The Recessed Platforms of Argyll, Bute and Inverness 9780860548492, 9781407318813

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Contents
LIST OF PLATES
The Recessed Platforms of the West of Scotland — (A Summary)
SECTION 1: SURVEY PROCEDURE, DESCRIPTIONS, AND LISTS
SURVEY PROCEDURE
GROUPS OF PLATFORMS IN COWAL AND BUTE (Area a.)
DUNLOSKIN, ARDNADAM: Group 1
ARDENTRAIVE, COLINTRAIVE Kyles of Bute: Group 2
ARDTARAIG, LOCH STRIVEN: Group 3
BARMORE WOOD, BUTE: Group 4
BARNACARRY, STRATHLACHLAN: Group 5
CREGGANS, LETITR A’CHUILINN, STRACHUR: Group 6
CRAIGNAFEOCH, MILLHOUSE, KILFINNAN: Group 7
FEORLINE, LOCH RIDDEN: Group 8
GLENBRANTER: Group 10
GLENDARUEL: Group 11
KILMUN HILL: Group 12
LEPHINCHAPEL N, S and GORTIAN: Groups 13 and 14
LOCHHEAD, LOCH RIDDON: Group 15
ARDCHUPLE: Group 16
GROUPS OF PLATFORMS IN ARGYLL (outwith Cowal) (Area b.)
DIPPEN, CARRADALE: Group 28
CARRADALE, NORTH SHORE: Group 29
CLAONAIG, Allt a’Bhuic, KINTYRE: Group 30
ALTAGALVASH, SKIPNESS: Group 31
ALLT BEITHE, SKIPNESS: Group 32
GOLF COURSE, TARBERT: Group 33
DUNMORE, W LOCH TARBERT: Group 34
ERINES HOUSE, Talbert: Group 35
ARTILIGAN, S of Inverneil: Group 36
COVE, Loch Caolisport: Group Number 37
BALLYAURGAN, Loch Caolisport: Group 38
BRENFIELD, Ardrishaig: Group 39
TAYNISH, TAYVALLICHARCOAL, LOCH SWEEN: Group 40
DIUNLIATH, Loch Fyne: Group 41
SONACHAN, LOCH AWE: Group 43
ARDENSTUR, KILMELFORD: Group 44
KNIPOCH, LOCH FEOCHAN: Group 45
DALAVICH, LOCH AWE: Group 88
CLAIS DHEARG, CONNEL: Group 46
EAS NAM MEIRLEACH,TAYNUILT: Group 47
AUCHENLOCHAN, TAYNUILT: Group 48
MUCKAIRN, TAYNUILT: Group 49
BRIDGE of AWE, TAYNUILT: Group 50
INVERAWE, NE side of River AWE: Group 51
ARD MADDY, E side of Loch Etive: Group 52
AIRD TRILLEACHAN, W side of Loch Etive: Group 53
GUALACHULAIN, Loch Etive Head: Group 54
BLARCREEN, BONAWE: Group 55
COIRE CIRCE, S side of Loch Creran: Group 56
ALLT BEALLACH na h—INNSIG, Glen Ure: Group 57
BARNAMUC, Glen Creran: Group 58
GROUPS OF PLATFOR MS IN NORTH ARGYLL AND INVERNESS (Area c.)
KINLOCHLEVEN, LOCH LEVEN: Group 60
GRASSPOINT, MULL: Group 62
LOCH BA, MULL: Group 63
GLEN NEVIS Centred on N 160 690
RESIPOLE, LOCH SUNART (N side): Group 65
CAMUS BHLATHAIN and ALLT COIRE and TSUIDHE LOCH SHELL: Group 66
GARBH ALLT, LOCH SHEIL: Group 67
ARDERY, ARDNAMURCHAN: Group 68
GLEANN AN DUBHH CHOIREIN: Group 73
RUBHA NAN SGRIOB, SCAMADALE, LOCHSHELL: Group 74
GUESACHAN, NORTH LOCH SHELL: Group75
ROSHVEN PLANTATION, LOCH AILORT: Group 76
SALEN OAK WOOD, LOCH SUNART: Group 77
ALLT FEADAN MHIC BHEATHAIN, LOCH SHEIL: Group 78
Groups 79, 80, 81, 82, 84
GLEANN SUILEAG, FASSFERN LOCH EIL: Group 85
CLUNES, LOCH LOCHY: Group 86
ARIENAS WOODS, MORVEN: Group 87
DOIRE DON WOOD, LOCH LINNHE: Group 89
WOODEND, LOCH SUNART: Group 90
BARR, MORVEN: Group 91
LOCH AILORT: Group 92
APPENDIX
SECTION 2: THE EXCAVATION OF TEN RECESSED PLATFORMS
Introduction
Index of Figures
DUNLOSKIN/ARDNADAM: PLATFORM 9
DUNLOSKIN / ARDNADAM: Platform 24
DUNLOSIGN / ARDNADAM: Platform 28
GUALACHULAIN, LOCH ETIVE HEAD: Platform 9
BARMORE WOOD, BUTE: Platform 2
ARDENTRAIVE, COLINTRAIVE: Platform 28
DIPPEN, CARRADALE: Platform 12
LEN-LIN-CHAPEL (S), LOCH FYNE: Platform 45
TAYNISH, TAYVALLICH, LOCH SWEEN: Platform 4
TAYNISH, TAYVALLICH, LOCH SWEEN: Platform 16
DISCUSSION OF THE RELATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TEN PLATFORMS EXCAVATED AND SOME CONCLUSIONS WHICH CAN BE DEDUCED
EXCAVATIONS OF OTHER PLATFORMS
SECTION 3: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Introduction
Description of Platforms
Reasons for challenging the accepted interpretation
(1) The Practices and Traditions of the Professional Charcoal Burners
(2) The methods used in Scotland in 18th and 19th centuries
(3) The negative evidence given by J M Lindsay
(4) The evidence recorded from survey and field work
(5) The evidence obtained from excavation
Excavations of other Platforms
Dating
CONCLUSIONS DEDUCED FROM THE RESEARCH
Settlements of Pasturalists
Dating of the hillside settlements
The concentration and position of Platform Groups
Association with Early Christian sites
The change from round to rectangular construction
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
PLATES

Citation preview

The Recessed Platforms of Argyll, Bute and Inverness

Elizabeth B. Rennie MBE

BAR British Series 253 1997

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR British Series 253 The Recessed Platforms of Argyll, Bute and Inverness © Elizabeth B. Rennie and the Publisher 1997 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860548492 paperback ISBN 9781407318813 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860548492 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Tempvs Reparatvm in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1997. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

BAR

PUBLISHING BAR titles are available from:

E MAIL P HONE F AX

BAR Publishing 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK [email protected] +44 (0)1865 310431 +44 (0)1865 316916 www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS List of Plates The Recessed Platforms of the West of Scotland (A Summary) Section 1: Survey procedure, description and lists Index Index of figures Survey procedure Groups of Platforms in Cowal and Bute (Area a) Dunloskin-Ardnadam Platforms Ardentraive, Colintraive Platforms Ardtaraig , Loch Striven Platforms Bannore Wood, Bute Platforms Barnacarry, Strathlachlan Platforms Creggans, Strachur Platforms Craignafeoch, Kilfinan Platforms Feorline Platforms Shellfield, (Loch Riddon) Platforms Glenbranter Platforms Glendarue Platforms Achanelid Ardachearanmor Kilbride KilmunHill Platforms Lephinchapel North, South and Gortian Platforms (Lephinchapel N) Platforms (Lephinchapel S) Platforms (Gortian Group 14) Lochhead Platfonns Ardchuple Singles and groups of two Bullwood, Dunoon Auchoirk, Millhouse Auchenlochan,Tighnabruaich Osda Bay, Ardlamont Stuckreoch,Strachur Ardchyline, St. Catherine's Drishaig. Head of Loch Pyne Mid Innens,Tighnabruaich Balnakailly, Bute Mid Inens, Tighnabruaich Groups of singles, known but not surveyed Loch Eck Ardentinny Groups of Platforms in Argyll (outwith Cowal) (Area b.) Dippen Platfonns

V

vii

1 5 7 8 11 11 15 15 18 18

21 21 23 23

27 27 29 29 29 29 32 32

34 34 34 34 35 37 37 37 39

44 45

48 48 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 50 50 50 51

53 53

Carradale, N shore Claonag, Kintyre Altgalvash, Skipness Allt Beithe, Skipness Golf Course, Tarbert Dunmore, W Loch Tarbert Erines House, Tarbert Artiligan S Platforms NPlatforms Cove, Loch Caolisport Platforms Ballyaurgan, Loch Caolisport Brenfield, Ardrishaig Taynish, Tayvallich, Loch Sween Platforms on W slope of Barr :Mb.or Upper central Group West side of peninsula Sron Bheith Lower central Group On side of Loch Sween Drinliath, Loch Pyne Goatfield, Furnace Sonachan, Loch A we Ardenstur, Kilmelford Knipoch, Loch Feochan Dalavich, Loch A we Clais Dhearg, Connel Eas Nam Meirlach, Taynuilt Auchenlochan, Taynuilt Muckairn, Glen Nant, Taynuilt Extent of the woodland Platforms Roadways shown on the 1870 map Other features Platforms Platforms (N of Tailor's Leap) Platforms (S of Tailor's Leap) Platforms (W of forestry fence) Platforms (On S-W bank) Platforms (On banks of Eas na Dunaiche) Circular depressions Various unidentified features Bridge of Awe, Taynuilt Inverawe Ardmaddy Aird Trilleachan Gualachulain Platforms Blarcreen, Bonawe Coire Circe, Creran Allt Beallach na h-Innsig, Glen Ure Platforms Bamamuc, Glen Creran Ben Churalain, Loch Crenan Platforms On E side of burn Circular and rectangular depressions, mounds, enclusuresand houses Groups of Platforms in North Argyll and Inverness (Area c.) Kinlochleven Grass Point, Mull ii

55 55 55

55 56 56 56 56 56 57 57 57 59 59 61

63 63 63 63 63 63 66 66 67 67 67 67 67 68 68 71 71

71 71

72 72 74 77

79 81 81 81

82 83 83 83 83 85 85

89 89 89 90 91 91 92

94 94 97 98 98

Loch Ba, Mull Glen Nevis Platfonns (S side) Platfonns (N side) Camus Salach, Loch Sunart Resipole, Loch Sunart Allt Camus Bhlathain, and Allt Coire an T'Suidhe, Loch Sheil Garbh Allt, Loch Sheil Ardery, Loch Sunart Platfonns Circular depressions Various unidentified structures Polloch Glen, Loch Sheil Loch Doilet, Loch Sheil Coire Chaillich,Glen Hurich Ariundle, Loch Sunart Gleann an Dubh Choirein Rubha nan Sgriob, Scamadale and Glas Choirean Guesachan, N. Loch Sheil Roshven, Loch Ailort, Moidart Salen Oakwood, Loch Sunart Allt Feadan Mhic Bheathain Loch Sheil Glen Borrowdale, Loch Sunart Camus Torsa, Loch Sunart lnversanda, Glen Tarbert Garvan, Loch Eil Gleann Suileag, Fassfem, Loch Eil Clunes, Loch Lochy Arienas Woods, Morven Doire Don Wood, Loch Linnhe Woodend, Barr, Loch Ailort Barr, Morven Loch Ailort Appendix Ardtallen, Loch Feochan Glen Shira, Inveraray Balantyre Wood, Glen Aray Stronafian, Loch Riddon Stron a'Chreagain, Loch Linnhe Platfonns Gleann Sron a'Chreagain, Loch Linnhe Northem Platforms SouthernPlatforms Shellfield, Loch Ridden Cona Glen, Ardgour Gartnagrenoch, Loch Linnhe, by Bellanocharcoal Gleann dubh, Barcaldine Annat, North Loch Sheil Inner Loch Feochan Bunalteachan BenA'Vian Carnasinas Gorstanvorran (Loch Sheil) Section 2: The Excavation of ten recessed Platforms Introduction Index of Figures Dunloskin/Ardnadam Platform 9 Period 1 Period 2 Period 3 iii

98 101 101 102 103 104 104 104 104 106 107 107 108 108 108 108 109 109 109 109 109 111 111 111 111 111 111 113 113 115 115 115 115 116 116 116 116 119

121 119

121 121 121 121 121 122 122 122 122 122 122 123 123 125 125 125 127 127 127 127 129

Discussion and Conclusions Copy of Report from Chemistry Department of Glasgow University Dwtloskin/Ardnadam Platfonn 24 Period 1 Period 2 Discussion and Conclusions Dwtloskin/Ardnadam Platform 28 Conclusions Gualachulain Platform 9 Discussion and Conclusions Barmore Wood Platform 2 Discussion and Conclusions Ardentraive Platform 28 Conclusions Dippen Platform 12 Conclusions Lephinchapel(S) Platform 45 Period 1 Period 2 Discussion and Conclusions Taynish Platform 4 Period 1 Period 2 Discussion and Conclusions Taynish Platform 16 Discussion and Conclusions Discussion of the relative charachteristics of the ten Platforms excavated and some conclusions which can be deduced Platforms used as charcoal hearths Dating Excavations of other Platforms Section 3: Discussion and Conclusions Introduction Description of Platforms Reasons for challenging the accepted interpretation The practices and traditions of the professional charcoal burners The methods used in Scotland in 18th and 19th centuries The negative evidence given by J M Lindsay The evidence recorded from survey and fieldwork The evidence obtained from excavation Excavations of other Platforms Dating Conclusions deduced from the research Settlements of pasturalists Dating of the hillside settlements The concentration and position of Platform Groups Association with Early Christian sites The change from round to rectangular construction Bibliography Acknowledgments Plates

iv

129 129 131 131 131 133 133 135 135 135 137 137 138 139 139 142 142 142 147 147 147 149 150 150 152 154 154 158 158 158 158 158 160 160 163 164 167 167 168 170 170 170 170 171 172 173 175 176 177 177 177 177 179 179 180 180 181 181 185

LIST OF PLATES

Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate Plate

1. Group 1 Dunloskin/ Ardnadam - Platfonn 3 2. Group 40 Taynish-Platfonn 4 (Photo: Rennie) 3. Group 40 Taynish-Platfonn 23 (Photo: Rennie) 4. Group 49 Muckaim - Platform 88 (Photo: Rennie) 5. Group 57 Allt Beallach na h-Innsig- Platfonn 6 (Photo: Rennie) 6. Group 58 Barnamuc - Glen Creran (Photo: J. Baillie) 7. Group 61 Glen Nevis - Platfonn 6 (Photo: R. Callander) 8. Group 68 Ardery - Platform 40 (Photo: Rennie) 9. Group 97 Sron a'Chreagain-Platfonn 5 (Photo: R. and S. Mainland) 10. Group 54 Gualachulain - Platfonn 9 11. Group 54 Gualachulain - Platfonn 9 12. Group 28 Dippen - Platform 12 13. Group 28 Dippen - Platform 12 14. Group 14 Lephinchapel (South) - Platfonn 45 15. Group 14 Lephinchapel (South) - Platfonn 45 16. Group 14. Lephinchapel (South) - Platform 45 17. Group 14 Lephinchapel (South) - Platform 45 18. Group 40 Taynish-Platfonn 4 19. Group 40 Taynish-Platform 4 20. Group 40 Taynish-Platform 16 21. Group 40 Taynish- Platfonn 16

V

The Recessed Platformsof the West of Scotland- (A Summary) Throughout the W of Scotland - in Argyll , the Island of Puttee , and Inverness shire - Groups of recessed Platforms have been recognised and recorded. 105 Groups are known to exist but of these only about 66 have been even partially surveyed. Figure 1 shows the distribution of the known Groups and the area of land which has been systematically searched. Outwith this explored area , mostly in Cowal and Bute, the Groups of Platforms have been found by chance . Thus it is very probable that more Groups remain to be found and recorded.

As new Groups were discovered, they were classified with the known Groups and also dismissed as being Charcoal Burners' Platforms. Research has now been conducted along various lines of enquiry and proves that this explanation is inconsistent with the facts . Research now indicates that the Platforms are the foundations for round, timber-framed structures and that some of these foundations were later re- used for various purposes , including Charcoal Burners' hearths. This book comprises three sections, intially written as separate articles .

The Platforms resemble round golf tees , forming a near circular or slightly oval flat area cut into a hillslope. They are formed by the 'cut and fill ' method, i.e. the back is dug out of the hill and the earth thrown forward to build up the front forming a level area. The height of the back and front banks so formed depends upon the gradient of the hill.

SECTION 1 (Page 1) consists of descriptions and associated lists of the Recessed Platforms in 105 Groups in the W of Scotland. These Groups are divided into three areas: a. Cowal and Bute; b. Argyll outwith Cowal , i.e. Kintyre , Knapdale , Mid-Argyll , Lome , Benderloch and Appin ; c. North Argyll and Inverness, i.e. Ardnamurchan , Morven and Lochaber.

The diameter of the flat area varies from 5 to 14m with an average between 7m and 1Om. They are found on gentle slopes where the banks are almost negligible , and on almost vertical slopes where the back and front banks are as high as 2.5m. They are found in deciduous woods , on improved pasture land, on heather moors , in wet swampy areas and amongst scree , collapsed , weather dislodged rocks. The Platforms in particular Groups can be found as low as sea level and as high as 300m. The front scarps appear sometimes to be earthen banks , sometimes to be banks of earth strengthened with boulders , and sometimes of drystone vertical construction.

Some of the descriptions are very short and some nonexistent as some sites are known only by report .

SECTION 2 (Page 124) describes the excavation or partial excavation of ten Recessed Platforms. The descriptions are the only published report of these excavations completes this section.

Until about 1970 only approximately four Groups were known. These were considered to have been built and used for the sole purpose of making charcoal upon them for use in the Lorn and Argy II Iron furnaces of the mid 19th century .

SECTION 3 (Page 170) is concerned with the discussion and conclusions drawn from Sections 1 and 2 i.e. the answers which can be deduced about the date of the construction and the uses of the Recessed Platforms.

vii

SECTION 1: SURVEY PROCEDURE, DESCRIPTIONS AND LISTS Index

1. 2.

Survey Procedure a. Cowal and Bute b.Argyll (outwith Cowal) c. Inverness-shire -

This report was completed in 1993 with a total of 92 sites. Since then - June 1995 - more Groups have been recognised and have been found in all three of the geographic areas, i.e. a, b, and c. An Appendix (Groups 93-105) has therefore been prepared in which they are described. The appendix is added after page 115.

15 full surveys 12 general surveys 5 full surveys 28 general surveys 6 full surveys 26 general surveys

All sites known in June 1995 are shown and numbered on the original distribution maps whether their reports appear in the main volume or in the Appendix.

Index of Figures Figure Page 1

3

2 3 4 5

4

6 10

11 12 13 15 16 14 17 18

14 17 20 22 26 28 31 33 36 40 43 38 47 52

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

54 58 60 62 65 69 70 73 75 80 84 86 88

32 33

93 96

34 35 36 37 38 39

99 100 105 110 112 115

6 7 8 9

10

Reports of new sites as they are discovered will appear annually in Discoveryand Excavationain Scotland.

Subject Distribution , Argyll , Bute and Inverness-shire Area a - Distribution , Cowal and Bute Group 1 - Ardnadam/Dunloskin Group 2 - Ardentraive Group 3 - Ardtaraig Group 4 - Barmore wood Group 5 - Bamacarry Group 6- Creggans, Strachur Group 7 - Craignafeoch Groups 8/9 - Feorline and Shellfield. Group 10 - Glenbranter Group 11 - Glendaruel Group 12 - Kilmun Hill Group 13 - Lephinchapel(North) Group 14 - Lephinchapel(South) Lephinchapel, North , South and Gortian Groups 15/16- Lochhead and Ardachuple Distribution , Kintyre , Knapdale , Lorn, Benderloch, and Appin Group 28 - Dippen , Kintyre Group 37 - Cove, Loch Caolisport Group 40-Taynish (Complete) Group 40 - Taynish (y./est and South East) Group 40-Taynish (North East) Group 49 -Muckairn,(Complete) Map of Muckaim Woods - 1870 Group 49 - Muckairn , (North) 26 Group 49 - Muckairn,(South and South West) Group 49 - Muckairn , (West) Group 54 - Gualachulain , Loch Etive Gualachalain - plan of some Platforms Group 57 - Allt Bealloch na h-Innsig, Glen Ure Group 59 - Ben Churalain , Loch Creran Area c - Distribution - Mull , Morven , Loch Sunart, Lochaber, and Loch Sheil Group 61- Glen Nevis Glen Nevis - plan of some Platforms Group 68 - Ardery , Loch Sunart Group 85 - Gleann Suileag Group 87 - Loch Arienas, Morven Group 89 - Doire Don, Loch Linnhe

Appendix 40 41 42

Group 94- Glen Shira (Area b) Group 95 - Balantyre Wood (Area b) Group 97 - Gleann Sron a'Chreagain (Area c)

SURVEY PROCEDURE Most of the Platform Groups have been found by chance, except in the Cowal and Bute areas where the localities have been partially searched. Thus , the distribution shown on the plan of the smaller area is likely to be much more complete than that shown on the plan of the whole W Coast. Also, within each Group all of the Platforms may not be recorded. The surveys have been made by traversing each area, marking and describing the Platforms as they were found and then plotting them on to the 1:10000 map relative to fixed points and to each other. It is therefore very probable that Platforms may have been missed and that others may lie beyond the boundaries shown. Afforested ground has not been searched as it is impossible to get through the undergrowth. There is also a difficulty in recognising 'stances', i.e. Platforms set on nearly flat ground where the back and front banks are insignificant. The given size of each Platform is also debatable. The measurements are usually taken twice; firstly , across the level surface at the midpoint of the sides, i.e. where the front banks finish and the back banks begin; secondly, across the surface from the edge of the centre of the front bank to the extreme edge of the level ground at the centre of the base of the back bank. Where only one measurement is recorded it is the side to side figure that is quoted. The front to back figure is less likely to be the original as the banks are frequently damaged by slumping and slip debris from the hill above. But as all of the measurement points are uncertain , because of soil slip , unevenness of the ground, etc., the figures cannot be accepted as precise. However, it is factual that the dimensions across the contour did vary in apparently regular intervals of 3 ft. Thus the 'rounded' measurements of 21 ft

1

The Recessed Platforms of Argyll, Bute & Inverness (6.4 m), 24 ft (7.3 m) and 27 ft (8.2 m) etc., are used for the legend on the plans. Generally the Platforms were 2 ft (0.6 m) more from side to side of the level surf ace than they were from front to back. However, there were many exceptions to this. A few were completely round (allowing for soil slip down the back bank) and some were definitely oval. The sites marked as 'Chapel sites' imply accepted Early Christian sites, and probable 12th century church sites. Most of these known in Cowal and Bute are marked but they have not been shown on the map of the full area. Outwith Cowal and Bute where a 'Chapel site ' and a Platform Group are in proximity the fact is noted in the text.

2

THEDISTRIBUTION OFTHERECESSED PLATFORMS OF

ARGYLL,BUTEANOINVERNESS

Cf 6

b

APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF PLATFORMS INEACHGROUP

0

71+

0

1+1 - 70

0 21-L+0 o 7-20 0

6-

() unknown

searched area

FIG. 1 3

COWAL & BUTE

Area a

100 APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF PLATFORMS INEACHGROUP

0

71+

0

L+1-70

NM

0 21-L.0 o 7-20 0 6O

not counted --chapel sites

90

J

,,'\ I

,,

/-¢-