The Return of YHWH: The Tension between Deliverance and Repentance in Isaiah 40–55 3110190346, 9783110190342

Table of contents :
Frontmatter
Contents
Abbreviations
1. Introduction
2. The History of Research
3. Sin, Repentance and Transformation
4. The Idol-Worshippers
5. Jeremiah and Ezekiel
6. Deliverance and Repentance
Backmatter

Citation preview

Blazˇenka Scheuer The Return of YHWH

Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft Herausgegeben von John Barton · Reinhard G. Kratz Choon-Leong Seow · Markus Witte

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≥ Walter de Gruyter · Berlin · New York

Blazˇenka Scheuer

The Return of YHWH The Tension between Deliverance and Repentance in Isaiah 40-55

≥ Walter de Gruyter · Berlin · New York

앝 Printed on acid-free paper which falls within the guidelines of the ANSI 앪 to ensure permanence and durability.

ISBN 978-3-11-019034-2 ISSN 0934-2575 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Scheuer, Blazˇenka. The return of YHWH : the tension between deliverance and repentance in Isaiah 40-55 / Blazˇenka Scheuer. p. cm. - (Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, ISSN 0934-2575 ; Bd. 377) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-3-11-019034-2 (cloth : alk. paper) 1. Bible. O. T. Isaiah XL-LV - Criticism, interpretation, etc. I. Title. BS1520.S35 2008 2241.106-dc22 2008038568

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de. 쑔 Copyright 2008 by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, D-10785 Berlin All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in Germany Cover design: Christopher Schneider, Laufen

‫כּי ַעיִן ְבּעיִן יִרְאוּ‬

For in plain sight they see

‫ְבּשׁוּב יהוה צִיּוֹן‬

the return of YHWH to Zion. Isa 52:8

Foreword Isaiah 40–55 represents one of the peaks of the Hebrew Bible. In the theology of this part of the Book of Isaiah, there is an aspect that modern research has so far not come to grips with: the tension between the consolatory message of salvation and the harsh tone of accusation. How should we account for the fact that Isa 40–55, known as the Prophet of Consolation, juxtaposes his declarations of deliverance and his exhortations to repentance? Why is repentance required, if the deliverance has already been carried out? Studying these issues in Isaiah 40–55 has shed some light on the interdependence between the actions of God and the actions of human beings in general. My interest in these questions resulted in a doctoral dissertation which I submitted to Lund University, Centre for Theology and Religious Studies, in 2005. This monograph is a slightly revised version of that dissertation. Its appearance in the series “Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft” is a great honour and I would like to thank Prof. Dr. Reinhard Kratz for showing interest in the project and recommending it for publication with Walter de Gruyter. I would also like to express my gratitude to my advisors, Professor Fredrik Lindström and Professor Emeritus Tryggve Mettinger. I owe a debt of gratitude to them both for their unfailing encouragement and support, as well as for their scholarly precision and guidance leading towards the completion of my project. My sincere thanks also goes to the members of the OTSEM network (a network of Old Testament scholars from the Universities in Denmark, Finland, Germany, Norway and Sweden). I have greatly benefited from their creative criticism, the stimulating discussions and the valuable suggestions offered at the various OTSEM seminars. The support of family and friends has been invaluable. First and foremost, I wish to express my deepest gratitude and affection to my companion in life, Fredrik Scheuer, whose intelligence, humour and endless love have been instrumental in writing of this book. Also, my deepest gratitude and love go to our three children Rebecka, Adrian and Marcus for enriching my life beyond imagination and for placing my academic work in a proper perspective.

VIII

Foreword

I am also grateful to my father, Milan Vorkapic´, for his lively intellect and for passing on to me an interest in history and a curiosity in finding out how things became what they are. Finally, my warmest gratitude goes to my heroine of a mother, Ljubica Vorkapic´, who from my early age taught me the depths and the beauty of the biblical texts. In these she found true joy throughout her life up to that late summer day when she passed away in September, 2006. This remarkable woman has been my parent, my friend and my ally. I dedicate this book to her. Lund, early in the summer of 2008,

Blaženka Scheuer

Contents Foreword .................................................................................................... VII Contents ..................................................................................................... IX Abbreviations ......................................................................................... XIII 1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

1

The Subject of This Investigation .............................................. 1 The Historical Context ............................................................... 3 Redaction ..................................................................................... 6 Procedure ..................................................................................... 13 Definition of Concepts ............................................................... 14

2 The History of Research ..................................................................... 17 2.1 The Call to Repentance .............................................................. 2.2 Sin and Repentance in Isaiah 40–50 ......................................... 2.2.1 Studies that Refer to the “Sins of the Past” ............... 2.2.2 Studies that Refer to the “Sins of the Present” .......... 2.2.3 Summary ........................................................................

17 23 23 28 31

3 Sin, Repentance and Transformation ............................................... 32 3.1 Accusations against the Israelites ............................................. 3.1.1 Isaiah 43:22–28 ............................................................... 3.1.2 Isaiah 46:8–13 ................................................................. 3.1.2.1 Isaiah 46:8–11 ................................................................. 3.1.2.2 Isaiah 46:12–13 ............................................................... 3.1.3 Isaiah 48:1–11 ................................................................. 3.1.4 Isaiah 50:1–3 ................................................................... 3.1.5 Summary ........................................................................ 3.2 The Calls to Repentance ............................................................. 3.2.1 Isaiah 44:21–22 ............................................................... 3.2.2 Isaiah 55:6–7 ...................................................................

34 34 40 41 45 48 55 57 59 59 65

X

Contents

3.2.2.1 Repentance in Isaiah 55 ................................................ 3.2.2.2 Repentance and Deliverance in Isaiah 55 .................. 3.2.3 Summary ........................................................................ 3.3 The Function of Transformation ............................................... 3.4 Conclusions .................................................................................

69 72 74 76 78

4 The Idol-Worshippers ......................................................................... 82 4.1 Idol-Fabrication Texts ................................................................ 4.1.1 Isaiah 40:19–20 ............................................................... 4.1.2 Isaiah 41:6–7 ................................................................... 4.1.3 Isaiah 44:9–20 ................................................................. 4.1.4 Isaiah 46:6–7 ................................................................... 4.1.5 Conclusions ................................................................... 4.2 The Charges Against the Nations ............................................. 4.3 The Idol-Worshippers: The Nations or the Israelites? ...........

82 84 86 87 94 95 97 101

5 Jeremiah and Ezekiel .......................................................................... 105 5.1 Jeremiah ....................................................................................... 5.1.1 The Calls to Repentance ............................................... 5.1.1.1 Jeremiah 3 ...................................................................... 5.1.2 The Transformation Texts ........................................... 5.1.3 Conclusions ................................................................... 5.2 Ezekiel .......................................................................................... 5.2.1 The Calls to Repentance ............................................... 5.2.2 The Transformation Texts ........................................... 5.2.3 Conclusions ................................................................... 5.3 Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Deutero-Isaiah ......................................

106 106 107 112 116 116 117 118 120 121

6 Deliverance and Repentance ............................................................. 124 6.1 The Concept of Sin ...................................................................... 6.1.1 The Explicit Formulations ........................................... 6.1.2 The Implicit Statements ............................................... 6.2 The Concept of Repentance ....................................................... 6.3 The Concept of Deliverance ...................................................... 6.4 The Relationship between Deliverance and Repentance ...... 6.5 The Return of YHWH ................................................................. 6.6 The Tension as a Theological Challenge ..................................

125 126 128 131 133 136 142 145

Contents

XI

Bibliography .............................................................................................. 149 Biblical References .................................................................................... 165 Hebrew Bible ....................................................................................... 165 Rabbinic Literature .............................................................................. 175

Abbreviations Abbreviations AB AOAT ATANT

Anchor Bible Alter Orient und Altes Testament Abhandlungen zur Theologie des Alten und Neuen Testaments ATD Das Alte Testament Deutsch BBB Bonner biblische Beiträge BBB Bulletin de bibliographie biblique BBET Beiträge zur biblischen Exegese und Theologie BDB Brown, F., S. R. Driver, and C. A. Briggs, The Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon: With an Appendix Containing the Biblical Aramaic. Peabody: Hendrickson, 1997. BETL Bibliotheca ephemeridum theologicarum lovaniensium BEvT Beiträge zur evangelischen Theologie BHS Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia BHSapp Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia, Apparatus BKAT Biblischer Kommentar, Altes Testament, Edited by M. Noth BibOr Biblica et orientalia BO Bibliotheca orientalis BWANT Beiträge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten (und Neuen) Testament BZAW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly ConBOT Coniectanea biblica: Old Testament Series CurBS Currents in Research: Biblical Studies FAT Forschungen zum Alten Testament FRLANT Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments FS Festschrift GKC Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar. Edited by E. Kautzsch. Translated by A. E. Cowley. 2d. ed. Oxford, 1910. HBT Horizons in Biblical Theology

XIV ICC Int ITC JBL JSOT JSOTSup

Abbreviations

International Critical Commentary Interpretation International Theological Commentary Journal of Biblical Literature Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Journal for the Study of the Old Testament: Supplement Series JTS Journal of Theological Studies KD Kerygma und Dogma LXX Septuagint MT Masoretic Text (of the OT) NCB New Century Bible NICOT New International Commentary on the Old Testament NRSV New Revised Standard Version OBO Orbis biblicus et orientalis OBT Overtures to Biblical Theology OTL Old Testament Library SBL Society of Biblical Literature SBLMS Society of Biblical Litearature Monograph Series SBLSCS Society of Biblical Literature Septuagint and Cognate Studies SEÅ Svensk exegetisk årsbok SJOT Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament SSN Studia semitica neerlandica STK Svensk teologisk kvartalskrift StudOr Studia orientalia SubBi Subsidia biblica TDOT Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament ThWAT Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Alten Testament TLOT Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament TLZ Theologische Literaturzeitung TZ Theologische Zeitschrift UF Ugarit-Forschungen WMANT Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament VT Vetus Testamentum VTSup Vetus Testamentum Supplements

Abbreviations

Vulg. ZAW ZBK

Vulgate Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft Zürcher Bibelkommentare

XV

1

Introduction

The text presented in Isa 40–55 is a story of survival, not only of a conquered people, but also of a seemingly conquered god. In interaction with the change on the political scene, and parallel to the rise of the Persian empire, YHWH returns to his people, to the Israelites. Isaiah 40– 55 (Deutero-Isa) deals with this fact by presenting radical innovations combined with old traditions, reshaped and readapted according to the demands of the situation. History is portrayed as being under the control of YHWH, whose main concern is to bring the exiled Israelites back to their land, thus demonstrating his power before the world. In the numerous studies devoted to this part of the book of Isaiah, scholarly effort has been centred around the understanding of the notions of YHWH. The response of the people and the part they should play in the process has not been studied to the same extent. This study is intended to fill that gap and to contribute to a better understanding of the interaction between the Israelites and their God, YHWH.

1.1

The Subject of This Investigation

Deutero-Isaiah is frequently called a Prophet of Consolation in accordance with the initial words of the message (Isa 40:1).1 Prima facie, the following sixteen chapters deal mostly with the restoration of the land and the people of YHWH. The prophet enforces the fact that YHWH has both the intention and the ability to save: he urges (Isa 44:21–22), he explains (Isa 42:21–25), and he persuades (Isa 44:24–28). In the context of the good tidings of YHWH’s return, there are some passages which stand out by harshness of their tone, by their resemblance to the preaching of the prophets of doom or by their urge to repent.2 Why would a prophet, sent to comfort YHWH’s people and to “speak tenderly to Jerusalem that her servitude has ended,” speak of the sins of the people in the past (Isa 42:24; 43:22–24, 27), and of their inherent inclination to rebellion in the present (Isa 46:8; 48:8)? Why would a _____________ 1 That the consolation stands at the centre of the message of Isa 40–55 is suggested already by the Babylonian Talmud, tractate Berakhot 57b. 2 Isa 43:22–28; 44:21–22; 46:8–13; 48:1–11 and 55:6–7.

2

Introduction

prophet, who portrays YHWH’s present works as independent of the actions of his people, exhort them to repentance (Isa 44:21–22; 55:6–7)? If the current salvation is prompted by YHWH’s concern with his own reputation (Isa 48:9–11), what kind of response could possibly be expected from the audience? When the prophet declares that the exile – a punishment for or even consequence of former sins – has now come to an end, he demonstrates YHWH’s intention to deliver the Israelites. When he refers to the sovereignty of YHWH over the Babylonian gods, of his control of history and of creation, the prophet demonstrates YHWH’s ability to deliver the Israelites. But what did the prophet try to demonstrate by referring to the continuous rebellion of his people, and to their need to repent? It seems that the proclamations of salvation have brought to light a difficulty with the attitudes and the character of the people. On several occasions salvation is promised to those who hope in YHWH (Isa 40:31; 49:23 and possibly 51:5), yet what about those who have lost their heart, those who have no hope left, those who have been driven to indifference? Apparently, the consolatory message of salvation stands in tension with the harsh tone of accusation and the calls to return to YHWH. How are we to deal with the tension between the declarations of YHWH’s deliverance and the exhortations to the people to repent? The first issue to be dealt with in the present study is the question of the idea of the sin of the exiles and its function in the overall message of the corpus. The hypothesis of this study is that the references to sin and guilt play a significant role in the general message of consolation in Isa 40–55. If the exiles were not guilty in the present as well, YHWH’s saving act would be an appropriate reaction to the good conduct of his people. Yet, it is YHWH’s infinite good will that is pointed out in the corpus (Isa 43:25; 48:9–11). Thus the greatness of YHWH’s act of salvation stands out as even more immense against the background of the faithlessness and the guilt of the Israelites, in the past, as well as in the present (Isa 48:1–11). A second issue to be explored connects directly with the first and concerns the nature of the people’s response. The basic thought expressed in the Mosaic covenant is that punishment or a promise of a good life is dependent on the answer that Israel gives to YHWH, a thought elaborated by the Dtn/Dtr (Deut 11:26–27; 28; 30:15–20). This thought is absent from Deutero-Isa, where the circle of sin-punishmentrepentance-deliverance, changes to sin-punishment-deliverance-repentance.3 If it is the people’s inclination to rebellion that is addressed, _____________ 3 The circle is explicit in the book of Judges, see McCarthy, “Wrath of Yahweh,” 100 and 106. Cf. also von Rad, Theology 1, 347.

Introduction

3

what would the aim be? What is it that the people is expected to understand and to do? How should we understand those texts in Deutero-Isa that juxtapose the declarations of deliverance and the exhortations to repentance (Isa 44:21–22; 55:6–7)? Is the Prophet of Consolation also a Prophet of Repentance? Prima facie, the main issues in Isa 40–55 are deliverance from the exile, the return of YHWH to his people and the return of the exiles to their land,4 but what part does repentance play in this process? Since theological issues always arise in specific historical situations, a brief account of the course of events of the sixth century BCE is appropriate.

1.2

The Historical Context

Biblical accounts of the history of the time of the Babylonian exile are scanty and the reader is directed to the Babylonian chronicles, as well as to the archaeological findings in order to obtain a clearer understanding of this period in the history of the Israelites. For the purposes of the present study it shall be sufficient to give a survey of the decisive events in the sixth century BCE.5 Geographically placed between Egypt and Babylonia, the small kingdom of Judah was affected by the political and military struggle between these two empires. As a result of Jehoiakim’s revolt against Nebuchadnezzar, Judah had been attacked and conquered by the Babylonian army with a consequent deportation of part of the Judean population to Babylon in 597 BCE.6 The tendency to revolt against Babylonian dominion in subsequent years led to the final destruction of Jerusalem in 587 BCE and to a second major deportation of another part of the population (Jer 52:29).7 It is complicated to give an estimate of the number of exiled Judeans in this period, but the assumption of approximately 20,000 people in toto, or about one fourth of the population of

_____________ 4 Thus Isa 43:5–6; 45:13; 48:20–21; 49:12; 52:11–12, and possibly 40:9–10 and 55:12–13. 5 For surveys of the history of this period see especially Ackroyd, Israel under Babylon, 1–34, Miller and Hayes, History, 416–75, Albertz, Israel in Exile, 45–138. 6 Thus, 2 Kgs 24:1, 7, 12 and Jer 52:28. A reference to this deportation can also be found in the Babylonian Chronicles, see Albertz, Israel in Exile, 76–78. 7 For the scholarly discussion of the dates of the deportations see Albertz, Israel in Exile, 76–81. Albertz refers also to a third deportation, connected to the murder of Gedaliah in the year of 582, when, according to Jer 52:30, an additional number of 745 Judeans were deported.

4

Introduction

Judah, seems probable.8 Considering the fact that the number of those who perished during the war, or fled to Egypt, was presumably similar, it is easy to see why the events of this period represent a major trauma in the history of the Israelites. It is hard to assess the quality of life and culture in Judah in the exilic period. Some scholars argue, mostly on the basis of archaeological evidence, that the social decline in this period was severe,9 while others contend that life in Judah was not much affected by the deportations.10 Albertz is probably right when he argues for a middle position and asserts that the ravaged Judah must have recovered and stabilised, if only to a certain extent. However, in view of the harsh dominion of the Babylonians in combination with the greedy and aggressive neighbours, Judean life after 582 BCE could hardly have continued “pretty much in the same way that it did before the arrival of Nebuchadnezzar’s armies.”11 The situation for the exiles in Babylon was different.12 They settled in their cities (Ezek 3:15), and it seems that they were led by a group of elders (Jer 29:1; Ezek 8:1, 14:1; 20:1). The exiles were not slaves, but minor officials, craftsmen, and tenants. 13 Thus, Albertz asserts, the major problems for the Babylonian exiles were not economical or social, but rather “political, psychological, and religious.” 14 If there was hope for a speedy return among the first deportees, it would have been shattered by the destruction of Jerusalem, and they would have been instructed to accept their fate (Jer 29:4–7). Consequently, a number of the exiles found a solution to _____________ 8 For the survey of the scholarly discussion of the number of deportees, see Albertz, Israel in Exile, 81–90. 9 Thus Jamieson-Drake: “The neo-Babylonian reduction of Jerusalem catalysed a phase shift from a state system to a much lower-level system,” Jamieson-Drake, Scribes and Schools, 146. See also Lipschits who estimates the decrease in the size of the settled area in and around Jerusalem between the seventh and the fifth century BCE to 89%, Lipschits, “Demographic Changes,” 356. 10 Thus Barstad, “After the ‘Myth’,” cf. also Barstad, Myth, 26–82. Barstad’s position has been criticised by Oded, who argues that life in Judah during the neoBabylonian time continued, “but with a marked decline in quality and very limited in quantity,” Oded, “Where Is,” 71. 11 Barstad, “After the ‘Myth’,” 14, see also Barstad, Myth, 42. Against Barstad’s position, see Smith-Christopher, Biblical Theology, 45–49. Cf. also Albertz, Israel in Exile, 96. 12 See 2 Kgs 18:31–32 for the circumstances of the Assyrian exiles, and Jer 29:5–7. Cf. Miller and Hayes, History, 432–5, and Albertz, Israel in Exile, 98–111. 13 Cf. Zadok, Jews in Babylonia, 86–89. See also Albertz, Israel in Exile, 100–102, and Miller and Hayes, History, 433. For a different view see Smith-Christopher, Biblical Theology, 65–73. 14 Albertz, Israel in Exile, 102.

Introduction

5

these problems by assimilation to the Babylonian environment.15 Others chose the opposite, striving to preserve and to strengthen their ethnic and religious identity further. The weakness of the Babylonian empire, caused by the political instability following the end of Nebuchadnezzar’s rule, and by the fact that Nabonidus (561–539) put great efforts into centralising the cult around the moon god Sin rather than Marduk, played well into the hands of the Persian ruler Cyrus. In 539 BCE Cyrus, welcomed by the powerful priesthood of Marduk, entered Babylon and took control over the Babylonian empire. Such a dramatic change of the ruling power revived the hopes among the Judean exiles for a national restoration and for the return to their own land. The Persian policy of tolerance toward the exiled peoples strengthened the hopes of return further.16 However, due to the poor economic and social conditions in Judah, in combination with quite good living conditions in Babylon, the return of the exiled Judeans, initiated at this time, was limited.17 Thus, Clifford points out: “The intellectual vitality of the literary circles who edited and wrote the literature should not mislead us into thinking that the exiles as a group were confident and shared national goals.”18 A great number of exiles chose to stay in Babylon. In subsequent years, and especially during the turmoil in the first years of Darius’ I reign (522–486 BCE), the exiles continued to return, although in small numbers. It is problematic to reconstruct the exact course of events in the second half of the sixth century BCE, and to know when the reconstruction of the Jerusalem temple was initiated. Even so we do know that in the year of 515 BCE, the new temple was

_____________ 15 Albertz, Israel in Exile, 105, and Miller and Hayes, History, 434 who conclude: “Undoubtedly many Judeans, like most of the Israelites exiled by the Assyrians, assimilated the culture so thoroughly as to lose their Jewish identity.” 16 The so called Cyrus Cylinder presents the attitudes of the Persians towards the religions of the exiled peoples in Babylon, see Miller and Hayes, History, 440–5. It did of course serve the interest of the new empire to let some of the Judean exiles return and rebuild the temple in Jerusalem, see Miller and Hayes, History, 445. During his first year, Cyrus allowed the cultic vessels of the Jerusalem temple to be returned to Jerusalem (Ezra 1:7–8; 5:14), cf. Albertz, Israel in Exile, 123. 17 Albertz asserts that not many exiles were ready to leave the fairly secure conditions in Babylon and to return to the insecurity of life in Judah: “Conflicting economic interests and differing political and religious convictions meant that the returnees could not count on being welcomed with open arms and taken in by those who had been left behind,” Albertz, Israel in Exile, 127. In addition, it is important to understand that Cyrus did not allow a complete return of all of the exiled Judeans, but merely a return of those who were to rebuild the temple in Jerusalem. 18 Clifford, Fair Spoken, 13.

6

Introduction

dedicated.19 However, the second temple could not compare with the splendour of the first, and Judah did not recover its national sovereignty, but remained subject to the rule of the Persians and subsequently to other major empires.20 The most compelling issue raised at this time was that of the religious and national identity of the Israelites. The loss of their state and their monarchy required a reconstruction of the core of Israelite religion. The theology of kingship and the worship centred on the temple were replaced by the theology of the prophets and the emphasis on personal piety.21 The emergence of various theological streams resulted in a number of innovations, which all strove to offer a theological explanation of the national catastrophe, and in order to survive, both as an ethnic and as a religious entity, the Israelites needed to define themselves in a new way. Thus, Albertz contends: For the exiles but also to a lesser extent for those left behind, membership in the Judean community was no longer simply a given; it had to be demonstrated repeatedly by individual decisions. Now confession of religious faith took on critical importance in an entirely new way.22

In this process, faith in YHWH alone was decisive, and any tendency towards syncretism would endanger the ongoing existence of both YHWH and his people. It is crucial to bear this struggle for redefinition of identity in mind when discussing the ideas of deliverance, sin and repentance found in Isa 40–55. The outline of the course of events in the sixth century BCE sketched above, has had an impact on the scholarly understanding of the literary development of Isa 40–55.

1.3

Redaction

Since the present study reflects a time in history which gave rise to the theology conveyed in the chapters of Isa 40–55, the question of literary _____________ 19 Again, supporting the rebuilding of the temple was in the line with the political interests of the Persian rule, and the Judean population paid a price for such support, in terms of heavy taxes and loyalty to the Persian king, see Albertz, Israel in Exile, 132. For the history and archaeology of Judah in the Persian period, see Bickerman, “Babylonian Captivity,” 70–114. 20 Blenkinsopp describes the province of Judah as a “temple-community not unlike others in the Persian empire,” Blenkinsopp, History, 227. For the situation in Judah under the Persian era see Gottwald, Politics, 100–106, and Albertz and Becking, Yahwism, passim. 21 See Albertz, History Vol. 2, 369–436, and Albertz, Israel in Exile, 133–8. 22 Albertz, Israel in Exile, 137.

Introduction

7

development of the corpus cannot be neglected. At the same time, the main object of this study is however to discuss the particular theological ideas of Isa 40–55, and not the history of its development. The review of the theories of the redactional process will therefore not be discussed at any length. The development of the redaction-critical theory concerning Isa 40– 55 is influenced by considerations of the identity and the geographical home of the author(s), as well as by the composition of Isa 40–55. The biblical texts reveal almost nothing about the identity of the person(s) sent to comfort YHWH’s people: there is no account of a prophetic call, and there are no references to any personal experience of the presumed prophet.23 A number of scholars agree that the commission to proclaim the message of salvation and to return from the exile was directed to an individual, to a prophet who might have been a leader or a member of a prophetic group, which perceived itself as the descendants of the disciples of the Isaiah of Jerusalem.24 It is with this understanding in mind that the present study refers to Deutero-Isa as the prophet(s) behind Isa 40–55. The prophet and/or the prophetic group who initiated the mission in the last years of the Babylonian empire continued their work during the subsequent decades of the sixth century BCE.25 Closely connected to the question of identity is the question of geographical location of Deutero-Isaiah’s activity. For a long time, there has been a general tendency among biblical scholars to assume a Babylonian home for the prophet.26 In recent years, however, this position has been questioned, particularly by Hans Barstad who opts for a Judean setting. Offering a critical assessment of the arguments for either position, Barstad concludes that “what we can and should do, is to attempt to clarify more precisely which is the more likely geographical _____________ 23 Apart from attempts to recover a reference to an individual in the wording of Isa 40:6 (“And he said: what shall I cry?”) and Isa 50:4–9 (“YHWH gave me a tongue … ”), or from the reference to a ‫ משׁלם‬in Isa 42:19, there is nothing to help us clarify the issue, cf. Albertz, Israel in Exile, 380, and North, Suffering Servant, 89–90 and 192–4. 24 Thus Westermann suggests that, due to the affinities of Isa 40–55 with the Psalms, the prophet might have been a descendent of temple singers, Westermann, Isaiah 40– 66, 8. See also Blenkinsopp, History, 211, Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 12–13, and Albertz, Israel in Exile, 380–81. Albertz contends that “‘Deutero-Isaiah’ is thus an appropriate designation for a book containing prophecies of salvation and a group of prophets responsible for it,” leaving it to the redaction criticism to decide which parts of the corpus are to be counted under that designation, ibid. 381. Cf. also Albertz, History Vol. 2, 414–15. For a different view see Coggins, “Do We Still,” 77–92. 25 The question whether the message was issued in the form of oral proclamations or in a written form is quite difficult to settle, especially considering the possibility that, as Gitay argues, in the ancient world “even written material was written to be heard,” Gitay, “Deutero-Isaiah,” 191. 26 See the survey in Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 102–4.

8

Introduction

setting for Isa 40–55.”27 The choice of the “most likely” setting is, in turn, determined by an understanding of the socio-political situation in Judah and in the Babylonian exile respectively. The hypothesis of this present study is that, in all probability, the major parts of Isa 40–55 were proclaimed during the exile, but written down in Jerusalem on return from the exile. As Baltzer rightly points out, “the query about the place of performance and the query about the place where the author composed his work are two separate questions that must be distinguished from one another.”28 The “double location” of the corpus might also be suggested by its compositional structure, which is one of the few issues on which biblical scholars generally agree. Isaiah 40–55 is made up of two major parts. The first part, comprising Isa 40–48, is focused on Jacob-Israel, with special references to Cyrus and to the fall of the Babylonian empire, to production and worship of idols, and to the question of the causes of the exile. The second part, comprising Isa 49–55, is focused on the future prosperity and happiness for Zion-Jerusalem.29 Such a composition might be a result of careful planning, a particularly attractive suggestion when the correspondence between the prologue (Isa 40:1– 11) and the epilogue (Isa 55:1–13) of Isa 40–55 is considered. The three issues, the identity, the geographical location, and composition of Isa 40–55, are reflected in the discussion of the redactional development of the corpus. The most recent survey of major redaction critical theories has been presented by Rainer Albertz.30 In the following, I will summarise his findings, comment on Albertz’ own theory of the redactional growth of Isa 40–55 and offer a presentation of the position of the present investigation. While the scholarly discussion of the questions of literary genre and traditions in Isa 40–55 has flourished throughout the 20th century, the question of the literary growth of the corpus has only been seriously raised in the latter part of the century.31 Thus, Westermann argues that _____________ 27 Barstad, Babylonian Captivity, 93. See also Barstad, “Babylonian Literary Influence.” 28 Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 24. Although I do not share Baltzer’s understanding of Isa 40– 55 as a cultic drama performed for the exiles in the Diaspora, his commentary on Isa 40–55 is illuminating. 29 For the study of the structure of Isa 40–55 see Melugin, Formation, 82–87, and Mettinger, A Farwell, 21–28. Mettinger focuses especially on the compositional function of the hymns in Isa 40–55. See further Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 14–16. Blenkinsopp explains the shift asserting that “the speaker saw the mission assigned to Cyrus as passing to himself by default but that by this time he had lost his audience, with the exception of a small number of disciples.” Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 63. 30 See Albertz, Israel in Exile, 376–93. 31 This might be due to the fact that the term ‘redaction criticism’ only came into use in biblical scholarship in 1954. For a brief survey of the history of redaction criticism in

Introduction

9

the orderly arrangement of the corpus indicates that the prophet himself is responsible for its composition. Although he recognises a number of minor additions, he does not engage in any detailed discussion of the character, theology, and historical background of these additions.32 In the following decades, scholars presented more elaborate theories of the redactional growth of Isa 40–55, based on the inconsistencies of the text and tensions in the theology of the corpus. Thus, HansChristoph Schmitt, argued for a schultheologische Bearbeitung of the corpus, compiled in the decades after the fall of the Babylonian empire, in order to explain the delay of the salvation promised by Deutero-Isa prior to 539 BCE.33 According to Schmitt, this editing is characterised by its exhortations to obedience to YHWH, its reduction of the universalist tendencies and the prominence ascribed to tradition.34 A decade later, Hans-Jürgen Hermisson presented five redactional levels in Isa 40–55: the oldest collection, dated to 539 BCE, the addition of the Servant Songs and possibly a few other texts, the imminent expectation stratum, the idol-image stratum and finally, an addition of late texts, all dated to the period between 539 and the late years of the sixth century BCE.35 The criteria for Hermisson’s attribution of the secondary additions to the Grundbestand is based mainly on their linguistic and theological inconsistencies.36 It is interesting to observe the fact that, in Hermisson’s view, and contrary to subsequent redaction theories, the oldest collection comprises parts of all the chapters of Isa 40–55. Subsequent scholars have published a number of extensive theories of the redactional history of Isa 40–55. Thus, Reinhard Gregor Kratz argues that in addition to a Grundschicht, dated to the period

32

33

34 35 36

the OT, see Biddle, “Redaction Criticism,” DBI 2. Although Elliger argued, already in 1933, that Isa 40–55 had been extensively edited by Trito-Isa, no major contributions to the discussion of literary growth of the corpus can be found, and Isa 40–55 has been generally considered as fairly homogeneous. See Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 27–30. Groups of texts understood as later additions are: the polemics against the manufacture of idols, admonitions and accusations, the first three Servant Songs, an addition to the Cyrus oracle in ch. 45 (Isa 45:9–13) and a group of smaller additions, which Westermann labels “Amen glosses.” Schmitt, “Prophetie und Schultheologie,” Schmitt’s study concentrates on Isa 48 and Isa 55. He finds a schultheologische Bearbeitung in Isa 48:1bß, 2, 4, 5b, 7b, 8b, 9–11aß, 17–19, in Isa 55 and also in parts of Isa 40:1–11. Schmitt, “Prophetie und Schultheologie,” 60–61. For the texts of each strata see Hermisson, “Einheit,” 311. Hermisson presents twelve konzeptionelle Kriterien such as the fabrication of idols, postponed and conditioned salvation with the call to repentance and accusation, etc., Hermisson, “Einheit,” 291–307. Hermisson’s criteria have been discussed and questioned by Leene, “Auf der Suche,” 807–12.

10

Introduction

shortly after 539 BCE, there are five redactional layers in Isa 40–55, composed between 539 and the latter part of the fifth century BCE: Zion-Fortschreibungen, Kyros-Ergänzungsschicht, Götzen-Schicht, EbedIsrael-Schicht and Späte Einzelzusätze.37 The texts of the Grundschicht can be found first and foremost in the first nine chapters of the corpus, as well as in Isa 52:7–10. According to Kratz, the criteria for the determining the boundaries of the Grundschicht, the authentic words of the prophet, concerns the content and the intention.38 Jürgen van Oorschot detects three redactional strata in addition to the core stratum. While the core of the book originated in Babylon in 550, and was composed in Judah ca 520, the Naherwartungsschicht was composed around 500, the sekundäre Zionsschicht in the middle of the fifth century and, finally, the Gehorsam und Segen stratum and the Götzenbilderschicht was added as the last part late in the fifth century bce.39 Van Oorschot identifies the core stratum of the corpus as comprising only the texts from Isa 40:12–46:11.40 Van Oorschot is closely followed by Ulrich Berges, who adds an additional layer, a “golah redaction” dated to 522/521. However, Berges, arguing correctly that “the problem of delayed salvation cannot be limited to a single stratum,” deletes van Oorschot’s “imminent expectation stratum” (qarob-Schicht by Hermisson).41 The models of interpretation proffered by these three redaction critics, Hermisson, Kratz and van Oorschot, have been criticised by Hendrik Leene. Leene questions both the limitation of the texts of the Grundschicht as well as the criteria for such a limitation.42 He argues that it is not logical to attempt to recover the basic core of DeuteroIsaiah’s proclamations while we do not know whether the name stands for a prophetic group or for a single person, whose very historicity is still a matter of debate. Likewise, Leene continues, the different vocabulary, the tensions and the unevenness of the text do not necessarily have to be the result of subsequent editing or a different Tradentenkreis.43 Leene concludes by presenting an alternative hypothesis, ac-

_____________ 37 Kratz, Kyros, 216–17. 38 “Das Kriterium ist dabei in erster Linie nicht die Formulierung, sondern besteht in Sachgehalt und Intention,” Kratz, Kyros, 161. 39 See van Oorschot, Von Babel, passim, see also the table of the strata on pp. 345–7. 40 Albertz criticises van Oorschot’s definition of the core stratum because of its lack of structural elements of identification, Albertz, Israel in Exile, 387. 41 Commenting on Berges, Albertz, Israel in Exile, 388. 42 Leene, “Auf der Suche,” 803–12. 43 Leene, “Auf der Suche,” 812.

Introduction

11

cording to which Isa 40–55 is the result of deliberate planning and composition over a longer period of time.44 The number of redactional layers in Isa 40–55 presented in redaction critical works published in the last five years has decreased. Thus, Jürgen Werlitz postulates two editions. The first major edition, comprising Isa 40:1–52:10, was composed in Jerusalem by an “authorial collective” between 539 and 520 BCE. This collection included texts from both Babylon and Jerusalem, and also a collection of polemics against idols.45 The second edition included a subsequent scholastic redaction, a Trito-Isa redaction and finally an Isaiah redaction in which the final form of the book of Isaiah was established. Similarly, Rainer Albertz argues for two editions of Isa 40–55. The first edition (DtIE1), comprising most of Isa 40:1–52:12, was composed by a prophetic group in Jerusalem shortly before 521 BCE. This prophetic group, Alberts asserts, was originally active in Babylon, mainly between 550 and 539 BCE, where major parts of Isa 40:12–46:11 were proclaimed, and they continued their work after the return to their own land. Disturbed by the political turmoil of the years between the rise of Cyrus and the reign of Darius, this Deutero-Isa group of prophets waited for the peaceful return to the land, to be followed by a national restoration. This edition, reworked by a redactor (RE1), who was himself a member of the Deutero-Isa group, comprises the major part of the texts from Isa 40–52.46 Albertz follows Werlitz in arguing that most of the polemics against idols were included in the first edition.47 The second edition (DtIE2), comprises smaller parts of Isa 40, 44, 45, 47, 51, and almost all of Isa 54–55, placing a particular emphasis on the word of YHWH.48 This version, probably composed in Jerusalem by “a prophetic disciple of the third generation,” was edited around 500 BCE, presumably at the same time as Isa 40–55 was incorporated into the book of Isaiah.49 To sum up, we can say that in spite of a lack of consensus among the redaction critics, there is general agreement that Isa 40–55 was composed by a group of prophets who were active in Babylon but returned to Judah after the fall of the Babylonian empire. In the years between 539 and 520, between the time of Cyrus and the time of Darius, this _____________ 44 Leene, “Auf der Suche,” 812–13. 45 See Werlitz, Redaktion und Komposition, 219–23. 46 For a survey of the texts in this edition, see Albertz, Israel in Exile, 397–9. 47 Albertz, Israel in Exile, 396. Albertz concludes that the hopes of restoration have been centred around Darius and not Cyrus, as previously suggested by Kratz. See Albertz, Israel in Exile, 408–9 and also Albertz, “Darius,” 371–83. 48 Albertz, Israel in Exile, 429. 49 Albertz, Israel in Exile, 430.

12

Introduction

group collected and edited texts into a first and major edition of the corpus.50 The second edition, usually dated to the turn of the fifth century or later, resulted in the final shape of the book of the prophet Isaiah by incorporating Isa 40–55 into its present form. The view in this study is as follows: It is reasonable to assume that the major part of the corpus has been composed in the years after the fall of the Babylonian empire, although it might have been proclaimed earlier. It is however important to bear in mind that in its entirety Isa 40–55 reflects on the exile and its consequences by reinterpreting and adapting the prophecy according to the socio-religious needs of the situation after the exile. In the words of Martti Nissinen: “[I]nterpretation is not a matter of perverting the original words but making the message significant.”51 I will therefore not engage in any discussion of the theology of any particular redactional layer. There are two reasons for that decision: First, to attempt to reconstruct the history of growth of this prophetic book is a very uncertain enterprise, and, as we have seen above, there is no agreement about the boundaries of the parts of Isa 40–55, which might constitute any particular layer.52 Secondly, it is worth remembering that in spite of the political turmoil of the last half of the sixth century, reality did not change in any radical sense for the Judean people, whether in exile or in their own land. As we have seen above, from the time of the emergence of Cyrus on the political scene, throughout the century, the main concern for the Israelites was centred around the reestablishment of their religious and national identity, and this included the rebuilding of the city and the temple of YHWH. Therefore, there is no reason to believe that the problem of the acceptance of the message of salvation would not have been of interest from the very start. Redaction criticism may well be applied to the identification of different redactional layers, based on diverse historical references in a text. However, the tracing of redactional layers on the basis of a particular theological idea is a less reliable undertaking. Theological reflections are often complicated matters which cannot easily be confined to one single moment in history, nor denied on the basis of any such reference. To ascribe the motif of deliverance to a different redactional layer than the motif of repentance might be misleading, and significant theological ideas might _____________ 50 Albertz, Israel in Exile, 401–2. This edition was, Albertz concludes, intended to be read in the local assembly, which gathered on a daily basis, pp. 403–4. 51 Nissinen, “What is Prophecy?,” 29. 52 For a discussion about the reliability of the results of historical-critical inquiries, see Melugin, “Prophetic Books and the Problem of Historical Reconstruction,” 63–78. Melugin concludes that historical criticism “remains a valuable tool, but one whose place in the larger scheme of things must be very carefully evaluated,” ibid. 78.

Introduction

13

thus be lost to us. In addition, such an understanding runs a risk of being based on the age-old Christian bias that in the Old Testament salvation must be earned by the obedience to the law and not received as a free gift from God. Consequently, while being aware of the complex and uncertain history of the growth of Isa 40–55, I will focus my efforts to understand and to interpret the theology of this corpus as a collected whole. The basic undertaking of the present study is not in any case disturbed by redactional discrepancies, and the different views of the development of redaction should not prevent their proponents from recognising my findings of the relationship between deliverance and repentance in Isa 40–55.

1.4

Procedure

The present study does not apply a specific method to the analysis of the biblical texts, but combines a number of exegetical methods. Presumed stages of the development of the biblical book have been accounted for, and I will not engage in any wider discussion of the literary growth of each of the texts under investigation. The content and the implications of each of the texts will be examined by means of form criticism, focusing primarily on those phenomena in the texts which are directly related to the central questions of the present study. Thus, the form-critical analysis of the texts will be applied only in so far as it has a direct bearing on my analysis and my conclusions. Following a survey of the history of research (chapter two), the major part of this work will focus on particular texts in Deutero-Isa (chapter three). I will begin by dividing the texts into two groups according to the main focus of this study. The first group consists of the texts which contain a direct accusation of the people on account of their sin or rebellion against YHWH. After a brief form-critical survey of these texts, I will concentrate on questions about the content of each accusation. Special attention will be given to the time aspect of the accusation: Does the issue concern the past or the present character of the people? If the reference is to the past, is there any indication of any changed attitudes among the people? The second group of texts to be analysed are the so-called prophetic summons to repentance. I will ask the following questions: Could we identify any patterns in each of these texts that could define the texts as exhortations? If so, what is the content and the centre of each exhortation? What are the themes and the theological motifs? What is the mo-

14

Introduction

tivation behind each exhortation and how does that relate to the demands of the exhortation? Chapter four turns to a study of the passages about the fabrication of idols as well as to lawsuits against the nations, in order to see what part idolatry played in Deutero-Isaiah’s accusations against the exiles. After a brief survey of the scholarly discussion of the authenticity of the passages about fabrication of idols, I will engage in matters concerning the significance of these passages for the question of idolatry among YHWH’s people. Similarly, lawsuits against the nations and their gods will be discussed in order to clarify the nature of the accusations that YHWH directed against the nations. Particular attention will be paid to the question of function of these texts in Isa 40–55. Chapter five takes the form of an excursus in which the prophetic books of Jeremiah and Ezekiel will be considered briefly. Both these prophetic books offer an opportunity for the Israelites to change their future by making a proper response to YHWH (Jer 4:1–4, Ezek 14:6–11). At the same time, and in analogy with the texts in Isa 40–55, they also refer to the possibility of “responsive repentance.”53 Even so, is the relationship between deliverance and repentance in these prophetic books similar to Isa 40–55, or is there a diversity of thought to be detected? This investigation will concentrate on general tendencies in both these prophetic books. To attempt to go further would transcend the limits of this study. In the concluding chapter, I will discuss the crucial notions of this study, such as sin, deliverance and repentance, on the basis of my previous findings. In conclusion, I will discuss the relationship between YHWH’s deliverance and the reactions of the people as perceived in Isa 40–55, focusing primarily on the question of return: YHWH’s return to his people, and the people’s return to their God.

1.5

Definition of Concepts

The final section of the introduction has the character of a glossary. In order to make it easier for the reader to understand and to follow the arguments, some crucial recurring notions will be explained. In the title of this study the terms “deliverance” and “repentance” are used. These words are deeply rooted in the vocabulary of religious _____________ 53 Thus Jer 24:4–7, Ezek 20:40–44; 36:22–32, Isa 44:21–22; 55:6–7. Thomas Raitt discusses the development from the prophecy of doom to the prophecy of salvation in Jeremiah and Ezekiel, referring to such a change of attitude towards repentance recorded in these prophetic books, see Raitt, Theology of Exile, 106–27.

Introduction

15

(Christian) communities, and might therefore trigger the wrong associations. It is therefore important to stress that these notions are not used in any modern spiritual or Christian pietistic sense. Rather, both terms are connected to the problem of the exile and its consequences. In addition, the term repentance is my translation of the Hebrew term ‫שׁוב‬, “return, turn back,” as used in Isa 40–55. Both terms belong to the subject of investigation and they will be extensively discussed in the last, concluding chapter of the present study. The term “exile” is frequently referred to and it primarily denotes a historical event, namely the exile of a part of the Judean community in Babylon. I will not engage in the complex discussion of the historicity of the Babylonian exile, but I will instead presuppose that a considerable number of Judeans were deported to Babylon in the first two decades of the sixth century. At the same time, the term will also be used as a denotation of a theological event, namely the abolition of the old guarantees for the partnership between YHWH and his people, and the struggle to create new ones.54 In the latter sense, the exile extended past the fall of the Babylonian empire.55 Similarly, Deutero-Isa or “the prophet” stands for a prophet or a group of prophets responsible for the conservation and possibly also for the composition of the contents and the main theological ideas of Isa 40–55. It should be emphasised yet again that this term is not intended to denote the ipsissima verba of the prophet(s), which would in itself be quite an impossible project, since we do not know anything about the person or persons behind these texts. Rather, the term refers to the words, reported in Isa 40–55 and directed to the Israelites in the second half of the sixth century BCE. When referring to the exiled Judeans in Babylon, the term “the exiles” will be used. At the same time, based on the assumption that the message of Isa 40–55 was highly relevant also for the non-exiled Judean community, the term “the Israelites” shall be employed as a designation for the people of YHWH in general. In the course of my study considerable attention will be paid to the questions of content, to which the terms “theme” and “motif” are connected. I will refrain from engaging in any extensive discussion of these terms as technical instruments within the field of the literary sciences, but I will make use of both terms in their broadest sense. Thus, motif is defined as “an element – a type of incident device, reference, or formula – which recurs frequently in literature,” while theme is defined as _____________ 54 For a discussion of the concept of “exile” in OT scholarship, see Grabbe, Leading Captivity. 55 See Ben Zvi, “What is New,” 34–38.

16

Introduction

a term denoting “a general claim, or doctrine, whether implicit or asserted, which an imaginative work is designed to incorporate and make persuasive to the reader.”56 Unless otherwise stated, translations from the Old Testament follow the New Revised Standard Version. In a few instances, when a better understanding of a passage is needed, I offer a more literal translation of my own, which I also indicate in the footnotes. Likewise, I have generally replaced the NRSV’s term “the LORD” by YHWH. References to biblical passages follow the numbering of the Hebrew text (BHS). The abbreviations listed in The SBL Handbook of Style have been used.

_____________ 56 Abrams, Glossary, 110–11.

2

The History of Research

In this survey of scholarly research, undertaken with reference to two key issues: the idea of the prophetic call to repentance and the idea of sin and repentance in Isa 40–55, I will introduce this study. For educational reasons, the following outline will focus on two opposing lines of argumentation.1

2.1

The Call to Repentance

The question of prophetic call to repentance has been discussed by biblical scholars for decades, revolving mostly around the eighth century prophecy of doom. The major point of disagreement has focused on the general purpose of prophetic ministry as well as on the intention of the prophet: Were the prophets preachers of repentance or were they simply announcers of judgement or salvation?2 Since the prophetic form of speech generally associated with the motif of repentance is exhortation,3 scholars have discussed whether prophetic exhortation should be seen as an independent genre of prophetic speech or as subordinate to a dominant form of speech, of which it is a part. In an extensive study of the calls to repentance in the pre-exilic prophets of doom, Vanlier Hunter gives an exhaustive survey of the debate on this issue.4 Hunter traces the roots of the discussion to the early decades of the twentieth century, when Hermann Gunkel and Hugo Gressmann argued, under the influence of the considerations of the psychology of the prophetic office, that the prophetic exhortations were subordinate the dominant speech of threat or salvation. However, Gunkel argued that it would not be humane of the prophet to speak the _____________ 1 Generally, a clear-cut demarcation line between scholars is seldom distinguishable, and two opposing sides of scholarly argumentation can overlap in a number of ways. 2 This question has been raised by Werner H. Schmidt in his Einführung in das Alte Testament, from 1979, as one of the basic questions in the study of the prophets. Reprinted in Schmidt, “Contemporary Issues,” 579–81. 3 Exhortation is defined as “an address form employed to persuade an audience to follow a particular course of action,” Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 29. 4 See the first chapter of Hunter, “Seek the Lord,” 7–38. In the following, I shall briefly recapitulate Hunter’s findings.

18

The History of Research

words of reproach and threat without giving the slightest opportunity for the addressees to change the course of events by repentance and thus to evoke YHWH’s mercy. Commenting on Amos 5:15, Gunkel notes: “[V]ielleicht kann gerade seine Wirksamkeit die Bekehrung wirken und dann wird sich Jahve vielleicht noch einmal erbarmen. Von diesem ‘Vielleicht’ getrieben, hat sich die Prophetie dennoch von Drohen und Schelten langsam dem Mahnen zugewandt.”5 Gressmann, on the other side, connects the prophetic exhortation with speech of salvation, asserting that the promise of salvation is directly dependent on the people’s decision to obey: “Die Verheißungen dagegen sind von der Liebe des Propheten zu seinem Volk getragen; sie sind bisweilen mit einem Mahnwort verknüpft, um die Hörer auf den richtigen Weg zu bringen und ihnen so den Segen der Heilszeit zu verschaffen.”6 Hunter proceeds to account for the development of the subsequent scholarly debate along two major lines. According to the “majority opinion,” the call to repentance, as one of the basic forms of prophetic speech, represents the true and overall purpose of prophetic activity. Thus, the arguments of Eissfeldt, Weiser, Bentzen, Kaiser and Fohrer are accounted for and discussed.7 On the other side, according to the “minority opinion,” the call to repentance is a subordinate element in the proclamations of either judgement or salvation, implying that the overall aim of the prophets was not to induce a reaction, but to announce the imminence of doom or salvation. Hunter accounts for this view by referring to the works of Wolff, Westermann, Koch and Werner H. Schmidt.8 Hunter concludes his survey with a discussion of three special studies of prophetic exhortations, conducted by Sitompul, Raitt and Warmuth.9 Before we return to Hunter’s own study, we need to examine the arguments of two of the above mentioned scholars. In his article Das Thema ‘Umkehr’ in der alttestamentlichen Prophetie, Hans Walter Wolff asserts that, as far as the eighth century prophecy is concerned, the theme of Umkehr cannot be found in the prophetic exhortations, but comes as a part of the prophetic speech of judgement.10 Likewise, Wolff continues, the theme of return can also be _____________ 5 Gunkel, “Einleitungen,” LXVI. 6 Gressmann, Messias, 69. 7 See Hunter, “Seek the Lord,” 15–18. This view is shared by other scholars, not referred to by Hunter, such as Lindblom, Prophecy, 320–22. 8 See Hunter, “Seek the Lord,” 18–28. 9 See Hunter, “Seek the Lord,” 28–38. 10 See Wolff, “Das Thema,” 138 and 139. Wolff confines his discussion of the theme of return to the verb ‫ שׁוב‬, which he explains as denoting a “Wiederherstellung eines ursprünglichen Status,” p. 135.

The History of Research

19

found as a part of salvation speeches in Hosea (Hos 14:2–4) and Jeremiah (Jer 3:21–25 and 31:15–20), in which salvation motivates and preconditions the return.11 The call to repentance in Isa 44:22 is, according to Wolff, a “Lockruf der Liebe,” wrapped in the promise of forgiveness, and thus also subordinate to the speech on salvation.12 Further, Wolff argues that it is of the utmost importance to understand the “formgeschichtliche Deszendenz des Rufs zur Umkehr als Mahnwort vom Heilsspruch, nicht vom Scheltwort her.”13 From this, Wolff concludes that it can not be possible for a person to achieve a return to YHWH on his own. This is always a work of YHWH himself: “[D]ie Rückkehr ist, im Gegensatz zum Abfall, vom Willen Jahwes erzeugt.”14 What does this mean? It is a matter of course that YHWH does not support his people’s apostasy or their backsliding of any kind. However, Wolff implies that human freedom is only in effect when people turn away from God, whereas their return to God is beyond human control.15 If this was true, we might wonder why the prophets were calling the people to repentance in the first place. If return to YHWH was impossible for people to achieve, then the prophets would also declare that YHWH is now ready to make the people return to him, as in the declarations of salvation, rather than direct them to repentance. In the present study I will investigate the calls to repentance in Isa 40–55 closer in order to see whether there is textual evidence for such a conclusion. Prior to that, I need to review the arguments of the opposing position. Discussing the prophetic summons to repentance, Thomas Raitt argues “that the Summons to Repentance is indeed an independent speech-form which was an authentic and significant part of the preaching of the pre-exilic prophets.”16 Raitt reasons that “[t]he people can be judged for a failure to repent only if they were earlier clearly called to repentance.”17 Further, Raitt suggests that the interaction between the prophetic call to repentance and the prophetic proclamation of doom or _____________ 11 Wolff, “Das Thema,” 142–4. 12 Wolff, “Das Thema,” 145. 13 Wolff, “Das Thema,” 144. 14 Wolff, “Das Thema,” 144. 15 The same thought is repeated in a later article, see Wolff, “Die eigentliche Botschaft,” passim. 16 Raitt, “Prophetic Summons,” 38. It is important to notice, that in contrast to Wolff, Raitt selects the calls-to-repentance texts on a structural, not on a semantic basis. Thus, the structure of this form of speech, which Raitt discusses, comprises two parts: appeal (with messenger formula, call and admonition) and motivation (with promise, accusation and threat), pp. 33–34. 17 Raitt, “Prophetic Summons,” 31–32.

20

The History of Research

salvation is dependent on the change of historical circumstances. Thus, when a call to repentance went unheeded, the message of the prophets gradually shifted to a proclamation of the inevitable doom. On the execution of the doom, the prophets proclaimed salvation, which in turn created repentance. As the final stage, salvation was proclaimed without the call to repentance.18 Thus, Raitt’s arguments differ from Wolff’s in two aspects that are relevant for my study. First, Raitt points to the existence of the form of independent speech called the Summons to Repentance.19 Secondly, Raitt’s conclusions entails a perception of human freedom as effective in both ways: the turn away from, and the return to, YHWH.20 Arvid Tångberg supports and develops Raitt’s view further. In his study, Die prophetische Mahnrede, Tångberg is concerned with both formcritical and tradition-historical aspects as well as with the content of the prophetic exhortations. The focus of his study includes primarily prophetic exhortations but also exhortations in the wisdom tradition and Deuteronomy. Tångberg concludes: “Die formgeschichtliche Betrachtung sollte u.a. die Selbständigkeit der Mahnrede unter den prophetischen Redeformen nachweisen. Daraus ergab sich, daß die Mahnung unmöglich als nur äußere Form und Einkleidung der Gerichtsbotschaft der Propheten aufzufassen sei.”21 In the last decades the question of the relationship between prophetic utterances concerning future events, and the people’s present condition is still discussed. Thus, on one hand, Donald Gowan asserts: “The characteristic message of the preexilic, canonical prophets contains no calls for repentance, no specifications of what the people must do to avoid disaster, no program for reform; it is an announcement that disaster is at hand, with an explanation of why it must come.”22 On the other hand, Marvin Sweeney maintains in the introduction to his study of Isa 1–39: “Given the social role of prophets as interpreters of divine intent and spokespersons for YHWH, and given their future _____________ 18 Raitt, “Prophetic Summons,” 47. The major historical circumstance referred to is the Babylonian exile. 19 In Isa 40–55, Raitt views only the exhortation in Isa 55:6–7 as independent, while the call to repentance in Isa 44:21–22 is subordinate to the proclamation of salvation, Raitt, “Prophetic Summons,” 46. 20 “On man’s response to God’s call hung the outcome of history. In this sense the call to repentance rests upon a very optimistic view of man,” Raitt, Theology of Exile, 39. In agreement with Raitt on a number of issues, the present study of the relationship between deliverance and repentance in Isa 40–55 has a different perspective. That is why my conclusions differ from Raitt’s, as we shall see later on. 21 Tångberg, Die prophetische Mahnrede, 198. 22 Gowan, Theology, 7.

The History of Research

21

orientation, it makes little sense to maintain that the prophets simply announced judgment without attempting to influence their addressees. Otherwise, they had little reason to speak.”23 It seems quite difficult to reach an agreement between these two positions. The first stream of scholars base their findings on strictly form-critical grounds, according to which the call to repentance, which might avert the coming judgement, is missing in the pre-exilic oracles of doom. This argument leads to the conclusion that the original intention, or the original mission, of the pre-exilic prophets was to announce the unalterable future, not to call the audience to influence the course of that future. The second stream of scholars refer to the arguments of logic and human psychology and they conclude that the function, if not the overall intention, of the pre-exilic prophecy of doom was to incite the people to repentance.24 This brings us to Hunter’s own study. Hunter places himself in the “minority opinion” arguing that “the primary function of the exhortations is to render service to the prophetic task of reproach and accusation.”25 At the same time, Hunter approaches the “majority opinion” with the assertion that “the exhortations can be viewed as summonses to repentance, if it is understood that such calls did not imply a necessary link between obedience and cancelling the judgment.”26 In agreement with one stream of scholars, Hunter asserts that, in pre-exilic prophecy, repentance does not condition the judgement proclaimed, only because these prophets spoke at a time when the divine decision had already been executed and thus, it could not be altered by the people. At the same time, and in agreement with the other stream, he understands the call to repentance as a standing element of prophetic ministry. Although Hunter’s study does not discuss the calls to repentance in Isa 40–55, his conclusions are relevant for my study in that he raises the question of interaction between YHWH’s actions and the actions of his people. A similar manner of reasoning is presented by Walter Houston, who applies the theory of speech acts to the discussion of the function of the _____________ 23 Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 29. 24 It is important to notice that I do not hereby oppose two different exegetical methods. Even the second stream of scholars base their findings on form-critical grounds, even though they take into account considerations of the function of particular utterances. In the past century the method of form criticism has changed as a result of interaction with other, more recent, critical methods. For the origins, development and future of form criticism, see the collection of essays in Sweeney and Ben Zvi, Changing Face. 25 Hunter, “Seek the Lord,” 277. 26 Hunter, “Seek the Lord,” 278.

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prophecies of doom.27 Houston enquires whether the prophecies of doom should be understood as announcements of the coming judgement, or as calls to repentance. Rejecting both possibilities, Houston asserts that an oracle of doom is in fact a declaration, which “brings the hearers (or a third party) under judgement. It initiates an objective state of condemnation.”28 This means that the state of judgement is initiated by the declaration itself, at the moment when it is pronounced. Thus, when proclaiming the divine doom, the prophets were not merely speaking, but actually performing an act.29 However, Houston continues, thus initiated state of condemnation would naturally evoke a response, either that of repentance, or that of mourning.30 He concludes: “The question whether the intention of judgement prophecy is to condemn absolutely or to awaken repentance is transcended. Both possibilities exist within the single form of the judgement oracle and within reported responses to it, though…only one theme may be dominant.”31 Interestingly, taking different points as their departure, Houston and Hunter arrive at the same conclusion: although the prophecy of doom is not conditioned by a repentance of the people, the function of such a prophecy might still be to evoke repentance. Houston’s argument can also be applied to the oracles of salvation. The oracles of salvation could be seen as “words of power,” which initiate the state of redemption. Consequently, in a prophetic proclamation of salvation, a reaction of joyous acceptance as well as a reaction of repentance is appropriate. In my opinion, arguments based on the function of utterances within their contexts are of considerable importance and should not be disregarded in the study of particular texts. The understanding of a function of a text is, in turn, influenced by considerations of the psychology of the prophets in particular, and of the human nature in general: hardly anyone can speak of fatal events, which would affect many lives so drastically without the slightest possibility of hope in any form, _____________ 27 The theory was propounded by John Austin, and further elaborated by John Searle and Daniel Vandeveken, see Austin, How to Do, Searle, Speech Acts, Searle and Vanderveken, Illocutionary logic. For the use of the theory in OT exegesis see Wagner, “Die Stellung”, Wagner, Sprechakte. Cf. also Briggs, “Speech-Act Theory,” and Semeia 41, 1988, edited by H. C. White. 28 Houston, “What did the Prophets Think,” 145. In terms of the theory of speech acts, the illocutionary force of such an utterance would be declarative, meaning that in the appropriate circumstances the speaking of the utterance in itself is held to bring a state of affairs into being,” ibid. 29 In terms of speech act theory, the illocutionary force of these proclamations is that of a declaration. 30 Houston, “What did the Prophets Think,” 151. 31 Houston, “What did the Prophets Think,” 152.

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and hardly anyone can hear of a tragic future without being moved to act. We might logically infer that proclamations of doom/salvation, with or without a call to repentance, must have evoked reactions among at least some of the audience. Even if we adhere to the view that the calls to repentance found in prophetic texts have subsequently been added to the original words of doom or salvation, we would have to accept the probability that these editions reflected the function of the prophetic utterances. In addition, we must bear in mind, when addressing these questions, the nature of the relationship between YHWH and his people, in which the people also played an active part. They were not only passive receivers of the good and the bad which all came from God.32 Bearing in mind the above discussion, I will look closer into the calls to repentance in Isa 40–55 in the following study.

2.2

Sin and Repentance in Isaiah 40–50

Of the numerous studies on Isa 40–55, surprisingly few discuss the issue of the “sin” of the people, the need for repentance or its relationship to the proclaimed deliverance. Among scholars who actually touch on the issue, no consensus has been reached and two main streams of thought can be traced. The first claims that Deutero-Isa never addressed the current sin of the exiles, but was speaking of the sins of the pre-exilic community, thereby explaining the reasons for the exile. The scholars of the second stream notice the problem of the “sinful and rebellious character” of the exiles, but they do not engage in any discussion of the issue, and they do not always connect this problem with the calls to repentance in Isa 44:21–22 and 55:6–7.

2.2.1

Studies that Refer to the “Sins of the Past”

In his book Deuterojesaja in seinem Verhältnis zu Tritojesaja, Karl Elliger argues for a Trito-Isaian Bearbeitung of Deutero-Isa. The prophet responsible for this collection would have been active in the last years of the sixth century BCE.33 Elliger’s argument is based on similarities in vocabulary, style and content between Isa 40–55 and Isa 56–66. One of _____________ 32 Thus the opportunity for the people to react to a proclamation of doom is generally given and even desired, see for instance Jer 18:1–12 and Amos 4:6–11; 5:4–15, 22–27. 33 Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 2. Elliger argues that, as Deutero-Isaiah’s disciple, Trito-Isa arranged and edited Isa 40–55, composing chs. 47, 54 and 55, as well as the 4th Servant Song.

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The History of Research

the instances where this edition becomes obvious is Isa 48:1–11. According to Elliger, this passage could not have come from Deutero-Isa since the prophet “kennt keine gegenwärtige Sünde des Volkes.”34 The only sin with which Deutero-Isa was concerned was sin in the past, from which the people had now been cleansed. In his commentary entitled Das Buch Jesaja, Georg Fohrer argues that the dominant theme of the message of Deutero-Isa is an eschatologischer Erlösungsglaube.35 Although he postulates that the harsh utterances stem from a later hand, he pays attention to the calls to the exiles to hear and to believe the message of the saving activity of YHWH. Thus, he identifies Isa 42:18–25; 44:21–22; 55:6–7 and 55:8–9 as Mahnworte.36 According to Fohrer, the full summons to repentance can be found in the exhortation in Isa 44:21–22: “Die Vergebung ist kein Ruhekissen, sondern ein ins Gewissen gedrückter Stachel, kein billiges Geschenk, sondern eine Verpflichtung.”37 In his commentary on Isa 40–66, Claus Westermann continues this line of arguing and sees some of the texts, which address the issue of sin and repentance, such as Isa 48:1–11, as words of “someone other than Deutero-Isaiah.”38 Westermann argues that when the prophet spoke of the sin of Jacob/Israel in Isa 43:22–28, he referred to the pre-exilic community and not to the present generation living in exile. This view is based on Westermann’s understanding of the circumstances facing Deutero-Isa: the prophet could not have spoken about sin and repentance, since it would not be in compliance with the object of his mission, i.e. the proclamation of “salvation, and nothing but salvation.”39 Thus, commenting on the call to repentance in Isa 44:21–22, Westermann asserts that “the most natural explanation … is that it was spoken to men who were at the point of turning away from God and of forgetting his saving activity on their behalf.” He continues that “these are not the circumstances which had confronted Deutero-Isaiah as he uttered his assurance of salvation.”40 However, in the introduction to his commentary Westermann expresses a different view: the exiles must have been impressed by the Babylonian gods with the consequence that their faith in YHWH suffered great losses. Thus, Westermann states: _____________ 34 Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 197. 35 Fohrer, Jesaja, 7. 36 Fohrer, Jesaja, 5. 37 Fohrer, Jesaja, 79. 38 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 196. 39 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 9. 40 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 142.

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At the same time, however, several of Deutero-Isaiah’s utterances suggest, as was only to be expected, that the downfall of the state, the destruction of the temple, and the end of the Davidic dynasty also meant, in many people’s eyes, the end of Yahweh’s action on behalf of his people … For many, therefore, the old faith lost its fervour, and not a few turned to the gods who now had the mastery.41

On the one hand, Westermann agrees that the preaching of Deutero-Isa included “thoroughly aggressive” polemics against his own people.42 On the other, he maintains that these “were not designed to move Israel to repentance” but he wanted to see their “acceptance of the change to salvation which accompanied forgiveness, and their joyous affirmation of the opening words of the prologue, ‘cry to her that her iniquity is pardoned.’”43 Thus, Westermann seems to define the term “repentance” as “begging God for mercy,” which differs from “a joyous acceptance of God’s return.”44 Yet, it is quite clear that at the bottom of both of these understandings of the term, as remorse and as joy, lies a change of the people’s loyalty and attitude towards YHWH. Given that the polemics were concerned with the tendency of the people to turn to other gods, the need to change their loyalty is self-evident. Otherwise their reunion with YHWH would be seriously jeopardised. For those among the people who waited for YHWH (Isa 40:31; 49:23), such a change might comprise the joyous affirmation of imminent salvation, while for others, “whose faith was flagging,” their change of loyalty might involve the return to YHWH for which Deutero-Isa calls.45 Gerhard von Rad takes a similar view of the nature of the DeuteroIsaiah’s message. He argues that, since YHWH proclaimed forgiveness of the sins of the people, the accusations are not prominent in the prophecy of Isa 40–55. Thus he states: “Never before had he come so close to his people when he addressed them, laying aside anything which might alarm them in case he should terrify one of those who had lost heart.”46 Von Rad seems to base his statement on a very specific view of _____________ 41 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 6. See also p. 34: “… a cry uttered at a time when men were gradually turning away from God, gradually closing their minds to him, and gradually letting their faith grow cold.” 42 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 15. 43 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 18. 44 See Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 18. 45 Westermann recognises the disparity of attitude among the addressees of Isa 40–55, Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 6. 46 Von Rad, Theology 2, 250. Other scholars hold a similar view concerning the question of sin of the exiles and the need for repentance. Prominent among them are Whybray, Isaiah, Snaith, “Isaiah 40–66,” and McKenzie, Second Isaiah,. These scholars maintain that the only sin to which Deutero-Isa refers is the sin of the pre-exilic Israel. The prophet passes an indictment on Israel but only as an explanation for past

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the nature and function of accusations as well as of the nature and function of comfort, a view that is not necessarily congruent with the view of the ancient Israelites. The opening words of Isa 40–55 issue a command to “comfort” (‫ )נחם‬and to “speak to the heart” (‫)דבר על לב‬. In modern languages, the word comfort carries a predominately emotional connotation. In Hebrew, the meaning of the word is primarily connected to an action, with a consequent change of the situation.47 Thus, Snaith asserts: “In the Old Testament the word rarely means ‘sympathise with in sorrow,’ but rather ‘comfort out of sorrow’ and make an end of it.”48 Likewise, in a discussion of the implication of the second phrase, “speak to the heart,” Snaith concludes that it is “a strong phrase used to describe speech which leads to immediate conviction, [i]t is our change of heart.’”49 Speaking to the heart and changing the current state of affairs can also imply presenting matters of facts, however harsh they might be.50 Discussing the redaction history of Isa 40–55, scholars have continued to postulate that the harsh utterances and the calls to repentance stem from a later hand. Thus, as we have seen above, Hans-Christoph Schmitt, argues for a post-exilic schultheologische Bearbeitung of Isa 40– 55. The revision of the original texts was, according to Schmitt, provoked by the cognitive dissonance caused by the delay of the expected fulfilment of the salvation proclaimed by Deutero-Isa.51 Thus, while Deutero-Isa primarily concerns himself with the expectations centred on Cyrus, the Bearbeitung centres on the question of the sin and guilt of the people, as well as the need for obedience to YHWH.52 Schmitt sees both the accusatory tone of Isa 48 and the call to repentance in Isa 55:6–

47

48 49 50

51 52

judgement and not as any hint of the present spiritual state of the exiles. Unlike Westermann, Whybray sees a call to the exiles for “personal repentance” only in Isa 55:7. This repentance should be a preparation of the exiles “for the awesome approach of the holy God.” Whybray, Isaiah, 193. The question is why such personal repentance could not be seen elsewhere in Deutero-Isa. At the same time, if we assert that the prophet was not concerned with the ambiguous spiritual state of the Israel he was addressing, the reference to personal repentance falls out of its context. See Simian-Yofre, “‫נחם‬,” TDOT 9 342, “the attempt to influence a situation,” and 351, “[n]ever are words of encouragement the source of comfort: it always springs from an act of Yahweh that truly transforms the sorrowful situation.” Cf. also Newsom, “Consolations,” 348. Snaith, “Isaiah 40–66,” 152. Snaith, “Isaiah 40–66,” 153. Cf. Joab’s speech to king David in 2 Sam 19:1–8. See also Kapelrud, “Main Concern,” 58, who concludes: “It was necessary for the prophet to convince the people, more necessary than to comfort them.” See also Lund, Min vei, 108–10. Schmitt, “Prophetie und Schultheologie,” 60–61. Schmitt’s analysis concentrates on Isa 40:1–11 and Isa 55. Schmitt, “Prophetie und Schultheologie,” 60–61.

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7 as a product of this editing. Explaining his arguments, Schmitt refers to the affinities of these parts of Isa 40–55 with Ezekiel and Jeremiah, and also with Dtr theology. As we have seen earlier, Hans-Jürgen Hermisson, taking up the discussion with Elliger and H-C Schmitt, presents five redactional strata in Deutero-Isa. In, what Hermisson calls, qarob-Schicht, which represents a third stage of formation of Deutero-Isa, the imminence of salvation and the need for ethical repentance is emphasised.53 It is interesting to notice that Hermisson distinguishes between the call to (ethical) repentance in Isa 55:6–7, which belongs to the qarob-Schicht, and Isa 44:21–22, and even the exhortation in Isa 55:1–5, which are not authentic calls to repentance but rather “die Mahnung zur Annahme des angebotenen Heils,” and as such belong to the Grundbestand.54 One of his arguments for such a differentiation is that the accusations and the calls to ethical repentance are difficult to combine with the message of forgiveness and expiated guilt.55 A special study by Antje Labahn of the sin of the exiles and its meaning in the overall message of the prophet continues along similar lines. The harsh utterances against the people, references to sin and the exhortations to repentance are the main subjects of that investigation. Troubled by the post-exilic disappointment about the delay of salvation, a redactor of Isa 40–55 explains the situation with reference to the unrepented sin of Israel. Thus, in the final stage of the editing of Isa 40– 55, Labahn asserts, the adherents of Deutero-Isa integrated traditions from both Dtr and Deutero-Isa, thus creating a new theological stream, i.e. the schuldorientierte Überarbeitungsschicht.56 Labahn’s detailed and thorough work presents significant suggestions about the relationship between the traditions of Dtr and Deutero-Isa, which are relevant even for a wider study of the biblical texts. However, the starting point of Labahn’s investigation, which assumes that the theme of Israel’s guilt cannot be ascribed to the same prophet as the one who spoke of Israel’s future in exclusively positive terms, is not as convincing. The problem I find with the reasoning of the above scholars is that, for the most part, the arguments for later redactional revisions of the harsh utterances and of the calls to repentance are based on assumptions _____________ 53 Hermisson, “Einheit,” 295. 54 Hermisson, “Einheit,” 294. 55 It should be noted again that the existence of this stratum was strongly disputed by Ulrich Berges, see Berges, Das Buch Jesaja, 388. 56 Labahn asserts that during the exile, Dtr was active in the Land, while Deutero-Isa was active in Babylon. This is the reason why these two theological streams could flourish independently, and then be brought together on the return, Labahn, Wort Gottes, 252–4, see also Labahn, “Delay of Salvation,” 71–84.

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which cannot be left unchallenged. These assumptions, based on the tension between the consolatory tone of the message and the harsh utterances, seem to assert that the consolatory tone of the corpus, with its proclamations of salvation, are authentic, while texts dealing with the accusations of sin or the need for repentance and obedience by the people, must be secondary.57 This in turn implies that the message of comfort and consolation on one hand, and the call to repentance on the other, cannot in principle stand side by side. But is it really necessary to do away with these tensions? Is there not a different way to understand the tensions of this kind?58 I want to argue that the juxtaposition of the message of salvation and accusation of sin is the very characteristic mark of Deutero-Isa and these two aspects should not be seen as mutually exclusive. I turn now to a number of works that have special relevance for the present study of the relationship between deliverance and repentance in Deutero-Isa. These works are important because they raise the question of the “sin” of the exiles against the background of the overall message of their deliverance.

2.2.2

Studies that Refer to the “Sins of the Present”

Already in his commentary on Isa 40–66 in 1907, George Smith recognises the double nature of the problem with which Deutero-Isa was dealing: “But after their political deliverance from Babylon was assured, there remained the really larger problem of Israel’s spiritual readiness for the freedom and the destiny to which God was to lead them through the opened gates of their prison-house.”59 The call to repentance in Isa 44:22 presents an “obligation to righteousness” imposed on the exiles by the proclamation of pardon for their sins.60 Three decades later, in 1938, Joachim Begrich discussed the questions of Deutero-Isaiah’s relation to the tradition, to eschatology, to his own historical reality and to his prophetic calling. The question of the “sinful character” of the people and their need for repentance is raised _____________ 57 Although scholars of redaction criticism do not claim to be able to rediscover the ipsissima verba of the prophet, see Hermisson, “Einheit,” 311–12, the theological interpretation of these strata gives prominence to the original, pure prophetic theology, which accordingly contains prophecies of salvation and nothing but salvation. 58 Yehoshua Gitay asserts that the stylistic tensions within a text might also be applied to tensions of content and theology. Such tensions “might be intentional and functional rather than trade marks of inconsistency,” Gitay, “Theories,” 62. In his article Gitay discusses the impact of exegetical methods on the study of biblical theology. 59 Smith, Book of Isaiah, xiii. 60 Smith, Book of Isaiah, 157.

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in connection with the eschatological elements included in the message of the prophet. Begrich points out the fact that even though the prophet was preoccupied with the eschatologischen Vorstellungen he was not unaware of the reality with which he was called to engage.61 Just as the pre-exilic prophets of doom prophesised, Deutero-Isa knows that the exile was caused by the sins of the people. Begrich continues: “Und wie in der Vergangenheit ist das Volk noch gegenwärtig. Deuterojesaja muß deshalb zur Umkehr mahnen. Er muß ausdrücklich auffordern, vom Frevel abzulassen und sich zu Jahwe zu wenden. Das Volk is des neuen Heiles nicht wert.”62 The despondency of the exiles, their distrust of YHWH and their awe before other gods are, according to Begrich, the main reasons for their unworthiness of the coming salvation.63 A similar view is taken by George Knight, who in his theological commentary on Isa 40–55, refers to the sin of the present generation which “finds it difficult to believe in the providential rule of God.”64 The call to repentance, which does not condition divine forgiveness, is a call to awareness of the divine, forgiving love and to “man’s tremendous need for it.”65 Richard Clifford chooses a similar point of departure. Not discussing the harsh utterances in particular, Clifford criticises those scholars who deny the authenticity of the rebukes in Isa 40–55 because they base their judgement “upon an impossibly rigid preconception that prophets are classed as weal or woe prophets.”66 In his opinion, the rebukes are integral parts of the message of Deutero-Isa, just like the calls to repentance, which Clifford however sees as a precondition for forgiveness.67 In a study of the main theological issues in Jeremiah and Isa 40–55, John Goldingay asserts that the spiritual problem of the exiles changed for the worse during the course of Deutero-Isaiah’s ministry. The message of deliverance was not accepted with joy by the exhausted and needy people, but was resisted and rejected.68 Thus, Goldingay concludes: _____________ 61 Begrich, Studien, 103. 62 Begrich, Studien, 103–4. 63 Begrich, Studien, 104. 64 Knight, Deutero-Isaiah, 152. 65 Knight, Deutero-Isaiah, 263. Knight stresses the importance of the free will in the proclamations of Isa 40–55. 66 Clifford, Fair Spoken, 143. 67 Clifford, Fair Spoken, 113. 68 Goldingay, God’s Prophet, 119–20. In this study Goldingay follows five major aspects of the servant theology of Isa 40–55: the chosen, the faithful, the blind, the persistent and the triumphant servant.

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Through his being sent to tell the exiles how their material needs were to be met, there comes to the surface the exiles’ loss of faith, their inability to learn, their slowness to turn to God, their resistance to God’s will, the unreality of their profession of response to God, their spiritual obstinacy, their cynicism, their inclination to place their trust anywhere but in him.69

Goldingay does not engage in any further discussion of relevant texts, nor does he address the texts, which call the people to repent, in any more detail. In his commentary, Jan Koole maintains this view and argues that the author of Isa 40–55 is a “spokesman” for “a group which watched over Isaiah’s spiritual heritage.”70 Koole recognises the accusations of blindness and deafness in Isa 43:8–9, as well as the accusations against the leaders in Isa 43:27. Therefore, Koole concludes that the present Israel is accused of being stubborn and unfaithful, because they did not accept the good news of YHWH’s return.71 He underlines that the two calls to repentance differ, in that the call in Isa 44:21–22 does not condition the promised salvation, which the call in Isa 55:6–7 does.72 Likewise, in his study of the theology of Isa 40–55, Donald Gowan recognises the accusation against the people on account of their disbelief in YHWH’s ability and will to redeem them. He also recognises a single call to repentance in Isa 44:22, but he concludes that it plays a minor part in the ministry of Deutero-Isa.73 Finally, in his rhetorical analysis of Isa 46, 47 and 48, Chris Franke criticises those who eliminate the harsh utterances from Deutero-Isa because, in their view, these do not fit into the context. He proposes a different solution.74 Although the aim of his study is concerned with literary, rather than with thematic peculiarities of the text, Franke presents several arguments concerning the theology of Deutero-Isa, and he concludes that the harsh passages and the polemics against idols, which are directed at the people of YHWH, at Jacob/Israel, are also integral to Deutero-Isa and should not be attributed to a later editor.75 _____________ 69 Goldingay, God’s Prophet, 122. 70 Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 12. 71 Koole, Isaiah 49–55, 40 and 454. 72 Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 40–41 73 Gowan, Theology, 149–51. Similarly, a number of other scholars, such as North, Schoors, Oswalt, Baltzer and Blenkinsopp notice the problem of the rebellious character of the exiles, but do not discuss it any further. See Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, North, Second Isaiah, Oswalt, Book of Isaiah, Schoors, God Your Saviour, Whybray, Isaiah, ad loc. 74 Franke, Isaiah, 6: “The relegation of harsh passages to a less enlightened postexilic figure turns DI into a superficial Pollyanna with a flat, one-dimensional view of the world.” (Pollyanna=a foolishly or blindly optimistic person.) 75 Franke, Isaiah, 263.

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However, his study is limited to those three chapters, and his method does not allow for a more thorough discussion of the relationship between sin, repentance and deliverance in Deutero-Isa.

2.2.3

Summary

The themes of sin and repentance in Isa 40–55 have been recognised, although almost exclusively in discussions of particular texts or as passing remarks in works dealing with other, sometimes related, issues. One group of scholars tend to ascribe these themes to a work of a later hand, arguing that the reference is only to the sins of the pre-exilic generations as an explanation for the disaster of the exile. Those among these scholars who recognise the calls to repentance as authentic to Deutero-Isa, understand these calls as calls to acceptance of the message of deliverance. The scholars of the second stream support the view that Isa 40–55 addresses the “rebellious character” of the exiles as well as their need for repentance. However, none of these scholars engages in a more thorough discussion of the ideas of sin, guilt and repentance in the corpus, nor do they seek to elaborate the function of these themes within the overall message of deliverance. The present study makes these issues a major subject of inquiry, and provides supportive exegetical evidence in order to substantiate the view that accusations of rebellion and calls to repentance are integral and highly interrelated parts of Isa 40–55.

3

Sin, Repentance and Transformation Sin, Repentance and Transformation

I will begin this investigation of the relationship between deliverance and repentance by focusing on those texts in Isa 40–55 which, on the one hand express accusations against the Israelites, and on the other, call for specific responses from the people, comprising repentance, i.e. the return of the people to YHWH. The history of research, presented in the previous chapter, has shown that the scholarly opinion is divided on the function of these texts in Isa 40–55. Likewise, the tension between deliverance and repentance in the corpus has been noted in passing rather then studied in depth. A number of passages, which address the “sin” of the people will therefore be examined in the first part of this chapter. The criterion for selection is semantic in character, which means that those passages in which the people are addressed as “rebels” by the use of the root ‫פשׁע‬ will primarily be considered. This selection has been made with regard to the frequency and the point of reference of the word. This root occurs more frequently than other words for sin or transgression in Isa 40–55 and it is only used with reference to the “sin” of YHWH’s people, and not with reference to wrongdoing of mankind in general. Other words denoting wrong conduct or wrong attitudes, such as ‫חטא‬/‫חטאת‬ “sin, err,” ‫עון‬, “guilt, iniquity,” ‫“ רשׁע‬godless,” are less frequent and are covered by the texts selected in this chapter, with exceptions of Isa 40:2; 42:24; 53:5, 6, 12, which do not bear a direct relevance for the investigation at hand. In addition, the implication of these explicit notions of transgression or sin will be discussed in the concluding chapter of this study, together with other accusations against the people, which I will describe as implicit.1 The occurrence of the root ‫ פשׁע‬in Isa 40–55 is shown in the table below: Isa 43:25 Isa 43:27 Isa 44:22

Jacob, Israel leaders of the people Jacob, Israel

your transgressions they transgressed your transgressions

_____________ 1 Confining my selection of texts to passages that include the word ‫ פשׁע‬at this point, provides representative test-cases and makes the whole undertaking more practicable.

Sin, Repentance and Transformation

Isa 46:8 Isa 48:8 Isa 50:1 Isa 53:5 Isa 53:8 Isa 53:122

(the people) Jacob, Israel (the people) (the people) the people of the Servant (general, the people)

33

you transgressors transgressor your transgressions our transgressions transgression transgressors (x2)

In the second part of the chapter I will look closer at the texts that call for the repentance of the people. Again, the criterion is semantic, based on the use of the verb ‫שׁוב‬. The imperative form of the verb is understood as terminus technicus denoting repentance in the OT. There are of course other calls to turn to YHWH in Isa 40–55 or to pay heed to YHWH’s word, such as Isa 45:22; 48:17–19; 55:1–5. However, I have not selected these texts for a closer investigation. In Isa 45:22, the verb ‫פנה‬, “turn,” is used to address the nations, as I will argue briefly later on.3 Isaiah 48:17–18 is cast in the form of a “wish” with a primary reference to the past, although it is also valid for the present, and as such it is not a representative testcase.4 The root ‫ שׁוב‬occurs 16 times in Isa 40–55, two of which can be found in exhortations to return to YHWH (Isa 44:22 and 55:7).5 Those two exhortations will be analysed with regard to the following questions: Who is addressed? How should the repentance be demonstrated? What are the people called to turn away from? How is the call to repentance related to the proclamations of deliverance in these texts? The critical analysis of the texts will focus primarily on an attempt to determine the precise content as well as the function of these units in Isa 40–55. The questions of authenticity and authorship will also be briefly addressed. As a final consideration, I will comment on the occurrence and function of the motif of supernatural changes in Isa 40–55 in order to clarify the relationship between such “transformations” on the one hand, and the repentance of the people on the other. My basic contention is this: deliverance is not proclaimed on condition of repentance, neither is repentance a result of deliverance nor is it made possible through YHWH’s act of transformation. Repentance is a selfgoverned act of the people in response to the proclamation of YHWH’s return. I now turn to the study of the selected texts. _____________ 2 For the different suggestions concerning the identity of the “we-group” in Isa 53 see Clines, I, He, We, 25–33. 3 See p. 74, n. 185. 4 Cf. Tångberg, Die prophetische Mahnrede, 116–18. Isaiah 55:1–5 is more relevant and that text will be discussed together with Isa 55:6–7. 5 The root ‫ שׁוב‬occurs three times referring to the word of YHWH (Isa 45:23; 55:10 and 11), and once referring to YHWH himself (Isa 52:8). For the remainder of occurrences see Isa 41:28; 42:22; 43:13; 44:19, 25; 46:8; 47:10; 49:5, 6; 51:11.

34

Sin, Repentance and Transformation

3.1

Accusations against the Israelites 3.1.1

22 23

24

25 26 27 28

Isaiah 43:22–28

Yet you did not call upon me, O Jacob; thata you have been weary of me, O Israel! You have not brought me your sheep for burnt offerings, or honoured me with your sacrifices. I have not burdened you with offerings, or wearied you with frankincense. You have not bought me sweet cane with money, or satisfied me with the fat of your sacrifices. But you have burdened me with your sins; you have wearied me with your iniquities. I, I am He who blots out your transgressions for my own sakeb, and I will not remember your sins. Remind me,c let us go to trial; set forth your case, so that you may be proved right. Your first ancestor sinned, and your interpreters transgressed against me. Therefore I profaned the princes of the sanctuary,d I delivered Jacob to utter destruction, and Israel to reviling.6

This passage, placed between the salvation oracles in Isa 43:16–21 and Isa 44:1–5, presents a picture of a trial speech where YHWH, as the accused part, appeals to the court.7 It seems that the people has blamed YHWH for being unfaithful to Israel by delivering them into exile (v. 28). YHWH justifies this punishment by reference to the inadequacy of Israel’s service of him (vv. 22–24a), and to the conduct and attitudes with which Israel has wearied him (vv. 24b, 27). YHWH then declares that he _____________ 6 Textual remarks: a) The conjunction ‫ כי‬probably expresses the consecutive sense (BDB, 473 f): “that you wearied yourself on my account.” It could also be read as expressing explanatory causality (Joün–Muraoka, § 170 da): “because you were weary of me.” b) ‫ למני‬is missing in some manuscripts (BHSapp!), but MT should be retained. c) My translation of the root ‫ זכר‬, as Hiphil impv. with acc. suf. 1st per. sg., cf. BDB p. 270. d) LXX renders the line as “and your leaders profaned my holy things,” (BHSapp!). However, MT makes good sense in the context and should be retained, with minor changes of the vocalization. 7 Most scholars sustain the authenticity of the unit, with exception of parts of the second half of the pericope (vv. 25–28). Thus, Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 130–3; Whybray, Isaiah, 89–93; Schoors, God Your Saviour, 190; Melugin, Formation, 48–50; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 230–4.

Accusations against the Israelites

35

constantly does away with the inadequacy of the people (v. 25), confirming again that the conduct of the people has been the reason for their punishment through the exile (v. 28). The unity of the pericope has been questioned on account of stylistic irregularities of the text; traces of other genres and inconsistencies in metre disturb the purity of the style. First, verses 22–24 display a character of a disputation, pointing out the wrong the people have done against YHWH. Verse 25 shifts into a proclamation of salvation where YHWH’s unconditional forgiveness is declared. The salvation genre prominent in this verse is however disturbed by the use of elements characteristic of hymn and self-prediction, which is such a common feature in Deutero-Isa.8 The trial speech proper starts by the summon to court in verse 26 and continues with charges against Israel’s alleged righteousness and undeserved punishment (vv. 27–28). This mixture of genres need not be disturbing. In his study of this prophetic book, Melugin shows how the prophet dissolves the traditional forms of genre by adapting them to the needs of the situation.9 Secondly, on account of the length of verses 25 and 28, different readings of the pericope have been suggested and different scholars reject one or all of verses 25–28 as secondary.10 However, it is not uncommon in Hebrew poetry that the final lines display this character.11 Thus, the inconsistency in genre, metre and style should rather be seen as a result of prophetic creativity and the unity of the pericope should be sought in the use of theme.12 The thematic consistency of the pericope is marked by inclusio with the names Jacob-Israel (vv. 22, 28), as well as by the recurrence of the words ‫חטא‬, “sin” (vv. 24, 25, 27), and ‫פשׁע‬, “rebellion” (vv. 25, 27). The flow of the text is further supported by the reiteration of the negation ‫לא‬, “not” (vv. 22–24), as well as by the use of a Stichwort such as the verb ‫זכר‬, “remember” (vv. 25, 26). The content of the passage raises questions that need to be discussed: What is the main point of the prophet’s argument? What is the nature of the sin and transgressions which the prophet addresses? And finally, who are the transgressors? _____________ 8 See Isa 43:10–13; 44:24–28; 45:18–19; 48:12, 15. Westermann observes that the fusion of these two forms is “particularly characteristic of Deutero-Isaiah,” Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 15. 9 Melugin, Formation, 49. See also Steck, Old Testament Exegesis, 113. Steck explains that one of the reasons why variations of a genre can occur is the desire to express “peculiarity of the author.” 10 For a survey see Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 339. 11 Cf. Isa 41:24, 29; 43:7, 13. See Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 347 and 352. 12 See Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, Koole, Isaiah 40–48, ad loc.

36

Sin, Repentance and Transformation

The unit opens with a reference to the inadequacy of the people’s sacrifice and worship (vv. 22–24). It has been suggested that the sacrificial cult of the people, whether in pre-exilic or exilic times, is here denounced by the prophet.13 However, the invocation (‫ )קרא‬of YHWH (v. 22a), indicates that more than the sacrifice itself is implied in this text.14 The verb ‫ קרא‬is often used in Deutero-Isa before an accusative object where it usually means “to call (on) someone.”15 The only other instance in Deutero-Isa where the object of the people’s calling is YHWH is found in Isa 55:6 where, as we shall see later, the verb means to seek YHWH. Another interesting parallel is to be found in Jer 29:12, where the prophet assures the deported exiles in a letter that YHWH will answer when they call to him: “Then when you call upon me and come and pray to me, I will hear you.” It seems that the double implication of the verb is intentional, yet calling upon YHWH in Isa 43:22 implies primarily a general meaning of striving to concern oneself with YHWH, a conclusion which is also corroborated by the second part of verse 22: the people did not make any effort to concern themselves with YHWH (‫)יגע‬. Thus, it is not the sacrifice per se that is denounced here, but the negative attitude of the people towards their God. We shall return to the nature of this attitude below. This brings us to the next question: Who is accused here, the preexilic or the exilic community? According to Westermann the prophet, following in the footsteps of the pre-exilic prophets of doom, brings charges against the cultic worship of pre-exilic Israel.16 This view is also supported by verse 28 which explains the reason for the punishment through the exile: because your first father as well as your leaders sinned (v. 27).17 Yet, the accusation is directed to and thereby relevant for the exilic community. Whybray uses the notion of corporate identity: the exiled community shared the guilt of their fathers, although they themselves were not guilty of the charges brought against them.18 I want to take this inquiry one step further. The fact that YHWH has to defend himself and to explain his actions confirms the blindness and the deafness of the present generation (cf. Isa 40:27–31; 42:18–20, 24–25). _____________ 13 For a survey see Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 177–8. 14 As also reinforced by the manner the previous unit (Isa 43:16–21) ends: “[T]he people whom I formed for myself so that they might declare my praise.” 15 See Isa 41:4, 9; 42:6; 46:11; 48:15; 49:1; 51:2; 54:6; 55:5 (referring backwards) and 55:6. 16 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 130–2. 17 Snaith sees here “the utter and complete rejection of the old Jacob-Israel,” Snaith, “Isaiah 40–66,” 183. For as much as this view is correct, it is of secondary importance, since the main issue which the prophet wishes to address is connected to the present state of the exiles. 18 Whybray, Isaiah, 91.

Accusations against the Israelites

37

The exiles are indirectly charged with the failure of not making any effort to understand the reasons for their exile, and of not recognising the present works of YHWH.19 They fail to recognise their fathers’ and their own transgressions against YHWH. They find YHWH, rather than themselves, guilty of unfaithfulness and unrighteousness. By doing so, they refuse to acknowledge their own guilt, and they continue to weary YHWH and to make him into their servant.20 It seems that the sin of the exiles is not only of a corporate kind, as Whybray proposed. The exiles seem to have their own, private share therein. This reading is supported by the rest of the pericope and especially by verses 25–27. In verse 27 the prophet places the accusation of Israel in a historical framework, showing how deeply rooted rebellion is in Israel’s historical existence.21 Also, verse 25 proclaims that YHWH is the one who constantly erases the sins of the people. The fact that the verb ‫מחה‬, “to blot out,” stands in act. ptc. form while the parallel ‫זכר‬, “to remember,” does not, implies that not only the sins of the past, but also the sins of the present are being wiped away.22 Against this background the question of idolatry is justified. First, the opening phrase of this pericope, ‫ולא אתי קראת‬, “but it was not me you invoked” (v. 22), suggests that it was not YHWH, but another god that Israel called upon and wearied herself with. The word order in the Hebrew text indicates emphasis on the object of the verb.23 In the cases where the negation comes before an accusative particle, i.e. in sentences expressing a statement, the implication is a contrast: “Not x but y.”24 Thus, in Deut 11:2 YHWH says “Not to your children…which have not _____________ 19 Thus, Clifford here sees an accusation of the present, exilic Israel, Clifford, Fair Spoken, 105–6. Cf. also Krašovec, Reward, Punishment, 491: “Israel’s charges against God, arising from a state of distress, disclose a wrong attitude on the part of the people.” 20 Thus, Westermann asserts that “this reversal of the natural relationship between God and man … f lashes out for just a moment,” Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 131. Cf. also Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 348 and Booij, “Negations,” 398–9. 21 Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 350. It is generally assumed that the expression refers to Jacob, not Adam or Abraham, as some exegetes argue. Jacob’s sin is referred to in Hos 12:2–4. At the same time, Adam is not specifically mentioned as Israel’s forefather and his sin is almost never referred to in the prophetic literature (perhaps apart from Hos 6:7), while Abraham is always viewed favourably by the tradition. Cf. also Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 133, Whybray, Isaiah, 93 and Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 183. 22 The act. ptc. describes a lasting action, see Joüon and Muraoka, Grammar, § 121 c. Thus also GKC § 116 a: “The participle active indicates a person or thing conceived as being in the continual uninterrupted exercise of an activity.” 23 In most cases when the negation ‫ לא‬comes before an acc. ptc. ‫את‬, it occurs in interrogative sentences with the interrogative ‫ ה‬before the negation, ‫( הלא‬Num 23:12; Judg 11:24; Jer 7:19; 23:24; 44:21; Ezek 17:9; Amos 9:7; Zech 7:7). 24 Muraoka, Emphatic Words, 38–39.

38

Sin, Repentance and Transformation

seen” then in verse 7 he says “but your eyes have seen.”25 Likewise in 1 Sam 8:7 YHWH says to Samuel: “They have not rejected you, but they have rejected me.” Consequently, in Isa 43:22 the contrast might be implied: “Not for me, but for another.” Secondly, the notion of idolatry is further enforced by the repetition of negations of each of the offerings: “not for me did you do this, not for me did you do that” (vv. 23–24). Not for me, but for someone else. Thirdly, the emphatic repetition of ‫אנכי אנכי‬, “I, I,” in verse 25 stands as a parallel to the emphatic ‫אתי‬, “me,” in verse 22.26 The meaning of the repetition in verse 25 is then further reinforced by the copula ‫הוא‬, “he, the one.”27 Thus, Muraoka states that, standing between the subject and the predicate of a sentence, the copula emphasises the subject “which is singled out and contrasted with other possible or actual alternative(s).”28 The only other case in Deutero-Isa where the same expression is to be found is in Isa 51:12, in a context where the people are rebuked for forgetting YHWH and fearing instead a mortal man. They are reminded that it is YHWH, and not someone else, who comforts them. A parallel to Isa 43:25 can also to be found a few verses earlier, in Isa 43:10–13, where YHWH defends his sovereignty as the only God of Israel. He is the one that delivers Israel so that they can proclaim his greatness.29 Again, in Isa 48:15 we find a similar phrase with a double ‫אני אני‬, “I, I,” in a context where YHWH claims that it is he and no one else who brings about the new events at hand. If the sole point of the statement in Isa 43:25 was ‫למעני‬, “for my own sake,” as Westermann argues, there would be no reason to emphasise ‫אנכי‬.30 Rather the proclamation combines two points: the more prominent one, “I am the one who wipes out your sins and no other god does that,” and the following one, “I do that for my own sake, not because of your righteousness or your many sacrifices.” Why does YHWH do that for his own sake? The answer to this seems to lie elsewhere in Isa 40–55: YHWH does not share his honour with other gods (Isa 42:8 and 48:11).31 _____________ 25 My translation. 26 For the different functions of repetition see Watson, Classical Hebrew, 278–9. 27 Joüon and Muraoka, Grammar, § 154 j. Cf. also GKC § 141 h. 28 Muraoka, Emphatic Words, 72. 29 We find here both an expression with the copula ‫אני הוא( הוא‬, “I am he/the one,” Isa 43:10, 13), and a repetition of ‫( אנכי אנכי‬Isa 43:11). 30 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 133. 31 We have earlier said that v. 25 shows similarity with the passages of self-prediction in Isa 40–55. It is interesting to note that a number of these passages clearly present the contrast between YHWH and other gods (Isa 43:10–13; 44:6, 24–28; 45:5, 18, 22; 46:9).

Accusations against the Israelites

39

Fourthly, the wording of the final verse of this pericope claims that has delivered Jacob to ‫חרם‬, “banishment, utter destruction,” and this reinforces this argument further. This term can be found primarily in contexts of war and extermination, especially in the accounts of Joshua’s conquest of Canaan.32 In addition, ‫ חרם‬was prescribed as a punishment for the crime of apostasy from YHWH (Exod 22:19; Lev 27:29; Deut 7:25–26; 13:13–19 etc.).33 Thus, Jeremiah uses the term in a context where he utters the doom over Judah for her sins, particularly of idolatry (Jer 25:1–14). In Isa 43:28 ‫ חרם‬comes as a result of the deeply rooted actions of ‫חטא‬, “to err, to sin,” and ‫פשׁע‬, “to rebel,” that Israel committed against YHWH (v. 27). The word ‫ חטא‬indicates a wide range of transgressions, which basically have to do with an “injury to a communal relationship.”34 In this context the relationship between Israel and YHWH has been injured and this has led to severe consequences for the community. The word ‫ פשׁע‬comes in contexts where the sovereignty of YHWH is disputed by the people (Isa 46:8, 48:8) and where the people has turned away from YHWH (Isa 50:1, 53:3), thus rebelling against him. Again the implication of idolatry, however indirect, is quite noticeable in this context. All this leads to the conclusion that Isa 43:22–28 focuses on the problem of turning away from YHWH. Thus, North suggests that a different god had become the object of the people’s worship.35 Koole, on the other side, rejects this reading since the rest of the pericope does not speak about gods.36 The fact that the gods are not explicitly mentioned does not rule out the possibility of implication. The problem might not have been the active move from YHWH to other god/gods, but the passive move away from YHWH, suggesting that “the people was tired of its relationship with YHWH.”37 Since atheism or life in a spiritual vacuum was hardly an option in ancient times, the void created by such a move had to be filled by other deities. I will consider the implications and the nature of idolatry in Isa 40–55 later in this study. YHWH

_____________ 32 For a survey of the meaning and usage, see Lohfink, “‫חרם‬,” TDOT 5. 33 “The h 0 ërem can hit somebody as punishment, especially for idolatry,” see Schoors, God Your Saviour, 196. 34 Knierim, “‫חטא‬,” TLOT 1, 409. Cf. also the confession of sin in Isa 42:24. 35 North, Second Isaiah, 128. 36 Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 340. See also Booij, “Negations,” 399. Booij argues that the contrast should rather be seen between the outward appearance, demonstrated through the sacrificial cult, and the inner reality, the sinful character of the people. I agree with Booij, but, for the reasons stated above, I believe that there is an indirect critique of the people’s attitude to the Babylonian cult. 37 Goldingay, “Isaiah 43,” 177.

40

Sin, Repentance and Transformation

To sum up, the main point of the prophet’s argument is concerned with the YHWH-related shortcomings of his fellow men; with their failure to make an effort to understand the ways of , and maybe also with their tendency to turn to other gods. The proclaimed forgiveness, which marks the end of the exile, is not motivated by the change of the attitude of the people. YHWH had to find motivation in himself (cf. Isa 54:6–10).38

3.1.2

Isaiah 46:8–13

There has been much discussion among scholars concerning the division and the arrangement of the units in Isa 46. Thus, some have proposed a similar but not an identical division of the chapter based mostly on the thematic differences between these units.39 Marjo Korpel and Johannes de Moor follow the markers of major division in the textual tradition, dividing the chapter after the verses 2, 4, 7, 11, 13, and this pattern is also followed by other scholars.40 Since this division is supported by the MT and by most of the versions, I will also follow it in the analysis below.41 Since the present study deals primarily with the ideas of sin, repentance and deliverance, it will be sufficient to look closely at those parts of the chapter which touch on these issues. Isaiah 46 is relevant almost in its entirety. The first unit, verses 1–4, can be described as a speech of salvation, assuring the exiles that their God will carry them throughout the present difficulties. The contrast between Israel’s God, who carries his people, and the gods of Babylon, which have to be carried by their people, is fully exploited. Verse 5 marks a beginning of a disputation, focusing on the absurdity of idol worship, and thus connecting with the previous theme. Since verses 5–7 belong to a group of passages about the production of idols, I will discuss those verses under a later heading. For now, only verses 8–13 remain, and they will be the subject of a _____________ 38 It seems that the only change which occurred in the exile is the change within YHWH: just as in the days of Noah, the emotion that forced him to reject the people has now turned into eternal fidelity (cf. Gen 8:21–22). 39 Thus Clifford proposes a division marker to be put after vv. 4, 7, and 13, Clifford, Fair Spoken, 130; Westermann after vv. 4, 8, 13, Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 177, 182, 183; Melugin after vv. 4, 11, 13, Melugin, Formation, 131. 40 Korpel and de Moor base their division on the setumot, placed after each of these verses, see Korpel and de Moor, Structure, 327–8. Thus Muilenburg, “The Book of Isaiah,” 416, Franke, Isaiah, 82, and Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 263–70. 41 The authenticity of parts of this chapter has been questioned and scholars have proposed different solutions to the problem. For a brief overview, see Koole’s introduction to the chapter Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 504–6.

Accusations against the Israelites

41

closer investigation. As we have seen above Isa 46:8–13 is divided into two units, verses 8–11 and verses 12–13, which I will discuss separately. 3.1.2.1 8 9

10

11

Isaiah 46:8–11

Remember this and be ashamed,a recall it to mind, you transgressors, remember the former things of old; for I am God, and there is no other; I am God, and there is no one like me, declaring the end from the beginning and from ancient times things not yet done, saying, “My purpose shall stand, and I will fulfil my intention,” calling a bird of prey from the east, the man for my purposeb from a far country. I have spoken, and I will bring it to pass; I have planned, and I will do it.42

There is a certain disagreement regarding the place of verse 8 in the context. The discussion has centred around the question whether this verse should be seen as part of the preceding unit (Isa 46:5–7), or of the following one (Isa 46:9–11), or if it should be deleted from the text altogether.43 Korpel and de Moor stress the fact that major division markers in the text connect verse 8 with verses 9–11. That division would mean that verse 8 starts a new pericope and a new theme.44 In this light the following picture develops: the section starts with imperatives in the second person plural (vv. 8–9a), continues with a self predication (v. 9b) and a regular pattern of participles which all describe YHWH (vv. 10–11a). The section finishes with verbs in the first person singular which proclaim that YHWH’s decision will become effective (v. 11b). A rich parallelism is present throughout the unit and also a regular pattern of stress. _____________ 42 Textual remarks: a) My translation. The hapax, Hitpolel of ‫אשׁשׁ‬, is unintelligible as it stands. A number of emendations have been proposed. From Arabic word asassa and bibl. Aramaic ‫אשׁשׁ‬, “found, establish,” comes the reading “be firm, be firmly established.” Possibly also a cognate of Akkadian as‡aìs‡u III, “to be distressed,” “be aggrieved, angry.” See Black, George and PostgateBlack, George and Postgates, Concise Dictionary, 27. LXX reads στενα´ξατε, “groan,” and Vulg. reads fundamini, which reflects change of the Hebrew consonants into ‫והתבשׁשׁו‬, “be ashamed.” b) Q, ‫עצתי‬, “my purpose,” fits the context better then K, ‫עצתו‬, “his purpose.” 43 For a survey, see Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 510–12. 44 Korpel and de Moor, Structure, 328. Cf. also Clifford, Fair Spoken, 130–2.

42

Sin, Repentance and Transformation

Most scholars agree that the genre of the pericope is that of a disputation.45 At the same time, as we have seen in the previous text, the genre is not pure. Thus, Westermann rightly observes elements of a trial speech in this pericope.46 On the other hand, the imperatives of verse 8 (and later v. 12) give this utterance a character of the exhortation genre. Thus, Tångberg suggests that the imperatives should be seen as Aufmerksamkeitsrufe, which the prophet employs in order to emphasise his argument.47 I conclude, with Melugin, that the genre of the unit is best understood as a free creation of the prophet, composed in “the style of disputation” with several other elements included.48 Whom does the prophet address and what is his main concern? The addressees are not explicitly described, but the speech is directed to ‫פושׁעים‬, “sinners, rebels” (v. 8b), which indicates that the prophet probably addresses the exiles.49 Principally, this view is based on two observations. First, as we shall see later in this study, when the prophet addresses the nations he never raises the question of their sin in terms of ‫ חטא‬or ‫פשׁע‬, but speaks to them in general terms of folly or in terms of their lack of insight. The reverse is true in the cases where the exiles are addressed. Secondly, when YHWH, through the prophet, engages in a disputation he only does so with the exiles and never with the nations.50 In similar cases, the nations are always addressed through trial speeches.51 This speech could therefore hardly be aimed at any others, but only at the prophet’s own people. The question now arises about the reason why the people are described as ‫פושׁעים‬. The prophet uses this word in those contexts that accuse the exiles of a rebellion against YHWH (Isa 43:24; 48:8; 50:1; 53:3). The context of verse 8 sustains this view. Isaiah 46:1–4, 5–7 refers to the folly of idol worship and to the absurdity of any comparison between YHWH and the idols. Correspondingly, verse 9b states: “For I am God and there is no other; I am God and there is no one like me.” Thus, the demonstrative pronoun ‫ זוח‬in verse 8a connects the preceding unit with the following, thus clearly expressing the contrast between the idols, fabricated and inactive (vv. 1–7), and YHWH, who both speaks and acts (vv. 9–11, cf. Isa 44:21).52 The imperative ‫זכר‬, “remember,” urges the _____________ 45 Begrich, Studien, 45, Whybray, Isaiah, 116 and Schoors, God Your Saviour, 273–8. 46 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 184. 47 Tångberg, Die prophetische Mahnrede, 116. 48 Melugin, Formation, 35. 49 Thus also Snaith, “Isaiah 40–66,” 186. 50 Thus Stuhlmueller, Creative Redemption, 202. 51 See Isa 41:1–5, 21–29; 43:8–13; 44:6–8 and 45:18–21. 52 The function of the pron. has been discussed, cf. Schoors, God Your Saviour, 277. In Isa 44:21 the demonstrative pron. connects the idol-production passage in Isa 44:9–20

Accusations against the Israelites

43

exiles to think of the folly of idol worship, and to realise that only YHWH, only their God, has power to accomplish what he has predicted, namely to bring salvation to Israel.53 Because of the people’s disregard for YHWH and because of their inclination to worship other gods, the prophet calls for a new Gottesverhältnis.54 Later in this study I will return to the question of the exact nature of the people’s relationship to those other gods. Two of the imperatives are particularly interesting: ‫ התאשׁשׁו‬and ‫( השׁיבו על לב‬v. 8). Being a hapax, the imperative ‫התאשׁשׁו‬, has presented as many difficulties as possible solutions.55 Schoors proposes the meaning “be strong,” derived from the Aramaic root ‫אשׁשׁ‬, “establish, found.”56 The word has also been rendered as a denominative form of ‫אישׁ‬, “man,” which in this context would mean “to be a man, to behave like a man,” a solution that in my opinion fits less well in the context of Isa 46.57 Finally, Baltzer proposes to replace the consonant ‫ שׁ‬with a double ‫ר‬, resulting in the root ‫ארר‬,58 which in Hitpael means “to lay curse on oneself.” Indeed a threat of a self-curse through one’s own actions is sufficiently repelling to make the addressees cease their worship of idols. Yet, in my opinion this emendation makes little sense since an urge to think of the folly of idol worship would naturally be followed by an urge to end the curse on oneself rather than to enforce it even further. When emending this word, it is important to take into account the literary structure and the line parallelism of verse 8. Thus Koole argues that the structure of that verse shows a connection between ‫זכר‬, “remember,” and ‫שׁוב על לב‬, literary, “return to heart,” as well as between ‫פושׁעים‬, “transgressors,” and ‫התאשׁשׁו‬, and concludes thus that the word must mean “something like ‘repent.’”59 In this respect the change of the verb to Hebrew ‫ התבושׁשׁו‬meaning “to be ashamed before one another,” seems to fit the context quite well.60 It seems that the prophet wants his

53

54 55 56 57 58 59 60

with the following exhortation (Isa 44:21–22). Holter rightly stresses the fact that the similarity between these passages can hardly be accidental, see Holter, IdolFabrication, 227–8. See Eising, “‫זכר‬,” TDOT 4, 69, Eising stresses the importance of remembrance for maintaining the relationship: “Thus remembrance of God and the obedience it implies are experienced as a vitally necessary relationship, from which a man cannot and must not escape.” Cf. Schottroff, ‘Gedenken’, 142. For suggested readings see Franke, Isaiah, 50–52 and Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 511. Cf. also North, Second Isaiah, 162. Schoors, God Your Saviour, 274–5. Leene, “Isaiah,” 112–13. Thus also Korpel and de Moor, Structure, 307. Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 261. Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 511–12. Thus Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 182.

44

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audience to react in a way that demonstrates their insight and an awareness of the wrong choices which they have made. The second imperative supports this understanding of the word. The expression ‫שׁוב על לב‬, (Hiphil imp.) occurs only here in this exact formation.61 The meaning is context-bound, but the general understanding of the expression is “to realise, to think about, to take something to heart.”62 In 1 Kgs 12:27 and in Mal 3:24, the expression refers to the reestablishment of the relationship between the subject and the object of the turn of heart.63 The only other instance where a similar expression is used in Deutero-Isa, in Isa 44:19, where the expression refers to the folly of those that do not realise the emptiness of idolworship, is also notable. Following that, the prophet uses the same vocabulary, urging the exiles to consider and to repent (Isa 44:21–22, ‫זכר‬ and ‫)שׁוב‬. Thus, in Isa 46:8, the rebellion against YHWH which seems to imply some kind of trust in idols, is the problem, which the exiles need to realise and to turn away from. Verse 9a repeats the admonition to remember former things,64 and verse 9b underlines the absolute sovereignty of YHWH. When a selfpredication is used in disputations and trial speeches, there is an emphasise on the polarity between YHWH and other gods (Isa 43:11–13; 45:18, 21).65 In Isa 40–55, it implies that YHWH is the one to be trusted, _____________ 61 A similar expression is used elsewhere in the OT, in cases where the prep. ‫ על‬is replaced by the prep. ‫( אל‬1 Kgs 8:47; Isa 44:19; Lam 3:21), or in cases where the prep. is entirely omitted (1 Kgs 12:27; Mal 3:24). For the correspondence in meaning between the two prepositions, see Joüon and Muraoka, Grammar, § 133 b. 62 Cf. Graupner, “‫ שׁוב‬,” TDOT 14, 474. 63 The context in 1 Kgs 8:47 where the expression ‫ והשׁיבו אל לבם‬, is put in a context of Solomon’s prayer for the future of his people is also interesting. When YHWH delivers the Israelites into the exile because of their sins, and when they return to him with all their heart, they will be heard and redeemed by YHWH. When the prophet uses almost identical expression in Isa 46:8, he stresses again the fact that the turn of heart back to YHWH is closely associated with deliverance. However, in Isa 40–55, deliverance is proclaimed as if it had already been carried out. 64 North believes that ‫ מעולם‬, “of old,” refers to the event of the exodus, when a different oppressor, Egypt, was defeated by YHWH for Israel’s sake, North, Second Isaiah, 166. Interestingly, in Isa 43:18 the exiles are urged not to remember the former things. The difference lies in the context. 65 Melugin, Formation, 33–34 also points out the possibility of the influence of Egyptian and Mesopotamian hymns of self-praise on the praises in Isa 40–55. In his study of the theological function of self-praises, self-predications and YHWH’s statement of identity, Meindert Dijkstra shows that the influence does not necessarily need to come from the Babylonian literature, but could have been brought from Israelite religious tradition prior to the exile, see Dijkstra, Gods voorstelling, 429–30. In the review of the book, Whybray wrote: “One of the most interesting features of this book is the demonstration that the predicative expressions in Deutero-Isaiah, whether in I-

Accusations against the Israelites

45

and not other gods, to which the exiles might have been tempted to turn. Verses 10–11 reinforce the power of YHWH’s words by which he controls history. It is here that we find the final point, namely the fact that the things of which YHWH has spoken will occur, regardless of the circumstances. Verses 10–11 proclaim that YHWH’s plans and words will always be realised. This means that the forthcoming salvation of the exiles is already in progress. To sum up, in Isa 46:8–11, the prophet urges his people to make a change in their relationship with YHWH. They seem to have turned in awe to other deities, not realising the greatness of their God and not believing the message of their coming deliverance. Two interesting conclusions can be drawn from this unit. First, deliverance of the people is being realised independently of their actions. Secondly, the proclaimed salvation is expected to motivate the people to turn to YHWH in trust: because YHWH’s word is reliable (vv. 8–9). We shall further discuss the implications of these conclusions later in this study. 3.1.2.2 12 13

Isaiah 46:12–13

Listen to me, you stubborna of heart, you who are far from righteousnessb: I bring near my righteousnessc, it is not far off, and my salvation will not tarry; I will put salvation in Zion, for Israel my glory.66

The last unit of Isa 46 calls attention to the imminence of YHWH’s salvation for Zion/Jerusalem. The utterance seems to belong to a genre of salvation speech, especially verse 13, forming a good epilogue to the preceding disputation.67 Yet the negative tone of the opening line disturbs the purity of the genre and therefore deserves some attention. There has been some discussion among scholars regarding the understanding of the expression ‫אבירי לב‬, “the stout-hearted, the stubborn of heart.” According to some scholars, such a harsh expression fits badly into the context of the salvation oracle, which is why the verse should be read differently. The most favoured emendation is the one

66

67

style or he-style, are not mere ornaments but themselves carry the prophetic message,” Whybray, review of Dijkstra, 678. Textual remarks: a) LXX reads ‫אבדי‬, “dejected in heart.” MT fits the context better, see the discussion below. b) Against NRSV I read, ‫ מצדקה‬as “from righteousness,” not “from deliverance,” see the discussion below. c) My reading. Cf. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 184–6 and Schoors, God Your Saviour, 151.

46

Sin, Repentance and Transformation

proposed by LXX, namely ‫אבדי לב‬, “dejected in heart.”68 Such a change of the text is connected with the understanding of the word ‫( צדקה‬v. 12), which denotes “deliverance.” Through this reading, the tone of the verse is softened to fit the encouraging style of the salvation oracle, in which the exiles are addressed as “you dejected in heart, you who are far from deliverance.”69 In my understanding, such a softening is not preferable in the present context. Isaiah 46:12–13 demonstrates quite well what can be seen throughout Isa 40–55, namely that the prophet reshapes the traditional genres to fit the new situation.70 The reading proposed by MT is in line with the message of the preceding speeches in this chapter: the expression ‫אבירי לב‬, “stout-hearted,” in verse 12a refers to those who are strong in themselves, those who do not realise the fact that YHWH is greater than the gods.71 The negative tone of the utterance fits the general tone of Isa 46 as well as its immediate context. The interpretation of the parallel phrase in verse 12b “far from righteousness,” depends on the interpretation of the word ‫צדקה‬. On account of frequent parallelism between ‫ צדקה‬and the root ‫( ישׁע‬Isa 45:8; 51:5, 6, 8 etc.) as well as the parallelism in verse 13 between ‫ צדקה‬and ‫תשׁועה‬, scholars generally agree that ‫ צדקה‬has a soteriological meaning here, and therefore it “must coincide with salvation.”72 A different understanding of the word is suggested by Whitley who renders the meaning of the word to be “‘divine rule,’ ‘divine influence’ or ‘conditions acceptable to the divine will.’”73 Consequently, he translates Isa 46:12 as “‘Hearken unto me, ye stubborn of heart, who are far…from divine influence.’”74 In my view, Whitley’s interpretation suits the context better. Although Isa 40–55 often uses the term ‫ צדקה‬as a designation of YHWH’s activity on the behalf of the people, which in general comprises deliverance (ex. Isa 54:17), in a few instances ‫ צדקה‬comprises _____________ 68 Thus Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 185. See also Whybray, Isaiah, 117 “(you who have) lost heart.” 69 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 185. 70 Melugin describes the pericope as “a free creation of Deutero-Isaiah,” Melugin, Formation, 132. 71 Cf. Kapelrud, “‫אביר‬,” TDOT 1, 43. The only other instance where the expression is used is in Ps 76:6 with a negative connotation describing those that in pride go against YHWH. 72 Schoors, God Your Saviour, 152. Cf. also Whybray, Isaiah, 117–18 and Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 185–6. North stresses the fact that even if we translate the word ‫ צדקה‬as “deliverance,” it does not necessarily refer to the physical salvation of the people from the exile in Babylon. Thus he concludes: “Nor must we forget that DI was as concerned for the moral and spiritual reformation of his people as he was for their deliverance from Babylon,” North, Second Isaiah, 208. 73 Whitley, “Deutero-Isaiah’s Interpretation,” 475. 74 Whitley, “Deutero-Isaiah’s Interpretation,” 475.

Accusations against the Israelites

47

other connotations. Thus, in Isa 48:1, ‫ צדקה‬is connected to the sincerity and the veracity of the people.75 Likewise, in Isa 51:1–8 we find an accumulation of the words ‫צדק‬/‫ צדקה‬which refer to attitudes of some individuals among the people towards ‫צדקה‬. ‫ שׁמעו אלי רדפי צדק‬Listen to me, you that pursue righteousness, ‫ מבקשׁי יהוה‬You that seek YHWH! (Isa 51:1a) ‫ שׁמעו אלי ידעי צדק‬Listen to me, you who know righteousness, ‫ עם תורתי בלבם‬you people who have my teaching in your hearts! (Isa 51:7a)

Knowing and seeking righteousness implies concerning oneself with YHWH.76 Commenting on the understanding of ‫ צדקה‬in Isa 51:1–8, Olley concludes: “The emphasis is soteriological, but with a secondary emphasis on Israel’s need to continue in trusting obedience of Yahweh.”77 This leads me to conclude, especially considering the theme of Isa 46, that when Isa 46:12 proclaims that the people are stubborn and far from righteousness, it implies that they are far from YHWH’s influence, far from concerning themselves with the fact that YHWH is the only God who can bring deliverance. Verse 13 forms a powerful contrast: YHWH does not wait for the people to change, but seeks to re-establish the relationship by fulfilling his part of the engagement. To sum up, the last unit of Isa 46 further corroborates the conclusions stated above: even for those among the people who do not concern themselves with YHWH, the announced deliverance is carried out and that makes the reestablishment of the relationship between YHWH and his people possible.

_____________ 75 The term is also used in reference to Cyrus (Isa 41:2), where, as North rightly observes, it aims at “righteousness as vindicated, i.e. ‘victory’, ‘prosperity,’” North, Second Isaiah, 93. 76 In the words of von Rad: “It is the standard not only for man’s relationship to God, but also for his relationship to his fellows,” von Rad, Theology 1, 370, see also pp. 371–83. In the second volume of Old Testament Theology, von Rad argues that, in the exilic period, “the possibility of men’s ‫ ”צדקה‬was one of the major issues dealt with, von Rad, Theology 2, 267. 77 Olley, ‘Righteousness’, 99.

48

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3.1.3 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Isaiah 48:1–11

Hear this, O house of Jacob, who are called by the name of Israel, and who came forth from the loinsa of Judah; who swear by the name of YHWH, and invoke the God of Israel, but not in truth or right. For they call themselves after the holy city, and lean on the God of Israel; YHWH of hosts is his name. The former things I declared long ago, they went out from my mouth and I made them known; then suddenly I did them and they came to pass. Because I know that you are obstinate, and your neck is an iron sinew and your forehead brass, I declared them to you from long ago, before they came to pass I announced them to you, so that you would not say, “My idolb did them, my carved image and my cast image commanded them.” You have heard; now see all this; and will you not declare it? From this time forward I make you hear new things, hidden things that you have not known.c They are created now, not long ago; before today you have never heard of them, so that you could not say, “I already knew them.” You have never heard, you have never known, from of old your ear has not been opened.d For I knew that you would deal very treacherously, and that from birth you were called a rebel. For my name’s sake I defer my anger, for the sake of my praise I hold backe for you, so that I may not cut you off. See, I have refined you, but not for silver;f I have tested youg in the furnace of affliction.

Accusations against the Israelites

11

49

For my own sake, for my own sake, I do it, for how should I be profaned?h My glory I will not give to another.78

Isaiah 48 can roughly be divided into two main parts: verses 1–11 and verses 12–22. Each of these parts is characterised by a thematic unity, and the first part contains direct accusations against the people, while the second refers to the matters concerning the approaching deliverance from captivity in Babylon. Given the aim of the present investigation, only the first part of the chapter will be discussed. Isaiah 48:1–11 is placed between the oracle against Babylon (Isa 47), and the proclamation that Cyrus, the one whom YHWH loves, will execute YHWH’s plan against Babylon successfully (Isa 48:14–15). The harsh tone and the hard words of the unit present a culmination of the accusations against the people. The rigour, by which the people are addressed, has led many scholars to doubt the authenticity of this unit. The uneven literary structure and grammatical tensions within the text have further sustained this view. Considering the great number of proposed readings of Isa 48:1–11, this unit has rightly been understood as one of the more difficult texts in biblical criticism.79 A number of scholars, who see the text as a work of a later hand, reconstruct the unit by presenting alternative readings of the text. Thus, _____________ 78 Textual remarks: a) MT “from waters” seems to be strained in the context (BHSapp!). The emendation ‫וממעי‬, “from the loins,” is to prefer, cf. ex. Gen 15:4; 2 Sam 7:12 and Isa 48:19. b) MT vocalisation need not be altered as some manuscripts suggest (BHSapp!). North contends that MT vocalisation confirms to the vocalisation of ‫בשׁת‬, “shame(full thing),” North, Second Isaiah, 177. c) The double change of address from 2nd per. sg. to 2nd per. pl. is not reflected in the English translation. The proposed emendations concentrate on the word ‫ואתם‬, “and you,” changing it to ‫ואמת‬, “and the truth,” or ‫אתם‬, “them,” (BHSapp!), but MT is acceptable and should be retained. d) The pass. Qal form of the word ‫פתח‬, “open,” suggested by some MSS (BHSapp!), suits the context better. e) The hapax ‫ חתם‬should probably be understood as “restrain, hold back,” with ‫אפי‬, “my anger,” in the previous line as object, sustaining the parallelism of the verse. In line with this, ‫לך‬, “for you,” should be understood as dativus commodi expressing that YHWH is restraining his fury to the people’s advantage, see Joüon and Muraoka, Grammar, § 133 d. f) I read “for silver” (cf. Isa 52:3), meaning that YHWH has melted his people “but not for any silver that has accrued to him from the process!” North, Second Isaiah, 179. g) I read with 1QIsaa ‫בחנתיכה‬, “I have tested you,” for MT ‫בחרתיכה‬, “I have chosen you”: YHWH has tested his people through the affliction of the exile. h) The 1QIsaa reading, 1st per. Niphal ‫איחל‬, “I be profaned,” is the most intelligible. LXX reading adding ‫שׁמי‬, “my name,” to the text might reflect the original reading: “how should my name be profaned,” see Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 286. 79 Elliger calls this unit “ein Schmerzenskind der Auslegung,” Elliger, Deuterojesaja, 185.

50

Sin, Repentance and Transformation

Begrich delineates the fusion of two originally separate units.80 Although plausible, such a delimitation does not succeed in producing coherent units. Schoors deliminates the authentic part of this pericope on the basis of the interruption of rhythm (v.1c), repetition and redundancy (v. 2), the occurrence of hapax (v. 4) or expressions which he understands to be strange to Deutero-Isa (vv. 8b–10).81 However, as we have seen earlier, breaking the rules of form seems to be characteristic of Deutero-Isaiah’s poetic style. Thus Melugin, recognising the complexity of this pericope, sees its elements as “delicately balanced” and as such as “a free creation of Deutero-Isaiah,” separated from its context by its content.82 Melugin’s view of the chapter as thematically coherent is supported by other scholars, such as North, Snaith, Spykerboer, Muilenburg, Clifford, Gitay, Koole.83 According to these scholars, the unity of the text rests on the grounds of repetition of key words, the position of the words, the strophic structure of the poem and the logical development of thought within the text. Finally, Westermann proposes a division of the text based on the theme. He singles out the last clause of verse 1, verses 4, 5b, 7b and 8– 10b as additions to the unit, made by a later hand. According to Westermann, these lines have the purpose of preaching judgement or repentance, and as such they seem strange compared to the immediate context, to the rest of chapter 48, and to the general purpose of Deutero-Isa.84 Other scholars advocate a similar understanding of the unit. Thus, Labahn concludes that the unit has been subsequently reworked in a way that differs from the “ursprünglichen Aussageintention,” while Blenkinsopp argues that these parts of the unit are “difficult if not impossible to reconcile with the outlook, the tone, and even the _____________ 80 The remainder of a second text, according to Begrich, is fragmentary, comprising Isa 48:4, 5, 6b, 7, 8, 9, 10, and leaving only Isa 48:3, 6a, 11 as authentic, while verses 1–2 are too complicated to unravel, see Begrich, Studien, 171–2. For a review of the verses considered as secondary by scholarship up to Westermann’s time see Schoors, God Your Saviour, 285. 81 Schoors, God Your Saviour, 283–92. 82 Melugin, Formation, 40–41. 83 North, Second Isaiah, 174–6, Snaith, “Isaiah 40–66,” 173–5. Snaith argues that the addressees of the unit are the non-exiled inhabitants of Jerusalem, since the main object of the unit is to stress the exclusiveness of the exiled community. See further Muilenburg, “Book of Isaiah,” 552–3, Clifford, Fair Spoken, 142–5, Gitay, Prophecy, 215–18. For a survey of the research see Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 553–4. 84 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 196. See also Westermann, Sprache und Struktur, 68–73 and Westermann, “Jesaja 48,” ad loc. Cf. also Whybray, Isaiah, 126–30. In a recent commentary, Blenkinsopp follows Westermann, rejecting these verses as a work of “a disillusioned scribe reflecting a later and less-promising situation,” Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 288.

Accusations against the Israelites

51

religious vocabulary of the ‘prophet of consolation.’”85 These understandings, in turn, are based on a presupposition about the general purpose of Isa 40–55, which I must call into question. First, what is the original intention, the tone and the outlook of the prophet? Taking out all the negative remarks and accusations against the Israelites from Isa 40–55 runs the risk of reading “too little” in the text, and thus to reflect the intention and the outlook of the interpreter rather than that of the prophet. North makes a good point observing that “it is difficult to see what motive an editor could have in turning his mildness into harshness, especially when the general tendency was to tone down the asperities of the prophets.”86 Secondly, we have seen earlier that the harsh tone of the accusations, present throughout Isa 40–55, aims at both preexilic and exilic Israel, and can even appear in a context of an oracle of salvation (Isa 46:12–13). The view of the present study is as follows: Although it is difficult to defend the authenticity of the unit when all the above objections are considered together, the original text could hardly have contained only the positive message of YHWH’s ability to predict the future, and the editor would severely have violated the text by adding the harsh utterances of an accusation. It is more likely that the secondary additions, whichever they are, said nothing essentially different than what was already said in the basic text.87 In either case, the accusations had to be understood against the larger context of the proclamation of deliverance. Consequently, an exploration of the content and the function of the accusation against the people in this unit and relating it to the message of deliverance, is both justified and called for. Now we turn to Isa 48:1–11 with the following questions in mind: What is the central point the prophet tries to make? What is the exact nature of the accusations? How do the accusations relate to the message of deliverance? Isaiah 48:1–2 opens the entire section by summoning the people to “hear this!”88 The prophet uses a similar emphatic address to introduce a longer speech of particular importance.89 The people seems to have identified themselves proudly as standing in a close relationship with YHWH: they are called Israel, they come from Juda, they swear by the _____________ 85 Labahn, Wort Gottes, 207 and Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 290. See also Schmitt, “Prophetie und Schultheologie,” 52–53, and Albertz, Israel in Exile, 417. 86 North, Second Isaiah, 175. 87 Thus, Schoors sees even verse 5b as a part of the basic core of the text, Schoors, God Your Saviour, 287. Cf. also North, Second Isaiah, 175–6. 88 Here I follow the canticle delimitation proposed by Korpel and De Moor (vv. 1–2, 3– 5, 6–8, 9–11). See Korpel and de Moor, Structure, 394–6. 89 See Isa 44:1; 46:3; 47:8; 48:1, 12; 51:1, 4, 7. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 196.

52

Sin, Repentance and Transformation

name of YHWH and invoke him. Then comes the blow: they do all that, but they do it falsely! The phrase ‫לא באמת ולא בצדקה‬, “not in truth and not by right,” is a double-duty phrase that modifies both verse one and verse two and refers to the totality of Israel’s identity as described in these verses.90 Every one of the lines describes Israel in her special relationship to YHWH: the names Jacob, Israel and Judah, and the actions of swearing by, invoking and relying on YHWH, the God of Israel, YHWH of hosts. Through her attitude, Israel seems to have caused serious disturbance to this relationship.91 Thus, the last line of the first verse seems to function as a marker of the crucial point of the unit: to contrast the people’s opinion of themselves with YHWH’s understanding of who they really are (see below on v. 8).92 The next section, Isa 48:3–5, starts the message proper. The main object of concern seems to be the reason why YHWH was careful in predicting the future for Israel. The expression ‫הראשׁנות‬, “the first things,” is well used in Deutero-Isa, usually as a reference to things of the past in general (Isa 41:22; 42:9; 43:9, 18). Here, just like in Isa 46:9, the expression refers to YHWH’s former deeds which have been manifested before Israel’s eyes.93 The point of argument here is not the content of YHWH’s predictions, but the fact that he had to predict before putting it into effect, and that was all for the sake of Israel’s faith. Now the second accusation of the pericope makes a direct link to the first. The adjective ‫קשׁה‬, “obstinate, stubborn,” designates a people who do not yield to YHWH, but constantly rebel against him.94 Well aware of the fact that Israel was a difficult partner to work with, that they had repeatedly failed to live up to the rules of the relationship, YHWH was forced to _____________ 90 Franke describes the switch of tone in v. 1 as irony, see Franke, Isaiah, 173–5. 91 Cf. Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 557–8. 92 The authenticity of the last line of verse one has been called in question. Schoors argues that the word ‫אמת‬, “truth,” is not mentioned anywhere else in Isa 40–55, while the word ‫צדקה‬, “righteousness,” is not used in Isa 40–55 “in the sense of human attitude,” Schoors, God Your Saviour, 286. However, the word ‫ אמת‬is mentioned in Isa 42:3 and 43:9, even though there in a different context. To act in ‫ אמת‬is to act reliably and honestly. In fact, the relationship between YHWH and his people is not possible if it is not based on ‫אמת‬, Jepsen, “‫אמן‬,” TDOT 1, 313–15. See also Johnson, Rättfärdigheten, 45–46. Furthermore, in our analysis of Isa 46:12 we have seen that ‫ צדקה‬is used to describe a divine standard to which the people need to relate. 93 According to Blenkinsopp, the former deeds, “should be understood to refer to such traditions as then existed about Yahveh’s dealings with Israel throughout its history,” Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 272. 94 Interestingly, the expression “stiff-necked” (‫ )קשׁה ערף‬is frequent in the story of the golden calf (Exod 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9; Deut 9:6, 13), indicating that even in Isa 48 the reference to the obstinacy of the people has to do with their rebellion against YHWH. See further Zipor, “‫קשׁה‬,” TDOT 13, 190 and 192. Franke suggests that this vocabulary addresses the problem of idolatry among the exiles, Franke, Isaiah, 182.

Accusations against the Israelites

53

predict every event in history. In the following, a chiastically-structured repetition (v. 5a as parallel to v. 3, and v. 5b as parallel to v. 4) specifies the core of the problem: Israel’s inclination towards idolatry. At this point it is a relevant question to ask whether the prophet speaks of Israel’s pre-exilic idolatry or of her idolatry during the exile. In these particular verses, YHWH speaks primarily of the former, referring to his people’s treacherous past. Thus, YHWH here gives a kind of historical survey of his relationship with Israel up to the present date. This seems to be called for on account of the fact that the sufferings of the people had not resulted in any change of heart (Isa 42:21–25). Thus, the character of the people in Isa 48:4 is described in the way which indicates that their rebellious disposition is intrinsic and present at all times. It seems as if the prophet speaks of their past failures in order to build a solid ground for his main argument: the present unreliability of the people. The following section, verses 6–8, connects to this theme and speaks of predictions and events happening at the present. Verse 6 poses an exegetical problem. The opening verbs ‫שׁמעת‬, “you heard,” and ‫חזה‬, “see!” stand in singular, while the rest of the verse is in plural. Yet as North observes, the change of singular to plural is not uncommon in biblical texts.95 Verse 6a is again a double duty phrase in that it connects the things already said, verses 3–5, and the things about to be said, verses 6b–8. Technically, it appears to be an exclamation of a general logic meaning “if you heard it, then perceive it all,” in the sense of “do not ignore it!” And then, applying this general thought to the audience in the specific situation: “and you, aren’t you going to attest it?” Israel has heard of all these things and should therefore perceive its meaning and then affirm the things that YHWH has done. In this context the meaning of the word ‫( נגד‬Hiphil impf.), embraces a confession of belief and acceptance of the words and deeds of YHWH.96 The new things that YHWH tells of from now on (v. 6b) stand in contrast to the first things spoken of earlier (v. 3a), referring to the new event of salvation at hand. The reason why Israel has not heard of them until now (v. 7a), is her tendency not to recognise these works as the works of YHWH (v. 7b). This thought is chiastically repeated and intensified in verse 8: you have neither heard, nor have you known, nor has your ear been opened. Then the third and even harsher accusation is pronounced: “For I knew that you would deal very treacherously, and that from birth you were called a rebel (‫( ”)פשׁע‬v. 8b). _____________ 95 North, Second Isaiah, 174–5. See also Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 287. 96 Cf. Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 565. For the use of the expression in Isa 40–55 see GarciaLópez, “‫נגד‬,” TDOT 9, 181–2.

54

Sin, Repentance and Transformation

It is here that the core of the argument against the Israelites is fully expressed. Westermann sees in this statement “the most comprehensive and radical” charges against Israel where Israel’s sinfulness is described as a “permanent state.”97 Indeed, even in the present context the words are striking by their harshness. Let us see closely to the words the prophet uses. The expression ‫ בגוד תבגוד‬might suggest a reinforcing sense of “very/altogether treacherous.” But it can also be understood in an iterative sense meaning “you have again and again been treacherous.”98 The prophet seems to follow the tradition according to which the verb ‫ בגד‬is used with reference to the violation of the covenant between YHWH and Israel, of which Jeremiah speaks (Jer 3:6–18), and possibly also Hosea (Hos 6:7 and 8:1).99 To be faithless is to deny YHWH and to not know him (Jer 5:11–12; 9:2, 5), to ignore and to break the established rules of the relationship with YHWH (Jer 3:21),100 and to turn to idols instead (Ps 78:56–58).101 The final line of verse 8 ‫ופשׁע מבטן קרא לך‬, “from birth you were called (you are named) a rebel,” corresponds to verse 1b and reverses the opening line of the unit: the people call themselves Israel (v. 1b), but they are really rebels. The charge of treachery is reinforced by the use of the participle ‫פשׁע‬. The word, as we have seen before, designates the people as rebellious, both by their attitudes and their actions, and this is described as the prevailing circumstances, ever since the beginning of Israel’s relationship with YHWH.102 The fact that the people are described as rebellious at this very moment is a striking feature of these verses: even in exile, their ultimate punishment, the people persevered in such a treacherous attitude. The last unit, verses 9–11, confirms this reading. Having proclaimed that the people were guilty and totally undeserving of any kind of salvation and attention from YHWH, the prophet gives an explanation of the fact that YHWH has come back with salvation. This explanation does not offer any acknowledgement of any merit of the people. On the contrary, the only thing that prevents YHWH from utterly destroying his people is his own glory, his own reputation. The conflict has been elevated to a higher court, to that between YHWH and other gods (cf. Isa 43:25). Verse 10 puts an end to further speculations about the innocence of the people. _____________ 97 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 198. 98 Cf. Joüon and Muraoka, Grammar, § 123 k. 99 Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 569. Whether Hosea was familiar with the covenant or not, is an unsettled issue. 100 Erlandsson, “‫בגד‬,” TDOT 1, 470–1. 101 Thus Franke, Isaiah, 198. 102 Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 570. Deutero-Isa is in agreement with Ezekiel which means that Israel has always been in rebellion against YHWH (Ezek 20:1–31), whereas Jeremiah spoke of a golden age when Israel was faithful to YHWH (Jer 2:1–3).

Accusations against the Israelites

55

They have not been purified through suffering, nor have they learned anything. Therefore, YHWH is compelled to act independently, since his dbk, his “glory,” cannot be put into the hands of an unreliable people. To sum up, we can say that in spite of some difficult exegetical problems, the chapter is well built in terms of the intensification of the argument. The prophet presents the facts of the past, connects them to the analysis of the present state of the people and finishes with a final statement about the reason for the present happenings. The prevailing theme is the unreliability of the people, their rebellion and their implied inclination towards other gods. That the Israelites are guilty of rebellion is established beyond any doubt in this unit. Now, we are left with two major insights. First, the salvation and deliverance that YHWH brings is not motivated by Israel’s obedience or even by her suffering, but by her sinfulness. Secondly, thus motivated, salvation and deliverance expose YHWH’s dependence on his people: it is through them that his power is made manifest, and his honour protected. I will return to these issues later on in this study. First, there is one more text to consider.

3.1.4 1

2

3

Isaiah 50:1–3

Thus says YHWH: Where is your mother’s bill of divorce with which I put her away? Or which of my creditors is it to whom I have sold you? No, because of your sins you were sold, and for your transgressions your mother was put away. Why was no one there when I came? Why did no one answer when I called? Is my hand shortened, that it cannot redeema? Or have I no power to deliver? By my rebuke I dry up the sea, I make the rivers a desert; their fish stink for lack of water, and die of thirst. I clothe the heavens with blackness, and make sackcloth their covering.103

_____________ 103 Textual remarks: a) I read inf. const. ‫מפדות‬, “redeem, rescue,” (BHSapp!), which stylistically corresponds better to the inf. of the last word, ‫להציל‬, “deliver.”

56

Sin, Repentance and Transformation

Westermann counts this pericope among trial speeches that display a confrontation between YHWH and his people (Isa 43:22–28; 42:18–25).104 On account of the argumentative character of the second part (vv. 2b– 3), Melugin argues that this unit should be seen as a disputation mixed with elements of a trial speech.105 There is a disagreement regarding the question of the connection of this unit with its immediate context. Some scholars argue that this unit continues the argument from the preceding unit (Isa 49:24–26),106 while others claim that it belongs with the following Servant Song (Isa 50:4–11).107 However, Melugin rightly observes that, because of its character, this unit differs from its immediate context.108 In this pericope, YHWH defends himself against the accusation that the exile to Babylon was a result of his capriciousness and his weakness. In his counter-argument, YHWH repudiates this accusation, maintaining that he was not responsible for the separation. Scholars have presented different understandings of the implications of the references to divorce and slavery. Thus, Whybray argues that the divorce was only temporal, while Blenkinsopp claims that the divorce was never actually carried out.109 Whatever stand is preferred, it is quite obvious that YHWH is now reclaiming Israel, his family. There is a particular aspect of the answer that YHWH offers, which is of primal interest for this study. Defending himself, YHWH raises charges against the exiles. Two interesting aspects should be emphasised in this context. First, the exiles have only their own attitudes to blame for their fate. The vocabulary is well known by now, the wordpair ‫עון‬, “guilt, iniquity,” and ‫פשׁע‬, “rebellion,” are used to describe this character. We have seen earlier that this vocabulary implies indifference towards YHWH or even a rebellious striving for other masters. What YHWH here says through the prophet is that Israel’s transgressions and not his capriciousness caused the separation. _____________ 104 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 223. Thus also Schoors, God Your Saviour, 197–200. 105 Melugin, Formation, 50–53. 106 Thus Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 313–17. Baltzer divides the unit into two parts: v. 1 continuing the preceding argument, and vv. 2–3 which form a separate unit, Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 333–6. 107 Thus Muilenburg, “Book of Isaiah,” 578–9. Cf. also Koole, Isaiah 49–55, 86–99. 108 Melugin, Formation, 53. Melugin concludes that while the previous units (Isa 49:14– 21; 22–23; 24–26) speak of the future salvation for the people, and the following unit (Isa 50:4–9) expresses the Servant’s confidence in YHWH, Isa 50:1–3 refutes the complaints against YHWH, ibid. pp. 152–6. 109 Whybray, Isaiah, 149, and Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 315. Cf. also Koole, Isaiah 49–55, 88–91.

Accusations against the Israelites

57

Secondly, it is important to pay attention to the question of the guilt of the generation of the exile. Westermann argues that this unit deals with “the sins of Israel as a nation, and not those of the present generation.”110 Clearly, what is offered here is an explanation of the cause of the exile. However, as I said before, the fact that YHWH needed to defend and to explain himself, exposes the disturbing attitude of the people. The blindness of the present generation in the face of their own guilt, in addition to the profound mistrust in YHWH also makes them guilty of rebellion against YHWH.111 This view is supported by YHWH’s charge in verse 2a: he has made efforts for the sake of his people, but he has found no answer.112 Again, scholars differ in their understanding of the reference of this line.113 Even if YHWH refers to his unanswered attempts to establish contacts in the past, he meets the same response, or the same lack of it, in the present. Otherwise there would be no need to defend YHWH’s actions. The lack of trust in YHWH’s ability to redeem is met with the references to YHWH’s sovereignty over nature (vv. 2b–3).114 At the same time, the reference to the reactions of nature itself to YHWH reinforces the absurdness of the people’s indifference to the call of YHWH further. To sum up, we can say that Isa 50:1–3 corroborates the conclusions of the previous units further, namely that while the attitudes of the past generation caused separation from YHWH, the attitudes of the present generation jeopardise the reestablishment of the people’s relationship with their God altogether.

3.1.5

Summary

I have analysed specific aspects of some of the trial-speeches and disputations directed against the exiles. The questions I have tried to answer are concerned with the identity of the accused and the exact nature of _____________ 110 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 224. 111 Cf. North North, Second Isaiah, 198–9. Baltzer rightly points out the following: “DtIsa does not maintain any ideology of a new beginning bought at the price of the suppression and forgetfulness of guilt,” Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 333. 112 There is an interesting parallel between YHWH, who has called Israel but who has not received any answer (Isa 50:2), and the accusation that Israel has not called on YHWH (Isa 43:22). Cf. also the use of ‫ קרא‬in Isa 48:2. 113 For a survey see Koole, Isaiah 49–55, 92–93. 114 Blenkinsopp contends that the destructiveness of YHWH’S word in this text represents “demonstrations of power to intervene decisively in the political arena,” Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 317 (cf. Isa 44:27). See also North, Second Isaiah, Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, and Whybray, Isaiah, ad loc.

58

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the accusation, as well as with the manner in which the accusations are related to the proclamation of salvation in the corpus. Concerning the identity of the accused part, we have found that the analysed passages deal primarily with the rebellious attitude of the generation of the exile. In fact, the prophet concerns himself with the pre-exilic generation only in order to explain the reasons for the exile. However, nowhere in the corpus does he, in any way, refer to any change of attitude in the generation of the exile. On the contrary, the generation of the exile seems to have continued in the footsteps of their fathers. Thus, as far as the question of guilt is concerned, the prophet does not distinguish between pre-exilic Israel and Israel of the exile.115 The exact nature of the accusations against the Israelites is displayed in both a direct and an indirect manner. The direct accusations are expressed by the following attributions: ‫פשׁעים‬, ‫פשׁע‬ ‫אבירי לב‬ ‫הרחוקים מצדקה‬ ‫קשׁה‬ ‫בגוד תבגוד‬

rebels, rebel stout hearted far from righteousness obstinate, stubborn very treacherous

Isa 46:8; 48:8 Isa 46:12 Isa 46:12 Isa 48:4 Isa 48:8

The indirect accusations are concerned with two aspects of the attitude of the people towards YHWH. First, their profound lack of faith and understanding, or even their unwillingness to understand and to accept the ways of YHWH, both in the past and in the present, has been disclosed in the fact that the exiles have accused YHWH of being unfaithful, capricious, unable or unwilling to intervene on behalf of his people. Secondly, the tendency to turn to other gods, which is implied in the terminology of the expressions presented above, has been disclosed in the self-predictions of YHWH (Isa 43:25; 46:9), and even directly stated: “so that you would not say, ‘my idol did them, my carved image and my cast image commanded them’” (Isa 48:5). However, the exact nature and the extent of the idolatry is not clearly stated, and it is important to bear in mind that, in these particular texts, the tendency towards idolatry is, by and large, suggested rather than clearly expressed. Whether this implied fully-fledged participation in the cult of other gods, or “merely” self-centred worship of YHWH is a question that should be discussed, and I will do so under a later heading. _____________ 115 From a different perspective, Knud Jeppesen arrives at the same conclusion: “The important insight is that the guilt is placed upon the present generation,” Jeppesen, “Mother Zion,” 125.

The Calls to Repentance

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The relationship between the accusations of rebellion and the imminent salvation, as presented in these texts, is interesting and unexpected. The reestablishment of the relationship between YHWH and his people, marked by the end of the exile, is presented as YHWH’s initiative. We have seen that such an initiative is motivated by two related facts. First, YHWH’s actions are motivated by his concern for his ‫כבד‬, “glory,” which is somehow jeopardised by the fact that the people are in exile. Whether this is due to the misconduct of his people in exile, or to the fact that his people are exiled, is not really clear. What is quite clear is that in some way, the people have YHWH’s honour in their hands. Secondly, YHWH actions are motivated by the obstinacy of his people. YHWH brings redemption without waiting for the people to change. What is missing in these texts is even more interesting. We might expect that between the harsh accusations, on the one hand, and the proclamations of imminent deliverance, on the other, there would be some kind of reference to a transformation of attitude among the people. However, in these particular texts we find no indication whatsoever that the people have changed their ways. Nor do we find any indication of any possibility that YHWH might impose a change of heart on the people. The path from accusations to salvation, does not, in these particular texts, go through penitence. I will return to this particular issue in a while. First, I will look closer at those texts in Isa 40–55, which appear to exhort the exiles to turn back to their God.

3.2

The Calls to Repentance 3.2.1

21

22

Isaiah 44:21–22

Remember these things, O Jacob, and Israel, for you are my servant; I formed you, you are my servant; O Israel, you will not be forgotten to mea. I have swept away your transgressions like a cloud, and your sins like mist; return to me, for I have redeemed you.116

_____________ 116 Textual remarks: a) Read the Niphal form of ‫נשׁה‬, “forget,” with a dat. suf. 1st per. sg., ‫לא תנשׁני‬, “you will not be forgotten by me.” A reading with acc. suf. is difficult and might suggest a change of the verb into the active reading “you will not forget

60

Sin, Repentance and Transformation

Isaiah 44:21–22 has been regarded, by some scholars, as constituting one single unit with Isa 44:6–8.117 This argument is based on thematic similarities between the verses but primarily on the belief that Isa 44:9– 20 is a later interpolation, which separates the trial speech in 44:6–8 from the salvation oracle in Isa 44:21–22.118 However, there is no need not take out the verses 9–20 in order to understand the position of verses 21–22 in this chapter.119 The passage shows a similarity with the wording in Isa 44:9–20. The verb ‫ יצר‬is used in verses 9, 10, 12 and then again in verse 21b, which suggests a parallelism of thought: other gods are formed by their worshippers in contrast to Israel’s God, YHWH who has formed his people. YHWH is the active part in the relationship, and he says to his people “you are my servant” (v. 21), while the other gods are spoken to by their makers “for you are my god” (v. 17). Likewise, the expression in verse 19a “he does not turn back his heart” (‫)שׁוב‬, recalls the admonition in verse 22b “turn back to me” (‫)שׁוב‬. Thus, although the major points in verses 6–8 are resumed, in a number of details, Isa 44:21–22 does connect directly to the passage about idols in Isa 44:9–20.120 The structure of the genre in Isa 44:21–22 is disputed. Verse 21 begins with an exhortation formed by the imperative to “remember these things.” Then follows a nominal clause as well as clauses with verbs in the perfect tense, which is a style typical of salvation-oracles. This pattern is repeated in verse 22b with the use of another imperative, “return to me,” and with the final assurance, “I have redeemed you.” Westermann argues that the original assurance of salvation was extended by a post-exilic interpolation of the imperatives.121 His argument is based on a specific understanding of the circumstances into which the prophet was speaking. According to Westermann, the people that Deutero-Isa was addressing were not “at the point of turning away

117 118

119

120

121

me,” (BHSapp!). Cf. Merwe, Naudé and Kroeze, Biblical Hebrew, 243. For accusative suffixes with the dative meaning, see Blommerade, Semitic Grammar, 8. Thus Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 138–42, Whybray, Isaiah, 96–98 and Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 234–6. MT connects Isa 44:23 with vv. 21–22 as a hymn that celebrates the fact that YHWH has redeemed his people. However, the verse is not decisive for the understanding of the call to repentance in Isa 44:21–22, and that is why it will not be analysed in this context. The view that vv. 9–20 are a later interpolation is disputed by a number of scholars, as well as by the present study. See Schoors, God Your Saviour, 232–3 and 244–5 and Clifford, “Function,” 460–4. See further chapter four of this study. Thus, Baltzer argues that the unit connects with Isa 44:6–8, thus forming an inclusio of the idol passage, vv. 9–20, Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 205. Cf. also Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 402. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 139–42.

The Calls to Repentance

61

from God and of forgetting his saving activity on their behalf,” a circumstance that would call for such an exhortation.122 Westermann’s argument is not convincing, since there is no textual or contextual support to this premise and the opposite can and should be argued, as I will attempt to show in this study. Whybray sees the unit as a trial speech mixed with elements of the salvation oracle.123 It is beyond doubt that this unit displays elements of the salvation oracle, but Isa 44:21–22 can be seen as a trial speech only if viewed together with Isa 44:6–8. Thus, as Westermann’s and Whybray’s exegesis shows, in order to assign this text into one or the other genre, serious changes are necessary. Although we have seen that the mixture of genre-elements is a common feature in Isa 40–55, in the case of Isa 44:21–22 such a mixture has produced a different result. The pericope contains elements typical of the exhortation genre: an imperative verb form (‫)זכר‬, a vocative (O, Jacob/Israel), a motivation (v. 22a), a second imperative (‫ )שׁוב‬and the final motivation based on the declared state of salvation (‫)גאלתיך‬.124 The assurances of salvation are dominated by the imperatives, which urge the addressees to act.125 Finally, Albertz argues that the unit can be seen as an exhortation, belonging to the earliest collection of texts, which instructed the audience to respond to the promised salvation.126 What, then, is the implication of the present call to repentance? The personal pronoun, which follows the opening imperative (‫)זכר אלה‬, is best understood as anaphoric, referring backwards to what was said before, connecting with the theme of Isa 44:9–20.127 The prophet exhorts Israel to consider and to realise the absurdity of idolatry. The reason why idolatry should be rejected is the fact that the people belong to YHWH: they are Jacob and Israel, YHWH’s servant, created by YHWH who will never give up on them.128 It seems that the people, believing that YHWH has forgotten them, were confused about their identity. In the _____________ 122 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 142. 123 Whybray, Isaiah, 96. 124 For the elements of this speech form, see Raitt, “Prophetic Summons,” 34–35. See also Melugin, Formation, 121, and Tångberg, Die prophetische Mahnrede, 112–13. 125 Tångberg, Die prophetische Mahnrede, 113. Cf. also Schoors, God Your Saviour, 232–3. 126 Albertz, Israel in Exile, 410–12. 127 The scholarly argument concentrates on the question of the aim of the pronoun. In my understanding, the pronoun places the unit in both a narrow and a wide context, referring back to the immediately preceding argument, but probably also to the argument in Isa 44:6–8. Both points of reference are plausible and not mutually exclusive. 128 The conjunction ‫ כי‬here expresses explanatory causality and is translated “for.” See Joüon and Muraoka, Grammar, § 170 a and d.

62

Sin, Repentance and Transformation

light of what was said in Isa 44:9–20, such a confusion was probably strengthened by the massive impact that the Babylonian cult had on the exiled Israelites.129 Thus, the first step in the exhortation is to establish the ground for further discussion: the exiles belong to YHWH. The next step seems to be concerned with the removal of the obstacles to the reestablishment of the relationship. Expressing the transgressions of the people, which YHWH now declares to have been taken away, the prophet uses the word-pair ‫פשׁע‬, “rebellion,” and ‫חטאת‬, “err, sin” (Isa 44:22a). Out of the many instances where this word-pair occurs in the OT, four are found in Isa 40–55 (Isa 43:25, 27; 44:22; and 53:12).130 In these texts, the word-pair refers primarily to conduct that has caused a breach of the relationship with YHWH. The root ‫ פשׁע‬is attested 20 times in the Isaiah and half of them can be found in the 16 chapters of Isa 40–55. In most of these instances the word describes rebellion against YHWH.131 The word ‫ חטאת‬aims at a sin or a transgression connected with the cause of the exile, a transgression that is now declared to have been forgiven.132 Interestingly, in Isa 44:22, as in Isa 43:25, this vocabulary aims primarily at the spiritual redemption of the exiles, demonstrated through the proclamation of the removal of their sin, which is closely connected to redemption from the exile.133 The final step of the process puts the ball into the peoples’ court. The expression ‫שׁובה אלי‬, “return to me,” is crucial in the context. Holladay here sees a specific form of what he calls a “covenantal” usage of the verb ‫שׁוב‬, implying a call to reestablishment of the old relationship between the people and YHWH.134 While we might question the pres_____________ 129 Interestingly, the elements of judgement or rebuke are absent from this text. The prophet employs a different strategy to deal with the negative attitude towards YHWH, which it seems that the people maintained at the time of the end of the exile. 130 Here I refer to the word-pair ‫חטאת‬/‫ חטא‬and ‫פשׁע‬. In the OT the word-pair is used some 30 times. 131 We have seen earlier that Deutero-Isa employs the word in a context where YHWH forgives the rebellions of the people (Isa 43:25), in a context where YHWH’s sovereignty is disputed by the people (Isa 46:8; 48:8), and where the conduct of the people caused the end of their relationship with YHWH (Isa 50:1). See further Isa 53:5, 8, 12. 132 Out of twelve instances found in the Book of Isaiah the word occurs four times in Isa 40–55: Isa 40:2; 43:24, 25; 44:22. The root ‫ חטא‬occurs an additional three times in Isa 40–55: Isa 42:24; 43:27; 53:12. 133 Cf. North, Second Isaiah, 142. We shall return to the question of the relationship between the spiritual and the political deliverance in the concluding chapter of this study. 134 Holladay, Root, 141. Holladay argues that “if this ‘covenantal’ usage is covenantal in more than name – if the usage is really predicated on the assumptions of the covenant (namely, that it was established in the past on the initiative of God), then Qal 10 b means ‘return to God,’ ‘turn back to God’ (to whom one has a prior obligation), not merely ‘change one’s loyalty by turning to God,’” ibid. p. 120.

The Calls to Repentance

63

ence of a “covenantal” idea in Isa 40–55, it is quite clear that the text does imply a renewal of the “old” relationship between YHWH and the people. However, the way in which this re-established relationship develops does not necessarily have to follow the old patterns. Koole, following Wolff, sees a new instance of the exhortation of the pre-exilic prophets here.135 The difference lies in the motivation: the call is based on declared redemption.136 The word ‫גאל‬, “to redeem” (v. 22b), occurs 17 times in Isa 40–55, and generally refers to the redemption of the people from their exile in Babylon.137 The elaboration of this term in Deutero-Isa, where it becomes a characteristic of YHWH, but where it is not necessarily bound to a specific redeeming action, is interesting (Isa 44:6; 48:17).138 Thus, in Isa 44:22, the expression has a triple function. First, it connects with the clarification of the identity of the exiles: they belong to YHWH, who is their closest kin (ptc. ‫)גאל‬. Secondly, it connects with the proclamation of the eradication of the obstacles to the renewed relationship (v. 22a): redemption is not merely political, but also spiritual.139 Thirdly, it is the ultimate demonstration of YHWH’s willingness to revive the relationship. There is nothing more that YHWH can do. From this, we can conclude that the essence of the call to repentance in Isa 44:21–22 is connected with the acceptance of the identity of Israel as YHWH’s servant as well as with an acceptance of the divine initiative to eradicate the guilt. So far, the present study is in agreement with most of the commentaries. However, we need to go further in our understanding of the implications of repentance. The acceptance of YHWH’s deliverance must be based on a consideration of the arguments presented (“remember these things!” v. 21a), and on the insight about their validity and correctness. The prophet would hardly call the people from one blindness to another (cf. Isa 42:18–20). The people are called to participate, independently and voluntary, in the renewal of the relationship: they must gain insight, they must believe and understand (Isa 43:10), but primarily, they must demonstrate their own willingness to re-establish their _____________ 135 Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 406. Cf. also Tångberg, Die prophetische Mahnrede, 113. 136 Wolff sees the call in Isa 44:21–22 as a “Lockruf der Liebe,” see Wolff, “Das Thema,” 144. See also Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 406. Hosea 14:2–4, where the people are called to repentance, is an exception among the exhortations in the pre-exilic prophets of doom. This passage is not based on the threat of judgement, but on assurance of YHWH’s goodwill, see Hunter, “Seek the Lord,” 167–74. 137 See Isa 41:14–16; 43:1–7, 14–15; 44:24–28; 47:4–5; 48:17, 20–21; 49:7–13; 49:24–26; 51:9– 11; 52:1–6; 7–10; 54:1–10. More on this notion in the concluding chapter of this study. 138 Thus Ringgren, “‫גאל‬,” TDOT 2, 355. Cf. also North, Second Isaiah, 99–100 and Mettinger, In Search, 162–6. 139 Thus North, Second Isaiah, 142 and Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 406. I shall further discuss this term in the last chapter of this study.

64

Sin, Repentance and Transformation

relationship with their God by turning back to him. In the context of the exile, the return to YHWH means, in all probability, as Baltzer says “already an announcement of the return to Zion too.”140 Such an understanding of the essence of the call to repentance bears upon the understanding of the relationship between that call and the proclaimed salvation. Some scholars argue for a cause-effect relationship between these two entities, either that the proclaimed deliverance makes the repentance possible,141 or, the opposite, that the repentance is required in order for the deliverance to be carried out.142 I disagree with both assumptions. It is clear that the salvation is unconditional, that YHWH takes the initiative, prepares the way and actually does everything in his power to make the reunion possible. But how exactly is repentance related to these facts? First, there is no indication anywhere in Isa 40–55 that repentance, in terms of demonstrating one’s willingness to reunite with YHWH, was not possible prior to the proclamation of deliverance. On the contrary, Deutero-Isa speaks of those who seek YHWH, who wait for him to return (Isa 51:1, 7), and of those who grieve over the fact that their God has abandoned them (Isa 40:27).143 Such willingness is also seen in the pleas to God for help, found in Lamentations and in some Psalms (Pss 74, 77, 80 etc.). The relationship, on the other hand, was not possible until both parties, in this case even YHWH, had decided to return.144 Second, Isa 44:21–22 declares the removal of the transgressions of the exiles, not the removal of the capability of the exiles to commit transgressions. Otherwise the prophet would not need to encourage the exiles to return to their God. The exiles still have a choice to make: to return to YHWH or to ignore YHWH’s call. The latter would probably be seen as a continuation of the rebellion (Isa 50:1–3). _____________ 140 Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 206. Cf. also Laato, Servant, 104, and Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 406– 7. 141 Laato, Servant, 105, and Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 205. Other scholars presuppose this understanding although they do not discuss the question explicitly. 142 Clifford argues that transgressions “can be taken away only by Israel’s free acceptance of God’s forgiveness.” Clifford, Fair Spoken, 113. Thus also Korpel, “Second Isaiah’s Coping,” 102, “Second Isaiah says that God will forgive them if they repent.” 143 It is important to keep in mind that the exilic community was not a homogenous group, which can be seen in the different approaches taken by the prophet towards the people. Not all of the people waited and hoped for their God, not all were tempted by the Babylonian cult. We shall return to this issue in chapter four of the present study. 144 Thus, Albertz stresses the fact that this section of Isa 40–55 (Isa 42:14–44:23) is focused on the relationship, which leads him to state: “The return they preached was not a prerequisite for the message of salvation but a personal appropriation of the purified relationship between Yahweh and his people as described by the group, beginning with a recognition of sin and concluding with acceptance of the promised forgiveness (44:22) and the role of witness,” Albertz, Israel in Exile, 412.

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Consequently, we can say that the relationship between repentance and deliverance in Isa 44:21–22 is that of two reciprocal and, for the relationship, equally important actions. The action of God is declared while the (re-)action of the people is called for. To sum up, we can say that form-critically this pericope stands out from its context as an exhortation. The prophet reminds the exiles of their identity as YHWH’s people, declares the complete eradication of their failures, and opens the way back to YHWH, their master. The essence of repentance is the acceptance of the rules of relationship with YHWH. The relationship between salvation and the call for repentance is not that of cause and effect, but rather that of co-operation between two interdependent actors. It seems to me that, as far as the relationship is concerned, the greatness of YHWH’s redemption of the exiles lies, not in the fact that he actually redeems them, but in the fact that he has taken the initiative to the renewal of relationship, and he has not waited for the people to change. Redemption is the manner in which that initiative is demonstrated. The exiles are free to choose whether they wish to respond or not to such an initiative. Their repentance remains optional.

3.2.2 6 7

Isaiah 55:6–7

Seek YHWH while he may be found, call upon him while he is near; may the godless abandon his way, and the wicked man his thoughts; and may he return to YHWH, so that he may have mercy on him, and to our God, for he pardons abundantly.145

Isaiah 55 is composed of three stanzas: verses 1–5, verses 6–9, and verses 10–13.146 Form-critically, this chapter seems to form a complex entity.147 The logical progression of thought characterise the chapter: it _____________ 145 My translation of the verse 7, see the discussion below. 146 For further subdivision, see Korpel and de Moor, Structure, 629–32. The stanzas are further divided into six strophes: vv. 1–3, 4–5, 6–7, 8–9, 10–11, 12–13. Isaiah 55:6–13 is understood to form an epilogue to Isa 40–55, corresponding to the prologue of the corpus, found in Isa 40:1–8. Generally, we can see a correspondence between Isa 40:1–2 and 55:6–7, between Isa 40:3–5 and 55:12–13, and also between Isa 40:6–8 and 55:8–9 (10–11). See further Korpel, “Second Isaiah’s Coping,” passim. 147 Cf. Melugin, Formation, 174. For a detailed structural analyses of Isa 55 with an emphasis on the metaphors of the chapter, see Korpel, “Metaphors,” passim.

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is with YHWH and not without him that life in abundance can be found (vv. 1–3a), the Davidic covenant is not broken but confirmed (vv. 3b–5), YHWH’s plan will be fulfilled through his word (vv. 8–11), and in the near future the exiles will return victoriously to their land (vv. 12–13).148 Verses 6–7 specify the message, instructing the audience to return to YHWH. The major issue in the scholarly debate on verse 7 has been concerned with the question of authenticity. Different arguments have been employed. Westermann, following Duhm, argues on the basis of the inconsistency in contents of the text.149 He claims that, if taken as authentic, verse 7 would give the exhortation (vv. 6–7) a general character, which neither fills a purpose in the immediate context, nor corresponds to the overall message of the prophet. For Westermann, the text is more homogeneous without verse 7, which leads him to conclude that “a reader” must have added the verse at a later date, which Westermann leaves unspecified.150 However, in my understanding, a direct address to ungodly amongst the people seems to add to, what Westermann elsewhere calls, “the personifications so frequent in Deutero-Isaiah,” underlining the specific nature of this utterance: also those depraved amongst the people are called to reunite with YHWH at this moment.151 In the present study, I will attempt to show that such a call to repentance is part of the very foundation of the prophet’s ministry. A similar argument in favour of a later interpolation of both verse 6 and 7 has focused on the affinities of the expressions to the Dtr language, such as the verbs ‫קרא‬, “call,” ‫דרשׁ‬, “seek,” and ‫מצא‬, “find,” as well as with the affinity to the Dtr theology in the call to the wicked and the unrighteous to repentance.152 Yet, the affinity of the language cannot in itself be a proof of disparate editorial layers. Thus, Brueggemann views the chapter as a reflection of a liturgy of covenant renewal, arguing that the motifs employed are shared by the Dtr tradition.153 The main point _____________ 148 In spite of the fact that Isa 55:12–13 lacks any direct references to Babylon and to the Land, this unit is generally understood as referring to the return of the people from the exile as part of the future prosperity of YHWH’s people. For a survey of the scholarly discussion of this unit, see Lund, Min vei, 291–302. 149 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 287–8. 150 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 288. However, one must remember that Westermann’s argument is based on his understanding of the audience which the prophet was addressing, which, according to Westermann, was not unrighteous and ungodly. 151 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 13. Thus, Westermann stresses the fact that the prophet, while addressing the nation as a unit, also affects every individual of that unit. Isaiah 55:7 can, in my opinion, be seen as such personal address to the less godly individuals amongst the people. 152 Schmitt, “Prophetie und Schultheologie,” 58–59. 153 Brueggemann, “Isaiah 55,” 191–203.

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of Brueggemann’s article lies in his conclusion that Deutero-Isa follows the theological ideas of the Dtr, who thus stands as an inspiration for the prophet and not as a subsequent redactor of parts of Isa 55.154 As a part of the greater unit, verses 6–9, Brueggemann understands verse 7 to be a call for repentance and an important part of the overall message of the prophet.155 Tångberg follows Brueggemann and argues that the call for repentance in verse 7 is a result of the creativity of the prophet and his freedom to use common expressions from his cultural and religious background.156 Recently, in a study that deals with Dtr influences in Isa 40–55, Antje Labahn takes the discussion further. While Labahn recognises Dtr elements in the theology of this text, she points out that these are so few that they could not account for the origins of the text.157 There is no accusation, no wrath of YHWH, no holy justice as might be expected in a Dtr text. Rather, Labahn concludes, the text speaks of a time when Israel was assured of YHWH’s forgiveness as a result of her repentance, a time that is much later than the time of the exile. Consequently, Labahn views Isa 55:6–7 as a result of a redaction of the original text, inspired by Dtr, but completed much later than the immediate post-exilic period. Although Labahn’s observations of the characteristics of the text are illuminating, the conclusion above seems to be based on the assumption that neither the people nor the prophet could be assured of YHWH’s forgiveness in the last years of the exile.158 Yet, how could a prophet sent to comfort YHWH’s people and to proclaim that their servitude is over not be assured of YHWH’s forgiveness? As I see it, the entire corpus stands as a witness to a firm conviction of YHWH’s forgiveness and of his willingness to return to his people (Isa 40:1–2, 40:9–11, 41:8– 16 etc.). _____________ 154 Brueggemann concludes that the prophet “is now to be understood not only as one who speaks to Israel but also as one who speaks out of Israel, i.e., ‘from faith to faith,’” Brueggemann, “Isaiah 55,” 201. Concerning the affinity between Deutero-Isa and Dtr, Brueggemenn asserts: “The theology of Dtr. as well as II Isaiah is now shown to be oriented to the future and not simply a reflection on the past,” ibid. 202. See also Brueggemanns earlier article about the motif of repentance in Dtr, Brueggemann, “Kerygma,” 387–402. 155 Brueggemann, “Isaiah 55,” 196. 156 Tångberg, Die prophetische Mahnrede, 120–1. Tångberg bases this view on the grammatical considerations of vv. 6–7: verbs in 3rd per. juss., such as ‫ עזב‬and ‫ שׁוב‬in v. 7, often stand as a parallel to verbs in imperative, such as ‫ דרשׁ‬and ‫ קרא‬in v. 6. Thus he concludes that Isa 55:6–7 displays “Eigenart und Originalität des Deuterojesajas,” Tångberg, Die prophetische Mahnrede, 120 157 Labahn, Wort Gottes, 87. 158 Labahn, Wort Gottes, 87.

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Thus, the above arguments for a later interpolation of verse 7 seem to be based on extra-contextual considerations, according to which the theological assertions in verse 7 are seen as strange, compared to those in the rest of the corpus. At the same time, no serious objections have been raised to the literary integrity of the text: there are no doublets, no secondary brackets, nor any tensions in the vocabulary.159 In her analysis of the structure of Isa 55 Marjo Korpel concludes: “A structural analysis of Isa. lv based on the pre-Christian division of the text into cantilces reveals a remarkable symmetry which argues strongly against any attempt to break up the chapter into various redactional layers.”160 We shall see below that Isa 55:7 fits well into its immediate context, forming a thematically and theologically coherent unit, which is well integrated into the message of Isa 40–55. On account of the specific literary character of Isa 55, which he sees as different from the preceding chapters, Blenkinsopp suggests that the entire chapter has been subsequently created “as a transition between Isa 40–54 and Isa 56–66.”161 His argument is based on account of the similarities between the texts in Isa 49:7b, Isa 55:5b and Isa 56:8b, which demonstrate that the author of Isa 55 was familiar with both DeuteroIsa and Trito-Isa. I find Blenkinsopp’s arguments not entirely cogent. First, the similarity between the parts of verses mentioned above does probably not demonstrate anything more than a repeated use of cognate expressions. Such conformities can be found throughout Isa 56–66, which, in my opinion, rather indicates that the author of Isa 56–66 was familiar with Isa 40–55. Secondly, both in structure and content, Isa 55 does not only summarise but also conclude the message of Isa 40–54, and that is why it can hardly be seen as anything but an integral and final part of Deutero-Isaiah’s message. In line with the major object of the present study, I will now turn to the question of the implications of the call to repentance in this text. In addition, I will seek to elaborate the relationship between the people’s repentance and YHWH’s deliverance as depicted in this text.

_____________ 159 For the principles of the literary critical procedure see Steck, Old Testament Exegesis, 56–61. 160 Korpel, “Metaphors,” 54. Likewise, Whybray sees the verse as “a call to the exiles to prepare themselves through personal repentance for the awesome approach of the holy God,” Whybray, Isaiah, 193. Recent commentaries, such as Oswalt, Baltzer and Koole, sustain the authenticity of the verse. 161 Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 369.

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Repentance in Isaiah 55

The two imperatives, ‫דרשׁו‬, “seek!” and ‫קראהו‬, “call upon him!” which open verse 6, dominate the unit and make it stand out as an exhortation.162 Both of these verbs had a cultic function in the pre-exilic period, namely the summon to worship YHWH through sacrifice and prayer in the temple (cf. Deut 12:5–7 and Amos 5:4–6). This has led some scholars to view the prepositions ‫ ב‬before the inf. const. ‫ בהמצו‬and ‫בהיותו‬, in a local sense, “where he can be found” and “where he is near.”163 Thus, it has been suggested that the prophet hereby urged the people to “enter the sanctuary” on Zion, since that was traditionally the place of YHWH’s dwelling.164 However, even if possible, this is hardly a preferable exegesis of this verse. First, if the prophecy is uttered at the time of the end of the Babylonian exile, the prophet could hardly have urged the exiles to go to the synagogues in Babylon, since his main concern was to encourage the exiles to leave Babylon. At the same time, the temple in Jerusalem has been laid in ruins and could therefore not be the place where YHWH could be found at that moment. Secondly, as many scholars have observed, imperatives of ‫ דרשׁ‬and ‫קרא‬, had already at the time of Amos acquired the wider, general meaning of turning towards YHWH (cf. Jer 29:12–14; Amos 5:14).165 This suggests a temporal understanding of the text, “while he may be found,” and “while he is near.” Such a reading stands in agreement with the general tone of Isa 40–55. The accumulation of imperatives in the corpus reinforces the general impression of urgency: hear, understand, believe and act now! A final exhortation to seek YHWH while he may be found, which is now, immediately, is consistent with the general tone of the corpus.166 Interestingly, the verbs ‫ דרשׁ‬and ‫ קרא‬are used elsewhere in the book of Isaiah in connection with the charges of turning away from YHWH, not seldom in connection with charges of idolatry. Thus, ‫ דרשׁ‬is found in passages where the prophet condemns the seeking of idols for advice (Isa 8:19; 19:3) and the trusting of humans instead of YHWH (Isa 31:1). _____________ 162 Tångberg, Die prophetische Mahnrede, 120. Thus also Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 371, Koole, Isaiah 49–55, 427 ad loc. 163 See the survey in Koole, Isaiah 49–55, 428–9. 164 Clifford, Fair Spoken, 192–3. Clifford bases his argument on the similarities of thought between Isa 55:6 and Jer 29:10–14. In Jer 29:10 YHWH promises to bring his people back to “this place” (‫)המקום הזה‬. 165 Thus Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 287, Whybray, Isaiah, 193, McKenzie, Second Isaiah, 144. For parallels between Isa 55:6 and Jer 29:10–14 see Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 476. For the concepts of seeking in the OT see Westermann, “Die Begriffe.” 166 Cf. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 287, Snaith, “Isaiah 40–66,” 198, North, Second Isaiah, 259–60.

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Likewise, the prophet employs the verb ‫ קרא‬when accusing his hearers of not calling upon YHWH (Isa 43:22). Both of these verbs appear also in Isa 56–66, in a context of condemnation of idolatry (Isa 65:1–7). When Isa 55:6 exhorts his hearers to seek and to call upon YHWH, it bears a nuance of a contrast: call upon YHWH and not upon any other god.167 This call is further enforced by the appeal to the godless and the wicked to return to YHWH and to accept his mercy (Isa 55:7). The godless (‫ )רשׁע‬should abandon his way (‫)דרך‬,168 and the wicked man (‫)אישׁ און‬ his thoughts (‫)מחשׁבת‬. The root ‫רשׁע‬, frequent in the Psalms, in Wisdomliterature, and in the book of Ezekiel, occurs 16 times in the book of Isaiah, of which five can be found in Isa 40–55. The lexical meaning of the word is that of “impious, godless or guilty,” and it often stands as an antonym to ‫צדיק‬, “the righteous one.”169 The word is found in contexts describing different ways of mistrust and rebellion against YHWH.170 The reference to the “way of the wicked” has naturally a negative connotation: wandering one’s own ways means to go astray (Isa 53:6), to do wrong in the eyes of YHWH (Isa 8:11; 56:11; 57:17, Jer 3:21), and to engage in acts of idolatry (Isa 57:3–13, esp. v. 10; 66:3, Jer 18:11– 17). In Isa 40–55 the ‫ דרך רשׁע‬stands in sharp contrast to ‫דרך יהוה‬, which, in turn, concerns both the political and the spiritual deliverance of the exiles (cf. Isa 40:3 and 55:8).171 The expression ‫אישׁ און‬, “man of trouble, wicked man,” is rare and occurs elsewhere only in the Wisdom-literature, where it refers to a person that does wrong by false speech (cf. Job 34:36 and Prov 6:12).172 The use of ‫ און‬has rich meanings in Isaiah, where it describes the cultic wrongs (1:13), social injustice (Isa 10:1; 29:20; 32:6) and corrupt politics (Isa 31:2). Interestingly, the only other instance in Isa 40–55 where the word is used in the same sense is in Isa 41:29, where it refers to idols in a context that describes the emptiness of idol-worship (cf. also Isa 66:3). The conduct of ‫ אישׁ און‬is realised through his ‫מחשׁבת‬, “thoughts, plans.”

_____________ 167 Koole, Isaiah 49–55, 428: “The call to ‘seek’ Yahweh also implies the demand for repentance. Israel cannot expect deliverance from the gods.” 168 The juxtaposition of ‫ רשׁע‬and ‫ דרך‬can be found throughout the OT (Jer 12:1; Ezek 3:18–19; 33:8; Pss 1:6; 146:9; Prov 12:26; 15:9). 169 Cf. van Leeuwen, “‫רשׁע‬,” TLOT 3,1262, and Johnson, Rättfärdigheten, 69–71. 170 See Isa 26:10; 48:22, Jer 14:20 and Ps 32:10. 171 Cf. Koch, “‫דרך‬,” TDOT 3, 289–90. For a special study of the “way metaphor” in Isa 40–55 see Lund, Min vei, esp. pp. 269–90. 172 In his discussion of the term, Bernhardt concludes: “A particular theme of the Wisdom Literature is that Yahweh’s punishment is an inevitable consequence for all who have committed aven in any respect.” Bernhardt, “‫און‬,” TDOT 1, 144.

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In the OT human ‫ מחשׁבת‬are almost always described negatively.173 Similarly, in Isa 55:8, human thoughts are contrasted to YHWH’s thoughts. Thus, Isa 55:6–7 exhorts those who rebel against YHWH and his plans to abandon their thoughts and actions and to return to YHWH. The exact manner of the rebellion is not explicitly stated, but it is clear that the text is aimed at conduct that prevents the reestablishment of the relationship between YHWH and the people. To shed some light on this issue, I will turn briefly to the contents of Isa 55:2. Why do you spend your money for that which is not bread, and your labour for that which does not satisfy? Listen carefully to me, and eat what is good, and delight yourselves in rich food.174

Isaiah 55:1–2 is a metaphor referring to a matter concerning the general condition of the people, a condition that seems to be directly dependent on their relationship with YHWH.175 The vocabulary employed suggests that the people were inclined to seek satisfaction somewhere else rather than with YHWH.176 The use of the words ‫תשׁקלו כסף‬, literally, “you weigh silver,” and ‫ויגיעכם‬, “and your labour,” tell us about a people that are not being passively exposed to other sources of contentment, but who make an effort in order to find what they need from sources other than YHWH. The only other instance in Isa 40–55 where silver is being weighed is in the context of idol-fabrication in Isa 46:6. As in the rest of Book of Isaiah, silver is often mentioned in connection with idols.177 _____________ 173 See Isa 59:7; 65:2, Jer 4:14; 18:12 and Ezek 38:10. Cf. also Seybold, “‫חשׁב‬,” TDOT 5, 238–9. 174 Form-critically, Isa 55:1–5 is difficult. Verses 1–3a are cast in the form of a wisdom genre (Begrich, Studien, 53–55), as an imitation of the cries of a street merchant or of a water-seller, which invites the people to trade (Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 282). The reference to the Davidic covenant in vv. 3b–4 displays affinities with the salvationproclamation genre. Cf. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 281, Melugin, Formation, 25, 174, Schoors, God Your Saviour, 84–85. On account of grammatical observations, Tångberg views Isa 55:1–5 as “eine Mahnwort zur Umkehr,” Tångberg, Die prophetische Mahnrede, 118. However, this study is primarily concerned with the exhortations calling the hearers to repentance by the explicit use of the verb ‫שׁוב‬, which is the reason why other exhortations in Isa 40–55 are not discussed. Cf. also Brueggemann, “Poem of Summons,” 126–8. 175 For a more detailed analysis see Koole, Isaiah 49–55, 402–10. 176 This is also suggested by the many polemics against the Babylonian gods, probably aimed against those who were inclined to assume that another god would be as powerful or even more powerful than YHWH (Isa 40:18–26, 42:8, 43:10–13, 46:5–7, 48:5). 177 See Isa 2:20; 30:22; 31:7. Cf. also Isa 40:19, Jer 10:4 and Hos 8:4; 13:2.

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The use of the word ‫ יגיע‬is also interesting. When used with the exiles as the subject in Isa 40–55, the root ‫ יגע‬describes the people’s disbelief in YHWH (Isa 40:28), their failure in the relationship with YHWH (Isa 43:22–23), and their transgressions against YHWH (Isa 43:24). Besides the exiles, the Babylonians are also warned against the senselessness of their labour with things that can-not give satisfaction: divination, occultism and astrology (Isa 47:12–15). Thus, when the prophet urges the exiles in Isa 55:2 to stop labouring for that which does not satisfy, it seems obvious to understand this verse as aimed at the labour spent in the service of other gods and not of YHWH.178 Isaiah 55:1–3 explicitly states that satisfaction and a good life can only be found in YHWH, with the exclusion of any other source as a possible alternative. Thus, it seems to be the “pseudo-satisfaction of idolatry” that the prophet criticises here.179 To sum up, the call to repentance in Isa 55:6–7 seem to be addressed to those among the people who, in their ignorance of YHWH’s ways, have engaged in a conduct which is, generally speaking, socially, politically and religiously unacceptable for YHWH’s people. The fact that no specific transgressions are mentioned seems to suggest that the major point in the proclamation of Isa 55:6–7 is not concerned with the particular transgressions of the people, but rather with the immediate and wholehearted return of the people to their God, which is prevented by the wrong conduct of some of the people. This conduct seems to be connected to the problem of idolatry among the exiles. The call to repentance in Isa 55:6–7 is directed to these particular individuals. But how exactly is the call to repentance related to the proclamation of YHWH’s willingness to forgive? 3.2.2.2

Repentance and Deliverance in Isaiah 55

We have seen earlier that the general message of the prophet enforces the fact that YHWH has taken the first step by delivering the exiles from both physical and spiritual bondage. The exhortation to turn back to YHWH in Isa 44:21–22 is presented as an expected reaction to the proclamation of deliverance. In Isa 55:6–7 however, the case is not altogether clear, and that is why some scholars argue that in Isa 55:7 repen_____________ 178 Cf. Schoors, God Your Saviour, 147–8. 179 Koole, Isaiah 49–55, 408. Whybray proposes a slightly different understanding arguing that the rebuke refers “to the exiles’ preoccupation with the everyday concerns of life in Babylon,” Whybray, Isaiah, 191. This implies that the exiles seek satisfaction by staying in Babylon, rather than by returning to Jerusalem, as YHWH, through the prophet, wants them to do. The exiles are then guilty of the charge of not putting their confidence in YHWH alone.

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tance is presented as a condition for deliverance. Thus, Korpel and de Moor conclude that “[n]othing more than repentance is needed to make possible Israel’s delivery which from a human point of view seemed unthinkable to the despirited exiles.”180 Such an understanding of Isa 55:6–7 is not necessarily supported by the text. First, there is no condition attached to the exhortation in verse 6: the audience is instructed to seek and to call upon God now, when he lets himself be found. Thus, Koole stresses that “‘finding’ is not the result of ‘seeking,’ and if a causal connection exists, it is in the opposite direction.”181 The people should return to YHWH because YHWH has returned to them. Secondly, the complex grammar of verse 7 further supports this reading. The wav in both the second jussive, ‫וישׁב‬, and the third jussive, ‫ וירחמהו‬may be understood as either a waw with purely juxtaposing value, “and may he return,” – “and he will have mercy on him,” or a waw with a subordinating value, “so that he may return,” – “so that he may have mercy on him,” thus indicating a purpose or a consecution to the preceding jussive.182 However, since it is difficult to tell the difference between these two forms of waw, the context and the syntax of the verse must be taken into greater consideration. In this particular case either of the readings might be appropriate although one might conclude that returning to YHWH must logically be preceded by the turning away from the wicked ways, just as the effect of YHWH’s mercy can be experienced upon the returning to YHWH. However, mercy is by no means to be understood as conditioned by returning, but returning is encouraged because there is mercy to be obtained. Finally, this reading is sustained by the parallelism of verse 7b. ‫ וישׁב אל־יהוה וירחמהו‬and may he return to YHWH, so that he may have mercy on him, ‫ ואל־אלהינו כי־ירבה לסלוח‬and to our God, for he pardons abundantly.

The utterance in the last part of the verse expresses a similar thought through the use of the conjunction ‫כי‬, “for, because” he pardons greatly. The expression ‫כי ירבה לסלוח‬, “because he pardons greatly” further reinforces the parallel thought in the preceding line ‫וירחמהו‬, “so that he may have mercy on him.” Thus, both expressions should be seen as argu_____________ 180 Korpel and de Moor, Structure, 631. 181 Koole, Isaiah 49–55, 429. 182 Joüon and Muraoka, Grammar, § 115 a.

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ments for the urgent request to return to YHWH.183 The returning, godless individual has nothing to fear, YHWH is a God of mercy and utter forgiveness. Thus, the people’s repentance and YHWH’s forgiveness are interrelated. On the one hand, YHWH forgives everyone who seeks him, who returns back to him. YHWH does not forgive because a person returns, but a person is urged to come back to YHWH because YHWH forgives. This statement forms the basis for the exhortation. On the other hand, the experience of forgiveness is obtainable, and the reestablishment of the relationship is possible, only through the return to YHWH.184 Although the opportunity to seek YHWH is limited in time (v. 6), the forgiveness offered at the moment is not preconditioned by the repentance of the individual. To sum up, we can say that the prophet calls the people to give up their conduct that keeps them separated from YHWH. The exact nature of that conduct is not explicitly stated, but it seems to be connected to their inclination to idolatry, by putting their trust not in YHWH but in other gods. When the prophet urges them to repent, he does so with the firm assurance of the forgiveness and deliverance which YHWH now offers, demonstrating YHWH’s willingness to re-enter into a relationship with his people. By their repentance, by their wholehearted return to YHWH, the people demonstrate their trust in YHWH and their willingness to be reunited with their God.

3.2.3

Summary

In order to answer the two main questions, i.e. the essence of the repentance and the relationship between repentance and deliverance, I have analysed the prophetic calls to repentance in Isa 40–55, namely, Isa 44:21–22 and 55:6–7.185 The results of this inquiry can be summarised as follows. _____________ 183 Cf. Joüon and Muraoka, Grammar, § 170 da. 184 Such an understanding of the relationship between repentance and deliverance in this text is supported by Isa 55:2. After the rebuke in v. 2a comes the exhortation to “incline your ear, and come to me” (v. 3a). The prophet wants the people to act, to be alert to the word and to return to YHWH, since in separation from YHWH there is no satisfaction. Cf. Koole, Isaiah 49–55, 407–8. 185 The exhortation in Isa 45:22 is not discussed in this context because of my understanding of the unit (Isa 45:20–25) as an exhortation to conversion to YHWH, addressed to the nations. This is so on account of three factors. First, because of the parallelism between Isa 52:10 and 45:22, the expression ‫כל אפסי ארץ‬, “all the ends of the earth,” refers to the nations and not to the YHWH’s people. Secondly, when the exiles are exhorted to repent, the word ‫ שׁוב‬is used, implying a return to YHWH. Isaiah

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First, the essence of repentance is closely connected with the acceptance of YHWH’s return to his people. It implies primarily the recognition of the undeserved expurgation of their own rebellion: the sufferings through the exile were deserved. Further, it implies the acceptance of their own identity as the servant of YHWH and the acceptance of the offered reestablishment of the relationship with YHWH. That acceptance is demonstrated by the abandonment of their own ways and by their consequent adherence to YHWH’s ways. Secondly, there is no list of the specific transgressions from which the people need to turn away. Rather, the “sins” are described in general terms of rebellion against God. The people’s inclination to idolatry is suggested as a possible implicit reference. Thirdly, the relationship between repentance and deliverance is that of reciprocity, and not that of cause and effect.186 Although the repentance is motivated by the declaration of deliverance and forgiveness, i.e. by the declaration of YHWH’s return to his people, the surprising point is the very fact that the repentance is presented as voluntary, wished for and strongly recommended, but still optional. Fourthly, there is no threat stated in the calls to repentance. Possibly, a warning could be seen in Isa 55:6 where the opportunity to seek and to find YHWH is presented as limited in time. However, the function of this text seems to be to stress the urgency of the reaction and not to issue a threat. The message of these texts is coherent with the rest of Isa 40–55 in that they issue a clear instruction to the people about their course of action. Their course of action is not always repentance, but in most cases it comprises a joyous affirmation of YHWH’s return.187 It functions as a directive in a politically confusing period. Theologically, it is the call to the Israelites, not to earn their forgiveness and deliverance, but to re-enter into a relationship with YHWH.

45:22 uses the verb ‫פנה‬, implying a turn to YHWH as if they had not previously known him. Third, there is no reference to sin or transgression of the people, as is the case in both Isa 44:21–22 and Isa 55:6–7. 186 This seems to be a unique feature for Isa 40–55. Given the fact that generally redaction-critics ascribe the calls to repentance in Isa 40–55 to a later redactor, dated to the late years of the sixth century BCE, it is peculiar that the reciprocity or the actions of YHWH and the people cannot be found elsewhere in the literature of this period. Thus, in Zechariah we find that the call to repentance preconditions YHWH’s return to his people (Zech 1:3). 187 Thus, Isa 42:10–12; 44:23; 45:8; 48:20–21; 49:13; 52:9–10.

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3.3

The Function of Transformation

In his study of the structure of the prophetic oracle of salvation, in preexilic and early exilic prophecy, Thomas Raitt finds that this prophetic form of speech contains three components: deliverance, transformation and relationship.188 In his understanding, the transformation of the inner being of the people, making them “capable of obeying,” stands as a transition between their physical deliverance and the reestablishment of the relationship between YHWH and the people.189 While the question of transformation in Jeremiah and Ezekiel will be considered further at a later stage of the present study, I will at this point concentrate on the message of Isa 40–55. Raitt sees a number of elements of transformation in DeuteroIsaiah’s oracles of salvation.190 In three of these, Isa 42:15–16, 43:19–21 and 44:3, he sees a progress from the transformation of nature to the transformation of the people. Although Raitt’s observations regarding the different components of the oracles of salvation are illuminating and important, his findings about the transformation of the people in Isa 40–55 are less convincing. For the most part, the texts to which he refers are concerned with the transformation of nature, and nowhere does the prophet speak of a change of the inner being of the people.191 Even in Isa 44:3, which according to Raitt, is the strongest expression of the transformation of the people, the main point of concern is the future physical and spiritual prosperity of YHWH’s people, rather than their inward change. In addition, the text does not speak of the Israel of the exile, but of their children. Yet, the process of personal transformation would be a burning issue primarily for the generation that experienced the exile, rather than for their offspring. The unit should be seen, as Raitt also concludes, as “an eschatological improvement in both the human and nonhuman parts of his creation.”192 In my understanding, there are two instances in the message of Isa 40–55 which might be seen as closely related to the transformation of _____________ 188 Raitt, Theology of Exile, 128–73. Raitt speaks of “oracles of deliverance” which are not a different genre compared to the traditional “oracles of salvation.” 189 Raitt, Theology of Exile, 133. 190 These are Isa 41:17–20; 42:14–17; 43:14–21; 44:1–5, 21–22; 51:4–6; 54:11–17; 55:10–13, Raitt, Theology of Exile, 137. Raitt recognises the difference between the transformation in Isa 40–55 and that in Jeremiah and Ezekiel. More on this issue in chapter five of the present study. See also ibid. pp. 132–4. 191 For further discussion of the transformations of nature in Isa 40–55 see Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 202–3 and passim. 192 Raitt, Theology of Exile, 141. For the theme of the transformation of nature in the OT, see Gowan, Eschatology, 97–120.

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77

the people, namely the proclamations of utter forgiveness and the obliteration of the transgressions and rebellions of the people in Isa 43:25 and 44:22. ‫ אנכי אנכי הוא מחה פשׁעיך למעני‬I, I am He who blots out your transgressions for my own sake, ‫ וחטאתיך לא אזכר‬and I will not remember your sins. (Isa 43:25) ‫ מחיתי כעב פשׁעיך‬I have swept away your transgressions like a cloud, ‫ וכענן חטאותיך‬and your sins like a mist. (Isa 44:22a)

As we have seen in our analysis of these texts, the blotting out of the sins does not aim at the ability of the people to transgress, which would make the call to repentance superfluous. Rather, these texts proclaim the obliteration of those sins which, up to the present point, have been standing in the way for the reestablishment of the relationship between YHWH and his people. In the words of Westermann, “the situation has been completely transformed, God has forgiven his people.”193 This implies that the people can answer YHWH’s call without concerning themselves with any obstacles that might be in the way. These texts are demonstrations of YHWH’s return to his people, which requires a response: the return of the people to YHWH (Isa 44:22b). Why does Deutero-Isa not speak of any change of the inner being of the people? In my understanding, the answer to this question has to do with the importance of the freedom of choice.194 First, YHWH delivers unconditionally, which means that there are no requirements with regard to the spiritual condition of the people. The greatness of YHWH’s _____________ 193 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 18. Westermann argues that such transformation does away with the need for repentance, which he defines as begging God for mercy. Although I object to such understanding of the concept of repentance, I agree with Westermann that the above proclamations of utter forgiveness changes the situation for the exiles decisively. 194 Without engaging in any extensive discussion of the difficult passage in Isa 6:10, I would suggest that, at a certain level, Deutero-Isa turns around the motif of hardening of the heart and gives prominence to the voluntary and open-hearted return of the people to their God. In Isa 6:10 the people are made blind and deaf, a state that is reversed in Deutero-Isa: “He sees many things, but does not observe them; his ears are open, but he does not hear” (Isa 42:20). Therefore the people in Deutero-Isa are constantly called to listen, to remember and to consider. Likewise, while the reason for the hardening of their heart in Isa 6:10 was probably to prevent repentance, the people in Deutero-Isa are, as we have seen, called to repent.

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deliverance lies precisely in the fact that he delivers a people that is not essentially different from the people that he almost destroyed through the exile. The transformation spoken of in Isa 40–55 was not of a kind that abolishes the people’s responsibility. Rather, these transformations demonstrate YHWH’s wholehearted return to his people, which also makes their return to YHWH easier. However, the final step towards reunion with their God is left for the people to take. Secondly, the period in which the message is proclaimed prefers the sober assessment of the present situation to the eschatological hopes for the future. Once the exile came to the point of termination, and the heart of the people did not radically change, Deutero-Isa presents the actual state of facts and instructs the exiles about the course of the appropriate, and most profitable, action. To sum up, the transformation of nature is instrumental in announcing the redeeming return of YHWH to his people, which, in turn, functions as a strong motivating factor for the exiles to respond accordingly.

3.4

Conclusions

The critical inquiry into these texts which, on the one hand, present accusations against the people, and on the other, call the people to repentance, has shown that the prophet of consolation is also the prophet of repentance. I will return to the question of the implications of the term “repentance” in the last chapter of this study. Now I will recapitulate my findings so far. In addition to the proclamations of the fall of the Babylonian power, which marked the end of the exile for the Israelites, and combined with his explanations of the cause of the exile, Isa 40–55 states that some of the exiles continued in the footsteps of their fathers, maintaining a rebellious attitude towards their God. Addressing this problem, Deutero-Isa does not point out specific transgressions, such as the oppressions of the weak, injustice or greed, like those which can be found in both Isa 1–39 and Isa 56–66.195 Nowhere in Isa 40–55 do we find any references to the people’s sin against their fellow beings. Rather, the prophet speaks in general terms of a lack of trust in YHWH’s power and loyalty, a mistrust which repeatedly seems to be connected to the problem of idolatry. The prophet refrains form any explicit de_____________ 195 Cf. Isa 1:15–17; 5:8–25; 10:1–4; 56:9–12; 58:1–14; 59:1–8. See also the Book of Haggai where the people are criticised for neglecting to rebuild the temple, and Zechariah in which the people are urged to act in justice and honesty (Zech 8:16). Similarly, Malachi reproaches the people for cultic negligence and mixed marriages, passim.

Conclusions

79

scriptions of the manner and the extent to which this idolatry was practised.196 Such a caution gives prominence to the main object of the prophet’s ministry, which is not to accuse them, but through the elucidation of their spiritual condition, and the influence that this has on their political and social status, to try to encourage the exiles to return to YHWH. Two explicit calls to repentance can be found in Isa 40–55, Isa 44:21– 22 and Isa 55:6–7. The people are called to consider and to realise that they belong to YHWH who has returned to them, ready to forgive, to forget and to deliver. The call to return to God is in fact a declaration of deliverance and a demonstration of God’s intent to re-establish his relationship with the people. Since that relationship requires the consent of both parties, the exiles are called to demonstrate their willingness to be reunited with YHWH. Interestingly, neither in the accusations nor in the calls to repentance is there any threat stated against those who answer the call negatively. Of course, the time limit in Isa 55:6 could be understood as a threat, but it rather serves to emphasise the tone of urgency. An indirect threat could also be found in those texts which declare that a worshipper will meet the same destiny as the gods that he chooses (Isa 42:17; 44:20). However, such a sparse reference to the possible threats gives prominence to the proclaimed deliverance. My basic finding is that repentance is not presented as a precondition for deliverance. The exiles should return because the deliverance, which means YHWH’s return, has already taken place. Why does the prophet speak in this way? Why are the calls to repentance mixed with the consolatory message of YHWH’s return? If the repentance of the exiles had had no impact on the deliverance, we might wonder why the prophet would call for repentance in the first place. There are two possible answers. One is that Isa 40–55 has been reworked by a later hand in such a way that the exiles were depicted as sinful and in need of repentance. Originally the texts aimed to depict the sinfulness of the past, preexilic generation and to declare the complete cleansing of their guilt. The exiles themselves were no longer sinful, because YHWH has taken away their sin. I find this possibility quite improbable. It is hard to imagine what motive a subsequent redactor might have had for adding these aspects to the proclamations of salvation. If the redactor had already experienced the return of the exiles to Jerusalem, but was disappointed by their conduct, there would have been references to _____________ 196 Again, Isa 40–55 differs in this aspect from both Isa 1–39 and Isa 56–66, cf. Isa 1:29–31 and 57:3–13.

80

Sin, Repentance and Transformation

the specific sins which he might wish to address, evidence that would have given away the actual situation, such as redactor might have addressed in his own day, or such as can be seen in Isa 57:3–13, 59:1–8 and Mal 1:6–14, 2:10–17. However, as we have seen, the texts in Isa 40–55 are extremely restrictive when it comes to specifying the sins from which the people needed to turn away. Moreover, the texts seem to lay stress on the importance of the reestablishment of the relationship with YHWH, putting aside every other issue which, in normal circumstances, would have been taken up for discussion. Likewise, if such a redactor subsequently wished to insert a call to repentance into the proclamations of salvation, one would expect to find a different relationship between the two issues, namely the dependence of salvation on repentance, or even on a confession of the people’s inability to repent (cf. Isa 63:17 and Mal 3:7). The other possibility is that the call to repentance is in reality an invitation to the exiles to re-enter into the relationship with YHWH, broken off at the time of the beginning of the exile. Isaiah 40–55 is clearly dominated by the proclamations that the exile has come to an end, implying that YHWH has returned to his people. Why does YHWH return? First, there is his love and his loyalty to the people. Thus, in her study of the biblical perspectives on loyalty Katharine Sakenfeld concludes that the restoration of the exiles is based “upon the loyalty of God –which in this context must be regarded as the most marvelously and fundamentally surprising loyalty imaginable.”197 She bases this conclusion on her understanding that YHWH’s return was motivated by love and nothing else. Although this understanding is correct to a certain extent, we have seen that there is more to the motif of YHWH’s return. This leads us to the second point: YHWH cannot be without his people. Israel represents his name, his power and his glory in the world. He is YHWH, the God and the Holy one of Israel, the King of Israel.198 In the words of Meindert Dijkstra, Isa 40–55 gives prominence to “the ‘personal’ history of Israel as the sphere of JHWH’s self-revelation.”199 Thus, YHWH returns because he needs his people, he needs their consent to the relationship, in order to reclaim the arena of divine manifestation in the world. By bringing their offences to light, the prophet opens the eyes of the people, and shows them the way out of their bondage.

_____________ 197 Sakenfeld, Faithfulness, 69. 198 See Isa 41:14, 16, 20; 43:3, 14, 15; 44:6; 45:15; 47:4; 48:17; 49:7 etc. 199 Dijkstra, Gods voorstelling, 438–9.

Conclusions

81

Thomas Raitt argues that “what is theologically true changes as historical circumstances change,” implying that it means “the change in Israel’s accountability under sin once the Exile began to satisfy the need of punishment to vindicate God’s justice.”200 Even though Deutero-Isa presents salvation as independent of, and as preceding, repentance, there is still a need for repentance, not in order to vindicate YHWH’s justice, but in order to make the main object of deliverance, the reestablishment of the relationship, possible. The people’s accountability for their sin does not have anything to do with any abstract ethical demands that YHWH has imposed on them. It has to do with their accountability as an aspect of their relationship with YHWH. The people need to understand that they are no better then their predecessors. They need to realise that their identity is strictly bound to YHWH, and that is why no other god can satisfy their needs. The repentance is directly linked to the consequences of realised salvation. I conclude with John Oswalt: “The great danger of the exile would not be that God would be unable to act, but that Israel would fail to respond in faith to his actions.”201 Why are the accusations of rebellion separated from the calls to repentance? Given the findings in this chapter, the only probable answer is that the author wanted to give prominence to the fact that YHWH’s return to his people has not been brought about by their good conduct or by their change of heart. Therefore, both the accusations and the calls to repentance are closely connected with the message of deliverance. In spite of the people’s rebellion, YHWH delivers, and because YHWH delivers, the people need to return. Their repentance does not condition their deliverance, but it conditions their relationship with YHWH.

_____________ 200 Raitt, “Prophetic Summons,” 47. 201 Oswalt, Book of Isaiah, 188.

4

The Idol-Worshippers

The analysis of the texts in the previous chapter has shown that the accusations against the people in Isa 40–55 are not concerned with social injustice: it is not their relationship with one another that is discussed. Rather, we are told about disturbances to their relationship with their God: their underlying attitudes and states of mind, consisting primarily of ignorance about YHWH’s intentions and actions on behalf of his people, have led them to arrogance, incredulity and despair. The references to their inclination to idolatry are examples of how these attitudes have led to particular actions, which have endangered the people’s relationship to YHWH. Now I will turn my attention to those texts in Isa 40–55 which explicitly address the issue of idolworship, in an attempt to find out whether these references to the idolatry of the Israelites can be further elucidated. I will first examine the texts about the fabrication of idols, in search of the theological point and function of these units in Isa 40–55: Whom is the prophet addressing and what is his main concern? Secondly, I will review the texts which account for YHWH’s encounter with the nations in order to challenge the prima facie understanding that, in these texts, it is the nations and not the Israelites, who are accused and judged on account of their idol-worship. I will inquire after the precise content of these accusations and I will address the question of the function of such accusations in Isa 40–55. My main concern is thus to determine the identity of the idol-worshippers in these texts.

4.1

Idol-Fabrication Texts

In recent scholarship on the Bible, the idol-fabrication texts are viewed as integral parts of Isa 40–55, on account of textual, philological and stylistic analysis of these units.1 Muilenburg, who initiated this development, was followed by scholars such as Melugin, Spykerboer, Clif_____________ 1 The texts that are usually described as idol-fabrication are: Isa 40:19–20; 41:5–6; 44:9– 20 and 46:6–7. Other references to the idols or the idol-makers that are scattered in the corpus (Isa 42:17; 45:16, 20b; 46:1–3) will not be discussed at length, but only referred to in the discussion below.

Idol-Fabrication Texts

83

ford, Franke and others.2 Koole considers the texts about the fabrication of idols as “a caricature…of the relation of Yahweh to his people.”3 Childs, like some other scholars before him, stresses the contrasting function of the idol-fabrication passages in the context of Deutero-Isaiah’s message.4 Even recent redaction critics, such as Werlitz and Albertz, recognise the integrity of most of these passages.5 Thus Abertz concludes: “The polemics against idols…can very easily have originated in the environment of the prophetic group in controversy with Babylonian religion.”6 My basic contention is that even if these texts did have a separate existence earlier on, this does not exclude the possibility that Deutero-Isa himself has incorporated and adapted them for his own purposes. These texts are so well integrated into the argument of Isa 40–55 that it is difficult to ascertain in what form they may have existed as a separate literary genre, prior to their appearance in Isa 40–55.7 A comprehensive study of the idol-fabrication passages in Isa 40–55 has been presented by Knut Holter, who reaches illuminating conclusions with regard to the theological significance of these passages. Holter’s analysis concentrates on demonstrating that the idolfabrication passages see a contrast between YHWH and the idol-makers rather than between YHWH and the idols themselves. He argues that the question of the authenticity of these texts is difficult to answer, since the arguments are “based upon criteria which hardly can be ascertained.”8 Therefore he chooses a synchronic approach to his study and _____________ 2 See Muilenburg, “Book of Isaiah,” Melugin, Formation, Spykerboer, “Structure,” Franke, “Function,” and Clifford, “Function,” passim. North opens the possibility that these texts may be authentic, but with a reservation towards Isa 44:9–20, cf. North, Second Isaiah, 15. Wilson suggests that the satire about idol-worship might be a product of Deutero-Isaiah’s earlier work, which he subsequently included in the present corpus, Wilson, Nations in Deutero-Isaiah, 180. Among earlier scholars who regarded these passages as secondary additions are Duhm, Begrich, McKenzie, Elliger and Westermann. 3 Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 86. 4 Childs, Isaiah, 318, Childs allows for the possibility that these texts may be the work of a different author. He nevertheless discusses their function in the “final form” of Isa 40–55. 5 Werlitz asserts that Isa 40:19–20 + 41:6–7; 46:6–7 and 44:12–13, 14–17, 20 belong to the Grundbestand, which was brought from Babylon to Jerusalem by an authoritative collective where it was included into the first edition of Isa 40–55, see Werlitz, Redaktion und Komposition, 221–37 and 289. Similarly, Albertz’ view is that Isa 40:19–20; 41:6–7; 44:12–17, (20) and 46:6–7 belong to a group of texts which originated in Babylon (DtIE1), see Albertz, Israel in Exile, 398–404. 6 Albertz, Israel in Exile, 396. 7 Thus Dick, “Prophetic Poiēsis,” 239. 8 Holter, Idol-Fabrication, 23.

84

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examines the function of these texts in Isa 40–55. Holter concludes that through such an ironical comparison between the idol-fabricators and YHWH, the people are encouraged to choose YHWH.9 Stressing that YHWH is beyond comparison points to what I wish to label a positive aspect of the function of these texts. In the present chapter, I will go a step further and seek to illuminate the negative aspect of the argumentation against idol-worship, i.e. the warning to the Israelites not to appropriate the cultic practices of the nations. Again, the form-critical examination of each text will be briefly considered while I shall focus on the main object of this part of the inquiry.

4.1.1 19

20

Isaiah 40:19–20

An idol? A workman casts it, and a goldsmith overlays it with gold, and casts for it silver chains. An image, which is a prescribed offering? one chooses a wood that will not rot, then seeks out a skilled artisan to set up an image that will not topple.10

This text is part of a larger unit (vv. 12–24), characterised by the assessment of the Creator beyond comparison, YHWH. Westermann removes these verses, maintaining that there is no correspondence in their immediate context.11 This understanding of the text has been dis_____________ 9 Although I generally share Holter’s understanding of the function of these texts in Isa 40–55, his conclusion that the idol-production texts contrast YHWH primarily with the idol-makers is less convincing. 10 Textual remarks: The text is quite difficult and a number of suggestions have been proposed. I will not engage in any extensive discussion of the translation of these verses, but I refer to the translation proposed by Mettinger, “Elimination,” 78–83. A similar translation is proposed by Holter, Idol-Fabrication, 33, although he does not read the first lines of the verses as interrogatives. Holter assesses the main points of criticism of Mettinger’s translation, see ibid. p. 47 n. 51. 11 Westerman suggests that regardless one’s opinion of the authenticity of these verses, Isa 40:19–20, together with 41:6–7 should “be read as a parenthesis,” Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 53. Cf. also Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 192. For a discussion of the difficulties of this unit see North, Second Isaiah, 82. Regarding the proposal to read these verses together with Isa 41:6–7, North concludes that it “would be to reduce the austere majesty of xl. 12–26 to something like farce,” North, Second Isaiah, 86. So also Lee, who understands verses 18–20 as part of a larger unit (Isa 40:12–26), which displays YHWH’s sovereignty over “the nations, the idols, the rulers, and the heavenly hosts,” Lee, Creation, 36. Cf. also Dijkstra, “Lawsuit,” 261.

Idol-Fabrication Texts

85

puted.12 First, there is the argument of contrast between YHWH, on the one side, and the gods and their makers on the other. The very question in Isa 40:18, “To whom then will you liken God, or what likeness compare with him?” looses some of its point if verses 19–20 are removed.13 Thus, Holter points out that whenever the prophet uses the term ‫אל‬, he does so in order to set a contrast between YHWH and the idols.14 The words ‫אל‬, “god,” in verse 18, and its parallel ‫קדושׁ‬, “the Holy one,” in verse 25, both of which refer to YHWH, are contrasted to the word ‫פסל‬, “idol,” in verses 19–20. A similar contrast can be seen in verse 26, which alludes to the major astral gods, while verses 19–20 seem to refer to a production of minor, less prominent gods. None of them can be compared to YHWH, since the astral bodies have been created and controlled by YHWH and the idols have been made by men who, in their turn, are also created by YHWH. Secondly, a number of catchwords link verses 19–20 to the larger context.15 The creative work of the goldsmith, forming an idol (‫רקע‬, v. 19), is similarly contrasted with the creative work of YHWH, forming the earth (Isa 42:5 and 44:24). As the goldsmith refines an idol (‫צרף‬, v. 19), so YHWH refines Israel (Isa 48:10). And as the idol-maker chooses a piece of wood or stone from which to make an idol (v. 19), so YHWH chooses Israel to be his servant (‫בחר‬, Isa 41:8–9, 43:10; 44:1–2 etc.). As the idol-makers erect and fasten an idol (‫כון‬, v. 20), so YHWH establishes the earth (Isa 45:18 and 51:13). Thus, the prophet uses a pivotal theological terminology in a seemingly inappropriate context.16 Thirdly, Isa 40:19–20 is part of a larger rhetorical unit (vv. 12–31). The direct address (vv. 18, 21, 25–28) reveals that the text is directed to “you,” to Jacob/Israel (v. 27). The speaker is identified as YHWH (v. 13) and as the Holy One (v. 25). Both these designations are meaningful and intelligible to an Israelite audience, whereas they are irrelevant to the other peoples.17 _____________ 12 See Preuss, Verspottung, 192–237. 13 There are four questions of this kind in Isa 40–55: Isa 40:18, 25; 44:7 and 46:5. Three of these come before an idol-fabrication passage. The only exception is the question in Isa 40:25, which is followed by a reference to astral bodies. However, since these were worshipped by the Babylonians, it is likely that v. 26 also signifies a step in the direction of the polemic against the idols. 14 Holter, “Worldplay,” 90–91. 15 For a detailed analogy of these words see Holter, Idol-Fabrication, 54–59. 16 Holter emphasises the irony of the contrast, concluding that its function is to “expose the nations as Yahweh’s adversaries,” Holter, Idol-Fabrication, 79. 17 The name ‫ יהוה‬is connected to ‫ קדושׁ‬a number of times in Deutero-Isa (Isa 41:14, 16, 20; 43:3, 14, 15; 45:11; 47:4; 48:17; 49:7; 54:5; 55:5).

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The Idol-Worshippers

To sum up, even though the prophet in Isa 40:19–20 speaks explicitly of the idol-makers and their work, he directs his message to the Israelite audience. This he does because of the fact that some of the people have placed the idols on a level with YHWH (Isa 40:18).

4.1.2 6 7

Isaiah 41:6–7

Each one helps the other saying to one another, “Take courage!”. The artisan encourages the goldsmith, and the one who smoothes with the forge-hammera encourages the one who strikes the anvil saying of the soldering “It is good”; and they fasten it with nails so that it cannot be moved.18

This unit is placed in a context where the identity of the supreme god is discussed. The rhetorical question in verse 4 – “Who has performed and done this, calling the generations from the beginning?” – receives an answer, revealing that YHWH is the God who controls the current political events, which in turn cause major fear on earth (v. 5). This is the emotion that forms the background to the idol-fabrication passage in verses 6–7. Like Isa 40:18–20, this passage also functions as an apparent contrast to its context. First, verses 1–4 display YHWH’s unlimited power of action, while verses 5–7 describe the (re)actions of fear among the idol-makers. Likewise, while YHWH makes the “man from the east” so victorious that he moves with such power and speed, as if his feet do not touch the ground but sail through the air (v. 3), the man-made idols are stuck to the ground (v. 7), bound to passivity. Secondly, there is a rich contrast of catchwords between this unit and the following oracle of salvation (vv. 8–13). While the makers of idols speak to their idol (‫טוב הוא‬, v. 7b), YHWH, who has earlier said of himself that he is the One (‫אני הוא‬, v. 4) speaks to Israel saying that they are his Servant (v. 9b). The accumulation of the verb ‫חזק‬, which appears three times in verses 6–7, and again in verses 9 and 13 is interesting: while the idol-makers strengthen (‫ )חזק‬each other and their idols (vv. 6– 7), YHWH strengthens his people (vv. 9a, 13).19 The idol-makers help _____________ 18 Textual remarks: a) A variant of the word is proposed by 1QIsaa, ‫( פלטישׁ‬BHSapp!), but MT should be retained. 19 When YHWH strengthens his people, he does so in order “to vouchsafe them salvation,” Hesse, “‫חזק‬,” TDOT 4, 306. Cf. also Holter, Idol-Fabrication, 103.

Idol-Fabrication Texts

87

each other (‫)עזר‬, but YHWH helps his people (vv. 10, 13 and 14). Moreover, in verse 14 ‫ עזר‬is paralleled to ‫גאל‬, “redeem,” which gives prominence to the vocabulary of deliverance. The use of such terminology in a context which speaks about inactive idols calls attention to the absurdity of trusting the power of idols or the power of their makers. This unit does not reveal the identity of the addressees: there is no indication of any direct address, such as there was in the case of Isa 40:18. Spykerboer notices this fact but infers that “it is clear…that also these “non-addressed” passages are meant for Jacob/Israel as encouragement and comfort.”20 The terminology of deliverance, in addition to the fact that the God who speaks is YHWH (v. 4), complete the impression that the addressees of this text are indeed the Israelites.21 To sum up, as in the previous text, where the prophet spoke explicitly of the idol-makers, he also speaks to the Israelites here. Those among the people who doubted the power of YHWH needed to be convinced that the idols could not strengthen nor comfort them in the turmoil at the time. The idol-makers proceed with their work, but they are full of fear.

4.1.3 9

10 11

12

Isaiah 44:9–20

All who make idols are nothing, and their delightful thingsa do not profit; their witnesses neither see nor know. And so they will be put to shame. Who would fashion a god or cast an image that can do no profitb? Look, all its devotees shall be put to shame; the artisans too are merely human. Let them all assemble, let them stand up; they shall be terrified, they shall all be put to shame. The ironsmith [uses] a cutting-toolc, and works it over the coals, shaping it with hammers, and forging it with his strong arm; he becomes hungry and his strength fails, he drinks no water and is faint.

_____________ 20 Spykerboer, “Structure,” 75. 21 Thus Gitay contends that the addresses of Isa 41:1–29 are the “people who actually share the speaker’s opinions but for some reasons ignore them,” concluding that these are the Israelites, Gitay, Prophecy, 99.

88

The Idol-Worshippers

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

The carpenter stretches a line, marks it out with a stylus, fashions it with planes, and marks it with a compass; he makes it in human form, with human beauty, to be set up in a shrine. He cuts down cedars or chooses a holm tree or an oak and lets it grow strong among the trees of the forest. He plants a cedar and the rain makes it grow.d Then it can be used as fuel. Part of it he takes and warms himself; he kindles a fire and bakes bread. Then he makes a god and worships it, makes it a carved image and bows down before it. Half of it he burns in the fire; over this half he roasts meat, eats it and is satisfied. He also warms himself and says, “Ah, I am warm, I can feel the fire!” The rest of it he makes into a god, his idol, bows down to it and worships it; he prays to it and says, “Save me, for you are my god!” They do not know, nor do they comprehend; for their eyes are shut, so that they cannot see, and their hearts,e so that they cannot understand. No one considers in his heart,f nor is there knowledge or discernment to say, “Half of it I burned in the fire; I also baked bread on its coals, I roasted meat and have eaten. Now shall I make the rest of it an abomination? Shall I fall down before a block of wood?”

Idol-Fabrication Texts

20

89

He feeds on ashes; a deluded heartg has led him astray, and he cannot save himself or say, “Is not this thing in my right hand a fraud?”22

This unit forms the middle part of Isa 44, which is placed between the proclamation of salvation (vv. 1–5 and vv. 6–8) on the one hand, and the exhortation to repentance (vv. 21–22) followed by a brief hymn (v. 23) and a salvation speech (vv. 24–28) on the other. The unit is hard to assess from a form-critical point of view. While both verses 9–11 and 18–20 are put in the form of a disputation, the middle section, verses 12–17, describe the actual process of idol-fabrication. The unity of this text is characterised by its content and theme.23 Westermann describes this unit an addition since, in his opinion, both the content and the theme cause “a break in the context.”24 Westermann’s argument is based on literal considerations, but also on his understanding of Deutero-Isaiah’s ministry, according to which the prophet did not engage in polemics against idolatry among his own people. Although one might agree that the poetry of Isa 40:9–20 differs from other parts of Isa 40–55, that fact alone cannot stand as a conclusive argument against the authenticity of this unit.25 First, there are numerous points of contact between this unit and its immediate context, and they connect Isa 44:9–20 thematically to its context.26 Secondly, the very composition of the text might be seen as an “indication of _____________ 22 Textual remarks: a) My translation, against NRSV’s “things they delight in.” b) I read the Hiphil of ‫ יעל‬as “profit, benefit,” cf. BDB 418. c) MT is difficult, why Holter’s translation is adopted for this line, see Holter, Idol-Fabrication, 151. d) My translation, against NRSV’s “the rain nourishes it.” For the specific trees mentioned in this verse see Sherwin, “Search of Trees,” e) My translation, against NRSV’s “their minds as well.” f) I add “in his heart,” see the discussion below. g) My translation, against NRSV’s “mind.” 23 Korpel and de Moor note the possibility of different layers in the text, but they stress the structural regularity and the thematic coherence of the chapter, Korpel and de Moor, Structure, 253–9. 24 Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 146–7. 25 Thus, Blenkinsopp maintains that “differences of style do not necessarily imply different authors.” Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 240. 26 Frank Matheus argues that Isa 44:9–20 is an integral part of both the immediate and the wider context of Isa 40–55. Matheus gives an exhaustive account of the points of contact between this unit and its wider context. He finds that the contrast between YHWH and the idols as well as between YHWH’s work and the work of men, points to a “theologische[n] Intention” of the entire message, Matheus, “Jesaja,” 320–1. For an overview see Holter, Idol-Fabrication, 190–1 n. 153. Cf. also Clifford whose arguments for the unity of Isa 44 are based on rhetorical considerations, with reservation towards Isa 44:20, Clifford, “Function,” 460–3.

90

The Idol-Worshippers

DtIsa’s skill in the use of language, not an indication that the passage is not genuine.”27 Finally, the question of polemics against idolatry in Isa 40–55 is related to the understanding of the historical situation, in which these words were proclaimed. Given the historical background, in which Deutero-Isa was active, there was probably a need for polemics against the idolatry among the Israelites, and Isa 44:9–20 would seem suitable for such a purpose. I will return to this issue later on. As in the previous idol-fabrication texts, the function of the contrast is prominent also in this unit, binding it to its context. Time and time again an idol god ‫( אל‬vv. 10, 15, 17) is contrasted to YHWH or ‫אלוה‬, “God,” (vv. 6, 8). YHWH presents Israel as his witness (‫עדי‬, v. 8), while the makers of idols have witnesses who cannot see and who do not understand (v. 9). While an idol is made to dwell in a temple (v. 13), YHWH is the one who builds the temple (v. 28).28 The vocabulary of the theology of creation is strongly represented in this text.29 Words like ‫יצר‬ (vv. 9, 10, 12), ‫( פעל‬vv. 12, 15) and ‫( עשׂה‬vv. 13, 15, 17) are used to reinforce the sense of mockery: should the manufactured objects or their makers ever be able to achieve what YHWH achieves? Against this stands YHWH’s action of creation: he is the One that has formed Israel (‫ יצר‬and ‫עשׂה‬, Isa 44:2 and again 44:21, 23, 24). In addition, the use of word ‫ נטה‬in the process of idol-fabrication (v. 13) stands in contrast to YHWH’s creation of heaven (Isa 40:22).30 The use of the verb ‫( יעל‬vv. 9–10) deserves special attention. This word appears a number of times in prophetic texts, where it almost exclusively refers to that which does not bring profit and which does not help.31 In Isa 44:9–10 the word refers to the fact that it is not profit_____________ 27 Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 193. Cf. also Matheus, “Jesaja,” 318. 28 Besides these points of contact in the immediate context, there are allusions to the wider context. Isaiah 44:12 states that the idols are manufactured through the power of the manufacturer’s arm. This particular word for arm ‫זרוע‬, is used elsewhere in Isa 40–55 yet only in reference to the arm of YHWH (Isa 40:10–11; 48:14; 51:5, 9; 52:10; 53:1). The strong arm in Isa 44:12 belongs to a man who manufactures a god: he looses his strength (‫ )כח‬and he gets tired (‫)יעף‬. This stands in a direct contrast to YHWH who, according to Isa 40:28–31, is the source of strength. Thus, the description of the manufacture is also a point of contrast: all their precision and physical effort in making the idols is contrasted to the word of YHWH by which he creates everything. 29 Thus, McCarthy argues that early in Israel’s history the creation motifs were used, not in order to describe the origins of the world, as was the case in parallel Ugaritic texts, but rather in order to describe the origins of the social and political order of events, through which Israel was saved. These motifs, according to McCarthy, have become “images of salvation, and, of course, this became a tradition in Israel.” Accordingly, the vocabulary of creation in Isa 40–55 serves the purpose of “identifying the true god” McCarthy, “‘Creation’ Motifs,” 95, 89. 30 See Holter, Idol-Fabrication, 160. 31 Sæbø, “‫יעל‬,” TLOT 2, 555.

Idol-Fabrication Texts

91

able to join the party of idol-worshippers. This is further illustrated by reference to the useless enchantments of Babylon (Isa 47:12). The only instance in Isa 40–55 where the verb is used in a positive sense is in Isa 48:17, where YHWH is described as the one who teaches Israel things that are of profit to her.32 Sæbø points out the fact that “the verb is thoroughly theological,” meaning that in prophetic texts, “it refers to false prophets and idolatry of various types, to the well-being of Israel, God’s people.”33 Thus, the Israelites are the target of this argumentation: the idols are profitless, but YHWH is profitable to Israel. In this connection, it is interesting to pay attention to the points of contact between Isa 44:18 and Isa 6:9–10.34 In both instances the lack of knowledge (‫ )ידע‬and understanding (‫ )בין‬is caused by their inability to see and hear, and by their hardness of heart. This makes the question of the identity of “them” in Isa 44:18 interesting. In his study of Isa 6:9–13, Beale proposes that the unit “functions as a pronouncement of judgement on Israel’s idolatry.”35 Studying the use of the metaphors of malfunctioning sensory organs in the Psalms, the Book of Isaiah, and other prophetic literature, Beale argues for the plausibility that in Isa 6:9–13 the people are judged on account of their idolatry.36 Consequently, in Isa 44:18, the metaphor is used as a “figurative depiction[s] of idols applied to the idolatrous nation.”37 In my opinion, Beale raises an important point here. Isaiah 40–55 refers a number of times to the people as being obtuse: they have ears but they do not hear, eyes but they do not see (Isa 42:7, 16, 18–20 and 43:8). The verbal similarity between Isa 44:18 and Isa 41:20, which speaks of the Israelites with reference to their future perception, and to their knowledge and understanding of YHWH’s deeds is also notable: [S]o that all may see (‫ )ראח‬and know (‫)ידע‬, all may consider and understand (‫)שׂכל‬, that the hand of

They do not know (‫)ידע‬, nor do they comprehend; for their eyes are shut, so that they cannot see

_____________ 32 Sæbø, “‫יעל‬,” TLOT 2, 555. 33 Sæbø, “‫יעל‬,” TLOT 2, 555–6. Cf. also Holter, Idol-Fabrication, 136. The tradition of using the verb in polemics against idolatry has its beginnings in Jer 2:8, 11 and Hab 2:18 where the people is criticised because they have abandoned YHWH and turned to idols. Likewise, Preuss stresses the fact that the prophets use this word in order to speak against idolatry: “The word itself appears at the moment when the Babylonian threat and subsequent exile raises the question whether other gods can “help” when Yahweh seemed defeated,” Preuss, “‫יעל‬,” TDOT 6, 147. 34 For the influence of Isa 6:9–10 on Isa 40–55, and particularly on Isa 44:18, see Williamson, Book, 46–51. 35 Beale, “Isaiah VI,” 257. 36 Beale, “Isaiah VI,” 277. 37 Beale, “Isaiah VI,” 274.

92

The Idol-Worshippers

YHWH has done this, the Holy One of Israel has created it. (Isa 41:20)

(‫)ראה‬, and their minds as well, so that they cannot understand (‫)שׂכל‬. (Isa 44:18)

Interestingly, the idols and the idol-makers are described as blind and without understanding, as helpless items that bring no profit to their worshippers (Isa 44:9). A similar image of the idols occurs in Ps 115:4–8 and in Ps 135:15–17: the idols have mouths, they have eyes and ears, but they cannot speak, see or hear. According to both these passages from the Psalms, the idol-makers, as well as those who put their trust in their idols, will be just as blind, dumb and deaf as their idols (Ps 115:8; 135:18).38 The points of contact between Isa 44:18 and other texts in Isa 40–55, which refer to the Israelites, as well as the fact that the prophet’s main concern is the continued existence of the people of YHWH, all point to the plausibility that Isa 44:9–20 in general, and Isa 44:18 in particular, refer to those among the Israelites who have not understood the full hazardous implications of idolatry. The use of the word ‫טח‬, “smear,” in verse 18 supports such a conclusion. The verb has been understood as indicating either a transitive action, meaning that someone, perhaps YHWH, has smeared the eyes and the ears of the idol-worshippers, or an intransitive action, i.e. as simply declaring that their eyes and hears have been smeared.39 In either case the verb implies that there was a time when they did see and hear which subsequently came to an end, at a specific point in time. If we understand the verse as a reference to the nations, there must have been a time when the nations were aware of the absurdity of the idolworship, which is a very improbable thought. It is more likely that this verse refers to the Israelites: there was a time when they were clear about their religious priorities. The prophet seems to be deliberately vague, possibly in order not to intimidate the audience by some accusation.40 Isaiah 44:19 argues in the same direction. The expression ‫ולא ישׁיב אל לבו‬, in verse 19, which literary translates “and he does not turn back his heart,” resembles Isa 46:8 where the audience is exhorted to rethink, to _____________ 38 Thus Beale: “They had become as spiritually lifeless as their inanimate idols,” Beale, “Isaiah VI,” 277. 39 The verb derives from the root ‫ טחח‬with the intransitive meaning “to be smeared, to be covered.” This root is in its turn related to the root ‫טוח‬, “to smear, to cover,” cf. Schunck, “‫טוח‬,” TDOT 5, 319. 40 Cf. North concludes that the exiles were the real audience of this text, those exiles “who were in danger of being seduced by the idolatry around them.” North, Second Isaiah, 139.

Idol-Fabrication Texts

93

“turn their hearts back.”41 As we have seen in our analysis of the text in Isa 46:8, it is the Israelites and not the nations who are addressed. Further, the use of the word ‫תועבה‬, “abomination,” points to an Israelite addressee. In his study of the word, Gerstenberger concludes that this term “indicated originally that which was deemed dangerous on the basis of group norms and hence that which aroused anxiety and repulsion.”42 Peoples other than the Israelites considered certain things and behaviours as an abomination. The Egyptians, for example, considered a shepherd to be an abomination (Gen 46:34) as well as an Israelite offering to YHWH (Exod 8:22) and in their view, eating with Hebrews was abominable (Gen 43:32). For the Israelites, however, the word was used about a variety of moral and cultic cases, which involved a distortion of the prevailing norms.43 It is important to stress here that the idols could not be considered as an abomination by those nations who worshipped these images. Naturally, idol worship was in this case an abomination only from the point of view of the Israelites. Finally, references to the futility of idolatry are further sustained by the use of the word ‫שׁקר‬, “lie” (v. 20), which, when applied to the idols, characterises their “nonexistence and ineffectiveness.”44 Thus, the description of idols as ‫ שׁקר‬is not only an existential assessment, but also a reference to their sphere of action: while the idols are ineffective in terms of creation, salvation and help, YHWH is the ultimate source of all these works.45 Thus, although the identity of the addressee of this unit is not explicitly stated, the terminology, the verbal similarities, and the fact that the speeches, which frame our unit are directed explicitly to Jacob/ Israel (vv. 1, 6, 21) lead to the conclusion that here the prophet speaks to the Israelites. But whom does he speak about? Holter maintains that the entire passage speaks of the futility of the idol-makers, which represent the nations, emphasising that YHWH, who represents the Israelites, is beyond comparison.46 I do not share Holter’s understanding of this particular unit. That YHWH is beyond comparison is certainly stressed _____________ 41 See the discussion on this unit in chapter three, pp. 41–45. 42 Gerstenberger, “‫תעב‬,” TLOT 3, 1431. 43 Thus, in his study of the word, Paul Humbert concludes that in Dtr the term was used to fight syncretism in Israelite religion and it designated “tout ce qui compromet la pureté du culte yahviste, et le terme tend à ségréger Israël des peuples païens environnants,” Humbert, “Substantif to‘eba,” 227. See also Preuss, “‫תועבה‬,” ThWAT 8, 590. In the context of idolatry ‫ תועבה‬appears in Deut 7:25; 27:15; 32:16. 44 Klopfenstein, “‫שׁקר‬,” TLOT 3, 1402–3. Cf. also Holter, Idol-Fabrication, 189. 45 The same picture emerges elsewhere in the OT where the idols are contrasted with YHWH, see Jer 3:23; 10:14; 13:25; Hab 2:18–20; Zech 10:1–2. 46 Holter, Idol-Fabrication, 202–3.

94

The Idol-Worshippers

in this unit, as it is throughout Isa 40–55, but the idol-makers (Isa 44:9), the blacksmith and the carpenter in particular (vv. 12–13), are only referred to at the beginning. Then, in verses 14–19 the prophet shifts into speaking of idol-worshippers in general, assessing the whole process that leads someone to worshipping his idol. Finally, in verse 20, a conclusion is drawn regarding those that engage in the futile enterprise of idol-worship. Thus, the prophet moves from referring to those engaged in professional idol-fabrication to those engaged in the common worship of idols. Who are the idol-makers, and who are the worshipers of idols in general? In my view, the terminology of Isa 44:9–20 discussed above suggests that the prophet is speaking both to and about his own people. I will return to this issue in a moment but before that, there is one more text to consider.

4.1.4 6

7

Isaiah 46:6–7

Those who lavish gold from the purse, and weigh out silver in the scales they hire a goldsmith, who makes it into a god; then they fall down and worship! They lift it to their shoulder, they carry it, they set it in its place,a and it stands there; it cannot move from its place. If one cries out to it, it does not answer or save anyone from trouble.47

These verses follow the same thematic pattern as the previous passages about the fabrication of idols. The unit forms a rhetorical answer to the question in Isa 46:5: “To whom will you liken me and make me equal, and with whom will you compare me, as though we were alike?”48 There is a correspondence in the vocabulary, as well as in the references to the idol’s inability to move (Isa 40:20 and 41:7). Isaiah 46:6–7 fits well in its immediate context. In verse 4b YHWH is the one who has made (‫)עשׂה‬, who lifts up (‫ )נשׂא‬and who carries (‫ )סבל‬his people, while the idols are made, lifted and carried by men (v. 7). And while a goldsmith makes a god who cannot move (‫לא ימישׁ‬, v. 7), YHWH _____________ 47 Textual remarks: a) ‫תחתיו‬, an idiom meaning “in one’s place, where one stands,” see BDB, 1065. 48 See Isa 40:18; 41:4 and 44:8.

Idol-Fabrication Texts

95

is a god whose distinctive feature is his perpetual action, demonstrated here by the accumulation of participles (vv. 10–11). The correspondence to the wider context is interesting. In Isa 55:2, the addressees are faced with the following question: “Why do you weigh out silver for that which is not bread, and your labour for that which does not satisfy?”49 The context of this question reveals that the object of their labour stands in direct opposition to YHWH (Isa 55:2b). The expression for weighing out silver (‫ )כסף שׁקל‬corresponds to the vocabulary in Isa 46:6 where the silver is weighed out in order to make a god who cannot answer and who cannot help (v. 7b). As we have seen above, in this context, the inactive idols stand in direct opposition to YHWH (Isa 46:4). Thus, both these texts expose the futility of their endeavours to acquire objects that do not bring the desired satisfaction. Like the idol-worshippers (Isa 46:6–7), the Israelites (Isa 55:2) are also seeking for satisfaction at the wrong place. The immediate context supports this view: see for example the address to Jacob/Israel in Isa 46:3, the question in verse 5, the address to the “rebels” (Isa 46:8) and to the stout-hearted, to those who are far from righteousness (Isa 46:12).50 All these points make it plausible that this unit speaks both to and about the Israelites. Before I go further in this inquiry, I will recapitulate my conclusions about the idol-production texts in Isa 40–55 briefly.

4.1.5

Conclusions

I have made two principal observations concerning the function of these passages in Isa 40–55. First, the passages are connected to their contexts by the use of catchwords, through which YHWH is seen in contrast to both the idols and their makers. This is the first step of polarisation between the two sides, a polarisation that leads to an urgent necessity for a choice. Secondly, the pivotal theological terminology triggers associations that force the addressees to realise the absurdity of their worship of idols. The terminology of creation and salvation displays the inactivity of the idols as gods who cannot save and who cannot help. The contrast with the creative actions of YHWH creates irony: it is absurd to trust the unprofitable idols instead of the sovereign YHWH. The principal argument of Holter’s analysis of the idol-fabrication texts is centred around these observations. Consequently, he concludes that their function is to accentuate the contrast between the idol-makers _____________ 49 My translation, cf. ch. three, p. 71. 50 In our study of Isa 46:8–13, we have reached the conclusion that these verses must address the Israelites and not the nations.

96

The Idol-Worshippers

and YHWH, and he draws attention to the irony of trusting idols instead of YHWH. Other scholars comment on the issue of this contrast in similar terms.51 However, I am not inclined to see this as a final comment on these passages. My brief analysis of the idol-fabrication texts shows that these passages do not only function as satiric descriptions of the production of the idols. Thus, Michael Dick asserts that DeuteroIsaiah’s argument “does not reflect the culpable ignorance of the Israelite religion about other religions…but a conscious distortion forged in polemic.”52 To whom is the polemics directed? Why does the prophet find it necessary to persist with declarations of YHWH’s superiority? And above all, who are these idol-makers and idol-worshippers, who are these individuals who prefer man-made gods rather than YHWH, whose identity the prophet avoids disclosing? Who is being warned against the worship of these manufactured idols? We have seen that these passages lack an explicit indication of their addressees. It seems as if the strategy of not naming the addressees is deliberate. However, from the manner in which the prophet shapes his messages we can infer that they are directed to the Israelites: the strong emphasis on the contrast between YHWH and the idols, the use of the characteristic terminology of creation and salvation and the irony implied in both these aspects is understandable primarily for the Israelites. In a similar manner, although there is no explicit indication of the identity of those whom the prophet is speaking about, we have seen that there are implicit indications that these texts speak about the Israelites who have been enticed into the worship of idols. The view of the present study is that these texts all serve one goal: to make the Israelites decide about their identity. The texts about the fabrication of idols in Isa 40–55 do not represent a systematic, theorised view of idolatry in general. Nor are they taunt songs on the worship of idols of the nations, designed for silent reflection. Rather, these texts represent YHWH’s submission of evidence as part of his dialogue with the Israelites. They are compelling arguments which demand an instant answer: “To whom will you then liken me?”53 Since the nations are in fact well established idol-worshippers, I need to find out whether Isa 40–55 condemns the cult practices of other peoples. Therefore, before I settle the question of the identity of the _____________ 51 See Clifford, “Function,” 464, Franke, “Function,” 418, Matheus, “Jesaja,” 320. Cf. also Spykerboer, “Structure,” 185. 52 Dick, “Prophetic Parodies,” 45. 53 Isaiah 40:18, 25; 44:7 and 46:5. Se also Isa 41:4. Placing these texts in a context of a dialogue between YHWH and his people further emphasises that YHWH is beyond comparison.

The Charges Against the Nations

97

idol-worshippers, I must inquire about the charges raised against the nations.

4.2

The Charges Against the Nations

The main objective of this part of my investigation is to determine the core of the charges directed against the nations in Isa 40–55. The nations and their gods are addressed in the trial speeches which I will now discuss,54 as well as in the speech against Babylon (Isa 47). I will argue that these texts too are addressed to the Israelites, warning them against choosing the idols before YHWH, and they do not condemn the nations because of their worship of idols. Given the main object of this inquiry, I will not engage in any critical assessment of each of the trial speeches. Rather I will concentrate on depicting the main points of their argument against the nations. The trial speeches against the nations in Isa 40–55 differ from the traditional genre as it appears in the works of the earlier prophets.55 Thus, Westermann concludes that the trial speeches against the nations in Isa 40–55 have no prior Sitz im Leben in Israel, since the primal issue in these texts is the vindication of YHWH’s sovereignty over the nations and their gods, an issue that has not been discussed in Israel before Deutero-Isaiah’s time.56 Melugin follows Westermann in concluding that the trial speeches in Deutero-Isa cannot be deducted from a specific OT tradition, but should be seen as Deutero-Isaiah’s own creation,

_____________ 54 Scholars are not unanimous about the delimitation of the passages which should be described as trial speeches against the nations, even though the differences are confined to a few verses. Westermann defines Isa 41:1–5, 21–29; 43:8–15; 44:6–8; 45:20–25 and possibly 45:11–13 as trial speeches, Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 15. Schoors suggests Isa 41:1–5, 21–29; 43:8–13; 44:6–8 and 45:18–25, Schoors, God Your Saviour, 207– 45, and Melugin Isa 41:1–7, 21–29; 43:8–13; 44:6–8; 45:18–21; 48:12–15, Melugin, Formation, 57. 55 There is an extensive line of discussion of this genre, see Boecker, Redeformen, and Westermann, Sprache und Struktur, 51–58. For a thorough survey of the history of research, see Schoors, God Your Saviour, 176–88 and Melugin, Formation, 53–63. For a discussion of the possible settings of these prophetic lawsuits, see also Nielsen, Yahweh as Prosecutor, 43–61. 56 Westermann, Sprache und Struktur, 86, see also 52–58. Begrich views the trial speeches in Isa 40–55 as imitations of legal speeches used in the town gates, Begrich, Studien, 26–48. Schoors postulates the Festival of Yahwe’s Enthronement combined with the Babylonian Enthronement Festival as the background of the trial speeches in Isa 40–55, Schoors, God Your Saviour, 188 and 242.

98

The Idol-Worshippers

“shaped by the prophet’s own hand.”57 But, to what purpose has this genre been reshaped, and what is its precise content? The addresses of the trials against the nations are ‫איים‬, “the islands,” ‫לאמים‬, “the nations” (Isa 41:1–5; 43:9), ‫אלהים‬, “the gods” (Isa 41:23), ‫פליטי הגוים‬, and “the survivors among the nations” (Isa 45:20– 21).58 These are summoned to settle the question of the true master of historical events: Who is behind the victorious advance of “the man from east” (Isa 41:2–4, 25), and who is the god who predicted all these current events?59 Supreme divinity is proved, not by military achievements but by the power of the divine word. The answer is unanimous: YHWH is superior, he is the first and the last (Isa 41:4; 44:6), he is God (Isa 43:10–13), he has proclaimed everything and he has made all things happen (Isa 44:8; 45:19, 21). The idols “are all a delusion, their works are nothing, their images are empty wind” (Isa 41:29 and 24). Although YHWH’s sovereignty is declared, the nations are not really accused or condemned in these texts. However, there are two instances where the idol-worship is assessed per se. First, Isa 45:20 reads: Assemble yourselves and come togethera, draw near, you survivors of the nations! They have no knowledge – those who carry about their wooden idols, and keep on praying to a god that cannot save.60

‫הקבצו ובאו התנגשׁו יחדו‬ ‫פליטי הגוים‬ ‫לא ידעו‬ ‫הנשׂאים את עץ פסלם‬ ‫ומתפללים אל אל לא יושׁיע‬

Isaiah 45:20–25 addresses some non-Israelite groups of people, who have survived the upheavals caused by the fall of the Babylonian empire.61 Affected by the turmoil of the time and searching for help, the _____________ 57 Melugin, Formation, 63. Similarly, Blenkinsopp: “It therefore seems likely that these passages represent creative literary adaptations of language originating in specific social settings,” Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 196. Wilson suggests the autumn enthronement festival of Jerusalem cult combined with the forensic language “with roots in the alternate tradition of the judgment of the divine council in Ps 82,” Wilson, Nations in Deutero-Isaiah, 112–13. 58 Most scholars agree that the expression ‫ פליטי הגוים‬aims at non-Israelite groups of people, a fact that is supported by the second part of v. 20, which refers to the religious practices of the nations. The nations are praying to a god who cannot foretell historic events, to a god who cannot save ‫)ישׁע‬. See Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 481–2. 59 Thus, Isa 41:26–28; 43:9, 12; 44:7–8; 45:21. 60 Textual remarks: a) The ptc. ‫ יחדו‬occurs 14 times in Isa 40–55 and should not here be emended to ‫ואתיו‬, “and come!”, as 1QIsaa suggests. 61 Thus also North, Second Isaiah, 160, Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 174–5, Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 482, Laato, About Zion, 150. Whybray generalises the expression to refer to “the whole created world.” Whybray, Isaiah, 112. A few verses later, in Isa 45:22 the addressees are described as ‫כל אפסי ארץ‬, “all the ends of the earth,” an expression which, again, according to most scholars, refers to all the nations of the world, and

The Charges Against the Nations

99

peoples keep turning to idols who cannot provide any help. Therefore, YHWH calls them all to turn to him and to be saved (Isa 45:22). Schoors sees in verse 20 a condemnation of idolatry on the basis of its stupidity.62 Yet, the cultic practices of the nations seem to be assessed rather then condemned. Their idol worship is a result of their lack of knowledge and understanding (‫)לא ידעו‬. It is a product of “ignorance rather than… wilful wickedness.”63 They do not know any better. When a person chooses to worship an ineffective god rather than to worship YHWH who creates (Isa 45:18), whose word forms history (Isa 45:19, 21), who is a god that is trustworthy and that can save (Isa 45:21), such a decision must be based on a lack of knowledge. The argument used is that of logic, and as such it can be directed to all who make a wrong choice, both to nations and to the Israelites. The second assessment of the idol-worship is made in Isa 41:24. You indeed are nothinga, and your work is nothingb at all. An abominationc is he who chooses you.64

‫הן אתם מאין‬ ‫ופעלכם מאפע‬ ‫תועבה יבחר בכם‬

This verse is placed within a unit which addresses the gods (Isa 41:21– 29). The idols are depicted as ineffective to a degree that whoever chooses to worship them thereby makes himself abominable. We have seen above that the word ‫ תועבה‬comes in a context which describes things that should be avoided, things that endanger the purity of the people. We have also seen that the choice of the idols could hardly be considered an abomination for the other peoples, but only for the Israelites. Thus, Koole concludes that the point of argument here is that

62 63 64

not just to the scattered Israelites. The only other occurrence of this expression in Isa 40–55 supports the view that the non-Israelites are addressed. Thus, in Isa 52:10, the expression ‫ כל אפסי ארץ‬is paralleled to the expression ‫כל הגוים‬, “all the nations.” For the opposite view, which suggests that the addressees of these verses are the “the crypto-Israelites who have fled away into the nations and escaped the crisis which befell Israel,” see Hollenberg, “Nationalism,” 31–32. See Schoors, God Your Saviour, 235. North, Second Isaiah, 160. Textual remarks: a) BHS removes the prefix ‫ מ‬and suggests ‫אין‬. This is not required since the prefix can be read in a privative sense “less than…,” cf. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 204. b) I read ‫מאפס‬, “nothing at all, less than nothing,” see BDB, 67. c) The expression can be understood in two ways: either “he who chooses you is an abomination,” or “he who chooses you chooses an abomination.” According to Joüon– Muraoka the sentence is an example of a rare occurrence of an asyndetic subject clause, and that is why it should be understood according to the first sense, Joüon and Muraoka, Grammar, § 157 a. In either case, whoever makes the choice is abominable since a choice of a loathsome object makes the person who makes the choice loathsome as well (Hos 9:10), cf. North, Second Isaiah, 105.

100

The Idol-Worshippers

“one cannot ‘choose’ other gods if one belongs to the people that has been ‘chosen’ by Yahweh.”65 Humbert deduces that the use of the word in Isaiah aims at stigmatising idolatry. Therefore, with regard to Isa 41:24 he remarks that the word concerns “l’adoption de divinités païennes, inexistantes.”66 In this text the nations are not condemned because of their idol-worship, but the vocabulary reveals an implied criticism of the Israelites as well as warning to them. Thus, YHWH’s debate with the nations and with their gods in the trial speeches is exclusively concerned with the questions of their claims to divinity. Wilson argues that the nations were addressed “because the issues of Yahweh’s speech are claims binding upon them and their gods.”67 However, nowhere do we see that the nations have challenged YHWH. It seems rather that those who were inclined to do so were the Israelites. Therefore Melugin states that this genre serves to “convince doubters that Yahweh is God,” and Westermann maintains that in the circumstances of the exile, the question of “who was in fact God was inevitable.”68 Schoors follows the same line of reasoning and concludes that these speeches “are clearly meant for Israel” and that “the prophet had to fight idolatry in his own community.”69 Isaiah 47, which discloses a direct accusation against Babylon, stands in support of this conclusion.70 Interestingly, nowhere in the chapter do we find any condemnation of Babylonian worship of idols.71 _____________ 65 Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 196. Koole makes this observation on account of the use of verb ‫ בחר‬in that context. This implies that the people which are not chosen by YHWH have been left to choose a god for themselves, and that cannot be considered an abomination for them. 66 Humbert, “Substantif to‘eba,” 231. 67 Wilson, Nations in Deutero-Isaiah, 119. Wilson argues that although the Israelites are addressed primarily, the message “is necessarily phrased in a way that would appeal to all,” ibid. 326. Wilson concludes that the prohibition of idolatry and the exhortation to worship of YHWH alone is universalised, ibid. pp. 327–9. 68 Melugin, Formation, 63 and Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 63. 69 Schoors, God Your Saviour, 244. This understanding of the function of the trial speeches against the nations is supported by other scholars, see Nielsen, Yahweh as Prosecutor, 68: “The legal proceedings between Yahweh and the foreign gods function as Yahweh’s deposition as well as his defence against Israel’s accusations.” Cf. also Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 205: “[T]he author is in no danger of having to argue against real opponents – the priests of the Marduk cult, for example.” 70 For the function and significance of this chapter for the literary structure of Isa 40– 55, see Franke, “Function,” who argues that Isa 47 functions as a link between Isa 40– 46 and Isa 48–55, and as such, it is integral to the overall structure of Isa 40–55. 71 We can see elsewhere in the OT that when the nations are condemned, in this case the great empires, they are not condemned because of their idol-worship, but because of their pride, and because of their oppression of the Israelites. Thus, in the Book of Exodus the Egyptians and their gods are judged by YHWH (Exod 3:7–10 and

The Idol-Worshippers: The Nations or the Israelites?

101

There are references to their cultic practices (Isa 47:9–15) in order to point out the irony of their ineffectiveness. The Babylonians are accused of cruelty and excessive oppression of the weak among their captives (Isa 47:6), as well as of overweening pride (Isa 47:7–10).72 Thus, YHWH’s wrath has turned against them because of their torment of the Israelites (cf. Isa 51:23). To sum up, the trial speeches seem to function as literary devices for announcing salvation and for giving hope to Israel, but also as devices for warning the Israelites against appropriating for themselves the cultic practices of the nations. The condemnation and punishment of the nations in Isa 40–55 have in fact been put into effect, although not because of their cultic practices, but because of their arrogance and their cruelty in oppressing the peoples they have subdued.

4.3

The Idol-Worshippers: The Nations or the Israelites?

In the light of the results I have reached in the investigation above, I now, once again, enquire about the identity of the worshippers of idols in Isa 40–55. The prophet is obviously seeking to raise a warning against idol-worship: it is an absurd enterprise, a practice that brings the very existence of its adherents into danger. For whom are these texts primarily designed? The first suggestion is the nations, who worshipped idols according to the practices of their cults. The prophet refers to idols as pieces of wood, made by mortal men, as inactive objects, subject to, rather than in control of, political upheavals. Even when given an opportunity to prove their divinity they stand still, unable to act, non-existent. This has led scholars such as Wilson to argue that the primary target of these texts was the nations. I agree with Wilson that the nations are included in the criticism of the foolishness of idolatry, but his conclusion that “prohibition of idolatry, the second commandment of the Mosaic law, is universalized and thereby made binding upon the nations,” is not as convincing.73 We have seen above that the prophet does not really condemn the nations and their gods, but rather dismisses them as a bad choice for any worshipper, especially in the contemporary turmoil. The

72 73

12:12), and in Isa 10:5–15 Assyria is judged because of her pride, which has made her stand against YHWH. The same is the case in some other biblical texts which refer to the fall of Babylon, such as Isa 14:12–21 and Jer 50–51 (Jer 50:29–32; 51:24, 34–35, 49, 51–52). Wilson sees here a novelty in the prophetic ministry, see Wilson, Nations in DeuteroIsaiah, 191–2.

102

The Idol-Worshippers

existence of different non-Israelite groups was not endangered through their worship of idols. Rather, they existed by virtue of their cultpractices. The nations did not suffer because of their cult-practices, they suffered in spite of them (Isa 47:9).74 It is therefore not likely that the prophet would have gone so far in his argument against the idolatry of the nations, nor that he would only have given his view of pagan worship, or would have spoken because of his concern for the nations per se.75 It is much more likely that the reason why the nations and their gods are judged is the fact that, by their excessive oppression, they have come to stand in the way of YHWH’s dealings with the Israelites. The Israelites, on the other hand, deprived of their land and their temple, were exposed on a daily basis to the cult of Babylonian worship of idols. After nearly fifty years, and with a new generation born in captivity, it would be only natural that the religious practices of their oppressors would have had a considerable impact on them. In his study of the theology of the prophetic books, Donald Gowan applies a theory brought from the field of the sociology of religion, and claims that the exiles in Babylon formed a typical example of a cognitive minority group.76 As such, the exiles lived under a tremendous influence of the religion of the Babylonians: “the exiles must have found it hard to see any continuing relevance in the religion of their homeland, the worship of Yahweh, God of Jerusalem, who had not even been able to protect his own temple, let alone save his people.”77 My analysis of the texts above has shown that all the passages about the fabrication of idols and most of the trial speeches against the nations address the Israelites. We have seen that whenever an accusation is implied in the texts, whether through the use of pivotal theological terminology, or through a direct address, it is primarily directed towards the Israelites. We have also seen that in the idol-fabrication texts the identity of those engaged in the process is not revealed: the prophet speaks of “those that do so.”78 The true identity of both the _____________ 74 See Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 188 and Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 539–40. 75 The universalistic tendencies of the prophet should not be misinterpreted here. The prophet was concerned only with his own people. Whatever he had to say about the nations, good or bad, was subordinate to this primary concern. 76 Gowan, Theology, 145–6. In his arguments Gowan refers to the study of a sociologist of religion, Peter Berger, see ibid. p. 223 n. 3. 77 Gowan, Theology, 145. 78 A tempting thought is that besides gentile idol-manufacturers, there might have been manufacturers of Judean origin, although there is no clear support for this idea, neither in the Bible nor in the Babylonian sources. However, the early deportation of Jews (597 BCE) consisted mainly of artisans, see Zadok, Jews in Babylonia, 88. It is possible that these might have been engaged in the fabrication of images of the minor gods. After all, prior to the exile, the Israelites were, according to biblical sources,

The Idol-Worshippers: The Nations or the Israelites?

103

manufacturers and the worshippers of idols is ambiguous. Thus, in his study of the monotheism in Isa 40–55, Mark S. Smith concludes: Indeed, the ambiguity of identity is used rhetorically for the audience to make a choice: does it want to be deluded image-seekers (or even imagemakers?), or would it choose the only god who has chosen it from the very beginning of its existence?79

If the argument against idolatry was superfluous for the Israelites, such a strong emphasis on the foolishness of idolatry would be completely out of perspective. Certainly, the prophet was commissioned to comfort YHWH’s people (Isa 40:1–2), but he was not guaranteed any receptive audience. Stuhlmueller concludes that the “announcement of Israel’s forthcoming salvation does not sound convincing to the Israelites and so Dt-Isa must argue against their temptations to idolatry.”80 After all, YHWH was absent for an extensive period of time while the Babylonian gods dominated the scene, giving the impression that they were invincible. The prophet’s assessment of the fabrication of idols and of the worship of idols is aimed at shattering their faith in these idols. This is why Schoors is right in his conclusion that the speeches that were directed towards the pagan gods were in reality meant for the Israelites because of their inclination towards the worship of idols.81 It should be stressed, once again, that the problem of idolatry among YHWH’s people should not to be seen as merely a religious problem, but primarily as a problem of survival and of the existence of the people of YHWH. The main question in Isa 40–55 was that of the existence and the identity of the Israelites, which was severely endangered by the conditions of the exile.82 Hence, the prophet argues that to choose the idols would indeed be unprofitable in the contemporary turmoil. With regard to the polemic against idolatry, Koole maintains that “[i]n the situation of the exiles it was more necessary than ever and in the post-exilic period…there was hardly any reason for it.”83 We should also be aware of the fact that the attitude of the exiles to the Babylonian cult was probably not unanimous. Judging by the various forms of address in Isa 40–55, the attitudes of the exiles to the Babylonian cult was diverse. For some of the Israelites, the Babylonian cult was threatening but they were not tempted by it – to them the prophet

79 80 81 82 83

very much engaged in manufacturing idols for themselves (see 2 Kgs 17:16, Hos 8:4; 13:2; 14:4, Mic 5:12, Jer 2:28, also Hab 2:18–19). Smith, Origins, 193. Stuhlmueller, “Deutero-Isaiah,” 8, cf. also Klein, Israel in Exile, 104. Schoors, God Your Saviour, 244–5. Cf. Smith, Origins, 193. Koole, Isaiah 40–48, 85–86.

104

The Idol-Worshippers

spoke words of comfort, describing the Babylonians and their gods as weak and powerless (Isa 41:29; 45:20b; 46:1–3). For others, the Babylonian cult was impressive and tempting – the prophet warns them against falling for that temptation (Isa 40:18; 46:5).84 Finally, there were those who accepted the Babylonian cult because they were seduced by its glory and power – to them the prophet stresses the futility and dangers of idol-worship (Isa 41:24; 42:17; 44:20). The diversity of attitudes among the Israelites towards the worship of idols can be illustrated by the description of the Servant of YHWH, who is the one who is blind (Isa 42:19) but also the one who shall lift off the blindness of the people (Isa 42:7). To those among the exiles who yearned for YHWH’s deliverance, the prophet spoke the word of comfort, but to those who were seduced by the cult of idols, the prophet spoke the harsh words of reproof (Isa 42:17; 45:16).85 The problem of idolatry among the exiles in Babylon has been dealt with by Deutero-Isaiah’s precursors, Jeremiah and Ezekiel. These prophets called the people to repentance over and over again. Their hopes for the future of the people of YHWH were enshrined in their visions of the complete transformations of the human heart. To these prophets I now turn my attention.

_____________ 84 See also Jer 10. 85 According to Ezekiel, the situation was the same during the time of the first captivity in Egypt, where the Israelites adopted and participated in the worship of the Egyptian gods (Ezek 20:7–8). So also Lindblom: “All idealized conceptions of the moral quality of the Babylonian gôlâh must be abandoned,” Lindblom, Prophecy, 387.

5

Jeremiah and Ezekiel

This part of my study has the character of an excursus. In order to place Deutero-Isaiah’s ideas on deliverance, repentance and transformation in perspective, I will make a short trip through the landscape of Jeremiah and Ezekiel. Both these prophetic books are concerned with events taking place at the time of the Babylonian exile. They both exhort the people to repentance, and they both anticipate the future restoration of the people of YHWH in their own land.1 In the study of Isa 40– 55 we have seen that repentance of the people comprises first of all a change of attitude and that it conditions their relationship with YHWH, and not their deliverance from captivity. The aim of this chapter is to find out whether this idea of the relationship between deliverance and repentance can be traced also in the Books of Jeremiah and Ezekiel.2 For this purpose I will briefly survey the calls to repentance, characterised by the use of the imperative of the verb ‫שׁוב‬. In the same manner, I will seek to find out whether the role that the transformation plays in the deliverance-repentance interplay in Jeremiah and Ezekiel differs from what we have found in Isa 40–55. Transformation texts are thematic units which speak of the metamorphosis, of the inward change in the exiles, characterised by their change of heart.3 The reason why these texts are relevant is that the transformation of the heart of the people effects the reestablishment of their relationship with YHWH in the same manner as their repentance does.

_____________ 1 The similarities with the Dtr will not be considered at this point since this study is primarily focused on the prophetic traditions of the exile. 2 I wish to remind the reader that I do not intend to cover the ideas of repentance and deliverance in these prophetic books in their entirety. The selected texts display the most obvious cases, which makes the entire enterprise somewhat more possible to achieve within the framework of this study. 3 Although the calls to repentance and the transformation texts are of a different character, it is meaningful to analyse them together since both of them can provide useful information about the tension between deliverance and repentance in these prophetic books.

106

Jeremiah and Ezekiel

5.1

Jeremiah

There are clear indications that this book has undergone a major editorial process. This fact is also indicated by the substantial textual differences between the Masoretic Text and the Septuagint, and scholars are divided on the question of authorship.4 Some scholars argue for a Dtr redaction of the book,5 while others claim that the apparent Dtr influences should be ascribed to the creativity of the prophet himself.6 A discussion of the questions involved in this issue, however, is beyond the scope of this chapter.

5.1.1

The Calls to Repentance

The Book of Jeremiah offers a great variety of exhortations to improved conduct, or to return to YHWH. The addressees are instructed to a repentance-like action in a number of ways. The vocabulary used comprises the verbs ‫יטב‬, “to be good,” (Jer 7:3; 18:11; 26:13), ‫כבס‬, “to wash,” (Jer 4:14), and most frequently, the verb ‫שׁוב‬, “to return.” In his study of the use of the root ‫ שׁוב‬in Jeremiah, Krašovec concludes that “it occurs here in a richer variety of nuances than in any other book of the Hebrew Bible.”7 The imperative of the word ‫ שׁוב‬occurs twelve times, whereof six times in a context of a call to repent or to return to YHWH.8 _____________ 4 For an survey of the theories on this issue see Holladay, Jeremiah 2, 10–24 and Carroll Carroll, Jeremiah, 38–55. For a discussion of the central issues in the textual history of Jeremiah, as well as the relationship between MT and LXX see Tov, “Aspects,” 145–67. Cf. also Hubmann, “Bemerkungen,” 263–9. 5 An analysis of Dtr influence on Jeremiah has been performed by Winfried Thiel, who also recognises some post-Dtr material in the book, see Thiel, Jeremia 1–25, and Thiel, Jeremia 26–45, passim. McKane agrees with Thiel that this prophetic book is a result of a lengthy process of growth, but he is critical of Thiel’s understanding of the Dtr: “[T]here is a danger of calling into existence a Deuteronomistic editor, investing him with an editorial policy, determining the contours of his mind, and requiring the prose of 1–25 to be amenable to this hypothesis.” McKane, Jermiah 1, xlix. 6 Representative for this view are, among others, Helga Weippert and William Holladay, Weippert, Prosareden, 228–34, and Holladay, Jeremiah 2, 53: “Jrm drew on Proto– Deuteronomy, and exilic redactors of Deuteronomy sometimes drew on Jrm’s words.” At the far side of this stream we find Jeremiah Unterman who with regard to his analysis of Jeremiah’s prophecies of redemption concludes: “not only is there the lack of a dtr. ideology, but rather there exists an anti-dtr. perspective,” Unterman, Repentance to Redemption, 177. 7 Krašovec, Reward, Punishment, 449. See also Holladay, Jeremiah 2, 15. 8 For a full account of the semantic use of the root, see Krašovec, Reward, Punishment, 436–7. Cf. also Holladay, Root, 128–39. There are other forms of the root ‫ שׁוב‬in Jeremiah (more than 100 occurrences), most of which are not relevant for the purpose of this study.

Jeremiah

107

Three of the instances occur in contexts of proclamation of doom (Jer 18:11; 25:5; and 35:15) and three of them can be found in contexts of a promise of restoration and forgiveness (Jer 3:12, 14, and 22). In the book of Jeremiah, the relationship between repentance and deliverance is, generally speaking, conditional: if the people repent from their evil ways, if they change their conduct, then the good things promised will come to them.9 However, the calls to repentance in Jer 3:12, 3:14 and 3:22a are included in promises of deliverance and thus ideologically similar to those in Isa 40–55. I will briefly analyse these texts in order to clarify the nature of the relationship between deliverance and repentance. 5.1.1.1

Jeremiah 3

Jeremiah 3, which is included in the first part of the Book of Jeremiah, comprises poems and sermons against Judah and Jerusalem (Jer 2:1– 25:14) or, more narrowly, it is part of the unit which contains poems on false cults (Jer 2:4–4:4).10 The context deals with issues related to repentance: the apostasy of two sisters, Israel and Judah (Jer 3:6–11), a call to Israel to repent (Jer 3:12–13), future restoration (Jer 3:14–18), the faithless conduct of the house of Israel (Jer 3:19–20) and a collective awareness and recognition of apostasy (Jer 3:19–25).11 _____________ 9 Thus, Jer 4:1–4; 18:8; 25:4–11; 26:3; 35:15; 36:3; 44:2–6. Other texts show a more complicated process of repentance. Thus, YHWH’s report of Ephraim’s repentance in Jer 31:18–19 says that the repentance of the people, indicated by the expressions in v. 19, comes prior to their request to YHWH to make them return, but also after such an act of YHWH, the people are willing to repent (v. 18c). It is quite complicated to grasp this unit clearly, a fact displayed in a number of emendations of these verse, see Holladay, Jeremiah 2, 189–91. 10 Following Carroll’s outline of the book, see Carroll, Jeremiah, 86–87. 11 Again, scholars are divided on the question of authorship of this unit. Thus Carroll argues that the theme of return is characteristic of the Dtr school, and that the very occurrence of the theme in this text must presuppose the exile: “only after the disaster has happened can the work of repentance and restoration begin,” Carroll, Jeremiah, 148. Cf. also Biddle, Redaction History, 115–21, who sees four redactional stages in Jer 2:1–4:2, Schuldübernahme, Repentance, Generations and Framework redaction, see pp. 206–14. Other scholars ascribe this unit to a later redaction, conducted by Jeremiah himself. Thus, Holladay takes his own hypothesis that Jeremiah has written two scrolls, first in 605 and second in 601 as his starting point. The subsequent editing has also mostly been done by Jeremiah himself. For a detailed account of this hypothesis, see Holladay, Jeremiah 2, 15–20. Cf. also Holladay, Jeremiah 1, 64–68. See also Böhler, “Geschlechterdifferenz,” 125–26, and Unterman, Repentance to Redemption, 25–30. The fact that the theme of return is important for the Dtr does not exclude the possibility that it is important for other ideological fractions prior to the Dtr, or that the Dtr has been ideologically inspired by an earlier school or by a prophet, such as Jeremiah. See further Scharbert, “Jeremia,” 45–46, who argues that certain expressions in both Jeremiah and Dtr belong to the common use of language

108

Jeremiah and Ezekiel

Jeremiah 3:12 marks the start of a unit directed to the North, in which the people are called to return to YHWH. The call to repentance is proclaimed in connection with YHWH’s declaration that he will bring his present anger to an end. 12

13

Go, and proclaim these words toward the north, and say: Return, faithless Israel, says YHWH. I will not look on you in anger, for I am merciful, says YHWH; I will not be angry forever. For all that,a acknowledge your guilt, that you have rebelled against YHWH your God, and scattered your waysb among strangers under every green tree, and have not obeyed my voice, says YHWH.12

A number of scholars argue that, in this text, the promise of mercy is conditioned by Israel’s repentance. Thus, Holladay and Carroll understand verse 13 as expression of a condition to the promise of YHWH’s compassion in verse 12: “If apostate Judah will only turn back to Yahweh and acknowledge its guilt, all will be well.”13 However, there is no explicit textual support for this view. Warmuth, on the other hand, claims that mercy is not conditioned by repentance, since the call to repentance is in reality a call to accept the offer of reconciliation.14 His understanding of the interplay in Jer 3:12–13 is however, rather paradoxical. Warmuth argues that repentance is both called for and prom-

12

13 14

in the seventh and sixth century BCE. Cf. also Holt, “Chicken and the Egg,” and Holladay, Jeremiah 2, 15. Textual remarks: a) I read “for all that” in stead of NRSV’s“only.” See the discussion below. b) MT reading ‫דרכיך‬, “your ways,” is supported by the versions and should not be changes to ‫דודיך‬, “your loves,” (BHSapp!), see Holladay, Jeremiah 1, 59. Carroll, Jeremiah, 147, cf. also Holladay, Jeremiah 1, 118–19. Thus also Krašovec, Reward, Punishment, 450. Warmuth, Das Mahnwort, 138–9. Warmuth’s argument is closely connected with his understanding of Jer 3:12–13 as primarily a proclamation of salvation, in which the call to repentance plays a secondary role, cf. Wolff, “Das Thema,” 143–4. In my opinion, this utterance is an exhortation to repentance motivated by the fact that YHWH has decided to turn away from his anger. Raitt raises a good point when arguing that “[o]ne must be cautious about allowing repentance to be found only with speech structures of unrestrained judgment or unqualified grace,” since such a view seems to be based in the personal (Protestant) theological preconceptions, see Raitt, “Prophetic Summons,” 33.

Jeremiah

109

ised as part of restoration announced: “Dadurch ist das Mahnwort nicht nur durch die Heilszusage bedingt, sondern zu einem Teil von ihr geworden.”15 Thus, Warmuth argues that human actions have no influence on YHWH’s good will, but they are part of, or even a result of, that good will. Warmuth’s view represents a cause and effect relationship between YHWH’s mercy and the people’s repentance. Although, his view is to some degree the same as that of Holladay and Carroll, their views of the relationship point in the opposite direction. Holladay and Carroll argue that YHWH’s actions are directly dependent on human conduct, while Warmuth claims that human conduct is dependent on the actions of YHWH: “Die ‘Umkehr’ Jahwes geht der Umkehr Israels voraus und macht diese erst möglich.”16 In my opinion, YHWH’s return motivates the return of the people, it does not make it possible. YHWH’s declaration that Israel will not be dismissed when she returns (v. 12a) is not conditioned by the return itself. In fact, YHWH will not frown at his people because of (‫ )כי‬YHWH’s ‫חסד‬, “faithfulness, love,” (v. 12b), which, in turn, is an abiding aspect of YHWH’s personality and not an attitude prompted by the present circumstances, or conditioned by any specific action of YHWH’s people.17 In the same way, the call to repentance is a call to respond to the declaration of YHWH’s faithfulness. Verse 13, in turn, accounts for the details of the response. The particle ‫אך‬, which opens the verse, does not denote a condition. Jeremiah uses this particle prior to an imperative on two other occasions (Jer 28:7 and 34:4) neither of which introduces a condition, but rather reinforces the statement which expresses the basis for further action.18 In Jer 3:13 the addressees are instructed about the proper way to respond to the promise of mercy: they should come to an insight about their guilt.19 Interestingly, the human actions as such are not in focus, and repentance refers primarily to the attitude of the people. The reaction of the

_____________ 15 Warmuth, Das Mahnwort, 139. 16 Warmuth, Das Mahnwort, 138. 17 Zobel, “‫חסד‬,” TDOT 5, 62 maintains that YHWH’s ‫“ חסד‬is characterized by permanence, constancy, and reliability.” 18 In his study of this particle, Muraoka emphasises its double function: asseverative (sic!)-emphatic (Muraoka’s terminology) and restrictive-adversative. Interestingly enough, he does not mention Jer 3:13, whereas he proposes that Jer 34:4 should be understood as “nevertheless, for all that,” see Muraoka, Emphatic Words, 129–30. 19 Cf. Holladay, Jeremiah 1, 118–19. Likewise, Clements who, in his comments on Jer 3:1–4:2 argues that repentance is possible because of “the nature of God,” yet not realisable without some acknowledgement of guilt: “[I]t is essential for all to repent in order to return to God,” Clements, Jeremiah, 35–36.

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Jeremiah and Ezekiel

people should consist of a change of attitude, knowledge of their wrongdoings, and not primarily a change of conduct.20 In much the same way, the call to repentance in Jer 3:14 is motivated (‫ )כי‬by the fact that YHWH is the master (‫)בעל‬, the God of the addressees, who now promises to bring about the national restoration of the Israelites (vv. 15–18). Return, O faithless children, says YHWH, for I am your master; I will take you, one from a city and two from a family, and I will bring you to Zion.21

Holladay maintains that repentance in verse 14 has only a geographical reference, meaning a call to the northern kingdom to return to the cult in Jerusalem.22 However, this could hardly be all there is to say. The adjective ‫שׁובב‬, which Holladay understands as meaning “apostate” or “disloyal,” carries a sense of a spiritual disloyalty.23 This is also supported by the wordplay on the root itself, which makes room for both the geographical and the spiritual understandings.24 As in verses 12–13, repentance is presented also in verse 14 as a natural response: the people need to return because (‫ )כי‬YHWH is their master (cf. Jer 31:32). The fact that no particular actions, apart from the return itself, are required, gives an impression that the repentance refers to the insight and to the resumption of their identity as the people of YHWH. After this statement, the actions of YHWH, in his capacity as God and master, are presented as the actions of the restoration (Jer 3:15–18). YHWH does not _____________ 20 The people have displayed a lack of awareness of their spiritual condition (Jer 2:23, 35; 8:8) and the prophet calls for an awakening. It goes without saying that the insight about their sin and the change of attitude ought to lead to a corresponding conduct. However, the prophet deals with the core of the problem first: the inward change of YHWH’s people. 21 The verse is part of the unit which continues the address to the North (Jer 3:14–18). Holladay argues that this unit was only later adapted to imply an universal message of the final redemption for all the Israelites: the text reflects “the hope of Josiah to bring the north back into unity with the south,” but later it was reinterpreted at the time when Judah went into exile. This could also explain why the ark is mentioned in v. 16, which might have been relevant for the North, prior to the Babylonian exile, Holladay, Jeremiah 1, 120. Cf. also Carroll, Jeremiah, 149–50. 22 Holladay, Jeremiah 1, 64 and 120. 23 Holladay, Jeremiah 1, 120. 24 Cf. Watson, Classical Hebrew, 239 who points out that a wordplay of this kind “is feeble, considered as ambiguity, but nonetheless effective by dint of its repetitive aspect.” For similar view see Carroll, Jeremiah, 149.

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restore his people because they return to him, but because he is their master, and therefore God acts with the responsibility demanded by such a relationship. The tension between repentance and the promise of restoration is, once again, not solved in terms of any condition, but in terms of reciprocity: both are equally required within the process of reunion between YHWH and his people. A similar thought is found in Jer 3:22, which represents a poetic call to repentance, motivated by the assurance of healing and rehabilitation.25 Israel’s tendency to apostate from YHWH is seen as an illness that YHWH now promises to heal.26 Return, O faithless children, I will heal your faithlessness. “Here we come to you; for you are YHWH our God.”

Although, in this unit, healing is conditioned by the return of the people, the declaration of YHWH’s goodwill is not. By the promise of healing following their return, YHWH demonstrates that he has returned to his people, a fact which is particularly interesting when compared to the texts in which YHWH declares that he has abandoned his people (Jer 12:7–8; 15:6; 18:17). Yet, YHWH’s return alone does not consolidate the relationship. The people must also return to YHWH.27 To sum up my survey of Jer 3, I conclude first, that the relationship between the promise of restoration – which comprises the assurance of YHWH’s goodwill, the national restoration in the land, and the spiritual restoration of the people – and the call to repentance, stands out as interaction or even as interdependence. YHWH declares his willingness to re-establish the damaged relationship with his people, and the peo_____________ 25 Jeremiah 3:19–25 stands out as a liturgy, describing the gravity of the people’s betrayal of YHWH, calling them to return to YHWH, and ending with their answer to that call. For a closer analysis of the unit, see Holladay, Jeremiah 1, 65–66, and 121–6. 26 Stoebe, “‫רפא‬,” TLOT 3, 1257, emphasises the fact that “healing comes also to mean forgiveness,” cf. Ps 103:3. McKane points out that although the LXX translates ‫שׁובבים‬ in v. 22 in a positive sense as “repenting,” the word denotes an “indicative of fickleness and waywardness,” McKane, Jermiah 1, 81. 27 The noun ‫משׁובה‬, “backsliding,” occurs nine times in the book of Jeremiah (Jer 2:19; 3:6, 8, 11, 12, 22; 5:6; 8:5 and 14:7). In all of these instances the word denotes a negative action of faithlessness, treachery and apostasy. Consequently, YHWH does not promise to heal the consequences of the people’s apostasy up to the present time, i.e. not the wounds of the punishment. Healing seems rather to refer solely to their tendency to apostate. Again, this indicates that the main object of restoration is not the physical restoration from the exile, but the restoration and consolidation of the relationship, cf. Stoebe, “‫רפא‬,” TLOT 3, 1258.

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Jeremiah and Ezekiel

ple are called to act in the same way. Secondly, repentance comprises primarily an insight into the apostasy committed and a consequent change of attitude. Thus, while the calls to repentance in the rest of the book of Jeremiah are generally seen as a condition for the deliverance promised, and while they are primarily aimed to encourage action, the call to repentance in Jer 3, which is motivated by the declaration of deliverance, is a condition for the relationship itself, and refers to a change of attitudes. The very fact that the people are called to repent implies that they are also able to repent. However, Jer 3:22a indicates that the people are unable to remain in the state acquired by their repentance. Therefore YHWH promises to change their “backsliding nature.” In other words, Jeremiah seems to imply that in order that the relationship between YHWH and his people may endure, YHWH needs to change the character of the people. This view is fully expressed in the so-called transformation texts to which I now turn.

5.1.2

The Transformation Texts

There are three texts in the book of Jeremiah which refer to the change of heart of the people, and which I therefore classify as transformation texts: Jer 24:4–7, 31:31–34 and 32:36–41.28 Since the transformation is related to the reestablishment of the relationship, I will enquire about the role that the actions of the people, i.e. repentance, play in these particular texts. Jeremiah 24:4–7 is part of a prophetic vision (Jer 24:1–10) given at the time of the first deportation of the Judeans to Babylon (597 BCE). Verses 4–7 describe the fate of the “good figs:” it is a word of salvation, a promise of a future restoration of those exiled to Babylon. The promise of national restoration (v. 6) is followed by the gift of a heart to know (‫ )ידע‬YHWH (v. 7a). The knowledge of YHWH is, as Unterman rightly points out, “not a passive recognition but, rather, a concrete _____________ 28 The authenticity of these texts is debated among scholars, and a number of scholars argue for a post-exilic, Dtr redaction of these passages, see Carroll, Jeremiah, and Clements, Jeremiah, ad loc. However, in his study of the promises of a good future in Jeremiah and Dtr, Raitt concludes that “Jeremianic passages are informed by a different set of theological priorities, a distinctly separate vision of the course of the prophetic vocation, and a different constellation of thematic preferences,” Raitt, Theology of Exile, 121. Thus also Unterman contends that the prophet “was familiar with Deuteronomy without being subservient to its conceptions,” Unterman, Repentance to Redemption, 67. Lately, Hendrik Leene argues that these texts differ from Dtr with regard to both theology and language, dating them to a late post-exilic period, see Leene, “Ezekiel and Jeremiah,” 157–64.

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activity, the people’s obedience to YHWH’s commandments.”29 The ultimate goal of YHWH’s work of restoration seems to be a lasting relationship between YHWH and his people (v. 7b). The final clause of this unit raises issues relevant for this study: I will give them a heart to know that I am YHWH; and they shall be my people and I will be their God, for they shall return to me with their whole heart.”

The reestablishment of the relationship is related to the wholehearted return of the people to YHWH (v. 7c). The question is whether the repentance is a condition for the relationship and the transformation, or whether it is the transformation, the gift of the heart of knowledge when effectuated, that leads to the repentance of the people. Or in grammatical terms, how should the conjunction ‫( כי‬v. 7) be understood? Scholars differ on this issue. Caroll and Raitt understands the return of the people to YHWH as a result of YHWH’s transformation of their heart: “Deliverance creates a transformation, which produces the repentance expected of God’s elect.”30 However, if this is the case, the gift of the new heart ceases to be a gift and becomes an instrument of manipulation. Against this, Clements, argues that the conjunction ‫ כי‬in verse 7c conditions the entire unit: “the return to God with a whole heart… alone can be the foundation for an eventual return to the land and the recovery of full nationhood.”31 Yet, if that was the case, one should expect the reference to repentance to have a more prominent place within the utterance, reinforcing its importance within the process of national restoration. On the basis of a comparison with other similar passages in Jeremiah, Unterman asserts that the repentance of the people will occur during the exile and will serve as the formal cause for the promise of redemption.”32 The reason for the transformation of their heart following their repentance, Unterman explains, is due to the unstable character of the people who were at risk of turning away from YHWH, once they had been securely restored to their land. Thus, Unterman concludes: “Israel’s repentance and YHWH’s mercies are both of primary importance, in these prophecies repentance takes a secondary position and God’s promise of redemption takes center-stage.”33 _____________ 29 Unterman, Repentance to Redemption, 80. See also Botterweck, “‫ידע‬,” TDOT 5, 470–7. 30 Raitt, Theology of Exile, 178. Carroll too understands repentance to follow the transformation: “[W]ith that new mind they will turn (yāšubū) to him,” Carroll, Jeremiah, 486. 31 Clements, Jeremiah, 148. 32 Unterman, Repentance to Redemption, 82. The idea that the repentance of the people is a result of the change of their heart is rejected by Unterman as being a “deterministic conception,” ibid. p. 81. 33 Unterman, Repentance to Redemption, 87.

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Jeremiah and Ezekiel

The understanding that the transformation of the people will take place on their return to YHWH is also supported by Jer 3:22, where YHWH promises to heal his people’s backsliding character when they return to him. In addition, Jer 24:7 is composed in such a way that the formula of the covenant “and they will be my people and I will be their God” is placed between the gift of a heart of knowledge and the wholehearted return of the Israelites to YHWH, suggesting that the ideal relationship will be a result of an interaction between YHWH and his people (cf. Jer 29:10–14).34 YHWH’s work of transformation, following and in conjunction with the repentance of the people, makes the reestablishment of a lasting relationship possible.35 The following two units are part of the Book of Comfort, comprising Jer 30–33, where the themes of judgement, hope and promise are skilfully interwoven. The basic elements of both these units follow a similar pattern: YHWH promises to bring about the national revival of the Israelites (Jer 32:37). The purpose of such a revival is the restored relationship between YHWH and his people, expressed by the formula of the covenant “they shall be my people, and I will be their God” (Jer 31:33; 32:38). The transformation itself has an effect on the heart of the people (Jer 31:33; 32:39). It results in knowledge (‫ידע‬, Jer 31:34) and the fear (‫ירא‬, Jer 32:39–40) of YHWH, a quality that will assure the wellbeing of both the present generation of the Israelites and of their offspring (Jer 32:39). In addition, YHWH promises to make a new and everlasting covenant with the Israelites (Jer 31:31–33; 32:40).36 Both units end with the declarations of YHWH’s forgiveness (Jer 31:34) and fidelity (Jer 32:41). However, the Israelites will be prevented from abandoning YHWH, by means of the fear (‫ )ירא‬of YHWH, which will be put into their hearts. _____________ 34 Unterman, Repentance to Redemption, 80–81. 35 Cf. Leene, “Ezekiel and Jeremiah,” 161–2. One should, however, be careful not to draw any definitive conclusions regarding the exact chronology of the events embraced in the scheme of mutual co-operation. We shall return to this issue in the conclusions to this part of the chapter. 36 The mention of the new covenant has attracted the interest of a number of scholars. The discussion has been centred on the questions of the nature and the content of the new covenant. It seems that the originality of the new covenant lies in the fact that it will be given directly to the human heart, without any mediator. In addition, the text suggests that such a covenant, which will be effective from within, will be unbreakable. For an overview see Unterman, Repentance to Redemption, 98–106, and Krašovec, Reward, Punishment, 451–62. See also Lundbom, “New Covenant,” ABD 4, 1088–9. James Swetnam has proposed a theory that the new covenant implied that copies of the Mosaic Law should be printed and available to individuals within the scope of liturgy, see Swetnam, “Why,” 114–15.

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Interestingly, there is no mention at all of the repentance of the people in these texts, which leads Unterman to conclude that “here complete forgiveness is given without the necessity of the people initiating any action at all.”37 In my understanding, the fact that the response of the people to YHWH is missing in this context has to do with the nature of these texts. The prophet is referring to the final reestablishment and consolidation of the relationship between YHWH and his people, it is an anticipation of a perpetual security which will be initiated in some distant future. Carroll concludes that these texts represents a “veritable utopia and the triumph of hope over experience.”38 Such an expression of hope and vision for the future does not make room for any explanations of the way in which the ideal state will be achieved. The final clause in Jer 32:40, “so that they may not turn from me,” reveals two interesting facts. First, it opens the possibility that the people may return back to YHWH prior to the transformation: in order for the people to turn away from YHWH, they must have returned to him first. Secondly, the co-operation of the Israelites is required in order for the relationship to remain. Having witnessed the inability of the people to remain loyal to him, YHWH transforms the heart of the people in order to secure their future conduct. Thus, the basic work of restoration of the relationship between YHWH and the Israelites rests with YHWH, and with YHWH alone. To sum up the survey of the three transformation texts in Jeremiah, I can say the following. First, a promise of national revival in triumph and prosperity initiates the process. Secondly, the transformation of the Israelites results in their ability to know (‫ )ידע‬and to fear (‫ )ירא‬YHWH. Thirdly, the ideal relationship between YHWH and his people, expressed through the formula of the covenant “my people–their God,” is established as the final goal of the process. The transformation of the heart of the people, leads to the establishment of a lasting relationship between YHWH and his people. According to Jer 24:4–7, the repentance of the people, together with the act of restoration and transformation by YHWH, forms the prerequisites for the commencement of the relationship. However, in Jer 31:31–34 and 32:36–41, there is no mention of the repentance of the people, and the future of the people is perceived as being completely in the hands of YHWH. _____________ 37 Unterman, Repentance to Redemption, 109. 38 Carroll, Jeremiah, 612. Carroll, citing Blenkinsopp, maintains: “Such utopianism is a feature of the futuristic elements in the prophetic anthologies and represents a fundamental weakness of biblical prophecy.” I disagree with Carroll, since the ability to speak of the ideal future functions as a strong motivating and strengthening factor for the audience afflicted by the troubles of the present times. Such an ability should rather be seen as one of the strengths of biblical prophecy.

116

Jeremiah and Ezekiel

5.1.3

Conclusions

There is hope in the Book of Jeremiah that the events of the first decades of the sixth century do not represent the end of YHWH’s people. When addressing his contemporaries, he instructs them on how to act. Generally, these instructions are issued in a cause and effect manner: if the people return to YHWH, if they change their behaviour, YHWH will return to them. Jeremiah 3 stands out, since in this chapter the reestablishment of the relationship is presented as the result of a double return: as YHWH’s return to Israel, and as Israel’s return to YHWH. However, turning back to YHWH is not all. The final work still needs to be done. Jeremiah does not believe that his people is able to recover fully by themselves, and therefore he views the final reestablishment of the relationship between YHWH and his people as a matter in the hands of YHWH. Through his proclamations, Jeremiah clarifies that the complete restoration of the Israelites requires both their willingness and their action, although it is not for them to carry out the restoration as such. I now turn to the Book of Ezekiel, another of the great exilic prophets who, through a number of visions, experienced both YHWH’s departure from the temple, and his return to the Israelites.

5.2

Ezekiel

It is generally assumed that the prophet Ezekiel was addressing the Israelites in the Babylonian exile during the first decades of the deportation, roughly between the years of 593 and 570 BCE.39 In the aftermath of the first deportation and the consequent destruction of Jerusalem, the exiles came to doubt both YHWH’s power and his loyalty: if YHWH was powerful, how could he allow such a disaster to strike his people and his city?40 In response to these questions, Ezekiel presents his ideas _____________ 39 The opinions on the authorship of the book of Ezekiel range from those who argue that the book is mostly a result of the prophet’s creativity, to those who argue that the book is a result of an extensive editorial process. For a survey of the history of the debate on this issue, see Block, Book of Ezekiel, 17–29. See also Pohlmann, Hesekiel 1–19, 22–41. Reviewing the theories of the literal growth of the book, Albertz concludes that the date of the origin of this book is some time between 545 and 515 BCE. Albertz asserts that it was written by Ezekiel’s disciples, composed primarily in Babylonia, but finally shaped in Judah, after the return from the exile, see Albertz, Israel in Exile, 352–3. For a review of recent scholarship see ibid. pp. 346–52. 40 This can be seen in the implicit criticism of YHWH in Ezek 18:21–29 and 33:17–20.

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117

of the interdependence between the actions of YHWH and the actions of the people.41

5.2.1

The Calls to Repentance

The imperative of the verb ‫ שׁוב‬occurs nine times in the Book of Ezekiel, whereof eight times in the context of the calls to repentance: Ezek 14:6; 18:30, 32 and 33:11. There are only a few exhortations to a change of conduct or of attitude in Ezekiel that are voiced by the use of another kind of terminology.42 In addition, none of the calls to repentance are placed within a context of a promise of restoration. The units which contain the calls to repentance (Ezek 14:1–11, 18:30–32 and 33:10–11) have several elements in common. First, they all seem to have been delivered by the prophet to the exiles in Babylon some times around the destruction of Jerusalem 587 BCE. Secondly, they are all cast in the form of a dispute between YHWH and the exiles over the issue of who is responsible for the tragedy of the exile. The main object seems to be to make the exiles aware of the fact that, through their unrighteous conduct and their apostasy from YHWH, they have brought the disaster upon themselves. The call to repentance is a call to a change of conduct, a call to return from the idols and abominations (Ezek 14:6), from transgressions (Ezek 18:30) and from their evil ways (Ezek 33:11). It is a drastic call from death to life: “Turn back from your evil ways, for why will you die, O house of Israel?” (Ezek 33:11), “For I have no pleasure in the death of anyone, says the Lord YHWH. Turn, then, and live!” (Ezek 18:31). Thus, although the call is motivated by YHWH’s readiness to restore and by his desire to re-establish the relationship with the Israelites, it is nevertheless issued under a threat of death. The relationship between repentance and deliverance, i.e. life, depends on a condition: if the people make a full return to YHWH, they will survive. The national restoration of the exiles per se is not an issue in these particular texts. The calls to repentance are primarily calls to turn away from wrong conduct in general, and from idolatry in particular. Interestingly, there are a number of texts in Ezekiel which speak of dramatic changes in the life of the people of YHWH, in terms of their _____________ 41 For the points of contact between Ezekiel’s and Deutero-Isaiah’s message of salvation, see Baltzer, Ezechiel, passim. 42 I wish to remind the reader that I have not studied the entire Book of Ezekiel but only some test cases chosen because of an occurrence of the imperative of the verb ‫שׁוב‬.

118

Jeremiah and Ezekiel

future deliverance and their restoration in their own land.43 Two of them refer to a complete transformation of their hearts (Ezek 11:17–21 and 36:22–32).44

5.2.2

The Transformation Texts

The order of events predicted in the two transformation texts attracts attention. First, the national restoration, which initiates the process, is executed by YHWH (Ezek 11:17; 36:24).45 Secondly, according to Ezek 11:18, the (re)action of the restored exiles comprises a purification of the land from every aspect of idolatry (‫ שׁיקוציה‬and ‫)תועבותיה‬, while according to Ezek 36:25, the exiles are purified from the uncleanness inflicted on them by their misdeeds, and by their idolatry in particular. Thirdly, the transformation proper is described thus: YHWH will carry out a complete change of heart in the restored exiles, which will result in their ability to act according to his commandments (Ezek 11:19–20; 36:26–27). The ultimate goal of such a transformation is expressed by the formula of the covenant, “they shall be my people, and I will be their God” (Ezek 11:20b; 36:28). Fourthly, Ezek 11:21 proclaims condemnation of those who are not willing to give up idolatry and who refuse to abandon “their detestable things and their abominations,” while Ezek 36:31–32 shows that the restoration will inspire remorse in _____________ 43 Ezekiel 11:17–21; 20:39–44; 36:22–32, 33–36; 37:11–14 and 19–23. 44 Ezekiel 11:14–21 can be dated to the period between the first deportation and the fall of Jerusalem. MT is uneven and betrays traces of extensive editing, see Zimmerli, Ezekiel 1, 230. See also Pohlmann, Hesekiel 1–19, 165–9. Ezekiel 36:22–32 has been ascribed to Ezekiel’s followers during the later years of the exile, see Zimmerli, Ezekiel 2, 246. For an overview of the text-critical issues of this unit, see Zimmerli, Ezekiel 2, 241–5, and Greenberg, Ezekiel 21–37, 733–40. For a comprehensive study of the relationship between divine initiative and human response in the book of Ezekiel see Joyce, Divine Initiative. 45 Ezekiel 36:22–23, 32 declares that the Israelites are restored for the sake of the honour of YHWH. The notion of the profaned name of YHWH is a central theme in the preaching of Ezekiel, and it plays a major role in the whole process of restoration of the people of YHWH, see von Rad, Theology 2, 227, 236–7. Cf also Brueggemann, Theology, 291. Judging by the context of Ezek 36:22–32, the profanation has been caused by the very fact that the Israelites, YHWH’s people, have been deprived of their land and taken into captivity as if their God was not powerful enough to save them. Likewise, the profanation of the name of YHWH is also related to the worship of idols (vv. 25 and 31). In fact, once in exile, the exiles did not really change, and Ezekiel accuses the leaders of the people particularly of not changing despite the catastrophe (Ezek 20:30–31), see Albertz, Israel in Exile, 366. This is also in line with Ezekiel’s doctrine of individual responsibility (Ezek 18:1–32 and 33:10–20), which also suggests that the exiles suffer for their own sins and not only for the sins of their fathers. For questions of the dates of these texts, see Leene, “Ezekiel and Jeremiah,” 154–7.

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the Israelites. At the same time, the addressees are rebuked: “Be ashamed and dismayed for your ways, o house of Israel.” The transformation concerns the heart exclusively: it is a shift from a “heart of stone” to a “heart of flesh.” It is interesting to notice the fact that this is a transformation that changes the heart to its natural, not to a supernatural, state of existence.46 Since the transformation refers to the disposition of the people, which will result in the fidelity to YHWH’s commandments,47 it can be concluded that such a spiritual condition is the only natural condition of the people of YHWH: “Israel does not belong to Babylon nor does it belong to exile. It belongs to Yahweh.”48 The relationship between the actions of the people and the actions of YHWH is that of interdependence. In Ezek 11, the promise of transformation stands between the references to the actions of the people (vv. 18 and 21), indicating that the transformation is preceded by an action of the people which shows their willingness to be reunited with YHWH: by the abandonment of their idolatry. This implies that even though repentance is not explicitly mentioned, the indication is that the transformation will be carried out only in those among the Israelites who yearn for it and who will abandon the worship of idols.49 In this respect, Ezek 11:17–21 differs from the rest of the book which does not speak of any human part in the process of restoration, but which concentrates exclusively on the actions of YHWH (cf. Ezek 37:1–14). Ezekiel 36 indicates that although the transformation, and the prosperity which will follow, is promised solely because of YHWH’s reputation, and in spite of the wrong conduct of the exiles,50 the transformation will ultimately lead the exiles to react, and this time to remorse. Will such a reaction be the result of the metamorphosis, and thus not really a voluntary act by the exiles, or will it be an independent act by a people reacting to the loyalty of YHWH? What will lead the exiles to experience remorse? We have seen that the transformation will change the people and their circumstances in such a way that the preconditions for insight and _____________ 46 Cf. Raitt, Theology of Exile, 181, “God is not transforming his people into saints.” 47 Thus, Fabry, “‫לב‬,” TDOT 7, 425–6, “This new creation revives those who have been turned to stone, … a nd reestablishes the lost reality of the covenant.” 48 Brueggemann, The Land, 136. 49 Cf. Block, Book of Ezekiel, 355. 50 Scholars differ in understanding of the reasons for the transformation. Greenberg underlines that “the change of human nature was not an act of grace,” but an act of “saving God’s reputation,” see Greenberg, Ezekiel 21–37, 737. Krašovec on the other hand stresses the opposite. He states that “the new salvation will be an act of pure grace springing from God’s fidelity to his own intrinsic nature,” Krašovec, Reward, Punishment, 480.

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Jeremiah and Ezekiel

understanding will be given anew. The transformation is described as a change from an unnatural state of existence, characterised by a heart of stone, into the natural state, characterised by a heart of flesh. The heart of stone indicates the inability to do what is right. Yet, it also indicates the inability to understand and do what is wrong. If this responsive repentance, demonstrated by religious purification or by remorse, was only the result of the transformation and not a self-governed reaction by the exiles, the transformation would only be from one kind of stone heart to another.51 Rather, the transformation will lead to responsive repentance by the exiles, by means of insight and not by means of any mechanical control. In sum, we can say that the two transformation texts focus on the actions of YHWH, in which the actions of the people are implied, yet not as prominent. The change of heart is a change from the inability to make right decisions and live accordingly, to the capability to live in accordance with the demands of YHWH. The main purpose of the transformation is to prepare the people in such a way that the relationship between YHWH and his people can be renewed, and in that renewed state consolidated.

5.2.3

Conclusions

The calls to repentance in Ezekiel appear to be less concerned with the deliverance from the exile, and more with the responsibility of the individual before YHWH.52 The people are not called to repent in order to avoid punishment or to earn deliverance, but they are called to repent from the misconception of their own innocence and righteousness. They are called to repent from their devotion to idolatry. In these texts the focus is on the actions and on the decisive importance of these actions for the future of each individual. In the transformation texts, the actions of the people are put aside and the focus shifts to the actions of YHWH. Does that mean that repentance is no longer required? Brueggemann, following Zimmerli, maintains that: “The old call for repentance… is no longer issued or ex_____________ 51 Ezekiel 18:31 calls upon the people to transform themselves: “Cast away from you all the transgressions that you have committed against me, and get yourselves a new heart and a new spirit!” The co-existence of these two texts, Ezek 18:31 and Ezek 36:26 indicates co-operation between the actions of the people and the actions of YHWH. In the words of Albertz: “[I]t only illustrates the theologically necessary overlap of divine initiative and human willingness for repentance and salvation,” Albertz, Israel in Exile, 367 n. 674. Cf. also Leene, “Ezekiel and Jeremiah,” 154. 52 Thus also Joyce, Divine Initiative, 125–6.

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121

pected… the motif of repentance is transformed to the gift of new heart and new spirit.”53 Similarly, discussing the relationship between YHWH’s initiative and human response in Ezekiel, Paul Joyce argues that “Israel’s obedience will be the result rather than the cause of deliverance, part and parcel of the restoration and certainly not a condition upon which it depends.”54 However, if we define repentance as a return to YHWH, as we have seen is the case in Isa 40–55, then repentance is implied in all these texts and it is demonstrated by the purification of the land from idolatry (Ezek 11:18), or by the remorse and shame of the people (Ezek 36:31). The reference to those who persist in their old ways (Ezek 11:21) suggests that YHWH does not coerce his people into a new relationship.55 Thus, the transformation of the heart of the people refers primarily to the renewed relationship between YHWH and his people, again, only for those of the people who so wish. YHWH’s initiative to a new start corresponds to the people’s response by acceptance. The picture thus developed indicates that the establishment of the relationship between YHWH and the Israelites is possible on the basis of YHWH’s sovereignty and his power to restore, but it is practicable on the basis of their mutual willingness to make a new start.

5.3

Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Deutero-Isaiah

The aim of this chapter is to find out whether or not Deutero-Isaiah’s ideas of the interaction between deliverance and repentance can also be found, to any extent, in the prophecies of Jeremiah and Ezekiel. My survey of these prophetic books has resulted in the following points. Jeremiah 3 shows clear points of connection with Deutero-Isaiah’s thought about the calls to repentance, primarily with Isa 55:6–7: YHWH’s actions are not conditioned by the repentance of the people. Rather, their repentance is motivated by YHWH’s declaration of his acceptance _____________ 53 Brueggemann, The Land, 140–1. Of course, the question of sola gratia could be further discussed considering the fact that YHWH delivers, not primarily out of consideration for the people, but out of consideration for his reputation. 54 Joyce, Divine Initiative, 126. 55 Thus, commenting on Ezekiel’s words to the people to make for themselves a new heart and a new spirit (Ezek 18:31), Kaufmann concludes: “Ezekiel’s vision of a new heart does not entirely lack the element of repentance … m an must strive to attain the new heart before God will bestow it,” Kaufmann, Religion of Israel, 442. Cf. also Lindblom who contends that the demands upon YHWH’s people have not ceased: “The people must lean upon Yahweh, sanctify His name, and hearken to His commandments,” Lindblom, Prophecy, 383.

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and his good will. Repentance, which primarily consists of a change of attitude, is the appropriate response to the declaration of YHWH’s loyalty and to the promise of deliverance. Ezekiel does not show any direct points of contact with Deutero-Isa with regard to the calls to repentance. For Ezekiel, repentance, which consists of a change of conduct, is a demonstration of their acceptance of their own responsibility for the disaster of the exile. Their repentance is a condition for life. Both Ezekiel and Jeremiah give prominence to the process of the transformation of the heart of the people.56 Principally, transformation refers to the re-established relationship between YHWH and his people: “They shall be my people and I will be their God.” This transformation is not a condition for repentance, but it prevents future apostasy from YHWH. When mentioned in these texts, repentance interacts with transformation by making the relationship between YHWH and his people possible. We have seen that the idea of the transformation of the human heart is entirely missing in Isa 40–55.57 The explanation for this fact can most probably be found in the eschatological character of the texts about transformation in Jeremiah and Ezekiel.58 As such, these texts refer to the future, not to any imminent events. Thus, Jeremiah and Ezekiel see the guarantee for the future prosperity of YHWH’s people in the complete transformation of their hearts.59 Deutero-Isaiah is not concerned with the distant future but with the present: his prime concern is “not to predict the future but to shape it, by eliciting the people’s loyal response.”60 The good will of YHWH is not a matter of a future probability, but a matter of present fact: YHWH has transformed the current circumstances in such a way that the people’s return to the land, and their national restoration is possible. The exiles should be ready to respond. Thus, when speaking of the present, the prophet calls to repentance by reference to the deliverance which has _____________ 56 For the question of the mutual dependence between Jeremiah and Ezekiel, see Leene, “Ezekiel and Jeremiah,” 165–75. 57 The transformation of nature in Isa 40–55 does not elicit any acts of repentance or remorse on the part of the people. 58 See further Gowan, Eschatology, 59–96. 59 This does not imply that the transformation texts must be dated to the early period of the exile. These texts might have been proclaimed at any time, even after the exile, when the prosperous existence of YHWH’s people in the land had not yet been realised, but was still expected. 60 Heaton, Old Testament Prophets, 109. Note that Heaton does not refer to the difference between Jeremiah/Ezekiel and Deutero-Isa, but to the difference between “professional soothsayers” and “independent prophets.”

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already been accomplished. When speaking of the days to come, the prophet refers to the transformation of nature, which will lead to the physical as well as the spiritual prosperity of the people of YHWH.

6

Deliverance and Repentance

I have now reached the final chapter of this study in which I will discuss the theological aspects of the key concepts so far considered. Isaiah 40–55 begins with a statement about deliverance: the Israelites have received a double portion of punishment (Isa 40:2),1 now they will be led home to their own land in joy and honour (Isa 40:10–11; 55:12–13). The joy of the return is pictured as boundless and eternal (Isa 51:11). However, this is not the mood that dominates the rest of the book. The message shifts from that of joy and consolation to that of rebuke and exhortation to return to YHWH.2 The picture presented is that of a people who does not unreservedly trust YHWH (Isa 40:27). The people seemed to hesitate to turn to YHWH, perhaps because the gods of Babylon seemed to be more powerful than YHWH. If the return of the exiles was to be realised, YHWH needed to persuade his people of his good will and his power. He needed to win them back. When speaking of the deliverance and the return of the exiles, there is a risk of not really considering the people as an active part of the story. It is easy to see them as passive receivers or objects of YHWH’s actions, or only as a background for YHWH’s dealing with the nations. In other words, there is a tendency to speak about theological aspects which are based exclusively on the explicit descriptions of the actions and the nature of YHWH. Thus, summarising the theology of the exilic prophecy, Donald Gowan contends: “The most important and lasting message of the exilic prophet concerned the true nature of God…Yahweh is Holy One, Creator, Judge, and King, but also Redeemer, Savior, Comforter, and Teacher.”3 However, all these labels describe God, not primarily in his essence, but in his relationship to his people. Abraham Heschel rightly observes: “The theme of prophetic understanding is not the mystery of God’s essence, but rather the mys_____________ 1 The meaning of the expression ‫ כי לקחה מיד יהוה כפלים‬is somewhat ambiguous. Scholars have proposed different understandings of the word ‘double’ (‫)כפלים‬, as a reference to both the amount and the length of the punishment, which affected a second “innocent generation,” as suggested by Phillips, “Double,” 131. See also commentaries on this verse, for example North, Second Isaiah, 73, “more than enough.” 2 This fact has been stressed by Kapelrud: “The usual designation ‘prophet of consolation’ may thus contain some truth, but not the whole and probably not the most important truth,” Kapelrud, “Main Concern,” 52. 3 Gowan, Theology, 161.

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tery of His relation to man…It is an interpretation, not of divine Being, but of the divine interaction with humanity.”4 Thus, without considering the human part of this interaction, i.e. the human response to the acts of YHWH, the theology of any biblical text would be incomplete. Westermann expressed it in the following way: If one understands the story told by the Old Testament as an interaction, then the human response becomes one of the three integral parts of the Old Testament and belongs to everything said in the Old Testament about God, from creation to apocalyptic. In all God says and does one needs to ask how people react, since all of God’s acts and speaking is directed towards eliciting a response.5

This study has been focused on this very response as presented in Isa 40–55.6 Deutero-Isaiah’s primary concern is the survival and the prosperity of his people and not of the peoples and the nations in general, which is why he is primarily interested in the manner in which they will react to these new events. The restoration of the relationship between YHWH and the Israelites needed the consent and the active participation of both parties in order to be realised. Just as YHWH needed to return to the Israelites, so they needed to return to YHWH. In the preaching of Deutero-Isa, YHWH’s return is presented as already realised, leaving the return of the people as the major object of the mission. In the following, I will therefore consider the ideas of sin, deliverance and repentance in Isa 40–55 in order to obtain a clearer picture of the meaning and function of these concepts in the process of evoking a response of the people.

6.1

The Concept of Sin

It is quite clear that the prophet has misgivings about the spiritual condition of his people. They have descended from a long line of transgressors, their conduct has led them into exile and, in spite of the _____________ 4 Heschel, Prophets, 484–5. Thus also Brueggemann, Theology, 117: “God is the One about whom Israel speaks.” 5 Westermann, Elements, 27. I thus agree with Westermann that the study of the response of the people to the acts of YHWH should be part of theological studies and not of studies in ethics or liturgy. This is especially important, considering the fact that even the verbal descriptions of YHWH are in essence expressions of human responses: the response of a prophet or a writer to his/her vocation, or the community’s response in transmitting and preserving the word of YHWH. 6 The response of the people can be studied on two levels: the response in the texts, already analysed in this study, and the text as a response, to which I shall return in the latter part of this chapter.

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Deliverance and Repentance

harshness of their experiences, they have remained transgressors. Thus, the prophet does not only understand the problem of sin as an issue of the past, but just as much as an issue of the present (Isa 42:18, 25 and 48:10). The prophet expresses this view in two ways: directly, by the use of explicit terminology for sin or for wrong conduct, and indirectly, by the use of implicit reference to conduct that unveils wrong attitudes and actions. I will delineate the terminology and expressions used, and elaborate the question of the function of the accusations in Isa 40–55 further.

6.1.1

The Explicit Formulations

Among the words that express the notion of sin or transgression in Deutero-Isa, the word ‫ פשׁע‬is the most common. It occurs ten times in Isa 40–55, where it refers primarily to the characteristics of the people addressed,7 or to the actions of their fathers and ancestors (Isa 43:27). The term has a long history of use in the MT, developing from a lexical meaning of “offence, transgression.”8 In the prophetic books, this concept has received a theological meaning as a reference to those deeds that imply a break with YHWH: “Whoever commits pešac does not merely rebel or protest against Yahweh but breaks with him, takes away what is his, robs, embezzles, misappropriates it.”9 Likewise, the term has been used as a description of a rebellion of an inferior part against a superior power.10 And this is the offence with which the prophet charges his people: it is not YHWH who has broken with you, but you, through your conduct have rebelled and broken with YHWH. Another expression which the prophet frequently uses is the variation of ‫חטא‬/‫חטאת‬. These terms occur primarily in YHWH’s declarations of forgiveness (Isa 43:25; 44:22; 53:12), but also with reference to the sin of the addressees and/or of their ancestors (Isa 43:24, 27), as well as in a confession of sin (Isa 42:24). The confession of sin in Isa 42:24 is closely connected to repentance from transgression against YHWH, “it forms the prerequisite for the reversal of a crisis situation and stands in close connection with the removal of strange gods and the communal lament.”11 The lexical meaning of these terms aims at an “injury to a _____________ 7 Thus, Isa 43:25; 44:22; 46:8; 48:8; 50:1; 53:5, 8, and possibly 53:12 [x2]. 8 Cf. Seebass, “‫פשׁע‬,” TDOT 12, 136–45. 9 Knierim, “‫פשׁע‬,” TLOT 2, 1036. Cf. also Knierim, Die Hauptbegriffe, passim. 10 Thus 1 Kgs 12:18–19; 2 Kgs 1:1 and 3:5. 11 Knierim, “‫חטא‬,” TLOT 1, 408. The communal confession of sin occurs 24 times in the MT, Judg 10:10, 15; 1 Sam 7:4–6; 12:10; Jer 3:25; 8:14; 14:7, 20.

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communal relationship: a person sins against a person or against God.”12 In these texts, Deutero-Isa declares that the damaged relationship between YHWH and his people, caused by the ‫ חטא‬of the people, has now been confessed, declared as forgotten and erased. Further, the word ‫ עון‬occurs six times in Isa 40–55: in a declaration of the end of the exile (Isa 40:2), in accusations against the people (Isa 43:24; 50:1), and in a declaration of atonement through the Servant (Isa 53:5, 6, 11). The lexical meaning of the term, “bending, curving, turning, twisting,” which is used as a reference to guilt of a non-cultic nature, has in theological contexts come to be understood simply as “guilt, iniquity.”13 Interestingly, this term is directly related to a person’s relationship with YHWH: “When one is aware…of being unavoidably confronted by Yahweh, one is overcome by the oppressive burden of cāwōn and one comprehends what actually transpires in cāwōn”14 This further corroborates one of the principal ideas in Isa 40–55, namely that, by confronting them, YHWH demonstrates his willingness to re-enter into a relationship with the people. Thus, the very fact that YHWH accuses his people of the guilt that has caused the breach in their relationship, indicates that YHWH has returned to confront his people, but this time his purpose is to proclaim the elimination of the people’s guilt. Finally, there is the word ‫רשׁע‬, with the lexical meaning “impious, godless, guilty,” which refers to a conduct that endangers the life of both a person and a community, and which is at the same time a conduct that rises against YHWH.15 Interestingly, this term is not used in Isa 40–55 in order to describe the conduct of the people in particular, but it occurs in contexts of a general character, such as “‘There is no peace,’ says YHWH, ‘for the wicked’” (Isa 48:22).16 An exception would be the last instance in Isa 55:7 where the particular individuals, assumed to have come from among the people, are called to a change of conduct. Consequently, there is no mention of the elimination of the people’s ‫רשׁע‬. To sum up, the explicit terminology used in Isa 40–55 clarifies the question of who is responsible for the break of relationship between YHWH and his people on the one hand, while, on the other hand, it also serves to announce YHWH’s readiness to restore that relationship.

_____________ 12 Knierim, “‫חטא‬,” TLOT 1, 409. 13 Knierim, “‫ ”עון‬TLOT 2, 863. 14 Knierim, “‫”עון‬TLOT 2, 865–6. 15 Van van Leeuwen, “‫רשׁע‬,” TLOT 3, 1261 and 1264. 16 See further Isa 53:9 and 55:7, and the verb form in Isa 50:9 and 54:17.

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Deliverance and Repentance

6.1.2

The Implicit Statements

Alongside the explicit accusations against the people, there are other, implicit descriptions of wrong conduct that can enlighten us on the matter of their guilt. Judging from a number of texts dispersed throughout the corpus, the position of the people was probably as follows: there was a belief that YHWH had forsaken his people (Isa 40:27; 49:14; 50:1–2), which is why the people forgot YHWH and feared mortal men (Isa 51:12–13). Consequently, instead of waiting upon YHWH, they trusted in their own methods (Isa 50:10–11), compared YHWH with other gods (Isa 40:18–19, 25; 46:5), or even turned to other gods (Isa 55:2), and they displayed a general lack of desire to hear and see in order to understand (Isa 42:19–20; 42:25; 48:18–19).17 The lack of confidence in YHWH was by far the major problem of the people. Parallel to these, there are other, implicit warnings or statements against “those that do such and such.” These texts proclaim primarily failure and disgrace for those that rely on the idols (Isa 42:17). As Holter rightly observes, the acts of idol-worship or idol-fabrication imply “a reversing of the idea expressed in Gen 1:26f, God’s creation of man in his image.”18 Thus, to engage in the worship of idols means not only to choose an idol before YHWH but it is an offence against the very foundation of all things, against the established order, of which YHWH is the source: “[I]dols are a symptom of a human desire to have the divine realm under one’s own control.”19 As I have concluded in chapter four, the polemics against the idols, as well as the trials against the nations in Isa 40–55, function as admonitions to those among YHWH’s people who are tempted to put their trust in some other god and not in YHWH. Thus Preuss is right when concluding that these texts speak for themselves, “so dass nirgends innerhalb des Götzenspottes bei Dtjes noch mahnende Worte angeschlossen werden müssen.”20 At this point, an issue raised in the introduction and discussed briefly in the conclusions to chapter three needs to be further elaborated. How should we understand the tension between the fact that YHWH declares the sin of the people forgiven, and the fact that he urges them to abandon their ways or accuses them of inherent rebellion? The _____________ 17 Thus Westermann argues that the descriptive praise of YHWH in Isa 40–55 “has the specific function of answering the charge that the God of Israel had failed and had abandoned his people,” Westermann, Prophetic Oracles, 65. 18 Holter, Idol-Fabrication, 167. See also North, “Essence,” 158–60. 19 Barton, “Natural Law,” 7. 20 Preuss, Deuterojesaja, 63. Preuss also concludes that the polemics against the idols in Isa 40–55 are not primarily of a rational character, but function as spiritual guidance for the people.

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129

answer might be found in the proper perspective on this issue. In Isa 40–55, the people are never really condemned for their sins. Rather, the mention of their rebellious attitude is part of comforting them out of the exile.21 The people needed to understand both the past, i.e. the reasons for their punishment through the exile, and the present, i.e. the greatness of YHWH’s return. However harsh and direct, the message about their misconduct never occupies any major role in the corpus, but is always overshadowed by the proclamation of the new beginning together with YHWH. The accusations stand in the service of the proclamation of forgiveness.22 This conclusion leads to a new question: what is the essence of sin in Deutero-Isa? The lack of criticism of Israel’s moral life is noticeable: the prophet is not writing a list of transgressions. Rather, the concepts of sin are concerned strictly with the religious life of the people, expressed in general terms: lack of faith in YHWH, self-righteousness, awe before other powers, and idolatry.23 The true service of YHWH, which is to have faith in YHWH (Isa 50:10), to believe in the proclaimed salvation, and to do what YHWH demands, is presented as a contrast. Consequently, the essence of sin concerns exclusively the people’s attitude to and their relationship with YHWH: through their attitude and their consequent conduct, the people have alienated themselves from YHWH. They have forced their God to withdraw and they have caused a complete destruction of their social, political and religious life. Once in exile, the people seem to have become confused about their identity. Deprived of their land and of their God, some of them seem to have made considerable efforts to build a new identity on the basis of a new land and new gods.Thus, their breaking off their relationship with YHWH did not only continue into the exile, but it found new ways to express itself.24 _____________ 21 Other texts from the exilic period speak about the sin of the people as the reason for the punishment through the exile (Isa 59:1–2; Lam 1:14, 18). However, the prominent point in Isa 40–55 is the fact that the problem of rebellion is not only a problem of past generations, of the fathers, as Lam 5:7 seems to assume, but also a problem of the present generation. 22 This can be inferred both from the direct accusations such as in Isa 43:25 and 48:9, 11, but also from the implicit accusations against the people due to the lack of trust in YHWH, such as in Isa 40:27–31; 49:14–18; 51:12–16. Thus also Westermann in his analysis of the disputations in Isa 40–55, see Westermann, Prophetic Oracles, 49–50. 23 Cf. Vriezen, “Essentials,” 134–6. I am aware of the fact that ethic and religion in the biblical world cannot really be separated. My point here is that the transgression of the people are not specified in greater detail but the focus lies on the consequences of the transgressions for the YHWH-Israel relationship. 24 As I have pointed out in chapter four, it is unlikely that the prophet spoke to a homogeneous audience. Not all the exiles doubted YHWH’s loyalty and power, not eve-

130

Deliverance and Repentance

What then is the underlying general principal or the rationale on which the prophet defines these behaviours as sinful and wrong? Although the lack of references to the covenant is noticeable in these texts,25 the accusations seem to be based on the basic principle that a relationship existed between YHWH and the Israelites. YHWH is the King, the Creator and the God of the Israelites, a fact about which the people seem to have remained indifferent (Isa 42:24–25; 43:22–24; 50:2).26 In addition, there is the explicit idea of monotheism: YHWH is the only God (Isa 43:10; 44:8; 46:9), and he cannot be compared to the idols (Isa 40:18, 25; 44:8; 46:5).27 Closely connected to that is the idea of the general principles of wrong and right, of natural and unnatural, of wisdom and foolishness, all principles assumed to be known to everyone. Thus, the essence of the concept of sin in Isa 40–55 also seems to be connected to an unnatural human self-assertion: human beings, who seek to create God (the idol-production texts), to make God into a servant (Isa 43:23– 24), and to question God’s ability to do what is right (Isa 45:9–13). Consequently, the prophet seems to base his arguments on the idea of the so-called natural law.28 To sum up, when the prophet used explicit terminology denoting sin, misconduct or transgression, he referred to both past and present sin, but when he described the wrong conduct indirectly, he always aimed at the wrong conduct or attitude of his people at the very end of the exile. The nature and the consequences of the people’s actions in the past resulted in exile, but the nature and the consequence of their

25

26 27

28

ryone was reluctant to understand and to listen, not everyone turned to the Babylonian gods. There were those among the exiles that, like the prophet himself, waited for the moment of YHWH’s return. But the major point is that when that moment arrives, everyone, not only the loyal, will be invited and urged to respond to YHWH’s return. Cf. Krašovec, Reward, Punishment, 494. The covenant is mentioned four times in Isa 40–55, yet the circumstances are not those of an accusation or even of information about wrong behaviour (Isa 42:6; 49:8; 54:10 and 55:3). These aspects will be further elaborated below. For the discussion of monotheism in Isa 40–55, see Smith, Origins, 179–94. Concluding his study, Smith contends: “Thus, monotheism is not a new stage of religion but a new stage of rhetoric in a situation never known prior to the threat of exile,” ibid. 193. For the question of Biblical monotheism in the ancient near-Eastern context, see Dietrich and Klopfenstein, Ein Gott allein?. The idea of the natural law cannot be discussed at length in this study. However it has been a topic for discussion among philosophers such as Thomas of Aquino, Thomas Hobbes, Friedrich Hegel, and biblical exegetes, such as Klaus Koch and John Barton. Discussing the question of the natural law in prophetic preaching, Barton concludes: “God really is as just as men would like him to be, just according to human standards of justice: the prophetic task is to show that this is not a consoling fact, but a cause for fear and for repentance,” Barton, “Natural Law,” 13.

The Concept of Repentance

131

choices in the present entails the danger that they will have to remain in this situation of deportation.

6.2

The Concept of Repentance

In the present study I have focused on the calls to repentance characterised by the use of the verb ‫( שׁוב‬Isa 44:21–22 and 55:6–7). In the following I will clarify the implications of the concept of repentance as presented in these texts. The determining factor for the understanding of the message of Deutero-Isa in general, and the repentance in particular, is the exile itself. The psychological impact that the exile had on the selfunderstanding of the people of YHWH can not be overestimated.29 Thus, Raitt underlines the importance of the exile for the YHWH-Israel relationship: “The people’s accountability for their sin together with God’s attitude and intention toward them are radically shifted when the Exile becomes a fact. The punishment itself creates an entirely new situation.”30 This fact determines the prophetic calls to repentance at the end of the exile: the meaning of repentance has shifted, but what is its implication? What is the essence of repentance in Isaiah 40–55? First, the calls to repentance are made only in the contexts of the salvation-speeches. They are absent from the contexts of the accusations against the people, which underlines the fact that the repentance of the people has nothing to do with the avoidance of the accusations, nor with the adverting of their eventual consequences. Secondly, obedience to the calls to repentance is not presented as a condition for salvation. The calls to repentance are not followed by a consequence clause, which would have implied that there would be a reward following their obedience to that call. Rather, the realised salvation stands as a motivating factor for the people to regain their confidence in YHWH. I have stressed throughout this study that the fact that the call is motivated by the already realised deliverance does not mean that the repentance becomes possible because of that deliverance. Repentance, in the sense of a return back to YHWH, was possible prior to _____________ 29 For the discussion of the problem of assessing the impact of the exile see SmithChristopher, Biblical Theology, 30–33. 30 Raitt, Theology of Exile, 113–14. As I have stated earlier, I do not agree with Raitt’s understanding of the people’s accountability at the time of the exile. Nevertheless, his point that the exile gives rise to a new understanding of YHWH-Israel relationship is well made.

132

Deliverance and Repentance

the salvation, even during the time of judgement. However, the relationship is made possible both through deliverance and repentance. Thirdly, the time aspect is interesting: since deliverance, including forgiveness, is proclaimed as already realised, the next move in the process of the new beginning with YHWH is in the hands of the people.31 Thus, the proclamations of deliverance and forgiveness stand in the service of the calls to repentance (Isa 44:21–22). The call to repentance, in turn, is a call to act. The implications of that action need to be clarified. The call to repentance is not a call to the people to act in such a way that they will thereby repair their relationship with YHWH, since that task has already been taken care of. It is a call to accept the renewed relationship. It is not primarily a call to a change of conduct, but rather it is a call to a new awareness, to reflection on YHWH and on the new things which he creates.32 However, in principle, an awareness seeks to be demonstrated by consequent actions in order to be recognised. As far as repentance is concerned, these actions can be deduced from a number of exhortations scattered in the texts. There are calls to demonstrate one’s faith by speaking of and rejoicing in YHWH’s salvation, by not being afraid, or by putting one’s trust in YHWH.33 There are calls to willingness to listen and to understand, and also a call geographically to leave the place of the exile.34 It is interesting to observe the absence of any explicit deeds, such as to burn the idols, to walk in sackcloth and ashes, or to offer a sacrifice to YHWH. Rather, the calls listed above are all connected with a call to reflection and to a consequent change of attitude. In this connection, it is important to note that the accountability of the people for their sin has not changed in any such manner that they have ceased to bear responsibility for their actions. If that was the case, a call to repentance would not be required. Koch’s argument that as a prophet of repentance, Deutero-Isa never condemned those who would not repent and that he in fact never even mentioned them can be mis-

_____________ 31 The proclamations of forgiveness and restoration stand either in the past or in the present tense, and the statements of YHWH as the redeemer of the people are expressed by participles (Isa 41:8–14; 43:1–7). This indicates that YHWH makes his position clear as the God who has returned to his people. It is reasonable to infer that such a statement, being an attempt to induce the people to respond accordingly, expects a reaction. 32 Thus Brueggemann, Theology, 436: “[R]epentance in itself is an act of hope.” 33 Cf. Isa 40:9; 42:10–12; 54:1, and Isa 41:10, 13, 14; 43:1, 5; 44:2, 8, as well as Isa 40:3, 11; 55:1, 6. 34 Cf. Isa 42:18, 23; 44:1; 46:3, 12; 48:1; 51:1, 7; 55:3, and Isa 52:11.

The Concept of Deliverance

133

leading.35 This is correct when it comes to the particular calls to repentance in Isa 44:21–22 and 55:6–7, but not when applied to the whole of Isa 40–55. On several occasions, the prophet proclaims condemnation and misfortune for those that do not turn to YHWH but put their trust in idols (Isa 42:17; 44:20; 45:24). The people’s actions, demonstrated by the choices they make in the present, ought to be decisive for their future: freedom of choice always comes with responsibility for the consequences of that choice. To sum up, repentance can be defined as the people’s “positive move” towards YHWH, with a view to the reestablishment of the relationship.36 The essence of repentance, as presented in the texts of Isa 40– 55 and as demonstrated by their attitudes, words and actions, is that of a resumed relationship of absolute trust in YHWH as their God.

6.3

The Concept of Deliverance

Having investigated the notions of sin and repentance in Isa 40–55, a short survey of the implications of the notion of deliverance, or of redemption in the corpus now seems appropriate. Considering the historical background of the proclamations of Deutero-Isa and the theological implications of his words, I will now turn to an investigation of the essence of the notion of deliverance in this prophetic book. Does the notion of deliverance in Isa 40–55 refer primarily to the physical (political) condition of the exiles, in terms of their redemption from the exile in Babylon, or even to the consequences of that exile for life in Judah, or does the spiritual aspect, in terms of their redemption from sin and guilt, take precedence? How does the prophet present the relationship between these two aspects of deliverance? The two texts of exhortation analysed in this study have shown that the proclaimed deliverance stands as a motivating factor for the calls to repentance: deliverance motivates obedience. In Isa 44:21–22 the motivation is expressed by the use of the verb ‫גאל‬.37 There are a few important points to be raised in connection with this term. First, generally in Isa 40–55, the term seems to be used primarily in connection with the physical redemption of the people of YHWH: it occurs in contexts about redemption from Babylon,38 redemption from _____________ 35 Koch, The Prophets II, 150: “For nothing is said about what happens to the people who refuse to be converted, and who resist belief in the prophetic word.” 36 The term is from Brueggemann, Theology, 440. 37 The verb ‫ גאל‬occurs 17 times in Isa 40–55, ten times of which as a participle. 38 Thus Isa 43:14; 47:4; 48:20; 52:3.

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Egypt (Isa 51:10), and redemption from slavery and oppression (Isa 49:26; 52:9).39 The physical aspect of redemption of the people in Isa 40– 55 is described in terms of the re-creation of Jacob/Israel and of Zion (Isa 43:1–7 and 54:1–10).40 This aspect of the notion of ‫ גאל‬could not be a novelty for the people, considering the rich tradition of its use, particularly in legal contexts.41 Koch rightly asserts that the redemption of the people, spoken of at the time of the exile, “will spring out of a continuity, from the abiding faithfulness of God as the fundamental force of Israel’s history.”42 Secondly, the use of this term in Isa 40–55 communicates the fact that neither the destruction of the temple and Jerusalem, nor the deportation of the people ever really estranged the people from YHWH: “For as a gō> ēl Yahweh does not purchase strange goods; rather, he regains that which has always – since the time of Abraham – belonged to him.”43 The verb ‫ גאל‬belongs to the sphere of family law, denoting a person who redeems someone because of the blood tie between him and the redeemed.44 The third, and most interesting, aspect of the use of this term is found in Isa 44:22, where the redemption seems to be spiritual and connected to the redemption from sin and guilt: “I have swept away your transgressions like a cloud, and your sins like mist; return to me, for I have redeemed you.” In a similar manner, in Isa 43:1 the term is connected with the restoration of the relationship between YHWH and _____________ 39 For details concerning form and distribution, see Stamm, “‫גאל‬,” TLOT 1, 292–4, and Ringgren, “‫גאל‬,” TDOT 2, 354–5. See also Mettinger, In Search, 162–7. 40 Thus Stuhlmueller, Creative Redemption, 123. 41 It has been suggested that Isa 40–55 has been influenced by the Assyrian theology of redemption, developed in connection with the repatriation of the statue of Marduk from Assyria to Babylonia in 668 BCE, see Nissinen and Parpola, “Marduk's Return,” 217–19. Nissinen stresses the fact that this was not due to a direct influence but happened rather because of “the cultural and ideological interaction between the people of Marduk and that of YHWH,” ibid. 218–19. On the influences of the Assyrian prophecy on Isa 40–55 see Weippert, “‘Ich bin Jahwe’,” passim. Israel did not exist in a cultural and ideological vacuum, but was, in various degrees, influenced by its neighbours, especially if these were as imposing as the great empires of that time. 42 Koch, The Prophets II, 149. 43 Stamm, “‫גאל‬,” TLOT 1, 294. 44 So Mettinger, In Search, 163, Mettinger, following Stuhlmueller, stresses the fact that unlike the verb ‫גאל‬, the verb ‫“ פדה‬places emphasis on the price to be paid in the course of a given transaction.” Mettinger further elaborates the question of the nature of the kinship relationship between YHWH and his people, concluding that the special bond between the two is based on the fact that YHWH has created his people: “God cared about and felt responsible for his creation. It is on this basis that God acts when God serves as Israel’s gō> ēl,” ibid. 169. Thus also Stuhlmueller, Creative Redemption, 108, 119–22.

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his people: “I have redeemed you; I have called you by name, you are mine.”45 What makes these instances so interesting is the fact that the use of the term ‫ גאל‬in connection with the spiritual or religious restoration of the people of YHWH is one of the Deutero-Isaiah’s novelties.46 Thus, Deutero-Isa further corroborates one of his key points, one of which I have argued in this study, namely that the problem of the exile is not only of a geographical or a political nature. It is just as much a problem of a spiritual or a religious nature. Fourthly, the prominence of the notion of deliverance in Isa 40–55 is obvious in the fact that the prophet is the first to actually attribute the designation ‫ גאל‬to YHWH, and he uses it as a “stereotyped divine epithet:”47 YHWH is “your Redeemer… the Holy One of Israel” (Isa 41:14; cf. also Isa 43:14; 48:17; 49:7), “YHWH, the King of Israel, and his Redeemer” (Isa 44:6), “your Saviour, and your Redeemer” (Isa 49:26). Thus, the prophet clearly states the position of YHWH in relationship to his people as the one who redeems and restores. Besides ‫גאל‬, the root ‫ ישׁע‬occurs frequently in the corpus.48 The lexical meaning of the term is that of help in trouble and distress of legal, military, and personal kinds.49 When a person cries for help in situations of injustice or in physical danger, the person who hears the cry is obliged to provide assistance. The term ‫ מושׁיע‬occurs as a designation for YHWH five times.50 Interestingly, the term is not used specifically in any context of the reassembling of the exiles to their land (Isa 43:5–7 and 49:22–26). Rather, the saving characteristic of YHWH is seen as an aspect of his nature: YHWH is sovereign, YHWH is the only one who can save,51 he is the one who saves his people.52 Thus, the use of this term in Isa _____________ 45 Of course, the implication of the verb in these instances (Isa 44:22, and 43:1) has not lost its physical aspect, but it has been given wider connections and broadened to imply also the spiritual redemption from sin and guilt, as well as redemption from separation from YHWH. 46 Similar idea is to be found in Ps 130:8 where the psalmist speaks of the redemption from sin and transgression using the verb ‫פדה‬. Stuhlmueller stresses the fact that Deutero-Isa uses the term ‫ גאל‬in a more spiritual sense, i.e “to describe the bond between Yahweh and Israel; and in this transfer from the profane to the sacred, he was an innovator!” Stuhlmueller, Creative Redemption, 122. 47 Ringgren, “‫גאל‬,” TDOT 2, 355. Cf. also Stamm, “‫גאל‬,” TLOT 1, 293–4. Participle gō> ēl occurs 10 times in Isa 40–55. Cf. Stuhlmueller, Creative Redemption, 106. 48 The verb occurs 15 times in the book of Deutero-Isa, while the participle form occurs six times, which is more frequent that in any other book of the MT. 49 Sawyer, “‫ישׁע‬,” TDOT 6, 450–4. 50 Thus, Isa 43:3, 11; 45:15, 21 and 49:26. 51 Thus, Isa 43:11–12; 45:20–23; 51:4–6, as opposed to the idols and magicians who cannot save, see Isa 46:7 and 47:13–15. 52 Thus Isa 43:3; 45:15–17; 49:25–26 and 51:7–8.

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40–55 is utilised in order to provide both insight about and faith in the fact that YHWH is both able and willing to provide help for his people in times of distress. Consequently, the term carries a spiritual connotation. Accepting YHWH as ‫ מושׁיע‬is not merely connected to the awareness of the fact that YHWH can help, but also to the confession of confidence in YHWH as the sovereign God (Isa 45:22–24). Thus, North, commenting on the implication of the term, rightly concludes that it is important to remember that “DI was as concerned for the moral and spiritual reformation of his people as he was for their deliverance from Babylon.”53 To sum up, we can say that the notion of deliverance is prominent in this book, making a link between the political rescue from the exile in Babylon, and the spiritual rescue from sin and guilt, which leads to the re-establishment of the relationship between YHWH and Israel. The dual aspect of the redemption, indicated already in the second verse of the corpus (Isa 40:2) where the prophet proclaims redemption from the exile, which is also redemption from the penalty for the sins of the people, seems to be also the task of the Servant (Isa 42:7 and 49:6).54 North is right in his observation about YHWH’s actions that “there is much in Isa. xl–lxvi to suggest that the redeemed Israel is his proudest achievement.”55

6.4

The Relationship between Deliverance and Repentance

So far I have stressed, again and again, the fact that the deliverance of the people stands as a motivating factor for their positive response of turning back to YHWH. I have also emphasised the fact that the actions of YHWH and the reactions of the people are interdependent: both are equally required in order for the relationship between YHWH and the Israelites to be re-established. At this point, an inquiry about the essence of the relationship between the delivering action of YHWH, and the reaction of his people by repentance is called for. What is the rationale for such a connection between the two aspects? This also brings _____________ 53 North, Second Isaiah, 208. Other terminology of redemption or deliverance is used, although not with the same frequency. The synonymous term ‫ פדה‬occurs twice, referring to the physical redemption from the exile (Isa 51:11) and to capability to redeem (Isa 50:2). The term ‫ נצל‬occurs mostly in hypothetical contexts that do not always refer to YHWH (Isa 42:22; 43:13; 44:17, 20; 47:14 and 50:2). The term ‫ עזר‬occurs seven times with YHWH as a subject (Isa 41:10, 13, 14; 44:2; 49:8; 50:7, 9) and once with idol-makers (Isa 41:6). 54 See North, Second Isaiah, 189–90. 55 North, Second Isaiah, 143.

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us back to the questions raised frequently in our analysis of the texts in chapter three: Why is repentance necessary, if the deliverance has already been carried out? What happens if the positive response fails? In Isa 40–55, the Dtr circle of sin-punishment-repentancedeliverance, mentioned in the introduction to this study, has received a different shape, i.e. sin and punishment are followed by deliverance, after which repentance is called for. The direct focus is on the actions of YHWH, but the whole corpus is heavy with expectation of human reactions in response to YHWH’s acts. The major difference lies in the fact that, while the first circle interprets events in terms of human deeds and divine response,56 in Isa 40–55 it is the opposite, and the new events are interpreted in terms of divine acts and expected human response. Thus, the relationship between deliverance and repentance is one of interaction: of the action of YHWH and the reaction of the people. As stated in the introduction to this chapter, Deutero-Isa does not merely portray YHWH as the initiator of a process which then develops freely, nor does he portray the people as only the passive object of this process. There is a basic interaction, a reciprocity of action and reaction so that the action of one part always elicits the reaction of the other. Notable in Deutero-Isa is the very fact that YHWH takes the initiative to deliver, and thereby to restore the relationship, while the people are urged, not forced or threatened, to answer accordingly by acceptance and obedience: repentance in Isa 40–55 is of a responsive kind. Why is this so? Can we identify an ideology or a logical foundation on which the prophet builds his view? The texts in Isa 40–55 present three major grounds for the relationship between YHWH and his people.57 I will label them as ties of kinship, ties based on responsibility and patriarchal ties. The closest kinship is expressed by the metaphors for YHWH as a mother (Isa 49:15–16), and a husband (Isa 50:1 and 54:5–10). Can a woman forget her nursing child, or show no compassion for the child of her womb? Even these may forget, yet I will not forget you. (Isa 49:15) For your Maker is your husband, YHWH of hosts is his name; the Holy One of Israel is your Redeemer, the God of the whole earth he is called. _____________ 56 So Crenshaw, “Theodicy,” 236–7. 57 The grounds stated here are to be seen as the major, though not the only, grounds expressed in this corpus.

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For YHWH has called you like a wife forsaken and grieved in spirit, like the wife of a man’s youth when she is cast off, says your God. (Isa 54:5–6)

Both of these metaphors draw attention to the fact that there is an eternal, natural bond between YHWH and his people. It is like a bond between a parent and a child or between husband and wife. In particular the marriage metaphor stands as the basis for the offer of a renewed relationship between YHWH and Israel. Thus Katharine Sakenfeld concludes: “Part of the power of the marriage metaphor lies in its capacity to convey the notion of a relationship never really undone, despite even the formalities of a divorce declaration.”58 The most frequent use of the metaphor of kinship is, however, the one depicting YHWH as the people’s ‫גאל‬. I have said above that the term comes from a tradition of use within the realm of legal and social life and that Deutero-Isa frequently uses this term as a designation for YHWH:59 YHWH liberates the people from slavery (Isa 43:1–7), from widowhood (Isa 54:4–5), and from all kinds of physical distress (Isa 49:26; 52:9 etc.). It is first of all by this image of YHWH that the prophet presents a theological and rhetorical connection between deliverance and repentance: “Return to me; for I have redeemed you” (Isa 44:22). YHWH is the closest kin of the people, which is the reason why the people should return to him. Ties based on responsibility are expressed by the metaphors of YHWH as creator and as king. The metaphor of YHWH as creator is closely bound to that of YHWH as redeemer.60 This metaphor is most frequently expressed by the verbs ‫ברא‬, ‫יצר‬, and ‫עשׂה‬.61 YHWH as the creator of his people is responsible for his creation, which in turn belongs to him, intimately and eternally:62 _____________ 58 Sakenfeld, Faithfulness, 71. 59 For an overview see Mettinger, In Search, 167. 60 Thus Stuhlmueller, in regard to the relationship between these two metaphors in Isa 40–55 concludes that Deutero-Isa “presented the new creation as an obligatory act, demanded of Yahweh-gō> ēl by the bond of love which he had freely established between himself and his people,” Stuhlmueller, Creative Redemption, 234. 61 Thus Isa 40:28; 42:5; 43:1, 15; 45:7, 18, and Isa 43:1; 44:2, 24; 45:7, 9, 11, 18; 49:5, as well as Isa 43:19; 44:2, 24; 45:7, 18; 51:13; 54:5. For survey and discussion of the use of this metaphor see the study of Stuhlmueller, Creative Redemption, 209–29 and Mettinger, In Search, 167–73. 62 Cf. also Isa 51:16 where the creating power of YHWH is expressed by the verbs ‫נטע‬ and ‫יסד‬. For a discussion of these terms see Stuhlmueller, Creative Redemption, 220–3 and 225–7.

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But now thus says YHWH, he who created you (‫)בךא‬, O Jacob, he who formed you (‫)יצר‬, O Israel: Do not fear, for I have redeemed you (‫;)גאל‬ I have called you by name, you are mine. (Isa 43:1)

The relationship between a king and his people is similar: the king is responsible for the wellbeing of his subjects and for making sure that justice is done for them.63 In Isa 40–55, YHWH is described as the king three times: “the King of Jacob” (Isa 41:21), “your King” (Isa 43:15), “the King of Israel” (Isa 44:6). All these images of YHWH, as ‫גאל‬, as mother, as husband, as creator and as king, convey the protective and compassionate character of YHWH, which is also the reason for his redemptive actions on behalf of his people. There are a number of expressions of this character scattered throughout the corpus: YHWH comforts (Isa 40:1; 52:9), he is gentle (Isa 40:11; 41:13; 46:4), he takes pity on his people (Isa 49:10–13; 51:19– 23; 54:10). At the very end of Deutero-Isaiah’s proclamations, the compassionate character of YHWH, which is demonstrated through his deliverance, is presented as the rational foundation for the people to return to their God: “May the godless abandon his way, and the wicked man his thoughts and may he return to YHWH, for he will have mercy on him, and to our God, for/because he pardons greatly” (Isa 55:7).64 The patriarchal tie is illustrated by the references to the people’s ancestors, Abraham and Sara (Isa 41:8 and 51:1). Just as YHWH’s relationship with Abraham was unconditional and eternal (Gen 15), so also is YHWH’s relationship with his people: But you, Israel, my servant, Jacob, whom I have chosen, the offspring of Abraham, my friend; you whom I took from the ends of the earth, and called from its farthest corners, saying to you, “You are my servant, I have chosen you and not cast you off”; do not fear, for I am with you, do not be afraid, for I am your God; I will strengthen you, I will help you, I will uphold you with my victorious right hand. (Isa 41:8–10)

_____________ 63 See Ps 72, cf. also de Vaux, Ancient Israel, 110–11. 64 My translation. Cf. the discussion on the text in chapter three, p. 73.

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Deliverance and Repentance

Likewise, the promises of prosperity given to Abraham are now applicable to his offspring also: Listen to me, you that pursue righteousness, you that seek YHWH. Look to the rock from which you were hewn, and to the quarry from which you were dug. Look to Abraham your father and to Sarah who bore you; for he was but one when I called him, but I blessed him and made him many. For YHWH will comfort Zion; he will comfort all her waste places, and will make her wilderness like Eden, her desert like the garden of YHWH; joy and gladness will be found in her, thanksgiving and the voice of song. (Isa 51:1–3)

Thus, the prophet’s view of the relationship between YHWH’s deliverance and the people’s repentance seems to rest on the ideas of intimate family ties, of protection under a powerful king and creator, and also on the idea of patriarchal descent. Given the fact that the prophetic emphasis on the interaction between YHWH and the people required mutually accepted ground rules, there was a good reason for the prophet to choose these particular images to illustrate that relationship. At the time of the Babylonian exile, the old powerful traditions of the temple, the land and the monarchy were no longer exercising a daily impact on the people in exile, and that is why other traditions gained importance. Thus, the family became the main social unit, as every individual could find protection, primarily within their own kinship groups.65 The downfall of the monarchy led to a resumption of the recognition of YHWH as the king of his people, while the old traditions of YHWH as creator were reinterpreted and applied to the new circumstances in order to provide identity and security for the people. The patriarchal traditions also survived the destruction brought by the exile and they too experienced a revival.66 It is interesting to notice that these metaphors did not only present the eternal bond and obligation of YHWH towards the people, but also conveyed the responsibility of the people to be loyal to YHWH as their kin and king, and to act as the true offspring of Abraham.67 _____________ 65 Thus Albertz, History Vol. 2, 374–5, and Albertz, Israel in Exile, 132–8. 66 See Seters, “Confessional Reformulation.” 67 See Albertz, History Vol. 2, 405. These metaphors did not only appeal to the group of the exiles as a unity, but it also appealed to every individual. Deutero-Isa presents

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141

When it comes to the particular relationship between YHWH’s obligation to deliver, and the people’s responsibility to repent, Deutero-Isa is quite unique. As we have seen in chapter five, both Jeremiah and Ezekiel believed that the people needed considerable help from YHWH in the form of a transformation of their inner being in order for their relationship to be re-established. Deutero-Isaiah, on the other hand, gave the people the benefit of the doubt. The way he formed his message reveals that he did not only give them a chance to respond independently, but he even expected such a response. Between the deliverance and the establishment of the relationship, there was free scope for the people to respond.68 This brings us to the question of the reason why repentance was required once deliverance has been carried out. The answer lies in the fact that the relationship, not the deliverance is the main object of the entire process. And the relationship between YHWH and the people cannot be re-established unless both parties demonstrate their willingness to do so.69 Repentance is, therefore, the expected reaction to deliverance. The prophet presents YHWH as a God whose relationship to the people is based on integrity, not on compulsion. YHWH cannot be in a one-way relationship but demands an answer, a reaction: do not be afraid, wake up, rejoice, return to YHWH! The numerous declarations of the self-predication formula “I am YHWH/God/He” strengthen the demand for a response.70 Thus, Samuel Balentine argues: “The rhetorical

68

69

70

YHWH as being concerned not just for the people as a group, but also for every individual of that group (Isa 40:11, 29; 55:7). As I stated in ch. five of this study, the proclamations of Jeremiah and Ezekiel about future deliverance were encouraging and visionary rather than exhortatory and specific. At the very end of the exile, Deutero-Isa spoke at the period of transition, of moving from vision to fulfilment, from separation to relationship. The view of the interaction between YHWH’s deliverance and the people’s repentance was moulded by the specific historical event, out of which the message was proclaimed. The people do not repent in order to be delivered, nor does YHWH deliver in order for the people to repent. Rather, both YHWH’s deliverance and the people’s repentance aim at the restoration of relationship. However, within the re-established relationship, YHWH is obliged to deliver while the people are obliged to be loyal. Thus, as I have pointed out earlier in this study, the relationship between deliverance and repentance is not that of cause and effect. Interestingly, E. P. Sanders, coming from a different perspective, has shown that this was the basic principle of interaction between YHWH and the Israelites even in later Palestinian and Hellenistic Judaism, in which “obedience maintains one’s position in the covenant, but it does not earn God’s grace as such,” Sanders, Paul, 420. Sanders uses the label “covenantal nomism,” which he defines as “the view according to which salvation comes by membership in the covenant, while obedience to the commandments preserves one’s place in the covenant,” Sanders, “Covenant,” 41. See also Sanders, Paul, 422–3. See Isa 41:4, 13, 17; 42:6, 8; 43:3, 11, 12, 15; 44:24; 45:3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 18, 19, 21, 22; 46:9; 48:12, 17; 49:23, 26; 51:15.

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Deliverance and Repentance

purpose of these ‘I am’ declarations is to establish God’s relationship with humanity and to elicit from Israel (and the nations) the affirmative response, ‘You are.’”71 The proclamation of deliverance can either be ignored completely or responded to wholeheartedly. In addition, the impact of the sociological conditions of the exile should be considered. Surrounded by other nationalities and other traditions, and heavily exposed to the impressive Babylonian cult, the religious and ethnic identity of the people in exile was constantly challenged.72 Thus Albertz explains: “[M]embership of one’s own group was no longer something to be taken for granted, but had to be proved time and again by the individual’s decision. Here religious confession assumed greater significance as a guarantee of personal identity.”73 When the prophet called for a decision by exhorting his people to return to their God, he called them to decide about their identity and thereby about their future. To sum up, we can say that the relationship between deliverance and repentance in Isa 40–55 is based on intimate and eternal ties between YHWH and his people. Repentance is required because it is part of the reciprocity, of the essence of the relationship between YHWH and his people. Given the fact that repentance comprises a change of attitude towards YHWH, away from that of mistrust to that of unconditional trust, and given the fact that the prophet goes to some length in his efforts to evoke that trust in the people, it is reasonable to conclude that without trust in YHWH, demonstrated through repentance, the relationship between YHWH and his people is not really possible.

6.5

The Return of YHWH

The return of YHWH plays a major part in the proclamations of DeuteroIsa. I have argued that it forms the essence of the proclamations of deliverance, and thereby it provides the motivation for the people to accept that message by unconditional trust. One final question must be answered: Why does YHWH return? If the return of YHWH is a return _____________ 71 Balentine, “Isaiah 45,” 105. 72 A useful label in this connection is the sociological term “cognitive minority”, mentioned above in chapter four. Considerable effort was required by a religious minority group in order to preserve its beliefs and not to begin “to believe what everyone around them believed.” For the quotation and for further discussion see Gowan, Theology, 145–6. 73 Albertz, History Vol. 2, 375 and Albertz, Israel in Exile, 137.

The Return of YHWH

143

after an attempted break with his people, what are the motives for such a change in YHWH? In his study of the oracles of judgement and deliverance in Jeremiah and Ezekiel, Raitt concludes that unlike the oracles of judgement, the oracles of deliverance have “no ‘reason’ to explain or justify it.”74 Agreeing with Raitt that we cannot find any direct statements about any action of the people which might have incited YHWH to return, I would still argue that in Isa 40–55, we can find several reasons for YHWH’s intervention on behalf of his people. First, one of the clearest reasons can be found at the end of the oracle of salvation in Isa 41:8–13: “For, I am the Lord your God.”75 YHWH has defined himself as the God of his people, and as such, he is involved in a relationship with his people. Secondly, YHWH returns because of his determination to make himself known to his people, to Cyrus, and to the peoples of the world as the only God: “So that all may see and know, all may consider and understand, that the hand of YHWH has done this, the Holy One of Israel has created it” (Isa 41:20), “You are my witnesses, says YHWH, and my servant whom I have chosen, so that you may know and believe me and understand that I am he. Before me no god was formed, nor shall there be any after me” (43:10), “So that you may know that it is I, YHWH, the God of Israel, who call you by your name” (Isa 45:3), “so that they may know, from the rising of the sun and from the west, that there is no one besides me; I am YHWH, and there is no other” (Isa 45:6).76 The third reason why YHWH returns is for his own sake only: “I, I am He who blots out your transgressions for my own sake, and I will not remember your sins” (Isa 43:25), and “For my own sake, for my own sake, I do it, for why should my name be profaned? My glory I will not give to another” (Isa 48:9–11).77 _____________ 74 Raitt, Theology of Exile, 145. Raitt argues that there are no logical reasons stated in the genre itself that explains why YHWH returns. There are no statements that presuppose the people’s repentance nor even their cleansing through the exile. This is correct when applied to the oracle of salvation per se, yet, suggested reasons that YHWH might have had should be searched for in the wider context of the corpus, as I will do below. 75 My translation. For the function of particle ‫ כי‬in causative and explicative clauses see Joüon and Muraoka, Grammar, 637, § 170. 76 For the meaning of ‫ למען‬see Joüon and Muraoka, Grammar, 347, § 104 b, and Joüon and Muraoka, Grammar, 634, § 168 d. 77 The three reasons this far describe YHWH’s return as based on the concern for his reputation as sovereign God “I am YHWH, that is my name; my glory I give to no other, nor my praise to idols” (Isa 42:8). So, also the Servant, Israel, has been created and chosen in order to promote this knowledge of YHWH by being a light for both YHWH’s people and for the world (Isa 42:6–7; 49:5–6; cf. also 44:23; 52:10).

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Fourthly, YHWH’s return is portrayed as based on the fact that he has reached a breaking-point where he can not control himself: “For a long time I have held my peace, I have kept still and restrained myself; now I will cry out like a woman in labour, I will gasp and pant” (Isa 42:14). In a similar manner, the emotions of the passionate love of a mother (Isa 49:15–16) and of a husband (Isa 54:5–8) seem to direct his steps. Connected to love is also the emotion of regret and the change in YHWH, expressed in following: “This is like the days of Noah to me: Just as I swore that the waters of Noah would never again go over the earth, so I have sworn that I will not be angry with you and will not rebuke you” (Isa 54:9).78 Against this textual background, two general conclusions regarding the reasons for YHWH’s return can be drawn. On the one hand, YHWH returns in order to evoke a recognition of his divine supremacy, and on the other, in order to express his passionate love for the people. Thus, evoking a recognition seems to be the dominating reason: so that all may see (‫)ידא‬, know (‫)ידע‬, lay to heart (‫)שׂים‬, and understand (‫ )שׂכל‬that YHWH’s hand has acted and the Holy One of Israel has created (Isa 41:20).79 Placed in the context of the proclamation of salvation for YHWH’s people, this verse suggests that the only way for YHWH to make himself known to the world as its creator and as the master of history is by returning to intervene on behalf of his people.80 To sharpen this suggestion, I maintain that YHWH returns because he needs his people. When he chose to be the God of Israel,81 to be involved in a relationship with his people, YHWH also chose to submit himself to the boundaries that such a relationship implies. Just as the people’s knowledge of YHWH is confined to the relationship, so YHWH cannot be known as God outside his relationship with his people.82 Likewise, the motive for YHWH’s return is based on his pathos for his people. YHWH could not effectuate his attempt to terminate the relationship: “Can a woman forget her nursing child, or show no compassion for the child of her womb? Even these may forget, yet I will not forget you. See, I have inscribed you on the palms of my hands; your _____________ 78 For the studies concerned with the issue of God’s repentance see Fretheim, “Repentance of God,” Willis, “‘Repentance’ of God,” and Andersen and Freedman, Amos, 638–79. However, these studies evolve around the occurrence of the verb ‫ נחם‬in Niphal with God as a subject, a form that does not occur in Isa 40–55. 79 My translation. 80 This seems to be the reason YHWH chose Cyrus and granted him victory (Isa 45:3, 6), as well as the reason YHWH chose his Servant (Isa 42:6–8). 81 See Isa 41:13, 20; 43:3; 45:3; 51:15, 22. 82 Thus Lindström, “Guds långa näsa,” 9. In one section of this article Lindström shows how the extent of YHWH’s power is limited by his relationship to Israel.

The Tension as a Theological Challenge

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walls are continually before me” (Isa 49:15–16). The attempted break and later reestablishment of the relationship is a result of the two sides of YHWH’s pathos, the first is expressed by wrath, and the second by love: “In overflowing wrath for a moment I hid my face from you, but with everlasting love I will have compassion on you, says YHWH, your Redeemer” (Isa 54:8). As a husband’s for his wife or a mother’s for her children, YHWH’s love for his people could not be repressed.83 To sum up, we can say that YHWH returns, compelled by his desire to be a God who is known to his people and to the world, as well as by his pathos for the people. Neither of these aspects should primarily be seen as assertions of YHWH’s character or attitude, but as testimony of YHWH’s action in his relationship to the Israelites.84 And it is precisely this action of YHWH, his return to his people, that opens the door to the future for them: “Israel’s only hope lies in YHWH’s repentance.”85 Against the background of our discussion above, we might conclude that YHWH’s only hope also lies in his return to his people.

6.6

The Tension as a Theological Challenge

Concluding this study of the tension between deliverance and repentance in Isa 40–55, I would like to step back for a moment, away from the world of the text and into the world that the text creates. Two major issues stand out: the question of the double response and the question of the construction of reality. First, it is obvious that the biblical writers both create and reflect a dialogue between the Israelites and YHWH. This has been demonstrated in all the analysed texts above: YHWH announces, disputes, consoles, accuses, admonishes and exhorts. The people react by doubt, by joy _____________ 83 Thus Katharine Sakenfeld stresses the importance of YHWH’s loyalty in the context: “Yahweh’s loyalty is the basis for hope for those in exile,” Sakenfeld, Faithfulness, 75. Striking in the expressions of the motives for YHWH’s return is the abundant use of the anthropomorphic language: he loves, he shows wrath, he forgives, he rejects and he repents. Willis is right when he concludes: “The Bible uses anthropomorphism as an accommodation device to bring God within man’s comprehension,” Willis, “‘Repentance’ of God,” 170. 84 Abraham Heschel concludes that YHWH’s pathos is a question of “a functional rather than a substantial reality,” see Heschel, Prophets, 231. For the discussion of the meaning of YHWH’s pathos in the prophetic assertions about YHWH, see ibid. pp. 221–31, 247–67, and 489–92. See also Brueggemann, Theology, 298–303, and Lindström, “Guds långa näsa,” 8–11. These are some of the works that discuss divine pathos as a compelling force leading to YHWH’s return to his people. 85 Lindström, “Theodicy,” 294.

146

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and by repentance.86 However, this dialogue is found not only in Isa 40–55: the text does not only document the response of the people, but the text itself forms a document of response. Thus, Isa 40–55 stands in a dialogue with the exilic national liturgy: in Pss 44, 74, 77, 80, 89 as well as throughout the Book of the Lamentations, the people call upon YHWH to respond, while in Isa 40–55 YHWH answers and calls upon the people to respond.87 This dialogue constructs the reality of interaction, which leads to the second issue. I have shown that, in these texts, the repentance of the people is presented as a responsive act. However, Isa 40–55 also constructs a religious and social reality. As stressed in the introduction to this study, the question of identity would have been one of the major issues which the people had to deal with in the context of the exile. Repentance, i.e. the return to YHWH as the only God, becomes the criterion of their identity who choose to adhere to that call: the Israelites are defined as the people of YHWH. In this respect, the repentance called for in the text also becomes a constitutive act.88 Once written and canonised, the text itself, in turn, constitutes the religious reality that it creates. In this reality, the biblical writers created a centre, an axis, around which a national and a religious restoration of the Israelites could begin. Deutero-Isaiah elaborates the idea of YHWH as a God who is active, powerful, and loyal. He stresses the idea of YHWH as the God of their ancestors,89 the God who has power to lead them out of the exile and back to their own land. However, both the land and the temple, who in the past have upheld Israelite religion, have now, through the experience of the exile, become insecure grounds for national identity, and this has led to the reformulated understandings and the new images of YHWH.90 Now, the religion of the Israelites has become centred on their relationship with YHWH: YHWH is primarily the God to whom the people have a close family bond.91 Throughout Isa 40–55, this personal _____________ 86 Interestingly, the dialogue between YHWH and the people is stylistically illustrated by the way in which it encompasses the whole of Isa 40–55: the return of YHWH in Isa 40:1–11 and the return of the people in Isa 55:6–13. 87 See Linafelt, Surviving Lamentations, 62–79. 88 Thus, writing on the function of Israel’s praise, Brueggemann asserts its double function, responsive and constitutive: “It not only addresses the God who is there before us, but also is an act of constructing the theological world in which we shall interact with God,” Brueggemann, Israel’s Praise, 4. 89 This is reinforced by reference to Abraham, Sara and Jacob (Isa 41:8 and 51:1) as well as by the frequently employed address form Jacob/Israel. 90 Thus Albertz asserts, from a sociological point of view, that “after the loss of political and cultic institutions informal groups of theologians became more and more the vehicles of official Yahwism,” Albertz, Israel in Exile, 133. 91 Albertz, History Vol. 2, 399–411.

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aspect of the relationship between YHWH and the Israelites is stressed through the images of YHWH as a mother, a father, a husband or as the closest kin.92 And, as stressed throughout this study, in this relationship, the actions of YHWH and the actions of the people are reciprocal and interdependent: both are equally required in order for the relationship to endure. The one does not make the other possible, merely desirable, but both make the relationship possible. In my understanding, it is in this interaction that the core of the tension between deliverance and repentance is located: i.e. in the move towards the relationship without knowing how the other will respond. In his return to his people, YHWH takes a risk of being rejected. Consequently, rather than being a sign of inconsistency, tension in the theology of a biblical text is a sign of life and motion, which is why these should be studied and not historically neutralised. Such tensions provide a sphere in which the eternal and the finite, the divine and the human dimensions can meet. It is within such a constant tension that the balance between YHWH’s action and the action of the people is preserved. And it is within this tension that the relationship between YHWH and his people develops. The study of the tension between deliverance and repentance in Isa 40–55 has shown that the relationship between YHWH and Israel is not that of mechanical cause and effect, nor that of a command and obedience, but it is an elusive interaction between the people’s turning away and their return as well as of YHWH’s departure from, and return to, his people.

_____________ 92 Cf. Nielsen, Bilderna, 64–67. The people are also addressed intimately as “you worm Jacob, you insect Israel!” (Isa 41:14), which corresponds to Ps 22:6, “I am a worm, and not human.” Later on in Ps 22, YHWH is described as a midwife taking the infant out of its mother’s womb (Ps 22: 9–10), cf. Lindström, Det sårbara livet, 53. Isaiah 40– 55 presents a strong affectionate bond between YHWH and his people, describing YHWH as the one who has taken care of his people from their beginning (Isa 44:2, 24; 46:3–4; 49:15).

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Biblical References Hebrew Bible Genesis 1:26f 8:21–22 15 15:4 43:32 46:34

128 40 139 49 93 93

11:2 11:26–27 12:5–7 13:13–19 27:15 28 30:15–20 32:16

37 2 69 39 93 2 2 93

Judges Exodus 3:7–10 8:22 12:12 22:19 32:9 33:3 33:5 34:9

100 93 122 39 52 52 52 52

10:10 10:15 11:24

126 126 37

1 Samuel 7:4–6 8:7 12:10

126 38 126

2 Samuel Leviticus 27:29

39

Numbers 23:12

49 26

1 Kings 37

Deuteronomy 7:25 7:25–26 9:6 9:13

7:12 19:1–18

93 39 52 52

8:47 12:18–19 12:27

44 126 44

2 Kings 1:1 3:5

126 126

166 17:16 18:31–32 24:1 24:7 24:12

Biblical References

103 4 3 3 3

Ezra 1:7–8 5:14

5 5

Job 34:36

70

Psalms 1:6 22:6 22:9–10 32:10 44 72 74 76:6 77 78:56–58 80 82 89 103:3 115:8 115:4–8 130:8 135:15–17 135:18 146:9

70 147 147 70 146 139 64, 146 56 64, 146 65 64, 146 98 146 111 92 92 135 92 92 70

Proverbs 6:12

70

12:26 15:9

70 70

Isaiah 1–39 40–48 49–55 56–66 1:13 1:15–17 1:29–30 2:20 5:8–25 6:9–10 6:9–13 6:10 8:11 8:19 10:1 10:1–4 10:5–15 14:12–21 19:3 26:10 29:20 30:22 31:1 31:2 31:7 32:6 40 40:1 40:1–2 40:1–11 40:1–52:10 40:1–52:12

78 8 8 23, 68, 70, 78, 79 70 78 79 71 78 91 91 77 70 79 70 78 101 101 69 70 70 71 69 70 71 70 11 1, 139 66, 67, 103 8, 9, 146 11 11

Biblical References

40:2 40:3 40:3–5 40:6 40:6–8 40:9 40:9–10 40:9–11 40:9–20 40:10–11 40:11 40:12–26 40:12–46:11 40:13 40:18 40:18–19 40:18–20 40:18–26 40:19 40:19–20 40:20 40:21 40:22 40:25 40:25–28 40:26 40:27 40:27–31 40:28 40:28–31 40:29 40:31 41:1–4 41:1–5 41:1–7 41:1–29

32, 36, 62, 125, 127, 136 70, 132 65 7 65 132 3 67 89 90, 124 131, 141, 169 84 10, 11 85 85–87, 94, 96, 104, 130 128 86, 89 71 71 82–86 94 85 90 85, 96, 130 85 85 64, 124, 128 36, 129 72, 138 90 141 2, 25 86 42, 97–98 97 87

41:2 41:2–4 41:4 41:6 41:5–6 41:6–7 41:7 41:8 41:8–9 41:8–10 41:8–13 41:8–14 41:8–16 41:9 41:10 41:13 41:14 41:14–16 41:16 41:17 41:17–20 41:20 41:21 41:21–29 41:22 41:23 41:24 41:25 41:26–28 41:28 41:21–29 41:29 42:3 42:5 42:6

167 47 98 36, 94, 96, 98, 141 136 82 83–84, 86 94 146 85 139 143 132 67 36 132, 136 136, 139, 141, 144 85, 135, 147 63 80, 85 141 76 80, 85, 92, 143, 144 139 42, 97, 99 52 98 35, 98–100 98 98 33 99 35, 70, 98, 104 52 85, 138 36, 130, 141

168 42:6–7 42:7 42:8 42:9 42:10–12 42:14 42:14–17 42:14–44:23 42:15–16 42:16 42:17 42:18 42:18–20 42:18–25 42:19 42:19–20 42:20 42:21–25 42:22 42:23 42:24 42:24–25 42:25 43:1 43:1–7 43:3 43:5 43:5–6 43:5–7 43:8 43:8–9 43:8–13 43:8–15 43:9

Biblical References

143 91, 104, 136 38, 71, 141, 143 52 75, 132 144 76 64 76 91 79, 82, 104, 128, 133 126, 132 36, 63, 91 24, 56 7, 104 128 77 1, 53 33, 136 132 1, 32, 39, 62, 126 36, 130 126, 128, 132, 134, 135, 138, 139 63, 132, 134, 138 80, 85, 135, 141, 144 132 3 135 91 30 42, 97 97 52, 98

43:10 43:10–13 43:11 43:11–12 43:11–13 43:12 43:13 43:14 43:14–15 43:14–21 43:15 43:16–21 43:18 43:19 43:19–21 43:22 43:22–23 43:22–24 43:22–28 43:23–24 43:24 43:25 43:27 43:28 44 44:1–2 44:1 44:1–5 44:2 44:3 44:6 44:6–8

38, 63, 85, 130, 143 35, 38, 71, 98 38, 135, 141 135 44 98, 141 33, 38, 136 80, 85, 133, 135 63 76 80, 85, 139, 141 34, 36 44, 52 138 76 36, 38, 57, 70 72 1, 130 1, 24, 34, 39, 56 130 42, 62, 72, 126, 127 2, 32, 38, 54, 62, 77, 126, 129, 143 1, 30, 32, 75, 126 39 11 85 51, 93, 132 34, 76, 89 90, 132, 136, 138, 147 76 38, 63, 80, , 93, 98, 135, 139 42, 60–61, 97

Biblical References

44:7 44:7–8 44:8 44:9 44:9–20 44:10 44:12 44:12–13 44:12–17 44:17 44:18 44:19 44:20 44:21 44:21b 44:21–22

44:22

44:22a 44:22b 44:23 44:24 44:24–28 44:27 44:28 45 45:3 45:5 45:6

85, 96 98 94, 98, 130, 132 90, 94 42, 60–62, 82, 83, 87–94 60, 90 60, 90 83 83 136 91–92 33, 44, 92 79, 89, 104, 133 37, 42, 90, 93 60 1, 2, 3, 14, 20, 23–24, 27, 30, 43–44, 59– 65, 72, 74–76, 79, 91, 95, 107, 131–133 19, 28, 30, 32– 33, 62– 64, 77, 126, 134, 135, 138 62, 77 77 60, 75, 90, 143 85, 90, 141 1, 35, 38, 63, 89 57 90 11 141, 143–144 38, 141 141, 143–144

45:7 45:8 45:9 45:9–13 45:11 45:11–13 45:13 45:15 45:15–17 45:16 45:18 45:18–19 45:18–21 45:18–25 45:19 45:20 45:20–21 45:20b 45:20–23 45:20–25 45:21 45:22 45:22–24 45:23 45:24 46:1–3 46:1–4 46:3 46:3–4 46:4 46:5 46:5–7 46:6 46:6–7

169 138, 141 46, 75, 141 138 130 85, 141 97 3 80, 135 135 82, 104 38, 44, 85, 99, 138, 141 35 42, 97 97 98–99, 141 98–99 98 83, 104 135 74, 97–98 44, 98–99, 141 33, 38, 74–75, 98, 141 136 33 133 83, 104 41–42 51, 95, 132 147 42, 95, 139 85, 94, 96, 104, 128, 130 41–42, 71 71 82–83, 94–95

170 46:7 46:8

46:8–11 46:8–13 46:9 46:9–11 46:10–11 46:11 46:12 46:12–13 46:13 47 47:4 47:4–5 47:6 47:7–10 47:8 47:9 47:9–15 47:10 47:12 47:12–15 47:13–15 47:14 48 48:1 48:1–2 48:1–11 48:2 48:3–5 48:4 48:5 48:5b

Biblical References

135 1, 33, 39, 44, 58, 62, 92–93, 95, 126 41–45 1, 40–47, 95 38, 52, 58, 130, 141 41 41, 94 36 47, 52, 58, 95, 132 45–47, 51 40–41 11, 30, 49, 97, 100 80, 85, 133 63 101 101 51 102 101 33 91 72 135 136 9, 26, 52 9, 47, 51 51 1, 2, 24, 48–55 9, 57 52–53 9, 53 58, 71 9

48:6–8 48:7b 48:8 48:8b 48:9 48:9–11 48:10 48:11 48:12 48:12–15 48:12–22 48:14 48:14–15 48:15 48:17 48:17–19 48:17–18 48:18–19 48:19 48:20 48:20–21 48:22 49:1 49:5 49:5–6 49:6 49:7b 49:7 49:7–13 49:8 49:10–13 49:12 49:13 49:14 49:14–18 49:14–21

53–54 9 1, 33, 39, 42, 58, 62, 126 9 129 2, 9, 41, 54, 143 85, 126 38, 129 35, 51, 141 97 49 90 49 35–36, 38 63, 80, 85, 91, 135, 141 9, 33 33 128 49 133 3, 75, 70, 127 36 33, 138 143 33, 136 68 80, 85, 135 63 130, 136 139 3 75 128 129 56

Biblical References

49:15 49:15–16 49:22–23 49:22–26 49:23 49:24–26 49:25–26 49:26 50:1

50:1–2 50:1–3 50:2 50:4–9 50:4–11 50:7 50:9 50:10 50:10–11 51 51:1 51:1a 51:1–3 51:1–8 51:2 51:4 51:4–6 51:5 51:6 51:7 51:7a 51:7–8 51:8 51:9 51:9–11 51:10

137, 147 137, 144–145 56 135 2, 25, 141 56, 63 135 134, 135, 141 33, 39, 42, 62, 126–127, 129, 137 128 55–57, 64 57, 130, 136 7, 56 56 136 127, 136 129 128 11 51, 64, 132, 139, 146 47 140 47 36 51 76, 135 2, 46, 90 46 51, 64, 132 47 135 46 90 63 134

51:11 51:12 51:12–16 51:12–13 51:13 51:15 51:16 51:19–23 51:22 51:23 52:1–6 52:3 52:7–10 52:8 52:9 52:9–10 52:10 52:11 52:11–12 53 53:1 53:3 53:5 53:6 53:8 53:9 53:11 53:12 54:1 54:1–10 54:4–5 54:5 54:5–6 54:5–8 54:5–10 54:6 54:6–10

171 33, 124 38 129 128 85, 138 141, 144 138 139 144 101 63 49, 133 10, 63 33 134, 138–139 75 74, 90, 99, 143 132 3 33 90 39, 42 32–33, 62, 126–127 32, 70, 127 33, 62, 126 127 127 32–33, 62, 126 132 63, 134 138 84, 138 138 144 137 36 40

172 54:8 54:9 54:10 54:11–17 54:17 55 55:1 55:1–2 55:1–3a 55:1–5 55:1–13 55:2 55:2a 55:2b 55:3 55:3a 55:3b–5 55:5 55:5b 55:6 55:6–7

55:6–9 55:6–13 55:7

55:8 55:8–9 55:8–11 55:10 55:10–13 55:11 55:12–13

Biblical References

145 144 130, 139 76 46, 127 9, 26, 65, 67–74 132 71–72 66, 71 27, 65, 71 8 71–72, 74, 95, 128 71 95 130, 132 74 66 36, 85 68 36, 69, 132 1–3, 14, 20, 26– 27, 30, 33, 65– 68, 71–75, 79, 121, 131, 133 65, 67 65, 146 26, 33, 66, 68, 70, 72, 127, 139, 141 70–71 24, 65 66 33 65, 76 33 3, 65–66, 124

56:8b 56:9–12 56:11 57:3–13 57:17 58:1–14 59:1–2 59:1–8 59:7 63:17 65:1–7 65:2 66:3

68 78 70 70, 79–80 70 78 129 78, 80 71 80 70 71 70

Jeremiah 2:1–3 2:1–4:2 2:1–25:14 2:4–4:4 2:8 2:11 2:19 2:23 2:28 2:35 3 3:1–4:2 3:6 3:6–11 3:6–18 3:8 3:11 3:12 3:12–13 3:13 3:14 3:14–18

54 107 107 107 91 91 111 110 103 110 107–112, 116 109 111 107 54 111 111 107–111 107–110 108–109 107, 110 107, 110

173

Biblical References

3:15–18 3:19–20 3:19–25 3:21 3:21–25 3:22 3:22a 3:23 3:25 4:1–4 4:14 5:6 5:11–12 7:3 7:19 8:5 8:8 8:14 9:2 9:5 10 10:4 10:14 12:1 12:7–8 13:25 14:7 14:20 15:6 18:1–12 18:8 18:11 18:11–17 18:12 18:17 23:24 24:1–10 24:4–7

110 107 107, 111 54, 70 19 111, 114 107, 112, 93 126 14, 107 71, 106 111 54 106 37 111 110 126 54 54 104 71 93 70 111 93 111, 126 70, 126 111 23 107 106 70 71 111 37 112 17, 112, 115

25:1–14 25:4–11 25:5 26:3 26:13 28:7 29:1 29:4–7 29:5–7 29:10 29:10–14 29:12 29:12–14 30–33 31:18–19 31:15–26 31:31–33 31:31–34 31:32 31:33 31:34 32:36–41 32:37 32:38 32:39 32:39–40 32:40 32:41 34:4 35:15 36:3 44:2–6 44:21 50–51 50:29–32 51:24 51.34–35 51:49

39 107 107 107 106 109 4 4 4 69 69, 114 36 69 114 107 19 114 112, 115 110 114 114 112, 115 114 114 114 114 114–115 114 109 107 107 107 37 101 101 101 101 101

174 51:51–52 52:28 52:29 52:30

Biblical References

101 3 3 3

Lamentations 1:14 1:18 3:21 5:7

129 129 44 129

Ezekiel 3:15 3:18–19 8:1 11 11:17 11:17–21 11:18 11:19–20 11:20b 11:21 14:1 14:1–11 14:6 14:6–11 17:9 18:1–32 18:21–29 18:30 18:30–32 18:31 18:32 20:1 20:1–31 20:7–8 20:30–31

4 84 4 119 118 118–119, 144 118, 121 118 118 118, 121 4 117 117 14 37 118 116 117 117 117, 120–121 117 4 54 104 118

20:39–44 20:40–44 33:8 33:10–11 33:10–20 33:11 33:17–20 36:22–23 36:22–32 36:24 36:25 36:26 36:26–27 36:28 36:31 36:31–32 36:32 36:33–36 37:1–14 37:11–14 37:19–23 38:10

118 14 70 117 118 117 116 118 14, 118 118 118 120 118 118 121 118 118 118 119 118 118 71

Hosea 6:7 8:1 8:4 9:10 12:2–4 13:2 14:2–4 14:4

37, 54 54 71, 103 99 37 71, 103 19, 63 103

Amos 4:6–11 5:4–6 5:4–15

23 69 23

175

Biblical References

5:14 5:15 5:22–27 9:7

69 18 23 37

Micah 5:12

103

10:1–2

93

Malachi 1:6–14 2:10–17 3:7 3:24

80 80 80 44

Habakkuk 2:18 2:18–19 2:18–20

91 103 93

BabylonianTalmud

Zechariah 1:3 7:7 8:16

Rabbinic Literature

75 37 78

Berakhot 57b

1