The problem of aggression in a south sea culture

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Manuscript Theses Unpublished theses submitted f o r the Master's and Doctor's degrees and deposited in the Northwestern University Library ar e open for inspection, but are t o be used only with due regard to the r ig h t s of the authors. Biblio­ gr ap hica l references may be noted, but passages may be copied only with the permission of the a u t h o r s , and proper c r e d i t must be given in subsequent w r i tt e n or published work. Extensive copying or publication of the th e sis in whole or i n p a r t re qu ire s als o the consent of the Dean of the Graduate School of Northwestern University. Theses may be reproduced on microfilm for use in place of the manuscript i t s e l f pr rided the '“•ules l i s t e d above are s t r i c t l y adhered to and the r i g h t s of the author a r v; i n no way Jeopardized. This t h e s i s ^ has been used by thei following persons, whose signatu: signatures a t t e s t t h e i r acceptance of the above r e s t r i c t i o n s . A Library which borrows t h i s t h e s i s for use by i t s patrons i s expected t o secure the signature of each user.

NAME AND ADDRESS

2 < S k f p fffT C ^ l^ o

DATE

NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY

THE PROBLEM OP AGGRESSION IN A SOUTH SEA CULTURE

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OP THE REQUIREMENTS f o r the degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY F i e l d of A n t h r o p o l o g y

by MELFORD E . SPIRO

EVANSTON, ILLINOIS APRIL, 1950

ProQuest Number: 10101993

All rights reserv ed INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality o f this rep ro d u c tio n is d e p e n d e n t u p o n th e quality o f th e c o p y su b m itted . In th e unlikely e v e n t th a t th e a u th o r did n o t se n d a c o m p le te m anuscript a n d th e r e a r e missing p a g e s , th e s e will b e n o te d . Also, if m aterial h a d to b e re m o v e d , a n o te will in d ic a te th e d eletio n .

uest. P roQ uest 10101993 P ublished by P roQ uest LLC (2016). C opyright of th e Dissertation is held by th e Author. All rights reserved. This work is p r o te c te d a g a in s t unauthorized co p y in g u n d e r Title 17, United S tates C o d e Microform Edition © P roQ uest LLC. ProQ uest LLC. 789 East Eisenhow er Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 - 1346

INTRODUCTION The s t u d y of a g g r e s s i o n i n t h i s

paper i s

p a r t of a

l a r g e r p r o g r a m of r e s e a r c h d e v o t e d t o t h e g e n e r a l p r o b le m of the

p e r s o n a l i t y and c u l t u r e

of I f a l u k , a n a t o l l i n M i c r o n e s i a .

F o u r r e l a t e d , b u t d i s t i n c t q u e s t i o n s were b a s i c t o t h e research*

(a)

What i s t h e c u l t u r e of I f a l u k ?

(b)

What a r e

t h e b a s i c c o m p o n e n ts of t h e p e r s o n a l i t i e s of t h e p e o p l e ? (c)

How d i d t h e

istics?

(d)

people d evelop th e s e p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r ­

What r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e t h e r e b e t w e e n t h e s e p e r ­

s o n a l i t i e s and t h e c u l t u r e i n w h i c h t h e y l i v e ? B e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g t h e s p e c i a l r e s e a r c h t e c h n i q u e em­ p l o y e d , i t may be w e l l t o d e s c r i b e t h e more g e n e r a l t y p e of l i f e t h a t Dr. B u r r o w s , my c o - w o r k e r , and I l e d d u r i n g ou r s t a y .

We

l i v e d i n a t e n t t h a t was p i t c h e d , on a d v i c e of t h e c h i e f s , n e x t t o th e f a n a p , the v i l l a g e meeting h o u se. strateg ic

T h i s p roved t o be a

l o c a t i o n f o r a number of r e a s o n s .

t w e e n t h e two main d i s t r i c t s

of t h e i s l a n d

I t i s midway b e ­ Of I f a l u k ; ! i t i s

n e x t t o one of t h e m a i n c a n o e - h o u s e s , i n w h ic h t h e men c o n g r e ­ gate f o r t h e i r

d aily a c t i v i t i e s ;

it

i s on t h e main p a t h t h a t

^ T h e r e a r e two i n h a b i t e d i s l a n d s i n t h e a t o l l . The one we l i v e d on i s c a l l e d I f a l u k , and i s I n h a b i t e d by one h u n d r e d and f i f t y p e o p l e . The o t h e r i s l a n d , F a l a l a p , w h i c h i s s e p ­ a r a t e d f r o m I f a l u k by a f o r t y f o o t c h a n n e l , h a s one h u n d r e d in h ab itan ts•

2

runs th ro u g h the i s la n d .

F o r a l l t h e s e r e a s o n s o u r camp was

i n b o t h t h e g e o g r a p h i c an d s o c i a l c e n t e r o f t h e i s l a n d , so t h a t n o th in g of any im portance could escape u s . The p r o b l e m o f o b t a i n i n g a n i n t e r p r e t e r , w h i c h had been o u r g r e a t e s t c o n c e r n b e f o r e l a n d i n g on I f a l u k , was s o l v e d i n a n u n e x p e c t e d way.

One of t h e n a t i v e s , who had v i s i t e d t h e

i s l a n d o f Yap b e f o r e t h e f i r s t World War, had b e e n i n v i t e d t o become t h e c a b i n boy of a German s h i p .

While a n c h o r e d i n t h e

M a n i l l a h a r b o r , t h e war b r o k e o u t and t h e s h i p was i n t e r n e d . I n t h e c o u r s e of h i s f o u r y e a r s i n M a n i l l a , t h i s l a d l e a r n e d t o speak E n g l i s h .

By t h e t i m e we a r r i v e d on I f a l u k h i s f l u e n c y

was m i n i m a l , b u t i t was a d e q u a t e t o s e r v e o u r p u r p o s e , and a f t e r c o n tin u a l co n ta c t w ith us, i t

i m pro ved c o n s i d e r a b l y .

The c h i e f s

a p p o i n t e d him a s o u r i n t e r p r e t e r , a r o l e w h i c h he a c c e p t e d w i t h g re a t enthusiasm .

At t h e same t i m e , o u r a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h h i m ,

a s w e l l a s c o n t i n o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e p e o p l e , made i t p o s s i b l e t o l e a r n t h e n a t i v e l a n g u a g e , and t o use i t

In ordinary

i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e p e o p l e , t h o u g h t h e i n t e r p r e t e r was u s e d in a l l form al re s e a rc h . S i n c e I f a l u k i s i n h a b i t e d e x c l u s i v e l y by t h e n a t i v e s , a n d t h e n e a r e s t A m e r i c a n b a s e i s i n Yap , f o u r h u n d r e d m i l e s aw ay, we h a d no means of c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d , an d t h i s l a c k of c o n t a c t a f f e c t e d t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e r e s e a r c h . E x c e p t f o r s l e e p i n g , w r i t i n g up n o t e s , and o c c a s i o n a l reading,

I was c o n s t a n t l y w i t h t h e n a t i v e s and l e a r n e d t o know

e a c h of t h e two h u n d r e d and f i f t y

people p e r s o n a l l y .

The I f a l u k a r e t h e most c o n g e n i a l of h o s t s , and t h e r e

3

■was l i t t l e

i n t h e i r l i v e s f r o m m o rn in g t o n i g h t and f r o m b i r t h

t o d e a t h t h a t ■was c l o s e d t o u s . them ; p a r t i c i p a t e d

I a t e w i t h th e m and s l e p t w i t h

i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of c a n o e s , i n t h e r e p a i r

o f h o u s e s , i n t h e c a t c h i n g o f f i s h , and i n t h e w o r s h i p o f t h e i r g o d s ; s h a r e d t h e i r j o y a t t h e b i r t h o f a c h i l d , and t h e i r mourn­ i n g a t t h e d e a t h of a l o v e d o n e ; e x c h a n g e d s t o r i e s w i t h t h e p e o p l e , e n g a g e d i n p h i l o s o p h i c d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h t h e c h i e f s , and swapped d i r t y j o k e s w i t h t h e youn g men*

W ith few e x c e p t i o n s ,

t h e r e f o r e , every p r o p o s itio n about the n a tu re of I f a l u k c u l t u r e i s a n a b s t r a c t i o n drawn f r o m t h e r e g u l a r i t y and u n i f o r m i t y of observed b e h a v io r s , r a t h e r th a n th e v e rb a l r e p o r t s of inform ­ an ts,

The e x c e p t i o n s a r e i n a r e a s of s p e c i a l or e s o t e r i c know­

l e d g e ; o r i n t h o s e a s p e c t s of b e h a v i o r w h i c h were n o t am enable t o d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n b e c a u s e of t h e i r s e a s o n a l c h a r a c t e r , s u c h a s t h e t h r e e - m o n t h f i s h i n g ; o r b e c a u s e of t h e i r p r i v a t e c h a r ­ acter,

s u c h a s s e x ; o r b e c a u s e o f t h e g e n e r a l t a b o o on t h e

p r e s e n c e o f men, s u c h a s c h i l d b i r t h . My p r o c e d u r e was t o c a r r y a n o t e b o o k c o n s t a n t l y and t o r e c o r d e v e r y t h i n g s e e n and h e a r d , e v e n i f i t

d i d n o t seem t o

h a v e a n y s i g n i f i c a n c e o r meaning a t t h e t i m e . 2 the

At t h e end of

day t h e n o t e s were t y p e d and once a week t h e y were c l a s s i ­

f i e d under broad c a t e g o r i e s .

As t h e r e s e a r c h c o n t i n u e d , t h e s e

c a t e g o r i e s were r e c l a s s i f i e d o r s u b d i v i d e d a n d , g r a d u a l l y ,

2 The n a t i v e s , f a r f r o m d i s c o u r a g i n g n o t e t a k i n g , a c t u a l l y e n ­ c o u r a g e d i t ; a n d b e f o r e r e l i g i o u s c e r e m o n i e s , f u n e r a l s , or d a n c e s , t h e y a s k e d us t o be s u r e t o b r i n g o u r c am eras*

4

w hat had i n i t i a l l y

a p p e a r e d a s d i s c r e t e and u n r e l a t e d b i t s

o f i n f o r m a t i o n b e g a n t o assume s i g n i f i c a n c e , b o t h i n th em ­ s e l v e s , and i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r k i n d s of d a t a . b e g a n t o make s e n s e ,

As t h e n o t e s

i t was p o s s i b l e t o f o c u s a t t e n t i o n on d a t a

o f g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e , and t o a s k q u e s t i o n s w i t h g r e a t e r mean­ ing.

Q u e s t i o n s , h o w e v e r , were n o t a s k e d i n t h e a b s t r a c t , b u t

w er e u s u a l l y r e l a t e d t o a n o n g o i n g a c t i v i t y . b r i n g f o o d t o t h a t man?

Why d i d t h i s woman

Why d i d t h i s g i r l r e t i r e t o t h e men­

s t r u a l h u t of h e r f a t h e r ' s of h e r r a a t r i l i n e a l l i n e a g e ?

l i n e a g e , w h e r e a s t h e o t h e r u s ed t h a t In o th e r words, th e b eh av io r i n

q u e s t i o n was n o t o n l y r e c o r d e d a s i t t o o k p l a c e , b u t t h e mean­ i n g of t h e b e h a v i o r t o t h e a c t o r , a s w e l l a s t o t h e o b s e r v e r s , was i m m e d i a t e l y r e c o r d e d .

Thus b e h a v i o r was r e l a t e d t o mean­

i n g , and l a t e r t h e m e a n in g s were d i s c u s s e d and r e l a t e d t o t h e l a r g e r v a l u e s o f w h i c h t h e y were a p a r t o r w h i c h t h e y exemp­ lifie d .1 I t i s a t r u i s m t o p o i n t o u t t h e s e l e c t i v e n a t u r e of p e r c e p t i o n and t h e r o l e t h a t p e r s o n a l n e e d s , t e n s i o n s , and anxieties

p l a y i n t h e d y n a m ic s of p e r c e p t u a l s e l e c t i v i t y .

was t o m i n i m i z e t h i s e l e m e n t of d i s t o r t i o n ,

It

stemming p a r t i ­

c u l a r l y from l a c k of com m unication w ith the o u ts id e w o rld , t h a t

t h o u g h a d d r e s s i n g h i m s e l f t o t h e mean in g of c u l t u r e , S a p i r i m p l i e d a t e c h n i q u e of f i e l d r e s e a r c h - a t e c h n i q u e I t r i e d , n o t a l w a y s s u c c e s s f u l l y , t o f o l l o w - - w h e n he w r o t e ; ®The t r u e l o c u s of c u l t u r e i s i n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s of s p e c i f i c i n ­ d i v i d u a l s a n d , on t h e s u b j e c t i v e s i d e , i n t h e w o r l d of mean­ i n g s w h i c h e a c h one of t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s may u n c o n s c i o u s l y a b s t r a c t f o r h im s e lf from h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n s i n th e s e i n t e r ­ a c t i o n s . 15 (£• S a p i r , wC u l t u r a l A n t h r o p o l o g y and P s y c h i a t r y ’ , j . Abn. and S o c . P s y c h . , XXVII (1 932) 2 2 9 - 2 4 2 )

5

a r e c o r d was k e p t o f my own f e e l i n g s , e m o t i o n s , and i n t r o ­ sp ectio n s.

A c h e c k c o u l d t h e n be made on i n f o r m a t i o n and ob­

s e r v a t i o n s whose v a l i d i t y was s u s p e c t b e c a u s e of t h e p o s s i b l e i n t r u s i o n of s u c h i d e o - e m o t i o n a l f a c t o r s . In a d d itio n to the

p a r tic ip a n t observer tech n iq u e, other

t e c h n i q u e s - more s p e c i a l i z e d and c o n t r o l l e d - were e m plo yed. To o b t a i n s y s t e m a t i c i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e n a t u r e of I f a l u k c u l t u r e , i n f o r m a n t s were u s e d .

As h a s a l r e a d y b e e n i n d i c a t e d , h o w e v e r ,

m ost i n f o r m a t i o n was o b t a i n e d f r o m d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n of b e ­ h a v i o r , an d i n f o r m a n t s were u s e d i n o r d e r t o s u p p le m e n t t h e ob ­ served d a ta , to f i l l

i n g a p s , and t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e meaning

t h a t c e r t a i n k i n d s of b e h a v i o r had f o r t h e a c t u a l p a r t i c i p a n t s . D i f f e r e n t i n f o r m a n t s were u s e d f o r d i f f e r e n t k i n d s of i n f o r m a ­ tio n ,

d e p e n d i n g upon t h e i r c o m p e te n c e and knowledge i n t h e a r e a

under s tu d y .

N e v e r , h o w e v e r , was one i n f o r m a n t u s e d e x c l u s i v e l y .

I n s t e a d , a c o m m i t t e e of i n f o r m a n t s was employed and t h e i r s ta t e ­ m e n ts w ere t h e n c h e c k e d w i t h t h o s e of o t h e r n a t i v e s and w i t h a c t u a l observed b e h a v io r. F o r t h e s t u d y of p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e c h i e f s were u s e d , i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e t r a i n i n g and f u n c ­ t i o n s of c h i e f s , a s w e l l a s on t h e p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s of I f a l u k t o Yap.

F o r t h e s t u d y of econ omic l i f e ,

a c o m m itte e of

men was u s e d i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g p r o p e r t y and l a n d t e n u r e .

The v a r i o u s economic s p e c i a l i s t s were q u e s t i o n e d

c o n c e r n i n g t h e n a t u r e of t h e i r t a s k s .

I n t h e s t u d y of s o c i a l

o r g a n i z a t i o n , a c o m m i t t e e of men and women was employed t o a n s w e r q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e more f o r m a l a s p e c t s of k i n s h i p

6

s t r u c t u r e , t h o u g h t h e amount o f i n f o r m a t i o n t o be g a i n e d by t h i s t e c h n i q u e was m i n o r co m par ed t o t h e i n f o r m a t i o n and a n a l ­ y s i s y i e l d e d by o u r f o r m a l h o u s e h o l d c e n s u s and ou r g e n e a l o ­ g ic a l charts •

I n f o r m a t i o n on r e l i g i o n and m e d i c i n e was o b t a i n e d

f r o m t h e c h i e f s and t h e p r i e s t .

Prom t h e f o r m e r were o b t a i n e d

t h e e n t i r e body of m y t h o l o g y , i n t e x t , and s y s t e m a t i c t h e o l o g y ; w h i l e t h e l a t t e r f u r n i s h e d t h e t h e o r y of d i s e a s e , t e c h n i q u e s o f t h e r a p y and f u l l t e x t s of a l l i n c a n t a t i o n s u s e d i n c u r i n g . I n f o r m a t i o n on c h i l d b i r t h , w h i c h men may n o t o b s e r v e , was ob­ t a i n e d f r o m a c o m m i t t e e of women, and I n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g s e x u a l p r a c t i c e s was o b t a i n e d f r o m a c o m m itt e e o f men.

In a l l

t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s , h o w e v e r , i n f o r m a n t s were employed o n l y a f t e r we h a d b e e n i n t h e f i e l d f o r a t l e a s t t h r e e m o n t h s , so t h a t q u e s t i o n s c o u l d be r e l a t e d t o t h e c u l t u r e a s i t was o b s e r v e d . To a n s w e r t h e s e c o n d q u e s t i o n , what a r e t h e p e r s o n a l i ­ ties

o f t h e p e o p l e : , a number of t e c h n i q u e s were e m p lo y e d .

The

b e h a v i o r o f e a c h i n d i v i d u a l o b s e r v e d was n o t e d c a r e f u l l y and recorded in the f i l e file

w h i c h was k e p t on e v e r y n a t i v e .

Not e v e r y

was of e q u a l i m p o r t a n c e , h o w e v e r , and by t h e c o m p l e t i o n

of th e

study,

some f i l e s had o n l y a few l i n e s , w h e r e a s o t h e r s

c o m p r i s e d many p a g e s .

S i n c e t h e s t u d y was p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d

w ith g e n e r a l p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , r a t h e r th a n w ith d i f ­ f e r e n tia l personality t r a i t s

of s p e c i f i c i n d i v i d u a l s ,

e m p h a s is

was p l a c e d on g e n e r a l i z e d r e a c t i o n s t o s p e c i f i c s t i m u l i , s u c h

T h e r e were two e x c e p t i o n s t o t h i s g e n e r a l p r o c e d u r e . The a u t h o r made a f a i r l y d e t a i l e d s t u d y of two s c h i z o p h r e n i c s .

7

as d is e a s e ,

d e a th , sex, cerem onies, e t c .

These r e a c t i o n s were

c a r e f u l l y n o t e d , w r i t t e n up i n d e t a i l , and l a t e r c l a s s i f i e d under a p p ro p ria te h ead in g s.

Dreams were c o l l e c t e d f r o m e a c h

p e r s o n and t h e y t o o were c l a s s i f i e d , and u s e d f o r g r o u p , r a t h e r than fo r in d iv id u al a n a ly sis.

B e s i d e s t h e s e u n c o n t r o l l e d ob­

s e r v a t i o n s , a number of c o n t r o l l e d s t i m u l i were u s e d .

The

S t e w a r t E m o t i o n a l Res ponse T e s t , B a v e l a s M oral I d e o l o g y T e s t , T h e m a t i c A p p e r c e p t i o n T e s t , and t h e R o r s c h a c h T e s t were a d ­ m in istered to p r a c tic a lly a l l a d u lts .

The g r o u p r e s u l t s of

t h e s e t e s t s were e x t r e m e l y r e v e a l i n g and a r e u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y in the su lts

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s concerning I f a lu k p e r s o n a lity .

The r e ­

of t h e R o r s c h a c h a r e u n f o r t u n a t e l y n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h i s

a n a l y s i s b e c a u s e a number of s c o r i n g p r o b le m s had a r i s e n which I have n o t y e t had t i m e t o r e s o l v e . there

F o r t u n a t e l y , however,

i s no s c o r i n g p r o b l e m w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s h a d i n g r e ­

s p o n se s, the d ia g n o s tic

i n d i c a t o r s of a n x i e t y i n t h e R o r s c h a c h .

And on t h i s c r u c i a l p o i n t of p e r s o n a l i t y d i a g n o s i s - t h e e x i s t ­ e n c e of a c o r e of a n x i e t y i n t h e p e r s o n a l i t y - t h e R o r s c h a c h I s i n com plete agreem ent w ith the o th e r te c h n iq u e s .

Indeed, i t

was b e c a u s e of t h e h i g h i n c i d e n c e of t h e s h a d i n g r e s p o n s e s t h a t t h e a u t h o r f i r s t became aware of some of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s dynam­ ic s in Ifa lu k p erso n ality . The q u e s t i o n o f p e r s o n a l i t y d e v e l o p m e n t and f o r m a t i o n c o u l d be i n v e s t i g a t e d i n a number of w a y s .

One t r a d i t i o n a l

t e c h n i q u e , t h e l i f e - h i s t o r y , was n o t e m p l o y e d , n o t a s a r e s u l t of o v e r s i g h t , b u t of c e r t a i n p r a c t i c a l e x i g e n c i e s of t h e f i e l d work.

My c o n t r o l of t h e n a t i v e l a n g u a g e , a s h a s b e e n p o i n t e d

8

o u t a b o v e , was n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o work c o m p l e t e l y a l o n e , and o u r o n l y i n t e r p r e t e r was u s e d by Dr, Burrows a s w e l l .

The

t i m e i n v o l v e d i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n of a number of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e life

h i s t o r i e s wo uld have meant a n u n f a i r i m p o s i t i o n on t h e

e n e r g y and t i m e of t h e i n t e r p r e t e r .

O t h e r t e c h n i q u e s were em­

p lo y e d , however, to give a l o n g i t u d i n a l p ic tu re developm ent.

In the f i r s t

w ith in f a n ts ,

c h i l d r e n an d e a r l y a d o l e s c e n t s .

tio n ate

of p e r s o n a l i t y

p l a c e , much of my t i m e was s p e n t The d i s p r o p o r ­

amount of t i m e d e v o t e d t o t h e s e age c a t e g o r i e s f o l l o w e d

f r o m t h e m a j o r a s s u m p t i o n on w h i c h t h i s r e s e a r c h was b a s e d t h a t many a d u l t

p e r s o n a l i t y p a t t e r n s a r e r o o t e d i n p a t t e r n s of

pre-ad o lescen t experience.

Many h o u r s were s p e n t w i t h young

i n f a n t s and t h e i r n u r s i n g m o t h e r s , k e e p i n g d e t a i l e d c h r o n o ­ l o g i c a l n o t e s on t h e s e q u e n c e of t h e b e h a v i o r o f t h e i n f a n t s and on t h e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n i n f a n t s and o t h e r p e r s o n s i n the house.

This te c h n iq u e ,

very rew ard in g .

t h o u g h w e a r i n g i n t h e e x t r e m e , was

Of e q u a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , t h o u g h much l e s s w e a r ­

i n g , was t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of t h e p l a y of c h i l d r e n .

The c h i l d r e n

p l a y i n b i - s e x u a l g a n g s , so t h a t a number of c h i l d r e n c o u l d be o b s e r v e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a n d , e v e n more i m p o r t a n t , c o u l d be observed in t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p to o th e r s .

T e c h n iq u e s of e n -

c u l t u r a t i o n were a c e r t a i n e d , b o t h by o b s e r v a t i o n i n p r o c e s s , an d by t h e u s e o f a s y s t e m a t i c s c h e d u l e o f i n f a n t and c h i l d t r a i n i n g a d m i n i s t e r e d t o b o t h t h e p a r e n t s and t h e c h i l d r e n . The y o ung a d o l e s c e n t bo y s were t h e s o u r c e s of much i n f o r m a t i o n a s w e l l a s t h e o b j e c t s of s t u d y .

Many i n f o r m a l l e a d s

c o n c e r n i n g b o t h p e r s o n a l i t y an d c u l t u r e were d e r i v e d f r o m t h e a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h th em d u r i n g t h e l o n g d i s c u s s i o n s and s t o r y te llin g

s e s s i o n s h e l d i n t h e e v e n i n g s on t h e b e a c h e s .

As i n

t h e c a s e of t h e a d u l t s , a number of t e s t s were u s ed w i t h t h e c h i l d r e n ; t h e same t e s t s u s e d w i t h t h e a d u l t s were a d m i n i s t e r e d t o t h e m , w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n of t h e f r e e - d r a w i n g t e c h n i q u e . le a s t fiv e

At

d r a w i n g s were c o l l e c t e d f r o m e a c h c h i l d .

I t m i g h t be p o i n t e d o u t , p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y , t h a t t h e work w i t h t h e c h i l d r e n , i n a d d i t i o n t o y i e l d i n g some of t h e most im portant in s ig h ts in to the c u ltu r e ,

s e r v e d a s a most e f f e c t i v e

de v ic e f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of r a p p o r t .

My s u c c e s s f u l r e l a t i o n '

s h i p w i t h t h e c h i l d r e n l e d t o t h e d i s s i p a t i o n of t h e a d u l t s 1 i n i t i a l s u s p i c i o n s of o u r p r e s e n c e . The a n s w e r t o t h e f o u r t h q u e s t i o n , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e s and t h e c u l t u r e , i s o b v i o u s l y a n a n a l y t i c t a s k , a r e s u l t of r e f l e c t i o n upon t h e o t h e r t h r e e q u estio n s.

Much of t h i s r e f l e c t i o n was done i n t h e f i e l d and

many r e f l e c t i o n s were u s e d a s h y p o t h e s e s , w h i c h c o u l d be t e s t e d by e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h .

D e ta ile d a n a l y s i s , however, occured

upon r e t u r n from th e f i e l d , o rg an izin g the d a ta .

i n th e p ro cess of s y s t e m a t i c a l l y

I n t h e p r o c e s s of t h i s a n a l y s i s , some of

th e m a t e r i a l s b e g a n t o form a c o n s i s t e n t th e i n d i v i d u a l data began to f i t ,

p a t t e r n i n t o which

and i t was t h i s p a t t e r n t h a t

s u g g e s t e d t h e n a t u r e of t h i s t h e s i s . T his t h e s i s a l i t y an d c u l t u r e .

i s n o t a g e n e r a l s t u d y of I f a l u k p e r s o n ­ I t 1s s c o p e i s much more l i m i t e d and i s

10

concerned with merely one aspect of the general problem of the r e ­ l a t i o n s h i p between Ifa luk cu lt ure and p e r so n a l ity , namely, the prob­ lem of aggression.

I t s purpose i s to a s c e rt a i n the r e l a tio n s h ip , i f

any, between the I falu k culture p a t t e r n , the degree of aggression man­ i f e s t e d in i n te rp e rs o n a l r e l a t i o n s , and the psychodynamics of aggres­ sion i n the I f a l u k p e r s o n a l i t i e s . The m ate ria ls were gathered during a seven month f i e l d t r i p in I f a l u k , an a t o l l i n the Western Carolines, in 1947-194-8.

The research

was sponsored j o i n t l y by the Department of Anthropology of Northwestern Un iversity and by the P a c if ic Science Board of the National Research Council.

This research formed p a r t of a l a r g e r program for the study

of the c u ltu re s of Micronesia known as the Coordinated Investigation of Micronesian Anthropology (CIMA), sponsored by the Pac ific Science Board with the support of the United States Navy.

I wish to express my thanks

to the P a c i f ic Science Board f o r i t s f in a n c ia l support and to Mr. Harold Coolidge, i t s Executive Secr etary, f o r hi s ex cellen t organization of the e n t i r e expedition. I also wish to express my gra titud e to those who were of aid during the course of the research and during the preparation of the manuscript: Professor M.J. Herskovits, to whom I am indebted f o r my i n i t i a l i n t e r e s t and t r a in i n g in general anthropology, for his car eful reading of t h i s manuscript and f o r hi s numerous valuable suggestions made throughout the course of the w ritin g ;

Professor A .I. Hallowell, who inspired my i n t e r e s t

i n th e f i e l d of p e r s o n a li ty and c u l t u r e , and whose in s tr u c t io n i s apparent

11

throughout t h i s monograph;

Professor E.G. Burrows, my co-worker in

the f i e l d , f o r i n s ig h ts gianed him;

about Ifa luk in many discussions with

T a t a g o i t i , our Ifa luk i n t e r p r e t e r and companion, for his u n s t i n t ­

ing gene ro sity of knowledge and time.

F in a ll y , the Ifaluk people, in

whose cu lture I was pr iv ileg ed to p a r t i c i p a t e , have l e f t me with a f e e l i n g of g r a titu d e I can hardly express i n words.

CONTE M ’S

Section*

1#

In tro d u ctio n s

A g g r e s s i o n and N o n - A g g r e s s i o n

i n I f a l u k ........................................................................................ 1 2.

An O u t l i n e

of I f a l u k C u l t u r e ........................................... 27.

3.

The C u l t u r a l E x c i t a t i o n and R e s o l u t i o n of A g g r e s s i o n ............................................................................92

4.

The P a t t e r n of N o n - A g g r e s s i o n and i t s P e r s o n a l and C u l t u r a l C o n s e q u e n c e s .......................128

5.

Summary and C o n c l u s i o n ........................................................146 B i b l i o g r a p h y ........................

148

1.

A g g r e s s i o n and N o n - a g g r e s s i o n i n I f a l u k The i n h a b i t a n t s of I f a l u k , a m in u te a t o l l i n t h e

C a r o l i n e I s l a n d s of M i c r o n e s i a , c o n s t i t u t e a p e o p l e who would take t h e i r

p l a c e a t t h e e x t r e m e n o n - a g g r e s s i o n end of a n a g ­

g ressio n

n o n - a g g r e s s i o n c o n t i n u u m , a l m o s t as a p o l a r t y p e .

As s u c h ,

I f a l u k c u l t u r e g i v e s r i s e t o one of t h e most i m p o r t a n t

problem s i n th e e n t i r e f i e l d

of s o c i a l s c i e n c e .

Is i t

possible

f o r s o c i e t i e s t o e x i s t w i t h o u t t h e e x i s t e n c e of a g g r e s s i o n ? n o t , why do some s o c i e t i e s have a l a r g e d e g r e e of a g g r e s s i o n , and o t h e r s a v e r y s m a l l am ount?

F u r t h e r m o r e , a r e t h e r e any

c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e e x p r e s s i o n and i n h i b i t i o n of a g g r e s ­ s i o n an d t h e n a t u r e of o t h e r a s p e c t s of c u l t u r e or c u l t u r a l in stitu tio n s?

More s p e c i f i c a l l y , d o e s t h e I n h i b i t i o n s of a g ­

g r e s s i o n i n I f a l u k l e a d t o t h e i n h i b i t i o n or e x p r e s s i o n of other c u ltu r a l a c t i v i t i e s ,

such as the a r t s ?

I f a g g r e s s i o n i s t a k e n t o mean any n e r v e i m p u l s e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d , t h e n i t i s , of c o u r s e , a c h aracteristic

of a l l l i v i n g o r g a n i s m s .

A l l o r g a n i s m s , as

Dewey h a s o b s e r v e d , " ^ c a n be s a i d „to l i v e by means o f t h e e n ­ v iro n m e n t, r a t h e r th a n i n the environm ent.

This Im p lies t h a t

Dewey, J o h n , L o g i c , A T h e o r y of I n q u i r y , 1 9 3 9 , C h a p t e r 2 .

If

a l l e n e r g i e s d i r e c t e d to w ard s th e e x t e r n a l world n e c e s s a r i l y c h a n g e and m o d i f y t h a t w o r l d . aggressiv e.

But i t

em p lo y t h e t e r m .

In th i s sense, a l l a c tiv ity is

i s n o t i n t h i s s e n s e of t h e word t h a t we

We a r e r a t h e r c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e meanings

t h a t have g r o w n a b o u t t h i s t e r m i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e scien ces,

of th e s o c i a l

i n w h i c h a g g r e s s i o n h a s t h e i n e v i t a b l e meaning of

b e h a v i o r , t o w a r d s a n o b j e c t o r p e r s o n , w h i c h i s m o t i v a t e d by h o stility #

U nlike the f i r s t

mean in g o f a g g r e s s i o n , w h i c h i s

c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n of a p r im a r y d r i v e of t h e o r g a n i s m , t h e s e c o n d m ea ning i m p l i e s a d e l i b e r a t e a t t e m p t t o harm o r d e s t r o y th e o b j e c t or p e rso n . That a g g re s s io n , in t h i s i s u n i v e r s a l I n human s o c i e t i e s Y e t, though i t s

se c o n d meaning of t h e t e r m , is a w e ll-e sta b lish e d fact#

u n i v e r s a l i t y seems t o be w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e

i n t e n s i t y of i t s e x p r e s s i o n v a r i e s c o n s i d e r a b l y from c u l t u r e to c u ltu re . fore,

One of t h e b a s i c

i s n o t o n l y t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e e x i s t e n c e of a g g r e s s i o n ,

but to e x p la in i t s It

p r o b le m s i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e , t h e r e

d i f f e r e n t i a l in te n s ity in d iffe re n t cu ltu res

i s the h y p o th e s is of t h i s paper th a t a g g re s s io n is both

e l i c i t e d by c u l t u r e and i s c a n a l i z e d by c u l t u r e i n t o s o c i a l l y acceptable

d irectio n s.

W h e t h e r a g g r e s s i o n i s I n t r i n s i c t o the n a t u r e of man i s a p r o b l e m whose a n s w e r a w a i t s new t e c h n i q u e s o f b i o l o g i c a l a n aly sis.1

The b e l i e f

i s t h e I n n a t e n e s s of a g g r e s s i o n h a s a

1T h i s p r o b l e m h a s r e c e i v e d f a i r l y e x h a u s t i v e t r e a t m e n t i n t h e c a s e o f t h e e n t i r e v e r t e b r a t e g r o u p by C o l l i a s . See, N icholas E# C o l l i a s , r* A g g r e s s i v e B e h a v i o r Among V e r t e b r a t e A n i m a l s , 1 i n P h y s i o l o g i c a l Z o o l o g y , XVII (1944) 8 3 - 1 2 3 .

l o n g t r a d i t i o n i n t h e W e s t e r n W o r ld , and f o u n d i t s c l a s s i c e x p r e s s i o n i n t h e C h r i s t i a n c o n c e p t of o r i g i n a l s i n . Freud has attem p ted to r e i n s t a t e a wd e a t h i n s t i n c t P e r p l e x e d

R ecently

t h i s c o n c e p t i n t h e f o r m of by t h e s e e m i n g l y i n e x p l i c a b l e

phenomenon o f m a s o c h i s m , and s o r r o w e d by t h e b l i n d i r r a t i o n a l ­ i t y o f World War I , he t o o k r e c o u r s e i n a n u l t i m a t e b i o l o g i c a l d riv e.

F r e u d * s T h a n a t o s , h o w e v e r , must y e t w a i t e m p i r i c a l

v alid atio n .

F u r t h e r m o r e , e v e n i f he i s c o r r e c t i n p o s i t i n g ag

g r e s s i o n a s a n i n n a t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c Of t h e o r g a n i s m , we a r e still

l e f t w i t h th e problem of i t s

d i f f e r e n t i a l c u l t u r a l ex­

pression. I f one r e j e c t s a b i o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e u n i ­ v e r s a l i t y o f a g g r e s s i o n , one must l o o k t o t h e o p e r a t i o n of s o c i a l , c u l t u r a l , and p s y c h o lo g ic a l f a c t o r s as e x p la n a to r y . H ere, i t

s e e m s , we c a n d i s t i n g u i s h f i v e t h e o r i e s of a g g r e s s i o n

a l l o p e r a t i n g on d i f f e r e n t b e h a v i o r a l l e v e l s . M e l a n i e K l e i n , t h o u g h s i l e n t on t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e I n n a t e n e s s of a g g r e s s i o n , d o e s p o s i t a u n i v e r s a l i t y of a g g r e s ­ s i o n r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y of i n f a n t d e p e n d e n c y ^ The i n f a n t , she c l a i m s , by t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f h i s i m p o t e n c e , h a s f a n t a s i e s of

a t t a c k i n g , d e s t r o y i n g , and c a s t r a t i n g p a r e n t

T h e s e f a n t a s i e s g i v e r i s e t o f u r t h e r f a n t a s i e s of t h e i n f a n t d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e pres um ed a g g r e s s o r ; so t h a t a g g r e s s i o n I s a u n i v e r s a l p s y c h ic f o r c e I n th e s p e c i e s , d e r i v e d , not

-**Sigraund F r e u d s T rans l a t Ion)

Beyond t h e P l e a s u r e P r i n c i p l e , 1942

^ M e l a n i e K l e i n , The P s y c h o a n a l y s i s o f C h i l d r e n , 19 32.

(English

4

p h y l o g e n e t i c a l l y b u t o n t ogene t i e a l l y , a s a r e s u l t of t h e u n i ­ v e r s a l human s y m b o l i c p r o c e s s *

What i s t o be s t r e s s e d h e r e

i s t h a t though a g g re ssio n is not in n a te ,

i t does a r i s e e n -

d o p s y c h i c a l l y , and i s n o t c o n t i n g e n t upon t h e n a t u r e of t h e c u l t u r e , b u t i s i n e v i t a b l e i n t h e human s t i u a t i o n , g i v e n t h e c o n d i t i o n of i n f a n t dependency. A n o t h e r p o s t u l a t e d s o u r c e of a g g r e s s i o n i s d e r i v e d from prim ate s o c io lo g y .

T h i s p o s i t i o n as sum es n e i t h e r a b i o ­

l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n a n t , n o r a s y m b o l i c one i n v o l v i n g s y m b o l i c fantasy life *

Here t h e d e t e r m i n a n t i s s o c i o l o g i c a l .

Man i s a

p r i m a t e , and one of t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a l l p r i m a t e s i s group l i f e ,

d e r i v i n g from a r e l a t i v e l y long g e s t a t i o n p e r io d ,

the r e l a t i v e

l a c k of s e x u a l p e r i o d i c i t y , and a r e l a t i v e l y l o n g

p e rio d of i n f a n t h e l p l e s s n e s s . sociology,

I n t h e s t u d y of i n f r a - h u m a n

i t h a s b e e n shown^ t h a t a g g r e s s i v e b e h a v i o r , among

o t h e r t h i n g s , c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between s i b l i n g s , a s w e l l a s of t h a t b e t w e e n t h e s e x u a l l y m a t u r i n g young and t h e p a re n t of the o p p o site sex.

The F r e u d i a n c o n c e p t s of t h e

O e d i p u s c o m p le x and of s i b l i n g r i v a l r y hav e b e e n a r g u e d p a s ­ s i o n a t e l y f o r a l o n g t i m e , and t h i s i s n o t t h e p l a c e t o e n t e r th e d is c u s s io n .

We may i n d i c a t e h e r e , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e v a l i d ­

i t y o f t h e s p e c i f i c F r e u d i a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e s e phenomena does not a l t e r th e f a c t t h a t b i - p a r e n t a l fa m ily l i f e e lic it th is

does

p r i m a t e e x p r e s s i o n of a g g r e s s i o n , w h i c h , t o be s u r e ,

i n t h e c a s e o f human s o c i e t i e s , c u l t u r e may m i n i m i z e , m o d i f y ,

^ - C la r e n c e R. C a r p e n t e r , wC h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f S o c i a l B e h a v i o r i n Non-Human P r i m a t e s , 1* T r a n s a c t i o n s of t h e New York Academy o f S c i e n c e s , S e r i e s I I , Volume"4 , Number 8 , 1 942.

5

d isto rt

and c a n a l i z e .

But t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e a g g r e s s i o n r e ­

m a i n s , a r i s i n g f r o m t h e n a t u r e o f man a s a p r i m a t e . e v e r , t h i s f a c e t of th e considered h e re .

A g a i n , how­

p r o b l e m of a g g r e s s i o n nee d n o t be f u r t h e r

For i f th e evidence i s sound, a l l s o c i e t i e s

w i l l e x h i b i t some f o r m of a g g r e s s i o n , and l i t t l e

l i g h t w i l l be

s h e d on t h e s p e c i a l p r o b l e m w h i c h I f a l u k p o s e s . T h e r e a r e two t h e o r i e s , h o w e v e r , w h ic h have s p e c i f i c r e l e v a n c e f o r t h e problem a t han d .

The f i r s t

o f t h e s e w h ic h

h a s d i r e c t b e a r i n g on o u r s t u d y was pro p o u n d ed by B o l l a r d and h is co-w orkers.

A f t e r r e v i e w i n g much of t h e l i t e r a t u r e and c o n ­

d u c t i n g e x p e r i m e n t s o f t h e i r own, t h e s e men c o n c l u d e t h a t n a g ­ g r e s s i o n i s a l w a y s a c o n s e q u e n c e of f r u s t r a t i o n . 1*

The e n e r g y

w h i c h , n o r m a l l y , would ha ve b e e n ex p en d ed i n t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f a ne e d o r a d e s i r e

i s dammed up by t h e f r u s t r a t i n g i m p e d i ­

ment an d i s t h e n e x p r e s s e d d i r e c t l y i n some a g g r e s s i v e f o r m a g a i n s t t h e f r u s t r a t i n g o b j e c t or p e r s o n , or i n d i r e c t l y , a g a i n s t some o t h e r o b j e c t o r p e r s o n by t h e p r o c e s s o f d i s p l a c e m e n t . The f r u s t r a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e may i n v o l v e e i t h e r b i o l o g i c a l or c u ltu r a l driv es.^ • y -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

'

J o h n D o l l a r d , e t . a l . , F r u s t r a t i o n and A g g r e s s i o n , 1939. 2T h i s w r i t e r i s I n a c c o r d w i t h t h o s e c r i t i c s , h o w e v e r , who have t a k e n is s u e w ith th e f r u s t r a t i o n - a g g r e s s i o n h y p o th e sis as being too s im p lis tic . I t I s n o t t r u e t h a t “ a g g r e s s i o n i s a lw a y s a c o n s e q u e n c e of f r u s t r a t i o n / 5 f o r t h e r e may be o t h e r c o n s e q u e n c e s of f r u s t r a t i o n . In a c l a s s i c e x p e rim e n t, i t has been re v e a le d t h a t one of t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of f r u s t r a t i o n I s r e g r e s s i o n . (See B a r k e r , Dembo, an d L e w i n , “ F r u s t r a t i o n and R e g r e s s i o n s An E x p e r i m e n t W i th Young C h i l d r e n , “ U n i v e r s i t y of Iowa S tu d y of Child W e lfa re , 1940.) O t h e r c o n s e q u e n c e s of f r u s t r a t i o n may be w ith d ra w al, re p re s s io n , su b lim atio n , r a t io n a li z a ti o n , autism , and o t h e r s . But t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e a r e a number o f c o n s e q u e n c e o f f r u s t r a t i o n , d o e s n o t den y t h a t a g g r e s s i o n i s one of th e m . And i f a g g r e s s i o n i s a c o n s e q u e n c e of f r u s t r a t i o n , i t i s m e th o d ­ o l o g i c a l l y sound t o p o s t u l a t e a f r u s t r a t i n g s i t u a t i o n where one fin d s aggression.

6

A s e c o n d h y p o t h e s i s , w i t h b e a r i n g on t h i s s t u d y , i s d e r i v e d f r o m Roh eim. of c u l t u r e

In a tte m p tin g to e x p la in the uniqueness

p a t t e r n s and c u l t u r a l c h a r a c t e r s t r u c t u r e , he d e ­

v e l o p e d h i s wo n t o g e n e t i c t h e o r y of c u l t u r e . 11’ each cu ltu re certain

A c c o r d i n g t o him

h a s a s p e c i f i c i n f a n c y t r a u m a , w h ic h e l i c i t s

a

k i n d of a g g r e s s i o n , and s e r v e s t o c o n d i t i o n t h e a d u l t

p e r s o n a l i t y and c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . wI ha v e d i s c o v e r e d a l s o t h a t i n d i v i d u a l c i v i l i z a t i o n s c o u l d be d e r i v e d f r o m t y p i c a l t r a u m a of i n f a n c y , and t h a t t h e i r s t r u c t u r e r e p r e s e n t s a defense a g a in s t and s u b l i m a t e d r e p e t i t i o n of t h e s e t r a u ­ m ata. A ccording to the o n to g e n e tic th e o r y , t h e c h a r a c t e r of a c i v i l i z a t i o n i s p e r p e t ­ u a t e d by a v i c i o u s c i r c l e . . . . . On t h e one h a n d , t h e same t r a d i t i o n a l , t h e same s u b ­ l i m a t i o n f o r m s of t h e i n f a n t i l e t r a u m a t a , a r e h a n d e d down; and on t h e o t h e r , t h e same traum ata are re p e a te d . Thus a r i s e s t h e s t a b i l i t y of a c u l t u r e and t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s of i t s t r a d i t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . The a s s u m p t i o n of a c o l l e c t i v e p s y c h o l o g y b e ­ comes e i t h e r u n n e c e s s a r y o r i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e .l1t-L R oheim 's t h e o r y a c t e r i z e any s i m p l i s t i c

I s g u i l t y of t h e same e r r o r s t h a t scheme.

char­

That a l l of c u l t u r e i s r e l a t e d

t o in f a n c y tra u m a ta i s a h i g h l y dubious p r o p o s i t i o n .

But i m p l i ­

c i t i n t h i s t h e o r y i s a s u g g e s t i o n w h i c h f o r m s p a r t of t h e h y p o t h e s i s of t h i s

s t u d y , n a m e l y , t h a t e a r l y t r a u m a t a a r e im­

p o r t a n t , i f n o t c r u c i a l f a c t o r s i n t h e amount and k i n d of a g ­ g r e s s i o n t h a t i s found In the a d u lt p e r s o n a l i t i e s .

iQ e z a Ro heim ;

The R i d d l e

I nasm uch

of t h e S p h i n x , 1 9 34, p. 281

7

a s t h e s p e c i f i c t r a u m a t i c s i t u a t i o n d i f f e r s from c u l t u r e t o c u l t u r e , t h e amount of a g g r e s s i o n 'vsill d i f f e r , an d t h e way i t is canalized w ill d if f e r . T his th e o ry ,

i n c o n ju n c t i o n w ith the D o llard h y p o th e s is ,

f o r m s t h e b a s i c h y p o t h e s i s o f t h i s s t u d y , w h i c h may now be stated :

C ertain c u ltu r a l in s titu tio n s create f ru s tra tio n s at

c r u c i a l p o in ts i n th e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s developm ent, but o th e r c u l ­ tu ra l in stitu tio n s

p r o v i d e c a n a l i z a t i o n f o r t h e e x p r e s s i o n of

the r e s u l t a n t a g g re ss io n . R e g a r d l e s s of t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e t h e o r i e s named a b o v e , a l l a g r e e t h a t a g g r e s s i o n I s a u n i v e r s a l t r a i t . Our h y p o t h e s i s q u a l i f i e s t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n , h o w e v e r , by a s s e r t ­ i n g t h a t a g g r e s s i o n i s n e i t h e r c o n s t a n t nor a b s o l u t e .

That i s ,

b o t h t h e s a n c t i o n e d d e g r e e of a g g r e s s i o n and i t s e x p r e s s i o n d i f f e r c o n s id e r a b ly from c u l t u r e to c u l t u r e . is

This c o n c lu s io n

I n e s c a p a b l e t o a n y one w i t h e v e n a c u r s o r y knowledge of the

ethnographic l i t e r a t u r e .

Our h y p o t h e s i s may h e l p us t o u n d e r ­

stand the re aso n s f o r th e se d i f f e r e n t i a l p a tte r n s . s i o n i s u n i v e r s a l , and i f

If aggres­

i t s e x p r e s s i o n d i f f e r s in d i f f e r e n t s o c ie ti e s

we must c o n c l u d e t h a t t h i s d i f f e r e n t i a l e x p r e s s i o n i s a r e s u l t of d i f f e r e n c e s

I n t h e c u l t u r e s of t h e s e s o c i e t i e s .

The o n l y

o t h e r a s s u m p t i o n i s t h a t of b i o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n p e o p l e s ; and t h i s a s s u m p t i o n , f o r t h e most p a r t , But I t

is untenable.

i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o e x p l a i n t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s by r e f ­

e r e n c e t o t h e c o n c e p t of c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n . s c r i p t i v e , not an e x p la n a to ry co n cep t.

C ulture is a de­

It is ta u to lo g ic a l to

8

s t a t e t h a t I f a l u k has l i t t l e cause of i t s culture

culture

o v e r t e x p r e s s i o n of a g g r e s s i o n b e ­

pattern .

p a t t e r n w hat i t

The q u e s t i o n b eco m es , why i s i t s

is?

Our h y p o t h e s i s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e c l u e t o o u r p r o b le m i s t o be f o u n d i n t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n and e n c u l t u r a t i o n of t h e child*

No c u l t u r e c a n p r o v i d e f o r a l l t h e d e s i r e s of t h e i n ­

f a n t an d t h e c h i l d , and no c u l t u r e c a n p r e c l u d e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n a d v e r t e n t l y c a u s i n g some f r u s t r a t i o n t o t h e c h i l d .

As

H allo w ell has observed, w. . . n o c u l t u r e f r e e s th e i n f a n t from the fu n d a m e n ta l c o n f l i c t a r i s i n g from the b i o l o g i c a l l y r o o t e d i m p u l s e s on t h e one h a n d , and t h e demands of p a r e n t s o r p a r e n t s u r r o g a t e s on t h e o t h e r , n o r t h e need f o r some I n t e r n a l r e s o l u t i o n of s u c h c o n f l i c t s . But t h e demands of t h e p a r e n t s and t h e manner I n w h i c h c h i l d r e n a r e h a n d l e d a r e n o t i d e n t i c a l i n a l l s o c i e t i e s ; hen ce t h e c r u c i a l i m p o r t a n c e of t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n p ro c e ss i n r e l a t i o n to the d i f f e r e n t i a l s t r a i n s an d s t r e s s e s t h a t a c c o u n t f o r p e r ­ s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e u n d e r one s e t of c o n d i ­ t i o n s a s co m par ed w i t h a n o t h e r . What p e r s o n a l i t y and c u l t u r e s t u d i e s have done i s t o d e m o n s t r a t e how i m p o r t a n t s u c h d i f ­ f e r e n c e s are.®'**It

i s s u g g e s t e d h e r e t h a t t h e q u a n t i t y of a g g r e s s i o n

r e s i d i n g I n t h e modal p e r s o n a l i t y i s c o n t i n g e n t upon t h e d e g r e e o f f r u s t r a t i o n and t r a u m a t h a t t h e i n f a n t and c h i l d e x p e r i e n c e s i n th e normal c o u rse of s o c i a l i z a t i o n . f a n t and c h i l d - c a r e w i l l e l i c i t

D if fe r e n t kinds of i n ­

d i f f e r e n t kinds of f r u s t r a t i o n

p a t t e r n s a n d , c o n c o m m i t a n t l y , d i f f e r e n t k i n d s of a g g r e s s i v e

■*-A. I» H a l l o w e l l ; wP e r s o n a l i t y S t r u c t u r e and t h e E v o l u t i o n of Man,1® P r e s i d e n t i a l A d d r e s s , A m e r i c a n A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l A s s o c i a ­ t i o n , New Y o r k C i t y , November 1 8 , 1949 ( m i m e o . ) , p. 18*

feelings*

T h i s i s n o t t o s a y t h a t p e o p l e do no/fc e n c o u n t e r

f r u s t r a t i o n in t h e i r adult lives* absurdity;

Such a d e n i a l would be a n

b o t h c h i l d r e n and a d u l t s e x p e r i e n c e f r u s t r a t i o n s

t h a t a r e u n i q u e t o th e m o r t h a t t h e y s h a r e w i t h o t h e r i n d i v i d ­ u a l s , b u t t h a t a r e n o t s h a r e d w i t h a l l members of t h e s o c i e t y . How t h e s e

i n d i v i d u a l f r u s t r a t i o n s are h a n d le d , however, i s

n o t t h e c o n c e r n of t h i s s t u d y .

We a r e c o n c e r n e d e x c l u s i v e l y

w i t h t h e a g g r e s s i v e component of w hat h a s b e e n termed t h e b a s i c p erso n ality stru ctu re

o r t h e modal p e r s o n a l i t y .3-

T h i s modal

p e r s o n a l i t y i s a f u n c t i o n of c u l t u r a l c o n d i t i o n i n g . tru e,

I t is quite

o f c o u r s e , t h a t t h e r e a r e o t h e r s o c i a l d e t e r m i n a n t s of

p e r s o n a l i t y w h i c h d e r i v e f r o m t h e u n i q u e e x p e r i e n c e s of t h e i n ­ d i v i d u a l , w h i c h K i m b a l l Young h a s t e r m e d p e r s o n a l - s o c i a l c o n O

d itio n in g T h e se

do n o t e n t e r i n t o t h e b a s i c p e r s o n a l i t y

s t r u c t u r e , however, and, t h e r e f o r e , th ey are not t r e a t e d h e r e . ( T his stu d y i s concerned w ith those f r u s t r a t i o n s th a t are a con­ s e q u e n c e o f c u l t u r a l c o n d i t i o n i n g , and i t a s su m es t h a t t h e e a r l y cu ltu rally

patterned f r u s tr a tio n s

of c h i l d h o o d a r e of c r u c i a l

i m p o r t a n c e f o r a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e a g g r e s s i v e component i n t h e m odal p e r s o n a l i t y of t h e I n d i v i d u a l s of t h a t s o c i e t y . As L i n t o n s a y s ; Til,. . . T h e f i r s t few y e a r s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s l i f e a r e c r u c i a l f o r t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the h ig h ly g en eralized v a lu e -a ttitu d e s y s t e m s w h i c h f o r m t h e d e e p e r l e v e l s of t h e p e r s o n a l i t y c o n t e n t , rt And a g a i n , 1,1No

Abram K a r d i n e r , The I n d i v i d u a l and His S o c i e t y , 1 939. P s y c h o l o g i c a l F r o n t i e r of S o c i e t y , 1945. 3 -S e e

2 See K i m b a l l Y oun g, S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , 1 944, pp. 9 - 1 0 .

10

one who i s f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e r e s u l t s w h i c h have a l r e a d y b e e n o b t a i n e d c a n d o u b t t h a t h e r e ( t h e e a r l y y e a r s ) l i e s t h e key t o most of t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n b a s i c p e r s o n a l i t y t y p e . . . * 1'*’ T h e r e may, o f c o u r s e , be c u l t u r a l l y p a t t e r n e d f r u s t r a ­ tio n s in adult life

as w e l l , b ut such f r u s t r a t i o n s are handled

by t h e t e c h n i q u e s t h e p e r s o n a l i t y h a s a l r e a d y d e v e l o p e d f o r th e ir reso lu tio n . fru stratio n s

I t i s the c u l t u r a l l y p a tte rn e d unresolved

of c h i l d h o o d w h i c h o c c u r i n t h e c o u r s e of t h e d e ­

v e l o p m e n t of t h e

p e r s o n a l i t y , w h i c h d e t e r m i n e how much a g g r e s ­

s i o n t h e r e w i l l be i n t h e p e r s o n a l i t y a s t h e I n d i v i d u a l f i n a l l y bec omes a n a d u l t . It

is im portant to in tro d u ce a q u a l i f i c a t i o n to t h i s

g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t , however.

A n a l y s i s of c u l t u r a l i n f l u e n c e on

p e r s o n a l i t y u s u a l l y t a k e s two f o r m s .

T r a d i t i o n a l anthropology

t e n d s t o a s s e r t t h e m o l d i n g power of c u l t u r e , as i f c u l t u r e w ere r e c e i v e d w i t h t h e v e r y a i r t h a t t h e p e r s o n b r e a t h e s . P s y c h o a n a l y t i c a l l y o r i e n t e d p s y c h o l o g i s t s , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , have i s o l a t e d c e r t a i n ele m e n ts i n the s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s h a r s h o r m i l d s p h i n c t e r c o n t r o l , e a r l y or l a t e w e a n i n g , e t c . , as having c r u c i a l s ig n i f i c a n c e .

The f o r m e r seems t o be t o o

b r o a d a f o r m u l a t i o n , and t h e l a t t e r t o o n a r r o w .

A nthropolo­

g i s t s who m e d i a t e b e t w e e n t h e s e two d i s c i p l i n e s have f e l t t h a t t h e two f o r m u l a t i o n s must be c o m b i n e d , b u t i n a f o r m t h a t q u a l i f i e s , b o t h of th e m .

R e s e a r c h i n p e r s o n a l i t y and c u l t u r e

seems t o s u g g e s t t h a t c e r t a i n i n f a n c y and c h i l d h o o d e x p e r i e n c e s a r e i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of p e r s o n a l i t y .

On t h e o t h e r

h a n d , t h e s e e a r l y e x p e r i e n c e s must be s e e n a s p a r t of a t o t a l

^ a l p h L i n t o n , C u l t u r a l B a c k g r o u n d s of P e r s o n a l i t y , 1 9 4 5 , p. 1 4 1 143

11

c u l t u r e t h a t r e i n f o r c e s and s u s t a i n s t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s o r t h a t c o n t r a d i c t s them*

A c u l t u r a l l y p a t t e r n e d t e c h n i q u e of

c h i l d t r a i n i n g , which i s f r u s t r a t i n g i n i t s e l f ,

may n o t a t

a l l c o n s t i t u t e a c h i l d h o o d t r a u m a , or g i v e r i s e t o f r u s t r a t i o n an d f e e l i n g s of I n s e c u r i t y ,

i f the c h i l d ,

l i v e s i n a l o v i n g and s e c u r e w o r ld *

in a l l other r e s p e c ts ,

But I f t h i s a c t i s p a r t

o f a t o t a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n of f r u s t r a t i n g and i n s e c u r i t y - e l i c i t ­ ing e x p e rie n c e s , th en i t th e c h i l d ’ s developm ent. itse lf,

looms l a r g e a s a c r u c i a l p o i n t i n In o th e r words, i t

is not the act

b u t t h e mea ning t h e a c t h a s f o r t h e c h i l d t h a t i s s i g ­

n i f i c a n t f o r a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of i t s e f f e c t s ; and t h e meaning o f a n a c t d e p e n d s , a s t h e G e s t a l t i s t s have d e m o n s t r a t e d , upon th e c o n te x t i n which i t o c c u r s .

T h u s , a c e r t a i n t e c h n i q u e of

c h i l d c a r e , w h i c h h a s a c e r t a i n m ea ning i n t h e c o n t e x t of one c u l t u r e , may h a v e q u i t e a n o t h e r m ea ning i n t h e c o n t e x t of a d iffe re n t cu ltu re .^ It

i s i m p o r t a n t t o know, f o r e x a m p l e , w h e t h e r a f r u s t r a t ­

i n g c h i l d h o o d p r a c t i c e i s e x p e r i e n c e d by t h e c h i l d a s mere d e ­ p r i v a t i o n of a g o a l r e s p o n s e o r w h e t h e r i t c o n s t i t u t e s f o r him a th r e a t to h is s e c u rity , l o v e *2

s y m b o l i z i n g w i t h d r a w a l of p a r e n t a l

S u ch a d i f f e r e n t i a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n dep en d s upon t h e

^ T h e r e i s a n a b u n d a n c e of e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a l p e r c e p t i o n of o b j e c t s and e v e n t s i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s of w h i c h t h e y a r e a p a r t . Much o f t h i s m a t e r i a l i s b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r i n K r e c h and C r u t c h f i e l d , T h e o r y and P r o b le m s of S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y , 1 9 4 9 , p a r t i c u l a r l y , C h a p t e r 3* 2 See A. H. Maslow, ’’ D e p r i v a t i o n , T h r e a t , and F r u s t r a t i o n / ’ P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e v ie w , 1 9 4 1 , pp. 3 6 4 - 3 6 6 , r e p r i n t e d i n Newcomb a n d H a r t l e y . Read ing' s i n S o c i a l P s y c h o l o g y . 1 9 47.

12

l a r g e r c u l t u r a l c o n t e x t of w h ic h t h i s

one a c t i s a p a r t .

B ut c u l t u r e s n o t o n l y e l i c i t c e r t a i n k i n d s of a g g r e s ­ s i o n , t h e y a l s o a l l o w c e r t a i n k i n d s of e x p r e s s i o n of t h e a g ­ g ression.

A culture th at

I n h i b i t e d a l l f o r m s of a g g r e s s i o n

w o u ld p r o b a b l y end i n c o m p l e t e a n n i h i l a t i o n . culture lest

c a n n o t g i v e f r e e r e i n t o t h e e x p r e s s i o n of a g g r e s s i o n ,

t h e s o c i e t y d e g e n e r a t e i n t o H o b b es ’ m y t h i c a l p r i m i t i v e

s o c i e t y , wher e l i f e

is n n asty,

p o o r , b r u t i s h , and s h o r t , ”

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a ” war of a l l a g a i n s t a l l . ” t h e h o r n s of t h i s

d i le m m a , a l l c u l t u r e s

of some a g g r e s s i o n ,

tio n a l patterns drained o f f .

To e s c a p e f ro m

perm it the e x p r e s s i o n

but they channel th a t a g g ressio n in c u l t u r ­

a l l y a c c ep tab le form s.

are

On t h e o t h e r h a n d ,

T h a t I s , a l l s o c i e t i e s have i n s t i t u ­

I n w h i c h t h e a g g r e s s i v e i m p u l s e s of t h e p e o p l e At t h e same t i m e , t h e y d e f i n e a l l o t h e r a g ­

g r e s s i v e a c t s a s a n t i - s o c i a l o r c r i m i n a l and p u n i s h t h o s e who Indulge its

in them.

Bach s o c i e t y , i t

i s ou r h y p o t h e s i s , e x h i b i t s

own p e c u l i a r c u l t u r a l s t r e s s e s and s t r a i n s w i t h w h i c h t h e

i n d i v i d u a l m ust c o p e , b u t , a t t h e same t i m e ,

I t a ls o has i n s t r u ­

m e n t a l i t i e s f o r t h e r e s o l u t i o n of t h o s e s t r a i n s - - i n s t i t u t i o n a l e x p r e s s io n s of a g g r e s s i o n . S i n c e many s o c i e t i e s have i d e a l c u l t u r e s t h a t s t r e s s t h e v a l u e s o f c o o p e r a t i o n , b e n e v o l e n c e , and c u r t a i l m e n t of a g ­ g r e s s i o n i n i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , the f a c t t h a t I f a lu k has such an i d e a l c u l t u r e

is not rem arkable.

What i s s t r i k i n g

a b o u t I f a l u k , h o w e v e r , i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s no d i s c r e p a n c y between i t s

c u l t u r a l values

(the

ideal culture)

and i t s a c t u a l

13

behavioral pattern s

(the r e a l c u l t u r e ) .

Not one i n d i v i d u a l

c o u l d rem ember a s i n g l e c a s e of m u r d e r , r a p e , r o b b e r y , or f i g h t i n g ; nor did the e th n o g rap h er w itn e ss such behavior i n h i s s e v e n m on th s t u d y . the

I t was a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e t o c onvey t o

p e o p l e t h e c o n c e p t of m u r d e r , t h e t h o u g h t of w a n t o n l y

k i l l i n g a n o t h e r p e r s o n i s so c o m p l e t e l y a l i e n t o t h e i r t h i n k i n g . I n h i b i t i o n of a g g r e s s i o n i s c a r r i e d t o e x t r e m e l i m i t s , e v e n wher e t h e p r o b l e m of c o p i n g w i t h t h e b e h a v i o r of s o c i a l l y dangerous or u n d e s ir a b le i n d i v i d u a l s i s concerned.

T h e re a r e

a number o f a b n o r m a l p e r s o n a l i t i e s i n I f a l u k , r a n g i n g f r o m feeb le-m in d ed n ess to paranoiac s c h iz o p h re n ia . d r a i n s on t h e economy and a l l ha ve a d i s r u p t i v e the s o c ie ty .

The t r e a t m e n t of t h e s e

A ll re p re se n t influence in

p e o p le , however, i s g e n tle

and i s mark ed by s o l i c i t u d e f o r t h e i r w e l f a r e . I f f o r any r e a s o n t h e p e o p l e do become p r o v o k e d , t h e i r anger Is soon d i s s i p a t e d .

P e o p l e do n o t en g ag e i n a c t i v i t i e s

w i t h the aim of com peting w ith a n o t h e r p e r s o n .

A l t h o u g h men

who a r e s k i l l e d c a r p e n t e r s , f i s h e r m e n , o r n a v i g a t o r s a r e h i g h l y e s t e e m e d , and women who a r e e x p e r t w e a v e r s or coo ks a r e h i g h l y v a l u e d , none of t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s a r e u n d e r t a k e n w i t h t h e c o n ­ s c i o u s aim of g a i n i n g a s c e n d a n c y o v e r a r i v a l .

Except in the

c a s e of t h e man who h a d l i v e d f o r f o u r y e a r s i n M a n i l l a , t h e r e w e r e no I n s t a n c e s of a n i n d i v i d u a l e x p r e s s i n g en vy of a p e r s o n of g r e a t e r a b i l i t y .

People a re ta u g h t from i n f a n c y , t h a t th e y

a r e t o m e a s u r e t h e m s e l v e s , n o t I n t e r m s of o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s , b u t r a t h e r i n t e r m s of what t h e g r o u p a s a w h o l e , e s p e c i a l l y

14

a s t i l l s i s e x e m p l i f i e d i n t h e p e r s o n of t h e c h i e f s , e x p e c t s of them.-IThe s u p p r e s s i o n of a n g e r a p p l i e s i n o t h e r t h a n i n t e r ­ p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s a s "well.

When f r u s t r a t e d by some e v e n t ,

e v e n a n i m p o r t a n t o n e , a n g e r or d i s a p p o i n t m e n t i s i n h i b i t e d r a th e r th an expressed o v e rtly .

This i n t e r n a l i z a t i o n g iv e s r i s e

t o f e e l i n g s of d e p r e s s i o n , whose m a n i f e s t a t i o n s a r e q u i t e e v i ­ dent.

An e x a m p le w i l l s e r v e t o i l l u s t r a t e

the p o in t.

One of

t h e c a n o e - s h e d s n e e d e d e x t e n s i v e r e p a i r s and t h e men worked on i t f o u r wh ole d a y s w i t h o u t a r e s t .

On t h e f o u r t h d a y , when

e v e r y t h i n g was i n r e a d i n e s s f o r t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n of t h e c e n t r a l p i l l a r w h i c h was t h e c r u x of t h e e n t i r e su p erstru ctu re collapsed.

o p e r a t i o n , t h e whole

The men o b v i o u s l y f e l t t h i s k e e n l y ,

y e t no one s a i d a n y t h i n g t o e x p r e s s h i s d i s a p p o i n t m e n t , n o r d id a n y t h i n g t o i n d i c a t e a s e n s e of f r u s t r a t i o n .

I t was n o t u n t i l

t h e e v e n i n g , when one of t h e c h i e f s r e m a r k e d t h a t h i s ^ h e a d i s very f u l l , *

u s in g th e idiom t h a t s i g n i f i e s a s t a t e

of t u r m o i l ,

t h a t t h e g e n e r a l r e a c t i o n r e c e i v e d any o v e r t s t a t e m e n t .

And

t h i s was t h e o n l y e x p r e s s i o n of a f e e l i n g of f r u s t r a t i o n t h a t

^ T h i s f a c t h a s one i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n . In providing the i n d i v i d u a l w i t h an a b s o l u t e i d e a l s ta n d a r d , the c u l t u r e not o n l y p r e c l u d e s I n v i d i o u s c o m p a r i s o n s and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of i n t e r p e r s o n a l a g g r e s s io n , but i t a ls o serves to m ain tain the s o c i e t y a t a n o p t i m a l l e v e l of f u n c t i o n i n g , m o r a l l y s p e a k i n g . T h i s s i t u a t i o n would seem t o o b t a i n o n l y so l o n g a s t h e c h i e f s co ntinue to m ain ta in t h e i r proper f u n c tio n s . Should t h e y l o s e t h e i r f u n c t i o n s , i t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e dynam ics of t h e s y s t e m would be c o m p r o m i s e d , and t h e s y s t e m would collapse. See a l s o , b e l o w , pp. 3 2 - 3 4 , 1 2 5 - 1 2 8 .

15

th e episode brought f o r t h . 1 W h i le a g g r e s s i v e a c t s a r e c o m p l e t e l y a b s e n t , c o o p ­ e r a t i v e and h e l p f u l a c t i v i t i e s a r e most f r e q u e n t l y p r e s e n t . The p r e s e r v a t i o n o f l i f e

i s a most c h e r i s h e d v a l u e .

A sick

p e r s o n i s n o t o n l y t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e h e a l e r , b u t of the e n tir e

so cie ty .

One who p o s s e s s e s s p e c i a l knowledge or

s k i l l concerning the i l l n e s s

is expected to c o n trib u te h is

s e r v i c e s , an d a c t u a l l y w i l l do so of h i s own v o l i t i o n . if

Again,

t h e s t e a l i n g of p r o p e r t y i s a most h e i n o u s c r i m e , t o s h a r e

p r o p e r t y i s a mo st c h e r i s h e d v a l u e .

The h a u l of a f i s h i n g e x ­

p e d i t i o n i s n o t d i s t r i b u t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l u c k or s k i l l o f th e i n d i v i d u a l f is h e rm a n , nor i s i t

d i v i d e d e q u a l l y among a l l

1 I t would be d e s i r a b l e t o make c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n I f a l u k and o th e r C aroline c u l t u r e s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , however, M icronesia i s t h e l e a s t known a r e a of t h e P a c i f i c . E x c e p t f o r a few works p u b lis h e d b e fo re 1920, th e only f i e l d r e s e a r c h i n M icronesia was done by t h e J a p a n e s e and p u b l i s h e d i n t h a t l a n g u a g e . S i n c e t h e end of t h e war two e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s hav e b e e n u n d e r t a k e n - - o n e s p o n s o r e d by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s Co m m er ci al Company (USCC), w i t h p r i m a r y e m p h a s i s on t h e e c o n o m ic s of t h e a r e a , a n d t h e CIMA p r o j e c t . P u b l i c a t i o n has been slow , however, so t h a t th e r e s u l t s a r e s c a r c e l y a v a i l a b l e . S p o e h r h a s p u b l i s h e d a s m a l l mono graph on h i s r e s e a r c h i n Majuro i n t h e M a r s h a l l s i n w h i c h he w r i t e s s "The M a r s h a l l e s e g e n e r a l l y do n o t e n g a g e i n p h y s i c a l v i o l e n c e among t h e m s e l v e s , and i t i s c o n s p i c u o u s l y a b s e n t i n t h e l i f e of t h e v i l l a g e . Individuals may a r g u e l o u d and l o n g and a t t i m e s w i t h a p p a r e n t a n g e r , b u t s u c h a r g u m e n t s do n o t end i n v i o l e n c e . . . The a b s e n c e of p h y s ­ i c a l violence In M arshallese l i f e is a d i s tin c tiv e c h a r a c te r ­ i s t i c of t h e i r c u l t u r e . " ( A l e x a n d e r S p o e h r , M a ju r o , A V i l l a g e i n t h e M a r s h a l l I s l a n d s " , 1 9 4 9 , p. 9 0 ) . S in c e h i s monograph i s d e v o t e d p r i m a r i l y t o a n a l y s i s o f k i n s h i p , t h e r e i s no o t h e r d a t a on t h i s n o n - v i o l e n c e p a t t e r n , n o r on o t h e r a s p e c t s of c u l ­ t u r e w h i c h m i g h t s h e d l i g h t on i t , n o r does he a t t e m p t a n i n t e r ­ p r e t a t i o n of t h i s d a t u m . When t h e c o m p a r a t i v e d a t a f r o m o t h e r M i c r o n e s i a n a n d , p a r t i c u l a r ­ l y , C a r o l i n i a n c u l t u r e s a r e a v a i l a b l e , much l i g h t w i l l u n d o u b t ­ e d l y be s h e d on t h e I f a l u k d a t a .

16

the

p a r t i c i p a n t s , b u t i s d i s t r i b u t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e n e e d s of

t h e i n d i v i d u a l members of t h e g r o u p . ilies

are large

T h u s , t h o s e whose fam­

o r ha v e b e e n i n c a p a c i t a t e d , r e c e i v e p r o p o r t i o n ­

a t e l y more t h a n t h e o t h e r s *

No one would t h i n k of e a t i n g w i t h ­

o u t s h a r i n g h i s f o o d w i t h o t h e r s , so t h a t a woman p r e p a r i n g f o o d o f f e r s some t o an y p a s s e r - b y .

A man b u i l d i n g a house or

c o n s t r u c t i n g a c a n o e c a n a l w a y s c o u n t on t h e a s s i s t a n c e of o t h e r s . He d o e s n o t h a v e t o a s k th e m t o h e l p ; he m e r e l y a n n o u n c e s h i s i n t e n t i o n and o t h e r s v o l u n t e e r t h e i r s e r v i c e s . p a s s e s t h r o u g h a number o f l i p s b e f o r e i t

Any c i g a r e t t e

i s f i n a l l y cons umed;

a f t e r t a k i n g a few p u f f s , t h e smoker p a s s e s i t

on t o t h e p e r s o n

next to h im .l The one man, a l r e a d y m e n t i o n e d , who had l i v e d i n M a n i l l a a n d who was s o p h i s t i c a t e d i n t h e ways of t h e w h i t e man, p o i n t e d o u t e a r l y i n t h e c o u r s e of t h i s r e s e a r c h t h a t i n I f a l u k p e o p l e a r e g i v e n f o o d , ’*no p a y . 1* p r e s s e d by t h e

I n M a n i l l a he had b e e n d e e p l y im­

phenomenon of p o v e r t y a m i d s t p l e n t y , and had

g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y i n e x p l a i n i n g t h i s f a c t t o h i s p e o p le on h i s re tu rn to Ifa lu k ,

s i n c e I t was i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e t o them t h a t

some s h o u l d s t a r v e w h i l e o t h e r s had p l e n t y .

On I f a l u k , i t was

e m p h a s i z e d , no one would be a l l o w e d t o d i e of h u n g e r , a s l o n g a s a n y one h ad f o o d b e c a u s e , **s h o u l d t h e man d i e , t h e c h i e f s w o uld be v e r y a n g r y T h i s is

g e n e r o s i t y w ith r e s p e c t to food

p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p a r e n t i n th e t r e a t m e n t a f f o r d e d g u e s ts from

I w h e n t h e w r i t e r f i r s t o b s e r v e d t h i s b e h a v i o r , he a t t r i b u t e d i t t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l whim of t h e p e r s o n . I t was o n l y when he became s e n s i t i v e t o t h e i m p l i e d c r i t i c i s m of h i s c o n d u c t i n n o t p a s s i n g h i s c i g a r e t t e , t h a t he r e a l i z e d how i m p o r t a n t a fo lk w a y t h i s was.

17

o t h e r s i s l a n d s , w h e t h e r t h e y be f r o m t h e C a r o l i n e s or f ro m A m erica.

Any v i s i t o r

i s s u p p l i e d w i t h a l l t h e f o o d he n e e d s

f o r t h e d u r a t i o n o f h i s s t a y ; w i t h t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g , of c o u r s e , t h a t t h i s g e n e r o s i t y w i l l be r e c i p r o c a t e d when a n I f a l u k v i s i t s h i s g u e s t ’ s island.^C o o p e ra tio n , g e n e r o s i t y , h e l p f u ln e s s , th e n , are the p r i m a r y p o s i t i v e c u l t u r a l v a l u e s ; w h i l e s e l f i s h n e s s and a g ­ g re s s io n are the t r a i t s

most d i s a p p r o v e d of by t h e I f a l u k . 2

I n o r d e r t o o b t a i n s y s t e m a t i c e v i d e n c e on t h i s a s p e c t of t h e Ifalu k c u ltu re ,

t h e B a v e l a s M oral I d e o l o g y T e s t ( t o be r e f e r ­

r e d t o a s t h e B . M . I . T . ) and t h e S t e w a r t E m o t i o n a l R e s p o n s e s T e s t

■^•This p a t t e r n of g e n e r o s i t y i s so d e e p l y embedded i n t h e p e r ­ s o n a l i t i e s of th e people t h a t even th e a b e r r a n t i n d i v i d u a l s conform t o i t . The p a r a n o i d s c h i z o p h r e n i c had t h e e n t i r e v i l ­ l a g e , i n c l u d i n g t h e w r i t e r , v e r y d i s t u r b e d one a f t e r n o o n when i t was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t he had t a k e n t h e w r i t e r ’ s h u n t i n g k n i f e . E v e r y o n e was u n d e r t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t he had t a k e n i t i n o r d e r t o a t t a c k s o m e o n e . A f t e r l o o k i n g f o r him t h r o u g h o u t t h e a t o l l , he was f o u n d w a l k i n g t o w a r d s t h e w r i t e r ’ s t e n t , c a r r y i n g two huge b u n c h e s of c o c o n u t s . I t seems t h a t he had p a s s e d t h e t e n t , had s e e n o n l y a few d r i n k i n g n u t s r e m a i n i n g , and had t a k e n t h e k n i f e i n o r d e r t o g e t some c o c o n u t s . ^ B u r r o w s , t o o , h a s n o t e d t h i s e m p h a s i s on c o o p e r a t i o n and m utual a i d . He h a s i n c l u d e d k i n d l i n e s s among t h e wm a s t e r s e n t i m e n t s * of t h e I f a l u k . (E. G. B u r r o w s , Some M a s t e r S e n t i ­ m e n t s , u n p u b . MS). The T h i l e n i u s ( s e e b e l o w , f o o t n o t e , p . 29) i m p u t a t i o n of " b a d c h a r a c t e r 1* t o t h e p e o p l e i s h i g h l y s u s p e c t , t o s a y t h e l e a s t . T h i s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n I s b a s e d on S a r f e r t ’ s c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e n a t i v e s d r o v e a h a r d b a r g a i n i n b a r t e r i n g w i t h him , d i s ­ p l a y i n g 11 s e l f I s h n e s s w I n t h e s e t r a n s a c t i o n s . Even i f t h i s were t r u e , t r a d e w i t h w e s t e r n e r s o f f e r s l i t t l e e v i d e n c e f o r in tra -g ro u p m orality. The e x p e r i e n c e of £ r . Burr ows and t h e w r i t e r , h o w e v e r , d o e s n o t s u p p o r t t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n . We were e m b a r r a s s e d by t h e g e n e r o u s and s p o n t a n e o u s o f f e r i n g s of fo o d and o t h e r g i f t s .

18

( t o be r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e S - E . P . T * ) were g i v e n t o t h e p e o p l e . These t e s t s

c o m p r i s e a number of s p e c i f i c q u e s t i o n s , whose

aim i s not t o r e v e a l b e h a v i o r a l p a t t e r n s , cu ltu ral attitu d es.

but r a t h e r t o e l i c i t

I n t h i s s t u d y t h e y were u s ed t o a s c e r t a i n

t o w h at e x t e n t t h e o b j e c t i v e , o v e r t b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n s of t h e people are f e l t ex ten t the

s u b j e c t i v e l y a s c u l t u r a l v a l u e s , and t o what

i d e a l b e h a v io r a l p a tte r n s are c o r r e la te d w ith the

re a l p attern s.

The f o l l o w i n g t a b l e s p r e s e n t t h e s t a t i s t i c a l

r e s u l t s of t h e s e f i n d i n g s .

Many of the i t e m s t a b u l a t e d I n

t h e s e t a b l e s a r e n o t g e r m a i n e t o t h e p r e s e n t d i s c u s s i o n , b ut w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o a t o t h e r p o i n t s . I n a d m i n i s t e r i n g th e S .E .R .T ., th e w r i t e r asked th e su b je c ts to s ta te

a t l e a s t t h r e e t h i n g s or e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t

make t h e m h a p p y , s a d , a f r a i d , a n g r y , and as ham ed.

They were

t h e n a s k e d t o s t a t e t h e b e s t t h i n g or t h i n g s t h a t c o u l d h a p p e n t o t h e m , and t h e w o r s t t h i n g o r t h i n g s t h a t c o u l d h a p p e n t o them .

The c o n c l u s i o n s of t h i s t e s t a r e f o u n d i n T a b l e 1 b e ­

g i n n i n g on Page 1 9 .

19 TABLE 1

S t e w a r t E m o t i o n a l R es p o n s e T e s t A dults T o t a l s u b j e c t s ........................... ....................................................................... .. Ivla l e ................................................................................................................... 2 Pema l e ................................................................... ! . ! ! ! ! * ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! , 2 Q uestions

Would you name a t l e a s t t h r e e t h i n g s t h a t make you h a p p y ? a

Response

No* of I n d i v i d u a l s

Pood Happy b e c a u s e of good f o r ­ t u n e of o t h e r s *5 M ate rial possessions A b s e n c e of e v i l G i f t , v e r b a l or m a t e r ia l R a p i d c o m p l e t i o n o f wor k Obedience Work P a r e n t a l a p p ro v a l or g i f t M iscellan eo u s

Q uestions

% of I n d i v i d u a l s

39 24

79 48

19 18

38 36 24

12 11

7 5

22

14

1

10 2

9

18

Would you name a t l e a s t t h r e e t h i n g s t h a t make you sad ?

Response Illn ess D e a t h and A bs en ce Sad b e c a u s e of m i s f o r t u n e of o t h e r s 0 D isobedience A b s e n c e o f Food

No. of I n d i v i d u a l s

% of I n d i v i d u a l s

24 16 15

50 33 31

14

29

11

22

a The f i g u r e s i n t h e t a b l e r e p r e s e n t t h e number of i n d i v i d u a l s r e s p o n d i n g i n e a c h c a t e g o r y , n o t t h e t o t a l number of r e s p o n s e s in the ca te g o ry . T h a t i s , o n l y one r e s p o n s e i s r e c o r d e d I n any c a t e g o r y , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e number of r e s p o n s e s t h a t I n d i v i d u a l may hav e g i v e n i n t h e c a t e g o r y . ^ T h e s e a r e r e s p o n s e s , i n w h i c h t h e s u b j e c t i s made hap py by o t h e r people h av in g food or e n jo y in g m a t e r i a l goods. c f h e s e a r e r e s p o n s e s I n w h i c h t h e s u b j e c t i s made sad by t h e s a d n e s s o r m i s f o r t u n e s of o t h e r s .

20

TABLE 1 (CONTINUED) Re s p o n s e s

No. o f I n d i v i d u a l s

F a lse A ccusation^ P r o p e r t y Lacking® D e r e l i c t i o n of C h i l d L a c k o f Work Ab u ndan ce of Work U nsuccessful Fishing S o l i t a r y Work P a ren tal R estrain t^ M iscellaneous R ejection s

Quest i o n ;

% of

In d iv id u a ls

9 9 9 4 3 1 1 0

18

6

12 2

1

18 8 6

2 2 0

Would you name a t l e a s t t h r e e t h i n g s t h a t make you afraid ?

Responses M a l e v o l e n t Ghost S h a r k , Octupus Typhoon Illn ess People AnimaIS F ight C hiefs P l a n e s , Guns, e t c . M iscellaneous R ejectio n s

No. of I n d i v i d u a l s 29 25

% of IInd ndividuals 61

6

53 42 38 19 17 15 13

5 4

10 8

20

18 9 8

7

2

^The o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y of r e s p o n s e s i n c l u d e d i n t h i s c a t e g o r y c o n s i s t s of impugnment of o n e ’ s a b i l i t y . ^ I t a l s o i n c l u d e s b e i n g a c c u s e d o f s t e a l i n g , d i s o b e d i e n c e of c h i e f s , e t c . e The o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y c o n s i s t s i n p r o p e r t y b e i n g s t o l e n . B u t i t a l s o i n c l u d e s p r o p e r t y m i s s i n g , d e s t r o y e d by man or r a t , or sim ply la c k in g . ■^This i s i n c l u d e d h e r e o n l y f o r c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e c h i l d r e n . W h e r e v e r i t i s u s e d , i t i n c l u d e s r e p r i m a n d , command, r e s t r a i n t , order, req uest. ^These a re genuine p h o b ia s . They i n c l u d e d o g s , r a t s , p i g s , b i r d s , s p i d e r s , b ig l i z a r d s , th e l a t t e r being In the vast m ajority. The se a r e p h o b i a s , r a t h e r t h a n r a t i o n a l f e a r s , b e ­ c a u s e none o f t h e s e a r e a c t u a l l y d a n g e r o u s .

21

TABLE 1 (CONTINUED)

Q uestions

Wouia you name a t l e a s t t h r e e t h i n g s t h a t make you angry?

Responses

No. of I n d i v i d u a l s

P r o p e r t y Lacking D i s o b e d i e n c e of C h i l d r e n L a c k o f Food I l l n e s s *1 F alse A ccusation A b und an ce o f Work P aren tal R estrain t Lack of S k i l l D eath M iscellaneous R ejectio n s

Q uestions Responses

30 18 7 6

5 3 2 2 1 6

9

% of I n d i v i d u a l s 75 45 17 15 12

7 5 5 2

15 18

Would you name a t l e a s t t h r e e t h i n g s t h a t make you a s ham ed? No. of I n d i v i d u a l s

R i d i c u l e f o r L a c k of A b i l i t y an d D i l i g e n c e 1 L a c k o f A b i l i t y an d D i l i g e n c e Caught S t e a l i n g C h ild or R e l a t i v e D e r e l i c t U n c o o p e r a t i v e i n Communal Yfo r k Lack of P r o p e r ty B e i n g S t a r e d At M iscellaneous R ejectio n s

% of I n d i v i d u a l s

29 13 11 11

72 32 27 27

3

7 5 5 20

2 2 8 8

^ T h i s i s u s u a l l y q u a l i f i e d b y , " b e c a u s e I c a n n o t v»ork.“ ^The v a s t m a j o r i t y i s f o r l a c k of a b i l i t y .

22

TABLE 1 (CONTINUED)

Q,ue s t i o n j

What i s t h e b e s t t h i n g t h a t c o u l d h a p p e n t o you? Name a t l e a s t t h r e e .

Re s p o n s e s

No. of I n d i v i d u a l s

Property^ Food S k ill Good T a l k P e o p l e , Good, P r o s p e r o u s Work P raise fo r S k ill M iscellaneous Re j e c t i o n s

Quest ions Response s Thievery ^ Illn ess

29 8

7 5 4 4 3 7

% of I n d i v i d u a l s 63 17 15 10 8 8 6

15

1

What i s t h e w o r s t t h i n g t h a t c o u l d h a p p e n t o you? Name a t l e a s t t h r e e . N o..of I n d iv id u a ls 28 16

% of I n d i v i d u a l s 66

38

3 I n t h e e a s e of m a l e s , t h e d e s i r e d p r o p e r t y was c a n o e s , r o p e , l o i n c l o t h s , f i s h - l i n e and f i s h n e t s . I n t h e c a s e of f e m a l e s , s k i r t s and t a r o p a t c h e s . In b o th c a s e s , flow er l e i s . T h i s e m p h a s i s on p r o p e r t y and p o s s e s s i o n s h a s q u i t e a d i f f e r e n t m e a n in g f r o m t h a t w h i c h i t h a s i n our c u l t u r e . In the l a t t e r c a s e , a p e r s o n m i g h t d e s i r e a wn e c e s s i t y 15 or a ,it( l u x u r y / b u t c a n n o t a f f o r d e i t h e r b e c a u s e of p o v e r t y . I n I f a l u k , t h e r e ob ­ t a i n s a tw ofold d i f f e r e n c e . F i r s t , i f one h a s l i t t l e o r no p o s s e s s i o n s , t h e r e a s o n i s n o t b e c a u s e of p o v e r t y ^ b u t b e c a u s e o f i n d i f f e r e n c e o r o f I n d o l e n c e , s i n c e a l l c o m m o d it ie s a r e home' m anufactured. T h u s , i f one h a s few p o s s e s s i o n s , he h a s no one t o b lam e b u t h i m s e l f . Second, a n a l y s i s of those r e s p o n s e s in w h i c h t h e s u b j e c t i s s a d , a n g r y , or ashamed f o r l a c k i n g p o s s e s ­ s i o n s r e v e a l s t h a t t h e y a r e s e ld o m d e s i r e d f o r t h e m s e l v e s . The s u b l e c t a l m o s t a l w a y s q u a l i f i e s h i s r e s p o n s e b y , If the c h i e f s a s k f o r i t , I won’ t ha v e a n y / o r , 1 I f someone comes t o my h o u s e , I won’ t h a v e any t o g i v e h i m . ’ 1 k ai i t h e s e i n c l u d e t h r e e k i n d s of r e s p o n s e s . They t h e m s e l v e s mav be g u i l t y of t h e m , o t h e r s may be g u i l t y of th e m , or t h e y mav be t h e v i c t i m s of t h e m . A d m i t t e d l y t h e s e a r e t h r e e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t k i n d s of b e h a v i o r , b u t f o r o u r p u r p o s e s i t I s s i g ^ n i f i c a n t t h a t a l l th r e e kinds are r e p ro b a te d . They were c l a s s i ' f i e d t o g e t h e r f o r p u r p o s e s of t a b u l a r e x p e d i e n c y .

23 TABLE 1 ( CONTINUED) R espon ses

No. o f I n d i v i d u a l s

Typhoon Lyingk G ossipk Bad Talk*_k M a l e v o l e n t Ghost L a c k of Pood and P o s s e s s i o n s M i s c h i e v o u s E v i l Doer S h ark and Octupus L a c k o f Work Abnormal P e r s o n M i s c e l l a n e ous R ejectio n s

15 13 11

9 7 4 4 2 2 2

4 5

% of

In d iv id u a ls

38 31 26 21

16 9 9 5 5 5 9

I n t h e B . M . I . T * , t h e s u b j e c t was a s k e d t o name a t l e a s t t h r e e a c t s f o r w h i c h he m ig h t be p r a i s e d by o t h e r s , t h r e e a c t s f o r w h i c h he m i g h t be b l a m e d , and was t h e n a s k e d who would do the

p r a i s i n g , an d who would do t h e bla m ing* TABLE 2 B avelas

Q uestion*

M oral Id e o lo g y T est

Would you name a t l e a s t t h r e e t h i n g s you c o u l d do f o r w h i c h o t h e r p e o p l e would p r a i s e you?

Responses D iligence G e n e r o s i t y i n Food S k ill R e f r a i n from S t e a l i n g G e n e r o s ity i n O therThings H elpfulness R e f r a i n f r o m L y i n g and G ossiping M iscellaneous

No. of I n d i v i d u a l s 34 22 IV 10 8

V V 4

% of I n d i v i d u a l s 69 45 34 20 16 14 14 8

24 TABLE 2

Q uestion:

Would you name a t l e a s t t h r e e t h i n g s you c o u l d do f o r w h i c h o t h e r p e o p l e would blame y o u 2

Responses

no.

Indolence Lack of Generosity^S t e a l i n g and D e s t r u c t i o n of P r o p e r t y U ncooperat iv en ess L a c k of S k i l l Bad T a l k and G o s s i p D i s o b e d i e n c e of C h i e f s M iscellan eo u s Re j e c t i o n s

Quest ions

of I n d i v i d u a l s

% of I n d i v i d u a l s

31 30

64 62

21 11 10

43 23

7

14

6 6 1

12 12

21

Who would p r a i s e you f o r t h e above d e e d s ? No. of I n d i v i d u a l s

Responses S o c i e t y a t Large C hiefs M o th e r S pouse Fam ily Child B rother S ister Father M i s c e l l a n e ous

Que s t i o n j

(CONTINUED)

36 13 8

7 5 3 3 2 2 1

% of I n d i v i d u a l s 73 26 16 14 10 6 6

4 2 2

Who would blame you f o r t h e above d e e d s ?

Responses S o c i e t y a t Large C hiefs M o th e r Fam ily F ather S pouse S ister

No. of I n d i v i d u a l s i1 1 34 16 7 6

5 5 4

i Of I n d i v i d u a l s YU 33 14 12 10 10 8

•4 ?h is i n c l u d e s l a c k o f g e n e r o s i t y i n b o t h f o o d and p o s s e s s i o n s .

25 TABLE 2 R esponses

(CONTINUED)

No. o f I n d i v i d u a l s

B rother M o t h e r s M other M o th er's B ro th e r M o th er's S i s t e r C hild

2 1 1 1 1

jo o f

In d iv id u a ls

4 2 2 2 2

Some of t h e more s i g n i f i c a n t f i n d i n g s of t h e s e two t e s t s , ■which w i l l

he d e a l t w i t h i n t h e c o u r s e of t h i s p a p e r , may be

indicated here.

We s h a l l r e t u r n t o t h o s e i t e m s n o t c o n s i d e r e d

h e r e f r o m t i m e t o t i m e , a s t h e y b e a r on p o i n t s t o be d i s c u s s e d . It

s h o u l d be n o t e d , f i r s t

of a l l , t h a t i n t h e S . E . R . T . , f o r t y -

e i g h t p e r c e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t s f o u n d h a p p i n e s s i n knowing t h a t o t h e r s wer e h a p p y , and t h i r t y - o n e

p e r c e n t of t h e s u b j e c t s

w ere s a d d e n e d by t h e s a d n e s s of o t h e r s . v a l i d a t e the observed f a c t t h a t a larg e

T h i s would seem t o p e r c e n t a g e of t h e p e o p le

f i n d t h e i r e m o t i o n a l a d j u s t m e n t c o n t i n g e n t upon t h e w e l f a r e of the g roup.

T h u s , c o n c e r n f o r t h e w e l f a r e of o t h e r s i s n o t a

moral i n j u n c t i o n i n th e c u l t u r e , but i s d e e p -se a te d i n the em otional s tr u c tu re Second, i t

of t h e p e r s o n a l i t i e s of t h e p e o p l e . i s f o u n d t h a t a n g e r i s r a r e l y evoked by

i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s , n o r b e c a u s e of t h e h o s t i l i t y of o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s , b u t r a t h e r by a n o b j e c t i v e s i t u a t i o n , s u c h a s l a c k o f f o o d o r l a c k of a n a b i l i t y f o r w h i c h o t h e r s a r e n o t r e s p o n s i ­ b le.

A gain t h i s

h av io r,

p o i n t s up t h e f e e b l e n e s s of a g g r e s s i v e b e ­

on a c o n s c i o u s l e v e l ,

in interpersonal re la tio n s .

i s a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t e i g h t e e n p e r c e n t of t h e s u b j e c t s

It

26

did not respond a t a l l t o t h i s

q u e s t i o n , w h i c h means t h e y

c o u l d t h i n k o f n o t h i n g t h a t made th em a n g r y . T hird,

p o s s e s s i o n of p r o p e r t y i s t h e most o f t e n e n ­

c o u n t e r e d r e s p o n s e t o t h e q u e s t i o n , r,!What i s t h e b e s t t h i n g t h a t c o u l d h a p p e n t o y ou?1*

Y e t, as p o in te d o u t , the re a s o n s

g iv e n f o r t h i s answer are j

I t I s good t o have p r o p e r t y , f o r

t h e n a man w i l l t h e n be p r e p a r e d s h o u l d t h e c h i e f s r e q u e s t it;

o r , he w i l l t h e n be a b l e t o g i v e g i f t s t o p e o p l e who v i s i t

h i s home.

T h u s , a g a i n , t h e e m p h a s i s on g e n e r o s i t y and on

giving to o th ers is apparent. F o u r t h , t h e m a j o r i t y of t h e r e s p o n s e s t o t h e q u e s t i o n c o n c e rn in g the w orst th in g t h a t could b e f a l l a person f e l l i n ­ t o th e c a t e g o r y of i n t e r p e r s o n a l a g g r e s s i o n , such as g o s s i p i n g , ly in g ,

s t e a l i n g , and o t h e r s .

is f i r s t

on t h e l i s t

I t s h o u l d be n o t e d , t h a t t h i e v e r y

of ww o r s t thin gs .* *

I n t h e B . M . I . T . , t h e o v e r w h e lm in g m a j o r i t y of p r a i s e ­ w o r t h y a c t s a r e t h o s e of g e n e r o s i t y , w h i l e most of t h o s e a c t s t o be bla m e d a r e t h o s e o f a g g r e s s i o n .

Eve n t h e c a t e g o r i e s of

d i l i g e n c e and s k i l l r e f l e c t communal r a t h e r t h a n i n d i v i d u a l v i r t u e s ; f o r t h e e m p h a s i s i n t h e r e s p o n s e was n o t t h e p e r s o n a l g l o r y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l , b u t t h e a p p r o v a l or d i s a p p r o v a l of t h e g r o u p , r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e c h i e f s , s i n c e a man who i s n o t d i l i ­ gent or s k i l l e d

causes the e n t i r e group to s u f f e r .

The o t h e r s

d i r e c t l y I n d ic a t e b eh av io r p a t t e r n s t h a t involve e i t h e r the i n h i b i t i o n of a g g r e s s i o n o r t h e e x p r e s s i o n of g e n e r o s i t y and h elp fu ln ess• T h i s e m p h a s i s on t h e good of t h e whole s o c i e t y , I s

27

e v e n more c l e a r l y r e v e a l e d i n t h e r e s p o n s e s t o a c t m e r i t i n g disapproval*

The c a t e g o r i e s of l a c k of s k i l l and i n d o l e n c e ,

a s o b s e r v e d a b o v e , do n o t i n d i c a t e a c t s w o r t h y of bl am e i n t h e m s e l v e s . itly

p e r s o n a l d e f i c i e n c i e s as The p e o p l e s t a t e d e x p l i c ­

t h a t i n d o l e n c e , f o r e x a m p l e , i s bad b e c a u s e i n a c o o p e r a ­

t i v e economy t h e i n d o l e n c e o f one p e r s o n p l a c e s a s t r a i n on the e n t i r e

econ om y.

A ll o th e r re sp o n s e s d i r e c t l y involve ex­

p r e s s i o n s of h o s t i l i t y and l a c k of g e n e r o s i t y and h e l p f u l n e s s . I n t h e r e s p o n s e s t o b o t h t h e S . B . R . T . and t h e B . M . I . T . , i n w h i c h a g g r e s s i v e a c t s a r e viewed a s t h e most u n d e s i r a b l e , p h y s i c a l a g g r e s s i o n a g a i n s t perso n s i s mentioned b u t o n c e . l One i g n o r a n t of t h e v a l u e s y s t e m of I f a l u k m ig h t w e l l i n t e r ­ p r e t t h i s t o mean t h a t p h y s i c a l a g g r e s s i o n a g a i n s t p e o p l e i s not r e g a r d e d as something b a d .

To t h e p e r s o n who has knowledge

o f t h e c u l t u r e , h o w e v e r , t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n would be q u i t e d i f ­ feren t.

F o r p h y s i c a l a g g r e s s i o n i s so c o m p l e t e l y a b s e n t f r o m

o v e r t b e h a v i o r , an d t h e i d e a o f I t i s so b i z a r r e , t h a t i t d i d not even occur t o I f a l u k s u b je c ts to in clu d e i t as a p o s s i b i l ­ ity .

2.

An O u t l i n e of I f a l u k C u l t u r e The a t o l l of I f a l u k , two m i l e s i n l e n g t h and one and

o n e - h a lf m iles in b r e a d th ,

I s l o c a t e d a t 7* 15** N. , 144* 27“ E.

There a r e t h r e e s m a ll i s l a n d s i n the a t o l l ; l a p , i n t h e e a s t e r n , and E l l a ,

on t h e w e s t e r n s i d e of t h e

the q u e s tio n concerning f e a r - e l i c i t i n g the re s p o n s e s was, a f i g h t . 3 -In

I f a l u k and F a l a -

o b j e c t s , one of

28

lagoon.

The mean t e m p e r a t u r e f o r t h e C a r o l i n e a r e a i s 8 0 * ? . ,

w i t h a v a r i a t i o n of no more t h a n f o u r d e g r e e s . relativ e

The a v e r a g e

h u m id ity f o r th e W estern C a r o lin e s i s about e i g h t y -

one p e r c e n t .

D espite t h i s r e l a t i v e l y high hum idity, the c l i ­

mate i s q u i t e

p l e a s a n t b e c a u s e of t h e p r e v a i l i n g winds and t h e

t r e e s , w h i c h s h a d e t h e i s l a n d s and p r o t e c t them f ro m t h e g l a r i n g sun.

The f i g u r e s f o r a n n u a l r a i n f a l l v a r y , b u t one h undred

i n c h e s would se em t o be a r e a s o n a b l e f i g u r e . T h e r e a r e two s e a s o n s i n t h i s a r e a , t h a t of t h e p r e v a i l ­ i n g w e s t e r l y w i n d s , and t h a t of t h e

prevailing e a s te r li e s ,

known

a s t h e t r a d e - w i n d s , w h i c h b e g i n a b o u t t h e m id d le of November. The l a r g e s t u n i t s

o f t i m e r e c o g n i z e d by t h e n a t i v e s a r e t h e s e

two s e a s o n s , c a l l e d r a g .

The month, w h i c h i s l u n a r , i s c a l l e d

maram, w h i c h i s a l s o t h e name f o r t h e moon.

There i s no c o n ­

c e p t c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e week. The day i s

d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r t e e n d i v i s i o n s , a l l of w h ic h

a r e nam ed , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e movement of t h e s u n .

The n i g h t ,

t o o , i s d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r t e e n d i v i s i o n s , i n d i c a t e d by t h e p o s i ­ t i o n of the s t a r s ,

of w h i c h t h e n a t i v e s name and i d e n t i f y f o r t y .

These d i v i s i o n s , how ever, are r a r e l y u s e d , sin ce th e fo u r u n i t s , m o r n i n g , n o o n , a f t e r n o o n , and n i g h t a r e s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e i r ne e d s . L ittle c o v e r e d

is

known of t h e h i s t o r y o f I f a l u k .

i n 1 7 9 7 , b u t h a s had l i t t l e

I t was d i s ­

c o n t a c t w i t h th e o u t s i d e w o r l d .

29

E x c e p t f o r a t e n day s t u d y by S a r f e r t i n 1 9 0 9 , 1 no W e s t e r n e r v is ite d the

i s l a n d p r i o r to 1947, the y e a r t h a t the w r i t e r b e­

gan h is stu d y .

At t h e c o n c l u s i o n of t h e f i r s t World War,

M i c r o n e s i a was m a n d a te d t o J a p a n by t h e League of N a t i o n s , and t h e ture.

p e o p l e of I f a l u k were l i g h t l y e x p o s e d t o J a p a n e s e c u l ­ A Japanese s h ip v i s i t e d the a t o l l at i r r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s ,

and some of t h e a d o l e s c e n t b o y s were t a k e n t o Yap t o s t u d y i n the Japanese sc h o o l.

D esp ite t h i s c o n t a c t , however, t h e r e are

few i n d i c a t i o n s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n , and e x c e p t f o r c e r t a i n m a te ­ r i a l culture t r a i t s ,

s u c h a s k n i v e s , f l i n t and s t e e l , t h e n a t i v e

c u l t u r e f u n c t i o n s u n d i s t u r b e d and t h e r e i s l i t t l e

e v i d e n c e of

a c c u l t u r a t i o n of a n y k i n d i n o t h e r a s p e c t s of c u l t u r e . T h e r e a r e two h u n d r e d and f i f t y - t w o i n h a b i t a n t s on I f ­ aluk,

one h u n d r e d and t w e l v e m a l e s , and one h u n d r e d and f o r t y

fem ales.

The p e o p l e l i v e i n c o c o n u t - t h a t c h e d h u t s , s c a t t e r e d

along the

l a g o o n s i d e of t h e a t o l l .

a n t , though lim i t e d in v a r i e t y .

T h e ir food supply I s abund­

F i s h i s t h e main s o u r c e of

p r o t e i n , 2 t h o u g h t h e r e a r e a few c h i c k e n s and hogs i n t r o d u c e d by t h e J a p a n e s e .

F r u i t s and v e g e t a b l e s c o n s i s t of c o c o n u t s ,

^ S a r f e r t was a member of t h e famous Hamburg Museum e x p e d i t i o n t o M i c r o n e s i a , I n 1 9 0 8 - 1 9 1 0 . The r e s u l t s of t h i s e x t e n s i v e s t u d y a r e p u b l i s h e d i n T h i l e n i u s , G. , and H e l l w i g , F . L. , A llg e m e in e s ; Tagebuch der E x p e d i t i o n . E rg e b n isse der SudseeHxpe d i t Io n * 1 927. S a r f e r t r s~ c o n t r i b u t i o n on I f a l u k Is_ d e v o t e d p r i m a r i l y t o m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e , t e c h n o l o g y , and e t h n o i c h t h y o l o g y , t h o u g h he d o e s d e v o t e some p ag es t o a g e n e r a l e t h n o g r a p h y . I n ­ c l u d i n g a s m a l l c o l l e c t i o n of myths and f o l k - t a l e s . I n view of t h e s h o r t t i m e t h a t he s p e n t i n I f a l u k , i t i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t many e r r o r s s h o u l d ha ve e n t e r e d h i s work, and i t i s a s t o n ­ i s h i n g t h a t he g a t h e r e d a s much i n f o r m a t i o n a s he d i d . Refer­ e n c e s t o t h i s work a r e f r o m t h i s w r i t e r ' s E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n ( u n p u b l i s h e d MS) of t h e s e c t i o n on I f a l u k . 2 s a rfe rt's s ta te m e n t t h a t r a t s a r e hunted f o r food i s not t r u e .

30

t a r o , b r e a d f r u i t , and b a n a n a s , w h i c h a r e a b u n d a n t ; as w e l l as sugar cane,

papayas,

p i n e a p p l e , and l i m e s , w h i c h a r e v e r y s c a r c e .

The o n l y s o u r c e of f r e s h w a t e r i s r a i n ,

and s i n c e t h e r e a r e no

receptacles

d r i n k t h e j u i c e of t h e

fo r catching i t ,

th e people

young c o c o n u ts t o quench t h e i r t h i r s t . P o l i t i c a l O rganization I f a lu k p o l i t i c a l o rg a n iz a tio n is quite

sim ple.

Though

t h e o r e t i c a l l y s u b s e r v i e n t to the G agil d i s t r i c t i n the is la n d of Yap, I f a l u k i s

p r a c t i c a l l y an in d ep en d en t s o c i e t y .

th eo retic al

s u b o r d i n a t i o n , l i k e t h a t of t h e

ties

Yap

i n the

other native s o c ie ­

d i s t r i c t , e n t a i l s t h e o f f e r i n g of

t h e c h i e f s of G a g i l . T h e

Its

tr i b u t e to

I f a lu k account f o r t h i s subordina­

t i o n by e x p l a i n i n g t h a t t h e a t o l l of I f a l u k was o r i g i n a l l y s e t ­ t l e d b y c o l o n i s t s f r o m G a g i l , so t h a t t h e p r e s e n t i n h a b i t a n t s l o o k t o Yap a s t h e m o t h e r c o u n t r y .

Though t h e p e o p le c o n t i n u e

t o pay t h e i r t r i b u t e , w h i c h c o n s i s t s of c a n o e s and s k i r t s , t h e y ha v e l i t t l e

r e s p e c t f o r the

p e o p l e of Yap and c a s t i g a t e them

f o r t h e i r h a b i t u a l l y i n g , u n c l e a n l i n e s s and a g g r e s s i v e n e s s . In d i s c u s s io n s , the

p e o p l e i n d i c a t e t h a t f i g h t i n g , s t e a l i n g and

o t h e r f o r m s of a g g r e s s i v e b e h a v i o r were a b s e n t i n I f a l u k and i n the o th er a t o l l s

i n t h e Yap d i s t r i c t ,

b u t were p r e v a l e n t i n Yap.

T h i s i s t h e w o r s t k i n d of d i s p a r a g e m e n t t h e y c o u l d l e v e l a t any s o c i e t y . W i t h i n t h i s Yap d i s t r i c t

I f a l u k enjoys a h ig h p r e s t i g e ,

s e c o n d o n l y t o t h e i s l a n d of Mogmog i n U l i t h i .

T r a d i t i o n has

^ F o r a d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of t h i s s u b o r d i n a t i o n , s e e W. L e s s a , KU l i t h i an d t h e O u t e r N a t i v e W o r l d , ” i n Am er ica n A n t h r o p o l o g i s t , LI (1950), 27-52.

it th at

i n t h e d i s t a n t p a s t I f a l u k made war on t h e o t h e r a t o l l s

and i n t h e c o u r s e of t h e f i g h t i n g m a s s a c r e d t h e i r e n t i r e latio n s.

popu­

L a t e r t h e y d e c i d e d t o r e p o p u l a t e t h e s e a t o l l s , and

a m a r r i e d p a i r f r o m e a c h c l a n s e t t l e d on e a c h of t h e s e i s l a n d s . H e n c e , I f a l u k i s t h e m o t h e r c o u n t r y f o r t h e s e a t o l l s , and t h i s accounts fo r i t s

great prestig e.

Though t h e r e i s no way of

e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e h i s t o r i c i t y of t h i s t r a d i t i o n ,

in q u iry in the

o th e r i s l a n d s s u b s t a n t i a t e d the I f a l u k i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . eight a to lls

in th is

Of t h e

d i s t r i c t , f i v e were v i s i t e d by t h e a u t h o r ,

and i t was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e l a n g u a g e , s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , relig io n ,

and o t h e r a s p e c t s of c u l t u r e were s u b s t a n t i a l l y i d e n ­

t i c a l w i t h t h o s e on Ifaluk.-*T h e r e i s f r e q u e n t i n t e r - a t o l l t r a v e l w i t h i n t h e Yap d istrict,

and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e v a r i o u s p e o p l e s

a r e mar ked b y a h i g h d e g r e e of c o o p e r a t i o n and f r i e n d l i n e s s . The p e o p l e of I f a l u k a r e much c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e w e l f a r e of t h e p e o p l e on t h e o t h e r i s l a n d s , I n q u i r e a f t e r t h e i r w e l f a r e , a n d a s s i s t th e m i n t i m e of n e e d . ^

Indeed, these i s l a n d s look

u p o n t h e m s e l v e s a s c o m p r i s i n g one l a r g e s o c i e t y o r c o n f e d e r a t i o n . I n t e r - a t o l l t r a v e l , though undertaken p r im a rily as r e ­ creatio n ,

s e r v e s i m p o r t a n t s o c i a l and economic f u n c t i o n s , a s

-*-This i s d o u b l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n view of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Yap , c u l t u r e , i t s lan g u ag e, a n d , to a l e s s e r e x te n t, the p h y sic a l t y p e of t h e p e o p l e a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f ro m t h o s e of t h e s e i s l a n d s t h a t r e c o g n i z e i t s hegemony. ^ L u rin g th e w ar, f o r exam ple, the I f a l u k i n v i t e d the fo u r hun­ d r e d i n h a b i t a n t s of Woleae , an a t o l l t h i r t y m i l e s t o t h e w e s t , t o s e t t l e on I f a l u k , s i n c e t h e J a p a n e s e had e s t a b l i s h e d a LORAN s t a t i o n on Woleae and had p r e - e m p t e d t h e f o o d s u p p l y .

32

w ell.

Many I f a l u k have f r i e n d s and r e l a t i v e s i n t h e o t h e r

i s l a n d s whom t h e y a r e e a g e r t o s e e , and t h e s e voyages f r e q u e n t ­ l y l e a d t o f u r t h e r c e m e n t i n g of r e l a t i o n s by i n t e r - i s l a n d m ar­ ria g es.

F u r t h e r m o r e , t r a v e l e r s b r i n g b a c k r e p o r t s of a l l k i n d s

of h a p p e n i n g s - - d e a t h s and m a r r i a g e s , and p e t t y g o s s i p of a l l so rts

w h i c h p r o v i d e s u b j e c t m a t t e r f o r much c o n v e r s a t i o n . At t h e same t i m e , t h e s e t r i p s a l s o f u r t h e r i n t e r - a t o l l

tra d e.

The a t o l l a s a whole p r a c t i c e s a r e g i o n a l d i v i s i o n of

la b o r v i s - a - v i s the o th e r a t o l l s ,

i n which I f a l u k e x p o r ts s k i r t s

and r o p e , and i m p o r t s t o b a c c o and women's s h e l l b e l t s . natives

do n o t view

t h i s t r a d e , however, as

The

commerce b u t as

t h e m u t u a l e x c h a n g e of g i f t s . In te rn ally , h e re d ita ry chiefs ety ,

p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s h i p i s e x e r c i s e d by f i v e

(tam on) .

Since I f a l u k

is

a m atrilineal so c i­

a c h i e f i n h e r i t s h i s o f f i c e f r o m h i s m o t h e r ' s b r o t h e r , and

transm its

i t to h is s i s t e r 's

son.

The f i v e c h i e f s a r e s a i d t o

be r a n g e d i n a d e s c e n d i n g h i e r a r c h y of i m p o r t a n c e , b u t i n a c t u a l practice

t h e r e a re few , i f any, f u n c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s between

them , as r e g a r d s e i t h e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y or p r i v i l e g e .

The num­

b e r o f c h i e f s an d t h e l i n e a g e s f r o m w h i c h t h e y a r e c h o s e n a r e b e l i e v e d t o have b e e n o r d a i n e d by A u t r a n , t h e p r i m o r d i a l g o d ­ d e s s , who i s s a i d t o have c r e a t e d t h e p e o p le of I f a l u k . The c h i e f s have much more t h a n p o l i t i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , for a l l so c ia l,

r e l i g i o u s , and econom ic a c t i v i t i e s a r e

formed under t h e i r s u p e r v i s i o n or w i t h t h e i r s a n c t i o n .

per­ Their

l e a d e r s h i p , h o w e v e r , i s u n o b t r u s i v e , and t h e i r o f f i c e , t h o u g h h ig h ly v e n e r a te d , b rin g s w ith i t few, i f any, p r i v i l e g e s ,

33

e ith e r in w ealth, h a b ita tio n ,

d re ss , or b ehavior.

Indeed, i t

w o u ld be d i f f i c u l t , i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e , f o r a s t r a n g e r t o r e c o g ­ nize

t h e c h i e f s by e x t e r n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

w ith the

p e o p l e i s e n t i r e l y i n f o r m a l , and i t

T heir i n t e r a c t i o n i s n ot a t a l l un ­

u s u a l , f o r e x a m p l e , f o r a c h i e f t o p l a y c a r d s w i t h a g r o u p of young b o y s . T h e i r m ai n f u n c t i o n i s t o s e r v e a s t h e g u i d i n g f o r c e s of t h e s o c i e t y , and t h o u g h t h e y p o s s e s s n e i t h e r po wer , nor s y m b o l s o f power t o e n f o r c e t h e i r w i s h e s , t h e y a r e obeyed u n q u e s t i o n i n g l y by t h e p e o p l e .

T h e i r a u t h o r i t y i s a k i n d of b e ­

n e v o l e n t p a t e r n a l i s m , i n w h i c h t h e y seem t o e x p r e s s and a r t i c u ­ l a t e th e w i l l of th e

people.

The s p e c i f i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

of t h e c h i e f s a r e m a n i f o l d .

A l l communal f i s h i n g e x p e d i t i o n s a r e u n d e r t a k e n u n d e r t h e i r d ire ctio n .

Community owned c a p i t a l g o o d s a r e m a n u f a c t u r e d a t

th e ir beh est.

P u b l i c w orks a r e u n d e r t a k e n o n l y a t t h e i r b i d d i n g .

R e l i g i o u s f e a s t d a y s and h o l y days a r e c e l e b r a t e d a t t h e i r r e ­ q u e s t or w i t h t h e i r s a n c t i o n .

The c h i e f s a c t a s o f f i c i a l h o s t s

t o v i s i t o r s f r o m o t h e r i s l a n d s , an d assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r th e ir w elfare. the c u ltu r e

They a r e t h e r e p o s i t o r i e s of t h e t r a d i t i o n s of

- m yths, le g e n d s , h i s t o r y , f o l k - t a l e s .

F inally,

t h e y s e r v e a s t h e m o r a l g u i d e s of t h e c u l t u r e , f o r s i n c e r e ­ l i g i o n and e t h i c s a r e n o t r e g a r d e d as i n t e g r a l l y r e l a t e d , t h e c h i e f s , r a t h e r th a n the

p r i e s t , are charged w ith the adm inis­

t r a t i o n of t h e m o r a l c o d e . conceive

of t h i s

B o t h t h e c h i e f s and t h e p e o p l e

l a t t e r f u n c t i o n a s t h e i r most i m p o r t a n t o n e .

T h eir r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

do n o t end w i t h t h e s e m a t t e r s of p u b l i c

34

c o n c e rn , however.

S h o u l d a p r i v a t e house ne e d r e p a i r ,

a c o u r t y a r d he d i r t y ;

or

s h o u l d a man be i n d o l e n t , or a woman n o t

w o r k h e r t a r o g a r d e n , t h e c h i e f s t e p s i n and o r d e r s t h a t t h e s i t u a t i o n be r e c t i f i e d .

T h i s i s n o t viewed by t h e p e o p l e a s an

e n c r o a c h m e n t on t h e i r r i g h t s ;

on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e c h i e f s who

n e g l e c t e d t h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y would be c e n s u r e d f o r d e r e l i c t i o n of d u t y . The c h i e f s c a l l t h e p e o p le t o g e t h e r p e r i o d i c a l l y f o r public m eetings. are

At t h e s e m e e t i n g s m a t t e r s of g e n e r a l c o n c e r n

d i s c u s s e d , r e l i g i o u s o r econ omic u n d e r t a k i n g s a r e p l a n n e d ,

a n d , i n v a r i a b l y , a c h i e f l e c t u r e s t h e p e o p l e on s o c i a l e t h i c s . In c o n s tr a s t to the in fo r m a lity t h a t c h a r a c te r iz e s o th er a sp ects of I f a lu k s o c ia l l i f e ,

t h e s e m e e t i n g s a r e c a r r i e d on w i t h much

f o r m a l i t y and g r e a t s e r i o u s n e s s S ocial O rganization I f a l u k s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n i s s i m p l e , compared t o t h a t of o t h e r P a c i f i c

peoples.

The s o c i e t y i s d i v i d e d i n t o e i g h t ,

exogamous, m a t r i l i n e a l c l a n s

(a i l a n g ) .

The c l a n s a r e n o t

l o c a l i z e d , and t h e y v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y i n n u m e r i c a l s t r e n g t h , r a n g i n g f r o m t h r e e members t o f i f t y - s i x .

They have two p r i m a r y

^ S a r f e r t ' s m a t e r i a l on c h i e f t a i n s h i p i s , i n t h e m ain, m i s l e a d i n g and i n some i n s t a n c e s c o m p l e t e l y f a l s e . The T h i l e n i u s r e p o r t s t a t e s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t , n . . . w h e r e v e r t h e y ( t h e c h i e f s ) come, t h e y are g iv e n a r e s p e c t f u l p la c e ; the c h i l d r e n d isap p e ar in to t h e c o r n e r s of t h e h u t s and a r e n o t t o be s e e n . ,tf Or, a g a i n , he r e p o r t s t h a t t h e h e a d c h i e f r e c e i v e s o n e - f i f t h of t h e c a t c h of any f i s h i n g e x p e d itio n . T h e n , he s t a t e s t h a t t h e head c h i e f i s a l l p o w e r f u l , and t h a t t h e o t h e r s a r e m e r e l y ^ t a l k i n g d h ie f s . ™ F i n a l l y , he o b s e r v e s t h a t a c h i e f i s s u c c e e d e d by h i s e l d e s t s o n . T h e r e i s no t r u t h i n a n y of t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s . One w on de rs w h e t h e r S a r f e r t h a s n o t c o n f u s e d I f a l u k w i t h Yapl

55

fu nctions* an d t h u s

t h e y d e f i n e t h e e x t e r n a l l i m i t of t h e i n c e s t t a b o o , 1

s e r v e t o r e g u l a t e m a r r i a g e ; an d t h e y c h a n n e l h o s p i t a l ­

ity in in te r - a to ll relatio n sh ip s. A l l members of a c l a n view t h e m s e l v e s a s r e l a t i v e s , t r a c i n g t h e i r d e s c e n t t o a n unknown a n c e s t r a l p a i r . 2 E a c h c l a n i s d i v i d e d i n t o a number of l i n e a g e s , known a l t e r n a t i v e l y a s l e b w u t a e , (wmy p 3-acet!l ) i f r e f e r e n c e i s t o t h e l i n e a g e h o m e s t e a d , o r a s b w o tae o r a r a m a t a e reference

i s t o t h e people.*^

(T1,my p e o p l e ,’,!) , i f

The l i n e a g e i s a m a t r i l i n e a l d e ­

s c e n t g r o u p , a l l of whose members c a n t r a c e t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p to

one l i v i n g woman, o r t o a d e c e a s e d woman of t h e i m m e d i a t e l y

preceeding g e n e ra tio n .

S i n c e r e s i d e n c e , w i t h a few e x c e p t i o n s ,

i s m a t r i l o c a l , and s i n c e e a c h h o m e s t e a d i s named, t h i s g r o u p i s w e l l - d e f i n e d ; i n c l u d i n g a l l p e r s o n s who a r e b o r n of t h e women o f a p a r t i c u l a r h o m e s t e a d . s c i o u s of t h e i r

The p e o p l e a r e e m i n e n t l y c o n ­

l i n e a g e membership.

i s g o i n g t o h i s ** p l a c e , f o r

When a man s a y s t h a t he

e x a m p l e , o r when he e x p l a i n s t h a t

he d o e s n o t commit some a c t o r o t h e r b e c a u s e he would be ashamed

1 I t seems t h a t c l a n exogamy i s c o n c e r n e d w h o l l y w i t h t h e c u l ­ t u r a l phenomen o f m a r r i a g e r a t h e r t h a n w i t h t h e b i o l o g i c a l a c t of i n t e r c o u r s e ; f o r w h i l e t h e g e n e a l o g i e s r e v e a l no i n s t a n c e of c u l t u r a l l y d e f i n e d i n c e s t , t h e young men a r e n o t aware of t h e i r c l a n a f f i l i a t i o n , and h e n c e , may v e r y w e l l t a k e women of t h e i r own c l a n a s l o v e r s . 2 The g e n e a l o g i c a l e m p h a s i s f o u n d i n P o l y n e s i a i s c o m p l e t e l y absent in Ifa lu k . I t i s a r a r e p e r s o n who c a n t r a c e h i s g e n e a l o g y b a c k more t h a n f o u r g e n e r a t i o n s . Hence, t h o u g h i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t a l l c l a n members a r e d e s c e n d e d f r o m a common a n c e s t o r , no one c a n e s t a b l i s h t h i s e m p i r i c a l l y . ^ s a r f e r t c o n f i n e s h i s t r e a t m e n t of k i n s h i p g r o u p s t o t h e c l a n , w h i c h he m e n t i o n s , w i t h o u t d e s c r i b i n g .

36

to face h is "p eo p le,"

he r e f e r s , i n t h e f i r s t

in s ta n c e , to

h i s l i n e a g e h o m e s t e a d , and i n t h e s e c o n d , t o h i s l i n e a g e mem­ bers • T h i s c o n s c i o u s n e s s of l i n e a g e m em be rsh ip may be a t ­ t r i b u t e d n o t o n l y t o t h e f u n c t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e of t h e l i n e a g e , but a ls o to I t s fix e d geographical lo c a liz a tio n .

L i n e a g e mem­

b e r s a r e n o t c o m p l e t e l y l o c a l i z e d , f o r a l t h o u g h t h e h o m e s te a d is

i n h a b i t e d by i t s

males l i v e

f e m a l e s and u n m a r r i e d m a l e s , i t s m a r r i e d

i n o th e r hom esteads.

Though t h e members may be

s c a t t e r e d , h o w e v e r , t h e y a l l have a g e o g r a p h i c f o c a l p o i n t , i n t h a t th e l i n e a g e homestead rem ains i n th e lin e a g e i n p e r p e t u i t y . T h is p h y s ic a l f a c t , th e n , serv es as an im portant i n t e g r a ti n g f a c t o r f o r t h e l i n e a g e , f o r a l t h o u g h o n e 1s a r a m a t a e a r e , s c a t ­ tered ,

o n e 1s l e b w u t a e r e m a i n s p e r m a n e n t l y f i x e d .

A man’ s a t ­

tachm ent to h i s lebw utae i s not o nly r e v e a le d In s e n tim e n t, but I s e x p re s s e d i n c e r t a i n o v e rt b e h a v io r a l p a t t e r n s as w e ll.

The

c a n o e - h o u s e i s t h e c e n t e r f o r most of t h e s o c i a l and econom ic activ ities

of t h e men.

S h o u ld a man m a r r y a woman f r o m a n o t h e r

d i s t r i c t , he d o e s n o t u s e t h e c a n o e - h o u s e i n t h a t d i s t r i c t a s h i s c e n t e r , b u t r e t u r n s d a i l y t o t h e one i n t h e lineage.

d i s t r i c t of h i s

I n f i s h i n g e x p e d i t i o n s , a m a r r i e d man u s u a l l y j o i n s

t h e m a l e s of t h e d i s t r i c t the d i s t r i c t

of h i s l i n e a g e , r a t h e r th a n th o se of

I n w h i c h he i s l i v i n g .

Again, i n a l l d an ces, th e

m a r r i e d men d a n c e w i t h t h e men of t h e i r l i n e a g e d i s t r i c t . H e n c e , t h o u g h a man l e a v e s home when he m a r r i e s , h i s s o c i a l p h y s i c a l , a s w e l l a s h i s s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l , frame of r e f e r ­ ence i s h i s l i n e a g e •

37

The l i n e a g e i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t s o c i a l g r o u p i n Ifalu k .

I t r e g u l a t e s p r o p e r t y , i t s members c o o p e r a t e i n econom­

i c f u n c t i o n s , and i t

i s a r e c o g n iz e d r e l i g i o u s grouping*

Th ese

s e p a r a t e f u n c t i o n s w i l l be d e s c r i b e d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n of e c o ­ n o m i c s an d r e l i g i o n , r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n t e r m e d i a t e b e t w e e n t h e c l a n and t h e l i n e a g e i s t h e b i l a t e r a l f a m i l y , known a s t h e a i r o .

The a i r o , u n l i k e o t h e r

k in s h ip g ro u p s , i s only vaguely c o n c e p tu a liz e d i n n a tiv e th o u g h t, and i s d i s t i n c t i v e

In ^hat i t

is a b i l a t e r a l , ra th e r than a

u n i l a t e r a l g ro u p , i n c l u d i n g r e l a t i v e s i n th e f a t h e r f s , as w e ll as the m o t h e r s l i n e .

The a i r o seems t o be a c l a s s i f i c a t o r y

g r o u p i n g of r e l a t i v e s , r a t h e r t h a n a k i n g r o u p b a s e d on b l o o d or p u t a t i v e blood r e l a t i o n s h i p *

That i s , a lth o u g h the n a t i v e s

d e n y an y k i n r e l a t i o n s h i p t o r e l a t i v e s of t h e f a t h e r , t h e y , n e v e r t h e l e s s , f e e l a g r e a t e r a f f i n i t y t o th em t h a n t o o t h e r p e o p l e n o t so r e l a t e d , and t h e a i r o e x p r e s s e s t h i s f e e l i n g i n stitu tio n ally .

A i r o members e x p r e s s t h e i r g r e a t e r f e e l i n g of

i n t i m a c y by m u t u a l g e n e r o s i t y .

For example, though the n a t i v e s

a r e a l w a y s g e n e r o u s w i t h f o o d , a n a i r o member i s t r e a t e d e v e n more g e n e r o u s l y , and i s him.

o f t e n o f f e r e d fo o d t o t a k e home w i t h

F u r t h e r m o r e , a l t h o u g h p e o p l e a r e c o o p e r a t i v e I n economic

activ ities,

so t h a t a man c o n s t r u c t i n g a c a n o e , f o r e x a m p l e ,

^The e x i s t e n c e of t h i s b i l a t e r a l g r o u p I n an o t h e r w i s e u n ­ i l a t e r a l sy stem r a i s e s th e q u e s t i o n as t o whether I f a l u k I s n o t I n a t r a n s i t i o n a l s t a t e b e t w e e n p a t r i l i n e a l and m a t r i l i n e a l descent. (See f o o t n o t e p . 42) T h i s q u e s t i o n i s g i v e n e v e n g r e a t e r c r e d e n c e by t h e f a c t t h a t Yap , f ro m w h ic h I f a l u k i s s u p p o s e d t o have b e e n c o l o n i z e d , i s p a t r i l i n e a l .

38

i s a s s i s t e d by o t h e r men, he c a n a l w a y s a n t i c i p a t e t h e a s s i s ­ tance

o f a n a i r o member# F o r m a lly , th e a i r o s e rv e s the im p o rta n t f u n c t i o n of ex ­

te n d in g th e l i m i t s of the i n c e s t tab o o . the a i r o , to o , r e g u l a t e s m a rriag e. forced,

Hence, l i k e t h e c l a n ,

C l a n exogamy i s s t r i c t l y e n ­

but t h e r e a re o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s of tabooed spouses t h a t

c a n n o t be e x p l a i n e d by c l a n exogamy, b u t w h i c h a r e e x p l a i n e d by a i r o ex ogam y.

T h e se i n c l u d e t h e p r o h i b i t i o n o f m a r r i a g e

w i t h o n e ’ s f a t h e r ’ s s i s t e r s ’ c h i l d r e n and o n e ’ s f a t h e r ’ s b r o t h e r s ' child ren ,

a s w e l l a s w i t h o n e ’ s own d a u g h t e r .

F u rth erm o re, the

i n c l u s i o n of a i r o members w i t h i n t h e c u l t u r a l d e f i n i t i o n of i n ­ c e s t s e r v e s t o i n c l u d e t h e m i n o t h e r f orm s of s e x u a l a v o i d a n c e tab o o s.

J u s t a s s e x u a l m a t t e r s may n o t be d i s c u s s e d i n t h e

p r e s e n c e o f o n e ’ s own c h i l d r e n , cussed i n the the a i r o .

s o , t o o , t h e y may n o t be d i s ­

p r e s e n c e o f t h o s e c h i l d r e n r e l a t e d t o one t h r o u g h

The r e c o g n i t i o n of a i r o r e l a t i o n s h i p s f i n d s e x p r e s s i o n

in the k in sh ip term in o lo g y , as w e ll.

One’ s f a t h e r ' s b r o t h e r s

and f a t h e r ' s s i s t e r s have t h e same t e r m a s f a t h e r and m o t h e r r e ­ s p e c t i v e l y , and t h e c h i l d r e n o f o n e ’ s f a t h e r ’ s b r o t h e r s and siste rs,

a s w e l l a s o f o n e ' s m o t h e r ' s b r o t h e r s , have t h e same

t e r m a s o n e ’ s own b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s . Sm aller t h a n e i t h e r the c la n or the a i r o , though i n p a r t o v e r l a p p i n g them, i s th e h o u s e h o ld , f o r which th e r e n a tiv e term .

i s no

The h o u s e h o l d , w h i c h i s c o m p r i s e d o f t h e p e o p l e

who i n h a b i t t h e l i n e a g e h o u s e , i s a n e x t e n d e d f a m i l y , i n c l u d i n g t h e e l d e r women ( o r woman) o f t h e l i n e a g e , t h e i r h u s b a n d s , u n m a r r i e d s o n s and d a u g h t e r s , m a r r i e d d a u g h t e r s , and t h e l a t t e r s ’

39

h u sbands and c h i l d r e n .

T h u s , a l l b u t t h e m a r r i e d men i n t h e

h o u s e a r e members of t h e same l i n e a g e . b a s i c e c o n o m ic u n i t

The h o u s e h o l d i s t h e

in I f a lu k s o c ia l s tr u c t u r e , f o r despite

o t h e r e c o n o m ic f u n c t i o n s or o b l i g a t i o n s t h a t i t s members may ha v e e l s e w h e r e , i t

rem ains the b a s ic

p r o d u c i n g and consuming

unit • F i n a l l y , th e r e i s the n u c le a r fa m ily i t s e l f ,

including

h u s b a n d , w i f e an d u n m a r r i e d c h i l d r e n , and t h o u g h t h e r e i s no n ative

term f o r t h i s group, i t

people.

i s c l e a r l y r e c o g n i z e d by t h e

The n u c l e a r f a m i l y , h o w e v e r , d oes n o t p l a y a n i m p o r ­

ta n t ro le

i n the c u l t u r e .

A s i d e f r o m t h e e x c l u s i v e n e s s of

s e x u a l p r i v i l e g e s b e t w e e n t h e m a r r i e d s p o u s e s of t h e h o u s e h o l d , a l l other a c t i v i t i e s ,

i n c l u d i n g t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n of t h e c h i l d ,

a r e u n d e r t a k e n by t h e e x t e n d e d f a m i l y a s a c o o p e r a t i v e u n i t , o r by t h e i n d i v i d u a l a s a member of t h e e x t e n d e d f a m i l y , r a t h e r t h a n by t h e n u c l e a r f a m i l y , o r by t h e i n d i v i d u a l a s a member of t h e n u c l e a r f a m i l y . I f a l u k k i n s h i p t e r m i n o l o g y i s c l a s s i f i c a t o r y , and i s a m o d i f i e d “ H a w a i i a n 1* s y s t e m . tio n ,

th e te rm mother ( s i l e i )

m other, h e r s i s t e r s , fath er

In the f i r s t ascending g e n era­ i s a p p lie d to o n e’s b i o l o g i c a l

and o n e ' s f a t h e r ' s s i s t e r s .

The t e r m

(tam ae) i s a p p lie d to o n e 's b i o l o g i c a l f a t h e r , f a t h e r ' s

3-With t h e e x c e p t i o n of t h e a i r o , t h e I f a l u k k i n s h i p s t r u c t u r e i s very s im i l a r to t h a t r e p o rte d f o r Truk, a high is la n d in the E a ste rn C a ro lin e s. See G. P. Murdock and W. H. Goode n o u g h , wS o c i a l O r g a n i z a t i o n of T r u k ’11, S o u t h w e s t e r n J o u r n a l Of A n t h r o p o l o g y , I I I (1 947) 3 3 1 - 3 4 3 , e s p . pp. 3 3 1 - 3 3 4 . D espite t h e a b s e n c e of a n i n s t i t u t i o n c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e I f a l u k , a i r o , t h e Truk k i n s h i p s t r u c t u r e , t o o , has c e r t a i n p a t r i l i n e a l f e a t u r e s .

40

b r o t h e r s , and m o t h e r ' s s i s t e r s ' s i f i c a t o r y term i n th e f i r s t m o th e r's b r o th e r ,

husbands.

The o n l y n o n - c l a s -

ascending g e n e ra tio n Is th a t f o r

( m a l e l a p a e ) w h i c h i s p r o b a b l y a f u n c t i o n of

t h e t r u n c a t e d a v u n c u la te t h a t i s found h e r e . In th e second asc e n d in g g e n e r a t i o n , th e r e f o r a n y woman o n e ’ s m o t h e r c a l l s m o t h e r , a n y man she c a l l s f a t h e r ;

another fo r

(t a m a e s i n ) one t e r m f o r any woman

o n e 's f a t h e r c a l l s m other; he c a l l s f a t h e r

(s in is in )

i s one t e r r a

( s i n i t a m a e ) and a n o t h e r f o r an y man

(t a m a e t a m a e ) .

In e g o 's g e n e r a tio n the terms f o r s ib l i n g s are ap p lie d t o o n e ' s own b i o l o g i c a l s i b l i n g s , a s w e l l a s t o t h e c h i l d r e n of t h e s i b l i n g s of b o t h p a r e n t s .

S i b l i n g s of t h e same s e x -

b i o l o g i c a l and c l a s s i f i c a t o r y - a r e c a l l e d b w i z i w i s ; s i b l i n g s of o p p o s i t e s e x a r e m o n g y a l . In the f i r s t

descending g e n e r a t io n th e term f o r c h i ld

(l a u ) a p p lie s t o o n e 's b io l o g i c a l c h ild re n , o n e's b ro th e rs ' c h i l d r e n , and o n e ' s w i f e ’ s s i s t e r s ' c h i l d r e n have a s e p a r a t e t e r m , ing g e n e r a t i o n , t h e r e o n e 's

15 c

is

children.

(f a t u e i ) .

But o n e ' s s i s t e r s ’

I n t h e se c o n d d e s c e n d -

one t e r m ( l a u n a u ) f o r a l l c h i l d r e n of

h ild re n .w The k i n s h i p t e r m s a r e t e r m s of r e f e r e n c e o n l y , n o t of

address.

E v e r y i n d i v i d u a l i s a d d r e s s e d by h i s p r o p e r name,

i n c l u d i n g p a r e n t s and g r a n d p a r e n t s . The g r o u p i n g of a number of k i n u n d e r a common r u b r i c by no means i m p l i e s t h a t t h e

p e o p l e do n o t d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n

I n d i v i d u a l s who b e a r a common k i n s h i p t e r m . and p a t t e r n s of i n t e r a c t i o n ,

In both conception

d i s t i n c t i o n s a r e made b e t w e e n

41

b i o l o g i c a l k i n and c l a s s i f i c a t o r y o n e s .

When a p e r s o n r e f e r s

t o h i s m o t h e r o r h i s f a t h e r , he i n v a r i a b l y means h i s b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r o r f a t h e r , u n l e s s he s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s i g n a t e s t h e c l a s ­ s if icatory re la tiv e . t o make t h i s

E v e n t h e v e r y young c h i l d r e n a r e a c c u s t o m e d

distin ctio n .

I f a young c h i l d i s a s k e d t h e names

o f h i s p a r e n t s o r s i b l i n g s , he a l w a y s r e s p o n d s w i t h t h e names of h i s b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s an d s i b l i n g s . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h o u g h d i s t i n c t i o n s b e t w e e n b i o l o g ­ i c a l and c l a s s i f i c a t o r y r e l a t i v e s a r e c l e a r l y made, t h e r e i s much g r e a t e r a f f i n i t y b e t w e e n t h e s e r e l a t i v e s t h a n b e t w e e n n o n ­ relativ e s.

T h i s i s t o be e x p e c t e d , g i v e n t h e e x i s t e n c e of

m u l t i p l e - f a m i l y d w e l l i n g s , where a l l a d u l t s f u n c t i o n a s p a r e n t s to a l l the c h i l d r e n .

A woman t r e a t s h e r s i s t e r s '

children, for

e x a m p l e , w i t h a l m o s t a s much l o v e and c o n c e r n a s she t r e a t s h er own c h i l d r e n . The m o t h e r ' s b r o t h e r

(m a l e l a pa e ) p r e s e n t s a n i n t e r e s t i n g

problem i n th e k i n s h i p sy stem .

In a m a t r i l i n e a l s o c i e ty , the

c h i l d b e l o n g s t o t h e same l i n e a g e and c l a n a s h i s m o t h e r .

This

i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e k i n s h i p t e r m i n o l o g y by g i v i n g s e p a r a t e te rm s t o f a t h e r and m o t h e r 's b r o t h e r . there i s

a common t e r m f o r f a t h e r , f a t h e r ' s b r o t h e r s , and

m o th e r's s i s t e r s ' p letely

B u t , a t t h e same t i m e ,

husbands.

T h u s , t h e m o t h e r ' s b r o t h e r i s com­

d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m a l l o t h e r male r e l a t i v e s i n t h e f i r s t

a s c e n d i n g g e n e r a t i o n , by b e i n g g i v e n a u n iq u e lv i s o l a t e d ® t e r m . From t h e k i n s h i p t e r m i n o l o g y a l o n e , one c o u l d v e r y w e l l e x p e c t t o f i n d t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e a v u n c u l a t e , b u t s u c h i s n o t t h e

42

c a s e , t h o u g h t h e r e a r e some b e h a v i o r a l p a t t e r n s r e m i n i s c e n t of t h e a v u n c u l a t e * ^ Ohief

F i r s t , e v e r y l i n e a g e homestead has i t s

( ta m o n ) , who i s t h e e l d e s t male i n t h e l i n e a g e .

male i s

This

v ie w e d a s t h e t i t u l a r he a d of t h e l i n e a g e , a n d , a s s u c h ,

m an ag es i t s

property, s e ttle s

i n t r a - m u r a l d i s p u t e s , heads i t s

r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s , a n d , i s t h e g e n e r a l o v e r s e e r of i t s w e l ­ fare*

Thus, i t

i s not the f a t h e r , but the m o th e r's b r o th e r ,

t h a t i s r e c o g n i z e d a s t h e h e a d of t h e h o u s e .

His v i s i t s t o t h e

h o m e s t e a d a r e f r e q u e n t , a s a r e t h o s e of h i s b r o t h e r s , s i n c e t h e y c o l l e c t t h e i r c o c o n u t t o d d y 2 t w i c e a day f r o m t h e c o c o n u t trees

owned by t h e l i n e a g e , and t h e y u s u a l l y t a k e t h i s o c c a s i o n

to v i s i t w ith t h e i r re la tiv e s *

T h e r e a r e o t h e r e x p r e s s i o n s of

t h e s p e c i a l p o s i t i o n of t h e m o t h e r ' s b r o t h e r w h ich a r e n o t rig id ly

i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d , but a r e , n e v e r t h e l e s s , f a i r l y c o n s ta n t.

When a woman p r e p a r e s co o k ed t a r o ,

she u s u a l l y p r e p a r e s some

T h is has r e le v a n c e f o r th e q u e s tio n r a i s e d i n an o th er connec­ t i o n ( s e e a b o v e , footnotqp^5J) a s t o w h e t h e r I f a l u k s o c i a l o r g a n ­ i z a t i o n may n o t be i n a t r a n s i t i o n a l s t a g e . The f a t h e r p l a y s a g r e a t e r r o l e i n t h e l i f e of t h e c h i l d r e n t h a n one would n o r m a l l y e x p e c t t o f i n d i n a m a t r i l i n e a l s y s t e m , much g r e a t e r t h a n i s p l a y e d by t h e m a t e r n a l u n c l e . At t h e same t i m e , h i s k i n s h i p t e r m i s t h e same a s t h a t f o r m o t h e r ’ s s i s t e r s ’ h u s b a n d s and f a t h e r ' s b r o t h e r s * In a f u ll- b lo w n avunculate t h i s c l a s ­ s i f i c a t i o n i s a l t o g e t h e r l o g i c a l , s i n c e t h e r o l e t h e s e men p l a y i n t h e c h i l d ’ s l i f e i s n o t a p p r e c i a b l y d i f f e r e n t , one from a n o t h e r , b u t i s q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e r o l e p l a y e d by t h e m other’s b ro th e r. This t e r m in o lo g ic a l f a c t , as w ell as these i n t e r a c t i o n a l p a t t e r n s t h a t a r e r e m i n i s c e n t of t h e a v u n c u l a t e , r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n a s t o w h e t h e r t h i s c u l t u r e d i d n o t have a g e n u i n e a v u n c u l a t e a t one t i m e , and i s now i n an i n t e r m e d i a t e , t r a n s i t i o n a l s t a t e , t h e a v u n c u l a r a s p e c t s of t h e p r e s e n t s y s t e m b e i n g n s u r v i v a l s *w 2 see below,

p. 8 9 .

43

f o r h e r b r o t h e r , a s w e l l , t o be t a k e n h o m e ' w i t h him .

She makes

women’ s s k i r t s f o r h i m , n o t t o be o f f e r e d t o h i s w i f e , b a t t o be p r e s e n t e d a s g i f t s t o c l a n members i n o t h e r i s l a n d s , when he v i s i t s t h e m . ter,

an d

A b ro th er,

to b acco or o th e r

v i s i t to

in r e t u r n , brings f i s h to h is s i s ­ p r e s e n t s , upon h i s r e t u r n f ro m a

a n o t h e r i s l a n d . I n c a s e of i l l n e s s ,

I t i s the s i s t e r ,

r a t h e r t h a n t h e w i f e , who i s most a t t e n t i v e t o t h e n e e d s of t h e s i c k man. D e s p i t e t h e i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p of s i s t e r and b r o t h e r , and d e s p i t e

t h e r o l e t h a t t h e e l d e r male p l a y s i n t h e h om estea d

as ta m o n , h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p to h i s s i s t e r ’ s c h i l d r e n i s minimal com p a r e d

w i t h t h a t of t h e f a t h e r , o r e v e n of t h e m o t h e r ' s

siste rs’

husbands.

T hese l a t t e r two a r e much more c r u c i a l

in

th e e n c u l t u r a t i o n p r o c e s s , f o r example, t h a n i s th e m other’ s b ro th e r,

d e s p i t e t h e i r d i f f e r e n t i a l l i n e a g e and c l a n m em b er sh ip .

The u n c l e - n e p h e w r e l a t i o n s h i p i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d , h o w e v e r , by c e r t a i n r e c i p r o c a l ec onom ic p a t t e r n s . a c a n o e , f o r exam ple, can a n t i c i p a t e

A young man c o n s t r u c t i n g the a s s i s t a n c e , i f not

m e n t o r s h i p , of h i s m a t e r n a l u n c l e , and t h e l a t t e r c a n e x p e c t t h e a i d of t h e f o r m e r i n an y of h i s eco no mic u n d e r t a k i n g s . S i n c e t h e f u n c t i o n a l r o l e s of o t h e r r e l a t i v e s a r e p a r ­ a l l e l t o t h a t f o u n d i n o t h e r k i n s h i p s y s t e m s of t h i s t y p e , o n l y t h e more i m p o r t a n t w i l l be d i s c u s s e d , b r i e f l y , i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n ' s h ip to the c h ild . M o th er-ch ild ;

Once t h e m o th e r h a s weaned t h e c h i l d ,

h e r m a j o r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o w a r d s i t h a s bee n d i s c h a r g e d .

She

h a s s o c i a l i z a t i o n f u n c t i o n s , t o be s u r e , b u t a s i d e f ro m t h e s e

44

th ere

is

little

t h a t d i s ti n g u i s h e s her r e l a t i o n s h i p to the

c h i l d f r o m t h a t of o t h e r s .

The m o t h e r seems t o have a more i n ­

tim a te r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith her daughter th a n w ith h er son, prob­ a b l y due t o h e r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of i n i t i a t i n g t h e d a u g h t e r i n t o h e r v a r i o u s e c o n o m ic r o l e s . a relativ e ly

G e n e r a l l y , th e mother*s r o le

is

p e r m i s s i v e o n e , and h e r a u t h o r i t y i s n o t a l w a y s

r e a d ily accepted.

When d i s o b e y e d , she may e i t h e r c a p i t u l a t e t o

t h e w i l l o f t h e c h i l d o r e l s e e n f o r c e h e r w i l l by f o r c e .

In

t h e c a s e o f n e i t h e r t h e boy or t h e g i r l does t h e m o th e r p l a y the ro le

of c o n f i d a n t ; i n d e e d , a young d a u g h t e r i s t r e a t e d , emo­

tio n ally ,

a s a p e e r , r a t h e r t h a n a s a n immature p e r s o n .

F ather-childj i n t h e c h i l d 1s l i f e that

A l t h o u g h t h e e a r l y r o l e of t h e f a t h e r

i s m i n i m a l , I t becomes e v e n g r e a t e r t h a n

of t h e m o t h e r a f t e r t h e c h i l d h a s b e e n w ea ned .

A f t e r wean­

i n g , t h e c h i l d r e n s p e n d more t i m e w i t h t h e f a t h e r t h a n w i t h t h e m other.

The f a t h e r t a k e s t h e c h i l d - boy o r g i r l a l i k e - w i t h

him t o t h e c a n o e - h o u s e and k e e p s him t h e b e t t e r p a r t of t h e d a y . The f a t h e r p l a y s w i t h t h e c h i l d an d f e e d s i t ,

i f the mother i s

working

i n the t a r o - g a r d e n s .

I n g e n e r a l , he seems t o show

greater

c o n c e r n f o r th e c h i l d t h a n does the m other. G randm other-grandchildj

is l i t t l e

The r o l e of t h e g r a n d m o t h e r

d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t of t h e m o t h e r , a n d , i f a n y t h i n g ,

she i s c l o s e r t o th e c h i l d t h a n i s th e m o ther. f e e d s , c l o t h e s , w a s h e s , and t r a i n s t h e c h i l d . ship to

i t i s e v e n more i n t i m a t e i f

strenuous ph y sical a c t i v i t y , fo r o r ie n te d around the c h i l d ,

The g r a n d m o th e r Her r e l a t i o n ­

she i s t o o o l d t o eng ag e

in

t h e n h er e n t i r e l i f e I s o f t e n

l e a v i n g t h e m other f r e e f o r o t h e r

45

activ ities.

I n t h e t h r e e i n s t a n c e s of c h i l d r e n ' s

i l l n e s s oc-

\

c u r i n g d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of t h i s r a t h e r th a n the

s tu d y , the g ra n d m o th e rs ,

p a r e n t s , assu m ed t h e p r i m a r y r o l e i n t h e c a r e

an d t r e a t m e n t , M aternal a u n t - c h i l d j the

The m a t e r n a l a u n t p l a y s a l m o s t

same r o l e v i s - a - v i s t h e c h i l d a s th e m o t h e r .

At t i m e s , i f

t h e f o r e i g n o b s e r v e r i s un aware of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p , i t I s d i f ­ f i c u l t t o i n f e r f r o m o v e r t b e h a v i o r j u s t who i s t h e m o th e r and who t h e m a t e r n a l a u n t . mother i s

T h i s I s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e , where t h e

s t i l l n u rsin g an i n f a n t ,

i n which case th e m a te rn a l

aunt p la y s a g r e a t e r p a rt i n the l i f e its

of th e c h i l d t h a n does

own m o t h e r . T h e s e a r e t h e most i m p o r t a n t i n t e r - g e n e r a t i o n r e l a t i o n ­

sh ip s.

T h i s d e p e n d e n c y - p r o t e c t i o n p a t t e r n , and c o r r e l a t i v e

superordinate-subordinate in d efin itely .

s t a t u s r e l a t i o n s h i p does n o t c o n t i n u e

Though t h e young men and women occupy a n i n f e r i o r

ec o n o m i c p o s i t i o n , t h e i r i n f e r i o r i t y i s

s o l e l y a f u n c t i o n of

l a c k o f t r a i n i n g and e x p e r i e n c e , r a t h e r t h a n of a p r e - c o n c e i v e d d i f f e r e n t i a l s t a t u s system .

S o c i a l l y th e y i n t e r a c t as p e e r s ,

or a s f r i e n d s , r a t h e r t h a n a s p e r s o n s o c c u p y i n g d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l rankings.

On t h e

o th e r hand, as has a lr e a d y been i n d i c a t e d ,

p a r e n t s a r e n o t t h e i n t i m a t e c o n f i d a n t s o r c o u n s e l o r s of c h i l d ­ r e n , and t h i s

p a t t e r n d o e s n o t ch an g e i n a d u l t h o o d .

In the c h i l d 's

own g e n e r a t i o n , h i s o l d e r s i b l i n g s ,

t i c u l a r l y h is older s i s t e r s ,

par­

play im portant r o le s in h is l i f e .

When t h e i n f a n t s a r e a b l e t o w a l k , t h e y p l a y u n d e r t h e s u r v e i l ­ la n c e of t h e i r e l d e r s i s t e r s .

T h i s g i v e s t h e l a t t e r a power

46

o f c o n t r o l o v e r t h e youn g c h i l d r e n w h i c h i s r e s e n t e d by t h e m . At t h e same t i m e , t h e o l d e r s i s t e r p l a y s a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n the e n c u ltu r a tio n process.

Many of t h e c u l t u r a l v a l u e s a r e

l e a r n e d by t h e g r o w i n g chjld f r o m h i s s i s t e r i n t h e c o u r s e of h i s games and p l a y .

T h i s i n t i m a t e i n t e r a c t i o n of s i b l i n g s

continues in to ad u lt l i f e ;

s i s t e r s a l w a y s work t o g e t h e r , and

b r o th e r s , though o f te n s c a tte r e d , m utual c o o p e r a tio n .

e x h i b i t s t r o n g s o l i d a r i t y and

On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e seems t o be much

s i b l i n g r i v a l r y a t an e a r l y a g e .^

T h i s r i v a l r y does n o t seem

t o c o n t i n u e i n t o l a t e r c h i l d h o o d , o r a d u l t h o o d , h o w e v e r , and there

seems t o be no o v e r t s i g n of s i b l i n g r i v a l r y on t h e a d u l t

lev el. An o b t r u s i v e , b u t i n t e g r a l p a r t of t h e e n t i r e f a b r i c of k i n s h i p i s t h e i n s t i t u t i o n of a d o p t i o n (aev am ) .

p

The i n ­

c i d e n c e of a d o p t i o n i s h i g h , f o r t y p e r c e n t of a l l c h i l d r e n having been adop ted .

T h e r e a r e two r e a s o n s f o r a d o p t i o n s

a c h i l d l e s s c o u p l e may d e s i r e a c h i l d b e c a u s e of t h e i n t e n s e d e s i r e a l l I f a l u k ha ve f o r c h i l d r e n ; o r , a c o u p le w i t h o n l y one ch ild , sire

o r w i t h s e v e r a l c h i l d r e n , a l l of t h e same s e x , may d e ­

a c h i l d of t h e o t h e r s e x .

sim ple.

The c o u p l e m e r e l y a s k s a p r e g n a n t r e l a t i v e f o r p e r ­

m issio n to adopt her baby. th at

The method of a d o p t i o n i s

She may r e f u s e , b u t i t

i s se ld om

she d o e s , f o r p u b l i c o p i n i o n would be o v e r w h e l m i n g l y

against h er.

The i n f a n t i s s u c k l e d by i t s b i o l o g i c a l m o t h e r ,

i s t a k e n t o i t s f o s t e r p a r e n t s d a i l y a f t e r i t s t h i r d m on th,

1 See b e l o w , p. 7 5 * 7 6 , and 9 7 - 1 0 0 . 2S ee S p o e h r , o p . c i t ., pp . 2 1 0 - 2 1 1 , f o r a d e s c r i p t i o n of a d o p ­ t i o n i n MajurOj w h i c h i s a l m o s t I d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t f ound i n I f a l u k .

47

and r e m a i n s i n t h e l a t t e r s 1 home p e r m a n e n t l y a f t e r i t b e g i n s t o w alk.

The aevam i s t r e a t e d a s a b i o l o g i c a l c h i l d , and no

d i f f e r e n c e s i n i n t e r - a c t i o n a l p a t t e r n s , fo rm a l or in fo r m a l, are d i s c e r n a b l e .

I t must be e m p h a s i z e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t a d o p ­

t i o n d o e s n o t mean s e v e r a n c e f r o m o n e 1s own p a r e n t s .

He h a s

become a member of two h o u s e h o l d s , e a t i n g and s l e e p i n g i n eith er,

s h a r i n g t h e j o y s and s o r r o w s of b o t h .

Adoption i s

v i e w e d by t h e c h i l d a s a k i n d of p r i v i l e g e , f o r , a s one of t h e young men p u t i t ,

i f he i s h u n g r y he c a n e a t i n e i t h e r h o u s e ,

an d i f he do es n o t l i k e t h e f a r e i n o n e , he c a n r e t i r e o ther.

to the

T h i s i s n o t t o s a y t h a t t h e a ev am 1s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o

both s e ts

of p a r e n t s i s i d e n t i c a l .

When c h i l d r e n a r e a s k e d

t o name t h e i r p a r e n t s , some name b o t h t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l and f o s t e r p a r e n t s , o t h e r s name o n l y t h e i r f o s t e r p a r e n t s , and still

o t h e r s name o n l y t h e i r b i o l o g i c a l p a r e n t s .

n i f i c a n t f o r the

p u r p o s e s of t h i s

What i s s i g ­

study i s t h a t t h i s i n s t i t u ­

t i o n of t h e aeva m s e r v e s t o a c c e n t u a t e t h e p a t t e r n of d i f f u s e d , r a t h e r t h a n of n a r r o w l y f o c u s e d , e m o t i o n a l t i e s . E c onom ic O r g a n i z a t i o n The I f a l u k economy c o m b in e s b o t h g a t h e r i n g and p r o ­ d u c i n g t e c h n i q u e s , f i s h i n g and h o r t i c u l t u r e b e i n g o f e q u a l im­ portance.

As one m i g h t e x p e c t i n a p o p u l a t i o n of two hun d r ed

and f i f t y

p e o p l e , t h e o n l y d i v i s i o n of l a b o r i s s e x u a l , t h o u g h

t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n s p e c i a l i z e d a c t i v i t i e s w h ic h r e q u i r e h i g h l y sk illed tra in in g . The s e x u a l d i v i s i o n of l a b o r i s by no means r i g i d , t h e r e b e i n g no t a b o o on t h e one s e x e n g a g i n g i n t h e we-rk of

48

the

o th e r , though i t

is

seldom, i n d e e d , t h a t t h i s o c c u r s .

Men may a s s i s t t h e women i n t h e c u l t i v a t i o n of t h e t a r o g a r ­ d e n s , f o r e x a m p l e , and women may a s s i s t t h e men i n v a r i o u s s t a g e s of h e a v y c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k .

G e n e r a l l y , however, the

w o r k o f e a c h s e x i s w e l l - d e f i n e d , e a c h making i t s

d istin ctiv e

c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e p r o d u c t i v e a s p e c t of t h e economy.

This d u al

d i v i s i o n i s c r u c i a l f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f an y h o u s e h o l d , s i n c e e a c h h o u s e h o l d i s a s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t economic u n i t , so t h a t t h e d e r e l i c t i o n o f e i t h e r s e x would r e s u l t i n economic c o l l a p s e . It

i s s m a l l w onder t h a t econom ic p r o f i c i e n c y and d i l i g e n c e i s

one of t h e f i r s t r e q u i s i t e s of a p r o s p e c t i v e s p o u s e . The men a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l c o n s t r u c t i o n work— i n c l u d i n g c a n o e s , h o u s e s , and c a n o e - h o u s e s . rope,

s e i n s , n e t s and f i s h t r a p s .

tree h o rticu ltu re,

They m a n u f a c t u r e

They a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l

i n c l u d i n g t h e c o c o n u t and b r e a d f r u i t t r e e s ,

a s w e l l a s f o r t h e g a t h e r i n g of t h e b r e a d f r u i t and c o c o n u t s , and t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f palm t o d d y .

F i n a l l y , t h e y do a l l t h e f i s h i n g ,

w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of r e e f - f i s h i n g a t low t i d e , w h ic h i s l e f t t o t h e women. The women a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c o o k i n g .

They a l o n e

w o r k t h e looms f o r t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of s k i r t s and l o i n c l o t h s . The y m a n u f a c t u r e c o c o n u t t h a t c h , c o c o n u t and pan danus m a t s , b a s k e t s , an d p o u c h e s , an d p an d an u s s a i l s , and t h e y p r e p a r e t h e c o c o n u t s e n n e t f o r t h e mak in g of r o p e . the ta r o g ard en s. for

F in a lly , they c u ltiv a te

I n d i v i d u a l s of b o th sexas are r e s p o n s ib le

p u b l i c an d p r i v a t e

san itatio n .

The one u b i q u i t o u s a c t i v i t y en g a g e d i n by t h e men i s

49

the m anufacture of ro p e . is the

universal fa s te n e r,

Rope i s i n d i s p e n s a b l e i n I f a l u k ; i t s i n c e t h e a b s e n c e of n a i l s means

t h a t a n y c o n s t r u c t i o n r e q u i r i n g t h e a d h e s i o n of p a r t s i n v o l v e s t h e u s e of r o p 6 .

But r o p e h a s o t h e r u s e s a s w e l l .

i m p o r t a n t e x p o r t com modity i n i n t e r - a t o l l t r a d e . of th e t r i b u t e titie s

t h a t I f a l u k r e n d e r s t o Yap.

I t i s an I t forms p a r t

F i n a l l y , huge q u a n ­

of rope a r e used i n c o n n e c tio n w ith f u n e r a r y p r a c t i c e s t o

w r a p a r o u n d c o r p s e s b e f o r e t h e y a r e " burled™ i n t h e o c e a n . S i n c e m a n u f a c t u r e of r o p e i s a s i m p l e p r o c e s s , i t r e ­ quires l i t t l e

c o n c e n t r a t i o n , and l e n d s i t s e l f t o c o n v e r s a t i o n

an d t h e c o n v i v i a l i t y t h a t a c c o m p a n i e s a l l I f a l u k p r o d u c t i o n . The I f a l u k d i s d a i n s o l i t a r y w o r k , and r o p e m a king, t h o u g h r e ­ q u i r i n g no c o o p e r a t i o n , i s a l w a y s u n d e r t a k e n i n t h e c a n o e - h o u s e s i n t h e company of o t h e r men. economic a c t i v i t i e s .

T h i s i s a l s o t r u e of many o t h e r

The c o l l e c t i o n o f ’ t o d d y , f o r e x a m p l e , i s

i n t r i n s i c a l l y a n i n d i v i d u a l p r o c e s s — o n l y one man c a n c l i m b a t r e e a t a tim e.

Y e t , i t i s a l w a y s u n d e r t a k e n j o i n t l y by a num­

b e r of men f r o m t h e

same d i s t r i c t ; t h e y go i n a body t o t h e

g r o v e s , and r e t u r n t o g e t h e r . ch aracteristic

G r e g a r i o u s n e s s , t h e n , i s a marked

of I f a l u k l a b o r .

The a c t i v i t i e s

ju s t described,

a s w e l l a s o t h e r s , r e q u i r e no m u t u a l a s s i s t a n c e ; t h e y a r e p e r ­ f o r m e d i n g r o u p s n o t b e c a u s e of ec onomic a d v a n t a g e , b u t b e c a u s e of t h e tru e

d e s i r e of t h e

o f women1s w o r k .

w e a v i n g of s k i r t s , istic

p e o p l e t o be w i t h o t h e r s .

en terp rises.

This i s e q u a lly

The c u l t i v a t i o n of t h e g a r d e n s , th e

o r t h e c o o k i n g of f o o d a r e a l l i n d i v i d u a l ­ Y e t , i n a l l t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s women a r e

n e v e r a l o n e , b u t a l w a y s wor k i n t h e company of o t h e r women;

t h i s a l l o w s t h e m t o e n g a g e i n c o n v e r s a t i o n and p e t t y g o s s i p w h i l e t h e y do t h e i r t a s k s .

We may c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e s o c i a l

f u n c t i o n s of work a re a t l e a s t as im p o rta n t as m o t i v a t i n g f a c ­ to rs

i n p r o d u c t i o n a s a r e t h e ec o nom ic f a c t o r s .

The p e o p le

h a v e a d e e p n e e d t o be i n g r o u p s and a n a v e r s i o n t o b e i n g a l o n e t h e i r e c o n o m ic a c t i v i t i e s

s a t i s f y t h i s need.

The b u l k of t h e eco no m ic a c t i v i t i e s , h o w e v e r , a r e n o t o n l y p e r f o r m e d i n t h e company of o t h e r s , b u t i n v o l v e t h e a s s i s ­ t a n c e of o t h e r s , and a r e g e n u i n e l y c o o p e r a t i v e .

The commence­

ment o f w o r k i s u s u a l l y d e c i d e d upon by t h e c h i e f s , i s p e r ­ f o r m e d bjr a number of men w o r k i n g t o g e t h e r , and t h e p r o d u c t s of t h e i r la b o r are shared j o i n t l y .

I f a canoe-house needs r e ­

p a i r , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e c h i e f of t h e d i s t r i c t a n n o u n c e s t h e day on w h i c h t h e j o b i s t o be u n d e r t a k e n , and t h e men a s s e m b l e a t the appointed tim e . o f one d i s t r i c t en tire

I f t h e t a s k i s n o t t o o g r e a t a l l t h e men

p artic ip a te ;

i f t h e t a s k i s a m a jo r o n e , t h e

i s l a n d i s asked to p a r t i c i p a t e .

C o o p e ra tio n not only

c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h o s e a c t i v i t i e s i n which the r e s u l t s c l e a r l y r e d o u n d t o t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e e n t i r e s o c i e t y —- t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o r r e p a i r o f a c a n o e s h e d , t h e c l e a r a n c e of r u b b i s h , o r a f i s h ­ i n g e x p e d i t i o n - b u t i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h o s e a c t i v i t i e s f ro m w hich th e r e

i s no d i r e c t r e t u r n t o t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s .

I f a man

d e s i r e s t o t h a t c h th e r o o f of h i s h o u se, or t o b u ild a canoe, o th e r s o f f e r t h e i r a s s is ta n c e w ithout h e s i t a t i o n . T h i s c o o p e r a t i o n , is i n p a r t , c u l t u r a l l y p a t t e r n e d , a n d , i n p a r t , a consequence of the esteem t h a t th e person i n ­ i t i a t i n g the a c t i v i t y e n jo y s.

T h a t i s , a man who e x p r e s s e s

51

h i s i n t e n t i o n of r e p a i r i n g h i s h o u s e o r of c o n s t r u c t i n g a canoe can a n tic ip a te

the

c o o p e r a t i o n of t h e men o f h i s d i s t r i c t ,

w e l l a s of h i s k i n - f o l k ,

as

b o t h m a t r i l i n e a l and p a t r i l i n e a l .

C u l t u r a l v a l u e s do n o t e n j o i n t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of o t h e r s .

If

o t h e r s , n o t i n t h e s e two c a t e g o r i e s , a s s i s t h im , t h e y do so b e ­ c a u s e of t h e f e e l i n g s of r e g a r d t h e y have f o r him .

Thus, d i f ­

f e r e n tia l prestige

i s an im p o rta n t f a c t o r i n determ ining the

num ber o f men t h a t

a man c a n c o u n t on f o r a s s i s t a n c e .

B o t h of t h e s e t y p e s of c o o p e r a t i v e work a r e c h a r a c t e r ­ i z e d by a number of i n s t i t u t i o n a l , a s w e l l a s n o n - i n s t i t u t i o n a l , p attern s.

On t h e c o m p l e t i o n of t h e w o r k , a f e a s t i s p r e p a r e d

by t h e women.

At t h i s t i m e , t o o , t h e c h i e f s d i s t r i b u t e

n u ts to a l l the w orkers.

coco­

This d i s t r i b u t i o n i s h ig h ly r i t u a l ­

i z e d , and i s o f much i n t e r e s t t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r s i n c e t h e men r e c e i v e t h e i r s h a r e s w i t h g r e a t a n t i c i p a t i o n and much p l e a s u r e , d e s p i t e th e f a c t t h a t th e y th em selv es brought the c o c o n u t s f r o m t h e i r own t r e e s , and t h e c h i e f s m e r e l y r e d i s t r i b ­ ute these n u ts.

The f e a s t i s v e r y welcome b e c a u s e t h e r e i s a

t a b o o on f o o d w h i l e t h e w o r k i s g o i n g o n , and t h e men may, a t t i m e s , w ork a n e n t i r e if

day w i t h o u t e a t i n g .

I t is believed th a t

t h e w o r k e r s e a t b e f o r e t h e t a s k I s c o m p l e t e d t h e y w i l l be

I n j u r e d by f a l l i n g beams o r meet o t h e r a c c i d e n t s . ch aracteristic

Another

of communal l a b o r i s t h e h i g h d e g r e e o f e s p r i t

de c o r p s f o u n d i n t h e g r o u p . g a y , and a f e s t i v e At t i m e s t h e s p i r i t

sp irit

The p e o p l e a r e c h e e r f u l and

seems t o p e r v a d e t h e e n t i r e a s s e m b l y .

i s a l m o s t h i l a r i o u s , and t h e r e i s c o n s t a n t

j o k i n g and b a n t e r i n g .

T his f e e l i n g - t o n e c h a r a c t e r i z e s even

52

m i n o r k i n d s of c o o p e r a t i v e w o r k , s u c k a s c a r r y i n g a c anoe f r o m t h e b e a c h t o t h e c a n o e - s h e d , w h i c h i s u n d e r t a k e n more a s a game t h a n a s w o r k . The h i g h s p i r i t and good f e l l o w s h i p i s p a r t i c u l a r l y im­ p r e s s i v e b ecau se of i t s

g l a r i n g c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e p a s s i v i t y and

a p a t h y t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s o t h e r f o r m s of a c t i v i t y . the

l e t h a r g y and l i s t l e s s n e s s

At t i m e s

o f t h e p e o p l e i s most e x t r e m e .

Men may s i t f o r h o u r s , f o r e x a m p l e , w i t h o u t e x c h a n g i n g a word . B u t t h e s e same men, i f c a l l e d upon t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n a com­ m u n a l t a s k , become t r a n s m u t e d i n t o t h e h a p p y , a n i m a t e d p e r s o n ­ a litie s

ju st described. A n o t h e r n o t a b l e f e a t u r e of c o o p e r a t i v e l a b o r i s t h e

s e e m i n g a b s e n c e o f d i r e c t i o n o r p l a n i n t h e a c t u a l p r o c e s s of work.

The c h i e f s , o r a n i n i t i a t i n g i n d i v i d u a l , c a l l t h e men

t o g e t h e r and d e s c r i b e t h e n a t u r e of t h e t a s k .

But i n t h e c a r r y ­

i n g o u t o f t h e a c t u a l l a b o r , t h e r e seems t o be u t t e r a n a r c h y . No one h a s a d e f i n i t e a s s i g n m e n t , b u t f i t s h i m s e l f i n where he th in k s h is e f f o r t s are needed. assu me o v e r - a l l d i r e c t i o n .

Nor d oes any one i n d i v i d u a l

The r e s u l t i s t h a t e v e r y p e r s o n

s h o u t s o r d e r s t o e v e r y one e l s e , and men s c u r r y f r o m one p o i n t of t h e o p e r a t i o n t o a n o t h e r , many h a v i n g t h e same i n t e n t i o n . When a s many a s t h i r t y - s i x men a r e w o r k i n g on one c a n o e , t h e r e s u l t i s c o m p l e t e c h a o s and c o n f u s i o n , a t l e a s t t o t h e ob­ server.

B u t , i n c r e d i b l y e n o u g h , t h e end r e s u l t of t h i s c o n ­

f u s i o n and a b s e n c e of p l a n i s a u n i f i e d a c t i v i t y , w i t h t h e e n d - in - v ie w accom plished and, f u r th e r m o r e , accom plished w ith ­ o u t i n j u r y t o a n y of t h e

p articip an ts.

53

P i s h i s a l m o s t t h e o n l y s o u r c e of p r o t e i n , and t h e m ost i m p o r t a n t male ec o n o m i c a c t i v i t y i s f i s h i n g . s tr u c tio n of-canoes, n e ts,

s e i n s , and t r a p s

The c o n ­

( a l l f o r the pur­

p ose of c a t c h i n g f i s h ) a s w e l l a s t h e b u s i n e s s of f i s h i n g i t s e l f , c o m p r i s e s most of t h e i r e conom ic t a s k s . ual f is h in g , but i t s

T h e r e i s some i n d i v i d ­

i m p o r t a n c e i s m inor a s compared w i t h t h e

c o o p e r a t i v e f i s h i n g e x p e d i t i o n s , w h i c h a r e of two k i n d s : s p o r a d i c f i s h i n g i n s i d e t h e l a g o o n d u r i n g t h e s e a s o n of th e t r a d e w i n d s , and a t h r e e month p e r i o d of d a i l y f i s h i n g , a t t h e b e g in n in g of th e p r e v a i l i n g w e s t e r l i e s .

In b o th cases the t e c h ­

n i q u e e m plo yed i s t o s u r r o u n d s c h o o l s of f i s h w i t h s e i n s , g r a d ­ u a l l y n a r r o w i n g t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e of t h e s e i n s , u n t i l t h e f i s h a r e m a s s e d i n a s m a l l a r e a , when t h e y a r e h a u l e d i n w i t h n e t s or t r a p s . W h ile t h e men a r e f i s h i n g t h e women c o n g r e g a t e on t h e b e a c h e s and p e r f o r m a b w a r u x , a c o m b i n a t i o n song and d a n c e , w h i c h a woman n o r m a l l y p e r f o r m s f o r h e r l o v e r a s a p r e l u d e t o love-m aking.

The l y r i c s

of t h e song a r e c a n d i d i n t h e i r s e x ­

u a l r e f e r e n c e s , and t h e movements of t h e d a n c e , t o o , have a n obvious s e x u a l c o n n o ta tio n .

The e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s p r a c t i c e

i s unknow n, a n d , when q u e s t i o n e d , t h e n a t i v e s r e s o r t t o t h e i r musuwe , musuwe.

( " T h i s I s one o f o u r t r a d i t i o n s ." ) 1

^ L i t e r a l l y , **b e f o r e , b e f o r e . ’* T h i s p r a c t i c e i s d o u b l y i n e x p l i c a b l e i n view o f t h e p u r i t a n i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e c u l t u r e . N o r m a l l y , s e x u a l g e s t u r e s and w ords a r e c o m p l e t e l y t a b o o i n mixed com pan y. The same p r o b le m a r i s e s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e s i n g i n g of a bwarux a s p a r t o f f u n e r a l r i t e s . See b e l o w , p. 8 6 .

T h e r e a r 6 a number of t a b o o s ,

p a r t i c u l a r l y of a s e x ­

u a l n a t u r e , su rro u n d in g the e n t i r e e n t e r p r i s e of f i s h i n g . D u r i n g t h e t h r e e m onth f i s h i n g s e a s o n , men and women a r e com­ p l e t e l y s e p a r a t e d ; t h e men l i v e

i n t h e c a n o e s h e d s and a l l s e x ­

u a l behavior is

i s b e lie v e d t h a t the v io l a t i o n

p ro h ib ited .

of t h i s t a b o o r e s u l t s

It

I n a f a i l u r e t o c a t c h f i s h and p e r h a p s

i n t h e d e a t h of t h e v i o l a t o r . At t h e end o f a f i s h i n g t r i p ,

t h e f i s h a r e p i l e d on

t h e b e a c h an d a r e d i v i d e d by one of t h e c h i e f s .

The d i v i s i o n

i s by h o u s e h o l d s , and t h e number o f f i s h r e c e i v e d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e t o t h e number of p e o p l e i n t h e h o u s e h o l d .

T h u s , widows,

o r p h a n s , t h e i n f i r m , and t h e s i c k need have no w o r r y a b o u t f o o d , f o r a l l of t h e s e a r e members of a h o u s e h o l d . p r i n c i p l e a p p l i e s to a l l food consumption.

T h i s same

Coconuts, t a r o ,

b r e a d f r u i t , and o t h e r f r u i t s and v e g e t a b l e s b e l o n g t o t h e l i n e ­ a g e , and a l l members o f t h e h o u s e h o l d s h a r e i n them e q u a l l y , a s of r i g h t .

The s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , t h e r e f o r e , w i t h i t s e m p h as i

on t h e l i n e a g e , an d w i t h i t s clu d es the

extended-fam ily dw ellings, pre­

p o s s i b i l i t y o f a n y one n o t h a v i n g f o o d , a s l o n g a s

a n y one i n t h e s o c i e t y h a s f o o d .

The econ omic i n s e c u r i t y ,

t h e r e f o r e , t h a t a c c o m p a n i e s o l d a g e , i l l n e s s , widowhood, and o r p h a n a g e i n many o t h e r s o c i e t i e s i s c o m p l e t e l y unknown h e r e . I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e econom ic l i f e it

of I f a l u k ,

i s im p o rta n t to u n d erstan d the c u l t u r a l a t t i t u d e towards

labor.

This a t t i t u d e

i s w ell r e f l e c t e d in t h e i r language.

A l t h o u g h t h e r e i s a word f o r work I n t h e n a t i v e v o c a b u l a r y , e n g a n , t h i s word r e f e r s t o s p e c i f i c and d i s c r e t e form s o f l a b o r

55

r a th e r th an to a generic a c t i v i t y .

That i s ,

t h e r e i s no word

c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o th e E n g l i s h word, work, as th e l a t t e r i s used i n t h e c o n t e x t o f , whe i s g o i n g t o w o r k . 1*

T h e re i s , t h e r e f o r e ,

no s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i v i s i o n o f t i m e i n t o t h e w o r k in g p a r t o f t h e d a y o r w e e k , and t h e l e i s u r e th e day or week.

o r r e c r e a t i o n a l p a r t of

T h i s means t h a t a man’ s day i s h i s own, t o

do w i t h w h a t s o e v e r he d e s i r e s , and among t h e a c t i v i t i e s i n w h i c h he e n g a g e s a r e c e r t a i n a c t i v i t i e s

o f econom ic i m p o r t a n c e .

A man g o e s t o t h e ca n o e h o u s e i n t h e m o r n in g b e c a u s e t h e r e he w i l l be w i t h o t h e r m e n , w i t h whom he c a n engag e i n c o n v e r s a t i o n , d i s c u s s c u r r e n t e v e n t s , a n d , i f he d e s i r e s , m a n u f a c t u r e r o p e or a s e in . an d t h e r e

T h i s , h o w e v e r , i s j u s t one a c t i v i t y among many, i s no c o m p u l s i v e c h a r a c t e r t o i t ,

psychologically

speaking.

Nor i s t h e r e a s e n s e of c u l t u r a l c o m p u l s i o n o r o b ­

lig atio n .

The a t t i t u d e

o f f* t h i s o u g h t t o be donew i s a l i e n

to the I f a l u k m e n t a l i t y , ex cep t i n s o f a r as the a c t i v i t y r e ­ l a t e s t o a b a s i c b i o l o g i c a l n e e d , and t h e n **ought** h a s no p l a c e at a ll,

for it

\

i s o b v i o u s t h a t i f a man w i s h e s t o e a t or t o

have s h e l t e r a g a i n s t t h e e l e m e n t s , he must engage i n c e r t a i n f o r m s of a c t i v i t y * A l t h o u g h t h e o n l y l i n e s of d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r a r e t h o s e of s e x , t h e r e i s

s p e c ia liz a tio n , in th a t c e r ta in tasks require

s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g , and a r e

p e r f o r m e d o n l y by t h o s e men who

have a c q u i r e d t h e r e q u i s i t e

sk ills.

of s p e c i a l i s t s *

( p a l u ), m aster c a r p e n te rs

N avigators

an d t h e p r i e s t - d o c t o r

T h e re a r e t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s

( tam on a l u s u i a ) .

(z e n a p ) ,

The a r t s of t h e p a l u

and t h e z e n a p a r e s u p e r n a t u r a l d i s p e n s a t i o n s , h a v i n g b e e n

56

ta u g h t to the

o r i g i n a l i n h a b i t a n t s of I f a l u k by a g o d , and have

s i n c e b e e n t r a n s m i t t e d o r a l l y from g e n e r a t i o n t o g e n e r a t i o n . T h e s e c r a f t s a r e h i g h l y r e s p e c t e d and a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n of t h e y o u n g men a s p i r e t o t h e m .

Any one may become a c a r p e n t e r or

n a v i g a t o r by b e c o m i n g a n a p p r e n t i c e t o a r e c o g n i z e d p r a c t i c i o n e r of t h e c r a f t , b u t few become f u l l p r a c t i c i o n e r s b e c a u s e t h e p r i n c i p l e s an d l o r e t h a t must be l e a r n e d a r e c o n s i d e r a b l e , and few a r e w i l l i n g , t o d e v o t e t h e n e c e s s a r y t i m e and e n e r g y . th e s e a r t s are h i g h l y r e s p e c te d should occasio n l i t t l e p rise.

That

sur­

The s k i l l r e q u i r e d t o c o n s t r u c t a l a r g e canoe house o r

a l a r g e c a n o e , t h e knowledge n e c e s s a r y t o s a i l h u n d r e d s of m i l e s over open s e a , are

s u f f i c i e n t t o i n s p i r e t h e a d m i r a t i o n of a

s c i e n t i f i c a l l y t r a i n e d w esterner.'*' P r o p e r t y r i g h t s and la w s of i n h e r i t a n c e a r e c l e a r l y defined. tire

A l l p r o p e r ty , the n a tiv e s c la im , in c lu d in g the en­

a t o l l - l a n d and l a g o o n b o t h - a s w e l l a s a l l m a n u f a c t u r e d

goods, i s

owned by t h e c h i e f s .

F u n c t i o n a l l y , ho w e v e r , we may

■4?he M i c r o n e s i a n a t o l l s a r e f l a t and t i n y , so t h a t t h e y a r e n o t v i s i b l e from a d i s t a n c e . T h i s makes t h e n a g i g a t i o n p r o b le m a d i f f i c u l t o n e , i n d e e d , A U. S. Mavy c a p t a i n , f o r e x a m p l e , r e ­ p o r t e d t o t h e w r i t e r t h a t he r e f u s e s t o s a i l t h e M i c r o n e s i a n w a t e r s w i t h o u t R a d a r , s i n c e h i s compass a l o n e i s n o t a d e q u a t e f o r s a f e n a v i g a t i o n , a s t h e s l i g h t e s t d e f l e c t i o n of t h e n e e d l e i s s u f f i c i e n t t o s end t h e s h i p many m i l e s o f f i t s c o u r s e . T h i s a c t u a l l y h a p p e n e d i n t h e c a s e of t h e s h i p t h a t b r o u g h t Dr. B u r r o w s and t h e w r i t e r b a c k t o Guam. The n a t i v e p a l u , on t h e o t h e r h an d , has n e i t h e r com pass, nor r a d a r , nor n a v i g a t i o n c h a r t s , nor s e x ta n t. His o n l y wi n s t r u m e n t s ® a r e h i s knowledge o f t h e s t a r s , s u n , moon, w i n d s , and c u r r e n t s , a s w e l l a s s u c h p h y s i c a l s i g n s a s e x p o s e d r e e f s , f l y i n g b i r d s , and s c h o o l s of porpoise s .

57

d is tin g u is h fiv e These a r e ?

(1 ) f r e e

ag e p r o p e r t y , or p riv a te

k in d s of p r o p e r t y i n term s of u s u f r u c t .

(4)

property,

(2) p u b l i c p r o p e r t y ,

(3) l i n e ­

p a t r i l i n e a l g r o u p p r o p e r t y , and (5) p e r s o n a l

p roperty.^

F re e p r o p e r t y in c lu d e d a l l u n c u l t i v a t e d land i n the b u s h , an d may be u s e d by a n y o n e .

P u b lic p ro p e rty com prises

t h o s e o b j e c t s t h a t a r e m a n u f a c t u r e d and u s e d c o o p e r a t i v e l y , an d i n c l u d e s e i n s , f i s h - t r a p s , ca noe s h e d s , and t h e p u b l i c m eetin g house

(f a n a p ) .

Lineage p r o p e r ty in c lu d e s the houses

and t a r o - p a t c h e s , n e i t h e r of w h i c h may be a l i e n a t e d , b u t w h i c h /

rem ain i n the lin e a g e i n p e r p e tu ity .

P a t r i l i n e a l group prop­

e r t y i n c l u d e s c o c o n u t and b r e a d f r u i t t r e e s .

E a c h of t h e s e

i s owned by a g r o u p o f b r o t h e r s and t h e i r s o n s , and i s n o n tra n sferab le.2

P erso n al pro p erty includes canoes, to o ls ,

r o p e , c l o t h e s , and p e r s o n a l e f f e c t s ,

such as c l o t h e s , b a s k e ts ,

- * - S a r f e r t ! s d i v i s i o n of p r o p e r t y i n t o p u b l i c , f a m i l y , and p r i ­ v a t e d o e s n o t do j u s t i c e t o t h e a c t u a l c o m p l e x i t y of p r o p e r t y ow nerships. F u rth e rm o re , h is a s s e r t i o n t h a t a t m a rria g e , the w ife g e t s h e r t a r o from th e p a tc h of h e r h u s b a n d 's f a m i l y , is f a ls e . ^ T h i s , a g a i n shows t h e b i l a t e r a l e l e m e n t i n I f a l u k s o c i a l organization. T h is d i s c u s s i o n of p r o p e r ty has follow ed the o r t h o d o x a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s of g r o u p i n h e r i t a n c e . But t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s i s ope n t o a s e r i o u s c o n c e p t u a l critiq u e. F o r s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g communal p r o p e r t y i n p r i m ­ i t i v e s o c i e t i e s i s n o t s u b j e c t t o l a w s of i n h e r i t a n c e , a s we commonly u n d e r s t a n d t h a t t e r m . A hou se or f r u i t - b e a r i n g t r e e , o r a t a r o - p a t c h , i s u s e d by members of a h o u s e h o l d who c o n t i n u e t o do so r e g a r d l e s s of t h e d e a t h of an y p e r s o n . The g r o u p i s c o n t i n u o u s , r e g a r d l e s s o f ch a n g e s i n I t s member­ s h i p t h r o u g h b i r t h o r d e a t h , and i t i s t h e g r o u p t h a t h a s l e g a l r i g h t s i n th e m , t h e s e r i g h t s b e i n g u n a f f e c t e d by c h a n g e s i n t h e m e m b e r s h i p of t h e g r o u p . Inheritance, th erefo re, is a f u n c t i o n o f b i r t h r a t h e r t h a n of d e a t h . T h a t i s , i t i s n o t t h e d e a t h of a p e r s o n t h a t c o n f e r s on o t h e r s t h e o w n e r s h i p of h i s p r o p e r t y , but r a t h e r i t i s th e f a c t of b i r t h i n t o a g r o u p t h a t c o n f e r s on t h e p e r s o n t h e r i g h t s t o use t h e group p ro p e rty .

58

etc • Two p o l a r a t t i t u d e s c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e a t t i t u d e t o w a r d property;

the

p u n c t i l i o u s n e s s w i t h w hich a p erso n r e f r a i n s

f r o m u s i n g a n o t h e r ’ s r e a l p r o p e r t y , on t h e one h a n d , and t h e p a t t e r n e d g e n e r o s i t y i n p r o p e r t y , on t h e o t h e r .

For exam ple,

t h o u g h c o c o n u t s and t a r o a r e o v e r a b u n d a n t , a man w i l l n e v e r ta k e a coconut from a t r e e

t h a t doe s n o t b e l o n g t o him , and a

woman w i l l n o t t a k e t a r o f r o m a p a t c h w h i c h i s n o t h e r s , w i t h ­ o u t t h e c o n s e n t of one of t h e o w n e r s . t h i s group p ro p e rty are f e l t

Proprietary r i g h t s in

s t r o n g l y , and p e o p l e a r e j e a l o u s

of t h e s e r i g h t s . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , one i s e x p e c t e d t o be g e n e r o u s w i t h h i s m ova ble p r o p e r t y .

Thou gh c a n o e s , f o r e x a m p l e , a r e owned

i n d i v i d u a l l y , a n y one may b o r ro w a n o t h e r ’ s c a n o e , p r e f e r a b l y w ith h i s knowledge, b u t even w ith o u t i t . to o ls, tra p s,

and o t h e r o b j e c t s .

The same a p p l i e s t o

G e n e r o s i t y i s most a p p a r e n t

w i t h r e s p e c t t o f o o d ; t h e s h a r i n g and ex ch an g e of f o o d b e i n g a u n iv ersal p attern . I f a l u k , t h e n , i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by economic e q u a l i t y , and b y t h e a b s e n c e o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s b a s e d on w e a l t h .

Though

t h e s i z e of t a r o p a t c h e s and c o c o n u t g r o v e s i s n o t a l w a y s t h e s a m e , t a r o and c o c o n u t s a r e so a b u n d a n t t h a t any i n e q u a l i t y is unim portant.

Some may have more movable p r o p e r t y t h a n o t h e r s ,

b u t t h i s i n e q u a l i t y i s a f u n c t i o n of d i l i g e n c e and d i f f e r e n t i a l p e r s o n a l m o t i v a t i o n , s i n c e e v e r y o n e knows t h e t e c h n i q u e of t h e i r m a n u f a c t u r e , and may a c c u m u l a t e much or l i t t l e , a s he d esires. ture

Hence, a lth o u g h p r o p e r ty i s a d e s id e ra tu m , the c u l ­

d o e s n o t p e r m i t t h e b u l k of t h e p r o p e r t y t o f a l l i n t o

59

t h e hands of a few , nor does i t f r u s t r a t e it.

F u rth e rm o re , the a t t i t u d e

i s e s s e n t i a l l y pragm atic. possess w ealth,

attem pts to a t t a i n

of t h e n a t i v e s t o w a r d s p r o p e r t y

A l t h o u g h i n ec onom ic t e r m s t h e y

p s y c h o lo g ic a lly th e y p o ssess only p r o p e rty ,

f o r p o s s e s s i o n s a re d e s ir e d only f o r u s e , not f o r p r e s t i g e v a l u e o r f o r r e a s o n s of * c o n s p i c u o u s c o n s u m p t i o n ” .

What i s

respected in th is cultu re

i s not p o s s e s s i o n , as such, b u t the

s k i l l s th a t are r e q u is ite

t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n of p o s s e s s i o n s .

E c onomic a c c u l t u r a t i o n , h o w e v e r , s e r v e s t o c h a n g e t h i s ab o rig in al p attern .

W e s t e r n g o o d s , i n t r o d u c e d by J a p a n e s e and

A m e r i c a n s , a r e owned b y some and n o t by o t h e r s , and t h e i r own­ e r s h i p i n c u r s t h e a d m i r a t i o n and e n v y of t h e o t h e r s . lig h t

This sheds

on t h e e c o n o m ic law of s c a r c i t y a s a p r i m a r y c o n t r i b u t o r

t o economic v a l u e .

One m ig h t p r e d i c t t h a t a s l o n g a s r e a l p r o p ­

e r t y r e m a i n s i n t h e l i n e a g e , and movable p r o p e r t y c a n be a c ­ q u i r e d by a n y one w i t h t h e r e q u i s i t e s k i l l s , t h e p a t t e r n of p r o p e r t y w i l l c r e a t e no p s y c h o l o g i c a l o r s o c i a l t e n s i o n s ; how­ ever, if

t h e s y s t e m o f l a n d t e n u r e s h o u l d be c h a n g e d , so a s t o

e n a b l e some t o a c c u m u l a t e more a t t h e e x p e n s e of o t h e r s , or i f th e a c c u l t u r a t i o n p ro c e ss should r e s u l t i n the d i f f e r e n t i a l a c c u m u la tio n of W estern goods, te n s i o n s w i l l ensue. T h e r e a r e two f a c t o r s , t h e n , t h a t have s e r v e d a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y t o e l i m i n a t e e conom ic t e n s i o n s on I f a l u k j

the c u l ­

t u r a l l y o r d a i n e d p a t t e r n of c o o p e r a t i o n and g e n e r o s i t y , and t h e a b u n d a n c e of s o c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e g o o d s , making i t f o r a l l t o s h a re i n them. omy, r e v e a l i n g l i t t l e ,

possible

T h is, th e n , i s a co o p erativ e econ­

i f a n y , c o m p e t i t i o n f o r economic goods

60

a nd s e r v i c e s .

S i n c e p r e s t i g e i s n o t a f u n c t i o n of g r e a t w e a l t h ,

t h e r e i s no i n c e n t i v e t o a c c u m u l a t e p r o p e r t y a t t h e e x p e n s e of o t h e r members o f t h e s o c i e t y , and s i n c e t h e o n l y d i v i s i o n of l a b o r i s

s e x u a l , t h e r e i s no h i e r a r c h y of s o c i a l c l a s s e s *

F u r th e r m o r e , s in ce each household i s econom ically s e l f - s u f ­ fic ie n t,

no man i s em ployed by a n o t h e r , so t h a t t h e r e i s no

d i v i s i o n i n t o e m p l o y e r and employee c l a s s e s , w i t h t h e concom­ itan t h o stilitie s

and a g g r e s s i o n t h a t s u c h a s t r u c t u r e i n d u c e s .

F i n a l l y , t h e k i n s h i p s y s t e m and r u l e s of r e s i d e n c e , as has a l ­ r e a d y b e e n o b s e r v e d , p r e c l u d e f e e l i n g s of a n x i e t y c o n c e r n i n g p o s s i b l e e c o n o m ic d e p r i v a t i o n a s a r e s u l t of i l l n e s s , or death.

In s h o r t , th e re is l i t t l e ,

ec o n o m i c o r g a n i z a t i o n t o g i v e r i s e in secu rity ,

old age,

i f a n y t h i n g , i n the

t o f e e l i n g s of a g g r e s s i o n ,

or a n x ie ty .^

R eligion As i s t h e c a s e i n many c u l t u r e s , t h e c o n c e p t of World C reation is absent in Ifa lu k . i n to b e in g , the c h ie f s ^ ways e x i s t e d .

s a y t h a t t h e y do n o t know; i t h a s a l ­

I n t h e r e m o te p a s t a p r i m o r d i a l r a o t h e r - g o d d e s s ,

hegobub, appeared.

■krhere i s n o t f o r Ponape I n a com petitive i g e Economy” ,

When a s k e d how t h e w o r l d came

She had t h r e e c h i l d r e n s

A l u e l a p , whom she

e v e n t h e k i n d of c o m p e t i t i o n Bascom d e s c r i b e s which p r e s t i g e food i s c o n tr ib u te d to f e a s t s in sp irit. See W i l l i a m R. Bascom; ” P o n ap ean P r e s t ­ S o u t h w e s t J o u r n a l of A n t h r o p o l o g y , IV ( 1 9 4 8 ) , 2 1 1 - 2 2 1 .

^The f o l l o w i n g a c c o u n t p e o p l e a r e i g n o r a n t of tio n s concerning th ese The i n f o r m a t i o n I s n o t i s a f u n c t i o n of s h e e r

was r e c e i v e d f r o m t h e c h i e f s . The t h i s I n f o r m a t i o n , and r e s p o n d t o q u e s ­ p r o b l e m s w i t h c o n f e s s i o n s of i g n o r a r c e . t a b o o , h o w e v e r , and t h e i r i g n o r a n c e , in d ifferen ce.

61

o r d a i n e d a s r u l e r of t h e s k y ; S o l a l , whom she named r u l e r of t h e o c e a n an d of t h e n e t h e r w o r l d ; and a d a u g h t e r , A u t r a n , who was l a t e r t o c r e a t e t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e C a r o l i n e s 1 The n a t i v e s ha ve no c o n c e p t of a cosmos o r of a u n i ­ verse.

There i s la n d

bw anifalu

(literally ,

(f a l u ) , and o c e a n (t a t ) .

The t e r m

a l l t h e l a n d s ) i s t h e i r most i n c l u s i v e

g e o m o r p h i c f r a m e of r e f e r e n c e , b u t i t i s a d e s c r i p t i v e , r a t h e r th a n a co n cep tu al term . crete

islan d s,

T h a t i s , t h e r e a r e a number of d i s ­

s e p a r a t e d by w a t e r , b u t t h e r e i s no u n i t i n g of

these d is c re te e n t i t i e s

i n t o one c o n c e p t u a l w h o l e .

Before con­

t a c t w i t h t h e J a p a n e s e t h e n a t i v e kn ow ledge of t h e w o r ld was l i m i t e d t o t h e C a r o l i n e s and t o Guam, w h i c h t h e y c a l l I l i g a l l f a l u (lite ra lly ,

the lands th a t are h e r e ) .

Europe, which i s th e

g e n e r i c t e r m f o r a l l t h e ^ c i v i l i z e d ’5 c o u n t r i e s o f w h i c h t h e y ha ve h e a r d , e x i s t s o u t s i d e of t h e C a r o l i n e s , b u t t h e y know n o t w h ere •

^ r o g e l i g a r , the p r i e s t - d o c t o r , has q u i t e a d i f f e r e n t v e r s i o n o f t h i s m y t h , and i s i n d i s a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e a c c o u n t of t h e c h i e f s on o t h e r m a t t e r s , a s w e l l . T h i s i n v o l v e s what H e r s k o v i t s h a s c a l l e d t h e q u e s t i o n of e t h n o g r a p h i c t r u t h n , i n a n e x t r e m e f o r m . B or h e r e i s more t h a n t h e p r o b le m of on6 i n f o r ­ mant d i s a g r e e i n g w i t h a n o t h e r , t h u s i n d i c a t i n g v a r i a b i l i t y i n a tra d itio n . I t i s r a t h e r a c a s e of c o m p l e t e d i s a g r e e m e n t b e ­ t w e e n t h e o n l y p o s s i b l e a u t h o r i t i e s - - t h e p o l i t i c a l and r e ­ l i g i o u s - “ b o t h p r o f e s s i n g c o m p e te n c e i n t h e s e m a t t e r s . The i n t e r p r e t e r was f u l l y c o g n i z a n t of t h i s d i f f i c u l t y , and r e ­ s o l v e d i t by s a y i n g t h a t t h e c h i e f s ’ a c c o u n t was g e n u i n e , w h i l s t t h e o t h e r was s p u r i o u s . His r e s o l u t i o n was a d o p t e d a s a g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e , and w h e r e v e r t h e r e a r e c o n f l i c t i n g a c ­ c o u n ts , t h a t of the c h i e f s i s accepted as norm ative. I n any e v e n t , t h e i g n o r a n c e of t h e p e o p l e , t h e d i s a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n t h e two a u t h o r i t i e s , and t h e l a c k of a s s u r a n c e w i t h w h i c h t h e c h i e f s d i s c u s s e d t h e s e m a t t e r s among t h e m s e l v e s , a l l i n d i c a t e t h e r e l a t i v e u n i m p o r t a n c e o f c o s m o l o g i c a l p r o b le m s i n t h i s cu ltu re.

62

The s k y i s a m a t e r i a l o b j e c t , i n t h e s h a p e of a dome, t h a t meets th e ocean a t i t s e x t r e m i t i e s .

Since the world i s

b o u n d e d , and t h e s k y i s a m a t e r i a l , i m p e r m e a b le o b j e c t , N o r t h an d S o u t h a r 6 n o t d i r e c t i o n a l i n d i c a t o r s , b u t a r e a c t u a l p h y s i ­ c a l p l a c e s , w h i c h c a n be r e a c h e d i f one t r a v e l s f a r e n o u g h , t h o u g h no n a t i v e h a s e v e r r e a c h e d them.^The h e a v e n l y b o d i e s a r e f i x e d t o t h e sk y and move a l o n g it,

much a s a t r a i n moves on i t s t r a c k s , so t h a t t h e s u n , f o r

exam ple, has i t s

i a l , or p a t h , w hich i t f o llo w s e v e ry day.

The s u n , moon, and s t a r s a l l hav e t h e same f u n c t i o n - - t o p r o ­ vide l i g h t .

Were t h e r e no h e a v e n l y b o d i e s , p e o p l e would d i e ,

s i n c e t h e y w ould ha ve no l i g h t by w h i c h t o w o r k .

The c a u s e s

o f s u c h phenomena a s r a i n , w i n d , t h u n d e r , and l i g h t n i n g a r e u n ­ known.

I t i s not r e a l i z e d t h a t r a i n i s n ecessary fo r the

g r o w t h of v e g e t a t i o n . The p e o p l e of t h e C a r o l i n e s were c r e a t e d by

A u t r a n .^

T h e r e i s a s y e t no e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e c r e a t i o n of t h e p e o p l e s t h e n a t i v e s h a v e met s i n c e c o n t a c t .

O r i g i n a l l y man was i m m o r t a l ,

b u t t h r o u g h t h e m a c h i n a t i o n s of a w ic k e d s u p e r n a t u r a l woman, he became m o r t a l .

Not o n l y i s A u t r a n t h e m o t h e r g o d d e s s , she

i s t h e c u l t u r e - h e r o i n e a s w e l l , f o r she t a u g h t t h e p e o p l e t o

^The n a t i v e s wer e e a g e r t o know i f t h e A m e r ic a n s had e v e r r e a c h e d th em o r i f t h e y had e v e r e n t e r e d t h e s k y . I t seems t h a t t h e J a p a n e s e had t o l d th em t h a t t h e y had e n t e r e d t h e l a n d o f t h e s ky i n t h e i r a i r p l a n e s . %3he, p r e s u m a b l y , i s S a r f e r t ’ s A u d j a l . S a r f e r t ! s s e c t i o n on r e l i g i o n i s , p r o b a b l y , t h e w o r s t p a r t of h i s e t h n o g r a p h i c d escription. A c co rd in g t o him, S olan c r e a t e d b o th A l u e l a p , an d A u t r a n , and t h e n c r e a t e d t h e e a r t h and sk y f ro m a g r a i n of s a n d . —

63

e x p l o i t t h e m a t e r i a l e n v i r o n m e n t and she i n i t i a t e d many of the c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . A l u e l a p , h i s w i f e , c h i l d r e n , and g r a n d c h i l d r e n , com­ p rise the

p a n t h e o n of s k y g o d s , l i v i n g i n t h e i r h o u s e , F a t u m a ,

a t t h e Z e n i t h of th e sk y . duplicate oceans.

T h i s h a b i t a t i o n i n t h e s ky i s a

o f t h e e a r t h , w i t h i s l a n d s , f l o r a and f a u n a , and The c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of t h e s e gods i s n e b u l o u s , i n ­

d e e d , and a l l q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e i r f o r m , n a t u r e , and activ ities

a r e a n s w e r e d by c o n f e s s i o n s of i g n o r a n c e .

The myth-

o l o g y , h o w e v e r , p o r t r a y s them a s a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c i n a l l ways . T h i s p a n t h e o n o f go d s may be v i e w e d , i n a vague s e n s e , a s t h e p r o t e c t o r d e i t i e s of I f a l u k ; t h e y ” l o o k o u t f o r t h e p e o p l e ” , p r o v i d i n g t h e m w i t h f o o d and p r o t e c t i n g th em f r o m harm . T h e s e s k y go ds a r e known c o l l e c t i v e l y a s t h e a l u s i a n g . The t e r m , a l u s , i s t h e g e n e r i c t e r m f o r t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l , so t h a t a l u s i a n g means l i t e r a l l y , t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l b e i n g s i n t h e sky.

But t h e s k y g o d s c o m p r i s e o n l y one of t h e two c a t e g o r i e s

of b en ev o len t s u p e r n a tu r a l beings

(a l u s e m a r ) .

g o ry of a lu s e m a r a re th e a l u s i s a l u p

The o t h e r c a t e ­

( l i t e r a l l y , t h e a l u s of t h e

e a r t h ) , who a r e t h e b e n e v o l e n t g h o s t s of t h e d e a d .

But t h e r e

The c h i e f s c h a r a c t e r i z e d S a r f e r t ' s amount of I f a l u k r e l i g i o n w h i c h t h i s w r i t e r had d e s c r i b e d t o them-*- a s u t t e r f a l s e h o o d . The e l d e s t of t h e c h i e f s e x p l a i n e d t h a t S a r f e r t had used a c e r t a i n o l d man (now d e c e a s e d ) a s a n i n f o r m a n t , and t h a t t h i s man h a d , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , b e e n u n i n f o r m e d c o n c e r n i n g t h e o l o g i c a l m atters. S a r f e r t ’ s

com plete,

mythology c o l l e c t i o n , is f a i r l y accurate.

on t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h o u g h i n ­

64

i s a n o t h e r c a t e g o r y of g h o s t s , who a r e e v i l and m a l e v o l e n t , known a s a l u s e n g a u

( l i t e r a l l y , bad a l u s ) .

The a l u s i s a l u p and

t h e a l u s e n g a u a l s o i n h a b i t t h e s k y , t h o u g h t h e y do n o t l i v e i n t h e same p l a c e a s t h e a l u s i a n g .

The s o u l (g n a s ) of e v e r y

p e r s o n a s c e n d s t o t h e s k y a t d e a t h , and becomes a n a l u s , a g h o st,

of e i t h e r t h e b e n e v o l e n t o r m a l e v o l e n t v a r i e t y . I t m ust be c l e a r l y u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h e s u p e r n a t u r a l

i n I f a l u k , a s w e l l a s i n many n o n - W e s t e r n c u l t u r e s ,

i s con­

c e iv e d q u i t e d i f f e r e n t l y from t h a t i n European c u l t u r e s . the l a t t e r ,

In

s u p e r n a t u r a l h a s b e e n u n d e r s t o o d t o mean a n o n t o ­

l o g i c a l r e a l m of b e i n g i n c o n t r a s t t o , and c o m p l e t e l y s e p a r a t e d from , the n a t u r a l realm .

T his dichotomy between th e n a t u r a l

a n d s u p e r n a t u r a l o r d e r s i s a b s o l u t e and u n q u a l i f i e d , so t h a t o n l y by a n a c t of d i v i n e r e v e l a t i o n or I n c a r n a t i o n c a n t h e two re a lm s m eet. thought.

Su ch a c o n c e p t i o n v i o l a t e s I f a l u k c a n o n s of

I n I f a l u k t h e r e i s b u t one o n t o l o g i c a l o r d e r , w h i c h

c o m p r i s e s t h e " g r e a t s o c i e t y ”1 of a r a m a t , i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e e a r t h , and a l u s , i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e s k y .

T he re i s c o n s t a n t

i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m , and t h e y a r e q u i t e s i m i l a r i n most r e s p e c t s , t h e i r m a i n d i f f e r e n c e s b e i n g t h a t t h e l a t t e r a r e im­ m o r t a l and much more p o t e n t t h a n t h e f o r m e r , who a r e m o r t a l . W h e th e r a n I n d i v i d u a l becomes a n a l u s e n g a u or a l u s i s a l u p i s c o n t i n g e n t upon t h e k i n d of l i f e earth .

he h a s l e d on

I f he h a s b e e n e v i l o r m a l e v o l e n t on e a r t h , he b e ­

comes a m a l e v o l e n t a l u s a t d e a t h ; c o n v e r s e l y , i f he h a s b e e n good o r b e n e v o l e n t on e a r t h , he becomes a b e n e v o l e n t a l u s a t

65

death;-*- t h a t

i s , a person* s im m o rtal c h a r a c t e r , or g h o s t , i s

b u t a c o n t i n u a t i o n of h i s m o rta l c h a r a c t e r .

Yet t h i s scheme

i n v o l v e s no c o n c e p t o f o t h e r - w o r l d l y r e w a r d or p u n i s h m e n t . The g h o s t d o e s n o t become a n a l u s e n g a u b e c a u s e of pu n i sh m e n t f o r i m m o r a l b e h a v i o r on e a r t h , n o r i s t h e m o r a l p e r s o n r e w a r d ed by b e c o m in g a n a l u s i s a l u p .

A ll souls

(g n a s ) l e a v e t h e

c o r p s e and a s c e n d t o t h e s k y on a s p e c i a l p a t h . the

path th e re

At t h e end of

s t a n d s a g u a r d , who d i r e c t s t h e good s o u l t o

t h e a b o d e of t h e good a l u s , and t h e bad s o u l t o t h e abode of t h e bad a l u s •

B o t h k i n d s of a l u s , t h o u g h l i v i n g s e p a r a t e

lead i d e n t i c a l liv e s i n id e n t i c a l ph y sical surroundings, t h e i r o n l y d i f f e r e n c e b e i n g i n t h e k i n d of i n t e r a c t i o n t h e y have w i t h t h e p e o p l e on e a r t h . T hough t h e c o r p s e i s b u r i e d i n t h e o c e a n , and t h e s o u l ascen d s t o the sk y , th e a lu s are c o r p o r e a l , though i t i s not a t a l l c l e a r w h e t h e r t h e y res um e t h e i r t e r r e s t r i a l b o d i e s or acquire d if f e r e n t ones.

That t h e y a re c o r p o r e a l , however, i s

e v i d e n c e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e n a t i v e s T* p e r c e i v e 1* them when t h e y d e s c e n d t o t h e e a r t h i n human f o r m .

B o th k i n d s of a l u s

p o s s e s s i n d i v i d u a l s when t h e y d e s c e n d t o t h e e a r t h , b u t f o r quite d iff e r e n t reasons.

T h ou gh t h e a l u s p o s s e s s o n l y members

-**A k n o t t y p r o b l e m p r e s e n t s i t s e l f h e r e t o t h e s t u d e n t of t h i s cu ltu re. N e i t h e r t h e n a t i v e s n o r t h i s w r i t e r knew of any one who c o u l d be d e s i g n a t e d a s e v i l , who v i o l a t e d any of t h e c u l ­ t u r a l l y s a n c tio n e d m ores. I n d e e d , i t was t h e a l m o s t i n c r e d i b l e c o n f o r m i n g b e h a v i o r of t h e p e o p l e t h a t o c c a s i o n e d t h e w r i t i n g of t h i s t h e s i s . Y et t h e a l u s e n g a u a r e , by f a r , t h e most num­ erous a lu s . N e ith e r th e p e o p le , nor the c h i e f s , nor the p r i e s t c o u l d r e s o l v e t h i s p a r a d o x , w h i c h we s h a l l examine l a t e r . See b e l o w , pp. .10.7-ID S .

66

of t h e i r

own r a a t r i l i n e a l l i n e a g e ,

isalu p is r e s tr ic te d lin eag e, alu s) »

p o s s e s s i o n by t h e a l u s -

e v e n f u r t h e r t o one i n d i v i d u a l i n t h e

known a s t h e w a l i a l u s

( l i t e r a l l y , t h e ca noe of t h e

The w a l i a l u s i s n o t f o r m a l l y a p p o i n t e d , b u t i s r e c o g ­

n i z e d by t h e f r e q u e n c y o f p o s s e s s i o n , w h i c h i s c a l l e d a l u s e m a r bw uter

(lite ra lly ,

th e b e n e v o le n t a l u s has a r r i v e d ) .

a l u s * comes on to p 1* o f t h i s

The

p e r s o n , who i s c o n c e i v e d of i n

t e r r a s of a c a n o e , w h i c h t h e a l u s r i d e s . The r e a s o n f o r p o s s e s s i o n by t h e a l u s i s a l u p i s t h r e e ­ fold}

t h e a l u s may be lo nesom e f o r h i s m o r t a l k i n , or he may

w i s h t o a d m o n i s h th em t o be g o o d , or he may g i v e them a c u r e o r m e d i c i n e f o r a s i c k member of t h e l i n e a g e . P o s s e s s i o n , which t a k e s p lace only a t n i g h t , i s r e l a ­ tiv e ly in freq u en t,

o c c u r i n g no more t h a n once a month d u r i n g

t h e s e v e n mo nth s i n w h i c h t h i s s t u d y was made. by a k i n d of c o n v u l s i v e s e i z u r e disso ciatio n .

At i t s

I t i s marked

( c h a t o a l u s ) and p e r s o n a l i t y

v e r y i n c e p t i o n , a member of t h e p o s s e s s e e ’ s

h o u s e h o l d b lo w s a w h i s t l e t o l e t t h e p e o p l e know t h a t a p o s ­ session is

o c c u r i n g , and many p e o p l e may a s s e m b l e I n t h e c o u r t ­

y a r d of t h e one p o s s e s s e d , wher e t h e y a l l j o i n i n t h e s i n g i n g o f r e l i g i o u s hymns ( c h a p e n g a p e n g ) d u r i n g and a f t e r t h e p o s ession.

P ossession l a s t s

o n l y a s h o r t w h i l e , and by t h e t i m e

t h e w r i t e r c o u l d a r r i v e a t t h e s c e n e of a l l b u t one of t h e few p o s s e s s i o n s t h a t o c c u r e d d u r i n g h i s s t u d y , t h e p o s s e s s e s had r e t u r n e d to h i s normal s t a t e .

F o r t u n a t e l y , one c a s e o c c u r e d

i n the c o u rty a rd next to h is t e n t , to w itness i t .

so t h a t he a r r i v e d i n t im e

The p o s s e s s e e was a young m a r r i e d woman.

She

67

was s i t t i n g

on t h e g r o u n d i n f r o n t of h e r h o u s e , s u r r o u n d e d

by h e r f a m i l y ,

s in g in g a chapengapeng i n a trem ulous v o ic e ,

w i th a pronounced t r e b l e ,

a l l t h e 'while c l a p p i n g h e r t h i g h s t o

t h e r y t h m of t h e m u s i c , and i n t e r m i t t e n t l y b r e a k i n g i n t o l a u g h ­ t e r an d h y s t e r i c a l g i g g l e s .

Her v o i c e was v e r y h o a r s e a n d , a t

tim es, scarcely audible,

so t h a t she would s i n g i n a f a l s e t t o .

Her bod y was n e v e r s t i l l ,

and she seemed t o be d o i n g a d a n c e ,

h i p s and t h i g h s s w a y i n g t o t h e w e a v in g of h e r o u t s t r e t c h e d a r m s , a l l i n p e r f e c t rhythm . was t h a t

Her f a c e glowed r a d i a n t l y , and h e r mood

of a h y p o - m a n i c .

This h y s t e r i c a l s e iz u r e l a s t e d about

f i f t e e n m i n u t e s , a f t e r w h i c h she a b r u p t l y r e t u r n e d t o h e r n o r ­ mal b e h a v i o r , c o m p l e t e l y e x h a u s t e d , t h o u g h she c o n t i n u e d t o s i n g t h e c h a p e n g w i t h t h e o t h e r s i n t h e c o u r t y a r d , but now i n h e r normal v o ic e .

The c o n t r a s t w i t h h e r u s u a l t a c i t u r n ,

q u i e t b e h a v i o r was most g l a r i n g . Two r e l e v a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s may be made c o n c e r n i n g p o s ­ session.

A l l c a s e s of p o s s e s s io n occur alm ost im m ediately

a f t e r a m a j o r r e l i g i o u s c e r e m o n y , so t h a t t h e i r o c c u r e n c e i s no " a c c i d e n t 1*. a lu s are

The i n f l u e n c e

of t h e c e r e m o n i e s , a t w h ic h t h e

in v o k e d , a c t s as a s t r o n g i n s t i g a t i n g f a c t o r , in which

s u g g e s tio n plays a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e . occur a t n ig h t, a f t e r the toddy.

Furtherm ore, p o ssessio n s

p e o p l e have consumed much f e r m e n t e d

T h i s t o d d y i s a n a l c o h o l i c s t i m u l a n t and i n d u c e s a

m i n o r f o r m of i n t o x i c a t i o n , w h i c h i s e m i n e n t l y c o n d u c i v e t o th e kind of e x p e r ie n c e d e s c r ib e d above. The b e n e v o l e n t a l u s , h o w e v e r , do n o t p l a y a s g r e a t a role

i n the m ental l i f e

of t h e I f a l u k a s do t h e m a l e v o l e n t

68

alus_.

The p e o p l e In v o k e t h e m i n t i m e of i l l n e s s , b u t a r e

o t h e r w i s e u n c o n c e r n e d a b o u t th e m .

I t i s the a lu s e n g a u , the

m a l e v o l e n t a l u s , whom t h e y o f t e n d i s c u s s , who m o t i v a t e much of t h e i r b e h a v i o r and who 5th a u n t t h e i r minds5* , t o q u o te Dr. Burrows.

It

i s no a c c i d e n t t h a t t h e t e r m , a l u s , when u s e d

g e n e r i c a l l y , always r e f e r s to the a lu s e n g a u , u n less the con­ t e x t q u ite d e f i n i t e l y i n d i c a t e s a benevolent v a r i e t y . a l u s ha v e a s t h e i r

p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n t h e c a u s i n g of d i s e a s e by

e n t e r i n g t h e b o d i e s of t h e i r v i c t i m s . ev il,

These

causing i l l n e s s

They a r e i n t r i n s i c a l l y

out of sheer d e lig h t in p e r p e t r a t i n g e v i l .

They p o s s e s s a n y member of t h e i r l i n e a g e , i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y , so t h a t b o t h t h e good and t h e bad s u f f e r f r o m t h e i r m a l e v o l e n c e . Th ou gh t h e i r p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n i s t h e c a u s i n g of d i s e a s e , t h e s e a lu s are a ls o re sp o n s ib le fo r a l l a n t i - s o c i a l behavior, fo r i t I s t h e y who i n c i t e

people t o a c t s of l y i n g , s t e a l i n g , g o s s i p i n g ,

etc. The f e a r and h a t r e d of t h e a l u s i s one of t h e c r u c i a l forces in Ifaluk cu ltu re .

T hese s t r o n g f e e l i n g s a r e d e e p l y em­

b e d d e d i n b o t h t h e c o n s c i o u s and u n c o n s c i o u s t h o u g h t s of t h e p e o p l e , and a r e f o u n d i n a l l age g r o u p s , e v e n i n t h e s m a l l e s t child ren . siv e.

The e v i d e n c e f o r s t r o n g f e a r of t h e a l u s i s i m p r e s ­

Wo one w i l l v e n t u r e a l o n e i n t o t h e b u s h a t n i g h t , b e ­

cause i t

i s a t n ig h t th a t the a lu s a t t a c k .

The p e o p l e r e m a i n

w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s of t h e i r c o u r t y a r d s a t n i g h t ; and i f t h e y must l e a v e , t h e y l i g h t a c o c o n u t t o r c h , f o r t h e y b e l i e v e t h a t the a lu s f e a r the l i g h t .

So, t o o , t h e y c o v e r t h e , d o o r w a y s of

t h e i r h o u ses w i t h mats a t n i g h t s t o keep out th e a l u s .

Again

69

t h e y o ung u n m a r r i e d men f o r m e r l y s l e p t i n t h e c l u b - h o u s e or c a n o e h o u s e s , b u t t h e y no l o n g e r do s o , f o r t h e r e a r e o n l y a few yo ung men t o d a y and t h e y a r e a f r a i d o f b e i n g a t t a c k e d by an a l u s .

M o r e o v e r , t h e m a j o r i t y of r e l i g i o u s c e r e m o n i e s a r e

devoted to the

p r o t e c t i o n of t h e p e o p l e f r o m a t t a c k s by t h e

a l u i s , and f o r t h e a s s u r a n c e of h e a l t h .

F i n a l l y , the a lu s play

a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e S t e w a r t E m o t i o n a l R e s pons e T e s t , l e a d ­ in g the l i s t

o f f e a r - i n s p i r i n g o b j e c t s by a wide m a r g i n .

P r e - o c c u p a t i o n w i t h the a l u s i s not only f e l t con­ s c i o u s l y , b u t i s found as an im p o rta n t elem ent i n the uncon­ s c io u s p h a n ta s ie s of the people. i n the f re e

The number of a l u s f i g u r e s

draw ings of th e c h i l d r e n i s v ery h ig h .

T w en ty -

s i x p e r c e n t of t h e t o t a l dreams c o l l e c t e d a r e n i g h t m a r e s i n ­ volving the a l u s »

F i f t y - n i n e f i g u r e s i n th e T.A.T. are i n ­

t e r p r e t e d a s a l u s , t h o u g h t h e r e a r e no d i s t i n g u i s h i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e f i g u r e s w h i c h s h o u l d mark them a s s u c h . F in ally ,

people

at nig h t.

p e r c e i v e 111 t h e s e a l u s q u i t e f r e q u e n t l y , a l w a y s

A boy s e e a n a l u s w h i l e w a l k i n g home a t n i g h t ; a n

a l u s t h r o w s a s t o n e a t a woman, a s she i s b a t h i n g a t dusk i n t h e l a g o o n ; two young men h e a r a n a l u s w a l k i n g on t o p of t h e i r h o u s e ; a yo ung woman s e e s a n a l u s a s she i s w a i t i n g i n t h e b u s h f o r h e r l o v e r , and so o n .

In a l l th ese cases the i n d i v i d ­

u a ls concerned are g r e a t l y f r ig h te n e d . The a l u s i s n o t o n l y f e a r e d i n i t s e l f , of t h e a l u s , i l l n e s s , a l s o o c c u p i e s much of t h e g i e s and a n x i e t i e s .

but the a c t i v i t y people’ s e n e r­

The p e o p l e have a morbid f e a r of i l l n e s s ,

and a l l r e l i g i o n i s o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e

p r e v e n t i o n of i l l n e s s

70

an d t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of h e a l t h *

I t has a l r e a d y been noted

t h a t one of t h e f i r s t q u e s t i o n s a s k e d of t r a v e l e r s i s w h e t h e r anyone i s i l l .

I n t h e S t e w a r t E m o t i o n a l R es p o n s e T e s t , i l l ­

n e s s i s t h e h i g h e s t i t e m on t h e l i s t

of t h i n g s t h a t make p e o p l e

s a d , and I n t h e T . A . T . , t h e p e r c e p t i o n of i l l and dead p e o p l e is

p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y v e ry h i g h ; b o th i n d i c a t i n g deep a n x i e t i e s

concerning i l l n e s s . A l l t h e r a p y i n v o l v e s t h e e x o r c i s m of t h e a l u s e n g a u . T h i s i s a c c o m p l i s h e d by t h e employment of two method s s i m u l ­ tan eo u sly ;

t h e p r i e s t - d o c t o r s i n g s a n i n c a n t a t i o n , whose ob­

j e c t i s t o e x o r c i s e t h i s a l u s , o v e r t h e p e r s o n who i s i l l , a f t e r w h i c h t h e l a t t e r d r i n k s t h e h e r b s p r e s c r i b e d by t h e good alu s*

The d i a g n o s i s of t h e i l l n e s s , a s w e l l a s t h e h e a l i n g ,

i s p r a c t i c e d a t n i g h t , and i s p a r t of a r e l i g i o u s ceremo ny i n w h i c h t h e man* s e n t i r e p artic ip a te * tio n s,

lin e a g e and, a t tim e s, h is e n t i r e c la n ,

A f t e r the p r i e s t - d o c t o r has d isc h a rg e d h i s f u n c ­

t h o s e who have come f o r t h e ce re m on y r e m a i n t i l l

a t n i g h t , s i n g i n g hymns and i n c a n t a t i o n s .

late

T h i s ce rem on y i s r e ­

p e a t e d e v e r y e v e n i n g f o r t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e i l l n e s s .

The

s o l e m n i t y of t h e c e r e m o n i e s , t h e p l a i n t i v e n e s s of t h e s o n g s , and t h e f l i c k e r i n g shadows c a s t by t h e s i n g l e c a n d l e , c r e a t e an im p re ssiv e and, a t l e a s t to t h i s o b s e rv e r, n e v e r -to - b e fo rg o tte n experience. R e l i g i o n i s not only concerned w ith t h e r a p e u t i c s , but w i t h p r e v e n tiv e m ed icin e, as w e ll .

A ll public r e lig io u s c e r e ­

m o n i e s ha ve a s t h e i r aim t h e p r e v e n t i o n of d i s e a s e .

Th ese

c e r e m o n i e s i n c l u d e t h e s i n g i n g o f hymns of p r a i s e t o T i l i t r

71

the

p a t r o n god of I f a l u k and t h e making and d r i n k i n g of med­

i c i n e , b o th a c t i n g as p r o p h y la c tic s a g a in s t f u tu r e i l l n e s s . The m a in c e r e m o n y a l s o i n c l u d e d t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of a number of t ime s s , o r m a t s , w h i c h a r e hung on t r e e s , and wihose m a g i c a l power p r e v e n t s t h e a l u s e n g a u f r o m e n t e r i n g t h e i s l a n d . tamon a l u s i a

The

or p r i e s t - d o c t o r o f f i c i a t e s a t these cerem onies.

Th oug h t h e

i n c i d e n c e of d i s e a s e

i s not h ig h , i l l n e s s

i s a m a j o r c u l t u r a l f o c u s i n I f a l u k ; much of t h e p e o p l e ’ s t i m e , conversation,

and a c t i v i t i e s b e i n g c o n c e r n e d w i t h it.-*-

L l f e Cycle P h y s i o l o g i c a l p a t e r n i t y , t h o u g h vague and i l l - d e f i n e d , r e c o g n i z e d by t h e p e o p l e .

is

P r e g n a n c y I s t h e r e s u l t of two c a u s e s ;

s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e and t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n of t h e c h i e f sky g o d , A luelap. there

Aside from th e o f f s p r i n g

i s no c o n c e p t o f i l l e g i t i m a c y .

of i n c e s t u o u s m a t i n g s , Babies are h ig h ly p riz e d

so t h a t no f o r m of b i r t h c o n t r o l I s p r a c t i c e d .

P a re n ts observe

few t a b o o s d u r i n g t h e woman's p r e g n a n c y , t h o u g h s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e Is

p r o h i b i t e d f o r t h e f i r s t t h r e e m o n t h s , l e s t t h e embryo be d e ­

stro y ed .

A fte r th a t period the n a tiv e s b eliev e th a t

i s d e s ir a b l e as th ey b e lie v e t h a t

intercourse

i t e x p a n d s t h e w a l l of t h e v a g i n a ,

■ ^ R ie s e n b e r g 1s d e s c r i p t i o n of m e d i c i n e and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o r e l i g i o n i n Ponape r e v e a l s many s i m i l a r i t i e s t o I f a l u k b e ­ l i e f and p r a c t i c e s . But d i f f e r e n c e s I n b o t h d e t a i l s and f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e numerous and s i g n i f i c a n t e n ough t o p r e c l u d e t h e i r b e i n g v ie w e d a s a s i m i l a r , l e t a l o n e i d e n t i ­ c a l c o m p l e x , t h o u g h i t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e y d e r i v e f ro m t h e same s o u r c e , h i s t o r i c a l l y . See S. H. R i e s e n b e r g ; ,lMagic a nd M e d i c i n e i n Ponapen , S o u t h w e s t J o u r n a l of A n t h r o p o l o g y , IV ( 1 9 4 8 ) , 4 0 6 - 4 2 9 .

72

thus ex p ed itin g the d e liv e ry . During th e the f o e tu s .

p e r i o d of g e s t a t i o n t h e s o u l ( g n a s ) e n t e r s

The s o u l , w h i c h d e p a r t s t h e body a t d e a t h , i s

t h o u g h t of a s a v a p o r o u s s u b s t a n c e , r e s i d i n g i n t h e

s tom ac h1*.

When t h e e x p e c t a n t m o t h e r f i r s t b e g i n s t o f e e l l a b o r pains,

sh e r e t i r e s t o t h e b i r t h h u t

( e m e l i p e n ) , where she r e ­

m a in s u n t i l t e n d ays a f t e r t h e i n f a n t h a s b e e n b o r n . th is

D ur in g

p e r i o d she i s a t t e n d e d t o by h e r own m o t h e r , b o t h o f the m

c a rin g fo r the i n f a n t .

A ll m ales, in c lu d in g the f a t h e r , are

p r o h i b i t e d from e n t e r i n g th e b i r t h h u t .

T h i s t a b o o on male

c o n t a c t w i t h t h e i n f a n t c o n t i n u e s f o r t h e f i r s t t h r e e months of t h e i n f a n t ’ s l i f e .

T hough t h e f a t h e r may s l e e p i n t h e same

h o u s e w i t h h i s b a b y , he may n o t a p p r o a c h n e a r e r t h a n t h e mat over w hich i t s

c ra d le i s suspended.

S h o u ld he do s o , i t

is be­

l i e v e d t h a t t h e b a b y w i l l become i l l . Upon r e t u r n t o h e r h o u s e , t h e m o t h e r h a s few t a b o o s to observe.

She may n o t have i n t e r c o u r s e f o r one y e a r , l e s t

t h e b a b y d i e , and she may n o t l e a v e h e r h o u s e f o r t h r e e m o n t h s , f o r h e r e n t i r e t i m e must be d e v o t e d t o t h e c a r e o f t h e I n f a n t , s a t i s f y i n g a l l i t s w ants.

The i n f a n t i s b r e a s t - f e d , and i s

n u r s e d w h e n e v e r I t cr ie s.-* At t h e end of t h e t h i r d month t h e i n f a n t may be h a n d l e d by a n y o n e .

B a b i e s a r e c o n s t a n t l y p a s s e d f r o m one p e r s o n t o

^Some s t u d e n t s have m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h u m b - s u c k i n g i s a r e s u l t of o r a l f r u s t r a t i o n . I n I f a l u k c h i l d r e n suck t h e i r thumbs, d e s p i t e t h e l a c k of o r a l f r u s t r a t i o n .

73

a n o t h e r , t h e a d u l t s b e i n g f o n d of h o l d i n g i n f a n t s i n t h e i r ar m s and p l a y i n g w i t h t h e m .

I n t h i s way i t comes t o know

t h e f a c e s o f many p e o p l e , and by t h e t i m e i t i s a young c h i l d i t h a s p r o b a b l y l e a r n e d t o i d e n t i f y a l m o s t e v e r y f a c e on t h e islan d .

To t h e I f a l u k t h e r e i s no s t r a n g e r . I n f a n t s a r e n o t d i s c i p l i n e d u n t i l t h e y ca n t a l k and

w alk.

S p h i n c t e r c o n t r o l , f o r e x a m p l e , i s n o t begu n u n t i l t h e

c h i l d c a n w a l k t o t h e l a g o o n and u n d e r s t a n d t h e p r a c t i c e . Wean ing i s g r a d u a l , b e g i n n i n g a t t h e age of t h r e e months and c o n t i n u i n g u n t i l t h e age of a b o u t t h r e e y e a r s , by w h i c h tim e t h e c h i l d no l o n g e r s u c k l e s a t a l l .

The b i r t h of a s i b l i n g ,

h o w e v e r , means t h a t t h e c h i l d i s d e p r i v e d of t h e b r e a s t a t a much e a r l i e r d a t e , and t h i s a r o u s e s much h o s t i l i t y t o w a r d s t h e newly a r r i v e d b r o t h e r or s i s t e r . The i n f a n t i s t h e f o c a l p o i n t o f t h e h o u s e h o l d and i s t h e c o n s t a n t c e n t e r of a t t e n t i o n . in f a n ts are restrain ed

The c u l t u r a l p r e m is e t h a t

p o w e r l e s s , i n n o c e n t c r e a t u r e s who must n e v e r be o r p u n i s h e d , r e s u l t s i n a p a t t e r n of i n f a n t c a r e

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by e x c e s s i v e o v e r in d u lg e n c e . As t h e b a b y grow s i n t o c h i l d h o o d he becomes aware o f t h e l a r g e r s o c i a l w o r l d a b o u t him and of t h e p a t t e r n i n g of so cial in te ra c tio n .

The f a m i l y , of c o u r s e , i s t h e p r i m a r y i n ­

s t i t u t i o n i n d e f i n i n g p a t t e r n s of i n t e r a c t i o n , b u t i t must be stressed th a t i t many c u l t u r e s .

i s not the c r u c i a l group here t h a t i t In the f i r s t

g e t h e r a t one t i m e .

is in

p l a c e , t h e f a m i l y i s s e ld o m t o ­

The f a t h e r i s

I n t h e c anoe s h e d , t h e

m o t h e r i s I n t h e t a r o p a t c h , t h e c h i l d r e n a r e p l a y i n g , and t h e

74

yo u n g p e o p l e a r e a b o u t t h e i r own a c t i v i t i e s .

T h e re a r e few

meals a t w hich th e e n t i r e f a m ily i s p r e s e n t ,

(or r e q u i r e d t o

be p r e s e n t )

p e o p l e e a t i n g when and wher e t h e y c h o o s e .

o ther hand, there

is l i t t l e

l a t i v e s an d s t r a n g e r s . villag e, ties.

On t h e

d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n o n e 1s own r e ­

E v e r y o n e knows e v e r y o n e e l s e i n t h e

so t h a t t h e c h i l d moves i n a w o r l d o f c l o s e p e r s o n a l

I f he i s h u n g r y a n y p e r s o n g i v e s him f o o d ; i f he n e e d s

s o m e t h i n g , an yone w i l l t r y t o s a t i s f y h i s n e e d .

E v e r y hous e

i s o p e n t o h i m , and he c a n e n t e r one whenever he d e s i r e s , and r e c e i v e t h e same t r e a t m e n t he r e c e i v e s i n h i s own home. diffuse

This

i n t e r a c t i o n a l p a t t e r n has im p o rtan t p sy ch o lo g ica l s i g ­

n ifican ce.

C h i l d r e n grow up i n a n a t m o s p h e r e where t h e y f e e l

a t home w i t h many p e o p l e , b u t t h e r e a r e no d e e p e r t i e s w i t h a p artic u la r re stric te d

fam ily group.

C h i l d r e n a r e s e ld o m o u t o f s i g h t of a d u l t s . th eir

Much of

p l a y i s i n f r o n t of t h e canoe s h e d s , where t h e y a r e i n

view of t h e men, and o f t e n t h e y j o i n t h e men i n t h e ca noe s h e d s o r t h e women i n t h e homes.

They a r e n o t s e p a r a t e d f r o m a d u l t s

b e c a u s e o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n a g e , so t h a t t h e y a r e p e r m i t t e d f r e e a c c e s s t o a d u l t g r o u p s an d a c t i v i t i e s .

T h e re i s no marked

d i c h o t o m y b e t w e e n t h e w o r l d o f c h i l d r e n and a d u l t s , t h o u g h th ey play d i f f e r e n t i a l r o le s

in the s o c i e t y .

C hildren are

b a r r e d f r o m no c u l t u r a l o r i n s t i t u t i o n a l a c t i v i t y , and t h o u g h t h e y may n o t p a r t i c i p a t e

i n a l l of t h e m , t h e y do w i t n e s s th em

from th e very e a r l i e s t a g e .

T h i s means t h a t a d u l t c u l t u r e

Is

not a s tra n g e m ystery w hich, f o r in e x p lic a b le r e a s o n s , ex­ clu d es the c h i l d .

His l a c k o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s o n l y a f u n c t i o n

75

o f l a c k of s t r e n g t h o r o f s k i l l .

When he a c q u i r e s t h e s e ,

t h r o u g h m a t u r a t i o n and o b s e r v a t i o n , he c a n p a r t i c i p a t e com­ p letely . S i n c e t h e a c c e p t e d v a l u e s of a n y s o c i e t y a r e l e a r n e d by th e of t h i s

p r o c e s s of e n c u l t u r a t i o n , and s i n c e t h e m a jo r c o n c e r n p a p e r i s w i t h t h e p r o b l e m of a g g r e s s i o n , i t

is nec­

e s s a r y t o d e s c r i b e t h o s e p r o c e s s e s by w h i c h a d u l t p a t t e r n s of n o n - a g g r e s s i o n a r e r e - e n f o r c e d and c h i l d h o o d p a t t e r n s of a g ­ g r e s s io n are ex tin g u ish e d .

T h a t c h i l d r e n do enga ge i n a g g r e s ­

s i v e b e h a v i o r i s a p p a r e n t i m m e d i a t e l y f r o m a few e x a m p l e s . In the f i r s t sib lin g riv a lry .

p l a c e a g g r e s s i o n i s fo u n d i n t h e f o r m of

The young c h i l d r e n r e s e n t t h e b i r t h of a

baby, f o r th e l a t t e r i s a p o te n t r i v a l i n winning the a t t e n t i o n and l o v e of t h e a d ult s,-* - and i s o f t e n t h e p r e c i p i t a t i n g c a u s e of w e a n in g .

O v e r t a c t s of a g g r e s s i o n t o w a r d s t h e i n f a n t s on

the

p a r t of t h e c h i l d r e n a r e f a i r l y f r e q u e n t , r a n g i n g f r o m

acts

o f p h y s i c a l a t t a c k t o t h o s e of s n a t c h i n g t h e mother* s

n i p p l e f r o m t h e n u r s i n g b a b y ' s m o u th .

For example, w hile s i t ­

t i n g w i t h a g r o u p o f p e o p l e a young m o t h e r was n u r s i n g h e r baby.

Her f o u r y e a r o l d s o n came t o h e r and s t o o d b e h i n d h e r

w i t h h i s arms a b o u t h e r n e c k .

A f t e r a t i m e , he g r a b b e d h i s

m o t h e r ' s b r e a s t f r o m t h e mouth of h i s bab y b r o t h e r . s h o v e d him aw ay. baby d a u g h t e r .

His m other

I n a n o t h e r c a s e , a woman was h o l d i n g h e r Her f i v e y e a r o l d s o n w alk ed o v e r t o h e r , put

h i s arms a b o u t h e r w a i s t , a n d b e g u n t o f o n d l e h e r b r e a s t s . He t h e n t r i e d

t o p u l l down h i s b a b y s i s t e r .

l-See b e l o w , pp. 9 7 - 1 0 1 .

His m o th e r

76

r e b u f f e d him.

L a t e r she p i c k e d him u p , and c a r r i e d them b o t h .

Or a g a i n a f a t h e r was p l a y i n g w i t h h i s young b a b y , w h i l e h i s fiv e

y e a r o l d s o n l o o k e d on v e r y e n v i o u s l y .

them t o s i t

The s o n t h e n l e f t

on t h e l a p o f h i s m o t h e r , b u t i n a s h o r t t i m e she

t o l d him t o g e t o f f . ened h i s l i t t l e

He a t once g r a b b e d a s t i c k , and t h r e a t ­

p a r a l l e l cousin w ith i t ,

i n what was o b v i o u s l y

a d i s p l a c e m e n t of a g g r e s s i o n . T his r i v a l r y

i s q u ite a p p a r e n t to the n a t i v e s .

o l d e r s i b l i n g , t h e y s a y , does n o t l i k e t h e y o u n g e r .

The

The p a r ­

e n t s t e l l him t h a t t h e i n f a n t i s h i s s i b l i n g and t h a t he s h o u l d l o v e him and be k i n d t o him . takes th is

The c h i l d ,

p r e a c h m e n t t o h e a r t so t h a t ,

i n t e r p r e t e r , tthe s a v v y , he l i k e . ” i s n o t so s i m p l e . Hot a l l

so t h e n a t i v e s c l a i m , i n t h e words of th e

But i n r e a l i t y , t h e p r o b le m

I t i s r a r e t h a t ,|!ihe s a v v y , he l i k e . ”

of t h e c h i l d r e n s a g g r e s s i o n t a k e s t h e f o r m

of s i b l i n g r i v a l r y ,

however.

One f i v e y e a r o l d had c u t h i s

l e g and a s m e d i c a t i o n was b e i n g a p p l i e d two o t h e r c h i l d r e n b e g a n t o make f u n of h im , l a u g h e d a t h i m , and i m i t a t e d h i s c r y ­ ing.

Some c h i l d r e n were p l a y i n g and one of t h e g i r l s t o l d a boy

t o s i t down; when he r e f u s e d ,

she s p i t i n h i s f a c e ; a t t h i s ,

s t i l l a n o t h e r boy s p i t i n t h e f a c e of t h i s g i r l .

On a n o t h e r

o c c a s i o n a g r o u p of c h i l d r e n were d i g g i n g f o r r o o t s .

A boy

a t t e m p t e d t o d i g f o r t h e r o o t f o r w h i c h one of t h e g i r l s was digging.

She pus hed him a s i d e and he f e l l on h i s f a c e , c r y i n g .

A n o t h e r g i r l t h e n s m e a re d d i r t

on t h e f a c e of t h i s bo y , who

t h e n w ithdrew from th e a c t i v i t i e s . Th oug h t h e i n s t i g a t i n g s t i m u l u s may be m i n o r , t h e

77

reactio n is

o ften severe.

s i o n o f t h e most t r i f l i n g tears,

C hildren f ig h t

o b j e c t , and t h e l o s e r weeps b i t t e r

u s u a l l y f a l l i n g t o th e ground s c re a m in g .

the c h i l d r e n c o n s ta n tly f r u s t r a t e burst

over the po sses­

When p l a y i n g ,

e a c h o t h e r , and t h e y t h e n

i n t o sham s c r e a m i n g — sham, t h a t i s , b e c a u s e t h e t e a r s

and c r i e s d i s a p p e a r t h e moment t h e f r u s t r a t i o n i s r e m o v e d . **R i v a l r y b e t w e e n c h i l d r e n f o r t h e a t t e n t i o n of a n a d u l t i s a t once a p p a r e n t .

They f i g h t w i t h e a c h o t h e r and ab u s e

one a n o t h e r i n o r d e r t o g a i n h i s a t t e n t i o n .

But i t

i s not

enough sim ply to g e t th e a d u l t ’ s a t t e n t i o n ; they d e s ir e h is exclusive a t t e n t i o n .

I f an a d u lt

( t h e a u t h o r ) h e l d one i n

h i s a r m s , t h e o t h e r s wo uld t r y t o i n t r u d e , and i f t h e y were n o t h e l d a s w e l l , t h e y would t r y t o p u l l t h e f i r s t

one o f f .

I f one c a n n o t a t t a i n t h e d e s i r e d o b j e c t i v e , no o t h e r may be p erm itted t o

do s o .

Many o f t h e c h i l d r e n ' s a g g r e s s i v e m a t e d i n t h e i r g a m e s , b u t much i s

im pulses a re s u b l i ­

d i s p l a c e d onto th e dogs.

C h i l d r e n and a d u l t s a s w e l l m i s t r e a t t h e s e a n i m a l s .

A three

y e a r o l d was b i t t e n by a do g , b u t n o t u n t i l m h e had s e v e r e l y b e a te n the

dog w i t h a h e a v y p o l e f o r no r e a s o n

at a l l .

A

young l a d h e l d a d o g ' s h e a d on t h e g r o u n d , i t s e a r s s q u e e z e d t o g e t h e r , w h ile the c h i l d r e n laughed w i t h g r e a t z e s t .

When

•'•This p a t t e r n of c r y i n g a t t h e s l i g h t e s t p r o v o c a t i o n c a n p r o b ­ a b l y be t r a c e d t o t h e s i t u a t i o n o f i n f a n c y where i t was us ed as a m astery te c h n iq u e . S i n c e c r y i n g would a l w a y s r e l i e v e t h e f r u s t r a t i o n i n in f a n c y , the c h i l d r e n s t i l l attem pt to master r e a l i t y w i t h a t e c h n i q u e t h a t i s no l o n g e r e f f e c t i v e . This i s t y p i c a l r e g r e s s i v e b e h a v i o r and o n l y a f t e r t h e y r e a l i z e t h a t c r y i n g i s of no a v a i l do t h e y a b a n d o n i t a t a l a t e r a g e .

78

the

dog f i n a l l y managed t o e s c a p e , t h e boy k i c k e d i t * By t h e t i m e t h e c h i l d r e n a t t a i n t h e a g e o f n i n e or

t e n s u c h b e h a v i o r t e n d s t o d i m i n i s h , and when t h e y r e a c h p r e ­ puberty,

i t seems t o d i s a p p e a r c o m p l e t e l y f r o m t h e i r b e h a v i o r a l

re p e rto ire .1

To u n d e r s t a n d how t h i s t a k e s p l a c e , i t

is neces­

s a r y t o know t h e k i n d s o f b e h a v i o r t h a t a r e s a n c t i o n e d and t h e k in d s t h a t a r e n o t s a n c t i o n e d , as w e ll as th e system of r e ­ wards

and p u n i s h m e n t s employed t o r e - e n f o r c e d e s i r e d b e h a v i o r

and s u p p r e s s u n d e s i r a b l e b e h a v i o r . 2

to obtain th is

inform ation

a l l p a r e n t s o f m i n o r c h i l d r e n were i n t e r v i e w e d , a l l t h e c h i l d ­ r e n w ere i n t e r v i e w e d , and d e t a i l e d s y s t e m a t i c p e r s o n a l ob­ s e r v a t i o n s were made d u r i n g t h e e n t i r e

d u r a t i o n o f t h e s tu d y *

A ll th re e tech n iq u es y ield ed i d e n t ic a l inform atio n.^ s a n c t i o n e d b e h a v i o r c o n s i s t s of t h e f t ,

Non­

disobedience, i n t e r ­

p e rs o n a l a g g r e s s i o n , in c lu d in g s to n e-th ro w in g a t people, f i g h t ­ i n g and h i t t i n g e n c e of a d u l t s .

of p a r e n t s ,

s t a n d i n g and t a l k i n g i n t h e p r e s ­

Table 3 p r e s e n t s th e s t a t i s t i c a l r e s u l t s of

^ E v e n t h e games o f t h e com ponen ts. There a r e t e s t s , no c a n o e r a c e s , absence of c o m p e titio n adult s itu a tio n .

o l d e r c h i l d r e n r e v e a l no c o m p e t i t i v e no c o m p e t i t i v e games o r a t h l e t i c c o n ­ f o o t - r a c e s , sw im m ing-races, e t c . This i s , of c o u r s e , t r a n s f e r r e d to the

2 tM s a n a l y s i s f o l l o w s th e t h e o r y of s o c i a l l e a r n i n g developed by M i l l e r and D o l l a r d i n t h e i r S o c i a l L e a r n i n g and I m m i t a t i o n , 1 9 4 1 , i n w h i c h t h e y a r g u e t h a t t h e d y n a m i c s of s o c i a l l e a r n i n g i n v o l v e r e w a r d and p u n i s h m e n t ; r e w a r d i n g r e s p o n s e s a r e r e ­ in f o r c e d or l e a r n e d , whereas pu n ish in g resp o n ses are e x t i n g u i s h ­ ed o r s u p p r e s s e d . 3 W i t h two e x c e p t i o n s — a d u l t s s t a t e d t h a t c h i l d r e n a r e a d ­ m o n i s h e d t o be d i l i g e n t and t o a c q u i r e economic s k i l l s , a p o in t w hich th e c h i l d r e n o m i t t e d , but which the w r i t e r o b se rv e d . T h e c h i l d r e n s t a t e d t h a t t h e a d u l t s a d m o n i s h them f o r l o n g a b s e n c e f r o m home - - p l a y i n g and n o t r e t u r n i n g home t o e a t — a p o in t which the a d u l t s o m itte d .

79

i n t e r v i e w s w i t h a l l t h e c h i l d r e n on t h e a t o l l , TABLE 3 M i s d e e d s P o r Which C h i l d r e n S a i d They Were P u n i s h e d T otal S u b je c ts....4 2 F e m a l e ........................... . 1 7 M ale 25 M is d e e d

No. of S u b j e c t s

F ighting D isobedience St o n e -th ro w in g Theft S t a n d i n g and t a l k i n g presen ce of a d u l t s P hysical aggression ag a in st parents Not r e t u r n i n g home to eat M iscellaneous

21 18

% of S u b j e c t s 50 43

10

26 23

10

23

3

7

7

16 12

11

in

5

I t w i l l be o b s e r v e d t h a t , w i t h two e x c e p t i o n s , t h e b e h a v i o r f o r w h i c h c h i l d r e n a r e p u n i s h e d c o n s i s t s of a g g r e s ­ s i v e acts.-lWe may now t u r n t o t h e s y s t e m of r e w a r d s and p u n i s h ­ m e n t s w h e r e b y p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e s a r e r e i n f o r c e d and n e g a t i v e ones a re e x t i n g u i s h e d . in Ifa lu k are

I t s h o u l d be s t r e s s e d t h a t p u n i s h m e n t s r

v e r y t a n g i b l e and d e f i n i t e , w h e r e a s r e w a r d s a r e

quite in ta n g ib le .

In a c u l t u r e ,

such as I f a l u k , i n which e a c h

-4 ?he r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e some v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g s e x d i f f e r e n c e s , b u t t h e s e a r e n o t i n c l u d e d s i n c e we a r e n o t i n t e r e s t e d h e r e i n d i f f e r e n t i a l r e a c t i o n s of t h i s o r d e r . S a r f e r t s t a t e s t h a t b o x i n g i s one of t h e f a v o r i t e s p o r t s of child ren. T h i s s p o r t was n o t o b s e r v e d i n t h e c o u r s e of t h i s s t u d y , and t h e n a t i v e s , upon q u e s t i o n i n g , r e m a rk e d t h a t s h o u l d t h e c h i l d r e n e n g a g e i n s u c h a c t i v i t y t h e y would be p u n i s h e d .

80

f a m i l y i s a s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t ec onom ic u n i t , t h e c h i l d c a n n o t be g i v e n a n y t h i n g w h i c h t h e f a m i l y d o e s n o t a l r e a d y p o s s e s s , an d w hat i t

d o e s p o s s e s s b e l o n g a s much t o him a s t o t h e a d u l t s .

P resen ts, then,

i n t h e f o r m o f m a t e r i a l go od s c o u l d c o n s i s t

m e r e l y of a n a d d i t i o n t o s o m e t h i n g t h e c h i l d a l r e a d y po s ses sed** e x t r a f o o d , a l a r g e r b a s k e t , a new l o i n c l o t h .

These a r e im­

p o r t a n t , t o be s u r e , b u t n o t i m p o r t a n t e n o u g h t o s e r v e a s dynamic a g e n t s i n t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s . T h i s l e a v e d two o t h e r r e w a r d i n g f a c t o r s — p r a i s e and p riv ileg e.

P r i v i l e g e , t o o , i s r e l a t i v e l y u n i m p o r t a n t fo r,

g i v e n t h e c u l t u r a l and g e o g r a p h i c a l r e a l i t i e s ^ t h e r e i n t h e way of s p e c i a l p r i v i l e g e

is l i t t l e

the c h i ld can r e c e i v e .

Any

m a t e r i a l b e n e f i t s the c u l t u r e has t o o f f e r , the c h i l d r e c e i v e s as a m a tte r of c o u r s e . t o s t a y up l a t e , w ith h is

P r i v i l e g e s , such as being p erm itted

t o go t o a f e a s t o r t o t h e home of a r e l a t i v e

p a r e n t s , a r e h i s of r i g h t .

T h i s means t h a t t h e p a t ­

t e r n o f s p e c i f i c r e w a r d f o r a s p e c i f i c a c t or f o r r e f r a i n i n g fro m p e rfo rm in g a s p e c i f i c a c t i s a b s e n t from t h i s c u l t u r e . The r e w a r d i n g t e c h n i q u e t h a t i s e x t e n s i v e l y employed is

praise.

The c h i l d who a c q u i r e s a s p e c i a l s k i l l ,

or who

d o e s s o m e t h i n g m e r i t o r i o u s o r who m e r e l y c o nform s t o n or m a l so c ia l expectations, by a l l a d u l t s . then ,

is

p r a i s e d n o t o n l y by h i s p a r e n t s b u t

The p o s i t i v e

dy nam ics i n I f a l u k l e a r n i n g ,

seems t o be t h e d e s i r e t o be l o v e d , t h e d e s i r e f o r t h e

e m o t i o n a l s e c u r i t y and e u p h o r i a t h a t i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p ra ise of one’s e ld e r s . But p o s i t i v e

s a n c t io n s are not s u f f i c i e n t .

I f one

81

d esires

p r a i s e and l o v e , one w i s h e s t o a v o i d r i d i c u l e and r e ­

jectio n .

R i d i c u l e , r e j e c t i o n , and shame a r e t h e most i m p o r t ­

ant fa c to rs specific

in the

Ifa lu k learn in g p a tte rn .

T h e re a r e s i x

p unishm ents used i n d i s c i p l i n i n g th e c h i l d , almost

a ll elicitin g

shame r e s p o n s e s r a t h e r t h a n p h y s i c a l p a i n .

These a r e b e a t i n g , s p i t t i n g , th ro w in g th e c h i l d in th e lagoon , c o n f i n i n g him t o t h e h o u s e , t h r e a t e n i n g him w i t h a t t a c k by a m alevolent ghost

( a l u s ) , and s c o l d i n g .

The c h i l d i s b e a t e n

w i t h a c o c o n u t l e a f , n e v e r w i t h t h e op en hand o r f i s t , the

p h y sic a l pain is n e g lig ib le , i f f e l t at a l l .

u p o n i n v o l v e s no p h y s i c a l p a i n .

and

Being s p a t

Being throw n i n t o th e lagoon

i s n o t p h y s i c a l l y p a i n f u l , t h o u g h i t m igh t i n d u c e f e a r of an o c t u p u s , s h a rk or a m a le v o le n t sea g h o s t. finem ent e l i c i t ghost

no p a i n , w h i l e t h e t h r e a t of t h e m a l e v o l e n t

(a l u s ) e l i c i t s

summary of t h e

S c o l d i n g and c o n ­

o n l y f e a r . - 1'

Table 4 i s a s t a t i s t i c a l

p u n i s h m e n t s e m p l o y e d , a s r e p o r t e d by t h e c h i l d ­

ren. TABLE 4 C h i l d r e n ’ s P u n i s h m e n t s f o r M is deed s Number o f s u b j e c t s M a l e ................................. Fem ale .................. Punishment B eating S p ittin g T hrow ing In la g o o n C o n f i n i n g t o h o me T h reaten in g w ith a lu s S cold in g

^-Sarfert’ s a stick is

42 25 17 No. of S u b j e c t s .

% of S u b j e c t s

35 22 18 18 17 14

83 52 43 43 40 33

statem en t th a t d iso b e d ie n t c h ild r e n n ot co n firm ed e i t h e r by o b s e r v a t io n

are w hipped w i t h or r e p o r t .

82

Sexual a c t i v i t y i s taboo u n t i l p u b erty . an d g i r l s

Though boys

p l a y t o g e t h e r i n g a n g s , o b s e r v a t i o n r e v e a l s no o v e r t

h e te ro se x u a l behavior.

One d oes o b s e r v e m a s t u r b a t i o n , however,

a s w e l l a s s e x u a l l y s y m b o l i c ga m e s .

The c h i l d r e n a r e w e l l a -

w a r e of d i f f e r e n c e s i n s e x u a l a n a t o m y , s i n c e t h e y wear no clothes u n til late

childhood.

In la te

c h ild h o o d , the play

g r o u p s become u n i - s e x u a l , and c o n t i n u e a s s u c h t h r o u g h a d o l e s ­ cence. T h e r e i s no c e r e m o n y m a r k in g t h e o n s e t of p u b e r t y f o r the boy, b u t th e r e i s f o r the g i r l .

Her f i r s t m e n s t r u a t i o n

i s m ar ked by a p u b l i c c e r e m o n y i n which, d r e s s e d f o r t h e f i r s t time i n a s k i r t

i n s t e a d of th e g r e s s g i r d l e

she h a s worn u n t i l

t h e n an d p a i n t e d w i t h t u r m e r i c , she s t a n d s i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e women of h e r a i r o , w h i l e t h e y s i n g t o h e r , t h u s n o t i f y i n g the e n tir e

village

t h a t she h a s r e a c h e d p u b e r t y .

This p u b lic

r e c o g n i t i o n of m e n s t r u a t i o n c o n t i n u e s i n t o a d u l t l i f e . retire

Yi/omen

t o m e n s t r u a l h u t s f o r t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e i r m e n s t r u a l

p e r i o d , whe re t h e y o b s e r v e a number of t a b o o s .

Though men­

s t r u a t i o n i s s p o k e n o f f r e e l y and o p e n l y by c h i l d r e n and a d u l t s o f b o t h s e x e s , t h e men s t a n d i n f e a r of t h e m e n s t r u a l b l o o d , f o r s h o u l d i t f a l l on a man i t

is believed that his hair w ill

f a l l o u t , he w i l l have p e r p e t u a l abdomen p a i n , and he may b e ­ come d e m e n t e d . A f t e r h e r t h i r d m e n s t r u a t i o n , t h e g i r l may t a k e a l o v e r , who i s c a l l e d h e r g a m a r . relatio n sh ip ,

T his I s an i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d

i n w h i c h b o t h members have w e l l - d e f i n e d p r i v i l e g e s

83

and o b l i g a t i o n s . 1 reticen ce

concerning sexual m a tte rs , lo v ers b etray th e i r

s e c r e t ' t o no o n e . m itted

in keeping w ith the p a ttern ed c u l t u r a l

No f o r m of h e t e r o s e x u a l a f f e c t i o n I s p e r ­

i n p u b l i c , no m a t t e r how s l i g h t ,

so t h a t l o v e r s of t h e

n i g h t b e f o r e i g n o r e e a c h o t h e r i n p u b lic the next morning. T his i s

p a r t of t h e l a r g e r c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n of s e x u a l P u r i t a n ­

ism , which r e s u l t s

i n t h e a b s o l u t e p r o h i b i t i o n of c o n v e r s a t i o n

c o n c e r n i n g s e x i n mixed company or of an y p h y s i c a l g e s t u r e of a f f e c t i o n i n p u b l i c . ^ I n s e l e c t i n g a s p o u s e , b o t h male and f e m a l e l o o k f o r a p e r s o n w i t h e c o n o m i c s k i l l and p h y s i c a l a t t r a c t i o n .

Though

t h e y a r e f r e e t o c h o o s e t h e i r own m a r r i a g e p a r t n e r s , t h e boy and g i r l a s k t h e i i * p a r e n t s 1 c o n s e n t , w h i c h i s a l m o s t a lw a y s granted. rite s,

M a r r i a g e i s n o t s o l e m n i z e d t h r o u g h any r e l i g i o u s

t h o u g h t h e r e i s a c e r e m o n i a l exc h a n g e of f o o d by t h e

p a r e n t s of t h e n e w l y w e d s . alm ost never p r a c t i c e d . incidence

of d i v o r c e

C h i l d b e t r o t h a l i s known, b u t i s M a r r i a g e s a r e monogamous, and t h e

is sm all.

M arital i n f i d e l i t y ,

on t h e

o t h e r h a n d , seems t o be q u i t e h i g h , one i n f o r m a n t i n s i s t i n g t h a t a l m o s t a l l m a r r i e d p e r s o n s have l o v e r s o t h e r t h a n t h e i r

1 G ood en oug h h a s d i s c o v e r e d t h e same i n s t i t u t i o n i n T r u k . See W. Goodenough n P r e m a r i t a l Free dom on T r u k : T h e o ry and P r a c t i c e 1* , A m e r i c a n A n t h r o p o l o g i s t , L I (1949) 6 1 5 - 6 2 0 . ^ S a r f e r t f s d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e n a t i v e women a s b e i n g much e n a m o r e d o f him and of d i s p l a y i n g t h e i r n passion** by ft l o v i n g c a r e s s e s and o b s c e n e d a n c i n g movements1'* i s most p e r p l e x i n g i n t h e l i g h t of t h e s e f a c t s .

84

spouses. T h e r e seems t o be a d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n t h e t h e o ­ r e t i c a l s t a t u s a s c r i b e d t o t h e s e x e s and t h e a c t u a l b e h a v i o r of t h e

people.

The men a s s e r t t h a t women e n j o y a h i g h e r s t a t u s

t h a n men b e c a u s e i t th is

i s t h e y who g i v e b i r t h t o c h i l d r e n .

But

v e r b a l s t a t e m e n t seems t o c o n t r a d i c t a number of o v e r t

p ractices.

A woman must bow h e r h e a d , when w a l k i n g p a s t a

g r o u p o f men; she m ust t a k e t h e p a t h t h a t r u n s b e h i n d t h e v i l l a g e , r a t h e r t h a n t h e one t h a t r u n s t h r o u g h i t ,

as a man d o e s ,

when s h e g o e s f r o m one d i s t r i c t t o a n o t h e r ; she may n o t j o i n t h e men i n t h e c a n o e - h o u s e s , n o r may she j o i n t h e men when they g ath er to e a t.

She must a l w a y s f o l l o w b e h i n d h e r h u s ­

b and when t h e two a r e w a l k i n g t o g e t h e r . islan d

I n g o i n g f r o m one

of t h e a t o l l t o t h e o t h e r f o r a r e l i g i o u s cer em o n y , t h e

men r i d e a c r o s s t h e n a r r o w c h a n n e l i n c a n o e s , w h e r e a s t h e women wade a c r o s s . The men a c c o u n t f o r t h i s d i f f e r e n t i a l b e h a v i o r by s t a t i n g t h a t men work h a r d e r t h a n women--a most i n t e r e s t i n g and t r a n s p a r e n t r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n i n view of t h e f a c t t h a t , r e a l i t y , women work much h a r d e r t h a n men.

in

The women, on t h e

o t h e r h a n d , s a y t h a t men e n j o y g r e a t e r s t a t u s t h a n women b e ­ c a u s e a woman m ust obey t h e w i s h e s of h e r e l d e r b r o t h e r . The c h i e f s , t o o , a s s e r t t h e s u p e r i o r i t y of men, b e c a u s e o n l y

■^If aluk does n o t s a n c t i o n i n t e r c o u r s e b e t w e e n s i b l i n g s i n - l a w a s seems t o be t h e c a s e i n T r u k . See Sood en oug h, o p .

c i t . ,

p.

6 1 5 .

85

men c a n be c h i e f s . * A l l the

people a g r e e , however, t h a t th e r e are d i f ­

f e r e n c e s i n tem peram ent betw een th e s e x e s .

I t is believed

t h a t women a r e more s e n s i t i v e t h a n men, t h a t t h e y a r e h u r t more r e a d i l y and s u f f e r g r e a t e r g r i e f f r o m d e a t h , t h a t t h e y have g r e a t e r love f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n , t h a t th e y are w eaker, and p r o n e t o e x a g g e r a t e t h e i r i l l n e s s e s .

On t h e o t h e r h a n d ,

men a r e more s u s c e p t i b l e t o a n g e r , t h e y a r e b r a v e r i n t h e f a c e of d a n g e r and a d v e r s i t y , and more r e a l i s t i c . U n l i k e s e x d i f f e r e n c e s , age d i f f e r e n c e s a r e n o t c l e a r l y marked.

W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of c h i e f t a i n s h i p , 1 p r e s t i g e i s a

f u n c t i o n of c h a r a c t e r and s k i l l , r a t h e r t h a n of a s c r i b e d statu s.

The r e s p e c t e d

p e r s o n i s he who most c l o s e l y co n f o rm s

t o t h e c u l t u r a l v a l u e s , who i s d i l i g e n t i n h i s p u r s u i t o f t h e good l i f e ,

and who h a s a c q u i r e d a s k i l l i n some i m p o r t ­

ant a c tiv ity .

Becoming o l d , t h e r e f o r e , does n o t , i n i t s e l f ,

change a p e r s o n ’ s s t a t u s . changes In b e h a v io r. t o m a r r y a young g i r l , p r o d u c tiv e work.

I t may, h o w e v e r , i n v o l v e c e r t a i n

F o r e x a m p l e , a n o ld man c a n n o t e x p e c t n o r c a n he engage i n c e r t a i n k i n d s of

On t h e

o th er hand, h is g r e a te r experience

i n c e r t a i n a c t i v i t i e s marks him a s a p e r s o n t o whom y o u n g e r p e o p l e may come f o r a d v i c e and g u i d a n c e .

e v e n i n t h e c a s e of c h i e f t a i n s h i p , r e s p e c t i s a c h i e v e d , as w ell as a s c r ib e d . The a s c r i b e d s t a t u s of c h i e f t a i n s h i p i s h i g h , b u t w h e t h e r t h e i n d i v i d u a l , who p l a y s t h e r o l e of c h i e f , w i l l e n j o y h i g h p r e s t i g e i s c o n d i t i o n a l upon t h e ^ c o m p e t e n c e w i t h w h i c h he p l a y s h i s r o l e . His p r e s t i g e i s a m e r i t w h i c h he a c h i e v e s by p e r f o r m a n c e . 1-Anti

86

Tho u g h o l d age d o e s n o t assume g r e a t c u l t u r a l i m p o r t ­ ance,

it

is

p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t b e c a u s e i t means t h e

a p p r o a c h of d e a t h , and d e s p i t e t h e b e l i e f i n i m m o r t a l i t y , d e a t h i s n o t w e lc o m e d .

When i t a p p e a r s t h a t a p e r s o n i s a b o u t

t o d i e , h i s r e l a t i v e s a s s e m b l e a t h i s home f o r p u b l i c w a i l i n g * There a r e t h r e e ically the

ill,

s t a g e s of w a l l i n g ,

but there is

s t i l l hope t h a t he m ig ht r e c o v e r ,

people s in g i n c a n t a t i o n s

the a l u s .

While t h e p e r s o n i s c r i t ­

( c h a p e n g ) f o r t h e e x o r i s m of

When he i s c l o s e t o d e a t h , and t h e r e seems l i t t l e

c h a n c e o f r e c o v e r y , a b w a r u x , o r l o v e song i s s u n g . 1 m ed iately a f t e r death is tio n is

sung.

im­

p r o n o u n c e d , a n a r u a r u , or l a m e n t a ­

A l l t h r e e a r e sung t o t h e same w a i l i n g m el od y,

and e a c h p h r a s e i n t h e s o n g s e nds I n a l o u d , m o u r n f u l , s o b . At r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s ,

t h e women b e a t t h e i r c h e s t s , w i t h g r e a t

f o r c e , an d t h e m o t h e r t e a r s a t h e r f a c e and b r e a s t s w i t h h e r f i n g e r n a i l s and o f t e n h a s t o be r e s t r a i n e d by o t h e r s . th is

behavior,

tu ra lly

A ll

i n c l u d i n g t h e v i o l e n c e of t h e m o t h e r , i s c u l ­

patterned,

so t h a t i t

i s d i f f i c u l t t o t e l l how much

of t h e g r i e f i s g e n u i n e e x p r e s s i o n of e m o t i o n , and how much is m erely s t y l i z e d . s t e r e o t y p e d

Should the p e rso n die a t n i g h t , t h i s

w a i l i n g c o n t i n u e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e n i g h t u n t i l dawn.

W h ile t h e m o u rn in g i s I n p r o c e s s , f r i e n d s a r e b u s y w i t h b u ria l p reparations.

The c o r p s e ' s f a c e i s

p ain ted w ith red

i T h i s c u s t o m I s u n a c c o u n t e d f o r by t h e n a t i v e s . I t i s doubly p e r p l e x i n g b e c a u s e of t h e n o r m a l t a b o o of t h e s i n g i n g of t h e bwar ux i n p u b l i c , i n t h e p r e s e n c e of b o t h s e x e s . See a l s o a b o v e , P • 53*

87

t u r m e r i c , t h e bo d y i s d r e s s e d i n a new s k i r t , and wrapped i n a m at. feet

When i t

is ready f o r b u r ia l, i t

i s t i e d w i t h many

of r o p e , w e i g h t e d down w i t h s t o n e s , and t a k e n i n t o t h e

ocean

f o r b u r i a l , the

women c o n t i n u i n g t o w a i l i n t h e l a g o o n

u n til

t h e b u r i a l ca n o e d i s a p p e a r s f ro m

sig h t.1

I f a l u k i s th e o n ly c u l t u r e i n the W estern C a ro lin e s th at

p r a c t i c e s o c e a n b u r i a l s , t h e o t h e r s b u r y i n g t h e i r dead

in the ground. th at

i f t h e c o r p s e i s n o t removed f r o m l a n d , a t y p h o o n w i l l

strik e its

The p e o p l e e x p l a i n t h i s c u s to m by a s s e r t i n g

t h e i s l a n d ; and i f

the corpse is b u rie d in the ground,

bo d y f l u i d s w i l l mix w i t h t h e s o i l ,

d e s tro y in g the vege­

tatio n . The f a m i l y of after

t h e d e c e a s e d may n o t work f o r t e n days

t h e b u r i a l , and must o b s e r v e a number of

f o r p e r i o d s r a n g i n g from f o u r to t e n d a y s.

other tab o o s,

The m other w a i l s

i n t h e l a g o o n t w i c e a day f o r f o u r day s a f t e r t h e b u r i a l . B u t a s i d e f r o m t h i s f o r m a l m o u r n i n g , t h e d e c e a s e d seems t o be f o r g o t t e n im m ediately a f t e r b u r i a l .

The same I n d i v i d u a l s who

w ere g r i e f - s t r i c k e n d u r i n g t h e w a i l i n g , and whose e v e r y a c t i v i t y was d e v o t e d t o t h e c a r e of t h e s i c k p e r s o n , seem t o show no s i g n o f b e r e a v e m e n t .

They go a b o u t t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s ,

i s a r f e r t ' s s t a t e m e n t t h a t w i f t h e d e c e a s e d i s a m a r r i e d man, t h e widow t a k e s h e r d e p a r t u r e f r o m him by f e l l a t i o ' * i s n o t true. T h i s c u s t o m was o b s e r v e d i n n e i t h e r of t h e two f u n e r a l c e r e m o n i e s f o r m a l e s t h a t o c c u r e d d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of t h i s stu d y . When q u e s t i o n e d a b o u t s u c h a p r a c t i c e , t h e n a t i v e s d i d n o t know of i t , b u t were v e r y much amused by i t . S a r f e r t i s wrong a l s o i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t t h e c o r p s e i s b uried in the lagoon.

88

s m i l i n g and g a y , a s I f c o m p l e t e l y o b l i v i o u s t o any b e r e a v e m e n t . The p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a s o n f o r s u c h b e h a v i o r would t a k e us f a r afield .

I t is

consequences.

s u f f i c ie n t to

p oint out i t s

salu tary c u ltu ra l

P r o l o n g e d , I n t e n s e g r i e f would be f a t a l I n a

s o c ie ty such as I f a lu k .

The p o p u l a t i o n I s s m a l l a n d , as h a s

b e e n o b s e r v e d , n o t o n l y i s no one a s t r a n g e r , b u t i n t i m a c y of f e e l i n g ,

b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e b i r t h of t h e c h i l d , c h a r a c t e r ­

i z e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n many p e o p l e .

Hence, i f t h e p e o ­

p l e w ere t o s u f f e r p r o l o n g e d b e r e a v e m e n t s , t h e c u l t u r e would a l l b u t c o l l a p s e , f o r a huge p r o p o r t i o n of th e t o t a l popu­ l a t i o n w o u ld be i n v o l v e d and n o r m a l l i f e continue.

In stead , there

a c t i v i t i e s could not

i s a v e r y i n t e n s e , b u t b r i e f , mourn­

i n g , i n w h i c h a c a t h a r s i s i s a c h i e v e d , and t h e p e o p le c a n settle

down a g a i n t o t h e p r o b le m s of e v e r y day l i v i n g .

D a i l y C y c le The e n t i r e the sun.

p o p u l a t i o n u s u a l l y waken w i t h t h e r i s e

of

The f i r s t t o be up and a b o u t , h o w e v e r , a r e t h e

m o t h e r s w i t h i n f a n t s , f o r t h e y must t a k e t h e i r b a b i e s t o t h e l a g o o n t o be w a s h e d .

I f a woman h a s d e c i d e d t o work i n t h e

t a r o g a r d e n s , h o w e v e r , she a r i s e s w i t h t h e c r o w i n g of t h e cocks.

Upon w a k i n g , t h e men and women u s u a l l y b a t h e i n t h e

l a g o o n , t h o u g h t h e women who have d e c i d e d t o work i n t h e gardens w ait u n t i l t h e i r r e tu r n .

The young men and women

u s u a l l y do n o t b a t h e u n t i l a f t e r n o o n , f o r t h e f o r m e r a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c o l l e c t i n g t h e t o d d y and t h e l a t t e r u s u a l l y r e p a i r to the bush to c o l l e c t f lo w e r s 1

t h e y may

! p i o w e r s are- u s e d t o make g a r l a n d s , w h i c h t h e

p e o p le wear

89

p rep are cold food.

A morning meal i s u s u a l l y no t e a t e n ,

t h o u g h some may e a t some c o c o n u t meat o r some c o l d f ood r e ­ m aining from th e

p re v io u s day.

E v e ry o n e , how ever, d r i n k s to o d y i n th e morning.

It

i s a l m o s t i n c o n c e i v a b l e t h a t a p e r s o n s h o u l d b e g i n h i s day w i t h o u t c o n s u m i n g some. s a n c t i t y about toddy.

Indeed, there

i s a l m o s t a n aura? o f

The man who d o e s n o t p r o v i d e h i s fam­

i l y w i t h t o d d y i s g u i l t y of v i o l a t i n g one o f h i s most i m p o r t a n t p a t e r n a l and m a r i t a l o b l i g a t i o n s , and c h r o n i c n e g l i g e n c e i s cause fo r d iv o rc e .

Men s a c r i f i c e more f o r t o d d y t h a n f o r a l ­

most a n y o t h e r s i n g l e t h i n g .

For e x a m p l e , r a i n y or damp days

a r e a b h o r e d by t h e n a t i v e s , an d a l m o s t a l l a c t i v i t y c e a s e s , e x c e p t f o r t h e d i u r n a l c o l l e c t i o n of t o d d y .

The f i r s t a c t i v ­

i t y a f t e r a m i n o r t y p h o o n i s t h e c o l l e c t i o n of t o d d y .

In the

m o r n i n g b o t h a d u l t s and c h i l d r e n consume t h e f r e s h t o d d y , b u t in th e evening the a d u lts

d rin k the ferm ented v a r i e t y .

U n l e s s t h e men have a s p e c i a l a c t i v i t y , s u c h as comm u al c o n s t r u c t i o n o r communal f i s h i n g , t h e day i n t h e ca n o e h o u s e s . t r a p s or n e t s ;

still

t h e y spen d most of

Some make r o p e , o t h e r s f i s h -

o t h e r s work on a c a n o e , w h i l e o t h e r s do

n o t h i n g a t a l l b u t smoke and p a r t i c i p a t e

i n the c o n v e r s a t i o n .

The women do n o t r e t u r n f r o m t h e g a r d e n s u n t i l m i dday, and t h e r e s t of t h e i r clay may be s p e n t i n c o o k i n g , w e a v in g of sk irts,

mak ing of m a t s , and d o i n g o t h e r odds and e n d s .

B o th

around t h e i r n eck s, or in t h e i r h a i r . They e n j o y a s e m i s a c r e d s t a t u s , i t b e i n g b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e y a r e l i k e d by t h e g o d s , and h e n c e , a r e employed i n a l l r e l i g i o u s c e r e m o n i e s .

90

men and women u s u a l l y t a k e a s i e s t a , t h o u g h t h e r e i s no s p e ­ c i a l tim e f o r i t ,

a n d , I n d e e d , i n some c a s e s , t h e e n t i r e

day

may he one l o n g s i e s t a * The i n f a n t s a r e a l w a y s w i t h t h e i r m o t h e r s and t h e o ld e r c h i l d r e n p la y w ith o u t a d u l t s u p e r v is io n , though u s u a lly n e a r or about the c an o e-h o u ses.

Those i n t e r m e d i a t e may be

t a k e n by t h e men t o t h e c a n o e - h o u s e s , o r t h e y may r e m a i n w i t h t h e women. The a d o l e s c e n t b o y s an d young men may s i t w i t h t h e o l d e r men i n t h e c a n o e - h o u s e s o r t h e y may, a s i n one d i s t r i c t , congregate s e p a r a te ly In an o th er canoe-house.

Their a c t i v i t y

p a r a l l e l s t h a t of t h e o l d e r men, w i t h s e v e r a l a d d i t i o n s : t h e y o f t e n do r e e f - f i s h i n g , w h i c h c a n be u n d e r t a k e n w i t h o u t c o n s e n t o f t h e c h i e f s or o t h e r a d u l t s ; and much of t h e i r a c t i v ­ i t y i n the canoe-houses is

d e v o t e d t o t h e s h a r p e n i n g of k n i v e s

i n a c o m p u l s i v e f a s h i o n o r t o t h e p l a y i n g of a game, q u i t e sim ilar to checkers. The a d o l e s c e n t g i r l s ,

on t h e o t h e r h a n d , do n o t e n ­

joy the

same f r e e d o m a s t h e m a l e s .

They u s u a l l y do n o t a s ­

so ciate

i n g a n g s , a s do t h e b o y s , b u t r e m a i n i n t h e i r homes

o r w i t h t h e women of t h e i r h o u s e h o l d , a s s i s t i n g i n t h e d o ­ m estic a c t i v i t i e s .

F u r t h e r m o r e , s i n c e t h e f e m a l e s m ar ry

e a r l i e r t h a n t h e m a l e s , t h e y u s u a l l y assume most d o m e s t i c r e ­ s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a t a t i m e when t h e young men a r e s t i l l e n j o y ­ i n g t h e f r e e d o m of b a c h e l o r h o o d . In the l a t e a f te rn o o n ,

p r a c t i c a l l y everyone b a t h e s .

The y oung men c o l l e c t t h e a f t e r n o o n t o d d y , t h e women and

91

g irls

p r e p a r e t h e e v e n i n g m e a l , c h i l d r e n and men r e t u r n t o

t h e i r h o m e s , and t h e b e a c h e s and c a n o e - h o u s e s a r e em p t ie d * The e v e n i n g m e a l i s t h e o n l y r e g u l a r m ea l of t h e d a y , and i t

i s one o f t h e few o c c a s i o n s t h a t t h e e n t i r e h o u s e h o l d

is together* eat,

D u r i n g t h e d ay t h e p e o p l e may r e t u r n home t o

or n o t , as t h e y lik e *

O f t e n , h o w e v e r , t h e y e a t where

t h e y a r e , an d when t h e y c h o o s e ; t h e women e a t i n g f o o d p r e ­ pared the

p r e v i o u s d a y , t h e men o f t e n e a t i n g f i s h c a u g h t i n

s t o n e t r a p s o r by i n d i v i d u a l f i s h i n g . fru it,

Coconuts, t a r o , bread­

and o t h e r f o o d , i s a l w a y s a v a i l a b l e , and i s e a t e n a t

irreg u lar in te rv a ls.

A l t h o u g h t h e men may e a t i n t h e c a n o e -

h o u s e s , f o o d i s n e v e r consumed i n t h e h o u s e s .

A ll fam ily

m e a l s and communal f e a s t s a r e e a t e n i n t h e c o u r t y a r d s b u t n o t in the h o u se s, th em se lv e s.

The n a t i v e s e x p l a i n t h a t s c r a p s

o f f o o d w o u ld go u n d i s c o v e r e d , i f m eals were consumed i n t h e h o u s e , a n d t h i s w ould s e r v e a s a n i n v i t a t i o n t o t h e unwelcome r a t s an d i n s e c t s . A f t e r th e e v e n in g meal a c t i v i t y i s d i v i d e d , i n t o age c a t e g o r i e s .

again,

The o l d e r a d u l t s s i t i n t h e c o u r t y a r d ,

s m o k i n g , d r i n k i n g t o d d y , e x c h a n g i n g news of t h e d a y , o f t e n b r e a k i n g out i n t o song.

They may v i s i t t h e home of r e l a t i v e s

or of

a sic k person.

moon,

t h e y r e t i r e t o t h e i n t e r i o r of t h e i r homes a s

it

D u r i n g t h e p e r i o d of t h e d a r k of t h e

g e t s d a r k , and a r e s o o n a s l e e p .

s o o n as

On m o o n l i t n i g h t s , how­

e v e r , t h e y r e m a i n i n t h e c o u r t y a r d s much l a t e r , t a l k i n g and sin g in g l a t e in to the n ig h t. The young men r a r e l y r e m a i n a t home a f t e r t h e e v e n i n g

92

m eal, b u t u s u a l l y r e t u r n t o th e canoe-houses or the beach. L i k e t h e a d u l t s , t h e y t a l k a b o u t t h e e v e n t s of t h e d a y , p l a n th e ir a c tiv itie s

f o r t h e morrow, or en gage i n s m a l l t a l k .

Th ey o f t e n s i n g s o n g s , u s u a l l y a b w a r u x , t h o u g h a t t i m e s a PQng may be s u n g , a s w e l l .

On m o o n l e s s n i g h t s t h e y r e t u r n

t o t h e i r homes a t d a r k , b u t on m o o n l i t n i g h t s t h e y o f t e n s p e n d many h o u r s f i s h i n g j u s t o u t s i d e t h e r e e f .

The young

women, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , do n o t l e a v e t h e i r homes a f t e r d i n ­ n e r , but rem ain w ith t h e i r f a m ili e s . however, th e y j o i n t h e i r

A fte r a l l are s le e p in g ,

l o v e r s i n th e bush, or t h e i r l o v e r s

meet th e m i n t h e i r homes. Aside from the a c t i v i t i e s one i s

3.

of t h e young l o v e r s , e v e r y ­

soon s le e p in g .

The C u l t u r a l E x c i t a t i o n and R e s o l u t i o n of A g g r e s s i o n The b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e I f a l u k c u l t u r e r e v e a l s

little , life

i f any, f r u s t r a t i n g c u ltu re

patterns.

The n o r m a l

r o u t i n e , b o t h i n s t i t u t i o n a l and i n t e r p e r s o n a l , i s marked

by m u t u a l h e l p f u l n e s s , g e n e r o s i t y , and c o o p e r a t i o n .

The

s o c i a l l y d e s i r e d v a l u e s and g o a l s a r e open e q u a l l y t o e v e r y ­ o n e , and t h e r e a r e no b a r s t o t h e i r a t t a i n m e n t . D e s p i t e t h e a b s e n c e o f f r u s t r a t i o n i n a d u l t l i f e , how­ e v e r , t h e r e a r e two e x p e r i e n c e s i n t h e l i f e t h a t are f r u s t r a t i n g life.

of e v e r y I f a l u k

in the e x tr e m e -- b o th occuring in e a r l y

The i f a l u k im m ature o r g a n i s m e x p e r i e n c e s two t r a u m a t a ,

one i n i n f a n c y and one i n c h i l d h o o d , b o t h of w h ic h a r e

93

d ecisiv e

f o r a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e e x i s t e n c e and r e s o l u t i o n

of a g g r e s s i o n i n I f a l u k , The f i r s t

s u c h e x p e r i e n c e — o c e a n b a t h i n g — o c c u r s im­

m e d i a t e l y a f t e r b i r t h and c o n t i n u e s t h r o u g h o u t i n f a n c y .

Soon

a f t e r t h e i n f a n t i s b o r n , t h e m o t h e r 1s a t t e n d a n t t a k e s i t t o th e la g o o n to wash i t . reg ard less

This procedure is follow ed u n i v e r s a l l y ,

of t h e t i m e o f day or n i g h t t h e b i r t h o c c u r s .

The

l a g o o n i s n e v e r v e r y warm, f o r o c e a n c u r r e n t s flow t h r o u g h i t , and i n t h e e a r l y m o r n i n g i t th is

is p a r t ic u la r l y cold.

I t is in

c o ld w a te r t h a t th e i n f a n t i s bathed im m ediately a f t e r

b irth .

W h e t h e r one s u c h e x p e r i e n c e c a n t r a u m a t i z e a n i n d i v i d ­

u a l s u f f i c i e n t l y so a s t o i n f l u e n c e h i s f u t u r e d e v e lo p m e n t i s a q u e s tio n d i f f i c u l t to answ er.

F o r t u n a t e l y we need n o t d e ­

c i d e i n t h e c a s e o f I f a l u k , f o r t h i s e x p e r i e n c e of b e i n g b a t h e d i n c o l d w a t e r i s one t o w h i c h t h e i n f a n t i s e x p o s e d d a i l y . E v e r y m o r n i n g a t t h e b r e a k o f dawn, t h e I n f a n t i s wakened by its

m o t h e r and t a k e n t o t h e l a g o o n t o be b a t h e d .

One c a n a s ­

su me, a p r i o r i , t h a t t h e a w a k e n i n g of a n i n f a n t , who i s s l e e p ­ i n g b e t w e e n p r o t e c t i n g p a r e n t s u n d e r a s o f t , warm b l a n k e t , and t h e n t a k i n g i t it

o u t i n t o t h e c o o l m orn in g a i r and im m ers in g

p r e c i p a t a t e l y i n t o a c o o l l a g o o n , would c a u s e p a i n and

acute

distress.

latio n .

But we n e e d n o t r e m a i n c o n t e n t w i t h s p e c u ­

The w r i t e r was awakened e v e r y m orning by t h e s c r e a m ­

i n g of t h e i n f a n t s who were b e i n g s u b j e c t e d t o t h i s t r e a t m e n t . One m ig h t assume t h a t t h e y would become a c c u s t o m e d t o t h i s e x p e r i e n c e and i n n u r e d t o t h e s h o c k , b u t s u c h a n a s s u m p t i o n i s unw arranted.

The s c r e a m i n g and c r y i n g o f t h e s e same c h i l d r e n

94

d i d n o t a b a t e a s t h e weeks and months p a s s e d , b u t r e m a i n e d a t the

i n i t i a l l e v e l of i n t e n s i t y . T hat such a p a t t e r n e d e x p e r ie n c e should leav e i t s

m ark on t h e

p e r s o n a l i t y should o c c a s io n l i t t l e

surprise,

As

Murray has p o in te d o u t , i n f a n t i l e e v e n ts n . . . a r e i n many c a s e s a s d e t e r m i n i n g a s , i f n o t more d e t e r m i n i n g t h a n , l a t e r events. T his c o n c l u s io n has b e e n a r r i v e d a t by c o m p a r i n g some of t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a d u l t s (dreams of n o r m a l men, f a n t a s i e s of n e u r o t i c s , d e l u s i o n s of p s y c h o t i c , as w e ll as many a r t i s t i c p r o d u c t i o n s , myths and r e l i g i o u s p r a c ti c e s ) to the events t h a t c a n be o b s e r v e d i n t h e l i f e of in fan ts. W i t h o u t a n y do u b t t h e r e i s connectionl And t h e r e i s n o t h i n g very e x tr a o r d in a r y about t h i s . It w o uld be more e x t r a o r d i n a r y , f r o m what we know a b o u t c o n d i t i o n i n g , i f t h e r e ­ v e r s e were t r u e ; i f s o m e t h i n g ~ s o p l a s t i c a s a n i n f a n t c o u l d n o t be r a d i c a l l y modi­ f i e d by i t s e x p e r i e n c e s ."y1 E v e n more s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n t h e f a c t of b a t h i n g i s t h e d is c r e p a n c y between the o r d in a ry

t r e a t m e n t of t h e i n f a n t and

the b athing ex p erien ce.

are g r e a tly desired

Infants

l o v e d , a f f e c t i o n and c a r e a r e l a v i s h e d on th e m .

and

As f a r as

i s h u m a n ly p o s s i b l e t h e i r e v e r y want and d e s i r e i s s a t i s f i e d . It

i s r e a s o n a b l e t o assum e, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t f o r the i n f a n t

tw o m u t u a l l y a n t a g o n i s t i c w o r l d s o r f r a m e s of e x p e r i e n c e ex ist.

One i s a s a f e and s e c u r e w o r l d , managed by k i n d , p r o ­

t e c t i n g and l o v i n g p e r s o n s .

A n o t h e r i s a p a i n f u l and c r u e l

w o r l d , managed by c r u e l , a t t a c k i n g p e o p l e . ive in stru m e n t

Having no e f f e c t ­

of e x p r e s s i o n , t h e i n f a n t c a n o n l y v e n t h i s

A* Murray, E x p l o r a t i o n s i n P e r s o n a l i t y , 1 9 3 8 , p. 361. mine )

(italics

95

a g g r e s s i o n a g a i n s t th e second i n c r i e s c r ie s are

of r a g e .

But t h e s e

o b v i o u s l y i n e f f e c t u a l , f o r d e s p i t e th em t h i s ’• cr ue lt y* *

is repeated

d a lly . T h is, too,

i s in g r e a t c o n tr a s t to the

o t h e r p e o p l e and t h e o t h e r w o r l d , i n w h i c h t h e s l i g h t e s t d e ­ g r e e of c r y i n g w i l l b r i n g i t a t t e n t i o n , b reast,

a warm n i p p l e .

lo v in g arms, a s o f t

The v e r y same r e s p o n s e w h i c h a u t o ­

m a t i c a l l y b r i n g s i t what i t wants i n p r o f u s i o n has a b s o l u t e l y no e f f i c a c y i n t h e o t h e r w o r l d . The a few y e a r s affectio n .

second f r u s t r a t i n g

e x p e r i e n c e comes t o t h e c h i l d

l a t e r . The I f a l u k

i n f a n t i s show ered w i t h l o v e and

I t i s c o n s t a n t l y b ein g h a n d le d , k i s s e d , played w i t h ,

a nd f o n d l e d .

The i n f a n t I s t h e c e n t e r of a t t e n t i o n and a t ­

t r a c t i o n i n e v e r y home and i n e v e r y g a t h e r i n g . baby i s never c o n s id e re d tro u b leso m e.

Caring f o r the

Ho m o t h e r was o b s e r v e d

t o e x p r e s s r e s e n t m e n t o v e r , o r a n g e r t o w a r d s a bab y b e c a u s e o f t h e c a r e and a t t e n t i o n she must g i v e i t , stric tio n s

d e s p ite the r e ­

on h e r b e h a v i o r c a u s e d by t h e i n f a n t . ^

The b a b y i s n e v e r h a n d l e d r o u g h l y or s p o k e n t o s h a r p ­ l y , nor i s

i t ever l e f t alo n e.

At t h e end of t h e t h i r d month,

t h e m o t h e r may l e a v e h e r h u t t o work i n t h e t a r o p a t c h , b u t t h e i n f a n t i s a l w a y s l e f t i n t h e c a r e of o t h e r a d u l t s .

It is

n e v e r a l l o w e d t o c r y f o r e v e n a moment, b u t i s i m m e d i a t e l y p i c k e d u p , c o d d l e d , f e d and c o n s o l e d .

The c u l t u r e seems t o

s u b o r d i n a t e a l l a d u l t i n t e r e s t s t o t h e i n f a n t , who i s a lw a y s in c o n tr o l of the s o c ia l s it u a t i o n ,

Ise e above,

p. 7 2 .

and e a s i l y d o m i n a t e s t h e

96

ad u lts,

b e n d i n g th e m t o h i s w i l l * But t h i s

be t r a n s i t o r y ,

i n d u l g e n t t r e a t m e n t m u s t , by i t s

very n a t u r e ,

f o r a l l b a b i e s must i n e v i t a b l y grow u p ; and

a s t h e y grow o l d e r , t h e y f i n d t h a t t h e y a r e no l o n g e r t h e c e n ­ t e r o f a t t e n t i o n f o r new b a b i e s a r e t h e c e n t e r o f a t t e n t i o n i n t h e h o u s e h o l d , and t h i s

o r i e n t a t i o n rem ains c o n s ta n t.

The

a d u l t e y e s a r e a l w a y s f o c u s e d on th e m , so t h a t once t h e baby g r o w s o l d e r he i s

o u t of f o c u s , so t o s p e a k ,

and a new baby

i s now i n f o c u s *

A dults are s t i l l

about the o ld er

child ,

concerned

b u t t h e y l e a v e him t o s h i f t f o r h i m s e l f .

t o come a n d go a s

he w a n t s , t o e a t

he i s n o t t o o f a r

from s i g h t .

He i s f r e e

where he w a n t s , a s lo n g as

But e v e n more

im portantis t h a t

t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of o v e r t a f f e c t i o n f o r m e r l y d i r e c t e d t o ­ w a r d s him when he was y o u n g e r , a r e now w i t h d r a w n .

C hildren,

f o u r o r f i v e y e a r s o l d , a r e alm ost never h eld i n an a d u l t ’ s a r m s , k i s s e d o r h u g g e d , a n d , i n g e n e r a l s e ld o m r e c e i v e c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of a f f e c t i o n .

physi­

Prom a s t a t e of i n f a n c y ,

w i t h o v e r-a b u n d a n t lo v e , th e y pass to a s t a t e

of a d u l t h o o d ,

a s f a r a s d i s p l a y of a f f e c t i o n i s c o n c e r n e d .

To employ a c o n ­

c e p t of B e n e d i c t ’ s , 1 t h e r e i s d i s c o n t i n u i t y i n d e v e l o p m e n t . 2

1 R u t h B e n e d i c t : ^ C o n t i n u i t i e s and D i s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n C u l­ t u r a l C o n d i t i o n i n g , 1*' P s y c h i a t r y , I . (1938) 1 6 1 - 1 6 7 . ^The r e a s o n s f o r t h i s w r i t e r ’ s p o p u l a r i t y w i t h t h e c h i l d r e n was f r a n k l y i n e x p l i c a b l e t o him u n t i l he r e a l i z e d t h a t he was t h e o n l y a d u l t , t h a t gave t h e s e c h i l d r e n th e o v e r t a t t e n ­ t i o n and a f f e c t i o n t h e y so s o r e l y m i s s e d . Whereas o t h e r a d u l t s wo uld i g n o r e t h e ' p r e s e n c e of t h e s e c h i l d r e n , c o n c e n ­ t r a t i n g t h e i r a t t e n t i o n on t h e i n f a n t s , he would p l a y w i t h t h e c h i l d r e n , p u t h i s arms a b o u t th e m , and i n g e n e r a l d i s p l a y some of t h e a f f e c t i o n t o w h i c h t h e y had b e e n a c c u s t o m e d . It ■was l i t t l e w o n d e r , t h e n , t h a t t h e c h i l d r e n p r e f e r r e d him t o th e ir p aren ts..

97

E v e n more i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h i s a b s o r p t i o n of t h e a d u l t s i n the

i n f a n t s , which r e s u l t s in

t h e i g n o r i n g of t h e e m o t i o n a l

n e e d s of t h e o l d e r c h i l d and t h e u n w i t t i n g r e j e c t i o n t h e s e c h ild re n experience, of t h e c h i l d .

i s t h e c o n s c i o u s i g n o r i n g and r e j e c t i o n

The m i n u t e s t f r u s t r a t i o n of t h e i n f a n t i s a t ­

t e n d e d t o i m m e d i a t e l y , w h e r e a s e v e n l a r g e r f r u s t r a t i o n s of t h e c h i l d a r e n o t o n l y i g n o r e d , b u t o f t e n provoke amuse ment. few e x a m p l e s may i l l u m i n a t e t h i s p o i n t .

A

One a f t e r n o o n a t r e m e n ­

do u s o u t c r y was h e a r d coming f r o m one o f t h e h o u s e h o l d s .

Upon

i n v e s t i g a t i o n t h e d i s t u r b e r was d i s c o v e r e d t o be a g i r l of about f iv e .

She was s i t t i n g

o u t s i d e of h e r h o u s e , u t t e r i n g

w a i l s t h a t seemed t o be c r i e s of f r u s t r a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n of pain.

The members of t h e h o u s e h o l d , who were s i t t i n g i n t h e

doorway of th e h o u s e , did n o t h in g a t a l l t o appease h e r f e e l ­ i n g s , an d p e r m i t t e d h e r t o l i e p o i n t of e x h a u s t i o n .

on t h e g r o u n d , s c r e a m i n g t o t h e

The p r o v o c a t i o n of t h e s c r e a m i n g seemed

t o be t h a t h e r o l d e r s i s t e r 1 had t a k e n away h e r k n i f e f o r no reason at a l l . A n o t h e r i n s t a n c e i s a c a s e of c r y i n g t h a t l a s t e d a l ­ m os t

a h a lf hour.

The m o t h e r of a t h r e e y e a r o l d c h i l d was

h o l d i n g a n i n f a n t i n h e r arms w h e r e a s t h e c h i l d h e r s e l f w i s h e d t o be h e l d .

But t h e m o t h e r had r e f u s e d and had shov ed h e r

away r e p e a t e d l y , mak ing no a t t e m p t t o a p p e a s e h e r c r y i n g . No a d u l t wo uld e v e n have d r e a m t of t r e a t i n g a n i n f a n t as t h e s e two c h i l d r e n were t r e a t e d a n d , f u r t h e r m o r e , had any i n f a n t b e ­ g u n t o c r y , e v e n f o r a moment, t h e whole h o u s e h o l d would have a ttem p ted to appease i t ,

r a t h e r t h a n s i t i d l y by.

98

T h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s , 'which, c o u l d be d u p l i c a t e d h e r e a l ­ m os t e n d l e s s l y , a r e h i g h l y f r u s t r a t i n g , ren ra ised in a culture in fan t care. th at

p artic u la rly fo r ch ild ­

such as I f a l u k w ith i t s o v e r - in d u lg e n t

An i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n c h i l d h o o d t r a i n i n g

is

i t be c o n s i s t e n t , f o r a s G i l l i n s a y s ; *fiThe q u e s t i o n i s , c a n t h e i n f a n t or c a n he n o t de pend on what o t h e r p e o p le do? His s e c u r i t y s y s t e m r e s t s upon s u c h . e x p e c t a t i o n s and t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e a c t i o n s he p e r f o r m s t o a t t r a c t t h e a t t e n t i o n and f a v o r a b l e r e s p o n s e of o t h e r s . I n g e n e r a l , i t i s assumed t h a t a c o n s i s t e n t and r e g u l a r t y p e of c h i l d c a r e i s more p r o d u c t i v e of s e c u r i t y f e e l i n g s t h a n c a p r i c i o u s and u n p r e d i c t ­ a b l e m ethods of h a n d l i n g c h i l d r e n .

The r e a s o n f o r t h i s

probably r e s id e s in the f a c t t h a t l e a r n ­

ing s i t u a t i o n s r e q u i r e

p r e d ic ta b le expectancy p a tte r n s .

t h e same b e h a v i o r r e s u l t s

If

I n r e w a r d a t one t i m e , and i n pu n­

ishm ent th e n e x t, the c h ild l i v e s in a h ig h ly u n p re d ic ta b le w o rld , a world of i n s e c u r i t y . I n t h e c a s e of I f a l u k t h i s severe because the to n e g le c t.

p a t t e r n h a s cha n g e d f r o m e x tr e m e i n d u l g e n c e

A c o n s i s t e n t l y s t r i c t t r a i n i n g may n o t be d e f i n e d

by t h e c h i l d a s f r u s t r a t i n g , and l o v e .

i n c o n s i s t e n c y i s e v e n more

so l o n g a s he e x p e r i e n c e s s e c u r i t y

But once a r e l a t i o n s h i p h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d i n

w h i c h l o v e and s e c u r i t y a r e o v e r t s i g n s of a f f e c t i o n ,

d e f i n e d i n t e r m s of m a n i f o l d

and i s t h e n s u c c e e d e d by a p a t t e r n

of i n d i f f e r e n c e , th e d is c r e p a n c y i s e x p e r ie n c e d as f r u s t r a t i o n ,

Ijo h n G illin ;

The Ways of Men, 1 9 4 8 , p. 583.

99

f o r t h e c h i l d ' s t h r e s h o l d of f r u s t r a t i o n t o l e r a n c e , t o employ R o s e n z e i n g ' s concept*^- i s lo w . ity

A d eep-seated dependency-secur-

p a t t e r n had b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d w h ic h i s now t h w a r t e d . T h a t t h i s t h w a r t i n g i s e x p e r i e n c e d by t h e c h i l d as

in ten sely fru s tra tin g

is

i n d i c a t e d by t h e " ' i l l n e s s 11 young c h i l d ­

r e n s u f f e r s o o n a f t e r t h e b i r t h of a s i b l i n g . stated

The n a t i v e s

t h a t s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e a r r i v a l of a s i b l i n g — r e a l or

classific ato ry --th e e a t or s le e p .

o l d e r s i b l i n g becomes

They a t t r i b u t e

this

11 i

l l , "* r e f u s i n g t o

i l l n e s s 1* t o t h e l o n e s o m e ­

n e s s t h e c h i l d f e e l s f o r t h e m o th e r d u r i n g h e r t e n - d a y c o n ­ f in e m e n t i n th e b i r t h - h u t , which p e r s i s t s even long a f t e r h er retu rn .

A s t u d y was t h e n made of a l l women who were m o t h e r s

of b o t h i n f a n t s and young c h i l d r e n i n t h e i s l a n d of I f a l u k , f o r the th is

11 i

p u r p o s e of o b t a i n i n g t h e s t a t i s t i c a l f r e q u e n c y o f l l n e s s . 11

T h i s s t u d y r e v e a l s t h a t t h e " ' i l l n e s s 11 i s

e v e n more s e v e r e t h a n had b e e n r e p o r t e d .

T a b le 5 shows t h e

b e h a v i o r a l p a t t e r n s m a n i f e s t e d by t h e young c h i l d r e n who l i v e d i n t h e same h o u s e a s i n f a n t s . chronic are

Only t h o s e p a t t e r n s t h a t a r e

i n c l u d e d i n t h e t a b l e s ; s p o r a d i c r e a c t i o n s of

th e se ty p e s are not in clu d ed .

■^-Saul R o s e n z w e i g ; 11An O u t l i n e of F r u s t r a t i o n T h e o r y , 11 i n J . MOV. H u n t , ( e d ) P e r s o n a l i t y and t h e B e h a v i o r D i s o r d e r s , 1944 pp . 3 8 5 - 3 8 7 . ^ T h i s s t u d y i s p a r t of a l a r g e r s t u d y of c h i l d c a r e and b e ­ h a v i o r c o n d u c t e d on t h e b a s i s of a f1 S c h e d u l e f o r C h i l d r e n 11 p r e p a r e d by Etc. J . W. M. W h i t i n g , f o r use i n t h e s t u d y of children in n o n -lite ra te cu ltu re s.

100 TABLE 5

B e h a v i o r P a t t e r n s M a n i f e s t e d by Young C h i l d r e n Who Are O l d e r S i b l i n g s of I n f a n t s ho. of S u b j e c t s :

24 h o . of S u b j e c t s

F ig h tin g or A tta c k in g C ursing In su ltin g W i l l f u l l y D isobeying D estroying P ro p erty Temper T a n t r u m s E a t i n g Problem s N ight T e r r o rs S u c k s Thumb C ry s , W hines, e t c . Shy N egativism

18 0 6 17 15 23 19 21 14 20 16 22

% of S u b j e c t s 75 0 25 71 63 96 79 88 58 83 67 92

The f r e q u e n c y of t h e e m o t i o n a l d i s t u r b a n c e s r e v e a l e d in th is table

shows v e r y c l e a r l y t h a t t h e c h i l d r e n e x p e r i e n c e

t h i s n e g le c t as h ig h ly f r u s t r a t i n g . I t i s t h i s marked d i s c r e p a n c y , t h e n , b e t w e e n t h e e x ­ treme

p e r m i s s i v e n e s s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g i n f a n c y c a r e and t h e p a t ­

t e r n of e x c e s s i v e neglect

indulgence,

on t h e one h a n d , and t h e r e l a t i v e

of t h e o l d e r c h i l d and t h e p a t t e r n of w i t h d r a w l of

o v e r t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of a f f e c t i o n ,

on t h e o t h e r , t h a t r e s u l t s

i n th e l a t t e r t r e a tm e n t b ein g exp erien ced as tr a u m a tic . a s A l l p o r t h a s p o i n t e d o u t i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n of e m o t i o n a l traum a: **A c r i s i s i s b r o u g h t a b o u t by a n e x c e e d i n g l y intense stim ulus. Why i t i s i n t e n s e f o r th e p a r t i c u l a r i n d i v i d u a l depends almost w h o l l y up o n t h e p r e s e n t c o n d i t i o n of s u s c e p ­ t i b i l i t y of t h a t i n d i v i d u a l (a c o n f l u e n c e

F or

101

o f h i s own t e n p e r a m e n t and p r e v i o u s r e l e v a n t e x p e r i e n c e s ) . ’”-*The r e s u l t i n I f a l u k of t h e n e g l e c t of t h e s e c u l t u r a l l y emo­ t i o n a l needs i s a c h ild s ta rv e d f o r a f f e c t i o n .

And much of

t h e c h i l d r e n ' s a g g r e s s i o n ^ may be e x p l a i n e d a s r e s u l t i n g f ro m th is

d i f f e r e n t i a l treatm ent* T h e s e c h i l d r e n b e t w e e n t h e l a t e n c y p e r i o d and p r e ­

p u b e r ty com prise the l e a s t fa v o re d c h i l d r e n 's group. are

pam pe red an d I n d u l g e d .

Prepubescent c h ild r e n , alth o u g h

not in d u lg e d , enjoy fav o red p o s itio n s . mic a s s e t s ,

Infants

S in c e t h e y a r e e c o n o ­

t h e y e n j o y t h e r e s p e c t of t h e i r p a r e n t s and a d u l t s .

Th e y hav e many a d u l t

p r e r o g a t i v e s , such as the r i g h t to a s s i s t

i n a d u l t w o r k , f r e e m o b i l i t y , a n d , I n t h e c a s e of t h e b o y s , a p o s i t i o n of e q u a l i t y i n t h e c a n o e - h o u s e s , where t h e y may l o u n g e o r w ork a s o f r i g h t , and n o t on s u f f e r a n c e . m e d i a t e g r o u p , h o w e v e r , h a s none of t h e s e

The i n t e r ­

p riv ileg es.

More­

o v e r , h a v i n g b e e n d e t h r o n e d by t h e i n f a n t , t h e y f i n d t h e m s e l v e s s u b s e r v ie n t to the o ld e r c h i l d r e n . of eg o s u p p o r t .

They have no v i s i b l e means

The o l d e r c h i l d r e n r e c e i v e d t h e i r e m o t i o n a l

r e s p o n s e f r o m p e e r s , l o o k i n g t o t h e m f o r e s t e e m and a f f e c t i o n , an d c a n , i f n e c e s s a r y ,

p i t th e m s e lv e s a g a i n s t the a d u l t w orld.

The y o u n g e r c h i l d r e n do n o t have t h a t r e s o u r c e . perienced a trau m atic r e j e c t i o n ,

t h e y have n o t y e t l e a r n e d t o

e s t a b l i s h genuine r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith t h e i r p e e rs.

^ G o r d o n A l l p o r t , P e r s o n a l i t y , 1 9 3 7 , p. 2 1 1 . 2see above,

;p.

75.

Having e x ­

Furtherm ore,

( i t a l i c s mine).

102

th e y are s t i l l a tte m p tin g to i n g r a t i a t e them selves w ith t h e i r p a r e n t s , and view t h e i r tem pts*

peers as p o ssib le t h r e a t s to such a t ­

The r e s u l t i s t h e e m o t i o n a l l y f r u s t r a t e d c h i l d we

have noted*

As F r a n k h a s o b s e r v e d ?

when t h e c h i l d i s e x p o s e d

M. . . t o f r e q u e n t o r c o n t i n u a l p r o v o c a t i o n s t o e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i o n s w h i c h he c a n n o t e s c a p e or meet e f f e c t i v e l y , he may d e ­ v elo p c h r o n ic a f f e c t i v e r e a c t i o n s ; anger an d r a g e become h o s t i l i t y , f e a r becomes a n x i e t y and g u i l t , w h i c h he t h e n c a r r i e s i n h i s o r g a n i s m a s a p e r v a s i v e s e t or p h y s i o l o g i c a l - s t a t e . . . . T h e r e b y , he c a n c a r r y on v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s and f u n c t i o n s n e c e s s a r y t o l i f e . , . b u t a t t h e same time m aintain these p e r s is te n t a ffe c tiv e r e ­ a c t i o n s i n h i s o r g a n i s m . 1* We s e e , t h e n , t h a t t h e I f a l u k i s e x p o s e d t o two p r o ­ f o u n d l y d i s t u r b i n g and f r u s t r a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e s , and t h a t t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s l e a d t o a g g r e s s i v e b e h a v i o r on t h e p a r t of t h e ch ild ren .

T h i s a g g r e s s i v e b e h a v i o r , h o w e v e r , i s of s h o r t d u r ­

a t i o n f o r by t h e b e g i n n i n g of a d o l e s c e n c e no o v e r t a c t s of a g g r e s s i o n i n i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s are observed.

In

t h e c o u r s e of e n c u l t u r a t I o n t h e c h i l d h a s i n t r o j e c t e d t h e v a l ­ ues of h i s c u l t u r e ; t h a t aggression.

I s , he h a s l e a r n e d t h e e t h i c of n o n ­

C o n s e q u e n t l y a d u l t b e h a v i o r i s marked by a n a b ­

sence of o v ert a g g r e s s io n in p erso n al i n t e r a c t i o n . The q u e s t i o n t h e n a r i s e s w h e t h e r t h i s tu te

does n o t c o n s t i ­

a r e b u t t a l of t h e two a s s u m p t i o n s u n d e r l y i n g t h i s a n a l y s i s - '

t h a t f r u s t r a t i o n l e a d s t o a g g r e s s i o n and t h a t c r i t i c a l c h i l d ­ hood e x p e r i e n c e s a r e i m p o r t a n t f o r a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of a d u l t

K. F r a n k ;

P r o j e c t i v e M e t h o d s , 1 9 48, p. 1 0.

( I t a l i c s m ine.)

103

p e r s o n a l i t y an d of c e r t a i n a s p e c t s of a d u l t c u l t u r e .

For

i f t h e s e e a r l y e x p e r i e n c e s a r e i m p o r t a n t t h e n we s h o u l d e x p e c t to f in d

a g g ressiv e behavior in

theunresolved f r u s t r a t i o n s been observed, its

it

of

t h e a d u l t s a s a c o n s e q u e n c e of childhood.

as has

i s t h e a b s e n c e of a g g r e s s i o n , r a t h e r t h a n

p re se n c e , th a t c h a r a c t e r iz e s the

s h i p s of t h e a d u l t s . however.

And y e t ,

interpersonal r e la tio n ­

Such a c o n c l u s i o n m i g h t be t o o h a s t y ,

The l a c k of a g g r e s s i o n o b s e r v e d i n I f a l u k . m a y be

more a p p a r e n t t h a n r e a l ; f o r a s D o l l a r d h a s s t a t e d ; l*Each a n i m a l i n d u c t e d i n t o t h e s o c i a l group f i n a l l y le a r n s to check h o s t i l i t y t o w a r d i n - g r o u p e r s e i t h e r by s e l f - c o n t r o l or r e p r e s s i o n . I t i s t h i s f a c t which g iv e s a c c u l t u r a t e d (s i c ) anim als such a w e l l accommodated ' l o o k 1 t o t h e o u t s i d e e y e , so t h a t t h e s u p e r f i c i a l s t u d e n t w i l l h a r d l y s u s p e c t t h e dynamic n a t u r e of t h e h i s t o r y of t h e a n i m a l o r t h e t e n s i o n c r e a te d w ith in the p e r s o n a l i t y by t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r s u p r e s s i n g a g g r e s ­ sive re s p o n s e s . ^ ' The f a c t t h a t t h e r e i s l i t t l e

aggression in Ifalu k

p a t t e r n s of s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , d oes n o t n e c e s ­ sarily

i m p l y t h a t t h e r e a r e no a g g r e s s i v e i m p u l s e s i n t h e

p erso n ality .

Th 6 r e seems t o be two p o s s i b l e

o f t h e a b s e n c e of o v e r t a g g r e s s i o n i n I f a l u k ;

interp retatio n s e ith e r there

a r e few a g g r e s s i v e i m p u l s e s i n t h e p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e ,

or

th e r e are a g g re s s iv e im pulses In the -p e rs o n a lity but t h a t th e se im pulses are re p re s s e d .

Only i n t h e a b s e n c e o f s u p p r e s ­

s e d o r r e p r e s s e d a g g r e s s i o n c o u l d we c o n c l u d e t h a t o u r

1j o h n D o l l a r d ; H o s t i l i t y and F e a r i n S o c i a l L i f e , 1* S o c i a l Forces, XVII (1 938) 1 5 - 2 5 , pp. 1 6 - 1 7 . ( i t a l i c s mine']

104

assum ptions are i n c o r r e c t .

F o r I f t h e e x p e r i e n c e of c h i l d ­

hood a r e f r u s t r a t i n g and i f t h i s f r u s t r a t i o n l e a v e s i t s

im­

p r i n t on t h e a d u l t p e r s o n a l i t y , t h e n , i n t h e a b s e n c e of a g ­ g r e s s i o n i n i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s we s h o u l d e x p e c t t o f in d evidence It p ression.

of much r e p r e s s e d a g g r e s s i o n i n t h e p e r s o n a l i t y

i s c l e a r t h a t t h e I f a l u k have good r e a s o n f o r r e ­ R e p r e s s i o n , a s D o l l a r d h a s i n d i c a t e d , r,tt a k e s p l a c e

e ith e r through fe a r o f-lo ss

of l o v e o r f a v o r of a v a l u a b l e

g r o u p member, s u c h a s a p a r e n t ,

or t h r o u g h f e a r of p u n i s h m e n t

In I f a l u k th e s e f e a r s are one.

The s e v e r e s t p u n i s h m e n t f o r

the c h i l d ,

one w h i c h he h a s , i n f a c t ,

of l o v e of t h e

ex p erien ced i s the lo s s

p a r e n t s ; and h i s g r e a t e s t f e a r i s t h e f e a r of

p u n i s h m e n t by l o s s of p a r e n t a l l o v e . s o c i a l i z a t i o n the c h i l d l e a r n s the (th at is ,

. f*2

t h e demands of h i s

Thus i n t h e p r o c e s s of

v a l u e s of t h e c u l t u r e

p a r e n t s ) and r e p r e s s e s h i s a g g r e s ­

sio n .^ I f the

I f a l u k have r e p r e s s e d t h e i r a g g r e s s i o n s we

s h o u l d be a b l e t o o b s e r v e d isp lacem en t,

s u c h a g g r e s s i o n i n o v e r t a c t s of

i n p h a n t a s y p r o j e c t i o n , and i n t h e t u r n i n g o f

l'\Afe a d o p t C am er on’ s c o n c e p t i o n of r e p r e s s i o n as a . . . h a b i t ­ u a l a d j u s t i v e t e c h n i q u e w h i c h r e d u c e s t h e t e n s i o n s of nee d and a n x i e t y by p r e v e n t i n g t h e o c c u r e n c e of a t e n s i o n - p r o v o k i n g r e a c t i o n o r by i n h i b i t i n g i t s d e v e l o p m e n t , i n t h e p r e s e n c e of p r e v i o u s l y a d e q u a t e s t i m u l a t i o n . ,:ti (Norman Cameron, The P s y c h o l o g y of B e h a v i o r D i s o r d e r s , p. 1 7 5 . ) %rohn D o l l a r d , wH o s t i l i t y and F e a r i n S o c i a l L i f e ” , o p . c i t . , p. 2 0 . ^This a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s t h e p a r e n t s I s l a t e r g e n e r a l i z e d to I n c l u d e t h e c h i e f s mho, i n t h e l i f e of t h e a d u l t s , become parental surrogates. See b e l o w , pp. 1 2 5 - 1 2 8 .

105

Q §gressieii a g a in s t o n e s e l f .

And, i n f a c t ,

this

i s what we do f i n d .

T h e r e a r e two f o r m s of a g g r e s s i o n - d i s p l a c e m e n t • the f i r s t objects

In

p l a c e a n i m a l s , n o t a b l y c h i c k e n s and d o g s , a r e t h e

of d i s p l a c e d a g g r e s s i o n .

l o o s e , and when t h e

Chickens a re allow ed t o r u n

people w ish t o c a t c h one, th e y are con­

f r o n t e d w i t h a n a r d u o u s t a s k , b u t one w h i c h t h e y a p p r o a c h w i t h z e a l an d z e s t .

From t h e s h o u t i n g and e n e r g y e x p e n d e d , one

wo uld t h i n k t h e y were h u n t i n g b i g game.

The “ hunters** a r e

a rm ed w i t h r o c k s and s t o n e s , and p r o c e e d t o c h a s e t h e h e n . I t i s a w i l d s i g h t - - t h e w h i r of t h e h e n ’ s w i n g s , t h e c a c k l i n g of a l l the

o t h e r h e n s , t h e s h o u t i n g and g l e e f u l l a u g h t e r of

t h e b o y s , t h e e x c i t e m e n t and d i s r u p t i o n of t h e e n t i r e a l l f o r one c h i c k e n .

It

village —

is not im plied th a t t h i s p e rio d ic

c a t c h i n g of c h i c k e n s s e r v e s t o d r a i n o f f huge q u a n t i t i e s of a g ­ g ression.

On t h e c o n t r a r y , t h i s m e r e l y shows t h a t t h e s e young

men do h a v e a g g r e s s i v e I m p u l s e s , f o r t h e y a r e evo ked i n t h e course

of t h i s c h ic k e n d r i v e .

To q u o t e my own im m e d i a t e im­

p r e s s i o n s r e c o r d e d on t h e s p o t ; men so a n i m a t e d . . . . t h e y e n j o y i t tic

I have n e v e r s e e n t h e young i m m e n s e l y , and have a s a d i s ­

g l e a m i n t h e i r e y e s a s t h e y go a b o u t i t ." The dogs hav e a l r e a d y b e e n m e n t i o n e d a s o b j e c t s of

a g g r e s s i o n an d d o w n r i g h t s a d i s m . ad u lts, h its

E v e ry o n e, from c h i l d r e n t o

th e m , k i c k s th e m , p u l l s t h e i r e a r s and t a i l s .

The do g s become v e r y h o s t i l e

a s a r e s u l t of t h i s c r u e l t r e a t ­

ment and may t u r n on t h e i r a t t a c k e r s . people i n s i s t

on k i l l i n g t h e d o g .

When t h i s h a p p e n s , t h e

As i n t h e c a s e of t h e

c h i c k e n s , t h e s a d i s m w i t h w h i c h t h e y would p u r s u e t h e dog i s

106

t o be t a k e n a s i n d i c a t i v e

of t h e i r r e p r e s s e d a g g r e s s i o n s .

One

o f t h e dogs — v e r y f r i e n d l y and d o c i l e — was t e a s e d by a man t o t h e p o i n t o f f r e n z y , and I t t u r n e d on h i m , and b i t him .

It

managed t o e s c a p e i n t o t h e n i g h t , b u t t h e n e x t m o rn i n g t h e y o u n g men w ere up e a r l y t o g e t h im .

About t e n of them had

g a t h e r e d w i t h s t i c k s and s t o n e s , and t h e y m a n i f e s t e d a l l t h e tra its

o f a l y n c h i n g mob.

They were out f o r b l o o d , and i t made

no d i f f e r e n c e t o t h e m t h a t t h e dog had b e e n pr o v o k ed i n t o t h e attack .

A f t e r p u r s u i n g t h e d o g , t h e y c o r n e r e d him and begun

t o b e a t him.

The dog managed somehow t o e s c a p e , t h e bo ys i n

mad p u r s u i t .

They d r o v e him t o t h e b e a c h , and he had no a l ­

tern ativ e

but t o plunge i n t o th e w a t e r .

A few f o l l o w e d i n

c a n o e s , and w ould n o t p e r m i t t h e dog t o r e t u r n t o s h o r e .

It

swam u n t i l c o m p l e t e l y e x h a u s t e d , and t h e n f i n a l l y d r o w n e d . A n o t h e r f o r m of d i s p l a c e d a g g r e s s i o n i s t o be f ou nd i n a c t s of t e a s i n g .

U nlike th e f i r s t c a t e g o r y , however, th e

c o n s c i o u s a i m of t e a s i n g i s n o t t o har m o r d e s t r o y t h e o b j e c t , b u t i s r e g a r d e d a s good f u n .

Most of t h e t e a s i n g i s d i r e c t e d

t o w a r d p e r s o n s who a r e w e a k .

One man, f o r e x a m p l e , would poke

f u n a t two of t h e bo ys b e c a u s e t h e i r p e n i s e s were of a d i f f e r ­ e n t s h a p e f r o m t h o s e of t h e o t h e r m a l e s . e m b a r r a s s e d by t h i s

The boys were v e r y

t e a s i n g , b u t he would p e r s e v e r e i n i t t o

t h e g r e a t amuseme nt of t h e o t h e r men p r e s e n t .

A d o l e s c e n t boy s

o f t e n g ra b a t th e p e n is of a younger boy, t h r e a t e n i n g to p u l l It

o f f , a l w a y s t o t h e huge amusement of t h e m s e l v e s and any men

who h a p p e n t o be i n t h e v i c i n i t y .

The p h y s i c a l l y def o rm ed are

laughed a t and, a t tim e s , are th e b u t t s

of j o k e s .

107

E x p r e s s i o n s of a g g r e s s i o n i n p h a n ta s y a re f o u r f o l d - legends, r e lig io n , tu res,

fo lk lo re

d evice, fo r i t s

d r e a m s , and T . A . T . r e s p o n s e s .

p rovides an e x c e l l e n t p e r s o n a lity d ia g n o stic themes a r e t h e

n e e d s and t e n s i o n s of t h e m ythology f o r t h i s

p r o j e c t i o n s of t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l

people. 1

I n I f a l u k me c a n n o t use

purpose s in c e the

a n t of t h e m y t h o l o g y .

people are g e n e r a l l y i g n o r ­

How ever, t h e c h i e f s do know t h e mytho­

l o g y an d s h o r t l y a f t e r we a r r i v e d , s i o n s w i t h th em on t h i s no i n t e r e s t

I n many c u l ­

su b ject.

Dr. Burrows had some d i s c u s ­ Yet t h e y d i s p l a y e d l i t t l e

or

I n t h e o l o g y o r t h e r o l e s and f u n c t i o n s of t h e gods

when one a t t e m p t e d t o i n i t i a t e w i t h them.

d i s c u s s i o n s of t h e s e m a t t e r s

But when t h e y t u r n e d t o t h e l e g e n d s r e c o u n t i n g t h e

e a r l y h i s t o r y and c o l o n i z a t i o n of I f a l u k , t h e y became e n t h u s i ­ astic

about ta le s

of c o n q u e s t and e x p l o i t - - s t o r i e s

I f a l u k wiped out th e r e p o p u l a t e d them.

p o p u l a t i o n s of t h e o t h e r i s l a n d s and t h e n

T h i s i s most s i g n i f i c a n t when i t

bered t h a t th e c h ie f s are the v e r ita b le of t h e

Ifaluk ethic R eligion,

system , t h a t

is,

i n which

I s remem­

sym bo ls and g u a r a n t o r s

of n o n - a g g r e s s i o n . ^

lik e fo lk lo re ,

may be vi ew ed a s a p r o j e c t i v e

a s a p r o j e c t i o n of t h e u n d e r l y i n g c o r e of

e m o t i o n , t e n s i o n and s e n t i m e n t r e s i d i n g i n t h e p e r s o n a l i t y . As s u c h i t

i s s y m p t o m a t i c o f many p e r s o n a l i t y t r e n d s , and may

I* Ha H o w e l l , TtMyth, C u l t u r e and P e r s o n a l i t y A n t h r o p o l o g i s t , XXXXIX ( 1 9 4 7 ) . 544-556. 2 See a b o v e ,

pp. 3 2 - 3 4 , and b e l o w ,

pp . 1 2 5 - 1 2 8 .

A m e r ic a n

108

thus

be u s e d a s a p s y c h o d i a g n o s t i c

device.1

The i m p o r t a n t s u p e r n a t u r a l b e i n g s i n I f a l u k r e l i g i o n ^ we h a v e there alus

seenS are t h e

are

ghosts

of t h e

two k i n d s - - b e n e v o l e n t

dead

I f he l e a d s a g o o d l i f e

olent

alus ,

alus.

Thus

but if

if

k i n d of l i f e

we r e no e v i l

people

despite

the

are

only b e lie v ed to e x is t

not

th an those

of a n t i - s o c i a l

is

suggested here

Ifaluk culture

Is,

the

component

the

no

a r e no e v i l

people,

But,

of h e l p ­

p a r a d o x i c a l l y enough,

Individuals,

malevolent a l u s ,

b u t t h e i r n u mb e r s a r e much l a r g e r

o f t h e b e n e v o l e n t a l u s . 4.

It

aggressive

good a l u s

he l e a d s

t h e r e c o u l d be

conforms to the c u l t u r a l i d e a l s

c o o p e r a t i o n and p a c i f i s m . ^ absence

of

on e a r t h he be c o me s a b e n e v ­

m a l e v o l e n t a l u s ; and i n a c t u a l f a c t t h e r e

fulness,

The t y p e

he l e a d s a b a d l i f e he b e c o me s a m a l e v o l e n t

there

f o r almost everyone

of which

a nd m a l e v o l e n t .

a p e r s o n becomes depends upon th e

on e a r t h *

(a l u s ) ,

indicate

personality^so

at

the

the

that

this

same t i m e ,

c r u c i a l a s p e c t of

a c r u c i a l i n d i c a t o r of

in Ifalu k personality.

core

J u s t as the

of b e n e v o l e n c e and k i n d l i n e s s

t h e bad a l u s i n d i c a t e

the

core

in

of u n c o n sc io u s

1 C f . A. K a r d i n e r ; op c i t . , A. I . H a l l o w e l l ; " F e a r and A n x i e t y a s C u l t u r a l a n d I n d i v i d u a l V a r i a b l e s i n a P r i m i t i v e S o c i e t y * 1* , J r . Ab n . S o c . P s y c h . , X X XI I I ( 1 9 3 8 ) 3 5 - 4 7 . R. L a n d e s ; TtThe A b n o r m a l Among t h e C'Jibwa I n d i a n s 11 , i b i d 1 4 - 3 3 .

2 see a b o v e ,

pp.

68-70.

3 See a b o v e ,

pp.

12-27.

4see above,

footnote,

p.

65.

109

a g g r e s s i o n and h o s t i l i t y i n t h e p e r s o n a l i t y .

I f t h e r e were

a number of p e r s o n s who v i o l a t e d t h e c u l t u r a l v a l u e s , t h e existence

of a number of m a l e v o l e n t a l u s would be o b v i o u s .

B u t t h e a b s e n c e o f s u c h p e r s o n s r a i s e s a r e a l p r o b le m , i n d e e d ; and i t

se em s p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e l a r g e number of m a l e v o l e n t a l u s

i s a n i n d i c a t i o n of d e e p l y r e p r e s s e d a g g r e s s i o n p r o j e c t e d i n t h e f o r m of t h e s l u s » in the a large

people i t

is

I f t h e r e were no r e p r e s s e d a g g r e s s i o n

u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e y would c o n c e i v e of s u c h

p e r c e n t a g e of p e o p l e a s b e com in g m a l e v o l e n t a l u s »

This a n a l y s i s

p a r a l l e l s Iia llo w e ll's observation

w . . . t h a t I n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s of t h e c h i l d 1s d e v e l o p m e n t i n e v e r y s o c i e t y c o n f l i c t s a r i s e between th e im pulses of t h e i n d i v i d u a l and demands of t h e p a r e n t s or c u l t u r a l s u r r o g a t e s . These c o n f l i c t s hav e t o be r e s o l v e d . The s i g ­ n i f i c a n t human f a c t i s t h a t i n s t e a d of t h e s e c o n f l i c t s bec omin g e x t e r n a l i z e d an d r e s o l v e d on t h a t b a s i s ‘t h e y may be r e s o l v e d f o r b e t t e r or f o r w o r s e , by un ­ conscious rep ressio n ^ That i s to say c e r t a i n i m p u l s e s may n e v e r r e a c h e g o aw areness because the symbolic r e p r e s e n ­ t a t i o n s of t h e m a r e e x c l u d e d . tt[ T h e s e r e p r e s s e d Hs y m b o l i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s tn i n I f a l u k are th en p ro je c te d ,

it

s e e m s , i n t h e f o r m of t h e m a l e v o l e n t

alu s. Dreams p r o v i d e a n o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n of r e p r e s s e d a g ­ gression.

Of s e v e n t y - s e v e n drea ms c o l l e c t e d f r o m f i f t y - s i x

persons? f if ty - th r e e

o r s i x t y - e i g h t p e r c e n t were dreams w i t h

1A . I . H a l l o w e l l j ” P e r s o n a l i t y S t r u c t u r e and t h e E v o l u t i o n o f Man , 1,1 o p . c i t , p p. 1 6 - 1 7 . ( i t a l i c s m ine). ^ A c t u a l l y t h e r e a r e n i n e t y - s i x dream s I n t h e c o l l e c t i o n , b u t o u r i n t e r p r e t e r c o n t r i b u t e d n i n e t e e n , and t h e r e f o r e h i s a r e

110 aggressive else

themes.

The d r e a m e r was e i t h e r a t t a c k i n g someone

or being a t t a c k e d ,

or b ein g a t t a c k e d percentage

being a tta ck e d

by s h a r k s

or o c t u p u s ,

by a n a l u s , a m a l e v o l e n t g h o s t .

indicates

the

existence

of a l a r g e

Such a h i g h

q u a n t i t y of l a t ­

e n t a g g r e s s i o n a s w e l l a s much a n x i e t y c o n c e r n i n g a g g r e s s i o n . The T h e m a t i c A p p e r c e p t i o n Test-^- i s a t h i r d evidence

for

the e x iste n c e

The f o l l o w i n g t a b l e s adults

of l a t e n t ,

source

of

unresolved aggression.

summarize t h e T .A .T .

r e s u l t s f o r the

and th e c h i l d r e n . 2 TABLE 6 Thematic A p p e rc e p tio n Test Adults Total S ubjects....9 1 M a l e ...................................39 Female 62

o m i t t e d s o a s n o t t o skew t h e f i g u r e s . Of h i s n i n e t e e n d r e a m s s i x t e e n or e i g h t y - f o u r p e r c e n t b e t r a y a g g r e s s i o n and a n x i e t y . *^-The S t a n d a r d H a r v a r d s e r i e s , o f c o u r s e , c o u l d n o t be u s e d i n a S o u t h Se a c u l t u r e . When t h e u s e o f p r o j e c t i v e t e c h n i q u e s w a s p l a n n e d , t h e a s s i s t a n c e of Mr. A l f r e d R o c k e f e l l e r , of N o r t h ­ w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y was o b t a i n e d t o r e p r o d u c e a number of G a u g i n ' s T ahiti paintings. H o w e v e r , u p o n a r r i v a l i n H o n o l u l u , i t was d i s c o v e r e d t h a t Dr . W i l l i a m L e s s a , of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r ­ n i a ha d b r o u g h t a n u mb e r o f s e t s of T . A . T . ' s , w h i c h Dr. W i l l i a m H e n r y , of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o , h a d p r e p a r e d s p e c i f i c a l l y f o r t h e CIMA e x p e d i t i o n . Th e y we r e l i n e - d r a w i n g s of t h e k i n d t h a t h a d b e e n u s e d by Dr . H e n r y a n d h i s c o - w o r k e r s i n t h e i r s t u d y o f t h e I n d i a n s of t h e S o u t h w e s t . I t was d e c i d e d t o u s e t h i s s e t s o a s t o make p o s s i b l e a c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y w i t h o t h e r Iviicronisian c u l t u r e . 2 T h i s t a b l e was p r e p a r e d by Dr . S. K l e b a n o f f a n d Mr s . Agnes P l a n c k , and th e a u t h o r w is h es t o t h a n k them f o r p e r m i s s i o n t o reproduce i t here. The c a t e g o r i e s o f t h e t a b l e s u m m a r i z e t h e r e s u l t s of i n t e r ­ a c t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n s o r o f t h e d o m i n a n t e m o t i o n a l s t a t e o f one o r more o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e s t o r y . The m a j o r i t y o f t h e

I ll TABLE 6 (CONTINUED)

T o t a l Wo. of Responses

T h e ma I*

Complete

fQ o f R e s p o n s e s

D estruction (Death)

T otal II.

55

.

3 M u r d e r ............................... D e a t h ...................... 52 S u i c i d e ........................................ 0

14

Overt P h y s i c a l A g g re ssio n P h y s i c a l V i o l e n c e ...................13 I n j u r y - A c c i d e n t . .................... 1 I l l n e s s ........................................ . 3 8 C r i m e ................................................22 P u n i s h m e n t ................................... 1 3 A r r e s t - C a p t u r e ..........................15 E s c a p e ........................................... 13 T h r e a t - R e p . - - B u l . ................. 7 T otal

III.

~

122

31

Overt N o n -p h y sical A g g ressio n Q u a r r e l ............................................. 2 6 D o m i n a t i o n ........................... A n t a g o n i s m ................................... 5 D ishonesty ....................... 0 D i s l o y a l t y ................................... 0 E xternal C o n f l i c t . . . . . . . . 2 H a t e - R e v e n g e .............................. 0 A n g e r - R a g e ................................... 0 T otal

"

15"

I f a l u k r e s p o n s e s , however, are not in clu d ed i n t h i s t a b l e , f o r t h e I f a l u k t o l d v e r y few s t o r l e s . How ev er , s i n c e t h e s e r e s p o n s e s a r e oT c o n s i d e r a b l e d i a g n o s t i c s i g n i f i c a n c e , t h e y w i l l be d e a l t w i t h I n a s e p a r a t e t a b l e . To r e p e a t , t h e r e s p o n s e s sco red i n the K le b a n o f f- P la n c k ta b l e are th o se t h a t c o n f o r m t o t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s of t h e T . A . T . t o t e l l a s t o r y . A l l o t h e r r e s p o n s e s a r e s um m arized I n t a b l e 8 , p. 135.

112 TABLE 6 (CONTINUED)

T o t a l No. o f Responses

^-hema

I n te r n a l i z e d Em otional S tr a in ;

% of R e s p o n s e s

Negative A f f e c t .

.1 1 D e p r i v a t i o n ............................. I n t e r n a l C o n f l i c t ......................... 1 E m o t i o n a l S t r e s s ............................ 1 3 M i s f o r t u n e . ........................................ 6 D i s a p p o i n t m e n t ............................... . 2 S e p a r . - R e j e c t i o n ............................ 10 D e s p o n d e n c y .........................................1 3 J e a l o u s y ............................................... 0 F e a r ..................................................... 1 4 A n x i e t y ( A l u s ) a ............................... 5 9 R ejec tio n .................................2

T otal V.

I3l

H e l p f u l n e s s and A l t r u i s m ;

~~33

P ositive A ffe c t.

R e a s s u r a n c e .........................................12 Sex. ................................................... 2 P i t y - F o r g i v e n e s s ...............................0 G r a t i t u d e - F r i e n d s h i p ................. 1 L o v e .............................................. 1 H a p p i n e s s ................................................4 O b l i g a t i o n ...........................................28 A f f e c t i o n ............................................. 24 Re pe n t a nc e .......................................... 0 2 G o a l ................... T otal

*74

19

T o t a l R e s p o n s e s ............................ 397 A number of p o i n t s r e l a t e d t o our p r o b le m emerge f r o m th is

study.

In the f i r s t

p l a c e , t h e amount of a g g r e s s i o n t h a t

a The a l u s i s l i s t e d u n d e r t h e a n x i e t y c o l u m n r e g a r d l e s s of i t s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n by t h e s u b j e c t . I n some c a s e s , t h e a l u s i s merely p o in te d o u t; i n o t h e r s i t i s d e sc rib e d as a t t a c k i n g s o m e o n e , o r m a k i n g someone 1 1 1 . In a l l cases, i t is tab u la ted as a n x i e t y , because a c t u a l l y , i t does induce a n x i e t y . This is the only c a te g o r y t h a t I s i n t e r p r e t i v e ; the o th e rs are a l l descriptive.

113

emerges i n th e T.A .T. i s n o ta b le f o r i t s tu re

i n w h i c h murder*, f i g h t i n g ,

e tc ., th at

are

quantity.

q u arrellin g ,

p ra c tic a lly non-existent, i t

In a c u l ­

physical c o n f l i c t ,

is extrem ely s ig n i f i c a n t

s u c h a h i g h p e r c e n t a g e of t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s s h o u l d be “ s e e n ”

in the

p i c t u r e s ; two h u n d r e d and n i n e t y —tw o , o r f o u r t y —e i g h t

p e r c e n t of t h e t o t a l , a r e i n t h i s c a t e g o r y *

(Thema I - I I I )

T h i s h i g h i n c i d e n c e of a g g r e s s i v e f a n t a s i e s may be i n t e r p r e t e d a s a p r o j e c t i o n of r e p r e s s e d a g g r e s s i o n . The s e c o n d p o i n t t h a t e m e r g e s f ro m t h i s s t u d y i s t h e amount of i n n e r t e n s i o n s and a n x i e t i e s f o u n d i n t h e p e o p l e ; One h u n d r e d and t h i r t y one r e s p o n s e s , or t h i r t y - t h r e e of t h e r e s p o n s e s a r e i n t h i s c a t e g o r y .

(Thema IV)

d i c a t i o n s of a n x i e t y a r e by no means s u r p r i s i n g .

per cent

Th ese i n ­ F i r s t , the

c r u c i a l r e j e c t i o n of t h e c h i l d h a s r e s u l t e d , a s we have ob­ s e rv e d , i n an a n x ie ty p a t t e r n i n the p e r s o n a lity .

Second,

p s y c h i c e n e r g i e s t h a t do n o t f i n d one e x p r e s s i o n w i l l s e e k another.

The e v i d e n c e I n d i c a t e s t h e e x i s t e n c e of a g g r e s s i o n ,

b u t t h i s a g g r e s s i o n i s n o t p e r m itte d an o v e r t e x p r e s s io n . Energy t h a t i s altern ativ e

d e n i e d a n e x i t t o t h e e x t e r n a l w o r ld h a s no

b u t t o t u r n i n w a r d , and e n e r g y t h a t i s t u r n e d i n ­

w ar d may, i f n o t d e v o t e d t o t h e c r e a t i o n of a r i c h I n n e r l i f e , be t u r n e d i n t o a n x i e t y . - ^

■^See a b o v e , ^p. 14 wher e t h i s dynamic i s d e m o n s t r a t e d em­ p i r i c a l l y . See a l s o below 118 f 1 . The a u t h o r s of F r u s t r a t i o n and A g g r e s s i o n w ar n t h e r e a d e r t h a t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g t h e t u r n i n g of a g g r e s s i o n inw ard must be made w i t h c a u t i o n . Since s e I f - p u n is h m e n t i s n e c e s s a r i l y i n v o l v e d , a g g r e s s i o n a g a i n s t t h e s e l f must overcome a c e r t a i n amount o f i n h i b i t i o n and t h e r e f o r e t e n d s ” n o t t o o c c u r u n l e s s o t h e r f o r m s of e x p r e s s i o n a r e e v e n more s t r o n g l y i n h i b i t e d . ”

114

F i n a l l y , the e x iste n c e

of p e r s o n a l a g g r e s s i v e i m p u l s e s

in a c u l t u r e t h a t f o r b i d s a g g r e s s io n r e s u l t s in a n x ie ty because of t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t A th ird

s u c h i m p u l s e s a r e wro ng.

p o i n t of s i g n i f i c a n c e ,

i s t h e s m a l l number of

r e s p o n s e s f o u n d i n t h e c a t e g o r y of h e l p f u l n e s s and a l t r u i s m . (Thema V) ; o n l y s e v e n t y - f o u r o r n i n e t e e n p e r c e n t of t h e r e ­ sponses are found i n t h i s

category.

Y et, t h i s is a c u ltu re

i n w h i c h , a s we ha ve s e e n , t h e s e two a r e t h e most c h e r i s h e d of a l l v a l u e s .

P a r e n t s c o n s t a n t l y r e m in d t h e i r c h i l d r e n , and

c h i e f s r e m i n d t h e p a r e n t s , t h a t p e o p l e must be c o n s i d e r a t e of o t h e r s , h e l p th e m i n d i s t r e s s , w i t h them.

s h a r e t h e i r goods and s e r v i c e s

And, a s we have s e e n , t h e s e a d m o n i t i o n s have t h e i r

d esired e f f e c t . and of t h e i r

The p e o p l e d o , i n f a c t , g i v e of t h e m s e l v e s

p ro p erty to o th e r s ,

since t h i s is a s o c ie ty th a t

i s marked by c o o p e r a t i o n and m u t u a l h e l p t o a h i g h d e g r e e . And y e t , i n t h e T . A . T . o n l y n i n e t e e n p e r c e n t of a l l r e s p o n s e s are those d ealin g w ith these v alu es. though the i n the

T h i s would i n d i c a t e t h a t

p e o p l e have i n t r o j e c t e d t h e c u l t u r a l v a l u e s w e l l

p r o c e s s of e n c u l t u r a t i o n , t h e s e v a l u e s a r e n o t g e n u i n e l y

p a r t of t h e i r u n c o n s c i o u s p e r s o n a l i t y p s y c h o d y n a m ic s . th eir

Thus,

p e r s o n a l i t i e s r e v e a l c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s th a t are in

o p p o s i t i o n t o t h o s e s t r e s s e d by t h e i r c u l t u r e . shows much c o o p e r a t i o n and l i t t l e

The c u l t u r e

h o s t i l i t y , whereas the

p e r s o n a l i t y , a s m e a s u r e d by t h e T . A . T . , shows much h o s t i l i t y

( i b i d . , p. ) I n I f a l u k , a s we have s e e n o t h e r fo rm s of a g g re s s io n ” are not only s tr o n g ly i n h i b i t e d , th ey are a b s o lu t e ­ ly -in terd icted .

115

and l i t t l e

cooperation.

An e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e c h i l d r e n 1 s T . A . T . r e c o r d s r e e v a l s t h e same g e n e r a l p a t t e r n , as i s i n d i c a t e d i n T a b le 5. TABLE

7

Them atic A p p e r c e p tio n Test C hildren S ubjects; Male s Fem ale: Thema

47 21 26 T o t a l No. of Responses

% of R e s p o n s e s

M u r d e r .................................................... l D e a t h . ............................... 15 S u i c i d e .............. 0 T otal

T6~

P h y s i c a l V i o l e n c e ..........................10 I n j m r y - A c c i d e n t .............................. 1 Illn e ss. ................................. .2 1 C r i m e ............................. 14 P u n i s h m e n t ............................. 11 A rrest-C apture ................ 5 E s c a p e ............................................... 7 T h r e a t - R e d . - B u i .............................. 8 T otal

fry

Q u a r r e l ................................................. 1 D o m i n a t i o n ............................................. 0 A n t a g o n i s m ............................................. 2 D i s h o n e s t y - C h e a t ........................... 1 D islo y alty . ................................. 0 E x t e r n a l C o n f l i c t ......................... 0 H a t e - R e v e n g e ............................. A n g e r - R a g e ............................................. 2 T otal

6

44

0

3

116

T o t a l No. of Responses

^-hema

% of R e s p o n s e s

D e p r i v a t i o n . ........................................ o I n t e r n a l C o n f l i c t .................................. E m o t i o n a l S t r e s s ................................ 7 4 M i s f o r t u n e ................. D i s a p p o i n t m e n t ..................................... 0 S e p a r . - R e j e c t ................. 1 D e s p o n d e n c y ............................................ 1 J e a l o u s y .................................................... 0 P e a r ............................................................... 1 2 A n x i e t y ( A l u s ) ................................... . 1 8 R e j e c t i o n ................................................ . 2 Total

.......... 4 7

27

28

16

R e a s s u r a n c e ................................. S e x ......................................... .. , • . , P i t y - F o r g i v e n e s s ..................... G r a t i t u d e - F r i e n d s h i p ........... L o v e ................................................... H a p p i n e s s ...................................... O b l i g a t i o n .................................... A f f e c t i o n ...................................... Re p e n t a n e e . ................................ G o a l ................................................... Total

T o t a l R e s p o n s e s . . ............................ 174 These d a t a f o r th e c h i l d r e n are rem arkably s i m i l a r t o t h o s e f o r t h e a d u l t s ; n i n e t y - n i n e , or f i f t y - s i x p er c e n t of t h e

resp o n ses f a l l in to the

c a t e g o r y of a g g r e s s i v e

phantasy;

f o r t y - s e v e n , o r t w e n t y - s e v e n p e r c e n t of t h e r e s p o n s e s f a l l i n t o t h e c a t e g o r y of a n x i e t y and i n n e r t e n s i o n ; t w e n t y - e i g h t o r s i x t e e n p e r c e n t of t h e r e s p o n s e s f a l l i n t o t h e c a t e g o r y of h e l p f u l n e s s and a l t r u i s m . T h e se m a t e r i a l s

p o i n t up some d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n

117

overt behavioral p a tte rn ,

on t h e one h a n d , w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s

i n d e t a i l t o t h e c u l t u r a l v a l u e s , and t h e i n n e r p e r s o n a l i t y d y n a m i c s , on t h e o t h e r , w h i c h a r e n o t i n t o t a l a g r e e m e n t w i t h them .

The o b s e r v e r may hav e as su med t h a t a n a d u l t c u l t u r e whose

p a t t e r n s a r e a l l c o o p e r a t i v e , w h i c h s t r e s s e s h e l p f u l n e s s and p a c i f i s m above a l l e l s e , and w h i c h i s

s t r u c t u r e d so as t o e l i c i t

a minimum o f h o s t i l i t y an d a g g r e s s i o n , would pro duce a d u l t p e r ­ s o n a l i t i e s w i t h a minimum o f a g g r e s s i o n , h o s t i l i t y , and a n x i e t y . But s u c h a c o n c l u s i o n , we have s e e n , i s f a r f ro m t h e t r u t h . D e s p ite th e absence of i n s t i t u t i o n s i n the a d u l t c u ltu r e t h a t e l i c i t much a g g r e s s i o n , t h e p e o p l e do have a g g r e s s i v e i m p u l s e s , w hich are m a n ife ste d i n r e l i g i o n ,

i n d r e a m s , and i n t h e T . A . T .

i n t h e f o r m o f a g g r e s s i v e and h o s t i l e f a n t a s i e s , a s w e l l a s i n some o v e r t b e h a v i o r . the e x iste n c e

But u n l e s s we a r e p r e p a r e d t o p o s t u l a t e

of a g g r e s s i o n a n a n i n n a t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

of t h e

o r g a n i s m , we must s e e k f o r i t s c a u s e i n e x p e r i e n c e ; t h a t i s , in c u ltu r a l con ditioning.

We have s e e n t h a t s u c h c o n d i t i o n ­

i n g — i n t h e f o r m o f i n f a n c y and c h i l d h o o d t r a u m a t a — does e x i s t . I n t h e a b s e n c e of f e w , i f a n y , a g g r e s s i o n - p r o v o k i n g e x p e r i e n c e s in ad u lt l i f e

it

i s h ig h ly probably th a t i t

is these childhood

f r u s t r a t i o n s t h a t have l e d t o t h e c o r e of a g g r e s s i v e Im puls e found i n the I f a l u k b a s ic

p ersonality stru ctu re.

T h is c o n c l u s i o n s e r v e s t o c o n firm the f i r s t

p a r t of

our h y p o t h e s i s —t h a t c e r t a i n c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s c r e a t e f r u s ­ t r a t i o n s a t c r u c i a l p o i n t s in the i n d i v i d u a l ’ s developm ent-a s w e l l a s o u r two a u x i l i a r y h y p o t h e s e s — t h a t f r u s t r a t i o n s l e a d s t o a g g r e s s i o n , and t h a t c h i l d h o o d e x p e r i e n c e I s i m p o r t a n t

118

f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a d u l t p e r s o n a l i t y .

F ru s tra tio n s in

c h i l d h o o d , u n l e s s m o d i f i e d toy s u b s e q u e n t c u l t u r e p a t t e r n s , must be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t i n any e x p l a n a t i o n o f a g g r e s s i o n in adult

p e r s o n a l i t y , and i n some c a s e s , a t l e a s t , may be a

c r u c i a l determ ining f a c t o r . sive may now t u r n t o t h e s e c o n d p a r t of o u r h y p o t h e s i s - th at c e rta in c u ltu ra l in s titu tio n s

serve to c a n a liz e ag g ressio n s

A g g r e s s i v e i m p u l s e s , l i k e o t h e r e n e r g y - i m p u l s e s , demand e x p r e s ­ s i o n an d d i s s i p a t i o n , e l s e t h e y a r e t u r n e d in w a r d a g a i n s t t h e perso n ality .

I t h a s a l r e a d y b e e n o b s e r v e d t h a t some of t h e

I f a l u k a g g r e s s i o n s a re tu rn e d inward a g a i n s t th e s e l f . t h i s t e c h n i q u e c o u l d n o t be employed f o r a l l a g g r e s s i o n . the c o n tra ry l

On

I f a l l a g g r e s s i v e e n e r g i e s were t u r n e d i n w a r d ,

th e r e s u l t could

w e l l be t h e c o l l a p s e

d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e b i o l o g i c a l o r g a n i s m . th at

But

of t h e

p e r s o n a l i t y and

We have a l s o o b s e r v e d

I f a l u k p e r m i t s t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t of a g g r e s s i o n i n v i o l e n c e

a g a i n s t dogs and i n t e a s i n g *

But t h e s e a c t s a r e t o o s p o r a d i c ,

i n b o t h c a s e s , and t o o m i l d , I n t h e s e c o n d , t o a f f o r d much r e ­ lease

of a g g r e s s i v e e n e r g i e s . E v e r y c u l t u r e must p r o v i d e f o r t h e e x p r e s s i o n of t h e

a g g r e s s i o n s of i t s

people.

It is

our h y p o th e s is t h a t c u l t u r e d

i T h i s a n a l y s i s seems t o c o n f i r m D o l l a r d ' s o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t a g ­ g r e s s i o n , i n t h e m a t u r e p e r s o n , seems t o s p r i n g f ro m a t l e a s t two s o u r c e s : ^ f i r s t , t h r o u g h c o n t i n u i n g demands f o r s a t i s f a c ­ t i o n w h i c h had t o be t a b o o e d i n t h e c o u r s e of s o c i a l i z a t i o n . . . second, a g g r e s s io n is aroused through r i v a l r y over the secu rin g o f d e s i r e d g o a l s or v a l u e s s u c h a s h i g h s t a t u s , s e x p a r t n e r s , o r s a t i s f a c t i o n s I n c i d e n t t o a s t a n d a r d of l i v i n g . ” (B ollard, **H o s t i l i t y an d F e a r i n S o c i a l L i f e ” , o p . c i t . , p. 1 7 . ) I n I f a l u k t h e f i r s t s o u r c e a c c o u n t s f o r a l m o s t a l l of t h e a g g r e s s i o n s .

119

not only e l i c i t :

a g g r e s s io n but th ey a ls o c a n a liz e the e x p r e s ­

s i o n of a g g r e s s i o n i n i n s t i t u t i o n a l form.

T h i s does n o t i m p l y

t h a t t h e p e o p l e a r e aw are o f t h i s c a n a l i z a t i o n . d e n t of c u l t u r e fect,

But t h e s t u ­

o b s e rv e s t h a t c e r t a i n i n s t i t u t i o n s do, i n e f ­

so f u n c t i o n a s t o c h a n n e l a g g r e s s i v e i m p u l s e s i n s o c i a l l y

approved ways. fu n ctio n .

In I f a lu k i t i s r e l i g i o n th a t serves t h i s

More s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e m a l e v o l e n t a l u s s e r v e t o

channel aggression in Ifalu k . We have s e e n t h a t t h e ure

is,

Ifa lu k basic p e rs o n a lity s t r u c t ­

among o t h e r t h i n g s , c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a n x i e t y r e s u l t i n g

fro m aggression.-^-

S i n c e t h e I f a l u k a g g r e s s i o n and i t s

in sti­

g a t i o n h a s b e e n r e p r e s s e d , t h i s a n x i e t y i s wf r e e - f l o a t i n g 1* , as i t s

s o u r c e i s unknown t o t h e

people.

s e r v e s a n i m p o r t a n t p s y c h o d y n a m ic n e e d .

The b e l i e f i n t h e a l u s By s u p p o s e d l y i s o l a t ­

i n g t h e s o u r c e of t h e a n x i e t y - - f e a r of a t t a c k by t h e a l u s —t h e r e p r e s s e d a g g r e s s i o n s w h i c h o t h e r w i s e would be t u r n e d a g a i n s t the

self,

c r e a t i n g more a n x i e t y , c a n now be d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t

t h e a l u s i n t h e f o r m o f s h e e r h a t r e d and i n a t t e m p t s t o combat t h e i r e v i l desig n s.

Thus, I f a l u k a g g r e s s i o n Is d i s p l a c e d from

th e r e a l so u rc e of th e f r u s t r a t i o n — th e p a r e n t s — onto the a l u s . 2

3-See a b o v e ,

pp.

1 1 3 - 1 1 4 .

2 T h i s c u l t u r a l c a n a l i z a t i o n of a g g r e s s i o n by no means e l i m i ­ n ates the free-flo atin g ^ anxiety. We h a ve a r g u e d t h a t t h i s a n x i e t y i s a f u h c t i o n of r e p r e s s e d a g g r e s s i o n . The c u l t u r a l l y c h an n eled e x p r e s s i o n of a g g r e s s i o n merely serves to e lim in a te the p r e s s i n g t e n s i o n s of t h i s a n x i e t y th ro u g h i t s c a t h a r t i c e f f e c t ; but i n s o f a r as th e o r i g i n a l f r u s t r a t i o n — the p a r e n t a l r e j e c t i o n - - h a s not been d e a l t w ith , the f r u s t r a t i o n - a g g r e s s i o n a n x i e t y complex r e m a i n s . The a u t h o r s o f F r u s t r a t i o n and A g g r e s s i o n make t h i s p o i n t v e r y w e l l whe n t h e y w r i t e t h a t

120

The a l u s hut a t

the

are

hated,

as has a l r e a d y been d e s c r i b e d , ^

same t i m e t h e y c a n be c o n t r o l l e d , f o r t h e c u l t u r e

has provided

i n s t r u m e n t a l i t i e s f o r defense a g a i n s t them.2

The c u l t u r a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n o f t h e s e a c t i v ­ ities able

seems t o forms,

be t o c h a n n e l a g g r e s s i o n i n c u l t u r a l l y a c c e p t ­

thus

d r a i n i n g o f f much of t h e

i m p u l s e s and a l l e v i a t i n g

much of t h e i r

people’s aggressive

anxiety.

b o t h f e a r e d a nd h a t e d ; a n d t h e a g g r e s s i o n t h a t towards

The a l u s a r e the

people d i r e c t

them i s a most e f f e c t i v e , s o c i a l l y - s a n c t i o n e d e x p r e s ­

s i o n of t h e i r r e p r e s s e d a g g r e s s i o n s .

Now i f

h e a l i n g were t h e a c t i v i t i e s

t h e y wo u l d n o t s e r v e t h i s

function, energies is

the

b u t t h e y a r e n o t ; t h e y o c c u p y much of t h e t i m e and of a l l

priest

lineage,

of th e

involved

people.

U s u a lly the

clan,

involve

the

part

but the

participate

ceremonies take

and occupy t h e g r e a t e r

gious ceremonies

Y/hen a p e r s o n i s i l l ,

i n the h e a l i n g ,

and o f t e n h i s e n t i r e

ceremony. nights,

of a f e w ,

c e r e m o n i a l s and

place

not only

person's e n tire in the h e a l i n g

on a number of

of t h e e v e n i n g .

All r e l i ­

p a r t i c i p a t i o n of t h e e n t i r e

aggressive action • . .re d u c e s only the secondary i n s t i g a t i o n t o a g g r e s s i o n s e t up b y t h e f r u s t r a t i o n a nd d o e s n o t have a n y e f f e c t on t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e o r i g i n a l i n s t i g a t i o n . Removal of t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e f o l l o w i n g an a g g r e s s i v e a c t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , w i l l be f o l l o w e d by t h e o c c u r e n c e of t h e o r i g i n a l ( f r u s t r a t e d ) g o a l r e s p o n s e a t i t s n o r m a l s t r e n g t h and r a t e (i b i d , footnote 2 ,

p •

9 •

3-See a b o v e , p p . 6 8 - 7 0 . S h o u l d t h e o b j e c t i o n be r a i s e d t h a t many o f t h e e x a m p l e s n o t e d o r e i n d i c a t i o n s of f e a r r a t h e r t h a n of h a t e , the answer i s r e a d y . F e a r and h a t e a re i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d t h a t which i s hated i s f e a re d . Bollard f e e l s t h a t the r e l a t i o n i s c a u s a l , r a t h e r t h a n c o r r e l a t i v e , and a s s e r t s t h a t w h i c h i s h a te d , is hated because i t is fe a re d . 2gee alus.

a b o v e ,

pp.

7 0 - 7 1

f o r a d e s c r i p t i o n of d e f e n s e a g a i n s t t h e

121

p o p u l a t i o n , and t h e y , t o o , o c c u r r e g u l a r l y and u s u a l l y t a k e p l a c e o v e r a number of d a y s . the

T h u s , much of t h e a c t i v i t y o f

p e o p l e i s d e v o t e d t o a t t e m p t s t o t h w a r t t h e w i l l of t h e

-j~us > an(^ t h i s a c t i v i t y ,

de manding much e x p e n d i t u r e of e n e r g i e s ,

s e r v e s t o c a n a l i z e the p e o p l e ’ s a g g r e s s iv e im pulses i n s o c i a l l y approved d i r e c t i o n s . pressed,

H o s t i l i t y , w h i c h e i t h e r c o u l d n o t be e x ­

o r w h i c h wo uld have b e e n t u r n e d i n t o u n a c c e p t a b l e

d ire ctio n s,

i s d i s p l a c e d o n t o t h e symbol of a l l e v i l , t h e a l u s .

The c u l t u r a l r e s o l u t i o n o f a g g r e s s i o n i s n o t a h a p ­ hazard p ro cess, as the

so t h a t i t

i s no ‘"accident** t h a t t h e a l u s s e r v e

o b je c ts of I f a l u k a g g r e s s io n - d is p la c e m e n t.

read y observed th a t c e r t a i n c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n s cru cial in stig ato rs

of a g g r e s s i o n .

We have a l ­ serve as

But i n s o f a r a s c u l t u r e s d i f ­

f e r , t h e k i n d o f a g g r e s s i o n t h a t i s f o u n d i n t h e modal p e r s o n a l ­ i t y w o u ld d i f f e r f r o m c u l t u r e t o c u l t u r e .

As H a l l o w e l l h a s

pointed o u t; n . . . t h e demands of t h e p a r e n t s and t h e man ner i n w h i c h c h i l d r e n a r e h a n d l e d are not i d e n t i c a l i n a l l s o c i e t i e s ; hence th e c r u c i a l im portance of the s o c i a l i z a t i o n process in r e l a t i o n to t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l s t r a i n s and s t r e s s e s t h a t account f o r the p e r s o n a lity s t r u c t u r e u n d e r one s e t of c o n d i t i o n s a s com pared w i t h a n o t h e r . n S i n c e t h e s e s t r a i n s and s t r e s s e s d i f f e r f ro m c u l t u r e t o c u l ­ t u r e , t h e i r r e s o l u t i o n must a l s o d i f f e r ; f o r a s u c c e s s f u l r e s o l u t i o n of a g g r e s s i o n must be p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o

l-A* ! • H a l l o w e l l , l* P e r s o n a l i t y F o r m a t i o n and t h e i n v o l u t i o n o f Man" , op c i t . , p . 18. ( i t a l i c s m i n e ) .

122

t h e "" o r i g i n a l i n s t i g a t i o n " " the f r u s t r a t i o n .

of t h e a g g r e s s i o n , a s B o l l a r d c a l l s

I t is im possible fo r the I f a l u k to d ir e c t

h i s a g g r e s s i o n a g a i n s t t h e " " o r i g i n a l i n s t i g a t i o n 1" , h i s p a r e n t s , n o r may he e v e n d i s p l a c e h i s a g g r e s s i o n o n t o o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s ; i t must be d i s p l a c e d e l s e w h e r e .

I t i s tr u e t h a t any e x p r e s s i o n

of a g g r e s s i o n s e r v e s to reduce the t e n s i o n s i n the p e r s o n a l i t y ; but the c a t h a r t i c

v a l u e of a g g r e s s i o n e x p r e s s i o n i s most e f ­

f e c t i v e when t h e o b j e c t of t h e a g g r e s s i o n i s e i t h e r t h e " " o r i g i ­ n a l I n s t i g a t i o n ’" o r i t s

symbolic e q u i v a l e n t .

In I fa lu k t h i s

sy m b o lic e q u i v a l e n t i s found i n the m a lev o len t a l u s . T h a t t h e a l u s i s a s y m b o l i c e q u i v a l e n t of t h e o r i g i n a l fru stratin g

o b j e c t , and t h u s a most e f f e c t i v e

o b je c t f o r the

d i s p l a c e m e n t of a g g r e s s i o n i s e v i d e n t ; t h e a l u s a r e t h e dead a n c e s t o r s a n d , a s s u c h , a r e a s c l o s e t o t h e a c t u a l s o u r c e of th e f r u s t r a t i o n as a n y th in g could p o s s ib ly be.

One c a n n o t h a t e

h i s p a r e n t s , b u t he i s a l l o w e d t o h a t e h i s dead a n c e s t o r s , e v e n t h e a l u s of h i s

parents,

so t h a t t h e h o s t i l i t y evoked by p a r e n ­

t a l t r e a t m e n t i s a l m o s t e x p r e s s e d d i r e c t l y when d i r e c t e d t o ­ wards the a l u s .

T h i s p o i n t i s f o c u s e d e v e n more s h a r p l y i f i t

b 6 r e m e m b e re d t h a t t h e a l u s a t t a c k o n l y members of t h e i r own lin eag e.

When a p e r s o n becomes i l l ,

he knows t h a t t h e a t t a c k -

i n g a l u s i s t h e g h o s t of a dead r e l a t i v e , a member o f h i s own h ousehold.

Thus t h e a l u s one f e a r s and h a t e s , and t o w a r d s

whom one v e n t s h i s venom, i s o n e ’ s own a n c e s t o r ,

perhaps o n e 's

own p a r e n t . Thus we s e e t h a t impulses

in i t s

I fa lu k c u ltu re e l i c i t s aggressive

m ember s, i m p u l s e s t h a t a r e d e e p - s e a t e d i n

125 th e ir

perso n ality stru c tu re s.

The c u l t u r e

p re v e n ts th e people

from e x p r e s s i n g th e s e a g g r e s s io n s in i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s , but i t

d o e s a l l o w f o r t h e e x p r e s s i o n of a g g r e s s i o n i n a s o c i a l ­

l y r e c o g n i z e d and a p p r o v e d f o r m a g a i n s t t h e a l u s .

This c a n a l i ­

z a t i o n of a g g r e s s i v e f e e l i n g s s e rv e s t o d i s s i p a t e the h o s t i l e feelings

o f t h e p e o p l e and r e l i e v e t h e i r o t h e r w i s e O p p r e s s i v e

ten sio n s.

T h is c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t i o n p ro v id e s b o th the i n d i v i d ­

u a l and th e c u l t u r e w i t h an a s s u r a n c e a g a i n s t complete b r e a k ­ down.

For th e i n d iv id u a l i t

his h o s ti l i t i e s all

p ro v id e s the o p p o r tu n ity to d i r e c t

o n t o t h e e x t e r n a l w o r ld i n s t e a d of t u r n i n g them

inward onto h i m s e l f .

The c u l t u r a l b e l i e f i n t h e a l u s s e r v e s

t o d r a i n o f f t h e l a r g e b u l k of h i s h o s t i l i t i e s and t h u s a f r e e f l o a t i n g a n x i e t y i s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n a c t u a l and ( c u l t u r a l l y ) re a l fear,

t h a t the

and guard a g a i n s t .

p erso n can u n d e rsta n d , m an ip u late, c o n t r o l, Were he n o t a f f o r d e d t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n a l

o u t l e t , he c o u l d v e r y w e l l b r e a k down u n d e r t h e o t h e r w i s e unco n tro la b le te n sio n s.

^ - B e a g l e h o l e ’ s o b s e r v a t i o n s on t h e P uka-P uka a r e r e l e v a n t h e r e , s in c e t h i s P o ly n e s ia n s o c i e ty l i v e s under c o n d itio n s very s im i­ l a r to the Ifa lu k . T h e y , t o o , i n h a b i t a t i n y a t o l l and b o t h t h e l a n d mass and t h e p o p u l a t i o n a r e a l m o s t e x a c t l y t w i c e t h e s i z e of t h e I f a l u k l a n d a r e a and p o p u l a t i o n s i z e . L ik e t h e I f a l u k , t h e P u k a - P u k a have an e t h i c of n o n - a g g r e s s i o n , and t h e y , t o o , have s o c i a l l y s a n c t i o n e d c h a n n e l s , a l b e i t d i f f e r e n t , f o r t h e e x p r e s s i o n of a g g r e s s i o n . '’’L i f e i s s uch,” w r i t e s B e a g l e h o l e , ’’t h a t no one may g e t away f r o m h i s f e l l o w - v i l l a g e r s . P r i v a c y and s o l i t u d e a s we know th em a r e a l m o s t n o n - e x i s t e n t . Day and n i g h t , mon th i n , month o u t , t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s c o n t i n u a l ­ ly in contact w ith o th e rs. He c a n n o t g e t away f ro m them no m a t t e r wh at t h e p r o v o c a t i o n . Were i t n o t f o r c e r t a i n s o c i a l l y a p p r o v e d ways o f e x p r e s s i n g o t h e r w i s e r e p r e s s e d e m o t i o n s , t h e s o c i e t y w ould d i s i n t e g r a t e u n d e r t h e w e i g h t of i t s own n e u r o s e s . ’* (E. B e a g l e h o l e , rsE m o t i o n a l R e l e a s e on a P o l y n e s i a n A ttll,* * ,Tr. Abn. S o c . P s y c h . , XXXII ( 1 9 3 7 ) , 3 1 9 - 3 2 8 , p. 320.

124 The f u n c t i o n t h i s b e l i e f s e r v e s f o r t h e s o c i e t y i s equally s ig n if ic a n t.

Were t h e p e o p l e n o t g i v e n a n o u t l e t f o r

th e ir aggressive f e e lin g s ,

t h e i r aggressive

i m p u l s e s may w e l l

ha v e b e e n t u r n e d t o w a r d t h e r e a l s o u r c e of t h e i r f r u s t r a t i o n — p a r e n t s and s i b l i n g s — o r d i s p l a c e d g e n e r a l l y o n t o o t h e r members of th e

s o c i e t y >l e a d i n g t o i n t e r n e c i n e

d e s t r u c t i o n of t h e s o c i e t y .

strife ,

and t h e u l t i m a t e

G iven t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t of t h e i r

a g g r e s s i o n onto th e a l u s , th e people are i n s t e a d provided w ith a common enemy on whom t h e y c a n p r o j e c t t h e i r h a t r e d .

They a r e

t h u s f o r c e d t o d e v e l o p a s e n s e of g r o u p s o l i d a r i t y by b a n d i n g t o g e t h e r f o r t h e i r common t a s k .

H o s t i l i t y i s t h u s t u r n e d f ro m

w i t h i n t h e g r o u p t o t h o s e who a r e o u t s i d e t h e g r o u p — t h e e n e m i e s . ^

i T h i s a n a l y s i s i s f r a n k l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e K a r d i n e r - L i n t o n a p p r o a c h w h i c h v ie w s r e l i g i o n a s a “ s e c o n d a r y i n s t i t u t i o n '5 , t h a t i s , a s one of t h e “ p r o j e c t i v e s y s t e m s ’5 i n w h ic h t h e t e n ­ s i o n s found i n th e b a s ic p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e are p r o je c te d and r e s o l v e d t o a g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r d e g r e e . Im plicit in th is a p p r o a c h i s t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t e c h n i q u e s of s o c i a l i z a t i o n and a c c u l t u r a t i o n , b a s i c p e r s o n a l i t y s t r u c t u r e , and r e l i g i o n are not sim ply found to g e t h e r in a s s o c i a t i o n , but t h a t they are i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d to each o th er in a psych o lo g ically fu n ctio n al re la tio n sh ip . The v a l i d i t y o f ou r a n a l y s i s , how­ e v e r , d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y depend upon t h e v a l i d i t y of t h e K a r d i n e r - L i n t o n h y p o t h e s i s , f o r e v e n i n t e r m s of t h e more o r t h o ­ dox t h e o r y of c u l t u r e t h e a l u s may be viewed a s s e r v i n g t h e f u n c t i o n of a g g r e s s i o n d i s p l a c e m e n t » F o r t h o u g h r e l i g i o n i s n o t c o n c e i v e d i n t e r m s o f a n i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d p r o j e c t i o n of p e r s o n a l i t y t e n s i o n s , i t may, i n e f f e c t , s u b s e r v e s u c h a p u r p o s e . T h a t I s , t h o u g h t h e a l u s be c o n c e i v e d a s h a t e d f o r t h e m s e l v e s , and a r e t h u s o b j e c t s of d i r e c t r a t h e r t h a n d i s p l a c e d a g g r e s ­ s i o n , i t may s t i l l be t r u e t h a t r e p r e s s e d a g g r e s s i o n s stemming fro m o t h e r s o u r c e s a r e d i s p l a c e d onto the a l u s . B o lla r d , f o l ­ l o w i n g L a s ^ s w e ll , makes t h i s same p o i n t when he w r i t e s t h a t i n t h e c a s e of d i r e c t a g g r e s s i o n " t h e r e I s a l w a y s some d i s p l a c e d a g ­ g r e s s i o n accompanying i t , a n d ad d in g a d d i t i o n a l f o r c e t o the ra tio n a l attack . J u s t i f i a b l e a g g r e s s i v e r e s p o n s e s seem t o b r e a k t h e way f o r i r r a t i o n a l and u n j u s t i f i a b l e h o s t i l i t i e s . . . The Image of t h e i n c r e d i b l y h o s t i l e and ammoral o u t - g r o u p e r

12 5 The f a c t t h a t r e l i g i o u s a g g r e s s i o n and t h u s t o culture

institutions

d i v e r t h o s t i l i t y from persons i n the

e x p l a i n s what ha ppen s t o t h e a g g r e s s i o n t h a t t h e c u l ­

ture

provokes.

this

points

But s t i l l a n o t h e r problem p r e s e n t s

why do t h e

socialized

in such a c u ltu r e ,

c u ltu ra tio n that

It

is tru e t h a t they are

but what a r e t h e

dynamics of e n -

e n s u r e t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n and p e r p e t u a t i o n of

values learned in childhood?

mu s t t u r n t o

i ts e lf at

people conform to the c u l t u r a l v a lu es

of n o n - a g g r e s s i o n and c o o p e r a t i o n ?

the

serve to channel

still

To a n s w e r t h i s

q u e s t i o n , we

another c u ltu r a l i n s t i t u t i o n — c h ie fta in sh ip .

I f a l u k c h i e f s a r e more t h a n p o l i t i c a l f u n c t i o n a r i e s in the

conventional

dicated

by t h e

people.

This

sense

of t h a t t e r m .

Ifaluk in th eir

They a r e ,

own t e r m s ,

p a t e r n a l f u n c t i o n of t h e

a s was I n ­

the f a t h e r s

chiefs is

quite

of t h e i r marked.

T h o u g h t h e y p o s s e s s none o f t h e e x t e r n a l a c c o u t r e m e n t s o f a u t h o r i t y - - o r n a m e n t a l or p s y c h o l o g i c a l — t h e i r a u t h o r i t y over the

people

is absolute,

and r e l i g i o u s

m atters,

and e x t e n d s t o e c o n o m i c ,

political,

as w e ll as to the moral l i f e

of t h e

p e o p l e w i t h w h i c h we a r e h e r e c o n c e r n e d . The c h i e f s a r e t h e u l t i m a t e a r b i t e r s havior;

of e t h i c a l b e ­

t h e i r a p p r o v a l o r d i s a p p r o v a l m o t i v a t e s mos t o f t h e

relations

between I f a l u k .

2

.

When a s k e d why t h e y do n o t v i o l a t e

i s b u i l t up o u t o f o u r own r e a l a n t a g o n i s m p l u s o u r d i s p l a c e d a g g r e s s i o n a g a i n s t him; t h e s e h e i g h t e n e d a g g r e s s i v e r e s p o n s e s r a i s e t h r o u g h f e a r of r e t a l i a t i o n t h e v i s i o n o f t h e u n b e a r a b l e h o s t i l e enemy.” ( D o l l a r d , " H o s t i l i t y and F e a r i r S o c i a l L i f e " , o p c i t • , p. 19 . ) 2see above,

pp. 32-34

12 6 certain the

moral ta b o o s ,

invariable

quire

it,

o r why t h e y c o n f o r m t o m o r a l i n j u n c t i o n s ,

a n s w e r of t h e

or t h a t

the

chiefs,

p e o p l e was t h a t t h e c h i e f s r e ­ the

ultimate

court

y o n d w h i c h one d o e s n o t g o , w o u l d d i s a p p r o v e B av e la s Moral Id e o lo g y co nfirm s t h i s the

of a p p e a l b e ­

of i t .

observation,

The

as w e l l .

q u e s t i o n o f who w o u l d p r a i s e t h e m f o r good b e h a v i o r ,

who w o u l d b l a m e t h e m f o r b a d b e h a v i o r , elicited

c a t e g o r y of th e

The r a t i o n a l e

for

this

specific

To

or

t h e mo s t f r e q u e n t l y

individuals

f u n c t i o n of the c h i e f s

is "the

c h i e f s 11. 1

is expressed

v e ry w e l l by a n a t i v e ; " i f t h e r e were n o t any c h i e f s , t h e p e o p l e w o u l d be i m m o r a l . If a chief o b s e r v e s s omeone v i o l a t i n g a c u s t o m , he a d m o n i s h e s h i m - - 1S t o p t h i s b e h a v i o r . I t I s n o t o n l y my d e s i r e t h a t you s t o p t h i s a c t i v i t y , b u t t h e d e s i r e o f my a n c e s t o r s , t h e d e s i r e o f my H o u s e . ' Should any o t h e r p e r s o n admonish an e v i l - d o e r , t h e l a t t e r would no t obey, b e c a u s e he d o e s n o t f e a r a n d r e s p e c t him. When t h e c h i e f a d m o n i s h e s , t h e people obey, because th e y a l l f e a r a n d r e s p e c t him.** This q u o ta tio n re p re s e n ts the lation, tion

including the c h ie f s .

of c h i e f t a i n s h i p ,

other fo u r,

the

s e n t i m e n t s of th e e n t i r e

popu­

When t h e y we r e a s k e d t h e f u n c ­

paramount c h i e f ,

speaking f o r the

answered:

"The c h i e f s a r e l i k e f a t h e r s h e r e . J u s t as an empty canoe i s t o s s e d

^-See a b o v e , T a b l e 2 , p . 23 a n d p a s s i m . The c a t e g o r y o f " s o c i e t y a t l a r g e " , of c o u r s e , l e a d s t h e l i s t . T h i s means t h a t t h e per­ s o n i n t e r v i e w e d d e s i g n a t e d no s p e c i f i c p e r s o n , b u t m e r e l y s a i d " p e o p l e i n g e n e r a l " or " a n y o n e " . Bu t of t h e v a r i o u s c a t e o - o r i e s of I n d i v i d u a l s n a me d , t h e c h i e f s w e r e named mo s t f r e ­ quent ly •

127 a b o u t by t h e w a v es , and f i n a l l y s i n k s , so t o o , a s o c i e t y w i t h o u t c h i e f s i s t o s s e d a b o u t by c o n f l i c t and s t r i f e , and i s d e s t r o y e d . If a f a th e r asks his s o n n o t t o b e h a v e b a d l y , t h e l a t t e r may n o t o b e y h i m , s i n c e he may n o t r e s p e c t him h i g h l y . But a l l p e o p le obey t h e words of t h e c h i e f s , s i n c e t h e y are f e a r e d and r e s p e c t e d by a l l . The c h i e f ’ s d u ty i s t o see t h a t t h e people behave w ell. The c h i e f s mu s t c o n s t a n t l y t e l l t h e p e o p l e t o be g o o d , o r e l s e t h e s o c i e t y , l i k e t h e c a n o e , w o u l d be d e s t r o y e d . ’■* In d e sc rib in g the in childhood, negative tural

it

was o b s e r v e d t h a t

This

impugned by o t h e r s ,

test

aggression.

It

est

shame.

ity

in the

made a w a r e is the

Having o n e ’ s a b i l i t i e s

o r b e i n g a c c u s e d of some m i s d e m e a n o r , i s

is not g u i l t

^-See T a b l e

The same o r by

of

but r a t h e r

p e r s o n a l d e f i c i e n c y by l a c k

shame.

And o f a l l s h a me , I t

o f b e i n g s hame d by t h e c h i e f s , w h i c h i s t h e g r e a t ­ T h i s i s what g i v e s th e c h i e f s t h e i r moral a u t h o r ­ culture. of th e

reminded t h a t chiefs

S.E. R. T.^-

they f e e l in p erp etratin g aggres­

n o r do t h e y f e e l a s e n s e

the f e a r

o p i n i o n of

p e o p l e a r e a s h a m e d by l a c k of a b i l i t y

of t e c h n i c a l s k i l l , is

life.

of s a d n e s s a s r e v e a l e d by t h e

reveals that

sion,

p a t t e r n of s e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e

continues in to adult

a source

shame i s t h e mo s t p o w e r f u l

s a n c t i o n employed I n e n s u r i n g c o n f o r m i t y to the c u l ­

values.

others

s y s t e m of r e w a r d s and p u n i s h m e n t s

p.

earliest

c h i e f s and t h e i r c e r t a i n kinds

disapprove

1,

Fr o m h i s

of th em .

'19 a n d p a s s i m .

years,

demands.

the c h i ld

is

C o n s t a n t l y , he

o f b e h a v i o r a r e wr ong b e c a u s e A p p r o v a l of t h e c h i e f s

is the

128 strongest

s t i m u l u s t o good b e h a v i o r ,

deterrent. that

It

is

values--the Why t h e

cultural

that

I f a l u k the

existence

the

havior. people

s e e ms t o

sense

that

The p r a i s e

of the

the

praise

Just

of e n c u l t u r a t i o n ,

The P a t t e r n

and the l o v e t h e y g i v e t h e the

same s e n s e

of

p a r e n t s g a v e t h e m when t h e y

parents

put I t ;

(chieftainship)

f o r c e m e n t ; and t h e y a r e

and

p r a i s e d them, i n th e

pro­

t h e m when t h e y c o n f o r m t o t h e c h i e f s ’

As B u r r o w s h a s it

an i d e a l person

when t h e y c o n f o r m e d t o t h e i r t e a c h i n g s ,

now p r a i s e

a c c e p t e d by t h e m ,

in

a p p r o v e s of h i s b e ­

Ifaluk adults

of t h e i r

in

first,

v a l u e s of t h e c u l t u r e ;

chiefs

as t h e i r

in cross-

of m o r a l c o n d u c t - - a n d

Ideal figure

s e e ms t o y i e l d t o t h e

teachings.

4.

this

but

th a t a person re a red

e x t r e m e — r e q u i r e s t wo t h i n g s ;

does conform t o the

chiefs

is not a t a l l c l e a r ,

indicate

d e ma n d s c e r t a i n k i n d s

were c h i l d r e n .

of t h e c h i e f s

of t h e c h i e f s .

o f s omeone g r e a t e r t h a n h i m s e l f ,

secu rity that

so t h e

love

strongest

people to adhere to the c u l ­

play th is role

d e ma n d s a r e

who a c t u a l l y

cess

t o r e t a i n the

p r o v i s i o n a l l y t h a t human e x p e r i e n c e ,

perspective,

a culture

second,

values

chiefs

may be s t a t e d

tne

desire

c o n sc io u s ly m otivates the

tural

it

the

disapp rov al the

1,1 . . . n o is

m a t t e r how c a l m l y

the b a s i s

of l aw e n ­

c e r t a i n l y a l a w - a b i d i n g p e o p l e . n'

of h o n - A g g r e s s i o n and i t s

P e r s o n a l and C u l t u r a l

Consequences. We may now i n q u i r e a nd c u l t u r a l — of t h e anxiety,

aggression,

Ifaluk

the co n se q u e n ce s-~ p erso n a l

p a t t e r n of c h i l d h o o d f r u s t r a t i o n ,

repression.

Any e g o f u n c t i o n , -kh. C. B u r r o w s ,

into

private

whether i t

be e x p r e s s i v e

communication.

or r e p r e s s i v e ,

129 I

requires ism i s

expenditure

finite,

of e n e r g y .

But th e

s o t h a t t h e more i t s

activities.

This

is

the

rest

th a t follow s great energy expenditures.

i n the

is

so t h a t

service

pe rfo rm an ce of o t h e r

a p p a r e n t f r o m t h e f e e l i n g of f a t i g u e a nd

seen th a t there

personality,

are f o r the

devoted to

the

have

there

e n e r g i e s are

organ­

one a c t i v i t y

need f o r

less

energy i n the

much r e p r e s s e d a g g r e s s i o n i n t h e

We Ifaluk

l a r g e r e s e r v e s o f e n e r g y mu s t be e m p l o y e d

of t h i s

repression.

Bu t i f

much e n e r g y i s e x ­

p e n d e d i n t h e r e p r e s s i o n o f a g g r e s s i o n we m i g h t e x p e c t o t h e r aspects

of th e

energy,

and,

Ifaluk.

p e r s o n a l i t y t o become i m p o v e r i s h e d f o r l a c k o f

in fa c t,

this

As C a m e r o n h a s

i s what- s ee ms t o h a v e h a p p e n e d i n

pointed out,

th e t o t a l e f f o r t expended {

in repression n . . . m a y be v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l e , a n d l e a d t o f a t i g u e and a n o t i c e a b l e r e d u c t i o n i n the p e r s o n 's e f f e c t i v e n e s s as a bio s o c i a l organism. A l a r g e e x p e n d i t u r e of t i m e a n d e f f o r t may be n e c e s s i t a t e d , f o r e x a m p l e , i n r e p r e s s i n g h o s t i l e or s a l a c i o u s f a n t a s y i n g w h i c h i s i n i t s e l f of no v a l u e t o the i n d i v i d u a l . n ^ The e x p e n d i t u r e control ties,

of a g g r e s s i o n h a s r e s u l t e d

personalities

mark on t h e

in n e r l i v e s which,

culture.

an im pressive

aspect

amount of ti m e

^Cameron,

o p .c it.,

i n Impoverished p e r s o n a l i ­

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e a b s e n c e

c r e a t i v i t y and r i c h

great

of psychic energy n e c e s sa ry f o r the

p.

in turn,

of r e a l leaves

its

T h i s l a c k o f e n e r g y i s made e v i d e n t by of I f a l u k s o c i a l

l i f e ——t h e

s p e n t i n s l e e p and r e s t ,

1 8 0 .

proportionately

as w e ll as a

130 genei-al l i s t l e s s n e s s # ' work l o n g

That the n a t i v e s ,

;ind h a r d a t a c t i v i t i e s

that

men a n d 'women b o t h ,

demand s u c h e x p e n d i t u r e

of p h y s i c a l e n e r g y has a l r e a d y been p o i n t e d o u t . also

be n o t e d t h a t

native

is

spent

a large

p r o p o r t i o n of t h e

i n s l e e p and r e s t *

o b j e c t i v e ”' r e a s o n f o r f e e l i n g s not

debilitating,

a t a mi ni mum.

food i s

If fatigue

em otional as w ell as a l energy,

plentiful,

seems l i t t l e

The c l i m a t e

i s a f u n c t i o n of e n e r g y e x p e n d i t u r e ,

physical,

then the expenditure

ality

physical labor is of f a t i g u e

of i t s

but i t

l e t h a r g y of the

found i n the

in fatigue.

I f a l u k r e s u l t s from a t ­ in turn,

d r a in the

person­

energy.

also

of e n e r g y not only r e s u l t s

s h o ws i t s e l f

personality.

men i n a c a n o e h o u s e

i n much s l e e p ­

in a general listlessn ess

and

Whole a f t e r n o o n s may p a s s i n w h i c h say n o th in g ,

s i t w ith vacant expressions

o r do n o t h i n g ,

on t h e i r f a c e s .

t h e y may be e n g a g e d i n m a k i n g r o p e ,

but there

a c t i o n betviieen t h e m , a n d one f e e l s a s i f

a ir.

or

a t a mi ni mum, we may i n f e r t h a t

t o c o n t r o l a g g r e s s i o n which,

This drainage ing,

of e m o t i o n ­

w h e t h e r d e v o t e d t o Mc r e a t i v e 1® i n t e l l e c t u a l w o r k ,

the f e e l i n g tempts

is

a nd p h y s i c a l l a b o r i s

t o n u n c r e a t i v e ,!! h a n d l i n g of t e n s i o n s , woul d r e s u l t And s i n c e

mus t

da y o f t h e a v e r a g e

how, t h e r e

of f a t i g u e .

But i t

but merely

At o t h e r t i m e s , is

no i n t e r ­

h e a v i n e s s we r e i n t h e

1

I p r o f e s s o r F e l i x Keesing has w r i t t e n t h a t the P o ly n esian s e n ­ joy the h i g h e s t s t a n d a r d o f l e i s u r e i n t h e w o r l d . ”1 T h i s f e l i c i t o u s p h r a s e may be s a i d t o a p p l y w i t h a l m o s t e q u a l f o r c e to the I f a lu k . I f t h i s be s o t h e p r e v i o u s a n a l y s i s may be o p e n t o

131 If is

It

Is true

that

the

psychic energy of the

d i r e c t e d t o t h e c o n t r o l of a g g r e s s i o n ,

poverishment in the

of f a n t a s y and i n n e r l i f e

culture,

particularly

in i t s

people

the consequent

im­

should r e v e a l i t s e l f

creative

aspects; for if

p e r s o n s d e v o t e t h e i r e n e r g i e s t o t h e c o n t r o l of a g g r e s s i o n , t h e y have that

little

Ifaluk art

energy fo r a r t i s t i c

creation.

And we do f i n d

i s meager,

The e n t i r e

body o f f o l k ­

indeed.

lore --m yths, legends, f o l k - t a l e s — requires

on ly f o r t y double

s p a c e d t y p e —w r i t t e n p a g e s t o r e c o r d , a nd e v e n s o , t h i s lore

is

ignorant

known, o n l y t o t h e of i t ,

but quite

enous p l a s t i c

arts

the

carve

people

to

chiefs,

the

people not only being

uninterested.

of any k i n d ,

folk­

T h e r e a r e no i n d i g ­

though the Japanese induced

s m a l l w o o d e n d o l l s f o r e x p o r t , and t h e y

two o b j e c t i o n s ; (a) I t s t e m s f r o m t h e c ' u l t u r e - b i a s of t h e a u t h o r c o n c e r n i n g t h e n a t u r e a n d f u n c t i o n of p e r s o n a l i t y ; t h i s b i a s i n c l u d i n g t h e C a l v i n i s t e m p h a s i s on w o r k a s V o c a t i o n , and t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y of t h e B a b b i t - l i k e e x t r a v e r t e d p e r s o n a l ­ i t y , a l w a y s d o i n g s o m e t h i n g - - a n y t h i n g — f o r th e sake of doing as the id e a l p e rs o n a lity type. ( b) The p a t t e r n d e s c r i b e d a b o v e may be t r a d i t i o n a l a n d , h e n c e , of l i t t l e p s y c h o l o g i c a l s i g n i f ­ icance. The o n l y a n s w e r t o t h e f i r s t o b j e c t i o n i s t h a t e v e r y a t t e m p t h a s b e e n made t o p r e v e n t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of s u c h b i a s f r o m e n t e r i n g i n t o t h i s monograph. As f o r t h e s e c o n d o b j e c t i o n , i t may be s h o wn t h a t t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a c u l t u r e p a t t e r n b y me a n s of t h e c u l t u r e c o n c e p t c o n s t i t u t e s a c i r c u l a r a r g u m e n t , i n t h a t the c r i t e r i o n of v a l i d i t y Is s e l f - c o n f i r m i n g . Given t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e c u 3 . t u r e p a t t e r n a s a d a t u m i t be c o me s n e c ­ e s s a r y t o e x p l a i n why t h e p a t t e r n i s w h a t i t i s ; t h a t I s , why do t h e p e o p l e b e h a v e a s t h e y do? And t h e f a c t t h a t s o much tim e i s d e v o t e d i n I f a l u k t o s l e e p and t h a t th e Ifal.uk p e r s o n ­ a l i t y , among o t h e r t h i n g s , i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by l e t h a r g y , s eems to c a l l f o r an I n t e r p r e t a t i o n . T h i s a s p e c t of I f a l u k b e h a v i o r c o n s t i t u t e d s u c h a n i n e x p l i c a b l e p r o b l e m i n t h e c o u r s e of t h e f i e l d s t u d y t h a t i t was n o t e d f r e q u e n t l y i n t h e f i e l d n o t e s . P r o m t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g of t h i s s t u d y t h e a u t h o r had t h e f e e l i n g t h a t t h e i n o r d i n a t e a m o u n t o f t i m e d e v o t e d t o s l e e p a nd t o i n ­ a c t i v i t y was n o t rts i m p l y n t r a d i t i o n a l b e h a v i o r b u t t h a t i t had d e e p r o o t s a n d g a v e e v i d e n c e o f e m o t i o n a l d i s t u r b a n c e , of whose n a t u r e he r e m a i n e d c o m p l e t e l y i g n o r a n t . I t was o n l y i n t h e c o u r s e of t h e a n a l y s i s o f h i s m a t e r i a l s t h a t t h e h y p o t h e s i s a d o p t e d h e re o c c u r e d t o him. B u t he r e a d i l y a d m i t s t h a t t h e a n a l y s i s I s no more v a l i d t h a n t h e k e e n e s s of t h e o b s e r v a t i o n on w h i c h It is based.

132

continue nor the are

t o make t h e m f o r t h e A m e r i c a n s . people t a k e any i n t e r e s t

made a l m o s t e x a c t l y t h e

i n the d o l l s ,

same, w i t h l i t t l e

t h e y have n o t b e e n s t i m u l a t e d t o carve use

or enjoyment.

absent,

painting

drawn p i c t u r e s

of c a n o e s ,

Decorative

however,

since

I s a n o l d ma n, a n d no one e l s e What i s

the

is

its

have

ation.

Thus, th e re

ual dancing, the

Songs a r e

\

or f o r

of t h r e e

of th e

p a t t e r n s from which th e re

so t h a t e a c h d a n c e r

songs,

Within each category,

songs a r e ,

love

s o n g s and a

t h e w o r d s and

repetitious.

or f o u r melodic

A ll the

patterns.

The

c o r r e s p o n d s t o two n o t e s on t h e

and i n t e r v a l s on t h e

again,

three

performed a t c e r ­

f o l l o w e d by e v e r y o t h e r d a n c e r .

kinds--rdligious

Ifalu k scale

note

i s no v a r i ­

None a l l o w s f o r i n d i v i d ­

personal v ariatio n ,

same b a s i c

western scale, than a h a lf

Every canoe I s - - a s f a r

a l m o s t e x a c t l y l i k e e v e r y o t h e r one.

tr a d itio n a l routine

of t h e

On l y t h e

has le a rn e d t h i s a r t .

A l l dances are group dances,

music has th e range

a nd t a t o o i n g .

I s no o p p o r t u n i t y f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of

m iscellaneous group. sentiments

in three forms;

t h e l a s t t a t o o e r on I f a l u k

s o c i a l or c e r e m o n ia l o c c a s io n s .

foilows

own

art exists

monotonous u n i f o r m i t y .

o n l y t wo b a s i c

virtuoso.

tain

objects for th e ir

most i m p r e s s i v e a b o u t such d e c o r a t i v e a r t as

possible--painted

Skirts

a nd

o f f i s h o r men on t h e c r o s s ­

d y i n g of s k i r t s ,

two c o n t i n u e ,

as is

variation,

t h o u g h some o f t h e y o u n g men who s t u d i e d i n t h e J a p a n e s e

b e a ms o f c a n o e h o u s e s .

exists,

a l l of w h i c h

G r a p h i c a r t i n t h e f o r m of p i c t u r e s i s a l s o

s c h o o l o n Yap h a v e

first

N either the carvers

between n o tes are r a r e l y g r e a t e r

latter

scale.

155

This b r ie f Ifaluk a rts .

d e s c r i p t i o n exhausts the e n tir e

To a r g u e t h a t

t h e m e a g e r n e s s of t h e a r t s

f u n c t i o n o f l ow i n t e l l i g e n c e ignore

all

vations

of t h e

of t h e

ethnographers,

as w e ll as t h e i r tical

arts

refutes

show t h e s e

people

t o be a s i n t e l l i g e n t

The c u l t u r a l t e c h n i q u e s t h e y

sound s c i e n t i f i c

of n a v i g a t i o n ,

carpentry,

principles

in the

prac­

and b u i l d i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n

a n y a s s u m p t i o n of a l a c k of i n g e n u i t y .

of a r t i s t i c meagerness

of e n e r g i e s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e

e x p r e s s i o n I s not the of the

arts

It

c r e a t i v i t y d e ma n d s t h e f r e e

cannot give free

i s a t ru i s m to say t h a t exercise

A r ic h inner lif e

lest

requires

be g i v e n t h e f r e e d o m t o go w h e r e t h e y w i l l , c i s e l y what t h e fantasy le st fears

I f a lu k cannot

permit.

justified,

th e ir fantasy lives wh o s e f a n t a s i e s

full

f o r the

their fantasies that fantasies

and t h i s i s

pre­

The y mus t r e p r e s s a l l

some f a n t a s y be a g g r e s s i v e . are

of f a n t a s y .

c o n c e r n i n g t h e i r own a g g r e s s i o n s

r e i n to t h e i r f a n ta s ie s ,

be c o me a g g r e s s i v e .

paucity

o n l y e x p l a n a t i o n of th e

in Ifaluk.

P e o p l e s who h a v e a n x i e t i e s

their

of the

e x p l o i t a t i o n of t h e i r n a t u r a l environment,

use of

The d r a i n a g e

artistic

a

The o b s e r ­

as w e ll as the r e s u l t s

a s a n y o t h e r h uma n p o p u l a t i o n . have d e v i s e d f o r t h e

is

o r l a c k o f i n g e n u i t y w o u l d be t o

other evidence to the co n tra ry .

psychological t e s t s ,

body of

And i n t r u t h

t wo p e r s o n s who have a l l o w e d

f r e e d o m h a v e become s c h i z o p h r e n i c s ,

are almost e x c lu s iv e ly aggressive, f a n ta s ie s

of a t t a c k or of b e i n g a t t a c k e d .

In t i e

case

of one of t h e s e

134

n , ills a g g r e s s i v e overt

fantasies

have g i v e n p i s e

to aggressive

b e h a v i o r , i n ■which he h a s a t t e m p t e d t o b e a t

houses,

commit s u i c i d e

results.

T.A.T* r e s p o n s e s

c o u l d n o t be a n a l y z e d a s t h e y r e v e a l e d n e i t h e r characters,

o f a n y one c h a r a c t e r .

seven responses responses

may be i n f e r r e d f r o m

Asvae h a v e a l r e a d y o b s e r v e d , ^ mos t of t h e

i n t e r a c t i o n between the tasies

of a t o t a l

nor the th o u g h ts or f a n ­

Th us o n l y t h r e e

in the Plank-Klebanoff t a b l e s .

T h i s me a n s t h a t

s e v e n h u n d r e d and s e v e n t y - o n e

n o t be s c o r e d .

An a n a l y s i s is

h u n d r e d a nd n i n e t y -

o f e l e v e n h u n d r e d a nd s i x t y - e i g h t

c o u l d be c l a s s i f i e d

one r e s p o n s e s

burn

and k i l l h i s m o t h e r . 1

lb© i m p o v e r i s h m e n t ' o f i n n e r l i f e the T.A.T.

people,

of t h e s e

very r e v e a lin g .

responses could

s e v e n h u n d r e d and s e v e n t y -

Of t h e s e r e s p o n s e s t h r e e h u n ­

d r e d a n d f i f t y - s i x r e s p o n s e s a r e i n t h e 16 d e s c r i p t i o n " * c a t e g o r y , 3 a n d one h u n d r e d a n d t h i r t y f a l l

i n t o t h e ltno a c t i v i t y * '

category.

T h i s me a n s t h a t f o u r h u n d r e d a n d e i g h t y - s i x o r f o r t y - o n e cent

of a l l r e s p o n s e s

creative

im agination,

show a c o m p l e t e a b s e n c e beyond th e

per­

of f a n t a s y or

p r o c e s s of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

( p r o j e c t i o n ? ) o f human f o r m s .

This s t r i k i n g l y high percentage

reveals

of t h e

a real

The r e s u l t s

are

impoverishment s h o wn i n T a b l e

inner liv e s

of t h e

7.

1 Se e h e l f o r d E . S p i r o ; "A P s y c h o t i c P e r s o n a l i t y i n t h e S e a s Tt , t o be p u b l i s h e d i n P s y c h i a t r y . 2 see above, 3 See T a b l e

p.

Ifaluk.

South

110 > f o o t n o t e 2.

8 fo r the

m e a n i n g s of t h e s e

terms,

on page 13 5 .

135 TABLE 8 N o n - s c o r a b le T . A . T . R e s p o n s e s D escriptlona . No A c t i v i t y * 3. Vifork0 ................... Food^. . . . . . . . Dance6 . . . . . . . " Y/ a l k Ar o u n c F P l a y S ..................

356 130 81 72 56 40 36

T o t a l ....................................................................

77X

a I n t h i s c a t e g o r y a re i n c lu d e d a l l those re sp o n se s i n which f i g u r e s a r e n a m e d , b u t i n w h i c h no a t t e m p t was made t o r e l a t e t h e m t o e a c h o t h e r o r t o t e l l a s t o r y a b o u t them. F o r e x a m p l e , tta man, a n o t h e r ma n, t wo g i r l s , a b a b y . ” b l n t h i s c a t e g o r y a re i n c l u d e d a l l th o s e r e s p o n s e s i n which the subject said; wt wo men; t h e y a r e n ’ t d o i n g a n y t h i n g ” ; o r , ” one man a n d one b a b y ; , t h e y a r e n ’ t d o i n g a n y t h i n g . ” c T h i s i n c l u d e s s u c h r e s p o n s e s a s u two men; t h e y a r e w o r k i n g ” , o r ” y o u n g men w o r k i n g . ” T h i s i n c l u d e s t h o s e r e s p o n s e s i n w h i c h o b j e c t s were i n t e r p r e t e d a s f o o d , o r i n w h i c h f o o d p l a n t s we r e i d e n t i f i e d , w h i l e t h e p e o p l e i n t h e p i c t u r e s we r e i g n o r e d . €This c a t e g o r y com prises such re s p o n se s a s ; a man a n d a woman; t h e y a r e d a n c i n g . ”

” d a n c i n g men” , o r

•^This c a t e g o r y c o m p r i s e s t h o s e r e s p o n s e s w h i c h were pur e d e s c r i p t i o n , b u t w h i c h we r e m o d i f i e d , whe n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r a s k e d w h a t t h e y m i g h t be d o i n g , by s t a t i n g t h a t t h e y were ” w a l k ­ ing around” , or ” j u s t w a lk in g .” § T h i s c a t e g o r y p a r a l l e l s f o o t n o t e f . , e x c e p t t h a t p l a y was s u b s t i t u t e d f o r walk. __________________________________________ This found i n th e

point

is

tables.

also indicated The T . A . T .

by T . A . T .

s t o r i e s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by

extreme

b r e v i t y and l a c k of i m a g i n a t i o n .

consist

of more t h a n t wo o r t h r e e

sim plest descrip tiv e

nature.

evidence not

lines,

Few of t h e

stories

and t h e y a r e of t h e

T y p i c a l of t h e

stories

are;

” t wo

men— t h e y a r e f i g h t i n g ” , o r , ” a l a d y a n d man, t h e y a r e t a l k i n g . ” A lmo s t none a r e This absence

characterized

of a r i c h i n n e r

by e v e n t h e life,

semblance

of a p l o t .

b a s e d on r e p r e s s i o n o f

fantasy,

s e e ms t o be a s e c o n d s o u r c e

Ifaluk a rts , from the

both sources,

cultural At f i r s t

ant

it

blush,

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n n e g a te s an i m p o r t ­

and c o g e n t t h e o r y of a r t

c u r r e n t today— the theory derived

artistic

aggressions,

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n adopted here

cre atio n is a sublimation

conflicts.1

Actually,

does not r e f u t e

sions

may f i n d

the

And,

and a r t i s t i c

such a f l i g h t

in great art--where

phrenic h a llu c in a tio n s . have

described here,

lest

the

fantasies

inner tensions just

the

such experience

resolve

their

Ifaluk

1c f .

social

pattern,

s u c h a s we

permit t h i s f l i g h t to f a n ta s y

to r e a l i t y .

The p e o p l e

w i t h p eo ple and e v e n t s o u t s i d e

themselves,

s e r v in g as a r e a s s u ra n c e a g a i n s t t h e i r f e a r s for fan tasies

indulging

This

i n some c a s e

has not e ventuated i n s c h iz o ­

course—a flig h t

p e r p e t r a t o r s ——a r e of

to fantasy has,

But a c u l t u r e

does no t

e x p r e s s i o n of f a n t a s y .

become a g g r e s s i v e ^30 t h a t t h e h a n d l i n g of

seek r e a l experience

Instead

it

creation,

and a n x i e t i e s a r i s i n g fro m a g g r e s s i o n has t a k e n

opposite

and a n x i e t i e s ,

i n n e r c o n f l i c t s and a g g r e s ­

p a t t e r n p e rm its the f r e e

i n our c u l t u r e ,

but

Given

a sublimated re s o lu tio n in a r t i s t i c

culture

resulted

abilities,

the

th is theory,

in tr o d u c e s an im portant c u l t u r a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n .

creative

or

deriving

this

of i n n e r t e n s i o n s ,

if

our h y p o t h e s i s ,

p r o h i b i t i o n of a g g r e s s i o n .

f r o m p s y c h o - a n a l y s i s - ? —t h a t

it

is

of t h e m e a g e r n e s s of

f o u n d t o h a v e no s u b s t a n c e m in fantasy,

tensions

S i g mu n d F r e u d ;

then,

reality.

people i n t h i s c u l t u r e

by d e l i b e r a t e l y e x c l u d i n g f a n t a s y .

interpretation life;

of a g g r e s s i o n — w h e t h e r a s v i c t i m s

the

s e e ms t o

com pulsive

explain nature

C i v i l i z a t i o n And I t s

of

two a s p e c t s the

of

people’s

D i s c o n t e n t s , 1930.

137 g a r i o u s n e s s , and t h e the

difference

in personality

peo p le r e v e a l i n c o o p e r a t i v e work, as opposed t o s o l i t a r y

work.

The p e o p l e

seem t o f i n d i t

Women w o r k t h e i r t a r o we a v e

in groups,

cooperation. are

obvious

difficult

p a t c h e s i n g r o u p s , c o o k i n g r o u p s and

t h o u g h n o n e of t h e s e

As a m a t t e r o f f a c t ,

not cooperative

t o be a l o n e . 1

groups,

since

a c t i v i t i e s r e q u i r e s group

t h e s e women’ s w o r k g r o u p s e a c h woman d o e s h e r own w o r k .

T h e y w o r k t o g e t h e r n o t f o r e c o n o m i c a d v a n t a g e , b u t b e c a u s e of their

desire

to

be w i t h o t h e r s .

The men, t o o ,

c o u l d make r o p e

a t h o me , f o r e x a m p l e , a s w e l l a s i n t h e c a n o e h o u s e s , b u t t h e y do n o t .

E v e r y d a y t h e men c o n g r e g a t e

make r o p e , gregating his

or j u s t is

pass the time

Nor i s

it

even fo r

Again, t h e i r con­

s i n c e e v e r y man makes

social intercourse, for often

a f t e r n o o n may p a s s w i t h o u t a n y c o n v e r s a t i o n .

j u s t w a n t t o be t o g e t h e r . need t o

of d a y .

n o t f o r economic a d v a n t a g e ,

own r o p e .

an e n t i r e

to

i n the canoe hous es t o

be w i t h o t h e r

by one t e l l i n g

It

people.

s ee ms t h a t t h e T h i s need i s

They

p e o p l e have a d e e p best

illustrated

incident.

One of t h e men was i l l w i t h a l t e r ­

n a t i n g f e v e r and c h i l l s .

A f t e r r e c e i v i n g m e d i c a t i o n , he was

told

to rem ain i n h i s hut under b l a n k e t s ,

a draft. to the

The n e x t m o r n i n g he was n o t

canoe house — s t i l l

s o a s n o t t o be i n

in his hut,

s i c k and v e r y w e a k .

b u t had gone

'..'hen q u e s t i o n e d

a s t o why he h a d n o t r e m a i n e d a t home, he e x p l a i n e d t h a t he just

had t o

leave

his hut,

f o r l!,! I f e l t

very bad, having to

r e m a i n i n my h u t a l l by m y s e l f , w i t h o u t a n y o t h e r p e o p l e .

See a b o v e ,

pp. 4 9 - 5 0 .

138 That t h i s and i t s

to r e a l i t y

consequent fe e lin g s

another fa c t

are

people

of d e p r e s s i o n ,

often lethargic

is

s h o wi n g l i t t l e

seem ingly withdrawn and, a t

f o r the

undertakings

tim es, almost or

and e s p r i t

This c o n tr a s t is g la rin g ,

o n c e . 1One

ae

corps

and I t

is

t h e s e communal

o c c u r so f r e q u e n t l y .

important

of t h e

out t h a t

specific

for

ture

has a c e r t a i n focus

im po rtance of f o o d - - w h i c h

select

of i n t e r e s t . 2

b o t h of which stem from the

Herskovits

c e r t a i n a s p e c t s of c u l ­

em p h asis and e l a b o r a t i o n ,

At t h i s

a n x i e t y has

b o t h p e r s o n a l and c u l t u r a l .

societies

ture

and i l l n e s s .

If a lu k to a lle v ia te

consequence--the

h a s many r a m i f i c a t i o n s , pointed

interest

change a t

p e o p le ’ s mental h e a lth th a t

The a t t e m p t another

spirits

of j o y i n c a m a r a d e r i e

usually absent.

fortunate

food,

th at the

B u t w h e n a communal t a s k — e c o n o m i c , r e l i g i o u s ,

senses a fe e lin g

has

We have s e e n

and l i s t l e s s ,

s o c i a l — h a s t o be p e r f o r m e d , t h e i r

that

i s a t t e s t e d t o by

j o y and g a i e t y d i s ­

i n communal w o r k .

in t h i n g s a b o u t them, morbid.

d o e s s ee m t o a l l a y a n x i e t y ,

of s o c i a l l i f e — t h e g r e a t

played by t h e people

flight

same s o u r c e .

so t h a t e a c h c u l ­

I f a l u k h a s two f o c i , These f o c i are food

p o i n t we a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e f o c u s o f

' wh i c h , a s we s h a l l a t t e m p t t o s h o w, i s a n a t t e m p t t o o v e r ­

come p e r s o n a l i t y a n x i e t i e s . E x t r e m e e m p h a s i s on f o o d i s of

Ifaluk culture

isee

above,

2]v:. j .

p.

w i t h which the

one of t h e f i r s t

outside

aspects

observer is impressed.

51-52.

Herskovits,

Man a n d Hi s W o r k s , 1 9 4 8 , C h a p t e r 3 2 .

139 P r e o c c u p a t i o n with, food m a n i f e s t s expressions. ite

topic

In the f i r s t

p la c e , food i s

of c o n v e r s a t i o n .

fo o d t h e y have e a t e n ,

the

i n a number o f d i v e r s e the u n i v e r s a l l y f a v o r ­

People c o n s t a n t l y t a l k about the food t h e y are going to e a t ,

fo o d t h e y would l i k e

to e a t.

fishing

not because

expeditions,

Itself

or t h e

Men. s p e n d h o u r s t a l k i n g a b o u t of t h e s p o r t o r a d v e n t u r e

in-

v o l v e a , b u t b e c a u s e o f t h e a mou nt o f f i s h t h e y c a u g h t f o r f o o d or the

f i s h t h e y w e r e d e p r i v e d of b e c a u s e t h e y e s c a p e d .

a b an d o n any a c t i v i t y would o r d i n a r i l y the

In order to e a t .

E v e n t h e c h i e f s , who

p e r m i t n o t h i n g t o i n t e r r u p t t h e i r wor k w i t h

e t h n o g r a p h e r s , would s t o p i n t h e middle

order to e at f r e s h l y caught f i s h . boys,

asked about the

of a s en te n c e i n

The p e o p l e , down t o t h e yo u ng

f o o d i n A m e r i c a ; and A u e l i m a r , a n o l d

ma n , who was t r e m e n d o u s l y i m p r e s s e d by d e s c r i p t i o n s stated eat.

that

all

he w a n t e d t o

When t r a v e l e r s

tion

arrive

put to them— i n e i t h e r

a n y one

from o t h e r i s l a n d s , the f i r s t order--are;

n Is

ques­

a n y one s i c k ?

Has

of f i s h come i n t o t h e l a g o o n ? ”

no d e l a y i n e a t i n g .

I/ hen, f o r e x a m p l e ,

men r e t u r n f r o m a f i s h i n g e x p e d i t i o n , t h e y i m m e d i a t e l y p r e ­

pare f i r e s

and b a k e t h e f i s h .

conversation, as I f

as

If the

Th e y e a t r a v e n o u s l y , w i t h o u t

m e a l we r e t h e

s o me o n e w e r e a b o u t t o t a k e An i n v a r i a b l e

part

l a s t t h e y would e a t ,

o r c ommuna l w o r k ,

is

tobacco.

This d i s t r i b u t i o n is

or

t h e f o o d f r o m t h e m.

of any r e l i g i o u s r i t e ,

ceremony,

the

of A m e r i c a ,

do i f he w e n t t o Ame r i c a was t o

d i e d ? ”' a n d , n Have s c h o o l s

The I f a l u k c a n t o l e r a t e the

People

the

healing

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f o o d and

e x t r e m e l y I n t e r e s t i n g because

f o o d - - u s u a l l y c o c o n u t s a n d t a r o - p u d d i n g - - i s b r o u g h t by

140 each, f a m i l y t o a c e n t r a l ally redistributed

p o o l , and i s t h e n d i s t r i b u t e d - - a c t u -

by t h e

chiefs.1

Each person re c e iv e s a

c o c o n u t o r t w o a n d a s p o o n f u l o r two o f t a r o , Bu t d e s p i t e

the f a c t th a t

fo o d , which i s

the

c o c o n u t s and t a r o e x i s t

fact

t h a t the

ple

people themselves c o n t r i b u t e the

merely being r e d i s t r i b u t e d ,

that

and d e s p i t e

the f a c t

i n o v e r a b u n d a n c e , a nd d e s p i t e

q u a n tity they receive

look forward to t h i s

a t the most,

is

insignificant,

the

the peo­

d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h g r e a t e a g e r n e s s and

anticipation. A n o t h e r i n d i c a t i o n of t h i s The

I f a l u k word f o r h a p p i n e s s i s

food foc us i s l i n g u i s t i c .

e r a t u - d i p e , which l i t e r a l l y

m e a n s , ” a g o o d b e l l y ; ’* a n d t h e n a t i v e word f o r s a d n e s s i s e n g a u d ip e , which l i t e r a l l y

m e a n s , ” a ba d b e l l y , ”

It is

obviously

s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t a ” good b e l l y , ” w h i c h i s t o s a y , a f u l l s t om ­ ach,

Is the

s i g n o f h a p p i n e s s ; a n d t h a t a ” bad b e l l y , ” t h a t

an empty stom ach, Finally, the

is

a s i g n of s a d n e s s .

the r e s u l t s

o f some o f t h e t e s t s

same c u l t u r a l e m p h a s i s .

list

of t h i n g s

m o s t make t h e

on t h e

S t e w a r t E m o t i o n a l Response T e s t t h a t

people hap p y,2 s ev e n ty -n in e

p e r c e n t of t h e

i n d i c a t i n g t h a t food is t h e i r g r e a t e s t

ness.

The a b s e n c e

1 See a b o v e , See a b o v e

p.

indicate

The p o s s e s s i o n of f o o d l e a d s t h e

people

of c a t e g o r i e s

is,

of food i s

t h a t made t h e

54.

p . 19 a nd p a s s i m .

s o u r c e of h a p p i ­

t h e f o u r t h h i g h e s t on t h e

list

people sad, being proceeded only

141 fry i l l n e s s , highest

death,

on t h e

and d i s o b e d i e n c e .

list

sumption ranks

of

v e ry marked;

so t h a t

tabulation. m

the

p r o v o c a t i o n s of a n g e r , a nd i t s

s e c o n d on t h e

could happen t o them.

drawings

A l l of t h i s

of t h e b e s t t h i n g s t h a t

nu mb e r o f r e s p o n s e s i n t h e R o r s c h a c h a r e and a v e r y h i g h p e r c e n t a g e

are

points to an in ordinate

e m p h a s i s on f o o d ,

t h a t c a n by no means be

e x p l a i n e d as a r a t i o n a l response to an o b je c tiv e

emphasis the that

R e a l i s t i c a l l y there since

Intensity indicates

food

is

no r e a s o n t o

Illness

(the

the

so t h a t

preoccupation

Depth psychology

c o n su m p t i o n of food c o n s t i t u t e s , a replenishment

other focus)

e g o s u p p l i e s ’. ^ A p e r s o n a l i t y t h a t

frSee a b o v e ,

e x p ec t such an

b e t r a y s a compulsive

a deep p s y c h o l o g i c a l o r i g i n .

psychologically speaking, and t h a t

is

reality situ ­

p l e n t i f u l , indeed overabundant,2

of i n t e r e s t

has d em onstrated t h a t

of t h e

of food.

an e m o tio n a l o v e r e v a l u a t i o n of food,

ation.

is

a s p e c i a l c a t e g o r y was i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e

c a t e g o r y of f o o d ,

ch ild ren 's

list

con­

The p e r c e p t i o n o f f o o d i n t h e T . A . T .

large

a

L a c k of f o o d i s t h i r d

is f e l t

of ego s u p p l i e s , as a d im in u ti o n of

is anxious i s a p e r s o n a l i t y

p . 135 f o r t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h i s c a t e g o r y .

^ T h o u g h t h e f o u r h u n d r e d a n d f i f t y i n h a b i t a n t s o f v/ol eae l i v e d I n I f a l u k f o r t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e P a c i f i c VJar, t h e r e was n e v e r any p ro b l e m of food s c a r c i t y . ^Af ’t e r t h e a b o v e was w r i t t e n t h e a u t h o r r e c e i v e d Dr. b u r r o w s u n p u b l i s h e d MS o n , ” Some M a s t e r S e n t i m e n t s , ” i n I f a l u k , i n w h i c h he a r r i v e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y a t t h e same c o n c l u s i o n . He s t a t e s t h a t ” t h e s t r o n g e s t of t h e i r ( t h e I f a l u k ) s e n t i m e n t s i s t h a t o f ” we 1 1 - b e I n g n , i n w h i c h he I n c l u d e s b o t h i l l n e s s and f o o d . ” Above a l l , t h e p e o p l e of I f a l u k wa n t t o k e e p a l i v e and w e l l . So de we a l l , no d o u b t ; b u t t h i s s e n t i m e n t i s more p o i g n a n t w i t h t h e m . . . . The w i s h , i n t h e Thomas-

142 that

feels

insecure.

Infancy,

In a c u ltu re

the

i n s t a n t he b e g i n s t o c r y , f o o d and s e c u r i t y become s y n f o r not o n ly does t h e

a l s o me a n s t h e

the

breast

tern

m

else

puts

as a s o u rc e

infants

of s e c u r i t y .

frightened,

it

the

There son f o r t h i s

either breast is

infant

b r e a s t mean n o u r i s h m e n t , b u t

by a s t u d y o f t h e

almost a l l

instrument

offered the

p r o t e c t i o n a n d s e c u r i t y of t h e m o t h e r .

does s e r v e

c o me s a p p a r e n t

is

free feed-

m

it

breast

prescribes

mg

us,

i n which the

that

is

of s e c u r i t y i n I f a l u k b e ­ Infants,

for a recurrent

A l m o s t a l w a y s , when a n i n f a n t

its

pat­

t h e u s e of t h e b r e a s t a s a n

clutches at into

That

its

is

m o t h e r ’ s b r e a s t s or

mouth.

b o t h p h y s i o l o g i c a l a nd p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e a ­

c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n f o o d a nd s e c u r i t y .

The i n f a n t ,

Znaniecki l i s t , is for secu rity . The p o s i t i v e v a l u e s a r e l i f e , h e a l t h , and p l e n t y of f o o d . The n e g a t i v e v a l u e s a r e f a m i n e , s i c k n e s s , and d e a t h . Th is dominant value i s abund­ a n t l y r e f l e c t e d i n t h e i r r e l i g i o n . M He t h e n p r o c e e d s t o g i v e much o f t h e e v i d e n c e t h a t h a s b e e n a d d u c e d I n t h i s mo n o g r a p h . The c l o s e a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n f o o d a nd i l l n e s s I s I n d i c a t e d b y f u r r o w s i n s u b s u m i n g t h e m u n d e r t h e common c a t e g o r y o f w ell-being, " F o o d a n d s i c k n e s s 11, he w r i t e s , " a r e d i s c u s s e d a s p a r t s o f t h e same s e n t i m e n t , n o t s o much b e c a u s e o f t h e c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n I n o u r m i n d s b e t w e e n n u t r i t i o n a nd h e a l t h , b u t b e ­ c a u s e t h e p e o p l e t h e m s e l v e s make s u c h a c o n n e c t i o n . n But he d o e s n o t a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e two • I t i s s u g g e s t e d h ere t h a t i l l n e s s i s e x p erien ced as em otional I n s e c u r i t y , a s a t h r e a t t o t h e e g o , a n d may t h u s be v i e we d a s t h e o b v e r s e of t h e e m p h a s i s o f f o o d . The e x a c t d y n a mi c s o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p between the r e p r e s s e d a g g re ss io n , the con­ s e q u e n t f e e l i n g s of a n x i e t y , a n d i l l n e s s a r e s t i l l u n c l e a r t o the a u th o r. T h a t t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s , h o w e v e r , seems f a i r l y w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d i n v i e w of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e two e t h n o g r a p h e r s a r r i v e d a t t h e same c o n c l u s i o n I n d e p e n d e n t y o each o th er.

143 as K ibble

points

o u t , - 1- i s

* b y i t s v e r y i n c o m p l e t e n e s s of b r a i n and n e r v o u s s y s t e m c o n t i n u a l l y i n d a n g e r of functional disorganization. Outwardly, t h e d a n g e r i s t h a t of s u d d e n s e p a r a t i o n f r o m t h e m o t h e r who e i t h e r i n t u i t i v e l y o r k n o w i n g l y mu s t s u s t a i n t h i s f u n c t i o n a l b s l a n e ©• . . . Inw a r d l y , t he da nge r a p— p e a r s t o be t h e m o u n t i n g of t e n s i o n f r o m b i o l o g i c a l n e e d s a nd t h e i n a b i l i t y of the organism to m a in ta in i t s in n e r energy o r m e t a b o l i c e q u i l i b r i u m and r e f l e x e x - ° c i t a b i l i t y .. .. T h i s need t o f e e l i n the baby which i s g r a t i f i e d b e s t through p e r s o n a l s t i m u l a t i o n i s remarkably sim i­ l a r t o h u n g e r f o r f o o d . tt! Howi n f a n c y p a t t e r n s ,

it

become f i x e d

v e r y n e r v o u s s y s t e m of t h e i n d i v i d u a l ,

that iety,

in the

adult feelings are

a feeling leviated

i s w e l l known,

of a n x i e t y ,

like

are not l o s t

infant feelings

e x p e r ie n c e d as emptiness i n the sim ilar to by t h e

This

but so

of a n x ­

p i t of t h e s t o m a c h - -

p a n g s of h u n g e r - - a n d c a n b e s t be a l ­

c o n s u m p t i o n of f o o d .

p o i n t h a s b e e n made w e l l by Murphy, when he

w rite s ; . . I s t h e r e no s u c h t h i n g a s a n e n d u r i n g p e r s o n a l i t y p a t t e r n r e l a t e d to e a r l y f r u s ­ t r a t i o n , e v e n when t h e f r u s t r a t i n g c i r ­ c u m s t a n c e s have lo n g d i s a p p e a r e d ? Do n o t many t y p e s of n e r v o u s s u f f e r e r s e a t much more t h a n t h e y n e e d , b e c a u s e a s t i n y c h i l d ­ r e n t h e y we r e n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y f e d , o r b e ­ c a u s e some o t h e r d r i v e was f r u s t r a t e d ? Are t h e r e n o t lo n g -ra n g e compulsive ex p ressio n s w h i c h a r i s e n o t f r o m t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n of o b j e c t i v e o u t e r s t i m u l a t i o n , b u t from the c o n t i n u a t i o n of a n a t t i t u d e preserved,

1 Margaret K ib b le , wI n f a n t i le t o P e r s o n a l i t y De v e l o p m e n t

Qnd t h e

Behavior

D isorders,

Lxperiences in R elationship i n J . McV H un t ( e d . ) _ e r s ,?,B.a—r—2.

p.

630,

1944.

144 p e r h a p s , by c i r c u l a r r e f l e x e s o r by v e r b a l cues w ith in the s e l f ? C lin ic a l experience stro n g ly suggests th at in fa n tile f r u s tr a tio n s h o ws i t s e l f i n t h i s t y p e o f c o n t i n u i t y , t h i s m a i n t e n a n c e of a n e a r l y a t t i t u d e , t h r o u g h ­ o u t t h e r e s t o f l i f e , r e g a r d l e s s of r e c o n d i ­ t i o n i n g f a c t o r s and t h e p a t i e n t ’ s c l e a r p e r ­ c e p t i o n of t h e f u t i l i t y . o f s u c h p a t t e r n s . Tl1 Ifaluk

o b s e s s i o n w i t h f o o d may be v i e w e d , t h e r e f o r e ,

as an attem pt to a l l e v i a t e serves to

point

happiness

and s a d n e s s .

is

w ith food,

filled

feelings

of a n x i e t y .

up t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s Happiness i s

of t h e n a t i v e

terms f o r

a wg o o d b e l l y , 1* one w h i c h

or i s f r e e f r o m a n x i e t y .

t,!b a d b e l l y , 1,1 one w h i c h i s e m p t y ,

This a n a ly s is

Sadness i s a

or i s f i l l e d w i t h a n x i e t y .

T h i s same i n t e r p r e t a t i o n may s e r v e t o e x p l a i n t h e p e o p le ’ s compulsive

need f o r t o d d y .

The c o l l e c t i o n a n d c o n ­

s u m p t i o n o f t o d d y , we h a v e s e e n , i s a n i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f Ifaluk icant

social life .^

The f e r m e n t e d v a r i e t y i s a m i l d i n t o x ­

a n d i s c o n s u m e d e v e r y e v e n i n g by a l m o s t a l l a d u l t s .

has o f t e n been s u g g este d t h a t t i o n in the tural

It

a lc o h o l plays an im p o rtan t f u n c ­

a l l e v i a t i o n of a n x i e t y ,

and H o r t o n ’ s c r o s s - c u l ­

s t u d y ^ s eems t o s u b s t a n t i a t e h i s h y p o t h e s i s t h a t n . . . t h e

p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n of a l c o h o l i s r e d u c t i o n of a n x i e t y . T h e compulsive dicate

that

character it

of I f a l u k t o d d y d r i n k i n g s eems t o i n ­

plays the

same r o l e

here.

This

is

particularly

^ G a rd n e r Murphy, P e r s o n a l i t y , 1947. ^See

above,

pp. 89.

^ D o n a l d H o r t o n , **The F u n c t i o n s o f A l c o h o l i n P r i m i t i v e S o c i e t i e s ' * , i n Kluckhohn and Murray, P e r s o n a l i t y , pp. 5 4 0 -5 5 0 . 1949.

145

evident

i n r a i n y d a y s , when i t

t o d d y , and t h e r e s e r v e come mo o d y , m o r o s e , the

sto ck s are

and gloomy.

c o l l e c t i o n of t o d d y t a k e s This c u l t u r a l focus

among o t h e r t h i n g s , pattern.

function.

priority

But t h e

be­

it

over any o t h e r a c t i v i t y . 1

( i n c lu d in g toddy)

is

is

thus,

frustration-aggression our h y p o t h e s i s ,

w h i c h m u s t be a l l e v i a t e d .

in fu rth e r anxiety, feelings

The p e o p l e

As s o o n a s t h e r a i n s u b s i d e s

a f u n c t i o n of t h e

This r e j e c t i o n

to aggression.

depleted.

of food

Childhood r e j e c t i o n ,

secu rity anxiety,

b e c o me s i m p o s s i b l e t o c o l l e c t

is a severe

leads to

Food s e r v e s

this

f r u s t r a t i o n which l e a d s

c u l t u r a l t a b o o on a g g r e s s i o n r e s u l t s

for

the

p e rso n a lity experiences g u ilt

because

of i t s

aggressive

feelings,

re p re s s io n leads

t o the

a g g r e s s i o n being tu rne d a g a i n s t the

p e rs o n a lity leading to fu rth e r anxiety. attem pts

t o cope w i t h t h e s e

a g g r e s s i o n - a n x i e t y by t h e T h u s , we s e e t h a t p a t t e r n and i t s sulted

this

to a culture

culturally

gregariousness,

and t h e

of s e c u r i t y - a n x i e t y and

induced a n x i e t y - f r u s t r a t i o n

i n h i b i t i o n of a g g r e s s i o n h a s r e ­

personalities

with l i t t l e

The a d u l t p e r s o n a l i t y

c o n s u m p t i o n o f f o o d and a l c o h o l .

concomitant

in impoverished

feelings

a nd t h e c o n s e q u e n t

artistic

which,

in turn,

expression,

c u l t u r a l focus

has led

a n e m p h a s i s on

of f o o d .

l i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t the I f a l u k never d rin k enough^toddy t o be come r e a l l y d r u n k , t h o u g h t h e y o f t e n g e t m i l d l y i n t o x i ­ cated. W h e t h e r t h e i r r e p r e s s e d a n x i e t i e s wo u l d become a c t i ­ v a t e d , a s h a p p e n s i n some o f t h e s o c i e t i e s d e s c r i b e d by Horton, is d i f f i c u l t to determ ine, I t I s the a u t h o r f s f e e l ­ i n g t h a t t h e p e o p l e do n o t p e r m i t t h e m s e l v e s t o become I n ­ t o x i c a t e d f o r t h e same r e a s o n t h a t t h e y do n o t p e r m i t t h e i r f a n t a s i e s f r e e e x p r e s s i o n — f e a r of a g g r e s s i o n .

14-6

Summar y and C o n c l u s i o n s I n I f a l u k we s e e a c u l t u r e ative

Thus t h e

interpretation

in interpersonal relationships is

and th e " r e a l c u l t u r e " of t h i s

a unique gen o ty p ic evidence

c h i l d r e n are

is small.

population is

itself.

aggressive

A biological

untenable

in lig h t

of t h e

human b i o l o g y , a s w e l l a s f r o m t h e F o r we h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e

in th e ir

Ifaluk

social interactions,

unless

one

posits

an In n a te ,

but t h a t

of

pugnacity, Freud's

count fo r th is

death instinct--one

the

Ifaluk child

f r o m t wo p a i n f u l e x p e r i e n c e s , Though t h i s

ing an overt

expression--at f i r s t

evidence

aggression is

by r e p r e s s i o n — t h e s e of

McL'ougall' s has t o a c ­

Ifaluk

from r e l i g i o n , Much o f t h i s

does,

by t h e a g e n c y o f t h e

aggressive

parents

e n e r g ie s remain In I n d i c a t e d by a b u n d a n t

d r e a ms a n d t h e T . A . T .

aggressive

p e r s o n a l i t y and t h e r e s u l t

suffer

pre v e n ted from assum­

p e r s o n a l i t y as i s myth,

Indeed,

which serve as e x c i t a t i o n s to

aggression.

dynamics

compon­

a g g re s s io n in c h ild r e n in e x p e r ie n ti a l terms.

observed th a t

and l a t e r

of t h e

aggressive

i n huma n p e r s o n a l i t y - - A u g u s t I n e *s o r i g i n a l s i n ,

Vie h a v e

of

of s o c i a l i z a t i o n and e n c u l t u r a t i o n .

Again,

instinct

indeed.

between the

a g g r e s s i o n i s g r a d u a l l y e l i m i n a t e d i n the course

processes

the

slight

of a g ­

p a t t e r n of n o n - a g g r e s s i o n i n t e r m s

from co m parative

i n t e r n a l evidence

the

incidence

d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n t h e o r y and p r a c t i c e ,

n id eal culture"

ent

places a strong neg­

s a n c t i o n o n a g g r e s s i o n and i n w h i c h t h e

g r e s s i o n found

this

that

e n e r g y i s t u r n e d back i n t o is

a state

of c h ro n ic a n x i e t y .

147 But t h i s

i n v e r s i o n of a g g r e s s i o n i s n o t t h e f a t e

Ifaluk aggression; severe

if

it

were t h e

m ental breakdown,

vive a t

all.

There

if,

indeed,

t h e y we r e

This

outlet

malevolent

is

able to s u r ­

mus t be some o u t l e t . . . " f o r r e p r e s s e d a g ­

and t a k e

ed g r o u p . . . f o r c e d

of

I f a l u k would s u f f e r from

g r e s s i o n and a n x i e t y t h a t c a n f i n d l i t t l e o r d in a r y give

of a l l

of

to liv e

social life

s a t i s f a c t i o n i n the

among a c l o s e l y i n t e g r a t ­

a cooped l i f e

on a c o r a l a t o l l . " !

provided c u l t u r a l l y i n re lig io n ., i n which the

ghosts

(a l u s ) a r e

the

objects

of a g g r e s s i o n b o t h

d i r e c t and d i s p l a c e d . Thus our h y p o t h e s i s tain

cultural institutions

points

In the

in d iv id u al's

other c u ltu ra l

Institutions

p r e s s i o n of t h e

lated

to

artistic ousness. taboo

is

culture might

te n ta tiv e ly confirned;

create

frustrations

at crucial

d e v e l o p m e n t b u t , a t t h e same t i m e , provide a c a n a l i z a t i o n fo r the

ex­

t a b o o on i n t e r p e r s o n a l a g g r e s s i o n i s n o t

ethnographic f a c t ,

a number of poverty,

its

however, but is

Important aspects food f o c u s ,

c o m p e n s a t e d by i t s

role

and i t s

compulsive g r e g a r i ­

op.

c i t . ,

p.

327.

aggression

in maintaining a cooperative

and p r e v e n t i n g s o c i a l s t r i f e

prove d i s a s t r o u s .

intim ately re ­

of I f a l u k c u l t u r e — i t s

Any c u l t u r a l l o s s r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h i s

Igeaglohole;

"cer­

re s u lta n t aggression."

The e x t r e m e an i s o l a t e d

is

which,

on a t i n y a t o l l ,

148

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Academic reco rd : A-........................................... U n iv ersity of Minnesota, 191+1, major in Philosophy and Sociology. Graduate stu d y in Sociology: . . .U n iv ersity of Minnesota, summer, 191+2. Graduate Faculty of P o litic a l and S o cial Science, 191+2. M.H.L. (M aster o f Hebrew L i t e r a t u r e ) .. . .Jewish Theological Seminary o f America, 191+1+* Graduate stu d y i n A nthropology:.......... ...N orthw estern U niversity, 191+5-1+8. P o sitio n s h e ld : .................... .Teaching a s s is ta n t in Archaeology, North­ w estern U n iv ersity , sp rin g , 191+7* Research A ssociate, Department of Anthropology, Northwestern U n iv ersity , 191+7-1+8. In s tru c to r of Anthropology, Washington Uni­ v e r s ity , ( S t. L ouis), 191+8-1+9. A ssista n t P rofessor of Anthropology, Washington U niversity, 191+9 Research:................

Study in psychological accu ltu ratio n of Ojibwa Indians, Lac du Flambeau, Wisconsin, summer, 191+6 . Study o f p e rso n a lity and cu ltu re of Ifa lu k , C entral C arolines, M icronesia, 191+7-1+8, under grant from P ac ific Science Board.