The Sea in Antiquity 9781841711607, 9781407352411

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Title Page
Table of Contents
List of Contributors
Introduction
Chapter One: Epic itineraries: the sea and seafaring in the Odyssey of Homer and the Argonautica of Apollonius Rhodius
Chapter Two: Synesius, Homer, and the Sea: The Sea and the Representation of Libyans in Synesius' Leters
Chapter Three: Women, Hagiography, and the Sea
Chapter Four: Kinet Höyük and Pan-Mediterranean Exchange
Chapter Five: Miletos and the sea: a stormy relationship
Chapter Six: 'Grain for Athens': the importance of the Helespontine route in Athenian foreign policy before the Peloponnesian war
Chapter Seven: The Phoenicians at Sea
Chapter Eight: Saite Navy
Chapter Nine: Were there polis navies in Archaic Greece?
Chapter Ten: The Iconography of Ancient Ships
Chapter Eleven: A Roman Provincial Fleet: The Classis Britannica reconsidered
Chapter Twelve: Sea-raiding in Archaic Greece with special attention to Samos
Chapter Thirteen: Pirates in the Bay of Pamphylia: an Archaeological Inquiry

Citation preview

The Sea in Antiquity

Edited by G. J. Oliver, R. Brock, T. J. Cornell, S. Hodkinson

BAR International Series 899

2000

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 899

The Sea in Antiquity © The editors and contributors severally and the Publisher 2000 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841711607 paperback ISBN 9781407352411 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841711607 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2000. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

BAR

PUBLISHING BAR titles are available from:

E MAIL P HONE F AX

BAR Publishing 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK [email protected] +44 (0)1865 310431 +44 (0)1865 316916 www.barpublishing.com

The Sea in Antiquity

Contents ¡¡¡

List of Contributors

V

Introduction I

The Idea of the Sea

R. J. Ciare Chapter One: Epi e itineraries: the sea and seafaring in the Odyssey of Homer and the Argonautica of Apollonius Rhodius 13

Eireann Marshall Chapter Two: Synesius, Homer, and the sea: the sea and the representation of Libyans in Synesius' letters

19

K. Adshead Chapter Three: Women, hagiography, and the sea 11

Exchange and the Sea

25

Tamar Hodos Chapter Four: Kinet Hoyük and Pan-Mediterranean exchange

39

Alan M. Greaves Chapter Five: Miletos and the sea: a stormy relationship

63

Chapter Six: Antony G. Keen 'Grain for Athens': the importance of the Hellespontine route in Athenian foreign policy before the Peloponnesian war 111

The Development of Sea-Power: l. The Near East

75

Chapter Seven: Alan Millard The Phoenicians at sea

81

Chapter Eight: Saite navy

Alan B. Lloyd

The Development of Sea-Power: 2. Greece and Rome

93

Chapter Nine: Lionel Scott Were there polis navies in Archaic Greece?

117

Chapter Ten: Alee Tilley The iconography of Ancient Ships

127

Chapter Eleven: Gustav Milne A Roman provincial tleet: the Classis Britannica reconsidered

Contents IV

Piracy

133

Chapter Twelve: Alastar Jackson Sea-raiding in Archaic Greece with special attention to Samos

151

ChapterThirteen: N. K. Rauh, R. F. Townsend, M. Hoff, L. Wandsnider Pirates in the bay of Pamphylia: an archaeological inquiry

ii

L i s to fC on tr ibu tor s D rK a ther ine A d shead S en io rL ec tu r e ri nC la s s ic s ,U n ive r s i ty o fC an te rbu ry ,N ew Z ea land . R ecen t p ub l ica t ion s i n c lude " Ju s t in ian a nd A ph tha r todoce t ism" i nS .M i tche l l a nd G . G rea t rex ( e d s ) , E thn ic i ty a nd C u l ture i nL a te A n t iqu i ty ( The C la s s ica l P r e s s o f Wa le s , S wan sea , 2 000 ) 31-36 . D rR .J .C lare L ec tu re ri nC la s s ic s , U n ive r s i ty o fL eed s , L S2 9 JT , UK . A u tho r o fa r t ic le s o n H ome r , A po l lon iu s R hod iu s , C a tu l lu s a nd V i rg i l . H e h a s r e cen t ly c omp le ted a b ook o n l a nguage , i mage ry a nd t h eme i nA po l lon iu s 'A rgonau t ica ,w h ich w i l l b ep ub l ished i n2 00 1 . D rA lan M .G reave s L ec tu re r i nA r chaeo logy , S choo l o fA rchaeo logy , C la s s ic s a nd O r ien ta l S tud ie s , T he U n ive r s i ty o f L ive rpoo l , L 69 3 BX . R ecen tp ub l ica t ion s i n c lude ac hap te ro n s e t t lemen t a tM i le to s i nP .F l en s ted Jen sen ( e d . )P ape r s o ft h e C openhagen P o l i s C en t re V o lume 5( Copenhagen ) 5 7 -72 . D rT amar H odo s L ec tu re ri nA r chaeo logy ,D ep t . o fA r chaeo logy , 4 3 Wood land R oad , U n ive r s i ty o fB r is to l , B S8 1 UU . R ecen t p ub l ica t ion s i n c lude a r t ic le s o n G reek -na t ive i n te rac t ion i nS i c i ly , a nd K ine t H öyük d u r ing t h e I r on A ge . D rM ichae lH of f A s soc ia te P rof e s so r o fA r tH i s to ry a nd A r chaeo logy , D epa r tmen t o fA r t a nd A r t H is to ry , U n ive r s i ty o f N eb ra ska a tL inco ln , L inco ln , NE 6 8588 -0 114 , U SA . J o in t d i r ec to r o ft h e R ough C i l ic ia A r chaeo log ica l S u rvey P ro jec t . R ecen t p ub l ica t ion s i n c lude M . C . H of fa nd S .I .R o t rof f( e d s ) , T he R oman i za t ion o fA then s( Oxbow B ook s , O xf o rd , 1 999 ) . D rA la s tar J ack son L ec tu re ri nA nc ien tH i s to ry , S choo l o fH i s to ry , T he U n ive r s i ty o f Manche s te r , M 13 9 PL . D rA n tony K een A s soc ia te L ec tu re r ,T he O pen U n ive r s i ty , S ou th E a s tR eg ion , E a s tG r in s tead , RH 19 1 HG , UK . R ecen tp ub l ica t ion s i n c lude D yna s t i cL yc ia ( Le iden , 1 998 ) . P rof e s sor A lan B .L loyd H ead o fD epa r tmen to fC la s s ic sa nd A nc ien tH i s to ry ,T he U n ive r s i ty o f Wa le s , S wan sea , S A2 8 PP . C ha i rman o ft h e E gyp t E xp lo ra t ion S oc ie ty ; r e cen t p ub l ica t ion s i n c lude t wo c hap te r s i n T he O xf ord H i s tory o fA nc ien tE g yp ta nd a u tho ro f at h ree -vo lume c ommen ta ry o nH e rodo tu sB ook I . D rE ireann Mar sha l l L ec tu re r , S choo l o fC la s s ic sa nd T heo logy ,T he U n ive r s i ty o fE xe te r , E xe te r , EX4 4 QH . R ecen t p ub l ica t ion s i n c lude av o lume c o -ed i ted w i th V . M . H ope , D ea th a nd D i sea se i nt h e A nc ien t C i ty ( Rou t ledge , L ondon ,2 000 ) . A lan M i l lard R ank in P rof e s so ro fH eb r ew a nd A nc ien tS em i t ic L anguage s , T he U n ive r s i ty o fL ive rpoo l , L 69 3 BX . R ecen t p ub l ica t ion s i n c lude R ead ing a nd W r i t ing i nt h e T ime o fJ e sus ( Shef f ie ld A cadem ic P re s s , 2 000 ) a nd , e d i ted w i th P . B ienkow sk i , T he B r i t i sh Museum D ic t iona ry o ft h e A nc ien t N ea r E a s t ( B r i t ish Mu seum P re s s , 2 000 ) . Gu s tav M i lne L ec tu r e ri nA r chaeo logy ,T he I n s t i tu te o fA r cha eo logy , U n ive r s i ty C o l lege L ondon , WC 1H O PY . R ecen tp ub l ica t ion s i n c lude T he P o r to fR oman L ondon ( r ev ised e d i t ion , B a t sf o rd , L ondon , 1 993 ) .

1 1

L i s to fC on t r ibu tor s N icho la sR auh A s soc ia te P rof e s so ro fH is to ry ,P u rdue U n ive r s i ty , W . L af aye t te I N 4 7907 , U SA . R ecen t p ub l ica t ion s i n c lude ' Who w e re t h e C i l ic ian P i ra te s? ' i nS t ua r t Sw iny , R obe r t L . H oh lf e lde r , a nd H e lena Wy lde Sw iny ( e d s ) , R e s Mar i t imae : C yprus a nd t h e E a s tern Med i terranean f rom P reh i s tory t oL a te A n t iqu i ty ( Scho la r sP r e s s ,A t lan ta , GA , 1 997 ) 2 63 -283 . N icho la s R auh , M ichae l H of f , R hy s T own send , a nd L uAnn Wand sn ide r a r e t h ej o in t d i rec to r s o ft h e R ough C i l ic ia A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey P ro jec t . O n -go ing s i nce 1 996 , t h e p ro jec t i ss uppor ted b y t h e N a t iona l S c ience F ounda t ion , t h e Ame r ican R e sea rch I n s t i tu te i nT u rkey , H icke r son I n s t rumen t s C o . o f I n d ianapo l is I N ,a nd p a r t ic ipa t ing u n ive r s i t ie s . L ione lS co t t S choo lo fC la s s ic s ,U n ive r s i ty o fL eed s , L eed s L S2 9 JT . L ione l S co t t h a s s ubm i t ted f o r e xam ina t ion h i s P hD t h es is e n t i t led A n H i s tor ica l C ommen ta ry o n H e rodo tus B ook 6 . T h is p ape ri sa no f f shoo to fb ackg round r e sea r ch i n to t h eB a t t le o fL ade . L ieu tenan tC ommander A lec T i l ley Ar e t i red n ava l o ff ice r , a mong t h e l a s t t oh ave c a r r ied o u t n ava l t a sk s u nde r o a r s . H e h a s p ub l i shed a r t ic le s a bou t a nc ien t s h ip s i nA n t iqu i ty , T he I n terna t iona l J ourna l o fN au t ica l A rchaeo logy a nd e l sewhe re , a nd w r i t ten t h e e n t ry o n t r i reme s f o r D e rN eue P au ly . H e m ay b e t h e o n ly p e r son t oh ave r owed b o th i n at r ip le -banked b oa ta nd o na ne i gh t -man o a r . R hy sF reder ick T ownsend A s soc ia te P rof e s so ro fA r t H i s to ry a nd A rcha eo logy , A r t H is to ry P rog ram , C la rk U n ive r s i ty , Wo r ce s te r MA 0 16 10 , U SA . J o in t d i rec to r o ft h e R ough C i l ic ia A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey P ro jec t . R ecen t p ub l ica t ions i n c lude T he A then ian A gora V o lume XXV I I : T he E a s tS id e o ft h eA gora : R ema in s B enea th t h e S t oa o fA t ta lo s ( The Ame r ican S choo l o fC la s s ica l S t ud ie sa tA then s ; P r ince ton , 1 995 ) . L uAnn Wand sn ider A s soc ia te P rof e s so r o fA n th ropo logy , D epa r tmen t o f A n th ropo logy , 1 26 B e s sey H a l l , U n ive r s i ty o f N eb ra ska a tL inco ln , L inco ln , NE 6 8588 -0368 ,U SA . J o in t d i rec to r o f t h e R ough C i l ic ia A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey P ro jec t . R ecen t p ub l ica t ion s i n c lude ' Landscape E lemen t C onf igu ra t ion , L if e space , a nd O ccupa t ion H is to ry : E thnoa rchaeo log ica l O b se rva t ion s a nd A r chaeo log ica l A pp l ica t ion s ' , i n A lan P . S u l l ivan ( ed . ) , S urf ace A rchaeo logy I I ( Un ive r s i ty o fN ew Mex ico P re s s ,A lbuque rque , 1 998 )2 1-38 .

i v

I n t roduc t ion : G .J . O l ive r , R .B rock , T .J .C o rne l l , S .H odk in son T he T ran spenn ine R e sea rch S em ina r T h e p r e sen t v o lume i st h e r e su l t o f as em ina r s e r ie s , T he T ranspenn ine R e search S em inar , t h a t s t a r ted i n 1 996 . T h is s e r ie s p rov ide s ar e g iona l f o rum f o r t h e s t af f , s t uden ts , a nd a cadem ic v i s i tor s a t t he U n ive r s i t ie s o f L eeds , L ive rpoo l , a nd Manche s te r t o m ee t a nd e xp lo re t h eme s r ef lec t ing c u r r en t w o rk a nd i mpo r tan t d eve lopmen t s w i th in t h e s ub jec t a r ea o f a nc ien t h i s to ry a nd c u l tu re . T he t i t le o f t h e s em ina r s e r ie s r ef lec t s i t s s t rong r e g iona l b a s is . T he s em ina r s e r ie s g r ew o u t o ft h e l o ng runn ing L eed s -Manche s te r s em ina r a nd h a s e nhanced t h e a cadem ic e nv i ronmen t f o rr e sea rch s t uden t sw o rk ing i nN o r th - We s tE ng land . T he o r ig ina l s t ee r ing g roup f o r t h e s em ina r s e r ie s o n T he S ea i n A n t iqu i ty c ons is ted o f R oger B rock ( Leeds ) , J ohn D av ies ( L iverpoo l ) , a nd S tephen H odk inson (Manches ter ) . T he s ubsequen t o r gan isa t ion o ft h e s e r ie s a l so s aw t h e i n vo lvemen t o f T im C orne l l ( Manches te r ) a nd G raham O l ive r ( L ive rpoo l , v i ce J ohn D av ie s ) f r om i t ss t a r t i nO c tobe r 1 9 96 . T he a ims o ft h e s em ina r w e r e v a r ied a nd i n c luded a d e s i re t o s t imu la te r e sea rch a nd p ub l ica t ion . T he t h eme c ho sen , T he S ea i nA n t iqu i ty , w a s f e l t t oh ave t h e p o ten t ia l t o a t t rac t s t uden t s o f a n t iqu i ty f r om d i f f e ren t d i sc ip l ine s , i n c lud ing l i t e ra tu r e , h i s to ry , a nd a r chaeo logy , a c ro s s ap e r iod f r om t h e B ronze A ge t o l a te a n t iqu i ty , a nd r ang ing b eyond t h e w o r ld s o f G r eece a nd i mpe r ia l R ome t o o the r Med i te r ranean a nd N ea r E a s te rn c u l tu res . T he r ange o f t op ics e nv i saged u nde r t h is t i t le w a s c on s ide rab le , a nd i s e xp lo red b r ief ly b e low , w i th r e f e rence s t o p ape r s d e l ive red i nt h e s e r ie s ( i nc lud ing t h o se n o ti n c luded i n t h i s v o lume ) . I tw a s n a tu ra l ly i mpo s s ib le t o e xp lo re t h e S ea i nA n t iqu i ty e xhau s t ive ly e ven i nt h r ee y ea r s , b u t t h e v o lume o f f e red h e re i s ar ef lec t ion o f t h e d i ve r s i ty o f a pp roache s a nd t op ic s w h ich t h e t h eme s u cceeded i ni n co rpo ra t ing . A tt h es ame t i me , t h e n ew d i rec t ion t a ken b y t h e s em ina r s e ems t o h ave c o inc ided w i th a n u p su rge o fi n te r e s t i nm a r i t ime i sue s , a nd t h e e n su ing p e r iod h a s s e en as t eady f l ow o fp ub l ica t ion s i nt h is a r ea , i n c lud ing P .J a nn i 1 Ma re d eg l ia n t ich i ( Ba r i 1 996 ) , P h i l ip d e S ouza 's P i racy i n t h e G reco -Roman W or ld ( Camb r idge 1 999 ) a nd , m o s t r e cen t ly , N icho la s P u rce l l a nd P e reg r ine H o rden 's m onumen ta l T he C orrup t ing S ea ( Oxf o rd 2 000 ) , n o t t om en t ion as t ream o fa r t ic le s a nd b ook s c once rn ing t h et r i reme p ro jec t( on w h ich s e eb e low ) . T he T ran spenn ine R e sea r ch S em ina r t o ok t wo f o rm s . E a ch i n s t i tu t ion t o ok t u rn s i nh o s t ing o ne -of fs em ina r p ape r s , a nd a tl e a s t s i x o ft h e se m ee t ing s t o ok p l ace i n e a ch o ft h e f i r s t t wo y ea r s . I n a dd i t ion , d u r ing f ou r

o ne -day c o l loqu ia , an umbe r o fs p eake r s w e r e a b le t o e xp lo r e m a r i t ime t h eme s i ng r ea te rd ep th ( s ee b e low ) . T he s em ina rs e r ie s w a s i n tended t or un f o ra tl e a s tt wo y ea r s b u t t h e i n te re s t f r om p o ten t ia l s p eake r s l e d t oa t h i rd y ea r o ft h e p rog ramme w h ich c onc luded i nJ une 1 999 . T he s ucce s s o f t h is r e g iona l r e sea rch s em ina r s e r ie s h a s l e d t ot h e c on t inua t ion o ft h e T ran spenn ine R e sea rch S em inar , w i th a n ew t h eme f r om O c tobe r 1 999 , ' Ma r r iage i nt h eA nc ien t Wo r ld ' . T he S ea i nA n t iqu i ty T he p l ace o ft h e s e a i nt h e a nc ien t w o r ld i s ac omp lex a nd mu l t if a r iou s s ub jec t . A t t h e mo s t f u ndamen ta l l e ve l , t h e s e a i s ag eog raph ica l g i ven , a nd i t s n a tu re ( w ind s , t i de s , c u r ren t s ) a nd s pa t ia l r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e l a nd , w he the r c on t inen t o ri s land , i s af u ndamen ta l c on s t ra in t o n t h e h i s to r ica l p roce s s . T he h i s to ry o f M i le tu s , f o r e xamp le , w a s p rof ound ly a f f ec ted b y h e r m a r i t ime l o ca t ion , a s A lan G reave s a r gue s ( `M i le to s a nd t h e s e a : as t o rmy r e la t ion sh ip ' ( 2 2 J anua ry 1 997 : s ee C hap te r F ive ) ) . Ma r i t ime e nv ironmen t s a r e d i s t inc t ive , n one m o re s o t h an i s land s , d i scu s sed b y N icho la s P u rce l l i n ' The a nc ien t h i s to ry o f t h e Med i te r ranean i s land ' ( 2 D ecembe r 1 998 ) , a nd d i f f e ren t p ar t s o f t h e Med i te r ranean h ave t e nded t o f o l low d i f f e ren t p a th s , a n i s sue t h a t w a s a dd re s sed b y o rgan is ing c o l loqu ia o n ' S eaf a r ing a nd s e apowe r i n t h e e a s ter n Med i ter ranean b ef o re 5 00 B C ' ( L ive rpoo l , 2 7 F eb rua ry 1 998 ; t h e v a r iou s p ape r s a r e d i scu s sed i n more d e ta i l b e low ) a nd o n ' The Wes tern Med i te r ranean b ef o re t h e P un ic Wa r s ' ( Manche s te r , 1 5 May 1 998 ) a t w h ich t h e p ape r s i n c luded D av id R idgway , ' Sa rd in ia , C a r thage a nd P i thekou s sa i i nt h e e i gh th c en tu ry BC : n ew l i gh t o n t h e f i r s t w e s te rn G reek s ' ; A nne N ev i l le , ' Recon s t ruc t ing r eg iona l i d en t i ty : t h e P hoen ic ian s i nI b e r ia a nd w e s te rn n o r th A f r ica ' ; a nd K e i th R u t te r , ' Sy racuse a nd t h e T yr rhen ian s e a i nt h e f i f th c en tu ry BC ' . O n ap r ac t ica l l e ve l , t h e s e a w a s a n a s se to r ar e sou r ce w h ich m igh t b e e xp lo i ted i n v a r iou s w ay s : f o r t h e c ommod i t ie s i tc on ta ined ( ma in ly f i sh , b u t a l so f o r e xamp le d ye -s tuf f s , s ponge s a nd s a l t ) , a nd a s am ean s o fc ommun ica t ion a nd t r an spo r t . H ence i ta l so s e r ved a s am ed ium f o rt h e d eve lopmen t o ft r ade , o fo ve r sea s s e t t lemen t -b o th d i scussed b y I r ene L emos , ' Euboean s a th ome a nd a b road ' ( 2 8 A p r i l 1 999 ) -a nd o f t h e p ro jec t ion o f p owe r . O ne a pp roach t o t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e s ea n a tu ra l ly l e ad s t o p r ac t ica l q ues t ions r ega rd ing t h e t e chn ique s a nd m a te r ia ls n ece ssa ry f o r t h is e xp lo i ta t ion a nd t h e p roce s se s b y w h ich t h ey d eve loped . S ome o ft h e se p r ac t ica l i s sue s w e re c on s ide red i nt h e s em ina r s e r ie s : J u l ia S t rau s s s poke o n ' Roman s h ip c on s t ruc t ion ' ( 30 O c tobe r 1 996 ) , L t . C d rA lec T i l ley o n ' Oa r ed s h ip s : ar a d ica l ly

GJ . O l iver , R .B rock , TJ C orne l l , S .H odk in son g ave R ome a ppa ren t ly c omp le te c on t ro l o f t h e Med i te r ranean , s he s t i l l h ad t om a in ta in al a rge n avy t os upp re s s p i racy .

n ew a pp roach ' ( 27 F eb rua ry 1 998 ) a nd ' The t r ue s a i l ing s h ip ' ( 1 1 Ma rch 1 998 ) , a nd D av id B lackman o n ' Some n ew e v idence f o r a nc ien t m a r i t ime a c t iv i t ies ' ( 9 J une 1 999 ) , w h i le G o rdon D av ies ( ` Sa i lo r s a nd f a rme r s , c oa s t l ine a nd c oun t ry s ide : m a r i t ime g eog raphy i n t h e p o l is ' ( 26 Novembe r 1 997 ) ) d i scu s sed i n f o rma l a ncho rage s a nd moo r ing p l aces a nd N icho la s V e l la a dd re ssed p rob lems o f n av iga t ion ( 'He rmes ' h ead land s : m a r i t ime r e l ig ion a nd Med i te r ranean n av iga t ion i nt h e f i r s t m i l lenn ium B C ' ( 1 5 May 1 998 ) ) .

T h is t wo -s ided v i ew o f t he s ea i s ar e cu r ren t p henomenon . F i sh w a s a n e xpen s ive l u xu ry a nd t h e o b jec t o f c onno isseur sh ip , y e t f i she rmen w e re r e gu la r ly r e p r e sen ted i na r t a s ma rg ina l f i gu re s i nt h e g r ip o f e x t reme p ove r ty ( wh ich may b e af a i thf u l p i c tu re o ft h e i rt r ue c ond i t ion ) . Ma r i t ime t r ade o f f e red t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f e n r ichmen t o n as pec ta cu la r s c a le , b u t o u r l i t e ra ry s ou rces t e nd t o r ega rd t h e s ea a nd t h o se w ho m ake t h e i r l i v ing f r om i tw i th ap r e jud ice w h ich a r chaeo logy c an h e lp t o r ed re s s ( J ohn -Pau l W i lson , ' Me r chan t s i n t h e A rcha ic Med i te r ranean ' a nd T ama r H odo s , ` K ine t H öyük i nt h e I r on A ge ' ( 2 7 F eb rua ry 1 998 ) ; s e e C hap te r F ou r ) T he s e a m igh t b e a n a s se t t o e xp lo i t a nd a u sefu l m ean s o f m ov ing g ood s a nd p eop le , b u t i tw a s a l so ap l a ce o f n a tu ra l h aza rd s -s t o rm s , s h ipw reck s a nd mon s t e r s o ft h e d eep ( Ma rk H umph r ie s , ' Savage s ha rk s , c r ue l s e a s : n a tu re a nd c u l tu re i nc l a s s ica l a n t iqu i ty ' ( 29 O c tobe r 1 997 ) ) . O the rp e r i ls w e re m an -made : t h e s ame e l emen tw h ich a l lowed t h e s t rong t o p ro jec t t h e ir p ow e r t h rough n ava l s t reng th e xposed t h e w eak t o a t ta ck , w h i le p i ra cy w a s a n a lmo s t c ons tan t d ange r t o a l a l ike . T h i s w a s t h e s ub jec t o f ao ne -day m ee t ing , h e ld i n Manches te r , o n ' Ma r i t ime P i racy i n t h e A nc ien t Wo r ld ' ( 16 May 1 997 ) : H an s v an Wee s , ' Ra id ing a nd t h e e a r ly G reek s t a te ' ; A la s ta r J ack son , ` Sam ian r a ide r s : f a c t s a nd f a c to id s ' ( s ee C hap te r 1 2 ) ; N icho la s R auh , ' P iracy a nd a r chaeo logy : t h e r ough C i l ic ia r e g iona l s u rvey p ro jec t ' ( s ee C hap te r 1 3 ) ; a nd P h i l ip d e S ouza , ' P i racy a nd s eabo rne e xchange i n t h e c l a ss ica l Med i te r ranean ' . A mo re s ub t le d ange r l u rked i nc omme r c ia l s ucce s s . F o r mo ra l i s ing w r i te r s , t h e t r ade t h a t m ade n a t ion s r i ch m igh t a l so g r adua l ly u nde rm ine t h em t h rough t h e i nf lux o fl u xu r ie s a nd t h e c o r rup t ion o fa na u s te re a nd s e lf re l ian tc ha r a c t e r .

T he re w e re a l so p rac t ica l p rob lem s i n vo lved i nt h e e s tab l ishmen t a nd m a in tenance o fs e a -powe r , s ome o f w h ich w e re d i scu ssed b y J .K . D av ie s ( 'Ma te r ia ls , m en , money a nd m anagemen t : t h e c o requ is i te s o f t h e A then ian n avy ') i n ac o l loqu ium o n ' Anc ien t n av ie s ' i n L eed s o n May 1 4 th 1 999 . O the rp ape r s o n t h a t o cca s ion a dd res sed s ea -powe r i n e a r l ie r G reek h i s to ry ( L ione l S co t t , ' We re t h e re p o l is n av ie s i n a r cha ic G reece? ' ; s e e C hap te rN ine ) , i nt h e H e l len i s t ic p e r iod ( Ph i l ip d e S ouza , ' Lo rd s o ft h e s ea : t h e n av ie s o ft h e H e l len is t ic w o r ld ') a nd i nl a te R oman n o r thern E u rope ( Bo r is R ankov , ' On p a t ro l? T he l a te R oman n avy o n o cean a nd r i ve r ') . A n e a r l ie r c o l loqu ium i n L ive rpoo l , ' Seaf a r ing a nd s eapowe r i n t h e e a s te rn Med i te r ranean b ef o re 5 00 BC ' ( 27 F eb rua ry 1 998 ) a lowed t h e f o cu s t o move a way f r om t h e w o r ld s o f C la s s ica l G reece a nd I mpe r ia l R ome , a nd i n c luded p ape r s b y A lan M i l la rd o n ' Phoen ic ian s ea p owe r ' ( s ee C hap te r S even ) ; N ige l T a l l is o n ' Assy r ian s e a p owe r ' ; a nd A lan L loyd o n ' The S a i te n avy ' ( s ee C hap te rE igh t ) . F rom o ne v i ewpo in t , m a r i t ime t r ade i sa l so am a t te ro f p r a c t ica l i t ie s , n o t o n ly o fc ommod i t ie s a nd r ou te s a nd o fp or t s , w a rehou se s , a nd c a rgo h and l ing , b u t a l so o f t h e l e ga l a nd f i nanc ia l s t ruc tu res n eeded t o d eve lop a nd s u s ta in i t . F rom a no the r , i tr a ises i s sue s o f i n dependence a nd mu tua l r e l iance w h ich c an h ave b o th p o l i t ica l a nd mo ra l a spec t s . F o r A thens , s e a p owe r e nab led h e rt os u s ta in al a rge u rban p opu la t ion b y i mpo r t ing f ood , ap henomenon d i scussed b y A n tony K een ( 'G ra in f o r A then s : t h e i mpo r tance o f t h e H e l lespon t ine r ou te i n A then ian f o re ign p o l icy b ef o re t h e P e loponne s ian w a r ' ( 5 Ma rch 1 997 ) ; s e e C hap te r S ix ) . R ome 's r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e s ea e me rged f r om t wo p ape r s ( Nev i l le Mo r ley , ' The Me t ropo l is a nd t h e Med i te r ranean ' ( 1 1 F eb rua ry 1 998 ) , a nd C l ive P owe l l , ' The P r inc ipa te a nd t h e S ea ' ( 12 F eb rua ry 1 997 ) ) a s d eep ly a mb iguous , b o th i d eo log ica l ly a nd i nr e a l i ty . S ome w r i te r s r e ga rded t h e s e a w i th d eep s u sp ic ion , r e ga rd ing i ta s p rov iden t ia l t h a t t h e s i te o fR ome w a s n o t c oa s ta l , o t he r s e xa l t ed h e r c on t ro l o f s e a a s w e l l a s l a nd . B u t a l though t h e i nf lux o fe ve ry k i nd o fg ood s u nde r t h e s un m igh t b e p or t rayed a se xemp l if y ing h e r c ommand o ft h e w ho le w o r ld , i n p rac t ice i mpo r t s o f f ood t o t h e i mpe r ia l c ap i ta l w e re e s sen t ia l . A l though A c t ium p roved t ob e t h e l a s t d ec is ive n ava l b a t t le f o r s eve ra l c en tu r ie s a nd

H e re w e h ave r e ached t h e o ppos i te p o le f r om t h e s t udy o fe qu ipmen t a nd p r a c t ica l s k i l ls , o ne w he re t h e s ea b ecome s ac oncep tua l d ev ice w h ich m ay b e e xp lo i ted t o c on s t ruc t m en ta l map s o f t h e w o r ld , a c tua l o r h e ro ic , a s i n t h e r ep resen ta t ion o f h e ro ic w ande r ing s i n e p ic p oe t ry d i scu s sed b y R ay C la r e ( 'A rgonau t ic i t i ne ra r ie s ' ( 29 A p r i l 1 998 ; s e e C hap te r O ne ) ) , o r i n t h e t r an sf e r o f ma r i t ime c oncep t s t o p o l i t ica l i mage ry ( Roge r B rock : ' The S h ip o f S t a te ' ( 10 D ecembe r 1 997 ) ) o r t o t h e R oman s t age ( Lo re B enz : "M im icum n auf rag ium" : s h ipw reck a s ac om ic m o t if o n t h e a nc ien t s t age ' ( 1 1 D ecembe r 1 9 96 ) ) . T he p o s s ib i l i t ie s o fe x t rac t ing b roade r p e r spec t ive s f r om l i t e ra ry i mp re s s ions o f t h e s ea c an b e s e en i n t wo p ape r s d evo t ed t ol a te a n t iqu i ty : K a the r ine A d shead , ' Women , h ag iog raphy a nd t h e h aza rd s o ft h e s e a i n l a te a n t iqu i ty ' ( 2 4 Ma rch 1 999 ; s e e C hap te r T h ree ) a nd E i reann Ma r sha l l , ' Sh ips a nd t h e s e a i n t h e c on s t ruc t ion o ft h e b a rba r ian s ' ( 24 F eb rua ry 1 999 ; s e e C hap te r Two ) .

v i

I n t rod uc t ion

S yne s iu s ' l e t te r s p rov ide f i r s t -ra te e v idence o f a t t i tude s t owa rd s t h e s e a i nC y rene a tt h e s t a r t o ft h e f i f th c en tu ry AD ; b u t i no t he r r e spec t s much l i t e ra ry e v idence f r om l a te a n t iqu i ty i sc on s ide red t h o rough ly u n re l iab le . K a the r ine A d shead ( Chap te r T h ree ) u se s t h e t h eme o ft h e s e a a s aw ay o fe xp lo r ing t h e e x ten t t o w h ich o ne p a r t icu la r b ody o f e a r ly C h r is t ian l i t e ra tu r e , h ag iog raphy , c an b e r e ga rded a su sef u l a nd s o l id e v idence . H e r e xam ina t ion o f t h e t r ea tmen t o f t h e s ea i n h i s to r ica l a nd l e ga l w r i t ing p rov ides a f r amework w i th in w h ich a n a ssessmen t o f h ag iog raphy c an b e m ade . T h is a na ly s is t a ke s p l ace w i th in t h e w ide r d eba te o n t h e e x ten t t o w h ich h ag iog raph ica l w r i t ing c an b e u t i l ised a s h i s to r ica l e v idence f o rl a te a n t ique h i s to ry .

T he p ape r s p ub l ished h e re r e p re sen t as e lec t ion o f t h o se g iven d u r ing t h e c ou r se o ft h e s em ina r s e r ies . S eve ra l s peake r s w e re u nab le t o o f f e r t h e ir p ape r s b e cau se o fo t he r p ub l ica t ion p l an s , w h i le s ome w e re u nab le t o m ee t t h e p ub l ica t ion t ime tab le b ecau se o f o t he r c omm i tmen t s . We a po log i se t o t h em f o r n o t a low ing t h em m o re t ime , a nd f o r p r e s s ing a head i n o r de r t o g e t t h e v o lume o u t o n t ime . O u r t h ank s a r e n eve r the less e x tended t o a l l t h e s peake r s w ho p r esen ted p ape r s a t T he T ranspenn ine R e sea rch S em ina r , w i thou t w hom t h e s e r ie s c ou ld n o t h ave w o rked . S ea T heme s T he C hap te r s h ave b een a r ranged i n to f ou r g roup s w h ich r e p re sen t t h e r ange a nd f o cu s o f t h e s em ina r s e r ie s .

I

E xchang ea nd t h eS ea

T he t h ree p ape r s b y T ama r H odo s ( Chap te r F ou r ) , A lan G reaves ( Chap te r F ive ) a nd A n tony K een ( Chap te r S i x ) a dd re s s , t ov a ry ing d eg ree s , t h e e x ten t t o w h ich e conom ic i n te rac t ions i n a nc ien t G reece i n vo lved t h e s ea . S eaf a r ing p e rm i t ted c on s ide rab le mob i l i ty o ve r e x ten s ive d i s tances a nd o pened u p p o s s ib i l i t ie s f o r i n te ra c t ion b e tween d i f f e ren t p eop le s . O ne c ommun i ty a tt h e i n te rf ace o f t h e G reek w o r ld a nd t h e c u l tu re s o f t h e n ea r E a s t w a s K ine t H öyük , b e t te r k nown t oc l a s s ic i s t s a s I s so s , w he re A lexande r t h e G rea t d ef ea ted D a r iu s I I o f P e r s ia i n 33 BC . K ine t i so ne o f an umbe r o fs i te s o n t h e c oa s ta l s e a b oa rd o ft h e e a s te rn Med i te r ranean w ho se e xcava t ion i s e xpand ing c u r ren t u nder s tand ings o f c on tac t s b e tween G reek a nd n on -Greek c u l tu re . C e ram ic e v idence f r om t h e s i te d u r ing t h e I r on A ge ( n in th t o s i x th c en tu r ies BC ) r evea ls a g ene ra l s h if t i n t h e i n sp ira t ion f o r l o ca l ly m ade p o t te ry f r om n ea rby C yp ru s t oG reece . B u t , a s H odo s r e vea ls , t h e d e ta i ls o f t h is t r end a r e n o t s t ra igh tf o rwa rd , a nd c l ose r o b se rva t ion o fc hange s i nt h e i nf luence s o n t h e l o ca l p o t te ry s ugges t s s i gn if ican t c omp lex i t ie s i nt h e t ype o f c ommun ica t ion s t h a t K ine t h ad w i th G reece a nd w i th t h en ea rE a s t .

T he I d ea o ft h eS ea N ume rou s p o s s ib i l i t ie s p re sen t t h em se lve s w hen o ne c on s ide r s t h e r o le o f t h e s e a o r o f s ea t h eme s i n a n c ien t l i t e ra tu re . H ome r 's O d y s sey r e vo lve s a r ound t h e e ponymou s h e ro 's a dven tu re s a s h e s a i ls b ack h ome t e n y ea r s a f te rt h e e nd o ft h e l o ng s i ege o fT roy . T he d eb t o fl a te r a nc ien t w r i te r s t ot h e H ome r ic e p ic s i sw e l l -e s tab l ished . D u r ing t h e H e l len is t ic p e r iod ( l a te f o ur th t o f i r s t c en tu r ies BC ) w r i ter s s uch a s C a l l imachu s m ade e x ten s ive u se o f a nd p a id g r ea t r e spec t t o H ome r . I n C hap te r O ne , R ay C la re c ons ide r s h ow s eaf a r ing w a s d ep ic ted i n t wo e p ic p oems , H ome r 's Odyssey a nd t h e A rgonau t ica o f A po l lon iu s R hod iu s , ac on tempo ra ry o fC a l l ima chu s . A po l lon iu s ' A rgonau t ica n a r ra te s t h e h omecom ing o f J a son , t h e h e ro w ho h ad s t o len t h e g o lden f l eece f r om C o lch is a nd w ho w a s t o m a r ry , f a tef u l ly , Medea . L ook ing f i r s t a t t he O d y s sey , a nd t hen t h e A rgonau t ica , C la re e xp lo re s t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e c ha rac te r s ' e xper ience o f s ea -f a r ing : b o th O dysseus a nd J a son e ndu red a r duous m a r i t ime j ou rneys b u t w he rea s O dy s seu s w ande red , J a son 's v oyage f o l lowed a mo re d ef ined b u t s t i l l h aza rdou s r ou te . C la re i lu s t ra te s t h e s ub t le d ep ic t ion s o f t h e h e roe s ' f o r tune s a ts e a w i th c l o se r e f e r ence t ot h e t e x t o fb o th t h e se e p ic p oem s .

R ega rd ing M i le to s , t h e re i sc on s ide rab ly l e s s d oub t a bou t t h e h i s to ry o f i t s r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e G reek w o r ld . A s am a jo r c o lon is ing f o rce i n t h e A r cha ic p er iod , t h e M i les ians e s tab l ished c ommun i t ies t h roughou t t h e r eg ion o f t h e H e l le spon t ( Sea o f Ma rma ra ) a nd t h e B lack S ea . T he i r f i ne w oo l a nd p res t ig ious d ye p rov ided t r ader s w i th g ood c ommerc ia l p rospec t s . B u t , a s A lan G reaves d emon s t ra tes ( Chap te r F ive ) , t h e c i ty 's r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e s ea w a s a f f ec ted b o th b y l o ng te rm a l luv ia t ion a nd b y c on t ingen t h i s to r ica l e ven t s . G reaves a dduces c e r ta in k ey p o l i t ica l e ven ts t o e xp la in c hange s i n M i le to s ' l i nk s w i th t h e s ea o ve r t ime , t h e reby i n c rea s ing o u r u nde r s tand ing o f ac i ty w i th a ma r i t ime h i s tory e x tend ing t h roughou t a n t iqu i ty .

I nC hap te r Two , E i reann Ma r sha l l d i scu s se s a t t i tude s t owa rd s t h e s e a i nt wo l e t te r s b y B ishop S yne s iu s o f C y rene ( AD 3 70 -413) . S yne s iu s , w ho s e rved a s C y rene 's a mba s sado r i n C on s tan t inop le t owa rd s t h e e nd o ft h e f ou r th c en tu ry , w ou ld , l i ke m any w r i te r s d u r ing L a te A n t iqu i ty , h ave b een w e l l -ve r sed i n e a r l ie r G reek l i t e ra tu re . Ma r sha l l u ses t h ese t wo l e t te r s t oi lu s t ra te c on tempo ra ry a t t i tude s t owa rd s t h e s e a , a nd r evea ls h ow S yne s iu s d r ew o n H ome r t o u nde r l ine h i s f e e l ing s a bou t t h e i mpo r tance t h e s e a h a s f o rh imse lf a nd f o r c on ta c t w i th t h e w o r ld b eyond C y rene .

v i i

G .J . O l iver , R .B rock , T1 C orne l l , S .H odk in son When i tc ome s t ot h e i mpo r tance o ft h e s e at oa nc ien t G reek c i t ie s , f ew h ave b een d i scu s sed m o r e w ide ly o r i ng r ea te r d e ta i l t h an A then s . A n tony K een ( Chap te r S ix ) r e opens t h e d eba te o n t h e i mpo r tance o f t h e B lack S ea t o t h e g ra in s upp ly o fA then s i nt h e f i f th c en tu ry BC . H is f o cu s h e re i so n t h e p e r iod b ef o r e t h e P e loponnes ian w a r ( 431-404 BC ) , f o r w h ich t h e e v idence i sn o to r iou s ly d i f f icu l t . K een r ef ine s h i s e a r l ie rp o s i t ion p ub l ished i na r t ic le i n1 993 : p ro tec t ing g ra in i mpo r t s c an n o l o nge r b e u sed a s au n ive r sa l e xp lana t ion f o r A then ian f o re ign p o l icy , b u t i t r ema ins t h e b e s t a va i lab le s o lu t ion t o A then ian i n te re s t s i nt h e H e l le spon t a nd B lack S ea r e g ion s . H i s p ape r r a ise s q ue s t ion s a bou t t h e w ide r r e la t ion sh ip b e tween A then ian s ea -powe r a nd t h e i mpo r tance o f m a r i t ime t r ade r ou te s , q ue s t ion s w h ich a r e a l so c en t ra l t ot h ef o l low ing p a r to ft h ev o lume

T he s uccessf u l c i v i l isa t ions o f G reece a nd R ome r e l ied e x ten s ive ly o n n ava l m ob i l i ty . T he G r eek p o l i s [ c i ty-s ta te ] w as d iffused t hroughou t t he Med i te r ranean b y t h e w ave o fc o lon is ing m ovemen t s f r om ' mo the r c i t ie s ' i nt h e G reek m a in land o rw e s te rn A s ia M ino r . A l though i th a s l o ng b een r e cogn i sed t h a t G reek c i t ie s d u r ing t h e a r cha ic p e r iod ( 7 76 -479 BC ) e xe r ted i nf luence o ve r t h e s ea , t h e r o le o f p o l i s ' n av ies ' h a s r e ce ived l i t t le a t ten t ion . L ione l S co t t ( Chap te r N ine ) a r gues t h a t t h e t yp ica l G r e ek p o l i s i n t h e A rcha ic p e r iod c a l led o n i nd iv idua l s t o s upp ly s h ip s f o rp o l i s e n te rp r i se s b u t r a re ly d eve loped wha t o ne c ou ld d e sc r ibe a s an avy . T he f i f th c en tu ry s upp l ies t h e f i r s t e xp l ic i t r ef e rences t o ' n avy ' . C o r in th , f amed f o r i t s m a r i t ime c omme r c ia l a c t iv i ty , i st h e o n ly p o l is t h a t m igh t h ave d eve loped a ny th ing r e semb l ing ap o l i s -navy i nt h ea r cha ic p e r iod .

I I

T he d eve lopmen t o ft h e t r i reme i nt h e f i f th c en tu ry r e vo lu t ion ised G reek c i v ic n ava l a c t iv i t ie s , a nd t h e f o rm a nd c on s t ruc t ion o ft h is t y pe o fv e s se l h ave b een t h e o b jec t o fc on s ide rab le r e sea rch a nd d eba te . C oa te s a nd Mo r r ison , a l ong w i th T he T r i reme T ru s t , h ave n o t o n ly p i onee red t h e s t udy o f t r i reme c on s t r uc t ion b u t n ow b oa s t t h e r e cons t ruc t ion o f aw o rk ing t r i reme . T he ir e xper imen ta l a r chaeo logy h a s a ch ieved c on s ide rab le s u cce s s a nd c augh t t h e i mag ina t ion o fa w ide a ud ience , a sw i tne s sed b y t h e r e cen t p ub l ica t ion o f an ew e d i t ion o fT he A then ian T r i reme ,e d i t ed b y J . S . Mo r r ison , J . F . C oa tes , a nd N . B . R ankov ( Camb r idge 2 000 ) . D issen t ing v o ices , h ow eve r , s t i l l e x is t . L t C d r A lec T i l ley ( Chap te r T en ) p r e s en t s h i s p e r sona l i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e a nc ien t i c onog raph ic e v idence f o r t h e d e s ign o ft h e a nc ien t G r eek t r i reme a nd p re sen t s af undamen ta l ly d i f f e ren t i n t e rp r e ta t ion f r om t he o r thodoxy e s tab l ished b y C oa t e s a nd Mo r r ison ( c f . J . C oa te s , ' T i l ley 's a nd Mo r r ison 's t r i reme s —e v idence a nd p rac t ica l i ty ' A n t iqu i ty 6 9 ( 1995 ) 1 59 -62 ) .

T he D eve lopmen to fS ea p owe r

T he a nc ien t N ea r E a s t w a s t h e f o cu s o fd i scu s s ion i n o ne o ft h e c o l loqu ia i nt h e s e r ie s , a nd t h e t wo p ape r s p ub l i shed h e re o r ig ina l ly b e longed t o at r iad o fp ape r s w h ich a dd ressed t h e P hoen ic ian ( Chap te r S even ) , E gyp t ian ( Chap te rE igh t ) ,a nd A s sy r ian n av ie s . E xam in ing t h e e v idence f o r t h e d eve lopmen t o f c ommun ica t ion b y r i ve r a nd s ea , A lan M i l la rd ( Chap te r S even ) e s tab l i she s t h e o r ig in s o fP hoen ic ian m a r i t ime a c t iv i ty b y l o ok ing b ack t o e v idence f r om t h e t h ird m i l lenn ium BC , w hen t h e i mpo r tance o f B yb lo s t o t h e E gyp t ian s b ecame r ef lec ted i n t h e i r v ocabu la ry . T he p eop le w e c a l l n ow ' Phoen ic ian s ' c ame f r om t h e c i t ie s o f S i don , T y re , a nd B yb lo s , a nd f l ou r ished f r om t h e e l even th a nd t e n th c en tu r ie s BC o nwa rd s . P hoen ic ian s e a -bo rne a c t iv i ty s ub sequen t ly d eve loped d u r ing ap e r iod w hen t h e c oa s ta l c i t ie s o f t h e L evan t w e re p ro tec ted b y t h e A ramaean s f u r the r i n land , a nd w a s n o t i n i t ia l ly h ampe red b y r e pea ted A s sy r ian a t temp t s i nt h e e i gh th a nd s even th c en tu r ie s B .C . t oa s se r t t h e i r s uze ra in ty o ve r t h e c oa s ta l c i t ie s . T he h i s to ry o fP hoen ic ian m a r i t ime a c t iv i ty , h oweve r , w a s d i s rup ted p e rmanen t ly i n t h e s i x th c en tu ry BC w hen t h e e xpan s ion o fP e r s ian p owe rt ot h e L evan t ine c oa s t a b so rbed t h e t h r iv ing P hoen ic ian c ommun i t ie s , a nd b ough t t h e i r n ava l r e sou rces u nder P e r s ian c on t ro l .

I nt h e R oman Emp i re , t h e m a in s t reng th o ft h e R oman n avy w a s b a sed a tM isenum a nd R avenna . B u t o t he r n ava l f o rce s e x is ted , a nd t h e f l ee t r e spon s ib le f o r t h e n or ther ly p rov ince o f B r i tann ia , t h e C la s s i s B r i tann ica [ Br i t ish f l ee t ] , i sr ev iewed b y G u s tav M i lne ( Chap te r E leven ) . U s ing a c omb ina t ion o f l a rge ly e p ig raph ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l e v idence , M i lne e xp lo re s t h e o pera t iona l c ommand o f t h e C lass i s B r i tann ica a nd s ugges t s t ha t , u n l ike t h e c en tra l R oman n ava l f o rces b ased i n t he Med i te r ranean , t h e n or the rn f l ee t w a s c on t ro l led b y d i f f e ren t a dm in is t ra t ive f o rce s . P a r t icu la r e mpha s is i s g i ven h e re t ot h e f l ee t 's c on t r ibu t ion t ot h e e c onomy o fR oman B r i ta in .

A no the r g rea t p owe r o f t h e N ea r E a s t , E gyp t , a l so s uf f e red c ons ide rab le u pheava l i n t h e s i x th c en tu ry BC , w hen i tw a s r u led b y t h e S a i tes , t h e 2 6 th E gyp t ian d yna s ty ( 664 t o 5 25 BC ) . A lan L loyd ( Chap te r E igh t ) t r aces t h e e v idence f o r E gyp t ian s eaf a r ing a c t iv i ty u nde r e ach o f t h e s i x S a i te P ha raoh s . T he S a i te s i n c rea sed t h e i r m a r i t ime a c t iv i ty a nd e ng inee red m uch c l o se r c on tac t s w i th t h e G reek s , w ho w e re a l lowed t od eve lop ac o lony a tN auc ra t is . B y d eve lop ing t h e i r n avy t h ey w e re a b le t om a in ta in c on t ro l o ver E gyp t ian t e r r i tory . D esp i te t he ir s ucce s sf u l w a r s w i th A s sy r ia , t h ey w e re e nve loped b y t h eP e r s ian Emp i re i n5 25 BC .

v i i i

I n t roduc t ion I V

p i ra te s w e re o pe ra t ing , a nd p r e sen t s h e re s ome o ft h e t e am 's f i nd ing s f r om t h e ir o ngo ing s u rvey o f t h is r e g ion .

P i racy

O ne o ft h e t h rea t s t os h ipp ing i na n t iqu i ty , a s i nl a te r p e r iod s o fh i s to ry , w a s p i ra te s . T he t wo f i na l a r t ic le s i nt h i s v o lume e xam ine a spec t s o fp i racy i nt h e w o r ld o ft h ea nc ien tG r eek s ,b o th f o cu s ing o nA s ia M ino r .

A cknow ledgemen t s Many i n d iv idua l s a r e t ob e t h anked f o r t h e i r h e lp i n m ak ing t h e S ea i nA n t iqu i ty s em ina r s e r ie s as ucce s s , n o t l e a s t t h e s peake r s a nd t h o se w ho a t tended t h e m ee t ing s . T he v o lume o f f e red h e re h a s b een a i ded c on s ide rab ly b y t h e a u tho r s t h emse lve s , w ho h ave b een p a t ien t a nd h e lpf u l i np roduc ing t h e i r m a te r ia l a nd c omp ly ing w i th t h e B AR g u ide l ine s . O u r t h ank s g o t ot h em . J ohn a nd E r ica H edge s o fB AR h ave b een i n s t rumen ta l i ne ncou rag ing t h e p ub l ica t ion o fp ape r s f r om t h e s em ina r s e r ie s . F ina l ly , t h ank s m u s tg o t ot h e s t af f a nd s t uden t s o f t h e D epa r tmen t s a t t h e U n ive r s i t ie s o f L eed s , L ive rpoo l , a nd Manches te r , w ho s uppor ted a nd h e lped t o o rgan ise t he T ranspenn ine R esearch S em inar — T he S ea i n A n t iqu i ty .

A las ta r J ack son ( Chap te r Twe lve ) p resen t s a n i mpo r tan t a nd d e ta i led s u rvey o f t h e s u rv iv ing e v idence f o r s e a ra id ing b y G reek s i n t h e a r cha ic p e r iod , s t re tch ing f r om t h e E uboean a nd P hocaean o pe ra t ion s i nt h e T yr rhen ian S ea t oA s ia M ino r i nt h e w e s t . J a ck son r e v ise s t h e b e l ief t h a t S amo s w a s a h aven f o r p i ra te s , a nd s ugge s t s t h a t t h e i s land w a s p robab ly n o m o re i mpo r tan t ab a se f o r s e a ra id ing a c t iv i ty t h an o t he rc on tempo ra ry G r eek c ommun i t ie s . N icho la s R auh ( Chap te r T h ir teen ) t a ke s t h e s e a r ch f o r p i racy t o t h e B ay o f P amphy l ia ( Sou the rn T u rkey ) . T h is i sw he re l i t e ra ry e v idence l o ca te s t h e b a se s f r om w h ich p i ra tes t e r ro r ised s h ipp ing u n t i l P ompey 's s ucce s s i n6 7 B C . R auh h a s b een l e ad ing a n e x ten s ive a r chaeo log ica l s u rvey o f t h e t e r r i to ry f r om w h ich

i x

Chap ter One : R .J . C lare E p ic i tnerar ie s : t he s ea a nd s eaf ar ing i nt he Ody ssey o f Homer a nd t he A rgonau t ica o f Apo l lon ius Rhod ius A sc r i t ic sa r ee age rt op o in t o u t , t h ed e sc r ip t ion o ft h e i n i t ia l ly u nnamed O dy s seu s a s n ok inponov c on s t i tu te st h e f i r s t s t ag e i nh i s i d en t if ica t ion , b u t a n e qua l ly i mpo r tan tp a r to ft h i sp r oce s s i st h e r e ve la t ion t h a th e i st h e m an 8 g Oka r c oXkä rU cyxe r l . W i th t h e f i r s t v e rb a pp l ied t o t h e a c t ion s o f t h e h e ro t h e t h eme o f w ande r ing i s e s tab l i shed a s t h e e s sen t ia l c ha r a c t e r i s t ic o f t h e e p ic q ue s t . I n t h e s u cceed ing v e r se s f u r th e r d e ta i l s e me rg e ; w e a r e t o ld t h a t t h e h e ro 's r a ndom i t ne ra ry i s as ou r ce o fb o th e mp ir ica l k now ledge ( i 5ev , g yv c o ) a nd s u f f e r ing ( nda iev) . F o r o u rp u rpo se s i ti st h e t h ea t r e o fa c t ion e s tab l i shed f o r O dy s seu s ' t r ava i l s i n v e r se 4 w h ich i so f p a r t icu la r r e levan c e . T he j ux tapo s i t ion o f i v r c öv ' tc p a nd T racy ( I X ),e a m ean s t h a t t h e f i r s t m en t ion o f t h e s e ai nt h e O d y s sey i si n an ega t ive c on tex t .

T h e r e a r e t wo g r ea t e x tan t e p ic n a r r a t ive s o f s e a v oyag ing i n G r eek l i t e ra t u r e , t h e h omecom ing o f O dy s seu s f r om T roy a st o ld i nt h eO d y s sey o fH ome r , a nd t h e v oyag e o f t h e A rgonau t s i n s e a r ch o f t h e G o lden F l ee ce a s t o ld i n t h e A rgonau t i ca o f A po l lon iu s R hod iu s . A l though t h e O d y s sey a nd A rgonau t i ca a r e p r odu c t s o f r a d ica l ly d i ve rgen t h i s to r ica l , c u l tu ra l a nd l i t e r a ry c on t ex t s , t h e r e i s a n e s sen t ia l s amene s s i n t h e r e sp ec t ive m y th ica l s i tua t ion s n a r r a t ed b y t h e se p oem s ; i n e a ch c a se a d i ff i cu l t a nd o u t land i sh m a r i t ime i t i n e ra ry i sa c h ieved b yt h eh e ro o rh e roe s o ft h e t a le . I nt h i s p ape r Is h a l l e xp lo r e a s pe c t s o f t h e p r e s en ta t ion o f t h e s e a a nd s e af a r ing i n b o th e p ic s ( p ay ing s p e c ia l a ten t ion t o i n s tance s o fi mage ry a nd s ymbo l i sm ) , w i th t h e a im o f c ompa r ing t h e O d y s sey a nd A rgonau t ica f r om t h i s p a r t icu la rp o in to fv i ew .

T he s e a f e a tu r e s o n t wo f u r the r o cca s ion s i n t h e p oem 's i n t roduc t ion . F i r s t t h e r e i sa cknow ledgemen t t h a t t h e p l igh t o f O dy s seu s i s u n iqu e -a l t h o se d e s t ined t o r e tu rn i n s a f e ty f r om T roy , w i th o n e e x cep t ion ,h ave a l r eady d one s o :

T he O d y s sey I nb ook 1 4o ft h eI l iad t h eg od S l eep r em ind s H e r a o f p a s t c o l lu s ion , n ame ly t h e i r j o in t c on sp i ra cy t o d i sr up t t h e h omewa rd v oyag e o f H e ra c le s a f t e r h i s s a ck o fT roy :

" Eve ' &Um . 7 C 6VTE, ö ao t e i r yov a ir bv ö k eOpov , o ixo t g aav , 7 c 6Xe dv l e n e c pevyöte; ' 1 8 O Cac caaav • T öV 5 'd ov ,v 6a tou K expig ivov 6 èy uva tKög , v ü l . te r l T t 6TV 1 ' g pv i ce Kakb y d ) . , 6 1a O ed c c ov , i va r cio-a ty X cu pupo io-t ,A aka tog iv i i m ia tv e i va t . ( 1 . 1115 )

en r ip . L EK a t i & XX° T E i l T r i \ r oa c rev + Wa t tT C p 5 TE K E iVO; A tög v iög g i cXecv ' IX t6Oev , T pdn ov i t óX tv gaka r c ga. e ro t i y e o g kega A tög v öov a iy töxo to ö i i. toç d cp p txpee ig • a i ) 5 io iK a id c daao A vg ) , 8 po-a a ' ä pyaki c ov ä vig c ov T C 6VTOV K a i i n v g ner za K 6 c ov8 ' c v a to dvnv d e ldve ixa, v c ia c p t ( p iXow n e twu r iv . ( 1 . 1 4 .249 -56 )

T h e se v e r se s , i n c on t ra s t t o t h e e a r l ie r l o ca t ive r e f e r en ce , e s tab l i sh a r e la t ion sh ip o f mu ch g r ea t e r i mmed ia cy b e tween t h ee p ic h e ro a nd t h e s e a . T he s e a i s n ow d i r ec t ly p r e sen ted a s a n o b s ta c le t o h omecom ing , a n o b s ta c le d e emed e qu iva len t i n i t s m agn i tude t ot h e T ro jan w a r i t se lf . I no r d e r t o r e tu rn h ome o ne m u s t b e s u cce s sf u l i ns u rv iv ing b o th . B u t i ti si nt h e c l o s ing v e r se s o ft h e i n t roduc t ion t h a t t h e O d y s sey p r e sen t s t h e i s sue o f m an 's i n te rac t ion w i th t h e s e a a s ac en t ra l t h eme i nt h i s e p ic . N o s oone r i s O dy s seu s ' s u cce s s i n a ch iev ing h i s h omecom ing f i na l ly a cknow ledg ed ( 1 6 18 ) , t h an t h e t h eme o f t h e d i v ine w ra th o ft h e s e a -god P o se idon i si n t roduced :

H e ra c le s , b ecau s e o f as t o rm a t s e a ( k id r c öv tov ) i n du ced b y H e ra , i sd r iven a w ay f r om h i s k i n ( v 6a9 t ( p iX c ov n ävu ov ) . I n t h i s b r ief a c coun t o f t h e d i sp lacemen to ft h eh omecom ing h e ro m ay b e f o und a b l uep r in t f o r t h e s c ena r io e xp lo r ed i n d ep th b y t h e p l o t o ft h e O d y s sey . T h e f i r s t f i ve v e r se s o ft h e l a t t e r p oem a r e e qua l ly s u cc inc t i n t h e i r e s tab l i shmen t o f p a rame te r sf o rt h ee p ic v oyage o fO dy s seu s : " Av8pa R o t g VVE T tE , Mo i 3a c s ,r o Mnpo r cov , ö ; w iXa n okX6 n ke tyxen , e T t E l T po i r ig i e pbv I c to 2deOpov g r c epae • T r oXX .6 iv S 'avepd y r co av i Sev C i a tea K a i v 6ov v, n okkä 5 ' ' 6y ' i v n övIc p n s iOev C ayec t 6 ' v K at h 0 1 4 16v , a pv i luvog i VT Ew u v K a iv ö s znov ( 1 . 1-5 )

e co l 8 ' a.o c ipov i nav u; v öm p tI l oac töä owo; • 68 'd i c ancpx4 dv&a tvEv a vt iN c p ' 08vo-f i n ap ( ); vy a iav i l cc y9a t . ( 1 . 19 -2 1) A nd s ow e e n t e r t h e a c t ion o ft h e p oem p r op e r u nde r t h e a eg i s o ft h e h o s t i l i ty o ft h e g od o ft h e s e a t owa rd s t h e h e ro . I ti s f r om t h i s m omen t o nwa rd s t h a t t h e O d y s sey m ay b er e ad a sa na r che typa l my th o fc on f l ic t b e tw e en m an a nd t h e s e a , ac onf l ic t w h ich i n t h e 1

R .J .C lare l a nguage o f m y th f i nd s e xp r e s s ion i n t h e p e r son o f O dy s seu s ' p r inc ipa la dve r sa ry ,t h e s e a g od P o se idon . ' I nt h i s r e ga rd , i ti sn o tab le t h a t w e a r e m ade p r ivy t o O dy s seu s ' i d en t i ty o n ly a f t e r t h e n ame o f h i s d i v ine a n tagon i s th a sb een r e vea led .

v i jaog S E vöo i jeaaa , OE & ö 'b & Guav a v o c i e t , " AtXav to ; O vp i tip 6 Xo6 ( ppovo; ,ö ;' L E O ca o iaang m iang ß ivOca ° thy , g x e l ö i covag c i r tbg g a l cp c ig , c xy a i d ev T E Kcd o i )pavöv ä pp ig g xov c s t . ( 1 .48 -54 )

T he t h eme o fe nm i ty b e tween P o se idon a nd O dy s seu s d om ina te s a nd p r ed ica t e s t h e e a r ly s t age s o f t h e a c t ion . T he s a id a c t ion c ommen ce s w i th t h e i n f o rma t ion t h a t P o se idon i s t empo ra r i ly o f f t h e s c ene , v i s i t ing t h e E th iop ian s ( 1 .22 -25 ) . H ome r 's E th iop ian s a r e am y s te r iou s r a c e w ho a pp ea r t o c on s t i tu te a n u t op ian c ommun i ty i n ar e g ion a tt h e e dge o re nd o ft h e w o r ld ; a sw e k now f r om t h e I l iad t h ey l i ve i np r ox im i ty t ot h e R ive rO cean , am a rke r o f c o sm ic e x t r em i ty u nde r t h e t e rm s o f t h e c o smo logy p r e sen t ed i nt h e H ome r ic p oem s . ' I nt h e O d y s sey t h e i mp r e s s ion w e g l ean o f t h e i r l a nd a s al o ca t ion o f a b senc e d epend s u pon t h e d e s igna t ion o f t h e E th iop ian s a s g axa to t a vSp c 7 . )v ( 1 .23 ) .3 T he o pen ing b ook o ft h e I l iad t e l l s h ow Z eu s a nd t h e O lymp ian s v i s i t t h e E th iop ian s f o r at we lve -day p e r iod o f f e a s t ing , c r ea t ing s ome th ing o f ah i a tu s i n t h e m a in a c t ion . B y c on t ra s t , P o se idon 's s o jou r n a mong t h e E th iop ian s i n t h e O d y s sey p r ec ip i ta te s a c t iv i ty , c r ea t ing a f a vou r ab le m omen t f o r A thena t o p l ead w i th Z eu s o n O dy s seu s ' b eha lf . S t ra igh taway , t h e r ef o r e , t h e r e i s a u n iqu e c onnec t ion b e tw een O dy s seu s a nd P o se idon : i ti st h rough t h e f o r tu i tou s a b sence o fo ne t h a t t h e e nf o r ced a b sen ce o ft h e o t he r m ay b e o pen ly d i scu s sed .

T he o s ten s ib le i mpo r to ft h is p a s sag e i st o e mpha s i s e t h e i s o la t ion o f O dy s seu s , h i s d i s tan ce f r om w ha t m igh t b e t e rmed h i s o wn p r ope r s phe r e o f i n f lu en c e . T he h e ro ' s r emova l f r om n o rma l l i f e m ean s t h a t , m a rooned o n O gyg ia , h e b ea r s t h e s t a tu s o fo n e w ho i ss e pa ra t ed f r om h i s k i n ( g y ik c ov d i to ) , ap r ed i c am en t w h ich m ay b e c ompa r ed w i th t h a t o fI l i ad ic H e r a c le s ( c f . I . 1 4 .256 q uo ted a bove ) . A c l o se r r e ad ing , h oweve r , u ncove r s s ub t le a mb igu i t ie s i n t h e p o e t ic i mag e ry , n o t l e a s t i n t h e s t r ik ing i mage e vok ed b y 6 1 . u pak ög E O M ü aXd caang , t h e o n ly i n c iden ce o ft h e w o rd o mpha lo s i nt h e O d y s sey . I nt h e I l iad t h e t e rm o mpha lo s c an c a r ry b o th l i t e ra l a nd f i gu r a t ive m ean ing s , a c co rd ing t o c on tex t .4 T he s ymbo l i sm o f c en t r a l i ty a s soc ia t ed w i th H ome r ic u sage o ft h e w o rd m ean s t h a t t h e d e s igna t ion o f O gyg ia a s o mpha lo s t h a la s se s o r , i n E ng l i sh , ' n ave l o f t h e s e a ' c a n b e t a ken t or e f e r b o th t ot h e p hy s ica l a pp ea r an c e o ft h e i s land e me rg ing f r om t h e w a te r , ' a nd i n am o r e f i gu ra t iv e s e n se t o t h e i s land 's o ve ra l l p o s i t ion o f c en t ra l i ty . ' A s se r t ion i mmed ia t e ly a f t e rwa rd s o f t h e g enea logy o fC a lyp so a s d augh te r o fA t la s r e inf o r ce s t h e s ymbo l i sm i n he r en t i nt h e l o ca t ion o fO gyg ia , b y g ene r a t ing i mage ry a s soc ia ted w i th c o sm ic a r rang emen t : C a lyp so i sn o o r d ina ry d e i ty , b u t t h e d augh te r o f o ne w ho se f u nc t ion i ti s t o k e ep t h e v a r iou s z one s o ft h e c o smo s i n d ue o r de r , o n e w ho k now s e v en t h e d ep th s o ft h e s e a ( ö g O ca dmang m ia r ig ß iveca o i Sev ) .

B u t t h is i s n o t a l . D u r ing t h e e n su ing c o l loquy b e tween Z eu s a nd A thena t h e w h e r eabou t s o f O dy s seu s a r e n o l e s s c a r ef u l ly d e l inea ted , a nd i n ve s t ed w i th c ompa rab le c o sm ic s ymbo l i sm a nd s i gn if icance . I n deed f u r the re xp r e s s ion o ft h e h o s t i l i ty b e tween P o se idon a nd O dy s seu sm ay b e p o s tu la t ed i n t h e d i s junc t ion b e tween t h e i r r e spec t iv e l o ca t ion s o f d i sp la cemen t . I mage ry o f c o sm ic m a rg ina l i ty a s soc ia ted w i th t h e m a levo len t d e i ty i s c oun te rba lanced b y i mag e ry o f c o sm ic c en t r a l i ty a s soc ia t ed w i th t h e v i c t im i sed h e ro . A l though i g no rance o ft h e m i s s ing m an 's f a t e i si h e d r ama t ic s c ena r io m o t iva t ing t h ea c t ion o ft h ep oem 's f i r s t f o u r b ook s , w e h ave s e en O dy s seu s e s tab l i shed a s t h e u nw i l l ing g ue s t o ft h e n ymph C a lyp so a se a r ly a st h e f o u r teen th v e r se o ft h ei n t roduc t ion . A thena , a sp a r t o f h e r i n i t ia l c omp la in t , g oe s i n to m o r e d e ta i l c oncer n ing t h e h e ro 's p l a ce o fe x i le , a nd i n s o d o ing n o t o n ly f i xe s t h e l o ca t ion o fO dy s seu s , b u t f i xe s i t e xa c t ly :

T he r ei s ,o fc ou r se , ap a radox t ob ed i sce rned h e r e ; t h e l o ca t ion o fO dy s seu s t h e m i s s ing , t h e d i sp la c ed m an i sd ef ined i n t e rm s o f i mage ry o f c en t ra l i ty . Two p o in t s m ay b e m ade . F i r s t , t h e o ve ra l l i mpo r t o ft h e s ymbo l i sm i n v e r se s 5 0 -54 i s t o t r an sf o rm t h e l o ca t ion f o r O dy s seu s ' e nf o r ced s a bba t ic a l i n to s ome th ing m u ch m o r e t h an a m e r e h i deaw ay . A s S ega l p u t s i t ,O dy s seu s ' p l a ce o f c oncea lmen t i s' o f t h e p r ima l e s sen c e o ft h e s e a , a nd h e i sh e ld b y t h e g odde s s i n w hom a r e r e f lec ted t h e c r o s s ing a nd b i nd ing t o g e the r o ft h e c o sm ic s ub s tance s , e a r th , s ky a nd s e a ' .7 T he s e cond p o in t f o l low s o n f r om t h e f i r s t : t h e i mp l ica t ion so fO gyg ia 's l o ca t ion mu s t b e c o n s ide r ed i nt h e l a rg e r c on t ex t o f P o se idon 's w ra th . A ga in , a s b ef o r e , t h e h e ro 's s uf e r ing ( I t i l iata m iaxe t ) i s e nv i saged i n am a r i t ime c on tex t . T he c l u s t e r o f r e pe t i t ive i mag e s i nv e r se s 5 0 -52 ( vA c y c p , O ak d o aan; ,

ö c k 2u Xg o td q . u p"0 8vo i j iö c d ( ppov tS a i e Ta t? Iwo ,

ö vap .6p o , ) ,a gö iön iM ( p i k c ov & no I t r jg oac cr u i cax e t % / Am p i v c i t c p ip m , ö O t öp paX6g i at t O aX t iaang .

4

O nt h ee t ymo logy o fo mpha lo s s e e C han t r a in e . S e e H eu b e ck , W e s t , H a in swo r th a d l o c . A l so H enn ig 3 68 -9 . 6 D ion 3 7 . 7 S ega l 2 0 . S ee a l so Wh i tman 2 98 .

5

O nP o se idon a sM ee re sgo t ts e e L e sky 9 2 100 . 2 / . 1 .423 -4 , 2 3 .205 -7 . 3 O n t h e u s e o f t h e l a nd o f t h e E th iop ian s a s a l o ca t ion o fa b sence s e eC la rke 1 0 ; H e l lw ig 3 0 . 2

E p ic i t i ne ra r ie s v i jaog , O caäaa r ig ) m ean s t h a t O dy s seu s e mpha t ica l ly c en t r ed w i th in , a nd s ub jec t P o se idon 's z one o fi n f luen ce .

' c " ) ' p ' A iag t O r c pG Y ZOV 4 E (ii . tevog 66 ,C SOT I• TÖV 8 'i c p6pe t Ken & 7 Z6VTOV ä r ce ipova e u l i c c ivovta . ( 4 .499 -510 ) .

i s t o ,

I nh i sr e spon se t oA thena Z eu s r e f u t e s h e r a c cu sa t ion s o fh o s t i l i ty t owa rd s O dy s seu s , a t t r ibu t ing t h e h e ro ' s p r ed icamen tt oi t sp r ope rs ou r ce :

A jax i n cu r st h ew ra th o fP o se idon i nt h e f i r s t i n s tance b ecau se o fa ni l -conce ived a nd s a c r i leg iou s b oa s t t h a t h e h a s e s cap ed t h e p e r i l s o ft h e d eep i n s p i te o f t h e w i l l o f t h e g od s . A cco rd ing ly t h e s h ipw r eck a nd d r own ing o fA jax b ecome s t h e f i r s t d emon s t ra t ion i n t h e p oem o f w ha t t h e c on sequ en ce s o f P o se idon 's a ng e rc an e n ta i l . T h i s i n i t se lf w ou ld b e s uff ic ien t t o e n su r e t h a t t h e c au t iona ry t a le o f A jax h a s ad i r e c t b ea r ing o n t h e s i tua t ion o fO dy s seu s , b u t t h e p o in t i s e mpha s i sed b y P ro t eu s ' o b l ique p r ef a to ry r e f e r en c e t o t h e p l igh t o fO dr seu s . I n af o rmu la ic v e r se p ecu l ia r t ot h e T e lemachy t h e h e ro 's p r ed icamen t i se xp r e s sed n o t p r ima r i ly i n t e rm s o f h i s c onf inemen t o n C a lyp so 's i s le , b u t r a th e r i n t e rm s o f a g en e r a l d e ten t ion a ts e a : e t c 8 ' g ' ll n ou ç c oOc KOCTEr A KET al I t 6w cy ( 4 .498 ) .

ä Xkä l oae tS c i t c ov y a t i joxog a iiv K üKX c onog K exök ona t , b v b OaXgo i i d t Xäwaev , ä vt iOcov l i o 7 tü c p in tov , b ov K pä tog i cn ig iro-T oy n a c y tv K uKÄi oneaa t • 8 6 c oaa S i I n v TbCC v üp x p r l , 0 6pKvvog O uri t r ip , e tpuyi to to p l8ovtog . i va niaa ty Xa c pupo ia tI l oae töä c ov t p l ye iaa . iK Toi ) 8 f i ' 08va i ja I l oac töä c ov i vo c r ixOwv C o t I c cu rcor reivet , 7 c 2 tA ge t 4 5 'e cnb n atp i8o; a i tu . ( 1 .68 -75 ) T h i s i st h e s e cond , a nd m o r e d e ta i led , a r t icu la t ion o f t h e w ra th o f P o se idon i n t h e p oem . W i th t h e e xp lana t ion o ft h e r e a son f o r t h e g od 's a ng e r c ome s , a l so , a ne xp lana t ion o fi t sp r a c t ica l c on sequ ence s . T h e s e cond r e f e r ence t ow and e r ing i nt h ep oem i sf a r m o r e s p ec if ic a nd p o in ted t h an t h e f i r s t , ad if e r en c e e ncap su la t ed b yt h ed if e r ence b e tween t h e v e rb f o rm s n Xäyxei a nd n Ä , 4e t . T h e a ppa r en t ly a im le s s a nd r a ndom i t i ne r a ry e nv i sag ed f o r t h e h e ro i nv e r se 2 i s , a f t e r a l , n o t e n t i r e ly w i thou t as e n se o f p u rpo se , b e ing ap r emed i ta ted , a c t ive a temp tb yt h e s e a -god t o k eep O dy s seu sf r om h i sh ome land .

O dy s seu sm ake sh i s e n t rance i n to t h e a c t ion p r op e r i n b ook 5 .T h e f i r s t v i ew o ft h e h e ro p l a ce s h im s i t t ing o n t h e s ho r e o f O gyg ia , s t a r ing o u t t o s e a , a nd w eep ing ( 7 c 6 N P rov i r c ' d u rpüye tov S epKiaKe to 8 6Kpva X e iß c ov , 5 . 84 r e pea t ed a t 5 . 158 ) .9 A m ea su r e o ft h e h e ro 's i s o la t ion m ay b e g auged f r om t h e o p in ion o f t h e m e s seng e r -god H e rme s , s e n t b y Z eu s t o a r r ang e t h e r e lea se o f O dy s seu s , b u t a n u nw i l l ing v i s i to r t o C a lyp so 's i s l e b ecau se o f i t s r emo t ene s s :

T he r e tur n o f O dy s seu s i sb u t o ne o f m any n o s to i , b o th s u cce s sf u l a nd u n su cce s sf u l , n a r r a t ed i n t h e O d y s sey a nd , a s h a s b een i n t ima t ed i n t h e p oem 's i n t roduc t ion , t h e e xpe r ien ce o f O dy s seu s mu s t b e ( b o th p r o spec t ive ly a nd r e t ro spec t ive ly ) m ea su r ed a ga in s tt h e a na logou s a nd c on t ra s t ing d e s t in ie s o fh i s e r s twh i le c om rade s . D u r ing t h e c ou r se o f t h e f i r s t f o u r b ook s t h e f a t e o f t h e v a r iou s h e roe s r e tur n ing f r om T roy i sd i scu s sed r e gu la r ly , b y g od sa nd m o r ta l s a l ike . T hough m o s t o f t h e h e roe s e xp e r ien c e d i ff i cu l t ie s o n ly o ne h omewa rd j ou rney , t h a t o fA jax O i leu s , a c tua l ly c ome s t o g r ief w h i le t h e h e ro i n q ue s t ion i ss t i l l a ts e a . A s t o ld b y P ro teu s t h e o l d m an o f t h e s e a t o Mene lau s , t h e s t o ry o f A jax b ecome s ap a r ab le d r ama t i s ing t h e d ang e r s o f s e a v oyag ing :

Z e ig & p y ' it v c bye t 8d )p 'ikei i . tev c r üK i OiXovta • tç 8 'av i ld ov T oaa6v8e 8 1c c8p 4 to t ä X .µ . 1 .4 )6v i 8 c op ( XC E 7 ZETOV ; ( 5 .99 10 1) I n O dy s seu s ' s ub sequen t n ego t ia t ion s w i th C a lyp so t h e t h eme o f s e a f a r ing f i gu re s p rom inen t ly . T he i r c onve r sa t ion t a k e s p l a ce i n t wo s t age s . When t h e g odde s s i n i t ia l ly m ake s k nown t o h im h e r c hang e o f h ea r ta nd o f f e r st of a c i l i ta te h i se s cape f r om t h e i s land O dy s seu s , d eep ly s u sp ic iou s o fh e r i n ten t ion s , s p eak s f o rt h e f i r s tt i me : 8 i a ü , O eä ,' L ae d8 ea t o ü n Tt n op . rn jv , K ikea t a xeö i t i n epäav p lya X aV tga O cad taan; , i S e tv6v T 'äpyaXiov T E • Tb 8 'o ü8 ' h t v i jeg i aa t c b Kü r copo t n epö c o c r tv , a yaX ,X6 i . teva t A tü y bg o tp c p . ( 5 . 173 -6 ) "AX , X0 T t

A iag j . t è v t e Tä v iva l8 d tp l i 8 ok tr ipi t i to ta t • r upf la iv µ t v n p c l i ta F l oc re t8ä c ov i r c ikaaae n i tp r ja tv g eyä k ia t , K a i i 4 Eaä c oae O aXd ta cr ng • K a i v i K ey g m puye K f jpa , K a i i x06 1 . t evög I mp ' AOAvn , e i i n tep ( p iaXov g nog g KßaX e K a i p ly ' ä äaO r i • f 5 'ä l i c ru t O e c 7w ( p uyie tv µ i ya X a i tga O aXäaa r lg . TO :6 8 i f l oac t8ä c ov g eyäÄ , ' g Kkuev aa iwavtog • a üt iK ' g nE t ta c p ia tvav i X i ov x epa i a t tßapf ia tv i j A .aae T upa v r c i tpiv , ä r c6 8 'g ax taev a üt t iv • K a i To g iv a üt6O t t e Ive ,t O ö t pix pog £47CECTE r c övt c p ,

I ti sn o tab le t h a t t h e f i r s t o p in ion s e xp r e s sed b y t h e h e ro o ft h i s p oem h ave t od o w i th t h e p r ac t ica l i t ie s o f t r ave lb ys e a . H e r eO dy s seu sm ay b e s a id t o a r t icu la t e t h e d ef in i t ive v i ew o f t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een t h e

O ccu r r ing e l sewhe r e o n ly a t1 . 197 a nd 4 . 552 . O n t h e s ymbo l i sm o f t h i s t y pe s cene s e e L ynn G eo rge 5 2 -3 . A l so E l l ige r 1 0 5 -6 ; A nde r sen 9 . 8

9

3

R .IC lare e p ic h e ro a nd t h e s e a i nt h e O d y s sey . H i s d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e s e a a s 5 e tvöv ä pyaXiov ' I C i se n t i r e ly c on sonan tw i th t h e n ega t ive e p i the t s a t r ibu ted t ot h e s e a i n t h e p oem a s aw ho le ' I n t h e o p in ion o f O dy s seu s n o t e ven s w if t , w e l l -b enched s h ip s ( s t i l l l e s s ar af t ) a r e i nt h em se lve s ag ua ran t e e o fa b i l i ty t o t r ave r se t h e g r ea t e xpan se o f t h e d eep . H i s s e n se o f t r ep ida t ion f o rm s as t rong c on t ra s t t o t h e e a r l ie r v aun t ing o fA jax , ar em inde r o fw h ich m ay p o s s ib l ?, b e p r e sen t i n O dy s seu s ' ( s u rp r i s ing ly u ncommon ) f o rmu la ic g l o s s o f t h e s e a a s µha c il L a O aXe taai; ( c ompa r e 4 . 504 q uo ted p r ev iou s ly ) .

c ha r a c t e r i s t ic o f O dy s seu s ' e xp e r ien ce o f t h e s e a . U nce r ta in ty g ove r n st h e h e ro 's i t n e ra ry f r om t h e f i r s t m omen tt h a th e i sb l own o f fc ou r s e o n h i s h omewa rd j ou rney , a n u ncer t a in ty f r om w h ich h e n eve r e s cap e s . I ti sp a r t o fO dy s seu s ' w ande r ing f a te t h a t h e s hou ld c on s tan t ly b e s e ek ing o r ien ta t ion , aw ay t h rough t h e s h if t ing p a th s o ft h e s e a a nd , e qua l ly , p a r t o fh i s f a t e t h a th e s hou ld n eve r r e ce ive i t . I nt h is r e spec t , o u t o f a l t h e o t he r n os ta i , t h e e xp e r ien ce o f Men e lau s i s m o s t a na logou s t o t h a t o f O dy s seu s . T h e r e a r e n ume rou s p a ra l le l s b e tween t h e a dven tu r e s o f t h e s e t wo h omecom ing h e roe s , b u tt h eg r ea te s ts im i la r i t y o f c i r cum s tance i s t o b e f ound i n t h e i r r e spe c t iv e c on su l ta t ion o fm an t ic f i gu r e s , i np e t i t ion o f av i ab le r ou te h ome . Mene lau sc on su l t st h ee l u s ive P ro t eu s o n t h e i n s t ruc t ion s o fE ido thea , w ho i sq u i te p r e c i s e a s t o w ha t s h e b e l ieve s ac on su l ta t ion w i th h e r f a th e r s hou ld a ch ieve :

Af t e r C a lyp so h a s s wo rn a n o a th o f g ood f a i th , O dy s seu s l a te ro nr e v i s i t sh i s o r ig ina lt h eme : c oç ( 3 '0 i .l .0 Kai ü 2 ‘ .80) . /al j c t a r u ivca o i xaöi t' i keig eva t i cd v 6c r r tgov a p i ö ia0a t . L iS 'ai ) ' r t . ; P a i r ja t 0 E ( 7 )v v Io i von t T r övt c p , T k i p z yoga t i v o r de c To-t vg m ov T aXa r revOia O up .öv • i j ö t i y i (p µ 4 : 1 (ka n okkä r c 6 .0ov Kcd i t okki ( t örma Ki ) l l a al Kai 7 CO Xi i .Up• f lET & Kai T 65E T o ia t y evia0 c o . ( 5 .2 19 -224 ) e ak ä Kai

y ' c i«) c r i ) Hyp o .° k o na c i t t evog 2 ( , eka r 3io-O a t , ö g K V TOI EiTrn alV böbV Kai t i cpa x e 2 te au u v ö cr rov 0 ' , 6 ) g ' r c övtov i kV GC TCa l i x 90 1 )6ew ra . ( 4 .388 -90 )

toy

D e sp i te h av ing o b ta ined t h e r e qu i r ed a s su rance s f r om t h eg odde s s O dy s seu s e xh ib i t s r e s igna t ion r a th e r t h an e n thu s ia sm f o r t h e t r i a l s t h a t l i e a head . Wh e r ea s h e s pok e e a r l ie r o f v oyag ing i n ag ene r a l s en se , h e r e s e a f a r ing i s c on s t ru ed a s an e ce s sa ry e v i l t o b e e ndu r ed i n t h e s p ec if i c c on tex t o f a q ue s t f o r h omecom ing , ar i t e o f p a s sag e i n t h e mo s t l i t e ra l s e n se . A ga in , a sb ef o r e , h i s a cknow ledg emen t o f t h e p ow e ro ft h eg od s s t rong ly d i f f e r en t ia te sh im f r om t h e o ve rween ing A jax ,b u tO dy s seu s i sa l so s p eak ing h e r e i n f u l l k now ledg e o f P o se idon 's a ng e r t owa rd s h im se lf .

T he i n f o rma t ion p r om i sed i na dvance t o Mene lau s b y E ido thea i sa l t h a th ew ou ld r e qu i r e i n o r d e r t om ak e h i s w ay b a ck t o S pa r ta o ve r t h e s e a , n ame ly t h a t c omb ina t ion o f d i r ec t ion a nd d i s tan ce w h ich c on s t i tu te s ar o u te . P ro teu s , h oweve r , i sb y n o m e an s a s c o -ope r a t ive a s t h i s i n a c tua l i ty , t h e o n ly a d v ic e o f e r ed b y h im t o Mene lau s b e ing t h a t h e s h ou ld m ak e h i s w ay b a ck t o t h e p r ev iou s ly v i s i ted R iv e r A egyp tu s a nd p e r f o rm r i t e s o f a ppea semen t t o t h e g od s , w he r eupon t h ey w i l l g r an t w ha t h e d e s i r e s ( 4 .475 -80 ) . I nt h e o p in ion o ft h e d i smayed Men e lau s t h i s a moun t s t on o th ing m o re t h an t h e i mpo s i t ion o f y e ta no the rg r ievou ss e a jou rney :

O dy s seu s ' p r e sen t imen t s o f t r oub le a r e d u ly p r oved c o r r e c t b y s ub sequen t e ven t s , t h e h o s t i l i ty o f P o se idon t owa rd st h eh e ro b e ing m o s tm an if e s t i nt h e s t o rm s en t b y t h e g od t o v ex O dy s seu s o n h i s w ay f r om O gyg ia . T h e n a r ra t ive o f t h e s t o rm ( wh ich i s i n t ended t o i mpede r a th e r t h an d e s t roy O dy s seu s ) p r ove st ob e ap r o long ed s t udy o ft h e s h ee r p ow e r o f t h e s e a , i n w h ich t h e d i s loca t ion i n f l ic t ed u pon t h e h e ro a sh e i sb uf f e ted a bou tb yt h ew ave s i st o ta l :

g ( pa t ' , a in i xp i go i y e i c a te i ck c ia t i ( p ikov M OP > O t iVCK& j f C X ? )T 1 ,

&vcoyev

i lEpoeu h a 7 C6VTOV

A i yu ir r6v5 ' i va t , 5 ok txf iv 6 5 1 1 )v a pyaki r iv ( 4 .48 1 -3 )

*U .

i o g5 'ö T ' ö n c op tvögßop g ( p opi l ic r tv d o cäv0ag Z i gi c e8 iov , zw c tva i 5 e r c pbg C aA t jk l ic s tv gX0VT al, r c iXayog C i vego t ( p ipov g vea K a i g v0a . i k ? ( . ( y re iv TE N ö tog B op i r po l 30 .ea l ce ( p ipe aa t , i k ? t ,o ' re 5 'd in ' E i )pog Z e (Ap c ) e gaaKe S t c G i ce tv . ( 5 .328 -32 )

C i r ce a dv i se s O dy s seu s i ne xa c t ly t h e s ame t e rm s a s E ido thea ( c ompa r e 1 0 .539 -40 t o 4 . 389 -90 ) t h a t h e s hou ld c on su l t T e i r e s ia s . B u t w hen O dy s seu s e ven tua l ly d o e sc ome f a ce t of a ce w i th T e i r e s ia si nt h e u nderwo r ld , h e l e a rn s n o th ing w ha t soev e r c onc e rn ing t h e w ay h ome .I 2 I n s tead t h e T heban s e e r f o rma l ly n o t if ie s O dy s seu s o fP o se idon 's a nge r , a nd o u t l in e s a r i t e o fp r op i t ia t ion o ft h e s e a -god w h ich w i l l m a rk t h e e nd o ft h eh e ro 's j ou rney , ad e ed o u t s ide t h e a c t ion o f t h ep oem p r ope r( 1 1 .119 -37 ) .

T h i s i s m e r e ly t h e mo s t d r ama t ic e xamp le o f t h e g ene ra l d i so r ien ta t ion w h ich p rove st ob e t h e d ef in ing

I fw e s e t a s ide t h e w and e r ing s o f O dy s seu s h im se lf f o r a momen t t h e r e a r e , o f c ou r se , i n d ica t ion s o f a

1 0

1 2

O nH ome r ic e p i the t s e xp r e s s ing t h e G r e ek s ' f e a r o f t h es e as e e Mo reux 2 8 . 1 O ccu r r ing e l sewhe r eo n ly a t9 . 260

T he m o s td e ta i led d i scu s s ion s o ft h i s a noma ly m ay b e f o und i nC r ane 19 -31 ; F en ik 1 20 -6 ; F ock e 1 99 2 07 . 4

E p ic i t i ne ra r ie s I n ac l eve ri n ve r s ion o fe xpec ta t ion t h e s im i le a c tua l ly d e s c r ib e s t h e e mo t ion s o f P ene lope , t o w hom t h e s i gh t o fh e r h u sband i sa s w e lcome a s t h e s i gh t o f l a nd t o as h ipw r ecked m an .1 4

m o r e p o s i t ive a t i tude t os e af a r ing t ob e d i sce rned i n t h e O d y s sey . A b i l i ty t o t r ave r se t h e s e a i s m o s t d ef in i te ly a n a s p i ra t ion , am a rk e r o f c i v i l i sa t ion i n t h is p oem . T h i s i sm o s t f amou s ly d emon s t ra t ed b y t h e b a rba r i ty o f t h e C y c lope s , w ho d o n o t p o s se s s n av iga t iona l s k i l ls s uff ic ien te ven t oc o lon i se an e a rby i s land , i nc on t r a s tt oo r d ina ry f o lk w ho a r e a c qu a in t ed w i th s e a f a r ing a sp a r t o f e v e ryday c omme r ce ( 9 . 125 2 9 ) . A t t h e o t he r e nd o ft h e e vo lu t iona ry s c a le a r e t o b e f o und t h e P haea c ian s .B T he i r c i v i l i sa t ion a nd s oph i s t ica t ion i se xp r e s s ed t h rough t h e m ed ium o f t h e i rs e af a r ing s k i l l s , a sd e sc r ibed b yA thena :

B u t e ven s o , a l i s n o t f i n i shed . O dy s seu s s p eak s i mmed ia te ly a f t e rwa rd s o f am a t te r o u t s tand ing , a n ä g e Tp i iTo 7 c 6v K ( 2 3 .249 )y e tt ob ea c comp l i shed . H e t e l l s h i s w if e o fo ne f u r th e rj ou rney t ob e m ade , t h i s t i me o ve rl a nd ( 2 3 .265 -84 ) . A nd s o , a tt h e e nd o ft h e O d y s sey t h e r e i s ar em ind e r t h a t t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een t h e h e ro a nd t h e s e a i s s t i l l p r ob lema t ic : P o se idon i s ag od s t i l l w a i t ing t ob e a ppea sed .

v r iva i e oi la tv t o ty en e r co te6Teg d m ce i l la t X a i Tga f i c r repö c oa tv , i r c e i 5 6 'x ' i voa ixeow • c b i ce ia t 6 4 e iT r Tepbv e v ö rw .a . ( 7 .34 -6 )

T he A rgonau t ica I no u r e xam ina t ion o ft h e A rgonau t i ca w e m ay s t a r t , a sw i th t h e O d y s sey , a tt h e b eg inn ing . I ti sa ppa r en t e v en f r om t h e o pen ing v e r se s o f t h e H e l len i s t ic e p ic t h a t t h e t h eme o f s e af a r ing i s t r ea ted o f i n a f u ndamen ta l ly d i f f e r en t f a sh ion t o t h e O d y s sey . T h e p oem b eg in s w i th ap r e sc r ip t ion f o r t h e e p ic v oyag e n o l e s sc onc i se t h an t h a to fi t sH ome r ic p r edece s so r :

T he s h ip s o ft h e P ha ea c ian s a r e s a f e , s w if t a s w ind , a bove a l c e r ta in . T h i s i s , h oweve r , a f a n ta s t ic , m ag ica l s c ena r io , a n e xp e r ien ce o fs e af ar ing o fw h ich o r d ina ry mo r ta l sm ay o n ly d r eam . Awa r eo ft h e i r o wn s t a t u sa sv r y ua lv a p ta To r( 8 .247 )t h eP ha ea c ian s a r e i n ap o s i t ion t o s n e e r a t t h e m o r e l i m i ted n au t ica l a mb i t ion s a nd c apab i l i t ie s o f o t he r s ( 8 .159 -64 ) . Y e t t h ea c t iv i t ie s o ft h e P ha ea c ian s a r e e ven tua l ly d e em ed s ubve r s ive , a nd e ven t h ey b e come v i c t im s o f t h e a ng e r o fP o se idon b e cau se o ft h e s e r v ice t h ey r e nd e r t o O dy s seu s i n r e tur n ing h im t o I t ha ca . T h e p un i shmen t o f t h e P ha ea c ian s i n b ook 1 3 i s s p ec if i ca l ly r e p r e s en t ed t o Z eu s b y P o se idon , a nd u nde r s tood b yA lc inou s , a s aw ar n ing t or e f r a in f r om e v e r a ga in o f f e r ing s a f e t r an spo r t a c ro s s t h e s e a t o s t range r s( 1 3 . 15 1-2 , 1 3 . 180 1) .

' Apx6p . ev « a io , c D o i f ie , r ca ,a tyevk c ov i c kf i x ( p c oTc 7 )v g v i taoga tor i 6VT0 1 .0 W I T& a Täga i a 1S tä r d Tpa K uavia I 3 aa tk f io 4 y r u loc r üv r if I eX iao xdae tov µ E T& i « 7açk .4 1 )yov i Xaaav ' Apy c G . ( 1 . 1-4 ) 's An umbe r o fp r e l im ina ry p o in t s m ay b e m ade a bou t t h e s e a v oyag e a dve r t i sed i n t h e se v e r se s . T he f i r s t c oncer n s t h e n av iga t iona l p r ec i s ion w i th w h ich t h e j our n ey o f A rgo i s o r ien ted . We h av e s e en t h a t H ome r 's O d y s sey s p eak s o fa n u n iden t if ied m an w ho w ande r ed i n i n de te rm ina te f a sh ion . T h e f i r s t f o u r v e r se s o f t h e A rgonau t ica , h oweve r , e s chew s u ch a r a ndom i t ne ra ry , s ugge s t ing a much m o r e c l ea r ly d e l inea ted v oyag e f o r t h e s h ip A rgo , d own t h rough t h e m ou th o fP on tu s a nd b e tween t h e C yanean r o ck s . F u r the rmo r e t h i s i s a p l anned j our n ey w i th a p r emed i ta ted p u rpo se . H ome r 's O dy s seu s a ppea r s i n t h e o pen ing v e r se s o f t h e O d y s sey t o b e s ub jec t t o f o r ce s b eyond h i s c on t ro l , b u t t h e f i r s t a c t ion a t r ibu ted t o t h e A rgonau t s a t t h e e nd o f v e r se 4 ( f ikaaav ' Apyä ) p romu lga te s t h e p ow e rf u l i mag e o f as h ip 's c r ew v e ry mu ch i n c ommand o f i t s o wn d e s t iny .

B u t i n t h e f i na l a na ly s i s i ti s t h e p r e sen ta t ion o f O dy s seu s ' w ande r ing s w h ich d om ina te s a nd i n f o rm s o u r p e r cep t ion o f s e af a r ing i n t h e O d y s sey . T h e d ef in ing momen to fO dy s seu s ' r e tu rn , w hen P en e lop e f i na l ly r e cogn i se sa nd a c cep t s h e r h u sband , i sm a rk ed b y as im i le w h ich r e v i s i t s a nd e n cap su la te s t h e e xpe r ience o ft h eh e ro a nd t h el o ng suf f e r ing w if e : " I I; ( K ilo , t i . ) 5 'g t 1 g ö cXkov i a p" iµ epov I p c se y ö o io • i c ka ie 5 'g x c ov & Ä ,oxov 0 1 1 . 1a 0a , x e5vä c i 45 'ö T ' i iv d c a r cäo log y i j v r ixo vo ta t ( p av e , b v ' r E l oae löä c ov e i )e r yde c e v i r äw cy P a iar t , i re tyogiv i lv ä vf ie K a i cta t t r r ny c i r r a i ipo t 5 ' rmyov r ok tf ig & ? . 2ç i j r ce tp6v5e v r ix6µ Evo t , i r oXX 5 gr ep ix po > i T i Tpo ( pev Wort i , d on täG t0 1 . 5 'b c Oav x c o cöTnTa c p uyövTe• ó S çC i pa T f ia a r ra c s Tö g r iv r c 6a l ge i aopoäan , S e lpfK 5 'o t r u o r t ä in zav ä x p ie To r c e k eu i c c G . ( 2 3 .231-40 )

T he a ppa r en t d ec i s ivene s s w i th w h ich t h e i t n e ra ry o f A rgo ' sv oyag e i so u t l ined i n t h e o pen ing v e r se s i s p e rhap s t h e f i r s t i n d ica t ion o f t h e i n f luen ce o f t h e t r ad i t ion o f G r eek g eog raph ica l w r i t ing u pon t h e A rgonau t ica . ( Th i sa spec to ft h ep oem h a s b een m u ch d i scu s sed b y c r i t ic s , b u t t h e s em ina l s t udy b y D d lag e r ema in s t h e m o s t c omp rehen s ive o f i t s k i nd . )1 6 T h e 1 4

F o rd i scu s s ion o ft h i s s im i le s e e F o ley 7 8 ; S ega l 4 3 . 1 5 O nt h e se v e r se ss e eH un t e r( 1 993 ) 19 . S ee a l so P ea r son .

T he p o in t s o f c on t ra s t b e tw e en t h e P ha ea c ian a nd t h e C yc lope s h ave b een much c ommen ted u pon b y c r i t ic s . S ee e . g . S ega l 3-5 . 1 3

1 6

5

R .JC lare o ft h eA rgo ;j u s t a st h e q ue s t f o r t h e g o lden f l e e c e i s n oo r d ina ry v oyag e ,t h eh e roe s s e t s a i l i nn o o r d in a ry v e s se l . A po l lon iu sm ake s as how o fp a s s ing o ve r t h e t a le o f t h e s h ip 's c on s t ruc t ion ( 1 .18 19 ) , o n ly t o e mpha s i se a tr e gu la ri n te r va l s i nt h eo pen ing s t ag e s o f t h ep oem t h e c o -ope r a t ion b e tween A rgu s a nd A th ena i n t h e b u i ld ing o f t h e A rgo . B ecau se o f A th ena 's d i r ec t ive r o le i nh e r c on s t ruc t ion , t h e s h ip i si n ve s ted w i th d i v ine p ow e r i n t h e s h ape o f a n o ak b eam o f D odona f i t ted i nh e rs t em ( 1 .524 -7 ) , a nd t h u s c a p ab le o fe m i t t ing v oca l e n cou rag emen t o r a dmon i t ion ( s e e i np a r t icu la r4 . 580 -9 1) .

v a s t ly i mp roved g eog r aph ica l k now ledg e a nd p e r cep t ion o ft h e w o r ld d u r ing t h e H e l len i s t ic p e r iod f a c i l i ta t e s t h e c r ea t ion b y t h e p oe t o f ac omp lex g eog raphy a c co rd ing t ow h ich t h es e ab ecome s am o r e c omp r ehen s ib le ,m o r en av igab le s pa ce» I fw e l o ok t o t h e e v idence o ft h ep oem a s aw ho le w es e et h a ti nt h e f i r s tf o u rv e r se st h ep oe th a sb egun a sh e m ean s t og o o n . Mu ch o ft h eu nce r ta in ty o ft h e O dy s sean m ode l o f e p ic v oyag ing i s m i s s ing f r om t h e A rgonau t i ca : m any n a r ra t ive p a s sage s i n t h e p oem d e ta i l ing t h e r ou te o fA rgo o f e r ar e co rd o ft h e s h ip 's i t i n e ra r y s o p r ec i se t h a tt h eA rgonau t ica m ay b er e ad o n o ne l e v e l a s ac o l lec t ion o f a e t io log ica l a nd g eog r aph ica l d a t a o n v a r iou s Med i t e r ranean a nd B la ck S ea l o ca t ion s , e ven a s at r ea t i se o nn av iga t iona lr ou te s .

T he p oe ta l so s t r ive st oe s tab l i sh a n a lmo s t s ymb io t ic r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een c r ew a nd s h ip . D u r ing t h e f i r s t a s semb ly o f A rgonau t s p r io r t o d epa r tu r e , a s t h ey g a th e r t o g e the r o n t h e b ea ch a t P aga sa e t o b e a dd r e s sed b y J a son , t h ey s i t o n t h e f o lded s a i l s a nd m a s to ft h e , a sy e t , u n launched A rgo ( 1 .328 -30 ) . I ti s av i sua l t a b leau o f p owe rf u l , s ymbo l ic r e son ance , e mpha s i s ing t h e d epend ence o f t h e A rgonau t s u pon t h e i r s h ip . T he s u b sequ en t l a unch a nd f i t t ing -ou t o f t h e A rgo ( 1 .363 -93 ) i ss imu l taneou s ly a r ema rkab ly d e ta i led t e chn ica ld e sc r ip t ion o fs u ch ap r ocedu r e , a nd a n e xp lo ra t ion o fc onf iden t a nd e f f ic ien t h and l ing o f t h e v e s se l b y t h e c r ew . F ina l ly , a l though A po l lon iu s d oe s n o t n om ina te t h e A rgo a s t h e f i r s t e v e r s h ip ,2 ° h e r d epa r tu r e f r om t h e h a rbou r o fP aga sa e i sd e emed a ne ven tu nu sua le nough t ow a rran t ad i v ine a ud ien ce . F o r t h e l o ca l n ymph s o b se rv ing f r om n ea rby M t . P e l ion t h ed epa r tu r eo ft h e s h ip i s as ou r ce o fw onde r p r ec i se ly b ecau s e o ft h e c o -ope ra t ion b e twe en m o r ta l s a nd i mmo r ta l sw h ich t h ev oyage r e p re sen t s :

T he A rgonau t i ca r ema in s f i r s ta nd f o r emo s t , h ow eve r , a ne p ic p oem , a nd a n e p i sode o n t h e o u twa rd v oyag e p r ov ide s ap e rf ec te xamp le o fh ow A po l lon iu s l o ca t e s t h ed emand so ft h ee p ic t r ad i t ion w i th in t h e s t r ic tu r e s o fg eog r aph ica le xa c t i tude a c co rd ing t ow h ich h e p l o t s t h e p r og r e s s o f t h e A rgo v oyage . I n b ook 2 t h e A rgonau t s e ncoun te r t h e b l ind p rophe t P h ineu s , v i c t im o ft h ep r eda to ry H a rp ie s . P h ineu s r ewa rd s t h e i r a s s i s tance i nr e pe l l ing t h e se c r ea tu r e s w i th a n a c coun t o fw ha tl i e sa head o ft h em o nt h ev oyag e : a i r rb; 5 ' vg ia c ro t c r tn ap ' i c rxäpu ; I GO ' b yepa t6; , n E ipata v o v ot a i :N vb c c ov ä vua iv t c KEÄ .C a0U• ( 2 .309 10 ) T h i s i s , o f c ou r se , A po l lon iu s ' v e r s ion o f t h e e p ic h e ro 's c on su l ta t ion o f am an t ic f i gu r e . I n c on t ra s t , h oweve r , t ot h e e qu ivoca l e xp e r ien ce o f O dy s seu s a t t h e h and s o f T e i r e s ia s ( t h e H ome r ic f i gu r e u pon w hom A po l lon iu s ' P h ineu s i s p r inc ipa l ly b a sed ) ,1 8 t h e n av iga t iona l i n s t ruc t ion s i s sued t o t h e A rgonau t s b y t h e o l d m an a r e c omp r ehen s ive ( 2 .314 -407 ) , s o c omp r ehen s ive i n deed t h a t i n m any w ay s h i s p r ophecy f u nc t ion s a s ap r ev iew o f t h e r ema ind e r o f t h e o u twa rd v oyage . T he a dv ice o f P h ineu s a pp rox ima te s t o at o u r i s t 's h andbook , a n a c coun t o f a l o f t h e i n te r e s t ing l a ndma rk s a nd p eop le s t o b e e n coun te r ed o n t h e w ay t o C o lch i s . ' A s t h e A rgonau t s p r o ceed o n t h e i r e a s twa rd c ou r se t h ey a r e a b le t o m ea su r e t h e i r p r og r e s s a ga in s t a n i t i n e ra ry p r edef ined f o rt h em b yt h eb l ind s e e r .

' En ' d o cpo ' r c i r r na t a r lÄm ibE Gi c opu g y i jaw 0 . 6 (p . 1 3cov E i c rop6 c oo-a t g pyov ' I t c ov iSo i 3 8g a ino . ü; i j p c oag x c ipea cnv i n t i cpaöäovta i pe tp .ä . ( 1 .549 -52 ) T he g ood f o r tun e o ft h e h e roe s i n s a i l ing i ns u ch a n e xce l len t v e s se l a st h e A rgo m ay b e c on t r a s t ed w i th e xpe r ien ce o ft h e s on s o fP h r ixu s , w ho h app en t o b e f a r ing w e s twa rd s f r om A ea t o O r chomenu s a t t h e s ame t i me t h a t t h e A rgonau t s a r e m ak ing t h e i r w ay e a s tt oC o lch i s . T he t wo s e t s o fv oyage r s c ome a c ro s s e a ch o t he ro nt h e i s land o fA re s , o n t h e m or n ing a f t e r as t o rm h a s w r eck ed t h e s h ip o ft h e s on s o fP h r ixu s . T he d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e s t o rm i n q u e s t ion ( 2 . 1098 12 1) p r ove s t ob e t h e m o s t d e ta i led e xp lo ra t ion i n t h e p oem o ft h e d e s t ruc t ive p owe r o f as t o rm a t s e a , i nt h i s i n s tan ce a s c r ibed t ot h e i nf lu ence o fZ eu s , a nd c ompa r ab le i n i t s f e roc i ty a nd c on sequ en c e s t o t h e s t orm s e n t b y P o se idon t ov ex O dy s seu s i n O d y s se y

T he s e cond i mp r e s s ion w e g l ean f r om t h e o pen ing v e r se s o ft h e p oem i so f t h e i mpo r tance o f t h e s h ip A rgo ,d e sc r ibed f r om t h e b eg inn ing a s guyov . T h e c onf iden t , o p t im i s t ic p o r t raya l o f s e af a r ing i n t h e A rgonau t ica i si n ex t r icab ly l i nked w i th t h e e x c e l lenc e

5 .2 1

1 7

O ng eog raph ica lr e a l i sm i nA po l lon iu sZ ank e r 16 1 8 . 1 8 B eye 13 ; H un te r ( 1 993 ) 9 1 -2 ; Z ank e r 1 26 . T h e r e a r e a l so p a r a l le l s w i th H ome r ic C i r ce . S ee H un t e r ( 1 993 )9 4 ; K n igh t 1 69 -76 . 1 9 H un te r ( 1 993 ) 9 4 r ema rk s t h a t ' much o f P h ineu s ' s p eech r e semb le s ap oe t ic p e r i ege s i s , ag eog raph ic a nd e t hnog raph ic t e x t ' .

O n t h e p r oh ib i t ion s w i th in h i s o wn v e r s ion o ft h e s t o ry p r even t ing A po l lon iu s f r om c on s t i tu t ing t h e v oyage o fA rgo a st h ef i r s ts e av oyage s e e H e r t e r 2 44 7 ;d e l aV i l le d e M i rmon t2 33 ; H ände l 5 9 . S ee t h ed e ta i led a na ly s i s b y K n igh t 7 3 -8 1 .

2 0

2 1

6

E p i ci t i ne ra r ie s Wha t i s i n te r e s t ing a bou t t h i s e p i sode , h ow eve r , i s t h a tt h ea c c iden to fs h ipw r eck i sb l amed n o t u pon t h e h a za rd s o ft h e s e a , b u t u pon p oo r s h ipbu i ld ing . T h e v e s se l i nw h ich t h e s on so fP h r ixu s w e r e t r ave l l ing i s p o in ted ly i d en t if ied a tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h e e p i sode a s aC o lch ian s h ip ( KoXx i5a v f i ' , 2 . 1095 ) . L a t e r J a son u s e s t h e s upe r io r q ua l i ty o f A rgo ' sc on s t ru c t ion i n c on t ra s t t o i t s C o lch ian c oun t e rpa r t a s p a r t o f a n a r gumen tt op e r suade t h e s on s o fP h r ixu s t oj o in t h e A rgo q ue s t ( 2 . 1187 -9 1) . I t i s ar h e to r ica l g amb i t w h ich d u ly b ecome s a s s im i la ted i n to t h e p l ead ing o f A rgu s , s pok e sman o f t h e f o u r b r o the r s , a s h e n e rvou s ly a temp t s t o j u s t if y t o t h e d e spo t ic k i ng A ee t e s t h e i r u nexpec t ed a nd u nw e lcome r e tur n t o C o lch is :

v f i tg v t äpo ig ä ga v i j ta tv -A la S i K okx 1; T C 6r 10 1 ) K a i y a i i ig i T t lK K 2 tX ta l . & 6XO C T I T IG IV -; ( 2 .4 13 18 ) L a te r , a tC o lch i s , J a son e xp r e s se s s im i la r s e n t imen t s i n av a in e f f o r t t op e r suade A ee te s t h a t t h e A rgonau t s h ave n o ta r r ived i nh i s c i ty w i th s ubve r s ive i n ten t : a xio g o tt c i )5e a tö 2u p . O i S T 1y ip a tt c og & at t . ) T E6V K a i 8 d ) l ia er i K6 ,V0 1 . 1 .£V , 6 5 g / t oy g o 2 t ,nag , g iv t c vo i . . T i; 8 ' a y T ÖGOV o i8µa n epf ic rat T Ia in k i ci ov ' ö eve iov h d x tipag ; ( 3 .386 -9 ) A po l lon iu s h e r e i n f u se s J a son 's r h e to r ic , s p ec if i ca l ly h i s p e s s im i s t ic a t t i tude t o s e a -voyag ing , w i th O dy s sean u nde r tone s , b y a lud ing t ot h e g od H e rme s ' f i r s tw o rd st oC a lyp so o na r r iva l a tO gyg ia ( Od . 5 . 99 1 0 1 , q uo ted a bove ) .

N f la x 6 .µ ev , o z y ü Oka ja i/ c ep K ökxo ta t µ eV d c , v5p c ia tv f leg g am . , t ö tWV a ivov i tig i nex üpaagev •f i k tea r ip µ i v k äßpov i 5 c op n vo l i j t e ö t i tgayev . 5 ' Y6 90I S i axeta t ,i j v K a i i c äaa t i n tßp i c oa tv i e 91 4 / 3 t , a i • l aov s ' k gd t v k go t oe k e 'K a iö t ' ä vipeg o d y ro i v c oXeµ .c og x e ipeaa tv i r c tanipxwa tv i pe tgo ig . ( 3 .340 -7 )

F u r the rmo r e , d e sp i te t h e e x c e l lence o f t h e i r c r af t t h e h e roe s m u s t , o n o cca s ion , p u t i n s ome h a rd w o rk . D u r ing o n ep a r t icu la r s t re tch o ft h e i rj our n ey i nb ook 2 t h e a b sen ce o f af o l low ing w ind c ompe l s t h e A rgonau t st op l yt h e o a r . A n e p i sode i nt h e f i r s t b ook ( 1 .1153 -7 1) p r e sen t ed a n a mu s ing a nd l i gh t -h ea r ted v i ew o ft h e r i va l ry a nd c ompe t i t ion i n sp i r ed a mong t h e c r ew b y t h e t a sk o f r ow ing , w h e r ea s o n t h is o cca s ion t h e e mpha s i s i su pon t h e s h ee r d r udg e ry o f t h ee f f or ti n vo lved :

T ime h a se l ap sed a nd A rgu s m ay n ow s p eak w i th t h e b enef i t o f h i nd s igh t . I n h i s e mbe l l i shed a c coun t o f w ha th a st a ken p l ace , t h e v e s se l i nw h ich t h e s on s o f P h r ixu s o r ig ina l ly s e t s a i l h a s b e come t h e v i le s t ( a ivoTd u rig ) o fa l C o lch ian s h ip s , i nc on t ra s t t ot h e A rgo w h ich i sb o th s t u rdy a nd s w if t .

' 0 1 164 5 ' i d i h ian v i )x • ra v t ivegov d i mag tua tv i r c epp c Govt ' D u iTua tv . i r ka56 c oaav b t laX i OV TEg a poupav i pya t iva i g oyiova t ß öeg , n ip t 5 'i l anc tog i . 5 p c Gg e i ßna i i x X ayöv c ov TE K a i a öxivoa , 5 µ .µata 5 i

Mo s t i mpo r tan t o fa l , h oweve r , t h e d e s t ruc t ion o ft h e C o lch ian s h ip o f t h e P h r ix id s i sn o t p r e sen t ed a s a n ega t ive e ven t i n t h e p oem , b u t r a th e r d eemed a n e ce s sa ry o ccu r r en c e s o t h a t t h e s on s o fP h r ixu s m ay p l ay t h e i rp a r t icu la r p a r t i nt h e w inn ing o ft h e f l e e c e . I ti se ven p o s s ib le f r om o ne p o in to fv i ew t o i n te rp r e t t h e e p i sode , i np a r adox ica l f a sh ion , a sa n i n s tance o f t h es e a 's b enevo lence . T he e ncoun t e r w i th t h e s on s o f P h r ixu s i s f o r e seen b y P h ineu s w ho , i n h i s m y s te r iou s p r ev iew o ft h e e v en t , s p eak s o b l ique ly o f a s s i s tance d e s t ined t oc ome t ot h eA rgonau t s f r om t h e s e a ( "Evea y i lp j i gg ly ö ve tap 6 5e . uxiog k gi t A ,6; c l aw ,i ppitov ,2 . 388 -9 ) .

n apaa tpom p i bvta t i n c s b y o i, a öu ip a topi r r c ov i go rov ß pige t , o i5 ' v iy a ip x i?àc a x np i n to v t Er c avi pt oIT C OV OVTa l• toIç i x eko t , . i ) 74 i x Xö; e i kKov ( 2 .660 -8 ) N o l e s st h an t h e s on s o fP h r ixu s t h e A rgonau t s mu s t a l so c onf ron t t h e p o ten t ia l h aza rd s o f t h e s e a . A c ompa r a t ive ly e a r ly , s e r iou s s e tba ck ( a nd a n i n s tance o fn av iga t iona l c onf u s ion )i st h e c on t ra ry w ind w h ich f o r ce s t h e A rgonau t s u nexpec t ed ly t o r e v i s i t C yz icu s i n t h e P ropon t i s ( 1 . 10 12 18 ) . I n t h e e n su ing , f a ta l c onf u s ion t h e A rgonau t s m i s taken ly s l augh te r t h e D o l ione s , t h e f r i end ly i n hab i tan t s o f t h e r e g ion w ho h ad p r ev iou s ly o f e r ed t h em h o sp i ta l i ty . B u t , o f c ou r se , b yf a rt h em o s td ange rou sc ha l lenge f a c ing t h e h e roe s a ts e a i st h e n av iga t ion o ft h e c l a sh ing r o ck s , a ni n teg ra lm a rke r ,a sw eh ave s e en ,o ft h e i t n e ra ry o f A rgo f r om t h eb eg inn ing ( 1 .2 -3 ) , a nd i n deed t h e o n ly a dven tu r eo ft h e v oyag e s p ec if ica l ly m en t ioned i nt h e p r o logue . H e r e A po l lon iu s i sp a r t icu la r ly s u b jec t t o t h ed emand so fA rgonau t ic t r ad i t ion . Am id t h e m any v a r ia t ion s o n t h e r ou te o f A rgo , n av iga t ion t h rough t h e C la sh ing R ock s ( o r t h e i r e qu iva len t ) i st h e o n e

T h e q ue s t o ft h eP h r ix id s m ay b e t h e o ne t o f a l l f o u l o ft h e s e a , b u t t h e A rgonau t s t h em se lve s a r e b y n o m ean s i mmune t o t h e v i c i s s i tude s o f s e af a r ing . O n t h e o u twa rd j our n ey J a son i sc e r ta in ly a wa r e o f t h e i mmen s i ty o ft h e i rn au t ica l u nd e r tak ing , a si se v id en t f r om h i s a t temp t t o e l ic i t t h e d e ta i l s o f t h e i r r e tu rn r o u te f r om t h ep r ophe t ic P h ineu s : E i5 i K ey C X Z Y C I t äaS ' iw iv n pogn r yo ik s tv i g' EkX 4 i5a V 6 C T TO ö n iaa c o g oav ra t , ö t a r caau l ig K E n ap& a io K a i c b I l C og p 5w , 16 )g a ele 1 6a r iv C x X i ) i c kIeveov ,

e t j j . t

7

R .JC lare c on s tan to ft h es h ip 's i t i ne ra ry i n teg ra l t oa l v e r s ion s o ft h e s t o ry ( b o th G r eek a nd L a t in ) , w h e th e r t o ld i n f u l l o r i ns umma ry .2 I nt h e h and s o fA po l lon iu s t h e c l a sh ing r o ck s u ndoub ted ly p r e sen t as e r iou s o b s ta c le t o t h e s u c ce s s o ft h e q ue s t , i d en t if ied b y P h ineu s a s t h e o ne h az a rd l y ing i n w a i t f o r t h em w h ich c ou ld b r ing t h e v oyag e t o ap r ema tu r e c onc lu s ion ( 2 .317 4 1) . T h e e p i sod e i t s e lf ( 2 .549 -603 ) i s c e r ta in ly a n a r ra t ive o f e x t r eme s u spen se a nd , i n t h e p r a c t ica l a s s i s tan ce r e nde r ed b y A thena , af u r the r e xamp le o f c o -ope ra t ion b e tw een h uman a nd d i v ine . B u t w ha t i s p a r t icu la r ly r e levan t f o r o u r p u rpo se s i s t h e p r e c i s e m ann e r i n w h ich p a s sag e t h rough t h e r o ck s i s p r e sen t ed a st h e mo s t s p ec ta cu la r a ch iev emen t o f t h e o u twa rd v oyag e . T he o p t im i sm o f t h e A rgonau t s i n t h e a f t e rma th o f t h i s s u cce s s f i nd s i mmed ia te e xp r e s s ion i nJ a son 's w i l l ingne s st oc oun t enan ce e v en av oyag e t o H ad e s i n t h e c ompany o f s u ch a b r av e c r ew ( 2 .64 1-3 ) . Mo r e i mpo r tan t , h oweve r , i st h a t o n c e t h e A rgonau t s h ave m anag ed t o s a i l t h rough t h i s h az a rd , t h e r o ck s b ecome f i xed i nt h e i r p o s i t ion s , i n f u lf i lmen to fa ne a r l ie rp r ophecy :

O ne f u ndamen ta l d if e r en ce b e twe en t h e O d y s sey a n d t h e A rgonau t i ca i st h a t t h e r e i sn o e qu iva len t o f t h e d i v ine w ra th o f P o se idon , t h e r o le o f t h e h e ro ' s p r in c ipa l a dve r sa ry b e ing t a ken o n i n s tead b y P e l ia s . T he r e i s ad i s t inc t ly O dy s sean a g enda d i scer n ib le i n t h ep r e sen ta t ion t ot h er e ade ro fP e l ia s ' p l an , n o t l e a s t i nt h e k er n e l o fh i s i n ten t t h a t J a son s hou ld l o se h i s r e tur n ( w i g : my ö k iaan ) . P e l ia s a n t ic ipa t e s t wo w ay s i nw h ich J a son m ay c ome t o g r ief , e i th e r a ts e a ( & v i y r övt c ) ) o ro n l a nd ( aX 2 t .o5ano ia t µ eV d c v5pd c c r t ) , a d i v i s ion b e tween l a nd a nd s e a r em in i scen t o f t h e s p ec if i ca t ion s f o r O dy s seu s ' w ande r ing s a t t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e O d y s sey . F u r the rmo re , i nt h e o u t l ine o ft h e t a sk i n ven t ed f o r J a son b y P e l ia s , ( o t l i cOkov £VTUE v a l y za i rK y c okv i ci5i cK ) may b e f o und a n a lu s ion t o O dy s seu s ' o wn d e sc r ip t ion o f h i s h omecom ing t o t h e P ha ea c ian s a s VÖGTOV 4 1 . 5v y c okux i i& ' ( 9 .37 ) . T hu s , i n a ppa r en t c on t ra s t t o t h e p oem 's o pen ing v e r se s ,w he r ew and e r ing a s amode l f o r t h e v oyag e o f A rgo w ou ld s e em t o b e i mp l ic i t ly r e je c t ed , A po l lon iu s i n t h e m idd le s e c t ion o f h i s p r o logu e ( 1 .5 17 ) p r io r i t i se s t h e t h eme o f n o s to s , at h eme w h ich , a c co rd ing t o t h e H ome r ic r u b r ic o f e p ic v oyag ing i n ev i tab ly c a r r ie s w i th i t a n e l emen t o f w ande r ing . T he p r o logue c onc lude s w i th a s e cond d ec la ra t ion o fp oe t ic c on ten t :

y r i tpa t 5 'e k g ` va x i öpov i n taxe5bv d c» , , iP t t ia t v c oXe l ik pic oeev • öK Kai g öpa tp .ov ; i cy k K g a l c c ip c ov , E r r ' & v t ç i ö i ov 5 16 v i iy cEpd caap . ( 2 .604 -6 ) T he p r a c t ica l e f ec t o f t h i s n av iga t iona l f e a t o n t h e p a r t o ft h e A rgonau t s i st h e c r ea t ion o f an ew p a th w h e r e n one p r ev iou s ly e x i s t ed , as e a r o u te b y w h ich f u r th e rj ou rney s m ay b e f a c i l i ta ted : i nb ook 4p a r t o f t h e C o lch ian f l ee t p a s se s t h rough t h e c l a sh ing r o ck s i n t h e o ppo s i te d i rec t ion . I n t h e a c t ion o f t h e A rgonau t i ca t h en ,p a s sage t h rough t h e c l a sh ing r o ck s f u nc t ion s n o t o n ly a s ad r ama t i sa t ion o f t h e d ang e r s o f s e af a r ing , b u t a l so a s as ymbo l ic e xp lo ra t ion o f m an 's t r iumph a nd c on t ro l o ve rt h e s e a . T hough A rgo i sn o tt h e f i r s t s h ip , t h e A rgonau t s a r e h e r e p o r t r ayed a sp i onee r s , e s tab l i sh ing ap r eceden t t h a t o t he r s m ay f o l low i nt h e i rw ake .

1 \ l ' i iv 5 'a v è y y eve i lv ' r e K a i o ivoga g ue r iaa ig r iv f i p c o ' c ov 5 o 2ux i i; TE y r öpou 0 ,4 ö aaa t 'g p gav y c ka öp . Evo t • M oi >aa t5 'i topf r topcç e l ev ä o l5f 1; . ( 1 .20 -22 ) W i th t h ep h ra se 5 o 7 t , tvfN y c öpa ug à ? .bg i nv e r s e 2 1 c ome st h e f i r s tr e a l a dm i s s ion o ft r oub le a ts e a f o r t h e A rgonau t s , a nd w i th t h e b e la ted y t kaV ig evo t i n t h e s u cceed ing v e r se t h e A rgonau t s a r e f i na l ly d e s igna t ed a sw ande r e r si n am anne rw h ich w e w ou ld p a r t icu la r ly a s soc ia t ew i th t h ee xpe r ience so fO dy s seu s . N eve r the le s s , t h e f r ame o f r e f e r en ce f o r s u ch i n t ima t ion so fa na r duou sv oyage b y t h e A rgonau t s i s a c tua l ly n a r row e r t h an w ou ld f i r s t a pp ea r t o b e t h e c a se . A s c r i t ic s h ave p o in ted o u t , i n A po l lon iu s ' v e r s ion o ft h e A rgonau t i ca t h e o u twa rd v oyag e ( a nd , i n deed t h e a cqu i s i t ion o f t h e f l e ec e i t s e l f ) i s a c comp l i sh ed w i th c ompa ra t ive e a se . F rom t h e p o in t o fv i ew o fn av iga t iona l d i ff i cu l ty t h e m a jo r e mpha s i s i su pon t h e m uch mo r e p r ob lema t ic n a tu r e o f t h e h omewa rd j our n ey , a nd i ti st o t h e n a r ra t ive o f t h e r e tur n v oyag e i n b ook 4 t h a t w e s hou ld l o ok f o r e v id en ce o f f u lf i lmen t o f t h e se h i n t s a t d e lay a nd p o s tponemen t .

S o f a rw eh ave c on s ide r ed o n ly t h e f i r s t f o u r v e r s e s o f t h e p oem 's i n t rodu c t ion , b u t t h e o pen ing o f A po l lon iu s ' e p ic i se x t r eme ly c omp lex i ni t s p r ev iew o f t h e p oem 's c on t en t a nd , a s ide f r om t h e e a r ly r e f e r en c e t o t h e C la sh ing R ock s , t h e r e a r e c l e a r i n t ima t ion s l a te r i n t h e p r o logue t h a t a n a r duou s v oyag e l i e sa head f o rt h eA rgonau t s . I np a r t i cu la r , o u r i n i t ia l p e r cep t ion s o f t h e q ue s t a r e m od if i ed b y t h e r e ve la t ion o ft h e p u rpo se o fK ing P e l ia s w ho , i n a n a t temp t t o a vo id h i s f a t ed d em i se a t t h e h and s o f J a son , h a s d ev i sed a t r oub le some v oyag e f o r h i s t r oub le some n ephew : A lva 6 è c o y y '& s tSi ov ( p . pc iaaa co K a i o ii e8kov EVTUE v aut abu ö ( pp ' v iy t ör t c p l i kkoSa r co ia tµ CV d c v5pc ia tv öa tov ö kiaan . ( 1 .15 17 ) .

2

T he r ec an b en od oub tt h a t , i n sof a r a st h e a c tua l r o u te i sc oncer n ed ,t h eh omewa rd i t ne ra ry o ft h e A rgonau t s i s b o th p r o t r a c t ed a nd t o r tuou s . T he d e ta i l o f t h e v a r iou s t r ad i t ion s a va i lab le t o A po l lon iu s c on cer n ing

C la r e 6 2 . 8

E p ic i tne rar ie s t h er e tu rn v oyage o fA rgo i sc omp lex ,' b u t t h e m a in p o in t t o n o t e i s t h a t A po l lon iu s b a se s t h e m o s t d i s t inc t ive e l emen t o f h i s v e r s ion o f t h e i t i n e ra ry u pon t h a t o f t h e g eog r aph e r T image tu s .2 4 A c co rd ing t oT image tu st h er i ve rI s t e r ( i . e . t h e D anube ) h ad t wo o u tf low s , o ne o fw h ich e mp t ied i n to t h e B la ck S ea , t h e o t he r i n to t h e w e s t e rn Med i t e r ranean . I n A po l lon iu s ' p oem t h e m o s t s p e c ta cu la r a s pec t o f t h e A rgonau t s ' h omewa rd r o u t ei st h a t t h ey n av iga t e t h e i r w ay v i at h eI s te rf r om t h eB la ck S ea t ot h eA d r ia t ic .

" I a tpov j . u v i ca kovteg k l cäg S t e tex dpav to • ( 4 .277 -84 ) A po l lon iu s ' d e sc r ip t ion o f w ha t i s d ep ic ted o n t h e P i l la r so fA ea a lude st oH e rodo tu s ' d e scr ip t ion o ft h e m ap b r ough tt oS pa r ta b yA r i s tago ra s :2 7 ' A T C IKV E TU I . 5 ' ( I v ö' Ap t c r tayöpn; b Mai lt0 1 ) t i )pavvog k gt f iv Em ipar iv K4og . kveog £ X 0V TO; d t pX 1 1V . T eti ' MIi g k öyoug f te , t h g A a i ce5a tp .6v to t A , kyou c r t , g xwv x da . a ceov n iva i ca k v t 4 ) y f ig C u c c iang T r ep io5og E T £ T I I T I TO K a i f h ikaa c rä ' r e m ica K u l n otago i I r d cw reg . ( Hd t . 5 . 49 -1)

A s soc ia ted w i th t h i s o u t land i sh i t i ne ra ry i s a no th e r f r ame o f r e f e r en c e . B ook 4 o f t h e A rgonau t i ca i s g ene ra l ly r e cogn i sed a st h em o s t O dy s sean p a r t o ft h e p oem ;2 5 d u r ing t h e c ou r se o ft h e i r r e tur n j our n ey t h e A rgonau t s h ave m any a dven t u r e s s im i la r t o t h o se o f O dy s seu s , w i th n o tab le s s u ch a s C i r ce , t h e S i ren s , S cy l la ,C ha rbyd i s a nd t h eP ha ea c ian sa l f e a tu r ing o n e w ay o r a no the r i n t h e a c t ion . My th ica l c h rono logy p r even t s A po l lon iu s f r om e xp l ic i t ly s ugg e s t ing t h a t t h e A rgonau t s a r e i n a ny w ay r e con s t i tu t ing t h e f a n ta s t ic i t i ne ra ry o f O dy s s eu s , b u t t h e c on s i s ten t e choe s o f H ome r ic a c t ion i n t h e f o u r th b ook e f f e c t ive ly s ubve r t t h e t empo r a l r e la t ion sh ip b e tw e en t h er e spec t ive m y th s , c r ea t ing t h e i mp r e s s ion t h a t t h e j our ney o fO dy s seu st o ok p l a c ef i r s t .

T he a lu s ion s ugge s t s t h a t t h e i n f o rma t ion p r e s en ted o n t h eP i l la r s p o s se s se st h eg eog raph ica l c e r ta in ty a nd c omp r ehen s ivene s so ft h e t y pe o fd ocumen t d e sc r ibed b y H e rodo tu s . T he c on t ra s t w i th t h e e s sen t ia l ly r a ndom e xp e r ien ce o f O dy s seu s a t s e a c ou ld n o t b e m o r ep r of ound : a st h e A rgonau t s p au se t op onde r t h e r ou te o ft h e i r r e tur nj our n ey t h ey h ave ap r e -ex i s t ing s e t o f i n s t ruc t ion s t o w h ich t h ey m ay r e f e r . T h e P i l la r s o f A ea i n t h e i r r e p re sen ta t ion ( i n w ha t ev e r f o rm ) o fa l l t h e p a th s o ve r l a nd a nd s e a a moun t t o n o th ing l e s s t h an aw o r ld v i ew . A s ar e su l t o f w ha t A rgu s i sa b le t o d e sc r ibe t o t h e A rgonau t s e ven a j our n ey o ve rt h e s e a , h i ther to t h a t mo s t u np r ed ic tab le a nd u nce r ta in o fa c t iv i t ie s , m ay b e u nde r tak en w i th a n ew a u ra o fs u r e ty .

A l though t h e i r r e spec t ive i t i ne ra r ie s m ay b e c ompa rab le , f r om t h ep o in to fv i ew o ft h e A rgonau t s ' a c tua l e xpe r ien ce o f s e af a r ing t h e p a r a l le l w i th t h e w ande r ing s o f O dy s seu s i sm o r e a ppa r en t t h an r e a l . A n e p i sode a t t h e o u t se t o f t h e r e tu rn v oyag e e s tab l i she st h eo ve ra l ln av iga t iona l c e r t i tude a c co rd ing t o w h ich t h e A rgonau t s p l o t t h e i r r e tur n . A s t h ey s o jou rn a tt h e m ou th o ft h e r i ve r H a ly s o n t h e t h i rd d ay i n to t h e i r f l igh t f r om C o lch i s , t h e h e ro e s a r e s udden ly m indf u l o f t h e p r ophe cy o f P h ineu s t h a t t h e i r r e tur n w ou ld t a ke p l a ce n o t v i a t h e w ay t h ey o r ig ina l ly c ame t oC o lch i s , b u tb y am y s te r iou s o t h e r r ou te . A t t h i s m omen t A rgu s s ugge s t s a n a l t er n a t ive i t i ne ra ry f o r t h em b a sed u pon i n f o rma t ion h e r emembe r sf r om am ap o rl i s to fi t i ne ra r ie s ) p r e se rved o n am onumen ta tA ea :2

I ti su nde r t h e r u b r ic o ft h e i n f o rma t ion p r ov ided b y t h e P i l la r s o fA ea t h a t t h e A rgonau t s s e t o u t o n t h e i r r e tu rn j ou rney . T he p i l la r s o f e r a m ea su r e o f n av iga t iona l c e r ta in ty t ot h e h e roe s f r om t h e s t a r t , a c e r ta in ty b o l s t e r ed b y d i v ine i n te rven t ion . T he a dv ice o fA rgu s i se ndo r sed b y ac ome t s e n t b y H e r a w h ich s t ay s w i th t h e A rgonau t s a sf a r a st h e r i ve r I s te r , a nd t h i s p r ove s t ob e m e r e ly t h e f i r s t i n as u cce s s ion o f d i v ine s i gn s o r ien t ing t h e A rgonau t s o n t h e i r w ay b a ck t o G r ee ce . Wh e r ea s O dy s seu s ' w ande r ing s t a k e p l a ce u nd e rt h e s hadow o ft h e a ng e r o fP o se idon , t h e A rgonau t s r e ly o n t h e b enevo lence o f t h e g od s t o g ua ran t ee t h e i r s a f e p a s sag e , t h e mo s t s p ec t a cu la r i n s tan ce s o f d i v ine i n ter ven t ion o n t h e h omewa rd r o u te b e ing t h ea s s i s tance r e nde r ed b y s e a -de i t ie s s u ch a st h eN e r e id sa nd T r i ton .

A lä y e 0 1V g t 1 v iv µ k m g t . u ce5ov U i C OVO t T E rvö 'd cv5p6 jv o ig y e K ae iaaa to v a tkp . ev A lav • ö n t o t y pa r c ti )g n o u rkpwv g O ev e idovta t , i v üp f 3 tag o ç v t i t aaa t b 8o 1 i c e ipaT ' i aatv i r ypi jç T E t pa qmp i l; i t kp tg i n tv tao l i kvo ta tv . " Ec ru 5 iT t g r otap .6g ,i nc u rov K kpag T h ccavo io , e i ) dg ' r en poßc e ig K a i b 9 t .x e iö t v i r c epf i c ra t •

A po l lon iu s ' n a r ra t ive o ft h e r e tur n v oyag e o fA rgo i s t o o l e ng thy a nd i n t r ica te t o p e rm i t c omp r ehen s ive s t udy w i th in t h e l i m i t s o ft h i s d i scu s s ion , b u t i nt h e c on tex t o f t h e t h eme o f s e af a r ing i n t h e p oem t wo e p i sode s m e r i t s p ec ia l a t ten t ion . T he f i r s t i s an i n e d ay s t o rm w h ich b l ow s t h e A rgonau t s o f f c ou r s e a S t h ey c ome w i th in s i gh to ft h eP e loponne se :

O n t h e p r ev iou s t r ad i t ion c on cer n ing A rgo 's r e t u rn v oyag e a nd , a l so , t h e g eog r aph ica l s ou r ce s s e e B ra swe l l 6 23 ; D e lag e 1 92 -276 ; V ian ( 1 98 1) 1 6 -20 ; V ian 1 987 ; W i l l iam s2 73 -5 ( w i th d e ta i led f o o tno te s ) . 2 4 S ee Ea d4 . 257 -62b ( Wend e l 2 73 -4 ) . 2 5 H u tch in son 1 0 1-4 ; K n igh t 1 5 2 -60 . 2 6 O n t h e c on t rove r sy p e r ta in ing t o t h e s t a tu s o f t h e P i l la r so fA ea a s am ap s e eD ick ie 2 80 ; H un te r ( 1 99 1) 9 7 -8 . 2 3

" H5np v i r ot i x 6X , r rov k i rwvv i rov ' Agßpa i c tnwv , K o . up i r r tv a l 7 COV X 06va n er tag gvo ta t X a i ( pca tK a i au tv 1 / 4 ' Ex tv c io-tv iao . t4 F l ikono; ö v iov K a t ma ivE to y a ia • K a i ' D S T ' c i vap i täy8r iv ó A .o B opgao O inX 7 t -a 2 7 L uke rmann 1 96 -7 ; P ea r son 4 56 . 9

R .J .C lare daa r ly iK raay K ö g A .4 3 1 )C it t ldw è vv& x r ö caa; v i n c • rag b i a , c 1 3g K a i T öaaa ( p4 ' i µc u ra , dxp tg V i ( ov • to r i po r rpb µ ea , ' g v5oe t EW r i .v , o i )x& r tv 6a to b i r io-a w v r t ua i i tXc t , öTE T6V8E 1 3 1 .4 )C CTO K6X1 LOV i KiC rO at . ( 4 . 1228 -36 ) A po l lon iu s ' d e sc r ip t ion o f t h i s s t o rm ( n o t l e a s t i t s d u r a t ion ) i s v e ry much b a sed u pon t h e t r ad i t iona l H ome r ic s c ena r io , w he r eby t h e h omecom ing h e ro i s d i ve r ted f r om h i s h omewa rd c ou r se 1 7 as t o rm w h i le t a n ta l i s ing ly c l o se t oh i s d e s t ina t ion . 8 I ti st h e mo s t s e r iou s s t o rm t oa f f l ic tt h e A rgonau t s o nt h e i r v oyag e , a nd b ecau se o ft h i sa c c iden tt h ey a r ec a s ta s ho r e i nt h e g u lf o fS yr te s , d e sc r ibed i na dvance a s ag r av eya rd f o r s h ip s , ap l ace f r om w he r et h e r e i sn or e tu rn . D e sp i te t h e f am i l ia r n a tu r e o ft h e i n i t ia l s c ena r io t h e S y r t e s e p i sode d eve lop s i n to a n e xp lo ra t ion o f d i so r ien ta t ion o f a n u nu sua l k i nd , i n w h ich t h e A rgonau t s ' t o ta l d ependence u pon t h e s e a i sm an if e s t . I n t h e g u lf o f S y r te s i ti s t h e i n ho sp i tab le , e mp ty v i s ta o f t h e s u r round ing l a nd w h ich p r e sen t s t h e g r ea te s t h az a rd :2 9 t h e u t te r d e spa i r e ng ende r ed i n t h e A rgonau t s a tt h i s j unc tu r e i si n sp i red b y t h e a b s en c e o f an av igab le s e ap a th ( 4 .1270 -3 ) .3 °

u n t i l f i na l ly , g l ad ly ( äa r caa i o4 , 1 39 1) l a k eT r i ton .

T he s e cond i n s tan ce o fd i so r ien ta t ion o ccu r s n ea r t h e e nd o ft h e v oyag e a nd , o n t h i s o cca s ion , a ts e a . A s t h e A rgonau t s m ake t h e i r w ay a c ro s s t h e C r e tan s e a t h ey r u n i n to a t e r r ib le d a rkne s s w h ich m ake s t h em f e a rf o rt h ew o r s t :3 1 k i r r iK a 6 Kp i r ra iov i n tgp dya Hoy rag v i . ) 4i 96 1 3 E tt vT r f i p TE KaT01)7 1 . ä8 12 K1K2 AC YKOU al* Vi )KT' 6X0AV o Z Y K ö c r rpa S t iaxavev , o ' 6K ä Rapvya i w r iv iu •o i )pav60ev x c io; ' r t . ; Ai i c b p r o 'pe t a xot i • r i i l uxe x t r ov ä v toi )aa ß ep H sp r ov . A i r ro i5 'e it"A ik i e i9 'i 5aa tv i w popiov to i l e i5e tv o i )5 ' ö c raov • i • r & rpe l gav 5 ge a ? thaa r t V6 GTOV , ä lIT IX aV h WTE ( dpo t . ( 4 . 1694 -70 1) H e r e ,a st h eh e roe s l o se t h e i rw ay a ts e a , t h e r e su l t ing c onf u s ion i sv i sua l i sed a s c hao s i n t h e m o s t l i t e ra l s e n se p o s s ib le : t h e A rgonau t s m igh t b e a d r if t i n H ade s , f o r a l t h e s e n se t h ey c an m ak e o f t h e i r s u r round ing s .3 2 W ha t t h ey a r e e xpe r ienc ing i sn o t a s t o rm , b u t A po l lon iu s e n su r e s t h a t w e a r e n one the le s s r em inded o ft h es t o rm w h ich e ngu lf ed t h e s h ip o ft h e s on s o fP h r ixu s :

T he m ann e r i n w h ich t h e A rgonau t s a c h iev e t h e i r e s cape f r om t h i s w a s te land m ake s e xp l ic i t t h e s ymb io t ic b ond b e tw een c r ew a nd s h ip . E n igma t ic a dv ice f r om t h e l o ca l L ibyan n ymph st h a tt h ey s hou ld a wa i t t h e a pp ea r an c e o f as i gn f r om Amph i t r i te a nd t h en m ak e ' r ecompen se ' ( g p _o tß[v , 1 3 26 ) t o t h e i r ' mo the r ' i sf o l low ed b y t h e a ppa r i t ion o f as e a h o r s e w h ich g a l lop s o f fi n to t h e d i s tance . P e leu s i n te rp r e t s t h e o men a sf o l low s :

r c e 2 td )p ro; , c l pae 5 g Ki c t K e l ckiy i og E vo i f ja t . K eka tv i i 5 'o i )pavC iv ä xÄ g n texev , o c 5U r , i ö c c rtpa 5 tavyia ( p a ive t ' V l )KTi 8 ' g i31 1 I t6VTOV 6è

oea t

1 Cv e c pi r ov , ( 2 .1102 -5 )

g r itipa 8 '0 6x C al T iv n polt6c raoga t / c ep a 6ti lv v f i c t i c éA .c tv f y ap K o ctä v t iöi )« c i €v g x0Uaa a pya%L r co-t vo iVn t i c aµ C c to ta tv . ' AkXö c g t v C o p-T E I . 19d TE 3t1i K ai e cTEI H MV 64 1 .01 , 4/66EV ä v Ng evo t w ap .a0 c ; )5E K g v5o0 i .y a tic o i c sog ev f 7 r po -dpwae T ark r 65a i kaaev i r c r rog . O y äp öy e4 rIp h yi n ro5 6av ra t •i x v ia 5 'f i g iv a r tma ,v e tv T1V' g0Ä ,T CO G l a . vxöv K aO in repüe

f i d a; ,

T he r ec an b en os t ronge rm e tapho rs ugg e s t ing t h a t t h e s e ai st h ep l a ce w he r eJ a son a nd c ompany b e long t h an t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f t h e s h ip A rgo a s t h e i r m o the r . G u ided b yt h e s e ah o r se s e n tb y Amph i t r i te t h e h e roe s d u ly c a r ry t h e s h ip A rgo o ve r land f o r t w e lve d ay s

3 °

i mp ) . C : s c po

T he d a rkne s so ft h e C r e tan s e ai st h e l a s t d ang e r f a c ed b yt h eh e roe so n t h e i r h omewa rd j ou rney , a nd i nt h i s momen to fu l t ima te i n dec is ion a nd d i so r ien ta t ion , t h e A rgonau t s ' r e spon se i st o e n t ru s t t h e i r r e tu rn t o t h e s e a ( 4 . 1700 1) . O ve ra l l t h is e p i sode f u nc t ion s a s a d r ama t i sa t ion o ft h e r e a l i ty t h a t , a l though t h e h e ro e s m ay b e a t t h e m e r cy o f t h e s e a t h roughou t t h e i r v oyage , t h ey n eve r a ta ny s t age b ecome i t s v i c t im s : W i th t y p ica lg eog r aph ica lp r ec i s ion a nd as e n se o fd u e d r ama t ic c l o su r e , t h e f i na l v e r se o f t h e p oem

( 4 . 1370 -9 )

2 9

aKotóc ç Se

O nt h i s o cca s ion , h oweve r , t h e d i so r ien ta t ion i ss h o r t l i ved . A ga in , a s t h roughou t t h e v oyag e o f t h e A rgonau t s , u l t ima te s a lva t ion a ppea r s i n d i v ine f o rm . I nr e spon se t oJ a son 's p l ea t h e g od A po l lo m an if e s t s h im se lf a nd , s t and ing o n an ea rby moun ta in p eak , r a ise sa l of th i sb ow , w h ich g i ve s o u t ad azz l ing g l eam o fl i gh t , e nab l ing t h e h e roe s t o mak e t h e i r w ay t o a n ea rby i s land ( 4 .170 113 ) .

" Apga ta j i èv s h( p ip H o c re töäwvog g ywye ä köx cno c p ik r i; i ) / rö x epa i? t , e 2d )aea t •

2 8

t h ey r e a ch

( äa r caa iw; äv räg r Iayaar i i5a4 e i c ra r rißr r rE , 4 . 178 1) r e co rd s t h e r e tu rn o f t h e A rgonau t s t o t h e b ea ch a tP ag a sa ef r om w he r et h ey s e t s a i l . U n l ik e t h a t

K n igh t 1 2 5 -6 . O nt h e S y r te s l a nd scape s e eW i l l iam s 1 6 3 -8 . O n t h is s c ene H u tch in son 1 3 5 .

3 1 3 2

1 0

S ee H un t e r( 1 993 ) 1 67 . W i l l iam s 4 7 -8 .

E p ic i t i nerar ie s o f O dy s seu s , t h i s i s av oyag e s a f e ly a c comp l i shed , t h e re a nd b a ck a ga in .

1

R .JC lare B ib l iography K n igh t , V . , 1 995 . T he R enewa lo fE p ic . R espon se s t o H ome r i nt h e A rgonau t ica o fA po l lon ius . L e iden : B r i l l . L e sky , A . , 1 947 . T ha la t ta . D e r W eg d er G r i echen z um Mee r . V ienna : R udo lf M . R oh re rV e r lag . L on i s , R . , 1 981 . L e s t r o is a pp roche s d 'E th iop ien p a r l ' op in ion g r eco roma ine .K tema 6 ,6 9 -87 . L uke rmann , F . , 1 961 . L oca t ion i n c l a s s ica l g eog raphy . A nna l s o ft h eA s soc ia t ion o f Ame r ican G eog rapher s 5 1 , 1 94 -2 10 . L ynn -Geo rge , M . , 1 988 . E po s : Word , N ar ra t ive a nd t h eI l iad . B a s ing s toke : Macm i l lan . Mo reux , B . , 1 967 . L a n u i t , l ' omb re e t l a mo r t c h ez H ome re .P hoen ix 2 1 , 2 37 -72 . P ea r son , L . , 1 938 . A po l lon iu s o f R hode s a nd t h e o ld g eog raphe r s . Ame r ican J ourna l o fP h i lo logy L IX , 4 43 -59 . S ega l , C .P . , 1 962 . T he P haeac ian s a nd t h e s ymbo l ism o fO dy s seu s ' r e tu rn . A n ion 1 ,1 7 -64 . V ian , F . , 1 981 . A po l lon iu s R hod ius : A rgonau t ique s c han t 4 .P a r i s : L e s B e l le s L e t t res . V ian , F . , 1 987 . P oe s ie e tg eog raph ie : l e s r e tou r s d e s A rgonau te s . C omp te s r endu s d e l ' acad M ie d e s i n scr ip t ion s , 2 49 -62 . Wende l , C . , 1 958 . S cho l ia i n A po l lon ium R hod ium V e te ra .Be r l in : We idmann scheVe r lag sbuchhand lung Wh i tman , C .H . , 1 958 . H omer a nd t h e H e ro i c T rad i t ion . C amb r idge Ma s s . : H a rva rd U n ive r s i ty P re s s . W i l l iam s M .F ., 1 99 1 . L and scape i nt h e A rgonau t ica o fA po l lon iu s R hod iu s . F rankf u r t a m Ma in : P e te r L ang . Z anke r , G . , 1 987 . R ea l i sm i nA lexand r ian P oe t ry . L ondon : C room H e lm .

A nde r sen , W .S . , 1 958 . C a lyp so a nd E ly s ium . C la s s ica lJ ourna l 5 4 , 2 11 . B eye , C .R . , 1 982 . E p ic a nd R omance i n t h e A rgonau t ica o f A po l lon iu s . C a rbonda le , I l . : S ou thern I l ino is U n ive r s i ty P re s s . C han t ra ine , P . , 1 968 . D ic t ionna i re 4 mo log ique d e l a l a ngue g recque : h i s to ire d e s m o t s . P a r i s : K l inck s ieck . C la re , R .J . , 1 996 . C a tu l lu s 6 4 a nd t h e A rgonau t ica o f A po l lon iu s R hod iu s . P roceed ing s o f t h e C ambr idge P h i lo log ica lS oc ie ty 4 2 , 6 0 -88 . C la rke , H .W . , 1 989 ( r ep r in t ) . T he A r t o ft h e Od y s sey . B r is to l : B r is to l C la s s ica l P re s s . C rane , G . , 1 988 . B ackg rounds a nd c onven t ion s o ft h e O dy s sey . B e i t räge z ur k l a s s i schen P h i lo log ie B and 1 91 . F rankf ur t a m Ma in : A thenäum . d e l aV i l le d e M irmon t , H . , 1 895 . L e n av i r e A rgo e t l a s c ience n au t ique d ' A po l lon io s d e R hode s . R evue i n te rna t iona le d el ' en se ignmen t3 0 , 2 30 -85 . D ick ie , M . , 1 990 . T a bs b ew i tched . Mag ic , a t om ic t h eo ry a nd p a radoxogaphy i n A po l lon iu s A rgonau t ica 4 . 1638 -88 . P aper s o f t h e L eed s I n terna t iona l L a t in S em inar V o l 6 , 2 67 -96 . L eed s :A r ca . D ion , R . , 1 977 . A spec t sp o l i t ique s d e l ag ivg raph ie a n t ique . P a r is : L e s B e l le s L e t t re s . E i l ige r , W . , 1 975 . D ie D ar s te l lung d er L and schaf t i n d er g r iech i schen D ich tung . B e r l in : W . D e G ruy te r . F en ik , B . , 1 974 . S tud ie s i n t h e O d y s sey . H e rme s E inze l sch r if ten x xx . W ie sbaden : F .S t e ine r . F ocke , F . , 1 943 . D ie Od y s see . S tu t tga r t : K oh lhamme r . F o ley , H .P . , 1 978 . ' Reve r se s im i le s ' a nd s ex r o le s i n t h e Od y s sey .A re thu sa 1 , 7 -26 . H ände l , H . , 1 954 . B eobach tungen z ur e p i schen T echn ik d e s A po l lon io s R hod io s . Mun ich : C .H .Beck 'sche V e r lag sbuchhand lung . H e l lw ig , B . , 1 964 . R aum u nd Z e i t i m h ome r i schen E po s . H i lde she im : O lms . H enn ig , R . , 1 940 . H ome r s 6 µ . ( pakög O aXd caan; . K l io 3 , 3 68 -75 . H er te r , H . , 1 942 . B e i t räge z u A po l lon io s v on R hodo s . R he in i sche s Mu seum 9 1 , 2 26 -49 . H eubeck , A . , S . We s t a nd J .B . H a in swor th , 1 990 . A C ommen tary o n H ome r ' s Od y s sey V o lume 1 . I n t roduc t ion a nd B ook s i v i i i . O xf o rd : C la rendon P re ss . H un te r , R .L . , 1 99 1 . G r eek a nd n on -G r eek i n t h e A rgonau t ica o f A po l lon iu s . I n E AAHN IEMOI . Q ue lque s j a lon s p our u ne h i s to i re d ' id en tW g recque , e d . S .S a id , 8 1 -99 . L e iden : B r i l l . H un te r , R .L . , 1 993 . T he A rgonau t ica o fA po l lon iu s : L i terary S tud ie s . C amb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . H u tch in son , G .O . , 1 988 . H e l len i s t ic P oe t ry . O xf o rd : C la rendon P re s s .

1 2

C hap ter Two : E ireann Mar sha l l S yne s iu s , Homer , a nd t he S ea : T he S ea a nd t he R epre sen ta t ion o fL ibyan s i nS yne s ius ' L e t ter s b y s ay ing t h a t C y rena ican t r ade r s a r e u nw i l l ing t os a i l t o S y r ia , w he re O lymp iu s l i ve s ( e p . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 M igne ] ) . S yne s iu s a l so s ay s t h a t h e w ou ld n o t h ave r e ce ived l e t te r s O lymp iu s m ay h ave w r i t ten t o h im b ecau se h e h a s m oved t ot h e i n te r io ro fC y rena ica ( e p . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 M igne ] ) . A s i se v iden t f r om t h e se a po log ies , S yne s iu s p e rce ives t h e s ea a s n e two rk , l i nk ing p eop le f r om d i f f e ren t p a r t s o ft h e w o r ld . A s s uch , t h o se w ho l i ve f a r f r om t h e s e a w i l l o n ly h ave r e s t r ic ted c on ta c tw i th o u t s ide r s .

I n t rod uc t ion . I n t h is c hap te r , Iw i l l e xam ine t h e w ay i n w h ich S yne s iu s , t h e C y rena ican b i shop w ho w ro te i n t h e f i f th c en tu ry A .D . , r ep re sen t s t h e s e a i nt wo o f h i s m o s t l e ng thy a nd m emo rab le l e t te r s . Ih ope t os how t h a t h e p e rce ive s t h e s ea i nd i ve rg ing w ay s : b o th a s c i v i l is ing a nd c o r rup t ing . A s s u ch , t h e L ibyan s w hom h e d e sc r ibe s i nt h e se l e t te r s a r e b o th p r im i t ive a nd u n ta in ted b y t h e w o r ld , l a rge ly b ecau se t h ey d o n o t l i ve n ea r t h e s e a . I na dd i t ion t oe xp lo r ing S yne s iu s ' p e rcep t ion o f t h e s ea , Iw i l l l o ok a t t h e e x ten t t o w h ich h i s b e l ief s m ir ro r t h ose f ound i n H ome r . I n deed , o ne o f t h e mos t i n te re s t ing a spec t s o f h i s p e rcep t ion o ft h e s e a i st h e d eg r ee t ow h ich h e r e f e r s t o H ome r . A s p r ev iou s s cho la r s h ave n o ted , l a te a n t ique w r i te r s f r equen t ly r e f e r t oH ome r , a s w e l l a s a u tho r s f r om c l a s s ica l p e r iod ( S ee L acomb rade 1 951 : 2 74 -80 , Ma r rou 1 963 : 1 26 -50 a nd R ogue s 1 987 : 3 0 11 0 f o r S yne s iu s ' r e f e rence s t o c l a s s ica l t e x t s . F o r Amm ianu s s e e Ma t thew s 1 989 : 34 a nd f o rt h e u s e o f c l a s s ica l l i t e ra tu re i n t h e f ou r th c en tu ry A .D . s e e B loch 1 963 : 1 9 1-218 ) . T o t h is e x ten t , Ia im t o i l u s t ra te t h a t S yne s iu s ' u se o fH ome r i sn o t l i m i ted t o s upe r f ic ia l a l lu s ion s b u t t h a t h e r e p re sen t s t h e s e a l a rge ly i nr e f e rence t oH ome r . A s s u ch , h e r e f e r s t o H ome r b o th i n o rde r t o r e p re sen t t h e s e a a nd s e a c omme rce a s c i v i l is ing a nd t or e p r e sen t t h e c i ty ( a nd b ye x ten s ion t h ec oa s t )a sc o r rup t ing .

S yne s iu sd eve lop st h e c onnec t ion b e tween s e aa nd c ommun ica t ion b y g i v ing al e ng thy d esc r ip t ion o fh i s n e ighbou r s , w ho a r e s a id t o b e e n t i re ly i g no ran t o f b o th t h e s e a a nd o f t h e o u t s ide w o r ld . T he b i shop l i ken s t h e se L ibyan s t ot h e p eop le w hom T i re s ia s s a id O dy s seu s w ou ld e ncoun te r o n h i s t r ave ls , a f te r h e s l ew t he s u i tor s ( Homer Ody ssey 1 .12 1134 . T i re s ia s t e l ls O dy s seu s t h a t a f te r h av ing k i l led t h e s u i to r s , h e i st ot r ave l u n t i l h e f i nd s p eop le w ho d o n o t k now t h e s e a a nd w ho d o n o t u se s a l t . T hen , h av ing m ade as a c r if ice t oP o se idon a nd t o a l o f t h e g od s , P o se idon 's w ra th w ou ld b e a ppea sed a nd O dy sseu s w ou ld r e tu rn h ome ; t h e re h e w ou ld l i ve u n t i l ar i pe a ge a nd w ou ld h ave a l o ng a nd h appy r e ign ) . L ike t h e se H ome r ic p eop le , S yne s iu s ' n e ighbou r s a r e s a id t ob e i g no ran t b o th o ft h e s e a a nd o fs e a s a l t ( Home r O d y s sey 1 .122 -3 ; e p . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 M igne ] ) . H e c on t inue s h i s a ccoun t o fh i s n e ighbou r s b y s ay ing t h a t t h ey u se Ammon s a l t , w h ich i se x t rac ted f r om t h e g round , i n s tead o fs e a s a l t ( e p . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 M igne ] ) . L ikew ise , S yne s iu s s ay s t h a t t h e se L ibyan s d o n o t b e l ieve i nt h e e x is tence o f s h ip s a nd , a bove a l , c an n o t b e p e r suaded t h a t f i sh c an e x is t ( e p . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 M igne ] ) : ' Even i ft h ey a dm i t w ha t i st o ld t h em a bou t v e s se ls , o ro n ly s e em t ol a ugh a ti t ,a ta l e ven t s , t h ey s t ou t ly r e f u se t o b e l ieve t h a t t h e s ea t o o i sa b le t o n ou r ish m ank ind . A cco rd ing t o t h e i r i d ea , t h is p r iv i lege b e long s t o mo the r e a r th a l one ' ( e p . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 M igne ] t r an s . F i tzge ra ld ) .

IT he S ea p e rce ived a sc ond u i to fi n f orma t ion T he s ea f o rms a n i mpo r tan t b ackd rop t o o ne o f S yne s ius ' mo s t i lum ina t ing l e t te r s , n ame ly o ne a dd re s sed t oh i s f r i end O lymp iu s i nw h ich h e g i ve s a l e ng thy d esc r ip t ion o fp eop le w ho l i ve n ea r h i s e s ta te i n t h e i n te r io r o f C y rena ica ( Fo r t h is l e t te r s e e Ma r sha l l f o r thcom ing ) . S ince s ou the rn C y rena ica a ppea r s t o h ave b een i nhab i ted p r edom inan t ly b y L ibyans , i ts e em s l i ke ly t h a t t h e se n e ighbou r s w e re L ibyan s , a l though S ynes iu s n eve r s pec if ica l ly r e f e r s t o t h em a s s uch . T h is i se mpha s ised b y t h e w e l l k nown r e l ief s cu lp tures f ound i n S lon ta , n ea r S ynes ius ' e s ta te , wh ich b ea r a s t rong L ibyan i n f luence ( Fo r ar e cen t d i scu s s ion o ft h e S l on ta r e l ief s s e e L un i 1 987 . S ee G oodch i ld 1 976 f o r ad i scu s s ion o ft h e l o ca t ion S yne s iu s ' e s ta t e , w h ich a ppea r st oh ave b e en l o ca ted e i the ri nS lon ta o rC hau lan ) .

S yne s iu s ' n e ighbou r s a r e n o t o n ly i g no ran t o ft h e s e a b u t a r e n o t c ogn isan t o f t h e i mpo r tan t m a t te r s c once rn ing t h e w o r ld a tl a rge . I nt h e f i r s t p l ace , t h ey h ave n o i d ea o f w ho t h e e mpe ro r i s , l e t a l one w ho f o rmed p a r t o fh i s i n ne r c i rc le . S yne s iu s e mpha s ise s t h e ir i g no rance b y s ay ing t ha t s ome b e l ieve t ha t A gamemnon i st h e e mpe ro r : ' No d oub t m en k now w e l l t h a tt h e re i sa lway s a n Empe ro r l i v ing , f o rw e a r e r em inded o ft h is e ve ry y ea r b y t h o se w ho c o l lec t t h e t a xe s ; b u t w ho h e i s , i sn o t v e ry c l ea r . T he re a r e p eop le a mong s t u sw ho s uppo se t h a tA gamemnon , t h e s on o f A t reu s , i ss t i l l k i ng , t h e g r ea t a nd g ood k i ng w ho w en t a ga in s t T roy ' ( e p . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 M igne ] t r an s . F i tzge ra ld ) . S yne s iu s a l so s a y s t h a t s ome o fh i s

Ac en t ra l t h eme t oS yne s iu s ' l e t t e rt oO lymp iu s i st h a t b o th h e a nd h i s L ibyan n e ighbou r s a r e n o t i nc on tac t w i th p eop le f r om o t he r p a r t s o f t h e w o r ld b ecau se t h ey d o n o t l i ve n ea r t h e s e a . S yne s iu s b eg in s t h is l e t te r b y a po log is ing t o O lymp iu s f o r n o t h av ing c o r r e sponded w i th h im r e cen t ly . H e e xcu se s h im se lf

1 3

E i reann Mar sha l l t h a t H ome r i sc en t ra l t oh i s c ha rac te r isa t ion o ft h e se L ibyan s a s' o the r ' . I ts hou ld b e e mpha s ised t h a t , a l though h e ' o the r s ' h i s n e ighbou r s , S yne s ius d oes n o t r ef e r t o t h em a s b a rba r ian s . I ndeed , a s h a s b een s een , h e d oe s n o t e ven r e f e rt ot h em a sL ibyan s . O n t h e o t he rh and , h e d oe s i n f e r t h a t m e r chan t s i nC y r ena ica a r e G r eek ( e p . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 M igne ] ) . A s s uch , h e d e sc r ibe s G reek s a s s ea -f a re r s , w h i le d esc r ib ing t hese L ibyan s a s e n t i r e ly i g no ran to fb o th s e a a nd s h ips . T o t h i s e x ten t h e d oe s i mp l ic i t ly c on t ra s t t h e se b ackwa rd L ibyan s a nd G reek s . B y i mp l ica t ion t h e se L ibyan s a r eb a rba r ic b ecau se t h ey d o n o t l i ve n ea rt h e s ea a nd , a ss u ch , a r e n o t i nt o uch w i th t h e r e s t o ft h e w o r ld . C onve r se ly , t h e s e a i si mp l ic i t ly p e rce ived a sc i v i l is ing b ecau se i t a low sp eop le t ob ei nc on tac tw i th o u t s ide r s .

n e ighbou r s b e l ieve t h a t O dy sseu s i s af r iend o f t h e c u r ren t e mpe ro r a nd t h a t h e o n ly r e cen t ly b l inded P o lyphemus ( e p . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 M igne ] ) . A l though S ynes ius d oe s d e sc r ibe t h ese L ibyans a s k now ing H ome r , h e r e p resen t s t h em a s b e ing e n t i re ly o u t o f t ouch w i th r e a l i ty , i nt h a t t h ey l a ck b o th at empo ra l f r amewo rk a nd f u ndamen ta l k now ledge ( Fo r as im i la r e xamp le , s e e D io C h ry so s tom O ra t ion 3 6 f o r O lb ian s k now ing H ome r ) . H e i sc a ref u l n o t t o a t t r ibu te t h i s n a ive té t o s t up id i ty . I ndeed , h e r e la te s ar a the r c omp lex a rgumen t w h ich o ne o f t h e se L ibyan s f o rmu la t ed a bou t w hy f i sh c an n o t e x is t ( e p . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 M igne ] . T h i s m an a r gue s t h a t s i nce o n ly i n ed ib le a n ima l s , s u ch a sf r og s a nd l e eche s , g row s p r ing w a te r , i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t h a t s a l t w a te r , w h ich i sn o t p o tab le , p roduce a n ima l s w h ich t a s te g ood ) . I n s tead , S yne s iu s i mp l ic i t ly a s c r ibe s t h e i r n a ive té t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h ey l i ve f a r f r om t h e s ea . A s s uch , i tc an b e s e en t h a t S yne s iu s n o t o n ly p e rce ives t h e s ea a s an e two rk w h ich a low s p eop le t o r ema in i n c on tac t w i th o ne a no the r b u t a l so p e rce ive s i ta s a n i mpo r tan t c ondu i t o fi n f o rma t ion .

I n a no the r l e t te r , w r i t ten t o h i s b ro the r E uop t ius , S yne s iu s i mp l ies t h a t ap eop le c an b e b ackwa rds d e sp i te l i v ing b y t h e s e a . I nt h is l e t te r S yne s iu s g i ve s av iv id a ccoun t o f h i s b e ing s h ipw recked n ea r A za r ium a nd o fh i s e ncoun te r w i th L ibyan s w ho g ave h i s f e l low s h ipma te s f ood a nd a s s is tance ( e p . 5[ e p . 4 H e rche r a nd M igne ] . I n c on t ra s t t o h i s l e t te r t o O lymp iu s , S yne s iu s s pec if ica l ly r e f e r s t ot h e se p eop le a sL ibyan . I ti sd i ff icu l tt oe xp la in w hy h e m igh t r e f e r o n ly t os ome p eop le a s L ibyan . T he a n swe r m ay l i e i nt h e a mb iguou s n a tu re o ft h e t e rm ' L ibyan ' a nd i n t h e e t hn ic i ty o fh i s a dd re s see s . T he l a be l ' L ibyan ' i s c ommon ly u sed i no rde r t or e f e r b o th t o' i nd igenou s ' L ibyan s a nd t o C y rena ican s . G iven t h e a mb iguou s u sage o f t h is t e rm s uch , i ts eems mo re l i k e ly t h a t S yne s iu s c a l l s p eop le L ibyan s w hen w r i t ing f e l low C y rena ican s , s uch a s h i s b ro the r , s i nce t h is a l low s h im t od i s t ingu ish h imse lf f r om L ibyan s . C onve r se ly , S yne s iu s f r equen t ly r e f e r s t oh imse lf a sL ibyan w hen w r i t ing t op eop le f r om o t he r p a r t s o ft h e G reek w o r ld . T h i s a lowed h im t od i f f e ren t ia te h imse lf f r om o t he r G reek s . S ee , f o r e xamp le , e p . 1 24 w he re S yne s iu s t e l ls H ypa t ia t h a t h e i sL ibyan . F o r S yne s iu s ' u se o f t h e t e rm ' L ibyan ' s ee Ma rsha l l 1 998 a nd f o r thcom ing ) . T he b i shop r ep resen t s t h e se L ibyans i ns im i la r t e rms a sh i s n e ighbou r s , a l though t h ey l i ve o n t h e c oa s t . I np a r t icu la r , b o th g roup s o fL ibyan s a r e s a id t ob e r u s t ic . F o r e xamp le , h e d e sc r ibe s a ne l de r ly m an w ho g u ided t h em i n to t h e h a rbou r a s w ea r ing r u s t ic c l o the s ( e p . 5[ e p . 4H e rche r a nd M igne ] ) . H e a l so e mpha s i se s t h e r u s t ic i ty o ft h e a r ea b y s a y ing t h a t t h is p a r t o ft h e c oun t ry r e a r s s heep a nd c a t t le w h ich p r oduce a mp le s upp l ie s o fm i lk . ( e p . 4[ e p . 5H e rche r a nd M igne ] ) . L ik e S yne s iu s ' n e ighbou r s , t h e L ibyan s w ho l i ve n ea r A za r ium a r e d e sc r ibed a sn a ïve i nt h a t t h e w omen d o n o t k now w ha t o t he r w omen 's b od ie s l o ok l i ke . A cco rd ing t o S ynes ius , t h ese L ibyan w omen , w ho a r e e ndowed w i th l a rge a nd p ecu l ia r b r ea s t s , a r e i n c redu lou s a bou t o the r w omen 's b r ea s t s , s uch t ha t t h ey a v id ly e xam ine f o re ign women : ` . .when t h ey f a l l i nw i th af o re ign w oman , t h ey m ake u p t o h e r i ne ve ry w ay u n t i l t h ey h ave g a ined t h e i r o b jec t , w h ich i st o e xam ine h e r b o som a nd t h en t h e

S yne s iu s u se s h i s L ibyan n e ighbou r s ' i g no rance a sa w ay o fd i s tanc ing t h em f r om h im se lf a nd O lymp iu s . A bove a l , i ti sc l ea r t h a t S yne s iu s i n tend s t o i n voke m ir th w i th h i s l e ng thy a ccoun t s o ft h e i r i g no rance o f a l l m a t te r s c once rn ing t h e i mpe r ia l c ou r t , s h ip s o r f i sh . F o r e xamp le , h e r e coun t s t h a t h e t r ied t o c onv ince h i s n e ighbou r s t ha t f i sh e x is ted b y p roduc ing aj a r o fp r e se rved f i sh , w h ich h e o pened ; h oweve r , f a r f r om p e r suad ing t h e se L ibyan s , S yne s iu s m anaged t o f r igh ten t h em , b ecau se t h ey t hough t t h e f i sh w e re p o isonou s s nakes ( ep . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 M igne ] ) . I n t h is a ccoun t , t h e L ibyans ' n a ive té i sa s ou rce o f d e r is ion b ecau se t h ey d o n o t h av ing t h e s ame k now ledge a s S yne s ius a nd O lymp iu s . B y mock ing t h ese L ibyan s , S yne s iu s e mpha s ise s t h a t t h ey d o n o t b e long t o t h e s ame g roup a s O lymp iu s a nd h imse lf . T he ref o re , h i s d escr ip t ion o f t h e ir i g no rance d i s tance s L ibyan s f r om S yne s iu s , O lymp iu s a nd , b y e x tens ion , h i s r e ade r s . S ince S ynes iu s i mp l ic i t ly a t t r ibu te s t h i s i g no rance t ot h e f c t t h ey l i ve f a r f r om t h e s e a , i tc an b e s e en t h a t S yne s iu s ' o the r s ' p eop le w ho d on o tl i ve o nt h ec oa s t . S yne s iu s n o t o n ly ' o the r s ' h i s L ibyan n e ighbou r s b y d i s tanc ing h imse lf f r om t h em b u t b y c ompa r ing t h em t ot h e m y s te r iou s p eop le w ho d o n o t k now t h e s e a o r s a l t i nt h e O dy s sey . T he se a nonymou s p eop le , w hom E u s ta th iu s s ays l i ved i nB oun im ia , w e re s e en t o b e m a rg ina l p eop le b y l a te r w r i te r s : n o t o n ly d i d t h ey l i ve i n ap a r t o ft h e w o r ld w h ich w a s f a r f r om t h e s e a b u t t h ey d i d n o t u se s a l t ( Eu s ta th iu s 1 675 ; H eubeck 1 989 : 8 5 a rgue s t h a t b a rba r ic p eop le a r e s ome t ime s r e p re sen ted a sn o t u s ing s a l t . S ee , f o re xamp le S a l lu s t J ugur th ine W ar 8 9 . F o r t h is p a ssage s ee a l so H eubeck a nd P r iv i te ra 1 983 : 2 70 -7 1) . T he f a c t t h a t S ynes ius b eg ins h i s d escr ip t ion o f h i s L ibyan n e ighbou r s w i th ar e f e rence t ot h e se p eop le s ugge s t s

1 4

S yne s iu s , H ome r , a nd t h eS ea S yne s iu s t o m a in ta in c on tac t w i th f r iends s uch a s O lymp iu s . O n a mo re f undamen ta l l e ve l , t h e s e a a low s p eop le t ok eep a b rea s t w i th o t he r p a r t s o ft h e w o r ld . T he r ef o re , t h e s e a i sd e sc r ibed a s ac ondu i t o f i n f o rma t ion w h ich u n if ie s p eop le b ecau se i te nab le s t h em t o h ave s ha red k now ledge a nd a s ha red t ime f r ame . C onve r se ly , t h o se w ho d o n o t l i ve n ea rt h e s e a , o rw ho d o n o t l i ve n ea r b u sy h a rbou r s , a r e s e pa ra t ed f r om t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r ld . S ince t h ey a r e i s o la ted f r om o u t s ide r s , p eop le , s uch a st h e L ibyan s d e sc r ibed a bove , a r e i g no ran t o ff u ndamen ta l k now ledge s ha r ed b y ' c iv i l ised ' m en s uch a s S yne s iu s , E uop t iu s a nd O lymp iu s . A s s uch t h ey a r e r e p re sen ted a s b e ing b a rba r ic .

w oman w ho h a s e xam ined t h e s t range r t e l ls a no the r , a nd t h ey c a l l o ne a no the r l i ke t h e C icone s , t h ey f l ock t oge the r t o t h e s pec tac le a nd b r ing p resen t s w i th t h em ' ( ep . 4[ e p . 5H e rche r a nd M igne ] . F o r t h e C icone s i nH ome rs e eO d y s sey 9 . 39 -6 1) . T he n a ive té o ft h e se L ibyan w omen c an b e e xp la ined b y t h e f a c t t h a t , a l though t h ey l i ve o n t h e c oa s t , t h ey o ccupy ap ar t o ft h e c oa s t w h ich i sl i t t le f r equen ted . T h is i se mpha s ised b y t h e f a c t t h a t S yne s iu s i sn o t e n t ire ly s u re o f t h e n ame o f h a rbou r ( e p . 4[ e p . 5 H e rche r a nd M igne ] ) . I ts e em s l i ke ly t h a t A za r ium d i d n o t s uppo r t at h r iv ing c omme rce b ecau se o ft h e s i ze o fi t s h a rbou r ( e p . 4[ e p . 5H e rche r a nd M igne ] . I n deed , S yne s iu s e mpha s i se s t h a t t h e h a rbou r i ss ma l l b y i r on ica l ly d escr ib ing t h e f i ve s h ips h e w a s t r ave l l ing w i th a s al a rge f l ee t i nt h e s ma l l h a rbou r ( e p . 4[ e p . 5H e rche r a nd M igne ] ) . S yne s iu s a l so s ugge s t s t h a t t h e h a rbou r i st r eache rou s ( e p . 4[ e p . 5 H e rche r a nd M igne ] ) . F o r t h e se r e a son s , t h e L ibyan s w ho l i ved n ea r A za r ium d o n o t a ppea r t o h ave e ncoun te red o u t s ide r s f r equen t ly . T he ref o re , a l though t h ey l i ve b y t h e s e a a nd h ave s ome k now ledge o f s h ip s , t h ese L ibyan s a r e o u t o f c on tac t w i th t h e o u t s ide w o r ld i n much t h e s ame w ay a s S yne s iu s ' n e ighbou r s ( Th is d oe s n o t m ean t h a t A za r ium d i d n o t h ave a ny s ea t r aff ic a ta l , o rt h a t t h e se L ibyan s c ou ld n o t s t ee r s h ip s . T he f a c t t h a t t h e L ibyan m en c ou ld d e sc r ibe f o re ign w omen 's b r ea s t s a ta l s ugge s t s t h a t t h ey d i d m ee to u t s ide r s t h rough c omme rce . H oweve r , s i nce L ibyan w omen d o n o t a ppea r t o h ave m e t f o re igne r s i ti se v iden tt h a tt h i s c omme rce w a s l i m i ted i ns cope . S ee B a cch ie l l i 1 987 : 4 87 w ho a r gued t h a t t h e L ibyans ' l a ck o f c on tac t w i th t h e o u t s ide w o r ld w a s s ymp toma t ic o ft h e e conom ic d ec l ine o ft h e l a te a n t ique p e r iod ) . S ince t h ese c oa s ta l L ibyans a r e s e pa ra ted f r om t h e o u t s ide w o r ld , t h ey h ave t h e s ame n a ive té a s S yne s iu s ' n e ighbou r s a nd , a s ar e su l t , a r e ` o the red ' i n as im i la rm anne r . T he se L ibyan s a r e a l so d i s tanced f r om S yne s iu s ' r e ade r s b y v i r tue o ft h e f a c t t h a t t h e i r b od ie s a r e p ecu l ia r ( O the r a nc ien t a u tho r s , i n c lud ing S yne s iu s ' n ea r c on tempo ra ry , Amm ianu s , r e p re sen t t h e b od ie s o ff o r e igne r s a s b e ing d i f f e ren t . F o r e xamp le , Amm ianu s 3 1 .2 .2 , ' o the r s ' t h e H un s b y c ha rac te r is ing t h e i r b od ie s a sv e ry u g ly . T hey a r e s a id t oh ave s qua re b od ie s , t h ick l i mb s a nd n eck s a nd b en t b od ie s F o r ad i f f e ren t v i ew o f t h e w ay i n w h ich a nc ien t a u tho r s v i ew o u t s ide r s ' b od ie s s e e Ma t thew s 1 989 : 3 32 -33 w ho , i n r e f e rence t o Amm ianu s ' d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e H uns ' p hy s ique s , a r gue s t h a t t h e H un s w e re a d i f f e ren t p hy s ica l t y pe ) . A s s uch , i ti s e v iden t t h a t S yne s iu s o n ly p e rce ive s t h e s e a t o b e c i v i l is ing w hen i te nab le s p eop le t oh ave c on ta c t w i th o u t s ide r s . T o t h is e x ten t , h e s e e s s e a t r aff ic , r a the r t h an t h es e ap e rs e , a sc i v i l i s ing .

S yne s iu s s ha re s h i s p e rcep t ion o ft h e s e a w i th w r i te r s w ho w ro te b ef o re h im . F o re xamp le , i n aw e l l k nown p a s sage , H e rodo tu s d e sc r ibe s t h e Amazon s a s b e ing u nab le t o s t ee r s h ip s . H e r e la te s t h a t t h e Amazon s k i l led G reek s h ad w ho d ef ea ted t h em a nd w ho h ad s t owed t h em a way o n t h e i r s h ip s ; h oweve r , s i nce t h ey w e re u nab le t og u ide t h e se s h ip s , t h e Amazon s w e re l e f t s t randed a th i gh s e a , u n t i l t h ey e ven tua l ly l a nded b y t h e Maee t ian l a ke ( 4 .110 ) . T he f a c t t h a t h e r e p r e sen t s t h e se q u in te ssen t ia l b a rba r ian s a s i g no ran t o fs h ip s , s ugge s t s t h a t H e rodo tu s v i ew s s e a f a r ing a s c i v i l is ing . T h is i s e mpha s ised b y t h e f a c t t h a t H e rodo tu s , i nt h is p a s sage , d e sc r ibe s t h e G reek s a s s ea -f a r ing . I n a dd i t ion , a s H a l l h a s s ugge s ted , c l a s s ica l A then ian s c ou ld t o v i ew s ome b a rba r ian s , s uch a sP e r s ian s , a sn o t v e ry a b le s e amen ( Ha l l 1 989 : 4 1-42 , 8 5 . S ee a l so A e schy lu s P rome theus B ound 4 70 -71 f o r P rome theu s s ay ing t h a t h e t a ugh t h uman s h ow t ob u i ld s h ip s . T he f a c t t h a t A e schy lu s i n c lude s t h is p a ssage i n as ec t ion i n w h ich P rome theu s d e sc r ibe s h ow h e c i v i l ised h uman s i n d ica te s t h a t h e v i ewed s e a -f a r ing a s ah a l l -ma rk o fc i v i l isa t ion ) . F o r t h e p u rpo se s o ft h is c hap te r , i ti si n te re s t ing t h a t H ome r , w hom S yne s iu s i sc on sc iou s ly u s ing i nb o th o f t h e a f o remen t ioned l e t te r s , r e p re sen t s t h e s e a a s c i v i l is ing i ns im i la rt e rm s . I np a r t icu la r , i nb ook n i ne , h e a t t r ibu te s t h e C yc lope s ' b ackwa rdne ss t o t h e i r d i f f idence o f t h e s ea , j u s t a s S yne s iu s d esc r ibe s c e r ta in L ibyan s a sp r im i t ive b ecau se t h ey a r e n o t s e a f a r e r s . A s p r ev iou s s cho la r s , s u ch a sH a l l a nd S haw , h ave n o ted , H ome r r e p r e sen t s t h e C yc lope s i ns im i la r t e rms a s l a te r w r i te r s d e sc r ibe b a rba r ian s ( Ha l l 1 989 : 1 3 ; S haw 1 982 -82 : 2 1-24 ) . I n p a r t icu la r , t h e C yc lope s d o n o t p rac t ice a g r icu l tu re , d o n o t h ave a s semb l ie s o r a n e s tab l ished l e ga l c ode a nd d o n o t l i ve i n h ou ses ( Ody ssey 9 . 12 18 ) . I n s tead , t h e i r c r op s g row u na ided , a nd t h e i r g oa t s a r e n o t h e rded ( Ody s sey 9 . 107 -11 ; 18 19 ) . S im i la r ly , H ome r s a y s t h a t t h e C yc lope s d o n o t h ave s h ipw r igh t s w ho c on s t ruc t s h ip s w h ich w ou ld e nab le t h em t o t r ade w i th o t he r p eop le s ( Od y s sey 9 . 125 -29 ) . A cco rd ing t o H ome r , i ti sf o r t h is r e a son t h a t t h e C yc lope s a r e a p r im i t ive p eop le ( Od y s sey 9 . 128 -29 ) . I n te rac t ion w i th o the r p eop le w ou ld h ave m ade t h e C yc lope s a

I ns um , S yne s iu s ' l e t te r s s ugge s t t h a t t h e s e a , a nd i n p a r t icu la r , s ea t r aff ic i sp e rce ived t o b e c i v i l is ing b ecau se i te nab le s p eop le t o b e i n t o uch w i th o ne a no the r . O n av e ry b a s ic l e ve l , t h e s ea a l low s

1 5

E ireann Mar sha l l f r om c i t ie s . I ndeed , l i ke p r ev iou s a u tho r s , S yne s iu s c on t ra s t s t h e L ibyan c oa s t , w h ich i su rban , w i th t h e L ibyan i n te r io r , w h ich i sr u s t ic . H oweve r , u n l ike e a r l ie r a u tho r s , s u ch a s S t rabo , S yne s iu s d oes n o t r ep resen t u rban i ty i n ap o s i t ive l i gh t . S ince h e a s soc ia te s c i t ie s w i th t h e s ea , i tc an b e a rgued t h a t S yne s iu s d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly v i ew t h e s ea i np o s i t ive t e rms . I ndeed , h e a ppea r s t ob o th p e rce ive t h e s e a a s c i v i l is ing a nd a s al o cu s o f c o r rup t ion ( Fo r t h e s e a b e ing p e rce ived a s ac or rup t ing i nf luence i na nc ien t a nd m ed iaeva l l i t e ra tu re s ee H o rden a nd P u rce l l 2 000 ) .

p rospe rous p eop le a nd , i mp l ic i t ly , w ou ld h ave e n su red t h a t t h ey w e re c i v i l ised . I no t he r w o rd s , t h e C yc lope s a r e r e p re sen ted a s ' o the r ' b ecau se t h ey d o n o t t a ke t o t h e s ea . H ome r e mpha s ises t h e ir b ackwa rdne s s b y s ay ing t h a t t h e C yc lope s h ad a l t h e n a tu ra l a dvan tage s n eeded i no rde r t op a r take i ns ea c omme r ce . I np a r t icu la r , t h ey h ad an a tu ra l h a rbou r w h ich w a s s os a f e t h a t s h ip s c ou ld b e b eached w i thou t b e ing t i ed u p ( Ody s sey 9 . 136 -37 ) . S im i la r ly , t h e C yc lope s a r e n o t f a rme r s , d esp i te l i v ing i n a n e nv i ronmen t w ou ld h ave s uppo r ted a n a g r icu l tu ra l l i f e s ty le ( Ody ssey 9 . 130 -35 ) . A s s uch , t h e C yc lope s a r e n o t p r im i t ive b ecau se o f t h e l i ve i n am a rg ina l e nv ironmen t b u t a r e p r im i t ive b ecau se t h ey d o n o t t a ke a dvan tage o ft h e i r e nv i ronmen t ( Shaw 1 982 -83 :

I n h i s l e t te r t o O lymp ius , S ynes ius i mp l ic i t ly a s soc ia te s c i t ie s w i th t h e c oa s t a nd c onve r se ly , t h e i n te r io r w i th r u s t ic i ty . T h is i se v iden t i nt h e w ay h e s ay s t h a t h i s n e ighbou r s a r e i gnoran t o f t h e s ea b ecau se t h ey a r e n o t a wakened b y t h e s ea b u t b y t h e b l ea t ing a nd b e l low ing o fa n ima ls ( Syne s iu s e p . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 M igne ] ) . T he w ay h e j ux tapose s t h e c oa s t a nd t h e c oun t ry s ugges t s t h a t h e a s sume s t h a t t h e c oun t ry s ide i sl o ca ted f a r f r om t h e s ea . S im i la r ly , h e e xp l ic i t ly s a y s t h a t h i s n e ighbou r s l i ve f a r f r om t own s , r oad s a nd c omme rce ( ep . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 M igne ]) . S ince , h e s pec if ie s t h a t t h ey l i ve i n t h e i n te r io r o f L ibya , i ti sc l ea r t h a t h e a s soc ia tes t h e i n te r io r o f L ibya w i th r u s t ic i ty a nd , c onve r se ly , a s soc ia te s c i t ie s w i th t h e s e a .

2 3) . S ince f a rm ing w a s s e en t o b e c en t ra l t o c i v i l isa t ion , t h e f a c t t h a t H ome r a s soc ia tes t h e n omad ic C yc lope s w i th t h e l a ck o f s h ip s e mpha s i se s h ow c i v i l is ing h e p e rce ive s s e a -f a r ing t ob e( Fo r t h e w ay i nw h ich n omad s a r e r e p r e sen ted a s b a rba r ian s s ee H a r tog 1 988 a nd S haw 1 982 -83 . S ee a l so Ma t thew s 1 989 : 36 -37 , 3 44 ,3 46 -47 , 3 53 ,3 55 ,3 67 ) . T he e x ten t t o w h ich S yne s iu s r e f e r s t o H ome r a nd s ha re s h i s v i ew o ft h e s e a e mpha s ise s t h e i mpo r tance o fH ome rt ol a te a n t ique w r i te r s . Wh i le S yne s iu s d oe s n o t e xp l ic i t ly s ay t h a t h e d e r ive s h i s v i ew o ft h e s e a f r om H ome r , H ome r s e rves a s ab ackd rop t o h i s r ep resen ta t ion o f t h e s ea a s ap re requ is i te o f c i v i l isa t ion . W i th b o th w r i te r s , t h e s e a c i v i l ise s p eop le b ecau se i ta l low s t h em t o r ema in i n c on tac t w i th o u t s ide r s . H ome r s ay s t h a t t r ade w i th f o re ign p eop le w ou ld h ave t r an sf o rmed t h e C yc lope s , w h i le S yne s iu s r e p re sen t s t h o se w ho d o n o t l i ve n ea rt h e s e a a s p r im i t ive b ecau se o ft h e i r i s o la t ion f r om o u t s ide r s ( Od y s sey 9 . 128 -29 ) . A s s uch , i tc an b e s e en t h a t S yne s iu s d oe s n o t s imp ly r e f e r o b l ique ly t oH ome r i n h i s l e t te r s b u t r ep resen t s t h e s ea w i th i mp l ic i t r e f e rence t oh im .

S ynes ius c on t ra s t s u rban i ty a nd r us t ic i ty b y c on t ra s t ing p eop le w ho f r equen t t h e f o rum w i th h i s n e ighbou r s . F o r e xamp le , S ynes iu s s ay s t h a t w hen c i ty p eop le v i s i t h im a nd h i s n e ighbou r s t h ey ' s h ive r a tt h e s i gh t o fw i ld b ea s t s ' f l e sh f r om t h e f i r e . Wha t d o Is ay? W i ld b ea s t s f l e sh? Why , t h ey w ou ld r a the r t a s te p o ison t h an a ny s uch d i she s o fo u r s . . . ' ( e p . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 M igne ] t r ans . F i tzgera ld ) . S im i la r ly , h e c on t ra s t s t h e c i ty a nd c oun t ry b y s ay ing t h a t t h e f o rme r i sn o t r e cep t ive o fp h i losophy ; c onve r se ly , h e s ays t ha t t h e c oun t ry e nab les o ne t o p r ac t ice p h i lo sophy ( e p . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 M igne ] . F o r p h i lo sophy a nd c i t ie s s e e 1 03 , 1 39 [ e p .138 M igne ] . S ee a l so G oodch i ld 1 976 : 2 45) . B y i mp l ica t ion , S yne s iu s n o t o n ly c on t ra s t s t h e c i ty a nd t he c oun ty b u t a l so c on t ra s t st h eL ibyan c oa s tw i th t h e i n te r io r .

B y t h e s ame t oken , H ome r i si mpo r tan t t o t h e w ay S yne s iu s c ha rac te r ise s L ibyan s , b o th i nh i s l e t te r t o O lymp iu s a nd i nh i s l e t te r t oh i s b ro the r . H e ' o the r s ' h i s L ibyan n e ighbou r s b y c ompa r ing t h em t o t h e a nonymou s p eop le w hom O dy s seu s w ou ld e ncoun te r a f te r s l ay ing t h e s u i to r s . L ikew ise , h e e mpha s i se s t h e e age rne ss w i th w h ich t h e L ibyan w omen e xam ined f o re ign w omen b y c ompa r ing t h em t o t h e C icones ( e p . 5[ e p . 4H e r che r a nd M igne ] ) . I nb o th e xamp le s , S yne s iu s r e p re sen t s L ibyan s i n r e f e rence t o p eop le w hom h e a s sume s h i s a dd re s see s a nd r e ade r s w ou ld k now .

P rev iou s a u tho r s a l so c on t ra s t t h e u rban L ibyan c oa s t w i th t h e s ca rce ly p opu la ted i n te r io r ( See Ma r sha l l 1 998 f o r t h e c on t ra s t b e tween t h e L ibyan c oa s t a nd i n te r io r ) . F o r e xamp le , S t rabo d esc r ibe s L ibya a s a l e opa rd s k in s i nce i ti so n ly s po t ted w i th c i t ie s , w h ich a l l i e o n t h e c oa s t ( S t rabo 2 . 5 .33 ) . S im i la r ly , S t rabo s ay s t h a t L ibyan c i t ie s a r e o n ly l o ca ted o n t h e c oa s t , w h i le t h e a r id i n te r io r i si n hab i ted b y v e ry f ew p eop le ( S t rabo 1 7 .3 . 1; 1 7 .3 .2 1-22 ) . I n t h is p a s sag e , S t rabo n o t o n ly c on t ra s t s t h e L ibyan c oa s t a nd i n te r io r , b u t a l so a s soc ia t e s t h e c oa s tw i th c i t ie s , i n much t h e s ame w ay a s S yne s iu s d oe s . When h e c on t ra s t s t h e L ibyan c oa s t a nd d e se r t , h e d oe s s o i no rde r t or e p re sen t t h e l a t te r a sb a rba r ic . F o r e xamp le , h e d e sc r ibe st h e c oa s t

IT he S ea a nd u rban i ty S yne s iu s n o t o n ly p e rce ive s t h e s ea a s ac ondu i t o f i n f o rma t ion b u t a l so a s soc ia te s t h e s ea , o r r a the r t h e c oa s t , w i th u rban i ty . I n o t he r w o rd s , t o S yne s iu s , l i v ing f a r f r om t h e s e a n o t o n ly e n ta i l s b e ing i s o la ted f r om t h e r e s t o ft h e w o r ld b u t a l so e n ta i ls l i v ing f a r

1 6

S yne s iu s , H ome r , a nd t h eS ea m akes a s im i la r o ppos i t ion b e tween t h e s imp le , u n spo i l t c oun t ry s ide a nd t h e u rban i ty o f t h e c i ty i n H ymn 1 . I n t h is w o rk , s ou the rn C y rena ica i s d e sc r ibed i ni d y l l ic t e rms , a su n so i led b y t h e i mp ie ty a nd c o r rup t ion o ft h e c i ty ( l ine s 4 4 -59 ) . F u r the rmo r e , i n s tead o f r ep resen t ing t h e a gora a s c i v i l ised , S yne s iu s d esc r ibe s i ta s u nhea l thy a nd a p l ace i n w h ich w rong d o ing s a r e c omm i t ted . I n c on t ra s t t o t h e i mmo ra l a gora , S yne s iu s a s se r t s t h a t t h e c oun t ry a f f o rd s l i t t le t ime f o r t r an sg re s s ion s ( e p . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 M igne ] ) . T he w ay i nw h ich S yne s iu s p e rce ive s c i t ie s a s i mmo ra l i se mpha s ised b y t h e f a c t t h a t h e t e l ls O lymp iu s t h a t h e i sd escr ib ing t h e c oun t ry s ide i n s im i la r t e rms a s A nchemachu s w ho i ss a id t o h ave d e sc r ibed t h e c oun t ry a s ' f a r a way f r om t own s , f a r f r om r o ad s , c omme r ce a nd i t s w i ly mo ra l i ty ' ( e p . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 ] t r an s . F i tzge ra ld ) . L ike A nchemachu s , S yne s iu s s e ems t o v i ew c i t ie s a s c o r rup t ing , s o t h a t l i v ing f a r f r om c i t ie s m ean s n o t b e ing c on tam ina ted w i th u rban i mmo ra l i ty . B y e x tens ion , s i nce h e a s soc ia te s c i t ie s w i th t h e s ea , i tc an b e a r gued t h a t S yne s iu s p e rce ives t h e s e a i t se lf a s c o r rup t ing . I n o t he r w o rd s , t o S ynes iu s , l i v ing f a r f r om t h e s e a e n ta i ls l i v ing f a r f r om c i t ies a nd i t s i mmo ra l i ty . A s s uch , w h i le h e r e p r esen t s h i s L ibyan n e ighbou r s a s b a rba r ic b ecau se t h ey a r e o u t o f c on tac t , h e a l so d e sc r ibe st h em a sp u r e a nd u n spo i l t .

a s b e ing l a rge ly i n hab i ted b y a g r icu l tu ra l is t s , w h i le t h e i n te r io r i ss a id t ob e o ccup ied b y n omad ic L ibyan s ( See H e rodo tu s 4 . 186 -90 a nd S t rabo 1 7 .3 . 1 ; 1 7 .3 . 19 , 1 7 .3 .22 f o r t h e c on t ra s t b e tween C y rena ican s a nd L ibyan n omad s . S t rabo d oe s n o t d e sc r ibe e ve ryone l i v ing o n t h e L ibyan c oa s t a sf a rme r s . S ee 1 7 .3 .7 f o r t h e Mau ru s ian s w ho a r e s a id t o b e n omad ic d e sp i te l i v ing i n af e r t i le a r ea ) . L ike o t he r a nc ien t a u tho r s , S t rabo v i ew s t h e o ppos i t ion b e tween f a rme r s a nd n omad s a s ac on t ra s t b e tween c i v i l ised a nd b a rba r ic p eop le ( Fo rt h e w ay i nw h ich n omad s a r e r e p re sen ted a sb a rba r ian s s e e H a r tog 1 988 a nd S haw 1 982 -83 . S ee a l so Ma t thew s 1 989 : 36 -37 , 3 44 , 3 46 -47 , 3 53 , 3 55 , 3 67 ) . T h is i se xemp l if ied i n ap a s sage i nw h ich h e s ay s t h a t Ma s s in issa t r an sf o rmed t h e Ma sae sy l ian s f r om n omad s a nd b r igand s i n to f a rme r s a nd c i t izen s ( S t rabo 1 7 .3 .15 . F o r t h e d i f f e ren t w ay s i n w h ich Ma s in issa i sr e p resen ted i n a nc ien t t e x t s s e e S haw 1 984 : 3 5 ) . T he n ega t ive t e rm s i nw h ich h e d e sc r ibe s n omads i n t h is p a ssage a s l i v ing f r uga l l i ves e mpha s ise s t h a t S t rabo v i ew s t h is t r an sf o rma t ion o f t h e Ma sae sy l ian s a sc i v i l is ing . A s s u ch , i tc an b e s e en t h a t S t rabo r ep resen t s t h e c oa s t a s t h e l o cu s o f c i v i l isa t ion , a nd d e sc r ibe st h e i n te r io ra sb a rba r ic . S yne s iu s ' c on t ra s tb e tween t h e u r ban i ty o ft h e c i ty a nd t h e s imp l ic i ty o f t h e c oun t ry , t o ac e r ta in e x ten t , d i f f e r s f r om t h a t g i ven b y o t he r a u tho r s w ho w ro te a bou t L ibya ( I t s hou ld b e r emembe red , h oweve r , S yne s iu s ' c ha rac te r isa t ion o ft h e s imp le c oun t ry s ide d oe s r e semb le t h o se f ound i no t he r a nc ien t a u tho r s . F o r t h i s s e e Wh i te 1 977 : 3 6 -49 ) . A bove a l , h e d oe s n o t c on t ra s t t h e c i ty a nd c oun t ry i no rde rt or e p r e sen t t h e L ibyan s l i v ing i nt h e c oun t ry a sb a rba r ic . I n deed , w hen S yne s iu s c on s t ruc t s a n o ppo s i t ion b e tween c i ty a nd c oun t ry , i ti s t o p ra ise t h e s imp l ic i ty o f t h e c oun t ry . H e d e sc r ibe s t h e c i ty a sb e ing u nhea l thy a nd e f f e te , w h i le t h e c oun t ry i ss a id t ob e h ea l thy a nd i t s i n hab i tan t s s imp le ( ep . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 M igne ] . L i ebe schue tz 1 989 : 2 29 a r gue s t h a t S yne s iu s d i f f e r s f r om h i s G reek p redece sso r s b ecau se h e d oe s n o t a s soc ia te c i v i l isa t ion w i th c i t ies . T h is i s n o t n ece ssa r i ly d ue t ot h e p e r iod i nw h ich h e l i ved . H i s p r a i se o ft h e r u s t ic i ty o ft h e c oun t ry s ide m ay , i np a r t , s t em f r om h i s u nhapp ines s a tt h e w ay i nw h ich t h e C y rena ican c i t ie s w e re r un . S ee , f o r e xamp le , e p . 4 9 [ e p . 4 7 H e rche r a nd M igne ] i n w h ich h e w r i te s t o T heo t imu s t h a t l i v ing i n ac i ty w he re p eop le a r e s t ronge r t h an l aw s i si n suppor tab le . S ee a l so e p . 5 2 [ e p . 5 0 H e rche r a nd M igne ] i nw h ich h e m ou rn s t h e p r e sen t s t a te o fC y rene a nd e p . 1 39 [ e p . 1 38 M igne ] . F o r S yne s iu s ' a t t i tude t owa rd s t h e w ay i n w h ich C y rene w a s r un s e e L acomb rade 1 951 : 2 37 -38 , 2 44 ; G oodch i ld 1 976 : 2 52 ; i n c on t ra s t s e e C apu to 1 987 : 5 27 w ho d e sc r ibe s S yne s iu s a sf u ndamen ta l ly u r ban ) . F o r e xamp le , S yne s ius s ay s t h a t t h e i n hab i tan t s o f s ou the rn C y rena ica w o rk h a rd a nd a r e s imp le i n c ha rac te r ( ep . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 M igne ] ) . T hey a r e a l so s a id n o tt ob e p roud a nd t h e s h ephe rd s a r e s a id t op l ay s imp le s ong s ( ep . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 M igne ] . S yne s iu s

S ynes iu s n o t o n ly r e f e r s t o H omer i n o rde r t o r e p re sen t t h e s ea a s c i v i l is ing , b u t a l so r e f e r s t o H ome r i n h i s d e sc r ip t ion o f t h e c i ty a s i mmo ra l . H oweve r , i nt h is c a se , S yne s iu s m en t ion s H ome r i n o rde r t o d i sag ree w i th h im . I ndeed , S yne s iu s m en t ion s t h a t H ome r v i ewed t h e f o rum i n p o s i t ive t e rm s s o t h a t h e c ou ld t h en d e sc r ibe i ta s u nhea l thy a nd i mmo ra l ( e p . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 ] ) . T he ref o re , i tc an b e s e en S yne s iu s u se s H ome r a s ar e f e rence p o in t i nh i s a mb iguou s r e p re sen ta t ion o ft h e s e a . S i nce S yne s iu s ' a dd re ssee s a nd , b y e x ten s ion , h i s r e ade r s a ppea r t o h ave h ad a n i n -dep th k now ledge o f H ome r , h i s a l lu s ion s t o H ome r a l low h im t o g ive h i s v i ew s a l a rge r c on tex t . I n o t he r w o rds , S ynes iu s i sa b le t o g i ve h i s r e p re sen ta t ion o f t h e s ea g r ea te r m ean ing t h rough h i s r e f e rence s t o H ome r . T o t h is e x ten t , S yne s iu s ' u se o f H ome r e mpha s ise s t h e d eg ree t o w h ich H ome r w a s c en t ra l t ot h e i n te l lec tua l m i l ieu o f t h e l a te a n t ique p e r iod .

C onc lu s ion I nc onc lu s ion , i tc an b e s e en t h a t S yne s iu s r e p re sen t s t h e s e a i nc on t ra s t ing w ay s . O n t h e o ne h and , h e s e e s t h e s e a , a nd t h e c omme r ce a s soc ia ted w i th t h e s e a , a s c i v i l i s ing b ecau se i ta low s p eop le t ob e i nt o uch w i th o ne a no the r a nd i te nab le s p eop le t o b e i n f o rmed . H oweve r , S yne s iu s a l so p e rce ive s t h e c omme r ce a nd u rban i ty a s soc ia ted w i th t he s ea a s c o r rup t ing . H ome r i sc en t ra l t ot h is a mb iguou s r e p re sen ta t ion o f t h e s ea . When d e sc r ib ing t h e s ea a s ac ondu i t o f i n f o rma t ion , S yne s iu s r e f e r s t ot h e a nonymou s p eop le

1 7

E i reann Ma r sha l l h and , h e c l ea r ly d i s tance s h im se lf f r om t h e se L i byan s b ecau se t h ey l a ck a t empo ra l f r amewo rk a nd a r e i g no ran t o fp o l i t ica l m a t te r s . H oweve r , h e a l so p l ace s h im se lf i nt h e s ame g roup a st h e se L ibyan s b y s ay ing t h a t h e s ha res a s im i la r d i e t a nd s imp le l i f e s ty le a s t h em ( e p . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 M igne ]) . B y s ay ing t h a t c i ty f o lk a r e a pp rehen s ive o f t h is d i e t , S yne s iu s t i gh ten s t h e b onds l i nk ing h im a nd h i s n e ighbou r s , s i nce i t g ive s t h em c ommon o u t s ide r s ( ep . 1 48 [ e p . 1 47 M igne ]) . U l t ima te ly , i tc an b e a rgued t h a t h i s a mb iva len t r e p re sen ta t ion o ft h ese L ibyan s n o t o n ly s t ems f r om h i s d i ve rg ing p e rcep t ion o f t h e s e a b u t a l so e mpha s ise s t h e c omp lex i ty o f h i s v i ew s o f t h e s e a .

d e sc r ibed i nt h e Ody ssey w ho d o n o t k now t h e s e a a nd d o n o t u se s a l t ( Od y s sey 1 .122 ; e p . 1 48 [ e p .147 M igne ]) . C onve r se ly , S yne s iu s m en t ions H ome r w hen h e c ha ra c te r ise s t h e f o rum ( a nd b y e x ten s ion , t h ec oa s t )a sc o r rup t ing . T he d i ve rg ing w ay s i nw h ich h e v i ew s t h e s e a e f f ec t s t h ew ay i nw h ich h e r e p re sen t s h i s L ibyan n e ighbou r s . I n t h e f i r s t p l ace , h e ' o the r s ' t h em b ecau se o f t h e i r i g no rance , w h ich i su l t ima te ly a t t r ibu ted t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h ey l i ve f a r f r om t h e s ea . H oweve r , t h e se L ibyan s a r e a l so p r a i sed f o r t h e i r s imp l ic i ty , w h ich i s a l so a t t r ibu ted t o t h e ir d i s loca t ion f r om t h e s e a . H e r e p resen t s t h em i n t h is a mb iguou s w ay b y b o th d i s tanc ing h im se lf f r om h i s L ibyan n e ighbou r s a nd b y p l ac ing h im se lf i ns ame g roup a s t h em . O n t h e o ne

B ib l iography L iebeschue tz , J .H .W .G . , 1 990 . B arba r ians a nd B i shop s . A rmy , C hurch , a nd S ta te i n t h e A ge o f A rcad iu sa nd C hry so s tom . O xf o rd . L un i , M . , 1 987 . I lS an tua r io r up re s t re l i byo d e l le " Immag in i" a f r on te ( C i rena ica ) . T e r s t imon ianze d e l la c u l tu ra l i bya i n a mb ien te g reco romano : o r ig in ia l i ta e d ipendenza . Q uadern i d i A rcheo log ia d e l la L ib ia 1 2 , 4 15 -58 . Ma r sha l l , E : , F o r thcom ing . T he R ep resen ta t ion o f L ibyan s i nS yne s iu s ' Wo rk s . I nB e long ing i n t h e A nc ien t W or ld . L ondon . Ma r sha l l , E . , 1 998 . C on s t ruc t ing t h e S e lf a nd O the r i n C y rena ica . I n C u l tura l I d en t i ty i n t h e R oman Emp i re , e d s . R .L au rence a nd J .B e r ry L ondon . Ma t thew s , J . , 1 989 . T he R oman Emp i re o f Amm ianus . L ondon . Ma r rou , H . , 1 963 . S ynes ius o f C y rene a nd A lexandr ian N eo -P la ton ism . I n T he C onf l ic t B e tween P agan i sm a nd C hr i s t ian i ty i nt h e F our th C en tury A .D . e d . A . Mom ig l iano . O xf o rd , p p . 1 26 5 0 . R ogues , D . , 1 987 . S yn s ios d e C yrene e t l a C y r Ma ique d uB a s -Emp i re . P a r is . S haw , B .D . , 1 982 . F ea r a nd L oa th ing : T he N omad Menace a nd R oman A f r ica . R oman A f r ica = A f r ique R oma ine . R evue d e l 'Un iver s i t e d 'O t tawa 5 2 , 2 5 -46 . S haw , B .D . , 1 982 1983 . " Ea te r s o fF l e sh , D r inke r s o f M i lk " : T he A nc ien t Med i te r ranean I d eo logy o ft h e P a s to ra lN omad .A nc ien tS oc ie ty 1 3 14 , 5 3 1 . S haw , B .D . , 1 984 . B and i t s i n t h e R oman Emp ire . P a s ta nd P re sen t 1 05 , 3 52 . Wh i te , K .D . , 1 977 . C oun t ry L if e i n C la s s ica l T ime s . L ondon .

B acch ie l l i , L . , 1 987 . L a s cu l tu ra l i bya i nC i rena ica e l av a r iab i l i ta d e l le r i spo s te a l c on ta t to c u l tu ra le g r eo romano .Quad e rn i d iA rcheo log ia d e l la L ib ia 1 2 ,4 59 -488 . B loch , H . , 1 963 . T he P agan R ev iva l i nt h e We s t a t t h e E nd o f t h e F ou r th C en tu ry A .D . I n T he C onf l ic tB e tween P agan i sm a nd C hr i s t ian i ty i nt h e F our th C en tury A .D . , e d . A . Mom ig l iano . O xf o rd , p p . 1 9 1-218 . C apu to , G . , 1 987 . S i ne s io d iC i rene t r a C o s tan t inopo l i eiL ib i i . Q uad ern i d iA rcheo log ia d e l la L ib ia 1 2 , 5 23 -27 . C a r t ledge , P . , 1 993 . T he G reek s : AP or t ra i t o fS e lf a nd O the r s . O xf o rd . F i tzge ra ld , A . , 1 926 . T he L e t ter s o f S yne s ius o f C y rene . O xf o rd . G a rzya , A . , 1 979 . S yne s i i C yrenens i s E p i s to lae . R ome . G oodch i ld , R . , 1 976 . S yne s iu s o fC y rene : B ishop o f P to lema is . I nL ibyan S t ud ie s . P ape r s P re sen ted i n H onour o fR ichard G ood ch i ld , e d . J .Reyno ld s . L ondon ,p p . 2 39 -54 . H a l l , E . , 1 989 . I nven t ing t h e B arbar ian : G reek S e lf D ef in i t ion T hrough T raged yO xf o rd . H a r tog , F . , 1 988 . T he M irror o f H erodo tus : T he R epre sen ta t ion o f t h e O ther i n t h e W r i t ing o f H i s tory . B e rke ley , C a l if o rn ia . H e rche r , R . , 1 873 .E p i s to log raph iG raec i . P a r i s . H eubeck , Aa nd H oek s t ra , A . , 1 989 . A C ommen tary o f H o mer ' s Ody ssey . V o l . I ( Book s 9 16 ) . O xf o rd . H eubeck , A . , P r iv i te ra , G . a nd Wes t , S . , 1 983 . O d i s sea v o l . I I ( L ibr i 9 11 ) . I n t rod uz ione , t e s to e c ommen t° . V icenza . H o rden , P .a nd P u rce l l ,N . , 2 000 . T he C or rup t ing S ea . AH i s tory i n Med i te r ranean H i s tory . O xf o rd . L a comb rade , C . , 1 951 . S ynd s io sd e C y rene , H e l lene e t C hH t ien . P a r is .

1 8

Chap ter T hree : K . Ad shead Women , Hag iography , a nd t he S ea t h a t h a s b een c on jec tu red a t5 0% ! C on t ra r iw i se h i s d e sc r ip t ion l i m i t ing t h e p l ague t o3 -4 m on th s a nd n o t m en t ion ing i t s r e cu r rence s i sv e ry m is lead ing . A s B i raben a nd L e G of f s how ,4 t h e p e s t i lence r e cur red w i th d r ea ry r e gu la r i ty d ecade b y d ecade t h roughou t t h e Med i te r ranean f o r t h e r e s t o f6 t h a nd o n i n to 7 t h a nd 8 th c en tu r ie s : t h e ir t a b les a nd m aps a r e p a r t icu la r ly u sef u l i nd emon s t ra t ing h ow o f t en p l ague r e cu r red a nd o ve ra l l t h ey a r gue t h a t a n a r ea -w ide p opu la t ion d rop o fm aybe 1 / 3 i sn o t e xce s s ive . T hey d o b r ief ly d i scu s s t h e s oc ia l c on sequence s b u t i ti st o ar e cen t m onog raph ( t he p o s thumou s p ub l ica t ion o f3 l e c tu re s o n t h e B lack D ea th 5)t h a t w e m ay t u rn f o r p o in te r s o n t h e e f f ec t s o f s uch p andem ics f o r c omme rce . D . J . H e r l ihy t h e re p o in ted t o t h e l o o sen ing u p o ft h e r u le s f o r 1 4 th c en tu ry g u i ld s f o r w an t o f n ew r e c ru i t s a s o ne o u tcome a nd w h i le t h e t e rm " gu i ld " m ay p e rhap s n o t u sef u l ly b e t r an sf e r red t o l a te a n t ique t r ade c o rpo ra t ion s , s t i l l t h e p a ra l le l m igh t p repa re u s f o r af r ee r , mo re a u tonomou s , o wne r -ope ra ted t ype o f c omme rce i n t h e e a r ly B yzan t ine p e r iod ; s pec if ica l ly , f o r t h e n auk le ro i w ho ( a rguab ly ) w en t f r om b e ing m embe rs o f a c umbe r some a nd i nf lex ib le s t a te -d r iven c o rpo ra t ion t o i n dependen t a nd s e lf -f inanc ing u n i t s , g r ea t o r s ma l l , p a r t ly a t l e a s t a s ar e su l t o f t h e d emog raph ic d ep r eda t ion so ft h ep l ague .

I n t rod uc t ion T he u se a nd a bu se o f h ag iog raphy i sa n i s sue n ow c om ing i n to i t s o wn . A s r e cen t ly a s 1 97 1 Magou l ia s c ou ld w r i te o n " The L ive s o ft h e S a in t s a ss ou rce s o f d a ta f o r t h e h i s to ry o f c omme rce i n t h e B yzan t ine Emp ire i n t h e V I th a nd V I I th c en tu r ie s " I,a p ape r w h ich h a s n o t as h red o fq ue l lenk r i t ik a bou t i t ,f o r a l t h e i n te re s t ing m a te r ia l i tc on ta ins . Y e t n ow t h e p endu lum m ay h ave s wung t o o f a r i n t h e o ppo s i te d i rec t ion -L ynda L . C oon ' s S acred F ic t ion s , H o ly W omen a nd H ag iog raphy i nL a te A n t iqu i ty w r i te s o f Ma ry o f E gyp t -" [ he r ] Ma ry 's ( V i tae ) a r e e n t i re ly f a b r ica ted f r om p a radox a nd i n ve r s ion " : h e r o wn b ook e mpha s izes ( s he s ays o f t h e V i tae ) " t he t h eo log ica l a nd d i dac t ic a genda s o f t h e ir a u tho r s " .2 G en re a nd t o po i d om ina te t h e i s sue a nd s h e e xp l ic i t ly e xc ludes o r l e aves t o o t he r s t h e q ue s t f o r w ha t h ag iog raphy m igh t r e vea l a s t o s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l d i rec t ion s : Ia m n o t s u re t h e se c an b e l e f t o u t b u t i f t h ey c ou ld , w e w ou ld o n ly b e d ep r iv ing o u r se lve s o f a r a re , y e t i n va luab le s ou rce o f m a te r ia l o n d ay t o d ay l i v ing , o n e vo lv ing c ommun i t ie s , o n t h e h uman f a ce o f af a sc ina t ing e r a n a tu ra l ly a b sen t f r om g ove rnmen ta l r e co rd a nd j u r id ica l c ode sa l ike . Wha t i sn eeded i s ac r i te r ion ; H a lk in i n 1 966 h ad a s ho t a te s tab l ish ing o ne 3:h e s ugge s ted t h a t m a te r ia l f r om h ag iog raph ie s c ou ld b e r e l ied u pon , p rov ided t ha t t h e h ag iog raphe r h imse lf r ega rded i t a s u n impo r tan t ( 1 t rs s e conda i re ' ) , ac r i te r ion w h ich make s t h e s upe rna tu ra l s u spec t b u t e ve ry th ing e l se g r is t t ot h e s oc ia l h i s to r ian ' s m i l l . T h i s w a s t o o w ide a nd s ub jec t ive t o w o rk w i th b u t w ha t w e re t h e a l te rna t ives? Is ha l l s ugge s t t h a t w e s hou ld a lway s b eg in w i th t h e h i s to r ica l a nd l e ga l d a ta : i nt h e f o rme r c a se , P rocop iu s , T heophanes , N ikepho ru s , S ymeon t he L ogo the te ; i n t h e l a t te r , t h e E c loga a nd i t s r ev is ion s , t h e Nomo s N au t iko s , t h e B ook o f t h e E pa rch a nd t h e B a s i l ic s . O n ly t h en w hen w e h ave a l ready s cru t in ized t he h i s tor ica l a nd l e ga l b ackg round a nd h ave u sed i tt o make r e a sonab le c on jec tu re s a bou t t h e l i ke ly o u tcome s , s hou ld w e t ur n t o t h e h ag iog raph ica l m a te r ia l t o s ee i f t hese o u tcome sa r ei nf a c tt h e re t ob ef o und .

Mo re o bv iou s p e rhap s a r e t h e e f f ec t s o ft h e c ap tu r e o f A lexand r ia b y Mu s l im s i n6 42 . T hough t h ey d i d n o t t a ke t ot h e s e a t h em se lve s f o r 3y ea r s n eve r the le s s t h e l o ss o f E gyp t 's g ra in c ame a s av a s t i n s t i tu t iona l s hock , s oc r uc ia l h ad t h e s t a te s upp ly f r om A lexand r ia b ecame n o t o n ly f o r C on s tan t inop le , b u t ( t o f o l low D u r l ia t ) 6, o ther N . A egean c i t ies a s w e l l e . g . C ha lcedon ,N icaea e t c . i nt h eC on s tan t inopo l i tan a r ea . Iu rge y ou t or e ad t h e T heodo s ian C ode ' s p rov is ion s f o r t h e e mbo l6 ( s h ipmen t o f t h e g ra in t a x ) l a rge ly r e pea ted b y J u s t in ian 's c od if ica t ion i nt h e 5 30 's a nd e qua l ly c on sp icuou s ly a b sen t f r om t h e R hod ian S ea L aw a nd t h e 8 t h c en tu ry E c loga a nd E c loga A uc ta . C J 1 5 . 3 . 2 " No s h ip w h ich h a s t h e c apac i ty o fm o re t h an 2 , 000 mod i i b ef o re t h e h appy e mbo la ( f e l ix e mbo la ) s ha l l b e e xemp t f r om p ub l ic s e rv ice o r t h e t r anspo r ta t ion o f p roper ty b e long ing t o t he g ove rnmen t , e i the r b y r e a son o f s ome p r e roga t ive a t tach ing t or a nk o ro n a ccoun t o fr e l ig ion o rb ecau se o f a ny p e r sona l p r iv i lege , n o t e ven i fa n I mpe r ia l R e sc r ip t s hou ld b e p roduced ." T h is w a s al aw o f 4 39AD r e pea ted , a ss o much e l se , i nt h e C o rpu s J u r is

P a r tI L e t u s s t a r t f r om t h e p l ague t h a t f i r s t s t ruck i n5 42 . P rocop iu s ' a ccoun t h a s s ome i n te re s t ing d emog raph ic d a ta : t h e d ea th t o l l w a s a t i t s h e igh t , s o h e s ays , 1 0 ,000 p e r d i em w i th af a l l i nt h e c ap i ta l ' s p opu la t ion

M agou l ia s , 1 9 7 1 .

4

B i raben a nd G of f1 975 -6

H e r l ihy 1 997 . 6 D u r l ia t 1 995 ; s e ea l so Mu l le r 1 993 .

C oon 1 997 . 3 H a lk in 1 966 .

5

2

1 9

K .A d shead g ra in c onvoy s a nd t h e ir p ro tec t ive w a r sh ips : n ow t h e se f am i l ia r s uppo r t s w e re g one a nd t h e s e a w a s a n a r ena w he re i tw a s e ve ry m an f o r h imse lf . ( See t h e t e rms o f m a r i t ime l o an s i n t h e E c loga a nd E c loga A uc ta . ) N o t t o b e f o rgo t ten i n t h e p o s t -conque s t s i tua t ion a r et h e Mo s lem f l ee t s .

C iv i l i s , a nd i tw a s a ccompan ied b y a l k i nd s o fs t i ck s a nd c a r ro t s b e tween T heodo s iu s a nd J u s t in ian w h ich a low u s t o s e e m o re d eep ly i n to t h is m a s s ive s t a te e n te rp r i se ,p a r t icu la r ly i ni t sa pp l ica t ion t ot h eE a s t . B egun a s at a x a t tached t os p ec if ic e s ta t e s i nt h e w e s t ( t he n av icu lar i sf unc t io ) d ev ised t os upp ly t h e R oman p l eb s , t h e e mbok o r s h ipp ing o f t h e g ra in w a s w idened b y C on s tan t ine t o s upp ly h i s n ew c ap i ta l . O ne o f t he c omp l ica t ion s i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a g r icu l tu ra l i n f ra s t ruc tu re o ft h e w e s t d i f f e red f r om t h e s i tua t ion i nt h e E a s t s ot h a t t h e n av icu la r i io ft h e w e s t ( owne r s o f l a nd l i ab le t ot h is t a x ) n eed n o t g o n ea r ab oa t b u t t h e w ho le b u s ine s s o fs upp ly ing s h ip s a nd n ew s f o r t h e t r an spo r t o f p ub l ic g ra in t oR ome w ou ld a s o f ten a s n o t b e e n t ru s ted t o a n e xe r c i to r w ho i nt u rn w ou ld f i nd as h ip o wne r ( dom inu s n av is ) w ho i nt u rn m igh t o r m igh t n o t b e t h e n auk le ro s o r a c tua l c ap ta in -( c f . L o rd I smay a nd C ap ta in S m i th o n t h eT i tan ic . ) B u t i nt h e E a s t t h e o rgan iza t ion s e em s t oh ave b een s imp le r . T he g ra in o wed t ot h e s t a te w a s c o l lec ted i n t h e t ime h onou red f a sh ion b egan p e rhap s o n a P ha raon ic b a s is a nd c on t inued b y t h e P to lem ie s . T he t r an sf e r f r om s t a te g r ana ry t os h ip ' s h o ld a nd t r an spo r t t h ence t oB yzan t ium w ou ld h ave s imp ly b een d one b y t h e o wne r -cap ta in , t h e n auk le ro s .( On t h is s ee R ou i l la rd ) .7

T heophane s t e l l s u s ( p .345 ) o ft h e c on s t ruc t ion o fa f l ee t b y Mu ca w iya a nd o f i t s i mmed ia te t r ansf o rma t ion o f t h e m a r i t ime p i c tu re ( 645 ) ; t h e B yzan t ine r e spon se w a s t o g o o n t o t h e d ef en s ive . T hey h ad b efo re b een a b le t o a f f o rd t h e l u xu ry o f c onf in ing t h e i r e n te rp r ise s t os uppor t ing t h e m e r chan t f l ee t -n ow t h e a c tua l d ef en se o ft h e c oa s t l ine b ecame t h e f i r s t p r io r i ty i nt h e S E a r ea o ft h e Med i te r ranean : b u t i tt o ok s e cond p l ace ( n a tu ra l ly ) t o t h e p ro tec t ion o ft h e H e l le spon t ( t he " S tena " ) g ua rded b y A bydo s , e l eva ted f r om ac u s toms p o s t t o av i ta l n ava l b a se . l i dkne A h rwe i le r8 w r i te s " I t i sb eyond d oub t t h a t t h e i n s ta l la t ion o f t h e C a l ipha te a t D ama scu s a nd t h e c r ea t ion b y Mdaw iya o ft h e f i r s t Mo s lem f l ee t m a rk s a n i mpo r tan t t u rn ing p o in t i n t h e h i s to ry o f t h e Med i ter ranean , b y p rovok ing t h e r eo rgan isa t ion o ft h e B yzan t ine n ava l f o rces ." T h is i st h e o r ig in o f an ew e r a i n t h e h i s to ry o f t h e e a s t a nd l a y b eh ind m any c hange s i n t h e e a s tern o u t look o f t h e B yzan t ine Emp i re . I nc onc re te t e rms w e c an f o l low t h e Mo s lem a t ta ck s o n C yp ru s , R hodes a nd C re te : h oweve r much ( a s A ve r i l C ame ron h a s s o i lum ina t ing ly s hown ) t h e G reek i n te l lec tua l w o r ld o ft h i s a r ea c o -ex i s ted w i th a Mo s lem s t a te 9 n one t he l e s s , i n m i l i ta ry a nd n ava l t e rms , C yp ru s p a s sed o u t o fB yzan t ine c on t ro l f o r a t l e a s t 3c en tu r ies f r om 6 53 ; R hodes w a s s eve re ly r a ided a se a r ly a s6 54 ; C re te h ad s uf f e red S l av a t tack s a se a r ly a s6 23 -w h i le ( mo s t t e l l ing o fa l l ) t h e L yc ian p o r t s , s o k ey f o r t r ade a nd t r ave l i nt h is r e g ion , w e re t h e s ub jec t o f r e pea ted r a id s f r om 6 55 . C l ive F o s s ' d e ta i led a na ly s is s how s t h e p opu la t ion t e nded t o m ove i n land t o moun ta in t o p s f o r s e cu r i ty m ; i tw a s t h e e r s twh i le B yzan t ine p o r t s i n t h e ir r eg ion f r om w h ich t h e Mo s lems w e re a b le t o l a unch i mp r e s s ive l a nd r a id s i n to A na to l ia i t s e lf ." T he Mo s lem v i c to ry o f P hoen ik, a L yc ian p or t , i n 6 55 w a s a s p ec if ic m omen t t h a t m a rked l o s s o f c on t ro l o f t h e s e a s f o r g ood a sf a r a st h is S .E . q uad ran t o ft h e Med i te r ranean w a sc once rned .

T he w ho le e n te rp r ise b o th w es t a nd e a s t t e s t s t h e l i m i t s o fc ompe tence o ft h e a nc ien t s t a te a nd f o r a l t h e w i le s t h e n auk le ro i o r k ybe rne ta i ( a s ynonym ) e mp loyed t oc hea t i ns ome w ay o ro t he r e . g . a bu s ing t h e 2y ea r p e r iod g ran ted i n c a se o f s t o rm s o r u nf o r seen c i rcums tance s ( C J 1 3 . 5 .2 6 ) t os upp ly o ne y ea r 's c a rgo a nd s e l l i to n t h e i r o wn a ccoun t a nd t h en f u lf i l t h e ir o b l iga t ions i n t h e s econd y ea r o r a l te rna t ive ly C J 1 3 .5 .34 , g e t t ing af r i end ly m ag is t ra te t o c e r t if y w ea the r u n su i tab le f o r n av iga t ion w hen i t w a sn ' t -p r e sumab ly a ga in t od o s ome p r iva te t r ad ing -o ne w ay o ra no the r , b y i n ducemen t , b yp ena l t ie s , t h e w ho le s y s tem c on t inued t oo pe ra te i nt h e E a s tr i gh t u p t ot h e P e r s ian c ap tu r e o fA lexand r ia a s w e s e e f r om C P s . a . 6 18 ; b u t t h e re w a s n o t t ime f r om t h e c i ty 's r e cap tu re t o t h e Y a rmuk a nd t h e Mo s lem c onque s t a nd Oma r ' s s pec tacu la r c ap tu re o fA lexand r ia i n6 42 , f o rt h ei n f ra s t ruc tu re t or e v ive . T he c on sequence s w e re t e r r if y ing . T he l o s s o f3 / 4 o f t h e c ap i ta l ' s f ood -e ven i ft h e r a vage s o ft h e p l ague a r e t a ken i n to a ccoun t , s ome d eg ree o f s t a rva t ion l o omed a nd s hou ld b e r ef lec ted i nt h e h ag iog raphy , w h i le a tt h e s ame t i me f o r t h e s h ippe r s a nd s e af a re r s t h e p o s t -embok s i tua t ion w i l l h ave g r ea t ly a f f ec ted t h e s e a -go ing c ommun i ty o f t h e E . Emp i re . H ow c ou ld i tn o t? F o r 3 00 y ea r s t h e s t a te h ad p rov ided o r gan isa t ion a nd s e cu r i ty -w e m ay b e s u re t h a t m any s h ip s n o t c a r ry ing s t a te g r a in t o ok a dvan tage o f t h e

7

T o t h e s h ipp ing w o r ld t h e Mos lem r a ide r s n a tu ra l ly a ppea red a sp i ra te s a nd i ti st h u s t ha t w e f i nd t h em i n t h e 8 t h c en tu ry c ode s , t h e R hod ian S ea L aw 1 2 a nd t h e E c loga l 3 o rE c loga A uc ta ( p re Macedon ian ) . " P i ra te s "

A h rwe i le r 1 966 . C ame ron 1 99 1 . I ° F o ss 1 994 . I P a t tenden 1 997 . 1 2 F es tug i&e 1 974 . 1 3 A hrwe i le r 1 966 a nd S ch re ine r 1 981 .

8 9

R ou i l la rd 1 928 . S ee a l so R ouge 1 966 .

2 0

W omen , H ag iog raphy , a nd t h eS ea f o r C ons tan t inop le . D u r ing h i s a bsence h i s s e rvan t p l o t s t ok i l l mo the r a nd d augh te r a nd m ake o f fw i th a l t h ey h ave . B u t o n t h e t h re sho ld o ft h e l i v ing r oom h e w a s s t ruck w i th b l indne s s a nd t u rned t h e k n if e u pon h im se lf , l i v ing l o ng e nough h oweve r t oc onf e s s s ot h a t a l k new i th ad b een G od 's d o ing . Iw ou ld l i ke t oa r gue t h is i se v idence o f an ew t y pe o fs e a -go ing c ommun i ty n ow i n c lud ing w ive s : p e rhaps t h e f i r s t m en t ion o f t h e w if e l e f t b eh ind , i nt h e P a t r is t ica a t l e a s t .

( i n t h e se y ea r s t h a t m ean t Mu s l im s o r S l ay s ) a ppea r b eh ind t h e s c ene s i nm a r i t ime l aw i nc onnec t ion w i th t h e i s sue o fJ e t t ison . A shbu rne r p o in t s t o s i tua t ion s w he re J e t t ison o rc u t t ing t h e m a s to rr unn ing a sho re i s t h e o n ly w ay t o a vo id " p ira te s " o r " co r sa i r s " ( a nd " c u r sa r i i" i sa lmo s t at . t . f o r Mo s lem r a ide r s ) . T he R hod ian S ea L aw P tI I c .15f f -t e l ls w ha t h appen s w hen p assenger s o r m erchan ts o r s l aves -a s m e rchand ise c on s t i tu te t h e n on -nau t ica l p e r sonne l a boa rd . T he s h ip r e a che s ap or ta nd s ome ( p a s senge r s , s ay ) w ande r o f f . Meanwh i le p i ra te s a t tack b u t t h e c ap ta in g e t s a way l e av ing a tl e a s t s ome p a ssenge r s s t randed . T ho se l e f t i nt h is s i tua t ion h ave n o c l a im a ga in s t t h e c ap ta in b ecau se h e t o ok t h e o n ly p o s s ib le c ou r se o fa c t ion . S im i la r ly i nc . 3:i ft h e c ap ta in p u t s i nt ol a nd i n aw e l l k nown h aun t o ft h ieve s o rp i ra te s ( t ha t i s , l i ab le t o Mos lem a t tack a t a ny t ime ) a nd r e jec t s t h e p a s senge r s ' p ro te s t s ,t h en i fr obbe ry o ccu r s t h e c ap ta in b ea r s t h e l o s s -a ss ot o o i ft h e p a s senge r s i n s is t o n l a ndf a l l t h ey a l so a r e l i ab le : a l t oo v i v id g l imp se s o ft h e h aza rd s o ft h e s e a i nt h e p e r iod a f te r 6 4 1 .

Av e ry d i f f e ren t w oman t u rn s u p i n7 6 -t h e s t o ry i s t o ld b y t h e n auk le ro s , t h e n ew b r eed o fc ap ta in . H i s i s o ne o f as ma l l c onvoy m ak ing f o r C on s tan t inop le b u t h i s s h ip a l one i sb eca lmed a nd t h a t f o r 1 5 d ay s ; " a s I w a s t h e m a s te r o ft h e v e s se l r e spon s ib le b o th f o r t h e b oa t a nd a l s a i l ing i nh e r Ib egan t op ray " . H e w a s t o ld t o e j ec t ap a ssenge r c a l led Ma ry w ho , w hen i n te r roga ted , c onf e s sed t o h av ing m u rde red h e r t wo c h i ld ren t om a r ry a no the rm an . T he c ap ta in , u nw i l l ing t oc a s t h e r a d r if t , g o t i n to t h e s h ip 's l i f eboa t i nc a se i t w e re a f te r a l l h i s s i n s f i nd ing h im o u t , b u t n o th ing h appened . When s he g o t i n to t h e d i nghy , i ts pun r ound f i ve t imes a nd s ank . T he reaf te r t h e s h ip c ove red i nt h ree d ay s w ha t h ad t a ken o t he r s f i f teen . T he a r t icu la ted r e spon s ib i l i ty t h e n auk le ro s a s sume s a l so s e em st om en ove l .

S o w ha t h ave t h e r e a sonab ly h a rd a nd f a s t h i s to r ie s a nd c odes l e d u s t o e xpec t? Sma l ler , mo re i ndependen t , a ssoc ia t ions o f c ap ta ins a nd e n t rep r eneu r s ,1 4 i n c rea sed t i dy ing -up o f m a r i t ime l o ans , e t c . , a nd f i na l ly a n a tmo sphe re o fe x t reme r i sk b o th b od i ly a nd f i nanc ia l , i nt h e s ea s s ou th o f t h e K yanean I s land s , t ou se a n o l d 5 t h c en tu ry B .C . t e rm f o rA . M ino rs ou th o fA na to l ia .

Y e t a no the r a ff l ic ted f ema le f i gu re s i n n o . 1 86 . I t c once rn s am e rchan to fT y re w ho p i ck s u p ap ro s t i tu te a nd t a ke s h e r h ome , e xpec t ing h e r t os a t isf y h i s l u s t . S he c anno t b r ing h e r se lf t oc omp ly a nd e xp la in s t h a t h e rh u sband h ad b een an auk le ro s ,b een s h ipw recked a nd l o s t n o t o n ly h i s p rope r ty b u tt h a t o fh i s p a r tne r i n t h e e n te rp r ise . H ence h e w a s i np r i son a nd s h e h ad t o t a ke t o t h e s t ree t s t o s uppo r t h e r se lf ( a nd h im ) . T he g ood -hea r ted m e rchan t g ave h e r e nough t o r e deem h e r h u sband . T he t w is t i nt h e s t o ry c omes w i th t h e e xp lana t ion t h a t h e t o o w a s l a te r i mp r i soned f o r d eb t a f te r as h ipw reck a nd t h e i n te rce s s ion o ft h e w oman h e h ad b ef r iended s e cu red h i s r e lea se a nd i n deed a dvancemen t . I ti s af a r c r y f r om t h e n av icu la r iu s w ho n eed n eve rl e ave h i s l a t if und ia a ta l .

P a r tI :I st h i sp ic ture c onf i rmed i nt h eh ag iog raphy? L opez ,1 5 w hose p l ea f o r an ew l o ok a tt h e R hod ian S ea L aw p romp ted t h is p ape r , s ugge s ted t h a t s uch a n e n te rp r ise m igh t b eg in b y l o ok ing a t t h e r e levan t h ag iog raphy s t a r t ing w i th J ohn Mo schu sa nd s ot h is i s w he re Ih ave b egun . T o w ha t e x ten t d o t h e P ra tum S p i r i tua le ( wh ich P . P a t tenden a rgues i n c ludes m a te r ia l f r om a s l a te a s 7 00 )1 6,t h e L if e o fJ ohn t h e A lmsg ive r , o f S t P e te r o f A rgo s , S t . G rego ry t h e D ecapo l i te , e t c . , s uppo r t t h e p o ss ib i l i t ie s t h a t t h e h i s to r ian s a nd t h e c ode s s ugges t? Ih ave u sed J ohn Wor t ley 's 1 992 t r an s la t ion a s w e l l a s M igne P G 8 7 a nd P L 7 4 a nd , w i thou t g o ing i n to t h e p rob lems o f o r a l d oub le t s a nd l a te r a dd i t ions , i ts e ems c l ea r t h e w o rk , t h ough a l b u t f i n ished a tt h e t ime o fh i s d ea th ( ? 634 ) , h a sm a te r ia l f r om a sl a te a s7 00 .1 7

N o . 1 89 h a s a no the r n auk le ro s w ho g o t u n lucky a nd w a s i mp r isoned b y h i s c r ed i to r s /pa r tne r s . H is w if e , v i s i t ing h im d a i ly , c augh t t h e e ye o f an o tab le w ho o f f e red t or e deem t h e h u sband i fs he w ou ld b u t g o t o b ed w i th h im t h is o ne n i gh t . T he h u sband , c on su l ted , r e f u sed c on sen t . H oweve r at h ief i nt h e p r ison w a s s o i mp re ssed b y t h e c oup le 's v i r tue t h a t h e t o ld t h em w he re h e h ad s t a shed h i s l o o t a nd w i th t h a t s he w a s a b le t os e th e rh u sband f r ee .

T o s t a r t w i th 7 5 . " A m i rac le o ft h e l o rd f o r t h e w if e a nd d augh te r o f o ne o f t h e f a i thfu l w ho w a s a ccus tomed t o e n te r ta in ing monk s" . T he c en t ra l c ha rac te r i st h e w if e o fa n A lexand r ian m e rchan tw ho s t ay s h ome w i th h e r 6y ea ro l d d augh te r a sh e s e t s o f f

1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7

T he i mp re ss ion w e g e t i so f i n ten se ly r i sky s ma l l s ca le s i ng le e n te rp r ises w i th c ap ta ins , c r ew a nd p a s senge r s t oge the r w i th t h e i r f am i l ie s b ack h ome a l i n vo lved : t h is i s w o r lds a way f r om t h e m a jes t ic c onvoy s l e d b y t h e r e qu is i t ioned g ra in g a l ley s a nd p ro tec ted b y w a r sh ips : t hese a r e i ndependen t

i b id . O n c omme rce i nt h e A d r ia t ic , s e e F e r luuga 1 987 . P a t tenden 1 997 . Wo r t ley 1 992 .

2 1

K . Ad shead o pe ra to r s a nd a s y e t Iw ou ld g uess t h e l aw o n m a r i t ime l o an s a nd /o r p ropo r t iona te l i ab i l i t ie s h a s n o t c augh tu p w i th t h e a l te red c ond i t ion s , a si tw ou ld w i th t h e N omo sn au t iko sa nd E c loga i nt h e n ex tc en tu ry . F rom J ohn Moschu s w e t u rn t o ap oss ib ly s l igh t ly l a te r p e r iod r ef lec ted i nL eon t iu s o fN eapo l i s ' L if e o f J ohn t h e A lmsg ive r . C ommm is s ioned i n 6 4 1/2 , t h e b ook d oe s n o tm en t ion t h e Mo s lem s -d oe s i t ss i lence c onf i rm t h e 6 4 1/2 d a te f o r i t sc omp le t ion? K ruege r i s mo s t i n s is tan t t h a t h ag iog raphy r ef lec t s t h e l i f e a nd t ime s o ft h eh ag iog raphe r ( n o t h i s s ub jec t ) s o ( i fh e i s r i gh t ) w e a r e l o ok ing h e re i n6 42 a tt h e v e ry m omen t w hen ap ro spe rou s u rban C yp ru s i sj u s t o n t h e v e rge o f p a s s ing f o r g ood i n to Mo s lem h ands -K ruege r w ou ld g i ve 6 49 a nd 6 53 a st h e c r i t ica l r a id s b y w h ich C yp ru s w a s l o s t .1 8 S o L eon t iu s ' L if e o f J ohn i s a s napsho t o f t h e a r ea j u s t b ef o re t h e f a l l . I n c h 10 ( p e rhap s t h e b es t k nown e p isode o f t h e l i f e ) J ohn l e nd s af o re ign n auk le ro s 5 1 b o fg o ld w i th w h ich t o f i nance a ne n te rp r ise . B u tt h es h ip g e t s n o f u r the rt h an t h e P ha ro s b ef o re b e ing w recked -w h i le t h e s h ip s u rv ive s , t h e c a rgo ( p robab ly g ra in , a s l a te r o n ) i s l o s t . J ohn e xp la in s t h e r e a son m u s t h ave b een t h e c omb in ing o ft h e p a t r ia rch ' s l o an m oney ( t he e n thiki , t h e e n tega o ft h e c ode s ) w i th h i s o wn i l -go t ten g a in s . S t i l l J ohn l e nd s a no the r 1 0 1b . W i th in 2 4 h ou r s o f s e t t ing s a i l t h e s h ip s t r ike s d i sa s te r o nce mo re -t h is t ime b o th s h ip a nd c a rgo g o d own . T he r e a son -t h e s h ip mu s t h ave b een b u i l t w i th t a in ted f und s . At h i rd t ime J ohn l e nds o ne o f t h e c hu rch 's s h ip s w i th a c apac i ty f o r 2 0 ,000 m od i i a nd t h e w he rew i tha l t o p u rcha se ac a rgo ( ac a rgo o f g r a in a s e ven t s s how ) . T h ird t ime l u cky , t h e s h ip i s b l own o u t i n to t h e A t lan t ic a nd n o r th t oB r i ta in , w he r e t h e g ra in i ss o ld h a lf f o r t i n a nd h a lf f o r c o in s -t oc ap i ta l l , t h e " t in " t u rn s o u t o n a r r iva l h ome t o b e s i lve r , a s af o rme r b u s ine s s p a r tne r w ho i sg i ven f i r s t o p t ion t o b uy d i scove r s t o h i s a mazemen t . V e r s ion s o f t h i s s t o ry t u rn u p e l sewhe re e . g . i n t h e L egend o ft h e D iv ine S ure ty w h ich , a s t he a u tho r s o bserve , t hough p u rpor t ing t o t a ke p l ace i n t h e r e ign o f H e rac l iu s , mu s t b e m uch l a te r p r ec ise ly b ecau se i td oe s d e r ive f r om t h e L if e o fJ ohn t h e a lm sg ive r . I n t h i s d e r ived v e r s ion t h e h e ro 's C h r is t ian b us ine s s p a r tne r s r e f u se a l o an a nd e ven r e f u se t o s t and s e cu r i ty f o r h im a nd o n ly ac ha r i tab le J ew ( Ab raham ) w i l l h e lp h im o u t . I n t h is c a se t h e re a r e o bse rvab le e choe s o f t h e 8 t h c en tu ry l e g is la t ion o n m a r i t ime l o an s . I nt h e f i n ish t h e p ro f i t i sc o lo s sa l a nd i ta l g oe s t oS an ta S oph ia , w h i le t h e p i ou s J ew i sc onve r ted . Much , much l a te rt h e t a le i sg i ven a n a n t isem i t ic t w is t a nd a s y ou m ay k now l i e sa tt h eb ack o ft h e S hy lock s t o ry . C h .26 s e e s J ohn b e ing g i ven 7 1 /2 l b . g o ld i nr e tu rn f o r h i s i n te rced ing f o r t h e d ono r 's s on e n r ou te b ack f r om A f r ica i n as h ip t h e d ono r h imse lf o wns b u t w h ich i sb e ing c ap ta ined b y h i s b ro the r . T he s on

h oweve r d r own s o f fP ha ro s I s land a nd t h e c a rgo a l so , t h ough t h e b ro the r s u rv ive s . T he p a t r ia rch e xp la in s t h a t t h e s on r e a l ly i ss aved b ecau se h e w ou ld h ave g one t ot h e b ad h ad h e l i ved t o ma tu r i ty : t h e p r aye r s h oweve r w e re n o t w i thou t e f f ec t a s t h e b ro the r d i d s u rv ive . I nc h . 2 8 a l t h e C hu r ch o fA lexand r ia 's s h ip s s i nk i na s t o rm i nt h e A d r ia t ic , a l l 1 3 o ft h em , t o ge the rw i th t h e 1 0 ,000 a r tab s o fg r a in a nd s i lve r a nd o t he rv a luab le s , 3 4 c w t . i na l 1 .1 9 J ohn p a rdon s t h e f r igh tened c ap ta in a nd c r ew o n t h e i r r e tu rn , b l am ing h im se lf ; b u t a si ft o r e pud ia te h i s s e lf d oub t , G od s end s " ou r n ew J ob " d oub le w ha t h ad b een l o s t ( " ou r n ew J ob " i so fc ou r se v e ry ' g ene r ic ' ) . A nd t h en a tt h e e nd o fh i s l i f e J ohn i s p e r suaded t o v i s i t C ons tan t inop le t o e s cape t h e P e r s ian s . O nce a f loa t t h ey r un i n to s t o rmy w ea the r a nd p u t i n( j u s t ) t oR hode s . H e re i n av i s ion i ti sm ade c l ea rt h a t i ti sC yp ru s w h ich s hou ld b e h i s d e s t ina t ion , a st h a t i sh i s b i r thp la ce a nd w i l l a l so b e t h e r i gh t p l ace f o r h im t o e nd h i s l i f e ( wh ich e nd i s n ea r ) . T he c ap ta in g i ve s w ay ( w i th r e luc tance ) : ac hange o fr ou te o n o ne p a s senge r 's p e t i t ion b e ing o ne mo r e s i gn o f t h ea u tonomy o f an auk le ro si nt h ep o s te mbo li t ime s . We n ow move f o rwa rd t o t he p er iod when B yzan t ium ' s m a r i t ime s up remacy i s at h ing o ft h e p a s t a nd Mo s lem r a ide r s o r t r ade r s -o r p i ra te s -f i gu re m o re a nd m o r e i nh ag iog raphy . Ar e a l ly u s ef u l l i s t o f s uch s a in t s f r om 8 21 o n i s g iven b y G e rma ine L ou i l le t i si n c luded a s a ppend ix V I I I t o V a s i l iev 's B y zance e tl e s A rabe s V o lume 1 .2 ° I n w ha t y ou w i l l a pp rec ia te s e em s t o m e t h e r i gh t w ay t o g o a bou t t h ing s , s he n ame s t h e e ven t f i r s t a nd t h en t h e s a in t s a nd t h e i r l i ve s ( a nd t h e e d i t ion o ft h e i r l i ve s ) f o r t h e r e ade r t oe xp lo re h ow much a nd h ow l i t t le t h ey f l e sh o u t t h e Mos lem i n cu r s ions . S he b eg in s w i th a n o b scu re S t . B a rba ru s , i nc onnec t ion w i th t h e r e be l l ion t h e T homa s t h e S lav ( 82 1-3 ) a nd a l so t h e Mo s lem c onque s t o f C re te a nd S i c i ly -( 824 ) a nd f i na l ly t h e s a ck o fD ragame s ta ( 826 -7 ) i n Amb rac ia , s t i l l i nt h e r e ign o f M ichae l I ( 820 -829 ) . T he l i f e , b y o ne C on s tan t ine t h e A c ropo l i te , d e sc r ibe s t h e i n vade r s a s i n f u r ia ted b y af i r s t c heck i n Amb rac ia a nd " mo re r e sen tf u l t h an aB ac t r ian c ame l " i . e . i n ap ecu l ia r ly v i c iou s f r ame o fm ind a st h ey p u sh o n t o ac i ty c a l led D ragame s ta i nt h e i n te r io r . A l l t h e t own s f o lk f l ed a nd B a rba ru s a l one s t ayed b eh ind , h id ing i nt h e v i neya rd w he re t h et h ick l i mb sa nd f o l iage g ave p ro t ec t ion . T he l o ng l i f e o f t he b ro the r s D av id , S ymeon , a nd G eo rge o f M i ty lene ma in ly a t tes t s t o t h e u ps a nd d own s o ft h e i c onoc la s t -i c onodu le c onf l ic t b u t t h e i r l i ve s ( o r a tl e a s t S ymeon 's ) a r e a l so e nme shed w i th t h e r e be l l ion o fT homa s t h e S l av a nd i tb r ing s h ome t h e l o s t m a r i t ime t h a la s soc racy v i v id ly w hen w e n ea r t h a t S ymeon 's e x i le o n i s land s j us t w i th in t h e s ea o f

1 9 1 8

K ruege r 1 996 .

2 2

O nc omme rc e i nt h eA d r ia t ic , s e e F e r luga 1 987 . L ou i l le t 1 9 35 .

W omen , H ag iog raphy , a nd t h eS ea ( ? 9 12 ) . B u t P e te r w a s r e luc tan t t oa s sume s u ch h i gh p r ef e rmen t a nd w en t t o h i s b ro the r i nC o r in th ; o n ly a f te r t h e l a t te r d i ed d id P e te r c on sen t t o b ecome B ishop o f A rgo s . H e w i tne s sed n o t o n ly a v i o len t S l av r e vo l t a nd t h e g r ea t f am ine o ft h e l a te 9 20 's b u t a l so ( d a te u n spec if ied ) as eve re r a id b y C re tan A rab s : P e te r r a n somed t h e c ap t ives i n c lud ing a b eau t if u l y oung w oman d es t ined , s ays V a s i l iev , " f o r t h e Amee r " i nC re te .2 B o th b y l a nd a nd s ea t h en t h e p e r iod o fA rab h egemony o ve r t h e s ea s i sr ef lec ted b ack i nt h e se s t a rk t a le s o fs a ck ing a nd t a k ing c ap t ive -o ne m igh t n owaday s t h ink o fc u r ren t d i sp lacemen t s o fp eop le i nt h eB a lkan s .

Ma rma ra a nd i n deed h i sj ou rney t h ence t oB yzan t ium a r e b edev i l led b y t h e h o s t i le p r esence o f e nemy w a r sh ip s . O ne m igh ta l so n o te t h e i n c iden t s o ff am ine i nb o th t h is h ag iog raphe r ' s s t o ry a nd a l so i nt h e l i f e o f t h e e x i led h i goumeno s Maka r io s a tt h e e nd o ft h e 8 t h c en tu ry . T he l o s s o f t h e e mbo le a nd t h e f am ine s i t m ay h ave c on t r ibu ted t o i s as ub jec t c a l l s f o r f u r the r e nqu i ry -9 27 /8 , f o re xamp le , s aw as eve re f am ine -a m ega s l i mo s ,a sS cy l i te st e l ls u s . . I nt h e 9 t h c en tu ry t h e Mo s lem f l ee t 's a ppea rance s i n t h e N . A egean w e re p robab ly a l t h e m o re t r oub l ing f o r b e ing t o ta l ly u np red ic tab le . S cho la r s f a i r ly p o in t t ot h e m irac le s o fS .A r tem io s ; ( m i rac le s o ccu r r ing a t h i s t omb i nC on s tan t inop le p o in t t o a7 t h d a te f o r t h e c u l t a nd al a te 7 t h c en tu ry d a te i sa l so s ugge s ted f o r t h e c o l lec t ion o fh i s m i rac le s , n o t t h e s ame o fc ou r se a sh i s L if e . ) T he m e rchan t o fR hode s w ho s t ayed 2 y ea r s i nt h e p r ec inc t s a nd w a s v i s i ted 5t ime s b y h i s s on s i sf a i r e v idence t h a t a tf i r s t t r ave l l ing b y s e a w a s o r c ou ld b e f a i r ly s a f e . B u t b y t h e 9 t h c en tu ry t h e h aza rd s w e re o bv iou s ly f a rg r ea te rb ecau se t h e g r ea te r i s lands h ad f a l len a l ong w i th P h ryg ia a nd t h e Mo s lems h ad s t rong n ava l b a se s a nd c op iou s r aw m a te r ia l f o r t h e i r f l ee t s . B u t t h e l i f e o fG rego ry t h e D ecapo l i te s how s t h a t y ou c ou ld s t i l l ' g e t l u cky ' . H i s t r ave ls a r e r ema rkab le e spec ia l ly s i nce h i s r e v ised d a tes 7 97 -842 s how t hem c rowded i n to a pp rox ima te ly 1 0 y ea r s . A s D vo rn ik s ay s " i l n ' e ta i t p a s s eu lemen t u n g rand v oyageu r : i lp ro tega i t c eux q u i p a r tagea ien t a vec l u i c e g oü t d e v oyage s " .2 I T h is l u ck i sn o t a t t r ibu tab le t o s a racen a b sence : - h e f e l l i n to t h e h and s o f ' p i ra te s ' m o re t h an o nce b u t i n j ou rney s t h a tt o ok h im f r om I s au r ia t oC on s tan t inop le t o C o r in th t o R heg ion t o R ome a nd b ack t o C on s tan t inop le v i a T he s sa lon ica , h e l i ved ac ha rmed l i f e .

P a r tI I : C onc lu s ion T he c onc lu s ion t a ke s u s b ack a tl a s t t o t h e o r ig ina l q ue s t ion -h ow c an h ag iog raphy c r ed ib ly c on t r ibu te t o h i s to ry? My s ugge s t ion h a s b een w hen a nd o n ly w hen w ha t w e m ay c a l l t h e r egu la r h i s to r ica l a nd l e ga l r e co rd r e nde r s t h e e v idence t h a t h ag iog raphy p rov ide s a s ap r io r i p robab le :o n ly w hen t h e p l ague o f5 42 h a s s ugge s ted t h e w eaken ing o f t h e o l d S t a te -d r iven n av icu la r i i a nd o t he r g u i ld s i st h e r a the r a na rch ic s i tua t ion w e s e e v i a Moschus t o b e v i ewed a s e v idence ; o n ly w hen t h e B yzan t ine l e ga l c ode s s how ap r eoccupa t ion w i th t h e n u t s a nd b o l t s o f an ew t y pe o f s ma l l i n dependen t g u i ld - a b e t te r " company " , " ko inon ia " , e ven " commenda " -d o e l eemo syna ry J ohn 's s t o r ie s i n sp ire c onf idence ; o n ly w hen t h e s e cu la r h i s to r ian s h ave a bundan t ly a t te s ted t h e l o s s o f c on t ro l i n8 t h a nd 9 t h c en tu r ie s t ot h e Mu s l im s a nd t h e i r p r e sence , i nc o -ope ra t ion w i th t h e S l ay s i nt h e N or th A egean a nd a sf a r We s t a sS pa in a nd S i c i ly , d o t h e a dven tu re s o fs a in t ly h e roe s a nd h e ro ine s a ppea r e ven p a r t ia l ly r e l iab le b a se s o n w h ich t oa dd h uman d e ta i l . H ag iog raphy w i th a l i t s d e ta i l a nd h uman w a rm th i s at emp t ing a nc i l la ry w h ich i tw ou ld b e a s hame t of o rgo -n o r i st h e re a ny r e a l n eed t od o s o p rov ided t h e c avea t i so b se rved t h a t i tb e u nde rw r i t ten b y l e s s i n t e re s ted s ou rce s w h ich a r e q u i te o f t en t h e re f o rt h ea s k ing .

T he n ex t 2l i ve s a r e l i nked a c ro s s 2c en tu r ie s b y i n vo lvemen t i n t h e d eva s ta t ing r a ids o n t h e P e loponne se a nd i s land s o f fi tb y t h e Mo s lem f l ee t s : e . g . T heodo ra o fT he s sa lon ika 8 12 -892 w ho w a s b o rn o n A eg ina a nd w a s d e s t ined t o m a r ry a l e ad ing n ob leman o ft h e i s l and . S he d i d i n deed m a r ry h im a nd h ad 3 c h i ld ren b u t t h e i r l i ve s w e re t u rned u p s ide d own b y as a vage r a id b y t h e Mo s lem s o n A eg ina i n 8 26 . S he f l ed t oT he s sa lon ika , aw idow , a nd w en t i n to ac onven t -h e r s t o ry b e long s t o t h e t r ad i t ion o f r e jec t ing f am i ly t i es c omp le te ly i n f a vou r o f t h e m ona s t ic l i f e -b u t w ha teve r g ene r ic mo t if s a r e i mpa r ted t h e c o lo s sa l u pheava l f o r t h e i n hab i tan t s o f A eg ina i si n d ispu tab le .

I n c onc lu s ion , Iw ou ld l i ke t o r e commend t o y ou r n o t ice t h e w r i t ing s o f Ma rc v an U y tf ange e . g " L ' h ag iog raph ie : u n ' g en re ' c h re t ien o u a n t ique t a rd if ' w h ich s how s u s t h a t t h e d eba te o n t h e n a tu re o f h ag iog raphy i ss t i l l i n f u l l s w ing .2 3 Iw ou ld l i ke t o t h ink t h a t w ha t Ih ave o f f e red h e re i sj u s t a no the r c on t r ibu t ion t ot h a to ngo ing d eba te . Is hou ld l i ke t ot a ke t h is o ppo r tun i ty t oa cknow ledge t h e u nf a i l ing h e lp o f R ead ing U n ive r s i ty 's I n t e r loan D epa r tmen t . W i thou t t h em t h is p ape r c ou ld n o t h ave s e en t h e l i gh to fd ay .

Two g ene ra t ion s l a te r P e te r o fA rgo s n ow d a ted ? 890 - ? 930 d escr ibes h ow P e ter - a b i shop i n C on s tan t inop le , c augh t t h e a t ten t ion o ft h e p a t r ia rch t h e re w ho a ppo in ted h i s b ro the r B ishop o f C o r in th a nd w an ted t o a ppo in t P e te r aB ishop e l sewhe re

2

2 1

D vo rn ik 1 926 . S ee a l so Mango 1 965 .

2 3

2 3

V a s i l iev 1 947 . U y tf anghe 1 993 .

K . Ad shead B ib l iography A h rwe i le r , H . 1 966 .B y zance e tl am er , P a r is . B iraben , J .a nd J .L e G of f . 1 975 -6 . L 'Homme d evan t l ap e s te , 2v o ls . , P a r is . C ame ron , A ve r i l . 1 99 1 . " The e a s te rn p rov ince s i nt h e 7 t h C en tury A .D . a nd t h e e me rgence o fI s lam" i n S .S a id ( e d . ) ,H e l len i smos , L e iden . C oon , L ynda L . 1 997 . S acred F ic t ions , H o ly W omen a nd Hag iog raphy i nl a te A n t iqu i ty , P h i lade lph ia . Dur l ia t , J . 1 995 . " L 'Approv is ionnemen t d e C ons tan t inop le" i n C . Mango a nd G . D ag ron ( eds ) , w i th t he a ss is tance o f G . G rea t rex , C on s tan t inop le a nd i t s H in ter land , V a r io rum : 1 8 3 . D vorn ik , F . 1 926 . L a v i e d e S a in t G rego ire l e D ecapo l i te , P a r is . F e r luga , J . 1 987 . " Nav iga t ion e t c ommerce d an s l ' Adr ia t ique a u V i le e t V il le s i ec les" , B y zan t in i schen F or schungen 1 2 : 3 9 -51 . F e s tug ie re , A -J . , L .R yden ( e d s ) . 1 974 . V i ed eS ymgvn l ef ou e tV i ed eJ ean d eC hypre , P a r is . F oss , C . 1 994 . " The L yc ian c oa s t i n t h e B yzan t ine A ge ," Dumbar ton O ak sP ape r s : 1 52 . H a lk in , F . 1 966 . " L 'Hag iog raph ie b yzan t ine a u s e rv ice d e l ' h is to ire ," C ong ri ' s i n terna t iona le d es e t ud e sb y zan t ine s , O xf o rd : 3 45 -354 H e r l ihy , D av id . 1 997 . T he B lack Dea th a nd t h e t r an sf orma t ion o ft h e W e s t , C amb r idge , Ma s s . K aeg i , W . , a nd H . K ennedy . 1 999 . Cambr idge H i s tory o fE g yp t , C amb r idge : c hap te r 1 K azhdan , A . 1 993 . A u thor s a nd t e x t s i n B y zan t ium , V a r io rum : c h s . 3 7 . K ruege r , D . 1 996 . S ymeon t h e Ho ly F oo l , B e rke ley . L ou i l le t , G . 1 935 . A ppend ix V I I I i nV a s i l iev , B y zance e tl e sA rabe s , V o lume 1 :B rus se ls . Magou l ia s , H a r ry . 1 97 1 : " The L ives o ft h e S a in t s a s s ou rce s o fd a ta f o r t h e h i s tory o fc omme r ce i nt h e B yzan t ine Emp ire i n t he V I th a nd V I I th c en tu r ies " ,K le ronom ia 3 :3 13 -330 Mango , C . 1 965 . " On r e -read ing t h e l i f e o f S t . G rego ry t h e D ecapo l i te , " V y zan t ina 1 3 : 6 35 -646 . Mu l le r , A . 1 993 . " Ge t re ide f ü r K ons tan t inop le ," J ahrbuch d e rö s ter re ich i schen B y zan t ik 4 3 : 1 -20 P a t tenden , P . 1 997 . s . v . J ohannes Moschus i n T heo log i sche R ea lenzyk lopäd ie v on 8 :1 40 144 . R ouge , J . 1 966 . R echerche s ur l ' organ i sa t ion d u c ommerce mar i t ime e n M M i terran h ' s ous l ' Emp i re R oma ine , P a r is . R ou i l lard , G . 1 928 . L 'Adm in i s ta t ion c i v i le d e L 'Egyp te B y zan t ine , 2 ,P a r is . S chre iner , P . 1 981. " K iv i lsch iffar t u nd H ande lsch if f a r t i n B yzanz ," i n R . R ago s ta ( e d . ) , L eg en te d e lm are Med i ter raneo ,N ap le s . U y tf anghe , M . v an . 1 993 . " L 'hag iog raph ie : u n g en re c h re t ien o ua n t ique t a rd if , "A na lec ta B o l land iana .

V a s i l iev , A . 1 947 . " The ' L if e ' o f S t . P e te r o f A rgo s a nd i t s h i s to r ica l s i gn if icance ," T rad i t io 5 : 1 63 2 0 1 . Wor t ley , J . 1 992 . P ra tum s p ir i tua le ( C is terc ian S tud ie s S e r ie s 1 39 ) , K a lamazoo , M ich .

2 4

Chap ter F our : T amar Hodos K ine t Höyük a nd P an - Med i terranean E xchange C e ram ic s t y le s f r om p o r t s a l ong t h e Med i te r ranean 's N ea r E a s tern c oa s t h ave b een u sed a s ag aug e f o r t h e i mpac t o f e xchang e s i n m a te r ia l c u l tu re a t v a r iou s p e r iod s . T h i s i sp a r t icu la r ly t r ue f o r t h e I r on A ge , w hen , a t s i te s s uch a s R a s e l B a s s i t , T a r su s , T e l l S uka s a nd T y re , t h e p o t te ry a s semb lage s i n c luded a c tua l i mpo r t sf r om C yp ru sa nd t h eA egean a sw e l l a s l o ca l s t y les b a sed o n s e lec t ed f o r e ign w a r e s ( Ba s s i t : C ou rb in 1 986 ; 1 990 ; 1 993 ; T a r su s : G o ldman 1 963 ; S uka s : B uh l 1 983 ; L und 1 9 86 ; T y re : B ika i 1 978 ) . S cho la r sh ip h a s t e nded t o f o cu s o n t h e e xo t ica , h oweve r , t o e nhance t h e c o smopo l i tan c ha r a c t e r o f t h e se s i tes , r a the r t h an o n t h e i n f luence o f s u ch c omme rce o n t h e l o ca l c u l tu r e . T h i s i sp e rhap s b e s t i lu s t ra ted b y t h e c on t inu ing d eba te r e ga rd ing t h e n a tu re o f t h e s e t t lemen t o f A l M ina ( mo s t r e cen t ly K ea r s ley 1 995 ; 1 999 ; P apadopou lo s 1 997 ; Wa ldbaum 1 997 ; B oa rdman 1 999 ) . T h i s d i scou r se h a s f o cu sed a lmo s t e xc lu s ive ly o n t h e q uan t i t ie s o f L a t e G eome t r ic G r eek c e ram ic s f o und a t A l M ina i n a n a t temp t t o e xp la in t h e s i t e 's f u nc t ion a nd i t s r e la t ion sh ip w i th G r eece . W i th t h e e xcep t ion o f K ea r s ley 's a nd B oa rdman 's m o s t r e cen t w o rk , l i t t le a ten t ion h a sb een p a id s i nce i n i t ia l p ub l ica t ion t o t h e o t he rt y pes o fc e ram ic sa tt h es i t e o rw ha t t h e se m igh t i mp ly a bou t t h e s e t t lemen t 's r o le i n Med i te r r an ean c omme rce d u r ing t h e I r on A ge . K ea r l sey 's 1 999 c on t r ibu t ion t o t h e d eba te , w h ich o f f e r s c onv inc ing a r gumen t s f o r A l M ina 's f o unda t ion a s a G r e ek m e r cena ry s e t t lemen t , a s o ppo sed t o c omme r c ia l r e a son s ,r ep r e sen t s an ew a venue o fi n te rp re ta t ion n o t p r ev iou s ly c on s ide r ed b y o t he r s a nd w i l l n o d oub t f u e l d i scu s s ion y e t f u r the r .

K ine t H öyük i s ar e cen t ly e xcava ted s i te i n t h is r eg ion , f r om w he re r e sea r ch o n t h e I r on A ge p e r iod i s a l so r e def in ing t h e n a tu r e o f i n te r cu lt u ra l e xchange . ' K ine tH öyük i sl o ca ted b e tween A l M ina a nd T a r su s , o nt h e e a s te rn s ho re o ft h eG u lf o fI s kende run ( F igure 1 ) . I ti si n c l o se p rox im i ty t o t h e Amuq p l a in , t h e l o ca t ion o ft h e c ap i ta ls o ft h e n eo -H i t t i te a nd A s syr ian r u le r s t o w h ich o the r h a rbou r t own s i n t h e r eg ion a c ted a s c ondu i t s f o r g ood s f r om t h e L evan t , C ypru s a nd G r eece . T he s i te i sp e rhap sb e t te rk nown f r om i t s A lexand r ian i d en t i ty o f I s so s , w he r e t h e f amed Ma cedon ian d ef ea ted t h e P e r s ian k i ng D a r iu s I I i n 33 BC a t t h e e ponymou s b a t t le ( Oz ane r 1 995 ; O zane r a nd c a l ik 1 995 ; s e e a l so G a te s 1 999 f o r a dd i t iona l n ame s t h e s i te h a s h ad o ve r t h e c en tu r ie s ) . E xcava t ion s h ave b een c a r r ied o u t a t t h e s i te s i nce 1 992 u nde r t h e d i rec t ion o f Ma r ieHen r ie t te G a te s o f B i lken tU n ive r s i ty , A nka ra . T he n i n th t o s i x th c en tu r ie s , t h e p e r iod o fe xpand ing e xchange b e tween t h e N ea r E a s t a nd t h e A egean a f t e r t h e s o -ca l led D a rk A ge s , i n b r oade r N ea r -Ea s ter n d a t ing c an b e i d en t if ied a s t h e M idd le a nd L a te I r on A ge s . A t K ine t , t h e M idd le I r on A ge i s o ccupa t ion p ha se 1 1 .2 a nd t h e L a te I r on A ge i so ccupa t ion p ha se I I . 1 ( Ga t e s 1 999 ) . T he se p ha se s a r e r e p r e sen ted a t K ine t o n t h e e a s t a nd w e s t s i de s o f t h e mound 1 : o r s even t r enche s w i th at o ta l v o lume o fa lmo s t 1 000m . T he se a r ea sa r e i d en t if ied a s U p s . C I I , E /H , F , a nd L o n t h e w e s t er n s i de o ft h e mound , a nd U p s . A , Al a nd D o n t h e e a s ter n s i de ( F igure 2 ) , a nd w e r e e xcava ted b e tween 1 992 a nd 1 999 . T he p e r iod i sa t ion o ft h e s e t t lemen t a s s e en i n t h e se a r ea s c an b e b roken i n to f i ve b road b u i ld ing p ha se s , d a ted b y t h e i r c o r re spond ing c e ram ic r ema in s , w h ich f i t i n to t h e b u i ld ing s equence o ft h e e n t i r e s i te : 1 0 ( n in th c en tu ry -7 50 BC ) ; 9( 7 50 -720 BC ) ; 8( 720 -690 BC ) ; 7( 6 90 6 50 BC ) ; 6( 6 50 -575 BC ) ( Hodo s 1 999 ) . B u i ld ing p ha se s 1 0 , 9a nd 8 b e long t o o ccupa t ion l e ve l 1 1 .2 ( M idd le I r on A ge ) , w h i le b u i ld ing p ha se s 7a nd 6 b e long t o o ccupa t ion l e ve l I I .1 ( La te I r on A ge ) . T he f o l low ing d i scu s s ion r e p r e sen t s a p r e l im ina ry a s se s smen t o f t h e c e ram ic s e xcava ted b e tween 1 992 a nd 1 999 . F o r b r ief d e sc r ip t ion s o f t h e r e levan t a r ch i tec tu ra l l e ve ls e xcava ted b y 1 997 , s e e H odo s 1 999 .

D e l iC i t yt i v e r

4 —l a r s th

A MANUS ; M OUNTA IN S ;

P a y a s

( X II 0 1 I S KEND I :RUN

I S KENDERUN ;

»1 11 . )

F luc tua t ion s i nt a s te i nc e ram ic s t y le s r e vea l as h if t i n o u t look f r om C ypru s t owa rd s t h e A egean o ve r t h e c ou r se o ft h e se p e r iod s . K i ln e v idence i n d ica te s t h a t d u r ing t h e M idd le I r on A ge ( n in th -e igh th c en tu r ie s BC ) , t h e s i te w a s p roduc ing w a re s , f o rm s a nd mo t if s b e long ing t o as ha red C yp r io -C i l ic ian h o r izon .

KAM O r on t e sr k e r T e l lA i e l i an a A NTAKYA

iC dr .

A l M in a S YR IA

Ia m g r a tef u l t o Ma r ieHen r ie t te G a te s n o t o n ly f o r h e r k i nd p e rm is s ion t o p ub l i sh t h e f o l low ing ma te r ia l , b u t a l so f o r h e r c on t inued e ncou ragemen t o f my r e sea r ch o n t h e M idd le a nd L a te I r on A ge p ha se s o fK ine t .

F igure 1Map o ft h eG u lf o fI s k ende run .

2 5

1 992 - 1 999

T ama rH od o s

I n c v1

oI

F igure 2S i te p l an f r om 1 992 -1999 s ea son .

2 6

K ine t Höyük a nd P an -M ed i t e r ranean E xchang e D u r ing t h e L a te I r on A ge ( s even th s ix th c en tu r ie s BC ) , i n sp i ra t ion f o r l o ca l p roduc t ion s h if t ed t o A egean /Ea s tG r eek s t y le s . S u rp r is ing ly , h oweve r , f ew w a r e s w e r e a c tua l ly i mpo r ted d u r ing e i the r o f t h e se p e r iod s . T he d i f f e r ing f unc t ion s o ft h e e a s t a nd w e s t s i de s o f t h e m ound , w i th t h e e a s t s i de s e rv ing a n i n du s t r ia l p u rpo se d u r ing mo s to ft h e se p e r iod s , w h i le t h e w e s t w a s p r ima r i ly r e s iden t ia l , d o n o t i n d ica te a p a r t icu la rd i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e f ew i mpo r t s , e i the r . P e r iod 1 0h a sb een r evea led o n ly o n t h e w e s t s i de , i n O pe ra t ion s Fa nd L . A l though e xcava t ed t o as ma l l e x ten t s o f a r , r ema in s f r om p ha se s o f a monumen ta l b u i ld ing w i th c ommand ing s e a v i ew s h ave p r odu ced a n e xce l len t s t ra t if ied c e ram ic r e pe r to i r e , p a r t icu la r ly o fp a in ted w a re s , i n c lud ing G eome t r ic C yp ro -C i l ic ian b i ch rome , R ed -on -B lack a nd Wh i te S l ip P a in ted , w h i le s eve ra l E uboean G eome t r ic s kypho s s h e rd s i n d ica te e a r ly c on tac t s w i th t h e A egean ( F igure 3 ) . T he d a te s f o rP e r iod 1 0 e x tend o ve r t h e n i n th c en tu ry a nd i n to t h e m idd le o ft h e e i gh th c en tu ry BC .

1

F igure 3P e r iod 1 0c e ram ic s .

2 7

P e r iod 9 h a s b een d a ted t o 7 50 -720 BC a nd i s t h e p e r iod w h ich i sc ompa rab le t o t h e mo s t c on t rove r s ia l l e ve l s a t A l M ina . F rom t h e p r e sump t ion s o f p r ev iou s s c ho la r sh ip o n n e ighbou r ing s i te s , w e m igh t e xpec t t o f i nd a n umbe r o f L a te G eome t r ic G r eek i mpo r t s a tt h i s t ime . I ndeed , f i nd s f r om t h is p e r iod d o i n c lude f r agmen t s o f ac hev ron s kypho s a nd a h andf u l o fe xamp le s o f p enden t s em i -c i rc le s kypho i . B u t a bove a l l i t i s C yp r io t -s ty le w a r e s w h ich c ha ra c te r i se t h is p e r iod , i lu s t ra ted n o t o n ly b y d i r ec t i mpo r t s , s u ch a s o f C yp r io t B ich rome I V w a r e , f o r e xamp le , b u t a l so b yt h e p roduc t ion o fC yp r io t s t y le s o f c e ram ic s a t t h e s i te . O n t h e e a s t e rn s i de o f t h e mound , as e r ie s o f l a rge k i ln s w a s f ound , w i th s c a t te r s o fp o t te ry s t i l l i n s ide t h e c hambe r s a nd o n t h e f i r ing p l a tf o rms ( F igure 4 ) . I m i ta t ion s o f C yp r io t b i ch rome w a r e s w e r e a mong t h e s t y le s p r oduced ( F igure 5 ) , a l ong w i th p l a in w a r e s o f a m o r e t r ad i t iona l C i l ic ian r e per to i r e .

T amar H odo s

F igure 4K i ln f r om A I I b enea th p e r iod 8f i l l .

F igure 5L a rge b i ch rome k r a te ri nC yp ro -Geome t r ic I I s t y le ( c . 8 50 -700 BC ) .

2 8

K ine tH öyük a nd P an -M ed i ter ranean E xchange T he f o l low ing p e r iod r e p r e sen t s t h e N eo -A s sy r ian p e r iod o ft h e s i te a nd h a s b een d a ted t o 7 20 -690 BC . T h is p e r iod h a s b een s o -ca l led b y t h e p r e sen ce o f A s sy r ian P a la ce Wa r e . A d r ama t ic c hange c an b e o b served i nt h em a te r ia l c u l tu ra l r e co rd a tt h is t ime . A s i gn if ican t d ec l ine i n t h e r e la t ive p ropo r t ion o f p a in ted w a re sh a s b een o b served , w i th l e s st h an 5% o f t h e s he rd s r e cove r ed h av ing p a in ted d eco ra t ion . T h i s i s as i gn if ican t d ec r ea se f r om n ea r ly a t h i rd o f a l s h e rd s h av ing p a in ted d eco ra t ion i n t h e p r ev iou s p e r iod . A l though C yp r io t s t y le s r ema in mo s t p opu la r i n t h is r e duced c a tego ry , n o tab ly l a rg e b i ch rome a mpho ra s ( F igure s 6a nd 7 ) , t h e s ha rp a nd s udden d ec l ine i n p a in ted w a r e s s e en a c ro s s t h e s i te i s s i gn if ican ta nd m ay b e i n d ica t ive o f ab roade r s h if t i n e x ter na l e conom ic h o r izon s a way f r om C ypru s , p e rhap s d i c ta ted b y c on tempo ra ry p o l i t ica l s h if t s o f i nf luence i nt h er eg ion . F ew G r eek i mpo r t s h ave b een r e cove r ed f r om t h i sp e r iod . F u r the rmo r e , t h e e a s t s i de s e em s t o n o l o nge r s e r ve a s a n i n du s t r ia l q ua r t e r d u r ing t h is t ime . R a the r , t h e a r ea w a s d om ina ted b y al a rge mudb r ick b u i ld ing o f u nce r ta in f u nc t ion , b u t w i th n o o t he r n o tab le a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu r e s a r ound i t i n t h e 1 80m 2 a r ea e xcava ted ( F igure 8 ) . T h e u n if orm i ty o f t h e s u r round ing f i l l s ugg e s t s t h a t t h e a r ea a r ound t h eb u i ld ing m ay h ave b een ag a rden . T he w e s t s i de o ft h e mound d emon s t ra te s ac on t inua t ion o f monumen ta l s t ruc tu r e s o f n on indu s t r ia l n a tu r e , p o s s ib ly p a lace type b u i ld ing s ( F igure 9 ) .

F igure 6C yp r io t s ty le b i ch rome a mpho ra .

_ a F igure 7C yp r io t s ty le b i ch rome a mpho ra .

2 9

T amar H od o s

•

1

K iNET He f t 1 9 9 8

1 OK A-A l l 1P h a s e 2( P er i o d 2 ) 1

1

.1 9 35

1 1 9 . 10

1 ,

1 97 6 ;1 9 . 6 9

•1 9 3 0 i 9i

1 9. 5 9

1 96 ( 1

1 9 . 2 3 • •• • •••

F igur e 8P l an o ft h e e a s t s i de d u r ing p e r iod 8 .

3 0

K ine t. H öyük a nd P an -M ed i t e r ranean E xchange

F igure 9P lan o ft h e w e s t s i de d u r ing p e r iod 8 .

3 1

T amar H odo s

F igure 1 0 S he rd s t y p ica l o fp e r iod 7 . T he f o l low ing p e r iod , P e r iod 7 ( 690 -650 BC ) , s e e s a p r ima ry a dhe r en ce t o t h e C yp ro -C i l ic ian c e r am ic t r ad i t ion ( F igure 1 0 ) , b u t s upp lemen ted b y e xamp le s o f E a s t G r eek b i rd b ow l s , a nd E a r ly C o r in th ian a r yba l lo i , a nd t h e i n t roduc t ion o f Wave -L ine Wa r e s t y le s b y t h e v e ry e nd o ft h e p e r iod ( F igure 1 ) .2 A s h if t i n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f a c t iv i t ie s a c ro s s t h e s i te i t se lf m ay b e s e en d u r ing t h is p e r iod . O n t h e e a s t s i de , t h e c ha rac te r i s t ic s o f t h e a r ch i tec tu r e ( n on m onumen ta l ) a nd a s so r ted m a te r ia l c u l tu re s ugge s t a m o re h umb le d ome s t ic f unc t ion t o t h is p ha se , w h i le e v idence f o r i n du s t r ia l a c t iv i ty d u r ing t h is t ime h a s b een r e cove r ed f r om t h e w e s t s i de ( F igure 1 2 ) . T he r e a son s f o r t h is t r an s i t ion a r e d i ff icu l t t o e xp la in a t t h ep r e sen tt ime .

F igure 1 L a te p e r iod 7Wave l ine s he rd s .

C f . H odo s 1 999 : s i nce t h e 1 997 s ea son , Wave -L ine w a re h a sb een f ound i nl a te p e r iod 7c on tex t s . 2

3 2

K ine t Höyük a nd P an -M ed i te r ranean E xchange

2410

2 3 .62

A A po .

9 3 F

2 4 .94 .

9 7E

I C iNET l iöYC IK 1 993 -1 997 OP& E /I I , C-F P ha s eI I : 1( Per iod 7 . I-2 ) L a te I r on A g e .7 t hc .1 .0

2 1 .32 •2 1 .1

A

2 1,91 •

1 4 , 1 17 ,

4 .

0. 0

1r ile 48

4

0

1 9‘4

do.

2 0 .9 . 3

b o mb 3 0 .89

-• st , •• ••

' 1 4.

N oj g. 41 0

% •

e

0

•

e

IR ..

e r g s • ! e 4

r ee m ‚ 4 1 t .

•. . ‘ 9, 2 0 . 7 6 • • : ze

2 04 7

•2 0 .40

2 0 .74

• .2 04 3

mu rex f l oo r ing

• et i leet 'o p 8 1, • , '4 11 1

-

2 1 .39

L

2 3 .69

F igure 1 2 P lan o fw es t s i de d u r ing p e r iod 7 .

3

A

1

I N IM I IRW=

2m

1

T amar H odos

F igure 1 3 P e r iod 6k i ln f r om A IL

F igure 1 4 Wa s te r s f r om t h e p e r iod 6k i ln .

3 4

K ine tH öyük a nd P an -M ed i t er ranean E xchange

ZW :el i l be f i >4. ' ; ` r y2 :\t i

r i b ,e i . b d . v e nt I l i pe le !

•

C D

S iöt ie f2 ; ". '

i

14 -Z I N I : l ir e t e 7 ‘ , f ' 5 1 ' : 24 . 11 ' e iel«e l ,?

I

z

e

l ii

Mes" 4 " «. ‘ 11 . "

e

f r : 4 , 6 . :

4 f i t-

t ißtti r i er il e . dad % &Z e e. a .4

, e , i,e _ z e i g v iz l ig i i r e dw i w i r d i c e

. 0 , 04 • l e : i i i ,0 , s e . 1 : ) -4 ' ,

1 3 , sh ea z el ; , 1,: ; ' 11 : , t -4• i ;. ‚ ' e t : 1 1 1. 1 1 P ,i r . . ' i: l i d L I l id e alid iVI , e L,i r i f r . ,ei Ak • 1 . 1 i

v i g l t e l l le nl i i i i e i z •e t M tee t or p* .

o

=

t a *f , A I

el

u i r o f f,

ige de t .

Ire

A. . i . : _ , . . 1 1 .

A e m

l ia M

‘ 00

1 • : , • , 0 • i f E ‹l . t 1 . .•

.O 1 • P .

it

Wt. eV.

iß

.

, s 'e

, \

•:l, . , . 4 1e " . . ,. i b e l

; . . i

e

bee> :

. . , .

, ,P e s -e j tee L ivAr re gw e e t itt eep Ar ke e e e it i i i i i ieb l et i e u i le i2. 9e m ie l bat it i lm zeme . :•. ..

e t .%

0 . g , \ I \ . I

-

Z w r \ J

1 — Z

0 W f0

T HESPROT IA

MA IN P LACES I N GREECE & A EGEAN MENT IONED I NT EXT

. C O O •

N

7 3

S EA -RA ID ING I N ARCHA IC GREECE .

c o

5 -

> -

w

C O 2