiency, while “yong” means to behave and stay normal. From this, it becomes evident that zhonghe refers to the ordinary principle of not leaning towards either side when dealing with conflicts, and demands a balanced, moderate, and harmonious state. He does not mean to eliminate conflicts, but rather to harmoniously resolve them, which is to coexist peacefully with those who have different opinions. As it is said, “A gentleman harmonizes but does not conform, a small-minded person conforms but does not harmonize.”40 Therefore, zhonghe has become a category of social beauty pursued by Confucians. The Doctrine of the Mean states, “‘Zhong’ is the great foundation of the world, and ‘he’ is the universal path of the world.” As “he” is the goal and focus, “zhonghe” is also referred to as “he” for short. The Most Valuable Function of Observing Ritual Propriety Is to Achieve Harmony [礼之用, 和为贵] Li [rites礼] is a set of external behavioral norms emphasized by Confucians for handling interpersonal social relationships. The greatest function of li is to achieve social harmony and stability. Confucius disciple Youzi [ 有子] revealed, “The most valuable function of observing ritual propriety is to achieve harmony. It is also the most glorious tradition of previous kings.”41 He is the core concept of Confucian ritual teachings, and it is the central consolidation of the social beauty pursued by Confucians. Confucian ritual teaching is a summary of the Zhou rituals. Hence, “the Yin [was] built on the rites of the Xia” and “the Zhou [was] built on the

39 Line 29, Chapter 6, D. C. Lau, trans., The Analects, New York: Penguin Books, 1979. 40 Line 13, Chapter 13, D. C. Lau, trans., The Analects, New York: Penguin Books, 1979. 41 Line 12, Chapter 1, D. C. Lau, trans., The Analects, New York: Penguin Books, 1979.

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rites of the Yin.”42 Youzi believed that the governing way of li practiced by the former kings in ancient times was all based on he as beauty. Let us take a look at the historical development of li [rites and rituals] and its relationship with “balanced harmony” [中和 zhonghe]. There is no available record of li in the Xia dynasty. As for li in the Yin dynasty, according to the results of oracle bone inscriptions, investigations, and illustrations, along with the records of Book of History and The Book of Rites , it was initially one of the “tools for etiquette behavior” of ritual use, which later evolved into behavioral norms for showing respect to ghosts and gods. In the Yin dynasty, ritual use tools became symbols of the sacred. There was a set of hierarchic rules that determine who offers sacrifice to heaven and the divine, as well as the sacrificial vessels they should hold during the sacrifice. Li thus evolved from ritual vessels to human norms for sacrificial rituals. The Book of Zhou [周书 Zhou Shu] states that “the rites of the Yin dynasty are as high as heaven,” and The Book of Rites says that “the Yin people respected the gods and led the people to serve the gods, placing ghosts before the rites.” It can be seen that the main purpose of the rite of Yin was to harmonize the relationship between heaven and humans, and between gods and humans. During the Zhou dynasty, li gradually evolved towards the personnel hierarchic system. The “Biao Ji” [表记] chapter of The Book of Rites [礼记 Li Ji] asserts that “the Zhou people respected the rituals…. They served ghosts and worshipped gods from afar, and were loyal to those close by.” In the Zhou dynasty, “respect for rituals” and “loyalty to those close by” were injected with ethical and moral implications. It is said that the li formulated by Duke Zhou was this personnel hierarchic system. In the Western Zhou dynasty, there were strict ritual rules for sacrifices, employment of the court, military affairs, weddings, funerals, etc., reflecting the hierarchical differences in the relationships between monarchs and ministers, fathers and sons, brothers, husbands and wives. According to The Commentary of Zuo [左传] (昭公二十六年 TwentySixth Year of Duke Zhao), during the Spring and Autumn period, people’s discussions about the rites of the Western Zhou went like this:

42 Line 23, Chapter 2, D. C. Lau, trans., The Analects, New York: Penguin Books, 1979.

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The ruler commands the ministers to cooperate, the father is kind and instructional, the son is filial and dutiful, the elder brother is affectionate and the younger brother is respectful, the husband is harmonious and righteous, the wife is tender and upright, the aunt is kind and the wife is gentle, these are all benefits of the rituals.

In The Commentary of Zuo (隐公三年 The Third Year of the Duke Yin of Lu), the rites of Zhou were recorded as: “The ruler is righteous, ministers are dutiful, fathers are affectionate, sons are filial, elder brothers are loving, and younger brothers are respectful.” The role of rites at the time was to achieve harmony and good governance between people through clarifying distinctions and upholding proper roles. The Commentary of Zuo (隐公十一年 The Eleventh Year of the Duke Yin of Lu) claims that “li is for governing the country, securing the foundation, regulating the people, and benefiting future generations.” During the Spring and Autumn period, Confucius faced a situation where each feudal lord governed his own territory independently and the traditional rites and music were in a state of collapse. He brought up the issue of “governing with rites” [礼治 li zhi] again. In The Analects , there are 43 chapters that discuss “rites,” and the word “rites” appears 75 times. Confucius regarded “rites” not only as a continuation of the ancient rites of the Zhou dynasty but also as something that needed to be reformed, with the addition of the concept of “benevolence” [仁 ren]. In The Analects 3.3, Confucius said, “If a man lacks benevolence, what can he do with rites?” In The Analects 17.10, Confucius said, “Rites are like jade and silk.” Confucius believed that “rites” could not be limited to external forms, but must be imbued with the essence of benevolence. In this case, what is “benevolence”? Confucius said the following regarding benevolence: “A benevolent person loves others”43 ; “Do not do to others what you would not have them do to you”44 ; and “If you want to establish something, help others to establish it. If you want to achieve something, help others

43 Line 22, Chapter 12, D. C. Lau, trans., The Analects, New York: Penguin Books, 1979. 44 Line 24, Chapter 15, D. C. Lau, trans., The Analects, New York: Penguin Books, 1979.

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to achieve it.”45 It is precisely because “rites” contain “benevolence,” that it becomes necessary to “quicken oneself to restore li as benevolence.”46 Confucius gave this warning: “Do not look at what is contrary to propriety; do not listen to what is contrary to propriety; do not speak what is contrary to propriety; do not move what is contrary to propriety.”47 The purpose was to help people understand their own responsibilities, adhere to their duties, act in accordance with rites, and achieve harmony, which ultimately lead to great governance. Conversely: If respectfulness is not accompanied by propriety, one will labor in vain; if caution is not accompanied by propriety, one will become fearful; if courage is not accompanied by propriety, one will become chaotic; if straightforwardness is not accompanied by propriety, one will be put to death.48

Hence, not following the rites will lead to great chaos. Mencius regarded “rites” as a form that falls outside of “benevolence” and “righteousness” [义 yi], injecting rites with the qualities of “serving the ruler,” “filial piety,” “loyalty,” and “five cardinal relationships,” which ultimately lead to the goal of “making everyone love their relatives and extending their concerns to the elders, and thus bringing peace and harmony to the world.”49 The school of Zi Si-Mencius [思孟 学派] directly regarded “harmony” as the “foundation of the world” [天 下之大本 tianxia zhi daben] and the “attainment of the Way” [da dao 达道].50 This “foundation” [大本 daben] and “attainment of the Way” are precisely the normative standards of ritual regulations that are widely employed in the world. Xunzi, like Confucius and Mencius, “advocated rites and valued righteousness,” believing that: 45 Line 30, Chapter 6, D. C. Lau, trans., The Analects, New York: Penguin Books, 1979. 46 Line 1, Chapter 12, D. C. Lau, trans., The Analects, New York: Penguin Books, 1979. 47 Line 1, Chapter 12, D. C. Lau, trans., The Analects, New York: Penguin Books, 1979. 48 Line 2, Chapter 8, D. C. Lau, trans., The Analects, New York: Penguin Books, 1979. 49 Book 4 A, Section 11, D. C. Lau, trans., Mencius, New York: Penguin Books, 2004. 50 The Doctrine of the Mean

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Rites are the ultimate rule of governance, the foundation of a strong country, the way to enforce authority, the embodiment of achievement and fame, and the means by which kings and dukes secured their rule and prevented the downfall of their dynasty.51

Rites originated from the natural conflicts among people. Their main purpose is to establish norms and righteousnessl for distinguishing social levels, such that there are gradations of high and low, differences between the old and the young, and distinctions between the wise and the foolish, the capable and the incapable, all of which make it possible for each person to carry out their responsibilities and each to benefit accordingly.52

The purpose is to “satisfy people’s desires and fulfill their aspirations”53 and to achieve political stability and harmony. Through the inheritance and construction of the Confucian tradition in the pre-Qin period, the “rites” of the Yin and Zhou dynasties have become the “ultimate morality” and “governing principle” that contain the characteristics of Doctrine of the Mean and the function of “harmony” [hexie 和谐]. “Harmony,” as a beauty of social relationship recognized by Confucians, was established. The Realistic Manifestations of the Beauty of “Harmony” The beauty of “harmony” derived from “rites” has various manifestations in ancient Chinese society. First, let us look at the “harmony between heaven and earth.” Beginning with Mencius and the Doctrine of the Mean, Confucians sought to find an ontological basis for rationality in reality by referring to the natural order of heaven and earth, and they believed that the harmony in human society reflects the harmony between heaven and earth. This tendency became more obvious by the time of Dong Zhongshu [董仲舒]. For the same reason, Confucians held that the harmony in human society was an inevitable reflection of that between heaven and earth. That is, before discussing human harmony, 51 Xunzi. Yibing [荀子 · 议兵 Xunzi. On Military Affairs]. 52 Xunzi. Rongru [荀子 · 荣辱 Xunzi. On Honor and Disgrace]. 53 Xunzi. Lilun [荀子 · 礼论 Xunzi. On Ritual Conduct].

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they constructed the concept of harmony between heaven and earth as a determining factor. This idea was supported by the ancient Taoist and Yin-Yang schools of thought, which provided a foundation for their ideas. Dong Zhongshu, in the chapter “Follow the Path of Heaven” [循天 之道 Xun Tian Zhi Dao] of his work Chunqiu Fanlu, claimed that: The center [中 zhong ] is where heaven and earth begin and end, and harmony is where heaven and earth generate. There is no virtue greater than harmony, and no path more correct than the center. The center is where heaven and earth reach their most beautiful and rational state.

Furthermore, he asserted that “what the center produces must always lead to harmony. Therefore, harmony is the essence of heaven, the balance of yin 阴 and yang 阳… encompasses the way of heaven and earth and is beautiful in its harmony.” The principle of “balanced harmony” is the law of nature that produces all things, and thus, it became the ontological foundation for everything in the world. “When the balance of the center is achieved, the position of heaven and earth is set, and all things are nurtured.”54 The “harmony of the world” that includes regulations in human society is an inevitable choice based on the harmony between heaven and earth. “The harmony of the world” is manifested in two forms: “the harmony between heaven and human” and “the harmony between people.” “The harmony between heaven and human” is an aesthetic realm pursued by the ancient Chinese in dealing with the relationship among humans, nature, and gods. In the cosmological diagram of ancient China, heaven and humans were inseparable and could interact with each other. To achieve success in human affairs, one must seek the protection and blessing of the unknown gods and spirits. Therefore, humans must strive to maintain a harmonious relationship with “heaven” (gods, spirits, and nature). Emperor Shun in the “Yaodian” [尧典] chapter of The Book of Documents says: “Kuai 夔, I command you to play music… to harmonize with the gods and people.” In Emperor Shun’s statement, “music” [乐 yue] is the means to achieve the “harmony between gods and humans.” This idea was adopted by the Zhou people. The Guo Yu. Zhou Yu [国语 · 周 语 Discourses of the States. Discourses of Zhou] says: 54 The Doctrine of the Mean

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With peaceful music, there will be abundant harvests. Thus, follow the way of the proper virtue, sing with the tune of the proper sound. The virtuous sound will not be wrong, thus to harmonize with the gods and humans. The gods will be peaceful, and the people will follow.

The rites in the Yin dynasty mainly consist of sacrificial ceremonies such as “offering to heaven” [配天 pei tian], “respecting gods” [尊神 zun shen], and “serving ghosts” [事鬼 shi gui]. In the Zhou dynasty, rites were inclined towards human affairs and moral aspects, but did not deny the existence of heaven and gods. On the contrary, the Zhou people believed that only by respecting virtue and protecting the people can one obtain the protection of the gods and achieve the “harmony between gods and humans.” “The harmony between heaven and earth” is reflected in interpersonal relationships, which constitutes “the harmony of people.” Specifically, “the harmony of people” is manifested as “vertical harmony,” “horizontal harmony” and the interwoven “social harmony.” “Vertical harmony” refers to the harmony of generations. According to the principles of the patriarchal hierarchy of “supervising the younger by the elder” and “supervising the son by the father,” those of lower generations must unconditionally obey those of higher generations, thus achieving harmonious coexistence among people of different generations. “Filial piety” that Confucians advocate embodies the patriarchal principles aforementioned. The first story of The Twenty-four Cases of Filial Piety [二十四孝图 Er Shi Si Xiao Tu] tells of the tale of Shun [舜]. Shun was highly respected for his virtue, but this made his father Gu Sou [瞽叟] jealous. Gu Sou repeatedly plotted against Shun, but Shun always endured without resistance. Emperor Yao [尧] heard of this story and was deeply moved. He prepared to give the throne to Shun and married off his two daughters to him. Gu Sou became even more jealous when he heard this and conspired with his younger son to kill Shun. He designed two murder plots that Shun knew in advance, but Shun still did not take any precautions and obediently followed their commands. It was only thanks to the protection of the gods that Shun was able to escape unharmed. Shun used his absolute, unconditional, and self-sacrificing “filial piety” to influence his father and ultimately achieve harmony between them. Another story recorded in The Twenty-four Cases of Filial Piety is about a son named Guo Ju [锅巨], who protected his dying parents from

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starving during a famine year by burying his newborn child. This kind of unconditional sacrifice and obedience to elders in ancient China is referred to by scholars in Hong Kong and Taiwan as “the culture of killing sons” [杀子文化 sha zi wenhua], one that is very different from the culture of “killing father and marrying mother” [杀父娶母 sha fu qu mu] in the West.55 “Horizontal harmony” refers to the harmony among peers, determined by the principles of rites and teachings such as “the eldest son takes precedence over the younger son” [以嫡统庶 yi di tong shu], “the elder brother takes precedence over the younger brother” [以长统幼 yi zhang tong you], and “the male takes precedence over the female” [以男统女 yi nan tong nü]. “The eldest son takes precedence over the younger son,” so the younger son must obey the eldest son; “the elder brother takes precedence over the younger brother,” so the younger brother must obey the elder brother; “the male takes precedence over the female,” so the female must obey the male. The Confucian concept of “deference to elder brothers” [悌 ti] is the criterion for achieving harmonious relationships among peers. Ruan Yuan [阮元], a scholar in the Qing dynasty, pointed out in his discourse on the concept of ren [仁 humaneness] in the book Mencius that the character ren appeared in the Zhou dynasty, meaning “to pair people up.” Zheng Xuan [郑玄] interpreted ren in the line “benevolent people are human” [仁者, 人也] excerpted from the Doctrine of the Mean in The Book of Rites as “to treat and respect others as one treats oneself” [ 以人意相存问]. Ruan Yuan explained the original meaning of ren as “the term of endearment for close relationships, meaning mutual love. Thus, the character has two ‘persons’ in its structure.” “Ren can only be seen when there are at least two people.” Shuowen Jiezi defines ren as “affection,” with the components of “person” and “two.” As seen from these examples, ren refers to the affectionate relationship between people. It is a unity of “kinship love”56 and “loving others,”57 which refers to the love between relatives and its extension to others. For example, Confucius said, “What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others.” 55 Chester Holcombe. True Qualities of Chinese People, trans. by Wang Jian [王剑], Northeastern University Press, 1989, p. 107. 56 The Doctrine of the Mean 57 Line 21, Chapter 12, D. C. Lau, trans., The Analects, New York: Penguin Books,

1979.

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Mencius said, “When I say that all men are my brothers, what I mean is that all men are equal to me insofar as I am a man.” This kind of love between people is the best interpretation of the harmony among peers. Society is composed of peers and non-peers. Vertical harmony and horizontal harmony together create a harmonious society in which everyone loves and cares for one another. The “World of Great Harmony” [datong shijie 大同世界] described in The Book of Rites is like this: When the great way prevails, the world is shared by all. The virtuous and talented are selected for office, and people are sincere and stay friendly with each other. Therefore, people are not only close to their relatives and children, but ensure that the elderly are cared for, the young adults are employed, the children are educated, and widowers, widows, orphans, the childless, the disabled, and the sick are all cared for. Men have their roles, and women have their marriages. Regarding wealth and goods, people despise the act of throwing them on the ground, but they don’t necessarily have to hoard them for themselves; people are willing to do their utmost for public affairs, but not necessarily for their own benefit. Therefore, there will be no plots of evil and treachery, nor any theft, rebellion, or harm to others. The gates to the outside remain open. This is called the Great Harmony.58

The description of this harmonious society in Mencius 1A.3 is as follows: Plant mulberry trees on almost one acre of land. People over fifty years old are able to wear silk clothes. When chicken, pigs, and dogs are bred in a timely way, all who are seventy and over have meat to eat. With more than eight acres of land that is farmed and cultivated on schedule, a family of eight will never go hungry. With proper education and the promotion of filial piety and fraternal respect, the elderly will never carry heavy loads on the road.

The key factor in achieving the “harmony of the world” based on the “harmony of heaven and earth” lies in the “political harmony” of rulers. Political harmony, on the one hand, depends on the “great unity” of

58 Kong Xidan [孔希旦]. Liji Ji Jie [礼记集解 Collected Interpretations of the Book of Rites], vol. 2, Zhonghua Book Company, 1995, p. 582.

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the subjects with the ruler. Confucius said, “Politics is about rectification.”59 Shuowen Jiezi explains “rectification” [正 zheng] as “sticking to the only path without any other excessive affiliations.” Xu Kai [徐锴] further explained that it means “to insist on the only resolution.” And this is what Mencius referred to as “the world is established in unity” in Mencius 1A.6. However, this “great unity” does not mean the unconditional compliance of the subjects to the ruler. Rather, it is “harmony in diversity,” which means that: When the ruler thinks something is good and the subject thinks otherwise, the subject can present their views to see whether it is better. When the ruler thinks something is not good, but the subject thinks otherwise, the subject can present their views change the ruler’s thought.60

On the other hand, political harmony also depends on the ruler’s benevolent governance that loves and protects the people. In the pre-Qin period, Wu Ju [伍举] of the State of Chu [楚] answered the question as to whether the King of Ling’s [楚灵王] newly built Zhanghua Terrace was beautiful or not, saying: Beauty refers to something that is harmless to both above and below, inside and outside, big and small, far and near. If it looks good but is taken from the national wealth, then gathering the benefits of the people to selfenclosure will leave the people impoverished. This is not real beauty.... It is beautiful only when it is beneficial to the people near and far, and makes countries large and small secure. If it restricts the people’s benefits to fulfill personal desires, causing people’s discontent and unhappiness and have a rebellious heart, how can it be considered good? How can we focus on the superficial appearance?61

“Harmlessness is beauty” means that beauty needs to be harmless to people and to be virtuous and love people. In the “Tiandi Yinyang” [ 59 Line 17, Chapter 12, D. C. Lau, trans., The Analects, New York: Penguin Books, 1979. 60 Yan Ying’s [晏婴] words in Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals ( 昭公二十年 Interpretation of the Twentieth Year of Duke Zhao). 61 Guo Yu. Chuyu Shang [国语 · 楚语上 Discourses of the States. Discourses of Chu], vol. 1.

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天地阴阳] chapter of Dong Zhongshu’s Chunqiu Fanlu, it is said more clearly: “When the world is well-governed and the people are harmonious, people have peaceful state of mind, then the heaven and earth nurtured, and all things become beautiful.” The four gates surrounding the Forbidden City in Beijing are called Tian’an men [天安门 The Gate of Peaceful Heaven], Di’an men [地 安门 The Gate of Peaceful Earth], Dong’an men [东安门 The Gate of Peaceful East], and Xi’an men [西安门 The Gate of Peaceful West]. The palaces are called Zhonghe Hall [中和殿 The Hall of Central Harmony] and Taihe Palace [太和殿 The Palace of Supreme Harmony]. There are nearly a hundred names of places in ancient China related to “harmony,” such as Chang’an, Yan’an, Huai’an, Zhen’an, Tai’an, Hui’an, Tong’an, Xi’an, Gao’an, Ning’an, Datong, Pinghe, Pingshun, Pingnan, Kangping, Gaoping, Beiping, Yongding, Yongtai, Dingxi, Ningdu, Ningxiang, Ningcheng, Ningbo, Suihua, and Jingjiang. These names all contain the idea of pursuing political harmony and peace. Music and Poetry: The Propeller of Zhonghe Beauty In order to achieve social harmony, Confucians require music and poetry to play a special lubricating function and a positive complementary role. First, “the function of music lies in harmonizing the mind.”62 When discussing the harmonious function of “rites,” Confucians often mentioned the harmonious function of “music” and pointed out that the two have their respective roles. “Rites” regulate external behavior norms, while “music” guides internal psychological norms; “rites” highlight differences (especially hierarchical differences), while “music” emphasizes unity (especially the unity of the ruler and the subject); “rites” embrace reason, while “music” embraces emotions. “Rites” and “music” should complement each other and work together to achieve political and national harmony. As the “Record of Music” in The Book of Rites asserts: Music refers to the inner feelings and emotions, while rites refer to external behavior and manners. When the inner feelings reach a state of harmony and unity, it reaches the peak of harmony. When external behavior and manners reach a state of excellence and comply with the norms and rules, 62 Lü Buwei [吕不韦]. Lü Shi Chunqiu. Zhongxia Ji [吕氏春秋 · 仲夏纪 Lü Bu Wei’s Commentaries of History. A Record of Mid-Summer].

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it reaches the peak of compliance…. Music arises from within, and rites originate from without.... When music reaches its peak, there is no resentment; when rites are performed, there is no contention…. Music unifies and rites distinguish. The theories of rites and music are concerned with human emotions…. Music is the harmony of heaven and earth; rites are the order of heaven and earth. Because of harmony, all things are cultivated and nourished; because of order, all things are differentiated.

From this perspective, in ancient China, rulers valued music as an auxiliary means of rites, with the function and mission of “harmonizing the mind” and “harmonizing the emotions.” Therefore, “harmony” is a characteristic of the beauty of music in ancient China. The Book of Music [ 乐记 Yue Ji] states that “music follows harmony, and harmony follows peace.” It also adds that “music is the harmony of heaven and earth.” The beauty of music lies in the pursuit of natural emotions being expressed in a harmonious and reasonable manner, thus “moving people’s kind heart and mind.” At the same time, attention should be paid to using harmonious sound and rhythm to express emotions. The Book of Rites notes: “Music is based on the harmony of its sound…. If the sound is not harmonious and peaceful, it is not what the officials should be in charge of.” The harmony of sound is not found in uniformity, but in the opposite—it lies in the coordinated relationship between different musical elements, such as “clear and muddy, small and large, short and long, fast and slow, sorrowful and joyful, firm and gentle, slow and fast, high and low, in and out, close and sparse, complementing each other.” If the sound is “singular,” “who will hear it?”.63 Second, “the most important aspect of the ancient Chinese stringed instruments is harmony.”64 Music cannot exist without musical instruments. Stringed instruments such as guqin [古琴], guzheng [古筝], pipa [琵琶], erhu [二胡], yangqin [扬琴], and se [瑟] are important components of ancient Chinese musical instruments. Harmony, the beauty of music, is also reflected in the rules of playing ancient Chinese instruments. The most important aspect of music is harmony. The Ming dynasty scholar Xu Shangying [徐上瀛] made a detailed analysis and discussion of

63 Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals [昭公二十年 Interpretation of the Twentieth Year of Duke Zhao]. 64 Wang Shan [王善]. Zhixin Zhai Qinxue Lianyao [治心斋琴学练要 Essential Principles and Practice of Qin Study in Zhixin Zhai].

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the rules, techniques, characteristics, and effects of the beauty of “harmony” in ancient Chinese instrument music in his book On Ancient Chinese Stringed Instruments at Mount Xi [溪山琴况 Xishan Qin Kuang]. He said: By examining the ancients and sages, who had a clear understanding of natural phenomena and had virtuous interactions with gods and humans, they could govern their own emotions and rationalize the emotions of all people under heaven. Therefore, they created the stringed instruments, the most important aspect of which is harmony.

This argument draws from the origin of the instrument and demonstrates that it should focus on “cultivating the nature-emotion of all people under heaven.” Moreover: Begin with tuning the strings to the correct pitch, follow the sounds of the frets and strings, identify the notes with the fingers, and listen carefully. This is what is meant by feeling and responding with sense of harmony. Harmony, in essence, is the convergence of multiple sounds, and this the source of calmness, gentleness, and a peaceful inner state.

This explains that the playing of string instruments requires the harmonization of sound. The harmony of sound is the convergence of multiple sounds, which considers “being subtle and moderate” as the ultimate goal. “Open harmony” [散和]65 is considered superior to “following harmony” [按和] as it involves playing without pre-set rules and controlling the strings and finger positions in a flexible way by adjusting the degree of tension and relaxation to produce harmonious sounds. “Following harmony” refers to a more structured way of playing, in which the left hand presses and the right hand plucks the strings, based on a ` or ten-tone system of nine-tone equal temperament [九应律 jiuˇ yinglü] ` to achieve harmonic sounds. If equal temperament [十应吕 shí yìng lü] the tuning or playing is not precise, the sound produced may not be truly harmonious, and one must distinguish it by overtones. If the overtones do not harmonize, the performer must use finger pressure and tuning to

65 Translator’s note: This a terminology in music, which means unfingered sound produced without using the left hand to press on the strings.

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adjust them, comparing the sounds and striving for real harmony. This is a technical differentiation between “open harmony” and “following harmony.” It then explores three aspects of “string and finger coordination” [xian yu zhi he弦与指合], “finger and sound coordination” [zhi yu yin he 指与音合], and “sound and intention coordination” [yin yu yi he 音与意合] to seek harmony. Finally, it concludes that a harmonious sound on Chinese stringed instruments can only be achieved through a process of “string” → “finger” → “sound” → “intention,” ultimately resulting in a state of “harmony in nature and emotion.” Third, “edification through poetry in a reserved and broad-minded manner is one of the teachings of The Book of Songs.”66 Poetry and music in ancient China were integrated. Music was regarded as beautiful when it achieved harmony in both emotions and sounds, and this standard was directly extended to the aesthetic requirements of poetry. Poetry expresses emotions. Shangshu. Yaodian [尚书 · 尧典 The Book of Documents], Canon of Yao, asserts that “poetry expresses the aspiration.” Kong Yingda [孔颖达] believed that “emotion and aspiration are united,” and that “one’s emotion is the aspiration, and when the emotion becomes active, it becomes the aspiration.”67 Therefore, Mao Shi Xu [毛 诗序] wrote in the Preface to The Book of Songs : Poetry expresses the aspiration. Aspirations are hidden deep within the heart and are expressed through poetry. Emotions are hidden deep within the heart and are expressed through words, which cannot fully convey the author’s feelings. Words cannot express well, thus one sighs and laments; when sighing and lamenting is not enough, then one sings....

However, poetry should not express emotions directly. Instead, it should follow the regulations of rites and teachings, with “decorations of words and gentle admonishment.” The specific ways are: “when seeing the beauty of the present, it is improper to praise it too directly; it may be regarded as flattery. Therefore, we use other beautiful things to accentuate their beauty,” and “when it comes to the unsatisfactory situation of the present, we can only use similar things to make comparisons

66 Liji. Jingjie. [礼记 · 经解 The Book of Rites. Annotations to the Classics]. 67 Kong Yinda [孔颖达]. Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals (左传

· 昭公二十五年正义 Annotations to Interpretation of the Twentieth Year of Duke Zhao).

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and draw analogies.”68 Whether praising or criticizing, one should use edification through poetry in a reserved and broad-minded manner, and use euphemisms to ensure the harmony of the hierarchical relationship between superiors and subordinates. All of these contributed to how music and poetry with the characteristics of balanced harmony became part of the Confucian rites and were involved in the construction of beauty of harmonious society in ancient China.

Confucians on the Spirit of “Regulation” [jiezhi] in Emotional Beauty In ancient Chinese aesthetics, “beauty” and “emotion” are closely related. Dao Zhi [盗跖],69 the brothers Gong Sun Chao [公孙朝] and Gong Sun Mu [公孙穆],70 Ta Xiao [它嚣] and Wei Mou [魏牟]71 simply equated “emotions” with “beauty.” They rejected all rational norms and pursued emotional happiness blindly, leading them towards hedonism. In contrast, Taoists linked emotional activity with evil that goes against human nature, requiring people to eliminate desires and passion, such that “pleasure, anger, sorrow, and joy should not enter the heart.”72 Buddhists believe that human desires are the root of suffering and require the observance of the precepts to eliminate them. From the perspective of Taoism and Buddhism, beauty is unrelated to human emotions. Contrary to these two propositions, Confucians recognize the fact that human life is full of emotions. On the one hand, they affirm that emotions cannot be eliminated. Li Ji. Li Yun [礼记 · 礼运 The Book of Rites, The Evolution of Rites] points out: “What is human emotion? Joy, anger, sorrow, pleasure, love, hate, and desire; these seven things are not learned

68 Zheng Xuan [郑玄]. “Zhouli. Dashi, Liu Shi Zhu” [周礼 · 大师 六诗”注] in Zhouli Zheng Zhu [周礼郑注 Annotations to the Book of Rites by Zheng Xuan], vol., 2, 3. 69 Zhuangzi. Dao Zhi [庄子 · 盗跖]. 70 Liezi. Yangzhu [列子 · 杨朱 as described in the book “Liezi” by Yang Zhu]. 71 Xunzi. Fei Shierzi [荀子 · 非十二子]. 72 Zhuangzi. Tian Zifang [庄子 · 田子方].

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but innate.” Mencius asserted that “food and sex are natural desires.”73 Xunzi stated that “people are born with desires”74 and added: When it comes to human emotions, the eyes want to see colors, the ears want to hear sounds, the mouth wants to taste, the nose wants to smell, and the heart wants to be at ease. These five desires are emotions that no one can avoid.75

Zhu Xi pointed out, “Can one not want to eat food when hungry? Can one not seek clothing when cold? Can we remove human desires from humans? Even if one wants to eliminate the desire, it cannot ultimately be eliminated.”76 On the other hand, the theory of “evil emotion” is also acknowledged, which indicates that if emotions are not controlled, they will lead to various negative consequences. Therefore, it is emphasized that emotions should be rationally regulated. This way of satisfying emotional desires and controlling them is called “rites.” Thus, Xunzi stated: “Rites are used to regulate people’s desires…. It regulates people’s desire and provides them with what they seek.”77 Within the boundaries set by “rites,” emotional activities are legitimate. Zhu Xi pointed out that “the human heart is not entirely bad,”78 nor is it entirely good. Only those aspects of emotions and desires that conform to the norms of rites are morally good and aesthetically pleasing. Therefore, “restraining feelings” becomes a fundamental principle of Confucian aesthetics. On Music [Yue Lun 乐论] and The Book of Music: The Source of Treating “Restraining Feelings” as Beauty The Confucian concept of “restraining feelings” as a source of beauty can be traced back to the works Xunzi. Yue Lun [荀子 · 乐论] and Li Ji. Yueji [礼记 · 乐记]. Both written during the Warring States period, these works

73 Book 6A, D. C. Lau, trans., Mencius, New York: Penguin Books, 2004. 74 Xunzi. Lilun [荀子 · 礼论]. 75 Xunzi. Wang Ba [荀子 · 王霸]. 76 Zhu Xi. Zhuzi Yulei [朱子语类 Classified Conversations of Master Zhu], vol. 78. 77 Xunzi. Lilun. 78 Zhu Xi. Zhuzi Yulei, vol. 78.

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share similar views and expressions, which reflect the fundamental beliefs of the pre-Qin Confucians regarding the relationship between beauty and emotion. According to Xunzi. Yue Lun and Li Ji. Yueji, human beings are born with emotions, which, when not released or satisfied, can lead to unrest. Overindulgence in emotions can also lead to social disorder. Therefore, the sages made music and rites to regulate and ease human emotions. The first function of music is to bring pleasure and satisfaction to people’s emotional desires, while the second function is to ensure that emotions do not violate the norms of ritual propriety in order to achieve the harmony of “beauty and goodness.” In Xunzi. 20, it is said that “music is something that cannot be avoided in human emotions, so a person cannot live without it.” Happiness is an unavoidable human emotion and people cannot live without it. People have a natural inclination towards happiness and avoiding suffering. If there is no corresponding outlet in society for satisfying these emotions, the world will be in great chaos. To prevent such chaos, ancient wise kings created music. Therefore, it is said that music brings happiness. However, if the pursuit of happiness is not morally restrained, it can lead to disaster. Ancient rulers realized this, and when creating music to fulfill people’s needs for happiness, they integrated morality into music and reasons into emotions, to achieve a social effect that satisfies the emotions of people without being promiscuous. This ensured the stability and happiness of the country and the people. Xunzi put it in this way: People cannot live without music, and music cannot exist without form. If it does not guide people with morality, it will lead to chaos. The ancient kings hated disorders, hence they created the sounds of Ya 雅 and Song 颂 as a guidance, making the sound of music enough to bring pleasure but not indulgence, and making the words clear but not difficult. The ups and downs, complexity and simplicity, crisp and smooth, as well as the rhythm of the music are sufficient to touch the goodness of people’s hearts, so that evil and dirty ideas will find no way to influence people…. Therefore, music is meant to guide people to be happy. Golden stones, silk and bamboo are to guide people to be moral…. Gentlemen should use bells, drums, zithers and other instruments to express their aspirations and thoughts, and use music to soothe their minds. Therefore, when the music is played, their minds are clear. By changing customs and habits, the world can be at peace, and beauty and goodness can be combined and enjoyed together.

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The ideas and perspectives in Liji. Yueji and Xunzi 20 are quite similar: People cannot live without music, and music cannot exist without form. If it does not guide people with morality, it will lead to chaos. The ancient kings hated disorders, hence they created the sounds of Ya 雅 and Song 颂 as a guidance, making the sound of music enjoyable but not licentious, and the words pleasant but not vulgar. The ups and downs, complexity and simplicity, crisp and smooth, as well as the rhythm of the music are sufficient to touch the goodness of people’s hearts, so that evil and dirty ideas will find no way to influence people…. Music is a way of pleasure…. Music is an embodiment of virtue…. The prosperity of music is not about extreme sounds. It is about teaching people to balance their likes and dislikes and return to the righteousness of human nature.

Music has two functions. One is to bring happiness to people and satisfy their pursuit of happiness, while the other is to guide people’s emotions by “embodying morality,” in order to “guide people back into the right track.” These two functions are inseparable in the music created by the ancient kings. Therefore, the pleasure that music brings is a kind of morally acceptable emotional pleasure. The beauty of music is an object of happiness that is in accordance with morality. From the Han Dynasty to the Six Dynasties: From “No Emotion” to “Unrestrained Emotion” The concept of the pre-Qin Confucians that emotions conforming to rites were beauty was adopted by the Confucians in the Han dynasty. For instance, Dong Zhongshu said, “The sages govern the people in such a way that they have desires but do not exceed the proper limits.”79 “Desires are called emotions. Emotions have no restraint unless proper limits and laws regulate them. Therefore, the kings regulate the laws and measures to restrain desires.”80 This is the demand for the regulation of emotions through proper limits and laws, rather than the total suppression of desires and emotions. However, due to the rulers’ indulgence in desires in the Qin dynasty that led to the destruction of the country, a

79 Dong Zhongshu. Chunqiu Fanlu. Baowei Quan [春秋繁露 · 保位权]. 80 Dong Zhongshu. Chunqiu Fanlu. Duice San [春秋繁露 · 对策三].

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trend emerged in the Han dynasty to advocate the philosophy of HuangLao School [黄老之学 Huang Lao Zhi Xue]. They held that “nature is good while emotion is evil,” simply treating emotions as something ugly. In their view, the highest realm was to forget emotions and have “no emotions.” This became the mainstream view in the Han dynasty. In the early Wei dynasty, He Yan [何晏] inherited this view and proposed that “the sages have no joy, anger, grief, or pleasure.” He Shao [何劭] praised that “this theory is extremely insightful,” and this view was frequently cited by Zhong Hui [钟会] and others, making it rather popular during a certain period. However, generally speaking, people in the Six Dynasties did not agree with the view of suppressing emotions severely. There were two different expressions of opinions. One was proposed by Wang Bi [王弼]. In response to He Yan’s [何晏] assertion that “sages have no emotions,” Wang Bi drew attention to the fact that humans are born with emotions, and emotions cannot be eradicated. He stated that the difference between the “sages” and ordinary people was that the former had more developed rationality, which could control the “five emotions” with “divine spirits” and keep them within the range of rites and would not cause any problems. The “Wei and Jin style” was thus formed, characterized by a cultivated and restrained elegance in expressing emotions such as joy, anger, grief, and pleasure, as seen in various anecdotes recorded in Shishuo Xinyu. Ya Liang [世说新语 · 雅量 A New Account of the Tales of the World: Magnanimity]. The rule of “divine spirits” mentioned by people in the Wei-Jin period covered a much wider range than the ritual codes in the Han dynasty. It was based on emotions, but guided by regulations. Wei Miao [魏 邈], in “Da Shuchu Wen” [答述初问 Answers to Shu Chu’s Questions], said that “rites are based on emotions.” Xu Guang [徐广], in “Da Liuzhen Zhi Wen Da Liu Zhen Zhi Wen” [答刘镇之问 Answers to Liu Zhenzhi’s Questions], claimed that “rites are established on the basis on emotions.” And Yuan Zhun [袁准], in Yuanzi Zhengshu [袁子正 书 Yuanzhun’s Script], said, “What are rites? They are meant to establish rituals and customs according to human emotions in order to achieve a sense of order and proper behavior.” In the balance between emotions and rites, emotions are more emphasized. Another line was drawn by Ji Kang [嵇康], Wang Rong [王戎], and others. They separated “emotions” from the norms of ritual propriety and

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directly pursued natural “emotions” that transcended social conventions. Ji Kang explicitly stated: The Six Classics are worthless, and benevolence and righteousness are decayed…. Humans are happy when desires are satisfied.... By following desires, the natural state is achieved. However, the achievement of the natural state should not be restrained by the Six Classics and the completeness of human nature do not need rites and laws that go against emotions.81

Wang Rong said, “Lower-class people are troubled by the world, and cannot afford to care about emotions (or affections)…. Only people like me are concerned about emotions.”82 These statements revealed a new perspective on life and aesthetic pursuits. This gave rise to the Wei-Jin style of “overriding social conventions and following one’s nature.” For example, Tao Yuanming [陶渊 明] resigned from his official position because he did not want to “bend his waist for five pecks of rice.” Zhang Han [张翰] resigned from his position and returned home because he missed the cuisine of his hometown as autumn breeze touched him. And Wang Hui [王徽之] “went on a trip for pleasure and returned when he was exhausted.” It was under this atmosphere that landscape poetry, palace-style poetry, and metrical poetry emerged, characterized by the depiction of formal beauty pleasing peoples’ emotions, and the slogan of regarding “emotions” as beauty was introduced into literary aesthetics. For example, Lu Ji [陆机] in Wen Fu [文赋 Unregulated RhymeProse] pointed out that “poetry is born from emotions, and is exquisite and elegant…. Words without emotions barely convey love.” Poems and articles have beauty when they have emotions; they have no beauty if they have no emotions and they lack beauty if they lack emotions. Liu Xie’s The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons clearly linked “emotions” with “beauty”: “When objects are viewed with emotions, words must be beautiful” [诠赋 Quan Fu]. In addition, “articles with complex words but lack real emotions must make their readers feel disgusted” [情

81 Ji Kang [嵇康]. “Nan Zhang Liaoshu’s Ziran Haoxue Lun” [难张辽叔《自然好学论 》Criticism on Zhang Liaoshu’s Theory on the Nature of Learning Confucian Classics]. 82 Liu Yiqing. Shishuo. Xinyu [世说新语 · 伤逝 A New Account of the Tales of the World. Sadness over Losses].

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采 Qing Cai]. In “Wenzhang Liubie Lun” [文章流别论 On the Origins of Literary Forms], Zhi Yu [挚虞] asserted that poetry “is based on emotions” and “is dominated by true feelings.” Shen Yue’s [沈约] “Xie Lingyun Zhuan Lun” [谢灵运传论 Commentary on the Biography of Xie Lingyun] analyzed literary works and pointed out that they should be “woven with emotions” and that “words change with emotions.” Xiao Yi’s [萧绎] Jin Louzi. Liyan [金楼子 · 立言]83 proposed that “in writing, words need to be beautiful, melodious, and able to move people.” These naturally occurring emotions that break free from the excesses of rites and moral restrictions are legitimate rights of people. Thus, the aesthetic slogan of “embracing emotions” is positive. However, are emotions detached from all rational constraints equal to beauty? This is the view of certain metaphysicians in the Wei-Jin period, which Confucians disagree with. In fact, if emotions are not constrained by rationality, they will cause various social ills. While the metaphysics of Wei-Jin period abolished the unreasonable norms that shrouded human natural emotions, they also demanded the removal of all rational norms, leading to unrestrained indulgence and debauchery. For example, Ruan Ji [阮籍] “often drank with women” and “slept with them when drunk,” Liu Ling [刘伶] “indulged in drinking” and “walked around naked in the house,” and Ruan Xian [阮咸] drank with a group of pigs. These activities caused serious social chaos. In the literary and artistic field, when all attention is focused on depicting the appearance of landscapes, palace ladies, and the rhythm and rhyme of poetry, in disregarding elegance and sentimentality and expressing patriotism and national loyalty, it could lead to negative consequences such as indulging in the trivial and losing one’s goals. By the late Southern dynasties, drunkenness, sloth, and admiration of ugliness had become impossible to reverse. Therefore, the historical responsibility of rectifying the social atmosphere fell on the shoulders of politicians and philosophers of the Sui and Tang dynasties.

83 Translator’s note: Jin Louzi is a nickname XiaoYi [萧绎] used to refer to himself.

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From the Tang and Song Dynasties to the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties: From “Restraining Feelings” to “Eliminating Emotions” to “Indulging in Emotions” and to “Restraining Feelings” From the Sui and Tang dynasties to the late Song and early Ming dynasties, the social problems brought by the rampant sexual desire of the Six Dynasties period were politically rectified, and a revival of Confucian moral rationality was initiated. After Emperor Wen of Sui unified the Northern and Southern dynasties to establish the Sui dynasty, he began to restore Confucian moral norms. Li E [李谔], a government official, submitted memorials three times to Emperor Wen of Sui to request a reform on the extravagant style of literature and the decadent social atmosphere. Confucian scholar Wang Tong [王通] imitated The Analects of Confucius and wrote Zhong Shuo to criticize poets who had eliminated the importance of the Way through literature [yi wen mie dao 以文灭道] since the Southern dynasty. At the beginning of the Tang dynasty, Emperor Taizong [唐太宗] did two significant things to restore the status of Confucianism. First, he appointed Kong Yingda [孔颖达] to designate the Five Classics as required reading materials for the imperial examination. Second, he commissioned Wei Zheng [魏征] to compile new and revised histories, including Jin Shu [晋书], Sui Shu [隋书], and histories of the Northern and Southern dynasties, to summarize the gains and losses of political rise and fall. This confirms that the benevolent governance based on the people-centered philosophy of Confucianism is the path to long-term political stability and peace. Emperor Taizong established the dominant position of Confucian moral and ethical doctrine in the Tang dynasty. In the ideological circle of the Tang dynasty, poets such as the “Four Outstanding Scholars” [Chu Tang Si Jie 初唐四杰] Chen Zi’ang Du Fu Bai Juyi 白居易, Yuan Zhen 元 稹, and Zhang Ji 张籍]; and essayists, such as Liang Su [梁肃], Liu Mian [柳冕], Han Yu [韩愈], Liu Zongyuan [柳宗元], and Li Ao [李翱], raised the banner of Confucian moral aesthetic in the fields of poetry and essay, respectively. After unifying China, Song Taizu [宋太祖] established a more centralized imperial power, and the gentle Way of Confucianism was replaced by the obnoxious “reason” [理 li]. Zhou Dunyi [周敦颐], the Cheng Brothers [二程], Shao Yong [邵雍], Zhu Xi [朱熹], and Lu Jiuyuan [陆 九渊] were famous advocates of the Confucian idea of “preserving the

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heavenly principle” [存天理 cun tianli] and “discarding [improper and selfish] human desires.” While Liu Kai [柳开], Wang Yucheng [王禹偁], Shi Jie [石介], Sun Fu [孙复], Ouyang Xiu [欧阳修], and Zheng Dexiu [真德秀] were ancient prose writers, they were actually Taoist scholars who continuously requested that words should carry the Way. Rulers of the Yuan dynasty adopted Neo-Confucianism for their political purpose of grand unification. Neo-Confucian philosopher Wang Yangming in the Ming dynasty reiterated the call to “preserve the heavenly principles, and to discard [improper and selfish] human desires.” Accordingly, to restrain desires with the Way and restrain emotions with reason, or to pursue emotions in line with the standards of heaven and morality, became the dominant perspective from the early Sui dynasty to the early Ming dynasty for nearly a thousand years. From the Sui and Tang dynasties to the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties, the Confucian idea of treating “restraining feelings” as beauty was advocated again as a correction to the social problems caused by the indulgence in metaphysics during the Six Dynasties. However, the moral and ethical rules that the Tang and Song Confucians set for emotions were overly strict. During the Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties, heavenly reason and human desires had become confrontational, with heavenly reason destroying emotions. For example, the Cheng Brothers said that “rites are heavenly principle,” and “where there is no human desire, there is heavenly principle.”84 The most typical example is what Cheng Yi said: “Being starved to death is a small issue, but losing one’s moral integrity is a big one.”85 In the Qing dynasty, Dai Zhen [戴震] criticized this view by saying that “ruthless officials used the law to kill people and later, Confucians used principle to kill people.” Based on the History of the Ming Dynasty [Ming Shi 明史] and The Collection of Ancient and Modern Books [Gu Jin Tu Shu Ji Cheng 古今图书集成], American scholar Zheng Qilai [郑 麒来] counted and found that 619 women in the Ming dynasty had cut their own flesh to heal their husbands or elders, including their thighs, upper backs, livers, fingers, ears, breasts, ribs, waist, knees, and abdomen,

84 Er Cheng Ji 二程集 [Collection of Cheng Brothers], Extant works, vol. 22, Zhonghua Book Company, 1981. 85 Er Cheng Ji 二程集 [Collection of Cheng Brothers], Extant works, vol. 22, Zhonghua Book Company, 1981.

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which is an extreme example of “killing by the heavenly principle.” Therefore, in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, an enlightenment trend of thought began to criticize the theory of Song-Ming Neo-Confucians. They no longer emphasized the principle, but instead shifted their focus to emotions by treating emotions as beauty. The “emotions” that were praised in the wave of emotion aesthetics in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties were, according to Li Kaixian [李 开先], “true emotions” that “came directly from the heart without being adored.” Tang Xianzu 汤显祖 openly claimed that “My teacher talks about nature and I talk about emotions.”86 His “emotions” were in sharp opposition to “nature and principle.” What he admired was the natural human emotions that came from biological instinct. Yuan Hongdao [袁 宏道], Zhong Xing [钟惺], and Tan Yuanchun [谭元春] advocated “true emotions” and “deep emotions,” reaching a state that regarded “obsessive love” as the “highest love.” Feng Menglong [冯梦龙] proposed that “emotions originate from men and women, and flow between rulers and subjects, fathers and sons, brothers, and friends.”87 He compiled the novel Qing Shi [情史 Historical Record of Emotion] and folk songs Shan Ge [山歌 Mountain Songs] with the hope of “using the true emotion between men and women to expose the hypocrisy of moral teachings.”88 Jin Shengtan defended Xixiang Ji [西厢记 The Romance of the Western Chamber] by saying that the description that “ladies have affairs with men today” in the book used “the most refreshing words.” People in the Ming and Qing dynasties defended the natural true emotions that are not bound by ritual norms and ethics through the enlightenment concept of “natural is as it should be.” They regarded natural emotions as reasonable, from which all rational morality in the world should arise. Emotions are naturally reasonable, which laid a foundation of value for the happiness generated therefrom, and thus established a close connection with beauty. In the “Shijin Yanci Xu” [ 市井艳词序 Preface to Popular Verse in the Streets], Li Kaixian [李开先] highly praised the amorous Ci poems in the marketplace, thinking that “their emotions are particularly touching.” Xu Wei 徐渭 pointed out that

86 Chen Jiru [陈继儒]. “Pidian Mudan Ting Ti” [批点牡丹亭题 Inscription of Annotations to The Peony Pavilion]. 87 Zhanzhan Waishi [詹詹外史]. Qingshi Xu [情史叙 History of Love]. 88 Feng Menglong [冯梦龙]. “Xu Shange” [序山歌 On Folk Song].

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“the more genuine the portrayal of emotions, the more easily it moves people.”89 In the preface to his Yayu Ge Ji Xu [雅娱阁集序 Collected Works of Refinement and Entertainment Pavilion], Jiao Hong [焦竑] said, “If emotions are not intense, then they cannot shock and stir the soul.” Yuan Hongdao [袁宏道], in his Xu Xixiu Shi [叙小修诗 Discussion of Small Poetic Works], said, “Words that express deep emotions can easily move people.” And Zhang Xuecheng [章学诚] said in his Wenshi Tongyi. Shide [文史通义 · 史德 Explanation of Literature and History, Virtues of History]: “Articles are not able to move people; it is emotions that move people.” People looked at things with emotions and put their feelings in landscapes, and the beauty of landscape was rediscovered during this period. According to Yuan Zhongdao [袁中道], Mount Huangshan is beautiful because it is “astonishing and fantastical, spiritually rich and meaningful, expressing the essence of all things and embodying the seven emotions.”90 Wang Siran [王思任] said: “The feeling of sightseeing lies in high and open views, and the reason for sightseeing lies in nature. When mountains and rivers meet with human emotions, one’s interests become shared.”91 Due to the exchange of emotions, mountains and rivers were regarded as friends. Wang Siran also said: “Among the two greatest things, nothing is as resonant as mountains and rivers; among the five relationships, nothing has more resonance than friendship.”92 According to Wu Congxian [吴从先], “The fun of landscape makes people have a special liking for it.” Yuan Hongdao said that the literati at that time often claimed that they “have a fondness for landscape,” and Cao Xuequan [ 曹学佺] stressed that people “love to travel.” Landscape prose describing

89 Preface to the “Collection of Ancient and Modern Dramas in the South and the North Dynasties” [选古今南北剧], Xu Wei Ji. Bu bian [徐渭集 · 补编 Collection of Xu Wei, Supplement]. 90 Yuan Zhongdao [袁中道]. Kexue Zhai Ji. You Huangshan Ji [珂雪斋集 · 游黄山记 Collection in Kexue Study: A Trip to Mount Huangshan]. 91 Wang Siren [王思任]. Wang Jizhong Shizhong. Shimen [王季重十种 · 石门 Collections of Wang Jichong, The Stone Gate]. 92 Wang Siren [王思任]. Wang Jizhong Shizhong. Shimen [王季重十种 · 石门 Collections of Wang Jichong, The Stone Gate].

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the beauty of nature illuminated by emotions emerged. This trend flourished and gave rise to literary masters of landscape travelogues, such as Wang Shixing [王士性], Yuan Hongdao [袁宏道], Yuan Zhongdao [袁 中道], Xie Zhaozhen [谢肇淛], Pan Zhiheng [潘之恒], Xu Xiake [徐霞 客], Wang Siran [王思任], Cao Xuequan [曹学佺], Liu Tong [刘侗], and Zhang Dai [张岱].93 Not only is natural landscape beautiful due to emotions, but the beauty of literary works also stems from genuine and profound emotions. Zhang Chao [张潮] said: “The best articles, past and present, were written with blood and tears.”94 Xu Wei [徐渭] said in his Ye Zisu Shi Xu [叶子肃诗 序 Preface to the Poetry of Ye Zisu] that “as long as the emotions are extremely deep, literary works will surely be commensurately profound.” Representatives of the Jingling School, Zhong Xing and Tan Yuanchun, wrote in Tangshi Gui [唐诗归 Selected Works of Tang Poetry] that “the quality of the writing is determined by the emotions that inspire them.” Wang Fuzhi said: “Where emotion arrives, poetry reaches perfection; where poetry reaches perfection, emotion goes to the extreme.”95 The emphasis on “emotions” determines the beauty of literature and art, so Wu Congxian, a renowned figure during the reign of Emperor Wanli, stated in the preface to Xiaochuang Yanji [小窗艳记 A Memoir of the Small Window’s Charm] that “emotion is the fate of literature.” In the eyes of artists in the Ming and Qing dynasties, all the finest works of literature and art were those that were full of emotional expression. Guided by such understanding, Ming and Qing literary figures consciously created and shaped many artistic images of “people with deep emotions.” In Tang Xianzu’s The Peony Pavilion [牡丹亭], Du Liniang can be considered “a person with the deepest emotions.” Tang Xianzu stated in the inscription of The Peony Pavilion: “A person like Liniang can be called a ‘person with deep love.’ Love arises without warning, and once they arise, they are deep. The lovers may die for love, and the

93 Xia Xianchun [夏咸淳]. “Shiqi Shiji Zhongguo Wenxue” 17 [世纪中国文学思潮 Literary Trends in China in the Seventeenth Century], in Chen Bohai [陈伯海] ed., Jin Sibai Nian Zhongguo Wenxue Sichao Shi [近四百年中国文学思潮史 A History of Chinese Literary Trends in the Last Four Hundred Years, Oriental Publishing Center] 1997, pp. 92–94. 94 Zhang Chao [张潮]. You Meng Ying [幽梦影], vol. 2. 95 Wang Fuzhi [王夫之]. Gushi Pingxuan [古诗评选 Comments and Collection of

Ancient Poems], vol. 4.

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dead may come back to life for love.” Hong Sheng’s [洪昇] Changsheng Dian [长生殿 The Palace of Eternal Youth] portrayed lovers Li Longji and Yang Yuhuan as two people who “have sincere feelings and are born a couple” and “both are truly devoted to each other.” Pu Songling’s [ 蒲松龄] Liaozhai Zhi Yi [聊斋志异 Strange Stories From Liao Study] describes many men and women who are deeply in love. For example, the protagonist Xiang Yu [香玉] in Xiang Yu [香玉 Fragrant Jade] is selfproclaimed as “emotionally infatuated,” and her beloved Huang Sheng [黄生] is also an incredibly affectionate person. Despite being different in their identities (one is human and the other is a ghost), they are not alienated and still love each other. Cao Xueqin [曹雪芹] declared in the first chapter of Honglou Meng [ 红楼梦 Dream of the Red Chamber] that the book was “generally about emotions.” The fifth chapter described the “land of illusion,” opening the prelude to the book. A pair of couplets hung at the palace gate: “Thick earth and high sky sigh as love throughout all ages will last forever. Starcrossed men and maids groan that they are unable to pay the debt of love.” The horizontal scroll reads, “Sea of pains and sky of passion.” In Prologue to The Dream of Red Mansions , we see the following sentence: “When the cosmos was first created, who sowed the seeds of love? It was all for the sake of the strong passion of love.” The titles of chapters of Dream of the Red Chamber also extensively use the word “love.” The book describes the protagonist Jia Baoyu as “an affectionate person” and “a fool of love.” Other characters like Lin Daiyu are also portrayed as people with deep love. Zhi Yanzhai [脂砚斋] revealed that the characters in the novel “live as people with deep love, and die as ghosts with deep emotions,” and that the entire book was “a novel about love.” Hua Yue Chiren [花月痴人], the author of Honglou Huan Meng Zixu [红楼幻梦 自序 Preface to The Illusory Dream of the Red Chamber], pointed out in his preface to the novel that Dream of the Red Chamber was a “love book”: The person who wrote this book was born of love, expressed love, loyal to love, adhered to love, had deep love, relied on love, unrestrained by love, confined by love, addicted to love, had been mad with love, gained happiness in love, encountered pain in love, defeated by love, and had ultimately been inseparable from love.

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Enlightenment learning in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties corrected the bias of the Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism that emphasized the notion that “emotions are evil” and “human beings should have no desire.” This had its historical significance. However, this led to the emergence of a new bias towards the “emotion-only” theory that went beyond rational norms. Take romance novels for example. As the first chapter of Dream of the Red Chamber claims: “There are literary works about love, which are very obscene and dirty, and they seriously poison the readers.” Notable works of this kind include The Plum in the Golden Vase [金瓶 梅], Sex and Zen [肉蒲团], History of the Embroidering Bed [绣榻野史], Legends of Silly Ladies [痴婆子传], Criticism at Taowu [梼杌闲评], and History of the Profligates [浪史], among others. Since natural “true emotions” were equated with “goodness” and “beauty,” people who indulged in emotions supposedly went mad. Li Zhi [李贽], for example, was a famous writer known for his wild and unrestrained writing style and for having been a self-proclaimed “unruly person” and “unrestrained person.” In the Biography of Li Wenling [李温 陵传], Yuan Zhongdao commented on Li Zhi: “When he had feelings, he would speak up and express his thoughts. Even in the presence of dignitaries, he remained uninhibited… like a soaring phoenix or an unyielding dragon.” Xu Wei’s poems are described as “full of laughter and scolding, like water flowing out of a canyon, like a spring bud breaking out of the soil, like a widow crying at midnight, like a traveler setting out on a cold day.” However, in his later years: Xu became more cynical and acted as if he were mad, often turning away dignitaries when they came to visit him. He often went to pubs with money and asked the servants to drink with him. There were times when he cut his own head with an axe, causing blood to run down his face and his skull to crack, and the bones made a rattling sound as he rubbed them. He had also sunk a sharp awl into his own ears. The awl penetrated more than an inch deep, but he survived.96

Another example is Ba Da Shan Ren [八大山人] (Zhu Da 朱耷), a painter in the early Qing dynasty. According to records of the time, it did not take long for him to show signs of mental disorders:

96 Yuan Hongdao [袁弘道]. Biography of Xu Wenchang [徐文长].

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At first, he cried on the ground then laughed out loud. When he finished laughing, he ran away screaming and crying, sometimes singing with his belly bulging, sometimes dancing in the street. People thought he was annoying, so they got him drunk and his madness stopped.97

Pu Songling, author of Liaozhai Shiji [聊斋诗集 Strange Tales from a Chinese Study], stated: “Obsessive love is what I can understand, wild behavior is what you may know.” People indulged in the pleasure of emotional enjoyment by: Enjoying good buildings, playing with dolls and playing games, enjoying fine food and horses, watching colorful lights and fireworks, and appreciating opera and music. They even had obsessive hobbies, such as collecting antiques, flowers, and birds. They drink tea, joke, and obsess about reading and writing poetry.98

In all things of fun, “they did whatever they knew and satisfied all their interests.”99 People were complacent in their addiction to “landscapes,” “gardens,” “lyre and chess,” “Ci poetry and music,” and in becoming “stone manic,” “flower maniac,” “book maniac,” and “painting maniac.” Some vassals even built luxurious gardens with bathing pools for men and women to play in the water naked. The nobles and officials indulged in the pursuit of sexual pleasure and people openly sold pornographic books, pictures, drugs, and sex toys, with little regard for sexual taboos and moral norms. Since “lust [ran] rampant, and opinions [ran] wild”100 in the late Ming dynasty, the Qing government reintroduced Cheng-Zhu Confucianism [ 程朱理学] as the guiding ideology for the whole nation. Emperor Kangxi [康熙] himself composed The Essentials of Human Nature and Heavenly Principle [Xing Li Jingyi 性理精义] and reprinted works such as The Comprehensive Book of Nature and Principle [性理大全]. However, this also led to a new bias towards pure rationality. In this context, scholars 97 Chen Ding [陈鼎]. Yuchu Xin Zhi. Bada Shanren Zhuan [虞初新志 · 八大山人传 Selected Collection of Strange Tales and Legendary Short Stories in the Ming Dynasty], vol. 11. 98 Zhang Dai. Nianghuan Wenji [娘嬛文集 Collection of Nianghuan], vol. 4. 99 Zhang Dai. Nianghuan Wenji [娘嬛文集 Collection of Nianghuan], vol. 4. 100 Huang Zongxi. Mingru Xue’an. Jiangyou Xue’an San [明儒学案 · 江右学案三 Case

Studies of Ming Confucians. Case study of Jiangyou, no. 3].

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such as Huang Zongxi [黄宗羲], Wang Fuzhi [王夫之], Gu Yanwu [顾 炎武], Chen Que [陈确], Tang Zhen [唐甄], Yan Yuan [颜元], Dai Zhen [戴震], and Gong Zizhen [龚自珍] launched a new round of criticism of the flaws of Confucianism. Through a balance between the considerations of both “emotions” and “principle,” the significance of “restraining feelings” was re-established. Huang Zongxi proposed the concepts of “unified emotions” [yi qing 一情] and “common emotions” [zhong qing 众情]101 as well as the balance between the “emotions of the present” and the “emotions of the eternal.”102 This represents a new historical expression of treating “restraining feelings” as beauty. The New Expression of Treating “Restraining Feelings” as Beauty in the Late Qing Dynasty At the end of the nineteenth century, the Qing government launched a movement of modernization and reform. The reformists drew on Western humanitarian and aesthetic concepts, adopted the ideological core of the Enlightenment and practical learning since the late Ming dynasty, affirmed the central position of emotions in human life and the decisive role of emotional beauty in arts, and broke away from the Confucian rational norms in regard of emotions. Kang Youwei believed that humans are born with emotions and desires, and all of their emotions and desires can be summed up as “love and hate.” “Seeking pleasure and avoiding suffering” is human nature and should also become the Way of Human [ren dao 人道] that can be practiced and recognized in society. Kang revealed that “the Way of Human is based on people. Following the Way of Human is nothing more than pleasure and suffering. People seek pleasure and avoid suffering, that is all.” “Based on people” means “enjoying what pleases people.” This “human emotion” is not just personal emotion; it is a kind of emotional benefit that makes “everyone happy in their lives.”103 In an ideal society, 101 “Zhu Renyuan Muzhi Ming” [朱人远墓志铭 Epitaph of Zhu Renyuan] in Huang

Zongxi Quanji [黄宗羲全集 A Complete Selection of Huang Zongxi], vol. 10, Zhejiang Ancient Books Publishing House, 1993. 102 Huang Zongxi. Nan Lei Wen Yue [南雷文约 Huang Zongxi’s Selected Works], vol. 4, Preface to “Ma Xuehang Shi” [马雪航诗 Ma Xuehang’s Poems]. 103 “Bu ren” [不忍] in Kang Youwei Zhenglun Ji [康有为政论集 Kang Youwei’s Political Discussions], vol. 1, Zhonghua Book Company, 1981.

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“everyone enjoys life, satisfies desires, and pursues what they seek.”104 Moreover: Establishing laws and teachings enables people to enjoy themselves without pain as it is an excellent strategy. Those who can make people happy more and suffer less are almost excellent, and those who can make people suffer more and enjoy less are not good.105

Kang Youwei believed that the goal of human life is to seek pleasure. Liang Qichao revised it to assert that the goal of human life was to seek beauty and to have fun. Liang Qichao said, “The role of beauty is nothing more than to make ourselves or others happy…. Loving beauty is originally part of the goal of life.”106 He added: “I am convinced that ‘beauty’ is a fundamental element of human life, or perhaps the most essential one among all elements. If we remove the element of ‘beauty’ from life, we may not live comfortably and may not even survive.”107 Here, “beauty” refers to emotional pleasure. Liang Qichao also stated: If someone asks me what ideology I believe in, I would say that I believe in the ideology of fun. If someone asks me the foundation of my life philosophy, I would say that it is rooted in fun…. Fun is the original driving force of life. When fun is gone, life becomes meaningless.108

In this sense, “fun” can also be understood as emotional pleasure. Liang Qichao emphasized the enormous role of emotions in human life: There is nothing more sacred in the world than emotions…. Using emotions to inspire people is like using magnetism to attract iron. The stronger the magnetism, the more iron it attracts. There is no room for

104 “Bu ren” [不忍] in Kang Youwei Zhenglun Ji [康有为政论集 Kang Youwei’s Political Discussions], vol. 1, Zhonghua Book Company, 1981. 105 Kang Youwei. Datong Shu 大同书 [On Great Harmony]. 106 Liang Qichao [梁启超] “Quwei Jiaoyu Yu Jiaoyu Quwei” [趣味教育与教育趣味

Entertaining Education and Educational Entertainment] in Yinbing Shi Wenji [饮冰室文 集 Collected Works in Drinking Ice Study], vol. 38. 107 Liang Qichao. “Meishu Yu Shenghuo” [美术与生活 Arts and Life] in Yinbing Shi Wenji, vol. 39. 108 Liang Qichao. “Quwei Jiaoyu Yu Jiaoyu Quwei”.

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evasion. Therefore, emotions can be seen as a kind of hypnosis, and it is the original driving force of all human behavior.109

However, Liang also pointed out that not all emotions “are good or beautiful.”110 The “fun” recognized by Liang Qichao was a restrained emotional concept in which “the fun of the greater self” restrained “the fun of the individual self”; “the fun of the spirit” restrained “the fun of the body”111 ; and “the fun of the future” restrained “the fun of the present.”112 Taking this as a starting point, Liang Qichao discussed the relationship between the beauty of art and the “noble, pure and sincere” emotions: The greatest weapon for emotional education is art. Music, painting, and literature are three magic weapons that hold the key to the “secret of emotions.” For artists, the most important thing is to cultivate their emotions, to develop in the direction of nobility, purity, and sincerity. Once their own beautiful emotions have been cultivated, they express them with wonderful techniques and the value of art will not be disgraced.113

Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao’s theories on emotional beauty have had a profound influence on the literary trends in the early Republic of China period, nourishing the boom of “romantic fiction” and the advocacy of “humanistic literature” by scholars like Hu Shi [胡适] and Zhou Zuoren [周作人] during the May Fourth Movement. Records suggest that “recent Chinese writers are mostly engaged in romantic novels, with special emphasis on portraying erotic affairs to the fullest extent.”114 They also indicated that “novels published in Shanghai are currently very popular, but in terms of their content, nine out of ten are romance 109 Liang Qichao. “Zhongguo Yunwen Li Tou Suo Biaoxian De Qinggan” [中国韵文

里头所表现的情感 Emotions Expressed in Verses in China] in Yinbing Shi Wenji, vol. 37. 110 Liang Qichao. “Zhongguo Yunwen Li Tou Suo Biaoxian De Qinggan” [中国韵文 里头所表现的情感 Emotions Expressed in Verses in China] in Yinbing Shi Wenji, vol. 37. 111 Liang Qichao. “Yu Zhi Sisheng Guan” [余之死生观 My Outlook on Life and Death] in Yinbing Shi Wenji, vol. 17. 112 Liang Qichao. “Shuo Xiwang” [说希望 On Hope] in Liang Qichao Quanji [梁启 超全集 Complete Works of Liang Qichao], vol. 2, Beijing Publishing House, 1999. 113 Liang Qichao. “Zhongguo Yunwen Li Tou Suo Biaoxian De Qinggan”. 114 Cheng Gongda [程公达]. “Lun Yanqing Xiaoshuo” [论艳情小说 On Erotic Novels]

in Journal of Students, vol. 1, issue 6.

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novels.”115 The quantity of romantic novels in this era far exceeded that of the novels about “talented young men and beautiful ladies” in the Ming and Qing dynasties.116 During the May Fourth Movement, Zhou Zuoren advocated for “humanistic literature” by proposing to write about human emotions rather than emotions of “gods” or “animals.” Hu Shi pointed out in “Wenxue Gailiang Chuyi” [文学改良刍议 A Preliminary Discussion of Literary Reform] that “emotions are the soul of literature. Literature without emotions is like a person without a soul, a puppet, a walking corpse.” This view is in line with the theories of emotional beauty proposed by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao. To sum up, the pre-Qin Confucians put forward the concept of “restraining feelings” and treating it as beauty. When this idea went to the extreme, it resulted in the “obliviousness” and “affectionless-ness” of emotions in the Han dynasty. When this trend went overboard in the Wei, Jin, and Southern dynasties, “infatuation” and “indulgence” of emotions emerged as rectification. As this trend developed to the extreme, “restraining feelings” once again emerged in the Sui and Tang dynasties. After that, Song-Ming Neo-Confucians advocated the “elimination of emotions,” which led to the “indulgence of emotions” in the late Ming dynasty and then the “elimination of emotions” in the Qing dynasty, until it eventually returned to the idea of “restraining feelings.” The Confucianist idea of treating “restraining feelings” as beauty emerged as a result of the historical struggle between the ideas of treating “elimination of emotions” as beauty and treating “indulgence of emotions” as beauty. Today, we see that indulging in entertainment without following reason is not beauty, and neither is valuing reason at the cost of stifling emotions. Beauty lies in the regulation of our emotions, one that is guided by reason, as reflected in the norms of law and morality in current society.

115 Yao Gonghe [姚公鹤]. Shanghai Xianhua [上海闲话 Chitchat about Shanghai], Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 1988, p. 124. 116 Yuan Jin [袁进]. “Juexing Yu Taobi: Lun Min Chu Yanqing Xiaoshuo” [觉醒与逃 避——论民初言情小说Awakening and Escape: On Romance Novels in the Early Republic of China Period] in Jindai Wenxue de Tuwei [近代文学的突围 The Breakthrough of Modern Literature], Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 2001.

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Confucians on the Connotation of “Pensiveness and Concerns” [沉郁 chenyu] in Artistic and Inner Beauty Having “pensiveness and concerns” is a category of artistic beauty that is revered by Confucians. It is a special requirement of Confucians for the intrinsic beauty of poetry and other works of art. The Origin and History of “Pensiveness and Concerns” The term “pensiveness and concerns” was first seen in Qu Yuan’s [ 屈原] Jiuzhan. Si Meiren [九章 · 思美人 Nine Songs: Thoughts on Beauty]. In the Jin dynasty, Lu Ji [陆机] wrote in “Sigui Fu” [思归赋 Thoughts on Returning]: “My thoughts are of pensiveness and concerns, and my emotions are deepened by the things I feel.” This is the earliest source of “pensiveness and concerns.” In Grades of Poetry, Zhong Rong commented on the poems of Xiao Yan [萧衍], Emperor Wu of Liang as “embodying delicate thoughts with pensiveness and concerns” and praised the poetic beauty of his indignation and sadness. Du Fu [杜甫] in his “Jin Diao Fu Biao” [进雕赋表 Presenting a Tribute Poem on Eagle Owl] described the characteristics of his own work as “pensiveness and concerns with cadences,” of which “pensiveness and concerns” became a label of his poetry. Due to the great influence and demonstrative effect of Du’s poetry, the “pensiveness and concerns” style has been imitated by later generations, including Xing Qi Ji [辛弃疾] and Chen Weisong [陈 维崧]. In the Qing dynasty, the representative of the Changzhou School of Poetry, Chen Tingchao [陈廷焯], in his Baiyu Zhai Cihua [白雨斋词话 On Ci Poetry in Baiyu Study], proposed that “in Ci poetry composing, pensiveness and concerns is the best method,” and “the highest realm of poetry is in its pensiveness and concerns.” Based on the works by Du Fu, Xin Qiji, Chen Weisong, etc., Chen analyzed the meaning of the beauty of “pensiveness and concerns.” Kuang Zhouyi further explained the connotation of the beauty of “pensiveness and concerns” from the perspective of “thickness” in Huifeng Cihua [蕙风词话 Huifeng’s Words on Ci Poetry]. In Volume I, it is said: “The so-called ‘composure’ is the external embodiment of ‘thickness’…. When there is a romantic charm in heaviness, it is not far from accomplishment.” In Volume II, it is said:

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“‘Heaviness’ means composure, which lies not in words and sentences but in the artistic conception and style.” Three Connotations of “Pensiveness and Concerns”: Loyalty and Honesty, Indignation, and Implicitness “Pensiveness and concerns” is a concept opposed to frivolity and shallowness, as expressed in the sentence “being deep means not being frivolous, and being melancholy means not being shallow.”117 The first and foremost connotation of “pensiveness and concerns” is “loyalty and honesty” and “on the basis of loyalty and honesty, pensiveness and concerns can be pursued.”118 “Loyalty and honesty” is the basis of “pensiveness and concerns.” Poetry with “pensiveness and concerns” has “upright emotions and nature, taking tenderness and honesty as reality and pensiveness and concerns as function.”119 As Kuang Zhouyi pointed out, “In Ci composing, honesty is key…. The path cannot be easily found without an honest temperament and profound experience…. Both Su Shi [苏轼] and Xin Qiji [辛弃疾] wrote Ci poems with great honesty.” The “loyalty and honesty” of poetry is the accumulation of benevolence in Confucianism, and it needs to be acquired through the edification of Confucian classics such as Guo Feng [国风] and Li Sao [离骚]. Without being rooted in The Book of Songs and Chu Ci, how can one achieve pensiveness and concerns? Bian Feng [变风] said that the thirteen states and the twenty-five songs collected in Chu Ci [楚辞] are extremely loyal and honest and extremely pensive and concerning.120

Therefore, the “loyal and honest” spirit of worrying about the whole world stems from the benevolence and the care for the world, the country, and humanity. As Yuan Mei [袁枚] said, “One must first have the sentiment of fragrance and melancholy before they can write pensive and concerning works with cadences.”121

117 Chen Tingchao, On Ci Poetry in Baiyu Study, vol. 1. 118 Chen Tingchao, On Ci Poetry in Baiyu Study, vol. 7. 119 Chen Tingchao, Preface of On Ci Poetry in Baiyu Study, vol. 7. 120 Chen Tingchao. On Ci Poetry in Baiyu Study, vol. 1. 121 Suiyuan Shihua [随园诗话 Words on Poetry in Suiyuan], vol. 40.

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“Pensiveness and concerns” are the condensation of the Confucian spirit of loyalty, righteousness, benevolence, and kindness. Taking Du Fu’s poetry as an example, Li Gang of the Song dynasty pointed out, “Du Fu wrote over a thousand four hundred and forty poems, all implying loyalty, righteousness, hardships in journeys, grief, anger, and boredom.”122 “Three Officials” [三吏] and “Three Goodbyes” [三别] are representative of this. Chen Tingchao said, “Du Fu’s poems cover everything, relying on nothing, being vast and diverse, with a thousand changes. However, it is extremely pensive and concerning, loyal, sincere, and peaceful.”123 Poets possess great sense of loyalty, righteousness, and kindness, but in the process of pursuing the interests of the world, they were often frustrated. As a result, the “feelings of sorrow and anger accumulated in their heart,”124 thus forming the characteristics of sorrow and desolation and emotions with pensiveness and concerns. This characteristic was reflected in The Book of Songs, summed up by Confucius as “poetry can be used to express grievances.” In the Chu Ci, this characteristic was concentrated and vividly expressed. Qu Yuan persisted in walking the righteous path despite being misunderstood was instead falsely accused, and thus, Chu Ci is filled with endless sighs and lamentations. In Jiu Zhang Ai Ying [九章 · 哀郢], it is said: “My heart was sad and frustrated, filled with sorrows.” In Jiu Zhang Chou Si, [九章 · 抽思], it is said: “My heart is melancholy and lamenting increases my sorrows.” In Jiu Zhang. Bei Hui Feng [九章 · 悲回风], it is said: “My heart is full of sadness, with no joy; I always feel sad and can not find a way to comfort myself.” In his “Letter to My Younger Brother Seng Chuo” [僧绰], Wang Wei, a poet in the Southern dynasty, linked the emotions of sorrow and grievance to gripping beauty by saying “without the expression of sorrowful thoughts, articles and poems will become tasteless.”125 In Grades of Poetry, Zhong Rong particularly praised the depiction of sorrows and sadness. For example, he commented on the ancient poems in the Han dynasty, saying that they were “with sad and far-reaching 122 Li Gang [李纲]. Preface to Jiaoding Du Gongbu Ji [校定杜工部集 The Proofread Collection of Du Fu’s Poems], Qiu Zhao’ao [仇兆鳌] ed., Du Shi Xiangzhu [杜诗详注 Annotations to Du Fu’s Poems], Zhonghua Book Company, 1979. 123 Cheng Tingchao. On Ci Poetry in Baiyu Study, vol. 8. 124 Cheng Tingchao. On Ci Poetry in Baiyu Study, vol. 1. 125 Quan Songwen 全宋文 (A Complete Collection of Articles in the Song Dynasty),

vol. 19.

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meanings,” and “expressed much sorrows.” He commented on Li Ling’s [李陵] poetry, stating that “there is much tragic and sad content, flowing with grievances.” He described Cao Zhi’s [曹植] works as having “emotions [that] are combined with elegant grievances,” Wang Can’s [王粲] works as “expressing woeful and mournful words,” Zuo Si’s [左思] works as “classics written with grievances,” and Cao Cao’s [曹操] poetry as “there are many lines that express a sense of loneliness and sorrow.” Ancient poetry in the Han and Wei dynasties was associated with “pensiveness and concerns” because they possessed the characteristics of gloom, anger, and sadness. Fang Dongshu [方东树], in volume II of Zhao Mei Zhan Yan [昭昧詹言], praised Cao Cao’s Ku Han Xing [Bitter Cold Journey 苦寒行] for its “desolate and mournful grandness” and “profound melancholiness with cadences,” and praised Cao Zhi’s “Farewell to White Horse King Biao” [赠白马王彪] for its “profound melancholiness and cadences, vividly sorrowful and tragic.” Du Fu further developed the grieved tradition of gloom and melancholiness with the following lines: “Miserable and oppressed, my wings are trapped and I cannot soar”126 ; “Life is full of ups and downs, and I feel melancholy and unable to express it again”127 ; “Traveling thousands of miles, I am perpetually sad in autumn, plagued with illness for hundreds of years, and standing alone on the stage”128 ; and “Before achieving victory in battle, he died, leaving heroes filled with tears.”129 The dominant theme in Du Fu’s poetry is this tone of sorrowful grievance. Fang Dongshu commented: With a burst of energy and a rich taste, Du Fu’s poetry is deep, melancholy, desolate, sad and stirring. He wrote freely yet all his poems are with energy, touching all those who read them, and this is what Du Fu could do in his poems.130

Xin Qiji, in his Ci poetry, developed this style of sadness and sorrow to the extreme, such as “Congratulations to the New Groom: Farewell 126 Du Fu. “Zhuang You” [壮游 Youth Tour]. 127 Du Fu. “Zi Jing Fu Fengxian Xian Yonghuai Wu Bai Zi” [自京赴奉先县咏怀五百

字 Five-hundred-word Chanting on the Journey to Fengxian from Beijing]. 128 Du Fu. “Deng Gao” [登高 Ascending Heights]. 129 Du Fu. “Shu Xiang” [蜀相 In Memory of Zhuge Liang]. 130 Fang Dongshu. Zhao Mei Zhan Yan, vol. 8.

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to the Twelfth Paternal Cousin Maojia” [贺新郎 · 别茂嘉十二弟 He Xinlang: Bie Maojia Shi Er Di], “Water Dragon’s Chant: Ascending the Pleasure Pavilion in Jiankang” [水龙吟 · 登建康赏心亭 Shui Long Yin: Deng Jiankang Shangxin Ting], and “Everlasting Joy: Reminiscing at the Northern Solidarity Pavilion in Jingkou” [永遇乐 · 京口北固亭怀古 Yong Yu Le: Jingkou Beigu Ting Huaigu]. These lines are all extraordinary masterpieces with melancholiness, grievance, and gloom. Chen Tingchao highly praised Xin Qiji by saying that “Xin is the dragon in the field of Ci poetry; his poems have extremely large breadth of spirit, but the aesthetic scene is extremely pensive and concerning.” He also stated that “Xin Jiaxuan’s [辛稼轩] “He xinlang. Bie Maojia shi er di” is deep, melancholy, desolate, and full of sudden leaps and thrills; ancient and modern literature have never seen such great power.” The beauty of “pensiveness and concerns” not only requires poetry to have a profound sense of honesty and righteousness and encourages the expression of generous indignation, but also demands that such honesty, righteousness, and indignation be expressed in a gentle and euphemistic way, without being too explicit or overly aggressive. Baiyu Zhai Cihua repeatedly emphasizes this point, stating that “pensiveness and concerns” are intended to be expressed through the stroke of the pen, with the spirit lingering beyond the words. The feelings of a soldier missing his wife, the feelings about rebellious children and lonely ministers, the indifference of human relations, and the drifting destiny of life can all be expressed through the slightest details like grass and trees, but always with a sense of concealment and refinement, avoiding any explicit expressions. This does not only show a high artistic style but also “shows the thickness of character.”131 Moreover: When expressing sentiments of the time through poetry, it is already at the forefront of the time. However, it is not suitable to be too explicit. Instead, it is best to use comparisons and metaphors, which also require a sense of restraint. This is what it means to be “pensive and concerning” and is also called honesty and loyalty.132

Cheng Tinchao further explained:

131 Chen Tingchao. “On Ci Poetry” in Baiyu Study, vol. 1. 132 Chen Tingchao. “On Ci Poetry” in Baiyu Study, vol. 2.

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If things are expressed too superficially, they go against the expectations of the literati.... The expression should be intended through the stroke of the pen, with the spirit lingering beyond the words, with ultimate emptiness and liveliness, as well as with great depth and melancholiness, seeming far and near, remaining in a state that can be expressed through metaphors yet also seems to be impossible to be thus expressed. This is how we define loyalty and honesty.133

It can be seen that the “honesty” of “deep melancholiness” contains the meaning of “edification through poetry in a reserved and broad-minded manner.” Weng Fanggang [翁方纲] summarized this very well by saying that pensiveness and concerns “cover all things without using a single character.”134

Confucians on the Requirement of “Being Purposive” [zhongdi 中的] in the Beauty of the Literary Form While Taoism and Buddhism hold a negative attitude towards formal beauty, Confucianism is different. On the one hand, Confucianism attaches great importance to the status and the role of the content in literary and artistic works. On the other hand, Confucianism not only values content, but also pays attention to the exploration of the laws of formal beauty. Confucianism classifies formal beauty in ancient Chinese aesthetics into two different types. The first type is pure formal beauty unrelated to content, as discussed in the second section of the previous chapter, which will not be repeated here. The second type is formal beauty that appropriately expresses content, which, using Kantian terminology, is called “purposive” formal beauty. When the artistic form appropriately expresses the content and becomes the appropriate manifestation of the content, the form becomes beautiful. As Hegel said, “Beauty is the sensuous manifestation of the idea (content).”

133 Chen Tingchao. “On Ci Poetry” in Baiyu Study, vol. 6. 134 Weng Fangfang [翁方纲]. “Shenyun Lun” [神韵论 On Romantic Charm].

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The Proposal of “Zhong Di Wei Gong” 中的为工 and Its Relationship with the Saying “Ci Da Er Yi” 辞达而已 There is a phrase in ancient China that clearly expresses the view of treating “being purposive” as beauty, known as “fitting the purpose is beauty” [中的为工 zhong di wei gong], one that was proposed by Zhang Jie [张戒] of the Song dynasty. The original text comes from his book on poetry entitled Sui Han Tang Shi Hua [岁寒堂诗话 Words on Poetry in Suihan Hall]: “The horses neighed mournfully, while the flags fluttered in the wind.” The use of the words ‘neigh’ and ‘flutter’ makes a picture vividly portrayed. These expressions are not difficult to create, but they are fine for they fit their purposes. Jing Ke [荆轲] said, “The wind is blowing, the water is cold, the hero leaves and will never return.” From the perspective of ordinary people, there are not many words and there is nothing new or skillful in the expression, but these sentences vividly depict the miserable state of the world and the hero’s spirit of going to his death as if returning to where he belonged. This is also fitting the purpose. An ancient poem once said: “The white poplars are always with mournful wind, and the sound of rustling leaves is enough to bring sorrows to people.” The words “rustling” can be used everywhere, but when it is used in the context of graveyards describing the winds and white poplars, it matches particularly well and makes it unique.

In ancient Chinese literary criticism, there were always debates surrounding the beauty and ugliness of the language forms of literary works. For example, is it better for a written piece to have complex or simple form? Is it better for the text to be profound or easy to understand? Is it better to use parallelism or free verse? Is it better to use ornate or plain wording? Is it better to be implicit or direct? Is it better to use old and conventional phrases or new and innovative ones? Although these issues belong to the realm of formal beauty, according to ancient Chinese aesthetics, they cannot be discussed separately from the content and must be examined in the context of the meaning conveyed by the words. When the words appropriately express the intended meaning, the work is considered beautiful. In Confucian terms, this is known as “words [that] express meaning only are enough” [辞达而已 ci da er yi]. “The only problem

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with words is that they are either too much or insufficient.”135 There is no beauty in words when words are too flowery or not enough to express meanings. “Words [that] express meaning only are enough” is an alternative expression to “fitting the purpose is beauty.” In terms of historical development, the theory of formal beauty represented by “words [that] express meaning only are enough” was first proposed by Confucius, further developed by Han Yu [韩愈], refined by Su Shi [苏轼], and finally distilled into the expression “poetry that captures the essential characteristics is the best” uttered by Zhang Jie. Confucius on “Wording Is Beautiful When It Expresses Meaning” According to The Analects 15.41, Ci da er yi yi [辞达而已矣] wording is beautiful when it expresses meaning. In this sentence, ci [辞] refers to words or expressions. Yi [已] means to stop or cease, implying a sense of satisfaction and fulfillment that leads to no further pursuit. This means that when words express meaning, there are no other requirements. The word yi carries the same meaning as what we refer to today as “aesthetic satisfaction.” Confucius’ statement addressed an important aesthetic proposition and answered the question of what kinds of words are beautiful. However, things are not quite that simple. Since Confucius’ statement was recorded in isolation and the statement itself can lead to two completely different interpretations, there has been a debate over the meaning of this sentence for two thousand years. On the one hand, moralists and experts on ancient literature held, based on this statement, that as long as the meaning is conveyed, there is no need to pay much attention to the wording. On the other hand, literary experts who valued form and artistry believed that it was not an easy task to express the meaning through words accurately and precisely, and it required considerable writing skill. Confucius also emphasized the importance of writing skills. However, are these two interpretations correct? Based on the overall thought of Confucius, the author believes that both interpretations have certain biases.

135 Liu Xizai [刘熙载]. Youyi Yueyan [游艺约言 A Brief Summary of Recreation and

Arts].

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Confucius emphasized the function of artistic decoration in language. He said: “One cannot speak properly without studying The Book of Songs.”136 According to Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals (Interpretation of the Twenty-Fifth Year of Duke Xiang 左传 · 襄 公二十五年): “If words are with no decoration, they do not go far.”137 Liji. Biaoji said, “Words pursue skillfulness.” And Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals (Interpretation of the Twenty-fifth Year of Duke Xiang) stated: “Be careful with words.” Thus, it can be seen that the understanding of moralists and that of people studying ancient literature is contrary to the thought of Confucius. However, does this mean that Confucius preferred formal beauty and pursued it as a goal? This is clearly not the case. Confucius believed that writing skills are important because “words should fulfill intentions, and decorations should fulfill words.”138 Words are means of expressions. If the meaning has been fully expressed and the words are further polished, it is called “rhetoric.” But for Confucius, “rhetoric disturbs morality.”139 Furthermore, The Analects states: “I think it disgraceful to be eloquent, to pretend to be affable, and to be excessively respectful.”140 In short, words that express meaning “too much” or “not enough” could not satisfy Confucius. As for the beauty of words, Confucius’ ideal was to express meanings appropriately, neither “too much” nor “not little.” According to Yili. Pinli [Etiquette: Betrothal Etiquette 仪礼 · 聘礼], “A pile of words is like a pile of historical materials, while too few words can not accurately express the meaning.” This view deeply echoes that of Confucius—“wording is beautiful when it expresses meaning.”

136 Line 13, Chapter 16, D. C. Lau, trans., The Analects, New York: Penguin Books,

1979. 137 Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals (Interpretation of the Twenty-fifth Year of Duke Xiang) [左传 · 襄公二十五年]. 138 Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals (Interpretation of the Twenty-fifth Year of Duke Xiang). 139 Line 27, Chapter 15, D. C. Lau, trans., The Analects, New York: Penguin Books,

1979. 140 Line 25, Chapter 5, D. C. Lau, trans., The Analects, New York: Penguin Books,

1979.

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Han Yu on “There Is No Distinction Between Difficult and Easy in Articles, but only the Right Expression” There were many who inherited Confucius’ thought and developed it. For example, Yang Xiong proposed that “the beauty of poetry lies in its being controlled, and beauty of the prose lies in its being flashy.”141 This view had significant influence during the time as well as in later generations. Ze [则 control] is the opposite of yin [淫 flashy]. Ze is excessive, while yin is moderate, appropriate, and not excessive. According to Shuowen Jiezi, ze is an associative compound character combined with bei [贝 shell] and dao [刀 knife]. Bei refers to ancient goods. Ze means “temperance, being controlled when using a knife to cut.” Hence, “the beauty of poetry lies in its being controlled” means that the words of poetry are ornate and moderate, not excessive, suitable for the need of expressing the content. During the Jin dynasty, Lu Ji [陆机] in Wen Fu asserted that “expressing meaning through polished language,” facilitated “the transmission of meaning in objects,” enabled “words [to] express meaning,” and advocated “change in accordance with the specific situation.” In The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons , Zong Jing and Liu Xie of the Southern dynasties stressed that “words should be ornate but not excessive.” His view was in line with that of Yang Xiong, both of which were the development of Confucius’ idea of regarding “expressing meaning” as beauty. However, in the history of the development of the idea that “wording is beautiful when it expresses meaning,” Han Yu made a more significant contribution. He clearly put forward the viewpoint that beautiful wording can take on various forms, which was an important development of the idea that “wording is beautiful when it expresses meaning.” At that time, someone asked Han Yu, “Should writing be easy or should it be abstruse?” He replied, “Nothing is easy or abstruse; there is only the right expression.”142 According to a quote from Wang Yucheng [王禹偁], Han Yu also said, “I do not learn from today or the past, from the abstruse or easy, from the excessive or insufficient; I only learn

141 Fa Yan. Wu Zi. 法言.吾子. 142 Han Yu [韩愈]. “Da Liu Zhengfu Shu” [答刘正夫书 A Reply Letter to Liu

Zhengfu] in Changli Xiansheng Ji [昌黎先生集 A Collection of Han Yu’s Writings], vol. 18.

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from what is right.”143 As for the word “right,” it has traditionally been interpreted in different ways. In my opinion, “right” can be understood from two aspects. First, it means correctness—the correctness of the form rather than the correctness of the content. The subject of “right” is in the wording of articles. What is the correct form of wording for the content? Based on the examination above, it can only refer to a form that is appropriate for the content. Another interpretation is the judgment verb “is” [shi 是]. This usage has appeared in ancient text and is more commonly seen in the Middle Age.144 The verb “is” can be extended to imply recognition, affirmation, and appropriateness of the content. In summary, the expression that “nothing is easy or abstruse; there is only the right expression” can be understood as “as long as the wording is appropriate for the content.” In the mid-Tang dynasty, on the one hand, the formalism of the Six Dynasties and early Tang dynasty was still prevalent, as pointed out by Han Yu’s disciple Li Ao [李翱]: Those who pursued peculiarity said that the wording of articles should be peculiar.... Those who were addicted to the fashion of the day said that articles must emphasize antithesis.... Those who preferred hard things said that articles must be abstruse rather than easy.145

On the other hand, Yuan Zhen [元稹] and Bai Juyi [白居易] promoted the new Yuefu Movement. This was a positive trend, but it also revealed a preference for shallowness over depth, emphasizing content over decoration. Li Ao criticized that “those who preferred the easy things said that articles must be easy rather than abstruse…. Those who preferred reason said that articles should simply convey the meaning.”146 Han Yu proposed that literary creation should not be limited to the choice between hard and easy, ancient and contemporary, or shallow and abstruse. Rather, it should strive for the “right expression,” which means expressing the

143 Wang Yucheng, “Da Zhang Fu Shu” [答张扶书 A Reply Letter to Zhang Fu]. 144 For more examples, see Yang Bojun [杨伯峻] Gudai Hanyu Xuci [古代汉语虚词

Function Words in Ancient Chinese], Zhonghua Book Company, 1981, pp. 146–147. 145 Li Ao [李翱]. “Da Zhu Zaiyan Shu” [答朱载言书 A Reply to Zhu Zaiyan] in Li Wengong Ji [李文公集 A Reply Letter to Zhu Zaiyan], vol. 6. 146 Li Ao [李翱]. “Da Zhu Zaiyan Shu” [答朱载言书 A Reply to Zhu Zaiyan] in Li Wengong Ji [李文公集 A Reply Letter to Zhu Zaiyan], vol. 6.

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content with the appropriate form. This was a good solution to the problems that existed in the literary world at the time and a remedy for the formalism that went to the extreme. Han Yu’s thought was based on his distinction between dao [道 path] and yi [意 meaning]. Dao refers to the universal moral and ethical ideas of Confucianism that have remained unchanged throughout history. Yi is the specific idea or thought that a particular article aims to reflect. Although Han Yu placed great importance on the concept of Dao Tong [道统 succession of the Way], he did not replace it with the meaning of articles. Instead, he emphasized the need for fresh and unique creativity while adhering to the Confucian Way. The “creativity” of each article is different, so the structure, language, and other forms of expression it requires are not the same. Therefore, one cannot simply imitate ancient forms, but must instead “create wording” according to the needs of “creativity.” As Li Ao said, “In terms of creativity and wording, nothing should be imitated.”147 Ouyang Xiu [欧阳修] in Liu Yi Shihua [Ouyang Xiu’s Words on Poetry 六一诗话] noted: His writing style is versatile and adaptable to any situation.... His poems skillfully depict laughter, witty jokes, human emotions and scenery, incorporating these into his poetry, perfectly demonstrating his artistic talent.... When using wide rhymes, his poetry is magnificent, full of endless variations, and not bound by common rules.... When using narrow rhymes, he was always able to overcome difficulties with his ingenuity.... I used to discuss this with Shengyu [圣俞],148 and we think that this is like a person good at riding excellent horses, riding freely cross fields following his thought; and when he reaches places like Yifengqiu [蚁封丘], he controls his rhythm well without tripping, showing the most excellent skills in the world.

This comment is in line with Han Yu’s creative style and fully captures his original intention in poem writing.

147 Li Ao [李翱]. “Da Zhu Zaiyan Shu” [答朱载言书 A Reply to Zhu Zaiyan] in Li Wengong Ji [李文公集 A Reply Letter to Zhu Zaiyan], vol. 6. 148 Translator’s note: Shengyu is another name for Mei Yaochen [梅尧臣].

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Su Shi on “Choosing Forms According to the Objects” During the Northern Song dynasty, Su Shi inherited and developed the idea that “wording is beautiful when it expresses meaning” from Confucius and Han Yu. He fully elaborated on the aesthetic thought contained in the proposition that “wording is beautiful when it expresses meaning,” which was thus established as a standard for evaluating the beauty of literary works. What is the essence of Su Shi’s idea that “words merely express meaning”? First, words can only be the expression of thoughts and emotions. There can be no expression without content, as it will lead to empty and superficial words. He said, “Poetry should be written for purposes.”149 Second, to achieve the goal of expressing oneself through words, one must possess a certain degree of language proficiency and writing skills. Su Shi attached great importance to refining language and writing skills: Words should be focused on expressing meaning. If they lack literary style, they are not quite right. To capture the essence of things, one must be able to understand them clearly. This is a rare talent that not everyone can possess, let alone the ability to express it with words or writing.150

To express oneself with language and writing is not easy. It requires excellent literary skills. The essence of the phrase “words merely express meaning” is to use the perfect wording to fully and precisely express profound meaning. If an article reaches this level, then “it is enough, and there is no need to add anything more.”151 Drawing his theory that “words merely express meaning,” Su Shi established the methodology of “choosing forms according to the objects.” In his work Wen Shuo [Words on Literature 文说], he said: My writing is like a source of abundance of water. It flows out indiscriminately and rushes through the flat ground, covering thousands of miles in a day without difficulty. However, when it encounters the twists and turns of mountains and rocks, it chooses forms according to the nature of the 149 Su Shi. “Ti Liu Zihou Shi II” [题柳子厚诗 On Liu Zihou’s Poem], in Su Shi Wenji [苏轼文集 Collection of Su Shi], Zhonghua Book Company, 1986. 150 Su Shi. “A Reply Letter to Xie Minshi” in Jingjin Dongpo Wenji Shi Lue [经进东 坡文集事略 Short Biographical Account to Su Shi’s Writings], vol. 46. 151 Su Shi. “A Reply Letter to Wang Xiang” in Jingjin Dongpo Wenji Shi Lue, vol. 46.

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objects. What can be known is that it always moves where it should move, and stops where it must stop. That’s all. As for the rest, I cannot know.

In “Shu Pu Yongsheng Hua Hou” [书蒲永升画后], Su Shi commented on Sun Wei [孙位], a painter during the Tang dynasty: “[He] depicted all changes of the water following the shapes of mountains, stones and all objects.” There are several points worth noting here. First, Su Shi’s “objects” are different from Confucius’ “Way” (a broad ethical and moral concept) and Han Yu’s “meaning” (concrete ideas that conform to moral concepts). Instead, it is a broader and less constrained concept, referring to the objective things that produce specific imagery in the author’s mind, which have aesthetic significance. He wrote in “Baohui Tang Ji” [宝绘堂记 A Record in Baohui Hall]: A gentleman can express his ideas through objects, but he cannot become attached to them. By expressing ideas through objects, even the smallest things can bring joy, even the most undesirable things cannot bring distress; by being attached to objects, even the smallest things can bring distress, even the greatest things cannot bring joy.

This expands the scope of the content of articles and frees the hands and feet of writers. Second, it points to the general method of creating beautiful literary forms for later writers. While Han Yu had proposed the theory of “appropriate words with a strong and forceful tone” [气盛言 宜], one that had certain methodological significance, there remained difficulties in practical writing. Su Shi’s theory of “choosing forms according to the objects” provided a feasible method for future writers. This theory was established on the basis of mastering considerable artistic skills, which eliminated the pitfalls of forms being rough and inelegant that might be produced by the theory of “appropriate words with a strong and forceful tone.” Third, when an author “chooses forms according to the objects” and assigns different literary forms according to different imagery, not only can it bring aesthetic pleasure to readers but it can also provide the author with great aesthetic pleasure from this creative process. Su Shi once stated, “The most pleasant thing in my life is writing, wherever my thoughts reach, my writing expresses all things contained. I see

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this as the most pleasant thing in the world, and nothing can compare to it.”152 Due to such creative method, artistic works are bound to be varied and multitudinous. In Su Shi’s “Da Xie Minshi Shu” [答谢民师书 A Reply to Xie Minshi], he described this as “natural harmony in both text and form, with various postures arising.” Here, Su Shi drew inspiration from the aesthetic ideas of Zhuangzi, who believed that beauty lies in adapting to nature, that different lengths of poetry are suitable for different content, and that a combination of firmness and softness should not be forced, but rather should arise naturally. He also referenced the viewpoint expressed by Tian Xi in “Yi Song Xiao Zhu Shu” [贻宋小著书] that “there is no constant form in literature.” Su Shi affirmed the artistic beauty that arises from various forms produced by various content and corrected the fallacy of mimicking specific forms of ancient masterpieces as an eternal model of beauty and of using them to express the neo-classicalism of new writings. Later, his disciple Huang Shangu [黄山谷] praised Li Bai’s poetry in “Ti Li Bai Shi Cao Hou” [题李白诗草后] by saying that it is like “the Yellow Emperor playing music in the Dongting Lake area, without a beginning or end, and not adhering to any fixed style.” The disciple of Huang Shangu, Fan Wen [范温], remarked in Qianxi Shiyan [潜溪诗眼 Poetry Insights of Qianxi] that articles should have “ever-changing forms like clouds and flowing water, with no fixed quality at the outset, emerging from the essence, competing with nature, and cannot be sought through devices.” All of these statements can be seen as the inheritance and development of Su Shi’s views. To sum up, it is not difficult to find that in the development of the theory that “words merely express meaning,” Su Shi was the culmination. He enriched the idea that “words that merely express meaning is beauty,” established the methodology of “choosing forms according to the objects” and “words based on mind,” advocated the diversity of aesthetic expressions in literary language, and revealed that the entire creative activity of expressing meaning is an aesthetic practice. What is particularly valuable is that he liberated the “meaning” of expression from Confucius’ and Han Yu’s ideas on the succession of the Way, making it a super-utilitarian aesthetic imagery of the universe in the author’s mind. 152 He Yuan [何ş]. Chunzhu Jiwen [春渚纪闻 Annals on the Water’s Edge in Spring], Zhonghua Book Company, 1983, p. 84.

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Beautiful words were no longer the expression of moral goodness, but the appropriate expression of the specific aesthetic image produced by artists when they looked at external things. By then, the idea that “words merely express meaning is beauty” had been systematized and completed. Because of Su Shi’s leadership in the literary world and the support and promotion of his disciples including Huang Shangu and Zhang Lei [张 耒], this idea had a great influence on later generations, becoming one of the criteria for evaluating literary works. It was in such context that Zhang Jie of the Southern Song dynasty put forward the idea that “fitting the purpose is beauty,” which is simply another way of expressing the phrase “words merely express meaning.” Representation Forms of “Beauty in Fitting the Purpose” After the Tang and Song dynasties, the literary circle engaged in a series of debates over issues such as complexity and simplicity, depth and shallowness, uniqueness and conventionality, parallelism and non-parallelism, and density and lightness of the structure and language styles in literary works. They also argued about the appropriate usage of literary allusions in poetry as well as the concept of constant beauty. Many knowledgeable people participated in these discussions and expressed good opinions, using the standard of “words merely express meaning” as proposed by Confucius, developed by Han Yu, and refined by Su Shi. There has been a long-standing debate in the literary world over whether language in prose should be complex or simple, and whether a work should be long or short. The debate was first sparked by the historian Liu Zhiji [刘知几] in the early Tang dynasty. Its influence eventually spread to the realm of poetry. During the Song dynasty, the competition among Ouyang Xiu [欧阳修], Xie Xishen [谢希深], and Yin Shilu [尹师 鲁] in writing with simple styles brought the debate to a climax. Since then, the pursuit of concise language and shorter length of articles had become the standard in prose composition. If concise language means expressing ideas in a straightforward and concise manner, then it is not wrong. Problems arose in its later development. Evaluating the quality of a work based on its length and complexity became a problem of formalism, for it always considered short works as being better than long ones. Wang Ruoxu [王若虚], a literatus in the Jin dynasty, was among the first to criticize this tendency. In Hunan Shihua [滹南诗话 Discussions on Poetry in Hu Nan], he incisively and directly

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criticized the advocacy for brevity by Ou Yangxiu and others: “When we discuss the principle of writing articles, we should focus on appropriateness rather than exclusively valuing simplicity. Excessive simplicity is a harmful tendency that will lead to a lack of depth in the work.” Similarly, Qian Daxin [钱大昕], a scholar of the Qing dynasty, asserted: Both complexity and simplicity were necessary in writing. A complex work cannot be reduced to a simple one, and a simple work should not be unnecessarily expanded. He mentioned that the complexity of Zuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals [左氏春秋传] was better than the simplicity of Gongyang’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals [公羊春秋传] and Guliang’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals [Guliang Zhuan 谷梁春秋传], and that the degree of simplicity of Shiji [Book of History 史记] and Hanshu [Book of Han 汉 书] varied in different parts. It is not a general theory to say that complex articles are not beautiful.153

Hong Mai [洪迈], Xie Zhen [、谢榛], Gu Yanwu [顾炎武], Jiao Xun [焦 循], and others have also made similar comments. In their view, if “complex articles” use “no excessive words,” they are beautiful and should not be criticized. “Simple articles” are beautiful only when they “did not miss any necessary words.” “Xing Gong,” a short poem by Yuan Zhen, only has twenty characters but is complete with images, so readers do not criticize it for being too short. “Pi Pa Xing” [琵琶行] by Bai Juyi is a long poem, but it does not have unnecessary words, so how can any reader criticize it for being too long? As mentioned, “words merely express meaning.” Complex and simple words are chosen for different purposes. Since Han Yu [韩愈] and Liu Zongyuan [柳宗元] of the Middle Tang dynasty advocated the ancient prose movement of loose sentences and single lines, the debate on whether to adopt parallelism and free verse had long been going on in the field of prose. The Old Prose Movement was aimed at criticizing the parallelism style that had prevailed since the Six Dynasties. The parallelism style emphasized the beauty of parallel structure and couplets, regardless of the content, resulting in a formalistic mistake. However, advocating only for free verse and opposing

153 Qian Daxin [钱大昕]. Qianyan Tang Wenji [潜研堂文集] A Collection of Writings in Qianyan Hall, vol. 33.

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parallel structure and couplets seems to suggest that only free verse can produce good essays, which is not true. Just as the beauty of free verse lies in its suitability for conveying the imagery and message, making it a “purposive” form, parallel structure and couplets can also achieve the same beauty as long as they are rich in imagery and convey the message effectively. In history, Wu Jun’s [吴均] “Yu Zhu Yuansi Shu” [与朱元思书] and Wang Bo’s [王勃] “Tengwang Ge Xu” [滕王阁序] are both recognized as classical works of parallelism. Therefore, Li Deyu [李德裕] of the Tang dynasty in “A Discussion on Writing” pointed out that “the great poets of ancient times were able to use skillful words that properly conveyed the meaning and expressed the emotion, and their excellence was not in rhyme; the form of the essays was not limited to parallelism.” In the Qing dynasty, Cheng Tingzuo [程廷祚] expressed it more clearly in “Fu Jia Yu Men Lun Guwen Shu” [复家鱼门论古文书] that “in articles where there is a strong and forceful tone, parallelism can also be beautiful.” The richness and simplicity of language and style are also a paradox. The excessively glamorous and flowery language of the palace-style poetry of the Six Dynasties was a one-sided pursuit of linguistic richness, which often deviated from the essence of things and was thus biased. However, considering only simplicity as beauty and believing that ornate language could not be beautiful would be an over-correction. Fan Wen [范温] wrote in Qianxi Shiyan that “whether or not literary language is appropriate depends on whether it is reasonable. If it is reasonable, then ornate and beautiful expressions can be wonderfully effective. If it is unreasonable, everything becomes long-winded.” Cheng Tingzuo also noted in “Fu Jia Yu Men Lun Guwen Shu” that “when the idea is proper, ornate language is not a problem.” When ornate wording properly expresses the rich content and demonstrates a “purposive” form, it is beautiful. Similarly, plain wording is beautiful only when it reflects the essence of things. If the expression of content itself requires the use of ornate language to describe it, but the author can only use plain language due to a lack of vocabulary, this simplicity is poor and boring, and has nothing to do with beauty. There has also been a debate over how to handle the relationship between “new” and “old” in the choice of words and sentence construction. Han Yu advocated “unique and original expressions,” while Huang Tingjian [黄庭坚] advocated “treating the old as new.” There is a passage in which he said:

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Creating language is the most difficult. When Du Fu wrote poetry and Han Yu wrote prose, every single character had its origin.... Those who were really good at writing articles can cultivate everything. Although they incorporated the old words of ancient people in their writing, they seemed to use a magic potion which can transform the ordinary into the magic.154

There are three key points in this passage: first, to learn a large vocabulary from the articles of ancient literature; second, to cultivate everything and then create one’s own new expressions; third, to use “old words” to express new ideas. As a “purposive” form that expresses new ideas, “old words” become a beautiful form of wording. Following this same line of thought, Zhang Jie [张戒] proposed the concept of zhong di wei gong [fitting the purpose is fine expression 中的为工] in Sui Han Tang Shi Hua. Di refers to the “states” of things. Even if the wording is not “new and ingenious,” as long as it captures the essence of the state, it can still be “good” and “novel.” Therefore, Cheng Tingzuo later said: “When the idea is rich and the tone is strong, it is not necessary to abandon old expressions, nor is it necessary to write new ones.”155 As long as it meets the requirements of effective expression [辞达], “new words” are certainly welcomed, and “old words” are not necessarily criticized. The advantages and disadvantages of using peculiar words and extensive allusions are another issue that was debated among ancient writers. Although innovation in words is beautiful, if it solely pursues the novelty of form and neglects the need to express the content, it is not truly innovative. Su Shi [苏轼] said: “The pursuit of novelty for its own sake is the disease of poetry.” Conversely, by focusing on effective expression and clarity rather than novelty, it is possible to “achieve something remarkable without seeking novelty.”156 This is known as “being remarkable due to the situation” and “things that are beyond sufficient expression is remarkable.” Only in this way can it be “remarkable” without losing its “authenticity,” “variation,” and “normality.” As Chen Shidao [陈师道] said:

154 Huang Tingjian. “Da Hojufu shu” [答洪驹父书 A Reply Letter to Hong Fufu] in Yuzhang Huang Xusheng Wenji [豫章黄先生文集 Collection of Huang Tingjian], vol. 19. 155 Cheng Tingzuo. “Fu jia yu men lun guwen shu” in Qingxi Ji [青溪集 Collection of Qingxi], vol. 10. 156 Zhang Lei. “A Reply Letter to Li Tuiguan” in Collection of Zhang Lei, vol. 58.

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Those who are good at writing always seek innovation through the situations they encounter. The flow of rivers and seas is smooth, but only when they collide with mountains and flow into valleys, stirred up by the wind, can all of the changes in the world be fully expressed.157

Zhang Lei [张耒] used a similar metaphor to explain his argument by saying: “The water of rivers and seas, like the wording of effective expression, is remarkable without seeking novelty.”158 During the Qing dynasty, due to the emphasis on textual research in prose and scholarship in poetry, people tended to value the extensiveness of knowledge and the profoundness of writing, which led to a bias. In Wen Shuo [Words on Literature 文说], Jiao Xun [焦循] criticized this by saying that articles should not be valued for their depth and extensiveness, but rather for their effective expression: “Writing should be effective, not necessarily profound or extensive.” “Depth” and “extensiveness” are forms of expression that “reach the delicate parts” and “corners in all directions.” He added: “When articles reach corners in all directions, covering all changes, people think they are extensive; when they reach the delicate places and explore the sources and origins, they are seen as profound.” Only when the “depth” and “extensiveness” of articles are “purposive” is the wording of language considered beautiful and worth praising. Is there any beautiful article structure that is fixed and can be imitated? The ancients denied this idea by referring to the concept of “where thoughts reach is where the words reach.”159 Zhao Bingwen [赵秉文] of the Jin dynasty stated: “Writing cannot be confined to a single form; at times it can be unconventional, while at others it can be plain. There is no need to be limited to any form.” Wang Ruoxu [王若虚] in Hunan Shihua said: “All the changes in the world are different from those in the ancient times, so why limit writing to a single form?” Zhang Xuecheng [ 章学诚], a scholar of the Qing dynasty, noted in the preface to Wenge Ju Yu [Cases of Styles of Articles 文格举隅] that:

157 Chen Shidao 陈师道, Houshan Shihua 后山诗话 (Words on Poetry by Houshan), vol. 2. 158 Zhang Lei, A Reply Letter to Li Tuiguan, in Collection of Zhang Lei, vol. 58. 159 Liu Qi [刘祁]. Guiqian Zhi [归潜志 A Record in Guiqian].

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The ancients did not have a fixed form of writing; where thoughts reach is where the words reach. Thus, there is a reason for writing. If there is a fixed form, scholars will not know the reason to write and will compete for the form. The form becomes essential, and the real content is lost.

Only when the form of ancient literary masterpieces was appropriate for the specific content of the work, it was considered beautiful. If this beautiful structural pattern is mechanically imitated to express the content and aesthetic imagery that the writer want to express, it would not be a “purposive” form, nor would it be a beautiful form of wording. If one only sees the beauty of the structural form of ancient literary masterpieces but not the reason for their beauty and tries to fit new content into old structures, then the beauty of the structural form would be destroyed.

CHAPTER 4

The Taoist Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics

The Taoist culture is another component of traditional Chinese culture, and it contributes to the formation of traditional Chinese aesthetics. The core concept of Taoism is “Tao” [道 dao] or “the Way.” Tao is not only the highest philosophical and moral category in Taoism, but it is also the highest aesthetic category from which all the Taoist ontological and epistemological ideas about beauty originate. Tao is infinite beyond all names [名] and forms [相], and Taoist aesthetics takes wu [ 无 nonexistence/without/not having] as the highest beauty that is tasteless, voiceless, shapeless, speechless, and inactive. Tao is both actual and virtual, and it contains the actual within the virtual. This profound “subtlety” [妙 miao] is the ideal beauty in Taoism. Included in the category of “subtlety” are words such as “mysterious,” “supernatural,” “distant,” “ancient,” “elegant,” “mysterious,” “subtle,” and “unique.” These are all common terms in Chinese aesthetics that are used to describe the beauty of subtlety. Tao overcomes hardness with softness, takes a step back to move forward, and achieves greatness through simplicity. Thus, what Taoism advocates are the virtues of gentleness, plainness, and simplicity. Tao giving rise to all beings is a spontaneous and natural process in Taoist philosophy, as utmost beauty must be spontaneous and natural. Tao nurtures life through the agent of qi [vigor, vitality] and the beauty of Tao is closely related to life and vitality. The Taoist concept on the beauty of Tao and the concept of “following the nature/appropriateness © Shanghai People’s Publishing House 2024 Z. Qi, The Spirit of Traditional Chinese Aesthetics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-8791-7_4

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of nature” are significant components of traditional Chinese aesthetics, which I have discussed extensively in Chapter 2. In this chapter, I will analyze the Taoist understanding of other forms of beauty derived from Tao.

Beauty in Nonexistence: Taoist Thought on the Ultimate Beauty Tao, characterized by wu [nonexistence],1 is considered to contain the infinite and ultimate beauty. In contrast, all tangible beauty in the world is limited and derived from the beauty contained within nonexistence. This aesthetic perspective reveals the limitations of all the sensory experiences of tangible beauty and asserts that the highest beauty should be infinite, which exists primarily in the various forms of the nonexistence such as silence, shapelessness, and blandness. This unconventional viewpoint touches on a truth within the human experience and still holds significant value today. Laozi: “Great Sound Is Imperceptible, and Great Image Is Without Form” Laozi believed that Tao is an infinite whole that cannot be captured by any language, concept, image, sound, or taste for they all have their limitations. As Tao Te Ching stated at the very beginning: “The Dao that can be trodden is not the enduring and unchanging Dao. The name that can be named is not the enduring and unchanging name.” Similarly, it says that “great sound is imperceptible, great image is without form.” This means that “Tao” is beyond all sensory forms and linguistic concepts, yet it contains them all.

1 Translator’s Note: Wu is a concept that is mutually dependent to you. “You [有] refers to the state of a thing after it has come into being and before it dies out; wu [无] refers to the state of a thing before its birth and after its death.” Together, you and wu refer to three different situations of things: (1) with or without form; (2) two different stages during the becoming and diminishing of things; (3) “you refers to any tangible or identifiable thing or the sum total of such things; wu refers to the original source or ontological existence, which is intangible and unidentifiable, and transcends all specific objects.” “You and Wu,” https://www.chinesethought.cn/shuyu_show.aspx? shuyu_id=2173 Accessed 15 March 2023.

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Nameless, shapeless, tasteless, and imperceptible, Tao is considered as the embodiment of all forms of beauty. As Tao Te Ching states, “Tao is the source of all things and the quality of all things.” Thus, Tao holds the ultimate goodness and beauty that represents the most perfect virtue— to live and to let live. The book further explains, “All things come from existence, and existence comes from nothingness…. Tao produces everything; it is elusive but present, confused but clear. It has an image, yet has no form; it is vague, yet full of substance.” Wang Bi (226–249) explained the meaning of the phrase “great sound is imperceptible” in his renowned Commentary on Tao Te Ching .2 He said, “The sounds we hear are partitioned from other sounds: when a thing is divided, it becomes incomplete and fails to harmonize with the whole. Division prevents it from embodying totality, so it fails to produce great sound.” According to his explanation, the beauty of the whole cannot be understood by considering just a part of it. Thus, it is only imperceptible sound that can be called “great sound.” This also applies to other forms of beauty. Zhuangzi: “Great Beauty Is Speechless” and “Ultimate Happiness Is Non-Happiness” Zhuangzi further developed Laozi’s ideas about beauty in nonexistence. First, Zhuangzi raised the question of “ultimate happiness,” which revealed an awareness of life aesthetics: “Under the sky, is perfect enjoyment to be found or not?”3 He dedicated an entire chapter to the issue of “ultimate happiness.” In it, he questioned the popular notion about the purpose and pursuit of life: What the world honors are riches, dignities, longevity, and ability. What it delights in are rest for the body, rich flavors, fine garments, beautiful colors, and pleasant music. What it looks down on are poverty and mean condition, short life and being deemed feeble. What men consider bitter experiences are when their bodies do not get rest and ease, when their mouths do not get food of rich flavor, when their persons are not finely clothed, when their eyes do not see beautiful colors, and when their ears do 2 Also known as Commentary on the Lao Tzu. 3 Section 1, Chapter 11, “Perfect Enjoyment” [Zhile], the Outer Chapters, Zhuangzi.

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not listen to pleasant music. If they do not get these things, they become very sorrowful and go on to be troubled with fears. Their thoughts are all about the body – are they not silly?4

Zhuangzi identified a critical limitation to the conventional aesthetic view that beauty could be derived from external factors. By questioning this view, he recognized that external factors were not the source of true happiness and beauty. Instead, he suggested that the ultimate aesthetic fulfillment lies beyond all sensory experiences. He asserted that “the ultimate happiness is non-happiness.”5 This is similar to Laozi’s belief that “great sound is imperceptible,” which highlights the infinite, boundless beauty of nonexistence that transcends the finite beauty of the external world. Zhuangzi rejected the pursuit of pleasure in the secular world and asserted that true happiness existed in the form of Dao that exists on the opposite side of mundane pursuits. Zhuangzi said, “I consider doing nothing (to obtain pleasure) to be great enjoyment, while ordinary people consider it to be a great evil.”6 This kind of enjoyment can be understood as being happy without needing possession. From the perspective of the subject, this has the quality of “inexpressible happiness.” As Zhuangzi put it, it is “the ultimate happiness that transcends happiness” [至乐无乐 zhile wu le]. Such happiness would seem to be quite painful to those who are unable to recognize real pain in worldly pursuits. The beauty of Dao extends to music. “Outer Chapter: The Revolution of Heaven” describes “heavenly music” as “filling the whole universe” without being heard or seen, yet manages to “speak to the heart without words.”7 The chapter “The Adjustment of Controversies” also pointed out that the concept of good and bad determines the beauty of music. Therefore, even though the famous musician Zhao Shi was skilled at playing the qin (ancient Chinese zither), he could only produce the beauty of that specific piece but not of other instruments or music. Only in the realm of shapeless silence can people freely imagine and enjoy

4 Section 2, Chapter 11, “Perfect Enjoyment” [Zhile], the Outer Chapters, Zhuangzi. 5 Section 3, Chapter 11, “Perfect Enjoyment” [Zhile], the Outer Chapters, Zhuangzi. 6 Section 3, Chapter 11, “Perfect Enjoyment” [Zhile], the Outer Chapters, Zhuangzi. 7 Section 3, Chapter 7, “The Revolution of Heaven,” the Outer Chapters, Zhuangzi.

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beauty in different instruments and tunes. For Zhuangzi, partial preferences damaged the doctrine of the Dao. Likewise, the promotion of concepts such as “benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom” reveals the deficiency in society’s morality. True and supreme moral beauty should transcend right and wrong. It nourishes everything and does not require people to sacrifice themselves for the sake of righteousness or be misled into pursuing material wealth or fleeting pleasure. The realm of this transcendent moral beauty, which goes beyond judgment and desires for sensual pleasures, is the realm of “ultimate happiness.” Master Lv’s Spring and Autumn Annals Master Lv’s Spring and Autumn Annals (or simply, Annals ) inherited the aesthetic thought about nonexistence from Laozi and Zhuangzi and brought it into the social and political realm. It says, “Happiness arises from peace, and peace arises from the Dao.” However, “only those who can sense the unseen, unheard, and undescribed can be said to know the Dao and appreciate the beauty of happiness and tranquility.”8 As discussed in Chapter 1, Annals criticized the rulers for their obsession with “extravagant music.” The basis of this is Taoist philosophy that says that extravagant music is against the Dao. Being excessive and noisy, extravagant music is potentially disturbing and aesthetically indifferent. Such music attaches importance to size and quantity and wastes people’s time and wealth, which leads to social and moral disintegration. Thus, it is far from the moral value of simplicity and inaction embodied in the Dao. It fails to bring happiness and instead brings about public resentment and political instability. Based on the principles of the Dao, extravagant music that leads to excessive pleasure ends up being the opposite of beauty.

Huainanzi: “Zero-Taste Is Tasteful Enough ” Huainanzi, a text written during the Han dynasty by Liu An (c. 179–122 BCE), King of Huainan, further developed the idea of “the nonexistence as beauty” from the perspective of Daoist philosophy. First, Huainanzi affirms the value of nonexistence of the aesthetic object, that is: life emerges from nonexistence, reality emerges from emptiness, colors 8 Paragraph 4, Chapter 2 “Great Music [dayue],” vol. 5 “Record in Mid Summer [Zhongxia ji],” Master Lv’s Spring and Autumn Annals.

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emerge from non-color, music emerges from silence, flavors emerge from blandness, and shapes emerge from shapelessness. “The shapeless is the origin of all things, and silence is the root of all sounds…. Life emerges from non-existence and reality emerges from emptiness.”9 Therefore, the ultimate beauty is pre-formative, and the essence of beauty lies in nonexistence. Second, Liu An argued that the beauty of form is limited, while the beauty of shapelessness is unlimited. He believed that tangible things of enjoyment act not as the objects of aesthetic enjoyment per se but as channels that deliver one’s appreciation of the senses: Ceremony hats and carts are usable but not comfortable; the unflavored meat soup is edible but not addictive; the weeping and lamenting music on string instruments are pleasing to the ear but are not joyful. Therefore, what is soundless is what is truly listenable, and what is tasteless is what is truly flavorful. The barking sounds may be clear to the ear and the mixed flavors pleasant to the palate, but they are not necessarily valuable.10

Furthermore, in terms of the characteristics of subjective aesthetic reaction, it is the absence of music that leads to bliss, and one needs to be able to “see the shapeless and hear the soundless,” to appreciate the neutral. Excessive sensual stimuli would damage human spirit and energy: The orifices are the windows of the spirit, while the qi and mental state are the officials of the five organs. If the eyes and ears indulge in the pleasures of sound and color, then the five organs will shake and become unstable. When the five organs shake and become unstable, the blood and qi will surge and become restless. When the blood and qi surge and become restless, the spirit will wander outside and not be able to guard against disasters and blessings. Therefore, chaos of the five colors leads to blurred eyesight, the cacophony of the five sounds leads to deafness, the disorder of the five tastes leads to damage to the mouth, and the pursuit of desires leads to recklessness. These four things are what nourish the human nature but also burden it.11

9 Liu An. “Yuan Dao Xun” in Huainanzi 10 Liu An. “Taizu Xun” in Huainanzi. 11 Liu An. “Jingshen Xun” in Huainanzi.

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No wonder Liu An believed that it is only when one reaches the state of pleasure-neutral that he or she may be able to enjoy all things. Chapter 17 entitled “Shuolin Xun” further elaborates, “The essence that satisfies us is not something that is articulated. The greatest happiness does not provoke laughter; the greatest sounds are not noisy.” It points out that only by appreciating beauty in nonexistence can we conform to our nature, because it is silence that makes one’s sense of hearing acute. In this way, “it is through listening to the silence that one may really hear.”12 Metaphysics: To Tame Existence with Nonexistence, and to Govern Many by Few Metaphysics, popular during the Wei and Jin dynasties (Wei Chao 魏 朝 220–265; Jin Chao 晋朝 265–420), integrated Confucianism and Taoism and emphasized the distinction and interdependence between opposites such as existence and nonexistence, beginning and end, unity and plurality, fewness and multitude, and thought and language. From these, there emerged the idea “to tame existence with nonexistence, and to govern many by few,” which bears aesthetic significance. Emphasis on nonexistence is the essence of metaphysics. Pei Wei (267– 300) of the Western Jin dynasty observed the prevalence of metaphysics of his time in the essay “On Advocating Existence” [崇有论 Chongyou Lun]: “All popular schools of thoughts at the time valued nonexistence; it did not matter if it was about nature’s laws or other matters.” But why does metaphysics value nonexistence? It is because to philosophers of that time, “existence relies on nonexistence to come into being, and affairs and things rely on nonexistence to be accomplished.”13 But metaphysics also understood that existence cannot be neglected. As Wang Bi said, “Nothingness can only exist in comparison with existence. Thus, metaphysics respects nothingness without eliminating existence. Taking the source to summarize everything, they use nonexistence to contain existence.”14

12 Liu An. “Shuolin Xun” in Huainanzi. 13 The comment was made by Zhang Zhan in his annotation of Lie Zi. See the chapter

entitled “Tianrui” [天瑞]. (Quoted from He Yan’s On Tao Te Ching [道德论 Dao De Lun].) 14 Wang Bi. Issues Explained on the Analects [论语释疑].

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The relationship between “nonexistence” and “existence” laid the foundation for a series of oppositional yet complementary elements, such as unity and plurality, fewness and multitude, contraction and expansion, wholeness and division, unnamed and named, unspoken and spoken, and shapeless and formed. Nonexistence is unity while existence is plurality. Thus, it was suggested that to contain plurality by unity is to govern the multitude by fewness. As Wang Bi wrote: “All things and shapes return to unity, and how do they return to unity? By means of nonexistence.”15 He also said, “Contraction preserves expansion, and simplicity benefits the multitude.”16 It is only when one learns to unify the myriad of things through seeing the nonexistence behind them that one does not have to worry about confusion and uncertainty during a politically and socially chaotic time. Wang Bi describes the specific manifestations of nonexistence as soundless, nameless, speechless, and tasteless. It is the origin and neutrality. The essence of it is undetectable by hearing, indescribable by sight, unknown by touch, and cannot be tasted by tongue. “As for its essence, it is a mix, and as for its appearance, it is shapeless.”17 However, it is precisely through nonexistence that everything is created and shaped with various forms, sounds, names, and words. “For things to be born and for merits to be made, they must be born from shapelessness and stem from namelessness.”18 Therefore, “intelligence cannot match nothingness, physical form cannot match ethereal form, ethereal form cannot match shapelessness, and formality cannot match informality.”19 Although existence rises from nonexistence, these two are not equal but they complement each other. There is no paradigm in this case—no single existence could represent the infinite nonexistence, yet nonexistence cannot be presented as something concrete. Such is the relationship between division and wholeness. As Wang Bi wrote: “Even if it is extremely large, it must be incomplete in some way, and even if it is

15 Wang Bi. Chapter 42 in Annotations on Tao Te Ching [老子道德经注 Laozi Daodejing Zhu]. 16 Wang Bi. “Ming Tuan” [明彖] in Explanations of the Book of Changes [Zhouyi Lueli]. 17 Wang Bi. Explanations of Tao Te Ching [Laozi Lueli]. 18 Wang Bi. Explanations of Tao Te Ching [Laozi Lueli]. 19 Wang Bi. Chapter 25, Annotations on Tao Te Ching [老子道德经注 Laozi Daodejing Zhu].

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beautiful, it must come with troubles and worries.”20 Because of the imperfection of existence, existence only acts as a way for one to approach nonexistence. This is why the Chinese believe that one must forget about the words once you understand their meaning [得意忘言 deyi wangyan]: “To preserve words is not to pay attention to shape, and to preserve shape is not to pay attention to ideas.”21 Similarly, existence is the embodiment of nonexistence, but to attain the infinite nonexistence, existing and existed forms must be forgotten. Expressions of the Beauty of “Nonexistence” Since the Wei and Jin dynasties, “nonexistence” has gradually become the aesthetic pursuit in people’s practical life and artistic creation, which is expressed in the form of “non-action,” “silence,” “shapelessness,” “wordlessness,” and “blandness.” Let’s first look at the beauty of “non-action.” The beauty of “doing nothing” had become a major pursuit in social life during the early Western Han dynasty, as society went through a chaotic time caused by Emperor Qin’s voracious appetite for expansion. But this pursuit of “nonpursuing” in the early years of Han dynasty was soon broken by Emperor Wu of Han, who was eager for military achievements. As the Han empire fell in the Wei and Jin dynasties, people experienced wars that caused tragic events that were described as “white bones scattered in the wilderness, and no rooster crow in a thousand miles.” They then understood the harm of excessive desire and began to seek the beauty of “non-action.” This became evident with the popularity of metaphysics then. As the philosopher Pei Wei (267–300) observed, the nobles and literati of the time disdained worldly affairs and despised heroic achievements. Instead, they turned to leisurely activities and upheld the aesthetics of emptiness: “They find vague and mysterious language extraordinary and distance themselves from government officials; they also consider it broad-minded to disregard formal etiquette.”22 Zhong Rong, in his “Introduction to The Appreciation of Poetry” [诗品序 Shiping Xu], remarked that in the

20 Wang Bi. Chapter 38, Annotations on Tao Te Ching [老子道德经注 Laozi Daodejing Zhu]. 21 Wang Bi. Explanations of Tao Te Ching [Laozi Lueli]. 22 Pei Wei. “On Revering Existence” [崇有论].

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Yongjia era (307–313) of the Jin dynasty, Taoist teachings gradually became popular, and the literary works were characterized by being overly abstract and unsatisfying. These two writers suggested that the majority of the men of letters then appreciated the beauty of simplicity and tranquility which was embodied in the philosophy of non-action, and that there was clear tendency of detachment from orthodox learning, practical utilitarianism, and excessive desires. Let’s now consider the beauty of “silence.” While Laozi asserted that “great music is inaudible,” Zhuangzi and Wang Bi deemed that the presence of sound is not as good as its absence. Huainanzi proposes that “the absence of sound is the essence of sound,” forming a tradition in which silence embodies the ultimate pleasure and “great music.” Scholars in the Wei and Jin dynasties were particularly sensitive to the ultimate pleasure contained within the silence of nature. As Guo Xiang commented: “If natural notes are played in accordance with nature’s rhythm, then the ultimate pleasure is achieved.”23 Similarly, Lu Ji (261–303) wrote in his masterpiece of literary theory Essays on Literature that “silence is used to locate sound, and solitude is sought to find music.” The esteemed calligrapher, Wang Xizhi (303–361) praised the natural atmosphere at the Orchid Pavilion [Lanting]—that while there are no musical instruments, Lanting provides the most extreme pleasure of sight and sound.24 While music is an art that mainly relies on sound, the artists made it clear that silence is also a significant component of music. Legend has it that Tao Yuanming (365–427), the poet of poets, played a Chinese zither [guqin] without strings and “stroke it to express his thoughts whenever he had wine.”25 The beauty of silence revealed by Daoist aesthetics suggests that pauses in music can help evoke infinite associations about the beauty of sound in the listener’s mind, indicating that the beauty of music must prioritize the expression of one’s soul and emotions in contemplation. In relation to the beauty of shapelessness, Laozi put forward the idea that the “great image is shapeless” [daxiang wuxing]. This was further 23 Guo Qingfan. Annotations and Exegesis on Zhuangzi [庄子集释], Zhonghua Book Company, 1961, p. 503. 24 Cited from Wang Yuxiong, Sourcing Traditional Chinese Imageries [意象探源 Yixiang Tanyuan], Anhui Education Press, 1996, p. 407. 25 Shen Yue. “Legends of the Hermits” [隐逸传 Yinyi Zhuan], The Book of the Song Dynasty [宋书 Song Shu].

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explored in the various works that followed, including Zhuangzi, The Annals, and Huainanzi. Under the influence of Taoism, “to go beyond the image” became a special pursuit of ancient Chinese artists. Xie He (479–502), a painter from the Southern Qi dynasty, first used the concept of “beyond image” [象外 xiangwai]. He said, “If you adhere to depicting the tangible, you will not see the essence; if you go beyond image, you will disgust the excessive, and you can be called subtle and wonderful.”26 If a painting only adheres to tangible objects, it will miss a sense of subtlety. Only by pursuing the meaning of “beyond image,” which is the infinite charm beyond limited forms, can the work of art be truly called subtle and wonderful. The concept of “beyond image” was introduced into literary criticism in the Tang dynasty. While Xie He’s idea of “beyond image” was exclusively about the infinite charm beyond the limitation of images, the Tang poets also used this concept to refer to the numerous images that exist beyond the specific one. As Liu Yuxi (772–824) put it, “The scene exists beyond the imagery.” Sikong Tu (827–908) mentioned in “Letter to Jipu” that the best poetry was that which conveyed “the imagery beyond the imagery, and the scene beyond the scene.” The painter Guo Xi of the Song dynasty deeply understood this point and stated in his artwork “High Mountain and Flowing Water”: When a mountain is desired to be tall in a work, it cannot be fully depicted. But when the mist and clouds encircle its waist, it appears to be tall. If water is desired to be distant, it cannot be fully shown. But when its pulse is hidden by shading and reflection, it appears distant.

This involves the artistic technique of using the imaginary to imply the real. As stated in the preface to the landscape painting section in “The Xuanhe Catalogue of Paintings”: “The landscape of thousand-mile scales can be well depicted in a narrow space on the paper.” But how can the large-scale landscape be expressed on a small piece of paper? The answer lies in leaving certain areas blank to evoke imagination beyond the depicted landscapes of brushwork. Dong Qichang (1555–1636), a master of landscape painting in the Ming dynasty, stated in “Sketched at the Art-zen Studio: Techniques of Painting”: 26 Xie He. Appraisal of Ancient Paintings [Guhua Pinlu], Zhonghua Book Company, 1979.

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It is necessary to distinguish between the real and the imaginary. The real is the detailed brushwork in each part. Where some parts are detailed, others must be brief. The use of real and imaginary must balance... only then there can be extraordinary work.27

These landscape artists used the technique “leaving blank” to represent unbounded imagery and to convey limitless meaning. The philosopher Zong Baihua (1897–1986) noted this regarding the significance of blankness in Chinese aesthetics: Chinese painters stress the importance of blank space. For instance, Ma Yuan was known as “Ma Yijiao” [One-corner Ma] because he often painted only one corner, leaving the rest blank. But the blank space doesn’t feel empty because it is filled with sea and sky. The blank space is richer in imagery than if it were filled with brush strokes…. Chinese calligraphers also emphasize blank space, where “estimating blankness as darkness” is required.28

Zong’s understanding was echoed by another famous philosopher, Xiong Bingming (1922–2002), who asserted that artists with Taoist affinity emphasize the importance of blank space in calligraphy and painting. He compared the works by two famous calligraphers, Yan Zhenqing (709–785) and Chu Suiliang (596–658), by saying that the latter’s style exemplifies the Taoist aesthetics of leaving blank. He wrote: Yan’s strokes are thick and solid, with intricate structures tightly woven between words and lines, and the “existence” dominates while “nonexistence” is suppressed. In contrast, in Chu’s work, “existence” and “non-existence” coexist and penetrate each other, which creates a vast and tranquil space.29

Apart from the pursuit of what is “beyond image,” ancient Chinese painting also highlights the “uncolorful color” [wuse zhi se], which is 27 Dong Qichang. “Techniques of Painting” [画诀 Hua Jue] in Essays Written at the Chamber of Zen-painting [画禅室随笔 Hua chan shi Suibi]. 28 Zong Baihua. Strolling in Aesthetics [美学散步 Meixue Sanbu], Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1981, pp. 33–34. 29 Xiong Bingming. A Systematic Review of Chinese Calligraphy Theories [中国书法理 论的体系], Commercial Press Hong Kong, 1984.

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considered the ultimate color. This is the color created with ink, or what is known as xuanse [dark/mysterious colors]. Being the “mother color” of various other colors, it is natural and unadorned, with infinite potential. Thus, Zhang Yanyuan (815–907) stated in Record of Famous Paintings of Past Dynasties that “the use of ink results in the presence of all five colors.”30 Conversely, if one is too concerned with the use of the “five colors” [wuse],31 the representation of the form may end up looking contrived and unattractive. Jing Hao wrote in Notes on Painting Techniques : Historically, colors have always been employed according to the characteristics of the objects; for instance, the use of ink to express colors first became popular in the Tang dynasty…. The fine brushwork and original thought of the painter are not focused on the five colors, but instead serve to emphasize the subtle and profound aura, which embodies the essence of painting.32

In his view, Chinese painting with ink is more beautiful than colorful painting because it directly highlights the essence of the object, which has by then become a popular trend in literati painting. Thus, ink landscape painting gradually replaced the traditional blue-and-green landscape painting and became the mainstream of Chinese painting in later generations. Another component of traditional visual art is Chinese garden design. This principle behind this design is the concealment of the visible with the invisible. The mountains, water, buildings, and woods in a garden are limited, but they are merged into the seemingly endless surrounding nature through the techniques of “borrowing scenery” [借景 jiejing], “screening scenery” [隔景 gejing], and “dividing scenery” [分景 fenjing]. As recorded in The Craft of Gardens [园冶 Yuan Ye] by Ji Cheng (1582– 1642) of the Ming dynasty, “Borrowing scenery is the most important aspect of garden design. Be it far sight, near sight, upward sight, or downward sight, the natural surroundings can be borrowed in synchronization with the seasons.”33 To borrow the far sight means to borrow the distant 30 Zhang Yanyuan. Record of Famous Paintings of Past Dynasties 31 Translator’s note: the five basic colors are blue, yellow, red, white, black. 32 Jin Hao. On the Techniques of Brush Strokes [笔法记 Bifa Ji]. 33 Ji Cheng. The Craft of Gardens [园冶 Yuanye].

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scenery outside the garden. To borrow the near sight is to borrow the nearby scenery outside the garden. Whether the designer should choose to borrow the upward sight or the downward sight depends on the angle between the garden and the scenery borrowed. For example, to borrow the high mountains at the back is “upward borrowing,” while to borrow the rivers is “downward borrowing.” To be in synchronization with the seasons guarantees that the garden provides aesthetic pleasure to visitors all the year round. In addition, I would also like to mention the particular technique of “mirror borrowing,” which refers to borrowing scenery by reflecting it in a mirror-like surface, so that it transforms the real into the virtual.34 This can be achieved by carving a pool that reflects the scenery of the garden. This is illustrated in these lines from Wang Wei’s poem: “Through the window, clouds and mist fall onto the robe; the rolled-up curtain invites mountains and springs into the mirror.” The effect of “mirror borrowing” was also reflected in Ye Lingyi’s35 lines: “Shadows of the sails pass through the window gap; the merging stream lights up the mirror.” Through screening and dividing, the limited space of a garden can stimulate the visitors’ imagination and create the effect that a winding path leads deep into a secluded and quiet space: For example, the Long Corridor in the Summer Palace divides the scenery into two parts, where one side is a hill by a vast lake and the other side is full of pavilions and architectural works. Visitors can appreciate both sides and gain enriching aesthetic experience. This is “dividing scenery.”

In addition, “the Harmonious Garden in the Summer Palace is its own separate courtyard, creating another space and a unique kind of amusement. This small garden in a large garden is called ‘screening scenery.’”.36 In order to achieve the beauty of infinite forms, the ancient Chinese garden designers employed the principle of “emptiness” in designing 34 Zong Baihua. Strolling in Aesthetics [美学散步 Meixue Sanbu], Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1981, p. 57. 35 Translator’s note: Ye Lingyi was a female poet in the Qing dynasty, but few records can be found as to when she was born or when passed away. 36 Zong Baihua. Strolling in Aesthetics [美学散步 Meixue Sanbu], Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1981, p. 57.

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pavilions, towers, and windows within gardens. They believed that by creating empty spaces, everything could be accommodated. Let’s start with the emptiness of the towers. In ancient Chinese gardens, towers and pavilions were often located at high points to create an “overlooking” effect. To achieve this, towers and pavilions were designed to be empty rather than solid or full, which allows visitors to appreciate the borrowed scenery where “the mountain scenery and lake light gathered in one tower.” This is rooted in the belief that “emptiness brings in all the scenes.” Next, we have the emptiness of the pavilions. Unlike towers, pavilions are designed to be open from all four sides and devoid of any objects, hence the name “empty pavilions.” So why did the Chinese like to place open pavilions in their gardens? As explained in Su Shi’s poem, “Yet this pavilion has nothing, sitting and admiring all the scenery and feeling heaven in its entirety” (“Containing-Emptiness Pavilion” [涵虚亭 Hanxu Pavilion]). Another example is the line “limitless scenery of rivers and mountains all gathered in one pavilion” (In Zhang Xuan’s poem written on Ni Zan’s painting “Xi Pavilion and Mountain Scenery”). Finally, there is the emptiness of windows. Windows in ancient garden buildings were attached to towers, pavilions, porches, and walls, creating an empty space that frames the beauty of the sky, the land, and the four seasons. As Xie Tiao’s poem says, “Remote peaks are arranged in a line within the window, while the towering trees can be viewed from the courtyard.” Other descriptions from poetry include Wang Bo’s “Painted beams soar towards the southern shore clouds, the pearl curtains draw in the western mountain rain,” Du Fu’s “The window holds the snow of the western mountain for a thousand years, and the door docks the ships of the Eastern Wu for ten thousand miles,” and Li Bai’s “The eaves fly over the waters of the Wanxi River and the windows frame the clouds of the Jingtai Mountain.” As Jicheng said in The Craft of Gardens, “The grand pillars and high eaves, and the empty neighboring windows and doors collect the vast oceans and the four seasons’ splendor.”37 No matter how a garden is designed, it remains a limited object. But ancient Chinese gardeners gave the gardens suggestive names to compensate for the material limitations and to ignite people’s imagination. In this tiny world, Chinese garden artists were able to reach the sky and touch the ground, demonstrating their creativity and imagination: 37 Zong Baihua. Strolling in Aesthetics [美学散步 Meixue Sanbu], Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1981, pp. 86–87.

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A small garden can be as vast as the sea, a rockery can be as majestic as the mountains, and a pavilion can be as grand as the heavenly palace. That’s why people refer to the gardens as “Little (River) Canglang,” “Little (Isle) Penglai,”38 “Little (Island) Yingzhou,” “Little (Mount) Nanping,” and “Little Tianpiao” [heavenly boat]. “Small” is the characteristic of a garden, yet these names such as “Canglang” and “Penglai” are distant places that capture people’s imagination. A small vessel can hold the universe and a tiny mustard seed may hold the Buddhist Mount Sumeru. This is the unspoken secret of Chinese garden designers.39

Words such as Canglang, Penglai, and Yingzhou are the hints that garden designers use to inspire visitors to unleash their imagination. However, let us now once again contemplate the beauty of the “unspoken.” Based on the characteristics of Tao, which “cannot be explained” [不可道 buke dao] and “cannot be named,” Laozi advocated the teaching of “doing without speaking” and warned that “those who are wise do not argue, while those who argue are not wise.” Zhuangzi also stated that “Heaven and Earth hold great beauty without even a word.” Huainanzi suggests that “the most profound words are not adorned with literary embellishments” [至言不文 Zhi Yan bu wen], and Wang Bi further suggested “to leave out words once the imagery is obtained” [得象忘言 dexiang wangyan]. Since then, the beauty of “the unspoken” and the “meaning beyond words” have become the aesthetic ideals in classical Chinese literary theories, where the unspoken is absorbed through the spoken and boundless meanings are concealed within the unspoken. As the Song dynasty critic Zhong Rong pointed out in his Preface to the Poetic Canon, it is an important creative principle of poetry that “the meaning still remains when the text has been exhausted.” The Tang poet Jiao Ran commented on the beauty of Xie Lingyun’s poetry by saying that it was “true to his emotions and nature; it valued conception more than literary expression, and it achieved a natural and graceful style without concern for the words.” Sikong Tu proposed in the work Twenty-four Styles of Poetry that the highest aesthetic realm of poetry is to convey gracefulness without using

38 Translator’s note: Penglai is the name of the mythological isle located in the South Sea where immortals dwell. 39 Zhu Liangzhi. The Vital Spirit of Chinese Art [中国艺术的生命精神 Zhongguo Yishu de Shengming Jingshen], Anhui Education Publishing House, 1998, pp. 281–282.

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a single word of explicit expression. Yan Yu suggested that the highest form of poetry is “to recite the emotions and nature” without relying on words.40 As Yuan Mei noted: “forget the feet but follow their direction; forget the rhymes and let the poetry flow naturally.”41 Liu Xi revealed in Sketches of Art [Yi Gai] that the best poetry is “that which is most exquisite through saying what is not said. It is not that it is not said, but that it is implied.” Literature is the art of language. To stress the “unspoken” beauty does not mean to eliminate all words, but rather to remind people that the essence of literary art rests on the beauty of feelings, nature, and imagination, which naturally resides in the state of “the unspoken.” Finally, let’s look at the beauty of “blandness.” Laozi pointed out that “Tao is so bland that it is almost tasteless,” but he also taught people to “savor the flavor of blandness” because it is the “ultimate flavor.” Perhaps Laozi’s idea was inspired by the observation of social practices. During the Zhou dynasty, two things people commonly used for ancestor worship were dageng [big broth] and xuanjiu [dark wine]—one is meat broth without any seasoning and the other is just clear water. While dageng was praised as “the most beautiful soup” in The Book of Rites , xuanjiu is revered for it possessed the virtue of water, which is considered the origin of all flavors. The Annals reaffirms this by stating: “Water is the beginning of all flavors.”42 Huainanzi believes that the soup with five flavors mixed in is edible but not enjoyable, and the “tastelessness” that doesn’t make people taste the five flavors quickly is the “ultimate flavor” [zhiwei] and “adequate flavor” [zuwei]: “The tasteless form is the essence of the five flavors…. The tasteless is precisely its sufficient flavor.” Wang Bi explained that “the taste of Tao cannot be tasted.” The flavor of blandness and the flavor outside of taste (“lingering flavor” [遗味 yiwei]) are then introduced into artistic commentary as infinite flavors (“complete flavor” [全味 quanwei]). “Record of Music” [Yue Ji]43 requires musical beauty to have the lingering flavor of dageng. Ji Kang claimed in his “In 40 Yan Yu. Essays on Poetry by Guest-of-the-River-Canglang Yan [沧浪诗话 Canglang Shihua]. 41 Yuan Mei. Essays on Poetry by the Owner of Suiyuan Garden [随园诗话 Suiyuan Shihua]. 42 Lv Buwei. “The Original Flavor [Ben wei]” in Master Lv’s Spring and Autumn Annals. 43 Translator’s note: “Yue Ji” is the 19th chapter of The Book of Rites.

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Response to Xiang Ziqi’s Criticism on My Theory of Nurturing Life”44 that “if we consider blandness as the ultimate flavor, then wine and carnal temptations are not worth appreciating.” In “Discussion of Poetry and Literature with Mr. Li,” Sikong Tu made significant developments in the aesthetic theory of blandness. He proposed the concept of “complete beauty” as the essence beyond flavor, while expressing regret for “incomplete flavors” such as sourness and saltiness. During the Song dynasty, Su Shi praised Wei Yingwu and Liu Zongyuan’s poetic style as “embodying the ultimate flavor in simplicity.”45 Yang Wanli developed his poetic theory that honored the flavor of “elegant, bland, and profound” [雅淡深长 ya dan shenchang], advocating the removal of unnecessary words and phrases to achieve the taste of “unrivaled sweetness.”46 Dai Biaoyuan (1244–1310) echoed Yang’s poetic theory and made a further exquisite exposition on the flavor of blandness: “The flavor that is bland is the most precious… and the poetry that has no trace is the most divine.”47 This viewpoint was reiterated by scholars in the Ming and Qing dynasties. For instance, Wang Huichang in the “Categorized Collection of Poetry Discussions” [诗话 类编 shihua leibian] stated: “Water seems tasteless, but it is not without taste; rather, it is the ultimate flavor in the world, to which tastes of food and drink cannot compare.” The Limitation of Experiential Beauty The beauty of “nonexistence” aims to illustrate the limitation of experiential beauty. Experiential beauty exists in limited objects, specific behaviors, and in the recognition of certain sensory feelings and value standards. These determine its limitations and shortcomings. In terms of the aesthetic form of objects, formal beauty and content beauty may not

44 Ji Kang. “In Response to Xiang Ziqi’s Criticism on My Theory of Nurturing Life” [答向子期难养生论 Da Xiang Ziqi Nan Yangsheng Lun]. 45 Su Shi. “Afterword on Huang Zisi’s Poetry Collection” [书黄子思诗集后 Shu Huang

Zisi Shiji Hou], Collected Works by Su Dongpo and Other Issues [经进东坡文集事略], vol. 60. 46 Yang Wanli. “Preface to Liu Yian’s Poetry Manuscript” [颐庵诗稿序 Yi’an Shigao Xu], Collected Works at the Studio of Faithfulness [诚斋集 Chengzhai Ji], vol. 83. 47 Dai Biaoyuan. “Preface to Xu Changqing’s Poetry” in Collected Works of Mr. Yanyuan Dai [剡源集 Shanyuan JI], vol. 9.

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exist at the same time. In terms of a specific type of form, the beauty of one form, sound, or taste may appear in the lack of beauty in other forms, sounds, or tastes. And from the perspective of content beauty, behavior that meets one value standard may not meet another value standard. Therefore, an object that is considered beautiful from a certain perspective may not be beautiful from another perspective. This is the limitation of experiential beauty. The aesthetic subject always perceives formal beauty through specific senses. For instance, the subject finds something beautiful when his or her sense of sight is satisfied, but the other senses may not be experiencing the same pleasure. The subject always judges things according to specific value standards, and behaviors that are considered beautiful at one time and place may not be considered beautiful in another time or place. This is the limitation of subjective beauty. In other words, phenomenal beauty always exists within limited formal and value systems. People always perceive it with limited senses and value standards. One cannot feel infinite beauty from any specific object. We can own many beautiful clothes, but we can only wear one set when going out, thus losing the beauty of other clothes. There are many delicious drinks, but choosing one means giving up the others. Exquisite dishes are undoubtedly beautiful, but once finished, we may exclaim, “There’s nothing else to eat.” Beautiful mountains and rivers are undoubtedly magnificent, but once seen, there may also be a sense of disappointment that it is “only this much.” High-rise buildings and a bustling nightlife are also considered beautiful, but frequently experiencing them may lead to fatigue and eventually indifference. All perceived beauty is unfortunately limited. The beauty of “nonexistence” reveals that the goodness in blandness surpasses that in extravagance. This has been repeatedly proven by our real aesthetic experiences. When Coca-Cola first entered China, it was the trendy drink. But even after many years since then, people still prefer “tasteless” mineral water. Children love sweets, but they normally lose their sweet tooth when they become adults. Each person has his or her own preferences regarding tastes and food, but he or she inevitably gets bored with certain flavors if those flavors are consumed often. Only bland rice, steamed bread, and white bread can be consumed repeatedly without losing their appeal. Sunlight is colorless yet colorful; calligraphy is not colorful, yet it is brilliant. In many cases, less is often more. The beautiful melodies in music consist of sound notes as well as pauses of silence. It is the absence of sound that contains infinite possibilities. In modern

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society, it is the excessive pursuit of development and economic success that has caused serious environmental destruction. This, according to Taoist philosophy, is the shortcoming of “doing too much.” Humans must learn to appreciate the beauty of blandness and non-action in terms of coexistence with other living beings. The beauty of “nonexistence” reveals the truth that the perfect state exists in the infinite imagination beyond image, color, and reputation. Imagination knows no bounds, and its beauty is boundless and infinite, leaving an endless lingering taste and creating the perfect aesthetic realm. The beauty of “nonexistence” is that it ultimately exists in the infinite beauty of imagination. Creating the beauty of “nonexistence” is not about removing all forms, sounds, and tastes. Rather, it is about using limited forms, sounds, and tastes to evoke and contain the infinite forms, sounds, and tastes in one’s imagination, thereby achieving the greatest aesthetic enjoyment. As the contemporary philosopher Zhu Guangqian pointed out: The beauty of being taciturn lies in selecting the few most suggestive programs from the complex scenario, melting them into a complete shape, allowing readers to use these few programs as a steppingstone for imagination, lingering and exploring, and by writing less, the scope of readers’ imagination becomes greater, and the meaning becomes deeper and more eternal.48

This is similar to what Qian Zhongshu wrote in his works: “As poetry reveals the beauty of language, it has to use words to convey meaning beyond words.” Words are just like the mirror that reflects the beauty of the moon and the flower—although what we see is but the shadow, we may not even be able to capture the beauty of the flower and the moon without the mirror.49 He also said, “painting describes scenery without being meticulous. Poetry narrates emotions without being detailed. Both

48 Qian Zhongshu. Talks on Art [谈艺录 Tanyi Lu] (Revised Version), Zhonghua Book Company, 1988, p. 100. 49 Zhu Guangqian. Selected Essays on Aesthetics and Literature [朱光潜美学文学论文选 集 Zhu Guangqian Meixue wenxue Lunwen xuanji], Hunan People’s Publishing House, 1980, p. 350.

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require leaving room for imagination to withstand scrutiny.”50 These discussions by Zhu and Qian help us understand the aesthetic thought of Taoist aesthetics.

Beauty Lies in the Concept of Subtlety: Taoist Aesthetics Through Interconnectedness In Taoism, the ultimate realm of beauty is embodied in the moral essence of wu [nonexistence, not having], which represents a state of emptiness that encompasses all beauty. However, in the practice of aesthetic appreciation, the beauty of wu cannot exist independently without you [that which exists]. As Wang Bi wrote, “Without various forms, the great form cannot be expressed; without diverse sounds, the great sound cannot be created.”51 Therefore, the beauty of wu is ultimately realized and expressed through you. This interplay between existence [you] and emptiness [wu] is what makes the concept of beauty in Taoism so mysterious and inscrutable, which is referred to as miao [妙 subtlety]. Words such as mystical [玄 xuán], divine [神 shén], distant [远 yuˇan], antique [古 guˇ ], unrestrained [逸 yì], mysterious [幽 y¯ou], subtle/slight [微 w¯ei], and unique/brilliant [绝 jué] are all associated with miao. They are regarded as expressions of beauty that are transcendent, infinite, and beyond comprehension. In Chinese aesthetics, these words are used to describe the beauty of miao. That Which Is Divine and Untraceable Is Called “Miao” In ancient Chinese, the term miao generally referred to aesthetically appealing things. For example, in The Book of Later Han, it is said that “the miaowu [mystical and subtle dances] were even more beautiful than ¯ 52 However, upon closer examination, miao the renowned ‘Yáng A.’” does not simply mean “beauty”; it is a distinctive expression of beauty that signifies a path towards infinity, one that is obscure and divine. 50 Qian Zhongshu. “On Xie He’s Appraising the Ancient Paintings” in Limited Views: Essays on Ideas and Letters by Qian Zhongshu [管维编 Guan Zhui Bian], Zhonghua Book Company, 1979. 51 Wang Bi. Introductory Annotations on Laozi [老子指略 Laozi Zhilue]. 52 Fan Ye. “Biography of Bian Rang [边让传 Bian Rang Zhuan]” in Book of Later Han

[后汉书 Houhan shu].

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Strangely enough, the first Chinese dictionary, Explaining Graphs and Analyzing Characters , did not include the character for miao. Nevertheless, it appeared frequently in texts of the pre-Qin and Han dynasties, including Tao Te Ching , Master Lu’s Spring and Autumn Annals , Records of the Grand Historian, and The Book of Han. The term miao first appeared in Tao Te Ching .53 While Laozi rejected worldly “beauty” [mei], he did not deny the concept of miao [deep mystery/subtlety].54 However, this miao [subtle and mystical] is not devoid of you [existence], as it is rooted in the moral essence of the Taoist concept of wu [nothingness]. As stated in Chapter 1 of Tao Te Ching : (Conceived of as) having no name, it55 is the Originator of Heaven and Earth; (conceived of as) having a name, it is the Mother of all things.56 Always without desire we must be found, If its deep mystery [miao] we would sound; But if desire always within us be, Its outer fringe is all that we shall see. Under these two aspects, it is essentially the same; but as development takes place, it receives different names. Together we call them the Mystery [xuan], and the Mystery is the portal to all that is subtle and wonderful.

This interplay between existence and emptiness and between sameness and difference is the gateway to the realm of miao. According to Wang Bi’s commentary in Chapter 1 of Tao Te Ching , miao refers to utmost subtlety. In Tao Te Ching , miao, xuan [mystical], and wei [subtle] are used interchangeably, and miao also appeared in words such as xuánmiào [mystical and mysterious] and w¯eimiào [subtle and mysterious]. Through the interconnectedness of existence and emptiness, miao transcends the material realm and achieves a divine and mysterious quality. In The Book of Changes , the words shen and miao are used together: “The word ‘divine’ [shen] refers to the mysteriousness [miao] of all things….

53 Ye Lang. An Outline of Chinese Aesthetic History [中国美学史大纲 Zhongguo Meixue Shi Dagang], Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1986, p. 34. 54 Ye Lang. An Outline of Chinese Aesthetic History [中国美学史大纲 Zhongguo Meixue Shi Dagang], Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1986, p. 35. 55 Translator’s note: “it” refers to the Dao/ Tao. 56 Alternatively, this line can be translated as: “The nameless [wu ming ] is the origin

of Heaven and Earth; the named [you ming ] is the mother of the myriad of things.”

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‘Yin’ and ‘Yang’ are unfathomable, which is why they are considered divine [shen].” Mencius also defined shen [divine] as “having wisdom that cannot be penetrated.”57 Therefore, shen is another way of expressing miao—both of them referring to the interconnectedness of existence and emptiness and the ineffable nature of their interplay. During the Han dynasty, miao became a common term in aesthetic discourse, often used in positive comments about people and aesthetic reviews. For example, in the preface to Qu Yuan’s renowned long poem “Encountering Sorrow” [离骚 Li Sao], the historian Ban Gu (32–92) referred to Qu as a “talent of miao” [妙才 miaocai]. He also used the phrase “speaks miao throughout the world” [言语妙天下 yanyu miao tianxia] to praise Jia Juan’s eloquence.58 In Biography of Characters [人物 志 Renwu Zhi], Liu Shao also used miao to describe individuals, stating that “persons that are particularly miao have an exquisite inner substance without exterior embellishments.” In Huainanzi, the word is used in its original sense, relating to the mystical aspect of the universe: “The mutual correspondence between objects is mystical and inscrutable, beyond comprehension or analysis.”59 Similarly, Dong Zhongshu commented on the beauty of sympathetic resonance between Heaven and Man that the correspondence between yin and yang in both the human and the natural realm follows a subtle and exquisite logic.60 These examples demonstrate how miao was used in Han dynasty aesthetics to evaluate both people and the beauty of the natural world. In summary, during the Han dynasty, miao was not just a term used to signify the sublime and ineffable nature of beauty. It was also applied to aesthetic evaluations of people, things, and natural phenomena. During the Wei and Jin dynasties, the aesthetic concept of miao thrived along with the metaphysical and philosophical ideas of Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. Scholars sought to understand and express the

57 Line 71 in Chapter 14 “Jin Xin II,” Mencius. See James Legge’s translation in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/mengzi/jin-xin-ii Accessed 3 April 23. 58 Ban Gu. “Biography of Jia Juanzhi” [贾捐之传 Jia Juanzhi Zhuan] in The Book of

Han [汉书 Hanshu]. 59 Liu An. “Treatise on the Examination of the Mysterious and Darkness” [览冥 训Lanming Xun] in Huainanzi [淮南子 the Book of Huainanzi]. 60 Dong Zhongshu. “Resonance between Things of the Same Kind” [同类相动 Tonglei Xiangdong] in The Spring and Autumn Annals: Abundant Dew [春秋繁露 Chunqiu Fanlu].

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sublime and ineffable qualities of the world and human experience. As an adjective, miao was not just used to describe various art forms including painting, poetry, calligraphy, music, dance, and culinary arts; it was also a word commonly used for pleasing natural phenomena such as wind, clouds, flowers, and fragrances. The term zhuangyuan miào tu [solemn divine realm] referred to a landscape that achieved the ultimate in natural beauty. “In literature, everything from people’s physical attributes to their artistic skills could be described as miao. Philosophical concepts such as miao li [profound principles], miao yi [profound meaning], and miao zhi [profound intention] were also discussed.”61 There is a famous story about Gu Changle, a painter who spent several years detailing the eyes of his subjects. When asked why, he replied: “The beauty of the four limbs does not lie in their physical perfection but rather in their ability to capture the essence of the soul; it is inexpressible in words.”62 Madam Wei [Wei Shuo, 272–349] wrote in her book on calligraphy theory that the highest level of calligraphy is the ability to convey the subtlety [miao] of the shapes in the natural world. During the Tang dynasty, the concept of miao was frequently used in art criticism, particularly in the context of calligraphy. In the early years of the dynasty, Yu Shinan’s On the Essence of Calligraphy [Bisui Lun] includes a section entitled “Carving Subtlety” [Qi Miao], which states that the Dao of calligraphy lies in the realm of mysterious subtlety/ profundity [xuanmiao 玄妙], which can only be achieved through dedicated focus and a deep understanding of the intricacies of the craft.63 Zhang Huaiguan identified three different types of first-class calligraphy works: the divine works [神品 Shenpin], the profound works [妙品 Miaopin], and the skillful works [能品 Nengpin]. Zhang elaborated on the profound works: The profound masterpieces in calligraphy and literature must contain deep implications. Profound [xianmiao] ideas are not derived from the surface of subjects but from a deeper source. How could it be explained or predicted 61 Zhu Zidqing, Anthology on Classical Literature by Zhu Ziqing [朱自清古典文学论文 集 Zhu Ziqing Gudian Wenxue Lunwen ji], vol. 1, Shanghai Guji Press, 1981, p. 131. 62 Liu Yiqing, “Crafts and Craftsmanship [巧艺 Qiaoyi].” A New Account of Tales of the World [世说新语 Shì Shu¯o X¯ın Yuˇ ]. 63 Yu Shinan. On the Essence of Calligraphy [笔髓论 Bisui Lun].

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by common rationality or worldly knowledge? Only those with exceptional insight and vision can appreciate the profoundness of the soundless and formless elements.64

Zhang highlighted the importance of artistic miao in interpreting and observing the nuances of calligraphy: Only those who possess a deep understanding of calligraphy can observe the divine spirit of the artistry and look beyond the strokes and characters themselves.... even if the writing is put away, the soul still follows and the heart cherishes it, that is the miao.

He further analyzed the subtleties of brushwork in calligraphy. For example, in discussing the brushwork of the renowned calligrapher Wang Xizhi, Zhang noted Wang’s ability to imbue each mark of the brush with purpose and convey a sense of transcendence. He said, “The sublime essence of calligraphy emerges through the formless and intangible. The miao is unpredictable and comes from external manifestations while hiding in the gaps between things.”65 In other words, the concept of miao is considered a higher artistic realm than mere meticulous craftsmanship. It requires not mere thinking but an epiphany. During the Song and Yuan dynasties, the concept of miao was used to refer to the essence of natural beauty, such as the beauty of mountains, streams, and flowers. At the same time, the concept was also used to describe the highest realm of artistic beauty. In Records of Famous Paintings in Yizhou 66 [Yizhou Minghua Lu], Huang Xiufu used the term miao ge [profound class] to refer to what he considered first-class painting, which was based on the coordination between the artist’s heart and skill that is revealed through the perfection of brushstroke and skillful use of ink. The lyric writer and poet Jiang Kui identified the four aspects of gao miao [realm of high and subtle] in poetry: reasoning, meaning, imagination, and naturalness. The concepts of miao in both natural beauty and artistic beauty are closely related to emptiness and fullness. As Su Shi wrote, “capturing the essence of things is like catching the shadow of

64 Zhang Huaiguan. Discussing Calligraphy [书议 Shuyi]. 65 Zhang Huaiguan. Discussing Calligraphy [书议 Shuyi]. 66 Yizhou was then an administrative region, now Chengdu city and its surroundings.

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the wind.”67 He also said, “To create poetic beauty, one must tranquilize the mind and still the surroundings, as stillness knows all movement, and emptiness admits all scenery.”68 Through subtle Observation of the world in the state of emptiness and stillness, the poet is able to capture natural and poetic subtlety and profundity. However, the concept of miao does not simply lie in the physical form of an object or artwork. Rather, it is the manifestation of an infinite spiritual essence beyond its tangible representation. As Shao Yong wrote in the poem “On Appreciating Flowers,” “The essence of flowers lies not in their physical form, but in their spiritual beauty.” In discussing landscape painting, Guo Xi mentioned in The Lofty Message of Forest and Streams [Linquan Gaozhi] that. [In paintings], the roads covered by morning mists remind the viewers of being early-rising passersby; the setting sun on the horizon makes the viewers consider watching the sunset; the habitants in the mountains make the viewers feel like dwelling there; and the cliffs, rocks, and springs allure the viewers to travel. Viewing paintings makes one think about certain things and makes one feel as if he is literally there in the scene. This is the surprising mystery [miao] of paintings. (“Lessons from the Mountains and Waters”)

Ultimately, the concept of miao encompasses the transcendent qualities of both natural and artistic beauty, embodying the essence of the limitless and boundless spiritual realm. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the concept of miao continued to expand in terms of the interplay between reality and illusion and between skillfulness and simplicity. As Xiang Mu (1550–1600) wrote in Elegant Words on Calligraphy [Shufa Yayan], “although there are methods to learn, the beauty lies in that which is effortless.” Zhu Yunming’s Records of Lu Ji’s Bird-and-Flower Paintings [Lu Ji Huaniao Ji] speaks of the subtle beauty found in capturing the form of objects, which cannot be expressed by words. In Mystery of the Southern Clan of Buddhism [Nanzong Mijue], Hua Lin asserted that subtle writing starts with the absence of words and that profound writing is like an intricate mirage born from the interplay between words and silence. 67 Su Shi. A Letter in Response to Xie Minshi. 68 Su Shi. To Master Canliao.

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These ideas rely on the interplay between you [having/existence] and wu [nonexistence/not having] in the creation of art. Fang Xun (1736– 1799) extended the interplay of you and wu to the beauty found in the union of reality and emptiness by stating, “ancient artists used brush strokes that played on the interaction between reality and emptiness which allowed for limitless growth and change.”69 Liu Xizai (1813–1881) similarly extended this concept to the beauty found in the union of reality and illusion by claiming that the subtlety [miao] of Zhuangzi’s stories lie in his use of fantasy to capture truth and of the real to capture mystery.70 Overall, miao refers to infinite beauty that lies within the finite. It is beauty that combines existence and nonexistence; it is constantly changing and unpredictable.

Exploring the Profoundness of Xuan [Mystery] Xuan originally referred to the color black with a hint of yellow in the night sky, also known as Xuanming. Taoism believes that the Dao, which gives rise to everything in the world, is in a state of chaos and obscurity. In this sense, Xuanse [xuan color] is also known as “the mother color,” and Xuan is also considered as yin. Chapter 6 of Tao Te Ching says, “The gate of the mysterious Xuanmu is said to be the root of Heaven and Earth.” Because Xuanse is the mother color of all colors, it is regarded as the richest color and is incorporated into ink-wash painting. Wang Wei (699–759), one of the founders of ink-wash painting, wrote, “In the art of painting, ink wash is the most superior. It naturally captures the essence and creates the universe.”71 In terms of the expressiveness of ink color, Zhang Yanyuan stated in Famous Paintings of Past Dynasties: Grasses and trees flourish without needing to use red, snow and clouds flutter without needing to use white, mountains do not need empty blue to be green, and phoenixes do not need five colors to be clever. Therefore, when ink is used and the five colors are present, it is said to be successful. If the focus is on the colors, the image of the object will be distorted.

69 Fang Xun. Discussing Painting at the Serene Mountain Residence [山静居画论 Shanjingju Hualun]. 70 Liu Xizai. “The General Observation of Poetry [诗概 Shi Gai]” in The General Observations of Art [艺概 Yi Gai]. 71 Wang Wei. “Tips on Landscape Painting” [山水诀 Shanshui Jue].

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Jing Hao added in The Methods of Brushstrokes , “The use of ink obtains the entrance to the mysterious.” By being dim, yellowish, and dark, xuan captures the image of the universe’s essence in Taoist conception. Thus, it is also used to describe the essential form of the Dao. Chapter 1 of Tao Te Ching says, “The profoundness [xuan] of profoundness [xuan] is the gateway to all subtleties.” As a reference to the Dao that gave birth to everything in ancient times, xuan is also known in “Tai Xuan” [The Utmost Mystery], “Xuan Dao” [The Mysterious Dao], and “Xuan Zhen” [The Mysterious Truth]. The characteristics of the Dao have also been imprinted onto xuan. The Dao is formless and empty, and xuan is the same. Yang Xiong says, “Xuan [the mystery] is the hidden and shapeless profoundness that exists among all things.”72 Therefore, xuan is often combined with the word void [xu], as in xuan xu [mysterious void]. The Dao is still and quiet, and xuan is also silent. As Zhuangzi said, “The profound and obscure [xuan-ming] can rarely be heard” (Zhuangzi: 1:6:4). Cheng Xuanying asserted, “Xuan is a name for depth and mystery, while ming is a word for obscurity and silence. Just like the Dao, xuan existed in the primordial times when it was known as xuan gu” (“gu” means “primordial or ancient”). In Chapter 5 of The Outer Chapters, Zhuangzi wrote, “The ruler of Xuan Gu ruled the world without doing anything.” Like the Dao, xuan is vast. Hence, it is known as “Yuan Xuan” [“yuan” means “abyss” 渊] and “Xuan Yuan” [“yuan” means “far away” 远]. This is also shown in Yan Yan’s line: “exploring the Dao’s mysterious depths.” The Dao and xuan mean “mysterious principle,” which refers to the deep, subtle, and unfathomable principles. All the above-mentioned characteristics of xuan converge towards the aesthetic sensation of miao [subtlety, marvelousness]. Therefore, in ancient China, xuan and miao were often used together. Yu Shi Nan wrote in Essence of Pen and Ink that “the art of calligraphy has marvelous profundity.” Thus, art criticism involves examining the style and form of the artwork and capturing its mystery and profundity. In ancient China, xuan served as a way of accessing the Dao and its infinite beauty, thus becoming another name for miao [marvelous].

72 Yang Xiong. “Xuanli” [玄摛] in The Classic of Tai Xuan [太玄].

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Exploring the Profoundness of Yuan [Distant] Yuan [远 distant] was originally an adjective used to describe spatial distance. As the poet Qu Yuan wrote in Encountering Sorrows [Li Sao], “I will travel far away to be alone.” The meaning of the word yuan then expanded to include temporal distance. As said in Master Lv’s Spring and Autumn Annals , “The origins of music are far away.” The Wei and Jin dynasties marked the transformation of yuan into the domain of aesthetics that denotes a profound and infinite realm of musical sensation. Metaphysical scholars at the time referred to their studies as studies of the profound and distant [xuan-yuan]. A New Account of the Tales of the World [Shishuo Xinyu] states, “Wang Yifu appreciated the beauty of xuan yuan” [profound and distant]. Because yuan is linked to the Dao as well as to xuan, it became a synonym for miao [marvelous, subtle, profound] and mei [beautiful]. The Book of Jin [Jin Shu] documents many examples from that period. For example, Xiang Xiu is referred to as “clear-minded and farsighted,” Liu Ling is referred to as having a “broad and distant heart,” Wang Dao is referred to as “perceptive and clear-minded, with a wide and distant vision,” and Zhang Ping’s words are praised as “deep and far-reaching.” Zhong Rong, in his book Appreciating Poetry [Shipin], praised Ji Kang for his “clear and far-reaching vision.” Zhuge Liang talked about how “quietness leads to distance” [ningjing zhiyuan], and Tao Yuanming wrote that “a distant heart creates its own solitude.” From these examples, it becomes evident that yuan is not only a moral pursuit of peace for the heart but also an aesthetic pursuit that brings joy. The Tang scholars were very perceptive. They seized upon and further developed many of the subtle and preliminary aesthetic discoveries in the Six Dynasties. This includes the aesthetic orientation of yuan. In The Styles of Poetry [诗式 Shishi], the Buddhist poet Jiao Ran (730–799) brought yuan from the external objective world into the subjective, imaginative world, identifying “the distantness [yuan] in consciousness,” which tends to be infinitely more profound than external distance, such as the vastness of the waters or the height of mountains. In the poem “On the Thatched Pavilion” [Maoge Ji], Yuanjie wrote, “During idle times, when I want to express my profound yearning [yuanhuai 远怀], I often invite guests to climb a high place and enjoy the distant view.”73 The profound yearning mentioned here is what Jiao Ran identified as “the distantness 73 The Complete Works of the Tang Dynasty [全唐文 Quan Tang Wen], vol. 382.

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in consciousness.” Gazing into the distance allows one’s mind to extend to the imaginative realm of the infinitely profound. During the Song dynasty, Guo Xi (1020–1090) proposed the theory of “Three Distantness” [sanyuan] that provided new insights into the perspectives of representation in painting. The “Three Kinds of Distantness” in Guo Xi’s The Lofty Message of Forest and Streams consists of “steep distancing” [gaoyuan], “level distancing” [pingyuan] and “deep distancing” [shenyuan]. Specifically, looking up from the foot of the mountain to the summit is known as “steep distancing”; peering from the front of the mountain and looking behind is known as “deep distancing”; and gazing from the nearer mountains towards distant ones is known as “level distancing.” The color of high distancing is clear and bright; the color of deep distancing is dark and obscure; and the color of level distancing is the interplay of brightness and obscurity. Steep distancing emphasizes the abruptness of the cliffs, deep distancing reveals overlapping ridges, and level distancing uncovers the mistiness of the landscape. The depiction of characters also varies depending on the type of distancing. Human figures in steep distancing are clear, those in deep distancing are detailed, and those in level distancing are washed out. These figures are not short in steep distancing; they are not too tall in deep distancing, and they are not too big in level distancing. These are the differences of the three types of distancing.74

Guo Xi’s theory specifically refers to landscape paintings. The different perspectives from which mountains are viewed serve as the bases for the classification of the paintings as steep distancing, level distancing, or deep distancing. This classification aims to show that the different perspectives from which people make their observation of the landscape stimulate people’s boundless imagination. In addition to the “three types of distantness” in relation to the mountain, Guo Xi’s analysis also explored the corresponding relationship among the three perspectives and the representation of objects in paintings. Moreover, he applied the concept of “distancing” to his discussions of water and characters in paintings,

74 Guo Xi. The Lofty Message of Forest and Streams [林泉高致 Linquan Gaozhi].

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thereby proposing a new method of depicting distant water and characters. This new method aimed to show “no hatch marks on distant mountains, no ripples on distant water, and no eyes on distant figures.” In The Complete Collection of Landscape Paintings [Shanshui Chun Quanji], Han Zhuo built on Guo Xi’s theory and added three new concepts: “wide distancing,” “misty distancing,” and “quiet distancing”: The perspective of river waves extending along the shoreline and out in the distance is known as “wide distancing”; the perspective of sunset glow mirroring the wildland and of water fading away into the distance is known as “misty distancing”; and the perspective of scenery and objects fading away into the distance is known as “quiet distancing.”75

These perspectives that Han Zhuo identified contain the original meaning of a boundless and deep realm, similar to the Taoist concept of the Dao. This artistic pursuit of distance is also found in the poetry in the Song dynasty. In the Ming dynasty, the pursuit of “distance” as a type of “elegance beneath the forest” continued to expand. In Wen Zhenheng’s Treatise on Superfluous Things [Changwu zhi], he believed that gardens and rocks are most indispensable, that rocks appear ancient, and that water creates a sense of distance: “A peak is like Mount Tai stretching out for a thousand feet, and a spoonful of water makes rivers and lakes appear to be thousands of miles away.” These are far-reaching spatial boundaries. Aged bamboo and old trees, strange vines and ugly trees reveal distant boundaries of time. Qi Biaojia’s “Yushan Note: Distant Pavilion” discusses the mystery of the distance of the pavilion within a garden: The pavilion is named “distant” not because it is physically out of reach. Indeed, the highest point of my pavilion can oversee and surpass all the mountains and rivers, yet all the mountains and rivers together could not fully encompass my pavilion’s grandeur.76

Here, distance evokes a sense of elegance and uniqueness.

75 Yu Jianhua, Chinese Art Theories on Paintings [中国画论类编 Zhongguo Hualun Leibian], vol. 2, People’s Art Press, 1986, p. 662. 76 Qi Biaojia. “Distant Buildings” [远阁 Yuange] in Dwelling in the Mountains: On Chinese Gardening [寓山注 Yushan Zhu].

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With lofty peaks and flowing rivers, distance enhances the beauty of scenery; with misty fog enveloping peaks, distance adds charm to isolated forests; with the lights of thousands of households in the distance, the towers and pavilions are full of life; and with the distant water and mountains, curtains and screens enclose the landscape.77

This applies to the perception of ancient relics as well: the distance that one absorbs and the distance that fills one with a sense of pride are one and the same. In the field of painting, Dong Qichang said in Random Writings from the Studio of Brush and Zen [Huachanshi Suiji]: “When the heart is empty and far away, it is then that the mind can be liberated.” In the field of literature, Zhang Dai said in Collection of Lin Huan Essays [Langhuan Ji]: “Even within cloth and grain, there are countless flavors that can never be fully savored. The more one appreciates it, the newer and more refreshing it becomes, and the more distant.”78 Even during the Qing dynasty, the preference for the aesthetics of “distance” remained strong. As He Yisun said in Poetry Raft : Painters refer to “level distancing” as a disorderly mountain range, spanning tens of thousands of miles, with continuous hazy layers of mist and clouds that endlessly inspire the imagination. Only the poets of the Han dynasty had it among them. Modern-day scholars who study ancient poetry focus only on its simplicity but fail to grasp its sense of distance. It is because simplicity only displays its momentum, while distance reveals its spiritual allure, which is difficult to emulate.79

The beauty of distance in painting generates endless inspiration, and in poetry, it evokes a profound and lasting spiritual essence. Thus, the beauty of distance lies in its infinite spiritual resonance. For instance, Wang Shizhen wrote in “Conversations by the Lake”: Poetry is used to express one’s true character. However, clarity and distance are what make it even more profound. For example, “White clouds embracing secluded rocks, green bamboos adorning clear waters,” that 77 Qi Biaojia. “Distant Buildings” [远阁 Yuange] in Dwelling in the Mountains: On Chinese Gardening [寓山注 Yushan Zhu]. 78 Zhang Dai. “Responding to Yuan Tuo’An” in Collection of Lin Huan Essays [Langhuan Ji]. 79 He Yisun. Poetry Raft [诗筏 Shifa].

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is clarity; “Appreciating the spiritual essence of things, only true friends can share in it,” that is distance; “Why use silk and bamboo when the landscape is filled with melodious sounds,” and “Birds gather during the sunset, while water and trees are immersed in tranquility,” these combine clarity and distance. The beauty of it all lies in spiritual resonance.

The Profundity of the Footloose and the Ancient As discussed, traditional Chinese aesthetics appreciates the profundity in the mysterious and the distant. Here, I expand the aesthetics of profundity to properties of the footloose [逸 yi] and the ancient [古 gu]. Yi [逸] originally means running or escaping, and further refers to surpassing, exceeding, departing, and self-secluding. As stated in The Analects, “He revived states that had been extinguished, restored families whose line of succession had been broken, and called to office those who had retired into obscurity [yimin], so that throughout the kingdom, the hearts of the people turned towards him.”80 Yimin literally means retired/reclusive people. They are worthy people who withdraw from worldly affairs at a time of political corruption. They possess the Daoist spirit of having a “footloose heart.” In a way, this also reflects Zhuangzi’s spirit because he believed in transcending a bleak and corrupt environment by following the path of yi [footloose]. That is why the contemporary philosopher Xu Fuguan identified Zhuangzi’s idea as the “philosophy of being footloose [yi].”81 In later periods, aesthetic ideas including “going beyond ease” [超逸chaoyi], “elegance” [飘逸 piaoyi], “clearness” [清逸 qingyi], and “gracefulness” [高逸 gaoyi] were all related to Zhuangzi. During the Wei and Jin dynasties, the study of Zhuangzi flourished among men of letters, and the aesthetic pursuit of ease as well as of the mysterious and distant became a fashion. This aesthetic trend resulted in the emergence of “footloose works” [ 逸品yipin] in art. In the early Tang dynasty, Li Sizhen (deceased in 696) first used the term “footloose works” [yipin] in his commentary in After the Styles of Calligraphy [Shu Hou Pin]. He placed “footloose works” in 80 Line 1, Chapter 20 “Teachings of King Yao [Yao Yue],” the Analects. See the translation by james Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 81 Xu Fuguan. The Spirit of Chinese Art [中国艺术精神 Zhongguo Yishu Jingshen], Commercial Press, 2010.

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the highest position among the nine grades listed in Yu Jianwu’s Styles of Calligraphy [Shupin]. The footloose style is described by Jiao Ran in Poetic Style as “a relaxed and leisurely style.” In Famous Paintings of the Tang Dynasty [Tangchao Minghua Lu], Zhu Jingxuan used “the footloose” in addition to “the divine” [shen],” “the profound” [miao], and “the skillful” [neng], indicating that the footloose works were not bound by common laws. Huang Xiufu also applied this categorization in Record of Famous Paintings in Yizhou [Yizhou Minghua Ji], believing that “the footloose works are most difficult to classify.” Works worthy of the name “the footloose” disregard rigid rules and surpass careful craftwork. They reveal the infinite and the profound, channeling the great Dao that uses limited strokes and ink and surpassing the works of the other three categories. The “footloose works” promoted by Huang Xiufu became a dominant trend in painting during the Yuan dynasty and the dynasty’s four great painters—Ni Zan (1301–1374), Wu Zhen (1280–1354), Huang Gongwang (1269–1354), and Wang Meng (1308–1385)—were the typical representatives of this trend. Ni Zan wrote in his letter to Zhang Zhongzao, “I painted casually and foot-loosely, not seeking to resemble anything and only wanting to please myself.” In Inscription on a Selfportrait of Ink Bamboo [Ti Zihua Mozhu], he said, “My bamboo just serves to describe the ease in my heart, not whether it resembles the bamboo or not, or if the leaves are dense or sparse, or if the branches are slanting or straight.” As Ye Lang asserted, “Footloose works did not mature until the Yuan dynasty. The aesthetic connotation of footloose works was only fully displayed during this time.”82 This also applies to the footloose aesthetics in poetry. In Poetic Conversations in the Daijin Pavilion [带经堂诗话 Daijin Tang Shihua], Wang Shizhen revealed that the poetry of the footloose style, represented by the works of Li Bai and Meng Haoran, is characterized by minimalistic decorative expressions, as if “seeing the horns without showing the gazelle.” In traditional Chinese aesthetics, the profundity of “distance” is homogeneous with that of the ancient. It is believed that the far-reaching changes of time endow things with infinite charm. As Fang Xun wrote in Essays on Paintings in the Serene Mountain Residence [Shanjingju Lunhua], “It is completely ancient and unfathomable.” Shao Meichen 82 Ye Lang. An Outline of Chinese Aesthetic History [中国美学史大纲 Zhongguo Meixue Shi Dagang], Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1986, p. 294.

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(born in 1776) commented that simplicity and antiquity are the most difficult for painters.83 Because ancient temples, rocks, and withered trees are laden with years of history, they evoke profound feelings of timelessness and have thus become common symbolic images in paintings. In Records of Paintings in the Gifted Ink Stone Studio [Ciyanzhai Tihua Oulu], Dai Chunshi described that the ancient atmosphere of the paintings were derived from mind-opening “wild forests, ancient temples, solitary birds flying in the sky, and steep sails in the twilight.” In Remarks on Painting , Tang Zhiqi added that “paintings are lacking if without a few withered old trees divulging age.” In Postscript to the Paintings of Yun Nantian, Yun Nantian (1633–1690) said, “The ancient trees in the wilderness are called the ‘intention’ of the paintings.” A similar word, cang [苍], means both “blue-green color” and “aged.” The word cang-cang is found in The Book of Songs: “Green, green is the reed/ Dew turns into frost gleam.” Here, cang-cang means the dark green color and the aging state of the reed in autumn. Therefore, blue-green [cang] is also called ancient blue-green [canggu] or antique blue-green [canglao]. Blue-green refers to infinite time, thus connoting the profundity of time. Dong Qichang commented in Treatise on Painting that “simplicity and antiquity are the most charming realms of the Yuan masters, and Yun Lin (Ni Zan) is especially adept at it.” In Remarks on Painting [Huishi Weiyan], Tang Zhiqi added that “drawing withered trees is the most difficult way to express antiquity. However, it is also the most indispensable element in painting.” “Old” indicates the accumulation of years, so there is an ancient saying, “Drawing the realm of age is the most difficult.” In ancient Chinese language, shen [神] has two meanings. It is a noun that refers to gods, spirits, and spirituality, but it is also an adjective that means mysterious and miraculous. How can shen be related to miao [subtlety, profundity, marvelousness]? It is because shen is elusive and leaves no trace. As explained in The Book of Changes, “The unpredictable state of yin and yang is divine [shen].” Shen stems from miraculous transformation. It encompasses everything and cannot be defined or limited by form. However, since the Tang dynasty when Zhang Huaichuan divided calligraphy and painting into three categories, shen has been a more advanced aesthetic concept compared to miao. As previously mentioned, 83 Shao Meichen. Occasional Record of Thoughts about My Painting [画耕偶录 Huageng Oulu].

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shenpin [divine works] is a significant category of great works of art. Although different people have different interpretations of the concept of shenpin [divine works] and its aesthetic level, shen generally belongs to the realm of beauty that is unrestricted by form and appearance. Additionally, Yan Yu proposed the state of entering the realm of shen [the divine] in poetry creation, which he conceived as “the ultimate achievement in poetry”: “If a poem can achieve this, it is the utmost and ultimate without any need for further improvement.”84 In addition to shenmiao [mysterious and profound], there were also terms like juemiao [brilliant] and weimiao [subtle and exquisite] in ancient China. The character 绝 [jue] originally referred to the tearing apart of a silk thread. Since you and wu transform between each other, jue can also be related to the words “extreme” and “incomparable.” According to “Biography of Zheng Qian” in The New Book of Tang , Zheng Qian once presented his poems and paintings to Emperor Xuanzong and won the latter’s praise as “incomparable in all three”85 [sanjue]. The last concept that often goes hand in hand with miao [profound] is wei [slight, subtle, profound]. The original meaning of wei was vague and inconspicuous. The term weimiao was used in Chinese aesthetics to refer to infinite subtlety beyond form and appearance. “If you take it beyond representation, your taste will tire from excess, for it has tasted the charm of subtlety” [weimiao].86 All these terms as I have discussed in this section manifest the characteristics of the Dao and reveal the different aspects of the Taoist aesthetics, namely: subtlety, profoundness, mysterious, and vagueness.

Seeing Richness in “Blandness”: The Taoist Ideal of Beauty The word “blandness” [淡 dan] originally means “a weak or light taste”87 and its antonyms are concentrated [nong] and thick [hou]. Its meaning later extended beyond taste to include color, and “blandness” [淡 dan]

84 Yan Yu. Words on Poetry in Canglang Residence [Canglang Shiyu]. 85 The “three” means poetry, calligraphy, and painting. 86 Xie He. Appraisal of Ancient Paintings [Guhua Pinlu], Zhonghua Book Company, 1979. 87 Xu Shen. Shuowen Jiezi.

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came to refer to light colors. Its antonyms are deep [shen] and distant [yuan]. Eventually, “blandness” developed into an aesthetic category that refers to qualities that are “thin yet concentrated” and “subtle but deep.” Laozi and Zhuangzi on Blandness The concept of blandness was first proposed by Laozi as an aesthetic category. As Tao Te Ching states, the taste of the Dao is bland, so “calm and repose [tiandan] are what he88 prizes; victory (by force of arms) is to him undesirable.”89 Ordinary people tend to consider the “five flavors” as delicious, but Laozi advocated against this by pursuing blandness. He believed that while “the five flavors can dull your taste buds,” the flavor of the Dao, with its blandness and lack of taste, surpasses limited flavors and possesses an infinite fullness that is far superior. This idea is echoed by Zhuangzi who claimed that “blandness is limitless, and all beauty comes from it.” The plain taste of the Dao, which is tasteless but includes all flavors, is similar to that of water. Zhuangzi added, “A gentleman’s friendship is as plain as water; a small person’s friendship is as sweet as honey. Yet the blandness of the gentleman leads to closeness, while a small person’s sycophancy leads to estrangement.” This idea of “plain taste” as the “supreme taste” also influenced Confucianism. As The Doctrine of the Mean states, “The way of a gentleman is plain yet not wearisome.” Furthermore, The Book of Rites claims: “Gentlemen speak plainly yet do kind deeds; small people speak flowery words but do ill deeds.” The “mysterious wine” [xuanjiu] and “great soup,” which are bland and tasteless, are regarded as the ultimate flavor in ancestor worship rituals because of their “lingering taste,” which is the foundation of the “five flavors.” Han Dynasty After the Early Period: The Loss of “Plain Taste” During the early Han dynasty, the government adopted Taoist philosophy and this inspired the public’s preference for non-action and the aesthetics of blandness. However, in the latter part of the dynasty, Confucianism became the dominant ideology and the aesthetic trend shifted towards a

88 Translator’s note: the superior man, the gentleman. 89 Chapter 31, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text

Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023.

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preference for rich and intense flavors, which resulted in loss of public interest in the beauty of blandness. For example, in Book of Balance, Wang Chong described the inevitably of imperfection: “Therefore, in expressing oneself, there may be some shortcomings; in writing, there may be some omissions.” In the book, blandness is used in a negative way alongside terms such as errors, mistakes, and omissions. In Prelude on Poetry Criticism, Zhong Rong criticized the poetry of the Yongjia period90 by describing the works as “almost bland,” indicating that the works are verbose and insipid. These examples show how blandness came to be seen as a negative quality. Neo-Daoism: Finding Beauty in Detachment and Emotional Calmness Wei and Jin dynasties saw the flourishing of Xuanxue [Neo-Daoism]. During this time, people leaned towards a philosophy that was simple and mystical. This philosophy highlighted the embodiment of beauty and detachment from worldly affairs.91 Since the Wei and Jin dynasties, the Chinese sense of beauty moved to a different direction, exhibiting a new ideal of beauty that maintains that ‘the first bloom of the lotus is more beautiful than any embellished by gold.’”92 Through the vigorous advocacy of Neo-Daoism, “blandness” became established as the ideal aesthetic category in Chinese culture. As an aesthetic ideal, blandness was thoroughly infused into the artistic and daily practices of society. For instance, Ji Kang explicitly stated in his response to Xiang Ziqi’s essay on maintaining health that “by taking tranquility as the highest taste, wine and color are not necessary.” Blandness has two main characteristics. The first is the transcendence of worldly pursuits. Scholars of the Wei and Jin periods remained indifferent to fame and fortune and were detached from earthly concerns. For example, as A New Account of the Tales of the World records, the Eastern Jin dynasty scholar Xie An was known for being “vacant and 90 Yongjia period (307–311) is a period under the reign of Emperor Sima Zhi in the

Western Jin dynasty. It is a time of political upheaval and economic recession due to natural disasters, plague, and war. 91 Zong Baihua. Strolling in Aesthetics [美学散步 Meixue Sanbu], Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1981, p. 29. 92 Zong Baihua. Strolling in Aesthetics [美学散步 Meixue Sanbu], Shanghai People’s Publishing House, 1981, p. 177.

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plain, with a neglect of worldly affairs.” The second characteristic is emotional calmness or equanimity, which is expressed in their attitude towards emotions. Being calm and composed and having control over one’s emotions became the highest state of personal character. Daoism believed that insensitivity was natural. In the Wei dynasty, He Yan declared the idea that “the sage is unfeeling.” Although Wang Bi had some objections based on empirical evidence, he also believed that a sage was someone who could control their emotions with “divine power,” while ordinary people were weighed down by their emotions. This concept was pervasive among scholars of the Wei and Jin periods. Every scholar, without exception, revered emotional calmness, serenity of the spirit, and composure in attitude. A New Account of the Tales of the World calls this “refined demeanor” [雅量 yaliang] and presents numerous examples in the chapter of the same title. One example is Ji Kang who faced execution in the market yet remained calm and even played the guqin93 while he was being executed. In another story, thunder struck when Xia Houxuan was writing calligraphy on a wooden pillar, destroying the pillar and burning Xia’s clothes. While all the guests stumbled around terrified and tried to flee, Xia remained composed and continued writing. Similarly, when Pei Kai was arrested, he remained composed and in control; and when Wang Yifu was subjected to unwarranted provocation and insulting language, he remained unperturbed. Another remarkable story is about how Xie Xuan’s son brought him news of a major victory in the frontlines of Fu Shui while Xie Xuan was playing Go with a guest. Even after being told of the great news, Xie Xuan continued playing Go and only casually told his guest that “the children have won a great victory against the rebels.” Regardless of his excitement, he remained composed, and his demeanor was unchanged. In summary, tranquil countenance and self-possession were the highly revered traits at the time.

93 Qin, or Guqin, is a traditional Chinese zither of seven strings.

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Tao Yuanming: Founding Father in the Poetics of Blandness During the Southern and Northern dynasties (420–589), landscape painting emerged as a means to convey the pursuit of detachment, while pastoral and landscape poetry also emerged as a genre that presented a transcendent world beyond material reality. As a key component of artistic beauty, blandness not only requires sparseness of content but also simplicity of form that carries meaning. The poetry of Tao Yuanming, characterized by its sparse style and profound meaning, represents a high standard of artistic beauty, defined by the principle of detachment. This ideal has become a classic example. Here are some examples of his early poetry: The winds blow across the plain, filling the good field with a refreshing spirit. Although this year’s harvest is yet uncertain, I take great delight in what I do.94

Misted, misted the distant village. Drifting, the soft swirls of smoke. Somewhere a dog barks deep in the winding lanes. A cockerel crows from the top of the mulberry tree.95

I plant beans beneath the southern hills, amid thick grass, the sprouts grow sparse. Every day I rise early to tend the fields, And carry my hoe home as the moon rises.96

My house is built amid the world of men/ Yet with no sound and fury do I ken. To tell you how I can keep deaf and blind,/ Any place is calm for a peaceful mind. I pluck hedge-side chrysanthemums with pleasure/ And see the tranquil Southern Mount in leisure. 94 Excerpt from “Spring Thoughts on the Ancient Farmhouse,” 403 CE. 95 Excerpt from “Returning to Country Living I”. 96 Excerpt from “Returning to Country Living II”.

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The evening haze enshrouds it in fine weather/ While flocks of birds are flying home together. The view provides some veritable truth/ but my defining words seem to me uncouth.97

These poems exhibit a detachment from worldly affairs and a longing for seclusion, leading the scholar Zong Rong to call Tao Yuanming a “recluse poet.” In terms of form, his poetry conveys the extraordinary within the ordinary, the intense within the seemingly plain, and the profound within the shallow. His words are simple and direct yet deeply meaningful, attesting to his masterful control of the art form. No wonder Wang Anshi called him the “most exceptional poet in history.” Hu Yinglin (1551– 1602) referred to Tao Yuanming as “the founder of bland poetics that lasts through the ages.”98 Tang Dynasty: Pastoral Poetry and Ink-wash Landscape Painting The aesthetics of blandness was mainly embodied through creative practice during the Tang dynasty. Tao Yuanming’s plain style was largely neglected in his own time when poets followed strict rules. Hence, his poetry did not gain much attention until later in middle of the dynasty. After the calamitous An Lushan Rebellion (755–763), scholars realized the dangers of being obsessed with worldly affairs and the value of detachment from them. In terms of poetic form, through a process of negation, people also recognized the truth that “excessive intensity eventually fades, while blandness often conceals depth.”99 Tao Yuanming’s value was thus rediscovered, and poets such as Wang Wei, Meng Haoran, Chu Guangxi, Chang Jian, Liu Changqing, Liu Zongyuan, Wei Yingwu, and others, not only imitated Tao’s depiction of returning to a rustic life and indulging in landscape scenery, but also adopted his technique of intensifying blandness, making the plain style of poetry flourish in the Golden Age of the Tang dynasty. Here are some examples:

97 Excerpt from “Drinking Wine V.” Translator’s note: I borrowed the translation by Wang Rongpei for this excerpt. 98 Hu Yinglin. The Forest of Poetry/ Shishu. 99 Sikong Tu. “Splendidness” [绮丽 Qili] in Twenty-four Styles of Poetry [二十四诗品

Ershi’si Shiping].

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Resting by the door with a staff in hand,/ I listen to cicadas sing in the wind. The sun sets across the lake, /And the smoke of a lone cottage rises in the village.100

Walking to the end of the water, I sit and watch the clouds rise. Occasionally I encounter a local, we chat and laugh with no intention of returning.101

In the cool of the evening, my hair loose and scattered, I lie in my open window, enjoying the fragrance carried on the lotus breeze. The sound of drops from the bamboo sends a clear ring through the night.102

Fishing at Green Bay in spring, as the flowers on the apricot trees fall thickly. In the clear pool, the water seems shallow, and the release of a lotus leaf scares away the fish.103

The pines branches reveal a tiny section of the moon, As if sending the clear light for you. The flowers rest their shade in the pavilion of fragrance. In the herb garden, moss grows on the stone pattern.104

As dusk falls, the distant mountains turn grey, In coldness the simple house appears destitute. Suddenly, the sound of barking dogs is heard from the firewood hedge, There he comes home through the snow and wind.105

100 Wang Wei. “Farewell to Mr. Pei at My Leisure House in Wangchuan”. 101 Wang Wei. “Living at Zhongnan Mountain”. 102 Meng Haoran. “Remembering Xin Da on a Summer Day in Southern Terrace”. 103 Chu Guangxi. “At the Fishing Bay”. 104 Chang Jian. “Staying at Wang Changling’s Old Secluding Place”. 105 Liu Changqing. “Residing in Furong Mountain on a Snowy Night”.

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A hundred mountains and no bird, A thousand paths without a footprint; A little boat, a bamboo cloak, An old man fishing in the cold river-snow.106

The hall of the county government feels cold and empty, I suddenly think of how you are doing in your mountains. You must be gathering kindling by a gulley, and come home to boil some simple food. I wanted to greet you with a dipper of wine, To have some warm conversations in this stormy night. But the mountain trails are covered in fallen leaves, Where shall I find the way to see you?107

If we conceal the name of the author and place these poems among Tao Yuanming’s works, it would be difficult to tell the difference. But the main difference between these poems and those of Tao Yuanming’s is that these poems in the Tang dynasty show more maturity in terms of conveying richness in plainness, showing elegance in simplicity, and revealing uniqueness in the everyday. Sikong Tu praised Tang poetry for its “clear and refined” characteristics, which accurately captures its plain style. The aesthetics of blandness also extends to painting. When landscape painting emerged in the Wei and Jin dynasties, the works strictly mimicked the coloring of real landscapes. In the Tang dynasty, Li Sixun developed landscape painting that made use of blue-and-green tone. Zhang Ao and Wang Mo, however, went beyond the use of colors and explored ink-wash in landscape painting. Jing Hao wrote in his Methods of Painting [Biji Fa] that ink-wash landscape painting does “not rely on five colors, which is highly creative.” The beauty of ink-wash landscapes lies in the fact that “using ink alone grasps the profound way” (Jing Hao). In other words, ink colors are the essence of all colors; they can display their splendor by stimulating human imagination.

106 Liu Zongyuan. “River Snow.” Translator’s note: I borrowed the translation by Witter Bynner for this poem. 107 Wei Yingwu. “To the Taoist Master in Quanjiao Mountain”.

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Song Dynasty: On the Beauty of Blandness and Detachment The achievements of poetry in the Tang dynasty provided a solid foundation for the theoretical reflection of blandness in the Song dynasty. A remarkable feature of poetics in the Song dynasty is a reverence for the beauty of blandness. Through the reevaluation of poets such as Tao Yuanming, Wang Wei, and Meng Haoran, poets and writers developed a reverence for the poetics of blandness. Mei Yaochen, a prominent critic in the early Song dynasty, pointed out that blandness is a high realm of poetic beauty: “The past or the present does not matter to poetry; only creating blandness is difficult.”108 Su Shunqin (1008–1048) explained the law of blandness in terms of poetic creation: “To achieve blandness, one must first detach from worldly distractions.”109 Su Shi reiterated that blandness is not a tasteless monotony, but rather a difficult aesthetic concept achieved through “seeming blandness but actual beauty” or “austerity yielding richness.” In his essay “Evaluating Han and Liu’s Poetry,” he wrote, “The beauty of blandness comes from an inward richness beneath the surface of austerity, and this is epitomized in the works of Tao Yuanming and Liu Zongyuan.” In terms of the artist’s personal growth, he pointed out that when it comes to writing, one should initially focus on grandeur, vivid colors, then gradually achieve blandness through maturity and refinement.110 Su Shi’s influence on Song dynasty poetics was considerable. His praise for the beauty of blandness was widely adopted and further developed. As Huang Tingjian exemplified with Du Fu’s works in “Three Letters to Wang Guanfu”: In his years in Kuizhou, Du Fu’s regulated-verse poetry became ingeniously simpler in sentence structure and craftsmanship. It was plain but also evoked a sense of grandeur and depth, which seemed impossible to achieve; and it was truly a remarkable achievement that his works are absent of purposeful arrangements. 108 Mei Yaochen. “Reading Scholar Shao Buyi’s Poems” [读邵不疑学士诗 Du Shao

Buyi Xueshi Shi] in Collected Works of Teacher Mei Wanling [宛陵先生集 Wanling Xiansheng Ji], vol. 46. 109 Su Shunqin. “Zehui the Monk Poet Requesting a Poem from Me” [诗僧则晖求诗 Shiseng Zehui Qiu Shi] in Collected Works of Scholar Su [苏学士文集 Su Xueshi Wenji], vol. 8. 110 Zhou Zizhi. Essays on Poetry of Bamboo-slope Zhou [竹坡诗话 Zhupo Shihua].

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Blandness is the special form of great craftsmanship achieved by removing the traces of axes and chisels. It is born out of thickness and richness and is the negation of both. In Ge Lifang’s words: “To achieve blandness through grandeur, one must start from within its splendor and then remove its superfluous aspects, so that it can achieve its own realm of blandness” [韵语阳秋 Yunyu Yangqiu]. Since blandness contains deep artistic refinement beyond its outward ascetic appearance, it fares better than mere grandeur. As Wu Ke wrote in Canghai Poetic Iconography, “In art, grandeur precedes blandness, just as seasons follow one after another. Spring is grand, summer is lush; autumn and winter are restrained, like the beauty of austerity hiding richness. In these poems, grandeur and lushness are present but subdued.” This was echoed by Liu Kezhuang (1187–1269) in “Postscript to the Poetic Scroll of Zhen Renfu”: “Simplicity is better than complexity, and subtlety is better than overt rudeness; lightness is better than heaviness, and transparency is better than opacity.” Ming and Qing Dynasties: “Extreme Brilliance Returned to Simplicity” Following the Song dynasty, the Ming and Qing dynasties elevated blandness to the pinnacle of artistic beauty while further elaborating on its meaning and creative approaches. In his letter “Response to Scholar Zhang on Poetry and Literature,” Song Lian (1310–1381) of the early Ming dynasty praised Xie Lingyun (385–433) and Wei Yingwu (737– 792) for “adding vividness to simplicity.” In “Discussing Poetry at the Huailu Hall,” Li Mengyang lauded Wang Wei’s poetry as “rich, abundant, and not ostentatious.” He also praised the works of Meng Haoran for their “solemn simplicity and profound longevity.” Wang Qi’s “Collection of Miscellaneous Records” [Baishi] celebrated that Tao Yuanming’s work is “simple, not overly polished, but reaches a natural point, revealing the subtleties of simplicity without leaving traces of polishing.” In his comments on Wang Wei’s Collected works, Zhang Xuecheng (1738– 1801) described Wang Wei’s poetry as “distant, clear, serene, and flatly outside the mundane world.” The essence of the beauty of blandness became evident through these evaluations of the works of past poets; they also revealed the historical thread of the creation of poetry that flowed through the works of Tao Yuanming, Xie Lingyun, Wang Wei, Meng Haoran, and Wei Yingwu. It is worth noting that Xie Lingyun is another forebear of poetic

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simplicity along with Tao Yuanming. While the Song dynasty saw the rise of Tao Yuanming’s fame in poetry tradition, the Ming and Qing dynasties witnessed the re-discovery of Xie Lingyun’s contributions to poetry. Although Xie’s landscape poetry retained some traces of artificial carving, it did not lack serene sentences like “Spring grasses grow by the pond, new birds sing on the willow trees” that blend human artistry with nature. Therefore, Song Lian admired Xie’s poetry for “adding vividness to simplicity.” Wang Shizhen (1526–1590) wrote “On the Posthumous Collection of Xie Lingyun’s Works” to affirm Xie’s achievement: When I first read Xie Lingyun’s poetry, I couldn’t appreciate it; but as I got into it, I gradually loved it, to the point that I cannot stop reading it. Although his style may be close to plebeian, his intention is like that of a person who joins his hands together in respect, reaching the extremes of both serenity and simplicity, and resembling nature in its meticulousness, which is beyond the reach of someone like me.

Bland aesthetics values simplicity and Huang Ziyun (1691–1754) pointed out what it requires in Wild Swan Poetry: “Clear logic, smooth sentences, and a profound atmosphere are what constitutes simplicity.” Zhou Ji asserted that while the beauty of simplicity may appear to be “plainly expressed and portrayed shallowly,” it actually “hinges on an amalgamation of a myriad of emotions, yet without a master intention.”111 In Poetry Raft , Yuan Mei raised the idea of “thick without thickness” by pointing out that “since ancient times, there have been those who can be thick, but it is not easy to find someone who can be thin.” This “thick without thickness” can be seen as a footnote to the idea of simplicity: if the beauty of something “lies beyond its desolation and barrenness” (Li Kaixian’s appraisal of Shen Zhou’s painting style), it will fall into “trendy shallowness”112 and not be worth seeing. In discussing the creative principles of bland aesthetics, Shi Buhua stated, “In order to create ancient-style poetry of blandness, one must have deep, profound language and simple, honest content, which will form its backbone and ensure its immortality. Otherwise, it will easily flow away and become 111 Zhou Ji. Preface to Selected Ci Lyrical Poetry by Four Famous Poets of the Song Dynasty [宋四家词选目录序论 Song Sijia Cixuan Mulu Xulun]. 112 Fang Dongshu. “The Mixed Messages on Ignorance and Clarity,” vol. 14.

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insubstantial.”113 In Twenty-four Poetic Styles, Yang Tingzhi explained the phrase “simplicity can be profound” by saying that only those who can stand repeated close reading will be considered truly great. Overall Understanding of the Beauty of Blandness The aesthetic category of blandness as proposed by Laozi mainly appeared in the form of real beauty until the Wei and Jin dynasties, when the literati began to practice blandness as a lifestyle. Since then, blandness also began to manifest in the form of artistic beauty, with Tao Yuanming’s work and his life story as prominent examples. After the Song dynasty, almost all comments regarding blandness belonged to the category of art theory. When used as a form of material beauty, blandness mainly refers to the beauty of mountains and forests like “clear rivers and light clouds.” But blandness refers more to the aesthetic notion of the ideal personality and art. The essence of blandness as a form of personality beauty has three parts. First is detachment from worldly affairs with a transcendent and leisurely demeanor. Commonly used words for such spirit include mystery, simplicity, calmness, leisure, elegance, clarity, refinement, and plainness. Second is possession of a light mood. Since everything in the mortal world is not particularly important, one should not be too invested or emotional about anything. This is a kind of indifferent beauty that comes after experiencing the mysteries of life and the universe. As the saying goes, “One should remain calm and self-possessed even as the Five Sacred Mountains collapse.” It is admirable to be able to handle emotional turbulence. Third is demonstration of simplicity and unadornment. Those with the elegance of blandness generally speak simply and do not go out of their way to interfere in the affairs of others, but they can quietly bring changes. As an element of artistic beauty, the connotation of blandness in the beauty of reality naturally remains and is reflected in the plain artistic realm, as seen in the mentioned poetic style. Another example of blandness in emotional expression is: “Laments for the deceased must be written with extreme sadness… when written with a light brush, the grief is even stronger” (Shi Buhua, Thoughts on Poetry). It is noteworthy that,

113 Shi Buhua. Xianyong’s Views on Poetry.

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after the Song dynasty, the blandness in art was no longer emphasized as a transcendence of worldly thoughts (recluse); the focus shifted to the content (subtle and profound) and the form (simple and beautiful, and refined but pure). Thus, blandness as a kind of artistic realm became well established.

Softness as Beauty: The Taoist Life Philosophy on Retreat as Advance Softness [柔 rou, gentle, tender] is a concept that is the opposite of strength [刚 gang, hardness] and refers to the soft property of things. As The Book of Changes says, “Push and pull between the hard and the soft leads to variation and transformation” [系辞 Xici]. The meaning of softness extends from weakness and smallness to tenderness and delicacy. For instance, the word “tender mulberry trees” [rou sang] was mentioned in “July” [qiyue], a folksong in The Book of Songs. Zheng Xuan explained that “soft mulberry” refers to young, tender mulberry trees. From weakness, the meaning of “softness” extended to gentleness and mildness. An example of this is The Book of Rites ’ suggestion of “using a soft voice to admonish.” Softness was originally an adjective used to describe a specific state of things, but in ancient China, it was used in conjunction with the word mei [beauty] as an aesthetic term that surpassed even the beauty of strength. As the saying goes, “the iron, when refined repeatedly, turns into fingerdrawing softness.”114 Taoists advise people to avoid extreme aggression and instead, aim for softness and harmony. In artistic creations, simplicity, softness, and naturalness are considered superior to the extraordinary and bizarre. This idea of softness and weakness as the ultimate form of beauty is primarily derived from Laozi’s work. The Beauty of “Softness,” “Weakness,” “Femininity,” and “Smallness” Laozi first introduced “softness” as an aesthetic category in Tao Te Ching . In chapter 36, he said, “The soft overcomes the hard, and the weak the strong.” He added, “The softest thing in the world dashes against and overcomes the hardest.” Laozi came to this conclusion by observing the

114 Liu Kun. “Another Poem Dedicated to Lu Zhan” [重赠卢谌 Chongzeng Lu Zhan].

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transformations of strength and weakness in reality. Water is a prominent example of how “softness vanquishes the strong.” It is also said in chapter 4 that “the highest virtue is like that of water, which flows in the lowly places. Therefore, the sage puts himself last and becomes first.” Moreover, chapter 78 says, “There is nothing softer or weaker in the world than water, yet nothing can resist it.” In chapter 76, it is seen how softness, in Laozi’s understanding, is the trait of vitality: Man at his birth is supple and weak, and at his death, firm and strong. [As it is with] all things, trees and plants, in their early growth, are soft and brittle, and at their death, dry and withered. Thus, it is that firmness and strength are the concomitants of death, and softness and weakness, the concomitants of life.

The soft and supple are not just full of life but also full of wisdom. As Laozi noted in the same chapter, “the army that relies on strength is doomed to fail, and the trees that are strong attract the fellers.” Therefore, Laozi stated, “the way of softness is the way of Tao,” and “the way to move forward is to retreat.” Softness and weakness are characteristics of the Tao. Since “weakness and softness overcome strength,” Laozi warned, “hold on to softness as your strength.”115 Furthermore, “If you want to weaken something, you must first strengthen it…. Focus solely on being soft and gentle, like a newborn child.”116 Laozi also believed that femininity overcomes masculinity and smallness overcomes bigness. He asserted, “Who knows his manhood’s strength, yet still his female feebleness maintains; as to one channel flow the many drains, all under Heaven come to him. Thus he the constant excellence retains; the simple child again, free from all stains.”117 He further explained: [The Tao] cloths all things as with a garment, and makes no assumption of being their lord; – it may be named in the smallest things. All things

115 Chapter 52, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 116 Chapter 10, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 117 Chapter 28, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023.

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return [to their root and disappear], and do not know that it is that which presides over their doing so; – it may be named in the greatest things.118

Therefore, conquering the hard with the soft, overcoming strength with weakness, seeing greatness in smallness, and retreating in order to advance are all Taoist teachings towards attaining the ideal life. The Beauty of “Lower,” “Base,” and “Foolishness” Laozi expressed admiration for the virtue of the “lower” [下 xia], the “base” [贱 jian], and the “foolish” [愚 yu] by advocating the practice of “being lower” [处下 chuxia], “embracing the base” [守贱 shoujian], and “being foolish” [若愚 ruoyu]. “Lower” means being humble, “base” refers to being willing to serve others, and “being foolish” means being simple-minded. Laozi provided an example of “being lower” in chapter 66 of the Tao Te Ching: “That whereby the rivers and seas are able to receive the homage and tribute of all the valley streams, is their skill in being lower than them.” In other words, the way to achieve greatness is through humbleness. Therefore, Laozi asserted that rulers must understand the importance of “being lower” in the governance of a state: “What makes a great state is its being (like) a low-lying, down-flowing (stream); – it becomes the center to which tend (all the small states) under Heaven.”119 If a great country humbles itself to a small country, the small country will be willing to follow the great country. If a small country humbles itself to a great country, it will be accepted by the great country. Therefore, it is said that “the great should seek a lower position” and “to have a great foundation, start with something lower.” Furthermore: A sage who wants to govern the people must speak to their level. A sage who wants to lead the people must follow them. In this way, the people

118 Chapter 34, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 119 Chapter 61, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023.

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will not feel burdened when the sage is in power or harmed when the sage is in front.120

Basically, to lead the people well, one must lead from below: “To give life but not possess, to act but not expect, to grow but not dominate – this is the virtue of the Tao.”121 “Being lower” is not just a technique for governance but also a principle for being a good person. Laozi said, “A good warrior is not irritable; a good fighter does not easily lose his/her temper; a good winner does not compete.”122 Wang Bi added that “not competing” means “not fighting with others.” In explaining the concept of “embracing the base,” Laozi said, “A sage wears coarse clothing but carries jade within.” He further explained, “The base is foundational to the valuable…. It is why the ancient lords and kings refer to themselves as ‘the solitary’ [孤 gu]’, ‘the widowed’ [寡 gua], and ‘the barren’ [不谷 bugu]? Isn’t that valuing the base?”. “Wearing coarse clothing” means behaving modestly, and these selfdebasing words indicate selflessness. Laozi implied that even a sage who possesses talent and virtue must not be arrogant and that those who reach high positions should remain humble. These are examples of “embracing the base.” “Foolishness” originally had a negative connotation, meaning stupidity or ineptness. Zhengyun [正韵 The Standard Pronunciations] dictionary lists various synonyms for the word: “ignorance, unenlightened, confused, dim-witted, and dull” But the concept gained a positive connotation when Laozi wrote: “Great wisdom appears foolish while great skill appears clumsy”; “Ordinary men look bright and intelligent, while I alone seem to be benighted”; “Everyone else has more than enough, but I alone seem to be lacking. I have the heart of a foolish person.”123 He went further: “The bright way seems dim; the way forward seems backward”; “In ancient times, those who were good at the Tao did not try to enlighten 120 Chapter 66, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 121 Chapters 10 and 51 in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 122 Chapter 68, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 123 Chapter 20, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023.

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the people, but rather allowed them to be ignorant.” As a result, “foolishness,” “clumsiness,” “confusion,” and “un-enlightenment” gained a positive connotation. Contrary to others, Laozi’s philosophy upholds “being foolish” as the ideal. Sima Qian said in the biography of Laozi that “a true gentleman’s virtue is so great that his appearance resembles that of a foolish person.”124 Similarly, Qing dynasty philosopher Zheng Banqiao’s popular phrase “rare it is to be foolish” is in line with Laozi’s intention. The Art of Retreat In promoting the qualities of softness, weakness, smallness, lowness, baseness, foolishness, clumsiness, and femininity, Laozi advocated a philosophy of retreat. That is: he was afraid of being ahead [恐先 kongxian]. Laozi once wrote in Tao Te Ching that he has “three treasures,” the third of which is not trying to be ahead of the world.” Later on, a scholar named Li Kang (active in the Wei and Jin dynasties) put it this way: “The taller the tree stands, the harder it falls; the higher the mound, the swifter the stream; the more prominent a person, the more criticism he/ she attracts.”125 Like Laozi, Li Kang lived in a time of tumultuous war, and that may be the reason why they both advocated the philosophy of not being ahead. Laozi taught people the dialectical method of “before” and “after”: “The sage puts himself last and so becomes first. He stays behind and so he remains ahead.”126 It is through “not standing out” that one may ultimately become the most prominent. This is a strategy for winning in life. Similarly, Laozi advocated not contending with the world. Just as putting oneself last can ultimately lead to being ahead, not contending with the world can ultimately make one unbeatable. Laozi said: Because he (the sage) does not contend, nothing can beat him…. The highest virtue is like that of water. The excellence of water is in how it

124 Sima Quian. “The Story of Laozi and Zhuangzi” in Records of the Grand Historian 125 Li Kang. “On Fortune and Destiny” [运命论 Yun MingLun]. 126 Chapter 7, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023.

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benefits all things, and in its occupying, without striving (to the contrary), the low place which all men dislike.127

In order to attain the ideal society, Laozi asserted that “not valuing and employing men of superior ability is the way to keep people from engaging in rivalry among themselves.”128 Once this goal is achieved, step back, for that is the virtue of Heaven. As for the individual, Laozi had this to say: “He who does not boast has merit; he who does not selfpromote is recognized; he who does not brag will endure; he who does not show off will remain chief.”129 In summary, Laozi put “softness” at the core of his philosophy, which he integrated with the beauty of retreating qualities. He opposed voracious competition and arrogant self-importance because he considered both as the root of war and conflict. He formulated a life philosophy that promoted the potential for advancement found in retreat and the power of softness, which had a profound impact on how later generations of Chinese intellectuals viewed life.

Nature as Beauty: The Unconsciousness of Taoist Aesthetic In Taoist aesthetics, nature [自然 ziran] is a category of beauty that is linked to but not entirely synonymous with the concept of subtlety. Like subtlety, ziran is primarily an adjective rather than a noun, with its main connotation being “self-so-” and spontaneous. Central to seeing nature as beauty is the unconsciousness of beauty. Laozi and Zhuangzi on the Beauty of Nature The aesthetic category of nature comes from Laozi’s work. In Tao Te Ching , he wrote, “Man takes his law from the Earth; the Earth takes its law from Heaven; Heaven takes its law from the Dao. The law of the Dao 127 Chapter 8, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 128 Chapter 3, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 129 Chapter 22, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023.

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is in its being what it is” [道法自然 dao fa ziran].130 He further explained, “This honoring of the Dao and exalting of its operation is not the result of any ordination, but is always a spontaneous tribute.”131 Ziran is a major part of the process of how the Dao generates all things. While the Dao never intentionally creates anything, everything in the universe arises from it, which is why it is said that the Dao acts without acting. Those who embody the Dao should act in accordance with the principles of nature and non-action [wu-wei]. Laozi said: “Abstaining from speech marks him who is obeying the spontaneity of his nature.”132 Laozi believed that it is better for one’s general wellbeing to talk less and to not overthink. Moreover, he asserted that the art or governance lies in naturalness: “When success is achieved and the people say, ‘this is natural,’ that is the ultimate achievement.”133 Success comes from non-action or letting things happen naturally, rather than by interference: Therefore a sage has said, “I will do nothing (of purpose), and the people will be transformed by themselves; I will be fond of keeping still, and the people will become correct by themselves. I will take no trouble about it, and the people will become rich by themselves; I will manifest no ambition, and the people will aspire to primitive simplicity by themselves.”134

This is in accordance with natural order without interference. In contrast, when people try to interfere or forcefully act in the natural world, the world becomes difficult to govern, and this leads to chaos: “The more laws and orders are made prominent, the more thieves and robbers there will be.”135 Losing touch with nature and deliberately acting for a purpose will only create chaos and go against the principle of beauty. 130 Chapter 25, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 131 Chapter 51, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 132 Chapter 23, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 133 Chapter 51, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 134 Chapter 57, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023. 135 Chapter 57, in Tao Te Ching. See the translation by James Legge in Chinese Text Project https://ctext.org/analects Accessed 6 May 2023.

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Zhuangzi further expounded on the natural unconsciousness of human nature and its beauty. During the pre-Qin period, the prevalent view of human nature was that humans were intellectual and rational animals with willpower. But Zhuangzi’s perspective differed significantly from this. He believed that humans were born from the Dao and possessed the natural qualities of non-desire, not-knowing, unconsciousness, and unfeelingness as a result. In Chapter 2 of Outer Chapters entitled “The Horse’s Hoofprint,” Zhuangzi pointed out that in the primitive age of perfect virtue, human beings lived harmoniously together with animals because they remained unenlightened: Equally without knowledge, they did not leave (the path of) their natural virtue; equally free from desires, they were in the state of pure simplicity. In that state of pure simplicity, the nature of the people was what it ought to be.136

According to him, human beings are physical organisms by nature, lacking any thoughts, emotions, or desires. It is due to influences from society that the human heart became tainted with intelligence, emotions, and desires. Thus the ideal character could be achieved by training oneself to “discard thoughts and release spirits,” “cultivate the heart and repair nature,” and to return to the original state of “not-knowing and nondesire.” But once people have cleared their minds and become unconscious, how will they govern their actions? Zhuangzi’s answer is to follow the natural order: “moving with the flow of heaven,” “seeking refuge in time,” and “conforming to the inevitability of what cannot be altered.”137 In doing so, “one can act without doing, and all things will be transformed.”138 Based on the idea of attaining natural beauty and unconsciousness through non-intentional efforts, Zhuangzi believed that natural sounds were more beautiful than human-made sounds, and that simplicity and naturalness were the ultimate standard of beauty: “In their

136 Section 2, Chapter 2 “Horses’ Hoofs [Mati],” Outer Chapters, in Zhuangzi. 137 Section 2, Chapter 4 “Man in the World, Associated with Other Men (Renjian

shi),” Inner Chapters in Zhuangzi. 138 Section 1, Chapter 5 “Heaven and Earth [Tiandi],” Outer Chapters in Zhuangzi.

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(the sages) plain simplicity, no one in the world can strive with them for the palm of excellence.”139 Negation of Natural Beauty in the Han Dynasty The Taoist idea of natural beauty was only favored by a minority of people in the pre-Qin era because it did not reflect the reality of human nature, which is filled with desires, emotions, and intelligence. Being unpractical, it had limited influence at the time. However, having witnessed the chaos brought about by the extravagance and excessive desires of the ruling class of the Qin dynasty, the statesmen and intellectuals in early years of the Han dynasty deeply understood the significance of a calm and self-restrained mind. Thus, the Taoist naturalistic ideal of “non-action” and non-interference became widely accepted. Huainanzi refers to “tranquility and contentment” as human nature, and “serenity and plainness” as the method of nurturing one’s character.140 It demands that people comply with such natural state, stay calm, and not interfere with things or with each other. In fact, tranquility and contentment are more of an ideal state rather than the natural state of human existence. Beautiful though it is, such tranquil state of society was soon destabilized as society recovered from the war-torn ruins and the desire of the human mind grew. An appreciation of natural beauty was soon replaced by the pursuit of luxury, indulgence, and ostentation prevalent during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han. This can be seen in the development of urbanization, architecture, gardens, and hunting during this period. Ban Gu described the extravagant city life in “Ode to the Western Capital” [西都赋 Xidu Fu]: Surrounding the golden city are ten-thousand-meter wide walls, the Zhou pond has turned into a vast abyss, three wide roads stretch like ribbons, and twelve gates are wide open. The streets and alleys are unimpeded, even reaching a thousand gates. Nine markets are arranged in a circle, and tunnels and passages are built to keep them separate. People cannot look around, and carriages cannot turn around; the overflowing city is surrounded by countless shops, and the red dust mixes with the clouds.

139 Section 1, Chapter 6 “The Way of Heaven [Tiandao],” Outer Chapters in Zhuangzi. 140 “Lessons for the Human World” in Huainanzi [淮南子·人间训].

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Similarly, the extreme indulgence in the emperor’s pleasure hunting are detailed in Sima Xiangru’s “Ode to the Upper Forest” [Shanglin Fu], Zhang Heng’s “Ode to the Eastern Capital” and Yang Xiong’s “Hunting Birds” [羽猎 Yulie]. The pursuit of luxury and extravagance during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han continued to exert its influence during the Wei and Jin periods, even as mysticism rose in popularity. As recorded in Chapter 30 entitled “Condemning Extravagance” in A New New Account of Tales of the World, Wang Fu-jun used malt sugar mixed with dry rice to clean pots and pans, and Sichuan pepper to mud walls; Shi Ji-lun cooked with candles instead of firewood; and Wu Zi fed piglets with human milk and then slaughtered and served them as delicacy. When Shi Chong used the toilet, “there were always ten or more maids waiting around him, all dressed in fancy clothes and ornaments.” Another extreme example was the competition between Shi Chong and Wang Kai, who both tried to outdo each other in extravagance and luxury with their carriages and clothing. Emperor Wu, who was Wang Kai’s nephew, often assisted him in such competitions. Once, Emperor Wu gave Wang Kai a coral tree that was about two feet high. Its branches and twigs were thin and sparse, and it was rare to find such a beautiful tree. When Wang Kai showed the tree to Shi Chong, Shi Chong observed it and then struck it with an iron rod. The tree broke immediately. Wang Kai was shocked and saddened by the damage since he considered the tree to be a rare treasure. He was furious with Shi Chong’s recklessness. Shi Chong said, “Don’t be upset, I’ll get you another one.” He then had his servants bring several coral trees, some as tall as three or four feet, with branches and twigs that were even more magnificent and dazzling than the one Shi Chong had broken. Wang Kai was stunned and speechless. Transcending the Constraints of Social Norms and Following the Natural Way During the Wei and Jin dynasties, Neo-Taoism (Xuanxue, the School of Esoteric/Metaphysics) flourished. Based on the works by Laozi and Zhuangzi, Neo-Taoism underscored natural beauty. Wang Bi (226–249), a known figure of Neo-Taoism, explained the beauty of nature in three statements: “Heaven and Earth follow the natural way without doing

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things, and all things govern themselves”141 ; “The signs of nature can be seen yet cannot be grasped, and its meaning can be perceived yet cannot be captured”142 ; and “Those who follow the law of nature conform to the square when things should be square, and conform to roundness when things should be round.”143 Because “all things have nature as their essence, they can be influenced but not manipulated and understood but not grasped…. The wise are those who distill the essence of nature, harmonize with the feelings of all things, and follow without imposing.”144 In summary, being natural is an innate characteristic of the Dao, and those who follow the Dao should conform to the nature of things, and accomplish tasks without intervention or manipulation. They should go back to nature rather than going against it. Based on this, Wang Bi criticized the Confucian doctrines of righteousness, propriety, and ritual. Ruan Ji and Ji Kang developed Wang Bi’s understanding of natural beauty. Ruan Ji wrote that “the Dao transforms according to the law of nature”145 and that “nature gave birth to Heaven and Earth, which gave birth to all things.”146 He also said that “when blessings are bestowed, the whole world submits. This is why the world follows nature and promotes the growth of all beings.”147 In his work “The Legend of Mr. Great Person [Daren Xiansheng Zhuan],” he promoted Taoist thought and criticized the hypocrisy in Confucian teachings and rituals during the time of Si’ma Zhao, “Those who do not understand nature are unworthy to speak of the Dao.” Ji Kang suggested that one should “transcend the constraints of social norms and follow the natural way.”148 He asserted: Those who are called noble individuals are those whose hearts are not disturbed by the judgments of right and wrong, and whose actions do

141 Wang Bi. Chapter 5 in Annotations to Laozi’s Tao Te Ching. 142 Wang Bi. Chapter 17 in Annotations to Laozi’s Tao Te Ching. 143 Wang Bi. Chapter 25 in Annotations to Laozi’s Tao Te Ching. 144 Wang Bi. Chapter 29 in Annotations to Laozi’s Tao Te Ching. 145 Ruan Ji. “On Laozi’s Thought/Tong Lao Lun”. 146 Ruan Ji. “On Zhuangzi’s Thought/Da Zhuang Lun”. 147 Ruan Ji. “On I’ching/Tong Yi Lun”. 148 Ji Kang. “Discussing Selfishness” [释私论 Shi Si Lun].

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not go against the Dao.... If one acts according to nature, there will be no deviation from the Dao. By embracing unity without disturbance, there will be neither right nor wrong. Thus, one acts according to the conditions of utmost beauty.149

In nature, Ji Kang saw the unity between right and wrong and ultimate beauty. In this unity, one has “no pre-conditioned judgment nor heart’s desire,”150 which surpasses personal preferences and capricious feelings. Thus, “love and hate do not dwell in his heart, and sorrow and joy do not linger in his thoughts; he is serene and unaffected, and his vital energy is in a state of harmony.”151 However, in Ji Kang’s conception, the Taoist theory of nature and the innate human desires have always been in conflict. On the one hand, he presented the ideal Taoist beauty of having “no pre-conditioned judgment nor heart’s desire,” which aimed to rectify the tendency of excessiveness that prevailed since the reign of Emperor Wu of Han. On the other hand, he also had to acknowledge the reality that desires are inherent in human nature and fulfilling those desires is natural: “It is natural for people to seek security and avoid danger, to seek comfort and avoid labor.”152 This presents a view of nature that is slightly different from that of Laozi and Zhuangzi. Based on these different ideas, it appears that the aesthetics of nature follows two distinct paths: one is the orthodox direction of Neo-Taoism, which, based on the Taoist view of human nature, leads towards a state of natural detachment and inaction. The other one is the new variation within Neo-Taoism that acknowledges the naturalness of human desires and emotions, which leads towards a state of indulgence and unrestrained behavior. The Wei and Jin periods witnessed both the pursuit of an abstinent nature and that of an indulgent nature. These different pursuits of “natural” beauty coexisted in the cultural milieu of the Wei and Jin periods. However, it should be noted that the latter deviated significantly from the original intention of natural beauty in the philosophies of Laozi and Zhuangzi. 149 Ji Kang. “Discussing Selfishness” [释私论 Shi Si Lun]. 150 Ji Kang. “Discussing Selfishness” [释私论 Shi Si Lun]. 151 Ji Kang. “On Regimen” in Yang Sheng Lun. 152 Ji Kang. “Disputing Zhang Liaoshu’s ‘On Spontaneity of Studiousness’” [难张辽 叔