The socio-educational significance of the revival of interest in the works of Juan Luis Vives

Citation preview

THE SOCIO-EDUCATIOML SIGNIFICANCE OF THE REVIVAL OF INTEREST IN THE WORKS OF JUAN LUIS VIVES

A D iss e r ta tio n P r e s e n t e d to th e F a c u lt y o f t h e S c h o o l o f E d u c a tio n U n iv e r s it y o f S ou th ern C a lifo r n ia

In P a r t ia l F u lfillm e n t o f t h e R e q u ir e m e n t s f o r t h e D e g r e e D octor o f P h ilo s o p h y

by Mary F l o r e n c e M ecred y Jun e 1 9 4 2

UMI Number: DP23464

All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.

Dissertation Publishing

UMI DP23464 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code

ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346

This dissertation, writ ten by

Haiy H orence Mecredy under the gui dance of h§¥... F acu lty C o m m it te e on St u die s, a n d a p p r o v e d by all its members, has been pr es e nt e d to and ac ce pte d by the Council on G rad ua te S t u d y and Research, in p a r ti a l f u l ­ fillment of requirements fo r the degre e of D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y

Secretary

April 10, 19^2

C om m ittee on Studies

Chairman

TABLE OF CONTESTS CHAPTER I.

PAGE THE POINT OF VIEW AND THE P R O B L E M ..........................

1

I n t r o d u c t i o n .............................................................................

1

The p r o b le m

5

.

.....................................................

Im p ortan ce o f th e

. .

s t u d y ..............................................

6

. •

.8

....................................

13

R e la te d l i t e r a t u r e

II.

S c o p e o f t h e p r o b le m . .

. .

Source m a te r ia ls ♦ .

.....................................

.

• •

14

M ethod o f t r e a t m e n t ........................................................

25

O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e s t u d y .........................................

27

VIVES* BOYHOOD IN VALENCIA ( 1 4 9 2 - 1 5 0 9 ) In tr o d u c tio n

. . . .

31

.............................................................................

V iv es* S p a n is h h e r i t a g e

.

31

.

33

S p a i n a s a Roman p r o v i n c e ....................................

35

S p a i n a s a G o t h i c t h e o c r a c y ...............................

36

S p a i n a s a c e n t e r o f M oslem c u l t u r e

. . .

37

C h r i s t i a n c r u s a d e s a g a i n s t t h e M oors . . .

38

R e g i o n a l c u l t u r e i n S p a i n ....................................

38

N a t i o n a l u n i t y u n d e r F e r d in a n d and I s a b e l l a ............................................................................. V iv es* f a m ily background . . . .

..........................

39 40

V iv e s * h o m e ..............................

42

V a l e n c i a n s e t t i n g ........................................

44

iii CHAPTER

III.

PAGE The U n i v e r s i t y o f V a l e n c i a .........................................

48

The New L e a r n i n g i n S p a i n .........................................

50

Summary o f c h a p t e r .

55

.

. ..............................................

STUDENT DATS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS 1509 -1 5 1 4

57

I n tr o d u c tio n . .

.........................................................

57

F r e n c h h u m a n i s m ...................................................................

59

S c h o l a s t i c i s m ........................................................................

61

The U n i v e r s i t y o f P a r i s

.........................................

64

....................................

64

V iv es*

. .

.

stu d en t l i f e

B a z o c h e and E n f a n s S a n s S o u c i ........................ V i v e s d e b u t a s an a u t h o r

IV .

68

...............................

70

V i v e s d e p a r t u r e f o r F l a n d e r s ....................................

72

VIVES IN FLANDERS ( 1 5 1 4 - 1 5 4 0 ) In tr o d u c tio n

. .

74

........................................

C o n tem p o ra r y e v e n t s

74

........................................................

75

The N o r t h e r n R e n a i s s a n c e ..............................................

76

B r e t h r e n o f t h e Common L i f e ....................................

79

U n i v e r s i t y o f L o u v a in

.

...................................

V iv e s break w ith s c h o la s t ic is m Bruges

.........................

........................................................................

E n g lish e x p e r ie n c e s

• . • • • . . . • • • .

R etu rn to F la n d e r s • « . • • • S u m m a r y .............................................

...............................

80 82 86 87 90 91

lv CHAPTER V.

PAGE

THE SOCIAL BACKGROUND OF VIVES1

TIMES . . .

*

I n t r o d u c t i o n .................................................................. . C h r o n o lo g ic a l o r i e n t a t i o n

97

.........................................

98

The R e n a i s s a n c e .......................................................... S o c ia l

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e R e n a issa n c e .

101 .

S o c i a l i l l s .................................................................... Summary V I.

102 104

..................................................................................

SURVEY OF VIVES1 SOCIOLOGICAL W O R K S ............ D e fin itio n s

105 107

........................................................

107

V i v e s 1 w r i t i n g s ..........................................

110 .....................

S o c io lo g y

W a r .................................................................................... P o v erty V II.

............................................................

SURVEY OF VIVES1 EDUCATIONAL ??0RKS . . . . . . In tr o d u c tio n

........................................

113 113 119 128 128

P h i l o s o p h y .............................................

12 9

P s y c h o l o g y .........................

132

H i s t o r y ............................................................. ..........................

137

M e t h o d o l o g y ................................... • • • • • • •

144

M oral e d u c a t i o n

150

....................................

Summary o f C h a p t e r V I and V I I V III.

97

.

....................

SOCIAL AND EDUCATIONAL REFORMS. . . . . . . . I n tr o d u c tio n D e fin itio n s

184 1 89 1 89

•

..............................

189

CHAPTER

PAGE Y iv e s1 d e d ic a tio n s

....................................

. .

The r o l e o f t h e p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h e r

.

192

. .

193

.

194

. • .

198

The k e y n o t e o f Y i v e s 1 s o c i o l o g i c a l r e f o r m s .

201

W a r ........................................

203

P o v e r t y .........................

206

L a w ..................................................................................................

211

E d u c a t i o n .............................................

2 15

The r e l a t i o n s o f p r i n c e and p h i l o s o p h e r The r e l a t i o n o f p r i n c e and p o p u l a c e

S ix t e e n t h cen tu ry decadence

. . . . . . .

The h i s t o r i c a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f e d u c a t i o n

215

. .

216

O r i g i n o f k n o w l e d g e ....................................................

216

The n a t u r e o f m a n .........................................................

217

The S e v e n L i b e r a l A r t s

219

. . . . . . . . .

E d u c a t i o n f o r t h e new a g e

....................................

220

.......................................

220

The s c i e n c e o f e d u c a t i o n ..............................................

225

L a n g u a g e — t h e medium o f c o m m u n ic a tio n

232

The new p h i l o s o p h y .

.

.

. . .

T he v e r n a c u l a r ...................................................................

233

L a tin

.

234

O th e r l a n g u a g e s ..............................................................

235

.

......................................................................

E d u c a t i o n a l g o a l s ................................................ •... . Summary

........................................................

.

235 238

vi CHAPTER

PA&E

IX .

243

VIVES* PLACE IN EDUCATIONAL H I S T O R Y ..................... In tr o d u c tio n

.......................................................

Id e o lo g y o f today

• • • •

The S e c o n d R e n a i s s a n c e

• • • •

243

• • • * •

.

T w e n tie th c e n tu r y decad en ce G o a l s o f t h e new a g e

.

244

...............................

248

..............................

T r a n s itio n epochs V iv e s *

244

.

25 1

;

254

r e p u t a t i o n ..............................

257

The t r i u m v i r a t e o f l e t t e r s ....................................

258

V i v e s : The " S e c o n d Q u i n t i l i a n "

261

The "W ay-B reaker"

. . . . .

...................................................

262

The e d u c a t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f V i v e s * reappearance in lit e r a t u r e

. . .

S u m m a r y ................................................................................ .. X.

265 •

274

.....................................

276

S u m m a r y .......................................................................................

2 76

C o n c l u s i o n s .............................................................................

290

F u t u r e r e s e a r c h ........................................

299

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

BIBLIOGRAPHY V i v e s ’ Works i n t h e O r i g i n a l ............................................. 301 V iv e s * Works i n T r a n s l a t i o n O ther

....................

301

..................................................................................

304

CHAPTER I THE POINT OF VIEW AND THE PROBLEM INTRODUCTION T h is stu d y h a s a s i t s in c e p t io n a c h a lle n g in g s t a t e ­ m ent made by Michaud**- t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t t h e h o n o r o f s p o n s o r i n g t h e i d e a s o f R e a l i s m , h y g i e n e , and p h y s i c a l t r a in in g as d e s ir a b le e d u c a tio n a l g o a ls b e lo n g s not to R a b e la is , a s h a s b een th o u g h t, bu t to Juan L u is V iv e s . C e r t a i n q u e s t i o n s n a t u r a l l y come t o m ind i n r e s p o n s e t o th is

s t a r t l i n g c l a i m s u c h a s , "Who w a s V i v e s ?

w r ite ?

What w as h i s m e s s a g e ?

h i s t o r y o f ed u ca tio n ? textb ook s?

What d i d h e

What p l a c e h a s h e i n t h e

Why i s h e o m i t t e d fr o m t h e u s u a l

What h a s b r o u g h t him b a c k t o p u b l i c n o t i c e ? *

T hat V iv e s h a s b een b ro u g h t back t o p u b l i c n o t i c e c a n n o t be d e n i e d . s p a c e t o h im ,

I b y and A rrow ood d e v o t e c o n s i d e r a b l e

c l a s s i f y i n g him n o t m e r e l y a s a p r o p h e t o f

R e a l i s m , b u t a l s o a s t h e f i r s t g r e a t m odern s t u d e n t o f e d u c a tio n a l t h e o r y .2

T h ey c o n s i d e r V i v e s t h e m o st

1 G. L . M ic h a u d , " L u is V i v e s and R a b e l a i s ’ P e d a g o g y ," P u b l i c a t i o n s o f Modern L a n g u a g e A s s o c i a t i o n , 3 8 : 4 1 9 - 2 4 , June, 1923. 2

F r e d e r i c k Eby and C h a r l e s F ly n n A r r o w o o d , The D e v e lo p m e n t o f Modern E d u c a t i o n (New Y ork : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1 9 2 3 ) , p . 2(51.

2 d e m o c r a t i c and h u m a n i t a r i a n o f t h e g r e a t H u m a n i s t s . 5 T w en ty C e n t u r i e s o f E d u c a t i o n , p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 4 0 , s t a r t s its

fir st

c h a p t e r w i t h an e x c e r p t o n t h e v a l u e o f h i s t o r i c a l

p e r s p e c t i v e t a k e n a l m o s t v e r b a t i m fro m t h e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a ­ t i o n o f V i v e s * De T r a d e n d i s D i s c i p l i n i s . 4

Lynn T h o r n d i k e ’ s

a r t i c l e J u a n L u i s V i v e s : H is A t t i t u d e t o L e a r n i n g and to L i f e , s u g g e s t s t h a t V i v e s d id n o t b e l o n g t o t h e c l a s s o f t h o s e who " f l a t t e r e d p r i n c e s and t o a d i e d t o p a t r o n s ” b u t t h a t he w as, in t h i s r e s p e c t ,

s u p e r i o r t o E r a sm u s .

T h o rn ­

d i k e s a y s , i n c o n c l u s i o n , t h a t V i v e s had t h e i m p a r t i a l i t y o f t h e t r u e s c h o l a r and sh ow ed t h e p o i s e o f a c i t i z e n o f t h e w o rld * 5 A n o t h e r p r o o f o f c o n te m p o r a r y i n t e r e s t i s

a b oo k

j u s t o f f t h e p r e s s , C a t h e r i n e o f A r a g o n , w h ic h g i v e s V i v e s f o o t i n g among t h e E n g l i s h H u m a n is t s . M a ttin g ly ,

The a u t h o r G a r r e t t

s a y s , i n p a r t , t h a t , d u r in g t h e y e a r s o f V iv es*

r e s i d e n c e i n E n g la n d , 1 5 2 3 - 1 5 2 8 , h i s w r i t i n g s and l e c t u r e s d i d much t o f i l l

t h e g a p s c a u s e d by t h e d e a t h s 6 f L i n a c r e

3 I b id ., p . 206. 4 E d g a r W a l l a c e K n i g h t , T w en ty C e n t u r i e s o f l o c a ­ ( B o s t o n : G in n and Company, 1 9 4 0 ] , p . 3 . 5 Lynn T h o r n d i k e , ” Ju an L u i s V i v e s : H i s A t t i t u d e t o L e a r n i n g and t o L i f e , ” E s s a y s i n I n t e l l e c t u a l H i s t o r y (New Y ork: H a rp er B r o t h e r s , 1 9 2 9 ) , C h a p t e r V I I I , p . 3 4 2 . tio n

an d C o l e t . 6 S till

o th er in s ta n c e s o f a r e v iv a l o f in t e r e s t in

V i v e s a r e i n d i c a t e d by r e p r i n t s and t r a n s l a t i o n s o f h i s w o r k s i n E u rop e and by t h 6 i n c l u s i o n o f V iv e s * D i a l o g u e s i n R e a d * s B i b l i o g r a p h y o f t h e T udor P e r i o d .

E n g la n d , a s

a p a r t o f i t s p r e s e n t program o f t h e d i r e c t m eth od i n te a c h in g a n c ie n t la n g u a g es,

i s u s i n g V iv e s * L i n g u a e L a t i n a e

i x e r e i t a t i o , a t e x t r e p r i n t e d , w i t h m in o r c h a n g e s o n l y , fro m V iv e s * B a s l e e d i t i o n o f 1 5 3 9 . 7

The e d i t o r s , R o u se

and A ndrew , p u b l i s h e d t h i s b ook w i t h t h e h o p e ,

as th ey

s a i d , t h a t i t w o u ld p r o v e "an i n v a l u a b l e h e l p t o t h o s e who w ish to b r in g L a t in i n t o

r e l a t i o n w i t h b oys* own p u r s u i t s . "

q u i t e a t r i b u t e to V iv es* u n i v e r s a l i t y ,

c o n sid e r in g th e

D i a l o g u e s a r e o v e r f o u r h u n d re d y e a r s o l d ! S p a in h a s r e s t o r e d t h e D ia lo g u e s t o t h e i r form er p l a c e i n th e c u r r ic u lu m o f S p a n is h s c h o o l s . C r is to b a l C oret y P e r is*

In 1 9 2 8 , th e

t r a n s l a t i o n w as r e p r i n t e d w i t h

Q

n o t e s and c o r r e c t i o n s .

6 G a r r e t t M a t t i n g l y , C a t h e r i n e o f A rag on ( B o s t o n : L i t t l e , Brown and Company, 1 9 4 i ) , p . 1 8 4 . 7 W* H. D. R o u se and S . 0 . Andrew, e d i t o r s , L u d o v i c u s V i v e s * S c e n e s o f S c h o o l and C o l l e g e L i f e i n L a t i n D i a l o g u e s L V iv es L i n g u a e L a t i n a e E x e r c i t a t i o j ( O xf o r c T r d a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1 9 31). 8 C r i s t o b a l C o r e t y P e r i s , t r a n s l a t o r s , D i a l o g o s de J u a n L u i s V i v e s [V iv e s * L i n g u a e L a t i n a e E x e r c i t a t i o j (MacCrid: I m p r e n t a La R a f a , 1 9 2 8 ) . F orm er e d i t i o n s M a d r id : 1 7 9 2 , 1 8 1 7 , 1 919; V a le n c ia : 1 7 2 3 , 1 7 4 9 , 1 7 5 9 , 1 7 6 7 , 1 7 6 8 , 1 7 7 4 , 1 7 8 8 , 1 8 0 7 .

4 S im ila r honor h a s b een p a id V iv e s ’ g r e a t te x tb o o k o n e d u c a t i o n a l p h i l o s o p h y De T r a n d e n d i s D i s c i p l i n i s .

A

t r a n s l a t i o n f o r German s t u d e n t s o f e d u c a t i o n was p u b l i s h e d by E d e l b l u t h i n 1 9 1 2 a t r a n s l a t i o n f o r E n g l i s h s t u d e n t s w as p r e p a r e d by W atson i n 1 9 1 3

w h ile a S p a n ish t r a n s l a ­

t i o n w as made by O ntaifon i n 1 9 2 3 .* ^ V i v e s ’ t h e o r i e s on t h e e d u c a t i o n o f g i r l s , I n s t i t u t i o n e F e m in a e C h r i s t i a n a s , h a s a l s o b e e n t h e o b j e c t o f a tte n tio n .

E d e lb lu th 1 ^ t r a n s la t e d i t

i n t o German;

J u s t i a n o ’ s S p a n i s h t e x t w as r e p r i n t e d i n S p a i n , 1 3 and

9 T h . E d e l b l u t h , t r a n s l a t o r , Jo h a n n L u dw ig V i v e s ’ P & d a g o g is c h e H a u p ts c h r i f t e n : U b er d i e W i s s e n s c h a r t e n ( V i v e s * De T r a d e n d i s D i s c i p i i n i s i fP & d erb orn : F . S c h B n i g b , 1 9 1 2 ) • 10 F o s t e r W a t s o n , t r a n s l a t o r . V i v e s : On E d u c a t i o n {V ive s ’ De T r a d e n d i s D i s c i p i i n i s i (C a m b r id g e : The U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1913T I 11

^

J o s e O n ta n b n , t r a n s l a t o r , T r a ta d o d e l a g n s e n a n z a [ V i v e s ’ De T r a d e n d i s D i s c i p l i n i s ! (M a d rid : EcTfcTones d e l a L e c t u r a , “Tr92S) . I n t r o d u c t i o n by F o s t e r W a tso n .

12

T h. E d e l b l u t h , t r a n s l a t o r , J o h a n n L udw ig V i v e s ’ P & d a g o g is c h e H a u p t s c h r i f t e n : D i e E r z i e h u n g d e r C h r i s t I n ( V i v e s ’ De I n s t i t u t i o n e F e m in a e C h ri s t i a n a e l f P a d e r b o r n : F . ShdnigET, 1912} . 13

J u a n J u s t i a n o , t r a n s l a t o r , I n s t r u c t i o n de l a M u jer C h r i s t i a n a [ V iv e s * De I n s t i t u t i o n e F e m in a e c h r i s t T a n a e l (M ad rid : 1 9 3 6 ) . F i r s t e d i t io n , V a le n c ia : 1 6 2 6 .

5 F o s t e r W a tso n 1 4 e d i t e d and p u b l i s h e d i n E n g l i s h t h e 1 5 4 0 t r a n s l a t i o n o f R ic h a r d H y r d e ’ s ,

J . L. F iv e s : I n s t r u c t io n o f

a C h r i s t i a n Woman. S u c h i n s t a n c e s show t h a t F i v e s h a s d e f i n i t e l y r e a p p e a r e d on t o d a y ’ s w o r l d h o r i z o n .

F u r t h e r e x a m p le s o f

F i v e s 1 r e tu r n to n o t ic e w i l l be d is c u s s e d i n th e body o f th e d is s e r t a t io n .

It

s h o u l d b e e v i d e n t , h o w e v e r , fro m t h e

f e w r e f e r e n c e s c i t e d t h u s f a r t h a t an i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e life

and w o r k s o f F i v e s g i v e s p r o m i s e o f b e i n g b o t h

p r o f i t a b l e and t i m e l y * f o r m e r i c a n s t u d e n t s o f e d u c a t i o n . THE PROELM The p u r p o s e o f t h i s life

s t u d y was t o d i s c o v e r i n t h e

and w o r k s o f J u a n L u i s F i v e s t h e s o c i a l p r o b le m s o f t h e

t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d i n w h ic h h e l i v e d ; h i s r e a c t i o n s t o p r o b le m s; and, i n t h e l i g h t o f th e r e c e n t r e v i v a l in h i s w orks, to p o in t ou t th e p o s s ib le

such

of in te r e st

s ig n ific a n c e o f h is

th in k in g to p r e s e n t-d a y e d u c a tio n a l p la n n in g .

Such a d i s ­

c u s s i o n w i l l i n v o l v e a n sw e rin g t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s : 1.

Who w as F i v e s ?

flu e n c e d h is l i f e

and fo r m e d h i s

What e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s i n ­ sta n d a rd s o f

jud gm en t?

14 F o s t e r W a tso n , e d i t o r , F i v e s and t h e R e n a s c e n c e E d u c a t i o n o f Women { j n c l u d e s E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n o f F i v e s 1 De I n s t i t u t i o n s F em in a e C h r i s t i a n a e l (L ond on: Edward A r n o l d . T flS l

:

6 2.

What a r e h i s m o s t i m p o r t a n t w ork s?

5.

What was V i v e s 1 a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e s o c i a l

p r o b le m s o f h i s t i m e s ?

What r e f o r m s d o e s h e s u g g e s t ?

4.

What a r e h i s t h e o r i e s o f

e d u c a tio n ?

5.

What c h a n g e s d o e s he s u g g e s t i n e d u c a t i o n a l

p r a c tic e ? 6 . ' ?Jhat i s h i s p l a c e i n t h e h i s t o r y o f e d u c a t i o n ? 7.

H as t h e r e - a p p e a r a n c e o f V i v e s i n l i t e r a t u r e a n y

s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p rog ram o f t o d a y ? IMPORTANCES OF THE STUDY A s i d e fr o m a f e w p e r i o d i c a l a r t i c l e s , little

th ere has been

s e r i o u s s tu d y o f V iv es* w orks i n t h e U n it e d S t a t e s ,

I n c o n t r a s t , t h e r e h a s b e e n much r e s e a r c h i n E u r o p e , e s p e c i ­ a lly

i n G erm any,

a th e o lo g ia n , ia n ,

V iv e s has b een in v e s t ig a t e d as a m o r a lis t ,

a p o litic a l

eco n o m ist,

a so c io lo g ist, a h isto r ­

a p s y c h o l o g i s t , a p h i l o s o p h e r , and a p e d a g o g u e .

H is

i n f l u e n c e o n C o m e n iu s , Ramus, S t u r m , B a c o n , R a b e l a i s , D e s c a r t e s , L o y o l a , Ben J o h n s o n , S h a k e s p e a r e , M i l t o n , H o b b e s , L o c k e , and o t h e r s h a s b e e n m i n u t e l y a p p r a i s e d . 1 5

In f a c t ,

15 For s p e c i f ic t i t l e s se e : F o s t e r W atson , V i v e s : o n E d u c a t i o n (C a m b rid g e : The U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 1 3 7 1 M o l f o B o n il l a Y San M a rtin , L u is V iv e s £ l a F i l o s o f i a d e l R e n a c i m i e n t o (M a d rid : s . A . E s p a s a - C a l p e , 1 1 )2 9 ) ; E n c i c l o p e d i a U n i v e r s a l i l u s t r a d a (M ad rid : S . A. E s p a s a - C a l p e , 1 9 3 0 ) , LXIX, pp. 719 -20 .

7 at f i r s t g la n c e ,

i t w o u ld seem t h a t w i t h

so many l e a r n e d

and p o n d e r o u s t o m e s a l r e a d y c o m p i le d t h e r e w a s l i t t l e m a te r ia l l e f t

fo r research .

s o - c a lle d p o ly g r a fs .'

V iv e s,

m ore

h o w e v e r , w as o n e o f t h e

T h e r e w as n o t much i n t h e f i e l d

of

human e n d e a v o r t h a t h e d i d n o t t o u c h o n h i s w r i t i n g s . A p p a r e n t l y w h o l e new f i e l d s o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n a r e o p e n i n g up w i t h t h e t r a n s l a t i o n s and r e - t r a n s l a t i o n s o f h i s w o r k s . A lso , th e r e are s t i l l

v o lu m e s t o b e t r a n s l a t e d .

There i s

no E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n , f o r i n s t a n c e , o f De Anim a e t V i t a ( On t h e S o u l an d L i f e ) , p u b l i s h e d i n 1 5 3 9 . Ye t t h i s b o o k is

v e ry im p o rta n t s i n c e i t

p o i n t s o u t , p r o b a b ly f o r th e

f i r s t tim e , th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l b a s is o f e d u c a tio n . As n in e te e n th cen tu ry l i t e r a r y l a r g e l y on t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f f a c t u a l d a ta h as b een u n co v ered .

resea rch has cen tered

s o u r c e s and o r i g i n s much T h is r e s e a r c h h a s l e d to

t h e r e a p p e a r a n c e o f g r e a t men t e m p o r a r i l y o b s c u r e d and o f a r e a d j u s t m e n t o f v a l u e s and r e p u t a t i o n s i n t h e l i g h t o f new in fo r m a tio n .

Among t h e s e men h a v e b e e n V i v e s and h i s c o n ­

te m p o r a r ie s.

F o rm e rly , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n th e

research , liv e d

case o f lite r a r y

im p o rta n t p e r s o n a g e s w ere s tu d ie d a s i f

i n a vacuum o f t i m e and s p a c e b u t t h i s

t h e y had

p r a c tic e ,

lik e

16 O n ly t r a n s l a t i o n i s 1916.

i n S p a n i s h ; made by O n ta n o n ,

8 a m ere e n u m e r a t i o n o f b a t t l e s won and l o s t , s a t i s f i e s t w e n t ie t h - c e n t u r y r e q u ire m en ts. th e ten d en cy i s

to

no l o n g e r H ence, to d ay,

stu d y a g r e a t s c h o la r in r e l a t i o n to

h i s e n v i r o n m e n t , to. d i s c o v e r w hat i n f l u e n c e s p r o d u c e d h im . As f a r a s can b e a s c e r t a i n e d ,

no o u t s t a n d i n g s t u d y

h a s b e e n p u b l i s h e d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w h ic h a p p r a i s e s V iv e s *

e d u c a t i o n a l w o r k s n o r any c o n s i d e r i n g him a g a i n s t

t h e background o f h i s tim e s .

W ith t h e r e c e n t r e v i v a l o f

i n t e r e s t i n V i v e s i n E u r o p e , t h e moment seem s a u s p i c i o u s t o e x a m in e h i s w o r k s and t o c a l l th em t o t h e

a tte n tio n o f

A m e r ic a n e d u c a t o r s . RELATED LITERATURE As s t a t e d came i n t o a r tic le

in t h e in tr o d u c to r y rem arks, t h i s stu d y

e x i s t e n c e t h r o u g h t h e c h a n c e r e a d i n g o f M ic h a u d ’ s

c l a i m i n g t h a t R a b e l a i s had b o r r o w e d some o f h i s m o s t

a c c l a i m e d t h e o r i e s fro m V i v e s . T h e u n fa m ilia r .

name o f V i v e s w a s

None o f t h e u s u a l h i s t o r y o f e d u c a t i o n t e x t ­

b o o k s made any m e n t i o n o f s u c h a p e r s o n .

How t h e n c o u l d h e

be so i m p o r t a n t a s M ich au d c la im e d ? The f i r s t

e f f o r t to o b t a in in f o r m a t io n w as th rou gh a

search o f h i s t o r y o f e d u c a tio n te x tb o o k s ,

17 M ic h a u d , £ £ . c i t . t p p . 4 1 9 - 2 4 .

e n c y c lo p e d ia s,

9 I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n d e x , e n c y c lo p e d ia s on e d u c a t io n , c a t a lo g u e s o f v a r io u s t y p e s , b ib lio g r a p h ic a l l i s t s , d isse r ta tio n s,

etc.

title s

o f d o cto ra l

T h ese w orks y i e l d e d v e r y l i t t l e

fir st­

hand i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t g a v e c l u e s w h ic h o n b e i n g f o l l o w e d up produced r e s u l t s . The p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s through th e lib r a r y

fa c ilitie s

s t u d y w as made p o s s i b l e o f:

th e U n iv e r s ity o f

S ou th ern C a l i f o r n i a , U n iv e r s i t y o f C a li f o r n ia at Los A n g e le s and B e r k e l e y , P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y , L o s A n g e l e s C i t y P u b l i c L ib r a r y , H u n tin g to n L ib r a r y , P eab ody I n s t i t u t e L ib r a r y , L i b r a r y o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s D e p a r tm e n t o f E d u c a t i o n , and th e L ib r a ry o f C o n g re ss. I n A m e r ic a n and E n g l i s h a r t i c l e s i t w a s o b v i o u s fro m th e f i r s t

t h a t o n e name s t o o d o u t a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y

a s an

a u t h o r i t y o n V i v e s , n a m e ly P o s t e r W a ts o n , l a t e P r o f e s s o r o f E d u c a tio n i n A b erystw yth , W a le s .18 t h a t much o f t h e m a t e r i a l

F o o tn o tes in d ic a te

i n MThe D e v e lo p m e n t o f Modern

E d u c a t i o n , 1,19 b e a r i n g o n V i v e s w a s b a s e d o n W a tso n » s V i v e s : On E d u c a t i o n , t h e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n o f V i v e s * De T r a d e n d i s D isc ip lin is.

18

E d i t o r o f The E n c y c l o p e d i a and D i c t i o n a r y o f Edu­ c a t i o n ; D ep artm en tal e d i t o r o f M o n ro V s A C y c lo p e d ia o f E d u c a t i o n ; F . R. S . L . ; t r a n s l a t o r " ' o F many o f V i v e s * w o r k s , e tc. 19 Eby a n d A r r o w o o d , o p . c i t .

The r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e few p e r io d ic a l a r t i c l e s . be r e f e r r e d

a v a i l a b l e sim m ered down t o a

L e a v in g W atson ’ s c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o

t o l a t e r u n d e r s o u r c e m a t e r i a l - , t h e r e r e m a in e d

o n l y f o u r a r t i c l e s i n A m erican m a g a z i n e s ildiich w e r e c o n c e r n e d w ith V iv e s o r h i s w orks.

The f i r s t ,

c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y , w as

"Two S c h o o l m a s t e r s o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e , ” p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 1 9 . It is

an i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o

th e r e l a t i v e m e r its o f th e th r e e

m ost o u t s t a n d in g C o llo q u ie s p u b lis h e d i n t h e s i x t e e n t h cen tu ry , v i z . ,

t h o s e o f E r a sm u s , V i v e s , and C o r d i e r .

o b je c tiv e o f th ese

The

c o ll o q u i e s i n th e p e r io d o f th e

R e n a issa n c e was th e t e a c h in g o f good L a t in sp e e c h .

The

p r o b le m i s a p p r o a c h e d from t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f a l a n g u a g e tea ch er.

The a p p r o a c h , t h e r e f o r e ,

is

sy m p a th e tic .

The

a u t h o r c o n c l u d e s t h a t b o t h V i v e s and C o r d i e r a r e e x c e l l e n t f o r t h e i r p u r p o se , t h e on e su p p lem en tin g t h e o t h e r . sh e f i n d s ,

E r a sm u s ,

i n s p i t e o f b e i n g t h e m o st p u b l i c i z e d , p r o d u c e d a

work m ore s u i t a b l e f o r a d u l t s t h a n f o r c h i l d r e n . The n e x t two a r t i c l e s i n p o i n t o f t i m e w e r e t h o s e o f M ic h a u d .

The f i r s t o f t h e s e h a s a l r e a d y b e e n r e f e r r e d t o . 2 -*-

T h i s a r t i c l e , L u i s V i v e s and R a b e l a i s * P e d a g o g y , p u b l i s h e d

20 F l o r e n c e A. G r a g g , "Two S c h o o l m a s t e r s o f t h e R e n a is s a n c e ,” C la s s ic a l J o u r n a l, 1 4 :2 1 1 -2 5 , Janu ary, 191 9 .

21 M ic h a u d ,

0£

.

c l t . , pp. 4 1 9 -2 4 .

in 1923,

a ttem p ts t o prove t h a t c e r t a in id e a s supposed to

h e o r i g i n a l w i t h R a b e l a i s r e a l l y came from V i v e s ’ B e T r a d e n d is D i s c i p l i n i s . The o r i g i n o f M ic h a u d ’ s i n v e s t i g a t i o n w a s t w o - f o l d : v iz .,

(1)

r e a d i n g o f an a r t i c l e by D e l a u r e l l e o n t h e d e b t

owed by R a b e l a i s t o E rasm us and B ude;

(2 )

a r e c o g n itio n of

p a r a l l e l p a s s a g e s b e t w e e n R a b e l a i s and V i v e s ’ De T r a d e n d is D isc ip lin is

(in tr a n sla tio n )

w h ic h h e t h o u g h t w a r r a n t e d

i nve s t i g a t i o n . The i n v e s t i g a t i o n i t s e l f

c o n sid er ed th e t h r e e

e d u c a tio n a l i d e a l s g e n e r a lly supposed t o be o r ig i n a l w ith R a b e la is, i . e . ,

th e d e s ir e to a s s o c i a t e e d u c a tio n w ith l i f e ;

th e u se o f in c id e n ts o f everyday l i f e th e in tr o d u c tio n o f h y g ie n e in to

as c u r r ic u la r m a te r ia l

e d u c a tio n .

P a ssa g e s w ere

f o u n d i n V i v e s ’ work s t r e s s i n g t h e same t h r e e p o i n t s . M ichau d c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e s e t h r e e i d e a s w e r e a l l d e v e l o p e d by V i v e s and p u b l i s h e d b y him i n De T r a d e n d i s D i s c i p l i n i s w h ic h was p r i n t e d i n ,&ntwerp i n J u l y , 1 5 3 1 , n e a r ly th r e e y e a r s b e fo r e R a b e la is ’ book. a lso ,

He c o n c l u d e s ,

t h a t , i n v iew o f V i v e s ’ r e p u t a t io n a s one o f t h e g r e a t

e s t H u m a n is ts i n E u r o p e , R a b e l a i s m ust h a v e known o f him and o f h i s work.

IS The s e c o n d M ich a u d a r t i c l e "L * I n f l u e n c e d e V i v e s s u r R a b e l a i s w a s p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 2 5 . Th i s s t u d y c o n t i n u e s t h e same l i n e o f

a r g u m e n t , b u t s u p p o r t s t h e s t a t e m e n t s by

q u o t i n g p a r a l l e l p a s s a g e s from e a c h a u t h o r , m a k in g c o m p a r i­ so n s on f o u r t e e n i t e m s .

I n a d d i t i o n , M ich au d h a s d i s c o v e r e d ,

th r o u g h f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h , a p r o b a b le in te r m e d ia r y b etw een V i v e s and R a b e l a i s i n t h e p e r s o n o f o n e H i l a i r e B e r t h o l f , a B e l g i a n and f o r m e r s c h o o l - m a t e o f V i v e s , and e x - s 6 c r e t a r y t o E r a sm u s.

I n 1 9 3 2 , B e r t h o l f had r e t u r n e d fr o m B a s l e t o

L yons w here he l i v e d on i n t i m a t e te r m s w it h R a b e l a i s .

He

c o u l d e a s i l y h a v e b r o u g h t w i t h him a c o p y o f De T r a d e n d i s D i s c i p l i n i s w h ic h had j u s t made su ch an i m p r e s s i o n i n H u m a n is tic c i r c l e s .

M ich a u d f e e l s c o n f i r m e d , t h e n , i n h i s

f o r m e r c o n c l u s i o n t h a t R a b e l a i s owed t h e i d e a s ,

su pp osed

t o b e o r i g i n a l w i t h h im , t o V i v e s . I n t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h i s a r t i c l e , M ichau d t a k e s up t h e p r o b le m o f P a n u r g e .

I t h a s been r a th e r g e n e r a l ly

th o u g h t t h a t R a b e la is g o t h i s m a t e r ia l o n P a n u rg e, C h ap ters XXX and XXXI o f Book I I I , C o n n u b ia lib u s.

fro m T i r a q u e a u f s De L e g i b u s

The t h e o r y u n d e r l y i n g t h i s b e l i e f w a s t h a t

h e had had a m p le o p p o r t u n i t y o f e x a m in in g T i r a q u e a u ’ s book i n v i s i t i n g K er v er , T ira q u ea u ’ s p u b lis h e r .

T h i s same

22

G. L." M ic h a u d , "L1 I n f l u e n c e d e V i v e s s u r R a b e l a i s R evu e du S e i z i e m e S i e c l e , 1 2 : 1 4 8 - 5 6 , 1 9 2 5 .

13 p u b lis h e r , how ever, p u b lis h e d th e F rench t r a n s l a t i o n o f V iv es*

I n s i t u t i o n e F e m in a e C h r i s t i a n a s and De O f f i c i o

M a r iti.

By t e x t u a l c o m p a r i s o n , M ich au d f e e l s

ju s tifie d

in

a s s e r t i n g t h a t R a b e l a i s t o o k h i s m a t e r i a l f o r C h a p t e r XXX from V i v e s .

T h i s f a c t may e x p l a i n t h e o r i g i n o f R a b e l a i s *

e n t r y i n t o t h e fa m o u s " Q u e r e l l e d e s F em m es.” The f o u r t h

s tu d y o f t h e r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e group i s

t h a t o f T h o r n d ik e a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d . 225

T h is a r t i c l e , Juan

L u i s V i v e s : H i s A t t i t u d e t o L e a r n i n g and t o L i f e , i s more g en era l in n atu re. iz e d ,

H is a t t i t u d e t o le a r n in g i s

ch a ra cter­

s a y s T h o rn d ik e , by h i s o n s la u g h t on s c h o l a s t i c i s m ,

h i s v i e w s on t h e p l a c e o f L a t i n i n e d u c a t i o n , h i s

concept o f

e r u d i t i o n , h i s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s h i s t o r y and t o w a r d s c i v i l la w .

As t o V i v e s *

a t t i t u d e tow ard s l i f e

its e lf,

T h o r n d ik e

s t r e s s e s h i s r e a c t i o n t o war and n a t i o n a l i s t i c p o l i c i e s c o n c lu d e s by s a y in g t h a t i f o f Erasm us f o r w as,

sly

and

V iv e s d id not have th e ”g e n iu s

s a r c a s m and r i d i c u l e o f human f o l l y ,

he

p e r h a p s , a man o f w i d e r r e a d i n g and g r e a t e r s i n c e r i t y . ” SCOPE OF THE PROBLM T hese a r t i c l e s on r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e w i l l be r e f e r r e d

to l a t e r . ever,

T h e r e w i l l b e no a t t e m p t made i n t h i s

s t u d y , how­

to prove th e p r i o r i t y o f V iv e s ’ t h e o r ie s over th o s e o f

23 T h o rn d ik e ,

0£

.

c i t . , p. 342.

14 o th er g r ea t ed u ca to rs,

su ch a s R a b e la is , nor t o m easure t h e

r e l a t iv e g r e a tn e s s o f V iv e s in r e la t io n to E r a sm u s , n o r t o

su c h s c h o l a r s a s

e s t im a t e h i s i n f l u e n c e on l a t e r w r i t e r s

s u c h a s B a c o n o r C o m e n iu s .

Nei t h e r h i s p o l i t i c a l

r e l i g i o u s w r i t i n g s w i l l be d is c u s s e d a s su c h . g a tio n w i l l tiv e

nor h i s

The i n v e s t i ­

c e n t e r p r i m a r i l y o n V iv e s * w ork a s a c o n s t r u c ­

reform er i n th e f i e l d

o f human r e l a t i o n s .

V iv es*

life

and w o r k s w i l l be m e a s u r e d a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e s o c i a l u p h e a v a l s w h ic h c h a r a c t e r i z e d h i s d a y t o d e t e r m i n e h is

e d u c a t i o n a l and m o r a l p h i l o s o p h y and t o

c o n tr ib u tio n s,

if

d isc o v e r h is

an y , to p r e s e n t - d a y e d u c a t i o n a l p r o b le m s. SOURCE MATERIALS

B e f o r e b e g i n n i n g t h e r e s e a r c h o n t h e s p e c i f i c p r o b le m to be in v e s tig a te d ,

much g e n e r a l r e a d i n g w a s n e c e s s a r y .

b io g r a p h y o f V iv e s ,

f r o m t h e a n g l e o f a man i n r e l a t i o n

h is tim e s,

The to

i n v o l v e d t h e a s s e m b l i n g o f m a t e r i a l on t h e s o c i e t y

and c u l t u r e o f R e n a i s s a n c e E u r o p e . a b le y e a r s o f V iv es*

As t h e m ost im p r e s s io n ­

l i f e w ere sp en t in S p a in , a s p e c ia l

stu d y o f S p a n id i h i s t o r y — p o l i t i c a l , had t o b e u n d e r t a k e n .

so c ia l,

e th n o lo g ic a l—

The f a c t t h a t Humanism w a s c h a r a c t e r ­

i z e d by a s t u d y o f Roman c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o p o s t e r i t y made a s t u d y o f Roman l i f e

o b lig a to r y .

v a r i e t i e s o f n a t i o n a l Humanism,

As V i v e s w a s e x p o s e d t o each o f t h e s e c a l l e d

a ll

f o r an

15 e v a lu a tio n o f s y n th e s is

and d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n .

F in a lly ,

a d d i t io n a l r e s e a r c h w as r e q u i r e d to a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e a l l u s i o n s t o m y th o lo g y , r e l i g i o n , l i t e r a t u r e ,

e tc .,

in

w h ic h V i v e s * w o r k s a b o u n d — r e f e r e n c e s w h i c h , t o h im , w e r e m e r e ly i n c i d e n t a l . The s t u d y o f c e r t a i n w o r k s o f V i v e s i n o r i g i n a l s , a b stra cts,

and t r a n s l a t i o n s w as i n i t s e l f a h e a v y t a s k .

A

s l i g h t i n d i c a t i o n o f h i s s c h o l a r l y a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s may b e s u r m i s e d fro m t h e f a c t t h a t B o n i l l a l i s t s

fifty -se v e n

i m p o r t a n t p u b l i c a t i o n s — n o t i n c l u d i n g t r a n s l a t i o n s and r e ­ p r in ts.

T hese a r e a l l ,

on s e r io u s th em es.

w ith th e

e x c e p tio n o f th e i x e r c i t a t i o ,

P r o b a b l y t h e l o n g e s t w o rk i s V i v e s *

e d i t i o n , w i t h c o m m e n t a r i e s , o f S t . A u g u s t i n e ’ s De C i v i t a t e D e i w h ic h c o n t a i n s w i t h i n i t s

c o v e r s tw en ty -tw o b o o k s.

Two r e c o g n i z e d e d i t i o n s o f V i v e s * have been p u b lis h e d . lis h e d

c o l l e c t e d works

The f i r s t g e n e r a l e d i t i o n w as p u b ­

i n tw o v o l u m e s b y N i c o l a s L ’ F v e s q u e

B a sle , 1555.

pR

le Jeune, in

The s e c o n d c o l l e c t i o n i s t h e

e la b o r a te e ig h t -

v o lu m ed e d i t i o n o f M a j a n s i u s p u b l i s h e d i n V a l e n c i a , 1 7 8 2 . 26

24 B o n illa , 25

op. c i t . ,

I I I , 1 6 5 -6 8 .

P h o t o s t a t i c c o p i e s fro m B a s l e e d i t i o n u s e d i n p r e ­ p a r a tio n o f t h i s m a n u s c r ip t.. 26 G r e g o r iu s M a ja n siu s, J o a n n is L u d o v ic i V iv e s V a l e n t i n i Oflera Omnia ( V a l e n c i a : 1 7 6 2 . P u b lish e d a t ex p en se o f F r a n c i s c o F a b i a n and F u e r o , A r c h b i s h o p o f V a l e n c i a ) .

16 B o th c o l l e c t i o n s a r e c o n s i d e r e d b a s i c

c r itic a l te x ts.

De

C i v i t a t e D e i o f S t . A u g u s t i n e i s o m i t t e d from b o t h e d i t i o n s . I m e r t o n i n h i s s t u d y on Erasmus**7 s a y s t h a t t h e a u t h o r o f a c o m p l e t e and s a t i s f a c t o r y l i f e

o f E rasm us w o u ld

h a v e t o b e , tfa t h o r o u g h s t u d e n t o f t h e c l a s s i c l i t e r a t u r e s , a th e o lo g ia n f a m i lia r w ith ev ery fo n a o f C h r is tia n s p e c u la ­ tio n ,

a h i s t o r i a n t o whom t h e c o m p l i c a t e d movement o f t h e

R e f o r m a t i o n w as a l t o g e t h e r i n t e l l i g i b l e , m o r a l i s t , and a man o f h u m o r .n

an e d u c a t o r , a

One m i g h t add t h a t a

b i o g r a p h e r o f V i v e s w o u ld h a v e to b e i n a d d i t i o n , p h ilo so p h e r , su lt.

a p s y c h o lo g is t,

F o r tu n a te ly ,

a

an e c o n o m i s t , and a j u r i s c o n ­

d u r i n g t h e f o u r c e n t u r i e s w h ic h h a v e

e l a p s e d s i n c e h i s d e a t h t h e r e h a v e b e e n men who h a v e m et t h e s e req u ire m en ts. V iv e s h as b een p a r t i c u la r ly fo r tu n a te in h i s b io g r a p h er s.

S t a r t i n g w i t h M a j a n s i u s , w h o se work was s p o n ­

s o r e d by t h e A r c h b i s h o p o f V a l e n c i a , d e a lin g w ith h i s l i f e

a l l o f t h e m ajor w orks

h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n by o u t s t a n d i n g

s c h o l a r s , and p u b l i s h e d u n d e r t h e a e g i s o f U n i v e r s i t i e s o r lea r n e d s o c i e t i e s .

T h e r e h a s b e e n , i n c o n s e q u e n c e , much l e s s

b i c k e r i n g o v e r m in o r d e t a i l s t h a n i n t h e b i o g r a p h i e s o f o t h e r g r e a t H u m a n ists.

A ls o , V iv e s , h im s e lf , h a s h e lp e d f a c i l i t a t e

th e a sse m b lin g o f b io g r a p h ic a l m a t e r ia l as i n h i s w r it in g s

27 E p h raim E m e r to n , D e s i d e r i u s E rasm us o f R o tte r d a m (New Y o rk : G. P . P u t n a m s f S o n s , 1 8 9 9 ) , p . i i i .

17 h e n a r r a t e s many p e r s o n a l i t e m s . p resen ted a d d itio n a l d e t a ils p o in ts.

L a te r b io g r a p h er s have

and new e v i d e n c e o n d i s p u t e d

T h ey h a v e d o n e t h e i r r e s e a r c h , a s a r u l e ,

l o c a l i t i e s w here V i v e s ,

h im se lf,

in th e,

a c t u a l l y l i v e d and w o r k e d .

T h e r e a r e f o u r o u t s t a n d i n g b i o g r a p h i e s ofr V i v e s . fir st

and t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e o f i t s

The

s i z e and d e t a i l

i s t h a t o f G r e g o r i u s M a j a n s i u s ( G r e g o r i o Mayans y S i s c a r ) M ayans w as a p r o f e s s o r o f l a w a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f V a l e n c i a , th e b ir th p la c e o f V iv e s.

H is e d i t i o n was p u b lis h e d i n 1 7 8 2 ,

i n e i g h t v o lu m e s u n d er t h e p a tr o n a g e o f th e A rch b ish o p o f V a le n c ia .

T h i s work i s

t h e f o u n d a t i o n o n w h ic h much o f t h e

l a t e r r e s e a r c h on V iv e s i s b a se d . g e n e o l o g y an d l i f e

Volume I c o n t a i n s t h e

o f V iv e s.

The s e c o n d b i o g r a p h y w as u n d e r t a k e n a t t h e

request of

t h e R o y a l Academy o f S c i e n c e a n d L e t t e r s o f B r u s s e l s a n d w a s i n t h e n a t u r e o f a t r i b u t e t o V i v e s a s a f o r m e r s t u d e n t and p r o f e s s o r o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f L o u v a in .

I t was w r i t t e n

by

A l e x a n d r e J o s e N a m ech e, l a t e r R e c t o r o f t h e C a t h o l i c U n i v e r ­ s i t y o f L o u v a i n . 29 e n t i t l e d Memo i r e

T h i s m o n o g r a p h ,, p u b l i s h e d i n 1 8 4 1 , w a s

s u r l a v i e e t l e s tie r i t s d e J e a n - L o u i s

28 F o r b i o g r a p h y o f M a y a n s, s e e E n c i c l o p e d i a U n i v e r ­ s a l , o p . c i t . , X X X III, p p . 1 2 9 4 - 9 6 . 29 I b i d . , XXXVII, p . 9 6 4 .

18 (5/\

^

V iv e s,

and w a s a "m em oire s u r l a

v ie e t l e s

e c r i t s de

J e a n - L o u i s V i v S s , p r o f e s s e u r d e B e l l e s - L e t t r e s & l ’U n i v e r s i t e de L o u v a in , sie c le ,

e t L *un d e s s a v a n t s l e s p l u s c e l h b r e s du XVI&&

en r a t t a c h a n t c e s u j e t a l t h i s t o i r e l i t t e r a i r e

B e lg iq u e a c e t t e

e p o q u e .”

de l a

I t c o n siste d of th ree p a r ts p re­

c e d e d by a n i n t r o d u c t i o n *

T he i n t r o d u c t i o n p r e s e n t e d a n

o v e r v ie w o f g e n e r a l E uropean c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e tim e o f v i v e s . It

s tr e s s e d p a r t ic u la r ly , B e lg ia n c o n d itio n s ,

and g a v e , i n

c o n c lu s io n , th e r e a so n s u n d e r ly in g th e w id e -sp r6 a d

so c ia l

d istu r b a n c e s o f th e day.

d e sc r ib e d

th e l i f e

T h e m onograph p r o p e r ( 1 )

o f V i v e s , u s i n g a s s o u r c e s t h e w o r k s o f V i v e s and

t h e l e t t e r s o f E ra sm u s;

(S )

a n a l y z e d and c l a s s i f i e d V i v e s T

w o rk s; m en tio n ed im p o r ta n t e d i t i o n s , com m ents;

(3 )

and made c r i t i c a l

e v a l u a t e d V i v e s a s a man and a s a w r i t e r .

It

s h o u l d b e rem em bered t h a t V i v e s l o o k e d u p o n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s a s h i s " s e c o n d o o u n t r y ” and t h a t h e made h i s h e a d q u a r t e r s t h e r e fr o m 1 5 1 4 t o t h e t i m e o f h i s d e a t h i n 1 5 4 0 , The t h i r d b i o g r a p h y w a s w r i t t e n b y t h e w e l l - k n o w n S p a n is h s c h o l a r , A d o lfo B o n i l l a y San M a r tin , fo rm er p r o f e s s o r o f p h i l o s o p h y a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M ad rid and o f t h e R o y a l Academy o f J u r i s p r u d e n c e and L e g i s l a t i o n , and

A* J* N am eche, Memo i r e s u r l a V i e e t l e s E c r i t s d e J e a n - L o u i s V i v e s ( M e m o ir e s c o u r o n n f s p a r 1 'A c a d e m ic r o y a l e des S c ie n c e s e t B e lle s - L e t t r e s de B r u x e lle s . Tome X V ., P r e m ie r e P a r t i e , 1 8 4 0 -4 1 . B r u x e l l e s : M. H a y e x , 1 8 4 1 ) .

19 o n e -tim e p r o f e s s o r o f m e r c a n t ile la w a t th e U n iv e r s i t y o f V a le n c ia .^

H is r e s e a r c h w as a ls o u n d er t h e

sp o n so rsh ip o f

a R o y a l A cadem y, t h a t o f t h e S p a n i s h R o y a l Academy o f M o r a l and P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e .

It is

e n t i t l e d L u i s V i v e s £ La

F i l o s o f i a d e l R e n a c i m i e n t o a w o r k d e s c r i b e d by W a tso n a s a **v e r i t a b l e V iv 6 s .* * 3 3

s t o r e - h o u s e o f k n o w le d g e w i t h r e g a r d t o

B o n i l l a w a s a s t u d e n t o f M a r c e l i n o M en^ndez y

P e l a y o t h r o u g h w h o se e f f o r t s V i v e s w a s r e s t o r e d t o p r o m in e n c e i n S p a in a s a p h ilo s o p h e r . v o lu m e s: III.

v iz ., I.

T h i s w ork c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e

E l Hombre jr l a E p o c a ; I I . L a s p o c t r i n a s ;

H o ta s, A p en d ice s, B i b l i o g r a f i a .

The d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f

V b l . I l l m u s t h a v e r e p r e s e n t e d a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y am ount o f p a in sta k in g r e se a r c h . c o m m e n ts, i t

lis ts

I n a d d i t i o n t o d e t a i l e d n o t e s and

t h e l o c a t i o n s o f many o f t h e o r i g i n a l

m a n u s c r i p t s and e a r l y e d i t i o n s o f V i v e s * w o r k s . The f o u r t h a n d l a s t o f t h e s e b i o g r a p h i e s w a s w r i t t e n b y t h e E n g l i s h s c h o l a r , F o s t e r W a ts o n , w h o se a d m i r a t i o n and r e s p e c t f o r V i v e s w a s s o g r e a t t h a t i n 1 9 2 6 h e p u t up a p l a q u e a t O x fo r d a t h i s own e x p e n s e i n co m m em o ra tio n o f V iv es*

r e s id e n c e t h e r e . 34

W a tso n a n s w e r e d t h e p l e a v o i c e d

51 For b io g r a p h y , s e e E n c ic lo p e d ia U n iv e r s a l, o p .

cit.,

IX , 1 9 - 2 0 . 52 B o n illa ,

op. c i t . ,

5 v o ls . , o r ig in a l p r in tin g , 1905.

55 W a ts o n ,

ojd•

c i t . , p. x v ii.

54 E n c i c l o p e d i a U n i v e r s a l , o p . c i t . , LXIX, 7 1 4 .

b y Woodward w ho, a s l a t e a s 1 9 0 6 , c o m p l a in e d " T h e r e i s n o th in g s u b s t a n t i a l upon V iv e s i n E n g li s h . Be B i s c i p l i n i s

( b o t h p a r t s ) , and o f t h e E x e r c i t a t i o o r

C o l l o q u i e s i s much t o b e d e s i r e d .* * 35 t o make E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n s a v a i l a b l e . tr a n s la te d th e F r e ig iu s E d itio n

W a tso n s e t t o w ork In 190 8 , he

(N u rn b erg, 1582)

L in g u a e L a tin a e E x e r c i t a t i o un d er t h e t i t l e B oy L i f e . 56

An e d i t i o n o f

o f V iv e s *

T u dor S c h o o l -

I n 1 9 1 2 , h e c o m p i l e d a b o o k w h ic h h e c a l l e d

V i v e s and t h e R e n a s c e n c e E d u c a t i o n o f Women.

T h is in c lu d e s

a l a r g e p a r t o f H yrde*s J . L . V i v e s : I n s t r u c t i o n o f a C h r i s t i a n Woman ( V i v e s *

De I n s t i t u t i o n s F e m in a e C h r i s t i a n a e )

t h e two v e r s i o n s o f De R a t i o n e P u e r i l i s t r a n s l a t e d b y W a ts o n a s P la n o f S tu d y f o r a G ir l

( P r i n c e s s Mary) , and P l a n o f

S t u d y f o r a Boy ( C h a r l e s B l o u n t ,

s o n o f L o rd Mount j o y ) ;

e x c e r p t s fr o m P a y n e l l ’ s t r a n s l a t i o n o f De O f f i c i o M a r i t i : and o t h e r m a t e r i a l . 37 I n 1 9 1 3 , W a tso n t r a n s l a t e d t h e J a c k s o n e d i t i o n o f V i v e s * De T r a d e n d i s D i s c i p l i n i s , u n d e r t h e t i t l e

V i v e s : On

35 W i l l i a m H a r r i s o n Woodward, S t u d i e s i n E d u c a t i o n D u r in g t h e Age o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e , 1 4 0 0 - 1 6 6 6 T C a m b rid g e: The U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 2 4 ) , f . n . 1 , p . 1 8 0 . 36 F o s t e r W a t s o n , t r a n s l a t o r , T u dor S c h o o l - B o y L i f e : The D i a l o g u e s o f J u a n L u i s V i v e s i v e s ' L T nguae L a t i n a e E x e r c i t a t i o } (L ond on: J . M. D e n i and Company, 1 9 0 8 ) . 37 F o s t e r W a t s o n , e d i t o r , V i v e s and t h e R e n a s c e n c e E d u c a t i o n o f Women (New Y ork: L ongm ans, G r e e n and- Company. 1 9 1 2 ).

21 E d u c a t i o n .^®

The J a c k s o n t e x t ,

p u b lish e d in L eyden in 16 1 2 ,

was u s e d b e c a u s e o f i t s t o p i c a l h e a d in g s and f o o t n o t e r e f e r e n c e s t o V iv es* tio n ,

own s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s .

In t h e in tr o d u c ­

a b o u t o n e h u n d r e d - f i f t y p a g e s , W a tso n g i v e s an e x c e l ­

l e n t b io g ra p h y o f V i v e s ,

He c o n t i n u e s h i s b i o g r a p h i c a l

s t u d y o f V i v e s i n L u i s V i v e s : E l O ran V a l e n c i a n o a b o ok d e a l i n g w i t h V i v e s ’ r e s i d e n c e i n E n g la n d a s a member o f t h e C o u r t o f H e n r y V I I I and C a t h e r i n e o f A r a g o n . Some o t h e r t r a n s l a t i o n s i n E n g l i s h , t h o s e o f W a tso n a r e a v a i l a b l e ;

viz.,

V iv es*

i n a d d it io n to In tr o d u c tio

ad

S a p i e n t ! a m t r a n s l a t e d b y M o r y s i n e u n d e r t h e t i t l e An I n t r o 40 d u c t i o n t o Wysdome made by L u d o v i c u s V i v e s ; V i v e s * De S u b v e n t i o n e Pauperum t r a n s l a t e d i n p a r t by S h er w o o d a s Con­ c e r n i n g t h e R e l i e f o f t h e P o o r ; ^ ! V i v e s ’ C o m m e n ta r ii i n X X II l i b r o s d e C i v i t a t e D e i S . A u g u s t i n i , t r a n s l a t e d by H e a l e y w i t h t h e t i t l e S t . A u g u s t i n e o f t h e C i t y o f G od : w i t h

58 W a ts o n , V i v e s : On E d u c a t i o n , o p . c i t . 39 1 4 9 2 - 1540

W

F o s t e r W a ts o n , L u i s V i v e s : S i Gran V a l e n c i a n o ( O x fo r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s : Humphrey M i l f o r d , 1 9 2 2 ) .

R y c h a r d e M o r y s i n e , t r a n s l a t o r , An i n t r o d u c t i o n t o Wysdome made b y L u d o v i c u s V i v e s [ V iv e s * I n t r o d u c t i o a d S a p i j e n t -i aj — m l (L o n d o n : Thomas B e r t h e l e t u s , 1 5 4 b ) * M a r g a r e t M. S h e r w o o d , t r a n s l a t o r , C o n c e r n i n g t h e R e l i e f o f t h e P o o r [V iv e s * De S u b v e n t i o n e P auperum V (New Y ork C i t y : Hew Y ork S c h o o l o f p h i l a n t h r o p y , 1 9 1 7 } ♦

22 t h e L e a r n e d Comments o f I o . L o d . V i v e s . 4 *^ F o r c r i t i c a l m a t e r i a l , b i o g r a p h i c a l com m ents and t r a n s l a t i o n s th e works o f su ch r e c o g n iz e d s c h o l a r s as L a n g e ; 4 5 N i c e r o n , 4 4 H e i n e , 4 5 E d e l b l u t h , 45 De V o c h t 4 7 and C astro y R o s s i48 w ere c o n s u lt e d .

42 J . H. H e a l e y , t r a n s l a t o r , S t . A u g u s t i n e o f t h e C i t i e o f G-od: W ith t h e L e a r n e d com m ents o r I o . L o d . V i v e s { V iv e s * Com m enEarli i n X X II L l b r o s d e C i v T t a t e de S . A u g u s t i n T j (L on d on : G e o r g e E l d , id lU T * 43 F . A* L a n g e , " L u d o v i c u s V i v e s , ” D i e E n c y k lo p & d ie d e s g e sa m m ten I r z i e h u n g s und U n t e r r i c h t s w e s e n s , V o l . I X , pp. 7 3 7 -81 4. D r . K . A. S c h m id , e d i t o r (G o th a : V e r l a g v o n R u d o lf B e s s e r , 1 8 7 3 )• 44 J e a n P i e r r e H i c ^ r o n , " J e a n L o u i s V i v e s , ” M e m o ir e s p o u r s e r y i r a l * h i s t o i r e d e s hommes i l l u s ^ r e s d e l a r b p u b l i qu e d e s l e t t r e s , a v e c u n c a t a l o g u e r a i s o n h d e s e s o e u v r e s , t e , “T 7 2 - S 5 ‘'T P a r iir c h e z B r l a s i o n T VTZZT:-------------------------------45 R u d o lf H 6 in e , t r a n s l a t o r , J . L . V i v e s * A u sg ew S h lte P S d a g o g i s c h e S c h r i f t e n ( L e i p z i g : Max H e s s e , 0 . J . ) , V o l . LXIV. 46 E d e lb lu th , T h ., t r a n s l a t o r , J . L . V iv e s * p S d a g o g isc h e H a u p t s c h r if t 6 n , o p . c i t . 47 H e n r y d e V o c h t , Monument a H u m a n i s t i c a L o y a n i e n s i a ( T e x t s and S t u d i e s a b o u t L o u v a i n H u m a n is t s i n t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e 1 6 t h c e n t u r y , V o l . IV ; L on d on : O x fo r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1934)• 48 S . D. A d o l f o d e C a s t r o y R o s s i , t r a n s l a t o r , O bras E sc o g n id a s de F i l o s o f o s " I n tr o d u c tio n a l a S a b id u r ia ” {v iv e s* I n t r o d u c l l o ad S a p ie n tia m ] (M a d r id : S u e e s o r e s d e H ernando, 1 $ 2 2 ) , 6 5 : 2 ^ 5 - 2 o l . S. D. A d o lfo de C a s tr o y R o s s i , "D el S o c o r r o de l o s P o b r e s , " O b ras E s c o g n i d a s de F i l o s o f o s , 6 5 : 2 6 1 - 9 1 ( v i v e s * De S u b v e n t i o n e P au p eru m ] .

23 T h re e o t h e r s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t io n rem a in t o b e rep orted : S p a in ;

v i z . , W atson* s p e r i o d i c a l

and r e c e n t

a r t i c l e s ; m a t e r i a l on

s e m i - p o p u l a r w ork s on i m p o r t a n t c o n ­

tem p orary R e n a is s a n c e f i g u r e s .

S ix

e s s a y s o f W a tso n w e r e

v a l u a b l e f o r t h e i r i n f o r m a t i o n : 'J u a n L u i s V i v e s : A S u g g e s t e d ■Source o f M il t o n * s " T r a c t a t e o f E d u c a t i o n ; " 49 V i v e s : On E d u c a t i o n ; 50 The F a t h e r o f M od em P s y c h o l o g y ; 51 A F r i e n d o f S i r Thomas M o r e ; 52 S h a k e s p e a r e and Two S t o r i e s o f L u i s V i v e s ; 5 5 and A S c h o l a r o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e . 5 4

49 F o s t e r W a t s o n , "A S u g g e s t e d S o u r c e o f M i l t o n * s T r a c t a t e o f E d u c a tio n ," N in e te e n th C e n tu r y , 6 6 : 6 0 7 - 1 7 , O ctob er, 1909. 50 F o s t e r W a t s o n , " V i v e s on E d u c a t i o n , " J o u r n a l o f B n g l i s h and G erm an ic P h i l o l o g y , 1 4 : 2 7 1 - 7 4 , A p r i l , I S 1 5 . 51 F o s t e r W a t s o n , "The F a t h e r o f M odern P s y c h o l o g y , " P s y c h o lo g ic a l R e v iew , 2 2 : 3 3 3 - 5 3 , S ep tem b er, 1 9 1 5 . 52 F o s t e r W a ts o n , "A F r i e n d o f S i r Thomas M o re," N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y , 8 3 : 5 4 0 - 5 2 , M arch , 1 9 1 8 . 53 F o s t e r W g ts o n , " S h a k e s p e a r e and Two S t o r i e s o f L u is V iv e s ," N in e te e n th C en tu ry, 8 5 :2 9 7 -3 0 6 , F eb ru a ry . 1919. 54 F o s t e r W a t s o n , " Ju an L u i s V i v e s : A S c h o l a r o f t h e R e n a s c e n c e 1 4 9 2 - 1 5 4 0 , " E s s a y s b y D i v e r s H a n d s , New S e r i e s (L ond on: Humphrey M i l f o r d , O x fo r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 2 1 ), I , 8 1 -9 3 .

24 E x c e l l e n t m a t e r i a l o n S p a i n w as f o u n d i n t h e w o r k s o f H um e,55 D a v i e s , 56 and L y n n . 57 The c u r r e n t p o p u l a r b i o g r a p h i e s a r e i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h e y v i s u a l i z e , and f o r t h e s p i r i t o f R e n a i s s a n c e t i m e s w h ic h t h e y e v o k e . str ik in g of th ese

A fe w o f t h e m ost

as f a r a s F i v e s ’ co n tem p o ra r ies a r e con­

c e r n e d a r e by W a l s h , 5 8 P u taiam ,5 ^ M a t t i n g l y , 60 H a c k e t t , 61 Z w e i g , 6 2 and E s h l e m a n n .68

55 M a r t i n A. S . Hume, S p a i n — I t s G r e a t n e s s and D e ca y ( 1 4 7 9 - 1 7 8 8 ) ( r e v i s e d b y Edward A r m str o n g ; C a m b rid g e: The U n iv e r sity P r e ss, 1 9 3 1 ). 56 R. T r e v o r D a v i e s , The G o ld e n C e n t u r y o f S p a i n ( 1 5 0 1 - 1 6 2 1 ) ( S t . M a r t i n ’ s S t , L on don : M a c m i l l a n and Company, L t d . , 1 9 3 7 ) . 3 27 p p . 57 Caro L y n n , A C o l l e g e P r o f e s s o r o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e ( L u c i o M a r in e o S i c u l d T ( C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ic a g o P r e s s , 1 ^ 37 J . 58 W i l l i a m Thomas W a ls h , I s a b e l l a o f S p a i n : The L a s t C r u s a d e r (New Y o rk : R o b e r t N. M c B r id e and Company, 1 9 3 0 ] .

T9 Sam u el P u tn a m , M a r g u e r i t e o f N a v a r r e : F i r s t M odern Woman (New Y o rk : G r o s s e t and D u n l a p ,T 9 3 5 ) . 60 M a ttin g ly , o p . c i t . 61 F r a n c i s H a c k e t t , H en ry t h e E i g h t h (New Y o r k : H. L iv e r ig h t, 1 9 29). F r a n c is H a c k e tt, F r a n c is th e F i r s t , 1 4 9 4 -1 5 4 7 (L o n d o n : W. H e in e m a n n , L t d . , 1 9 3 4 ) . 62 S t e f a n Z w e i g , E rasm us o f R o t t e r d a m ( t r a n s l a t i o n o f E den and C e d a r P a u l , New Y o r k : G ard en C i t y P u b l i s h i n g Company, 1 9 3 7 ) . 63 L l o y d W. E s h le m a n n , M o u ld e r s o f D e s t i n y : R e n a i s s a n c e L i v e s and T im es (New Y ork: C o v i c i F r i e d e , 1 § 3 8 ) .

25 Thus t h e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s f o r t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n have in c lu d e d p h o to g ra p h ic

c o p i e s o f o r i g i n a l w o r k s fro m

t h e B a s l e e d i t i o n o f 1 5 5 5 ; a u t h e n t i c t r a n s l a t i o n s o f V iv e s * w o r k s i n E n g l i s h , F r e n c h , German and S p a n i s h a l l made by s c h o l a r s o f r e p u t e ; le a r n e d m onographs i n v a r io u s la n g u a g e s ; an d , contem p orary s e m i-p o p u la r b i o g r a p h ie s o f im p o r ta n t six te e n th

cen tu ry p e r so n a g e s.

en ces have been l i s t e d

here.

The m o s t o u t s t a n d i n g r e f e r ­ H ow ever, a f u l l e r b io g r a p h y

w i l l b e fou n d appended. METHOD OF TREATMENT The g e n e r a l t r e a t m e n t o f t h i s c a l and p h i l o s o p h i c a l .

stu d y w i l l be h i s t o r i ­

I t w ill be h is to r ic a l in th a t a

s t u d y w i l l b e made o f p a s t c o n d i t i o n s i n o r d e r t o a n t i c i p a t e p o s s ib le fu tu re s itu a tio n s ;

i.e .,

a n a t t e m p t w i l l b e made t o

v iew th e d a ta g a th e r e d i n th e l i g h t w ill be p h ilo s o p h ic a l in i t s f o r u n d e r ly in g p r i n c i p l e s .

o f p r e v io u s h i s t o r y .

It

e v a l u a t i o n o f d a t a and s e a r c h T h e r e i s a m p le p r e c e d e n t f o r

t h i s m e th o d i n t h e many c u r r e n t R e n a i s s a n c e b i o g r a p h i e s .

It

i s p a r tic u la r ly a p p lic a b le , to o , to resea rch in th e f i e l d

of

e d u c a tio n a l p h ilo so p h y . I n so f a r a s e d u c a t i o n i s a s o c i a l p r o c e s s , com­ p r e h e n s i v e and r e a l i s t i c t h i n k i n g a b o u t e d u c a t i o n m u st d e p e n d u p o n t h e k n o w le d g e o f t h e o r i g i n s w h ic h i n f l u e n c e i t s presen t s t a t e . . . . A c r i t i c a l e stim a te o f th e p a r t i a l v i e w p o i n t s and t h e k e e n i n s i g h t s o f e d u c a ­ t i o n a l t h i n k e r s who h a v e w r i t t e n t h e i r names i n t o t h e

26 h i s t o r y o f W e s t e r n c i v i l i z a t i o n n o t o n l y may p r o t e c t u s a g a in s t th e to o -e a sy accep tan ce o f h a lf-c o n c e p ts f o r o u r a p p r o v a l , h u t may a l s o r e v e a l t o u s t h e o r g a n i c and c o m p r e h e n s i v e m e a n in g o f e d u c a t i o n w h ic h t h e f u t u r e may make i n t o a r e a l i t y . 64 A b io g r a p h ic a l b a s is i s d ep artu re.

a very u s e f u l p o in t o f

C u r t i 65 made u s e o f t h i s m e th o d i n h i s R e p o r t

on S o c ia l S t u d i e s .

H e r e h e e x a m in e d t h e l i v e s o f v a r i o u s

im p o rta n t l e a d e r s i n th e f i e l d d e ter m in e :

(1 )

o f A m e r ic a n e d u c a t i o n t o

t h e ; s o c ia l im p lic a tio n s of

p h ilo s o p h ie s o f l i f e ;

(2 )

th e ir r e sp e c tiv e

t h e f a c t o r s w h ic h h ad c o n d i t i o n e d

t h e i r t h i n k i n g and fo r m e d t h e i r s t a n d a r d s o f

j u d g m e n t.

T h i s b i o g r a p h i c a l m eth o d o f a p p r o a c h h a s b e e n u s e d r e c e n t l y f o r c o m p a r a t i v e p u r p o s e s t o u n r a v e l p r o b le m s o f human r e l a t i o n s h i p s e v e n i n t h e f i e l d s p h ilo s o p h y . same t i m e ,

o f m a t h e m a t i c s and

By s t u d y i n g t h e l i v e s o f men who w e r e , b o t h p h i l o s o p h e r s and m a t h e m a t i c i a n s ,

a t th e

M oorm an66

w a s a b l e t o g a i n som e i d e a s o f F r e n c h e d u c a t i o n a l p h i l o s o p h y . A s e c o n d m e th o d o f t r e a t i n g d a t a f o r h i s t o r i c a l p e r sp e c tiv e ,

e s p e c ia lly in r e la t io n to

e n v iro n m en ta l

64 Edward H. H e i s n e r , "The H i s t o r y o f E d u c a t i o n a s a S o u r c e o f F u n d a m e n ta l A s s u m p t i o n s i n E d u c a t i o n , " E d u c a t i o n a l A d m l n i s t r a t i o n and s u p e r v i s i o n . 1 4 : 5 8 4 , S e p t e m b e r , 1§2& . 65 M e r le 1 . C u r t i , "The S o c i a l I d e a s o f A m e r ic a n E d u c a t o r s , " R e p o r t o f C o m m itte e o n S o c i a l S t u d i e s , A m e r ic a n H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n , P a r t X (New Y ork : C h a s . S c r i b n e r * s S on s, 1 935). 66 R i c h a r d H. Moorman, Some E d u c a t i o n a l I m p l i c a t i o n s o f D e s c a r t e s 1 S y n t h e s i s o f M a t h e m a t i c s and P h i l o s o p h y ( Na s h v T l l e , T en n essee:G eo rg e Peabody C o lle g e f o r - T e a c h e r s, 1 9 4 0 ) .

27 se ttin g s,

is

E rasm u s i s

th e c h r o n o lo g ic a l approach.

a n exam p le o f t h i s m e t h o d . 67

E m e r t o n ' s work o n He j u s t i f i e s i t

by-

sa y in g th a t he h as u sed th e c h r o n o lo g ic a l o r g a n iz a t io n o f h is m a te r ia l because i t

is

t h e b e s t w ay t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e

d e v e lo p m e n t o f a man i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s t i m e . A t h i r d m e th o d o f o r g a n i z i n g h i s t o r i c a l d a t a i s t h e t o p i c a l o r t h e m a t i c s t y l e : G o o d , B a r r and S c a t e s ^ ® a d v o c a t e t h e u s e o f a c o m b i n a t i o n o f c h r o n o l o g i c a l and t o p i c a l

d a ta .

T h i s s t u d y , t h e n , g o i n g back t o R e n a i s s a n c e o r i g i n s fo r i t s

h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , w i l l a ttem p t to o r g a n iz e t h e

d a t a f o r l a t e r e v a l u a t i o n by a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e t h r e e m eth od s l i s t e d

above, v i z . ,

th e b io g r a p h ic a l, th e

c h r o n o l o g i c a l and t h e t o p i c a l . ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY T h is f i r s t

ch a p ter h as in d ic a t e d th e p o in t o f v ie w

a n d d i s c u s s e d t h e p r o b le m ; i t s lite r a tu r e ,

scop e,

o r ig in ,

V iv e s*

r e la te d

s o u r c e s and m eth o d o f t r e a t m e n t o f d a t a .

The bod 3^ o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i l l ch a p ters.

im p o r ta n c e,

c o n s i s t o f n in e a d d it io n a l

C h ap ter I I , v h i c h f o l l o w s im m e d ia te ly , w i l l b e g in

b io g r a p h y .

I t w i l l d ea l w it h h i s c h ild h o o d y e a r s —

67 E m e r to n ,

ojd.

c it.,

p.

v.

68 C a r t e r G o o d , A . S . B a r r , and D o u g l a s S c a t e s , The M e t h o d o l o g y o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h (New Y ork: - D . A p p le to n C e n t u r y Company, I n c . , 1 9 3 6 7 , p . 2 6 5 .

1 4 9 2 t o 1 5 0 9 — and t h e s e t t i n g i n w h ic h t h e y w e r e l i v e d . w ill

It

in c lu d e a d i s c u s s i o n o f h i s S p a n ish h e r it a g e , fa m ily

t r a d i t i o n s , V a le n c ia n su r r o u n d in g s, in fo r m a l e d u c a tio n a l i n f l u e n c e s , fo rm a l, e d u c a t io n a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f V a le n c ia , and a b r i e f s k e t c h o f t h e h i s t o r y a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f S p a n i s h H um anism . b io g r a p h y .

C h a p t e r s t h r e e and f o u r w i l l c o n c l u d e h i s

T hey w i l l

s t r e s s Humanism a s a b a c k g r o u n d and

w i l l to u ch on o th e r a s p e c t s o f th e R e n a issa n c e . h im se lf, h is

As t o V i v e s ,

c a r e e r w i l l be tr a c e d a t th e U n i v e r s i t i e s o f

P a r i s , L o u v a i n and O x f o r d ;

as a r e s id e n t o f France,

B e lg iu m ,

and I n g l a n d ; and a s an i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c h o l a r , f r i e n d o f More and o f C a t h e r i n e o f A r a g o n , and d i s c i p l e o f E r a s m u s . t e r I I I w i l l d e s c r i b e V iv es* o f P a r i s fr o m 1 5 0 9 - 1 5 1 4 .

Chap­

stu d en t days a t th e U n iv e r s ity

I t w ill

in c lu d e ,

a ls o , a b r ie f

r e s u m ^ o f F r e n c h Humanism and a d i g e s t o f t h e p r a c t i c e o f S c h o la s tic is m th a t day.

as ty p ifie d

i n th e c o u r s e s o f t h e Sorbonne o f

C h a p t e r IV w i l l d e a l w i t h V i v e s *

t h e tim e he r e a c h e d F la n d e r s i n 1 5 1 4 , t w o , to h i s d e a t h i n 1 5 4 0 .

a d u lt l i f e

fr o m

a y o u n g man o f t w e n t y -

In a d d itio n t o a c h r o n o lo g ic a l

o r ie n t a t io n , th e ch a p ter w i l l d is c u s s th e in flu e n c e o f F l e m i s h and E n g l i s h Humanism a n d t h e N o r t h e r n R e n a i s s a n c e i n g e n e r a l.

V iv e s* w ork s w i l l be to u c h e d on b r i e f l y i n c o n n e c ­

t i o n w i t h t h e b a c k g r o u n d s w h ic h i n f l u e n c e d t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n . C h ap ters tw o , t h r e e ,

and f o u r w i l l d e a l , t h e r e f o r e , w i t h t h e

29 im p o r ta n t i n c i d e n t s o f V iv e s* w h ic h h i s l i f e

w as p a s s e d ,

w h ic h f o r m e d h i s

b io g r a p h y , th e

s e ttin g in

and t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l i n f l u e n c e s

s ta n d a r d s o f ju d gm en t.

C h a p t e r V w i l l b u m m a r iz e ^ th e d e t a i & b o f t h e e n v i r o n ­ m e n t a l R e n a i s s a n c e i n f l u e n c e s so t h a t t h e s o c i a l b a c k g r o u n d o f V iv e s*

t i m e s may b e b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d .

I t w ill presen t

a c h r o n o l o g ic a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f im p o r ta n t R e n a is s a n c e fig u r e s;

a b r i e f r e v ie w o f o u ts ta n d in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e

R e n a issa n c e i t s e l f ;

and, a d is c u s s io n o f s o c ia l i l l s

p a r t ic u la r r e fe r e n c e to th e s o c ia l

i s s u e s o f V iv e s*

w ith day.

C h a p t e r VI w i l l d e f i n e s u c h s o c i o l o g i c a l t e r m s a s s o c i a l p r o b l e m s and c u l t u r e m a l a d j u s t m e n t s .

I t w i l l l i s t th e p r in ­

c i p a l w o r k s o f V i v e s u n d e r t o p i c a l h e a d i n g s and r e v i e w some o f h is

im p o rta n t w orks i n th e f i e l d s o f s o c i o l o g y .

V II w i l l ch a p ters,

su m m a rize h i s e d u c a t i o n a l w o r k s .

C h ap ter

T hese t h r e e

t h e n , w i l l r e v ie w V iv e s* w r i t i n g s and i n d i c a t e t h e

i n f l u e n c e s w h ic h b r o u g h t th e m f o r t h . The s u c c e e d i n g c h a p t e r s w i l l

s t u d y , i n m ore d e t a i l

c e r t a i n o f t h e works p r e s e n t e d i n t h o s e c h a p t e r s . V I I I w i l l d e a l w i t h s o c i a l and e d u c a t i o n a l

C h ap ter

refo rm s, p r e s e n t­

i n g V i v e s ’ v i e w s o n w a r , p o v e r t y , l a w and e d u c a t i o n . C h a p t e r IX w i l l h a v e a s i t s h isto r y :

h is

th em e V i v e s ’ p l a c e i n e d u c a t i o n a l

i n f l u e n c e i n h i s own a n d s u c c e e d i n g t i m e s ; t h e

r e a so n f o r h i s ap p aren t o b l i v i o n d u rin g t h e l a t e r c e n t u r i e s , and, th e p o s s ib le

s i g n i f i c a n c e to p r e s e n t - d a y e d u c a t io n o f

30 h i s re-a p p ea ra n ce a s a g r e a t e d u c a tio n a l f i g u r e . w i l l su m m a rize t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d , e v a l u a t e i t ,

and

in d ic a t e p o s s i b l e c h a n n e ls f o r fu r th e r r e s e a r c h . b ib lio g r a p h y , p a r t i a l l y a n n o ta ted , w i l l

C h ap ter X

A fu lle r

c o m p lete t h e s t u d y .

The te r m e d u c a t i o n i s u s e d i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i n th e se n s e o f " a d a p tiv e ” c u lt u r e .

As t h e s o c i a l o r d e r

changes in r e a c tio n in in v e n tio n s ,

d isc o v e r ie s,

war, e t c . ,

e d u c a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e i s m o d i f i e d t o m e e t new n e e d s .

Educa­

t i o n a l s o h a s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , t h r o u g h t h 6 d e v e lo p m e n t o f an id e o lo g y , o f

s e t t i n g up t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f t h e new o r d e r .

The g o a l s s e t up may b e w i t h i n t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l o n ly th e advanced t h in k e r s o f t h e t im e s . how ever, one t e s t o f t h e i r v a l i d i t y l i e s i n c r e a s e o f p e o p l e who g r a s p t h e i r

co m p a ss o f

As t i m e p a s s e s , in th e gradual

sig n ific a n c e .

V iv e s* l i f e

and w o r k s w i l l b e s t u d i e d w i t h e s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o e d u c a ­ tio n a l

s o c i o l o g y and h i s t o r y . To fo r m a r e f e r e n c e f o r s o c i o l o g i c a l

co m p a riso n o f t h e

t r a n s i t i o n e r a s o f t h e s i x t e e n t h and t w e n t i e t h

c e n tu r ie s,

th e b io g r a p h ic a l ch a p ters have fo u r p h a se s, v iz : sta n d in g in c id e n t s o f V iv e s 1 p e r so n a l l i f e ; background, i . e . , le a r n in g ,

c h r o n o lo g ic a l s e t t in g ;

e sp e c ia lly n a tio n a lis tic

(2 )

(3)

(1 )

o u t­

h isto r ic a l

contem p orary

s c h o o l s o f Humanism; and

(4 ) m a la d ju stm e n ts i n t h e s o c i a l o r d e r . P s y c h o lo g ic a lly ,

e d u c a t i o n may b e d e f i n e d a s a p r o c e s s

o f a d j u s t m e n t b e t w e e n t h e o r g a n i s m and i t s

en v iro n m en t.

CHAPTER I I VIVES’ BOYHOOD I N VALENCIA ( 1 4 9 2 - 1 5 0 9 ) INTRODUCTION The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y , a s a l r e a d y o u t l i n e d i n th e f i r s t life

ch ap ter, i s

t o d i s c o v e r , th ro u g h a stu d y o f th e

and w o r k s o f J u a n L u i s V i v e s , t h e

fic a n c e , i f

e d u c a tio n a l s i g n i ­

a n y , o f t h e r e v i v a l o f i n t e r e s t i n him t o d a y .

B e f o r e any c o n c l u s i o n s c a n b e r e a c h e d c e r t a i n q u e s t i o n s m ust b e a n sw e re d . w as V i v e s ?

The f i r s t

The s e c o n d i s :

in flu e n c e d h is l i f e

o f th e s e q u e s tio n s i s :

What e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s

and fo r m e d h i s s t a n d a r d s o f ju d g m en t?

The n e x t t h r e e c h a p t e r s w i l l a t t e m p t t o tio n s.

Who

answ er t h e s e q u e s ­

T h ey w i l l d e a l w i t h i m p o r t a n t b i o g r a p h i c a l e v e n t s ,

d e s c r i b e t h e b a c k g r o u n d a g a i n s t w h ic h V i v e s * p a s s e d , and t r a c e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l w as s u b j e c t e d .

life

w as

i n f l u e n c e s t o w h ic h h e

C h a p t e r two w i l l d i s c u s s V i v e s * S p a n i s h

h e r i t a g e and h i s b o y h o o d e x p e r i e n c e s i n V a l e n c i a ; C h a p t e r I I I w ill

d e sc r ib e h is stu d en t days a t th e U n iv e r sity

C h a p t e r IV w i l l p o r t r a y h i s a d u l t l i f e h ea d -q u a rters.

o f P a r is;

w ith F la n d e r s a s h i s

B e fo r e b e g in n in g t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f V iv es*

e a r l y y o u t h , a t home i n h i s n a t i v e V a l e n c i a , a b r i e f c h r o n o l o g i c a l resu m e o f t h e i m p o r t a n t p e r i o d s o f h i s l i f e w i l l be sk e tc h e d .

32 C h r o n o l o g i c a l l y , V iv e s* s ix p e r io d s:

1 49 2-1 50 9,

o f S p a n ish i n f l u e n c e ;

life

may h e d i v i d e d i n t o

c h i l d h o o d and e a r l y y o u t h p e r i o d

1 5 0 9 -1 5 1 4 ,1 stu d e n t days a t t h e

U n iv e r s i t y o f P a r i s , — p e r io d o f French in f l u e n c e ; 1519,

1514-

s t u d e n t and t e a c h e r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f L o u v a i n , —

p e r i o d o f c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n S c h o l a s t i c i s m and Humanism; 1 5 1 9 -1 5 2 3 , r e s id e n c e i n F la n d e r s,

d i s c i p l e o f E r a sm u s ,—

p e r io d o f n o r th e r n H u m a n istic i n f l u e n c e ; 1 5 2 3 - 1 5 2 8 , l e c t u r e r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f O xfo rd , e d u c a tio n a l

c o n su lta n t to th e

P r i n c e s s M a ry , f r i e n d o f M o r e ,— p e r i o d o f E n g l i s h H u m a n i s t i c i n f l u e n c e ; 1 5 2 8 - 1 5 4 0 , p e r m a n e n t home a t B r u g e s , i n t e r n a t i o n ­ a l l y known s c h o l a r , — p e r i o d o f g r e a t l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y . The b r i e f c h r o n o l o g i c a l r esu m e a b o v e h i n t s a t t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l b a c k g r o u n d w h ic h s e t t h e s t a g 6 f o r V i v e s * a c tiv itie s .

Born i n M e d ite r r a n e a n S p a i n , w ith i t s

i n f l u e n c e o f Mohammedan a n d C h r i s t i a n f a i t h s ; two c o n f l i c t i n g

life

dual

tr a in e d in th e

c u l t u r e s o f t h e S c h o l a s t i c S orb on n e and t h e

R e n a issa n c e T r o is L angues (L o u v a in ); p r o te g s ' o f t h e E n g lis h H en ry and t h e S p a n i s h C a t h e r i n e , f r i e n d o f More and o f E r a sm u s; and h o n o r e d c i t i z e n o f t h e S p a n i s h N e t h e r l a n d s ; - t h e s e w ere th e

s h i f t i n g n o t e s o f h i s e a r t h l y d ra m a .

One

1 L a te r s c h o la r s g iv e th e d a te a s 1 5 1 4 . E a r lie r sc h o la r s g iv e th e d a te as 1512. S e e F o s t e r W atson , V i v e s : o n E d u c a t i o n (C a m b r id g e : The U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 1 3 ) , n o t e 2, p. l x i i l .

33 c a n n o t b u t w o n d e r w h at m ann er o f man s u c h d i v e r s e i n f l u e n c e s c o u ld produce;

and w h ic h o f h i s e x p e r i e n c e s w o u ld l e a v e t h e

s t r o n g e s t i m p r i n t u p o n h i s m ind and w o r k s . T h i s S p a n i s h p e r i o d w as v e r y i m p o r t a n t b o t h i n t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f V i v e s *

a t t i t u d e s tow ard l i f e

t i o n o f h i s i d e a l s and s t a n d a r d s . p e r io d , how ever,

is

and i n t h e f o r m a ­

T he i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s

due n o t m e r e l y t o t h e f a c t t h a t i t

encom passed th e m ost im p r e s s io n a b le y e a r s o f V iv e s*

life

as

an i n d i v i d u a l b u t a l s o , b e c a u s e t h e S p a n i s h b a c k g r o u n d , w i t h i t s M o o r is h and M e d i t e r r a n e a n h e r i t a g e , V iv es*

life

en v iro n m en ta l

fa c to r s la c k in g in th e

o f t h e g r e a t R e n a issa n c e s c h o la r s o f h i s a g e. w e re t h e s e d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g f a c t o r s ? h e r it a g e o f S p a in ,

brought in to e a r ly l i v e s

W hat, t h e n ,

How d i d t h e c u l t u r a l

e s p e c i a l l y t h a t o f C a ta la n V a le n c ia ,

d i f f e r fr o m t h a t o f o t h e r E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s a t t h e c l o s e o f th e f i f t e e n t h

cen tu ry ? VIVES* SPANISH HERITAGE

I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e c o m p le x f a c t o r s o f t h e r a c i a l and n a t i o n a l h e r i t a g e p a s s e d on to V iv e s i n 1 4 9 2 , is

n e c e ssa r y to

a n g le s ,--its

it

c o n s i d e r t h e h i s t o r y o f S p a i n from t h r e e

c u ltu r e ,

g o v e r n m e n t , and e t h n o l o g y .

A c co r d in g

t o Hume, S p a i n i s t h e . e p i t o m e o f a l l t h e p r e c e d i n g c u l t u r e s

34 o f th e w o r id .^

S p a n ish o r i g i n s , t h e r e f o r e ,

ro o ted in th e p a s t.

a r e d e e p ly -

T h i s w as a t o p i c w h ic h w a s v e r y

in tr ig u in g to V iv e s.

In f a c t ,

he once s a i d , "I have in

m ind t h e w r i t i n g o f a h o o k i n L a t i n o n w h a t t h e L a t i n andG re ek h i s t o r i e s I in te n d to

sa y on s u b j e c t s o f S p a n is h h i s t o r y

and t h u s

i l l u s t r a t e S p a n ish o r i g i n s . " 3

S p a in , i t w i l l

be r e m e m b e r e d , i s

lo c a te d

at th e

j u n c t i o n o f t h e A t l a n t i c O cean and t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a , a t t h e ex trem e so u th w e st c o r n e r o f t h e c o n t in e n t o f E u rop e. It is

s e p a r a t e d fr o m A f r i c a ,

(S p a n ish M o ro c co ), by t h e

S t r a i t o f G i b r a l t a r o n l y an d f o r m s t h e w e s t e r n t e r m i n a l o f M e d ite r r a n e a n c i v i l i z a t i o n .

B ecause o f t h i s g e o g r a p h ic a l

l o c a t i o n S p a i n h a s b e e n o v e r r u n by s u c c e s s i v e m i g r a t i o n s — I b e r ia n , P h o e n ic ia n , C a r th a g in ia n , G reek, C e l t i c ,

Roman,

G e r m a n ic , M oslem — fr o m e a r l i e s t h i s t o r i c a l t i m e s . E ach o f t h e s e p e o p l e s , i n i t s n e x t o n c o m in g i n v a d e r ,

tu rn f e l l

but not w ith o u t le a v in g i t s

c u l t u r a l and e t h n o l o g i c a l i m p r i n t b e h i n d . w as t h e

b e fo r e th e

S p a in ,

own s a y s Hume,

b a t t l e - g r o u n d on w h ic h w a s d e c i d e d t h e f o r m w h ic h

m od ern c u l t u r e w as t o t a k e .

4

S p a n ish c u lt u r e ,

t h e n , due to

2 M a r t i n S . Hume, The S p a n i s h P e o p l e ; T h e i r O r i g i n , G row th and I n f l u e n c e (N6w Y o rk : D . A p p l e t o n and Com pany, 1901) . 3 J o h n T w yn e, " d e R ebus A l b i o n i c i s , " ( p u b l i s h e d 1 5 9 0 ) q u o t e d i n F o s t e r W a ts o n , L u i s V i v e s : E l G ran V a l e n c i a n o ( 1 4 9 3 - 1 5 4 0 ) ( O x fo r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s : Humphrey M i l f o r d , 1& 22) , p . 4 7 . 4 I b id ., p. v i i i .

35 t h e a c c u m u la tin g r e s i d u e s o f s u c c e e d in g c o n q u e s t s , e p it o m iz e s t o a l a r g e e x t e n t th e v a r io u s s y s te m s and i n s t i t u t i o n s t h r o u g h w h ic h t h e w o r l d h a s d e v e l o p e d . The t h r e e c o n q u e r i n g r a c e s v ih ic h h a v e l e f t t h e m o s t v i s i b l e t r a c e s o n t h e p e o p l e and i n s t i t u t i o n s o f S p a i n a r e t h e R om ans, t h e G o t h s , an d t h e M o s l e m s . th e P h o e n ic ia n s a lso

l e f t t h e i r m a rk .

A c co r d in g to V i v e s , He i s q u o t e d a s

s a y i n g t h a t Hb y t h e i r i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c o v e t o u s and c o n t e n ­ t i o u s ways i n S p a in , t h e P h o e n ic ia n s w ere t h e

in itia to r s of

th e p r e s e n t and f u t u r e m i s e r i e s o f t h a t c o u n t r y .” 5 S p a i n a s a Roman p r o v i n c e .

The Romans w i t h t h e i r

o r g a n iz in g g e n iu s l a i d th e fo u n d a tio n o f S p a n ish c i v i l i z a ­ tio n .

They e s t a b l i s h e d L a t i n i n s t i t u t i o n s ,

a d m in is tr a tio n , a m p h ith ea tr es;

com m erce; b u i l t r o a d s , b a th s, p u b lic b u ild in g s ,

tro d u ced C h r i s t i a n i t y i n th e secon d

la n g u a g e,

la w ,

c i t i e s , b r id g e s, sc h o o ls.

cen tu ry .

They i n ­

In th e fo u rth

c e n t u r y T h e o d o s i u s , h i m s e l f a S p a n i a r d , made C h r i s t i a n i t y t h e r e l i g i o n o f t h e e n t i r e Roman w o r l d . The P r o v i n c e o f S p a i n p l a y e d a v e r y i m p o r t a n t p a r t in th e l i f e

o f t h e Roman B m p ir e.

S h e f u r n i s h e d w e a l t h and

t h e f o o d o n Tfthich m a r c h e d t h e c o n q u e r i n g Roman a r m i e s . o f t h e g r e a t e s t Romans— r u l e r s ,

5 Ib id .,

p. 46.

sc h o la r s,

so ld ie r s ,

Some

sta tesm en

36 w ere born i n S p a in .

Among them w e r e s u c h fa m o u s nam es a s

M arcu s A u r e l i u s , T r a j a n , A d r i a n , L u c a n , S e n e c a , M a r t i a l and Q u i n t i l i a n . 6

H ow ever, S p a i n ,

t h e Homan E m p ir e , f e l t so p h istr y .

th e

As Roman l i f e

l i k e t h e o t h e r m em bers o f

e f f e c t o f t o o much o p u l e n c e and in c r e a se d in

s p le n d o r and l u x u r y ,

t h e S p a n i a r d s b e g a n t o d e g e n e r a t e i n i d e a l s m o r a l s and m ann ers.

A p e r io d o f decay s e t i n .

Rome f e l l a n d s o o n

a f t e r , th e S p a n ish p r o v in c e f e l l w ith i t . S p a in a s a G o th ic t h e o c r a c y .

F o llo w in g th e d e c li n e

o f Roman p o w e r came t h e G o t h i c i n v a s i o n s .

The V i s i g o t h s

b r o u g h t fr o m t h e n o r t h a s t r a i n o f m ore p r i m i t i v e and v i g o r o u s s t r e n g t h , g i v i n g new b l o o d t o t h e w e a k e n e d S p a n i a r d s and l e a v i n g b e h i n d i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o b e b u ilt

in to

th e fu tu r e l i f e

o f S p a in .

They r e v i s e d and

a d a p t e d t h e J u s t i n i a n c o d e , and p u b l i s h e d i t V isig o th o r u m .

a s th e Lex

S p a i n t h u s w a s t h e o n l y c o u n t r y i n E u ro p e a t

t h a t tim e t o f u n c t i o n u n d er c i v i l a s w e l l a s C a n o n ica l la w . The G o t h i c g o v e r n m e n t w a s a t h e o c r a c y u n d e r a p u p p e t k in g .

From 509 o n , p r i e s t s w e r e p a r a m o u n t i n S p a n i s h

p o litic s .8

The G o t h i c s o c i a l

system r e c o g n iz e d p e r so n a l

6 V i v e s w as known a s t h e " S e c o n d Q u i n t i l i a n " E n g lis h and F le m ish H u m a n ists. 7 Hume, o p . c i t . , p . 6 5 . 8

Ib id .,

p.

x i.

by

7

37 in d ep en d e n c e,

e q u a lity o f th e

s e x e s a s i n d i v i d u a l s , and t h e

G er m a n ic t r a d i t i o n s o f e l e c t i v e and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e p a r t i c i ­ p a t io n i n g o v e r n m e n t.9 tio n ,

T hus,

c i v i l la w ,

p r i e s t l y dom in a­

and d e m o c r a t i c i d e a s o f g o v e r n m e n t h e l p e d s h a p e t h e

id e a ls o f th e V iv e s,

i.e .,

sta te

i n w h ic h l i v e d t h e p r o g e n i t o r s o f

A ragon.

S p a i n a s a c e n t e r o f M oslem c u l t u r e . M o s le m s .

T h en came t h e

They came fr o m t h e s o u t h and p u s h e d f a r t h e r a nd

f a r t h e r n o r th u n t i l o n ly th e n orth e a s t c o r n e r o f t h e p e n in su la ,

th e p r e s e n t p r o v in c e o f A ragon w as l e f t t o t h e

C h r istia n s.

For e ig h t

c e n t u r i e s , t h e M o sle m s r u l e d S p a i n

and s e t t h e s t a n d a r d o f l i f e . c itie s .

T hey e s t a b l i s h e d

im p o r ta n t

One o f t h e i r g r e a t s t r o n g h o l d s w a s V a l e n c i a w h e r e

V iv e s was b o r n . I b e r o -H o m a n c u l t u r e w as t h u s s u p e r c e d e d by t h e A r a b i c c u lt u r e o f B y z a n tin e c i v i l i z a t i o n s . h ig h r e p u t e .

L e a r n in g was h e ld i n

To t h e h e r i t a g e o f R o m a n - G r e e k - I b e r i a n c u l t u r e ,

w a s add ed t h e s c i e n t i f i c

and m a th e m a tic a l a t t a in m e n t s o f t h e

A r a b s , and t h e O r i e n t a l l o v e o f b r i g h t c o l o r s and v e g e t a t i o n . I n 9 1 2 - 9 6 1 A .D . u n d e r A b d -e r-R a h m a n I I I , S p a i n becam e t h 6 g rea test c u ltu r e .

sta te

i n E urope and w as t h e

As t i m e p a s s e d o n ,

I b id .,

p. 46.

h ig h e st

e le m e n ts o f th e g r e a t u n d e r ly ­

i n g Roman c i v i l i z a t i o n b e g a n t o

9

cen ter o f i t s

e m e rg e and t o f u s e w i t h t h e

38 A r a b ia n l e a r n i n g , b u i l d i n g a f o u n d a t io n f o r th e S p a n ish R e n a issa n c e o f th e f i f t e e n t h

cen tu ry ,

C h r is t ia n c r u sa d e s a g a in s t t h e M oors, w h ile , how ever, th e r e C h r istia n s. C a s tile .

I n t h e m ean­

s t i l l r e m a i n e d som e l i t t l e

n u c le i o f

One n u c l e u s b ecam e f i n a l l y t h e k in g d o m o f

The o t h e r w a s A r a g o n w h i c h , i n t h e t w e l f t h

u n ite d w ith C a ta lo n ia , o f th e s e C h r istia n t h e M o s le m s .

in th e t h ir t e e n t h

I n 1 2 3 8 , J a im e I ,

cen tu ry ,

c e n tu r y , th e p e o p le

s e t t le m e n t s began t h e i r

cru sad es a g a in st

o f A ragon, cap tu red th e

k in g d o m o f V a l e n c i a d e l i v e r i n g i t co n q u est,

sp le n d id

fr o m t h e M o o r s.

T h is

f o r A ragon, ranked i n im p o rta n ce w ith th e c a p tu r e

o f S e v i l l e f o r C a s til-6 :. t h o s e who a s s i s t e d

V iv e s*

p r o g e n i t o r s w e r e among

in th e con q u est o f V a le n c ia .

T h ey l a t e r

f o u n d e d t h e V a l e n c i a n f a m i l y o f w h ic h J u a n L u i s V i v e s w a s th e d escen d a n t. R e g io n a l c u ltu r e in S p a in .

Hume c a u t i o n s t h a t t h e

k e y t o many o t h e r w i s e i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e h i s t o r i c a l m en ts l i e s

d e v e lo p ­

i n a r e c o g n it io n o f th 6 f a c t th a t th e i n s t i t u t i o n s

o f S p a in w ere l i k e l y t o be r e g io n a l had r e s i s t e d

in c h a r a c t e r . T h e y

a b s o r p t i o n f o r two r e a s o n s :

r e s id u e s h in d e r e d r a c i a l

(1 )

f u s i o n e s p e c i a l l y w here d i f f e r e n t

l a w s and d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s w e r e i n v o l v e d ;

10 Hume,

0£

.

e th n o lo g ic a l

c i t . , p.

ix

(2 )

th e r e w ere

39 so many i s o l a t e d v a l l e y s tio n ,

tr a n sp o r ta tio n ,

d iffic u lty .

and m o u n t a in t o p s t h a t com m u n ica­

and com m erce w e r e c a r r i e d o n w i t h

U n t i l th e R e n a is s a n c e p e r io d , t h e S p a n ia r d

l o o k e d u p o n t h e to w n a s h i s f a t h e r l a n d , r a t h e r t h a n u p o n h is

co u n try.

T h i s a t t i t u d e came a b o u t f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t

t h e to w n s had a lw a y s b e e n :

th e c e n t e r o f S p a n ish l i f e ;

u n i t o f g o v ern m en t; t h e b i r t h p l a c e o f t r a d i t i o n ; f o c u s o f p a t r i o t i s m . 11

th e

and, th e

The i d e a o f a n a t i o n a l s t a t e had t o

be. b u i l t upon t h e c o n c e p t io n o f r e g i o n a l p a t r i o t i s m , V iv e s r e f e r s fr e q u e n t ly t o V a le n c ia a s h i s

liv e n

co u n try r a th e r

t h a n to S p a i n . N a t i o n a l u n i t y u n d e r F e r d i n a n d and I s a b e l l a . was d e s t in e d to fo r tu ito u s

S p a in

b ecom e a g r e a t n a t i o n a l s t a t e b e c a u s e o f

c ir c u m s t a n c e s and o f s k i l l f u l m a n e u v e rin g .

jo in t-r u le r sh ip

The

o f F e r d i n a n d an d I s a b e l l a fw h ic h b r o u g h t

a b o u t a l a r g e am ount o f t e r r i t o r y u n d e r a c e n t r a l i z e d g o v e r n ­ m e n t, p l u s a n a p p e a l t o r e l i g i o u s f a n a t i c i s m , u n i t e d t h e co u n try in a r e l i g i o u s cru sad e t o r id th e cou n try o f th e i n f i d e l M oo r, and t o

convert or d estro y a l l h e r e tic s .

I n t h i s way S p a i n m oved o n t o N a t i o n a l i s m ,

a

n a t i o n a l i s m m ore a b s o l u t e t h a n i n t h e o t h e r e m e r g in g s t a t e s o f F u rop e s i n c e t h e S p a n is h r e l i g i o u s h ie r a r c h y was a lm o s t

11 Ib id ., p. x i i .

40 c o m p l e t e l y u n d e r t h e d o m i n a t i o n o f t h e C rown.

The P o p e had

l e s s pow er i n S p a in t h a n i n any o t h e r C a t h o l i c c o u n tr y o f E u r o p e .12

C o m p lic a t io n s su ch a s F r a n c e had w it h t h e

S o r b o n n e and E n g la n d and Germany w i t h t h e P o p e w e r e a v o i d e d . I s a b e l l a was a b le w ith co m p a ra tiv e e a s e t o s t r a i g h t e n o u t th e d is so lu te

ch u rch m en a n d , w i t h t h e h e l p o f J i m e n e z d e

C is n e r o s , to p u rge th e church o f i t s w o r st -a b u ses. I n 1 4 9 2 , G ran ad a w a s c o n q u e r e d and e i g h t

c e n tu r ie s

o f M o o rish d o m in a tio n b ro u g h t to an end; i n 1 4 9 2 , I s a b e l l a o r d e r e d P e t e r M a r t y r to r e s c u e t h e y o u n g n o b l e s o f S p a i n fro m i d l e n e s s and t o i n s t i l l

i n th e m a l o v e f o r l e t t e r s ;

i n 1 4 9 2 , A n to n io de L e b r i j a w r o te h i s G a s t i l l i a n

grammar

f o r t h e l a d i e s o.f t h e S p a n i s h C o u r t ; 1 3 a n d , i n 1 4 9 2 , C olum bus d i s c o v e r e d A m e r i c a and b e g a n t h e b u i l d i n g o f S p a i n ’ s c o l o n i a l e m p ire . VIVES * FJMILY BACKGROUND T h i s same y e a r , 1 4 9 2 , m arked t h e a d v e n t i n t o w o r l d o f J u a n L u i s V i v e s , b o r n M arch 6 , i n V a l e n c i a .

th is He

came o f d i s t i n g u i s h e d a n c e s t r y , b o t h p a r e n t s b e i n g o f n o b l e b ir th .

H i s f a t h e r ’ s f a m i l y h ad a c h i e v e d a r e p u t a t i o n f o r

12 R. T r e v o r D a v i e s , T h e G o ld e n C e n t u r y o f S p a i n , ( 1 5 0 1 - 1 6 2 1 ) (L o n d o n : M a c m i l l a n and Company, l ^ s T T , p . 1 0 .

nr

A c c o r d i n g t o W a t s o n , t h e f i r s t grammar o f a v e r n a c u la r la n g u a g e t o b e w r i t t e n by a h u m a n ist s c h o l a r . S e e F o s t e r W a t s o n , L u i s V i v e s : E l G ran V a l e n c i a n o , o p . c i t . , p . 1 0 4 , N o te 1 .

41 m a r tia l v a lo r .

T hey had won t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n i n t h e

C h r is t ia n C ru sa d es a g a i n s t t h e M oors.

H is m o th e r ’ s f a m i ly

w a s known f o r o u t s t a n d i n g s c h o l a r s h i p and i n c l u d e d s e v e r a l fa m o u s p o e t s ,

among then* A u s i a s M a rch , t h e n a t i o n a l p o e t

o f C a ta lo n ia .

As h i s p a r e n t s ,

how ever, w ere i n

c o m p a ra tiv e­

l y m odest c ir c u m s ta n c e s , Y iv e s was r e a r e d w ith o u t o s t e n t a ­ tio n . The p i c t u r e o f t h e f a m i l y l i f e

as g iv e n by Y iv e s in

h i s w r i t i n g s r e v e a l s a h a r m o n io u s h o u s e h o l d r u n o n S p a r t a n p r i n c i p l e s and h i g h i d e a l s , sid e r a tio n .

hu t perm eated w it h l o v i n g c o n ­

A p p a r e n tly Y iv e s had one s i s t e r . 14

He m e n t i o n s

h i s f a t h e r b u t o n c e i n h i s w r i t i n g s and t h e n o n l y t o empha­ s iz e th e c o n g e n ia lity o f h is p a r e n ts .. to many t i m e s , resp ect.

H is m oth er he r e f e r s

a l w a y s w i t h a f f e c t i o n t i n g e d w i t h w h o le s o m e

He s a y s o f th em MMy m o t h e r B l a n c h e when s h e had

b e e n f i f t e e n y e a r s m a r r i e d u n t o my f a t h e r , s e e h e r s t r i v e w i t h my f a t h e r .

.

.

and B l a n c h e w a s t a k e n up and u s e d , verb.

.

.

. But i t

I c o u ld n e v e r

. th e concord o f Y iv e s i n a m anner, f o r a p r o ­

i s n o t t o b e t a l k e d a b o u t i n a b o o k (made

f o r a n o th er purp ose)

o f my m o s t h o l y m o t h e r , whom I d o u b t

n o t now t o h a v e i n h e a v e n t h e f r u i t and r e w a r d o f h e r p u r e

14 J u a n B u i s Y i v e s , O pera ( Y a l e n c i a : M a j a n s i u s , 1 7 8 2 ) , q u o t e d by A d o l f o B o n i l l a y S a n M a r t i n i n L u i s Y i v e s £ l a F i l o s o f i a d e l R e n a c im ie n to (S .A . E s p a s a - C a lp e , 192$) , I , 2 4 5 .

42 and h o l y l i v i n g . ” 1 5 V i v e s e v e n w e n t f u r t h e r and i n c l u d e d h i s m o t h e r among t h e s a i n t s w i t h A g n e s , C a t h e r i n e , A g a t h a , M a r g a r e t , B a rb a ra , M o n ica , e t c . 15 person al

E r a sm u s t o o k e x c e p t i o n t o

th ese

r e f e r e n c e s sa y in g t h a t such p io u s t r i b u t e s w ere

u n s e e m l y and i n bad t a s t e

and t h a t no o n e w a s i n t e r e s t e d

r e a d in g ab ou t t h e v i r t u e s o f s t r a n g e r s .

in

V i v e s r e p l i e d he

w a s o n l y f o l l o w i n g t h e e x a m p le s e t b y S e n e c a ,

Q u i n t i l i a n and

o t h e r s and t h a t h e had b e e n m oved t o i n e l u d e h i s m o t h e r by h i s l o v e o f t r u t h . 17 V i v e s 1 hom e.

V iv e s was b orn i n a s e c t i o n o f V a l e n c ia

known a s t h e C a r r e r de l a t a b e r n a d e l l g a l l .

He r e f e r s t o

t h e f a m i l y home i n L e g e s L u d i , ( a v a r i e d d i a l o g u e o n t h e c i t y o f V a le n c ia ).

H ere he h a s s c i n t i l l a

s u g g e s t g o in g " th ro u g h

t h e q u a r t e r o f t h e C ock T a v e r n ( t a b e r n a i e g a l l i n a c e a e ) . i n t h a t q u a r te r I sh o u ld l i k e to

For

s e e t h e home i n w h i c h my

3-5 H y r d e * s t r a n s l a t i o n o f V i v e s 1 I n s t i t u t i o n s F e m in a e C h r i s t i a n a e f o u n d i n F o s t e r W a ts o n , V i v e s and t h e R e n a s c e n c e E d u c a t i o n o f Women (New Y o r k : L o n gm an s, G r e e n a n d Company, 1 9 l 2 ) , p . i T T l ” 16 P a y n e l l * s t r a n s l a t i o n o f V i v e s * Djs O f f i c i i M a r i t i f o u n d i n F o s t e r W a t s o n , V i v e s and t h e R e n a s c e n c e E d u c a t i o n o f Women, o p . c i t . , p . 1 1 7 . --------------T7 A d o lfo B o n i l l a y San M a r tin , L u is V iv e s £ l a F i l o s o f i a d e l R e n a c i m i e n t o (M a d r id : S . A. E s p a s a - C a l p e , tssstt

iV p T i t : —

:---------

43 Y i v e s w a s b o rn * le ft

It is

situ a te d ,

a s W6 d e s c e n d q u i t e

as I have heard , to th e

a t t h e end o f t h e q u a r te r .

W a tso n c o m p a r e s Y i v e s ’ Y a l e n c i a n home w i t h t h a t o f S i r Thomas M ore a t C h e l s e a . 19 sim ila r ity

i n h a r m o n io u s a t m o s p h e r e b u t a l s o

q u a l i t i e s o f M o r e ’ s home. i n d e t a i l . 20 p erm ea ted w it h p ie ty ,

He i m p l i e s n o t o n l y a in oth er

E rasm us h a s d e s c r i b e d t h e h o u s e

He h a s c h a r a e t e r i z e d ’M o r e ’ s Academy" a s sim p lic ity , k in d lin e s s,

jo y fu l c o -o p e r a tio n ,

a ffe c tio n ,

s o b e r m i r t h and a l o v e o f

l e a r n i n g w h i c h i n c l u d e d b o t h y o u n g and o l d . w as, he s a y s , a v e r it a b le

in d u str y ,

The h o u s e h o l d

sch o o l o f C h r istia n r e l ig i o n in

w h ic h t h e w h o l e h o u s e h o l d , — M o r e , h i s w i f e ,

h is

c h i l d r e n and

t h e i r f a m i l i e s — a n d , i t m ig h t b e a d d ed , t h e C h a n c e l l o r ’ s r e lu c t a n t r e t i n u e ,j o i n e d i n a c q u ir in g th e b ran ch es o f a lib e r a l

e d u c a tio n .

T /a tso n f i n d s a r e s e m b l a n c e h e r e t o

Y i v e s ’ o l d Y a l e n c i a n home w h e r e Y i v e s ’ g r a n d f a t h e r , H en ry M arch , i n s t r u c t e d h im i n t h e

e le m e n t s o f la w , h i s m oth er

t a u g h t h im S p a n i s h , a n d a f r i e n d o f t h e f a m i l y , t h e p h y s i ­ c i a n J u a n P o b l a c i o n , t a u g h t h im t h e f u n d a m e n t a l s o f m e d i c i n e . Y i v e s ’ own c h i l d h o o d h o m e, h o w e v e r , w as m ore a u s t e r e i n

18 F o s t e r W atson , t r a n s l a t o r , Y i v e s ’ L in g u a e L a t in a e E x e r c i t a t i o n e s ( T u d or S c h o o l - Boy L i f e ; L o n d o n : J . M. D e n t and Com pany, 1 9 0 8 ) , p . 2 6 1 . 19 F o s t e r W a t s o n , L u i s Y i v e s ; E l G ran Y a l e n o l a n o , o p . c i t . , p . 52• 20 L oc. c i t .

44 c h a r a c t e r t h a n t h e R e n a i s s a n c e s t r o n g h o l d o f S i r Thomas More • Y a le n c ia n s e t t i n g .

The s e t t i n g o f V a l e n c i a w as

v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f t h e E n g li s h C h e l s e a . c ia i s

V a le n ­

s a i d t o h a v e h e e n c a p t u r e d and r e - c a p t u r e d m ore t h a n

any o t h e r c i t y o f t h e w o r ld . tio n e d e a r lie r in t h is

The e p i t o m e o f c u l t u r e s , men­

ch a p ter,

was m a rk ed ly i n e v i d e n c e .

The V a l e n c i a n C a t h e d r a l w as e r e c t e d i n 1 2 6 2 o n t h e r u i n s o f a M o o r i s h M o sq u e .

The G r e a t M o sq u e , i n i t s

t u r n , had b een

b u i l t o n t h e r e m a i n s o f t h e T em ple o f D i a n a .

The G o t h s

c o n q u e r e d V a l e n c i a fr o m t h e Romans i n 4 1 3 A . D . , to o k i t

fr o m t h e G o t h s t h r e 6 c e n t u r i e s l a t e r .

t h e M oors The M oors

w it h t h e i r k n o w led g e o f s c i e n t i f i c h y d r a u l i c s r e c la im e d t h e d 6 S 6 r t b y t h e i r c a n a l s and i r r i g a t i o n d i t c h e s m a k in g V a l e n c i a a r e g i o n o f u n s u r p a s s e d b e a u t y and f e r t i l i t y .

The

c a p i t a l i z a t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e s b r o u g h t w e a l t h and p r o s p e r ity to th e p r o v in c e . A lth o u g h V a le n c ia w as a C h r i s t i a n p r o v in c e , been conquered, a s h as been p r e v io u s ly s t a t e d , A r a g o n e s e u n d e r J a im e I i n 1 2 3 8 , y e t t h e r e in 1500,

c o n sid e r a b le r e l ig i o u s t o le r a n c e .

h a v in g

by t h e

s till

r em a in e d ,

A ragon had i t s

f a c e t u r n e d t o w a r d s M e d i t e r r a n e a n t r a d e and d i p l o m a c y r a t h e r th an to th e e x t in c t io n o f h e r e t i c s w ith in i t s

bord ers.

A lso ,

t h e r a i d s o f t h e T u r k s and C o r s a i r s f r o m w i t h o u t m ore o r l e s s u n i t e d t h e p e o p l e i n p r o b l e m s o f common d e f e n s e .

E ven up t o

45 V i v e s 1 d a y , t l i e M o ors w e r e p e r m i t t e d t o r e lig io u s p r a c tic e s*

I t w a s t h e J e w s who a n t a g o n i z e d t h e

V a l e n c i a n s and who " b y t h e i r w a y s ,"

c o v e t o u s and c o n t e n t i o u s

a s V i v e s s a i d , 21 b r o u g h t o n r e l i g i o u s

T h ey had come i n l a r g e num bers i n t h e tia n

c o n t i n u e t h e i r own

c r u s a d e r s fr o m A r a g o n .

a c q u ir e c o n tr o l o f th e had p r o d u c e d .

a n ta g o n ism s.

t r a in o f th e C h ris­

T h ey b e g a n i m m e d i a t e l y t o

comm erce and w e a l t h w h ic h t h e M oors

In 1391,

t h e i r p o w er w a s som ew hat w e a k e n e d

by a n u p r i s i n g and m a s s a c r e ,

i n 1 4 9 2 , t h e y had t o make a

e h o ic e b etw een C h r i s t i a n i t y or e x i l e . V a le n c ia , C o m m e r c ia lly , i t

i n v iv e s* had i t s

tim e , was a f l o u r is h i n g

silk

c ity .

e x c h a n g e and w a s t h e c e n t e r o f

a t h r i v i n g M e d ite r r a n e a n t r a d e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s . T h an k s l a r g e l y t o t h e M oors and t h e J e w s ,

it

had p r o m u lg a ted

and m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e c e n t u r i e s a h i g h sc h o la r sh ip .

stan d ard o f

V a l e n c i a h ad a n u n u s u a l l y l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f

s c h o l a r s and p a t r o n s o f t h e a r t s .

To V a l e n c i a b e l o n g e d t h e

honor o f e s t a b l i s h i n g S p a in ’ s f i r s t p r i n t i n g - p r e s s .

T h is

p r e s s w a s s e t up i n 1 4 7 4 , t h r e e y e a r s b e f o r e C a x t o n s e t up h is

i n E n g la n d . I n c l u d e d among t h e m u n i c i p a l l e a d e r s i n V a l e n c i a

w ere b a n k e r s ,

e n g in e e r s,

a g r ic u ltu r a l

and l a w y e r s .

The p r o f e s s i o n s o f m e d i c i n e

21 C f.

a n te,

p. 27.

s c ie n tis ts,

p h y sic ia n s,

and l a w w e r e v e r y

46 p r o m i n e n t i n V a l e n c i a , b o t h i n t h e i r t h e o r y and i n t h e i r p r a c tic a l a sp ects.

T h e s e p r o f e s s i o n s h ad w h a t w o u ld b e

c a l l e d now a m odern v i e w p o i n t ,

Y a l e n c i a n d o c t o r s had

d e v e lo p e d a d e f i n i t e program o f tr e a tm e n t

and t r a i n i n g f o r

p h y s i c a l and m e n t a l d e f e c t i v e s . 22 I t was a g r e a t t r i b u t e t o t h e o p e n -m in d e d n e ss o f th e l e g a l p r o f e s s i o n t h a t th e y p e r m itte d th e c d n tin u a n ce o f th 6 c o l o r f u l e x a m p le o f p r i m i t i v e

ju s tic e

a s t h e ” T r ib u n a l o f th e W a te r s,^ W a te r s ,” a s i t d isp u te s.

and d e m o c r a c y known

T h i s 11C o u r t o f t h e

w as so m e tim e s c a l l e d ,

fu n c tio n e d to

I t o p e r a te d w ith o u t c o n t r o l o f any w r i t t e n la w ,

w ith o u t i n t e r f e r e n c e by th e govern m en t, record s.

ad ju st

The j u d g e s ,

and w i t h no w r i t t e n

o n e f o r e a c h c a n a l , w e r e e l e c t e d by

th e p ea sa n ts o f th e r e s p e c tiv e

canal d i s t r i c t s .

The d e c i ­

s i o n s o f t h e j u d g e s w e r e u s u a l l y a c c e p t e d by t h e l i t i g a n t s as fin a l

and w i t h o u t r e s e n t f u l com m en ts.

C o u ld t h e r e b e a

m ore p i c t u r e s q u e e x a m p le o f f u n c t i o n a l d e m o c r a c y ? T here r em a in , i n Y i v e s ’ Y a le n c ia n s e t t i n g , a s p e c ts to be c o n sid e r e d , p h y sic a l.

i.e .,

th e r e l i g i o u s ,

Y a l e n c i a h a s b e e n known i n h i s t o r y

o f C hurches.

At one tim e ,

t h r e e hundred r e l i g i o u s

it

two o t h e r

an d t h e as th e C ity

w as c r e d i t e d w i t h h a v i n g o v e r

e d if ic e s w ith in i t s l im i t s .

O u tsid e

22 op. c i t .,

F o s t e r W a t s o n , L u i s Y i v e s : E l G ra n Y a l e n c i a n o , p.

47 th e c i t y p ro p er, esta tes,

in th e tim e s o f Y iv e s,

th e r e w ere la r g e

ow ned b y t h e n o b l e s and w o r k e d b y t h e M o o r s .

B la sc o I b a n e z ,

a lso

a n a t iv e o f V a le n c ia , h as g iv en

e n tr a n c in g d e s c r ip t io n o f th e s e c o lo r f u l

an

e n v ir o n s.

Im m ense i s t h e e n e r g y , t h e e x p l o s i o n o f l i f e o f m idsum m er t h e b e s t s e a s o n o f t h e y e a r , t h e t i m e o f h a r v e s t and a b u n d a n c e . . . . The A f r i c a n s u n r a i n s t o r r e n t s o f f i r e o n t h e l a n d a l r e a d y c r a c k l e d and w r i n k l e d b y i t s b u r n i n g c a r e s s e s , and i t s g o l d e n b eam s p i e r c 6 t h e d e n s 6 f o l i a g e , b e n e a t h w h ic h a r e h i d d e n t h e c a n a l s and t r e n c h e s t o s a v e them f r o m t h e a l l p ow erfu l v i v i f y i n g h e a t . The b r a n c h e s o f t h e t r e e s a r e h e a v y w i t h f r u i t . T h ey b e n d b e n e a t h t h e w e i g h t o f y e l l o w g r a p e s c o v e r e d w ith g la z e d l e a v e s . L ik e t h e p in k c h e e k s o f a c h i l d g ro w t h e a p r i c o t s amid t h e v e r d u r e . C h ild r e n g r e e d i l y eye t h e lu x u r io u s burden o f th e f i g t r e e s . From t h e g a r d e n s i s w a f t e d t h e s c e n t o f j a s m i n , and t h e m a g n o lia s d i s p e n s e t h e i r i n c e n s e i n th e b u rn in g a i r , l a d e n w i t h t h e p e r fu m e o f c e r e a l s . Y i v e s , w i t h a f f e c t i o n and i l l - c o n c e a l e d p r i d e , h a s a l s o p e n n e d h i s m e m o r ie s o f V a l e n c i a and i t s

p e o p le .

The p e o p l e o f V a l e n c i a a r e *b y n a t u r e j o y o u s , a l e r t , f a c i l e , and y e t t r a c t a b l e and o b e d i e n t .......................................... . . . The m em bers o f t h e n o b i l i t y a r e m ore nu m erou s i n t h a t c i t y t h a n i n an y o t h e r , o f m a r v e l o u s m a g n i f i ­ c e n c e , a f f a b i l i t y and h u m a n i t y . So f e r t i l e i s th e c o u n t r y t h e r e i s a l m o s t n o n e o f t h e r a c e s o f m en, o r any k i n d o f f r u i t o r v e g e t a b l e s o r h e a l t h - g i v i n g h e r b s , w h ic h i t d o e s n o t p r o d u c e and p o u r f o r t h i n f u l l m easure. I t i s so b e a u t i f u l t h a t t h e r e i s no t i m e i n t h e y e a r i n w h ic h b o t h t h e m ead ow s a n d t h e a b u n d a n t

23 B l a s c o I b a n e z , i n A. F . C a l v e r t , V a l e n c i a and M a r c i a , A G l a n c e a t A f r i c a n S p a i n (New Y o r k : J o h n L a n e Company, 1 9 l i ) , p p . 4 - 5 .

48 t r e e s a r e n o t c l o t h e d and p a i n t e d w i t h f o l i a g e , f l o w e r s , v e r d u r e , and v a r i e t y o f c o l o r s . I s p e a k o f my c o u n t r y som ew hat m o d e s t l y , l e s t my w o r d s s h o u l d a f f o r d g r o u n d f o r t h e s u s p i c i o n t h a t I w as b o a s t i n g . 2 4 THE UNIVERSITY OF VALENCIA The o n l y r e c o r d o f V iv e s *

form al e d u c a tio n i n

V a le n c ia i s h is a tten d a n ce a t th e U n iv e r s it y V a le n c ia . th ere.

(Academ y)

of

A c c o u n t s d i f f e r a s t o w hen h e w a s f i r s t e n t e r e d

It is

a g r e e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t h e w as t h e r e b y 1 5 0 7

and p o s s i b l y e a r l i e r .

V a le n c ia was one o f t h e s c h o o ls w ith

a l o n g h i s t o r y w h ic h w a s r e f o u n d e d a s I s a b e l l a ’ s r e v i v a l o f S p a n i s h l e t t e r s g a i n e d momentum.

O r i g i n a l ly foun ded i n 1 2 4 5 ,

u n d er o r d e r s o f Pope In n o c e n t IV , i t s

p r i v i l e g e s w ere

e x t e n d e d i n 1 5 0 1 , b y P o p e A l e x a n d e r V I (D . B o r j a y B o r j a , fo rm er A rch b ish o p o f V a le n c ia ) .

I n 1 5 0 2 , K in g F e r d i n a n d

gave h i s form al a p p ro v a l o f th e r ig h t o f th e U n iv e r s i t y t o c o n f e r th e d e g r e e s o f d o c t o r and l i c e n t i a t e th a t o f b a c h e lo r .

It

is,

t h e o l o g y w a s so d e f i n i t e l y

V a l e n c i a w as f a r f r o m A l c a l l k , t h e

o f t h e New L e a r n i n g a n d , o f c o u r s e , lik e

V a le n c ia , th 6

cou rses d ir e c tly

a d d itio n to

p erhaps, not su r p r isin g th a t th e

co u rse i n a r t s and, p r o b a b ly , m e d ia e v a l i n t o n e .

in

sc h o la stic

cen ter

i n a c h u r c h - r i d d e n to w n

t r a d i t i o n s w e re e n t h r o n e d i n

c o n c e r n e d w it h p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e C hurch.

24 W a t s o n , E l G ran V a l e n c i a n o , o p . c i t . , p .

7.

49 A t any r a t e ,

t h e t r a i n i n g g iv e n V iv e s h er6 was o f t h e o ld

m e d ia e v a l t y p e : — d i s p u t a t i o n a l i n m eth od ; s c h o l a s t i c ten t.

A m ore l i b e r a l

in

con­

n o te was s t r u c k i n th e o f f e r i n g o f

c i v i l l a w , m e d i c i n e and s u r g e r y and o t h e r s c i e n c e s u c h a s t h e c i t y m i g h t d em a n d . 25

E v i d e n t l y t h e l o n g arm o f t h e

S o r b o n n e w a s n o t i n p o s s e s s i o n o f E u ro p ea n e d u c a t i o n * t h e r e . . J e r o m e I m i g u e t w a s on e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f V iv e s*

teaeh ers.

V i v e s a f t e r w a r d s d e s c r i b e d h im a s a " g o o d

man and a s e r i o u s t h e o l o g i a n . * 26

A m i g u e t , h o w e v e r , w as o u t ­

s t a n d i n g i n t h e f i e l d s o f m e d i a e v a l l e a r n i n g and r e s i s t e d th e a p p ea r a n c e o f R e n a is s a n c e L e t t e r s . shown b y h i s r e f u s a l t o

in tr o d u c e to h is

H is p o s i t i o n

s t u d e n t s t h e new

I n s t i t u t i o n e s g r a m m a t ic a e o f t h e H u m a n is t L e b r i j a . over,

he encouraged poor V iv e s ,

i s w e ll

M ore­

th en a boy o f f i f t e e n

to

r a is e h is y o u th fu l pen in p r o t e s t a g a in s t S p a in ’ s fo rem o st p r o p o n e n t o f t h e Hew L e a r n i n g , A n t o n i o d e L e b r i j a . V iv e s began h i s l i t e r a r y h u m a n istic le a r n in g , m ost a c t i v e

Thus

c a r e e r by a t t a c k i n g t h e f i e l d

of

o f w h ic h l a t e r h e b e c a m e o n e o f t h e

d efen d ers.

25 A d o lfo B o n i l l a y S an M a r tin , L u is V iv e s £ a l F i l o s o f i a d el R e n a c im ie n to , o p . c i t . , I , 2 8 -2 $ . 26 G-• M a j a n s i u s , V a l e n t i a n E d i t i o n o f V i v e s * Works ( V i v e s O p e r a ) I , 1 9 - 2 0 , i n F o s t e r W a t s o n , On E d u c a t i o n , o p . c it'. , p . x l v i i i .

50 P e r h a p s t h e p r i n c i p a l i t e m t o rem em ber i n r e s p e c t t o Y iv es*

fo rm a l s c h o o lin g i n Y a le n c ia i s

t h a t i t was i n d i r e c t

c o n t r a s t t o t h e i n f l u e n c e s b r o u g h t t o b e a r u p o n him o u t s i d e th e sc h o o l w a lls*

H ere b e g a n t h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e t r a d i ­

t i o n a l and t h e new l e a r n i n g w h ic h d i d n o t c e a s e u n t i l Y i v e s , i n 1 5 1 9 , a c c e p t e d t h e m odern v i e w p o i n t a n d t h r e w h i m s e l f w h o le -h e a r te d ly in to

th e ranks o f i t s

su p p o rters.

H ow ever,

h i s p o s i t i o n i n t h e new m ovem ent w a s much s t r e n g t h e n e d by v i r t u e o f h i s e a r l y t r a i n i n g i n u n i v e r s i t i e s w here m e d ia e v a l s c h o l a s t i c i s m was s t i l l

e n t r e n c h e d b e c a u s e h e knew fr o m h i s

own e x p e r i e n c e t h e f u t i l i t y

and s t e r i l i t y

o f m e d ia e v a l

m eth od s, THE HEW LEARNIEG IN SPAIN It

is

a m a t t e r o f comment among s c h o l a r s i n t e r e s t e d

i n th e S p a n is h R e n a iss a n c e t h a t th e g r e a t S p a n ish

sc h o la r s

and S p a n i s h u n i v e r s i t i e s h a v e b e e n p a s s e d o v e r and t h e l i m e ­ l i g h t t a k e n by F r a n c e ,

Ita ly ,

G erm any, and E n g l a n d ,

W a tso n

e m p h a s iz e s t h a t A n to n io de L e b r i j a w as t o S p a in what Y a lla w a s t o I t a l y , E rasm u s t o G erm any, o r B u d a e u s t o F r a n c e , ” 27 He a l s o m e n t i o n s a s w o r t h y o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n

27 H a lla m fro m M c C r ie * s H i s t o r y o f t h e R e f o r m a t i o n o f S p a i n , p , 6 1 , i n F o s t e r W a t s o n , E l G ran Y a l e n c i a n o , o p . ~ i t , > p. x lix .

51 A r ia s B arbosa,

a G r e e k s c h o l a r and s t u d e n t o f P o l i t i a n ;

N u n ez d e Guzman, e d i t o r o f t h e L a t i n v e r s i o n f o r t h e Comp lu te n sia n B ib le ;

and J u a n M a r t i n e z p o b l a c i o n , fa m o u s

p h y s i c i a n , , and f r i e n d o f Y i v e s 1 f a m i l y . The S p a n i s h u n i v e r s i t i e s p a r a l l e l l e d m o re n e a r l y th o se o f I t a ly

th a n th o s e o f F ran ce,

E n g la n d , o r G erm any.

C h a i r s o f L a t i n and G r e e k w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d a t S a la m a n c a l o n g b e f o r e t h e y w e r e a t O x fo r d and P a r i s . S a la m a n ca , Y a l l a d o l i d ,

In Y iv e s 1 day,

a n d t h e new A l c a l a w e r e a l l

fam ou s.

S a la m a n c a w a s t h e m e c c a f o r a l l

c la s s e s o f stu d en ts,

and p o o r ;

S a la m a n c a e n c o u r a g e d t h e

n o b l e and b o u r g e o i s .

new l e a r n i n g .

The new v e r s i o n s o f g e o g r a p h y and o f C o p e r -

n ic a n a stron om y w ere p e r m it t e d t o b e g i v e n . t o l d h i s t a l e s o f new w o r l d w o n d e r s .

H e r e C olum bus

Anatom y and d i s s e c t i o n ,

ta b o o i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s b e c a u se o f r e l i g i o u s were* p a r t o f t h e m e d i c a l c o u r s e s . d is c r im in a te d

h ig h ly

su p e r s titio n s ,

Women s t u d e n t s w e r e n o t

a g a i n s t , b u t w ere a llo w e d to

e v en to l e c t u r e . 28 its

r ic h

e n t e r c o u r s e s and

Y a l l a d o l i d had a l r e a d y won renow n f o r

sp e c ia liz e d

s u r g ic a l w ork.

A lc a la w as u n iq u e i n t h a t i t w as a u n i v e r s i t y c i t y as w e ll as a u n iv e r s ity proper.

I t in c lu d e d , w ith in i t s

b o u n d a r ie s, h o u ses f o r b o o k - s e lle r s

as w e ll a s fo r s tu d e n ts .

28 D a v ie s, o p . c i t . . pp. 2 5 -2 6 .

52 The C o m p l u t e n s i a n B i b l e , r a n k e d a s t h e f i r s t

s c ie n tific

w ork o f t h e m o d ern w o r l d , w a s c o m p i l e d and p r i n t e d a t A lc a la .

T h i s g i g a n t i c w q rk , a c o - o p e r a t i v e u n d e r t a k i n g o f

t h e b e s t s c h o l a r s i n S p a i n , w as b e g u n i n 1 4 9 2 u n d e r t h e i n s p i r a t i o n o f C a r d i n a l J i m e n e z de C i s n e r o s . th e d i s t i n c t i o n ,

a lso ,

t h e New T e s t a m e n t . 1514,

o f p r i n t i n g t h e f i r s t G reek t e x t o f

T h i s G re ek T e s t a m e n t w as p r i n t e d i n

two y e a r s b e f o r e t h a t o f E r a s m u s .

m od ern s c h o l a r s , H eb rew t e x t ,

it

a lso ,

A l c a l a had

is

To t h e ' e y e s o f

a much s u p e r i o r c r i t i c a l t e x t .

c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e fa m e o f A l c a T h .

The It

w a s c o n s i d e r e d so o u t s t a n d i n g t h a t i t w a s u s e d a s a m o d e l u n til la t e

in th e n in ete en th

c e n t u r y . 29

L y n n i n h i s com m en ts on S a l a m a n c a U n i v e r s i t y d e f i n e s th e tim e n e c e s s a r y to

a c q u ir e th e

l e d g e o f "Grammar" ( i . e . , fo r en tra n ce. p h ilo s o p h y

v a r io u s d e g r e e s .

A know­

th e L a t in la n g u a g e) w as r e q u ir e d

T hree y e a r s o f l o g i c

(A r is to tle )

and

( A r i s t o t l e ) , th e g iv in g o f tw e lv e p u b lic l e c ­

t u r e s , and s u s t a i n i n g o f a t h e s i s a g a i n s t a t t a c k w e r e r e q u i r e d fo r a b a c h e lo r 's d egree in a r ts .

T h r e e y e a r s m ore w ork o n

t h e sam e s u b j e c t s w a s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e l i c e n t i a t e . m e d ic a l co u r se was e ig h t y e a r s , th e l e g a l ,

The

ten years.

The

tim e was red u c ed f o r n o b le s b e c a u se t h e y w ere su p p o sed to have had s u p e r io r c u l t u r a l

a d v a n ta g es.

The f a c u l t i e s r a t e d

29 M en en d e z y P e l a y o , " H i s t o r i a d e L o s H e t e r o d o x o s E s p a n o l e s , " Tome I I , p . 4 6 (M a d r id : 1 8 8 0 ) , i n D a v i e s , o p . c i t . , p. 26.

55 i n o r d e r o f i m p o r t a n c e w e r e l a w , t h e o l o g y , m e d i c i n e and p h ilo so p h y . co u ld c a l l

Canon l a w p r e c e d e d c i v i l l a w . th e m se lv e s d o c t o r .

O n ly t h e

The o t h e r s h a d t o

ju r ists

c a l l them ­

s e l v e s m a e s t r o .3 0 R e i n f o r c e m e n t s t o t h e S p a n i s h R e n a i s s a n c e c a u s e came i n ! 4 7 4 , t h r o u g h t h e a c c e s s i o n o f I s a b e l l a who p l a y e d t h e p a r t i n S p a i n ’ s G o ld e n A ge t h a t E l i z a b e t h l a t e r E n g la n d . B efore

c a r r ie d

in

The q u e e n h e r s e l f had b e e n e d u c a t e d by c h u r c h m e n .

sh e p rom oted any c le r g y m a n t o a h ig h o f f i c e

in v e s t ig a t e d h i s s c h o la s t ic a tta in m e n ts.

sh e

T h erefore,

th e

g r e a t churchm an i n S p a i n p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f l e a r n i n g : T a la v e r a ,

M endoza, A r c h b ish o p o f T o le d o ;

B i s h o p o f G r a n a d a w h o se h o u s e

Thomas M ore)

(lik e

th a t o f S ir

w as an A cadem y f o r l i t e r a r y m en; C a r d i n a l

J im en ez de C i s n e r o s ,

f o u n d e r o f A l a c a l a U n i v e r s i t y and

s p o n s o r o f t h e C o m p lu te n sia n P o ly g o t B i b l e ; a l l gave th e

of th ese

s a n c t i o n o f t h e c h u r c h t o t h e new e d u c a t i o n a l

e n te r p r ise s. The R e n a i s s a n c e m ovem ent i n S p a i n w as v e r y d e f i n i t e l y in f l u e n c e d by I t a l y .

The n a t i o n a l i s t i c R e n a i s s a n c e o f I t a l y

e m p h a s iz e d p a r t i c u l a r l y sta n d in g i n i t s

t h e g r e a t n e s s o f A n c i e n t Rome.

O ut­

c o n t r i b u t i o n t o Roman s p l e n d o r w a s t h e

30 Caro L y n n , a C o l l e g e P r o f e s s o r o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e ( C h i c a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ic a g o P r e s s , 1 9 2 7 ) , p . 2 3 . i

54 S p a n ish P r o v in c e ,

e s p e c i a l l y M e d ite r r a n e a n S p a in .

The

S p a n i a r d s t h u s r e j o i c e d i n t h e r e t u r n t o g l o r y o f t h e i r own n a t i o n a l l e a d e r s — Q u i n t i l i a n , S e n e c a , L u c a n and o t h e r o u tsta n d in g f ig u r e s o f a n t iq u it y . c a lle d I t a lia n Ita ly

T hen, t o o ,

Is a b e lla

s c h o l a r s t o S p a i n and s e t S p a n i s h

to b r in g back I t a l i a n le a r n in g .

and e v e n w r i t t e n i n

an e f f o r t t o

sc h o la r s to

Books w ere p u rch a sed

ed u cate t h e n o b i l i t y .

L e b r i j a w r o t e h i s C a s t i l l i a n grammar e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e l a d i e s o f th e C ou rt.

P e t e r M artyr to o k t h e young n o b le s

i n h a n d , M a r in e o t h e o l d e r o n e s . versal its

fa sh io n fo r I s a b e lla

L e a r n i n g b ecam e t h e u n i ­

in t e n d e d t o h a v e S p a in assum e

r i g h t f u l p l a c e i n th e w o rld o f l e t t e r s .

hand l e a r n i n g w as r e s t o r e d

U nder h e r s tr o n g

and S p a i n e n t e r e d u p o n a n o t h e r

era o f l e t t e r s . A c co r d in g t o D a v ie s ,

n o t l e s s t h a n 720 b o o k s w e r e

p r i n t e d i n S p a i n b e f o r e t h e end o f t h e f i f t e e n t h

cen tu ry ,

w h i l e o n l y 3 5 3 b o o k s w e r e - p r i n t e d i n E n g la n d d u r i n g t h a t tim e .

In 1 4 8 0 , f o r e i g n books w ere a d m itte d t o S p a in f r e e

o f d u t y . 31 E c o n o m i c a l l y S p a i n w as o n i t s way t o d o m i n a t e E urope.

H er m e r i n o f l e e c e h a d l o n g b e e n r e n o w n e d ,

in a u g u r a te d what w as p e r h a p s t h e f i r s t

31 D avies, ££.

c i t .,

p. 27.

sh e

s c i e n t i f i c m a rk etin g

55 s y s t e m b y s e n d i n g r a w p r o d u c t s t o E n g la n d and F l a n d e r s t o be m a n u fa ctu red .

W ith t h e i n c r e a s e o f c u r r e n c y d u e t o

g r o w i n g s u p p l i e s o f m e t a l f r o m h e r new c o l o n i e s , i n d u s t r ie s w ere s tim u la te d .

new

M o b i l i t y o f c a p i t a l and l a b o r

w as made p o s s i b l e b y new l a w s .

The c o u n t r y h ad b e e n

c h a n g e d fro m a s t a t e o f a n a r c h y i n t o

d isc ip lin e

and o r d e r .

On t h e o t h e r s i d e , w as t h e i n q u i s i t i o n -vrfaich r e t a r d e d in itia tiv e

and f o r c e d s o c i a l c o n f l i c t s .

I t s w orst fe a t u r e s ,

h ow ever, w ere not to be f e l t u n t i l l a t e r in th e cen tu ry .

six te e n th

M ea n w h ile, w it h a s t r o n g c e n t r a l go v ern m en t

e sta b lish e d ,

a m b i t i o u s and e n l i g h t e n e d r u l e r s ,

in c r e a sin g

r e s o u r c e s o f g o l d and l a n d s , S p a i n t o o k h e r p l a c e a s o n e o f th e f o u r g r e a t n a t i o n a l i s t i c s t a t e s o f E urope. F rance,

and P o r t u g a l , b y 1 4 9 2 , h a d a l s o

o f n a tio n a l s t a t e s .

E n g la n d ,

a c h iev e d t h e s t a t u s

C h r i s t e n d o m w a s no l o n g e r e n t i r e l y

a

th eo cra cy . •SUMMARY OF CHAPTER An e f f o r t h a s b e e n made i n t h i s F iv e s as a c h ild c ity ,

V a le n c ia ;

o f S p a in .

ch a p te r to p ic t u r e

and y o u t h i n h i s own home;

in h is n a tiv e

i n t h e k in g d o m o f A r a g o n ; and t h e

He w a s b o r n t o

so c ia l p o s itio n ;

co u n try

e d u c a t e d a t home

by c o n t a c t w ith t h e b e s t t h a t

a c o s m o p o l i t a n c i t y o f M e d i­

t e r r a n e a n S p a i n had t o

r e a r e d c a r e f u l l y and s im p ly

o ffer;

by a d e v o u t m o th er; began h i s fo rm a l e d u c a t io n a t t h e

56 U n iv e r s ity

o f V a le n c ia .

L a te r c h a p te r s w i l l attem p t to

e v a l u a t e t h e i n d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e s w h ic h had b e e n a t w ork b ro a d e n in g h i s m en ta l o u t lo o k , a r o u s in g a lo v e o f n a tu r e , g iv in g a p e r sp e c tiv e o f p a st c u ltu r e s ,

and g l i m p s e s o f

c iv ic r e s p o n s ib ilitie s . V i v e s w a s a n e x p o n e n t o f H um anism .

The S p a n i s h

R e n a i s s a n c e and S p a n i s h Humanism h a v e b e e n r e v i e w e d h e r e a s t h e f i r s t p h a s e o f Humanism t o w h ic h h e w a s e x p o s e d . has been d is c u s s e d ,

a lso ,

a s a b a s i s o f co m p a riso n w it h t h e

h u m a n istic tr e n d s i n o th e r c o u n t r ie s . The f o l l o w i n g V iv e s.

ch a p ter w i l l

c o n tin u e th e l i f e

of

I t w i l l b e g i n when h e e n t e r e d t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f

P a r is in 1509,

and w i l l

It

d e s c r i b e h i s e x p e r i e n c e s t h e r e up

to t h e tim e h e l e f t f o r P la n d e r s ,

in 1514.

CHAPTER I I I STUD EM* DAYS I T THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS 1509-1514 INTRODUCTION When V i v e s made t h i s t r a n s f e r fr o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f V a le n c ia to th e U n iv e r s it y o f P a r is , years o f age.

It is

he was j u s t

sev en teen

n o t known d e f i n i t e l y w h e t h e r o r n o t h e

made t h e c h a n g e m e r e l y b e c a u s e P a r i s w a s t h e mode o f t h e tim e s.

A fe w m on th s b e f o r e h i s d e p a r t u r e a t e r r i b l e p la g u e

h ad r a v a g e d V a l e n c i a .

H is p a r e n t s ,

among many o t h e r s ,

a b a n d o n e d t h e i r home a n d f l e d t o t h e c o u n t r y . su g g ests t h is

B o n illa

s c o u r g e may h a v e h a s t e n e d V i v e s 1 p l a n s f o r a

P a r i s i a n e d u c a tio n .-* I t h a s b e e n r e m a r k e d t h a t V i v e s w as b o r n d u r i n g t h e t u m u l t u o u s a g e o f I s a b e l l a i n t h e t e r r i t o r y o v e r w h ic h F erd in a n d r e ig n e d .

The b a c k g r o u n d o f A r a g o n ,

( t o w h ic h

V a l e n c i a b e l o n g e d ) , w a s v e r y d i f f e r e n t i n c h a r a c t e r and h i s t o r y fr o m C a s t i l e , Is a b e lla .

w h ic h w as t h e i n h e r i t e d t e r r i t o r y

V iv e s was g iv e n

every

of

e d u c a t i o n a l , c u l t u r a l and

s o c i a l a d v a n ta g e o b t a i n a b l e i n t h e v ig o r o u s m a n y -sid e d s e t t in g o f h is n a tiv e V a le n c ia .

H i s e d u c a t i o n am id t h e

A. B o n i l l a y S a n M a r tin , L u is V iv e s £ l a F i l o s o f i a d e l R e n a c i m i e n t o (M a d r id : S . A . E s p a s a - C a l p e , 1 9 2 9 ) , V o l . I , p. 38.

58 e n v iro n m en ta l i n f l u e n c e s i n t h i s s e m i - t r o p i e e l M o o r s,

c i t y o f th e

had d i f f e r e d g r e a t l y from t h a t o f t h e u s u a l n a rro w ,

o rth o d o x C h r is t ia n background o f h i s c o n te m p o r a r ie s i n t h e fie ld

o f h u m a n istic l e t t e r s .

races liv e th ere i s

&ny c o u n t r y i n w h ic h two

s i d e by s i d e f o r g e n e r a t i o n s ,

an a l t e r n a t i o n o f p o w e r , i s

th a t th ere are o th er r e lig io n s , c u ltu r e s.

o th er

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e

sim p lic ity ,

and " n o b l e s s e

fo r m e d a c o m p le m e n t t o t h e M o slem c u l t u r e s .

a c e r ta in g a ie ty

to o ,

a j o y i n l i v i n g w h ic h

ac co m p a n y an e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h ic h t h e c o lo r s ,

r e c o g n iz e

T he C h r i s t i a n s o f V a l e n c i a ow ed much t o t h e

C a ta la n t r a d i t i o n s o f d i g n i t y ,

is

f o r c e d to

o th e r la n g u a g e s,

g e n i u s and in d u s t r y o f t h e M oors.

o b lig e "

p a r t i c u l a r l y w here

T here

seem s t o

sw eet s c e n t s ,

h ig h

and l u x u r i a n t v e g e t a t i o n o f t h e t r o p i c s p r e d o m i n a t e . The two o r m o re y e a r s s p e n t b y V i v e s i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y

o f V a le n c ia ,

came a t a t i m e when t h e new l e a r n i n g w a s f i g h t ­

in g f o r a fo o th o ld t h e r e .

It

so h a p p e n e d t h a t V i v e s ’ L a t i n

t e a c h e r had a c h i e v e d fa m e i n t h e f i e l d s o f m e d i a e v a l l e a r n ­ in g .

He r e s e n t e d t h e

a p p r o a c h o f t h e new h u m a n i s t i c m e t h o d s

and s u p p l i e d h i s p u p i l s w i t h a r g u m e n t s and d a t a c a l c u l a t e d to

s u s t a i n h i s own c a u s e .

V i v e s ’ u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g had

b een th e o n ly m ed ia ev a l n o te i n h i s V a le n c ia n su r r o u n d in g s. The e c h o o f d i a l e c t i c s w a s t o c o n t i n u e i n h i s n e x t s t e p o f fo r m a l e d u c a t io n w hen, i n 1 5 0 9 , h e e n t e r e d t h a t l a s t

and

m ost fo r m id a b le f o r t r e s s o f S c h o l a s t i c i s m — t h e S o rb o n n e.

59 FRENCH HOMANISM D u rin g t h e r u l e o f C h a r le s V I I , F r a n c e b r o u g h t to a s u c c e s s f u l c o n c l u s i o n t h e b i t t e r H un d red Y e a r s f W ar. B ecau se o f her d e f e a t ,

E n g la n d g a v e up a l l

w ith th e e x c e p t io n o f th e p o r t o f C a l a i s . proceed ed to

e sta b lish

C h a rle s V II th e n

a s t a b le govern m en t,

i n g a r m y , make f i n a n c i a l to t h e " d iv in e r ig h t"

c la im on F ran ce

refo rm s, and to

sta tu s.

r e c o g n iz e d w o r ld -p o w er .

e re a te a sta n d ­

r a is e th e k in g sh ip

F r a n c e becam e a n a t i o n an d a

L o u i s XI c o n t i n u e d t o u n i f y t h e

n a t i o n and t o b u i l d u p m a t e r i a l p r o s p e r i t y .

Thus t h e

so il

w a s p r e p a r e d f o r t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e New L e a r n i n g . L o u i s XI t o o k t h e n e x t i m p o r t a n t s t e p . f r ie n d ly r e la t io n s w ith I t a l y .

He r e n e w e d

T h is a c t b r o u g h t a b o u t an

i n t e r c h a n g e b e t w e e n t h e two n a t i o n s o f b a n k e r s , sc h o la r s,

a r c h i t e c t s and c h u r c h m e n .

c o n ta c t w ith th e

a r tists,

T hus F r a n c e came i n

s p i r i t and t h e S u i t s o f th e I t a l i a n

R e n a issa n c e . A n oth er l i n k

in th e

c h a in o f e v e n t s was fo r g e d by

C h a r l e s V I I I when h e m a r c h e d o n N a p l e s .

A lth o u g h p o l i t i c a l

r e l a t i o n s w e r e s t r a i n e d by t h i s a c t , t h e

in flu e n c e o f

Humanism w a s b r o u g h t n e a r e r f o r , w h en C h a r l e s r e t u r n e d t o F rance i n 1 4 9 5 , he b ro u g h t th e G reek , Janus L a s c a r is , w ith h im .

Then, t o o ,

i n t h e m arch t h r o u g h I t a l y ,

C h a r l e s ’ army

60 had " d is c o v e r e d ” I t a l y had s e e n i t s t r e a s u r e s o f a r t . m ilita r y

The

c o n t a c t th rou gh th e y e a r s 1495 t o 1514 was v e ry

sig n ific a n t

i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f H um anism .

L o u is X II,

c o n tin u e d th e I t a l i a n in v a s io n s , w ith a lt e r n a t in g v i c t o r i e s and f a i l u r e s .

I n t im e ^ h e a l s o

th e R e n a issa n c e .

In flu e n c e d ,

d e v e lo p e d an i n t e r e s t in

p o ssib ly ,

by C a r d in a l d ’

A m b o is e who w a s n o t e d f o r h i s s u p p o r t o f a r t and l e t t e r s , he i n v i t e d to h i s c o u r t le a d in g I t a l i a n

a r c h i t e c t s and

sc h o la r s. The f i r s t a c t i v e p h a s e o f Humanism i n F r a n c e w a s t h e s t u d y and p r a c t i c e i n L a t i n r h e t o r i c L a tin c l a s s i c s .

and t h e p r i n t i n g o f

Among t h e l e a d e r s o f t h i s p e r i o d o f Humanism

w e r e t h e F l e m i s h p r i n t e r s , G a g u in and B a d i u s .

T h e s e tw o men

e d i t e d , w i t h c o m m e n ts, m o s t o f t h e L a t i n c l a s s i c s . The c i t y o f L y o n s ,

o n t h e m a in h ig h w a y t o

Ita ly ,

becam e a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s t c e n t e r o f F l e m i s h t r a d e r s and p r i n t e r s and o f b o t h F r e n c h and I t a l i a n H um anism , t h e r e f o r e ,

w a s fo r m e d o f t h e

t h i s F l e m i s h and I t a l i a n c o m b i n a t i o n . V iv e s 1 tim e ,

sc h o la r s.

s t r a n d s w ov en b y U n fo r tu n a te ly ,

by

t h e I t a l i a n R e n a is s a n c e , h a v in g p a s s e d i t s

z e n it h , was s t r u g g lin g i n th e t h r o e s o f p o l i t i c a l , and s o c i a l d i s i n t e g r a t i o n . ty p ifie d

F rench

by t h e

I ta ly ’s p o litic a l

r e lig io u s,

c h a o s was

e x p e d ien cy o f M a c h ia v e lli; h e r r e l i g i o u s

s c h ism by t h e f a n a t i c i s m

o f S a v a n a ro la ;

and, h e r s o c i a l

o r d e r b y t h e l i c e n t i o u s n e s s o f B o c c a c # o and A r e t i n o .

V iv e s’

b i o g r a p h e r s make f r e q u e n t m e n t i o n o f t r i p s t o L y o n s . E r a s m u s , t o o made many v i s i t s

and f u s e d t o g e t h e r t h e v a r ­

i o u s s t r a n d s o f H u m a n istic i n t e r e s t s . w ere p u b l i s h e d i n L y o n s.

Many o f V i v e s w o r k s

I n c l u d e d among t h e s e ,

w as an

e d i t i o n o f De I n s t i t u t i o n a e F e m in a e C h r i s t i a n a s , and De O f f i c i o M a r it i by K e r v e r .

As R a b e l a i s w a s e m p lo y e d by

K e r v e r , M ic h a u d s u g g e s t s t h i s a s h i s s o u r c e o f t h e m a t e r i a l o n P a n u r g e and h i s m a t r i m o n i a l a s p i r a t i o n s . SCHOLASTICISM P r o b a b ly th e b e s t d e f i n i t i o n o f S c h o l a s t i c is m

as i t

w as p r a c t i c e d a t t h e S o r b o n n e a t t h e c l o s e o f t h e m i d d l e ages i s

th a t o f T ille y .2

S c h o l a s t i c , t h e w o rd i t s e l f ,

sim p ly m eans, he s a y s , ta u g h t i n s c h o o l s .

Th6 te r m S c h o l a s ­

t i c i s m m e a n s a t y p e o f e d u c a t i o n a l p r o g r a m w h ic h w a s d i s ­ tin g u is h e d by th r ee g e n e ra l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s :

(1)

an a lm o st

e x c l u s i v e d e v o t i o n to a t h e o lo g y b a se d on t h e S e n t e n c e s o f P e t e r Lom bard; A r isto tle ,

(2 )

an e x a g g e r a t e d r e v e r e n c e f o r t h e name o f

but an A r i s t o t l e

o v e r la id w ith i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

and o u t down by oom pendium s u n t i l h e w a s b a r e l y r e c o g n i z a b l e (3)

th e p e n e tr a tio n o f l o g ic

and d i s p u t a t i o n o f a m o s t

2

A r t h u r T i l l e y , The L i t e r a t u r e o f t h e F r e n c h R e n a i s s a n c e , An I n t r o d u c t o r y E s s a y (C a m b r id g e : U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 8 8 5 ), pp. 1 0 6 -1 1 .

q u i b b l i n g and s o p h i s t i c a l t y p e i n t o S c h o la s t ic p h ilo so p h y , T i l l e y

ev ery branch o f s tu d y .

c o n tin u e s,

m o d e rn r e l i g i o u s p h i l o s o p h y i n t h a t i t

d i f f e r e d from

a c c e p te d n o t o n ly

th e gen eral tr u th s o f th e C h r istia n r e lig io n ,

but a l s o

w h o l e d o c t r i n e o f t h e Roman C a t h o l i c

In an e f f o r t

to

church.

r e c o n c ile th e tw o, th e th e o lo g ia n s t r i e d

th e e d i f i c e o f f a i t h w ith In sp ite o f th e

th e

t o " p r o p up

th e b u t t r e s s o f s y llo g is m ."

f a c t t h a t t h e f i r s t G reek t e a c h e r

came t o P a r i s i n 1 4 5 8 , and t h a t t h e f i r s t p r i n t i n g p r e s s w as e s t a b l i s h e d

i n 1 4 5 9 — b oth un der U n i v e r s i t y p a tr o n a g e —

th e y w ere a c c o r d in g t o T i l l e y ,

" s u f f e r e d w ith co n tem p t,

r a t h e r th a n h a i l e d w ith e n th u sia sm ." tim e o f th e a c c e s s i o n o f F r a n c is I , Y iv e s had t e r m in a te d h i s

th e

arid a f e w m o n t h s a f t e r

s t u d i e s a t P a r i s and g on e on t o

F la n d e r s , " th e s c h o l a s t i c U n iv e r s ity o f P a r is;

E ven i n 1 5 1 5 , a t t h e

fla g

still

w aved b r a v e ly o v e r t h e

rags o f th e o lo g y

on t h e i r p o le s o f d i a l e c t i c ;

S c o t i s t s and T h o m is ts ; o f r e a l i s t s

was a l l l i f e l e s s ,

s a tir iz e d

still

th e c o n t r o v e r s ie s o f

and n o m i n a l i s t s ;

raged w ith fu r y .

w it h e r e d , b a r r e n ."

The p r o d u c t s o f t h i s

flu tte r e d

t h e Summ ulae and t h e S e n t e n c e s

s t i l l h e l d t h e i r own i n t h e s c h o o l s ;

t e r m i n i s t s and f o r m a l i s t s ,

still

of But i t

5

system a re m e r c i l e s s l y

by E rasm u s i n h i s P r a i s e o f F o l l y .

Of t h e

63 d ia le c tic ia n s, esteem ,

lie s a y s ,

"They a r e h a p p y i n t h e i r s e l f ­

f o r arm ed w i t h t h o s e s y l l o g i s m s ,

en g a g e w ith anybody on any t o p i c . "

th e y are ready to

T he p h i l o s o p h e r s , h e

c o n t i n u e s , " t h o u g h t h e y know a b s o l u t e l y n o t h i n g , y e t p r o f e s s t h a t t h e y know e v e r y t h i n g ; th e m se lv e s. sa ls,

.

and th o u g h t h e y do n o t know

. y e t d e c l a r e t h a t t h e y can s e e i d e a s , u n i v e r -

s e p a r a te form s, f i r s t m a tte r , t h in g s

so f i n e t h a t

L y n c e u s c o u l d n o t d i s c e r n th e m b e t t e r t h a n t h e y d o ." d e s c r ib e s th e th e o lo g ia n s a ls o sp littin g

p h ilo so p h y :

i n term s o f t h e i r h a ir ­

" t h e i r m ost s u b t l e

s u b t le t ie s are

r e n d e r e d e v e n m o re s u b t l e b y t h e v a r i o u s s c h o l a s t i c so t h a t i t

is

O c e a m ists, S c o t i s t s

h i s a n a g r a m s on t h e s o r b o n n e ,

N o m in a lis t s , T h o m ists,

and o t h e r s . " 4

adds a f i n a l

R a b e la is,

tou ch to

u n c o m p l im e n t a r y r e m a r k s b y h a v i n g T h au m ast s a y , p u t i n g c o n t e n t i o u s l y , I w i l l n o t do i t , a th in g ,

and t h e r e f o r e l e a v e i t

so r b illa n ts, n ib o r c is a n ts ,

sects,

e a s i e r t o make y o u r way o u t o f a l a b y r i n t h

th a n o u t o f th e w r a p p in g s o f R e a l i s t s , A lb e r tists,

He

sorb on agres,

to th o s e

so r b o n ig e n e s,

so r b o n isa n ts,

fo r i t

in

E rasm us*

"as fo r d is ­ i s to o b a se

so ttish

so p h iste r s,

so r b o n ic le s,

s a n i b o r s a n t s , who i n t h e i r d i s ­

p u t e s do n o t s e a r c h f o r t r u t h ,

but fo r c o n t r a d ic t io n o n ly

4 D. E r a s m u s , M o r ia e Encomium ( S t r a s s b u r g , 1 5 1 1 ) q u o t e d b y A r t h u r T i l l e y , Dawn o f t h e F r e n c h R e n a i s s a n c e , o p . c i t . , p . 296 *

and d e b a t e . " 5 E rasm u s, h i m s e l f , was a fo rm er s t u d e n t o f t h e Sorbonne.

He h a d b e e n t r a i n e d

w hereof he sp oke. to

in d ia le c t ic s

T h is a r t i f i c i a l ,

life le s s

and k n ew d o c t r in e was

fo r m t h e e d u c a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t o f V i v e s f o r t h e n e x t

f i v e y e a r s — fr o m t h e a g e o f

s e v e n te e n to t h a t o f tw en ty -tw o

I t was a d e a d e n in g a tm o sp h ere f o r e v e n t h e m ost c a l l o u s , but f o r a s e n s i t i v e y o u th , a ttu n e d ,

a s V iv e s w as,

to th e

j o y s and b e a u t i e s o f n a t u r e i t m e a n t a m e n t a l im p r is o n m e n t w h ic h h e ,

in h is tu rn ,

i n d i g n a n t l y d e s c r i b e d and r e p u d i a t e d

THE UNIVERSITY OF PARIS V iv e s * stu d en t l i f e . U n iv e r sity o f P a r is , lis h e d

When V i v e s a r r i v e d a t t h e

to m a t r ic u la t e ,

cu stom o f w r i t i n g h i s

r e p o r te d to

He w a s r e q u i r e d t o

q u a lify fo r a d eg ree.

t h e m a s t e r f o r h i s own c o u n t r y .

s t u d e n t s w ere a s s ig n e d t o G a u l s w h ic h i n c l u d e d t h e

esta b ­

name o n t h e r e g i s t e r s o f t h e

p r o fe s s o r s o f th e F a c u lty o f A r ts . r e g is t e r th ere in order to

he fo llo w e d th e

He t h e n

S p a n ish

th e " h o n o r a b le " n a t i o n o f t h e s t u d e n t s fro m I t a l y .

V i v e s w as

5 F . R a b e la is , P ln t a g r u e l , second e d i t i o n , 1 5 3 3 , q u o t e d b y A l b e r t J a y N ock i n ' F r a n c i s R a b e l a i s — The Man an d H i s Work (New Y o rk : H a r p e r B r o t h e r s , 1 9 2 9 } , p . 1 5 3 .

65

t h e n a s s i g n e d a t u t o r o f h i s own n a t i o n a l i t y , w h o , i n h i s ease,

tu rn ed out t o h e th e A ragonese,

C aspar Lax.

an d m a s t e r s w e r e o n a m ore f a m i l i a r f o o t i n g T h ey l i v e d

t o g e t h e r and o f t e n a t e a t t h e

B e a u v a is .6 N a v a r r e .^ in

th an t o d a y .

sam e t a b l e .

O p in io n s d i f f e r a s t o t h e c o l l e g e e n r o lle d .

S tu d en ts

i n w h ic h Y iv e s

Y an d en B u s s c h e t h i n k s i t w a s t h e C o l l e g e o f B o n illa N avarre,

im p o r ta n c e .

sa y s Y iv e s fo llo w e d th e

cou rses a t

foun ded i n 1 5 0 4 , r i v a l l e d

I t m a in ta in e d a h ig h

th e Sorbonne

sta n d a rd o f d i s c i p l i n e

and w as t h e m o s t p o p u l a r and f a s h i o n a b l e o f t h e c o l l e g e s . B e in g h e l d i n h ig h e s te e m by t h e c o u r t ,

it

to p r o v id e t u t o r s f o r t h e r o y a l p r in c e s .® d e s c r i p t i o n w o u ld se e m t o

was c a l l e d upon Y iv e s*

own

i n d ic a t e N avarre r a th e r th a n

B e a u v a is.

A l s o , V i v 6 s h i m s e l f w as a n o b le m a n and N a v a r r e

c a tered t o

th e upper s o c i a l

c ir c le s .

Y i v e s r e c o r d s h i s own m e m o r ie s o f h i s c o l l e g e l i f e as fo llo w s: T h e r e a r e t h i r t y g y m n a s i a , m ore o r l e s s i n t h a t u n i v e r s i t y ( a c a d e m ia ) , w h ic h p r o v i d e s f o r e v e r y k in d o f e r u d i t i o n , k n o w l e d g e , a n d w isd o m ; l e a r n e d t e a c h e r s ,

6

E m i l e Y a n d e n B u s s c h e , L u i s Y i v e s : TJn M ot (L a F l a n d r e : 2 9 8 , 1 8 7 6 ) i n F o s t e r W a t s o n , Y i v e s : On E d u c a t i o n ( C a m b r id g e : U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 1 3 ) , p . l i v . 7 B o n i l l a , ojd. c i t . , p . 4 3 . 8 T i l l e y , The L i t e r a t u r e o f t h e F r e n c h R e n a i s s a n c e , op. c i t . , p. 92.

66

and m o s t s t u d i o u s y o u t h s , who a r e t h o r o u g h l y w e l l bred. . . . I can t e l l you t h a t th e y o u th t h e r e v e r y l a r g e l y c o n s i s t s o f p r i n c e s , l e a d e r s o f m en , n o b l e s , and t h e w e a l t h i e s t p e r s o n s , n o t o n l y fr o m F r a n c e , b u t a l s o f r o m G erm any, I t a l y , G r e a t B r i t i a n , S p a i n , B e lg iu m , m a r v e l lo u s l y d e v o te d to th e s tu d y o f l e t t e r s , o b e y i n g t h e p r e c e p t s and i n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h e i r tea ch ers. T h e ir co n d u ct i s n o t form ed th r o u g h sim p le a d m o n i t i o n m e r e l y , b u t b y s h a r p r e p r o o f a nd w h en i t i s n e c e s s a r y , e v e n by p u n i s h m e n t , b y b l o w s and la sh e s. A l l w h ic h t h e y r e c e i v e and b e a r w i t h m o d e s t m in d , and t h e m o s t c o l l e c t e d c o u n t e n a n c e . 9 The r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r e n t r a n c e u p o n t h e c o u r s e s o f t h e u n iv e r sity ,

proper, th e

th e f a m ilia r tr iv iu m t h e q u a d r iv iu m , m u s ic ).

stu d y o f l o g i c

(gram m ar,

d ia le c tic ,

( a r it h m e t ic , geom etry,

T h is , o f c o u r se ,

and d i a l e c t i c ,

w ere

and r h e t o r i c ) , and

astro n o m y ,

and

im p lie d a m a ste ry o f L a t in .

In

V a l e n c i a , V i v e s had r e c e i v e d th o r o u g h t r a i n i n g

in L a tin

fr o m h i s t e a c h e r s , J m i g u e t u s and D a n i e l S i s o .

B o n illa

con­

j e c t u r e s t h a t h e w a s a l s o t r a i n e d i n G r e e k by B e r n a r d o V i lla n o v a o N a v a r r o , a f r i e n d o f A m ig u e t.

It

is

a ssu m e d

f u r t h e r t h a t he had n o t o n ly been th o r o u g h ly d r i l l e d d ia le c tic s,

but a ls o ,

in

t h a t h e had ta k e n a d v a n ta g e o f t h e

n e w ly o r g a n i z e d c o u r s e s i n p o e t r y a n d p h i l o s o p h y a t V a l e n ­ c i a . 10 When h e e n t e r e d u p o n h i s w o rk a t P a r i s h e f o u n d t h a t , a lth o u g h a s u p e r f i c i a l

a r t s c o u r s e was r e q u ir e d a s a

9 F o s t e r W atson , t r a n s l a t o r , Tudor S c h o o l-B o y L i f e ( The B i a l o g u e s o f J u a n L u i s V i v e s ; L o n d o n : J . M. D e n t a n d Company, 1 9 0 8 ) , p . 9 9 . 10

B on illa, ££.

c i t .,

p. 34.

67 f o u n d a t io n f o r l a t e r m a jo r c o u r s e s su ch a s t h e o l o g y and canon la w ,

d ia le c tic

and l o g i c w e r e e m p h a s i z e d r a t h e r t h a n

grammar and r h e t o r i c .

H i s own m a s t e r a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y

of

P a r i s , Juan D u lla r d o f G h en t, i s q u o ted a s h a v in g r e p e a t e d ly a d v i s e d V i v e s , " t h e b e t t e r g r a m m a r ia n y o u a r e , d i a l e c t i c i a n and t h e o l o g i a n you w i l l b e . " 11

th e w o rse

It

sh o u ld b e

e m p h a s iz e d t h a t t h e w h o l e b a t t l e o f Humanism c e n t e r e d a b o u t th is

a ssu m p tio n .

in th e

Grammar and r h e t o r i c w e r e u s 6 d b y V i v e s

s e n s e o f a stu d y o f l i t e r a t u r e ,

s tu d y and r e a d in g o f a u t h o r s ,

i.e .,

th e c r i t i c a l

p o e t s , and h i s t o r i a n s ,

e t c . 12

The f i r s t G re ek b o o k h a d b e e n p r i n t e d i n P a r i s i n 1 5 0 7 , a n d t h e f i r s t H eb rew b o o k i n 1 5 0 8 , y e t , w hen V i v e s en tered th e u n iv e r s it y , to

i n 1 5 0 9 , h e fo u n d t h a t t h e a t t i t u d e

t h e New L e a r n i n g w a s g e n e r a l l y o n e o f c o n t e m p t u o u s

t o le r a t io n — not one o f r e s p e c t. tea c h ers o f r h e to r ic ,

gram m ar,

A c c o r d in g to T i l l e y , t h e and G r e e k , w i t h t h e new

p o i n t o f v i e w , w e r e c a l l e d " g ra m m a ria n s^ o r " p o e t s . "

T hey

w e r e l o o k e d u p o n w i t h s u s p i c i o n and a s s i g n e d t h e s l e e p y , a f t e r - d in n e r hou r f o r t h e i r l e c t u r e s . 15 S h o r t l y a f t e r V iv e s* several

e n tr a n c e upon h i s

e v e n t s h a p p e n e d w h ic h c h a n g e d t h e 11

IS

I b id .,

p.

stu d ie s,

a t t it u d e o f th e

51.

F o s t e r W a t s o n , V i v e s : On E d u c a t i o n (C a m b r id g e : U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , 1913) , p . I v i . 13 T i l l e y , £ £ . c i t . , p. 148.

68 S o r b o n n e fr o m p a s s i v e o f open h o s t i l i t y an in c r e a s e d

e n d u r a n c e o f t h e Hew L e a r n i n g t o o n e

and e n m i t y .

T hese e v e n ts w ere i n tu r n :

c i r c u l a t i o n o f th e B a d iu s1 e d i t i o n o f t h e

" S h ip o f F o o l s " ;

t h e G ourm ont p u b l i c a t i o n o f E r a s m u s ’ P r a i s e

o f F o l l y ; th e R e u c h lin O c u la r s S p ec u lu m ; a n d , t h e L e f e v r e C om m entary o f t h e E p i s t l e s o f S t . P a u l . The C o u r t J e s t e r i n t h o s e d a y s w a s a p r i v i l e g e d ch a ra cter.

U nder th e g u i s e o f f o o l i s h n e s s i t

to r i d i c u l e b oth s o c i a l

and p o l i t i c a l

i s s u e s o f t h e day*

T he S h i p o f F o o l s made a b l u n t a t t a c k th e t im e s .

was p o s s i b l e

on a l l th e e v i l s o f

E r a sm u s f o l l o w e d t h e e x a m p le o f B r a n d t b u t made

h i s r i d i c u l e t a k e t h e fo r m o f a p p a r e n t p r a i s e . lim ite d

t h e sphere." o f h i s a t t a c k s t o

and s c h o l a s t i c i s m . c r itic iz e d

I n h i s Q c u la r e S p e c u lu m , H e u c h lin

sa cred s c r ip t u r e s w ith o u t b e in g a D octor o f

The S o r b o n n e ,

armed f o r b a t t l e . p rev en t th e

t h e m o n k s, t h e o l o g y

t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f H eb rew b o o k s ; L e f e v r e d a r e d t o

comment o n t h e T h eo lo g y .

He a l s o

s c e n tin g dan ger to

From t h i s t i m e o n ,

it

its

a b so lu tism ,

sou gh t a c t iv e ly to

s p r e a d o f t h e New L e a r n i n g .

B a z o c h e and E n f a n s S a n s S o u c i . in d u lg e n t a t t i t u d e tow ard t h e

c o u r t f o o l was fou n d i n t h e

d r a m a tic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f th e t i m e s . th a t t h i s p e r io d

A n oth er p h a se o f t h e

It

i s w e ll-k n o w n

in P a r i s w as a tim e o f g r o s s im m o r a lity on

t h e p a r t o f t h e c o u r t and o f v e r y l o w s o c i a l

sta n d a rd s,

e v en

69 in d e c e n c ie s ,

among t h e p e o p l e .

A cco u n ts o f t h e s e days have

b e e n p o r t r a y e d by R a b e l a i s i n h i s G a r g a n t u a ; by B ra n to m e i n Dames G a l a n t e s ; and b y M a r g u e r i t e o f N a v a r r e , s i s t e r o f F r a n c is I ,

i n h e r t a l e s o f th e H ep tam eron .

The s o t i e s ,

d r a m a t i c s k i t s i n w h ic h t h e l e a d i n g c h a r a c t e r s w e r e f o o l s , w ere v e r y p o p u la r a t t h i s t im e .

The tw o c h i e f c o m p a n i e s

w e r e B a z o c h e an d t h e E n f a n s S a n s S o u c i , w h o se r i g h t s t o p erfo rm t h e i r L o u is X I I .

s o t i e s a n d f a r c e s h ad b e e n r e s t o r e d

By p l a y i n g t h e f o o l ,

t h e y w ere a b le t o

e v e r y b o d y and e v e r y t h i n g w i t h o u t harm t o t h e tim e o f V iv e s* at th e h e ig h t

t o them b y c r itic iz e

th e m se lv e s.

D u r in g

r e s id e n c e i n P a r i s , P ie r r e G r in g o ir e w as

o f h i s fam e.

On S h r o v e T u e s d a y , i n 1 5 1 1 , Le

J e n du P r i n e e d e s S o t z e t M ere s o t t e w a s p r e s e n t e d f o r t h e k in g .

I t was a g a l a o c c a s i o n i n P a r i s .

The p r e s e n t a t i o n w a s c o m p o se d o f a s o t i e , a m o r a l i t y , a n d a f a r c e i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c r y , w h ic h a w eek b e f o r e t h e d a y o f p r o d u c t i o n summoned a l l c l a s s e s o f p e o p l e t o hear th e p la y .

The a r g u m en t o f t h e

s k i t was a q u a r r e l

b e t w e e n L o u i s X I I and P o p e J u l i u s t h e I I . m a in c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e

and a t h i r d

T h ese r e p r e se n te d ,

t h e C h u r c h , and t h e Commons. w ere th e F ren ch p e o p le ,

T here w ere th r e e

s k i t — t h e tw o s t o c k c h a r a c t e r s ,

P r i n c e d e s S o t z and M ere S o t t e , S o t t e Commune.

come and

th e

ch a ra cter,

r e s p e c t i v e l y , L o u is X II,

The c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e m o r a l i t y

th e I t a l i a n p e o p le ,

th e o b s t in a t e

man ( J u l i u s I I ) , t h e q u a l i t i e s , — s i m o n i s m , h y p o c r i s y ,

and

70 r e lig io u s c o n te n tio u sn e ss. w ere c r i t i c i z e d

S o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l

in g ay abandon.

t h e g r o u p h ad n o t h i n g t o As e x p la in e d ,

e v ils

The f a r c e w h i c h c o m p l e t e d

do w i t h t h e m a in a r g u m e n t s . 1 4

a t t h e c l o s e o f C h a p t e r I* a n e f f o r t

h a s b e e n made t o d e p i c t t h e p e r s o n a l i n c i d e n t s o f V i v e s * life

in r e la tio n to th e

s o c ia l s tr u c tu r e o f h i s tim e s

n o tin g p a r t ic u la r ly such p h ases a s h i s t o r i c a l con tem p orary l e a r n i n g , m en ts.

and sym ptom s o f s o c i a l m a l a d j u s t ­

T h is q u o t a t i o n from T i l l e y ,

g i v e n a t C a m b rid g e U n i v e r s i t y , c a tio n o f s o c ia l it

background,

is

based on course m a te r ia l

in c lu d e d h e r e a s an i n d i ­

c o n d itio n s in P a r is in 1511.

a f f o r d a n o t h e r e x a m p le o f i n d i r e c t c r i t i c i s m

and p o l i t i c a l

e v ils ,

H ot o n l y d o e s o f so c ia l

t h r o u g h t h e m edium o f t h e f o o l b u t i t

i n d i c a t e s b e h a v io r r e s p o n s e bn th e p a r t o f th e m a sse s and, a l s o , p r o v i s i o n f o r e m o t i o n a l r e l e a s e m a d b h b y p ^ rt o f t h e C o u rt. I t m ig h t b e n o t e d , serm on s o f t h e day a l s o P a r isia n

so c ie ty .

in p a ssin g ,

d e a l t w ith th e

t h a t t h e " p o p u la r " e v i l s and f o i b l e s o f

One o f t h e m o s t fa m o u s o f t h e s e p r e a c h e r s

w a s J e a n R a u l i n , D o c t o r o f T h e o l o g y and D i r e c t o r o f t h e C o lle g e o f N avarre in w h ic h , i t

i s p r e s u m e d , V i v e s w as a

stu d e n t . VIVES DEBUT AS AN AUTHOR On E a s t e r d a y , 1 5 1 4 , Y i v e s p r o d u c e d a b r i e f w ork e n title d

C h r i s t ! J e s u T r iu m p h u s .

T ille y , op.

c i t .,

T h i s work i s

p. 177.

p a r tic u la r ly

71 v a lu a b le fo r i t s o f F iv e s*

f i r s t h a n d i n f o r m a t i o n on y e t a n o t h e r p h a s e

u n iv e r sity l i f e .

w i t h some o f h i s

A fte r a tte n d in g m ass, F iv e s ,

s t u d e n t - f r i e n d s — th e S p a n ish P e t e r I b o r r a ,

M i g u e l d e S a n A n g e l , and F r a n c i s c o John F o r t i s

o f L o u v a in — m et w it h t h e t u t o r ,

h is q u a rters.

T h ey h a d b e e n i n v i t e d t o

m e e t tw o F a l e n c i a n s . m in ia tu r e

C r isto b a l,

c a lle d

t o g e t h e r w ith

C aspar L a x ,

in

h a v e su p p e r and t o

T he g u e s t s b r o u g h t w i t h th e m a

t h e Triumph o f C a e s a r .

The i n s p i r a t i o n f o r

t h e c o m p o s i t i o n came t h r o u g h a rem ark made by t h e h o s t , C a s p a r L a x , who s a i d ,

"How much m or6 e x c e l l e n t i f

tu r 'e h a d b e e n C h r i s t ,

o u r O p tim u s M a x im u s, i n s t e a d o f

C aesar,

*a man b y no m e a n s g o o d * !*»

th e m in ia -

T h i s comment l e d F i v e s

t o i m a g i n e w h a t L a x m ea n t by t h e T rium ph o f C h r i s t .

1

Pn

I n an

e f f o r t to answ er t h i s q u e s t io n F iv e s w rote h i s C h r i s t i J e su T r iu m p h u s . F iv e s*

fir st

lite r a r y

effo rt,

a c c o r d in g to W atson ,

r e s e m b l e d t h e d i a l o g u e s o f t h e fa m o u s g a t h e r i n g s o f I t a l i a n H u m a n ists. ever.

The d i f f e r e n c e i n s e t t i n g

The s c e n e i s

la id

in th e l i t t l e

g u e , not a t a m a g n ific e n t b an q u et. d en ts w ith t h e i r t u t o r .

is

v e r y m a r k e d , how­

c u b ic le o f a pedago­

The c h a r a c t e r s a r e s t u ­

The a tm o sp h e re i s

p r im itiv e C h r istia n ,

15 F o s t e r W a t s o n , L u i s F i v e s : E l G ra n F a l e n c i a n o ( 1 4 9 2 - 1 5 4 0 ) (O xford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s : Humphrey M i l f o r d , 1 9 2 2 ) , p. 25.

72 not pagan.

The s t u d e n t s a r e d e e p l y i n t e n t o n t h e t r i u m p h

o f th e P r in c e o f P ea ce, th e f i r s t

not th e lo r d o f w ar.

in d ic a tio n o f Y iv e s’ d is lik e

o f w ar.

t r i u m p h s o f C a e s a r h e l d no i n t e r e s t f o r h im . d e fin ite ly th e

d is illu sio n e d

by t h i s tim e ,

H e r e we h a v e The

. V i v e s w as

s a y s W atson ,

as to

e d u c a t i o n t o b e a c q u i r e d fr o m t h e M a s t e r s o f t h e

Sorbonne.

He w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y

ash a m ed t h a t among t h e

S p a n i a r d s w e r e t o b e f o u n d som e o f t h e m o s t b i g o t e d o f t h e s c h o l a s t i c s . 16 YIV ES’ DEPARTURE FOR FLANDERS A lm o st im m e d ia te ly f o l l o w i n g t h e p r o d u c t io n o f t h i s b o o k le t, Y iv e s l e f t F ran ce.

I n s te a d o f r e tu r n in g to S p a in

a s m ig h t h a v e b e e n e x p e c t e d ,

he w ent to F la n d e r s .

graphers g iv e (1 )

H is b i o ­

s e v e r a l p o s s ib le r e a so n s fo r h is d ep a rtu re:

t h e S p a n ia r d s w ere v e r y u n p o p u la r i n P a r i s b e c a u se o f

K in g F e r d i n a n d ’ s m a n e u v r e s t o c a p t u r e t h e I t a l i a n and t h e r e b y d r i v e o u t t h e F r e n c h ;

(2)

it

is

c itie s

assum ed t h a t ,

by t h i s t i m e , b o th o f Y i v e s ’ p a r e n t s m ust h a v e b een d ead f o r he n e v e r r e tu r n e d to S p a in a g a in ,

even fo r a v i s i t ;

(3 )

F le m ish ty p e o f s c h o la r s h ip was c o n g e n ia l t o Y iv e s ;

(4)

m any S p a n i a r d s l i v e d

in F la n d e r s ,

p a r tic u la r ly

in th e

th e

c ity

o f B ru g es w here t h e r e was su ch a l a r g e S p a n is h q u a r t e r t h a t

16 Ib id .,

pp. 2 5 -2 6 .

t h e s e c t i o n w a s known a s a S e c o n d S p a i n ; to

e a r n h i s own l i v i n g .

and ( 5 )

Y i v e s had

An o p p o r t u n i t y w as o f f e r e d t o him

i n F l a n d e r s t o /b ecom e t u t o r i n t h e Y a l d a u r a f a m i l y — d i s t a n t f a m i l y c o n n e c t i o n s who h a d b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d a t B r u g e s f o r so m e tim e .

He a c c e p t e d t h i s o f f e r and t r a n s f e r r e d t o B e l g i u m ,

w h e r e h e w as t o m a i n t a i n h i s h e a d q u a r t e r s f o r t h e r e s t o f h is l i f e .

H i s e x p e r i e n c e s i n F l a n d e r s and i n E n g la n d w i l l

be th e s u b j e c t o f th e n e x t c h a p te r .

'

CHAPTER IV VIVES IN FLANDERS ( 1 5 1 4 - 1 5 4 0 ) INTRODUCTION T he y e a r s p a s s e d a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f P a r i s h a d been,

i n many w a y s ,

d is a g r e e a b le fo r V iv e s.

B r u g e s, h o w ev er, was a p le a s a n t c o m p a n io n sh ip o f f e l l o w h a b its o f l i f e ;

co n tra st.

at

H e r e h e had t h e

countrym en ; h e resum ed h i s S p a n is h

and h e w a s a b l e t o

i n t e l l e c t u a l and s o c i a l

H is l i f e

r e la x in th e c o n g e n ia l

a tm o sp h ere o f F le m is h H u m a n ists.

T he m o s t i m p r e s s i o n a b l e y e a r s o f h i s l i f e

w ere o v e r f o r ,

w h en h e r e a c h e d B r u g e s , h e w as a y o u n g man o f t w e n t y - t w o . He l i t t l e

knew t h a t f a t e h a d a l r e a d y l e d h im t o

i n w h ic h h e w a s t o make h i s h e a d q u a r t e r s f o r t h e h is l i f e ,

th e lo c a le rest of

e v en th o u g h h i s r e s i d e n c e t h e r e w as n o t to be

c o n tin u o u s,

b u t d i v i d e d f o r a t i m e w i t h E n g la n d and B r a b a n t .

The b i o g r a p h y o f V i v e s w i l l b e c o m p l e t e d i n t h i s ch a p ter.

T he F l e m i s h a n d E n g l i s h H u m a n i s t i c i n f l u e n c e s

w h ic h r o u n d e d o u t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t and p r o d u c e d a t l a s t t h e b r illia n t

in te r n a tio n a l

s c h o l a r and w r i t e r w e r e i m p o r t a n t

s t e p s i n h i s d e v e lo p m e n t. l a u n c h e d by t h e l i t t l e

H is l i t e r a r y

c a r e e r , a lr e a d y

b r o c h u r e , " C h r i s t i J e s u T riu m ph us"

c o n tin u e d a lm o st un broken u n t i l t h e tim e o f h i s 1540.

H is w orks w i l l b e m en tio n ed i n t h i s

d eath i n

ch a p ter

75 p r i n c i p a l l y i n t e r m s o f c h r o n o l o g y an d s e t t i n g .

H is m ost

o u t s t a n d i n g p r o d u c t i o n s w i l l b e r e v i e w e d i n m ore d e t a i l la te r

in

ch a p ters* CONTEMPORARY EVENTS The f i r s t

e v e n t o f im p o rta n ce to

ism a f t e r V i v e s 1 a r r i v a l

c o n t e m p o r a r y Human­

i n B ru g es was t h e a p p ea ra n ce o f

E p i s t o l a e Q b scu ro ru m V i r o r u m .

T h is s a t i r i c a l

work c o m p l e t e d

t h e c a m p a ig n b e g u n by B r a n d t and c a r r i e d o n b y E r a sm u s a g a in s t th e ig n o r a n c e, m onks.

s t u p i d i t y , and p r o f l i g a c y

The p r o o f o f t h e i r t o t a l

l a n g u a g e w a s c o m p l e t e d w h en i t

of th e

ig n o r a n c e o f th e L a t in

b e ca m e e v i d e n t , a f t e r

s e v e r a l m o n th s, t h a t t h e y had f a i l e d t o

r e a liz e th a t th e

w ork w a s a n e x p o s u r e o f t h e i r s h o r t - c o m i n g s r a t h e r t h a n a c o m p lim e n t t o

t h e i r a c h iev e m en ts.

?tfien t h e y d i d f i n d o u t

t h a t t h e y h ad b e e n h e l d up t o

th e r i d i c u l e o f th e w o r ld ,

t h e y w e r e v e r y much e n r a g e d .

The E p i s t l e s w e r e i m p o r t a n t

a s o n e o f t h e f a c t o r s w h ic h p r e c i p i t a t e d

th e R e fo rm a tio n .

M a c h i a v e l l i had c o m p le te d h i s I I P r i n c i p e i n 1 5 1 3 , tw o y e a r s b e f o r e t h e p r i n t i n g o f t h e E p i s t o l a e Q b scu ro ru m V iro ru m .

O th er e v e n t s im p o r ta n t to t h e

occurred r a p id ly .

s p r e a d o f Humanism

The y e a r 1 5 1 5 m a rk ed t h e a c c e s s i o n o f

t h e H u m a n is t p r i n c e , F r a n c i s I t o t h e

th ron e o f F ran ce.

T hree b o o k s w e r e p u b l i s h e d w i t h i n a f e w m on th s o f e a ch o t h e r o n t h e e d u c a t i o n and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f a p r i n c e ,

v iz .,

B u d e ’ s L *I n s t i t u t i o n d e P r i n c e ; E r a s m u s ’ I n s t i t u t i o

P r i n c i p i s C h r i s t i a n i ; C a s t i g l i o n e ’ s I I C o r ^ e g ia n o . two v e r y

i m p o r t a n t e v e n t s h a p p e n e d i n E n g la n d ;

In 1 5 1 6 ,

S i r Thomas

M ore p u b l i s h e d h i s U t o p i a ; C h r i s t ’ s C o l l e g e , H u m a n is t , o p e n e d a t C a m b r id g e .

The y e a r f o l l o w i n g ,

1517,

saw two

m ore H u m a n is t c o l l e g e s o p e n t h e i r d o o r s ;

th e C o lleg iu m

T r i l i n g u e a t L o u v a i n , and C o r p u s C h r i s t i

a t O xford .

1518,

was

In

two C-erman u n i v e r s i t i e s c h a n g e d t o Humanism— E r f u r t

and L e i p s i g .

C o l o g n e r e m a i n e d t h e German s t r o n g h o l d o f

S c h o la stic ism .

The y e a r p r e v i o u s ,

h a p p e n i n g had b r o u g h t o u t i n t o th e R e n a issa n c e:

a m ost s i g n i f i c a n t

th e open a n o th er p h ase o f

M a r t i n L u t h e r had n a i l e d h i s t h e s e s o f

d e f ia n c e on th e door o f th e W itten b erg ch u rch , th e s a l e o f in d u lg e n c e s .

a tta c h in g

T he R e f o r m a t i o n h a d b e g u n ’

THE NORTHERN RENAISSANCE The N o r t h e r n R e n a i s s a n c e owed i t s its

ch a ra cter la r g e ly

A g r ic o la , ia l

i n s p i r a t i o n and

t o t h e w ork o f R u d o lp h A g r i c o l a .

l i k e V i v e s , w a s t h e p r o d u c t o f m ore t h a n o n e r a c ­

c u ltu r e .

He i t w a s who t r i e d

to

a s s im ila te th e b e st of

I t a l i a n c u l t u r e , so t h a t h e m i g h t p a s s o n i t s as i t s

c u l t u r e t o h i s own p e o p l e .

s p ir it as w e ll

H e, t h e r e f o r e ,

la id th e

f o u n d a t i o n s and s e t t h e g o a l s w h i c h d i f f e r e n t i a t e d t h e T e u t o n i c R e n a i s s a n c e fr o m t h e R e n a i s s a n c e o f I t a l y , o f F rance,

and o f E n g la n d .

o f S p a in ,

77 A g r i c o l a had

stu d ie d a t F erra ra ,

a u n i v e r s i t y w h ic h

p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f German a n d E n g l i s h H um anism ,

F errara, e sta b lish e d

in 1442,

t h e s t u d y o f L e t t e r s a s an end. i n i t s e l f

e m p h a s iz e d

r a th e r th a n as a

p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e p r o f e s s i o n s o f l a w , t h e o l o g y , and m e d ic in e .

As m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d ,

D i a l e c t i c s d id n o t o c c u p y

a t F e r r a r a t h e e x a l t e d p o s i t i o n w h ic h h e l d a t P a r i s .

L o g ic ,

a t F e r r a r a , w a s e n t i r e l y d e t a c h e d fro m g r a m m a t i c a l a b s t r a c ­ t i o n s and d i s p u t a t i o n a l ly

a s an a id t o th e

su b tle tie s.

L o g i c w as t a u g h t m e r e ­

d e v e lo p m en t o f e x p r e s s i o n .

The b r i l l i a n t A g r i c o l a , — m u s i c i a n , lin g u ist, o ra to r,

g r a m m a r ia n , r h e t o r i c i a n ;

a r tist,

h isto r ic a l

d ip lo m a t;

th e o lo g ia n ,

and m a s t e r o f t h e n T rue A r i s t o t l e ” - - t u r n e d t h e t i d e

o f Humanism i n t h e Low C o u n t r i e s t o t h e new H u m a n i t i e s .

The medium o f e x p r e s s i o n w a s t o b e t h e

e s s a y w h ic h t o o k t h e p l a c e , w r a n g lin g o f P a r i s ,

sc h o la r ly resea rch in

in F la n d e r s, o f th e

and t h e o r a t i o n s o f I t a l y .

fu tile L ik e t h e

g r e a t S p a n is h H u m a n ists, A g r i c o l a c o n s id e r e d s c h o l a r s h i p a n ecessa ry base fo r

e x a m i n in g and i m p r o v i n g t h e w ork o f t h e

C hurch.

He d i d n o t c o n s i d e r Humanism and r e l i g i o n a n t a ­

g o n istic

a s d id th e S orb o n n e.

h i s m ind w as r i g h t c o n d u c t . d isc ip lin e

The c h i e f

e d u c a tio n a l g o a l to

He condem ned t h e M e d i a e v a l

a s t a u g h t by P a r i s and C o l o g n e ,

in stitu tio n s

he had b e e n a p u p i l .

i n b o th o f w h ic h

78 A g r i c o l a ’ s t a l e n t s w e r e m o re i n s p i r a t i o n a l t h a n a d m in istr a tiv e . o n l y tw o

He d i d l i t t l e

a c tu a l te a c h in g

sm a ll m a n u s c r ip ts on e d u c a t io n .

The a b s u r d

g y r a tio n s o f th e d i a l e c t i c i a n s w ith t h e i r p u tes,

sy llo g is m s,

d is­

and f o r m u l a e w e r e l o o k e d u p o n by h im a s o b j e c t s o f

scorn . fo r m ;

and l e f t

He c o n s i d e r e d c o n t e n t o f i d e a s m o re i m p o r t a n t t h a n r a n k e d c o n d u c t and e t h i c s h i g h e r t h a n m e r e k n o w l e d g e ;

l o o k e d u p o n f a c i l i t y o f e x p r e s s i o n a s an e s s e n t i a l o f u tility

r a t h e r t h a n an o r n a m e n t t o

e r u d itio n .

L o g ic he

c o n s id e r e d an in s tr u m e n t o f rea so n * A g r ic o la d ie d i n 1 4 8 5 ,

seven y e a r s b e fo r e th e b ir th

o f Y i v e s , y e t h e e n v i s i o n e d many o f t h e i d e a l s f o r w h i c h E rasm u s and Y i v e s w e r e l a t e r t o

fig h t.

H o n o r e d b y E r a sm u s

and b y German H u m a n i s t s i n g e n e r a l a s t h e f o u n d e r o f N o r t h e r n H um anism , h e s e t t h e t o n e o f s i n c e r i t y , p r a c tic a lity ,

sim p lic ity ,

and a p p r e c i a t i o n o f b e a u t y and d i g n i t y

in

l i t e r a t u r e w h ic h d i f f e r e n t i a t e d t h e N o r th e r n R e n a is s a n c e fr o m t h a t o f t h e S o u t h . The two m a j o r s o u r c e s o f i n s p i r a t i o n o f t h e g r e a t E r a sm u s w e r e h i s c o u n t r y m a n , A g r i c o l a , o f Ita ly .

and L a u r e n t i u s Y a l l a ,

I n Y i v e s ’ d a y , F l e m i s h Humanism w a s v e r y l a r g e l y

d o m in a ted by E rasm us. A g r ic o la w h ile

Y i v e s came u n d e r t h e

in flu e n c e o f

a s t u d e n t o f E ra sm u s a t L o u v a i n U n i v e r s i t y —

th e u n i v e r s i t y i n w h ic h A g r i c o l a had r e c e i v e d h i s m a s t e r ’ s degree.

T h e i n f l u e n c e o f E ra sm u s w a s ,

o f cou rse,

an

79 i m m e d i a t e and p e r s o n a l f o r c e i n V i v e s * o f Ig r ic o la ,

a l t h o u g h m ore r e m o t e ,

life .

le ft

The i n f l u e n c e

a very d e fin ite

im p r in t on t h e p h ilo s o p h y and t h e w o rk s o f h i s a d m ir e r , V i v e s , * — a d e h t ■which V i v e s f r e q u e n t l y a c k n o w l e d g e d . BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE No d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e H u m a n is t s o f F l a n d e r s c a n b e m ade w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o m em b ers o f t h e

c o -o p e r a tiv e

educa­

t i o n a l g r o u p known a s t h e B r e t h r e n o f t h e Common L i f e . B r o t h e r s t o o k no v o w s i n

T he

s p i t e o f th e f a c t t h a t t h e i r

o r g a n i z a t i o n w a s an o u t g r o w t h o f r e l i g i o u s o r d e r s and t h a t i t s , m e m b e r s s u c c e e d e d t h e m e n d i c a n t m onks a s p r o m o t e r s o f e d u c a tio n .

T he o r d e r ,

was a g e s t u r e

fou n d ed i n 1 5 8 4 ,

a g a in st s c h o la s t ic

by G erard G r o o t,

th e o lo g y ,

o r g a n iz e d ,

(1)

i n t h e hope o f c o r r e c t i n g e v i l s b ro u g h t a b o u t by t h e c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e m o n k s, a n d ( 2 ) in g th e

so c ia l order.

w ith a s p ir a t io n s o f b e t t e r ­

L ik e m ost o t h e r s c h o l a r s o f t h e

age,

G erard G root was h i m s e lf a p ro d u ct o f s c h o l a s t i c t r a i n i n g a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f P a r i s .

He e x p r e s s e d h i s r e b e l l i o n

to

t h e p h i l o s o p h y and p r a c t i c e o f m e d i a e v a l e d u c a t i o n a t t h e S o r b o n n e by e s t a b l i s h i n g

s c h o o l s o f H u m a n istic p h i lo s o p h y

t h r o u g h o u t t h e N e t h e r l a n d s and G erm an y. c h a r a c te r istic fea tu r e s, (2 )

v iz .,

o f th e L a tin c l a s s i c s .

o f b o t h P l a t o and S o c r a t e s ,

a stu d y

H i s s c h o o l s h a d two (1 )

o f th e B ib le ,

S i n c e G r o o t w as a g r e a t a d m i r e r h is

s c h o o ls w ere not a p o s t l e s

80 o f t h e ftA r i s t o t l e h a s s a i d

s o tt d o c t r i n e .

The B r e t h r e n s o u g h t t o

em p hasize i n t h e i r

sch o o ls

th e in n er l i f e

o f th e in d iv id u a l r a th e r than a s t a t e o f

conform ance to

e x te r n a l form s o f e c c l e s i a s t i c a l

They were c o n t r i b u t o r y to t h e and t h e R e f o r m a t i o n .

d o ctrin e.

d e v e l o p m e n t o f b o t h Humanism

They had a U t o p i a n t y p e o f o r g a n i z a ­

t i o n i n v h i c h t h e m em b ers g a v e up t h e i r p r o p e r t y f o r t h e common g o o d i n o r d e r t o the l i f e

o f the

sp irit.

p erm it each to

l i v e m ore e f f e c t i v e l y

T h is phase o f t h e i r a c t i v i t y

com­

b i n e d w i t h t h e i r s i m p l e , m y s t i c a l f a i t h p r e p a r e d t h e way fo r th e E v a n g elica l

creed o f in d iv id u a l s a lv a tio n .

The Order p r e s u m a b ly s u p p o r te d i t s e l f but i t its

rendered a g r ea t

c o n t r ib u t io n to th e R e n a issa n c e by

c o p y in g o f a n c i e n t and s a c r e d d o c u m e n ts.

and A g r i c o l a a r e s a i d t o Brethren:

by m a n u a l l a b o r ,

B o t h E r a sm u s

have been tr a in e d i n s c h o o ls o f th e

E r a sm u s a t D e v e n t e r ; A g r i c o l a ,

U n iv e r s it y o f L ou vain .

a t Z w olle.

The U n i v e r s i t y o f L o u v a i n

f o u n d e d i n 1 4 2 6 , was t h e o n l y u n i v e r s i t y i n B e l g i u m . Ferrara,

it

L ike

had e n j o y e d a h i g h r e p u t a t i o n f o r L e t t e r s .

It

w a s f a m o u s t h r o u g h o u t E u r o p e f o r i t s F a c u l t y o f A r t s and fo r i t s p r in tin g o f a n cien t m an u scrip ts.

However,

it

w as

n o t exempt from t h e g e n e r a l d e c a d e n c e o f l e a r n i n g w h ic h c h a r a c t e r i z e d Europe i n t h e cen tu ry.

l a t t e r part o f the f if t e e n t h

81 T h is a r t i f i c i a l

and s t e r i l e

c h a r a c te r o f ed u cation

w a s due t o t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f d e g e n e r a t e A r i s t o t e l i a n p h ilo so p h y ,

and t o t h e l a c k o f u p - t o - d a t e

any r e fo r m s c o u l d be i n s t i t u t e d

th6 f a l s e

textb ooks.

p h ilo s o p h y on

w h i c h s c h o o l s w e r e f u n c t i o n i n g had t o b e e x p o s e d . serv a tiv es

and t h e a c t i v e p r o p o n e n t s o f t h e

past resisted

The c o n ­

sa n c tio n s o f the

t h e encroachm en ts o f t h e H u m an ists.

l e d by E rasm us, t h e reform w as b e g u n .

Before

However,

H is t r a n s l a t i o n o f

T h e o d o r e G a z a ’ s G r e e k Grammar l e d t h e p r o c e s s i o n o f t e x t s w h i c h w e r e t o g i v e a c c e s s t o t h e n ew s c i e n c e s , cu ltu re of the a n c ie n ts, qnd,

in g en eral, to

to

reveal the

t o r e s t o r e h i s t o r y and l i t e r a t u r e ,

r e p l a c e out-m oded m e d ia e v a l t e x t s .

The C o l l e g e d e s T r o i s L a n g u e s e s t a b l i s h e d i n J u l y , 1 5 1 7 , w a s made p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h a b e q u e s t i n t h e w i l l o f Jerome B u s l e i d e n . and c l a s s i c a l

I t had a s i t s

lite ra tu re .

aim t h e s t u d y o f R e n a i s s a n c e

E r a sm u s w a s d i r e c t o r and p r o m o t e r .

The c o l l e g e w h i c h w a s a f f i l i a t e d w i t h t h e U n i v e r s i t y , i n Septem ber, 1518, m arket.

opened

i n tem porary q u a r te r s c l o s e to t h e F is h -

As m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d ,

t h e r e was g r e a t o p p o s i t i o n

on th e p a r t o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s

and e p i t h e t s a s t o

" F i s h m a r k e t L a t i n ” w e r e t o s s e d b a c k and f o r t h w i t h much gu sto. V ives i s was,

s a i d to have been i n L ou vain i n 1 5 1 6 .

at th is tim e,

He

t u t o r t o G u illa u m e de C r o y , C a r d in a l and

A rch b ish o p -D esig n a te o f T oled o.

The y o u t h ,

a nephew o f t h e

82 Duke o f C h i e v r e s ,

a lt h o u g h o n l y e i g h t e e n y e a r s o f a g e , was

a lr e a d y P rim ate o f S p a in . to V iv e s ’ ch aracter,

I t was,

b reed in g,

have been chosen as m entor.

th erefore,

and l e a r n i n g t h a t h e s h o u l d

I n 1 5 1 8 , h e had j u s t c o m p le te d

h i s ’’M e d i t a t i o n e s i n P s a l m o s P e n i t a h t i a e * to th e young C a r d in a l, h i s p u p i l . tio n ed d e f in it e ly

a g r ea t honor

w h i c h he d e d i c a t e d

I n t h i s y e a r h e i s men­

a s b e in g a p u p i l o f E rasm u s,— presu m ab ly

in th e C o lle g e des T r o is Langues.

I n 1 5 1 9 , V iv e s became a

le c tu r e r in the H a iles of th e U n iv e r sity i t s e l f , tau gh t N atural H is t o r y . G eorgies o f V i r g i l ,

In th e

in h is

a f t e r n o o n , he ta u g h t th e

own h o u s e .

I n 1 5 2 2 , he added

l e c t u r e s on t h e g e o g r a p h e r , Pom ponius M e la . a lso

where he

He i s

reported

to have been g iv in g p u b lic l e c t u r e s du rin g t h i s

I n c l u d e d among h i s t o p i c s w e r e :

p erio d .

C i c e r o ’ s D_es e n e c t u t e , De

L e g i b u s ; P h i l e l p h u s ’ C o n v i v i a ; h i s own C h r i s t i T r i u m p h u s ; and , ” co s m o g r a p h y . w VIVES* BREAK WITH SCHOLASTICISM The y e a r 1 5 1 9 w a s a v e r y i m p o r t a n t o n e f o r V i v e s a n d , i f we a r e t o b e l i e v e F o s t e r W a t s o n , a v e r y o u t s t a n d i n g l a n d ­ mark i n t h e h i s t o r y o f e d u c a t i o n . Fseudo- D i a l e c t i c o s .

In 1519, V iv es w rote In

I n t h i s work V i v e s t o s s e d down t o t h e

lea d ers o f the d ia le c t ic

tea c h in g s in th e U n iv e r s ity of

1 F o s t e r W a t s o n , t r a n s l a t o r , V i v e s : On E d u c a t i o n ( C a m b r i d g e : T h e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 l 3 ) , p . LXX.

85 P a r i s a c h a lle n g e on t h e t e a c h in g s o f

s c h o l a s t i c i s m and on

th e a u th o r ity o f the U n iv e r s it y of P a r is i n m a tters o f lea rn in g .

W atson b e l i e v e s h i s a t t a c k on t h e

sch o la stic

r e a c t i o n a r i e s was e q u a l i n im p o r ta n c e t o L u th e r a f f i x i n g h is

t h e s e s a t W itte n b e r g o r to C opernicus*

th e s o la r system .

"V ives i s

d is c o v e r ie s about

an i n t e l l e c t u a l

Caesar c r o ss in g

t h e R u b ico n fr o m t h e m e d i a e v a l t o t h e modern e r a o f t h o u g h t . It

is

s u r e l y a s u p r e m e m o m e n t , and h i s b o o k i s

r eco g n itio n , p En com ium .*1^

w orthy o f

s i d e b y s i d e w i t h E r a sm u s and h i s M o r i a e

The p e r i o d o f i n d e c i s i o n w a s o v e r f o r V i v e s . made h i s

c h o i c e b e t w e e n t h e two e d u c a t i o n a l

system s.

He h a d He w a s

no l o n g e r w a v e r i n g b e t w e e n t h e M e d i a e v a l i s m o f P a r i s a n d t h e New L e a r n i n g o f L o u v a i n .

Overcom e w i t h r e g r e t a t h i s w a s t e

o f v a lu a b le tim e he s a y s o f h i s M ed iaeval s t u d i e s , I r e c e i v e d t h e m i n t o my m i n d , when I w a s i m p r e s ­ sio n a b le. I a p p l i e d m y s e l f t o them w i t h t h e h i g h e s t zea l. They s t i c k t e n a c i o u s l y . T h ey come i n t o my m ind a g a i n s t my w i l l . T h e y s t u p e f y my mind j u s t a s I am r e a c h in g forw ard t o b e t t e r t h i n g s . What w o u l d o n e n o t g i v e , h e c r i e s o u t , t o u n - t e a c h t h e m f r o m one * m i n d — money, c l o t h e s , b o o k s , any m a t e r i a l com m odity!3 The p r e v i o u s y e a r , 1 5 1 8 , V i v e s h a d c o m p l e t e d w h a t i s probab ly the

f i r s t m o d e r n w o r k o n p h i l o s o p h y , De I n i t i i s ,

2

F o s t e r W a t s o n , L u i s V i v e s : E l Gran V a l e n c i a n o ( 1 4 9 2 1 5 4 0 ) ( O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ; Humphrey M i l f o r d , 1 9 2 2 ) , p . 3 1 . 3 I b i d ., p . 30.

84 S ectis

e t L audibus P h i l o s o p h i s e .

In 1519,

b e s id e s In

Pseudo D i a l e c t i c o s V iv e s w rote t h r e e o t h e r works:

P om peius

F u g i e n s , t h e D i a l o g u e c a l l e d S a p i e n s , and C 6 n s u r a de j j r i s t o t e l i s Q p erib u s.

He a l s o

e d i t e d so m n iu m S c i p i o n i s ,

t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o w h i c h w a s a f t e r w a r d s kn ow n a s Somnium V iv is.

^11 o t t h e s e w r i t i n g s o f V i v e s had b een s e n t t o S i r

Thomas More f o r h i s

critic ism .

M ore’ s r e p ly

co n stitu tes

one o f t h e m ost c o n c l u s i v e b i t s o f e v i d e n c e on th e recogn ized g e n iu s o f V ives a t t h i s tim e.

More s a y s :

C e r t a i n l y , my d e a r E r a s m u s , I am a sh a m ed o f m y s e l f a n d my f r i e n d s , who t a k e c r e d i t t o o u r s e l v e s f o r a f e w b r o c h u r e s o f a q u i t e i n s i g n i f i c a n t k i n d , wh en I s e e a y o u n g man l i k e V i v e s p r o d u c i n g so many w e l l d i g e s t e d w orks, i n a good s t y l e , g i v i n g p r o o f o f an e x q u isite eru d itio n . How g r e a t i s h i s k n o w l e d g e o f G reek and L a t i n ; g r e a t e r s t i l l i s t h e way i n w h ic h he i s v e r s e d i n b r a n c h e s o f know ledge o f t h e f i r s t ran k . Who i n t h i s r e s p e c t i s t h e r e who s u r p a s s e s V i v e s i n t h e q u a n t i t y and d e p t h o f h i s k n o w l e d g e ? 4 Erasm us, o f V ives.

too,

w as q u i t e f r a n k i n s t a t i n g h i s o p i n i o n

From L y o n s w h e r e V i v e s ,

E r a sm u s w e r e a l l v i s i t i n g ,

C a r d in a l de C roy,

and

i n 1 5 1 8 , Erasmus w r o t e t o a f r i e n d .

H e r e we h a v e L u i s V i v e s , who h a s n o t p a s s e d h i s tw en ty -six th year o f age. Young a s h e i s t h e r e i s no p a r t o f p h i lo s o p h y i n w h ich he d o e s not p o s s e s s a k n ow led ge w h ich f a r o u t s t r i p s th e m ass o f s t u d e n t s . H i s p o w e r o f e x p r e s s i o n i n s p e e c h and w r i t i n g i s s u c h a s I do n o t kn ow a n y o n e who c a n b e d e c l a r e d h i s

4 F o s t e r W a t s o n , t r a n s l a t o r , T u d o r S c h o o l - Bo y L i f e ( The D i a l o g u e s o f J u a n L u i s V i v e s ; L o n d o n : J . M. D e n t and Company, 1 9 0 8 ) , p p . x i i - x i i i .

85 equal a t th e p r e se n t t im e .5 On h e a r i n g o f t h e f u r o r

c r e a t e d i n P a r i s by

I n P se u d o D i a l e c t i c o s , Erasmus w r o t e t o s i r " V ives i s

Y iv es1

Thomas More

o n e who w i l l o v e r s h a d o w t h e name o f E r a s m u s . "

At t h i s t i m e Erasmus w as f i f t y - f i v e y e a r s o l d ; Y i v e s had reached th e age o f tw e n ty -se v e n . In 1519,

a lso ,

E r a sm u s recom m end ed Y i v e s a s t u t o r

f o r E e r d i n a n d , b r o t h e r o f C h a r l e s V , s t a t i n g "X h a r d l y know a n y o n e t h a t I would d a r e m atch w i t h h i m . " 7 In t h is was

q u ite

h is p u b lic To h i s

same y e a r , Y i v e s p a i d a v i s i t u p s e t w ondering what

h is

the b r i e f f i v e y e a r s

r e c e p t i o n wouldbe a f t e r

He f o u n d t h a t ,

had b e e n o p e n l y c o n v e r t e d t o

H is t r e a t i s e had had an u n b e l i e v a b l e

in d iv id in g the U n iv e r s ity of P a r is in to

camps; t h e p a r t i s a n s o f t h e H u m a n is ts; o f the tr a d it io n a l le a r n in g .

two

an d t h e s u p p o r t e r s

The y e a r 1 5 1 9 , w a s ,

in d eed, a

m o st momentous one f o r Y i v e s .

5 Ib id .,

in

s i n c e h e had l e f t P a r i s , many o f h i s

in clu d in g h is tu to r s ,

t h e New L e a r n i n g . in flu en ce

He

c o n d e m n a t i o n o f t h e S o r b o n n e and i t s m e t h o d s .

s u r p r i s e h e was w arm ly welcorned.

frien d s,

to P a r is.

p. x ii.

6 W a t s o n , E l G ran V a l e n c i a n o , 7 I b i d . , p . 35.

op.

c i t . , p. 33.

86 BRUGES B ruges was a v e r y im p o r ta n t c i t y Europe, its of

I t w as renowned f o r l e t t e r s ,

part in g rea t p o l i t i c a l m eetin g s.

i n 1 6 th C entury

f o r commerce, In th e se

and f o r

g ath erin gs

s c h o l a r s and d i p l o m a t s V i v e s f o u n d a n o p e n i n g w e d g e f o r

advancement f o r h i m s e l f .

I t w a s h e r e t h a t h e m et S i r

Thomas M o r e , C a r d i n a l W o o l s e y , and L o r d Mount j o y . o c c a s i o n g a v e him h i s f i r s t

Such

c o n ta ct w ith th e E n g lish

H um anists a l t h o u g h , a s a c o m p a tr io t o f C a t h e r in e o f d r a g o n , he had b e e n a l r e a d y i n t e r e s t e d i n E n g la n d . On J a n u a r y 1 0 , 1 5 2 1 , V i v e s * su ddenly d ie d . Towards t h e

p u p i l C a r d i n a l d6 C r o y

T h is d e a th was a g r e a t l o s s t o V i v e s .

end o f

the p r e v io u s y e a r , V iv e s ,

at th e r e q u e st

o f E rasm us, had beg u n w o r k in g on t h e C om m entaries on S t . A u gustin e* s C i v i t a s D e i .

E r a s m u s w a n t e d to. m ak e t h i s a

p a r t o f a s e r i e s w h ich he had begu n on S t . Jerom6.

C y p ria n and S t .

V iv es began e d it in g ,

t h i n k i n g t h a t th e t a s k w ould

be com p leted i n a few m onths.

M e a n w h i l e , E r a sm u s had l e f t

L ou vain .

The c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e

i n t e n s i v e work o n S t .

A u g u s t i n e a n d t h e d e a t h o f C r o y w e r e t o o much o f a s t r a i n for V iv es.

He be c a m e s e r i o u s l y

Bruges in to

t h e h o u s e o f a r i c h S p a n i s h m e r c h a n t , P e d r o de

A gu irra.

ill

and was t a k e n back t o

By J u n e , h e w a s c o n v a l e s c e n t and w a s p r e s e n t a t

th e f e s t i v i t i e s w h ich c e l e b r a t e d W oolsey w ith C h a r le s V at B r u g e s.

the v i s i t

o f C ardinal

87 When V i v e s c o m p l e t e d S t . d ed icated i t

A u g u stin e,

to K in g Henry V I I I .

p r a i s e g i v e n t o E r a sm us i n t h e

in 1522,

T h is f a c t ,

he

t o g e t h e r w ith

in tr o d u c tio n , g r e a t ly pro­

vo k ed t h e V a t i c a n , - w h ic h p r o m p t ly p u t t h e work on t h e I n d e x (donee c o r r i g a t u r ) . In 1522,

a lso ,

t h e Duke o f A l v a s e n t a m e s s a g e t o

V i v e s t h r o u g h a D o m i n i c a n Monk t o o f f e r h i m t h e p o s i t i o n o f t u t o r t o h i s g r a n d c h i l d r e n a t a s a l a r y o f two h u n d r e d g o l d e n ducats.

The Monk d i d n o t d e l i v e r t h e m e s s a g e .

a had c o n d i t i o n f i n a n c i a l l y a t t h a t t im e , ju st then, lectu re

V iv e s was i n

too.

F ortu n ately,

(1523) , he r e c e i v e d an i n v i t a t i o n from W oolsey t o

i n r h e t o r i c i n Corpus C h r i s t i C o l l e g e ,

U n iv ersity .

When h e l e f t

a t O xford

f o r England a s s u r e d o f

a warm

welcom e from K in g H enry V I I I , Queen C a t h e r i n e o f A r a g o n , S i r Thomas M o r e , h e l i t t l e v isit

and

k n e w u n d e r w h at c i r c u m s t a n c e s h i s

t o E n g la n d would be t e r m i n a t e d . E m L IS H EXPERIENCES B e f o r e s e t t i n g o u t f o r E ngland, V i v e s r e f u s e d a . p o s t

o f f e r e d him i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f A l c a l a .

W hether t h i s

r e f u s a l s was due to f e a r o f th e r e l i g i o u s b i g o t r y th e n d e v e lo p in g in S p a in or w h eth er i t was b eca u se h i s S t . A u g u s t in e had j u s t b e e n p l a c e d on t h e I n d e x by t h e V a t i c a n is

n ot known.

C h ristian as,

V i v e s ha d f i n i s h e d I)e I n s t i t u t i o n s F e m i n a e d e d i c a t e d t o Queen C a t h e r in e o f E n g la n d , b e f o r e

88 he l e f t

Bruges.

On h i s a r r i v a l ,

V iv es,

W oolsey, u n d ertook the d i r e c t i o n o f t h e P r i n c e s s Mary.

4 s a gu id e f o r her

P la n o f S tu d ie s fo r G ir ls

at the req u est of ed u cation o f th e

e d u c a t io n he w r o te t h e

(De R a t i o n e s t u d i i P u e r i l i s ) .

A lso , he w r o te a P la n o f S t u d i e s f o r Boys f o r C h a r le s , o f l o r d M ount j o y , C a t h e r i n e ’ s c h a m b e r l a i n . 1523,

h e w a s made a 1 1 . D .

son

On O c t o b e r 1 0 ,

a t O xford U n i v e r s i t y .

I n May, 1 5 2 4 , V i v e s made a t r i p

t o B ruges where he

m a r r i e d M a r g a r e t V a l d a u r a , a member o f t h e f a m i l y i n w h i c h he had t u t o r e d i n 1 5 1 4 .

I n 1 5 2 6 - 2 7 , h e s p e n t t h e summer i n

E ngland and t h e w i n t e r i n B r u g e s .

I n 1 526, he w rote h i s

f a m o u s Djs S u b v e n t i o n s P a up erum ( C o n c e r n i n g t h e R e l i e f o f the P o o r ).

In 1 5 2 8 , he sid e d w ith h i s c o m p a tr io t, C ath erin e

o f 4 r a g o n , o n t h e q u e s t i o n of- t h e p r o j e c t e d d i v o r c e . W o o lsey exam in ed him a s t o h i s a t t i t u d e i n t h e m a t t e r and q u e s t i o n e d him a b o u t h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h C a t h e r i n e .

He

was i m p r is o n e d i n t h e t o w e r f o r s i x w e e k s and t h e n s e n t from t h e C o u r t a nd t h e

country.

He r e t u r n e d t o B r u g e s w h e r e f o r

th e n e x t t h r e e y e a r s h e was i n v e r y d i f f i c u l t fin a n cia lly . safe

I n Novem ber o f t h e

same y e a r ,

stra its

h e was s e n t a

c o n d u c t by M a r g a r e t o f S a v o y t o g o t o E n g l a n d a s a

p a r t o f th e Queen’ s C ou n sel.

He w a s d e l a y e d o n t h e t r i p

and

f a i l e d t o r e a c h England i n t im e f o r t h e t r i a l . Some o f t h e p l e a s a n t e s t y e a r s sp e n t i n E n glan d .

o f V iv es’ l i f e

were

He h a d h a d v e r y a g r e e a b l e r e l a t i o n s w i t h

89 C a r d i n a l W o o l s e y t o whom h e d e d i c a t e d h i s L a t i n t r a n s l a t i o n s o f two I s o c r a t e s ’ o r a t i o n s . men i n t e r e s t e d

He w o r k e d a l s o

in Span ish s t u d ie s ,

w i t h a group o f

among t h e m S i r R i c h a r d

Q

M o r r i s o n and Thomas P a y n e l l . In tro d u ctio study:

M orrison t r a n s l a t e d V ives*

ad S a p i e n s m e n t i o n e d i n t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y o f t h i s

P a y n e l l t r a n s l a t e d Be O f f i c i o M a r i t i . V i v e s w a s o n e o f t h e g r o u p o f H u m a n i s t s who m e t a t

M ore’ s h o u se .

V i v e s and More d e v e l o p e d a v e r y

s h i p f o r t h e y h a d many t r a i t s

i n common.

clo se frien d ­

T h ro u g h t h e s e

h u m a n i s t i c g a t h e r i n g s a t M o r e ’ s h o u s e V i v e s made h i s m o s t im p o r t a n t c o n t a c t s w i t h t h e H um anist l e a d e r s . Perhaps V iv e s ’ g r e a t e s t p le a su r e , a s s o c i a t i o n w ith t h e Queen.

th o u g h , was h i s

T h e y had much t o

ta lk

t h e i r r e m i n i s c e n c e s o f t h e happy d ay s i n S p a i n .

about in

Th ey w e r e

su ch c l o s e f r i e n d s t h a t V i v e s f r e q u e n t l y a c co m p a n ied Queen C a t h e r i n e o n h e r t r a v e l s f r o m R ic hm o nd t o S i o n w h e r e s h e made her d ev o tio n s. When h e l e f t

V iv e s was,

a lso ,

E n glan d, V i v e s f e l t

C a th erin e’ s fr ie n d s h ip .

i n a t t e n d a n c e on t h e c o u r t . b itterly

He g r i e v e d ,

too,

the l o s s o f o v e r her m isunder­

s t a n d i n g o f h i s w a rn in g n o t t o be t r a p p e d i n t o

defen din g

h e r s e l f i n t h e m ockery o f a t r i a l whose r e s u l t s w ere p r e ­ determ in ed .

8 W a t s o n , V i v e s : On E d u c a t i o n , o p . c i t .

90 RETURN TO FLANDERS Owing t o p o v e r t y a n d i l l years,

h e a lth , th e next th ree

1 5 2 8 -1 5 3 1 , were to be th e

They marked a l s o a ctiv ity .

the f i r s t

C oncordia e t P is c o r d i a

in

In J u l y , he p u b lis h e d what h a s b e e n c a l l e d

g r e a t t e x t b o o k on t h e s c i e n c e o f e d u c a t i o n , pe

D isc ip lin is. P ortu g a l.

th e b eg in n in g o f F i v e s ’ g r e a t e s t l i t e r a r y

I n 1529 he w r o te

Humano G e n e r e .

darkest o f F iv e s ’ l i f e .

He d e d i c a t e d t h e w o r k t o K i n g J o h n I I I o f

De C o n c o r d i a had b e e n d e d i c a t e d t o F i v e s ’ own

m o n a r ch E m pe r o r C h a r l e s F , r u l e r o f b o t h S p a i n a n d t h e N eth erlan d s. resu lted

The c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e s e two i m p o r t a n t w o r k s

in p e n s io n s from b oth m onarchs, t h u s r e l e a s i n g

F i v e s from t h e d e p t h s o f p o v e r t y i n t o removal o f h i s p lu n g e d him .

sudden

E n g l i s h p e n s i o n s and u n i v e r s i t y f e e s had I n 1 5 3 1 , h e had i n v i t e d h i s

h e r home w i t h h i m . L oyola v i s i t e d com p atriots.

w h ich t h e

s i s t e r t o make

D uring th e p e r i o d , 1 5 2 8 - 1 5 3 4 ,

Bruges y e a r ly to In s p i t e o f h is

ta in e d L oyola a t b r e a k fa s t, t o W a t s o n , ’’T h i s man i s

so licit

Ig n a tiu s

h e l p from S p a n is h

extrem e p o v e r t y , F i v e s

sayin g a fterw a rd s,

a s a i n t , who w i l l ,

enter­

according

of a surety,

f o u n d an O r d e r . F i v e s ’ h e a l t h had b e e n v e r y p o o r f o l l o w i n g h i s banishm ent from E n glan d.

By 1 5 3 6 ,

sudden

he had r e c o v e r e d

9 F o s t e r W atson, t r a n s l a t o r , F iv e s : o p . c i t . , p . IXXXF.

On E d u c a t i o n ,

91 su ffic ien tly

t o u n d e r ta k e a s i x m onths v i s i t t o P a r i s .

In

1 5 3 8 , h e p u b l i s h e d B e Anima e t V i t a w h i c h h e d e d i c a t e d t o t h e Duke o f Be j a r . L ingu ae L a t in a e ,

In 1538,

to P r in c e P h i l i p , assum ed,

he w rote t h e g x e r c i t a t i o

h i s L a tin D ia lo g u e s , a textb ook to

sch ool-b oys learn to

is

a lso ,

speak L a t i n .

h elp

T h is book he d e d ic a te d

s o n o f C h a r l e s Y, o v e r w h o s e e d u c a t i o n ,

he a s s i s t e d

i n an a d v is o r y c a p a c it y .

it

In 1539,

h e c o m p l e t e d h i s l a s t w o r k , p u b l i s h e d p o s t h u m o u s l y , De Y e r i t a t e F i d e i C h r i s t i a n a e — an e x p o s i t i o n on t h e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n t o l i f e ’ s problem s o f r e l i g i o n , w ith C h r i s t i a n i t y as the

supreme f a i t h . From 1 5 3 7 t o 1 5 3 9 , Y i v e s l i v e d a t B r e d a a s t u t o r t o

M en cia de M endoza,

t h e n i e c e o f C a r d i n a l M en d o z a o f T o l e d o ,

and t h e w i f e o f t h e c o u n t o f N a s s a u . many y e a r s f r o m g o u t .

In 1539,

c o m p lica tio n o f d is e a s e s ,

Y i v e s had s u f f e r e d f o r

t h i s was a g g r a v a t e d by a

f r o m w h i c h h e d i e d o n May 6 , 1 5 4 0 ,

at Bruges.

SUMMARY The e v e n t s n a r r a t e d i n t h i s ground o f Y ives* devoted to 1540,

litera ry

p rod u ction s.

the n a r r a tio n o f . d e t a i l s

than t o th e

chapter fo r a th e back­ L e ss sp ace has been

of the p e r io d , 1514,

e a r lie r p erio d s o f h is l i f e ,

w orks sp eak f o r him .

In f a c t h i s ad u lt l i f e

c i p a l l y through h i s w r i t i n g s .

Y ives,

to

because h is

i s kn own p r i n ­

in con trast to

92 Erasmus,

did not b u s t le

search o f san ctu ary to He l i v e d a s q u i e t l y so cia l

around.

e s c a p e h i s e n e m ie s a s was Erasm us.

and i n c o n s p i c u o u s l y a s a p e r s o n o f h i s

p o s i t i o n an d l i t e r a r y

h a d many f r i e n d s ,

N e ith e r was he i n c o n sta n t

fame c o u l d m ana ge t o d o .

m o stly com p atriots.

p e o p le prom inent i n

They w ere u s u a l l y

s o c i a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l

ap p aren tly kept th e r e sp e c t o f h is

life .

He s t o o d h i s g r o u n d a n d w a g e d h i s b a t t l e s e v il

V ives

c o n te m p o r a r ie s even

t h o u g h h e c r u s a d e d a g a i n s t t h e a b u s e s and i l l s

alw ays a t t a c k in g the

V ives

of h is tim es.

im p erso n a lly ,

or t h e i n s t i t u t i o n ,

never th e

in d iv id u a l. D uring t h i s

p e r io d , V iv es was in v it e d to

th e R e n a issa n c e U n iv e r s i t y o f jH callt.

teach at

He r e f u s e d t h i s h o n o r

b u t a c c e p t e d p o s i t i o n s a t L o u v a in and O x f o r d , p r o g r e s s i v e H um anist U n i v e r s i t i e s o f t h e

age.

t h e tw o m o s t In both

F l a n d e r s and E n g l a n d h e w a s a member o f t h e l i t t l e l e a d e r s in H u m an istic th o u g h t. E r a sm u s i n t h e b r e a d t h o f

group o f

He c a n b e c o m p a r e d t o

sch o la rsh ip ;

t o BudC i n h i s

m e t i c u l o u s k n o w l e d g e o f p h i l o l o g y ; t o More i n h i s i n t e r e s t i n t h e W e l f a r e o f H um anity; in b io lo g ic a l

and, to R a b e la is ,

in terest

scien ce.

C h a p te r s I I and I I I h a v e t r a c e d t h e a ffe c te d V ives in h is

c h i l d h o o d an d y o u t h .

alw ays rem ained, a M ed iterranean S p a n ia r d . o f the s o c ia l,

in h is

k in d ly ,

dem ocratic l i f e

i n f l u e n c e s w hich He w a s ,

and

H is m em ories

i n th e Sp anish-M oorish

93 c i t y o f V a le n c ia probab ly accounted f o r h i s e v e n t h e h u m b l e s t o f human b e i n g s .

in te r e st in

H is r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s

made h im h o l d a l l m en r e s p o n s i b l e f o r m a k i n g t h e m o s t o f th em selv es.

V a len cia provided th e p o s i t i v e

w h ich form ed t h e environm ent to

core o f h is p h ilo so p h y .

a n o th e r expanding h i s

in flu en ces

He m ov ed f r o m o n e

s y m p a t h i e s and h i s

k n o w l e d g e a s he a c c u m u l a t e d t h e f r u i t s o f new e x p e r i e n c e s . P a r i s formed th e n e g a t i v e

aspect.

o f t h e i n f l u e n c e s t r y i n g to

b lo ck H en aissan ce

t o h o l d b a c k t h e New L e a r n i n g . V ives*

I t p resen ted the p ic tu r e a c tiv itie s,

T h e s e two p h a s e s ,

c a r e e r g a v e him a v i s i o n n o t o n l y o f t h e

w h ich c i v i l i z a t i o n was e n t e r i n g b u t a l s o th e o l d w h ich w ould ha v e t o he r e a c h e d t h e t h i r d

o f the

be c o r r e c t e d .

stage o f h is

life

then, o f

n ew a g e i n t o e v ils

I t was not u n t i l

e x p e r ie n c e , F la n d ers,

t h a t h e compared t h e two p h i l o s o p h i e s a nd ,

fo rtified

e x a m p l e o f F l e m i s h H um anis m , t h r e w h i m s e l f i n t o t h e o f u p h old in g,

of

d e v e lo p in g and expanding t h e i d e a l s

by t h e b a ttle

s e t by

the g r e a t A g r ic o la . The r e n e w a l o f S p a n i s h m em o ries and t r a d i t i o n s h i s f r i e n d s h i p w ith C a t h e r in e o f Aragon; t h e p h i e s o f S i r Thomas M o r e ; t h e p o l i t i c a l

so cia l

astu ten ess

in

p h ilo so ­ and q u e s ­

t i o n a b l e p r a c t i c e s o f f f o o ls e y ; th e Oxford U n i v e r s i t y e x p e r i ­ e n c e s and t h e E n g lish

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f E n g l i s h Humanism; t h e

so c ia l,

econ om ic,

E n closu re A c ts , th e

and r e l i g i o u s p r o b l e m s ,

v iz .,

su p p ressio n of m o n a ste r ie s, th e

the

in d ica tio n s

94 o f Henry V I I I ’ s d u a l p e r s o n a l i t y and h i s d e t e r i o r a t i o n ;

a ll

t h e s e i n f l u e n c e s f o r c e d him t o a n o t h e r m o m e n t o u s d e c i s i o n t h i s t i m e o f a m oral r a t h e r t h a n an i n t e l l e c t u a l n a t u r e . S h o u ld he evade t h e i s s u e s i n v o l v e d i n H en ry ’ s d iv o r c e ? S h o u ld h e b r a v e t h e w rath o f Henry t h e E i g h t h ? support C ath erin e?

I n t h e e n d , he s u p p o r t e d n e i t h e r .

a d v ised C ath erin e not to tria l.

S h ou ld he

subm it t o t h e mockery o f a p se u d o ­

He w a r n e d H e n r y o f t h e r e s u l t s t o

h is n efa rio u s p la n s.

He

In h is

be e x p e c t e d from

own w o r d s :

. . . The Q u e en w a s t h e n a n g r y w i t h me t h a t I h a d n o t i m m e d i a t e l y o b e y e d h e r w i l l r a t h e r t h a n my own judgm ent. But to judgm ent i s w o r th a l l t h e p rin ces there a r e . And t h u s t h e Kang h e l d me a s h i s enemy a n d t h e Q u e e n r e g a r d e d me a s d i l a t o r y and refractory. And b o t h o f t h e m h a v e t a k e n away my s a l a r y . 10 The f i f t h

and l a s t

p erio d o f g rea t l i t e r a r y sio n to

risk

p h ase o f V ives* a c tiv ity

life

was t h e

w h ich f o l l o w e d h i s

s t a r v a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n be a p a r t y t o

g u es o f the r o y a l d iv o r c e d is p u t a n t s . d ir e s t p overty,

in c r e a sin g ly w orse. he was s u f f e r i n g and s h o u l d e r s .

the i n t r i ­

A fter three years of

d u r i n g w h i c h h e p r o d u c e d two o f h i s

w o rk s, he r e g a in e d h i s

fin a n cia l

d eci­

fo o tin g .

greatest

H i s h e a l t h became

M ost o f h i s w ork s w ere w r i t t e n w h il e

i n t e n s e p a in from g o u t i n h i s h a n d s , He c o m p o s e d d u r i n g t h i s l a s t

arms,

phase o f h is

10 W atson, V iv e s :

On E d u c a t i o n , o p . c i t . ,

p. l x x x i .

95 life

a g r e a t work o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s ,

s c i e n c e and p h i l o s o p h y o f

one o n t h e

e d u c a t i o n , p u b l i s h e d a book on

a p p lie d p sy ch o lo g y , w rote a textb ook fo r th e le a r n in g o f spoken L a t i n ,

and f i n a l l y ,

as the f r u i t s

i n g and i n t e l l i g e n t l i v i n g , the

left

lea rn ­

a s a posthum ous h e r i t a g e ,

e v o l u t i o n a r y h i s t o r y o f m an ’ s e f f o r t t o a p p l y h i s

r elig io u s

(eth ica l)

V ives, a serene, who, i n

b e lie f s to p r a c tic a l liv in g .

h im self,

generous,

sp ite o f h is

a s an i n d i v i d u a l

co m p a ssio n a te,

a ffectio n V ives.

seems t o

cou rteou s,

gentilhom m e

An a t m o s p h e r e o f r e s p e c t and

to w a r d s him p e r v a d e s g e n e r a l l y t h e

H is l i f e

have been

rank, used h is g r ea t e r u d itio n in the

s e r v i c e o f h i s f e l l o w men.

fiv e

of lif e - lo n g

presen ts,

as has been in d ic a te d above,

d i s t i n c t develop m en tal

steps:

(1)

the

fo rm a tiv e i n f lu e n c e s o f V a le n c ia w ith i t s m u l t i - c o l o r e d background;

s t u d i e s on

(2)

the

c o n stru ctiv e

v ita lity

and

co n tra stin g r ep ressio n s

o f the Sorbonne w ith i t s

fu tile

e f f o r t s t o h o l d back t h e

t i d e s o f th e R enaissance

sp irit

o f in q u iry;

flu en ce o f A g rico la ,

(3)

the

in ­

Erasm us, and t h e B r e th r e n o f t h e

Common L i f e w h i c h p r e c i p i t a t e d

a c o n flic t resu ltin g

e d u c a t i o n a l m a s t e r p i e c e I n P se u d o - D i a l e c t i c o s ; (4)

i n the V iv es’

d e c i s i o n on H en ry’ s d i v o r c e t a c t i c s w hich i n v o l v e d g i v i n g up h i s l i v e l i h o o d ban ish ed ,

a nd p r o f e s s i o n a l

a c tiv itie s,

bein g

and r e t u r n i n g t o F l a n d e r s t o b e g i n h i s c a r e e r

over again ;

and ( 5 )

h is g i f t

to th e w orld o f h i s g r e a t

96 w r i t i n g s — the

fru its

o f h i s l e a r n i n g and l i v i n g .

The i m m e d i a t e e n v i r o n m e n t a l

i n f l u e n c e s on th e l i f e

o f V iv e s have been d i s c u s s e d i n c h a p te r s tw o, four.

three,

and

I n C h a p t e r V, a n e f f o r t w i l l b e made t o p r e s e n t

th e in d ir e c t in flu e n c e s a f f e c t in g V iv es— the great i s s u e s o f t h e a g e w hich form ed th e of h is w ritin g s.

so cia l

s o c i o l o g i c a l background

T h is chapter w i l l

form a t r a n s i t i o n

betw een th e b io g r a p h ic a l phase o f the

s t u d y , w h i c h empha­

s i z e s t h e p e r s o n a l and g r o u p i n f l u e n c e s o n V i v e s *

life ,

and

t h e s e c o n d s e c t i o n o f t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n w h ic h g i v e s a resume o f h is works.

H is w r i t i n g s

s o c i a l dynam ics o f h i s summary o f t h e

embody h i s r e a c t i o n s t o t h e

tim es.

so cio lo g ica l

The c h a p t e r i s

not on ly a

fa c to r s a lrea d y con sid ered in

th e f i r s t fo u r c h a p te r s a s background t o in d iv i d u a l i n c i d e n t s i n V ives*

b io g r a p h y , but i s ,

t h e q u e s t i o n s w h ich V iv e s a t t e m p t s t o w ritin g s.

a lso ,

a forecast of

d iscu ss in h is

CHAPTER V THE SOCIAL BACKGROUND OF VIVES* TIMES INTRODUCTION Tlie t h r e e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r s h a v e g i v e n a s k e t c h o f th e p r i n c i p a l e v e n t s o f V ives*

life ,

"background i n w h i c h t h e y h a p p e n e d . th is

chapter to

the purpose o f

life

and w h i c h f o r m e d h i s

judgm ent.

Born i n V a l e n c i a , annus m i r a b i l i s a s i t i n h i s own l i f e , modern t i m e s .

is

com p lete th e survey o f en viron m en tal f a c ­

t o r s w hich i n f l u e n c e d V ives* standards o f

It

to g e th e r w ith th e

in the c r i t i c a l

has been c a lle d ,

year o f 1492,

V ives l i v e d

the

through,

th e t r a n s i t i o n p e r io d from m ed ia ev a l t o

The r i c h c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e s o f M e d i t e r r a n e a n

S p a i n had p r o v i d e d him w it h a p e r s p e c t i v e o f w o r ld c u l t u r e s . H i s t h o u g h t h a d b e e n t u r n e d t o t h e p r o b l e m s o f human r e l a ­ t i o n s h i p s and human n e e d s .

H is t r a i n i n g a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y

o f V a l e n c i a h a d a c q u a i n t e d him w i t h t h e i n th e outgrow n m ed ia ev a l l e a r n i n g .

reb elled ism .

in q u isitiv e and l e f t

prid e

F iv e y ea rs at th e

U n iv e r s ity o f P a r is w ith i t s D i a l e c t ic taxed h is

sch olastics*

r e g i m e n t a t i o n had

a nd j u d i c i a l mind t o t h e u t m o s t .

f o r F la n d ers, th e

He

s e a t o f N o r t h e r n Human­

H ere he s t u d i e d un d er t h e g r e a t H u m a n ist, Erasmus,

a t L ou vain .

In 1519,

he flu n g fo rth

h is

ch a llen g e to th e

98 p seu d o -sch o la rs o f th e Sorbonne. to g e th e r w ith f i v e p erio d ,

o th e r im portant works w r i t t e n i n t h i s

a ttra cted in tern a tio n a l

B r u g e s g a v e him p e r s o n a l t h e New L e a r n i n g .

H is Pseudo- D ia le c to s »

a tten tio n .

The C o u n c i l o f

c o n ta c t w ith W oolsey,

a patron o f

He c o m p l e t e d h i s m a s s i v e w o r k o n S t .

A u g u s t i n e w hich he d e d i c a t e d t o Henry V I I I .

By t h i s

tim e

h e w a s i n r e c e i p t o f p e n s i o n s f r o m b o t h More and C a t h e r i n e o f Aragon.

He a c c e p t e d a n o f f e r t o

l e c t u r e a t O x f o r d and

to

d irect

th e ed u cation o f P r in c e ss

Mary.

o f a ctiv e

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e work

o f t h e E n g l i s h Human­

ists, the

h e ha d t o

A fter f iv e years

l e a v e England b e c a u s e o f h i s

d ivorce q u e stio n .

a t t i t u d e on

A r r i v i n g back a t B r u g e s , he w r o te

h i s m ost s e r i o u s w orks.

T w elve y e a r s a f t e r h i s r e t u r n from

E n g la n d , he di e d . CHRONOLOGICAL ORIENTATION As h a s b e e n rem arked, V i v e s was b o rn i n t h e y e a r o f 1 4 9 2 , when :

epochal

( 1 ) S p a i n w as s a v e d t o C h r i s t e n d o m b y

th e C on qu est o f Granada;

(2)

C o lum b us d i s c o v e r e d t h e new

w o r ld and s t a r t e d t h e w e stw a r d t r e n d o f

c iv iliz a tio n ;

(3)

I s a b e l l a made a t r a g i c m i s t a k e i n t h e b i g o t r y u n d e r l y i n g h e r e x p u l s i o n o f t h e J e w s and M o o rs -vdio h a d r e f u s e d t o become C h r i s t i a n i z e d ; the p o l i t i c a l

(4) L o ren zo de M e d ic i d i e d , u p s e t t i n g

b a l a n c e o f p o w e r i n E u r o p e and p r e c i p i t a t i n g

t h e dism em bering o f I t a l y ; unsavory

fam e,

and ( 5 )

R oderigo B o r g i a ,

be c am e P o p e A l e x a n d e r V I .

of

99 By 1 4 9 2 ,

t h e r e w ere f o u r m ajor n a t i o n a l

F r a n c e , S p a i n , P o r t u g a l and E n g l a n d , F e r d i n a n d and I s a b e l l a ;

S t a t e s by t h e E m p e r o r M a x i m i l i a n . R e n a issa n c e k in g s were a l l Henry V I I I ,

in 1500. L oyola

The t h r e e n e w

born du rin g t h i s

a lso ,

(1491); R a b ela is (c .

E ngland

t h e German an d A u s t r i a n

in 1491; F ran cis I ,

T h is p e r io d ,

M a rg u erite,

S p a i n w a s r u l e d by

F r a n c e by C h a r l e s V I I I ;

by Henry V I I ; P o r t u g a l by Manuel I ;

1500:

states;

decade 1490-

i n 1 4 9 4 ; C h a r l e s V,

saw t h e b i r t h o f E l y o t 1495);

(1490);

and M e l a n c t o n ( 1 4 9 7 ) .

t h e H um anist s i s t e r o f F r a n c i s I , w a s b o r n i n

t h e same y e a r a s V i v e s ,

1492.

a n d M ore w e r e b o r n i n t h e

C a th er in e o f Aragon, L uther

e ig h tie s;

M a c h i a v e l l i were born i n t h e

B u d e , E r a s m u s , and

six ties.

F e r d i n a n d , M a x i m i l i a n , and H e n r y V I I c o n s t i t u t e d a trio

o f schem ers,

e a c h o f whom t r i e d t o

over the o th e r tw o.

By 1 5 0 8 ,

the throne, th e t r io

still

th e c r a f t y M a xim ilian , a m b itio u s W oolsey.

seize

th e advantage

a f t e r Henry V I I I a c c e d e d t o

i n c l u d e d t h e w i l y F e r d in a n d and

b u t had r e p l a c e d H e n r y V I I b y t h e

In t h e s e hands l a y the

ta n g led

sk ein s

o f E urop ean power p o l i t i c s w h i l e V i v e s w as a s t u d e n t i n Pari s . At t h e t i m e o f V i v e s 1 s o j o u r n i n L o u v a i n , 1 5 1 6 , C h a rles I o f S p ain su cceeded t o th e th r o n e o f S p ain ( C a s t ile and A r a g o n ) .

F ran cis I ,

who h a d a s c e n d e d t h e F r e n c h t h r o n e

i n 1 5 1 5 , had r u l e d one y e a r as k i n g o f F r a n c e .

In 1519,

100 when h i s g r a n d f a t h e r M a x i m i l l i a n o f A u s t r i a d i e d , C h a r l e s in h erited

t h e g r e a t H apsbu rg p o s s e s s i o n s o f A u s t r i a and t h e

N eth erlan d s.

I n 1 5 2 1 , he w as e l e c t e d Emperor o f t h e H o ly

Roman E m p i r e w h i c h made h i m t h e r u l i n g p r i n c e o f t h e hundred f e u d a l

s t a t e s o f G er m an y .

th ese vast p o ssessio n s, F r a n c i s I had a l s o

three

When h e b e c a m e r u l e r o f

h e w a s kn o w n a s Em peror C h a r l e s V.

endeavored to

O hagrinned a t t h i s f a i l u r e ,

secu re th e im p erial

honor.

he recommenced t h e d i s a s t r o u s

I t a l i a n w ars. In 1521,

t h e y e a r w h i c h s a w C h a r l e s V c r o w n e d Roman

Emperor, L u t h e r w as e x c o m m u n ic a te d .

In 1 5 2 9 , L utheranism

w a s condem ned a s h e r e s y . I n 1 5 2 3 , Z urich s t o o d by th e \ R efo rm er ^ w i n g l i and r e n o u n c e d C a t h o l i c i s m . In 1 5 3 6 , a t B a sle,

J o h n C a l v i n w r o t e The I n s t i t u t e s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n

R elig io n . The f o u n d a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l i s m w a s l a i d w i t h t h e grow th o f

a b s o l u t i s m and t h e r i s e

o f t h e m idd le c l a s s .

b a s i s was p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e i n E n g la n d . b e e n e x h a u s t e d by t h e Wars o f t h e R o s e s .

T h is

The n o b i l i t y had The b r e a k d o w n o f

f e u d a l i s m a n d i n c r e a s e o f c o m m erce w a s c a p i t a l i z e d b y H e n r y V I I ; t h e d e c a d e n c e and s c a n d a l s o f t h e C h u r c h , b y Henry V I I I .

H e n r y V I I I d e f y i n g t h e P o p e , made h i m s e l f h e a d

o f t h e A n g l i c a n Church i n 1 5 3 4 . noted,

a lso ,

S o ciety ,

T h is y e a r ,

1534,

as th e d a te o f t h e fo u n d in g o f t h e

is to

be

J esu it

a procedure c o n s t it u t in g one o f th e i n i t i a l

steps

in th e C ou nter-R eform ation, Trade r o u t e s w ere r e - c h a r t e d w ith th e p a s s a g e o f Vasco

da Gama a r o u n d t h e Cape o f Good H ope i n 1 4 9 7 ,

M agellan circu m n avigated th e g lo b e i n 1 5 1 9 -1 5 2 2 . w a s c o n q u e r e d b y H ernan do C o r t e z i n 1 5 1 9 . P iza rro

in 1531.

w ealth to S p ain . exp lored the

Peru,

M exico by

Both o f t h o s e c o n q u e s ts brought g r e a t John C abot, 1 4 9 6 -9 7 ,

and C a r t i e r ,

1534,

c o a s t s o f North A m erica.

Mohammedan e f f o r t s a t t h e c o n q u e s t o f C h r i s t i a n Europe c o n t i n u e d . Hungary;

In 1 5 2 1 , S u leim an I I d e c la r e d war on

in 1 5 2 6 , h e overcam e t h e H u n garian s a t M ohacs.

In 1529, he l a i d

s i e g e to V ienna but f a i l e d ,

however, to

conquer th e c i t y , THE RENAISSANCE T h e r e h a s b e e n much b i c k e r i n g b a c k and f o r t h h isto ria n s,

p h ilo so p h ers,

a r t i s t s and men o f l e t t e r s

w h a t t h e R e n a i s s a n c e r e a l l y w a s and when i t w ise,

t h e r e f o r e , to

esta b lish

began.

among as to It

seem s

some p o i n t s o f r e f e r e n c e

b e f o r e b e g in n in g t h e a n a l y s i s o f V iv es* w orks from th e v ie w ­ p oin t o f h is

environm ent.

The I t a l i a n R e n a i s s a n c e r e a l l y b e g a n i n I t a l y w i t h the r e v iv a l o f c l a s s i c a l cen tu ry.

T h is r e v i v a l ,

lea rn in g in th e however,

early fou rteen th

w a s e s s e n t i a l l y a Roman

102 R en aissan ce,

a r a c i a l movement,

r a th e r than th e g r e a t up­

su rgin g of a l l

t h e c r o s s - c u r r e n t s o f a n t i q u i t y - - w h i c h were

p r e lim in a r y to

the

e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a n ew w o r l d e r a *

For th e pu rp oses o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , lim its

th e tim e

o f t h e R e n a is s a n c e w i l l be s e t p r i m a r i l y from t h e

t r a d i t i o n o f men o f l e t t e r s , the dates of the o f p rin tin g ,

fa ll

the

It w ill

sp irit

r e c o g n itio n o f beauty in i t s of in te re st i t w ill

b eg in n in g a t 1 4 5 3 -5 4 ,

o f C o n sta n tin o p le,

r esp ectiv ely .

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by ( 1 )

i.e.,

and t h e i n v e n t i o n

be d e f i n e d a s a p e r io d

of free

in q u iry ;

v a r io u s form s;

i n G r e e k a n d Roman l e a r n i n g .

be assumed t o

fa ll

(3)

(2)

a

a rev iv a l

C h ro n o lo g ica lly ,

in th e p erio d 1450-1650.

The

p o i n t o f d e f i n i t e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m t h e o l d t o t h e ne w w i l l b e s e t a t 1 4 9 2 — t h e d a t e a t w hich t h e modern v i e w p o i n t began a ctu a lly

to be p e r c e p t i b l e . SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE R1NAISSAHCF

A tte n tio n has a lrea d y been c a lle d 1492,

the year o f

vives*

to th e

fa ct that

b i r t h , m a rk ed a c r i t i c a l

p o in t in

t h e w o r l d ' s h i s t o r y — a p o i n t i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n from m e d ia e v a l t o modern t i m e s , old s o c ia l

w hen t h e r e w e r e d e f i n i t e

o r d e r w a s p a s s i n g o u t and a n ew o n e c o m in g i n .

A lread y i n s t i t u t i o n s were b e g in n in g to lin es

e v id e n c e s t h a t an

o f b a t t l e betw een t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s

b e g in n in g to be d e f in e d .

crum ble;

alread y the

and i n n o v a t o r s w e r e

103 In the m ed iaeval a g e s,

t h e r e was one d o m in a n t, un­

i f y i n g power w h ich c o n t r o l l e d men’ s s o u l s , t h e i r l i v e s , and t h e i r

s o c i e t y — t h e Church.

V a r i o u s f o r c e s com bined t o

b r e a k down t h e t h e o c r a c y w h i c h had s e t up i n s t i t u t i o n s t o o r d e r and c o n t r o l m e n ’ s l i v e s . f o r c e s were: p restig e

(1)

o f the

Some o f t h e s e

d isso lv en t

Mohammedan c o n q u e s t s w h i c h a f f e c t e d

church;

(2)

the

decay o f fe u d a lism w h ich

had b e e n a weapon o f e n fo r c e m e n t f o r t h e c h u r c h ; b eg in n in g s o f c e n t r a liz e d p o p u la tio n s; com m erce w i t h t h e

r ise

(4)

o f m e r c h a n ts’ s law ;

f o r p o w e r b e t w e e n C h u r c h and S t a t e ;

(7)

s u p r e m a c y b e t w e e n c l e r g y and n o b l e s ;

clerg y ;

(9)

(11)

r ise o f

ca p ita lism ;

(8) (10)

d e t e r io r a t io n o f ed u cation ;

(3)

the

th e growth o f (5)

a change from

b a r t e r economy t o a n e x c h a n g e economy (m o n e y );

and s i l v e r ;

the

(6)

a stru g g le

a stru g g le for

in crease in gold corru p tion of (12)

stru g g le of

th e papacy f o r s e c u l a r power;

(13)

voyages o f

recovery o f d e ta ils of past

ex p loration s;

c iv iliz a tio n s; opposed to

(15)

(14)

in v en tio n s,

d isco v eries,

b egin n in g o f in d iv id u a liz e d

a communal

so ciety ;

and ( 1 6 )

so ciety

as

sp read of know ledge

through p r in te d book s. Any human s o c i e t y h a s t o p r o v i d e f o r f u n d a m e n t a l human n e e d s s u c h a s (4)

h ea lth ,

and ( 8 )

(5)

food ,

tran sp oration ,

relig io n .

n eed s c e a se to

(1)

(2) (6)

sh elter,

(3)

commerce,

c lo th in g ,

(7)

ed u cation ,

The i n s t i t u t i o n s s e t up t o m e 6 t t h e s e

f u n c t i o n when t h e n eed c h a n g e s .

T h en t h e y

104 must be r e p l a c e d ,

The q u e s t i o n f i n a l l y

■which i s

the in d iv id u a l

B u p erior,

d e r Leeuw a n s w e r s t h i s

reso lv es i t s e l f

or th e

in stitu tio n .

in to Van

q u e s t i o n by s a y i n g ,

We a r e a p t t o t h i n k o f i n s t i t u t i o n s a s t h i n g s , a s o b j e c t s , w h i c h c a n be c h a n g e d o u t s i d e o f m a n. Y et, i f a l l human b e i n g s w e r e t o s u d d e n l y d i s a p p e a r f r o m t h i s e a r t h , t h e r e w ould n ot be a n y t h in g l e f t o f t h e s e s o c i a l form s. T h e y a r e b u t l i v i n g r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n men; c r e a t e d b y man, t h e y l i v e i n h im and d i s a p p e a r w i t h him . T h e r e f o r e , m an, i n d i v i d u a l l i v i n g man., i s p r i m a r y in a l l s o c ia l c h a n g es.1 It

is

p robab ly g e n e r a lly a c c e p te d tod ay t h a t i n s t i t u ­

t i o n s i n t h e m s e lv e s a r e n e i t h e r good o r bad; the fr u it so cia l

o f human r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

th ey are m erely

They v a r y w it h th e a v e r a g e

i n t e l l i g e n c e o f t h e m a s s , and w i t h t h e w i d t h o f t h e

g ap b e t w e e n r u l e r

an d r u l e d .

The H u m a n i s t s r e a l i z e d

im portance o f th e i n d i v i d u a l , t h e Church, i t s e l f su b serv ien t tro lled .

and o f human r e l a t i o n s h i p s ;

an i n s t i t u t i o n ,

to i n s t i t u t i o n s ,

T h is d if f e r e n c e

the

tri6 d

esp ecia lly

t o make s o c i e t y to th o se i t

con­

o f v i e w p o i n t form ed t h e b a s i s o f

o ne o f t h e m o s t s e r i o u s s o c i a l

c o n f l i c t s o f th e day.

SOCIAL ILLS An e r a i n w h i c h t r a d i t i o n s b r e a k dow n i s by o t h e r s o c i a l

changes:

au th ority i s

accom panied

q u e s t io n e d ; m anners

1 J . I . v a n d e r L e e u w , "The T a s k o f E d u c a t i o n i n a W o r ld C r i s i s , " q u o t e d f r o m W y a t t R a w s o n , e d i t o r , A New W o r ld i n t h e M a k i n g : An I n t e r n a t i o n a l S u r v e y o f t h e New E d u c a t i o n T L o n d o n : New E d u c a t i o n a l F e l l o w s h i p , 1 9 3 3 ) , p . 1 1 .

105 change,

and v a l u e s f l u c t u a t e .

ates u n til

such tim e a s the

duct are reco g n ized .

S o ciety in ev ita b ly d eterio r­

new s t a n d a r d s an d m o d e s o f c o n ­

S o m e o n e m u s t s e t t h e s e n ew s t a n d a r d s

b u t b e f o r e t h a t hap p en s t h e c a u s e s o f s o c i a l breakdown must be a n a ly z e d . show s,

An a n a l y s i s o f

the

e v ils

as has alread y been in d ic a te d ,

i n V ives*

th a t r u le r s o f both

c h u r c h and s t a t e w e r e f i g h t i n g a g a i n s t a g a in st th em selv es a t

e a c h o t h e r and

a moment w h e n t h e common enemy o f a l l

C h ristend om w as m oving on v i c t o r i o u s l y i n h i s the

east.

The d i s s o l u t e

the church. in

The w a r s among C h r i s t i a n p r i n c e s h a d b r o u g h t

and d i s e a s e .

H eretofore,

take

money g i v e n f o r tim es.

care o f th e

it

d e s e r t e d hom es, b e g g a rs

had b e e n t h e p r o v i n c e o f t h e

d estitu te,

but th e m isuse o f

c h a r it y c o n s t i t u t e d a n o th er scand al o f the

G-ambling o f a l l k i n d s ,

d rin k in g ,

corrupt c o u r ts w ith t h e i r i n t r ig u e s , in fa c t

c o n q u e s t from

c le r g y were d e s t r o y in g r e s p e c t f o r

t h e i r t r a i n vagabond s o l d i e r s ,

C h ur ch t o

tim es

lic en tio u sn ess,

v u lg a rity o f a ll

types--

c o m p le te breakdown o f p e r s o n a l a s w e l l a s p u b l i c

m orale— c h a r a c te r iz e d th e s o c i e t y o f the day. SUMMARY The f u n d a m e n t a l

so cia l issu e s at

t i o n p e r io d i n w h ich V iv e s l i v e d cated .

stake in the t r a n s i­

and w r o t e h a v e b e e n i n d i ­

The d e v e l o p m e n t o f Humanism c e n t e r e d a r o u n d ( 1 )

spread o f c l a s s i c a l

lea rn in g ,

(2)

the

the p e r fe c tin g o f p r in tin g

106 and t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n o f b o o k s .

The t h r e e m a j o r p r o b l e m s

c o n f r o n t in g th e C h r i s t i a n w orld w ere:

(1)

th e t h r e a t to

C h r i s t i a n c o u n t r i e s th r o u g h t h e i n v a s i o n s o f t h e Turks; (2)

the

d e s t r u c t i o n o f Rome’ s c l a i m t o

through corru p t (3)

the r i s e

c o n flic t

of n a tio n a listic

arose

a lleg ia n ce

or S tate?

s t a t e s w ith th e

such q u e s t i o n s a s :

be p a i d ? — k i n g o r pope?

fo llo w ed : — canon, resp o n sib le

supremacy

c l e r g y and q u e s t i o n a b l e church p o l i c i e s ;

f o r p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s

c o n flic ts

sp iritu a l

c iv il,

consequent

supremacy.

From t h e s e

To whom s h o u l d W h ic h l a w s s h o u l d b e

k in g ’ s or m erchants’ ?

Who w a s

f o r t h e w e l f a r e o f th e d is lo d g e d poor? Who w e r e t h e

o r H um anists?

a rb iters o f

education ?

The S o r b o n n e o r t h e k i n g ?

C hurch

S ch o la stics

Such q u e s t i o n s

form t h e p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e f o r V i v e s i n h i s w r i t i n g s . b r i e f resume o f h i s p r i n c i p a l w orks w i l l b e g i v e n i n t h e two

c h a p t e r s w hich f o l l o w .

A

CHAPTER VI SURVEY OF VIVES* SOCIOLOGICAL WORKS I n m aking an a n a l y s i s o f V iv e s* p o i n t s m u st b e k e p t i n mind: in d iv id u a l;

w oik s,

two v i e w ­

th e o n e , o f V iv e s a s an

t h e o t h e r , o f V i v e s a s a member o f t h e

i n w h ich he l i v e d .

epoch

H i s p e r s o n a l back grou n d was t h a t o f

t h e S p a n i s h s c h o l a r and n o b l e ; h i s s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l b a c k ­ ground,

t h a t o f a r e fo r m e r i n an e ra o f

change.

B oth en viron m en ts I n flu e n c e d h i s w r i t i n g s ;

f i r s t had d e t e r m in e d h i s p o i n t o f v i e w ; theatre of a ctio n . an d t o h is

cata stro p h ic

attem pt to

era.

V ives*

t h is chapter.

the

second, h is

H is g r e a t o b j e c t i v e was t o reso lv e,

the

ex p la in ,

some o f t h e s o c i a l p r o b l e m s o f

s o c i o l o g i c a l works w i l l

E d u cation a l works w i l l

form t h e b a s i s o f

fo llo w

i n Chapter V I I.

DEFINITIONS "A. s o c i a l is

problem a r i s e s , ” s a y s F u l l e r ,

”w h e n t h e r e

an a w a r e n e s s among a g i v e n p e o p l e t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r

situ a tio n i s

a th reat to

so cia l

c e r t a i n group v a l u e s w hich t h e y

c h e r i s h and t h a t t h i s s i t u a t i o n c a n b e r e m o v e d o r c o r r e c t e d o n l y by c o l l e c t i v e

a c t i o n . ”1

Such a s i t u a t i o n

a r o s e when

1 . R i c h a r d C. F u l l e r , e t a . , R o b e r t E. P a r k , e d i t o r , An O u t l i n e o f t h e P r i n c i p l e s o f s o c i o l o g y (New Y o r k : B a r n e s and N o b l e , 1 9 3 9 ) , p i Yl

108 L u th er n a i l e d h i s t h e s e s on t h e door o f th e W itten b e rg church.

A n other such a s i t u a t i o n was p r e c i p i t a t e d by H en ry’ s

attem pt to d iv o r ce C a th erin e.

S till

a th ird

exam ple o f

group v a l u e s b e in g th r e a te n e d was th e p u b l i c i t y g iv e n Erasm us’ P r a i s e o f F o l l y . ’’The r o o t s o f a n y s o c i a l

problem are to

be found i n

b o t h p e r s o n a l and gx-oup f a c t o r s , ” s a y s F u l l e r , h is

exp lan ation .

"When a n y c l a s s o f i n d i v i d u a l s f a l l s b e l o w

a c e r ta in standard in sa n e, th eir

co n tin u in g

s e t by t h e g r o u p ,

th e p h y sic a lly d isa b led ,

as in the

case o f the

the c r im in a ls ,

and t h e p o o r ,

c o n d i t i o n may b e t r a c e d i n p a r t t o b i o l o g i c a l

m ental d i s a b i l i t i e s ; in s tit u tio n s * ”2

in p a rt to

and

t h e f a i l u r e o f our s o c i a l

That V iv e s c o n cu rred i n t h e s e v ie w s o f the

o rig in s o f so c ia l

problem s i s

sh o w n i n m o s t o f h i s w r i t i n g s ,

b u t m o s t s t r i k i n g l y i n h i s I)e S u b v e n t i o n e F a u p e r u m . ’’C h a n g e , ” e x p l a i n s F u l l e r , same p a c e i n a l l econom ic

p a rts o f our c u lt u r e .”

sphere u s u a lly

t h e ’’ a d a p t i v e c u l t u r e governm ent, la w ,

” d o e s n o t g o on a t t h e

come f i r s t . ' N e x t come c h a n g e s i n

extan t in th e i n s t it u t io n a l

fa m ily ,

occur changes in th e

Changes i n t h e

sch ool,

and c h u r c h .

areas of

L ast of a l l

s o c i a l and e c o n o m i c p h i l o s o p h i e s .

’ C u lt u r a l l a g ’ d e s c r i b e s a ’ te n d e n c y on t h e p a r t o f t h e

2

I b i d . , p.

10.

.

.

.

109 ad a p tin g or c o n t r o l l i n g

c u ltu r e to f a i l

p a c e s e t by t e c h n o l o g i c a l

t o k e e p up w i t h t h e

c h a n g e s i n t h e m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e . "3

T h u s t h e c h a n g e f r o m b a r t e r t o a m oney b a s i s o f com m erce p r e c i p i t a t e d many s o c i a l were e d u c a tio n a l in stan ce,

p roblem s,

changes.

i n c l u d e d among w h i c h

The i n v e n t i o n o f p r i n t i n g ,

was on e o f t h e prim ary

for

causes o f th e spread o f

k n ow led ge w hich b ro u g h t a b o u t t h e R e fo r m a tio n ,

y iv es liv e d

i n t h e s e c o n d and t h i r d p h a s e s ' o f c h a n g e , — t h a t o f t h e m aladjustm en ts caused in th e

in stitu tio n a l

a r e a s and i n t h e

e x p r e s s i o n o f a ne w p h i l o s o p h y t o e x p l a i n t h e n ew a g e . " C ultural m alad ju stm en ts a re,"

again q u otin g F u lle r ,

"p rob lem s o f s o c i a l d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n i n v o l v i n g t h e b r e a k ­ down o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t r a d i t i o n a l

groups,

in stitu tio n s,

and a g e n c i e s w h i c h f o r m t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e c u l t u r e . M a l a d j u s t m e n t s w h i c h may b e c o n s i d e r e d f r o m t h i s p o i n t o f view are:

fa m ily d is o r g a n iz a tio n ,

the d e c lin e o f th e

the n e g le c te d c h ild ,

c h u r c h , an d c r i m e .

e x i s t e n c e o f a w orld o r d e r,

I f we a s s u m e t h e

t h e n w a r may a l s o b e c o n c e i v e d

a s a problem o f s o c i a l m a la d ju stm e n t— i n t e r n a t i o n a l

d isorgan ­

iz a tio n ." 4

form t h e

C u ltu ra l m alad ju stm en ts,

theme o f T i v e s f w o r k s . poverty,

ed u cation ,

The t o p i c s he d i s c u s s e s a r e w a r ,

relig io n ,

3 Ib id .,

pp. 1 1 -1 8 .

I b id .,

p. 18.

4

i n c l u d i n g war,

scien ce,

h isto ry ,

law ,

fam ily

110 r ela tio n s,

a nd g o v e r n m e n t .

Y I V E S • WRITINGS V iv e s was a v e r y p r o l i f i c w r i t e r . some f i f t y - s e v e n w o r k s . f o u r m ain h e a d in g s : h isto rica l.

B o n illa l i s t s

Be h a s c l a s s i f i e d

m eta p h y sica l, l o g i c a l ,

The l i s t ,

id ea o f the v e r s a t i l i t y

w h ich i s

t h e s e works under sc ien tific,

quoted i n f u l l ,

and

g i v e s some

and e r u d i t i o n o f V i v e s .

A. OBRAS MgTAIISICASL D iv id im o s e s t s s e c c i o n en dos s u b s e c c i o n e s , a sab er: a.

Obras o n t o l S g i c a s : 1. De p r i m a p h i l o s o p h i a , s i v e d e i n t i m o naturae o p i f i c i o , l i b r i t r e s .

b.

Obras t e o l o g i c a s : 2. Be v e r i t a t e f i d e i c h r i s t i a n a e , l i b r i q u in q u e. 3. C o m m e n t a r ia i n XXXI l i b r o s c iv ita te D e i D i v i A. A u g u s t i n i . 4. E x c i t a t i o n e s a n i m i i n Deum. 5. G en eth lia co n Ie su C h r i s t i . 6. De t e m p o r e q u o , i d e s t , d e p a c e i n qua natus e s t C h ristu s. 7. C lypei C h r is t i d e s c r i p t i o . 8. S a c r u m D i u r n u m , de s u d o r e D o m i n i N O s t r i Iesu C h risti. 9. M e d i t a t i o a l t e r a i n P s a l . eumdem XXXVII. 10. P r a e l e c t i o i n suum C h r i s t i t r i u m p h u m , quae d i c i t u r : V eritas fu e a ta . 11. C h r is t i I e s u triu m phu s. 12. O vatio V i r g i n i s D e i - P a r e n t i s .

B. OBRAS LOGICAS. ^ D iv id im o s e s t a s e c c i o n en c u a tro a.

Obras 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

b.

Obras g r a m a t ic a s :

su b seccio n es:

c r i t ic a s y m eto d o lo g ica s: De c a u s i s c o r r u p t arum a r t i u m . De t r a d e n d i s d i s c i p l i n i s . De i n s t u m e n t o p r o b a b i l i t a t i s . De e x p l a n a t i o n s c u i u s q u e e s s e n t i a e . De c e n s u r a v e r i . De A r i s t o t e l i s o p e r i b u s c e n s u r a .

Ill 7*. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.. 17.

L inguae l a t i n a e e x e r c i t a t i o . Be r a t i o n e s t u d i i p u e r i l i s , e p i s t o l a e I I . Be c o n se r ilD e n d is e p i s t o l i s . I s o e r a t is A reo p a g itica o r a tio . I s o e r a t is N ic o cles, siv e a u x ilia r is . B u colicoru m Y e r g i l i i i n t e r p r e t a t i o potissim u m a l e g o r i e a . I n G e o r g i c a P u b l i i Y e r g i l i i M aronis. p r a e le ctio . In C on vivia F r a n c is c i P h ile lp h i p r a e le ctio . Y e r i t a s f a c u t a , s i v e de l i e e n t i a p o e t i c a , quantum P o e t i s l i e e a t a v e r i t a t e abscedere. SoEinium, q u a e e s t p r a e f a t i o ad somnium S c ip io n is C icero n ia n i. Y i g i l i a i n Somnium S c i p i o n i s .

c.

Obras 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

retd rica s: Be r a t i o n e d i c e n d i , l i b r i t r e s . De c o n s u l t a t i o n s . D eclam ation es s e x . P o p eiu s f u g ie n s . I n quartum R h e t o r ic o r u m ad H erennium p ra electio .

d.

Obras d i a l e c t i c a s : 2 3 .” In p s e u d o -d ia le c tic o s . 24. De d i s p u t a t i o n e .

C. OBRAS F I S I C A S : S e c c i o n que d i v i d i m o s en s i e t e

su b seccion es:

a*

Obras r e f e r e n t e s a l e s t u d i o de l a s f u e r z a s £ de l a m a t e r i a l Ro t T e n e Y i v e s n i n g u a o b r a e s p e c i a l a c e r c a d e e s t e p u n to , pero tr a ta n de e l extensam ente l o s sig u ien te s lib r o s: a) B e p r i m a p h i l o s o p h i a , o p ificio . b) De a n i m a e t v i t a .

s iv e de in tim o n atu rae

b. Obras b i o l o g i c a s : Tampoco h a y n i n g u n a o b r a d e ^ Y i v e s qu e e s t r i c t a m ente se ocupe e n l a B i o l o g i a - - s e g u n e l s e n t id o e n c u e h o y tom am o s e l V o c a b l o - - , p e r o a e l l a s e r e f i e r e buena p a r t e d e l l i b r o : a) Be a nim a e t v i t a .

112 Obras p s i c o l o g i c a s : 1. De a n i m a e t v i t a , d.

e

.

Obras 2. 3. 4.

tres.

5.

m o rales: I n t r o d u e t i o ad s a p i e n t i a m . F a b u l a de H o m in e . Ad C a t o n e m m a i o r e m , s i v e d e s e n e c t u t e C i c e r o n i s , P r a e l e c t i o quae d i c i t u r Anima s e n i s . S p ie n tis in q u is it io , d ia lo g u s.

6.

S a t e l l i t i u m a n i m i , v e l sym b ola.

7. 8.

De i n s t i t u t i o n s f e m i n a e c h r i s t i a n a e . De o f f i c i o m a r i t i .

Obras j u r i d i c a s :

§. 10.

f.

lib r i

Aedes le g u m . In L eges C iceron is P r a e le c t io .

O b r a s eco n o m i c a s : 11. De s u b v e n t i o n e p a u p e r u m , s i v e d e h u m a n i s n ecessita tib u s. 1 2 . De c o m m u n io n e r e r u m , ad G e r m a n o s in ferio res. Obras p o l i t i c a s : 13. De c o n c o r d i a e t d i s c o r d i a hum ani g e n e r i s . 1 4 . De p a c i f i c a t i o n s . 1 5 . De E u r o p a e s t a t u a c t u m u l t i b u s . 1 6 . De P a c e i n t e r C a e s a r e m e t F r a n c i s c u m ’ G a l l i a r u m Regem, d e q u e o p t i m o r e g n i s t a t u . P ro c ed e a n a d ir o t r a s e c c i o n , l a de

D.

OBRAS HISTORICAS: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

De i n i t i i s , s e c t i s , e t l a u d i b u s p h i l o s o p h iae. De c o n d i t i o n e v i t a e c h r i s t i a n o r u m s u b Turca. I n S u e t o n i u m qu aed am . De F r a n c i s c o G a l l i a e R e g e a C a e s a r e capto. De E u r o p a e d i s s i d i i s e t b e l l o T u r c i c o d ia lo g u s.5

5 A. B o n i l l a y S a n M a r t i n , L u i s V i v e s la F ilo so fia d e l R e n a c i m i e n t o ( M a d r i d : E s p a s a - C a i p e , 1 ^ 2 ^ } , p p . —1 6 - 1 2 .

IIS SOCIOLOGY For th e pu rp oses o f t h i s

d isserta tio n ,

t h e books m ost

p e r tin e n t are t h o s e u r g in g reform s i n th e area o f s o c i a l r ela tio n sh ip s

and a d a p t i v e c u l t u r e .

review ed in th e

so c io lo g ica l

field .

T h ree b o o k s w i l l be They w i l l

deal w ith th e

p r o b l e m s o f w a r and p o v e r t y . War. o f war.

V i v e s was w e l l

equipped t o

I t was e v e r - p r e s e n t

runs throughout h i s w orks.

tr e a t o f the su bject

i n " . h i s t h i n k i n g and t h e t h e m e S p a in was b u i l t upon wars— w ars

o f con q u est; wars o f d e f e n s e .

V iv e s’ very b ir th -d a te ,

1492,

s y m b o li z e d t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f e i g h t h undred y e a r s o f war b e tw e e n C h r i s t i a n s and M oors.

He s p e n t h i s y o u t h and e a r l y

manh oo d a m id t h e e c h o e s o f F e r d i n a n d ’ s s c h e m e s f o r I t a l i a n c o n q u e s t and t h e p l a n s o f V a l e n c i a n d e f e n s e a g a i n s t p l u n d e r ­ in g

co rsa irs.

H i s m anh ood w i t n e s s e d t h e

C h ristian p rin ces the n a tio n s;

sp ecta cle

of

j o c k e y i n g f o r p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f p o w e r among

i n c r e a s i n g e n c r o a c h m e n t s o f t h e T u r k s ; and

c l a s h e s b e t w e e n L u t h e r a n s and C a t h o l i c s . Two o f V i v e s ’ b e s t known w o r k s o n w a r a r e Bj3 E u r o p a e D issid ils

e t B ello

T u r c i c o D i a l o g u s an d C o n c o r d i a e t Con­

c o r d i a e t D i s c o r d i a i n Huma.no G e n e r e .

k b r ie f review of

t h e s e two w r i t i n g s s h o u l d g i v e

a fa ir

to w a r d s war and h i s

aw a k en E u r o p e ’ s l e a d e r s t o

e f f o r t s to

id ea o f V iv e s ’ a ttitu d e

co n stru ctiv e a c tio n . B ello

T u rcico w i l l be c o n sid e r e d f i r s t .

The c o n ­

v e r s a t i o n s r e p o r t e d a r e b e t w e e n M inos and t h e S h a d e s r e c e n t ­ ly

a r r iv e d i n H ades.

I n c l u d e d among t h e S h a d e s a r e , B a s i -

l i u s C o l a x ( f l a t t e r e r o f k i n g s ) , and P o l y p r a g m o n — a s e e - a l l , kn ow -all ty p e .o f p erson . reveal the tim e.

sad s t a t e

T h e s e two a r e c l e v e r l y u s 6 d t o

i n w h ic h Europe fo u n d i t s e l f

T h is book, w r itte n in 1526,

at that

and p u b l i s h e d i n B r u g e s b y

de Croock i n t h a t y e a r , w as d e d i c a t e d t o Pope A d r ia n V I, in the hope, p rob ab ly,

t h a t h e w ould u s e h i s p o n t i f i c a l

power t o u n i t e C h ristend om a g a i n s t I s la m . P op e A d r i a n d i e d b e f o r e h e was a b l e t o V ives p r e se n ts a h i s t o r i c a l were,

U n fo rtu n a tely ,

answer t h i s

account o f th e w ars w h ich

a t t h a t tim e , w reck in g Europe.

He s t a r t s w i t h t h e

N e a p o l i t a n w a r s begun by A lf o n s o o f A ragon.

He c o n t i n u e s

w ith th e co n q u ests o f the T u r k s--C o n sta n tin o p le , and t h e A e g e a n I s l a n d s .

ch a llen g e .

G reece,

He t o u c h e s o n t h e F r e n c h i n v a s i o n s

o f I t a l y b y C h a r l e s V I I I a nd L o u i s X I I .

He d e c r i b e s t h e

m a c h in a tio n s o f th e Pope J u l i u s I I

a nd P o p e L e o n X; t h e

c a m p a ig n s i n Lombardy; t h e r i v a l r y

betw een F r a n c is I o f

F r a n c e and C h a r l e s V f o r t h e i m p e r i a l o f N a v a rre by t h e K ing o f F r a n c e ;

crown; t h e i n v a s i o n

t h e H oly L eague; t h e

c a p t u r e o f R hodes by t h e T u rk s; t h e d e v a s t a t i o n o f Hungary by S u l e i m a n I I ;

and t h e S p a n i s h

su c c e sse s in the I t a lia n

115 w a r up t o 1 5 2 6 . The c h a r a c t e r P o l y p r a g m o n s u m m a r i z e s t h e s o c i a l d itio n s in 1526.

con­

He a n n o u n c e s t h a t a t no t i m e and i n no

n a t i o n h a d t h e r e e v e r b e e n s u c h d i s c o r d a s t h e r e w a s among the C h r is tia n s o f h i s day.

In form er tim e s , he s a y s , t h e r e

had b e e n e n m ity b e tw e e n c o n t i n e n t s ,

s u c h a s A s i a and E u r o p e .

T here had b e e n r i v a l r y b e tw e e n p o w e r fu l C a r t h a g e and Home.

But t o d a y i s

th e E n g lish lik e

W ithin th e c i t i e s , a u th o rities;

or a few f e e t o f la n d .

c lerg y ;

son.

phers;

the French d e s p is e th e

n e it h e r the S c o tc h nor th e French.

These h a tr e d s are even tr a n sm itte d

The l a i t y

lo o k w it h con tem p t on t h e

th e n ob les;

and s u b j e c t - p e o p l e s

The d i a l e c t i c i a n s r e s e n t t h e p h i l o s o ­

a d v o c a t e s o f L a t i n s t r i v e w i t h t h o s e who p r e f e r

Greek; t h e L u th era n s abhor th e

a n ti-L u th eran s.

w ith in th e ranks o f th e L u th erans, i s there peace.

E xp u lsion s,

are th e o rd er o f th e

th e in tern a l

Not e v e n

or th e r e l ig i o u s orders

in su lts,

th reats,

p ersecu tio n s

day.

The b a s i c c a u s e o f t h i s b i t t e r is

the c iv ic

each o th e r o v e r a few drops o f w ater

th e p op ulace r e se n t

loath e t h e ir r u le r s .

hatred,

The I t a l i a n s d i s ­

th e pop ulace r e v o lt a g a in s t

they f i g h t

from f a t h e r t o

by r a c i a l

and f a m i l y h a t r e d s .

d a in th e p e o p l e s beyond th e A lp s; E n glish ;

such a s

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by m o r ta l

e n m i t y b e t w e e n p r o v i n c e and p r o v i n c e , g eograp h ical h atred ,

co u n tries,

d isco rd

and r i v a l r y

str ife ,

V ives c la im s,

o f the I t a lia n

states.

116 T he s i t u a t i o n

co u ld be rem ed ied i f

found i n w h ich a l l

cou ld u n it e .

a common c a u s e c o u l d b e

The m e n a c e o f t h e T u r k s t o

C hristendom sh o u ld be th e r a l l y i n g p o i n t f o r a l l states.

C h ristian

A C h r i s t i a n C rusade s h o u ld be s u f f i c i e n t i n c e n t i v e

f o r C h a r l e s 7 and F r a n c i s I t o p u t a m b i t i o n s and p e r s o n a l r i v a l r i e s

asid e n a t io n a lis t ic

and f o r H e n r y V I I I t o k e e p

f r e e o f b a l a n c e - o f power e n ta n g le m e n ts .

U n i t e d i n a common

c a u s e , u n d e r t h e l e a d e r s h i p o f t h e Poph> , a l l C h r i s t e n d o m could ta k e th e o f f e n s i v e ,

a t t a c k Is ia m is m on i t s

own t e r r i ­

t o r y a n d r e s c u e t h e e n s l a v e d p o p u l a t i o n s now a t t h e m e r c y o f Su leim an I I . Tlle C o n c o r d i a 6 t D i s c o r d i a i n Humano G e n e r e w a s w r i t t e n im m e d ia t e ly a f t e r V i v e s had b e e n b a n is h e d from England b e c a u s e he had r e f u s e d to be i n t i m i d a t e d , d eceived ,

by H e n r y * s i n t r i g u e s i n r e g a r d t o

o f dragon, vives*

C o u n tries,

th is

Q ueen C a t h e r i n e

c o m p a tr io t— daughter o f h i s form er l i e g e

k i n g , and a u n t o f h i s I t was t o

or

contem porary s o v e r e i g n ,

C h a r l e s V.

s o v e r e i g n , K i n g o f S p a i n , r u l e r o f t h e Low

a n d E m p e r o r o f Rome, t h a t V i v e s d e d i c a t e d h i s

C o n c o r d and D i s c o r d among M a n k i n d , p u b l i s h e d b y M i c h a e l H i l l e n i u s o f Antwerp, i n 1 5 2 9 . The i n t r o d u c t i o n d e p i c t s i n c l e a r c u t t e r m s t h e so cia l e v ils

co n d itio n of resu ltin g

the tim e s ,

and s h o w s t h e d i s a s t r o u s

from t h e c o n t i n u o u s

and b i t t e r w a r s r a v a g i n g

117 Europe, to

V iv e s a p p ea ls to

th e Emperor t o u s e h i s g r e a t power

b r i n g a b o u t o r d e r i n E u r o p e a s k i n g h im t o make p e a c e

among t h e C h r i s t i a n p r i n c e s ,

and s u g g e s t s

ca llin g

togeth er

a g e n e r a l c o u n c i l f o r d i s c u s s i o n and a r b i t r a t i o n o f d ifferen ces. The g e n e r a l t h e m e o f t h e b o o k i s o f u n i v e r s a l p e a c e among C h r i s t i a n book i s so cia l

d ivid ed in to

four se c tio n s.

e v i l s o f V ives*

t h e paramount need

states

and r u l e r s .

S e c t i o n I unmasks t h e

d a y and p a i n t s a n u n c o m p r o m i s i n g

d escrip tio n of th e h y p o critica l

form alism o f th e

th e p s e u d o -C h r is tia n ity o f the c le r g y , th e m erchants, th e u n b rid led

sch ools,

the c o v e to u s n e ss o f

am bition o f p r i n c e s ,

and t h e

g e n e r a l s e l f i s h n e s s w h ich c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e s o c i a l V ives then rev iew s the o r ig in s o f s o c ie t y . s a y s , was in t e n d e d t o be a s o c i a b l e b e i n g . speech i s

h is a lon e.

much i n c r e a s e d , of p rin tin g .

structure. Man, he

The p o w e r o f

H is means o f c o m m u n ica tio n have b een

f i r s t b y w r i t i n g and t h e n b y t h e

As h i s

The

n eed s have i n c r e a s e d ,

b e c o m e m o r e and m o r e s e l f i s h .

develop m en t

he h a s te n d e d to

God h a s g i v e n t h e s e g i f t s

t h a t t h e y m i g h t b e u s e d i n H i s s e r v i c e f o r t h e c o n c o r d and p r o g r e s s o f h u m a n i t y a n d n o t t h a t men s h o u l d r e t u r n t o t h e statu s of beasts

and f i g h t

each o t h e r f o r s u r v i v a l

p restig e.

The p r e s e n t e v i l

tin u es,

c a u s e d by a d e s i r e f o r a d u l a t i o n o n t h e o n e s i d e

is

con d ition of

so ciety ,

and

and b y t h e v i c e s o f t h e c a r n a l m i n d , o n t h e o t h e r .

he co n ­

S u p erficia l

118 lea rn in g ,

in v en tio n s,

op u len ce,

s u b s e r v i e n c e to

extern al

pomp a n d p o w e r , and t h e p r e s u m p t i o n o f k i n g s a n d n o b l e s h a v e produced a sorry c o n d i t i o n o f a f f a i r s . s a v e d o n l y by a s c i e n t i f i c ,

S o c i e t y can b e

p h ilo so p h ic,

an d r e l i g i o u s

approach t o t h e problem s i n v o l v e d . In the

second s e c t i o n , Y iv e s em p hasizes t h a t d is c o r d

and o p p o s i t i o n a r e n o t t h e n a t u r a l Yengeance i s

state

o f the C h r is tia n .

not a c o n str u c tiv e but a d e s tr u c tiv e f o r c e .

P r i e s t s and s c h o l a r s a r e b o t h t o b la m e . fa ile d

t o em ploy t h e i r r e s o u r c e s t o

I n s t e a d o f w orking i n

They h a ve b o t h

bring

about p e a c e .

concord, t h e y a re w arrin g f o r p r e s t i g e

and g a i n e v e n a s t h e p r i n c e s a r e s t r u g g l i n g a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r f o r m a t e r i a l w e a l t h and p o w e r . vives* p r i c e o f war.

theme i n t h e t h i r d

s e c tio n I s the h o r r ib le

He d r a w s u p o n h i s t o r y t o

and t h e s u f f e r i n g s w h i c h f o l l o w i n i t s says,

w a s e v e r b r o u g h t a b o u t by w a r .

g iv e s op p ortu n ity fo r a l l o f the d is a s te r s

tra in . On t h e

types o f e v il

c a u s e d by w a r ,

em phasize i t s

e v ils

Ho g o o d , contrary,

to f l o u r i s h .

in h is o p in io n , are:

he it

Some w ar

p r e v e n t s t h e p r o d u c t i o n and a c c u m u l a t i o n o f r e s o u r c e s ; d e p le te s the p op u lation ; p illa g e ter rib le

destroys

and d e s t r u c t i o n o f c i t i e s e x p e n d i t u r e and w a s t e ;

ex h ib itio n s of

cru elty ;

c om m e rc e; r e s u l t s i n t h e and c o u n t r y s i d e ;

in v o lves

a c c u s t o m s t h e m in d t o

p u t s undue e m p h a s is on t h e t r a i n i n g

and m a i n t e n a n c e o f a r m i e s ;

and i n c r e a s e s c r i m e b e c a u s e o f t h e

119 u n b rid led

e x a m p le s s e t by t h e

The f o u r t h ,

so ld ie rs.

and l a s t ,

sectio n is

t h e means w h ich s h o u ld be em ployed t o

d ev o ted by Y iv e s to

b r in g about p e a c e .

Th e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n s t r u m e n t o f c o n c o r d ,

he c l a i m s ,

is

a

r e c o g n i t i o n by t h e r u l e r s o f Europe o f t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , a s r u l i n g p r i n c e s , f o r t h e w e l f a r e and h a p p i n e s s o f t h e i r p eop les.

He c a l l s

whom t h e b o o k i s

p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r h i s own s o v e r e i g n , t o

d ed ica ted ,

to

take th e le a d

in

exam ple f o r t h e o t h e r m onarchs t o f o l l o w to t h e p ra ctica l fied ,

C h r i s t i a n i t y may b e r e s t o r e d ,

and p r i n c e s

exem p lify,

w orthy exam ples f o r P overty. so cia l

and c o n d u c t ,

em u late.

S o c ie t y has been faced a t a l l tim es o f

d i s r u p t i o n by t h e

sp ectre of p overty.

t h e c o n d i t i o n was p a r t i c u l a r l y E n glan d.

end t h a t

C h r i s t e n d o m be u n i ­

i n t h e i r own l i v e s

t h e ir peop le to

s e t t i n g an

In V ives*

day,

s e r i o u s i n b o t h F l a n d e r s and

F l a n d e r s and t h e o t h e r Low C o u n t r i e s f o r m e d t h e

c r o s s -r o a d s o f Europe.

Thus t h e i r problem was a g g r a v a t e d by

t h e m ob s o f d i s c h a r g e d and r u n a w a y s o l d i e r s

in t r a n s it ,

in

E ngland t h e problem was a c u t e b e c a u s e o f t h e E n c l o s u r e s A ct w h ich had d r i v e n o u t on t h e r o a d h o r d e s o f h o m e le s s v a g r a n t s — m e n , wom en, and c h i l d r e n - - a b r u p t l y u p r o o t e d and f o r c e d t o s t e a l or beg i n o rd er to l i v e .

More, V i v e s ,

a n d Q ueen

C a t h e r in e — h e r s e l f a lay-m em ber o f t h e o r d e r o f S t . were a p p a l l e d by t h e s i t u a t i o n p r e s e n t e d .

F ra n cis--

120 De S u b v e n t i o n s P a u p e r u m s i v e d e H u m a n is N e c e s s i t a t i bu s was w r i t t e n by Y i v e s a t t h e r e q u e s t o f S e i g n e u r de P raet,

Burgom aster o f B r u g e s.

in 1526,

an d d e d i c a t e d

to t h e m a g is tr a c y o f B ru g es.

book had a d o u b l e o b j e c t i v e : of

I t w as p u b l i s h e d by de Crook

(1)

The

to p oin t ou t th a t th e care

t h e p o o r h a d now b e c o m e a c i v i c o b l i g a t i o n ;

and ( 2 )

to

i n d i c a t e p o s s i b l e m achinery f o r a c c o m p lish in g t h i s ta s k effe c tiv e ly , tio n ,

in te llig e n tly ,

w ritten in le t t e r

w ritin g the t r e a t i s e . g iv in g , itie s II

and e c o n o m i c a l l y .

form ,

e x p la in s Y ives*

The i n t r o d u c ­ reasons for

B oo k I d i s c u s s e s t h e h i s t o r y o f a l m s ­

s t a r t in g w ith i t s

o r i g i n s and e x p l a i n i n g how i n e q u a l ­

o f w e a l t h a n d p o s i t i o n had g r a d u a l l y d e v e l o p e d .

e x p r e s s e s Y ives*

t h e o r i e s on t h e

Book

a d m in istr a tio n o f poor

r e lie f. In h i s in tr o d u c tio n , the

c o u n s e l o r s and t h e

Y iv e s sa y s t h a t he i s w r i t i n g to

se n a to r s o f Bruges out o f con cern f o r

th e w e ll- b e in g o f the c i t y . governm ent, t h e f i n e courtesy o f i t s ju stic e.

He p r a i s e s t h e

ed u cation al

citizen s,

its

fa c ilitie s

tr a n q u ility ,

He s a y s t h a t B r u g e s i s

to w h ic h he i s

b o u nd b y t i e s

him t o h i s n a t i v e Y a l e n c i a . c i t i z e n th a t he w r ite s to

eq u ity o f i t s offered , and i t s

th6 c o u n tr y o f h i s

the

renowned a d op tion

a s s t r o n g a s t h o s e w h ich b in d It

is,

them t o

s u f f e r i n g and n e e d s i n t h e c i t y .

therefore,

as a fe llo w -

c a l l a t t e n t io n to th e

121 The g e n e r o s i t y o f B r u g e s i s d e stitu te flo ek tin u es,

there fo r a id .

that there

to

It is

fu n d am en tal, he con­

sh o u ld be a p l a c e i n

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f alm s. o fficia ls

so w e l l known t h a t t h e

every c it y fo r the

It

i s the r e s p o n s ib ilit y o f p u b lic

see th a t the

n e e d y a r e h e l p e d and t h a t e v e r y

c i t i z e n i s made p a r t o f a h a r m o n i o u s c i v i c ly ,

in a w ealth y c it y - - s u c h

fa m ily .

as B ru g es--it is

C ertain ­

just as d is ­

g r a c e f u l f o r t h e p o o r t o go h u n g r y o r i n r a g s a s i t

would b e

f o r t h e h e a d o f a l u x u r i o u s home t o p e r m i t s u c h d e s t i t u t i o n in h i s h ou seh old . I n Book I V i v e s s t a r t s back t o o r i g i n a l a r g u e s , b r o u g h t a b o u t m i s e r y and p o v e r t y . have g r e a t l y

in to

Two o t h e r f a c t o r s

c o n t r ib u t e d to t h e i r i n c r e a s e — th e banding

t o g e t h e r o f men i n t o fin a lly

s i n w h ich, he

l a r g e r and l a r g e r g r o u p s w h i c h d e v e l o p e d

c ity l i f e ,

and t h e d i v i s i o n o f w ork w h i c h

r e s u l t e d i n man c e a s i n g t o

be s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t .

He r e v i e w s

t h e t h e o r i e s o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s o f a n t i q u i t y on t h i s and f i n a l l y

su bject

r e a c h e s t h e q u e s t i o n o f money and c r e d i t w h i c h

have brought about th e m o b ilit y o f la b o r . U l m s g i v i n g h a s b e e n t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e C h u r ch in resp o n se to th e te a c h in g

o f the

sacred t e x t s ,

i n w hich

c h a r i t y a n d d o n a t i o n s w e r e g i v e n i n t h e name o f C h r i s t . is

t h e d u t y o f man t o

care fo r th e unfortunate.

n o t l o o k u p o n m o n e y a s t h e o n l y fo rm o f h e l p ,

It

Men m u s t

however.

The

122 m ost im p o r ta n t form o f lie lp i s h elp h im s e lf. vo cation al

t h a t w h i c h e n a b l e s a man t o

T r a i n i n g w hich d e v e l o p s m oral e x c e l l e n c e and

sk ills

should be p ro v id ed .

w h i l e must be g i v e n i n t h e

C h a rity to

be w o r th ­

s p ir it o f k in d n ess— never as

o sten ta tio u s d isp la y . Book I I

s e t s up a p r a c t i c a l p l a n f o r p o o r r e l i e f .

In clu d ed under t h i s h eadin g are a l l h e l p l e s s p e o p le - - t h e sick ,

th e handicapped,

th e orphaned, th e d e s t i t u t e ,

in sa n e , the feeb le-m in d ed ,

the

deaf,

Book I d e a l s w i t h t h e d u t y o f t h e up t h e d u t y o f t h e human n e e d s .

state

The s t a t e

every c it i z e n w ith in i t s

an d i t s is

the b lin d ,

in d iv id u a l;

the

th e aged.

Book I I t a k e s

r u le r in th e m eetin g o f

r esp o n sib le,

says V iv e s,

for

borders.

The w e a k e r e l e m e n t s c a n n o t b e n e g l e c t e d w i t h o u t d a n g e r to

a ll

c itize n s.

D r i v e n by n e c e s s i t y ,

th e poor s t e a l .

C i v i l w ars have b een ca u se d by t h e d i s d a i n o f t h e r i c h f o r the poor.

The p o o r r e b e l w h en t h e r i c h f l a u n t t h e w e a l t h

wrung from t h e i r l a b o r s , for th e ir

starvin g

w h ile th e y ,

ch ild ren .

Through l a c k o f

s p r e a d d i s e a s e t h r o u g h t h e community. tig a te,

therefore,

checked. poor.

M oreover,

th em selv es,

h a v e no f o o d

care,

The s t a t e

should i n v e s ­

how d i s e a s e may b e c u r e d an d i t s no m o r a l t r a i n i n g i s

They a r e n o t a llo w e d t o

the poor

spread be

provided f o r th e

p a r ta k e o f church s e r v i c e s

h e n c e t h e y h e a r no s e r m o n s and h a v e n o t t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e sacram ents.

M a g i s t r a t e s s h o u l d d e v o t e t h e i r t i m e and e n e r g y

1B3 to

co rrectin g t h is e v i l .

doers,

the

state

It

i s not

sh ould i n s t i t u t e

enough to p u n is h e v i l

c o n s t r u c t i v e m ea su r es so

t h a t t h e p o o r may h a v e b e t t e r s t a n d a r d s and so t h a t t h e c ity w ill poverty,

n o t b e d i s g r a c e d by t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f

crim e,

and d i s t r e s s .

At t h e p r e s e n t t i m e a s p e c i a l

emergency r en d e rs

i n a d e q u a t e f o r m e r p r o v i s i o n s o f t a x e s and p u b l i c state

assum es th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f r e s t o r in g

lan d s.

The

t h e damage t o

p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t y a s t h e r e s u l t o f s t o r m s and d e t e r i o r a t i o n . It

is,

a lso ,

im p erative th a t th e s t a t e

assume,

lik ew ise,

the

t a s k o f r e h a b i l i t a t i n g human b e i n g s i n t r o u b l e — a c o n d i t i o n brought about,

often ,

t h r o u g h no f a u l t o f t h e i r o w n .

c h a r i t y dem ands t h a t a l l in

in stitu tio n s

o f the sick ,

state. paupers,

in sa n e,

c itize n s,

i n c l u d i n g t h o s e who l i v e

and t h o s e who b e g , b e made t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y The s t a t e

sh ou ld p rovid e c a re ,

abandoned i n f a n t s ,

the b lin d ,

and a l l

made i n t o

the

con d ition s la id

the b e s t ad van tage.

the

th e poor sh ould be r e g is t e r e d ,

sp ec ific a lly ,

i n s t i t u t i o n s to f in d ou t i f

fo r the

h om eless c h ild r e n ,

c h a r i t y f u n d s and r e s o u r c e s e s t i m a t e d , He s a y s ,

th en ,

oth ers in m isfo rtu n e.

V ives su g g e sts th a t a l l

r eg u la te d .

True

and e x p e n d i t u r e s

th a t an in q u iry

should be

down b y t h e f o u n d e r s o f t h e

funds are b ein g

d istr ib u te d to

He a n t i c i p a t e s t h e o b j e c t i o n s o f t h o s e

who h a v e b e e n a p p r o p r i a t i n g f u n d s b y s a y i n g t h a t t h e r e i s n o t h i n g so

f r e e i n the

sta te that i t

is

n o t s u b j e c t .to

124 i n q u i r y “by t h o s e who a d m i n i s t e r t h e the sen a to rs to fu ll

v isit

account o f i t s

governm ent.

each i n s t i t u t i o n ,

co n d itio n ,

He a d v i s e s

in sp ect i t ,

w rite

a

n o t e t h e number o f i n m a t e s

t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r n a m e s and t h e i r c a u s e f o r b e i n g t h e r e . The p o o r l i v i n g

a t home s h o u l d b e r e g i s t e r e d a s w e l l

those in in s t it u t io n s recorded.

and t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e i r

as

cases

B e g g a r s who w a n d e r a b o u t a n d h a v e no f i x e d

d w ellin g p la c e s

s h o u l d b e made t o

th e rea so n f o r t h e i r m endicancy. made i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e t h e S e n a t e Chamber i s who a r e s i c k

d e c l a r e t h e i r n a m e s and T h is d e c la r a t io n should be

s e n a te i n an open p l a c e

so t h a t

n o t i n f e c t e d by t h e i r f i l t h .

Those

sh ould be r eq u ire d to g i v e in fo r m a tio n in th e

p r e s e n c e o f s e n a t o r s an d a p h y s i c i a n . have w it n e s s e s to

te stify

The s e n a t e s h o u l d

a s t o t h e manner o f l i f e

o f those

reg istered . V ives th in k s t h a t , be p r o d u c t i v e .

as fa r as p o s s ib le ,

everyone sh ould

Ho o n e among t h e p o o r s h o u l d b e a l l o w e d t o be

id le u n less u n fit

f o r work b e c a u s e o f a g e o r h e a l t h .

state,

a s i n a w e l l - o r d e r e d home,

task .

I d l e n e s s b r e e d s s l o v e n l i n e s s and i n a c t i v i t y .

t h e b l i n d do n o t n e e d t o

be i d l e .

w i t h work s u i t a b l e to t h e i r should have t a s k s s u i t e d

the

state

have a Even

They s h o u ld b e p r o v id e d

con d itio n .

The o l d a n d i n f i r m

t o t h e i r a g e and s t r e n g t h .

em ployed s h o u ld be f o u n d w ork. a v a ila b le,

everyone ought to

In th e

The u n ­

Where t h e r e a r e no j o b s

sh o u ld u n d ertak e p r o j e c t s such a s p u b lic

125 b u i l d i n g s and r o a d s w h e r e t h e p o o r may w o r k u n d e r s u p e r v i ­ sio n . The i n s a n e

sh ould be cured i f

t h a t a n e x a m i n a t i o n s h o u l d be made t o is

p o ssib le.

Y ives says

see i f the in sa n ity

a c c id e n ta l or th e r e s u lt of m isfortu n e.

It

r e l e a s e f r o m s t r a i n t h a t t h e m in d r e g a i n s i t s

i s through e q u ilib riu m .

As f a r a s p o s s i b l e t h e r e f o r e p e a c e and t r a n q u i l i t y be p r o v id e d .

Ho o n 6 s h o u l d amuse h i m s e l f a t t h e

should

expense

o f an i n s a n e p e r s o n ,

nor e x c i t e

or v io le n t

Th ey s h o u l d b e p r o v i d e d f o r i n i n s t i t u ­

tio n s.

em otion.

S p G cial

sic k p eop le. d isea ses tected

such a n i n d i v i d u a l t o

anger

c a r e s h o u l d b e t a k e n o f th6m an d o f o t h e r

T h o se s u f f e r i n g from l o a t h e s o m e o r c o n t a g i o u s

s h o u l d b e s e g r e g a t e d s o t h a t o t h e r s may b e p r o ­

from c o n t a m i n a t i o n .

Every h o s p i t a l

sh ou ld be s t a f f e d

w i t h a p h y s i c i a n a n d p h a r m a c i s t a n d s h o u l d h a v e b o t h men a n d women a t t e n d a n t s . Y iv es co n sid e r s also orphaned c h ild r e n . p u b lic

t h e w e l f a r e o f a b a n d o n e d and

They sh o u ld be t r a i n e d

e x p e n se , he s a y s ,

w h ich t h e y show a p t i t u d e .

and s u p p o r t e d a t

and l a t e r t a u g h t t h e t r a d e f o r Orphanages sh o u ld be un der t h e

c a r e o f c u l t u r e d men s o t h a t t h e

c h i l d r e n may d e v e l o p

c o n t r o l and p r o p e r s t a n d a r d s o f c u l t u r e .

se lf-

As t h e E n g lis h

tr a n s la tio n has i t : N oth in g h a s g r e a t e r danger f o r t h e so n s o f t h e p o o r t h a n a c h e a p and l o w a n d s o r d i d e d u c a t i o n . .

.

.

126 L e t t h e p u p i l s l e a r n t o l i v e f r u g a l l y , b u t n e a t l y and c l e a n l y , and t o b e c o n t e n t w i t h l i t t l e . L e t them b e k e p t from a l l fo r m s o f d i s s i p a t i o n . L e t them n o t g r o w a c c u sto m e d t o l u x u r y and g l u t t o n y ; nor become s l a v e s o f t h e b e l l y , so t h a t , wh en t h e y m i s s s o m e t h i n g w h i c h h a s b e e n f r e e l y s u p p l i e d , t h e y c a s t a s i d e shame and commence b e g g i n g , a s we h a v e s e e n some do t h e v e r y moment t h a t m u s t a r d , o r some s u c h t r i f l e , w a s w a n t i n g . 6 7 iv e s b eliev ed th a t th e s ta te

sh ould m a in ta in con­

t i n u o u s s u p e r v i s i o n o v e r i t s w ards and d e p e n d e n t s . a d v is e s th e Senate to in v e s t ig a t e th e l i f e poor to

and m o r a ls o f t h e

s e e what t h e y a r e d o in g from t i m e to

h e l p them a d j u s t t h e m s e l v e s . o f two c e n s o r s w h o s e d u t i e s

He

t i m e and t o

He s u g g e s t s t h e a p p o i n t m e n t sh a ll

i n c lu d e reprim ands t o t h o s e

who f r e q u e n t g a m i n g p l a c e s and w i n e and b e e r t a v e r n s . c e n so r s should a ls o

in v estig a te

t h e w e a l t h y s i n c e no o n e

The

the h a b it s o f th e so n s o f

should be a llo w e d to l i v e

in

id len ess. y iv e s d ep recates the d ish o n esty o f th e th at th e clerg y , o ste n ta tio u sly

and e v e n t h e b i s h o p s ,

age.

are able to

He h i n t s liv e

b e c a u se t h e y have d i v e r t e d fu n d s from t h e

church in ten d ed f o r th e p o o r.

He c a u t i o n s a b o u t h a v i n g t o o

much r e a d y m o ney o n h a n d f o r t h e m one y b e m i s a p p r o p r i a t e d . have abundant w e a l t h .

care o f th e poor l e s t

He i n s i s t s

the

th a t the i n s t i t u t i o n s

He s u g g e s t s t h a t a s u r v e y b e made o f

6 M a r g a r e t M. S h e r w o o d , t r a n s l a t o r , C o n c e r n i n g t h e R e l i e f o f t h e P o o r [ V i v e s * De S u b v e n t i o n s P a u p e r u m j [“Hew Y o r k C i W * Hew Y o r k S c h o o l oT P h i l a n t h r o p y , 1 9 1 7 ) , p . 2 1 .

127 th e ir revenues, trib u ted

t h a t t h e am ounts h e t o t a l l e d ,

eq uab ly.

su m p tio u sly .

The c l e r g y ,

T h ey w o u l d t h e n b e a b l e t o

w elfa re funds.

fu lly

should l i v e

less

con trib u te to

A lm s b o x e s s h o u l d b e p u t i n e v e r y c h u r c h .

The sums t h u s . c o l l e c t e d , the s t a t e ,

he f e e l s ,

and t h e n d i s ­

added t o a l l o w a n c e s p r o v i d e d by

w ou ld b e more t h a n a d e q u a t e t o

fin a n ce su ccess­

t h e program h e h a s o u t l i n e d . Y iv e s co n clu d es by one l a s t

he s a y s ,

are not enough.

in ex cu sa b le to

s e e an i l l

sh ou ld be a llo w ed t o

A ctio n i s

cau tion . demanded.

Good i n t e n t i o n s , S in ce i t

and t h e n n o t c o r r e c t i t ,

is

n oth in g

b lo c k t h e im m ed iate i n a u g u r a t io n o f

su ch a program f o r p o o r r e l i e f . . . . T h e r e w i l l b e j u s t s o many c i t i z e n s m o r e v i r t u o u s , m ore l a w - a b i d i n g m o r e u s e f u l t o t h e c o u n t i y , and t h e y w i l l a l l h o l d t h a t s t a t e d e a r e r i n w h ic h , o r by means o f w h ic h , t h e y a r e m a in t a in e d . Kor w i l l they p a r tic ip a te in r e v o lu tio n s or s e d itio n s . B o y s and g i r l s w i l l be tau gh t l e t t e r s , r e l i g i o n , tem perance, s e l f - s u p p o r t ; t h i n g s w h i c h f o r m t h e b a s i s o f a g o o d and h o n e s t and p i o u s l i f e . F i n a l l y , a l l o f them w i l l r e g a i n judgm ent, s e n s i b i l i t y , p i e t y . They w i l l l i v e among men l i k e c i t i z e n s , d i s c i p l i n e d , o b s e r v a n t o f human l a w s ; t h e y w i l l k e e p t h e i r h a n d s p u r e f r o m a c t s o f v i o l e n c e ; t h e y w i l l s e r v e God t r u l y a n d h o n e s t l y ; t h e y w i l l b e men; t h e y w i l l b e what t h e y a r e c a l l e d , C h ristia n s.7 Th e r e v i e w s o n w a r and p o v e r t y w e r e s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e t h e y are im p o r ta n t t o p i c s o f d i s c u s s i o n i n contem p orary edu­ c a t i o n a l programs.

Y ives* w r i t i n g s i n t h e g e n e r a l f i e l d

ed u cation fo llo w .

7 I b id .,

pp. 4 5 -4 6 .

of

CHAPTER V I I SURVEY OF VIVE8* EDUCATIONAL WORKS INTRODUCTION Three o f y iv e s * review ed i n C hapter VI.

great

s o c i o l o g i c a l works have been

T h is c h a p te r w i l l be d e v o ted to

c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f h i s w orks on e d u c a t i o n . p r i m a r i l y an e d u c a t o r a s su ch .

V i v e s was n o t

To be s u r e , h e h a d t u t o r e d

an o c c a s i o n a l p u p i l — a l w a y s o f h i g h

s o c i a l r a n k — and h a d

d e l i v e r e d l e c t u r e s i n O x f o r d and L o u v a i n U n i v e r s i t i e s . h ad s e r v e d , o f royal

too,

he was a la w y e r o r ,

tal

By p r o f e s s i o n ,

it

is

p h ilo so p h er.

In h is

so m e w h a t d i f f i c u l t

c a te g o r ie s V iv e s 1 e d u c a tio n a l works. a rb itra rily

c la ssifie d ,

t h e y se e m b e s t t o f i t ,

day, to o ,

to

compartm en-

Because of th e s e com press i n t o

They w i l l h a v e to be

u n d er t h e modern h e a d i n g s i n w h ich such a s p h ilo s o p h y ,

h isto ry ,

p s y c h o l o g y , m e t h o d o l o g y an d m o r a l e d u c a t i o n . V ives*

however,

a s h e h i m s e l f would p r o b a b l y h a v e p u t

e d u c a t i o n had n o t y e t been d e v i s e d .

two f a c t s ,

One b o o k ,

e d u c a t i o n a l m a s t e r p i e c e , Dje T r a d e n d i s D i s c i p l i n i s

perforce,

He

as e d u c a tio n a l a d v is o r to v a r io u s c h ild r e n

and d i s t i n g u i s h e d b i r t h .

i t , — a p o litic a l

a

i n a c l a s s by i t s e l f

sin ce i t

is,

co n ta in s w ith in i t s

c o v e r s t h e w h o l e r a n g e o f e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e .

129 PHILOSOPHY T h e r e a r e two o f Y i v e s * w r i t i n g s w h i c h a p p e a r t o belong in t h i s

category,

i . e . , In Pseudo- P i a l e c t i c o s

De I n i t i i s , S e c t i s , e t L a u d i b u s P h i l o s o p h i s e . of

the

and

One t r e a t s

c l a s h o f p h i l o s o p h i e s w h i c h m a rk ed t h e a d v e n t , o f a

new a g e ;

the o th e r g i v e s t h e d evelop m en tal h i s t o r y o f

p h ilo so p h y . A tte n tio n has alread y been c a lle d to the

circu m sta n ces

w h i c h p r o d u c e d I n P s e u d o - D i a l e c t i c o s an d t h e f u r o r c a u s e d i n t h e r a n k s o f t h e S c h o l a s t i c s by i t s

appearance i n 1519.

T h is

b r i e f w ork, w h ich was f i r s t w r i t t e n i n t h e form o f a l e t t e r by Y i v e s to

h i s f r i e n d John F o r t i s s t i l l

U n iv e r sity of P a r is,

a student a t th e

has a lread y b een p a r t i a ll y

Y iv e s w r i t e s John F o r t i s t h a t

it

is

d iscu sse d .1

su rp risin g th a t the

U n i v e r s i t y o f P a r i s w hich s h o u ld have l e d

in th e in trod u c­

t i o n o f t h e n ew m e t h o d s a n d t h e New L e a r n i n g s h o u l d b e t h e o n l y one to p r e s e r v e t h e b a r b a r o u s m ethods o f t h e M id d le A ges.

He t h e n s h o w s t h e

a b su r d itie s of the d ia le c t ic ia n s :

(1)

the u n in t e llig ib le

(2)

the barbarous d ic t io n ,

if

and r i d i c u l o u s l a n g u a g e u s e d , a frig h tfu l

and

ja r g o n w h ich C i c e r o ,

he c o u ld have r e t u r n e d , w ould n e v e r ha ve u n d e r s t o o d .

r i d i c u l e s t h e w orsh ip o f A r i s t o t l e Sorbonne i s

ign oran t both o f h is

1 S ee pp.

8 2-83 , in f r a .

esp e cia lly

d octrin e

He

as th e

and h i s w o r k s .

He

130 a c c u s e s t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f h a v i n g made an e n d o f w h a t s h o u l d on ly have been a t o o l , in i t s e l f

but m e r e ly an in str u m e n t to

know ledge. tics

sayin g th a t D i a l e c t i c s

He d e r i d e s t h e

lead

is

n o t an a r t

t o more i m p o r t a n t

accom plishm ents o f t h e S c h o la s ­

s a y i n g no o n e w o u l d e n d u r e a p a i n t e r who d i d n o t h i n g

b u t m ix h i s

c o lo rs.

He c o n t i n u e s b y t e l l i n g

F o rtis that

t h e t u t o r s L a x and D u l l a r d h a v e w e p t b i t t e r l y o v e r t h e t i m e lo st

in the p u rsu it of

such f u t i l e

h is frien d F o rtis w ill regrets.

D ia lec tic s,

He h o p e s t h a t

not have cau se l a t e r f o r

the

same

he g o es on, was once a n e c e s s a r y

resp ecta b le art but i t s

d e te r io r a tio n in to

w r a n g lin g h a s underm ined a l l Y ives,

lea rn in g .

and

b a b b l i n g and

ed u cation al p r o g r ess.

He,

s h o u l d kn ow b e c a u s e h e h a d b e e n b r o u g h t up i n t h e

m i d s t o f f u r i o u s d i s p u t e s where t h e b o y w i t h t h e l o u d e s t v o i c e an d t h e m o s t e n d u r a n c e came o f f o f words.

He u t t e r s

th e p op u lace o f P a r is and s t u p i d i t y

v icto r

in th e b a t t l e

a n o te o f w arning a s t o th e e f f e c t on sh ould th e y e v e r le a r n th e ig n o r a n c e

c o n c e a l e d u n d e r t h e po m p ou s L a t i n p h r a s e s o f

the S c h o l a s t i c s .

He e n d s h i s l e t t e r

on a n o te o f proph ecy:

I s e e from t h e d e p th s a change i s com ing. Am o n g st a l l t h e n a t i o n s men a r e s p r i n g i n g u p , o f c l e a r , e x c e l l e n t and f r e e i n t e l l e c t s , i m p a t i e n t o f s e r v i ­ tu d e , d eterm in ed to t h r u s t o f f th e yoke o f t h i s ty r a n n y from t h e i r n e c k s . They a r e c a l l i n g t h e i r f e llo w - c it iz e n s to l i b e r t y . 2

T h e r e i s , p r o b a b l y , no f u l l E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s work. F o s t e r W atson h a s t r a n s l a t e d s m a ll e x c e r p t s such a s t h e a b o v e q u o t e d from h i s L u i s Y i v e s , E j Gran Y a l e n c i a n o ( O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s : Humphrey M ilfo rT J" 1 § £ 2 ) , p . 3 2 .

131 JH t h o u g h D_e i n i t i i s , S e c t i s , e t L a u d i b u s P h i l o s o p h i a e was w r i t t e n

in 1518,

i t was not p u b lis h e d u n t i l 1 5 2 1 .

W ritten a t th e i n s t i g a t i o n o f th e B e n e d ic tin e , t h i s book was t h e f i r s t Its

theme i s

as the

B erseliu s,

s e r i o u s w o r k u n d e r t a k e n by Y i v e s .

th e h i s t o r y o f p h ilo s o p h y w h ich Y iv e s d e f i n e s

s c i e n c e o f m a t t e r , — human a n d d i v i n e .

Y ives d i s ­

c u s s e s t h e o r i g i n o f k n o w l e d g e and i t s d e v e l o p m e n t among t h e d if f e r e n t p e o p le s of th e w orld . three categories:

(1)

astronom y, o r ig in a t e d

C h a ld e a n s and E g y p t i a n s ; Homans;

(2)

m u sic,

by t h e

d e v e l o p e d by t h e G r e e k s and

o r i g i n a t e d from man’ s e f f o r t t o

th e haim ony o f t h e c e l e s t i a l m ed icin e.

He d i v i d e s k n o w l e d g e i n t o

spheres;

The m e d i c i n e o f t h e s o u l i s

The h e a l i n g o f t h e s o u l i s

(5)

catch

m a t h e m a t i c s and

C h ristia n th e o lo g y .

as im portant as h e a lin g f o r th e

body. Y iv e s d i s c u s s e s n e x t t h e in str u m e n ts o f know ledge. He c l a i m s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n s t r u m e n t i s

lan gu age.

He

c o n t i n u e s h i s d i s c u s s i o n by t r a c i n g th e develop m en t o f p h i l o s o p h y i n G r e e c e t h r o u g h P y t h a g o r a s and o t h e r p h i l o s o p ­ hers.

He

a p p ro a ch es th e p h ilo s o p h y o f r e l i g i o n through the

m ed ium o f

a n i n t e r e s t i n and a k n o w l e d g e o f n a t u r e .

cannot be

doubted, he s a y s ,

t h a t man i s

It

d estin ed fo r a

h i g h e r sp h e re th a n an enjoym ent o f t h e t r i f l e s w h ich o ccu p y h i s mind o n l y t o o o f t e n d u r i n g h i s g r ea ter p lea su re

ea rth ly l i f e .

can he g iv e h im s e lf th an to

lift

What h is

eyes

t o t h e h e a v e n s an d t o sk ies,

to fo r e s e e

lig h t?

im agin e h i m s e l f l i v i n g

in the

152 starry

th e e c l i p s e s w hich roh t h e e a r t h o f i t s

What J o y , h e c o n t i n u e s , man c a n g i v e t o

h i m s e l f by

f o r e c a s t i n g t h e t im e and t h e c a u s e o f t h e r a i n ,

th e w in d s,

snows, te m p e s ts ,

th e changes of the

seasons.

A fte r en joyin g

t h e w o n d e r s o f n a t u r e by c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f t h e h e a v e n s , man should tu rn h i s e y e s to in fin ite should

th e earth th e re to

v a r ie ty of b ir d s,

fish ,

con tem p late the

and o t h e r a n i m a l s .

study t h e i r d i f f e r e n t v a r i e t i e s ,

th e ir h a b its,

mode o f r e p r o d u c t i o n a n d t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t . p l a n t s and m e t a l s i s

a lso

fa scin a tin g .

He th eir

T he s t u d y o f

Ouch i n t e r e s t s l e a d

t o t h e a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e g r a n d e u r and d i g n i t y o f n a t u r e t a k e o n e ’ s m in d o f f m a n ’ s p e t t y d e s i r e s and t h e f o o l i s h joys o f earth; w ith ,

and b r i n g t o t h e

in d iv id u a l

some k i n s h i p

a n d a p p r e c i a t i o n o f , G od, h i s m a k e r . PSYCHOLOGY The o n l y b o o k o f Y i v e s d e v o t e d e n t i r e l y t o p s y c h o l o g y

2® Anima e t V i t a .

T h is book was not p u b lis h e d u n t i l

b u t a s Y i v e s makes s p e c i f i c

referen ces to

D i s c i p l i n i s , p u b lish ed in 1551, that a l l ,

or at le a s t

p rio r to th at date. B oo k I t r e a t s o f l i f e g e n c e , m em ory, w i l l ,

part,

it

it

1558

i n De T r a d e n d i s

i s g e n e r a lly conceded

o f i t must have b een w r i t t e n

The w o r k i s w r i t t e n i n t h r e e p a r t s . in gen eral;

B ook I I

and o t h e r f a c u l t i e s ;

d iscu sses i n t e l l i ­ Book I I I

d ea ls

153 w ith se n tim e n ts,

p a s s i o n s and a f f e c t i o n s .

In P art I y iv e s d is c u s s e s l i f e sense.

He b e g i n s b y s e a r c h i n g f o r t h e f i r s t

v ita lity

in v is ib le

a ssim ila tio n of o f p la n ts; life

in the broadest

(3)

o f m an.

so -ca lled the l i f e

He n o t e s

(1)

t h e power o f

in o r g a n ic organism s;

o f the o r d in a r y

(3)

the l i f e

a n im a l; and (4)

the

Man, b e i n g g i f t e d w i t h . r e a s o n an d i n t e l l i ­

g e n c e, he s a y s , sp iritu a l

b ein g s.

tra ces of

is

a t the h a lf-w a y p o in t betw een th e p u r e ly

s u b s t a n c e and t h e e x c l u s i v e l y

c o rp o rea l.

Y i v e s t h e n e x a m i n e s c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h a r e common t o a ll

v e g e t a b l e and a n im a l l i f e ,

t h a t man may b e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d he i s

i n c l u d i n g man.

He f i n d s

from lo w e r o r g a n ism s b e c a u se

c a p a b le o f c o n s c i o u s s e n s a t i o n and p e r c e p t i o n .

a l s o h a s t h e power o f

judgm ent.

th a t he i s

T h e a n t a g o n i s m w i t h i n man a r i s e s

ra tio n a l.

b e c a u s e he i s m ental c a u s e s , soul

s u b j e c t to

effects

He d i f f e r s

Man,

f r o m b o t h p h y s i c a l and

y i v e s d i f f e r e n t i a t e s b e t w e e n m a t t e r and

sayin g th a t m atter i s

in ert,

but th a t the so u l a c t iv e ly

govern s or r e s t r a i n s a c tio n a ccord in g to that

soul

can n e v e r be d e f i n e d i n i t s

c a n b e known t h r o u g h i t s the

o p eration .

its w ill.

essence,

He s a y s

but th a t i t

I n o t h e r w o r d s , what

s o u l d o e s i s m ore i m p o r t a n t t h a n w h a t i t C o n d i t i o n s common t o

are,

from b r u t e s i n

v eg eta b le,

is.

a n i m a l and human l i f e

he t h i n k s , warmth, m o i s t u r e , m eans o f m a i n t a i n i n g

134 eq u ilib riu m , p reserv a tio n . contacts

n o u rish m en t, g ro w th , r e p r o d u c t i o n , and s e l f I n a d d i t i o n , man h a s s e n s e s t h r o u g h w h i c h h e

extern al

nature.

Y iv e s enum erates th e

th e ir natu re, t h e ir u se,

th eir

o f sen sa tio n ,

lie s

he th in k s ,

structure.

senses,

The p r i n c i p l e

i n t h e ra p p o rt betw een t h e

s e n s e w h i c h p e r c e i v e s and t h e o b j e c t p e r c e i v e d .

He d o e s n o t

th in k the

s e n s e s can be d e c e i v e d b u t he t h i n k s t h e y can

d eceiv e.

The s e n s e s a r e p a s s i v e

s a t i o n but cannot e v a lu a t e led ge of ceases,

it.

in th a t they r e c e iv e

S e n s a t i o n p r o d u c e s a kn ow­

extern al in flu e n c e s p resen t. it

sen­

When t h e

sen sa tio n

i s p r e s e r v e d b y memory w i t h i m a g i n a t i o n a s a n

in term ed iary.

Im a g in a tio n r e c e i v e s im ages im p r in ted on th e

s e n s e s b y e x t e r n a l o b j e c t s ; memory r e t a i n s t h e m ; f a n c y e l a b o r a t e s them ,

r e u n i t e s th e m o r s e p a r a t e s t h e m .

d eterm in es accep tan ce, Y iv e s exam ines t h e

rejectio n ,

field

ence,

d ea lin g w ith the

says,

is

affirm ation ,

of in tro sp ectio n .

Judgment

or d e n ia l.

T h is e x p e r i­

im m a te r ia l and b e in g s u b j e c t i v e ,

a m atter o f p sy ch ica l

he

r a th e r than o f p h y s ic a l

ex p erien ce. Y ives b e l ie v e s ,

lik e A r isto tle ,

th at the

a s u p e r i o r o r d e r and e n c l o s e s w i t h i n i t s e l f The s o u l , eyes,

of

in fe r io r orders.

he s a y s , p e r v a d e s t h e w h o le b o d y - - s e e s th r o u g h t h e

h e a r s through th e e a r s ,

co n sid era tio n of l i f e a free

soul i s

and i n t e l l i g e n t

etc.

Y i v e s t u r n s from t h e

in general to l i f e

i n i n d i v i d u a l man,

c r e a t u r e whose f a c u l t i e s

are the

135 su b je ct o f the

second p a rt of th6 t r e a t i s e .

Book I I th in k s,

is

d i s c u s s e s t h e f a c u l t i e s o f man.

created fo r

e n v isio n t h is

supreme h a p p i n e s s .

supreme b l i s s ,

part o f h im self.

seek for i t ,

Man, Y i v e s

Man i s

ab le to

and make i t

a

The f a c u l t y t h r o u g h w h i c h man c a n a t t a i n

to h is d e s ir e s i s w i l l .

W ill presupposes i n t e l l i g e n c e .

S i n c e man p a s s e s f r o m o n e t h o u g h t t o to p rovid e f o r a c le a r in g -h o u s e .

another, th e

soul has

Memory f u n c t i o n s a s

such

a d ep o sito ry .

The t h r e e f a c u l t i e s ,

w ill,

i n t e l l i g e n c e , and

memory r e f l e c t

the

Y ives

says th ese fa c u l­

ties

d ivin e t r in it y .

are th e source o f a l l

the other f a c u lt ie s :

v iz .,

i n t e l l i g e n c e t o know t h e g o o d ; memory t o r e t a i n t h a t kn ow­ led ge;

w ill,

to

act i t

out in l i f e .

M ind, by t h i n k i n g , p u t s i t s e l f b ein gs d is t in c t

from i t s e l f .

w h ich a r e t h e r e s u l t

in rapport w ith

Memory p r e s e r v e s t h e n o t i o n s

o f t h is o p era tio n .

Reason compares

t h e i d e a s and p u t s t h e m i n r a p p o r t w i t h o n e a n o t h e r . Judgment s e p a r a t e s t h e the

bad.

other. the sou l

F in a lly , w ill The l a s t

fa cu lty

c h o o s e s t h e o n e and r e j e c t s t h e d iscu ssed i s

c o n sid e r s im p erso n a lly i t s

a v ersio n s. fa cu ltie s, exten t,

t r u e from t h e f a l s e — t h e g o o d from

H avin g e s t a b l i s h e d

r eflec tio n

judgm ents,

by w h ic h

d esires,

and

th e r e l a t io n s h ip betw een th e

V iv e s p r o g r e s s e s to an e x a m in a tio n o f t h e i r u s e ,

in ten sity ,

in d iv id u a l v a r ia tio n s ,

f a c it a t in g or b lo ck in g t h e i r a c tio n .

and t h e m e a n s o f

136 Y iv e s n ext c o n s id e r s the nature o f gen eral gence,

S p i r i t u a l man a d v a n c e s g r a d u a l l y t o w a r d s h i s f i n a l

g o a l by r a i s i n g i n e r t m a t t e r t o im ag in ation ; reason to

sen sa tio n ;

im a g in a tio n to em otion;

g en era liza tio n ;

se n sa tio n to

em o tion to

reason;

g e n e r a liz a t io n to d iv in e lo v e ;

d i v i n e l o v e t o u n i o n w i t h G o d. It

in te lli­

Mind i s

an a c t i v e p r i n c i p l e .

c e a s e s t o a c t o n l y w h en b l o c k e d by o b s t r u c t i n g c o n d i t i o n s

i n th e organism i t s e l f . L eavin g th e g e n e r a l a c o n sid er a tio n o f and, f i n a l l y ,

a c tiv itie s

o f m ind, Y iv e s t u r n s to

s l e e p , dream s, h a b it s ,

o f the

old age,

im m o rta lity o f th e s o u l.

two r e a s o n s l e a d i n g t o

lo n g e v ity ,

There a re but

a d e n i a l o f i m m o r t a l i t y he e x p l a i n s ;

(1)

ig n o r a n c e w h ich can o n l y m easure i n ter m s o f t h e p h y s i ­

cal

s e n s e s and t h e r e f o r e

the p h y sic a l

senses;

w ish th e so u l to On t h e p o s i t i v e

a n a lo g ies;

and ( 2 )

an yth in g not apparent to

s e l f - i n d u l g e n c e w h ich d o es n o t

su rvive fo r fe a r o f fu tu r e r e t r ib u t io n . sid e,

th e f a c t t h a t the the essence of

rejects

he s a y s ,

everyth in g bears w itn e ss to

s o u l o f man i s

the

soul i t s e l f ;

c a u s e and e f f e c t

im m ortal: its

i . e . , nature;

fa cu lties;

r ela tio n sh ip s;

its

in stin cts;

human d i g n i t y ;

and d i v i n e b o u n t y . Book I I I , the

em otion s,

alth ou gh p rim a rily devoted to

b e g i n s d i s c u s s i o n on t h e s u b j e c t from t h e

b a s i s o f God a s m a n f s b a s i c pose o f th is

a study o f

crea tio n ,

a ctiv a tin g p r in c ip le.

Y ives th in k s ,

i s to

The p u r ­

com m unicate t o

H i s c r e a t u r e s a s much i n d i v i d u a l h a p p i n e s s a s e a c h p e r s o n is

ab le to

receiv e.

He p r o v i d e s f o r

th e achievem ent o f

t h i s l o f t y g o a l through the

in stin cts of

an i n n a t e a v e r s i o n t o

and a d e s i r e f o r g o o d .

e v il,

a c t i o n s a r e m o t i v a t e d by t h e s e t h r e e

self-p reserv a tio n ,

in stin cts.

A ll

A lso ,

t h e y a r e t h e s o u r c e o f a l l manf s e m o t i o n s and a f f e c t i v e responses.

Y ives

tio n a l rea ctio n ,

e n u m e r a t e s t h e d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f emo­ to g e th e r w ith t h e ir o r ig i n s ,

and o r g a n i c

ex p ressio n s.

p o in t,

(a ffectio n )

love

v ic io u s ten d en cies, l a u g h t e r , umbrage, in d ig n a tio n ,

He d i s c u s s e s , in g en eral,

resp ect, scorn,

vengeance,

p ity ,

from t h i s v ie w ­

w ell-reg u la ted sym pathy,

anger, h atred ,

cru elty ,

rela tio n sh ip s,

g r ie f,

d esires,

joy, p le a su r e ,

envy, tears,

jea lo u sy , fear,

hope,

s h a m e , and p r i d e . HISTORY In 1551, Y ives p u b lish ed h i s g r e a t De P i s c i p l i n i s . trea tises:

T h is t e x t

e d u c a t i o n a l work

c o n s i s t s o f two s e p a r a t e

t h e o n e De_ C a u s i s C o r r u p t arum A r t i u m , w i t h

seven books;

the oth er,

In the

o f th e s e w orks, Y iv es t r a c e s the h is to r y o f

first

ed u cation ,

De T r a d e n d i s D i s c i p l i n i s , w i t h f i v e .

f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f h i s t o r y up t o h i s

an alyzes the

ed u cation al

p rev io u s t r a n s it io n e ra s;

e v ils of h is and,

own t i m e s

da y and t h o s e o f

ex p la in s the

ca u se s o f the

138 d e t e r io r a t io n o f m ed iaeval le a r n in g . ise ,

In th e

second t r e a t ­

he a p p r o a c h e s th e problem from t h e p o s i t i v e

thus e x p la in s the e v o lu tio n o f up t o h i s own t i m e s and s e t s program t o

He

e d u c a t i o n from e a r l y o r i g i n s

f o r th a com plete e d u c a tio n a l

t a k e c a r e o f t h e n e e d s o f t h e new a g e — a p r o g r a m

d e sig n e d to ta k e the r a p id ly

care of

the

e d u c a t i o n a l l a g p r o d u c e d by

changing t e c h n o l o g i c a l ,

cataclysm s o f th e R en a issa n ce. lin is

sid e.

econom ic,

and s o c i a l

S i n c e De T r a d e n d i s D i s c i p -

i n v o l v e s more t h a n t h e h i s t o r y o f e d u c a t i o n ,

be d i s c u s s e d i n a s e c t i o n o f i t s of in terest,

own .

la t e r in th e chapter,

th e b a la n ce betw een the e v i l s

to

It w ill

it

w ill

be a m a t t e r

s e e how p e r f e c t

is

e n u m e r a t e d i n De C a u s i s

C o r r u p t a r u m A r t i u m and t h e r e m e d i e s s u g g e s t e d i n D £ T r a d e n ­ d is D is c ip lin is .

De C a u s i s C o r r u p t a r u m w i l l

b e t h e n e x t bo o k

to be review ed . De C a u s i s C o r r u p t a r u m A r t i u m , i s V iv6s*

approach to

change.

Book I i s

the h is t o r ic a l p ersp ectiv e devoted to th e g en eral

the d e te r io r a tio n o f Book I I I ,

d ia lec tic s;

p h ilo so p h y , p h y s ic s , p h ilo so p h y ;

the a r t s ;

B o ok I I ,

of so c ia l

cau ses u n d erlyin g

the langu age a r ts ;

B ook I V , grammar; B ook V,

natural

m e d i c i n e , m a t h e m a t ic s ; Book ¥ 1 , m oral

and Book V I I , Law.

the excep tion o f

a good exam ple o f

th eology)

V ives th u s

covers

t h e w h ole u n i v e r s i t y

Book I t r e a t s o f t h e g e n e r a l the d e te r io r a tio n o f t h e - a r t s .

(w ith

cu rricu lu m .

c a u s e s w h ich u n d e r l i e

V ives b egin s h is

sy n o p sis

159 by g o i n g back t o

the o r ig in o f h is to r y

b e t w e e n a n i m a l a n d m an.

A n im als,

t o make a c o m p a r i s o n

he s a y s ,

h a v e one

a d v a n t a g e o v e r man i n t h a t n a t u r e h a s p r o v i d e d t h e m w i t h a c o v e r i n g and w i t h w e a p o n s t o p r o t e c t t h e m s e l v e s . i s b o r n n a k e d and a t t h e m e r c y o f t h e

elem en ts.

s a t io n he i s g iv e n

a n i n v e n t i v e m in d w h i c h ,

ly ,

surmount h i s d i f f i c u l t i e s .

e n a b l e s him t o

n e c e s s i t y o f overcom ing h a n d ic a p s i s i n v e n t i o n s o f man— g o o d ,

bad,

man w a s t h a t o f l e t t e r s a s d i s t i n c t Prom l e t t e r s ,

T h is the

and d e s t r u c t i v e . im portant d is c o v e r y o f

from h i e r o g l y p h i c s .

The S e v e n L i b e r a l A r t s i n

t h e i r t u r n c o n s t i t u t e d t h e b a se on w h ic h t h e i.e .,

i f used c o r r e c t­

man p r o g r e s s e d among t h e a n c i e n t s t o a know­

le d g e o f the Seven L ib eral A rts.

b u ilt:

As co m p en ­

the o r ig in o f a l l

u sefu l,

V ives e x p la in s th a t th e f i r s t

Man a l o n e

m ed icin e,

th eo lo g y ,

law ,

and m o r a l p h i l o s o p h y .

The c a u s e s o f d e c a d e n c e s i n a n t i q u i t y w e r e : w hich a lw a y s c a r r i e s w it h i t

s c i e n c e s were

(1)

ign oran ce

a scorn o f tru e le a r n in g ,

(S)

t h e i n n a t e p e r v e r s i t y o f m an, who a l w a y s r e s e n t s t h e b e s t and c a u s e s t r u e p seu do-arts,

(3)

a r ts to

d e g e n e r a t e by h i s p r a c t i c e o f

t h e v a n i t y and e g o t i s m o f s c h o l a r s who t h u s

d e s t r o y t h e i r own w o r k ,

a nd ( 4 )

j o in i n o b s tr u c tin g w hatever i s p restig e.

the

j e a l o u s y o f s c h o l a r s who

new and t h r e a t e n s t h e i r

S o c r a t e s had v e r y l i t t l e

b e c a u s e o f S o p h i s t s who p r e a c h e d t h e

in f lu e n c e in h i s tim e e a s y way t o

learn in g.

140 The i n v a s i o n s o f t h e b a r b a r i a n s f r o m t h e

north d e str o y e d

Rome w i t h a c o n s e q u e n t l o s s o f t h e c l a s s i c s and t h e lan gu age o f th e A n c ie n ts ,

thus the r ea l m a sterp ieces o f

G r e e k and L a t i n w e r e l o s t

and a g r o u p o f p s e u d o - c l a s s i c s

grew up.

In s p i t e o f th e r e c o v e r y o f a n c i e n t know ledge

S c h o l a s t i c i s m w ould l i k e etern a lly

t o condem n k n o w l e d g e t o

rem ain

a t t h e p o i n t r e a c h e d by i t s p r e d e c e s s o r s ,

i.e .,

c o n tin u e the use o f j p s e u d o - c l a s s i c s . V iv e s argues h e a te d ly a g a in st the u n fo rtu n a te r o u tin e w h ic h d e c r e e s an e t e r n a l the f i e l d as to

ste r ility

o f m ind.

As i f ,

he sa y s,

o f p r o g r e s s w a s n o t a s much o p e n t o t h e H u m a n i s t s

t h o s e who p r e c e d e d t h e m ;

and, a s i f

th e nature o f th e

man o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e w a s d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t o f t h e a n c i e n t R o m a n s.

V ives d ep lo res fu rth er,

stru ctiv e

c ritic ism

bemoans t h a t

to

c la r ify ,

of the art o f

and t h e c o r r u p t i o n o f a n c i e n t

a u th en tic t e x t s

corrupt t e x t s .

the l o s s

con­

texts.

He

a r e h o p e l e s s l y m ix e d up w i t h

He u p b r a i d s t h e S c h o l a s t i c s who d i s p u t e n o t

but m erely to g iv e a f a l s e

fa c ility

in the

use

o f words. He c o n d e m n s t h e u s e o f i r r a t i o n a l m e t h o d s i n sch o o ls;

the

s o r d i d v i c e s o f b o t h t e a c h e r s and p u p i l s ;

the

h a b i t o f t h i n k i n g i n t e r m s o f em p ty w o r d s ; t h e c u s t o m o f l i v i n g by f o r m u la s i n s t e a d o f by r e a s o n ; in genuin e

scien ce;

the

the l o s s

of in terest

a c c e p t a n c e o f s h a l l o w l e a r n i n g and

friv o lo u s

standards.

B ook I I

d e a l s with, t h e d e c a d e n c e o f t h e l a n g u a g e a r t s

w hich Y i v e s d e s c r i b e s as: thought;

rh eto ric,

the

the proof o f thought.

gramm ar— a p u r e e x p r e s s i o n o f

s t y l e o f thought;

and,

He t h e n p r o c e e d s t o

d ia lec tic ,

a d iscu ssio n of

t h e c a u s e s o f d e c a d e n c e i n gramm ar.

E x c e s s iv e dependence

on r u l e s ,

im m o b i li t y on a t h i n g

he s a y s , f i x e s

a cachet o f

w hich s h o u ld have f l u i d i t y

and v i t a l i t y .

N eith er A r is t o t le

nor C i c e r o w e r e exempt from s u c h t r a n s g r e s s i o n s .

The

S c h o l a s t i c s o f t h e Sorbon ne p r i d e t h e m s e lv e s on p r o v in g t h a t b lack i s w h ite .

To t h e m d i a l e c t i c

is

an e n d ,

not a m eans.

T h is u n fo rtu n a te m isu se o f a v a lu a b le instrum ent has corrupted a l l le a r n in g . B ook IV t a k e s up t h e Y ives th in k s ,

subject o f rh e to r ic.

h a s an i m p o r t a n t r o l e

r h e t o r i c depend b oth

to p la y i n

j u s t i c e and l a n g u a g e .

R h eto ric,

so ciety .

W ithout

On

ju stic e,

t h e r e w o u l d b e no m o r a l b o n d b e t w e e n men; w i t h o u t l a n g u a g e , no s o c i a l

r e l a t io n s cou ld

ex ist.

p r o g r e ss i n G reece b ecau se rea d ily in fr e e

states.

S p e e c h made g r e a t

s p e e c h a c q u i r e s vv a l u e m o re

Y ives a tta c k s the u n fortu n ate

c u s t o m o f s p e a k i n g a l m o s t e n t i r e l y t h r o u g h f o r m u l a s and q u o ta tio n s. B ook Y i s

devoted to th e study of natural p h ilo so p h y ,

p h y s i c s , m e d i c i n e , and m a t h e m a t i c s .

The d e c a y i n t h e s e

142 f i e l d s h a v e b e e n du e t o d ou b tin g;

(3)

(1)

t o o much c r e d e n c e ;

(2)

t h e draw ing o f i n a c c u r a t e c o n c l u s i o n s by

reach in g g en era l

c o n c l u s i o n s from p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e s ;

t h e t e n d e n c y among t h e

seek in g tr u th .

(4)

d is c ip le s o f d iffe r e n t p h ilo so p h ic

s c h o o l s t o a t t e m p t t o p e r p e t u a t e t h e i r own b e l i e f s of

t o o much

in stea d

He s u b j e c t s t h e " A r i s t o t l e h a s s a i d

it"

h ab it to m e r c ile ss r id ic u le . M athem atics h as b een l e s s a f f e c t e d o th er s c ie n c e s because i t

i s used l e s s .

by d e c a d e n c e t h a n M ed icin e has

s u f f e r e d many a b u s e s d u e t o t h e l o v e o f g a i n ism on th e p a r t o f p s e u d o - d o c t o r s . to

stu dy nature i t s e l f ,

and c h a r l a t a n ­

He a d v i s e s h i s

and n o t t o

readers

depend on se co n d -h a n d

kn ow led ge. Book V I "M o ra l P h i l o s o p h y " — I f

s c h o l a r s must stu d y

s e c o n d - h a n d p h i l o s o p h y why s h o u l d t h e y n o t s t u d y P l a t o , the S t o ic s ,

for th ese p h ilo so p h ies,

at l e a s t ,

or

h a v e some

t i e w i t h C h r i s t i a n i t y , w h i l e A r i s t o t l e w o r k s o n l y on t h e p u r e l y o b j e c t i v e and p h y s i c a l p l a n s . man i s

to lis t e n

o f love

th e w orld. and b e a u t y .

not su b ject to hand p l a c e s t h e

of

t o p h i l o s o p h e r s who h a v e n o t h i n g t o o f f e r

s u p e r i o r t o what he h a s a l r e a d y . u p lift

The g r e a t e v i l

P la to

has som ething to

He p l a c e s t h e s o v e r e i g n g o o d i n a u n i o n T h i s b e a u t y c a n n o t be s u r p a s s e d and i s

change or d e c l i n e .

A r i s t o t l e on th e o th e r

s o v e r e ig n good on th e

e a r t h and sa y s t h a t

145 man c a n f i n d

it

a h a b it; P la to

on ly in h im s e lf. sees i t

must be s t u d i e d , k is E th ics.

A r isto tle

se es v irtu e

a s an a c t i v e p r i n c i p l e .

h i s R h e t o r i c and P o l i t i c s

Even A r i s t o t l e

is

as

I f A r isto tle

are p r e fe r a b le to

d e b a s e d by t h e t e a c h i n g s o f

th e S c h o l a s t i c s b e c a u se th e y depend upon i n a c c u r a t e

and

obscure t r a n s la t io n s . Book T i l d e a l s w i t h l a w , a s u b j e c t v e r y c l o s e t o T ives*

heart.

so ciety .

E q u ity,

E gotism t r i e s

b alan ce tow ards i t s need o f

so cia l

need o f s o c i a l

he s a y s ,

c ea selessly

sid e.

From t h i s

one o f th e b a s e s o f to throw th e s c a l e s o f f t e n d e n c y comes t h e

force to

r e -e sta b lish the

force

at the root o f the o r ig in of la w s.

is

As t h e f r u i t o f e x p e r i e n c e , the r e s u lt s

is

From t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f

many l a w s g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s o f j u s t i c e A b u s e s o f l a w h a v e com e f r o m ( 1 )

of law s.

(3)

clev er

have been deduced.

u n ju s t law s;

o b s c u r ity of law s;

ra th er than th e

(2)

poor

(4) m u l t i p l i c i t y

D e t e r i o r a t i o n h a s become m a n i f e s t ;

th e law h as been s t r e s s e d

the l e t t e r

sp irit;

and,

ju g g lin g o f law s has tak en th e p la c e o f tru e

ju r i sprudence.

T h is

d e d u c t i o n s h a v e b e e n made a s t o

o f c e r t a in happenings.

enforcem ent o f law ;

eq u ilib riu m .

of

144 METHODOLOGY The two b e s t e x a m p l e s o f V i v e s * t i o n a l m ethods a re t o

con cep tion o f educa­

h e f o u n d i n De^ R a t i o n e S t u d i i

P u e r ilis , g p isto la e

II

The f i r s t

t h e P I a n s o f S t u d y f o r Yo u ng P e o p l e ,

of th ese,

and L i n g u a e L a t i n a e E x e r c i t a t i o .

g i v e s a d v i c e a s t o w h a t and how t o L a t i n D i a l o g u e s , p r o v i d e s an a c t u a l and p r a c t i c e o f sp oken L a t i n .

study; the

second,

the

textb ook f o r the study

The G i r l * s P l a n o f S t u d i e s

was w r i t t e n a t th e r e q u e s t o f C a th e r in e o f Aragon f o r t h e u s e o f P r i n c e s s M ary; t h e Boys? P l a n o f S t u d y w a s drawn up f o r C h a r l e s Mount j o y , la in .

th e son

o f C a t h e r i n e ’ s L o r d Ch am ber­

T he P l a n s w e r e p u b l i s h e d , A nother o f Y ives*

under m ethods i s

h i s Dj$ I n s t i t u t i o n e P e m l n a e C h r i s t i a n a s ,

and t r a n s l a t e d

in to

d ed icated to

E n g lish

p r o t e g e o f S i r Thomas M o r e .

It

ed itin g

fin d in g i t

th e m an u scrip t a t Hyrde*s r e q u e s t .

alread y and

P o s t e r W atson

t r a n s l a t i o n s o f t h e Dor e v i l

c h i l d ’ s mind from

t h o u g h t s and d a n g e r t o m ind o r b o d y .

s a y s t h e s e m a x im s w i l l p r e s e r v e h e r f r o m h a m i f

Y ives

she

m a s t e r s them and r e f u s e s t o d e p a r t a f i n g e r ’ s b r e a d t h from them.

The i n t r o d u c t i o n a n n o u n c e s t h a t i t

mary f o r a s a t e l l i t i u m p rin ces,

guard)

to keep watch o v e r t h e s a f e t y

b o d y and t h a t t h e s e for the

(escort,

so u l.

verses w ill

has been c u sto ­

to be a tta c h e d to of th eir lif e

and

s e r v e i n t h e same c a p a c i t y

I n c l u d e d among t h e m o t t o e s a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g :

G e n e r o s i t a s v i r t u s , non s a n g u i s ( N o b i l i t y i n moral e x c e l l e n c e , n o t i n d e s c e n t ) . P r in c e p s , m u lt is consu len do th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e m any).

co n sists

(A p r i n c e m u s t c o n s u l t

P o r t u n a f a l l a c i o r , qu o b l a n d i o r ( T h e m o re f o r t u n e s m i l e s o n u s , t h e m o re d e c e p t i v e i t i s ) . Y i v e s c o n c l u d e s w i t h h i s own m o t t o : (W ithout C o m p la in t ) .

S in e

Q uerela

He e x p l a i n s t h a t ,

L i f e s h o u l d b e so l e d t h a t t h e r e s h o u l d b e no r e a s o n why a n y o n e s h o u l d c o m p l a i n o f t h e e , o r t h o u • o f any o n e , o r o f f o r t u n e . Nor s h o u l d s t t h o u do a n y wrong t o any o n e , n o r b e l i e v e t h a t any o n e h a s done a n y t o t h e e . . . S o a c c u s t o m e d s h o u l d we b e t o o u r p o s i t i o n i n l i f e t h a t we s h o u l d b r i n g c o m p l a i n t t o a minim um , and we s h o u l d r e c o g n i z e w h a t e v e r t h e r e i s of p leasan tn ess in i t . For t h e r e i s n o th in g so g r i e v o u s , i n w h i c h t h e j u s t m i n d c a n n o t f i n d some so la ce. T h i s i s my m d t t o . 7

7

Juan L u is Y iv e s , S a t e l l i t i u m , W atson’ s t r a n s l a t i o n , q u o t e d i n F o s t e r W a t s o n Y i v e s and t h e R e n a s c e n c e E d u c a t i o n o f Women (New Y o r k : L o n g m a n s , G r e e n a n d Company, 1 9 1 2 ) , p . 1 5 7 .

153 V i v e s ’ g r e a t t e x t b o o k De T r a d e n d i s B i s c i p l i n i s -— The p T ran sm ission o f K n o w le d g e — , i s , p o s s i b l y , th e f i r s t t e x t ­ b o o k d e v o t e d d e l i b e r a t e l y t o e d u c a t i o n a s an a p p l i e d scien ce.

T h e w o r k i s b a s e d on p s y c h o l o g y

and p h i l o s o p h y

and g i v e s a s u r v e y o f c o n t e m p o r a r y e d u c a t i o n a l texts,

m e t h o d s an d o b j e c t i v e s .

W atson l i s t s

p u b lis h e d i n Antwerp, C olo gn e, L eyd en , tiv ely . d ix, is

fa c ilitie s,

seven e d itio n s

and N a p l e s r e s p e c ­

i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e d e d i c a t i o n , p r e f a c e and a p p e n ­

the t e x t

is w ritten in f iv e

su b d iv id ed in to

B oo k I ,

p a r ts or books.

several parts.

Each b o o k

The b a s i c t i t l e

E d u c a t i o n a l O r i g i n s ; B o ok I I ,

are:

S c h o o l s ; B ook I I I ,

L a n g u a g e T e a c h i n g ; Book I V , H i g h e r S t u d i e s ; B o o k V, S t u d i e s Q and L i f e ; and A p p e n d i x , The S c h o l a r ’ s L i f e and C h a r a c t e r ♦ The wor k i s d e d i c a t e d t o K i n g J o h n I I I o f P o r t u g a l . V ives p r a is e s th e

i l l u s t r i o u s d e e d s o f K ing J o h n ’ s a n c e s t o r s

and c a l l s u p o n K i n g J o h n n o t t o f a l l h i s f o r e b e a r s have dared to la n d s,

set.

sta n d a r d w h ich

He r e m i n d s h i m t h a t h i s p r o g e n i t o r s

s e t o u t from P o r t u g a l

to

a n d ne w and u n kn o w n c l i m e s ;

8

below th e

e x p l o r e n ew s e a s ,

new

th e y o v e r th r e w t h e Arabs

F o s t e r W a t s o n , t r a n s l a t o r , V i v e s : On E d u c a t i o n ( C a m b r i d g e : The U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 l 3 ) , p . xiTT T h is i s r e c o g n i z e d a s an a u t h e n t i c E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n . 9 J a c k s o n E d i t i o n o f Be T r a d e n d i s B i s c i p l i n i s . S e e W atson, o p . c i t . , p . x v i i , f . n .

154 and t o o k p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e A t l a n t i c S e a . T h e y h a v e sh o w n u s t h e p a t h s o f t h e h e a v e n and t h 6 s e a , b e f o r e n o t e v e n known by na m e. They a l s o d i s ­ c o v e r e d p e o p l e s a n d n a t i o n s who p e r f o r m m a r v e l o u s r e l i g i o u s r i t e s an d a r e i n a s t a t e o f b a r b a r i s m , th o u g h p o s s e s s i n g w e a l t h on w h ich our p e o p l e so k e e n ­ ly cast th e ir a ffe c tio n s . The w h o l e g l o b e i s o p e n e d up t o t h e human r a c e . 10 V ives r e j o i c e s

over th e f a c t th at

the C h r istia n

r e l i g i o n h a s b e e n p r o p a g a t e d f a r and w i d e . John I I I

t h a t he i s

not

He r e m i n d s K i n g

so much t o b e c o n g r a t u l a t e d a s t o

be ex h o rted to f o l l o w t h e s e n o b le exam ples.

He c o n c l u d e s

w i t h a c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n p r i n c e s and l e a r n e d m en , th a t p rin ces

can p r o v id e

fo r lea rn in g w h ile th e

sayin g

s c h o l a r s w i t h f r e e d o m an d l e i s u r e

s c h o l a r s can c o u n se l

the p rin ces

in

p r a c t i c a l wisdom . The p r e f a c e s t a t e s

the purposes of the book,

(1)

a t t r a c t n o b l e m i n d s t o make o t h e r s t u d i e s o f t h i s k i n d ; to

encourage a t a s t e

f* i n g r a c e o f s t y l e

because i t

is

(2)

to

p.

3.

10 11

"

Ib id . , p. 6.

bring

not f i t t i n g t h a t nob le

i n a mean an d b a s e m a n n e r .

O ther p u r p o se s o f t h e book a r e

Ib id .,

(2)

f o r l i t e r a t u r e by c l o t h i n g t h i s work

s u b j e c t s sh o u ld be p r e s e n te d

e n v io u s doubts;

to

(1)

to f r e e

scien ce

in to

scien ce

from

the l ig h t

of

155 C h ristia n ity ;

and (3)

to

sh ow t h a t t h e o l d w r i t e r s w e r e

m i s t a k e n by t h e i r own f a u l t and n o t f r o m l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e human i n t e l l e c t . V i v e s d o e s n o t p r o f e s s h i m s e l f t o b e e q u a l to t h e A n cien ts; he m erely b r in g s h i s view s in to th eirs.

He d o e s n o t d e s i r e t h a t a n y o n e s h o u l d b e i n f l u e n c e d

by h i s o p in io n . to o f f e r r ig h t adherence to a r e m ine

He s a y s , judgm ents,

" I f you t h i n k f r i e n d s t h a t I see w ell

. . . .

it

seem

t h a t you g i v e your not because th ey

Y o u , who s e e k t r u t h , make y o u r s t a n d w h e r ­ she i s . ^

B eing w r i t t e n o r i g i n a l l y n ecessity ,

to

them b e c a u s e t h e y a r e t r u e ,

e v e r you t h in k

co n cise.

Much i s

la c k s coherence in th e has,

com parison w ith

in L a tin ,

crowded i n t o

the t e x t i s ,

of

a 'short s p a c e .

sense o f to d a y ’ s standards.

It

Jackson

h o w e v e r , g i v e n an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l th e m e s i n

h is v a rio u s h ead in gs.

B ook I ,

fu r th e r d ivid ed

Chapter I ,

Chapter I I , S cien ces" ;

in to:

E d u cation al O r ig in s , i s " B eginnin gs o f s o c ie t y " ;

" B egin n in gs o f s t u d ie s " ; C hapter IV ,

C hapter I ,

Ibid., p. 9 .

"C hoice o f B ook s."

"The B e g i n n i n g s o f S o c i e t y " m a k e s

a s u r v e y o f human n e e d s and t r i e s t o

%12

" A r t s and

"God Our H i g h e s t Good"; C h a p t e r V,

" D i v i s i o n s o f K now ledge"; C h a p ter V I , Book I ,

C hapter I I I ,

s h o w ho w man h a s

156 attem pted to received

sa tisfy

them .

T h e g r e a t e s t g i f t w h i c h man h a s

f r o m God i s m i n d w h i c h i n c l u d e s t h e p o w e r o f

in q u ir in g in to

th in g s,

presen t,

past,

and f u t u r e .

I I d e a ls w ith "B egin n in gs o f S tu d ie s ."

V ives e x p la in s here

t h a t man e s t i m a t e d t h e g o a l s n e c e s s a r y t o course s u c c e s s f u lly ; know ledge.

i.e .,

C hapter

chart h is l i f e

h e f o u n d r e l i g i o n and a c q u i r e d

V i v e s d i f f e r e n t i a t e s b e t w e e n s c i e n c e and o p i n i o n .

He d e f i n e s a r t

(letters)

and d e t e r m i n e d e n d .

a s t h e means o f a t t a i n i n g

C hapter I I I ,

a sure

"The A r t s and S c i e n c e s , "

s t a t e s t h a t t h e o b j e c t o f s t u d y i n g t h e a r t s and s c i e n c e s i s to

enable one to la b o r f o r th e

v a lu e o f th e stu d y o f any a r t,

state

and f o r p o s t e r i t y .

says V iv es,

may b e j u d g e d by

t h e develop m en t o f th e

stu dent,

th r o u g h him t o o t h e r s ,

o f advantage or d is a d v a n ta g e s.

and t h e r e s u l t i n g ,

C h a p t e r I V d e f e n d s t h e t h e s i s t h a t God i s good.

The

i n him o r

the h ig h est

V i v e s e x p l a i n s how t h i s p r o p o s i t i o n a f f e c t s t h e

con cep tion o f th e a r ts

and s c i e n c e s .

What c a n we f i x a s t h e end o f m an, e x c e p t God Him­ self? Or w h e r e c a n man more b l e s s e d l y r e p o s e , t h a n wh en he i s , a s i t w e r e , a b s o r b e d i n God a n d c h a n g e d in t o H is nature? We m u s t r e t u r n t o Him b y t h e same way we came f o r t h f r o m Him. Love was th e ca u se o f o u r b e i n g c r e a t e d ; f o r no s i g n o f H i s l o v e c a n be m ore e v i d e n t t h a n t h a t He c r e a t e d u s , i n o r d e r t h a t s u c h g r e a t h a p p i n e s s m igh t b e comm unicated to u s . From t h a t l o v e we h a v e b e e n s e p a r a t e d , f o r s o o t h b y t h e l o v e o f o u rselv es. By t h a t l o v e we h a v e b e e n r e c a l l e d and r a i s e d u p , t h a t i s t o s a y , by t h e l o v e o f C h r i s t . By l o v e , i . e . , b y o u r l o v e t o G o d , we a r e t o r e t u r n t o our so u r c e , w h ich i s a l s o our end; f o r n o th in g e l s e i s a b le to bind t o g e t h e r s p i r i t u a l t h i n g s , n o th in g i s

157 a b l e t o make o n e o u t o f m a n y , le d g e must p r e c e d e l o v e . ^ V ives d e fin e s the

in the lo v e o f e a s e .

clo th in g ,

d w ellin g s,

n ou rished

or zeal to

it,

b u t know­

e n d o f man and c a u t i o n s a g a i n s t

in d u lg in g

soul i s

except lo v e;

The s t u d y o f f o o d s , m e d i c i n e ,

a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r m a n*s h e a l t h .

The

and made p u r e b y t h a t w h i c h b r i n g s l i g h t

s o t h a t i t may know how t o

be d e s i r e d i n l i f e ,

or to

pursue what sh ould

e sca p e what ought to be a v o id e d .

To t h i s e n d we m u s t p a r t l y l e a r n and a c c e p t w hat h a s been handed t o u s , and p a r t l y t h i n k i t o u t f o r o u r ­ s e l v e s and l e a r n i t b y p r a c t i s i n g i t . F o r God h a s g i v e n o u r s o u l o n e p o w e r , t h e i n t e l l e c t ; and o u r b o d y a n o th er power, t h e han ds. W i t h t h e s e two p o w e r s , we su rp a ss a l l o th e r l i v i n g c r e a t u r e s .14 C hapter V d i s c u s s e s t h e d i v i s i o n s o f k n o w led g e. c a l l s a t t e n t io n to

t h e two f u n c t i o n s o f t h e m i n d , v i z . ,

power o f o b s e r v i n g

and t h e p o w e r o f

t h a t men a r e b o r n f o r it.

s o c i e t y and c a n n o t l i v e

The b o n d o f s o c i e t y

judgm ent.

speech.

i s goodness;

P r a c t i c a l wisdom i s

s u p p o r t e d b y m em ory.

S o ciety

a b s e n t from one a n o t h e r .

13 Ib id .,

p. 2 8 .

Ib id .,

p.

14 36.

V ives s t a t e s f a i r l y w ith ou t

gu id e i s

sound

cou ld not e x i s t w ith ou t s p e e c h w h en p e o p l e a r e

Speech i s u sed as a p r a c t i c a l

fo r p lea su re.

b eca u se o f uncurbed m ind s.

its

the

i n c r e a s e d b y e x p e r i e n c e and

W ritin g ta k e s t h e p la c e o f

n e c e s s i t y and a l s o

jud ging.

It

L aw s h a d t o b e i n s t i t u t e d

V ives here g iv e s a review of a l l

158 t h e a r t s and s c i e n c e s

in clu d in g d i a l e c t i c s

and m e d i c i n e *

C h a p t e r YI d e a l s w i t h c h o i c e o f b o o k s . se ls

that

a study

s h o u l d b e made o f u s e f u l

th in k s th e y sh ou ld be a p p lie d not to but to l i f e .

On t h e

heathen lit e r a t u r e

Y iv es coun­

scien ces.

He

an e m p t y d i l e t t a n t i s m

im portant q u e s t io n a s t o w h eth er

s h o u ld be r e a d , Y i v e s s a y s t h e an sw er

d e p e n d s upon t h e p u r p o s e f o r w hich i t

is

r e a d and o n t h e

c h a r a c t e r and t r a i n i n g o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . . . . i t i s b e tte r to accept th e C h ristia n teach in g h a n d e d down t h r o u g h C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n f r o m C h r i s t t h a n t o l e a r n fr o m monumental w o r k s o f t h e i m p i o u s , e v e n i f w e c u t o u t t h o s e t h i n g s -which m i g h t i n j u r e th e i n t e g r i t y o f good m o r a ls .15 Book I I i s where s c h o o l s teachers, r eceiv e;

devoted to

should be

sch o o ls.

Chapter I d i s c u s s e s

e r e c t e d ; who s h o u l d b e c h o s e n f o r

how and by whom; how much s a l a r y t h e y what s h o u ld be t h e

should

b a s is o f choosin g te a c h e r s .

Y i v e s s a y s s c h o o l s s h o u l d be l o c a t e d p r e f e r a b l y i n t h e cou n try on accou nt o f h e a l t h .

They s h o u l d n o t be n e a r t h e

bou n d aries o f a cou n try l i k e l y

to be i n f e s t e d

by w a r b e c a u s e

th e f e a r o f war m ig h t p r e v e n t t h e p u p i l s from s t u d y i n g . Y ives ad vocates a p u b lic country.

academy i n each p r o v i n c e o f a

T h is recom m endation,

p o ssib ility of

again ,

is

based on th e

s t u d i e s b e i n g i n t e r r u p t e d by w a r .

15 I b i d . , p.

52.

159 As q u a lif ic a t io n s f o r te a c h e r s , Y ives su g g e sts th a t t h e y must have a s u f f i c i e n t l y broad b a se o f l e a r n i n g to ab le to

educate w e ll.

in tea ch in g .

They s h o u ld h a v e s k i l l and judgment

He s e t s up t h e f o l l o w i n g p e r s o n a l s t a n d a r d s :

t h e y m ust b e a b l e t o

s e t a g o o d example t o t h e i r p u p i l s ;

b e o f u p r i g h t c h a r a c t e r and h a v e common s e n s e . not be arrogant or to o

c r itic a l

too stubborn, too

not too a v a r ic io u s o r too

o sten ta tio u s,

N or m u s t t h e y d e s i r e t o b e t h o u g h t w i t t y p h i l o s o p h y m ust be l i v e d

not m erely ta lk e d

th eir

lea rn ed ,

and p r a c t i c a l .

about.

T h eir T h eir

They s h o u l d ,

judgm ent and t h e i r c h a r a c t e r ,

be a b l e n o t o n ly t o t e a c h o t h e r s , ap p rob ation o f th e p u b lic .

or too v a in .

or c l e v e r .

l i v e s must c o r r e sp o n d to t h e i r t e a c h i n g . through t h e i r le a r n i n g ,

They must

o f the f a u l t s o f o th e r s .

They a r e to b e l o v e r s o f l e t t e r s ; a m b itiou s,

be

but a lso

to g a in th e

They a r e e x p e c t e d t o b e g o o d ,

They s h o u ld spend t h e i r l i v e s

h a r m o n i o u s l y so t h a t t h e y may m u t u a l l y h e l p e a c h o t h e r know ing t h a t t h e y a r e d o i n g God’ s work. C hapter I I

is

title d

The I d e a l S c h o o l .

a r e :th e purpose o f send ing boys to a b ility

and how to e s t i m a t e i t ;

b o y t o b e e d u c a t e d a t home o r i n the

id ea l

p riv a te

sch ool;

sch ool;

w hether i t

The t o p i c s

t h e i r m ental is

w iser for a

s c h o o l ; a i m s oJ* s c h o o l l i f e ;

and t h e r e s p e c t i v e m e r i t s o f p u b l i c and

school tr a in in g .

Y ives d e fin e s a true

a c adem y a s

" a n a s s o c i a t i o n a n d harm o ny o f men e q u a l l y g o o d and l e a r n e d ,

160 met t o g e t h e r to c o n f e r th e

sa m e b l e s s i n g s

come t h e r e f o r t h e s a k e o f l e a r n i n g , " ! 6

o n a l l t h o s e who He a d v o c a t e s t h a t

a boy sh o u ld n o t be ta u g h t a l o n e , but i n a g r o u p . is

not p o s s ib le to

S t a t e gym nasium . in g

student.

He c a l l s

do t h i s h e s h o u l d b e

s e n t to

If

it

a p u b lie

He s h o u l d b e a day s t u d - e n t , n o t a b o a r d ­

He a d v o c a t e s e d u c a t i o n a t h om e , i f

p o ssib le.

a t t e n t i o n t o i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s and a d v i s e s

th a t t h e t r a i n i n g sh ould be s u i t e d to C hapter I I I

is

the b oy.

headed "C hoice o f P u p i l s . "

c u s s io n on i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s

is

The d i s ­

con tin u ed .

I n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e i n s t r u c t i o n t o be g i v e n t o each p e r so n , th e d i s p o s i t i o n i s to be regarded; th e c lo s e c o n sid e r a tio n o f t h i s su b ject b elon gs to p sy c h o lo g ic a l in q u iry . I w i l l t h e r e f o r e b o r r o w some r e m a r k s f r o m t h e t r e a t i s e I h a v e w r i t t e n on t h i s s u b j e c t ( d e A n im a ) * Th e c h a p t e r i s

conclu ded by l i s t i n g

d ifferen t

types of

p er so n a litie s: Some a r e s i m p l e , u p r i g h t , g o o d ; some c r a f t y a n d c r o o k e d ; some who c o n s t a n t l y h i d e t h e m s e l v e s ; some w ho, on t h e c o n t r a r y , a lw a y s push t h e m s e lv e s fo rw a rd . W i t h some m i n d s , f e a r o n l y e f f e c t s a n y t h i n g ; w i t h o th e rs, k in d n ess. Some m i n d s a r e s e n s i b l e , s o b e r and t e m p e r a t e ; o t h e r s i n s a n e a n d f u r i o u s , and t h i s e i t h e r h a b itu a lly or a t i n t e r v a ls . Some a r e g e n t l e , o t h e r s f i e r c e and e a g e r ; so m e e v e n a r e o f a n u n b r i d l e d n a t u r e . Some s u s t a i n t h e m o v e m e n t s o f t h e i r m i n d s b y j u s t and g r e a t u n d e r t a k i n g s , and t h e s e we c a l l m a n l y ; o t h e r s by s l i g h t e n t e r p r i s e s o r n o n e a t a l l , and a r e t u r n e d a s i d e

16 I b i d . , pp. 6 5 -6 4 . 17 Ib id . , p.

73.

161 by a s l i g h t w h i f f o f a i r : th ese are c a lle d c h ild is h and f i c k l e . 0 a d m ir a b le A uthor o f such g r e a t v a riety ! Thou Who a T o n e h a s t c r e a t e d t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s o f m ind, a lo n e k n o w est th e c a u s e s . There a r e in d e e d o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s o f m ind, but h i s t r e a t m e n t s u f f i c e s f o r t h e p r e s e n t . 1® C h a p t e r IV i s

o n " T e a c h e r s and T a u g h t . ”

The t o p i c s

in clu d ed are: By w h a t m e a n s and how f a r t h e m i n d and n a t u r e o f t h e b o y may b e c l e a r l y p e r c e i v e d . For t h e r e i s s c a r c e l y a n y o n e o f s u c h a s t u p i d d i s p o s i t i o n t h a t he w i l l n o t p r o f i t b y some t e a c h i n g , i f t h e r e b e s u f f i ­ c ie n t care g iv e n . How t e a c h e r s s h o u l d b e a r t h e m s e l v e s to w a r d s t h e i r p u p i l s and what t h e y sh o u ld f i r s t t e a c h . T ria l o f w its. S t r o n g p o i n t s o f weak b o y s . The r e l a ­ t i o n o f t e a c h e r s to s c h o l a r s . What s h o u l d b e f i r s t taught? V ives th in k s th a t a r ith m e tic d is p la y s th e degree o f sharp­ n e s s o f t h e mind v e r y a c c u r a t e l y .

He a d v i s e s t h a t t h e

t e a c h e r s h o l d c o n f e r e n c e s to d i s c u s s what i s b e s t f o r t h e p u p ils.

He e m p h a s i z e s d i a g n o s i s an d g u i d a n c e .

are s u ite d f o r

s t u d y and e r u d i t i o n i n V i v e s *

Not a l l

boys

o p in io n .

Some p a r e n t s ( a n d t h e r e i s n o t h i n g m o r e r i d i c u l o u s ) s e n d t o s c h o o l t h o s e b o y s who a r e u n f i t f o r commerce o r w a r , o r o t h e r c i v i l d u t i e s , an d o r d e r t h e m t o b e t a u g h t ; and, what i s a m ost im p iou s d e e d , t h e y d e v o t e t o God t h e m o s t c o n t e m p t i b l e and u s e l e s s o f t h e i r o f f s p r i n g , a n d t h i n k t h a t h e who h a s n o t j u d g m e n t and i n t e l l e c t f o r t h e s m a l l e s t and m o s t t r i f l i n g m a t t e r s h a s q u i t e e n o u g h f o r s u c h g r e a t d u t i e s . 20 L e t t h e t e a c h e r s e 6 who a r e f i t f o r l e a r n i n g ; who are n o t. T h e r e a r e some m i n d s w h i c h a r e s t u p i d , v e r y d u l l , rough and d i s t o r t e d . I t i s w o n d e r f u l and

18 I b id ., p. 80. 19 20

I b i d . , p. Ib id .,

81.

p. 85.

162 p i t i a b l e t o r e l a t e , t h a t human m i n d s p r o d u c e g o o d f r u i t m o r e e a s i l y i n t h e coipmoner and m o r e w o r t h l e s s , t h a n i n t h e m o r e l i b e r a l and d i s t i n g u i s h e d a r t s . For i n tr a d e , i n th e p r a c t i c e o f a r t i f i c e r s , i n w eavin g, f i n a l l y i n t h e m a n u a l and m e c h a n i c a l a r t s , we s e e f e w e r p e r so n s sp en d in g t h e i r lab ou r in v a in th an in th e pur­ s u i t o f l e a r n i n g . 23Book I I I has as i t s y iv es,

is

devoted to language te a c h in g .

t h e m e L a t i n and o t h e r l a n g u a g e s .

C hapter I

Language,

" i s t h e s h r i n e o f e r u d i t i o n and a s i t

says

were a s t o r e ­

h o u s e f o r w h a t s h o u l d b e c o n c e a l e d a n d w h a t s h o u l d b e made p u b l i c . 22

y iv es

a d v o c a t e s a s i n g l e la n g u a g e w hich

b e u s e d i n common b y , a t l e a s t ,

a ll

common l a n g u a g e s h o u l d b e L a t i n .

should

C h ristian n a tio n s.

He b e l i e v e s t h a t i f

The there

w e r e some l a n g u a g e i n

common w i t h t h e A r a b s , many o f t h e m

w ould b e c o n v e r t e d t o

C h ristia n ity .

a lso

n ecessa ry fo r the

sp readin g o f p i e t y g e n e r a l l y .

sh ou ld be a la n g u a g e sa c re d to th e d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e from t h e tio n ed . rea lly

learn ed to o .

a lso

very

T estam ent.

P rob ably a

d esira b le.

c u l t u r e d man s i n c e i t

v o c a b u la r y , h i s know ledge o f L a t in i t s e l f , lite ra tu re .

Hebrew i s a d v i s a b l e f o r t h e

s u g g e s t s what i n p r e s e n t d a y s i s

Ib id .,

p. 8 5 .

Ib id .,

p.

22

91.

ca lled

It

is

in crea ses h is

and o f G r e e k

s t u d y o f t h e Old

He a d v o c a t e s a l s o t h e u s e o f v e r n a c u l a r .

21

There

common l a n g u a g e p r e v i o u s l y men­

A k n o w led g e o f Greek i s n ecessary to the

A common l a n g u a g e i s

He

t h e d i r e c t method

163 o f le a r n in g la n g u a g es, th a t

is,

le a r n in g through

s p e e c h and

w i t h o u t f o r m a l grammar. Chapter I I

is

c a l l e d "The V e r n a c u l a r i n T e a c h i n g " —

t h e t e a c h e r s h o u l d know t h e m o th e r t o n g u e o f t h e h o y s w e l l s o t h a t h e may mak6 h i s i n s t r u c t i o n t o t h e m e a s i e r p lea sa n t. authors.

V i v e s t a k e s up t h e m e t h o d s o f i n t e r p r e t i n g L a t i n The t e a c h e r h e s a y s ,

p r a i s e w o r t h y and a l s o

what i s

s h o u ld d e a l w i t h what i s blam ew orthy.

He s h o u l d s t a t e

t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c h r o n o l o g i c a l d a t e s and h e to the

and m o re

b e a r a s many a s s o c i a t i o n s a s p o s s i b l e s u b j e c t m a t t e r about w h ich he i s

s h o u l d be g i v e n g r a d u a l l y .

should b r in g

in co n n e c tio n w ith

sp eak ing.

In stru ctio n

Teachers sh ould b e g in w ith

easy

m a t t e r s o f i n s t r u c t i o n and m o r e f r o m t h e r e t o m o re d i f f i ­ cu lt t o p ic s . C hapter I I I ,

is title d

" L atin Sp eaking"— V iv e s

accents s th e v a lu e o f l is t e n in g t e a c h e r w h en l e a r n i n g L a t i n . necessary to th in k s th a t a ll

le a r n to

w rite

i n t e n t l y and l o o k i n g a t

He e m p h a s i z e s t h a t

c o r r e c t l y and q u i c k l y .

correct n ote-tak in g i s

ed u cation e s p e c ia lly

stage.

i n la n g u a g e work.

t o be m em orized school

w h ile th e c h ild

He s u g g e s t s w r i t i n g ,

is

stu d yin g,

ju s t b e fo r e g o in g to

should speak a t f i r s t

is V iv es

a v ery im portant p a rt o f

t h a t m e m o r iz a t io n s h o u ld be b eg u n e a r l y , d isa g reea b le th in g s ,

it

the

He b e l i e v e s

as sh ould o th e r in the im ita tiv e

or w r itin g a passage

bed.

Boys on e n t e r i n g

i n t h e i r own t o n g u e .

The

164 m a ster should c o r r e c t t h e i r m ista k e s. v ern a cu la r th e y

From s p e a k i n g t h e

should g r a d u a lly change to

The m a s t e r m u s t s u p e r v i s e t h e m c a r e f u l l y

sp eak ing i n L a t in .

so t h a t t h e y u s e

good pure L a t in , The p r i m a r y r e a s o n f o r g i v i n g l a n g u a g e t o men w a s t h a t th e y m ight

exchange i d e a s ,

s i m p l e and c l e a r . le a r n not to

t h e r e f o r e lan gu age

In stu d y in g lan gu age th e

speak to o

q u ick ly .

ch ild

sh o u ld he sh ould

He s h o u l d c o m b i n e

speech

w i t h w r i t i n g and t r a n s l a t i o n . C h ap ter IV, a ch ild f i r s t sile n tly

is title d

comes t o

and l i s t e n

to

m itted to q u e stio n h is F in a lly ,

" The C o u r s e o f T r a i n i n g ." When

s c h o o l he s h o u ld be a l lo w e d t o w atch the

ex ercises.

sch oolm ates about m a tter s o f i n t e r e s t .

h e may b e p e r m i t t e d t h e p l e a s u r e

c o n t e s t s on sim p le m a t t e r s o f d e b a t e . e x p e c t t o o much o f p u p i l s . ch ild , sets

T h e n , h e may b e p e r ­

some o f h i s

The m a s t e r s h o u l d n o t

I f th e m aster g e t s angry at a

t h e m a ste r should be b e a t e n ,

fo rth here

o f en terin g b r ie f

not th e c h i ld .

t h e o r i e s on p u n is h m e n t .

V ives Boys

s h o u l d b e r e s t r a i n e d m a i n l y by awe and r e s p e c t f o r t h e i r m asters,

rath er th a n ,fe a r of p h ysical fo r c e .

M asters are

n o t t o p r o d u c e i n s e n s i b i l i t y by r e p e a t e d b l o w s a l t h o u g h t h e y may u s e b l o w s w h en n e c e s s a r y . V ives* m ed ica l p e r s p e c t i v e recom m endation f o r r e c r e a t i o n .

shows c l e a r l y i n h i s

The e x e r c i s e ,

he s a y s ,

should

165 be s u i t e d t o

the

age and p h y s i c a l

con d ition

of th e c h ild .

T h ere s h o u l d be games w h ic h g i v e t h e c h i l d p l e a s u r e at the

same t i m e ,

e x e r c is e h is m u scles.

speak i n L a t in w h ile p l a y in g . game m e r e l y f o r c o m p e t i t i o n . i n d o o r games o r s t o r i e s

and,

The b o y s s h o u l d

They sh o u ld n o t p l a y t h e When t h e w e a t h e r i s

sh ould be s u b s t i t u t e d .

in clem en t,

There

s h o u ld b e p o r c h e s o r w id e h a l l s f o r u s e in, r a i n y w e a t h e r . C lea n lin ess i s

very e s s e n t i a l to h e a lt h

nourishm ent v a r ie d to

as i s

also

su it the c o n stitu tio n of the

good in d iv id u a l.

I n C h a p t e r V, "T he R e a d i n g o f A u t h o r s , " — V i v e s l i s t s the d iffe r e n t

c la s s e s o f authors,

v a lu a b le o r h arm fu l.

t h e r e a d i n g o f whom i s

He e x p l a i n s how t o

choose betw een th e

g o o d and t h e b a d . The t i t l e

o f C h a p t e r VI i s

d iv id e s the s e l e c t i o n w h ich are

o f books in to

s u ita b le fo r boys to read,

s u ita b le because of u n d esirab le heathen,

" L a tin A uthors"— V iv e s

and ( 4 )

poetry.

fou r c la s s e s (2)

(1)

books

b o o k s w h ich are not

in flu en ces,

(3)

b o o k s by t h e

Among t h e b o o k s w h i c h a r e s u i t a b l e

f o r r e a d i n g he c o n s i d e r s t h o s e o f c o n t e m p o r a r y H u m a n i s t s a s w e ll as th o se o f o u tstan d in g Chapter VII i s

authors o f p ast d a y s.

devoted to

th e stu d y o f Greek.

t e r V III ex p la in s c la s s i c a l p h ilo lo g y .

Chap­

In C h ap ter IX,

V i v e s d i s c u s s e s h i s c o n t e m p o r a r ie s , n o t i n g any c o n s t r u c t i v e co n trib u tio n .

He m a k e s no d e s t r u c t i v e

c riticism s,

b u t makes

166 h i s d isap p roval to

e v i d e n t by s u c h r e m a r k s a s tfI h a v e no d e s i r e

s p e a k o f B a p t i s t e P i u s and C o r n e l i u s V i t e l l i u s .

P oster­

i t y may j u d g e o f o u r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s . 2 3 B o o k IV h a s i t s

title

H igh er S t u d i e s .

d iscu sses lo g ic

and n a t u r e s t u d y .

V ives c o n sid e r s

is

C hapter I

The s t u d y o f l a n g u a g e

a n ecessa ry p rep aration fo r fu rth er

study. So f a r we h a v e d e a l t w i t h t h e k n o w l e d g e o f l a n g u a g e s , w h i c h a r e t h e g a t e s o f a l l s c i e n c e s and a r t s , a t a l l events, t h o s e l a n g u a g e s i n w h ic h t h e w o r k s o f g r e a t m i n d s a r e h a n d e d down t o u s . Thus i g n o r a n c e o f a n y la n g u a g e s h u t s t h e g a t e to th e know ledge w h ich i s w r i t t e n , s i g n e d and s e a l e d i n t h a t l a n g u a g e . But l e t t h o s e who s t u d y r e m e m b e r , t h a t i f n o t h i n g i s a d d e d t o t h e i r k n o w led g e by th e s t u d y o f t h e l a n g u a g e , t h e y have o n ly a r r iv e d a t th e g a t e s o f know ledge, or a re s t i l l h o verin g in th e en tra n ce h a l l . L e t t h e m remem­ b e r t h a t i t i s o f no m ore u s e t o know L a t i n a n d G r e e k , th a n F rench o r S p a n is h i f t h e v a lu e o f t h e know ledge w h ic h can be o b t a i n e d from t h e l e a r n e d l a n g u a g e s i s l e f t out o f th e account. And t h a t no l a n g u a g e i s i n i t s e l f w orth t h e t r o u b l e o f l e a r n i n g , i f n o th in g i s sou gh t beyond th e l i n g u i s t i c a s p e c t . R ather l e t s t u d e n t s g a i n a s much o f t h e l a n g u a g e a s w i l l e n a b l e th e m t o p e n e t r a t e t o t h o s e f a c t s and i d e a s , w h i c h a r e c o n t a i n e d i n t h e s e l a n g u a g e s , l i k e b e a u t i f u l and v a l u a b l e t h i n g s a r e l o c k e d up i n t r e a s u r i e s . 2 4 V ives next t e l l s

how d i a l e c t i c s

s h o u l d be t a u g h t .

He t h e n

e m p h a siz e s t h e o u t s t a n d i n g im p o r ta n c e o f a know ledge o f natu re,

recom m ending b o o k s t o

be r e a d i n t h e

scien ces.

What we know o f n a t u r e h a s b e e n g a i n e d p a r t l y through t h e s e n s e s , p a r t l y through th e im a g in a tio n , t h o u g h r e a s o n h a s b e e n a t hand a s a g u i d e t o t h e

23 Ib id .,

p.

162.

Ib id .,

p.

163.

24

167 s e n s e s ; o n t h i s a c c o u n t we h a v e g a i n e d k n o w l e d g e i n f e w s u b j e c t s and i n t h o s e s p a r i n g l y , b e c a u s e o f t h o s e s h a d o w s w h i c h e n v e l o p e and o p p r e s s t h e human m i n d . . . F i r s t we m u s t c o n s i d e r t h e e a s i e s t %:inds o f kn ow­ l e d g e , v i z . , t h o s e t h i n g s t h a t a r e e v i d e n t to. t h e senses. F o r t h e s e n s e s o p e n up t h e w a y t o a l l 'kn ow ­ led ge. There sh ou ld b e, i n th e f i r s t p l a c e , a g e n e r a l e x p l a n a t i o n an e x p o s i t i o n o r , a s i t w e r e , a p i c t u r e o f th e w h ole o f n a tu r e , o f t h e h e a v e n s, t h e e le m e n ts , i n f i r e , a i r , w a t e r a n d e a r t h ; so t h a t a f u l l r e p r e s e n t a ­ t i o n and d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e w h o l e e a r t h i s i n c l u d e d a s i n a p i c t u r e . 25 T h e s e b o o k s m u s t b e r e a d b y t h e s t u d e n t who w i s h e s t o g e t a r e a l h o l d on t h i s p a r t o f s t u d i e s , and t h e y m u s t b e t h o r o u g h l y and i n d u s t r i o u s l y s t u d i e d . He who w ould a d v a n ce s t i l l f u r t h e r m ust s tu d y ou tw a rd n a t u r e by c l o s e o b s e r v a t i o n , a n d t h i s w i l l b e a s i t w e r e a p l e a s a n t r e c r e a t i o n .......................................................................................... A l l t h a t i s w a n ted i s a c e r t a i n power o f o b s e r v a t i o n . So w i l l . h e o b s e r v e t h e n a t u r e o f t h i n g s i n t h e h e a v e n s , i n c l o u d y and i n c l e a r w e a t h e r , i n t h e p l a i n s , o n t h e m o u n ta in s, i n th e woods. H en ce he w i l l s e e k o u t , and g e t t o k n o w , many t h i n g s f r o m t h o s e who i n h a b i t t h o s e s p o t s .26 C hapter I I d e a l s w ith d i s p u t a t i o n s p h ilo so p h y .

The f i r s t

p h ilosop h y i s

and t h e f i r s t

"an e x a m in a t io n o f t h e

c o n n e c t i o n o f t h i n g s and o f a l l t h e f u n c t i o n s w h i c h a r i s e n a t u r a l l y f r o m t h e v e r y e s s e n c e o f a n y t h i n g . "27 recommends t h e

stu d y o f C icero

d isp u ta tio n .

25 Ib id .,

pp. 166-68.

26 Ib id . , p. 170. 27 Ib id .,

p. 172.

and A g r i c o l a ,

y iv es

as m asters o f

168 C hapter I I I Y ives l i s t s works.

d e a l s w i t h "The S t u d y o f R h e t o r i c . "

t h e r h e t o r i c a l w r i t e r s and e v a l u a t e s t h e i r

R h eto ric,

and t h e r e f o r e , em p h asized .

he f e e l s

is

o f th e g r e a t e s t im portance

s h o u l d be r e t a i n e d i n t h e c u r r i c u l u m a n d

It

is

necessary for a ll

p o sitio n in l i f e .

" I n t h e w h o l e k i n g d o m o f t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f m an, hold s in i t s

p o s s e s s i o n a m ig h ty stren g th w hich i t

u a l l y m a n i f e s t s . " 28 to

arouse.

The e n d o f r h e t o r i c

The h i s t o r y o f l a n g u a g e s ;

and d e c a y ; t h e i r p o w e r , a ll

these

ele g a n c e,

sh ould be c o n s id e r e d .

t o argue a g a i n s t what i s to p ics.

speech

i s to

t e a c h and

th eir r is e ,

and s p e c i a l

rh eto ric

co n trib u tio n s;

One m u s t be c a r e f u l n e v e r

tru e nor to

crim e and w i c k e d n e s s .

argue on d is r e p u ta b le

T r u e and g e n u i n e

i s t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f wisdom .

copy th e e v i l p r a c t i c e s

o f th e heathen,

C h r i s t i a n s must not i.e .,

" S la n d er,

ta u n tin g s,

in s in u a tio n o f the b a sest s u s p ic io n s ,

o f what i s

true,

purpose,

and t o

and t h e

attem pt to

o u r own i n t e g r i t y . "

to p ro n u n cia tio n , by t h e t u t o r s i n

coach in g,

I b id ., p. 180. p.

185.

It

is

b etter

c a u s e f o r w h i c h we f i g h t t h a n t o *

V ives in c lu d e s in s t r u c t io n s

and v o i c e p r o d u c t i o n .

28 Ib id .,

pQ

in v ersio n s

do e v i l f r o m a g o o d

do g o o d f r o m a n e v i l m o t i v e .

s u f f e r the l o s s o f th e

lo se

o r ig in ,

E l o q u e n c e s h o u l d b e u s e d f o r g o o d n e s s and p i e t y

and a g a i n s t

to

co n tin ­

as

Wisd om m u s t b e u s e d

and s t u d e n t s m u s t l i s t e n

in ten tly

169 to

c ritic ism s* " Im itation "

Speech, fore,

is

says V iv e s,

t h e s u b j e c t and t i t l e

is

o f C hapter IV.

b a se d on i m i t a t i o n .

It

is,

th ere­

o f th e utm ost im portance t h a t good m odels b e p r o v id e d .

He a d v i s e s many m o d e l s , m e n tio n s as w orthy o f C a eliu s,

and m o d e l s o f d i v e r s e t y p e s .

em u lation :

B rutus, A t t ic u s ,

He

C ic e r o , D em osthenes,

T a citu s,

and Q u i n t i l i a n .

W o rds

may b e i m i t a t e d b u t V i v e s c a u t i o n s a g a i n s t w h o l e s a l e im ita tio n o f

sty le.

S t y l e must be s u i t e d t o

and b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e th at

the p e r so n a lity

s p e a k e r and t h e t o p i c .

"It is

seem ly

s a c r e d m a t t e r s s h o u l d b e c l o t h e d i n w h i t e and c l e a n

lin en ,

not in fin e

v e lv e t or s ilk ;

c lo th or spotted fla x ,

c e r t a in ly not in h ain y

s o much f o r r h e t o r i c a l

s p e e c h . " 30

C h a p ter V d e a l s w i t h t h e "M athem atical S c i e n c e s . " M ath em atics,

says V iv es,

The m a t h e m a t i c a l a r t s may s u c c e e d t a l k ,

i s b a se d on q u a n t it y

and n u m ber.

are n e c e ss a r y " in order th a t m uteness

and s i l e n c e be im p o sed on a to n g u e p r e ­

v i o u s l y b u sy ; w h e r e fo r e work w i l l be t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e e a r s to

the

e y e s . " ^ l

A r i t h m e t i c and g e o m e tr y a r e t h e

s im p l e s t form s o f m ath em atics*

G eom etry a p p lie d to

h e a v e n s becomes a stro n o m y , a n d , a p p l ie d to o p tics

(p h y sics)•

A rith m etic a p p lied to

30 Ib id .,

p. 200.

Ib id .,

p . 201.

31

v isib le

the th in g s,

sounds r e s u l t s

in

170 the

s c ie n c e o f m u sic.

p h a ses--th eo retica l t h e work a s p e c t s .

Each o f t h e s e

s c i e n c e s h a s tw o

and p r a c t i c a l — , t h e M athem atical

o n ly c e r t a i n t y p e s o f m inds.

s tu d ie s are s u ita b le fo r

He i n c l u d e s a r c h i t e c t u r e and

th e th e o r y o f t h e m ir r o r i n h i s program. ever,

c o m t e m p l a t i v e and

a g a in st th e danger o f g e t t in g

V iv es w arns,

in to the f i e l d

how­

o f m ere

sp ecu la tio n . V iv es lam en ts th e d e t e r io r a t io n in m u sic,

sayin g ears

h a v e d u l l e d and t h a t t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f m e t r e s a n d t h e p r i m i t i v e harmony o f t o n e s h a s b e e n l o s t . ta les

o f O r p h e u s and Am p hion f o r t h e t h e r a p e u t i c v a l u e s o f

m u sic.

He e m p h a s i z e s t h e s c i e n t i f i c

a g ricu ltu re,

n a v ig a tio n ,

textb ooks in the f i e l d s in g ,

He r e f e r s t o

in p a rticu la r ,

etc.

u s e s o f astronom y in

He t h e n l i s t s

recogn ized

o f m a th em atical s c i e n c e ,

recom m end­

A rchim edes.

C h a p t e r VI i s

o f much i n t e r e s t

o f t h e d a t a u s e d b y M ichau d32 t o

sin ce

it

in v o lv es part

su b stan tiate h is

claim th a t

R a b e l a i s to o k from V i v e s h i s i d e a s o n t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f ed u ca tion w ith l i f e , for

the use o f in c id e n ts o f

cu rricu la r m a ter ia l,

ed u cation .

The t i t l e

A r t s and S c i e n c e s " . m ic t r a i n i n g ,

th in k s

and t h e

of the

.

.

ch ap ter i s " A u xiliary P r a c ti cal

9-11,

acade­

a y o u n g man s h o u l d t u r n h i s

and s t u d y t h e a r t s a n a i n v e n t i o n s

32 See pp.

in tr o d u c tio n o f h ygien e in to

. A f t e r h a v in g com p leted h i s

v iv es,

a t t e n t i o n t o human l i f e

everyday l i f e

in fra .

171 o f men,

e s p e c ia lly those

sh elter.

concerning f o o d ,

clo th in g ,

Then h e s h o u l d stu d y h e r b s and l i v i n g

A fter t h is ,

he sh ould read about a r c h it e c t u r e .

then in v e s t ig a t e

t h e means o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n ,

stu d y o f anim als u sed to

draw c o n v e y a n c e s ,

and

anim als. H6 s h o u l d

in c lu d in g the

an d o f

sh ip s used

in n a vigation . He w i l l s t u d y a l l t h e s e s u b j e c t s ; w h e r e f o r e and h ow t h e y w e r e i n v e n t e d , p u r s u e d , d e v e l o p e d , p r e s e r v e d and h ow t h e y c a n b e a p p l i e d t o o u r u s e and p r o f i t . . . He s h o u l d n o t b e ash a m ed t o e n t e r i n t o s h o p s and f a c t o r i e s , a n d t o a s k q u e s t i o n s f r o m c r a f t s m e n , an d g e t t o kn ow a b o u t t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e i r w o r k . Former­ l y , l e a r n e d men d i s d a i n e d t o i n q u i r e i n t o t h e s e t h i n g s w h i c h i t i s o f s u c h g r e a t i m p o r t t o l i f e t o kn ow an d r e m e m b e r , and many m a t t e r s w e r e d e s p i s e d a n d s o w e r e l e f t a l m o s t u n kn ow n t o t h e m . The i g n o r a n c e grew in s u c c e e d i n g c e n t u r i e s up t o t h e p r e s e n t , a n d i n a l o n g s u c c e s s i o n o f y e a r s n o t h in g was d i s c l o s e d c o n c e r n in g t h e m o r a l s an d t h e a r t o f l i f e . So t h a t we know f a r more o f t h e a ge o f C ic e r o o r P l i n y th a n o f t h a t o f our g ra n d fa th ers, in resp ect o f t h e ir food, a t t i r e , w o r sh ip and d w e l l i n g s . V iv e s1 next to p ic

is

th e h e a lin g o f sou l or body,

through p r i e s t or p h y s ic ia n .

He g o e s o n i n some d e t a i l

em p h asizin g th e need o f o b s e r v a t io n ,

and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n

th e a c q u i s i t i o n o f n e c e s s a r y know ledge.

He w a r n s t h a t

A r i s t o t l e w a s a h e a t h e n and a d v i s e s t h e o m i s s i o n o f B o o k I o f De A n i m a . is

P la to

s h o u l d be s t u d i e d i n s o l i t u d e .

su p erio r to A r i s t o t l e

in the p r e c e p ts of m orals.

33 F o s t e r W atson,

0£

.

c i t .,

pp . 2 0 8 - 2 . 0 9 .

He i s

172 He who i s a b o u t t o p a s s o n , w i t h h i s g a t h e r e d know­ l e d g e , t o t h e m e d ic a l a r t must l e a r n w ith e x a c t i t u d e t h e pow ers and e s s e n c e s o f a l l m in e r a l s u b s t a n c e s , w hich a r e o f m a n i f o l d k i n d s , v i z . , p i g m e n t s , s t o n e s , g e m s , p l a n t s , a n i m a l s , t h e human b o d y . From t h i s n a t u r e - k n o w l e d g e a r i s e two s u b j e c t s f o u n d e d o n o b s e r ­ v a t i o n , D i e t e t i c s an d M e d i c i n e p r o p e r . . . . f l h e n we h a v e a c q u i r e d a k n o w le d g e o f t h e p o w er s and n a t u r e s o f t h i n g s , and c o m p a r e d t o g e t h e r o t h e r l i v i n g b e i n g s , e s p e c i a l l y w ith th e n a tu re.a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n o f th e human b o d y , we s e e w h a t i s s t r o n g e r t h a n t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e human b o d y c o u l d b e a r , a s w e l l a s w h a t i s t o o s m a l l a n d w e a k t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e b o d y , an d t o s u s t a i n i t ; what s u b s t a n c e b r i n g s t o t h e body t h a t t o n e o r q u a l i t y w h ich i s a l i e n o r i n i m i c a l t o i t , and, i f i t i s t a k e n i n t o t h e bod y, l e a d s to i t s g r e a t a f f l i c t i o n , o r p a i n s and s u f f e r i n g s o f t h e m o s t g r i e v o u s k i n d . We s e e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w h a t i s c o n g r u e n t and f r i e n d l y t o t h e l i f e o f t h e body, t o i t s s e n s e s , m ind, i n t e l ­ l e c t , i . e . , w h a t w i l l p r e s e r v e i t , i n v i g o u r and c o n ­ fir m i t i n s t r e n g t h , so t h a t th e r e w i l l r e s u l t a c e r t a in joyous sen se o f h e a lt h . In t h i s treatm ent in th e f i r s t p l a c e , what i s s u i t a b l e t o t h e w hole r a c e o f m an, i n common, m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d . Then, t h e i n d i v i d u a l man m u s t be s t u d i e d i n p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t s and r e l a t i o n s , e . g . , a s t o a g e , p l a c e , t i m e , a c t i v i t y , m a n n e r s and h a b i t s . S im ila r o b servation i s n ecessary w i t h r e g a r d t o th e f o o d s w h ic h s a t i s f y h i s n e e d s . 34 V i v e s c o n c l u d e s C h a p te r VI by a resum e o f t h e

d u ties

of a p h y sicia n . C h a p t e r V I I w h i c h c o n c l u d e s B o ok I V , T ra in in g o f th e P h y s i c ia n .” a very h igh p e d e s t a l, h elp .

is

e n t i t l e d "The

V i v e s p l a c e s t h e p h y s i c i a n on

an o r a c l e ,

t o whom o t h e r s t u r n f o r

He a d v i s e s b e g i n n i n g w i t h e a s y p r e c e p t s s u c h a s t h e

A phorism s o f H ip p o c r a t e s o r t h e A r t o f G a le n .

He r e c o m m e n d s

a s e r i e s o f tex tb o o k s in c lu d in g one f o r v e t e r i n a r i e s .

34 Ib id .,

pp. 214-15

173 There are t h r e e (1)

rem ed ies,

o f the f ie ld research.

(2)

s t a g e s o f t r a i n i n g t o he f o l l o w e d :

anatom y, and i n t e r n s h i p ,

o f actu al p r a c tic e ,

He b e l i e v e s t h a t

done on a n im a ls i f

p o ssib le.

The p h y s i c i a n ,

c lien t

w ith p a tie n c e

lo n g -w in d ed n ess.” clea r.

clo th ed ,

ch oice

g e n e r a l p h y s i c ia n or

exp erim en tal r e se a r c h

be in good h e a lt h , be n e a t ly h is

i.e .,

an d ( 3 )

s h o u ld be

h im self,

sh ould

be a b le to l i s t e n

to

and ” n o t p a n t a f t e r t h e g l o r y o f

H is hands sh ould b e c le a n ,

He s h o u l d n o t b e t o o

h is 6yes

i n t e n t on h i s f e e .

”1,

for

my p a r t , ” s a y s V i v e s , am o f t e n l o s t i n w o n d e r m e n t t o s e e many d o c t o r s i n t e n t o n f i l t h y l u c r e , s i n c e n o n e m ore c l e a r l y u n d e r s t a n d , and e x p e r i e n c e , e v e r y d a y how s h o r t i s l i f e , how f l e e t i n g , , u n s t a b l e , and how l i g h t , a r e t h e c a u s e s t h a t s n a t c h away t h e s t r o n g e s t o f men; and a c c o r d i n g l y , o f how l i t t l e a c c o u n t i s w e a l t h , s i n c e t h e t i m e i n w h i c h i t c a n b e e n j o y e d i s so s h o r t and i t s u s e so l i m i t e d . . . . In th e b eg in n in g he w i l l make a t t e m p t t o s e e w h e t h e r h e can h e a l h i s p a t i e n t by a r a t i o n a l mode o f l i v i n g , t h a t i s by d i e t i n g , b u t , i f t h e c a s e demands i t , h e w i l l u s e i n a d d it io n , m e d ic in e , y e t o f a sim ple s o r t : but i f t h e f o r c e o f t h e m a l a d y b e r a t h e r s e v e r e and w i d e s p r e a d , h e w i l l h a v e r e c o u r s e t o m i x t u r e s o f m e d i c i n e s . 35 Th e t i t l e

o f Book V i s

d i s c u s s e s p r a c t i c a l w isdom , the f i r s t

S t u d i e s and L i f e .

its

aim a n d u s e .

C hapter I

Sum m arizing

f o u r b o o k s, V iv e s s a y s t h a t th e know ledge o f t h e

nature o f th in g s ,

o f b o d ily nurture,

and a n t i d o t e s and

rem ed ies o f d i s e a s e s , has a lr e a d y been d is c u s s e d , h e now p r o p o s e s t o

e x p l a i n how t h e s o u l i s

35 Ib id .,

pp. 225-26.

to

so t h a t

be t r a i n e d

174 and made s o u n d .

P r a c t i c a l w i s d o m i n v o l v e s p r u d e n c e and

fo resig h t. , . . t h e b e s t p a r t o f wisdom c o n s i s t s i n t h e c o n j e c ­ t u r e s w h i c h we f o r m o f f u t u r e t h i n g s f r o m t h e c o m b i n a ­ tio n s o f past even ts. P r a c t i c a l wisdom i s t h u s a c e r t a i n k i n d o f d i v i n a t i o n , a s t h a t o l d maxim d e c l a r e s : A c c o u n t a s b e s t p r o p h e t h i m -who h a s made t h e b e s t .......................................................................................... in feren ces. . . . . But t h e s e w i l l n o t b e f r i v o l o u s w i t s , such a s a r e i n ­ d u l g e n t t o t h e m s e l v e s , f o r t h e w i s e s t men a r e n o t t h o s e who f l i t t e r o v e r t h e s u p e r f i c i a l i t i e s o f t h i n g s , b u t t h o s e who g o t h e d e e p e s t i n t o t h i n g s b y a d i l i g e n c e and a s s i d u i t y s u c h a s p i e a s u r e - s e e k i n g m i n d s c a n n o t e n j o i n upon t h e m s e l v e s . Much l e s s s u i t e d s t i l l a r e b u f f o o n s , i m p o s t o r s , g a r r u l o u s and f a c e t i o u s p e o p l e who make l i g h t o f m a t t e r s o f t h e h i g h e s t i m p o r t a n c e w i t h th e ir fe s tiv e ch atter. They f r u s t r a t e t h e g r e a t hope o f t h o s e c o n s u l t i n g them on t h e w e i g h t i e s t a f f a i r s w ith j o c u l a r l i c e n c e , a n d sh o w t h e m s e l v e s i n e p t t r i f l e r s o n g r a v e i s s u e s ............................................................................................................... A l s o s t u b b o r n a n d c o n t e n t i o u s men c a n n o t p o s s e s s much w i s d o m , a s I s h a l l s o o n show*. Men o f t h i s k i n d , s i n c e t h e y h a v e no c a p a c i t y f o r p r a c t i c a l w i s d o m , i . e . , t h e a r t o f r u l i n g , should r u le o v er none, but should r a th e r b e d i r e c t e d b y t h o s e whom n a t u r e h a s f a s h i o n e d w i t h a g r e a t e r c a p a c i t y f o r g o v e rn m e n t.36 Judgment can b e c u l t i v a t e d by r h e t o r i c , h isto rica l

and by e x p e r i e n c e ,

p ersp ectiv e

is

by r e a d i n g , K n igh tf s

found i n t h i s

by d i a l e c t i c ,

r e f e r e n c e ^

chapter.

to

V ives

e x p la in s t h a t e x p e r ie n c e i s g a in ed o ver a p e r io d o f tim e in con d u ctin g th e ordinary p r a c t i c a l is

th e r e c o r d o f such e x p e r i e n c e s .

p leasan t but,

a lso ,

a u sefu l

36 Ib id .,

pp.

Bee p.

2,

229-30.

37 in fr a .

a ffa irs of l if e . It

is

study s in c e

not o n ly it

H isto ry a

e n a b le s one to

175 liv e

v ica rio u sly . To b e s u r e , no o n e c a n d e n y t h a t e v e r y t h i n g h a s ch a n g ed , and c o n t i n u e s to c h a n g e , e v e r y d ay, b e c a u s e t h e s e c h a n g e s ^ > r i n g f r o m o u r v o l i t i o n and i n d u s t r y . B u t s i m i l a r c h a n g e s do n o t e v e r t a k e p l a c e i n t h e e s s e n t i a l n a t u r e o f human b e i n g s , i . e . , i n t h e f o u n d a ­ t i o n s o f t h e a f f e c t i o n s o f t h e human m i n d , a n d t h e r e s u l t s w h i c h t h e y p r o d u c e o n a c t i o n s and v o l i t i o n s . T h i s f a c t h a s f a r more s i g n i f i c a n c e t h a n t h e r a i s i n g o f s u c h q u e s t i o n s a s t o how t h e a n c i e n t s b u i l t t h e i r h o u s e s o r how t h e y c l o t h e d t h e m s e l v e s . F or what g r e a t e r p r a c t i c a l w i s d o m i s t h e r e t h a n t o know how and w h a t t h e human p a s s i o n s a r e : how t h e y a r e r o u s e d , how q u e l l e d ? F u r t h e r , w hat i n f l u e n c e t h e y h a v e on t h e c o m m o n w e a l t h , w h a t i s t h e i r p o w e r , how t h e y c a n be r e s t r a i n e d , h e a l e d , pu t a s i d e , o r on t h e c o n t r a r y , a r o u s e d and fo m e n t e d , e i t h e r i n o t h e r s o r i n o u r ­ selv es? tfhat k n ow led ge ca n be p r e f e r a b l e f o r t h e r u l e r o f a s t a t e , , o r m o re e x p e d i e n t f o r a n y o f h i s s u b j e c t s t o know? a n d w h a t s o d e l i g h t f u l , i n t h e h i g h e s t d e g r e e ! an d w h a t m o r e c o n d u c i v e t o t h e h a p p i e s t k in d o f p r a c t i c a l w isdom ! . . . . . . . . . I n d e e d , t h e r e i s n o t h i n g o f t h e a n c i e n t s so w o r n o u t b y a g e a n d s o d e c a y e d , t h a t i t may n o t i n some m e a s u r e be accommodated to o u r modes o f l i f e . For alth o u g h now we may e m p l o y a d i f f e r e n t f o r m , t h e u s e f u l n e s s y e t rem ains. T h i s c o u l d e a s i l y b e shown by d i s c u s s i n g cu stom s, one by o n e. Now t h e s t u d y o f t h o s e v e r y a r t s c o u l d n o t p e r s i s t i f t h e s t u d y o f h i s t o r y c e a s e d . 38 He r e m i n d s h i s r e a d e r s o f t h e d e b t owed b y m e d i c i n e

to h is to r y . a ll lik e

" F o r o u t o f how many p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s o n

s i d e s does th e a r t o f m e d ic in e have to r a in w a t e r composed o f d r o p s !

d e r iv e from h i s t o r y . a ll

In f a c t ,

39

be b u i l t u p ,

Law and t h e o l o g y a l s o

h isto ry i s

th e source o f

the a r ts .

38 F o s t e r W atson, 39 I b i d . , p. 2 3 3 .

op.

c i t . , pp. 2 3 2-33.

176 In th e

study o f h is to r y ,

however, V iv e s p o i n t s out

that: Wars and b a t t l e s n e e d n o t b e s t u d i e d c l o s e l y , f o r t h e y m e r e l y e q u i p t h e mind w i t h e x a m p l e s f o r t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f e v i l , and s h o w t h e w a y s i n w h i c h we may i n f l i c t i n j u r i e s , o n e o n a n o t h e r . Y e t we c a n n o t h e l p n o t i c i n g b r i e f l y , who t o o k up a r m s , who w e r e t h e l e a d e r s on e i t h e r s i d e , w h ere t h e c o n f l i c t t o o k p l a c e , who w e r e b e a t e n , a n d w h a t h a p p e n e d t o t h e m . But w h a t ­ e v e r i s s a id or rea d in h i s t o r y , w ars sh o u ld be regarded not o th e r w is e than as c a s e s o f t h e f t , as i n d e e d t h e y u s u a l l y w e r e , e x c e p t i n g p e r h a p s when u n d e r ­ t a k e n a g a i n s t t h i e v e s . 40 C hapter I I

is

based on t h e stu d y o f h i s t o r y t o o .

V ives has a lrea d y p o in ted o u t, c a n n o t be l e a r n e d w i t h o u t c h a p te r i s d e v o te d to

in C hapter I ,

th at h is to r y

a g eo g ra p h ica l background.

T h is

a stu d y o f g r e a t h i s t o r i a n s through­

out the ages.

It

shows t h e d i f f e r i n g p o i n t s o f e m p h a sis i n

the passage o f

c u l t u r a l and i n s t i t u t i o n a l

e v o lu tio n .

V ives

e m p h a sizes t h e im p o r ta n c e o f s t u d y in g h i s t o r y from th e v ie w p oin t o f c o n tin u ity

sayin g:

Hence i s a p p e a r s t h a t H i s t o r y to o k i t s r i s e a t o n c e w i t h t h a t o f men, b e c a u s e i t was t h u s e x p e d i e n t f o r t h e human r a c e . I t i s w ell to lea r n the course of h i s t o r y from t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e w o r ld o r o f a p e o p le c o n tin u o u s ly r i g h t through t h e i r c o u r se t o th e l a t e s t t i m e f o r , t h e n , a l l i s m ore r i g h t l y u n d e r s t o o d and f i r m l y r e t a i n e d t h a n i f we r e a d i t i n d i s c o n n e c t e d p a r t s , i n t h e sa m e way t h a t I n a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e w h o l e w o r l d , l a n d and s e a a r e p l a c e d b e f o r e t h e e y e s at a g la n ce. For th u s i t i s e a s i e r to see the .fa ce o f t h e w o r l d and t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f i t s p a r t s o n e b y o n e a n d t o u n d e r s t a n d how e a c h i s p l a c e d . 4 1

40 Ib id .,

p. 236.

Ib id .,

p . 237.

41

177 C h a p t e r I I I d i s c u s s e s t h e a f f i n i t y o f h i s t o r y and m orals. in

It

is

e ssen tia l,

V ives c o n tin u e s,

c o n t r o l o f t h e hody b e c a u s e i t i s

t h a t t h e m in d h e

the p o sse ssio n o f rea­

son w hich u n i t e s u s m ost c l o s e l y w i t h t h e d i v i n e N a tu r e . The w h o l e man m u s t b e u n d e r s t o o d , w ith o u t.

f r o m w i t h i n and f r o m

W i t h i n t h e m in d a r e t h e i n t e l l e c t

and e m o t i o n s .

I n o r d e r t o kn ow h i m s e l f a man m u s t kn ow b y w h a t t h i n g s e m o t i o n s a r e a r o u s e d an d d e v e l o p e d and a l s o they are r e str a in e d , com p lete th e t a s k

calm ed,

and r e m o v e d .

by w h a t t h i n g s In order to

o f e d u c a t i o n t h e p a s s i o n s o f t h 6 m ind

sh o u ld b e s u b o r d in a te d by R ea so n .

T h is conquest i s

n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e R e a s o n s h o w s t h e way b y w h i c h we may come t o G o d , w h i c h i s

t h e end f o r w h i c h man i s

created .

The p r e c e p t s m u s t b e o b t a i n e d f r o m G o d ' s own t e a c h i n g s , i n t e r p r e t e d t h r o u g h h i s d i s c i p l e s and a f t e r w a r d by o t h e r h o l y men. . . . From t h e t e a c h i n g a n d w o r d s o f t h e s e men s h o u l d be g a t h e r e d , a s i t w e r e , r e m e d i e s f o r t h e d i s e a s e s o f t h e m i n d , s o t h a t t h e p a s s i o n s may be s u b j u g a t e d t o t h e h a n d and p o w e r o f r e a s o n . When t h i s p r e c e d e n c e i s e s t a b l i s h e d , and a s f a r a s i s p e r m i t t e d , i s f i r m l y g r o u n d e d , man t h e n b e a r s h i m s e l f r i g h t l y t o w a r d s h i m s e l f and t o w a r d s God, and to w a r d s t h o s e h i g h e r , l o w e r , and e q u a l t o h i m s e l f i n s t a t i o n , w h e t h e r we s p e a k o f p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s , o f f a m i l i e s , o r t h e c o m m o n w e a l t h : w h e t h e r we s p e a k o f p u b l i c l i f e a t home o r a b r o a d . 42

42 Ib id .,

p.

252.

178 A s h o r t c l e a r b ook s h o u l d b e w r i t t e n and expounded f o r t h i s in stru ctio n . The s u b j e c t o f m o r a l s may b e d i v i d e d (1)

eth ics,

in to four p arts:

w h i c h c o n c e r n s i t s e l f w i t h t h e mind and t h e

form ation o f in d iv id u a l m orals;

(2)

w ith th e concern f o r fa m ily l i f e ;

e c o n o m ic s, w h ich d e a l s

(3)

p o l i t i c s , w hich s t a t e s

t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f g r o u p s and g a t h e r i n g s o f p e o p l e ; c u s t o m s a n d e d u c a t i o n o f r e g i o n s and p e o p l e . th a t th e stu dy o f m orals im p lie s

and (4)

V iv e s warns

e n t e r i n g on a d a r k r o a d

b e s e t w i t h t h o r n s w h ic h must be t r a v e r s e d

s l o w l y and w e a r i l y

a n d w h i c h c a n b e o n l y s a f e l y t r o d w h en t h e s t u d e n t h a s t h e l i g h t o f r e l i g i o n b e f o r e him . M orals sa y in g t h a t

th ey tend to

V ives c r i t i c i z e s A r t i s t o t l e ' s i n f o r m a b o u t m o r a l s m o re

th a n t h e y im pel t h e r e a d e r s t o

liv e

m e n t s o n t h e Summa o f A q u i n a s ,

s a y i n g t h a t t h i s work i s

s o u n d e s t a nd l e a s t

in ep t o f a l l

the

a m oral l i f e .

sch o la stic

He com­ the

w riters.

A t e a c h e r o f m o r a l p h i l o s o p h y m u s t b e a h o l y p u r e man, w i t h no o s t e n t a t i o n a b o u t h i m ; a man o f p r a c t i c a l w i s d o m ; n o t o n l y w i t h many k i n d s o f k n o w l e d g e , a lso

e x p e r i e n c e s from o r d in a r y l i f e .

p recepts o f rig h t liv in g to

act w e ll.

anger, h ate,

rea so n s f o r w hatever

V ives d iv id e s v ic e s

t h o s e o f t h e m ind and o f t h e b o d y . p rid e,

He m u s t t e a c h t h e

so t h a t h i s p u p i l s may b e i n s p i r e d

He m u s t a l w a y s g i v e h i s

judgm ents he m akes.

bu t on6 p o s s e s s i n g

envy,

etc.

in to

two c l a s s e s ,

V i c e s o f t h e m ind a r e

V ic e s o f t h e body are

179 d rin k in g ,

carou sin g,

and o t h e r fo r m s o f l i c e n t i o u s n e s s .

The p r a c t i c a l d u t i e s o f l i f e ,

says V iv es,

are hest

l e a r n e d f r o m men o f p r a c t i c a l w i s d o m and f r o m t h o s e who h a v e b e e n w e l l sp ecia l trie s,

brought up.

p ra ctices. c itize n s

Every n a t io n h a s i t s

citizen s own

I n c h o o sin g p r a c t i c e s from o t h e r coun­

sh o u ld ta k e care t h a t t h e y c h o o se som ething

n o t i n o p p o s i t i o n to t h e n e e d s and t a l e n t s

of th e p eop le o f

t h e i r own c o u n t r i e s . Care f o r h o u s e h o l d a f f a i r s

does not c o n s is t o f p re­

s e r v i n g w e a l t h , but i n m a in t a in in g t h e p e a c e and t r a n q u i l i t y o f fa m ily l i f e .

C a r e m u s t b e t a k e n t h a t t h e m em b er s o f t h e

fa m ily are fed h e a l t h i l y , sa tisfa cto rily ,

cloth ed

su ita b ly ,

are a b le to

liv e

and l o v e o n e a n o t h e r and t h e i r home n o t l e s s

than t h e i r n a tiv e cou n try . Th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e S t a t e q u iet,

peaceful liv in g

another to mony i s

liv e

in

so t h a t i t s

to prepare fo r

c i t i z e n s may h e l p o n e

a g e n e r o u s and b e n e v o le n t m anner.

in c r e a s e d by m utual u s e f u l n e s s .

ab sen t, the fu n ctio n o f le g a l J u stic e

is

Where l o v e

ju s tic e takes i t s

H ar ­ is

p la ce.

s h o u l d h a v e s u c h armed p o w e r and s t r e n g t h t h a t

it

may p u t t h e c u r b on i n s u r g e n t s p i r i t s . The r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e p o l i t i c a l to

d e c l a r e what a t t i t u d e s

another;

what r e l a t i o n s

p r i n e e s and m a g i s t r a t e s ;

c i t i z e n s ought to

p h ilo so p h er i s h av e to w a r d s one

t h e r e s h o u l d b e b e t w e e n s u b j e c t s and what r e l a t i o n s t h e r e

s h o u l d be

180 b e t w e e n t h e m a g i s t r a t e s a m o n g s t t h e m s e l v e s and t o w a r d s su b ord in ates; rela tio n s,

and, what a c t i o n s

p o litic a l

and w o r k s a r i s e f r o m t h e s e

p h ilo so p h y ,

o n ly ,

d e a ls w ith th e

d i s p o s i t i o n o f t h e m ind s o f t h e p e o p l e and t h e m o r a ls o f the

state.

P o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y and l a w s h a v e a m u t u a l r e ­

l a t i o n to each o t h e r

s i n c e many l a w s a r i s e o u t o f p o l i t i c a l

c o n s i d e r a t i o n s and v i c e v e r s a . Judgment i s

fundam ental to th e

tio n o f th e a f f a ir s o f the

state.

judgment i s b e t t e r th a n s u b t l e o f the

c ity

so lid

judgm ent.

The l e a d e r

acq u ain tan ce w ith th e

s c i e n c e s and a r t s ,

p r a c t i c e d by u s e o f t h e h a n d s , t h e m ind.

Sound, w h o le,

or acute

should have a g e n e r a l

t e n t s and a im s o f t h e

s u c c e s s fu l a d m in istra ­

t h o s e w hich a r e

and t h o s e w h ic h s o l e l y o c cu p y

I n t h i s way h e w o u l d k n o w , t o w h a t e x t e n t ,

i n what way,

in n o v a tio n s

J u stice

were,

human s o c i e t y .

p h ilo so p h ers ta sk to

and,

should be a d m itted t o th e S t a t e o r

be e x p e l l e d from i t . the soul of a l l

con­

is the p reserver, It

is

and, a s i t

part o f the

t r e a t o f l a v / and t o p l a c e l a w o n a

p h ilo so p h ica l b a s is .

T h o s e who made d e c r e e s e s t a b l i s h i n g

th e a n c ie n t p o p u la r la w s , were p h ilo s o p h e r s . C h a p t e r IV d e a l s w i t h t h e sh ould be a b le to

(3)

A law yer

i n t e r p r e t t h e g o o d and t h e r i g h t

C o n d itio n s o f good l e g i s l a t i o n known b y a l l ,

study o f law .

they

demand ( 1 )

should be w r it t e n

in law s.

t h a t la w s m ust be i n few ,

but

181 a p p r o p r i a t e words,' (3) form ,

they

and i n t h e v e r n a c u l a r ,

d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f men. severe fo r th e strong; (5)

should appear i n (4)

an i n t e l l i g i b l e

la w s sh o u ld be adapted to

T h e y s h o u l d be m i l d f o r t h e w e a k ; and d e t e r m i n e d f o r t h e o b s t i n a t e ;

th ey sh ou ld m a in ta in p ea ce.

Laws s h o u ld n ot o n l y p r e ­

s e r v e h a r m o n y among t h e c i t i z e n s t h e m s e l v e s , w h o le r a c e o f mankind w h ose r e l i g i o u s r e g a r d e d by c i t i z e n s a s c a r e f u l l y

con d ition

sh ould be

as th e fa m ily concord w ith ­

in the th r esh o ld .

(6)

a t t i t u d e toward t h e

ed u cation o f youth.

th e

but i n t h e

They s h o u ld be c o n s t r u c t i v e i n t h e i r They s h o u l d f o l l o w

e x a m p l e o f t h e P e r s i a n s who t h r o u g h t h e i r l a w s p r e v e n t

ev il

d e e d s b e i n g d o n e by t h e i r

from t h e v e r y f i r s t

c itize n s.

T h eir law s p rovid e

t h a t c a r e b e t a k e n t h a t no o n e g r o w s

up d e s i r o u s o f c o m m i t t i n g a w i c k e d o r f o u l d e e d . p e o p le sh ould have a r i g h t to

d elib era te over

o n them b e f o r e t h e l a w s

are f ix e d

founded on r e a so n ^ ,

The c i t y

p r e te r s o f th e law s.

(8)

or decreed.

books o f law a c c e s s i b l e

(9)

The

l a w s and v o t e A ll law i s

should p r o v id e w i s e i n t e r ­

The nu mber p r a c t i c i n g

s io n sh o u ld be l i m i t e d .

(7)

it

as a p r o fe s ­

Laws s h o u l d b e t a u g h t b y m a k i n g

and by h a v in g m e e t i n g s where t h o u g h t ­

f u l men c a n c o n s u l t t o g e t h e r o n t h e l a w s .

Legal d isp u ta ­

t i o n s sh ou ld ta k e p la c e

amongst t h e m s e l v e s

pu b lic

p r a i s e s t h e o l d Roman Law, s a y i n g

is

assem b ly.

Y ives

th e m ost e x c e l l e n t o f w r i t t e n la w s .

and n o t i n

The p r a c t i c a l

a

sid e

it

182 o f th e stu d y o f law c o n s i s t s g o o d and t h e

in the r a t i o n a l i z i n g o f th e

ju st in the law s.

The s u b j e c t o f C h a p t e r I i n t h e A p p e n d i x i s t h e "Aim o f S t u d i e s . "

V ives

a g r e e s w i t h S e n e c a t h a t many men

w ou ld a t t a i n t o t r u e l e a r n i n g i f t h e y £ad a l r e a d y a t t a i n e d i t .

th ey d id not b e lie v e

that

He a g r e e s w i t h L u c i l i u s

t h a t a man m u s t go o n l e a r n i n g a s l o n g a s h e i s

ign oran t o f

an yth in g.

H ealth i s

very im portant,

students.

D ia lectic

and r h e t o r i c a r e t h e m e a n s o f k n o w l e d g e ,

n o t know ledge i t s e l f . t h a n by a m a s t e r .

b o t h f o r t e a c h e r s and

T h e y a r e b e t t e r . t a u g h t u s by n a t u r e

L e a r n e d men m u s t rem em ber t h a t t h e y

r e c e i v e d ' t h e i r wisdom from God. L earn in g c o n s i s t s o f fo u r f a c t o r s ; ca p a city ,

(£)

The f i r s t

three o f th e se

is

judgm ent,

to be p r a i s e d

a p p lica tio n .

it

(3)

(1)

m em ory, a n d ( 4 )

come f r o m G o d .

natural

a p p lica tio n .

I f a l e a r n e d man

sh ou ld be b e c a u s e .h e h a s th e l a s t power,

The l e a r n e d man h a s n o t h i n g t o b o a s t a b o u t .

We s h o u l d p r a y t o God who g i v e s u s e v e r y t h i n g a n d who w o r k s th r o u g h u s t h a t our l e a r n i n g be tu rn ed to s h o u l d p r a y b e f o r e we p r o c e e d t o fla tte r

ign ora n t p r in c e s .

everyone i s tongue.

study.

We

L e a r n e d men do n o t

T h e.m ass o f p e o p le

suppose t h a t

a l e a r n e d man who - w r i t e s o r s p e a k s t h e L a t i n

P r in c e s should be p r a is e d

be r e p r o v e d ,

our good.

sp a rin g ly .

but w ith o u t b i t t e r n e s s or fa g e .

They s h o u ld S ch o la rs

s h o u l d n o t work m e r e l y f o r t h e p r a i s e o f p o s t e r i t y .

For

183 w h a t God g i v e s u s f r e e l y , it

on o t h e r s .

h e r e w a r d s u s am ply i f we b e s t o w

The f r u i t o f a l l

stu d ies,

the g o a l,

is

th is,

. . . h a v i n g a c q u i r e d o u r k n o w l e d g e we m u s t t u r n i t t o u s e f u l n e s s and e m p l o y i t t o a common g o o d . . . . We m u s t s t u d y a l l b r a n c h e s o f l e a r n i n g f o r t h a t u s e f o r w h i c h t h e y w e r e a p p o i n t e d by G o d . Our s t u d y m u s t be a ttu n ed to p r a c t i c a l u s e f u l n e s s in l i f e . For t h i s p u r p o s e p r a c t i c a l wisdom i s n e c e s s a r y . 43 C h a p ter I I d e a l s w ith th e s c h o l a r and t h e w o r ld , The l e a r n e d man a l w a y s w i l l r e f l e c t t h a t o t h e r s may l o o k u p o n h i m a n d i m i t a t e h i m , t o t h e i r h ar m , a n d t h a t t h e r e f o r e h e m u s t b e a r h i m s e l f a s b e c o m e s a w i s e man, i . e . , as an i m i t a t o r o f C h r i s t . He w i l l w i s h t o do good to o th e r s , not to secu re a la r g e school o f p u p ils . He w i l l w i s h t o be o f s u c h a f f a b i l i t y and e a s e o f c o n ­ d u c t t h a t o t h e r s w i l l d e s i r e t o b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h him and t o p r e s e r v e f r i e n d s h i p w i t h h i m when o n c e b e g u n . C r i t i c i s m , and t h e m ethod t o be a d o p te d i n g i v i n g i t . 44 It

is

t h e w o r k o f a l e a r n e d man t o p a s s o n h i s l e a r n i n g t o

o t h e r s and a s i t

w e r e f r o m h i s own l i g h t

t h e m inds o f o t h e r s .

A d isp u ta tio n

d i s c u s s i o n r a th e r than a h o s t i l e men s h o u l d n e i t h e r ly to

to k in d le l i g h t

in

sh ou ld be a f r i e n d l y

fig h t fo r v icto ry .

judge an oth er or have to l i s t e n

a judgment p a s s e d on t h e m s e l v e s .

Learned u n w illin g ­

They s h o u ld w a i t f o r

judgm ent by t h e c o u r t o f God. Chapter I I I t r e a t s o f a s c h o l a r ’ s d i f f i c u l t i e s . L e a r n e d men a r e a d m o n i s h e d t o b e p r e p a r e d a g a i n s t u n avoid ab le d a r ts o f envy. S u g g e s t io n s are o f f e r e d to t h o s e who a r e f i t t e d t o b e c o m e a u t h o r s a s to t h e c o n ­ s i d e r a t i o n s to b e borne i n m ind, b e f o r e t h e y b r i n g

43 Ib id .,

pp. 283-84.

Ib id .,

p.

44 285.

184 t h e i r work t o

the lig h t

o f day by p u b l i c a t i o n . 45

SUMMARY OF CHAPTER VI AND V I I B e fo re p ro ceed in g to a d is c u s s io n o f th e reform s i n a u g u r a t e d by V i v e s , f i c a n c e o f V ives* to

or to a c o n sid era tio n o f th e s ig n i­

w ritin g s in g en era l,

r e v i e w an a d e q u a te

have been review ed in

it

has been n ecessary

sam p lin g o f h i s w ork s. con sid erab le

d e t a i l and num erous

e x c e r p ts have been g iv e n becau se o f th e f a c t works are very sc a r c e i n t h i s Indeed, a v a ila b le

The b o o k s

t h a t V ives*

country.

t h e r e a r e no E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n s

at a ll

f o r m ost o f t h e w o rk s and p o s s i b l y o n l y one

sou rce f o r works i n th e o r i g i n a l .

The p a r t i a l t r a n s l a t i o n

C oncerning th e R e l i e f o f th e Poor i s Tudor- S c h o o l Boy L i f e G reat B r it a in ,

now o u t o f p r i n t ;

and On E d u c a t i o n , b e i n g p r i n t e d

are d i f f i c u l t

in

t o p r o c u r e tTf o r t h e d u r a t i o n . * *

W a t s o n ' s R e n a s c e n c e E d u c a t i o n o f Women, w h i c h h a s b e e n r e fe r r e d to b r i e f l y

is

p u b l i s h e d i n New York a s w e l l a s i n

London. T h e s e tw>

chapters have tr ie d

r e fe r e n c e through s o c i o l o g i c a l a com p lete l i s t

d e fin itio n s.

o f V iv e s m ajor w ork s.

im portant c o n tr ib u tio n s in th e f i e l d s ed u cation .

t o s e t up a f r a m e o f • T h ey h a v e g i v e n

They h a v e a n a l y z e d of

so cio lo g y

and

Of t h e two b o o k s d e a l i n g w i t h w a r , t h e f i r s t

c a l l e d on Pope A d ria n to h a n d le t h e problem o f t h e

in tern ecin e

185 s tr u g g le s o f the I t a l i a n C h ristian

states

c ity -sta tes

and t o u n i f y t h e

i n a common c r u s a d e a g a i n s t t h e T u r k s ;

t h e s e c o n d c a l l e d u p o n t h e Homan E m p e r o r C h a r l e s V, t o t a k e t h e l e a d i n t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f p r a c t i c a l C h r i s t i a n i t y among C h r is t ia n m onarchs, t o th e among t h e m s e l v e s and s e t

e n d t h a t t h e y m i g h t make p e a c e

exam ples o f good con d u ct w orthy o f

e m u l a t i o n by t h e i r s u b j e c t s . V i v e s ’ r e v o l u t i o n a r y book on P o o r R e l i e f p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e c a r e o f t h e p o o r h a s become a c i v i c r esp o n sib ility . the

crisis

Here V i v e s d e s c r i b e s f i r s t

con fron tin g th e c it y

h i s t h e o r i e s a s to

of Bruges,

how p o o r r e l i e f m a y ,

and s t a t e the

causes of

and t h e n e x p l a i n s

and s h o u l d b e ,

adm ini s t e r e d . The summary o f in to

six

h isto ry ;

sectio n s* (4)

e d u c a tio n a l works has been d iv id e d

(1)

p h ilo so p h y ,

m ethodology;

t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e

(5)

moral

of tea ch in g .

sid e r e d under p h ilo so p h y .

(2)

p sych ology;

ed u cation ;

(5)

and ( 6 )

Two b o o k s h a v e b e e n c o n ­

The f i r s t

o f t h e s e d e a ls w ith

t h e c l a s h o f p h i l o s o p h i e s b e t w e e n t h e S c h o l a s t i c s and Human­ ists;

th e second,

p h ilo so p h y ,

t r e a t s o f the

e v o lu t io n a r y growth o f

U n d e r p s y c h o l o g y , V i v e s ’ g r e a t p r o d u c t i o n De

Anima e t V i t a h a s b e e n r e v i e w e d i n

some d e t a i l .

T h is book

s t r e s s e s t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a s i s o f human a c t i o n , cusses, tio n ,

among o t h e r t o p i c s ,

in te llig en ce ,

sen sa tio n s,

m em o r y , w i l l ,

in stin cts,

em otion s,

and d i s ­ im agin a­

and i m m o r t a l i t y .

186 The b o o k , C a u s e s o f t h e C o r r u p t i o n o f t h e & r t s , i s o f the

s e c t i o n on h i s t o r y *

resum e o f s o c i a l o f th eology, v ersity

change s i n c e i t

io ra tio n ;

an e x c e l l e n t h i s t o r i c a l

traces,

w ith th e

excep tion

t h e d e v e l o p m e n t and d e c l i n e o f t h e w h o l e u n i ­

cu rricu lu m .

review s,

T h is i s

the b a s is

in turn,

The n e g a t i v e

the general

sid e i s

em p hasized.

V ives

causes o f ed u cation al d e te r ­

th e decay o f la n g u age,

d ia lec tic s,

s c i e n c e s an d m a t h e m a t i c s , m o r a l p h i l o s o p h y ,

gram m ar , and l a w .

Three books were ch osen f o r r e v ie w i n t h e f i e l d m eth od ology.

The f i r s t w o rk , P l a n s o f S t u d y f o r Young

P e o p l e t was w r i t t e n seven,

of

f o r t h e P r i n c e s s Mary, t h e n a c h i l d o f

and f o r C h a r l e s Mount j o y ,

Lord C h am b erlain .

so n o f Queen C a t h e r i n e ’ s

The s e c o n d w o r k , L a t i n D i a l o g u e s w a s

d ed ica ted to P h ilip

I I of S p ain ,

l a t e r the consort of the

p r i n c e s s when s h e r u l e d E n g l a n d a s Mary I . T h e t h i r d work^S w a s d e d i c a t e d t o Q u e en C a t h e r i n e , h erself,

a n d w as i n t h e n a t u r e o f a t r i b u t e

em p hasis o f t h i s

book i s

l a r g e l y on m o ra ls.

c h a r a c t e r b u i l d i n g was o n e o f tio n a l viz.,

to h e r .

Td V i v e s ,

th e m ost im p ortan t o f educa­

a i m s a s sh o w n i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o n t h e aim o f the sc h o la r ’ s goal

The

stu d ies,

s h o u l d b e t o be a p p ro v e d o f God.

T h ese t h r e e works a l l

e m p h a s i z e t h e same p o i n t , — t h e

develop m en t o f a h ig h m oral sta n d a r d .

The p l a n s o f s t u d y a r e

46 R ichard H yrde, Woman, W a t s o n , o p . c i t . ,

tra n sla to r,

E d u cation o f a C h r is t ia n

187 b a s e d l a r g e l y on t h e

study o f the b e st in l i t e r a t u r e ,

a c q u i s i t i o n o f good L a t i n s p e e c h , i n an e l e g a n t

sty le.

and t h e w r i t i n g

The S x e r c i t a t i o

the

of L atin

b u i l d s up a w o r k i n g

L a t i n v o c a b u la r y from i n c i d e n t s o f t h e

e v er y day l i f e

of a

w e l l - b o r n s c h o o l - b o y ; The C h r i s t i a n Woman s e t s up t h e s t a n d a r d s o f p i e t y and e f f i c i e n t

h o u s e h o l d management

e x p e c t e d from a d a u g h t e r o f t h e n o b i l i t y . Two l i t t l e

b r o c h u r e s , Ad S a p i e n t i a m and S a t e l l i t i u m ,

are review ed i n th e

s e c t i o n on m oral e d u c a t i o n .

m anu als were t o be r e a d , C h ild ’ s th in k in g .

stu d ied ,

and made a p a r t o f t h e

T h e i r p o p u l a r i t y a n d t i m e l i n e s s may b e

e s t i m a t e d f r o m t h e l a r g e number o f tio n s lis t e d

These

e d i t i o n s and t r a n s l a ­

by B o n i l l a .

The s e c t i o n o n t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e o f t e a c h i n g

is

b a sed e n t i r e l y on a r e v i e w o f V i v e s 1 t e x t b o o k on E d u c a tio n , De T r a d e n d i s D l s c i p l i n i s . o f ed u cation al t r a in in g .

On E d u c a t i o n c o v e r s e v e r y p h a s e The b o o k w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d a t

some l e n g t h i n C h a p t e r V I I I .

S u ffic e

it

to

say h e r e t h a t

V iv e s f e e l s t h a t know ledge i s v a l u e l e s s u n l e s s p u t t o u s e , and t h a t t h e h i g h e s t u s e t o ’’ common g o o d . "

w hich i t

He a d v o c a t e s l i f e - l o n g

t i o n w hich i n c l u d e s t r a i n i n g o f t h e so c io lo g y , sib ility

can be put i s f o r t h e e d u c a tio n --a n educa­

em otion s, p r a c t ic a l

c o m m u n i t y and p e r s o n a l h e a l t h ,

fo r ed u cation o f th e poor.

and c i v i c

respon­

188 C hapter V I I I , d e fin itio n s

w hich f o l l o w s ,

w ill

a g a i n s e t up

a s a b a s i s o f m e a s u r e m e n t and w i l l p r o c e e d t o

a d i s c u s s i o n o f V i v e s ’ v i e w s on s u c h s o c i a l p r o b l e m s a s war, p o v e r ty ,

l a w and e d u c a t i o n ,

f o r reform i n t h e s e

to g e th e r w ith

su g g estio n s

field s.

C h a p t e r s VI a n d V I I h a v e h a d , n e c e s s a r i l y ,

to d iffe r

from r e su m e s g i v e n on a u t h o r s w h ose b o o k s a r e r e a d i l y a ccessib le

for referen ce.

I n o r d e r t o o b t a i n t h e m a t e r i a l f r o m w h i c h t o make these d ig e sts,

i t was n e c e s s a r y t o sen d t o E n glan d t o p u r ­

c h a s e W a t s o n ’ s b o o k s , 5 4 an d t o t h e C i t y o f M e x i c o f o r B o n illa ’s.

A u th en tic tr a n s la tio n s

and i m p o r t a n t c r i t i c a l

m o n o g r a p h s w e r e o b t a i n e d o n l y a f t e r much e x p e n d i t u r e o f t i m e and e n e r g y .

F o r t h i s r e a s o n , t h e s u r v e y o f V i v e s ’ -works

g i v e n i n t h e s e t w o c h a p t e r s c o n t a i n s m o r e e x c e r p t s and f u l l e r d e s c r i p t i v e m a t e r i a l than w ou ld have been n e c e s s a r y o th erw ise.

The s u m m a r i e s o f V i v e s ’ w o r k s g i v e n i n C h a p t e r s V I and

V3I a r e u s e d a s a b a s i s f o r t h e d i s c u s s i o n s i n C h a p t e r V I I I . T h i s h a s b e e n d o n e so t h a t s t u d e n t s o f e d u c a t i o n m i g h t h a v e b e f o r e them m a t e r i a l s u g g e s t i v e o f V i v e s ’ m ethod o f t r e a t ­ m e n t o f p r o b l e m s i n hum an r e l a t i o n s h i p s . V II, is

then,

C h a p t e r s VI and

are p r im a rily d e s c r ip t iv e in nature.

C hapter V III

in terp reta tiv e.

54 The R e n a s c e n c e E d u c a t i o n o f Women e x c e p t e d .

CHAPTER VIII SOCIAL AM) EDUCATIONAL REFORMS INTRODUCTION In order to to

h a v e a b a s i s f o r c o m p a r i s o n fr o m w h ic h

e v a lu a t e V iv e s* w o r k s,

c e r ta in

so c io lo g ic a l

w e r e s e t o u t a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f C h a p t e r VI*

d e fin itio n s I t w a s sh o w n

t h a t s o c i a l p r o b l e m s a r o s e w h en g r o u p v a l u e s w e r e t h r e a t e n e d a nd t h a t m a l a d j u s t m e n t s i n t h e

in s titu tio n a l

a r e a s f o l l o w e d a f t e r t e c h n o l o g i c a l c h a n g e s had t a k e n p l a c e in th e m a te r ia l c u ltu r e .

S im ila r ly ,

a d e fin itio n o f

m o v e m e n ts m u s t fo r m t h e p o i n t o f d e p a r t u r e f o r t h i s

so c ia l ch a p ter.

DEFINITIONS B a c k g r o u n d s o f g e n e r a l s o c i a l m o v e m e n t s a r e m ade up o f gradual changes o f c u ltu r a l v a lu e s in th e c o l l e c t i v e group t h in k in g .

T h e s e c h a n g e s a r e r e f e r r e d t o b y B lu m e r

a s wc u l t u r a l d r i f t s . " Such c u lt u r a l d r i f t s sta n d f o r a g e n e r a l s h i f t i n g i n t h e i d e a s o f p eo p le* p a r t i c u l a r l y a lo n g t h e l i n e o f t h e c o n c e p t i o n s w h ic h p e o p l e h a v e o f t h e m s e l v e s , and o f t h e i r r i g h t s a n d p r i v i l e g e s . O v er a p e r i o d o f t i m e many p e o p l e may d e v e l o p a hew v i e w o f w h a t th e y b e lie v e th e y are e n t i t l e d to ^ -a v ie w l a r g e ly m ade up o f d e s i r e s a n d h o p e s . I t s i g n i f i e s th e e m e r g e n c e o f a n ew s e t o f v a l u e s , w h ic h i n f l u e n c e p e o p l e i n t h e way i n w h i c h t h e y l o o k u p o n t h e i r own liv e s . E x a m p le s o f s u c h c u l t u r a l d r i f t s i n o u r own recen t h is to r y are th e in c r e a se d v a lu e o f h e a lth , th e b e lie f i n f r e e e d u c a tio n , t h e e x te n s io n o f t h e fr a n ­ c h i s e , t h e e m a n c i p a t i o n o f wom en, t h e i n c r e a s i n g

190 regard f o r c h ild r e n , o f s c ie n c e .!

and t h e i n c r e a s i n g p r e s t i g e

T h ese c u lt u r a l d r i f t s a r e ,

at f i r s t ,

4 s th e y c o n s o lid a t e , propaganda b e g in s . sh o w in g o b j e c t i o n s t o

L ite r a tu r e appears

c o n d i t i o n s a s t h e y a r e and s e t t i n g up

U to p ia n g o a l s a s t h i n g s t h a t m ig h t b e . i n g t o B lu m e r, i s

u n o r g a n iz e d .

T h is p h a s e ,

th e ^ v o ic e s -in -th e -w ild e r n e ss"

w h i c h t h e p i o n e e r s h a v e no d e f i n i t e

p e r io d ,

in

f o l l o w i n g and a r e s t i l l

u n c e r t a i n a b o u t t h e i r own o b j e c t i v e s .

The g e n e r a l s o c i a l

m o v em en t s t a r t s t h r o u g h u n d e r g r o u n d c h a n n e l s . th ro u g h r e a d in g , d i s c u s s i o n s ,

accord­

e x a m p l e s and i s

I t sp reads la r g e ly

a

m a tter o f c o n v e r sio n o f in d iv id u a l a d h e r e n ts.

S p e c ific

s o c i a l m o v e m e n t s come f r o m t h e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n

o f th ese

c u lt u r a l d r ifts .* * The o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s p e c i f i c o u tcom e o f f i v e v iz ., (c)

(a )

c o n t r i b u t i n g m ec h a n ism s,

a g ita tio n ,

(b)

and (e )

A g ita tio n i s

a c co r d in g to

th e

B lu m e r,

d e v e lo p m e n t o f e s p r i t d e c o r p s ,

d e v e lo p m e n t o f m o r a le ,

id e o lo g y ,

s o c i a l m o v e m e n ts i s

(d)

t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f an

t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f o p e r a t i n g t a c t i c s . ®

n e c e s s a r y t o b r e a k p e o p le l o o s e fro m t r a d i ­

t io n a l p o in t s o f v ie w ,

r o u s e th e m f r o m t h e i r i n e r t i a ,

and

1 I n R i c h a r d C. F u l l e r , e t a l . , e d i t o r R o b e r t 1 . P a r k , JUi O u t l i n e o f t h e P r i n c i p l e s o f S o c i o l o g y (New Y o r k : B a r n e s an d N o b l e , 193&) , p . 2 5 6 . 2 I b id ., p . 258. 3 I b id ., p . 260.

191 fo c u s t h e ir e n e r g ie s*

In tim e s o f c r i s i s ,

t h e r e are a lw a y s

tw o t e c h n i q u e s n e c e s s a r y — t h e o n e t o a p p e a l t o t h e le th a r g ic

ty p e o f in d iv id u a l;

or th e r e s e n tfu l ty p e .

H ence,

a g ita to r s are n ecessary: th e o th e r ,

c a u stic ,

th e o th e r , fo r th e

q u ie t,

e x c ita b le

B lu m e r t h i n k s tw o t y p e s o f

t h e o n e , d y n a m ic a n d a g g r e s s i v e ; sa tir ic a l.

E sp r it de c o rp s

fo r m s an e m o tio n a l bond i n t h e r e v o l t i n g g r o u p ; m o r a le g i v e s t h e d e t e r m in a t io n and e n d u r a n c e .

B o t h a c r e e d a nd a l i t e r a ­

tu r e are n e c e s s a r y in g r e d ie n t s to t h e b u ild in g o f m o r a le . H ence,

an i d e o l o g y becom es t h e n e x t im p o r ta n t p h a se o f

d e v e lo p m e n t. T h is id e o lo g y i s a lm o st c e r t a i n t o b e o f a tw o ­ fo ld ch a ra cter. I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , m uch o f i t i s e r u d i t e and s c h o l a r l y . T h i s i s t h e fo r m i n w h i c h i t i s d e v e l o p e d b y t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l s o f t h e m o v e m e n t. I t i s l i k e l y to c o n s i s t o f e l a b o r a t e t r e a t i s e s o f an a b s t r a c t an d h i g h l y l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r . I t g r o w s up u s u a lly in resp o n se to th e c r it ic is m o f o u ts id e i n t e l l e c t u a l s , and s e e k s t o g a i n f o r i t s t e n e t s a r e s p e c t a b l e and d e f e n s i b l e p o s i t i o n i n t h i s w o r l d o f h ig h e r le a r n in g and h ig h e r i n t e l l e c t u a l v a l u e s . The id e o lo g y h a s a n o th e r c h a r a c t e r , how ever— a p o p u la r ch a ra cter. I n t h i s g u i s e , i t s e e k s t o appeed t o t h e u n e d u c a t e d and t o t h e m a s s e s . In i t s p o p u la r c h a r a c t e r , t h e i d e o l o g y t a k e s t h e form o f e m o t io n a l s y m b o ls , s h i b b o l e t h s , s t e r e o t y p e s , sm ooth and g r a p h ic p h r a s e s , and f o l k a r g u m e n ts . I t d e a ls , a l s o , w ith t h e t e n e t s o f t h e m ovem en t, b u t p r e s e n t s th e m i n a f o r m t h a t m a k e s f o r t h e i r r e a d y c o m p r e h e n s i o n and c o n s u m p tio n .4 V iv e s v e ry d e f i n i t e l y sc h o la r ly group.

4 Ib id .,

p . 268

b e lo n g s to t h e e r u d it e

and

T h e i d e o l o g y o f a m o v e m e n t, c o n t i n u e s B l u m e r , n o t o n ly p r o v id e s i t s

p h i l o s o p h y and p s y c h o l o g y b u t ,

I t g iv e s a s e t o f v a lu e s, a s e t o f c o n v ic tio n s, a s e t o f c r i t i c i s m s , a s e t o f a r g u m e n t s , and a s e t o f d efen ses. A s s u c h , i t f u r n i s h e s t o a m ov em en t ( a ) d i r e c t i o n , (b ) j u s t i f i c a t i o n , ( c ) w e a p o n s o f a t t a c k , (d ) w e a p o n s o f d e f e n s e , a n d ( e) i n s p i r a t i o n and h o p e . To b e e f f e c t i v e i n t h e s e r e s p e c t s * t h e i d e o l o g y m u s t c a r r y r e s p e c t a b i l i t y and p r e s t i g e — a c h a r a c t e r t h a t i s ‘ ~ r i m a r i l y by t h e i n t e l l i g e n t s i a o f t h e It is

o b v io u s ly im p o s s ib le to e s t im a t e th e e x t e n t

o r t h e im p o rta n ce o f V i v e s f c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e r e fo r m s o f h i s ow n a n d s u c c e e d i n g e r a s w i t h o u t k n o w in g t o whom h e add ressed h is w r itin g s ,

what h i s m essa g e w a s,

and w hat he

th o u g h t h i s m is s io n w as. VIVES* DEDICATIONS T u r n in g back t o t h e b o o k s r e v ie w e d i n C h a p te r s VI and V I I ,

i t w i l l be i n t e r e s t i n g to

d e d ic a te d .

n o t e t o whom t h e y w e r e

D £ K uropae D i s s i d i i s w as i n s c r i b e d to P op e

A d r i a n V I ; C o n c o r d i a e t D i s c o r d i a i n Humano G e n e r e t o C h a r l e s V; D e S u b v e n t i o n e P a u p er u m t o t h e S e n a t e o f B r u g e s ; In P s e u d o - P ia le c t ic o s to

a fe llo w

stu d en t s t i l l

a tte n d in g

t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f P a r i s , J o h n F o r t i s ; De I n i t i i s , S e c t i s e t L a u d i b u s P h i l o s o p h i a e t o C o u n t Herman d e N e e u w e n d e r ; De A nim a e t V i t a t o

t h e D u k e o f Be j a r ; Dei D i s c i p l i n i s t o

M a n o e l , I I I , K i n g o f P o r t u g a l ; D

(3)

(1)

k n o w led g e,

p a r tic ip a tio n in a so c ia l

sp ir itu a l ta n ce,

a d ju stm en t.

(1)

(3 )

and ( 4 )

L ife g o a ls a r e ,

m oral e x c e l l e n c e ,

and g o o d s e n s e ,

group,

h e a lth ,

(2 )

(2)

e m o t i o n a l and

i n o r d e r o f im p o r ­

in te llig e n c e ,

and ( 4 )

H is edu­

le a r n in g ,

w e a l t h and r e s o u r c e s .

The c o n s u m m a tio n o f a l i f e - t i m e o f e n d e a v o r i s

" to be

a p p r o v e d o f G od ." A fifth

i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n i s "What c h a n g e s d o e s

V iv e s su g g e s t in e d u c a tio n a l p r a c tic e " ? rejected

a u th o r ita r ia n is m , p la c e s

in d u c tiv e b a s is ,

V iv e s , h a v in g

e d u c a t i o n o n an e m p i r i c a l ,

s t r e s s i n g le a r n in g b a sed on s e n s e o b s e r v a ­

t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e x p e r i e n c e .

The r e s u l t s o f

284 o b s e r v a t i o n s sh o u ld b e c o l l e c t e d , th e t e s t s o f r ea so n , c ip le s u n d e r ly in g , covered,

su b jected to

and a s e a r c h made f o r t h e g e n e r a l p r i n ­

sa y s V iv e s.

sh o u ld be a p p lie d .

s c ie n tific

e v a lu a te d ,

P r i n c i p l e s h a v in g b e e n d i s ­

He t h u s a d v o c a t e d m o d e r n

research.

V iv e s s u g g e s t s t h a t a y o u th sh o u ld be t r a i n e d t o s o c i a l a s w e l l a s an i n t e l l e c t u a l b e in g . e m p h a sis on s u p e r v is e d p l a y , c it y o f fo o d ,

dress,

d ie t,

be a

He p l a c e s g r e a t

c le a n lin e s s ,

and s i m p l i ­

and m a n n e r s .

T h ese c h a n g e s a re n o t y e t f u l l y "new" e d u c a t i o n o f t o d a y ,

in c o r p o r a te d in th e

e v en th o u g h th e m ost p r o g r e s s i v e

p r o g r a m s i n c l u d e s o c i a l i z a t i o n t h r o u g h s h a r e d e x p e r i e n c e s and p h y s i c a l f i t n e s s th ro u g h r e c r e a t i o n ,

e x e r c i s e , d i e t and

c le a n lin e ss. V iv e s s t r e s s e s o p e n -m in d ed n e ss a s an im p e r a t iv e need o f th 6 d a y . o r ig in s ;

He a d v i s e s s u c h t e c h n i q u e s a s i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f

search fo r r e la t io n s h ip ;

th e d e v e lo p m e n ta l approach

to h i s t o r y ; p l a c in g o f i n c i d e n t s i n b o th t h e i r g e o g r a p h ic a l and h i s t o r i c a l

background;

e m p h a s is o n t h e c o n s t r u c t i v e

con­

t r i b u t i o n s made b y man r a t h e r an e n u m e r a t i o n o f b a t t l e s ; fin a lly ,

and

n s e e k i n g T r u t h w h e r e v e r s h e may b e f o u n d 0 s i n c e

"much o f T r u t h h a s b e e n l e f t f o r f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s t o d is c o v e r .0 V iv e s lo o k s upon e d u c a tio n a l p r a c t i c e a s a s c ie n c e b a s e d on t h e l a w s o f l e a r n i n g .

To h im , l e a r n i n g c o n s i s t s o f

285 fo u r f a c t o r s : memory;

(4 )

(1)

n a tu ra l

a p p lic a tio n *

c a p a c ity ;

in in d iv id u a l d if f e r e n c e s ,

p u p il’s c a p a c itie s. process.

He c a l l s

j u d g m e n t;

(3)

I n t e l l e c t a ls o h as fo u r a s p e c ts :

i n t e l l i g e n c e , m em ory, r e a s o n ,

co n feren ces o f te a c h e r s,

(2 )

and j u d g m e n t .

he a d v is e s t e s t s ,

As he b e l i e v e s g u id a n c e ,

and a p r o g r a m s u i t e d t o t h e

He a s s e r t s t h a t l e a r n i n g i s an a c t i v e a t t e n t io n to th e

a s s o c ia t io n o f id e a s

and t h e u s e o f l e a r n i n g c u e s s u c h a s w r i t i n g , r e a d i n g o u t lo u d , l is t e n in g a t t e n t iv e l y , He s u g g e s t s l e a r n i n g f i r s t and p r o c e e d i n g f r o m t h e

c o m p i l i n g and u s i n g n o t e b o o k s .

in term s o f # i o l e s ,

th e n e le m e n ts;

s im p le to t h e co m p lex .

He r e c o g n i z e s

t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e and s u g g e s t s e m o t i o n a l a p p e a l a s a m eans o f m o t i v a t i o n . H i s sc h e m e o f e d u c a t i o n p r o v i d e s f o r t h e p o o r a s w e l l a s t h e r i c h , g i r l s a s w e l l a s b o y s , and b o t h y o u n g a n d o l d . He recom m ends t h a t t h e o r p h a n e d p o o r b e t a u g h t t h e t r a d e s f o r w h i c h t h e y show a p t i t u d e .

In deed , he f e e l s th a t a l l

s o c i a l c l a s s e s sh o u ld be a c q u a in te d w ith th e p r a c t i c a l p h ases o f l i f e ,

i n c l u d i n g c r a f t s and c o m m e rc e, and s h o u l d

en joy th e b ea u ty o f n a tu r e . W h i l e V i v e s c o n s i d e r s h i s t o r y t h e su p r em e d i s c i p l i n e , h e p la c e s la n g u a g e secon d in ran k . he b e lie v e s ,

lie s

I t s p r im a ry f u n c t i o n ,

i n s o c i a l co m m u n ica tio n .

t h e r e f o r e , v e r y im p o r ta n t.

Speech i s ,

He a d v o c a t e s l e a r n i n g t h e

286 v e r n a c u la r from t h e m o th e r i n i n f a n c y . e a r ly sch o o l in s tr u c tio n a lso .

He b e l i e v e s t h a t

sh o u ld be g iv e n i n th e v e r n a c u la r ,

He a d v i s e s t h 6 s t u d y o f p h i l o l o g y and p o e t r y .

i n s i s t s on c o r r e c t p r o n u n c ia tio n , and e l e g a n c e o f d i c t i o n .

He

an e x t e n s i v e v o c a b u la r y ,

He b e l i e v e s t h a t l a n g u a g e i s

a

d y n a m ic p r o c e s s t h a t s h o u l d b e d e v e l o p e d b y u s e r a t h e r t h a n by e x c l u s i v e d e p e n d en ce o n g r a m m a tica l r u l e s . l in g u i s t h im se lf,

B e in g a

h e s u g g e s t s t h e s t u d y o f G re ek a s w e l l

a s L a t i n , and H eb rew i f

tim e p e im it s .

n e s s i n w r i t t e n and s p o k e n L a t i n .

He dem ands c o r r e c t ­

He b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e

v e r n a c u la r sh o u ld be u se d i n ev ery d a y a f f a i r s . A m o s t i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n and t h e l a s t t o b e a n s w e r e d in t h is

summary i s "H hat i s Y i v e s *

E d u ca tio n " ?

C e r ta in ly i f

p la c e in th e h is to r y of

t h e number o f w o r k s , t o g e t h e r w i t h

r e p e a t e d e d i t i o n s and t r a n s l a t i o n s , w e r e h i s o n l y c o n t r i b u ­ t io n to

e d u c a t i o n h e w o u ld r a t e a n i m p o r t a n t p l a c e i n t h e

h is to r y of

e d u c a tio n .

O v er o n e h u n d r e d e d i t i o n s o f h i s

L a t i n D ia lo g u e s (L in g u a e L a t in a e E x e r c l t a t i o ) T h i s sam e t e x t

are v e r ifie d .

i s e v e n now , i n s l i g h t l y r e v i s e d f o r m , u s e d

in E n g lish s c h o o ls to te a c h o r a l L a tin b eca u se o f th e a p p r o p r ia te n e s s o f i t s v o c a b u la r y t o is

a lso

lis te d

sc h o o l-b o y l i f e .

It

b y C o n y e r s Head a s o n e o f s e v e n i m p o r t a n t

b o o k s o n p e d a g o g y i n t h e w h o l e T u d or p e r i o d b e c a u s e o f t h e v a lu a b le m a te r ia l i t

p r e sen ts o f th e l i f e

o f th e day.

287 As a u t h o r o f a p a m p h le t a g a i n s t t h e F a l s e D i a l e c t i ­ c i a n s , V i v e s p l a y e d a m om en tous r o l e i n t h e b a t t l e

b etw een

t h e o u t - g o i n g and i n - c o m i n g l e a d e r s o f e a r l y s i x t e e n t h c en tu ry e d u c a tio n .

T h i s d ocu m en t s e n t t o

a f r ie n d o f V iv e s

a t t h e S o r b o n n e and c i r c u l a t e d by h im among t h e H u m a n is t s i n P a r i s b r o u g h t t o a c u l m i n a t i o n t h e f e u d b e t w e e n t h e two camps o f l e a r n i n g .

In o th e r w ords, i t

d e fin e d th e is s u e s

a t s t a k e b e t w e e n th e m and f o r c e d t h e w h o l e q u a r r e l o u t i n t o th e open. change.

T h is d ocum ent, a l s o ,

f o r e c a s t s c o m in g e d u c a t i o n a l

M o st s i g n i f i c a n t o f a l l ,

V iv e sf d e f in it e ly

accu ses

t h e S o r b o n n e o f p e r p e t u a t i n g t h e b a r b a r i s m s o f t h e M id d l e A g e s and o f b e i n g r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d e g e n e r a t e u s e o f D ia le c tic s,

in a d d itio n to

o b str u c tin g

t h e New L e a r n i n g .

B e c a u s e o f h i s k e e n m in d , h i s v a s t e r u d i t i o n , w i d e e x p e r ie n c e ,

and v a r i e d t r a i n i n g V i v e s w a s p e c u l i a r l y w e l l

e q u ip p ed t o

v i e w h i s own s o c i a l

h is t o r ic a l p r o g r e ssio n .

str u c tu r e in th e l i g h t o f

H i s t r a i n i n g a s a l a w y e r had

t a u g h t h im t o w e i g h e v i d e n c e , h i s i n t e r e s t i n m e d i c i n e h ad fo c u sse d h is a t t e n t io n on th e p h y sic a l h e a lth o f in d iv id u a ls , and h i s g e n u i n e l o v e f o r h u m a n ity made h im c o n s c i o u s o f s o c ia l needs.

H is a t t i t u d e o f th e

i n t h e s i g h t o f God made i t p o s s ib le fu tu re

e q u a l i t y o f a l l m a n k in d

p o s s i b l e f o r h im t o s e n s e a

s o c i e t y i n w h ic h t h e l i b e r t i e s

o f man w o u ld b e m ore g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d .

and r i g h t s

288 As a r e s u l t o f h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , h e b ecam e c o n ­ v in c e d t h a t th 6 m ost p r e s s in g n eed o f h i s t im e , fie ld

i n w h ic h h e c o u l d u s e h i s

t a le n t s to

an d t h e

th e b e s t advan­

t a g e , was i n th e

e d u c a tio n o f th e p u b lic to

a r e c o g n itio n

o f needed s o c ia l

and c u l t u r a l a d j u s t m e n t t o

corresp ond to

t h e c a t a c ly s m ic s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l u p h e a v a ls . f o r e s e t h i m s e l f to t h e H e r c u l e a n t a s k ,

He t h e r e ­

among o t h e r s , o f

r e - o r g a n i z i n g t h e e d u c a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e and s e t t i n g up an e d u c a t i o n a l p h i l o s o p h y and p r a c t i c e s u i t e d t o t h 6 New A g e , H i s m o st im p o r ta n t* s i n g l e w o r k , e d u c a t i o n a l l y , h i s 0j3 D i s c i p l i n i s , w i t h i t s

two s e c t i o n s ,

v iz .,

is

The C o r­

r u p t i o n o f t h e A r t s , and The T r a n s m i s s i o n o f K n o w l e d g e . The C o r r u p t i o n o f t h e A r t s d e s c r i b e s i n d e t a i l c o n t e m p o r a r y e d u c a t i o n and g i v e s t h e h i s t o r y o f e d u c a t i o n f r o m e a r l i e s t tim e s.

The T r a n s m i s s i o n o f K n o w le d g e a p p r o a c h e s t h e p r o b le m

o f e d u c a t i o n fr o m t h e b a s i s o f a p p l i e d p s y c h o l o g y and c o n ­ t a i n s t h e w h o le f i e l d In a d d itio n ,

it

o f e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e .

s u m m a r iz e s t h e c u l t u r e o f t h e r a c e t o d a t e ,

d i s c u s s e s t h e i m p o r t a n t w r i t i n g s and a c h i e v e m e n t s , and e v a l u a t e s t h e i r t i t l e s up e d u c a t i o n a l g o a l s ,

and a u t h o r s .

and l i s t s

T h i s o n e b o ok s e t s

e x p la in s m eth od s,

d is c u s s e s th e educa­

t i o n a l p rogram f r o m i n f a n c y t o o l d a g e ,

in c lu d e s th e d u t ie s ,

q u a lif ic a t io n s , a n d 'tr a in in g o f te a c h e r s, and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a n d , f i n a l l y , and p i t f a l l s

o f w o u ld -b e a u t h o r s .

sc h o o l o r g a n iz a tio n

c o n c lu d e s w ith th e t r i a l s

£89 The T r a n s m i s s i o n o f K n o w le d g e w a s p r o b a b l y t h e f i r s t t e x t t o be b a s e d on th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r i n ­ c ip le s o f le a r n in g .

I t was t h e o n ly t r e a t i s e , w it h th e

e x c e p t i o n o f Q u i n t i l i a n * s I n s t i t u t e s o f O r a t o r y , up t o t h e s ix t e e n t h c e n tu r y , to be w r itt e n s p e c i f i c a l l y on th e th e o r y and p r a c t i c e o f e d u c a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g w h o le e d u c a t i o n a l program . among h i s

su b ject

con ten t f o r a

Y iv e s , w as, t h e r e f o r e ,

known

c o n tem p o ra r ies a s t h e Secon d Q u i n t i l i a n .

T iv e s*

i n s i g h t in t o p r o b a b le s o c i a l e v o lu t io n l e d

him t o s u g g e s t d r a s t i c

changes in th e

e d u c a tio n a l p r o c e s s .

H i s r e v o l u t i o n a r y s u g g e s t i o n s w e r e s o e s s e n t i a l l y m odern th a t)th e y are not y e t f u l l y e d u c a tio n a l p r a c t ic e . v ie w p o in ts a re: v a tio n s;

(3)

(1 )

in d u c tiv e r e a so n in g ;

l o v e o f n a tu re;

tio n ;

(8 )

(6)

(5)

(2)

sen se ob ser­

e d u c a tio n a l p r a c tic e

r e c o g n itio n o f in d iv id u a l program s;

(7 )

so c ia l

h i s t o r y fr o m a n e v o l u t i o n a r y v i e w p o i n t ;

(12)

th e p r a c tic a l (14)

(4 )

d iffe r e n tia te d

o f th e v e r n a c u la r ; program s;

to d a y ’ s

T he m o s t i m p o r t a n t o f t h e s e m o d ern

b a sed on la w s o f l e a r n i n g ; d iffe r e n c e s;

in c o r p o r a te d in t o

(10)

h e a l t h program ;

t r a i n in g o f th e e m o tio n s; a rts,

(11) (13)

(9 )

educa­ use

r e c r e a tio n c o n ta c t w ith

i n c l u d i n g com m erce and i n d u s t r y ; and

t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f k n o w le d g e t o

t h e common g o o d .

B e c a u s e o f t h e s e p r a c t i c a l i n n o v a t i o n s and b e c a u s e , fr o m t h e r o o t s o f t h e p a s t , lig h t

he f o r e - c a s t th e fu tu r e ,

on t h e e d u c a t io n a l ro a d t o com e, Y i v e s i s

sh ed d in g

a l s o known

290 a s o n e o f t h e g r e a t W ay-B reak ers o f h i s t o r y ; t h o s e g r e a t i n d i v i d u a l s who c o m e , o c c a s i o n a l l y , tr a n sitio n s to th e m i n t o

th e

g a t h e r up stra n d s o f

th e th rea d s o f th e p a st th e fu tu r e .

s e e from th e d e p th s a ch a n g e i s men a r e s p r i n g i n g u p , o f c a llin g

th e ir fe llo w

a t t im e o f m a j o r s o c i a l

In

and w e a v e

h i s own w o r d s ” 1

c o m in g ,

Am ongst a l l n a t i o n s

c le a r in t e ll e c t

. . . .

T h ey a r e

c it iz e n s to lib e r t y . CONCLUSIONS

In o rd er to

a p p r e c ia te th e e d u c a tio n a l s ig n if ic a n c e

o f t h e r e v i v a l o f i n t e r e s t i n V iv e s t h r e e o t h e r im p o r ta n t q u e s t i o n s m ust be a n sw ered : in te r e s t in

V iv es?

s o r e d ? and ( 3 )

(2)

(1 )

I s th ere a r e v iv a l

of

By whom i s t h i s r e a p p e a r a n c e s p o n ­

what are th e

e d u c a tio n a l im p lic a t io n s ,

if

a n y , i n t h e p u b l i c a t i o n s o n , o r b y , V i v e s now a p p e a r i n g i n th e l i t e r a t u r e o f to d a y ? The i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r o f t h i s th a t th e r e v iv a l o f in t e r e s t

stu d y has in d ic a te d

in V iv e s in S p a in b egan a f t e r

t h e p a s s i o n s o f t h e I n q u i s i t i o n h a d s u b s i d e d and a f t e r S p a in , h a v in g fa c e d th e l o s s o f g r e a t p a r t o f h e r im p e r ia l em p ir e , began an i n t e r n a l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n . e x p e n s iv e e ig h t-v o lu m e d e d i t i o n o f

In 1782 th e

v iv e s’ l i f e

and w o r k s

w as p u b l i s h e d u n d e r t h e a u s p i c e s o f t h e A r c h b i s h o p o f

1 S ee p . 130, in fr a .

2 91 V a le n c ia .

T he t i m e c h o s e n w a s r a t h e r u n f o r t u n a t e b e c a u s e ,

sh o r tly a f t e r ,

t h e w h o le o f E u r o p e w a s i n v o l v e d i n t h e

r e p e r c u s s io n s o f th e F rench R e v o lu tio n , th e n in e te e n th

cen tu ry , 1841,

i n t h e m id d le o f

t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f L o u v a in

d e c i d e d t o do h o n o r t o V i v e s and c o m m i s s i o n e d A . J . Nam eche t o w r i t e a m o n o grap h on h i s l i f e

and w o r k s .

I n G erm any,

F . Jk. L a n g e w r o t e h i s fa m o u s m onograph L u d o v i c u s V i v e s , p u b lish e d in th e 1 8 7 0 ’ s . le n g th ,

T h i s m on ograp h d i s c u s s e d ,

at

th e p e d a g o g ic a l in f lu e n c e o f V iv e s , p o in t in g out

t h e many i n s t a n c e s i n w h i c h i m p o r t a n t e d u c a t i o n a l p r i n c i ­ p l e s e n u n c i a t e d by V i v e s i n h i s w o r k s h a d b e e n p u b l i c i z e d by l a t e r

a u t h o r s who w e r e g i v e n c r e d i t f o r w h a t h a d ,

a p p a r e n t l y , b e e n b o r r o w e d fro m V i v e s . B o n illa ,

in 1 9 0 3 , p u b lish e d under th e a u s p ic e s of

t h e S p a n i s h R o y a l Academy o f M o r a l and P o l i t i c a l S c i e n c e , h i s th r e e -v o lu m e d e d i t i o n o f L u is V iv e s £ l a F i l o s o f i a d e l R e n a c im in e t o , i n w h ic h he d e s c r i b e s i n s c h o l a r l y d e t a i l t h e life

and w o r k s o f V i v e s a n d r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e ,

e d itio n s

and t r a n s l a t i o n s . Woodward, i n 1 9 0 6 , i n h i s e d u c a tio n ,

c a lle d

a t t e n t i o n to

r e s e a r c h on R e n a is s a n c e

th e f a c t th a t p r a c t i c a ll y

none o f V i v e s ’ im p o r ta n t e d u c a t io n a l w ork s w ere a v a i l a b l e f o r E n g lish s t u d e n t s .

W a t s o n ’ s t r a n s l a t i o n s and c o m p i l a ­

t i o n s f o l l o w e d m a k in g a v a i l a b l e t o E n g l i s h

sp ea k in g s tu d e n ts

292 V iv e s*

T r a n s m i s s i o n o f K n o w l e d g e , L a t i n D i a l o g u e s , E d u ca ­

t i o n o f a C h r i s t i a n Woman ( i n p a r t ) , and t h e P l a n s o f S t u d y f o r Young P e o p l e ,

S p a i n i n 1 9 1 9 , and 1 9 2 8 p r i n t e d

S p a n ish t r a n s l a t i o n s o f th e L a tin D ia lo g u e s . 1 9 3 1 , p u b lish e d a r e v is e d L a tin t e x t o f th e V iv e s*

great s c ie n tific

r e v ise d

E n g la n d , same w o r k .

t e x t on th e T r a n sm issio n o f

K n o w le d g e w a s p u b l i s h e d i n German t r a n s l a t i o n , 1 9 1 2 ; E n g lis h , by W atson , 1 9 1 3 ; made i n S p a i n , 1 9 3 6 .

in

a r e p r in t o f 1528 e d i t i o n was

V i v e s E d u c a t i o n o f a C h r i s t i a n Woman

was p a r t i a l l y r e p r i n t e d i n E n g li s h , 1 9 1 2 ; p u b lis h e d in Germany i n 1 9 1 2 ; and r e p r i n t e d i n S p a n i s h , 1 9 2 3 . A c t i v e c e n t e r s f o r r e s e a r c h on V i v e s a r e V a l e n c i a U n i v e r s i t y , L o u v a in U n i v e r s i t y , d a te,

th ere i s

and O x fo r d U n i v e r s i t y .

no e v i d e n c e t o p r o v e t h e

To

e x i s t e n c e o f any

d e fin ite

c e n t e r o f s tu d y on V iv e s i n U n ite d S t a t e s a lth o u g h 2 r e f e r e n c e s t o V i v e s a r e b e c o m in g i n c r e a s i n g l y f r e q u e n t . It

s h o u l d b e r e m a r k e d t h a t t h e m od ern t r a n s l a t o r s and

s c h o l a r s c o n n e c te d w it h t h e r e v i v a l o f V iv e s* p erson s o f rep u te in s c h o la s t ic

works a r e

c ir c le s .

B e f o r e p a s s i n g on t o t h e p h a s e o f e d u c a t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s i n V iv e s*

r e v iv a l,

i t m ig h t be w e l l t o

b r i e f l y h i n t s throw n o u t d u rin g t h e p r o g r e s s o f th e to th e r e a s o n s fo r V iv es*

tem p o ra ry e c l i p s e .

2 S ee pp . 1 -3 , 8 -1 2 , 2 0 -2 1 , in f r a .

su m m a rize stu d y a s

He r e m a in e d

293 a C a t h o li c — th u s h i s w orks w ere n o t pushed i n P r o t e s t a n t c ir c le s .

I n common w i t h M o r e , h e d e n o u n c e d H en ry V I I I * s

d iv o r c e p r o c e e d in g s. fr o m E n g la n d .

More w as b e h e a d e d ; V i v e s b a n i s h e d

In P ra n ce, he c h a lle n g e d th e a u th o r ity o f

t h e S o r b o n n e and t u r n e d t h e l i g h t o f p u b l i c i t y o n t h e i r e d u c a tio n a l sh o r t-c o m in g s.

I n S p a in , he a n ta g o n iz e d th e

I n q u i s i t i o n b y h i s C o m m e n ta r ie s o n S t . A u g u s t i n e * s ’’C i v i t a t e D e i H e

o u t r a g e d t h e M e n d ic a n t O r d e r s b y

s u g g e s t i n g t h e i r work b e t u r n e d o v e r t o

c iv ic a u th o r itie s.

S p a n i a r d s w e r e m o s t u n p o p u l a r i n F r a n c e b e c a u s e o f K in g F e r d i n a n d ’s I t a l i a n a m b i t i o n s ;

i n E n g la n d , b e c a u s e o f t h e

a fte r m a th o f C a th e r in e o f A ragon’ s d iv o r c e ; la n d s , becau se o f P h ilip I I ’ s fa n a tic is m tio n .

i n th e N eth er­

an d t h e I n q u i s i ­

V i v e s w a s p r o u d o f b e i n g a S p a n i a r d and t o o k p l e a s u r e

in r e fe r r in g

to h i s S p a n i s h o r i g i n .

A s i d e fr o m t h e s e p o s s i b l e reform er i s

causes o f

s u b m e r g e n c e , no

p o p u l a r i n h i s own d a y i n t h e m i d s t o f c l a s h i n g

p r e j u d i c e s and u p r o o t e d t r a d i t i o n a l t h o u g h t .

In f a c t ,

i d e o l o g i s t s o f t h e e r u d i t e t y p e w r i t e f o r a v e r y s m a l l and v e ry advanced p u b lic .

B ecause o f t h e i r p r e s e n t a t io n o f

u n b ia se d e v id e n c e on c o n t r o v e r s ia l

issu e s,

how ever, th e y

b eco m e v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o h i s t o r i a n s and s c h o l a r s o f l a t e r c e n tu r ie s.

V i v e s ’ w orks t h u s becom e o f v a lu e t o s c h o l a r s

t o d a y b e c a u s e h e su m m a rize d t h e l e a d i n g p h i l o s o p h i e s o f

294 t h o s e who p r e c e d e d h im ; b r o u g h t e x i s t i n g k n o w le d g e up t o d a te;

g a v e a c o m p le te b i b li o g r a p h y o f w ork s o f im p o r ta n c e

up t o and i n c l u d i n g h i s own t i m e s ; h i s own s o c i a l o r d e r ;

d ia g n o se d th e i l l s

of

and p r o p o s e d r e m e d i e s .

E d u c a tio n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f V iv e s*

reappearance in

l i t e r a t u r e may b e su m m a r iz e d a s f o l l o w s : 1.

Our c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d i s

fa c in g

p r o b l e m s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e w h ic h c o n f r o n t e d V i v e s , govern m en tal

change,

su ch a s :

r e l i g i o u s u p s e t s , o u tg ro w n e d u c a t io n a l

p h i l o s o p h y and p r a c t i c e , p o v e r t y ,

sh iftin g

sta n d a rd s o f

v a l u e s , d is r e g a r d o f la w , a l l form s o f c u lt u r a l l a g , w ar.

V iv e s,

ranked a s one o f t h e t h r e e g r e a t e s t s c h o l a r s

o f h i s a g e , was t h e o n l y g r e a t H u m a n ist t o w r i t e t r e a t i s e s o n s o c i a l and e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m . c o n te m p o r a r ie s w rote s a t i r e s , under o th e r l e s s

e x p o sito r y

M ost o f h i s

o r c lo a k e d t h e i r o p in io n s

d an gerou s form s o f w r i t i n g .

d i a g n o s i s and s u g g e s t e d r e m e d i e s f o r t h e i l l s sh o u ld ,

and

V iv e s * o f h is

age

th e r e fo r e , be o f v a lu e to tod ay*s th in k in g . 2.

V iv e s e x p o se d ,

p itile s s ly

but im p e r so n a lly ,

o u t g r o w n p h i l o s o p h y and c u s t o m s o f h i s t i m e s .

th e

H is w orks

are,

t h e r e f o r e , o f v a lu e not o n ly as a p ic tu r e o f h is tim e s

b u t,

a ls o , fo r th e h is t o r ic a l

resu m e h e g i v e s o n m an’ s

c u l t u r e fro m t h e o r i g i n s o f c i v i l i z a t i o n up t o h i s own d a y . 5. to

V iv e s endeavored to e s t a b l i s h

a b a s e fr o m w h ic h

s e n s e t h e c o m in g a g e b y u n i f y i n g f o u r g r e a t a s p e c t s o f

295 d e v e lo p m e n t: S to ic s;

(b )

A r isto tle

(a )

th e p h ilo s o p h y o f P l a t o , S o c r a t e s ,

th e p o l i t ic s

and e n c y l c o p e d i c r e s u m e s o f

i n t h e f i e l d s o f s c i e n c e and l e t t e r s ;

C h r istia n S o c ia lism

and t h e

o f th e e a r ly C h r is tia n s ;

(c)

th e

and (d )

Q u in ­

t i l i a n ’ s e d u c a t i o n a l p h ilo s o p h y and program o f e d u c a t i o n . To t h e s e f o u r p h a s e s o f human d e v e l o p m e n t , h e a d d ed t h e work- o f S t .

A u g u s tin e w hose h i s t o r y o f C h r i s t i a n a d a p t a t io n

o f p a g a n p h i l o s o p h i e s h e r e s t o r e d and e d i t e d w i t h com m en ts; t h e w ork o f A q u in a s and o t h e r m e d i a e v a l s c h o l a r s ; fin a lly ,

t h e work o f c o n te m p o r a r y H u m a n i s t s .

and,

From t h i s

co m p o site b a se he a ttem p ted to v i s u a l i z e th e n eed s o f t h e a p p r o a c h i n g new a g e * 4.

Some o f V i v e s ’ c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o

c u ltu r e o f th e s ix te e n th a*

th e

e d u c a t i o n and

cen tu ry are:

He b r o u g h t a l l a v a i l a b l e k n o w l e d g e i n l e t t e r s

and s c i e n c e up t o d a t e . b.

He s e t f o r t h a new e d u c a t i o n a l p h i l o s o p h y ;

and r e a f f i r m e d t h e b a s i c t r u t h s a n d u n d e r l y i n g p h i l o s o p h y or th e C h r istia n r e lig io n . c.

He i n t r o d u c e d t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f man a s a

s o c i a l b e i n g w i t h i n h e r e n t r i g h t s i n t h e s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l order. d. m e m o r iza tio n , Sorbonne*

He r i d i c u l e d t h e w o r s h i p o f a u t h o r i t y , r o t e and c o n t e n t i o u s D i a l e c t i c s a d v o c a t e d by t h e

296 e. c iv iliz a tio n ,

He e m p h a s iz e d t h e f a c t o f an e v o l v i n g and p l e a d e d r o r t h e u s e o f h i s t o r i c a l p e r ­

sp e c tiv e * f.

He s u g g e s t e d t h e t r a n s f e r o f t h e d i r e c t i o n

o f e d u c a tio n a l tr a in in g

and s o c i a l w e l f a r e fro m a t h e o ­

c r a tic to a c i v i l b a s is . g.

He p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e m e r e p o s s e s s i o n o f

k n o w le d g e w a s f a r l e s s i m p o r t a n t th a n t h e m ann er i n w h ic h s u c h k n o w le d g e w a s p u t t o u s e . h.

He a d v o c a t e d t h e n e e d o f an o p e n m in d , t h e

a n a ly s is o f e x p e r ie n c e , in d u c tiv e r e a so n in g ,

and s c i e n t i f i c

in v e stig a tio n . i. tio n a l

c o n tr o l,

He a d v i s e d t h e fa c ilitie s

stu d y o f h y g ie n e ,

d ie t,

emo­

f o r r e c r e a t i o n and t h e c u l t i v a ­

t i o n o f a j o y i n n a t u r a l b e a u t i e s and p h en o m en a. j.

W h ile h e c o n s i d e r e d h i s t o r y t h e m o st im p o r ­

t a n t o f th e d i s c i p l i n e s , he s t r e s s e d t h e im p o rta n ce o f la n g u a g e a s a t o o l f o r

so c ia liz a tio n .

He e n c o u r a g e d t h e

u s e o f t h e v e r n a c u l a r and recom m ended i t s b e i n g t a u g h t i n th e e a r ly

school y e a r s.

He s t r e s s e d t h e f u n c t i o n a l t e a c h ­

i n g o f L a t i n r a t h e r t h a n f o r m a l gram m ar. k.

H is e d u c a t i o n a l program i n c lu d e d a k n o w led g e

o f th e s o c ia l a r ts , 1.

cra fts,

He a im ed a t t h e f u l l d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e

in d iv id u a l— i n t e lle c t u a l, sp ir itu a l,

and i n d u s t r y .

p h y sic a l,

so c ia l,

e m o t i o n a l , and

297 5.

V i v e s * De T r a d e n d i s D i s c i p l i n i s w as t h e o n l y

e d u c a tio n a l t r e a t i s e ,

fr o m t h e t i m e o f Q u i n t i l i a n ’ s

I n s t i t u t e s o f O r a t o r y , w h ic h o u t l i n e d

a f u l l program o f

tr a in in g .

e d u c a tio n a l t e x t based

It

is,

p r o b a b ly , th e f i r s t

on a p p lie d p s y c h o lo g y . 6.

V iv e s*

t r e a t i s e A g a in st th e F a ls e D i a l e c t i c i a n s

i s h i s t o r i c a l l y im p o r ta n t b e c a u se i t

w as t h e f i r s t

open

a t t a c k on t h e S o r b o n n e ’ s p o s i t i o n i n t h e b l o c k i n g o f e d u c a ­ tio n a l p rogress. 7.

V iv e s*

h a s b e e n c l a s s e d a s a " W a y -B r ea k er ,** i . e ; ,

a man o f t h e c e n t u r i e s who a p p e a r s o n l y i n g r e a t t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d s and s e t s t h e g o a l f o r

su c c e e d in g e r a s .

The u n d e r l y i n g p u r p o s e o f t h i s

s t u d y w a s t o co m p a re

t h e R e n a is s a n c e t r a n s i t i o n p e r io d o f V iv e s* t r a n s i t i o n p e r io d o f to d a y .

By u s i n g t h e p e r s o n a l i t y o f

V iv e s a g a in s t th e background o f t h e f i r s t th e six te e n th

1?imes w i t h t h e

fo rty years of

c e n t u r y and b y d e s c r i b i n g t h e f o r m a t i v e

in flu e n c e s o f h is l i f e

so t h a t h i s v i e w p o i n t m ig h t b e u n d e r ­

s t o o d , i t w as hoped t h a t t h e s c h o l a r ’ s w o r ld o f t h e tim e m ig h t be v i s u a l i z e d . V iv es* w o r k s,

t h o s e d e a l i n g w i t h human r e l a t i o n s h i p s and

ly in g p r im a r ily in th e p o s s ib le to

By r e v i e w i n g a s e l e c t e d p o r t i o n o f

so c io -e d u c a tio n a l f i e l d ,

it

seem ed

b r in g o u t t h e l e a d i n g s o c i a l p r o b le m s o f th e

d a y , t o g e t h e r w it h V iv es*

su g g e ste d refo rm s.

298 H a v in g t h u s i s o l a t e d t h e a r e a s o f m en ts, i t was n e c e s s a r y to

s o c ia l m a la d ju st­

s e t up s o c i o l o g i c a l c r i t e r i a f o r

p u r p o s e s o f c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n t h e two c e n t u r i e s . r e a s o n f o r t h e s e c o m p a riso n s was t o

The

fin d p o in ts o f s i m ila r it y

and o f d i v e r g e n c e i n t h e u p h e a v a l s o f t h e s e w i d e l y - s e p a r a t e d eras.

S h o u ld t h e r e be su ch b a s e s o f c o m p a riso n , n o t o n l y

w o u ld t h e r e a p p e a r a n c e o f V i v e s b e p a r t i a l l y

acco u n ted f o r .

b u t a s t u d y o f h i s w o r k s w o u ld be o f g r e a t v a l u e .

He w a s

th e o n ly g r e a t s c h o la r o f h is cen tu ry to p r e se n t f a c t u a l in fo r m a tio n ;

e x p la in th e ca u ses fo r

e x is t in g c o n d itio n s;

make an i m p a r t i a l d i a g n o s i s o f s i x t e e n t h

cen tu ry s o c i a l

p r o b le m s i n te r m s o f h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e ; o b j e c t i v e s and r e m e d i e s .

and s u g g e s t

H is p r o l i f i c w r it in g s brou gh t

t h e l e a r n i n g o f h i s a g e up t o d a t e , t r a c e d t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e s e v e n L i b e r a l A r t s fr o m t h e i r b e g i n n i n g s , a t t e m p t e d to

s y n t h e s i z e t h e v a r i o u s p a g a n and C h r i s t i a n p h i l o s o p h i e s ,

and t o

s e t up a c c e p t a b l e

S in c e every s o c ia l

s t a n d a r d s o f b e h a v i o r and l e a r n i n g .

order has i t s

r o o ts in th e p a s t,

sc h o la r s

o f t o d a y w o u ld b e much h e l p e d t h r o u g h a s t u d y o f V i v e s * w o r k s fr o m w h ic h t h e y m i g h t s e n s e t h e n e e d s o f t h e th is

fu tu re in

g e n e r a t i o n ’ s ’’ new a g e . ” V i v e s * w o r k s , t h e n , a r e o f g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c e and h i s

r e v i v a l i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e day i s s o c io -e d u c a tio n a l p la n n in g . to r ic a lly ,

v e r y im p o r ta n t i n

H is w orks a r e im p o r ta n t h i s ­

f o r p u r p o s e s o f co m p a riso n w it h t o d a y ’ s u p h e a v a l s ,

299 and a s a s p r i n g - b o a r d f o r p r o g n o s i s a s t o t h e n e e d s o f th e fu tu r e . FUTURE RESEARCH The m o s t i m p o r t a n t

c o n t r i b u t i o n a t p r e s e n t v /o u ld b e

th e t r a n s l a t i o n in to E n g lish F iv e s,

su ch as:

o f c e r t a i n b a s i c w orks o f

De Anima e t F i t a , h i s t e x t o n p s y c h o l o g y ;

De I n i t i i s , S e c t i s , e t L a u d i b u s P h i l o s o p h i a e , t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e o r i g i n s o f p h i l o s o p h y ; D«e C a u s i s C o r r u p ta r u m A r t i u m , t h e c a u s e s o f t h e c o r r u p t i o n o f t h e a r t s ; De F e r i t a t e F i d e i C h r i s t i a n a s , a r e su m e o f C h r i s t i a n and p a g a n r e l i g i o n s ,

w ith

an e f f o r t t o f i n d a common d e n o m i n a t o r ; a m ore c o m p l e t e t r a n s l a t i o n o f De* S u b v e n t i o n s P a u p er u m , t h e R e l i e f o f t h e P o o r , and o f De I n s t i t u t i o n e C h r i s t i a n a s F e m l n a e . T h e r e a r e many o t h e r t o p i c s w h ic h m i g h t be s u g g e s t e d su ch a s

(1)

a c o m p a r i s o n o f Dam’ s and R e i s e r ’ s c r i t i c i s m s

o f t h e p r e s e n t age w it h t h o s e o f F iv e s i n h i s C o r r u p tio n o f th e A rts;

(2 )

an e x p a n s i o n o f t h e

ju s tific a tio n

of th e t i t l e

" S e c o n d Q u i n t i l i a n ” ; and a c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n t h e g o a l s f o r t h b y F i v e s and t h e e d u c a t i o n o f t h e l a s t in a ctu a l p r a c tic e .

set

fo u r c e n tu r ie s

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY V IV IS ' WORKS IN THE ORIGINAL V iv e s , Juan L u is , O pera. B a s i le a e : N ic o la s L ’ls v e q u e l e Jeune, 1555. 2 v o ls . f o ., pp. 1101. L ’ E s v e q u e ’ s e d i t i o n i n B i b l i o t e c a N a c i o n a l d e M a d r id . De Anima e t V i t a . V o l . 2 , p p . 4 9 7 - 5 9 3 . M ic r o f i l m . De D i s c i p l i n i s , V o l . 1 , p p . 3 2 1 - 4 3 5 . M ic r o film . De S u b v e n t i o n s P a u p e r u m , V o l . 2 , p p . 8 8 9 - 9 2 2 . M ic r o film . L ib e r in P seudo- D i a l e c t i c o s , V o l. 1 , pp . 2 7 2 -2 8 6 . P h o to sT a tic co p y . V i v e s , Juan L u i s , L in g u a e L a t in a e i x e r c l t a t i o . B a sile a e : R. W in te r , 1 5 3 8 . 8°. R e v ise d under t i t l e " S cen es o f S c h o o l and C o l l e g e L i f e " i n L a t i n D i a l o g u e s b y R o u s e , W. H. D . and A ndrew P e r s e , O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1 9 3 1 . 155 pp. W i n t e r ’ s e d i t i o n i n B r i t i s h N a t i o n a l Museum. VIVES’ WORKS IN TRANSLATION A s t u d i l l o , D ie g o d e , t r a n s l a t o r , I n t r o d u c c i o n a l a S a b i d u r i a ; C o m p u e sta e n L a t i n p o r e l D o c t o r J u a n L u I s ~ v T v e s . M a d rid B ib iio te c a E s tr e lla , l9 l^ . 264 pp. F i r s t e d i t i o n , V a le n c ia : B e n ito M o n rfo rt, 1 7 7 9 . T r a n sla ­ t i o n o f V i v e s I n t r o d u c t i o ad S a p i e n t j a m . C a str o y R o s s i , S . D. A d o lfo d e , "D el S o c o r r o d e l o s p o b r e s ," O b r a s E s c o g i d a s d e F i l o s o f o s . M a d r id : L i b e r i a de l o s s u c e s o r e s de H ernando, 1 9 2 2 . V o l. 6 5 , pp. 2 6 1 -9 1 . F i r s t e d i t i o n by M. R i v a d e n e y r a , 1 8 7 3 . T r a n sla tio n o f V i v e s ’ De S u b v e n t i o n s P a u p eru m . C a s t r o y R o s s i , S . D. A d o l f o d e , " I n t r o d u c c i o n a l a s a b i d u r i a O b r a s E s c o g i d a s d e F i l o s o f o s . M a d r id : L i b e r i a de l o s s u c e s o r e s de H ernando, 1 9 2 2 . V o l. 6 5 , pp. 2 3 5 -2 6 1 . F i r s t e d i t i o n b y M. R i v a d e n e y r a , 1 8 7 3 . T r a n sla tio n o f V i v e s * I n t r o d u c t i o ad S a p i e n t i a m .

302 C o r e t y P e r i s , C r i s t b b a l , D i a l o g o s d e J u a n V i v e s , M a d rid : I m p r e n t a La R a f a , 1 9 2 8 . T r a n s l a t i o n o f V i v e s * L in g u a e L a tin a e i x e r c i t a t i o . T w e lv e e d i t i o n s : f i r s t e d i t i o n , V a l e n c i a , 1 ^ 2 3 ; f i r s t e d i t i o n , M a d r id , 1 7 9 2 . S e r i e s : B i b l i o t e c a de f i l o s o f o s e s p a n o l e s D i r i g i d a p o r E d uardo O v i j e r o y M aury. E d e lb lu th , T h ., J . L . V iv e s * p S d a g o g isch e H a u p ts c h r ifte n . Paderborn: F . S c b o n ig h , 1 9 l 2 . §63 pp. German t r a n s l a t i o n s o f I n s t i t u t i o n e F e m in a e C h r i s t i a n a s , ( I n s t i t u t i o n o f a C h r i s t i a n Woman) ; and D i s c i p l i n i s . H e a l e y , J . H . , t r a n s l a t o r , S t . A u g u s t i n e o f The C i t i e o f G od : V /ith t h e L e a r n e d Comments o f I o . , L o d . V i v e s . London: G eorge E ld , l 6 l d . E n g l i s h e d by J . H. H e a l e y . T r a n s l a t i o n o f V iv es* C o m m e n ta r ii i n x x i i l i b r o s d e C i v i t a t e D e i S . A u g u s t i n e . /■

H e a l e y , J . H . , S [t. A u g u s t i n e o f t h e C i t i e of, G od : W ith t h e L e a r n e d Comments o f l o ~ L o ^ .~T T v e s . L on d on : G. E id and F le c h e r , 1626. R e v ised e d i t i o n . E n g l i s h e d f i r s t b y J . H. H e a l e y and now i n t h i s s e c o n d e d i t i o n com pared w i t h t h e L a t i n O r i g i n a l , and i n v e r y many p l a c e s c o r r e c t e d and a m en ded. H e in e , R u d o lf , J . L . V i v e s * A u sg e w a h lte P a d a g o g is c h e S c h r ifte n . L e i p z i g : Max H e s s e , 0 . J . , 1 8 8 1 . v o l. H IV , pp. 424. I n t r o d u c t i o n and n o t e s . S e r i e s : Sammlung d e r w i c h t i g s t e n p a d a g o g i s c h e n S c h r i f t e n A l t e r e r und n e u e r e r E e i t . H rsg. v o n K a r l R i c h t e r , XVI.. Copy i n U n i t e d s t a t e s B u re a u o f E d u c a tio n . T r a n s l a t i o n o f De T r a d e n d i s D i s c i p l i n i s . M o r y s i n e , R y e h a r d e , t r a n s l a t o r , An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Wysedome made b y L u d o v i c u s V i v e s . P h o l o s t a t i c F a csim T T e r e p r o ­ d u c e d xrom t h e c o p y i n C a m b rid g e U n i v e r s i t y ; L ondon: Thomas B e r t h e l e t u s , 1 5 4 0 . Copy a t H u n t i n g t o n L i b r a r y . O n ta n o n , J o s e , T r a t a d o de l a E n s e n a n z a . M a d r id : E d i c i o n e s de l a L e c t u r e , 1 9 2 3 . 268 p p . T r a n s l a t i o n o f V i v e s De T r a d e n d i s D i s c i p l i n i s . Sh erw ood , M a rg a ret M ., t r a n s l a t o r , C o n cern in g t h e R e l i e f o f t h e P o o r o r C o n c e r n i n g Human N e e d . New Y o rk : The New Y ork S c h o o l o f P h i l a n t h r o p y , i d l 7 . P a r tia l tr a n sla tio n . A l e t t e r a d d re ssed t o th e S e n a te o f B r u g e s, January 6 , 1 5 2 6 , by J u a n L u i s V i v e s . V a l e n c i a : M a ja n , 1 7 8 3 , V o l . IV , p p . 4 2 0 -9 4 .

303 W a t s o n , F o s t e r , t r a n s l a t o r , T u d o r 3 c h o o l - Boy L i f e (T he D i a l o g u e s o f J u a n L u i s v i v e s T . L on don : J . M. D e n t and Company, 1 9 0 8 . 247 p p . A t r a n s l a t i o n o f v i v e s 1 L in g u a e L a t in a e i x e r c i t a t i o n e s . L i s t e d b y Head a s o n e o f t h e s e v e n v a l u a b l e t>ooks i n p ed a g o g y o f t h e Tudor p e r io d - i n h i s B ib lio g r a p h y o f B r i t i s h H i s t o r y , T u dor P e r i o d . ______ _ 9 e d i t o r and t r a n s l a t o r , V i v e s and t h e R e n a s c e n c e E d u c a t i o n o f Women. New T o r k : L o n g m a n s, G r e e n and Company; L on don : Edward A r n o l d , 1 9 1 2 . 259 p p . T r a n s la t io n o f p o r t i o n s o f V i v e s ’ w orks on e d u c a t io n , i n c l u d i n g t h e P l a n s o f G i r l s ’ S t u d i e s drawn up f o r P r i n c e s s Mary o f EngTanTI E x c e r p t s fro m H y r d e . _________ , t r a n s l a t o r , V i v e s : On E d u c a t i o n . C a m b rid ge: The U n iv e r sity P r e s s , 1913. 328 p p . A t r a n s l a t i o n , i n E n g l i s h , o f V i v e s ’ De T r a d e n d i s D i s c i p l i n i s . E x c e l l e n t b i o g r a p h y and n o t e s .

BIBLIOGRAPHY B a r n a r d , H e n r y , " G io v a n n i L u d o v i c o V i v e s : H i s P e d a g o g y and H i s I n f l u e n c e o n E d u c a t i o n : A M e m o ir ," A m e r ic a n J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n , 2 7 :3 3 9 -3 5 1 , 187 7. C o m p ile d ^ fr o m A. L a n g e ’ s a r t i c l e i n S c h m id ’ s P a d a g o g i s c h e E n c y c lo p a d ie . B lu m e r , H e r b e r t , " C o l l e c t i v e B e h a v i o r , " R o b e r t E. P a r k , e d i t o r , An O u t l i n e o f t h e P r i n c i p l e s o f S o c i o l o g y , p p . 2 2 1 - W .■ Hew York*. B a r n e s ana N o b le 1, 1 9 3 9 . D e fin i­ t i o n s o f s o c i a l m o v e m e n ts . B o g a r d u s , Emory s . , A H i s ^ o r y ° f S o c i a l T h o u g h t . L o s A n g e l e s : J e s s e Ray M i l l e r , ~ T 9 2 § . O r ig in a l e d it io n , 1922. 668 pp . C o n t a i n s e x c e r p t s fr o m V i v e s " " C o m m e n ta r ie s o n S t . A u g u s t i n e ’ s C i t y o f G o d ," H e a l e y ’ s t r a n s l a t i o n . B o n i l l a y S a n M a rtin A d o lfo , L u is V iv e s £ l a F i l o s o f i a d e l R e n a c i m i e n t o . M a d r id : s. A . E s p a s a - C a T p e , 1 9 2 9 . ’8^6 p p . Obra p r e m i e da p o r l a R e a l A c a d e m ia de C i e n c i a s M o r a l e s y P0 l i t i c a s . R u eva B i b l i o t e c a F i l o s o f i c a X X X II. F ^ r s t e d i t i o n 1 9 0 3 : V o l . I , L i f e ; V o l . I I , W orks; V o l . I l l , R e f e r e n c e s , n o t e s , a p p e n d i x and b i b l i o g r a p h y . R eferred t o b y W a tso n a s a v e r i t a b l e " s t o r e h o u s e o f k n o w le d g e " on V iv e s . C o n t a i n s l o c a t i o n s o f o r i g i n a l s and e a r l y e d it io n s o f V iv e s ’ w orks. C a l v e r t , A . F . , V a l e n c i a and M u r c i a : A G l a n c e a t A f r i c a n r Y o r k : J o h n L a n e Company, 1 9 1 1 . 45 p p . , “

“

B e a u t i f u l p i c t u r e s o f S p a n i s h c i t i e s ; 82 p i c t u r e s o f V a le n c ia . P l a t e 76 - T r i b u n e o f t h e W a t e r s . C u r t i , M e r le E . , "The S o c i a l I d e a s o f A m e r ic a n E d u c a t o r s , " R e p o r t o f C o m m itte e o n s o c i a l S t u d i e s , A m e r ic a n H i s t o r i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n , P a r t X. New Y ork : C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r ’ s S o n s , 1935. Dam, C o lb y D o r r , "The I n n e r P o w e r — Our Own G r e a t n e s s , " T om orrow , V o l . I , 3 : 3 8 - 4 1 , N ov em b er, 1 9 4 1 . E d u c a t i o n a l d e c a d e n c e i n t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y and needed r efo rm s. D a v i e s , R. T r e v o r , T he G o ld e n C e n t u r y o f S p a i n ( 1 5 0 1 - 1 6 2 1 ) . S t . M a r t i n ’ s S t , L on d on : M c m i il a n an d Company, L t d . , 1937. 3 27 p p . E s p e c i a l l y g o o d b i b l i o g r a p h y ; m o d ern v i e w p o i n t ; u s e s recent research .

305 D e l a r u e l l e , L o u i s , "Ce q u e R a b e l a i s d o i t a E rasm e e t a B u d e ," R e v u e d ’H i s t o i r e L i t t e r a i r e d e l a F r a n c e , p p . 2 2 0 - 2 6 2 , 1364. P u b l i s h e d b y S o c i e t e I f^ H X s to ir e l i t t e r a i r e d e l a F rance. P a r i s , Armand C o l i n . The a r t i c l e w h ic h i n s p i r e d M ich a u d t o b e g i n i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f R a b e la is’ debt to F iv e s . E b y , F r e d e r i c k and C h a r l e s F . A r r o w o o d , T he D e v e l o p m e n t o f M odern E d u c a t i o n i n T h e o r y , O r g a n j z a t l o n T ""and P r a c T i c e . New Y o r k : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1 ^ 3 5 . §22 p p . In c lu d e s d is c u s s io n o f V iv e s. E m e r to n , E p h r a im , D e s i d e r i u s E ra sm u s o f R o t t e r d a m . New Y o r k : P u tn a m , 1 8 9 9 . 469 p p . O r ig in a lly a D octoral d is s e r t a t io n . S c h o la r ly v ie w p o in t on E rasm us’ r e l a t i o n t o t h e R e fo r m a tio n . E n c i c l o p e d l a U n i v e r s a l I l u s t r a d a : E u r o p e o - A m e r i c a n a . M a d r id : S . A. E s p a s a - C a l p e , 1 9 3 0 . 80 v o l s . E x c e l le n t a r t i c l e on V iv e s ; v a lu a b le f o r r e l a t e d l i t e r a ­ t u r e , t r a n s l a t i o n s , and e d i t i o n s . Good b i o g r a p h i e s o f Nam ^che, M ayans and B o n i l l a . E s h le m a n , L l o y d W ., M o u l d e r s o f D e s t i n y : R e n a i s s a n c e L i v e s * T i m e s . New Y o rk : C o v T c i F r i e d e , 1 9 2 8 . «328—p p . M od ern s e m i - p o p u l a r b i o g r a p h i e s g o o d f o r a t m o s p h e r e and p e r sp e c tiv e . I n c l u d e s s k e t c h e s o n L o r e n z o V a l l a , and N ic o lo M a c h ia v e lli. F r o n d e , J a m es A n t h o n y , T he D i v o r c e o f C a t h e r i n e o f A r a g o n . L on d o n : L o n g m a n s, G r e e n and Company, 1 8 § 1 . 1 ^ 2 p p . F u l l e r , R i c h a r d c. , " S o c i a l P r o b l e m s ," R o b e r t E. P a r k , e d i t o r , An O u t l i n e o f t h e P r i n c i p l e s o f S o c i o l o g y , p p . 3 -6 1 . New Y o r k : B a r n e s and N o b l e , i9^>§. D e fin itio n s o f s o c ia l changes. G ood, C a r te r V . , " F u n c tio n a l H is t o r y o f E d u c a tio n ," J o u r n a l o f E d u c a tio n a l R e se a r c h , 3 3 :1 3 6 -3 8 , O cto b er, 1 9 3 $ . G o o d , C a r t e r , A . S . B a r r , and D o u g l a s S c a t e s , The M e t h o d o l o g y o f E d u c a tio n a l R e se a r c h . New Y o rk : D . A p p i e t o n - C e n t u r y Company, I n c . , 1 9 3 6 . §82 p p . G r a g g , F l o r e n c e A . , "Two S c h o o l m a s t e r s o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e , " C la s s ic a l J o u r n a l, 1 4 :2 1 1 -2 2 3 , January, 1919. D is c u s s e s C o llo q u ie s i n g e n e r a l w ith p a r t ic u la r a c c e n t o n t h o s e o f V i v e s and E r a s m u s .

306 G r a v e s , F r a n k P i e r r e p o n t , A Hi s t o r y o f E d u c a t i o n D u r in g t h e M id d le A g e s . New Y o rk : M a c m i ll a n Company, 1 9 l 4 . H a ck ett, F r a n c is, F r a n c is th e F ir s t (1 4 9 4 -1 5 4 7 ). T o r o n t o : W. H e in e m a n n , L t d . , 1 9 3 4 . 479 pp . P o p u la r b io g r a p h y . H a c k e t t , F r a n c i s , H en ry t h e E i g h t h . 1929. 452 p p . P o p u la r b io g r a p h y .

London,

New Y ork : H. L i v e r i g h t ,

H a u ser, H enri e t R en au d en t, A u g u s tin , L es d e b u ts de l* g g e m o d e r n e . La R e n a i s s a n c e e t l a r e f o r m s . P a r is: L lb r a ir ie F e l i x A lc a n 1 0 8 , B o u le v a r d S a in t -G e r m a in . Hume, M a r t i n , A. S . , S p a i n — I t s G r e a t n e s s and D e c a y ( 1 4 7 9 1 7 8 8 ) . R e v i s e d b y Edward A r m s t r o n g ; C a m b rid g e : The U n iv e r sity P r e s s , 1931. 464 pp. Hume, M a r t i n , A. S . , The S p a n i s h P e o p l e , T h e i r O r i g i n , G r o w th , and I n f l u e n c e . New Y o rk : D. A p p l e t o n and Company, 1 9 0 1 . 53b p p . A p p r o a c h e s t h e p r o b l e m fr o m a p h i l o s o p h i c a l and d e v e l o p ­ m en ta l v ie w p o in t . E x c e lle n t h is t o r ic a l p e r s p e c tiv e . K n i g h t , Edward W. , T w e n ty C e n t u r i e s o f E d u c a t i o n . B o s t o n : G in n and Company, 1 9 4 0 . Q u o t a t i o n fr o m V i v e s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f f i r s t c h a p t e r . L a n g e, F . A ., " ^ u d o v ic u s V i v e s , " D ie E n c y k lo p a d ie d e s g esa m m ten i r z i e h u n g s ^ u n d U n t e r r l c h t s w e s e n s , V o l . I X , p p . 7 3 7 -8 1 4 . D r . K. A. S c h m id , e d i t o r ; G o t h a : V e r l a g v o n R u d o lf B e s s e r , 1 8 7 3 . T r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s a r t i c l e made b y M. Menendez;y P e l a y o . P u b l i s h e d i n M a d r id 1 8 9 4 i n ” E sp a n a M o d e r n a .” F o r r e v i e w o f t h i s a r t i c l e S6e B a r n a r d , f,A M e m o ir .” L ynn, C a r o , A C o l l e g e P r o f e s s o r o f t h e R e n a is s a n c e (L u c io M a r in e o S i c u i o , - Among t h e S p a n i s h ^ B u m a n l s t s ) . C h ic a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ic a g o P r e s s , 1 9 3 ? . 362 p p . E x c e l l e n t o n S p a n i s h Humanism. M a tt in g ly , G a r r e t t , C a th e r in e o f A ragon. B o sto n : L i t t l e , Brown and Company, 1 9 4 1 . 477 pp. V e ry s c h o l a r l y w o r k . R e fe r s s e v e r a l tim e s to v i v e s . E x c e lle n t b ib lio g r a p h ic a l m a te r ia l.

30 7 M ic h a u d , a . L . , nL * i n f l u e n c e de V i v e s s u r R a b e l a i s , " R evue du S e i z i e m e B i ^ c l e , 1 2 : 1 4 8 - 1 5 6 , 1 9 2 5 . C o n tin u a tio n o f p r e v io u s a r t i c l e . Adds c l a i m t h a t C h a p t e r XXX o f R a b e l a i s * Book I I I w a s t a k e n fro m t h e F r e n c h t r a n s l a t i o n o f I n s t i t u t i o n s F e m in a e C h r i s t i a n a e and De O f f i c i o M a r i t i . _______

, " L u i s V i v e s and R a b e l a i s * Pedagogy,** P u b l i c a t i o n s Modern L a n g u a g e A s s o c i a t i o n , 3 8 : 4 1 9 - 2 4 , J u n e , . C om pares l e a d i n g e d u c a t i o n a l i d e a s o f R a b e l a i s w i t h t h o s e e x p r e s s e d b y V i v e s i n De T r a d e n d i s D i s c i p l i n i s .

M o n c r i e f f , A . R. H o p e , B e l g i u m , P a s t and P r e s e n t — The C ock­ p i t o f E u r o p e . L on d on : A. and C. B l a c k , L t d . , 1£2ST M o o m a n , R i c h a r d H e r b e r t , Some E d u c a t i o n a l I m p l i c a t i o n s o f D e s c a r t e s * S y n t h e s i s o f M a t h e m a t i c s and p h i l o s o p h y ? N a s h v i l l e , T e n n essee: G eorge Peabody C o lle g e o f T each ers, 1940. M umford, L e w i s , The C u l t u r e o f C i t i e s . New Y o r k : H a r c o u r t , B r a c e and Company, 1 9 3 8 . 586 p p . Good a c c o u n t o f tow n l i f e i n t h e M id d l e A g e s . N am ech e, A l e x a n d r e J o s e , M em oire s u r l a v i e e t l e s e c r i t s d e J 6 a n rL o u i s V iv f e s . B r u x e l l e s : M. H a y e z , Im p rim eu r d e 1* A c a d e m ie R o y a l e , 1 8 4 1 . A t r i b u t e p a i d V i v e s by t h e R o y a l Academ y o f B r u s s e l s i n c o m m e n o r a tio n o f h i s work a s p r o f e s s o r i n t h e Un i v e r s i t y o f L o u v a in . N i c e r o n , J e a n P i e r r e , **Jean L o u i s V i v e s , " M em p ir es p o u r s e r v i r a* 1_* h i s t o i r e d e s hommes i l l u s t r e s de l a r e p u b liq u e d e s l e t t r e s , a v ec un c a t a lo g u e raT song de ses oeuvres. P a r i s : C h ez B r i a s s o n , 1 7 3 3 . V o l. 21, pp. T h i s e d i t i o n o f M e m o ir e s c o n s i s t s o f 4 3 v o lu m e s w r i t t e n fr o m 1 7 2 7 - 4 5 . In te r e s tin g . L a ter r ese a rc h r e v e a ls in a c c u r a c y i n d e t a i l . N o c k , A l b e r t J . and C a t h e r i n e R o s e W i l s o n , e d i t o r s , The U r q u h a r t - Le H o t t e u x T r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e Works o f F r a n c l s R a b e la is. Ne w Y o r k : H a r c o u r t B r a c e and Company, 1 9 3 1 . 2 v o l s . , 952 pp. M onum ental work o n t h i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l s u b j e c t . P i r e n n e , H e n r i , A H i s t o r y o f E u r o p e From t h e I n v a s i o n s t o th e 1 6 th C en tu ry. New Y o r k : W. W. N o r t o n and Company.

508 . P o l l a r d , A . W. , G. R. R e d g r a v e , and o t h e r s , A S h o r t - T i t l e C a t a l o g u e o f B o o k s P r i n t e d i n E n g l a n d , S c o t l a n d , and I r e l a n d , ancT o f E n g lis h '" B o o k s P r i n t e d A b r o a d , 1 4 7 5 1640. London: p r i n t e d by arran gem en t w it h t h e B l b l i o g r a p h ic a l S o c i e t y f o r B ernard Q u a r ite h , L .T .D ., G r a fto n S t r e e t , New Bond S t r e e t , 1 9 2 6 . P o l l a r d , A l b e r t F r e d e r i c k , H en ry V I I I * New Y o rk and Bombay: L o n g m a n s, G r e e n , and Company, 1 ^ 1 9 . V o l. X I I , 470 p p . R a t e d b y C o n y e r s Read a s b e s t m o d ern l i f e o f H en ry V I I I . P u tn a m , S a m u e l , M a r g u e r i t e o f N a v a r r e ( F i r s t M odern Woman) . New Y o r k ; G r o s s e t and D u n l a p , 1 9 3 5 . 391' p p . E x c e lle n t p ic tu r e o f s e t t in g o f tim e s o f F r a n c is I . R aw son , W y a t t , e d i t o r , A New W orld i n t h e M a k in g : An I n t e r ­ n a t i o n a l S u r v e y o f t h e New E d u c a t i o n . L on d on : New E d u c a tio n F e llo w s E ip , 1 § 3 3 . 365 pp. E d u c a tio n i n t r a n s i t i o n . Read, C on yers, e d i t o r , B ib lio g r a p h y o f B r it i s h H is t o r y , T u dor P e r i o d , 1 4 8 5 - 1 6 0 5 . O x fo r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1 9 3 3 . 467 pp . V ery c o m p le te . L i s t s W a ts o n ’ s t r a n s l a t i o n o f V i v e s ’ D ia lo g u e s under P edagogy. R e i s n e r , Edward H. , "The H i s t o r y o f E d u c a t i o n a s a S o u r c e o f F u n d a m e n ta l A s s u m p t i o n s i n E d u c a t i o n , " E d u c a t i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and S u p e r v i s i o n , 1 4 : 3 8 4 , S e p t e m b e r , 1 9 2 8 . R e i s e r , O l i v e r L . , "The P r o m i s e o f S c i e n t i f i c Humanism," Anne P i e r c e , r e v i e w e r , T om orrow , V o l . I , 2 : 4 8 - 5 2 , O ctob er, 1 9 4 1 . The g o a l o f t o m o r r o w ’ s e d u c a t i o n . R o e d e r , R a l p h , The Man o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e . V i k i n g P r e s s , 1 9 33 . 53 7 p p . Good c h r o n o l o g i c a l t a b l e . R o p e r , Wm., M o re ’ s U t o p i a .

New Y o rk : The

C a m b rid g e : U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 8 9 1 .

R o u s e , W. H. D. and Andrew P e r s e , e d i t o r s , * * L u d o v i c u s V i v e s * S c e n e s o f S c h o o l and C o l l e g e L i f e , " i n L a t i n D i a l o g u e s . O x fo r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1 9 3 1 . 135 pp. P r e s e n t e d a s p a r t o f t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m i n d i r e c t m e th o d o f te a c h in g a n c ie n t la n g u a g e s . S c h e v i l l e , R u d o lp h , "E rasm us i n S p a i n , " H i s p a n i c R e v i e w , ---------------------7 :9 3 -1 1 6 , 1939.

309 S c h m id , D r . K. A . , ( R e c t o r d e s O ym naisum s i n S t u t t g a r t ) , E n c y k l o p a d i e d e s g esa m m ten H r z i e h u n g s " und U n t e r r i c h t s we s e n s . V o l . I X ( S p a n i e h - V i v e s ) ; G o th a : R u d o l f B e s s e r , 1873. S m ith , G eo r g e, D i c t i o n a r y o f N a t io n a l B io g ra p h y ( 2 o t h C en tu ry, 1 9 2 2 -1 9 3 0 ). J . R. H. W e a v e r , e d i t o r ; L on d on : Humphrey M i l f o r d . 894 pp. B io g ra p h y o f F o s t e r W atson , 1 8 6 0 - 1 9 2 9 . F o rm e r e d i t o r , S i r S id n e y L e e , g e n e r a l e d i t o r to 1 9 1 6 . S t o k e s , F r a n c i s G r i f f i n , e d i t o r and t r a n s l a t o r , E p i s t o l a e O bscurorum V ir o r u m . L o n d o n : C h at t o and H i n d u s , 1 9 0 9 . T i l l e y , A r t h u r , The Dawn o f t h e F r e n c h R e n a i s s a n c e . C a m b rid g e : T he U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 1 8 . 636 pp. ________ , The L i t e r a t u r e o f t h e F r e n c h R e n a i s s a n c e , An I n t r o d u c t o r y E s s a y . “"Cambridge: U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 8 8 5 . 2 6 6 pp. E s p e c i a l l y g o o d f o r s e t t i n g o f F r e n c h Humanism. T hom p son , Jam es W e s t f a l l , E c o n o m ic and S o c i a l H i s t o r y o f E u ro p e i n t h e L a t e r M id d le A g e s ( I^QO- ISS' p T I New Y ork: The ^ e n t u r y Company. . T h o r n d ik e , L ynn, "Juan L u is V iv e s : H is A t t i t u d e t o L e a r n in g and t o l i f e , " E s s a y s i n I n t e l l e c t u a l H i s t o r y . New Y ork: H arper B r o th e r s , 1 9 2 9 . ch ap ter V III. E s s a y s d e d i c a t e d t o Ja m es H a r v e y R o b in s o n b y h i s f o r m e r s e m in a r s t u d e n t s . O n ly a r t i c l e by an A m e r ic a n a u t h o r o n V i v e s ’ L i f e and w o r k s . V i l l e y , P i e r r e , L e s s o u r c e s e t 1 ’ e v o l u t i o n d e s e s s a i e s de M o n ta ig n e , 2 v o l s . P a r is : l i b r a r i e H ach ette e t c i e , 1668 . P p . 5 9 - 2 3 7 . V o c h t , H en ry d e , M onum ents H u m a n i s t ! c a L o v a n i e n s i a . T e x t s . and S t u d i e s a b o u t L o u v a i n H u m a n is t s i n t h e f i r s t H a l f o f t h e X V Ith C e n t u r y , V o l . IV . L o n d o n : O x fo r d U n i v e r s i t y Pr e s s , 1 9 3 4 . C i t e s r e c e n t r e s e a r c h on V iv e s . W a l s h , W i l l i a m T hom as, I s a b e l l a o f S p a i n ( The L a s t C r u s a d e r ) . New Y o rk : R o b e r t M. M c B r id e and Company, 1 9 3 0 . 5 l5 pp. E m p h a sizes t h e c o n s t r u c t i v e s i d e o f I s a b e l l a ’ s a d ven ­ tu ro u s l i f e .

310 W a tso n , F o s t e r , "A F r i e n d o f S i r Thomas M o r e ,” N i n e t e e n t h C e n t u r y , 8 3 : 5 4 0 - 5 5 2 , M a rch , 1 9 1 8 . C o n g e n ia l f r i e n d s o f s i m i l a r i d e a l s . _________ , "A S u g g e s t e d S o u r c e o f M i l t o n ' s T r a c t a t e , " t e e n th C en tu ry , 6 6 :6 0 7 -1 7 , O ctob er, 1 9 0 9 . T r a c e s r e s e m b l a n c e s b e tw e e n M i l t o n and F i v e s .

N in e ­

, e d i t o r , The E n c y c l o p e d i a and D i c t i o n a r y o f E d u c a t i o n . L on don : S i r I s a a c P it m a n and S o n s , L t d . , 1 9 2 2 . 4 v o l s . , 1919 pp. _________ , "The F a t h e r o f Modern P s y c h o l o g y , " P s y c h o l o g i c a l R ev iew , 2 2 : 3 3 3 - 5 3 , S ep tem b er, 1 9 1 5 . Resumd o f F i v e s ' De Anisia e t F i t a p u b lis h e d i n 1 5 3 8 . . _ » " J u an L u i s F i v e s : A S c h o l a r o f t h e R e n a s c e n c e , 1 4 9 2 - 1 5 4 0 ," E s s a y s by D i v e r s H and s. New s e r i e s ; L on d on : Humphrey M i l f o r d , O x fo r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 2 1 . F o l. I , pp. 8 1 -9 3 . T r a n s a c t io n s o f th e R oyal S o c i e t y o f L i t e r a t u r e o f th e U n i t e d K in gd om . _________ , " J u a n L u i s F i v e s , " P a u l M o n r o e , e d i t o r , A C y c l o p e d i a o f E d u c a tio n , F o l. F. , pp. 7 3 8 -7 3 9 . New YorkT M a c m i ll a n and Company, 1 9 1 3 . F o s t e r W a tso n w a s d e p a r t m e n t a l e d i t o r o f P a u l M o n r o e ' s C y c lo p e d ia o f E d u c a tio n . ________ , L u i s F i v e s : 1 1 G ran F a l e n c i a n o ( 1 4 9 2 - 1 5 4 0 ) . O x fo r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s : Humphrey M i l f o r d , 1 9 2 2 . 126 pp. An e x c e l l e n t r esu m e o f S p a n i s h i n f l u e n c e o n t h e E n g l i s h R e n a i s s a n c e t h r o u g h t h e work o f F i v e s and C a t h e r i n e o f Aragon. " S h a k e s p e a r e . and Two S t o r i e s o f L u i s F i v e s , " N i n e te e n th C en tu ry, 8 5 :2 9 7 -3 0 6 , F ebruary, 19 1 9 . S u g g e s t s r e s e m b la n c e s betw een c e r t a i n p a s s a g e s o f S h a k e s p e a r e and w o r k s o f F i v e s . W oodward, W i l l i a m H a r r i s o n , S t u d i e s i n E d u c a t i o n D u r in g t h e Age o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e , i4 Q O -l6 0 G T C a m b rid g e: The U n iv e r sity P r e s s , 1 9 2 4 . (F ir s t e d itio n , 1 9 0 6 ). 2 v o ls ., 336 pp. O u tsta n d in g f i g u r e s o f R e n a iss a n c e e d u c a tio n . Z w e ig , S t e f a n , E rasm us o f R o tt e r d a m ( t r a n s l a t e d by E d en and C e d a r P a u l ) ; New YorE: G a rd en C i t y P u b l i s h i n g Company, I n c ., 1937. 247 pp. C h a r a c t e r i z e s E rasm u s a s t h e f i r s t " c o n s c i o u s " E u r o p e a n .