The Role of Alternative and Innovative Food Ingredients and Products in Consumer Wellness 9780128175170, 0128175176, 9780128164532

Table of contents :
Content: 1. Wellness Ingredients and Functional Foods2. Fruit-based Functional Foods3. The Concept of Superfoods in Diet4. Microalgae as Healthy Ingredients for Functional Foods5. Edible Insects and Related Products6. Low Glycemic Index Ingredients and Modified Starches In Food Products7. Products Based on Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids & Health Effects8. Gluten-free Products9. Food Industry Processing By-products in Foods10. Pro- and Prebiotic Foods that Modulate Human Health11. Production and Recovery of Bioaromas Synthesized by Microorganisms

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THE ROLE OF ALTERNATIVE AND INNOVATIVE FOOD INGREDIENTS AND PRODUCTS IN CONSUMER WELLNESS

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THE ROLE OF ALTERNATIVE AND INNOVATIVE FOOD INGREDIENTS AND PRODUCTS IN CONSUMER WELLNESS Edited by

CHARIS M. GALANAKIS

Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom 525 B Street, Suite 1650, San Diego, CA 92101, United States 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978-0-12-816453-2 For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Charlotte Cockle Acquisition Editor: Megan Ball Editorial Project Manager: Susan Ikeda Production Project Manager: Vignesh Tamil Cover Designer: Greg Harris Typeset by SPi Global, India

Contents

Contributors Preface

1. Wellness ingredients and functional foods

ix xiii

1

M.E. Romero, M.T. Toro, F. Noriega, M.D. Lopez 1. 2. 3. 4.

Introduction to relationship between bioactive components and health benefits Functional foods and degenerative or chronic disease Bioactive compounds from vegetable and animal sources Scientific standards for evaluating functional food claims, regulation, preclinical and clinical studies 5. Conclusion References

2. Fruit-based functional food

1 6 12 18 25 25

35

Ming Cai 1. Introduction 2. Active ingredients in fruits 3. Advanced techniques for active ingredients extraction 4. Current products of fruit-based functional food 5. Current understanding and future trends References

3. The concept of superfoods in diet

35 36 58 62 63 64

73

Z. Tacer-Caba 1. Introduction 2. General health benefits related to superfoods 3. Superdiets 4. Some superfoods 5. Conclusion References

4. Microalgae as healthy ingredients for functional foods

73 75 78 80 94 94

103

M.C. Pina-P
erez, W.M. Br€ uck, T. Br€ uck, M. Beyrer 1. Introduction 2. Bioactives from microalgae

103 111

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Contents

3. Functional foods for the future based in microalgae 4. Future trends Acknowledgments References Further reading

5. Edible insects and related products

127 130 131 131 137

139

Mariana Petkova 1. Introduction 2. Alternative sources of protein as human food and animal feed 3. Insects as alternative food and feed 4. Terminology 5. Taxonomy—Species and related products 6. Nutritional aspects of insects as food and feed References Further reading

6. Low glycemic index ingredients and modified starches in food products

139 140 142 148 151 153 157 165

167

Adriana Skendi, Maria Papageorgiou 1. Glycemic index and starch 2. Cereal ingredients with low GI 3. Low GI raw materials of alternative botanical origin 4. Starch modification for the food industry 5. Food processing 6. Development of gluten-free products with low GI 7. Conclusions References Further reading

7. Products based on omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and health effects

167 170 173 174 182 186 187 187 195

197

€ Sajid Maqsood İlknur Uc¸ak, Mustafa Oz, 1. Introduction 2. Role of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in human health 3. Guidelines for ω-3 fatty acid intake 4. Production of ω-3 fatty acids from fish 5. Conclusion References Further reading

197 198 201 202 208 208 212

Contents

8. Gluten-free products

213

Georgia Zoumpopoulou, Effie Tsakalidou 1. Introduction 2. Nutritional aspects of gluten-free products 3. Formulation aspects of gluten-free products 4. Ingredients and additives in gluten-free products 5. Recent developments in gluten-free food production 6. Conclusions References

213 220 222 223 228 231 231

9. Food industry processing by-products in foods

239

I. Mateos-Aparicio, A. Matias 1. Food by-products 2. Valorization of by-products 3. Functional ingredients and bioactives from by-products 4. By-products for nutritional and functional improvement of foods 5. Concluding remarks References Further reading

10. Pro and prebiotics foods that modulate human health

239 243 248 258 274 274 280

283

Oana Lelia Pop, Sonia Ancuța Socaci, Ramona Suharoschi, Dan Cristian Vodnar 1. Introduction 2. Probiotics 3. Prebiotics 4. Symbiosis 5. Probiotics and prebiotics—Human health modulation 6. Therapeutic foods—Pro and prebiotics 7. Engineering probiotics for treatment of human metabolic and infectious diseases 8. Human health modulation 9. Perspectives 10. Conclusions References

283 284 287 289 289 293 302 303 306 307 308

11. Production and recovery of bioaromas synthesized by microorganisms

315

Gilberto V. de Melo Pereira, Adriane B.P. Medeiros, Marcela C. Camara, Antonio I. Magalhães Júnior, Dão P. de Carvalho Neto, Mario C.J. Bier, Carlos R. Soccol 1. Introduction 2. Bioaromas

315 316

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Contents

3. Economic aspects 4. Production of bioflavors by de novo synthesis 5. Sustainable developments 6. Production of flavors by biotransformation 7. Bioaroma recovery 8. Formulation and product development 9. Conclusion References Further reading Index

316 324 325 326 328 330 331 331 338 339

Contributors

M. Beyrer Institute of Life Technologies, HES-SO VALAIS-WALLIS, Sion, Switzerland Mario C.J. Bier Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology Department, Federal University of Parana´ (UFPR), Curitiba, Brazil W.M. Br€ uck Institute of Life Technologies, HES-SO VALAIS-WALLIS, Sion, Switzerland T. Br€ uck Technical University of Munich, Garching, Germany Ming Cai Department of Food Science and Technology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China Marcela C. Camara Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology Department, Federal University of Parana´ (UFPR), Curitiba, Brazil Da˜o P. de Carvalho Neto Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology Department, Federal University of Parana´ (UFPR), Curitiba, Brazil Gilberto V. de Melo Pereira Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology Department, Federal University of Parana´ (UFPR), Curitiba, Brazil M.D. Lopez Department of Plant Production, Faculty of Agronomy, Universidad de Concepcio´n, Concepcio´n, Chile Antonio I. Magalha˜es Ju´nior Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology Department, Federal University of Parana´ (UFPR), Curitiba, Brazil Sajid Maqsood United Arab Emirate University, Food Science Department, College of Food and Agriculture, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates I. Mateos-Aparicio Department of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain ix

x

Contributors

A. Matias iBET, Nutraceuticals and Bioactives Process Technology Lab., Oeiras, Portugal Adriane B.P. Medeiros Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology Department, Federal University of Parana´ (UFPR), Curitiba, Brazil F. Noriega Department of Plant Production, Faculty of Agronomy, Universidad de Concepcio´n, Concepcio´n, Chile € Mustafa Oz Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Aksaray University, Aksaray, Turkey Maria Papageorgiou Department of Food Technology, Alexander Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece Mariana Petkova Department of Animal Nutrition and Feed Technology, Institute of Animal Science, Kostinbrod, Bulgaria M.C. Pina-Perez Institute of Life Technologies, HES-SO VALAIS-WALLIS, Sion, Switzerland Oana Lelia Pop Department of Food Science, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Cluj-Napoca, Romania M.E. Romero Department of Plant Production, Faculty of Agronomy, Universidad de Concepcio´n, Concepcio´n, Chile Adriana Skendi Department of Oenology and Beverage Technology, School of Agricultural Technology, Eastern Macedonia and Thrace Institute of Technology, Kavala; Department of Food Technology, Alexander Technological Educational Institute of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece Sonia Ancut¸a Socaci Department of Food Science, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Carlos R. Soccol Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology Department, Federal University of Parana´ (UFPR), Curitiba, Brazil

Contributors

Ramona Suharoschi Department of Food Science, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Z. Tacer-Caba Department of Food and Nutrition, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland M.T. Toro Department of Plant Production, Faculty of Agronomy, Universidad de Concepcio´n, Concepcio´n, Chile Effie Tsakalidou Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece I˙lknur Uc¸ ak € Nig˘de Omer Halisdemir University, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Technologies, Nig˘de, Turkey Dan Cristian Vodnar Department of Food Science, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Georgia Zoumpopoulou Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece

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Preface

Incorporating new ingredients with traditional products is important to food industries who are always looking to attract consumers with healthier and value added foods. Indeed, the fortification of foods with components and ingredients owning technological and/or nutritional properties has attracted attention over recent years and is nowadays the new trend. Functional foods, superfoods, tailor-made foods, and other products are generated by manufacturing typical or traditional food products with ingredients that modify their properties (e.g., by binding, modifying structure or interface, etc.) or enable them to provide health benefits for consumers. However, with the recent advances in food processing (e.g., nonthermal technologies, modern encapsulation techniques, food waste recovery, etc.) and the continuously higher demands of consumers for wellness, new developments and state-of-the-art advances have been made in the field. In line with this, modern food scientists, technologists, and nutritionists are often involved with development of alternative products and functional foods, and thereby more integral information is needed in order to satisfy the urgent needs of consumers. Over the last 5 years, the Food Waste Recovery Group (www.foodwasterecovery. group) of ISEKI Food Association has organized a series of activities (webinars, workshops, e-course, etc.) and published handbooks dealing with sustainable food systems, innovations in the food industry and traditional foods, food waste recovery, and nonthermal processing, as well as targeting functional compounds such as polyphenols. Following these efforts, this book fills the existing gap in the literature by studying the incorporation of innovative food ingredients in new food products and revealing their role in consumer wellness. The ultimate goal is to support the scientific community, professionals, and businesses, as well as to promote innovative ideas in the food market. The book consists of 11 Chapters. Chapter 1 provides an overview of bioactive compounds, how they are related to health and how they work on chronic disorders, as well as in degenerative diseases, by reporting in vitro tests, experiments in animal models, and clinical studies. In addition, it highlights the crucial role of natural bioactives by presenting claims and regulations about functional food worldwide. Fruit-based functional foods, which are very attractive for consumers’ health promotion and disease prevention, are discussed in Chapter 2. Phenolic compounds, dietary fiber, essential oils and terpenoids, and vitamins are the main active ingredients in fruits, and these ingredients are popular as additives into some conventional foods like juices, drinks, smoothies, snacks, yoghurt, and bread.

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Preface

Chapter 3 aims to provide a better understanding of superfoods, with different perspectives and their relation with superdiets, in addition to summarizing the health benefits of some commonly studied superfoods such as goji, camu-camu, quinoa, chia seeds, flaxseeds, maqui, ac¸aı´, pomegranate, mangosteen, cocoa, and spirulina on the basis of some recent scientific evidence. Chapter 4 provides a complete overview of the scientific knowledge compiled to date regarding microalgae production and composition, and looks at their important place in bioactives to be used as healthy ingredients and development of functional foods. Chapter 5 discusses the state-of-the-art on the usage of edible insects and related products as food and feed, their potential as alternative food, and different aspects of their utilization. It focuses on the recent (last 5 years) findings of insects’ benefits and properties for human and animal health, nutrition, and wellness. In Chapter 6, the effects of low glycemic index ingredients and modified starches on cereal-based food systems are reviewed, denoting their important role in preventing a wide range of health disorders. In Chapter 7, sources and benefits of ω-3 PUFAs on human health and the extraction methods of omega-3 fatty acids are discussed, whereas Chapter 8 introduces the concept of gluten-free food production in relation to the current gluten-free product market and labeling regulations, worldwide. The need to improve the quality of gluten-free products, highlighting both nutritional and formulations aspects is also examined. In this context, a comprehensive overview of various techniques applied in the production of gluten-free foods for combating the commonly encountered problems related to the elimination of gluten is provided. In another approach, by-products and wastes are considered as a possible source of functional compounds, such as dietary fiber, which can be used to develop dietary supplements, for addition into low-in-fiber food products and for designing new functional foods. The recovery of functional ingredients for incorporation into new food products to improve their nutritional composition and/or functionality is the subject of Chapter 9. Chapter 10 focuses on the evidence base regarding the effects pro- and prebiotics on human health and the bioavailability of these functional elements in functional food. Probiotics have numerous important and functional effects, such as the production of valuable nutrients for their host, preventing multiplication of pathogens, modulating the immune system, complementing the function of missed digestive enzymes, and so on. Finally, Chapter 11 provides an overview of biotechnological approaches for the production of aromatic compounds using microorganisms, describing how these bioprocesses can contribute to a sustainable production of bioaromas in the food industry. This book addresses food scientists, food technologists, food chemists, and nutrition researchers working with food applications and food processing, as well as those product developers who are interested in the development of innovative products and functional foods. It could be used by university libraries and Institutes all around the world as a textbook and/or ancillary reading in undergraduate and postgraduate level multidiscipline

Preface

courses dealing with nutritional chemistry, and food science and technology. It specifically concerns new product development scientists and managers who want to know about the quality of new commercial foods and how new products can be developed. At this point, I would like to thank all the authors for their participation in this collaborative project that brought together alternative food ingredients and food products and discussed their role in consumer wellness. The acceptance of my invitation, editorial guidelines, and timeline are highly appreciated. I consider myself fortunate to have had the opportunity to collaborate with so many experts from Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, China, Finland, Germany, Greece, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Turkey, and the United Arab Emirates. I would also like to thank the acquisition editors Megan Ball and Nina Bandeira, the book manager Susan Ikeda, as well as Elsevier’s production team for their help during the editing and publishing process. Last but not least, a message for all the readers. This kind of cooperative project of hundreds of thousands of words may always contain errors and gaps. Thereby, instructive comments or even criticism are, and always will be, welcome. In that case, please do not hesitate to contact me in order to discuss any issues regarding this book. Charis M. Galanakis Food Waste Recovery Group ISEKI Food Association Vienna, Austria Research & Innovation Department Galanakis Laboratories Chania, Greece

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CHAPTER 1

Wellness ingredients and functional foods M.E. Romero, M.T. Toro, F. Noriega, M.D. Lopez

Department of Plant Production, Faculty of Agronomy, Universidad de Concepcio´n, Concepcio´n, Chile

Contents 1. Introduction to relationship between bioactive components and health benefits 1.1 General considerations of bioactive compounds 1.2 The role of bioactive compounds in society 1.3 Diversity of bioactive compounds: general vision 1.4 Bioactive compounds present in food and their relation to the state of health and disease 2. Functional foods and degenerative or chronic disease 2.1 Importance of functional food in obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases 2.2 Functional food and neurodegenerative diseases 2.3 Functional food related to cancer 3. Bioactive compounds from vegetable and animal sources 3.1 Bioactive compounds from plant sources 3.2 Bioactive compounds from animal sources 4. Scientific standards for evaluating functional food claims, regulation, preclinical and clinical studies 4.1 Functional foods policy and regulations 5. Conclusion References

1 1 2 3 5 6 7 9 10 12 13 17 18 20 25 25

1. Introduction to relationship between bioactive components and health benefits 1.1 General considerations of bioactive compounds During the last century, knowledge about food, nutrition, and health matters has seen important advances based on studies of composition, epidemiological studies (analytical, descriptive and ecological), analytical models, and experimental, statistical, and laboratory studies to determine biological activities. These advances have contributed to the identification of certain components (bioactive: phytochemical or zoochemical, as well as synthetic products) of the diet as potential factors for the prevention of pathological processes and have encouraged intervention studies with isolated bioactive compounds in order to prove their effectiveness (Aguilera et al., 2010). The role of alternative and innovative food ingredients and products in consumer wellness https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816453-2.00001-2

© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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The role of alternative and innovative food ingredients and products in consumer wellness

A bioactive component of a food is one that provides a health benefit beyond basic nutrition. These components are generally found in small quantities in products of vegetable or animal origin, but differ from nutrients because the bioactive components are not essential and there is no precise information about daily intake values for these compounds yet (Gibney et al., 2009). It should be considered that new food or dietary supplement may differ significantly from an existing product by the presence or concentration of additional bioactive compounds. The biological activity of naturally derived bioactive compounds as synthetic products seems not to present any difference in their action, although there are a few examples where naturally derived nutraceuticals have a distinctly different biological activity from synthetic ones: vitamin E-D-α-tocopherol in natural form is around 1.36 whereas the synthetic one, DL-α-tocopherol, has a lower activity (around 1.0). The explanation for this difference is in transfer and transport within very LDL/LDL (Biesalski et al., 2009). Another compound, β-carotene, shows strong differences in the isomeric pattern when it is extracted from natural sources. In contrast, synthetic β-carotene has a clearer and constant pattern. The conclusion that the differences in isomeric patterns is of biological importance is still not confirmed (Biesalski et al., 2009); however, only natural products are discussed in this chapter, leaving the synthetic compounds out.

1.2 The role of bioactive compounds in society Plants or animal sources have been used in folklore traditions in different countries around the world for treating many diseases. However, with some exceptions, this information has not been properly studied or tested. Nutrition-related health concerns have focused attention on nutrients and beneficial compounds that can improve health conditions. On the other hand, lack or excess of nutrients and bioactive compounds can cause health problems. Social conditions such as poverty can lead to malnutrition, due to lack of food (energy or specific nutrients). However, lack of knowledge and availability of cheap foods that are high in fat, sugar, and salt, are causing obesity, as well as specific deficiencies like insufficiency of vitamin D (Tulchinsky and Varavikova, 2000). The average intake of a micronutrient depends on its availability in dietary sources, which may differ due to specific traditions or access in different countries. Special considerations are required regarding phytochemicals, which are neither usually present in the traditional diet, nor do analyses or biomarkers exist (e.g., extracts from green tea, seaweed, etc.). In these special cases, an average intake range calculated from traditional diets could be useful. This is based on the assumption that human beings have adapted to a variable input range of nutrients in a long period. If the admission range is not exceeded for any significant period, this adaptation ensures an adequate metabolism in healthy people. However, in instances where nutrients belong to a

Wellness ingredients and functional foods

traditional diet of a special group, in the short term, an adaptation may have occurred that is not present in other groups (Biesalski et al., 2009). Use of bioactive compounds in the diet to improve health status, or to reduce the risk of chronic diseases with a higher incidence in developed countries, are increasing. In fact, studies are mainly focused on the aging of the population and the budding prevalence of certain chronic diseases. Among the proposals to face these challenges are functional foods as one of the anchoring points in reducing the risk of pathologies and maintaining good health (Halliwell and Gutteridge, 2015).

1.3 Diversity of bioactive compounds: General vision The bioactive compounds in foods are numerous, chemically diverse, and occur naturally in small amounts in plants and fruits (Kris-Etherton et al., 2002) and also other organisms (either of land or marine origin). In fact, nature offers us a wide range of sources to search for bioactive compounds, whether in plants, terrestrial animals, marine sources, fungi, algae, or bacteria. Plants are still the favorite source in terms of finding new compounds, since they biosynthesize many secondary metabolites with functions not yet studied; nevertheless, the search is increasingly being extended into other, nonvegetable sources. Summarizing, the diversity of bioactive compounds of natural products can be classified, generally, with a prebiotic or microbial origin, as from plants or animal sources (Nakanishi, 1999). Plants and microorganisms, such as fungi and bacteria, have proven to be an excellent source of novel natural products, including peptide antibiotics, polyketides, and several other bioactive compounds (O’Keefe, 2001). Some of the microbial metabolites are used as antineoplastic agents, antimicrobial agents, and bioinsecticides (Demain, 1998). Likewise, the marine environment is a rich source of natural bioactive compounds, as more than 70% of Earth’s surface is covered by oceans (Faulkner, 1998; Wright et al., 2001). As indicated above, many of the bioactive compounds include structurally varied secondary metabolites like mycotoxins, alkaloids, growth factors in plants, phenolic compounds, lignans, salicylates, stanols, sterols, and glycosinolates, among others. (Hooper and Cassidy, 2006; Singh et al., 2009). The phenolic compounds include flavonoids, phytoestrogens, sulfur compounds, monoterpenes, and bioactive peptides. Plants have a high content of phenolic compounds that are considered an excellent source for therapeutic, nutritional, and phytochemical applications. This is due to their allelopathic, antifungal, bactericidal (Pandey, 2009), antioxidant (Kim et al., 2004), and antiinflammatory properties (Vincent et al., 2010), ability to regulate lipid profile alterations (Wang et al., 2011), and antitumor, nutritional, antiaging (Nile and Park, 2014), and antiobesity effects (Herrera Chal
e et al., 2014). In addition to the beneficial properties for human health, phytochemicals are responsible for color, taste, and smell (Miglio et al., 2008) (Fig. 1).

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Fig. 1 Chemical structure of some phytochemicals from plants.

The content of bioactive compounds in plants is influenced by the type of crop, variety, environmental conditions, location, phenology, ripeness, processing, and storage (Bj€ orkman et al., 2011), as well as cultural practices, the addition of nitrogen, and irrigation (Pennington and Fisher, 2010). Compounds from other sources are also influenced by environmental conditions, location, or genetic factors.

Wellness ingredients and functional foods

1.4 Bioactive compounds present in food and their relation to the state of health and disease Mechanisms of action in diverse compounds, especially those related to reducing the risk of disease in human beings, are not fully understood. Some act as antioxidants, while others stimulate defense mechanisms improving responses to oxidative stress, preventing widespread damage, or repairing DNA damage (Halliwell and Gutteridge, 2015). Epidemiological studies have observed a constant association between the consumption of diets rich in fruits and vegetables and a lower risk of chronic diseases such as CVD, cancer, diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease, cataracts, and functional impairment related to age (Liu, 2013). Diets that contain a variety of fresh fruits and vegetables, whole grains, nuts, legumes, and plant-based foods such as olive oil and wine, are rich in phytochemicals, fiber, and antioxidants. This provides different nutrients and a range of bioactive compounds that include vitamins (vitamin C, folic acid, and provitamin A), minerals (potassium, calcium, and magnesium), phytochemicals (flavonoids, phenolic acids, alkaloids, and carotenoids) and fibers (Rajaram, 2003). The additional benefits derived from increasing plant-based food consumption include better control of diabetes and a lower risk of obesity, due to the high fiber content and low calories provided by a balanced diet. Although fruits and vegetables represent only between 5% and 10% of the total calories consumed, they contribute significantly to overall health. Scientists have chosen groups of fruits and vegetables associated with specific health benefits. For example, cruciferous vegetables, alliums, and tomatoes are related to a lower risk of certain cancers (Steinmetz and Potter, 1996), while tea, onions, and apples are associated with lower risk of coronary heart disease (Hertog et al., 1993). Some examples for bioactive compounds and their involvement in nonmetabolic diseases are polyketides (e.g., Picromycin or sporostatin), secondary metabolites from bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. Similarly, chevalierin-A45, a cyclicpeptide isolated from Jatropha chevalieri, was found to possess antimalarial qualities whereas quinine, isolated from the Cinchona bark, is one of the earliest natural compounds against malaria (Faulkner, 1998) (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2 Chemical structure of picromycin, sporostatin and quinine.

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2. Functional foods and degenerative or chronic disease Neurodegenerative diseases are mostly age-related and irreversible diseases characterized by learning deficit, memory loss, cognitive decline, and behavioral disturbances (Auld et al., 2002). Likewise, chronic conditions are noninfectious, long duration, slow progression disorders, like cardiovascular disease, dementia, osteoporosis, and diabetes (Asgary et al., 2018). Lifestyle factors, including nutrition, play an important role in prevention and treatment, since bioactive compounds can decrease the risk of many degenerative and chronic diseases and have some physiological advantages. The active components from plant or animal sources are capable of reducing the risk of heart disease, focusing mainly on the established risk factors such as hyperlipidemia, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, excessive weight or obesity, high level of lipoprotein A, lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and high levels of inflammatory markers (Asgary et al., 2018). Consumption of a healthy diet, enriched mainly by fruits and vegetables, is linked with a better lifestyle. The lack or low consumption of fruit and vegetables lead to an imbalanced metabolism that is considered in the top 10 risk factors for mortality in the world (World Health Organization, 2014). Nevertheless, it should not require the mortality index to inspire people to have a good way of life and avoid chronic and degenerative diseases. In humans, the pathogenesis of many diseases has been associated with oxidative stress and, consequently, the use and consumption of antioxidants is studied intensively. The regular aerobic cellular metabolism generates free radicals as a normal process and the built-in antioxidant system of the human body has a crucial function in controlling these radicals (Cadet and Davies, 2017). An imbalanced diet leads to a serious problems, whether from an intrinsic regulation problem (overproduction) or incorporation of free radicals from external factors (environment). An imbalanced metabolism and the toxicity of free radicals cause DNA injury (Shafirovich and Geacintov, 2017), structural and functional alterations of proteins, inflammation, tissue damage, and subsequent cellular apoptosis. Thus, a range of disorders appears, such as chronic diseases (Lee et al., 2010), degeneration accompanied by an array of atherosclerotic processes (Reverri et al., 2014), and neurodegenerative diseases (Spagnuolo et al., 2018). In the early stages of adulthood, probably, people do not feel any fear of diseases, leading to the neglect of health and the lack of prevention and education for awareness. Preparing our body to live healthy in 20 or 30 years’ time is the new trend; thus, the drive to understand how functional food could assist with this. Some bioactive compounds with antioxidant capacity contribute to more than 90% of all processes by increasing and/or improving the speed of a reaction to stress stimuli that generate free radicals. They are now being looked upon as effective therapeutic to prevent cancer (Thibado et al., 2018), reduce diabetes (Tsuda, 2016), against solemn neuronal loss (Rocha-Parra et al., 2018). Hence, fruits are a major source of antioxidants, as are medicinal herbs, and both are receiving attention as a possible commercial source of antioxidants.

Wellness ingredients and functional foods

Thus, a balanced diet with a diversity of nutritive compounds (vitamins and minerals, along with nonnutritive, bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, anthocyanins, and phenolic acids) has received increasing attention worldwide. The idea is to foster the consumption either of foods with bioactive compounds or functional foods, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes (Keaney et al., 2003). These compounds exert a synergistic and cumulative effect on human health promotion and in disease prevention.

2.1 Importance of functional food in obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases For certain diseases, animal sources, mainly of marine origin, have long been associated with cardiovascular protection since they are rich in acids such as omega 3 or omega 6 and, historically, these two compounds have been administrated to vulnerable groups of older adults and children who are overweight or have functional disorders (KiecoltGlaser et al., 2012). In fact, it is not only marine derivatives that have been part of the diet for their functional contribution; others, such as fruit, perhaps prepared as compotes, have traditionally been recommended for their protein contribution especially for infants and the pregnant. A few years ago, phytochemicals were the focus of study, mainly due to compounds with antioxidant properties. Recent studies show that some bioactive compounds that are found in foods exert their cardioprotective effects mainly at the level of the blood lipid profile and improve the control of hypertension, endothelial function, platelet aggregation, and antioxidant actions (Reshef et al., 2017). Clinical and epidemiological observations indicate that vegetables, fruit fiber, nuts, seeds, along with seafood, coffee, tea, and dark chocolate have a cardioprotective potential in humans. Similarly, integral products that contain intact fiber-rich grains and nutrients have shown to be effective as regulators of blood pressure (Del Gobbo et al., 2015). All those mentioned above are nutritionally more important because they contain photoprotective substances that could work synergistically to reduce cardiovascular risk. There are numerous studies examining polyphenols activity that demonstrate the relationship between imbalanced diet and cardiovascular diseases or metabolic syndromes like obesity and diabetes. Obesity is a metabolic syndrome that also could be associated with insulin resistance and settled by a chronic inflammatory state established in adipose tissue (Olusi, 2002). Similarly, researchers have analyzed diabetes as a consequence of an imbalanced diet and how phenolic compounds could help to reduce risks and dysfunctionalities caused by this metabolic disease (Tsuda, 2016). Oxidative processes are involved with the pathogenesis, progression, complications, and poor prognosis of diabetes mellitus. The overproduction of reactive oxygen species produced by the increased activity of the electron transport chain, the autoxidation of glucose, the sorbitol pathway, the glycation of proteins, the advanced glycation products, the excessive expenditure of reduced cofactors, in addition to the reduction of antioxidant defenses, the redox capacity of the cell and the antioxidant buffering capacity, all generate a pro-oxidant state that conditions the oxidative damage to proteins, lipids,

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The role of alternative and innovative food ingredients and products in consumer wellness

nucleic acids and carbohydrates. This can contribute in different ways to the development of the different manifestations of the diabetic patient’s disease (Salinas et al., 2013). The possible mechanisms of protection through a diet rich in phytochemicals include the decrease of cardiovascular disease precursors, the reduction of oxidative stress, inflammation (Sa´nchez-Moreno et al., 2000) and the preservation of vascular function (Esposito et al., 2004a; Esposito et al., 2004b), as well as a lower incidence of obesity. Obesity is considered a state of stress and chronic oxidative inflammation (Davı´ et al., 2002; Esposito et al., 2004a; Keaney et al., 2003; Olusi, 2002). Obese people consume fewer fruits, vegetables and other nutrient-rich foods compared to their normal-weight counterparts. Low dietary patterns in fruits and vegetables, whole grains, beans, and lean meats are associated with weight gain and larger waist circumferences (He et al., 2004; Ledikwe et al., 2004), as well as inflammation. The inflammation in obesity is reflected in the elevations of several interleukins in the blood (Davı´ et al., 2002). The low intake of phytochemicals or bioactive compounds is probably associated with weight gain and increased oxidative stress and inflammation. Berries present molecular mechanisms focused on prevention and treatment of chronical disorders. Scientists have been studying the use of berries as antiobesity and antidiabetes resources. The biological activity of compounds like quercetin associated with antiinflammatory benefits has achieved twice the reaction as that of traditional medicine. This compound, present in onions, some berries, and seeds has been tested in cellular and animal models as well as in humans (Lesjak et al., 2018). The method, based on measurement of compounds derived from the biosynthesis of eicosanoids upon inflammation mediators (arachidonic acid-AA) showed, as a result, an efficient inhibition of AA metabolism on COX 1, 2, and LOX pathways and production of eicosanoids (mediators of inflammation). Observational and clinical studies suggest that flavonoids provide cardioprotective benefits through inhibition of platelet aggregation, decreased low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and improvements in endothelial function and, likewise, bring favorable effects on blood lipids, decrease inflammation, and reduce blood pressure, supporting the recommendation to incorporate flavonoid-rich products into a heart-healthy diet (Wightman and Heuberger, 2015). An additional choice for cardiometabolic problems comes from encapsulated bioactive ingredients (prebiotics and probiotics). In vitro and in vivo studies suggest that removing free radicals in the body, protection of DNA, regulation of cellular metabolism, and apoptosis by the use of phenolic compounds into a matrix could ensure both the delivering of probiotics and health benefits (Gbassi and Vandamme, 2012). The new strategies to combat cardiovascular diseases and metabolic disorders highlight prevention being as important as treatment. Thus, ensuring the reliability and accuracy of the efficacy of functional food, together with the study of the physiological

Wellness ingredients and functional foods

function of these phytochemical compounds, need to be strengthened further (Yang et al., 2017).

2.2 Functional food and neurodegenerative diseases It has been reported that neuronal decline and brain deterioration are a consequence of bad sleep habits, inadequate nutrition, and lack of exercise, as well as oxidative stress caused by the consumption of cigarettes and alcohol. Aging is an extra cause of neurodegenerative diseases and environmental contaminants can also lead to increase as much the oxidative stress in the brain as neurodegeneration (Spagnuolo et al., 2018). The most common mental disorders include Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, ataxia, Huntington’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, dementia, and spinal muscular atrophy, among others. Specialists are primarily concerned with Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s because of the high incidence at present. Antioxidants have been studied for their effectiveness in reducing these deleterious effects and neuronal death in many in vitro and in vivo studies (Sabogal-Gua´queta et al., 2015). Oxidative stress can induce neuronal damage and modulate intracellular signaling, ultimately leading to neuronal death by apoptosis or necrosis. Studies reveal that other mechanisms than antioxidant activities could be involved in the neuroprotective effect of these phenolic compounds (Hwang et al., 2017). The importance of food consumption in relation to human health has increased consumer’s attention regarding nutraceutical components and functional food (Sarkar and Shetty, 2014). Nonetheless, compounds of plant origin have been tested more than those of animal origin as a potential for human health because of a wide variety of bioactive compounds that plants produce. Flavonoids, phenolics, anthocyanins, phenolic acids, stilbenes, and tannins are examples of bioactive compounds produced by plants. Antioxidant, anticancer, antimutagenic, antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, and antineurodegenerative properties have been analyzed by both in vitro and in vivo assays (Nile and Park, 2014). The role of antioxidants in neurodegenerative diseases has a wide scope to sequester metal ions involved in neuronal plaque formation to prevent oxidative stress (Spagnuolo et al., 2018). In vitro assays in clinical trials have proven and documented health benefits for the prevention, management, and treatment of chronic disease (Baptista et al., 2014). Due to the high percentage of adults suffering from degeneration on cognitive and communicative skills, considerable research has demonstrated the importance of functional food and some wellness ingredients on neurodegenerative disorders, especially Alzheimer’s. Antioxidant therapy is crucial in scavenging free radicals and ROS preventing neuronal degeneration in a postoxidative stress situation (Rocha-Parra et al., 2018).

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The evidence-based trials which have been properly reported in the literature as well as relating to intact species and not ex vivo as in cell culture. For elderly people, exploratory analyses have been supported in order to achieve a reduction in the incidence of Alzheimer’s (Chai et al., 2016). Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors are used to treat neurological disorders including Alzheimer’s disease (Meila´n and Guti
errez, 2017) and Parkinson’s (Khan, 2016), and it has been suggested that some plant-derived dietary agents like functional foods often seem to be a panacea for treating all ailments. Due to this, studies in preventive treatment have been considered a priority. Some examples for neurological problems report the use of Padina gymnospora (Balakhrisna—IF) with 150 μg/mL. The effectiveness in reducing deleterious effects and neuronal death have been assayed in several in vitro and in vivo studies (Mathew and Subramanian, 2014). Several compounds have been tested against degenerative diseases: vitamins A, B, C, and E, carotenoids, some quinones, and nearly all polyphenols (Dixon and Pasinetti, 2010). Resveratrol, silymarin, and quercetin highlight between polyphenols. These three compounds have the capacity to cross the blood-brain barrier, which facilitates and improves their protective action at the neuronal, cognitive, and memory levels. Regarding resveratrol, some epidemiological studies suggest fruits rich in resveratrol are associated with the reduction of risk of dementia (Pasinetti et al., 2015). Silymarin can be useful in the treatment and prevention of some neurodegenerative and neurotoxic processes (Kumar et al., 2015). This compound can increase the concentration of certain neurotransmitters in the brain. The dose of 200 mg/kg/day reduced the protein oxidation in the hippocampus and bark of rats in old age (Karimi et al., 2011). At the brain level, it has been shown that treatment with silymarin decreases lipid peroxidation, because it activates and induces an increase in the levels of antioxidant defense systems (such as the enzyme glutathione peroxidase, ascorbic acid, and the enzyme superoxide dismutase) (Nencini et al., 2007). Finally, quercetin, one of the flavonoids with greater antioxidant activity, is able to inhibit lipid peroxidation (activating and increasing the levels of endogenous antioxidants, such as the enzyme glutathione S-transferase). At the brain level, quercetin is capable of reversing aging and cognitive dysfunction that are produced by the action of certain molecules such as ethanol or the β-amiloide peptide (Aβ (1–42)) (associated with oxidative stress and neurotoxicity in the disease of Alzheimer’s) (Sabogal-Gua´queta et al., 2015).

2.3 Functional food related to Cancer The bioactivity of certain compounds has been widely studied. One of the most addressed areas is anticancer because cancer is the leading cause of death worldwide. This overwhelming disease is the result of the interaction between a person’s genetic factors and external agents, including ultraviolet and ionizing radiation, chemical carcinogens

Wellness ingredients and functional foods

such as asbestos, components of tobacco smoke, aflatoxin (a food contaminant), arsenic in drinking water, and less common by biological carcinogens, etc. (World Health Organization, 2014). Research spans compounds of animal origin and plant origin; for example, propolis (bee glue) together with caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) is a key anticancer component. CAPE activates DNA damage signaling in cancer cells (Ishida et al., 2018). Fish oil reduces the proliferation of cells cultured from human breast and colorectal tumors (Bonatto et al., 2015). Even oral administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from the wheat symbiotic bacteria Pantoea agglomerans can improve an individual’s immune condition, especially small intestinal immune competence and macrophage activity, to ameliorate the effects of malignant tumors’ (Morishima and Inagawa, 2016). The protective and preventive effects of functional food of plant origin related to cancer have been proven (Yang et al., 2016), and the bioactive components responsible for cancer chemopreventive effects of various edible plants have now been identified. The first chemical compounds studied were ascorbic acid and β carotene (Stan et al., 2008). Nevertheless, leading the list of metabolites are the polyphenols. The effects of these compounds are mainly preventive against tumor initiation, avoiding formation of genotoxic molecules, blocking the activity of the mutagens-transforming enzymes, and prevention of the formation of DNA adducts (Dammann et al., 2017). Scientific evidences suggests that the health benefits of the consumption of polyphenols in fruits and vegetables and are attributed to the additive and synergistic interactions of the phytochemicals by targeting multiple signal transduction pathways (Pelicano et al., 2014). Likewise, results from earlier studies have suggested a crosslink between diet and autophagy (a mechanism that disassembles unnecessary or dysfunctional components inside the cells). Some polyphenols of which this has been proven by in vitro and in vivo trials are: • Quercetin (3,30 ,40 ,5,7-pentahydroxyflavanone)—present in a wide range of fruits and vegetables, such as onions, apples, and berries; can inhibit tyrosine kinase and induce cytoprotective autophagy. • Resveratrol—mediates numerous mechanisms, such as apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, kinase signaling pathways, and autophagy. • Silibinin—derived from the milk thistle (Silybum marianum); possesses protective effects for the liver and neurons as well as lead the activation of the extrinsic (receptor-related) and intrinsic (mitochondria-related) apoptosis pathway and the activation of the autophagic process (Abdal Dayem et al., 2016). The major governing factors in tumor progression and cancer drug sensitivity are the epigenetic changes in DNA methylation patterns at CpG sites (epimutations) or deregulated chromatin states of tumor-promoting genes and noncoding RNAs. Since epigenetic marks (epimutations) are reversible in contrast to genetic defects, chemopreventive nutritional polyphenols (resveratrol, catechin, and curcumin

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among others) have been evaluated for their ability to reverse adverse marks in cancer (stem) cells to attenuate tumorigenesis-progression and prevent metastasis (Berghe, 2012). Berry-type fruits contain great quantities of polyphenols, especially anthocyanins. It has previously been demonstrated that anthocyanins upregulate tumor suppressor genes, induce apoptosis in cancer cells, repair and protect genomic DNA integrity (which is important in reducing age-associated oxidative stress), and improve neuronal and cognitive brain function (Santos et al., 2013). Although, anthocyanins present low stability under given environmental conditions and interaction with other compounds in a food matrix, through encapsulation, the stability and/or bioavailability can be improved. Simulated gastrointestinal models, as well as in vivo trials, are required to ensure the attributes of the anthocyanins (Thibado et al., 2018). In conclusion, it is important to increase antioxidants consumption, which could provide protection against possible adverse agents that can cause cell cancer. Further studies to know the properties of bioactive molecules as chemopreventive agents are required, as well as formulation assays for targeted therapy and increased bioavailability of these compounds related to cancer prevention and treatment.

3. Bioactive compounds from vegetable and animal sources Natural bioactive compounds include a broad diversity of structures and functionalities that provide an excellent mixture of molecules to produce nutraceuticals, functional foods, and food additives. Some of those compounds, such as polyphenols, can be found in nature at high concentration but others can only be found at very low levels. Mainly, plants and animals have been natural sources where a wide range of bioactive compounds have been found and incorporated into our food, but although it is not the purpose of this chapter, we could also highlight some bioactive compounds of microorganisms or algae that have functionality and could be future constituents of functional foods. The main reason for using microorganisms to produce compounds from plants and animals is the relative simplicity for environmental and genetic manipulation (Demain, 2000). As noted, plants have been an excellent source of bioactive natural products and their extracts have been used as medicines in the treatment of various diseases. Plant compounds are divided into primary (sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, and nucleic acids) and secondary metabolites (polyketides, isoprenoids, alkaloids, phenylpropanoids, and flavonoids) (Mykk€anen et al., 2014; Oksman-Caldentey and Inz
e, 2004; Wu and Chappell, 2008). Also, animal sources, such as marine organisms, synthesize several complex and chemicals that we absorb when we eat them, and which can be utilized to treat various ailments (Shahidi and Ambigaipalan, 2015). Mayer et al. (2010) studied almost 600 marine compounds that displayed antitumor and cytotoxic activity and 666 additional chemicals with

Wellness ingredients and functional foods

demonstrated pharmacological activities (i.e., antiinflammatory, anticoagulant, antiviral, and cardiovascular treatments, among others). Among microorganisms, fungi synthesize bioactive compounds such as antibiotics, enzymes, and organic acids (Silveira et al., 2008). These bioactive compounds can be incorporated into foods as nutritional supplements, flavor enhancers, texturizers, preservatives, emulsifiers, acidulants, surfactants, or thickeners (Gil-Chavez et al., 2012). Bacteria can produce some isoprenoids like carotenoids (such as β-carotene and lycopene) and phenylpropanoids like stilbene derivatives (resveratrol and others), among others (Donnez et al., 2009; Klein-Marcuschamer et al., 2007), but research on natural compounds from microorganisms remains unexploited since the low levels of bioactive compounds produced limit their potential use (Van Lanen and Shen, 2006). The importance of algae as a source of novel compounds is growing rapidly, since it contains compounds with antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antiviral properties (Rodrı´guez-Meizoso et al., 2010). Microalgae have been described to secrete a wide range of compounds that are used, or could be potentially employed, as functional ingredients, including carotenoids, polyphenols, and other antioxidant pigments, flavonoids such as quercetin, catechin, and tiliroside, acid derivates, and dipeptides, among others (Lam, 2007). However, like bacteria, the low levels of bioactive compounds obtained by algae are its main limiting factor. Table 1 shows some bioactive compounds from different sources presenting functionality and bioactivity in vitro and in vivo of the different types of food and by-products.

3.1 Bioactive compounds from plant sources The major nutrients present in edible plants are mainly from primary metabolites such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils, minerals, vitamins, and organic acids. Secondary metabolism has a variety of functions during the life cycle of the plant (Balandrin et al., 1985). Therefore, due to the wide range of functions that secondary metabolites of plants have in plant cells, these compounds are of special interest to researchers, who focus their studies on their bioactivity for useful applications. The natural biosynthesis of these metabolites depends on the physiology and the stage of development of the plant, since they are synthesized in specialized cell types and only during a particular growth stage, or on seasonal/specific conditions, which makes their extraction and purification quite difficult (Verpoorte et al., 2002). The main phytonutrients such as vitamins, minerals, carotenoids, and polyphenols are present in different forms of foods, and could exert antioxidant properties (Adefegha and Oboh, 2013; Scalbert et al., 2005). Among antioxidants, anthocyanins are natural colorants, characterized by their distinctive colors, typically in berries (such as the deep red color of cherries), whereas carotenoids produce the red color in peppers and tomatoes

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Food

Biocompounds identified

Bioactivity in vitro

Bioactivity in vivo

Bee pollen, bee honey

Polyphenolics, peptides and amino acids, vitamins, carotenoids (Ares et al., 2018)

Fish, fish by-products

Peptides and amino acids, ω-3 fatty acids (Liu et al., 2001)

Antibacterial (Basim et al., 2006) Antifungal (Fea´s and Estevinho, 2011) Antioxidant (Morais et al., 2011) ACE inhibitory (Salampessy et al., 2017) Antioxidant ( Jang et al., 2016)

Milk products

Protein, fat acids, minerals and vitamins (Haug et al., 2007)

Antiinflammatory (Maruyama et al., 2010) Prevention diabetes (Yamaguchi et al., 2007) Antinociceptive (Abreu et al., 2016) Anticancer (Ishida et al., 2018) Neuroprotective (Chai et al., 2016) Antihypertensive (Lee et al., 2010) Reduces oxidative stress in human (Pipingas et al., 2015) Metabolic syndrome reduction in human (De Camargo et al., 2015) Reduce the risk of CVDs in human (Rose and Holub, 2006) Inhibiting cholesterol absorption (Nagaoka et al., 2001) Anticarcinogenic (Marcone et al., 2017) Antihypertensive (Del Mar Contreras et al., 2009)

Chicken meat and by-products

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA), peptides and minerals (Kralik et al., 2018)

ACE inhibitory (Korhonen and Pihlanto, 2006) Antioxidant (Simos et al., 2011) Antithrombotic (Manso et al., 2002) Antimicrobial ( Jabbari et al., 2012) Antioxidant (Dong et al., 2010)

Reduce the risk of diabetes (Te Morenga et al., 2013) Reduce the risk of coronary heart disease (Li et al., 2015) Reduce the risk of cancer (Zhu et al., 2014)

The role of alternative and innovative food ingredients and products in consumer wellness

Table 1 Bioactive compounds from different sources showing functionality and bioactivity in vitro and in vivo.

Table 1 Bioactive compounds from different sources showing functionality and bioactivity in vitro and in vivo.—cont’d Biocompounds identified

Bioactivity in vitro

Bioactivity in vivo

Marine macro- and microalgae, seaweeds and by-products

Proteins, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) including omega-3 fatty acids, minerals, polyphenols, pigments and mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) (Charoensiddhi et al., 2017)

Antiinflammatory (Fernando et al., 2018) Antihyperlipidemic (Murray et al., 2018) Antidiabetic (Ko et al., 2015) Reduce obesity (Eo et al., 2014) Anticancer (Centella et al., 2017)

Nuts (walnuts, almond, hazelnut, pistachio, peanuts) and by-products (oils)

Proteins, dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals, unsaturated fatty acids, phytosterols, essential oils, terpenoids, phenolic compounds and phytates (Schl€ ormann et al., 2015)

Citric fruits and juice (lemon, lime, orange, mandarin, grapefruit, tangelo, among others)

Minerals, phenolics compounds (e.g., flavanone glycosides, hydroxycinnamic acids) (Fallico et al., 2017), vitamin C (Salama et al.,

Prebiotic (Charoensiddhi et al., 2016). Antioxidant and antiviral and ACE inhibitory (Olivares-Molina and Ferna´ndez, 2016) α-Glucosidase inhibitor (Chen et al., 2016) Antiinflammatory (Ha et al., 2017) Prebiotic (Mandalari et al., 2013) Antioxidant (Rocchetti et al., 2018) Antibacterial (Cruz et al., 2017) Anticancer (ReboredoRodrı´guez et al., 2018) Antimicrobial (Gyawali and Ibrahim, 2014) Antioxidant (Legua et al., 2014) Anticancer (Merola et al., 2017)

Reduced risk of cardiovascular disease (Reverri et al., 2014) Lowers LDL cholesterol and triglycerides (Del Gobbo et al., 2015) Reduce hyperglycemia (Parham et al., 2014) Neuroprotection and cholesterol reducing (Hwang et al., 2017) Antihiperglycemic (Uddin et al., 2014) Prevention cancer (Cirmi et al., 2018) Continued

Wellness ingredients and functional foods

Food

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Food

Biocompounds identified

2015), and carotenoids (Craig, 2016)

Berries (bearberry, blueberry, blackberry, blackcurrant, cranberry, cloudberry, strawberry, grape berries, and so on)

Phenolics compounds (e.g., phenolic acids, flavonols, anthocyanins, tannins) and ascorbic acid (Lorenzo et al., 2018)

Vegetables (Leafy green, e.g., lettuce, spinach, Cruciferous, e.g., cauliflower, Brussels sprouts and broccoli, Marrow, e.g., cucumber and zucchini, Roots like potato and yam, Edible plant stem and Allium genre)

Minerals, proteins, dietary fiber, carbohydrates, saponins, flavonoids, glycosides, tannins, phenols, alkaloids (Aydin et al., 2015)

Bioactivity in vitro

α-Glucosidaseinhibitor (Padilla-Camberos et al., 2014) Neuroprotective (Hwang et al., 2017) Antioxidant (Margraf et al., 2016) Antimicrobial (Trosˇt et al., 2016) Anticancer (Abdal Dayem et al., 2016) Neuroprotective (Ma et al., 2018) Antimicrobial and antioxidant (Dias et al., 2014) Antiinflammatory (Mesquita et al., 2018)

Bioactivity in vivo

Antihypertension (Mahmoud et al., 2015) Antiosteoclastogenesis (Kimira et al., 2015) Antioxidant (Nabavi et al., 2018) Prevention obesity (Mykk€anen et al., 2014) Antidiabetic, antihyperlipidemic (Yang et al., 2018) Antiinflammatory (Yu et al., 2016)
c et al., Antihypertension (Cuji
2018) Antiobesity (Bais et al., 2014) Antidiabetic (Abdellatief et al., 2017) Anticancer (Paz-Ares et al., 2017) Hepatoprotective (Kikuchi et al., 2015)

The role of alternative and innovative food ingredients and products in consumer wellness

Table 1 Bioactive compounds from different sources showing functionality and bioactivity in vitro and in vivo.—cont’d

Wellness ingredients and functional foods

or the orange color in carrots. Other bioactive compounds from plants with antioxidant activity are vitamins A, C (mainly citrus fruits and their juices, berries, and dark green vegetables), and E (vegetable oils such as olive, soybean, corn, cottonseed, and safflower, nuts and nut butters, seeds, whole grains, wheat, wheat germ, brown rice, oatmeal, soybeans, sweet potatoes, and legumes), beta carotene (broccoli, kale, spinach, sweet potatoes, apples, carrots, and red and yellow peppers), and selenium (Suvetha and Shankar, 2014; Yang et al., 2017). Given the importance and broad biological activities of bioactive compounds from plants, and their bioactive properties, these compounds have come to play a crucial role in the development of new products (Wu and Chappell, 2008). In the last 25 years, approximately 60%–70% of newly approved drugs for cancer and infectious diseases were derived from natural compounds from plants (Newman and Cragg, 2007). However, even though these compounds have been tried by the population and have obtained some beneficial effects for human health, more scientific evidence is needed to support their effectiveness and ensure their safety.

3.2 Bioactive compounds from animal sources Compounds from animal sources—with the focus on marine sources—have been reported to have bioactive properties with different activities such as antitumor, anticancer, antimicrotubule, antiproliferative, antihypertensive, and cytotoxic, as well as antibiotic properties (Freitas et al., 2012). These compounds that have been isolated from marine sources are of varying chemical nature, including phenols, alkaloids, terpenoids, polyesters, and other secondary metabolites, which are present in sponges, bacteria, dinoflagellate, and seaweed. Since biodiversity of the marine environment far exceeds that of the terrestrial environment, research on the use of marine natural products as pharmaceutical agents has been steadily increasing. Throughout evolution, marine organisms have developed into very refined physiological and biochemical systems; therefore, they have developed unique adaptation strategies that enable them to survive in dark, cold, and highly pressurized environments. Fatty acids such as ω3 have proven to be most effective in alleviating some health conditions; it is one of the well-known compounds that provide benefits to our health. Also, food-derived bioactive peptides represent one source of health-enhancing components. These peptides may be released during gastrointestinal digestion or food processing from a multitude of plant and animal proteins, especially milk, soy, and fish proteins (Erdmann et al., 2008). Many bioactive peptides and depsipeptides with anticancer potential have been extracted from various marine animals like tunicates, sponges, soft corals, sea hares, nudibranchs, bryozoans, sea slugs, and other marine organisms (SuarezJimenez et al., 2012). There is an extensive group of peptides and depsipeptides extracted from marine animals; however, this review focuses on the most studied that have

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achieved clinical trials and furthermore some that are commercially available such as Aplidine (Suarez-Jimenez et al., 2012). Biologically active peptides obtained from marine animal species are considered to have diverse activities, including opioid agonistic, mineral binding, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antithrombotic, hypocholesterolemic, and antihypertensive actions (De Castro and Sato, 2015). By modulating and improving physiological functions, bioactive peptides may provide new therapeutic applications for the prevention and/or treatment of chronic diseases. As components of diverse marine species with certain health claims, bioactive peptides are of particular pharmaceutical interest (Ruiz-Ruiz et al., 2017). Marine resources provide rich bioactive compounds that could be used as functional food.

4. Scientific standards for evaluating functional food claims, regulation, preclinical and clinical studies Functional foods cover a wide range of products of both vegetable and animal origin as we have seen throughout the chapter. However, due to the importance and interest that polyphenol compound of vegetable origin has triggered in recent years, in this section examples of clinical trials carried out with these compounds to study their bioactivity will be given. The bioactivity and impact on health of bioactive compounds, especially as regards dietary polyphenols, have been extensively studied during the last decade (RodriguezMateos et al., 2014). In fact, results from a cohort of studies have indicated many times that an increased intake of polyphenols may reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes (Adefegha and Oboh, 2013). Studies have also been conducted in animal models with physiologically realistic levels of isolated polyphenols (Del Rio et al., 2013) and in humans consuming flavonoid-rich foods (Dixon and Pasinetti, 2010). But among all the studies, it seems observable that certain foods provide more protection than others, with the best reults being shown in polyphenol-rich products, including tea, coffee, cocoa, and soy (Takemoto et al., 2017). Therefore, consumption of these polyphenol-rich foods has been shown to positively affect LDL-cholesterol, blood pressure (BP), and endothelial function (Dower et al., 2015), and reduce inflammation (Lesjak et al., 2018). Despite the documented beneficial effects, poor absorption, low systemic bioavailability, and short retention time of bioactive compounds and their metabolites may undermine their full chemopreventive potential, since some compounds do not enter the human body intact but are hydrolyzed in the intestinal tract and converted to other metabolites by colonic microbiota prior to absorption. It has been broadly accepted that disruption of the epigenome is a critical hallmark of human cancers and that certain changes such as diet can possibly reverse that condition

Wellness ingredients and functional foods

(Dammann et al., 2017). Evaluation and identification of the bioactive compounds involved in epigenome is crucial to develop epigenetically based preventions and more effective anticancer intervention strategies. Authors point out that all food compounds have the ability to act at the epigenetic level in cancer cells, in either positive or negative ways. Principally, plant derived compounds, such as polyphenols, have the capacity to reverse adverse epigenetic mutations in cancer cells, to inhibit tumorigenesis progression, to prevent the metastatic process, or to sensitize cancer cells to chemo and radiotherapy (Berghe, 2012). Natural food products have been shown to influence three crucial epigenetic processes, i.e., DNA methylation, histone modification, and microRNA expression. As indicated, these interventions based on the foods we eat could be quite promising, however, there are still problems in moving this scientific research towards clinical or public health practices (Chen and Kitts, 2017). In recent decades, it has been discovered how embryonic and adult stem cells are characterized by a capacity of self-renewal and by the activation of a hyperglycolytic metabolism, defined as aerobic glycolysis or Warburg effect (Lo´pez-La´zaro, 2008). This is combined with a decrease of mitochondrial respiration, compared to more differentiated and/or compromised cells within a tumor mass (Hensley et al., 2016; Pelicano et al., 2014). Almost all studies have been designed to treat these stem cells, for example, by inhibiting their renewal and chemoresistance (Bartucci et al., 2015; Paldino et al., 2014). Several phytochemicals and marine organisms are known to promote the downregulation of several self-renewal pathways; therefore, the following years will be key to elucidate these aspects and develop preventive treatments from components of the diet. Functional foods can be considered as treatments where they deliver beneficial agents, and should become an integral part of public health programs aimed at reducing disease risk. The seven-step process to design and development of functional foods would be: (1) identify a potential new bioactive ingredient; (2) evaluate the ingredient’s efficacy; (3) evaluate the ingredient’s safety; (4) formulate or select an appropriate food vehicle for the bioactive substance; (5) carry out independent peer review and regulatory oversight to ensure the accuracy of health claims; (6) communicate properly to consumers; and (7) use in-market surveillance to confirm the findings of the premarket assessments. All these steps should be considered for each new bioactive substance, the specific requirements within each step varying depending upon the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the functional component, the applicable regulatory requirements, and the health claims to be made (Wong et al., 2015).

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Currently there are no well-defined regulations for functional foods in the United States and other countries, except Japan. In fact, the first discussions regarding functional food and regulation related to this concept originated in Japan in the late 1980s (Westrate et al., 2007). Japan later continued to develop functional foods, particularly with regard to regulations related to the use of health claims on foods (Ashwell, 2002). In the USA, evidence-based health or disease prevention claims have been allowed since 1990, when the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act was adopted (Arvanitoyannis and Houwelingen-Koukaliaroglou, 2005). Regulation (EC) N° 1924/2006 in the European Union (EU) was achieved in 2006, with focus on nutrition and health claims made on foods (NHCR) (EC, 2006). The requirements were on health claims to be authorized before market entry (Verhagen and van Loveren, 2016). There is sign of fundamental use of health claims in EU countries, particularly in certain food categories, as has been pointed out by several authors (Hieke et al., 2016; Lop
ez-Gala´n and De-Magistris 2017; Pravst and Kusˇar, 2015). In a study carried out in EU countries in 2013, about 7–14% of prepacked foods in the selected EU countries were found to carry health claims (Hieke et al., 2016). With all this, we have to take into account that, while functional foods with health claims provide opportunity for fostering innovation in the food sector and improving public health, there are also potential risks associated with their use, for example the lack of beneficial health effects, or even health concerns, which may appear from the regular consumption of these foods. Consequently, many countries carefully regulate the use of health claims (De Boer and Bast, 2015; Pravst et al., 2018). The regulations mentioned in the following table relate to the labeling of conventional food and beverage products, which may apply to functional foods if, for instance, the labeling describes the health benefits of the product (Table 2).

4.1 Functional foods policy and regulations As noted above, the increasing public interest in dietary health benefits led to the development of different legislative texts on nutrition and health claims worldwide. Between the legislation of 28 jurisdictions, three clear differences can be found. The first one is concerning the labeling of different types of nutrition and health claims and their permission. The second difference is the discrepancies arising in the (premarketing) authorization procedures, and the last one is concerning the use of the scientific minority opinion in substantiating claims. There are parts of legislation that present critical differences and, although various approaches have positive points, no optimal approach to regulate nutrition and health claims has been applied yet (De Boer and Bast, 2015). Food regulations worldwide are designed to ensure health and safety standards through clear labeling and nutritional contents charts. Quality and correct information regarding nutritional contents and, in some cases, specific facts related to some diseases are the priority of these regulations (MOH, 2008). The set of regulations applies to producers and food

Table 2 Technologies for detection of bioactive compounds and methods the bioactive compounds action. Bioactive compound

Source

Detection

Phenolic compounds (flavonols, anthocyanidins, tanins) Protein

Berry fruits, tea, chocolate, citrus, vegetables

HPLC-HR-ESI-ToFMS SEC-TID (Granato et al., 2016) LC/MS SEC-TID (Schirle and Jenkins, 2016) UHPLC Orbitrap (Simirgiotis et al., 2017)

Soy

Fish and fish oils

Carotenoids (α y β carotene, lycopene and lutein)

Carrots fruits, vegetables

Dietary fiber (soluble fiber and β glucan)

Wheat bran, oats, barley

Pre and probiotics

Yogurt and dairy, powder-plant origin specially soy-based

LC/MS—CG UHPLC Vis-NIR (Cen and He, 2007) Yeast 3-hybrid ATRFTIR (Hell et al., 2016) qPCR (Ye et al., 2013) sequencing

Strengths of method

Real time assays

Identify and quantify compounds

Western blot qPCR

Identify direct targets

Spectrometry

Separate, Identify and quantify Volatile and semivolatile components if Complex mixtures Identify target compounds Aminoacids itemized

Profiling based method metabolomic

Mode of action models

Resistance selection

Identifies bypass mechanisms

Wellness ingredients and functional foods

Omega (ω3–6) fatty acids

Mechanism of action method

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companies (transporters, importers, and exporters included) regarding obligations, prohibitions, and sanctions, as well as allowing the consumer to have access to outstanding information and improving people’s health. The information includes marked containers or labels indicating ingredients, including all their additives expressed in decreasing order of proportions, and their nutritional information, expressed in percentage composition, weight unit, or under the nomenclature indicated by the regulations. This information should be visible and easily understood by the population (Ministry of Health, 2012). In general terms, official controls are regulated by state agencies from food, health, or agricultural departments and these bureaus apply strict sampling methods. In the case of products of animal origin, special attention is given to microbial contamination, while for foods of vegetable origin it is more exhaustive in terms of metal contents or pesticides and, in some cases, mycotoxins. The Codex Committee on Food Labelling (2013) published “Guidelines for Use of Nutrition and Health Claims,” which defined two kinds of claims: nutrition claims and health claims. Nutrition claims can be defined as any representation that states, suggests, or implies that a food has particular nutritional properties. These claims include three categories: (1) nutrient content claims describing the level of a nutrient contained in a food, (2) nutrient comparative claims, which compare the nutrient and/or energy levels of two or more foods, and (3) nonaddition claims describing that a specific ingredient has not been added to a food (Codex Committee on Food Labelling, 2013). On the other hand, for health claims, the Codex Committee define these claims as “any representation that states, suggests, or implies that a relationship exists between a food or a constituent of that food and health,” including three types of claims: (1) nutrient function claims, describing the physiological role of the nutrient in growth, development, and normal functions of the body; (2) other function claims, emphasizing specific beneficial effects of the consumption of foods or their constituents, relating to a positive contribution to health, or the improvement of a function, or to modifying or preserving health; and. (3) claims on reduction of disease risk, which relate the consumption of a food or food constituent, in the context of the total diet, to the reduced risk of developing a disease or health-related condition (Codex Committee on Food Labelling, 2013). These six categories can be used for virtually all claims, although not all jurisdictions agree to label them in the same way. Among the countries where this is occurring we can find India, Singapore, New Zealand, Brazil, most central American countries, the European Union, South Africa, Taiwan, Australia, Canada, China, Ecuador, the USA, Chile, and Japan. Although, we have to take into account that legislation in Chile, Japan, and Taiwan does not specifically address the use of nutrient comparative claims (Malla et al., 2013). It is important to remember that Japan was the first jurisdiction to regulate functional foods and their commercial applications, by means of the FOSHU (Foods for

Wellness ingredients and functional foods

Specific Health Use), which was based on research initiated in 1984 on the effects of these foods (Lalor and Wall, 2011). The use of a list with permitted claims could increase the availability of claims on the market, because companies can easily use a claim from the permitted list on their product. This should be positive for consumers, since they are more exposed to health messages on products (De Boer and Bast, 2015). The growing scientific support for, and consumer and industry interest in, functional food, its role in the diet, health, and disease has prompted governments to review their policies on health claims for foods. Nevertheless, only developed countries have so far included bioactive compounds and functional food in their current procedures. Table 3 shows descriptions of food regulations that have come up in the last 10 years.

Table 3 Description of food regulations for different countries in the last 10 years. Country

Organization

Type of regulation

Terms/claims

United States

Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act Public Health Security

Formal regulatory category—not established for FF specifically (Wong et al., 2015)

Australia and New Zealand Canada

Food Standard Code

Not specific regulation

Functional foods can be regulated as a conventional food, a dietary supplement, a food for special dietary use, a medical food, or a drug and often these distinctions are based depending on the intended use and nature of the claim(s) Information on general labeling and requirements that are relevant to all foods

Food and Drugs Act 1985

Not specific for food

Global Agricultural Information Network (GAIN)

Procedure (MOH, 2008)

China

Establishes regulatory authority over food. And provides assistance to companies interested in marketing functional foods Basic principles and requirements for the nutrition labeling and claims on prepackaged foods directly offered to consumers Continued

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Table 3 Description of food regulations for different countries in the last 10 years.—cont’d Country

Organization

Type of regulation

Terms/claims

European Union

European Commission

Food and functional food labeled

Rules for the use of health or nutritional claims on food products based on nutrient profiles to ensure that any claim made on a food label in the EU is clear and substantiated by scientific evidence

India

Food Safety and Standards Authority Consumer Affairs Agency Food for Specified Health Uses (FOSHU) Food for Specified Health Uses (FOSHU)

(Packaging and labeling) Regulations (Keservani et al., 2014) Label standard Eligible foods must bear a seal

Ministry of Health—Food Act and Food regulation GAIN Report by the USDA Foreign Agricultural Service Rules and regulations— government AgriFood and Veterinary Authority

Foods and beverages

Japan

Malaysia

Mexico

Philippines

Singapore

labeling

Food regulations labeling requirements

The system of “Foods with function”: Guidance for industry developing and introducing legislation regarding food labeling standards Foods containing ingredient with functions for health and its physiological effects on the human body Health claims.

Requirements for prepackaged food and beverage products commercialized.

Labeling standards for packaged food products distributed Guide to food labeling and advertisements—helps food importers, manufacturers, and retailers better understand the labeling requirements of the Food Regulations

Wellness ingredients and functional foods

5. Conclusion As we have seen throughout the chapter, functional foods are of great interest within our society since they have been shown, in some cases, to be effective against certain diseases. In addition, these functional foods can come from various sources; although the most studied have been from plant or animal sources. However, it should be noted that there is still much research to be done in seeking new functional compounds. Regarding the legislative issue, we have already seen that there is not yet a clear consensus among all countries, but a certain tendency to regulate functional foods can be visualized, since Codex Alimentarius establishes international codes of conduct regarding food hygiene and other guidelines for correct production and handling; therefore, adopting ethical behaviors and offering guarantees of quality and safety. The labors of the Codex Alimentarius Committee to internationally standardize the supervision of nutrition and health claims should lead developments and improvements of legislation, to encourage work of the industry in the field of functional foods, and enhance the chance for consumers to use health-enhancing products.

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CHAPTER 2

Fruit-based functional food Ming Cai

Department of Food Science and Technology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, China

Contents 1. Introduction 2. Active ingredients in fruits 2.1 Phenolic compounds 2.2 Dietary fiber 2.3 Essential oil and terpenoids 2.4 Pectin 2.5 Other ingredients 3. Advanced techniques for active ingredients extraction 4. Current products of fruit-based functional food 5. Current understanding and future trends References

35 36 38 46 52 56 57 58 62 63 64

1. Introduction Some chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases (CVD), diabetes, obesity, and cancer, account for about 59% of the 56.5 million deaths and 45.9% of the global burden of disease, annually. It is estimated that up to 80% of CVD, 90% of type 2 diabetes and 30% of cancers could be avoided by lifestyle changes, such as daily diet. Some symptoms like high cholesterol, high blood pressure, and obesity are related to insufficient consumption of foods, especially fruits. Fruits are important sources of a wide range of nutrients, phytochemicals, and fiber. Strong evidence shows that fruit consumption daily can prevent a great number of chronic diseases, including CVD and cancers (Klerk et al., 1998; IARC, 2003; WHO, 2003; Robertson et al., 2004). Daily intake of fresh fruit in an adequate quantity (about 400–500 g/day), can reduce the risk of CVD and high blood pressure. In the United Kingdom, it is advised for health promotion that people should intake about five portions of fruit each (at least 80 g) daily (Williams, 1995). Fruits are considered as the most attractive source as a health food for humans, and fruit consumption is increasing worldwide. Active ingredients from fruit or fruit-based foods in health promotion or disease prevention have been widely evidenced (TejadaOrtigoza et al., 2016; Sun-Waterhouse, 2011). Fruits, such as orange, blueberry, strawberry, grape, apple, banana, and tomato, have demonstrated strong evidence of health effects on human bodies because of their various active constituents and nutrients. Accordingly, an enormous demand for an increased variety of functional food ingredients The Role of Alternative and Innovative Food Ingredients and Products in Consumer Wellness https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816453-2.00002-4

© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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with health enhancement properties made from fruits or fruit ingredients has occurred. Currently, more and more fruit-based functional foods are being developed for consumers. Phytochemicals are bioactive compounds found in fruits, which have been linked to reductions in the risk of major chronic diseases. Currently, >45,000 phytochemicals have been identified and an increasing number are being associated with potential health benefits (Croteau et al., 2000). Phytochemicals in fruit can be strongly influenced by variety, ripeness, and environment, even within the same class. The major constituents of fruits are sugars, polysaccharides, organic acids, polyphenols, pectin, lipids, etc. Minor constituents, including pigments and aroma substances, are important to their sensory quality, and vitamins and minerals are important for nutrition. In apples, dry matter is 16.0%, total sugar, titratable acidity, dietary fiber, and pectin are about 11.1%, 0.6%, 2.1%, and 0.6%, respectively. In pears, dry matter, total sugar, titratable acidity, dietary fiber, and pectin are about 17.5%, 12.4%, 0.2%, 3.1%, and 0.5%, respectively. For oranges, dry matter, total sugar, titratable acidity, and dietary fiber are 14.3%, 8.3%, 1.1%, and 1.6%, respectively. Because of the fresh and health characteristics of fruits, functional juices or drinks became the most common fruit-based functional food in many countries, such as in the United States, Japan, Korea, New Zealand, and China (Corbo et al., 2014). A great number of fruits, such as apple, blueberry, blackcurrant, bilberry, cherry, cranberry, peach, grape, pomegranate, guarana, mango, kiwifruit, and strawberry, are used in these functional juices or drinks (Sun-Waterhouse, 2011; Corbo et al., 2014; Serafini and Peluso, 2016). Some fruit-based functional foods, including fruit sources and active ingredients, are illustrated in Table 1. These fruits have been determined to contain various nutrients and health-promoting ingredients, such as polyphenols, dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals, etc. (Tejada-Ortigoza et al., 2016). Active constituents like polyphenols are usually considered to have antioxidant activities that can change the nature of the gastrointestinal tract, etc.

2. Active ingredients in fruits Fruits contain a large amount of phytochemicals, which are considered to be responsible for their positive bioactivities and functions. Phytochemicals can accumulate in the fruits in relatively high amounts, and have dozens of supplemental roles in a fruit’s life cycle. These secondary metabolites are considered to be bioactive chemicals responsible for health promotions for humans, they also are actually produced to provide the fruit with adaptive strategies. Accordingly, fruits or their ingredients are recommended as functional food sources because of the health benefits provided by the active ingredients. As we known, these active phytochemicals are widely acceptable by their antioxidants (polyphenols, etc.), dietary fiber, vitamins, minerals, etc.

Fruit-based functional food

Table 1 Some fruit-based functional foods (Tejada-Ortigoza et al., 2016). No.

Fruit-based functional food

Active ingredients

Fruit source

1

Fruit alginate mixed gel systems

Fruit-alginate interactions and their effect on gel formation

Peach

2 3

Blueberry fruit drinks Cranberry extract powders enriched with phytonutrients Blended berry fruit juices

4

5 6

7

8

9

10

11 12

Enrichment for cereal products Antioxidant functional juices

Novel blackcurrant juices containing probiotic cultures Naturally colored breakfast cereals in opaque bags An isotonic soft drink containing anthocyanin extracts from acerola (with high ascorbic acid content), and from acai (rich in flavonoids) Fruit juice supplements with probiotic cultures Fruit juice and skim milk mixtures Fruit fiber and polyphenol smoothie

Alleviating the symptoms of urinary tract infection Flavonoids, vitamins and minerals Flavonoids, fiber, and vitamins Flavonoids (anthocyanins, flavonols, hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives, stilbenoids, flavan-3-ols, ellagic acid derivatives), phenolic acids

Blueberry Cranberry

Raspberry, strawberry, blackberry, blueberry, blackcurrant, gooseberry Fruit and vegetable juice powders Chokeberry, elderberry, blackcurrant redcurrant, red grape, cherry, strawberry, raspberry plum, juice Blackcurrant

Phenolics and anthocyanins

Flavonoid, ascorbic acid

Lactobacillus and bifidobacterium strains in fruit juice Polyphenols, etc. Polyphenols of apple and blackcurrant, apple fiber

Fruit powder (blueberry, cranberry, Concord grape, raspberry) Acerola

Orange juice, pineapple juice and cranberry juice Citrus fruits (lemons or oranges) Apple

Because of these active ingredients and their health benefits, fruits have the most potential to be developed into functional foods for health promotion. As a result of huge studies, phenolic compounds, dietary fiber, essential oils and terpenoids, and pectins are considered as the main active ingredients in fruits for fruit-based functional foods (Desjardins et al., 2008).

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2.1 Phenolic compounds Phenolic compounds exist in daily food, originating from plants like fruits, vegetables, and cereals. These compounds are the main active ingredients in numerous fruits, such as grapes, berries, apples, oranges, etc. Most frequent antioxidants in our diet are phenolic compounds. Phenolics are a group of secondary metabolites in fruits, which are famous for their bioactivities to protect against oxidative stress and to elicit cardio protecting, antiinflammatory activity, etc. (Bermu´ldez-Soto and Toma´s-Barbera´n, 2004; Nunes et al., 2016; Abbas et al., 2017). As a mechanism, phenolics have a prooxidant property, which can prevent the metabolic process of cells so as to block cell propagation and apoptosis. Studies also show that many other effects of phenolic compounds have been investigated, such as the reduction of enzymes like lipoxygenase and telomerase (Tamborrino et al., 2014). Phenolic compounds have a series of complex structures with the basic monomer of a phenolic ring, mainly including two classes, flavonoids and phenolic acids. Among these, flavonoids are further divided into flavones, flavonones, flavonols, flavanols, isoflavones, and anthocyanidins; phenolic acids are classified into hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acids (Abbas et al., 2017). Some main phenolic compounds and their structures in some typical fruits are summarized in Table 2, according to references. Among these phenolics, flavonoids are the most studied active ingredients for fruit-based functional foods because of their high content and activities in different fruits. Flavonoids have two benzene rings, connected with a three-carbon chain from the nearby pyran ring (Abbas et al., 2017). Its general structure is C6-C3-C6, and contains two units of phenolic nature (C6). As one kind of flavonoid, flavonols appear to be the most widespread in fruits. Quercetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetin, and myricetin are the main flavonols. Quercetin, the most common dietary flavonol, is found as sugar conjugates in a wide range of fruits and vegetables, with the highest concentrations occurring in onions (Allium cepa) (Hertog et al., 1992). The main flavonols in onions are glycosylated derivatives, principally quercetin-40 -O-glucoside and quercetin-3,40 -O-diglucoside, with smaller amounts of isorhamnetin-40 -O-glucoside (Mullen et al., 2004). Quercetin conjugates, such as quercetin-3-O-galactoside and quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside are found in apples (Malus pumila) (Clifford et al., 2003; Kahle et al., 2005), while quercetin-3-O-rutinoside (rutin) is the predominant flavonol in tomatoes. Kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, another flavonol, is found in kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa) and conjugates of myricetin occur in berries (Peterson and Dwyer, 1998). A great number of flavonols are also present in red grapes (Vitis vinifera) (Crozier et al., 2006a), also including conjugates of myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol, and isorhamnetin. Flavones are very similar to flavonols in structure and differ only in the absence of hydroxylation at the 3-position on the C-ring. The main flavones in our diet are apigenin and luteolin. Flavones are not widely distributed with high concentrations in fruits and vegetables, only being reported in celery (Apium graveolens), parsley (Petroselinum crispum), and artichoke (Cynara scolymus) (Crozier et al., 2006b). Flavone conjugates, such as the

Table 2 Typical polyphenols in fruits. Phenolic compound

Basic structure

Fruits

Phenolic acids

C6-C1

Blueberry, bilberry, white currant, cloudberry, rowanberry (Pereira et al., 2018), cranberry (Oszmianski et al., 2016) Cranberry (Oszmianski et al., 2016), muscadine (Yousef et al., 2014), chokeberry, chokeberry, blackcurrant, red grape (Renard, 2018), berries (Renard, 2018), grape (Abbas et al., 2017), ac¸aı´ acerola, pineapple, guava, soursop, mango, tamarind pineapple (Blair et al., 1995)

R3¢ 3¢

Anthocyanins 7

R

7

R6 6

1 O+

8

5 R5

2¢ 1¢ 2 3

4

4¢ 4¢ R

5¢ R5¢

6¢ R3

Cranberry (Oszmianski et al., 2016), chocolate, cider, fruits (Renard, 2018), grape (Abbas et al., 2017)

Flavanols O

OH 3¢

Flavonols

2¢ 8 7

1 O

2

4¢

1¢

5¢

Cranberry (Oszmianski et al., 2016), chokeberry, blackcurrant (Renard, 2018), grape (Abbas et al., 2017)

6¢

6

4

3

5

OH

O

Flavonoids

C6-C3-C6 2¢ 8 7 6

1 O

4

4¢

1¢ 2

5¢ 6¢

3

5 O

Continued

Fruit-based functional food

3¢

flavanones

Muscadine (Yousef et al., 2014), ac¸aı´ acerola, pineapple, guava, soursop, mango and tamarind pineapple (Paz et al., 2015) Citrus (Renard, 2018)

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40

Phenolic compound

Basic structure

Fruits 3¢

Flavones

4¢

2¢ 1 O

8 7

2

1¢

Mandarin (Abbas et al., 2017)

5¢ 6¢

6

3

4 5 O O

Gallic acid

OH

HO

Black jamun (Gajera et al., 2017), grape (Abbas et al., 2017), calabura (Pereira et al., 2018) OH

OH OH

Catechin O

HO

Black jamun (Gajera et al., 2017),elderberry, boysenberry, blackcurrant, strawberry, redcurrant, blackberry, kiwifruit, raspberry (Hunter et al., 2008), persimmon, raspberries, black myrobalan (Asgar, 2013), grape (Abbas et al., 2017)

OH OH

OH HO

Chlorogenic acid

CO2H

Black jamun (Gajera et al., 2017)

O HO

O OH

OH OH O

Caffeic acid

Black jamun (Gajera et al., 2017)

HO OH

HO O

Ferulic acid

Black jamun (Gajera et al., 2017)

H3CO OH

HO O

Ellagic acid

HO

Black jamun (Gajera et al., 2017), strawberry, raspberry (Renard, 2018), raspberries (Asgar, 2013)

O

OH

HO

O O

OH

The role of alternative and innovative food ingredients and products in consumer wellness

Table 2 Typical polyphenols in fruits.—cont’d

OH

Quercetin

Black jamun (Gajera et al., 2017)

OH O

HO

OH OH

O

Ellagitannins (Castalin)

Cyanidin-3-Oglucoside

Blackberries, strawberries, raspberries (Pereira et al., 2018)

OH

Grape (Pereira et al., 2018)

OH + O

HO

HO OH

OH

O

OH HO

Cranberry (Oszmianski et al., 2016)

Dihydrochalcone

Fruit-based functional food

OH

Procyanidin

Grape (Abbas et al., 2017), persimmon (Asgar, 2013)

O

HO

OH OH

OH O

OH

OH

HO OH OH

Continued

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42

Phenolic compound

Basic structure

Fruits OH

Resveratrol

Peanut (Renard, 2018)

HO

OH

Cyanidin-3,5-Odiglucoside

OH

Raspberries (Asgar, 2013)

HO +

O

OH

O HO

O

O

O

HO

OH OH

HO OH

OH

OH OH

Chebulanin

O OH

Black myrobalan (Asgar, 2013)

O

HO

O

O

O

OH

OH

OH HO

O

OH

O O

O

HO O

Chebulagic acid

OH

HO

Black myrobalan (Asgar, 2013)

HO OH HO

O

OH

OO

HO

O O

O O O

O

O

OH

O O

OH OH

HO HO

O O

OH

The role of alternative and innovative food ingredients and products in consumer wellness

Table 2 Typical polyphenols in fruits.—cont’d

Chebulinic acid

OH

HO

Black myrobalan (Asgar, 2013)

OH HO

HO

O O

HO

O

O

O O O

OH

O

O

OH

O O

O

OH OH

HO HO

OH

O O

OH

Gallocatechin

Grape (Abbas et al., 2017) OH

O

HO

OH

OH OH

Hesperidin

OH

HO

OH

Orange (Abbas et al., 2017)

O

H3C

OH OCH3

O

HO

O

H3C

O

O

OH

OH

O

OH

Eriodictyol

Lemon (Abbas et al., 2017) OH

OH

Hydroxycinnamates

O

HO

O

Grape (Nunes et al., 2016) OH

Fruit-based functional food

O

HO

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The role of alternative and innovative food ingredients and products in consumer wellness

7-O-(200 -O-apiosyl) glucosides of apigenin, luteolin, and chrysoeriol, are found in celery (Herrmann, 1976), while artichoke contains luteolin-7-O-glucoside, luteolin7-O-rutinoside, and apigenin-7-O-rutinoside (Wang et al., 2003). In fruits of citrus species, polymethoxylated flavones such as nobiletin, scutellarein, sinensetin, and tangeretin are found (Crozier et al., 2006a). Flavaols, also called flavan-3-ols, are the most complex kind of flavonoids, ranging from the simple (+)-catechin and its isomer (+)-epicatechin, to the polymeric proanthocyanidins, which are also called condensed tannins. Flavaols are widely distributed in the body of fruits such as apricots (Prunus armeniaca), sour cherries (Prunus cerasus), grapes, and blackberries (Rubus sp.) (Porter, 1988). Seeds of red grapes contain great quantities of (+)-catechin, ()-epicatechin, procyanidin oligomers, and polymers (Gu et al., 2004). Apples are a good source of ()-epicatechin and the procyanidin dimers B1 and B2, and peaches (Prunus persica) and nectarines (Prunus persica var. nectarina) contain (+)-catechin, ()-epicatechin, and proanthocyanidins including procyanidin B1. It has been found that flavaols can esterify with gallic acid to form catechin gallates and undergo hydroxylation reactions to form gallocatechins (Stewart et al., 2005). Flavanones, typically including naringenin, hesperetin, and eriodictyol, are characterized by two structural features, the absence of a Δ2, 3 double bond, and the presence of a chiral center at the carbon-2 (Iwashina, 2000). Flavanones are mainly found in citrus fruit and mainly contribute to the flavor, such as hesperetin conjugates (Peterson and Dwyer, 1998). Narirutin (naringenin-7-O-rutinoside), and hesperidin (hesperetin-7-O-rutinoside) are two typical flavanones, usually found in citrus peel and, to a lesser extent, in the fleshy segments. Hesperidin has also been reported in kiwifruits (D
egen
eve, 2004), while naringin has been found in banana (Musca cavendishii) and grapefruit (Citrus paradisi) peel (Peterson and Dwyer, 1998). These compounds, together with neohesperidin (hesperetin-7-O-neohesperidoside) from the orange (Citrus aurantium), have an intensely bitter taste (Crozier et al., 2006a). Anthocyanidins are mainly present in nature as the anthocyanins, and particularly as different colors—red, blue, and purple—in fruit. They are involved in the protection of plants against excessive light by shading leaf mesophyll cells and also have an important role to play in attracting pollinating insects. Some of the anthocyanidins, like pelargonidin, cyanidin, peonidin, delphinidin, petunidin, and malvidin, are widely distribution in fruit (Iwashina, 2000). Anthocyanins occur in abundance in berries; therefore, the fruits have colors like red, yellow and pink. It has been proved that cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon), blackberry, and elderberry (Sambucus nigra) contain derivatives of one type of anthocyanin, while blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) and blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum) have a wide range of anthocyanins. Anthocyanins in sweet cherries (Prunus avium) and sour cherries (Prunus cerasus), such as cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, and peonidin-3-rutinoside have been studied (Wu et al., 2004). It has been reported that plums (Prunus domestica) and peaches are also a rich source of cyanidin-3-O-glucoside and cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside (Crozier et al., 2006a).

Fruit-based functional food

Isoflavones, another kind of flavonoid, have a very limited distribution in plants, with a great many being found only in some leguminous species (Graham, 1991; Dixon and Steele, 1999). Isoflavones such as genistein, daidzein, and glycitein, commonly exist in soybeans (Glycine max), black beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), and green peas (Pisum sativum). Structures of isoflavones differ from the typical flavonoid structure because the typical ring is attached to the C3 rather than the C2 position. Isoflavones can be modifications, such as methylation, hydroxylation, or polymerization. These modifications can lead to some simple structures, such as isoflavanones, isoflavans, and isoflavanols, or more complex substances including rotenoids, pterocarpans, and coumestans (Dewick, 1993). Isoflavones have received much attention due to their putative role in the prevention of breast cancer and osteoporosis (Barnes, 2003). Phenolic acids with a structure of C6-C1, hydroxycinammates of C6-C3, and polyphenolic of C6-C2-C6 also significantly exist in fruits. The structure of phenolic acids usually have a principal component like gallic acid. Gallic acid is the base unit of gallotannins, whereas gallic acid and hexahydroxydiphenoyl moieties are both subunits of the ellagitannins. Ellagic acid commonly exists in berries, particularly in raspberries (Rubus idaeus), strawberries (Fragariaananassa), and blackberries (Amakura et al., 2000). However, free ellagic acid is normally present in low levels in berries because most of them commonly contain ellagitannins, such as sanguiin H-6 and lambertianin C, which can release ellagic acid when treated with acid (Mullen et al., 2002). The biological properties of phenolic compounds primarily depend on their bioavailability. Their properties of absorption in intestines are according to their different molecular structures. When a phenolic-rich food has been eaten, the concentrations of phenolic compounds can be determined in plasma and urine. The antioxidant potential of plasma is proved with the evidence for quantifying the absorption of these compounds in the intestines. The content of total phenolics in plasma gradually decreases when a number of flavonoids are absorbed in the intestines. It has been found that quercetin has a relatively higher elimination half-life because plasma albumin has a high affinity (Yao et al., 2011). Flavones, isoflavones, flavonols, and anthocyanins are frequently glycosylated during digestion processing. Cardiovascular disease, from its initiation, propagation, and development, are affected by environmental and genetic factors. Studies have demonstrated that fruits with higher polyphenols have a higher potential for ensuring cardiac safety (Santhakumar et al., 2018a). It has been proved that most fruits, such as purple grapes, have beneficial effects on cardiac health. Their antioxidant potential is related to these cardioprotective properties. During the protection process, they reduce blood pressure, with improved function of endothelial tissues, and the aggregation of platelets is inhibited by the reduction in oxidation of low-density lipoprotein (Abbas et al., 2017; Santhakumar et al., 2018a). By consumption of food rich in flavanols, flavonols, and flavones, an inverse relationship has been found in coronary disease ( Joshipura et al., 2001). An 11% reduction in the risk of

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The role of alternative and innovative food ingredients and products in consumer wellness

cardiovascular disease happened by having a phenolic-rich drink every day. Deaths rate caused by cardiovascular disease were reduced with ingestion of flavanones and anthocyanins. The mechanism for explanation of this phenomenon is that phenolic compounds have the ability to amend the activity and level of an enzyme and nitric oxide synthase, and the bioavailability of nitric oxide for endothelium (Medjkouh et al., 2016). A daily intake of fruits with high phenolic compounds can also promote prevention of the occurrence and progression of cancer. In the last decades, many studies have shown that the consumption of fruits have a relationship with the reduction of several types of cancer (Abbas et al., 2017; Cirmi et al., 2018). Many fruits with some phenolic compounds and other bioactive compounds can have possible potential and protective effects against the development of cancer, especially in the gastrointestinal tract, in which phenolics have a stronger concentration. In fact, many studies have shown that different fruits rich in phenolics and other bioactive compounds are effective in protecting against the development of colon cancer. Mechanisms of its anticancer activities have been investigated and demonstrated, including withdrawal of cancer cell signaling carcinogenic agents and cell cycle progression, promotion, apoptosis, and modulation of enzymatic activities (Dei Cas and Ghidoni, 2018). In another aspect, a diet rich in high phenolic compounds can also lead to a low risk of diabetes, as proved by many studies, which show diabetes may be remedied and treated with these phenolics due to their biological properties (Asgar, 2013). In epidemiological studies, low risk of diabetes had been related to a diet rich in high phenolic content providing a strong antioxidant capacity. The mechanisms of these treatments have been discussed. It has been seen in rats that a high intake of phenolics showed protection from oxidative damage induced by increased glucose, and reduction in the activity of enzymes involved in the release of glucose in the gastrointestinal tract from the starch (Abbas et al., 2017; Cao et al., 2018). Glycemic control can be enhanced by the following mechanisms: (i) the prevention of glucose induced toxicity and oxidative stress to protect pancreatic β-cells; (ii) the inhibition of absorption and digestion of starch; (iii) the reduction of glucose release from the liver; and. (iv) the enhancement of glucose endorsement in muscles and other peripheral tissues (Blair et al., 1995).

2.2 Dietary fiber “Dietary fiber consists of remnants of plant cells resistant to hydrolysis (digestion) by the alimentary enzymes of man”—the most consistent definition, given by Trowell, and now accepted widely. Its components are hemicellulose, cellulose, lignin, oligosaccharides, pectins, gums, and waxes. The American Association of Cereal Chemists, in 2000, defined dietary fiber as the edible parts of a plant or analogous carbohydrates that are resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine with complete or partial

Fruit-based functional food

fermentation in the large intestine. In 2001, Food Standards Australia New Zealand defined dietary fiber as that fraction of the edible part of plants or their extracts, or analogous carbohydrates, that are resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine, usually with complete or partial fermentation in the large intestine. The panel of the National Academy of Science, in 2002, defined the dietary fiber complex as dietary fiber consisting of nondigestible carbohydrates and lignin that are intrinsic and intact in plants; functional fibers consisting of isolated, nondigestible carbohydrates, which have beneficial physiological effects in humans, and total fiber as the sum of dietary fiber and functional fiber. Dietary fiber has attracted wide interests because of its well acceptable physiological and functional properties for human health. It is a part of plant material that includes cellulose, hemicellulose, pectic substances, gums, mucilages, and a noncarbohydrate component: lignin (Dhingra et al., 2012). It is resistant to enzymatic digestion. The most widely accepted classification for dietary fiber is based on the different dietary components on their solubility in a defined pH buffer, or their fermentability in an in vitro system using an aqueous enzyme solution. Most dietary fiber is classified into two categories such as water-insoluble fibers of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and the watersoluble fibers of pectin, gums, and mucilages. Contents of these compounds in several fruit sources have also been evaluated. Cellulose is the major cell wall component in plants, an unbranched linear chain of several thousand glucose units with β-1,4 glucosidic linkages. Its properties of strong mechanical strength, resistance to biological degradation, low aqueous solubility, and resistance to acid hydrolysis is considered to be due to hydrogen bonding in the microfibrils. It has been shown that cellulose is insoluble in strong alkali, and there is about 10%–15% portion of cellulose, referred to as “amorphous,” which is more readily acid hydrolyzed (Aspinall, 1970). Cellulose cannot be digested to any extent by enzymes of the human gastrointestinal system. Hemicelluloses are cell wall polysaccharides solubilized by aqueous alkali after removal of water soluble and pectic polysaccharides. They contain skeletons of glucose units with β-1,4 glucosidic bonds, but they are smaller in size, contain a variety of sugars, and are usually branched, which is different from cellulose (Santhakumar et al., 2018b). They usually contain xylose, and some contain galactose, mannose, arabinose, and other sugars (Anita and Abraham, 1997). Lignin is a complex polymer, but not a polysaccharide, including about 40 oxygenated phenylpropane units such as coniferyl, sinapyl, and p-coumaryl alcohols (Braums, 1952; Schubert, 1956; Theander and Aman, 1979). They are different in molecular weight and methoxyl content. Lignin is not active because of their strong intramolecular bonding, such as carbon to carbon bonds. Accordingly, it shows a greater resistance than any other polymer and other fibers. Pectin is a complex group of polysaccharides with a principal constituent of D-galacturonic acid. They are structural components of plant cell walls and also act as

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The role of alternative and innovative food ingredients and products in consumer wellness

intercellular cementing substances. Pectin is highly water-soluble and can be completely metabolized by colonic bacteria. Because of their gelling properties, these soluble polysaccharides may decrease the rate of gastric emptying and influence small intestinal transit time ( Jenkins et al., 1978). As an important ingredient for functional food, detailed information on pectin will be introduced in Section 2.4. Gums and mucilages are the types of plant fibers that are formed in specialized secretory plant cells but not cell wall components (Van Denffer et al., 1976). As a kind of polysaccharides, they are highly branched and can form gels, and bind water and other organic material. Gums are sticky exudations formed in response to trauma (i.e., gum arabic). It can be used as a soluble dietary fiber by partial enzymatic hydrolysis. The physiological effects of this fiber source comply with what might be expected from a soluble fiber. Gum arabic is extracted from the acacia tree, and is a complex arabinogalactan polysaccharide in admixture with a glycoprotein. Mucilage is a thick, gluey substance produced by nearly all plants and some microorganisms. Mucilage in plants plays a role in the storage of water and food, seed germination, and thickening membranes. Dietary fiber is a complex mixture of polysaccharides with many different activities and functions during digestion in the gastrointestinal tract. Many of these functions and activities depend on the physico-chemical properties, such as particle size, surface area, hydration, solubility and viscosity, adsorption ability, etc. Particle size plays an important role that can affect some things during digestion including transit time, fermentation, and fecal excretion. The difference of particle size depends on the type of cell walls existing in the foods, and on their degree of processing. Particle size of fiber may vary during the digestion as a result of chewing, grinding, and bacterial degradation. Raghavendra evaluated the grinding characteristics of coconut residue and observed that the reduction in the particle size from 550 to 1127 μm resulted in increased hydration properties (Raghavendra et al., 2006). This may be due to increase in surface area and total pore volume as well as structural modification. At a size smaller than 550 μm, the hydration properties were found to decrease due to decrease in particle size during grinding. The fat absorption capacity was also reported to increase with decreasing size. Surface area, mainly affected by its porosity, can influence the availability of dietary fiber to microbial degradation in the colon, while the surface layer may play a role in some physiochemical properties like adsorption or binding of some molecules. The porosity and surface available for bacteria or molecular probes such as enzymes will depend on the architecture of the fiber, which is related to its origin and processing history (Guillon et al., 1998). Hydration property is one of the most important factors that can determine the physiological effects of dietary fiber and the characteristics in digestion. Swelling and water retention capacity are two indices which can provide a general view of fiber hydration. They will provide useful information for fiber enrichment in foods. Water absorption of

Fruit-based functional food

the fiber provides more information, in particular its substrate pore volume. It helps our understanding of the behavior of fiber in foods or during digestion. Treatments, such as grinding, drying, and heating, modifies the physical properties of the fiber, and all can affect its hydration properties (Thibault et al., 1992). The process factors such as temperature, pH, ionic strength, dielectric constant of the surrounding solution, and nature of the ions can also influence the hydration characteristics, especially the charged groups such as carboxyl in fibers rich in pectin, carboxyl, and sulfate groups in fibers from algae (Fleury and Lahaye, 1991; Renard et al., 1994). Solubility has significant effects on the functionality of fiber. It has been proved that soluble polysaccharides can prevent the digestion and absorption of nutrients by the gut. If the polysaccharide structure is such that molecules fit together in a crystalline array, the polymer is likely to be energetically more stable in the solid state than in solution (Guillon and Champ, 2000). It has been demonstrated that with more branching—like gum arabic—the presence of ionic groups, such as pectin methoxylation, and the potential for inter unit positional bonding, like β-glucans with mixed β-1-3 and β-1-4 linkages, can increase the solubility. The differences of their monosaccharide units and molecular forms can increase their solubility, as in gum arabic, arabinogalactan, and xanthan gum. Fiber has the abilities of adsorption or binding of ions and organic molecules because charged polysaccharide, such as pectins through their carboxyl groups, and associated substances such as phytates in cereal fibers, have been proven to bind metal ions. Charged polysaccharides do not affect mineral and trace element absorption, while associated substances can have a negative effect. The environmental conditions such as duration of exposure, pH, the physical and chemical forms of fibers, and nature of bile acids may influence their adsorption capacity (Thibault et al., 1992; Dongowski and Ehwald, 1998). Fibers in different foods are different in amount and composition. A fiber-rich diet is lower in energy density, lower in fat content, larger in volume, and richer in micronutrients. It is suggested that healthy adults should eat between 20 and 35 g of dietary fiber each day. Several foods with nonstarch provide up to 20–35 g of fiber/100 g dry weight and others containing starch provide about 10 g/100 g of dry weight. The content of fiber in fruits and vegetables is about 1.5–2.5 g/100 g of dry weight, which also shown in Fig. 1 (Selvendran and Robertson, 1994). Lambo demonstrated that, usually, about 50% of the fiber intake in western countries was from cereals, one of the main sources of dietary fiber, about 30%–40% dietary fiber may come from vegetables, about 16% from fruits and the remaining 3% from other minor sources (Lambo et al., 2005). Foods like fruits with a high content of fiber have a positive effect on health leading to a decreased incidence of several diseases. Dietary fiber has beneficial effects like increasing the volume of fecal bulk, decreasing the time of intestinal transit, cholesterol, and glycemic levels, trapping substances that can be dangerous for the human organism, stimulating the proliferation of the intestinal flora, etc. (Tejada-Ortigoza et al., 2016; Gajera et al., 2017).

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The role of alternative and innovative food ingredients and products in consumer wellness

Fig. 1 Dietary fiber content of various fruits (Gajera et al., 2017; Garcia-Amezquita et al., 2018).

Dietary fiber has effects on the stool, and the mechanism by which stool bulk and laxation is promoted varies for different fibers. Guar gum is readily fermented by the human fecal microbiota, improves bowel functioning and relieves constipation in patients (Salyers et al., 1977; Takahashi et al., 1994). The fiber may act as a protective factor in cancer of the large bowel by shortening transit time, and reduce the time for formation and action of carcinogens in the intestinal tract. Graham reported that eating certain fiber-rich vegetables was inversely related to the frequency of large bowel cancer (Graham et al., 1978). Improvements in diabetic control have been reported in both mild and moderate diabetics on high-fiber diets containing a normal or high proportion of carbohydrate. It was suggested that the large amount of fiber from fruit and vegetable is partly responsible for the low levels of plasma cholesterol (Anderson et al., 1973). A variety of fiber-rich foods such as wheat straw, oats, soy beans, rice bran, apples, legumes, and mucilaginous fiber were shown to reduce the atherogenicity of semisynthetic diets with or without added fat and sterol (Heller et al., 1980). Pectin, guar gum, and gum arabic also show a hypolipidic effect on humans, lowering both serum cholesterol and triglycerides (Kay and Truswell, 1977; Takahashi et al., 1993). Dietary fibers from fruits and plants can be classified as water-insoluble and watersoluble. Water-insoluble includes cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Cellulose is the main structural component of the plant cell wall, specifically an organic compound with the formula (C6H10O5)n, a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to many thousands of β(1 !4) linked D-glucose units. It is insoluble in concentrated alkali, soluble in concentrated acid, existing in some vegetables, sugar beet, and various brans. Hemicellulose is a cell wall polysaccharide that contains a backbone of β-1,4 glucosidic linkages. They can be soluble in dilute alkali solution. Lignin, usually from woody plants, is a noncarbohydrate cell wall component, and complex cross-linked phenyl

Fruit-based functional food

propane polymer. It can resist bacterial degradation. Pectin is a water-soluble fiber, which is a primary cell wall with D-galacturonic acid as principal components. It usually obtained from fruits, vegetables, legumes, sugar beet, and potatoes. Gums are secreted at sites of plant injury by specialized secretary cells, and can be used in food and pharmaceuticals. Leguminous seed plants (guar, locust bean), seaweed extracts (carrageenan, alginates) and microbial gums (xanthan, gellan) are the main sources of gums. Mucilages can be synthesized by plants, and prevent desiccation of seed endosperm. They are used in the food industry as hydrophilics and stabilizers. Plant extracts, such as gum arabic, gum karaya, and gum tragacanth are the main sources (Gajera et al., 2017). Fiber in foods can change the consistency, texture, rheological behavior, and sensory characteristic of the products, the emergence of novel sources of fiber has offered new opportunities in its use in the food industry (Guillon and Champ, 2000). Fiber can even be produced from sources that might be considered as waste products. Waste portions of fruits, such as peels, processed in large quantities can be converted into fiber ingredients, which may be highly functional in certain food applications (Katz, 1996). Dietary fiber holds all the characteristics required to be considered as an important ingredient in the formulation of functional foods, due to its beneficial health effects. Addition of fiber in some foods can also improve the quality of the products. Among dietary fiber-rich foods, bakery products are the most known and consumed, such as integral breads and cookies (Cho and Prosky, 1999; Nelson, 2001). Tudoric found that the addition of soluble and insoluble dietary fiber ingredients could influence the quality of both raw and cooked pasta, including biochemical composition, cooking properties, and textural characteristics (Tudoric et al., 2002). With the addition of soluble dietary fiber, glucose release is significantly reduced. In bread making, the incorporation of fiber ingredients is reported to increase the water hydration values of flour. Toma reported that bread with potato peel was superior in content of certain minerals, in total dietary fiber, in water-holding capacity, in its lower quantity of starchy components and its lack of phytate (Toma et al., 1979). Cakes prepared from a 25% apple pomace and wheat flour blend had high acceptable quality. Addition of apple pomace also avoids the use of any other flavoring ingredients because it gave a fruity flavor (Sudha et al., 2007). Because soluble dietary fiber is more dispersible in water than insoluble fiber, the addition of dietary fiber in juices and drinks increases their viscosity and stability. Some soluble fibers are the fractions from different fruits, pectins, β-glucans, and cellulose beetroot (Nelson, 2001; Bollinger, 2001; Bjerrum, 1996). A powdered drink containing dietary fiber from pineapple peel has been manufactured. A product called FIBRALAX, containing 25% dietary fiber and 66.2% digestible carbohydrates, has been developed, which can provide a mild laxative effect (Larrauri et al., 1995). Some types of soluble fibers, such as pectin, inulin, guar gum and carboxymethylcellulose, have been utilized as functional ingredients in milk products (Nelson, 2001). Fermented milk enriched with citrus fiber from orange and lemon had good

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acceptability (Sendra et al., 2008). Staffolo found that yogurt fortified with 1.3% wheat, bamboo, inulin, and apple fibers appeared to be a promising method for increased fiber intake, with high consumer acceptability (Staffolo et al., 2004). Hashim studied the effect of daily diet with date fiber, a by-product of date syrup production, on fresh yogurt (Hashim et al., 2009). Control yogurt without fiber, yogurt fortified with 1.5%, 3.0%, and 4.5% date fiber and yogurt with 1.5% wheat bran were prepared. Yogurt fortified with 3% date fiber resulted with similar sourness, sweetness, firmness, smoothness, and overall acceptability as the control yogurt. As both fiber and yogurt are well known for their beneficial health effects, these products will constitute a functional food with commercial applications.

2.3 Essential oil and terpenoids Essential oils (EOs) are complex, lipophilic, naturally derived aroma compounds, synthesized as secondary metabolites in different plant organs, especially in fruits (Asbahani et al., 2015). They have lots of biological activities, such as antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, analgesic, sedative, and spasmolytic activities (Bakkali et al., 2008). As a result, EOs have been used as active ingredients in functional food development (Dima and Dima, 2015). EOs are regarded as functional ingredients in the food to improve flavor or inhibit microorganisms, besides their functional activities (D’Amato et al., 2018). Hydrates, the secondary compounds of distillation to extract essential oils, contain traces of essential oils and have been consumed as beverages in Turkey for a long time (Sagdic, 2003). EOs from citrus fruit have been applied in “ready-to-eat” vegetables and fruit-based salads (Prakash et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2014). At present, >3000 EOs have been found, among which about 300 have a commercial interest (Raut and Karuppayil, 2014). The EOs extracted from fruits are mainly from the Rutaceae family, such as citron, and Myrtaceae family, such as jaboticaba. Some fruit EOs and their bioactivities are shown in Table 3. In the EOs, terpenoids are one main kind of active ingredients, which have a large group of structurally diverse hydrocarbons comprising C5 building blocks. Hemiterpenes (C5), monoterpenes (C10), sesequiterpenes (C15), diterpenes (C20), triterpenes (C30), and tetraterpenes (C40) are the main groups (Humphrey and Beale, 2006). Monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids are the main aromatic components and exist as the EOs of many fruits. Limonene and menthol, as monoterpenes, are responsible for the fragrance of oranges and lemons, and give peppermint its characteristic aroma, respectively. Limonoids, which are triterpenes, are commonly found in members of the Rutaceae family, such as orange, grapefruit, mandarin, lemon, and lime. Both limonin and nomilin have been shown to possess potential health benefiting properties as they are anticarcinogens and inducers of the detoxifying enzyme, glutathione-S-transferase (Kelly et al., 2003).

Fruit-based functional food

Table 3 Typical essential oils and major ingredients from fruits. Major compounds of essential oils

2,8-Dithianonane, dimethyl trisulfide, lenthionine (Z)-Hex-3-en-1-ol, linalool, methyl benzoate, germacrene D, octan-3-one α-Pinene, β-pinene, α-phellandrene limonene Hexadecanoic acid, phytol, cinnamic acid, β-caryophyllene, β-pinene, acetic acid

Limonene, linalool, linalyl acetate, γ-terpinene, β-pinene Limonene, β-pinene, linalool, α-terpineol, nerolidol and ester compounds Limonene, viridiflorene, α-myrcene, sabinen, citral Limonene, γ-terpinene, a-terpineol, p-cymene, myrcene, a-pinene, terpinolene

Bioactivities

Fruits

Antifungal activity against Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium Antimicrobial activity against wide range of microorganisms, especially against fungal strains

Phytolaccaceae (Gallesia integrifolia) (Raimundo et al., 2018) Feijoa (Feijoa sellowiana) (Weston, 2010)

Antibacterial, antifungal, antitumor, anticancer, antiviral

Antimicrobial, especially effective against Gram-positive bacteria Antimirobial, anticancer activity against Hela cell line

Inhibition of human mouth epidermal carcinoma cell lines Antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer

Activity against lung and colon cancer cell lines

Safou (Dacryodes edulis) ( Jirovetz et al., 2003, 2005) Jaboticaba (Myrciaria jaboticaba) (Hammer et al., 2006; Plagemann et al., 2012) Seinat (Cucumis melo var. tibish) (Silva et al., 2018) Bergamot (Citrus aurantium) (Bakkali et al., 2008; Scuteri et al., 2018) Pomelo (Citrus grandis) (Chen et al., 2016; Wu et al., 2017) Grapefruit (Citrus Paradisi) (Wu et al., 2017; Carnesecchi et al., 2004) Hirami lemon (Citrus depressa Hayata) (Asikin et al., 2018; Raut and Karuppayil, 2014) Olive (olea europaea) (Sylvestre et al., 2006)

Carotenoids are C40 tetraterpenes usually found in yellow, orange, and red fruits, such as mango (Mangifera indica), water melon (Citrullus lanatus), and papaya (Carica papaya). They can be divided into two groups: the oxygenated xanthophylls such as lutein, zeaxanthin, and violaxanthin, and the hydrocarbon carotenes such as β-carotene, α-carotene, and lycopene (Zaripheh and Erdman, 2002). Some carotenoids in fruits are shown in Table 4. Fruits are the main source of carotenoids and play an important role in diet because of the activity of vitamin A. Epidemiological studies demonstrated that the

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Table 4 Some carotenoids in fruits. No.

Carotenoids

1

Phytoene

2

Phytofluene

3

ζ-Carotene

4

Lycopene

5

α-Carotene

6

β-Carotene

7

β-Zeacarotene

8

Lycoxanthin

Structures

H

HO HO O

9

α-Cryptoxanthin

H3C

HO

10

β-Cryptoxanthin

11

β-Carotene-5,6-epoxide

O

C

CH3

CH3

O

O

H3C

CH3

CH3

CH3

CH3

H3C

CH3

HO

O

12 13

Mutatochrome Lutein

14

Zeaxanthin

OH

H HO

H3C

HO

15 16

Cryptoflavin β-Carotene-5,6,50 ,60 diepoxide

CH3

CH3

CH3

OH

H 3C

CH3

CH3

CH3

H3C

CH3

Fruit-based functional food

Table 4 Some carotenoids in fruits.—cont’d No.

Carotenoids

Structures

17

Antheraxanthin

HO

18 19 20 21

Lutein-5,6-epoxide Mutatoxanthin Lutein-5,8-epoxide Cryptoxanthin-5,8,50 ,80 diepoxide Violaxanthin

O

OH

22

OH O O HO

23 24 25

Luteoxanthin Auroxanthin Neoxanthin

HO

OH

C H O

OH

26

Capsanthin

H3C

HO

CH3

CH3

O

CH3

OH

H3C

CH3

CH3

CH3

H3C

CH3

consumption of foods rich in carotenoids caused a lower incidence of CVD, cancer, cataract formation, and age related macular degeneration (Sharoni et al., 2012). Carotenoids consist of eight isoprenoid units joined together in a specific manner, in which the organization of isoprenoid units is reversed at the center of the molecule. The nonterminal methyl groups are in a 1,5-position and other two central methyl groups are in a 1,6position relationship. The type and bioactivity of carotenoids in fruits can be predicted by their color; for instance, yellow-orange fruits are generally rich in β-carotene and the α-carotene. α-Cryptoxanthin and zeinoxanthin can usually be found in orange fruits, such as mandarin, orange, and papaya. Similarly, lycopene pigment, responsible for bright red color, is the major constituent of tomatoes or tomato products. In some green fruits and vegetables, lutein, nearly 45%, and β-carotene, 25%–30%, followed by violaxanthin, 10%–15%, and neoxanthin, 10%–15%, are the predominant forms of carotenoids (Priyadarshani and Jansz, 2014). Among the carotenoids, β-carotene is the most important as it is a precursor of vitamin A. Carotenoids act as antioxidants by quenching reactive oxygen species and are believed to protect the lipid components of the human body by preventing lipid peroxidation, which is associated with atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease ( Jaganath, 2008). Avocados (Persea americana) contain a lot of carotenoids, including α-carotene, β-carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthin (Lu et al., 2005). Mango is

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known to contain β-carotene, while β-cryptoxanthin is the main carotenoid in papaya and lycopene accumulates in watermelons (Van Den Berg et al., 2000).

2.4 Pectin Pectin is a specific group of carbohydrate polymers largely composed of a backbone of linked D-galacturonic acid units, many of which are esterified with methyl alcohol at the carboxylic acid, interspersed with a few L-rhamnose residues linked to neutral arabinogalactan side chains. There are various amounts of the galacturonic acid regions, including some methyl esterified, and they could greatly influence the physicochemical properties of the pectin (Schols et al., 2003). Pectin is a valuable functional food ingredient widely used as a gelling, emulsifying, and stabilizing agent. It has been used widely in jams and jellies, fruit juices, fruit drink concentrates, desserts, baking fruit preparations, dairy, and delicatessen products (Yapo et al., 2007). Although pectin exists in most of the fruit tissues as a cementing substance in the middle lamella and as a thickening on the cell wall, the number of sources that can be used for commercial manufacture of pectins is very limited. Pectin from different fruit sources does not have the same gelling ability due to variations factors such as the molecular size, which can affect the ability of pectins to form gel. Currently, apple pomace and citrus peels are two main sources of commercially acceptable pectins. These two sources produce slightly different pectins, which make them more suitable for their applications. Other plants like sugar beet are also considered as pectin sources. Chemical structure of pectin has been investigated by many researchers for decades. It is important to demonstrate the pectin structure in order to understand its role in plant growth and development, during ripening of fruits, in food processing, and as a nutritional fiber. Pectins, like most other polysaccharides, have various chemical structures and molecular weight, and are considered as both polymolecular and polydisperse (Chang et al., 1994). Their composition can be affected by the sources, conditions of extraction, and other environmental factors. At different pHs and temperatures, the plant wall has different amounts of neutral and acidic sugars. As the temperature of extraction is increased, the ash content increases, leading to a decrease in gelling properties. The primary class of pectin is homogalacturonan (HGA), which consists of linear chains of 1,4-linked-D-galacturonic acid with some of the carboxyl groups in the methyl ester form. HGA is subdivided according to the degree of esterification (DE): low methoxyl pectins (LMP) have a DE 50%. LMP may be used as a gelling agent in low sugar products, such as low calorie jams and jellies, confectionary jelly products, and other foods. The heat reversibility of LMP gels can be utilized in bakery jams and jellies for glazing, retorting, microwaving, baking, and sterilizing or pasteurizing ( Jindal et al., 2013). Commonly, citrus wastes of pulp and peel, and apple pomace are widely used as raw material for pectin production. Sugar beet pulp, a co-product from the sugar industry, owing to its high pectin content, about 15%–30% (w/w) is also frequently used for pectin production.

Fruit-based functional food

Bael fruit pectin (BFP) could be extracted from its ripe fruits, up to extraction yielded of 15% (w/w) pure BFP. The swelling index of this pectin decreased in an order of water > pH 7.4 > pH 6.8 > pH 1.2 > HCl (0.1 N). Galacturonic acid content of 87.8%, degree of esterification of 47.2%, methoxy groups of 17.3%, acetyl groups of 0.29%, and equivalent weight of 1209.5, indicate it to be a good gelling agent and easily amenable to derivatization. BFP exhibited a significant concentration dependent on prolongation of prothrombin time. The absence of hemagglutinating activity and antinutritional factors coupled with the activity to confer better emulsion capacity, stability, and antimicrobial activity gives BFP better potential than commercial citrus pectin for exploitation as an additive in the functional food industry. In industry, citrus wastes like pulp and peel, and apple pomace are traditionally used as raw material for pectin production. Sugar beet pulp (Beta vulgaris L.), waste from the sugar industry, which has high pectin content (15%–30% (w/w)) is also frequently used as a resource for pectin production. However, the pectin extracted from sugar beet pulp often does not show satisfactory performance, because of its poor gelling properties. These poor gelling properties have been attributed to the presence of large amounts of acetyl groups, high neutral sugar content, and relatively low average molecular weight (Rombouts and Thibault, 1986; Michel et al., 1985; Whitaker, 1984; Renard and Thibault, 1993). Pectins have always been a natural ingredient for human foods, used in all countries of the world. The FAO/WHO committee on food additives recommended pectin as a safe additive with no limit on acceptable daily intake, depending on good manufacturing practice. Pectin has been used in a number of foods as a gelling agent, thickener, emulsifier, texturizer, and stabilizer. In recent years, pectin has been used as a fat or sugar replacer in low-calorie foods. Pectin from polar and nonpolar regions can be incorporated into different food systems. The functionality of the different pectin molecules depends on a number of factors, such as degree of methoxylation and molecular size. Pectin grade is considered as the functionality of pectin, because the parameters are too complicated to be determined in the industrial usage of pectins. Pectin grades are based on the number of parts of sugar that one part of pectin will gel to an acceptable firmness under standard conditions of pH 3.2–3.5, sugar 65%–70%, and pectin at the limits of 1.5%–2.0% (Voragen et al., 1986). Pectins of 100–500 grades are available in the market, application as a food hydrocolloid is mainly based on their gelling properties.

2.5 Other ingredients Vitamin C, also called ascorbic acid, is a water-soluble vitamin and is very important to human beings. It is mainly found in fruits as an effective antioxidant, which has the function to maintain human health. Fruits containing high concentration of vitamin C include citrus fruits, kiwifruit, and strawberries. Among the fruits, strawberries are considered one of the richest in ascorbic acid—the content, if fresh, is up to 80 mg/100 g.

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They could be easily processed into strawberry juices for human consumption as convenient sources of ascorbic acid. However, ascorbic acid of fruit juices is generally easily oxidized, leading to a loss during processing and storage. Many factors can affect this oxidation of ascorbic acid, such as light irradiation, level of dissolve oxygen, pH, temperature, and metal ions and sugar presence. Ascorbic acid acts as a cofactor in vivo for numerous biosynthetic enzymes that are required for the synthesis of amino acid-derived macromolecules, neurotransmitters, and neuropeptide hormones, and also for various hydroxylases involved in the regulation of gene transcription and epigenetics (Block, 1993; Evans and Peterkofsky, 1976). The bioavailability of dietary ascorbic acid represents the proportion of the micronutrient that is absorbed by the intestines and is available for metabolic processes within the body.

3. Advanced techniques for active ingredients extraction Extraction, which is the first step in active component study, is the major factor to affect final results such as the qualitative and quantitative of active ingredients from plant materials. Extraction of active ingredients from different fruits can be carried out by various extraction technologies. Usually, bioactive compounds from plant materials can be extracted by some classical extraction techniques. In order to obtain bioactive compounds from fruits, the existing classical techniques are Soxhlet extraction, maceration, and hydrodistillation. These extraction techniques usually require high power consumption, long extraction time, etc. In the last 50 years, various nonconventional methods, which are more environmental friendly due to decreased use of synthetic and organic chemicals, reduced operational time, and better yield and quality of extract have been developed. To enhance overall yield and selectivity of bioactive components from fruit materials, ultrasound (Ghafoor et al., 2011a), pulsed electric field (Toepfl et al., 2006), enzyme digestion (Gaur et al., 2007), microwave heating (Kaufmann and Christen, 2002), ohmic heating (Lakkakula et al., 2004), and supercritical fluids (Wang et al., 2008; Ghafoor et al., 2011b, 2012) have been developed and investigated as modern, nonconventional extraction techniques. Ultrasound is a special type of sound wave with frequencies higher than human hearing. Generally, it is 20 kHz to 100 MHz when applied in the extraction process. It can pass through a medium like water by creating compression and expansion. This process can produce a phenomenon with production, growth, and collapse of bubbles, which is called cavitation. Other effects like mechanical action and heating can also be found during the process. A large amount of energy can be produced from the conversion of kinetic energy of motion into heating the contents of the bubble. The mechanisms of ultrasound extraction involve three steps of physical phenomena: (1) the diffusion of solvent from bulk into cells; (2) the breaking of cell walls by ultrasound effects; (3) the diffusion of

Fruit-based functional food

Table 5 Applications of ultrasound in the extraction of compounds from fruits. Active ingredients

Fruits

Anthocyanin, ascorbic acid, tannic acid

Pomegranate peel (Mousavi et al., 2007)

Flavonoids, phenolic acids, saponins and alkaloid Lycopene, β-caroyene

Zizyphus lotus fruit (Hammi et al., 2015)

Natural color

Gallic acid, anthocyanin, cyaniding3-O-glucoside, ellagic acid Anthocyanins, monomeric flavanols, procyanidins, phenolic acids

Tomato pomace (Luengo et al., 2014) Pomegranate (Punica granatum) rinds (Sivakumar et al., 2011) Jabuticaba (Myrciaria cauliflora) peel (Rodrigues et al., 2015) Grape (Vitis vinifera) seeds (Ghafoor et al., 2009)

Processing device and experimental conditions

US probe (20 kHz, 1.267 cm2), Pulse ¼ 5 s on and 5 s off, IP ¼ 59.2 W/cm2, T ¼ 25°C, t ¼ 60 min US bath (360 W), Pulse ¼ 2 s on and 2 s off, T ¼ 63°C, t ¼ 25 min US probe (20 kHz, 13 mm), T ¼ 25°C, t > 10 min US probe (20 kHz), P ¼ 80 W, T ¼ 25°C, t ¼ 30 min to 3 h US bath (25 kHz, 150 W, 2.7 L), T ¼ 30°C, t ¼ 10 min US bath (40 kHz, 250 W, 10 L), T ¼ 33–67°C, t ¼ 16–34 min

active ingredients across the cell wall (Shirsath et al., 2012). As an effective extraction technique, ultrasound is now widely applied in extraction of main components from fruits. Various molecules of interest such as antioxidants, pigments, lipids, phytochemicals, and aromatics have been extracted in pulp, peel, seeds of fruits. Table 5 shows some applications of the use of ultrasound for the extraction of different kinds of compounds from various fruits. Nevertheless, extraction time and power are two important factors, but not the only ones that can affect the entire extraction process. Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) is another novel technique for extracting soluble ingredients into a fluid from fruits using microwave energy (Par
e et al., 1994). Microwaves are electromagnetic fields in a frequency range from 300 MHz to 300 GHz. They are made up of two oscillating fields that are perpendicular, such as an electric field and a magnetic field. The advantage of heating using microwave energy is based upon its direct impacts on the polar materials. The mechanism of MAE is reported to involve three sequential steps (Ekezie et al., 2017): (1) separation of active solutes from sites of sample matrix under increased temperature and pressure; (2) solvent diffused across the sample matrix; (3) solutes released from sample matrix to solvent. Several advantages of MAE have been proposed, such as quicker heating for the extraction of bioactive components from plant materials, increased extraction

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yield, reduced thermal gradients, and reduced equipment size. MAE can extract bioactive compounds more rapidly and a better yield is possible than conventional extraction processes. It is a suitable selective technique to extract different active compounds with different properties as shown in Table 6. MAE is also recognized as a green technology because of its reduction in use of organic solvents. Extraction time of microwaves plays a critical role during the process. In conventional extraction, such as Soxhlet or maceration, it usually takes a very long time for the Table 6 MAE extraction for phenolics from fruits. Active ingredients

Fruit

Gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, rutin, catechin Cyaniding-3-glu, flavonol, gallic acid

Citrus sinensis (Nayak et al., 2015) Vitis vinifera (Molina et al., 2012) Cherry pomace (Simsek et al., 2012) Crataegus pinnatifida (Liu et al., 2010) Dimocarpus longan Lour (Pan et al., 2008) Malus domestica (Chandrasekar et al., 2015) Prunus laurocerasus (Karabegovic et al., 2014a) Prunus laurocerasus (Karabegovic et al., 2014b) Lycium ruthenicum (Liu et al., 2014) Dryopteris fragrans ( Jiao et al., 2014) Camellia oleifera (Zhang et al., 2011) Punica granatum (Zheng et al., 2011) Solenum melongena (Salerno et al., 2014) Prunus cerasus (Garofulic et al., 2013) Citrus mandarin (Hayat et al., 2009)

Phenolic acids Procyanidin, epicatechin, chlorogenic acid, procyanidin C1, rutin Gallic acid, ellagic acid Phloridzin, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, quercetrin Chlorogenic o-coumaric acid, quercetin 3-glucoside, luteolin 7-glucoside, apigenin 7-glucoside Kaempferol 3-glucoside, andnaringenin, vanilic acid, caffeic acid, and rutin Anthocyanin Flavone anthocyanin Gallic acid Phenolic Gallic acid, vanilic acid Procyanidin, epicatechin Gallic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid

Extraction conditions

500 W, 122 s 140 W, 10 min 700 W, 12 min 400 W, 10 min 500 W, 30 min 735 W, 149 s

300 W, 15 min

550 W, 25 min

350 W, 10 s 300 W, 2 min 50% (maximum 800 W), 35 min 600 W, 60 s 150 W, 2 min 400 W, 10 min 152 W, 49 s

Fruit-based functional food

completion of extraction—even a few days to finish the process, by past research experience. However, in the case of MAE, a few seconds may be enough for the active ingredients to be extracted from the matrix under the microwave field. When considering the time, operating power of microwave has to be always considered as both are significant factors with interaction. Higher power level generally needs less extraction time. Extraction time and power are two highly sensitive parameters in this extraction and both need to be considered simultaneously. Temperature carried out in MAE is usually set up in the range of 60–90°C performed at an atmospheric pressure condition. In a closed vessel microwave extractor, temperature is a more critical factor to be considered. A temperature probe is fitted in the microwave extractors and if the temperature of the system goes over the set limit, the extractor will change into a cut-off mode. Supercritical fluid technology has been successfully used in environmental, pharmaceutical and polymer applications and food processing, leading to widespread scientific interest (Zougagh et al., 2004). In several food industries, this technique has been used for many years, such as for decaffeinated coffee preparation (Ndiomu and Simpson, 1988). Table 7 shows supercritical fluid extraction of bioactive compounds from some fruits. Supercritical state is a distinctive state and can only be attained if a substance is subjected to temperature and pressure beyond its critical point (Herrero et al., 2006). Table 7 Supercritical fluid extraction of bioactive compounds extracted from fruits. Active ingredients

Fruits

Extraction conditions

Cinnamic acid, chrysoeriol, tricetin-30 ,50 -dimethyl ether, naringenin and ferulic acid Naringenin, total phenols, antioxidants, total anthocyanins

Citrus sinensis (Benelli et al., 2010)

CO2, 40°C, 220 bar, 17 g/min, 300 min

Vitis labrusca (Ghafoor et al., 2010)

Perillyl alcohol, sakuranetin, sakuranin Proanthocyanidins

Prunus avium (Serra et al., 2010) Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait.) (Feliciano et al., 2014).

Anthocyanins

Vaccinium myrtillus L. (Paes et al., 2014)

G-elemene, germacrone

Eugenia uniflora L. (Santos et al., 2015)

Isorhamnetin

Hippophae rhamnoides L. ( Jayashankar et al., 2014)

CO2, 45°C, 160 bar, 2 mL/min, 30 min, 6% ethanol CO2, 50°C, 250 bar, 150 min, 10% ethanol CO2, 40°C, 655–621 bar, 125 g/min, 0%–30% ethanol CO2, 40°C, 200 bar, 1.4E-4 kg/s, 10% Water/ethanol (1:1) CO2, 35–55°C, 81–261 bar, 2 g/min, 360 min CO2, 50°C, 200 bar

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Critical point is defined as the characteristic temperature (Tc) and pressure (Pc) above which gas and liquid phases do not exist. Carbon dioxide (CO2), whose critical temperature and pressure are 304.3 K and 72.8  105 Pa, respectively, is the most used supercritical solvent, because it is innocuous, preserves the extracts from atmospheric oxidation, and protects some heat sensitive bioactive compounds in the extracts. Supercritical fluid extraction provides several operational advantages over conventional extraction methods because it uses supercritical solvents, with different physicochemical properties such as density, diffusivity, viscosity, and dielectric constant. Because of their low viscosity and relatively high diffusivity, supercritical fluids have enhanced transport properties compared to liquids, which can diffuse easily through solid materials leading to faster extraction rates. Compared to other extraction techniques, Supercritical fluid extraction using solvents is generally recognized as safe. It also has the higher efficiency of the extraction process by increasing the extraction yields and lowering the extraction time. Some analytical chromatographic techniques such as gas chromatography (GC) or supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) have been directly coupled with this extraction technique. As reviewed, in order to achieve a higher global/specific yield or higher bioactivity capabilities, 43% of the research works applied an extraction temperature range of 40–50°C, followed by 33% at 50–60°C, while the pressure trend was 37% for a pressure range of 200–300 bar followed by 28% at 300–400 bar. In order to enhance further the extraction yield and the selectivity of the targeted bioactive compounds from fruits, several technological advancements have been performed in combination with SFE.

4. Current products of fruit-based functional food Currently, more fruit-based functional foods are being developed in the world. Usually, it is popular to add some active ingredients from fruits into some conventional foods, such as fruit juice and drinks, fruit smoothie, snacks, yogurt, bread, etc. For example, SunWaterhouse’s group developed a number of functional foods with fruits or fruit derivate ingredients. A low-fat cheese with caechin (Rashidinejad et al., 2015), A fruit smoothie with high concentrations of added fruit polyphenols and fiber (Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2014), pastas with polyphenols and fibers (Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2013a), snack bars enhanced with fruit fiber and polyphenols (Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2010), a drinking yogurt with added fruit polyphenols (Sun-Waterhouse et al., 2013b), bread with added fibers and phenolics (Sivam et al., 2010), and a natural kiwifruit ice cream (SunWaterhouse et al., 2013c) have been developed. Some fruit-based functional foods, reported in the patents developed in recent decades from China, Japan, Korea, and the United States, are shown in Table 8.

Fruit-based functional food

Table 8 Types and products of fruit-based functional foods. Types andproducts

Fruit sources

Functional sports drink Composition for preventing and treating inflammation A functional drink, oral preparation for quick supply of physical ability and ease of tiredness Fresh fruit konjak functional food Functional food for improving hypertension and inflammation A functional chewing and disintegrating tableting candy for strengthening nutrients and preventing or co-treating diseases Functional beverage for improving health function of human A functional food for improving sleep quality and enhancing memory

Lemon juice 10%–15% (Cong et al., n.d.) Immature fruit of Rhus succedanea (Kim et al., n.d.) Fruit or fruit extract (papaya, olive, pear, apple, Chinese chestnut, or strawberry) ( Jiao, n.d.) Fresh fruits (Liu et al., n.d.) Morinda citrifolia fruit (Kensaku et al., n.d.) Strawberry, mango, lemon, watermelon flesh and carrot (Diao and Wang, n.d.) Condensed fruit juice (apple and orange) (Xiao, n.d.) Blueberry anthocyanins (Sun and Wang, n.d.)

5. Current understanding and future trends Currently, there is a great deal of functional food being developed commercially in our world. However, with the increase in consumers’ demand for naturalness, the trends toward plant-based foods have sparked a renewed interest in fruit and their co-products as sources of bioactive and functional components. Simplicity, sustainability, traditional nutritious foods, functional foods, products that enhanced immunity, energy foods, “free-from” foods, cooking at home, extreme flavors, and authenticity are the food development trends for the 21st century. Foods for digestive health, child and elderly nutrition, weight management and obesity, and beauty enhancing products are the most attractive development directions. With the rise cognizant of the benefits of fruits in promotion health and wellness, fruit-based functional foods are expected to achieve a significant food market. Fruits contain a wide range of health-promoting components, including dietary fiber, phenolic compounds, and vitamins. We have made attempts to add these active ingredients from fruits into some popular consumer foods. New product development may be increasingly tailored toward “personalized” needs. Personalized functional foods enter the world’s food markets. Biotechnology is also attempting to enhance nutrients, although consumer acceptance could be an issue when genetically engineered modifications are applied.

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Future works should be toward optimizing the levels and quality of health benefiting compounds in fruits rather than just focusing on developing a simple food. With the recent developments of biochemistry, physiology, and molecular biology of fruit, it is feasible to modify the phytochemical profiles in fruits. According to research on molecular biology, which has developed at a rapid rate in recent years, the development of enhanced health promoting compounds from fruit ingredients for specific diseases will soon become possible. For example, antioxidants of phytochemicals from fruit are only focused on some typical phenolic compounds at present. Recent studies indicate that the protective effect of fruit may extend beyond their antioxidant capacity. Evidence from specific health promoting compounds now reveals that some phytochemicals can confer health benefits by regulating certain specific enzymes, by modulating nuclear receptors and cellular signaling, and by acting indirectly through antioxidant actions that reduce proliferation and protect DNA from damage. However, research in this field is still in an early stage as it has been carried out only on specific phytochemicals. Future studies needs to focus on methods that can better to evaluate and optimize the in vivo effects of health promoting compounds in biological systems, and make them steadier in some food systems.

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CHAPTER 3

The concept of superfoods in diet Z. Tacer-Caba

Department of Food and Nutrition, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

Contents 1. 2. 3. 4.

Introduction General health benefits related to superfoods Superdiets Some superfoods 4.1 Goji (Lycium barbarum) 4.2 Camu-camu (Myrciaria dubia) 4.3 Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) 4.4 Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seeds 4.5 Flaxseeds (Linum usitatissimum) 4.6 Maqui (Aristotelia chilensis (Mol.) Stuntz) berry 4.7 Ac¸aí (Euterpe oleracea Mart. Palmae, Arecaceae) 4.8 Pomegranate (Punica granatum) 4.9 Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) 4.10 Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) 4.11 Spirulina 5. Conclusion References

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1. Introduction Historically, food has been an essential aspect directing human civilization mainly for two reasons: appeasing hunger and supplying energy. However, recently it has served functions other than nutrition such as sustaining general health with additional benefits. Recent research shows that there is a strong relation between the consumption of fruit phytochemicals and prevention of many chronic diseases, mainly due to the potent anticancer and antioxidant properties of fruits. These findings helped development of foods targeting specific health problems and, in the last decade, expectations beyond nutrition raised the concept of functional foods, starting in Japan. It is possible to define functional foods as foods pertaining to health by improving physical and mental wellbeing by decreasing the risk of some diseases, and/or be used for curing, in addition to satisfying hunger and providing nutrients (Sˇamec et al., 2018; Siro et al., 2008). Generally, functional foods are not directly consumed for their health benefits, rather they have been “fortified, enriched, or otherwise altered” to improve their nutrient profiles to be The Role of Alternative and Innovative Food Ingredients and Products in Consumer Wellness https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816453-2.00003-6

© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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consumed as industrial products (Loyer, 2016a). They have been beneficial for human health and have been supported officially. However, with recently changing trends favoring more natural and traditional life styles, functional foods have started to become a concern for some people. For those western consumers who may be regarded as being knowledgeable regarding their healthfulness; functional foods have started to be perceived as foods highly processed to incorporate functional components into them (Loyer, 2016a; Rodgers, 2016). The distinct change in the direction of functional food consumption trends has occurred particularly due to recent research revealing the link between ultra-processed foods and increases in the incidence of obesity (Zobel et al., 2016). Therefore, consumer perception favoring freshness rather than processing enabled new concepts such as minimally processed functional foods, which may be defined as functional foods that are packaged and mildly processed only by simple unit operations such as washing, trimming, peeling, size reduction, pasteurization, packaging, storage, refrigeration, or freezing so that temperatures could remain under 100°C (Rodgers, 2016). Another group, on the other hand, have been named “superfoods.” Superfoods, although being parallel to functional foods in possessing more health benefits than only supplying nutrients, differ in some perspectives. They may be described as traditional and minimally processed functional foods with their distinct property as being “traditionally used.” Superfoods have the common feature of being part of restricted culinary and medicinal use, often in distant regions. Therefore, they are in the spotlight not only with their extreme and naturally functional health benefits (Mellentin, 2014), but also with their common features of being part of a remote, authentic, or exotic community (Loyer, 2016a). It has also been proposed that superfoods should be classified, not as foods or medicinal plants only, but as both, on the grounds that they provide “an abundance of synergistic elements” (Wolfe, 2010). However, unlike functional foods, there exists no standard definition for superfoods. Moreover, the term “superfood” has been accused of being used for advertising and marketing purposes rather than representing scientific evidence, according to some researchers (MacGregor et al., 2018), while for some researchers it has been presented as being the term used instead of functional food through general population (Lunn, 2006; Sˇamec et al., 2018). Alternatively it has been proposed by some researchers as a tool for communicating some unknown food commodities to new Western consumers interested in improving their quality of life with better foods (Loyer, 2016a). On the other hand, the term “superfoods” may be used to describe the superior functionality of some conventional products that are enhanced with superior functional properties through processing methods, rather than genetic modification (Hefferon, 2012). A very recent study showed that the extent of a Google search of foods that were defined as superfoods was as broad as 57 foods in the first 15 websites (van den Driessche et al., 2018). However, the term was likely to appear more on product packaging, in marketing,

The concept of superfoods in diet

and in the media, rather than as scientific findings (Weitkamp and Eidsvaag, 2014). According to results obtained in August 2018, the index term “superfoods” gives you 191 search results, including review articles, research articles, and book chapters, whereas you get 85 results after searching the term “superfruits” on the Sciencedirect database, and the index term “functional foods” has been reported to give 210,226 and 382,852 results on Wiley and Sciencedirect databases in 1998–2017, respectively. Therefore, it is possible to say that its scholarly convention is more different than for the term “functional food” (Lunn, 2006). With another perspective, for local people who are already familiar with a certain type of superfood, it is not something exotic, which makes it quite hard to make a worldwide definition of superfoods (van den Driessche et al., 2018). Furthermore, “superfood” is not a legal category regulated by legal authorities in the United States or Australia; moreover, the term has been banned by the European Union since 2007, under Regulation (EC) 1924/2006 (Loyer, 2016b). However, it is certain that the Earth still has resources that have not been definitely researched, despite being known for their benefits by people endemic to specific locations (Vela´squez and Montenegro, 2017). Therefore the concept of superfoods attracts interest as being rather dynamic, raising the possibility of new superfood alternatives. Although more people are consuming superfoods, their consumption is still limited. Superfoods have superior nutritional properties but their consumption is generally limited to certain areas, depending on their origin.

2. General health benefits related to superfoods The benefits of superfoods are generally interrelated with phytochemicals (plant chemicals) or nutraceuticals. These significant components are mostly found in fruits, and the “super” property is generally attributed to their exceptionally high levels of antioxidants, fibers, vitamins, minerals, etc. that improve health (Chang et al., 2018). In a more general perspective, common properties of superfoods might be summarized as being supportive of the immune system and highly nutritious, with outstanding concentrations of antioxidants, monounsaturated fats, dietary fiber, phytosterols, essential amino acids, valuable trace minerals, and vitamins, on the basis of scientific evidence (Llorent-Martı´nez et al., 2013). Among those components, particularly phenolic compounds (secondary metabolites widely found in fruits, vegetable, and grains) acquire diverse bioactive benefits, comprising antiallergic, antiviral, antiinflammatory, and antimutagenic properties. Common diets of today increase oxidative damage in the body after constant exposure to oxidants specifically when considered with additional environmental factors. Antioxidants are, therefore, required to neutralize/reduce this chronic oxidative stress by inhibition of the polymerization chain reactions initiated by free radicals or forming less active other radicals (Halliwell and Aruoma, 1991; Roberts et al., 2003; Shan et al., 2011). Phenolic compounds are also natural antioxidants as they acquire a potential reducing effect against

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oxidation when consumed in the diet. Polyphenols are subclassified into two main groups: phenolics and flavonoids. The largest group of phenolic compounds are flavonoids and their subgroups (flavonols, flavones, flavanols, flavanones, anthocyanidins, and isoflavones). These subgroups are a point of interest, with their functional properties related to their individual phytochemical structures (Motohashi and Sakagami, 2009). The general structure is arranged in diphenylpropanes (C6-C3-C6), with aromatic rings of A and B linked by three carbons, usually in the form of a heterocyclic ring. Differences in substitution patterns to the C ring constitute the major factor for distinct flavonoids classes’ formation. It is possible to define some certain properties for the mentioned classes. For example, flavonoid group compounds are generally considered with their potential as being antioxidants, metal chelators, and effective in chronic diseases (Lin and Weng, 2006). Anthocyanins are unique natural pigments that generally contribute to the characteristic red, blue, purple, etc. colors of many fruits and vegetables. They are widely used in the food, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical industries. Anthocyanins are also exclusive in terms of their health benefits (different effects through numerous antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticarcinogenic, and cardio protective pathways) (de Pascual-Teresa and Sanchez-Ballesta, 2008). The general scope of superfoods, or more specifically superfruits, commonly consists of exotic fruits that do not have global popularity. Many of the superfoods claim to have a wide variety of health benefits such as high antioxidant activity; exceptionally rich sources of bioactive components such as phenolics, flavonoids, anthocyanins, etc.; and/or significant effects on diseases such as diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, etc., generally by affecting certain markers such as waist circumference or body mass index, blood pressure, and fasting concentrations of plasma triacylglycerol, glucose, etc. (van den Driessche et al., 2018). Being the largest subgroup of superfoods, “superfruits” have been defined mainly with effective antiaging and antioxidant properties (Dastmalchi et al., 2012). Emphasis on the benefits of consuming superfoods is generally attributed to an alternative validation of healthfulness by generations-long folk traditions. Therefore it is not wrong to say that they are perceived as healthy not because they have been studied in different areas of food science, but because they have been protected in traditional and indigenous practices (Loyer, 2016a). Although it is maybe this property that causes them to be perceived as natural, a better understanding of the health benefits of superfoods is definitely needed. Therefore, human intervention studies are critical for a better understanding of benefits related to the consumption of superfoods, as they are the real indicators for consumption. On the other hand, the scope of superfoods is quite subjective. For example, Llorent-Martı´nez et al. (2013) focused on the most commonly consumed superfoods in Spain—goji (Lycium barbarum), pomegranate (Punica granatum), chia (Salvia hispanica), ac¸aı´ (Euterpe oleracea Martius), and mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana)

The concept of superfoods in diet

(Llorent-Martı´nez et al., 2013)—while another study focused on acai berries, blueberries, cranberries, goji berries, strawberries, chili peppers, garlic, ginger, chia seed, flaxseed, hemp seed, quinoa, bee pollen, cocoa, maca, spirulina, and wheatgrass as superfoods (van den Driessche et al., 2018). Different studies focusing on “superfoods” are summarized in Table 1. Furthermore, data from clinical intervention studies might be contradictory because of the differences in the design of individual studies. Another approach may be a Table 1 Scope of superfoods in different studies. Source

Superfoods in focus

Review

17 Superfoods identified after the elimination of the ones in the Dutch Dietary Guidelines: Acai berries, blueberries, cranberries, goji berries, strawberries, chili peppers, garlic, ginger, chia seed, flaxseed, hemp seed, quinoa, bee pollen, cocoa, maca, spirulina, and wheatgrass Most consumed superfoods in Spain; goji (Lycium barbarum), pomegranate (Punica granatum), chia (Salvia hispanica), ac¸aı´ (Euterpe oleracea Martius), and mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) Selected superfoods: moringa leaves, hibiscus, amaranth, baobab fruit, tamarind, teff, and fonio Chilean endemic/natives superfoods; honey, bee pollen, and berry-like fruits (maqui, murta, and others) Some superfruits and superherbs produced in Greece: Cornelian cherries (Cornus mas L.), blueberries

Research

Book chapter

Book chapter

Conference paper

Scope

Reference

Controlled human intervention trials on superfoods for symptoms of metabolic syndrome

van den Driessche et al. (2018)

Functional properties

LlorentMartı´nez et al. (2013)

Benefits, use in super diets

Ekesa (2017)

Benefits, healthy components

Vela´squez and Montenegro (2017)

Antioxidant, and antifungal activities and phenolic contents of selected superfoods

Roidaki et al. (2016)

Continued

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Table 1 Scope of superfoods in different studies.—cont’d Source

University bulletin

Superfoods in focus

(Vaccinium corymbosum L.), raspberries (Rubus idaeus L.), mulberries (Morus alba L.), golden berries (Physalis peruviana L.), dog-rose (Rosa canina L.), black chokeberries (Photinia melanocarpa (Michx.) Elliott), sea-buckthorn berries and leaves (Hippophae rhamnoides L.), goji berries (Lycium barbarum L.), St John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum L.), purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench), common hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna Jacq.), hairy rockrose (Cistus incanus L.), puncturevine (Tribulus terrestris L.), and winter savory (Satureja montana L.) Blueberries, sweet potatoes, pomegranate, salmon, and green tea

Scope

Effects on health and diet suggestions

Reference

Diederichs (2009)

meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials to understand better the effects of certain food samples on health. Meta-analysis has been reported to provide a more precise estimate than any individual studies of the effect of consumption of certain foods as a treatment or risk factor, etc. on disease, by contributing to the pooled analysis, with a higher statistical power and more robust point estimate (Haidich, 2010). Therefore emphasis in this chapter has been given, not only to the intervention studies in certain superfoods, but also on some studies dealing with meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.

3. Superdiets According to the World Health Organization (WHO), noncommunicable diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, diabetes, and respiratory diseases are the cause of 70% of

The concept of superfoods in diet

deaths in the world (WHO, 2017). For many years, researchers have focused on the general risk factors such as lipids or blood pressure for certain cases such as cardiovascular diseases. However, studies demonstrate that diet has a significant effect on the prevalence of certain diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases and metabolic disorders, which are listed as some of the leading causes of death in the world. For example, food high in polyphenol content such as cocoa, wine, tea, etc. has also been related to several atherogenic biomarkers such as inflammation and endothelial dysfunction (Luı´s et al., 2018). Among those diseases, cardiovascular diseases are reported to be mostly caused by atherosclerosis along with hypertension, and significantly contribute to the prevalence of cardiovascular diseases in western societies (Waltenberger et al., 2016). Metabolic syndrome is generally defined as a progressive pathophysiological state consisting of a cluster of interrelated risk markers such as dyslipidemia, hypertension, insulin resistance, and abdominal obesity (Alberti et al., 2009; van den Driessche et al., 2018). Diabetes mellitus type 2 is the most common type of diabetes with increased obesity and decreased physical activity among people. In-depth investigations of the longest living populations, such as Okinawan, Mediterranean, etc., revealed that their traditional diet consists of some common features such as more seasonal fruits, vegetables, beans, nuts, seeds, etc., legumes with minimal processing, and less meat consumption. Nutritional and epidemiological studies revealed that the Mediterranean diet is associated with longer life expectancy, lower rates of cardiovascular and metabolic disorders, and even lower rates of certain cancers (Barringer, 2001). Therefore, elements that may contribute to these superdiets are habitually categorized as superfoods or functional foods (Scrinis, 2013; Waltenberger et al., 2016). In functional foods, extraction of certain nutrients and their use in various foods may be considered as a common approach. For superfoods, consumption as part of the diet rather than extraction of certain nutrients makes more sense. Therefore, incorporating them into diet is significant. In line with this idea, there are very recent studies revealing that consuming certain foods directly as part of diet is more beneficial for health than consumption as a supplement (Kerimi et al., 2017). Superdiets compromise a feasible portfolio of superfoods prepared with other food ingredients and using appropriate preparation and cooking techniques (Reinhard, 2010; Ekesa, 2017). Importance of fruit and vegetables is emphasized in almost all dietary recommendations. Consumption of them by not changing the original nutrition value through dilution by sugar, fat, salt, or over processing is particularly mentioned. For preparation, “stir frying vegetables (no salt and only a minimum amount of oil), or better still steaming them” might be a feasible preparation of vegetables and fruits (Binns and Low, 2017). Most commonly, they are consumed raw as part of superdiets. Some other practical suggestions for adding them into diet are summarized by quaffing, by making smoothies and shakes from them using blender or by preparing simple desserts, salad dressings or trail

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mixes with them (Wolfe, 2010). A general suggestion for more consumption of, specifically, fruits among superfoods might be adding them into your cereals or consuming them as part of your breakfast. Pomegranates might be consumed more when added into yoghurt or salads (Diederichs, 2009). Dried fruits consumption is beneficial for glycaemia and cardiovascular diseases as they have certain bioactive and functional carbohydrates such as fiber and monocarbohydrates, and antioxidants such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, carotenoids, and vitamins in a more concentrated form in comparison to fresh fruits (Donno et al., 2015). Therefore, incorporating sufficient amount of dried superfruits in diet is certainly beneficial for health. Moreover, recent studies also showed that how foods are combined for consumption as a part of diet might also have a synergistic effect on the measured functional properties because of the differences occurring in the food matrix (Mashurabad et al., 2017; Sengul et al., 2014; Van Loo-Bouwman et al., 2014).

4. Some superfoods 4.1 Goji (Lycium barbarum) L. barbarum, belonging to the Solanaceae family, mainly grows in China, Tibet, and other parts of Asia. These fruits, which are 1–2 cm-long, bright orange-red ellipsoid berries, are known as goji berries or wolfberries. Berries have been used in Asian countries, particularly in China, as a traditional medicine, usually as sun-dried berries, or squeezed as juices, or concentrated to be used as herbal tea or wine (Amagase and Farnsworth, 2011). Traditionally, cooking of dried wolfberries before consumption, in addition to their usage in Chinese soups, or in combination with meat and vegetarian meals have been reported (Kulczy
nski and Gramza-Michałowska, 2016). The food industry also has some goji products including dried fruits, tea, beer, juice, sweets, muesli, and supplements (as capsules or other ways), and several soft or alcoholic drinks, including concentrated extracts and infusions (Kulczy
nski and GramzaMichałowska, 2016; Llorent-Martı´nez et al., 2013; Potterat, 2010). Goji berries contain high amounts of carotenoids (0.03%–0.5% dry weight) and their characteristic color (orange-red) is due to the carotenoids, mainly zeaxanthin (31%–56% of total carotenoids) (Wang et al., 2010). Moroever goji berries contain individual flavonoids of quercetin-3-O-rutinoside, kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acids, and small amounts of caffeoylquinic acid and p-coumaric acid (Zhong et al., 2013); also ferulic acid, hyperoside, gallic acid, catechin, epicatechin, in addition to phellandrene, sabinene, γ-terpinene, organic acids (citric acid, malic acid, oxalic acid, quinic acid, and tartaric acid), and vitamin C expressed as the sum of ascorbic acid and dehydroascorbic acid were found in goji berries (Donno et al., 2015).

The concept of superfoods in diet

Goji berries have a unique polysaccharide complex consisting of six types of monosaccharides—arabinose, rhamnose, xylose, mannose, galactose, and glucose— galacturonic acid, and 18 amino acids as the most significant functional constituents (Amagase and Farnsworth, 2011; Kulczy
nski and Gramza-Michałowska, 2016). Moreover, studies in literature revealed that consumption of goji berries resulted in an improved glucose control with decreased blood glucose levels (3.9 mmol/L) in diabetic rabbits and increased HDL in lipid profiles (Luo et al., 2004). A recent meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials on the effects of goji berry on cardiometabolic risk factors (Guo et al., 2017) pooled the results of seven studies with 548 subjects. According to their results, consumption of goji berries in the forms of fruit, goji berry polysaccharides, and fruit juice, significantly reduced fasting glucose levels, and goji berry consumption was also effective in decreasing the measured total glyceride and total cholesterol levels; however, no significant benefit in relation to bodyweight and blood pressure was detected (Guo et al., 2017). Based on the study conducted on superfoods found in the Spanish market, within the mineral composition of goji, pomegranate, chia, ac¸aı´, and mangosteen, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, P, and Zn levels are similar in goji berries and chia seeds, with differences lower than 4-fold (2fold in most cases). Goji berries were found to supply more than 10% of RDA (Recommended Daily Allowance) values determined by the European Commission for Cu (13.4%) and K (14.6%), and 9% of RDA of Mn (Llorent-Martı´nez et al., 2013). Goji berry juice has been reported to have significant decreasing effects on waist circumference and on tiredness after exercise with positive effects on the exercise-induced adrenal steroid in randomized, double-blind, and placebo-controlled trials in humans (Amagase and Nance, 2011). Further studies on goji berry are depicted in Table 2. Table 2 Some further studies on health effects of selected superfoods. References Goji berry

Improvement in immune system and increase in postvaccination serum influenza-specific immunoglobulin G levels Improvement in exercise capacity and decrease in lipid peroxidation in exercise-induced oxidative stressed rats

Vidal et al. (2012) Shan et al. (2011)

Camu-camu

Increase in liver enzymes, protection against liver injury in liver injured rats Reduced oxidative stress and inflammatory biomarkers in smokers

Akachi et al. (2010) Inoue et al. (2008)

Chia

Decrease in body weight

Tavares Toscano et al. (2015) Continued

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Table 2 Some further studies on health effects of selected superfoods.—cont’d References

Decrease in oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation in diet-induced obese rats Reduced triacylglycerols concentration and protective effect on blood vessels of hypercholesterolemic rabbits Decrease in postprandial glycaemia in participating groups of healthy people

da Silva Marineli et al. (2015) Sierra et al. (2015) Ho et al. (2013) and Vuksan et al. (2010)

Maqui

Decrease in lipid peroxidation and increase in antioxidant defense in male Wistar rats Enhanced insulin sensitivity and glucose in high fat diet obese diabetic mice

C
espedes et al. (2008) Rojo et al. (2012)

Açai

Decrease in fasting glucose, insulin, total cholesterol, LDL, and improvement in postprandial in plasma glucose Decrease in lipid peroxidation, increase in antioxidant enzymes in the livers of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats

Udani et al. (2011) da Costa Guerra et al. (2011)

Mangosteen

Decrease in inflammatory markers such as C-reactive protein and body mass index in overweight and obese participants Inhibition of light-induced degeneration of photoreceptors and hydrogen peroxide stress in retinal pigment epithelial in mice Decrease in cholesterol, trygliceride, and LDL levels, and significant increase in HDL levels in rats fed a high lipid diet, and Prevention of the rise in plasma lipid content and decrease in plasma antioxidant activity in cholesterol fed Wistar rats

Udani et al. (2009) Fang et al. (2016) Adiputro et al. (2015) and Haruenkit et al. (2007)

Cocoa

Decrease in the activity of tumor marker enzymes of rats during hepatocarcinogenesis with a potential in decreasing the severity of hepatocarcinogenesis Decrease in the expression of some cellular and serum inflammatory biomarkers related to atherosclerosis such as monocytes, no change in T lymphocytes. Decrease in the serum concentration of P-selectin and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 in participants with a high risk of cardiovascular disease Increase in the basal diameter and peak diameter of the brachial artery and basal blood flow volume Decrease in arterial stiffness, only in women. No effect on fasting blood in overweight, middle aged participants Inhibition of angiotensin-converting enzyme in participants Positive effect on systolic blood pressure and decrease in diastolic blood pressure in patients with hypertension and obesity

Amin et al. (2004)

Monagas et al. (2009)

West et al. (2013)

Persson et al. (2011) Miczke et al. (2016)

The concept of superfoods in diet

4.2 Camu-camu (Myrciaria dubia) Camu-camu berry is grown in the Amazon region comprising Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, and Brazil. The strongly citric acid tasting globular berries become red with the ripening. Camu-camu is among one of the richest sources of vitamin C (as much as 6 g/100 g of fresh pulp) (Yuyama et al., 2002). Furthermore, it attracts attention with its flavonoids (mainly flavonols of quercetin, also rutin, and kaempferol), anthocyanins (mainly reported to be cyanidin-3-glucoside and delphinidin-3-glucoside) and carotenoids (Amagase and Farnsworth, 2011; Zanatta et al., 2005) and ellagic acid content. Other significant components of camu-camu comprise amino acids (serine, valine, leucine, glutamate, 4-aminobutanoate, proline, phenylalanine, threonine, and alanine), minerals (sodium, potassium, calcium, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and copper), and organic acids (citric acid, isocitric acid, and malic acid (Akter et al., 2011; Zapata and Dufour, 1993). Camu-camu pulp powder and dried camu-camu flour (dried skin and seed residue after pulp preparation) were detected to contain flavonol myricetin and conjugates, ellagic acid and conjugates, and ellagitannins. Cyanidin 3-glucoside and quercetin (and its glucosoids) have been identified only in the pulp powder, while proanthocyanidins have only been reported in the flour (Fracassetti et al., 2013). Camu-camu is not generally consumed directly because of its highly acidic flavor (Langley et al., 2015) and is reported to be used in different products mainly as whole fruits, dried camu-camu products, pulps (as sherbets and puree), extract, and juice (Akter et al., 2011). Consumption of camu-camu has also been related to some health effects. According to a study with obesity-induced rats, pulp of camu-camu slices improved glycemic control by reducing insulin blood levels. In addition, camu-camu consumption as pulp (25 mL/day) also improved blood lipid profiles based on the LDL, total cholesterol, and triacylglicerides measurements in obesity-induced rats. Moreover, their HDL levels increased, while significant change was detected in Inflammatory markers and liver enzymes (Nascimento et al., 2013). Other studies revealed some antiinflammatory effects of camu-camu seed extracts (200 mg/kg) depicting a significant antiinflammatory activity against carrageenan-induced paw edema in mice. According to the results of the study, antiinflammatory activity was mainly attributed to the triterpenoid known as betulinic acid (Yazawa et al., 2011). Further studies on camu-camu consumption are depicted in Table 2.

4.3 Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) Quinoa is a gluten-free pseudocereal originating from South America (particularly the Andean highlands) the seeds of which were significant, along with corn and potatoes, for the pre-Colombian cultures. Quinoa seeds may be defined as being flat, oval-shaped,

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and are usually pale yellow, but can range in color from pink to black ( James, 2009). Quinoa belongs to the Polygonaceae family. Pseudocereals do not belong to the grass family, but they are similar to cereals in that their seeds can be milled into flour. However, since its seed is too small to mill to separate the anatomical fractions, quinoa is not milled and is included in the wholegrain category ( James, 2009). However, quinoa pericarp must be removed mechanically or by washing before consumption as it is rich in bitter saponins. Quinoa’s main area of use in diet is in soups, fermented beverages, and as a side dish instead of rice (Repo-Carrasco-Valencia et al., 2010). Precooked dishes, chocolates, snacks, pasta, baked products (bread and biscuits), drinks, etc. are among quinoacontaining commercial products (Caruso et al., 2018). Quinoa has a superior nutrition profile consisting of essential amino acids, a high starchy carbohydrate content, and several minerals and vitamins (K, Ca, Mg, P, and Fe), and is rich in linoleic acid. It is specifically rich in lysine amino acid, which is the limiting amino acid for most of the cereals. Moreover, its range of amino acid is wider in comparison to cereals and legumes with higher lysine and methionine contents. In addition, quinoa has been reported to have total dietary fiber similar to that of cereals (7%–9.7% on dry basis), and a soluble fiber content between 1.3% and 6.1% (on dry basis) Quinoa seed has a well-balanced fatty acid composition of total saturated fatty acids (19%–12.3%, mainly palmitic acid); total monounsaturated fatty acids (25%–28.7%, mainly oleic acid) and total polyunsaturated fatty acids (58.3%, mainly linoleic acid (around 90%)) ( James, 2009). Moreover, although not highlighted much, quino seed has also been reported to have a quite high level of phytosterols (up to 118 mg/100 g quinoa seed) being higher than those found in cereals such as barley, rye, millet, and maize (Graf et al., 2015). Phytosterols are significant for their hypocholesterolemic effects. Their mechanism of action is summarized by their competing nature for cholesterol intestinal absorption, and also by decreasing atherogenic lipoprotein production in the liver and intestines (Ho and Pal, 2005). Total amount of phenolics (31.4–59.7 g/100 g) in quinoa has been reported to be lower than wheat and rye but similar to oat, barley, corn, and rice It also contains phenolic acids, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, p-coumaric acid, p-OH-benzoic acid, and vanillic acid and very high amounts of total flavonoids (even more than some berries), which were mainly detected as quercetin and kaempferol aglycones. Flavonols are normally glycosylated at the C-3 position of the C ring of the flavonoids. Flavonol glycosides are the most abundant phenolics in both seeds and leaves of quinoa. Previously, six flavonol glycosides—being four kaempferol glycosides and two quercetin glycosides—were identified as the main flavonoid glycosides in quinoa seeds (Repo-Carrasco-Valencia et al., 2010; Zhu et al., 2001). A very recent study was designed to evaluate the effects of 25 and 50 g quinoa consumption per day in 50 overweight and obese participants over 12 weeks, in a doseresponse randomized, controlled, single-blind trial with a parallel design. The objective

The concept of superfoods in diet

of this randomized clinical trial was to investigate the effect of different quinoa doses (25 and 50 g/d) on body composition, serum lipids and hormones, and nutrient intakes in overweight and obese participants (Navarro-Perez et al., 2017). Based on their findings, 50 g/day quinoa consumption in obese participants reduced the measured mean serum triglyceride concentration significantly from 1.14 to 0.72 mmol/L and also the prevalence of metabolic syndrome was reduced in this group by 70% (Navarro-Perez et al., 2017). Another recent study (Li et al., 2018) conducted in a similar manner measured the effect of daily consumption of quinoa (bread with 20 g quinoa flour) in 37 healthy overweight men using a randomized controlled cross-over study. Markers of the risk of cardiovascular diseases, such as plasma antioxidant activity, blood glucose, lipids, and markers of systemic inflammation, were measured. According to the results, blood glucose responses in participants were modified, although no significant changes were detected in cardiovascular diseases risk biomarkers (Li et al., 2018).

4.4 Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seeds Salvia hispanica L., commonly known as chia, belongs to Lamiaceae and is indigenous to Central and South America (mainly southern Mexico and northern Guatemala). Commercial growth of chia is for its oval seeds. Although chia seeds are commonly black, a white-colored strain, called salba-chia, also exists (Vuksan et al., 2016). The oil composition of chia seed was the initial source of attention to chia seeds (Oliveira-Alves et al., 2017). Chia seeds are high in oil content; being rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega-3 fatty acids (linolenic acid, 54%–67%) and omega-6 (linoleic acid, 12%–21%)) and low in saturated fatty acids (Porras-Loaiza et al., 2014). Moreover, their soluble and insoluble fiber (18%–30%) and protein contents (15%–25%) and other bioactive components such as tocopherols and phenolic compounds also contribute to the interest of the scientific community and consumers in their usage as functional foods (Fernandes and Salas-Mellado, 2017). Chia seeds have also chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, myricetin, quercetin, and kaempferol as phenolic compounds (Capitani et al., 2012). Chia seeds were reported to contain about twice as much fiber as bran, 4–5 times more than almonds, soy, quinoa, or amaranth (Marcinek and Krejpcio, 2017). Chia seeds absorb high amounts of water to form a transparent gel called chia mucilage (Fernandes and Salas-Mellado, 2017). This gel is composed essentially of soluble fiber and the total amount has been reported to about 6% of chia seed (Reyes-Caudillo et al., 2008). This property enables applications of chia seeds both as functional ingredient in the food industry—such as thickener, gel former and chelator, and fat replacer (Alfredo et al., 2009; Capitani et al., 2012)—and as a dietary tool with low postprandial glycaemia and high satiety scores (Vuksan et al., 2016). A recent study revealed that salba-chia reduced blood glucose levels and displayed characteristics similar to slowly digestible carbohydrate; according to their findings, even the nutritional compositions were similar.

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Physicochemical differences in the soluble fiber structure from different sources can affect how viscosity develops and, therefore, their role on postglycemic responses (Vuksan et al., 2016). According to the study conducted on the superfoods found in the Spanish market, mineral composition of superfoods including goji, pomegranate, chia, ac¸aı´, and mangosteen revealed that, among the samples individually, Ca and Mn levels are significantly higher in chia seeds, and chia seeds were found to contribute to RDA 10.7% of Mg, 55% of Mn, 9.9% of P, and 7.9% of Fe (Llorent-Martı´nez et al., 2013). In 10 postmenopausal women who consumed milled chia seeds (25 g/day) for 7 weeks, plasma samples for α-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), revealed a significant increase in ALA (138%) and EPA (30%) levels with no significant changes in DPA and DHA ( Jin et al., 2012). Similarly, chia consumption as flour (35 g/day) for 12 weeks decreased blood pressure (BP) level and lipid oxidation, and increased LDL levels in individuals (Toscano et al., 2014). Chia seeds are commonly consumed as ground or whole grains added to different drinks such as fruit juices, milk, refreshing drinks forming a gel, or to food, most commonly to yoghurt or salads, the recommended daily dosage being approximately 10 g of seeds (Llorent-Martı´nez et al., 2013). The most common way of incorporating chia seeds into diet is adding raw seeds into salads, into beverages, or in a mixture of cereals. Bars, cookie snacks, fruit juices, or cakes are examples of their further food applications (Lo´pez et al., 2018). Further studies on chia consumption are shown in Table 2.

4.5 Flaxseeds (Linum usitatissimum) Flax (Linum usitatissimum) is a blue-flowering crop that is commonly found in different forms as whole seed, ground seed (meal or powder), or as flaxseed oil (Bloedon and Szapary, 2004). The earliest cultivation of flax was used to make cloth and has been reported to date back as far as 6000 BC in Eastern Turkey ( Judd, 1995). Flax is known to comprise high amount of lignans, which are polyphenolic compounds being one of the major groups of phytoestrogens, omega-3 fatty acids (the highest being α-linolenic acid, 55% of its total amount of fatty acids), and dietary fiber. This amount is found to be 5.5 times higher than the nearest highest sources such as walnuts and canola oil. According to a study comprising healthy menopausal women consuming 40 g flaxseed daily for 1 year in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial; flaxseed consumption increased some omega-3 fatty acids in plasma (Dodin et al., 2008). The cardiovascular effects of flaxseed have been attributed to its polyunsaturated fats to prevent LDL oxidation ( Janero, 1990), however, according to the findings of a recent study, the increased lignan content is also found to be effective on the lowered LDL content (Almario and Karakas, 2013).

The concept of superfoods in diet

The study suggests that the possible effect may be due to the synergy occurring between n-3 PUFA and lignan components of the flaxseed (Almario and Karakas, 2013). Viscosity of dietary fiber has been proposed to affect the carbohydrate digestion mechanism and relatedly glycemic response. Flaxseed has a higher amount of soluble fiber, which has been reported to decrease the total cholesterol and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL) by interference with bulk diffusion of fat and excretion of bile acids. Oxidation of LDL is reported as an early phase in atherosclerosis development, as oxidized LDL is an inducer for oxidative stress and modifier of gene expression in endothelial cells and is considered as more artherogenic. Fruit phenols protect endothelial cells directly from oxidative stress that is induced by different stressors (Glass and Witztum, 2001; Miranda-Rottmann et al., 2002; Stocker, 1999).

4.6 Maqui (Aristotelia chilensis (Mol.) Stuntz) berry Maqui berry is an edible fruit that is commonly consumed from central to southern Chile, in addition to Argentina, having a diameter about 5 mm and a purple-black color. The berries are extremely rich in anthocyanins (delphinidin-3-O-sambubioside-5-O-glucoside, delphinidin-3,5-O-diglucoside, cyanidin-3-O-sambubioside-5-O-glucoside, delphinidin-3-O-glucoside, and delphinidin-3-O-sambubioside being the most abundant ones) (Chang et al., 2018; Escribano-Bailo´n et al., 2006) as the main contributor to their antioxidant, which is one of the highest among known berry fruits in nature (Miranda-Rottmann et al., 2002; Rodrı´guez, 2005), in addition to a high amount of total phenolics (Chang et al., 2018). Maqui berry has effects as an antiinflammatory for kidney pain, stomach ulcers, diverse digestive disorders such as tumors and ulcers, fever, and cicatrization injuries (Cespedes et al., 2017). A very recent study on maqui revealed that some of its bioactives may provide a potential therapeutic approach for inflammation associated disorders by having an active role in production of proinflammatory mediators in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated murine macrophage RAW-264 cells, as well as antioxidant activities, and therefore might be used as an antagonizing agent to ameliorate the effects of oxidative stress (Cespedes et al., 2017). Moreover, in vitro studies on maqui anthocyanins displayed the inhibitory effect on adipogenesis and inflammation by the prevention of LDL oxidation (Brauch et al., 2016; Miranda-Rottmann et al., 2002; Schreckinger et al., 2010). Fresh and dried maqui samples, in addition to maqui juice, have been reported as having a variety of bioactives, such as 8 glycosylated anthocyanins composing of differently substituted cyanidin and delphinidin derivatives with 1 or 2 glycosyl moieties, in addition to 3 ellagic acid derivatives and 14 flavonols of myricetin and quercetin derivatives (Brauch et al., 2016). Similar findings have been reported in a more recent study to show that bioactives of p-coumaric acid, rutin, catechin, epicatechin, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, gentisic acid, sinapic acid, procyanidin B-9, gallic acid, quercetin, myricetin, delphinidin-3,

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5-diglucoside, cyanidin-3-glucoside, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, ferulic acid, delphinidin-3glucoside, delphinidin-3-sambubioside, and cyanidin-3-sambubioside, in addition to trimers and tetramers of procyanidins were found in maqui (Cespedes et al., 2017). Further research on maqui has mainly focused on the effects of individual bioactives; for example, a characteristic anthocyanin delphinidin 3-sambubioside-5-glucoside related to a lowering effect on the fasting glucose level of obese diabetic mice and improving glucose metabolism in liver and muscle cells by intensifying insulin-induced gene expression of glucose-6-phosphatase in liver cells (Rojo et al., 2012). Another anthocyanin from maqui, bioactive delphinidin- 3,5-diglucoside from maqui juice, contributes to the restoration of tear secretion of in a rat dry eye model (Nakamura et al., 2014). Studies focusing on the health effects of maqui consumption should be widened in the near future. Further studies on maqui consumption are shown in Table 2.

4.7 Açaí (Euterpe oleracea Mart. Palmae, Arecaceae) The large palm tree, Euterpe oleracea Martius, which is indigenous to South America, is known as ac¸aı´ palm and its purple-black fruit, which is smaller than a grape, with less pulp, is commonly known as ac¸aı´ berry. In native tradition, it has been used as a medicinal plant around Brazil in the treatment of fevers, skin complications, digestive disorders, and parasitic infections (Heinrich et al., 2011; Matheus et al., 2006), in addition to being a staple food. The edible part is consumed as food, having an unusual flavor similar to that of raspberry with a nutty taste, and being only the 7% of its weight; it is also commonly consumed as juice (Gallori et al., 2004; Llorent-Martı´nez et al., 2013). In Brazilian tradition, its juice also has been reported to be consumed as a cold soup with manioc flour or tapioca, served with either fish or shrimp (Mun˜iz-Miret et al., 1996). Ac¸aı´ has been reported to include anthocyanins (cyanidin-3-glucoside and cyanidin3-rutinoside), proanthocyanidins, other flavonoids, and lignans, etc. (Gallori et al., 2004). Freeze-dried ac¸aı´ pulp revealed that flavonoids are major polyphenols in acai pulp, with seven flavonoids as orientin, homoorientin, vitexin, luteolin, chrysoeriol, quercetin, and dihydrokaempferol (flavones and their C-glycosides) with very high antioxidant activity (Kang et al., 2010). Total monomeric anthocyanin content has been reported to change between 0.57
0.39 mg cyanidin-3-glucoside/g FW and 3.03 mg cyanidin-3-glucoside/g FW for acai collected from different regions (de Rosso et al., 2008; Garzo´n et al., 2017; Pacheco-Palencia et al., 2009). These bioactive substances possess individual or combined effects of antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antiproliferative, and cardioprotective activities. Ac¸aı´ berry oil has been reported to contain predominantly the unsaturated fatty acid ω-9 (oleic acid) (65.2%) (de Lima Yamaguchi et al., 2015). In a recent intervention study, 35 women consumed 200 g ac¸aı´ pulp/day to evaluate the effect of oxidative damage by measuring the antioxidant activity by following the

The concept of superfoods in diet

protein carbonyl and sulfhydryl groups as biomarkers of protein oxidative damage in women. According to their results, serum protein carbonyl decreased after ac¸aı´ intake and serum protein thiol levels increased to confirm the effect of ac¸aı´ in oxidative damage. Moreover, ac¸aı´ intake was also found to increase the catalase activity and total antioxidant capacity, and reduced the production of reactive oxygen species (Barbosa et al., 2016). Another recent research (Pala et al., 2018) also revealed that although consumption of the same amount of ac¸ai (200 g of ac¸ai pulp/day, for 4 weeks) did not make any significant changes in the systemic arterial pressure, glucose, insulin, total LDL and HDLcholesterol, or triglycerides, changes in the plasma lipoproteins of apolipoprotein A-I as a marker of HDL and the cholesteryl ester transfer to HDL after ac¸ai consumption were significant as a favorable action on plasma HDL metabolism. Ac¸ai consumption was also found to increase overall antioxidant capacity by increasing the activity of antioxidative paraoxonase 1 enzyme (Pala et al., 2018). Similarly, it has been demonstrated that acai pulp modulated the expression of the genes involved in cholesterol homeostasis in the liver and increased fecal excretion, in that way it decreased the serum cholesterol (de Souza et al., 2012). Moreover ac¸aı´ pulp promoted a hypocholesterolemic effect in a rat model by dietary-induced hypercholesterolemia through an increase in the expression of ATP-binding cassette (Souza et al., 2010). Ac¸aı´ consumption was also found to have some benefits for cardiovascular health. A study with 23 overweight men revealed that an ac¸aı´ smoothie with 694 mg total phenolics improved the vascular function and total peroxide oxidative status; however, no significant changes were observed in blood pressure, heart rate, or postprandial glucose response (Alqurashi et al., 2016). Further studies on ac¸aı´ consumption are shown in Table 2.

4.8 Pomegranate (Punica granatum) Pomegranate (P. granatum) is a fruit-bearing deciduous shrub or small tree having an ancient medical value (especially for aphthae, diarrhea, and ulcers). Today, originating from the Middle East and extending throughout the Mediterranean, it is cultivated in various parts of the world with more than 1000 varieties. In that sense, it is much more common in comparison to other superfoods. It is composed of numerous edible seeds (5–12 cm diameter berry), in a spongy, astringent pulp and surrounded by water-laden aril. The main way to consume pomegranate as a food supplement is as pomegranate juices or beverages. Pomegranate has different types of bioactive polyphenols and a high antioxidant activity that is mainly attributed to the hydrolysable tannins (galloyl glucose and gallagyl-type tannins), anthocyanins (delphinidin 3,5-diglucoside, cyanidin 3,5diglucoside, delphinidin 3-glucoside, and cyanidin 3 glucoside) and to ellagitannins such as punicalagin and punicalin, ellagic acid, and ellagic acid glucoside (Gil et al., 2000).

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Pomegranate studies have generally focused on its consumption as juice, on different mechanisms regarding its different types of antioxidants and bioactive polyphenols, and have revealed some significant findings regarding its health effects. For cardiovascular diseases, aerum angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) activity is a significant indicator for hypertension and possible development of atherosclerosis. In patients with elevated plasma rennin-angiotensin activity, incidence of myocardial infarction was significantly higher. In a recent study with 10 hypertensive patients, pomegranate juice consumption (50 mL, for 2 weeks) decreased the serum ACE activity (36%) and the systolic blood pressure (5%) (Aviram and Dornfeld, 2001). Similarly, in another study on the effects of pomegranate juice, cardiovascular health of 21 hypertensive patients (aged 30–67 years) who consumed pomegranate juice (150 mL/day in a single occasion between lunch and dinner; n ¼11) for 2 weeks, it has been displayed that its consumption significantly reduced their systolic and diastolic blood pressure levels and suggested it as a beneficial cardioprotective supplement for hypertensive subjects, although no significant changes were observed in serum levels of other lipid profile parameters such as intracellular adhesion molecule-1, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), lipid profile parameters, apolipoproteins, and interleukin-6 (Asgary et al., 2014). Pomegranate consumption has also been proposed as an effective tool for reducing the postprandial glycemic response of bread, based on the findings of a study with 48 healthy volunteers (Kerimi et al., 2017).

4.9 Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) The purple mangosteen (G. mangostana L.) is a tropical tree originally from Southeast Asia, which belongs to the family Clusiaceae. It grows mainly in tropical areas such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Philippines, and Thailand. Its reddish-purple fruit has a white, juicy, sweet, and tangy pulp, with high sugar content. Traditionally it has been used against skin disorders (psoriasis and eczema), wounds, infections, and diarrhea (Xie et al., 2015). Moreover, recent studies also mention its antioxidant, anticancer, antiinflammatory, antiallergic, antimicrobial, and antimalarial properties (Gutierrez-Orozco and Failla, 2013). The most significant active components of mangosteen are xanthones (strong antioxidants, the most significant xanthone found in mangosteen is α-mangostin) and vitamins. Anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins have also been detected. Generally the fruit is intolerant to postharvest process and perishes very quickly, that is why the aril and whole fruit are generally processed into juice. The astringent tasting juice or extract from the Mangosteen pericarp is found in the market. Juices also may be mixed with other juices, to overcome the astringent taste from its pericarp (Failla and Guti
errez-Orozco, 2017). Although effects of mangosteen and/or xanthone extracts on human health have been commonly studied, human intervention studies with mangosteen are rather limited. In a recent randomized, double-blind study for determining the antiinflammatory effect of mangosteen, 60 participants consumed mangosteen-based beverage for 30 days

The concept of superfoods in diet

(Xie et al., 2015). According to the results, the blood samples from the participants had higher (15%) antioxidant activity, and lower inflammatory biomarkers (the C-reactive protein level dropped by 46%) than the control blood samples (Xie et al., 2015). An ethanol extract of the fruit case of mangosteen, which is rich in xanthones, has also depicted moderate inhibition on α-glucosidase activity, so that it could elicit reduction of postprandial blood glucose levels (Ryu et al., 2011). The most abundant xanthone in mangosteen, α-mangostin, has been proven to show many different health benefits including an antioxidant-defense effect during injury-induced myocardial infarction (Sampath and Vijayaragavan, 2008) and anticarcinogenic effect by inhibiting the proliferation of human colorectal adenocarcinoma cell line, COLO 205 for both trials in vitro and in mice (Watanapokasin et al., 2010). Some further studies on health effects of mangosteen are shown in Table 2.

4.10 Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) Theobroma cacao is the cocoa tree, from which cocoa seeds are derived as dried, and either as fermented or unfermented. Cocoa is a significant crop for countries such as Ghana, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Indonesia, and Malaysia. Evidence has shown the medicinal uses of cocoa in many ancient civilizations such as the Olmec, Maya, and Mexica (Aztec). Moreover, various documents were found to explain the use of cocoa in the treatment of some diseases of the liver (such as infirmities and hot distempers) and cancers (such as stomach cancer and hemorrhoid tumors) (Amin et al., 2004). According to some other sources, the perception of cocoa not only as a beverage but also as a medicinal plant to treat some disorders such as angina and heart pain goes back to the 1600s and 1700s (Keen, 2001). The cocoa bean with its products (cocoa liquor, cocoa powder, and dark chocolate) is very rich in phenolic acids (10%–12%, dry weight) (Waterhouse et al., 1996). Being one of the richest sources of flavanols (around 60% of total phenolics in raw coca beans)—a subclass of flavonoids—cocoa is considered as one of the most significant contributors of total dietary flavonoid intake in the human diet (Martı´n et al., 2016). Cocoa flavonols are mostly flavanol monomers (epicatechin and catechin) and procyanidin oligomers (dimer to decamer), which have been reported as significant antioxidants. Catechins are flavan3-ols and procyanidins are oligomeric flavonoids consisting of 2–10 covalently linked epicatechin and catechin moieties. More commonly, catechin and procyanidins groups in cocoa are together considered as total “cocoa flavonoids” (Kerimi and Williamson, 2015). The flavonoid content per weight of cocoa has been reported as being higher than red wine, green tea, and black tea. Moreover, total amount of flavonoids in dark chocolate is higher than that of milk chocolate (Lee et al., 2003). In addition, cocoa has been found to contain some other polyphenols such as luteolin, apigenin, naringenin, quercetin, isoquercitrin, etc. and methylxanthines, mainly theobromine (3,7-dimethyl xanthine) and caffeine in small quantities (Lamuela-Ravento´s et al., 2005; Martı´n et al., 2016; Martı´n and Ramos, 2017). The importance of

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theobromine has been mainly attributed to its benefits on lipoprotein levels, synergy with flavan-3-ols, and also role in increasing the absorption of epicatechins (Berends et al., 2015; Yamamoto et al., 2014). The distinct mechanism of antioxidant activity for cocoa flavonols is explained by their structural properties as hydrogen donors (radicalscavenging) and metal-chelating antioxidants (Martı´n et al., 2016). The lipid component of the cocoa is known as “cocoa butter.” Cocoa butter contains abundant stearic acid (C18:0) (reported as much as one third of the total lipid content) (Ferna´ndez-Murga et al., 2011), palmitic acid (C16:0), and oleic acid (C18:1) (Kerimi and Williamson, 2015). Cocoa butter also consists of plant sterols and fiber in small amounts. Cocoa beans, on the other hand, contain a variety of minerals like potassium, calcium, magnesium, and copper, with potential effects in reducing cardiovascular risk (Ferna´ndez-Murga et al., 2011). Cacao liquor, prepared from fermented and dried beans, is characterized as having higher amounts of polyphenols in comparison to cacao powder. The cocoa butter content of cocoa liquor is around 55% (Ferna´ndez-Murga et al., 2011). In addition to factors such as the type of cacao plant, growing location and conditions, and storage conditions, processing methods to produce cocoa and chocolate, particularly alkalization, are significant in causing a significant decrease in the flavan-3-ol content (Lamuela-Ravento´s et al., 2005). Cocoa and/or cocoa products have been investigated for various health effects such as effects on cardiovascular health (Keen, 2001), resistance to oxidative stress (Othman et al., 2007; Spadafranca et al., 2010), inflammation (Monagas et al., 2009), obesity (Almoosawi et al., 2010), and LDL, etc. in numerous studies. In a very recent and comprehensive study the relation between daily chocolate consumption, insulin resistance, and serum liver enzymes among 1153 individuals, aged 18–69 years, has been investigated. According to the results of the study, daily chocolate consumption is beneficial for insulin sensitivity and hepatic biomarkers of the participants (Alkerwi et al., 2016). In another study, effect of flavonoids in chocolate was mentioned by comparing the results gathered after the consumption of both white and dark chocolate samples. According to their results, dark chocolate was effective on the significant improvement of DNA resistance to oxidative stress (Spadafranca et al., 2010). Some further selected studies on cocoa are shown in Table 2. Unlike other superfoods, cocoa-related research attracted much attention in many perspectives, including research reviewing cocoa/chocolate consumption and cardiovascular health (Ferna´ndez-Murga et al., 2011; Kerimi and Williamson, 2015), diabetes (Mellor and Naumovski, 2016), and colon cancer (Martı´n et al., 2016).

4.11 Spirulina In general, microalgae are defined as microscopic organisms that photosynthesize by a similar mechanism to that of land-based plants. They are found in both marine and

The concept of superfoods in diet

freshwater environments (Chaco´n-Lee and Gonza´lez-Marin˜o, 2010). Their basic cellular structure, in addition to their ease in reaching sources such as water CO2, and other nutrients, as they live mainly in aqueous mediums, were reported as factors enabling a more efficient conversion of solar energy to biomass (Adiputro et al., 2015). Cyanophyceae (blue-green algae), Chlorophyceae (green algae), Bacillariophyceae (including the diatoms), and Chrysophyceae (including golden algae) are among the most significant microalgal classes (Carlsson, 2007). Studies show that local people around Lake Chad or Lake Kossorom harvest Spirulina for preparation of different dishes. Similarly, in another part of the world, the Aztecs also used it for preparation of a dry cake by drying the blue-green masses collected from lakes by local fishers (Gantar and Svircˇev, 2008). Since 1945, both researchers and companies have focused on production, commercialization, and marketing of microalgae and cyanobacteria biomass in different forms (Gantar and Svircˇev, 2008), although they have not become a major source for nutrition (Chaco´n-Lee and Gonza´lez-Marin˜o, 2010). The main reasons might be related to negative sensory properties such as strong green color, fishy taste, odor, and powdery consistency (Chaco´n-Lee and Gonza´lez-Marin˜o, 2010). However, their unique nutritional properties such as extremely high content of protein (>50% protein), in addition to antioxidants, phytonutrients, probiotics, and nutraceuticals have made microalgae a focus of interest particularly for different uses in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, waste water treatment, and nutraceutical industries. Microalgae contain numerous bioactive components, such as pigments, β-carotenes, polysaccharides, and peptides; therefore, microalgae are potentially an excellent source of natural compounds that may be used as ingredients for preparing functional foods and nutraceuticals. Microalgal proteins can be converted into value-added products with improved functional properties by enzymatic hydrolysis (Heo et al., 2017). Among the microalgae, Spirulina is a blue-green alga belonging to the Oscillatoraceae family (Samuels et al., 2002). Spirulina (also referred to as Arthrospira) is an edible cyanobacterium that is commonly used as food (de la Jara et al., 2018). It is the oldest living plant (approximately 3.6 billion years old) and one of first photosynthetic life forms. It may be considered as the evolutionary bridge between the bacteria and green plants (Soni et al., 2017). Its designation as a “superfood” may be related to its several biological activities, such as antioxidant, antidiabetic, cholesterol-controlling, and insulin resistance effects (Samuels et al., 2002). Spirulina maxima and Spirulina platensis (currently called Arthrospira platensis and Arthrospira maxima in some sources) are the most significant species of Spirulina. In addition to proteins (60%–70% of weight), Spirulina also contains carbohydrates, vitamins like provitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin E, minerals such as iron, calcium, chromium, copper, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, potassium, sodium and zinc, in addition to essential fatty acids such as γ-linolenic acid (GLA) and pigments like chlorophyll a, phycocyanin (antioxidant, antiinflammatory, and neuroprotective properties) and carotenes. Its cell

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wall has been reported to compromise polysaccharides that have 86% digestibility, and can be easily absorbed by the human body (Gantar and Svircˇev, 2008; Sjors and Alessvero, 2010). GLA is a rare fatty acid that is hardly found in our daily diet, although having a possible prophylactic role in the treatment of various diseases such as such as atopic eczema, cyclic mastalgia, premenstrual syndrome, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, inflammation, and cancer (de la Jara et al., 2018).

5. Conclusion Superfoods probably will be more popular among consumers in the near future, with more studies focusing on the health benefits. Future studies in superfoods must focus more on human intervention studies to support their benefits scientifically. Acceptance of a general definition for superfoods by the legal food authorities will probably also lead to a better understanding of superfoods.

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CHAPTER 4

Microalgae as healthy ingredients for functional foods
reza, W.M. Bru € cka, T. Bru € ckb, M. Beyrera M.C. Pina-Pe a Institute of Life Technologies, HES-SO VALAIS-WALLIS, Sion, Switzerland Technical University of Munich, Garching, Germany

b

Contents 1. Introduction 1.1 Microalgae: Market share and legislation 1.2 Cultivation of microalgae: Key factors 1.3 Composition of microalgae: Nutritional bioactives 2. Bioactives from microalgae 2.1 Carotenoids from microalgae: Potent antioxidants 2.2 Polysaccharides from microalgae 2.3 Proteins from microalgae 2.4 Lipids in microalgae matrices 3. Functional foods for the future based in microalgae 4. Future trends Acknowledgments References Further reading

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1. Introduction Recognized as the “blue planet,” more than 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered by water. From ancient times, populations have established their settlements close to water to ensure their access to aquatic food (mainly fish and shellfish), fertile land, and water itself. Nowadays, the overexploitation of natural resources and the increasing population (10 billion world inhabitants are expected by 2050) are concerning points to which governments, scientists, and industrial processors should respond in order to be able to guarantee future generations’ health and wellbeing. The WHO/FAO (2017) has highlighted the potential risks associated with emergent diseases (e.g., Alzheimer’s) and biological hazards that could seriously affect future generations (e.g., antibioticresistant microorganisms). Special emphasis was given to requirements for future infant and elderly populations, with the global elderly population (>65 years old) expected to reach 151 million in 2060. To face these novel scenarios, marine animals, algae, and other organisms found in water (like bacteria) that produce bioactive compounds with nutritional, cosmetic, medical, and pharmaceutical applications are becoming the focus The Role of Alternative and Innovative Food Ingredients and Products in Consumer Wellness https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816453-2.00004-8

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of researchers around the world. The promotion of marine research has been recently boosted by the EC becoming a valuable strategy to develop and reinforce the competitiveness of industries, the efficiency in the profit of raw materials, and the wellbeing of animals and humans by means of the impulse of bio-economic strategies (EC H2020 program, 2017). The life-cycle of our emerging problems regarding “food for future” starts and ends at the same point: the need to find alternative sources of highly valuable nutritional compounds that are efficient and sustainable for the provision of an increasing population. Trying to meet the needs of future population regarding the quality, quantity and sustainability of food intake, living organisms in the deep water are being investigated. Among these water-living organisms, algae—plant-like photosynthetic organisms—are currently being used in the production of food, pharmaceuticals, and energy (ethanol and biodiesel). The main interest of the macro and micro-algae industry in the last decade has been focused on the “functional value” of their bioactives (Galasso et al., 2017; Wells et al., 2017).

1.1 Microalgae: Market share and legislation The term “algae” comprises a complex and heterogeneous group of organisms charcaterized by its photosynthetic nature and having simple reproductive structures. The algae group can be divided into pluricellular organisms, known as macroalgae or seaweed, and unicellular organisms, known as microalgae (from 1 μm to several cm). Microalgae are microscopic organisms, growing in suspension, some of them with equivalent properties to bacteria (Anbuchezhian et al., 2015). These microalgae live in sea water, specifically in regions with practically no light penetration (intertidal zone), at depths close to 200 m. This group produces close to the 50% of the total photosynthetic O2 on Earth (Vuppaladadiyam et al., 2018). The number of species of algae has been estimated as close to ten million. The majority of them are recognized as microalgae, classified in five groups: green algae (Chlorophyceae), blue-green algae (Cyanophyceae), golden algae (Chrysophyceae), diatoms (Bacillariophyceae), and the named classis nova (Porphyridiophyceae). Only 50 species of algae (mainly Spirulina, Chlorella, Porphyry, Nannochloropsis, Haematococcaceae, and Dunaliella) have been studied in detail from a physiological and biochemical point of view (Adarme-Vega et al., 2012; Anbuchezhian et al., 2015). Microalgae and derived products are increasingly being investigated and demanded by consumers, as they are claimed to have positive effects on human health, as functional foods or nutraceuticals (Wells et al., 2017) (Fig. 1). This increasing demand for functional foods (mainly in China, Japan, Europe, and the USA), is in parallel with a growing interest in discovering new natural sources to extract and sustainably produce functional food ingredients. Scientific evidence is reflecting the positive impact on human health and in disease prevention associated with algae-specific molecules (Alabdulkarim et al., 2012;

Algae application

Energy production

Human nutrition

Pharmaceuticals

Animal nutrition

Cosmethics

Biofuel Proteins Aquaculture Pigments (carotenoids/ phycobilin proteins) Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)

Carbohydrates

HO OH O

HO

Fig. 1 Application fields of microalgae biomass.

O OH HO

OH O OH

OH

Pets and farming

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Udenigwe and Aluko, 2012; Pem and Jeewon, 2015), among them, carotenoids, proteins, polyunsaturated lipids (PUFA), and polysaccharides, with prebiotic, antiaging, antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and anticancer properties (Dongre, 2017; Galasso et al., 2017; Fan et al., 2014; Pina-P
erez et al., 2017). Table 1 includes the most relevant microalgae studied up to date in terms of bioactive molecules and effects on human health (Iban˜ez and Cifuentes, 2013). Microalgae species that are interesting in the development of functional food products belong to photoautotrophic eukaryotic groups classified as Chlorophyta (e.g., C. vulgaris, T. chuii), Rhodophyta (e.g., P. cruentum), Haptophyta (e.g., D. lutheri, T. lutea), Table 1 Most important microalgae compounds with bioactive potential (Buono et al., 2014; Ibañez and Cifuentes, 2013). Microalgae

Bioactive molecule

Biomass yield (g/L)

Functional in vitro or in vivo effect

Himanthalia elongate

PUFA

–

Reduce risk of certain diseases

Chrondrus crispus

Ulva spp. Isochrysis galbana Nostoc commune Nannochloropsis oculata Schizochytrium aggregatum Navicula incerta Dunaliella salina

Haematococcus pluvialis

Α-Tocopherol Soluble fiber Alginic acids, xylofucans PUFAs (n-3) fatty acids Soluble fiber Sulfated polysaccharides Sterols Phytosterols

Antioxidant activity Reduce LDL cholesterol Antiviral activity –

Reduce risk of certain heart diseases Reduce total and LDL cholesterol Apoptotic activities

– 0.165a

Reduce total and LDL cholesterol Antimicrobial potential

– 0.218a

Cholesterol lowering activity Reduce risk of certain heart diseases

Lipid fraction PUFAs (n-3) fatty acids Campesterol, Ergosterol, Stigmasterol Phytosterols Carotenoids

–

Antioxidant potential

– 0.223a

PUFAs (n-3) fatty acids Carotenoids

Anticancer properties Antioxidant, immunomodulation and cancer prevention Reduce risk of certain heart diseases

0.167a

Antioxidant, immunomodulation and cancer prevention Reduce risk of certain heart diseases

PUFAs (n-3) fatty acids

Microalgae as healthy ingredients for functional foods

Table 1 Most important microalgae compounds with bioactive potential.—cont’d Microalgae

Chorella spp.

Bioactive molecule

Carotenoids

Biomass yield (g/L)

0.263

a

PUFAs (n-3) fatty acids Sulfated polysaccharides Sterols Arthrospira platensis (Spirulina)

PUFAs (n-3) fatty acids Phycobilinproteins

Porphyridium spp.

Phenolic acids Vitamin E Sulfated polysaccharides Vitamin E Allophycocyanin

Cryptomonads

Scenedesmus almeriensis a

Carotenoids

–

Functional in vitro or in vivo effect

Antioxidant, immunomodulation and cancer prevention Reduce risk of certain heart diseases Antiviral, antitumor, Antihyperlipidemia, anticoagulant Reduce total and LDL cholesterol, immunosuppressant effects Reduce risk of certain heart diseases Immunomodulation activity, anticancer potential, hepatoprotective activity, antiinflammatory and antioxidant properties Antioxidant potential

– – –

Antiviral, antitumor, Antihyperlipidemia, anticoagulant Antioxidant activity Inhibition of cytopathic effect, delay in synthesis of viral RNA of enterovirus Antioxidant, cancer prevention, immunomodulatory effects

Top micro-algal biomass producers (Slocombe et al., 2015).

Eustigmatophyta (e.g., Nannochloropsis sp.), Bacillariophyta or diatoms (e.g., O. aurita, P. tricornutum), heterotrophic species belonging to Labyrinthulomyceta (e.g., Schizochytrium sp.), and prokaryotic cyanobacterium (e.g., A. platensis) (Bernaerts et al., 2018). Initially, the market demand in microalgae was focused on the development of functional foods, with limited production from Spirulina, Chlorella, Dunaliella, and Scenedesmus. In the late 1960s Chlorella was commercialized for the first time in Japan. In 1970, Spirulina was first harvested from Lake Texococo (Mexico). It was in 1974 when the United Nations World Food Conference declared the Spirulina as “the best food for the future,” being categorized by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1993 as a rich food in iron and protein perfect to be used even in children without any risk (FAO, 2011). By 1980, up to 46 large-scale facilities were operating all over Asia, producing around 12 tonnes (w.b.—wet basis) per year of microalgae. Nowadays the production of microalgae has grown enormously, and in 2016, it was estimated to be 80,000 tonnes/ha per year (Tredici et al., 2016).

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The food industry and pharmaceutical market are keen to develop novel products including microalgae as raw matrices, or their derived compounds as ingredients, in the formulation of a new era of tailor-made healthy products. However, in terms of market share of macro and microalgae, many products are from seaweed, representing a value of 5.7 billion € in 2013 (FAO, 2016). Only every fifth food or beverage that contains an alga derivate is produced with a microalga. Many microalgae species have been granted “GRAS status” (Generally recognized as safe) by the U.S. FDA (Food and Drug Administration) (such as ß-carotene-rich Dunaliella bardawil powder). In the EU, several microalgae products have already been approved, according to the regulations in force before January 2018; for example, O. auriata (2002) and T. chuii (2014), approved as novel foods, and the oils from Schizochytrium (2009, 2012, 2014 and 2015) or Ulkenia (2009), and astaxanthin from H. pluvialis, approved as novel food ingredients (https://ec.europa. eu/food/safety/novel_food/authorisations/list_authorisations_en). Commonly, these products and ingredients are produced in powder form as food and feed supplements/nutraceuticals. The extraction of bioactive compounds and colorants from microalgae is also an increasing market (fivefold since the beginning of the century) ( JCR EU 2014). Frequently, low carb food, such as plant-based protein blends, are enriched with Spirulina. In addition to extraordinary nutritional values, the cultivation of microalgae is associated with: (i) a high rate of yield in large scale production under controlled conditions; and (ii) interesting sustainability bench marks including only 3% of requirement for land and 2% of requirement for fresh water, compared to the equivalent production of biomass with crops. Their production yield is not only high but also environmentally friendly (Garcı´a et al., 2017). However, to date, cost, technological readiness, and regulatory hurdles are some of the obstacles to this growing sector establishing itself as a large-scale alternative to food crops. Even in high-level gastronomy around the world, chefs are now interested in the possibilities of these novel food sources to be present in the most innovative dishes, bringing the sea taste to gastronomy experiences, and defending the sustainability and the valorization of cuisine products (Aponiente, 2018).

1.2 Cultivation of microalgae: Key factors Microalgae are photo-autotrophic and convert atmospheric CO2 into energy rich compounds including carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, as well as micronutrients. Regarding global material cycles, microalgae generate approximately 50% of the total photosynthetic O2 (Vuppaladadiyam et al., 2018). The macronutrients of the algal growth are nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon and are classified as macronutrients required for algal growth (Khan et al., 2018). In addition,

Microalgae as healthy ingredients for functional foods

Fig. 2 Open cultivation system in microalgae production—A cascade reactor scale, Department of Chemistry, Technical University of Munich.

environmental factors such as light intensity and wave length spectrum, temperature, nutrient level, and salinity have been described as significant factors affecting the effectiveness of biomass production and the production of cell-bound bioactive compounds. Commonly, microalgae are grown under photo-autotrophic conditions. Crucial for a satisfying yield of biomass is (i) an efficient mass transfer from the gaseous to the liquid phase, e.g., a high CO2 saturation level in the liquid phase, and (ii) a uniform distribution of light over the liquid layer. Alternatively to photo-autotrophic conditions, heterotrophic or mixotrophic conditions can be applied, e.g., the feed contains an organic carbon source (Cheirsilp and Torpee, 2012) (Fig. 2). Photobioreactors (PBRs) (tubulars, plastic bags, flat plates, airlift and bubble columns, and stirred tank reactors) are designed in order to increase the yield of biomass harvest, standardize fermentation parameters, and reduce the risk of contamination (Garcı´a et al., 2017). Closed reactors compared to open-air ponds correspond better to these requirements, but have significantly higher construction costs. Depending on the species and the purpose of culture, tubular and flat plate light-permeable reactors are used in combination with recirculated phases, or airlift/bubble columns and stirred tank reactors in combination with resisting phases (Khan et al., 2018). To date, the largest ponds in microalgae culture are 1.25 ha, operating for biofuels production in New Zealand. Considering the costs for providing the growth limiting factors “light” and “nutrients,” natural light with autotrophic (CO2 as carbon source) conditions is the most viable option to produce microalgae on a large scale (Vuppaladadiyam et al., 2018). Tubular PBRs installed outdoors and built with transparent materials have the advantages of providing a good balance of irradiation area per unit of reactor volume and an efficient mixing effect, while in plate reactors, thin layers might contribute to an even higher light intensity (Chia et al., 2013).

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At heterotrophic cultivation conditions, the volume yield of a reactor is, in general, high (100–150 g dry matter per liter, Zhu and Jiang, 2008) and thus the process can be considered to be efficient. Additionally, a higher level of some bioactive molecules has been described at heterotrophic, compared to autotrophic, growth conditions (Zhu and Jiang, 2008; Perez-Garcia et al., 2011). However, the primary production of organic matter is required, and this offsets some of the sustainability gains of the microalgae food chain (Guedes et al., 2011). Microalgae species, as used in production of bioactive compounds, have to meet certain requirements. On the one hand, the processed biomass has to be suitable for human consumption, e.g., nontoxic and nonpathogenic algae and derivatives are essential; and on the other, genetic stability, stability under mechanical stress in mixed reactors, and high growth rate determine the productivity. Martins et al. (2013) found an exemplary generation time of 7–15 h for marine microalgae, which proliferate at high salinity of 35 g NaCl/kg. The importance of having a high resistance to mechanical or chemical stresses, and the capability of the species to adapt to changing conditions, are critical to ensure good results under heterotrophic culture in an economically feasible mineral media. Facilities for growing microalgae culture and commercialization of derivatives are established specifically in Germany and the Netherlands, followed by France and the United Kingdom. Only few manage large-scale PBRs, e.g., produce with a surface larger than 250 m2 or in a volume larger than 75 m3. Currently, with the urgent need to search for alternative nutritional sources, the research is focused on genetic engineering based on these bio-reactors—microalgae. However, in spite of the interest, no genetically modified micro-algae are currently on the market (Beacham et al., 2017). Substantial governmental and private investments stimulate genetic engineering approaches in several microalgae species (with a focus on Synechococcus, Synechocystis, Anabaena, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Nanocloropsis gaditana, Ostreococcus tauri, and Porphyridium tricornutum (Doron et al., 2016). However, the technology is still immature and further research and development is needed prior to a commercial production with GM algae.

1.3 Composition of microalgae: Nutritional bioactives From ancient times, natural vegetable products and herbs have been considered as the "medicine" for humans. Specifically, microalgae have been cited as one of the most productive sources of nutrients in the world (Christaki et al., 2011). The nutritional value of microalgae vary between the different species and depends on biochemical composition, digestibility, and cell size, among other algae features (Wells et al., 2017). The dry matter of algae is composed of 12%–35% proteins, 7.2%–23% lipids, and 4.6%–23% carbohydrates (Hamed, 2016). The protein content in microalgae is comparable to soya, with the quality of protein (presence and quantity of essential amino-acids (EAA)) being slightly different

Microalgae as healthy ingredients for functional foods

between species and affected by the cell growth stage or environmental growth conditions of the culture (Misˇurcova´ et al., 2014). Spirulina spp. have the highest rate of EAA 42g/16 g N (covering RDI values for Met and Cys in 74.5% and 73.8%) (Misˇurcova´ et al., 2014). The lipid fraction contains polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), in majority Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) (193 mg/g oil), and Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (46 mg/g oil) (Ryckebosch et al., 2014). Microalgae are also rich in a wide variety of vitamins and minerals K (0.9%–1.6%); Mg (0.4%–0.8%); S (0.3%–0.4 %); Fe (20 min and 60% of the dry weight of the fruit (Zhang et al., 2005), most of it shows resistance to digestion because it cannot be digested in the small intestine, similarly to dietary fibers (Englyst et al., 1992). Thus, green banana can be used as raw material for extraction of resistant starch. According to Hoover and Zhou (2003), legume starches exhibit a lower GI than cereal or tuber starches. Factors such as high levels of amylose, large amounts of soluble dietary fiber, and strong interactions between amylose chains are found responsible for this property of legumes.

4. Starch modification for the food industry Starch granules heated in the presence of excess water swell and are available to the digestive enzymes, resulting in increased absorption in the small intestine. Not all the starches are digested and absorbed at the same rate. Modified starch has different physiological effects in humans based on the degree of modification. As mentioned in Section 2.1, resistant starch is not digested in the intestine, whereas the slowly digestible starch (SDS) is digested slowly, providing a slow and prolonged release of glucose. Thus, both are considered beneficial for the dietary management of diabetes. Although starch present in cereals in the native form has a high proportion of SDS, during processing its digestion

Low glycemic index ingredients and modified starches in food products

increases (Zhang et al., 2006). Therefore, starches originating from different botanical sources are modified by physical, chemical, and enzymatic processes in order to obtain high RS and SDS fractions with desirable functional properties for the food industry (Liu et al., 2012). The modified starches are being increasingly used in the food industry as fat replacers/substitutes. Since these starches are either partially or totally undigested, they contribute low or zero calories to the food on consumption (Tharanathan, 2005). The slowly digesting modified starches could be used for the treatment of certain medical conditions such as diabetes mellitus, etc. (Wolf et al., 1999).

4.1 Chemical methods Different methods used for the chemical modification of starch are esterification, etherification, cross-linking, and acid hydrolysis. Yet the utilization of most of them is limited, mainly due to problems related to consumer safety. It has long been known that chemically modified starch—by methods such as esterification, etherification, and cross-linking—shows increased resistance to α-amylase and, consequently, to digestion (Hood and Arneson, 1976; Leegwater and Luten, 1971). Starch esterification represents a chemical method for starch modification, during which the conversion of the three available hydroxyl groups of the glucose molecule (or part of them) to alkyl or aryl derivatives takes place. This modification is generally performed in order to change the retrogradation properties of starch by limiting intraamylose chain interactions, as well as interactions with the outer amylopectin chains (Jeon et al., 1999). Acetylation is an esterification of hydroxyl groups of glucose residues in starch by using acetic anhydride or acetic acid and an alkaline catalyst such as sodium hydroxide (Bello-P
erez et al., 2010). The acetylated starches are classified based on the degree of substitution (DS): low (DS values 1). In the food industry, low acetylated starches (DS 3 g fiber/100 g food product) and “high in fiber” (>6 g fiber/100 g food product) (Regulation (EC) No. 1924/2006, 2006). Furthermore, mineral content is increased when by-products are incorporated in wheat bread. For instance, 10% banana peel addition in wheat bread provides the possibility to

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label as “high in Fe” and “high in K” (Eshak, 2016). Antioxidant activity of bread can be increased by the addition of mango peel, tomato pomace, lettuce waste, etc. (Mehta et al., 2018; Pathak et al., 2017; Plazzotta et al., 2018). Regarding rheological properties, dough water-absorption increased with the incorporation of some by-products very rich in dietary fiber and with low contents of protein, because this property is negatively correlated with the protein content. Other properties such as dough stability and degree of softening vary according with the type of by-product and the concentrations added. Bread volume is decreased because of the dilution of gluten when by-products are incorporated. Texture parameters are also modified, increasing hardness/firmness because of the interactions between gluten and dietary fiber. Cohesiveness is decreased and chewiness is increased due to the interactions between gelatinized starch and gluten, generally. In relation with color, L* decrease, and variation of a* and b* are observed and it could be due to the original by-product color (Bchir et al., 2014; Kohajdova´ et al., 2018; Martins et al., 2017; Pathak et al., 2017; Soares Ju´nior et al., 2008). Sensorial attributes are also influenced because of the incorporation of by-products. Aroma, flavor, taste and, texture are usually less pleasing than in regular bread and it is correlated with the addition of by-products, meaning an increase of by-products implies minor scores in the mentioned attributes (Kohajdova´ et al., 2018; Martins et al., 2017; Soares Ju´nior et al., 2008). However, the scores of some attributes can be improved with the addition of by-products, e.g., tomato pomace, brewer’s spent yeast, and pomegranate bagasse being well accepted in a sensorial trial (Martins et al., 2017). 4.1.2 Sweet bakery products These products (cakes and muffins) include high-fat and sugar ingredients. The enrichment of this kind of formulation with agro-food by-products results in a mixed behavior related to the protein contents being major or minor to their respective control depending on the by-products, i.e., peels from orange, banana, or mango decrease protein in final products (Martins et al., 2017). Dietary fiber amount is higher in those with by-products incorporated (mango pulp waste, orange waste, tomato pomace, etc.) than their controls (Mehta et al., 2018; Romero-Lopez et al., 2011; Sudha et al., 2015). Fat content seems to be more related with the cake ingredients than with the by-products contribution, however pumpkin seed or passion fruit peel increase that content (Martins et al., 2017). Regarding nonnutritional compounds, some by-products can proportionate antioxidant activity to these products. In fact, the apple skins increase phenolic contents and the antioxidant activity of muffins and enhance the flavor (Vasantha Rupasinghe et al., 2009). The contents of dietary fiber with a more balanced SDF: IDF ratio, lutein and β-carotene increase in muffins enriched with mango pulp waste (Sudha et al., 2015). Antioxidant activity was increased with the incorporation of tomato pomace to muffins (Mehta et al., 2018).

Food industry processing by-products in foods

In general, the hardness/firmness and chewiness increase while cohesiveness decreases (except with potato peel). The color appears usually darker with the by-products incorporation. As it was commented in the case of the bread, the color seems to be related with the original color of the by-products plus Maillard and caramelization reactions (Belghith-Fendri et al., 2016; Martins et al., 2017; Mehta et al., 2018; Sudha et al., 2015; Vasantha Rupasinghe et al., 2009). The addition of by-products, as in the case of the bread, decreases the acceptability scores in a sensory analysis (Belghith-Fendri et al., 2016; Martins et al., 2017; Mehta et al., 2018; Romero-Lopez et al., 2011; Sudha et al., 2015; Vasantha Rupasinghe et al., 2009). However, there are formulations with similar or even better scores when by-products are added. For instance, peach fiber had a positive effect on flavor and texture of muffins, and it has the potential to replace fat or flour in the production (Grigelmo-Miguel et al., 1999).

4.1.3 Biscuits The contribution in the nutritional composition of incorporation of by-products in biscuits is similar to that for the cakes and muffins. This means that the addition affects protein, with both an increase and a decrease depending on by-product, e.g., biscuits with liquid dairy by-products had higher amounts of protein than controls (Awasthi and Yadav, 2000). Dietary fiber, usually increases its content, for instance, extruded orange pulp can be incorporated in cookies, increasing dietary fiber content compared to the control, although it was found quite hard in texture. This could be improved by correcting the water content because of the high water absorption abilities of dietary fiber (Larrea et al., 2005). Mango peel incorporation into biscuits increased dietary fiber content (with a high proportion of soluble fraction) and polyphenols and carotenoids amounts exhibited improved antioxidants properties (Ajila et al., 2008). Furthermore, mineral contents seem to be increased with the addition of by-products, e.g., 7.5% of pomegranate peel addition in biscuits (Srivastava et al., 2014) allows labeling the nutritional claim “source of Ca” (Regulation (EC) No. 1924/2006, 2006). Regarding color, texture and other sensorial attributes, the result of the by-products incorporation is in the same terms as mentioned for bread and cakes (Ajila et al., 2008; Martinez-Saez et al., 2017). The most outstanding results about the incorporation of by-products in bakery products are the decrease of carbohydrates in bread (Martins et al., 2017) and the increase in dietary fiber, mainly in cakes and biscuits (Ajila et al., 2008; Larrea et al., 2005; RomeroLopez et al., 2011; Sudha et al., 2015). It is interesting to note that the incorporation of by-products in bread improves its nutritional and functional profile, allowing the labeling of nutritional and/or health claims. These claims should be made in food with healthy profiles as bread and not in other such as cakes and biscuits because of the high contents

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of fat and sugars. Thus, the by-products contribute to improve the health profile of bread without missing the main sensorial attributes for their acceptance.

4.2 Incorporation in dairy products In recent years, more than 50 studies have reinforced the potential of innovation in the dairy sector through the incorporation of food waste-derived ingredients (essentially plant-based ingredients) in dairy products. Recently, Iriondo-DeHond et al. (2018) exhaustively revised this topic and have recapped the works published between 2000 and 2018 related to the development of dairy foods using food processing by-products and wastes as sustainable ingredients. Different types of dairy foods were explored as final products and in 88% of the studies, plant materials side-streams were used, among which, 43% were from fruits, 19% from winemaking, and 13% from vegetable by-products (Fig. 6). Ingredients derived from citrus and tomato waste streams were the most common, which means that research is focused on the valorization of wastes and by-products from food groups that present some of the largest food losses (Iriondo-DeHond et al., 2018). It is noteworthy to mention that wastes and by-products from marine and meat sources are rich in protein, making them less interesting to apply as ingredients in dairy food manufacturing as they already contain a high percentage of this class of compounds in their matrix. Nevertheless, if additional protein content is needed, cheese whey is a rich source of animal protein that may be used as a protein ingredient, tackling some

Fruits by-products Wine making side-streams Vegetable by-products Cereals and others

Animal-derived side steams

Plant materials side-steams

Fig. 6 Food waste side-streams as source of dairy ingredients.

Food industry processing by-products in foods

of the sensory difficulties occurred when nondairy matrices are used (Iriondo-DeHond et al., 2018). Two major applications are found for the incorporation of food wastes-derived ingredients: (i) as functional ingredients enhancing physico-chemical properties of the final product or (ii) as health promoting agents contributing to a health claim of the final dairy formulation. Nevertheless, it is always important to consider the dosage of the food waste-derived ingredient added to the food product, as it can affect both their functional or healthpromoting properties and the final sensory acceptability of the product. 4.2.1 Functional ingredients in dairy formulations One of the most important applications for waste-derived ingredients in the dairy sector is to inhibit or reduce lipid oxidation. Lipid oxidation results in the production of offflavors in dairy products, and the addition of antioxidants in this type of end products is one of the main methods used for preventing and retarding oxidation reactions. Antioxidants are considered food additives that prolong the shelf life of the product by protecting against oxidation (for more detailed information, see Section 4.5.2) (Marsili, 2011; Iriondo-DeHond et al., 2018). Different food waste-derived ingredients rich in bioactive compounds have been used in dairy products, especially high-fat content, to reduce or prevent lipid oxidation enhancing their shelf life (Iriondo-DeHond et al., 2018; Vital et al., 2017; Tseng and Zhao, 2013; Shan et al., 2011). Another important functionality of the waste-derived ingredients investigated is their ability to control or inhibit microbial growth, acting as natural preservatives. Preservatives are also considered food additives, and have the capacity to prolong food shelf life, protecting against deterioration caused by microorganisms (for more detailed information, please consult Section 4.5.1). Several studies have shown that food waste-derived ingredients possess antimicrobial action against different types of microorganisms and can be used against spoilage or foodborne pathogens. Polyphenols-rich ingredients are the main group of compounds investigated and their antimicrobial action has been associated with their capacity to penetrate the cell wall, causing membrane disruption and damage that lead to microbial death (Iriondo-DeHond et al., 2018; Daglia, 2012; Sah et al., 2015; do Espı´rito Santo et al., 2012; Aliakbarian et al., 2015; Marchiani et al., 2016). It is important to point out that evaluation of food waste-derived ingredients has shown them to be useful to act as natural preservatives without interfering with the viability of starter cultures and other microorganisms involved in fermentation processes, ensuring that the quality of the developed products is maintained. However, the number of studies analyzing the efficacy of these ingredients, added to dairy food matrices, on food pathogen control is still limited (Anal, 2017; Iriondo-DeHond et al., 2018). Texturizing properties are another functionality sought by food technologists and scientists. In particular, dietary fiber may endorse physico-chemical changes in different

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dairy products. The addition of fiber to cheese and ice cream promotes a mouth feel and bulk; it also reduces syneresis in yogurt and other fermented milk products and, in frozen dairy products, hinders crystal growth with excellent results (Helkar et al., 2016; Anal, 2017; Iriondo-DeHond et al., 2018). Hydrocolloids are also used for thickening purposes in dairy products. Many derived plant food wastes, such as pectin isolated from apple pomace and citrus peels, are used as natural hydrocolloids. Other fruit and vegetable-derived ingredients are also used to extract thickening and texturizing natural agents (for more detailed information please consult Section 4.5.4) (Iriondo-DeHond et al., 2018; M€ uller-Maatsch et al., 2016; Jeong et al., 2014; Anal, 2017).

4.2.2 Health promoting ingredients in dairy formulations There are promising results for the utilization of food wastes-derived ingredients as sources of bioactive compounds to enhance the health-promoting properties of dairy products. Ingredients rich in polyphenols, dietary fiber and omega-3 fatty acids are the most applied by food technologists and scientists. Polyphenols, in particular, winemaking waste streams, fruits, nuts, vegetables, and cereals waste streams (pomegranate seeds and peels, almond peels, hazelnut skins, olive pomace, and rice bran) have mostly been applied for the development of yogurt and fermented milks (Demirci et al., 2017; Ozcan et al., 2017; Iriondo-DeHond et al., 2018; Anal, 2017). On other hand, bearing in mind the daily recommended intake of dietary fiber and that the nutritional claim “source of fiber” or “high in fiber” can only be made when the product contains at least 3% or 6% dietary fiber, respectively, several food technologists and scientists have used dietary fiber concentrations ranging from 2.5% to 10% to evaluate its feasibility as an ingredient in dairy products. Fish oil extracted from fish wastes is an excellent source of many unsaturated fatty acids, including long chain omega-3 cis-5,8,11,15,17-eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and cis-4,7,10,13,16,19-docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) ( Jayathilakan et al., 2012). However, its application in food formulations fortified in omega-3 is strictly limited, due to its easy oxidation and strong fish odor (Zhong et al., 2018). Nevertheless, omega-3 fatty acids have been used as animal origin-derived ingredients to fortify dairy products with high protein content. Recently, yogurts containing encapsulated omega-3 were successful developed with sensory properties similar to plain yogurt (Ghorbanzade et al., 2017). In all cases, it is important to bear in mind that all the novel food waste-derived ingredients that have not been used for human consumption within the EU prior to 1997 must be approved as Novel Food according to the European Regulation on Novel Foods and Novel Food Ingredients (258/97). Despite all the promising and good results as functional ingredients as health promoting agents, food technologists, nutritionists, and sensory scientists should work together

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to face the challenge of improving the palatability and consumer acceptance of these novel and sustainable dairy foods (Iriondo-DeHond et al., 2018).

4.3 Incorporation in water and beverages The functional beverages market will reach €99.35 bn by 2021, representing the largest and fastest growing segment of the functional foods sector. The production and consumption of functional beverages play an important role on the functional foods market due to their claimed effects related to health promotion and disease risk reduction. They constitute an excellent delivery system for nutrients and bioactive compounds, namely plant extracts rich in polyphenols, sterols/stanols, dietary fiber, and marine-derived ingredients such as omega-3 fatty acids, and biopeptides, among others. The market for new functional beverages with added bioactive ingredients with health promoting properties has grown rapidly, strategically linked to energy, athletic performance, aging, satiety, cognitive ability, hydration, weight management, cardiovascular health, and bone and joint health (Shahidi and Alasalvar, 2016). In this sense, the use of bioactive compounds recovered from food waste sources might be a favorable approach to develop functional beverages, simultaneously tackling the waste environment problems by contributing to food waste reduction. However, as in all the above-mentioned sections, it is also a challenge to be faced by industry, food technologists, and scientists. In recent years, the interest of the scientific community has grown in the use of extracts derived from food wastes and by-products as beverages ingredients. The works published show an increase in the interest of consumers in “natural” (natural flavors; natural colorants, etc.), and expectations for authentic, products. Recently, a functional beverage, targeting the reduction of risk of type 2 diabetes (T2D), was developed employing coffee by-products as novel ingredients (Martinez-Saez and del Castillo, 2018). The authors concluded that the use of coffee by-products in the development of novel sustainable beverages with enhanced nutritional and sensorial quality is feasible. In another recent study, also focused on the development of a functional beverage using food by-products, cauliflower by-products were used as a rich source of polyphenols and isothiocyanates. The authors concluded that only 10% of the cauliflower by-products extract was efficiently added to the beverage, improving the nutritional value of the beverage by enhancing isothiocyanates contents (Amofa-Diatuo et al., 2017). Beyond health claims and health promoting effects, the industries maintain their interest in the inclusion of natural ingredients to water and beverages in order to enhance their chemical and physical properties. This is a cross-cutting interest to all food developing industries. As an example, soy protein concentrates recovered from by-products and wastes are an ideal source of highly digestible protein to add to beverages (Riaz, 1999; Anal, 2017), and the beverage industry has currently realized the application

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and marketing benefits of these proteins. Soy protein has important physical properties in what concern their incorporation in beverages: it is water soluble, forms a clear and translucent solution that is tasteless, owns low viscosity, and demonstrates stability over a wide range of pH, ionic strength, and temperature conditions. This combination of properties makes it ideal to develop nutritious liquid products, such as infant formulas, creamers, milk replacers, and spray-dried products (Anal, 2017).

4.4 Incorporation in dietary supplements Food supplements are “foodstuffs the purpose of which is to supplement the normal diet and which are concentrated sources of nutrients or other substances with a nutritional or physiological function, alone or in combination, marketed in dose form …” In the EU, the dietary supplements market totaled nearly €7 billion in 2009. In the European market, some of the most commercially significant ingredients to formulate the supplements include fish oils, probiotics, and herbal ingredients. Food Supplements are regulated in the EU by Directive 2002/46/EC, which establishes a definition for food supplements and a list of allowable vitamins and minerals, and sets labeling requirements. Substances different from vitamins and minerals are not directly covered by the directive being governed by individual EU Member States. In particular, food supplements from botanicals, or plant-derived, and algae have become widely available in the EU market. Such products are typically labeled as natural foods and a multiplicity of health claims are possible. Currently there is no EU legislation specifically for botanicals, and EFSA is presently discussing what types of botanical ingredients are allowed and how their safety should be assessed. As already mentioned in Section 1.2, legislation, specifically related with the application of ingredients recovered from food wastes on food and foodstuffs, is not yet available even under the food supplements directive. Nevertheless, marketing of botanicals in foods and food supplements in the EU is subject to several provisions of food law, which cover aspects of safety, production, labeling, and product composition, including the maximum levels of contaminants and residues. Despite the great interest in food waste streams to isolate important bioactive compounds useful for dietary supplements formulations, these provisions of food law may require industry to develop food supplements using food waste-derived ingredients. In 2012, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) issued a health claim regulation (Reg (EC) No. 432/2012) that “olive oil polyphenols contribute to the protection of blood lipids,” whereas it may be used “only for olive oil, which contains at least 5 mg of hydroxytyrosol and its derivatives (e.g., oleuropein complex and tyrosol) per 20 g of olive oil.” This regulation has initiated a boost in the market demand for olive polyphenols, as functional ingredients, to be used in several applications but particularly in dietary supplements formulations. This demand pushed forward work related to the

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recovery and isolation of hydroxytyrosol from olive oil waste streams, increasing dramatically the number of publications and patents. A number of good reviews approach this subject, focusing on the different types of extraction, fractionation, and purification developed toward hydroxytyrosol and derivatives recovery (Mirabella et al., 2014; Rosello-Soto et al., 2015). As aforementioned, food wastes and by-products encompass appreciable amounts of bioactive compounds, such as phytochemicals (e.g., polyphenols), proteins, dietary fibers, polysaccharides, fatty acids, and terpenes that can be extracted, purified, concentrated, and reused as functional ingredients in the food industry, or other related sectors, as dietary supplements.

4.5 Obtaining food additives The incorporation of substances in foods with the purpose of conservation or to modify their sensorial characteristics, such as salt, sugar, vinegar, and others, began a considerable time ago, even when most food was produced, sold, and consumed in local markets. Today, billions of tons of food are produced, marketed, and transported worldwide. To be able to produce large quantities of food that is low cost, lasting, appetizing, and safe, it is necessary to use substances both natural or synthetic. These substances are those known as food additives (Mateos-Aparicio, 2017). A food additive is any substance not normally consumed as food by itself and not normally used as a typical ingredient—whether or not it has nutritive value—added intentionally for technological purposes in manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packing, or transport, and becoming a component of food (Regulation (EC) No. 1333/2008, 2008). The reasons that motivate the use of food additives are very varied, with a diverse origin, but mainly are to satisfy the demands of the consumer, or to satisfy those of the industry. They are employed to answer a technological need or the demands of the public. These reasons can be summarized as (Mateos-Aparicio, 2017): i. extension of food preservation, i.e., longer shelf-life; ii. to provide a desirable image for food; iii. to facilitate the food processing industry; and iv. to allow the development of new food products. Although the use of food additives is understood, many consumers prefer minimally processed food, and when they have to choose processed food, this is with few additives and/ or containing natural ones. Bioactive compounds presented in by-products are related to health properties, such as lowering risk of atherosclerosis, cancer, cardiovascular disease, etc. These properties are attributed mainly to the presence of polyphenolics, carotenoids, and dietary fiber, because of their diverse functions as antioxidants, preservatives, colors, emulsifiers, etc.

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Fig. 7 Application procedure diagram for inclusion or modification of the conditions of use of a food additive. (Adapted from Mateos-Aparicio, I., 2017. Aspectos normativos y legislativos de los aditivos alimentarios en la Unión Europea. In: Mateos-Aparicio, I. (Ed.), Aditivos Alimentarios. Editorial Dextra. Madrid, Spain.)

Looking for new sources like agro-food by-products to obtain the already authorized food additives in the EU, and also for discovering new additives, is necessary due to the increasing consumer demand for “more natural food”; understanding this concept as minimally processed food and/or with natural substances added. The inclusion or modifications for the use of food additives have to be approved for the EU according to Regulation (EC) No. 1331/2008 (2008) (Fig. 7). 4.5.1 Natural antimicrobial additives The antimicrobial power of plant extracts has been recognized for centuries and used in medicine. Currently, there is a trend for using bioactive compounds from by-products as preservative additives (Ayala-Zavala et al., 2011). Among the natural antimicrobial compounds that can be added to food are essential oils, phenolic compounds, peptides, and biopolymers. Essential oils are volatile natural compounds with a strong odor, which are mainly terpenes or terpenoids. They have showed their antimicrobial power against bacteria, fungi, viruses, and protozoa, although the action mechanism is unclear. Essential oil extracts from citrus skin have been used in antimicrobial packaging systems to preserve

Food industry processing by-products in foods

mozzarella cheese, and pomegranate peel extracts have antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus. Furthermore, essential oils are widely used and many are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the FDA and authorized as flavoring agents in the EU. Conversely, they can produce some undesirable sensorial effects, limiting their use in some food and demanding the careful selection of type and concentration (Ayala-Zavala et al., 2011). Polyphenols with structures corresponding to flavan-3-ol, flavonol, condensed tannins, hydrolysable tannins, phenolic acids, and neolignan, present antibacterial properties. Moreover, the group’s flavan-3-ol, flavonols, and hydrolysable tannins present antifungal and antiviral activities (Daglia, 2012). Exotic fruit by-products (mango kernel, bergamot by-product, coconut husk, etc.) represent a promising source of phenolic antimicrobial compounds (Ayala-Zavala et al., 2011). Grape waste is very rich in polyphenols with antimicrobial activity (Mattos et al., 2017), and cauliflower by-product presents antimicrobial activity against Listeria monocytogenes, possibly due to the presence of polyphenols and glucosinolates (Sanz-Puig et al., 2015). The peptides from hydrolysis of proteins from cheese-making whey by-product, i.e., α-lactoalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, and lactoferrin, present antimicrobial activity. Proteolytic digestion with endopeptidases of α-lactoalbumin and β-lactoglobulin produces peptides with bactericidal power against gram-positive bacteria (e.g., Micrococcus flavus) and gram-negative (e.g., Escherichia coli). The most studied lactoferrin derivatives, called lactoferricins, are those derived from bovine and human lactoferrin. Lactoferricin exerts antiviral activity against human cytomegalovirus. Bovine lactoferricin possesses antimicrobial activity against gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria and yeasts (Madureira et al., 2010). Among biopolymers, chitosan and its derivatives, chito-oligosaccharides, obtained from crustacean shells, by-products stand out because of their antimicrobial power. Mengı´bar et al. (2011) showed that the most deacetylated chito-oligosaccharides were more active against Campylobacter jejuni. The acetylation degree is directly related with the antimicrobial activity of chitosan and chito-oligoasaccharides, being the most deacetylated ones and the most effective against bacteria, being able to affect the gut microbiota negatively (Mateos-Aparicio et al., 2016).

4.5.2 Natural antioxidant additives Antioxidant compounds are presented in plants, seaweeds, and mushrooms, acting as hydrogen and ion donors, metal chelators, oxygen quenchers, and radical scavengers. These properties can avoid oxidative reactions, i.e., lipid peroxidation, enzymatic browning, etc. maintaining food quality. Depending on the action mechanism, antioxidants are grouped as acidulants, reducing and/or chelating agents, and enzymatic inhibitors (Ayala-Zavala et al., 2011).

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The natural antioxidants approved in EU are ascorbic acid (vitamin C) (E300) and derivatives (E301, E302, and E304), tocopherols (Vitamin E) (E306–309), and polyphenolic rosemary extract (E392). Moreover, there are some natural antioxidant synergists such as citric acid, citrates, lactates, etc. (Commission Regulation (EU) No. 1129/2011, 2011). These synergists are quite often used to avoid the enzymatic browning caused by polyphenoloxidase that is detrimental for the quality of fresh fruit and vegetables. The minimum activity of polyphenoloxidase is below pH 4.5, with the optimal range being 6.0–6.5; thus, the pH decrease can control the enzymatic browning (Ayala-Zavala et al., 2011). Agro-food by-products are important sources of antioxidants. These natural antioxidants are polyphenolics, carotenoids, and vitamins. Vitamin C is a natural compound obtained from several plant tissues including agro-food by-products. Vitamin E extracted from grape seed oil with pressurized liquid (dos Santos Freitas et al., 2008) could be used against lipid peroxidation and rancidification. Carotenoids are also compounds with antioxidant activity, such as lycopene, that could be beneficial to inhibit lipid oxidation. For instance, the addition of dry tomato peel, rich in lycopene, to sausages inhibits this oxidation during their ripening and storage. In addition, tomato peels could replace partially the addition of nitrites in meat products (Calvo et al., 2008). Despite the known antioxidant properties of vitamins and carotenoids, polyphenols are the most interesting candidates as new natural food antioxidant additives. There are many proposals for the addition of these compounds as bioactives for their health properties. However, there is a lack of information about the antioxidant and antibrowning effects of phenolic compounds in foodstuffs. Extracts rich in phenolic compounds from wine industry wastes (grape skins, stalks, sludge, and seeds) with antioxidant activity are able to inhibit lipid oxidation (Mattos et al., 2017) and are effective as propyl gallate (E310) in fish oil-in-water emulsions (Pazos et al., 2005). The polyphenols extracts from apple, golden rod, and artichoke by-products present scavenging activity and inhibit lipid peroxidation similarly to the commonly used food additive butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT E321) (Peschel et al., 2006). Olive mill wastes are rich in polyphenols including hydroxytyrosol, tyrosol, oleuropein, and a variety of hydroxycinnamic acids (Rahmanian et al., 2014), and thus are an interesting source of polyphenolic antioxidant additives. Thus, agro-food by-products are sources of potential antioxidant additives, especially fruit by-products that could be major sources of polyphenols compounds, particularly peels, such as citrus peel, apple peel, peach peel, etc., which have been found to contain higher phenolic contents compared to the edible portions (Balasundram et al., 2006). Furthermore, nut by-products can be an interesting source of potential antioxidant additives, such as pistachio hull extracts that were effective similarly to butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA 320) and BHT, inhibiting oxidation of soybean oil at 60°C (Goli et al., 2005). At the same time, almond shell extracts showed DPPH scavenging activity comparable to those of synthetic antioxidant like propyl gallate (E310) and were as effective in protecting the lipid system as fish oils (Esfahlan et al., 2010).

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4.5.3 Natural color additives Color is one of the most important sensorial qualities that influence us to accept or reject some foods. Adding color to food may seem to be merely cosmetic, but there is no doubt that color is important in the perception of the consumer and often it is associated with a specific flavor and with the intensity of that flavor. The causes of color in food are: 1. presence of natural pigments (carotenoids, chlorophylls, anthocyanins); 2. formation of colored pigments as a consequence of chemical or enzymatic reactions (Maillard reactions, caramelization); 3. intentional addition of natural or synthetic colorants; and 4. dispersion of light (as for example in the case of the color of milk). Because artificial colors are stable and easy to obtain at low cost, they usually are the main choice in the food industry. Currently the use of coloring additives, both natural and synthetic, is strictly regulated by legislation, since many synthetic compounds have been found to be toxic (Escudero-Gilete and Vicario-Romero, 2017) (Table 7). The colorants group is one of the most controversial among food additives because they are not considered indispensable for food production. However, it is a psychological factor of acceptance and a criterion to choose a food. The natural colors authorized by Commission Regulation (EU) No. 1129/2011 (2011) are extracted from natural vegetable or mineral materials with one exception: carminic acid (E120) of cochineal (Dactylopius coccus). Among them are a polyphenol (curcumin), a vitamin (riboflavin), chlorophylls, anthocyanins, minerals (aluminum, silver, etc.), and especially carotenoids (carotenes, lycopene, lutein, etc.). Agro-food by-products are rich sources of bioactive compounds including anthocyanins and carotenoids. Anthocyanins (E163) are an important group of naturally occurring pigments of fruits, such as cherries, strawberries, grapes, etc., and vegetables, such as red cabbage, purple sweet potato, black carrot, etc. (Ayala-Zavala et al., 2011). The byproducts from these fruits and vegetables are sources of this colorant that can be extracted with acidified ethanol, organic acid (malic acid, tartaric acid), etc. (Todaro et al., 2009). Carotenoids are more than 700 pigments very widespread in nature, both in plant products (fruits, vegetables, flowers) and in animal products (eggs, fish, and seafood). They occur in many colors from yellow to red. Some are cyclic hydrocarbons, such as β-carotene (E160a), and others acyclics, such as lycopene (E160d), all of which are called carotenes. Others contain functional groups with oxygen and are called xanthophylls, such as lutein (E161b) (Escudero-Gilete and Vicario-Romero, 2017). Carotenoids occur mainly on the surface of the tissues such as external pericarp and peels, and can be extracted using an organic solvent extraction from exotic fruit by-products such as mango peels (Ayala-Zavala et al., 2011). The main applications of carotenoids in food are related with the use in beverages, sauces, coatings, etc. (Commission Regulation (EU) No. 1129/2011, 2011). Lycopene (E160d) is the most abundant carotenoid, found mainly in tomatoes. It can be extracted from tomato wastes, mainly from the skin (Kaur et al., 2008). Therefore, pigments can

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Table 7 Natural colors approved in the European Union. No. E

Name

Color

ADI (mg/ kga/d)

E100 E101 E120 E140 E141

Yellow-orange Yellow-orange Red Green Green

3 0.5 2.5 – 15

Brown Brown Brown Brown Black Yellow-orange Orange Red

300b

E160d E160e E161b E161g E162 E163

Curcumin Riboflavin Carminic acid Chlorophyll and chlorophyllins Copper complexes of chlorophylls and chlorophyllins Natural caramel Causticsulphite caramel Ammonia caramel Ammoniasulphite caramel Charcoal Carotenes Annato, bixina, norbixin Extract of paprika, capsanthin, capsorrubin Lycopene Beta-apo-80 -carotene Lutein Canthaxanthin Beetroot red, betanine Anthocyanins

E170 E171 E172 E173 E174 E175

Calcium carbonate Titanium dioxide Iron oxides and hydroxides Aluminum Silver Gold

E150a E150b E150c E150d E153 E160a E160b E160c

Red Orange-red-yellow Orange-red-yellow Purple Red Red to purple (depending on pH) White White Brown Silver-Gray Silver Golden

– 5 0.065 – 0.5 0.03 – 0.03 – – – – – – – –

–, nonestablished ADI. a kg body weight. b ADI E150c 100 mg/kg/d. Adapted from Escudero-Gilete, M.L., Vicario-Romero, I.M., 2017. Colorantes alimentarios. In: Mateos-Aparicio, I. (Ed.), Aditivos Alimentarios. Editorial Dextra, Madrid, Spain.

be extracted from vegetable and fruit by-products by chemical extraction. The challenge should be to minimize as much as possible the chemicals used. Another approach should be the use of the entire by-product to color food products instead of pigment extraction. In this sense, the addition of 3%–5% of tomato pomace to beef frankfurter, beef, ham, and meat-free sausages increases their sensory properties, including color scores, which is particularly important for the justification of the quality of these products (Savadkoohi et al., 2014). Moreover, the tomato peel incorporation in dry fermented sausages to increase the carotene levels in the diet could replace, partially,

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the addition of nitrites, and consequently influence the color of meat products in ways well-accepted by panelists (Calvo et al., 2008). Similarly, the extrudates of tomato pomace and barley flour have high preference levels for sensorial parameter such as color, texture, and taste (Altan et al., 2008).

4.5.4 Others In addition to the preservatives, antioxidants, and colorants, there are many types of additives such as sweeteners, emulsifiers, gelling agents, thickeners, etc. The thickening and gelling agents are used to stabilize the food matrix and provide structure. Among them, there is a notable number of hydrocolloids and other substances of polymeric nature. These are macromolecules that, when dissolved or dispersed in an aqueous medium, are able to increase the viscosity of the medium or the formation of a gel. They can come from both animal—such as gelatin, chitin, or chitosan—and plant sources. This last category includes a wide range of polymers associated with fruits and vegetables (cellulose E460, pectin E440, etc.), cereals, and tubers (starches E1404–1452), exudates, and seeds of different trees (tragacanth gum E413, arabicgum E414, karaya gum E416, etc.), or marine seaweed (agar-agar E406, alginates E400–405, carrageenan E407, etc.) (Caballero-Calvo, 2017). These additives are usually extracted from natural sources, and can also be obtained through the chemical modification of raw materials (semi-synthetic compounds) or through chemical synthesis (synthetic additives). Thus, agro-food by-products are a source of many of these kinds of food additives. Indeed, pectins (E440) are normally extracted from the citrus skins, apple pomace and, in some cases, from sugar beet residues or from sunflower heads (Burey et al., 2008). The physico-chemical properties, such as swelling capacity and water and oil holding capacities, of dietary fiber can improve the viscosity, texture, and sensory characteristics of food products. In addition, it can be incorporated as a bulking agent for partial replacement of flour for noncaloric foods (Elleuch et al., 2011). Using fibers from agro-food by-products would contribute to giving alternative uses to the huge quantity of by-products and wastes from the food industry. Tomato pulp waste, rich in dietary fiber (Del Valle et al., 2006), can be added to tomato ketchup as a potential thickener to replace hydrocolloids, improving color and texture of the products (Farahnaky et al., 2008). Polysaccharides can exert the mentioned thickening effect and also present positive effect to maintain the emulsions acting as emulsifiers. They can avoid flocculation and prevent aggregation or coalescence phenomena. Despite this, they are occasionally poorly adsorbed on the lipid surface. In this regard, there are numerous studies in the area of application of protein-polysaccharide complexes that offer an active surface (Mengı´bar, 2017).

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5. Concluding remarks Food waste and by-products are abundant and represent an inexpensive material that is generally undervalued, being most of the time an environmental and economic problem and mostly used as combustible or fertilizer. However, despite the legal limitations, they are considered a source of bioactive compounds, such as peptides, proteins, lipids, prebiotics, polyphenols, and vitamins. The production of additional and novel food additives or ingredients from food waste and by-products may engender economic rewards for the industry and contribute to reducing some nutritional problems, but also a moral challenge for the modern society. To use these wastes and by-products, it is necessary to find adequate pretreatments and processes to extract and/or isolate those bioactive substances. The valorization of by-products is the search to find the most suitable procedure, from the point of view of cost-effectiveness and yield, to obtain the bioactives that are usually being wasted. The functional ingredients obtained after the valorization of the agro-food by-products can be used to incorporate into new food products. These ingredients can improve the nutritional composition, the functionality, and enhance the health properties of traditional bakery and dairy products. Moreover, they can be used to develop functional beverages and dietary supplements and to obtain natural food additives answering to the growing demand of the consumers for “natural and clean label” and forecasting a tighter regulation on the use of the synthetic ones.

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erez-Co´zar, M.L., Mateos-Aparicio, I., Redondo-Cuenca, A., 2016. Potential fat-lowering and prebiotic effects of enzymatically treated okara in high-cholesterol fed Wistar rats. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 67 (7), 828–833. Vital, A.C.P., Croge, C., Gomes-da-Costa, S.M., Matumoto-Pintro, P.T., 2017. Effect of addition of Agaricus blazei mushroom residue to milk enriched with omega-3 on the prevention of lipid oxidation and bioavailability of bioactive compounds after in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 52 (6), 1483–1490. Xi, J., 2006. Effect of High pressure processing on the extraction of lycopene in tomato paste waste. Chem. Eng. Technol. 29, 736–739. Zhao, W., Yu, Z., Liu, J., Yu, Y., Yin, Y., Lin, S., Chen, F., 2011. Optimized extraction of polysaccharides from corn silk by pulsed electric field and response surface quadratic design. J. Sci. Food Agric. 91 (12), 2201–2209. Zhong, J., Yang, R., Cao, X., Liu, X., Qin, X., 2018. Improved physicochemical properties of yogurt fortified with fish oil/γ-oryzanol by nanoemulsion technology. Molecules 23 (1), 56.

Further reading Ajila, C.M., Brar, S.K., Verma, M., Tyagi, R.D., Godbout, S., Val
ero, J.R., 2012. Bio-processing of agrobyproducts to animal feed. Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. 32 (4), 382–400. A´lvarez-Bautista, A., Matias, A., 2017. Anti-solvent effect of high-pressure CO2 in natural polymers. In: Lukasik, R.M. (Ed.), High Pressure Technologies in Biomass Conversion. RSC, pp. 165–180. Arioui, F., AitSaada, D., Cheriguene, A., 2017. Physicochemical and sensory quality of yogurt incorporated with pectin from peel of Citrus sinensis. Food Sci. Nutr. 5 (2), 358–364. Bampidis, V.A., Robinson, P.H., 2006. Citrus by-products as ruminant feeds: a review. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 128 (3–4), 175–217.

Food industry processing by-products in foods

Baral, A., Malins, C., 2014. Assessing the Climate Mitigation Potential of Biofuels Derived From Residues and Wastes in the European Context. International Council on Clean Transportation. Commission, E., 2016. Sustainability of Bioenergy. Commission Staff Working Document. Impact Assessment. Hardy, R.W., 2010. Utilization of plant proteins in fish diets: effects of global demand and supplies of fishmeal. Aquacult. Res. 41 (5), 770–776. Ho, C.H.L., Cacace, J.E., Mazza, G., 2007. Extraction of lignans, proteins and carbohydrates from flaxseed meal with pressurized low polarity water. LWT-Food Sci. Technol. 40, 1637–1647. Iba´n˜ez, E., Palacios, J., Sen˜orans, F.J., Santa-Marı´a, G., Tabera, J., Reglero, G., 2000. Isolation and separation of tocopherols from olive by-products with supercritical fluids. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 77, 187–190. Ilce Gabriela, M.M., Girish, G., 2017. Fruit processing by-products: a rich source for bioactive compounds and value added products. In: Anal, A.K. (Ed.), Food Processing By-Products and Their Utilization. Wiley, pp. 11–26. Kabel, M.A., Bos, G., Zeevalking, J., Voragen, A.G.J., Schols, H.A., 2007. Effect of pretreatment severity on xylan solubility and enzymatic breakdown of the remaining cellulose from wheat straw. Bioresour. Technol. 98, 2034–2042. Kandra, P., Challa, M.M., Jyothi, H.K.P., 2012. Efficient use of shrimp waste: present and future trends. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 93 (1), 17–29. Kim, S., Thiessen, P.A., Bolton, E.E., Chen, J., Fu, G., Gindulyte, A., Han, L., He, J., He, S., Shoemaker, B.A., Wang, J., Yu, B., Zhang, J., Bryant, S.H., 2015. PubChem substance and compound databases. Nucleic Acids Res. 44 (D1), D1202–D1213. Kwak, W.S., Kang, J.S., 2006. Effect of feeding food waste-broiler litter and bakery by-product mixture to pigs. Bioresour. Technol. 97, 243–249. Lin, C.S.K., Koutinas, A.A., Stamatelatou, K., Mubofu, E.B., Matharu, A.S., Kopsahelis, N., Pfaltzgraff, L.A., Clark, J.H., Papanikolaou, S., Kwan, T.H., Luque, R., 2014. Current and future trends in food waste valorization for the production of chemicals, materials and fuels: a global perspective. Biofuels Bioprod. Biorefin. 8, 686–715. Mateos-Aparicio, I., Redondo-Cuenca, A., Villanueva-Sua´rez, M.J., 2013a. Dietary fiber from the food industry by-products. In: Betancur-Ancona, D., Chel-Guerrero, L., Segura-Campos, M.R. (Eds.), Dietary Fiber. Sources, Properties, and Their Relationship to Health. Nova Science Publishers, Nova Biomedical, New York. Molina-Alcaide, E., Ya´n˜ez-Ruiz, D.R., 2008. Potential use of olive by-products in ruminant feeding: a review. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 147 (1–3), 247–264. Oboh, G., 2006. Nutrient enrichment of cassava peels using a mixed culture of Saccharomyces cerevisae and Lactobacillus spp solid media fermentation techniques. Electron. J. Biotechnol. 9(1). Ouwehand, A.C., Makelainen, H., Tiihonen, K., Rautonen, N., 2006. Digestive health. In: Mitchell, H. (Ed.), Part I Sweeteners and Sugar Alternatives in Food Technology. Blackwell Publishing, UK. RedCorn, R., Fatemi, S., Engelberth, A.S., 2018. Comparing end-use potential for industrial food-waste sources. Engineering 4 (3), 371–380.

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CHAPTER 10

Pro and prebiotics foods that modulate human health Oana Lelia Pop, Sonia Ancuța Socaci, Ramona Suharoschi, Dan Cristian Vodnar Department of Food Science, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

Contents 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Introduction Probiotics Prebiotics Symbiosis Probiotics and prebiotics—Human health modulation 5.1 Probiotics mechanism of action 6. Therapeutic foods—Pro and prebiotics 6.1 Dairy products containing pro and prebiotics 6.2 Nondairy products containing pro and prebiotics 6.3 Other pro and prebiotic foods 7. Engineering probiotics for treatment of human metabolic and infectious diseases 8. Human health modulation 9. Perspectives 10. Conclusions Reference

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1. Introduction The functional foods market is in continuous development due to consumer demand and the overall preoccupation about physical and mental health. Functional foods may include many types of bioactive compounds; among these, polyunsaturated fatty acids, proteins, probiotics, and prebiotics are the most studied (Fa˘rcaş et al., 2015; Dulf et al., 2016; Prosekov et al., 2018; Nawaz et al., 2018; Champagne et al., 2018). Products that incorporate these valuable compounds are very heterogeneous considering the diversity of consumers’ diets and preferences. Producing functional food products that fit into normal, vegan, gluten free, low glycemic index, or raw diets, and at the same time ensuring diversity in the market, requires collaboration between scientists, food engineers, and food manufacturers. Among probiotic cells, the most studied are microbes belonging to Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, and Saccharomyces boulardii. These strains represent only a small part of the gut microbe population; these key members are the focus of scientists, food manufacturers, and public health authorities in terms of commercial affairs and health perspectives (George Kerry et al., 2018). The role of alternative and innovative food ingredients and products in consumer wellness https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816453-2.00010-3

© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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Among Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, and Saccharomyces, promising organisms such as Bacteriodes, which represent the predominant flora in our gut, must be the objective in search of novel probiotics for broader health applications. These microbes have a key role in the immune system and influence the brain-gut reaction. A serious issue, nowadays, is the increased number of pathogens with resistance and tolerance to existing standard drugs and antibiotics. Moreover, the current biotechnology methods, namely micoand nano-encapsulation, applied for protection and target delivery of treatment seem to be suitable and promising techniques, yet, more work needs to be conducted regarding the cost efficiency aspects. Hereafter, an easy, cost efficient, amenable, and essential approach is needed to achieve health benefits. Probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics intake has shown encouraging results against various intestinal pathogens due to their special capability to fight with pathogenic microbes for adhesion sites, to disaffect pathogens, or to sustain, control, and modulate human immune response by activating specific genes, mostly from the intestinal tract. Moreover, it was proved that probiotics have a serious influence in the stimulation of angiogenesis and regulate fat storage. Therefore, it can be stated that ingestion of probiotics, prebiotics, and/or synbiotics, leads to a beneficial influence on human health, ensuring and sustaining a better lifestyle (George Kerry et al., 2018). One of the most interesting scientific findings in the last decade has been the awareness of the fact that commensal microbiome plays crucial roles in our physiology as humans, influencing our diet, vitamin synthesis process, drug metabolism, protection against infection, and recovery from illness. The human immune response is directly modulated by the human microbiota composition through mechanisms such as the production of certain metabolites, of short-chain fatty acids, vitamins and other needed metabolites and through the digestion of the prebiotics and other fibers (O’Toole et al., 2017). This chapter brings together the most recent progress in the field of traditional and unconventional food products that embody probiotics and/or prebiotics. Emphasis is placed on therapeutic value of pro and prebiotics and on the studies made on foods that incorporate, in various ways, these active molecules.

2. Probiotics The concept of good microbes that live, most abundantly, in our gastrointestinal tract, is not new. These non-pathogenic bacteria or yeasts are able to survive in the gastrointestinal tract and have the ability to confer health benefits to the host (Reid et al., 2003). The International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics defines as probiotics any probiotic drugs, and foods for specific medical utilization with probiotics: probiotic foods (e.g., yoghurt), infant formulas, and non-orally administered probiotics (Olveira and Gonzalez-Molero, 2016).

Pro and prebiotics foods that modulate human health

In order for drugs to be classified as probiotic, studies should be carried out in vivo and demonstrate the specific health benefits of specific strains. Fermented food—especially dairy fermented food—containing live organisms frequently does not meet the concept of probiotics, as its beneficial effects have not been proved and/or the amount it contains is below 107 CFU/mL. On the other hand, some fermented foods such as yoghurt fulfill, in some circumstances, the probiotic requirements based on some specific effects. For example, the activity of the enzyme responsible for the digestion of lactose, in individuals registered with lactose intolerance, is increased in the small bowel by specific bacteria. This certifies the granting of the probiotic term to those microbes. In the process of declaring one strain as probiotic, the safety of the strain must be assessed. For this, tests like antibiotic resistance, the destruction of red blood cells, enzymes formation, and production of toxins and biogenic amines are required. Recently, these tests were replaced with the identification of certain genes and associated virulence, which give the necessary information (Hwanhlem et al., 2017; Guo et al., 2017). The efficacy of the declared probiotic strain must also be tested. Colonization potential, along with the strain capacity to adapt to different environmental conditions, is very important. For this assessment, simulation of the gastric and intestinal juices is made, using a variation of the pH from basic to alkaline, in the presence of pepsin and, respectively, pancreatin. On the market, there is a continuous demand for probiotic strains with specific functional properties that ensure prevention, amelioration, or treatment of a certain diseases. Most wanted are their ability to fight pathogens, especially Gram-negative ones (Varankovich et al., 2015). In the recent literature, results certificated by in vivo or in vitro studies sustain the beneficial action of prebiotic and probiotic ingestion. Among mentioned health benefits, the most discussed are modulation of the immune responses, protection of the function of the mucosal barrier, reduction of cholesterol levels, anticancer activity, and activity against gastrointestinal diseases. In order to confer probiotic status on a novel strain or food supplement designed to confer health benefits, well-planned placebo-controlled double-blind clinical trials on a specific population should be carried out at a minimum of two different locations. In some cases, an influence on the effectiveness of the probiotic stain to help the human body in some particular medical condition is the origin of the strain. A probiotic strain, originally from the gut of a specific population, is liable to show unusual physiological purpose unsurpassed in the native community due to optimal colonization and accommodation in the gut populated with specific microflora and directly influenced by various food habits. Fecal transplant or foods with dead microorganisms are not considered as probiotics (FAO, 2001). Probiotics include such microbial species as yeasts and bacteria. Probiotics in the bacteria category include, but are not limited to, lactic acid bacteria such as Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, and Enterococcus; Bifidobacterium sp., Bacillus sp., Propionibacterium sp., and Escherichia coli (Bernardeau et al., 2006) (Table 1), while from the yeasts, S. boulardii and cerevisiae are the most common representatives.

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Table 1 Probiotic species and strains. Yeast

Lactobacillus

Bifidobacterium

L. acidophilus (de Moraes Filho et al., 2018) L. casei (Rodrigues et al., 2018) L. delbrueckii (Ashraf and spp. bulgaricus Shah, 2011) L. johnsonii (Bulatovi
c et al., 2014)

B. bifidum

(Shori and Baba, 2015) Saccharomyces boulardii

B. breve

(Saarela et al., 2011)

L. reuteri L. rhamnosus L. plantarum L. salivarius L. crispatus L. gasseri

(Bulatovi
c et al., 2014) (Riaz Rajoka et al., 2017) (Lucio et al., 2018) (Saint-Cyr et al., 2017) (Horie et al., 2002) (Gunyakti and AsanOzusaglam, 2018)

B. infantis

(Basholli-Salihu et al., 2014) B. longum (Prasanna and Charalampopoulos, 2018) B. adolescentis (Onyibe et al., 2013) B. animalis B. lactis

(Kailasapathy et al., 2008) (McMaster and Kokott, 2005)

Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Other species

(Czerucka Streptococcus et al., 2007) thermophilus ( Jespersen, 2003)

Enterococcus faecalis Enterococcus faecium Pediococcus acidilactici Lactococcus lactis Leuconostoc mesenteroides Bacillus cereus Bacillus subtilis Escherichia coli Nissle 1917 Propionibacterium freudenreichii

(Rawson Helen and Valerie, 2003) (Vic¸osa et al., 2018) (Barbosa et al., 2014) (Bustos et al., 2018) (Barman et al., 2018) (Ruiz et al., 2018) (Hossain et al., 2017) ( Jeon et al., 2018) (Matthes et al., 2010) (Cousin et al., 2012)

Pro and prebiotics foods that modulate human health

Fig. 1 Probiotic species and their influence on human health.

Ingestion of these favorable microbes are required when an unbalance happens in the human gastrointestinal tract, in order to improve the intestinal microbial balance (Hoarau et al., 2016). This unbalance can be caused by many factors such as stress, diet (e.g., poor in probiotic-accessible carbohydrates), consumption of drugs, some clinical interventions (e.g., C-section), and excessive sanitation (Lloyd-Price et al., 2016). There are different strains of probiotics that are differently influenced and that in different manners influence and modulate human health, as is illustrated in Fig. 1.

3. Prebiotics Prebiotics are defined as non-digestible ingredients that affect human health positively. This influence happens due to the ability of prebiotics to stimulate the growth and activity of gastrointestinal microbes in a selective manner (Wong et al., 2017). A simple definition of prebiotics is given by Trowel Jones (1986) as being “plant non-starch, polysaccharides that are not digested by human enzymes.” In this definition, cellulose, semicelluloses, pectin, lignin, gums, and mucilages are included. Only non-digestible oligosaccharides and those able to sustain the growth of probiotics fit in the prebiotic definition. They are fibers with various proved positive effects on the intestinal microbiota such as to prevent/treat diarrhea or constipation, balance the metabolism of the microflora from the intestine, sustain the lipid metabolism, favor and stimulate the adsorption of minerals, and modulate the immune system (Moreno et al., 2017). Fig. 2 presents the most studied prebiotics and their direct or indirect effects on human health. Despite all studies, the exact mechanisms that influence changes in the gut microbiota on the strength of prebiotics consumption remain to be fully clarified. Based on the

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Fig. 2 Most studied prebiotics and their action.

available information regarding the intestinal microbiota it can be concluded that crossfeeding occurs. For example, butyrate can be obtained from acetate and lactate produced by bifidobacteria and lactobacilli, by conversion by other species that can exercise health benefits to humans. This fact widens the influence of prebiotics on gut microbiota composition and activity, disclosing that one of the basic criteria utilized for the definition of prebiotics—that is selectivity—is now demonstrated. As a result, the necessity for a revision of the definition of prebiotics has been lately stated. A new definition of prebiotics has to cover the ecological and functional characteristics of the microbiota potential to be significant for human host functions of the organism, such as microflora diversity (Bindels et al., 2015). Certainly, the premise that an abundant microbiota is also healthier (Cotillard et al., 2013) has required revision of the definition of prebiotics, taking into account the term “ecological biodiversity” (Van den Abbeele et al., 2013). Along with the current findings on the gut microbiota composition and interaction, a distinction between beneficial and harmful microorganism species is naive. Thus, more likely, the idea of prebiotic will suffer a reformulation in the near future with the aim to widen its definition. Even so, a deeper understanding of the actions that modulate the interactions between human gut microbiota and prebiotics is needed for a more appropriate definition. Zhang et al. (2018a) proved the prebiotic effect of pectin oligosaccharides extracted from citrus peel by demonstrating the selective growth of probiotics as Lactobacillus paracasei and Bifidobacterium bifidum, and not sustaining the growth of E. coli. Prebiotics can also influence other properties of the foods, such as texture, consumer acceptance, melting temperature, and so on. Interesting research was conducted by

Pro and prebiotics foods that modulate human health

Balthazar et al. (2017), who studied the influence of prebiotics such as inulin, fructooligosaccharide, galacto-oligossacaride, short–chain fructo-oligosaccharide, resistant starch, corn dietary oligosaccharide, and polydextrose in sheep milk ice cream. Properties such as melting behavior (melting time, melting temperature), the overrun of the ice cream and fat behavior (destabilization, globular particle size), and ice cream texture (ice crystals distribution, air bubble size) proved to be influenced by the presence of the above mentioned prebiotics.

4. Symbiosis When a food product or a food supplement incorporate both probiotics and prebiotics, the term symbiotic can be utilized. This kind of product provides, by ingestion, the probiotic bacteria mixed with a prebiotic, thus inducing probiotic bacteria survival and growth in the gastrointestinal tract (Derrien and Veiga, 2017). An in vivo study reported that a symbiotic combination of oligofructose enriched with inulin and Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and Bifidobacterium lactis Bb12 ingested for 12 weeks induced a 16% and 18% growth of the colony forming units (CFU) of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, respectively, and a 31% reduction in the numbers of pathogens such as Clostridium perfringens (Tufarelli and Laudadio, 2016). Colorectal cancer-related studies showed that symbiotic consumption decreases cancer risk factors (Tufarelli and Laudadio, 2016). Raman et al. (2016) correlate some immunomodulation effects with synbiotics. Recent research assessed the effect of symbiotic shake ingestion, containing Lactobacillus acidophilus, B. bifidum as probiotics, and fructooligosaccharides as prebiotic, on glycemia and cholesterol levels in people age 50–60. This study was conducted on 20 subjects (10 for the control group and 10 for the symbiotic group), all with a level of cholesterol higher than 200 mg/dL, triglycerides above 200 mg/dL, and glycemia above 110 mg/dL. After 30 days of trial, the results showed a non-significant reduction in total cholesterol and triglycerides, a significant growth of the HDL cholesterol, and a significant reduction in fasting glycemia. In the control group, no significant changes were observed (Saez-Lara et al., 2016).

5. Probiotics and prebiotics—Human health modulation Modulation of the human microflora in order to obtain a specific balance in the population of the gut, favorable for the host’s health, represents a bright and affordable technique meant to ameliorate human health (Drew, 2016). A trillion microorganisms cohabitate in parts of the human body, namely on the skin, in the vaginal and oral cavities, and further along the gastrointestinal tract. In intrauterine life and at birth, babies have a sterile gut, which start the colonization process immediately after delivery. This process is strongly influenced by the birth type (C section or natural

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birth) and further by the nurturing process (formula vs. breast feeding). Human health modulation through the action of probiotics is related mainly to the production of short fatty acids, thus the mechanism of action before pro and prebiotic consumption is not fully understood. Prevention, amelioration, and treatment of diarrhea, ulcerative colitis, or irritable bowel syndrome symptoms are the most claimed health effects of probiotics. All these influences and the human body response to disease susceptibility are directly correlated with factors such as the profile of the first microbes that populate the gut and further lifestyle. The causal factors of the human body microbiota composition that severely modify it are mainly the presence of disorders such as obesity, and definitely the lifestyle, with all it includes. Ingestion of probiotic cells and prebiotics lead to modulation of the immune reaction through the host’s ability to differentiate between harmful and beneficial microorganisms. A compressive work about the actions involved in the selective reaction was critically described and reviewed by Hardy et al. (2013). When talking about immune modulatory effects, we must discuss the relationship between the mucosal barrier and probiotic action—this term referring to the action that ensures protection against the diffusion of harmful molecules through the interstitial tissue (Hardy et al., 2013; Rao and Samak, 2013). The aforementioned protection is given firstly by a physical barrier, ensured by the epithelial layer, and afterward by the mucosal layer and by the antimicrobial peptides from the side. Among the factors that ensure the optimal function of these barriers is the balance of the microbes present in the intestine. Probiotic cells are able to stimulate the growth of epithelial cells and to activate and sustain mucus production, leading to modulation of intestinal absorption (Shang et al., 2008; Cario et al., 2004). One of the elements that influence the effectiveness and the action of the probiotic cells is their viability and their capacity to use prebiotics in order to multiply, and thus product beneficial metabolites. Interesting is the fact that even inactivated probiotic cells may affect the immune response. Several authors (Cross et al., 2004; Lim et al., 2009) are debating the action of cell components and cell wall components even if the probiotic cells are inactivated. Each human being has a specific model of more than 1000 microbial species in the gastrointestinal tract (Aziz et al., 2013), each individual has in the stomach 103 different bacterial species, and the total amount of the microbes that populate the colon exceeds 1012 CFU/g (Slavin, 2013). Scientific researches focusing on the role of human microbiota in human wellbeing have brought forth a huge quantity of genetic information in the last decade; the current challenge is to integrate all this information into databases accessible for all classes of the population and, moreover, to find suitable biotechnologies to integrate this information in health and food industries. The credit given to lactobacilli and bifidobacteria regarding the probiotic activity is generally related to their ability to defeat pathogens, produce valuable metabolites, fortify the gut barrier, balance the immune response, and modulate the human microbiome. The mutual action of the cell-host and influence on

Pro and prebiotics foods that modulate human health

the immune structure are modulated by several molecular individuals of bacterial compounds; among these, protein fractions, peptides, exopolysaccharides, microbial deoxyribonucleic acid, and bacterial surface extracts can be mentioned. In order to obtain the claimed health benefits, viable probiotic cells need to reach the large intestine. One of the principal challenges for these cells is to survive hostile environments like the acidic media of the stomach when passing through the gastrointestinal tract. Thus, when ingested, a valuable characteristic of probiotic cells is their ability to survive gastrointestinal conditions. To subdue these inconveniences and in order to obtain maximum health benefit and desirable immune-modulatory effects, techniques such as encapsulation and/or utilization of bacterial extracts can be utilized. Research reports (Hidalgo-Cantabrana et al., 2017, 2018; Inturri et al., 2017) denote that the utilization of bacterial extracts is successful in modulating immune response in humans. It is well documented that prenatal maternal exposure directs postnatal microbial colonization and influences the development of gut population. This population further affects precise aspects of immune system development and the integrity of the mucosal barrier. Therefore, the appearance of certain diseases in adult or elderly life can be associated with the composition and development of the gut microbiota in the early stages of life. Many studies have linked the gut microbiota unbalance in chronic and metabolic diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease (Drew, 2016), obesity (Davis, 2016; Chen et al., 2014), colon cancer (Floch, 2018), and some allergies (Huang et al., 2016) to alterations in the gut microbiome. In various cases, their dysbiosis is caused by several factors that destroy good gut microbes, resulting in an overgrowth of pathogenic microbes. In obesity, for example, along with the alteration of good microbes, shifting in the function of the cells happens, leading to an excess of energy coming from ingested food deposited as adipose tissue (Davis, 2016). Even if many in vivo studies have proved the health effects of probiotic consumption (Balthazar et al., 2017; Derrien and Veiga, 2017; Drew, 2016; Chen et al., 2014; Agrawal et al., 2009; Chua et al., 2017), those claims recognized and approved by the health authorities are largely limited to ones related to the digestion and intolerance of lactose and the ones correlated with cholesterol reduction. More studies need to be conducted, mainly related with pro and prebiotic action and different probiotics association formulas that enhance their health effects.

5.1 Probiotics mechanism of action The true mechanism of action of probiotics and prebiotics has not been fully understood, however, results obtained from in vivo experiments have been analyzed. The amelioration of the barrier role of the gut represents an important mode of action of probiotics. Strains belonging to Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium and their metabolites are capable of stimulating epithelial cell signaling pathways (Song et al., 2012).

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The immune response of the human body is influenced by metabolites and compounds produced by indigenous bacteria of the gut. Few of these compounds are known and their exact method of action understood. Faecalibacterium prausnitzii is a specific bacterium that appears in individuals suffering from Crohn’s disease, responsible of the production of anti-inflammatory small protein (Quevrain et al., 2016). Some lactobacilli species reach the gut through ingestion of fermented food. It has been shown that these species are able to produce immunomodulatory peptides with anti-inflammatory effects. Thus, a key role in immune system modulation is played by the content of the proteins in the intestine (Furusawa et al., 2015). If the gut microbiota action on the modulation of the immune system is taken as a whole, the need to identify the compounds responsible for the transmission of information from receptors to signaling and activation or repression of key molecules is clear (Blanco-Mı´guez et al., 2017). As knowledge regarding the probiotic cells way of action is figured out from in vivo trials, there is a growing demand to interpret the obtained results into humans. Today, there are very few good organized, documented, and standardized clinical trials that can certify causality of pro and prebiotics on modulating human health (Lloyd-Price et al., 2016). There are several human studies that have certified the action and modulation of gut microbiota regarding cholesterol level and obesity in humans (Reid et al., 2003; Ding et al., 2017; Kobyliak et al., 2018). Consumption of probiotic dairy products associated with bile salt hydrolase in encapsulated form has been associated with an almost 60% lowering effect of serum cholesterol level (Ding et al., 2017). Although there is no continuity in the reported results, Lactobacillus reuteri NCIMB 30242 has been recognized as a probiotic strain that sustains the reduction of cholesterol blood level and acts as a biomarker of this illness in human trials. Sustained work in this direction is needed in order to identify probiotic strains with superior and specific activities that sustain amelioration and treatment of certain diseases. Furthermore, their mechanism of action needs to be established. An interesting study by Lebeer et al. (2012) has shown an increase in anti-inflammatory effect when lipoteichoic acid is extracted from lactobacilli cell walls. This fact opens new questions regarding the interaction between probiotic cells and proteins. Genetically modified strains can, therefore, be used in order to obtain specific responses, but their mechanisms of action need to be studied first. Bifidobacterium breve, B. bifidum, B. pseudolongum, and Lactobacillus have the capacity to obtain conjugated linoleic acid from linoleic acid. This process will suppress multistage carcinogenesis at various areas. Lactobacillus helveticus and Bifidobacterium longum have been shown to produce and react to mammalian serotonin and are involved in behavior modulation. The capacity of these microbes to produce and to react to neurochemicals confirms the ability of probiotics to influence psychological health and global behavior (Hsiao et al., 2013; Selhub et al., 2014). It is thus likely that modulating the gut microbes’

Pro and prebiotics foods that modulate human health

composition by ingesting probiotic supplements and prebiotics may positively influence brain-based disorders, including stress-induced cognitive deficits. Even so, understanding of the mechanisms and confirmation of animal studies in humans represents an important research goal. Hevia et al. (2015) discussed the communication between the human cells and the microbes that populate the gut. They underlined the fact that this communication is happening via proteins. Moreover, extracellular and surface proteins of the gut microbiota are believed to be under the control of a sector of the immunomodulatory effect of the gut microbiota, namely these proteins have a crucial role in the interaction with the human body and the medium.

6. Therapeutic foods—Pro and prebiotics Terms such as “therapeutic foods” or “functional foods” define any food item that contributes to preventing, ameliorating, or treat mental or physical diseases. This food takes direct part in modulation of human physiological systems (digestive, immune system, nervous system, etc.). Therapeutic foods contain non-fractionated, fortified, and enriched foods, and food components that are able to minimize the risk of chronic disease and induce a health benefit exceeding the nutritional effect of the traditional nutrients it contains (Al-Sheraji et al., 2013; Gul et al., 2016). The market and research studies on probiotic- and prebiotic-based functional foods are in continuous development. Countless studies were conducted on very well-known yoghurts with probiotics, and extended to studies on chocolate and ice cream containing these valuable microbes, and all sorts of probiotic and symbiotic drinks (Fig. 3). Moreover, many of these food products are available on the market (Williamson, 2009). As health authorities, food producers, and consumers become conscious of the influence of the diet on human health, the trend to promote, manufacture, and consume functional foods is increasing. Moreover, the awareness of the desirability of preventing disease rather than treating it has led to the population of the market with a wide range of probiotic and prebiotic foods. Several aspects need to be addressed when the culture and the prebiotic is selected. Among these aspects, the culture safety, effectiveness regarding colonization, and probiotic potential need to be considered. Certification of these features, which ensure health benefits to the host, is made by in vitro tests, or more recently it can be predicted using omic approaches. Although plenty of studies have researched the addition of pro and prebiotics in food products and food supplements, appraisal of the strain adaptation to the technology is a very rare topic. There are several aspects that influence the survival of the probiotic cells along the food manufacturing process when used in it. Among these, resistances to industrial production, to freeze or fluid bed drying and to storage are just a few of them. Depending on the process that will be utilized, different strains should be used for optimal results.

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Fig. 3 Pro and prebiotic types of foods.

Even though foods based on milk are conceived as the most proper food matrix for probiotics and prebiotics in order to maximize their health sustaining actions for consumers, the need of pro and prebiotic food diversification is undeniable. Among food products, fermented foods, which are a general accepted class of foods, are mostly associated with the presence of good and valuable microbes. Because the impact and the performance of the probiotic cells on human health are directly correlated with this microbe’s viability and stability, it is essential to design and develop innovative techniques that will help the food industry to ensure the maximization of cell viability during manufacturing, storage, and intake. Among these techniques, encapsulation and nanotechnology are the most explored (Grover et al., 2012). As discussed earlier, gut microbiota has a significant impact on human health. It is noticeable how the composition of the gut microbiota can change based on factors such as diet, health condition, clinical interventions, and even region of living (e.g., microbiota of Eskimos, Europeans, Africans, etc.) (Fig. 4) (Laparra and Sanz, 2010). On the market, lactobacilli, streptococci, and bifidobacteria species, normal constituents of the human gastrointestinal microbiota, are the most utilized probiotics in functional foods and supplements (Davis, 2016). The ingestion and utilization of probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics as supplements or in various therapeutic foods in clinical medicine is facilitated by the fact that the human body is able to discern between different

Pro and prebiotics foods that modulate human health

Fig. 4 Factors influencing the diversity of gut microbiota.

microbial species, microbial products. and bioactive plant species, which have positive effects on human health. Favorable effects of probiotics are executed by different mechanisms, such as producing short fatty acids, polysaccharides, peptides (glutathione), and enzymes (NADH-peroxidase, SOD), and stopping the colonization of pathogens (Chua et al., 2017). Various advantages sustain the utilization of pro and prebiotics in the prevention, amelioration, and treatment of metabolic and infectious diseases in humans. Among these, the multidrug resistance of pathogens and the decreasing of antibiotic options seem to be most relevant ones. Kobyliak et al. (2018) demonstrated with an in vivo study, conducted on 75 rats with induced obesity, that probiotics were much more effective against obesity when ingested with omega-3.

6.1 Dairy products containing pro and prebiotics Dairy products are certainly most frequently used as carriers for probiotic bacteria, and yogurt has been sold and tailored successfully in order to meet the target population demands. For typical yogurt production, several ways can be used, such as selection and combination of cultures used for lactose fermentation and the addition of prebiotics. Yogurt is produced through the fermentation of milk, semi-skim milk, or skim milk by the lactic bacteria as Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus with any

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combination of the lactic bacteria L. acidophilus and L. casei, or the bacteria B. bifidum, B. breve, B. longum, and B. infantis. A study conducted on healthy adults and elderly people suffering from constipation, report that the consumption of regular yoghurt with L. rhamnosus and fructooligosaccharide (FOS), ingested daily for 4 weeks did not influence the number of L. rhamnosus in the feces but the presence of FOS could be highlighted and proved by reduction of constipation (Granata et al., 2013). An in vivo study (Laila Hussein et al., 2014) compared regular yoghurt, symbiotic yogurt, traditional fermented Egyptian soya, and unfermented rice milk porridge on 28 male subject of 14 years old. The results of the study showed that ingestion of fermented foods sustained the growth of Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli populations, reduced the number of pathogenic bacteria, and enhanced intestinal barrier function. Another study, conducted by Lily Arsanti Lestari et al. (2013), shows that the consumption of symbiotic yogurt (Lactobacillus plantarum and sweet potato fiber) increases the secretion of immunoglobulin IgA in saliva and feces. In 2017, Demirci et al. (2017) reported the results of a study that demonstrated that the viability of probiotics from regular yogurt inoculated with L. casei 431 was enhanced with the addition of rice bran. In addition to milk-based products, many sorts of food based on cereals, soy, fruits, vegetables, and even meat and fish have been in the spotlight of researchers, scientists, and food designers for new product development. Due to the fact that dairy products were extensively studied as carrier or food matrix for pro and prebiotics, their incorporation in this matrix does not represent a challenge, meanwhile, the rest of the matrixes (natural or synthetic polymers) need to be tailored for the probiotic cells or vice versa. The real challenges are related to aspects such as standardization of the sensorial and physical-chemical properties, stability, broad shelf life, and financially affordability. In any situation, and despite the utilized food matrix, several factors work together and have an impact on probiotic cell viability and survival. Among these, pH, ionic force, macro and microstructure, the activity of the bound water, oxygen influences, presence of competitors (pathogens), and any possible inhibitor present in the food matrices need to be taken into consideration.

6.2 Nondairy products containing pro and prebiotics Currently, consumers are seeking and asking for non-dairy products that contain probiotics and prebiotics. The diversification of products that contain these valuable molecules is mostly due to the facts that lactose intolerance has increased, allergies to milk proteins are more common, and conversion to a vegan diet is more frequent. Food manufacturers are in continuous research for innovation regarding therapeutic ingredients suitable for food products. In this framework, aspects such as efficiency, safety, technological suitability, and costumer information must be resolved in order to justify the costs of the product.

Pro and prebiotics foods that modulate human health

If we were to draw a line and conclude, a powerful argument for the utilization of probiotic cells in non-dairy products is the possible presence of prebiotics in plant base matrices. A symbiotic, ensured by the presence of probiotics (exogenous and/or endogenous) and plant components, brings greater health benefits to consumers and makes plant based probiotic foods preferable (Duda-Chodak et al., 2015; Valdes et al., 2015). It is well known that most fermented food products represent a good environment for the presence and/or survival of probiotics. Around the world, many traditional products obtained by fermentation can be found that do not belong to the dairy foods category. Practically, these types of foods have been the basis for non-dairy probiotics. The fact that most of the indigenous lactic acid bacteria have the capacity to tolerate the gastric and bile environment and further colonize after adhering to epithelial cells, and exercise the immunomodulatory effects, sustains the non-dairy probiotic products’ development (Vitali et al., 2012). To make a long story short, most of the lactic acid bacteria utilized in the fermentation as starter cultures registered characteristics belonging to a probiotic culture. Among these characteristics, cholesterol reduction capacity was reported by Lee et al. (2011). A fact that cannot be denied is that scientists and food technologists will direct their attention to food matrices able to be fermented and to some starter cultures that fulfill the probiotic characteristics and provide fermentation. Development of such products—non-dairy probiotic foods—is sustained by the fact that many plant compounds sustain and work in synergy with probiotic cells, ensuring added value formulations; these components include simple and complex carbohydrates and phenolics (Puupponen-Pimi€a et al., 2002). Nevertheless, this kind of food has its own limitations, namely the acidity of fruitbased products, or storage temperature (usually room temperature) that does not sustain probiotic cell viability. This inconvenience has lead technologists and scientists to develop techniques, more or less related to biotechnology, which sustain the probiotic cells’ viability in the mentioned situations. Consequently, formulation of non-dairy probiotic products that contain fruits, vegetables, and cereals, has been proved as one of the best options (Daniel et al., 2010; Granato et al., 2010; Prado et al., 2008).

6.2.1 Fruit and vegetables based pro and prebiotic products Even a superficial overview of the market regarding the presence of non-dairy products containing prebiotics and probiotic cells is showing that this type of food is expanding. The diversity of the food matrix when taking into account fruit and vegetables represent an asset for the development of new products. The consumption of pro and prebioticcontaining products is being considerably widened by the introduction of fruit and vegetables-based products, which refresh and ensure diversity in the market of pro and prebiotic foods.

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Advanced technologies ensure not only the design and production of probiotic nondairy products based on fruit and vegetables, but also the embedding of these valuable molecules in unconventional food matrices, namely baked products, chewing gums, fermented tea, and even water. Biotechnologies, biology, and food technologies have made possible the utilization of probiotic cells in baked products by ensuring the utilization of thermophilic strains (e.g., Bacillus coagulans). 6.2.1.1 Pro and prebiotic juices

Nowadays, the production of non-dairy probiotic beverages is of particular interest due to the fact that have no dairy allergens, no cholesterol, have attractive taste and, in most cases, color, and fit perfectly in a vegan diet (Prado et al., 2008). The demand to design, produce, and commercialize non-dairy probiotic beverages is based also on the fact that these beverages can be substrates that sustain probiotic growth, while also providing antioxidant compounds, fibers, vitamins, and minerals (Nualkaekul and Charalampopoulos, 2011; Liao et al., 2016). Spouted bed drying technique was utilized to obtain a drink from orange juice enriched with L.casei NRRL B-442, 70°C being the best drying temperature for probiotic viability (Alves et al., 2017). Orange juice was also the substrate inoculated with L. paracasei ssp. paracasei probiotic culture and oligofructose (prebiotic) in a study conducted by da Costa et al. (2017). The probiotics showed a 106 CFU/g over 28 days of storage regardless of the presence of the prebiotic, nevertheless the prebiotic induced less turbidity in the juice. Encapsulation of probiotics in alginate and alginate-silica was tested in apple juice and beer, proving that even 5 vt% alcohol content may not decrease the CFU/mL counts below 5.14 log after one week of storage (Haffner and Pasc, 2018). Bifidobacterium animalis ssp. lactis BB12 was incorporated in powdered passion fruit juice and its viability was checked over 30 days of storage at 4 and 25°C. The probiotic juice was dried in maltodextrin and/or inulin as carrier. Inulin, which is a prebiotic, provided better protection (Dias et al., 2018). 6.2.1.2 Pro and prebiotic fruits and puree

Besides vegetables, fruits are seen as healthy foods due to the abundance of valuable components such as vitamins (mostly C and E), antioxidants (epicatechines, anthocyans, procyanidins, phenolic acids, and sulfides), carotenoids, valuable fibers, lignans, and so on. Food producers have harnessed the image of these types of foods, giving the tone of a new trend—consumption of juices and purees. Pointing out that the juices are concentrated in all aforementioned valuable compounds, the addition of probiotic cells brings an added value more and more appreciated by consumers. A modern direction in food science ensures the presence of probiotic strains and nutraceuticals in fruit juices and puree. These food matrices, as a probiotic carrier, in

Pro and prebiotics foods that modulate human health

some cases need to be adjusted because of the unpleasant taste and texture given by the presence of organic acids, fibers, and polyphenolic compounds. Six probiotic strains, belonging to L. rhamnosus and L. casei species, were utilized in order to obtain a fermented puree made from chestnuts, and their viability was tested over 40 days of storage at 4°C. The results showed a population level above 8 log CFU/mL at the end of storage time (Blaiotta et al., 2012). On the other hand, Tsnen (Tsen et al., 2008) reported the utilization of banana and free, alginate, or carrageenan immobilized L. acidophilus in order to obtain a fermented banana puree with good results regarding cell viability and consumers’ acceptance. 6.2.1.3 Cereal-based pro and prebiotic products

Zhang et al. (2014, 2018b) reported two case studies on the presence of encapsulated probiotics in bread. The viability of the utilized probiotic—B. lactis Bb12—was tested in bread baked at different temperatures and over different time intervals. Results showed that some viable probiotics were still in the bread after being baked for the longest period in the trial (12 min). Another study (Altamirano-Fortoul et al., 2012) revealed results about L. acidophilus encapsulated and applied on bread crust in different coatings (disperse and multilayer). The survival of entrapped L. acidophilus proved the potential of starch solution, used for coating, to protect the probiotic during baking and storage time, based on the adherence of the microcapsules (made from whey protein isolates, CMC, pectin, inulin, and fresh agave sap, and spray dried with the probiotic) to the starch macromolecules. A study case on probiotic pan bread showed that encapsulated (in alginate or alginate/ whey protein) L. rhamnosus GG and followed by an air drying procedure did not influence the texture of the bread when added in it. The study revealed that the presence of whey protein improved the viability of the probiotic when air dried at 60 and 180°C. Regarding the viability of the probiotic cells in the final product, the authors maintain that a 30–40 g quantity of bread ensures approximately 6.5–8.9 log CFU/portion prior and following in vitro digestion, fulfilling the WHO recommended required viable probiotic counts to be ingested in order to exercise the claimed health be (Soukoulis et al., 2014). 6.2.2 Probiotics in meat products Consumers are more and more aware about the fact that foods have a direct influence on their health. Thus, nowadays, foods are not only used to satisfy hunger, but to supply needed nutrients for humans and, therefore, having health benefits regarding disease prevention and amelioration. The functional foods market has faced an intense demand in recent years. This has driven researchers and food engineers to focus their efforts in manufacturing functional meat products.

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Initially, in meat processing, probiotic cells were utilized in order to protect the food matrix, structure, and safety. Recently, it has been recognized that meat is a good matrix for probiotic cells, and, furthermore, it increases bile tolerance. Researchers (Klingberg and Budde, 2006) have demonstrated that a meat matrix (e.g., sausages) is able to confer protection for the probiotics when passing through the gastric juice. The presence of active molecules as conjugated linoleic acid, taurine, creatinine, and carnosine in the meat make it a suitable food matrix for probiotics (Arihara, 2006). Meat is an excellent environment for microorganism multiplication. The challenge here is to utilize strains that have the capacity to survive and control the multiplication of other fermentative microbes that populate this matrix. In meat technologies, there are several variants that need no thermal treatment, or in which this process is very mild, making meat a convenient matrix as a probiotic carrier. Thus, resistance to high concentrations of salt and nitrite must characterize the probiotic strain due to the fact that these ingredients are widely and frequently used in meat processing. Aspects such as postmortem modification, coupled with desired characteristics in final product and the need to have bioactive metabolites in the consumed meat products has gained a lot of attention (Popova, 2017). The utilization of probiotics in meat products arises from the necessity to diversify this market, but also the necessity of replacing antibiotics with a consumer friendly alternative. In this food area, probiotics are utilized in the diet of the animals in order to influence the lipid composition and oxidation of the meat (Saleh et al., 2012; Elias Hossain et al., 2012). Herna´ndez-Alca´ntara et al. (2018) evaluated the indigenous presence and the resistance of six thermotolerant lactic acid bacteria strains (Enterococcus and Pedicoccus) in Vienna sausages. The probiotics used as control were L. acidophilus LA-5 and L. plantarum 8014. For all the mentioned strains, antibiotic sensitivity, gastrointestinal tolerance, and adhesion were tested. The researchers concluded that the indigenous tested microorganisms have probiotic properties, Enterococcus facecium resistance to acid media is higher, and the adherence assay showed that the same strain exhibited this property higher that the commercial probiotics used as control.

6.3 Other pro and prebiotic foods 6.3.1 Chocolate Konar et al. (2016, 2018) tested the efficiency of inulin on the viability of L. paracasei and L. acidophilus when incorporated in conventional and sugar-free white chocolate. The results showed that the incorporation of the mentioned pro and prebiotics did influence the chocolate quality parameters and rheological properties but in a tolerable way. Regarding the viability of probiotics, after 90 days of storage, the loss in viability was about 2.4 log/25 g product (the recommended serving size).

Pro and prebiotics foods that modulate human health

The same author (Konar et al., 2016) reported in a review that inulin, fructooligosaccharide (FOS), and galactooligosaccharides (GOS) are all prebiotics that do not influence the texture of the chocolate when utilized alone or in symbiosis. The same paper revealed some of the free and encapsulated probiotic strains that were incorporated in chocolate as a food matrix. Most of the species belong to Lactobacillus, but some of them belong to Bifidobacterium. Among them Lactobacillus brevis subsp. Couagulans, L. helveticus, L. rhamnosus, L. paracasei, L. acidophilus, L. brevis, B. longum, B. lactis, and Bacillus indicus are the most studied. In another study (Kemsawasd et al., 2016), L. casei 01 and L. acidophilus LA5 were incorporated in white, milk, and dark chocolate with no negative or notable effect on the sensory attributes of the products. Their viability was tested during storage (60 days at 4°C) and after an in vitro gastrointestinal passage. Both lactobacilli sustained their viability to the end of storage tested time in a sufficient number to provide health benefits when ingested (> 6 log CFU/g). Results revealed that chocolate is able to protect the valuable probiotic cells from the acid media of the stomach and thus, reach the intestine in sufficient amounts. 6.3.2 Ice cream Rheological and textural characteristics of ice cream are very important for consumer’s acceptance. Akalın et al. (2018) tested the effect of five dietary fibers present in apple, orange, oat, bamboo, and wheat on the viability of L. acidophilus and B. lactis incorporated in ice cream at 18°C for 180 days, along with the physicochemical, rheological, textural characteristics, and sensory properties. With the exception of the ice cream with orange and bamboo fiber, the tested samples had viability of L. acidophilus above or equal to 7 log CFU/g during storage, while B. lactis counts were with almost 1 log CFU/g less than the lactobacillus when they reached 150 days of storage. Go´ral et al. (2018) enriched L. rhamnosus B 442, L. rhamnosus 1937, and Lactococcus lactis JBB 500 with magnesium ions using Pulsed Electric Fields. The enriched probiotic strains were added in the production of ice cream. Results revealed that incorporation of bacteria enriched with magnesium did not significantly influence the physicochemical parameters of the ice cream and did not change the freezing process, or parameters such as meltability and hardness. Regarding the viability determination, the total number of viable cells in the ice cream was above than in the starter cultures, but lower in comparison to the control samples (bacteria not supplemented with magnesium). Heenan et al. (2004) describes a study made on probiotics incorporated in a nonfermented vegetarian frozen soy dessert. The results showed that five probiotic strains, namely L. acidophilus MJLA1, L. rhamnosus 100-C, L. paracasei ssp. paracasei 01, B. lactis BBDB2, and B. lactis BB-12 survived in the number of 107 CFU/g over 6 months of storage, meanwhile Saccharomyces boulardii 74012 CFU/g decreased to below 106.

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7. Engineering probiotics for treatment of human metabolic and infectious diseases Most recent researches and protocols in the pro and prebiotic field had brought notable progress regarding their utilization. Here, reference is made to the design and production of food products that incorporate engineering probiotic cultures and prebiotics that sustain their growth. Diverse protocols were perfected for the appraisal of probiotic potential via omic techniques (as transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics), and even more protocols are following to be discovered and developed. The sum of new knowledge concerning the processes that cause infections or illnesses has led to the development of techniques that ensure the release of genetic engineering probiotic cells matched to particular targets. This targeted release ensures maximum efficacy and opens up a wide area of probiotic applications with extraordinary suppositions. Various studies have demonstrated the efficiency of probiotics and engineering probiotics. Recent research reveals engineering strains that were utilized in order to reduce hypertension. L. plantarum NC8 was engineered to produce angiotensin-converting enzymes—inhibitory peptides that sustain the relaxation of blood vessels and reduce water resorption by the kidneys. Remarkable was the fact that, after the first administration of the engineered strain, the effect was registered even after 10 days (Yang et al., 2015; Kang and Cai, 2018). Lactococcus lactis NZ9000 is another engineered strain used to ameliorate diabetes mellitus type I (Ma et al., 2014). Another study (Zeng et al., 2016) described the ability of L. paracasei to enhance the ability of β cells to secret insulin. Ingestion of engineered E. coli Nissle 1917 proved the prevention of obesity in mice by controlling food ingestion and weight gain (Chen et al., 2014). In addition to the above-mentioned approaches, probiotic cells have been in the spotlight of scientists due to their ability to deliver active molecules that work together in order to prevent, ameliorate, and treat various illnesses. One example of this types of action is discussed by Ma et al. (2014), reporting that the action of L. lactis strain is able to fight the aggression of diabetes mellitus type 1. Amelioration of diabetes in mice was achieved by probiotic oral administration. Effects like reduced insulitis, improved glucose tolerance, and hyperglycemia prevention were registered. Engineered probiotics are a good alternative for ameliorating some chronical diseases, but the investigation of the presence of prebiotics along with the engineered probiotics must be tested. These promising approaches involve, in most cases, gene modification, leading to some reticence in the scientific community and even more in the general population. Besides the fact that probiotic engineering ensures strains with targeted health benefits, the advantage of incremental increase in the resistance of certain strains is worth mentioning (Derkx et al., 2014). Anyway, implementation of these abilities in the current strains without the utilization of modification of the genetic material cannot be done permanently. Thus, further studies need to be conducted in the epigenetic direction.

Pro and prebiotics foods that modulate human health

8. Human health modulation The human gut is the host of more than 1000 microbial species, which represent the host’s microbiota and thereby, play a considerable role in host health (George Kerry et al., 2018). The research that led to a deeper understanding of the action and utility of human gut microflora has ensured the increase of probiotic utilization. These valuable microbes, especially lactobacilli and bifidobacteria, can be identified as functional ingredients that promote human health and wellbeing, with an important impact in the prevention, amelioration, and treatment of chronic and metabolic diseases. Application of probiotic and prebiotic therapy is most often utilized in chronic inflammatory gastrointestinal disorders, but this area is going wider and wider; this can be explained by the fact that important research and results have revealed a deeper understanding about their efficacy, mode of action, and the interaction between the ingested and indigenous probiotic cells. Nevertheless, specific health claims correlated with probiotic intake in a wide range of food formulations and their actions through scientific proof based on in vivo studies in the target human population represent, an actual provocation to credit their healthpromoting functions. Among these, probiotic cells direct mode of the action, design, and development of pro and prebiotic food formulations, right dosage, viability, and stability of probiotics during food production processes and storage can be stated, too (Grover et al., 2012). Analyzing and understanding the cohabitation of pathogenic and probiotic bacteria could help scientists and engineers to develop innovative anti-pathogenic strategies and foods. This understanding is useful in infection control, in an environment where antibiotic resistance is increasing. In this view, probiotics and therapeutic foods play a significant role. Cohabitation of live probiotic bacteria with other species in the gastrointestinal tract implies competition for nutrients and adhesion sites and the synthesis of inhibitory metabolites. The interaction with the human host happens despite the viability of the probiotics and is arbitrated by the relation of bacterial cellular fractions with the intestinal tissue structures, initiating the immune defense (Kobyliak et al., 2018; Sanders et al., 2010). Pro and prebiotics are utilized mostly to treat and to cure irritable bowel syndrome. This syndrome is manifested by constipation, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. Literature reveals the utilization of different probiotic strains in order to ameliorate this syndrome, but positive results were registered only when B. lactis (Agrawal et al., 2009) and Bacillus infantis 35624 (Floch, 2018) was utilized for constipation (Fig. 5). The utilization of probiotics in food products is a promising technique that will lead to an incremental increase in the consumption of these valuable microbes. However, in order to obtain a maximum benefit from the ingestion of probiotics, the utilization of

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Fig. 5 Intestinal microbiota modulation along lifespan.

Pro and prebiotics foods that modulate human health

biotechnology techniques for the design of the formulations targeted for specific health advantages may bring considerable advantages. With certainty, it can be said and stressed that the acquired microbiota from the mother prior to and during delivery is of high importance and influence. This microbiota will supply the first base for the gastrointestinal microbial population that will influence intestinal immune system modulation. A microbial specific picture is outlined for each individual and will influence the intestinal homeostasis, the mucosal barrier function, and any inclination to any ulterior possible diseases. Formation of a healthy gut microbiota is led by breastfeeding of the newborn, contributing to long-term welfare. A correlation with the fact that breast milk provides high levels of lactic acid and bifidobacteria are advantages as a lower number of allergies, diarrhea episodes, and gastrointestinal infections registered to the early life of the infant. Among the species that have a great impact on the gut health of infants, bifidobacteria is in the spotlight of scientists and medical professionals, being a target for nutritional intervention in newborns. Thus, it is well known that any probiotic and prebiotic intervention, in early life or in old age, has its limitations. Because of that, new probiotic formulations and new synbiotics approaches are still required in order to improve the flexibility of healthy microbiota and thus address such malfunctions as allergies, obesity, dental carries, irritation of the bowel, respiratory infections, enterocolitis, and so on. All these actions need to be sustain by strong scientific data obtained from clinical studies (Grover et al., 2012). Park et al. (2018) discussed the relation between gut microbiota composition and illnesses of the brain. Emergent scientific results sustain that probiotic and prebiotic supplements intake may positively influence brain disorders like depression. The treatment and even the amelioration of depression is related to factors such as severity and duration, but the microbiota changes proved to be related to inflammatory activity in mood disorders. In his review, Tsiouris and Tsiouri (2017) discussed existing data on the action of probiotics in the wound healing process. Cut or rupture of the continuity of the skin caused by any mechanical or biological action affects the skin’s integrity. Any open wound is a good environment for a large variety of microorganism multiplication, and thus to contaminate the wound surface, with the host immune response trying to resist and deal with this microbial attack. As well as the microbiota located on the skin, the gastrointestinal population can also influence the wound healing process by exerting its impact, directly or indirectly. Several aspects that are working together to modulate the healing process— namely tissue oxygenation levels, blood pressure, inflammation, and the immune response—are directly influenced by the composition of gut microbiota. Another important fact related to human wellbeing is discussed by Zhang et al. (2018c) and his collaborators. Oral health is an aspect that is affecting a large number of the population. In Europe, 90% of 6-year-old children have dental caries, but conditions such as gingivitis, other gum diseases, and oral cancer are affecting more and more

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individuals. At second place, after the colon, the oral cavity holds the second most complex microbiota variety and number in the human body. Impairment of the oral microbiota may be right away correlated with oral and systemic diseases. Most studied microorganisms present in the mouth belong to lactobacillus and bifidobacteria. Today, there are several methods in practice that use probiotic intervention in order to prevent and treat oral diseases, but their utilization is narrow.

9. Perspectives The utilization of all sorts of foods carrier substrate for free or encapsulated pro and prebiotics present potential advantages and valuable alternatives for the food industry. Because most of the probiotic bacteria strains revealed good viability in dairy and nondairy foods, there is an important perspective in using fruits, cereals, protein-based foods, or sugary products, as matrices or as active ingredients (prebiotic), during production of these functional foods. Since more viable cells ingested ensure the claimed health benefits, scientists and food engineers need techniques to ensure that viable cells survive food production technology, storage, and gastrointestinal passage. To meet this necessity, microencapsulation is promising. Hence, there is extensive interest in the improvement of the physical and mechanical constancy of the polymers utilized in pro and prebiotics encapsulation, in order to guarantee high viability and growth of probiotics in the food manufacturing process, during storage, and after gastrointestinal digestion. Scientists and the food sector have focused their attention on design and manufacture of foods designated to ameliorate and treat diseases related with fat metabolization, allergies, and intolerances, inflammatory syndrome, irritable bowel diseases, diarrhea, colitis, eczema, rhinitis, and Helicobacter pylori. The incorporation of pro and prebiotics in food texture meet some challenges beside the survivability and stability of the viable probiotic cells. Among these, the sensory traits seem to be the main characteristic that directly influences customer acceptance. However, from a technological point of view, but not exclusively, their influence on the manufacturing process, physicochemical, rheological properties, and nutritional characteristics are to be considered. Nowadays some pro and prebiotic foods are already available to consumers, and many other products will be tailored to the market and consumer demand in the near future. Food manufacturers, trying to be competitive in the market and knowing the fact that dairy foods have their limitations, are starting to explore non-dairy food matrices as probiotic carriers. Meanwhile, dairy products give an excellent environment as probiotic carriers and the consumers associate this type of food with these valuable cells; however, a new approach that involves fruit, vegetables, and cereals is to be welcomed. Result show good compatibility between probiotic cells and plant and meat-based foods matrices in both new and innovative products on the market. A real challenge for the food

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producers are the technologies and design of non-dairy food formats. These challenges begin to represent the past, with viable products are already populating the market, and this sector is in continuous growth. Nevertheless, accurate research is still needed in some food sectors, such as meat. Along with scientists, food manufacturers, and health authorities, informed consumers support the development of new pro and prebiotic foods and sustain this market by their willingness to pay the extra cost for the functionalization of a traditional food.

10. Conclusions In conclusion, diet can have a significant influence on human GI tract microbial communities by producing changes in population densities, which impact the production of different metabolites. Probiotics and prebiotics ingestion and dietary interventions can modify the balance of gut microbiota constitution by increasing the number of beneficial bacteria associated with health-promoting effects, and may even positively influence the management of metabolic disorders. On the market there are various food products containing pro and prebiotics. Most utilized probiotics in foods belong to the genus Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium. However, few strains are suitable to be obtained at industrial scale. Gene technology and genomics will play a role in forthcoming research and the generation of tailored strains, for an increase in targeted mechanisms and the functionality of probiotics. Even if probiotic science has grown fast lately, and the technological and health properties of an extended range of probiotics are effectively defined, still, there is a need to assess the influence of the production of food matrices on stability and viability of probiotic cells. Extensive research is required on the effect of storage on the therapeutic properties of probiotics. It remains to be evaluated to what point the age of the stored cultures affect their health benefits. It is inarguable that food matrices will be an essential research and expansion area for future functional/pro and prebiotic food markets. Wide studies of the influence of these therapeutic and functional foods on human health are very valuable. Nevertheless, various questions and issues need to be answered. Certainly, further research is essential for establishing optimal dose and therapy length; furthermore, a deeper understanding is needed about aspects such as their colonization and transit in the gut, symbiosis and probiotic combination, and the most important is to elucidate their way of action. These represent several of the most relevant topics that need to be addressed in direct correlation with specific disease conditions. In spite of these issues that need to be understood, probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics utilization in food products and supplements are in continuous growth, in order to fulfill the desire of illness prevention and increased health care and wellbeing.

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CHAPTER 11

Production and recovery of bioaromas synthesized by microorganisms Gilberto V. de Melo Pereira, Adriane B.P. Medeiros, Marcela C. Camara, Antonio I. Magalhães Júnior, Dão P. de Carvalho Neto, Mario C.J. Bier, Carlos R. Soccol Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology Department, Federal University of Parana´ (UFPR), Curitiba, Brazil

Contents 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Introduction Bioaromas Economic aspects Production of bioflavors by de novo synthesis Sustainable developments Production of flavors by biotransformation 6.1 Terpenes 6.2 Vanillin 6.3 Alcohols 6.4 Lactones 7. Bioaroma recovery 8. Formulation and product development 9. Conclusion References Further reading

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1. Introduction Aroma compounds, also known as fragrances, odorants, or flavors, are chemical substances with sensorial properties showing a wide variety of odors. They comprise a class of volatile chemical compounds, such as alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, acids, esters, lactones, and terpenes, which are widely used in foods, detergents, cosmetics, and in the pharmaceutical industry (Carlquist et al., 2015). Nowadays, approximately 300 aroma compounds are commercialized, with market price ranging from US$ 100 to US$ 500/kg (Akacha and Gargouri, 2015; Bicas et al., 2016). For a long time, plant extracts were the largest natural source of aroma additives for the food industry. Nevertheless, extraction from plants is susceptible to ecological, social, and political aspects, such as seasonality, risk of plant disease, trade restrictions, low yields, and high costs (Carlquist et al., 2015; Felipe et al., 2017). Aroma production via biotechnological processes has emerged as a promising alternative to overcome problems associated with those derived from plants or chemical synthesis. It is based on microbiological The Role of Alternative and Innovative Food Ingredients and Products in Consumer Wellness https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816453-2.00011-5

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production (i.e., bacteria, yeast, and fungi) through de novo synthesis or biotransformation. De novo synthesis implies the production of aroma compounds using simple cultivation media without any special additions, whereas biotransformation refers to chemical modifications of precursors into specific products through single or multistep reactions catalyzed by cells or enzymes (Akacha and Gargouri, 2015; Sales et al., 2018b). The production of aroma compounds by microorganisms presents high regio- and enantio-selectivity, positively influencing sensory characteristics of the product. In addition, these microbial-derived aromas can be produced throughout the year, in mild and controlled process conditions from cheap substrates, besides being free of toxic wastes and labeled as “natural” (Bicas et al., 2010; Carroll et al., 2016; Felipe et al., 2017). The growing market demand and consumer preference for natural products has encouraged the aroma industry to employ biotechnological processes to obtain aroma compounds (Akacha and Gargouri, 2015). Moreover, this technique contributes to sustainable production related to environmental, economic, and social aspects (Felipe et al., 2017). This chapter describes the main aroma molecules produced by microorganisms with applications in the food industry, and presents the methods for their recovery, stabilization, and product formation.

2. Bioaromas Natural aromas can be extracted from plants or microorganisms (Sales et al., 2018b). Nevertheless, among the 300 aroma compounds commercially available to date, only 30% come from biotechnological processes (Bicas et al., 2016). This scenario is seen to be changing due to the benefits of using natural aromas extracted from microorganisms. Biotechnology-based approaches for the production of natural aroma compounds include choice of microorganism and fermentation medium, downstream processes, and product formulation (Fig. 1) Aroma molecules derived from microorganisms also have biological proprieties, such as antimicrobial (Beck et al., 2003), antifungal (Okull and Beelman, 2003), antioxidant (Bacanli et al., 2015), insect repellant or attractive (Bicas et al., 2008), and other medicinal properties (Chen et al., 2015), increasing their applicability and industrial value (Berger, 2009). Some examples of aroma compounds produced by microorganisms, their sensory properties, and industrial application are described in Table 1 (de novo synthesis) and Table 2 (biotransformation).

3. Economic aspects Nowadays, flavors represent over a quarter of the world market for food additives. The global aroma market accounts for almost US$ 7 billion a year and is expected to grow by 4.4% each year. Europe and North America are the main consumers of aroma molecules,

Production and recovery of bioaromas synthesized by microorganisms

Fig. 1 Main steps in the production of aromatic compounds by microorganisms.

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Bioaroma

Industrial application

Microorganism

Substrate

Sensorial description

Reference

1-Octeno-3-ol

Neuspora sp.

Malt extract

2-Phenylethanol

Pichia fermentans

Glucose

Mushroom, earthy odor, herbaceous note, rose and hay Rose, sweetish, perfumed

Molasses

2,3-Butanodiol

Kluyveromyces marxianus Serratia marcescens

Sucrose

Creamy

Isoamyl alcohol

Neurospora sp.

Rice

Fusel oil, whiskeycharacteristic, pungent

Streptococcus thermophilus Lactococcus lactis Zymomonas mobilis mutant Engineered Escherichia coli Engineered Saccharomyces cerevisae

Lactose and threonine Glucose

Leafy-green

Food and beverage

Chaves et al. (2002) Bongers et al. (2005)

Glucose

Cherry and almond

Cosmetic and flavor Food, chemical and pharmaceutical

Kunjapur et al. (2014) Brochado et al. (2010)

Alcohols

Food

de Carvalho et al. (2011)

Cosmetics, perfumery, and food

Huang et al. (2001) Etschmann et al. (2003) Zhang et al. (2010)

Chemical, perfumery, and pharmaceuticals Beverages and food

Yamauchi et al. (1989)

Aldehydes

Acetaldehyde

Benzaldehyde Vanillin

Vanilla

The role of alternative and innovative food ingredients and products in consumer wellness

Table 1 Examples of microbial-derived aroma compounds produced by de novo synthesis

Esters

Ethyl acetate

Ethyl hexanoate

Kluveromyces marxianus Ceratocystis fimbriata Neuspora sp.

Cassava bagasse and giant palm bran Coffee husk and glucose Malt extract

Saccharomyces cerevisae

Glucose

2-Methylbutyric acid

Acetobacter pasteurianus

Glucose

Propionic acid

Propionibacterium

Lactose

Propionibacterium acidipropionici Propionibacterium freudenreichii

Sludge glycerol and glucose

Kluveromyces lactis

Glucose and xylose

Isoamyl acetate

Fruity, solvent, sweetish

Beverages and food industry to fruity flavors

Medeiros et al. (2000) Soares et al. (2000) Pastore et al. (1994) Yoshimoto et al. (2002)

Apple, fruity, banana, strawberry Fruity, banana, apple, solvent

Acids

Butter, cheese, nut, fruit

Food

Molinari et al. (1997)

Herbicides, chemical, pharmaceuticals and food industries

Jin and Yang (1998) Chen et al. (2013) Wang and Yang (2013) Jiang (1995)

Chemical, food, pharmaceutical and fuel industries

Clostridium tyrobutyricum

Song et al. (2010)

Ketone

Raspberry ketone

Engineered Saccharomyces cerevisae

p-Coumaric acid

Raspberry

Beverages and food

Lee et al. (2016)

Production and recovery of bioaromas synthesized by microorganisms

Butyric acid

Pungent, acrid, reminiscent of Roquefort cheese, fruitysour, cheese, butter, cream, chocolate Raspberry, cognac, butter, cheese, strawberry

Continued

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Microorganism

Substrate

Sensorial description

Industrial application

Methyl ketones

Engineered E. coli Engineered E. coli

Glucose

Cheese

Fragrance and fuel

Glucose

Buttery and cream

Food, beverage and fragrance

Food and cosmetic

Acetoin

Reference

Goh et al. (2012) Nielsen et al. (2010)

Lactone

γ-Decalactone

Yarrowia lipolytica

Methyl ricinoleate

Peach and fruity

γ-Dodecalactone

Waltomyces lipofer

10-Hydroxystearic

Peach, fruit

γ-Octalactone

Polyporus durus

Synthetic

Coconut

Cosmetic

6-Pentyl-α-pyrone

Trichoderma harzianum

Potato and dextrose

Coconut

Food

3-secButyl-2-methoxypyrazine

Cedecea davisae

Synthetic

Potato

Food industry to improve flavor

Tetramethylpyrazine

Corynebacterium glutamicum

Amino acids

Musty, fermented, coffee

Beverages and food

Geraniol

Engineered Saccharomyces cerevisae

Glucose

Sweet, rose-like, fruity

Myrcene

Engineered E. coli

Glycerol

Fruity, sweet, wood, herbaceous

Cosmetic, perfume, pharmaceutics and chemical industries Pharmaceutical and cosmetics

Gomes et al. (2012) An et al. (2013) Gatfield (1986) Kalyani et al. (2000)

Pyrazines

Gallois and Grimont (1985) Demain et al. (1967)

Terpenes

Zhao et al. (2017)

Kim et al. (2015)

The role of alternative and innovative food ingredients and products in consumer wellness

Table 1 Examples of microbial-derived aroma compounds produced by de novo synthesis—cont’d

Patchoulol

Limonene

Engineered Physcomitrella patens Engineered E. coli

Synthetic

Wood notes

Fragrance

Zhan et al. (2014)

Glycerol

Citrus

Cosmetics, perfumes, cleaning products

Willrodt et al. (2014)

Glucose, xylose or arabinose

Cinnamon, spicy

Nutraceutical and pharmaceutical

Vargas-Tah et al. (2015)

Phenylpropanoids

Cinnamic acid p-Hydroxycinnamic acid

Engineered E. coli

Production and recovery of bioaromas synthesized by microorganisms

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Bioaroma

Microorganism

Enzyme

Precursor

Perillyl alcohol

Mortierella minutissima

Peroxidase

(+)-Limonene

Carveol Verbenol

Aspergillus niger Pseudomonas putida

– –

(
) Limonene (+) α-Pirene

–

L-Phenylalanine

Vanillin

Trametes suaveolens –

Ferulic acid

Hexanal

–

Coenzymeindependent decarboxylase and coenzymeindependent oxygenase Lipoxygenase and hydroperoxide lyase

Sensorial description

Industrial application

Green, herbal, wood, floral nuances Minty Fresh pine, herbal

Chemical, food, cosmetics and pharmaceutical

Bitter almond aroma Vanilla

Fragrance

Reference

Alcohols

Trytek et al. (2009) Divyashree et al. (2006)

Aldehydes

Benzaldehyde

Food and cosmetics

Lomascolo et al. (2001) Furuya et al. (2017)

Sunflower oil

Grassy, green, fruity

Food and fragrance

Ma´rczy et al. (2002)

Lipase

n-Hexane

Green apple

Food, beverage and pharmaceutical

Lipase

Butyric acid and n-butanol n-Propanol

Pineapple

Grosso et al. (2013) Salihu et al. (2014) Mahapatra et al. (2009)

Esters

Ethyl butyrate Butyl butyrate Propyl acetate

Rhizopus oryzae Candida cylindracea Rhizopus oligosporus

Lipase

Pear

The role of alternative and innovative food ingredients and products in consumer wellness

Table 2 Examples of microbial-derived aroma compounds produced by biotransformation

Acids

Yarrowia lipolytica

–

Limonene

Green sweet, fatty and woody resembling linalool (floral) and terpineol

Pharmaceutical, beverages and food

Ferrara et al. (2013)

Verbenone

Aspergillus niger

–

α-Pinene

Camphor and mint

Food

Nootkatone

Engineered Pichia pastoris Rhodococcus erythropolis

–

(+)-Valencene

Grapefruit

Food and cosmetic

–

(
)-Transcarveol

Spearmint or caraway

Flavor and fragrance

–

(
) α-Pinene

Flower

Esterase

dl-Menthyl acetate

Mentholic mint

Cosmetic and fragrances Food, pharmaceutics, dentist products, cosmetics and beverage

Agrawal and Joseph (2000) Wriessnegger et al. (2014) Morrish and Daugulis (2008) Lee et al. (2015) Zheng et al. (2009)

Perillic acid

Terpenes

α-Terpineol l-Menthol

Polyporus brumalis Bacillus subtilis

Production and recovery of bioaromas synthesized by microorganisms

Carvone

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accounting for over 60% of the market (Akacha and Gargouri, 2015; Felipe et al., 2017). Vanillin is one of the most important aromatic flavor compounds used in the food industry. The vanillin market is estimated at 5000 tons/year for biovanillin, 12,000 tons/year for synthetic vanillin, and 50 tons/year for natural vanilla extracts, with prices around US$ 1000, US$ 15, and US$ 1200–4000 for biovanillin, synthetic, and natural vanillin, respectively (Dionı´sio et al., 2012; Gallage and Møller, 2015). Lactones are the second class of natural aromas most used in the food industry. They are cyclic esters of hydroxycarboxylic acids used in many foods and beverages because of their potency and varied sensory properties. The most important lactone for the flavor industry is γ-decalactone, with a market volume of several hundred tons per year. Natural γ-decalactone production is extremely expensive, due to it being a rare natural flavor, with prices around US$ 6000/kg. However, γ-decalactone production by bioprocess has resulted in the reduction of prices to approximately US$ 300/kg (Dubal et al., 2008).

4. Production of bioflavors by de novo synthesis Aroma compounds can be produced by microorganisms through two well-defined pathways, i.e., de novo synthesis and biotransformation (Akacha and Gargouri, 2015). De novo synthesis means the microbial fermentation of complex substrates (sugars and related substrates) and formation of desirable molecules. Microbial-derived aroma compounds produced by de novo synthesis included terpenes, esters, aldehydes, and alcohols. Terpenes are mainly produced by biotransformation but de novo synthesis can also be used (Beekwilder et al., 2014; Kim et al., 2015; Willrodt et al., 2014; Zhan et al., 2014; Zhao et al., 2017). The filamentous fungus Ceratocystis is the most applied microbial group in the de novo synthesis of terpenes, such as citronellol, geraniol, linalool, nerol, and α-terpineol (Bluemke and Schrader, 2001). Terpene can also be synthesized by yeast, such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Rhodobacter sphaeroides, Kloeckera apiculata, Torulopsis stellata, and Metschnikowia pulcherrima (Hock et al., 1984; Beekwilder et al., 2014). Esters are the main chemical group associated with fruity flavors in the food industry. Different types of esters, such as ethyl acetate, isoamyl acetate, and ethyl hexanoate, are described in the literature as being produced by de novo synthesis. Ethyl acetate can be produced from different microorganisms, including Ceratocystis moniliformis, Ceratocystis fimbriata, Geotrichum fragans, Hanseniaspora guilliermondii, Kluyveromyces marxianus, Pichia anomala, and S. cerevisiae (Bluemke and Schrader, 2001; Damasceno et al., 2003; Dragone et al., 2009; Rojas et al., 2003; Soares et al., 2000; Sumby et al., 2010), while isoamyl acetate is generally produced by C. moniliformis, C. fimbriata, and S. cerevisiae (Bluemke and Schrader, 2001; Kobayashi et al., 2008; Soares et al., 2000). Ethyl hexanoate is used in products such as cheeses, whiskeys, and wines. Yamauchi et al. (1989) obtained about 180 mg/L of ethyl hexanoate using Neurospora sp. from pregelatinized rice impregnated with 5% malt broth. This ester can also be produced by Ceratocystis frimbriata, Pseudomonas fragi, and S. cerevisiae (Christen et al., 1997; Cormier et al., 1991; Sumby et al., 2010).

Production and recovery of bioaromas synthesized by microorganisms

Unsaturated alcohols have an important aroma function, with applications in fine chemistry, foods, and pharmaceutical compounds (Ghomari et al., 2014). The de novo synthesis of octenol (1-octen-3-ol), phenylethyl alcohol (2-phenylethanol), and isoamyl alcohol (3-methyl-1-butanol) is well reported in different studies (de Carvalho et al., 2011; Etschmann et al., 2003; Huang et al., 2001; Yamauchi et al., 1989). Octenol has an herbaceous aroma and is found in lavender oil. This alcohol can be produced by Neurospora sp. and Penicillium camemberti (de Carvalho et al., 2011; Husson et al., 2002; Pastore et al., 1994). Phenylethyl alcohol, an aromatic compounds impacting roses-like aroma, is often used in foods, perfumes, and cosmetics. Phenylethyl alcohol can also be produced via microbial processes by G. fragans, S. cerevisiae, Pichia fermentans, and K. marxianus (Damasceno et al., 2003; de Oliveira et al., 2013). Pyrazine is a class of organic compounds of the heterocyclic series that contribute to food flavor by conferring aroma, typically formed through the Maillard reaction. Tetramethylpyrazine, a typical aroma compound found in cocoa and coffee, can be produced by Bacillus subtilis and Corynebacterium glutamicum (Demain et al., 1967; Kosuge and Kamiya, 1962). Other pyrazines, such as methylpyrazine, 2,5-dimethylpyrazine, trimethylpyrazine, and 3-ethyl-2,5-dimethylpyrazine, were successfully produced by Bacillus cereus (Adams and de Kimpe, 2006). The aromatic aldehydes, benzaldehyde, and vanillin, are important aromatic flavor compounds used in foods, perfumes, and pharmaceuticals. Alternative biotechnology-based approaches for the production of these compounds can be performed by de novo synthesis of engineered strains of Escherichia coli (Kunjapur et al., 2014) and S. cerevisiae (Brochado et al., 2010).

5. Sustainable developments Some agro-industrial wastes produced on a large scale, such as sugarcane bagasse, cassava bagasse, coffee husk, soybean meal, amaranth grain, and citrus pulp, are rich sources of carbohydrates and nutrients for microbial growth (Bramorski et al., 1998; Christen et al., 1997; Rossi et al., 2009; Soares et al., 2000). These residues can serve as inexpensive substrates for microbial synthesis of aroma compounds (Longo and Sanroma´n, 2006). The chemical composition and physical characteristics of the solid substrate are critical to these processes. Solid-state fermentation (SSF) is a promising technique for the production of aromatic compounds compared to submerged fermentation (Viniegra-Gonza´lez et al., 2003). Product yield, downstream efficiency, and enzyme stability are critical factors to the industrial applicability of SSF. However, reducing the cost of raw materials, together with an improvement in the yield of production, can make SSF economically viable in the synthesis of aromas (Bicas et al., 2010). Filamentous fungi are the most promising in the synthesis of aromas in SSF due to their improved growth in solid matrices. Some commercially available methyl ketones, such as 2-undecanone, 2-nonanone, and 2-heptanone, are produced by Aspergillus niger in SSF ( Janssens et al., 1992).

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Rhizopus oryzae and K. marxianus were shown to produce aldehydes, esters, and alcohols from cassava bagasse (Bramorski et al., 1998; Christen et al., 2000; Medeiros et al., 2000). Cassava has the potential to produce aromas not only from solid residues, but also from residual water from the cassava industry. Damasceno et al. (2003) produced alcohols, esters, and acids with G. fragans from this liquid residue. Investigations have also shown that pyrazines, such as 2,5-dimethylpyrazine and tetramethylpyrazine, can be produced using B. subtilis in SSF cultures of soybeans (Besson et al., 1997; Larroche et al., 1999).

6. Production of flavors by biotransformation Biotransformation refers to the use of microbial cells to perform specific and desired alterations in functional molecules (Berger et al., 1999; Akacha and Gargouri, 2015). Microbial-driven product alteration occurs via reactions of reduction, oxidation, and/ or hydrolysis (Berger et al., 1999; Akacha and Gargouri, 2015). These transformations are done by enzymes or cells of bacteria, yeasts, and filamentous fungi.

6.1 Terpenes Terpenes, including R-(+)-limonene, and α- and β-pinene, are natural compounds formed from isoprene subunits (CH2 ¼C(CH3)-CH ¼CH) for the most part from plants (Breitmaier, 2006). Monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes are widely used in the food and cosmetics industries. These are the main constituents of essential oils of citrus and conifers, which are cheap raw materials in biotransformation processes (Akacha and Gargouri, 2015). Many microbial strains, including fungi belonging to basidiomycetes and ascomycetes, are able to convert limonene into oxygenated products (Longo and Sanroma´n, 2006). Compounds such as terpineol, perylic alcohol, carvone, carveol, and menthol can be obtained from the biotransformation of terpenes (Bicas et al., 2010; Maro´stica Jr and Pastore, 2007a). R-(+)-α-terpineol has an odor typical of lilac (Syringa L). This terpenoid is generally a stable alcohol produced by acid-catalyzed chemical synthesis from α-pinene, turpentine oil, and limonene (Maro´stica Jr and Pastore, 2007b). It is an important commercial product, normally applied in soaps, cosmetics, and flavors preparations (Bauer et al., 2001). The biotransformation of limonene to α-terpineol has been reported as largely being by fungi, such as Cladosporium sp., Penicillium digitatum, and Fusarium oxysporum (Molina et al., 2015). For the bacteria group, this conversion pathway has been reported in Pseudomonas gladiolus and recombinant strains of E. coli and Pseudomonas fluorescens (Rottava et al., 2011). Bier et al. (2011) selected 10 different strains of filamentous fungi and yeasts by their capacity of using terpenes as the sole carbon source. In the medium, containing limonene as sole carbon source, the best results of biotransformation were obtained by R. oryzae and Pichia stipitis. Lee et al. (2015) also reported that the fungus Polyporus brumalis is able to biotransform terpineol from α-pinene.

Production and recovery of bioaromas synthesized by microorganisms

Carvone is a terpenoid responsible for the typical odor of spearmint (Carvalho and Fonseca, 2003; Trytek and Fiedurek, 2002). Carvone is applied as fragrance and flavor in the food industry. In addition, this terpene has antifungal and antibacterial properties (Carvalho and Fonseca, 2006). Diaporthe sp. is an endophytic fungi able to produce carvone, limonene, 1,2-diol, and other oxygenated terpenes using a mineral medium with 1% limonene (Bier et al., 2017). Limonene-1,2-diol or limonene glycol is a colorless to slightly yellowish oil with a fresh mint aroma. Its use is related to aroma and flavor of mint (Burdock, 2010). The microbial production of limonene-1,2-diol has been reported by some authors, usually as a minor product of limonene biotransformation by P. digitatum (Adams et al., 2003). However, some authors have obtained limonene-1,2-diol as the major product of fungi fermentation such as Colletotrichum nymphaeae (Molina et al., 2015, Bier et al., 2017; Sales et al., 2018a).

6.2 Vanillin The most important flavor and fragrances belonging to the class of phenolic aldehydes are anisaldehyde, and some protocatechuic aldehyde derivatives (3,4dihydroxybenzaldehyde), such as vanillin, veratraldehyde, and heliotropin (Braga et al., 2018). In general, vanillin is one of the most popular flavors in the world, and is the main component of vanilla extract. The direct extraction of vanillin from vanilla beans is expensive and limited by the supply of plants, which makes this compound a promising objective for biotechnological production. Vanillin is an intermediate in the microbial degradation of various substrates, such as ferulic acid, phenolic stilbenes, lignin, eugenol, and isoeugenol (Longo and Sanroma´n, 2006). Rhovanil® Natural, produced by Solvay, was the first biotechnology-derived vanillin product. It is obtained by bacterial bioconversion of ferulic acid. Several studies are currently dedicated to increasing the productivity of vanillin derived from biotechnological sources, in order to make it feasible for industrial applications (Yan et al., 2016; Taira et al., 2018). Several wild, mutant, or genetically transformed microorganisms, such as Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Pseudomonas resinovorans, Amycolatopsis sp., and P. fluorescens, have been improved to obtain vanillin and derivatives (Ashengroph et al., 2011; Karode et al., 2013; Overhage et al., 2006; Gioia et al., 2011).

6.3 Alcohols Alcohols are produced by the metabolism of microorganisms as a result of amino acid catabolism. These compounds, such as 2-butanol, 1,2-butanediol, and 2-phenylethanol, have unique organoleptic properties and are important flavor compounds for the food industry (Braga et al., 2018). Phenethyl alcohol is a volatile substance with a rose-like odor, widely used in foods, fragrances, and cosmetics. Currently, most of this compound originates from

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chemical synthesis (Chreptowicz et al., 2016). Some companies have already used yeast fermentation for the production of phenethyl alcohol; however, the biotechnological process is not economically viable and there are many alternative bioconversion yet to be studied (Etschmann et al., 2002, Chreptowicz et al., 2016; Cui et al., 2011).

6.4 Lactones Many of the compounds known as lactones are responsible for the characteristic taste of various types of food products, being present in more than 120 foods. The most common include coumarin, with the smell of fresh hay, and lactone jasmine, with a sweet and floral aroma. The most important lactone used in the food industry is the γ-decalactone (Gawdzik et al., 2015). Many synthetic γ-lactones have been used as artificial flavorings. However, such lactones can also be produced by yeasts. An et al. (2013) obtained γ-dodecalactone when 10-hydroxystearic acid was used as a substrate by Waltomyces lipofer. Yarrowia lypolytica are recognized to biotransform different substrates, such as castor oil, into γ-decalactone. The γ-decalactone, a lactone with peach flavor, can be obtained industrially from the biotransformation of enzyme-catalyzed ricinoleic acid present in microorganisms with GRAS status, thus conferring a natural label for the compound (Braga and Belo, 2016).

7. Bioaroma recovery Downstream processing is used for the recovery and purification of aromatic molecules from fermentation broth. Because these methods are expensive, representing up to 70% of the price of the final product, improvements can lead to a competitive advantage for companies (Xiu and Zeng, 2008). Removal of microbial biomass is the first step and it can be achieved through different processes, such as centrifugation, microfiltration, or cell precipitation by chemical agents (Xiu and Zeng, 2008). This enables the target aromatic molecule to be captured by distillation, solvent extraction, organophilic pervaporation, or adsorption. Recovery by distillation is appropriate for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) with high vapor pressure, such as esters, aldehydes, and superior alcohols. In this process, the fermented medium is subjected to elevated temperatures and posterior cooling of the vapor to obtain a concentrated solution of the desired compound (Saravacos and Kostaropoulos, 2016). Thermally sensitive molecules, including esters, terpenes, hydrocarbons, and lactones, can be recovered by liquid-liquid extraction, also known as solvent extraction. This process is based on the relative solubility of aromatic molecules in two different immiscible liquids: usually water (polar) and an organic solvent (nonpolar). The major solvents that can be used for recovery of aromatic molecules include butyl-acetate, ethyl acetate, pentane, n-hexane, and heptane (Bocquet et al., 2006; Mihal et al., 2011, 2012; Sciubba et al., 2009). Liquid-liquid extraction is rarely used in industrial processes due to the large

Production and recovery of bioaromas synthesized by microorganisms

interfacial exchange area required to mass transfer and the risk of extracting lipid components along with the aroma compounds (Bocquet et al., 2006; Reineccius, 2010). An alternative to solve these major drawbacks is the use of membrane-based solvent extraction (MBSE), allowing greater compaction and transfer area through the use of hollow fiber membrane contactors (Bocquet et al., 2006; San Roma´n et al., 2010). MSBE is used in the recovery of effluents rich in aromatic compounds, allowing the removal of unpleasant odors prior to their disposal, and the generation of high added-value products of great interest in the food industry (Pierre et al., 2002; Souchon et al., 2002). Organophilic pervaporation (O-PV) has received attention as a technology suitable for the recovery of aroma compounds, due to the possibility of use on an industrial scale and employment of nondestructible and nonthermal techniques (Akacha and Gargouri, 2015). This process uses dense, nonporous membranes for the separation of aromatic molecules from liquid mixtures, applying a vacuum as a driving force for the selective permeation of aroma compounds through the membrane (Akacha and Gargouri, 2015). The O-PV can be employed in aroma recovery during the dealcoholization of wines and beers (Catarino and Mendes, 2011), and VOCs separation of fermented media (Bluemke and Schrader, 2001; Brazinha et al., 2011; Etschmann et al., 2005; Sch€afer et al., 1999). In studies conducted by Brazinha et al. (2011) and Etschmann et al. (2005), the effects of operating conditions, such as temperature, vacuum pressure, and flux (feed and permeate), were evaluated for the recovery of vanillin and 2-phenylethylacetate by O-PV. The authors demonstrated that high pressures result in a lower permeate flux and interference on membrane permeabilization, promoting the product accumulation on the surface. Recovery by adsorption uses the Van der Waals forces’ principle to promote the binding of the aroma compound (i.e., adsorbate) to a solid matrix (i.e., adsorbent), allowing a rapid and reversible operation (Wylock et al., 2015). Adsorption presents the highest selectivity technology for aroma compounds recovery, displaying different modes of separation according to binder affinity, ion exchange, polarity, and particle size (Guiochon et al., 2006; Wylock et al., 2015). Among the applications of adsorbents in the food industry, it is possible to highlight the recovery of volatile aroma compounds from continuous fermentations and processed beverages. Diban et al. (2008) used a fixed-bed of granular activated carbon in combination with thermal desorption and ethanol for the recovery and concentration of 2,4-decadienoate, a known aroma compound impacting pear. The cytotoxic effect of aroma compounds over producing cells is the limiting factor during biotransformation processes. Studies conducted by Hua et al. (2010) and Mei et al. (2009) demonstrated that the use of nonpolar adsorptive resins for the in situ removal of 2-phenylethanol was able to reduce such inhibitory effects during the fermentation process, allowing a superior yield and productivity. Aqueous two-phase system (ATPS) is a recent aroma recovery technology that generates a partition gradient, allowing the separation of the desired compound in one phase

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and the unwanted components (cells, proteins and contaminants) in the opposite (Ratanapongleka, 2010). This gradient is formed by combining aqueous phases of two incompatible polymers (i.e., EPG and dextran) or a polymer and a salt in critical concentration (i.e., EPG and phosphate potassium). ATPS is suggested for the recovery of aroma compounds in low concentration from fermentation broth (Gao and Daugulis, 2009; Rito-Palomares et al., 2000; Sun et al., 2009). A study conducted by Sun et al. (2009) demonstrated that the use of ATPS promotes a high recovery (93%) of 2,3-butanediol using 2-propanol/ammonium sulfate as extractant. In addition, the recovered cells did not suffer damage, allowing their reuse as inoculum in subsequent fermentations. This technology has been widely employed in the recovery of aroma compounds due to elimination of the use of solvents, biocompatibility, ease of scale-up, and reproducibility (Ratanapongleka, 2010).

8. Formulation and product development Aroma plays an important role in consumer satisfaction with foods. According to Lubbers et al. (1998) different stages of food processing, such as storage and packing, can promote aroma modification. Aroma stability can be achieved by encapsulation, a technique by which one material or a mixture of materials is coated with, or entrapped within, another material or system (Nedovic et al., 2011). This can be achieved by coating (or entrapping) the VOCs into different polysaccharides, including cellulose, cyclodextrin, and starches (Madene et al., 2006; Pothakamury and Barbosa-Canovas, 1995). The encapsulation process can be divided into three categories according to the particle size generated: (i) macro-coated powders (0.1 mm); (ii) microcapsules (0.1–100 μm); and (iii) nanocapsules (