The Speech of East Texas 9780231876698

Table of contents :
Contents
Preface
Bibliography
Phonetic Symbols
Introduction
Chapter I. Vowel Sounds in Stressed Syllables
Chapter II. Vowel Sounds in Unstressed and Partially Stressed Syllables
Chapter III. The Consonants
Chapter IV. Phonetic Transcriptions
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Index of Subjects
Index of Words
Vita

Citation preview

AMERICAN

SPEECH

Reprints and Monographs No. 2

THE OF

SPEECH

EAST

TEXAS

OMA S T A N L E Y

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement degree of Doctor of Philosophy, of Philosophy,

NEW YORK:

Columbia

in the Faculty University.

MORNINGSIDE

HEIGHTS

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 1

957

for the

PRESS

COPYRIGHT

COLUMBIA

1937

UNIVERSITY

PUBLISHED

FOREIGN

PRESS

1937

AGENTS

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS H U M P H R E Y M I L F O R D , A M E N HOUSE LONDON, E . C . 4 , ENGLAND

KWANG HSUEH PUBLISHING HOUSE 1 4 0 P E K I N G ROAD S H A N G H A I , CHINA

MARUZEN COMPANY, LTD. 6 NIHONBASHI, TORI-NICHOME TOKYO,JAPAN

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS B . I . B U I L D I N G , NICOL ROAD B O M B A Y , INDIA

PRINTED IN T H E UNITED STATES OF A M E R I C A

CONTENTS Preface

v

Bibliography

vii

Phonetic Symbols

ix

Introduction

1

Chapter I—Vowel Sounds in Stressed Syllables

7

Chapter II—Vowel Sounds in Unstressed and Partially Stressed Syllables

33

Chapter III—The Consonants

55

Chapter IV—Phonetic Transcriptions

75

Appendix A

95

Appendix B

102

Appendix C

104

Index of Subjects

117

Index of Words

118

PREFACE

M

ANY people have helped me to write this study. I began it in 1931 under the direction of Professor George Philip Krapp, who was always generous to me—as to all his students—of his time, his knowledge, and his wisdom. After Professor Krapp's death, Professor H. M. Ayres assumed direction of the work, and he too has been constantly ready with his counsel. Professor W. C. Greet and Dr. Lee S. Hultzen have had the largest share in the painstaking guidance of my labor to its completion. Professor Greet has spent hours in reading, discussing, and criticising the manuscript from beginning to end; his patience and kindness have been indefatigable; and his wide knowledge of the whole field of American speech has been of inestimable value at every step of the way. Dr. Hultzen edited the manuscript for American Speech. His advice in the matter of order and consistency has been invaluable. T o all four of these men I feel especially indebted. Other people have been generous too. Professor W. P. Carson, of Louisiana State College, kindly allowed me to examine his manuscript on the literary dialect of the southern highlander, and discussed some problems of my own study with me; Miss Katherine E. Wheatley, of the University of Texas, read a preliminary draft of my manuscript and gave me the benefit of her comment and suggestion thereon. Mrs. Jane Dorsey Zimmerman, of Teachers College, Columbia University, took time from her own work in order to help me. She read the whole manuscript and commented upon it in the most minute detail; she was even kind enough to check my phonetic transcriptions with the phonograph records. I take this opportunity of expressing my gratefulness. Mrs. Mary Morris Seals, of Columbia University, is another who has made me her debtor. On more than one occasion she inconvenienced herself to come to her laboratory to make records of East Texas speech for me. T o her tact and her ability to make people feel at ease, as well as to her knowledge, are due the excellent qualities of the records she made for me. My nine friends who read the story of Morgan's trip and of Grip the Rat into the microphone showed the cream of human kindness. There was no reason why they should have obliged me to the extent of becoming my laboratory specimens. But they did, out of the pure goodness of their hearts. And my mother and father; and my sisters and my cousins and my aunts —all these kinfolks who at first with tolerant amusement and finally with resigned patience suffered my importunities; and the scores of other victims, black and white, who in their blissful innocence chanced to speak in my presence—they all helped me. My thanks are also due to the officials of the Columbia University Li-

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brary, especially in sending to the Congressional Library and the library of the University of Texas for books which contained material on the early settlement of Texas. T o the staff of the New York Public Library also I am grateful for help on this phase of my subject. OMA

Brown House, University College, New York University, May, 1936.

STANLEY

BIBLIOGRAPHY (Note: The words in parentheses after some of the items indicate the manner of reference in the footnotes.) Ayres, Harry Morgan, and Greet, W . Cabell, American Speech Records at Columbia University, American Speech, V (1930), 333-58. (American Speech Records) Bailey, Nathaniel, English Dialect Words of the Eighteenth Century as shown in the Universal Etymological Dictionary of Nathaniel Bailey. London, 1883. (Bailey) Bloomfield, Leonard, Language. New York, 1933. (Bloomfield) Brooks, Cleanth Jr., T h e Relation of the Alabama-Georgia Dialect to the Provincial Dialects of Great Britain, Louisiana State University Studies, X X , Baton Rouge, 1935. (Brooks) Campbell, John C., T h e Southern Highlander and His Homeland. New York, 192 1. (Campbell) Carson, W. P., A Descriptive Study of the Literary Dialect of the Southern Highlander. Still in manuscript. (Carson) Emerson, O. F., T h e Ithaca Dialect, Dialect Notes, I (1891), 85-173. (Emerson) T h e English Dialect Dictionary, Joseph Wright, ed. 6 vols. London, 1898-1905. (EDD) Greet, William Cabell, Delmarva Speech, American Speech, VIII (1933), No. 4, 56-63. (Greet, Delmarva) A Phonographic Expedition to Williamsburg, Virginia, American Speech, V I (1931), 161-72. (Greet, Williamsburg) A Record from Lubec, Maine, and Remarks on the Coastal Type, American Speech, V I (1931), 397-403. (Greet, Lubec) Jespersen, Otto, Mankind, Nation and Individual From a Linguistic Point of View. Oslo, 1925. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles, 4 vols. Heidelberg, 1909-193 1 Jones, Daniel, A n Outline of English Phonetics, 4th edition. New York, 1934. (Jones) Kenyon, J. S., American Pronunciation, 6th edition, revised. Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1935. (Kenyon) A Guide to Pronunciation, Webster's New International Dictionary, 2nd edition, 1934, pp. xxii-lxxviii. (Webster's) Some Notes on American R, American Speech, I (1926), 329-39. Western Reserve, Dialect Notes, IV (1917), 386-404. Kokeritz, Helge, T h e Phonology of the Suffolk Dialect. Uppsala, 1932. (Kokeritz) Krapp, George Philip, T h e English Language in America, 2 vols. New York, 1925.

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The Pronunciation of Standard English in America. New York, 1919. Standards of Speech and Their Values, Modern Philology, X I (1913), 57-70. Kurath, H., American Pronunciation, Society for Pure English Tract No. X X X , 279-97. Oxford, 1928. (Kurath) Lloyd James, A., Standards in Speech, American Speech, VIII (1933), No. 2, 3-14. Neumann, J . H., American Pronunciation According to Noah Webster. Doctoral Dissertation, Columbia University. Multigraphed [New York], 1924. (Neumann) A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. Oxford, 1888-1933. (NED) Orbeck, Anders, Early New England Pronunciation. Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1927. (Orbeck) Orton, Harold, The Phonology of a South Durham Dialect. London, 1933. (Orton) Read, William A., Some Variant Pronunciations in the New South, Dialect Notes, III (1911), 496-536. (Read) Shewmake, Edwin Francis, English Pronunciation in Virginia. [Davidson], North Carolina, 1928. (Shewmake) Skeat, W. W., English Dialects From the Eighth Century to the Present Day. Cambridge, 1911. Smalley, Dan S., and Storrs, Nathaniel, The American Phonetic Dictionary of the English Language. Cincinnati, 1855. (Smalley) Walker, John, A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English Language, new edition. London, 1828. (Walker) Webster, Noah, A Grammatical Institute of the English Language, Part I. Hartford, 1783. (N. Webster) Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language, 2nd edition. Springfield, Massachusetts, 1934. (Webster) Wheatley, Katherine E., Southern Standards, American Speech, I X (1934), 39-43. Wilson, George P., Some Unrecorded Southern Vowels, American Speech, IX (1934), 209-13. (Wilson) Wise, C. M., Southern American Dialect, American Speech, VIII (1933), No. 2, 37-43Worcester, J . E., Comprehensive Pronouncing and Explanatory Dictionary of the English Language. New York, 1830. (Worcester) Wright, Joseph, The English Dialect Grammar. Oxford, 1905. (Wright) Wyld, Henry Cecil, A History of Modern Colloquial English. London, 1920. (Wyld, H.M.C.E.) Studies in English Rhymes from Surrey to Pope. London, 1923. (Wyld, Studies)

PHONETIC SYMBOLS T h e p h o n e t i c symbols here used a r e those of the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Phonetic Alphabet.1 CONSONANTS

[ 3 ] — vision [ tJ ] — church [ d g j — judge [ m ] —maim [ n ] — noon [ q ] — sing

[ p ] —peep [ b ] — bib [ t ] — toot [ d ] — did [ k ] — cook [g]—gag [ ? ] — the glottal stop [ f ] —fife [ v ] —- valve [ 0 ] — ether [ S ] — either [ s ] — cease [ z ] — zones [ J ] — mission

[ 1 ] —lull [ L ] — m i l k ( t h e ' u v u l a r 1')

[ h ] — hail [ w ] — wail [ m ] — whale [ j ] —young [ r ] — road, moral [ r ] — b u t t e r ( t h e 'single

flap r ' )

VOWELS

[i]—beet [ I ] — bit, easy [ e ] —bait, chaotic [£] — bet [ze] — bat [ a ] — S c . cat; ask, as traditionally pronounced in Boston, [ a ] — father, fodder [ d ] — sorry, fodder, as pronounced in England and often in America, [ o ] —law, horse [ o ] — coat, notation [ u ] — pull [ u ] — pool

[ a ] — custom, above [a ] — custom, above, sofa [ 3 ] — bird, further, perverse, as pronounced in Southern England and parts of Eastern and Southern America. [31] — bird, further, perverse, as pronounced by the majority of Americans, with a retroflexive or retracted central vowel. [31] — further, perverse, as pronounced by the majority of Americans, unstressed retroflexive or retracted central vowel.

DIPHTHONGS

[ a i ] — ice, ride [ j u ] — abuse, mute, use [ 3i ] — boy

[au], [au], [aeu] — house (All these variants occur.) [ ei ] — day [ou] — g o

1. Most of the key words are taken f r o m Professor J . S. Kenyon's American tion, 6 t h edition.

Pronuncia-

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AMERICAN

SPEECH

Other common diphthongal combinations which occur are [ia], [ea], [ea], [aea], [aa], [oa], [aa], [ua]; [ia1], [ea1], [ea-], [sea1], [aa-], [oa1], [33*], [ua1]. LENGTH, STRESS, MODIFIERS

:

placed after a sound indicates that the sound is long, as in father ['fa:©?], you-all [ja:l]. It is not used except when a sound is definitely lengthened. T h e sign for the half-long sound is not used in this study. 1 indicates a full or main stress on the following syllable, as in about [a'baut]. , indicates a secondary or half stress on the following syllable, as in bookshelf ['bukjelf], j. indicates a raised tongue, as in brag [brae-cg]. r indicates a lowered tongue, as in bonnet ['banrrt]. , under a symbol, indicates a syllabic consonant, that is, a consonantal sound that forms a syllable either alone or with nonsyllabic sounds: middle ['midl], battled ['baetld]. indicates nasalization of the sound over which it is placed; as in mama ['mama]. n used under [n] and [1] to indicate a dental articulation as described under [5] in the chapter on consonants: on the [an na]. • • placed above a symbol indicates that the sound is centralized. indicates a voicing of the consonant under which it is placed. v indicates falling intonation. Superior symbols are used to indicate a light pronunciation of the sound indicated by the symbol, e.g., carry ['kjaeri].

AMERICAN

SPEECH

Reprints and Monographs No. 2 THE SPEECH OF EAST TEXAS OMA S T A N L E Y New York

University

INTRODUCTION

T

HE purpose of this study is to describe the common speech of the white

residents of East Texas. This speech may be called a division of the

'Hill Type' of southern speech, a type which is current in southwestern Virginia, western North Carolina, the hill country of Tennessee, Kentucky, and Alabama, northern Louisiana, and elsewhere. T h e hill type of speech is to be distinguished from the 'Plantation Type' of the 'Old South'—of the lowlands and coastal plains.1 T h e plantation type of speech also survives in East Texas, but only among a very small number of the white population. T h e speech of the Negroes, who number about one third of the population, is plantation variety which has undergone certain changes through years of use by Negroes as a group. 2 The hill type of speech was brought into East Texas by immigrants from the other southern states who were themselves people of Scotch-Irish3 and English 1. T h e p l a n t a t i o n type seems to b e derived f r o m southern B r i t i s h dialects, o r possibly f r o m a variety of standard B r i t i s h p r o n u n c i a t i o n of the 17th century. See Kenyon's discussion of this m a t t e r , Webster's, pp. xxv-xxvi. B u t c o m p a r e C l e a n t h Brooks, The Relation of the Alabama-Georgia Dialect to the Provincial Dialects of Great Britain. 2 . T h e terms ' H i l l T y p e ' a n d ' P l a n t a t i o n T y p e ' were suggested by Professor W . Cabell Greet of C o l u m b i a University. T h e present study originally included a detailed treatment of the p l a n t a t i o n type of speech, both as it survives a m o n g a comparatively few white speakers a n d as it is used by the negroes. T h e b u l k of t h e m a t e r i a l was so great, however, t h a t in the interests of order a n d facility of h a n d l i n g , it was t h o u g h t best to postpone the publication of this p a r t of the investigation. 3. H e n r y J o n e s F o r d has m a d e a detailed study of the Scotch-Irish settlements in the United States, in his book, The Scotch-Irish in America (Princeton, N. J . , 1915). See especially chapters V and V I , pp. 165-220. H e says that the first settlement was made in Maryland in 1680; the second i n South C a r o l i n a in 1682; the t h i r d in Pennsylvania in 1718. T h e r e were also Scotch-Irish settlers in Virginia (p. 213). T h e a u t h o r adds (p. 219), ' B u t in the m a i n the Scotch-Irish settlements of the South and West were derived from the over-land emigration that h a d its m a i n source in Pennsylvania.' A m o r e detailed a n d statistical discussion of this m a t t e r will b e f o u n d in Charles A. Hanna's two-volume work, The Scotch-Irish (New Y o r k , 1902) , especially in V o l u m e I I .

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SPEECH

descent. They had of course lost their identity as Scotch-Irish or English by the time they moved to Texas. 4 Education has had virtually no influence on pronunciation among the vast majority of my subjects. Many people whose training, knowledge, profession, experience, and social position place them as distinguished members of the community, use the same sounds as the dwellers on the farms or in the deep backwoods. Their grammar is more 'correct,' their vocabulary is larger, their competence in handling the language is greater, and their mental range is immeasurably wider than that of the illiterate white speakers. But phonetically they all belong to the same group. There are gradations within this group, of course, and there are inconsistencies in the speech of every individual. No one pronounces a given word in the same way every time he uses it. These similarities, confusions, and variations within the group have been indicated as clearly as possible in the following pages. Professor Krapp's 'area of negligible variation' 6 has, however, been constantly borne in mind. There are limits beyond which it is impracticable to go. Occasional usages have been recorded as such, and the attempt has been made to exclude individual peculiarities and to avoid arbitrariness and dogmatism. T h e work has been centered in Smith County, Texas, but observations have been made over a much wider territory, including Cherokee, Wood, Van Zandt, Henderson, Anderson, Angelina, Polk, Nacogdoches, Gregg, Hunt, Rusk, Morris, Titus, and Harrison counties. T h e shaded portion of the map, page 5, indicates the territory covered by this study. T h e results are valid, I believe, for all this region. Probably none of the phenomena observed are found exclusively in East Texas. If they are, they cannot be pointed out until studies of other sections have been made and the results correlated. T h e author has relied upon years of native experience supplemented by four summers of close observation of the language. T h e speech here recorded is as nearly as possible the natural, unaffected utterance set down at the time it was spoken. Many of the subjects were unaware that their speech was being studied. It was often possible to hear desired words by introducing them into the conversation, and indirectly causing the subjects to repeat them. On occasion, however, it was necessary to ask the subjects to read sentences which contained pertinent examples, such as, '1 wonder when they'll put a bomb on Hitler's doorstep,' or 'Did you see him 4. For a detailed study of the sources of the p o p u l a t i o n of Texas, see A p p e n d i x C of the present work. 5. Cf. G. P. Krapp, 'Standards of Speech and T h e i r Values.' In this article Professor Krapp discusses 'the principles of inclusion and of negligible variation.' ' N o completely h o m o g e n e o u s dialect can be supposed to exist,' h e says, p. 60.

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3

throw the bomb?' In this way speakers would pronounce a word several times in different contexts. Friends and acquaintances have been more ruthlessly imposed upon. They have patiently repeated words and sentences, have read and reread passages, and have submitted to the most searching linguistic inquisitions. But such devices have been on the whole rarely used. They were necessary chiefly for the purpose of hearing special examples, words less commonly used, or of adding further examples to categories already established.

T h e speakers included people of both sexes and of all ages from about fifteen to eighty-odd. They might all be properly considered natives, for they all were either born in East Texas or came to the section in early childhood and have lived there ever since. In addition to the work done with speakers in the field, the author has made ten double-faced phonograph records of the speech of ten native East Texans. Although these records were all made in New York, the author

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was extremely fortunate in securing excellent subjects for most of them. Three of the speakers, in fact, came direct from East Texas on a brief visit to New York. One had lived in New York only a few months; one for three years; one for two years; and two for five years. One speaker has lived in New York for about twenty years, but his speech still retains many characteristics of that of his native section. T h e record of the author's own speech also shows some of these features, though he has spent only short periods in East Texas since 1913 and has lived during the last twenty-two years in South Texas, Central Texas (Austin), Massachusetts (Cambridge), and New York City. Notes on the individual speakers are given in more detail in the chapter which contains transcriptions of the records. These records were made after all the field work had been done. Because of this circumstance, the author was able to select his material for the records from words that he had recorded in the field. These words were cast in the form of a connected story, and the subjects read this story, along with that of Grip, the Rat, into the microphone. T h e records, therefore, as far as they go, give excellent support in permanent form to the conclusions of this study. It was impossible, of course, to get everything onto a record. T h e subjects were reading, not speaking offhand. A n d although they all read naturally enough, their speech under such conditions cannot be the same as it would be if they were speaking spontaneously. T h i s disadvantage is partly compensated for, however, by the identity of the recorded material. Since all the records are the same in text, a comparative study can easily be made. But it will be impossible to do all that one wants to do with speech until records are made under completely free conditions; this is, without the subject's being restrained in any way. It is only upon the basis of such spontaneous records that the important divisions of the subject such as rhythm, placement, and intonation can be profitably studied. These features of speech are so fleeting and indefinable that they cannot be caught and described on paper unless they can first be put on a record. Yet these intangible elements in speech may be the most significant. If the best work is to be done, much more elaborate facilities will be needed than were available in my case. It is for this reason that these divisions of the subject have been omitted from this study. T h e speed at which the people speak, though a far less delicate problem than those just mentioned, is one to which I have not been able to give much attention. East Texas speech may seem leisurely to the visitor from the East. But this quality is due to the lack of variety in intonation, the lack of nervous tension and corresponding laxness of articulation, the greater nasality, the lengthening of vowels and development of glide sounds, diph-

SPEECH

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5

thongs, and even triphthongs. Since these characteristics do not usually exist in crisp, rapid utterance, East Texas speech in which they occur markedly is probably slower than speech in which they are not prominent. But all East Texans do not drag their speech all the time. They have their accelerated moments, just as other speakers do. Although the fastest East Texas speaker is probably slower than a speedy New Yorker, it is doubtful that the slowest East Texan is noticeably slower than the slowest New Yorker. T h e speech of East Texas, like natural speech everywhere, is free from self-consciousness. Nobody is concerned with speech as a succession of sounds, but only as a mode of expression. T h e schools have had no perceptible influence (on the subjects observed) in changing the sounds of speech, for in East Texas, as everywhere, children pay their grudging observance to the rules only in the schoolroom. And the harassed teachers are much too busy with glaring faults in grammar to pay any attention to phonetics, even when they are aware, for example, that their charges are saying [min] instead of [men] for men' Most of the teachers are natives and usually are not conscious of such pronunciations. They use them themselves. Even people who have spent some years away from home show a marked tendency to resume the native speech ways upon their return. This study is devoted chiefly to pronunciation, and it is this division of the subject which occupies most of the space, both in the introduction and in the body of the work. Grammar is discussed in Appendix C. T h e method followed in presenting the chapter on the stressed vowel sounds of East Texas speech is that of taking up each sound as it appears in the pronunciation given in Webster's New International Dictionary, second edition, and showing how it appears in the speech of East Texas. Of course, the sounds in many words do not vary at all. T h e unstressed and partly stressed vowels are arranged according to their position in the words and according to spelling, and the consonants according to the character of the change, i.e., initial loss, syncope, etc. Webster's Dictionary is used as a standard for classifying stressed vowels merely because it supplies a convenient means of arranging the material. T h e author does not mean to imply that the pronunciations given in this dictionary form the only standard, or even that they are used by the great majority of educated people in the United States. They are used here solely as a point of departure, and are referred to in the body of the work as Webster pronunciations. In the footnotes, the author has attempted, where possible, to show sur6. This is remembered experience o£ the author's own school days. Perhaps school children do learn phonetics now.

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vivals from the past, and uses in other current speech which are similar to or identical with those of East Texas. This method of treatment necessarily resulted in a large amount of footnote material, since it required bringing together in compact form considerable information from various sources. The kinds of speech with which that of East Texas is thus compared are not as a whole similar to East Texas speech. The similarity is usually a matter of detail. But the material will indicate the broad range of the whole subject of American speech, of which the author has investigated a special field. It may suggest the large amount of information which will be necessary as a basis for definitive statements about regional limits of speech in America.

SPEECH

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7

CHAPTER I VOWEL SOUNDS IN STRESSED SYLLABLES i.[i] This vowel in East Texas speech shows no noticeable variations from general usage except, perhaps, that in certain words lengthening and diphthongization under stress are more marked. In such words as clean, cream, dream, eat, even, evening, gleam, seem, team, etc., the vowel is the same as in Webster; that is, a short pure [i] in eat, even, evening, and in the others too when they are not emphatic. Even eat, when in an important position, shows lengthening and a slight downglide in the speech of some people. 'Won't he eat?' may be [wont i i:'t]. In the other words, where a nasal follows the vowel, the lengthening and downglide are usual when the words are stressed, but in unstressed positions there is no noticeable lengthening. For example, in 'I need a clean shirt,' the vowel in clean is [i]: [a nid a klin Jyt]; but in 'Is my shirt clean?' it is likely to be [i:] or [i: 1 ]: [iz ma Jrt kli:'n]. When I follows the vowel, some degree of diphthongization, with or without lengthening, is always present. Deal, feel, field, meal, Neal, peel, real, seal, veal, zeal, etc., are pronounced [dial], [di:al], etc. Bleat is always [blet] [bleit]; breeches is ['britjiz]; and creek is [krik].1 T h e form [het] is used for heated by more ignorant speakers. Negro,

in Webster ['ni:gro(u)], is not used in East Texas. T h e form

universally used is nigger, pronounced ['niga], [niga1]. This pronunciation is maintained, I believe—though the reason is largely subconscious—because it expresses a racial and social distinction which ['ni:gro] would not. ['mga] may be flavored with genuine affection, or with contempt. But whatever the undertones, it is a means of keeping the black man in his place. T h e old slave-holding tradition still speaks in the pronunciation.2

2. [I] This is another vowel which in East Texas speech varies from Webster

1. Neumann, p. 6, says that Webster's Compendious Dictionary of 1806 gives brich as the correct pronunciation of breech. Orbeck, p. 38, records briches, crick, f o r breeches, creek. Orton, p. 58, records [britSaz] for breeches. W r i g h t , p. 3 5 1 , finds britjiz (i.e. [ ' b r i t j i z ] ) in Dub. n.Dur. m.Cum. w . W m . em.Lan. nw.Lin. se.Ken. me.Wil., and numerous other examples in which the stressed vowel is [1]. 2. Shewmake, p. 3 2 , says that nigruh (i.e. ['nigra]) is the common Southern pronunciation of Negro, and that it is all but universal in Virginia. H e says that nigger is a popular substitute f o r Negro, ['nigra] does not occur in East Texas, so far as I know.

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in only a few instances. T h e words in the list below, and other similar ones, are pronounced with [i], just as they are in Webster. Amiss, bib, bit, busy, business, crib, did, dig, dim, fig, grim, grin, jig, kid, kin, lid, limb, n i m b l e , permit, pig, rib, ribbon, rid, silver, sin, sit, skin, thimble, tin, trim, etc. [a'mis], [bib], etc.

Diphthongization also occurs in monosyllables before m, n, b, d, when the word containing [i] is in emphatic position. For example, in 'Have you been home?' been is [bin], the general form. But in 'Where have you been?' it may be [bi:an], and certainly will be if the questioner is annoyed. T h e same lengthening and downward glide is heard in bid in the incredulous query, 'Didn't you get a bid?' [didntju get a bi:ad], with rising inflection, and in the disappointed 'I didn't get a bid,' [a didn get a bi:ad], with falling inflection. When [i] occurs before I, Id, It, Ik, it is noticeably lengthened and diphthongized if the word in which it occurs is in an emphatic position, especially at the end of a sentence. In 'Did you get the bill of sale?' bill is [bil]. But in 'Did he pay the bill?' it is [bial] or even [bi:al]. Skilled, build, built, silk, are other examples. Milk should be especially noted. It is pronounced [mjiLk], [mjiak]. Before r the vowel in East Texas is [i], [ix], or [e]. T h e words in the examples require separate discussion. Beer, clear, dear, dreary, ear, fear, gear, hear, here, jeer, mere, near, nearly, peer, queer, shears, tear (noun). 8

T h e usual pronunciation of all these words is [bjia1], [klia1], etc., and [bjiJ-31], [klu-31], etc., with a raised and pinched [i] which is not high enough to be transcribed [i]. In addition to this usual form, however, the words beer, clear, gear, hear, here, near, and nearly are occasionally heard with [e]: [bjea], [bjea1]; [klea], [kleac]... ['njeli], etc.4 In more illiterate speech, [kwaea1] is sometimes heard for queer. 8. T h e development of [j] after the initial consonant in some of these words will be discussed in the chapter on consonants. 4. Kokeritz p. 72, notes [klta] [klga], [hea] [h^a], for clear, hear. (Kokeritz' [e] is IPA [a:]; his [?] is IPA [e].) Greet, Williamsburg, p. 168, says, 'Here is [hje], [hjea] or [hja]. It also appears as [hia]. On the streets of Williamsburg, I heard [1] in [hia] intensified to [i] in the sentence "Here you are." (One can hear this also in New York City.) A Norfolk gentleman pronounced hear [he:] and here [he:a] and [hje:a]. In an interesting record of a man from Portsmouth, Virginia, the vowel in [hje] is nasalized, a common pronunciation among negroes.' In Lubec, p. 399, Professor Greet finds that '[1] when stressed is very sharp and tense, approaching [i], in [hia] here, and similar words.' In the American Speech Records, [is], with the first element tense, is noted in here, dreary, fear, in 68-A, Newburyport, Mass., p. 341. In 69-A, Lancaster. N. H„ p. 34a, [1]

SPEECH

OF

EAST

9

TEXAS

[i] b e f o r e nk, ng, is u s u a l l y p r o n o u n c e d [e] [ei]. Blink, brink, clink, drink, ink, link, rink, sink, stink, think; bring, ring, sing, sling, spring, sting, string, thing, wing, [bleqk], [bleirjk]... [dreqk], [dreiqk]... [brer)], [breirj] . . . [streq] [streiij], etc.6 King,

h o w e v e r , is p r o n o u n c e d [kfq], s o m e t i m e s e v e n [kiij].

[i] b e f o r e [qkl], [ q g l ] is p i n c h e d a n d nasalized t o [I] i n E a s t T e x a s . is ['tlqkl]; tingle Whip

Tinkle

is [ ' t i q g } ] .

is h a b i t u a l l y [Mup], [ m a p ] i n t h e speech o f t h e m o r e i l l i t e r a t e ; wish

is [ w u j ] ; a n d [mAk] is o f t e n u s e d for mix."

3-[e] T h e o n l y n o t i c e a b l e f e a t u r e of this s o u n d in E a s t T e x a s s p e e c h is t h a t the l e n g t h e n i n g a n d d i p h t h o n g i z a t i o n w h i c h a r e c o m m o n

throughout

A m e r i c a a r e e v e n m o r e p r o m i n e n t in E a s t T e x a s . I n polysyllables [e] s o u n d s like a s h o r t p u r e v o w e l w h e n t h e w o r d c a r r i e s n o p a r t i c u l a r stress. W h e n the w o r d is stressed, h o w e v e r , o r w h e n u t t e r e d slowly for emphasis, [e] is l e n g t h e n e d a n d d i p h t h o n g i z e d . F o r e x a m p l e , in appears in dreary, here, hear, fear. In 74-B, Lancaster County, Va.. p. 342, [1] occurs in dreary, fear. Here is [hjc]. In 71-B, Stony, Texas, p. 344, [1] appears in dreary and here [hu]. In 65-B, Macon, Georgia, p. 345, here occurs both as [hjc] and [hik]. In 76-A, New York City (1) , p. 355, [1] appears long and without glide in here [hi:]. 5. Reference to the quotation from Wyld in footnote 16 will show that the present East Texas vowel in some of these words, specifically string and wing, is very similar to, perhaps identical with, the Middle English pronunciation. Wright finds, p. 413, dreqk (i.e., [drerjk]) for drink in Glo. Wil. Dor. e.Dev.; p. 640, numerous localities in which thing is pronounced pet] (i.e., [6ei]]) ; p. 641, many instances of per/k for think. Shewmake, p. 42, says that anytheng, theng, are widespread pronunciations in Virginia. Orbeck, p. 32, lists breng, hendred, begenning, enterest. The three last do not have [e] or [e] in East Texas; nor do ridge, consideration, widow, Scripture, which Orbeck lists as redge, consederation, wedow, Screpter. Wilson, p. 2io, records [e] in bring, sing, etc. Wyld, H.M.C.E., p. 173, says that Cooper (1685) mentions ent 'isn't' as a pronunciation 'for the sake of ease,' but that he does not comment on it. [ent] [ernt] are of course very common in East Texas as in many other sections. 6. Campbell, p. 124, records whup for whip as southern highlander speech. Shewmake, p. 34, says that in Virginia wish rhymes with push, bush, in all but careful speech. He says that this is a survival from the time when the now obsolete variant wusshe was in vogue. Wright, p. 682, finds wuf in n. Nhb., and wiif in Ant. I.Ma. (Wright's u is IPA [u]; of his u, he says, p. 17, 'A sound formed with the lips more open than for u. Acoustically it somewhat resembles an o sound. It is common in the midland counties in such words as bull, full, come, up; long, song, wrong.") Neither the NED nor the EDD lists 'to mix, to stir up,' among the meanings of muck, or records the pronunciation [mAk] for mix. Both these sources give the chief meaning of muck (vb.) as 'to remove dung,' 'to clear out a stable.' Other meanings are, 'to dress with muck, to manure,' 'to make dirty, to soil,' (fig., slang) 'to make a "mess" of." For the last meaning, the NED gives 'I shall muck it. I know I shall,' from Kipling. This meaning, taken literally, would be closest to the East Texas use, which is simply 'to mix,' 'to stir up.'

AMERICAN

io

SPEECH

the sentence, ' T h e baby's n o t able to walk,' baby

a n d able

are ['bebi],

['ebalj; b u t in ' H e c a n ' t go; he's n o t able,' a n d ' H e ' s so weak h e c a n ' t even lift a baby,' t h e s a m e words are ['eibal], ['e:ibsl], ['beibi], ['be:ibi].

Ex-

amples: Bacon, bakery, Baylor, botheration, cable, caper, earthquake, fable, gable, label, labor, Mabel, nation, neighbor, paper, pay-roll, potato, stable, station, table, tomato, vacation, waiter, ['bekq], ['bcikrj]... ['nej(3)n], ['neij(3)n], etc. I n monosyllables before voiceless c o n s o n a n t s the d i p h t h o n g is distinctly audible if the w o r d c o m e s a t t h e e n d of a sentence or in some o t h e r e m p h a t i c position, o r if stressed in u t t e r a n c e . I n ' D i d you b a k e a c a k e today?'

bake

a n d cake h a v e [e]; today is p r o n o u n c e d [ t a ' d e n ] . I n ' D i d you b a k e a cake?' ( t h a t is, w i t h stress i n d i c a t i n g pleased surprise o n cake),

t h e w o r d is pro-

n o u n c e d [ke:ik]. D i p h t h o n g i z a t i o n increases in such words in d i r e c t prop o r t i o n to t h e a m o u n t of e x c i t e m e n t w i t h w h i c h they are u t t e r e d . T h e s a m e statements apply t o words in w h i c h t h e vowel is final. 7 E x a m p l e s : Clay, day, gray, hay, jay, may, pay, ray, say, they; break, drake, fake, make, sake, steak, take, wake; bait, crate, date, gate, great, hate, mate, slate, tape, traipse, wait; brace, face, grace, place, race, trace, vase, [kle], [klei]; [de], [ d e i ] . . . [ves], [veis]. B e f o r e [b], [S], [d], [m], [n], [ d j ] , [v], [z], t h e d i p h t h o n g is [ei], [e:i]. 8 Examples: Babe, bathe, braid, trade; blame, came, name; brain, gain, grain, pain, train; gauge, page, rage, wage; brave, crave, rave, save, wave; blaze, craze, days, stays, ways, etc. [beib], [be:ib]; [bleim], [ble:im], etc. B e f o r e [1], however, it is [ea], [e:a]. E x a m p l e s : Bail, fail, gale, hail, jail, mail, male, nail, pail, pale, rail, sail, sale, tail, tale, wail, etc. [beal], [be:al]; [feal], [fe:al], etc. Ate is frequently [et] in E a s t T e x a s a m o n g less l i t e r a t e speakers, as it is in m a n y parts of the S o u t h . ' 7. In Williamsburg, p. 167, Professor Greet says: 'The vowel [e] appears often without diphthongal character, particularly before voiceless consonants as in make, great and finally as in say and day, but also in ladies, etc. Sometimes the effect is that of [e]. At times [ei] approaches [EI] in safe, etc. These pronunciations are characteristic of Southern coastal speech. They are found also in the Victor record, Macon, Georgia, 65 B. Hear the Charleston records, 75 A and B in the same series.' In Lubec, p. 399, he says, 'A pure [e] is sometimes heard, e.g., [mek] rather than [meik] make.' In American Speech Records, p. 343, Record 74-B, Bertrand, Lancaster County, Virginia, make is [mek]. Make and take are frequently pronounced [mek], [tek] by the more illiterate speakers in East Texas. 8. Neumann, p. 19, points out that dreen for 'drain' is said to be incorrect by Webster (1783). This pronunciation [dri:n] is still frequently heard among older or less well educated people in East Texas. 9. J. S. Kenyon, Webster's, p. xliii, col. 2, says that [et] is current in British speech, but dialectal in America. Professor Greet says this pronunciation is preferred by the best people in Charleston, S. C.

SPEECH

OF EAST

TEXAS

u

Naked is almost universally ['nekid] in East Texas speech.10 4- [e] There is no variation from Webster in East Texas speech in many words which in America are pronounced with [e]. B e t , breath, death, debt, dress, fetch, guess, jet, let, met, neck, net, peck, reckon, set, tether, veterinary, wet, etc.

[bet], [breO], etc.

Get, among the better educated, occurs in the standard form [get], but among the less literate the use of [git] is widespread. The same holds true for again and against [a'gin], [a'ginst]; for yet [jit]; and for instead, in which the first syllable is usually omitted [stid].u Deaf, among illiterate speakers, is [dif], [di:f].12 [fli:m] is the only pronunciation of phlegm that I have heard in East Texas.13 Before [g] the sound usually appears as [e], [ei], though sometimes as [e]: egg, keg, leg, peg, nutmeg. Beg and dregs, however, have [e] consistently.14 Yes is [jaes] universally; that is, except when it is [jae], [jaea], [jea], [jea]. And 10. On the East Texas records, ['nekid] occurs only on No. 3; the rest have ['nekid]. Neumann, p. 19, says: 'There is no indication in Webster of the lowering of [e] to [E] ... as in . . . naked [ne:kid] Shewmake, p. 32, finds necked for naked widespread in Virginia. He says that some also say sneck for snake, gret for great, meek for make, seh for say. 11. Wyld, H.M.C.E., p. 173, says that Cooper (1685) mentions git 'get' as a pronunciation 'for the sake of ease.' In Studies, p. 119, Wyld points out that Cowley rhymes get with i f , Dryden rhymes it with writ-, that Mauger (1679) transcribes the English pronunciation of get for Frenchmen as guit. On p. 133, 'Cowley rhymes this word (yet) with it, and Dryden with writ and unfit.' Wyld points out that this pronunciation is an early dialectal variant, often used by Chaucer and persisting in the 16th and 17th centuries. T h e student of Chaucer will also remember his frequent use of yis for yes. Shewmake, p. 31, lists git for get as illiterate in Virginia as elsewhere. On p. 18, Shewmake lists git for get from Ellis's Early English Pronunciation as an example of 17th century pronunciation. Orbeck, p. 5, lists git for get. Neumann, p. 25, notes git, yit, for get, yet, 'among the improprieties of American speech noted by Webster and his later contemporaries.' Greet, Williamsburg, p. 168, says, '[jit] occurs for yet in the record transcribed, and [git] for get is common.' 12. Wright, pp. 400-1, lists numerous localities in which deaf is pronounced dif [dif]. N. Webster, p. 48, says that deaf is pronounced [dif]; and Neumann, commenting on Webster, says, p. 7: ' T h e usual American pronunciation of the word deaf at the end of the 18th century seems to have been [di:f], while the accepted British sound of the vowel was [ £ ] . . . Webster persistently marks the sound [i] . . . His comment on the prevalence of the [i:] sound shows, however, that usage was by no means fixed.' See Neumann's whole discussion, p. 7. 13. Wyld, Studies, p. 128, speaking of phlegm, says: 'Swift rhymes this word with supreme, and Pope with extreme. Baker, in 1724, says it is pronounced fleem, and several earlier grammarians make similar statements.' 14. Wright, p. 420, notes eig [eig] for egg in e.Suf. se.Ken. Neumann, p. 19, says, 'There is no indication in W e b s t e r . . . of the raising of [E] to [e] as in [le:g], [e:g] for leg, egg.' Wilson, p. 211, records beg, egg, keg, leg, nutmeg, with [e] or [ei].

AMERICAN

12 wrestle

is ['raes}]. Yesterday,

it appears also as ['jestidi].

SPEECH

among less literate speakers, is ['jistidi], though 15

Before m, n, the sound is almost invariably nasalized [I], and in some words the vowel is pinched almost into p].16 Examples: Ben, bench, benefit, blend, cemetery, cent, center, centipede, contempt, dreamt, drench, general, h e n , lemon, pen, scent, sent, ten, tender, then, tremble, trench, wrench, [bin]; [bintj], [bintj]; etc. Bench,

drench,

trench,

and wrench,

however, are also pronounced with

[e], [el]: [bentj], [belntj], etc. Before I, b, d, the vowel is diphthongized to [ea]. Bell, well,

dwell,

sell,

tell,

are pronounced [beal], [dweal], etc. I have heard adolescents say

['bejal]. Web is [weab], but only in an emphatic position. Bed, bread,

dead,

head, said, are [bead], etc., in stressed position. Well is sometimes [waeal] in the speech of the more illiterate, who also say ['rAlaks] for relics,

meaning

old, ragged clothes." 15. Professor Greet, Delmarva, p. 59, finds [jaes] for yes; and in Williamsburg, p. 166, he says, 'In several records [jaes] is heard for yes ...' Wright, p. 689, finds rtesl for wrestle in se. Ken. Sus. Dor. e. & sw. Dev. Neumann, p. 25, 'Among the improprieties of American speech noted by Webster and his later contemporaries a r e . . . rastle for wrestle .. Wright, p. 693, lists numerous localities in which yesterday is pronounced jistade(i,e,3), i.e., Bis—]. 16. Wyld, H.M.C.E., p. 22a, says, 'Before certain consonants or combinations of consonants there was an early tendency to raise e to i. The traces of this have almost faded from Received Standard at the present time, except in a few words where the change is recorded by the spelling, e.g. wing from M.E. weng, O.N. veng-; string, M.E. strenge; and in England, English, where the old spelling remains.' Wyld gives gintlemen (1575); repint (Verney Mem., 1645); atinding (ibid., 1665); rintes 'rents' (ibid., 1642); sincible (Wentworth Papers, 1711). Neumann, p. 25, lists ginerally, frind, innemy among the improprieties of American speech noted by Webster and his later contemporaries. Orton, p. 58, lists [frind], [frinz] for friend, friends. On p. 24, he says that drench, English, rent, spent, strength, trend, have [1], but that [e] occurs in bend, bench, end, pen (enclosure), send, spend, stem, went. (All these have [1] in East Texas.) Shewmake, pp. 31-32, lists pin for pen, min for men, as illiterate in Virginia as elsewhere. Orbeck, p. 23, lists consint, intered, intering, instrumintal, ind (end) , represintive, ginral, frind; p. 24, primises. Greet, Delmarva, p. 59, says, 'I heard only two examples of the common substitution of [1] for [E] in Tennessee, pen, etc.' Wilson, p. 210, records ten, cents, etc., with [1]. Wright, p. 329, finds bentf very widespread. He records bintj in sn. & wm. Sc. n.Lin., and binj in wm.Sc. Ayr. Ant. m.Cum. nw.Lin. Sus. w. Wil. w. Som. For drench, p. 413, he finds drinf in n.Ayr. w.Wil. e.Dor. nw.Dev., and drintj in wm.Sc. m.Yks. e.Suf. Sus. e.Dev. For end, p. 422, he finds ind in m.Yks. nw. & s.Oxf. Brks. e.Suf. Sus. For men, pp. 525-26, he finds numerous uses of min. For sense, p. 590, he finds sins in I.Ma. m.Yks. Sus. For twenty, p. 659, he records twinti in ne. & em.Sc. s.Ayr. Sus. Professors Ayres and Greet note that the vowel in end, then, and men, in the Stony, Texas, Record 71-B, approaches [1]; and that end approaches [ind] in the Paris, Texas, Record 72-A. See American Speech Records, pp. 344, 351. 17. Professor Greet notes [wael] for well in Delmarva, p. 59. He also notes [WAI]; and

SPEECH Terrible

OF EAST

TEXAS

13

is frequently pronounced ['taeia-bl], [ ' u i ^ b l ] , t h o u g h ['tea-ty]

also occurs; a n d terrapin

is ['tae^pin], ['taex^pm]. I h a v e never heard

['terapin]. 5- [ * ]

T h e sound [ae] is the same in East T e x a s speech as in most words w h i c h have [as] in Webster. Abner, absent, addle, alligator, amble, ample, apple, as, at, average, babble, back, bad, baffle, balcony, bamboo, banana, Baptist, bat, battle, cab, cackle, campaign, can, cap, cat, crab, crack, cranberry, daddy, dam, Dan, dappled, drab, fact, fad, family, Fanny, fat, gabble, gad, gamble, gander, gap, gavel, gnat, grab, grand, hack, ham, hand, happen, has, hat, hatchet, have, jack, jam, japalac, jasmine, jazz, knack, lad, lamb, land, lap, lavatory, laxative, Mack, mad, Madge, man, map, master, mat, matter, nab, Nan, nap, pack, pad, pal, pan, patter, rabbit, rack, raffle, ram, ran, rap, rascal, raspberry, rat, rather, razz, sack, sad, Sally, Sam, sand, sap, sat, stab, tabby, tacky, tadpole, taffy, tan, tap, that, vampire, vat—and no doubt others, ['asbna-], ['aebsnt], etc. T h e vowel in some of these words, however, is often lengthened to [as:] and/or diphthongized to [ae:a], [aea]. Bad, cab, can, cap, dam, are often pronounced [bae:d], [bae:ad], [baead]; [kae:b], [kae:ab], [kaeab], etc., a n d grand, ham, hand, has, have, mad, man, nap, pan, ran, Sam, are o f t e n similarly pronounced. Lack is frequently [laik]; a n d wrap, in the speech of the less literate, is oftener [rap] than [raep]. Dictionaries usually designate [as] as the standard vowel sound of a great many words in w h i c h g, ng, nk, sh, follow the vowel in the spelling of the words. A more accurate representation of this sound for East T e x a s speech w o u l d be [aej-], as in bag [basj.g], to distinguish it f r o m the unraised sound in such words as hat [haet]. (It is possible, I believe, that this raised sound is also used in general A m e r i c a n speech.) Examples: Bag, fag, gag, lag, jag, nag, rag, sag, tag, wag; bang, gang, sang, rang, tang, jangle, mangle, wrangle; bank, crank, dank, rank, sank, tank, thank; cash, crash, dash, gash, lash, mash, rash, sash, [baexg]... [baej.ij]... [bauqk]... [kaexj], etc. T h e sound in fashion, passion, ration may be either [ae] or [ae-i.]. T h e tendency is toward the raised sound in fashion, ration, a n d toward the unraised in passion. [JAS] (yes), which I have not heard in East Texas, though [jos], unstressed, which he also notes, does occur. He says that [wael] occurs for well in several of the Williamsburg records. See Williamsburg, p. 166. Neumann, p. 25, notes study and stiddy, for steady, 'among the improprieties of American speech noted by Webster and his later contemporaries.' Both these forms occur in illiterate speech in East Texas. In the Stony, Texas, Record 71-B, I heard [sead] for said.

14

AMERICAN

SPEECH

The third and most important subdivision in this group contains words which in Webster are pronounced with [ae], but which consistently in East Texas speech, but probably not generally elsewhere, have [aej.].18 Examples: Advance, aggravate, ant, anxious, ask, ass, basket, bass, bastard, bath, blast, brass, calf, camp, casket, cast, castor, chaff, chance, class, damp, dance, fast, flask, France, gas, glance, glass, grant, grasp, grass, half, Kraft (name of a town in East Texas), lamp, last, laugh, nasty, pass, past, path, plant, prance, rasp, salve, scamp, shaft, slant, vast. [ad'va»xns], ['aexg^veit], etc.

T h e tendency to lengthen and diphthongize the vowel in such words as bad [baead], [bae:ad] has been noted. This word, with others, is also frequently pronounced with a more definite glide sound than [a], i.e., [bae:ed], but I have not heard [bae:id]. In can't several variants from the Webster pronunciation occur. Some 18. Note Wyld's comment on words of this kind in H.M.C.E., pp. 173-74: 'We must not forget to recognize that we owe to him (Cooper) the knowledge, or at least the accepted view, that M. E. a when lengthened in the modern period before -st and -th, Sec., as in past, path, &c., was still pronounced [ae] in the third quarter of the seventeenth century.' Also J. S. Kenyon, Webster's, p. xli, col. 1, speaking of such words as calf, half, laugh, salve (n.), aunt, can't, shan't, rather, says: 'Historically the a sound [ae'.as:] in the ask- and half- words is the continuation of the pronunciation of standard British English of the 17th and 18th centuries, while the a and d sounds are the result of a latter 18th century change from a [ae;] to a or a in South England and the parts of America where a or a are most used.' This means that the raised sounds [ae±] and [e] [ei] (in aunt, can't, etc.) in East Texas are a development in the opposite direction from the change to [a] [a]; that is, the sound [a] in aunt [a:nt] (in the sections where this sound is used) has moved backward from the 17th century position, while the sounds in the East Texas pronunciations [], but sometimes it is unrounded to [a]. Arp (a town in East Texas), bar, barb, bark, car, cart, dark, far, farm, garb, garden, hard, harp, hearth, jar, large, lark, marble, mark, park, Parker, part, regard, [Drp], [arp]; [bDr], [boa1], [bar], [baa1], etc. Far is more often pronounced [for], [far] than any other way, but less well educated speakers frequently say [fo], [f3"r].32 29. Wyld, H.M.C.E., p. 172, quotes Cooper (1685) as saying that ant and aunt were pronounced in the same way. Wright, p. 314, for aunt records cent for e.Suf. Sus., ant in me. Wilts., ent for s.Lan. n.Der. ne.Der. w.Der. m.Shr. w.Wilts. 30. Wright, p. 695, records jtznda(r) in n.Her. nm.Berks. w.Sus. w.Wilts. e.Dev. He finds jcend3(r) in sm. Hamps. Wyld, Studies, p. 71, notes that Swift in his 'Description of a Salamander' rhymes yonder with salamander. Wyld mentions many other rhymes of 'short o' with 'short a,' but yonder is the only word noted as so pronounced in East Texas speech. 31. Wyld, Studies, pp. 105-6, says that are [aer] to rhyme with air, heir, was in use late into the 17th century. He gives examples from Spenser, Shakespeare, Donne, Habington, Milton, Suckling, Waller, Cowley, Swift, and Pope. In H.M.C.E., p. 172, Wyld lists the following from Cooper (1685), who said that the pairs or larger groups were pronounced in the same way: are—air—ere—heir; rare—rear (vb.). 32. Professor Greet, Delmarva, p. 59, reports farm, garden, dark, mark, part, regard, with [D] or [a]. In car the vowel is normally retroflex but not rounded, pp. 59-60. In East Texas no one says gyarden, cyarpet, which Shewmake reports for Virginia, pp. 20, 21. Note, however, Professor Greet's remarks about this type of pronunciation in Virginia, in Williamsburg, pp. 169-70. Wright, p. 429, records far for far in ne.West., and f5(r) in se. Lan. Staf. n.Der. s.Lin. Rut. Sus. On p. 666, Wright finds that wart is wort, i.e., [wart] in the Isle of Man. And he lists numerous examples of wof for wash, p. 667. Wyld, H.M.C.E., p. 172, quotes Cooper (1685) as saying that fir, fur, and far were pronounced in the same way.

SPEECH

OF EAST

TEXAS

19

Occasionally [h:?:9] and [hae:0] are heard for hearth I n Morris,

orange,

Orris, the vowel is frequently [d], especially in less

literate speech, where these words occur as [mors], [5r:ndg], [or:s]. Grovel and hovel are foreign to daily vocabulary, so that the pronunciations ['groval], ['grcival], ['grAval]; ['hoval], ['haval], ['hAvol], all of which were given upon my request to hear the words, do not represent actual usage but merely guesses. Novel is always ['naval]. Hospital

is pronounced with

[a] universally. B u t gosling may be either ['gazlin], ['gDzlin], or ['gozlin]. Of the words in which 'short o' follows [w] in Webster, the following are universally pronounced with [a]: Qualify, quality, quandary, quantity, squab, squabble, squander, squash, squat, swoggle (in horn-swoggle,

to deceive, cheat, or get the advantage of in a trade),

swallow, swan, swap, wand, water, watch, wabble, ['kwala^ai], ['kwalati], etc.

Quarrel,

swamp, want, war, wash, wasp, Washington,

these, wash and Washington

and was vary. Of

are usually pronounced with [a], though

[wo^J] is by no means uncommon among the less literate. Was occurs as both [waz] and [WAZ]; wasn't as ['waznt], ['wDznt], ['wAznt], ['wAdn(t)]. W h e n not stressed, these words occur, of course, as [waz], [wz]; [waznt], [wznt]. I n the other words in this list, the vowel is habitually rounded to [D] or [D].84 Although it is difficult to judge length by ear alone, the following words seem definitely to have the long vowel [a:], or the long vowel plus off-glide [a:a]: alms, bother,

calm, Chicago,

T h e vowel sound in almond,

embalm,

father,

garage,

palm,

psalm.

salmon, is long also, but these words are pro-

nounced ['ae:man], ['sae:man] in East T e x a s . In this study the long mark is not used unless the sound is definitely lengthened. 8.[D],[TD]

In East T e x a s speech there is a great deal of variety in the pronunciation of words in which Webster indicates a vowel [d] or one that may vary [d], 33. Shewmake, p. 14, points out that Bartlett (1859) identifies hath for hearth, and smaart for smart with Southern speech, (aa means [ae].) Wright, p. 479, records harp for hearth in s.Sc., and ¿ep in sw. Lan. and in Lei. Orton, p. 17, illustrating Byers Green pronunciation, gives arse>[is] among his examples of M.E. ar plus consonant>[je]. [aes] is of course a common American pronunciation. It is usually raised to [aej.s] in East Texas. Wyld, H.M.C.E., p. 173, finds Chorles 'Charles' in the letters of the Verneys and Lady Wentworth, but it is mentioned as 'barbarous dialect' by Cooper (1685). 34. Wyld, H.M.C.E., p. 165, finds the following from the Verney Memoirs: wore 'war', morning, whot, 'what', woater, quorill, quollity, woshing, etc. Orbeck, p. 41, says, 'After w historical a was rounded to [3] and sometimes lengthened: quorter(s), whorf(e), whorfs, whorfage, worned,.. .swomp(e), swompy.' Shewmake, p. 3a, lists whut, ivuz, for what, was as being very widespread in illiterate speech in Virginia. Cf. Sarah T . Barrows, 'Watch, Water, Wash,' American Speech, IV (1929), 301-2.

2o

AMERICAN

SPEECH

fn], [a].35 All gradations occur, from an unrounded [a] in some words to an excessively rounded [d] in others. There is also variety in lengthening and diphthongization. For convenience, therefore, all the words treated in this section are listed alphabetically below and will be discussed in the proper phonetic groups in the following paragraphs. Abhorrent, absorbent, absorbine, all, always, assorted, audible, auditor, auditory, Austin, authority, awful, awl, awning, ball, bawdy, bawl, Borden, border, born, bossed, Boston, bought, brawl, broth, call, caught, cauterize, cloth, coffee, coffin, coral, corn, coroner, corpse, corpuscle, correspond, cost, cough, craw, cross, daughter, daunt, dawn, dong, dormitory, Dorothy, drawl, fall, faucet, fawn, flaunt, for, forehead, foreign, forest, form, fortune, forward, foster, frost, froth, gall, gaunt, gauze, gawky, gone, gong, haul, haunt, hawk, historical, horn, horrible, horrid, horror, horse, jaw, laud, laundry, Laura, law, lawn, loft, long, lord, lost, ma, majority, Maude, maul, moral, moss, moth, naughty, Norman, north, off, often, orange, order, pa, Paul, pauper, porridge, raucous, raw, resort, romp, rosin, sauce, saucy, sausage, saw, scrawl, shawl, soft, song, sorrel, sorrow, sorry, sort, sought, sprawl, squall, squawk, storm, straw, strong, talk, tall, taught, taunt, taut, taw, thaw, throng, torment, toss, trawl, trough, walk, wall, war, warden, wrong, wrought, yawn.

In polysyllables the sound tends to be shorter than in monosyllables, though before nasals and continuants, and in such words as daughter, naughty, it may be lengthened. It is usually not diphthongized in polysyllables, however. The sound in all the polysyllables may be either [d] or [d], and the rounding of [d] is frequently excessive. [t>] is not lengthened. Speakers who use [t>] say ['Dial] for awful, but those who use [d] may say either ['afal] or ['d:fsl]. The tendency to use [o], frequently over-rounded and lengthened, is characteristic of ignorant or careless speakers rather than of better educated ones.88 Here, however, one should not be too positive or dogmatic. For whether a word is pronounced with [d], [d], [d:], [33], or [3:3], depends frequently upon the conditions under which it is used. For example, in 'Have you seen an Austin paper?' [haev ja sin an 'ostin 'pepa1], the vowel sound in Austin is [d], or [t>]. But in 'Have you heard the news from Austin?' [haev ja hsd Sa njuz fram b:stin], the sound in Austin may be [d:], or even [3:3]. The context may similarly determine the variation in the pronunciation in monosyllables. 'I wonder if pa knows' [a 'wXnda1 ef pa nouz]; 'Ask pa. He'll know' [ae^-s 'pD:a|| hial nou]. In the first sentence pa is [po]; in the second, [pa:a]. 35. See the discussion of this sound §185, Webster's, pp. xlviii-xlix. 36. See Miss Katherine E. Wheatley's discussion in 'Southern Standards,' American Speech, I X (1934), 39-43. On p. 42 she lists some of the polysyllables set down above as having the long vowel [3:] in cultivated Southern speech, i.e., what I have called 'plantation type' speech in my introduction.

SPEECH

OF EAST

TEXAS

21

In open monosyllables and in those in which the vowel is followed by [1], [m], [n], the tendency among all speakers is to use [D]. Lengthening, excessive rounding, and diphthongization are most noticeable here also among less literate speakers. Examples: jaw [dgo], [dgDia]; call [kal], [ka'.sl]; romp [r5mp], [r5:3mp]; dawn [d5n], [d5:5n]; gone [g5n], [g5:n], [g5:3n]. Note the nasalization before [m], [n], which in some degree is always present in East Texas speech under such conditions. In monosyllables before [d], [t], [k], [f], [s], [z], [0], [q], the vowel is sometimes [t>], sometimes [d]; and in such words both of these may be lengthened and/or diphthongized by all speakers, depending upon the position and importance of the word in the sentence and upon the speech habits oi the individual. As in other groups, excessive rounding, lengthening, and diphthongization are especially noticeable as a feature of more careless or illiterate speech. Examples: Maud [mod], [mn:d], [rrrasd], [mo:ad], [mod], [nu'.cl], [mD3d], [mi:ad]. Taught, walk, cough, moss, gauze, froth, wrong. etc., show the same variations.37 Before r in polysyllables the vowel may be either [n] or [D], except in dormitory, Norman, and torment, in which I have heard only [D]. T h e m in the following syllable is probably responsible for the tendency toward more 37. Greet, Delmarva, p. 6o, records [:>] in dog, log, long, small, often, haunted, ought. I n Williamsburg, p. 164, Professor Greet says: ' T h e r e is a tendency to u n r o u n d [3] to [a], particularly in foggy, log, and long. (In the records long is always [laq].) W e have examples o£ the u n r o u n d e d vowel in haunted, undaunted, coughed, caught, morning, o f f , all a n d always. I n some examples o£ Williamsburg speech, the vowel is half-rounded a n d may be transcribed [D]. T h i s tendency to u n r o u n d is in marked contrast to the practice elsewhere in the south.' Professor Greet finds u n r o u n d i n g also in Lubec, p. 399. See also American Speech Records. I n this collection, the records f r o m the Southern states, the Texas records, a n d Pennsylvania records show the closest similarity to East Texas speech, though of course r o u n d i n g is indicated in some words in all the records. Shewmake, p. 30, says t h a t in Virginia, song, long, and other words in which the vowel is followed by ng, have the vowel sound of hot) b u t that soft, o f f , oft, often, cost, cross, gone, broth, cloth have aw or au (i.e. [D]) . On p. 31 h e says that upon, from are pronounced upun, frum, sometimes even by educated speakers. (One hears [frAm] in unlettered speech in East Texas, b u t not [a'pAn].) K u r a t h , p. 383, says that Shewmake records the short a n d less r o u n d e d vowel (i.e., [D]) in eastern Virginia for long, song, wrong, etc., whereas the Westerner nearly always uses t h e long vowel of law (i.e., [D]) which also seems to be the common usage in New England a n d the South. It is difficult to make fine distinctions in Shewmake's work because h e did not use a phonetic system, b u t if Professor Kurath's conclusion is correct it indicates that in this respect East Texas speech shows a m i x t u r e of southern and western types. See also Kurath's list of Western features, of Eastern features, and of Southern features, p p . 286-88, 289-90, a n d 292-96, respectively. Many features of all these sections are common to East Texas speech. O n p. 291 K u r a t h says that the Southern type (i.e., Plantation) extends into eastern Texas. It does, b u t it is mixed with Western, even among cultivated speakers. Some of the Western features are more noticeable among speakers of the hill type, who make u p the large majority of the white population. T h e speech of the negroes is free of Western features.

22

AMERICAN

SPEECH

r o u n d i n g of the vowel in these words. I n words such as Dorothy, forehead, foreign, forest, horrible, Laura, majority, sorrel, [d] seems to be more general than [d], though these words are frequently heard with an excessively rounded [d] in the speech of uneducated people: ['cb:r0i], ['hoirbl], etc. On the other hand, in such words as assorted, border, corpuscle, fortune, warden, in which the vowel is followed by r plus a consonant, [d] is preferred by all speakers. Here also [d] is excessively r o u n d e d and lengthened by the less literate. I n such words as coroner, correspond, foreign, forest, historical, moral, etc., with r plus another vowel, [d] is the usual sound. W h e n the vowel occurs in monosyllables before r, it is universally [d], (This statement applies also, of course, to words of more than one syllable, such as resort, retort, in which the stressed syllable is final.) Born, corn, corpse, for, horn, horse, lord, north, sort, storm, war, are [b5rn], [k5rn], [sort], etc., and in the speech of some people, [b5sm], [bSi^n], [kS^n], [k5:?n], [sD^t], [sd:3H], etc.88 For is [f3:], [£a.:J, [ f 3 1 ] , [ f , in illiterate speech. Sauce is pronounced [sae:s], [siex:s], saucy ['saesi], ['sae±si], in the meaning 'pertness, impertinence' as noun, 'to speak impertinently' as verb, and 'impertinent' as adjective. T h i s pronunciation is universal for these words. But soft is pronounced [sae:ft], [saex:ft] only by older people who have not had formal education. These people also say [h£:nt], [hze-unt] for haunt, both as verb a n d n o u n . Such a pronunciation is generally used for haunt as a noun—and frequently as a verb—in jocular imitation of old-fashioned or Negro speech.89 Another variety of diphthong in the pronunciation of certain words in East Texas speech might be represented by [\x>] or [b::]. T h a t is, the second element is not [u] or [a], b u t is [d] on a lower pitch than the first [d], connected with it by a downward glide. Examples: ball, bawl, call, fall, gall, loft, pa, shawl, soft, sprawl, squall, tall, thaw, trough, walk, wall, yawn. These are pronounced [bbal], [kbol], [lboft], [pba], etc., by those speakers 38. Greet, Delmarva, p. 6o, finds a slightly lowered [o] in horses, resort. Usually the sound in these words is a distinct [a] in East Texas. 39. N e u m a n n , p. 38, says: 'In the Dissertations (1789) Webster notes a peculiar substitution of fas] for [a] as common among the descendants of the Scotch Irish. "It is a custom very prevalent in the Middle States," he says, "even among some well bred people, to pronounce o f f , soft, drop, crop, with the sound of a, a f f , saft, drap, crap. T h i s seems to be a foreign and local dialect; and cannot be advocated by any person w h o understands correct English."' (See note 25 o n this pronunciation of drop, crop, under [a].) Shewmake, p. 18, lists haunt as [haent] from Ellis's Early English Pronunciation as an example of 17th century pronunciation; and o n p. 11 he refers to Sylvester Primer's record (PMLA, V, 198 ff.) of three pronunciations in Virginia of gaunt, haunt, jaunt, all of which have [3], [a], and [ae]. I have heard only [o] in gaunt and jaunt in East Texas. Greet, Williamsburg, p. 164: 'In one record of a distinguished Virginian, haunted is [haentid], and undaunted [Andaentid].' Wyld, H.M.C.E., p. 165, notes sassages (sausages) from the Verney Memoirs. T h i s is now a jocular pronunciation in East Texas.

SPEECH

OF EAST

TEXAS

23

who tend to lengthen and over-round the vowel, when the words are in stressed position.40 9-W

T h e sound of the vowel in the words listed below is [o] or [ou] in East Texas speech, as it is in Webster. Abode, alone, atone, boat, boll, bone, both, broke, clothes, code, comb, cone, dome, dope, float, foam, fold, ghost, globe, gloat, go, gold, goat, groan, grove, hoe, hokum, hold, hole, home, hone, hope, hose, host, joke, Jones, jovial, loam, lope, low, moan, mope, most, mould, mow, Moze, noble, no'm (no ma'am), nose, note, notion, 'phone, poke, poker, pole, pone, Pope, pose, post, program, proposal, prose, quote, road, roam, roast, robe, rode, rogue, roll, rope, rose, rove, row, soak, soap, sofa, soldier, sole, soul, stone, toad, toast, told, tone, toper, tote, tow, whole. [a'bo(u)d], [>'Io(u)n]... [bo(u)t], etc.

T h e length of the vowel varies with the emphasis, importance, and posi' tion of the word in the sentence, as in all American speech, though the diphthong is often more pronounced in East Texas than in some other sec* tions. T h e diphthong is more pronounced before continuants than before stops, and more before voiced than before unvoiced sounds. A pure vowel may occur, however, even before [1] in the last word of a sentence, a combination most favorable to diphthongization. For example: 'It'll be a dry hole,' ['itl bi a drai hoi] said of an oil well that was being drilled near Kilgore, Texas. Even the falling emphasis of resigned disgust with which this sentence was spoken would not ordinarily be expected to keep the vowel from corruption in the mouth of an East Texas yahoo. But it did. This pronunciation is of fairly frequent occurrence. T h e general tendency, however, is toward some degree of diphthongization. Boat, go, pole, etc., are usually [bo c t], [bout], [bo:ut]; [go1'], [gou], [go:u]; [po c l], [poul], [po:ul], etc. T h e more emphatic the word, the longer the [o] and the more noticeable the diphthong. For example, 'Have you got a new boat?' uttered with pleased astonishment, is likely to be [haev ja gat 3 ,nju "borut].41 40. The comment o£ Worcester, Preface, p. xii, is pertinent here, though it applies equally well to the previous discussion of the words in this list and others. In speaking of the pronunciation of the vowel in words like gone, scoff, loft, soft, cloth, cross, cough, song, Worcester says that the vowel in such words is usually marked short but that in actual pronunciation it is usually somewhat lengthened, yet not so much as to justify marking them with the full sound of broad a (as Sheridan and Nares did), which would countenance too drawling a manner. Worcester also notes that Walker had warned against too great a lengthening of this sound as being vulgar, though Worcester says that the pronunciation appears to be still countenanced in London, citing Cobbin's Grammatical and Pronouncing Spelling-Book (1829) for his authority, from which he lists begawn, craws, frawth, sawft. 41. In Williamsburg, p. 164, Professor Greet says, 'In go and know, and similar words, the diphthong [ou] often appears. The tendency to diphthongize is not nearly so marked

24

AMERICAN

SPEECH

No in East Texas speech, is [ro], [ro:], [no:9]. Diphthongization of a different sort is present, in East Texas as well as generally in America, when [o] precedes r final or r plus consonant. T h e second element of the diphthong is a more or less full [a1].42 Examples: Board, bore, borne, coarse, core, course, force, fore, forge, fort, four, gourd, hoarse, lore, more, mourn, pork, port, pour, report, roar, soar, sore, sport, sword, tore, torn, towards, whore, [bo'd], [board]; [bo3-], [boa1], etc. But boring, glory, Nora, story, for example, are ['boriq], ['glori], ['nora], ['stori]. 10. [ u ]

Words pronounced with [u] in Webster, such as book, butcher, foot, good, nook, rook, etc, show no variation in East Texas speech, except that in emphatic positions the vowel may be lengthened and/or combined with an off-glide, especially in words in which the vowel is followed by a continuant. For example, in the querulous demand of a child, 'O, gimme the cushion' [d: gimi Sa 'ku:Jan], cushion is lengthened but has no off-glide. Lengthening and off-glide, however, are frequently combined in such words as bull, bush, full, push: [bu:al], [bu:sj], etc.43 i n T i d e w a t e r Virginia as it is in o t h e r S o u t h e r n dialects. Of course, a p u r e vowel is rare. B u t t h e d i p h t h o n g a l e l e m e n t i n t h e [ou] of T i d e w a t e r Virginia is n o t so m a r k e d as it is elsewhere in t h e S o u t h Sometime t h e [o] in home is nasalized a n d t h e following [m] very short. Likewise t h e [o] in know a n d no m a y h a v e nasal resonance. T h i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n is h e a r d also in Charleston, S. C. (cf. Victor 75-A) . Excessive nasal resonance is n o t u n c o m m o n in t h e South.' T h e s e s t a t e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g nasalization a r e t r u e of East T e x a s , b u t I h a v e n o t h e a r d t h e s h o r t [m]. I n A m e r i c a n Speech Records, R e c o r d 71-B, Stony, T e x a s , p . 343, has [ou] in go, know, whole, hole, [o] a p p e a r s in home. Shewmake, p . 14, says t h a t B a r t l e t t identifies gwine f o r going w i t h S o u t h e r n speech. I n East T e x a s this f o r m is used by negroes, a n d occasionally by w h i t e speakers in j o c u l a r i m i t a t i o n of t h e m . O n p . 31, S h e w m a k e says t h a t going unstressed p l u s to (going to) is p r o n o u n c e d w i t h t h e 00 of wool. I n East T e x a s this p h r a s e is ['gona], 42. Shewmake, p p . 28-30, says t h a t the d r o p p i n g a n d vocalizing of r final a n d b e f o r e consonants—as in do-ah, mo-ah, f o r door, more-, a n d po'ch, do', fo'teen, f o r porch, door, fourteen (also po-uhch, do-uh, fo-uhteen) —is a sure sign of S o u t h e r n speech. T h i s statem e n t is of course t r u e if o n e m e a n s t h e p l a n t a t i o n type of S o u t h e r n speech, t h e speech of t h e ' O l d South.' B u t such p r o n u n c i a t i o n s a r e f o r e i g n to t h e hill-type speech. Greet, Delm a r v a , p. 60, finds a slightly lowered [o] in board, sport, course. I h a v e n o t h e a r d this in East T e x a s . I n W i l l i a m s b u r g , p . 164, Professor G r e e t says, '[o] may a p p e a r practically w i t h o u t a n off-glide, [o] or [oa] occurs in more, floor, board, fourteenth, court, a n d in course a n d coarsely. I n t h e last two words, however, o is usually slack a n d followed by [a].' I n Lubec, p. 399, Professor G r e e t finds that '[o] w h e n stressed usually becomes [ou]. H o w ever, t h e d i p h t h o n g is n o t m a r k e d . I n coarsely a n d course, t h e [o] is f r o n t e d . Floor a n d board h a v e [oa]. Mourn is [mon].' I n A m e r i c a n Speech Records, R e c o r d 71-B, Stony, T e x a s , p. 343, has [o] i n floor, board, course, coarsely. See also t h e o t h e r A m e r i c a n Speech Records. T h o s e in w h i c h t h e s o u n d i n t h e words in this g r o u p is [oar] (i.e., [o&] in my t r a n s c r i p t i o n ) a r e 65-A, I n d i a n a C o u n t y , Pennsylvania a n d O k l a h o m a (p. 344), 70-B, Bismarck, Illinois (p. 350), a n d 73-B, N o r t h P h i l a d e l p h i a , Pennsylvania (p. 3 5 3 ) . See also Webster's, p. xlviii, cols. 1, 2. 43. I n East T e x a s I do n o t h e a r t h e f r o n t e d [u] which Professor G r e e t refers to in

SPEECH

OF EAST

TEXAS

Put, stood, and took are frequently [pAt], [stAd], the more illiterate, who also say [JaIc] for shook."

25 [tAk],

in the speech of

11. [u] The East Texas [u] is usually somewhat fronted and tense, but excessive fronting and tenseness are rare.45 It is probably the purest vowel in East Texas speech; that is, it shows no tendency to diphthongize except before r and r plus consonant. Frequently, however, there is a barely perceptible change in the tone of [u] when it is followed by continuants, as in fool, broom., soon, booze. T h e pitch of the latter part of the sound in such words is slightly lowered with a downward glide accompanied by the gradual narrowing of the air passage—by the closing tongue or lips as the following consonant requires. T h e words listed above might therefore be transcribed [Fuul], [brvuum], etc.16 Inasmuch as this glide is barely perceptible, even when the word in which it occurs is drawn out to its greatest length, and does not occur invariably, the point need not be dwelt upon. Before r or r plus consonant there is a noticeable lowering and diphthongization to [ua] or [ua1] when surrounding speech conditions permit. Lure, poor, sure, are [lua], [lua1]; [pus], [pua1]; [Jua], [JW], In such words as these an r quality is usually distinctly audible, though the forms without it do occur.47 More illiterate speakers use [po], [pou], [poa], [poa-], for poor, and the same vowel combinations in your, sure.iS [joa] also occurs in educated speech. Such words as new, duke, duty, tube, Tuesday, tune, are always pronounced with [ju], never with [u] alone, [nju], [djuk], etc. Absolute and suit, however, always have [u] alone, never [ju]. Due and do are always distinguished in East Texas speech. Due is [diu], rather than [dju] (though new is [nju]); and do is [du].49 In the following words usage varies so widely in America between [u] Williamsburg, p. 165. T h e [u] in East Texas seems to me to be not fronted but rather slack. Professor Greet, in Lubec, p. 399, finds a slack [u], which is slightly fronted in words like couldn't, look, foot, shook, stood, would, but not in pull. 44. Shewmake, p. 41, finds shuck for shook in illiterate speech in Virginia; and Campbell, p. 146, finds the same pronunciation in the speech of the southern highlander. 45. There are examples, however, in the East Texas records. Note especially No. 3, in the sentence, 'I'm pretty sure the widow ain't done wrong, but she is something of a fool,' in which the [u] in fool is very tense and fronted, perhaps [u]. In No. 4, according to my transcription, it is slightly less so. 46. Note the similar treatment of [3] above. 47. See Webster's, p. xlix, col. 2, where Kenyon speaks of the lowering effect of r. See also Kenyon, pp. 227-29. 48. J. S. Kenyon, Webster's, p. xlix, says that [pos], [Joa], [joo], are Southern British pronunciations. See also Kenyon, pp. 227-29. Shewmake, p. 3 1 , says that your, poor are often yo-uh, po-uh; yo, po, in illiterate speech in Virginia. 49. Greet, Williamsburg, p. 165, says, *[u] is characterized by unusual tenseness and it

26

AMERICAN

SPEECH

and [U] (and sometimes [A]), that the only way to treat them is to set them down according to their pronunciation in East Texas. They are pronounced in the same way by all speakers. The following words are pronounced with [u]: aloof, boot, broom, food, goose, groom, mood, moon, proof, rood, roof, room, rooster, root, soon, spook, spoon. The following are pronounced with [u]: coop, Cooper, hoof, hoop, Hooper. (Other words of this kind are treated under [u] because they are consistently pronounced with this vowel everywhere in America.) Soot is pronounced [sAt] by all speakers in East Texas.60 Route is [raut], bouquet is [,bo'kei], and brooch is [brotj] in East Texas speech. I am informed that chew was once pretty generally pronounced [tjb:] by the uneducated, but that this pronunciation has now died out. I have not heard the word so pronounced. 1 2 . [A]

Most words which have [A] in Webster are pronounced with the same vowel in East Texas speech. Examples: Bud, b u m p , bundle, b u n k , but, butter, come, cover, crumb, cuff, cut, duck, duds, d u m b , d u m p , fluffy, flush, grub, grumble, hover, huddle, h u n d r e d , hungry, hussy, jug, jumble, just, money, monkey, mud, mug, mulberry, mumble, rough, rub, rut, shovel, struggle, studden, truck, tub, tumble. [ b A d ] , [ b A m p ] , etc.

These words also, however, may show lengthening and/or off-glide when in an emphatic position: [ b A : d ] , [ b A a d ] , [bA:ad], etc. is somewhat f r o n t e d . . . It is difficult to tell whether [u] has become [ju] or [iu]. Due is rarely distinguished from do. In some of the records the sound in new is longer and has more diphthongal character than the sound in do and due. This tense and fronted [u] is characteristic of all Southern speech.' (Cf. footnote 45 above.) See also Professor Greet's note on [u] in Lubec, p. 399: '[u] is usually fronted. Probably a pure [u] occurs only in Vermont, rural New York, Ohio and the Middle West. It may be much rarer there than we have thought. Do and due are homonyms [du]. New is [nu].' See also the American Speech Records. I heard [diu] for due in the Stony, Texas, record, No. 71-B, but it is transcribed as [diiu], p. 343. And the same for new. In the Lamar County, Texas, record No. 71-A, I heard [ju] in due, new, but the sound is set down as [iu], p. 3 5 0 . Smalley gives [ju] in tune, duke, Tuesday, etc. But speaking of this dictionary, Professor Krapp says: 'It is not a record of American Speech, but merely a phonetic record of a generalized kind of English Speech published in America.' (The English Language in America, I , 3 7 3 . ) Worcester, however, gives u (i.e. [u]) for new, duke, tune, due, Tuesday—the same sound as in do, which he marks dd, 'long and close,' as in m6ve, pr6ve, s66n. See also Kenyon, pp. 2 1 0 - 1 8 . 50. Neumann, p. 49, says that Walker notes [SAt] for soot as vulgar. Read, p. 503, notes that of the 223 people in the various southern states who replied to his questionnaire, 97 preferred [SAt], 26 [sut], and 100 [sut]. See Kenyon, pp. 189-90.

SPEECH and worry

Courage

OF EAST

27

TEXAS

are pronounced both ['kAridg], ['wah]; ['ksixdg],

['wse]; and ['k^ridj], ['wjti]. T h e forms with [3] and [sr] are used chiefly by the more illiterate.51 is pronounced ['kanstabal] by all speakers.62

Constable Brush

(in underbrush,

verb), just,

shut,

such,

and occasionally in hairbrush touch,

and in brush

as a

are frequently pronounced with [e] by less

well educated speakers (i.e. [bref], etc.); and such has the additional form [sitj]. Once in a great while one hears ['kiiva*] for cover

in the speech of

older people, and sometimes this pronunciation is used jocularly by others. I have never heard [dgist] for just.™ For onion,

['irpn] or ['iipn] is still heard occasionally in the speech of

older ignorant people in the backwoods. But it has almost completely died out." T h e usual pronunciation is ['Anjan]. Hungry

is pronounced ['hSiqgri] by the more illiterate.

[»] In East Texas speech, [31] is in the main sounded with distinct r quality as generally in America, although the East T e x a s vowel is not so emphatically retroflex as it may be in the Middle West. Examples: Absurd, assert, birch, bird, b u r n , burr, churn, converted, cur, curb, curdle, curt, dirk, dirt, divert, earn, first, fur, gird, girdle, girl, gurgle, heard, hurt, jerk, journey, lurk, nurse, perk, person, purse, quirt, sherbet, shirk, shirt, spurn, squirt, term, third, thirsty, thirteen, thirty, turn, turnip, whirl, word, work, worm, worth, yearn, [ab'ssd]... [bsd], etc. Occasionally, sir and heard when strongly emphasized become [S3], [h3d]. 51. Shewmake, p. 32, finds kerridge for courage in careless speech in Virginia. I have never heard this pronunciation in East Texas. 52. As J. S. Kenyon, Webster's, p. xxv, col. 1, and p. xlv, col. 3, remarks, this is an acquired spelling pronunciation. 53. Neumann, p. 54, finds the following incorrect pronunciations recorded in American spellers and grammars, 1783-1799: sich for such, kiver for cover, shet for shut, jest for just, harricane for hurricane. Neumann says that Webster, in Dissertations (1799), said that shet for shut was vulgar, 'yet this is the true orthography and pronunciation'... and that it was almost universally so pronounced among all classes in New England, Great Britain, and the southern states of America. N. Webster, p. 51, warns against kiver for cover, and Neumann, p. 25, lists this pronunciation among the improprieties of American speech noted by Webster and his later contemporaries. Shewmake, p. 14, notes that Bartlett identifies shet for shut with Southern speech. Orbeck, p. 45, says, 'Shet may possibly represent a Kentish form, the vowel going back to E.E. short y.' Wright, p. 600, finds Jet for shut in m.Shr. Oxf. nw.Hrt. ne.Nrf. e.Suf. se.Ken. Sus. nw.Dev. 54. N. Webster, p. 77, warns against ineyon, eenyon, for onion. Wright, p. 553, finds it]an in Inv. ne.Sc. w.Frf. e.Per. wm.Sc. s.Ayr. Kcb. Glo. Bdf. s.Sur. Sus. but e.Sus. injan; erj»n in s.Sc.; arjan in Lth. Edb. Peb.

28

AMERICAN

SPEECH

as i n ' N o , sir!' [no 'sa], 'I heard him,' [a 'h3d im]; a n d sir w h e n so u s e d m a y be [SA]. B u t s u c h instances are rare. T h e s o u n d is usually [31], w i t h distinct r quality. It m a y b e l e n g t h e n e d almost indefinitely, as i n ' H a v e y o u heard,}' [haev j u 'h3?::d], w i t h long-drawn-out e m p h a s i s inspired by the anticipatory relish of b e i n g the first to break the news. 65 Heard

is s o m e t i m e s p r o n o u n c e d [hjead] a n d [hjia'd] i n less literate

speech; a n d girl [gjaeal]. T h e usual p r o n u n c i a t i o n s of syrup

a n d stirrup

are

['s^ap], ['stjap], b u t less w e l l e d u c a t e d or careless speakers say [ s i p ] , [stsp], [sjTp], [st^Tp], Squirrel

is universally ['skw:?®!], ['skw3"r3l].M

14. [ei] T h i s d i p h t h o n g is treated u n d e r d i p h t h o n g i z a t i o n of [e]. It is m o s t noticea b l e w h e n final i n such words as day, decay, lay,

way.

55. Wyld, H.M.C.E., p. 176, notes that William Baker (1724) gives nus, pus, thusty, for nurse, purse, thirsty. Nus [nAs] is the only one of these I have heard. It occurs in illiterate speech. Wyld, ibid., p. 173, also refers to Cooper's mention of wusted (worsted) as a pronunciation 'for the sake of ease.' This pronunciation ['wAStid] also occurs in illiterate speech in East Texas. (The vowel in the final syllable is an obscured [1] or [E].) Orton, p. 109, lists [tanap] (i.e., [tanap]) for turnip. This also, as well as ['unap], occurs in East Texas. Orbeck, p. 31, lists burch, furst, thurd, thurty, thurtene, etc.; and p. 32, ferst, gerl, scerts (shirts) , therd, conferme, etc. Orbeck thinks these show a lowering of the vowel. In slovenly speech in East Texas such words might properly be transcribed [ferrst], etc., also. Shewmake, p. 33, says that in Virginia there are several pronunciations of er, ir, or, ur, in verse, first, worst, purse. Some speakers sound the r and others omit it; but a third set pronounce these words with a sound approaching oi. This is exceptional in Virginia, he says, where the prevailing pronunciation is the standard sound and r is not pronounced at all. (That is, [v3:s], etc.) [VDIS], [VAIS], are not heard in East Texas. In their comment on Record 71-B, Stony, Texas, Professors Ayres and Greet note that [ai] ([?] in my symbols) appears in certain, shirker, '[A:]' ([3] in my symbols), they say, 'is typical of the cotton country of Texas and is the usual sound in the South outside of the mountain districts.' See American Speech Records, p. 343. Concerning Record 74-A, Leicester, North Carolina, p. 353, they say, 'The speech tune, less staccato than the coast, is like that of Stony, Texas, No. 71-B, and suggests that the speech of the latter descends from the southern mountain t y p e . . . [JC] is pronounced and [aa] occurs in words like shirker.' The prevalence of [a-] in East Texas speech, upon the basis of these statements, is further indication that it is predominantly hill-type speech. See also the following American Speech Records, pp. 350-53: 71-A, Lamar County, S.W. Texas, in which shirker, search have [at], but with slight retraction; 72-A, Paris, Texas, [ai]; 73-A and B, Pennsylvania, [ai]; and 72-B, Lincoln County, Missouri, which is like 71-A. The Pennsylvania records are especially interesting in view of the movement of Pennsylvania Scotch-Irish into some of the southern states. (See Introduction, p. 3.) See also Webster's, pp. xliii, xliv. 56. Wyld, Studies, p. 123, says, 'Dr. Johnson is said to have pronounced the word (heard) heer'd as being closer to the spelling than hurd. The same pronunciation is evidently the basis of Pope's rhyme heard—revered.' Wyld also points out earlier rhymes suggesting the pronunciation [hard]: Spenser, heard—regard; Shakespeare, ward—regard; Dryden, reward—guard. Wright, p. 461, gives numerous instances of girl as gal; he finds gjtzl in nm.Berks., gitzl in n.Dur. Campbell, p. 145, notes heerd for heard in the speech of the southern highlander.

SPEECH

OF EAST

TEXAS

29

15. [ai] In East T e x a s speech, when the diphthong [ai] occurs stressed, in final position and before all consonants except r, the second element is usually quite as definite as elsewhere in the English speaking world. For example, in 'I'm right well,' the diphthong has no unusual stress on either part in I'm or right: [aim rait weal]. B u t in 'Are you sure you're right?' [ar ju Jua1 jur 'ra:i:t] the diphthong of right may be heavily stressed and lengthened. In these and other words, however, such as I'll, I'd, bind, bite, kind,

mind,

my, nice, wide, wind (verb), Webster [ai] is likely to be [a] in East T e x a s when the word is not especially emphatic. In the sentence, 'I'm right well,' the first two words are [am rat] as often as they are [aim rait]. I have not heard the vowel [a] as a substitute for this diphthong in East Texas, except in certain words before r, which are noted below. 6 ' W h e n r or r plus consonant follows [ax], the East T e x a s pronunciation is [aia1]. Examples: [taia1], [tai^d], [waia1], [wai^d] for tire, tired, wire, wired. These words, and others, such as fire, fired, hire, hired, iron, are also often pronounced with [a:], [a:], [D:], or in illiterate speech even [D:]: [fa:r], [fa:r], [fo:r], [f 3 :r]. M Quinine

and

cowardice

are

universally

pronounced

['kwai.nain],

['kiaua^dais] in East Texas. I am informed that [o'blidg] for oblige was a common pronunciation some fifty years ago among the older people of that time; it is now rarely heard in East T e x a s except in jocular usage.69 57. Greet, W i l l i a m s b u r g , p . 166, says t h a t '[ai] tends t o w a r d [a] or [a] in I, mind, find, my, why, while, a n d by it, b u t o£ course t h e s o u n d seldom entirely loses its d i p h t h o n g a l character.' See also t h e ' o p p o s i t e tendency' (toward [laijk] or [lajk] for like), a n d t h e ' d i p h t h o n g w h i c h a p p r o a c h e s [ai]' (transcribed [ai]) occasionally in mind, divine, line, like, Christ, etc., described in t h e following p a r a g r a p h s . According to my observations, these d o n o t occur in East T e x a s . See A m e r i c a n Speech Records, p . 350.1 h e a r d [nais] in t h e L a m a r C o u n t y , T e x a s , record 71-A. See my t r a n s c r i p t i o n of the East T e x a s records, in w h i c h [a] f r e q u e n t l y occurs f o r [ai] in such words as those h e r e listed. 58. Greet, D e l m a r v a , p . 59, finds [a], [aa], or [o] in while-, [d] in fire; [a], [o] in tires. Shewmake, p. 41, says t h a t fi-uhd is t h e cultivated p r o n u n c i a t i o n of fired; fah-d, fah-uhd t h e illiterate. W r i g h t , p . 440, records fd(r) for fire in m.Yks.; a n d p . 494, aran for iron in t h e s a m e locality. 59. Wyld, H.M.C.E., p. 165, records oblege, obleging, f r o m t h e Verney Memoirs. I n Studies, p . 124, W y l d says t h a t [obli:d;$] was the 18th century p r o n u n c i a t i o n . H e gives two e x a m p l e s f r o m P o p e : Epistle

to Dr. Arbuthnot,

207-8, oblige—besiege;

Imitations

of

Horace, bk. i, epistle vii, 29-30 oblige ye—besiege ye. W y l d t h i n k s t h a t L o r d Chesterfield a p p r o v e d of [o'blitd^] a n d c o n d e m n e d [o'blai:dg]. N e u m a n n , p . 6, says t h a t in t h e Grammatical Institute of 1783 a n d 1787 W e b s t e r gives [o'blidg]; b u t (p. 7) t h a t in Dissertations (1789) a n d t h e Dictionary (1828) h e p r e f e r s t h e d i p h t h o n g . W a l k e r (1791) says t h a t obleege is vulgar. W r i g h t , p . 198, finds i (i.e. [i]—Wright, p . 16, says t h a t this s o u n d is like t h e i in F r e n c h si) in oblige in w.Frf. e.Per. Ayr. Kcb. s.Sc.

30

AMERICAN

SPEECH

1 6 . [au] T h i s d i p h t h o n g , w h i c h v a r i e s i n p r o n u n c i a t i o n i n A m e r i c a , [aeu], [au], [ a u ] , also s h o w s v a r i a t i o n i n E a s t T e x a s s p e e c h . F i r s t , it is a l m o s t a l w a y s l o n g e r t h a n i n m a n y o t h e r sections of A m e r i c a , the l e n g t h e n i n g b e i n g m o s t p r o n o u n c e d i n less l i t e r a t e speech. S e c o n d l y , it r a r e l y , if ever, escapes nasali z a t i o n i n s o m e d e g r e e ; a n d n a s a l i z a t i o n , l i k e l e n g t h e n i n g , is m o s t a p p a r e n t a m o n g less w e l l e d u c a t e d speakers, w h e r e it is v e r y s t r o n g l y m a r k e d . T h e t h i r d n o t a b l e f e a t u r e is t h e v a r i e t y of i n d i v i d u a l s o u n d s f o r the first e l e m e n t . I f a n o r m m a y b e s a i d to e x i s t f o r this d i p h t h o n g i n E a s t T e x a s , it is [aeu], b u t v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e first e l e m e n t p r o d u c e also [au] a n d [ae-uj]—all of these w i t h v a r i o u s degrees of l e n g t h e n i n g a n d n a s a l i z a t i o n . E x a m p l e s : A b o u t , a c c o u n t , a l l o w , a r o u n d , arouse, b l o u s e , b o u g h , b o u n c e , b o u n d , b o u n t y , b o u t , b o w (verb), b o w e d , b o w e l , c l o u d , c o u c h , c o u n t , c o u n t y , c o w , c o w l , c r o w d , c r o w n , d o w d y , d o w n , flounder, f o u n d , f o u n t a i n , f r o w n , g o u g e , g o u t , g o w n , g r o u n d , growl, h o u n d , house, how, howdy, howl, loud, louse, m o u n d , m o u n t , m o u n t a i n , m o u s e , n o w , our, o u t , o w l , p l o u g h , p o w d e r , p o w e r , p r o u d , p r o w l , r e n o w n , r o u n d , r o u t e , r o w d y , scout, s n o u t , s o u n d , sour, souse, s o w ( n o u n ) , t o u s l e , t o w e r , t o w n , v o w , v o w e l , w o u n d (p.p. of w i n d ) ,

[baiit], [baeut], [biej.ut]; [ba:ut], [b&:ut], [ba=j.:ut];...

[taun], [taeun], [t&j-un]; [ta:un], [t£:un], [taej.:un]. W h e n this d i p h t h o n g f o l l o w s [k] o r [g], the [k] o r [ g ] is palatalized, 6 0 a n d the d i p h t h o n g f r e q u e n t l y b e c o m e s [eau], [eaeu]; [eau], [Eaeu]; [aeau], [ae::u]; [iau], [iaeu]. T h e i n i t i a l s o u n d of these t r i p h t h o n g s is a l w a y s a n o n - g l i d e p r e c e d i n g the stress. T h e t w o e l e m e n t s of t h e d i p h t h o n g — o r the s e c o n d a n d t h i r d of the t r i p h t h o n g — a r e of a b o u t e q u a l l e n g t h . E x a m p l e s : cow [kjeaeu]; [ k j e a u ] , [kjeaeu]; [kjaeau], [ k j £ : : u ] ; [ k j i a u ] , [kjlieu]. Gown

[kjeau], [gjeaun],

[gjeSun]; [gjeaun], [gjeSun]; [gjSaun], [ g j £ : : u n ] ; [gjiaun], [gjiSun].61 60. T h i s subject, as well as the development of a following [j], is discussed in the chapter o n consonants. 61. According to Wyld, H.M.C.E., p. 230, the development of the modern diphthong [au] was probably as follows: [u—u™ or un—ou—au—au]. H e notes the fronting of the first element in Middle-Class London Cockney to [ae], so that house is pronounced [haeus]. See his full discussion, pp. 230-32. Neumann, p. 62, says that [SEA] for the diphthong in cow, etc., is strongly disapproved of by all who mention it. Professor Greet, Delmarva, p. 59, finds a tense [as], and occasionally [e], in house, town, ground. See also his discussion in Williamsburg, p. 167, where he finds the d i p h t h o n g [aeu] in ground, found, down, town, now county, cow, houses [haeuziz], sometimes in out [aeut]. T h e other variants which he mentions do not occur in East Texas. Of the American Speech Records, the following have [asu] in the words indicated: 71-B, Stony, Texas, p. 344, in how, scouts; 65-A, Indiana County, Pa., and Oklahoma, p. 345, in scouts, ground; 66-B, Columbia, S. C., p. 347, in scouts, out, about; 73-B, North Philadelphia, Pa., p. 353, in scouts, ground; 74-A, Leicester, N . C., p. 354, uniformly. No. 67-B, near Boston, Mass., p. 348, hour [aeuwa]; 72-B, Lincoln County, Mo., p. 352, [asuai]. No. 72-A, Paris, Texas, p. 3 5 1 , has [au] in scouts, about. Shewmake, p. 43, finds uh-oot for out and huh-oose for house regularly in Virginia. On p. 42 he says that daeown for down is heard in many good speakers and that it is general among the illiterates; that naeow is sometimes heard for now.

SPEECH

OF EAST

TEXAS

31

17. [ou]

This diphthong has been discussed under [o]. 18. [31]

Most words pronounced with [di] in Webster are also universally pronounced with this diphthong in East Texas. Examples: Adjoin, anoint, boiler, boy, broil, choice, coin, coy, employ, groin, joy, loin, noise, Roy, soil, toil, toy, voice, [ a ' d p i n ] . . . [bai], etc.

I have never heard any of these words pronounced with [ai] in East Texas. My father, however, says that his grandmother used [lam], [grain], for loin, groin.'2 Another group of words, also usually pronounced with [31], are still occasionally heard with [ai] in more illiterate speech and in jocular usage. They are: boil, coil, hoist, join, joint, joist, oil, point, poison, spoil, [boil], [bail]; [kail], [kwail], etc.83 Wright, pp. 450-51, records fceul for foul in Lei. but faul in s.Lei.; and fceund for found in m.Nhp. Kokeritz mentions [eu] [asu] in house, doubt, gown, found, now, town, thousand, out, pound, round, etc. He says that [EU] is the usual diphthong, but that [aeu] and the standard form [au] are also used. See pp. 64-65. 62. Of course the modern pronunciation of groin with [di], like that of boil (l g'eim], [lae^s 'sAm?], [laej.s wik]. T h e material in this chapter has been arranged as nearly as possible according to the phenomena noted: Initial loss, medial loss, final loss, assimilation, addition of sounds, development of [gj] and [kj]. T h e treatment of r and I, however, is in separate sections, independent of these classifications. In addition, there is a section on wh- and one headed 'Miscellaneous,' in which are discussed various matters that do not fit into any of the other categories. Under each heading the following order will be observed: plosives, fricatives, affricates, nasals, laterals, semivowels. i. Initial loss. Very few consonants are omitted from the beginning of words. In careless speech this, that, these, there, are frequently [is], [act], [iz], [aea1]: 'This ain't my hat' ['is eP mai hast]; 'That's not what I said' ['aets nDt Mat a sed]; 'These ain't no account' ['iz eP no kjaeCP]; 'There I was looking at them through the fence' ['aea1 a 'WAZ | 'lukn aet am 0u ¡5a 'fins]. Likewise, though may be simply [o], as in the sentence: 'And then I de-

56

AMERICAN

SPEECH

cided to go on home, though I knew there wasn't nothing I could do' [an 'In a d 'saidid ta g5:n h o u m | o a nju Sa wAdn 'nA0n a k»d du]. N o t e also that [S] is omitted from then at the beginning of the sentence. 'I don't know, though' and 'Some of these days' are often [a o 'no o], ['sAm iz 'deiz]. Have, had, he, her, him, frequently appear in the forms [aev], [av], [aed], [ad], [i], [i], [a-], [im], 'Have you seen her recently?' [aev ju 'sin a1 'risntli]. T h e initial [h] has not been restored in herb, humble, humor, which are [srb], ['Ambal], ['junta-] in East T e x a s speech; that is, they have not acquired the spelling pronunciations which they have in some sections. 1 2. Medial loss. Bumble-bee

and mumble-peg as ['bAmal,bi], ['mAma^peg], are the only

examples of syncope of b. These pronunciations occur in illiterate speech and in that of children. T h e syncope of d is more common. In most of the examples d is preceded by n* as in the list: Blundered, brand-new, brindle, bundle, candidate, candle, grandma, grandpa, handle, handsaw, handkerchief, hundred, kindle, kindling, landlord,

sandpile,

s c a n d a l , s c a n d a l o u s , s c o u n d r e l , t h u n d e r e d , [ ' b i A h a - d ] . . . [ ' b A n J ] . . . [skaen]], etc.

Several of these deserve special mention. Some of them, such as handkerchief, landlord, do not have a medial [d] in general American. In ['grsenmS], [•graenpo], for grandma, grandpa, [d] is simply omitted; but in the frequent pronunciations ['graemmS], ['grahnpS], there is assimilation of [n] to [m], 1. See J. S. Kenyon, in Webster's, p . xxv, col. i, a n d p. xlv, col. 3. W y l d , H.M.C.E., p . 295, says t h a t in p r o n o u n s a n d auxiliaries t h e loss of h- is very early. H e finds madim f o r made him as early as t h e 13th century. H e lists ombel, yumer, f r o m t h e Verney Memoirs, a n d umble, youmore, f r o m L a d y W e n t w o r t h . N e u m a n n , p. 103, quotes W e b s t e r in t h e Dissertations as saying t h a t h is silent in American speech in herb, humor; a n d in humble in E n g l a n d . Shewmake, p . 31, says t h a t in Virginia h is usually o m i t t e d in herb, humble, humor. Smalley gives humble (adj.) b o t h w i t h a n d w i t h o u t [h], b u t as verb only w i t h [h]. H e lists humor m e a n i n g ' m o i s t u r e ' w i t h [hju], b u t as 'disposition' w i t h [ju]. All derivatives h a v e [ju] except humoral, which has [ h j u ] . W a l k e r , p . 11, lists t h e following as correctly p r o n o u n c e d w i t h o u t [h]: heir, heiress, herb, herbage, honest, honesty, honour, honourable, honourably, hospital, hostler, hour, hourly, humble, humbles, humbly, humour, humorist, humorous, humorously, humorsome. Worcester gives humble a n d humor ( n o u n ) b o t h w i t h a n d w i t h o u t [h]; humor (verb) a n d all derivative f o r m s h a v e only [ju]. 2. Orbeck, p . 77, lists kinred f o r kindred. Kokeritz, p. g i , lists brand-new, grindstone, standstill as words f r o m which d is o m i t t e d ; a n d , p . 197, frensshepe, granson, grinstone, honerd (for hundred), as e x a m p l e s of early spellings which show loss of d. W y l d , H.M.C.E., p. 302, r e p o r t s t h a t J o n e s (1701) 'says d is n o t p r o n o u n c e d in landlord, landlady, friendly, handmaid, candle, chandler, dandle, handle, kindle, fondle a n d o t h e r words in -ndl-; f u r t h e r in children.' O n p . 165 W y l d lists Wensday, granmother, hounes (hounds), f r o m t h e Verney Memoirs. O r t o n , p. too, says t h a t d is o m i t t e d f r o m candle, handle.

SPEECH OF EAST

TEXAS

57

as well as syncope of [d]. ['skjsen}], ['skjsenlas], ['skjaiunl], for scandal, scandalous, scoundrel, should be especially noted as widespread illiterate pronunciations in East Texas. fblXna'd], ['hXna'/ad], ['OXna'd], for blundered, hundred, thundered are also often heard in illiterate speech; but hindered is always ['hlndaxl]. Candidate is often ['kjaen3,deit], but also occurs as ['kaendidit]. The usual pronunciation of mad-dog is ['mas^Dg], with no trace of the first [d]. [,gu'bai] for good-bye is heard only in illiterate speech. Many examples might be given for the elision of medial t. It is consistently lost in East Texas speech in boastful, breastpin, correctly, costly, directly, exactly, frostbite, frostbitten, lastly, mostly, perfectly, postman, roast beef, roasting ears ['rosn^z], strictly, waistline, and other similar words, ['bousfal], etc.3 In East Texas captain is pronounced ['kjaeptin]. The form ['kjaepip] is not used, probably because of lack of familiarity with the speech of the army and of people who live close to the sea. In illiterate speech, however, comfortable, gentleman, and representative are frequently ['kXmfabal], ['dginlman], [repa'zlntiv]. Let us, in illiterate speech, is usually [les], [les 'as]. Let me is ['term]. 'What time will that be?' [aui taim wil aet bi].4 Wish that is often [wijt] in illiterate speech: [a wijt ai haed a nju haet]. Fifth is usually [fi0]. Lengths is [leirjks]. ['i:nin] for evening and ['gimi] for give me are widespread. But ['aej-ta1] for after and ['saerdi] for Saturday are heard only among the illiterate. (The last two are typical Negro pronunciations.) Clothes is regulary [klouz], ([tlouz]).6 In baths and paths well educated people usually sound the [8], but often very lightly. These last two words pronounced [basj.:z], [paej.:z] are characteristic of illiterate speech. In the speech of the more ignorant, [j] is regularly lost in figured ['fig^d], 3. Wyld, H.M.C.E., p. 302, lists Crismus (Christmas) from the Verney Memoirs; Crismass and busting from Lady Wentworth. He says 'Jones (1701) notes loss of -t- in the pronunciation of Christmas, costly, ghastly, ghostly, Eastcheap, lastly, beastly, breastplate, gristle, bristle, whistle, Sec.; listless, mostly, roast beef, waistband, wristband, christen, fasten, glisten, &c.' In a number of these words, of course, the omission of t is usual in England and America; i.e., Christmas, fasten, gristle, etc. Greet, Delmarva, p. 62, says that there is no trace of [t] in couldn't make, couldn't bear, hadn't, etc. This conforms to general East Texas usage. Kokeritz notes in some of his Middle English sources the loss of [t] in heavy consonant combinations: e.g., vesment for vestment. See p. 196. He also points out the loss of [t] in postman, frostbitten, directly, effects, facts, gifts, kept, etc. The loss in such words, he says, is due to reduction. See p. 88. Shewmake, p. 19, records laesly for lastly from Ellis. 4. Neumann, p. 88, cites lemme for let me from Dearborn (1795). 5. Kokeritz, p. 95, explains the disappearance of [0] in months and of [3] in clothes as due to difficult combinations.

AMERICAN

5»

and is frequently lost in population, the

following

pronunciations:

SPEECH regular,

and reputation,

[papja'lejan],

which have

[papa'leJan];

['regjala 1 ],

['regis-]; [repja'tejan], [repa'tejan]. T h e loss of [w] is usual in East T e x a s speech in backwards ['baeka-dz], ['toa-dz]. But afterwards,

forward,

and towards

and other similar words are

pronounced [lcexfta,w3,dz], ['farwa-d], etc. Inwards,

as a noun referring to

the viscera of a chicken, is pronounced ['ina'dz].9 Young-ones,

used as a compound noun meaning 'children,' is pronounced

['jXrpnz] by all who use it. It is, however, a folk expression. T h e singular form is also used, ['jXipn]. 7 3. Final loss. In East T e x a s speech, d final after n is usually lost, even when the following word begins with a vowel. Sometimes, though rarely, d in this position is lightly pronounced, especially in past tenses of verbs.8 Examples: Band, behind, fined, grand, grind, hand, joined, land, lined, sand, sound, stand. [b], ['grsnpa] usually, but also ['graemm5], ['graempo], as noted above. Months: Pumpkin:

[mAnts],

Tush, tusks: [tAj], Wasn't:

the usual pronunciation.

['pXqkin] usually, but also ['pAmkin], ['pumpkin].16 ['tAjiz]

only in the speech of children.17

['wAdn], ['wAdnt,] frequently

in illiterate speech; also

['wAzn],

['wAznt].M

In East Texas speech, the sound which in standard usage would be [S] is often changed to the point-dental nasal [n] when it occurs after [n]. For example, 'In these days' is to be transcribed [in niz deiz] or [in niz deiz] for East Texas speech. In such combinations, the [n] is a blade-alveolar nasal, and the change from [n] to [n] is made by shifting the pressure of the tongue from the blade-alveolar ridge to point-teeth without breaking the contact. This phenomenon occurs in general vulgar English, but in East Texas it is by no means confined to illiterate speakers. Its use is widespread. Other examples: 'On this road' [5n nis roud], 'When they come' [Min nei kAm], 'And then I went home' [n nln a wlnt houm]. Similarly [3] regularly becomes [1] after [1]: 'Roll the ball' [roul la b3:l], 5. Addition of sounds. In East Texas speech there are very few words in which intrusive sounds regularly appear in general use. Only sour ['sauwjr], situation [^itja'wejan], and vermin ['varma/Int] are very common, though I have heard [a'krDst] for across in the speech of people who would be astonished, and piqued, if they were told that they used such a form, ['varma/lnt] is employed by all as a name for any night-prowling animal which is, or is thought to be, destructive, and which cannot be specifically identified.19 15. Orbeck, p. 7 5 , says that medial nb was frequently assimilated to mb: crambery (p. 83). 16. Neumann, p. 126, says that Webster recorded punkin for pumpkin as an impropriety in 1 7 8 3 ; but N . Webster, p. 77, spells it pumkin (as the correct spelling) in warning people against the use of punkin. 17. W r i g h t , p. 658, records numerous localities in which tuf is used for tusk. 18. W r i g h t , par. 327, p. 244, says that woznt (was not) has become wodnt in Dor. Som. w.Cor. Shewmake, p. 44, records a number of examples which I have not set down in my lists, but which are used by everybody in East Texas: hass to f o r has to; haff to for have to; gradle f o r great deal (pronounced [,grei 'dial] in E.T.); pash your or pash yuh for pass your. 19. Kokeritz, p. 89, lists acrosst, vermint. Neumann, p. 88, says that Webster mentions acrosst as an impropriety. Orton, p. 1 5 5 , lists vermin as [vzemant].

6s

AMERICAN

SPEECH

T h e other pronunciations in my list belong properly to illiterate or low colloquial speech. Most of them have been noted by others who have recorded the usages of various times and places. T h e words and their pronunciations are set down below. Words with intrusive [r] will be included in section 7 of this chapter. Attack, attacked: [a'taekt], [a1 tasktid]. Chimney and family, with intrusive [b], have been commented upon in the preceding section. Close, closer: [tloust], ['tlousta1]. Cringe, crowd: [skrindg], [skraudg].20 Drown, drowned, drowning: [draund], ['draundid], ['draundin] (with [iu] also).21 It: [hit].13 Once, twice: [wXnst], [twaist].23 Overalls: fova^liDlz]. 6. Development of [gj] and [kj]. This subject has been mentioned and illustrated with plentiful examples in chapter 1—see especially section 17, [au]. Among all speakers the tendency toward a palatalized [g] with a following [j] before [i], [1], [e], [e], [as], [asx], [ei], [au], [aeu], is stronger than in general American. T h e [j] element is given full value under normal speech conditions and is accentuated when the speakers are excited. 'Give him a pass to the game,' in ordinary calm speech, is [gjiv im a pasj-s ta Sa gjeim]. T h e same remarks apply to [k] when followed by [au], [aeu], [u], and by [as], [asj.], [e], [ei], [e] plus consonant, as cow [kjaeu], calf [kjasxf]. Other examples: gash, gate, geese, get, gimlet, gown: [gjaexj], [gjeit], etc.; cabbage, camel, carry, cape, cash: ['kjaebidg], ['kjasmal], etc.24 20. N e u m a n n , p. i o i , mentions scrouge or scroud for crowd, from Webster (1789); and skringe for cringe, from Rhoads (1804). I have never heard [skraud]. 21. Kokeritz, p. 91, records drownd (infin.). Neumann, p. 89, says that drownd for drown was noted as an impropriety by Heaton (1799). Orbeck, p. 78, lists drownd (infin.) and drownding. 22. Campbell, p. 146, records hit for it in the speech of the southern highlander. 23. Neumann, p. 88: 'The pronunciations oncet, twicet, says Webster in the Dissertations (p. 165) (1789) occur in Pennsylvania and Maryland.' Orton, p. 155, notes the addition of [t] to once [janst], twice [twaist], as rare. T h e addition of [t] to sudden, sermon, brazen, hidden, villain, however, is noted, but not marked rare. These I have not heard in East Texas. Wright, p. 552, finds wunst in n.Der. m.Lin.; janst in n.e.Lan.; and other examples with [t]. On p. 231 he records twaist for twice in Sc. Irel. Lan. I.Ma. Lin. Shr. Oxf. Brks. Sus. Dor.; and wenst (janst) for once in n.Ir. Lan. Chs. Stf. Der. m.Lin. Shr. Hrf. Glo. Brks. e.An. Sus. wJDor. e. and s.w.Dev. 24. In some words of this kind, of course, there is a certain amount of affrication in general American, as there is also in such words as keen, kin, kitty, cue, cute, acute, curious, cure, accumulate, cube, Cuba.

SPEECH

OF EAST

TEXAS

63

7. r. In this section, for the purpose of indicating as clearly as possible the treatment of r's in the hill-type speech in East Texas, it has been thought best to depart from the general plan of the study. T h e discussion of r's, therefore, has been extended to include all three types of speech which are found in this part of the state: (1) Plantation-type (i.e., 'cultivated' Southern speech—distinctly in the minority in East Texas); (2) Hill-type (spoken by most of the white inhabitants); and (3) Negro speech (which is Plantationtype speech as spoken by Negroes, who form a very large group). T h e distribution of these types has been discussed in the introduction. In East Texas, r's are not consistently used by any one of the three groups of speakers. T h e treatment shows a mixture of Western and Southern usage. For this reason, it is almost impossible to make absolute statements. Dogmatism must end with the statement that in East T e x a s (as of course in all America) there is no trilled r. Before a vowel (as in rib, brake) r is usually pronounced as a fricative consonant by all groups of speakers. B u t the qualification 'usually' is necessary, for the Negroes tend to weaken r after a consonant; and they omit it, as do illiterate white speakers, in throat, throw,

through.

Finally and before a consonant (as in jar, bark), r tends to be omitted by plantation-type speakers, but is sometimes pronounced. W h e n so pronounced, however, it is pronounced lightly, frequently so lightly as to be barely audible. In hill-type speech this sound is usually a distinct retroflexive or retracted mid-vowel, but with less pronounced retroflexion or retraction than in general American speech. Hill-type speakers, however, sometimes omit this r. Greet, Delmarva, p. 61, says that [k] and [g] are commonly fronted; and in Lubec, par. 28, p. 401, he finds that 'Initial [k] and [g] are extremely front and often are slightly palatalized before [a], [as], and [a:].' His remarks on p. 402 of the same article are pertinent in this connection: 'It is very tempting to see a certain unity in the speech of the Atlantic coast (with the exception of New Jersey and Florida). T h e New England coast, Tidewater Virginia, and coastal North and South Carolina are close kin, I believe. . . . T h e y have a tendency to front and intensify vowels, to palatalize [g] and [k].' In Williamsburg, Professor Greet has more to say on this subject. First, p. 169, he speaks of the decreasing prevalence of the [kja], [gja:dn] type of pronunciation—which, by the way, is never heard in East Texas. T h e n , p. 170: 'Second, a less noticeable palatalization of [g] and [k] before [ze], [£:] and [a:] is common in the speech of men and women of all ages and both races in Virginia and North Carolina. T h e name of the latter state is regularly [nxO k-^aelaina] or [k^aeralaina]. Girls is frequently [g^Ailz]. Words like care, carry and scared are often palatalized. Occasionally cow is [ k ^ e u ] . I have never heard [ k ^ ] before [eu]. T h e use of [g'~ ] and [ k ^ ] is eccentric. Governor John Garland Pollard says in a record [k^ae] . . . [ke:ri]. [k^ae] is the only example of palatalization in his speech.' See his whole discussion. Neumann, p. 100, says that Webster in the Dissertations ridicules the keow of New England, and that he also disapproves of [j] in power and gown.

64

AMERICAN

SPEECH

Negroes omit final and preconsonantal r usually, b u t not always. T h e y sometimes compensate for its omission by substituting [a], as in lard

[la:3d],

but often this w o r d is [la:d] (and also [biTd]) in their speech. T h e Negroes are better able to sustain a pure vowel than the whites. Four,

for example,

is [foa], [fo:u], and frequently [fo:] in their speech. ( A plantation-type speaker says [foa] w h e n he omits the r; a hill-type speaker usually says [foa 1 ].) Negroes always say jauwo] for hour;

plantation-type speakers say

[auwa] and [aow J l ], as do also hill-type speakers, though the latter most often use [auwa 1 ], w i t h a distinct [a-].26 I n words w h i c h end in unstressed - e r , -ar, -or (paper, tar,

labor,

Taylor),

water,

dollar,

mor-

both plantation- a n d hill-type speakers say ['pepa],

[ ' d a b ] a n d ['pep 3 "], ['dal 3 "], etc. B u t plantation-type speakers most often say ['pepa], ['dala], a n d hill-type speakers most often say ['pep»], ['dala 1 ], with distinct [31]. Negroes regularly omit r : ['peipa], [ ' d a : b ] . 25. Kenyon has described the usual East Texas hill-type r exactly, though he is not speaking of East Texas specifically, and does not use the term 'hill-type.' T h e [r] which he describes is, he says, the usual one for the North and West generally. It is not fricative except after t, d, b u t retroflex. See 'Some Notes on American R,' especially p p . 330-32. In Webster's, p. 1, Kenyon points out that the retroflex r comes from northern, western, and southwestern British speech, and the loss of r from southern British. Greet, Delmarva, p. 57, says: 'Perhaps the most old-fashioned varieties of Delmarva speech are current on the islands in the Chesapeake and off the Atlantic c o a s t . . . . They remind me of the speech I heard in the Blue Ridge Mountains in Madison County, Virginia, because of the preservation of [ r ] . . . . T h e general speech type is of the southern mountain kind.' Kokeritz, pp. 205-6: 'In the Suffolk dialect loss of r finally and before consonants is as normal as in standard English.' Kokeritz gives examples from early spellings. Neumann, p. 95: 'It is difficult therefore to escape the implication that r before a consonant was silent in Webster's speech.' See his whole discussion of r, pp. 93-97. Orbeck, pp. 71-72. T h e numerous examples which Orbeck gives seem to show that r final and plus consonant were pronounced: acors (acres), cornur, ansur, whithar (whether), offissur, minestur, suger, Hubert, Richerds, Sherburn, sojurne, etc. On p. 75, however, Orbeck says: 'r was not sounded at all times before consonants or finally.' Smalley indicates pronunciation of r final and before consonant. But Professor Krapp's comment on this dictionary should be remembered: 'It is not a record of American speech, but merely a phonetic record of a generalized kind of English speech published in America,' The English Language in America, 1, 373. Worcester also indicates the pronunciation of r finally and before consonants, b u t it is impossible to tell whether this is significant; that is, whether Worcester was observing closely. Wyld, H.M.C.E., p. 298, speaking of r says: 'In the true Regional dialects of the South— from East to West—it is, or was until quite latterly, an inverted point-open, rather more strongly consonantal than in Received Standard. . . . T h e r e is evidence that r was lost in the South, before consonants, at least as early as the fifteenth century.' Examples from Wyld will be given below in the footnotes to the tables. In American Speech Records, r is noted as pronounced finally and before consonants in the following records: 65-A, Indiana County, Pa., and Oklahoma (pronounced moderately); 67-A, Kitchener, Ontario, Canada; 69-B, Meriden, Conn.; 70-A, Rockbridge, Ohio; 70-B, Bismarck, 111.; 71-A, Lamar Co., S. W. Texas; 71-B, Stony, Texas; 72-A, Paris, Texas (but often lightly, e.g., in barn, board, floor, march)', 72-B, Lincoln Co., Mo. ([r] usually pronounced); 73-A, Lancaster Co., Pa. ([r] pronounced and no liaison); 73-B, North Philadelphia, Pa.; 74-A, Leicester, N. C.

SPEECH

OF EAST

TEXAS

65

In the use of linking r, as in bear up, tar and feather, hill-type speakers consistently pronounce r: ['baea* Ap], ['tar n 'feSa1]; and Negroes consistently omit it: ['bae3 ,Ap], ['ta: n 'feSa], In plantation-type speech, however, these phrases are ['bae ,Ap], ['bae3* ,Ap], ['ta n 'feSa], ['ta3" n 'feSa]; that is, r is sometimes omitted, sometimes pronounced. Intervocalic r is usually clearly pronounced by speakers of plantation type, weakly pronounced or omitted by those of hill type, and consistently omitted by the Negroes. For example, marry, very are ['maeri], ['veri], in the speech of the first group; ['maeri], [maei], ['veri], [vei], in that of the second; and [mas:], [ve:i], in that of the third. In hill-type speech r is more clearly pronounced after [e] and [i] than after other vowels.28 Numerous additional examples of r in all these positions are set down in the tables below. All these pronunciations have been repeatedly heard. (See also the examples in the sections dealing with medial and final unstressed syllables in chapter 11.) FINAL AND P R E C O N S O N A N T A L 'R' 27 Word Bird Boar Boar-hog Briar

Plantation-Type [bs:d], [b3: r d] [boa], [boa 1 ] [braia]

Hill-Type [bid] [boa1] ['bo,h3g] [braia 1 ]

Negro [bA:d], [bAid] [bou] ['bo.ha'g] [bra:], [bras]

26. Professor Greet says in Williamsburg, p. 168: '[r] initial and [r] medial are not so inverted a n d tense as they are in the Middle West. However, the medial [r] in very, carry, dreary, a n d Mary, is usually well formed in the speech of white people in Tidewater Virginia. In a few records the medial [r] is very light, as it is in most Southern speech. A m o n g the negroes of the Tidewater, the medial [r] may practically disappear. I recorded ['injuans] and [in'Juans] for insurance, a n d [wa'ik] for Warwick.' 27. Orbeck, p. 84, gives only three examples of lost final r in stressed syllables: whe (where), they (their), fo ( f o r ) . On p. 85, however, h e lists a n u m b e r of spellings which indicate loss of r before consonant. A m o n g them are fust, woks (works), bod ( b o a r d ) , noth ( n o r t h ) . Shewmake, p. 33, lists fair, hair, pair, pare, pear, scare, lair, as pronounced fae-uh, etc., in Virginia. T h i s pronunciation, h e says, is traceable to 17th century British pronunciation. See also his discussion, pp. 28-30, where he says that d r o p p i n g and vocalizing of r final a n d before consonants is a sure mark of Southern speech. Among his illustrations are po'ch, do', fo'teen for porch, door, fourteen; also po-uhch, do-uh, fo-uhteen. Wyld, H.M.C.E., p. 165, lists t h e following f r o m the Verney Memoirs: quater, no father t h a n Oxford, doset 'Dorset,' fust 'first.' And on p. 298 he gives examples f r o m the 15th to t h e 18th centuries: adust—wurst (1441); church—such (1528) ; skaselye 'scarcely' (1556) ; skasely (1544); furst—dust, first—must (Tottel's Misc.) ; (p. 299) fust 'first' (1642). Wyld, p. 299, reports t h a t Cooper (1685) says wusted represents the pronunciation of worsted; and that Baker (1724) says nurse, purse, thirsty are pronounced nus, pus, thusty. Wyld says that cuss, bust, 'the modern, semi-humorous vulgarisms,' represent the older type. I n Studies, p p . 113-14, Wyld says that cuss for curse, bust for burst, wust for worst, are based on the loss of r which occurred at the latest in the 15th century, a n d which was not accompanied by compensatory lengthening. All these pronunciations which Wyld gives, except doset, are common in illiterate speech in East Texas.

AMERICAN

66 Word Burst Car Care Corn Corner Curse Far Farm Fire Foremost Form Fourth Girl Horse Horses Hurt Murder Nearly Nurse Parson Sir Toward Turn Wire Work Worm Worse

SPEECH

Plantation-Type [bast], [bs'st] [ka:], [ka:']

Hill-Type

Negro

[barst], [bASt]

[bASt]

[kaa-]

[ka:], [kaa]

[ k j E T a ] , [k'ae*]

[ k j s s ] , [kjea-], [kjia-]

[kj£a]

['kaan], [karn] ['karna] [k3:s], [k3's] [fa:], [fa:'] [[fa:m], [fa: r m] [faia], [fai»] ['foa^oust] [fa:am], [fa:rm] [foaO], [for0] [g 3 :l], [gs'l] [haas], [hDrs] ['ha'siz] [ha't], [hA't] ['m3rda] ['njiali]

[koa'n] ['karna1] [k3>s], [kAS] [fa*], [fa1] [farm], [foarn] [faia1], [far], [faa1] [lfo3'lmous(t)] [fsa'm]

[ka:n], [kaun] ['kana] [kAS] [fa:], [ìa:] [fa:m] [faa], [fa:] ['fomas], ['fo,mos] [fa:m], [faum] [fo:0], [fouO]

[foa>e], [fo6]

[parsn]

[g*l], [ga-al] [hag's] fhaa'siz] [hit] [lm3,d3l] [•njia-li], ['njeli] [n3-s], [nAs] (verb) ['parsn], ['pDrsn]

[S3:], [S3r]

M

['toa-dz]

['pa:sn] [SA:] [toudz]

[t3:n], [t3rn]

[t3-n]

[tA:n], [tAin]

[wai®], [wai®"]

[waia1], [war], [war]

[waa], [wa:]

[W3k], [W3rk]

[W3>k], [ W A k ]

[wA:k]

[w3:m], [w3rm]

[w3,m]

[W3S], [ W 3 r s ]

[W31s]

[n3 r s], [nA r s]

['toad], [t03rd]

[gA:l], [gAil]

[ha:s] ['ha:siz] [h A :t] ['mA:da] [njeli] [nA:s]

[wA:m],

['wAim]

[wa:s], ['wais]

INTERVOCALIC 'R' Word Barrow Berry Borrow Carry Furrow Harrow Hurry Irish (potatoes) Marry Sorry Sparrow Terrible Tomorrow Very

Plantation-Type ['baera] ['ben] ['bara] ['kjaeri] ['fAra] ['haera] ['hAri] ['airij] ['maeri] ['sari] ['spaera] ['ttrabl]

Hill-Type ['baej."] ['bs'i] [baa-], [boa1] ['kjae'i], ['kjaei]

['tea'bl], ['tArbl]

[teabl], [tA:bl]

[ta'mDra]

[ta'mDa1], [ta'maa1]

[ta'maa]

['veri]

['veri], [vti]

[VEI]

[&:]

['haera], [haej.31] ['hari], [h3Ti] [orj] ['maeri], [maej.:ri] ['sDr:i] ['spaeo-a1]

Negro [baea] [bei] [ba:a] ['kjaei] [fA:],[fA3] [hae:a] [hAi], ['hAri] [ a : J] ['mae:i] ['sa:i] ['spae:a]

LINKING 'R' Word Beer in bottles Core of an apple Far under

Plantation-Type Hill-Type [bjian 'batlz], [bji'n-] [bjia-n 'batlz] [koavan 'aepal], [ko'v-] [koa'v an 'aepal] [fa 'Anda], [farlAnda]

[faa-'Anda-]

Negro [bjsan 'batlz] [kova 'aepal] [fa'Anda]

SPEECH Word Mother and father More applejack Near a lane Stare at Were afraid

OF EAST

Plantation-Type [mAÖan 'faSaj,

[mAÖ'n-] [mo^'aepa^dgaek],

[mo^'asp-] [njia'Iein]

['staeaaet], ['staeraet] [wa'freíd], [w3:freid]

67

TEXAS

Hill-Type

Negro

[moa1 ' sepal, dgaek]

[mo'icpa^djasl

[njia-a'Iein]

[njca'lein]

['mASa-n 'faSar]

[lsta;j.3'aet] [wa-a1 freíd]

['mASan'faSa]

[stae::t] [wa:'freíd] (wAza'freid])

F I N A L •ER' Word Brother Faster Gather Master Mr. Other Rather Sister Together Udder Water Weather Whether Wonder

Plantation-Type

Hill-Type

Negro

['fassta/'], ['festa - ] ['gjaeSs/'], ['gjaeSa-]

['gjae/eSar]

['gjae/cSa]

['maej-sta-]

[maesta]

['mista-]

['mista]

['a»»], ['ASa]

['ASa] (['Ada]) ['rASa]

['brASa/"], ['brAS*]28 ['massta/'], ['maestà-] ['mista/ 3 '], ['misty] [•aSS/*], ['AS*] ['raeSa/"], []

['nigs]

[pa'tikla-] [prespa-'ejn] ['piti] 3 0 [pa-'djus], [ p a ' d j u s ] ['prapa-ti]

[pa'tikla] ['puti] [pa'djus] [•prap(3)ti]

[pa-'tEk], [pa'tfik]

[pa'tEk]

['pro,tEs(t)], [p3 , 't£s(t)] [pa'vouk], [pa-'vouk] [pa'vouk] [rEpa-'zinativ]

[rEpa'zfntiv]

[sksa-s], [skeis] [sa-], [sa--], [spraizd] [0rout], [9out] [0ru], [0u] [0rou], [0ou] ['jesta-di], ['je/istidi]

[skaej-s], [skeis] [s(a)'praizd] [Gout] [0u] [0ou] ['jE/istidi]

[ja'sEa/Lf], ['jua,SEa/Lf], [ja's£a/Lf], ['jua,SEa/Lf], [ja'sEaf], ['jo,sEaf] [ja'SEf], ['jOjSEf]

A few additional words should be mentioned which do not fit into any of the categories above. In place of any, illiterate hill-type speakers frequently say ['aeri], [aea1]; Negroes, [as:a]. For the negative form they use [•naeri], [naeat]; and [nae:3], respectively. These forms (i.e., with and without [n]) are used interchangeably, however.81 initial s y l l a b l e ) . O n p. 206, Kokeritz says, citing t h e N E D , t h a t aperne ( a p r o n ) , hunderd, childern, p r o b a b l y represent l a t e M E a n d early N E p r o n u n c i a t i o n s . According to N e u m a n n , p . 125, W e b s t e r listed apun in 1783 as a n i m p r o p r i e t y for apron, a n d apurn in 1787. W y l d , H.M.C.E., p . 1 7 3 , says t h a t C o o p e r ( 1 6 8 5 ) m e n t i o n s hundurd as a p r o n u n c i a t i o n ' f o r t h e sake of ease.' H e says, p . 301, t h a t C o o p e r notes t h a t V is s o u n d e d a f t e r o' in apron 'as t h o u g h w r i t t e n apurn, &c.'; a n d t h a t C o o p e r also notes t h e very c o m m o n s i x t e e n t h a n d seventeenth c e n t u r y f o r m hunderd. B a k e r (1724), says W y l d , ' T r a n s c r i b e s apron as apurn.' T h e W e n t w o r t h P a p e r s h a v e childern. 30. I n [ ' p s t i ] t h e first syllable is extremely short. 31. C a m p b e l l , p . 144, records ary, nary in t h e speech of t h e s o u t h e r n h i g h l a n d e r . T h e N E D does n o t list ary, b u t it does list nary as U. S. a n d Dial, v a r i a n t of ne'er a. T h e f o r m is typically U. S., says t h e N E D , b u t a p p a r e n t l y occurs in some English dialects, a n d is occasionally used imitatively b y English writers. I t m e a n s ' n e i t h e r ; no; n o t a.'

SPEECH

OF EAST

TEXAS

69

Handkerchief, in illiterate hill-type speech, is often ['haej-rjkatJa1] or ['haej-qkatja]. Negroes use the latter form.82 In addition to the widespread forms ['kainda], ['sDrta], for kind of, sort of, hill-type speakers say ['kainda1], ['sorta1]. 8. I.

Only exceptional uses of I need be considered in detail, for in most words I occurs in East Texas speech without any perceptible divergences from American and British usage. That is, I initial is clear; I final is dark. Examples of clear I: lake, lank, leave, limber, linger; of dark I: bill, civil, mail, pole. There are a number of words in which a syllabic I is preceded by [a] in East Texas speech: Able, apple, babble, boggle, bubble, buckle, cable, cackle, couple, dapple, double, fumble, gabble, giggle, gobble, grumble, haggle, humble, jumble, ripple, ruffle, scramble, shuffle, supple, table, tipple, trouble, tumble, ['ebal], ['sepal]... ['grAmbol], etc.

But the present participles of the verbs in this list have no [a] before I: ['bseblin], etc. Other words have no preceding [a] in East Texas speech: Battle, bundle, candle, cattle, drizzle, fizzle, gentle, griddle, gristle, guzzle, handle, huddle, hurtle, muddle, muzzle, Myrtle, prattle, thistle, turtle, whistle, ['baetj], ['bAnl]... ['grid]], etc.

With respect to I and the inclusion or omission of [a], the words in these groups are pronounced as in general American. Before vowels and [j] I hear a definitely clear [1] in East Texas speech.83 As Jones points out, the quality of I is conditioned by its surroundings; it takes on the resonance of the adjoining vowel.34 Therefore, an initial I, if followed by a back vowel, as in look, luck—especially if the articulation is relaxed or uncertain—might justifiably be regarded as dark, or at least ambiguous in quality. Lack of muscular tension and uncertainty of utterance 32. Orbeck, p. 80, records handkerchers. Wyld, H.M.C.E., p. 173, says that Cooper (1685) mentions hankercher as a pronunciation 'for the sake of ease'; and, p. 176, that William Baker (1784) gives hankercher for 'handkerchief.' 33. But there is diversity of opinion concerning this matter in Southern speech. In 'Southern Standards,' American Speech, I X (1934) , 42-43, Miss Wheatley notes the disagreement between J . S. Kenyon, who hears a clear I in the South, and C. M. Wise, who hears a dark. She agrees with Kenyon. In support of her position she says: 'The dark I in a Westerner's pronunciation of such words as Lilian, Lily, less, leave, i.e., before front vowels, sounds curious to the Southern ear while Westerners often comment on the Southern pronunciation of I in these words. It is perhaps the dark I of the Westerner that accounts for the glide [a] in such words as school, fool, tool, etc.' 34. Jones, par. 665, 668, 669, and footnotes. Cf. all of Jones's chapter xx, pp. 159-64.

70

AMERICAN

SPEECH

are characteristic of Negro speech in East Texas. But the higher-pitched, more nasal and nervous voices of many women speakers make the clear quality of I unmistakable, to my ears, in such phrases as 'Kill him!' 'Let him alonel' ['kjil im], ['let im a'loun]; and the dark I equally evident in 'Kill the rascal!' ['kjial la 'rasskal]. In such words as flit, glimmer, slip, I is definitely clear in East Texas speech; in flirt, blurt, slobber, blubber, it seems to become darker by successive degrees. The exceptional uses occur when I appears before certain consonants which close the syllable. In many words of this kind, I is only as dark as in A m e r i c a n a n d B r i t i s h speech, f o r e x a m p l e : bald, build,

bulb,

bulk,

field,

hold, sulk: [bald], [biald], etc. In other words it has been lost, also as in A m e r i c a n a n d B r i t i s h u s a g e , f o r e x a m p l e : calm, palm; calf, half; halves,

salve;

balk,

calk, chalk,

folks,

talk, walk:

calves,

[ k a : m ] . . . [kjaej.f]...

[kjaexvz]... [bak], etc. In still other words, I shows variations from American and British speech by being dropped from some words, and occurring as [A] or as the velar [L] in others. [a'maiti], [,3'maiti] in the phrase 'God almighty' are widespread and are by no means limited to illiterate speech. The pronunciation [pl'maiti] also occurs, [a'redi] and [p'redi] are likewise widely used, with [pl'redi] as a more elegant form. [hep] is the illiterate form of help; both [heap] and [heLp] are used by the better educated. Ralph has two pronunciations: [rae-i.:f] in less literate speech, and [raeaf] as the other form. Solder is universally ['soda1]. Myself and self usually have only one form: [maseaf], [seaf]; but in less literate speech, the self words, when unstressed, may be [sef], as in 'What's he going to do with hisself?' [Mats i go 'du wi9 isef]. Shelf is [Jeaf]. T h e usual pronunciations of elk, elm, film, milk, silk are [eak], [eLk]; [earn], [ei,m], etc., that is, with both [a] and [l]. I have heard a very dark [1], however, in elk; and of course elm and film have the additional pronunciations ['elam], ['filam] in illiterate speech. Valve has two forms, [vaeav] and [vaealv], both of which, so far as I have been able to determine, are used indiscriminately by all speakers. Yolk, pronounced [jouk] and [joLk], is preferred by the better educated; but yelk, [jeak], [jfxk], is used almost exclusively in illiterate speech.85 35. S i m i l a r i t i e s to East; T e x a s s p e e c h w i l l b e a p p a r e n t i n w h a t P r o f e s s o r G r e e t says a b o u t L u b e c a n d W i l l i a m s b u r g . I n L u b e c , p . 401, h e says: ' A f t e r [e], [1] m a y b e c o m e t h e v e l a r [ l ] , or it m a y vocalize, e.g., [ELm] or [Earn] elm, [ s e i i ] o r [scat] self. A f t e r all vowels, [1] m a y b e p r e c e d e d b y a g l i d e s o u n d , [ l ] or [a]. I t is difficult to say w h e n this s o u n d is sufficiently d i s t i n c t f r o m the [1] to r e q u i r e its o w n s y m b o l . I n elm, [1] m a y b e f o l l o w e d by a vocal g l i d e [slam].' A n d i n W i l l i a m s b u r g , p . 169: ' I n a few records, self is p r a c t i c a l l y

SPEECH

OF EAST

TEXAS

71

In East Texas, filth, melt, smelt (past of smell), and walnut seem to my ears to have merely a very dark I, not [L]. 9. Words beginning with wh. Words spelled with initial wh, except who, whole, and whore, are consistently pronounced with [AY] when they are stressed. Examples: what, when, whence, where, which, white: [Mat], [Avin], etc. But in exclamations, such as 'Why, yes!' 'Why, no!' 'Why, John!' why is pronounced [wai]: [wai 'jaes], [wai 'nou], [wai 'dgan]. In other uses it is [Mai]. 8 9

What and where, unstressed, may be pronounced [wat], [wat], [waer], [wae], as in 'What are you doing tonight?' [wcitjh 'duin t3'nait]. I have never heard any of the other words with a completely voiced [w].ST 10. -ing endings. The standard [q] of -ing endings is usually [n] in East Texas speech. It is almost always [n] in illiterate speech, and very frequently in the speech of [sef]. T h i s I is usually pronounced in the South, but it is not the ordinary lateral. It is a back sound, and Jespersen describes it in Section 21, Phonetic Transcription and Transliteration, Oxford, 1926— " . . . the back of the tongue articulates against the soft palate without the tip of the tongue being at all active." ' Neumann, p. 89, says that in the Dissertations (1789) , I was marked silent in could, would, should; balk, caulk, chalk, talk, folks; half, calf, halve, salve, Ralph (ed. of 1792); psalm, psalmist, salmon; that it was pronounced in alms, balm, calm, palm, qualm, holme; fault, vault; falcon; that Nares (1784) marks I silent in calm, palm, fault (sometimes), vault, falcon, chaldron; that Thomas (1785) transcribes psalm as saume; that Franklin (1768) pronounces the I in his phonetic transcriptions in calm, could, would, should. On p. 90, Neumann quotes what Webster has to say about yelk in the Dissertations (1789). Orbeck, p. 75, says that I was frequently silent before b (as in Colborn), before / (as in Ralph), and before m (as in Holmes). Orton, p. 41, transcribes folk(s) [fauk(s)], [fok(s)]. Shewmake, p. 33, says that in Virginia, walnut is sometimes heard with silent I, and that solder is generally pronounced without the I sound. Wyld, H.M.C.E., p. 297, speaking of the loss of I before consonants, says that it is no longer pronounced in normal speech in calf, half, balm, calm, etc. He says that the evidence for this loss begins in the 15th century, but that the actual loss is doubtless older. He gives examples from the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries. 36. Shewmake, p. 31, says that the omission of h sounds in words like white, where, is not characteristic of Virginia except in why, and in it only in expletive or exclamatory force. 'In "Why did he g o ? " ' he says, 'why is pronounced with h\ but in "Why, J o h n ! " it is w'y.' 37. Greet, Williamsburg, p. 170, says that [M] stressed is stable on the coast as well as elsewhere in the South. J . S. Kenyon, Webster's, p. liii, says that hw [M] comes from Scotland, Ireland, and the north of England. Orbeck, p. g, finds [M] confused with [w]: wich for which. Smalley gives [M] as the initial sound for words in wh (except such words as who, whore)-, and so does Worcester. Wyld, H.M.C.E., pp. 138-39, speaking of Queen Elizabeth, says: ' T h e old voiceless w, formerly written hw, and then wh, was apparently not pronounced in the Queen's English since she writes wich "which," and evidently used the voiced sound in this and other

AMERICAN

72

SPEECH

educated people. I n the speech of the latter, however, [q] also occurs. E x amples and f u l l discussion have been given in chapter ii, near the end of the third m a i n division. 38 11.

Miscellaneous.

T h e r e still remain to be considered a small n u m b e r of p h e n o m e n a w h i c h do not fit into any of the categories above. A few of the words in this miscellaneous list have been mentioned in previous chapters because of their stressed or unstressed vowels. T h e y are g r o u p e d here as nearly as possible according to the m a n n e r in w h i c h their consonants are treated in general American. I n East T e x a s , as in the W e s t , ['pardna 1 ] is the usual pronunciation of partner,

in colloquial speech. B u t a lawyer, in referring to his associate in

the profession, says [ ' b , p a r t n ? ] . I n illiterate speech, ['aema^Jua 1 ] is frequently heard for amateur, [tju:n], [tidgas], for Tuesday,

tune,

tedious.

[dguti], [a'midgetli], ['indgan], for duke, Dubious,

['tjuzdi],

B u t I have never heard [dguk],

duty, immediately,

Indian."

in less literate speech, is ['dgubas]. T h e speakers are not famil-

iar w i t h it as a printed symbol, b u t have gained their knowledge of it through hearing it spoken. I t means 'doubtful,' 'pessimistic,' 'wary,' etc. words beginning with this consonant, as all Southern speakers do at present, unless they have been subjected to Scotch or Irish influence.' 38. Greet, Delmarva, p. 6i, says that [rj] is commonly replaced by [n], b u t ' "the g is lost" precisely,' not slovenly as in the South. In Lubec, p. 401: 'Frequently [n] occurs for [i]] in carrying, stamping, crossing, etc. In spite of the disapproval of school teachers, [n] for [q] persists in the speech of educated people north of Boston.' In Williamsburg, p. 169: 'In the speech of educated and cultivated people [i]] final is commonly [n].' Kokeritz, p. 203, says that substitution of -in for -ing is usual in early NE (Wyld, H.M.C.E., p. 282), and that it is still heard from many educated people all over England. Orbeck, p. 74, says that final unstressed ng was frequently [n]. P. 84: lodgin, watchin, metin, finishin, agreen (agreeing), etc. v Shewmake, pp. 27-28, notes the general use of [n] for [q] in participles in Virginia. Wyld, H.M.C.E., p. 289, lists numerous examples of the substitution of [n] for [i]] from the latter part of the 14th century to the beginning of the 19th. He says that this substitution was at one time apparently almost universal in every type of English speech, and that it now obtains in practically all regional dialects of the South and South Midlands and among large sections of speakers of Received Standard English. The strong reaction which set in in the 1820's in favor of the spelling pronunciation has been so successful 'that the [rj] pronunciation ("with -ng") has now a vogue among the educated at least as wide as the more conservative one with -n.' On p. 165, Wyld lists seein, missin, comin, shillins, disablegin, from the Verney Memoirs. In Studies, p. 112, -in for final -ing, Wyld says, is found in most poets from Shakespeare to Tennyson. 'The rhymes of this class were perfect, and it is quite certain that down to the thirties of the last century -in and not -ing was the almost universal pronunciation among all classes of speakers—in fact, many thousands of excellent speakers never use any other form today.' Spellings in -yn, in, Wyld finds very numerous from the*i4th century onwards. P. 113: 'Swift appears to deride such a pronunciation, though his poems teem with rhymes like garden—farthing, linen—grinning, picking—chicken, and so on. Even the fastidious Cooper says that coughing and coffin, cummin and coming are pronounced alike.' 39. Wright, p. 658, lists numerous counties in which Tuesday is pronounced tjuzdi(e',s).

SPEECH

OF EAST

TEXAS

73

Creature in illiterate speech is ['krita*]; the better educated say ['kritja1]. Hold (noun), held, killed, learned, second, smelled, have [t] as their final consonant in the speech of unlettered people: [holt], [healt]... ['sekant], etc. But bold, bond, pond, reckoned, sold have [d]. Asafoetida shows interchange of [t] and [d]. It is pronounced [aes'fiditi], [aej-s'fiditi], by all. Diphtheria, diphthong, naphtha, are always pronounced with [p], never with [f].40 Nephew is ['nefju], never ['nevju]." Navel is still heard occasionally as ['nebal] in the speech of unlettered people in the rural districts. This pronunciation is dying out. I am informed that it used to be the only colloquial pronunciation.42 [haitO] for height is widespread. With, both stressed and unstressed, occurs with both [9] and [S]. The two consonants seem to be used indiscriminately in unstressed position, but when with is stressed, the voiced [S] is apparently preferred. In rural sections, the pronunciation ['paej-nta1] for panther was common, I am told, some fifty years ago; but I have not heard it. [drauG] for drought, drouth, is universal.43 The following pronunciations are apparently universal in East Texas speech: Question and suggestion are ['kwejtjon], [sag'dgejtjan] (not ['kwestjan], [sag'dgestjan]). Appreciate, appreciation, associate, facial, glacier, impatience, insurance, ocean, officiate are pronounced with a medial [f]: [a'prijeit]... [g'sojeit], etc. But association, pronunciation have a medial [s]: [asosi'ejan], pr3,nAnsi'ej3n]. Chamois, chari-vari, chassis, chemise, cheroot, chiffon, sugar, sure, are pronounced with initial [f]: ['Jaemi]... ['Jaesi(s)], etc. Chari-vari, which of course is not known in written form, is pronounced ['JivaCji]. It means a serenade of hideous noises, cat-calls, the beating of tin pans, etc., offered to a bride and groom on their wedding night—after they have retired. Sometimes the groom is kidnapped for a day or two. T h e custom still exists in rural communities. 40. Of the people who answered Read's query, the distribution was as follows: for [p]: diphtheria, 206; diphthong, 198; naphtha, 201; and for [f]: 33, 41, and 38, respectively. So instead of 'never,' perhaps I should say 'hardly ever,' though I have never heard [f] in these words. See Read's discussion, pp. 504-6, especially of diphthong. In the almost four-centurieslong struggle between [p] and [f], the latter has won out in cultivated speech. But in the South [p] is the victor. 41. For nephew, see. Read's interesting discussion, p. 508. 214 people preferred [f]; 22, [v], 42. Kokeritz, p. 95, notes [b] for [v] in navel. 43. Neumann, p. 126, says that Webster mentioned painter for panther as an impropriety in 1783; and, p. 125, drouth for drought in 1787.

AMERICAN

74

SPEECH

Equation is [a'kweijan], never [I'kweijan]." In illiterate hill-type speech the forms [hsn], [fSS&n], [au^n] ([ieOJn]), [juiin], [joafa], often occur for hers, theirs, ours, yours. Rinse is [rlntj] and [reintj]; licorice is usually ['hkrij] or ['likwij]; and ['pintja'z] for pincers is common.40 In low colloquial speech, [jia1], [jea1] are common pronunciations for ear. [k m 'jia-] for come here is used by everyone." 3

The most accurate way of representing the middle consonant of the East Texas pronunciation of such words as butter, water, is probably the singletap r [r]: ['bAra1], ['wara1]. The sound is not the same sound as r in British very [ven]. The middle consonant in the East Texas pronunciations of butter, water, bitter, better, Betty, is made with the part of the tongue just back of the tip—not with the tip itself as in British very; there is slightly more contact between the tongue and the alveolar ridge; and this contact is more prolonged, or rather less instantaneous, than in the British sound. There is a real acoustic difference between the two sounds." Mrs. is usually pronounced [miz], though ['miziz] also occurs. I have not heard ['misiz]. Texas is ['teksiz]. Grease (verb), greasy, and hussy, are universally pronounced with [z]: [griz], ['grizi], ['hAzi]; but grease (noun) is always [gris].18 For resin, one never hears ['rezn] in East Texas. The word is usually ['rDzi^]; and in illiterate speech, ['razam].1" 44. Read, p. 517, says that 'most Southerners of middle and advanced age are surprised to hear equation pronounced in any other way than with [g].' He explains the [3] as occurring by analogy with -sion of words like evasion. 45. Wright, p. 245, records rentf (ME rensen, ryneshen) rinse in Sc. n.Ir. n.Cy. Der. Lin. Lei. War. Shr. Hnt. Dev.; and likarif for liquorice in sw.Yks. w.Som. Neumann, p. 91, says that lickerish for liquorice and pinchers for pincers are vulgar improprieties noted by Webster, though he says pinchers is heard in popular speech. 46. Shewmake, p. 12, finds year for ear in Sylvester Primer's record (PMLA, V, 198 ff.); and, p. 14, he refers to Bartlett, who in commenting upon Southern and Western pronunciation said that ear and here were both pronounced like year, and identified yere for here with Southern speech. Wright, p. 418, records ear as r) in se.Lan. s.Oxf. Sus. Cor. Wyld, H.M.C.E., p. 308, gives numerous examples of the development of y [j] before front vowels from the 15th through the 18th century. He says that some of these forms (yearth, yerb, etc.) were once widespread, but that the only one that survives among good speakers is year for ear and that it is fast becoming archaic. 47. Kokeritz, pp. 89-90, says that [d] and [r] and the glottal stop are used for intervocalic [t] in water, bottom, better, latter, etc. [d] and the glottal stop do not occur in East Texas in such words. 48. Read, p. 524, says that Mrs. pronounced ['miziz] is a criterion of Southern birth, descent, and breeding. He says that it is shortened to [miz] in rapid, careless speech. Walker, p. 58, lists grease (verb) and greasy as correctly pronounced with [z]. Orton, p. 142, transcribes hussy [(h)uzi], i.e., [(h)Azi]. 49. J . S. Kenyon, 'Western Reserve,' records roim for rosin. Neumann, p. 89, says that Webster noted rozum for resin as a vulgar impropriety.

THE SPEECH OF EAST TEXAS (IV) OMA STANLEY New York

University

CHAPTER

IV

PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTIONS

For the first transcription set down below, ten twelve-inch, double-faced phonograph records were made of the speech of ten native East Texans, both men and women, whose ages range from the early twenties to past fifty. These records are numbered iA, iB, 2A, 2B, etc., through 10A, 10B, and they will be so referred to below. They are all filed in the collection of phonograph records of the Columbia University Library. The text of all the records is identical. The material of side A and about half of side B of each record was made from words taken from the first three chapters of this study and arranged in the form of a connected story. The second half of side B of each record contains the story of Grip the Rat. This story was used, first because it has proved to be eminently useful, and secondly because many other records of it have been made. It is therefore well known to all students of American speech and these records may be useful later in a comparative study of the speech of different sections of the country. In making the transcription of these records, the author chose the one which he considered most typical as a basis. That record is transcribed in full. Comments on the other nine records are placed in the footnotes, in which the records are always referred to by number and letter. The second and third transcriptions were made from the speech of the subjects without the aid of phonograph records. The speakers, both of whom are friends of the author, were gracious enough to repeat sentences and phrases over and over, until the author was satisfied with the accuracy of the transcription. Several hours were spent on each selection. Each phonetic transcription is preceded by its text written in conventional form. TEXT OF RECORDS 1-10 When Morgan was about seven years old, his parents decided to send him down from Dallas to his grandpa's farm in Cherokee County. He looked peaked from overwork at school, and they thought he would enjoy a few months of rural life far away from geography and history and arithmetic. Morgan didn't argue with them, for he was tired of the city. The gardens were small, the parks were cluttered

7

6

AMERICAN

SPEECH

with baby carriages and beggars, you weren't allowed to play on the grass or look for birds' nests, but could only squat on a bench; and the only wild animals he ever saw were the squirrels or occasionally a terrapin in a mud-puddle. Of course he might have played in the cemetery, but he had heard awful tales about haunts in such places and his mama had told him it wasn't proper to go there. He had much pleasant curiosity about his journey. He could picture the wide fields of cane that his aunts and other kinfolks had told him about. He was anxious to see a cow milked and watch the old sow and other hogs lying in the swamp near the slough where the hoarse frogs bellowed at night. He wanted to see the horses drink water drawn up in a bucket from the deep well instead of from a faucet, and watch them eat the corn clean off the cob. He wanted to take Fido to look for the eggs that the hens laid in hidden nests in the hollow, and to gallop on the sorrel pony without saddle or blanket or stirrup after the calves when they jumped the fence and ate the tender turnip plants. He'd heard too that an old owl came right up to the brown summer house to pick the young wasps out of the wasp nest and that they looked just like worms. He knew he'd probably have to gather up a bundle of kindling every day for the fire, but he asked his father whether he didn't reckon they'd let him use the wagon if he'd stand behind the horse and not laugh at him or try to make him walk the path in the briars backwards. On the morning of his departure he put on his clothes with extra care. His new wallet was securely hidden in his inside pocket, and his watch-chain dangled jauntily across his vest. He almost quarreled with his sister Ethel when she accidentally pushed his hat down too far on his forehead, but he resolved not to lose his temper at the last minute and so managed to avoid an argument. His father and brother carried him to the station. When they got there they waited nearly an hour because the train was late. Morgan talked calmly with his father, but after a while he began to wonder whether the train would ever come. Mr. Martin kept strolling up and down the platform looking at the chalk marks on the bulletin board and worrying privately about his bank balance and about the insurance on a cargo of sugar which had been expected since Tuesday from Cuba. At last the long wail of the whistle came faintly to their ears, and soon afterwards the wheels ground to a stop on the rails. Iron gates clanged open. Crowds of travelers descended from the coaches like a hurricane; express trucks went by with a roar. Before he knew what had happened, Morgan found himself seated in his chair in the semi-darkness of the parlor car, and heard his father bidding him good-bye. His heart sank. Mr. Martin stood outside the window till the train pulled out. T h e hands of the big old clock pointed to exactly half-past eleven. Morgan sat erect and looked forward to the events of tomorrow. For a while Morgan amused himself by drinking soda water and watching the other people in the car. Some college students were celebrating an imaginary victory. One old lady in a new dress of pale yellow silk kept putting salve and turpentine on the snout of a cute little dog, and from the way it growled and snarled and barked, Morgan thought it must be a mad dog. He tried to imitate it, but after practicing a considerable time he was aggravated to realize that he was a failure. It was a hairless dog, brown in color, and looked naked as a jay-bird but not embarrassed at all. She said she fed it on boiled milk and chicken stew. T h e n when he whirled his chair around in the opposite direction he saw near

SPEECH OF EAST

TEXAS

77

him several men who looked as if they didn't belong there. One seemed to be a Mexican general. Morgan was positive that his pockets were full of ammunition. Another was an Italian or mulatto, a large, dark-skinned man with a round head, thick bull neck, and cruel face, dripping with perspiration. Morgan decided that he was a dangerous criminal whom the federal officers ought to arrest at once, or investigate anyway, before he threw any bombs or gave poison to a whole town. He might commit murder or cause other horrible trouble. They were all drinking beer and chewing tobacco, and he could hear them conversing in low voices, but he was unable to discover what this unusual group were talking about. It was most peculiar, like the average mystery story. He took courage and hoped they wouldn't do any damage. About three o'clock Morgan fell asleep. When he awoke at four he found that it was drizzling rain outside. He couldn't estimate or measure the actual distance he had travelled. He thought it was a hundred miles. But he concluded it made no difference if that mosquito would only stop pestering him. He felt hungry and miserable. He asked the negro porter to bring a bar of bitter chocolate, some molasses taffy, an apple, and an orange. He was disgusted to find that the apple was rotten. But before he could exchange it the train stopped at Jacksonville. Morgan got off. On the long gradual climb up the red hill with his grandma and his aunt, they passed a little shack. A woman was sitting on the gallery. Morgan's aunt immediately started telling his grandma a long tale about the woman. From the way she talked, Morgan decided his aunt was a gossip, and not very well educated either. This is what she said: 'That's old Mrs. White. Her husband died of erysipelas a year ago yistiddy. She's the pores' one aroun' here, but she's gettin' 'long tolably well since she joined the Babtis' church an' goes to prayer-meetin' reglarly. T h e ol' girl's mighty humble, an' she don't objec' to obeyin' the rules, but it's a terrible burden on her that she can't dance. She's a peaceable soul, but kinda ignrunt, and it was pitiful to see her carry on when them deacons tol' 'er she'd have to stop dancin'. She's better 'n 'ey are any day, the whole kit and bilin' u b ' m , an' I bet the climate where they go after the funeral's gonna be hotter'n Texas ever was. ' 'N 'ere's 'at ol' Sam Crocket lookin' 'is way, th' ol' dickuns. 'Ey say he's (th)e riches' banker in the county. 'N' he's the one helped turn her farm into a hog pasture last year. He's the wors' one of the whole push, the mos' dishonest, 'n' he thinks he's perfect, that's a fac'. It's gonna take a mir'cle to save him from hell when he stands naked before his Maker. 'I'm prty sure the widow ain't done wrong, but she is somethin' of a fool. If she'd stop prancin' aroun' makin' eyes at that rural mail carrier on 'is route she'd be a lot better off. He ain't no 'count, ain't worth buryin'. Never saved a cent, never in a good humor. He's got no more sense 'n a chinkipin, but she don't feel that way. Why one day las' week she glanced down the road and saw him comin'. It was pourin' rain 'bout a barrel a minute, an' he was drenched to the skin. He tried to pass on by but she didn' give him a chance. She nailed 'im an' made 'im stay for dinner when she didn' have a thing to eat in the house but lard and syrup. But she throwed her apron over 'er head and run out to the barn and got some eggs. She borrowed some flour and other things an' fixed him a meal. But when she got back

78

AMERICAN

SPEECH

in the house her hair looked like an ol' broom. I declare I do believe she'd 'uv killed me d'rec'ly for laughin' at 'er.' Once there was a young rat who couldn't make up his mind. Whenever the other rats asked him if he would like to come out with them, he would answer, 'I don't know'; and when they said, 'Would you like to stop at home?' he would not say 'yes' or 'no' either. He would always shirk making a choice. One day his aunt said to him, 'Now, look herel No one will ever care for you if you carry on like this. You have no more mind than a blade of grass.' T h e young rat coughed and looked wise, as usually, but said nothing. 'Don't you think so?' said his aunt, stamping with her foot, for she couldn't bear to see the young rat so cold-blooded. 'I don't know/ was all the young rat ever answered, and then he would walk off to think for an hour whether he should stay in his hole in the ground or go out in the loft. One night the rats heard a great noise in the loft. It was a very dreary old loft. T h e roof let in the rain, the beams and rafters were all rotten, so that the place was rather unsafe. At last one of the joists gave way and the beams fell with one end on the floor. T h e walls shook, and all the rats' hair stood on end with fear and horror. 'This won't do,' said the chief, 'we must leave this place.' So they sent out scouts to search for a new home. In the night the scouts came back and said they had found an old coop of a barn where there would be room and board for them all. At once the chief gave the order: 'Form in line!' T h e rats crawled out of their holes and stood on the floor in a long line. Just then the old rat caught sight of young Grip—that was the name of the shirker. He was not in the line and he was not exactly outside it; he stood just by it. 'Why don't you speak?' said the old rat coarsely, 'Of course, you are coming.' 'I don't know,' said Grip calmly. 'The idea of it! Why, you don't think it's safe, do you?' 'I am not certain,' said Grip undaunted, 'The roof may not come down yet.' 'Well,' said the old rat, 'we can't wait for you to join us. Right about face! MarcKl' And the long line marched out of the loft while the young rat watched them. 'I think I'll go tomorrow,' he said to himself, 'but then again I don't know; it's so nice and snug here. I think I'll go back to my hole under the log for a bit, just to make up my mind.' T h a t night there was a big crash. Down came beams, rafters, joists—the whole roof. Next morning—it was a foggy day—some men came to look at the loft. They thought it odd that it was not haunted by rats. But at last one of them happened to move a board, and he caught sight of a young rat, quite dead, half in and half out of his hole. Thus the shirker had his due.

SPEECH OF EAST

TEXAS

79

T R A N S C R I P T I O N O F R E C O R D NO. 8 Avln m a r g i n 1 w a z a ' b a u t

' s e b m 2 j e r z o u l d l h i z ' p e a r i t s d 9 ' s a i d 3 d ta s ! n d a

3

h i m d a e u n f r a m 'daelis t i z g r a i n p a z I m m * ' n ' t j e r 3 k i 5 k £ u n t i 9 | | h i l u k ' p i k i d f r a m ^ v y ' w j k * a t s k u 3 l n n e 8 Bat h i a d a n ' d ^ a i 3 f j u m A n t s 0 a rua-l 1 0 l a i f f a a w e 1 1 frp ' d g a g a f i 1 2 n 'histri13 fa- h i a z t a i ^ d

16

a Sa

w a 9 ' b e b i .kaea'dgiz n

a

n a'ri9matik14|| 'maagin 'didn ' c g j a wiG a m " !

'siti|| S i

' g D ^ d n z " w a 1 ' s m a : l l S i p o r k s 1 8 w3"

20

'bega^z ! | j u w y n t

21

'klA^d19

a ' l a u d ta p i e a n n i 'gras-us 2 2 a l u k

fa 1 b3*dz nesl b a t k a d ' o n l i s k w a t a n a b i n t j 2 3 ! a n n i ' o n l i w a i l d 2 4

'aenamalz

1. All the records except No. 4 have [r] or [»]. In No. 4 the word is ['mo'gin]. T h e last vowel is [1] in all records except No. 7, where the sound is lowered. 2. In seven, [b] occurs only in records 8, 1, and 10. T h e others have [v], though in No. 2 it is very lightly uttered. T h e r e is no second-syllable vowel in Nos. 8, 1,2, and 10, and the final consonant in the word in these records is [m]. In all the other records, the secondsyllable vowel is [a], though in No. 3 it is very faint. 3. All the records show more or less nasality in such words as send, and in almost all of them the vowel is clearly [1]. In No. 1, however, the word has [ex]. T h e r e is no [d] on the end of the word in Nos. 2, 4, and 5. 4. No. 3 has [fa:m], a n d No. 4 has [fD: r m].

5. Variant pronunciations of Cherokee: Record 1, [tjer'ki]; 2, ['tJVki]; 3, ['tjer3,ki]; 4 , 6 , ['tjere'ki]; 5 , 9 , ['tja-ki]; 7,10, [ ' t j i s k i ] . 6. In the word county, all records except 8,1, 2,3, show a [j] after the [k]; the diphthong is [¡EU] except in 1, where it is [au]; 4, 5, and 6 have no [t] at all ([kjjeuni]); and in 1, 2, 3, and 9, the [t] is very lightly pronounced. 7. Several shades of [r] are shown in the pronunciation of overwork. 2 and 3 are [,ov3'w3k]; 4 is [,ov a ' l w3 r k]; 7 is ^ova'wik]; 1, g, 6, 9, and 10 are [¡ov^'wyk], 8. Record No. 9: [aen ne], 9. All records have [mAnts] except 6, which has [mAnOs], with [9] very light.

10. Records 1, 2, 3 are like 8; the others have a [a] before the [1], but in 6 especially it is very light. It is impossible to indicate some of the pronunciations of this word by means of phonetic symbols. 11. Far away is variously pronounced: 1, [fa'swe]; 2, [fa we]; 3, 4, and 5, [far we]; 6, [faa'wei]; 7, [fara'wei]; g, [fas'we]; 10, [fDrawe], 12. For geography, 1 has ['dgag^fi]; 2, [dji'agafi]; 3 and 5, ['dga'gsfi]; 4, like 8; 6, [dji'agrafi]; 7, [dji'ag^fi]; 9 and 10, ['dgDrgafi]. 13. Pronounced the same on all records. 14. In records 2, 3, and 4, the initial [a] is omitted. 15. In all records except 8 and 1, them is [0im]. 16. Nos. 2, 3, 4, [ta:d]; 5, 6, [taird]; 7, 9, [tDrd]; 10, [taiad], 17. Nos. 1, 7, 10, like 8; 5, 6, 9, ['gardnz]; 2, ['ga;dnz]; 3, 4, ['ga:dnz], 18. No. 1, like 8; 2, [pa:ks] (or possibly [po:ks]); 3, [po:ks]; 4, [pD r ks]; 5, 6, 9, [parks]; 7 , 1 0 , [pDrks].

19. T h e first sound in cluttered on No. 8 may be [t]; if not, it is at least a fronted [k]. T h e final syllable in Nos. 2 and 3 is [ad]; in the other records it is like 8. 20. T h e r element is lightly sounded in 2. 21. T h e r element is lightly sounded in 1 and 4; 2 has [w3nt], 22. Grass has a raised vowel [asx] also in records 5, 6, 9, and 10; the other records have [as]. 23. In bench and other such words, all speakers tended to say [i]. Here, in Nos. 5 and 7, there seemed to be a lowered sound: [biTiitJ"]. Sometimes, however, the sound is almost DO: [bint/]. 24. In 6 the [d] is omitted; in 5 and 7 the word is [wald].

8o

AMERICAN

SPEECH

h i Eva1 saa w a S i s k w s a l z 2 5 31 a ' k e g n a l i a ' t a e ^ p i n 2 6 i n a 'mAc^pAdJH a v ko3*s h i m a i t a p l e i d n 1 'semsteri27] b a t h i a d h s d b f a l 'teialz a ' b a u t haunts28 n SAtJ 'pleTisiz| aen iz ' m a m a a d t o u l d i m a t w a d n 'prapa 1 ™ ta g o S a e y | | h i aed m A t J ' p l e z n k j u ' r a s t i 3 1 3 ' b a u t hiz ' d g i n i ^ j | h i k a d ' p i k t j a S a w a i d fialz a v k e l n S a t iz S a i n t s 3 3 n ' A S ^ k ' i n f o u k s haedl t o u l d i m a ' b a u t " ! ! h i w a z ' £ : q k j a s ta si a kjaeu 3 5 m'iLk 3 8 ! n w a t j 0i ol 37 saeu38 n 'ASa hogz™ laii^40 n a s w a m p " njia 1 S i s l u ME S a h o ^ s 4 2 fragz 4 3 'bela'd 4 4 e t n a ' t | | h i w a n d 4 6 a si S a 'hoa-sez 46 d r e r j k 4 7 'wDra 148 d r a n A p n a 'bAkit f r a m S a d i p w e l n ' s t e d " a v f r i p a 'faset M | (n w a n t a d S i m | en|) 6 1 en w a t j S i m it 0i 'kSsrn 62 k l i n af S i ' k a b | | h i 25. No. 1, [slews:lz]; 2, [skw3:®lz]; 3, 4, 5, [skw3:r e lz]; 6, 7, [skwslz]; 9, 10, [skwilz], 26. Nos. 1 and 9, like 8; 2 and 5, ['tae.-a'pin]; 3, ['tae^pin]; 4, ['tae^p'n]; 6, ['terapin]; 7, ['taerspin]; 10, [ ' » ¡ p i n ] , 27. All the records have [1] as the first vowel. T h e second vowel is [a] in 1, 6, 7, and 9; [1] in the others. T h e last half of the word is similar in all records, but [r] is weak in 2, 3, and 9, and the final [1] is weak in 5. 28. All the speakers pronounced haunts with the raised vowel [¿ex]. T h e word is frequently pronounced [heints] also, but no example of this pronunciation appears in the records. 29. Proper is ['prapa] on 3; all the others like 8. 30. Nos. 2 and 3 have [Saea]; 7 has [Sae]. 31. All pronunciations are like 8, except 6 and 7, which have [kjur"asti], and 2, which has [kjuri'asti]. 32. Records 2 and 4 have ['dj3ni]. 33. In 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, the vowel is not raised; in 5 it is raised as in 8; in 10 the word is [iemts]; in 9 it is [eints], with a very close [e] (cf. note 28). 34. T h e diphthong is like 8 in 1 , 4 , 5, 6, 7, 10; in 2, 3, and 9, it is [aeu]. 35. As noted in 34, except No. 7, which has [kjaeu]. 36. All the pronunciations are similar, [j] is lightly pronounced in 1 and 6; [t] is heard in all except 8, but is lightly uttered in 1,4, and 9. 37. So in all the records. 38. Nos. 3, 9, 10, like 8; the others have [sau]. 39. No. 1 has [hDgz]; no. 6, [hagz]; the others [hjgz], 40. It should be noted that in is omitted from lying in the in 8. In most of the records the phrase was not telescoped so much; 1, for example, has [la:m in na]. Lying is pronounced with [i]] only in 3 and 6; the others have [n]. 41. Nos. 1, 3, 4, and 10, like 8; 2 has [swamp]; the others [swamp], 42. Nos. 1, 6, 7, g, 10, like 8; in 4 and 5 the [r] is lightly pronounced; in 2 and 3 the word is [ho 9 s]. 43. [fragz] in 6; all others like 8. 44. ['btlad] in all except 8. Speed of utterance often accounts for the omission of preconsonantal r. Most of the subjects read more rapidly than they spoke. 45. No. 3 has ['wantid]; 4, [w5:nd]; 5 , 6 , 7, 9, ['wan'd]; 10, ['wantid], 46. No. 1, like 8; 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, ['ha'siz]; 9, [hars]; 10, ['horsiz]. 47. Nos. 1, 4, 5, 9, like 8; 2, 3, 6, [driqk]; 7, [dreqk]; 10, [dreiijk]. Speed is a factor in this word also. Rapid speech produces [dreqk]; slow speech, [dreiqk]. Speaker 10 read much more slowly than any of the others. 48. On [r], the 'single flap r,' see the discussion in the chapter on consonants, sec. 11. Nos. 1 and 7 are like 8; 3 has ['wars1]; the others have [a]. 49. No. 3 has [in'stid]; the others are like 8. 50. Nos. 1 and 6 have ['fDsit]; 9, ['faset]; 10, like 8; 2, 3 , 4 , 5, and 7, have ['fasit]. 51. T h e reader became momentarily confused here. T h e material in parenthesis is not represented in the text. 52. Nos. 1 , 5 , 6 , 7 , a n d 9, like 8; 2 , 3 , a n d 4, [ka'n]; 10, [kDrn].

SPEECH OF EAST 1

w 5 n d a t e i k ' f a i d o ta l u k fa S i 'e:gz

53

TEXAS

Set 0i hlnz

54

81 led n

3

'hidiji n e s n S i

' h a l a ^ j ijl to 'gaelap o n r p ' s d ^ P ' p o m w a S a u t 'saedl. a- 'blaej-qkit a 1 st3 ,a p B7 l 'ae-i-fta1 S a k'aM-ivz 58 w a n Se B9 ' d ^ A m p ta fins n et S a ' t i n d a 1 ' t y n a p 8 0 p l a i n t s || h i d h ^ d t u S a r a n o u l a u l k e i m r a i t A p ta61[ ta S a b r ä u n 8 2 SAina- h ä ü s 6 2 ta p i k S a j a i ] was 8 3 a u t a S a w a s nes M | n S a l u k dgAS l a i k w3mz 6 B | | h i . . . M ' p r a b l i haev ta 'gaeSa 1 A p ei ' b X n l a v ' k ' i n l i n 6 7 'eva 1 d e i fa S a 'faia 1 ™! b a t h i ajJ-st i z 'faSa*l AveSa- h i d i d n

'rekin 6 e l S e a d let h i m j u z S a 'waexgin™ i f h i d staen

b i ' h a i n S a baa's" 11 n a t l a e : P aet|7S ast h i m l a- t r a i ta m e k i m w a k S i 'pae- 'hAzbn d a i d

a ir^sipliTS164

9 a

it 9 a t r e l n s t a p t ° t ' d g a e k s n -

gat a : 3 f| 1

' g r a e d g a l

3

| j hi w a z

s a m

a js.i.31a'go

'jis,tidiX5B| [

134. Nos. i, 5, 7 , 9 , 1 0 , have no medial [d]; 2, [-d'd]; 3,4, [-da-d]; 6, [-dred]. 135. Nos. 2, 4, ['difans]; 6, ['difrans]; the others, like 8. 136. Nos. 3, 7, 9, ['h/irjri]; the others, like 8. 137. Nos. 1, 3, 4, ['mizab'l]; 2, ['miz r b»l]; the others, like 8. 138. Nos. 1, 5, 6, 10, like 8; 2, ['nig™]; 3, ['nigro]; 4, ['niga]; 7, 9, ['nigra]. 139. For and an: No. 9, [a;n a]. 140. No. 1, ['orendjs]; 2, ['a:rmdg]; 3, ['a: r indg]; 4, ['D:ndj]; 5, [orndg]; 6, ['ar'ndg]; 7,g,[Dr:nd 5 ]; 10, [ar:ndg], 141. No. 5, ['eks^Jeindg]; the others [eks'tjeindj]. 142. No. 10 is very much like 8, but the word is more slowly pronounced and the end is longer drawn out: ['djaeksn^ial]. Nos. 4, 6, 9, ['d3aeksan,vil]; the others, ['dgaeksnval], 143. T h e other two pronunciations of this word are [Idij] and [lag]. 144. Nos. 9,10, like 8; the others, ['gradjual]. 145. No. 4, [tlaim]. 146. No. 5, [¡ie.i.nt]; 9,10, [eint]; the others, [fe:nt], 147. Nos. 1,3, [paest]; the others, like 8. 148. No. 4, ['staendit]] (misread); 5, 7, 9, ['sitn]; the others, ['sitiq]. 149. No. i, [a'midjetli]; 2, ['midjali] (very blurred and rapid); 3, 4, 5, [I'midiEtli]; 6, 7, 9,10, [a'mid'Etli]. 150. No. 1, ['started]; 2, ['stDrd1]; 3, ['sta:tid]; 4, 5, ['stD'tid]; the others, ['startid]. 151. For decided his, most of the readers said [di'said'd iz]. Nos. 4, 5, are like 8. No. 6 said [di'saidid Set iz]. 152. No. 1, ['gasep]; the others, ['gasip]. 153. Nos. 4 , 9 , 1 0 , ['miziz]; the others, like 8. T h e whole passage, beginning with the sentence, 'That's old Mrs. White,' and continuing to the end of the selection, was written to represent the native idiom according to the author's conception of it. T h e author went over the text with the readers, explained the peculiarities, and asked them to read it 'in dialect' as well as they could. On the whole, the experiment worked very well. Only one reader became badly confused before the microphone. I t was only natural, however, that there should be some misreadings. 154. Nos. 1, 7, [cr'siplas]; 2, [^y'siplas]; 3, [^ri'siplas]; 4, 5, 6, [^r'sipl's]; 9, [,e:'siplis]; 10, [jCri'siplis]. 155. Nos. 2, 5,7, 10, ['j£S,tidi]; the others, like 8.

SPEECH Ji 3 z a

OF EAST TEXAS

85

'poiTS 1 5 6 W A n

a r a : u n hjeT^I b a t Ji'z 'getn157 b r j 'talabli158 w e a l sins Ji

159

t j ^ t j n g o z ta 'praea 1 , m i t n 'regli 1 0 O | [ S i o l g'jlz 1 0 1 m a i t i

d j a i n n a 'baebtis s 162

'hA:mb l

| aen J i d o u n t a b ' d g e k t a a ' b e i n 1 6 3 S a r u : l z | b a t ' t s 'tera-b} 1 6 1 ' b ^ d n

Dn h ? S a t J i k e i n t d e i n s 1 6 5 | | J i ' z a ' p i s a b l s o u l | b a t ' k a i n d a ' i g n a - n t " 8 ] n i t a z ' p i t a f a l ta si ha 1 k ^ a - anl Aim n i m ' d a e i : n s n | | Jiz 'beta

1

'ne . . .

I67

' d i k a n z t o u l d h a 1 J i d hsef ta s t a p

I n i d e i | S a h o u l k i t i j ' b a : i l n Abm 10s | aen a i

b e t S a ' k l a i m a t 1 6 9 m e a 1 S e g o D 'aexfta 1 . . ' f j u

n

l z g 5 b i ' h a tarn ' t e k s i z 'eva 1

ln

WAZ j j n Sea^z Saet o D l sasm ' k r a k 1 7 2 ' l u k i n is w e i [ S i o D l ' d i k a n s [ | h i se a z 173 h i : z S a 'ritJiTS 'bffij-irjka 1 n n i 'kAntri 1 7 4 || ° n h i a z a WAn h e p t ? n ha 1 f o r m t u a h a g ' p a e x s t j a laexst jia1-"3j j h i z S a w i s WAn a S a h o u l p u j | S a m o s , d i s ' a n a s | O e q k s h i z ' p j f i T k l Saets a f a e k | | i t s a 'gona

176

l

,

tek a mea k|

177

3

n hi

ta s e i v h i m f a m

h e 3 l M a n h i stsenz ' n e k i d 1 7 8 a ' f o h i z 'meka 1 ! [ a m p3*ti 'Jaa 1 S a ' w i d a e l n t d A n r 5 a i ] | b a t J i iz 'spm 1 ™ a v a 'fu 3 l 1 8 0 | | f J i d s t a p ' p n e x n s n 1 8 1 r x i m ' m e k i n a i z Saet 'rua-l mea-l 182 k ' e a - n h i z ru ?183 l r a u t | 156. No. 1, ['purexs]; 2, 3,4, 9, 10, ['ports]; 5, ['puEst]; 6, 7, ['porest], 157. No. 2, [a'getn]. 158. T h e first 1 in tolerably is distinctly 'dark' in Nos. 3, 5, 9: ['talbli]. No. 10, ['talab}] (very rapid); 1,2,4,6, 7, like 8. 159. T h e p in Baptist seems to be [b] in Nos. 1, 2, 5, 7, 9; and the sound is slightly voiced in io. In the others it is [p]. 160. Nos. 1, 2,6, like 8; 3,4,5, to, ['regl'li]; 7,9, ['reg'li]. (The word is regularly, spelled reglarly in the text.) 161. No. 3, [gjae'lz]; 4, g, [g3lz]; the others, like 8. 162. Nos. 2,3,10, like 8; the others ['Ambal]. 163. ' T o o b e y i n ' N o s . 1, 2, 5, like 8; 3, 7, 9, to, [tu o'bein]; 4, 6, [tu 3l bein]. 164. No. 1, like 8; 2, ['t£: e b'l]; 3, ['terabl]; 4, 10, ['te'b}]; 5, 6, 7, 9, ['tEr'b)]. 165. Can't dance was pronounced [kjjent d s n s ] by 3, 7; by the others, like 8. 166. Nos. 1,3, ['ignrant]; 7, ['ign'rant]; the others, like 8. 167. T h e reader omitted are. 168. No. 9, [a 'Sim], Spelled ubm in the text. No. 5 read ['bilin] by mistake. 169. T h e [k] is fronted, as in No. 3. And Nos. 1, 2, have either [t] or fronted [k] for this sound. T h e others have [k]. 170. T h e reader omitted the—or slurred it so rapidly that it cannot be heard. 171. No. 3, [teks 'ev9 waz]. 172. This reader omitted the last syllable of Crocket entirely. T h e others said ['krakit] or ['krakEt], 173. T h e text i s ' 'Ey say,' (They say). 174. A misreading. T h e text is county. Nos. 7,9, made the same error; 1,3,5, ['kjaeunti]; 2, ['kjzeuni]; 4,6,10, ['kjaeunti], 175. Nos. 3,4, ['paexstja 'lajxst'jia]; 2, ['paexstja laexstjia1]; the others, ['paeistja1 laexstjiy]. They all used raised vowels in pasture, last. 176. Nos. 1,4, [go]; 6, [gana]. 177. No. 4, ['mi:»kal]; the others ['mirkal]. 178. No. 3, ['nekid]; 4, ['nExkid]; the others, like 8. 179. Nos. 4, 9, ['sAmOirj]; 6, ['sAmOin]; the others, like 8. 180. No. 3, [fu:l], with a very close, tense, front [u]; 4, [fu:l], with a [u] of the same kind, but not so marked as in 3; the others, with what seems to be the normal East Texas [u], which is not noticeably tense or fronted. 181. Besides 8, 5 is the only one who used the raised vowel [aex]; the others used [a], 182. A u n i q u e pronunciation of mail. T h e others, [meal]. 183. T h e reader started to say [rut], a pronunciation which in East Texas is certainly

86

AMERICAN

SPEECH

Jr>d b i a l a t 'bera 1 a a f|| h e i n t l M n o u k j £ u n t 1 8 E | h i e m 4 W3r0 ' b e ^ i n 1 8 9 ] | 'neva 1 s e i v d a sexantl 'nev 3 " n a g u d 'hjuma 1 ' 5 7 ] | h i z g a t n o moa 1 se-rns n a ' t j l g k r r p i : n | b a t J i do? £i»l Saet wei|| w a i w a i i d e i lae±s w i : k l J i glaexns d a u n i r o D d i i sa i m 'kAmin|| i t az 'poan 1 8 8 r e l n l b a u t a 'bea 1 ? 8 8 a ' m m i t l n h i waz d r e n t j ™ . . . m ¡5a s k i n 11 h i t r a i d ta paexs182 a n bail b a t J i d i d n g i b m a tJaei.ms 18S | | J i n e i a l d im| m e d i m ste fa 'dina 1 ! M i n J i ' d i d n haev a 9ei-rr) 1M t a i t n S a h a u s b a t lord 1 9 5 n S3-: P 189 | | b a t J i 9 o d m a ' e p s m o v ha- h e d n ivm

3

m t 3 S' 1 9 8 b v & n ™ n

g a t s ' m exigz 20 "! j J i bDia'd 201 s a m flaiu 2 0 2 n 'a&9 QcItijz n f i k s t i m a mial|| b a t M.an J i g a t baek ' i n t a S a h a : u s l h & hasa 1 l u k l a i k n o u l b r u : m | | a : d a ' k l e : ^ 2 0 3 a i d u b l i : v M J i d a k ' i l d m | m i d ^ r e k l i 2 0 5 fa ' l a ^ i f n aet jr 2M | |

(wXns S a waz a j a i ] raet h u ' k u d n m e i k Ap iz ' m a i n ] I) 2 " Avan'ev31208 S i 'aS3* raets aej-st209 i m i f h i d l a i k ta k A m a u t wiO Sem 2 1 0 ! h i 8 d 'aensa1! a d o n o u m | aen acquired. No. 8 caught himself in time to change to the usual form [raut]. Nos. i and 10 also said [rut]; the others [raut]. 184. No. 3, [hi !nt] (and for the next 'ain't' [eint] with a very close [e]); the others, [hi eint]. 185. No. 9, [no a'kjzeunt]. 186. It is very difficult to indicate the pronunciations of buryin'. Nos. i, 2, 3, sound like 8; 4, ['bA'in]; 5, ['be: r n]; 6, 7, ['b£r l : n]; 9, 10, ['bcr:n]. 187. No. 2, ['hjuma-]; 4, ['juma]; the others ['juma1], which is the usual pronunciation. 188. Nos. i , 2, 10, fpoa'n]; 3, 5, 9, like 8; 4, ['porrn]; 6, ['por'n]; 7, [porn]. 189. No. 1, ['baeal]; 2, 5, 6, 7, 9, ['baea-l]; 3, [bDrl]; 4, [bae'I]; 10, [ba'I], 190. No. 9, [dreintf]. 191. T h e reader made no sound at all for to. 192. Nos. i, 6, 10, [pses]; the others used the raised vowel, like 8. 193. Nos. 3 , 4 , 6 , 7 , [tjaens]; the others used the raised vowel. 194. Nos. 1, 3, [ 0 i i ] ] ; 2, 9, 10, [0eq]; 4, 5, 7, like 8; 6, [ 0 i t i ] ] . 195. Nos. 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, like 8; 3, 9, [la:d]; 4, [la: r d]; 10, [lDrd], 196. No. 1, like 8; 3, ['ss'p]; 4, ['S3"p]; the others, [s3*p]. 197. All the others said [6rod]. 198. 'Out to the' was read so fast and indistinctly that the transcription may be inaccurate. 199. T h e sound may be [d]: [barn]. Nos. 1, a, [barn]; 3, [bt>;n]; 4, [bDan]; the others, [bDrn]. 200. No. 1, like 8; 2, [e:gz]; 3, 9, io, [eigz]; 4, 5, 6, [eigz]; 7, [tgz]. 201. As in barn, the vowel in No. 8 may be [0]: [ba:rd]. No. 3, [bo r d]; 4, [ba r d]; the others [bDrd], 202. Nos. 1, 2, 9, 10, like 8; 3, 6, [flaus]; 4, [fla:]; 5, [fla:*]; 7, [flau 1 ]. 203. T h e [k] in Nos. 8 and 5 sounds fronted. Nos. 3, 4, [di'klaea]; the others, [di'klaea1]. 204. No. 1, [b 8 'li:v]; 6, 7, [ba'liv]; 9, [bi'liv]; the others, [bliv]. 205. Nos. 1, 3 , 4 , 7, to, ['drekli]; 2, [d»'rekli]; 5, ['trekli]; 6, 9, [da'rekli], 206. Nos. 1, 2, 5, 7, 10, like 8; 3, [hA]; 4, [h3]; 6, [a]; 9, [h?]. 207. T h e first sentence is missing from 8. T h e sentence is transcribed from 1. 208. T h e first part of whenever is so rapid and blurred that it might almost be tran scribed [Im]. 209. Only 8 used the raised vowel. Nos. 1, 2, 3 , 1 0 , [aest]; the others, [z ould| | m a i ' f a : S 3 1 'setld £ t 'grifin in ' t j e r , k i k'aunti|| h i az 'maerid b a u t a 'jia 1 ba'foa- 0 3 waa 1 b r o k aut] n in h i haed ta ' g o t 0a 'waa»] | h i mASta 'maerid 11 'siksti 'WAII N ai waz b a r n n 'sevnti,WAn| | h i haed a stoa- N [TINI,si| n s o u l d it a u t n t u k ' t w i n t i Bauzn 'dalaz[ in g o u l d ai r e k ' n j in a g r e t big o l a l r n trAijk £et 'sAm ,Abiii stil haev| n w i n t ta n j u jaa'k n b a t a s t a k av gudz n s i n t 0 i m ta 'grifm|| h i neva haed b i n Sae^H h i haed a 'step,brA$3 Saea S o u j n h i 'oprpd Ap a big stoa Saea n waz 'veri sak'sesfal til S a waa* k e i m 5:n| n Avail h i waz g5:nl S a stoa 1 waz b r o k ' i n ^ u n 'ev^Geq t e k n aut|| in 'oz deizl ja noul ' p i p a l dgAS k e i m ian[ ' I n i b a d ! n 'evabadi| n ' I m t i d it Ap[[ well i b a t a ' f a ^ m S i n n l i v d on 'naeat n t i l iz de0| | Avail h i az i n n a waa1! m a i 'mASa 1 l i v d w i S h ? foksj | S e a d m u v d ta 'teksiz tu| | its r a i t 'inta-stin S a w e i S e kAm|| 'graepa n n a sleivz kAm 5 n a jia 1 a ' h e d * This text is reconstructed from the transcription of the spoken passage.

AMERICAN

94

SPEECH

av 'grae:m5 n na 'tjild^nj n bat 0a l £ a n n kli3«d it n med a krap| 3 'nln 'grcempa wint baek fa h ? °n na 1 tjilda^n[ | Se kAm 8ru In mjul 'wasj-:ganz| 'kAva'd 'waexganz] siks big ol mju:lz tu a 'waexgan| | h s d ma 'niASa se Ji kraid Sa f^s nait Ji az Saeal kaz Ji haed ta slip an a 'paelitj | ges aet ol b g haus iz stil 'staendin|| ol it az wail n 'wuli hjia 1 SIn| | 'baea'z i^ 'djia^j j 'mama ad go aut aet nait wiSa mln 3 n J a m na d j i a ' z aiz wi9 'tartjezj j n w A n nait te k i l d a ' j e r l i n | | Se haed baut 0ri 'hAnda'd sleivzl n WAn nait Se slnt a 'niga1 tu Sa 'fial ta get 'rosi^ia-zl n ez hi az ' k A m i n aut hi sa a big ol 'baea1 goin ! n | | 'fys ,taim 'mama wint 'viztin 'aexfta1 aiaz b5:rnl Ji fa'gat Ji haed a 'jAqan n stard hom wiS'aut mi| n Avin Ji gat wei daun Sa roud Sa 'woman 'hated 'aexftr a1 n aeska1 iTf Ji hsen fa'gatn 'sA?m|| T h i s speaker talks at a somewhat more rapid tempo than that used by the preceding speaker, though her speech is by no means fast. As will be seen from the transcription, she lengthens vowels less frequently than the first speaker. Her speech is not quite so rhythmical as his, but it does not give the impression of jerkiness. T h e pitch is usually moderate, but there is more variety in it than in that of the preceding speaker. It tends more often to rise above the average than to fall below it. Final and preconsonantal r is less frequently omitted or slighted in the speech of this subject than in that of the other speaker. It is omitted sometimes, however. Note stepbrother

['step,brASa].

Telescoping and slighting of unstressed words is a prominent feature of this selection: must have [mAsta], and then [n in], Diphthongization is also frequent: grown [groun], gold [gould]. Note land [laean]. And is frequently [n]. Words spelled with e followed by m, n, as in them, went, then, are always pronounced with [i], never with [e]. [in] is r e g u l a r l y s u b s t i t u t e d for [iq]: coming ing

['kAmin], going

['viztin].

T h e pronunciation [stard] for started is also noteworthy.

['goin], visit-

SPEECH

OF EAST

TEXAS

95

APPENDIX A GRAMMAR

T h e following treatment of the grammar of East Texas speech applies chiefly, though by no means exclusively, to the more illiterate speakers; that is, the peculiarities pointed out below are most common among those who have had little or no schooling. One is often astonished, however, to hear weird grammatical feats performed by speakers who might be expected to conform more closely to standard usage. 'Might could,' 'use to could,' 'beatenest,' are by no means uncommon in the speech of people who have had college training. Here, as elsewhere, no definite line can be drawn between 'literate' and 'illiterate.' It is doubtful that anything will be found in this section that is not common to less well educated speakers everywhere in America. T h e information is included chiefly for the completeness of the record. This appendix will treat accidence, syntax, deviations from present-day 'standard' forms, and peculiarities of structure and expression, including redundancy, ellipsis, and unusual word order. T h e double negative is so common, here as everywhere in untrained speech, that examples are hardly necessary. 'Nobody ain't said nothin' to me about it,' and similar locutions, are heard on every hand. Illiterate speakers use correct as well as incorrect forms. In fact, they use the correct form in one sentence and the form deplored by the grammarians in another, to express exactly the same thought. For example, a speaker who at one moment says, 'I haven't any matches,' may be heard saying in the next breath, 'I ain't got no matches.' If the emphasis seems here to be placed on incorrect forms, therefore, it should be remembered that correct ones are also used. To be: Present indicative: I am, I'm; you are; he is, he's. We are, we're; you-all are, you are, you're; they are, they're, them is, them's. Ain't throughout for the negative. Preterit indicative: I was, [aiaz]; you were, you was; he was. We was, we were; you was, you-all was, you were, you-all were; they was, they were. Wudn't, wuzn't, wudn, wuzn, throughout for the negative. Future: I will be, I'll be; you will be, you'll be; he will be, he'll be. We will be, we'll be; you will be, you-all ruill be, you'll be; they will be, they'll be. (The '11 is regularly lost in pronunciation.) Present perfect: I have been, I've been, I been; you have been, you've been, you been; he has been, he's been. We have been, we've been, we been;

96

AMERICAN

SPEECH

you-all have been, you-all been; they have been, they've been, they been. I ain't been, etc., frequently for the negative. Pluperfect: I'd been, etc., throughout. 2nd, pers. pi., you-all'd

been.

Conditional: I'd be, etc., throughout. Conditional perfect: I would a been, I'd a been, etc., throughout. 2nd. pers. pi., you-all'd a been. Future perfect: none. Subjunctive: I may be, might be, throughout. I might have been, etc., throughout. Present participle. T h e use of this form may best be given by illustration: ' W h e n I got thu bein' sick, I went back to work'; 'She was bein' sparked by all the boys in town.' Infinitive: to be, to been (regularly used instead of to be after a past tense: ' T h e y oughta got Ferguson to been governor again'). Other Verbs: Present indicative: T h e r e is little that is peculiar about the present indicative for either strong or weak verbs. Might is frequently heard for the present of may, e.g., 'I might could go,' for 'I may be able to go.' Mought

[maut], the archaic

preterit of may, is used now only by older people among the more ignorant speakers. T h e form dast is often heard for dares: 'I wonder if he dast.' T h e negative is dasn't.

( T h e author has never heard the form darst.) Set is

frequently used for both sit and set, attackt for attack, cuss for curse, drownd for drown, and spile [spail] for spoil. Preterit indicative: Strong verbs show a good deal of variety in this tense. Speakers use not only the regular preterit b u t also the present, the past participle, and an analogical weak preterit. 'He broke the window,' 'I give him two dollars,' ' W e begun to plant cotton in April,' 'I drawed a barrel of water for that ol' cow,' are all common. Since the -ed/-t ending is easy to keep in mind, East T e x a s speakers, like speakers everywhere, have little trouble with the weak preterites. Some archaic strong forms, which have now been replaced by weak forms, are retained. A list, with explanatory notes, follows. Alternate forms and illustrations are given in parenthesis: Dast (negative, dasn't)-, come, done, drunk, drove (driv, druv), et, fought (fit), flung,

froze

(friz), give, grew (growed),

hung,

held

(helt),

knew

(knowed), rode (rid), rose (riz), run, saw (see, seed, seen), set (for both set and sit), (sot), shone (throwed).

(shined),

sung, sunk, swum,

took

(taken),

threw

SPEECH

OF EAST

TEXAS

97

T h e t e n d i n g is used in the f o l l o w i n g cases: burnt, dreamt, leant, spilt

(for spilled),

spilt

[spailt] (for spoiled).

learnt,

T h e -ed e n d i n g is omitted

from whetted: ' H e whet the knife'; and the t e n d i n g f r o m fixed: ' H e fix you,' for ' H e fixed you.' Say is o f t e n used for said; [sai] means said I. A n d seem is regularly used instead of seemed: ' H e seem to be pretty bad off,' 'It seem like I couldn't never get n o t h i n g done.' Lit is used instead of lighted; brung, catched, hove,

hung

clum, cussed, dove, drug, drownded,

(hanged

is not used), pled,

attacked, brought, caught, climbed, heaved,

hanged, pleaded,

heared

attackted,

[hji&d], het,

shet, swole, are often used f o r

cursed, dived, dragged, drowned,

shut, swelled.

O t h e r verbs are regular:

heard, danced,

pranced, showed, snowed, waked, washed, etc. Present participle: M a n y present participles are used w i t h the 'a' prefix: a-fishing, a n d so for hunting,

a-going,

pestering, sleeping, working, etc. ' H e was a-curin' of me.'

'I was a-peddlin' of it.' 'You're the one that's a-holdin' of her.' 'I don't w a n t to be a-pesterin' of you.' (For the treatment of -ing endings, see the proper sections in chapters ii and iii.) Past participle: I n addition to the regular forms, the present indicative, the preterit, and an analogical weak f o r m are used for the past participle of strong verbs. I n the weak verbs the same forms are used as for the preterit. Bore ('After she'd bore h i m eight children he u p and r u n off w i t h another woman'), blowed,

broke, drawed, drove (driv, druv), et, fought

(fit), flew,

froze, gotten (got), give ( ' T h e y ' d done give h i m u p w h e n he perked u p and got better'), growed, hung, held (helt), knowed, rose (riz), run, seen (seed), set (sot), shined, (taken), tore, throwed (thowed),

wrote

lied, laid (lay), rode

sat (set), spoke,

swore,

(rid), took

(writ).

Infinitive: T h e r e is n o irregularity in the present infinitive, b u t a shortened f o r m of the perfect infinitive is often used where the present infinitive w o u l d be the standard form, a n d the auxiliary is regularly omitted f r o m the perfect infinitive. Sometimes [a] is substituted for have. Illustrations: They oughta got somebody else to brung it. They couldna got me to stayed there for anything. They'd a got somebody else to done it. He oughtn to done it. I might coulda caught up with him if my car hadna broke down. I like to froze on that job. I'd like to seen him. I told him he ought not to et it. They oughta hung him for that. If I coulda got her to blowed her horn we wouldna had the wreck. He had enough cocaine to kep' a dozen men from feelin' it.

AMERICAN

98

SPEECH

Compound tenses: Among unlettered people, 'He will fix you,' and 'He fixed you,' are both expressed by 'He fix you.' These speakers also use done regularly for the perfective: I done done it. He done bought a new hat. He done got here. It done seem like I can't get well.

Other illustrations: I asked him what 'ed he do if you cussed him. I asked him what he'd a-done if you'd a-cussed him. He wouldna hit me 'f I'd a-seen him first. I'd a-went with him if he'd a-come by. He coulda stuck his gun in your ribs and told you to gone and got it.

T h e same sort of confusion exists between lie and lay in East Texas as in illiterate speech everywhere. Lay tends to displace lie in the meaning 'to lie down.' 'I'm going to lay down' is said more frequently than 'I'm going to lie down'; 'I was laying down' than 'I was lying down'; 'He laid down' than 'He lay down'; 'She had laid down' than 'She had lain down.' Lain is never, or very rarely, used as the past participle of the intransitive verb, to lie. T h e verb lie, 'to tell a lie,' however, is employed in accordance with standard usage: I lie, he lied, etc. Lay, in the transitive meaning of 'to lay it down, lay an egg,' etc., is also used in the standard way. Got is frequently used in the first and second persons instead of have: 'I got it,' 'You got it.' Went is frequently used as the past participle of go: 'When I got there he had went away.' Nouns: These are ordinarily regular. It might be noted that haunt (a ghost) has been formed from the verb to haunt. T h i s word is normally in the vocabulary of the more illiterate people dwelling in rural communities. B u t everybody knows the word, and when using it, e.g., in speaking to Negroes, would always employ the local pronunciation. See the discussion of this word in chapter i. See also the phonograph records. Pronouns: According to the author's observation, white speakers use you-all only as a plural. T h e y use you-all, however, in speaking to one person as well as to more than one, but when so used it always includes others in addition to the person spoken to. It is pronounced ['ju ( D:l], [JD:1], [joal], ( T h e author has

SPEECH

OF EAST

TEXAS

99

never heard you-all used as a singular form. Negroes may use it with singular meaning as a polite form.) We-uns, you-uns, are no longer used. T h e impersonal pronoun it, its, is often [hit], [hits] in both stressed and unstressed positions. T h e analogical forms hisself, theirselves, are frequently used. T h e analogical -n ending is frequently used for the possessive case of the personal pronoun and for the possessive pronoun, along with the regular forms: ourn, yourn, hisn, hern, theirn/ as noted in chapter iii. You-all is made into a possessive by the addition of [z]: 'You-all's house,' 'Can I borrow you-all's lawn-mower?' T h e same confusion in number occurs in East T e x a s as in illiterate speech everywhere in anybody, nobody, everybody, somebody: 'Nearly everybody are giving their children emonization (immunization).' That is usually employed as the relative pronoun by the more illiterate speakers, instead of who: ' T h e y got the man that killed him in jail,' 'Is that the Porters that one of them got killed a few years ago?' ' T h e y won't hire nobody that their folks ain't on relief.' Who and what are employed as interrogative pronouns in accordance with standard usage. But which is also used. Instead of 'I beg your pardon?' or 'I'm sorry; I didn't understand you' people often say simply 'Which?' Adjectives: In the comparison of adjectives, -er, -est are often used instead of more, most: e.g., 'New Orleans is the wide-openest town I ever saw,' 'Old man M c C u l l o u g h is the out-whorinest old buzzard in this town,' 'He's the outlyinest man in town.' Likewise, red-headedest, countest, big-heartedest,

beatenest,

triflinest,

no-

etc.

For -er: worser, trifliner, and others: 'I don't know a trifliner cuss than old Wadell Smith.' A few forms in -ly are noteworthy: poorly, rattlely, wobbly. 'I'm poorly today,' 'That's a wobbly old dresser.' Good is used for well: 'I'm pretty good.' Sorry means 'worthless, trifling, no-account.' 'He sure is a sorry old critter.' Killin'

means 'overwhelming, exceedingly funny': 'It was killin' the way

he told that yarn.' Peaked means 'sickly, not well.' ' T h e baby looks peaked today.' Them is generally used instead of those: 'One of them horses,' 'I'll take eight of them eggs.' 1. Jespersen, Modern English Grammar, II, 403, lists examples of these from Wallis (1653), Cooper (1685), Pegge (1803), and others. Jespersen says that 'these forms have never ceased to be vulgar.'

loo

AMERICAN

SPEECH

Adverbs: Forms without the -ly ending are usual: H e comes r e g u l a r as clock-work. She sang right sweet. H e dealt it crooked. H e got o u t of t h a t right slick. G o quick a n d get the mail. H e spoke s h a r p t o m e .

An -s ending is added regularly to somewhere,

anywhere, nowhere:

'I

ain't goin' nowheres.' These forms are used chiefly by those who lack formal training. Anyway and noway, howeijer, appear in the speech of the uneducated both with and without the -s ending, as they do in Webster's. Trained speakers usually omit the -s from all these words. T h e use of the prepositional prefix a- is common in such words as abed, aplenty: 'He's layin' abed today.' 'I'm goin' to whip him aplenty.' Adjectives are regularly used as adverbs: real cool, right warm,

tolerable

wet, pretty good. Like is almost universally used for as: 'He acted like he meant business.' Prepositions: T h e use of the preposition of after verbs which in standard speech take the object directly is almost universal: Taste of it, smell of it, feel of it, grab hold of it.2 Kind of, sort of (['kainda 1 ], ['kainda], ['sDrta1], ['sorts]), mean 'rather, somewhat.' (Kindly is not used in this sense.) Wait on means 'to serve.' A doctor waits on his patients; a clerk or waiter waits on customers. Blame it on me is used instead of 'Blame me for it.' 3 Conjunctions: I n East Texas as everywhere, illiterate speakers fail to make nice distinctions in the use of conjunctions. And and but are overworked; for, since, and although are rarely, if ever, used. Peculiarities of Expression: Redundancy. This here, that there, them there: 'Sister, what are you doin' with them there kittens?' 2. T h e NED (s. v. of, 29a) says that verbs of sense, e.g., feel, smell, taste, touch, still occur with of in dialectal or vulgar use. 8. T h e NED records only one use of this idiom. It is from Fraser's Magazine, 1835, X I , 6 1 7 : 'I call this bad management, and I blame it upon you.'

SPEECH

OF EAST

TEXAS

101

F o r the redundant 'weak a' prefix, see the section on the present participle. To kill off, to kill dead, to hide out, to be mixed

up in one's mind, to be

satisfied in one's mind, to raise up (intransitive), to drop down, to fall

down,

to be lost from: ' T h e m boys is lost from me.' Ellipsis: 'I want up.' ' T h e cat wants in.' Down,

off, out, and on are used in the

same way. Miscellaneous Unusual Constructions: That's half what's the matter, runnin' up and down them steps. Did you tell her how come papa to go on? Use to, say from about twelve o'clock on, I'd be typin' down the entries. He was sick was the reason he couldn't come. Talkin' about lightnin' was what brought it up. Make out like you 're busy. I use to could do that. I might can go. She might not have noticed it like I did. They didn't either one want any today. He's a man that I don't like the way he treats his wife. Uncle George was the kind of man that you could always tell which side of any question he was on. Get a hold on it. Take hold of it. What's that you say? He was that honest that he wouldn't steal a thousand dollars if he knew it would never be missed. A bunch of cattle. Who all are going? Who all is going? Who all were there? Who all was there? What all did he say? I guess you're right. I reckon he'll come tomorrow. Roger, will you carry me to town? (meaning 'escort me.') I don't think I'll get to go to town before next week.

102

AMERICAN

SPEECH

APPENDIX B LOW COLLOQUIAL SPEECH

This division of the subject includes pronunciation, grammar, syntax, and unusual word order as they occur in the most familiar and informal speech. T h e observations apply chiefly to the speech of less literate persons, though the writer has observed some of the usages recorded below in the speech of persons who have received formal education. The pronunciations [spek] and [baut], for example, for expect and about, are not at all unusual in the familiar speech of the well educated; and the substitution of [in], [n] for [iij] in -ing endings is the rule rather than the exception. Such a word as ['rAlaks], however (obviously a corruption of relics), meaning old worn-out clothing, is used almost wholly by those who lack formal training and who therefore pronounce words without regard to their written form and build sentences which are uninfluenced by literary niceties. As to grammar and syntax, only the extremely unobservant will assume that violations of the grammarians' rules are confined to the illiterate. T h e less formal the occasion, the less likely people are to concern themselves with the pronouncements of authority. Several speakers whom the writer has been able to observe under various circumstances speak with linguistic unrestraint to servants and members of their own families, but show that they 'know better' when outsiders appear. On these occasions the homely [5a 'wAdn 'nA0n ta du bat weit] becomes [ftaer 'waznt 'mlOeq ta du bat weit]. All of these aspects of lax speech have been treated in their proper places in preceding sections of this study. As a supplement, however, it seems appropriate to add the following phrases and sentences which I have collected. These are only haphazard illustrations of speech actually heard. Some of these days ['sAm iz ,deiz]. After a while ['aej.:fta 'Avail], Late that night [leit taet nait]. Aren't you ready to go yet? ['eintja red ta 'go 'jit]. What are you going to do? [Matja go du:]. How about selling you something? [,hau ,baut 'seln ja, SA?m]. I wouldn't go without I had plenty of money [ai wudn go Saut ai haed 'plinti 'mAni]. I think he's going to put peanuts out there [a Geqk hi go pu 'pi,nAts au taea]. He thought we'd better keep them [i 9a wi 'beta 'k'ipm], I don't know though [a o 'no o]. Why don't (didn't) you go? [Avalntja gou]. I looked for it to get the cat [ai lukt fart ta git 6a k'aeit].

SPEECH

OF EAST

TEXAS

103

I want some ink ['a 5 sam 'erjk]. Did you ever stop and see them hogs? [didg 'eva stap m si im ho:gz]. You ought to see them hogs [jDta si Sim ho:gz.] Black African guinea hogs [blaek 'acifkan 'gini ha:gz]. They are sure pretty [Sea 'Jo puti]. They'll dress out about two fifty ['eal dres aut baut tu 'fifti]. I went to feeding them on corn [ai winta 'fidn am 5n k5:3*n]. Yes, I'm going to p u l l it u p and give it to them [ j e l aim o p u l t A p m 'g'iv tuam]. It has been extra dry. I don't reckon it will rain anyways soon [its bin 'ekstri drai| [ ai do re'q hitl rein iniweiz su:n]. I lack a b o u t an acre having laid by that I ' m having cultivated b a u t a ' e k a h a e v n l e i d b a i aet a i m h a e v n

[ai

laik

'kAlta,vetid].

It was prettier than I nearly ever saw [hit waz 'purtia^n ai njeli 'eva S3:a], But it ain't rained for so long I believe it's every bit plumb dead [bAt it eint reind fa so b q a bli:v hits 'eva bit plAm ded]. It w o u l d n ' t make n o t h i n g [ h i t w u d n mek ' n A 8 n ] . It done away with that much bermuda [hit dAn a'we wi Saet mAtJ ba'muda]. I'd mighty nigh ruined it wouldn't I? [aid mait nal rand it 'wudn a]. I noticed where you been planting it [ai 'notist ma ju bin 'plab-intn iTt]. They a i n ' t n a r e o n e o f t h e m c o m e u p [ S a : n t n a ^ a 1 W A n A b m k A m A p ] . (If it) don't rain they ain't no use for 'em to come up nohow [do rein Sen no jus fam kAm Ap 'nohau]. If it rains, they come up; if it don't they jes' don't come up [rrf t reinz Se kAm Ap[ fdont Se dges do kAm Ap]. My cows have been giving right smart milk [mai kjaeuz bin givn rait smart mjiLk]. He oughtn' to never done it [hi a:tn ta 'neva dAn iTt]. I oughtn' to done it [ai atn ta dAn i-rt]. Two doctors done told me to have a operation [tu 'dakta'z dAn tol mi ta haev a ^par'ejn]. This one is the same way [Sisn na seim wei]. You c a n ' t tell one from the other [je k e ? tel W A n fm ' t A S a 1 ] . Twenty-five dollars [twlnti fai 'dalaz]. Faded ['fedidi]. These examples could be increased by the hundred. But the ones given are sufficient to illustrate adequately the manner of speech of East Texans who have been least influenced by school training. Some amplification, however, will be found in the second and third transcriptions of connected speech in chapter iv.

io4

AMERICAN

SPEECH

APPENDIX

C

T H E SOURCES OF T H E P O P U L A T I O N OF T E X A S *

Anglo-American settlement of Texas was part of the westward movement of the people of the United States. This settlement began only a little more than a century ago. In 1807 the total population, exclusive of Indian tribes, was estimated at 7,000/ almost wholly Spanish-American. A similar estimate for 1824 states that 'At that time Texas had besides Indians only a Spanish-American population occupying the towns of San Antonio, Goliad, and Nacogdoches. T h i s population did not exceed 7000-8000 souls.'2 Active colonization began only after Mexico became independent of Spain in 1821, and continued sporadically until Texas became a republic in 1836. A t this time commenced a term of rapid and unrestricted immigration from the United States which, interrupted only by the Civil War, continued to the present century. East Texas was hardly touched by the projects of the various impresarios. T h e Mexican state colonization law of March 24, 1825, which forbade the formation of any settlement within twenty leagues of the bounary line between Mexico and the United States or within ten leagues of the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, formed an effective check on lawful settlement, though it did not keep out the squatters.3 A n d Haden Edwards's contract, which he obtained in 1825, was annulled because of his instigation of the Fredonian rebellion. Edwards's grant included territory around Nacogdoches, the site of the old French settlement occupied since 1716. He is the only leader who made a real effort in East Texas, and he succeeded only in disturbing temporarily the few squatters who were already there.4 Consequently this region remained virtually unoccupied till the immigrants began to arrive in increasing numbers after 1836. Bancroft lists sixteen impresarios who contracted at some time during the period of colonization to bring settlers into Texas. 5 There were many others. Some of these partially fulfilled their contracts; others did nothing at all. Green DeWitt is worth a passing notice, however, both because his colony was next in importance to Austin's, and, more important, because of the table in the Nacogdoches Archives which shows the states from which some of his colonists came.6 Of the seventy-five people whose names are * A bibliography for the sources of Texas population will be found at the end of this Appendix. References in the footnotes are to works there listed. 1. Bancroft, II, 2. 2. Potter, p.158. 3. Bancroft, II, 72, footnote. 4. Barker, Mexico and Texas, p. 50. 5. Bancroft, II, 73-76. 6. Rather, pp. 95-97.

SPEECH

OF EAST

TEXAS

105

there listed, 37 came from 'Misuri,' 1 from 'Allinois,' 10 from Alabama, 4 from 'Pensilvania,' 6 from 'Lusiana,' 5 from 'Tenesi,' 5 from 'Quintoke,' 1 from 'Masatuisetts,' 1 from 'Misisipi,' 1 from 'Inglaterra,' 1 from 'Colombia,' 2 from 'Nueva-Yorke,' 1 from Indiana. Though half of these people came to Texas from Missouri, twelve states and one foreign country are represented. DeWitt merely recruited the largest number from the state in which he himself happened to be living at the time. However, mere residence in a given state—especially Missouri/ which at this time was being filled with immigrants—indicates nothing as to place of birth. DeWitt himself was born in Kentucky. He married Sarah Sealy, a native of western Virginia.8 The movements of Stephen F. Austin's family are even more significant in showing the changes in residence which families were likely to make during this time of the great general movement westward. On his father's side, the family has been traced back to the south of England, whence his great-great-great grandfather, Richard Austin, set out with his family for Massachusetts in 1638. From Massachusetts one branch of the family moved to Connecticut, where Moses Austin (the great-great grandson of Richard and the father of Stephen F.) was born in 1761. Moses lived in Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Missouri. His wife, Maria Brown, whom he married in Philadelphia and who lived with him in Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Missouri, was descended through her mother from Isaac Sharp and Robert Turner, two of the Quaker proprietors of New Jersey. Sharp has been traced back to Wiltshire and Gloucestershire. Stephen F. Austin was born in Virginia, moved to Missouri with his father's family, spent 'two sessions and a half at Transylvania University in Lexington, Kentucky, moved to Arkansas in 1819, to New Orleans in 1820, to Texas in 1821.® Sam Houston's ancestry has been traced from Scotland, through Ireland and Pennsylvania, to Virginia. Houston himself was born in Virginia. He lived in both Virginia and Tennessee before coming to Texas.10 The state in which a man resided immediately preceding his immigration to Texas is not necessarily that of his birth and upbringing. Additional evidence as to the scattered sources of the population of Texas is supplied by Thrall, who sketched the lives of over 250 prominent figures of early Texas history. Thrall's sketches would be more helpful if they were more detailed. He omitted all mention of the place of birth or pre7. J. Viles says, however, 'Speaking generally, the great bulk of the Americans (who settled in Missouri before 1804) came from Tennessee and North Carolina.'—Viles, p. 199. 8. Rather, p. 6. 9 . B a r k e r , Life of Stephen F. Austin, c h a p s , i, ii, iii.

10. Bancroft, II, 239-43.

io6

AMERICAN

SPEECH

vious residence of i n of his subjects, though apparently they all immigrated to Texas from the United States. He was a little more definite in his account of the other 140, which are classified below. Sometimes he would say, 'a native of Kentucky'; at other times, 'came to Texas from Virginia.' Whether the 'natives of Kentucky' lived in other states before going to Texas, or whether those who 'came to Texas from Virginia' were born in some other state, there is no way of telling. Therefore, they are all grouped in one category, for whatever the evidence may be worth. Of these 140 people, 13 came from Alabama, 11 from Tennessee, 18 from Virginia, 17 from Kentucky, 15 from North Carolina, 13 from South Carolina, g from Georgia, 4 from Mississippi, 2 from Florida, 2 from Missouri, 6 from Connecticut, 5 from Massachusetts, 4 from Pennsylvania, 2 from New Jersey, 2 from Maine, 6 from New York, 1 each from Ohio, Maryland, Prussia, Germany, England, and France, 2 from Scotland, and 3 from Ireland. Most of these people came to Texas during the period of colonization. Only one is listed as late as 1842. A n even hundred of these came from the southern states." Careful search through the four volumes of The Austin Papers does not reveal the most convincing kind of evidence as to the sources of Austin's colonists; that is, there are no tables containing the names and places from which the settlers came. Scattered all through these documents, however, are numerous inquiries from prospective settlers, both from people who wished to bring only their own families to Texas and those who wished to bring as many as fifty families besides their own. Many letters, especially during the year 1833, show great concern over the question of slaverypeople wanted to come if they would be permitted to bring their slaves with them or if they would be allowed to retain their slaves. Also, though there are inquiries from Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Ohio, most of them come from people in the southern states—Alabama, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Virginia, Carolina. One or two examples should be sufficient. O n page 1065 of Volume I, Part II, Austin in a letter to Governor Gonzales says that nearly 300 families have applied from Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama. He asks that they be permitted to bring slaves. O n page 1584 of the same volume a Mr. League says in a letter to Austin that there is a mania for emigration to Texas from Tennessee, that he himself is bringing a number of families. O n pages 1716-1721 Austin presents to the Mexican government his argument against the law regulating slavery, which he says will cut down colonization. In Volume II, page 469, Mr. S. Rhoads Fisher says in a letter to 11. T h r a l l , p p . 477-637.

SPEECH

OF EAST

TEXAS

A u s t i n that T e x a s must d r a w its p o p u l a t i o n f r o m the south, that most of the i m m i g r a n t s are f r o m slave-holding states. 12 T h e e x t e n t of the territory f r o m w h i c h the colonists were d r a w n may b e clearly s h o w n by a f e w figures for A u s t i n ' s colonies w h i c h Professor E. C . B a r k e r has taken f r o m various sources a n d i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o his Life Stephen

F.

of

Austin:

T h e census of March 31, 1828, gave Austin's settlements 2021; that of June 30, 1830, 4248; and that of a year later, 5665." Before the end of 1833 seven hundred and fifty-five titles had been issued in Austin's various grants from the state, besides three hundred and ten in the original grant from the national government. There is no precise record to indicate the origin of the first three hundred families, though it is evident that a larger proportion were from Missouri than were in the later colonies; but for the contracts with the state Austin kept a register and required those who applied for permission to settle to register the state from which they came, together with much other statistical information. In a tabulation of eight hundred applicants from the United States between July, 1825, and July, 1831, two hundred came from Louisiana, 14 a hundred and eleven from Alabama, three hundred from Arkansas, Tennessee, Missouri, and Mississippi, and most of the others from New York, Kentucky, Ohio, Georgia, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Twenty registered from all New England, and probably every Atlantic state had at least one representative. A total of one hundred were from the Atlantic and seven hundred from the trans-Appalachian states. But the place of immediate emigration affords little indication of the real origin of the colonists. T h e population of the United States west of the mountains had increased from 386,000 in 1800 to 3,676,000 in 1830, so that few adults who arrived in Texas prior to 1831 could have been born in the west." I n a f o o t n o t e to the m a t e r i a l j u s t q u o t e d Professor B a r k e r says f u r t h e r : Apparently this was a problem which interested Austin for a few months, and before other details crowded it from his mind he listed forty-seven applicants, of whom thirty-six recorded previous residence in two states. Of the thirty-six, twentyseven had moved originally from the Atlantic States (and fourteen of them from north of Maryland), three from Europe, and six from Kentucky and Tennessee, to states farther west. Of the remaining eleven, one was from Germany and apparently ten were natives of trans-Appalachia. There appears to be no reason for doubting that these figures are a fair index to the previous migrations of T e x a n immigrants. 12. N u m e r o u s o t h e r letters of t h e s a m e k i n d m a y b e f o u n d i n Barker, The Austin Papers: I (Pt. I), 414, 419, 421, 424, 426, 427, 437, 438, 440, 441, 472, 476, 491, 495, 505, 897, 999; I (Pt. I I ) , 1170, 1262, 1266, 1271; II, 2, 27, 31, 168, 207, 322, 323, 364, 423, 453, 666, 668; I I I , 101, 104. 13. ' T h e s e totals p r o b a b l y i n c l u d e slaves, since they are n o t particularly m e n t i o n e d . ' (Barker's f o o t n o t e . ) 14. M a t t i e A u s t i n H a t c h e r says, p. 194: ' T h e increase i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n of L o u i s i a n a d u r i n g the ten years p r e c e d i n g 1804 was d u e f o r the m o s t part to i m m i g r a t i o n of A m e r i cans, chiefly, a p p a r e n t l y f r o m the s o u t h e r n states.' 15. Barker, The Life of Stephen F. Austin, p p . 149-50. Professor B a r k e r took this inf o r m a t i o n f r o m a n earlier article of h i s e n t i t l e d "Notes o n the C o l o n i z a t i o n of T e x a s , " Southwestern Historical Quarterly, X X V I I , 108-19.

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SPEECH

There is no way of determining what the population of Texas was before the first census in 1847. Col. Juan Nepomuceno Almonte, in his report to the Mexican government, estimated the 'civilized'—i.e., Anglo-Texan— population at 21,000 in 1834. He placed 4,000 in the Department of Bejar, 8,000 in the Department of Brazos, and 9,000 in the Department of Nacogdoches. Kennedy thinks this figure too low; he" says that the Anglo-Texans probably numbered 30,000, exclusive of 2,000 Negroes.16 Bancroft says, without citing authority, that there were over 1,000 slaves in Texas in 1829.17 Almonte attributed the same number to the settlements in East Texas alone in 1834.18 Henry M. Morfit, commissioned by President Jackson to report on conditions in Texas, gives Texas a total population of 58,500 in 1836. Of these he thinks about 30,000 are Anglo-Americans, and 5,000 Negroes. Bancroft says that Morfit is somewhat contradictory in his report.10 This estimate for Anglo-Americans, however, agrees with that of Professor Barker, who bases his estimate on an intimate knowledge of the period. Professor Barker thinks that the total immigrant population in 1835, at the beginning of the Texas revolution, was around 30,000—men, women, and children.20 He says nothing about the probable number of slaves at this time. There are conflicting estimates for the years 1840 and 1841. Kennedy guesses 200,000 Anglo-Americans; Fournel 480,000 total population; Maillard's figures are 54,088 Anglo-Americans and 10,000 to 12,000 Negroes. Thrall says that the whole population was less than 50,000 at this time.21 T h e first census (1847), however, showed a total of 135,775 exclusive of Indians. Of these, 100,508 were whites, 35,267 slaves, and 10 were free Negroes.22 T h e admission of Texas to the Union, February 19, 1846, and the secure establishment of her position in the war with Mexico which followed her admission, caused immigrants to flock into Texas from the United States. T h e influx was checked only by the Civil War. But even during the war refugees from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Missouri came in, bringing their slaves with them. T h e end of the war—the last battle was fought in Texas on May 13, 1865—marks the beginning of the period of greatest immigration. People poured in, not only from the United States but also from all parts of Europe. T h e total population of Texas jumped from 604,215 in 16. B a n c r o f t , II, 148, f o o t n o t e 39. 17. 11,92. 18. J u a n N . A l m o n t e , N o t i c i a Estadística Sobre T e j a s ( M e x i c o , 1835), 50, 68, c i t e d b y Barker, 'Slavery a n d the C o l o n i z a t i o n of T e x a s , ' p . 35. 19. B a n c r o f t , II, 285. 20. Barker, Mexico and Texas, p . 21. 21. T h r a l l , p . 316. 22. B a n c r o f t , II, 346, f o o t n o t e 4.

SPEECH

OF EAST

TEXAS

109

i860, to 818,579 in 1870, to 2,215,700 in 1884. T h e negro population in i860 was 182,921; in 1870, 253,475; in 1880, 393, Immigration to Texas was by no means limited to Anglo-Americans. During the first years, a few people came in direct from England,24 though never in sufficient numbers to be significant. Later, the writings ol Chambers, Maillard, and others, probably discouraged prospective immigrants. There were also small numbers of Irish immigrants—in 1844 San Patricio was an Irish colony.26 Nor were the Jews lacking. They began coming as early as 1821, and settled continually in various parts from that time on. A number of them were living at Nacogdoches during the first years of colonization.28 T h e attempts at French settlement came to very little. In 1819 a colony of French refugees was broken up by a storm at Galveston in which many perished. T h e rest were scattered; only a few of them remained in Texas.27 Benjamin quotes an estimate of 15,000 French among the population of Texas in 1841, saying that they were probably in the eastern part near Louisiana.28 He also speaks of Castro's settlement, which was mainly French though it contained many Germans. It was west of San Antonio. Castro brought 5,200 persons to Texas between 1842 and 1847. A good many of these were from Alsace and Lorraine. A few German-Swiss settled in Texas between 1855 and 1872. In 1800 there were 200 Swiss in Dallas; in 1888 there were 160 in Houston.2® Of all the foreign immigrants, the Germans came in the greatest numbers. Beginning with the first settlement at Industry—now Austin County—in 1831, they rapidly spread into the surrounding territory. In 1845, Prince de Solms, as agent for the Adelsverein, T h e German Emigration Society, founded the colony of which New Braunfels is now the center. Fredericksburg was founded by the same Society.30 These two towns are still preponderantly German. By 1861 German settlements had been established in Austin, Colorado, Fayette, Washington, and Victoria counties; and farther west in the counties of Comal, Guadalupe, Gillespie, Llano, Kendall, and 23. The material for this paragraph was taken from Bancroft, II, 405, 450, 473, 475, 480,529,530,531.

24. One disastrous project, for example, was the attempt to settle 'The City of Kent'— about fifty miles north of Waco—by the English Universal Immigration Company in 1850. T h e scheme was a Utopian one. T h e first company of 100 English immigrants arrived late in 1850. No subsequent companies came. T h e hardships were too much for these people. Many of them died; the rest were scattered within a year and the land abandoned. (See Renick, pp. 51-65.) 25. Bancroft, II, 390. 26. Cohen, 'Jewish Settlement in Texas,' pp. 139-56; 'The Jews in Texas,' pp. 9-19. 27. Clemens, p p . 628-32.

28. Benjamin, XI, 104. 2 9 . Ibid., X I , 254-56. 3 0 . Ibid., X I , 22.

no

AMERICAN

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31

Kerr. Other counties which, before the Civil War, contained a large German element are Medina, Calhoun, Bastrop, Bexar, Caldwell, Travis, Hays, Harris, Milam, Karnes, Nueces, Gonzales, and Rio Grande.32 The Germans formed from eighteen to thirty-two per cent of the population in the counties most densely settled by them in the lower Brazos, Colorado, and Guadalupe river region, and from thirty-six to eighty-five per cent in the counties in western Texas.33 Statistics for the years before the Civil War vary greatly. Bancroft, whose figure seems to be the most dependable, estimates the number of Germans in Texas at the end of the Civil War at 4o,ooo.M The Germans tended to stay together; they did not scatter throughout the state and mix with the American population. Their old settlements, which are still German, are all in the south-central and western parts of the state.36 There are none in East Texas. The vast increase in the population of Texas since 1850 has been due both to natural increase within the state and to immigration from other states. During the 80 years between 1850 and 1930 the total population rose from 212,592 to 5,824,7i5.3S The first figure includes 58,558 Negroes;®7 the second, 854,g64.38 Of the 4,283,491 total white population in 1930, 4,185,095 were native white, and 3,857,198 of these were of native parentage.® There were 98,396 foreign-born white people,40 though the total foreign white stock was 426,293.41 During the thirty years from 1890 to 1920 the percentage of the native population of Texas born in other states hovered around 25." The Statistical Atlas for 1900 shows 66 per cent resident natives, 28 per cent native immigrants, and 6 per cent foreign-born43—that is, a gain of something over 800,000 from interstate migration since 1890. Most of these 31. Biesele, pp. v-vi, and maps, pp. 61 and 163. 32. Benjamin, X I , 1 1 0 - 1 1 . 33. Biesele, tables, pp. 62 a n d 164. 34. Bancroft, II, 481. 35. N u m b e r s of Germans—or at least p e o p l e of German descent—are living at present in the larger cities of T e x a s . Benjamin, X I , 1 1 2 - 1 3 , gives the f o l l o w i n g figures for 'sometime before 1883': Galveston, 10,000; San Antonio, 8,000; Austin, 7,000; B r e n h a m , 4,500; Dallas, 11,000; San A n t o n i o (1904), 20,000. 36. Fifteenth U. S. Census, I, 1055. 37. U . S. Census, Negro Population, 1790-1915, p. 44. 38. Fifteenth U. S. Census, III, Pt. II, 941. 39. Ibid., p. 941. 40. Ibid., p. 1016. Germany furnished more than any other country except Mexico. T h e n u m b e r of Germans shown is 25,913; Czechoslovakia came second, with 12,282. 41. Ibid., p. 948. H e r e again, more originated in Germany (153,362) than in any other country except Mexico; and Czechoslovakia follows w i t h 48,920. 42. For 1910, 25 to 30 per cent; for 1920, 20 to 25 per cent. See U . S. Census, Statistical Atlas of the United States, 1924, p. 224. 43. U. S. Census, Statistical Atlas, 1903, Plate 47. T h i s Atlas is the most useful of all because of the great detail and variety of the information w h i c h it presents. T h e percentages given here are only approximate. T h e y were taken from a graphic representation.

SPEECH OF EAST

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111

native immigrants came from other southern states," chiefly Alabama and Tennessee, though a good many came from Mississippi, Georgia, Arkansas, Missouri, Louisiana, and Kentucky, with smaller numbers from Virginia, North and South Carolina, Florida, Illinois, Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. 45 Garrison divides them as follows: North Atlantic states, 20,000; South Atlantic states, 150,000; North Central states, 120,000; South Central states (other than Texas), 530,000; Western states, 6,000; not specified, 10,000." T h e significant figure, of course, is 530,000. People were still moving westward; most of the native immigrants came from the states lying just east of Texas. T h e following table," compiled from the census of 1910, is significant: Total native white, 2,964,864. Of these, 2,127,423 were born in Texas; the rest, 837,441, were natives of other states, as follows: Tennessee Alabama Arkansas Mississippi Georgia Missouri Kentucky Louisiana

126,779 109,954 77>793 76,838 62,790 57.182 46,944 41,556

Illinois Oklahoma Indiana Ohio North Carolina Virginia South Carolina Kansas

.

.

34,295 28,420 17,642 16,111 . . . 15,178 over 13,000 . . over 12,000 over 12,000

Histories of Texas counties and other local studies are scarce. Those which have been written contain little of value, partly no doubt because the materials were lacking and partly because the writers, though patriotic, were poorly equipped for the task. Most of these histories are hardly more than pamphlets which bring together all kinds of miscellaneous information, chiefly of the chamber of commerce variety: the healthfulness of the climate, the fruitfulness of the soil, the probity of the citizens and their passionate devotion to religion and education. Others are huge tomes which obviously grew out of the publishers' desire to make money. These, in spite of the questionable motives which inspired them, have been the most useful, for they contain long biographical sections in which the memory of the old settlers is forever enshrined. Each subscriber sent in a sketch of his life, 44. T h e s e states in 1910 a n d 1920 h a d less t h a n five p e r cent of f o r e i g n - b o r n w h i t e a n d native w h i t e of foreign or m i x e d p a r e n t a g e c o m b i n e d , a n d less t h a n o n e p e r cent of fore i g n - b o r n w h i t e alone—except Louisiana, which shows slightly h i g h e r percentages. See U. S. Census, Statistical Atlas of the United States, 1924, p p . 179, 180; Plates 150, 151. 45. U. S. Census, Statistical Atlas, 1903, Plates 48 a n d 49. I t is impossible to r e a d t h e percentages exactly. O n Plate 48 a b o u t o n e fifth of these i m m i g r a n t s a r e a t t r i b u t e d to A l a b a m a , o n e fifth to Tennessee, a n d t h e o t h e r t h r e e fifths equally to Mississippi, Georgia, Arkansas, Missouri, Louisiana, a n d Kentucky. P l a t e 49, however, shows some few f r o m t h e o t h e r states m e n t i o n e d in t h e text. 46. Garrison, p . 306. 47. Simonds, p p . 149-50.

AMERICAN

112

SPEECH

a photograph, a n d a check to pay for their inclusion, thus ensuring himself a b u l w a r k against oblivion. T h e evidence in all of these books substantiates w h a t is set d o w n in the foregoing pages. It shows conclusively that the immigrants to T e x a s came mainly f r o m the southern states. For example, the first third of a 300-page Biographical

Encyclopedia

of Texas published in 1880 contains life sketches

of 100 people. T h e y are divided according to the states in w h i c h they were born as follows: Virginia, 17; South Carolina, 15; Georgia, 13; Tennessee, 11; A l a b a m a , 9; T e x a s , 5; N o r t h Carolina, K e n t u c k y , and N e w York, 4 each; Missouri, 3; Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Mississippi, 2 each; N e w Jersey, Florida, Indiana, M a r y l a n d , Vermont, Illinois, Ireland, Prussia, a n d Bavaria, x each. T h r a l l ' s Pictorial

History

of Texas contains a similar biographical sec-

tion of 160 pages. I n it, Kentucky, Mississippi, Georgia, and Tennessee appear most o f t e n as the states of birth. A l a b a m a , N o r t h Carolina, and South C a r o l i n a are in second place, a few people are shown f r o m Virginia, and occasionally one is listed f r o m N e w York, Connecticut,

Massachusetts,

Pennsylvania, or Missouri. It is hardly necessary to m u l t i p l y instances of this kind. Baker's Scrap-Book

Texas

and another of the commercial histories 48 show exactly the same

sort of evidence. T h e available county histories offer further confirmation. Cates, in his Pioneer

History of Wise County, says, ' T h e old South furnished the major-

ity of the population. . . . N o r t h a n d South Carolina, Georgia, Mississippi, a n d A l a b a m a sent forth sturdy sons. . . . Tennessee, K e n t u c k y , and Missouri were also well r e p r e s e n t e d . . . . F r o m the far North, Indiana, Pennsylvania, a n d N e w York, h a d come a few to tint the prevailing political atmosphere w i t h u n w o n t e d color. . . . a sprinkling of Kansans, and still others.' 49 Cates's biographical section bears out these statements—the older settlers came mostly f r o m southern states. T h e early settlers in w h a t are now D e n t o n a n d Dallas counties in northeast T e x a s were b r o u g h t in by the Peters C o l o n y C o m p a n y in the early 1840's. Bates says that this organization h a d agents in Kentucky, Missouri, Tennessee, a n d Arkansas, b u t that the colony was composed of m e n mostly f r o m Kentucky. 6 0 His biographical section contains short life sketches of the settlers w h o came before 1866. T h e y came chiefly f r o m K e n t u c k y , Tennessee, a n d Missouri, t h o u g h there are a few f r o m Louisiana, Arkansas, Virginia, Georgia, Mississippi, N o r t h a n d South Carolina, a n d Illinois. Some 48. A n o n y m o u s , History of Texas, together with a Biographical Parker counties.

49. Cates, pp. 82-83. 50. Bates, p. 13.

History of Tarrant and

SPEECH

OF EAST

TEXAS

113

of them were born in Texas. Brown's biographical sketches name the state of emigration for only a few of the more than 500 people listed. He says, however, that the first settlers in Dallas County were chiefly from the southern and western states, especially Kentucky, Illinois, Missouri, and Tennessee.61 T h e Memorial and Biographical History of Dallas County, Texas, a heavy volume of 1 0 1 1 pages, contains 674 pages devoted to life histories. Many of these record not only the states in which the settlers themselves were born, but also those of their parents, their wives, and their wives' parents. Here again, though a negligible few came from foreign countries (Germany, Denmark, Scotland, Austria), and a larger number from New York, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Missouri, and Arkansas, most of them came from the southern states and were born of parents who were native to the South. For example, one settler who was born in Tennessee records North Carolina as the birthplace of his mother and Virginia as that of his father. Another was born in South Carolina, his mother in Georgia, his father in New York (a lone intruder from the North), his wife in Alabama, her parents in South Carolina. Less variety appears frequently. Only three states share in the record of one settler. He and his wife were born in Tennessee, one of his parents in North Carolina, the other in Virginia, and both of her parents were born in Virginia. These examples are typical. T h e only other history worth mentioning is that by Frank W. Johnson. It contains short historical sketches of various Texas counties, some of which name the sources of population. For example, 'Many of Navarro County's early settlers came from Arkansas, Missouri, Kentucky, and Tennessee, and the development of this and the majority of counties in the same region was accomplished by the movement of migration from the older states southwestwardly.' 62 Of Dallas County: ' T h e pioneers of this decade (the 1850's) were the better class of farmers, chiefly from Kentucky, Illinois, Missouri, Ohio, Tennessee, Alabama, Georgia, and Mississippi, with a few from nearly every state in the Union and Europe.' 53 Of Fannin County: ' T h e first settlers came into that district before the Texas Revolution, and Fannin County marked the extreme western frontier of northeast Texas until the decade of the 40's. A large proportion of the pioneers were planters, from different states of the South.' 51 Of Van Zandt County: 'Settlement in Van Zandt County began in the '40's and came largely from the older settled districts of east Texas.' 55 Of Hopkins County: 'The era of settlement which peopled the Red River District of northeast Texas during the time '51. Brown, p. 15. 52. Johnson, II, 762.

53. Ibid., II, 855. 54. Ibid., II, 865. 55. Ibid., II, 876.

ii4

AMERICAN

SPEECH

of the Republic gave Hopkins County its pioneers.'56 Of Upshur County: 'Nearly 40 per cent of the population before the war consisted of slaves."" Of Harrison County: 'Before the war Harrison became one of the most populous of east Texas counties.... A large proportion of the early settlers were southern planters, who brought in their s l a v e s . . . . In spite of the large immigration during the past 40 years (before 1914) the county is still typically southern.'58 Of Smith County: 'Its settlement had begun about the time the Texas Republic was established, and before the war it contained a relatively large population, had a large area cultivated in plantations, worked by slave labor, and even at that time Tyler was one of the leading towns in population, trade, and culture in east T e x a s . . . . Though Smith County was characteristically southern in other respects, its slave population was less in proportion than we found in a number of other east Texas counties.'68 T h e eastern half of Texas is not only older; it is much more densely settled than the western part.80 Until 1880 the western section was hardly settled at all, and even now much of it is almost barren of population, chiefly for economic reasons. T h e west is not well adapted to farming, and slave labor was more effective on farms than on cattle ranches. Hence, plantation owners stayed in the east. Some tried to establish themselves in the west, but most of them either returned to the east or gave up their slaves.61 Consequently, the eastern part of Texas had, and still has, the densest Negro population of the state, and the west was left open for later settlement by Germans and by Americans from the northern and eastern states;62 that is, there are more of these in the west than there are of the descendants of the immigrants from the southern states, who make up the population of the east. Furthermore, the presence of large numbers of Negroes in the east has kept out foreign immigrants, both from Europe and from Mexico, so that there has been no mixture of European stocks in the east and very little infiltra56. Ibid., II, 877. Fannin County is also in the Red River District. See above. 57. Ibid., II, 892. 58. Ibid., II, 896. 59. Ibid., II, 900. In spite of what Mr. Johnson says, however, the evidence of

presentday speech points to the conclusion that East Texas was not occupied predominantly by slave-holding planters from the lowlands and coastal plains of the old South. For very little of the plantation type of speech remains, except among the Negroes. 60. McConnell, p. 153: Population east of the 98th meridian in 1920, 3,248,550; west of t h e 98th m e r i d i a n , 1,4.14,678.

61. 'The 8th census, i860, gave the population of Texas as slightly more than 600,000. Of these, approximately 30% were slaves, 30% were born in other southern states, 25% were native-born, 8% were born in northern states, and 7% were foreign-born. T h e 8th census shows 215% increase in slavery since the 7th census. All slave-owners except a negligible fraction of 1% settled in the East.' McConnell, p. 158.

62. Ibid., p. 191.

SPEECH

OF EAST

tion from Mexico. T h i s is also true of the other southern states. at a map in E. E. Davis's Report

115

TEXAS

on Illiteracy

63

A glance

in Texas published in 1923

will show that East Texas, while itself free of foreign stocks, is virtually hemmed in by counties having large numbers of Germans, Austrians, Czecho-Slovakians, Poles, and Mexicans. 84 Another map65 shows the heaviest Negro population of the state to be in East Texas—probably twice as high a percentage as it is in similarly populated districts of West Texas. 66 T h e percentage of Negro illiteracy is of course very high, so high that East T e x a s is the most illiterate part of the state except the sections which have the heaviest Mexican population. 67 T h e mass of statistical detail here presented establishes the following facts as the important ones for the present study: (1) that the settlement of T e x a s was a part of the westward movement of the people of the United States; (2) that East T e x a s was settled by immigrants from the other southern states, with a negligible few from states outside the South; (3) that there is virtually no 'foreign element' in East Texas.

B I B L I O G R A P H Y F O R T H E SOURCES O F T E X A S P O P U L A T I O N Anonymous, Biographical Encyclopedia of Texas. Southern Publishing Company, New York, 1880. History of Texas together with a Biographical History of T a r r a n t a n d Parker counties. T h e Lewis Publishing Company, Chicago, 1895. ——. Memorial a n d Biographical History of Dallas County, Texas. T h e Lewis Publishing Company, Chicago, 1892. Baker, D. W . C„ A Texas Scrap-Book. New York, 1875. Bancroft, H u b e r t Howe, History of the N o r t h Mexican States and Texas, 2 vols. San Francisco, 1889. Barker, Eugene C., editor, T h e Austin Papers, 3 vols. A n n u a l Report of the American Historical Association. Volume I, in two parts, is in Volume II of the A. H . A. R e p o r t for 1919; Volume II is in Volume I I of the A. H. A. R e p o r t for 1922; Volumes I and I I published by the U. S. Government P r i n t i n g Office, 1924 and 1928, respectively; Volume III, published by the University of Texas, Austin, 1927. T h e T h e Life of Stephen F. Austin. Nashville and Dallas, 1925. Mexico and Texas, 1821-1835. Dallas, 1928. Slavery a n d the Colonization of Texas, Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Vol. XI, 1924-25Bates, Ed. F., History a n d Reminiscences of Denton County. Denton, Texas, 1918. 63. ' I n t h e thirty years p r i o r to 1880, when other sections were vastly increasing their foreign-born, the southern states could show a gain of only a little m o r e than 100,000. In 1880 there were only about 320,000 foreign-born in the fourteen southern s t a t e s . . . . T h e tendency in the southern states has been for the n u m b e r of foreign-born to decrease (to 1900).... It was slavery that caused this neglect of the South by foreign-born population.' Warne, p p . 91, 92, 93. 64. Davis, p. 15. 65. P. 18. 66. Pp. 13,14. 67. P. 20.

AMERICAN

n6

SPEECH

Benjamin, Gilbert G., T h e Germans in Texas, German American 315-40; X I (1909), 3-33, 103-20, 164-76, 208-32, 235-56, 283-305.

Annals,

X , (1908),

Biesele, R u d o l p h Leopold, T h e History of the German Settlements in Texas, 1831-1861. Austin, 1930. Brown, John Henry, History of Dallas County, Texas, from 1837 to 1887. Dallas, 1887. Cates, Cliff D., Pioneer History of Wise County. Decatur, Texas, 1907. Clemens, W. M., T h e French in Texas, Magazine of Western History (Cleveland), IV (1886), 628-32. Cohen, T h e Reverend Henry, Jewish Settlement in Texas, Publications American Jewish Historical Society, No. 2 (1894), pp. 139-56. T h e Jews in Texas, Publications American Jewish Historical Society, No. 4 (1896), PP'9-!9Davis, E. E., A Report of Illiteracy in Texas. University of Texas, Austin, 1923. Garrison, George P., Texas: A Contest of Civilizations. Boston and New York, 1903. Hatcher, Mattie Austin, Louisiana Background of Colonization of Texas, The Southwestern Historical Quarterly, X X I V (1920-21), 169-94. Johnson, Frank W., A History of T e x a s and Texans, edited by Eugene C. Barker and E. W . Winkler, 2 vols. Chicago and New York, 1914. McConnell, Weston Joseph, Social Cleavages in Texas. Dissertation in Political Science, Columbia University, New York, 1925. Potter, R . M., T h e Colonization of Texas, Magazine

of American

History, VIII (1882),

157-67Rather, Ethel Zivley, DeWitt's Colony. Bulletin of the University of T e x a s No. 51, Humanistic Series No. 3, January 15, 1905. Appears also in The Quarterly of the Texas State Historical Association, VIII, No. s (October, 1904). Renick, Dorothy Waites, T h e City of Kent, Southwestern Historical Quarterly, X X I X (1925-26), 51-65. Simonds, Frederic William, T h e Geography of Texas, Revised edition. New York, 1914. T h r a l l , Homer S., A Pictorial History of Texas. St. Louis, 1879. United States Census: . Fifteenth United States Census, Vols. I and III. Washington, 1931. Negro Population, 1790-1915. Washington, 1918. Statistical Atlas. Henry Gannett, supervisor. Washington, 1903. Statistical Atlas of the United States, 1924. Bureau of the Census, Charles S. Sloane, supervisor. Washington, 1925. Viles, J., Population and Extent of Settlement in Missouri before 1804, Missouri Historical Review, V (1910-11), 189-207. Warne, Frank Julian, T h e Immigrant Invasion. New York, 1913.

INDEX OF SUBJECTS Adjectives, 99 Adverbs, 100 Alternation of [ju] with [1], 54 Bibliography for the sources of the population of Texas, 115-116 Bibliography for the sections on speech, 116-118 Conjunctions, 100 Consonants, 55-74 Addition, 61-62 Assimilation, 59-61 Development of [gj] and [kj], 62 Final ing, 71-72 Final loss, 58-59 Initial loss, 55-56 1,69-71 Medial loss, 56-58 Miscellaneous, 72—74 r, 63-69 Ellipsis, 101 General comment on the speakers and the records, 88-91 Grammar, Appendix A, 95-101 Introduction, 1-6 Intrusion of [a] before [1] and [m], 54 Low colloquial speech, Appendix B, 102-103 Miscellaneous unusual constructions, 101 Nouns, 98 Phonetic symbols, v-vi Phonetic transcriptions, 75-94 Preface, iii-iv Prepositions, 100 Pronouns, 98-99 Redundancy, 100 Sources of the population of Texas, Appendix C, 104-1x5 Supplementary transcriptions, 91-94 T e x t of records 1-10, 75-78 Transcription of record 8, 79-88 Unstressed vowels of final syllables,

47-54

[з]. 47-5 1 M»5 1 _ 53 W> 54 Unstressed vowels of initial syllables, 33-4i a> 33-35 e, 35-37 i, 39-40 °> 37-39 u, 40-41 Unstressed vowels of medial syllables, 41-47 a and o, 42-43 e and i, 44-46 u, 46-47 Verbs, 95-98 Vowel sounds in stressed syllables, 7-32 H>7 M> 7-9 [e], 9-10 [e], 11-12 [ae], 13-16 [a], 16 [a], 16-19

PI

M> 19-23 [o], 23-24 [и], 24-25 [u], 25-26 [A], 26-27 [>], 27-28 [ei], 28 [ai], 29 [au], 30 [ou], 31 [31], 31-32 [ju]> 32 Vowel sounds in unstressed and partially stressed syllables, 33-54 Words beginning with w h ^ i

ii8

AMERICAN

SPEECH

INDEX OF WORDS This is an index to every word treated in the first three chapters. It does not include Chapter IV or the appendices. The numbers indicate pages. A abdominal, 35 abhorrent, 20,35 ability, 33,44 able, 10,69 ablution, 35 Abner, 13 abode, 23 about, 30,33, 34 above, 3 3 , 3 4 absent, 13 absolute, 25,32 absolutely, 42 absorbent, 20 absorbine, 20 abstraction, 35 absurd,27 accent, 50 accident, 44 accommodate, 33, 34,42 accord, 33 according,33,34 account, 30,33, 34 accrue, 33 accumulate, 47 accurate, 47 acknowledge, 35 acrobat, 42,67 across, 3 3 , 3 4 , 6 1 acted, 51 actor, 54 actual, 46,48 actually, 46 added, 51 addle, 13 address, 3 3 , 3 4 adenoid, 44 adequate, 46,51 adjacent, 33 adjoin, 3 1 , 3 3 adjourn, 33 adjudge, 33 admit, 35 admonish, 35 adopt, 3 3 , 3 4 advance, 14 advice, 33 afar, 33

affair, 33 afford,33 afraid, 3 3 , 3 4 after, 57 afterwards, 58 again, 1 1 , 3 3 , 3 4 against, 1 1 aggravate, 14,42,52, 67

agog, 33 agree, 33, 34 ahead, 33, 34 Alabama, 47 Aladdin, 49 Alexander, 46 Alexandria, 46,47 algebra, 47,48 alienate, 45 alive, 33 all, 20 alley, 52 alligator, 1 3 , 1 6 all of them, 59 allow, 30, 33 almanac, 42 almond, 19 alms, 19 alone, 23, 33 along, 33, 34 aloof, 26 always, 20 amateur, 72 Amazon, 43 amble, 13 American, 33, 34 amiss, 8 ammonia, 45,47 ammunition, 47 among, 3 3 , 3 4 ample, 13 amputate, 47 anatomy, 42 ancestor, 54 anchor, 54 and then I went home, 61 Angora, 47 animate, 51 animated, 44 announce, 33

annoy, 33 annoying, 5 2 , 5 3 annual, 46 annually, 46 anoint, 31 ant, 14 antagonize, 42 anxious, 14,48 any, 52, 68 apart, 33 appear, 33 apple, 13,69 appoint, 33 appreciate, 73 appreciation, 73 apricot, 45,67 April, 48,67 apron, 50,68 arbor, 54 are, 18 aren't, 18 argue, 51 arguing, 47 argument, 47,50 arithmetic, 34 Arnica, 47, 48 around, 3 0 , 3 3 , 3 4 arouse, 30 Arp, 18 arrange, 3 3 , 3 4 arrest, 33, 34 arrive, 33 arrogant, 42 arthritis, 35 articulate, 35 artillery, 35 artist, 52 a-running, 34 as, 13 asafoetida, 42,48,79 ask, 14,60 asked,60 asking, 60 asleep, 33 asparagus, 42 ass, 14 assemble, 33 assert, 27, 33

SPEECH OF EAST associate, 3 3 , 3 4 , 7 3 association, 73 assorted, 20, 22 assortment, 33 astonish, 33 at, 13 a-talking, 34 at all, 33,34 at any rate, 35 ate, 10 Atlantic, 52 atone, 23 a-tremble, 33 attach, 33,34 attack, 33,62 attacked, 62 attention, 33,34 attract, 33 audacious, 34 audacity, 34 audible, 20 audience, 45 _ auditor, 20 auditory, 20 aunt, 17 Austin, 20 authentic, 34 author, 54 authority, 20,34 automatic, 34 auxiliary, 35,45 avail, 33 average, 13,44 avert, 33 avocation, 42 avow, 33 await, 33 awake, 33 away, 33 awful, 20,48 awl, 20 awning, 20,52 B babble, 13,69 babe, 10 baboon, 34 baby, 10 bachelor, 46 back, 13 backwards, 58 bacon, 10,48,50 bad, 1 3 , 1 4

baffle, 13 bag, 13 baggage, 51 bail, 10 Bailey, 52 bait, 10 bake, 10 bakery, 10 balance, 48 balcony, 1 3 , 4 2 , 5 2 bald, 70 baleful, 48 balk, 70 ball, 20, 22 ballad, 52 ballast, 48 balloon, 33, 34 ballot, 48 bamboo, 13, 35 banal, 49 banana, 1 3 , 3 3 , 3 4 band, 58 bandage, 51 bandanna, 35 bang, 13 banish, 52 banjo, 47 bank, 13 bantam, 48,49 Baptist, 13, 5g, 60 baptism, 60 baptize, 60 Bar, 18 barb,18 bare, 15 bargain, 53 bark, 18,63 barley, 52 barometer, 33,34,44 barrel, 49 barren, 52 barrier, 45,54 Barron, 15 barrow, 66 basket, 14 bass, 14 bastard, 14,54 bat, 13 bath, 14 bathe, 10 baths, 57 battalion, 45 battery, 44,52

TEXAS battle, 13,69 bawdy, 20 bawl, 20,22 Baylor, 10 bayonet, 51 bear up, 65 beautiful, 48 beauty, 32 because, 35,36 become, 35 bed,12 bedding, 53 bedraggle, 35 been,8 beer, 8 beer in bottles, 66 before, 35 beg, u beggar, 54 begin, 33, 35 begotten, 49 behave, 35,37 behavior, 5 1 , 5 4 behind, 35,58 behold, 35 being, 52 believe, 35,36 belittle, 35 bell, 12 bellow, 47, 49 bellowed, 47,49 belly, 52 belong, 35,36 Ben, 12 bench,12 beneath,35 benefit, 12 benzine, 53 berry, 66 besides, 35 bestial, 45,48 bet, 1 1 betray, 35 better, 74 betting, 53 Betty, 74 between, 35 beverage, 44 beware, 35 beyond, 35 bib, 8 bicarbonate, 42 bid, 8

120

AMERICAN

bidden,49 bigamy, 42,52 bilious, 45,48 bill, 8,69 billiards, 45 bind, 29 birch,27 bird, 27,65 bite, 29 bitten, 49 bitter, 54,74 blame, 10 blanket, 51 blast, 14 blaze, 10 bleat, 7 blend, 12 blink, 9 blizzard, 54 block,16 blouse, go blubber, 70 blundered, 56,57 blurt, 70 boar, 65 board, 24 boar-hog, 65 boastful, 57 boat, 23 bobbin, 52 body, 17,52 bog, 17 boggle, 54,69 boil, 31 boiler, 31 boisterous, 44 bold, 73 boll, 23 bologna, 37,47,48 bomb, 17 bond, 73 bone, 23 bonnet, 51 book, 24 boot, 26 booze, 25 Borden, 20 border, 20, 22 bore, 24 boring, 24 born, 20, 22 borne, 24 borrow, 47,49,66

borrowed, 47,49 bossed, 20 Boston, 20 both, 23 bother, 19,54 botheration, 10 bottom, 16 bough, 30 bought, 20 bounce, 30 bound, 30 boundary, 43 bounteous, 48 bounty, 30 bouquet, 26 bout, 30 bowed, 30 bowel, 30,49 bowing, 52 box, 16 boxing, 52,53 boy, 31 brace, 10 bracelet, 51 bracket, 51 braid, 10 brain, 10 brake, 63 brand-new, 56 brass, 14 brave, 10 brawl, 20 bread,12 break,10 breakfast, 48,59 breastpin, 57 breath, 11 breeches, 7,51 brethren, 52,68 briar, 65 bribery, 44 brighten, 49 brilliant, 45,48 brindle, 56 bring, 9 brink, 9 brittle, 54 broil, 31 broke, 23 brooch,26 broom, 25, 26 broth, 20 brother, 54,67

*

SPEECH brush, 27 brutal, 49 brutality, 52 bubble, 54,69 bucket, 51 buckle, 54,69 bud, 26 budget, 51 buggy, 52 build, 8,70 built, 8 building, 53 bulb, 70 bulk, 70 bull, 24 bullion, 45 bumble-bee, 56 bump, 26 bumptious, 46,48 bunches, 51 bundle, 26,56,69 bunion, 45,48 bunk, 26 bureau, 32,49 burglar, 54 burn, 27 burr, 27 burrow, 47 burst, 66 burying, 46 bush, 24 business, 8,44,52 busy, 8 but, 26 butcher, 24 butter, 26,74 buttock, 48 button, 49 buxom, 48 buzzard, 54 by-and-bye, 60 C cab,13 cabbage, 62 cable, 10,69 cackle, 13,54,69 cadet, 33 cajole, 33 cake, 10 calamity, 33,52 calf, 14,62,70 calico, 49

SPEECH OF EAST California, 45,47 calk, 70 call, 20, 2 1 , 2 3 calm, 19,70 Calvary, 43 calves, 70 came, 10 camel, 62 camp, 14 campaign, 13 can,13,15 canal, 33 canary, 33 candidate, 56,57 candle, 56,69 can't, 1 4 , 1 5 cantankerous, 35,48 cap,13 capacity, 33,46,52 cape, 62 caper, 10 captain, 57 capture, 54 car, 18,66 carburetor, 47,54 care, 1 5 , 1 6 , 6 6 career, 33 careless, 16 carpenter, 60 carried, 5 1 , 5 3 carrot, 48,51 carry, 62,66 cart, 18 cash, 13,62 casket, 14 cast, 14 castor, 14 cat, 13 catch, 15 cattle, 69 caught, 20 cauterize, 20 celebrate, 44 celebrity, 35 celestial, 35,45,48 cemetery, 12 cent, 12 centennial, 37 center, 12 centipede, 12 centrifugal, 37 certain, 49 chaff, 14

chair, 1 5 , 1 6 chalk, 70 chamois, 73 chance, 14 charity, 15 chari-vari, 73 chassis, 73 chemise, 73 cheroot, 73 Chevrolet, 68 chew, 26 Chicago, 19 chicken, 52 chiffon, 73 children, 53,68 chimney, 55,60, 62 China, 47,48 chinquapin, 42 chocolate, 17 choice, 31 Christian, 45,48 Christian Scientist, 59 churn, 27 cigar, 39 Cincinnati, 51 city, 52 civil, 69 civilian, 39,45,48 civility, 49 class, 14 clay, 10 clean, 7 clear, 8 climate, 59 climb, 59 cling, 59 clink, 9 cloak, 59 clock, 59 clog, 17 close, 59,62 closer, 62 closet, 5g cloth, 20,59 clothes, 23,57 cloud, 30,59 club, 59 coarse, 24 cob, 17 code, 23 coffee, 20 coffin, 20 coil, 31

TEXAS coin, 31 collapse, 37 collar, 54 collateral, 37 collect, 37 college, 51 collie, 17 collision, 37,46,48 color, 54 colossal, 37 comb, 23 combine, 38 come, 26 come here, 74 comfortable, 42,57,68 coming, 52 command, 37 comment, 50 commission, 37 commit, 37 compare, 38 compatible, 44 competent, 44,48 complexion, 38 compose, 38 conceal, 38 cone, 23 confer, 38 connect, 37 connection, 37 conscientious, 46,48 considerable, 38,42,44 constable, 27,42 constant, 48 constitute, 54 contempt, 12 contentment, 38 contribute, 54 convenience, 45,48 convenient, 45 convert, 38 converted, 27 convey, 38 conviction, 38 coop, 26 Cooper, 26 coral, 20 core, 24 core of an apple, 66 corn, 20,22,66 comer, 66 coroner, 20,22 corpse, 20,22

122

AMERICAN

corpuscle, 20, 22 correct, 37,59 correctly, 57 correspond, 20,22 corrosive, 37 corruption, 37 cost, 20 costly, 57 cotton, 49 couch, 30 cough, 20, 21 count, 30 county, 30 couple, 54,69 coupon, 32 courage, 27, 51 courageous, 37,48 course, 24 cover, 26,27 cow, 30,62 cowardice, 29 cowl, 30 coy, 31 crab,13 crack,13 cranberry, 1 3 , 6 1 crank, 13 crash,13 crate, 10 crave, 10 craw, 20 craze,10 cream, 7 create, 35 creature, 54,73 credential, 45,48 creek,7 crib, 8 criminal, 46 cringe, 62 crop, 17 cross, 20 crowd, 30,62 crown, 30 cruel, 48 crumb, 26 cuff, 26 cupidity, 40 cur, 27 curb,27 curdle, 27 cure, 32 curiosity, 40,46,52

curious, 45, 48 curriculum, 41 currying, 46 curse, 66 curt, 27 curtain, 49 cushion, 24 cut, 26 cute, 32 D daddy, 13 Dallas, 52,53 dam, 13 damage, 51 damask, 48 damp, 14 Dan, 13 dance, 14 dangerous, 44,48 dank, 13 dapple, 69 dappled, 13 dare, 15 daring, 15 dark, 18 darkness, 52 dash, 13 date, 10 daughter, 20 daunt, 20 dawn, 20,21 day, 10,28 days, 10 dead,12 deaf, 1 1 deal, 7 dear, 8 death, 1 1 debate, 35 debt, 1 1 decay, 28, 35 Decatur, 54 deceive, 35 decide, 35 declare, 35 defeat, 35 defense, 35,37 defy, 35 degree, 35 delay, 35,36 delicacy, 42,44,52 delicious, 35,36 delight, 35,36

SPEECH deliver, 35 demean, 35 democracy, 42 Denton, 49 deny, 35 depend,35 dependence, 48 dependent, 48 descend, 35 describe, 35 description, 35 desire, 35 destroy, 35,37 destruction, 37 Detroit, 37 develop, 35,48 dew, 32 dialect, 42,43 diamond, 42,43 did, 8 difference, 44,50 dig, 8 digest, 39 dilapidate, 39 dim, 8 dimension, 39,46,48 diphtheria, 73 diphthong, 73 direct, 39 direction, 39,46,48 directly, 39,57 dirk, 27 dirt, 27 disaster, 40 disciple, 39 disclose, 40 discover, 40 disgrace, 40 disgust, 40 disgusted, 51 disgusting, 40 dishes, 51 dismay, 40 disown, 40 dispose, 40 distinct, 40 distinction, 40 distress, 40 distribute, 54 disturb, 40 divert, 27 divide, 39 divine, 39

SPEECH OF EAST divorce, 39 do, 25 doctor, 16 dog, 17 doll, 17 dollar, 54,64 dome, 23 domestic, 52 dominion, 45,48 donation, 38 dong, 20 dope, 23 dormitory, 20, 21 Dorothy, 20,22 double, 69 dowdy, 30 down, 30 dozen, 50 dozing, 52 drab,13 draft, 59 dragging, 52,53 drake, 10 dramatic, 33 drawl, 20 dream, 7 dreamt, 12 dreary, 8 dregs, 1 1 drench,12 dress, 1 1 drift, 59 drifting, 53 drink, 9 drizzle, 69 drop,17 drought, 73 drouth, 73 drown, 62 drowned, 62 drowning, 62 dubious, 45,48,50,72 duck, 26 duds, 26 due, 25 duke, 25,32,72 dumb, 26 dump, 26 Duncan, 48,49 duplicity, 40 duty, 25,32,72 dwell, 12

E ear, 8,74 earn,27 earthquake, 10 eat, 7 eccentric, 37 eclipse, 35 economize, 35 edition, 46,48 effective, 35 egg, u eject, 35 elaborate, 35 elastic, 35, 36 elect, 35, 36 elected, 35,36 election, 35, 36 electric, 35, 36 electricity, 35,36,46 electrocute, 54 elegant, 44 eleven, 50,59 eliminate, 35 elk, 70 elm, 54,70 elope, 35 elucidate, 35 embalm, ig, 37 embark, 37 embarrass, 37 embody, 37 embrace, 37 embroider, 37 emend, 35 emit, 35 emotion, 35 employ, 31 enable, 37 endure, 37 engage, 37 engine, 48 enjoy, 37 enough, 35,36 enthusiasm, 32 epidemic, 37 epistle, 35 equation, 74 erase, 35,36 eraser, 35,36 erect, 35,36 eruption, 35 erysipelas, 44

TEXAS escort, 37 essential, 45,48 establish, 37 estate, 37 esteem, 37 estimate, 51 eternal, 35 Ethel, 49 ethyl, 48 evangelist, 35,36 evaluate, 35 evaporate, 35,36 even, 7,50,59 evening, 7, 57 event, 35,37 exact, 37 exactly, 57 examine, 37 except, 37 exchange, 37 excitement, 37 excuse, 37 execute, 54 exhaust, 37 expect, 37,59 expensive, 37 express, 37 exquisite, 51 extend, 37 extension, 46,48 extra, 47,48 extreme, 37

F fable, 10 face, io facetious, 33 facial, 45,48, 73 facile, 48 facility, 33 fact, 13,59 factory, 42,43 fad, 13 fag. 13 fail, 10 fair, 15 fairy, 15 fake, 10 fall, 20, 22 familiar, 34, 45,54 family, 1 3 , 4 6 , 6 1 , 6 2 Fanny, 13 fantastic, 35,52

124 far, 18,63,66 fare,15 farm, 18,66 far under, 66 fashion, 13,46,48 fast, 14,59 faster, 67 fastidious, 35,45,48 fat, 13 fatal, 49 father, 19,54 fatigue, 34 faucet, ao favorite, 42,43,51,52 fawn, 20 fear, 8 February, 68 federal, 44 feel, 7 fellow, 47,49 ferment, 50 ferocious, 35,36 festivity, 37 fetch, 11 few, 3a fiddle, 54 fidelity, 39 Fido, 49 field, 7,70 fifth, 57 fig. 8 figure, 54 figured, 54,57 film, 54,70 filth, 71 final, 49 finality, 39 finance, 39 financial, 39,45,48 fined, 58 finesse, 39 fire, ag, 66 fired, ag first, 27 fitted, 51 fizzle, 54,69 flamboyant, 35 flamingo, 34 flask,14 flattery, 44,52 flaunt, ao flirt, 70 flit, 70

AMERICAN float, 23 florist, 52 flounder, 30 fiuffy, 26 flush,a6 foam, 23 fog, 17 fold, 33 folks, 70 follow, 17 food, 26 fool, 25 foot, 34 for, 20,22 forbidding, 3g force, 24 fore, 24 foregather, 3g forehead, 20,22 foreign, 20,28 foremost, 66 forest, 20,2a forge, 24 forget, 3g forgiving, 3g form, ao, 66 formality, 3g formation, 3g forsake, 39 fort, 84 forthcoming, 39 fortress, 52 fortune, ao, aa forward, ao, 58 foster, ao found, 30 foundation, 39 fountain, 30 four, 34,64 fourth, 66 fracture, 54 fragile, 48 France, 14 frantic, 53 fraternal, 34,49 frighten, 49 frigidity, 39 frivolity, 3g frog, 17 frost, ao frostbite, 57 frostbitten, 57 froth, so, s i

SPEECH frown, 30 frugality, 41 frustration, 41 fulfill, 41 fulfillment, 41 full, 34 fulsome, 48 fumble, 54,69 function, 46,48 funeral, 48,49 fur, 87 furrow, 47,49,66 fussing, 58,53 futility, 40 future, 54 futurity, 40 G gabble, 13,69 gable, 10 gad,13 gag. 13 gain, 10 gale, 10 gall, ao, aa gallant, 48 gallery, 44,52 gallon, 48 gallop, 48 gallus, 48 galoot, 34 gamble, 13 game, 62 gander,13 gang, 13 gap.13 garage, ig garb, 18 garbage, 51 garden, 18,4g garish, 15 Garland, 48 garnet, 51 gas, 14 gash, 13,62 gasket, 51 gasoline, 53 gate, 10,62 gather, 54,67 gauge, 10 gaunt, ao gauze, ao, s i gavel, 13 gawky, 80

SPEECH OF EAST TEXAS gear, 8 geese, 62 gelding, 52 general, 12,48,49,68 generality, 4 2, 43 generous, 44,48 genial, 45,48 genius, 45,48 gentility, 37 gentle, 69 gentleman, 57 genuine, 5a, 53 geography, 35,36 geometry, 35,36,44 Georgia, 47 gesture, 54 get, 1 1 , 6 2 ghost, 23 giblet, 5 1 giggle, 69 gimlet, 5 1 , 6 2 gingham, 48 gird, 27 girdle, 27 girl, 27,28,66 give, 62 give me, 57 gime them to me, 59 gizzard, 54 glacier, 54,73 glad, 59 glamor, 54 glance, 14 glare,15 glass, 14,59 gleam, 7,59 glimmer, 59,70 glimpse, 59 gloat, 23 globe, 23, 59 glorious, 45, 48 glory, 24, 59 glum, 59 glutton, 49, 59 gnat, 13 go. 83 goat, 23 gobble, 69 God, 17 God almighty, 70 going, 5 2 , 5 3 gold, 23 golly, 17

gone, 20,21 gong, 20 good, 24 good-bye, 57 goodness, 52 goose, 26 gosling, 19 gossip, 48,50 got, 16 gouge, 30 gourd, 24 gout, 30 government, 44,50 governor, 44,54 gown, 30,62 grab,13 grace, 10 gradual, 46,48 graft, 59 grain,10 grammarian, 34 grand, 1 3 , 5 8 grandeur, 54 grandma, 56,6i grandpa, 56,61 grant, 14 grasp,14 grass, 14 grateful, 48 gray, 10 grease, 74 greasy, 52,74 great, 10 Gregory, 42,43 griddle, 69 grievance, 48 grievous, 48 grim, 8 grin, 8 grind, 58 gristle, 69 groan,23 grocery, 44,52 groggy, 52 groin, 31 groom, 26 ground, 30 grove, 23 grovel, 19,48 growl, 30 grub,26 gruel, 48 grumble, 26,69

guarantee, 42 guardian, 45,48 guess, 1 1 guidance, 50 guinea, 52 gullible, 44 gumption, 46,48 gunman, 48 gurgle, 27 guzzle, 69 H habit, 51 habitual, 34,46,48 hack,13 had, 15,56 haggle, 54,69 hail, 10 hair, 15 hairbrush, 27 iiairy, 15 half, 14,70 halves, 70 ham, 13 hand, 13,58 handkerchief, 56,69 handle, 56,69 handsaw, 56 handsome, 48 happen, 13 happiness, 52 hard,18 harmful, 48 harness, 52 harp, 18 harrow, 47,49,66 has, 1 3 , 1 5 hat, 13 hatchet, 1 3 , 5 1 hate, 10 hateful, 48 hatred, 51 haul, 20 haunt, 20,22 have, 1 3 , 1 5 , 5 6 hawk, 20 hay, 10 hazard, 54 hazardous, 43 he, 56 head, 12 hear, 8 heard, 27,28 hearth, 1 8 , 1 9

126

AMERICAN

SPEECH

heated, 7 heaven, 50,59 height, 73 held, 73 help, 70 helped, 59 hen,12 henchman, 48 her, 56 herald, 48 herb,56 here, 8 hero, 49 hers, 74 hew, 32 him, 54,56 hindered, 57 hindrance, 48 hire, 29 hired, 29 historical, 20,22,39,46 history, 42,43 hoarse, 24 hobby, 17 hoe, 23 hog, 17 hoist, 31 hokum, 23 hold, 23,70,73 hole, 23 hollow, 17 homage, 51 home, 23 hone, 23 honest, 52,59 honor, 54 hoof, 26 hoop,26 Hooper, 26 hope, 23 horn, 20,22 hornet, 51 horrible, 20,22,46 horrid, 20 horror, 20 horse, 20,22,66 horses, 51, 66 hose, 23 hosiery, 46 hospital, 19,49 host, 23 hot, 16

hound, 30 hour, 64 house, 30 houses, 51 hovel, 19,48 hover, 26 how, 30 howdy, 30 howl, 30 huddle, 26,69 human, 48 humanity, 40 humble, 54,56,69 humidity, 40 humility, 40 humor, 54,56 humorous, 42,43,48 hunches, 51 hundred, 26,53,56,57,68 hungry, 26, 27 hurricane, 48,4g hurried, 51 hurt, 27,66 hurtle, 69 hurry, 66 husband, 48 hussy, 26,74 hydrant, 48 hypocrite, 51 hysterical, 39,46,48 I 1,40 I'd, 29 idea, 40 ideal, 40 identical, 40 identify, 40 idiom, 45,48 idiomatic, 40 idiot, 45,48 if, 40 ignoramus, 40,4a, 48 ignorance, 50 ignorant, 42,43,48,50 I'll, 29 illiterate, 40 illogical, 40 illuminate, 39,44 I'm, 16, 29 image, 51 imaginary, 39,43,44

imagine, 48 imbecile, 44,48 imitate, 44 immature, 42 immediate, 45,48 immediately, 39,45,72 immunization, 47 impatience, 40, 73 imperative, 42,52 impertinence, 44,48 importance, 50 important, 50 impose, 40 impotence, 42,48 impotent, 48 impressive, 52 improve, 40 improvement, 50 impulsive, 52 inability, 40 inattentive, 40 incandescent, 50 incentive, 40,52 incident, 44,48 inclination, 45 indebted, 51 indecent, 40 Indian, 45, 72 indignant, 48 individual, 46,48 indolence, 42,48 indulgence, 48 ineffective, 40 infant, 48 infidel, 45 infinite, 45,51 inform, 40 initial, 45,48 ink, 9 insanity, 40 inspector, 40 instead, 1 1 institute, 54 insurance, 40,68, 73 intelligence, 45,46,48 intelligent, 40 interest, 44, 52 interpretation, 45 interrogate, 42 intimacy, 42 in these days, 61 intricacy, 52

SPEECH introduce, 42,43,68 introduction, 42,43 invariable, 46 invention, 40 investigate, 45,46 inwards, 58 Irish, 66 iron, 29 ironical, 40 irony, 42 irreligious, 40,46 irresponsible, 46 irritate, 46 isolation, 39 it, 62 it ain't, 40 Italian, 39,40 itinerant, 40 itinerary, 40 jack,13 jag,13 jail, 10 jam, 13 Jamaica, 34 jangle, 13 japalac, 13 Japan,34 jar, 18 jasmine, 13 jaw, 20, 21 jay, 10 jazz, 13 jeer, 8 jello, 49 jerk,27 jet, 11 jewel, 48 jig, 8 job,17 John, 18 join, 31 joined, 58 joint, 31 joist, 31 joke, 23 jolly, 17 Jones, 23 journey, 27 jovial, 23 joy, 31 judicial, 41

J

OF EAST

jug, 26 jumble, 26,54, 69 June nineteenth, 44 junior, 5 1 , 5 4 just, 26, 27,59 K keg, 1 1 kept, 59 kid, 8 kidney, 52 killed, 73 kill him, 70 kill the rascal, 70 kimono, 39,47 kin, 8 kind, 29 kindle, 56 kindling, 56 kind of, 69 king, 9 kitchen, 52 knack, 13 knob, 17 knowledge, 51 Kraft, 14 L label, 10 labor, 10, 54,64 laborer, 43, 54 laborious, 34,45,48 lack, 13 lad,13 lag. 13 lagoon, 34 lake, 69 lamb, 13 lamp, 14 lament, 34 land, 13, 58 landlord, 56 lank, 69 lap,13 lapel, 34 lard, 64 large, 18 lark,18 lash,13 last, 14, 55,59 lastly, 57 lather, 54 Latin, 49

TEXAS laud, 20 laugh, 14 laughed, 59 laughing, 52 laundry, 20 Laura, 20, 22 lavoratory, 13 law, 20 lawn, 20 laxative, 13 lay, 28 learned,73 leave, 69 leg, 1 1 lemon, 12,48 lengths, 57 lenient, 45 let, 1 1 lethal, 49 let him alone, 70 let me, 57 lettuce, 52 let us, 57 level, 48 lewd, 32 libel, 48 liberal, 44,48 license, 50 licorice, 43,52,74 lid, 8 lift, 59 lifting, 53 limb, 8 limber, 69 limit, 51 lined, 58 lineman, 48 linger, 69 link, 9 liquor, 54 lizard, 54 loam, 23 lob-lolly, 17 locomotive, 42 loft, 20,22 log, 17 logical, 48 loin, 31 Lola, 47 long, 20 look,69 lope, 23

128

AMERICAN

lord, so, 22 lore, 24 lost, 20 lot, 16 loud, 30 louse, 30 low, 23 lucidity, 41 luck,69 Luke, 32 lunacy, 42,52 lunatic, 42 lure, 25 lurk,27 lute, 32

matter, 13 mattock, 48 mattress, 52 Maud, 21 Maude, 20 maul, 20 may, 10 meal, 7 measure, 54 mechanic, 52 medal, 4g medicine, 46,49 medium, 45,48 melon, 48 melt, 71 menial, 45,48 mere, 8 met, 11 metal, 49 Methodist, 59 Mexican, 46 mighty nigh, 44 milk, 8,70 million, 45,48 mind, 29 Mineola, 47 minimum, 45,48 minor, 54 Minorca, 47 minus, 48 minute, 52 miracle, 42,43 miserable, 44,68 Missouri, 51 mix, 9 moan, 23 mob, 17 mock, 17 modest, 52 molasses, 37, 38,51 Mollie, 17 momentary, 43,46 Monday, 52 money, 26 monkey, 26 months, 61 mood, 26 moon, 26 mope, 23 moral, 20, 22,48 more, 24 more applejack, 67 Morgan, 48,49

M ma, 20 Mabel, 10 machine, 34 Mack, 13 mad, 13 madam, 48 mad-dog, 57 Madge, 13 magician, 34,45,48 magnificent, 35,45,50 magnolia, 35,45,47 mahogany, 34 mail, 10,69 majestic, 34,52 majority, 20,22,34,46 make, 10 male, 10 Mallory, 43 mama, 17,47,48 mammal, 48 Mammon, 48 man, 13 manage, 51 mangle, 13 manufacture, 47,54 map, 13 marble, 18 Marjorie, 43 mark, 18 market, 51 married, 51,53 marry, 15,65,66 marvelous, 48 mash, 13 master, 13,67 mat, 13 mate, 10

SPEECH Morris, 19 mortal, 49 mortar, 64 mosquito, 37,38,47,49 moss, 20,21 most, 23 mostly, 57 moth, 20 mother and father, 67 motive, 52 mould, 23 mound, 30 mount, 30 mountain, 30 mourn, 24 mouse, 30 mow, 23 Moze, 23 Mr., 67 Mrs., 74 mud, 26 muddle, 69 muffin, 52 mug, 26 mulatto, 41,47,49 mulberry, 26 mule, 32 mumble, 26 mumble-peg, 56 murder, 54,66 murmur, 54 muscular, 47,54 musician, 40,45,48 must, 59 muzzle, 69 my, 29,40 Myrtle, 69 myself, 70 mystery, 44 N nab, 13 nag, 13 nail, 10 naked, 11,51,53 name, 10 Nan, 13 nap,13 naphtha, 73 narrative, 42,52 nasty, 14 nation, 10,46,48 national, 49 nativity, 34

SPEECH OF EAST TEXAS natural, 68 naturally, 47 naughty, 20 naval, 48 navel, 48, 73 Neal, 7 near, 8 near a lane, 67 nearly, 8,66 necessary, 43,46 necessities, 35 neck,11 necklace, 52 negation, 35 negative, 52 negligence, 45,50 Negro, 7,49,68 neighbor, 10, 54 neither, 54 nephew, 73 nesting, 53 net, 1 1 neutral, 48 new, 25,32 nice, 16,29 nicotine, 42,53 nimble, 8 no, 24 noble, 23 noise, 31 no'm, 23 nomination, 38,45,46 nook, 24 Nora, 24 Norman, 20,21 north, 20,22 nose, 23 not, 16 notable, 42 notation, 38 note, 23 notion, 23 notorious, 45,48 novel, 19,48 novice, 52 now, 30 nude, 32 numeral, 48 nuptial, 45,48 nurse, 27,66 nutmeg, 1 1 O oasis, 38

obedient, 38,45 obey, 38 obituary, 38 object, 38,59 objective, 38 obligation, 38 oblige, 29,38 obliterate, 38 oblivion, 38 obnoxious, 38 obscene, 38 obscure, 38 observant, 38 occasion, 38 occur, 37 occurrence, 37 ocean,73 off, 20 offend, 37 officer, 46,54 official, 38,45,48 officiate, 73 often, 20 oil, 31 okra, 47,48 Ola, 47 olfactory, 38 omission, 38 omniscient, 38 once, 62 onion, 27,45,48,50 on this road, 61 opal, 48 open,50 opera, 47 operation, 38 opinion, 38,45,48 opponent, 37 opportunity, 38 oppose, 37 opposition, 38 oppress, 38 Ora, 47 orange, 19,20,43 orate, 38 oration, 38 order, 20 organ, 48,49 organization, 42,43 organize, 42,43 oriental, 49 original, 38 Orris, 19

Osa, 47,48 oscillation, 38 osculation, 38 ostensible, 38 other, 67 our, 30 ours, 74 out, 30 outlandish, 39 outrageous, 39 ovation, 38 oven,59 overalls, 62 overbearing, 38 overwhelm, 38 owl, 30 oxidation, 38 oxygen, 45,52 P pa, 20,22 Pacific, 52 pack, 13 pad, 13 paddock, 48 pagan,48 page, 10 pail, 10 pain, 10 pair, 15 pal, 13 palace, 52 palate, 51 pale, 10 pallet, 51 palm, 19,70 pan, 13 panther, 73 papa, 17,47,48 paper, 10,64 parable, 42 parade, 34 parasol, 42 parent, 15,50 parentage, 46,51 parental, 34,49 park, 18 Parker, 18 parking, 52 parrot, 1 5 , 4 8 , 5 1 parson, 66 parsonage, 4 2 , 4 3 , 5 1 part, 18

AMERICAN particular, 35,47,54, 68 partner, 72 pass, 14 passable, 4a passion, 13,46,48 past, 14 pasture, 54 path, 14 paths, 57 patient, 45,48 patter, 13 Paul, 20 pauper, 20 pavilion, 45 pay, 10 pay-roll, 10 peaceable, 43 peaches, 51 peck, 1 1 pecking, 52,53 peculiar, 35,45 pedal, 49 pedant, 50 peel, 7 peer, 8 peg, n pen, 12 penal, 49 penance, 48 pendant, 48 penman, 48 pennant, 48 peppermint, 44, 50 perceive, 37 percolate, 42 perdition, 37 perfect, 59 perfectly, 57 perform, 37 performance, 48 peril, 48 perishable, 46 perk,27 permit, 8, 37 peroxide, 35, 36 persecute, 46,54 persimmon, 37 persist, 37 persistence, 50 person, 27 perspiration, 37, 44,68 petroleum, 36 phantom, 48

SPEECH

phlegm, l i 'phone, 23 physical, 48 physician, 45/48 piano, 47,49 picket, 51 picture, 54 pieces, 51 pig, 8 pigeon, 46,48 pincers, 74 pirate, 51 pitiful, 45,48 pittance, 50 place,10 plant, 14 platinum, 44,48 pleasant, 50 pleasure, 54 plough, 30 plural, 48 poem, 49 poet, 5 1 , 5 2 point, 31 poison, 3 1 , 4 9 poke, 23 poker, 23 pole, 23,69 police, 37 Polly, 17 pond, 73 pone, 23 Ponta, 48 poor, 25 poorest, 59 Pope, 23 population, 47,58 populous, 47 pork, 24 porridge, 20 port, 24 portable, 42 portal, 49 portrait, 52 pose, 23 position, 46,48 positive, 44,52 possess, 37 possible, 46 post, 23 postman, 57 posture, 54 potato, 1 0 , 3 3 , 3 7 , 38,47,49

pour, 24 powder, 30 power, 30 practising, 46 prance, 14 prattle, 69 prayer, 15 precipice, 46,52 predicament, 36,50 prefer, 36 preparation, 37 prepare, 36 prescribe, 36 prescription, 36 present, 36 president, 50 presume, 36 pretend, 36 pretentious, 46,48 pretty, 52,68 prevent, 36 principal, 46,48 principle, 46 privacy, 42 privilege, 46,51 prizes, 51 probable, 17,42,43 probation, 38 procedure, 54 proceed,38 procession, 38 procure, 38 produce, 38,68 production, 38 profession, 38 profuse, 38 program, 23 progress, 38 prohibit, 38 promise, 52 promote, 38 pronounce, 38 pronunciation, 73 proof, 26 property, 68 proposal, 23,49 propose, 38 prose, 23 prosecute, 54 prostitute, 54 protect, 38,68 protest, 38, 68 protracted, 38,51

SPEECH OF EAST TEXAS proud, 30 provoke, 38,68 prowl, 30 psalm, 19 publicity, 41 pugnacious, 41 pulsation, 41 pumpkin, 61 puncture, 54 punishment, 50 pure, 32 purification, 40 purring, 52,53 purse, 27 pursuit, 41 push, 24 put, 25 Q qualify, 19 quality, 19 quandary, 19 quantity, 19 quarantine, 53 quarrel, 19,49 queer, 8 question, 73 quinine, 29,53 quirt, 27 quote, 23 quotient, 45,48 p K rabbit, 1 3 , 5 1 raccoon, 34 race,10 rack,13 racket, 51 radiator, 45,54 radish, 15 raffle, 13 rag, 13 rage, 10 rail, 10 raisin, 50 Ralph, 70 ram, 13 ran,13 rang, 13 rank, 13 ransom, 48 rap,13 rapture, 54

rare, 15 rarity, 15 rascal, 13 rash, 13 rasp,14 raspberry, 13 rat, 13 rather, 13,54,67 ration, 13 raucous, 20 rave, 10 raw, 20 ray,10 razz, 13 real, 7,48 reasonable, 42,43 rebellious, 36 rebuke, 36 receipt, 36 receive, 36 recess, 35, 37 recite, 36 reckon,11,50 reckoned,73 recollect, 59 Reddin, 49 reduce, 36 refuse, 36 regard,18,36 region, 46,48 regret, 36 regular, 47,54,58 regulate, 47 rehearse, 36 reject, 36 relax, 36 relent, 36 relic, 52,53 relics, 1 2 , 5 3 religion, 46,48 remember, 36 remit, 36 remnant, 48 remove, 36 renew, 36 renown, 30 repeat, 36 repent, 36 repentance, 50 repetition, 37 report, 24 repose, 36 represent, 37

representative, 42, 43,45, 57, 68 repress, 36 reptile, 48 reputation, 47,58 requisite, 51 resin, 74 resolve, 36 resort, 20,22 respect, 36 respond, 36 responsible, 36,46 restaurant, 42,43,48 restore, 37 restrict, 36 resume, 36 retard, 36 retort, 22 retract, 36 return, 36 revenge, 36 revert, 36 reward, 36 rib, 8,63 ribald, 48 ribbon, 8 richest, 59 rid, 8 ridden, 4g right, 29 ring. 9 rink, 9 rinse, 74 ripple, 54,69 road,23 roam, 23 roar, 24 roast, 23,59 roast beef, 57 roasting ears, 57 rob,17 robe, 23 robin, 52 rock,16 rod, 17 rode, 23 rogue, 23 roil, 32 roll, 23 roll the ball, 61 romantic, 38, 52 romp, 17, 20, 21 rood,26

132 roof, 26 roofed, 59 rook,24 room, 26 rooster, 26 root, 26 rope, 23 rose, 23 rosin, 20 rot, 16 rotation, 38 rotten, 49 rough, 26 round, 30 route, 26,30 rove, 23 row, 23 rowdy, 30 Roy, 31 rub, 26 rubbing, 52, 53 rude, 32 ruffle, 54,69 rule, 32 running, 5 2 , 5 3 rupture, 54 ruse, 32 rustic, 52 rut, 26 S sack,13 sacrifice, 45,53 sad, 13 sag,13 sagacity, 34 said, 12 sail, 10 sake, to sale,10 Saline, 34 Sally, 13 salmon, 19,48 salute, 34 salve, 14, 70 Sam, 13 sand, 1 3 , 5 8 sandpile, 56 sang, 13 sank, 13 sap,13 sash, 13 sassafras, 43 sat, 13

AMERICAN

SPEECH

Saturday,47,57 sausage, 20 sauce, 20,22 saucy, 20,22 save, 10 saving, 52 saw, 20 sawing, 52 say,10 scallop, 48 scamp, 14 scandal, 56,57 scandalous, 48,56,57 scare, 1 5 , 1 6 scare, 1 5 , 1 6 , 6 8 scent, 12 scissors, 54 scoundrel, 56,57 scout, 30 scramble, 69 scraping, 52 scrawl, 20 seal, 7 seasonable, 42,43 second, 73 secretary, 45 secure, 36 security, 36 seduce, 36 seem, 7 select, 36 selection, 36 self, 70 sell, 12 senate, 51 senior, 51, 54 sensation, 37 sent, 12 sentence, 50 separate, 42,43 serene, 36 service, 52 serving, 5 2 , 5 3 set, 1 1 searches, 51 several, 44 seven, 50,59 severe, 36 severity, 36 shaft, 14 shallow, 47,4g share, 15 shawl, 20,22

shears, 8 shelf, 70 sherbet, 27 sheriff, 52 shift, 59 shifting, 53 shinola, 47 shirk, 27 shirt, 27 shoddy, 17 shook, 25 shorten, 49 shovel, 26,48 shuffle, 54,69 shut, 27 sift, 59 sifting, 53 sight, 16 significance, 46 silk, 8,70 silver, 8 sin, 8 sing, 9 sink, 9 sir, 27,28,66 siren, 52 sister, 67 sit, 8 situation, 6i skilled, 8 skillet, 51 skin, 8 slant, 14 slate, 10 sling, 9 slip, 70 slobber, 70 smallpox, 16 smelled, 73 smelt, 71 snooping, 52 snout, 30 soak,23 soap,23 soar, 24 sob,17 sock,16 sod, 17 soda, 47, 48 sofa, 23,47,48 soft, 20, 22 soggy, 17 soil, 31

SPEECH sold, 73 solder, 70 soldier, 23 sole, 23 solemn, 48 solicit, 38 solid, 52 solvent, 48 some of them, 59 song, 20 sonnet, 51 soon, 25,26 soot, 26 sop,16 soprano, 37,47,49 sore, 24 sorrel, 20,22 sorrow, 20 sorry, 20,66 sort, 20,22 sort of, 69 sot, 16 sought, 20 soul, 23 sound, 30,58 sour, 30,61 souse, 30 sow, 30 spare, 15 sparrow, 47, 49,66 spinach, 51 spinal, 49 spiral, 48 spoil, 31 spook, 26 spoon, 26 sport, 24 sprawl, 20,22 spring, 9 spurn, 27 squab, 19 squabble, 19 squall, 20,22 squander, 19 square, 15 squash, 19 squat, 19 squawk, 20 squirrel, 28, 49 squirt, 27 stab,13 stable, 10 stages, 51

OF EAST

stair, 15 stallion, 45 stand, 58 star, 18 stare,15 stare at, 67 statement, 50 station, to statue, 51 stays, 10 steak, 10 Stella, 47 sterile, 48 sterilize, 46 sting, 9 stink, g stirrup, 28,48,51 stomach, 48,50 stone, 23 stood, 25 storage, 51 storm, 20,22 story, 24 straw, 20 strictly, 57 string, 9 strong, 20 struggle, 26 succeed, 41 such,27 sudden, 26,49 sugar, 73 suggestion, 73 suit, 25,32 sulk,70 superb, 41 superior, 41 supple, 69 supply, 41 support, 41 suppose, 41 suppress, 41 supreme, 41 sure, 25,73 surmise, 41 surprised, 68 surrender, 41 surround, 41 surrounded, 41 survey, 41 surveyor, 41 survive, 41 suspend,41

TEXAS

133 swallow, 19 swamp, 19 swan, 19 swap, 19 swoggle, 19 sword, 24 syphilis, 46 syrup, 28,48,51 T tabby, 13 table, 10,69 tacky, 13 tadpole, 13 taffy, 13 tag, 13 tail, 10 take, 10 talk, 20,70 tale, 10 tall, 20,22 tamale, 34 tan,13 tang, 13 tank, 13 tap,13 tape, 10 tar, 18 tar and feather, 65 tarantula, 34 target, 51 taught, 20,21 taunt, 20 taut, 20 taw, 20 Taylor, 64 team, 7 tear, 8 , 1 5 tedious, 72 tedium, 45,48 telephone, 45 tell, 12 temperament, 42,43,44,50 temperance, 44 ten, 12 tenant, 48 tender, 12 tension, 46,48 term, 27 terrapin,13 terrible, 13,46,66 territory, 46 tether, 1 1

134 Texarkana, 47 Texas, 52,53,74 thank, 13 that, 13,35,55 thaw, 20,22 theirs, 74 then, 12,56 there, »5,16,55 these, 55 they, 10 thimble, 8 thing, 9 think, 9 third, 27 thirsty, 27 thirteen, 27 thirty, 27 this, 55 thistle, 69 though, 55 throat, 63,68 throng, 20 through, 63,68 throw, 63,68 thunder, 54 thundered, 56,57 ticket, 51 tin, 8 tingle, 9 tinkle, 9 tipple, 54,69 tire, 29 tired, 29 toad,23 toast, 23 tobacco, 37,38,47,49 today, 10 toddy, 17 together, 37,67 togs, 17 toil, 31 told,23 tolerable, 17 tolerably, 44 tomato, 10,37,47,49 tomorrow, 47,49,66 tone, 23 took, 25 top, 16 toper, 23 tore, 24 torment, 20,21,50 torn,24

AMERICAN

SPEECH

toss, 20 tote, 23 touch,27 tousle, 30 tow, 23 toward, 66 towards, 24,58 towel, 48 tower, 30 town, 30 toy, 31 trace, 10 tract, 59 trade, 10 tradition, 34 train,10 traipse, 10 transgressor, 35 transient, 45 translation, 35 transportation, 35 trapeze, 34 trawl, 20 treasure, 54 tremble, 12 tremendous, 36 trench,12 trim, 8 trouble, 54,69 trough, 20, 22 truck, 26 tub, 26 tube, 25,32 tubing, 52 Tuesday, 25,32,52,72 tumble, 26,54,69 tune, 25,32, 72 turn, 27,66 turnip, 27,48,50 turpentine, 44,53 turtle, 69 tusk,61 tusks, 61 twice, 62

U udder, 67 ulterior, 41 umbrella, 41 unable, 41 unanimous, 40 unbalanced, 41 un-called-for, 41 uncertain, 41

uncharitable, 41 uncommon, 41 unconscious, 41 uncover, 41 understand, 41 undertake, 41 uneasy, 41 uneven, 41 unfaithful, 41 ungrateful, 41 unheal thful, 41 union, 32,45 unless, 41 unlikely, 41 unnatural, 41 unsettle, 41 unusual, 41 uphold, 41 urbanity, 41 uremia, 40 urethra, 40 usage, 51 use, 32 usual, 46,48 utensil, 40 utility, 40 Uvalde, 40

v vacation, 10, 34 vaccine, 53 valiant, 45 valid, 52 validity, 34 valise, 34 valve, 70 vampire, 13 vanilla, 34 vanish, 52 varnish, 52 vase, 10 vaseline, 53 vast, 14 vat, 13 veal, 7 velocity, 36 venom, 48 veranda, 36 vermin, 61 very, 65,66,74 vesture, 54 veterinary, 11 Vienna, 48

SPEECH view, 32 Viola, 47 violet, 42,43 violin, 42,43 Virginia, 40,45,47 virginity, 40 virile, 48, virility, 39,40 virtue, 51 vision, 46 voice, 31 vow, 30 vowel, 30,48 W wabble, 19 wag, 13 wage, 10 wagon, 48, 50 wail, 10 waistline, 57 wait, 10 waiter, 10 wake, 10 Waldo, 49 walk, 20, 21, 22, 70 wall, 20, 22 wallop, 48 Wallace, 52 walnut, 71 wand, 19 want, 19 wanted, 51 war, 19, 20, 22 warden, 20,22,49 warrant, 50 was, 19, 35 Washington, 19 wasn't, 1 9 , 6 i wasp, 19 watch, 19 water, ig, 64, 67, 74 wave, 10

OF EAST

way, 28 ways, 10 wealthiest, 46, 59 weather, 67 web, 12 wedding, 53 Wednesday, 52 weekly, 52 well, 12 welcome, 48 well ma'am, 54 were afraid, 67 wet, 1 1 wetting, 53 what, 35, 71 wheelbarrow, 47,4g when, 71 whence, 71 when they come, 61 where, 1 5 , 1 6 , 71 whether, 67 which, 71 whip, 9 whirl, 27 whistle, 69 white, 71 who, 71 whole, 23, 71 whore, 24,71 why, 71 wicked, 51 wide, 2g widow, 47,4g willow, 47 wind, 29 window, 47,49 wing, 9 wire, 29,66 wired, 29 wisdom, 48 wish, g wishes, 51

TEXAS

135 wish that, 57 with, 73 without, 40 wizard, 54 wonder, 67 woodman, 48 word, 27 work, 27,66 workman, 48 worm, 27,66 worry, 27 worrying, 46 worse, 66 worth, 27 wound, 30 wrangle, 13 wrap,13 wrench, 12 wrestle, 12 wretched, 51 wrong, 20, 21 wrought, 20 Y yawn, 20, 22 yearn,27 yelk, 70 yellow, 47, 49 yes, 1 1 yes ma'am, 54 yesterday, 12, 52, 53,68 yet, 1 1 yolk, 70 yonder, 18 you, 41 young-ones, 58 your, 25,41 yours, 74 yourself, 68 Z zeal, 7 zero, 49

VITA Oma Stanley, son of Lon William and Mollie Stanley, was born in Tyler, Texas, on December 5, 1897. He attended grammar and high school in Tyler. In 1922 he entered the University of Texas, where he received his B.A. in 1926. During his junior and senior years there he was an assistant in English, and in his senior year he was elected to membership in Phi Beta Kappa. He was a tutor in French at the University in the summer of 1926. He held a scholarship at Harvard University for 1926-27, and received his M.A. there in 1928. He returned to the University of Texas as instructor in English in 1927. In 1928 he came to Washington Square College, New York University. He joined the faculty of University College, New York University, in 1930. He completed his graduate study at Columbia University.