The relationship of preliminary stance of the pitcher to the speed and accuracy of a pitched baseball

Citation preview

THE RELATIONSHIP OF PRELIMINARY'STANCE. OF THE PITCHER TO THE SPEED AND ACCURACY OF A PITCHED BASEBALL

A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of "the School of Education University of Southern California

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Science in Education

John H* Dodge August 1950

UMI Number: EP56175

All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.

Dissertation Publ sh*ng

UMI EP56175 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code

ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346

>S-/ O G ¥ ¥ T h is thesis, w r it t e n u n d e r the d ir e c t io n o f the C h a ir m a n o f the candidate's G u id a n c e C o m m itte e a n d a p p r o v e d by a l l m em b ers o f the C o m m itte e , has been p resen ted to a n d a cce p te d by the F a c u lt y o f the S c h o o l o f E d u c a t io n o f the U n iv e r s it y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f the re q u ire m e n ts f o r the degree o f M a s t e r o f Science in E d u c a t io n . ..

Dean Hidance Committee

TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I.

PAGE INTRODUCTION .......................... . . . . .

1

The p r o b l e m ..................................

4

Statement of the p r o b l e m ................ . .

4

Importance of the p r o b l e m ............

4

Definitions of terns used

.........

6

. . . . .

6

Forward position . . . . • • . • • • • • •

6

Sideward position

« • • • . . . . • . . •

7

Wind-up# . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7

Accuracy • • • • • • . . • • • • . . . » #

7

Control..............

(

Relative speed • • • • • • • • • * • • • •

7

Pitching

7

Preliminary position ...........

..........

Throwing

7

Delivery • • • . . . • • • • • • • * • • •

8

Effectiveness.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8

Efficiency

.....................

8 8

Frames.......................... Center line.

. . . .

8

Method of procedure • • • . . . • . • • • • •

8

Limitations of the study. . Review of the literature.

...............

10

.................

11

Literature on speed and accuracy.

. . . . .

12

lii CHAPTER

PAGE Literature on t h r o w i n g . ............ . . . . Literature on targets • . . . . . . . . . . Literature on batting * . . .

14

............

Organization ofrematningehapters. III

13

• ♦ . • »

15 16

PHYSICAL TESTING E Q U H M E N T AND RECORDING OF THE DATA............. ............ ..

17f

Measuring the speed of the ball . . • • • • •

17

Photography as a method of determining the speed

................... • • • • •

17

Type of data the pictorial record could p r o v i d e .......................... Type of photography used to record the speed • . • • • • • • • • • • • » . . • •

18

Setting for the testing situation . . . . .

18

Measuring the speed from the film . . . . .

^19

Measuring the accuracy of the throw . . * . •

20

The use of a target for determining accuracy. « • • . . « • • • •

............

Physical testing; equipment. . . . . . . . . . The camera. ............. F ilm .

. • • • • • • . •

20 20 20

.......................

The t a r g e t . ............. . . .

..........

21

The baseballs . . . . . . .............. . •

22

Guide p o l e s ................... ............

24

iv CHAPTER

PAGE I Method of identification................

24

Subject's equipment • • ............

25

Arrangement of the testing equipment. . . .

25

Recording the data. •

27

Recording the data pertaining

toaccuracy •

27

Recording and translating the data pertaining to speed

.............. •

Summary of the c h a p t e r . ........ .. III.

29

SUBJECTS AND THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE TEST . .

30

The subjects used in the study..............

30

The age of the subjects

..............

The baseball experience of the subjects • •

IV.

29

30 30

Moving and handling the subjects. • • • . • •

31

Duties of the c l e r k .......................

31

Testing p r o c e d u r e ..........................

32

The time of administering the test.

. . . .

35

Summary of the chapter. • . . • . . • • • •

35

RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA........

3?

Statistical results of the t e s t .............

37

The effect upon the relative speed produced by changing from the forward to the sideward position

............

37

The effect upon the accuracy produced by changing from the forward to the sideward position

37

V

CHAPTER

PAGE The effect upon the speed and accuracy produced by changing from the forward

V.

to the sideward position. • » . . * • • •

40

Efficiency summary* » • • • » . . * * • • »

43

Interpretation of the data. • • • . . . • . »

43

Interpreting the test results . . * . . . .

43

Summary of the chapter.............

43

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary

..............

Conclusions • BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45 45 46 48

LIST OF TABLES TABLE I* II. III. IV.

PAGE Group speed r e s u l t s . ........... ............ .. .

38

Individual speed records

39

•* . . • • • • • • • •

Group accuracy results

41

Individual accuracy r e c o r d s . .................

42

LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE

PAGE

1.

Accuracy target........................................23

2.

Layout of testing situation. ........

3*

Record blank . . . .

• • • « . •

26

...........................

28

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The pitcher was regarded as having the most difficult position to play on a hasehall team.***

Therefore, the pitcher

has been regarded as the most Important member of a hasehall team•^

Coaches had seldom realized the value of good pitch­

ing until the pitching had become weak.3. The value of a pitcher had been estimated to be as much as fifty to seventyfive per cent- of the defens ive strength of a team.

Connie

Mack declared that pitching was seventy-five per cent of a team’s defense.^

The pitcher’s efforts usually determined,

to a high degree, the outcome of a baseball game.

Other

things being equal, or nearly so, the team with the better pitcher has usually won.

In fact, the success or failure of

the entire season of a school or college team has depended

■* ^■John W. (Jack) Coombs, Baseball (New York: PrenticeHall, Incorporated, 1947), p. 3* % on t a g u e DuBarry, f,A Course of Study in Conducting a High School Baseball Team,” (unpublished Master’s project, The University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1949), p. 15* •%yrd Douglas, The Science of Baseball {New Y o r k : Thos. E. Wilson and Company, 1922), p. 9 . ^Gene Schoor, editor, Giant Book of Sports (Garden City* New York: Garden City Publishing Company, Incorporated, 1948), p. 23.

largely upon the ability of the pitchers.^ Basically, the pitcher employed two preliminary posi­ tions or stances from which the ball was delivered.

The

stance of a pitcher depended on the number of runners on base.

If only third base, second and third base, or all

bases were occupied or the bases were unoccupied, the pitcher took a position facing the plate.

In all other

situat ions the pitcher stood s ideward to the plate § the body facing toward third base. In the forward stance the pitcher used a wind-up prior to delivering the ball.

The pitcher began by shifting

the weight to the front foot, meanwhile, bending the trunk slightly forward and swinging the arms to the rear of the body.

The weight was shifted to the rear foot and the body

straightened.

During the previous action the arms were

swung forward past the hips and the hands Joined overhead,

7

from this position the throw was started.' In the sideward stance both arms were bent and the forearms extended inward above the waist line so that the hands met in a comfortable position between the belt buckle

^Daniel E. Jeesee, Baseball (New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1939)» p. 11. ^Ethan Allen, Ma.lor League Baseball (New Yorks The Macmillan Company, 194?), p. 17* 7 Ibid., p. 24.

3 and the middle of the chest*® The speed and accuracy of the throw were paramount factors for the success of a pitcher*^

A pitcher Is

required to have speed and control above a l l * ^

Barry

pointed out that other things being equal the pitcher with the best control was the most effective ♦^

Coombs agreed

that control was absolutely essential to efficient pitching*12 With speed and control, a pitcher was regarded as having more than two-thirds of the requirements for success*^3 Clarke stated that little scientific work has been done in baseball, although subjective proposals were m a d e * ^ The only techniques for measuring in baseball were subjective judgements formed by an observer.

The results were good,

8ibia., p. 17. ^Jessee, op* eit»* p. 11* l°Jess Orndorff, "How to Play Baseball and Ins ide Baseball," (unpublished, Guide for the Orndorff Baseball School, 1935)t p. 8 . * M* "Sam" Barry, "Fundamentals of Baseball Coaching," (unpublished, Outline Department of Physical Education, University of Southern California), p. 21* 12

Coombs, op* cit*» p. 16*

^ J o e DIMaggio, Baseball for Everyone (Hew York: Whittlesey House McGraw-Hill Book Company, Incorporated,

1948), p. 154* 14

H * Harrison Clarke, The Application of Measurement to Health and Physical Education (Hew York: Prentice-Hall, Incorporated, 1945), p* 415*

but a scientific approach might have produced better results I. -THE PROBLEM Statement of the problem*

The purpose of the study

was. to determine: 1.

The effect that changing from the forward to the

sideward position had on the accuracy of a pitched ball. 2* The effect that changing from the forward to the sideward position had on the speed of a pitched ball• Importance of the problem.

The importance of the

problem was in the fact that coaches believed pitchers were less effective when using a sideward stance than when a forward stance was used*

Many otherwise good pitchers were

valueless to the team due to that f a c t . ^

Glassow and Broer

saw the need for work in the pitching areas What is needed in pitching is some measure of speed with which the ball is delivered which, com­ bined with an accuracy score will measure ability to pitch*17

^ S a m u e l Winograd, "The Relationship of Timing and Vision to Baseball Performance," Research Quarterly, 13*' 481, December, 1942* ^ J u d s o n A. Hyames, "Pitching and the Development of the Young Pitcher,11 Athletic Journal* 16:IB* June, 1936* ^ R u t h B. Glasgow and Marion R* Broer, Measuring Achievement in Physical Education (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1938), p. 63*

All factors which were involved in the loss of effectiveness were not def initely known*

The study

nQ attempted to isolate two elements, speed and accuracy, u

-

of a pitcher and to note the effect brought about by chang­ ing the preliminary stance from the forward to the sideward position. The fact that speed and accuracy were testable ele­ ments In baseball was suggested by numerous authorities. Wardiaw suggested a regulation baseball test, one of the elements was control and accuracy in pitching.

H 11 las

and Knight on2® and Brace2^* included speed and accuracy as part of the test for baseball ability• A secondary purpose of the study was that it might serve as a springboard for further investigation into the area under consideration*

Should the study have produced

evidence that the change of the preliminary position did affect the speed or accuracy, or both, then a basis for

* % o h n F* Bovard and Frederick W* Cozens, 7ests and Measurements In Phvsical Education (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1938), p. 205* ^9Charles B . Wardlaw, Fundamentals of Baseball (New York: Charles Schribner*s Sons, 1929)» p ♦ 83. 2% a r J o r i e Hillas and Marian Knighton, An Athletic Pro/gram for High School and College-Women (New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1929), p* £l. 2^David Kingsley Brace, Measuring Motor Ability (New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1927), p* 78.

6 attacking the problem would have existed.

If the evidence

had indicated that the change of preliminary position had no effect on the speed or accuracy then other factors would have to be investigated*

For, as Palmer pointed out, it

was desirable to improve the game skills of players.

If

playing ability was held back by deficiency in some specific skill, it was a wise procedure to discover that deficiency and plan specific instruction to correct the weakness*22 II.

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED

Before proceeding with the findings of the study it was necessary to define certain terms used* Prelim inarv posit ion *

The preliminary position was

the position taken by the pitcher immediately prior to throwing to the batter•

There were two types of preliminary

positions, the forward and the sideward« Forward position* the batter•

The pitcher faced directly toward

The spikes on the ball of the pitching foot

extended over the edge of the pitchers plate and the toe of the stepping foot rested on or to the rear of the pitching plate.

The delivery of the ball from the forward pos ition

was accompanied by a wind-up*

22

Gladys E~* Palmer, Baseball for Girls and Women (New York; A. S* Barnes and Company, 1929)» p • 46. •4T

Sideward position. the hatter *

The pitcher turned sideward to

A right-handed pitcher faced toward third base»

a left-handed pitcher faced toward first base.

The pitching

foot was parallel to the pitcher*s plate and In contact with the plate.

Both arms were bent and the forearms extended

inward above the waist line so that the hands met in a com­ fortable position between the belt buckle and the middle of the chest.

Prom such a position the ball was delivered*;^

Wind-up#

The mot Ion indulged in by the pitcher

before delivering the ball•

The motion was abbreviated or

entirely eliminated with men on base# Control.

q

A

Control was synonomous with accuracy as

defined below# Accuracy# T h e ability of the pitcher to throw the ball within the strike area#2^ Relative speed#

The rate of speed which the baseball

traveled in relation to the testing situatIon• Pitching#

Pitching was the throwing of the ball, by

the pitcher, towards the home base• Throwing#

For the purpose of the study throwing was

synonomous with pitching.

2^AH©n, op* cit., p. 247. OA_

Parke Cummings, The Dictionary of Baseball (New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1 9 5 0 ) , p. 61. ^Al l e n , o p . c i t p. 247.

8 Delivery#

Delivery was synonomous with pitching and

throwing* Effectiveness•

Ef f ect iveness meant the speed and

accuracy with which the pitcher threw the hall* Efficiency* Frames *

Efficiency is synonomous with effectiveness•

A division of the motion picture film*

Center line *

An imaginary line which ran through the

center*of home plate and extended through the center of the pitcher’s plate* III*

METHOD OF PROCEDURE

In order to determine the effect of the preliminary stance on the speed and accuracy of a pitched baseball, two approaches were utilized.

First, library research was

employed and reading was done on relevant literature in order to determine the best approach to the problem•

Many

of the findings, of course, were not necessarily proven facts, but were the opinions of men regarded as outstanding in the field* Second, data was obtained by measuring the speed and accuracy of a baseball thrown by a group of thirty-one subjects * By the nature of the study it was necessary to devise a test that would measure the speed and accuracy simulta­ neously*

A target was constructed on the basis of the one

proposed by Palmer;2**

The size of the target was approxi­

mately the strike area of a batter. By the use of slow motion photography it was possible to determine the speed of the ball*2^

In order to determine

the best possible arrangement of the testing apparatus, a preliminary test was conducted*

The flight of the ball was

photographed from four different positions; (1 ) from the side, (2 ) from above, (3) from the rear of the pitcher, and (4) from the rear of home plat e .

By the subJect ive method, the

place selected for the camera was to the rear of the pitcher. In such a position the true speed of the ball could not be obtained, but since the results were-based on a comparative basis a true speed was not essential.

In order to facilitate/

the testing procedure the tests were conducted adJacent to the baseball field used by Van Kuys and Notre Dame High Schools for practice sessions.

To facilitate the photo­

graphing the site selected was bordered by a row of trees. The trees provided a sharp contrast to the white ball and aided in making the ball v is ible •

Palmer, op. cit. ♦ p. 140. 2?Paul E. Boucher, Fundamentals of-Photography (New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, Incorporated, 1947), p. 84.

10 Score cards were devised In order to record the data obtained during the test• The subjects reported to the testing, area directly from the regular practice session in groups of two.

The

subjects were instructed in the purposes and procedures of the test*

The subjects proceeded to throw, the clerk

recorded the results of accuracy while the investigator operated the camera. After developing, the film was studied in a viewerThe number of frames that elapsed from the time the ball passed the first guide pole until the last pole was reached were counted to determine the relative speed of the ball. The relative speed results were then recorded on the proper data sheet.

The final step was the analysis of the results

in order to determine the outcome in relation to the problem. IV.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

There were two main limitations to the study.

The

first was the type of camera used in the study and the place­ ment of it in the testing situation.

The second was the use

of unclassified subjects. The camera with a maximum speed of sixty-four frames per second did not provide as precise a record of the speed as was desirable.

Because of the placement of the camera a

true speed of the ball was not obtained.

Therefore, a

11 relative speed was used throughout the study# The subjects were not classified as to the position that each played on the school team,

Had the study been

limited only to pitchers the small number of cases involved would have provided only meager information.

Too, the

experience of the subjects was a factor that-was not con­ trolled*

The experience was an element which would have

given more validity to the study if it had been controlled, VI.

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

In baseball, a field that places a premium on speed and accuracy* there was little controlled research attempted. However, some studies were attempted with diversified results. (Hassow pointed out that little work was done to establish 08 reliable and valid tests for baseball.Rodgers and Heath attempted to develop a battery of tests to measure ability in the technique of various team sports.

A representative

sampling of game techniques in playground baseball chosen by twenty-three teachers of physical education resulted in the selection of five particular skills.

The test battery was

given to 700 fifth and sixth-grade boys.

The correlation

coefficient between the composite score and the criterion

Glassow, on. cit., p. 65♦

12 proved to be r .63 for fifth-grade boys and #65 for sixthOQ grade boys• Literature jai speed and accuracy .

There were no

studies of speed and accuracy in pitching found by the investigator.

Hlllas and Knighton attempted to develop a

throw for speed and accuracy.^0

In the test a player stood

on first base with the ball on the ground.

Two jumping

standards six feet apart were placed at third base with cross bars two feet and five feet from the ground.

On a

given signal the player picked up the ball and attempted to throw between the two cross bars.

The time was recorded If

the throw was successful. Brace included a speed throw in the baseball achieve­ ment t e s t I n

the test the subject stood behind a line

eight feet from a wall and threw a ball against the wall catching it on the rebound.

Ten throws were taken as

rapidly as possible and timed with a stop watch# Pulton used a ballistic movement to establish the relationship between speed and accuracy.

A one and one-

OQ ^John F. Bovard, Frederick W. Cozens and E. Patricia Hagman* Tests and Measurements In Physical Education (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1949)# p. 194. ^ H i i l a s and Knighton, pp. cit., p. 61. 31

Brace# op. cit.» p. 76.

fourth Inch ball was released automatically from a trough. The subject hit the ball with a wooden bat.

The results

showed that the group emphasizing speed developed accuracy to a greater extent than did the group that made accuracy of stroke the primary a inu

32

Literature on throwing.

Using the motion picture

method of securing data, Wild studied thirty-two children. In a carefully arranged throwing field Including distance scale marks and an electric clock, a boy and girl at each six-month age level from two to seven and each one-year age level from seven to twelve were tested in an effort to note the development of the behavior pattern of throwing.

The

results afforded a valuable background for the solution of problems that arose in respect to the throwing of children.^

Verwieve34 and Sutton35 conducted studies that attempted to prove that baseballs curve.

Later, Life had

Grjon Mill photograph a thrown baseball in flight.

M i l l #s

^2Ruth E. Fulton, "Speed and Accuracy in Learning Movements," Research Quarterly. 13 *30-37# March, 1942. ^ M o n i c a R. Wild, "The Behavior Pattern of Throwing and Some Observations Concerning Its Course of Development in Children,” Re search Quarterly. 9*20-24* October, 1938. 34 Frank L. Verwiebe, "Does a Baseball Curve?" American Journal of Physics, 10:119-120. April, 1942. ^R i c h a r d M. Sutton, "Baseballs Do Curve and Drop," American Journal of Physics. 10:201-202, August, 1942.

14 pictures failed to show the existence of a curve.3^ Literature on targets.

The targets used In the

various studies were of diverse sizes*

Hlllas and Knighton

used a target eighteen by thirty-six inches that was =twentyone Inches above the ground.37

The target used by Hartely

was twenty-four by forty-two Inches.38

Rodgers and Heath

developed a double rectangular target and found that better results occurred*39 thirty-sIx Inches« eight Inches.

The inner rectangle was eighteen by The outer rectangle was thirty by forty-

Henderson suggested a target thirty-six by

thirty-six inches and varied the throwing distance according to the age level of the group. rectangular target.

Brace also used a double

The outer one was fifty-four by sixty

inches and the inner one twelve inches smaller each way*41

36"Baseball's Curve B a l l s Life. 11:83-89, September 15* 1941. ^ H i l l a s and Knighton* op. cit., p. 6 0 . ^®Grace Hartely, “Motivating the Physical Education Program for High School Girls," American Physical Education Review* 34-284-291, May, 1929. -^Elizabeth G. Rodgers and Marjorie L. Heath, "An Experiment in the Use of Knowledge and Skill Tests in Play­ ground Baseball," Research Quarterly. 2(4):113-131* December, 193140 Leonora Andersen, An Athletic Program for Elementary Schools (New Yorks A. S. Barnes and Company* 19297, p. 118. 41

Brace, op. cit., p. 80.

15 42

Carlson*

used the baseball throw as a predictive Index of

athletic ability.

A target was constructed containing seven

circle holes arranged one behind the other.

Cozens suggested

a concentric target with five rings of one, two, three, four, and five-feet diameters. ^

The center was three and one -

half feet from the ground. Literature on batting.

Winograd attempted.to deter­

mine the relationship of timing and vision to successful batting in baseball.

The Keystone Opthalmic Telebinocular

and the D. B. Series of slides were used in the study because they were regarded as valid tests of vision and timing.

The

test was an Interesting approach to the problem of selecting baseball players and was covered in a scientific manner. However, the results showed that there was no significant relationship between the timing tests and the batting criteria among skilled baseball players.

44

40 Roy Luverne Carlson, 11A Study of the Baseball Throw as a Predictive Index of Athletic A M 11ty,w (unpublished Master*s Thesis University of' Southern California, Los Angeles, 1941), p. 21. 43 Frederick W. Cozens, Martin H. Trleb and N. P. Neilson, Physical Education Achievement Scales (New Yorks A. S. Barnes and Company, Incorporated± 1936), p. 31. 44

Winograd, op. cit., pp. 481-494.

16 V.

ORGANIZATION OF REMAINING- CHAPTERS

Taking into consideration the purpose of the study and the statement of the problem, the arrangement of the chapters that seemed logical was as follows. In the present chapter the statement of the problem and its importance, the definitions of the terms used, the method of procedure, the limitations of the study, the organization of the remaining chapters and the review of the literature were given. The next chapter discussed the physical testing equipment and recording of the data.

The target and camera

were described along with the baseballs, guide polds, and the method of identification.

The recording and translating

of the data was discussed and the testing situation described. In Chapter III the subjects used in the study were c ons idered •

The method o f moving and hand ling the sub Ject s

was described.

The Instructions to the subjects and the

time involved in administering the test were discussed• Chapter IV presented the data obtained from the test. The statistical results were presented along with the interpretation of the data.

The summary of the material

covered in the study, together with recommendations for further study and conclusions, was presented in the final chapter.

CHAPTER II: PHYSICAL TESTING EQUIPMENT AND RECORDING OP THE DATA The selected elements of speed and accuracy required the use of appropriate equipment to measure those two conditions*2^ I.

MEASURING THE SPEED OF THE BALL

Photography as a method of determining the speed* In the use of photography as the method of measuring the speed the following points were considered.2^ 1* The type of data the plet©rial record could provide 2 . The type of photography that would best record the desired information* 3 * The setting needed to emphasize the desired details 4. How the desired information could be obtained from

John P. Bovard and Frederick W* Cozens, Tests and Measurements In Physical Education (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1938), p. 205* 46

Research Section and the Research Council of the Research Section of the American Association for Health, Physical Education* and Recreation, Research Methods Applied to Health, Physical Education * and Recreation.iWashington D. C: American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 1949)» p. 204.

18 Type of data the pictorial record could provide. There was general agreement that a motion picture camera would provide an accurate measure'of the speed of a ball# Wild used the photographic method in a study on the behavior pattern of throwing#^

Glassow^® and B o u c h e r ^ both sub­

stantiated the fact that a camera could be used as a timing device •

By the slow motion photography technique fast

moving objects could be slowed many times# Type of photography used to record the speed#

-The

operation of a motion picture camera at a high rate of speed produced what Boucher termed slow mot ion photography. The use of alow^ motion photography produced the effect of movement at a slower rate which made possible finer discri­ mination of the speed* Setting for the testing situation#

The selection of

a site for administering the test was made on the basis of

47 Monica R. Wild, MThe Behavior Pattern of Throwing and Some Observations Concerning Its Course of Development in Children,M Research Quarterly# :9 *20-24, October, 1938. hQ ^ R e s e a r c h Section and the Research Council of the Research Section of the American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, op. jcit., p. 213. 49

Paul E. Boucher, Fundamentals of Photography (New Y o r k : D. Van No strand Company, Incorporated, 1947), p. 290. 50

Loc. clt#

19 two factors:

(1 ) the proximity of the testing area to the

field used by the subjects for the regular practice sessions and (2 ) the background for photographic recording had to be selected with care#51

A sharp contrast between the back­

ground and ball was essential.

The site selected was

adjacent to the baseball field used by the subjects for practice sessions#

The area was bordered by a row of trees

which appeared dark on the film providing the desired con** trast to the white ball. Measuring the speed from the film#

After development

the film was studied with the aid of a film v i e w e r . The viewer made poss ible the studying of the ball in flight o n each frame.

The number of frames in which the ball appeared

was considered as the relative speed of the ball.

The speed

was recorded, on the basis of frames per second and translated into feet per second.

The following were the rules set down

for ascertaining the speed• 1. Each frame shall be counted in which the ball appears between the guide poles. 2. Each frame shall be counted In which the ball appears to be in contact with the guide poles.

51 Research Section and the Research Council of the Research Section of the American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, on. clt.. p. 210. 52Ibid.. p. 214.

3. Each, frame shall he counted In which the subject's arm appears prior to the release of the ball. The results for each throw were recorded on the appropriate record sheet as determined by the identification number♦ II.

MEASURING- THE ACCURACY OF THE THROW

The use of a target for determining accuracy.

The use

of a rectangular target such as Wardlaw and Palmer suggested was used in order to approximate more closely the game situa­ tion.

Concentric targets, McCloy pointed out, give a higher

degree of reliability.^

The anti-game situation aspects

of the concentric target were so heavy that the use of a rectangular target appeared warranted•

McCall stated, "Test

results are more comparable to life results the more nearly the test approaches the character of the life process."54 III. The camera.

PHYSICAL TESTING EQUIPMENT The camera employed in the study was a

standard sixteen millimeter spring wound motion picture

53 "C h a r l e s Harold McCloy, Tests and Measurements in Health and Physical Education (New York: F. S. Crofts and Company, 1936)* P • 174. 5b William A. McCall, Measurement (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1939), p. 134.

21 camera, Model D Camera 70 manufactured by the Bell and Howell Company.

The camera was equipped with a standard

fixed focus lens with a focal length of one inch.

The maxi­

mum speed of the camera was sixty-four frames per second. In order to insure stability the camera was placed on a tri­ pod. ^5 Film. was u s e d . ^

For slow motion photography a high speed film The type of film used in the study was Ansco

Highest Speed Panchromatic Reversible Film. The target.

The size of the target used was of prime

importance and the accuracy of measurements was essential.57 The targets for pitching tests were designed on the basis of the strike dimensions in baseball.^® The target was constructed on the basis of the measurements set forth by Palmer and approximately those used by Wardlaw.

The rectangle, through whieh the ball had

cc -'•"Research Section and the Research Council of the Research Section of the American* Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, op. cit., p. 209. 56

^

Boucher, op. pit.* p. 298.

^McCloy, pp. cit., p. 14. 58 Ruth B. Glassow and Marion R. Broer, Measuring Achievement in Physical Education (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1938}, p. 70*

22 to pass to be a strike, was eighteen Inches wide by thirtyseven inches high.-*^

The lower edge of the rectangle was

twenty-one inches above the level of the ground#

The area

within the rectangle describes approximately the strike area over home plate between the knees and shoulders of the batsmam

The target had a twenty-four inch depth*

Twelve inches

from the front of the target was suspended a piece of green canvas fastened only at the top. f

The purpose of the canvas *•

strip was to absorb the shock of the ball and to prevent the balls from bouncing out#

In case of damage the canvas was

replaced by removing it through the top of the target• new piece was then Inserted through the same opening.

A The

framework of the target was constructed of lumber two Inches by four inches in size. with green canvas. board•

The inside of the target was lined

The outside was covered with masonite

Below the suspended canvas was a pair of inclined

ramps which allowed the ball to pass to the rear of the target where an accurate count could be made and the balls retrieved.

See Figure 1, page 23 for illustration of the

target. The basebalIs♦

59

In throwing events it was necessary

..

..

Gladys E. Palmer, Baseball for Girls and Women (New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1929)V P* 140.

JL

T A R G E T XS L I N E D

WXTH CANVAS

f

C O V E R E D WTTH M A S O N I T E BOARD

zr

a-

Z+' n

r i

[:

r

l

r

h

1

1

^

1

ft]

i

i i Tl

h*

h

n

i i t t

XI-

-HI*-/"

D ecember 2 9

/9 4 9

A c c u r a c y T a r g -e

t

S c a l e 3/ 3 a W "

J ohn H. D o d g e

24

to use balls of a standard weight*

New balls were used as

the weight does not vary as much as the weight of old balls* The baseballs used were the Spalding National League Ball. Rule 14, Section 1 of the Official Baseball-Rules described the ball as follows. * * * The ball must weigh not less than five nor more than five and one quarter ounces avoirdupois, and measure not less than nine nor more than nine and one quarter inches in circumference.61 Guide poles.

In order to facilitate the photographing

of the baseball, white guide posts were erected.

The poles

were one half inch by two inches in size and seven feet long. Method of identification* a number prior to throwing*

Each subject was assigned

As the subject’s turn came to

throw, the number was placed on a blackboard along with an “A" or ,,BW .

The letter "A*1 designated the throws that were

made from the forward position and ,,B W designated the throws made from the sideward position.

The blackboard was placed

in the camera field so that the photo of the ball also included the identification of the thrower.^2

^ M c C l o y , op. cit., p. 14. 6lLeslie.M* O ’Connor, editor, Official Baseball including the Official Rules (New York: A. 3* Barnes and Company, 1949)» p. 13* ^ R e s e a r c h Section and the Research Council of the Research section of the American Association, for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation* op* cit*. p. 213*

25 Subject* s equipment*

The subjects were equipped

with cleated baseball shoes for the test* were worn by all the subjects •

Baseball gloves

No attempt was made to con­

trol any other part of the subject*s equipment or costume* Arrangement of the testing equipment*

The front of

the target was placed sixty feet six inches from the front of the pitcher’s plate*

The distance was the same as that

set forth in the official rules and recommended by Palmer and Wardlaw.^-*

The guide poles were placed five feet from

the right side of home base, as viewed from the rear, and fifteen feet three inches from the rear of home base.

The

other guide pole was located five feet from the right side of home base and forty-five feet three inches from the rear of home-base•

The guide poles were thirty feet apart by out­

side measurement• The camera was placed on a tripod, the bottom of the lens being forty inches above the level of the ground*

The

camera was located ten feet to the right and ten feet to the rear of the pitcher’s plate•

The box containing the base­

balls was located thir ty-sIx inches to the rear of the pitcher* s plate.

See Figure 2 , page 26 for the layout of the

testing situation.

Glassow, op. cit.* p. 71.

26

f CAMERA

T arcet Center like

jftua T

5' I d U T lF lC A T lO M

^ N yQuioc Pclc

IV.

RECORDING OF THE DATA

Reeording the data pertaining to accuracy.

The ease

and accuracy of obtaining the data was facilitated by the 64 use of a record blank. The record blanks were organized in such a fashion as to give the greatest convenience to the clerk when scoring*

In the left column the pitches thrown

from the forward position were recorded. scored on a hit or miss basis*

The accuracy was

The pitches that hit the

target were marked with an f,X w while those that did not hit the target were marked with an t,0.w

In the left column the

pItches thrown from the forward position were recorded*

In

the right hand column the pitches thrown from the sideward position were recorded.

The fifth, sixth, and seventh

pitches of each series of ten were photographed*

A small

check was placed in the appropriate space to signify that the pitch had been photographed• The record sheet Included space for the subject*s name, age, grade, experience and the name of the school.

In

the lower right corner was placed the identification number* See Figure 3* page 2 8 .

Research Section and the Research Council of the Research Section of the American Association for Health, Physleal Education, and Recreation, on. cit., p. 155*

28 ACCURACY FORWARD STANCE *

ACCURACY SIDEWARD STANCE

(X for hits)

(X for hits)

1

1 (0 for miss)

(0 for miss)

2

2

3

3

4

SPEED Frames

5

4

Mean Speed

5

6

6

77

7

8

8

9

99

10

Mean. Speed

10

TOTAL

Nam©______

SPEED Frames

TOTAL

Grade SUBJECT

Experience.. School____ Date FIGURE 5 RECORD BLANK

29 Recording and translating the data pertaining to speed#

After the film had been developed It was passed

through a film viewer.

The flight of the hall was studied

In each individual frame on the basis of rules set down on pages 19 and 20.

The results of each throw were recorded on

the appropriate record sheet as determined by the Identifi­ cation number.

The speed was translated Into feet per second.

The location of the camera was such that the ball was photographed during nineteen feet of the flight If the ball had paralleled the center line.

All speeds were calculated

on the basis of nineteen feet as the distance traveled by the ball.

No consideration was given to the distance the

ball might have deviated from the center line. Summary of the chapter.

To measure the speed of the

ball, slow motion photography was utilized.

To measure the

accuracy of the throw, a rectangular target was constructed. The target was approximately the size of the strike area of a batter.

The testing equipment was arranged in such a

position as to facilitate the recording of the data.

CHAPTER III SUBJECTS AND THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE TEST To conserve time, to secure a minimum degree of accuracy, and to standardize techniques so as to guarantee objectivity, it is important that the methods used in administering the testing program be carefully thought out.°5 Bovard and Cozens, also, cautioned that to measure technique In sports definite directions for scoring and administering the test had to be worked out.00 I.

THE SUBJECTS USED IN THE STUDY

The age of the subjects.

The subjects used in this

study were all members of the varsity baseball teams at Van Nuys High School and Notre Dame High School in Van Nuys, California.

Twenty-one of the boys were from Van Nuys High

School with an age range from fourteen through eighteen years.

The ten subjects from Notre Dame High School ranged

in age from fifteen through seventeen years. The baseball experience of the subjects.

The previous

baseball experience of the thirty-one boys ranged from no

^ C h a r l e s Harold McCloy. Tests and Measurement in Health and Physical Education (New York; F. S. Crofts and Company, 194^), p . 10. 66

John F. Bovard and Frederick W. Cozens-, Tests and Measurements in Physical Education (Philadelphia; W. B. Saunders Company, 1938, pp. 205-206.

31 experience to three years1 experience.

As a group, three

subjects had no previous experience, nine had one year, eighteen had two years, and one had three years’ baseball experience» II.

MOVING- AND HANDLING THE SUBJECTS

Duties of the clerk.

There being no standardized

rules for handling a testing situation, since the problems involved in moving and handling the subjects differ with the situation, it was necessary to establish a procedure that had a high degree of efficiency.^

In order to

achieve maximum accuracy in recording the data, the following duties were outlined for the clerk. 1. Secure the name, age, grade, experience and school of the subject and record it on the record blank. 2 . Assign each subject a number. 3. Place the number on the blackboard along with an MA W or WB H to designate the type of throw. 4. Turn the blackboard over after each series of throws • 5. Record each pitch in the appropriate space.

McCloy, op* cit.. p* 16.

32 Mark an f,X H for a hit and an "G" for a miss* 6 . A ball that hits the target and bounces out is to be recorded as a hit. 7. After ten throws have been completed count the number of balls at the rear of the target*

These

should correspond with the number of hits marked on the score sheet. The duties of the photographer were set down as follows• 1. The fifth, sixth, and seventh pitch of each series is to be photographed• 2 . The camera is to be wound after each series of three pitches• Testing procedure. .. For the purposes of the test the subjects were sent to the testing area in groups of two, directly from the regular practice session on the adjacent baseball diamond.

The purpose and procedure was explained

to the subjects at the testing area.

In order to standardize

the technique, the instructions were prepared in written form based on the seven points recommended by McCloy for the preparation and standardization of directions. points were*

The seven

(1 ) instructions were to be brief, (2 ) demon­

stration to be used when possible,

(3 ) instructions were to

be given in the order In which the event was to be performed, (4) the subjects were to be informed of the purpose of the

33 test at the very beginning, (5 ) Instructions for the examiner, (6 ) no preliminary trials, and (7 ) the subjects were to be instructed in the form that was to be used*

68

Upon arrival at the testing area, the clerk obtained the subject’s name, age, grade in school, the name of the school which the subject attended and the high school base­ ball experience of the subject*

The subject was assigned

a number which was placed on the subject’s data sheet and on the identification blackboard by the clerk.

The follow­

ing instructions were read to the subjects. 1. The purpose of this test is to determine the relationship of the preliminary stance of the pitcher to the speed and accuracy of a pitched baseball.

In this test two preliminary positions

are considered:

one in which the pitcher faces

the batter and uses a wind-up; and the other in which the pitcher assumes a sideward position, such as would be used with a runner on first base. The target tests the accuracy of the throws and the camera records the speed. 2. This demonstration of the positions may be of assistance in clearing up any phase that Is not

Ibid.. pp. 17-18

clearly understood# When you are warmed up sufficiently by your own judgment, the test will begin.

No preliminary

throws are allowed at the target. The second subject will retrieve balls which miss the target while the first subject is throwing* Then they will exchange positions while the second subject throws at the target. First, go to the box containing the balls and select one.

Next, step to the pitching plate,

take the wind-up position and throw at the target. Take a second ball from the box and repeat the same procedure.

Qontinue In this fashion until

ten throws have been completed from the wind-up position.

There are only ten baseballs in the

box so you will know when all ten throws have been ■

k

completed. After one throw has been made, the next throw may be started as soon as desired.

Do not hurry.

Put forth a maximum effort on each throw. After ten throws with a wind-up have been made, the balls in the target box will be counted by the clerk to verify his record.

The clerk and the

retriever will return all ten balls to the box.

35 8 * Then proceed in the same manner using a sideward stance, or the position used when men are on base* 9* Are all instructions clearly understood? 10* After completing the twenty throws the players change positions, or if both have thrown, return to the regular practice session* McCloy pointed out that in some test events it was necessary first to instruct the group until the form was mastered and administer the test only after all have had 6q adequate practice in the form* Because all subjects were members of the varsity team, it was not deemed necessary to provide any additional instruction in regard to the proper fora other than that demonstrated during the reading of the instructions* The time of administering the test* given on three different occasions*

The test was

The time consumed in

administering the test was approximately one and one-half hours for each of the three occasions*

Ten subjects were

tested on the first two occasions while eleven participated during the third testing period* Summary of the chapter*

Thirty-one subjects from

Van Nuys and Notre Dame High Schools were used in the study.

- L o g * cit*

The subjects were tested in groups of two and the data recorded by the clerk*

CHAPTER

m

RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA The solutions to problems do not lie in data but result from the increased insight which grows out of the 70 study of data* I*

STATISTICAL RESULTS OF THE TEST

The effect upon the relative speed produced by chang­ ing from the forward position to the sideward position*

Of

the twenty-nine records used, fourteen subjects had an increase in speed by using the sideward position, seven sub­ jects had a decrease in speed. change in speed* the group.

Eight subjects recorded no

Table I, page 38 presented the results for

Table II, page 39 showed the individual results.

The mean speed for the forward position was 131.06 feet per second as compared to 128.05 feet per second from the side­ ward position.

A mean decrease of 3*01 feet per second

resulted from changing from the forward to the sideward position. The effect upon the accuracy produced by changing from the forward position to the sideward position.

70

Of the twenty-

Carter V. G-ood, A. S. Barr and Douglas E. Scates, The Methodology of Educational Research (New Yorks D • Appleton-Century Company, Incorporated, 1936), p. 291.

38

TABLE I GROUP SPEED RESULTS

N

Position

Range

M Speed

29

Forward

86.40-163*76

131*06

29

Sideward

86.40-163*76

128.05

Differences S.D# of the two ________ means 23*20 17*30

3*21

39 TABLE II INDIVIDUAL SPEED RECORDS

Subject 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

Forward Position Speed in Feet Per Second

Sideward Position Speed in Feet Per Second

Gain Loss Same X

135.04 135.04 135.04 145.92 125.44 125.44 113.92 121.60 163.76 151.68 140.16 121.60 151.68 140.16 151.68 121.60 158.72 106.88 86.40 9 8 .56 117.12 106.88 103.68 110.08 86.40 93.44

151.68 135.04 145.92 145.92 121.60 129.92 135.04 140.16 140.16 135.04 145.92 129.92 135*04 140.16 158.72 151.68 163.76 125.44 98.56 98.56 117.12 98.56 110.08 98.56 86 *40 101.12

X

106.88 135.04

106.88 129.92

X

117.12

117.12

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 14

7

8

40 nine subjects tested, twelve showed an Increase in accuracy by the using of the sideward position as compared to the forward position. accuracy.

Twelve subjects showed a decrease in

Five registered the same score in both positions.

Table III, page 41 showed the mean accuracy for the group. Table IV, page 42 Indicated the individual results*

The

mean accuracy was-3*88 for the forward position and 3.88 for the sideward position. The effect upon the speed and accuracy produced by changing from the forward pos it ton to the sideward position. The following were the results of the subjects in regard to both speed and accuracy when changing from the forward ta the sideward position. 1. Seven increased in speed and accuracy. 2. Four decreased in speed and accuracy. 3. Four increased in speed and decreased in accuracy. 4. Three decreased in speed and decreased in accuracy. 5* Four were the same In speed and decreased in accuracy. 6. None decreased in speed and their accuracy remained the same. 7. Two were the same in speed and in accuracy. 8. Two were the same in speed and increased in accuracy. 9. Three increased in speed and remained the same in accuracy.

41

TABLE III GROUP ACCURACY RESULTS

Range

Differences M Accuracy S.D. of the two _______________ means____

N

Position

29

Forward

1-6

3.88

29

Sideward

1-6

3*88

4.17 4.89

None

42 TABLE IV INDIVIDUAL ACCURACY RECORDS

Subject 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 H 12

Forward Position Ac,curacy i3

♦

Sideward Position Accuracy Gain Loss Same

4 4 4 4 4 4 3 1 4 3

5 5 2 6 I 6 6 2 2 4 5 5

13

1

2

X

14 15 16

4 1 5

3 5 2

X

17

5

5

18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

4 1 3 5ir 4 1 3 5 2

3 4 2 1 3 i 4 5 2

6 3

2 2

5

2 98

x X X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X * x x „ X X v X X

3

„ x

98

12

12

5

43 Efficiency Summary.

Of the thirty-one subjects who

participated in the test, records of twenty-nine subjects were used to determine the results.

Two records were not

included because one or more of the subject's pitches failed to pass within the range of the camera. The results of the test showed that fourteen of the subjects remained the same or had an increase in efficiency when throwing from the sideward position as compared to the forward position.

Fifteen of the subjects showed a decrease

in efficiency by changing from the forward to the sideward position. II.

INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA

Interpreting the test results.

The data that resulted

from the study did not indicate any definite trends.

The

fourteen subjects who showed no decrease in efficiency indicated that the changing of positions was of little importance.

However, fifteen subjects lost efficiency which

gave equal weight to the problem in the opposite direction. The fact that as a group there was a decrease of 3*01 feet per second was of little significance for the study was based on individual performance rather than group results. Likewise, the accuracy results for the group were inconclusive. Summary of the chapter.

Data was obtained from the

44 records of twenty-nine subjects.

Fourteen had an increase

in speed and seven had a decrease in speed.

The mean speed

for the group was 131.06 for the forward position and 128.05 for the sideward position.

Twelve subjects showed an increase

in accuracy and twelve showed a decrease.

The results showed

that fourteen of the subjects remained the same or had an increase in efficiency. efficiency.

Fifteen showed a decrease in

CHAPTER W SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS I.

SUMMARY

The value of a pitcher was estimated to be fifty to seventy-five per cent of the defensive strength of a team. The pitcher, therefore, was of prime importance to a base­ ball team.

Basically, the pitcher employed two preliminary

positions or stances from which the ball was delivered.

The

stance of the pitcher depended on the number of runners onbase.

If third base, second and third base, or all bases

were occupied or the bases were unoccupied, the pitcher took a position facing the plate.

In all other situations the

pitcher stood sideward to the plate, the body facing toward third base* The speed and accuracy of the pitch were paramount factors for the success of a pitcher and little scientific work has been done In the area.

The only techniques for

measuring in baseball have been subjective judgments formed by an observer.

The results have been good, but a scientific

approach might bring better results. The purpose of the study was to determine:

(1) the

effect that the changing of the preliminary position from the forward to the sideward position had on the accuracy of

46 a pitched ball and (2) the effectthat the changing of the prel iminary pos itlon from the forward to the sideward position had on the speed of a pitched ball*

The importance

of the problem was the fact that coaches believed pitchers to be less effective when using a sideward stance than when a forward stance was employed* Twenty-nine subjects were tested.

Slow mot ion photo­

graphy was used to record the speed and a target to register the accuracy.

Each subject threw ten pitches from the for­

ward position and ten pitches from the sideward position. The results showed that fourteen subjects had an increase in speed while seven had a decrease.

Twelve subjects

recorded an increase in accuracy and twelve had a decrease• Fourteen of the subjects remained the same or had an Increase in efficiency and fifteen showed a decrease in efficiency. The results of the study were Inconclusive. II.

COM0HJS IONS

It was desirable to make the conclusions of the study on the basis of the purposes set forth for the study.

The

first purpose was to determine the effect that the changing of the preliminary position had on the accuracy of a pitched ball.

On the basis of the data the results appeared incon­

clusive. The second purpose of the study was to determine the

effect that the changing of the preliminary pos ition had on the speed ,of a pitched ball*

The results tended to indicate

that there was an Increase in speed* however* the evidence was not strong enough to warrant a conclusive decision. The value of the study was the fact that the data could have indicated an area for further study.

The data

cast doubt on the original hypotheses that pitchers were less effective from a sideward position.

The data tended to

indicate more Investigation was necessary before a conclusive statement could be brought forth.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY A.

BOOKS

Allen, Ethan, Major League Baseball* New York: The Macmillan Company, 1947* 353 P P • Andersen, Leonora, An Athletic Program,for Elementary Schools# New York? A. S. Barnes and Company, 1929. 134 pp. Boucher, Paul E . , Fundamentals off Photography* New York:: D . Van Nostrand Company , Incorporated, 1947• 395 PP * Bovard, John F. and Frederick W. Cozens, Tests and Measurements In Physical Education* Philadelphia:: W ♦ B. Saunders Company, 193&• 427 p p * Bovard, John F* and Frederick W, Cozens and E. Patricia Hagman, Tests and Measurements in Physical Education* Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1949• 410 p p • Brace, David Kingsley, Measuring Motor Ability* A* S. Barnes and Company, 1927• 138 pp.

New York:

Clarke, H. Harrison, The Application of Measurement to Health and Physical Education* New Y ork: PrenticeHall, Incorporated, 1945* 5l5 PP* Coombs, John W * , Baseball Individual Play and Team Strategy* New York: Prentice-Ha 11, Incorporated, 1947* 34c pp. Cozens, Frederick W., Martin H. Trieb and N* P* Nielson, Physical Edu cat ion Achievement Scale s * New York:: A. S. Barnes and Company, Incorporated, 1936. 155 PP* Cummings, Parke, A. S. Barnes

The Dictionary of Baseball. New York:; and Company, 1958. 122 pp. A Di Magglo, Joe, Baseball for Everyone* New York: Whittlesey House McGraw-Hill Book Company, Incorporated, 1948. 224 pp. Douglas, Byrd, The Science of Baseball* Wilson and Company, 1922. 144 ppT

New York:

Thos. E.

Glassow, Ruth B. and Marion R. Broer, Measuring Achievement in Physical Education* Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1938. 344 pp *

49 Good, Carter V*, A. S* Barr and Douglas E. Scates, The Methodology of Educational Research* New York:: D. Appleton-Century Company, Incorporated, 1936. 888 pp. Hi lias, Marjorie and Marlon Knighton, An Athletic Program for High School and College Women# New York: A, S. Barnes and Company, 1929• 90 pp* Jessee, Daniel S., Baseball* Company, 1939* 78 pp.

New York:

McCall, William A., Measurement * Company, 1939* 535 PP*

A. S. Barnes and

New York:

The Macmillan

McCloy, Charles Harold, Tests and Measurement in Health and Physical Education* New York: F. S. Crofts and Company, 1946. 412 p p . O ’Connor, Leslie, M . , editor, Off icial Baseball including the Official Rules♦ New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1949* 113 PP* Palmer, Gladys E*, Baseball for Girls and Women# A. S. Barnes and Company, 1929. l4o p p •

New York:

Research Section and the Research Council of the Research Section of the American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation* Research Methods Applied to Health* Physical Education* and Recreation* Washington D. C * : American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 1950* 535 PP* Ross, 0* C>, Measurement in Today*s Schools* New York:: Prentice-Hall, Incorporated, 1947* 551 pp. Schoor, Gene, editor. Giant Book of Sports* Garden City New York: Garden City Publishing Company, Incorporated, 1948* 187 pp. Wardlaw, Charles D * , Fundamentals of Baseball* Charles Scribnerfs Sons, 1929• 94 pp. B.

New York:

PERIODICAL ARTICLES

HBa seball,s Curve Balls,11 Life, 11:83-89, September 15, 1941.

50 Fulton, Ruth E., "Speed and Accuracy in Learning Movements." Research Quarterly. 13*30-37* March, 1942. Hartely, Grace, "Motivating the Physical Education Program for High School Girls," Amer1can Phvsleal Education Review, 34:284-291, May, 1929. Hyames, Judson A., "Pitching and the Development of the Young Pitcher," Athletic Journal, 16:1*3-16, June, 1936. Rodgers, Elizabeth G. and Marjorie L. Heath, "An Experiment in the Use of Knowledge and Skill Tests in Playground Baseball," Research Quarterly. 2(4):113*131, December, 1931. Sutton, Richard M . , "Baseballs Do Curve and Drop," American Journal of Physics. 10:201-202, August, 1942. Verwiebe, Frank L., "Does a Baseball Curve?" American Journal of Physics, 10:119-120, April, 1942. Wild, Monica R . , "The Behavior Pattern of Throwing and Some Observations Concerning Its Course of Development in Children." Research Quarterly. 9:20-24, October, 1938. Winograd, Samuel, "The Relationship of Timing and Vision to Baseball Performance," Research Quarterly, 13:481-494, December, 1942. C.

UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS

Barry, J. M. "Sam," "Fundamentals of Baseball Coaching." Unpublished outline Department of Physical Education, University of Southern California. 43 pp. Carlson, Roy Luverne, "A Study of the Baseball Throw as a Predictive Index of Athletic Ability." Unpublished Master's Thesis, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1941. 82 pp. DuBarry, Montague, "A Course of Study in Conducting a High School Baseball Team." Unpublished Master's Project, The University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1949. 77 pp. Orndorff, Jess, "How to Play Baseball and Inside Baseball," Unpublished guide for the Orndorff Baseball School, 1935. 46 pp. university

of

Southern

California u*r.r>