The Spirit of Islam or The Life and Teachings of Mohammad 9781463208059

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FAC-SIMILE O r A L E T T E R F î t f m H I S LATE M A J E S T Y ,

Nâsir ud-din Shah.

THE SPIRIT OF ISLAM. OR

THE L I F E

AM) TEACHINGS OF

AMEER

ALI,

SYED,

MOHAMMED

M. A., (. L K.

l!AKKrSTKR-AT-r,.\\V, •H'lMiE

OP

HIS

MAJESTY'S

RICH

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.lUOICATURIi

IN

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AI.'nioR OF .1 SltOi-l

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Exanusatio]*

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KASIDAT-UL-BURDA.

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SUAD.

H E ninth year of the H e g i r a was noted for the e m b a s s i e s flocked

into

9 A. H. 20th April 630 to 9th April 631 A.C.

Medina

Isllm.

to render

homage

to

the

which

Prophet

T h e cloud which so l o n g had rested

of over

this land,

with its wild chivalry, its blood-feuds, . , , \ , and its heathenism, is now lifted for ever. The a g e of b a r b a r i s m is past.

T h e conquest of M e c c a decided the fate of idolatry in

Arabia.

T h e people who still regarded with veneration those beautiful m o o n goddesses, Manat,

Lit,

and

Uzzi,

and

their

painfully awakened by the fall of its stronghold. denizens of the

desert the

M e c c a n s was great.

moral

effect

peculiar cult,

were

A m o n g the wild

of the submission of the

Deputations began to arrive from

all sides

tender the allegiance and a d h e r e n c e of tribes hitherto m o s t

to

inimical

THE YEAR OK DEPUTATIONS.

Moslems.1

to the

The

principal

95

c o m p a n i o n s of the P r o p h e t , a n d

the l e a d i n g citizens of M e d i n a , at his request, received these in their

houses, a n d

entertained

hospitality of the Arabs. ample

sum

for the

On

them

with

departure,

they

expenses

of the

road,

the

always with

envoys

time-honoured received

some

presents, c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t h e i r rank. A written treaty,

an

additional

guaranteeing

the privileges of the tribe, was often g r a n t e d , a n d a teacher invariably accompanied people

the

in the

departing guests

duties

of I s l a m ,

to instruct the newly-converted

and

to see

that every r e m n a n t of

idolatry was obliterated f r o m their midst. W h i l s t thus e n g a g e d in c o n s o l i d a t i n g the tribes the new

gospel,

the

great

Seer

of Arabia

was alive to the

under

d a n g e r s which

t h r e a t e n e d the new c o n f e d e r a t i o n f r o m outside. T h e Byzantines s e e m a b o u t this time to have dreams

of Arabian

f o u n d e r of the country.

2

conquests

Roman

Heraclius

empire

had

to d e s p a t c h

returned

victories over the Persians.

indulged

in

those

which h a d , o n c e b e f o r e , i n d u c e d the expeditions

into that

to his d o m i n i o n s elated by his

H i s political vision c o u l d not have

been

blind to the strange events which were taking place in Arabia, a n d he h a d p r o b a b l y not f o r g o t t e n the repulse of his lieutenants, at the head of a large army, by a h a n d f u l of Arabs. D u r i n g his stay in Syria h e had directed

his f e u d a t o r i e s to collect an

invasion

of

Arabia.

The

b r o u g h t to M e d i n a , a n d Moslems.

If the

the Islam

commonwealth.

quarters

report

news

of

caused

overwhelming

some

was true

was

consternation

it m e a n t

Volunteers

to repel the t h r e a t e n e d

f o r c e for t h e

these p r e p a r a t i o n s a serious

were s u m m o n e d

attack.

Unfortunately,

d r o u g h t had lately afflicted H i j a z a n d N a j d ; the date c r o p s r u i n e d , a n d the beasts of b u r d e n h a d

died

in large

homes.

of the year s e e m e d u n s e a s o n a b l e ; whilst the the h a r d s h i p s of the j o u r n e y

and

the

To

danger to f r o m all a

severe

h a d been

at this j u n c -

s o m e , the

intensity

marvellous

the

numbers ; and

t h e c o u n t r y p e o p l e at large were unwilling to e n g a g e ture on a n expedition far f r o m their

soon

among

of the

stories

time heat,

regarding

the p o w e r of the Byzantine e m p i r e a d d e d largely to the f e a r s of the timorous.

Many

Prophet acceded

applied to be e x e m p t e d

from service; and

to the p r a y e r s of those w h o were either too weak

1 lbn-HisMm, p. 934 et seq. ; Ibn ul-Athir, vol. ii. p. 219. 2 I allude to the expedition of ./Elius Gallus under Augustus. SI-F

the

96

THE L I F E OF MOHAMMED.

or too poor to take up arms or leave their homes, and such others as had no one besides themselves to look after their families.' T h e unwillingness of the lukewarm was aggravated by the machinations of the Munafikin, who spared no endeavours to fan it into discontent. 2 The example, however, of the principal disciples and other sincere followers of the Faith, infused vitality into the hearts of the timorous, and shamed the backsliders into enthusiasm which soon spread among the people. Contributions poured in from all sides. Abu Bakr offered all he possessed towards the expenses of the expedition ; Osman equipped and supplied at his own expense a large body of volunteers, and the other prominent and affluent Moslems were equally generous. T h e women brought their ornaments and jewelleries and besought the Prophet to accept the same for the needs of the State. A sufficient force was eventually collected, 3 and accompanied by the Prophet the volunteers marched towards the frontier. During his absence from Medina the Prophet left Ali in charge of the city. T h e Mun&fikin, with Abdullah ibn-Ubbay, had proceeded with the army as far as "the Mount of Farewell,'' 4 but they quietly fell back from there and returned to the city. Here they spread the report that the Prophet had not taken his cousin with him as he was apprehensive of the dangers of the expedition. Stung by the malicious rumour, Ali seized his arms and hastened after the army. Overtaking the troops, he told the Prophet what he had heard. Mohammed pronounced it to be a base calumny. " I have appointed thee my Vicegerent {Khalifa) and left thee in my stead. Return then to thy post, and be my deputy over my people and thine. O Ali, art thou not content that thou art to me what Aaron was to Moses." 5 Ali accordingly returned to Medina 1 These were called the al-Bakaun, the Weepers, as they were distressed by their inability to join in the sacred enterprise of repelling a dangerous enemy—Ibn Hisham p. 791. 2 The machinations of the Disaffected are censured in Sura ix, v. 82. These secret conspirators had for their rendezvous the house of a Jew named Suwailim near the suburb of Jasfim. This house was ultimately rased to the ground. It was at this time that the great Teacher made the prophecy that there will always be Munafikin in Islam to thwart the endeavours of the true followers of the Faith to do good their people. 3 It was called the Jaish-ul-usra, " the army of distress," owing to the difficulties with which it was collected.

4 Siniat-vl- Wadaa with a ¿5, Mujam ul-Bulddn vol. I p. 937. •> J&3

THE

YEAR O F

DEPUTATIONS.

T h e sufferings of the t r o o p s f r o m heat a n d After a l o n g a n d situated

midway

halted.

H e r e they

painful march between

Medina

97 thirst were

they r e a c h e d and

Tabuk,

a

place

Damascus,1 where

they

learnt to their a m a z e m e n t , a n d p e r h a p s to their

relief, that the a p p r e h e n d e d

attack was a G r e c i a n d r e a m , a n d that

the e m p e r o r had his h a n d s full at h o m e .

Finding, therefore, nothing

at the m o m e n t to t h r e a t e n the safety of the M e d i n i t e the P r o p h e t

intense.

ordered

commonwealth,

the M o s l e m s to retrace their steps. 2

s o j o u r n of twenty days at T a b u k , where

they f o u n d

After a

abundance

water for t h e m s e l v e s a n d forage for their f a m i s h e d beasts of

of

burden,

the M o s l e m s r e t u r n e d to M e d i n a in the m o n t h of R a m a z a n . 5 T h e P r o p h e t ' s return to M e d i n a was signalised by the arrival of a d e p u t a t i o n f r o m the r e f r a c t o r y a n d h a r d - h e a r t e d idolaters of T a y e f , the very p e o p l e who h a d driven the p o o r P r e a c h e r f r o m their with

insults a n d violence.

Orwa, the Tayefite chief, w h o h a d b e e n

to M e c c a after the H u d a i b a incident as the K o r a i s h i t e envoy, impressed

midst

with the w o r d s

of

the

Teacher

was so

a n d his k i n d n e s s , t h a t

shortly a f t e r the a c c o m p l i s h m e n t of his mission he h a d c o m e to Prophet

a n d e m b r a c e d his religion.

M o h a m m e d of the d a n g e r s he ran a m o n g the b i g o t e d of his city, hastened

back

to T a y e f

Faith.

he

to p r o c l a i m his a b j u r a t i o n of idolatry, a n d

to invite his fellow-citizens to share in the blessings i m p a r t e d by new

the

T h o u g h repeatedly w a r n e d b y

the

Arriving in the evening, he m a d e p u b l i c his c o n v e r s i o n

a n d called u p o n the p e o p l e to join him.

T h e following m o r n i n g

he

again a d d r e s s e d t h e m ; but his w o r d s r o u s e d the priests a n d w o r s h i p pers of U z z a into frenzy, a n d With

they

literally

stoned

him

to

death.

his d y i n g b r e a t h h e said h e h a d offered u p his b l o o d u n t o his

£iU| j ^ U i

^¿J^A»

bn-Hisham

#

j o J y U ».¿iftU. o)»^

ejyj

j t^jiS" ^ U

Ij ^ « ¿ y H*f

p. 897. A c c o r d i n g to t h e S h i a h s , t h e P r o p h e t d i s t i n c t l y i n d i c a t e d in t h e s e t h a t Ali s h o u l d bo his successor.

words

l Caussin d e P e r c e v a l , vol. iii. p p . 285, 286. I b n - H i s h a n i , p. 904 ; l b n u l - A t h i r , vol. ii. p. 215 ; A b u l f e d a , p. 85. 8 A c c o r d i n g to C. d e P e r c e v a l , m i d d l e of D e c e m b e r 630 A . C. C h a p t e r iv. of t h e K o r a n t r e a t s v i v i d l y of t h e s e e v e n t s . A t T a b u k M o h a m m e d received t h e submission of m a n y of t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g chiefs ; l b n u l - A t h i r , vol. ii. p. 215.

13

98

THE LIFE OF MOHAMMED.

Master for the good of his people, and he thanked God for the honour of martyrdom, and as a last wish prayed his friends to bury him by the side of the Moslems who had fallen at Hunain. 1 T h e dying words of Orwa had a greater effect upon his compatriots than all his endeavours whilst living. T h e martyr's blood blossomed into faith in the hearts of his murderers. Seized with sudden compunction, perhaps also wearying of their hostility with the tribes of the desert, the Ta/efites sent the deputation to which we have referred above, to pray for forgiveness and permission to enter the circle of Islam. They begged, however, for a short respite for their idols. First they asked two years, then one year, and then six months, but all to no purpose. The grace of one month might surely be conceded, they urged as a last appeal. Mohammed was immovable. Islam and the idols could not exist together. They then begged for exemption from the daily prayers. Mohammed replied that without devotion religion could be nothing. 2 Sorrowfully, at last, they submitted to all that was required of them. They were excused, however, from destroying the idols with their own hands, and the notorious Abu Sufian, the son of Harb, the father of the well-known Muawiyath, the Judas Iscariot of Islam, one of those who have been stigmatised as the Muala/at ul-Kulub (the nominal believers)—for they had adopted the Faith from policy,—and Mughira, the nephew of Orwa, were selected for that work. They executed their commission amidst uproarious cries of despair and grief from the women of Tayef. 8 The tribe of Tay had about this lime proved recalcitrant, and their disaffection was fostered by the idolatrous priesthood. A small force was despatched under Ali to reduce them to obedience and to destroy their idols. Aadi, the son of the famous Hatim, whose generosity and munificence have been sung by poets and minstrels throughout the Eastern world, was the chief of his tribe. On the approach of

1 Ibn-Hisham, pp. 914, 915 ; Ibn ul-Athir, vol. ii. p. 216. 2 Ibn ul-Athir, vol. ii. p. 217. 3 Ibn-Hisham, pp. 917, 918 ; Tibri vol. iii. pp. 161—163. The great number of deputations received by Mohammed in the ninth year has led to its being called the " Y e a r of D e p u t a t i o n s ; " (vmfnd, pi. of wafad). The principal adhesions which followed immediately upon the conversion of the Thakif were of the Himyarite princes of Yemen, of Mahra, of Oman, of the country of the Bahrain, and of the tribes domiciled in Yemama.

THE YEAR OF

DEPUTATIONS.

99

Ali he fled to Syria; but his sister, with some of his principal clansmen, fell into the hands of the Moslems. They were conducted, with every mark of respect and sympathy, to Medina. Mohammed at once set the daughter of Hatim and her people at liberty, and bestowed o,n them many valuable gifts. She proceeded to Syria, and told her brother of the nobleness of Mohammed. Touched by gratitude, Aadi hastened to Medina to throw himself at the feet of the Prophet, and eventually embraced Islam. Returning to his people, he persuaded them to abjure idolatry; and the Banu-Tay, once so wedded to fetishism, became thenceforth devoted followers of the religion of Mohammed. 1 Another notable conversion which took place about the same time as that of the Bani-Tay is deserving of more than passing notice. Kaab ibn-Zuhair, a distinguished poet of the tribe of Mozayna, had placed himself under the ban by trying to incite hostilities against the Moslems. His brother was a Moslem and had counselled him strongly to renounce idolatry and embrace Islam. Kaab, following the advice of his brother, came secretly to Medina, and proceeded to the mosque where Mohammed was wont to preach. There he saw a man surrounded by Arabs listening to his words with the greatest veneration. H e at once recognised the Prophet, and penetrating into the circle, said aloud, " Apostle of God, if I should bring before thee Kaab as a Mussalmln, would you pardon him ? " " Yes," answered Mohammed. " It is I who am Kaab, the son of Zuhair." Several people around the 1 Ibn-Hisham, pp. 948, 949 ; Ibn ul-Athir, vol. ii. p. 218 ; Tibri, vol. ii. pp. 171-174. The conversion of Aadi occurred in Rabi II. of the ninth year (July-August, 630 A. C.), and accordingly, ought to have been placed before the expedition to Tabiik. But I have followed the order of the Arab historians. When the daughter of Hatim, whose name was Sufdna, came before the Prophet, she addressed him in the following words : "Apostle of God, my father is dead ; my brother, my only relation, fled into the mountains on the approach of the Moslems. I cannot ransom myself ; it is thy generosity which I implore for my deliverance. My father was an illustrious man, the prince of his tribe, a man who ransomed prisoners, protected the honour of women, nourished the poor, consoled the afflicted, never rejected any demand. I am Sufana, daughter of Hatim." "Thy father," answered Mohammed, "had the virtues of a Mussalm&n ; if it were permitted to me to invoke the mercy of God on any one whose life was passed in idolatry, I would pray to God for mercy for the soul of Hatim." Then addressing the Moslems around him he said : "The daughter of Hatim is free, her father was a generous and humane man ; God loves and rewards the merciful." And with Sufana, all her people were set at liberty. The Persian poet Saadi has some beautiful lines in the liostan concerning this touching episode.

IOO

THE LIFE OF MOHAMMED.

P r o p h e t w a n t e d l e a v e to p u t h i m to d e a t h . " I have given him g r a c e . " Kaslda1

a

(poem)

which

p i e c e of A r a b i c p o e t r y . head

of

this

" N o , " said the P r o p h e t ,

K a a b then b e g g e d permission to has

always

been

considered

a

recite master-

W h e n h e c a m e to the lines'' q u o t e d

chapter,

the

Prophet

bestowed

mantle, w h i c h was afterwards sold by

his

at

the

o n the p o e t his o w n

family

to

Muawiyah

40,000 d i r h e m s , a n d , a f t e r p a s s i n g into the h a n d s of t h e

for

Ommeyades

a n d A b b a s s i d e s , is n o w p r e s e r v e d b y t h e O t t o m a n T u r k s . * H i t h e r t o n o p r o h i b i t i o n had i s s u e d a g a i n s t t h e h e a t h e n s the

Kaaba,

precincts.

It w a s n o w d e c i d e d t o

state,

remove

and

once

for

i d o l a t r y o n t h e p a r t of t h o s e hung

somewhat

lightly.

put

all

proclamation

to

the

an

any

end

to

possibility

upon whom

the

this of

new

anomalous

a r e l a p s e into

and

pure

assembled

was

commissioned

and

the

to

read

a

m u l t i t u d e s , o n the d a y of the g r e a t

S a c r i f i c e , ( Y e A m - u n - N a h r ) , w h i c h s h o u l d s t r i k e straight at idolatry

creed

A c c o r d i n g l y , t o w a r d s t h e e n d of this y e a r ,

d u r i n g t h e m o n t h of p i l g r i m a g e , A l i

of

entering

o r p e r f o r m i n g their o l d i d o l a t r o u s rites within its s a c r e d

immoralities

the

attendant u p o n i t : " N o

heart

idolater

shall, a f t e r this y e a r , p e r f o r m t h e p i l g r i m a g e ; n o o n e shall m a k e t h e circuit

(of

the

temple)

naked

whoever

P r o p h e t , it shall c o n t i n u e b i n d i n g till its

hath

a

treaty

termination ; for

with the

the rest,

1 Called the Kasîda of Bânai Suâd from the opening words of the poem, which begins with the prologue usual in Arabic Kasidas. The poet tells his grief at the departure of Suâd (his beloved) ; she has left him, his heart is drooping, distracted and unhappy, following her train like a captive in chains. He praises her beauty, her sweet soft voice, her bright laughter, her winsome smile. The theme suddenly changes, and the poet reaches the climax when he bursts forth into a song of praise of his great subject. The language throughout is sonorous and virile,—a quality often wanting in the poems of later times, and the rhythmical swing and cadence are maintained, w i t h extraordinary evenness, up to the last. 2 " The Prophet is the torch which has lighted up the world ; he is the sword of God for destroying ungodliness." 8 Called the Khirkai-sharîf (the Holy Mantle) which is taken out as the national standard in times of great emergency. The Kastda of Bdnat Sudd, which is sometimes also called the Kasîdat-ul-Burda (the Kasîda of thé Mantle), is different from the Kamdat-id-Burda of A b u Abdullah Mohammed ibn-Saîd, who flourished in the reign of Malik Zâhir, which opens with the following lines : — -I.

'

f "

"

.

For translation see Appendix. * A l l u d i n g to a disgraceful custom of the idolatrous Arabs.

c

IOI

THE Y E A R OF DEPUTATIONS.

four months are allowed to every after

that

there will exist no

man

to return to his territories;

obligation

on

the Prophet,

except

towards those with w h o m treaties have b e e n c o n c l u d e d . " 1 T h i s " Declaration of writers,

was a

the Prophet.

Discharge,"

manifestation

as

it is

of far-sighted

styled by

Moslem

wisdom on the part of

It was impossible for the state of society and morals

which then existed to continue ; the idolaters mixing year after year with the

Moslem

pilgrims,

if allowed to perform the lascivous and

degrading c e r e m o n i e s of their cultus, would soon have undone M o h a m m e d had so laboriously a c c o m p l i s h e d .

what

History had

already

seen another gifted, yet uncultured, branch of the same stock

as the

Arabs, settling a m o n g s t idolaters ; their leaders had tried to preserve the

wurship

of Baal.

of

J e h o v a h by wholesale butcheries of the worshippers

T h e y had failed miserably.

T h e Israelites

s u c c u m b e d under the evil influences which

had

had even surpassed those whom they at first despised in the of nameless abominations.

Mohammed

felt

with heathenism would nullify all his work.

not

surrounded them, that any

only but

practice

compromise

H e accordingly adopted

means seemingly harsh, but yet benignant in their ultimate

tendency.

T h e vast c o n c o u r s e who had listened to

Ali returned to their h o m e s ,

and before the following year was over

the majority of t h e m

were

Moslems. I l b n - H i s h a m , pp. 921, 9 2 2 ; l b n - u l - A t h i r , vol. ii. p. 2 2 2 ; Abulfeda, p. 87.

CHAPTER IX. T H E F U L F I L M E N T OF MOHAMMED'S MISSION. b

Q

.0**

O'

* '

i i ' Uy

D

URING

this

April.A'&H 9 t o 29th March 032 A C

'

'

' O'"

" Ail

year,

1

'ti O • ,ft*i-1J /

5

^it'U '

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G Cj-» » # 'O' 3S J. » S O * la-l.i' m / / V »• /

as in the preceding, n u m e r o u s embassies

p o u r e d into M e d i n a f r o m every part of Arabia to y t o t ' l e adhesion of their chiefs and their tribes. T o the teachers, w h o m M o h a m m e d sent into the

testif

different provinces, he invariably gave the following

injunctions : " Deal gently with the people, and be not harsh •, cheer them, and c o n t e m n them not.

And ye will meet with m a n y

people

of the books 2 who will question thee, what is the key to heaven ? Reply to them [the key to heaven is] to testify to the truth of G o d , and to do good work." 5 T h e Mission of M o h a m m e d was now achieved.

In the midst of

a nation steeped in barbarism a Prophet had arisen " t o rehearse unto t h e m the signs of G o d to sanctify them, to teach them the scriptures who before had been in utter darkness." 4

and k n o w l e d g e , — t h e m

H e f o u n d t h e m sunk in a d e g r a d i n g and sanguinary superstition ; he inspired t h e m with the belief in o n e sole G o d of truth and love. H e saw them disunited, and engaged o t h e r ; he united t h e m

by the ties of

in perpetual war with each brotherhood

and

charity.

F r o m time immemorial the Peninsula h a d b e e n wrapt in absolute 1 In the tenth year of the Hegira took place the conversions of the remaining tribes of Yemen and of Hij&z. Then followed the conversions of the tribes of Hazramut and Kinda. 2 Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians. * Koran, sura lxii, vera. 2-5.

3 Ibn-Hisham, p. 907.

THE FULFILMENT OF MOHAMMED'S MISSIOM.

103

moral darkness. Spiritual life was utterly unknown. Neither Judaism nor Christianity had made any lasting impression on the Arab mind. T h e people were sunk in superstition, cruelty, and vice. Incest and the diabolical custom of female infanticide were common. T h e eldest son inherited his father's widows, as property, with the rest of the estate. T h e worse than inhuman fathers buried alive their infant daughters; and this crime, which was most rife among the tribes of Koraish and Kinda, was regarded, as among the Hindoo Rajpoots, as a mark of pride. The idea of a future existence, and of retribution of good and evil, were, as motives of human action, practically unknown. Only a few years before, such was the condition of Arabia. What a change had these few years witnessed! T h e angel of heaven had veritably passed over the land, and breathed harmony and love into the hearts of those who had hitherto been engrossed in the most revolting practices of semibarbarism. What had once been a moral desert, where all laws, human and divine, were contemned and infringed without remorse, was now transformed into a garden. Idolatry, with its nameless abominations, was utterly destroyed. Isl&m furnishes the only solitary example of a great religion which though preached among a nation and reigning for the most part among a people not yet emerged from the dawn of an early civilisation, has succeeded in effectually restraining its votaries from idolatry. This phenomenon has been justly acknowledged as the pre-eminent glory of Islam, and the most remarkable evidence of the genius of its Founder. Long had Christianity and Judaism tried to wean the Arab tribes from thier gross superstition, their inhuman practices, and their licentious immorality. But it was not till they heard " the spirit-stirring strains" of the "Appointed of God'' that they became conscious of the God of Truth, overshadowing the universe with His power and love. Henceforth their aims are not of this earth alone ; there is something beyond the grave—higher, purer, and diviner—calling them to the practice of charity, goodness, justice, and universal love. God is not merely the God of to-day or of to-morrow, carved out of wood or stone, but the mighty, loving, merciful Creator of the world. Mohammed was the source, under Providence, of this new awakening,—the bright fountain from which flowed the stream of their hopes of eternity ; and to him they paid a fitting obedience and reverence. They were all SI-F'

THE LIFE OF MOHAMMED.

a n i m a t e d with o n e desire, n a m e l y , to serve G o d in truth to obey

H i s laws

reverently

in all

the affairs

and purity;

of

life.

The

truths a n d m a x i m s , the p r e c e p t s which, f r o m time to t i m e d u r i n g t h e past twenty years,

M o h a m m e d h a d delivered to his followers, were

e m b a l m e d in their hearts, a n d had

b e c o m e the ruling

every action. Law a n d morality were unitedwhen primitive Christianity startled waged a mortal

the world

conflict with h e a t h e n i s m ,

principles

of

" N e v e r , since the days f r o m its sleep,

had

men

seen

and

the like

a r o u s i n g of spiritual life,—the like faith that suffered sacrifices, a n d took joyfully the spoiling of g o o d s for c o n s c i e n c e ' s a k e . " 1 T h e Mission of M o h a m m e d was n o w a c c o m p l i s h e d .

A n d in this

f a c t , — t h e fact of the whole work b e i n g achieved in his lifetime—lies his distinctive superiority over the p r o p h e t s , sages, a n d ot o t h e r t i m e s a n d other c o u n t r i e s . M u n i , Plato, all had their n o t i o n s

philosophers

J e s u s , M o s e s , Z o r o a s t e r , Sakyaof r e a l m s of G o d , their republics,

their ideas, t h r o u g h which d e g r a d e d h u m a n i t y was to be elevated into a new m o r a l life ; all h a d departed f r o m this world with their aspirations unfulfilled, their bright visions u n r e a l i s e d the task

of elevating their fellow-men

monarch

pupils."

or h a d

bequeathed

to s a n g u i n a r y disciples

or

It was reserved for M o h a m m e d to fulfil his mis-

sion, a n d that of his p r e d e c e s s o r s .

It was reserved f o r h i m alone to

see a c c o m p l i s h e d the work of a m e l i o r a t i o n , — n o royal disciple c a m e to his assistance with edicts to e n f o r c e the new teachings.

M a y not

the M o s l e m justly say, the entire work was the work of G o d ? T h e h u m b l e p r e a c h e r , w h o had only the o t h e r day b e e n o u t of the city of his birth, a n d b e e n

stoned out of the place

hunted where

h e h a d b e t a k e n himself to p r e a c h G o d ' s w o r d s , h a d , within the s h o r t space of nine years, lifted u p his p e o p l e of m o r a l a n d spiritual d e g r a d a t i o n

f r o m the a b y s m a l

depths

to a c o n c e p t i o n

of purity

and

of a work n o b l y

a n d faithfully

justice. H i s life is the noblest performed.

record

H e i n f u s e d vitality into a d o r m a n t p e o p l e ; he

dated a c o n g e r i e s of warring tribes into a nation inspired into with the h o p e of everlasting life ; he c o n c e n t r a t e d the f r a g m e n t a r y a n d b r o k e n

lights which

had

consoliaction

into a f o c u s

ever

fallen o n

all the

1 Muir, vol. ii. p. '269. Coming from an avowed enemy of Islam, this observation is of the utmost value. 2 A Joshua among the Israelites ; an Asoka among the Buddhists ; a Darius among the Zoroastrians ; a Constantine among the Christians.

THE

heart of man.

FULFILMENT OF MOHAMMEDS MISSION.

Such

was

his

work,

and

enthusiasm and f e r v o u r which admitted no h a l t i n g ; with

indomitable

10$

h e p e r f o r m e d it with a n

no

compromise,

conceived

c o u r a g e which b r o o k e d n o resistance,

and allowed no f e a r of c o n s e q u e n c e s ; with a s i n g l e n e s s which

thought

of n o

on the shores incarnate among

of

of

of

the

the

those w h o

nation

unity

of G a l i l e e

God;

T h e Recluse a

The

had

old

of

given

place

of

a

to the

female

worship

deity had

p r o f e s s e d the c r e e d of the M a s t e r of Hira,

and

who

the unlettered

the

equality heard

of

men

his

Nazareth. among

ineffaceably

upon

voice.

the

His

tyranny

of

priests and

rulers.

In

that w o r l d

the

minds

of

"democratic

thunder'' was the signal f o r the uprise of the h u m a n intellect the

of an revived

philosopher,—born

idolaters,—impressed

once

purpose

religion of divine unity p r e a c h e d

worship

unyielding

God

nations

self.

of

against

wrangling

creeds a n d oppressive institutions," when the h u m a n soul was c r u s h ed u n d e r the weight of unintelligible d o g m a s , and trampled

the human

body

under the tyranny of vested interests, he b r o k e d o w n the

barriers of caste and e x c l u s i v e p r i v i l e g e s .

H e swept away

with

his

breath the c o b w e b s which self-interest had woven in the path of m a n to

God.

He

Creator.

abolished

This

masses,

all

unlettered

proclaimed

the

exclusiveness Prophet,

in m a n ' s relations to his message

was

for

value of k n o w l e d g e and learning.

P e n , m a n ' s w o r k s are r e c o r d e d . The

whose

B y the P e n , m a n is to b e

the

By the judged.

P e n is the ultimate arbiter of h u m a n actions in the sight of the

Lord.

His

persistent

and

unvarying

appeal

to r e a s o n and to the

ethical faculty of m a n k i n d , his rejection of m i r a c l e s , " h i s t h o r o u g h l y democratic his

c o n c e p t i o n of the divine g o v e r n m e n t , the universality of

religious

ideal, his s i m p l e h u m a n i t y , " — a l l serve to differentiate

him f r o m his Oriental

predecessors,

Religions,

"with

are not wrapt in mystery.

" a l l affiliate h i m , ' ' the m o d e r n

world.''

N o f a i r y tale has b e e n

says

the author of

H i s life and w o r k woven

round

his

personality. When

the

Mohammed

hosts

felt that

of A r a b i a his

work

came

flocking

to

was a c c o m p l i s h e d ,

join 1

his

faith,

and u n d e r the

impression of his a p p r o a c h i n g e n d , h e d e t e r m i n e d to m a k e a f a r e w e l l pilgrimage

to

Mecca.

On

the 25th of Z u ' l - K a a d a ( 2 3 r d F e b r u a r y

1 Koran, sura ex.

14

106

THE

632),

the Prophet

Moslems.1

On

left

his

LIFE OF

Medina

MOHAMMED.

with

an

immense

rites of the p i l g r i m a g e , he addressed the a s s e m b l e d the

top of the Jabl

concourse

of

arrival at M e c c a , and before c o m p l e t i n g all the multitude

from

(8th Z u ' l - H i j j a , 7th March), in words

ul-Arafat

which should ever live in the hearts of all M o s l e m s . " Y e people ! listen to my words, for I k n o w not whether another year

will be vouchsafed to m e after this year to find myself

amongst

y o u at this p l a c e . ' ' lives and property are sacred and inviolable a m o n g s t one

"Your

another until ye appear before the L o r d , as this day and this m o n t h is sacred

for a l l ; and ( r e m e m b e r ) y e shall have to a p p e a r b e f o r e y o u r

Lord, .

who .

have

shall

.

demand

f r o m y o u an account of all your actions.

Y e people, y e have rights over y o u r wives, and y o u r wives

rights

and love.

over y o u .

.

.

.

Treat

your

Verily ye have taken them on the

have made

their

persons

lawful

unto

wives

with

security

kindness

of G o d ,

y o u by the words of

" K e e p always faithful to the trust reposed in

you,

and

and

God."

avoid

sins."

" U s u r y is forbidden. 2 T h e debtor shall return only the p r i n c i p a l ; and the beginning will be made with [the loans of ] of m y uncle Abb§,s, son

of

practised

Abd in

ul-Muttalib.3...Henceforth the

days of P a g a n i s m

the

vengeance

of

blood

is prohibited

(Jahilyat)

and

all b l o o d - f e u d abolished, c o m m e n c i n g with the m u r d e r of m y cousin R a b i a 1 son of Harith son of A b d ul-Muttalib "And

your

slaves ! See

eat yourselves, and clothe them with the stuff y e commit

.

.

.

that y e feed t h e m with s u c h f o o d as y e wear ; and

if they

a fault which ye are not inclined to f o r g i v e , then part f r o m

1 Ibn-Hisham, p. 966 ; I b n ul-Athir, vol. ii p. 230. I t is said t h a t from 90,000 to 140,000 people accompanied the P r o p h e t . The pilgrimige is called the Hajjat-ul-Baldgh the Great Hajj, or Hajjat-ul-lsl&m, t h e H a j j of Islam, and sometimes Hajjat-ul- Wadda, Pilgrimage of Farewell. 2 Riba or interest in kind was prohibited, b u t not legitimate profit on advances or loans for purposes of business or trade. No one who realises t h e economic condition of Arabia can fail to appreciate t h e wisdom of this rule. In fact t h e same reasons which impelled the great P r o p h e t to forbid usury in his country, induced the Christian divines, upto nearly t h e end of the 17th century of the Christian era, to anathematise against usury. The elder Disraeli's chapter on this subject in his "Curiosities of L i t e r a t u r e " is most interesting. 3 This shows t h a t Abb&s must have been a capitalist. In the application of t h e rule against Riba, and blood fued, t h e Prophet set t o his fiery people t h e example of self-denial in his own family. •4 Rabia was confided during his infancy, to t h e care of t h e tribe of Bani Lais. This child was cruelly murdered by members of the tribe of Huzail but the murder was not yet avenged.

THE FULFILMENT

OF MOHAMMKü's

MISSION.

107

them, for they are the servants of the Lord, and are not to be harshly treated." " Y e people! listen to my words and understand the same. Know that

all

brotherhood.

Moslems

are brothers

unto one another.

Y e are one

Nothing which belongs to another is lawful unto his

brother, unless freely given out of good-will.

Guard yourselves

from committing injustice.'' " Let him that is present tell it unto him that is absent.

Haply

he that shall be told may remember better than he who hath heard The Sermon on the Mount, less poetically beautiful,

certainly

less mystical, than the other, appeals by its practicality and strong common sense to higher minds, and is also adapted to the

capacity

and demands of inferior natures which require positive and comprehensible directions for moral guidance. Towards the conclusion of the sermo.i, Mohammed, overpowered by the sight of the intense enthusiasm of the people as they drank in his words, exclaimed, " O Lord ! I have delivered my message and accomplished my work." voice cried, " Y e a ,

T h e assembled host below with one

verily thou hast.''

" O Lord, I beseech Thee,

bear Thou witness unto it." With these words the Prophet according

to

the traditions,

eloquence, and enthusiasm.

was

finished

his

remarkable

address,

which,

for its length,

its

Soon after, the necessary rites of the

pilgrimage being finished, the Prophet returned with his followers to Medina. 2 T h e last year of Mohammed's life was spent in that city. 11 A. H. 29th

March 632 to 18th March 633 A.C.

He

settled the organisation of the provinces and tribal communities which had adopted IslSm and

become

the component parts of the Moslem federation.

In

fact, though the Faith had not penetrated among the

1 After each sentence the Prophet stopped and his words were repeated in a stentorian voice by Rabia son of Ommeyya son of Khalaf who stood below, so that whatever was said was heard by the entire assembled host. 2 Abdullah the son of Ubbay, the head of the Munafikin died in the month of Zu'l Kaada (February 631 A. C.). In his last moments he solicited the Prophet to say the funeral prayers over him. Mohammed who never rejected the wishes of a dying man, against the remonstrances of Omar, who reminded him of the persisteut opposition and culumny of Abdullah, offered the prayers and with his own hands lowered the body into the grave.

io8 Arab

THE

races settled

LIFE

OF

MOHAMMED.

in Syria and Mesopotamia, most of whom were

Christians, the whole of Arabia now followed the Islamic

Faith.

Officers were sent to the provinces and to the various tribes for the purpose of teaching the people the duties of Islam, justice,

and collecting the tithes or zakat.

administering

Muaz ibn-Jabal was sent

to Yemen, and Mohammed's parting injunction to him was to rely on his own judgment in the administration of affairs in the event of not finding

any authority in the Koran.

T o Ali, whom he deputed to

Y e m i r a a , he said, " When two parties come before you for

justice,

do not decide before hearing both." Preparations were also commenced

for sending an

expedition

under Os&ma, the son of Zaid, who was killed at Muta, against the Byzantines to exact the long-delayed reparation for the murder of the envoy in Syria.

In fact, the troops were already encamped

the city ready for the start.

outside

But the poison which had been given to

the Prophet by the Jewess at Khaibar, and which had slowly penetrated his system, began now to show its effects, evident that he had not long to live.

and it became

T h e news of his approaching

end led to the stoppage of the expedition under Os&ma.

It had also

the effect of producing disorder in some of the outlying provinces. Three pretenders started up claiming reign of licentiousness and plunder.

divine commission

for their

They gave themselves out as

prophets, and tried by all kinds of imposture to win over their tribes. One of these, the most dangerous of all, was Ayhala ibn-Kaab, better known as al-Aswad (the black).

He was a chief of Yemen,

of great wealth and equal sagacity, and a clever conjuror.

a man Among

his simple tribesmen, the conjuring tricks he performed invested him with a divine character.

He soon succeeded in gaining them over,

and, with their help, reduced to subjection many of the neighbouring towns.

He killed Shahr, who had been appointed by Mohammed to

the governorship of Sana in the place of B&z&n, his father, just died.

of Persia, and after his adoption viceroyalty by the Prophet.

had

of Isl&m was continued in his

He had during his lifetime exercised

great influence, not only over his Persian Yemen,

who

B&zan had been the viceroy of Y e m e n under the Chosroes

compatriots settled in

who were called by the name of Abnd, but also over the

Arabs of the province. all the Persian

His example had led to the conversion

settlers of Y e m e n .

of

Al-Aswad, the inpostor, had

THE

LAST ILLNESS OF THE PROPHET.

IO9

massacred Shahr, and forcibly married his wife MarzbUna. He was killed by the Abna, assisted by Marzbana, when he was lying drank, after one of his orgies. The other two pretenders, Tulaiha, son of Khuwailid, and Abu Sumama H&ran, son of Habib, commonly called Mosailima, were not suppressed until the accession of Abfl Bakr to the Caliphate. Mosailima had the audacity to address the Prophet in the following terms : " F r o m Mosailima, prophet of God, to Mohammed, prophet of God, salutations ! I am your partner : the power must be divided between us : half the earth for me, the other half for your Koraishites. But the Koraishites are a grasping people, not given to justice.'" Mohammed's reply reveals his sterling nature. "In the name of God the merciful and compassionate, from Mohammed, the Prophet of God, to Mosailima the Liar. 1 Peace is on those who follow the right path. T h e earth belongs to God ; He bestows it on such of his servants as He pleaseth. T h e future is to the pious [/. e. only those prosper who fear the Lord]!" The last days of the Prophet were remarkable for the calmness and serenity of his mind, which enabled him, though weak and feeble to preside at the public prayers until within three days of his death. One night, at midnight, he went to the place where his old companions were lying in the slumber of death, and prayed and wept by their tombs, invoking God's blessings for his "companions resting in peace." He chose Ayesha's house, close to the mosque, for his stay during his illness, and, as long as his strength lasted, took part in the public prayers. T h e last time he appeared in the mosque he was supported by his two cousins, Ali and Fazl, the son of Abbas. A smile of inexpressible sweetness played over his countenance, and was remarked by all who surrounded him. After the usual praises and hymns to God, he addressed the multitude thus : "Moslems, if I have wronged any one of you, here I am to answer for i t ; if I owe aught to any one, all I may happen to possess belongs to you." Upon hearing this, a man in the crowd rose and claimed three dirhems which he had given to a poor man at the Prophet's request. They were immediately paid back, with the words, "Better to blush in this world than in the next." T h e Prophet then prayed and implored heaven's mercy for those present, and for those who had

1

Kazz&k,

superlative of

Ka%ib.

no

THE

LIFE

fallen in the persecutions of his p e o p l e the observance

OF

MOHAMMED.

their enemies ; and r e c o m m e n d e d to all of religious duties,

and the practice of a

life of p e a c e and good-will, and c o n c l u d e d with the f o l l o w i n g words of the K o r a n : " T h e

dwelling

of the

other

life

we will give unto

them w h o do not seek to exalt themselves on earth or to do w r o n g ; for the happy issue shall attend the p i o u s . " 1 After this,

M o h a m m e d never

H i s strength rapidly

failed.

At

again

appeared

noon on M o n d a y

11 a. h , — 8 t h J u n e 632 a. c . \ whilst praying

at public prayers. (12th of Rabi I.,

earnestly in whisper, the

spirit of the great Prophet took flight to the " blessed c o m p a n i o n s h i p on high."" S o ended a life consecrated, G o d and humanity.

f r o m first to last, to the service of

Is there another to be c o m p a r e d

its trials and temptations P Is there another which has of the world, and c o m e out so had risen to be the ruler

unscathed ?

of Arabia,

The

the equal

conduct, refinement and duty

of soul

delicacy

and

stood

humble

the fire preacher

of C h o s r o e s and

Caesar, the arbiter of the destinies of a nation. Rut the of spirit, the same nobility

to his, with all

of

same humility

purity of heart, austerity of

of feeling, and stern

devotion to

which had w o n him the title of A m i n , c o m b i n e d with a severe

sense of self-examination, are ever

the distinguishing

traits of his

character. O n c e in his life, whilst e n g a g e d in a religious conversation with

an

humble

influential citizen blind

incident with

of M e c c a ,

seeker

of the

remorse,

and

truth.

he He

had

turned away f r o m a

is always recurring to this

proclaiming G o d ' s disapprobation. 8

A

nature so pure, so tender, and vet so heroic, inspires not only reverence

1 Koran, sura xxviii. ver. 83 ; Ibn ul-Athir, vol. ii. p. 241 ; Tibri, vol. iii. p. 207 et seq. 2 Ibn-Hish&m, p. 1009; Ibn ul-Athir, vol. ii. pp. 244, 245 ; Abulfeda, p. 91. Comp. Caussin de Perceval, vol. iii. p. 322 and note. 3 The Sura in connection with this incident is known by the title of "He frowned," and runs thus :—

" The Prophet frowned, and turned aside, Because the blind man came to him. And how knowest thou whether he might not have been cleansed from his sins. Or whether he might have been admonished, and profited thereby ? As for the man that is rich, Him thou receivest graciously ; And thou carest not that he is not cleansed. But as for him that oometh unto thee earnestly seeking his salvation,

THE CHARACTER OF THE

but love.

Ill

PROPHET.

A n d naturally the Arabian writers

dwell with t h e p r o u d e s t

satisfaction on the g r a c e s a n d intellectual gifts of t h e son of A b d u l l a h . His courteousness

to the great,

his affability to the h u m b l e , a n d his

dignified b e a r i n g to the p r e s u m p t u o u s , p r o c u r e d h i m universal r e s p e c t a n d admiration. heart.

His

countenance

reflected the b e n e v o l e n c e of his

P r o f o u n d l y r e a d in the volume of nature, t h o u g h i g n o r a n t of

letters, with a n expansive m i n d , elevated by d e e p c o m m u n i o n with the Soul

of Universe, he

was gifted with

equally the learned a n d the u n l e a r n e d . in his face, an air of genius, which

the p o w e r Withal,

of

influencing

t h e r e was a m a j e s t y

inspired all who c a m e in c o n t a c t a n d love. 1

with h i m with a f e e l i n g of veneration

H i s singular elevation of m i n d , his e x t r e m e

delicacy a n d refine-

m e n t of feeling, his purity a n d t r u t h , f o r m t h e c o n s t a n t t h e m e of the traditions. allow "Ten

H e was m o s t i n d u l g e n t to his inferiors, a n d would never

his awkward years,"

little p a g e

said Anas,

his

to

be

servant,

scolded "was

a n d he never said so m u c h as ' U f f ' to m e . " 2 ate towards his family.

he did.

H e was very

affection-

died

on his b r e a s t in t h e

s m o k y h o u s e of the n u r s e , a b l a c k s m i t h ' s wife.

H e was very f o n d of

children. cheeks.

He

would

O n e of his b o y s

whatever

I about the P r o p h e t ,

stop

them

in the

streets, a n d pat their little

H e never struck any o n e in his life.

T h e worst e x p r e s s i o n

he ever m a d e use of in conversation was, " W h a t M a y his f o r e h e a d be d a r k e n e d

with m u d ! "

2

h a s c o m e to

When

asked

him?

to curse

And trembling anxiously, him dost thou neglect. By no means shouldst thou act thus." After this, whenever the Prophet saw the poor blind man, he used to go out of his way to do him honour, saying, "The man is thrice welcome on whose account my Lord hath reprimanded me ; and he made him twice governor of Medina. See the remark of Bosworth Smith on Muir about this incident. 2 1 Mishkit, Bk. xxiv. chap. 3, pt. 2. Ibid. Bk. xxiv. chap. 4, pt..l. 3 Ibid. Bk. xxiv. chap. 4, pt. 1. Mr. Poole's estimate of Mohammed is so beautiful and yet so truthful that I cannot resist the temptation to quote it here : "There is something so tender and womanly, and withal so heroic, about the man, that one is in peril of finding the judgment unconsciously blinded by the feeling of reverence and well-nigh love that such a nature inspires. He who, standing alone braved for years t-ho hatred of his people, is the same who was never the first to withdraw his hand from another's clasp ; the beloved of children, who never passed a group of little ones without a smile from his wonderful eyes and a kind word for them, sounding all the kinder in that sweet-toned voice. The frank friendship, the noble generosity, the dauntless courage and hope of the man, all tend to melt criticism into admiration."

112

THE LIFE OF MOHAMMED.

s o m e one, he replied. " I

have not b e e n

sent

to c u r s e , b u t to b e a

m e r c y to m a n k i n d . " H e visited the sick, followed very bier he m e t , a c c e p t e d t h e invitation of a slave to dinner, m e n d e d his own clothes,

m i l k e d his goats,

and waited u p o n himself, relates s u m m a r i l y a n o t h e r tradition. 1 never first withdrew his h a n d out of a n o t h e r ' s b e f o r e the o t h e r

had

turned.

He

p a l m , a n d t u r n e d not

H i s h a n d was

the

most generous,

his breast the m o s t c o u r a g e o u s , his t o n g u e the m o s t t r u t h f u l ; h e was the m o s t faithful protector of t h o s e

he

p r o t e c t e d ; the

m o s t a g r e e a b l e in conversation ; t h o s e filled

with

reverence ; t h o s e

who described him would b e f o r e or after." he

spoke

w h o saw h i m

who came

say, " I have

sweetest a n d

were s u d d e n l y

n e a r h i m loved h i m ; they never

seen his

like,

either

H e was of great taciturnity ; a n d when h e s p o k e ,

with e m p h a s i s

forget what h e said.

and

deliberation, a n d n o o n e c o u l d ever

"Modesty and kindness,

patience, self-denial,

a n d generosity p e r v a d e d his c o n d u c t , a n d riveted the affections of all around

him.

With

the

tenderly. . . . H e s h a r e d others, a n d

bereaved

was sedulously

every o n e a b o u t h i m . "

and

his f o o d even solicitous

afflicted he

in times

of

sympathised scarcity

with

for the p e r s o n a l c o m f o r t of

H e would stop in the streets listening to t h e

sorrows of the h u m b l e s t .

H e would g o to t h e h o u s e s of the lowliest

to c o n s o l e

and

meanest

the

afflicted

slaves w o u l d

to c o m f o r t

the h e a r t - b r o k e n .

take h o l d of his h a n d a n d d r a g h i m to their

m a s t e r s to obtain r e d r e s s f o r ill-treatment or release f r o m He

never

sat d o w n

bondage,"

to a m e a l without first i n v o k i n g a blessing,

never rose without uttering a thanks-giving. apportioned.

The

D u r i n g the day,

when

H i s t i m e was

not e n g a g e d

in

and

regularly

prayers,

he

"He was an enthusiast in that noblest sense when enthusiasm becomes the salt of the earth, the one thing that keeps men from rotting whilst they live. Enthusiasm is often used despitefully, because it is joined to an unworthycause, or falls upon barren ground and bears no fruit. So was it not with Mohammed. He was an enthusiast when enthusiasm was the one thing needed to set the world aflame, and his enthusiasm was noble for a noble cause. He was one of those happy few who have attained the supreme joy of making one great truth their very life-spring. He was the messenger of the one (rod ; and never to his life's end did he forget wno he was, or the message which was the marrow of his being. He brought his tidings to his people with a grand dignity sprung from the consciousness of his high office, together with a most sweet humility, whose roots lay in the knowledge of his own weakness." 1 Mishkdt, Bk. xxiv. chap. 4, pt. '2. 2 Hyat-ul Kuliib (Shiah) and the Bouzal-ul-Ahbab

(Sunni).

THK

received

visitors a n d

CHARACTER

transacted

OF

MOHAMMED.

public

"3

affairs.

little, s p e n d i n g m o s t of the h o u r s in d e v o t i o n .

At n i g h t h e slept the

poor

and r e s p e c t e d t h e m , a n d m a n y w h o h a d n o h o m e or shelter of

their

own

Each

slept

at n i g h t

He

loved

in the m o s q u e c o n t i g u o u s to his h o u s e .

evening it was his c u s t o m to invite s o m e of

t h e m to p a r t a k e

humble

guests

fare.

disciples. 1

The

His

conduct

m a r k e d by a n o b l e severity,

others

became

t o w a r d s the

clemency

to the e n e m i e s of

and

of his

bitterest of

forbearance.

of

his

principal

his e n e m i e s was Stern, almost

to

the State, m o c k i n g s , a f f r o n t s , o u t r a g e s ,

a n d p e r s e c u t i o n s towards himself synonymous

the

were, in t h e

hour

of

triumph—•

with t h e h o u r of trial to the h u m a n h e a r t — a l l b u r i e d

in oblivion, a n d f o r g i v e n e s s was e x t e n d e d to the w o r s t c r i m i n a l . M o h a m m e d was extremely s i m p l e in his habits.

His

mode

of

life, his dress a n d his f u r n i t u r e , retained to the very last a c h a r a c t e r of patriarchal simplicity.

M a n y a time,

the P r o p h e t

to g o without

formed

only

his

a meal.

nourishment.

Abu Huraira

Dates

and

Moslem

historians,

had

indeed

means.

God,

say

p u t b e f o r e h i m the key to the

treasures of this world, b u t he r e f u s e d it ! 1 Abulfeda, p. 99.

15

had

frequently

O f t e n , for m o n t h s t o g e t h e r , n o fire

c o u l d be lighted in his h o u s e f r o m s c a n t i n e s s of the

reports,

water

CHAPTER I. ISLAM. o

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H E religion of Jesus bears the name of Christianity, derived from his designation of Christ; that of Moses and of Buddha are

known by the respective names of their teachers. The religion of Mohammed alone has a distinctive appellation.

It is Islam.

In order to form a just appreciation of the religion of Mohammed it is necessary to understand aright the true significance of the word Islam.

Salam

{salama),

in its primary sense, means, to be

tranquil, at rest, to have done one's duty, to have paid up, to be at perfect

peace;

in its secondary sense, to surrender oneself to Him

with whom peace is made.

The noun derived

peace, greeting, safety, salvation.

from it means

The word does not imply, as is

1 For translation, see Appendix.

1X8

THE SPIRIT OF ISLAM.

c o m m o n l y supposed, absolute submission to G o d ' s will, but on the contrary, striving The

essence

Isl&m is thus "There believe

of the

the

doubt

in

the

second

chapter

in this b o o k — a g u i d a n c e

Unseen,

who

observe

the

have

commissioned

of

prayers,

thee

the

Koran:

to the pious, w h o

(charity) out of what W e have bestowed o n t h e m ; in that which W e

means,

righteousness.

ethical principles involved and e m b o d i e d in

summarised

is no in

after

and

distribute

and w h o

believe

with, and in that W e

c o m m i s s i o n e d others with before thee, and w h o have assurance in the life

to c o m e ; — t h e s e

have

of their L o r d . " 1

received the direction

T h e principal bases on which the Islamic system is f o u n d e d ( i ) a belief

are

in the unity, immateriality, power, m e r c y , and s u p r e m e

love of the C r e a t o r ; (2) charity and b r o t h e r h o o d

among

mankind;

(3) subjugation of the passions ; (4) the outpouring of a grateful heart to the G i v e r of all g o o d ; and (5) accountability for human actions in another the

existence.

Koran

their kind

T h e grand and n o b l e conceptions

in any

other

language.

materiality, H i s majesty, H i s mercy, ending

The

unity

f o r m the

of G o d ,

His

constant and

im-

never-

theme of the most eloquent and soul-stirring passages.

flow of life, light, and spirituality never ceases. is n o

expressed in

of the power and love of the D e i t y surpass everything of

trace of d o g m a t i s m .

The

But t h r o u g h o u t there

A p p e a l is m a d e to the inner c o n s c i o u s -

ness of man, to his intuitive reason alone. L e t us n o w take a brief retrospect of the religious c o n c e p t i o n s of the p e o p l e s of the world when the P r o p h e t of Islam c o m m e n c e d his preachings.

A m o n g the heathen Arabs the

idea

of G o d h e a d varied

a c c o r d i n g to the culture of the individual or of the clan. W i t h

some

it rose, comparatively speaking, to the " divinisation " or deification of nature;

among

others

it fell to simple fetishism, the adoration of a

piece of dough, a stick, or a stone.

S o m e believed in a future

others

T h e pre-Islamite A r a b s had their

had no idea of it whatever.

groves, their oracle-trees, their priestesses, like the

life ;

Syro-Phoenicians.

Phallic worship was not u n k n o w n to them ; and the generative p o w e r s received adoration, like the stone and w o o d .

hosts

of heaven,

under

monuments

of

T h e wild denizens of the desert, then as now, could

not be impervious to the idea of s o m e unseen hand driving the blasts

1 Koran, sura ii, 1-6.

119

ISLAM.

which swept over whole tracts, or f o r m i n g the beautiful visions which rose before the traveller to lure h i m to destruction. floated in the Arab world an intangible, unrealised superior deity, the L o r d of all.

And thus t h e r e conception

of a

1

T h e Jews, those great conservators of the monotheistic idea, as they have been generally regarded in history, probably might assisted in the formation of this conception.

have

But they themselves

showed what strange m e t a m o r p h o s e s can take place in the

thoughts

of a nation when not aided by a historical and rationalistic element in their religious code. T h e Jews had entered Arabia at various times, a n d pressure of various circumstances.

under

the

Naturally, the conceptions of the

different bodies of emigrants, refugees, or colonists would vary m u c h . T h e ideas of the m e n driven out by the Assyrians or

Babylonians

would be m o r e a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c , m o r e anthropopathic, than of those who fled before Vespasian, T r a j a n , or H a d r i a n .

The

characteristics

which had led the Israelites repeatedly to lapse into idolatry in their original homes, when seers were in their midst to d e n o u n c e backslidings,

would

their A r a b brothers. would

naturally

With an idea of "the G o d

of A b r a h a m "

c o m b i n e a materialistic conception

and hence we find them with the ram

their

hardly preserve t h e m f r o m the heathenism of they

of

the deity,

rearing "a statue representing

Abraham,

beside him ready for sacrifice," in the interior of the

Kaaba. A m o n g s t the later c o m e r s the S h a m m a i t e s and the Zealots f o r m e d by far the largest proportion.

A m o n g t h e m the worship of the law

verged u p o n idolatry, and the Scribes and R a b b i n s claimed a respect almost a p p r o a c h i n g adoration. guardians

T h e y believed themselves to be

the

of the people, the preservers of law a n d tradition, ''living

exemplars and mirrors, in which the true m o d e of life, a c c o r d i n g the law, was preserved." 2

They

looked

upon

to

themselves as the

"flower of the nation, ' and they were considered, through their intercourse with G o d , to possess the gift of prophecy. people as well as by themselves they were

In fact, by

their

regarded as the p r i m e

1 ShahrisUni; Tiele calls the religion of the pre-Islamite Arabs "animistic dolydasmonism." 2 Dollinger, The Gentile and the Jew, vol. ii. p. 308.

I 20

THE SPIRIT OF ISLAM.

favourites of G o d . 1

T h e veneration of the J e w s for M o s e s went

so

far, says J o s e p h u s , that they reverenced his n a m e next to that of G o d ; and this veneration they transferred to E z r a , the restorer life and law under the Ivyanian Besides,

the

mass

dynasty.

of national

2

of the J e w s had never, probably, thoroughly

abandoned the worship of the T e r a p h i m ,

a

sort of household g o d s

m a d e in the shape of human beings, and consulted on all

occasions

as domestic oracles, or regarded perhaps m o r e as guardian

penates. 8

This

with

worship must

have

been

strengthened

by

contact

the

heathen Arabs. When

Jesus made

divine unity and of a universe one

with

his appearance supreme

in

Personal

Judaea, Will,

the

doctrine of

overshadowing

the

its might and grace, received a c c e p t a n c e only a m o n g

race—the

worshippers

of J e h o v a h .

And

even

despite all efforts to the contrary, the c o n c e p t i o n

among

them,

of the divinity

had

either deteriorated by contact with h e a t h e n nations, or b e c o m e m o d i fied

by the

influence

of pagan

Chaldseo-magian

philosophy

pressed

Jewish

on

the

its

traditions ; on

whilst introducing a m o n g the conception

philosophies.

had left Greek

On

the

finger-mark

the

and

o n e hand,

indelibly i m -

other, their best m i n d s ,

Roman

philosophers

the

of a great Primal Cause, had i m b i b e d , in the s c h o o l s of

Alexandria, notions hardly reconcilable with their m o n o t h e i s t i c c r e e d . The

Hindoos,

with their

multitudinous

g o d d e s s e s ; the Mago-Zoroastrians,

hordes

gling for m a s t e r y ; the Greeks, R o m a n s , and pantheons

full of deities

whose

morality

worshippers,—such was the condition Jesus

commenced

his preachings.

of

gods

Egyptians, was below

of the

civilised

with that

been

fixed

on

him

their of the

world

when

With all his d r e a m s and aspira-

tions, his mind was absolutely exempt from those pretensions have

and

with their two divinities strug-

by his over-zealous followers.

claimed to be a '-complement of G o d , " to

be

a

which

H e never

"hypostasis of the

Divinity." Even

modern

idealistic

shake itself free from ijosephus, Antiquities, Judaism. 2Ezra vii. 10 et seq.

the

Christianity

old

xvii. 24.

legacy

has

not

bequeathed

been

able yet to

by the

anthro-

They were, so to speak, the Brahmins 3

Judges xviii. 14.

JSLAM.

pomorphism of bygone ages.

121

Age after age everything human has

been eliminated from the history of the great Teacher, until his personality

is

lost

in a mass of

legends.

The

New

Testament

itself, with " its incubation of a century," leaves the revered clothed in a mist.

figure

And each day the old idea of " an ¿Eon born

in the bosom of eternity," gathers force until the Council of Nice gives it a shape and consistency, and formulates it into a dogma. Many minds, bewildered by the far-offness of

the

universal

Father, seek a resting-place midway in a human personality which they call divine.

It is this need of a nearer object of

adoration

which leads modern Christianity to give a name to an ideal, clothe it with flesh and blood, and worship it as a man-God. T h e gifted author of the

Defects

of Modern

Christianity

con-

siders the frequency with which the Nazarene Prophet asserted

that

he was " the Son of God," and demanded the same worship as God Himself, a proof of his Divinity.

That Jesus ever maintained

he

was the Son of God, in the sense in which it has been construed by Christian divines and apologists, we totally deny. Matthew Arnold has shown conclusively that the New Testament records are in many respects wholly unreliable.

So far as the divinity of Christ is con-

cerned, one can almost see the legend growing.

But assuming that

he made use of the expressions attributed to him, do they prove that he claimed to be

•' the only-begotten of the Father" ?

the apologist not heard

of the Eastern

al-Hallaj, who claimed to be God Himself ?

" An-al-Hakk,"

G o d — I am the Truth," said he ; and the Mussulman the Jewish

" I am

divines, like

Sanhedrim, pronounced him guilty of blasphemy,

condemned him to death ?

Has

dervish, famous now as

and

A poor simple heart, kindling with an

exalted mysticism, was thus removed from

earth.

T h e Baby still

believes that his master, " the G a t e " to eternal life, was not killed, but miraculously removed to heaven.

Can it be said that when Abu

Mughais al-Hallaj and the Bab called themselves " Truth " and 1

the

" Gate to heaven," they meant to imply that they were part of the Divinity, or, if they did, that their " claim "

is tantamount to pr.iof ?

l Abu Mughais ibn Minsiir, al-Hallaj, died in the prime of life. He was a man of pure morals, great simplicity, a friend of the poor, but a dreamer and an enthusiast. For an aasount of the B i b and Bibism, see G-obineau,

Rdigions ei It» Philosophies dam /' A »if, Gentrah, and the History of the Ilnh

by Browne.

16

THE SPIRIT OF ISLAM.

122

But, as we said before,

we deny that jesus, whose conceptions,

when divested of the Aber^laube

of his followers, were singularly

free from exaggeration as to his own character or personality, ever used any expression to justify the demand attempted to be fixed upon him.

His conception of the " Fatherhood " of God embraced

all humanity.

All mankind were the children of God, and he was

their Teacher sent bv the Eternal Father. 1 a nobler exemplar before him.

T h e Christian had thus

T h e teachings of the Prophet of

Nazareth should have elevated him to a purer conception of the Deity.

But six centuries had surrounded the figure of Jesus with

those myths which, in opposition to his own words, resolved him into a manifestation of the Godhead.

The

" Servant " took the

place of the Master in the adoration

of the world.

T h e vulgar

masses, unable to comprehend or realise this wonderful mixture of Neo-Pythagoreanism, Platonism, Judseo-Hellenistic philosophy, and the teachings of Jesus, adored him as God incarnate, or reverted to the primitive worship of relics and of a tinselled goddess who represented the pure mother of Jesus. 4

The Collyridians, who were

by no means an unimportant sect, went so far as to introduce in the Christian pantheon the Virgin Mary for God, and worship her as such, offering her a sort of twisted cake called collyris, the sect had its name.

whence

At the Council of Nice which definitely

settled the nature of Jesus, there were men who held that besides " God the Father," there were two other gods—Christ and the Virgin Man-.*

And the Romanists even now, it is said, call the

mother of Jesus the complement

of the Trinity.

In the long night of superstition the Christians had wandered far

away from the simplicity of the

Nazarene teachings.

The

worship of images, saints, and relics had become inseparably blended with the religion of Jesus. The practices which he had denounced, the evils which he had reprehended, were, one by one, incorporated with his faith.

T h e holy ground where the revered Teacher had

1 T h e use of the word " F a t h e r " in relation to God was eut out from Islam owing to the perversion of the idea among the then Christians. 2 T h e 1 saurian sovereigns, indirectly inspired by Islam, for over a century b a t t l e d against the growing degradation of Christianity, strivcd with all their might to make it run back in the channel pointed out by the great Teacher, but to no purpose. a

Mosheim, vol. i. p. -tS'2.

123

ISLAM.

lived and walked was involved in a c l o u d of miracles and and "the

nerves of the mind

visions,

were b e n u m b e d by the habits of

obedience and belief.'' 1 Against all the absurdities we have described above, the life-aim of M o h a m m e d was directed.

Addressing, with the voice of truth,

inspired by deep c o m m u n i o n with the G o d of the Universe, the fetishworshippers of the Arabian tribes on o n e side and the followers of degraded Christianity and J u d a i s m on the other, "master

of speech,"

Mohammed,

that

as he has b e e n truly called, never travelled

out of the province of reason, monstrousness of their beliefs.

and m a d e t h e m

all blush at the

M o h a m m e d , the grand apostle of

the unity of God, thus stands forth in history in noble conflict with the retrogressive tendency of m a n to associate other beings with the Creator of the universe.

Ever and a n o n in the K o r a n occur

pass-

ages, fervid and burning, like the following : " Y o u r G o d is o n e G o d ; there is no G o d but He, the Most Merciful.

In the creation of the

heaven and earth, a n d the alternation of night and day, a n d

in

the

ship which

saileth on the sea, laden with what is profitable to man-

kind ; a n d

in

the rain-water which

God

sendeth

from

heaven,

quickening again the dead earth, and the animals of all sorts which cover its s u r f a c e ; a n d

in the c h a n g e

of winds, and

the

clouds

balanced between heaven and earth,—are signs to people of u n d e r standing ; yet s o m e m e n take idols beside G o d , a n d love t h e m as with the love due to G o d . " 3 W h a t

a depth

of sympathy

towards

those benighted people do these words c o n v e y ! Again : " It is H e who causeth t h e lightning to a p p e a r u n t o you (to strike) fear a n d (to raise) h o p e ; and f o r m e t h the pregnant clouds. celebrateth

H i s praise, and the angels also.

H i s thunderbolts, a n d they

dispute

. .

The

. He

thunder launcheth

striketh therewith w h o m H e pleaseth while

concerning H i m .

. . . It is H e who of right o u g h t

to be invoked, and those (the idols) whom they invoke b e s i d e s H i m l Mosheim's Ecclesiastical Hist. vol. i. p. 432 ; comp. also Hallam, Const. Hist of England, chap. ii. p. 75. From the t e x t it will be seen how much truth there is in the assertion that Islam derived " everything good it contains " from Judaism or Christianity. " I t has been the fashion", says Deutsch, " to ascribe whatever is good in Mohammedanism to Christianity. W e fear this theory is not compatible w i t h the results of honest investigation. For of Arabian Christianity at the time of Mohammed, the less said, perhaps, the better. By the side of it . . . even modern Amharic Christianity of which we possess such astounding accounts, appears pure and exalted,"— 2 Quarterly Review, No. 954, p. 315. Sura ii. 138—160.

124

THE SPIRITS OF ISI.XM.

shall not r e s p o n d to t h e m at a l l ; otherwise t h a n as he who stretched forth

his h a n d s

when

it c a n n o t a s c e n d

to the water that

it

(thither). 1

may

ascend

to his

H e hath created

the

mouth heavens

a n d the earth to (manifest H i s ) j u s t i c e ; far be that f r o m H i m which they associate with

Him. He

hath

created m a n

. .

he is a p r o f e s s e d disputer. H e hath likewise created

. and behold the cattle for

y o u , a n d they are a credit u n t o y o u when they c o m e t r o o p i n g

home

at evening-time, or are

led forth to p a s t u r e

. . .

A n d H e hath s u b j e c t e d

the night a n d

in the

morn.

day to y o u r service

a n d the

s u n a n d the m o o n a n d the stars are all b o u n d by H i s laws.

. . .

It

is H e who h a t h s u b j e c t e d the sea u n t o y o u , a n d t h o u seest the ships p l o u g h i n g the d e e p

. . . a n d that ye m i g h t

render thanks.

.

Shall H e t h e r e f o r e w h o createth b e as he w h o createth not ? not t h e r e f o r e t a k e h e e d ?

If ye were to r e c k o n

G o d , ye shall not b e a b l e to c o m p u t e gracious and merciful. which ye publish. the L o r d ,

create

nothing,

[the idols] w h o m

s l u m b e r seizeth H i m . intercede

k n o w s what

has

n o u g h t of H i s

ye invoke,

b u t are t h e m s e l v e s

created.

besides

They

are

2

" G o d ! t h e r e is n o G o d W h o can

u p the b l e s s i n g s of

their n u m b e r ; G o d is surelv

H e k n o w e t h that which ye c o n c e a l a n d that

But those

d e a d a n d not living."

. .

D o ye

but

H e — t h e Living,

Whatsoever with

knowledge

No

is in heaven or in earth is H i s .

H i m but by

been before, and

the E t e r n a l .

His

what

shall they

own

permission ?

He

shall be after t h e m ; yet

grasp

but

H e willeth.

His

T h r o n e r e a c h e t h over t h e heavens a n d the earth, a n d the u p h o l d i n g of them both

burdeneth

not, 3

Him

. . .

n i g h t over the day, p u r s u i n g it quickly. a n d stars s u b j e c t e d to laws by all e m p i r e H i s ? is G o d :

God

Lord

throweth

behest.

is

none

of t h e w o r l d s , the

He

begetteth

like u n t o

t h e veil of

Is not all creation and

Blessed be the L o r d of the worlds. the E t e r n a l .

b e g o t t e n ; there

His

He

H e created the sun, m o o n ,

not,

Him.4

Compassionate,

Say, H e a l o n e and

Praise

the

He

is not

to G o d ,

the

Merciful, K i n g

on

t h e day of r e c k o n i n g ; T h e e only d o we worship, a n d t o T h e e d o we cry f o r h e l p .

G u i d e us o n the straight

to w h o m T h o u art g r a c i o u s , with w h o m as

go

not

astray. 5

Against

p a t h , — t h e path of those

Thou the

art n o t a n g r y ; such

evil

in

His

1 Sura xiii. 13—15. 2 Sura xvi. 3—21. 3 Sura ii. 256. 4 Sura xii. 5 This is the Surat-ul-Fatiha, the opening chapter of the Koran.

creation

125

ISIJM.

I betake me

to

the

Lord

of the

daybreak".

" Thou

needest

not raise thy voice, for H e k n o w e t h the secret whisper,

and

yet

more

hidden.

heavens

the

earth ?

Say,

. . .

Say, W h o s e God's

who

has

W i t h H i m are the k e y s of

save H e ; H e

knows

what

is what is in imposed

the

None

what

is and

Himself.1

mercy on

unseen.

is in the

the

knows

them

land a n d in the s e a ; n o leaf

falleth but H e k n o w e t h i t ; nor is there a grain in the d a r k n e s s

under

the earth, n o r a thing, g r e e n or sere, but it is r e c o r d e d by itself. taketh y o u r souls in the night, a n d k n o w e t h what the w o r k dav

deserveth ; then

He

of

your

H e awaketh y o u , that the set life-term m a y be

fulfilled ; then u n t o H i m shall ye return, a n d t h e n unto you what you have wrought. 2

shall

He

declare

Verily, G o d it is who cleaves out

the grain a n d the date-stone ; H e b r i n g s forth the living f r o m the d e a d , and

it is H e who b r i n g s the d e a d f r o m the living.

T h e r e is G o d !

H o w t h e n c a n ye be beguiled ? " " It is H e w h o cleaves

out the

morning,

and

makes

night

a

r e p o s e , a n d the sun a n d the m o o n two r e c k o n i n g s ; that is t h e d e c r e e of the Mighty, the Wise, 3

" T h e r e is G o d f o r you, y o u r L o r d ! the

C r e a t o r of

everything;

T h e r e is n o G o d

then w o r s h i p

but

He,

H i m , f o r H e over

everything k e e p s g u a r d ! " " Sight perceives H i m not, but he perceives men's sights ; tor H e is the All-penetrating, the Aware. 4

"Say, Verily my prayers and my devotion, and my life and my death, b e l o n g to G o d , the Lord of the worlds." 4 "Dost thou not perceive that all creatures

both in heaven and

earth praise G o d ; and the birds also ? "Every one knoweth H i s prayer and H i s praise. "Unto God belongeth the kingdom of heaven unto G o d shall be the return. "Whose

is the kingdom

T h e r e is n o God but H e ! 1 Sura vi. 12 3 Sura vi. 95. 5 Sura vi. 16 3.

of

and e a r t h ; and

the heavens and of

the

earth?

H e maketh alive and killeth. 6 . . . 2 Sura vi. 59, 60. 4 Sura vi. 102. * Sura vii. v. 158.

He

126

THE

is the Living One.

SPIRITS OF ISLAM.

No God is there but He.

and offer Him a pure worship. worlds ! . . . .

Call then upon

Him,

Praise be to God, the Lord of the

My prayers and my worship and my life and my

death are unto God, Lord of the worlds.

H e hath no associate. 1

It is H e who hath brought you forth, and gifted you with hearing and sight and h e a r t ; yet how few are grateful ! . . . sown you in the earth,

and to Him

It is He who hath

shall ye be g a t h e r e d . . . .

O my Lord, place me not among the ungodly people. 3 . . . is who ordaineth the night as a garment

He

it

and sleep for rest, and

ordaineth the day for waking up to life.''* " Is not H e the more worthy who answereth the oppressed

when

they cry to H i m , and taketh off their ills, and maketh you to succeed your

sires on

the earth ? 5

God the Almighty, the

All-knowing,

Forgiver of Sin, and Receiver of Penitence." 6 " S h a l II seek any other Lord than God, when He is Lord all things?

of

No soul shall labour but for itself, and no burdened

one shall bear another's burden.'' " At last ye shall return to your L o r d , and H e will declare to you about which you

differ. 7 Knower

m a n i f e s t ! the Great, the Most person

among

High ! . . .

you who concealeth

that

of the hidden and the Alike to H i m

his words, and

is that

he that telleth

them abroad ; he who hideth him in the night, and he who cometh forth in the day.'" "God

is the light of the heavens and the earth ; His light is as a

niche in which is a lamp, and the lamp is in a glass ; the glass is as though it were a glittering s t a r ; it is lit from a blessed tree, an olive neither of the east nor of the west, the oil of which would well-nigh give light though no fire touched it—light upon l i g h t ! to

God guides

H i s light whom H e pleases ; and God strikes out parables for

men, and G o d all things doth know." " I n the houses G o d has permitted to be reared and His name to be

mentioned therein,

His

praises are celebrated therein mornings

and evenings." 1 S u r a vii. v. 158.

2

S u r a lxvii.

s S u r a xxiii 96.

4

Sura x x v . 49.

24.

5 S u r a x x v i i . 63.

" S u r a xl. 1.

7 S u r a ii. 2 8 6 .

s S u r a x i i i . 10, 11.

127

ISLIM.

" M e n w h o m neither m e r c h a n d i s e nor selling divert f r o m r e m e m b r a n c e of God,

and steadfastness in prayer and giving alms,

who. fear a day when hearts a n d eyes shall be upset, that G o d recompense

the

them for the best they

may

have done, a n d give

them

increase of His grace ; for G o d provides whom H e pleases without count." '•But those who misbelieve, their works are like the mirage in a plain,—the thirsty counts it water till when he c o m e s

to it he

finds

nothing, but he finds that G o d is with him, and H e will pay him his account, for G o d is quick to take a c c o u n t . " "Or

like d a r k n e s s on a d e e p s e a ; there covers it a wave, above

which is a wave, above which is a c l o u d , — d a r k n e s s e s one above the other,—when

one puts out his hand he can scarcely see it, for he to

w h o m G o d has given no light he has no " H a s t thou seen that G o d ? earth celebrate H i s praises,

light."

All who are in the heavens and t h e

and the birds, too, spreading out their

wings ; each one knows its prayer and

its praise,

and

God

knows

what they d o . " " H a s t thou not seen that G o d drives the clouds, and then reunites them, and then a c c u m u l a t e s them, a n d thou mayest see the r a i n coming forth f r o m their m i d s t ; and H e sends down f r o m the mountains

with hail therein, and

sky

H e m a k e s it fall on w h o m H e

pleases, and He turns it f r o m whom

H e pleases ; the

flashing

of

H i s lightning well-nigh goes off with their sight." " G o d interchanges the night and the day ; verily in that is a lesson to those endowed with sight.'' T h e chapter entitled ' T h e Merciful,'' which has been well called the Benedicile

of Islam, furnishes one of the finest examples of the

P r o p h e t ' s appeal to the testimony of nature. " T h e sun and the m o o n in their appointed time, T h e herbs and the trees adore, And the heavens H e raised them, a n d

set the

Balance

that

ye

should not be outrageous in the balance ; But weigh ye aright and stint not the measure. And the earth, H e has set it for living c r e a t u r e s ; Therein are fruits, and palms with sheaths, a n d grain and frequent shoots.

SI-G

with

chaff

12$

T H I SPIRIT OF ISLAM.

H e created m a n

of crackling

clay like the potter's,

and

He

created the firmament f r o m the smokeless fire. T h e L o r d of the two easts and the Lord of the two wests. H e has let loose the two seas that meet together ; between t h e m is a barrier they cannot pass. H e brings forth f r o m each pearls both great and small ! H i s are the ships which rear aloft in the sea like mountains. Every one upon it is transient, but the face of thy Lord e n d o w e d with majesty and h o n o u r shall e n d u r e . Of H i m

whosoever is in the heaven and in the earth d o e s b e g ;

every day is H e in [some fresh] work. Blessed be the n a m e

of thy Lord, possessed of majesty and

glory/' "Every m a n ' s fate have we hung about his neck, a n d on the last day shall be laid before him a wide-opened Book." 1

. . . "By

a soul, and H i m who balanced it, and breathed into it its wickedness and its piety, blest now is he who hath kept it pure, a n d u n d o n e he who hath corrupted it." creation

2

. . . ' ' N o defect canst thou see in

is the

of the G o d of mercy ; repeat the gaze, seest thou a single

flaw, then twice more repeat the gaze, thy gaze shall return dulled and weary." so too shall you

2

to

thee

. . . " H e quickeneth the earth when it is dead ; be b r o u g h t to life."

" T h e heavens and the earth stand firm at H i s bidding ; hereafter when at once H e

shall s u m m o n you

ye c o m e . " 4 . . . "

W h e n the sun

stars shall fall, and when when the she-camels gathered

shall

f r o m the earth, forth shall b e folded

up,

shall

and

the

the m o u n t a i n s shall be set in motion ; be left, and

the wild beasts

shall b e

together ; when the seas shall boil, and souls be re-paired

[with their

bodies] ; when the female

shall be asked for what crime the leaves of the Book shall

child that was buried alive

she was

be unrolled,

put to

death ;

when

and the heavens shall

be stripped away, and the fire of hell blaze forth, and paradise draw l Sura xvii. 14. .Sura xxx. 25.

'J Kara xci.

3 Sura lxvii. 3.

129

ISLAM.

nigh,

shall every soul know what it hath d o n e . " 1 . . . " W h a t

then

knowledge hast thou [ M o h a m m e d ] of the hour ? Only G o d knoweth It is for thee only to warn those who fear it."

its period.

.

.

.

" W h a t shall teach thee the inevitable ? T h a m u d and A.ad treated the D a y of Decision as a lie.

T h e y were destroyed

with

thunderbolts

and roaring blasts." And yet with all H i s might, H i s tender

care a n d

pity are

all-

embracing :— " By the noonday brightness, and by the night when it darkeneth, thy Lord

hath not forsaken thee, neither hath H e been displeased.

Surely the future shall be better for thee than the past ; and in the end

H e shall be b o u n t e o u s to thee, and thou shalt be satisfied.

Did H e not find thee an orphan, and give thee a h o m e ; erring, and guided thee ; needy, and wrong him not ; and

enriched

thee ? As to the orphan, then,

chide not away him that asketh of thee, and

tell abroad the favours of thv L o r d . " 3

" D i d ye think W e had m a d e

you for sport, and that ye should not be brought back again to us ?" " O our God, punish us not if we forget and our sins and forgive us."

fall into sin ; blot out

" H a v e mercy, O L o r d , for of the merciful,

Thou

art the best." 3

load.

W e never punished till we had sent an apostle."

"The

heavy laden shall not bear another's " T h i s clear

Book, behold, on a blessed night have we sent it down for a warning to m a n k i n d . "

" Not to sadden thee have we sent it thee.'

And so on goes this wonderful book, appealing to the nobler feelings of man,

his inner consciousness and his moral sense, proving

and manifesting the enormity of idolatrous beliefs. Scarcely a chapter but contains some fervid passages on the power, mercy, and unity of God. T h e Islamic conception of the Almighty has been misunderstood by Christian writers.

T h e God of Islam is c o m m o n l y represented as

" a pitiless tyrant, who plays with humanity

as on a

and

to the sacrifice of the

works out

pieces."

His

game

without regard

Let us see if this estimate is correct.

is the All-mighty, the All-knowing, worlds, the Author

T h e G o d of Islam

the All-just, the Lord

of the heavens

irresistible

the great, all-powerful L o r d of the glorious T h r o n e .

17

2

of

the

and the earth, the Creator of

life and death, in whose hand is d o m i n i o n and

1 Sura lxxxi.

chess-board,

S u r a xciii.

s

power;

God is the

S u r a xxiii. 118.

THE SPIRIT

13° Mighty,

the

Strong,

the Most High, the Producer, the Maker, the

Fashioner, the Wise, the Just, who knoweth

OF ISLAM.

every ant's

the

True,

the

Swift in

reckoning,

weight of good and of ill that each man

hath done, and who suffereth not the reward of the faithful to perish. But the Almighty, the Peaceful,

All-wise,

is also

the

King,

the

of the orphan, the Guide of the erring, the Deliverer affliction,

the

the

Hearer,

from

every

Friend of the bereaved, the Consoler of the afflicted ;

in His hand is good, and H e is the generous the

Holy,

the Faithful, the Guardian over His servants, the Shelterer

Lord,

the

Gracious,

the Near-at-hand, the Compassionate, the Merciful, the

Very-forgiving, whose love for man is more tender than that of

the

mother-bird for her young. T h e mercy of the Almighty is one of the grandest themes of the K o r a n .

The

the

very name [ A r - R a h m a n ] with which each chapter

opens, and with which He is invoked, expresses a deep, all-penetrating

conviction

creation.

of

that

love,

that divine mercy, which

enfolds

1

The

moral

debasement

of the followers

of the two

previous

Dispensations wring the T e a c h e r ' s heart, and then burst forth denunciations on the Christians and the Jews for the they practised in defiance of the

superstitious

rites

warnings of their prophets.

The

fire of religious zeal, that had burned in the Jeremiah, man.

was rekindled in

the

breast

bosoms of Isaiah

and

of another and far greater

H e denounces ; but above the wail, the cry

of agony at the

degradation of humanity, is heard the voice of hope. T h e Koran severely censures the Jews for their " worship of false gods and

idols,"

the teraphim

before

referred

to, and

for

their

exaggerated reverence for the memory of E z r a ; the Christians, for their adoration of J e s u s

and his mother.

" Hast thou

not

seen

those to whom a portion of the Scriptures have been given ? T h e y believe in false gods and idols. are better

directed

Moslems]."2 Christians

say,

in the

" The Christ

Jews

T h e y say to the

unbelievers

right way than those that believe [the say, Ezra

is the

is the Son of God.

Son of

God;

the

May God resist them.

How infatuated they are ! 'I'hey take their priests and for their lords besides God.

they

their

monks

. . . They seek to extinguish the light

l S u r a iii. 124, x x v . 5 0 , x x v i i i . 74, xlii. 3, e t c . e t c . 2 S u r a iv. 49.

ISLAM.

of G o d with their m o u t h s . " say, W e are the c h i l d r e n

1

. . . " T h e J e w s a n d the

of G o d ,

those u n t o w h o m the

Scriptures

y o u again u n b e l i e v e r s ,

a f t e r ye

in prayer, for y o u r

and

Christians.

have b e e n given have believed.

3

Christians " M a n y of

desire to r e n d e r

. . .

Be

constant

give a l m s ; a n d what g o o d ye have sent b e f o r e y o u

souls, ye

Verily, n o n e

2

and His beloved."

shall

shall enter

. . . Say,

find it with paradise

Produce your

Nay, but he who directeth

God."

except

towards

. . . "

those

They

say,

w h o are J e w s or

proof if ye s p e a k the t r u t h .

God,

and doth

that

which

is

right, he shall have his reward with his L o r d . " 4 " 0 ye who have received the S c r i p t u r e s ,

exceed

not the

just

b o u n d s in y o u r religion, neither say of G o d otherwise t h a n t h e truth. Verily, Christ J e s u s , the S o n of Mary, is t h e apostle of G o d a n d H i s word.

Believe t h e r e f o r e in G o d a n d

There

are t h r e e G o d s ; f o r b e a r this

d i s d a i n to b e a servant u n t o

God."

His

apostles,

and

say

5

" It b e s e e m e t h

not

a

that G o d s h o u l d give h i m the S c r i p t u r e s , a n d the w i s d o m , gift of p r o p h e c y ,

not,

. . . Christ d o t h not p r o u d l y man,

and

the

a n d that t h e n he s h o u l d say to his followers, ' B e

ye w o r s h i p p e r s of m e , as well as of G o d , ' b u t rather,

1

Be y e

perfect

in things p e r t a i n i n g to G o d . since ye k n o w t h e S c r i p t u r e s , a n d have 6

studied d e e p . ' " The

following p a s s a g e

shows

the f e e l i n g

religious c o n c e p t i o n s were r e g a r d e d : " T h e y hath

begotten

a Son.

Now

have

with w h i c h

say the G o d of

ye u t t e r e d

a grievous

such mercy thing;

a n d it wanted but little that the h e a v e n s h o u l d be t o r n o p e n , a n d that the earth cleave a s u n d e r , and the m o u n t a i n s fall down, for that

they

attribute c h i l d r e n u n t o the M e r c i f u l ; w h e r e a s it is not m e e t f o r

God

to have children. shall

approach

them."

Verily t h e r e is n o n e in the

M e r c i f u l as

heaven

His

servant.

P r e a c h e r whose

mission

or

on

He

earth

but

encompasseth

. . .

But the

inspired

it is to p r o c l a i m the

T r u t h does not c o n f o u n d the g o o d with the b a d : " Y e t all alike ; t h e r e

are

of t h o s e

who

have

received

they are n o t

the

Scriptures

2 Sura v. '21. 1 Sura ix. 30-32. 3 The Jew.3, the Clmstiani!, and the Zoroastrians. : * Sura 103, 106. > Sura iv. 169, 170. 6 Sura iii, 73. 7 Sura xix. 91-94.

THE SPIRIT OF

upright people ; they

meditaie

0:1

ISLAM.

the signs

season, and worship ; they believe in

God

of G o d in the night

and the last day ; and

c o m m a n d that which is just ; and forbid that which

is unjust,

and

zealously strive to excel in g o o d works ; these are of the righteous." 1 T h e mutual and burning hatred of J e w and Christian, the

savage

wars of Nestorian and Monophysite, the meaningless wrangle of sects, the heartless and

heart-rending

logomachy

of the

the

Byzantine

clergy, ever and anon bring down denunciations like the f o l l o w i n g : — " T o J e s u s and other apostles

we gave

G o d had pleased, their followers would disputes.

But G o d doeth what H e

manifest

will ! " " M a n k i n d

people, and G o d sent them prophets

of warning

and the B o o k of Truth

disputes.

like

those

to settle all

to whom

Abraham ?

and

was but glad

Yet none

if

these one

tidings, disputed

the B o o k had been sent ; f o r they were filled

with jealousy of each other." about

signs ; and

not have fallen into

Why

" O people of the B o o k , why

contend

about

that whereof

wrangle

ye

know

nothing ? " T h e primary aim of the new Dispensation was to infuse or revive in the heart of humanity a living perception of truth in the relations

of life.

"The

common

moral ideal of the new g o s p e l , " to use the

phraseology of an eminent writer, " w a s

set in the c o m m o n

sense

of duty and the familiar instances of love.'' "Verily,

those

people 2 have

reward of their deeds ; and ye their doings ye shall not be

now shall

passed have

questioned.'' 3

away ; they have the

the meed "Every

of yours ; of

soul

shall

bear

the good and the evil for which it has laboured ; and G o d will burden none beyond its power." stance that he may

" B l e s s e d is he who giveth away

become

any one for the sake of

his

sub-

pure, and who offereth not favours to

recompense . . . but only

approval of his L o r d the Most H i g h . "

1

as seeking

the

. . .

" T h e y are the blest who, though longing f o r it themselves,

bes-

towed their food on the poor and the orphan and the captive [saying], ' We

feed y o u

for the sake

of G o d : we

seek

from you neither

recompense nor thanks.' " 5 " W o r s h i p G o d alone ; be kind to kindred

and servants, orphans

l Sura iii. 109, 110. '' I.e. Abraham, Ishmael, and Isaac, and the tribes. 3 Sura ii. 128. 4 Sura xcii. 18, 19.

5 Sura l x x v i . 8, 9.

ISLAM.

133

and the poor ; speak righteously to men, pray, a n d " D e f e r humbly to your parents ; with humility and

pay a l m s . "

tenderness

say,

0 Lord, be merciful to them, even as they brought m e up when I " A b a n d o n the old barbarities, biood-vengeance,

was helpless."

child-murder, and be united as one in secret, for both are well.''

flesh."

and

" D o thy a l m s openly

or

Give of that which hath been given you

before the day cometh when there shall be no trafficking, nor f r i e n d ship, nor intercession."

" W o u l d s t thou be taught the steep [path] ?

It is to ransom the captive, tc feed the hungry, the k i n d r e d , the orphan,

and

him whose mouth is in the dust".

enjoin steadfastness and

compassion

" Be of those who

on others." 1

" W o e to t h e m

that m a k e show of piety, and refuse help to the n e e d y . " your alms void by reproaches or injury."

" M a k e not

" F o r g i v e n e s s and

speech are better than favours with a n n o y a n c e . "

"Abandon

kind

usury."

" H e who spendeth his substance to be seen of m e n , is like a with thin soil over it, whereon the rain falleth and But they who expend

their

rock

leaveth it

hard.

substance to please G o d and establish

their souls, are like a g a r d e n on a hill, on which the rain falleth it yieldeth its fruits twofold ; and even if the rain doth not

and

fall, yet

is there a dew." " J u d g e between m e n

with truth, and follow not thy passions,

lest they cause thee to err f r o m the way of G o d . " 2 another's gifts f r o m G o d . "

"Covet not

" T h e r e is no piety in turning

the face

east or west, but in believing in God only and d o i n g g o o d . "

"Make

the best of all things ; enjoin justice and avoid the foolish ; and if Satan stir thee to evil, take r e f u g e in G o d . " of

the orphan.

on the earth." 3 on a m a n ' s face."

Perform " The

your

" T o u c h not the

covenant, and

walk

not

goods proudly

birth of a daughter brings dark shadows

. . . " K i l l not your children for fear of w a n t :

for them and for you will W e provide. is a great wickedness.'" 1

Verily the killing t h e m

'•' G o d hath given you

wives that ye may

put love and tenderness between y o u . " " Reverence the w o m b s that bear y o u . " for it is a foul thing and an evil way." his eyes f r o m lust; let w o m e n

" C o m m i t not adultery ;

"Let

the believer

restrain

m a k e n o display of ornaments, save

to their own k i n d r e d . " l Sura xc. 12-15. 3 Sura xvii. 36.

2

-t Sura xvii. 33.

Sura xxxviii. 25. 5 Sura xvii. 25.

134

THE

SPIRIT

OF

ISLSM.

" Know ye that this world's life is a cheat, the multiplying of riches and children is like the plants that spring up after rain, rejoicing the husbandman, then turn yellow and wither away. In the next life is severe chastisement, or else pardon from God and His peace." " Abandon the semblance of wickedness and wickedness itself. They, verily, whose only acquirement is iniquity, shall be rewarded for what they shall have gained." 1 " Those who abstain from vanities and the indulgence of their passions, give alms, offer prayers, and tend well their trusts and their covenants, these shall be the heirs of eternal happiness." 2 " Show kindness to your parents, whether one or both of them attain to old age with thee: and say not to them ' Fie !' neither reproach t h e m ; but speak to them both with respectful speech and tender affection." 3 " A n d to him who is of kin render his due, and also to the poor and to the wayfarer; yet waste not wastefully."' 1 " And let not thy hand be tied up to thy neck ; nor yet open it with all openness, lest thou sit thee down in rebuke in beggary." 5 " Enjoin my servants to speak in kindly sort." 6 " Turn aside evil with that which is better." " J u s t balances will We set up for the day of the Resurrection, neither shall any soul be wronged in a u g h t ; though were a work but the weight of a grain of mustard seed, We would bring it forth to be weighed: and Our reckoning will 8 suffice." " Seek pardon of your Lord and be turned unto Him : verily, my Lord is merciful, loving." 9 " And vour Lord saith, ' Call upon me, I will hearken unto you." 1 0 " Say : O my servants who have transgressed to your own injury, despair not of God's mercy, for all sins doth God forgive. Gracious, merciful is H e ! " u " The good word riseth up to Him, and the righteous deed will He exalt." 12 " T r u l y my Lord hath forbidden filthy actions, whether open or secret, and iniquity, and unjust violence." 18 " Call upon your Lord with lowliness and in loveth not transgressors. And commit not disorders ordered earth after it hath been well ordered ; and call fear and longing desire: Verily the mercy of God is 1 Sura vi. 120. 3 Sura xvii. 24. 6 Sura xvii. 55. 9 Sura xi. 92. 12 Sura xxxv. 11,

2 Sura xxiii. 8. 4 S u r a X vii. '28. J

spirit,

(2) fasting,

(3)

.

Aj ^t.v:,

Mohammed

attached to his precepts certain practical duties, of which

following are the principal: ( i )

«•

fi^y J*-70

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of

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OR

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o Sj

*

-

r r ^ ; 1 1 .jusj y, •* *

91

I J1»

ilJ

-> '

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; i_J i

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T

Cw "

£ i, / * *—JLukJI O

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O '

' ess aiil

5l| j- t

1

I K E all other nations of antiquity, the stern record

fatalists.

of old

Arab

The

remains

thought

and

of

s

pre-Isl&mite A r a b s were

their

manners,

p r o m u l g a t i o n of I s l a m the p e o p l e of the

s

ancient show

poetry,

sole

that b e f o r e the

Peninsula

had

absolutely

a b a n d o n e d themselves to the idea of a n irresistible a n d blind fatality. M a n was but a s p o r t in the h a n d s of Fate. contempt

of death, a n d

teachings

of I s l a m

an

utter

created

T h i s idea b r e d a r e c k l e s s

disregard

a revolution

for h u m a n life.

in the

The

A r a b m i n d : with

the recognition of a s u p r e m e Intelligence g o v e r n i n g the universe, they received sibility

the

conception

founded

remarkable

on

the

of s e l f - d e p e n d e n c e liberty of

characteristics

human

a n d of m o r a l r e s p o n volition.

One

sight, inconsistent, m a n n e r in which it c o m b i n e s

the existence

Divine Will, which not only o r d e r s all things, but which acts upon

men

and

addresses

in

man

and

N o t that this f e a t u r e is peculiar to the

the s a m e characteristic is 'o be f o u n d in

the

of the

Biblical

directlv

liberty

records.

developed that the question naturally o c c u r s to the m i n d , these two ideas be reconciled with each o t h e r ? It s e e m s man

of a

should

which f o r m s the f o u n d a t i o n

But

strongly How

can

inconsistent

be j u d g e d by his works, a d o c t r i n e

of I s l a m i c morality,

are ruled by a n all-powerful Will.

of

M o s l e m s c r i p t u r e •,

in the K o r a n the c o n c e p t i o n of h u m a n responsibility is so

at first sight that

the

itself to the springs of t h o u g h t in t h e m ,

with the assertion of a f r e e a g e n c y intellect.

of

of the K o r a n is the curious, a n d , at first

if all his a c t i o n s

T h e e a r n e s t faith of

Mohammed

1 "God changes not as to what concerns any people until they change in respect to what depends upon themselves."

THE

RATIONALISTIC

AND PHILOSOPHICAL

SPIRIT

in a n active ever-living P r i n c i p l e , j o i n e d to his trust of man,

supplies a

meaning

by a

key to this mystery.

reference

to

a

few

OF

ISLAM.

in

the

373

progress

I p r o p o s e to illustrate m y

of the p a s s a g e s which give e x -

p r e s s i o n to the a b s o l u t i s m of the Divine W i l l a n d t h o s e which assert the

liberty

a n c e with

of h u m a n a

volition: " A n d

determined decree

G o d ' s o r d e r i n g is in a c c o r d -

; .

and

the

sun

proceeding

to its place of r e s t — t h a t is an o r d i n a n c e (^jijAj ) of the A l m i g h t y , the All-wise;

1

.

.

. and

among

His

signs

is

the

creation

of t h e

heavens and the earth, and of the a n i m a l s which H j hath distributed therein, .

.

the

which

He

has

sovereign p o w e r to g a t h e r when H e will ;

. and do they not see that G o d who created

the

heavens

2

and

earth, and faltered not in c r e a t i n g these, has p o w e r to vivify the

d e a d — n a y , H e has sovereign things

which

within

His

are

not

grasp,

things ( \jjxi

control

at y o u r

inasmuch d( ^ U )

over

all

command,

as G o d

is

things ; but

which

sovereign

; * nor is there

and

s

other

are

truly

d i s p o s e r of all

a n y t h i n g not

provided

b e f o r e h a n d by Us, or which W e send down otherwise than a c c o r d i n g to a fore-known the .

earth .

are

dec'ee ; ' .

God's ; .

.

.

.the

. God

secrets

has

all

of t h e

heavens

and

things at c o m m a n d ; 6

. and propound to t h e m a similitude of this present life, which

is like water sent down by U s f r o m h e a v e n , so that the plants

of

the

earth are fattened by it, and on the m o r r o w b e c o m e stubble, s c a t t e r e d b y the w i n d s , — G o d disposes of all things ;

7

to G o d ' s sovereignty to d e f e n d t h e m ; 8

.

will;

j

.

pecting

. the

. and same

who

created

all

with a b s o l u t e

L o r d is a s u p r e m e s o v e r e i g n ; 1 1

.

things,

.

.

. and

and

.

res-

.

thy

the m e r c y of G o d : how H e vivifies the earth, after bidding;

heavens

and

u

.

.

whatsoever

. to is

God

.

. and

. b e h o l d thou the i m p r i n t s of it

very d e e d , a restorer of life to the dead is there, and at H i s

pertains

determined

determination;10 .

it

. G o d c r e a t e s what H e

belongs

has all

died—in

things

whatsoever is

in

on the earth ; and whether y e d i s c l o s e

that which is within y o u or c o n c e a l it, G o d will r e c k o n with y o u i t ; and inasmuch

He as

pardons God

1 xxxvi. 4 xlviii. 21. 8 xxii. 40. 12 j j & S

d i

whom H e will, and p u n i s h e s w h o m H e

is

a Supreme

3 9

Sovereign ;

2 xlii. 28.

38.

xvi. 79. 10 x x v . 2 .

xv. 21. xxiv. 44. ybj, xxx.

are the

49.

13

.

.

for

will—

. say thou :

xlvi. 32. xviii. 43. 11 x x v . 5 6 . s

7

is ii. 2 8 4 .

THE SPIRIT OF

374

ISLAM.

O G o d , Sovereign Disposer of dominion, T h o u givest rule to whom T h o u wilt, and takest away power f r o m w h o m T h o u w i l t , T h o u exaltest whom T h o u wilt, and humblest whom T h o u wilt: all g o o d is at T h y

disposal—verily,

T h o u arc a S u p r e m e Sovereign ; 1 .

G o d punishes whom H e will, a n d p a r d o n s whom H e to God

belongs the dominion

will;

2

.

.

.

.

.

of the heavens and the earth, and

whatsoever they contain is His, and H e is Sovereign over all things. 3 .

.

.

Verily, G o d

accomplishes

what H e

established for everything a fixed decree ; the measuring out

1

ordains—He

.

.

hath

. but G o d i

( j d ^ ) of the night and the day ;

.

.

has

. extol

the n a m e of thy Lord, the Most H i g h , who m a d e the world, and fashioned it to completeness, who fore-ordained, and guides accor6

dingly

.

.

•

as for the unbelievers, it matters nothing to

whether thou warnest them

or dost not warn them ; they will not

believe; G o d hath sealed up their and the darkness

of night

guides into the right path

them

hearts and

their

is over their eyes ;

8

whomsoever H e w i l l ;

ears ;

.

.

3

.

.

.

.

. and G o d .

. G o d is

pleased to m a k e your b u r t h e n s light, inasmuch as m a n is by

nature

infirm.

people

.

.

.

God c h a n g e s not as to what c o n c e r n s any

until they change in respect to what d e p e n d s .

. say t h o u ; Verily,

God

upon

themselves;

leads astray whomsoever

a n d directs to Himself those who are p e n t i e n t , "

10

H e will,

11

It will be noticed that, in many of these passages by " the decree of G o d " is clearly meant the law of nature. have each their appointed creation.

T h e stars a n d planets

c o u r s e ; so has every other

object in

T h e movements of the heavenly bodies, the p h e n o m e n a of

nature, life and

death, are all governed

by law.

Other

passages

unquestionably indicate the idea of Divine agency u p o n h u m a n will ; but they are again explained by others, in which that agency is " c o n ditioned" upon h u m a n will. It is to the seeker for Divine help that G o d renders H i s help ; it is on the searcher of his own heart, who purifies his soul f r o m impure longings, that God bestows grace. the Arabian Teacher, Almighty

as to his predecessors,

Power, the Fashioner of the

i iii. 25. 6 lxxxvii. 1-3. io j H - « ^

v. 44. [}/i*i i J ^

a v. 120. 1 ii. 5-6. ^ j W

y

To

the existence of an

Universe, the Ruler of H i s 4 lxv. 3. s ii. 209 e>t, xiii. 12.

•> lxxiii. 20. 9 iv. 32. 11 xiii. 27.

THE

RATIONALISTIC

AND

PHILOSOPHICAL

SPIRIT

OF

ISI.AH.

375

c r e a t u r e s , w a s a n i n t e n s e and vivid r e a l i t y . T h e f e e l i n g of " n n a s s u r e d t r u s t " in an a l l - p e r v a d i n g , e v e r - c o n s c i o u s P e r s o n a l i t y , m o t i v e p o w e r of the w o r l d in e v e r y a g e .

h?s

been

the

T o the w e a r y m a r i n e r , " s a i l -

i n g o n l i f e ' s s o l e m n m a i n , " t h e r e is n o t h i n g m o r e

assuring,

that m o r e s a t i s f i e s the i n t e n s e l o n g i n g f o r a b e t t e r a n d

nothing

purer

world,

t h a n t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s of a P o w e r a b o v e h u m a n i t y t o r e d r e s s w r o n g s , to f u l f i l h o p e s , to h e l p the f o r l o r n . the

very

O u r b e l i e f in G o d s p r i n g s

e s s e n c e of D i v i n e o r d i n a n c e s .

from

T h e y a r e a s m u c h l a w s , in

the strictest s e n s e of the w o r d , a s l a w s w h i c h r e g u l a t e t h e m o v e m e n t s of the c e l e s t i a l b o d i e s . it

is

an

B u t t h e w ill of

G o d is n o t a n a r b i t r a r y w i l l :

e d u c a t i n g w i l l , to b e o b e y e d b y the

s c h o l a r in h i s w a l k s of

l e a r n i n g a s by t h e d e v o t e e in his c e l l . The

passages,

however,

f r e e d o m of h u m a n w i l l

are

a n d limit t h e c o n c e p t i o n

of

in

which h u m a n responsibility a n d the

laid

down

absolutism.

in

emphatic

"And

h i m s e l f a s i n , g e t s it s o l e l y on h i s o w n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; alone those w h o m a k e a sport and a m o c k e r y

terms

whosoever

of

1

that

any

sou!

perishes

our

fathers

God

2

and

found

that

d i d s o , a n d G o d o b l i g e s u s to d o i t ; s a y t h o u : S u r e l y ,

requireth

themselves ; bargained

have

and

remem-

f o r w h a t it h a s g o t t o itself ;

w h e n they c o m m i t a d e e d of s h a m e t h e y s a y : W e

to

. . . a n d let

their r e l i g i o n ,

w h o m this p r e s e n t w o r l d h a s d e l u d e d , a n d t h e r e b y b r i n g to brance

define gets

4

not

shameful

doing :

3

. . . they

did

y o n d e r will e v e r y s o u l e x p e r i e n c e that s

for ;

.

.

. so

injustice

which

it

to

hath

then, w h o s o e v e r g o e s astray, h e himself

b e a r s the w h o l e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of

wandering."'6

M a n , within the l i m i t e d s p h e r e of his e x i s t e n c e , is a b s o l u t e m a s t e r of h i s c o n d u c t . misuse

of

He

the

is r e s p o n s i b l e f o r his a c t i o n s , a n d f o r t h e u s e o r

p o w e r s with w h i c h h e h a s b e e n

f a l l o r rise, a c c o r d i n g to h i s o w n " i n c l i n a t i o n . " assistance >~Jb

for

him

who

^yic

> j U j

3

A b j l l i j o l J) *JJ|

4

^ ¿ j (J—J.J

i;

di

There was

supreme

in

vi. 69.

J. ix. 7 1 . i^Jjo

IfjJUs 1 lyK'

" cufiLol 1»

He

sought Divine help and guidance.

1+jU U J | »-A-io tjyc j

2

endowed.

;-].

( ^ l i i ^ j U-i li ^ ¿ ¿ M ^v*», x. 10S.

THE

376

S P I R I T OF

ISLÁM.

the soul purer and better in calling to its L o r d for He

has

p r o m i s e d ? Are

not

the

weak

that

help

c o m f o r t e d — b y their own appeal to the H e a v e n l y F a t h e r and

strength ?

Such

r e g a r d to Divine His

recorded

regarded

were

handed

unquestionably

conception

he

o r j U l á . | j A a . ). " the

the liberty

down f r o m authentic,

entertained

for

solace

ideas of the T e a c h e r of I s l a m with

sovereignty a n d

sayings

as

the

which

s t r e n g t h e n e d , the s t r i c k e n

about Not

of

help

freewill

heir

in

explaining

the

predestination

words, but t h o s e of

his

son-in-law,

his

i m m e d i a t e d e s c e n d a n t s , who derived their ideas f r o m h i m , m a y

well furnish us with a key to t h e true of

the

free

agency

of

to

volition.

which m a y b e

and

only his own

legitimate

human

sources

his

inspiration,"

ls/d??iic notion on the

and

question

m a n — a s u b j e c t which has f o r a g e s , both in

I s l a m and in Christianity, b e e n the b a t t l e - g r o u n d of sectarian disputes. In

discussing

of

the

this s u b j e c t ,

we

must

not,

however,

l o s e sight

of

fact that m o s t of the traditions which have supplied to Patris-

ticism its armoury of weapons against the sovereignty of r e a s o n , b e a r evident

traces of b e i n g ' m a d e to order.'

T h e y tell their

own s t o r y

of how, and the c i r c u m s t a n c e s u n d e r which, they c a m e into e x i s t e n c e . Some who

of

the

traditions

which

purport to be h a n d e d down by m e n

c a m e casually in c o n t a c t with the T e a c h e r , show p a l p a b l e

signs

of c h a n g e s and t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s in the m i n d s and in the m e m o r i e s of the

mediaries.

The

authentic

sayings,

shall refer only to a few to e x p l a i n that of

in

Mohammed's

human

heavenly

will

was

Father.

departure

joined

an

what

I

have

earnest

already

belief

in after-life

liberty

f r o m the path of truth a n d r e c t i t u d e is

his

make

Sabaean,

indicated, the

of m a n was b o r n p u r e a n d true ;

" E v e r y m a n is b o r n religiously

who

in

depravity and natural s i n f u l n e s s were

E v e r y child

due to education. parents

are many, and I

to a vivid trust in the p e r s o n a l i t y o f t h e

Hereditary

emphatically denied. every

mind

however,

him

afterwards

a

Jew,

constituted

it is

Christian,

or a

like as ye take up the b e a s t at its b i r t h — d o ye find upon it

any mutilation, until ye yourselves mutilate it ?"

1

Infants

have

no

positive moral c h a r a c t e r : for a b o u t those who die in early life, " G o d

Sljjli »jhill U)»

(Jjk

J j i ill ¿J.)yc ^ Aw^l

U j j u J »As> alJ| L yia *JJ|

JIS

UÍ" AjUisr*^ ) thjiakj j »Lcii^^^c I f j J

1

THE RATIONALISTIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL SPIRIT OF ISLAM. best

377

k n o w s what w o u l d h a v e b e e n their c o n d u c t " [ h a d they l i v e d to

maturity ] .

" E v e r y h u m a n b e i n g h a s two i n c l i n a t i o n s , — o n e p r o m p t -

i n g h i m to g o o d a n d i m p e l l i n g h i m thereto, a n d the o t h e r p r o m p t i n g him

to evil

and

thereto

impelling

him

but

a n c e is n i g h , a n d he w h o a s k s the h e l p of G o d the

evil

the

in

p r o m p t i n g s of his own h e a r t o b t a i n s it.''

conduct

which

will

godly

assist-

contending

with

" I t is y o u r

own

l e a d y o u to p a r a d i s e or h e l l , a s if y o u h a d b e e n

d e s t i n e d t h e r e f o r . " N o m a n ' s c o n d u c ' . is the o u t c o m e of fatality, n o r is he b o r n e a l o n g by an i r r e s i s t i b l e d e c r e e to h e a v e n or hell ; o n t h e contrary, the u l t i m a t e r e s u l t is the c r e a t i o n of h i s o w n a c t i o n s , f o r e a c h individual is p r i m a r i l y a n s w e r a b l e f o r h i s f u t u r e d e s t i n y . " E v e r y m o r a l a g e n t is f u r t h e r e d to h i s own c o n d u c t , " or, a s it is p u t in a n o t h e r tradition : " E v e r y o n e is divinely f u r t h e r e d in a c c o r d a n c e with his c h a r a c t e r . " 2 H u m a n c o n d u c t is by n o m e a n s f o r t u i t o u s ; o n e a c t is the result of a n o t h e r ; a n d life, d e s t i n y , a n d c h a r a c t e r m e a n the c o n n e c t e d s e r i e s of incidents a n d a c t i o n s which a r e r e l a t e d and

effect, by

to e a c h

your

own

soul

b e f o r e the

time

a c t i o n s a r r i v e s ; t a k e c o u n t with y o u r s e l f to

account

good

and

as

cause

an o r d a i n e d law, " t h e a s s i g n m e n t " of G o d .

s e r m o n s of the D i s c i p l e we find the d o c t r i n e m o r e "Weigh

other,

for your pure

conduct

actions,

in

adhere

I n the

developed.

for ihe w e i g h i n g of y o u r

before you are called

upon

this e x i s t e n c e ; a p p l y y o u r s e l f to to

the p a t h of

b e f o r e the soul is p r e s s e d to l e a v e its

earthly

will not g u i d e a n d warn y o u r s e l f , n o n e a d j u r e y o u to w o r s h i p the L o r d

fully

in

truth a n d rectitude

a b o d e : verily,

if y o u

other c a n d i r e c t y o u . "

purity a n d

holiness.

3

He

"I has

pointed

out to y o u the path of salvation a n d the t e m p t a t i o n s of this

world.

Abstain from foulness, though

your

s i g h t ; a v o i d evil,

far it t a k e s

you

away

it m a y

be

fair-seeming

to

however p l e a s a n t . . . . F o r ye k n o w e t h h o w from

Him. . . . Listen,

by the w o r d s of the M e r c i f u l G u a r d i a n . "

and

. . . And

take again,

warning "O

ye

servants of m y L o r d , fulfil the d u t i e s that a r e i m p o s e d on y o u , f o r in their n e g l e c t is a b a s e m e n t : y o u r g o o d w o r k s a l o n e

will

render

easy

1 Bukhara's Collections, chapter on the Hadis, " H e is secured whom God helps ;" reported by Abu Said al-Khazri. 2 Jtl U j^xxfOZi I^Uei Ntthj vl-!i-iJd:ihrit, T>. 43 (a collection of the Khutbas of the Caliph r Ali by one of liis descendants, named Sharif Raza, mentioned by Ibn-Khallikan), printed at Tabriz in 1299 A H. * Ibid, p. 136. 48

THE

378 the road to death.

SPIRIT

Remember,

OF

ISLAM.

each sin increases the debt, and

makes the chain [which binds you] heavier.

T h e message .of

mercy

has come ; the path of truth is clear; obey the c o m m a n d that has been laid on y o u ; live in purity, and work in piety, and ask God to

help

past transgressions." 1

you in your endeavours, and to forgive your

"Cultivate humility and forbearance : comport yourself with piety and truth. Take count of your actions with your own conscience (

),

for he who takes such count reaps a great reward, and he who neglects incurs great loss.

He who acts with piety gives rest to his s o u l ; he

who takes warning understands the t r u t h ; he who understands it attains the perfect knowledge." pression of

T h e s e utterances convey no

im-

predestinarianisrn ; on the contrary, they portray a soul

animated with a living faith in God, and yet full of trust in

human

development founded upon individual exertion springing from h u m a n volition.

M o h a m m e d ' s definition of reason and

cognition of the finite and infinite, remind

knowledge, of the

us of Aristotelian

phra-

seology and thought, and Ali's address to his son may be read with advantage by the admirer of Aristotelian ethics. T h e Ihtijaj ul-Tibrisi2

supplies further materials to form a correct

opinion on the question of predestinarianisrn in Isl§,m. Ali was one day asked the meaning of Kaza

T h e Caliph

((-¿5) and

Kadar

( j s i ) • he replied, " T h e first means obedience to the c o m m a n d ments of God and avoidance of sin ; the latter, the ability to live a holy life, and to do that which brings one nearer to God and to shun that which throws him away from His perfection . . . Say not that man is compelled, for that is attribution of tyranny to G o d ; nor say that man has absolute discretion, 3 —rather that we are furthered by His help and grace in our endeavours to act

righteously,

and we transgress because of our neglect (of His c o m m a n d s ) . " One of his interlocutors, Utaba ibn Rabaa Asadi, asked him once as to the meaning of the words "there is no power nor God,'

Kf i j s H j J j * . SI.

"It means,"

help but f r o m

said the Caliph,

"that

I am not afraid of God's anger, but I am afraid of His purity; nor have I the power to observe His commandment, but my strength is

1 Nahj ul-Balaghat, p. 170. 2 Evidences of Tibrisi, a collection of traditions by the Shaikh ut-Tibrisi. 3 /.«. to decide what is right and what is wrong.

THE RATIONALISTIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL SPIRIT OF ISLAM.

in

His

assistance." 1 . . . G o d

a c c o r d i n g to his endowments. passages

of the

has

placed

us on earth to try e a c h

R e f e r r i n g to the following and

other

K o r a n , the Caliph went o n t o say, " G o d says, ' W e

will try you to see who are the striven purity],

379

and who

are the

(^M's*)

[after

truth

your actions.' . . . and ' W e will help you by degrees to attain ye

know

not.'

. . . These

2

verses

prove

volition.'' 3

E x p l a i n i n g the verse of the

whi m

chooses,

He

and

the

good,

His

that

He

caprice, for

human

"God

of

what

human

directs

him

leads astray him whom H e c h o o s e s , " the

either

this

liberty

Koran,

Caliph said that this does not mean that H e or

and

forbearing and patient, and W e will test

gives

would

action ; it means,

compels

men

to

evil

direction or refuses it a c c o r d i n g to

do away

with

all

responsibility

for

on the contrary, that G o d points out the

road to truth, and lets m e n c h o o s e as they will. 4 Arabian

philosophy,

its first breath in the

nurtured

school

afterwards in other cradles, drew

of M e d i n a .

The

freedom

of h u m a n

will, based on the doctrine that man would be judged by the use he had made of his Master,

along

the universe.

reason,

with

an

was

inculcated

earnest

belief in

in the teachings

a S u p r e m e Power ruling

T h e idea assumed a m o r e definite shape in the words

of the Disciple, and grew into a philosophy. carried

of the

to D a m a s c u s ,

Kufa,

From Medina

it

was

B u s s o r a h , and B a g d a d , where it gave

birth to the eclectic schools, which shed such lustre on the reigns

of

the early Abbassides. T h e butchery of K e r b e l a and the s a c k of M e d i n a had led to the c l o s i n g of the lecture-room of the Im§.ms.

W i t h the

appearance of

J a a f a r as-S&dik as the head of M o h a m m e d ' s descendants, it acquired a new life. E x t r e m e l y liberal and rationalistic in his views,—a scholar, a poet, and a philosopher, apparently well read in s o m e of the foreign l a n g u a g e s , — i n constant contact with cultured Christians, J e w s ,

and

Zoroastrians, with whom metaphysical disputations were frequent, - h e impressed a distinct philosophical character on the Medinite s c h o o l . S o m e of his views respecting predestination deserve to b e m e n t i o n e d . 1 Ihfijdj

ui-Tibriil,

3 Ibid. p. 237.

p. 230.

4 Ibid,

38O

THE SPIRIT OF ISLAM.

Speaking of the doctrine of Jabr (compulsion or predestinarianism), which had about this period made its appearance in Damascus, he expressed the following opinion : " T h o s e who uphold Jabr make out God to be a participator in every sin they commit, and a tyrant for punishing those sins which they are impelled to commit by the compulsion of their being : this is infidelity." Then (giving the analogy of a servant sent by his master to the market to purchase something which he, the master, knows well that he cannot bring, not possessing the wherewithal to buy it, and, nevertheless, the master punishes him) the Imam adds, " the doctrine of Jabr converts God into an unjust Master. " 1 As regards the opposite doctrine of absolute liberty (Tafwiz, delegation of authority)—meaning not the freedom of human will, but unqualified discretion in the choice of wrong and right, he declared that to affirm such a principle would destroy all the foundations of morality, and give to all human beings absolute licence in the indulgence of their animal propensities ; for if each individual is vested with a discretion to choose what is right or wrong, no sanction, no law can have any force. K Ikhtiar (jlxIA.) ) is therefore different from Tafwiz fuaj^ftJ), " God has endowed each human being with the capacity to understand PIis commands and to obey them. They who exert themselves to live purely and truly, them He helps: they are those whe please H i m ; whilst they who disobey Him are sinners.'' These views are repeated with greater emphasis by the eighth Im&m, Ali ar-Raz§,, who denounced Jabr ^predestinarianism) and Tashbih (anthropomorphism) as absolute infidelity, 3 and declared the upholders of those doctrines to be " t h e enemies of the Faith." He openly charged the advocates of Jabr and Tashbih with the fabrication of traditions. At the same time he warned his followers against the doctrine of discretion or Tafwiz. H e laid down in broad terms, " God has pointed out to you the two paths, one of which leads you to Him, the other takes you far away from His perfection ; you are at liberty to take the one or the o t h e r ; pain or joy, reward or punishment, depend upon your own conduct. But man has not the capacity of turning evil into good, or sin into virtue "

1 Ihtijdj ut- Tibrsi, p. 236. 2 Ibid. p. 235. 3 He who believes in Jabr is a Kafir ; Ihtijdj ut-Tibrisi, p. 214,

THE

RATIONALISTIC

AND

PHILOSOPHICAL

SPIRIT

OF

ISLAM.

381

T h e O m m e v y a d e s , many of whom remained pagans at heart even after t h e profession of U n d e r them from

arose

Islam,

were, like their forefathers, fatalists.

a s c h o o l which purported to derive its doctrines

the " a n c i e n t s , " the Salaf,

All

a body of primitive M o s e l m s .

of them were dead ; it was consequently easy to fabricate any tradition and

pass it as

bin

Satwan

Jabaria.

handed

was

the

The

down

founder

Jabarias1

by one

or other of

of

school,

this

rivalled

Calvin

in

of free-will to

man.

T h e y maintained " that

sible

of

actions

for

any

his

them.

which

the

Jahm

was

called

absolute

denial

man is not

respon-

which proceed entirely from G o d ;

2

that h e has no d e t e r m i n i n g power to do any act, nor does he possess the capacity

of free

volition ; that

he

is the

subject of absolute

Divine sovereignty in his a c t i o n s , without ability on his part, or or power of c h o i c e ; and that G o d absolutely creates him

just

as

He

actions

will

within

p r o d u c e s activity in all inanimate things ;

and

that reward and punishment are s u b j e c t to absolute Divine sovereignty in

human

garding

actions."

Divine

T h e Jabarias

attributes

which

maintained certain views re-

have

no particular significance.

3

A c c o r d i n g to Shahrist&ni, the Jabarias

were divided into three sects,

viz. : the Jahmia,

the Ziraria,

the

Najjaria,

and

differing

each other on minor points ; but, so far as the doctrine nation

was

agency.

concerned,

T h e Najjarias,

all

of

them

were

agreed

who, after undergoing

tions, developed two centuries later into the that

God

creates

of

from

predesti-

in denying free

several

transforma-

Ashaarias,

maintained

the conduct of H i s creatures, good and bad, vir-

tuous and vicious, while m a n appropriates the same.

The

Jabaria

doctrines found favour with the O m m e y y a d e rulers, and soon spread a m o n g the p e o p l e . T h e u n c o m p r o m i s i n g fatalism of the Jabarias

occasioned among

the thinking classes a revolt, which was headed by Maabad E u n a s al-Asw&ri, and Gil&n D i m i s h k i (i. e. of

al-Juhni,

D a m a s c u s ) , who

had

1 Shahristani divides the Jabarias into two branches, one being Jabarias pure and simple, and the other more moderate. The first maintained that neither action nor the ability to ;ict belongs in any sense to man | »jM LUI ¿a*Jl! ijuxii) ; the latter held that man has an ability which h not at all efficacious ( 2

«1*1^1 J

3 Shahristani, part i. p. 59.

v*

¿

-

j

a

J * A ) | ,^¿3 yt,

W

CUUJ).

THE SPIRIT OF ISL^M.

382

evidently derived many of their ideas from the F&timides. They boldly asserted in the capital of the Ommevyades, in the very stronghold of predestinarianism, the free agency of man. 1 But in the assertion of human liberty they sometimes verged on the doctrine of Tafwlz. From Damascus the dispute was carried to Bussorah, and there the differences of the two parties waxed high. T h e Jaharias merged into a new sect, called the Sifalias? who, with predestinarianism, combined the affirmation of certain attributes in the Deity as distinct from His Essence, which the Jabarias denied. T h e Salaf. Si/alias claimed to be the direct representatives of the According to Shahristani, these followers of the Salaf "maintained that certain eternal attributes pertain to God, namely, knowledge, power, life, will, hearing, sight, speech, majesty, magnanimity, bounty, beneficence, glory, and greatness,—making no distinction between attributes of essence and attributes of action. . . . They also assert certain descriptive attributes ( j**- cul*«e), as, for example, hands and face, without any other explanation than to say that these attributes enter into the revealed representation of the Deity, and that, accordingly, they had given them the name of descriptive attributes." Like the Jabarias, they adhered to the doctrine of predestination in all its gloominess and intensity. From the Si/alias sprung the Mushabbahas, "who likened the Divine attributes to the attributes of created things," 3 and turned God into a similitude of their own selves, 4 At this period one of the most noted professors belonging to the anti-predestinarian party was Imam Hassan, surnamed al-Basri (from his place of residence). H e was a Medinite by birth, and had actually sat at the feet of "the Philosophers of the family of Mohammed." He had imbibed their liberal and rationalistic ideas, and, on settling at Busssorah, had started a lecture-room, which was soon thronged by the students of Irak. 1 Shalnistdni, part i. pp. 59-63.

3

1 Lit. Attributists.

olftA) ¿UXuuJl

* Shahristani draws a distinction between the Sif&tia anthroponiorphists and those who came into existence later. " A t a later period certain persons went beyond what had been professed by any who held to the primitive faith, and said t h a t undoubtedly those expressions ¡denoting the attributesl are used in the literal sense, and are to be interpreted just as they stand, without resort to figurative interpretation, and a t the same time, without insisting upon the literal sense alone, whereby they fell into pure anthropomorphism (ki^iflJl in violation of the primitive Moslem faith."

THE RATIONALISTIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL SPIRIT OF ISLÁM. H e r e he discoursed on the metaphysical questions of the day

383 in

the

of his most prominent pupils was A b ü Huzaifa W á s i l

bin

spirit of his masters. One

Aatá al-Ghazzál, in the

1

sciences

a man of great mental powers,

thoroughly

and traditions, who had also studied in the lecture-

r o o m of Medina.

H e seceded f r o m I m a m H a s s a n on a question of

religious d o g m a , and founded a school of

his

own.

His

followers

have, from the fact of his secession, been called Mutazalas, ul-Itizal,

Dissenters.2

whose

versed

H e soon rivalled

school before long

practically

the

merged

fame

or

in that of the pupil.

Impulsive, like Luther, he often overstepped the b o u n d s of tion

in

modera-

his antagonism against intellectual tyranny, and gave

a n c e to views, especially on the disputes raised by Muáwiyah the

Caliph

Medina.

Ali,

Yet

most

the lines

the principles

which

were

the general

strongest and upon

in conflict

rationalism

with of his

which

Fátimide

they

had

doctrines

rallied

school

philosophers, and laid

down

which

he

Proceeding

and the ideas to which formulated

into theses

constitute the basis of his difference from the F o r several

his school d o m i n a t e d over the intellects of m e n , and with

the support of the enlightened rulers who the

the

appropriating

predestinarían schools and from Patristicism generally. centuries

utteragainst

those entertained at

liberal minds round his standard.

of the

they had often given f o r c i b l e e x p r e s s i o n , the

Ahl-

of his master,

reins

of government,

during

this

period

national and intellectual life a m o n g the S a r a c e n s such as b e e n witnessed before.

held

it gave an impetus to the development of had

never

Distinguished scholars, prominent physicists,

mathematicians, historians—all the world of intellect in fact,

includ-

ing the Caliphs, b e l o n g e d to the Mutazalite s c h o o l . 3 M e n like Abu'l Huzail H a m d á n , 4 I b r á h í m ibn Saiyár an-Nazzám, 4 Ahmed ibn Háit, Fazl al-Hadasi, and A b ü Ali M o h a m m e d a l - J u b b a i , 6 1

J t)*l|

c b l j tAiCm

He lived in the days of Abd ul-Malik,

Walid and Hisháni. Ho wus bovu in 83 A. H. (699-700 A. c.i and died in 131 A.H. (748-9 A. O.1 2 Shahristáni, p. 31 ; Oouhar-i-Murad (vide post). 3 We may mention here two or three prominent Mutazalas whose names are still famous, e. g. Imélm Zamakhshari, the author of the Kaaksh&f, admittedly the best and most erudite commentary on the Koran ; Masúdi "Imam, historian, and philosopher ; " the famous Al-Hazen, Abu'l Wafa, and Mirkhond. 4 Died A H 235 (A.C. 849-850), in the beginning of al-Mutawakkil's Caliphate. s A nephew of Abu'l Huzail. 3 Born in 861 ; died in 933. SI-0

THE

3^4

SPIRIT OF

ISLAM.

well read in G r e e k philosophy and logic, a m a l g a m a t e d borrowed

from

those

sources

many

ideas

with the Medinite conceptions, and

impressed a new feature on the philosophical notions of the M o s l e m s . T h e study of Aristotle, P o r p h y r y , and other G r e e k and writers gave birth to a new science a m o n g the called Ilm-ul-Kaldm, which

they

" the science of reason''

fought

both

Alexandrian

Mutazalas, which was ( K a l a m , logos),1

with

against the external as well as the internal

enemies of the F a i t h , — t h e n o n - M o s l e m s who assailed of Islam from outside, and degradation from within.

the

teachings

the patristic M o s l e m s w h o aimed at its

T h e extreme views of W l s i l on the poli-

tical questions which had agitated the Caliphate

of Ali

were

l o n g abandoned, with the result that moderate Mutazalaism

before became

substantially a m a l g a m a t e d with the rationalism of the F a t i m i d e s c h o o l , whence it had sprung.

It is a well-known fact that the

of the Mutazalite school were educated

chief doctors

under the Fatimides, and

there can hardly be any doubt that moderate Mutazalaism represented the views of the Caliph Ali and the most liberal of his early d e s c e n d ants, and probably of M o h a m m e d

himself.

A careful

comparison

of the Mutazalite doctrines will show that they were either word

for

word the same as were taught by the early F a t i m i d e s , or were m o d i fications

of those doctrines

induced

by the requirements of a pro-

gressive society, and partly,

perhaps,

by

the

study

of

Greek

and

Alexandrian philosophy. T h e Caliph Ali had c o n d e m n e d in emphatic l a n g u a g e all anthrop o m o r p h i c and anthropopathic c o n c e p t i o n s of the Deity. not like any o b j e c t that the h u m a n mind can can be ascribed to H i m

" G o d was

c o n c e i v e ; no attribute

which bore the least resemblance

to any

quality of which h u m a n beings have perception from their k n o w l e d g e of material objects.

The

perfection of piety

consists in

knowing

G o d ; the perfection of k n o w l e d g e is the affirmation of H i s the perfection of verity is to a c k n o w l e d g e H i s unity in all

verity;

sincerity;

and the perfection of sincerity is to deny all attributes to the Deity . . . «i* olA-^l ¡¿to

J^J-

H e w h o refers an attribute to G o d

bi.liev :s t ie alt.¡bale 10 be G o d , and he who so believes an to be asks the

God, where

Creator,

regards God not

God

as two

is, assimilates because

He

or

part of one. . . . H e

H i m with Himself

1 Shahristani, p. 18 ; Ibn-Khaldiln.

attribute

s o m e object.

is c r e a t e d ;

God

who

G o d is is e x -

THE RATIONALISTIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL SPIRIT OF ISLAM.

¡stent,'

not

because

He

was n o n - e x i s t e n t .

He

385

is with

every

object, not f r o m r e s e m b l a n c e or n e a r n e s s ; H e is o u t s i d e of everything not f r o m separation.

H e is the P r i m a r y C a u s e (Joli), not in the

m e a n i n g of m o t i o n or action ; H e is the Seer, b u t n o sight c a n see H e has n o relation to place, t i m e , or m e a s u r e . 1 . . . G o d is

Him.

O m n i s c i e n t , b e c a u s e k n o w l e d g e is H i s E s s e n c e ;

Mighty,

because

P o w e r is H i s E s s e n c e •, L o v i n g , b e c a u s e L o v e is H i s E s s e n c e . . . not b e c a u s e these are attributes apart f r o m H i s E s s e n c e . . . . T h e c o n d i t i o n s or t i m e or space were wholly inapplicable to H i m . " . . Takdir

( j i ^ ), c o n s t r u e d by the f o l l o w e r s of the Salaf

to m e a n

predestination, m e a n t " w e i g h i n g , " " p r o b a t i o n , " " t r i a l . " L e t us see now what M u t a z a l a i s m is. sidiary

points the

prominent

On many minor

Mutazalite d o c t o r s

and

differed

sub-

among

themselves ; but I shall give h e r e a s k e t c h of the d o c t r i n e s o n which they

were in a c c o r d .

According

to Shahristani,

the

Mutazalas8

declare that " eternity is the d i s t i n g u i s h i n g attribute of the

Divine

B e i n g ; that G o d is Eternal, for E t e r n i t y is the p e c u l i a r p r o p e r t y of H i s E s s e n c e ; they u n a n i m o u s l y deny the existence of eternal (Divine) qualities ( 4*ja£J| o t o ^ l ) [ a s

distinct f r o m H i s

b e i n g ] , and

main-

tain that H e is O m n i s c i e n t as to H i s b e i n g ; Living as to H i s b e i n g ; Almighty as to H i s b e i n g ; but not t h r o u g h any k n o w l e d g e ,

power,

or life existing in H i m as eternal a t t r i b u t e s ; f o r k n o w l e d g e , power, a n d life are part of H i s E s s e n c e .

Otherwise, if they are to be l o o k e d

u p o n as eternal attributes of the D e i t y (separate f r o m H i s

Essence),

it would t e n d to the affirmation of a multiplicity of eternal entities. . . T h e y also maintain that the

WORD

of G o d is created, a n d w h e n

created, is e x p r e s s e d in letters a n d s o u n d s . . . . unanimously

denied

that willing, h e a r i n g , a n d

In like m a n n e r they seeing

are

ideas

1 Nahj-ul-Balaghat ; see the comment of lbn-i-Abi'l Hadid, the Mutazalite. 2 From the Imam Jaafar as-Sadik, ibid. 3 "The Mutazalas called themselves," says Shahrist&ni, "Ashab-ul-aadl wa't-taulrid, 'people of justice and unity,' and sometimes Kadarias." As a matter of fact, however, the designation of Kadaria was never applied by the Mutazalas to themselves; it was applied by their enemies to the extreme Mutazalas who maintained the doctrine of Tafwiz, and which was condemned by the Fatimide Imams. They always repudiated that designation, and applied it to the predestinarians, who asserted that God is t'.ie Creator of every human action. Shahristani admits this, and says,— j^JUj dtU( ^ t j M j t j * J^flj ^ ¡ J * f j l l u AjjMlI M f I^li J But he tries to refute the applicability of the word Kadaria to the predestinarians. "How can it apply to those who trust in God ; " Shahristani, p. 30. 4Q

386

THE SPIRIT OF ISLAM.

subsistent in the Divine Being, though differing as to the modes of their existence and their metaphysical grounds." 1 unanimously

" They deny

that God can be beheld in the Dar-ul-Karar

the Abode of Rest) with the corporeal sight.

(in

They forbid the des-

cribing of God by any quality belonging to material objects, either by way of direction, or location, or appearance, or body, or change, or cessation of action, or dissolution ; and they have explained the passages of the Koran in which expressions implying these qualities have been used, by asserting that the expressions are used figuratively and not literally.

And this doctrine they call Tauhld,

'assertion

of Divine unity.' . . . They also agree in believing that man is the creative efficient of his actions, good and bad Uj» j

¿ i ^ l Ol

H), and gets reward and punishment in the future

world by merit for what he does ; and that no moral evil, or iniquity of action, or unbelief, or disobedience, can be referred to God, because, if he had caused unrighteousness to be, He would be Himself unrighteous (UUs c ^ maintain and good

(j^- y

) .

.

that the All-wise d j j s (

Ij

^¿Wl

.

ill J * S b Jl ),

the light of w : sdom ( ( ¿L*}| ^ U a « )

.

They also unanimously

only that which and

is

beneficial

that a regard in

ey" ) for the good of humanity

is incumbent upon

Him,

though

they

differed

as to His being obligated to secure the highest good, and to bestow grace ( ^ ¿ ¿ e i j ^ « j ^ ^

}

i - a i D i } ^JUJfl U| j ).

And this doc-

rine they call the doctrine of aadl, or justice." They further hold that there is no eternal law as regards human actions ; that the Divine ordinances which regulate the conduct of men are the result of growth and development ; that God has commanded and forbidden by a law which grew gradually.

At the same

time, they say that he who works righteousness merits rewards, and he who works evil deserves punishment ; and this, thev say, is consonant with reason.

T h e Mutazalas also say that all knowledge is

attained through reason, and must necessarily be so obtained.

They

hold that the cognition of good and evil is also within the province of reason ; that nothing is known to be wrong or right until

reason

has enlightened us as to the distinction ; and that thankfulness for the blessings of the Benefactor is made obligatory by reason, even 1 Shahristani, p. 30.

THE RATIONALISTIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL SPIRIT OF ISLAM.

before the promulgation of any law on the subject. that the knowledge of

They

387

maintain

G o d is within the province of reason ; and,

with the exception of Himself, everything else is liable to change to suffer extinction.

or

" T h e y also maintain that the Almighty has sent

His Prophets to explain to mankind His commandments. . . . T h e y differ among themselves as to the question of the Imiimate ; some maintaining that it descended by appointment, others holding to the right of the people to elect." T h e Mutazalas are, therefore, the direct antitheses of the Si/dlias, for ''these and all other Ahl-us-Sunnat

hold

that G o d does whatever H e pleases, for H e is the Sovereign Lord of His dominions, and whatever He wishes He orders . . . and aadl

(justice) according to them.

According to the

this

is

Ahl-ul-Itizal,

what accords with Reason and Wisdom only is justice {aadl), and the doing of acts for (or according to) the good mankind],

ujIj-aJi

yic

and well-being

T h e Ahl-ul-aadl

has commanded and forbidden by created words. Ahl-us-Sunnat

[of

say that G o d

According to the

(the Sif&tias), all that is obligatory is known

from

hearsay (£*—); (secular) knowledge only is attained by reason; Reason cannot tell us what is good, or what is bad, or what is obligatory. T h e Ahl-ul-aadl reason. 1

say (on the contrary) that all knowledge comes through T h e y referred that term of tradition

trial and deliverance, adversity and

'pre-destination' to

prosperity, sickness and health,

death and life, and other doings of G o d , exclusive of mor;.l good and evil, virtue and vice, regarding men as responsible ^iJi

( ¿U*JI

3

}

for the

latter,

; j i ^ ' l ^jjJ )

and it is in the same sense that the whole community of the

Muta-

zala employ that t e r m . " T h u s far we have given the views of the school as a body ; but there were certain opinions held

by the prominent doctors indivi-

dually, which, though not accepted beyond the immediate their particular disciples, are yet deserving of notice. Abft-Huzail Hamdan

maintained

that the

For

circle

of

example

Creator is knowing by

virtue of knowledge, but that His knowledge is His Essence ; powerful by virtue of power, but that His power is His Essence ; living by virtue of life, but that His life is His Essence.

"A. view," says

Shahrist&ni, "adopted from the Philosophers," but really taken from 1 Shahristani, p, 31.

388

THE SPIRIT OF ISLAM.

the Medinite school.

He also affirmed that free will

is an accident ( ( j e j * ), additional to and soundness ( fcr^i ).

(

)

perfection of development

Ibnthim ibn Saiy&r an-Nazzam, "a dili-

gent student of the books of the Philosophers," maintained "that without a revelation, man is capable, by reflection, of recognising the Creator, and of distinguishing between virtue and vice . . . and that the Doer of Righteousness possessed not the capacity to do wrong."

Muammar ibn Abbad as-Sulami advanced the Platonic

theory of "archetypes."

He maintained that accidents are perma-

nent in the several species of things to which they belong (

U?

^ U J j V ), and that every accident subsists in a subject, though its subsistence therein is only by virtue of some idea (in the human mind).

Muammar and his followers were in consequenee of this

doctrine called Idealists ( ^ ^ J l

)•

A M Ali Mohammed

ibn Abdul Wahhab, known as Abu Ali al-Jubbai, maintained that action pertains to man in the way of origination and first production ; and ascribed to man moral good and evil, obedience and disobedience, in the way of sovereignty and prerogative ; and that free will ( «plklwjfi ) is a pre-requisite to action, and a to bodily completeness

power additional

and soundness of the members.

Ma&li aj-Juwaini,' 1 Imam-ul-Har

Abu'l

amain {i. e. of the two sacred cities),

who, however, did not call himself a Mutazala, and is generally claimed by the upholders of

the opposite

doctrine

as belong-

ing to their body, held that the denial of ability and free will is something which reason and affirm an ability without any

consciousness disavow; that to

sort of

efficacy

is equivalent

to

denying ability altogether, and that to affirm some unintelligible influence (of ability), which constitutes a motive cause, amounts to the denial of any special influence, and that, inasmuch as conditions and states, on the principle of those who maintain to be characterised as existing

or

non-existing

them, are not (but

must

be

explained by reference to their origin), action on the part of man (regarded as an existing state) is to be attributed really to his own ability,—though

not in the way of origination and creation, for

by creation is meant the causing of something to come into being by supreme power which was not previously in existence; and that action depends for its existence upon ability (in man), which i Died 1085.

THE RATIONALISTIC AND PHILOSOPHICAL SPIRIT OF ISLAM.

389

itself depends for its existence upon some other cause, its relation to that cause being the same as the relation of (human) action

to

(man's) ability, and so one cause depends u p o n another until the causa

causans

(cJfwJIt r

ly; $ ft

} vh'^i

j,Jlc

r*

j*

J

j

" I would have said He was the Soul of the Universe if I had known the relation of the human soul to the bod}', for He is present and hidden in the heart of every atom."

THE

END.

APPENDIX I. TRANSLATION OF THE PERSIAN AND ARABIC MOTTOES AT THE HEAD OF THE CHAPTERS. O T h o u ! who hast no place in any place, Wonder-struck I am that T h o u art at every place. Faith and no-Faith are both e n g a g e d in T h y search. Both crying aloud, " H e is the one, He is the all-Alone." ... P. i. Introd. He attained the height of eminence by his perfection ; H e dispelled the darkness (of the world) by his g r a c e ; Excellent

were all his qualities ;

Pray for blessings on him and his posterity, Mohammed

P. i

is the lord of the two worlds and of m a n k i n d and the Spirits.

A n d of the two nations, the A r a b s and the A j a m (non-Arabs)

P. 38

Thou hast come before all the T e a c h e r s of the w o r l d , T h o u g h thou hast appeared last of all ; Last of the Prophets thy nearness has become known to

me ;

T h o u comest last, as thou comest from a distance.

P. 47

M a y God ever convey my benedictions and greeting. T o the Prophet of Arabia, of M e d i n a , — o f M e c c a The

;

sun of excellence and of splendour, and of sublimest eminence ;

T h e light of

full moon, of

The

of

elegance, and of

the sky

of

generosity ; noblest

creation

in

person

and

in

adoration

and in watchfulness ; The

most

excellent

of

mankind

in

munificence

and

generosity. He is like the

flower

P. 52

in delicacy and like the full m o o n in spendour.

Like the ocean in liberality, and like T i m e in resolution

P. 62

422

APPENDIX

I.

He called towards God, and those who took hold of him Took hold of a rope that never breaks. ... •••

P. 78

Bat how can the desire of the eulogist come up to What is in him of nobility of disposition and nature ?

...

. P. 86

He surpassed all the Prophets in constitution and in disposition, Nor any did approach him either in knowledge or nobleness. Avoid what the Christians assert about their Prophet ; (But) declare whatever else thou wishest in his praise, and contend for it. Indeed the Prophet is a light from which guidance is sought, And a drawn sword out of God's swords

P. 94

Is it from the remembrance of the neighbours at Zi-Salam That thou hast mixed tears flowing from the eyes with blood ? ...P. 100 When the help of God and victory come and thou seest the people

entering

into

the religion of God in troops, Celebrate the praise of thy Lord, and ask pardon of Him ; for He is the Forgiver.

P. 102

Come to Me, do not seek except Me ; I am the Beneficent ; seek me thou wilt find Me. Dost thou remember any night in which thou hast called to

Me

Secretly, And I did not hear thee ? Then seek Me thou wilt find Me. When the afflicted one says " dost not Thou see me ? " I look towards him ; seek Me, thou wilt find Me. When My servant disobeys Me, thou wilt find Me Quick in chastising ; seek'Me, thou wilt find Me. Say, unto whom belongeth whatsoever is

in beaven

P. 11 and

earth ? Say unto God ; He hath prescribed unto himself mercy

P. 138

(For translation of the other passage see p. 151.) The disputes of the seventy-two sects put them all aside, As they did not see the Truth they took to the path of fiction...P. 26 (TV. B. The Mahommedan world is supposed to be split up into seventy two sects.)

A P P E N D I X II. The tradition which I have paraphrased into English is as follows :— ^

js f

^

)

^o

>JUf

"S&yir," says Yakut in his Geographical Encyclopaedia, " is a hill in Palestine and FarSn is the hill of Mecca ;" Mujam ul-Bulddn, Vol. I l l , P- 834Introd. p. lix P- '45

^ a j )

Ibid

^juju

•

P- 2 48.

...

j ^ i c ¿L'| J

Ijjj

Aaj J j

'¿/oj

J ^J^ti

P- 2 47

j ^uub liuuO dJ

j &1J) y ^

,

Is ^y*

I^Ajk^Li. , ^ i ^ s i i J j («V'^®-1'

ws*

^ ...

jiyn

J ^Jfyol J f y ^ l J (V^" J

Ajjjlvjij ^./o ^ i f ^ J l j iijjftiu/l ^ / o

^Ollj ¿ ^ P- 246

y h x i D | * | jL> i

4/«

ii

^yc 4'jfj

)

^Lfij)) J^JIJX

j ' «"M 3 ^ j ]

^ ^

UojIIj

^j^so

^¿xc

^

^td-Jf

Whatever the sins of the Babis may have been, their punishment, in its barbarous inhumanity, far exceeded their deserts—a punishment borne with sublime fortitude which cannot help evoking the admiration of every heart not steeped in racial or religious fanaticism and which is bearing its natural fruit. The soct, instead of dying out, is increasing in number, and judging from the few professed Babis I have met, actuated with bitter hatred against the Mullahs whom they believe to be the primary cause of their persecution.

APPENDIX

424 T h e cruelties to which

the

II.

Babis were subjected were the acts of

an ignorant populace and a frightened governor hounded on by fanatical priests. In China, in our own times under the eyes of the civilised world, disciplined troops of certain civilised Powers perpetrated the most diabolical and nameless horrors upon unoffending citizens and helpless and children.

women

Crimes like these destroy one's faith in humanity

progress

...

...

...

...

...

and

... p 346.

T h e astronomer Ali Ibn Yunus was a man of versatile talent. made astronomy his

particular

study," says Ibn

was well-versed in other sciences and desplayed an eminent for poetry." T h e Indian

...

...

Social Reformer

...

...

...

he

talent

... p. 347.

of Bombay (of the 28th of July 1901),

in an appreciative article on "the Liberal Movement attention to certain

"He

Khallikan, "but

statements of M.

Renan

delivered in March, 1883 at the Sorbonne.

1

in Islim", drew

in one of his

my

lectures

In this lecture, M. Renan

has tried to show that IslSm is opposed to science, and that

scientific

pursuits came into vogue among the Moslems only when the religion became weakened. "Omar", he says, " did not burn, as we are often told, the library of Alexandria ; that library had, by his time, nearly disappeared.

But the principle which he caused to triumph in the world was in a

very real sense destructive of learned research and of the varied

work

of the mind." T h e correctness of this somewhat wild and reckless assertion, which, coming from the author of "Averroes and Averroism," is startling, was at once challenged by the learned Shaikh Jamal ud-diti who was residing at Paris at the time. M. Renan's reply to the Shaikh's criticism is instructive.

T h e learned Frenchman had to qualify his generalisations and to

acknowledge that by Islam he meant the religion of Mohammed as accepted and practised by the ignorant and fanatical sections of the Moslem communities.

I will quote here the passage in which he limits his strict-

ures, as it may perpaps be of some help in awakening the Mussalmans themselves to a sense of their responsibilities :— " O n e aspect in which I have appeared

unjust to the Shaikh is that I have not sufficiently

developed the idea that all revealed religion is forced to show hostility to positive science ; and that, in this respect, Christianity has no reason to boast over Isl&m.

About that there can be no doubt. Galileo was not

treated more kindly by Catholicism than was Averroes by Islam.

Galileo

found truth in a Catholic country despite Catholicism, as Averroes nobly philosophised

in a Moslem country despite Isliim.

more strongly upon

If I did not insist

this point, it was to tell the truth, because

my

1 The lecture is headed "Isldmism and Science," and is printed in a book called "the Poetry of the Celtic Races and other Studies,"

APPENDIX

425

II.

opinions on this m a t t e r are so well known that there was no need for m e to recur to them again before a public conversant I have said, sufficiently often to preclude

with my

writings.

any necessity for r e p e a t i n g

it,

that the h u m a n mind must be detached from all s u p e r n a t u r a l belief if it desires to labour at its own essential task, which of positive science. hasty rupture.

is the

construction

T h i s does not imply any violent destruction

It does not mean that

Christianity, or that

the Christian

the Mussulman should a b a n d o n Islam.

that the enlightened parts of Christendom that state of benevolent

and

Islam

or

should forsake It m e a n s

should arrive

at

indifference in which religious beliefs become

inoffensive. T h i s is half accomplished

in nearly all Christian

Let us hope that the like will be the case for Islam.

countries.

Naturally on that

day the Shaikh a n d I will be at one, a n d ready to applaud heartily I did not assert that all Mussulmans, without distinction of race, are and always will be sunk in ignorance. difficulties in the way of science, and

I said that Islamism puts great unfortunately h a s succeeded for

five or six hundred years in almost suppressing it in the countries under its sway ; a n d that this is for these countries a cause of extreme weakness.

1 believe, in point of fact, that the regeneration of t h e M o h a m -

medan to

pass

advance

countries

will

through

the

not

be

the

work of

enfeeblement of

Islam ; it will come

Islam, as indeed the

of the countries called Christian c o m m e n c e d

truction of the tyrannical church of the Middle Ages.

great

with the desSome

persons

have seen in my lecture a t h o u g h t hostile to the individuals who profess the M o h a m m e d a n

religion.

T h a t is by no m e a n s

true; M u s s u l m a n s

are themselves t h e first victims of Islam. More than once in my E a s t e r n travels I have been in a position to notice how fanaticism proceeds from a small n u m b e r of d a n g e r o u s men who k e e p the others in t h e of religion by terror.

practice

T o e m a n c i p a t e t h e M u s s u l m a n f r o m his religion

would be the g r e a t e s t service that one could r e n d e r him.

In

these populations, in which so m a n y good elements exist, a

deliverance

wishing

from the yoke that weighs t h e m down, I d o not believe that I h a v e any unkindly thought for them.

And, let me say also, since the Shaikh

J a m a l ud-din desires m e to hold the balance equally between different faiths, I should not any the more believe that I was wishing evil of certain E u r o p e a n countries if I expressed a hope t h a t Christianity should have a less d o m i n a n t influence upon them." It is a m a t t e r for regret that E u r o p e a n should persist in comparing form of Christianity.

scholars, generally

speaking,

t h e lowest form of Islam with the highest

All religions have different phases ; they vary

according to the climatic a n d economic conditions of the country, the environments and education

of t h e p e o p l e , their national

characteris-

APPENDIX II.

426 tics and

a multitude of oher causes.

T o compare modern idealistic

Christianity with a debased form of Islam is an insult to common sense and intelligence.

In this work I have endeavoured to show how Islam

furthered the intellectual movement of the world, how it brought to life a dying world, how it promoted culture and civilisation. Islam

It was not the

which is professed to-day by the ignorant bigot, the intriguing

s elf-seeker, but it was nevertheless and noblest sense.

Islam—Islam

in its truest, highest

I have tried to show the cause of the blight

has fallen on Moslem nations.

that

It is more than probable that my views

will not satisfy the critic of Islam who has started with a pre-conceived bias, or who judges of the Faith by the same

I venture

to

assert

that

its latter-day professors. my statements

All

are founded on

historical facts. *

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

One assertion of M. Renan requires a categorical refutation.

He

has alleged in his lecture "as a very remarkable thing that among the philosophers and learned men called Arabic, there was but one alone, Alkindi, who was of Arabic origin : all the others were Persians, oxians, Spaniards, natives of Seville.

of Bokhara, of Samarcand, of

Not only were those men not Arabs by blood, but they

were in nowise Arabs in mind."

T h e memory of

this great

scholar, whose acquaintance I had the privilege of every respect. truth.

Trans-

Cordova,

making,

But surely this sweeping observation is

A glance at the Wafiat ul-Ayan

phical Dictionary), the Tdrikh

(Ibn

ul-Hukama

the eminent

men

whose

deserves

very wide of the

Khallikan's great Biograand other works of the like

nature, will show how utterly unfounded the assertion is. genealogy of

French

From the

lives are contained

in these

books, it will be seen that a vast number of the great scholars, doctors and savants, although born in places outside Arabia, were Arabs by descent. Probably M. was a

Renan would not have admitted that Ali (the Caliph)

philosopher, but his

descendants Jaafar as-Sadik

and Ali ar-

Raza were unquestionably entitled to be included in that designation. And Jaafar as-Sadik was a scientist besides. Jaabir ibn Haiyan

(Geber),

the father of modern chemistry, worked in fact with the materials gathered by

Jaafar.

It is

admitted

that A1 Kindi, "the

Philosopher of the

Arabs", was descended from the royal family of Kinda and was an Arab of the Arabs.

But it is not known that Y a h y a

ante p. 344) was a pure Arab.

ibn Ali Mansur (see

Nor is it known that Ali ibn

Yunus

(ante p. 347) belonged to the tribe of a s - S a d a f — " a great branch," says Ibn KhallikS" " of the

tribe

of

Al-Jahiz, A b u Osman Amr, al-Kinani

Himyar which al-Laisi,

settled in

Egypt."

the celebrated Mutazalite

APPENDIX II. philosopher, w h o died at a pure A r a b ,

B u s s o r a h in A .

H.

255

a m e m b e r of the tribe of K i n á n i.

was a T u j i b i t e b y descent.

(868.—9 A . C.)

from

Tujíb

the sons of A s h r a s ibn us-Sakiin.

was

A v e n p a c e (ante p. 3861

" T u j i b i p r o n o u n c e d also T a j i b i , "

Khallikàn, " means descended Saad,

4¿7

the m o t h e r of

s a y s Ibn Aadi

and

S h e h e r s e l f was the d a u g h t e r

of S a u b á n bin Sulaim ibn Mazis, a n d her sons were s u r n a m e d after her." T h e Avenzoars ( ante

p. 355) b e l o n g e d to the A r a b i a n tribe

of Iyàz

ibn Nizàr and h e n c e bore the title of a l - I y à z i . T h e great g r a m m a r i a n a l - K h a l ì l ibn A h m e d was tribe of A z d .

T h e S p a n i s h historian a n d

a

member

philosopher

of

the

Ibn B a s h - k u w a l

was a d e s c e n d a n t of one of the M e d i n i t e A n s á r w h o h a d settled in S p a i n . Masùdi

( ante p. 359) w a s a direct d e s c e n d a n t of o n e of

immediate

companions

and

disciples, Ibn

Masüd,

the P r o p h e t ' s

hence

t h e title ;

whilst Ibn ul-Athir was a m e m b e r of the c e l e b r a t e d tribe of S h a i b à n . The

political economist

Bussorah,

and jurisconsult,

al-M4wardi,

a

n a t i v e of

was a pure A r a b . 1

T h e soldier, statesman, philosopher a n d poet,

O s a m a was

a member

of the tribe of K i n à n a . Sharif al-Murtaza, the author of the Ghurrar

tva'd Durrar,

one of t h e

greatest scholars of his time, was d e s c e n d e d from I m a m A l i a r - R a z à . Ibn T u f a i l {ante p. 396) was a m e m b e r of the tribe of K a i s and

hence

the title of a l - K a i s i . Ibn K h a l d ü n was d e s c e n d e d from an Y e m e n i t e f a m i l y w h i c h h a d tled in S p a i n .

set-

T h e y c a m e from H a z r a m u t a n d were therefore called al-

Hazrami. 1 h a v e g i v e n only a few n a m e s p i c k e d out at random but the curious r e a d e r will find numberless instances in the b o o k s I h a v e m e n t i o n e d . 2 To

say

that these

men

were not A r a b s

them

is surely a bold assertion.

that,

because

Longfellow,

I might

Khallikàn

equal e f f r o n t e r y

Channing, Emerson,

A m e r i c a , they were not A n g l o - S a x o n s .

Ibn

and had no A r a b blood in

with

calls al-Fárábi

D r a p e r were

...

" the

...

greatest

assert

born

in

. . . P . 366.

philosopher

of

the

M o s l e m s " and s p e a k s of him in the following terms : — ^-CiJ/

¿jjl

-r?

¿«.si-o

y^.]

(1) T w o of his most inportant works are the Ahkàm Siàsat td-Mulk, both spoken of highly by Von Hammer. 2 See also Wíistenfeld's Gesr.hichte der Arabischer of Zahabl, and Casiri's Bibliotheca Arabica.

y)

us-SattaiiaC and as-

Aerzle,

Tdrikh

al-Isiàm,

APPENDIX II.

428.

lUuJLsj

£iijj| j ¿UiJlO

"Abu Nasr Mohammed bin Mohammed bin Turkhan bin Auslagh al-Farabi at-Turki (the Turk), a celebrated philosopher, author of many works in logic, music, and other sciences.

He was the greatest of philo-

sophers among the Moslems, and no one among them attained a rank equal to

his

in

the sciences.

And the

chief (of philosophers)

Abu

Ibn Sina, whom I have mentioned before, derived benefit from his

Ali

writings."

...

...

...

...

...

... p. 394.

Abu'l Kasim Kinderski was a famous poet and Avicennistic sopher of Persia in the i8th century. *

*

*

...

*

*

... *

philo-

...

*

*

Ibid. *

Haiibn Yukzan was translated into English and published in London so long ago as 1686. ... ... ... ... . . . p . 396. Sanai has given expression to his admiration for Ibn Sina and his devotion to philosophy in the following lines. 4.J UjO I J^

¿W* t JAM Jii

3Akhbarism, 320. A l - A h s â , 307. A l - A m î n , 1, 13, 22, 47, 110. A l - A s w a d , 108, Al-Azhar, 296. Al-Bahrain, 307, 326. Al-Beiruni, 159, 350, 354, 359. Al-Demri, 357. Al-Edrisi, 354. Al-Fârâbi, 393, 394, 399, 401, 412. Al-Ghazzâli, 145, 146, 411, 412, 417, 418. A l - H â d i , 395. A l - H a l l â j , 12 T. Al-Istakhri, 354. A l - K â i m bi-amr Illâh, 287. Al-Kâmil, 360. Al-Kindi, 344, 393, 399. A l - K o h i , 346. A l - K u m i , 354. A l - M a h d i , 298, 338, 393. A l - M a k î n , 360. Al-Mansûr, 280, 281, 316, 337, 338, 410. Al-Muiz, 295, 296, 310, 342. AI-Nafs-uz-Zakiya, 294. Al-Nairizi, 345. Ali, 13, 14, 19, 22, 27, 35, 43, 44, 45, 57, 63, 65, 66, 91, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 108, 109, 142, 145, 159, 1 7 6 , 1 9 4 , 2 1 0 , 2 1 2 , 2 1 3 , 214, 242, 247, 248, 253, 254, 256, 265, 266, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 274, 276, 278, 279, 28c, 284, 285, 286, 290, 292, 293, 295, 297, 300, 302, 3°9, 314, 319, 323, 326, 333, 334, 337, 346, 377, 383, 384, 390, 403, 407, 414. Ali ibn-Amâjur, 345. Ali ibn-Abbâs, 355. Ali ibn-Mûsa ar-Raza, 284, 335. Ali ibn-Taba T a b a , 261. Ali 11., 292, 293, 295, 309, 316. Ali III., Abu'l Hassan Ali ar-Raza, 284, 316, 380. Ali IV, Naki, 317. Ali Mohammed, Mirza, 328, 329. Ali Shah al-Bokhari, 352. Ali Shèr Amir, 353. Alamût, 31 j, 313, 314. Alamûtias, 311, 3F2, 313. Albigenses, I8I, 285, 367.

Al-M&miin, 190, 284, 343. Almohade, 369, 396, 397. A l p Arslam, 287, 311, 351. Amalekites, 48, 49 59. Amavis, 286. A m r ibn-al-Aas, 88, 170, 171. Anabaptists, 180. Ansar, 49, 52, 72, 92, 93, 266, 276, 288, 337. Anikhirvan, 299. Anwari, 339, 365. Arabian tribes, 5, 7. Arians, 32, 180, 181,299. Aryans, 229, Asaduilah al-Ghiilib, 315. Ashaarias, 350, 408, 410, 411, 414, 415Ash&b-ul-adl-wa't-Tauhid, 385, 389. A s n i - A a s h a r i a s , 286, 292, 295, 315, 317, 318, 321 Asna-Aashariaism, 286, 321. Athenians, 184, 202, 207, 208, 335, 341, 344Aurangzeb, 286, 363. Aus, 49, 54, 69, 167. A v e n p a c e , 366, 368, 369. Aven-Zoar, 355. Averroes, 261, 349, 355, 356, 366, 368, 397, 410. 418. Avicenna, 320, 352, 355, 356, 395, 402, 414. A y e s h a , 109, 194, 195, 210, 269, 368. A y y a m ul-Mina, 3. Azar, Lutf Ali, 365. Azarika, 327, 328. Azd ud-Dowla Aziz b'lllah, 347. Bâbek, surnamed Xhurram. 299. Bâbism, 121, 328, 329 Babylon, 119, 183, 208, 338. Bactria, xx. Badr, 62, 68, 89, 194. Bagdad, 214, 286, 287, 291,296, 297, 307, 316, 317, 326, 332, 338, 340. 342, 343, 345, 346, 352, 357, 359, 360, 366, 371, 379, 401, 404, 406, 407, 410. Bahmani, 286. Balazuri, 359. Banû-Abbas, 276, 278, 279, 282,284, 285, 287, 297. Banfi-Bakr, 89. Banû-Fâtima, 285, 286, 346.

INDEX.

B a n u - P ' i z a r a , 78, 86. B a n i i - H a s h i m , 35, 285. B a n u - I d r i s , 286, 345, 390. B a n u - K a y n u k a a , 49, 55, 70, 74, 75B a n u - K h u z a a , 289. B a n u - K u r a i z h a , 49, 55, 6 8 , 7 1 , 7 4 , 7 5 , 76, 77Banu-Nadhir,

49, 55, 67, 68, 71,

72,

73B a n u - O m m e y y a , 276, 279, 280, 295. B a r m e k i d e s , 284. B a t i n i a , 306, 3 1 5 , 330. B a y e z i d , 314, 3 1 5 . B S z a n , 108. B u k h a r i , 57, 153, 377. B u w a i h , 284. C. C a i r o , 286, 291, 296, 308, 309, 310, 3 1 1 , 3 1 2 , 3 1 3 , 332, 342, 345, 346, 347, 357, 360, 362. C a t h e r i n e S t . , M o n a s t e r y of, 79. C h a l d a e o - M a g i s m , 1 2 0 , 2 3 1 , 287. C h e n g i z , 285, 338, 352. C h r i s t , 1 1 7 , 122, 1 3 1 , 147, 1 7 4 , 180, 181, 210, 234, 244, 265, 30r, 314, 3 ' 7 , 367Christian Sects, xxxvi. C h y r o s e i r , 302, 307. C o - c h e o u - K i n g , 347, 352. C o l l y r i d i a n s , 122. C o n s t a n t i n e , 4 6 2 , 104, 1 7 4 , 1 8 1 ,

182,

185, 3 O I > 343, 397C o r d o v a , 2 1 3 , 332, 342,

349,

348,

35.7, 362, 366, 368, 4 1 1 . C t e s i p h o n , 178. D. D a h r i , 402, 4 1 1 . D a i , 306, 309, 3 1 2 , 3 1 3 . D a i - u d - D a a w a t , 308. D a k i k i , 350. D a m a s c u s , 1 1 , 9 7 , 273,

435

D i w â n u l - M a w â l i wa'l G h i l m â n , 257. u t - T o u k i a , 257. u r R a s â i l 257. uz-Zimâm, 257. u z - Z i m â m a n - N a f a k â t , 257. D e s c a r t e s , 355, 357. D h i r â r i a , 7. D i a t , 54, 68, 9 1 . D i o s c o r i d e s , 3 4 1 , 357. D u m a t - u l - J a n d â l , 72, 80, 2 7 1 , 286,

Ebionites, xxxiv. E l e u s i s , 310. E s s e n i a n s , 147, 199. E u n a s - a l - A s w a r i , 381. E z r a , 120, 130. F. F a k h r u d - d ì n a l M a r ä g h i , 352. F a k h r ud din R ä z i , 261, 3 1 1 ,

352,

414F a r i d u d - d i n A t t a r , 159, 365, 4 1 7 , 418. F a t h i b n - N a b e g h a h K h ä k ä n i , 352. F a t i m a , 7, 14, 63, 159, 176, 269, 276, 2 7 7 , 279, 283, 287, 288, 289, 2 9 1 , 295, 296, 314, 342, 363F à t i m i d e s , 2 1 1 , 2 1 4 , 2 1 9 , 283, 284, 286, 287, 2 9 1 , 295, 296, 297, 298, 3 0 3 , 3 0 7 , 3 ' o , 3 2 ° , 3 2 3 , 337, 347, 369, 382, 383, 384, 385, 389, 405, 408, 4 1 3 , 4 ' 5 F a z l , 13, 108, 278. F a z l i b n - a l - H a d a s i , 383. Fidäi, 311. F i r d o u s i , 350, 365, 41 G.

275,

336,

338, 352, 363, 3 6 6 > 379, 394D S r u l - A m a n , 176. D d r - u l - H i k m a t , 308. u I - H a r b , 176. u l - I s l a m 176. u n - N a d w a , 3, 43. u s - S a l a m , 340. D a v i d , 44, 77, 142, 200, 2 3 1 , 232. D i w a n a a n N a z r fi'l M a z a l i m , 257. u d - D i a , 257. u l - A a t a , 258. u l - A h d a s w ' a s h - S h u r t a , 258. u l - B a n d 257. ul J u n d , 257. u l - K h a r a j , 257.

G a l e a z z o M a r i a S f o r z a , 310. Ghair-Mukallidin, 291. G h a i r - M u k a l l i d i s m , 324, 325. G h a l l i a , 292, 3 1 4 . G i b b o n , 445. G i l ä n D i m i s h k i , 381. Giralda, 371. G n o s t i c i s m , 199, 314G o w h a r - i - M u r a d , 383, 392, 4 1 4 . G r e n a d a , 213, 2 9 1 , 348, 349, 362, 363, 366, 368, 296. G r e g o r y the Great, P o p e , 351. H. H a d i s K u d s i , 318. H a d i s M u s i k , 319. H à f i z ( S h a m s - u d - d i n ) , 365, 4 1 8 . H a f s a , 194, 195.

436

INDEX.

H â j i b , 258. I! 97, 98, 99, 101, 106, 110, 264, 359, H a j j â j ibn Yusuf, 282, 327. II 360. H â k i m b a - a m r - I l l â h , 310, 347. I b n - B à j a , 356, 393, 395. H â k i m bin H â s h i m , 298I b n i - B a t u t a , 362. H a m a d a n , 305, 307, 356, 394. I b n - D u r a i d , 365. H a m a d a r i i , 359. \! I b n - F a r i d h , 365. H a m i d ibn S u l a i m â n , 323. I b n - i - H a n b a l , 323, 405, 406. H a n a f i , 85, 204, 279, 289, 322, 323, I b n - i - H a u k a l , 354. I b n K h a l d ù n , 150, 151, 159, 285, 324, 325, 404, 406. 290, 291, 296, 299, 302, 359, 360, H a n b a l , 405. 361, 377, 3 8 4H a n b a l i , 289, 322, 323, 324. H â r û n , 214, 284, 286, 316, 393, 404, I b n K h a l l i k a n , 266, 354, 365, 404. I b n R u s h d , 261, 349, 356, 389, 393, 406. H â r û n u r - R a s h î d , 247, 323, 363. 397. 398, 399H â s h i m , 4, 5, 10, 12, 22, 36, 255, I b n - S h à t h i r , 353. 265, 279. Ibn Sina. 159, 352, 393, 394, 395, H â s h i m i a s , 176, 314. 398, 399, 401, 412, 414H a s h i m i t e , 10, 36, 38, 266, 337. I b n T u f a i l , 356, 393, 396, 397, 417. H a s s a n , 156, 271, 273, 292, 295, 309, I b n U l a , 365. 311, 312, 314, 315, 319, 383. I b n T a q t a q a , 261. H a s s a n al-Basri, I m a m , 382. I b n u n - N a b d i , 341. H a s s a n bin H a i t h e m , 347. I b n - u l - W a r d i , 354. H a s s a n ibn K a h t a b a , 28 r. I b n Yunus, 347, 352. H a s s a n ibn M o h a m m e d S h a h H u m I b r a h i m , 280, 281, 294. I b r à h i m ibn S a i y a r a n - N a z z à m , 383, eiri, 310. 388. H a s s a n S a b â h , 287, 310. H a w â z i n , 9, 91, 92. I b r à h i m - A d h a m , 159. H e g i r a , 45, 87, 94, 102. 189, 214, Idris, 294, 354. Idriside, 294, 342. 249, 316, .322, 338, 340, 359, 360. I h r à m , 37. H e l l a s , 363. l h t i j à j - u t - T i b r i s i , 378, 379, 380. H e r a c l i u s , 85, 95, 175 I j m à a - u l - U m m a t , 321, 322,. H e t a i r a i , 208. H i j â z , 2, 10, 11, 13, 14, 49, 95, 102, I k h t i à r , 380. I k h w à n - u s - S a f a , 399. 258, 271, 272, 279, 287, 288, 294, I l m - i - T a s h r i h ul-Arz, 357. 316, 326. I l m - u l - K a l à m , 384, 410. Hilf-ul-Fuzul, 212. I m à m i a , 292. H i n d , 66, 271, 334I m à m - i - A à z a m , 323. H i s h â m , 36, 267, 293, 383. I r a k i a n s , 281, 282, 324, 331. H i s h â m ibn A b d u l Malik, 293. I s a ibn B a h à n , 294. H i t o p o d e s a , 340. I s h a k i a , 314. H o o r â n - i - B e h i s h t o r H o u r i s , 230. I s h r à k i a , 335, 396. H u g u e n o t , 181, 285, 298, 367. I s i à m , 7, 12, 16, 20, 23, 25, 26, 27, H u l â k u , 285, 3 1 2 , 3 ' 3 , 352,41328, 3 ' , 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 49, 53, H u m a i d a , 214. 56, 62, 66, 71, 79, 80, 84, 87, 88, H u n a i n , 91, 98. 94, 95, 96, 98, 99, 103, 104, 107, H u s s a i n , 155, 210, 272, 273, 274, 117, 122, 129, 137, 141, 142, 143, 275, 279, 282, 284, 285, 288, 292, 144, 146, 147, 149, 152, 153, 155, 295, 306, 309, 314, 316, 346. 157, 158, 160, 161, 162, 164, 166, 173, 175, 178, 179, >8o, 181, 182, I. 183, 189, 193, 194, 197, 206, 209, I b â d h i a , 327, 328. 213, 214, 216, 220, 223, 225, 235, I b n A b b â s , 197, 278, 279, 334, 403. 245, 246, 249, 250, 252, 253, 255, I b n - u l - A t h i r , 14, 15, 18, 20, 25, 27, 256, 259, 261, 263, 268,, 269, 28, 34, 38, 39. 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 272, 275, 277, 278, 283, 286, 285, 45, 58, 65, 66, 67, 68, 72, 73, 74, 288, 292, 293, 298, 299, 300, 302, 83, 84, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95,

INDEX.

3 0 5 , 3 1 0 , 3 1 1 , 3 1 2 , 3 1 4 , 3 1 5 , 317 318, 320, 321, 325, 3 2 6 , 3 2 7 , 3 2 9 33 1 ) 334, 335, 336, 342, 350, 353 359, 360, 364, 366, 368, 369, 370 372, 376, 381, 384, 391, 392, 398 399, 402, 4 0 7 , 4 1 0 , 4 1 2 , 4 1 3 , 4 1 4 , 4'7, 4'8. Ismail, 140, 286, 295, 309. Ismailia, 292, 295, 303, 307, 310, 3 1 1 , 312, 3 1 3 , 314, 3 1 5 , 3 2 1 . Ismailism, 307, 308. Ismailite, 306. Israil, 40, 62, 1 0 1 , 234, 289.

J Jaafar, 14, 27, 89, 159, 316, 346. J a a f a r as-Sadik, 226, 281, 293, 295, 302, 309, 316, 322, 330. 335, 336, 354, 379, 3 8 5 404Jabala, 252, 253. J a b a l ul-Arafat, 10, 106, 198. Jabarias, 381, 382. Jabr, 380. J a h m bin Safwàn, 381. J a h m i a , 381. Jallal ud-din Malik Shah, 3 5 1 . J aliai ud-din Rumi, 159, 365, 392, 395, 417, 4 ' 8 . J a m a l ud-din al-Kifti, 296, 297, 335, 352Jàmi, 353. Jarudias, 294. J e a n Mariana, 260. Jesus, 2 1 , 26, 29, 4 1 , 43, 59, 60, 104, 1 1 3 , 120, 1 2 1 , 122, 130, 1 3 1 , 132, 136, 141, 147, 149, 1 5 1 , 152, 169, 170, 172, 185, 199, 200, 202, 2 1 1 , 212, 218, 232, 233, 234, 238, 239, 245, 299, 3°9, 3 "3, 3 ' 4 , 317, 3 6 9Jews, 18, 29, 49, 54, 55, 64, 67, 68, 69, 7o, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76, 86, 96, 1 0 2 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 0 , 1 3 0 , 1 4 0 , 141, 145, 146, 147, 153, 167, 169, 174, 180, 188, 205, 207, 210, 218, 221, 2 3 1 , 232, 245, 246, 247, 250, 259, 260, 297, 299, 306, 317, 327, 349, 357, 376, 379, 405Johannes Damascenus,336. J o h a n n e s Scotus, 417. Jouhar, 296. Judaism, 147, 224, 229, 318. Justinian, 1 8 1 , 187, 335. Juwairia, 82, 196, 197. K. Kaab, son of Ashraf, 6, 35, 68, 99. Kaaba, 2, 3 , 4 , 5 , 7,13, 23,26, 32,34,

36, 82, 83, 100, 1 1 9 , 146, 252. K a a b ibn-Zuhair, 99. Kâdessia, 178, 250, 280. Kadir-b'Illâh, 297. Kahtanites, 2, 49. Kais, 6. Kaisanias, 314. Kaisaria, 292. Kaithân, 278. Kais Aylân, 14. Kaithân, 278. Karmathites, 305, 307. Kasîdat-ul-Burda, 100. Kaza a n d Kadr, 308, 398. Kazwini, 3 1 1 , 354.

437 149,150,

Kerbelà, 156, 210, 273, 279, 282, 285 306, 346, 377. Kesrâ Anûshirwân, 8, 179, 298, 338. Khadîja, r i , 12, 14, 17, 19, 20, 37, 193, 210, 269, 295. Khaibar, 46, 69, 73, 80, 86, 87, 108, 197. Khâkâni, 365, 418. Khâlid ibn Abdul Malik, 344. Khâlid ibn Walîd, 6, 64, 65, 88, 90, 178, 197, 247, 254. K h â n a m Bibi, 363. Khâriji, 53. Khawârij, 285, 286, 326, 327. Khawârijism, 325. Khitâbias, 314. Khulafâ-i-Rashidin, 322. Khusru Parwîz, 365. Khazrâi, 39, 49, 53, 69, 169. Kinda, 102. Koba, 45. Koraish, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9 , 1 0 , 1 r, 12, 13, 2 1 , 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 42, 43, 44, 45, 53, 54 56, 57, 65, 66, 68, 69, 7 1 , 73, 74, 80, 82, 83, 84, 87, 88, 89, 90, 102, 167, 168, 176. Kossay, 2, 3, 4, 5,6. Kublai Khan, 352. Kûfa, 267, 269, 271, 273, 274, 281, 282, 283, 293, 323, 326, 333, 338, 379, 393, 404. -M. Maabad-al-Juhni, 381. M a a d A b û T e m i m , 295, 391. M a a s û m , 290, 291, 305, 319. M a h d i , 294, 295, 317, 318. M a h d i a . 295, 309. M a h m û d , 223, 35°, 351, 352, 356, 365-

438

INDEX.

Majális-ul-hikmat, 308. Makkari, 359. Makrísi, 295, 296, 297, 308, 310, 354, 359, 360. Malik, 362, 404. Malik al-Ashtar, 270, 271. Malik ibn-Anss, 277. Malik Shah, 311, 340, 351. Máliki, 204, 289, 296, 322,405. Mámún, 214, 247, 257, 259, 284, 288, 316, 323, 341, 342, 343, 344, 354, 390. 393- 406. Manah, 32, 33. Maní, 288, 301, 302, 303, 306. Manichteism, 179, 287, 299, 300, 301, 303, 306, 308, 309, 314. Mansür, 121, 257, 286, 294, 338, 340, 344, 39°Mansunéh, 338, 359. Marr uz-Zuhrán, 10. Marzbána, 109. M á s h a - A l l a h , Abu'l F a r á j , 344. Masúdi, 289, 350, 354, 359. Mazdak, 179, 288. 299. Mazdakism, 299. Mecca, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 19, 22, 28, 30, 33, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 4 ' , 42, 44, 45, 48, 49, 53, 63, 69, 72, 80, 82, 83, 84, 87, 88, 8 9 , 9 1 , 9 4 , 9 7 . 1 0 5 , 106, 110 146, 149, 174, 194, 239, 252, 255, 258, 271, 275, 278, 286, 307, 331, 336. Medina, 42, 48, 49, 54, 52, 53, 54, 55, 5, 57, 58, 63, 64, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 78, 80, 82, 84, 89, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99, 102, 106, n i , 151, 166, 167, 168, 173, 178, 194, 200, 245, 252, 255, 258, 266, 268, 269, 273, 275, 276, 294, 316, 317, 331, 335, 336, 337, 379, 383, 403, 404Merv, 281. Merwán, 267, 280, 281, 334. Merwán II., 326, 327. Messiah, 53, 167, 231, 232, 233, 234, 306, 317. Mirkhond, 303, 359, 383. M o h a m m e d A b u Bakr ibn Zakaria ar-Rázi, 355. M o h a m m e d al-Bákir, 293, 295, 309, 316, 336Mohammed al-Habíb, 295. M o h a m m e d al-Mahdi, 377. Mohammed al-Maktíim, 295. M o h a m m e d ash-Shaibani, 404. M o h a m m e d ibn Isa ibn Abdullah, 345-

M o h a m m e d ibn Mûsa a l - K h a w a rismi, 344, 345. M o h a m m e d ibn al-Hanífa, 279. M o h a m m e d ibn Ali ibn Abdullah, 261, 278, 280, 281, 294. M o h a m m e d ibn Talâun, 353. M o h a m m e d Shah, 328. Mohi ud-din-al-Maghrabi, 352. Mohsin Fâni, 303, 306, 310, 311. Mokanna, 298. Morjias, 290. Mosailima, 109 Moses, 17, 29, 104, 117, 120, 183, 197, 200, 212, 265, 289, 309. Mozarites, 280. Mualafat-ul-Kulûb, 98. Muâwiyah, 98, 100, 225, 253, 256, 267, 268, 270, 271, 272, 273, 279, 285, 326, 383, 298. Muâz ibn Jabal, 108, 145, 161, 331. Mubashar ibn A h m e d , 352. Mughaira, 98. Muhâjirin, 49, 52, 63, 72, 83, 276, 337Muiz ud-Dowla, 284. Mujtahid, 162, 189, 294, 3 1 7 , 3 1 9 , 413Mukawwim, 7. Mulâhida, 311. Mulla Sadra, 320, 321. Murcia, 348. Murûj uz-Zahab, 360. Mushrikin, 28. Mustansir b'IUah, 340, 349, 407. Munâfikin, 53, 64, 68, 71, 73,96,107. Muntassir, 284, 291. Mûsa,'159, 316. Mûsa al-Kâzim, 295, 316. 340. Mûsa bin Shâkir, 344, 34Ç. Mushhabahas, 238, 382, 389. Mushrik, 327. Mustanjid b'Illâh, 401, 412. Mustansarièh, 312, 340. Muta, 88, 108, 175. Mutanabbi, 365. Mutassim b'Illâh, 284, 285, 299, 317, 323, 390, 393, 406. Mutawakkil, 190, 284. 291, 317, 341, 383, 402, 406, 407. Mutazala, 190, 192, 204, 290, 318, 323, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389, 392, 408, 409, 410, 414, 415. Mutazalaism, 321, 384, 385, 390, 391, 392, 410, 414, 416. Mutazid b'Illâh, 283, 295, 307, 341, 407. Mùti-Ullah, 284.

INDEX.

Muttalib, 5, 12, 22, 36. Muwaid ud-din al-Orezi, 352.

P a u l i c i a n i s m , 1 8 1 , 2 9 9 , 3 0 1 , 302, 303, 306, 307.

Pelagius, 32, 250.

N. N a d i r S hah, 370. N a f e ibn-al-Azrak, 328. N a h j ul-Balaghat, 335, 377, 3^5Najjaria, 54, 381. N a j r a n , 245, 246. N a m u s ul-Akbar, 17, 18. Ndsir ud-din Tusi, 347, 352, 414. Naw&sib, 285. Nawasibism, 3CX). Nedwa, 3, 4, 6. Nejdat, 327. Nestorians, 335Nizamieh, 340, 365. Nizam-ul-Mulk, 31 r. 351. N u m a n i a s , 314. Nusairis, 314. Nuwairi, 303, 359. O Obaidullah al-Mahdi, 295, 296, 297, 3°3< 307Obaidullah bin Ziad, 210, 273, 274, 278.

Oelsner, 353. Ohod, 64, 65, 66, 68, 69, 73, Okaz, 10, 11, 212, 363. Omar, 6, 35, 46, 65, 107, 181, 194, >95» 2 4 7 , 2 4 8 , 2 5 2 , 2 5 4 , 280, 2 9 3 , 2 9 5 , 3 2 6 , 3 3 7 .

267,

278,

O m a r ibn-Abdul Aziz, 276. O m a r ibn-Khaldun ibn T a r i k , 349. O m a r Khayyam, 347, 351. Ommeyya, 6, 10, 20, 25, 38, 89, 107, 2 2 5 , 2 5 4 , 2 7 1 , 2 7 4 , 286.

Ommeyyade, 3, 100, 176, 195, 254, 255, 256, 264, 268, 2 7 1 , 275, 276, 277, 279, 282, 288, 2 9 1 , 2 9 3 , 2 9 8 , 3 3 4 , 337, 338, 34i, 353, 3 8 1 , 4 0 3 , 404.

272, 283, 335, 382,

273, 286. 336, 398,

Ormuzd, 140, 230. Orwa, 97, 98. Osama, 108, 223. Osmiin, 14, 62, 63, 83, 96, 195, 247, 248, 254, 2 5 5 , 256, 266, 267, 269, 2 7 0 , 2 7 8 . 2 9 5 , 3 3 4 , 3 3 7 .

Osman, son of Affan, 20. O t b a , 26, 27, 42, 66. P Paul, 310.

439

268,

R. R&bia, 26, 42, 106, 107, 159, 189. Raih&na, 77. Rawafiz, 293. Rifada, 3, 4, 5, 6 , 9Roderick, 260 Roushenias, ^14. S. Saad ibn Muaz, 73, 75. Saad ibn U b a d a , 73. Saadi, 99, 365, 418. Saffiih, 275, 280, 281, 282, 283, 287, 337Sakina, 214. Saladin, 182, 286, 351, 4 1 1 . Salaf, 335, 381, 382, 385. Salehias, 294. Salerno, 332, 366, 368. Samiya, 25. Sanai, 37, 43, 159, 237, 285, 398, 417, 418.

Sassanides, 214, 242, 275. Sauda, 194. Seffavian, 286, 370, 402, 413. Selim I., 283, 285, 291, 370. Send ibn Ali, 344. Shafei, 204, 289, 296, 322, 323, 404. Shafeism, 324, 405. S h a m m a i t e s , 119, 201. Sheikha S h u h d a , ZI4. Shiahism, 289, 292. 300, 320. Shiahs, 162, 189, 204, 225, 284, 285, 2 8 7 , 2 9 0 , 2 9 3 , 2 9 7 , 306, 314, 3!9,

32',322,

307,

311,

323,327,

405,

413Sif&tias, 382, 387, 405, 406, 408, 409. Siffin, 270, 278, 326. Sofana, d a u g h t e r of H a t i m , 99. Solyman, 291, 370. Sufis, 295, 303, 315, 340, 417, 418. Sufi'sm, 417, 418. Sukaina, 214. Sulaiman, 277, 281, 294. Sulaimania, 294. Sultan K h o d a Bendah, 352. Sunni Church, 286, 288, 291, 300, 324, 404, 4 1 6 .

Sunnism, 288, 300, 314, 325. Sunnis, 162, 225, 287, 290, 291, 307, 317, 318, 321,

413-

322, 324,

326,

327,

INDEX.

440 Surra man-Raa, 317. T

Taalil, 402. Tabarias, 294, 360. Tabuk, 97, 99, 175Tafwiz, 380, 382, 385, 415. Takevye, 306, 307. Taklid, 322. Talha, 5, 269, 393. Tashbih, 380. Tay, 99. T&yef, 10, 38, 91, 92, 97, 98, 193, 279. Teraphim, 120. Thakif, 38, 91, 98. Thamudites, 129. Thumama, 80. Tibri, 14, 15, 18, 39, 46, 61, 65, 66, 7o, 71, 72, 75, 82, 84, 87, 90, 91, 92, 98, 99, 264, 359, 360. Timur, 353, 365, 369., Tulaiha, 109. Turanian, 353. U. Ulugh Beg, 353. Umm-i-Habib, 214, 316. Umm-i-Habiba, 195. Umm-i-Jamil, 23. Umm-i-Salma, 195. Umm-i-Fazl, 214, 316. Usuli, 319, 320, 413. Usuli'sm, 318, 3 2 1 . Uzza, 33, 94, 97. W. Wah&bis, 307, 324, 328, 369. Wahab'ism, 327. Wal4d£h, 368. Walid, 26, 267, 291, 349, 383. Waraka, 14, 17, 18. Wasil bin Aata, 383, 384. Wassaf, 3 1 1 , 3 1 2 . Wasik, 284, 390, 406. Wat wit, 365.

Y. Yahya-ibn-Zaid, 280, 393. Yaakub al-Mansur, 369, 397. Yaakub ibn-T&rik, 349. Yasar, 25. Yathreb, 5, 8, 39, 40, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 54, 55Yazdjard, 178, 179, 214, 275, 280. Yermuk, 250. Yeum-i-Aashura, 285. Yeum-un Nahr, 100. Yezid ibn Abu Sufian, 81. Yezid ibn Muawiyah, 210, 271, 272, 273, 282. Yezid bin Muhallib, 277. 2. Zaid, 14, 15, 38, 89, 108, 195, 196, 223, 293, 294, 399, 400. Zaidias, 290, 293, 294. Zainab, 195, 196, 210, 274. Zainab, grand-daughter of the Prophet, 195. Zainab, Umm-ul-Masakin, 195. Zain ul-ASbidin, 274, 279, 280, 292, 3°9, 316. Zamakhshari, 17, 56, 66, 90, 156, 195, 2 38, 240, 241, 330, 332, 383. Zealots, 1 1 9 . Zeb un-nissa, 363. Zend A vesta, 140, 188, 230. Zindik, 284, 301. Zimmi, 242, 246, 248, 249. Zoroaster, 104, 230. Zoroastrians, 102, 104, 120, 1 3 1 , 139, 1 8 1 , 2 2 9 , 2 3 0 , 2 3 1 , 232, 235, 236; 247, 250, 299, 300, 317, 379. Zubair, 7, 36, 269. Zubaida, 214, 363. Zuhair Faryabi, 365. Zubair son of Awwstm, 20. Zu'l Majaz, 10. Zu'l-Yezen, 9.

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