The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills South Bihar (India) 9781407311982, 9781407341682

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 2: Quaternary Stratigraphy of the Sites
Chapter 3: Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries
Chapter 4: Discussion
Chapter 5: Summary and Conclusion
Bibliography

Citation preview

BAR S2575 2013 SINGH THE PREHISTORY OF KHARAGPUR HILLS, SOUTH BIHAR

B A R

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India) Manoj Kumar Singh

BAR International Series 2575 2013

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India) Manoj Kumar Singh

BAR International Series 2575 2013

ISBN 9781407311982 paperback ISBN 9781407341682 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407311982 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR

PUBLISHING

Preface Researches in Stone Age prehistory from Bihar has been reported from as early as the end of the nineteenth century. Despite all these reports a sharp picture of cultural transformation in this area has not emerged very clearly. The monumental work compiled by Basudev Narayan clearly delineates the various stages of cultures discovered from all the districts of Bihar yet the process of transformation of one stage into another does not form a part of the discussion. I had undertaken the present research mainly to understand if the processes of change within any given cultural stage can be understood in any better way than how this has been done in the past. I have surveyed an entire area of more than 2100 sq. kilometers and collected as many as 10,000 specimens from 11 different clusters. It was hoped that with such a large data base one can avoid change factor in interpretation. It was not easy to conduct this research work aided by merely a bundle of topo-sheets, a camera and a geological hammer. There have been days I had to go without a proper meal. At times I had to sleep in broken down desolate huts infested with mosquitoes and there have been other times when I had to remain locked within such broken down huts with a sloth bear sitting outside in vigil for the entire night. So many persons have helped me to finally finish this work that it is impossible to name them individually, even then I shall fail in my duty if I do not mention all those Forest Officers who have helped me conduct the field work successfully. Mr. Ajay Teotiya, DFO at Munger, Mr. Anil Jha, Ranger Kharagpur Hills, deserve special thanks for all the arrangements of stay in the field. Mr. Bulu Imam of Hazaribagh, Nathu, Suresh and Binod my helpers in the field and all the villagers of Jogiya, Adwariya, Bhimbandh, Chormara and Laxmipur, also deserve special mention for their constant help. Mr. Jitendra Pathak and his father Shri Hari Narayan Pathak were very kind to me during one of my field trips in Kharagpur hill. I shall like to record my thanks to them. Dr. S.N. Rajaguru, retired Professor of Department of Archaeology, Deccan College. Pune had been very kind in helping me with all the intricate problems of geomorphology and hence chronological status of my sites in Kharagpur Hills. I thank him most respectfully for all his helps. I would like to thank my teachers Prof. A. K. Kapoor, Prof. Satwanti Kapoor, Prof. Gautam K. Kshtriya and Prof. S.M. Patnaik for their guidance, love and affection. Last but not the least I thank to my supervisor Prof. D.K. Bhattacharya, who not only supervised this work but introduced me to all the nuances of Prehistoric-archaeology with utmost patience. Finally I record my heart felt thanks, to Mr. Surender Kanojia my cartographer, Mr. Ram Malhotra my typist, Mr. Amit Singh, who scanned my illustrations and Mr. Bhim Sen Singh my photographer who have so painstakingly given the present shape to the thesis. To all the research scholars of the department, I owe gratitude for their kind help from time to time.

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Table of Content Preface

i

Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 The Palaeolithic evidence of Bihar : A REview 1.2 Regional prehistory 1.3 Kharagpur hills as a region 1.4 Geological feature of the region 1.5 Fauna and flora 1.6 Earlier works 1.7 Present study and methodology

Chapter 2 Quaternary Stratigraphy of the Sites 2.1 Pathalgarwa (plg) 2.2 Rakatrohaniya tad (rrt) 2.3 Adhwariya (ady) 2.4 Satbehariya (stb) 2.5 Jogiya (jya 2.6 Kushitari (kst) 2.7 Tetariya (tty) 2.8 Goratad (gtr) 2.9 Banargarh (bng) 2.10 Sohdihwa (shd) 2.11 Jurpaniya (jpy)

Chapter 3 Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries 3.1 Pathalgarwa (plg) 3.2 Rakatrohaniya tad (rrt) 3.3 Adhwariya (ady) 3.4 Satbehariya (stb) 3.5 Jogiya (jya) 3.6 Kushitari (kst) 3.7 Tetariya (tty) 3.8 Goratad (gtr) 3.9 Banargarh (bng) 3.10 Sohdihwa (shd) 3.11 Jurpaniya

1 2 6 8 8 10 10 11 12 12 15 15 18 19 21 22 23 28 28 30 32 32 42 51 59 67 77 83 89 95 106 119

Chapter 4 Discussion

129

Chapter 5 Summary and Conclusion

133

Bibliography

135

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Chapter 1

Introduction Thomsen (1836) by announcing his Three-age system may be said to have laid the foundation of modern archaeology. The refinements made by Lubbock (1865) to the Threeage system, Lyell’s (1863) geological revolution, the discoveries of Boucher de perths (1860) not only greatly extended the temporal framework of the human record but added entirely new dimensions to it. It attained maturity after the First World War. Archaeologists like Gordan Childe (1935) and Grahame Clark (1952) began to realize that archaeology is not interested in the object per se, but rather in the economic, social, political and even religious and ideological aspects of the prehistoric societies. The improvements effected in the field techniques by Wheeler (1954) did go some way in furthering these goals. Indeed, what began as an activity of seeking the curious ultimately transformed itself into a distinct cognitive field constructing knowledge about the past human societies.

cultures. However, despite Binford’s clarification of his use of the phrase ‘Culture process’ its meaning has suffered a multiplicity of interpretations. The suggested interpretations range from the use of factors like diffusion and invasion for explaining culture change to the employment of ecological approach and the delineation of trends in the spatio-temporal distribution of archaeological cultures (Renfrew and Shennan 1982 : vii). The later view has been championed in particularly by Dunnell (1980, 1982). He equates, processual archaeology with the depiction of long term or diachronic trends in cultural development, which ultimately permit us to formulate explanatory laws and units governing them. He recommends the adoption of the theory of biological evolution for this purpose. Culture process as originally envisaged by the New Archaeology, refers to the conception of past sociocultural system as integrated wholes, the ultimate goal of archaeology being the understanding of the dynamics of their working. This holistic conception of cultures represents a real break-through in archaeological thinking. Archaeologist now realized that meaningful knowledge of the past could be achieved not merely by listing individual facts, but by weaving them together in order to establish linkages between cultural elements and the external environment.

During 1960s, Lewis R. Binford and David L. Clarke started rethinking about the nature, goals, and methodology of archaeology. Both set out, albeit independently to retrieve the subject from the narrow empiricism and epistemological vacuum into which it had settled down. They gave new methodology for studying the prehistoric people, which in the subsequent period got designated as New Archaeology. Binford’s paper on ‘Archaeology as Anthropology’ published in 1962, was the first shot fired by him for this purpose; it was designated to show, to one and all that archaeology could make significant contributions to the study of man. We sometimes come across claims that one is practicing New Archaeology, because a procedure like the flotation material or a particular statistical or computer technique is used for the data analysis. Less pretentious, but no less inappropriate are views treating New Archaeology as synonymous with settlement pattern studies, ecological approach concerned with social organization and ideology, ethno-archaeological investigations, etc. (Trigger, 1978: 7-10).

David Clarke’s (1968) Analytical Archaeology concerns his conception of archaeological cultures as vast information systems made up to several subsystems (social, economic, religious, psychological and material culture) each with its own sphere of information and activity. They all interact among themselves as well as with the external environment and its subsystems. Archaeology must aim at the identification of patterns or regularities in the functioning of cultural systems, which would ultimately lead to a higher category of knowledge in the form of models and hypotheses. It is in the furtherance of this goal that, he adopted system theory and also made a re-examination of the conceptual base of the subject. Binford’s view about cultural process is, “process, as I understand it refers to the dynamic relationships (causes and effects) operative among the components of a system or between systematic components and the environment” (1972 : 117).

One can argue here that single most original insight provided by New Archaeology to the discipline concerns the study of cultural process, to such an extent, that it is regarded by some as synonymous with processual archaeology. The two traditional aims of archaeology are; space-time systematics, and the reconstruction of life ways, merely supplied answers to questions of ‘what’ and ‘when’. New Archaeology sought to emphasize the view that a truly scientific study of the past, ought to aim at the identification of the interaction patterns of various spectra of activities constituting human

Processualists reacted sharply to the traditional archaeology’s proneness to blind collection of data, its obsession with classification and description and the practice of making empirical inductive generalization.

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The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

The proponents of processual archaeology demanded the employment of the hypothetico-deductive strategy in order to impart rigour to the process of making references about the past. An important aspect of the hypothetico-deductive stage of research concerns the replacement of ‘concept by inspection’ used in the natural history stage by the proponents of New Archaeology. It is a fine example of this change in the character of the concepts. It is possibility of obtaining reliable and new knowledge of the past by means of the hypothetico-deductive method. “The accuracy of our knowledge of the past can be measured; it is this assertion which most sharply differentiates the new perspective from more traditional approaches. The yardstick of the measurement is the degree to which propositions about the past can be confirmed or refuted through hypothesis testing” (Binford 1972 : 90).

forces of culture rather than considering the artifacts as the be all and end all in the understanding of culture. 1.1 The Palaeolithic evidence of Bihar : A Review Lower Palaeolithic The first Palaeolithic tool had been picked up by V. Ball sometimes in 1865 near the village Kunkune about 11 miles south-west of Govindpur block in Dhanbad district. The tool discovered was a handaxe which is fashioned out of a pebbles derived from a conglomerates of the Jhariya coal field. Hughes had also picked up a handaxe of green micaceous quartzite near the coal field of Bokaro, a tributary of the river Damodar in the Hazaribagh district in 1865. In 1867, V. Ball also recorded a single additional tool to the scanty collection of stone implements when he found another Palaeolithic tool of the same type on the surface, at an elevation of about 700 feet near the village Gopinathpur, about 11 miles south-west of Beharinath hill in Dhanbad district. After V. Ball’s initial work, no further discoveries of Palaeolithic tools were reported until 1917.

Binford’s (1977: 6-7) middle range theory is a noteworthy example of the efforts to formulate such generalizations in archaeology. It uses the archaeological record to identify the organizational pattern of the past socio-cultural systems. His own work in regard to faunal remains is a commendable attempt (1981 b). A second class of possible generalization will seek linkages between cultural and environment variables. The tenets of Steward’s (1955 : 30-42) cultural ecology and the law like propositions of Binford (1980) and Segraves (1974) bearing upon the role of ecological factors in the organization and evolution of human societies are examples of this category. Once a sufficient number of investigations freezing cultures in time are done, it should be possible to formulate laws of long term cultural development or to use Binford’s phrase, general theory, which ‘seeks understanding of the processes responsible for change and diversification in the organizational properties of living systems’ (Binford 1977 : 7).

In 1917, C.W. Anderson collected some stone implements in the course of his survey in the valleys of the river Sanjay and the tributaries of the Subarnarekha river, about 2 miles west of Lotapahar railway station on the Eastern railway in Singhbhum district. The collection of tools, distinguished as Palaeolithic and Neolithic, were obtained from the gravels in the lower and upper levels respectively lying several feet above the Sanjay river. The tools occurring from the gravels were covered by 18 feet of soil. After Anderson’s work Panchanan Mitra (1926) had made the pioneering efforts, although without much success, in establishing correlation between the tool types recovered and the ancient river terraces in the Saraikela area of northern Singhbum. Earlier in 1924, Mitra had found a handaxe in the old alluvium deposits of a tributary of the Subarnarekha river near Ghatshila sub-division; in East Singhbhum. Between 1941 and 1948 E.F.O. Murray collected some Palaeolithic artifacts in Eastern Singhbhum without providing any details about them. In 1948, W.G. Fernsides had discovered a small handaxe from in-situ context near Haat Gamhariya in Singhbhum. S.C. Sinha (1951) collected some tools from near Nimdih in Northern Singhbhum, while working among the Bhumij community. Between 1953-54, more artifactual data were added to the above collection by Sen, Roy and Ghosh (1962) from the same areas particularly from Chandhil and Nimdih. In 1960, Bose and others reported the discovery of Lower Palaeolithic tools comprising of handaxe of crude and advanced acheulian types from Bhimbandh about 56 km south-east of Munger district. In the same year, Sen and Ghosh (1960) made a systematic search for the traces of Palaeolithic occupation in the vicinity of Chaibasa area and subsequently between 1960-63 a more extensive reconnaissance in the various parts of Singhbhum was undertaken by Ghosh himself, which resulted in the

Despite remarkable advances in data collection techniques and in techniques of analysis, so long as the data from the past are considered within the framework of traditional theory, they can bring nothing new in our knowledge of the past. It is concerned with the nature of knowledge and with the testing and verification of hypotheses. We assume that the past is knowable, that with enough methodological ingenuity, propositions about the past are testable, and that there are valid scientific criteria for judging the probability of a statement about the past. Binford himself confesses, the “germs of thought” were no doubt already there, it is New Archaeology which took upon itself the task of evolving a coherent and explicit strategy for reconstructing the goal and methodology of the discipline. The newness of New Archaeology, therefore, lies in its total configuration and not in its individual elements (Binford 1972). The present work will attempt to understand human cultural metamorphosis in the chosen area of study. It is a different matter that a structured reasoning or theory building for the evidences discovered can not be afforded because of the nature of their context. What can at best be claimed is that in this work the emphasis will be laid on the causes and

2

Introduction

Figure 1. Map of India showing the region within, which research has conducted.

Namkum, Tantisilwi and Sabia in the upper reaches of Subarnarekha basin near Ranchi town, and also along the river Damodar near Ramgarh in the district of Hazaribagh. R.V. Joshi (IAR: 1965-66), of the prehistory branch of Archaeological survey of India and R.C.P. Singh of Patna University jointly explored the Maan and Ranjjan river valleys near Bhimbandh in Munger district and found a fresh Acheulian handaxe of pink quartzite on the hill top adjoining the left bank of the Ranjjan river and an advanced Acheulian tools in mint fresh condition were found on the left bank of the Taparpani stream near Chormara village, about 6 km away from the Bhimbandh (IAR-1965-66). In the same year, M.M. Singh and others (IAR: 1965-66) of Patna University discovered an Acheulian handaxe from Kurumgarh about 14 k.m. to the east of Chainpur Police station and a Chopper from Rajadera about 30 km northwest of Kurumgarh in Ranchi district.

discovery of as many as 40 Palaeolithic sites (Ghosh 1970). Significantly, the work of Sen and Ghosh and the independent work of Ghosh, provided valuable data in respect of stratigraphic context of the Paleolithic artifacts, and the nature and character of Paleolithic industries. From 1959-60 onwards exploratory work was carried out by the K.P. Jayaswal Research Institute, Patna; Department of Ancient Indian History and Archaeology, Parna University and the Directorate of Archaeology and Museum, Government of Bihar, Roy and others (IAR:195960 ) of the K.P.J. Institute, reported discoveries of handaxe from Rajarappa in the district of Hazaribagh and the Sanjay Valley in Singhbhum district. They also reported, handaxes and choppers from near Pratappur in Garhwa district. Singh and others (IAR:1960-61), of Patna University surveyed the Bhimbandh area along the rivers Maan and Ranjjan, following the clues provided by Bose and others in 1959 and discovered a number of handaxes and cleavers of Acheulian types in the beds of the rivers and also from the sloping bank and the ground above. Subsequently, more artifactual data were added from the Bhimbandh area by Singh and others (IAR:1962-63).

In 1967, excavation at Lotapahar near Chakradharpur in Singhbhum district, under the supervision of S.R. Roy of the state Directorate of Archaeology and Museum, Government of Bihar, brought to light a handaxe embedded in the humus of the trench. Basudev Narayan (IAR: 1967-68) in course of exploration work in the Jathian valley of Nawada district about 12.5 km to the east of Rajgir, discovered an Acheulian handaxe in the rubble bed of the Jamunia Nala, just to the west of Budhian hills. A handaxe made on flake was found in the gravel bed of the Banganga nala in the Rajgir valley. In 1978, P.C. Pant, Vidula Jayaswal and Rakesh Tiwari of B.H.U. Varanasi, discovered an Acheulian site near the village Paisra in Munger district. The actual site lies around the forest rest house, nearly 1 km north of Paisra village.

Singh and others (IAR: 1963-64) of the Patna University discovered a few handaxes of advanced Acheulian type at both the lower and upper ends from the gravel spread on the upper bank of the Karnakalijore stream, a tributary of the Ajay river. It is about 5 miles to the south of Deoghar on Deoghar-Madhupur bus route in the Santhal Pargana district. A.K. Ghosh (IAR: 1964-65) of Calcutta University reported the discovery of lower Palaeolithic tools from

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The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

The site showed ‘thousands of artifacts, both finished and un-finished including waste chips, which clearly points to its being a factory site’ (Pant, Jayaswal and Tiwari, 1978). Basudev Narayan and his colleagues (IAR: 1973-74) had found a Lower Palaeolithic tool in the gravel bed of the Lala Bandh nala, about 14 km west of Hazaribagh, on the ChatraHazaribagh bus route. In 1974, Vidula Jayaswal discovered Lower Palaeolithic tools in Stratigraphic context in the vicinity of Chainpur, Banari and Morabad in Ranchi district (Jayaswal 1981) S.R. Roy and others (IAR: 1975-76) of the state Archaeology, Patna had found Lower Palaeolithic tools (handaxes and cleavers) at Dubalabera, Malgaunsa and Pipratoli in Ranchi district, and Ghoranagi, Jayada and Nardadih near Chandil in the Singhbhum district. Roy and other (IAR: 1976-77) also observed three sections at Bhalukocha, Gangudih and Sasantad along the Bamni river, a tributary of Subarnarekha in Singhbhum district. Roy and others (IAR: 1977-78) had also discovered an interesting implementiferous cliff section along the Bamni between Bhalukocha and Bamni road bridge about 2 km east of Pathardih in Chandil area of Singhbhum.

comprising of scrapers, a leaf-shaped point on levalloisian flake and a tortoise core from Kalipahar hill near Jamalpur railway station in the Munger district. A small handaxe and some scrapers were also discovered in the bed of the Sakhogara rivulet near Parerkola and at the foot of the Choti Surajbera hill about 80 km east of Dumka in the district of Santhal Parganas. In the same year, Roy and others (IAR : 1960-61) of the K.P.J. Institute, Patna, had found scrapers made on chert and quartzite of Series II or Middle Palaeolithic at Paharpur on the Gomani river near Berhait in the Santhal Parganas district. Roy and others (IAR: 1961-62) of the K.P.J. Institute had discovered Middle Palaeolithic tools like scrapers on quartzite in the valley of Ganjpahar, about 17 km north of G.T. Road near Nirsa in the district of Dhanbad, while Lakshmi Narayan (IAR : 1961-62) of B.H.U. had made a small collection of Middle Palaeolithic tools comprised of points, blades, backed blades and flakes from the Kalipahar hill near Jamalpur in the Munger district. Singh and others (IAR: 1962-63) of the Patna University, during their second visit to the Bhimbandh area, had collected Middle Palaeolithic tools comprising of scrapers, blades and points from Bhimbandh and Reha, which lay not very far from the Bhimbandh forest rest house. Between 1961-63 A.K. Ghosh of the Calcutta University, however, had discovered for the first time Middle Palaeolithic tools (described under the nomenclature Singhbhum flake industry) from stratified deposits at a number of sites located within the four areas of Singhbhum viz. The areas of Sini and Chandil in northern Singhbhum, the areas of Chaibasa and Jamda in central and southern Singhbhum and the area of Ghatsila in eastern Singhbhum. The tool types comprised of various kinds of scrapers, points, borers, flakes and cores (1970). Singh and others (IAR: 1963-64) of the Patna University had discovered Middle Palaeolithic tools such as scrapers, points and waste flakes at the estuary of the river Kotania near Jasidih in the district of Santhal Parganas. In 1965-66, the Middle Palaeolithic implements made of quartzite were obtained from the vicinity of Chainpur about 45 km west of Gumla township in the Ranchi district (IAR : 1965-66), while two scrapers on flint were discovered at Chandipur about 3 km. south of Antichak stupa in the Colgong Police Station in the district of Bhagalpur (IAR : 1965-66). In 1967, excavations at Lotapahad (Singhbhum district) under S.R. Roy of the Department of Archaeology and Museums, Govt, of Bihar, had yielded tools of the Middle Palaeolithic from the earliest level represented by Period I. The tool types mainly comprised of scrapers, points and borers. Basudev Narayan (IAR: 1967-68) had discovered Middle Palaeolithic tools such as scrapers and a small handaxe in the bed of Jamunia nala, just to the west of Budhian hill of the Jethian valley in the Nawada district. A few scrapers and flakes were also found in the bed of the Bangana nala in the Rajgir valley in the district of Nalanda. Between 1968-72, Pant and Jayaswal of B.H.U. had made a sizeable collection of Middle Palaeolithic tools comprising of varied and unique types from the Kalipahar hill near Jamalpur railway station in the district of Munger (197677). They had also made a number of surface collections in

Middle Palaeolithic The earliest discoveries of chert flakes and knives in Bihar were first reported from the vicinity of the river banks near Chaibasa and Chakradharpur in Singhbhum district. The above stone tools collected b Captain Beeching in 1868 were initially considered to be Palaeolithic but on a subsequent examination they were finally confirmed as microliths. In 1870, V. Ball had also collected similar flake tools from the Singhbhum area, but they were also considered as microliths as per the analogy of Beeching’s collection of microlithic tools. In 1917, Anderson had collected chert flakes and tools from the river sections on the Sanjay and its tributaries in Singhbhum. But, according to Sankalia, these tools which look like microliths are older, probably belonging to the Middle Palaeolithic complex if it could only be established that the tools were really in situ in the gravel overlain by 18 feet of silt or clay and not plastered on the gravel as a rewash. This would however, require a re-examination of the matter at the site with this specific problem in mind and until then it can not be stated clearly that these tools really belong to the Middle Palaeolithic. Thus on the basis of the work of early investigators like Beeching, it is not possible to have a clear idea about the tool types belonging to the Middle Palaeolithic. But from 1960 onwards, the discovery of typical Middle Palaeolithic tool types has been reported from different regions by various agencies engaged in Stone Age exploration in Bihar. The brief notices of these discoveries related both to surface finds and also from stratified deposits at some of the sites. Singh and others (IAR: 1960-61 of the Patna University had found Middle Palaeolithic tool types comprising of scrapers and points at Karukhap and also along the Maan river near the forest rest house at Bhimbandh in the district of Munger. They had also made a small collection of Middle Palaeolithic tool types

4

Introduction

Figure 2. The map showing distribution of the sites, spread over the area of the Kharagpur Hills.

were found in the angular stone deposit underlaid by a gravel deposit containing Lower Palaeolithic tools (Jayaswal 1978). In 1975, the Middle Palaeolithic tools, comprising of scrapers, points and blade made of quartzite, were discovered near Mahuadar in the district of Palamau (Gupta 1975)1. The stone tools were obtained from post-Tertiary deposit characterised by loose pebbles and soil etc. along the Birha river. Roy and others (IAR: 1975-76, 1976-77, 1977-78) of the Department of Archaeology and Museums, govt, of Bihar, had found a few tools belonging to the Middle Palaeolithic at Ghorangi and Nardadih near Chandil in the district of Singhbhum. They had also observed implementiferous cliff sections showing two cycles of gravel deposits at Bhalukocha, Gangudih and Sasant and along the Bamni river, a tributary of Subamarekha in the Singhbhum district. The sequence of deposits from the bottom upwards showed i) large sized cemented pebble gravel intermixed with lateritic matrix, ii) red brown soil, iii) middle sized pebbly

the area around Bhimbandh, although the most interesting result of their survey was the discovery of a rich Middle Palaeolithic factory site near the hot spring at Bhimbandh in the district of Munger. K. Nath (IAR : 1971-72) of the Allahabad University, in course of his exploration in the Palamau district (Bihar) and its adjoining area of Kon basin in the district of Mirzapur (U.P.) discovered a good number of Middle Palaeolithic tools comprising of scrapers, points, blades, burins, cores and flakes from a number of sites such as Bhagdeh, Ramana, Ghotma, etc. Brown patination was a marked feature of the assemblage. Basudev Narayan (IAR:1973-74), had discovered Middle Palaeolithic tool types comprising of side scrapers, concave side scraper and blade from Dhalua nala about 2 V2 km to the north-west of Son-Bhandar cave, Rajgir, in the district of Nalanda. In 1974, Jayaswal had found Middle Palaeolithic tools from the vicinity of Chainpur, Banari and Morabadi in the district of Ranchi. The tool types (described under Industry by Jayaswal) comprised of side scrapers, end scraper, knife, tranchet, backed blades etc. made through the levallosian technique and a few mousterian cores. The above tool types

Information in respect of tool types and deposits had come from K.P. Gupta, Deputy Superintending Archaeologist, Mid-Eastern Circle, Patna and Officers of the G.S.I. Bihar branch, Patna.

1

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The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

gravel, iv) red soil, v) small sized pebble gravel, and vi) humus. A few tools of the Middle palaeolithic age were recovered from the second deposit, while the first deposit had yielded handaxes and cleavers of the Lower Palaeolithic age. Besides, these Middle Palaeolithic tools such as scrapers and points were also picked up from the river bed.

ranging from medium to small size, iii) bed of yellowish brown soil of residual nature and containing concretionary materials, and iv) overload -sometimes intruding into the brown soil containing tool types of the flake-blade industry (Upper Palaeolithic). The tool types and artifacts comprised of blades, burins, knives, scrapers, points, awls, cores and waste flakes. A noteworthy feature of the tool types was the tendency towards the Mesolithic/Late stone age. B.K. Sharan (IAR: 1968-69) of the Mid-Eastern Circle, A.S.I. Patna, discovered tool types, which were transitory between the Middle Stone Age and Late Stone Age industry, from the area around Nurudih in the Khunti sub-division of the Ranchi district. The tool types mostly made on small flakes comprised of scrapers, points, burins and backed blades The tools were mostly made of fine grained chert excepting a few which were on quartzite. In 1974, Vidula Jayaswal of B.H.U. had collected a large number of tools, which may be put in Upper Palaeolithic to early microlithic tradition, from ten localities found / spread over within the administrative blocks of Chainpur, Bishunpur and Ranchi in the district of Ranchi. Two tool types and artifacts comprising of backed blades, side scrapers, end scrapers, round scrapers, burins, knife and raclette as well as retouched blades, blades, flakes, discoidal core, blade core and irregular core (Jayaswal 1978). Besides, R.C.P. Singh (1981) of Magadha University, had discovered a large number of fossil bones of deer, bos, bublos, tortoise etc. belonging to the closing phase of the Pleistocene period from the Paimar river valley in the district of Gaya. A few specimen pieces of choppers on flakes were found in the vicinity of the above fossilised bones. Two types of points, one showing a simple pointed end and the other with the chisel end were also recovered in course of explorations in the area. Further, P.C. Pant and R. Tiwari (1981) of B.H.U. had discovered Upper Palaeolithic tools from the number of sites located in the district of Palamau. The tool types comprised of different types of backed blades including chatelperronian and gravettian knives and points as the Federmesser, and some bladelets were also found. Between 1986-88, D.K. Chakrabarti’s survey of the district of Ranchi, Palamau, Hazaribagh-Giridih of the Chotanagpur plateau and also in the districts of Santhal Parganas (now subdivided into four separate districts of Dumka, Deoghar, Godda and Sahibganj) brought to light a large number of sites yielding Upper Palaeolithic tools (Chakrabarti, 1993).

Upper Palaeolithic In Bihar, the earliest reference to the discovery of tool types bearing affinity with those of the Aurignacian and Magdalenian of the Upper Palaeolithic in Europe was made by Anderson in 1917 in his Note on the prehistoric implements in the Singhbhum district’. Among the Palaeolithic implements obtained from the Sanjay valley and it tributary streams near Chakradharpur in Singhbhum, Anderson specially considered two of the implements viz. A keeled scraper and an end scraper as representing counterparts of those found in the Aurignacian and Magdalenian deposits in Europe. But on the basis of Anderson’s description of the above tool types and their illustrations, it is not possible to say in clear terms that they are Upper Palaeolithic in type or character, although their basic broad Palaeolithic character can not be doubted. In 1921, M. Ghosh also carried out explorations at Patka, Chelabera. Banglatar etc. near Chakradharpur in Singhbhum and ascribed his finds to Aurignacian, Magdalenian etc. without providing adequate description of the objects. Thus on the basis of the accounts of the early investigators, it is not possible to form any clear idea about the Upper Palaeolithic tool types. But from 1959 onwards, the report of stray finds of the Upper Palaeolithic tool types have been made by different agencies engaged in prehistoric investigations in Bihar. Roy and others (IAR: 1959-60) of the K.P. Jayaswal Research Institute, Patna, had found a few Upper Palaeolithic blades along with microlithic tools near Marvania-Pratappur area in the district of Palamau. Between 1961-63. A.K. Ghosh of the Calcutta University discovered for the first time Upper Palaeolithic tool types (described under the nomenclature Flake-blade industry) in stratified deposits from a score of sites located within the areas of Chandil, Sini, Ghatsila and Gua in the district of Singhbhum (Ghosh, 1970). The tool types comprised of blades, burins, borers, knives, choppers, scrapers and cores. A.K. Ghosh (IAR: 1964-65) of Calcutta University had also found tool types of flake-blade industry made on quartz and quartzite from the upper loose gravels in the valley of Subarnarekha and Sapahi near Namkum in the Ranchi district. A.K. Ghosh and others (IAR: 1965-66) of Calcutta University had found tool types belonging to the flake blade industries (Upper Palaeolithic) in stratified context near Dhekulia in the district of Palamau. The nala section near the site showed the following sequence of deposits (from the bottom upwards) : i) bed rock consisting of granite decomposed at places into granitic gneiss, ii) gravel bed roughly 60 cm in thickness with an unconformity between the two beds the gravels consist of quartz, quartzite and angular jasper

1.2 Regional prehistory Regional archaeology has never been emphasized in India (Bhattacharya-1996). This was because the studies done in India during the 1960 and 1970 were under the leadership of H.D. Sankalia, who had been incorporating the major finds of all regions within a format of chrono-cultural arrangement of the whole of India (Sankalia, 1974). G.R. Sharma and his colleagues carried out some very significant regional studies during this period (1973), but these studies also remained basically descriptive in nature and could not develop a perspective on the specific characteristics of the habitat and economy within this zone. India is a vast

6

Introduction

country and comprises a large variety of distinct and diverse eco-zones. It is because of this reason that we require developing a regional archaeology for India. Subbarao (1958) had tried his genius and borrowed the ‘Kulturkreis’ model of the German geographers to understand the cultural metamorphosis of our prehistoric past. However these made no or little impact in the trend of researchers that followed in the next five decades.

But the context of the discovered sites was mainly of secondary nature. In such cases the archaeological materials are generally transported by the rivers over considerable distances from their original places of manufacture and or use before being deposited as a component element of the river sediments. In view of their secondary context the artifact collections from river deposit do not give a complete picture of the nature and composition of lithic industries. Any elaborate statistical studies of such incomplete data can lead to dubious cultural inferences. We cannot be certain that a gravel or silt deposit is the result of one cycle of sedimentation. It may have undergone several stages of reworking. In such cases there is immense scope for the admixture of materials belonging to different cultures. Hence it is not always possible to equate stratigraphical successions with cultural sequences.

It has been argued that as archaeologists we are faced with the methodological task of isolating extinct socio-cultural systems, as the most appropriate unit for the study of evolutionary processes, which results in cultural similarities and differences. If we view that culture originates out of man’s attempt for extra somatic means of adaptation then, we must isolate and define the ecological setting of any given socio-cultural system and study in detail, with regard to the adaptive process or coping situation, which were presented during prehistoric time in terms of biological and social dimensions (Binford 1964). I believe the isolation and study of cultural system rather than aggregates of cultural traits, is the only meaningful approach to understanding cultural processes (Steward 1960 : 173-74). A cultural system is a set of constant or cyclically repetitive articulations between the social, technological and ideological extrasomatic, adaptive means available to a human population (White 1959 : 8).

These shortcomings have given rise to a somewhat pessimistic attitude that nothing can be known about the Indian Palaeolithic culture beyond stratigraphy and tool typology. It is precisely this attitude which has led the otherwise distinguished archaeologist like Wheeler (1960 : 34, 63) to adopt such derisive titles as ‘stones’ and ‘more stones’ for chapters dealing with stone age culture viewed in larger perspective. It is because of the pre-occupation with secondary sites that Indian prehistory has not been able to win anything beyond passing references in works and talks dealing with world prehistory. Yet, the discovery of relatively undisturbed surface sites and their importance as evidence for early habitation pattern have also been emphasized by some specialists (Jacobson 1970a, 1975, 1985).

A decade after, it was suggested that the ‘regional approach’ or the detailed and systematic study of the regions can be more appropriately expected to reflect cultural systems. The extent of such regions will vary because, it is recognised that cultural systems differ greatly in the limits of their adaptive range and milieu. As cultural systems become more complex, they generally span greater ecological ranges and enter into more complex, widespread, and extra-societal interactions. The isolation and definition of the content, the structure, and the range of a cultural system, together with its ecological relationship, may be viewed, as a research objective. The research design should be aimed at accomplishing this isolation, which is believed to be most profitably prosecuted within a regional’ unit of investigation (Binford 1972).

A stage has therefore been reached, when it is imperative to be clear about the ultimate goals of our research work stated in simple terms. Prehistoric research is aimed at the reconstruction of life ways of prehistoric societies in the context of the then prevailing environmental conditions. If that is our aim, a re-orientation of our research appears to be necessary, which in turn entails a different set of techniques and methods. In this connection it is impossible to exaggerate the importance of the study of primary sites and all kinds of phenomena associated with them. Primary sites are those sites in which the evidence pertaining to early man’s activities is preserved in its original or undisturbed context. These may be open air sites or located in caves and rock shelters. Depending upon the nature of human activity, these may be classified into different groups, such as, living or occupation sites, kill sites, butchering sites, workshop for making tools and weapons, etc. (Speth and Johnson 1976 : 50-3).

Archaeology is the special concern to some certain type of anthropologists, who treat the tools as their ‘subject’ in data collection. Consequently, to some archaeology stands defined within the ambit of anthropology. There are others who consider it a branch of history. Archaeological anthropology concerns itself with life ways of man in the past, therefore it can also be described as the ‘anthropology of extinct people’. These anthropologists usually excavate the material remains of past culture, and through the study of such evidences, attempt to re­create the history of man from his earliest date of emergence, and also attempt to study the nature of cultural systems at different times and places around the world (Deetz 1967).

From the seventies of the last century, one can see that field research was beginning to address issues of culture and lifeways of even the remotest cultural period. The excavation of Palaeolithic sites in caves of Adamgarh (Joshi 1978) and Bhimbetka (Misra 1975-76) in Madhya Pradesh, Gudium in Tamilnadu (Allchin and Allchin 1968) and Kurnool district in Andhra Pradesh (Murthy 1974);

A large number of discoveries have been made during the last five decades (1950-2000) in Indian Palaeolithic culture.

7

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

could not only reveal the pattern of vertical successions, but also such other significant informations as the area of stone quarrying and working floors. Pattern of dispersal of cultural features started attracting more attention in these latest series of Palaeolithic researches, like at Chirki-Nevasa in Maharastra (Corvinus 1968, 1968-69, 1970a, 1970b, 1973), Hunsgi (Paddayya 1976, 1977a, 1977b, 1985) and Isampur (Paddayya and Patragila 1997, 1998) in Karnataka.

extreme west of this range is a high hill, named Satpahari, scarped on its northern face, beyond which the Kiul river breaks through the range by a narrow gorge. The hill is 1,806 feet above sea level. There is also a small range of hills in the level of alluvial plain near Sheikhpura, and these are practically bare of vegetation. There are also small, isolated, stony hills south of Sheikhpura and some hills of fair size on both sides of the Lakhisarai-Jamui road south of Titar Hat in the plain to the west of the Kiul river (Roy Choudhury 1960).

1.3 Kharagpur hills as a region

The rivers originating from the Kharagpur hills, which include major streams like Maan, Anjan, Morwe and other minor streams like the Jalkund nala, the Dakra nala and the Gangta nala. Of these the major streams are permanent streams with meagre surface flow during summer. Except the Maan, which debouches in the Ganga river near Ghorghat, other streams meet the Kiul river.

The hills of Munger and Jamui districts of south Bihar comprise a number of low ranges and isolated peaks, outliers of the Vindhyan series which entered the districts from south and gradually converge towards Munger town, near Jamalpur, known as Kharagpur hills. This is named after the town, which bears the same name and is situated to the east of the hills. The Kharagpur hills form an irregularly triangular block extending from near Jamalpur to the Jamui railway station. It measures about 40 k.m. northsouth in length and 55 km east-west in breadth, and contains within it large number of tribal village settlements of mainly Kora and Santhal tribe (Sherwill 1852). The area consists of a number of steep ridges rising from the low ground on all the sides with scarped faces on massive quartzite in places, they are of irregular formation and do not run in any uniform direction. Generally speaking the range is a bold and striking mass of rocks covered for the most part with jungle; but it contains valleys with patches of cultivation and several hot springs, of which the finest and better known ones are Bhimbandh, Sitakund and Rishikund (Waddell 1890). There are several peaks rising to a height of about 1,500 feet and the highest point is called maruk (1,628 feet above sea level). The central region is a table land encircled by the hills maintaining a thick forest and covered with a deep layer of laterite. The Kharagpur hills form a distinct watershed. The Kiul river draining the western part and the Maan and other streams drain the eastern part of the hills. To the north the hills are having low jungle-cover and this extends within a short distance of Munger urban area. To the south-west is another block of hills, which are known locally as the Gidheswar hills, named after a peak of that name. In geological reports, however, these are referred to as the Gidhour hills. These hills are a continuation of the hills in the Nawada district and cover an area of about 80 square kilometers, forming a compact cluster between Khaira and the western boundary of the Munger town. They rise sharply from the plain, but in most places there is a belt of jungle along their northern face before the actual ascent begins. To the east there is a fine cliff overlooking Khaira and the Kiul river, and the range falls away to the south into the rocky valley of the Kiul. On the south in the village of Sakdari, there is a spring called Panchbhur, which is surrounded by precipitous walls of rock. The highest point of the range is at Ekgora (1,813 feet).

In the Kharagpur hill tract, structure and neo-tectonic movement have more control over the drainage than lithology. There are two groups of streams of different maturity draining this hill tract. The first group includes mature streams like Maan and Anjan and their sub-tributaries with a drainage density of above 2.0 km/sq km. They drain the major part of this hill tract. These streams initially flow away from Ganga, towards south, southwest and southeast and then swing towards north to follow the regional slope of the valley to join the Ganga. The other group includes immature streams like the Dokra nala, the Bangalwa nala etc., draining the northern and other valleyward slopes of the peripheral hill ranges. The co-existence of the mature and immature drainage systems in the Kharagpur hill tract signifies that the hill and adjoining valley areas have undergone neo-tectonic movement in early quaternary period. This also explains the presence of only quaternary sediments (Middle Pleistocene and younger) in the valley areas adjoining the Kharagpur hill tract (O’Malley 1926). The temperature is moderate in this region, except during the hot months of April, May and June, when the westerly winds from central India cause high temperature with very low humidity. The annual rainfall average is inches, of which 8.78 inches fall in June, 12.58 inches in July, inches in August and 8.66 inches in September. The latitude, longitude, and district boundaries falling within this physiographic zone is shown in the adjoining figure 1,2, and 3. 1.4 Geological feature of the region The main rock types of the Kharagpur hills are, several variants of quartzite, phyllite, slate, sericite, schist, intrusive granite, quartz vein and laterite. A brief description of each of the lithounits are as follows : Quartzite : There are four variants of quartzite in the area, viz.

To the south a broken semi-circular range extends from near Bishnupur, on the west to Simultala on the east, separating the Chakai plateau from the rest of the Jamui district. On the

i) Massive quartzite ii) Ferruginous massive quartzite

8

Introduction

Figure 3. Physiography region and contour of the Kharagpur hills.

They are greyish black to greyish white in color.

iii) Feldspathic quartzite, and iv) Gritty and pebbly quartzite

SLATE: Slate occurs as conformable lenticular bands of varying dimension whinin phyllites, and sericite schists. It is a reasonably hard and compact formation.

The massive quartzites are grey to brownish white, compact, fine­grained and cherty. Near the contact with phyllites and schist, quartzites are distinctly ferruginous and medium to coarse grained. The arkosic quartzites are coarse-gained and pinkish white in colour. Gritty and pebbly quartzites occur at the basal part of the lower quartzite horizon. One can observe the presence of a lenticular patch of conglomerate, cemented and metamorphosed into pebbly quartzite near Dharhara which appears to be the basal unit of the metamorphics of the Kharagpur hills (Roy, et al. 1987).

SERICITE SCHIST: Sericite schist occurs in association with quartzite and phyllite as conformable lenticular patches in different parts of the Kharagpur hills. These are greenish brown to dirty white in colour and also foliated at most of the cases. INTRUSIVE GRANITE: These granites are leucocratic and medium to coarse-grained with porphyroblasts of feldspars set in a ground mass of quartz, feldsper and biotite (Sarkar, et al. 1964). QUARTZ VEIN : The quartz is milky white with occasional ferruginous stains. LATERITE : Laterite

PHYLLITES: Phyllite occurs as thick beds alternating with quartzite bands and its trends are in conformity with the quartzite.

9

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

kend (Dispyros melanoxylon), the fruits of which is a delicacy for the local people in the forest. Among other important trees, several species of Terminalia are worth mentioning. Harre (Terminalia chebula) and Bahera (Terminalia belerica) are very useful, because the fruits of these trees combined with fruit of Amla (Emblica officialines) make the famous indigenous purgative, which is called thphala. Special mention has to be made of the Sabai (ischaemum angustifolium) a species of grass found on the higher slope and top of the hills. Hundreds of persons gain their livelihood by collecting and twisting it into string. This grass has got a very good market in the paper mills as better quality papers are made from this grass. There are also several species of fig tress, conspicuous among which is Gular (Ficus glomerate), fruits of which the people residing in the forests share with the birds and animals such as bears and deer. The most useful tree is the Mahua (Bassia lalifolia), which yields food, wine, oil and timber. From its flowers people make local liquor, and both fresh as also dried they furnish the people with wholesome food. From its fruit is pressed an oil largely used for the adulteration of ghi, and the tough timber is used for the naves of cart­ wheels.

occurs as a cap rock over phyllites in some hill top viz; Moira, Maruk, Khapra and Thadi. It is brown to reddish brown in colour and pisolitic in texture. Quaternary sediments The quaternary sediments covering the Kharagpur hills is known as Jamui formation. The multiple alluvial fill of Jamui terrace, which is described as the ‘Jamui formation’ constitutes the oldest continental quaternary deposits in this region, which is known as ‘older alluvium’ in Indian geology (Passoe, 1964). This formation is restricted to the Ganga and constitutes the high level alluvial plains (40 m - 50 m above MSL) to the south of Sarmera - Sheikhpura - Luckhe Sarai - Singichauk -Darhara on the west of Kharagpur hills and the similar high grounds to the south of Lohechi - Udadi - Dathara on the east of the Kharagpur hills. The district town Munger and other important towns like Jamui, Jamalpur, Sikandra and Jajha are located on this formation. The laterite occurrences on the top of the Kharagpur hills and the ferruginous residual soil over the bedrock below the alluvial fill of Jamui terrace is indicative of a tropical climate at the beginning of the quaternary period. This was gradually replaced by a relatively cold and dry climate during the aggradation of the basal boulder sand member of Jamui formation.

Tigers are still found in the Kharagpur hills, though scarce. Leopards are much in evidence, and numerous cases are reported of their killing dogs, goats and cattle from the scattered villages spread over the lower slopes of the Kharagpur hills. Black or sloth bears (Ursus melursus) are found on all the larger hills and in the jungle surrounding them. Where they can feed on white-ants, plum and other fruits and drink water from the hill streams. Hyaenas are found in the hills and wild cats are common. The civet family is represented by the large Indian civet (Viverricula malaccensis). The dog family includes wolves, the familiar jackel and Indian fox. Two species of monkey are found in the hills, the long tailed langur (Semnopithecus entellus) and the shorter tailed Bengal monkey or bandar (macacus rhesus). Several species of deer, have been found in the hills and these include Sambar (Cervus unicolor), chital or spotted dear, ravine deer and barking deer etc.

The thickness of colluvium and residual deposit in the Kharagpur hills increases upto 4 m. in the narrow pediment zone, bordering the Kharagpur and Gidheshwar hills and the scattered inliers within the Jamui terrace has a 0.5 m to 2m thick cover of colluvium and residual deposits. In the pediplain area bordering the Kharagpur hills, the thickness of the residual soil is much less than the colluvium deposit and the material is mainly reddish brown silt and clay. The lithological and sequential equivalent of upper Jamui formation has been considered to be of Upper Pleistocene to early Holocene in age, on the basis of the palaeontological finds (Dassarma, et al. 1976, 1977). Since no fossil has been found in the quaternary sediments from this region till now, therefore, estimation of the age can be inferred only on the basis of sequential lithological, Pedological and Climatological analysis. In, the Narmada Valley, the oldest continental quaternary sediments, which is lithologially similar to lower Jamui formation, has been dated at Middle Pleistocene, on the basis of vertebrate fauna (Dassarma, et al. 1977). Hence the Jamui formation of the Kharagpur hill region is provisionally considered to be of Middle to Upper Pleistocene, extending upto Early Holocene in age (Roy, et al. 1987).

1.6 Earlier works During 1944-45, shri Rathindra Nath Tagor and Shri Surendra Nath Kar of Shantiniketan of West Bengal, discovered a single Acheulian handax from Bhimbandh region of Kharagpur hills in Munger district of south Bihar. This was the first ever discovery of any prehistoric antiquity from this region. Subsequently R.C.P. Singh (1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963) and N.K. Bose (1960) and Joshi and Singh (1965-66) also explored the same area and recorded fresh antiquities. This initial interest in the region however did not culminate into any further systematic investigation till as late as 1972, when P.C. Pant and Vidula Jayaswal of Banaras Hindu University, took up a systematic excavation at the site, called Paisra. Paisra is a small village in Kharagpur hills which lies about 18 km north-east of Bhimbandh. The excavation confirmed the presence of a

1.5 Fauna and flora The Kharagpur hills covered 500 square miles area of dense forest. The principal tree is sal or sakhua (Shorea robusta), but owing to the absence of any system of forest conservancy, the giants of the forest have long since disappeared. Another conspicuous tree in this hill is the

10

Introduction

late lower Palaeolithic occupation in the Kharagpur hills. It was further demonstrated to be of an extremely advanced variety and also probably reasonably wide spread. (Pant and Jayaswal, 1978).

their geo-chronological status in the following pages. The detailed typo-technolgoical analysis of the sites with discussion on their significance on a larger plain will be taken up in the next two chapters.

1.7 Present study and methodology

Since all these sites occur in the open air within 0-10 cm top soil we had to resort to almost a total lifting of all the material of suspected human workmanship. A random sampling was not possible because larger and heaver specimens were not displaced while seasonal rain water in many cases has displaced smaller flake and blade specimens into narrow surface gullies. Thus, a chance of distorted representation could be introduced if purely random collection was resorted to. Artifact spread and clustering of debitage and finished tools also could not be sketched because of the same set of reasons.

After going through the published materials on the Kharagpur hills, it was felt that certain questions about the Palaeolithic culture occuring in this zone still remain unclear. Consequently an intensive study of this area was undertaken. This intensive survey was mainly aimed to understand: 1. The nature of the Palaeolithic culture. 2. In addition to this it was also aimed at understanding the post-Pleistocene cultural scenario that develops in this area. I conducted four seasons of field work in the Kharagpur hills and discovered 11 rich primary, open air, workshop sites of Palaeolithic period. The name of the sites are Pathalgarwa (PLG), Rakatrohniya Tad (RRT), Adhwariya (ADY), Satbehariya (STB), Jogiya (JYA), Kushitari (KST), Tetariya (TTY), Goratad (GTR), Banargarh (BNG), Sohdihwa (SHD) and Jurpaniya (JPY). I will describe the area of investigation, and the physiographical contexts of these Palaeolithic sites with

The collected specimens were all carried to the base camp where they were washed and numbered. Subsequently these were packed and transported to the department. Many large flakes were discarded after Recording their technological features and counting them in the total collection. This had to be done because transporting the enormous amount of collected specimens was a big problem. Further, most of the sites lie 10 to 15 kms away from any road where trucks could be obtained.

11

Chapter 2

Quaternary Stratigraphy of the Sites The stone tools of early man have seldom been found exactly where he left them. A number of relatively less disturbed or almost undisturbed sites are situated in the Kharagpur hills. In the present study 11 such undisturbed open air sites are described. These could be located during several seasons of explorations conducted by the author during 1996-1999.

depositional history in this chosen area. It will be better to describe these features on the basis of evidences recorded from each of the sites discovered. 2.1 Pathalgarwa (plg) Pathalgarwa (86°23’ E and 25°6’ N ) is located in the Kharagpur hills, near the east of the Jamuniya village of Laxmipur block in Jamu; district of south Bihar. It is situated at 35 km north from Jamui railway station and 13 km north from Laxmipur block. The name of the site is derived from the name of a deity known as Pathalgarwa. The villagers have very strong faith on this deity and they worship him, before starting any new work and also during the festivals.

As stated earlier the region chosen for the study presents a series of rocky ranges surrounded by high hills on almost 3 sides. Wherever two ranges meet in a crevice a water course or a gully is created. When these gullies are present in the floor of the valley they become wide and can carry forceful flow during high rain fall seasons. When these gullies are at a higher altitude these form convenient water shed channels which eventually disgorge themselves in the valley gullies. The load of boulders brought by these narrow channels are so enormous that one is left with no other alternative but to surmise a very strong colluvial activity to explain them. The water courses criss-cross all through the valley area and these are further supplimented by large number of underground hot and cold water springs providing constant water supply to them.

Pathalgarwa is situated on the slope of Nirbhaiya hill and is spread over an area of 1 square kilometer. Vegetation cover in these lower benches is much thicker and this has caused the formation of a layer of soil cover on the bare rock. On a horizontal surface such soil cover is from 10 to 30 cm thick, but in areas which are depressed or where wide crevices in the rock occurs such soil deposits can be as much as 1.50 to 4 meters in thickness. On the opposite side of the Nirbhaiya hill, another hill known as Garhawada is situated. Pathalgarwa spring originates from Nirbhaiya hill and flows north of the site, where Chormara village is situated.

For exploring to discover possible prehistoric sites these water courses were followed and these provided a very useful indicator in understanding the quaternary

Plate 1. A view of the site Pathalgarwa

12

Quaternary Stratigraphy of the Sites

Plate 2. A view of the site Pathalgarwa.

There are evidences of large flake beds present on almost all those suitable rocks which are jutting out. It would, therefore, appear that this was not only a factory site but also acted as the major source for raw material quarrying. Numerous such large flakes and cores almost cover the entire area. Near the site an entire exposure of quartzite is visible wherever laterites have been cut through modern activities. In most of the lower slopes laterite forms the upper crust along with alluvium. The artefacts occur in a cluster with this alluvium, which is very thin on the horizontal floor. This alludes to the implementiferous layer being deposited right after the period the laterite got deposited.

The soil deposits available in the ditches have been dug out at many places by the forest authorities to cover temporary roads constructed. The roads are required to bring trucks within the deep forest, where logging is in progress. These diggings have left ready made and sharp angular profile of deposits. In Pathalgarwa one such profile was present and this was closely observed for any colluviational effect or implementiferous band. The profile available at Pathalgarwa is nearly 3 meters in thickness and is entirely composed of compact and homogeneous yellow soil. The colour of the soil tends to be darker towards the base and lighter on the upper part. There are some bands of kankar visible more towards the upper half, and these represent the watershed

13

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Plate 3. A view of the site Pathalgarwa.

activity of the higher slopes bringing kankary loads during rains. No tools or even angular chunks of rocks which are otherwise so numerous on the rock bench could be found in this soil profile.

bearing surface is the minimum. This never extends beyond 4 to 10 cm in thickness. Palaeolithic industry discovered lies on this thin soil cover. Practically no tool or even flakes and cores have been found on the thick soil cover.

The site lies on a bench like flat plain where the basal rock is exposed in patches. In most of the remaining plain a thick deposit of secondary laterite covers the basal rock floor. Tools are found lying over the lateritic surface for most of the part. The exposed areas provided a very suitable access to quartzite for quarrying at this site. Evidences suggest that large scale quarrying must have been done here during the Pleistocene period. A thick deposit of fine clay often extending over 2-4 meters thickness covers the lateritic bed at many placed. Interestingly the soil deposit on the tool

Since the industry is extremely rich, yielding almost 2-3 finished specimens per square meter in average, it is not difficult to assume that at Pathalgarwa we are dealing with a primary factory site. Apparently after the late Middle Pleistocene period of laterite deposition was over there was a period of mild dry phase. Man occupied these rocky platforms around the last dry phase of Pleistocene. The final clay deposits seem to have descended down around the closing wet phase in the terminal part of Pleistocene and also in early Holocene. (Section shown in fig. 4)

14

Quaternary Stratigraphy of the Sites

Figure 4. Section of Pathalgarwa ( PLG).

2.2 Rakatrohaniya tad (rrt)

visible, but not a single artifact was trapped in this section. The thickness of the section is measured 3-5 meter. Unlike the earlier site Rakatrohania Tad is not only widely spread out but also shows a heavy load of hill wash rubble spread out over the lateritic bed. These include a large number of boulders and cobbles. The latter acted as a very suitable source of raw material for the tool makers.

Rakatrohaniya Tad (86°23’ E and 25°3’ N ) is located in the Kharagpur hills, near the south of the village Bairiya Bandh, in Laxmipur block of Jamui district of south Bihar. It is 6 k.m. west from Laxmipur block, and 23 km from Jamui railway station.

Since no tools are found on top of the soil cover it can be easy to conclude that the process of colluviation which followed the period of laying the lateritic deposits were a phenomenon of late Pleistocene wet phase. The soil cover may have been a terminal Pleistocene and subsequent early Holocene episode. The consistent absence of archaeological antiquity from the clay deposit forming the top layer will tend to indicate that probably for a considerable period in early Holocene these locations were abandoned by early man. (Section shown in Fig. 5)

Rakatrohaniya Tad is situated on pediment of Anjan hill. The cold spring, which originates from the base of the Anjan hill, known as Amjari spring is the main source of water for the people in this region. Towards the hill the vegetation is very dense and when we come to the flat land at the base of the hill, the vegetation cover starts becoming sparse. This is probably because of active human interference causing deforestation here. The pediment surface is covered by thin hard laterite (ferricrete) pellets with a thickness of about 10 cm. The deposit containing laterite pellets is capped by colluvial rubble which is rich in locally derived quartzite blocks, chips and grannulous laterite pellets derived from lower ferricrete. The colluvial rubble is 50 to 60 cm. thick and is cemented by ferruginous material. Majority of the artifacts is in an un-abraded mint condition and occur in upper 10 cm of the rubble. The artefact bearing rubble was sealed by 3 to 5 meter thick reddish hill wash soil at many places. Here, again, not a single tool has been found from soil deposition. The area of tool dispersal at the site is about 2 square kilometer.

2.3 Adhwariya (ady) Adhwariya (86°25’ E and 25°3’ N) is located in the Kharagpur hills, near the east of the village with the same name, in Laxmipur block of Jamui district of south Bihar. It is situated 10 km west from Laxmipur block and 33 km north from Jamui railway station. The Vail hill is situated in the south direction from the site, where dense vegetation is present. Towards the hill slope the density of the vegetation is very low. There is a cold spring, which originates from Vail hill and this is named Bhurahwa. Today the flow of the spring is very low, but one can assume that this may have been more volumnus during the Pleistocene epoch. Consequently early human settlement around these water holes must have been very much sought after.

Towards the east of the site the forest authorities have dug a long strip, for a cannel, where exposed section is clearly

15

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Plate 4. A view of the site Rakatrohaniya Tad.

The site is situated on the pediment of Vail hill and is spread over an area of 1 square kilometer. The pediment surface is covered by thin and hard haematite pellets, overlying decomposed bed rock. The artifacts occur only on this surface in clusters. The selection of this spot for tool-making by the prehistoric people was basically guided by the easy availability of abundant quantity of quartzite blocks of suitable shapes and sizes in this area.

The Adhwariya site is undoubtedly of the primary type. The gentle slope of the pediment surface and absence of any regular drainage tract in the immediate vicinity are the two major factors that explain the remarkably good state of preservation of the site. The pediment surface on which the chipping activity took place was subsequently covered by reddish silt deposit measuring at places about 4 meters, in thickness. This was probably derived from the adjacent

16

Quaternary Stratigraphy of the Sites

Figure 5. Section of Rakatrohaniya Tad (RRT).

Plate 5. A view of the site Adhwariya.

17

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 6. Section of Adhwariya (ADY).

hill slopes. This has probably helped in the preservation of the site against seasonal descication. It is an altogettier different matter that much of this deposit has now been eroded and the tools bearing layer has been exposed, by the channelized watercourses created by the local farmers for irrigating their fields.

material and work implements and probably also collecting / cutting wood. These activities continued for several generations have rendered these peneplains prone to seasonal erosion. Hence almost all these sites show the tools buried within a very thin layer of top soil. (Section shown in Fig. 6)

Although this is not as spread out as Rakatrohniya Tad the character of the context of the human activities at Adhwariya does not vary much from the former. The clayish soil which covers the lateritic episode in this site has covered the tool bearing area in general. The site is recorded only from the areas from where the clay top has been eroded. Therefore, it can naturally be surmised that if the top soil is exposed by excavation the Adhwariya site would be probably found to be as wide spread as the other sites discovered in this region.

2.4 Satbehariya (stb) Satbehariya (86°23’ E and 25°4’ N) is located in the Kharagpur hills, near the south of the village Bhimbandh, in Laxmipur block of Jamui district of south Bihar. It is situated 13 km west of Laxmipur block and 28 km north from Jamui railway station. There are seven behri/tila (deposition of soil in a block) present on the site, therefore the site is called Satbehariya. The Manithan hill is situated in the south and Mahadeo hill in the north-west direction from the site.

Here it is important to record that the general eroding activity is caused mainly by seasonal hill wash coupled with sustained wind activity. But these agencies can act upon only those areas which are free of vegetation growth. Considering the fact that areas of human occupation are rich in organic wastes and hence helps in fast vegetation growth, one can surmise that these areas were not actually chosen for occupation. These were used as camps to retrieve raw

The site is situated on a slope of Manithan hill. The artefacts occur on the surface of thin laterite pellets. This is found overlying decomposed rock bed which is visible wherever patches of these exposed rocks is seen. The area of tool spread of the site is 2 square kilometers. The deposition of the soil measures 4-5 meters in thickness and is entirely

18

Quaternary Stratigraphy of the Sites

Plate 6. A view of the site Satbehariya.

composed of compact and homogeneous red soil. No tools could be found from this deposited soil.

becomes very low as one move towards the lower end of the sloping surface. (Section shown in Fig. 7)

Satbehariya seems almost comparable to Adhwariya in size except for the fact that here the surface is slightly inclined towards one of those numerous gorges that criss-cross the region with fresh water courses. Since the surface is slightly sloping at this site, the erosion of the soil covering the tools is found to be more extensive. Boulders and cobbles carried by seasonal rain waters are also found to be accumulated in larger number spread all around the surface. The concentration of finished tools is remarkably high in this site. Further, the tools are also almost in factory fresh condition. These two features together can be taken to surmise that this is a primary site and also the tools have suffered hardly any transportation. Another interesting feature of the site is that the frequency of finished tools

2.5 Jogiya (jya Jogiya (86°24’ E and 25°2’ N) is located in the Kharagpur hills, near the north of the village with the same name in Laxmipur block of Jamui district of south Bihar. It is situated about 4 km north from Laxmipur block and 20 km from Jamui railway station. Towards the east of the site occurs the village settlement and towards south-west two hills called Anjan and Manithan are located. These are nearly 5 km and 6 km respectively from the site. Agricultural fields are spread all over the regions extending from south of the site. The site is situated on the flat plain of the Kharagpur hills,

19

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Plate 7. A view of the site Satbehariaya.

which covers an area of about 2 square kilometer. There is no rain gullies or nala present near the site. The only source of water is available at least 5 km away from here in the Anjan hill, from where Amjari cold spring flows through out the year. There is no vegetation visible around the site. The area seems to be literally covered with cobbles of quartzite. There is also evidence of large flake beds present on all those portions of the bed rock which are jutting out. Consequently Jogiya, would seem to be a workshop site in open air, where prehistoric man had come to quarry the abundant raw material present and also manufacture the tools from them before returning to the base camp, which could have been near the Anjan hills.

rock at some suitable areas. Not single artifacts have been found on this soil deposit. It would appear from the above description that unlike the other sites described so far the surface of the site is not constituted by lateritic deposits. Here the succession would seem to be only bed rock covered by yellow coloured clay which is evidently stained by lateritic wash. Apparently this surface where the bed rock is exposed is only a large patch that has escaped the depositions because of lack of any vegetation that helps leaching of the surface material. Further down on the lower flanks one can see the same lateritic phenomenon which appears to be common almost all over these hills.

There is a deposition of a yellow coloured soil measuring 3 meter in thickness which can be seen spread on the bed

The yellow soil at this site is thick and compact at parts where vegetation has grown but more often than not this

20

Quaternary Stratigraphy of the Sites

Figure 7. Section of Satbehariya (STB).

appears to be loose and mobile and hence have not been able to support any significant vegetation growth. Jogiya, as such would appear as a completely bare rock face for several square kilometers over which one finds evidence of intensive quarrying and tool making activities. The concentration of the tools and their factory fresh state of preservation further lends proof of prehistoric man having used this as a factory for manufacturing activities. (Section shown in Fig. 8)

Large number of flake cores, flakes and blade cores are found spread on the surface, which shows previous mark of flake removing. Raw materials are present in profuse quantity. All tools are made on quartzite. The preservation of the tools are in very fresh mint condition, which proves Kushitari is a primary site. Kushitari, therefore, is a site which in its successional features compares well with Rakatrohaniya Tad. The lateritic deposits spread over the bed rock have also undergone considerable erosion rendering the formation of mobile loose lateritic pellets. These must have got incorporated in the loose morrum like top surface. The colluvial wash has brought down huge amount of cobbles which are found spread over this surface. Prehistoric man arrives only after these surfaces have stabilized and then sitting on this prepared tools from the raw materials derived from the cobbles. The subsequent dry phases have brought in a thin soil cover on the tool bearing layer. At places these layers seem to be reasonably thick and maintain thick vegetation. It is possible that excavation conducted under this forest cover might expose the total area of prehistoric activities lying buried under this soil cover.

2.6 Kushitari (kst) Kushitari (86°26’ E and 25°2’ N) is located in the Kharagpur hills, near the south of a village with same name in Laxmipur block of Jamui district of south Bihar. It is situated at 4 kilometer from Laxmipur block and 22 kilometer from Jamui railway station. Agricultural fields are seen spread in the east of the site. No drainage system or nala are present around the site. The only available source of water is Amjari spring which originates from Anjan hill about 7 k.m. in the south of the site. The site is situated on a flat plain in the Kharagpur hills. The tool bearing surface is covered by thin haematite pellets which overlie the decomposed rock bed. The area of spread of the site is nearly 1 square kilometer. The pellets are capped by colluvial rubble, which also yield grannulous laterite pellets in the form of morum. The imlementiferous deposit was sealed by 4-5 meter thick reddish soil.

The concentration of the tools and their fresh state of preservation seem to indicate that there has been no or little transportation of them. In other words, one can safely assume these to be in primary context. (Section shown in Fig. 9).

21

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Plate 8. A view of the site Jogiya.

2.7 Tetariya (tty)

Tetariya, generally maintains almost a similar geochronological context as the previous site (Kushitari). A large expanse of bed rock is exposed around the site. A little further one can see the usual depositional pattern. That is, decomposed bed rock is covered by lateritic deposit and this in turn is covered by a red stained clay deposit. At the area of the spread of prehistoric rock most of the decomposed crust of the bed rock is eroded away. The fresh bed rock in some cases show large flake beds demonstrating the fact that the raw material for making the tools have actually been quarried from here.

Tetariya (86°25’ E and 25°1’ N) is located in the Kharagpur hills near the south-west direction of a village with the same name lying in Laxmipur block of Jamui district of south Bihar. It is situated 3 k.m. north from Laxmipur block and 17 k.m. north from Jamui railway station. Tetariya is situated on the flat plain of the Kharagpur hills and is spread over an area of 1 square kilometer. The Anjan hill is situated 7 km south of the site. In the north direction the Sijua village is situated and its agricultural fields are seen lying in the east.

Evidence of prehistoric tool making activities at the site is demonstrated by the presence of numerous flake

22

Quaternary Stratigraphy of the Sites

Plate 9. A view of the site Jogiya.

Kharagpur block of Munger district of south Bihar. It is estimated to be nearly 22 km south of Haveli Kharagpur and 45 km south of Munger district headquarter.

cores, flakes and finished tools spread over the area. The concentration of finished tools in this site appears to be not as much dense as was observed in the other sites discovered from these hills. Instead unfinished tools and waste material seem to form a large percentage. The clayish soil cover as usual is loose and mobile and maintains a grassy cover away from the site. The adjoining figure will show the reconstructed soil profile recorded from around the site. (Section shown in Fig. 10)

The seasonal erosion has exposed a stretch of nearly 3 sq. km. rocky ditch, about 5 km away from the river Maan, which flows in the south-north direction in western part of the site. This area is surrounded by a number of big tilas (deposition of the soil) which varies from 5-10 meters in height. The Baraghat nala flows towards the north of the site. A large stretch of fine grained quartzite, chert and quartz are exposed on the bed rock. The evidence of flake scars removed from the available raw materials are present in very profused quantity on the surface. Large and massive

2.8 Goratad (gtr) Goratad (86°26’ E and 25°3’ N) is situated in the Kharagur hills, near the north of the village Sonarwa, in Haveli

23

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 8. Section of Jogiya (JYA).

Plate 10. A view of the site Kushitari.

24

Quaternary Stratigraphy of the Sites

Plate 11. A view of the site Tetariya.

Figure 9. Section of Kushitari (KST).

25

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 10. Section of Tetariya (TTY).

Plate 12. A view of the site Goratad.

the huge amount of silt can be taken to represent the early Holocene dry period and consequently, the artifacts can be taken as representing a period, which is probably immediately preceding the Holocene.

core and un-retouched flakes lie littered all along the site and this leaves no doubt about the context of the site being primary in nature. This is additionally proved by the fact that, the tools and waste material are extremely fresh in their state of preservation. Although it is entirely an open air site and

The rocky ditch profile shows the actual thickness of lateritic deposit which might have covered the bed rock

26

Quaternary Stratigraphy of the Sites

Plate 13. A view of the site Banargarh.

Figure 11. Section of Goratad (GTR).

in the general area around the site. The exposed bed rock at this area must have been covered by thick clayish soils which are still seen in the form of a number of tilas that are found spread around the area. Since the soil cover does not show any lateritic staining in the upper regions one can surmise that these might be representing a dry phase immediately after or around the closing phase of Pleistocene.

The geo-chronological context of all the sites surveyed seems to indicate evidence of occupation of man around the dry phase within the Upper Pleistocene period. Goratad in this regard does not show any difference except for the fact that here the lateritic spread is not occurring every where. The tools discovered, like all other sites, are factory fresh and also occur in high concentration. (Section shown in Fig. 11)

27

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

2.9 Banargarh (bng)

kinds of stone manufacturing debitages, leaving no doubts about the site being primary in nature. (Section shown in Fig. 12)

Banargarh (86°25’ E and 25°3’N) is located in the Kharagpur hills, on east of a village with the same name in Haveli Kharagpur block of Munger district of Bihar. It is situated 25 km south of Haveli Kharagpur block and 48 km south of Munger district of South Bihar.

2.10 Sohdihwa (shd) Sohdihwa (86°25’ E and 25°4* N) is located in the Kharagpur hills, near the north of the village Bhimbandh, in Haveli Kharagpur block of Munger district of south Bihar. It is situated at a distance of 45 km from south of the town of Munger and 25 km south of the town of Haveli Kharagpur.

The site is situated on the flat plain in the dense forest, which is covered by mainly sal trees. On the west of the site, Tharghatiya nala flows in south-north direction, which meets the river Maan about 2 km from here in north direction. Agricultural fields are spread in the south of the site towards the villages Bhimbandh and Banargarh. The Mahadeo hill is located about 1 kilometer west of the site, where the very famous hot springs originate from the base of the same hill. Possibly the site was earlier only an extension of the hill flanks but it is difficult to demonstrate this today.

The site is situated at the fringe of the forest on a wide but shallow ditch. On both the banks of this ditch, hardened calcium granules are formed in isolated patches. A depressed area runs parallel to a metalled road in the north. In the south the site is surrounded by agricultural fields. This strip is about 3-4 km broad and runs along the road for nearly 2 kilometer. After this it slopes down towards a branch of the river Maan. Basal rock is found buried about 60-80 cm from the surface. Seasonal rain water flows through this depressed region in the form of a gully and has washed away much of the top soil. The tools lying on the rock surface is, exposed at a number of clusters. In rest of the area, the top soil was removed by a hand trawler. At sections where virgin soil remains intact the tools are found 55 to 65 cm below the surface. Numerous other tools have accumulated here at the base of bushes and trees by colluvial activities. Normally, speaking therefore, the site has to be treated as an open

The hard deposits of laterite blocks are present on the centre of the site, which measures 20-60 cm in height. The artifacts occur with loose laterite nodules and red soil. The impmenetiferous layer was earlier covered by thin haemetite pellets, but extensive erosion has exposed the bed rock at many places in large patches. The primary rock outcrops is constituted of a suitable homogenous variety of pink to gray quartizite. These were suitably harnessed for the use of making tools by the prehistoric people. The site is spread over a large area measuring 2 square kilometer. The artifacts are in mint fresh condition which maintains all

Figure 12. Section of Banargargh (BNG).

28

Quaternary Stratigraphy of the Sites

Plate 14. A view of the site Sohdihwa.

Plate 15. A view of the site Jurpaniya.

air occurrence. It extends for hundreds of square meters across the fields but representative collection from the fields were not made, because of their highly disturbed context. The present collection was made along a depression from the stretch lying along the fields extending over nearly 2 square kilometer area. The area slopes gently towards the east where the water channel flows. The section at this place becomes more than 3-4 meters in thickness and this is heavily mixed with big angular rocks and cobbles. Such sections are also noted all along the river Maan, which meanders through these hill ranges. It is possible that the

site was chosen by prehistoric people because here rock could be easily quarried. The surface is covered with microlithic clusters. The blade and burin industry which is found at a lower level is also covered with a thin layer of soft recent alluvium probably brought by seasonal rain water. A very rich spread of blades and blade cores along with retouched types prepared on them is found under this thin cover. Once again the typological and state of preservation features of the tools will tend to indicate that Sohdihwa is probably a primary

29

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 13. Section of Sohdihwa (SHD)

site, although with evidence of surface displacement of materials. This renders the context of the archaeological material found scattered on the surface fairly questionable.

spring water has cut out a channel for itself that flows over a flat grass land for about 60 meters before cutting into a large river bed, which is a branch of the river Maan. At this point large boulders are spread for miles along the river. There is a deposit of soil up to a height of 1.5-3.0 meters all along the eastern bank of the spring. This is a compact soil with no pebble or cobble embedded in it, and since there are no water course present here. It seems unlikely that this could be alluvial in genesis. The hot spring and the adjoining regions seem to have been recently cleared for picknickers and tourists, because the water channel flowing out of the spring has cut a bed which is hardly 15 cm deep. Thus, it would appear that the springs were underground flows in the past and the implementiferrous soil deposit was extending up to the foot of the hill covering the entire area with the springs. This 2-3 meters thick soil profile now visible near the spring, clearly shows, rich deposit of tools at the top layer. This entire deposit is the result of heavy hill wash caused during a late Pleistocene wet phase.

Having no other possible correcting mechanism available we had to collect the entire material spread over the surface. Consequently one had to proceed with the assumption that this represents an integral work activity area of a specific group of people belonging to one specific time period. If archaeological material collected shows any contradiction then one can seek a cultural explanation for this contradiction. Sodhiwa appears to be quite different in is geomorphological context when compared with the other sites known from this region. The calcarious nodules represent an early Holocene dry climate and have been recorded elsewhere in the Kharagpur hills in association with quartz and chalcedony nodules. (Section shown in Fig. 13)

Prehistoric occupations along this bench of the hill, must have been extensive, because the tool bed is found all along the soil profile circumventing the hillock. The tool bearing layer at the site ranges from 15 to 20 cm and further upstream towards the base of the hillock, it become 30-0 cm in thickness. Further, as one moves towards the base layer chunks of raw material and blade cores become more profuse. Towards the flat plain, where the section has been cut, finished tool types, flat and thin blades start increasing in frequency. The site extends over an area of nearly 2 square kilometers, and artefacts have been collected from this expanse in a random manner.

2.11 Jurpaniya (jpy) Jurpaniya (86°22’ E and 25°4’ N ) is located near the west of the village Bela, in Kharagpur hills, of Haveli Kharagpur block in Munger district of south Bihar. It is situated at a distance of nearly 45 km south from Munger district headquarter and 17 km south of Haveli Kharagpur town. The area is covered with numerous tiny cracks in the rocks from which hot water is streaming out constantly and hence is the name Jurpaniya given to the site. It is situated at the base of a hillock, which is called Mahadeo hills. These hills are about 150 meter high looming above the site. The

30

Quaternary Stratigraphy of the Sites

Incidentally, the soil dug out from the site has been used to level the forest roads by the authorities and one can see numerous tools spread on the roads around the site where this soil has been used. Such specimens were not collected because of their disturbed context. The size of blades and blade cores show unique industry in the Kharagpur Hills, which is also primary in nature. The length and breadth of the blades do not fit in either upper Palaeolithic or Mesolithic period. The context of the tools as well show no contact with the lateritic surfaces recorded elsewhere. Consequently it is argued that possibly the deposits represent a terminal phase of Pleistocene which must have been much younger than the date of the time of deposition of the lateritic group. (Section shown in Fig. 14)

Figure 14. Section of Jurpaniya (JPY).

31

Chapter 3 Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries 3.1 Pathalgarwa (plg)

In the foregoing pages we have briefly examined the existing trend in stone age researches usually carried out in India. The ‘micro’ region studies in the past have, more often than not, been relevant mainly in the construction of a ‘macro’ statement. That is, micro or a regional study in itself had seldom been considered to have any interpretative value. We had proposed to change this earlier perspective in our present study. Consequently each of the discovered industries are being analysed in detail in this chapter. This will include a general appreciation of the debitage as well from each of the sites besides also understanding the chief techno-morphological characteristics of the finished tool types. Photographs and line drawings are also added to help illustrate these characters.

A method of random collection was roughly planned for the picking up of the antiquity from around the region where most of the jutting rocks were visible. The entire area has been covered upto the limit of the rock bench where it begins to slope down towards the seasonal rainfed channel. This was done mainly with an idea of having a representative sample of the main activity area. A total of 844 specimens could be collected in this manner to be transported to the laboratory. Large flake chunks, which might have been used as cores for the preparation of suitable tool blanks and types could not be collected because of the problem of transporting the load. Naturally such pieces are

Table:1. Palaeolithic industry of Pathalgarwa, Jamui

Total Industry : 844 Percentage

Cores

Absolute Number

Out of Total Cores

Out of Total Industry

Flake Core

76

36.1

9.0

Blade Core Retouched Core Nucleate Discoid Core Tortoise Core Finished Types

28

13.3

3.3

02

1.0

0.2

07

3.3

0.8

13

6.1

1.5

Total

04

2.0

0.4

80

38.0

9.4

210

99.8

24.6

Percentage Flakes

Absolute Number

Out of Total Flake

Out of Total Industry

Simple Flake

144

22.7

17.0

Retouched Flake Levalloisian Flake Blade Core Trimming Blade Crested Blade Levalloisian Point Pseudo Levalloisian Point Finished Types

56

8.8

6.6

31

4.8

3.6

158

25.0

18.7

01

0.1

0.1

13

2.0

1.5

02

0.3

0.2

06

1.0

0.7

223

35.1

26.4

Total

634

99.8

32

74.8

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

also not counted in the statistical tables. In spite of these efforts undertaken there would seem to be more of finished types in our collection which got lifted and thus incorporated in the sample.

12.0 cm. x 7.6 cm. and 10.9 cm. x 5.7 cm. x 5.3 cm.) are plano-convex in structure and can be seen as chunks hunked out of protruding rock mass as a general method of rock quarrying. Subsequently the flat undersurface is suitably flaked to act as the platform to remove series of flakes out of the convex surface. This modus operandi was found to be more suited to the removal of blades and hence one can explain such a rich occurrence of blade in this industry (Fig. 15 and 16). Some of the spherical and exhausted cores have been reduced into the form of nucleates which constitute the maximum number in this industry. Many of these cores show evidences of finer retouchings in a randomised manner as if these could also be suitably used. Naturally not a single amorphous or irregular core or cores on large cobbles or pebbles are found even though the collection is as large as 844.

Table 1 shows the break up of the total collection of Pathalgarwa. One of the most remarkable features of the industry is the extremely fresh condition of the tools. The fractures are so sharp and fresh that they appear to have been made on the same day. This feature was not noted in the specimens collected from the boulders by earlier workers. In all 130 cores and 411 flakes were found without any specific finishing while 80 cores and 223 flakes and blades have been finished as types. Unretouched levalloisian flakes are 31 in number (4.8 per cent) but besides these there are some others which have been retouched into types and if these are counted together the total percentage of levalloisian element might be pushed to around 13.6 per cent, unretouched blades constitute the highest percentage among the waste material (25.0 per cent). If blades finished into types are also added to these the total blade element would form nearly 45.0 per cent of the total flake and blade component of the industry.

In Table 2, the blades of Pathalgarwa have been separately measured for their length, breadth and thickness. Majority of the blades have a length between 5.0 to 7.9 cm. although the lowest and the highest lengths recorded fall in 2.0 - 2.9 cm. and 6.0 - 6.9 cm. ranges respectively. In the aspect of their breadth the dispersal is much less and concentrates around 2.0 to 4.9 cm. As regards their thickness most of the blades fall in the range of 0.0 to 1.9 cm. Considering all the three dimensions together one can easily visualise the Pathalgarwa blades to be of fairly broad and sturdy variety. The technique and shapes chosen for these blades

The cores which have not been finished into types are 130 in number which forms 15.4 per cent of the total industry. These range in maximum length from above 30 cm. to as low as 4 cm. Many of the larger cores were left at site after measurement. The majority of these cores (23.8 cm. x

Table: 2. Measurement of the blades of the Pathalgarwa, Jamui Range

Length (in cm.)

Breadth (in cm.)

0.0-0.9

Total Industry: 844 Thickness (in cm.) 33

1.1-1.9

3

95

1

29

18

3.0-3.9

4

59

10

4.0-4.9

13

44

2

5.0-5.9

33

16

6.0-6.9

38

6

7.0-7.9

26

1

8.0-8.9

13

9.0-9.9

13

10.0-10.9

4

11.0-11.9

8

12.0-12.9

3

2.0-2.9

13.0-13.9 14.0-14.9

1

15.0-15.9 16.0-16.9 17.0-17.9 Total no. of Blades

1 158

158

33

158

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

these hardly represent the parallelogram cross-section. These are thin flakes which have been minimally trimmed along the two lateral borders and seldom at the butt-end. The transverse edge is formed by planning the intersection of two flat scars sloping towards the anterior end.

is typically Upper Palaeolithic in character. The overwhelming number of these blades and the identical manner of their detachment leaves no doubt that blade manufacture formed a cultural imperative among the people of Pathalgarwa. This can be further demonstrated if Upper Palaeolithic types are finished on these blades. Fig. 17 and 18 show some of the specific unretouched blades from the industry.

Continuing with table 3, we find that the largest number of finished types represented in this industry is that of varieties of side scraper (total =31.6 per cent). Many of these are prepared on levalloisian flakes. The tortoise cores ( 9.3 cm. x 8 cm. x 3.6 cm. and 6.4 cm. x 6.2 cm. x 1.2 cm.) found are not very many (only four in number). The interesting point about these cores is that these are medium sized (Fig. 23) and are almost exhausted. So many flakes (7.9 cm. x 6.1 cm. x2.0 cm., 10.6 cm. x 6.1 cm. x 2.7 cm. and 10.4 cm. x 7.3 cm. x 2.7 cm.) have been taken out of them that they look almost like flat flakes in some instances. The retouching are bold and contiguous and compare very well with the manner of retouching done on blades (Fig. 24, 2-4). Notches (10.5 cm. x 5.2 cm. x 1.2 cm. and 8.2 cm. x 4.2 cm. x 1.7 cm.) and denticulates (5.6 cm. x 3.5 cm. x 1.4 cm. and 7.5 cm. x 4.1 cm. x 1.1 cm.) are fairly high in frequency and in some cases these are also prepared on blades (Fig. 25, 1-4). In fact one of the specimens (Fig. 27, 6) is finished perfectly into a Tayac point (5.2 cm. x 4.4 cm. x 1.1 cm.). Besides these, point (7.1 cm. x 5.5 cm. x 1.2 cm.) as a type seem to be not much favoured (Fig. 24,1). There are some massive flakes (13.4 cm. x 8.4 cm. x 3.7 cm.) which are specifically thinned out by taking out large scars anterio - posteriorly.

Table 3, shows the frequency of the various finished types represented in the industry. It shows the interesting feature of Bifaces (handaxes and cleavers together) occurring in almost as high a frequency as retouched blades and other types finished on blades taken together. The handaxes (15.8 cm. x 8.9 cm. x 3.5 cm. and 9.3 cm. x 7.0 cm. x 3.3 cm.) and cleavers are exceptionally well finished (Fig. 19 and 20) with thin lenticular cross-section and there is no doubt that these would normally compare very well with late Acheulian types. Yet there are few handaxes ( 16.5 cm. x 9 cm. x 5.7 cm.) which maintain fairly thick butt-end with specific techniques employed to derive the workable functional edge. Fig. 21, shows a typical Vaal technique employed to form a handaxe. In a similar way pick like projected anterior end has been achieved in another handaxe by delivering bilateral concoidal blows. This compares with a Micoquian handaxe in the sense that the butt-end is extensively covered with secondary retouchings, although the anterior end is obtained by stone hammer technique. The cleavers (12.0 cm. x 8.0 cm. x 1.9 cm.) are prepared on thin slice like flakes with a narrowed down butt-end (Fig. 22). But unlike a typically Acheulian flake cleaver

Table: 3. Tool types of Pathalgarwa, Jamul

total Industry : 844 Percentage

Types

Absolute Number

Out of Total Types

Out of Total Industry

Handaxe

43

14.1

5.0

Vaal Handaxe

02

0.6

0.2

Flake Handaxe

03

1.0

0.3

Unfinished Handaxe

10

3.3

1.1

Cleaver

18

6.0

2.1

Fragmented Cleaver

02

0.6

0.2

Unfinished Cleaver

02

0.6

0.2

Single Side Scraper

77

25.4

9.1

Double Side Scraper

03

1.0

0.3

Convergent Side Scraper

10

3.3

1.1

Transverse Side Scraper

05

1.6

0.6

Alternate Side Scraper

01

0.3

0.1

Carinated End Scraper

02

0.6

0.2

Notch

12

4.0

1.4

Denticulate

12

4.0

1.4

34

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Percentage Types

Absolute Number

Out of Total Types

Out of Total Industry

Notched Blade

08

2.6

1.0

Hand Point

01

0.3

0.1

Borer

04

1.3

0.4

Burin

10

3.3

1.1

Axial Burin

01

0.3

0.1

Bee alterne Burin

06

2.0

0.7

Retouched Blade

29

9.5

3.4

Retouched Blade Alternate

02

0.6

0.2

Disc

04

1.3

0.4

End Scraper

19

6.2

2.2

Truncated Blade

02

0.6

0.2

Burin on notch

02

0.6

0.2

Tayac Point

01

0.3

0.1

Cutaux a dos

02

0.6

0.2

Backed Blade

04

1.3

0.4

Point

06

2.0

0.7

Total

303

99.2

34.7

Figure 15. A massive blade core bifacially worked from PLG.

The lateral borders are then given extensive retouchings to emphasize the pointed region (Fig. 26). These specimens are counted as ‘hand Doints’ in the manner of Bosinski’s (1967) analysis for Bockstein material.1 End scrapers and burins occur in almost the same frequency but these are not finished in the typical Upper Palaeolithic manner known from south-west France. (Bhattacharya, 1977). In fact there are some burins (4.6 cm. x 3.8 cm. x 1.9 cm.) which are prepared on flakes and are actually bec-alterne2

in type (Fig. 27, 3). There are others (6.8 cm. x 3.5 cm. x 1.3 cm.) which are prepared on notches (Fig. 27, 1). There are 4 backed blades (6.5 cm. x 3.8 cm. x 1.5 cm. and 6.8 cm. x 3.9 cm. x 1.6 cm.) of moderate length which distinctly demonstrates the ultimate expertise of blade tool technology (Fig. 28. 1: 24, 5). A number of these blades (8.4 cm. x 4.2 cm. x 2.2 cm.) have pronounced crest running along their length on the dorsal surface (Fig. 29, 1). Obviously, these indicate attempts to shape cores suitable for further removal of blades. In other words, the blades at Pathalgarwa cannot be taken as mere random and chance production. Instead this can be taken to indicate a regular

Bosinski terms them as halbeskeil or Faustel in German No. 44 in the list of Francois Bordes (1961). Tvpologie du Paleolithic ancien et Moyen. Delmas. Bordeaux.

1 2

35

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 16. Cylindrical blade core of moderate size from PLG.

Figure 17. Classic specimens of blade without retouching from PLG.

Figure 18. A moderated size blade from PLG.

36

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 19. A typical Amygdaloid handaxe from PLG.

Figure 20. A sub cordate variety of handaxe from PLG.

37

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 21. A handaxe with Val technique demonstrated from PLG.

Figure 22. A laminar cleaver with pointed butt end from PLG.

38

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 23. Two classical Tortoise Core from PLG.

Figure 24. Middle Palaeolithic tool types from PLG

1. Point, 2. Transverse side scraper, 3. Convergent side scraper, 4. Concave side scraper, 5. Backed knife.

39

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 25. Middle Palaeolithic tool types from PLG 1-3 Denticulate, 4. A notch on a Levalloisian Flake

Figure 26. Handpoint from the PLG

40

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 27. Blade tool types from PLG

1. Blade with transverse notch, 2. Burin, 3. Bec alternate Burin, 4. End scraper, 5. Borer, 6. Tayac point

Figure 28. Blade tool types from PLG

1. Backed blade, 2. notched blade, 3-4 retouched blade.

41

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 29. Blade tool types from PLG 1. Crested blade, 2. Carinated end scraper.

expertise in blade production, which can be an additional proof of the industry being of Upper Palaeolithic culture. In the same way a denticulate prepared on the lateral border of a blade recalled the French Upper Perigordian in type (Fig. 25, 2). If end scrapers (6.9 cm. x 4.8 cm. x 2.4 cm.; Fig. 27, 4), retouched blades (6.9 cm. x 3.5 cm. x 2.2 cm. and 6.7 cm. x 3.6 cm. x 1.5 cm.; Fig. 28, 3-4) and burins (6.5 cm. x 5 cm. x 1.6 cm.; Fig. 27, 2) are taken as typical Upper Palaeolithic types then Pathalgarwa represents more than 21.3 per cent of these tools in total. In contrast to that handaxes and cleavers total 26.2 per cent while side scrapers represent 31.6 per cent. End scrapers at the site are not only prepared on suitable blades but there are two

very finely finished carinated end scrapers (4.4 cm. x 2.8 cm. x 2.4 cm. and 4.6 cm. x 3 cm. x 2.9 cm.) also found in this collection (Fig. 29, 2-3). These are finished exactly in the manner of the specimens of Aurignacian tradition of France. Naturally these can be taken as another significant factor in deciding Pathalgarwa as having strong Upper Palaeolithic in character. 3.2 Rakatrohaniya tad (rrt) The site yielded one of the richest collection out of the entire evidences discovered from the Kharagpur hills. A total of 1614 specimens were collected in all of which nearly 26 per

42

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Table: 4. Palaeolithic industry of Rakatrohaniya-Tad, Jamui

Total Industry: 1614 Percentage

Cores

Absolute Number

Out of Total Cores

Out of Total Industry

Flake Core

385

52.4

23.8

Blade Core

55

7.5

3.4

Nucleate

83

11.3

5.1

Discoid Core

27

3.6

1.6

Retouched Core

13

1.7

0.8

Levalloisian Core

08

1.0

0.4

Finished Types

163

22.2

10.1

Total

734

99.7

45.2

Percentage Flakes

Absolute Number

Out of Total Flakes

Out of Total Industry

Simple Flake

276

31.3

17.1

Retouched Flake

118

13.4

7.3

Levalloisian Flake

78

8.8

4.8

Blade

115

13.0

7.1

Core Trimming Blade

16

1.8

1.0

Core Trimming Flake

12

1.3

0.7

Levalloisian Point

04

0.4

0.2

Psuedo Levalloisian Point

05

0.5

0.3

Finished Types

256

29.0

15.8

Total

880

99.5

54.3

illustrates a variety of type worked on similar types of pebbles. These are elongated pebbles along one border of which flakes have been removed from both the surfaces in such a manner that a feature similar to a backed knife is formed. Ideally speaking these are also comparable to what has been identified elsewhere by other scholars as side choppers. We prefer to term them as backed knife with original pebble cortex forming the back primarily because the industry is essentially not a chopper-chopping one. Another very interesting pebble working evidenced in this industry is shown in Fig. 33. An elongated pebble measuring 22 cm x 9.9 cm and weighing more than 1 kilogram in weight has been given an oblique cut along the length as if to thin out the anterior end into the form of a chisel. Finally few more flakes have been removed from the same anterior end to give it a proper chisel efficiency. This is a type which has been found also in some other sites distributed in Kharagpur Hills. The rest of the cores in this industry follows the usual trends in form and technique. For instance nucleates or exhausted cores form the largest number of debitage after the flake cores. Discoid cores form the next higher frequent variety in the unworked core

cent were identified as finished types while the rest were various kinds of debitages. Table 4, describes the relative frequencies of each of the varieties of the components of the industry. Generally speaking two important characters of the industry seem very significant and deserve mentioning. These are, 1. The total industry shows a high preference for choosing massive pebbles to work on. Otherwise also there is a great preference for finishing large and massive tools. 2. The second feature of the industry which strikes any one visiting the site is the generally weathered condition of the tools which hints at their relative antiquity. In spite of these indications of the antiquity of the industry it shows a large number of blades (13.0 per cent). These measure 17.2 cm – 5 cm in length and 7.5 cm to 2.0 cm in breadth. Fig. 30, 1 shows one of these unretouched core trimming blades. The largest frequency of debitage recorded (23.8 per cent) are flake cores with large chunks of irregularly shaped specimens often maintaining original pebble cortex in liberal amount. Fig. 31, illustrates one of the blade cores with similar characteristics. Fig. 32,

43

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Table: 5. Tool types of Rakatrohaniya-Tad, Jamui

Total Industry : 1614 Percentage

Types

Absolute Number

Out of Total Types

Out of Total Industry

Handaxe

61

14.5

3.7

Proto Handaxe

01

0.2

0.06

Diminutive Handaxe

15

3.5

1.0

Unfinished Handaxe

17

4.0

1.05

Handaxe Fragment

06

1.4

0.3

Ovate

02

0.4

0.1

Ovate On Flake

02

0.4

0.1

Flake Handaxe

11

2.6

0.6

Cleaver

02

0.4

0.1

Cleaver Fragment

01

0.2

0.06

Flake Cleaver

16

3.8

1.0

Oblique Bit Cleaver

02

0.4

0.1

Chopper

02

0.4

0.1

Chopping

04

1.0

0.2

Hachoir

01

0.2

0.06

Rabot

2

0.4

0.1

Core Scraper

12

2.8

0.7

Single Side Scraper

128

30.6

8.0

Convergent Side Scraper

03

0.7

0.1

Double Side Scraper

07

1.6

0.4

Transverse Side Scraper

02

0.4

0.1

Bifacial Scraper

03

0.7

0.1

Round Scraper

07

1.6

0.4

Backed Knife

41

9.7

2.5

Denticulate

04

1.0

0.2

Disc

09

2.1

0.5

Burin

04

1.0

0.2

End Scraper

23

5.4

1.4

Notch

09

2.1

0.5

Truncted Blade

02

0.4

0.1

Point

03

0.7

0.1

Atypical Point

01

0.2

0.06

Borer

03

0.7

0.1

Atypical Borer

01

0.2

0.06

Retouched Blade

01

0.2

0.06

Pebble Butted Knife

06

1.4

0.3

Elongated Pebble with Chisel Edge

04

1.0

0.2

Hand Point

01

0.2

0.06

Total

419

98.5

24.4

44

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

identified earlier as knives with pebble surface forming the backed border. Fig. 34. 1, illustrates one of these types measuring 9.5 cm in length. The backing is done with bold steep flaking in a straight line while the functional edge is convex in shape. Fig. 34, 2, shows one of the typical points recorded from this industry. This is a thick flake of nearly 6 cm length with a flat under surface. The dorsal surface has first been flaked to give it a shape then the two borders are so retouched as to meet at a point. Subsequently the pointed end is further thinned to enhance the functional efficiency of the point.

category. Levalloisian cores are also recorded, albeit in a small number. Table 5 shows the finished types with their frequencies. Out of the total number of 880 flakes 256 are retouched into types (29.0 per cent). Unfinished flakes and blades form the rest of the specimens. Simple flakes which constitute 31.3 per cent of the total are a heterogeneous lot. Some of these measure as much as 13.5 cm in length while there are others which are of moderate size measuring 7 cm in length. Levalloisian flakes recorded from the industry are in considerable number. In all 78 such flakes forming 8.8 per cent of the total flakes are recorded. Fig. 34, 4, shows the rather lower medium size of these flakes. Both of these show distinct worked out platforms. In one of them Fig. 34,3, a hair thin retouching has been executed all along a convex border. Fig. 35, represents a medium sized elongated flake which has been given extensive retouchings along one border. The under surface of the flake is also thinned out by delivering flat shallow scars all over the surface. This type has been identified as bifacial single side scraper. Fig. 36, shows a massive flake which could have functioned normally as a cleaver. However, the specimen lacks any of those specific technological features which characterize a cleaver. Instead bold retouching is done along two borders to meet at a point. Consequently this has been identified as a convergent side scraper.

Rakatrohaniya has yielded a considerable number of end scrapers in all (Total No. 23 and 5.4 per cent of the total finished types). Fig. 30, 3, illustrates one of the typical end scrapers prepared on a rectangular flake. The straight transverse border of the flake hangs over the border like a lip like projection. This projected section has been extensively worked with almost steep vertically delivered retouchings. There is a single specimen of retouched blade recorded among the finished type. This 7cm x 4 cm blade has been illustrated in Fig. 30, 2. The retouchings are bold although not very extensive. Bifaces of this industry show an extreme divergence of forms. Some of these measure as much as 13.5 cm to 7.0 cm. While there are as many as 15 diminutive handaxes (3.5 per cent) which measure between 7 cm to 5.2 cm. The moderate sized handaxes conform usually with the late Acheulian amygdaloid and Ovate types. Fig. 37, shows a typical slender elongated handaxe measuring 11.5 cm x

Backed knives which are prepared from medium sized side flakes are found in a total number of 41 specimens (9.7 per cent). These are counted separately from those

Figure 30. Blade tool types from RRT

1. un retouched crested blade, 2. retouched blade, 3. sturdy end scraper

45

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 31. A massive blade core from RRT

Figure 32. A Pebble butted knife from RRT.

46

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 33. Elongated Pebble with chisel edge from RRT.

Figure 34. Flake tool types from RRT.

1. Backed knife, 2. Point, 3. Single side scraper, 4. Levalloisian flake with facetted plateform.

47

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 35. A typical bifacial side scraper from RRT.

Figure 36. A convergent side scraper prepared on a massive flake from RRT.

48

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 37. A typical medium size handaxe from RRT.

Figure 38. An oviculare on a flake from RRT.

49

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 39. Diminutive handaxe from RRT.

Figure 40. A massive bifacial cleaver from RRT.

50

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 41. A typical flake cleaver from RRT.

6.4 cm which is generally finished by the removal of a series of cylinder hammer scars and subsequently dressing carefully with extensive retouchings near the anterior end. The thickness of the specimen is also maintained uniformly slender. Fig. 38, shows one of the typical ovates of the industry which is prepared on a suitable flake. Although generally finished by bifacial working a large chunk of the ventral surface maintains the flat scar of detachment. This measures 13.0 c in length, 8.5 cm in breadth and 2.7 cm in thickness. This is certainly remarkably thin for its length and breadth and this adequately demonstrate the high quality of workmanship in the execution of the specimen. We have already mentioned that diminutive handaxes occur in reasonably good frequency in this industry. Fig. 39, shows one of the specific kind of this type. It measures 5.5 cm in length and almost 5.0 in breadth. Controlled cylinder hammer scars have been removed from both the surfaces in a planned manner. A very few retouchings have been required to lend extra regularity to its borders.

15 per cent of this possible scar of detachment is present in this view, one has to consider this as bifacial cleaver. The ventral surface shows a larger number of secondary scars as also border retouchings. As a result of this the keel like feature observed in the dorsal view is absent in this view. Fig. 41, shows a typical flake cleaver of this industry. It measures 12.5 cm in length and 6.5 cm in breadth. It is prepared on a rectangular shaped side flake and shows the typical parallelogram shape of the cross-section. The working edge may have been originally formed by the intersection of a sloping flat scar with the ventral scar of detachment. But it seems this border was damaged due to use and had been subsequently retouched. 3.3 Adhwariya (ady) This is another rich site of Palaeolithic occurrence recorded from the Kharagpur Hills. A total of 1160 specimens could be collected from the site. Of these 39.4 per cent are cores while the rest 59.7 per cent are flakes. Table 6 shows the break up of the various components of the industry with their relative frequency. Of the total number of cores (462) collected from this site, almost 68 or 14.7 per cent have been identified as types. In the group of unfinished specimens flake cores constitutes the maximum frequency (42.6 per cent). The next higher in frequency are found to be nucleates (16.4 per cent) and blade cores (14.7 per cent). Besides these Discoid core (4.7 per cent), retouched core (3.4 per cent) and levalloisian core (2.5 per cent) are the other core varieties recorded at Adhwariya.

Cleavers constitute a total of 4.8 per cent of the entire finished typed of this industry and these include both bifacial as also flake cleavers. Most of these specimens also show as great a divergence of shape as the handaxes have shown. These range from 17.5 cm in length to almost 9.8 cm in lengths some of the larger specimens are as finely prepared as the smaller specimens. Fig. 40, shows one of the larger cleavers which is bifacially prepared. Minimum number of well planned primary and secondary scars are delivered from all around the borders. These converge medially to form a keel like elevation. A single sloping scar forms the anterior transverse border which intersects with a similar flat scar from the ventral surface to form the working edge. Most probably this flat scar is the left over of the original scar of detachment. However, since less than

The flake cores are generally spherical in shape and range between 13 cm to 8 cm in length. Many of these maintain a large amount of original cortex on them. Obviously

51

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Table: 6. Palaeolithic industry of Adhwariya, Jamui

total Industry : 1160 Percentage

Cores

Absolute Number

Out of Total Cores

Out of Total Industry

Flake Core

197

42.6

17

Retouched Flake Core

03

0.6

0.2

Nucleate

76

16.4

6.5

Blade Core

68

14.7

5.8

Retouched Core

16

3.4

1.3

Discoid Core

22

4.7

1.8

Levalloisian Core

12

2.5

1.0

Finished Types

68

14.7

5.8

Total

462

99.6

39.4 Percentage

Flakes

Absolute Number

Out of Total Flakes

Out of Total Industry

Simple Flake

178

25.5

15.3

Retouched Flake

91

13.0

7.8

Simple Side Flake

72

10.3

6.2

Simple Retouched Side Flake

28

4.0

2.4

Un-Retouched Bifacial Flake

04

0.5

0.3

Blade

79

11.3

6.8

Core Trimming Blade

21

3.0

1.8

Core Trimming Flake

19

2.7

1.6

Levalloisian Flake

48

6.8

4.1

Levalloisian Point

03

0.4

0.2

Pseudo Levalloisian Point

02

0.2

0.1

Finished Types

153

22

13.1

Total

698

99.7

59.7

these have not been used till exhausted. The nucleates, on the other hand are totally exhaused and round shaped specimens. The blade cores are also large and chunky with few blade beds visible in each of them. Fig. 42 and 43, show an average flake core and blade core in actual size. The discoid cores, as against the above are much more regular in shape and show regular bifacial flakings done from all around a circular border so that the maximum thickness remains in the centre. These measure between 10.5 cm to 5.5 cm in diameter. Fig. 44 and 45, show a discoid core and also a tortoise core in their original size.

given some controlled retouching towards the butt-end as also the proximal end of the two lateral borders. A very significant occurrence at this site is the chipped pebbles which were earlier recorded in Rakatrohniya and named as elongated pebble with chisel edge. At Adhwariya 7 such specimens have been recorded. These are heavy cylindrical pebbles measuring between 20.5 cm to 15.5 cm in length Fig. 47, illustrates a typical specimen of this newly defined typological group. Table 7 shows the frequency of the tool types. Of the finished pebble based tools 2 chopping tools and one chopper has been recorded Fig. 48, shows the illustration of one of the chopping tools. This has been prepared on an elongated pebble measuring 11 cm in length. The working border has been prepared along the length axis by delivering few alternate blows from both the surfaces. The resulting working border has become sinuous as a result of this alternate manner of flaking. Large patches of original cortex is visible on both the surfaces. Unlike almost all the other

The unfinished flakes and blades constitute the largest chunk of the total debitage. The flakes measure 14.5 cm to 7.0 cm in length while the blades are found to be equally big in shape. These range from 11.5 cm to 5.2 cm length, levalloisian flakes like in earlier sites occur in reasonably good frequency. Fig. 46, 2, shows one of the typical levalloisian flakes measuring 9.5 cm in length and 6.5 cm in breadth. Being reasonably thick this was

52

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Table: 7. Tool types Of Adhwariya, Jamui

total Industry : 1160 Percentage

Types

Absolute Number

Out of Total Types

Out of Total Industry

Handaxe

15

6.7

1.2

Flake Handaxe

02

1.0

0.1

Vaal Handaxe

01

0.4

0.08

Unfinished Handaxe

05

2.2

0.4

Diminutive Handaxe

11

5.0

1.0

Proto Handaxe

01

0.4

0.08

Diminutive Flake Handaxe

02

1.0

0.1

Cleaver

01

0.4

0.08

Diminutive Cleaver

01

0.4

0.08

Flake Cleaver

03

1.3

0.2

Ovate

02

1.0

0.1

Core Scraper

05

2.2

0.4

Chopper

01

0.4

0.08

Chopping

02

1.0

0.1

Handaxe Fragment

04

1.8

0.3

Cleaver Fragment

02

1.0

0.1

Rabot Elongated Pebble With Chisel Edged Backed Knife

01 07 09

0.4 3.1 4.0

0.08 0.6 0.7

Naturallv Backed Knife

01

0.4

0.08

Notch

03

1.3

0.2

Notch On Levalloisian Flake

01

0.4

0.08

Single Side Scraper

67

30.3

5.6

Bifacial Side Scraper

03

1.3

0.2

Transverse Scraper

02

1.0

0.1

S.S.S. On Pebble

01

0.4

0.08

Convergent Side Scraper

11

5.0

1.0

Double Side Scraper

03

1.3

0.2

Alternate Side Scraper

01

0.4

0.08

End-Scraper

26

11.7

2.2

Retouched Blade

08

3.6

0.6

Notched Blade

03

1.3

0.2

Burin

02

1.0

0.1

Point Disc Atypical Borer

07 06 01

3.1 2.7 0.4

0.6 0.5 0.08

Total

221

99.3

17.6

sites discovered in the Kharagpur Hills Adhwariya does not show either handaxes or cleavers forming the highest percentage of finished types. Here side scrapers form the highest frequency (30.3 per cent). These are prepared on rather large simple flakes measuring 14cm-6cm in length. The next higher frequency of type is End scrapers (11.7

per cent). These are also prepared on rather large and broad rectangular flakes and measure between 12 cm to 4.5 cm in length (Fig. 52,1). Fig. 46, 1, show a convergent side scraper and an end scraper on these rather big flakes. Fig. 49, shows a backed knife prepared with original pebble cortex forming

53

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 42. Flake Core from ADY.

Figure 43. A massive blade core with distinct blade beds visible from ADY.

Figure 44. Discoid Core from ADY.

54

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 45. A Levalloisian Core from ADY.

Figure 46. Flake tool types from ADY

1. Convergent side scraper, 2. Levalloisian flake

Figure 47. Elongated pebble with chisel edge from ADY.

55

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 48. A chopping tool from ADY.

Figure 49. Backed knife with natural pebble butt from ADY.

56

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 50. A laminar and massive handaxe from ADY.

Figure 51. A flake cleaver with natural cortex forming the transverse border from ADY.

57

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 52. Blade tool types from ADY 1. End scraper, 2. retouched blade

big patches of original cortex. In the flaking technique, however, there is no archaic features visible. All these are finished with advanced cylinder hammer flaking and also a final series of retouchings. Fig. 50, one of the classic bifaces of this industry. This is real big specimen measuring 19.5 cm in length and 10.5 cm in breadth. The thickness of the specimen uniformly slender in measurement however never exceeds 3 cm in thickness. The flakings evidenced on both

the backed border. This specimen again points towards a large involvement of pebble based workmanship at this site. Handaxes occur in 15.7 per cent proportion among the finished types of this industry. These are large measuring almost 18 cm in length in some instances while in others these can measure as little as 7 cm. in length. The larger ones show a greater degree of weathering and also often maintain

58

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

The unfinished cores are 47 in number and range 11.0 to 5.0 cm in length. Most of these are flake cores and are spherical in form. Occasionally a patch of original pebble cortex is visible on them (Fig. 53). Flakes are 130 in number other than those on which types have been finished. Unfinished flakes measure between 15.5 to 4.0 cm in length. Of these the majority are end flakes except one massive side flake which is detached from a prepared core. Another massive flake has been identified as a high angled clactonian flake (Fig. 54). In all 10 levalloisian flakes are recorded (5.2 per cent of total flakes). These are usually medium sized thin flakes with prepared platforms as shown in Fig. 55, 2 .

surfaces are large but extremely shallow and this certainly demonstrates an advanced expertise of the people in their tool manufacturing technology. In Fig. 51, a cleaver of this site is illustrated. Incidentally this forms one of the rarest types from this industry. It is a medium sized specimen measuring 12.2 cm in length, 6.8 cm in breadth and 1.9 cm in thickness. It is prepared on a side flake with alternate borders flaked from alternate directions. This has given it a typical parallelogram section. One of the most significant features of this cleaver is that it has a specially prepared narrowed butt-end. But the working border is formed by the intersection of a flat pebble cortex from the dorsal surface with the scar of detachment of the ventral surface.

The blades discovered in this industry forms a very significant character which is typical to almost all sites of kharagpur hills. The point made can be well demonstrated in the Fig. 56, 1-2, in which some of the unfinished blades are illustrated. There are not only as much as 15.7 cm in length in some of the extreme cases but are also found prepared uniformly along a ridge forming their mid axes. Since blades get broken very easily in stone tool collection it is possible that some of these illustrated blades were originally longer. Of the finished types, handaxes as usual form the highest percentage (all inclusive 31.5 per cent). These range from 16.0 cm to 6.0 cm in length and are all very well finished. Fig. 57, shows the three views with cross-section of one of the elongated specimens. In next

Finally 4.9 per cent retouched blades have been also recorded from this industry. Fig. 52, 2, shows one of these blades measuring 7.0 cm in length and 4.2 cm in breadth. This has been retouched boldly along one of the lateral borders as also across the terminal end. 3.4 Satbehariya (stb) A total of 300 specimens were collected from this site. Of these 108 (35.8 per cent) are cores and 192 (63.8 per cent) are flakes. The break up of these are shown in Table no. 8.

Table: 8. Palaeolithic industry of Satbehariya, Jamui

total Industry : 300 Percentage

Cores Blade Core

Absolute Number

Out of Total Cores

Out of Total Industry

03

2.7

1.0

Discoid Core

02

1.8

0.6

Amorphous Core

05

4.6

1.6

Nucleate

03

2.7

1.0

Flake Core

34

31.4

11.3

Finished Types

61

55.4

20.3

Total

108

98.6

35.8 Percentage

Flakes

Absolute Number

Out of Total Flakes

Out of Total Industry

Clactonian Flake

01

0.5

0.3

Retouched Flake

54

28.1

18.0

Crest Guiding Flake

01

0.5

0.3

Levalloisian Flake

10

5.2

3.3

Simple Flake

52

27.0

17.3

Blade

12

6.2

4.0

Finished Type

62

32.2

20.6

Total

192

99.7

63.8

59

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 53. A medium size flake core from STB.

Figure 54. A clactonian flake from STB.

60

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 55.Flake tool types from STB.

1. Backed knife, 2. Levalloisian flake, 3. A typical borer

Figure 56. Blade tool types from STB.

1-2 Un retouched blade, 3. End scraper on a flat pebble, 4. Carinated end scraper.

61

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 57. Handaxe from STB.

Figure 58. An Ovicular from STB.

62

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 59. Diminutive handaxe from STB.

Figure 60. Bifacial cleaver from STB.

63

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 61. Flake cleaver from STB.

Figure 62. Double side scraper with bifacial flaking from STB.

64

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 63. Convergent side scraper on a rectangular flake from STB.

Figure 64. Backed knife on a side flake from STB.

65

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Table: 9. Tool types of Satbehariya, Jamul

total Industry : 300 Percentage

Types

Absolute Number

Out of Total Tvpes

Out of Total Industry

Handaxe

29

23.5

9.6

Broken Handaxe

04

3.2

1.3

Diminutive Handaxe

02

1.6

0.6

Cleaver

18

14.6

6.0

Unfinished Cleaver

01

0.8

0.3

Broken Cleaver

03

2.4

1.0

Flake Handaxe

02

1.6

0.6

Proto Handaxe

02

1.6

0.6

Disc

02

1.6

0.6

Borer

03

2.4

1.0

A. Typical Borer

01

0.8

0.3

Convergent Side Scraper

02

1.6

0.6

Notch

05

40

1.6

A. Typical Point

02

1.6

0.6

Point

01

0.8

0.3

Single Side Scraper

24

19.5

8.0

Bifacial Side Scraper

02

1.6

0.6

End Scraper

04

3.2

1.3

Backed Knife

03

2.4

1.0

Carinated End Scraper S.S.S. On Leavallois Flake

01 03

0.8 2.4

0.3 1.0

Retouched Blade

09

7.3

3.0

Total

123

99.3

40.2

flake cleavers of this industry. This is prepared on a side flake and the scar of detachment intersects with a flat and sloping original cortex to form the working edge. One typical parallelogram cross-section is not visible in this specimen because instead of flaking from alternate borders the entire dorsal surface is flaked. This again shows the emphasis laid on obtaining thin and laminar surface.

two figures 58 and 59, a rounded edged and a diminutive forms are illustrated. One of the characteristic features of all the three handaxes drawn show their generally thin and laminar thickness for all their length and breadth. This not only shows remarkable control in flaking but also a highly advanced expertise in executing cylinder hammer percussion. Surprisingly the borders do not show as high a degree of retouchings as one would expect in such finely executed specimens.

Table no. 9 shows the varieties of flake tool types recorded from Satbehariya. Single side scrapers, by far, are the maximum in number among all these recorded types. Fig. 55, 1, shows one of the typical side scrapers of this industry. It is a medium sized simple flake which maintains original cortex all along one of the borders visible in the dorsal surface. The opposite border is given a hair thin retouching from the ventral surface. The retouching extends over the bulb and also beyond this to cover the entire base. Fig. 62, shows another, rather out of the ordinary variety of side scraper with evidence of bifacial flaking. It appears that this was possibly an unfinished handaxe which was ultimately reduced into a side scraper. Fig. 63, shows a convergent side scraper prepared on a rectangular flake.

The cleavers, which form the next higher frequency of finished tools (17.8 per cent), measure 11 cm to 13 cm in length. Broadly in size they do not vary much from the handaxes. Significantly even the technological feature of their being laminar and thin in section is also comparable to the same feature observed in the handaxes. Fig. 60, shows a typical cleaver of Satbehariya which is bifacially worked. The amount of flakings that has gone into the creation of this specimen is not only remarkable but very well executed. The anterior end has got a convex shape because of probably some damage caused to the corner while working with it. Fig. 61, shows one of the typical

66

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

3.5 Jogiya (jya)

Apparently almost all the three corners of this rectangular flake except the one which maintains the bulb of percussion have been retouched. Consequently it would seem to be progressing more towards being a double convergent side scraper. Fig. 64, illustrates one of the typical backed knives of this industry. It is, prepared as usual on a side flake and the bulbar edge forms the backed border which runs along the length of the specimen. The sharp unretouched working border shows very slight edge wear. Fig 56, 4, illustrates one of the typical types of carinated end scrapers prepared on exhausted blade cores. The techniques involves obtaining a flat scar forming the undersurface by deliberately giving an oblique blow. This serves as the platform from which the step retouchings are delivered along any of the chosen border in a semi-circular manner. Fig. 56, 3, shows another type of carinated end scraper prepared by the same manner of step retouchings. A tabular flake which shows evidence of some earlier working has been practically reduced into a pebble by weathering. A transverse border has been obtained by a series of flaking and finally steep retouchings are delivered along this border from the flat under surface. Fig. 55, 3, illustrates a single notched borer prepared on a suitably elongated end of a slender flake. The notched border also bears evidence of side scraper retouchings along its entire length.

This represents one of the average concentration sites of Kharagpur hills. A total of 909 specimens could be collected from the site. 45.6 per cent of the total collection constitutes cores while 53.9 per cent constitute flakes. Table 10, shows the various categories of cores and flakes identified with their relative frequencies. It will be clear from this that only 11.1 percent of the total industry has been finished as core tool types while only 12.3 per cent of the total industry has been finished as of flake tool types. The flake cores constitute the largest number / frequency of the unfinished cores (45.1 per cent of the total cores). These are not as massive as has been noted earlier in some of the pebble based industries. On an average they measure between 12 cm to 6 cm in length and only in rare instances one can see small patches of pebble cortex left unretouched at places (Fig. 65). Our newly defined type which we named as elongated pebble with chisel edge again occurs in this site in a small number (Table 11). These specimens off course show liberal amount of pebble cortex present on them (Fig. 66). While we are still talking about pebble cortex it would be important to mention that the discoid cores, nucleates and even the tortoise cores in many instances show original

Table: 10. Palaeolithic industry of Jogiya, Jamui

total Industry : 909 Percentage Cores

Absolute Number

Out of Total Cores

Out of Total Industry

Flake Core

188

45.1

20.6

Retouched Core

12

2,8

1.3

Nucleate

42

10.0

4.6

Levallois Core

10

2.4

1.1

Discoid Core

20

4.8

2.2

Blade Core

43

10.3

4.7

Finished Types

101

24.2

11.1

Total

416

99.6

45.6 Percentage

Flakes

Absolute Number

Out of Total Flakes

Out of Total Industry

Simple Flake

149

30.2

16.3

Retouched Flake

64

13.0

7.0

Blade

78

15.8

8.5

Levalloisian Flake

42

8.5

4.6

Simple Side Flake

12

2.4

1.3

Core Trimming Blade

16

3.2

1.7

Core Trimming Flake

20

4.0

2.2

Finished Types

112

22.7

12.3

Total

493

99.8

53.9

67

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Table: 11. Tool types of Jogiya, Jamui

total Industry : 909 Percentage

Types

Absolute Number

Out of Total Types

Out of Total Industry

Handaxe

31

14.5

3.4

Unfinished Handaxe

11

5.1

1.2

Diminutive Handaxe

06

2.8

0.6

Handaxe Fragment

09

4.2

1.0

Vaal Handaxe

01

0.4

0.1

Flake Handaxe

06

2.8

0.6

Diminutive Flake Handaxe

02

0.9

0.2

Cleaver

06

2.8

0.6

Flake Cleaver

04

1.8

0.4

Unfinished Cleaver

02

0.9

0.2

Cleaver Fragment

06

2.8

0.6

Chopping

02

0.9

0.2

Pebble Butted Knife

01

04

0.1

Core Scraper

07

3.2

0.7

Elongated Pebble With Chisel Edge

07

3.2

0.7

Backed Knife

08

3.7

0.8

End Scraper

17

8.0

1.8

Single Side Scraper

46

21.3

5.1

Double Side Scraper

04

1.8

0.4

Convergent Side Scraper

09

4.2

1.0

Transerve Side Scraper

01

0.4

0.1

Retouched Blade

03

1.4

0.3

Retouched Levalloisian Flake With Tanged Butt.

01

0.4

0.1

Point

04

1.8

0.4

Atypical Point

01

0.4

0.1

Burin

01

0.4

0.1

Atypical Borer

02

0.9

0.2

Borer

06

2.8

0.6

Notch

07

3.2

0.7

Denticulate

02

0.9

0.2

Total

213

98.3

22.5

recorded at this site. This has been irregularly retouched at some parts of the edges but otherwise is almost circular and thin in shape. The striking platform in most of the flakes is not elaborately facetted. The specimen illustrated does not even posses the characteristic facetted platform.

pebble cortex to be present on them. A smaller tortoise core is illustrated in Fig. 67. It measures 11.5 cm its the maximum diameter. This specimen hardly seem to have been properly finished because other than the large flake scar which occupies the entire central area of the core face there are hardly any other evidences of prepared core flakes having been taken from it. However, the planning of the flakes would seem to indicate that this was desired to be finished as a proper tortoise core. Of the various kinds of flakes recorded simple and retouched blades taken together form the largest proportion (43.2 percent). Levalloisian flakes are also recorded in moderately large number in this site (Total no. 42, i.e., 8.5 per cent of the total flakes. Fig. 68, 2, shows one of the usual variety of levalloisian flake

All the tool types recorded from the site are listed in table 11 or with their relative frequencies. Handaxes form the highest frequency of a single type recorded in this industry if all the forms found are counted together (30.7 per cent). These are moderately elongated specimens measuring 15.5 cm to 6.0 cm in length. Even here some of the specimens show patches of original pebble cortex on them. One of the typical bifaces of this site is illustrated

68

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 65. Flake core from JYA.

Figure 66. Elongated pebble with chisel edge from JYA

69

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 67. A Levalloisian core from JYA.

Figure 68. Flake tool types form JYA. 1. Large size point, 2. Levalloisian flake.

70

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 69. A moderate size thick handaxe from JYA

Figure 70. A thin flake handaxe from JYA.

71

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 71. Diminutive handaxe from JYA.

Figure 72. Flake cleaver from JYA

72

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 73. Flake cleaver of moderate size and round edge from JYA.

Figure 74. A backd knife from JYA.

73

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 75. Flake tool types from JYA 1. Denticulate, 2. Notch, 3. Borer

Figure 76. Blade tool types from JYA. 1. Retouched blade, 2. End Scraper.

74

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

the two surfaces of the handaxe are flaked is typical of these diminutive specimens. But what is interesting is that here also a patch of sloping original pebble cortex is left untouched towards one of the borders. Fig. 72. shows a classic variety of a flake cleaver known from this industry. It is a big specimen prepared on a side flake and measures 16.5 cm in length and 9.0 cm in breadth. The maximum thickness measures 4.0 cm. The dorsal surface shows a sloping flat scar that runs medially meeting the working border. Both the lateral borders including the butt end are carefully worked. In the ventral surface the scar of detachment occupies 90 per cent of the area. The lateral border maintaining the positive bulb has been extensively flaked upto the butt-end in an oblique manner. This has resulted into a typical parallelogram cross-section for the tool. Fig. 73, shows a second variety of flake cleaver which shows a remarkably thin cross-section. It measures 11.0 cm in length, 7.5 cm in breadth as little as 1.5 cm in thickness. The working border of the specimen unlike usual flake cleavers is retouched from both the surfaces. Consequently the anterior end appears totally rounded. It appears that the transverse working border must have been damaged while working and subsequently the area was retouched specifically to rejuvenate it. The slender and thin section of

in Fig. 69. It measures 16.0 cm in length and 10.5 cm in breadth and is reasonably thick for its length and breadth. The maximum thickness measured near the butt-end is 3 cm. Besides flat and shallow scalor flakes removed by cylinder hammer technique, one can notice numerous step flaking spread all along the periphery of the dorsal surface. It appears this has been done specifically to obtain a sharp and thin working border without sacrificing much of the thickness which provide sturdiness to the implement. In Fig. 70, another variety of a handaxe is illustrated. This is prepared in a triangular flake with minimum working in the ventral surface. This is a flake handaxe and measures 11.5 cm in length and 6.5 cm in breadth. The dorsal surface is extensively worked to form a sharp continuous border culminating into a point. A small patch of original pebble cortex is left unretouched in a central elevated region of the specimen. The maximum thickness is recorded at this elevated region which is 3.5 cm. The diminutive handaxes form another interesting feature of this industry and these occur in a total frequency of 3.7 per cent. In Fig. 71, one of these diminutive handaxes is illustrated. This measures 6.5 cm in length and 5.4 cm in breadth. The maximum thickness, however, is really appreciably high measuring almost 3.0 cm. The planned manner in which

Table: 12. Palaeolithic industry of kushitarl, jamui

total Industry : 796 Percentage

Cores

Absolute Number

Out of Total Cores

Out of Total Industry

Flake Core

97

40.7

12.1

Retouched Core

17

7.1

2.1

Nucleate

18

7.5

2.2

Blade Core

49

20.5

6.1

Discoid Core

08

3.3

1.0

Levalloisian Core

12

5.0

1.5

Finished Types

37

15.5

4.6

Total

238

99.6

29.6

Percentage Flakes Simple Flake

Absolute Number

Out of Total Flakes

Out of Total Industry

122

21.8

15.3

Retouched Flake

43

7.7

5.4

Levalloisian Flake

64

11.4

8.0

Blade

128

23.0

16.0

Core Trimming Blade

22

4.0

2.7

Core Trimming Flake

11

2.0

1.3

Psuedo Levalloisian Point

03

0.5

0.3

Levalloisian Point

02

0.3

0.2

Finished Types

163

29.2

20.4

Total

558

99.9

69.6

75

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Table: 13. Tool types of Kushitari, Jamui

total Industry : 796 Percentage

Types

Absolute Number

Out of Total Types

Out of Total Industry

Handaxe

06

3.0

0.7

Flake Handaxe

02

1.0

0.2

Handaxe Fragment

05

2.5

0.6

Diminutive Handaxe

04

2.0

0.5

Cleaver

04

2.0

0.5

Cleaver Fragment

03

1.5

0.3

Unfinished Cleaver

02

1.0

0.2

Unfinished Handaxe

04

2.0

0.5

Single Side Scraper

53

26.5

6.6

Convergent Side Scraper

05

2.5

0.6

Double Side Scraper

02

1.0

0.2

Core Scraper

03

1.5

0.3

Chopper

02

1.0

0.2

Borer

01

0.5

0.1

Retouched Blade

12

6.0

1.5

Burin

26

13.0

3.2

Notch

08

4.0

1.0

Backed Knife

16

8.0

2.0

End Scraper

14

7.0

1.7

Notched Blade

02

1.0

0.2

Gravettian Point

09

4.5

1.1

Truncated Blade

02

1.0

0.2

Elongated Pebble With Chisel Edge

02

1.0

0.2

Point

04

2.0

0.5

Denticulate

02

1.0

0.2

Retouched Blade Fragment

01

0.5

0.1

Disc

02

1.0

0.2

Raclette

04

2.0

0.5

Total

200

100

24.1

the butt-end can also be taken to speculate the possibility of this having meant to be hafted.

surface of the blade has absolutely no retouchings except a small scar near the base. In the ventral surface, however, one can see distinct and bold retouchings along one of the borders to form the notch and along the opposite border to make the working end sharp and projecting. Fig. 75, 1-2, a notch and also a denticulate from the industry is illustrated. In the case of the notch a blade is taken and the lateral in curve etched out along one of the borders from the ventral surface. This measures 6.0 cm in length and is 3.4 cm in breadth. In contrast to this the denticulate is prepared on a thick flake measuring 7.5 cm. x 5.0 cm. One of the borders of the flake is thick and steeply flaked like in a backed knife while the opposite border which is thinner has the two contiguously worked notches to form the denticulate. This is a generally sturdy specimen.

Among the flake tools a variety of side scrapers forms the largest proportion of finished types. Fig. 74, shows a side scraper which has been prepared on a backed knife. It measures 12.5 cm in length and 5.6 cm in breadth. Fig. 68, 1, shows a moderate sized point prepared on an ordinary triangular flake. It measures 10 cm in length and 6.5 c in breadth. A major part of the dorsal surface maintains unretouched pebble cortex but the two converging borders culminating anteriorly into a point are extensively retouched. In Fig. 75, 3, a borer from the industry is illustrated. It measures 6.0 cm in length and 3.0 cm in breadth and is apparently prepared on a blade. The dorsal

76

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

cm - 4 cm. in length and none of them show a typical spheroidical shape. Blade cores are also of extremely divergent shapes and sizes. These measure between 14 cm to 5 cm in length. In Fig. 77, one of the regular shaped blade core has been illustrated. In Fig. 78, the newly defined type : Elongated pebble with chisel edge recorded from this site again is being illustrated. This does not show substantially different morphology when compared with the same type recorded at Rakatrohaniya Tad, Adhwariya or Jogiya. Here the flakings at the terminal end seem to be more numerous and shows a possible plan of obtaining a pointed end unlike the others where a chisel end has been formed.

Fig. 76, 1, shows one of the varieties of retouched blade recorded from this site. This measures 14.0 cm in length and 5.0 cm in breadth. Generally speaking both the blade and also the retouchings executed on it are not very classical in appearance. As compared to this, the end scraper illustrated in Fig. 76, 2 shows classic features. It has been prepared on a broad blade measuring 6.4 cm in length and 4.8 cm in breadth. The working border at the terminal end is retouched in a classically Upper Palaeolithic manner. 3.6 Kushitari (kst) This is another medium strength site which has yielded a total of 796 specimens. Of these 29.6 per cent constitute the various core categories including tool types prepared on them. In the same way the rest of the 69.6 per cent specimens include various flake categories and types prepared on them. The relative frequencies of both these identified categories are computed in Table 12. It will be seen from the above table that the overwhelming number of cores are either simple flake cores (40.7 per cent) or blade cores (20.5 per cent). Discoid cores and levalloisian cores in this regard are not many. That is, while discoid core occurs only in 3.3 per cent frequency, levalloisian core occurs only in 5.0 per cent frequency.

Simple flakes and simple blades form an inordinately high frequency together (The total frequency of these two types of blanks form 44.8 per cent). The flakes range 12cm-4cm in their length and some of them also show original pebble cortex on their dorsal surface. The blades are slightly smaller in size and measure between 8cm-4cm in length. These, however, show a much greater consistency of form and technique. Among the flakes a substantial proportion of levalloisian flakes have been identified (11.4 per cent). These are one of the most delicately executed blanks in the entire industry. These measure between 7.5cm-3.5cm in length. In Fig. 79, 3, we have illustrated one of the typical levalloisian flakes of this collection.

The flake cores are amorphous in nature and in some cases show original pebble cortex on them. These measure 11

Figure 77. A blade core from KST.

77

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 78. Elongated pebble with chisel edge from KST.

Figure 79. Flake tool types from KST.

1. Single side scraper, 2. Notch, 3. Levalloisian flake.

78

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 80. A handaxe from KST.

Figure 81. Diminutive handaxe from KST.

79

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 82. A finely worked discoidal specimen from KST.

Figure 83. Pebble butted knife from KST.

80

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 84. A point on a triangular flake from KST.

Figure 85. Thick retouched blade from KST.

81

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 86. Blade tool types from KST. 1. blade core, 2. end scraper, 3. burin, 4. gravettian point, 5. retouched blade.

Finished core tool types are only 15.5 per cent of the total core collection. These represent 8.5 per cent of handaxe and 4.5 per cent of cleavers. Of these, the latter type does not show any classical forms. The handaxes, like our earlier observation, show extreme variability of size. These range from 15 cm. to 5.5 cm in length. One of the typical large handaxes of this industry is illustrated in Fig. 80. This measures 17.0 cm in length, 9 cm in breadth and 3.5 cm in thickness. It shows large flat scars in the medial region but all around the lateral borders as also the butt-end; bold stone hammer blows have been delivered to obtain a rather wavy working border. Extensive retouchings have been finally done towards the working end. Fig 81, shows one of the smaller varieties of bifaces. This measures 7.5cm. in length, 7.0 cm. in breadth and 3.0 cm. in thickness. This is prepared in an extremely well planned nanner. The flakings-barring one case, are all done by cylinder hammer technique. Stone hammer has been used only when a larger amount of stone mass is desired to be removed. Both towards the working border as also at the butt-end a series of step flaking has been used to thin out a border without sacrificing the thickness. In addition to these finished core types this site has also yielded two medium sized discs. These are bifacially prepared specimens with all round flaking done from both the surfaces Fig. 82, shows one of these types measuring 6.4 cm in diameter. Evidence of final retouching of the border is also visible from the ventral surface which shows a flat original cortex forming the medial region of the specimen.

One of the largest single tool types prepared on flakes is the varieties of side scraper. These measure between 12 cm to 4 cm in length and many of them have been finished as single side scrapers (26.5 per cent), convergent side scrapers (2.5 per cent) and double side scrapers (1.0 percent). Fig. 79, 1, shows one of the single side scraper varieties (concave) prepared on an irregular shaped flake. The specimen measures 12.4 cm in length. 8.5 cm in breadth and 3.0 cm in thickness. The side scraper retouchings have been delivered from the ventral surface of the flake and if one touches this border with a flat scale it makes contact with the working border at 2 points. Hence it gets classified as a single side scraper concave. A backed knife with original pebble cortex forming the grip is illustrated in Fig. 83. It will be recalled that a similar find has been recorded earlier from the site Rakatrohniya Tad where we have argued why we will rather not call these specimens as side choppers or side chopping tools. The specimen measure 12.5 cm in length and 8.5 cm in breadth. In Fig. 84 and 79, 2, a point and a notch have been illustrated. The point has been prepared on an elongated thick flake measuring 10 cm in length, 5.0 cm in breadth and having a thickness of 2.0 cm. The retouchings executed in this specimen is really deluxe in variety. Not only are the two borders finely retouched from the dorsal surface but even from the ventral surface again a sharpening attempt has been made along the same two borders. It is in the ventral surface that an attempt of preparing a shouldered butt-end is also visible. This is not only a sturdy implement but must have been an extremely

82

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

efficient one. The notch measures 8.0 cm in length, 5.0 cm in breadth and is only 1.5 cm in thickness. It is a thick flake with triangular cross reaction. The notch has been boldly carved out of the narrowed down sharp border. There are some evidences of further thinning of the surface also visible in the tool towards the proximal end.

on a broader blade, it measures 4.0 cm x 5.2 cm x 1.5 cm. The terminal end of the blade has been worked with a series steep vertical retouchings in order to form the functional edge. In addition to this one of the lateral borders of the blade is also given a distinct lateral in curve to finish a bold Notch on it. Finally, the micro gravettian points demonstrate one of the finest workmanship of the Kushitari Palaeolithic. In all 9 such specimens have been recorded from the site (4.5 per cent of the total finished types). One of these is illustrated in the figure referred earlier. This measures 3.6 cm x 1.0 cm x 0.5 cm and is extremely delicately prepared. In addition to the backing which meets the opposite sharp border to form a pointed end one can see a single nibbling done from the other border as well at the point as if to enhance the efficacy of the specimen.

Retocuhed blade in this industry occurs in reasonably good frequency (6.0 per cent out of total types). The manner in which these have been retouched offers one of the most significant examples of stone age technology. In Fig. 85, one of these types is illustrated. This is a thick blade with a midrib running along the length in the dorsal surface. It measures 10.5 cm in length, 5.5 cm in breadth and 3.0 cm in thickness. In the ventral surface bold retouchings have been executed along both the borders. This has rendered the borders extremely efficient and sturdy. A small sized average blade is shown with terminal truncation in Fig. 86, 1 and 5. It measures 4.0 cm in length, 2.5 cm in breadth and only 1.0 cm in thickness. This compares very well with usual Upper Palaeolithic blade. In Fig. 86, 2-4, are drawn a burin, an end scraper and a micro gravettian point. These are very finely executed specimens and compares very well with any Upper Palaeolithic typological characters. The burin is prepared on a thick blade measuring 4.0 cm x 2.6 cm x 1.6 cm. On a single blow horizontal facet a vertical burin blow has been delivered along the edge to form almost a 90° angled functional edge. The end scraper is prepared

3.7 Tetariya (tty) This represents a relatively much smaller site. A total of only 333 specimens could be collected from here. Of these 48.5 per cent are cores and 51.6 per cent are flakes. Table 14 shows the relative frequencies of the various categories of cores and tool types prepared on them along with similar categories made in flakes. The cores range in measurement from 10.0 cm to 8.5 cm and in many cases show patches of original pebble cortex on them. In Fig. 87, one of the blade cores from this industry is illustrated. It measures 9.5cm x 8.5cm and is cylindrical in shape. The base of the core is

Table: 14. Palaeolithic industry of Tetariya, Jamui

total Industry : 333 Percentage

Cores Flake Core Nucleate Discoid Core Levalloisian Core Retouched Core Blade Core Finished Tvpes Total

Absolute Number

Out of Total Cores

74 22 12 02 17 04 30 161

Out of Total \ Industry

46.0 13.6 7.4 1.2 10.5 2.4 18.6 99.7

22.2 6.6 3.6 0.6 5.1 1.2 9.2 48.5

Percentage Flakes

Absolute Number

Out of Total Flakes

Simple Flake

65

37.7

19.5

Retouched Flake

21

12.2

6.3

Blade

32

18,6

9.6

Levalloisian Flake

14

8.1

4.2

Core Trimming Blade

09

5.2

2.7

Core Trimming Flake

07

4.0

2.1

Finished Tvpes

24

14.0

7.2

Total

172

99.8

51.6

83

Out of Total j

Industry

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Table: 15. Tool types of Tetariya, Jamui

total Industry : 333 Percentage

Types

Absolute Number

Out of Total Types

Out of Total Industry

Handaxe

10

18.5

3.3

Un-Finished Handaxe

05

9.2

1.5

Handaxe Fragment

05

9.2

1.5

Diminutive Flake Handaxe

02

3.7

0.6

Diminutive Handaxe

01

1.8

0.3

Cleaver

01

1.8

0.3

Backed Knife

02

3.7

0.6

Ovate

02

3.7

0.6

Single Side Scraper

12

22.1

3.6

Convergent Side Scraper

01

1.8

0.3

Double Side Scraper

01

1.8

0.3

Borer

01

1.8

0.3

Atvpical Borer

02

3.7

0.6

Burin

01

1.8

0.3

Point

01

1.8

0.3

Denticulate

01

1.8

0.3

End Scraper

02

3.7

0.6

Elongated Pebble With Chisel E:ke

04

7.4

1.2

Total

54

99.3

16.5

Figure 87. Moderated size blade core with pebble cortext from TTY.

84

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 88. A tortoise core from TTY.

Figure 89. Flake and blade tool types from TTY. 1. End scraper, 2. Levalloisian flake.

85

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 90. Handaxe with massive butt end from TTY.

Figure 91. A medium size handaxe from TTY.

86

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 92. A pebble butted knife from TTY.

Figure 93. Convergent side scraper from TTY.

87

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 94. A Borer from TTY.

Figure 95. A point with a broken tip from TTY.

88

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

entirely constituted by the original pebble cortex. Broad and regular blade beds are visible on both the surfaces. In

other surface as the striking platform. Consequently the pebble butt was not used to strike any flake. The working border achieved in this manner appears slightly twisted but nevertheless no less efficient in appearance. In fact battering of the working border caused by extensive use is clearly visible. Fig. 93, shows a side scraper prepared on a thick rectangular flake. This measures 10 cm in length, 8 cm. in breadth and is 3.0 cm in thickness. One of the lateral borders of this thick flake is entirely covered by the original pebble cortex. A couple of flakes have been removed from the other three borders of the flake to obtain a degree of slope towards the edge. Side scraper retouchings have been done along one of these borders. Fig. 94, illustrates an extremely weathered flake which had been finished as an atypical borer. The entire dorsal surface of the flake shows marks of having been given a shape by removing surface flakes with cylinder hammer technique. A small patch of original cortex is left towards the base of the flake. The under surface is entirely composed of the scar of detachment. It is near the bulbar end that the notch has been etched out to form the anterior borer end. Fig. 95, shows a point from this industry. It is a flatfish flake with one big scar forming the dorsal surface. The retouchings are boldly executed from both the borders in such a manner as to meet anteriorly, forming an angle of 30°. The bulbar or thicker border of the flake is retouched in extremely steep manner while the other border has the typical hair thin pattern of border working. This specimen measures 6.5cm x 6.0cm x 2.5cm. A thickish plano-convex flake shaped into a crude end scraper is illustrated in Fig. 89, 1. It measures 7.0 cm in length, 6.0 cm in breadth and 2.5 cm in thickness. On the dorsal surface it shows flakes having been removed from all around the borders in such a manner that all these meet medially to form a keel like feature. Border retouching have been attempted from along these slopes with the ventral surface working as the platform. The end scraper retouchings are usually much more steep than this and this lends support to the fact that probably this was not entirelyffished.

Fig. 88, one of the levalloisian cores is shown. This measures 9.7cm x 8.6cm and is flaked bifacially. The specimen does not appear as fresh as the blade core is. Levalloisian flakes occur in reasonably good frequency among the various tool blanks recorded. Unlike usual medium shaped levalloisian flakes not earlier, at this site these are big and also not as regularly shaped. Fig. 89, 2, shows a typical levalloisian flake of this industry. It measures 12 cm x 6.5cm x 1.0cm and maintains a very tiny facetted platform. Table 15 shows the various finished types recorded in this industry. It shows that although handaxes occur in normal frequency (42.4 per cent). The number of the cleavers are unusually low. In Fig. 90, one of the handaxes from this industry is illustrated. This is prepared on an irregularly shaped pebble core and still maintains liberal amount of original cortex near the butt end in both the surfaces. It measures 13 cm in length, 8 cm in breadth and is as thick as 6cm. in profile thickness. The flakes removed are only a few biting ones from both the surfaces. Most of the flakes are stone hammer scars. A very few of these near the lateral borders seem to be removed by cylinder hammer technique. The workmanship of this specimen appears close to what one would expect in Abbevellian stage. Even the lateral borders in profile show almost a scalloped shape. In Fig. 91, another handaxe of this industry is illustrated. This is a much smaller and regularly finished advanced type. It measures 10.2cm in length, 5.5cm in breadth and is only 3.0 cm in thickness. This entire specimen is prepared by cylinder hammer technique. A moderate degree of retouching is also delivered as final dressing near the butt end and the working end. The two lateral borders are also straight in alignment. Out of the finished tool types on flakes single side scrapers dominate the scene (22.1 per cent). The rest of types like pebble butted backed knife, point, borer, end scraper and burins are represented by merely one or two specimens. Fig. 92, shows a typical pebble butted backed knife of the industry. It measures 10.0 cm in length, 5.5 cm. in breadth. The maximum thickness recorded near the mid point of the length is 3.5 cm. Almost all the flakings in this specimen have been done by using the flake scars removed from the

3.8 Goratad (gtr) It is an open air site with a distinct mixture of antiquities which range from possibly later quarter of Pleistocene to

Table: 16. Palaeolithic industry of Goratad, Munger

total Industry : 1207 Percentage

Cores

Absolute Number

Out of Total Cores

Out of Total Industry

Blade Core

14

8.0

1.1

Fluted Core

58

33.0

4.8

Amorphous Core

93

52.8

7.7

Flake Core

09

5.1

0.7

Finished Types

02

1.1

0.1

Total

176

100

14.4

89

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Percentage Flakes

Absolute Number

Out of Total Flakes

Out of Total I Industry

Simple Flakes

710

68.8

58.8

Retouched Flake

15

1.4

1.2

04

0.3

0.3

140

13.5

11.5

1

Core Trimming Blade

Blade Fragment Core Trimming Flake

56

5.4

4.6

Levalloisian Flake

01

0.09

0.08

Pseudo Levalloisian Point

06

0.5

0.4

Levalloisian Point

01

0.09

0.08

Finished Types

98

9.5

8.1

1031

99.6

85.5

Total

Table: 17. Tool types of Garatad, Munger

total Industry : 1207 Percentage

Types

Absolute Number

Out of Total Types

Out of Total Industry

Handaxe

02

02

0.1

Single Side Scraper

13

13

1.0

Bifacial Side Scraper

04

04

0.3

Burin

20

20

1.6

Bee Alterne Burin

01

01

0.08

Backed Knife

03

03

0.2

End Scraper

10

10

0.8

Truncated Blade

05

05

0.4

Notch

08

08

0.6

Denticulate

01

01

0.08

Point

06

06

0.4

Borer

01

01

0.08

A. Typical Borer

02

02

0.1

Retouched Levalloisian Point

01

01

0.08

Notched Blade

01

01

0.08

Retouched Blade

22

22

1.8

Total

100

100

7.7

Microlithic industry of Goratad, Munger Types

Absolute Number

Out of Total Types

Thumb Nail Scraper

01

4.1

Pen Knife

02

8.3

Lunate

19

79.1

Macro Lunate

02

8.3

Total

24

99.8

Ring Stone Muller

01 01

90

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 96. Two dimensional double blade core from GTR.

Figure 97. A blade core and a fluted core from GTR.

91

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 98. Un retouched blade from GTR.

Figure 99. Flake tool types from GTR. 1. Levalloisian point, 2. Pseudo Levalloisian point, 3. Levalloisian flake.

92

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 100. Blade tool types from GTR. 1-2, end scraper, 3-4 retouched blade.

Figure 101. Handaxe with a flat pebble cortex forming the ventral surface from GTR.

93

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 102. Flake tool types from GTR. 1. Borer, 2. A typical borer, 3. Point, 4. Notch, 5. Denticulate, 6. backed knife, 7. Single side scraper.

Figure 103. Microlithic tool types from GTR. 1. Thumb nail scraper, 2-4, Burin, 5. backed balde, 6. macro lunate, 7. Point, 8-9. Lunate.

94

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

almost first quarter of Holocene. It is difficult to decide whether the antiquities occurring together in reality does belong to a specific variety of Kharagpur prehistory which defies classical designation of these microliths and their associated material. Even if it does indeed represent a late surviving stone age with earlier products forming their integral part, such a claim would not be safe to make on the basis of the available evidences as yet. however, it will not be unwise to mention that almost a similar situation has also been observed in yet another site described (Sohdihwa) from Kharagpur hills.

Fig. 101. It is prepared on quartzite flake measuring 7.6 cm in length. The dorsal surface of the specimen is covered in majority by original pebble cortex. The ventral surface, however, is very well finished by controlled cylinder hammer scars removed mainly from all around the lateral border. In Fig. 102, seven specimens are illustrated. Of these the first two are borers and are prepared on quartz material. The next specimen is a point although this is prepared on quartzite. The next specimen is a notch again on quartzite. In the second row a denticulate, a backed knife and a retouched blade are illustrated. All these three are prepared on flakes of quartzite raw material prepared by normal indirect percussion technique.

The collection reported here from this site numbers 1207 specimens in total. Table 16 shows the break-up of the various components of the total industry and their relative frequencies. Total number of cores and tool types prepared on cores form 14.4 per cent while flakes and blades including types prepared on them form 85.5 per cent. Almost half of the cores (52.8 per cent) are large amorphous cores while fluted core occurs in next higher frequency (33.0 per cent). Finally blade cores, which include both massive as also relatively smaller sized ones constitute. The lowest percentage among all the cores (8.0 per cent). Fig. 96, shows one of the larger blade cores of this industry. It is a large chert nodule measuring 11 cm. in length 9.5 cm in breadth and 5.0 cm in thickness. It shows a large number broad blade beds on them. Blade core and a small sized fluted core of the industry has been illustrated in Fig. 97, 1-2. In flakes and blades, an overwhelmingly high percentage (70.2 per cent) is identified as flakes and these range from 11 cm to almost 3 cm. in length. Blades and blade fragments constitute 13.5 per cent of the total of flakes and blades. These include both microlithic as also punched blades prepared on coarse grained rock. Fig. 98,13, show the three unretouched blades removed by punching technique. These measures as much as 10.5 cm, 10.0 cm and 8.8 cm respectively in length. All the three of them show shattering scars on the bulb of percussion visible in the ventral surface. These show how indirect percussion can be not very useful in taking out such large blades. A levalloisian point, a pseudo levalloisian point and also a levalioisian flake from the industry is illustrated in Fig. 99. All these specimens are prepared on usual ferruginous quartzite. In Table 17, the finished tool types of this industry are represented. It can be seen from this that the largest recorded tool types of the industry are retouched blades (22 per cent) closely followed by burins (20 per cent), side scrapers (13 per cent), notches (8 per cent) and points (6 per cent) in this industry. Fig. 100, shows the two specimens of end scrapers and two retouched blades. The first end scraper is prepared on a 9 cm x 4.5 cm blade of quartzite with a triangular section. The scraping edge has been prepared on the narrow end of the blade. The other end scraper has been prepared on a thick and square quartz blade by working out steep retouching at the end of it. The two specimens of retouched blades also shown in this figure are prepared on coarse grained rock and are typically Upper Palaeolithic in their techno-morphological characters. One of the only two handaxes known from this site has been illustrated in

In Fig. 103, the microlithic blades of chert and tools prepared on them are illustrated. These are all between 2 cm to 3.4 cm in length. The thumb nail end scraper has been prepared on a fragment of blade core. Both the burin are prepared by an angular blow and then a vertical blow given on top of it. These two scars intersect to give rise to the angle burin. The third burin is prepared with slight variation in the direction of the two facets. A broad blade with one of the borders backed in a semi­circular manner has been identified as macro-lunate. In addition to this two other types of lunates are also illustrated. One of these is prepared on crystalline quartz and has a rather thick backed border. The backed border is 0.8 cm thick when the breadth of the lunate is only 1.0 cm. This appears very similar to a slight variation of a backed knife in morphology although several times smaller in size. The other lunate illustrated is in full conformity with known microlithic types. The last specimen in this figure is a typically tiny though sturdy point. Finally in Fig. 104, a broken ring stone found to be associated in this site is illustrated. It is an extremely weathered specimen and lacks the usual roundish contour of the body. The outer diameter of the specimen is 16 cm while the inner diameter of the whole is 4 cm. All over there are marks of chips and flakes that have been fractured out from it. The inner whole shows that it was not a very thick specimen although this does suggest having an extended hour-glass like structure. Once again which items out of the total collection form a part of which other items need not be speculated here. 3.9 Banargarh (bng) A total of 483 specimens were collected from this site. Of these 179 were cores and 304 were flakes. The primary break up of the various kinds of cores and flakes are shown in table 18. The cores are 66 in number and measure 18 cm. to 6 cm. in length. Most of these are bifacially flaked. The flake scars are shallow and medium shaped. One of the specimens show distinct mark of blade beds (Fig. 105) running along the length axis. Spheriodical nucleates are not as frequent as is usually seen in other sites of this region. The flakes are 13 cm to 6 cm in length and are generally laminar and seldom carry any crest like feature

95

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Table: 18. Palaeolithic industry of Banargarh, Munger

total Industry : 483 Percentage

Cores

Absolute Number

Out of Total Cores

Out of Total Industry

Flake Core

39

21.7

8.0

Discoid Core

02

1.1

0.4

Blade Core

13

7.2

2.6

Amorphous Core

04

2.2

0.8

Nucleate

08

4.4

1.6

Finished Types

113

63.1

23.3

Total

179

99.7

36.7

Percentage Flakes

Absolute Number

Out of Total Flakes

Out of Total Industry

Simple Flake

106

34.8

21.9

Retouched Flake

49

16.1

10.1

Levalloisian Flake

09

2.9

1.8

Clactonian Flake

01

0.3

0.2

Psuedo Levalloisian Point

01

0.3

0.2

Blade

11

3.6

2.2

Blade Fragment

04

1.3

0.8

Core Trimming Blade

03

0.9

0.6

Core Trimming Flake

01

0.3

0.2

Finished Types

119

39.1

24.6

Total

304

99.6

62.6

of their dorsal surface (Fig. 106). The region of the striking platform is as a rule without any retouchings, except off course, in the case of the levalloisian flakes. It is only because of this feature that one of these flakes with a high flake angle has been counted as a Clactonian flake (Fig. 107). There are 2 specimens of perfectly circular discoid cores are also recorded in this collection. The maximum diameter of these specimens measure 7 cm and 4 cm respectively (Fig. 108). Finally, it must be emphasized that blade and blade fragment are also present in the industry in a small number (4.9 per cent). These range between 5-8.5 cm length and 3.0 -6.0 cm in breadth. Most of them carry no crest on them, instead one can see series of blade beds. This might be taken to indicate that blade removal was neither causal nor accidental in this industry.

The bifaces of the industry show maximum variation in shape and form. Some of the large ones are 16.5 cm in length while the diminutive ones go as low as 5.5 cm in length. These are prepared entirely by delivering cylinder hammer flakings and finally given a series of -etouchings. Consequently none of these show a very great thickness gradiation as one proceeds from the butt-end to the anterior end. Some of the specific varieties of these handaxes are shown in Fig. 109-113. Only one of these specimens (Fig. 113) shows a part of a pebble cortex near the butt end. Rest of them are worked equally on both the ends. Generally speaking most of these handaxes qualify as late Acheulian in form and technique. The cleavers are not very large and have been prepared on suitable flakes by controlled flaking. Usually a larger series of resolved flakings are used in their preparation. The working border, as usual, is formed by the intersection of the flat scar with a similar sloping scar delivered from the other surface. They maintain a square, though narrowed down butt-end (Fig. 114, 115)

The relative frequencies of various types are shown in table 19. It will be clear from this that the largest frequency of types recorded from this industry is of the bifaces (total including broken and unfinished specimens is 28.6 per cent). The next largest number is seen in the category of side scrapers (all sub types included totals to 27.8 per cent). Finally cleavers are found in 18.4 per cent cases.

The side scrapers in this industry include a considerable number of sub-types as has been shown in table 19. These are large chunks of flakes, both circular as also elongated

96

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Table: 19. Tool types of Banargarh, Munger

Total Industry: 483

Percentage Types

Absolute Number

Out of Total Types

Out of Total Industry

Handaxe

37

15.9

7.6

Diminutive Handaxe

03

1.2

0.6

Unfinished Handaxe

18

7.7

3.7

Broken Handaxe

09

3.8

1.8

Cleaver

23

9.9

4.7

Broken Cleaver

19

8.1

3.9

Chopping

03

1.2

0.6

Proto-Cleaver

01

0.4

0.2

Bifacial S.S.S.

03

1.2

0.6

Borer Cum S.S.S.

01

0.4

0.2

S.S.S. On Backed Knife

01

0.4

0.2

Borer Cum Convergent S.S.

01

0.4

0.2

Single Side Scraper

35

14.9

7.2

Double Side Scraper

04

1.7

0.8

Convergent Side Scraper

09

3.8

1.8

Transverse Side Scraper

02

0.8

0.4

End Scraper

10

4.3

2.0

Carinated End Scraper

05

2.1

1.0

Canted Side Scraper

04

1.7

0.8

Burin Cum Transverse Scraper

01

0.4

0.2

Thumb Nail End Scraper

01

0.4

0.2

Side Scraper Cum Denticulate

01

0.4

0.2

Notch On Levalloisian Flake

01

0.4

0.2

Point

05

2.1

1.0

Borer

02

0.8

0.4

Atypical Borer

01

0.4

0.2

Notch

01

0.4

0.2

A. Typical Point

01

0.4

0.2

Denticulate

04

1.7

0.8

Notch On Levalloisian Point

02

0.8

0.4

Backed Knife

08

3.4

1.6

Bifacial Point

01

0.4

0.2

Retouched Blade

04

1.7

0.8

Burin

02

0.8

0.4

Disc

08

3.4

1.6

Truncated Blade

01

0.4

0.2

Total

232

98.2

47.1

97

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 104. Fragment of a ring stone from GTR.

Figure 105. A blade core with pebble cortex from BNG

98

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 106. A simple flake with blade beds visible on the dorsal surface of BNG.

Figure 107. A clactonian like flake from BNG.

99

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 108. A rectangular shaped discoid core from BNG.

Figure 109. An elongated and narrowed handaxe from BNG.

100

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 110. A lozense shaped handaxe showing extensive working from BNG.

Figure 111. A simple highly regular shaped handaxe from BNG.

101

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 112. A diminutive handaxe from BNG.

Figure 113. Handaxe with pebble cortex from BNG.

102

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 114. A squat bifacially prepared cleaver from BNG.

Figure 115. A cylinder cleaver worked bifacially from BNG.

103

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 116. Flake tool types from BNG.

1 Combined specimen showing side scraper cum burin edge, 2. Denticulate cum single side scraper.

Figure 117. Alternate side scraper with bifacially worked from BNG.

104

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 118. Blade tool types from BNG. 1. Carinated end scraper, 2. end scraper.

Figure 119. Blade tool types from BNG. 1. Retouched Blade, 2. Simple blade.

105

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

It will be clear from this that the cores are nearly one fourth in number (11.5 per cent) was compared to the flakes and blades (87.9 per cent). Of the various kinds of cores collected, an overwhelming number (75.4 per cent) are blade cores. Flake cores, as opposed to this, occur in 14.0 per cent cases only. These also include 3 (5.2 per cent) finished types and all these are identified as bifaces although these are not comparable to any known Acheulian bifaces. These are smaller and sturdier in their technological aspects. The flakes and blades form the predominant part of the collection and include such specific forms as pseudolevalloisian point, notched flake, levalloisian flakes besides finished tool types on them. Table 21, shows the typological break up of the industry. It can be seen that a total of 173 finished types have been identified and these include as many as 23 different tool types. Of these the highest frequency recorded is that of the retouched blades (27.1 per cent). The next higher frequency is that of the burins (16.1). All of the remaining 21 tool types occur in frequencies of less than 10 per cent, some of the predominant tool type characteristics are briefly described below :

and measure between 12 cm to 4 cm in length. The side scraper sub types recorded include single side scrapers (14.9 per cent), convergent side scrapers (30.8 per cent), double side scrapers (1.7 per cent), canted side scrapers (1.7 per cent) and finally transverse side scrapers (0.8 per cent). Besides these there some very interesting combination types. For instance the specimen of a medium sized thick flake with scraping border prepared opposite the bulbar end and the bulbar point given a distinct burinated edge has been termed as burin-cum-transverse scraper (Fig. 116, 1). Similarly, another important combination type is shown in Fig. 116, 2. This is a side scraper-cum-denticulate prepared on a small thick flake with a triangular cross-section. One of the borders shows side scraper retouchings while in the other border clear and distinct denticulation has been executed. Another important variety of type not usually reported for Indian lower Palaeolithic sites is a bifacially retouched single side scraper (Fig. 117). This is a thin and elongated flake with distinct retouchings carried out along one of the borders on the dorsal surface, while the ventral surface shows a series of flat shallow flakes removed as if to thin out the specimen. A very significant variety of nearly circular plano-convex specimens identified as carinated end scrapers form another distinct variety of this industry. (Fig. 118, 1). A spherical exhausted core is given a strong blow to split into a semi-spherical piece. Along one of the borders of this flake large number of retouchings are delivered almost in a vertical manner from the flat under surface. These could have been used probably as a push plain. These compare both in form and technique with few similar specimens found at Pathalgarwa. Fig. 118, 2, shows another typical Upper Palaeolithic type identified as End scraper on a blade. This is a broad and thick blade with elevated mid-rib running along the length axis on the dorsal surface. With the ventral surface used as striking platform a series of steep retouchings have been delivered along one of the terminal ends of the blade. Steep retouchings, therefore, appear to be a typical feature of this industry. Fig. 119, shows a typical blade and retouched blade, although partially broken, which has been retouched in a usual manner. It appears, therefore, that Banargarh like Pathalgarwa has a well defined progression in Acheuiian characteristics which almost enter into the phase of perfection of the emerging Upper Palaeolithic phase.

Retouched Blades : Retouched Blades along with end scrapers and burins form the diagnostic types of Upper Palaeolithic culture. But since both burins and end scrapers are known in small number from the Middle Palaeolithic as well, the Retouched blades become almost the solitary discriminating feature in the Upper Palaeolithic diagnosis. One can not help but remember the slug shaped Aurignacian Retouched blades of France in this context. The Sohdihwa Retouched blades are far less clean in their execution (Fig. 120), Infact many of these are prepared on thick irregularly shaped blades with triangular cross section. The thicker edge of the blade often carries marks of transverse flakings. There are some specimens which are prepared on thick levalloisian blades with elongated lateral borders. In general these show an archaic feature in their finish and indicate a closer proximity to flake culture. Burins : Burins at this site are the most varied type in their manner of execution. Some of the most characteristic forms are illustrated in Fig. 121. These are mostly prepared on thick cylindrical cores on which one can see numerous blade beds on all the sides. Most of these burins are multiple ones and both the proximal and the anterior ends have been converted into burin edges. One of these (Fig. 121, 2) is a bec-de-flute burin but the rest are prepared on single spalled oblique facets. Burins on truncation are the other predominant subtypes prepared on thick bladish flakes. There is also a fine burin prepared the on notch of a thick flake (Fig. 121,4).

3.10 Sohdihwa (shd) The total late Palaeolithic industry collected from the site is 489 in number, in addition to these 534 microliths and 5 fragments of Neolithic types and 1 rubbing stone are also recorded from the same context. Since these are all found in the open surface a stratigraphical differentiation of their time of occurrence is practically impossible to demonstrate. However, it is strongly indicative that these could not have been very far from each other in time. The late Palaeolithic types are all prepared on a grey or yellowish fine grained quartzite while the microliths are predominantly prepared on a quartz - both crystalline as also milky in colour. A very few of these are also prepared on chert. The break up of the late Palaeolithic industry is shown in table 20.

In addition to these 4, specimens of Corbiac burins have also been identified in quartz. (Borders and Crabtree, 1969). These are referred to as ‘Burin on plain face’ by D. Sonneville Bordes in her typological list (Bhattacharya,

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Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Table: 20. Palaeolithic industry of sohdihwa, munger

total Industry : 489 Percentage

Cores

Absolute Number

Out of Total Cores

Out of Total Industry

Flake Core

08

14.0

1.6

Retouched Core

01

1.7

0.2

Nucleate

01

1.7

0.2

Blade Core

43

75.4

8.7

Levalloisian Core

01

1.7

0.2

Finished Types

03

5.2

0.6

Total

57

99.7

11.5 Percentage

Flakes

Absolute Number

Out of Total Flakes

Out of Total Industry

Simple Flake

100

23.1

20.4

Retouched Flake

19

4.3

3.8

Levalloisian Flake

14

3.2

2.8

Core Trimming Flake

05

1.1

1.0

Notched Flake

01

0.2

0.2

Pseudo Levalloisian Point

04

0.9

0.8

Levalloisian Point

03

0.6

0.6

Blade

95

22.0

19.4

Core Trimming Blade

17

4.0

3.4

Blade Fragment

04

0.9

0.8

Finished Types

170

39.3

34.7

Total

432

99.6

87.9

Table: 21. Tool types of Sohdihwa, Munger

Total Industry: 489 Percentage

Types

Absolute Number

Out of Total Types

Out of Total Industry

Handaxe

03

1.7

0.6

Single Side Scraper

09

5.1

1.8

Double Side Scraper

01

0.5

0.2

Convergent Side Scraper

04

2.3

0.8

Transverse Side Scraper

01

0.5

0.2

Canted Side Scraper

01

0.5

0.2

Disc

02

1.1

0.4

Notch

07

4.0

1.4

Denticulate

02

1.1

0.4

Backed Knife

07

4.0

1.4

End Scraper

09

5.2

1.8

Retouched Blade

47

27.1

9.6

Notched Blade

15

8.6

3.0

Backed Blade

03

1.7

0.6

Denticulate Blade

01

0.5

0.2

107

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Percentage Types

Absolute Number

Out of Total Types

Out of Total Industry

Truncated Blade

11

6.3

2.2

Burin

28

16.1

5.7

Burin On Notch

01

0.5

0.2

Borer

09

5.2

1.8

Point

08

4.6

1.6

Bifacial Side Scraper

01

0.5

0.2

Atvpical Borer

02

1.1

0.4

Gravettian Point

01

0.5

0.2

Total

173

98.7

34.9

Rubbing Stone :

1978). It is a thick blade, from the anterior end of which a single flakes is so removed that a burin edge is chiselled out (Fig. 121,3)

This is a semi circular rock with a convex original cortex forming the outer border while the inner surface is concave and smooth with a breadth of 5 cm at one end and 4 cm at the other (Fig. 125). This concave and smooth surface must have been used for grinding stones or bones but unfortunately we have no evidence of them in the collection. It compares well with the whetting stones used today by barbers.

End Scrapers : Almost all the end scrapers at Sohdihwa are prepared on rather thick and chunky flakes. There are only two specimens which are prepared on the terminal end of broad Upper Palaeolithic blades (Fig. 122, 1-2). These are also retouched along the lateral borders to give an effect of a totally rounded off working edge.

In tables 24-31 the length, breadth and thickness of both the debitage and the types are shown in frequency classes. Table 24 shows that most of the cores range between 3.07.9 cm in length with a peak between 5.0-6.9 cm. The breadth of these cores are much more varied and ranges between 1.0-7.9 cm. with a modal value at 2.0-2.9 cm. The thickness varies between 1.0-3.9 cm with a modal value falling between 2.0-2.4 cm. These measurements will amply demonstrate that the cores are fairly small in size. Table 25, shows the measurements of the flakes and these are generally found to correspond with the size of the cores. Table 26, shows the measurements of the blades recorded in the industry. Considering the modal values it would appear that the Sohdihwa blades are 6.0-6.9 cm in length, 3.0-3.9 cm in breadth and 1.0-1.49 cm in thickness (Fig. 126, 2-3). If we compare these measurements with those of the Retouched blades (Table 30), we find a perfect congruence of all the three measurements. This can be taken to demonstrate that Sohdihwa is a factory site where these tools were actually prepared on mass scale and carried to hunting camps subsequently. Further, the size of the tools, their techno-morphological characters and also the Gravettian point described earlier would all tend to indicate that the industry is more comparable to the Epi-Palaeolithic cultures of north Europe like Ahrensburgian (Bhattacharya, 1978) than that to any Upper Palaeolithic culture.

In addition to these Upper Palaeolithic markers which occur in substantial frequency at Sohdihwa there are some borers, notches, points, and side scrapers also recorded. Fig. 123, 1, shows a very interesting point prepared on a flake by retouchings executed from alternate border. A Gravettian point has been prepared on a slender blade (Fig. 123, 3) by backing all along one of the borders. Incidentally this is the only Upper Gravettian type which compares with the Ahrensburgian industry of northern Europe. Microliths : The microlithic assemblage is far from being deluxe Mesolithic in character. Most of the blades are thick bladish flakes and even the lunates tend to look like diminutive backed knives. No wonder, we do not find a single triangle or trapeze in the whole industry. There are some thumb nail scrapers and flakes retouched into points found in addition to the lunates. There is no doubt that techno-morphologically this would appear to be archaic in character. Ring Stones : The ring stones are small and slender in type and are roughly finished. The material used is mostly primary lateritic rock and carries thick lime patina on them (Fig. 124). The holes driven through them are also larger than usual.

The microlithic industry in the Sohdihwa collection numbers 540 specimens in total. (Table 22 and 23). The raw material in almost the entire industry, barring a few pieces is quartz. There are only 6 specimens which are

108

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Table: 22. Mesolithic tool types of Sohdihwa, Munger

Total Industry : 540 Percentage

Cores

Absolute Number

Out of Total Cores

Out of Total Industry

Amorphous Core

76

16.2

14

Fluted Core

35

7.4

6.4

Flakes

113

24.1

21

Blade

238

51

44

Core Trimming Blade

1

0.2

0.1

Core Rejuvination

2

0.4

0.3

Crest Guiding Blade

2

0.4

0.3

467

99.7

86.1

Total

Table: 23. Mesolithic tool types of Sohdihwa, Munger

Total Industry: 540 Percentage

Types

Absolute Number

Out of Total Types

Out of Total Industry

Thumb Nail scraper

06

9.0

1.1

Burin

16

23.8

3.0

Micro Burin

01

1.4

0.1

Notch

01

1.4

0.1

Point

05

7.4

1.0

Truncated Blade

05

7.4

1.0

Retouched Blade

14

20.8

2.5

Lunate

15

22.3

2.7

Corbiac Burin

04

6.0

0.7

Total

67

99.5

12.2

Ring stone fragment Rubbing stone

05 01

of a gray coloured chert. An overwhelming majority of the entire collection are various types of waste materials (86.1 per cent). Parallel sided blades without any retouch constitutes almost half of these (44.4 per cent). Fluted cores, unlike in other usual microlithic assemblages, are not many. These constitute only 6.4 per cent of the total waste material. Rest are identified as amorphous cores, flakes, core trimming blades and core rejuvenation. The finished types identified in this group show relatively high frequency of burins (23.8 per cent) closely followed by lunates (22.3 per cent) and retouched blades (20.3 per cent). In addition to these there are some thumb nail scrapers (9.0 per cent), Corbiac burins (6.0 per cent), Points made on flakes (7.4 per cent) and truncated blades (7.4 per cent). No geometric microliths are present, instead the presence of Corbiac burins (4 specimens) on thick and broad blades certainly would indicate the Upper Palaeolithic ancestry of these

microliths. On the other hand three ring stone fragments and one rubbing stone found within the same area would seem to indicate that if not at Sohdihwa in the adjoining regions communities practicing settled economy must have been present. The ring stone fragments and rubbing stone measure as follows : Specimen No. 1 cm. Specimen No. 2 cm. Specimen No. 3 13.5 cm. Specimen No. 4 12.5 cm.

Inner diameter 2.5 cm, outer diameter 11 Inner diameter 2.5 cm, outer diameter 9 Inner diameter 2.5 cm, outer diameter Inner diameter 7.5 cm, outer diameter

The rubbing stone, as described earlier, is quite an unusual

109

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 120. Blade tool types from SHD. 1-4 Retouched blade.

Figure 121. Blade tool types from SHD. 1.-2. Burin, 3. Corbiac burin, 4. burin .

110

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 122. Flake and blade tool types from SHD. 1-2. End scraper, 3. A typical borer.

Figure 123. Flake and blade tool types from SHD. 1. Point, 2. Burin on notch 3. Gravettian point

111

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 124. Fragment of ring stone from SHD.

Figure 125. A Rubbing stone from SHD.

112

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Figure 126. Flake and Blade tool types from SHD. 1. Backed knife, 2-3. Simple blade

Table: 24. Measurement of the Sohdihwa Industry Length Range (in cm.)

Flake Core

Nucleate

Retouched Core

3.0-3.9 4.0-4.9

Blade Core

Total Nos.

2

2

8

8

5.0-5.9

1

15

16

6.0-6.9

6

11

17

7

9

7.0-7.9

1

1

8.0-8.9 9.0-9.9 10.0-10.9 11.0-11.9

1

1

Breadth Range (in cm.) 1.0-1.9

2

2

2.0-2.9

16

16

3.0-3.9

9

9

4.0-4.9

1

1

7

9

5.0-5.9

1

7

8

6.0-6.9

5

2

8

7.0-7.9

1

1

1

Thickness Range (in cm.) 1.0-1.49

5

5

1.5-1.99

10

10

16

22

7

9

2.0-2.49

6

2.5-2.99

1

1

113

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Length Range (in cm.)

Flake Core

Nucleate

Retouched Core

3.0-3.49 3.5-3.99

1

1

Total

8

1

1

Blade Core

Total Nos.

3

3

2

4

43

Table: 25. Measurement of the Sohdihwa Industry Length Range (in cm.)

Core Trimming Flake

3.0-3.9 4.0-4.9

Simple Flake

Levallois-ian Flake

8

Notched Flake

Total Nos.

2

10

40

1

4

46

5.0-5.9

20

5

2

27

6.0-6.9

10

5

3

18

10

2

3

19

8.0-8.9

5

1

4

9

9.0-9.9

5

1

6

7.0-7.9

1

Retouched Flake

4

10.0-10.9

2

11.0-11.9

1

1

Breadth Range (in cm.) 2.0-2.9

19

5

1

25

3.0-3.9

5

5

6

16

4.0-4.9

1

45

3

1

50

5.0-5.9

4

6

1

4

15

6.0-6.9

15

5

20

7.0-7.9

10

2

12

8.0-8.9

1

1

Thickness Range (in cm.) 0.5-0.99

11

1.0-1.49 1.5-1.99

5

21

6

1

18

6

6

9

2

4

32

5

5

2.0-2.49 2.5-2.99

68

2

3.0-3.49 Total

5

100

14

114

70

1

1

19

1

2

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Table: 26. Measurement of the Sohdihwa Industry Length Range (in cm.)

Pseudo Levalloisian Point

Core Trimming Blade

Blade

Blade Fragment

Total Nos.

3.0-3.9

12

4.0-4.9

13

1

5.0-5.9

12

1

6.0-6.9

45

3

48

7.0-7.9

10

2

12

1

8

13

8.0-8.9

4

9.0-9.9

12 14 4

17

1

1

10.0-10.9

2

11.0-11.9

2

1

1

0.0-0.9

1

1

1.0-1.9

13

1

14

2.0-2.9

20

9

29

3.0-3.9

52

3

4.0-4.9

9

3

12

1

5

Breadth Range (in cm.)

5.0-5.9

4

4

58

Thickness Range (in cm.) 0.5-0.99

14

1.0-1.49

54

3

26

10

1

2

1.5-1.99

4

2.0-2.49

14 57 4

40 3

2.5-2.99

1

1

3.0-3.49

1

1

Total

4

95

4

17

Table: 27. Measurement of side scrapers of the Sohdihwa Industry Length Range (in cm.)

Single Side Scraper

Double Side Scraper

3.0-3.9 4.0-4.9

1

5.0-5.9

3

6.0-6.9

3

7.0-7.9

1

8.0-8.9

1

Convergent Side Scraper

Total No.

1

1 1

1

5 3 2

3 1

Breadth Range (in cm.) 3.0-3.4

1

3.5-3.9

1

1 1

2

4.0-4.4 4.5-4.9

1

5.0-5.4

2

2

1

1

1

2 2

115

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Length Range (in cm.)

Single Side Scraper

5.5-5.9

3

Double Side Scraper

Convergent Side Scraper

3

6.0-6.4

1

6.5-6.9

Total No.

1

1

1

0.5-0.99

1

1

1.0-1.49

1

1

1

2

1.5-1.99

2

1

1

4

2.0-2.49

4

1

4

2.5-2.99

1

1

2

Total

9

Thickness Range (in cm.)

1

4

Table: 28. Measurement of tool types of the Sohdihwa Industry Length Range (in cm.)

Handaxe

Canted Side Scraper

Disc

5.0-5.9

1

6.0-6.9 7.0-7.9

Transverse Side Scraper

1 1

Total Nos. 1 1

2

3

8.0-8.9 9.0-9.9

1

1

10.0-10.9

1

1

1

1

Breadth Range (in cm.) 3.0-3.9 4.0-4.9

1

5.0-5.9

1

6.0-6.9 7.0-7.9

2

l 1

1

1

1

3

Thickness Range (in cm.) 1.0-1.49

1

1.5-1.99

1

1 1

2.0-2.49 2.5-2.99

1

1

2

3.0-3.49

1

1

2

3.5-3.99

1

Total

3

1 2

1

116

1

1

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Table: 29. Measurement of tool types of the Sohdihwa Industry Length Range (in cm.)

End Scraper

4.0-4.9 5.0-5.9 6.0-6.9

1

Backed Knife

Notch

1

1

1

5

2

j

7.0-7.9

2

8.0-8.9 9.0-9.9

Denticulate

Total Nos.

2

11

3

1

2

1

3

1

1

1

1

10.0-10.9

2

11.0-11.9

2

1

1

Breadth Range (in cm.) 2.0-2.9

2

3.0-3.9

5

4.0-4.9

6

5.0-5.9

2

1 1

6 2

6.0-6.9 7.0-7.9

3

1

10

1

3

1

1

1

2

3

Thickness Range (in cm.) 0.0-0.49 0.5-0.99

1

1

1

1.0-1.49

1

4

4

1.5-1.99

5 2 2

Total

9

11 5

2.0-2.49 2.5-2.99

2

9

4 2

7

2

7

Table: 30. Measurement of finished tool types of the Sohdihwa Industry Backed Blade

Truncated Blade

1

3

Denticulate Blade

Length Range (in cm.)

Retouched Blade

3.0-3.9

5

4.0-4.9

6

4

5.0-5.9

7

4

6.0-6.9

14

4

7.0-7.9

9

3

8.0-8.9

4

4

9.0-9.9

2

2

Notched Blade

6 1

Total Nos. 9

1

17

1

13

1

19

1

13

Breadth Range (in cm.) 1.0-1.9

2

2.0-2.9

8

4

3.0-3.9

23

6

4.0-4.9

10

2

5.0-5.9

6

3

2 1

1

8 2

13 1

39 14 9

117

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Thicknes s Range (in cm.)

Retouched Blade

Notched Blade

Backed Blade

Truncated Blade

0.5-0.99

6

5

2

2

1.0-1.49

26

5

1

8

1,5-1.99

9

3

2.0-2.49

5

2

2.5-2.99

1

Total

47

Denticulate Blade

Total Nos. 15

1

1

41 13 7 1

15

3

11

1

Table: 31. Measurement of finished tool types of the Sohdihwa Industry Length Range (in cm.)

Burin

Burin on

4.0-4.9

9

1

5.0-5.9

Point Notch

Borer

Total Nos.

2

4

16

14

1

2

17

6.0-6.9

2

4

2

8

7.0-7.9

1

8.0-8.9

1

3.0-3.9

1

1

1 1

2

9.0-9.9 10.0-10.9

1

1

1.0-1.9

1

1

2.0-2.9

13

3.0-3.9 4.0-4.9

Breadth Range (in cm.) 1

1

2

17

12

6

3

21

2

1

2

5

2

2

5.0-5.9 Thickness Range (in cm.) 0.5-0.99

1

1.0-1.49

11

1.5-1.99

14

2.0-2.49

2

Total

28

1

3

2

7

5

4

20

3

17 2

1

8

118

9

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

It will be seen that these blade types are also on average slightly larger in size than the unretouched blades and exhausted cores. If one compares the size distribution of the Retouched blades (Table 41) one can easily see that the blades used for certain types are always larger in size than others. For instance, retouched blades, end scrapers, notches and denticulates are prepared on longer and broader blades while burins, gravettian points and pen knives are prepared on relatively shorter blades. The Jurpaniya industry shows many special features besides their general size ranges that can almost demonstrate it representing a homogeneous lithocultural tradition. Firstly these are prepared mainly on blades and these are all detached by punching technique. Most of the blades which are not broken at edges maintain pin head like positive bulbs of percussion. The blades are thin and slender and are usually retouched by semi-abrupt retouching techniques. Backed specimens are few but are very typical. Burins form the most predominant type after retouched blades and these are mostly multiple in type. Given below are some of the major type characteristics of Jurpaniya.

piece and has so far not been described from any other Neolithic sites from India. The inner concave surface is wide and smooth and must have certainly been used to sharpen splintered bone tips or celts. 3.11 Jurpaniya A total of 2071 specimens were collected from the site. 462 specimens out of these are cores and 1609 are flakes. The majority of the tools are prepared on fine grained quartzite. There is, however, a small minority of the industry which is prepared on milky quartz which is granular in nature. Table 32 shows the details of the tool break up. It will be seen that an overwhelming number (92.3 per cent) of the cores are blade cores and fluted cores. There are no finished types prepared on cores, although one of the cores show extensive mark of use. Finished types prepared on flakes and blades constitute nearly 44 per cent of the flakes while unretouched blades occur in 32 per cent cases. Table 33 shows the frequency of the various tool types identified. Highest among these are the Burin (58.7 per cent) and the next highest type is that of Retouched blade (12 per cent). The rest of the 26 other types occur in less than 5 per cent frequency. Worth mentioning among them are 18 points on flakes (2.5 per cent). 25 end scrapers (3.5 per cent), 12 Notches (1.7 per cent), 8 borers (1.1 per cent), 5 pen knives (0.7 per cent) and 4 Gravettian Points (0.5 per cent). Besides these blade tools some side scrapers prepared on levalloisian flakes (2.9 per cent) are also present.

Blade Cores : This forms the largest percentage of the waste material of Jurpaniya. These are so varied in type that one cannot help but take this entire cluster as a heavy activity area. These are in some cases as large as an Upper Palaeolithic core and in others more or less comparable with a mesolithic core. The blade beds range from 5 mm. to 15 mm. in breadth and maintain pin-head negative bulbs of percussion. In Fig. 127, 3, we have illustrated one of these cores. Most of the cores are well utilized and have double series of blade beds - one along the length and the other across the length of the core. There are several others in which the core is still not shaped and only a few blades have been removed. These appear to be the unfinished, not optimally used core types.

Tables 34-41 show the length, breadth and thickness of both the debitage as well as the finished tool types. Table 34 shows that the largest number of cores measure between 4.0-5.0 cm in length, 2.0-4.9 cm in breadth and 1.0-2.9 cm in thickness. Majority of the flakes measure (Table 35) 3.0-3.9 cm in length, 2.0-3.9 cm in breadth and 1.0-1.9 cm in thickness. There are some flakes which are slightly larger in size than the simple flakes - like for instance the core trimming flakes. But, all inclusive no flake exceeds the length of 6.9 cm and a breadth of 3.9 cm. This shows that the Jurpaniya industry contains cores and flakes which are in general smaller than a proper Upper Palaeolithic industry while at the same time these are larger in size as compared to the average Mesolithic culture. In table 36 the measurement of the blades is shown separately. Going by their modal value it will be seen that the majority of the blades have a length of 3.0-4.9 cm, a breadth of 2.0-2.9 cm and a thickness of 1.0-1.49 cm. This broadly compares with the measurements of the cores (Table 34) and flakes (Table 35). Table 37 shows the measurements of the flake tool types. It is seen that these are slightly larger in size than the blades and blade cores. For instance, the single specimen of convergent side scraper measures 8.0-8.9 cm in length, 5.0-5.9 cm in breadth and 2.0-2.49 cm. in thickness. This tends to indicate that the initial flakes removed for preparing a blade core are retouched into flake types rather than being wasted. Once these are reduced into blade cores then standard sized blades are produced. Tables 38-41, show the measurements of the various blade tool types.

End scrapers : End scrapers are unusually low in frequency in this site. These are prepared on rather broad 3-4 cm. thick blades. In some instances these are very well rounded off at the anterior end (Fig. 128, 1 and 3) while in others these have been prepared on fragments of large flakes or blades. Apparently these broad blades are the initial blades removed during the shaping of a blade core. One flattish but elongated flake has been skillfully prepared into an endscraper cum-burin (Fig. 129, 2). Most of the slender blades, otherwise, are not retouched into any types. Burins : Burins seem to form the magnum bulk / chunk of the Jurpaniya industry. These have been prepared on available thick blades, flakes and cores. Unlike the experience of the usual Upper Palaeolithic burins where the spalls are neatly removed, in this industry the spalls are broad and deep. There are some which even look like polyhedral burins because of their broad and curved burin edges. Most of the

119

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Table: 32. Palaeolithic industry of Jurpaniya, Munger

total Industry : 2071 Percentage

Cores

Out of Total Industry

Absolute Number

Out of Total Cores

Flake Core

32

7.0

1.5

Discoid Core

01

0.2

0.04

Nucleate

01

0.2

0.04

Blade Core

77

16.6

3.7

Blade Core Retouched

01

0.2

0.04

Fluted Core

350

75.7

17.0

Finished Tvpes

00

00

00

Total

462

99.9

22.3 Percentage

Flakes

Absolute Number

Out of Total Flakes

Out of Total Industry

Simple Flake

271

16.8

13.0

Retouched Flake

30

1.8

1.4

Levalloisian Flake

13

0.8

0.6

Pseudo Levalloisian Point

03

0.1

0.1

Blade

515

32

24.8

Core Trimming Blade

30

1.8

1.4

Levallois Point

02

0.1

0.09

Core Trimming Flake

02

0.1

0.09

Crest Guiding Blade

01

0.06

0.04

Broken Blade

39

2.4

1.8

Finished Tvpes

703

43.6

34

Total

1609

99.5

77.3

Table: 33. Tool types of Jurpaniya, Munger

total Industry : 2071 Percentage

Types

Absolute Number

Out of Total Types

Out of Total Industry

Single Side Scraper

17

2.4

0.7

Transverse Side Scraper

02

0.2

0.09

Convergent Side Scraper

05

0.7

0.2

Double Side Scraper

01

0.1

0.04

Backed Knife

12

1.7

0.5

Notch

12

1.7

0.5

Denticulate

01

0.1

0.04

Retouched Blade

85

12

4.1

Notched Blade

13

1.8

0.6

Truncated Blade

33

4.6

1.5

1 Point

18

2.5

0.8

i Borer

08

1.1

0.3

120

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Percentage Types

Absolute Number

Out of Total Types

Out of Total Industry

Burin

413

58.7

20

Bee Alterne Burin

09

1.2

0.4

Pen Knife

05

0.7

0.2

Gravettian Point

04

0.5

0.1

End Scraper

25

3.5

1.2

End Scraper Cum Burin

02

0.2

0.09

Atypical Borer

04

0.5

0.01

Thumb Nail Scraper

09

1.2

0.4

Atypical Point

03

0.4

0.1

Burin-Cum-Borer

01

0.1

0.04

02

0.2

0.09

Backed Blade

15

2.1

0.7

Carinated End Scraper

01

0.1

0.04

Raclette

01

0.1

0.04

Burin On Notch

01

0.1

0.04

Burin On Single Side Scraper

01

0.1

0.04

Total

703

98.6

32.9

U-Shaped Scraper

Single

Side

Figure 127. Blade tool types from JPY. 1-2. Notched blade, 3. Fluted Core, 4. Pen knife, 5. Gravettian point.

121

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Figure 128. Blade tool types From JPY. 1-3. End Scraper

Figure 129. Blade tool types from JPY 1. Multiple burin, 2. End scraper cum burin, 3. Bec alternate burin.

122

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Table: 34. Measurement of jurpaniya industry Length Range (in cm.) 2.0-2.9

Blade Core

Blade Core Retouched

Flake Core

Discoid Core

Nucleate

2

Total Nos. 2

6

1

3.0-3.9

7

4.0-4.9

18

13

5.0-5.9

24

6.0-6.9

7

7.0-7.9

6

1

7

8.0-8.9

3

6

9

11

12

1

1

28 7

31 1

1

9

9.0-9.9 10.0-10.9

1

11.0-11.9 Breadth Range (in cm.) 1.0-1.9

6

8

14

2.0-2.9

14

12

26

3.0-3.9

24

6

30

4.0-4.9

21

4

25

5.0-5.9

8

6.0-6.9

4

1

7.0-7.9

1

1

10

1

5

1

2

Thickness Range (in cm.) 0.0-0.9

6

6

12

1.0-1.9

19

4

23

2.0-2.9

32

10

42

3.0-3.9

20

4.0-4.9 Total

77

6 1

6

1

32

1

1

28 7

1

1

Table: 35. Measurement of jurpaniya industry Length Range

Simple Flake (in cm.)

Retouched Flake

Levalloisian Flake

Pseudo Levalloisian Point

Core Trimming Blade

Total Nos.

2.0-2.9

52

3.0-3.9

107

8

3

4

122

4.0-4.9

21

6

4

1

9

41

5.0-5.9

21

8

3

1

13

44

6.0-6.9

53

4

3

1

4

65

7.0-7.9 8.0-8.9

17

52

2

2

2

19

Breadth Range (in cm.) 1.0-1.9

1

123

6

6

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Simple Flake (in cm.)

Length Range

Retouched Flake

Levalloisian Flake

Pseudo Levalloisian Point

Core Trimming Blade

Total Nos.

2.0-2.9

106

7

3

1

17

134

3.0-3.9

55

12

3

1

7

78

4.0-4.9

52

6

4

5.0-5.9

27

5

63 32

6.0-6.9

3

7.0-7.9

3

31

31

Thickness Range (in cm.) 0.0-0.9

51

3

3

1

5

63

1.0-1.9

111

20

3

1

13

148

2.0-2.9

52

4

3

1

7

67

3.0-3.9

57

3

4

5

69

Total

271

30

13

3

30

Table: 36. Measurement of the blades of jurpaniya industry Length Range (in cm.)

Blade

Total Nos.

2.0-2.9

31

31

3.0-3.9

119

119

4.0-4.9

124

124

5.0-5.9

109

109

6.0-6.9

106

106

7.0-7.9

26

26

1.0-1.9

140

140

2.0-2.9

156

156

3.0-3.9

115

115

4.0-4.9

104

104

0.0-0.49

51

51

0.5-0.99

126

126

1.0-1.49

125

125

1.5-1.99

110

110

2.0-2.49

52

52

2.5-2.99

51

51

Breadth Range (in cm.)

Thickness Range (in cm.)

Total

515

124

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Table: 37. Measurement of finished types of jurpaniya industry Length Range (in cm.)

Single Side Scraper

3.0-3.9

6

4.0-4.9

6

5.0-5.9

3

Transverse Side Scraper

Convergent Knife Scraper

Backed Side

Total Nos. 1

6 1

8

1

6.0-6.9

12

1 6

10

1

7.0-7.9

1

2

2

8.0-8.9

3

3

Breadth Range (in cm.) 2.0-2.9 3.0-3.9

6

4.0-4.9

7

5.0-5.9

4

1

6

6

6

13

1

8 4

6.0-6.9

8

1

1

Thickness Range (in cm.) 1.0-1.49

4

4

1.5-1.99

6

1

1

6

14

2.0-2.49

7

1

4

6

18

Total

17

2

5

12

Table: 38. Measurement of finished types of jurpaniya industry Length Range (in cm.)

Notched Blade

Truncated Blade

Notch

3.0-3.9

11

4.0-4.9

11

2

11

7

5.0-5.9

2

6.0-6.9

2

7.0-7.9

9

Denticulate

Total Nos. 11

1

16 19 9

8.0-8.9

3

3

Breadth Range (in cm.) 2.0-2.49

11

2.5-2.99

2

3.0-3.49

3

3.5-3.99

8

4.0-4.49

11

11 2 2

15 1

6 8

11

6

17

2

2

2

14

4.5-4.99 5.0-5.49 Thickness Range (in cm.) 0.0-0.49 0.5-0.99 1.0-1.49

12 10

11

21

125

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

Length Range (in cm.)

Notched Blade

Truncated Blade

Notch

Denticulate

Total Nos.

1.5-1.99

3

10

6

1

20

2.0-2.49

2

2

2.5-2.99

2

2

Total

13

33

12

1

Table: 39. Measurement of finished types of jurpaniya industry Length Range (in cm.)

Point

Borer

Burin

Bee alterne Burin

Total Nos.

4.0-4.9

4

4

120

5

133

5.0-5.9

4

2

123

2

131

6.0-6.9

3

2

55

2

62

7.0-7.9

7

3.0-3.9

55

55

43

50

17

17

8.0-8.9 9.0-9.9 Breadth Range (in cm.) 1.0-1.9 2.0-2.9

24 8

3.0-3.9

24

121

2

131

116

5

126

2

122

4.0-4.9

4

5

113

5.0-5.9

3

3

22

25

6.0-6.9

3

1

17

20

0.0-0.9

6

2

32

2

42

1.0-1. 9

9

4

191

5

209

2.0-2.9

3

2

163

2

170

Thickness Range (in cm.)

3.0-3.9 Total

27 18

8

27

413

9

Table: 40. Measurement of finished types of jurpaniya industry Length Range (in cm.)

End Scraper

End Scraper cum Burin

Pen Knife

2.0-2.9

Gravettian Point

1 4

Total Nos. 1

3.0-3.9

3

4.0-4.9

16

4

16

11

5.0-5.9

3

3

3

3

6.0-6.9 7.0-7.9 8.0-8.9

2

2

Breadth Range (in cm.) 1.0-1.9

4

126

4

8

Techno-Morphological Analysis of the Discovered Industries

Length Range (in cm.)

End Scraper

End Scraper cum Burin

Pen Knife

2.0-2.9

Gravettian Point

1

Total Nos. 1

3.0-3.9

18

18

4.0-4.9

7

7

5.0-5.9

2

2

Thickness Range (in cm.) 0.5-0.99

5

1.0-1.49

17

1.5-1.99

4

2.0-2.49

4

2

Total

25

2

2

7

2

19 4 6

5

4

Table: 41. Measurement of the retouched blade of jurpaniya industry Length Range (in cm.)

Retouched Blade

Total Nos.

2.0-2.9

5

5

3.0-3.9

19

19

4.0-4.9

32

32

5.0-5.9

20

20

6.0-6.9

5

5

7.0-7.9

3

3

1

1

8.0-8.9 9.0-9.9 Breadth Range (in cm.) 1.0-1.9

8

8

2.0-2.9

39

39

3.0-3.9

23

23

4.0-4.9

13

13

5.0-5.9

2

2

0.5-0.99

20

20

1.0-1.49

41

41

1.5-1.99

16

16

2.0-2.49

5

5

2.5-2.99

3

3

Total

85

Thickness Range (in cm.)

127

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

burins show almost 2 or even 3 working edges. (Fig. 129, 1-2). There are others in which an oblique facet has been first removed and with this as platform 2 to 3 spalls have been skillfully removed. Almost all the rest of the burins are on transverse truncation. A thick circular flake having several blade beds on its dorsal surface is prepared into a Bee-alternate burin (Fig. 129, 3) (Francois-Bordes no. 44, see in Bhattacharya, 1978 page No. 57).

with Federmesser types of Northern Europe (c. Fig. 3, 3 in Bhattacharya, 1977). One of these knives from Jurpaniya is shown in Fig. 127, 4. Gravettian point: This is a type which is represented here by only 4 specimens. Like the backed knives these are also prepared on slender blades. This type (Fig. 127, 5) shows a strong similarity with the Hamburgian point of Northern Europe (cf. Fig. 1, 2 in Bhattacharya, 1977).

Pen Knife : Although in all only 5 specimens of this type are recorded, this is an archaeologically significant point. Firstly, all the blade cores with slender 5 mm. - 15 mm. broad blade beds must have yielded a large number of these blades. Yet the site does not yield many blades of the size. The backed knives are prepared on blades of this size. Secondly, in technomorphological features these show remarkable similarity

It would appear that types finished on these slender blades were being constantly put to use as missile heads or fishing tools and hence were not found in very high frequency at the site. The tools found in the habitation sites, as such, are only those which were used in skinning, curing, slicing or similar kinds of functions.

128

Chapter 4 Discussion Kharagpur Hills constitute almost the northern most extension of the Chotanagpur region, although it is not included within the administrative boundary of the newly fonned Jharkhand state. The latter includes large expanses of a plateau type physiography with occasional intrusion of small hillocks. The Kharagpur Hills, in contrast, forms an extension of the Mahadeo hills and is densely forested. Sankalia (1974) summarizes this difference very succinctly. “There are two different environments of habitation of early man in south Bihar. The one is the rolling, undulating, lateritic plains of Chotanagpur plateau with occasional grooves of bamboo and Sal forests, while the other is the hill-girt valleys in the southern plain which are heavily forested at places like Rajgir, Jethian, Bhimbandh, Chormara and Paisra” (page 43). It has been argued earlier that this hill-girt region drained by small water sources form a distinct eco-zone which is worth considering for understanding differential adaptational imperative as an explanation of culture (Jacobson, 1975). This becomes a strong possibility mainly because the kind of geographic specialization of prehistoric colonization evidenced in Bihar is possibly nowhere else so strongly marked. To quote Basudev Narayan (1996), “The north Bihar plain represents a complete blank as far as Palaeolithic and Mesolithic tool types are concerned....” (page 548). Yet as one enters the region south of the course of Ganga (approximately south of 25°10’ N latitude) evidences of stone age prehistory starts emerging. If one can take a survey of all prehistoric evidences known from entire Chotanagpur as also from the hilly regions lying further east in West Bengal, it will be seen that the Kharagpur Hills yield the richest and also the most prolific evidences of stone age colonization.

That is, the eastern group would include the sites Sohdihwa (SHD), Banargarh (BNG) and Goratad (GTR). The southern group would include a large cluster of sites, viz. Adhwariya (ADY), Tetariya (TTY), Jogiya (JYA), Kushitari (KST) and Rakatrohniya Tad (RRT). The western group would include Jurpaniya (JPY) and Satbehariya (STB). Finally the northern group includes the solitary site named Pathalgarwa. The eastern group of sites, except for Banargarh (BNG), shows a commonality in the sense that there is a fairly good evidence of intrusion of a younger culture represented by microliths as also fragment of ring stones. Sohdihwa is a very late Palaeolithic industry which was probably in the process of developing into a full fledged microlithic technology. The presence of backed blades, Gravettian points and a profusion of burins would make it compare very well with the Ahrensburgian tradition of north European Epi-Palaeolithic. Although the ecology and hence the strategies of adaptation in these two regions are so vastly different that one is tempted to conclude that fishing and fowling tool kit of the region may not have to be much different from the reindeer hunting ones of north Europe. In an elemental sense, therefore, we see very little difference between these regions. Yet the functions to which these tools were ultimately put to may not necessarily have to be the same. The profusion of burins in German Epi-Palaeolithic has been demonstrated, for instance, as being required for antler working (Groove-and-splinter technique, for example). Obviously at Sohdihwa no such requirement can be visualized and one is left with no other alternative but to accept that burins here (And most probably in all other similar sites in India) were not at all used as engraver. I would like to suggest that this tool type was used to cure tortoise, open fresh water shells and also probably used as drill heads on bones and wood. This conjecture would also be substantiated by Barton, Olszewski and Coinman (1996) who have recently discussed at length the probable function of burins in three south Asian sites. Goratad (GTR) is another site lying in the eastern group sharing almost all the archaeological features of Sohdihwa.

In all 11 extremely prolific prehistoric occurrences have been discovered from this region. These are all open air sites but the context of the tools rule out any possibility of these having been transported. Consequently these can be all taken to be in primary context. The total number of tools collected from all these sites lying within a compact area of nearly 2100 sq. kilometer amounts to more than 10,000 specimens. A group of rich Mesolithic evidences discovered in district Gumla (Singh 1999) could not be included in this study as these lie outside the limits of Kharagpur Hills. The typo-technological analysis of the tools collected along with their description as also illustration of the important types have been done in the preceding chapter (Chapter III). Here we might briefly examine the salient features that evolve out of the analysis. For understanding the distributional metamorphosis of our evidences we might examine the archaeological character of the sites in groups.

Microlith users at both Goratad and Sohdihwa could not have been the same people who were using the late Palaeolithic tools. Although types described by me here as Macro lunate or fairly good types of end scrapers would probably indicate a continuation of the two traditions, it would be difficult to accept that shifting to work on hard crystalline quartz was easy for those used to working on fine grained quartzite. It is possible that the late Palaeolithic

129

The Prehistory of Kharagpur Hills, South Bihar (India)

hunters and microlithic users at the site were not separated in time but were contemporaneous. These two populations might have had two distinctly different economic expertise. Consequently developing a social intercourse between these groups can automatically allow each of these groups to enjoy the products of a wider eco-base. This kind of mosaic formation in prehistoric Chotanagpur seems to be repeatedly indicated from archaeological finds. It is because of these indications that it was felt that the semantic connotation of such terms as late Paleolithic or Mesolithic needs to be changed while trying to understand the cultural meaning of the prehistoric evidences. Consequently late Palaeolithic here would only mean users of late Palaeolithic tools and in the same light it would be better to use Microlith users rather than fix it with any chrono-cultural meaning. Finally the occurrence of the ring stones as also the rubbing stone in both these sites would further indicate that these composite groups can survive successfully for a long time without feeling the need to intensity their own economy even though agricultural societies may have colonized the flat alluvial plains in the neighbourhood further north.

Jurpaniya does, indeed, show a great concentration of the tools. Unfortunately local villagers have been collecting these tools (usually made on colourful chert and hence attractive) for a long time to use in building construction. Consequently only 2071 specimens could be collected in the present study. Yet such specific types as Pen knives or even Humburgian point leaves no doubt about the cultural status of the industry. Satbehariya (STB) represents another typically Upper Acheulian cluster which do not vary much from the features of Banargarh (BNG) of the eastern group. Almost 50 per cent of bifaces and that too prepared without any thickness gradient as one moves from the butt-end to the working end, is a typical character of the site. Hair thin retouching is another very advanced feature noted in the flake tools of the assemblage. The southern group of sites shows much less internal heterogenity when compared with what has been observed at the eastern and the western group. Further, it shows a concentration of 5 sites. Almost each one of them show large number of specimens with pebble cortex and generally speaking none of them show a very large frequency of tools prepared on blades. Finally, we find a peculiar type named and illustrated as ‘Elongated pebble with chisel edge’. This type occurs in almost all these sites. In some sites as many as 7 such specimens, almost identically chipped but on varying sized pebbles, have been record.

Banargarh (BNG) is the only site in the eastern cluster which differs greatly from the above described two sites. Inspite of this the fine laminar and bifacially worked side scrapers and elongated blades with steep retouching which characterise the assemblage indicate a slant towards much more advanced technology than what one can except in Upper Acheulian. Further, a reasonably large number of diminutive handaxes would tend to reveal a younger cultural status for this assemblage.

Preceding from north to south the sites and their chief features may be briefly considered here. Adhwariya (ADY) represents a predominantly flake industry, although handaxes and cleavers occur in more than 15 per cent cases. Not only does chopper and chopping tools occur in small number in this site but even handaxes and cleavers show large patches of original pebble cortex left untouched on them. In spite of these indicators of cruder workmanship the tools are very finely worked and are often highly advanced in their final finishing.

The western group is represented by two sites in the grouping proposed here. There are Jurpaniya (JPY) and Satbehariya (STB). However these two sites are so diverse in their archaeological characters that it would seem to be more logically a part of the southern group which has the largest concentration of sites. Jurpaniya is unique evidence in many ways. Firstly in Indian Prehistory a proper description of Epi-Palaeolithic is hardly known. Sharma & Clark (1983) for the first time used this expression to describe finds from upper few meters of the Baghor II site. These layers were ascribed to 12000 to 10,000 B.C. date. The description of the tools assigned to this cultural stage leaves much to be expected. Secondly, since this publication no other Epi-Palaeolithic stage has so far been reported from India. The study of Jurpaniya clearly shows that Epi-Palaeolithic is a strong tradition in Indian prehistory, at least in this specific ecology. It marks the first attempt of forest dwellers entering into open grass land. The economic activities included hunting of r-selected species mainly (species which mature in short duration and multiply rapidly). Coupled with this fishing and collecting must have been also intensified. This kind of economy is generally more labour intensive than large mammal hunting practiced during the preceding period. Hence one may surmise that Epi-Palaeolithic bands had a larger demographic strength. Consequently one can expect the archaeological debries from such sites to be enormous in number.

Tetariya (TTY) is a site of medium concentration and is very close to Adhwariya (ADY). Typo-Technologically it almost duplicates the characters noted in Adhwariya, except that instead of a chopper & chopping tool we find a crudely finished Abbevellian type handaxes in this site. The flake tools, however, do not show any archaic features in the manner of their execution. Rakatrohaniya Tad (RRT) yielded one of the richest assemblages out of the entire collection. Generally speaking two important characters of this assemblage seem very significant and deserve mentioning. These are firstly the total industry show a high preference for finishing large and massive types. Secondly several of these maintain pebble cortex on them. Many of the backed knives are flakes detached in such a pattern that the posterior border is obtained by skillfully planning the original pebble cortex to form this. The handaxes and cleavers are also large in

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size but conform to such classical upper Acheulian types as amygdaloid and ovate forms. Unretouched blades and sturdy end scrapers prepared on these blades indicate an advanced technological feature of this industry. Yet along with these occur the crudely worked elongated pebbles which form almost a regional trait of all these sites in the southern group. We have illustrated (Fig. 33, 47, 66 and 78) an elongated pebble measuring 22 cm x 9.9 cm and weighing more than one kilogram. This has been given an oblique cut along the length as if to thin out the anterior end into the form of a chisel. One has to consequently accept that this represent a specific form which combines the advanced with the archaic typo-technological character.

other words such specimens would seem to be more of an adaptive feature of forested hills like this region rather than flat land of hill slopes. Finally we might briefly examine the chief characteristics of the northern most sites in the Kharagpur Hills. Pathalgarwa (PLG) is a moderately rich site where the tools have been found in excellent state of preservation and are spread over approximately an area of 1 square kilometer. There are large chunks of cores with distinct mark of flakes removed from them found scattered over the area. On the basis of these features the site was declared as a factory site. A total of 844 specimens were collected from this site. Of these 9.0 per cent represent handaxes and cleavers and almost 10.0 per cent represent varieties of side scrapers. As against these, types prepared on blades and burins together occur in as much as 8.7 percent. In a very objective way, therefore, the attributes of Lower Palaeolithic and the same for Upper Palaeolithic at this site seems to occur almost in equal frequency. In order to further investigate the Upper Palaeolithic context of this industry length, breadth and thickness of all blades were measured and their relative frequencies noted. In average maximum number of blades measure 6.0-6.9 cm in length, 3.0-3.9 cm in breadth and 1.0-1.9 cm in thickness (Table 2). It would appear that the technique and shapes chosen for these blades is typically Upper Palaeolithic in character. The overwhelming number of these blades and the identical manner of their detachment leaves no doubt that blade manufacture formed a cultural imperative among the people of Pathalgarwa. This interpretation can be further substantiated by the fact that an overwhelming number of these blades have been retouched into specific Upper Palaeolithic tool types. Truncated blade, backed blade, Bee-alternate burin and alternately retouched burins are some of these specific types. Finally it was ascertained whether these blade tools appear as fresh as the handaxes and cleavers. These could at least show that one group is chronologically separated from the other. Unfortunately no such difference could be seen.

Jogiya (JYA) is another site with moderate concentration of tools from the southern group. Handaxe and cleavers, as usual forms the highest frequency of finished types recorded at this site. Liberal amount of pebble cortex is left unretouched in a large number of finished core as well as flake tool types. Some of the blades have been finished into good end-scrapers but otherwise elongated blades are neither many nor ever retouched. The elongated pebble with chisel edge found in many of the southern sites are also found at this site. Kushitari (KST) represents the easternmost Palaeolithic site of Kharagpur Hills. It yields a reasonably moderate concentration of tools. Although handaxes and cleavers form about 13.0 per cent of finished types there are larger numbers of flake and blade types. Finely prepared retouched blades, micro gravettion points, end scrapers and burins in association with these bifaces render the techno-cultural status of the industry almost cross the threshold of Upper Palaeolithic. In addition to this the elongated pebbles with chisel edge retouching are also known from this industry. To sum up, the Palaeolithic evidences from the Kharagpur Hill do show a reasonably rich concentration of occupation towards its southern limits. Further, it would seem that this area has also maintained a longer duration of occupation, may be with periodic abandoning of the sites. The latter interpretation is solely based on the fact that many of the sites in this zone show a mixture of weathered & fresh tools occurring together. The typo-technological characters recorded from the finds of all these sites show a special feature which might be considered more as a regional adaptation rather than general feature for the whole region. This is revealed in the fact that besides handaxes and cleavers emphasis laid in these sites is more on sturdy blades & flakes being worked into sharp tools. Thick and long blades with triangular cross-section have been given bold semi-abrupt retouch along one or both the borders to create formidable tools. These blades in no case can be compared with Upper Palaeolithic blades. Consequently, one has to admit that Middle to Upper Acheulian character of this region include a specific blade component as well. The elongated pebbles with chisel edge are another specific feature of this region. Similar specimens have been illustrated by (Murthy 1985) for his collection. In

The evidences from Pathalgarwa can be taken to surmise that the average duration of various stone ages in diverse eco zones must have been vastly different. Consequently in west Europe or even nearer home at Narmada one can have a spread out duration of Lower Palaeolithic smoothly giving rise to Middle and Upper Palaeolithic like what has been observed at Bhimbetka. (Misra, 1975-76). It is felt that as one proceeds to the east towards higher rainfall zones the duration of these cultural stages are so much squeezed together that it may not be difficult to find blade technology occurring almost side by side with Lower Palaeolithic attributes. This assumption would gather more strength of credibility when one looks at the typological spectrum of the far eastern prehistory. Finally, it will be important to mention here that Paisra (Pant and Jayaswal 1991) is being more or less occurring in the same region in the northern extension of Kharagpur hills show the same character. It is an excavated site.

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Here a handaxe / cleaver bearing layer is followed by a Mesolithic layer having a radio carbon date of 7420+110 B.P. (5470+110 B.C.). In other words, the handaxe / cleaver evidences occur immediately preceding the microliths. Neither was any Middle Palaeolithic / Upper Palaeolithic layer reported before the microliths nor are there reports of any significant amount of sterile deposits separating the two groups of tool types. Under the circumstances one is left with no other alternatives but to accept that Pathalgarwa/ Paisra like occurrences might be a very late variety of Palaeolithic which is specific of this region. In other words, designating them with conventional western terms like Lower Palaeolithic etc., might altogether distort both the cultural and chronological character of these finds. We have argued elsewhere in this study that ‘handaxe users’, ‘blade and burin users’ or ‘microlith users’ are better terms to designate these finds until a time we can have some more excavated sites to confirm the views expressed here.

region is much more advanced in technology. The southern group of sites (RRT, JYA, KST, ADY and TTY) would seem to be an autochthonous group which might be representing an earlier migration from Santhal Pargana in Bihar and Bankura and Midnapur in West Bengal, where Acheulian tools with pebble base is known. The rise of the Epi-Palaeolithic and also probably an incipient or early agricultural group in this region has to be accepted as representing a later and fresh migration from the south western-zone probably from around Rajgir or generally the Jethian valley. However, these evidences are not spread all over the region. Further, there is absolutely no evidence of any microlithic cluster or even a proper Neolithic site in the whole region and this is archaeologically very significant. It is true that isolated occurrence of Neolithic celt have been reported from this area by R.C.P. Singh and other (IAR, 1962-63) but these seem to always occur with huge deposit of iron slag and hence cannot be accepted as belonging to pre-metal age.

Compared on a Pan-Indian scale it would seem that Kharagpur hills evidence represent a very late intrusion of Acheulians in this one. Since there is no such cultural evidence known from the area lying immediately north of region one would have no other alternative but to surmise that these represent colonies of migrations which must have originated in the south. Rich Palaeolithic evidences are known from Singhbhum district (Ghosh 1970) and from further south in Mayurbhanj district (Bose and Sen 1948) of Orissa. One can naturally assume that Kharagpur hill population must be derived from these southern sources. But a close examination of the tools would indicate that Palaeolithic evidences from most of the Kharagpur hill

Thus, it would appear that with the exception of minor evidences like in Sohdihawa (SHD) and Goratad (GTR) Kharagpur hills was not occupied by any other but huntinggathering populations all through the late Pleistocene to early Holocene phase until about early Historic period when iron ore prospectors reached this area. Peripheral contacts with early agriculturists must have brought Neolithic cultigens into this region as charm objects and hence these are found in rare cases only in association with diverse cultural material.

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Chapter 5 Summary and Conclusion 1. Kharagpur Hill represents a reasonably populous area of prehistoric settlement. 2. All evidences suggest that prehistoric people entered in this area fairly late in time within Pleistocene. 3. The southern area within this region shows a larger concentration of sites as also a possibly older and regional strain of preference of working with pebbles (not witnessed elsewhere). 4. The eastern zone shows a peculiar overlapping of microliths and a solitary ring stone and / or rubbing stone occurring with handaxes, cleavers as well as fairly advanced flake and blade tool types. It appears that these products of culture belong to different human populations which a) May have either lived at the same time exploiting different eco-zones. or b) May have followed each other in close chronological succession. Agreeing to this proposal will be impossible if we continue to stick to the traditionally accepted view that; Core tools - represents Lower Palaeolithic Flake tools - represent Middle Palaeolithic, and Blade tools - represent Upper Palaeolithic The present study argues that apart from having a typological connotation as shown above these terms also carry a strict chronological meaning. The evidences analysed from Kharagpur hills suggested that there is a possibility that these terms are not always as useful indicators of culture as thought earlier. 5. This point is further argued on the basis of evidences from the northern zone where an earlier excavated site called Paisra has also indicated Handaxe/cleavers occurring below microliths with out any appreciable sterile layer between these two groups of types. The present study takes up the issue headlong at the site Pathalgarwa to examine the blade components in detail (cf. Chapter III). It appears strongly indicative that we can have a real Upper Palaeolithic in some eco zones of India where Handaxe / Cleavers are not given up following the pattern of French sites. 6. A rich and distinct Epi-Palaeolithic evidence (Jurpaniya) forms another important feature of this area. Never before in India an Epi-Palaeolithic and its typological characters been categorically studied. 7. Finally, it is archaeologically very significant that this area shows absolutely no evidence of Mesolithic and Neolithic unlike what will be expected in any conventional vertical studies available from other regions.

It was felt that prehistory of a specific geo-climatic zone without reference to world wide applicable chrono-cultural stages might bring in more important cultural information. That is, unlike using the micro to construct a macro in such a way that micro looses its individual relevance beyond the point of being relevant to the macro; regional archaeology, it is argued would enable us to construct the cultural reality in a much better way. The argument is similar to what is meant by the popular expression “To miss a tree for the sake of the forest”. It was important for this to seek an area which is more or less insular or as closely near being insular as possible. The Kharagpur Hills in south Bihar was chosen for this purpose for a variety of reasons delineated in Chapters I and II. The most important of these factors being that it is a rectangular region of high mountains suddenly rising out of a more or less flat plateau region. These mountains are highly forested and even now maintain their own specific variety of fauna and flora. This measures 40 km. in length and 55 km. in breadth. In addition to these peculiarities of this region these hills have many hot water springs and the water flowing out of these criss cross the entire region of mountains and gorges. Another interesting feature about this eco-zone is its insular nature. Both the northern and eastern sides of this region is a complete low land flat zone. The southern and western border of this area maintains a lower gradient than the northern border. In all this total area of 2100 square kilometer seem to be like an ecological island. As a consequence Kharagpur Hills was chosen as the target area for the present study. Extensive survey of this region yielded 11 rich Palaeolithic sites. Although spread over a miniscule area it was thought that if these sites are grouped according to their area of occurrence this might enable us to understand regional heterogeneity, if any. To start with the groupings were done as below: I. Northern group - Pathalgarwa II. Southern group - Adhwariya, Tetariya, Rakatrohniya Tad, Jogiya and Kushitari III. Eastern group - Sohdihwa, Banargarh and Goratad IV. Western group - Jurpaniya, Satbehariya The archaeological characters of each of these four groups of sites are discussed in detail and a comprehensive assessment of the cultural status of these evidences is made. In the following pages we shall briefly review our finds in an itemized manner:

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8. Anthropologically it is easy to visualize several groups of hunter-gatherers surviving in this insular region from prehistory to history. Probably one would have found such tribal settlements in heavy concentration even today if these areas were not intruded by early historic populations exploring for iron ores. One can see huge dumps of iron slag spread at many places over these hills as a silent evidence of such population invasion. 9. Cultural products of early agriculturists, such as celts and ring stones are often found defusing within hunter-gatherer groups as magical or charm objects. In Kharagpur hills we have earlier reports of such isolated finds. Even the present survey could collect few isolated specimens of this kind (SHD and GTR).

10. Not only in Kharagpur hills but almost all over Chotanagpur these objects (celts & ring stones) are even today used as medicinal charms. They are used by rubbing them on a stone with water and applying the paste on the afflicted region. 11. Consequently the presence of these cultigens cannot be taken as serious evidence of Neolithic culture. 12. The cultural succession at Kharagpur Hills, as such, can be taken to be clearly following a path of ‘punctuated equilibrium’ used for understanding cultural evolution. (Bhattacharya 1992).

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